,illustration3      ,sir ,w4 ,beechy4   
,i4 ,j4 ,hinchliff4    ,james ,watt4    
,a    ,,history    ,,of    ,,inventions1
 ,,discoveries1    ,,and ,,origins4     
,,by ,,john ,,beckmann1    ,,professor  
,,of ,,conomy ,,in ,,the ,,university   
,,of ,g,,ttingen4      ,,translated     
,,from ,,the ,,german1    ,,by ,,william
 ,,johnston4        ,fourth ,edition1   
,,carefully ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged  
,,by    ,,william ,,francis1 ,ph4,d41   
,f4,l4,s41    ,,editor ,,of ,,the       
,,chemical ,,gazette2    ,,and    ,j4   
,w4 ,,griffith1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41      
,,licentiate ,,of ,,the ,,royal         
,,college ,,of ,,physicians4            
,,vol4 ,,ii4        ,,london3    ,,henry
 ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent  
,,garden4    #ahdf4            ,,printed
 ,,by ,,richard ,,and ,,john ,e4        
,,taylor1    ,,red ,,lion ,,court1      
,,fleet ,,street4          ,,contents4  
,page    ,the ,steam-,engine1 and       
,discoveries of ,james ,watt            
v    ,lending and ,pawnbroking          

#a    ,chemical ,names of ,metals       
#bc    ,zinc                            
#cb    ,carp                            
#df    ,camp-mills                      
#ee    ,mirrors                         
#ef    ,glass-cutting4 ,etching on      
,glass                             #hd  
,soap                                   
#ib    ,madder                          
#ajh    ,jugglers1 ,rope-dancers1       
,automata1 etc4                     #aae
    ,artificial ,ice4 ,cooling ,liquors 
#adb    ,hydrometer                     
#afa    ,lighting of ,streets           
#agb    ,night-watch                    
#ahe    ,plant-skeletons                
#aie    ,bills of ,exchange             
#bjc    ,tin4 ,tinning                  
#bjf    ,sowing-machines                
#bcj    ,manganese                      
#bce    ,prince ,rupert's ,drops4       
,lacrym ,vitre                      #bda
    ,fire-engines                       
#bde    ,indigo                         
#beh    ,vanes4 ,weathercocks           

#bha    ,gilding                        
#bij    ,fur ,dresses                   
#bif    ,steel                          
#cbd    ,stamping-works                 
#ccc    ,kitchen ,vegetables            
#ccf    ,knitting ,nets and ,stockings4 
,stocking-,loom                 #cee    
,hops                                   
#cgf    ,black ,lead                    
#chh    ,sal-,ammoniac                  
#cif    ,forks                          
#djg    ,lottery4 ,tontine              
#dad    ,bologna ,stone                 
#dbi    ,foundling ,hospitals           
#dcd    ,orphan ,houses                 
#ddi    ,infirmaries4 ,hospitals for    
,invalids4 ,field ,lazarettos      #ded 
,cock-fighting                          
#dgc    ,saltpetre4 ,gunpowder4         
,aquafortis                             
#dhb    ,book-censors                   
#eab    ,exclusive ,privilege for       
,printing ,books                        
#eah    ,catalogues of ,books           
#ebb    ,ribbon-,loom                   

#ebg    ,guns4 ,gun-,locks              
#ecc          ,,the ,,steam-,,engine1   
,,and ,,the ,,discoveries ,,of ,,james  
,,watt4      ,although the plan of this 
new edition of ,beckmann's #8,history of
  ,inventions and ,discoveries' was to  
confine it to the subjects treated  of  
in the original work1 yet we feel it    
imperative to make an exception  in     
favour of the ,steam-,engine1 the most  
important of all modern  inventions4    
,the power of steam was not entirely    
unknown to the ancients1 but  before the
 ra rendered memorable by the           
discoveries of ,,james ,,watt1  the     
steam-engine1 which has since become the
 object of such universal  interest1 was
 a machine of extremely limited power1  
inferior in  importance and usefulness  
to most other mechanical agents used as 
prime movers4 ,hero of ,alexandria1 who 
lived about #abj years before the  birth
 of ,christ1 has left us the description
 of a machine1 in which a  continued    
rotatory motion was imparted to an axis 

by a blast of steam  issuing from       
lateral orifices in arms placed at right
 angles to it4  ,about the beginning of 
the seventeenth century1 a ,french      
engineer1 ,de  ,caus1 invented a machine
 by which a column of water might be    
raised  by the pressure of steam        
confined in the vessel1 above the water 
to  be elevated2 and in #afbi1 ,branca1 
an ,italian philosopher1 contrived a    
plan of working several mills by a blast
 of steam against the vanes2  from the  
descriptions1 however1 which have been  
left us of these  contrivances1 it does 
not appear that their projectors were   
acquainted  with those physical         
properties of elasticity and            
condensation on which  the power of     
steam as a mechanical agent depends4    
,in #affc1 the celebrated ,marquis of   
,worcester described in his ,century  of
 ,inventions1 an apparatus for raising  
water by the expansive force  of steam  
only4 ,from this work we extract the    
following short account  of the first   

steam-engine4 8#fh4 ,an admirable and   
most forcible way to  drive up water by 
fire2 not by drawing or sucking it      
upwards1 for that  must be as the       
philosopher calleth it1 intra sphram    
activitatis1  which is but at such a    
distance4 ,but this way hath no bounder1
 if the  vessel be strong enough3 for ,i
 have taken a piece of whole cannon1    
whereof the end was burst1 and filled it
 three-quarters full of water1  stopping
 and screwing up the broken end as also 
the touch-hole2 and  making a constant  
fire under it1 within twenty-four hours 
it burst and  made a great crack2 so    
that having a way to make my vessels so 
that  they are strengthened by the force
 within them1 and the one to fill  after
 the other1 ,i have seen the water run  
like a constant stream1  forty feet     
high3 one vessel of water rarefied by   
fire1 driveth up forty  of cold water2  
and a man that tends the work is but to 
turn two cocks1  that one vessel of     
water being consumed1 another begins to 

force and  refill with cold water1 and  
so successively2 the fire being tended  
and kept constant1 which the self-same  
person may likewise abundantly  perform 
in the interim1 between the necessity of
 turning the said  cocks40    ,the next 
name to be mentioned in connection with 
the progressive  history of the         
invention of the steam-engine1 is that  
of ,denis ,papin1 a  native of ,france1 
who1 being banished from his country1   
was established  ,professor of          
,mathematics at the ,university of      
,marburg1 by the ,landgrave  of ,hesse4 
,he first conceived the important idea  
of obtaining a  moving power by means of
 a piston working in a cylinder 7#afhh71
 and  subsequently 7#afij7 that of      
producing a vacuum in the cylinder by   
the  sudden condensation of steam by    
cold4 ,in accordance with these ideas   
he constructed a model consisting of a  
small cylinder1 in which was  inserted a
 solid piston1 and beneath this a small 
quantity of water2  on applying heat to 

the bottom of the cylinder1 steam was   
generated1  the elastic force of which  
raised the piston2 the cylinder was then
  cooled by removing the fire1 when the 
steam condensed and became again        
converted into water1 thus creating a   
vacuum in the cylinder1 into  which the 
piston was forced by the pressure of the
 atmosphere2 there  is1 however1 no     
evidence of his having carried that or  
any other  machine into practical use1  
before machines worked by steam had been
  constructed elsewhere4    ,the first  
actual working steam-engine of which    
there is any record1 was  invented by   
,captain ,savery an ,englishman1 to whom
 a patent was granted  in #afih for a   
steam-engine to be applied to the       
raising of water1 c4  ,this gentleman   
produced a working-model before the     
,royal ,society1 as  appears from the   
following extract from their            
,transactions3--8,june  #adth1 #afii4   
,mr4 ,savery entertained the ,royal     
,society with showing a  small model of 

his engine for raising water by help of 
fire1 which  he set to work before them3
 the experiment succeeded according to  
expectation1 and to their satisfaction40
 ,this engine1 which was used  for some 
time to a considerable extent for       
raising water from mines1  consisted of 
a strong iron vessel shaped like an egg1
 with a tube or  pipe at the bottom1    
which descended to the place from which 
the water  was to be drawn1 and another 
at the top1 which ascended to the place 
to which it was to be elevated4 ,this   
oval vessel was filled with steam       
supplied from a boiler1 by which the    
atmospheric air was first blown  out of 
it4 ,when the air was thus expelled1 and
 nothing but pure steam  left in the    
vessel1 the communication with the      
boiler was cut off1 and  cold water     
poured on the external surface4 ,the    
steam within was thus  condensed and a  
vacuum produced1 and the water drawn up 
from below in  the usual way by suction4
 ,the oval steam-vessel was thus filled 

with  water2 a cock placed at the bottom
 of the lower pipe was then closed1  and
 steam was introduced from the boiler   
into the oval vessel above the  surface 
of the water4 ,this steam being of high 
pressure1 forced the  water up the      
ascending tube1 from the top of which it
 was discharged2  and the oval vessel   
being thus refilled with steam1 the     
vacuum was  again produced by           
condensation1 and the same process was  
repeated by  using two oval             
steam-vessels1 which would act          
alternately2 one drawing  water from    
below1 while the other was forcing it   
upwards1 by which an  uninterrupted     
discharge of water was produced4 ,owing 
to the danger of  explosion1 from the   
high pressure of the steam which was    
used1 and from  the enormous waste of   
heat by unnecessary condensation1 these 
engines  soon fell into disuse4         
,several ingenious men now turned their 
attention to the improvement of  the    
steam-engine1 with a view to reduce the 

consumption of fuel1 which  was found to
 be so immense as to preclude its use   
except under very  favourable           
circumstances2 and in #agje1 ,thomas    
,newcomen1 a blacksmith  or ironmonger1 
and ,john ,cawley1 a plumber and        
glazier1 patented their  atmospheric    
engine1 in which at first condensation  
was effected by  the affusion of cold   
water upon the external surface of the  
cylinder1  which was introduced into a  
hollow casing by which it was           
surrounded4  ,having accidentally       
observed that an engine worked several  
strokes  with unusual rapidity without  
the supply of condensing water1         
,newcomen  found1 on examining the      
piston1 a hole in it through which the  
water  poured on to keep it air-tight   
issued in the form of a little jet1  and
 instantly condensed the steam under it2
 this led him to abandon  the casing and
 to introduce a pipe furnished with a   
cock1 into the  bottom of the cylinder1 
by which water was supplied from a      

reservoir4  ,newcomen's engine required 
the constant attendance of some person  
to  open and shut the regulating and    
condensing valves1 a duty which was     
usually entrusted to boys1 called       
cock-boys4 ,it is said that one of      
these boys1 named ,humphrey ,potter1    
wishing to join his comrades at  play1  
without exposing himself to the         
consequences of suspending the          
performance of the engine1 contrived by 
attaching strings of proper  length to  
the levers which governed the two cocks1
 to connect them with  the beam1 so that
 it should open and close the cocks as  
it moved up and  down1 with the most    
perfect regularity4 ,by this simple     
contrivance the  steam-engine for the   
first time became an automaton4    ,it  
was in repairing a working model of a   
steam-engine on ,newcomen's  principle  
for the lectures of the professor of    
natural philosophy  at the ,university  
of ,glasgow1 that ,james ,watt directed 
his mind to  the prosecution of those   

inventions and beautiful contrivances1  
by  which he gave to senseless matter an
 almost instinctive power of            
self-adjustment1 with precision of      
action more than belongs to any         
animated being1 and which have rendered 
his name celebrated over the  world4    
,at the time of which we speak1         
,newcomen's engine was of the last and  
most approved construction4 ,the moving 
power was the weight of the air         
pressing on the upper surface of a      
piston working in a cylinder2 steam     
being employed at the termination of    
each downward stroke to raise the       
piston with its load of air up again1   
and then to form a vacuum by its        
condensation when cooled by a jet of    
cold water1 which was thrown into  the  
cylinder when the admission of steam was
 stopped4 ,upon repairing  the model1   
,watt was struck by the incapability of 
the boiler to produce  a sufficient     
supply of steam1 though it was larger in
 proportion to  the cylinder than was   

usual in working engines4 ,this arose   
from the  nature of the cylinder1 which 
being made of brass1 a better conductor 
of heat than cast-iron1 and presenting1 
in consequence of its small  size1 a    
much larger surface in proportion to its
 solid content than  the cylinders of   
working engines1 necessarily cooled     
faster between  the strokes1 and        
therefore at every fresh admission      
consumed a greater  proportionate       
quantity of steam4 ,but being made aware
 of a much greater  consumption of steam
 than he had imagined1 he was not       
satisfied without  a thorough inquiry   
into the cause4 ,with this view he made 
experiments  upon the merits of boilers 
of different constructions2 on the      
effect  of substituting a less perfect  
conductor1 as wood1 for the material of 
the cylinder2 on the quantity of coal   
required to evaporate a given  quantity 
of water2 on the degree of expansion of 
water in the form of  steam3 and he     
constructed a boiler which showed the   

quantity of water  evaporated in a given
 time1 and thus enabled him to calculate
 the  quantity of steam consumed at each
 stroke of the engine4 ,this proved to  
be several times the content of the     
cylinder4 ,he soon discovered that1     
whatever the size and construction of   
the cylinder1 an admission of  hot steam
 into it must necessarily be attended   
with very great waste1  if in condensing
 the steam previously admitted1 that    
vessel had been  cooled down            
sufficiently to produce a vacuum at all 
approaching to a  perfect one4 ,if1 on  
the other hand1 to prevent this waste1  
he cooled it  less thoroughly1 a        
considerable quantity of steam remained 
uncondensed  within1 and by its         
resistance weakened the power of the    
descending  stroke4 ,these              
considerations pointed out a vital      
defect in ,newcomen's  engine2 involving
 either a loss of steam1 and consequent 
waste of fuel2  or a loss of power from 
the piston's descending at every stroke 

through  a very imperfect vacuum4    ,it
 soon occurred to ,watt1 that if the    
condensation were performed in a        
separate vessel1 one great evil1 the    
cooling of the cylinder1 and the        
consequent waste of steam1 would be     
avoided4 ,the idea once started1 he     
soon verified it by experiment4 ,by     
means of an arrangement of cocks1 a     
communication was opened between the    
cylinder1 and a distinct vessel         
exhausted of its air1 at the moment when
 the former was filled with  steam4 ,the
 vapour of course rushed to fill up the 
vacuum1 and was there  condensed by the 
application of external cold1 or by a   
jet of water2  so that fresh steam being
 continually drawn off from the cylinder
  to supply the vacuum continually      
created1 the density of that which      
remained might be reduced within any    
assignable limits4 ,this was the  great 
and fundamental improvement4    ,still1 
however1 there was a radical defect in  
the atmospheric engine1  inasmuch as the

 air being admitted into the cylinder at
 every stroke1  a great deal of heat was
 abstracted1 and a proportionate        
quantity of  steam wasted4 ,to remedy   
this1 ,watt excluded the air from the   
cylinder  altogether2 and recurred to   
the original plan of making steam the   
moving power of the engine1 not a mere  
agent to produce a vacuum4 ,in  removing
 the difficulties of construction which 
beset this new plan1  he displayed great
 ingenuity and powers of resource4 ,on  
the old plan1  if the cylinder was not  
bored quite true1 or the piston not     
accurately  fitted1 a little water      
poured upon the top rendered it         
perfectly  air-tight1 and the leakage   
into the cylinder was of little         
consequence1  so long as the injection  
water was thrown into that vessel4 ,but 
on the  new plan1 no water could        
possibly be admitted within the         
cylinder2  and it was necessary1 not    
merely that the piston should be        
air-tight1  but that it should work     

through an air-tight collar1 that no    
portion  of the steam admitted above it 
might escape4 ,this he accomplished by  
packing the piston and the stuffing-box1
 as it is called1 through which  the    
piston-rod works1 with hemp4 ,a further 
improvement consisted in  equalising the
 motion of the engine by admitting the  
steam alternately  above and below the  
piston1 by which the power is doubled in
 the same  space1 and with the same     
strength of material4 ,the vacuum of the
  condenser was perfected by adding a   
powerful pump1 which at once drew  off  
the condensed and injected water1 and   
with it any portion of air  which might 
find admission2 as this would interfere 
with the action  of the engine if       
allowed to accumulate4 ,his last great  
change was to  cut off the communication
 between the cylinder and the boiler1   
when a  portion only1 as one-third or   
one-half1 of the stroke was performed2  
leaving it to the expansive power of the
 steam to complete it4 ,by this1  conomy

 of steam was obtained1 together with   
the power of varying the  effort of the 
engine according to the work which it   
has to do1 by  admitting the steam      
through a greater or smaller portion of 
the stroke4    ,these are the chief     
improvements which ,watt effected at    
different  periods of his life4 ,he was 
born ,june #ai1 #agcf1 at ,greenock1    
where  he received the rudiments of his 
education4 ,having at an early age      
manifested a partiality for the         
practical part of mechanics1 he went in 
his eighteenth year to ,london to obtain
 instruction in the profession  of a    
mathematical instrument-maker1 but      
remained there little more than  a year1
 being compelled to return home on      
account of his health4 ,in  #ageg1      
shortly after his return home1 he was   
appointed instrument-maker  to the      
,university of ,glasgow1 and            
accommodated with premises within the   
precincts of that learned body4 ,in     
#agfc he removed into the town of       

,glasgow1 intending to practise as a    
civil engineer4 ,his first patent is    
dated ,june #e1 #agfi1 which parliament 
extended in #agge for twenty-five  years
 in consideration of the national       
importance of the inventions1  and the  
difficulty and expense of introducing   
them to public notice4  ,he died at his 
house at ,heathfield in the county of   
,stafford1 on the  #beth of ,august1    
#ahai1 at the advanced age of           
eighty-four1 after having  realized an  
ample fortune1 the well-earned reward of
 his industry and  ability4    ,to enter
 into the history of the various        
applications of the  steam-engine to the
 different branches of industry would   
carry us  beyond the bounds of this     
work4 8,to enumerate its present        
effects10  says a well-known writer on  
the steam-engine#a1 8would be to count  
almost every comfort and every luxury of
 life4 ,it has increased the sum  of    
human happiness1 not only by calling new
 pleasures into existence1  but by so   

cheapening former enjoyments as to      
render them attainable by  those who    
before could never have hoped to share  
them3 the surface of  the land1 and the 
face of the waters are traversed with   
equal facility  by its power2 and by    
thus stimulating and facilitating the   
intercourse  of nation with nation1 and 
the commerce of people with people1 it  
has knit together remote countries by   
bonds of amity not likely to  be broken4
 ,streams of knowledge and information  
are kept flowing  between distant       
centres of population1 those more       
advanced diffusing  civilization and    
improvement among those that are more   
backward4 ,the  press itself1 to which  
mankind owes in so large a degree the   
rapidity  of their improvement in modern
 times1 has had its power and influence 
increased in a manifold ratio by its    
union with the steam-engine4 ,it is     
thus that literature is cheapened1 and  
by being cheapened1 diffused2  it is    
thus that reason has taken the place of 

force1 and the pen has  superseded the  
sword2 it is thus that war has almost   
ceased upon the  earth1 and that the    
differences which inevitably arise      
between people  and people are for the  
most part adjusted by peaceful          
negotiation40      ,,footnotes    #a    
,dr4 ,lardner4          ,,history ,,of  
,,inventions    ,,and    ,,discoveries4 
,,lending ,,and ,,pawnbroking4      ,it 
appears singular to us at present that  
it should have been once  considered    
unlawful to receive interest for lent   
money2 but this  circumstance will      
excite no wonder when the reason of it  
is fully  explained4 ,the different     
occupations by which one can maintain a 
family  without robbery and without war1
 were at early periods neither so       
numerous nor so productive as in modern 
times2 those who borrowed money         
required it only for immediate use1 to  
relieve their necessities or to  procure
 the conveniences of life2 and those who
 advanced it to such  indigent persons  

did so either through benevolence or    
friendship4 ,the  case now is widely    
different4 ,with the assistance of      
borrowed money  people enter into       
business1 and carry on trades1 from     
which by their  abilities1 diligence1 or
 good fortune1 so much profit arises    
that  they soon acquire more than is    
requisite for their daily support2 and  
under these circumstances the lender may
 undoubtedly receive for the  beneficial
 use of his money a certain             
remuneration1 especially as he  himself 
might have employed it to advantage2 and
 as by lending it he  runs the risk of  
losing either the whole or a part of his
 capital1 or  at least of not receiving 
it again so soon as he may have occasion
 for  it4    ,lending on interest1      
therefore1 must have become more usual  
in  proportion as trade1 manufactures1  
and the arts were extended2 or  as the  
art of acquiring money by money became  
more common3 but it  long continued to  
be detested1 because the ancient        

abhorrence against  it was by an        
improper construction of the ,mosaic law
 converted into  a religious            
prejudice#b1 which1 like many other     
prejudices more  pernicious1 was        
strengthened and confirmed by severe    
papal laws4  ,the people1 however1 who  
often devise means to render the faults 
of  their legislators less hurtful1     
concealed this practice by various      
inventions1 so that neither the borrower
 nor lender could be punished1  nor the 
giving and receiving of interest be     
prevented4 ,as it was of  more benefit  
than prejudice to trade1 the impolicy of
 the prohibition  became always more    
apparent2 it was known that the         
new-invented  usurious arts under which 
it was privately followed would occasion
  greater evils than those which had    
been apprehended from lending on        
interest publicly2 it was perceived also
 that the ,jews1 who were not  affected 
by papal maledictions1 foreigners1 and a
 few natives who had  neither religion  

nor conscience1 and whom the church     
wished least of  all to favour1 were    
those principally enriched by it4    ,in
 no place was this inconvenience more   
felt than at the ,romish court1  even at
 a time when it boasted of divine       
infallibility2 and nowhere  was more    
care employed to remove it4 ,a plan1    
therefore1 was at length  devised1 by   
which the evil1 as was supposed1 would  
be banished4 ,a  capital was collected  
from which money was to be lent to the  
poor for  a certain period on pledges   
without interest4 ,this idea was indeed 
not  new2 for such establishments had   
long before been formed and supported   
by humane princes4 ,the emperor         
,augustus1 we are told1 converted into  
a fund the surplus of the money which   
arose to the ,state from the            
confiscated property of criminals1 and  
lent sums from it1 without  interest1 to
 those who could pledge effects equal to
 double the  amount#c4 ,tiberius also   
advanced a large capital1 from which    

those  were supplied with money for     
three years1 who could give security on 
lands equivalent to twice the value#d4  
,alexander ,severus reduced the         
interest of money by lending it at a low
 rate1 and advancing sums to  the poor  
without interest to purchase lands1 and 
agreeing to receive  payment from the   
produce of them#e4    ,these examples of
 the ancients were followed in modern   
,italy4 ,in order  to collect money1 the
 popes conferred upon those who would   
contribute  towards that object a great 
many fictitious advantages1 which at    
any rate cost them nothing4 ,by bulls   
and holy water they dispensed           
indulgences and eternal salvation2 they 
permitted burthensome vows  to be       
converted into donations to             
lending-houses2 and authorised the  rich
 who advanced them considerable sums to 
legitimate such of their  children as   
were not born in wedlock4 ,as an        
establishment of this kind  required a  
great many servants1 they endeavoured to

 procure these also  on the same        
conditions2 and they offered1 besides   
the above-mentioned  benefits1 a great  
many others not worth notice1 to those  
who would  engage to discharge gratis   
the business of their new undertaking2  
but  in cases of necessity they were to 
receive a moderate salary from the      
funds4 ,this money was lent without     
interest for a certain time to the  poor
 only1 provided they could deposit      
proper pledges of sufficient  value4    
,it was1 however1 soon observed that an 
establishment of this kind  could       
neither be of extensive use nor of long 
duration4 ,in order to  prevent the     
secret lending of money1 by the usurious
 arts which had  begun to be practised1 
it was necessary that it should advance 
sums  not only to those who were poor in
 the strictest sense of the word1  but  
to those also who1 to secure themselves 
from poverty1 wished to  undertake and  
carry on useful employments1 and who for
 that purpose  had need of capitals4    

,however powerful the attractions might 
be1  which1 on account of the religious 
folly that then prevailed1 induced      
people to make large contributions1 they
 gradually lost their force1  and the   
latter were lessened in proportion1     
especially as a spirit of  reformation  
began soon after to break out in        
,germany1 and to spread  more and more  
into other countries4 ,even if a        
lending-house should not  be exhausted  
by the maintenance of its servants1 and 
various accidents  that could not be    
guarded against1 it was still necessary1
 at any rate1  to borrow as much money  
at interest as might be sufficient to   
support  the establishment4 ,as it was  
impossible that it could relieve all the
  poor1 the only method to be pursued   
was to prevent their increase1 by       
encouraging trade1 and by supplying     
those with money who wanted only  a     
little to enable them to gain more1 and 
who were in a condition  and willing to 
pay a moderate interest4 ,the pontiffs1 

therefore1  at length resolved to allow 
the lending-houses to receive interest1 
not for the whole capitals which they   
lent1 but only for a part1  merely that 
they might raise as much money as might 
be sufficient to  defray their expenses2
 and they now1 for the first time1      
adopted the  long-established maxim1    
that those who enjoy the benefits should
 assist  to bear the burthen--a maxim   
which very clearly proves the legality  
of interest4 ,when this opening was once
 made1 one step more only was  necessary
 to place the lending-houses on that    
judicious footing on  which they would  
in all probability have been put by the 
inventor  himself1 had he not been under
 the influence of prejudice4 ,in order  
that they might have sufficient stock in
 hand1 it was thought proper to  give to
 those who should advance them money a  
moderate interest1 which  they prudently
 concealed by blending it with the      
unavoidable expenses  of the            
establishment1 to which it indeed       

belonged1 and which their  debtors1 by  
the practice a little before introduced1
 were obliged to  make good4 ,the       
lending-houses1 therefore1 gave and     
received interest4  ,but that the odious
 name might be avoided1 whatever        
interest was  received1 was said to be  
pro indemnitate2 and this is the        
expression  made use of in the papal    
bull4    ,all this1 it must be          
confessed1 was devised with much        
ingenuity3 but  persons of acuteness    
still discovered the concealed interest2
 and a  violent contest soon arose      
respecting the legality of              
lending-houses1  in which the greatest  
divines and jurists of the age took a   
part2 and  by which the old question1   
whether one might do anything wicked1 or
  establish interest1 in order to effect
 good1 was again revived and  examined4 
,fortunately for the pontifical court1  
the folly of mankind  was still so great
 that a bull was sufficient to suppress1
 or at least  to silence1 the spirit of 

inquiry4 ,the pope declared the holy    
mountains  of piety1 8sacri monti de    
piet10 to be legal2 and threatened those
  with his vengeance who dared to       
entertain any further doubts on the     
subject4 ,all the cities now hastened to
 establish lending-houses2 and  their   
example was at length followed in other 
countries4 ,such1 in a  general view1 is
 the history of these establishments3 ,i
 shall now  confirm it by the necessary 
proofs4    ,when under the appellation  
of lending-house we understand a public 
establishment where any person can      
borrow money upon pledges1  either for  
or without interest1 we must not compare
 it to the  tabern argentari or mens    
nummulari of the ,romans4 ,these were   
banking-houses1 at which the state and  
rich people caused their  revenues to be
 paid1 and on which they gave their     
creditors orders  either to receive     
their debts in money1 or to have the    
sums transferred  in their own name1 and
 to receive security for them4 ,to      

assign over  money and to pay money by a
 bill were called perscribere and       
rescribere2 and an assignment or draft  
was called attributio4 ,these           
argentarii1 mensarii1 nummularii1       
collybist and trapezit  followed the    
same employment1 therefore1 as our      
cashiers or bankers4  ,the former1 like 
the latter1 dealt in exchanges and      
discount2 and in  the same manner also  
they lent from their capital on         
interest1 and gave  interest themselves1
 in order that they might receive a     
greater4 ,those  who among the ancients 
were enemies to the lending of money on 
interest  brought these people into some
 disrepute2 and the contempt entertained
  for them was probably increased by    
prejudice1 though those nummarii  who   
were established by government as public
 cashiers held so exalted a  rank that  
some of them became consuls4 ,such      
banking-houses existed in  the ,italian 
,states in the middle ages1 about the   
year #acgg4 ,they were  called apothec  

seu casan feneris#f1 and in ,germany    
,wechselbanke1  banks of exchange2 but  
they were not lending-houses in the     
sense in  which ,i here understand them4
    ,equally distinct also from         
lending-houses were those banks         
established  in the fourteenth century1 
in many cities of ,italy1 such1 for     
example1  as ,florence1 in order to     
raise public loans4 ,those who advanced 
money  on that account received an      
obligation and monthly interest1 which  
on  no pretext could be refused1 even if
 the creditor had been guilty of  any   
crime4 ,these obligations were soon sold
 with advantage1 but oftener  with loss2
 and the price of them rose and fell    
like that of the ,english  stocks1 but  
not so rapidly2 and theologists disputed
 whether one could  with a safe         
conscience purchase an obligation at    
less than the stated  value1 from a     
proprietor who was obliged to dispose of
 it for ready  specie4 ,if the ,state   
was desirous or under the necessity of  

repaying  the money1 it availed itself  
of that regale called by ,leyser regale 
fals monet1 and returned the capital in 
money of an inferior value4  ,this      
establishment was confirmed1 at least at
 ,florence1 by the pontiff1  who        
subjected those who should commit any   
fraud in it to ecclesiastical           
punishment and a fine1 which was to be  
carried to the papal treasury3  but long
 before that period the republic of     
,genoa had raised a loan  by mortgaging 
the public revenues4 ,i have been more  
particular on  this subject1 because ,le
 ,bret#g calls these banks1 very        
improperly1  lending-houses2 and in     
order to show to what a degree of       
perfection the  princely art of         
contracting and paying debts was brought
 so early as  the fourteenth century4   
,those who have as yet determined the   
origin of lending-houses with the       
greatest exactness1 place it1 as        
,dorotheus ,ascanius1 that is ,matthias 
,zimmermann#h1 does1 in the time of     

,pope ,pius ,,ii4 or ,paul ,,ii41 who   
filled the papal chair from #adfd to    
#adga2 and the reason for supposing  it 
to have been under the pontificate of   
the latter is1 because ,leo ,x4  in his 
bull1 which ,i shall quote hereafter1   
mentions that pope as the  first who    
confirmed an establishment of this kind4
 ,as the above account  did not appear  
to me satisfactory1 and as ,i knew      
before that the oldest  lending-houses  
in ,italy were under the inspection of  
the ,franciscans1 ,i  consulted the     
,annals of the ,seraphic ,order1 with   
full expectation that  this service     
would not be omitted in that work2 and  
,i indeed found in  it more materials   
towards the history of lending-houses   
than has ever  been collected1 as far as
 ,i know1 by any other person4    ,as   
complaints against usury1 which was     
practised by many ,christians1  but     
particularly by the ,jews1 became louder
 and more public in ,italy  in the      
fifteenth century1 ,barnabas            

,interamnensis1 probably of ,terni1     
first conceived the idea of establishing
 a lending-house4 ,this man was         
originally a physician2 had been        
admitted to the degree of doctor2 was   
held in great respect on account of his 
learning2 became a ,minorite1 or        
,franciscan2 acquired in that situation 
every rank of honour1 and died1  in the 
first monastery of this order at ,assisi
 7in monte ,subasio#i71  in the year    
#adgd4 ,while he was employed in        
preaching under ,pope ,pius  ,,ii4 at   
,perugia1 in the territories of the     
,church1 and observed how much  the poor
 were oppressed by the usurious dealings
 of the ,jews1 he made  a proposal for  
raising a capital by collections1 in    
order to lend from  it on pledges to the
 indigent1 who should give monthly1 for 
the use of  the money borrowed1 as much 
interest as might be necessary to pay   
the  servants employed in this          
establishment1 and to support it4       
,fortunatus  de ,copolis1 an able jurist

 of ,perugia1 who after the death of his
 wife  became also a ,franciscan1       
approved of this plan1 and offered to   
assist  in putting it into execution4   
,to be assured in regard to an          
undertaking  which seemed to approach so
 near to the lending on interest1 both  
these persons laid their plan before the
 university of that place1  and         
requested to know whether such an       
establishment could be allowed2  and an 
answer being given in the affirmative1 a
 considerable sum was  soon collected by
 preaching1 so that there was a         
sufficiency to open a  lending-house4   
,notwithstanding this sanction1 many    
were displeased with  the design1 and   
considered the receiving of interest1   
however small it  might be1 as a species
 of usury4 ,those who exclaimed most    
against it  were the ,dominicans 7ex    
ordine ,prdicatorum73 and they seem to  
have  continued to preach in opposition 
to it1 till they were compelled by  ,leo
 ,x4 to be silent2 while the            

,franciscans1 on the other hand1        
defended  it1 and endeavoured to make it
 be generally adopted4 ,the dispute     
became more violent when1 at the end of 
a year1 after all expenses were  paid1 a
 considerable surplus was found         
remaining2 and as the managers  did not 
know how to dispose of it1 they at      
length thought proper to  divide it     
amongst the servants1 because no fixed  
salaries had been  appointed for them4  
,such was the method first pursued at   
,perugia2 but  in other places the      
annual overplus was employed in a       
different manner4  ,the particular year 
when this establishment began to be     
formed ,i have  nowhere found marked2   
but as it was in the time of ,pius      
,,ii41 it must  have been in #adfd1 or  
before that period#aj4 ,it is very      
remarkable  that this pontiff confirmed 
the lending-house at ,orvieto 7,urbs    
,vetus7  so early as the above year2    
whereas that at ,perugia was sanctioned1
  for the first time1 by ,pope ,paul    

,,ii4 in #adfg4 ,it is singular also    
that ,leo ,x41 in his confirmation of   
this establishment1 mentions ,paul      
,,ii41 ,sixtus ,,iv41 ,innocent ,,viii41
 ,alexander ,,vi4 and ,julius ,,ii42 but
  not ,pius ,,ii4 ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv41  
as ,wadding says1 confirmed in #adgb the
  lending-house at ,viterbo1 which had1 
however1 been begun so early as  #adfi1 
by ,franciscus de ,viterbo1 a           
,minorite#aa4    ,in the year #adgi     
,sixtus ,,iv4 confirmed the             
lending-house which had been            
established at ,savona1 the place of his
 birth1 upon the same plan  as that at  
,perugia4 ,the bull issued for this     
purpose is the first  pontifical        
confirmation ever printed#ab2 for that  
obtained for ,perugia  was not1 as we   
are told by the editor1 to be found in  
the archives  there in #afah1 the time  
when the other was printed4 ,i have     
never found  the confirmation of those  
at ,orvieto and ,viterbo4 ,ascianus     
sought for  them1 but without success1  

in ,bullarium ,magnum ,cherubini1 and   
they are  not mentioned by ,sixtus4     
,this pontiff1 in his bull1 laments that
 the  great expenses to which he was    
subjected did not permit him to relieve 
his countrymen with money1 but that he  
would grant to the lending-house  so    
many spiritual advantages1 as should    
induce the faithful to  contribute      
towards its support2 and that it was his
 desire that money  should be lent from 
it to those who would assist gratis     
during a year  in the business which it 
required4 ,if none could be found to    
serve on  these conditions1 a moderate  
salary was to be given4 ,he added a     
clause  also respecting pledges2 but    
passed over in silence that the debtors 
were to contribute anything for the     
support of the institution by  paying   
interest1 which ,barnabas1 whose name   
does not occur in the bull1  introduced 
however at ,perugia1 and which the pope 
tacitly approved4    ,the greater part  
of the lending-houses in ,italy were    

established in the  fifteenth and       
following centuries by the ,minorites   
,marcus ,bononiensis1  ,michael a       
,carcano#ac1 ,cherubinus ,spoletanus1   
,jacobus de ,marchia1  ,antonius        
,vercellensis1 ,angelus a ,clavasio1 and
 above all1 ,bernardinus  ,tomitano1    
named also ,feltrensis and ,parvulus4   
,this man was born  at ,feltri1 in the  
country of ,treviso1 in the year #adci4 
,his father  was called ,donato         
,tomitano1 and his mother ,corona       
,rambaldoni2 they  were both of         
distinguished families1 though some     
assert that he was  of low extraction1  
and a native of ,tomi1 a small place    
near ,feltri1  on which account he got  
the name of ,tomitano4 ,the name of     
,parvulus  arose from his diminutive    
stature1 which he sometimes made a      
subject of  pleasantry#ad4 ,this much at
 any rate is certain1 that he had       
received  a good education4 ,in #adef1  
when seventeen years of age1 he suffered
  his instructors1 contrary to the      

inclination of his father1 to carry  him
 to ,padua1 to be entered in the order  
of the ,minorites2 and on this  occasion
 he changed his christian-name ,martin  
into ,bernardinus4 ,as he  was a good   
speaker1 he was employed by his order in
 travelling through  ,italy and         
preaching4 ,he was heard with applause1 
and in many parts  the people almost    
paid him divine honours4 ,the chief     
object of his  sermons was to banish    
gaming1 intemperance1 and extravagance  
of dress2  but he above all attacked the
 ,jews1 and excited such a hatred       
against  them1 that the governments in  
many places were obliged to entreat or  
to compel him either to quit their      
territories or not to preach in         
opposition to these unfortunate people1 
whom the crowds he collected  threatened
 to massacre2 and sometimes when he     
visited cities where  there were rich   
,jews and persons who were connected    
with them in trade1  he was in danger of
 losing even his own life4 ,taking      

advantage of this  general antipathy to 
the ,jews1 he exerted himself1 after the
 example  of ,barnabas1 his brother     
,minorite1 to get lending-houses        
established1  and died at ,pavia in the 
year #adid4 ,the ,minorites played a    
number of  juggling tricks with his     
body1 pretending that it performed      
miracles1  by which means they procured 
him a place in the catalogue of the     
saints2 and to render his name still    
more lasting1 some of his sermons  have 
been printed among the works of the     
writers of the ,franciscan  order#ae4   
,the lending-houses in ,italy1 with the 
origin of which ,i am acquainted1  are  
as follows3--,the lending-house at      
,perugia was inspected in #adhe by      
,bernardinus1 who enlarged its capital4 
,the same year he established one at    
,assisi1 which was confirmed by ,pope   
,innocent1 and which was visited and    
improved by its founder in #adhgaf4     
,in the year #adhf1 after much          
opposition1 he established a            

lending-house  at ,mantua1 and procured 
for it also the pope's sanction#ag4     
,four years  after1 however1 it had     
declined so much1 that he was obliged to
 preach  in order to obtain new         
donations to support it4    ,at         
,florence he met with still more        
opposition2 for the rich ,jews bribed   
the members of the government1 who      
wished in appearance to favour  the     
establishment of the lending-house1 to  
which they had consented  eighteen years
 before1 while they secretly thwarted   
it2 and some boys  having once          
proceeded1 after hearing a sermon1 to   
attack the houses of  the ,jews1 the    
,minorites were ordered to abstain from 
preaching and to  quit the city#ah4 ,it 
was however completely established2 but 
by the  ,dominican ,hieronymus          
,savonarola#ai4    ,in the year #adhh   
,bernardinus established a lending-house
 at ,parma1 and  procured for it the    
pope's sanction1 as well as for one at  
,cesena1  where the interest was defined

 to be 8pro salariis officialium et     
aliis  montis oneribus perferendis40    
,about the conclusion of this year he   
was  at the other end of ,italy1 where  
he re-established the lending-house at  
,aquila in the kingdom of ,naples#bj4   
,in the year following he established   
one at ,chieti 7,theate7 in the  same   
kingdom1 another at ,rieti 7,reate7 in  
the territories of the  ,church1 a third
 at ,narni 7,narnia7#ba2 and a fourth at
 ,lucca1 which  was confirmed by the    
bishop1 notwithstanding the opposition  
of the  ,jews1 who did every thing in   
their power to prevent it4    ,in the   
year #adij a lending-house was          
established at ,piacenza  7,placentia7  
by ,bernardinus1 who at the same time   
found one at  ,genoa which had been     
established by the before-mentioned     
,angelus a  ,clavasio#bb4 ,at this      
period also a lending-house was         
established at  ,verona#bc1 and another 
at ,milan by the ,minorite ,michael de  
,aquis4    ,in #adia a lending-house was

 established at ,padua1 which was       
confirmed  by ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 in 
#adicbd2 and another was established at 
,ravenna#be4    ,in #adib ,bernardinus  
reformed the lending-house at ,vicenza1 
where1 in  order to avoid the reproach  
of usury1 the artifice was employed of  
not  demanding any interest1 but        
admonishing the borrowers that they     
should  give a remuneration according to
 their piety and ability4 ,as people    
were by these means induced to pay more 
interest than what was legally  required
 at other lending-houses1 ,bernardinus  
caused this method  to be abolished#bf4 
,he established a lending-house also the
 same  year in the small town of ,campo 
,s4 ,pietro1 not far from ,padua1 and   
expelled the ,jews who had lent upon    
pledges4 ,at this period there were     
lending-houses at ,bassano1 a village in
 the county of ,trevisi1 and also  at   
,feltri1 which he inspected and         
improved#bg4    ,in the year #adic      
,bernardinus caused a lending-house to  

be established  at ,crema1 in the       
,venetian dominions2 another at ,pavia1 
where he  requested the opinion of the  
jurists1 whom he was happy to find      
favourable to his design2 and likewise a
 third at ,gubbio1 in the  territories  
of the ,church4 ,at the same time       
another ,franciscan  established at     
,cremona a mons frumenti pietatis1 from 
which corn was  lent out on interest to 
necessitous persons2 and it appears that
 there  had been an institution of the  
like kind before at ,parma#bh4    ,in   
the year #adid1 ,bernardinus1 a short   
time before his death1  assisted to     
establish a lending-house at            
,montagnana1 in the ,venetian           
territories#bi1 and to improve that at  
,brescia1 which was likely to  decay1   
because the servants had not fixed      
salaries#cj4 ,the same year  another    
,franciscan established the             
lending-house at ,modena4    ,in the    
year #aejf ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 confirmed
 the lending-house at  ,bologna4 ,that  

of ,trivigi was established in #aeji2   
and in #aeab1  ,elizabeth of the family 
of ,gonzaga1 as widow of duke ,guido    
,ubaldus1  established the first        
lending-house in the duchy of ,urbino at
 ,gubbio1  and procured permission for  
it to coin money#ca4    ,the historical 
account ,i have here given1 displays in 
the strongest  light the great force of 
prejudice1 and particularly of the      
prejudice  of ecclesiastics4            
,notwithstanding the manifest advantages
 with which  lending-houses were        
attended1 and though a great part of    
them had  been already sanctioned by the
 infallible court of ,rome1 many1 but   
chiefly ,dominicans1 exclaimed against  
these institutions1 which they  did not 
call montes pietatis1 but impietatis4   
,no opposition gave  the ,minorites so  
much uneasiness as that of the          
,dominican ,thomas de  ,vio1 who        
afterwards became celebrated as a       
cardinal under the name  of ,cajetanus4 
,this monk1 while he taught at ,pavia in

 #adih1 wrote a  treatise ,de ,monte    
,pietatis#cb1 in which he inveighed     
bitterly against  taking pledges and    
interest1 even though the latter was    
destined for  the maintenance of the    
servants4 ,the popes1 he said1 had      
confirmed  lending-houses in general1   
but not every regulation that might be  
introduced into them1 and had only given
 their express approbation of  them so  
far as they were consistent with the    
laws of the church4 ,these  words1 he   
added1 had been wickedly left out in the
 bulls which had been  printed2 but he  
had heard them1 and read them1 in the   
confirmation  of the lending-house at   
,mantua4 ,i indeed find that these words
 are  not in the copy of that bull given
 in ,wadding1 which is said to have     
been taken from the original2 nor in the
 still older confirmation of  the       
lending-house at ,savona4 ,but even were
 they to be found there1  this would not
 justify ,cajetan's opposition1 as the  
pope in both  these bulls recommended   

the plan of the lending-house at        
,perugia to  be adopted1 of which       
receiving interest formed a part4       
,bernardinus de  ,bustis#cc1 a          
,minorite1 took up the cause in         
opposition to ,cajetan1  and1 according 
to ,wadding's account1 with rather too  
much vehemence4  ,among his antagonists 
were ,barrianus and ,franc4 ,papafava1 a
 jurist of  ,padua#cd4 ,as this dispute 
was revived with a great deal of warmth 
in  the beginning of the sixteenth      
century1 it was at length terminated by 
,pope ,leo ,x41 who in the tenth sitting
 of the council of the ,lateran         
declared by a particular bull that      
lending-houses were legal and  useful2  
that all doubts to the contrary were    
sinful1 and that those who  wrote       
against them should be placed in a state
 of excommunication#ce4  ,the whole     
assembly1 except one archbishop1 voted  
in favour of this  determination2 and it
 appears from a decree of the council of
 ,trent1  that it also acknowledged     

their legality1 and confirmed them#cf4  
,notwithstanding this decision1 there   
were still writers who sometimes        
condemned them2 and who did not consider
 all the decrees1 at least  the above   
one of the ,lateran council1 as         
agreeable to justice4 ,among  these was 
,dominicus de ,soto1 a ,dominican4 ,all 
opposition1 however1 in  the course of  
time subsided1 and in the year #aefe1   
,charles ,borromeo1  the pope's legate  
at the council of ,milan1 ordered all   
governments and  ecclesiastics to assist
 in establishing lending-houses#cg4     
,of the lending-houses established after
 this period in ,italy1 ,i shall        
mention those only of ,rome and ,naples4
 ,it is very remarkable that  the pope's
 capital should have been without an    
institution of this  kind till the year 
#aeci1 and that it should have been     
formed by the  exertions of ,giovanni   
,calvo1 a ,franciscan4 ,paul ,,iii41 in 
his bull of  confirmation1 ordered that 
,calvo's successors in rank and         

employment  should always have the      
inspection of it1 because the           
,franciscans had  taken the greatest    
pains to endeavour to root out usury#ch4
    ,the lending-house at ,naples was   
first established in #aeci or #aedj4    
,two rich citizens1 ,aurelio ,paparo1   
and ,leonardo or ,nardo di ,palma1      
redeemed all the pledges which were at  
that time in the hands of the  ,jews1   
and offered to deliver them to the      
owners without interest1  provided they 
would return the money which had been   
advanced on them4  ,more opulent persons
 soon followed their example2 many      
bequeathed large  sums for this         
benevolent purpose2 and ,toledo1 the    
viceroy1 who drove  the ,jews from the  
kingdom1 supported it by every method   
possible4 ,this  lending-house1 which   
has indeed undergone many variations1 is
 the  largest in ,europe2 and it        
contains such an immense number of      
different  articles1 many of them       
exceedingly valuable1 that it may be    

considered  as a repository of the most 
important part of the moveables of the  
whole nation4 ,about the year #aefc1    
another establishment of the like  kind 
was formed under the title of banco de' 
poveri4 ,at first this  bank advanced   
money without interest1 only to relieve 
confined debtors2  afterwards1 as its   
capital increased1 it lent upon pledges1
 but not  above the sum of five ducats  
without interest4 ,for larger sums the  
usual interest was demanded#ci4    ,at  
what time the first lending-house was   
established at ,venice ,i have  not been
 able to learn#dj4 ,this ,state seems to
 have long tolerated the  ,jews2 it     
endeavoured to moderate the hatred      
conceived against these  people1 and    
gave orders to ,bernardinus to forbear  
preaching against  them#da4 ,it appears 
to me in general1 that the principal    
commercial  cities of ,italy were the   
latest to avail themselves of this      
invention2  because they knew that to   
regulate interest by law1 where trade   

was  flourishing1 would be ineffectual  
or useless2 or because the rich ,jew    
merchants found means to prevent it4    
,the name mons pietatis1 of which no    
satisfactory explanation has been  as   
yet given1 came with the invention from 
,italy1 and is equally old1  if not     
older4 ,funds of money formed by the    
contributions of different  persons1 for
 some end specified1 were long before   
called montes4 ,in  the first centuries 
of the ,christian ra1 free gifts were   
collected  and preserved in churches by 
ecclesiastics1 partly for the purpose of
  defraying the expense of divine       
service1 and partly to relieve the      
poor4 ,such capitals1 which were        
considered as ecclesiastical funds1     
were by ,prudentius1 in the beginning of
 the fifth century1 called  montes annon
 and arca numinis#db4 ,tertullian calls 
them deposita  pietatis#dc2 and hence   
has been formed montes pietatis4 ,at any
  rate ,i am of opinion that the        
inventor chose and adopted this name in 

order to give his institution a sacred  
or religious appearance1 and to  procure
 it more approbation and support4    ,i 
find however that those banks employed  
in ,italy1 during the  thirteenth and   
fourteenth centuries1 to borrow money in
 the name of  ,states1 for which the    
public revenues were mortgaged and      
interest  paid1 were also called        
montes#dd4 ,in this sense the word is   
used by  ,italian historians of much    
later times2 and those are greatly      
mistaken1  who1 with ,ascian and many   
others1 consider all these montes as    
real  lending-houses4 ,these loan-banks 
or montes received various names1       
sometimes from the princes who          
established them1 sometimes from the    
use to which the money borrowed was     
applied1 and sometimes from the  objects
 which were mortgaged4 ,of this kind    
were the mons fidei1 or  loan opened by 
,pope ,clement ,,vii4 in the year #aebf1
 for defending his  capital#de2 the mons
 aluminarius1 under ,pope ,pius ,,iv41  

for which the  pontifical alum-works    
were pledged2 the mons religionis1 under
 ,pius  ,v41 for carrying on the war    
against the ,turks2 and the montes      
farin1  carnium1 vini1 c41 when the     
duties upon these articles were  pledged
 as a security4 ,to facilitate these    
loans1 every condition that  could      
induce people to advance money was      
thought of4 ,sometimes high  interest   
was given1 if the subscribers agreed    
that it should cease1  and the capital  
fall to the bank after their death2 and 
sometimes  low interest was given1 but  
the security was heritable and could be 
transferred at pleasure4 ,the former    
were called montes vacabiles1 and  the  
latter montes non vacabiles4 ,sometimes 
the ,state engaged to pay  back the     
capital at the end of a certain period1 
such for example as  nine years1 as was 
the case in regard to the mons          
novennalis1 under  ,paul ,,iv42 or it   
reserved to itself the option of        
returning the money  at such a period as

 it might think proper1 and sometimes   
the capital  was sunk and the interest  
made perpetual4 ,the first kind were    
called  montes redimibiles1 and the     
second irredimibiles#df4 ,one can here  
clearly discover the origin of          
life-rents1 annuities1 tontines1 and    
government securities2 but the further  
illustration of this subject ,i  shall  
leave to those who may wish to employ   
their talents on a history  of national 
debts4 ,i have introduced these remarks1
 merely to rectify  a mistake which has 
become almost general1 and which        
occasioned some  difficulties to me in  
this research2 and ,i shall only observe
 further1  that the popes gave to their 
loans1 in order to raise their sinking  
credit1 many of those spiritual         
advantages which they conferred on the  
montes pietatis4 ,this error therefore  
was more easily propagated1 as  both    
were called montes2 and hence it has    
happened that ,ascianus and  others     
assert that many lending-houses were    

misapplied by the popes in  order to    
raise public loans4    ,from the        
instances here adduced1 one may see that
 the first  lending-houses were         
sanctioned by the pontiffs1 because they
 only  could determine to the ,catholics
 in what cases it was lawful for  them  
to receive interest4 ,this circumstance 
seems to have rendered  the             
establishment of them out of ,italy     
difficult4 ,at any rate the             
,protestants were at first averse to    
imitate an institution which  originated
 at the court of ,rome1 and which1      
according to the prevailing  prejudice  
of the times1 it alone could approve2   
and from the same  consideration they   
would not adopt the reformation which   
had been made  in the calendar4    ,the 
first mention of a lending-house in     
,germany1 which ,i have as yet  met     
with1 is to be found in the permission  
granted by the emperor  ,maximilian ,i4 
to the citizens of ,nuremberg1 in the   
year #adih1 to  drive the ,jews from the

 city1 and to establish an              
exchange-bank4 ,the  permission further 
stated1 8,that they should provide for  
their bank  proper managers1 clerks1 and
 other persons to conduct it according  
to their pleasure1 or as necessity might
 require2 that such of their            
fellow-citizens as were not able to     
carry on their trades1 callings1  and   
occupations without borrowing and       
without pledging their effects1  should1
 on demand1 according to their trade and
 circumstances1 receive  money1 for     
which pledges1 caution and security     
should be taken2 that at  the time of   
payment a certain sum should be exacted 
by way of interest2  that the clerks and
 conductors of the bank should receive  
salaries for  their service from the    
interest2 and that if any surplus       
remained it  should be employed for the 
common use of the city of ,nuremberg1   
like  any other public fund40    ,it    
here appears that the lending-houses in 
,germany were first known  under the    

name of exchange-banks1 by which was    
before understood any  bank where money 
was lent and exchanged2 but it does not 
thence follow1  as ,professor ,fischer  
thinks#dg1 that they were an ,italian   
invention4  ,the citizens of ,nuremberg 
had not then a lending-house1 nor was   
one  established there till the year    
#afah4 ,at that period they procured    
from ,italy copies of the regulations   
drawn up for various houses of  this    
kind1 in order to select the best4      
,those of the city of ,augsburg  however
 were the grounds on which they built1  
and they sent thither  the persons      
chosen to manage their lending-house1   
that they might  make themselves fully  
acquainted with the nature of the       
establishment  at that place#dh4 ,in the
 year #aeia1 the magistrates of         
,augsburg had  prohibited the ,jews to  
lend money1 or to take pledges2 at the  
same time  they granted #cj1jjj florins 
as a fund to establish a lending-house1 
and  the regulations of it were         

published in #afjgdi4    ,in the        
,netherlands1 ,france and ,england1     
lending-houses were first known  under  
the name of ,lombards1 the origin of    
which is evident4 ,it is  well known    
that in the thirteenth and following    
centuries many opulent  merchants of    
,italy1 which at those periods was      
almost the only part  of ,europe that   
carried on an extensive trade1 were     
invited to these  countries1 where there
 were few mercantile people able to     
engage deeply  in commerce4 ,for this   
reason they were favoured by governments
 in most  of the large cities2 but in   
the course of time they became objects  
of  universal hatred1 because they      
exercised the most oppressive usury1  by
 lending at interest and on pledges4    
,they were called ,longobardi  or       
,lombardi1 as whole nations are often   
named after a part of their  country1 in
 the same manner as all the ,helvetians 
are called ,swiss1  and the ,russians   
sometimes ,moscovites4 ,they were1      

however1 called  frequently also        
,caorcini1 ,caturcini1 ,caursini1       
,cawarsini1 ,cawartini1  ,bardi1 and    
,amanati2 names1 which in all           
probability arose from some  of their   
greatest houses or banks4 ,we know1 at  
any rate1 that about  those periods the 
family of the ,corsini were in great    
consideration at  ,florence4 ,they had  
banks in the principal towns for lending
 money2 they  demanded exorbitant       
interest2 and they received pledges at a
 low value1  and retained them as their 
own property if not redeemed at the     
stated  time4 ,they eluded the          
prohibition of the church against       
interest when  they found it necessary1 
by causing the interest to be previously
 paid  as a present or a premium2 and it
 appears that some sovereigns borrowed  
money from them on these conditions4 ,in
 this manner did ,edward ,,iii4  king of
 ,england1 when travelling through      
,france in the year #acbi1  receive     
#ejjj marks from the bank of the ,bardi1

 and give then in return1  by way of    
acknowledgement1 a bond for #gjjjej4    
,when complaints against  the usurious  
practices of these ,christian ,jews     
became too loud to be  disregarded1 they
 were threatened with expulsion from the
 country1 and  those who had rendered   
themselves most obnoxious on that       
account1 were  often banished1 so that  
those who remained were obliged to      
conduct  themselves in their business   
with more prudence and moderation4 ,it  
is  probable that the commerce of these 
countries was then in too infant a      
state to dispense altogether with the   
assistance of these foreigners4  ,in    
this manner were they treated by ,louis 
,,ix4 in #abfh1 and likewise  by ,philip
 the ,bold2 and sometimes the popes1 who
 would not authorise  interest1 lent    
their assistance by prohibitions1 as was
 the case in  regard to ,henry ,,iii4 of
 ,england in #abdj4    ,in the          
fourteenth century1 the ,lombards in the
 ,netherlands paid to  government rent  

for the houses in which they carried on 
their money  transactions1 and something
 besides for a permission4 ,of this we  
have  instances at ,delft in #acac1 and 
at ,dordrecht in #acdbea4 ,as in the    
course of time the original ,lombards   
became extinct1 these houses  were let1 
with the same permission1 for the like  
employment#eb2 but  governments at      
length fixed the rate of interest which 
they ought  to receive1 and established 
regulations for them1 by which usurious 
practices were restrained4 ,of leases   
granted on such conditions1 an  instance
 occurs at ,delft in the year #afee4 ,in
 #aegh1 ,william prince of  ,orange     
recommended to the magistrates of       
,amsterdam ,francis ,masasia1  one of   
the ,lombards1 as they were then called1
 in order that he  might obtain for him 
permission to establish a               
lending-house#ec1 as  many obtained     
permission to keep billiard-tables1 and 
,jews letters  of protection4 ,in the   
year #afaa1 the proprietor of such a    

house at  ,amsterdam1 who during the    
latter part of his lease had gained by  
his  capital at least thirty-three and a
 half per cent41 offered a very  large  
sum for a renewal of his permission2 but
 in #afad1 the city  resolved to take   
the lombard or lending-house into their 
own hands1 or  to establish one of the  
same kind4 ,however odious this plan    
might be1  a dispute arose respecting   
the legality of it1 which ,marets#ed and
  ,claude ,saumaise endeavoured to      
support4 ,the public lending-house or   
lombard at ,brussels was established in 
#afai2 that at ,antwerp in #afbj1  and  
that at ,ghent in #afbb4 ,all these were
 established by the archduke  ,albert1  
when he entered on the governorship1    
with the advice of the  archbishop of   
,mechlin2 and on this occasion the      
architect ,wenceslaus  ,coberger was    
employed1 and appointed                 
inspector-general of all the            
lending-houses in the ,spanish          
,netherlands#ee4 ,some ,italians assert 

that the ,flemings were the first people
 who borrowed money on interest  for    
their lending-houses2 and they tell us  
that this practice began in  the year   
#afaief4 ,we are assured also1 that     
after a long deliberation  at ,brussels1
 it was at length resolved to receive   
money on interest at  the               
lending-houses4 ,it however appears     
certain that in ,italy this was  never  
done1 or at least not till a late       
period1 and that the capitals  of the   
lending-houses there were amassed       
without giving interest4    ,this       
beneficial institution was always       
opposed in ,france2 chiefly  because the
 doctors of the ,sorbonne could not     
divest themselves of the  prejudice     
against interest2 and some in modern    
times who undertook  there to           
accommodate people with money on the    
like terms1 were punished  by           
government#eg4 ,a lending-house however 
was established at ,paris  under ,louis 
,,xiii41 in #afbf2 but the managers next

 year were obliged to  abandon it#eh4   
,in #afie1 some persons formed a capital
 at ,marseilles  for the purpose of     
establishing one there according to the 
plan of  those in ,italy#ei4 ,the       
present mont de pit at ,paris1 which has
  sometimes in its possession forty     
casks filled with gold watches  that    
have been pledged1 was1 by royal        
command1 first established in  #agggfj4 
,the following is the rate of profit or 
interest which pawnbrokers in  this     
country are entitled to charge per      
calendar month4 ,for #bs4 #f;d4  one    
halfpenny2 #es4 one penny2 #gs4 #f;d4   
three halfpence2 #ajs4  twopence2 #abs4 
#f;d4 twopence halfpenny2 #aes4         
threepence2 #ags4  #f;d4 threepence     
halfpenny2 #a fourpence2 and so on      
progressively and  in proportion for any
 sum not exceeding #djs4 ,for every sum 
exceeding  #djs4 and not exceeding #dbs4
 eightpence2 and for every sum exceeding
  #dbs4 and not exceeding #aj1          
threepence to every pound1 and so on in 

proportion for any fractional sum4      
,where any intermediate sum lent  on a  
pledge exceeds #bs4 #f;d4 and does not  
exceed #djs41 a sum  of fourpence may be
 charged in proportion to each #a4      
,goods pawned  are forfeited on the     
expiration of a year1 exclusive of the  
date of  pawning4 ,but it has been held 
that the property is not transferred1   
but that the pawnbroker merely has a    
right to sell the article2 and          
consequently that1 on a claim after this
 period1 with tender of  principal and  
interest1 the property must be restored 
if unsold 7,walker  v4 ,smith1 #e ,barn4
 and ,ald4 #dci74 ,pledges must not be  
taken from  persons intoxicated or under
 twelve years of age4 ,in ,great        
,britain  pawnbrokers must take out a   
license1 which costs #ae within the     
limits  of the old twopenny-post1 and #g
 #ajs4 in other parts4 ,no license  is  
required in ,ireland4 ,a second license1
 which costs #e #aes41 is  required to  
take in pledge articles of gold and     

silver4    ,from #ahcc to #ahch the     
number of pawnbrokers in the            
metropolitan  district increased from   
#cfh to #chf2 in the rest of ,england   
and ,wales1  from #ajhc to #aaid2 and in
 ,scotland1 from #eb to #hh2 making a   
total of  #affh establishments1 paying  
#ae1dai for their licenses1 besides the 
licenses which many of them take out as 
dealers in gold and silver4 ,the        
business of a pawnbroker was not known  
in ,glasgow until ,august #ahjf1  when  
an itinerant ,english pawnbroker        
commenced business in a single  room1   
but decamped at the end of six months2  
and his place was not  supplied until   
,june #ahac1 when the first regular     
office was established  in the west of  
,scotland for receiving goods in pawn4  
,other individuals  soon entered the    
business1 and the practice of pawning   
had become so  common1 that in #ahbj1 in
 a season of distress1 #bjdc heads of   
families  pawned #gchj articles1 on     
which they raised #gci #es4 #f;d4 ,of   

these  heads of families #acge had never
 applied for or received charity of  any
 description2 #dgd received occasional  
aid from the relief committee1  and #aid
 were paupers4 ,the capital invested in 
this business in #ahdj  was about       
#bf1jjj4 ,nine-tenths of the articles   
pledged are redeemed  within the legal  
period4 ,there are no means of          
ascertaining the exact  number of       
pawnbrokers' establishments in the large
 towns of ,england4  ,in #ahca1 the     
number of males above the age of twenty 
employed in those  at ,manchester was   
#ajg2 at ,liverpool1 #ia2 ,birmingham1  
#ed2 ,bristol1 #cc2  ,sheffield1 #ca4   
,the following curious return was made  
by a large pawnbroking  establishment at
 ,glasgow to ,dr4 ,cleland1 who read it 
before the ,british  ,association in    
#ahcf4 ,the list comprised the following
 articles3--#eci  men's coats1 #cee     
vests1 #bhh pairs of trowsers1 #hd pairs
 of stockings1  #aihj women's gowns1    
#edj petticoats1 #acb wrappers1 #abc    

duffies1 #ij  pelisses1 #bdj silk       
handkerchiefs1 #bid shirts and shifts1  
#fj hats1 #hd  bed-ticks1 #ajh pillows1 
#bfb pairs of blankets1 #cjj pairs of   
sheets1  #afb bed-covers1 #cf           
tablecloths1 #dh umbrellas1 #ajb bibles1
 #bjd  watches1 #baf rings1 and #dh     
,waterloo medals4 ,there were about     
thirty  pawnbrokers in ,glasgow in      
#ahdj4 ,in the manufacturing districts1 
during  the prevalence of strikes1 or in
 seasons of commercial embarrassment1   
many hundreds of families pawn the      
greater part of their wearing  apparel  
and household furniture4 ,the practice  
of having recourse to  the pawnbrokers  
on such occasions is quite of a         
different character  from the habits of 
dependence into which many of the       
working classes  suffer themselves to   
fall1 and who1 8on being paid their     
wages on the  ,saturday1 are in the     
habit of taking their holiday clothes   
out of  the hands of the pawnbroker to  
enable them to appear respectably on    

the ,sabbath1 and on the ,monday        
following they are again pawned and a   
fresh loan obtained to meet the         
exigencies of their families for the    
remainder of the week40 ,it is on these 
transactions and on such as  arise out  
of the desire of obtaining some         
momentary gratification that  the       
pawnbrokers make their large profits4   
,it is stated in one of the  reports on 
the poor laws that a loan of threepence1
 if redeemed the  same day1 pays annual 
interest at the rate of #ebjj per cent42
 weekly1  #hff per cent42       #d;d41  
annual interest #cijj per cent41 or #fej
 p4 c4 weekly2    #ab;d41 annual        
interest #acjj per cent41 or #baf p4 c4 
weekly4    ,it is stated that on a      
capital of sixpence thus employed 7in   
weekly  loans71 pawnbrokers make in     
twelve months #bs4 #b;d42 on five       
shillings they gain #ajs4 #d;d42 on ten 
shillings1 #bbs4 #c;d42 and  on twenty  
shillings lent in weekly loans of       
sixpence1 they more than  double their  

capital in twenty-seven weeks1 and      
should the goods pawned  remain in their
 hands for the term of twelve months    
7which seldom  occurs71 they then       
frequently derive #ajj per cent4#fa     
,,footnotes    #b ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 in
 ,syntagma ,commentationum1 ii4 p4 #i2  
and his  ,mosaisches ,recht4 iii4 p4    
#hf4    #c ,sueton4 ,vita ,augusti1 cap4
 #da4    #d ,taciti ,annal4 vi4         
#ag4--,sueton4 ,vita ,tiberii1 cap4     
#dh4--;,dio ,cassius1  lviii4 #ba4    #e
 lius ,lamprid4 ,vita ,alex4 ,severi1   
cap4 #ba4    #f ,m4 ,manni circa i      
sigilli antichi dei secoli bassi1 vol4  
xxvii4 p4  #hf4 ,the author here quotes 
from an ancient city-book the following 
passage3--8,franciscus fenerator pro se 
et apotheca seu casana  fenoris1 quam   
tenebat in via ,quattro ,pagoni10 c4    
#g ,algemeine ,welthistorie1 xlv4 p4    
#aj4    #h ,this theologian1 born at    
,eperies in ,hungary in #afbe1 was      
driven  from his native country on      
account of his religion1 and died       

superintendant at ,meisse in #afhi4 ,he 
wrote1 besides other works1  ,dorothei  
,asciani ,montes ,pietatis ,romanenses1 
historice1 canonice1 et  theologice     
detecti4 ,lipsi1 #afgj1 #dto4 ,this book
 is at present very  scarce4 ,i shall   
take this opportunity of mentioning also
 the following1  because many who have  
written on lending-houses have quoted   
it1 though  they never saw it3--,montes 
,pietatis ,romanenses1 das ist1 die     
,berg der  ,fromheit oder ,gottesforcht 
in der ,stadt ,rom4 ,durch ,elychnium   
,gottlieb4  ,strasburg1 #afjh1 #hvo4 ,it
 contains nothing of importance that may
 not be  found in ,ascianus4    #i ,of  
this ,barnabas ,i know nothing more than
 what ,i have here  extracted from      
,waddingii ,annales ,minorum1 tom4 xiv4 
p4 #ic4 ,wadding  refers to ,marian4    
lib4 v4 c4 #dj4  #ag2 and ,marc4 #c4 p4 
lib4 #e4 cap4  #eh4 ,the former is      
,marianus ,florentinus1 whose           
,fasciculus ,chronicoram  ,ordinis      
,minorum1 which consists of five books1 

was used in manuscript  by ,wadding1 in 
composing his large work1 and in my     
opinion has never  been printed4 ,marc4 
is ,marcus ,ulyssoponensis1 whose       
,chronica ,ordinis  ,minorum ,i have not
 been able to procure1 though it is     
translated into  several languages4 ,see
 ,waddingii ,scriptores ,ordinis        
,minorum4 ,rom #afej1  fol4 pp4 #bdh1   
#bdi4    #aj ,this is confirmed by ,m4  
,b4 ,salon1 in t4 #b4 ,contr4 de        
,justit4  et ,jure1 in ii4 #b ,thom4    
,aquin4 qu4 #hh4 art4 #b4 controv4 #bg3 
8,hujus  modi mons non erat in usu apud 
antiquos4 ,cpit fere a #aej annis1      
tempore ,pii ,,ii40 ,in ,c4 ,l4         
,richard's ,analysis ,conciliorum       
,generalium et  ,particularium1         
,venetiis1 #aggf1 #d vol4 fol4 iv4 p4   
#ih1 ,i find that the  first            
lending-house at ,perugia was           
established in the year #adej2 but      
,pius ,,ii41 under whose pontificate it 
appears by various testimonies to  have 
been founded1 was not chosen pope till  

the year #adeh4    #aa ,bussi1 ,istoria 
della citt di ,viterbo4 ,in ,roma1      
#agdb1 fol4 p4 #bga4    #ab ,it may be  
found in ,bolle et ,privilegi del ,sacro
 ,monte della ,piet  di ,roma4 ,in      
,roma1 #afah3 ristampati l'anno #afeh4  
,this collection is  commonly bound up  
with the following work1 which was      
printed in the  same year and again     
reprinted3 ,statuti del ,sacro ,monte   
della ,piet di  ,roma4 ,this bull is    
inserted entire by ,ascianus1 p4 #gai1  
but in the  ,collection of the          
pontifical bulls it is omitted4    #ac  
,this ,michael travelled and preached   
much in company with  ,bernardinus1 and 
died at ,como in #adhe4--,wadding1 xiv4 
p4 #cif4    #ad ,the ,piccolimini1      
nephews of the pope1 having once paid   
their  respects to him at ,siena1 he    
told them he was their                  
namesake4--,wadding1  xiv4 p4 #ddg4     
#ae ,waddingii ,scriptores ,ordinis     
,minorum1 p4 #eh4 ,fabricii ,biblioth4  
,medi et ,infim t4 i4 p4 #ehf4    #af   

,wadding1 xiv4 pp4 #cih1 #dcc4    #ag   
,it may be found entire in ,wadding1    
xiv4 p4 #daa4 ,it was ordered  that the 
pledges should be worth double the sum  
lent1 and that they  should be sold if  
not redeemed within a year4    #ah      
,wadding1 xiv4 p4 #ddf4    #ai ,d4      
,manni circa i ,sigilli ,antichi1 tom4  
xxvii4 p4 #ib1 where much  information  
respecting this subject may be found4   
#bj ,wadding1 xiv4 p4 #dea4    #ba      
,ibid4 pp4 #dfb1 #dfe4    #bb ,ibid4    
xiv4 pp4 #dhj1 #dha4    #bc ,ibid4 p4   
#eag4    #bd ,ibid4 xiv4 pp4 #ic1 #dhb4 
#be ,ibid4 p4 #ead4    #bf ,ibid4 xv4   
pp4 #f1 #fe4    #bg ,wadding1 xv4 pp4   
#g1 #i1 #ab4    #bh ,ibid4 xv4 pp4 #cg1 
#de1 #df4    #bi ,ibid4 xv4 #fg4    #cj 
,ibid4 xv4 p4 #fh4 ,bernardinus         
considered the giving of wages as a     
necessary evil4    #ca ,della ,zecca di 
,gubbio1 e delle ,geste de' ,conti e    
,duchi di ,urbino2  opera di ,rinaldo   
,reposati4 ,bologna1 #aggb1 #dto4    #cb
 ,it is to be found in the well-known   

large collection of juridical  writings 
quoted commonly under the title         
,tractatus ,tractatuum4  ,venetiis1     
#aehd1 fol4 p4 #dai1 vol4 vi4 part #a4  
,it has also been printed  separately4  
#cc ,his works were printed together1 in
 folio1 at ,brescia in #aehh4    #cd    
,the work of the former appeared in     
#adif4 ,the writings of both are        
printed in the work of ,ascianus1 or    
,zimmermann1 which has been often       
quoted already4    #ce ,this bull1 which
 forms an epoch in the history of       
lending-houses1  may be found in ,s4    
,lateranen4 ,concilium ,novissimum4     
,rom1 #aeba1 fol4  ,this scarce work1   
which ,i have now before me1 is inserted
 entire in  ,harduini ,acta             
,conciliorum1 tom4 ix4 ,parisiis1 #agad1
 fol4 ,the bull may  be found p4 #aggc4 
,it may be found also in ,bullarium     
,magnum ,cherubini1  i4 p4 #efj2        
,waddingii ,annal4 ,minor4 xv4 p4 #dgj2 
,ascianus1 p4 #gch2 and  ,beyerlinck's  
,theatrum ,vit ,hum4 v4 p4 #fjc4    #cf 

,this is the conclusion formed by       
,richard1 in ,analysis ,conciliorum1    
because in sess4 #bb1 cap4 #h1          
lending-houses are reckoned among the   
pia  loca1 and the inspection of them   
assigned to the bishops4    #cg         
,waddingii ,annal4 ,minor4 xv4 p4 #dga4 
#ch ,ibid4 xvi4 p4 #ddd2 ,ascianus1 p4  
#gff4    #ci 7,summonte7 ,historia de   
,napoli1 #agdi1 #dto1 vol4 iv4 p4       
#agi4--;,giannone1 vol4 iv4--,de'       
,banchi di ,napoli1 da ,michele ,rocco4 
,neap4  #aghe1 #c vols4 #hvo1 i4 p4     
#aea4    #dj ,vettor ,sandi1 in         
,principi di ,storia civile della       
,republica di  ,venezia4 ,in ,venezia   
#agga1 #dto1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dcf4 ,the     
author treats  expressly of the         
institution of this bank1 but the year  
when it  commenced is not mentioned4    
#da ,waddingii ,annal4 ,minor4 xv4 p4   
#fg4    #db ,hymnus ii4 honorem         
,laurentii4 ,the poet relates1 that in  
the third  century the pagan governor of
 the city demanded the church treasure  

from ,laurentius the deacon4    #dc     
,this passage1 with which ,senkenberg   
was not acquainted1 may be  found in    
,tertullian's ,apolog4 cap4 #ci1 edition
 of ,de la ,cerda1 p4 #ahg4    #dd ,this
 word however is not to be found in the 
,glossarium ,manuale4    #de ,see the   
bull in ,bullarium ,magnum1 n4 #ag4     
#df ,see ,petr4 ,gregorius ,tholosanus  
de ,republica4 ,francof4 #afji1 #dto1   
lib4 xiii4 c4 #af1 p4 #eff2 and         
,ascianus1 p4 #gec4    #dg ,geschichte  
des ,teutschen ,handels1 ii4 p4 #ded4   
#dh ,gokink's ,journal fr ,teutschland1 
#aghd1 i4 p4 #ejd1 where may be  found  
the first and the newest regulations    
respecting the lending-house  at        
,nuremberg4    #di ,stettens ,geschichte
 der ,stadt ,augsburg4 ,frankf4 #agdb1  
#b vols4 #dto1  i4 p4 #gbj1 #ghi1 #hcc4 
#ej ,fdera1 vol4 iv4 p4 #chg4    #ea    
,beschryving der ,stadt ,delft4 #agbi1  
fol4 p4 #eec4    #eb ,salmasius de      
,fnore trapezitico4 ,lugd4 #afdj1 #hvo1 
p4 #gdd4    #ec ,de ,koophandel van     

,amsterdam4 ,rott4 #aghj1 #hvo1 i4 p4   
#bba4    #ed ,s4 de ,marets ,diss4 de   
trapezitis4    #ee ,beyerlinck1 ,magnum 
,theatrum ,vit1 tom4 v4 p4 #fjb4    #ef 
,richard1 ,analysis ,concilior4 iv4 p4  
#ih4    #eg ,turgot1 ,mem4 sur le prt   
intrest1 c4 ,par4 #aghi1 #hvo4    #eh   
,sauval1 ,hist4 de la ,ville de ,paris4 
#ei ,rufel1 ,hist4 de la ,ville de      
,marseille2 #afif4 fol4 ii4 p4 #ii4     
#fj ,tableau de ,paris4 ,hamb4 #agha4   
#hvo1 i4 p4 #gh4    #fa ,waterston's    
,cyclopdia of ,commerce4                
,,chemical ,,names ,,of ,,metals4       
,as those metals earliest known1 viz4   
copper1 iron1 gold1 silver1 lead1       
quicksilver and tin1 received the same  
names as the nearest heavenly  bodies1  
which appear to us largest1 and have    
been distinguished by  the like         
characters1 two questions arise3        
,whether these names and  characters    
were given first to the planets or to   
the metals8 ,when1  where1 and on what  
account were they made choice of2 and   

why were the  metals named after the    
planets1 or the planets after the       
metals8 ,the  latter of these questions1
 in my opinion1 cannot be answered with 
any  degree of certainty2 but something 
may be said on the subject1 which  will 
not1 perhaps1 be disagreeable to those  
fond of such researches1  and who have  
not had an opportunity of examining it4 
,that the present usual names were first
 given to the heavenly bodies1  and at a
 later period to the metals1 is beyond  
all doubt2 and it is  equally certain   
that they came from the ,greeks to the  
,romans1 and from  the ,romans to us4   
,it can be proved also that older       
nations gave other  names to these      
heavenly bodies at much earlier periods4
 ,the oldest  appellations1 if we may   
judge from some examples still          
preserved1 seem  to have originated from
 certain emotions which these bodies    
excited in  the minds of men2 and it is 
not improbable that the planets were by 
the  ancient ,egyptians and ,persians   

named after their gods1 and that the    
,greeks only adopted or translated into 
their own language the names  which     
those nations had given them#fb4 ,the   
idea that each planet was  the residence
 of a god1 or that they were gods       
themselves1 has arisen1  according to   
the most probable conjecture1 from rude 
nations worshiping  the sun1 which1 on  
account of his beneficent and necessary 
influence  over all terrestrial bodies1 
they considered either as the deity     
himself1 or his abode1 or1 at any rate1 
as a symbol of him4 ,in the  course of  
time1 when heroes and persons who by    
extraordinary services  had rendered    
their names respected and immortal1     
received divine  honours1 particular    
heavenly bodies1 of which the sun1 moon 
and planets  seemed the fittest1 were   
also assigned to these divinities#fc4   
,by what  laws this distribution was    
made1 and why one planet was dedicated  
to  ,saturn and not to another1 ,pluche 
did not venture to determine3 and on    

this point the ancients themselves are  
not all agreed#fd4 ,when the  planets   
were once dedicated to the gods1 folly1 
which never stops where  it begins1     
proceeded still further1 and ascribed to
 them the attributes  and powers for    
which the deities1 after whom they were 
named1 had been  celebrated in the      
fictions of their mythologists4 ,this in
 time laid  the foundation of astrology2
 and hence the planet ,mars1 like the   
deity  of that name1 was said to cause  
and to be fond of war2 and ,venus to    
preside over love and its pleasures4    
,the next question is1 ,why were the    
metals divided in the like manner  among
 the gods1 and named after them8 ,of all
 the conjectures that can  be formed in 
answer to this question1 the following  
appears to me the  most probable4 ,the  
number of the deified planets made the  
number seven  so sacred to the          
,egyptians1 ,persians and other nations1
 that all those  things which amounted  
to the same number1 or which could be   

divided by  it without a remainder1 were
 supposed to have an affinity or a      
likeness  to and connexion with each    
other#fe4 ,the seven metals1 therefore1 
were  considered as having some         
relationship to the planets1 and with   
them  to the gods1 and were accordingly 
named after them4 ,to each god was      
assigned a metal1 the origin and use of 
which was under his particular          
providence and government2 and to each  
metal were ascribed the powers  and     
properties of the planet and divinity of
 the like name2 from which  arose1 in   
the course of time1 many of the         
ridiculous conceits of the  alchemists4 
,the oldest trace of the division of the
 metals among the gods is to  be found1 
as far as ,i know1 in the religious     
worship of the ,persians4  ,origen1 in  
his ,refutation of ,celsus1 who asserted
 that the seven  heavens of the         
,christians1 as well as the ladder which
 ,jacob saw in his  dream1 had been     
borrowed from the mysteries of ,mithras1

 says1 8,among  the ,persians the       
revolutions of the heavenly bodies were 
represented  by seven stairs1 which     
conducted to the same number of gates4  
,the  first gate was of lead2 the second
 of tin2 the third of copper2 the       
fourth of iron2 the fifth of a mixed    
metal2 the sixth of silver1 and  the    
seventh of gold4 ,the leaden gate had   
the slow tedious motion of  ,saturn2 the
 tin gate the lustre and gentleness of  
,venus2 the third  was dedicated to     
,jupiter2 the fourth to ,mercury1 on    
account of his  strength and fitness for
 trade2 the fifth to ,mars2 the sixth to
 the  ,moon1 and the last to the        
,sun#ff40 ,here then is an evident trace
 of  metallurgic astronomy1 as          
,borrichius calls it1 or of the         
astronomical  or mythological nomination
 of metals1 though it differs from that 
used  at present4 ,according to this    
arrangement1 tin belonged to ,jupiter1  
copper to ,venus1 iron to ,mars1 and the
 mixed metal to ,mercury4 ,the          

conjecture of ,borrichius1 that the     
transcribers of ,origen have1 either    
through ignorance or design1 transposed 
the names of the gods1 is  highly       
probable3 for if we reflect that in this
 nomination men at first  differed as   
much as in the nomination of the        
planets1 and that the  names given them 
were only confirmed in the course of    
time1 of which ,i  shall soon produce   
proofs1 it must be allowed that the     
causes assigned  by ,origen for his     
nomination do not well agree with the   
present  reading1 and that they appear  
much juster when the names are disposed 
in the same manner as that in which we  
now use them#fg4    ,this astrological  
nomination of metals appears to have    
been conveyed  to the ,brahmans in      
,india2 for we are informed that a      
,brahman sent to  ,apollonius seven     
rings1 distinguished by the names of the
 seven stars  or planets1 one of which  
he was to wear daily on his finger1     
according  to the day of the week#fh4   

,this can be no otherwise explained than
  by supposing that he was to wear the  
gold ring on ,sunday2 the silver  one on
 ,monday2 the iron one on ,tuesday1 and 
so of the rest4 ,allusion  to this      
nomination of the metals after the gods 
occurs here and there  in the ancients4 
,didymus1 in his ,explanation of the    
,iliad1 calls the  planet ,mars the iron
 star4 ,those who dream of having had   
anything to do  with ,mars are by       
,artemidorus threatened with a          
chirurgical operation1  for this reason1
 he adds1 because ,mars signifies       
iron#fi4 ,heraclides  says also in his  
allegories1 that ,mars was very properly
 considered as  iron2 and we are told by
 ,pindar that gold is dedicated to the  
sun#gj4    ,plato likewise1 who studied 
in ,egypt1 seems to have admitted this  
nomination and meaning of the metals4   
,we are at least assured so by          
,marsilius ,ficinus#ga2 but ,i have been
 able to find no proof of it1  except   
where he says of the island ,atlantis1  

that the exterior walls  were covered   
with copper and the interior with tin1  
and that the walls  of the citadel were 
of gold4 ,it is not improbable that     
,plato adopted  this ,persian or        
,egyptian representation1 as he assigned
 the planets  to the demons2 but perhaps
 it was first introduced into his system
  only by his disciples#gb4 ,they seem1 
however1 to have varied from  the       
nomination used at present2 as they     
dedicated to ,venus copper1  or brass1  
the principal component part of which is
 indeed copper2 to  ,mercury tin2 and to
 ,jupiter electrum4 ,the last-mentioned 
metal was a  mixture of gold and silver2
 and on this account was probably       
considered  to be a distinct metal1     
because in early periods mankind were   
unacquainted with the art of separating 
these noble metals#gc4    ,the          
characters by which the planets and     
metals are generally expressed  when one
 does not choose to write their names1  
afford a striking  example how readily  

the mind may be induced to suppose a    
connexion  between things which in      
reality have no affinity or relation to 
each  other4 ,antiquaries and           
astrologers1 according to whose opinion 
the  planets were first distinguished by
 these characters1 consider them  as the
 attributes of the deities of the same  
name4 ,the circle in the  earliest      
periods among the ,egyptians was the    
symbol of divinity and  perfection2 and 
seems with great propriety to have been 
chosen by  them as the character of the 
sun1 especially as1 when surrounded by  
small strokes projecting from its       
circumference1 it may form some         
representation of the emission of rays4 
,the semicircle is in like  manner the  
image of the moon1 the only one of the  
heavenly bodies that  appears under that
 form to the naked eye4 ,the character  
is supposed  to represent the sythe of  
,saturn2  the thunderbolts of ,jupiter2 
the  lance of ,mars1 together with his  
shield2  the looking-glass of ,venus2   

and  the caduceus or wand of ,mercury4  
,the expression by characters adopted   
among the older chemists agrees  with   
this mythological signification only in 
the character assigned to  gold4 ,gold1 
according to the chemists1 was the most 
perfect of metals1  to which all others 
seemed to be inferior in different      
degrees4 ,silver  approached nearest to 
it2 but was distinguished only by a     
semicircle1  which1 for the more        
perspicuity1 was drawn double1 and      
thence had a  greater resemblance to the
 most remarkable appearance of the moon2
 the  name of which this metal had      
already obtained4 ,all the other metals1
  as they seemed to have a greater or   
less affinity to gold or silver1  were  
distinguished by marks composed of the  
characters assigned to  these precious  
metals4 ,in the character  the adepts   
discover gold  with a silver colour4    
,the cross placed at the bottom1 which  
among the  ,egyptian hieroglyphics had a
 mysterious signification#gd1 expresses1

  in their opinion1 something ,i know   
not what1 without which quicksilver     
would be silver or gold4 ,this something
 is combined also with copper1  the     
possible change of which into gold is   
expressed by the character 4  ,the      
character  declares the like honourable 
affinity also2 though the  half-cross is
 applied in a more concealed manner2    
for1 according to the  most proper mode 
of writing1 the point is wanting at the 
top1 or the  upright line ought only to 
touch the horizontal1 and not to        
intersect  it4 ,philosophical gold is   
concealed in steel2 and on this account 
it  produces such valuable medicines4   
,of tin one-half is silver1 and the     
other consists of the something unknown3
 for this reason the cross with  the    
half moon appears in 4 ,in lead this    
something is predominant1 and  a        
similitude is observed in it to silver4 
,hence in its character  the  cross     
stands at the top1 and the silver       
character is only suspended on  the     

right-hand behind it4    ,the           
mythological signification of these     
characters cannot be older  than the    
,grecian mythology2 but the chemical may
 be traced to a much  earlier period4   
,some1 who consider them as remains of  
the ,egyptian  hieroglyphics#ge1 pretend
 that they may be discovered on the     
table of  ,isis1 and employ them as a   
proof of the high antiquity1 if not of  
the  art of making gold1 at least of    
chemistry4 ,we are told also that they  
correspond with many other characters   
which the adepts have left us as        
emblems of their wisdom4    ,if we are  
desirous of deciding without prejudice  
respecting both these  explanations1 it 
will be found necessary to make         
ourselves acquainted  with the oldest   
form of the characters1 which in all    
probability1 like  those used in        
writing1 were subjected to many changes 
before they  acquired that form which   
they have at present4 ,i can1 however1  
mention  only three learned men1        

,salmasius#gf1 ,du ,cange#gg1 and       
,huet#gh1 who  took the trouble to      
collect these characters4 ,as ,i am     
afraid that my  readers might be        
disgusted were ,i here to insert them1  
,i shall give  a short abstract of the  
conclusion which they form from them2   
but ,i  must first observe that the     
oldest manuscripts differ very much in  
their representation of these           
characters1 either because they were not
  fully established at the periods when 
they were written1 or because  many     
supposed adepts endeavoured to render   
their information more  enigmatical by  
wilfully confounding the characters2 and
 it is probable  also that many mistakes
 may have been committed by             
transcribers4    ,the character of      
,mars1 according to the oldest mode of  
representing  it1 is evidently an       
abbreviation of the word 1 under which  
the ,greek mathematicians understood    
that deity2 or1 in other words1  the    
first letter 1 with the last letter     

placed above it4 ,the  character of     
,jupiter was originally the initial     
letter of 2 and in  the oldest          
manuscripts of the mathematical and     
astrological works of  ,julius ,firmicus
 the capital  only is used1 to which the
 last letter   was afterwards added at  
the bottom1 to render the abbreviation  
more distinct4 ,the supposed            
looking-glass of ,venus is nothing else 
than the initial letter1 a little       
distorted1 of the word 1  which was the 
name of that goddess4 ,the imaginary    
sythe of ,saturn  has been gradually    
formed from the first two letters of his
 name  1 which transcribers1 for the    
sake of dispatch1 made always  more     
convenient for use1 but at the same time
 less perceptible4 ,to  discover in the 
pretended caduceus of ,mercury the      
initial letter of  his ,greek name 1 one
 needs only look at the abbreviations in
  the oldest manuscripts1 where they    
will find that the  was once  written as
 2 they will remark also that           

transcribers1 to distinguish  this      
abbreviation still more from the rest1  
placed the ,c thus1 2 and  added under  
it the next letter 4 ,if those to whom  
this deduction  appears improbable will 
only take the trouble to look at other  
,greek  abbreviations1 they will find   
many that differ still further from the 
original letters they express than the  
present character  from the   and       
united4 ,it is possible that later      
transcribers1 to whom the  origin of    
this abbreviation was not known1 may    
have endeavoured to  give it a greater  
resemblance to the caduceus of ,mercury4
 ,in short1  it cannot be denied that   
many other astronomical characters are  
real  symbols1 or a kind of proper      
hieroglyphics1 that represent certain   
attributes or circumstances1 like the   
characters of ,aries1 ,leo1 and  others 
quoted by ,salmasius4    ,but how old is
 the present form of these characters8  
,according to  ,scaliger#gi1 they are of
 great antiquity1 because they are to be

  found on very old gems and rings4 ,if 
the ring ,no4 #ajd in ,gorus be  old and
 accurately delineated1 this must indeed
 be true2 for some of  these characters 
may be very plainly distinguished on the
 beazel#hj4  ,we are told by ,wallerius 
that they were certainly used by the    
ancient  ,egyptians1 because            
,democritus1 who resided five years in  
,egypt1 speaks  of them in the plainest 
terms4 ,i do not know whence ,wallerius 
derived  this information1 but it proves
 nothing4 ,he undoubtedly alludes to    
the laughing philosopher of ,abdera1 who
 lived about #dej years before  our ra1 
but no authentic writings of his are now
 extant4 ,fabricius  says that we have a
 ,latin translation of a work of his1   
,de ,arte ,sacra1  ,patavii1 #aegb1     
which1 however1 is certainly a          
production of much later  times4 ,i have
 it now before me from the library of   
our university2 and  ,i find that it is 
not the whole book1 but only an         
abstract1 and written  in so extravagant

 a manner that the deception is not     
easily discovered4  ,it contains        
chemical processes1 but nothing of the  
characters of  metals2 which is the case
 also with the letters of ,democritus1  
published by ,lubbinus#ha4    ,by way of
 contrast to the seven metals with which
 the ancients were  acquainted1 we may  
enumerate those known at the present    
day4 ,they are  as follows3--       #a4 
,gold                                   
#b4 ,silver                             
#c4 ,iron                               
#d4 ,copper                             
#e4 ,mercury                            
#f4 ,lead                               
#g4 ,tin                                
#h4 ,antimony     ,basil ,valentine     
#adij4     #i4 ,bismuth      ,agricola  
#aecj4    #aj4 ,zinc                    
7,paracelsus87      #aecj4    #aa4      
,arsenic     ,brandt            #agcc4  
#ab4 ,cobalt         #ac4 ,platinum     
,wood              #agda4    #ad4       
,nickel       ,cronstedt         #agea4 

#ae4 ,manganese    ,gahn                
#aggd4    #af4 ,tungsten                
,d',elhujart        #agha4    #ag4      
,tellurium    ,mller            #aghb4  
#ah4 ,molybdenum   ,hjelm               
#aghb4    #ai4 ,uranium      ,klaproth  
#aghi4    #bj4 ,titanium     ,gregor    
#agia4    #ba4 ,chromium     ,vauquelin 
#agig4    #bb4 ,columbium    ,hatchett  
#ahjb4    #bc4 ,palladium   ,wollaston  
#ahjc4    #bd4 ,rhodium        #be4     
,iridium     ,tennant           #ahjc4  
#bf4 ,osmium        #bg4 ,cerium        
,hisinger          #ahjd4    #bh4       
,potassium      #bi4 ,sodium            
#cj4 ,barium      ,davy                 
#ahjg4    #ca4 ,strontium      #cb4     
,calcium        #cc4 ,cadmium           
,stromeyer         #ahah4    #cd4       
,lithium      ,arfwedson         #ahah4 
#ce4 ,silicium    ,berzelius            
#ahbd4    #cf4 ,zirconium      #cg4     
,aluminum      #ch4 ,glucinum    ,whler 
#ahbh4    #ci4 ,yttrium       #dj4      
,thorium      ,berzelius         #ahbi4 

#da4 ,magnesium    ,bussy               
#ahbi4    #db4 ,vanadium     ,sefstrm   
#ahcj4    #dc4 ,didymium    ,mosander   
#ahdb4    #dd4 ,lanthanium     #de4     
,erbium      ,mosander          #ahdc4  
#df4 ,terbium       #dg4 ,pelopium      
,h4 ,rose           #ahde4    #dh4      
,niobium        #di4 ,ruthenium         
,claus             #ahde4    #ej4       
,norium       ,svanberg          #ahde4 
,,footnotes    #fb ,see ,goguet1        
,origines4 ,bailly1 ,hist4 de l',astron4
 ,ancienne4    #fc ,jablonski1 ,pantheon
 gypt4 #agej1 p4 #di4    #fd ,these     
contradictions are pointed out by       
,goguet1 in a note1 p4  #cgj4 ,a better 
view of them may be found in ,hygini    
,astronom4 7ed4 ,van  ,staveren71 xlii4 
p4 #dif4    #fe ,jablonski1 ,panth4 p4  
#ee4 ,vossius de ,idololatria1 ii4 #cd1 
p4 #dhi4  ,bruckeri ,histor4 ,philosoph4
 i4 p4 #ajee4    #ff ,origenes ,contra  
,celsum1 lib4 vi4 #bb4 ,i expected to   
have received  some explanation of this 
passage from the editors of ,origen1 and

 in  those authors who have treated     
expressly on the religious worship  of  
the ,persians2 but ,i find that they are
 quoted neither by ,hyde2  ,philip a    
,turre1 whose ,monumenta ,veteris ,antii
 is printed in ,thesaurus  ,antiquitat4 
et ,histor4 ,itali2 nor by ,banier in   
his ,mythology4    #fg ,borrichius      
arranges the words in the following     
manner3 8,secundam  portam faciunt      
,jovis1 comparantes ei stanni splendorem
 et mollitiem2  tertiam ,veneris ratam  
et solidam2 quartam ,martis1 est enim   
laborum  patiens1 que ac ferrum1        
celebratus hominibus2 quintam ,mercurii 
propter  misturam inqualem ac variam1 et
 quia negotiator est2 sextam ,lun       
argenteam2 septimam ,solis              
auream40--,ol4 ,borrichius ,de ,ortu et 
,progressu  ,chemi40 ,hafni1 #affh1     
#dto1 p4 #bi4 ,professor ,eichhorn      
reminded me1 as  allusive to this       
subject1 of the seven walls of          
,ecbatana1 the capital  of ,media1 the  
outermost of which was the lowest1 and  

each of the rest  progressively higher1 
so that they overtopped each other4     
,each was of  a particular colour4 ,the 
outermost was white2 the second black2  
the  third purple2 the fourth blue2 the 
fifth red1 or rather of an orange       
colour2 and the summit of the sixth was 
covered with silver1 and that  of the   
seventh1 or innermost1 with gold4 ,such 
is the account given by  ,herodotus1 i4 
#ih2 and it appears to me not improbable
 that they may  have had a relation to  
the seven planets1 though nothing is    
hinted on  that subject by the          
historian4    #fh ,philostrat4 ,vita    
,apollonii1 iii4 #da1 p4 #acj4 ,how was 
the ring for  ,wednesday made8 ,perhaps 
it was hollow1 and filled with          
quicksilver4  ,gesner1 in ,commentaria  
,societat4 ,scien4 ,gotting4 #agec1 iii4
 p4 #gh1  thinks that these rings might 
have been made or cast under certain    
constellations4    #fi ,oneirocritica1  
v4 #cg4    #gj ,isthm4 ,od4 ver4 #a4 ,of
 the like kind are many passages in     

,eustathius on ,homer's ,iliad1 b4 xi41 
and also the following passages  of     
,constantinus ,manasses1 where he       
describes the creation of the  stars1 in
 his ,annales 7edit4 ,meursii1 ,lugd4   
#afaf71 p4 #g1 and p4 #bfc3  8,saturnus 
nigricabat1 colore plumbeo2 ,jupiter ut 
argentum splendebat2  ,mars flammeus    
conspiciebatur2 ,sol instar auri puri   
lucebat2 7,venus  uti stannum27         
,mercurius instar ris rubebat2 ,luna in 
morem glaciei  pellucida suam et ipsa   
lucem emittebat10 c4    #ga ,in his     
,preface to ,critias4 ,platonis ,opera2 
,francof4 #afjb1 fol4 p4  #ajig4    #gb 
,it is probable that ,ficinus had in    
view a passage in ,olympiodori          
,commentar4 in ,meteora ,arist4 ,ven4   
#aeea1 fol4 lib4 iii4 p4 #ei4    #gc    
,this distribution1 which is ascribed to
 the ,platonists1 may be  found also in 
the scholiasts on ,pindar1 at the       
beginning of the fifth  ,isthmian ,ode1 
p4 #dei4    #gd ,jablonski1 ,pantheon   
gypt4 i4 p4 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhg2 and ii4 p4

 #aca4  ,this author makes it the       
representation of something which cannot
 be  well named4 ,kircheri dipus gypt4  
t4 ii4 pars ii4 p4 #cii4 ,rom1 #afec1   
fol4    #ge ,goguet1 ii4 pp4 #cgj1 #cga1
 considers them as remains of the       
original hieroglyphics2 but he is of    
opinion that we received them in  their 
present form from the ,arabians4    #gf 
,plinian ,exercitat4 in ,solinum1 p4    
#hgd4    #gg ,gloss4 ad ,script4 ,med4  
et ,infim ,grcitatis4    #gh ,in his    
,annotations on ,manilii ,astronomicon  
7in usum ,delphini74  ,par4 #afgi1 #dto1
 p4 #hj4    #gi ,in his ,annotations on 
,manilii ,astron4 ,strasb4 #affe1 #dto1 
p4 #dfj4    #hj ,in ,gorii ,thesaurus   
,gemmarum antiquarum astriferarum1      
,florent4  #agej1 #c vols4 fol41 ,i     
found nothing on this subject4          
,characters of the  moon and of the     
signs in the zodiac often occur2 but no 
others are to  be seen1 except in tab4  
#cc1 where there is a ring1 which has on
 it  the present characters of ,mars and

 ,venus4 ,in general the planets are    
represented by seven small asterisks1 or
 by six and the character of  the moon4 
,besides1 the antiquity of this gem     
cannot be ascertained4    #ha ,see the  
collection of ,greek letters of ,eilh4  
,lubbinus4 ,commelin4  #afja1 #hvo4     
,,zinc4      ,zinc is one of those      
metals which were not known to the      
,greeks#hb1  ,romans1 or ,arabians4     
,this we have reason to conjecture1     
because it  has not been distinguished  
by a chemical character like the rest2  
but  it is fully proved1 by our not     
finding in the works of the ancients    
any information that appears even to    
allude to it4 ,i know but of one        
instance where it is supposed to have   
been found among remains of  antiquity4 
,grignon pretends that something like it
 was discovered  in the ruins of the    
ancient ,roman city in ,champagne#hc4   
,such an  unexpected discovery deserved 
to have been investigated with the      
utmost minuteness2 but it seems to have 

been examined only in a very            
superficial manner2 and as that was the 
case1 it is impossible to  guess what   
kind of a metal or metallic mixture this
 author considered  as zinc4    ,it is  
not surprising that this metal should   
have remained so long  unknown1 for it  
has never yet been found in the metallic
 state4 ,its  ores are often and in a   
great degree mixed with foreign         
ingredients2  and when they are melted1 
it sublimes in a metallic form1 and is  
found  adhering above to the cool sides 
of the furnace2 but a particular        
apparatus is necessary1 else the reduced
 metal partly evaporates1  and is partly
 oxidized1 by which means it appears    
like an earth1 and  exhibits to the eye 
no traces of metal4    ,that mixture of 
zinc and copper called at present brass1
 tomback1  pinchbeck1 princes-metal1 c41
 and which was first discovered by ores1
  abundant in zinc1 yielding when melted
 not pure copper1 but brass1  was       
certainly known to the ancients4 ,mines 

that contained ores1 from  which this   
gold-coloured metal was produced1 were  
held in the highest  estimation2 when   
exhausted1 the loss of them was         
regretted2 and it  was supposed that the
 metal would never be again found4 ,in  
the course  of time it was remarked1 no 
one knows by what accident1 that an ore1
  which must have been calamine1 when   
added to copper while melting1 gave  it 
a yellow colour4 ,this ore was therefore
 used1 though it was not  known what    
metal it contained1 in the same manner  
as oxide of cobalt  was employed in     
colouring glass before mineralogists    
were acquainted  with that metal itself4
 ,aristotle and ,strabo speak of an     
earth of that  kind1 the use of which in
 making brass has been retained through 
every  century4 ,ambrosius1 bishop of   
,milan1 in the fourth century2          
,primasius1  bishop of ,adrumetum in    
,africa1 in the sixth2 and ,isidore1    
bishop of  ,seville1 in the seventh1    
mention an addition by which copper     

acquired  a gold colour1 and which      
undoubtedly must have been calamine4    
,when in  course of time more calamine  
was discovered1 the ancient method of   
procuring brass from copper-ore that    
contained zinc was abandoned2 and  it   
was found more convenient first to      
extract from it pure copper1 and  then  
to convert it into brass by the addition
 of calamine4    ,those desirous of     
inquiring further into the knowledge    
which the  ancients had of this metal   
must examine the meaning of the word    
cadmia1 which seems to have had various 
significations4 ,this task ,i  have     
ventured to undertake2 and though ,i    
cannot clear up everything  that occurs 
respecting it1 ,i shall lay before my   
readers what  information ,i have been  
able to obtain on the subject1 because  
perhaps  it may amount to somewhat more 
than is to be found in the works of old 
commentators4 ,cadmia signified1 then1  
in the first place1 a mineral  abounding
 in zinc1 as well as any ore combined   

with it1 and also that  zinc-earth which
 we call calamine4 ,those who should    
understand under  it only the latter1   
would not be able to explain the greater
 part of  the passages in the ancients  
where it is mentioned4 ,it is probable  
that ore containing zinc acquired this  
name1 because it first produced         
brass#hd4 ,when it was afterwards       
remarked that calamine gave to copper  a
 yellow colour1 the same name was       
conferred on it also4 ,it appears1      
however1 that it was seldom found by the
 ancients#he2 and we must  consider     
cadmia in general as signifying ore that
 contained zinc4  ,gold-coloured copper 
or brass was long preferred to pure or  
common  copper1 and thought to be more  
beautiful the nearer it approached to   
the best aurichalcum4 ,brass therefore  
was supposed to be a more  valuable kind
 of copper2 and on this account ,pliny  
says that cadmia  was necessary for     
procuring copper1 that is brass4        
,copper1 as well as  brass1 was for a   

great length of time called s1 and it   
was not till  a late period that        
mineralogists1 in order to distinguish  
them1 gave  the name of cuprum to the   
former#hf4 ,pliny says that it was good 
when a large quantity of cadmia had been
 added to it1 because it not  only      
rendered the colour more beautiful1 but 
increased the weight4 ,in  the like     
manner a quintal of copper in ,hungary  
produces a hundred and  fifty pounds of 
brass4 ,the same author remarks also    
that the cadmia  7fossilis7 was not used
 in medicine3 this however is to be     
understood  only of the raw ore1 for    
some physicians prepared oxide of zinc  
from  ore that contained zinc1 as he    
afterwards tells us2 and ,galen extols  
the calamine found in ,cyprus on account
 of its superior effects1  because1     
perhaps1 the oxide could be obtained    
from it much purer4    ,in the second   
place1 cadmia1 among the ancients1 was  
what we call  7ofenbruch7               
furnace-calamine1 or what in melting ore

 that contains  zinc1 or in making      
brass1 falls to the bottom of the       
furnace1 and  which consists of more or 
less calcined zinc4 ,as this            
furnace-calamine  assumes various       
appearances1 according to the manner of 
melting1 and  according to many other   
circumstances that in part cannot be    
defined1  and as the ancients comprehend
 all its varieties under the general    
name of cadmia1 and give to each        
variety1 according to its form1         
consistence and colour1 a particular    
name also1 a confusion of names  has    
hence arisen which cannot now be cleared
 up1 especially as it is  not thought   
worth while to distinguish all its      
incidental variations4  ,our physicians 
esteem only the pure oxide of zinc2 and 
as they know  how to obtain it1 they are
 not under the necessity of using impure
  furnace-calamine4 ,in our             
melting-houses it is employed1 without  
much  nicety in the choice1 for making  
zinc or brass#hg4    ,what here appears 

to me most singular is1 that the        
ancients should have  given the same    
names to furnace-calamine as they gave  
to ores that  contained zinc4 ,the      
affinity of these substances they could 
conjecture  only from their effects1 or 
perhaps they were induced to do so from 
observing that furnace-calamine was not 
produced but when the different  kinds  
of cadmia1 as they were called1 were    
melted2 that is1 when  yellow and not   
red copper was obtained4 ,ofenbruch got 
the name of  furnace-calamine at        
,rammelsberg1 when it was observed that 
it could be  employed instead of native 
calamine for making brass#hh4 ,were the 
ancients then in any measure acquainted 
with this use of it8 ,galen  and        
,dioscorides speak only of its use in   
medicine1 and say nothing of  its being 
employed in the preparation of brass4   
,the ,arabian writers1  particularly the
 translators of the ,greek physicians1  
speak in a much  clearer manner of the  
preparation of brass2 but the           

appellations which  they employ are so  
indeterminate in their signification1   
that an  answer to the above question   
cannot be deduced from them4 ,climia1   
which some pronounce calimia and from   
which the modern ,greeks made  kelimia1 
and the ,latins lapis calaminaris1 seems
 to have entirely  the same meaning as  
cadmia4 ,tutia1 which occurs first in   
the  eleventh century1 in ,avicenna1 and
 which the ,greeks write toutia1  or    
perhaps more properly thouthia1         
signifies sometimes pompholyx2  but in  
common it seems to express also minerals
 that contain zinc1 and  likewise       
furnace-calamine#hi4 ,could it be proved
 that the tutia  of the ,arabs and later
 ,greeks was furnace-calamine1 or the   
tutia  of our druggists1 the oldest     
account with which ,i am acquainted of  
furnace-calamine1 employed in making    
brass1 would occur in ,zosimus1  who1   
according to every appearance1 lived in 
the fifth century#ij4  ,this author     
tells us1 that in order to make brass1  

,cyprus copper must  be melted1 and     
pounded tutia must be strewed over it4  
,salmasius  suspects that ,zosimus here 
means only calamine3 but however this   
may  be1 his receipt has been retained  
till the present time in books on the   
arts2 for these recommend not calamine1 
but tutia#ia4    ,we can with more      
certainty affirm that this use of       
furnace-calamine1 in  making brass1 was 
known to ,albertus ,magnus in the       
thirteenth century2  for he says1 first1
 that yellow copper was made by the     
addition of  calamine1 which he calls   
lapis calaminaris4 ,he tells us         
afterwards1  that ,hermes taught how to 
give a gold colour to copper by throwing
  pounded tutia into the melted metal4  
,tutia1 says he1 which is  used in the  
transmutation of metals1 is not a native
 mineral1 but  an artificial mixture1   
produced in the furnace when copper-ore 
is  melted2 and he advises glass-gall to
 be strewed over the ore1 otherwise     
calamine and tutia will lose their force

 in the fire#ib4 ,it would  appear that 
the last-mentioned name1 in the         
thirteenth century1  signified only     
furnace-calamine1 and that its use for  
making brass was  at that period known4 
,for many centuries1 however1 the       
ofenbruch 7furnace-calamine71 with      
which1 as we are told1 the furnaces at  
,rammelsberg overflowed1 was  thrown    
aside as useless1 till at length1 in the
 middle of the sixteenth  century1      
,erasmus ,ebener first showed that it   
might be used instead  of native        
calamine for making brass4 ,this        
,ebener1 descended from the  noble      
family of that name at ,nuremberg1 was a
 man of great learning1  and an able    
statesman4 ,he was employed by his      
native city1 and by  foreign princes1 on
 occasions of the highest importance4   
,in #aefi he  was privy-counsellor to   
,julius duke of ,brunswick1 and died in 
#aegg1  at ,helmstadt1 where he was     
buried4 ,i regret much that ,i can give 
no  further account of this important   

discovery2 the time even when it was    
made is not known with certainty4       
,lhneyss says that it was sixty years   
before the period when he wrote4 ,but at
 what period did he write8 ,the  oldest 
edition1 with which ,i am acquainted1 of
 his treatise on mines1  is of the year 
#afag1 so that this discovery would fall
 about the year  #aeegic4 ,calvr caused 
to be printed an old account of the     
,rammelsberg  mines1 which was said to  
have been published in #aefe4 ,according
 to that  work1 ,ebener made the        
above-mentioned observation at          
,nuremberg1 about  seventeen years      
before1 that is1 about the year #aedh4  
,schluter assigns  as the period about  
#aeej1 and ,honemann about #aeei4 ,we   
may therefore  very safely place it in  
the middle of the sixteenth century1 and
  probably the discovery happened in    
#aeec1 at which time ,ebener was sent   
to duke ,henry1 with whom he continued a
 long time1 as we are expressly  told by
 ,doppelmayer4 ,this use of calamine    

refuse induced the managers  of the     
profitable brass-works in the ,harz     
forest to pick up carefully  that which 
before had been thrown aside4 ,duke     
,julius1 who endeavoured  to improve    
every branch of manufacture1 and        
particularly what related  to           
metallurgy1 and who1 agreeably to the   
then prevailing mode of  princes1       
suffered himself to be duped with the   
hopes of making gold1  improved the     
brass-works at ,buntheim1 below         
,harzburg1 and by these  means brought a
 great revenue to the electoral         
treasury4    ,another production of     
zinc1 artificial white vitriol1 was also
 long  prepared1 used and employed in   
commerce before it was known that it was
  procured from this metal4 ,that it was
 not known before the middle of  the    
sixteenth century1 and that it was first
 made at ,rammelsberg1 may  with        
confidence be affirmed4 ,schluter       
ascribes the invention of it to  duke   
,julius1 and places it in the year      

#aegj3 but it must be somewhat  older   
than the above-quoted account of        
,rammelsberg2 for the author1  who wrote
 about #aefeid1 relates1 that in his    
time one citizen only1  whom he calls   
,henni ,balder1 boiled white vitriol2   
and it appears that  this person kept   
the process a secret4 ,that the         
invention was not then  new1 is evident 
from his adding1 that what its effects  
might be in  medicine had not been      
examined2 but that its use in making    
eye-water  had been known almost as     
early as the time when it was           
discovered4 ,this  agrees with another  
account1 according to which the method  
of boiling  white vitriol was found out 
at the time when ,christopher ,sander1  
whose  service to the ,harz is          
well-known1 was tithe-gatherer4         
,honemann says  that ,sander was        
tithe-gatherer at the mines of the      
,upper ,harz before  the year #aefd1 but
 that in this year he was principal     
tithe-gatherer  and director of the     

mines and melting-houses at ,goslar4    
,sander himself1  in a paper dated      
,august #c1 #aege1 seems to ascribe the 
invention of  white vitriol to duke     
,julius#ie4    ,at first this salt was  
called ,erzalaun1 a name occasioned by  
its  likeness to alum1 but afterwards it
 was more frequently known by those  of 
,gallitzenstein1 ,golitzenstein1 and    
,calitzenstein4 ,the latter  names      
however appear to be older than white   
vitriol itself2 as we  find that green  
vitriol1 even before the year #aefe1 was
 called green  ,gallitzenstein4 ,may not
 the word be derived from gall2 because 
it  is probable that vitriol and galls  
were for a long time the principal      
articles used for making ink and in     
dyeing8 ,i am of opinion that the  white
 vitriol1 which is produced in the mines
 of ,rammelsberg in the  form of        
icicles1 gave rise to the discovery and 
manufacture of this  salt4 ,the former1 
so early as the year #aefe1 was called  
white native  vitriol1 or white         

,gogkelgut1 and was packed up in casks1 
and in that  manner transported for     
sale#if4 ,i shall not here enter into   
the old  conjectures respecting the     
origin and component parts of this      
vitriol2  but it deserves to be         
remarked1 that ,henkel and ,neumann#ig  
observed  in it a mixture of zinc1 by   
which ,brandt1 a member of the ,swedish 
council of mines1 was led to prove1     
that1 when pure1 it consists of         
vitriolic acid and oxide of zinc2 and   
this was afterwards confirmed by        
,hellot#ih4    ,i come now1 in the last 
place1 to the history of this metal1    
which1  when furnace-calamine was used1 
could not remain long unobserved1 as  it
 is sometimes found amongst it          
uncalcined in metallic drops4 ,it is    
worthy of remark1 that ,albertus        
,magnus1 who first described the use  of
 furnace-calamine in making brass1 is   
the oldest author in whose  works       
mention is made of zinc4 ,he calls it   
marchasita aurea4 ,this  was properly a 

stone1 the metallic particles of which  
were so entirely  sublimated by fire1   
that nothing but useless ashes remained 
behind4  ,it contained fixed            
quicksilver1 communicated a colour to   
metals1 on  which account it was well   
known to the alchemists1 burned in the  
fire1  and was at length entirely       
consumed4 ,it was found in various      
parts1  but that at ,goslar was the     
best1 because the copper it contained   
seemed to have in it a mixture of gold4 
,to give this copper however  a still   
greater resemblance to gold1 some tin   
was added to it1 by  which means it     
became more brittle4 ,this marchasita   
also rendered  copper white as silver4  
,thus far ,albertus4 ,it obtained       
without doubt  the name of marchasita   
aurea1 because zinc communicates a      
yellow  colour to copper2 and for the   
same reason the ,greeks and the         
,arabians  called cadmia golden or      
aurea4 ,but how could ,albertus say that
  marchasite made copper white8 ,did he 

commit a mistake1 and mean tin8  ,to me 
this appears not probable1 as at one    
time he seems to call it  argentea4 ,i  
imagine that he knew that copper1 when  
mixed with as much  zinc as possible1   
that is1 according to ,scheffer1        
eighty-nine pounds  to a hundred1 became
 white2 and it appears that by this he  
wished to  establish its affinity with  
quicksilver4    ,the next author who    
gives an intelligible account of this   
metal is  ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 who
 died in #aeda4 ,i do not however       
imagine  that it was forgotten in this  
long interval1 at least by those who    
were  called alchemists4 ,i am rather of
 opinion1 that on account of the great  
hopes which it gave them by the         
colouring of copper1 they described it  
purposely in an obscure manner1 and     
concealed it under other names1  so that
 it was not discovered in their works4  
,there are few who would  have patience 
to wade through these1 and the few who  
could do so1 turn  their attention to   

objects of greater importance than those
 which  occupy mine4 ,gold and silver   
excepted1 there is no metal which has   
had  formerly so many and so wonderful  
names as zinc#ii4 ,for this reason1     
chemists long believed that zinc was not
 a distinct metal1 but only a  variety  
of tin or bismuth2 and with these       
perhaps it may hence have  been often   
confounded4    ,the name zinc occurs    
first in ,paracelsus4 ,he expressly     
calls it a  distinct metal1 the nature  
of which was not sufficiently known2    
which  could be cast1 but was not       
malleable1 and which was produced only  
in  ,carinthia4 ,was he then            
unacquainted with the zinc of ,goslar1  
which was  known at an earlier period to
 ,albertus ,magnus#ajj8 ,george         
,agricola1  who wrote about the year    
#aeej1 speaks however of the ,goslar    
zinc1  but he calls it liquor candidus1 
and in ,german conterfey#aja4           
,mathesius1 who published his sermons in
 #aefb1 says1 8at ,freyberg there  is   

red and white zinc40 ,perhaps he did not
 mean the metal1 but minerals  that     
contained zinc4 ,george ,fabricius1 who 
died in #aega1 conjectures  that stibium
 is what the miners call cincum1 which  
can be melted1  but not hammered4    ,it
 is seen by these imperfect accounts    
that this metal must have been  scarce1 
even in the middle of the sixteenth     
century1 and that it was  not in the    
collection of ,agricola1 which was      
considerable for that  period4          
,libavius1 who died in #afaf1 mentions  
it several times1 but he  regrets1 in   
one of his letters1 that he had not been
 able to procure  any of it#ajb4 ,was   
this owing to the prohibition of duke   
,julius1 by  which it was forbidden to  
be sold8 ,this prohibition is quoted by 
,pott  from ,jungii ,mineralogia1 with  
which ,i am unacquainted2 but as ,pott  
has  already1 by his unintelligible     
quotations1 made me spend many hours to 
no purpose1 ,i shall not waste more in  
searching for it4 ,the prohibition      

alluded to is mentioned neither by      
,rehtmeier nor by any other author4     
,the foolish taste for alchemy1 which   
prevailed then at the duke's  court1    
makes it not altogether improbable that 
one was issued#ajc2  and if that was    
really the case1 it was occasioned not  
so much by any  dread of this metal     
being misused1 as ,pott thinks1 but by  
the high  hopes which were entertained  
of its utility in making gold4 ,the     
first  accurate and certain account of  
the method of procuring zinc at ,goslar1
  is1 as far as ,i know1 given by       
,lhneyss1 in #afag1 though he considers 
it to be the same as bismuth#ajd4 ,joh4 
,schrder of ,westphalia1 who  died in   
#affd1 calls it marcasita pallida4      
,the first person who purposely procured
 this metal from calamine1 by  the      
addition of some inflammable substance1 
was undoubtedly ,henkel1 who  gave an   
account of his success in the year      
#agda1 though he concealed  the whole   
process#aje4 ,after him1 ,dr4 ,isaac    

,lawson1 a ,scotsman1 seems  to have    
made experiments which proved the       
possibility of obtaining  zinc in this  
manner on a large scale2 and in #agcg   
,henkel heard that it  was then         
manufactured in ,england with great     
advantage4 ,of this ,lawson  ,i know    
nothing more than what is related by    
,dr4 ,watson#ajf4 ,anthony  von ,swab1  
member of the ,swedish council of mines1
 procured this metal  afterwards from   
calamine by distillation1 in #agdb2 as  
did ,marggraf in  #agdf1 who appears    
however not to have been acquainted with
 the ,swedish  experiment4 ,in the year 
#agdc1 one ,champion established zinc   
works at  ,bristol1 which were continued
 by his successor ,james ,emerson1 who  
established works of the like kind at   
,henham1 in the neighbourhood4  ,the    
manner in which the metal was procured1 
has been described by ,dr4  ,watson in  
his ,chemical ,essays4    ,the greater  
part of this metal1 used in ,europe1 was
 undoubtedly brought  from the ,east    

,indies4 ,the ,commercial ,company in   
the ,netherlands1  between the years    
#agge and #aggi1 caused to be sold1 on  
their account1  above #idc1jha pounds of
 it#ajg4 ,in the year #aghj1 the chamber
 of  ,rotterdam alone sold #bh1jjj      
pounds2 and ,i find1 by printed         
catalogues1  that the other chambers1 at
 that period1 had not any of it in their
  possession4 ,if the account given by  
,raynal be true1 the ,dutch ,east       
,india ,company purchased annually1 at  
,palimbang1 a million and a half  of    
pounds#ajh4 ,in #agha1 the ,danish      
,company at ,copenhagen purchased       
#aec1iec pounds of tutenage1 which had  
been carried thither in two  vessels1 at
 the rate of from four and one-eighth to
 four and a quarter  schillings ,lubec  
per pound4 ,it is probable that the     
,english and ,swedes  import this       
article also4 ,it would be of some      
consequence if one could  learn in what 
part of ,india1 when1 and in what manner
 this metal was  first procured1 and in 

what year it was first carried thence to
 ,europe4  ,according to the scanty     
information which we have on the        
subject1 it  comes from ,china1 ,bengal1
 ,malacca#aji1 and the ,malabar coast1  
from  which copper and tin are also     
imported4 ,in the oldest bills of lading
  of ships belonging to the ,netherlands
 ,i find no mention of zinc2 but it  is 
possible that it may be comprehended    
under the name of ,indian tin2  for so  
it was at first called4 ,savot1 who died
 about the year #afdj1  relates1 on the 
authority of a contemporary writer#aaj1 
that some  years before the ,dutch had  
taken from the ,portuguese a ship laden 
with  this metal1 which was sold under  
the name of speautre4 ,it is probable   
therefore that it was brought to ,europe
 so early as the beginning of  the      
seventeenth century4 ,indian tin is     
mentioned by ,boyle4    ,it is probable 
that this metal was discovered in ,india
 before anything  of the ,european zinc 
had been known in that country2 but we  

are still  less acquainted with the     
cause of the discovery than with the    
method of  procuring the metal4 ,we are 
told that an ,englishman1 who1 in the   
above  century1 went to ,india1 in order
 to discover the process used there1    
returned with an account that it was    
obtained by distillation ver  descensum4
    ,respecting the origin of the       
different names of this metal1 ,i can   
offer very little4 ,conterfey signified 
formerly every kind of metal  made in   
imitation of gold#aaa4 ,frisch says it  
was called zink1 from  which was formed 
first zinetum1 and afterwards zincum1   
because  the furnace-calamine assumes   
the figure of 7zinken or zacken7  nails 
or spikes2 but it is to be remarked that
 these names do not  occur before the   
discovery of this metal1 though         
ofenbruch was known  long before4 ,fulda
 speaks of the ,anglo-,saxon sin1 zink1 
which he  translates obryzum4 ,spiauter1
 speauter1 and spialter1 from  which    
,boyle made speltrum1 and also tutaneg  

or tuttanego1 came  to us from ,india   
with the commodity4 ,under the          
last-mentioned name  is sometimes       
comprehended a mixture of tin and       
bismuth4 ,calaem is  also an ,indian    
appellation given to this metal1 and has
 a considerable  likeness to calamine2  
but ,i am of opinion with ,salmasius    
that the  latter is not derived from the
 former1 as lapis calaminaris occurs  in
 the thirteenth century1 and calaem was 
first brought to us by the  ,portuguese 
from ,india4    ,most of the zinc works 
in this country are situated in the     
neighbourhood of ,birmingham and        
,bristol2 a few furnaces also exist  in 
the neighbourhood of ,sheffield1 among  
the coal-pits surrounding  that town2   
there is also one at ,maestag in        
,glamorganshire4 ,the ores  worked at   
,bristol and ,birmingham are principally
 obtained from the  ,mendip-hills and   
,flintshire2 those at ,sheffield from   
,alston ,moor4 ,the  greater part       
however of the zinc used in this country

 is imported in  ingots and plates from 
,silesia1 by way of ,hamburg1 ,antwerp1 
,dantzic1  c4 ,we receive annually from 
#ajj1jjj to #agj1jjj cwts4 from         
,germany2 of  this quantity1 about      
#hj1jjj cwt4 are entered for home       
consumption1 and  the rest is exported  
for ,india4    ,from its moderate price 
and the ease with which it can be       
worked1  zinc is now extensively used   
for making water-cisterns1 baths1 pipes1
  covering of roofs1 and a great many   
architectural purposes4 ,it has also  of
 late been employed in the curious art  
of transferring printing1  known under  
the name of ,zincography1 but owing to  
the ease with  which this metal becomes 
coated with a film of oxide or          
carbonate1  by exposure to the air1 the 
plates cannot be preserved for any great
  length of time4      ,,footnotes      
#hb ,it has been observed by an         
anonymous reviewer 7,british and        
,foreign ,medical ,review1 vol4 viii4 p4
 #cfa7 that a passage in ,strabo        

authorises the belief that the ancients 
were acquainted with this metal  in its 
separate state1 and that it is the false
 silver1 1  of that ancient geographer4 
#hc ,bulletin des fouilles d'une ville  
,romaine1 p4 #aa4    #hd ,plin4 lib4    
xxxiv4 sect4 #bb4    #he ,zinc-ore1     
besides being mentioned by ,aristotle   
and ,strabo1 is  mentioned by ,galen1   
,de ,simplic4 ,medicam4 ,facultatibus1  
lib4 ix4 p4 #adb4  ,as he found no      
furnace-calamine when he resided in     
,cyprus1 he procured  from the overseer 
of the mines some raw cadmia1 which had 
been found  in the mountains and        
rivulets1 and which certainly must have 
been  calamine4    #hf ,at first it was 
called s cyprium1 but in the course of  
time only  cyprium2 from which was at   
length formed cuprum4 ,it cannot however
  be ascertained at what periods these  
appellations were common4 ,the  epithet 
cupreus occurs in manuscripts of ,pliny 
and ,palladius2 but one  cannot say     
whether later transcribers may not have 

changed cyprius  into cupreus1 with     
which they were perhaps better          
acquainted4 ,the  oldest writer who uses
 the word cuprum is ,spartian2 who says1
 in  the ,life of ,caracalla1 8cancelli 
ex re vel cupro40 ,but may not the  last
 word have been added to the text as a  
gloss8 ,pliny1 book xxxvi4  #bf1 says1  
8,addito cyprio et nitro20 which        
,isidore1 xvi4 #ae1 p4 #cic1  expresses 
by the words adjecto cupro et nitro4    
,the superiority of the  ,cyprian copper
 gave occasion to this appellation2 as  
the best iron or  steel was called      
chalybs1 from the ,chalybes 7a people of
 ,galatia7  who prepared the finest1 and
 carried on the greatest trade with it4 
,but in what did the superiority of this
 ,cyprian copper consist8 ,in its       
purity1 or in its colour1 which         
approached near to that of gold8 ,that  
island produced a great deal of ore     
which contained zinc1 and abounded  also
 with calamine4 ,pliny says1 8in ,cypro 
prima fuit ris inventio40  ,red copper  

however had been known there from the   
earliest periods1 so  that the honour of
 its invention must be allowed to that  
island without  any contradiction2 and  
,pliny must undoubtedly allude in the   
above  passage to some particular kind4 
#hg ,dioscorides1 book v4 c4 #hd1 first 
mentions some sorts of cadmia1  1  and 4
 ,these1 according to ,galen and        
,pliny1 are undoubtedly certain kinds of
 7ofenbruch7 furnace-calamine2  but     
,salmasius in his book ,de ,homonymis1  
p4 #bcj1 and ,sarracen in his           
,annotations1 p4 #aac1 are of opinion   
that ,dioscorides considered them  as   
native kinds of cadmia1 or minerals     
abundant in zinc4 ,i cannot  however    
allow myself to believe that            
,dioscorides1 who was so careful1  and  
who immediately after describes the     
artificial preparation of  cadmia       
clearly and properly1 should have thus  
erred4 ,besides1 every  kind of         
ofenbruch 7furnace-calamine7 must have  
discovered its origin  from fire to such

 a good judge of minerals as            
,dioscorides4 ,i am  convinced that he1 
as well as ,galen and ,pliny1 considered
 the above  kinds as furnace-calamine4  
,pompholyx was the name of the white    
flowers of zinc which ,dioscorides1  v4 
#he1 p4 #ceb1 compares to wool1 and     
which by chemists were formerly  called 
lana philosophica4 ,the ancients        
collected these flowers when  produced  
by the melting of zinc-ore2 but they    
obtained them also by  an apparatus     
which is fully described by ,dioscorides
 and ,galen1 and  which approaches near 
to that used for collecting arsenic in  
the poison  melting-houses1 as they are 
usually called4    #hh ,this however ,i 
will not with certainty affirm4 ,as     
calmey and  galmey have probably taken  
their rise from cadmia or calimia1 and  
as both these words signified proper    
calamine1 as well as ofenbruch1  the    
latter1 perhaps1 may at an earlier      
period have signified  furnace-calamine4
    #hi ,proofs respecting this subject 

may be found in ,salmasius ,de          
,homonymis4    #ij ,it is not certainly 
known when this ,zosimus ,panopolitanus 
lived4  ,his works1 which must contain  
abundance of information respecting the 
history of chemistry1 have never yet    
been printed4 ,the greater part  of them
 were preserved in the king's library at
 ,paris4 ,the receipt to  which ,i      
allude has been inserted by ,salmasius1 
p4 #bcg4    #ia ,we read in             
,observations sur la ,physique1 vi4 p4  
#bee1 that for many  years tutia has    
been collected and sold in the bishopric
 of ,liege4  ,lehmann endeavours to show
 that it was made by the ,jews in       
,poland4  ,novi ,comment4 ,acad4        
,petrop4 xii4 p4 #cha4 ,as the use of   
tutia which is  an impure oxide of zinc 
found in the chimneys of the furnaces in
 which  zinc-ores are roasted1 or in    
which zinciferous lead-ores are smelted 
has been almost abandoned1 because      
physicians prefer pure flowers of  zinc1
 and because those who make pinchbeck   

employ purified zinc1 it is  probable   
that this substance will soon be        
entirely neglected4    #ib ,de          
,mineralibus4 ,coloni1 #aefi1 #abmo1 p4 
#cej1 lib4 iv4 cap4 #e2 and  lib4 v4    
cap4 #g1 p4 #chh4    #ic ,the other     
edition was printed at ,stockholm and   
,hamburg1 by  ,liebezeit1 and is the    
same as that mentioned by ,h4 ,gatterer1
 in  ,anleitung den ,harz zu bereisen1  
i4 p4 #cac1 and ii4 p4 #ac4    #id      
8,white vitriol also is made at ,goslar1
 but by one citizen only1  named ,henni 
,balder4 ,it is not procured by the     
evaporation of copper  like other       
vitriol2 but when large quantities of   
ore are roasted in  the furnaces1 a red 
substance is from time to time collected
 on the  refuse of the ore1 and found in
 some places half an ell thick4 ,this   
substance1 which is saltish1 is formed  
into a lye1 and boiled in small  leaden 
pans4 ,the rest of the process ,i do not
 know1 but ,i observed that  it         
crystallizes like saltpetre1 but is     

stronger and whiter4 ,it is also  cast  
into small cakes about the thickness of 
one's hand4 ,this vitriol  is employed  
by the leather-dressers1 and may be used
 for many things  instead of alum2 but  
it cannot be used in dressing white     
skins1 because  it makes them           
yellowish40    #ie ,bruckmann1 ii4 p4   
#ddf4 ,schwartze1 in his ,pharm4        
,tabell4 #bnd edit4  p4 #ggi1 states    
that white vitriol was known towards the
 end of the  thirteenth or at the       
commencement of the fourteenth century4 
#if ,calvor1 ,historische ,nachricht1 p4
 #aii and #bjj4 ,properly it is  written
 and pronounced jckel4 ,it is very      
remarkable that in ,iceland  this word  
at present signifies icicles4    #ig    
,chemie1 von ,kessel1 iv4 #b1 p4 #hcb1  
where may be found the old  opinions on 
this subject4    #ih ,brandt1 in ,acta  
,upsaliens4 #agce4 ,hellot1 in ,mmoires 
de l',acad4  des ,sciences1 ,paris1     
#agce1 p4 #bi4 ,sulphate of zinc or     
white vitriol  is at present            

manufactured in considerable quantity   
for pharmaceutical  purposes1 and for   
the calico-printer4    #ii ,a great many
 may be found collected in ,fuchs1      
,geschichte des  ,zinks4 ,erfurt1 #aggh1
 #hvo4    #ajj ,paracelsi ,opera4       
,strasb4 #afaf1 fol4 ,i shall here      
transcribe the  principal passage4 ,of  
zinc3--,there is another metal1 zinc1   
which is in  general unknown4 ,it is a  
distinct metal of a different origin1   
though  adulterated with many other     
metals4 ,it can be melted1 for it       
consists  of three fluid principles1 but
 it is not malleable4 ,in its colour it 
is  unlike all others1 and does not grow
 in the same manner2 but with its       
ultima materia ,i am as yet             
unacquainted1 for it is almost as       
strange  in its properties as argentum  
vivum4 ,it admits of no mixture1 will   
not bear the fabricationes of other     
metals1 but keeps itself entirely  to   
itself4    #aja ,de ,re ,metallica1 lib4
 ix4 p4 #cbi4    #ajb ,in ,j4 ,hornung's

 ,cista ,medica4 ,lipsi4    #ajc ,how   
much duke ,julius1 who in other respects
 did great service to  his country1     
suffered himself to be duped by the art 
of making gold1  appears from an        
anecdote given by ,rehtmeier1 p4 #ajaf4 
,of this anecdote  ,i received from ,m4 
,ribbentrop an old account in           
manuscript1 which one  cannot read      
without astonishment4 ,there is still   
shown1 at the castle  of ,wolfenbuttle1 
an iron stool1 on which the impostor1   
,anna ,maria  ,zieglerinn1 named        
,schluter ,ilsche1 was burnt1 ,february 
#e1 #aege4    #ajd ,page #hc3--8,when   
the people at the melting-houses are    
employed  in melting1 there is formed   
under the furnace1 in the crevices of   
the  wall1 among the stones where it is 
not well plastered1 a metal which is    
called zinc or conterfeht2 and when the 
wall is scraped1 the metal  falls down  
into a trough placed to receive it4     
,this metal has a great  resemblance to 
tin1 but it is harder and less          

malleable1 and rings like  a small bell4
 ,it could be made also1 if people would
 give themselves  the trouble2 but it is
 not much valued1 and the servants and  
workmen  only collect it when they are  
promised drink-money4 ,they however     
scrape  off more of it at one time than 
at another2 for sometimes they collect  
two pounds1 but at others not above two 
ounces4 ,this metal1 by itself1  is of  
no use1 as1 like bismuth1 it is not     
malleable2 but when mixed  with tin1 it 
renders it harder and more beautiful1   
like the ,english  tin4 ,this zinc or   
bismuth is in great request among the   
alchemists40    #aje ,kieshistorie1 p4  
#ega1 and particularly p4 #gba4    #ajf 
,pott refers to ,lawson's ,dissert4 de  
,nihilo1 and quotes some  words from it2
 but ,i cannot find it2 nor am ,i       
surprised at this1 as it  was not known 
to ,dr4 ,watson4--,see ,chemical        
,essays1 iv4 p4 #cd4 ,pryce1  in        
,mineral4 ,cornub41 p4 #di1 says1 8,the 
late ,dr4 ,j4 ,lawson1 observing  that  

the flowers of lapis calaminaris were   
the same as those of  zinc1 and that its
 effects on copper were also the same   
with that  semi-metal1 never remitted   
his endeavours till he found the method 
of  separating pure zinc from that ore40
 ,the same account is given in the      
supplement to ,chambers's ,dictionary1  
#agec1 art4 calm4 and zinc2  and in     
,campbell's ,political ,survey of       
,britain1 ii4 p4 #ce4 ,the latter       
however adds1 that ,lawson died too     
early to derive any benefit from his    
discovery4    #ajg ,ricards ,handbuch   
der ,kaufleute1 i4 p4 #eg4    #ajh      
,raynal says that the company purchase  
it at the rate of  twenty-eight florins 
three-quarters per hundred weight1 and  
that this  price is moderate4 ,at       
,amsterdam1 however1 the price was      
commonly  from seventeen to eighteen    
florins banco4 ,according to a catalogue
  which ,i have in my possession1 the   
price1 on the #ith of ,may1 #aghh1  was 
seventeen florins1 and on the #bbnd of  

,january1 #agha1 it was only  sixteen4  
#aji ,linschoten1 b4 ii4 c4 #ag4 ,the   
author calls it calaem1 the name  used  
in the country4 ,it is a kind of tin4   
#aaj ,de ,nummis ,antiquis2 in ,grvii   
,thes4 ,antiq4 ,rom4 xi4 p4 #aaie4      
#aaa ,matthesius1 ,pred4 v4 p4          
#bej4--8;,conterfeil is a metal of      
little  value1 formed by additions and  
colouring substances1 so that it        
resembles gold or silver1 as an image1  
or anything counterfeited1 does  its    
archetype4 ,thus copper is coloured by  
calamine and other mixtures1  in such a 
manner that it appears to be pure gold40
 ,in the police  ordinance issued at    
,strasburg in #afbh1 young women are    
forbidden to  wear gold or silver1 or   
any conterfaite1 and everything that    
might  have the appearance of gold or   
silver4          ,,carp4      ,so       
obscure is the ichthyology of the       
ancients1 or so little care has  been   
taken to explain it1 that the question  
whether our carp were known  to         

,aristotle1 ,pliny1 and their           
contemporaries1 cannot with any great   
degree of probability be determined4    
,besides1 that subject is attended  with
 much greater difficulties than the     
natural history of quadrupeds4  ,among  
four-footed animals there is a greater  
variety in their bodily  conformation1  
which at any rate strikes the eye more1 
and can be more  easily described than  
that of fishes1 which in general are so 
like in  shape1 that an experienced     
systematic naturalist finds it sometimes
  difficult to determine the characters 
of the genera and species4 ,it is  not  
surprising therefore that the simple    
descriptions of the ancients1  or rather
 the short accounts which they give us  
of fish1 do not afford  information     
sufficient to enable us to distinguish  
with accuracy the  different kinds4     
,quadrupeds may terrify us by their     
ferocity1 or  endeavour to avoid us by  
shyness and craft2 but it is still      
possible to  observe their sexes1 their 

age1 and their habits1 and to remark    
many  things that are common to one or  
only a few species4 ,fishes1 on the     
other hand1 live in an element in which 
we cannot approach them1 and  which for 
the most part conceals them from our    
observation4 ,the chase1  since the     
earliest periods1 and in modern times   
more than formerly1  has been the       
employment of idle persons1 who bestow  
upon it greater  attention the fewer    
those objects are which can attract     
their curiosity  or employ their minds3 
but fishing has almost always been the  
laborious  occupation of poor people1   
who have no time to make observations1  
as they are obliged to follow it in     
order to find a subsistence2  and       
mankind in general seldom see fish      
except on their tables or in            
collections of natural history4 ,on this
 account those properties of  fish by   
which their species could be determined1
 were less known4 ,the  descriptions of 
four-footed animals which have been     

handed down to us  from the time of the 
,greek and ,roman writers1 give us1 at  
any rate1  some information2 but from   
those of fishes1 which are more         
uncommon1  we can scarcely derive any2  
unless one were as acute or easy of     
belief  as many collectors of           
petrefactions1 who imagine that they can
  distinguish each species of fish in   
the impressions which they see in       
stones4 ,more however might be done     
towards elucidating the ichthyology  of 
the ancients than has hitherto been     
attempted4 ,it would be necessary  only 
to make a beginning by collecting the   
species and names which  can with       
certainty be determined1 together with  
the authorities1 and  separating them   
from the rest2 and an abstract should be
 formed of what  is said in the ancients
 respecting the unknown species1 or     
whatever  may in any measure serve to   
make us acquainted with them2 but mere  
conjectures ought never to be given as  
proofs1 nor ought the opinions  of      

commentators1 or the explanations of    
dictionaries to be adopted  without     
sufficient grounds4 ,if these are to be 
believed without further  examination1  
the names cyprini and lepidoti must be  
considered as  those of carp2 and the   
proposed question would be soon         
answered3 but  that opinion has scarcely
 probability in its favour when one     
searches  after proofs4    ,i shall not 
here lay before the reader everything   
completely that the  ancients have said 
respecting the cyprini1 and which is in 
part so  corrupted by transcribers1 that
 no certain meaning can be drawn from   
it4 ,were ,i to treat of the ichthyology
 of the ancients1 it might be           
necessary2 but as that is not the case1 
,i shall only quote such parts  of it as
 have been employed by ,rondelet and    
others to prove that they  were our     
carp4 ,their principal grounds seem to  
be1 that among all the  fish of the     
ancients no others occur which can with 
any probability be  considered as carp4 

,if the cyprini therefore were not carp1
 these  must not have been named by the 
ancients2 and that undoubtedly will not 
readily be admitted4 ,it is well known  
what a high value the ancients1         
particularly the ,orientals1 set upon   
fish1 of which they had a great         
variety2 and it appears that they       
preferred them to all dishes prepared   
from four-footed animals or fowls4 ,fish
 seem to have been the choicest         
delicacies of voluptuaries1 and in that 
respect they are oftener  mentioned by  
historians than fowls4 ,physicians also1
 to whom the most  sumptuous tables have
 in all ages been of the greatest       
benefit1 speak  of fish oftener in their
 writings than of dishes made of the    
flesh of  other animals4 ,in the ancient
 cookery1 the number of dishes prepared 
from fish is indeed great in comparison 
of those dressed from fowls4  ,turdi and
 attagines are much praised2 but had    
pheasants1 snipes1  partridges1 and     
others1 been as much esteemed then as   

they are now1  these would not have been
 forgotten1 or would have occurred      
oftener4  ,fish at present form the     
principal food in ,greece1 as well as at
  ,constantinople1 and a great abundance
 and variety of them may be found  there
 in the markets2 but fowls which have   
been caught or shot are  seldom exposed 
for sale4 ,when the ,egyptian and ,greek
 monks wished  to distinguish themselves
 by abstinence and temperance1 they     
denied  themselves all kinds of fish1 as
 the richest delicacies1 in the same    
manner as pretended devotees among the  
,europeans deny themselves flesh4  ,but 
though all this may be true1 it does not
 prove that our carp must  occur in the 
writings of the ancients4 ,the ,roman   
voluptuaries1 indeed1  left very little 
untried that was likely to gratify their
 appetite2 but  it was impossible for   
them to make a trial of everything4     
,there may  have been particular reasons
 which prevented them from meeting with 
carp2 and who will venture to affirm    

that all the knowledge of the  ancients 
must be contained in those few of their 
writings which have  been preserved to  
us by accidents8    ,if one1 freed from 
these prejudices1 should now ask why the
 cyprinus  must be our carp1 the answer 
will be1 because what we read of the    
tongue and scales of the cyprini cannot 
be applied with so much  propriety to   
any species of fish as to the ,cyprinus 
carpio of  ,linnus4 ,aristotle informs  
us that the cyprini had properly no     
tongue1 but that their soft fleshy      
palate might very readily be taken  for 
one#aab4 ,athenus affirms that they had 
a tongue1 but that it  lay in the upper 
part of the mouth or palate2 and in     
confirmation of  this he refers to      
,aristotle#aac4 ,this assertion of      
,athenus however  is very dubious2 for  
these words are not to be found in the  
works of  ,aristotle which have been    
preserved1 though the same meaning might
 be  indeed forced1 in case of          
necessity1 from the passage first       

quoted4 ,it  is possible that ,athenus1 
as ,casaubon#aad has already            
conjectured1  may here1 as well as in   
other parts1 allude to some book of     
,aristotle  not now extant4 ,besides1 he
 calls the fish of which he speaks1 not 
cyprinus1 but cyprianus2 and a question 
therefore arises1 whether  he may not   
have meant some other kind4 ,this much  
at any rate appears  certain from the   
passage of ,aristotle1 that the cyprinus
 had a thick  fleshy palate2 and that   
indeed is the case with our carp1 so    
that the  head1 on account of the       
delicacy and agreeable taste of the     
palate1 is  reckoned the most relishing 
part4 ,by that circumstance however     
nothing  is proved2 as it is not        
peculiar to carp alone1 but common to   
every  species of the same family1 such 
as the bream1 tench1 c4 ,fish of this   
kind1 says ,bloch1 have properly no     
tongue2 that which appears to be  one is
 merely a cartilaginous substance which 
projects through those  band-like parts 

that enclose it on each side4 ,this     
proof would have  more weight1 did we   
find it related1 that in the time of    
,aristotle1  the tongue was considered  
as an exquisite morsel3 but that is not 
mentioned2 and ,h4 ,krunitz is mistaken1
 when he says that ,heliogabalus1  to   
satisfy his luxurious appetite1 was     
induced to try a fricassee of  the      
tongues of carp3 it consisted only of   
the tongues of peacocks and             
nightingales#aae4 ,had the ancients     
really used carp on their tables1  we   
must have ascribed to them the discovery
 of these delicious fish4    ,the other 
proof which is brought from the scales  
consists in what is  said by ,dorion1 in
 ,athenus#aaf1 that the cyprianus was   
called also  by some lepidotus1 or      
scaly4 ,as nearly all fish have scales1 
the  scales of this species must have   
been extremely large1 as they got that  
name by way of eminence2 and it must be 
indeed allowed1 that the above  epithet 
would suit our carp exceedingly well1 as

 their scales are very  large4 ,but this
 circumstance alone proves nothing1 as  
the ,mullus  and ,mugil have still      
larger scales2 and to the first genus   
belonged  one of the fish most esteemed 
by the ancients#aag4 ,strabo mentions   
the lepidotus among the sacred fish of  
the ,nile2 but whether it be  the same  
as that of which ,dorion speaks1 cannot 
be determined4 ,it is  certain that the 
,nile contains carp still2 for ,norden  
saw them caught  at the waterfall near  
,essuane1 which is the ancient ,syene4  
,did we know  that the modern ,greeks at
 present call carp cyprini1 this would  
prove  more2 for it is an undoubted fact
 that the ancient names have for the    
most part been retained in ,greece4 ,we 
are assured by ,massarius#aah1  that the
 ,greeks still use the name cyprinus2   
but ,gyllius says that  it is employed  
only by a few3 and this is confirmed by 
,bellon1 who  mentions all the names of 
carp which he heard in ,greece1 and     
which  are entirely different from the  

ancient#aai2 but he adds1 that carp  in 
tolia are still called cyprini4 ,both   
the before-mentioned  circumstances     
respecting the cyprini agree extremely  
well with our  carp2 but as they will   
suit other kinds equally well1 they     
afford no  complete proof1 but only a   
probability which amounts to this1 that 
among the large-scaled fish1 carp in    
particular have a fleshy palate2  and it
 is readily admitted that the ancients  
were acquainted with all  kinds1 and    
chose names for them with more          
foundation than is done at  present4    
,in opposition to this probability it   
may be said that ,oppian and ,pliny     
reckon the cyprini among the sea-fish1  
to which kind our carp do not  belong4  
,this reply however1 which some have    
indeed made1 is not of  great weight4   
,in the first place1 both these writers 
seem to have been  in an error2 for what
 ,pliny says of the cyprini is evidently
 taken  from ,aristotle1 and the latter 
does not tell us that these fish live   

in the sea1 but rather the contrary4    
,the ,roman author1 as ,dalechamp       
remarks1 added the words in mari1 if    
they were not added by some             
transcriber4 ,oppian as a poet does not 
always adhere strictly to truth2  and he
 makes more of the freshwater fish of   
,aristotle to be inhabitants  of the    
sea4 ,in the second place1 ,i consider  
the distinction made  between sea-fish1 
freshwater fish and those kept in ponds1
 to be not  always very certain or well 
founded4 ,who knows whether the greater 
part  of the last may not have been     
originally sea-fish8 ,this is the more  
probable in regard to carp1 as          
,professor ,foster says that carp are   
sometimes caught in the harbour at      
,dantzic#abj4    ,in order to answer the
 question here proposed1 another point  
may be  considered4 ,as all nations at  
present give these fish the same name1  
it is probable that it was brought with 
them from that country where  they were 
first found1 and from which they were   

procured4 ,cassiodorus1  who lived in   
the sixth century1 is the oldest author 
as yet known in  whom that name has been
 observed#aba4 ,in a passage where he   
speaks  of the most delicate and costly 
fish1 which at that time were sent  to  
the tables of princes1 he says1 8,among 
these is the carpa1  which is produced  
in the ,danube40 ,in the earliest ,latin
 translation  of ,aristotle1 the word   
cyprinus1 as ,camus says1 is expressed  
by  carpra4 ,in the thirteenth century  
this fish was called by ,vincentius  de 
,beauvais#abb carpera1 and by ,csarius  
carpo2 and it is highly  probable that  
both these names allude to our carp4 ,by
 the above passage  of ,cassiodorus1 the
 opinion that these fish were the       
cyprini of the  ancients obtains a new1 
but at the same time a very feeble      
proof2  for the cyprinus was found also 
in the ,danube1 as we learn from        
lian#abc1 who among the fish of the     
,ister1 mentions black cyprini2  and    
these1 according to the conjecture of   

,professor ,schneider1 were  the black  
fish of the ,danube which ,pliny        
considers as unhealthful or  poisonous1 
and like which there were some in       
,armenia4 ,our carp indeed  are not     
poisonous1 but ,pliny alludes to a      
particular variety1 and what  he says   
was only report1 to which something must
 have given rise1  as also to the idea  
of carp with a death's head1 and the    
head of a  pug-dog1 as some have been   
represented by writers of the sixteenth 
century4 ,the carpo of ,csarius appears 
to have been our carp1 because  its     
scales had a very great resemblance to  
those of the latter2 for we  are told in
 the work already quoted1 that the      
devil1 once indulging  in a frolic1     
appeared in a coat of mail1 and had     
scales like the fish  carpo4 ,the       
carpera of ,vincent de ,beauvais is     
still less doubtful1  as the same craft 
in avoiding rakes and nets is ascribed  
to that fish  as is known to be employed
 by our carp4 ,sometimes they thrust    

their  heads into the mud and suffer the
 net to pass over them2 and sometimes   
they join the head and tail together1   
and separating them suddenly1  throw    
themselves towards the surface of the   
water1 and springing often  four or five
 feet above the net1 make their escape4 
,but whence did this name arise8 ,the   
origin assigned by ,vincentius1  or the 
anonymous author of the lost books ,de  
,natura ,rerum1 like  another mentioned 
in ridicule by ,gesner1 is too silly to 
be repeated4  ,more learned at any rate 
is the derivation of ,menage1 who traces
 it  from cyprinus1 which was afterwards
 transformed into cuprinus1  cuprius1   
cuprus1 cupra1 curpa1 and lastly into   
carpa4 ,for my  part1 ,i am more        
inclined to derive it from a dialect    
which was spoken  on the banks of the   
,danube1 and to believe that it was     
brought with the  fish from the southern
 part of ,europe2 but ,i am too little  
acquainted  with that dialect to be able
 to render my conjecture very probable2 

and the etymologists ,i consulted1 such 
as ,wachter1 ,ihre1 ,johnson1 c41       
afforded me no assistance4 ,fulda gave  
me some hopes1 as he allows the  word to
 be of ,german extraction2 but ,i must  
confess that his derivation  is too     
far-fetched1 and like the chemistry of  
the adepts1 to me not  perfectly        
intelligible4    ,it may perhaps not be 
superfluous here to observe that one    
must not  confound carpa and carpo1 or  
our carp1 with carpio4 ,the latter      
belongs to the genus of the salmon and  
trout2 and in the ,linnan system  is    
called ,salmo carpio4 ,it is found      
chiefly in the ,lago di ,garda1 the     
ancient ,lacus ,benacus1 on the confines
 of ,tyrol4 ,the oldest account of  this
 fish is to be found in works of the    
sixteenth century1 such as  the poems of
 ,pierius ,valerianus1 and in ,jovius de
 ,piscibus4 ,according  to ,linnus1 it  
is found in the rivers of ,england2 but 
that is false4  ,this celebrated        
naturalist suffered himself to be misled

 by ,artedi1  who gives the char or     
chare1 mentioned by ,camden in his      
description of  ,lancashire1 as the     
,salmo carpio4 ,pennant however1 by whom
 it is not  mentioned among the ,english
 fish1 says expressly that the char is  
not  the carpio of the ,lago di ,garda1 
but rather a variety of the ,salmo      
alpinus#abd4    ,that our carp were     
first found in the southern parts of    
,europe1 and  conveyed thence to other  
countries1 is undoubtedly certain4 ,even
 at  present they do not thrive in the  
northern regions1 and the further  north
 they are carried the smaller they      
become#abe4 ,some accounts of  their    
transportation are still to be found4   
,if it be true that the  ,latin poem on 
the expedition of ,attila is as old as  
the fifth or sixth  century1 and if the 
fish which ,walther gave to the boatman 
who ferried  him over the ,rhine1 and   
which the latter carried to the kitchen 
of  ,gunther king of the ,franks1 were  
carp1 this circumstance is a proof  that

 these fish had not been before known in
 that part of ,france  which bordered on
 the ,rhine#abf4 ,the examination of    
this conjecture  ,i shall however leave 
to others4 ,d',aussy quotes a book never
 printed1  of the thirteenth century1   
entitled ,proverbes1 and in which is    
given  an account of the best articles  
produced at that time by the different  
parts of the kingdom1 and assures us    
that a great many kinds of fish  were   
mentioned in it1 but no carp1 though at 
present they are common  all over       
,france4    ,it appears also that there 
were no carp in ,england in the eleventh
  century1 at least they do not occur in
 the ,anglo-,saxon ,dictionary  of      
lfric1 who in #ajea died archbishop of  
,york#abg4 ,we are assured  likewise    
that they were first brought into the   
kingdom in the fifth  year of the reign 
of ,henry ,,viii41 or in #aead1 by      
,leonard ,mascal of  ,plumsted in       
,sussex#abh4 ,what we read in the       
,linnan ,system1 that these  fish were  

first brought to ,england about the year
 #afjj1 is certainly  erroneous4 ,where 
that celebrated naturalist1 under whom  
,i had the  pleasure of studying1       
acquired this information1 ,i do not    
know4    ,denmark is indebted for these 
fish to that celebrated statesman ,peter
  ,oxe1 who introduced them into the    
kingdom as well as cray-fish1 and  other
 objects for the table4 ,he died in the 
year #aege4    ,we are told that these  
fish were brought from ,italy to        
,prussia1 where  they are at present    
very abundant1 by a nobleman whose name 
is not  mentioned4 ,this service however
 may be ascribed with more probability  
to the upper burg-grave1 ,caspar von    
,nostiz1 who died in #aehh1 and who  in 
the middle of the sixteenth century     
first sent carp to ,prussia from  his   
estate in ,silesia1 and caused them to  
be put into the large pond at           
,arensberg not far from ,creuzburg4 ,as 
a memorial of this circumstance1  the   
figure of a carp1 cut in stone1 was     

shown formerly over a door at  the      
castle of ,arensberg4 ,this colony must 
have been very numerous in  the year    
#aece1 for at that period carp were sent
 from ,knigsberg to  ,wilda1 where the  
archduke ,albert then resided4 ,at      
present 7#agih7 a  great many carp are  
transported from ,dantzic and ,knigsberg
 to ,russia1  ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,it
 appears to me probable that these fish 
after  that period became everywhere    
known and esteemed1 as eating fish in   
,lent and on fast-days was among        
,christians considered to be a religious
  duty1 and that on this account they   
endeavoured to have ponds stocked  with 
them in every country1 because no       
species can be so easily bred in  these 
reservoirs4    ,i shall observe in the  
last place1 that the ,spiegel-carpen1   
mirror-carp1 distinguished by yellow    
scales1 which are much larger1  though  
fewer in number1 and which do not cover 
the whole body1 are  not mentioned but  
by modern writers4 ,bloch says that they

 were first  described by ,johnston     
under the name of royal carp4 ,the      
passage where  he does so ,i cannot     
find2 but in plate xxix4 there is a bad 
engraving1  with the title              
,spiegel-karpen1 which however have     
scales all over  their bodies1 and      
cannot be the kind alluded to4 ,on the  
other hand1 the  ,spiegel-karpen are    
mentioned by ,gesner1 who1 as it        
appears1 never  saw them4 ,in my        
opinion1 ,balbinus1 who wrote in the    
middle of the  sixteenth century1 was   
the first person who gave a true and    
complete  description of them2 and      
according to his account1 they seem to  
have  come originally from ,bohemia4    
,the first correct figure of them is to 
be  found in ,marsigli4      ,,footnotes
    #aab ,histor4 ,animal4 lib4 iv4 cap4
 #h4    #aac ,lib4 vii4 p4 #cji4    #aad
 ,animadvers4 vii4 #ag1 p4 #edj4    #aae
 ,lampridii ,vita ,heliogab4 c4 #bj4    
#aaf ,lib4 vii4 p4 #cji4    #aag ,this  
fish was a first-rate article of luxury 

among the ,romans1  and was purchased at
 a dear rate4 ,juvenal says1 8,mullum   
sex millibus  emit1 quantem sane paribus
 sestertia libris40 ,see ,plin4 lib4 ix4
 c4  #ag4 ,the ,italians have a proverb1
 8,la triglia non mangia chi la piglia10
  which implies1 that he who catches a  
mullet is a fool if he eats it and  does
 not sell it4 ,when this fish is dying1 
it changes its colours in a  very       
singular manner till it is entirely     
lifeless4 ,this spectacle was  so       
gratifying to the ,romans1 that they    
used to show the fish dying in a  glass 
vessel to their guests before dinner4   
#aah ,fr4 ,massarii in ix4 ,plinii4     
libr4 ,castigat4 ,bas4 #aecg1 #dto4     
#aai ,a great service would be rendered 
to the natural history of the  ancients1
 if some able systematic naturalist     
would collect all the  ,greek names used
 at present4 ,tournefort and others made
 a beginning4    #abj ,philosophical    
,transact4 vol4 lxi4 #agga1 part i4     
#caj4    #aba ,variorum1 p4 #chj4       

#abb ,speculum ,naturale4    #abc ,de   
,nat4 ,anim4 xiv4--,plin4 xxxi4 sect4   
#ai4--;,antig4 ,car4 c4 #aha4    #abd   
,british ,zoology1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bei4   
#abe ,pontoppidan1 ,natrliche ,historie 
von ,norwegen1 ii4 p4 #bcf4    #abf ,de 
,prima ,expedit4 ,attil1 ed4 ,fischer4  
,lips4 #aghj1 #dto4    #abg ,printed at 
the end of ,somneri ,dict4 ,saxonicum4  
#abh ,see ,anderson's ,hist4 of         
,commerce1 and ,pennant's ,zoology1 p4  
#cjj4 ,both these authors refer to      
,fuller's ,british ,worthies4 ,the carp 
existed in ,england before the year     
#adhf3 for in ,dame ,juliana ,berners'  
work on ,angling1 which was published at
 ,st4 ,albans 7hence called the  ,book  
of ,st4 ,albans7 in #adhf1 we find the  
following passage3 speaking  of the     
carp1 she says 8,that it is a deyntous  
fysshe1 but there ben but  few in       
,englonde4 ,and therefore ,i wryte the  
lesse of hym4 ,he is an euyll  fysshe to
 take4 ,for he is so stronge enarmyd in 
the mouthe1 that there  maye noo weke   

harnays hold him40                      
,,camp-,,mills4      ,under this        
appellation are understood portable or  
moveable mills1  which can be used1     
particularly in the time of war1 when   
there are  neither wind- nor water-mills
 in the neighbourhood1 and which on that
  account formerly accompanied armies in
 the same manner as camp-ovens  and     
camp-forges4 ,some of these mills have  
stones for grinding the corn1  and      
others are constructed with a notched   
roller like those of our  coffee-mills4 
,some of them also are so contrived that
 the machinery is  put in motion by the 
revolution of the wheels of the carriage
 on which  they are placed2 and others1 
and perhaps the greater part of those   
used1 are driven by horses or men1 after
 the wheels of the carriage are  sunk in
 the ground1 or fastened in some other  
manner4    ,to the latter kind belongs  
that mill of which ,zonca#abi has given 
a  coarse engraving1 but without any    
description4 ,he says it was invented   

by ,pompeo ,targone1 engineer to the    
well-known marquis ,ambrose ,spinola2   
and he seems to place the time of the   
invention about the end of the          
sixteenth century4 ,this mill is the    
same as that described by ,beyer in  his
 ,theatrum ,machinarum ,molarium1 and   
represented in the twenty-seventh  plate
 of that work#acj4 ,beyer remarks that  
it was employed by ,spinola4    ,the    
inventor1 as his name shows1 was an     
,italian1 who made himself  known1 in   
particular1 at the celebrated siege of  
,rochelle1 under ,louis  ,,xiii41 at    
which he was chosen to assist1 because  
in the year #afjc1 when  with ,spinola1 
who was consulted respecting the        
operations at ,rochelle1  he had helped 
by means of a mole to shut the harbour  
of ,ostend during  the tedious siege of 
that place4 ,he was likewise in the     
,french service1  as intendant des      
machines du roi2 but his numerous and   
expensive  undertakings did not succeed 
according to his expectations#aca4 ,he  

invented also a particular kind of      
gun-carriages1 and a variety of  warlike
 machines#acb4    ,another old figure of
 such a mill was shown to me by         
,professor ,meister1  in ,recueil de    
,plusieurs ,machines ,militaires1       
printed in #afbj4 ,this  machine was    
driven by the wheels of the carriage2   
but whether it was  ever used the author
 does not inform us4    ,lancellotti#acc
 ascribes this invention to the         
,germans1 about the year  #afcc4        
,carriages for transporting camp-forges 
and mill-machinery are mentioned  by    
,leonard ,fronsperger#acd1 but he does  
not say whether complete mills  were    
affixed to them4      ,,footnotes       
#abi ,novo ,teatro di ,machine ed       
,edificii1 di ,vittorio ,zonca4 ,padoua1
  #afba1 and reprinted in #afef1 fol4   
,the greater part of the machines       
delineated in this scarce book are      
engines for raising heavy bodies2  but  
many of them are used in various trades 
and manufactures1 and may  serve in some

 measure to illustrate the history of   
them4    #acj ,j4 ,m4 ,beyer's          
,schauplatz der ,mhlen-,bau-kunst4      
,leipzig1 #agce1  fol4 ,reprinted at    
,dresden1 #agfg4    #aca ,all those     
authors who have written expressly on   
the fate of the  ,huguenots1 the        
,history of ,richelieu1 ,louis ,,xiii41 
and the siege of  ,rochelle1 make       
mention of ,targone4    #acb ,histoire  
de la ,milice ,franoise1 par ,daniel4   
,amst4 #agbd1 i4 p4  #ccb4    #acc      
,l',hoggidi1 overo gl',ingegni non      
inferiori a' passati4 ,ven4 #afcf1      
#hvo4    #acd ,kriegsbuch1 ,frankf4     
#aeif1 fol4 p4 #i4                      
,,mirrors#ace4      ,it is highly       
probable that a limpid brook was the    
first mirror#acf1  but we have reason to
 think that artificial mirrors were made
 as  mankind began to exercise their art
 and ingenuity on metals and  stones4   
,every solid body1 capable of receiving 
a fine polish1 would  be sufficient for 
this purpose2 and indeed the oldest     

mirrors  mentioned in history were of   
metal4 ,those which occur in ,job#acg   
are praised on account of their hardness
 and solidity2 and ,moses  relates#ach1 
that the brazen laver1 or washing-basin1
 was made  from the mirrors of the women
 who had assembled at the door of the   
tabernacle to present them1 and which he
 caused them to deliver  up4 ,as the    
women appeared in full dress at divine  
worship1 it was  necessary for them to  
have looking-glasses after the ,egyptian
 manner4  ,with these the               
washing-basins1 according to the        
conjecture of most  interpretators1 were
 only ornamented1 covered1 or perhaps   
hung round2  and ,michaelis#aci himself 
was once of this opinion4 ,but why      
should  we not rather believe that the  
mirrors were melted and formed into     
washing-basins8 ,as soon as mankind     
began to endeavour to make good  mirrors
 of metal1 they must have remarked that 
every kind of metal was  not equally    
proper for that use1 and that the best  

could be obtained  only from a mixture  
of different metals4 ,in the mirrors    
however which  were collected by ,moses1
 the artists had a sufficient stock of  
speculum  metal1 and were not under the 
necessity of making it themselves2 and  
for this reason they could much more    
easily give to the whole basin  a       
polished surface1 in which the priests1 
when they washed1 might  survey         
themselves at full length4 ,at any rate 
such a basin would not  be the only one 
employed instead of a mirror4           
,artemidorus#adj says  that he who      
dreams of viewing himself in a basin1   
will have a son  born to him by his     
maid4 ,dreams indeed are generally as   
groundless as  this interpretation2 but 
one can hardly conjecture that          
,artemidorus  would have thought of such
 a dream1 had it not been very common   
for  people to contemplate themselves in
 a basin4 ,there were formerly a  kind  
of fortune-tellers1 who pretended to    
show in polished basins to  the simple  

and ignorant1 what they wished to       
know#ada4 ,the ancients  also had       
drinking-vessels1 the inside of which   
was cut into mirrors1  so disposed that 
the image of the person who drank from  
them was seen  multiplied#adb4 ,vopiscus
 mentions1 among the valuable presents  
of  ,valerian to the emperor ,probus1   
when a tribune1 a silver cup of great   
weight1 which was covered on the inside 
with mirrors of this sort#adc4          
,menard and others conjecture that      
mirrors in the time of ,homer were  not 
much used1 because he mentions them on  
no occasion1 not even where  he         
describes in so circumstantial a manner 
the toilet of ,juno#add4 ,in  answer to 
this1 however1 ,i have two things to    
observe4 ,in the first  place1 it is not
 to be expected that ,homer should have 
mentioned every  article with which he  
was acquainted2 and secondly1 we are    
assured  by ,callimachus1 where he      
evidently has imitated the passage of   
,homer  before-quoted#ade1 that neither 

,juno nor ,pallas employed a mirror when
  they dressed4 ,mythology therefore did
 not allow the poet to introduce  a     
mirror upon the toilet of that deity4   
,polydore ,vergilius1 ,boccace1         
,menard1 and others have all fallen into
 the error of making sculapius  the     
inventor of mirrors1 though ,cicero#adf 
seems to say the same  thing2 but the   
best commentators have long since       
observed very justly1  that the ,roman  
philosopher alludes not to a mirror but 
to a probe1 the  invention of which we  
may allow to the father of medicine1 who
 was at  first only a surgeon4    ,when 
one reflects upon the use made of metal 
mirrors1 particularly  at ,rome1 to add 
to magnificence and for other purposes1 
and how  many artists1 during many      
successive centuries1 were employed in  
constructing them1 and vied to excel    
each other in their art1 one  cannot    
help conjecturing that this branch of   
business must at those  periods have    
been carried to a high degree of        

perfection4 ,it is  therefore to be     
regretted that they have not been       
particularly  described by any writer1  
and that on this account the art was    
entirely lost after the invention of    
glass mirrors1 which are much  more     
convenient4 ,no one at that time        
entertained the least suspicion  that   
circumstances would afterwards occur    
which would render these  metal mirrors 
again necessary1 as has been the case in
 our days by  the invention of the      
telescope4 ,our artists then were       
obliged to make  new experiments in     
order to discover the best mixture for  
mirrors of  metal2 and this should be a 
warning to mankind1 never to suffer arts
  which have been once invented and     
useful to become again unknown4 ,a      
circumstantial description of them      
should at any rate be preserved for  the
 use of posterity1 in libraries1 the    
archives of human knowledge4    ,when we
 compare metals in regard to their      
fitness for mirrors1 we shall  soon     

perceive that the hardest of a white    
colour possess in the highest  degree   
the necessary lustre4 ,for this reason  
platina is preferable  to all others1 as
 is proved from the experiments made by 
the ,count  von ,sickengen4 ,steel      
approaches nearest to this new metal1   
and silver  follows steel2 but gold1    
copper1 tin and lead1 are much less     
endowed  with the requisite property4 ,i
 have however observed among the        
ancients  no traces of steel mirrors2   
and it is probable they did not make any
  of that metal1 as it is so liable to  
become tarnished1 or to contract  rust4 
,an ancient steel-mirror is indeed said 
to have been once found1  but as some   
marks of silvering were perceived on it1
 a question arises  whether the silvered
 side was not properly the face of the  
mirror#adg4  ,besides1 every person     
knows that a steel mirror would not     
retain its  lustre many centuries amidst
 ruins and rubbish4    ,the greater part
 of the ancient mirrors were made of    

silver1 not on  account of costliness   
and magnificence1 as many think1 but    
because  silver1 as has been said1 was  
the fittest and the most durable of  all
 the then known unmixed metals for that 
use4 ,in the ,roman code of  laws1 when 
silver plate is mentioned1 under the    
heads of heirship  and succession by    
propinquity1 silver mirrors are rarely  
omitted2  and ,pliny#adh1 ,seneca#adi1  
and other writers1 who inveigh against  
luxury1 tell us1 ridiculing the         
extravagance of the age1 that every     
young woman in their time must have a   
silver mirror4 ,these polished  silver  
plates may however have been very       
slight1 for all the ancient  mirrors1   
preserved in collections1 which ,i have 
ever seen1 are only  covered with a thin
 coat of that expensive metal2 and in   
the like  manner our artists have at    
length learned a method of making the   
cases  of gold and silver watches so    
thin and light1 that every footman and  
soldier can wear one4 ,at first the     

finest silver only was employed for     
these mirrors1 because it was imagined  
that they could not be made of  that    
which was standard2 but afterwards metal
 was used of an inferior  quality4      
,pliny tells us so expressly1 and ,i    
form the same conclusion  from a passage
 of ,plautus#aej4 ,philematium having   
taken up a mirror1  the prudent ,scapha 
gives her a towel1 and desires her to   
wipe her  fingers1 lest her lover should
 suspect by the smell that she had been 
receiving money4 ,fine silver however   
communicates as little smell to  the    
fingers as gold2 but it is to be        
remembered that the ancients  understood
 much better than the moderns how to    
discover the fineness  of the noble     
metals by the smell1 as many modes of   
proof which we use  to find out the     
alloy1 were to them unknown4            
,money-changers therefore  employed     
their smell when they were desirous of  
trying the purity of  coin#aea4 ,the    
witty thought of ,vespasian1 who1 when  

reproached on  account of his tax upon  
urine1 desired those who did so to smell
 the  money it produced1 and to tell him
 whether it had any smell of the        
article which was the object of it1     
alludes to this circumstance4 ,in  the  
like manner many savage nations at      
present can by their smell  determine   
the purity of gold#aeb4    ,we are      
informed by ,pliny1 that ,praxiteles1 in
 the time of ,pompey the  ,great1 made  
the first silver mirror1 and that       
mirrors of that metal  were preferred to
 all others4 ,silver mirrors however    
were known  long before that period1 as 
is proved by the passage of ,plautus    
above-quoted4 ,to reconcile this        
contradiction1 ,meursius remarks that   
,pliny speaks only of his countrymen1   
and not of the ,greeks1 who had  such   
articles much earlier1 and the scene in 
,plautus is at ,athens4  ,this therefore
 seems to justify the account of ,pliny1
 but of what he  says afterwards ,i can 
find no explanation4 ,hardouin is of    

opinion1  that mirrors1 according to the
 newest invention1 at that period1  were
 covered behind with a plate of gold1 as
 our mirrors are with an  amalgam4 ,but 
as the ancient plates of silver were not
 transparent1 how  could the gold at the
 back part of them produce any effect in
 regard to  the image8 ,may not the     
meaning be1 that a thin plate of gold   
was placed  at some distance before the 
mirror in order to throw more light upon
  its surface8 ,but whatever may have   
been the case1 ,pliny himself seems  not
 to have had much confidence in the     
invention4    ,mirrors of copper1 brass 
and gold1 ,i have found mentioned only  
by the  poets1 who perhaps employed the 
names of these metals because they  best
 suited their measure1 or because they  
wished to use uncommon  expressions1 and
 thought a golden mirror the noblest4   
,by the brass ones  perhaps are to be   
understood only such as were made of    
mixed copper4  ,did golden mirrors occur
 oftener1 ,i should be inclined to refer

 the  epithet rather to the frame or    
ornaments than to the mirror itself2 for
  at present we say a gold watch1 though
 the cases only may be of that  metal4  
,mirrors seem for a long time to have   
been made of a mixture of copper  and   
tin1 as is expressly said by ,pliny#aec1
 who adds1 that the best  were          
constructed at ,brundisium4 ,this       
mixture1 which was known to  ,aristotle1
 produces a white metal1 which1 on      
account of its colour1 may  have been   
extremely proper for the purpose1 and   
even at present the  same mixture1      
according to the careful experiments    
made by ,mr4 ,mudge1  an                
,englishman#aed1 produces the best metal
 for specula4 ,it appears  that the     
ancients had not determined the         
proportion very accurately2  for ,pliny 
assures us twice that in his time       
mirrors of silver were  preferred4 ,it  
is indeed not easy to ascertain the     
quantity of each  metal that ought to be
 taken1 and the most advantageous degree

 of heat2  upon which a great deal      
depends4 ,one of the principal          
difficulties is  to cast the metal      
without blisters or air-holes1 and      
without causing  any part of the tin to 
oxidize1 which occasions knots and      
cracks1 and  prevents it from receiving 
a fine polish4 ,a passage of            
,lucian#aee1  which no one as yet has   
been able to clear up1 alludes          
certainly1 in my  opinion1 to these     
faults4 ,a mixture of copper and tin is 
so brittle1  that it is very liable to  
crack2 and a mirror formed of it1 if not
  preserved with great care1 soon       
becomes so dim1 that it cannot be used  
till it has been previously cleaned and 
polished4 ,for this reason a  sponge    
with pounded pumice-stone was generally 
suspended1 from the  ancient mirrors1   
and they were kept likewise in a case or
 box1 as may  be seen by the greater    
part of those still extant4 ,mirrors of 
silver  were less subject to this       
inconvenience1 and ,i am inclined to    

think  that the latter on this account  
made the former be disused1 as we are   
informed by ,pliny4    ,as ancient      
mirrors of metal are still to be found  
in collections of  antiquities1 it might
 be of some importance to the arts if   
chemical  experiments were made on their
 composition4 ,those who have hitherto  
given us any account of them have       
contented themselves with describing    
their external figure and shape4 ,count 
,caylus#aef is the only person1  as far 
as ,i know1 who caused any chemical     
experiments to be undertaken  on this   
subject4 ,they were made on a mirror    
found near ,naples1 by ,m4  ,roux1 who  
asserts that the composition was a      
mixture of copper and  regulus of       
antimony1 with a little lead4 ,antimony 
however was not known  to the ancients4 
,if that metal was really a component   
part1 the mirror  must have been the    
work of more modern times1 or it must be
 allowed  that the artist had metal     
combined with antimony without knowing  

it2  but the latter is not probable4    
,the experiments made by ,roux do not   
seem to me to have proved in a          
satisfactory manner the presence of     
regulus of antimony2 moreover1 no       
certain information can be derived  from
 them1 for the antiquity of the mirror  
was not ascertained2 nor was  it known  
whether it ought to be reckoned amongst 
the best or the worst  of the period    
when it was made4    ,those mirrors1    
which were so large that one could see  
one's self  in them at full length1     
must1 in all probability1 have consisted
  of polished plates of silver2 for to  
cast plates of such a size of  copper   
and tin would have required more art    
than we can allow to those  periods2 and
 ,i do not know whether our artists even
 now would succeed  in them#aeg4    ,we 
read in various authors1 that1 besides  
metals1 the ancients formed  stones into
 mirrors1 which were likewise in use4   
,it is undoubtedly  certain that many   
stones1 particularly of the vitreous    

kind1 which are  opake and of a dark    
colour1 would answer exceedingly well   
for that  purpose2 but let the choice   
have been ever so good1 they would not1 
in  this respect1 have been nearly equal
 to metals4 ,these of all mineral       
bodies have the most perfect opacity2   
and for that reason the greatest        
lustre3 both these properties are       
produced by their solidity2 and hence   
they reflect more perfectly1 and with   
more regularity1 the rays of  light that
 proceed from other bodies4 ,our glass  
mirrors1 indeed1 are  properly metallic4
 ,stones1 on the other hand1 have at any
 rate some1  though often hardly        
perceptible1 transparency2 so that many 
of the rays  of light are absorbed1 or  
at least not reflected4 ,mention of     
stone  mirrors occurs also so seldom in 
the ancients1 that we may conclude  they
 were made rather for ornament than real
 utility4 ,in general1 we  find accounts
 only of polished plates or panels of   
stone1 fixed in the  walls of wainscoted

 apartments1 which were celebrated on   
account of  their property of           
reflection4    ,pliny#aeh praises in    
this respect the obsidian stone1 or1 as 
it is  now called1 the ,icelandic agate4
 ,everything that he says of it will be 
perfectly intelligible to those who are 
acquainted with this species of  stone  
or vitrified lava4 ,the image reflected 
from a box made of it1  which ,i have in
 my possession1 is like a shadow or     
silhouette2 but with  this difference1  
that one sees not only the contour1 but 
also the whole  figure distinctly1      
though the colours are darkened4 ,to    
form it into  images and utensils1 which
 ,pliny speaks of1 must have been       
exceedingly  difficult1 on account of   
its brittleness4 ,i saw at ,copenhagen1 
among  other things made of it1 a       
drinking-cup and cover1 on which the    
artist  had been employed four years4   
,domitian1 when he suspected that plots 
were formed against him1 caused  a      
gallery1 in which he used to walk1 to be

 lined with phengites1  which by its    
reflection showed everything that was   
done behind his  back#aei4 ,under that  
appellation we are undoubtedly to       
understand  a calcareous or gypseous    
spar1 or selenite1 which is indeed      
capable  of reflecting an image2 but we 
cannot therefore pretend to say that    
the ancients formed mirrors of it2 nor  
do ,i explain what ,pliny says1  where  
he speaks of the phengites1 as if whole 
buildings had been  once constructed of 
it#afj4 ,that kind of stone1 for various
 reasons1  and particularly on account  
of its brittleness1 is altogether unfit 
for such a purpose4 ,at those periods1  
the windows of houses were open1  and   
not filled up with any transparent      
substance1 but only covered1  sometimes 
by lattices or curtains4 ,it is         
probable1 therefore1 that  those        
openings of the walls of the building   
mentioned by ,pliny1 where  the windows 
used to be1 were filled up with         
phengites1 which1 by  admitting a faint 

light1 prevented the place from being   
dark even when  the doors were shut2 so 
that ,pliny might say1 8,it appeared as 
if the  light did not fall into the     
building1 but as if it were inclosed in 
it40    ,i might be accused of omission 
did ,i not here mention also a passage  
of ,pliny#afa1 where he seems to speak  
of a mirror made of an  emerald1 which  
,nero used to assist him to see the     
combats of the  gladiators4 ,cary       
asserts that ,nero was short-sighted1   
and that his  emerald was formed like a 
concave lens4 ,the former is expressly  
said by ,pliny#afb1 but the latter1     
though by ,abat considered not          
improbable#afc1 ,i can scarcely allow   
myself to believe1 because such  an     
interpretation of ,pliny's words is too 
forced1 and because they  can be        
explained much better in another manner4
 ,as no mention of such  an excellent   
help to short-sighted people is to be   
found in any other  ancient author1 we  
must allow1 if ,cary's opinion be       

adopted1 that  this property of the     
concave emerald was casually remarked1  
and that  no experiments were made to   
cut any other natural or artificial     
glass  in the same form for the like    
use1 because people imagined that this  
property was peculiar to the emerald    
alone1 which was then commonly  supposed
 to be endowed with the power of greatly
 strengthening the  eye-sight4 ,much    
more probable to me is the explanation  
of an ,italian1  which ,abat also does  
not entirely reject1 that the emerald   
had a smooth  polished surface1 and     
served ,nero as a mirror#afd2 and the   
passage of  ,pliny alluded to seems to  
have been thus understood by            
,isidore#afe  and ,marbodus4 ,it may    
here be objected1 that real emeralds are
 too  small to admit of being used as   
mirrors2 but the ancients speak of some 
sufficiently large for that purpose1 and
 also of artificial ones#aff2  so that  
we may with certainty conclude1 that    
they classed among the  emeralds        

fluor-spar green vitrified lava1 or the 
green ,icelandic  agate as it is called1
 green jasper1 and also green glass4    
,the piece  of green glass in the       
monastery of ,reichenau1 which is seven 
inches  in length1 three inches in      
thickness1 and weighs twenty-eight      
pounds  three-quarters2 and the large   
cup at ,genoa1 which is however full of 
flaws#afg1 have been given out to be    
emeralds even to the present time4      
,mirrors were made also of rubies1 as we
 are assured by ,pliny#afh1 who  refers 
to ,theophrastus for his authority2 but 
this precious stone is  never found now 
of such a size as to render this use    
possible2 and ,gary  and the anonymous  
,italian before-mentioned have proved   
very properly  that ,pliny has committed
 a gross mistake1 which has not been    
observed  by ,hardouin4 ,theophrastus1  
in the passage alluded to#afi1 does not 
speak of a ruby1 but of the well-known  
black marble of ,chio1 though he  calls 
both carbunculus1 a name given to the   

ruby on account of its  likeness to a   
burning coal1 and to the black marble on
 account of its  likeness to a quenched 
coal or cinder2 and the latter1 as well 
as the  obsidian stone1 was used        
sometimes for mirrors4    ,the account  
how mirrors were formed by the native   
,americans1 before  they had the        
misfortune to become acquainted with the
 ,europeans1 is  of considerable        
importance in the history of this art4  
,these people  had indeed mirrors which 
the ,europeans could not help admiring4 
,some  of them were made of black1      
somewhat transparent1 vitrified lava1   
called by the ,spaniards gallinazo1 and 
which is of the same kind as  the       
obsidian stone employed by the ,romans  
for the like purpose4 ,of  this         
substance the ,americans had plane1     
concave1 and convex mirrors4  ,they had 
others also made of a mineral called the
 ,inca's stone#agj1  which1 as has been 
already said by ,bomare1 ,sage1         
,wallerius1 and other  mineralogists1   

was a compact pyrites or marcasite1     
susceptible of a  fine polish2 and on   
that account often brought to ,europe1  
and worn  formerly in rings under the   
name of the stone of health4 ,ulloa says
 the  ,inca's stone is brittle1 opake1  
and of a somewhat bluish colour2 it  has
 often veins which cannot be polished1  
and where these veins are it  frequently
 breaks4 ,the mirrors formed of it1     
which he saw1 were from  two to three   
inches in diameter2 but he saw one which
 was a foot and a  half4 ,the opinion   
which some have entertained1 that these 
mirrors were  cast1 has no other        
foundation than the likeness of polished
 marcasite  to cast brass4 ,this mineral
 is very proper for reflecting images2  
and  ,i am inclined to think that the   
,peruvians had better mirrors than the  
,greeks or the ,romans1 among whom we   
find no traces of marcasite being       
employed in that manner4 ,it appears1   
however1 that the ,indians had  mirrors 
also of silver1 copper1 and brass#aga4  

,i come now to the question in what     
century were invented our glass         
mirrors1 which consist of a glass plate 
covered at the back with  a thin leaf of
 metal4 ,this question has been answered
 by some with  so much confidence1 that 
one might almost consider the point to  
be  determined2 but instead of real     
proofs1 we find only conjectures or     
probabilities2 and ,i must here remark1 
that ,i cannot help thinking  that they 
are older than has hitherto been        
supposed1 however desirous  ,i may be to
 separate historical truth from         
conjecture4 ,when ,i have  brought      
together everything which ,i know on the
 subject1 ,i would say1  that attempts  
were even made at ,sidon to form mirrors
 of glass2 but  that they must have been
 inferior to those of metal1 because    
they did  not banish the use of the     
latter4 ,the first glass mirrors appear 
to me  to have been of black-coloured   
glass1 or an imitation of the obsidian  
stone2 and to have been formed          

afterwards of a glass plate with some   
black foil placed behind it#agb4 ,at a  
much later period1 blown glass1  while  
hot1 was covered in the inside with lead
 or some metallic  mixture2 and still   
later1 and1 as appears1 first at        
,murano1 artists  began to cover plates 
of glass with an amalgam of tin and     
quicksilver4  ,the newest improvements  
are1 the casting of glass-plates1 and   
the art  of making plates equally large 
by blowing and stretching1 without the  
expensive and uncertain process which is
 required for casting4    ,that glass   
mirrors were made at the celebrated     
glass-houses of ,sidon1  is mentioned so
 clearly by ,pliny that it cannot be    
doubted#agc4  ,when ,i read the passage1
 however1 without prejudice1 without    
taking  into consideration what others  
have said on it1 and compare it with    
what certain information the ancients1  
in my opinion1 give on the  same        
subject1 ,i can understand it no        
otherwise than as if the author  said1  

that the art of manufacturing glass     
various ways was invented1  principally1
 at ,sidon1 where attempts had been made
 to form mirrors  of it4 ,he appears    
therefore to allude to experiments which
 had not  completely succeeded2 and to  
say that such attempts1 at the time when
  he wrote1 had been entirely abandoned 
and were almost forgotten4  ,had this   
circumstance formed an epoch in the art1
 ,pliny1 in another  place1 where he    
describes the various improvements of it
 so fully1  would not have omitted it2  
but of those experiments he makes no    
further mention#agd4 ,all the inventions
 which he speaks of1 evidently  relate  
to metal mirrors only1 of which the     
silver1 at that time1  were the newest4 
,had the ,sidonian mirrors consisted of 
glass plates  covered at the back1 those
 of metal1 the making of which was1 at  
any  rate1 attended with no less        
trouble1 which were more inconvenient   
for use on account of their aptness to  
break1 their requiring to  be frequently

 cleaned and preserved in a case1 and   
which were more  unpleasant on account  
of the faint1 dull image which they     
reflected1  could not possibly have     
continued so long in use as they really 
did2  and circumstances and expressions 
relative to glass mirrors must          
certainly have occurred4 ,though glass  
continued long to be held in high       
estimation1 particularly at ,rome2 and  
though many kinds of glass-ware  are    
mentioned in ancient authors1 among     
costly pieces of furniture1  mirrors are
 mentioned only among articles of silver
 plate4 ,i am  acquainted with no       
certain trace of glass mirrors from the 
time of  ,pliny to the thirteenth       
century2 but after that period1 at which
 they  are spoken of in the clearest    
manner1 we find them often mentioned in 
every century2 and mirrors of metal at  
length entirely disappear4    ,how the  
,sidonian mirrors were made1 is not     
known2 but if ,i may  be allowed a      
conjecture1 ,i am of opinion that they  

consisted of  dark-coloured glass1 which
 had a resemblance to the obsidian      
stone4  ,such is the usual progress of  
inventions4 ,at those periods one had no
  other representation of glass mirrors 
than that afforded by natural  glass or 
vitreous stones4 ,when artists wished to
 make mirrors of  glass1 they would try 
to imitate the latter4 ,after the       
invention  of printing1 people          
endeavoured to render printed books as  
like as  possible to manuscripts2       
because they imagined that this         
invention  was to be approved only so   
far as it enabled them to imitate these1
  without observing that it could far   
excel the art of writing4 ,but the      
,sidonian glass mirrors were so much    
surpassed by the silver or brass  ones1 
which perhaps were invented about the   
same time1 that on this  account they   
were never brought into use4 ,glass     
mirrors1 perhaps1 would  have been      
invented sooner1 had mankind employed at
 an earlier period  glass-windows1 which

 often1 when they are shut on the       
outside so  that no light can pass      
through them1 reflect images in a much  
better  manner than the best mirrors of 
metal4 ,this observation1 which may be  
made daily1 would then1 in all          
probability1 have been sooner turned to 
advantage4    ,no one has employed a    
greater profusion of words to maintain  
an opinion  opposite to mine1 than      
,abat2 but when his proofs are divested 
of their  ornaments1 they appear so weak
 that one has very little inclination   
to agree with him4 8,the observation10  
says he1 8that a plate of  glass is the 
best mirror1 when all other rays of     
light1 except those  reflected back from
 the glass1 are prevented1 by a metallic
 covering  placed behind it1 from       
falling on the eye1 is so easy1 that it 
must  have been made immediately after  
the invention of glass40 ,who does  not 
think here of ,columbus and his egg8    
,instances occur in history of  many    
having approached so near an invention1 

that we are astonished  how they could  
have missed it2 so that we may exclaim  
with a certain  emperor1 8,taurum toties
 non ferire difficile est#age40 8,the   
,sidonian  invention10 continues he1    
8would not have been worth mentioning1  
had it  not produced better mirrors than
 those which the ancients had before  of
 the obsidian stone4 ,but these even are
 mentioned only once1 in so  short and  
abrupt a manner1 and as it were out of  
ridicule1 that one may  easily perceive 
they were not much esteemed40 8,if the  
,sidonians10 adds  he1 8were not the    
inventors1 let some other inventor be   
mentioned20  and he assures us that he  
had sought information on this subject1 
in  ,neri1 ,kunkel1 and ,merret1 but    
without success4 ,that ,i believe2 but  
,abat  does not remark that by the same 
manner of reasoning we may ascribe to   
the ,sidonians the invention of watches1
 and many other articles1 the  inventors
 of which are not to be found in books  
where they ought as  much to be expected

 as the inventor of glass in ,neri4 ,the
 grounds on  which many old commentators
 of the ,bible1 ,nicholas de ,lyra and  
others1  have supposed that glass       
mirrors were known so early as the time 
of  ,moses1 are still weaker4 ,if       
quoting the names of writers who        
entertain  a like opinion be of any     
weight1 ,i could produce a much greater 
number  of learned men1 who1 after an   
express examination of the question1    
deny  altogether that glass mirrors were
 used by the ancients4    ,dr4          
,watson#agf also has endeavoured to     
support the opinion of ,abat1  but with 
less confidence and with more critical  
acumen4 ,his grounds1  ,i think1 ,i have
 weakened already2 but one observation  
here deserves  not to be overlooked1    
because it suggests an idea that may    
serve to  illustrate a passage of       
,pliny1 which1 as ,i before remarked1   
has never  yet been explained4 8,if we  
admit10 says he1 8that ,pliny was       
acquainted  with glass mirrors1 we may  

thus understand what he says respecting 
an invention1 which was then new1 of    
applying gold behind a mirror40         
,instead of an amalgam of tin1 some one 
had proposed to cover the back  of the  
mirror with an amalgam of gold1 with    
which the ancients were  certainly      
acquainted1 and which they employed in  
gilding#agg4 ,he  mentions1 also1 on    
this occasion1 that a thought had once  
occurred to  ,buffon1 that an amalgam of
 gold might be much better for mirrors  
than  that used at present#agh4 ,this   
conjecture appears1 at any rate1 to be  
ingenious2 but when ,i read the passage 
again1 without prejudice1 ,i can  hardly
 believe that ,pliny alludes to a plate 
of glass in a place where  he speaks    
only of metallic mirrors2 and the       
overlaying with amalgam  requires too   
much art to allow me to ascribe it to   
such a period  without sufficient proof4
 ,i consider it more probable that some 
person  had tried1 by means of a        
polished plate of gold1 to collect the  

rays of  light1 and to throw them either
 on the mirror or the object1 in order  
to render the image brighter4           
,professor ,heeren showed me a passage  
in the ,ecloga of ,stobus1 which1  on   
the first view1 seems to allude to a    
glass mirror#agi4 ,it is  there said1   
,philolaus the ,pythagorean believed    
that the sun was a  vitreous body1 which
 only received the rays of the thereal  
fire and  reflected them to us like a   
mirror4 ,when we compare1 however1 the  
words  of ,stobus with those by which   
,plutarch#ahj1 ,achilles ,tatius#aha1   
,eusebius#ahb1 and others1 express the  
same thing1 that meaning  cannot be     
drawn from them4 ,it appears1 at first1 
as if ,philolaus had  considered the sun
 to be transparent1 and supposed that   
the rays  passed through it1 and came   
condensed to our earth1 in the same     
manner  as they are brought to a focus  
by a glass globe4 ,some commentators    
have  explained the passage in this     
manner2 and on account of the affinity  

of  the ,greek words have thought also  
of a funnel4 ,in that case1 however1    
the comparison of the sun with a mirror 
would not have been just2 and  if it be 
admitted that ,philolaus considered the 
sun as a bright body  endowed with the  
property of reflection1 what he says of 
rays passing  or transmitted through it1
 and of the pores of the sun's body1    
will  become unintelligible4 ,but even  
if we adopt the last explanation1 that  
,philolaus imagined the sun to be a     
mirror1 it does not follow that he  had 
any idea of a glass one#ahc2 and        
besides1 he only speaks of a body       
capable of reflecting a strong light2   
and that glass1 under certain           
circumstances1 is fit for that purpose1 
may have been remarked as soon  as it   
was invented1 though men might not find 
out the art of forming  it into proper  
mirrors by placing some opake substance 
behind it#ahd4  ,empedocles also said1  
that the sun was a mirror1 and that the 
light  received by our earth was the    

reflection of the thereal fire1 which   
,eusebius compares to the reflection    
made by water#ahe4    ,in the problems  
ascribed to ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 
glass mirrors1  covered on the back with
 tin1 are clearly mentioned2 but this   
information does not lead us one step   
further in the history of the  art2 as  
it is proved that the above ,alexander1 
who lived in the  beginning of the third
 century1 could not have written that   
work4 ,the  author1 who must have been a
 physician1 maintains the immortality of
  the soul1 which ,alexander of         
,aphrodisias1 with ,aristotle1 denies4  
,some  therefore have ascribed these    
problems to ,alexander ,trallianus1 who 
practised physic in the middle of the   
sixth century2 but this is only  a      
conjecture which no one has as yet      
rendered probable1 especially as  there 
have been many physicians of the name of
 ,alexander4 ,the problem  to which ,i  
allude is not to be found in every      
manuscript and edition2  so that it is  

doubtful whether it may not be the      
production of a later  author than that 
of the rest of the book1 particularly as
 it is certain  that many who had it in 
their possession added problems of      
various  kinds according to their       
pleasure4 ,however this may be1 it is   
evident  that the author of this problem
 was acquainted with mirrors covered at 
the back2 and the expression which he   
uses does not merely imply that  a leaf 
of tin was placed behind the glass      
plate1 but that the tin in  a liquid    
state was rubbed over it4 ,the old      
,french translator thinks  that the     
author speaks of windows2 but that      
opinion is undoubtedly  false#ahf4      
,of as little importance as the above   
passage of ,alexander1 is another  of   
,isidore1 often quoted in support of the
 antiquity of glass mirrors4  ,on the   
first view it appears to be a testimony 
of great weight2 but  when closely      
examined it becomes reduced to very     
little4 8,nothing10  says he1 8is so fit

 for mirrors as glass#ahg40 ,abat and   
others1 who  have considered these words
 as decisive1 make less hesitation to   
ascribe to the sixth century1 in which  
,isidore lived1 a knowledge  of mirrors 
covered on the back with tin and        
quicksilver1 as the same  writer1 in    
another place1 observes1 that           
quicksilver can be kept in no  vessel   
but one of glass#ahh4 ,it is very true  
that a glass filled with  that metal    
will form a very good mirror2 but ,i am 
of opinion that this  may have been long
 known1 before people thought of making 
an amalgam of  tin and quicksilver in   
order to cover the backs of mirrors4    
,the first  passage1 which is properly  
the one of any consequence1 loses its   
force  when we see that it is taken from
 ,pliny and copied incorrectly4 ,the    
latter says1 that one can give to glass 
every kind of shape and colour1  and    
that no substance is more ductile1 or   
fitter to be moulded into any  form#ahi4
 ,isidore1 as is usual1 says the same   

thing1 and in the same  words1 except1  
that instead of sequacior he substitutes
 speculis  aptior2 so that the mention  
of a mirror is altogether unexpected1   
and  so little suited to what goes      
before and what follows1 that one must  
believe that this alteration1 occasioned
 perhaps by the similitude of  the      
words1 or by an abbreviation1 was not   
made by ,isidore1 but by some           
transcriber4 ,but even if we believe    
that ,isidore himself spoke of glass    
being used at that period for mirrors1  
we are not able to comprehend1  from    
what he says1 how glass mirrors were    
made in the sixth century4    ,i have   
met with no information respecting this 
subject in the whole  period between the
 age of ,isidore and the eleventh       
century4 ,about the  year #aajj1 at     
least as is supposed not without        
probability1 ,alhazen the  ,arabian     
wrote his well-known treatise on        
,optics1 in which ,i conjectured  that  
,i should find mention made of glass    

mirrors2 but ,i searched that  work in  
vain1 though ,i must confess ,i did not 
read it through entirely4  ,where he    
begins his catoptrical lessons1 he      
however often speaks of  iron mirrors1  
by which we may understand mirrors of   
the best steel4 ,in  explaining a       
certain phnomenon1 he says1 that the    
cause of it cannot  be in the darkness  
of the iron mirror1 because if a mirror 
of silver be  used1 the same effects    
will be produced4 ,would he not on this 
occasion  have introduced glass mirrors1
 had he been as well-acquainted with    
them  as with those already mentioned8  
,at first1 he never speaks of mirrors   
without adding of iron1 of silver2 but  
he mentions them afterwards  without any
 epithet of the kind4    ,all these     
mirrors ,i find also in the ,optics of  
,vitello1 who wrote  in the middle of   
the thirteenth century1 in ,italy1 a    
country which  was at that time almost  
the only one where the arts             
flourished#aij4  ,that author has1      

indeed1 borrowed a great deal from      
,alhazen1 though  there are many things 
of his own1 and he gives an account of  
some  experiments on the refracting     
power of glass2 but he never1 as far as 
,i have observed1 mentions glass        
mirrors4 ,whether ,jordanus ,nemorarius1
  or ,nemoratius1 who also wrote1 in the
 thirteenth century1 a book ,de         
,speculorum ,natura1 makes mention of   
them1 ,i do not know1 because ,i  have  
never had an opportunity of seeing that 
work4 ,i am of opinion it  was never    
printed4    ,it is in the thirteenth    
century1 that ,i find the first         
undoubted  mention of glass mirrors     
covered at the back with tin or lead4   
,johannes  ,peckham1 or ,peccam1 an     
,english ,franciscan monk1 who taught at
 ,oxford1  ,paris1 and ,rome1 and who   
died in #abib1 wrote about the year     
#abgi a  treatise of optics1 which was  
once printed1 with the title of         
,johannis  ,pisani ,perspectiva         
,communis#aia4 ,in this work1 besides   

mirrors made of  iron1 steel1 and       
polished marble1 the author not only    
speaks often of  glass mirrors1 but says
 also that they were covered on the back
 with  lead1 and that no image was      
reflected when the lead was scraped off4
  ,vincentius ,bellovacensis#aib speaks 
in a manner still clearer1 for  he tells
 us that lead was poured over the glass 
plate while hot4 ,to  the same century  
also belong the concurrent testimonies  
of ,raimundus  ,lullius#aic1 ,roger     
,bacon#aid1 ,antonius di ,padua#aie1 and
 ,nicephorus  ,gregoras#aif1 who died   
after the year #acfjaig4    ,that this  
invention cannot be much older we have  
reason to conclude1  because glass      
mirrors were extremely scarce in ,france
 even in the  fourteenth century1 while 
mirrors of metal were in common use2 and
  we are told that the mirror of ,anne  
de ,bretagne1 consort of ,louis  ,,xii41
 was of the latter kind#aih4 ,metal     
mirrors also were made and  employed in 
,persia and the ,east1 where indeed     

ancient usages continued  longest1 and  
glass mirrors were not known there till 
the commencement  of the ,european trade
 with these remote regions4 ,the former 
are still  preferred in those countries1
 because they are not so liable to      
break1  and can be preserved better in a
 dry hot climate than the amalgam of    
the latter4    ,respecting the progress 
of this art1 ,i know nothing more than  
what  follows3--,at first1 melted lead1 
or perhaps tin1 was poured over the     
glass plate while yet hot as it came    
from the furnace4 ,this process  agrees 
with that which1 since very early       
periods1 has been employed  in or around
 ,nuremberg for making convex mirrors by
 blowing with the  pipe into the        
glass-bubble whilst still hot a metallic
 mixture1 with a  little resin or salt  
of tartar1 which prevents oxidation and 
assists  the fusion4 ,when the bubble is
 covered all over in the inside1 and    
after it has cooled1 it is cut into     
small round mirrors4 ,this art is  an   

old ,german invention1 for it is        
described by ,porta and ,garzoni1 who   
both lived in the beginning of the      
sixteenth century1 and who both         
expressly say1 that it was then common  
in ,germany4 ,curious foreigners  often 
attempted to learn it1 and imagined that
 the ,germans kept it  a secret4 ,boyle 
made various experiments in order to    
discover the  process2 and the secretary
 of the ,royal ,society endeavoured1 by 
means  of the ambassador from ,charles  
,,ii41 who1 perhaps about #afgj1 resided
  at ,frankfort1 to obtain a knowledge  
of it2 but did not succeed1 as we  are  
told by ,leibnitz#aii4 ,it was called   
the art of preparing mirrors  without   
foil2 and it was highly esteemed1       
because it was supposed that  it might  
be useful to those fond of catoptrics1  
by enabling them to  form convex and    
concave mirrors themselves4 ,this       
account of ,leibnitz  seems to have led 
,von ,murr into a slight error1 and     
induced him to  believe that the art of 

making convex mirrors without foil was  
first  found out at ,nuremberg in #afgj4
 ,i introduce this remark because ,i    
flatter myself he will not be displeased
 that ,i make the above service1        
rendered by his native city1 to be a    
century and a half older4 ,these  small 
convex mirrors1 which reflect a         
diminished1 but a clearer image  than   
our usual mirrors1 are perhaps made     
still1 though they are not  now carried 
round so frequently for sale in ,germany
 as they were  thirty years ago1 at     
which time1 if ,i remember right1 they  
were called  7,ochsen-augen7 ox-eyes4   
,they were set in a round painted board1
 and  had a very broad border or margin4
 ,one of them1 in my possession1  is two
 inches and a half in diameter4 ,it is  
probable that the low  price of plane   
mirrors1 when glass-houses began to be  
more numerous1  occasioned these convex 
ones to be little sought after4 ,the    
mixture  employed in making them was1   
according to ,porta1 antimony1 lead1 and

  colophonium2 but according to         
,garzoni1 it was una mistura di piombo1 
stagno1 marchesita d'argento1 e tartaro1
 which in the ,german edition  is       
translated very badly1 8lead1 tin1      
flint1 silver1 and tartar40 ,the        
following observation perhaps is not    
altogether useless3 ,colophonium1  which
 is employed on many other occasions for
 soldering1 was formerly  called        
mirror-resin1 and was sold under that   
name even in the beginning  of the      
present century4 ,frisch assigns no     
reason for this appellation1  and       
,jacobson gives a wrong one1 viz4 its   
having a bright shining  surface when   
broken4 ,the true reason was the        
above-mentioned use2 and  as that is now
 very little known1 it is called from   
that to which it is  principally        
applied1 violin-resin4    ,it appears   
that1 instead of pouring melted metal   
over plates of glass1  artists for some 
time applied to them the                
before-mentioned amalgam  of tin1 or    

covered them in some other manner1      
perhaps in the same way  as ,boyle      
covered concave glasses in the inside4  
,porta however saw  almost the same     
process employed at ,murano as that     
which is still  followed at present4    
,the tin1 hammered to thin leaves1 was  
spread  out very smoothly2 and          
quicksilver was poured over it1 and     
rubbed  into it1 either with the hand or
 a hare's foot2 and when the tin was    
saturated it was covered with paper4    
,the glass1 wiped exceedingly  clean1   
was then laid above it2 and while the   
workman pressed it down  with his left  
hand1 he drew out very carefully with   
his right the  paper that lay between   
the tin and the glass1 over which       
weights were  afterwards placed4 ,this  
much at any rate is certain1 that the   
method of  covering with tin foil was   
known at ,murano so early as the        
sixteenth  century#bjj1 and therefore it
 is much older than ,j4 ,m4 ,hoffmann   
supposes4 ,to conclude1 whether this    

ingenious invention belongs to the      
,venetians1 as several later1 and       
particularly ,italian1 writers assert1  
,i can neither prove nor contradict2 but
 it is well known that till  about the  
end of the seventeenth century their    
mirrors were sold all  over ,europe and 
in both the ,indies4 ,after that period 
the glass-houses  in other countries    
were improved1 and new ones established2
 and the  discovery made in ,france1    
that glass1 like metal1 could be cast   
into  much larger plates than had been  
before prepared by blowing and  rolling1
 was in more than one respect           
prejudicial to the sale of those  made  
at ,venice4    ,so early as the year    
#afcd1 attempts were made in ,france to 
establish  glass-houses for             
manufacturing mirrors1 and ,eustache    
,grandmont obtained  a patent for that  
purpose2 but his undertaking was not    
attended with  success4 ,as ,colbert    
exerted himself very much to promote    
manufactures  of every kind1 ,nicholas  

de ,noyer proposed to make mirrors      
according to  the ,venetian method4     
,this plan was adopted by ,charles      
,rivire1 sieur  du ,freni1              
valet-de-chambre to the king2 and having
 procured the royal  permission1 he sold
 it afterwards for a large sum to ,de   
,noyer1 who1  in #affe1 received a      
confirmation of the patent1 and an      
advance of  #ab1jjj livres for four     
years1 on condition of his procuring    
workmen  from ,venice1 who1 after       
serving eight years in the kingdom1 were
 to  be naturalized4 ,de ,noyer was     
joined by several more1 who entered     
into partnership with him1 and          
particularly by one ,poquelin1 who had  
hitherto carried on the greatest trade  
in ,venetian mirrors1 and who  engaged  
workmen from ,murano4 ,the glass-houses 
were erected at the  village of         
,tourlaville1 near ,cherbourg1 in ,lower
 ,normandy4 ,after the  death of        
,colbert1 who was succeeded by ,louvois1
 the charter of the  company was in     

#afhd renewed for thirty years longer1  
and at that period  ,pierre de ,bagneux 
was at the head of it4    ,scarcely had 
five years of this period elapsed1 when1
 in #afhh1 ,abraham  ,thevart made a    
proposal to the court for casting glass 
mirrors of  a much larger size than any 
ever before made4 ,this plan1 after an  
accurate investigation1 was approved2   
and in the same year he received  the   
royal permission to use his invention   
for thirty years1 but it was  not       
registered till #afic or #afid4 ,the    
first plates were cast at ,paris1  and  
astonished every artist who saw them4   
,they were eighty-four inches  in       
height1 and fifty in breadth4 ,in order 
to lessen the excessive  expense1 the   
glass-houses were erected at ,st4       
,gobin1 in ,picardy2 and  to prevent all
 dispute with the old privileged        
company1 ,thevart was  expressly bound  
to make plates at least sixty inches in 
length and  forty in breadth1 whereas   
the largest of those made before had    

never  exceeded forty-five or fifty     
inches in length4 ,on the other hand1   
the  old company were allowed to make   
plates of a smaller size1 and were      
prohibited from employing any of the    
instruments or apparatus invented  by   
,thevart4 ,these however had not been so
 accurately defined as to  remove all   
cause of litigation between the         
companies1 and for that  reason         
permission was at length granted1 in    
#afie1 for both to be united  into one1 
under the inspection of ,franois        
,plastrier1 to whom the king1  in #afii1
 sold the palace of ,st4 ,gobin4 ,after 
this they declined so  rapidly1 that in 
#agja they were not able to pay their   
debts1 and were  obliged to abandon     
several of the furnaces4 ,to add to     
their misfortune1  some of the workmen  
whom they had discharged retired to     
other  countries1 which were already    
jealous of the ,french invention1 and   
wished to turn it to their advantage4   
,the ,french writers assert that  their 

attempts never succeeded1 and that most 
of the workmen returned  again to       
,france1 when a new company was formed  
in #agjb1 under the  management of      
,antoine d',agincourt1 who by prudent   
conomy improved the  establishment1 so  
as to render the profit very            
considerable4 ,at present  mirrors are  
cast as well as blown1 both at ,st4     
,gobin and at ,cherbourg2  and in #ageh 
the price of them was greatly reduced1  
in order probably to  weaken the        
competition of the foreign glass-houses1
 among which there  are many not        
inferior to the ,french4    ,this short 
history of the glass manufactories in   
,france is collected  from ,savary#bja  
and ,expilly#bjb4 ,a more particular    
account perhaps  may be expected of the 
inventor1 of his first experiments1 and 
of their  success2 but notwithstanding a
 strict search1 ,i have not been able to
  find any further information on the   
subject4 ,we are told only that his     
name was sieur ,abraham ,thevart1 though

 the historians who record that         
circumstance have filled their pages    
with uninteresting anecdotes1 and  even 
with the vices of many of the courtiers 
of the same period4    ,the principal   
benefit which has arisen to the art from
 this invention1  properly is1 that much
 larger mirrors can be obtained than    
formerly2  for when attempts were made  
to blow very large plates1 they were    
always  too thin4 ,casting1 however1    
besides great expense in apparatus#bjc1 
requires so many expert workmen1 and so 
tedious and severe labour1 and  is      
accompanied with so much danger1 that it
 is only seldom that plates  of an      
extraordinary size succeed1 and the     
greater part of them must be  cut into  
smaller plates which might have been    
blown4 ,those cast are  never so even   
and smooth as those that have been      
blown2 they require  therefore a great  
deal of polishing1 and on that account  
must be very  thick4 ,the monstrous mass
 requisite for a mirror of the largest  

size1  stands ready melted in a very    
frail red-hot earthen pot1 which is     
taken  from the furnace and placed upon 
an iron plate1 strongly heated1 that    
the mass may be cast upon it into a     
glass plate4 ,the latter must then  be  
speedily conveyed to the                
cooling-furnace1 and if it be found free
  from faults1 it is ground1 polished   
and silvered2 but the last part  of the 
process is generally done at the place  
where a purchaser can  be found for so  
expensive an article1 in order that less
 loss may be  sustained in case it      
should happen to break by the way4      
,these great difficulties1 which have   
excited the astonishment of every  one  
who has seen the process1 and that of   
finding sale for so expensive  and      
magnificent wares1 have obliged artists 
to return to the old method  of blowing2
 and many have been so fortunate in     
improving this branch of  manufacture1  
that plates are formed now by blowing1  
sixty-four ,flemish  inches in height   

and twenty-three in breadth1 which it   
was impossible  to make before but by   
casting4    ,the mass of matter         
necessary for this purpose1 weighing    
more than a  hundred pounds1 is by the  
workman blown into the shape of a large 
bag2  it is then reduced to the form of 
a cylinder1 and being cut up1 is1 by    
stretching1 rolling it with a smooth    
iron1 and other means1 transformed  into
 an even plane4    ,all but the very    
commonest mirrors are now made of       
plate-glass2 which  is also used to a   
great extent for window-panes1 and is   
manufactured  by casting1 rolling and   
polishing4 ,the enormous plates of glass
 which  are seen in many of the large   
shops of this city are well-calculated  
to excite the astonishment of those who 
are not yet aware of the  late          
improvements in this branch of          
manufacture4 ,an idea of what may  be   
accomplished by blowing was given in    
#ahde1 at the ,exhibition at  ,vienna1  
where a blown glass #g feet in length   

and #c in breadth was  exhibited2 and   
which was of sufficient thickness to    
admit of polishing4  ,nevertheless1 the 
casting of plate-glass is now managed   
with such  comparative ease1 that there 
appears to be no limit to the size to   
which the plates can be brought1 so that
 the blowing of large panes  of glass is
 given up in this country4 ,private     
houses may now be seen  decorated with  
single sheets of glass upwards of #bj   
feet in height and  #aj in width4    ,a 
patent for a very ingenious process for 
silvering glass was taken  out in       
,november #ahdc by ,mr4 ,drayton4 ,it   
consists in depositing silver1  from a  
solution1 upon glass1 by deoxidizing the
 oxide of silver in  solution1 so that  
the precipitate will adhere to the      
glass1 without the  latter having been  
coated with metallic or other           
substances4 ,this is  effected by mixing
 #a oz4 of coarsely powdered nitrate of 
silver with   oz4 of spirits of         
hartshorn and #b oz4 of water2 after    

standing for  #bd hours1 the mixture is 
filtered 7the deposit on the filter1    
which  contains silver1 being           
preserved71 and an addition is made     
thereto of  #c oz4 of spirit 7by        
preference1 spirit of wine7 at #fj above
 proof1 or  naphtha2 from #bj to #cj    
drops of oil of cassia are then added1  
and after  remaining for about #f hours 
longer1 the solution is ready for use4  
,the  glass to be silvered must have a  
clean and polished surface2 it is to  be
 placed in a horizontal position1 and a 
wall of putty formed around  it1 so that
 the solution may cover the surface of  
the glass to the  depth of from th to th
 of an inch4 ,after the solution has    
been  poured on the glass1 from #f to   
#ab drops of a mixture of oil of cloves 
and spirit of wine 7in the proportion of
 #a part by measure of the oil  to #c of
 spirit of wine7 are dropped into it at 
different places2 or  the diluted oil of
 cloves may be mixed with the solution  
before it is  poured upon the glass2 the

 more oil of cloves used1 the more rapid
  will be the deposition of the silver1 
but the patentee prefers that  it should
 occupy about two hours4 ,when the      
required deposit has been  obtained1 the
 solution is poured off2 and as soon as 
the silver on the  glass is perfectly   
dry1 it is varnished with a composition1
 formed by  melting together equal      
quantities of bees' wax and tallow4 ,the
 patentee  states that1 by experiment1  
he has ascertained that about #ah grs4  
of  nitrate of silver are used for each 
square foot of glass4    ,it has been   
urged as an objection to this process1  
that in the course  of a few weeks the  
surfaces of the mirrors formed by it    
become dotted  over with small          
brownish-red spots1 which greatly       
injures their  appearance4 ,dr4         
,stenhouse states that these spots are  
caused by the  metallic silver1 whilst  
being deposited on the surface of the   
glass1  carrying down with it           
mechanically small quantities of a      

resinous  matter1 resulting most        
probably from the oxidation of the oil4 
,this  subsequently acts upon the       
metallic surface with which it is in    
contact1 and produces the small brown   
spots already mentioned4 ,mr4  ,drayton1
 however1 states that the brown spots   
only occur when the oil  employed is old
 and unfit for use4      ,,footnotes    
#ace ,the works in which this subject   
has been already treated are the        
following3--,eberhartus de ,weihe1 de   
,speculi origine1 usu et abusu4  ,a     
compilation formed without taste1 of    
which ,i gave some account  in the      
,article on ,chimneys4--,spanhemii ,obs4
 in ,callimachi hymn4  lavacr4          
,palladis1 p4 #fae4--;,acadmie des      
,inscriptions1 t4 xxiii4 p4             
#adj4--,recherches sur les ,miroirs des 
,anciens1 par ,menard4 ,a short  paper1 
barren of information4--,saggi di       
,dissertazioni ,accad4 dell'  ,accad4   
,etrusca dell' citt di ,cortona1 vii4 p4
 #ai3 ,sopra gli ,specchi  degli        

,antichi1 del ,sig4 ,cari4 ,a           
translation from the ,french1 with  the 
figures of some ancient mirrors4 ,it    
contains an explanation of  some        
passages in ,pliny1 where he seems to   
speak of a mirror formed  of a ruby1 and
 some conjectures respecting the mirror 
of ,nero4 ,an  anonymous member of the  
,academy1 in an appendix1 confirms the  
former1  and considers the latter1 very 
properly1 as improbable4--,caylus1      
,recueil d',antiquits1 iii4 p4 #cca1 and
 v4 p4 #agc4 ,a description and  figures
 of ancient mirrors1 with some chemical 
experiments on their                    
composition4--,amusemens                
,philosophiques4 ,par le pre            
,bonaventure ,abat4  ,amst4 #agfc1 #hvo1
 p4 #dcc3 ,sur l',antiquit des ,mirroirs
 de ,verre4  ,a dissertation worthy of  
being read on account of the author's   
acquaintance with the ancient writers1  
and his knowledge of technology2  but he
 roves beyond all proof1 and employs too
 much verbosity to  decorate his        

conjectures4    #acf ,passages of the   
poets1 where female deities and         
shepherdesses are  represented as       
contemplating themselves in water       
instead of a mirror1  may be found in   
the notes to ,phdri ,fab4 i4 #d1 in the 
edition of  ,burmann4    #acg ,chap4    
xxxvii4 ver4 #ah4    #ach ,exodus1 chap4
 xxxviii4 ver4 #h4    #aci ,historia    
,vitri apud ,judos1 in ,comment4        
,societat4 ,scient4  ,gotting4 iv4 p4   
#ccj4 ,having requested ,professor      
,tychsen's opinion on  this subject1 ,i 
received the following answer3--8,you   
have conjectured  very properly that the
 mirrors of the ,israelitish women1     
mentioned  ,exod4 xxxviii4 #h1 were not 
employed for ornamenting or covering the
  washing-basins1 in order that the     
priests might behold themselves in      
them2 but that they were melted and     
basins cast of them4 ,the former  was a 
conceit first advanced1 if ,i am not    
mistaken1 by ,nicol4 de ,lyra1  in the  
fourteenth century1 and which ,michaelis

 himself adopted in  the year #aged2 but
 he afterwards retracted his opinion    
when he made  his translation of the    
,old ,testament at a riper age4 ,in the 
,hebrew  expression there is no ground  
for it2 and mirrors could hardly be     
placed very conveniently in a basin     
employed for washing the feet4  ,i must 
at the same time confess that the word  
77 which is here  supposed to signify a 
mirror1 occurs nowhere else in that     
sense4  ,another explanation therefore  
has been given1 by which both the women 
and mirrors disappear from the passage4 
,it is by a learned ,fleming1  ,hermann 
,gid4 ,clement1 and may be found in his 
,dissertatio de ,labro  neo1 ,groning4  
#agcb1 and also in ,ugolini ,thesaurus1 
tom4 xix4 p4 #aeje4  ,he translates the 
passage thus3 ,fecit labrum neum et     
operculum ejus  neum cum figuris        
ornantibus1 qu ornabant ostium          
tabernaculi4 ,this  explanation however 
is attended with very great             
difficulties2 and as  all the old       

translators and ,jewish commentators    
have here understood  mirrors2 and as   
the common translation is perfectly     
agreeable to the  language and          
circumstances1 we ought to believe that 
,moses1 not having  copper1 melted down 
the mirrors of his countrywomen and     
converted them  into washing-basins for 
the priests40    #adj ,oneirocrit4 lib4 
iii4 cap4 #cj4 p4 #agf4    #ada ,joh4   
,sarisberiensis1 i4 cap4 #ab4    #adb   
,plin4 lib4 xxxiii4 cap4 #i4 ,seneca1   
,qust4 ,nat4 i4 cap4 #e4    #adc ,vita  
,probi1 cap4 iv4 p4 #ibf3 8,patinam     
argenteam librarum decem  specillatam40 
,salmasius chooses rather to read       
specellatam4 ,i am  inclined to think   
that this word ought to be read in      
,suetonius instead  of speculatum1 where
 he speaks of an apartment which ,horace
 seems to  have been fond of4 ,that     
historian1 in his ,life of ,horace1     
says1 8,ad  res venereas intemperantior 
traditur3 nam speculato cubiculo scorta 
dicitur habuisse disposita1 ut quocunque

 respexisset1 ibi ei imago  coitus      
referretur40 ,lessing1 who in his       
,miscellanies 7,vermischten  ,schriften1
 ,berlin #aghd1 #abmo1 iii4 p4 #bje7    
endeavours to vindicate  the poet from  
this aspersion1 considers the expression
 speculatum  cubiculum1 if translated an
 apartment lined with mirrors1 as       
contrary to the ,latin idiom1 and thinks
 therefore that the whole  passage is a 
forgery4 ,baxter also before said that  
this anecdote had  been inserted by some
 malicious impostor4 ,this ,i will not  
venture to  contradict1 but ,i am of    
opinion that specillatum or specellatum 
cubiculum is at any rate as much        
agreeable to the ,roman idiom as  patina
 specillata4 ,this expression ,salmasius
 and ,casaubon have  justified by       
similar phrases1 such as opera filicata1
 tesselata1  hederata1 c4 ,the chamber  
in which ,claudian makes ,venus ornament
  herself1 and be overcome by the       
persuasion of ,cupid1 was also covered  
over with mirrors1 so that whichever way

 her eyes turned1 she could  see her own
 image4 ,did ,claudian imagine that this
 goddess knew how to  employ such an    
apartment1 not only for dressing1 but   
even after she was  undressed1 as well  
as ,horace8 ,i have seen at a certain   
court1 a bed  entirely covered in the   
inside with mirrors4    #add ,iliad4    
lib4 xiv4 ver4 #aff4    #ade ,hymnus in 
,lavacrum ,palladis1 v4 #ae1 #ba4 ,it   
was however customary  to ascribe a     
mirror to ,juno1 as ,spanheim on this   
passage proves2 and  ,athanasius1 in    
,orat4 contra ,gentes1 cap4 xviii4 p4   
#ah1 says that she  was considered as   
the inventress of dress and all         
ornaments4 ,should  not therefore the   
mirror1 the principal instrument of     
dress1 belong to  her8 ,may it not have 
been denied to her by ,callimachus1     
because he did  not find it mentioned in
 the description which ,homer has given 
of her  dressing-room8    #adf ,de      
,natur4 ,deorum1 iii4 #bb4    #adg      
,licetus de ,lucernis ,antiq4 lib4 vi4  

cap4 #ib4    #adh ,lib4 xxxiv4 cap4 #ag1
 p4 #ffi4    #adi ,qust4 ,nat4 at the   
end of the first book4    #aej ,mostell4
 act i4 sc4 #c4 v4 #aja4    #aea        
,arrianus in ,epictet4 i4 cap4 #bj1 p4  
#gi4    #aeb ,among the remaining       
passages of the ancients with which ,i  
am  acquainted1 in which mention is made
 of silver mirrors1 the following       
deserves notice4 ,chrysostom1 ,serm4    
xvii4 p4 #bbd1 who1 in drawing a        
picture of the extravagance of the      
women1 says1 8,the maid-servants  must  
be continually importuning the          
silversmith to know whether  their      
lady's mirror be yet ready40 ,the best  
mirrors therefore were  made by the     
silversmiths4 ,it appears that the      
mirror-makers at ,rome  formed a        
particular company2 at least ,muratori1 
in ,thesaur4 ,inscript4  ,clas4 vii4 p4 
#ebi1 has made known an inscription in  
which collegium  speculariorum is       
mentioned4 ,they occur also in ,codex   
,theodos4 xiii4  tit4 #d1 #b4 p4 #eg1   

where ,ritter has quoted more passages  
in which they  may be found4 ,but       
perhaps the same name was given to those
 who covered  walls with polished       
stones1 and in latter times to glaziers4
    #aec ,lib4 xxxiii4 c4 #i4 p4 #fbg1  
and lib4 xxxiv4 c4 #ag1 p4 #ffi4    #aed
 ,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4     
lxvii4 p4 #bif4    #aee ,quomodo        
,historia sit conscrib4 cap4 #ea1       
,bipont edition1 iv4 p4  #baj1 #ece4    
,commentators have found no other way to
 explain  7a  word which occurs in      
,lucian's description of the mirror71   
than by the  word centre1 to which1     
according to their own account1 there   
can be  here no allusion4 ,in my opinion
  signifies those faulty places  which  
are not capable of a complete polish1 on
 account of the knots or  cracks which  
are found in them4 ,lucian therefore    
speaks of a faultless  mirror which     
represents the image perfect1 as he     
afterwards informs us4    #aef ,as the  
account of these experiments is given   

only in an expensive  work1 which may   
not often fall into the hands of those  
who are best  able to examine it1 ,i    
insert it here4 8,the ancient mirror1   
which ,i  examined1 was a metallic      
mixture1 very tender and brittle1 and of
 a  whitish colour inclining to grey4   
,when put into the fire1 it remained  a 
long time in a state of ignition before 
it melted4 ,it was neither  inflammable 
nor emitted any smell like garlic1 which
 would have been  the case had it       
contained arsenic4 ,it did not either   
produce those  flowers which are        
generally produced by all mixtures in   
which there is  zinc4 ,besides1 the     
basis of this mixture being copper1 it  
would have  been of a yellow colour had 
that semi-metal formed a part of it4 ,i 
took  two drams of it and dissolved them
 in the nitrous acid4 ,a solution was   
speedily formed1 which assumed the same 
colour as solutions of copper4  ,it     
precipitated a white powder1 which ,i   
carefully edulcorated and  dried4       

,having put it into a crucible with a   
reductive flux1 ,i obtained  lead very  
soft and malleable4    8,having filtered
 the solution1 ,i took a part of it1    
upon which ,i poured  an infusion of    
gall-nuts1 but it produced no change4 ,a
 solution of  gold1 which ,i poured upon
 another part1 made it assume a         
beautiful  green colour2 but no         
precipitate was formed3 which is        
sufficient to  prove that there was     
neither iron nor tin in the mixture4    
8,on the remaining part of the solution 
,i poured a sufficient quantity  of the 
volatile alkali to dissolve all the     
copper that might be  contained in it4  
,the solution became of a beautiful     
sapphire blue  colour1 and a white      
precipitate was formed4 ,having decanted
 the liquor1  and carefully edulcorated 
the precipitate1 ,i endeavoured to      
reduce  it2 but whether it was owing to 
the quantity being too small1 or to  my 
not giving it sufficient heat1 ,i could 
not succeed4 ,i had recourse  therefore 

to another method4    8,i took the      
weight of two drams of the mixture1     
which ,i brought to  a high state of    
ignition in a cuppel4 ,when it was of a 
whitish-red  colour1 ,i threw upon it   
gradually four drams of sulphur1 and    
when the  flame ceased1 ,i strengthened 
the fire in order to bring it to        
complete  fusion4 ,by these means ,i    
obtained a tender brittle regulus1      
whiter  than the mixture1 in which ,i   
observed a few small needles4 ,being    
apprehensive that some copper might     
still remain1 ,i sulphurated it a       
second time1 and then obtained a small  
regulus which was almost pure  antimony4
    8,it results from these experiments1
 that the metal of which the  ancients  
made their mirrors was a composition of 
copper1 regulus of  antimony1 and lead4 
,copper was the predominant1 and lead   
the smallest  part of the mixture2 but  
it is very difficult1 as is well known1 
to  determine with any certainty the    
exact proportion of the substances      

contained in such compositions40    ,in 
the examination of an ,etruscan mirror1 
which was placed in my hands  for       
analysis by ,professor ,gerhardt of     
,berlin1 it was found to consist1  in   
#ajj parts1 of #fgab copper1 #bdic tin1 
and #hac lead1 approximating  closely to
 an alloy of eight parts of copper to   
three of tin and one of  lead4 ,the     
oxide of tin obtained in the course of  
analysis was carefully  examined1 before
 the blowpipe1 for antimony1 but ,i did 
not succeed in  detecting a trace of    
that metal4 ,a similar mirror had been  
likewise  analysed by ,klaproth2 he     
found #fb per cent4 copper1 #cb tin1 and
 #f per  cent4 lead1 but no trace of    
antimony4--,w4 ,f4    #aeg ,of such     
large mirrors ,seneca speaks in his     
,qust4 ,nat4 lib4 i4  ,of the like kind 
was the mirror of ,demosthenes mentioned
 by ,plutarch1  ,lucian1 and            
,quintilian4--,institut4 ,orat4 xi4 #c1 
#fh1 p4 #egb4    #aeh ,lib4 xxxvi4 c4   
#bf1 p4 #geh4    #aei ,sueton4 in ,vita 

,domit4 cap4 xiv4 p4 #ccd4    #afj ,lib4
 xxxvi4 #bb1 p4 #geb4--8;,cappadoci     
lapis1 duritia marmoris1  candidus atque
 translucidus1 ex quo quondam templum   
constructum  est a quodam rege1 foribus 
aureis1 quibus clausis claritas diurna  
erat40--,isidor4 ,origin4 #af1 #d4 ,our 
spar is transparent1 though clouds  and 
veins occur in it1 like the violet and  
isabella-coloured1 for  example1 of that
 found at ,andreasberg4 ,compare this   
explanation with  what ,salmasius says  
in ,exercitat4 ,plin4 p4 #ahd4    #afa  
,lib4 xxxvii4 cap4 #e1 p4 #ggd4    #afb 
,lib4 xi4 cap4 #cg1 p4 #fag4    #afc    
,this dissertation of ,abat may be found
 translated in ,neuen  ,hamburg4        
,magazin4 i4 p4 #efh4    #afd ,academia 
di ,cortona1 vii4 p4 #cd4    #afe       
,origin4 xvi4 #g4    #aff ,goguet1 ii4  
p4 #aaa4 ,fabricii ,biblioth4 ,grca4    
vol4 i4 p4 #gj4    #afg ,keyssler1 i4   
pp4 #ag and #dda4    #afh ,lib4 xxxvii4 
cap4 #g4    #afi ,de ,lapid4  #fa4      
#agj ,this stone acquired its name from 

its being much used in  ornaments by the
 ,incas or ,princes of ,peru4    #aga   
,de la ,vega1 ii4 #bh4    #agb ,montamy 
in ,abhandlung von den ,farben zum      
,porzellan1 ,leipzig1  #agfg1 #hvo1 p4  
#bbb1 asserts that he saw1 in a         
collection of antiquities1  glass       
mirrors which were covered behind only  
with a black foil4    #agc ,lib4 xxxvi4 
cap4 #bf1 p4 #geh4    #agd ,lib4 xxxiii4
 cap4 #i1 p4 #fbg4    #age ,trebell4    
,pollio1 ,vita ,gallien4 cap4 #ab4      
#agf ,chemical ,essays1 vol4 iv4 p4     
#bdf4    #agg ,plin4 lib4 xxxiii43 s    
inaurari argento vivo1 aut certe        
hydrargyro1 legitimum erat4 ,the first  
name here seems to signify  native      
quicksilver1 and the second that        
separated from the ore by an  artificial
 process4    #agh ,hist4 ,nat4 ,supplem4
 i4 p4 #dea4    #agi ,stob4 ,eclog4     
,antv4 #aege1 fol4 p4 #ef4    #ahj ,de  
,placitis ,philos4 ii4 cap4 #bj4    #aha
 ,in ,aratum1 cap4 #ai4    #ahb ,lib4 i4
 cap4 #h4    #ahc ,it is undoubtedly    

certain1 that 1 which is translated     
vitreous or glassy1 means any smooth    
polished body capable of  reflecting    
rays of light4 ,originally it signified 
a watery body2 and  because watery      
bodies have a lustre1 it was at length  
used for glass4  ,see ,salmas4 ad       
,solin4 p4 #gga4    #ahd ,more          
observations respecting the opinion of  
,philolaus may be  found in the edition 
of ,plutarch's work ,de ,placitis       
,philosophorum by  ,ed4 ,corsinus1      
,flor4 #agej1 #dto1 p4 #fa1 and p4 #bc4 
#ahe ,professor ,heeren having given me 
his opinion on this passage of  ,stobus1
 ,i shall here insert it for the        
satisfaction of the learned  reader4    
,the critics1 says he1 will hardly be   
persuaded that the words    '      are  
correct1 as they  can be translated     
different ways4 ,with regard to the     
explanation of  the matter1 ,i build    
only on the plain meaning of the words4 
,the author  tells us1 that ,philolaus  
thought the sun to be a mirror2 but we  

must  conclude that he speaks of a      
mirror such as were then in use2 a      
smooth  plate of metal1 and not a globe4
 ,in this case the first explanation of 
a glass globe falls to the ground4 ,this
 is confirmed by ,eusebius1 who  calls  
it  1 though it is possible that the    
latter word  may be a gloss added by    
some grammarian1 or by ,eusebius        
himself4 ,if  we enter further into the 
explanation1 we must adopt the plain    
idea1  that the rays of the sun fall    
upon this plate1 and are reflected to   
us4  ,i am however of opinion1 that     
ought to be translated glass1   glassy  
or vitreous2 for the intention of       
,philolaus  evidently was to define the 
substance of the sun's body4 ,the result
 of  the whole is1 ,philolaus considered
 the sun as a plain plate of glass      
which reflected the rays or brightness  
of the thereal fire4 ,but that  he was  
acquainted with a proper glass mirror   
does not thence follow  with certainty4 
#ahf ,pourquoy reluient les fenestres de

 verre si fort8 ,pourtant que  la nature
 de l'estain1 duquel elles sont basties 
par dedans1 fort  clere1 mesle avec le  
verre cler aussi de lui mesme reluyst   
d'avantage2  et le quel estain          
outrepassant ses raons par les petits   
pores du  verre1 et augmentant          
doublement la face extrieure du dit     
verre1 la  rend grandement              
clere4--,problemes d',alexandre         
,aphrod41 traduit par ,m4  ,herret4     
,paris #aeee1 #hvo1 p4 #ej4    #ahg     
,origin4 lib4 xvi4 #ae1 p4 #cid4    #ahh
 ,origin4 lib4 xvi4 #ah1 p4 #cif4       
#ahi ,lib4 xxxvi4 cap4 #bf1 p4 #gei4    
#aij ,bayle1 ,diction4 ,histor4 vol4 iv4
 p4 #dfb4    #aia ,printed at ,leipzig1 
#aejd1 in small folio4 ,there is an     
edition  also printed at ,cologne in    
#afbd1 and ,fabricius quotes a ,venetian
  edition4 ,pisanus seems to have been a
 by-name given by some one to  ,peckham4
    #aib ,specul4 ,natur4 ii4 #gh1 p4   
#abi4    #aic ,ars ,magna1 cap4 lxvii4  
p4 #eag1 in ,lullii ,opera4 ,argent4    

#afjg1 #hvo4    #aid ,opus ,majus1 ed4  
,jebb4 ,lond4 #agcc1 fol4 p4 #cdf4      
#aie ,franc4 ,assisiatis et ,ant4       
,paduani ,opera4 ,lugd4 #afec1 fol4     
#aif ,nicephori ,schol4 in ,synesium1 in
 ,synesii ,op4 ,par4 #afab1 fol4 p4     
#dai4    #aig ,in the collection of     
antiquities at ,st4 ,denis1 an ancient  
mirror  was shown1 which was said to    
have belonged to ,virgil4 ,it was oval1 
and  before ,mabillon let it fall1 was  
fourteen inches in length and twelve  in
 breadth1 and weighed thirty pounds4 ,it
 is transparent1 and of a               
brownish-yellow colour4 ,according to   
experiments made on purpose1 it  was    
found to consist of artificial glass1   
mixed with a considerable  portion of   
lead2 and as it had been preserved in   
the above collection  from the earliest 
periods1 the practice of adding lead to 
glass must be  very old4 ,but whether   
this mirror was covered at the back1 and
 how it  was covered1 though these are  
the most important points1 ,i find      

nowhere  mentioned4 ,in the collection  
of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany there is
 a  piece of the same kind1 said also to
 have been the mirror of ,virgil4  ,see 
,le ,veil1 ,kunst auf ,glas zu malen1   
,nurnb4 #aggi1 #dto1 p4 #bc1 and  ,hist4
 de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 #agcg1 p4   
#dab4    #aih ,villaret1 ,hist4 de      
,france4 ,par4 #agfc1 xi4 p4 #adb4      
#aii ,in ,miscellanea ,berolinensia1 i4 
p4 #bfc2 but nothing further  is said   
respecting the art1 than that it was    
daily used in the  glass-houses4 ,had ,i
 an opportunity1 ,i should make         
experiments of every  kind in order to  
discover a method of forming plane      
mirrors also in the  like manner4       
#bjj ,wecker1 in his book ,de ,secretis1
 lib4 x4 p4 #egb1 seems to say1  that   
one must lay the saturated tin leaf so  
carefully on the glass  plate1 that no  
air can settle between them4 ,according 
to ,garzoni1 the  tin leaf is spread out
 on a smooth stone table1 and after it  
has been  rubbed over with quicksilver1 

the glass is placed above it4    #bja   
,tome iii4 p4 #hg1 art4 ,glace4    #bjb 
,dict4 ,gog4 de la ,france4 ,amst4      
#agfb1 fol4 v4 pp4 #dae1 #fgb4    #bjc  
,a furnace for casting large glass      
plates1 before it is fit to be  set at  
work1 cost1 it is said1 #cejjl4 ,it     
seldom lasts above three  years1 and    
even in that time it must be repaired   
every six months4 ,it  takes six months 
to rebuild it1 and three months to      
repair it4 ,the  melting-pots are as big
 as large hogsheads1 and contain above  
#bjj cwt4  of metal4 ,if one of them    
burst in the furnace1 the loss of the   
matter  and time amounts to             
#bejl4--,,trans4                        
,,glass-,,cutting4 ,,etching ,,on       
,,glass4      ,i do not here mean to    
enter into the history of engraving on  
stone1  as that subject has been already
 sufficiently illustrated by several    
men of learning well acquainted with    
antiquities4 ,i shall only  observe1    
that the ancient ,greek artists formed  

upon glass both raised  and engraved    
figures2 as may be seen by articles     
still preserved in  collections1 though 
it is probable that many pieces of glass
 may  have been moulded like paste2 for 
that art also is of very great          
antiquity#bjd4 ,it appears likewise that
 they cut upon plates of  glass and     
hollow glass vessels all kinds of       
figures and ornaments1  in the same     
manner as names1 coats of arms1 flowers1
 landscapes1 c4  are cut upon           
drinking-glasses at present#bje4 ,if we 
can believe that  learned engraver in   
stone1 the celebrated ,natter1 the      
ancients employed  the same kind of     
instruments for this purpose as those   
used by the  moderns#bjf4 ,they         
undoubtedly had in like manner a wheel  
which moved  round in a horizontal      
direction above the work-table1 or that 
machine  which by writers is called a   
lapidary's wheel4    ,if this conjecture
 be true1 what ,pliny says respecting   
the various  ways of preparing glass is 

perfectly intelligible4 ,it is turned1  
says  he1 by the wheel1 and engraven    
like silver4 ,in my opinion we are to   
understand by the first part of this    
sentence1 that the glass was  cut by the
 wheel1 like stone1 both hollow and in  
relief1 though it  is possible that     
drinking-cups or vessels may have been  
formed from  the glass metal by means of
 the wheel also#bjg4 ,in the latter part
  of the sentence we must not imagine   
that ,pliny alludes to gravers  like    
those used by silversmiths1 for the     
comparison will not apply to            
instruments or to the manner of working1
 which in silver and glass must  be     
totally different2 but to the figures   
delineated on the former1  which were   
only cut out on the surface in a shallow
 manner2 and such  figures were formed  
on glass by the ancient artists1 as they
 are by our  glass-cutters1 by means of 
a wheel4    ,many1 however1 affirm that 
the art of glass-cutting1 together with 
the necessary instruments1 was first    

invented in the beginning of the        
seventeenth century4 ,the inventor is   
said to have been ,casper ,lehmann1  who
 originally was a cutter of steel and   
iron2 and who made an attempt1  which   
succeeded1 of cutting crystal1 and      
afterwards glass1 in the like  manner4  
,he was in the service of the emperor   
,rodolphus ,,ii41 who1 in the  year     
#afji1 besides presents1 conferred on   
him the title of lapidary and           
glass-cutter to the court1 and gave him 
a patent by which every one  except     
himself was forbidden to exercise this  
new art4 ,he worked at  ,prague1 where  
he had an assistant named ,zacharias    
,belzer2 but ,george  ,schwanhard the   
elder1 one of his scholars1 carried on  
the same business  to a far greater     
extent4 ,the latter1 who was a son of   
,hans ,schwanhard1  a joiner at         
,rothenburg1 was born in #afja2 and in  
#afah went to ,prague to  learn the art 
of glass-cutting from ,lehmann4 ,by his 
good behaviour he  so much gained the   

esteem of his master1 who died a        
bachelor in #afbb1  that he was left his
 heir2 and obtained from the emperor    
,rodolphus  a continuation of ,lehmann's
 patent4 ,schwanhard1 however1 removed  
to  ,nuremberg1 where he worked for many
 of the principal nobility2 and by      
these means procured to that city the   
honour of being accounted the           
birth-place of this new art4 ,in the    
year #afeb he worked at ,prague and     
,ratisbon by command of the emperor     
,ferdinand ,,iii41 and died in #affg1   
leaving behind him two sons1 who both   
followed the occupation of the  father4 
,the elder1 who had the same christian  
name as the father1 died  so early as   
#afgf2 but the other1 ,henry1 survived  
him several years4  ,after that period  
,nuremberg produced in this art more    
expert masters1  who1 by improving the  
tools and devising cheaper methods of   
employing  them1 brought it to a much   
higher degree of perfection#bjh4        
,that the art is of so modern date seems

 to be confirmed by ,zahn1  who speaks  
of it as of a new employment carried on 
at that time1  particularly at          
,nuremberg4 ,he describes the work-table
 as well as the  other instruments2 and 
gives a figure of the whole1 which he   
appears  to have considered as the      
first#bji4 ,it may be seen1 however1    
from  what ,i have already quoted1 that 
this invention does not belong  entirely
 to the moderns2 and1 to deny that the  
ancients were altogether  unacquainted  
with it1 would be doing them an         
injustice4 ,it was  forgotten and again 
revived2 and this is the opinion of     
,caylus4    ,i must here remark1 that   
before this invention there were        
artists1  who1 with a diamond1 cut or   
engraved figures on glass1 which were   
everywhere admired4 ,without entering1  
however1 into the history of  diamonds1 
which would require more materials than 
,i have yet been able  to collect1 ,i   
will venture to assert that the ancient 
artists employed  diamond dust for      

polishing or cutting other kinds of     
stones4 ,pliny#baj  speaks of this in so
 clear a manner that it cannot be       
doubted4 ,the same  thing has been      
repeated by ,solinus#baa1 ,isidore#bab1 
and ,albertus  ,magnus#bac1 in a manner 
equally clear1 and ,mariette#bad        
considers  it as fully proved2 but it   
does not appear that the ancients made  
any  attempts to cut this precious stone
 with its own dust2 ,i mean to give  it 
different faces and to render it        
brilliant4 ,whether they engraved on  it
 in that manner ,i cannot pretend to    
decide1 as the greatest artists  are not
 agreed on the subject4 ,mariette#bae   
denies that they did2  whereas          
,natter#baf seems not to deny it        
altogether1 and ,klotz#bag  confidently 
asserts it as a thing certain4 ,but the 
last-mentioned  author knew nothing more
 of this circumstance than what he had  
read in  the above-quoted writers4      
,the question which properly belongs to 
my subject is1 whether the  ,greeks and 

the ,romans used diamond pencils for    
engraving on other  stones4 ,that many  
ancient artists assisted their labour by
 them1 or  gave their work the finishing
 touches1 seems1 according to ,natter1  
to be shown by various antique gems4    
,but even allowing this to have  been   
the case 7for at any rate ,i dare not   
contradict so eminent a  connoisseur71  
,i must confess that ,i have found no   
proofs that the  ancients cut glass with
 a diamond4 ,we are however acquainted  
with the  means employed by the old     
glaziers to cut glass3 they used for    
that  purpose emery1 sharp-pointed      
instruments of the hardest steel1 and  a
 red-hot iron1 by which they directed   
the rents according to their  pleasure4 
,the first mention of a diamond being   
used for writing on glass occurs  in the
 sixteenth century4 ,francis ,i4 of     
,france1 who was fond of the  arts1     
sciences1 and new inventions1 wrote the 
following lines with his  diamond ring  
upon a pane of glass1 at the castle of  

,chambord1 in order  to let ,anne de    
,pisseleu1 duchess of ,estampes1 know   
that he was jealous3      ,souvent femme
 varie1    ,mal habil qui s'y fie4      
,the historian recorded this not so much
 on account of the admonition1  which is
 not new1 as because it was then thought
 very ingenious  to write upon          
glass#bah4 ,about the year #aefb1       
festoons and other  ornaments1 cut with 
a diamond1 were extremely common on     
,venetian  glasses1 which at that period
 were accounted the best4 ,george       
,schwanhard the elder was a great master
 in this art#bai2 and in more  modern   
times1 ,john ,rost1 an artist of        
,augsburg1 ornamented in a very  curious
 manner with a diamond pencil1 some     
drinking-glasses which were  purchased  
by the emperor ,charles ,,vi4    ,i now 
come to the art of etching on glass1    
which properly was the  subject of this 
article4 ,as the acid which dissolves   
siliceous earth1  and also glass1 was   
first discovered in the year #agga1 by  

,scheele  the chemist#bbj1 in           
fluor-spar1 one might imagine that the  
art of  engraving with it upon glass    
could not be older4 ,it has indeed been 
announced by many as a new              
invention#bba2 but it can be proved that
  it was discovered as early as the year
 #afgj1 by the before-mentioned  artist 
,henry ,schwanhard4 ,we are told that   
some aquafortis having fallen  by       
accident upon his spectacles1 the glass 
was corroded by it2 and  that he thence 
learned to make a liquid by which he    
could etch writing  and figures upon    
plates of glass#bbb4 ,how ,schwanhard   
prepared this  liquid ,i find nowhere   
mentioned2 but at present we are        
acquainted with  no other acid but that 
of fluor-spar which will corrode every  
kind of  glass2 and it is very probable 
that his preparation was the same as    
that known to some artists as a secret  
in #agba4 ,the inventor however         
employed it to a purpose different from 
that for which it is used at  present4  

,at present the glass is covered with a 
varnish1 and those figures which  one   
intends to etch are traced out through  
it2 but ,schwanhard1 when the  figures  
were formed1 covered them with varnish1 
and then by his liquid  corroded the    
glass around them2 so that the figures1 
which remained  smooth and clear1       
appeared when the varnish was removed1  
raised from a  dim or dark ground4 ,he  
perhaps adopted this method in order to 
render  his invention different from the
 art known long before of cutting the   
figures on the glass as if engraven4    
,had he been able to investigate        
properly what accident presented to him1
 he might have enriched the  arts with a
 discovery which gave great reputation  
to a chemist a  hundred years after4    
,i mentioned this old method of etching 
in relief to our ingenious  ,klindworth1
 who possesses great dexterity in such  
arts1 and requested  him to try it4 ,he 
drew a tree with oil varnish and colours
 on a plate  of glass1 applied the acid 

to the plate in the usual manner1 and   
then removed the varnish4 ,by these     
means a bright1 smooth figure was       
produced upon a dim ground1 which had a 
much better effect than those  figures  
that are cut into the glass4 ,i         
recommend this process1 because  ,i am  
of opinion that it may be brought to    
much greater perfection2 and  ,m4       
,renard1 that celebrated artist of      
,strasburg1 whose thermometers with     
glass scales1 in which the degrees and  
numbers are etched1 have met  with      
universal approbation1 was of the same  
opinion1 when ,i mentioned  the method  
to him while he resided here1 banished  
from his home by the  disturbances in   
his native country4    ,it is probable  
that ,schwanhard and his scholars kept  
the preparation  of this liquid a       
secret1 as the receipt for that purpose 
was not  made known till the year #agbe1
 though it is possible that one older   
may be found in some of those books     
which treat on the arts4 ,in the        

above-mentioned year1 ,dr4 ,john ,george
 ,weygand1 from ,goldingen in           
,courland1 sent to the editor of a      
periodical work a receipt which had     
been written out for him by ,dr4 ,matth4
 ,pauli of ,dresden1 then deceased1  who
 had etched1 in this manner on glass1   
arms1 landscapes1 and figures  of       
various kinds#bbc4 ,we find by it that a
 strong acid of nitre was  used1 which  
certainly disengages the acid of        
fluor-spar1 though the  vitriolic acid  
is commonly employed for that           
purpose#bbd4 ,that the  ,bohemian       
emerald or hesphorus1 mentioned in the  
receipt1 is green  fluor-spar1 cannot be
 doubted1 and will appear still more    
certain from  the history of this       
species of stone1 as far as ,i am       
acquainted with  it1 which ,i shall here
 insert4    ,in the works of the old    
mineralogists1 fluor-spar is either not 
mentioned1 or is classed among their    
natural glasses and precious  stones2   
and in those of the first systematic    

writers it is so mingled  with quartz   
and calcareous and gypseous spars1 that 
it is impossible to  discover it4 ,the  
old ,german miners1 however1            
distinguished it so early  as the       
sixteenth century1 and called it fluss2 
because they used it  to accelerate the 
fusion of ores that were difficult to be
 reduced to  that state4 ,agricola1 who 
first remarked this1 changed the ,german
 name  into fluor1 an appellation1      
which1 like many others1 formed by him  
from ,german words1 such for example as 
quarzum from quarz1 spatum  from spat1  
wismuthum1 zincum1 cobaltum1 c41 became 
afterwards  common4 ,if a passage of the
 ancients can be quoted that seems to   
allude  to fluor-spar1 it is that of    
,theophrastus1 where he says that there 
are certain stones which1 when added to 
silver1 copper1 and iron ores1  become  
fluid#bbe4 ,the first systematic writer 
who mentioned this kind  of stone as a  
particular genus1 was ,cronstedt4       
,besides being known by its metallurgic 

use1 fluor-spar is known also  by having
 the colours of some precious stones1 so
 that it may be sold1  or at least shown
 as such to those who are not expert    
judges2 because  the first time when    
heated in the dark it shines with a     
bluish-green  lustre4 ,it is possible   
that fluor-spar may have been among the 
number of that great variety of stones  
which the ancients1 with much           
astonishment1 tell us shone in the dark2
 though it is certain that the          
principal part of them were only        
light-magnets1 as they are called1 or   
such as retain for a certain period the 
light they have absorbed in the         
day-time4 ,the observation1 however1    
that fluor-spar emits light after  it is
 heated1 seems to have been first made  
when artificial phosphorus  excited the 
inquiry of naturalists and chemists2 and
 when they began  to search in their own
 country for stones which1 in the       
property of  emitting light1 might have 
a resemblance to the ,bologna spar1 made

  known about the year #afcj4 ,it is    
well known that the latter is prepared  
for that purpose by calcination4 ,stones
 of the like kind were sought  for2 and 
among these fluor-spar1 which is not    
scarce in ,germany4    ,in my opinion1  
the observation was made in the year    
#afgf2 for in that  year ,elsholz       
informed the members of the ,society for
 investigating  ,nature1 that he was    
acquainted with a phosphorus which had  
its light  neither from the sun nor from
 fire1 but which1 when heated on a metal
  plate over glowing coals1 shone with a
 bluish-white lustre2 so that by        
strewing the powder of it over paper1   
one might form luminous writing4  ,i    
doubt much whether this experiment was  
ever tried2 at least ,i find  no further
 account of it in the papers of the     
,society1 nor in the  re-publication of 
the above author's first dissertation1  
which appeared  in #afhabbf4    ,as far 
as ,i know1 ,kirchmaier1 professor at   
,wittenberg1 was the first  who         

disclosed the secret1 in the year       
#afgibbg4 ,both call this  phosphorus   
the smaragdine2 because the ancients    
speak much of luminous  emeralds1 and   
because green fluor-spar is often       
exhibited as an  emerald4 ,kirchmaier   
calls this mineral also hesperus and    
vesperugo2  and these names have been   
often given since to fluor-spar1 as in  
the receipt before-mentioned for making 
a liquid to etch on glass4              
,kirchmaier's information1 however1 must
 have been very little known2  for the  
,jesuit ,casatus1 who1 in #afhd1 wrote  
his ,treatise on ,fire1 was  not        
acquainted with it1 as he has inserted  
only the words of ,elsholz4  ,this      
observation must have been new to       
,leibnitz himself1 and to the  ,academy 
of ,sciences at ,berlin1 in #agaj2 for  
the former then mentioned  it to the    
,society as a philosophical novelty#bbh4
    ,i shall remark1 in the last place1 
that the manufacturing of vessels  and  
ornaments of every kind from solid      

fluor-spar was begun in  ,derbyshire in 
the year #agfebbi4 ,the articles formed 
of it are  in ,england called spar      
ornaments1 and sometimes blue ,john4    
,many  beautiful colours must1 as is    
said1 be brought forward by means of    
fire4 ,but the heat must be applied with
 great caution2 for fluor-spar1  as is  
well known1 by a strong and particularly
 a sudden heating1  cracks1 and loses   
its transparency4 ,since writing the    
above1 ,i find  that ,m4 ,raspe#bcj     
denies this bringing forward of colours 
by fire4      ,,footnotes    #bjd       
,mariette1 ,trait des ,pierres graves4  
,par4 #agej1 fol4    #bje ,the two      
ancient glasses found at ,nismes1 and   
described in ,caylus'  ,recueil         
d',antiquits1 ii4 p4 #cfc1 were probably
 of this sort4    #bjf ,natter1 ,trait  
de la ,mthode antique de graver en      
,pierres fines1  compar avec la ,mthode 
moderne4 ,lond4 #aged1 fol4    #bjg ,of 
this kind were the calices audaces of   
,martial1 xiv4 #id1 and  those cups     

which often broke when the artist wished
 to give them the  finishing touch4     
#bjh ,see ,sandrart's ,teutsche         
,akademie1 vol4 i4 part #b1 p4 #cde1    
where  there is much valuable           
information respecting the ,german      
artists4  ,compare also ,doppelmayer's  
,nachricht von ,nrnberg4 ,knstlern4     
#bji ,oculus ,artificial4 iii4 p4 #gi4  
#baj ,lib4 xxxvii4    #baa ,cap4 #eb1 p4
 #ei4    #bab ,origin4 xvi4 #h4    #bac 
,de ,miner4 lib4 ii4 #b4    #bad ,trait 
des ,pierres graves1 i4 pp4 #ij1 #aef4  
#bae ,ibid4 p4 #aef4    #baf ,in the    
preface1 p4 #ae4    #bag ,ueber den     
,nutzen d4 geschnitt4 ,steine4 ,altenb4 
#agfh1 p4 #db4    #bah ,le ,veil1 iii4  
p4 #ai4 ,this anecdote however is not   
mentioned by  ,mezeray1 ,castelnau1 or  
,laboureur2 and ,bayle must have been   
unacquainted  with it1 or he would have 
introduced it into his long article on  
the  ,duchesse d',estampes4    #bai     
,doppelmayer1 p4 #bcb4    #bbj          
,abhandlungen der ,schwed4 ,akad4       

xxxiii4 p4 #abb4    #bba ,halle1        
,fortgesetzte ,magie4 ,berlin1 #aghh1   
#hvo1 i4 p4 #eaf4 ,this  author says    
that the invention came from ,england1  
where it was kept  very secret2 but the 
honour of the second invention belongs  
to ,h4  ,klaproth4    #bbb ,schwanhard1 
by the acuteness of his genius1 proved  
what was  before considered as          
impossible1 and found out a corrosive so
 powerful  that the hardest crystal     
glass1 which had hitherto withstood the 
force  of the strongest spirits1 was    
obliged to yield to it1 as well as      
metals and stones4 ,by these means he   
delineated and etched on glass1  figures
 of men1 some naked and some dressed1   
and all kinds of animals1  flowers1 and 
plants1 in a manner perfectly natural2  
and brought them  into the highest      
estimation4--,sandrart1 ,teutsche       
,akademie1 i4 #b1 p4                    
#cdf4--;,doppelmayer1 p4 #bej1 says1    
8,after #afgj he accidentally found out 
by the glass of his spectacles1 upon    

which some aquafortis had fallen1       
becoming quite soft1 the art of etching 
on glass40    #bbc ,breslauer ,sammlung 
zur ,natur- und ,medicin-,geschichte4   
#agbe1  ,january1 p4 #ajg4 8,invention  
of a powerful acid by which figures of  
every kind1 according to fancy1 can be  
etched upon glass4--,when  spiritus     
nitri per distillationem has passed into
 the recipient1  ply it with a strong   
fire1 and when well dephlegmated1 pour  
it1 as it  corrodes ordinary glass1 into
 a ,waldenburg flask2 then throw into it
 a  pulverised green ,bohemian emerald1 
otherwise called hesphorus 7which1  when
 reduced to powder and heated1 emits in 
the dark a green light71  and place it  
in warm sand for twenty-four hours4     
,take a piece of glass  well cleaned and
 freed from all grease by means of a    
lye2 put a border  of wax round it1     
about an inch in height1 and cover it   
all equally over  with the above acid4  
,the longer you let it stand the better1
 and at the  end of some time the glass 

will be corroded1 and the figures1 which
  have been traced out with sulphur and 
varnish1 will appear as if raised  above
 the plane of the glass40 ,this receipt 
has been inserted by ,h4  ,krunitz in   
his konomische ,encyclopedie1 xi4 p4    
#fgh4    #bbd ,klindworth covers the    
glass with the etching ground of the    
engravers2 but in the ,annals of        
,chemistry for #agij1 ii4 p4 #ada1 a    
solution of isinglass in water1 or a    
turpentine oil varnish1 mixed  with a   
little white lead1 is recommended4      
,complete instructions for  acquiring   
this art may be found there also4       
#bbe ,de ,lapidibus1 sect4 #ai4    #bbf 
,see ,ephemerid4 ac ,nat4 ,cur4 #afgf1  
,dec4 #a1 obs4 #ac1 p4 #cb2 and         
,elsholtii ,de ,phosphoris              
,observationes1 ,berol4 #afha1 #dto4    
#bbg ,g4 ,c4 ,kirchmaieri ,de           
,phosphoris et ,natura ,lucis1 necnon de
 ,igne1  ,commentatio ,epistolica4      
,witteberg1 #afhj1 #dto4    #bbh        
,miscellanea ,berolin4 #agaj1 vol4 i4 p4

 #ig4 ,the fluor-spar earth1  or        
phosphoric earth1 as it is called1 which
 in later times has been  found in      
marble quarries1 and which some at      
present consider as an  earth saturated 
with phosphoric acid1 is mentioned by   
the ,swede ,hierne1  in ,prodromus      
,hist4 ,nat4 ,sueci4 ,henkel had never  
seen it4    #bbi ,watson's ,chemical    
,essays1 ii4 p4 #bgg4    #bcj           
,descriptive ,catalogue of ,tassie's    
,engraved ,gems1 ,lond4 #agia1 #b  vols4
 #dto1 i4 p4 #ea4          ,,soap4      
,that the first express mention of soap 
occurs in ,pliny and ,galen1 and  that  
the former declares it to be an         
invention of the ,gauls1 though he      
prefers the ,german to the ,gallic      
soap#bca1 has already been remarked  by 
many4 ,pliny says that soap#bcb was made
 of tallow and ashes2 that  the best was
 made of goats' tallow and the ashes of 
the beech-tree1 and  that there were two
 kinds of it1 hard and soft4 ,the author
 of a work on  simple medicines1 which  

is ascribed to ,galen1 but which however
 does  not seem to have been written by 
that author1 and of which only a ,latin 
translation has been printed1 speaks of 
soap being made by a mixture  of oxen1  
goats'1 or sheep's tallow1 and a lye of 
ashes strengthened  with quicklime4 ,he 
says the ,german soap was the purest1   
the fattest1  and the best1 and that the
 next in quality was the ,gallic#bcc4   
,this  account corresponds more exactly 
with the process used in ,germany at    
present2 whereas the ,french use mineral
 alkali1 and instead of tallow1  employ 
oil1 which appears to be a later        
invention4 ,pliny in his  description   
does not speak of quicklime2 but as he  
mentions a mixture  of goats' tallow and
 quicklime a little before1 it is       
probable that  the use of the latter was
 then known at ,rome4 ,gallic and       
,german soap  are often mentioned by    
later writers#bcd1 as well as by the    
,arabians1  sometimes on account of     
their external use as a medicine1 and   

sometimes  on account of their use in   
washing clothes4 ,the latter purpose is 
that  for which soap is principally     
employed in modern times2 but it does   
not  seem to have been the cause of     
,german soap being introduced at ,rome4 
,washing there was the occupation of    
indigent scourers1 who did not give     
themselves much trouble concerning      
foreign commodities4 ,the ,german  soap1
 with which1 as ,pliny tells us1 the    
,germans coloured their hair  red1 was  
imported to ,rome for the use of the    
fashionable ,roman ladies  and their    
gallants4 ,there is no doubt that the   
pil ,mattiac1 which  ,martial recommends
 as a preventive of gray hair#bce2 the  
caustica  spuma with which the ,germans 
dyed their hair#bcf2 and the ,batavian  
froth or lather which the ,romans       
employed for colouring theirs#bcg1  were
 ,german soap4 ,it is probable that the 
,germans tinged it with those  plants   
which were sent to ,rome for dyeing the 
hair#bch2 and according  to the modern  

manner of speaking1 it was more properly
 a kind of pomade  than soap4    ,it    
appears that the ,romans at first       
considered hair-soap as an ointment     
made from ashes2 for we read in various 
passages of ancient authors1  that the  
hair was dyed by means of ashes1 or an  
ointment made of ashes  and a certain   
kind of oil4 ,it is however possible    
that they may have  had such an         
ointment1 which undoubtedly would be of 
a saponaceous  nature1 before they were 
acquainted with the ,german soap1 or    
that they  imitated the ,german pomade  
with different variations#bci4    ,as   
soap is everywhere used for washing at  
present1 a question arises  what        
substitutes were employed before it was 
invented4 ,those with which  ,i am      
acquainted ,i shall mention and         
endeavour to illustrate4 ,they are  all 
still used1 though not in general2 and  
they are all of a soapy  nature1 or at  
least have the same effects as soap2 so 
that we may say  the ancients used soap 

without knowing it4    ,our soap is     
produced by a mixture of lixivious salts
 and tallow1 by  which means the latter 
becomes soluble in water4 ,the greater  
part of  the dirt on our linen and      
clothes consists of oily perspiration or
  grease1 or dust which that grease     
attracts1 and which either cannot  be   
washed out1 or1 but very imperfectly1 by
 water alone4 ,but if warm  water1 to   
which lixivious salts have in any manner
 been added1 be  taken1 and if dirty    
cloth be rubbed in it1 the greasy dirt  
unites with  the salts1 becomes         
saponaceous1 and is so far soluble in   
water that it  may be washed out4 ,there
 are also natural juices which are of a 
soapy  quality1 in the state in which we
 find them1 and which can be employed   
in the stead of artificial soap4 ,of    
this kind is the gall of animals  and   
the sap of many plants4 ,the former     
being less strong in its effects  on    
account of its slimy nature1 is used at 
present particularly for  coloured      

stuffs1 the dye of which is apt to fade4
 ,as far as ,i know1  however1 it was   
not employed by the ancients#bdj1 but it
 is certain  that in washing they used  
saponaceous plants4    ,in the remotest 
periods it appears that clothes were    
cleaned by being  rubbed or stamped upon
 in water1 without the addition of any  
substance  whatever4 ,we are told by    
,homer1 that ,nausicaa and her          
attendants washed  their clothes by     
treading upon them with their feet in   
pits1 into which  they had collected    
water#bda4 ,the epithet black1 which the
 poet gives  to the water1 might induce 
one to conjecture that it had been mixed
  with ashes1 which would convert it    
into a lye2 but where were the ashes  to
 be found8 ,had they brought them along 
with them1 the bard1 where  he before   
enumerates everything that they carried 
with them1 and even  oil1 would not have
 failed to mention them2 and such a     
conjecture is  rendered entirely        
groundless by his applying the same     

epithet to pure  water1 in other places1
 where nothing can be supposed to have  
coloured  it#bdb4 ,water1 when it stands
 in deep pits1 reflects so few rays of  
light1 that in a poetical sense it may  
very properly be called black4    ,we   
find however mention made at later      
periods of ashes1 and a lye of  ashes   
employed for washing2 but ,i think very 
seldom1 and ,i do not know  how old the 
use of them may be4 ,according to       
,julius ,pollux1 konia1  mentioned by   
,aristophanes and ,plato1 was a         
substance used for washing2  and he says
 expressly1 that we are to understand by
 it a lye of ashes4  ,this ,i mention   
for the sake of those1 who1 like me1    
place little  confidence in the terms of
 art given in dictionaries4 ,with the   
above  lye1 oil- and wine-jars were     
cleaned#bdc2 and it was employed also   
for  washing the images of the gods#bdd4
 ,the method of strengthening the  lye  
by means of unslaked lime was known1 at 
any rate1 in the time of  ,paulus       

gineta2 but it appears that the ,romans 
were not acquainted with  the salt      
itself1 which is procured by dissolving 
common wood-ashes in  water3 ,i mean1   
they did not understand the art of      
producing it in a dry  solid form1 or of
 boiling potashes4    ,on the other     
hand1 that fixed lixivious salt1 the    
mineral which nature  presents in many  
of the southern countries1 was long     
known and used in  washing4 ,this was   
the nitrum1 or1 as the people of ,attica
 pronounced  it1 the litrum1 of the     
ancients1 as has already been remarked  
by  others#bde4 ,it would however be    
worth the trouble to investigate the    
proofs still further4 ,by examining them
 with more mineralogical and  chemical  
knowledge than have hitherto been       
employed for that purpose1  they might  
be further strengthened1 and serve to   
illustrate many  obscure passages4 ,for 
my part1 ,i have neither leisure nor    
room here  to undertake such a task1    
though ,i have collected many           

observations  relative to that subject4 
,it is certain at any rate1 that the    
ancients  employed nitrum for washing1  
and it is evident from the testimony of 
various authors1 that it was much used  
in the baths#bdf4    ,that the people of
 ,egypt1 in the time of ,pliny1 made    
mineral alkali  also from the ashes of  
some plants1 we have reason to conclude1
 because  he says that it was necessary 
to put the ,egyptian nitre into vessels 
well-corked1 else it became liquid4     
,natural alkali is never liable to  do  
so1 unless it be very much burnt2 and as
 no reason is assigned for  its assuming
 that form1 we may believe that the     
,egyptian alkali was the  strongly burnt
 ashes of those plants which are still  
used in ,egypt for  making salt1 and    
perhaps the same with which the         
,spaniards were made  acquainted by the 
,arabians1 and which they cultivate for 
making soda4    ,strabo speaks of an    
alkaline water in ,armenia1 which was   
used by the  scourers for washing       

clothes#bdg4 ,of this kind also must    
have been  the lake ,ascanius1 which is 
mentioned by ,aristotle#bdh1 ,antigonus 
,carystius#bdi1 and ,pliny#bej4 ,it is  
worthy of remark1 that the  ancients    
made ointments of this mineral alkali   
and oil1 but not hard  soap1 though by  
these means they approached nearer to   
the invention  than the old ,germans in 
their use of wood-ashes2 for dry solid  
soap  can be made with more ease from   
the mineral than the vegetable alkali2  
and when ,hungarian1 ,french1 and       
,german soap are of equal goodness1 the 
last does more credit to the            
manufacturers because they cannot employ
  the mineral alkali4 ,i shall here     
observe1 that this alkali was used for  
washing by the ,hebrews1 and that it    
occurs in the sacred writings under  the
 name of borith#bea4    ,the cheapest   
however1 and the most common article    
used for washing1  was the urine of men 
and animals4 ,when this excrement       
becomes old1 the  alkali disengages     

itself1 which may be perceived by its   
ftid smell2  and such alkalised urine   
being warmed1 and employed to wash      
greasy  clothes1 produces the same      
effects as the nitrum of the ancients4  
,it  is still used for the like purpose 
in our cloth manufactories4    ,to      
procure a supply of it1 the ancient     
washers and scourers placed at  the     
corners of the streets1 vessels which   
they carried away after they  had been  
filled by the passengers1 who were at   
liberty to use them2 and  the practice  
of having such conveniences was         
certainly more decent than  that of     
employing the walls of churches and     
other buildings1 which the  police of   
,dresden forbade some years ago1 but    
with no effect4 ,at ,rome1  that which  
at present spoils and renders filthy our
 noblest edifices1  was converted to    
use4 ,when clothes were washed1 they    
were trod upon  with the feet1 as was   
the case in the cloth manufactories at  
,leeds1  ,halifax1 and other places of  

,england1 where the urine was collected 
by servants1 and sold by measure to the 
manufacturers under the name  of old    
lant4 ,on account of the disagreeable   
smell attending their  employment1      
scourers at ,rome were obliged to reside
 either in the  suburbs or in some of   
the unfrequented streets#beb4    ,my    
readers here will undoubtedly call to   
remembrance the source of  taxation     
devised by the emperor ,vespasian1 who1 
as his historians tell  us1 urin        
vectigal commentus est#bec4 ,it is not  
certainly known  in what manner this    
impost was regulated4 ,did the emperor  
declare  that article1 which was not    
subterraneum rarius1 to be a regale as  
a res derelicta1 so that the scourers   
were obliged to pay him what  he thought
 a reasonable sum proportioned to the   
benefit which they  derived from it8 ,or
 was it imposed only as a poll-tax8 ,for
 every tax  upon anything indispensably 
necessary to all1 is1 to speak in the   
language of finance1 the same as what is

 called a poll-tax1 or a tax  paid by   
every one who has a head4 ,the latter   
conjecture is the most  probable1       
especially as this tax continued two    
centuries1 till the time  of            
,anastasius1 and as we read also of     
vectigal pro urina jumentorum et  canum1
 which was exacted from every person who
 kept cattle4 ,vespasian  therefore was 
not fortunate in the choice of a name   
for his tribute1  which on that account 
must have been undoubtedly more         
detested4 ,a  poll-tax at present is    
called by those who do not speak        
favourably of  it1 the ,turkish-tax1    
because the ,turks impose it on all     
unbelievers4  ,when it was introduced by
 ,louis ,,xiv4 in #afie1 he called it la
  capitation4    ,of plants with a      
saponaceous juice1 the ancients1 at any 
rate1 used one  instead of soap2 but it 
is difficult or rather impossible to    
define  it4 ,i shall not therefore      
content myself merely with transcribing 
the  passages where it is mentioned1 but

 ,i shall arrange whatever ,i can find  
respecting it in such a manner1 as1     
according to my opinion1 the names  of  
plants ought to be explained in         
dictionaries4    1 ,struthium1 ,latinis 
,herba lanaria1 et ,plinio etiam        
,radicula4        #a4 ,est planta       
spinosa1 ,theophrastus1 ,plinius4       
#b4 ,grata aspectu1 sed sine odore1     
,theophrastus1 ,plinius4        #c4     
,folio ole1 ,plinius2 vel papaveris     
,heraclei1 ,theophrastus4        #d4    
,caule ferulaceo1 tenui1 lanuginoso1    
eduli1 ,plinius4        #e4 ,radice     
magna1 acri1 medicinali1 ,plinius1      
,dioscorides2         spumescente1      
,lucian4        #f4 ,floret state1      
,theophrastus4 ,plinius2 sed semen      
nullum1         ,plinius4        #g4    
,nascitur saxosis et asperis locis1     
,plinius4        #h4 ,sponte1 prcipue in
 ,asia ,syriaque2 trans ,euphratem      
laudatissima2         sativa ubique1    
,plinius4        #i4 ,radix conditur ad 
lanas lavandas1 ,theophrastus1 ,plinius1

         ,dioscorides1 ,columella1 et   
alii4        #aj4 ,herba ovibus lac     
auget1 ,plinius4    ,the above is all   
that the ancients have told us          
respecting this plant4  ,the information
 is indeed very scanty1 and at the same 
time it is not  altogether certain2 but 
even if it were1 it would be sufficient 
only  to confute some conjectures1 but  
not to establish the systematic name  of
 the plant4 ,i call the properties of it
 described to us uncertain3  first1     
because ,i do not know whether ,pliny   
did not mean to distinguish  the wild   
plant from that which was cultivated1   
and many have understood  as alluding to
 the former that which ,i have applied  
to both3 secondly1  because the words of
 ,theophrastus1 being in one passage    
evidently  corrupted1 will admit of     
various constructions2 and because in   
another1  on account of some exceptions1
 of which he speaks1 they appear at     
least to me unintelligible3 thirdly1    
because ,pliny1 who gives us the  best  

account of it1 is the only author who   
calls the struthium or  soap-plant      
radicula1 a name by which is rather to  
be understood a  dye-plant of the same  
kind as madder4 ,we have reason         
therefore to  suspect that he has       
confounded the properties of the two    
plants1  especially as the fourth       
property was ascribed by others to a    
,rubia1  ,asperula1 or ,galium1 which   
was cultivated in ,syria1 and named     
often radicula ,syriaca4 ,on the other  
hand1 this diminutive is very           
ill-suited to a root which ,pliny       
himself calls large4    ,the words of   
that author1 8tingenti1 quicquid sit cum
 quo decoquatur10  have been by some    
explained as if he meant that the       
struthium was  a dye-plant1 though as a 
soapy plant it must have been destitute 
of  colour2 and they have hence deduced 
a proof that ,pliny confounded the      
struthium with the radicula used in     
dyeing4 ,on the other hand1  ,hardouin  
reads unguentis instead of tingenti4 ,he

 assures us that he  found the former in
 manuscripts1 and is of opinion that the
 sap of the  struthium was used also for
 ointments4    ,in my opinion1 however1 
tingenti must be retained2 and the      
meaning  is that when cloth was to be   
dyed it was necessary to prepare it  for
 that purpose by soaking it and washing 
it with the sap of this  plant4 ,this he
 expressly tells us himself2            
8tingentibus et radicula  lanas         
prparat40 ,it is probable that the      
ancient dyers mixed their  dye-liquors  
with the juice of the struthium1 for the
 same purpose as  bran and the seeds of 
fenugreek are added to dye-liquors at   
present2  that is1 to render them       
thicker and more slimy1 in order that   
the  colouring particles may be longer  
and more equally suspended in or        
diffused through them#bed4 ,the words   
quidquid sit cum quo decoquatur  will   
now become intelligible4 ,whatever may  
be employed for dyeing1 says  the       
author1 the addition of the juice of the

 struthium is serviceable4    ,as what  
has been said contains nothing that can 
enable us to determine  the genus of the
 struthium according to the rules of    
botany1 we may  be allowed to conjecture
 that it was one of those plants still  
used  for the like purpose in ,italy and
 other neighbouring countries4 ,fuchs   
thinks it must have been the ,saponaria 
officinalis 7soap-wort71 the  roots of  
which indeed contain a saponaceous juice
 that readily changes  the saliva into  
froth4 ,the root was employed for that  
purpose by the  impostor in ,lucian2 and
 the juice is used at present for       
cleaning wool  and cloth4 ,in the       
,helvetian ,alps1 the sheep1 before they
 are shorn1 are  washed with a decoction
 of the plant and its roots2 and with a 
mixture  of ashes it serves for cleaning
 linen4 ,the taste of it is so sharp1   
that it is compared by some to that of  
the small burnet-saxifrage4    ,this    
,saponaria officinalis however differs  
too much from the  remaining            

properties#bee of the struthium4 ,its   
root is as thick  only as a quill1 or at
 most as one's finger4 ,the stem1 which 
is three  feet in height1 throws out    
many branches1 and cannot be called     
caulis  ferulaceus1 tenuis4 ,it is not  
rough and prickly1 and1 instead of      
growing in poor rocky soil1 it is rather
 fond of deep ground and the  borders of
 corn-fields4    ,we may therefore      
conjecture with more probability that   
the ,gypsophila  ,struthium1 ,linn4#bef1
 a plant still used for washing in the  
lower  part of ,italy and ,spain1 is the
 struthium of the ancients4 ,this       
opinion acquires some strength by its   
being adopted among the ,italians  and  
,spaniards2 and because the plant1 as   
,pliny says1 grows in a rocky  soil and 
on the mountains4 ,it is also still     
called lanaria by the  ,calabrian       
peasants4 ,it has a tender stem2 its    
leaves are so like those  of the        
olive-tree that they might be compared  
to them by those who  are not botanists2

 and its root is large1 but it is       
neither rough nor  prickly4 ,this       
contradiction may be accounted for by   
supposing that  ,pliny1 through a       
mistake1 of which ,i have already       
accused him1 ascribed  falsely to the   
soap-plant the prickly or rough leaves  
of the dye-plant  which had an affinity 
to madder4 ,but even after this         
explanation there  still remains to be  
got over a dubious passage of           
,theophrastus1 who  indeed seems to make
 the plant prickly also4    ,i do not   
therefore place entire confidence in    
this opinion2 but suspect  rather that  
we shall receive from the ,east an      
account of a plant1 still  used there1  
which will correspond more exactly with 
the soap-plant  described by ,pliny4 ,i 
am inclined to think that ,i have       
already found  some precursory          
information respecting it in ,bauhin1   
who says that in  ,syria there is       
another kind of soap-plant1 which has   
prickly leaves  like the thistle1 and a 

thick root of a sharp acrid taste4 ,the 
root1 he  adds1 was employed for washing
 clothes and wool2 and the confectioners
  of ,damascus formed of it1 with honey 
and wine1 a kind of sweetmeat  which    
appeared as white as if it had been made
 of the finest flour and  sugar1 and    
which was so hard that it could scarcely
 be broken with the  teeth4 ,this plant 
seems to belong to those1 the           
cultivation of which  was abandoned in  
,europe1 after the use of them was      
rendered superfluous  by newer          
discoveries4    ,that the ancients      
employed their struthium for washing    
wool is  confirmed by various           
authorities2 but ,i do not remember to  
have found  any evidence of its being   
used for cleaning clothes which had been
  worn4 ,salmasius however quotes a     
passage from the works1 unfortunately   
never printed1 of the old chemist       
,zosimus1 in which he gives directions  
for restoring1 by means of the          
soap-plant1 the lustre of pearls which  

have become yellow#beg4    ,the meal of 
many kinds of seeds may be used for     
washing1 as well as  various kinds of   
bran4 ,that of almonds1 which on account
 of its oil is  remarkably soft1 is     
employed at present for washing the     
hands by those  who are desirous of     
having a white delicate skin4 ,cloth1   
the colours of  which easily fade1 and  
which will neither endure soap nor hard 
rubbing1  may be washed extremely well  
with bran4 ,our fullers1 therefore1 and 
stocking manufacturers use oat-1 barley-
 and bean-meal1 especially when  they   
wish the cloth to be slowly milled4     
,whether the ancients employed  bran in 
the same manner ,i have not had an      
opportunity of examining4  ,i am rather 
inclined to think that they did2 and    
there is a passage  of ,galen which     
seems to allude to the use of           
bean-meal#beh4 ,in all  probability the 
beans of the ancients were the smallest 
and roundest  variety of our            
horse-beans1 or those used as fodder4   

,in the last place1 the ancients1 at    
those periods of which ,i speak1  used  
fullers-earth much oftener than it is   
used at present4 ,till the  countries   
where it was procured be described by   
travellers who unite  a knowledge of    
antiquities with skill in mineralogy1   
the species of  this earth1 mentioned in
 the works of ancient authors1 cannot be
  distinguished with accuracy4 ,but from
 the purposes to which they were        
applied1 we can with certainty conclude 
that they must have been partly  of the 
nature of marl and partly of the nature 
of soapstone4    ,according to the then 
usual method of washing1 by which the   
clothes  were stamped with the feet1 the
 cret fulloni1 as ,pliny#bei  calls     
them1 acted in the same manner as our   
fullers-earth employed  at present1     
partly by scouring and partly by        
absorbing the greasy  dirt4 ,the        
ancients1 after their manner1 gave them 
names only from the  countries where    
they were produced2 and hence we find   

mention made  of terra ,cimolia#bfj1    
,chia#bfa1 ,lemnia#bfb1 ,sarda#bfc1     
,umbria#bfd1 ,samia1 ,tympha#bfe1 and   
others4 ,many of them1 like  that       
brought from ,sardinia1 could not be    
used in cleaning coloured  stuffs2 and  
for this reason1 perhaps1 because some  
colours would not  stand hard scouring1 
or endure their caustic nature4    ,the 
fullers1 however1 did not use these     
earths merely for washing1 but  also for
 whitening many kinds of cloth4 ,this   
was done by rubbing fine  white earth   
into the cloth1 in the same manner as   
soldiers do to give  some parts of their
 dress a brighter appearance4 ,a like   
process is  employed by glovers and     
those who wash or clean leather4 ,the   
earth used  by the latter is a          
yellowish-white iron-ochre1 called from 
the purpose  to which it is applied     
collar-earth#bff4 ,when a perfect white 
was  required1 a kind of white          
potters-clay or marl was employed2 and  
the  closer it adhered to the cloth1 and

 the less easily it could be rubbed     
out1 it was so much the better4 ,the    
poor at ,rome rubbed it over their      
clothes on festivals1 in order that they
 might appear brighter#bfg4    ,it      
deserves here to be particularly        
remarked1 that some of these  earths1   
such as that of ,chios1 were employed in
 the baths instead of  nitrum2 and this 
is the case in the ,levant still4 ,de la
 ,valle extols  in this respect a kind  
of reddish earth1 and says that people  
of the  first distinction never bathe   
without it4 ,perfumes are often mixed   
with  it2 and it is formed into small   
balls1 which when used are suffered to  
dissolve in the water4 ,different kinds 
of vessels1 and particularly  those in  
which wine and oil had been kept1 were  
cleansed with these  earths also#bfh4   
,glass flasks which have had oil in     
them1 cannot be  cleansed better or more
 speedily than by shaking in them a     
mixture  of fullers-earth or            
potters-clay4 ,when these are not to be 

had1  blotting-paper may be used4 ,the  
oil is absorbed by the earth or the     
paper1 and with them can be easily      
washed out4    ,to render cloth         
perfectly white1 it was also fumigated  
with sulphur by  the fullers1 who were  
not ignorant that many colours were     
destroyed by  its vapours#bfi4 ,we are  
told by ,apuleius that the wife of a    
scourer  concealed her gallant under a  
vessel of basket-work1 over which cloth 
used to be laid to whiten by the effects
 of sulphur kindled under it4  ,our     
washer-women employ a cask in this mode 
of bleaching1 and our  clothiers a small
 close apartment1 in which the wet cloth
 is suspended  upon hooks4    ,pliny has
 described the method of washing used at
 ,rome1 but many  things respecting it  
appear to me obscure#bgj4 ,the cloth was
 first  washed with ,sardian earth2 it  
was then fumigated with sulphur1 and    
afterwards rinsed with real ,cimolian   
earth4 ,the word desquamatur was        
undoubtedly a term of art1 which cannot 

be further explained1 because  we are   
unacquainted with the operation to which
 it alludes4 ,pliny seems  to have been 
particular in mentioning real ,cimolian 
earth1 because the  false kind became   
black by the steam of the sulphur which 
the cloth  absorbed4 ,was it adulterated
 with some metallic oxide or with white 
lead8 ,it was dear enough to induce     
people to mix it with such articles2    
and in that case it must necessarily    
have become black4    ,the expression   
funditur sulphure seems to be attended  
with no  less difficulty4 ,in comparing 
the different readings1 ,i find that    
the oldest editions have offunditur1    
which has been changed into  effunditur1
 and lastly into funditur4 ,it is       
probable however that  instead of       
offunditur we ought to read offenditur1 
which would  make the whole clear4 ,i am
 much surprised that this reading was   
not  adopted by ,hardouin4 ,as ,pliny   
says in other parts of his work         
8offendit  stomachum10 and 8offendit    

aciem oculorum10 he might undoubtedly   
have  applied that word to the earth and
 its colour4    ,fast colours1 which the
 acid of sulphur might render pale1 but 
could  not entirely destroy1 would by   
washing with ,cimolian earth be improved
  or rather restored1 as the earth would
 absorb and carry off the acid4  ,there 
was also another kind of earth 7saxum7  
which was useful in the  preparation of 
cloth fumigated with sulphur1 but which 
injured the  dye1 probably because it   
was too calcareous1 and which was       
perhaps our  common chalk4    ,i do not 
intend to treat here of the whole art of
 ,roman fullers1 which  belongs rather  
to the history of weaving or            
manufacturing cloth in  general2 but ,i 
hope ,i shall be forgiven if ,i add the 
few following  observations4 ,the       
fullers received the cloth as it came   
from the loom1  in order that it might  
be scoured1 walked and smoothed4 ,it was
 walked  by being stamped upon with the 
feet4 ,the rough wool raised by this    

operation was combed off1 partly with   
the skin of a hedgehog1 and  partly with
 the tops of some plants of the thistle 
kind1 in order to  give the cloth a nap4
 ,shearing seems not then to have been  
known3 ,i  have at least met with no    
passage where it is mentioned3 and the  
case  is the same with the use of       
presses2 which1 in my opinion1 were not 
invented till the sixteenth century4    
,the whole process of smoothing  seems  
to have consisted in making the wool or 
nap lie as evenly as  possible one way1 
which certainly must have given to the  
cloth a much  better appearance4    ,as 
cloth at present is more dressed and    
shorn on one side than another1  the    
ancient fullers prepared theirs in the  
like manner2 so that clothes  could be  
turned1 after the inside of them had    
been new dressed4 ,whether  they made   
felt1 also1 ,i have not yet inquired2   
but ,i conjecture that  the             
manufacturing it was the occupation of  
those called lanarii1  coactores1 and   

coactilarii4    ,the occupation of the  
fullers was at ,rome very extensive1 and
 afforded  employment to a great number 
of people1 but it at length entirely    
decayed4 ,schttgen is of opinion that it
 belongs to those arts which  have been 
lost4 ,but other writers have declared  
arts which are  exercised now in greater
 perfection than formerly to be lost1   
merely  because they were not acquainted
 with them2 or because1 on account of   
the alterations they have undergone1    
they did not know where to find  them4  
,all the different operations of fulling
 have become so complex by  new methods1
 improvements1 and inventions1 that they
 can no longer be  conducted by one man2
 and the whole business has for that    
reason been  separated or divided into  
several distinct branches4    ,the      
scouring of cloth when it comes from the
 loom1 was1 together with  walking1     
separated from the rest1 after the      
invention of the walk-mill4  ,how old   
that invention may be1 ,i cannot        

accurately determine2 but we  find it   
mentioned in the beginning of the       
thirteenth1 and even at the  end of the 
tenth century4 ,such a mill formerly was
 call fullencium1  or molendinum cum    
fullone#bga4 ,the dressing and smoothing
 of cloth1  since the invention of      
shearing and pressing1 requires so much 
art1  that these operations can be      
performed only by skilful workmen1 who  
are  called cloth-shearers or           
cloth-dressers4 ,the scouring of cloth  
dirtied  in manufacturing1 is by the    
invention of soap1 bleaching1 and other 
processes1 become so easy that it can be
 performed by women4 ,the ,romans  for  
the most part wore a white dress made in
 the form of a cloak2 which  indeed1 as 
shirts were not then used1 must have    
often stood in need of  being           
cleaned#bgb4 ,we1 on the other hand1    
wear in general short close  clothes of 
coloured cloth2 which by the fashion in 
which they are made1  are less exposed  
to be dirtied2 and we are more          

accustomed also to use  clothes of linen
 or cotton1 which can be washed with    
much less labour4  ,felt1 which is      
employed almost for hats alone1 is      
manufactured by our  hat-makers4        
,whoever takes a general view of all    
these employments  together1 will be    
readily convinced that they maintain    
more people1 and  in a better manner1   
than the whole ars fullonia did at      
,rome4    ,the principal kinds of soap  
manufactured in this country are1--white
  soap1 composed chiefly of tallow and  
soda1 but for some purposes of  olive   
oil and soda2 yellow soap1 made of      
tallow1 rosin and soda1  a little palm  
oil being occasionally added2 mottled   
soap1 formed  of tallow1 kitchen stuff  
and soda1 its peculiar appearance being 
communicated by dispersing the lees     
through it towards the end of the       
operation2 brown soap1 made from palm   
oil1 rosin and soda4 ,soft soap is  made
 with potash and drying oils1 either    
alone or mixed with tallow1  and other  

coarse fatty matters4 ,the fatty matter 
is mixed with the  alkaline ley1 and the
 whole boiled gently for some time1     
until the fat  is completely saponified1
 which may be known by its becoming     
clear and  transparent1 and its         
susceptibility of being drawn into long 
threads4  ,a quantity of common salt is 
then added to the boiling mixture1 until
  the soap loses its thready character1 
and drops from the spatula in  short    
thick lumps4 ,the soap is then removed1 
either after cooling1 or  at once ladled
 out4 ,common fatty matters1 as tallow1 
fat-oils1 c41  are compounds of a fatty 
acid with a base1 thus resembling salts2
 the  base is a peculiar sweet          
principle1 glycerine2 by ebullition with
  the caustic lye1 the neutral fatty    
compound is decomposed1 the fatty  acid 
combining with the base soda1 and       
forming the soap1 whilst the  glycerine 
with the excess of alkali remains in the
 liquid4    ,the so-called silicated    
soap1 of which large quantities are now 

manufactured1 is made by combining      
silicate of soda with hard soap  in the 
hot and pasty state2 in this way from   
#aj to #cj per cent4 of  the silicate   
may be introduced4 ,such soap possesses1
 according to  ,dr4 ,ure1 very powerful 
detergent qualities1 but it is apt to   
feel  hard and somewhat gritty in use4  
,the silicated soda is obtained by      
boiling ground flints in a strong       
caustic lye4 ,many substances are  used 
to adulterate soap1 such as             
potatoe-starch1 clay1 c41 for which     
improvements1 as they are termed1       
numerous patents have been granted  in  
this country4    ,in ,great ,britain the
 hard kind of soap is chiefly made at   
,liverpool  and ,london1 but in         
considerable quantities also at         
,runcorn1 ,bristol1  ,brentford1 ,hull1 
,bromsgrove1 ,plymouth and ,sethwick1   
and at ,glasgow and  ,leith in          
,scotland2 the soft soap is made        
principally at ,liverpool1  ,glasgow and
 ,bradford2 and silicated soap is       

likewise extensively  manufactured at   
,liverpool4    ,from the excise returns1
 it appears that #adj1gab1ece pounds of 
hard1  #i1ghh1hea pounds of soft1 and   
#c1iba1hfb pounds of silicated soap were
  made in ,england in #ahda2 and        
#aj1gjh1dfd pounds of hard1 and         
#d1ece1jcj  pounds of soft soap in      
,scotland2 making in all #afi1fff1gdb   
pounds1  which is an increase of about  
#cj per cent4 since #ahcbbgc4    ,the   
excise duty on soap was first imposed in
 ,great ,britain in #agaa1  when it was 
fixed at #a;d4 per pound4 ,it was raised
 in #agac to #a;d4  per pound2 and      
again1 in #aghb1 when hard and soft soap
 were first  distinguished1 the former  
being rated at #b;d41 and the latter at 
#a;d4 per pound4 ,in #ahaf1 that on hard
 soap was increased to #c;d4  per pound4
 ,but since ,may #ca1 #ahcc1 the duty   
has been #a;d4 per pound  on hard soap1 
and #a;d4 per pound on soft4 ,in #ahci1 
the number of soap  manufacturers in    
,england was #agg2 in ,scotland #ai2 and

 in ,ireland #ahc4  ,each requires an   
annual license1 costing #dl4    ,an     
allowance of duty is made on soap used  
in the woollen1 silk1 flax1  and cotton 
manufactures1 which in #ahda was granted
 on #aj1aij1afj pounds  of hard1 and    
#i1jij1ahd pounds of soft soap2 the     
allowances amounting  to #gh1aabl4 ,in  
the same year the net amount yielded by 
the soap-duty  to the public revenue was
 #hae1hfdl4 ,ireland is not subject to  
the  soap-duty4    ,the soap-maker was  
formerly subjected to an arbitrary and  
vexatious  interference from the excise2
 but of late years the regulations have 
been greatly improved1 and there is now 
no superintendence of the  process of   
manufacture1 which may be conducted in  
any way and of any  material4           
,,footnotes    #bca ,plin4 xviii4 #ab1  
sect4 #ea1 p4 #dge4    #bcb ,it is      
beyond all doubt that the words sapo and
  were  derived from the ,german sepe1  
which has been retained in the  ,low    
,german1 the oldest and original dialect

 of our language4 ,in  the ,high ,german
 this derivation has been rendered a    
little more  undistinguishable by the p 
being changed into the harder f4 ,such  
changes are common1 as schap1 schaf2    
schip1 schiff1 c4    #bcc ,de           
,simplicibus ,medicaminibus1 p4 #ij1 ,g4
    #bcd ,according to ,aretus ,de      
,diuturnis ,morbis1 ii4 #ac1 p4 #ih1    
soap  appears to have been formed into  
balls4    #bce ,mart4 xiv4 #bg4 ,this   
soap acquired the epithet of ,mattiacum 
from  the name of a place which was in  
,hesse4    #bcf      ,caustica          
,teutonicos accendit spuma capillos1    
,captivis poteris cultior esse          
comis4--,mart4 xiv4 #bf4    ,these lines
 are generally explained in this        
manner3--8,dye thy hair with  soap1 and 
it will become more beautiful than that 
of the ,germans40 ,but  in this case all
 the wit of the advice is lost2 and the 
expression1  8eris cultior quam com     
captiv10 seems to me to be very         
improper4 ,i  should rather translate   

them as follows3--8,let the ,germans dye
 their  hair with pomade2 as they are   
now subdued1 thou mayst ornament thyself
  better with a peruke made of the hair 
of these captives40 ,this was a  piece  
of delicate flattery to ,domitian and   
the ,roman pride4 ,that prince  thought 
he had conquered the ,germans2 and the  
most beautiful ,german  hair1 that which
 was not dyed1 could be procured1       
therefore1 at ,rome1  much easier than  
before4 ,if the title of this epigram   
was written by  ,martial himself1 it    
contains the first mention of the word  
sapo4    #bcg      ,fortior et tortos   
servat vesica capillos1      ,et mutat  
,latias spuma ,batava comas4--,mart4    
viii4 #bc1 #ai4    ,the first line of   
the above proves that people then       
covered their  heads1 in the night-time1
 with a bladder to keep their hair1     
after it  was dressed1 from being       
deranged2 and a bladder was undoubtedly 
as fit  for that use as the nets and    
cauls employed for the like purpose at  

present4    #bch      ,femina canitiem  
,germanis inficit herbis4               
,ovidius ,de ,arte ,amandi1 iii4 #afc4  
#bci      ,valer4 ,max4 i4 #e1 p4 #ace3 
,capillos cinere rutilarunt4      ,ad   
rutilam speciem nigros flavescere       
crines1      ,unguento cineris prdixit  
,plinius auctor4                        
,q4 ,serenus1 ,de ,medic4 iv4 #ef4      
,serenus seems to allude to a passage of
 ,pliny1 xxiii4 #b1 p4 #cjf1 where  he  
speaks of an ointment made from the     
burnt lees of vinegar and oleum         
lentiscinum4 ,the same thing is         
mentioned in ,dioscorides1 v4 #acb1 p4  
#cgi4 ,servius1 n4 iv4 quotes the       
following words from ,cato3 8,mulieres  
nostr cinere capillum ungitabant1 ut    
rutilus esset crinis40 ,alex4           
,trallianus1 #a1 #c1 gives directions   
how to make an ointment for gray  hair  
from soap and the ashes of the white    
flowers of the ,verbascum4  ,the        
,cinerarii1 however1 of ,tertullian1    
lib4 ii4 ad uxor4 #h1 p4 #fda1  seem to 

have been only hair-dressers1 who were  
so called because they  warmed their    
curling-irons among the hot ashes4      
#bdj ,pliny says that spots of the skin 
may be removed by ox-gall4    #bda      
,odyss4 vi4 #ia4    #bdb ,iliad1 ix4    
#ad1 and xvi4 #d4    #bdc ,geopon4 vii4 
#f4--,plin4 xiv4 cap4 #ba4--;,columella1
 xii4 #ej4 #ad4    #bdd ,arnobius1 vii4 
p4 #bcg4    #bde ,the word  in ,pollux  
ought not to have been translated  sapo4
    #bdf ,cicer4 ,ep4 ,fam4 viii4       
#ad4--,pollucis ,onom4 viii4 #i1 #ci2 x4
  #ace4--,ovid4 ,de ,medicam4 ,faciei1  
ver4 #gc et #he4--,phavorini ,dictionar4
 p4  #ebg4 ,gynesius calls clothes      
washed with nitrum1 1 nitro  perfricata4
    #bdg ,lib4 xi4 p4 #hja4    #bdh ,de 
,mirabil4 ,auscult4 c4 #ed4    #bdi     
,hist4 ,mirab4 c4 #afb1 p4 #baf4    #bej
 ,lib4 xxxi4 #aj1 p4 #efd4    #bea ,j4  
,d4 ,michaelis ,commentationes1 #dto1 p4
 #aea4 ,i must mention also  ,c4        
,schoettgenii ,antiquitates ,fulloni1   
,traj4 #agbg1 #hvo4 ,my readers will  do

 me a pleasure if they compare the above
 work with this article4 ,no  one will  
accuse me of vanity when ,i pretend to  
understand the theory  of washing better
 than the learned ,schttgen2 but if ,i  
have explained  the passages which he   
quotes in a more satisfactory manner1   
and turned  them to more advantage1 ,i  
must ascribe this superiority to my     
knowledge  of that art4 ,i shall here   
take occasion to remark1 that there is  
no  subject1 however trifling1 which may
 not be rendered useful1 or at  least   
agreeable1 by being treated in a        
scientific manner2 and to turn  such    
into ridicule1 instead of displaying    
wit1 would betray a want of  judgment4  
#beb ,plin4 xxviii4 #f2 xxviii4         
#h4--,martial4 vi4 ep4 #ic4--;,athenus1 
xi4  p4 #dhd4 ,macrobius1 ii4 #ab1      
speaking of drunken people1 8,dum eunt1 
nulla  est in angiporto amphora1 quam   
non impleant1 quippe qui vesicam plenam 
vini habeant40 ,this passage is quoted  
also in ,joh4 ,sarisberg4 ,polior4      

viii4 #g1 p4 #dgi4    #bec ,sueton4 in  
,vita ,vespas4 viii4 #bc4    #bed       
,porner's ,anleitung zur ,farbekunst1 p4
 #ca4    #bee ,those numbered #c1 #d1   
#e1 #f4    #bef ,this plant was sent by 
,imperati to ,casp4 ,bauhin1 under the  
name  of lanaria veterum2 and the latter
 made it first known in his ,pinax      
,plant4 iv4 p4 #bjf4 ,the former        
described it himself1 and gave a bad    
engraving of it1 in ,hist4 ,nat4 p4     
#hga4 ,lffling found this plant on the  
,spanish mountains1 as well as in the   
neighbourhood of ,aranjuez2 and  he     
relates1 that in the province of ,la    
,mancha the people boil clothes  that   
are to be washed with the root of this  
plant instead of soap4  ,linnus did not 
hesitate to declare the struthium of the
 ancients  and the struthium of his     
system to be the same plant2 and he gave
  his countrymen reason to hope that    
their ,gypsophila fastigiata1  which has
 a great resemblance to it1 might be    
employed in the like  manner4--,amnitat4

 ,academ4 v4 p4 #cbi4    #beg ,salmas4  
ad ,solin4 p4 #hah4 a4    #beh ,de      
,alimentor4 ,facultate1 i4 cap4 #ai4 in 
,op4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cae4    #bei ,lib4    
xvii4 #ah4    #bfj ,pollux4--,plin4     
#bfa ,dioscor4    #bfb ,this terra      
,lemnia is entirely different from      
sealing-earth4 ,see  ,galen4 ,de        
,simplic4 ,med4    #bfc ,plin4    #bfd  
,plin4 ,the ,sarda was cheap1 and       
purchased by measure2 the  ,umbria was  
dearer1 and sold by weight4    #bfe     
,theophrast4 ,dioscor4    #bff ,i here  
mean that it got its name from being    
employed to clean  that piece of armour1
 formerly used1 which covered only the  
breast and  the back1 and which was     
called a koller4 ,the ,swedes also call 
yellow  iron-ochre killerfrg or         
kyllerfarg4    #bfg ,see ,taubmann's    
,annotations to ,plauti ,aulular4 iv4   
sc4 #i1 #f4    #bfh ,geopon4 vii4       
#f4--,plin4 xiv4 cap4 #ba4--;,columella1
 xii4 #ej1 #ad4    #bfi ,pollux1 vii4   
#aa1 #da1 #gae4--,plin4 xxxv4 #ag1 p4   

#gai2 and xxxv4 #ae1  p4                
#gad4--;,isidor4 ,origin4 xvi4 #a4      
#bgj ,lib4 xxxv4 cap4 #ag1 sec4 #eg4    
#bga ,du ,cange in his ,glossarium4     
#bgb ,i acknowledge myself one of those 
who cannot form a proper idea  of the   
,roman toga4 ,it is certain that the    
weavers made each piece  of cloth only  
large enough to be fit for this article 
of dress2 or  that when one toga was    
wove1 it was cut from the loom1 in order
  that another might be begun4 ,on this 
account we find so often the            
expressions texere vestes1 texere togas4
 ,it appears1 also1 that the  toga1 when
 it came from the hands of the weaver1  
was quite ready for  use2 and we        
therefore never read of tailors1 but    
when torn clothes were  to be mended4   
,the toga had no sleeves1 and perhaps no
 seam4 ,if it  was stitched along the   
edges before1 half-way up1 the          
assistance of a  tailor would not be    
necessary for that purpose4 ,it was     
bound round the  body with a girdle1 and

 fastened with clasps4 ,such a mantle   
could be  easily made and easily        
scoured4 ,one may now readily comprehend
 why the  ,roman authors never mention  
cloth manufactories1 or cloth1 among the
  articles of commerce1 but speak only  
of clothes2 and why we never read  of   
cloth being measured4    #bgc           
,waterston's ,encyclopdia of ,commerce4 
,,madder4      ,this plant1 the root of 
which is either dried and bruised1 or   
used  fresh1 for dyeing red1 has a weak1
 square1 jointed stem2 and rises to  the
 height of eight feet when supported1   
otherwise it creeps along the  ground4  
,at each joint there are from four to   
six leaves1 about three  inches in      
length1 almost an inch broad in the     
middle1 and pointed at  both ends4 ,the 
upper side of the leaves is smooth2 but 
the middle nerve  of the under side is  
armed with small rough prickles2 and    
others of  the same kind may be found on
 the stem4 ,on this account1 the leaves1
  which drop annually1 adhere readily to

 other bodies1 like those of the        
asperugo4 ,the branches1 which in ,june 
bear flowers divided into four  yellow  
leaves1 proceed from the joints4 ,the   
fruit1 a kind of berry1  which1 towards 
the time of its ripening1 though that   
seldom happens  among us1 is first of a 
brownish colour1 and then black1        
contains a  round seed4 ,the roots grow 
sometimes to the thickness of one's     
finger1  push themselves deep into the  
earth1 are surrounded by many small     
fibres1 have a yellowish-red pith1 and  
are covered with a black bark  or rind4 
,this plant grows wild in the ,levant1  
as well as in ,italy1 the  southern     
parts of ,france1 and in ,switzerland4  
,the cultivated kind is  well known1 and
 is propagated with much advantage in   
various countries  of ,europe4    ,when 
one compares this short description with
 what ,dioscorides says of  a plant     
which he calls ereuthodanon1 it will be 
readily seen that he  meant our madder4 
,he even compares its long square stem1 

armed with  a great many hooks1 to that 
of the asperugo2 and he tells us that   
the leaves stand in the form of a star  
around the joints4 ,the fruit  was at   
first green1 then red1 and lastly black4
 ,the thin long roots1  adds he1 which  
are red1 serve for dyeing2 and on that  
account the  cultivated kind 7he must   
therefore have been acquainted with the 
wild  sort7 is reared with much benefit 
in ,galilee1 around ,ravenna in ,italy  
and in ,caria1 where it is planted      
either among the olive-trees1 or in     
fields destined for that purpose4 ,it is
 remarked in some manuscripts1  that    
this plant had a name given it by the   
,romans1 which1 as ,marcellus  ,virgil  
observes1 meant the same thing as ,rubia
 sativa1 and that  it was called in     
,etruria ,lappa minor1 doubtless        
because1 like the  bur1 it adhered to   
other bodies4 ,on account of the colour 
which it  communicated1 it was called   
also sometimes cinnabaris#bgd4    ,in   
opposition to this asserted identity ,i 

find only one doubt2 namely1  that among
 those plants which1 on account of the  
position of their  leaves1 were called  
stellat1 and which were all so like that
 we must  reduce them to one natural    
order1 there are more sorts1 the roots  
of  which dye red1 and which on that    
account are very improperly called  wild
 madder4 ,why1 therefore1 should the    
plant of ,dioscorides be our  madder1   
and not some other plant of the like    
nature8 ,for this reason1  in my        
opinion3 because the ancients1 who were 
acquainted with all these  plants1 which
 grew wild in their lands1 were equally 
prudent as the  moderns1 and cultivated 
that kind only which was the most       
productive or  beneficial1 viz4 our     
,rubia tinctorum4    ,this opinion will 
be strengthened by comparing the        
accounts given  of that plant by other  
ancient writers4 ,theophrastus agrees   
almost  perfectly with ,dioscorides2 and
 adds1 that it did not grow upright1    
but was fond of reclining4 ,the         

comparison1 therefore1 with the leaves  
of ivy cannot be just2 but that ,i shall
 leave to the critics4 ,pliny  says     
expressly1 that the erythrodanum or     
ereuthodanum was in his  mother-tongue  
called rubia2 and that its red roots    
were used to dye  wool and leather      
red#bge4    ,in the middle ages this    
plant was called varantia1 a name which 
must  have arisen from verantia4 ,the   
latter means the real1 genuine dye2  as 
aurantia signified a golden yellow4     
,till the year #agcf1 this  plant was   
little regarded1 except among dyers1    
farmers and merchants1  who purchased it
 from the farmers1 in order to sell it  
to the dyers  with profit2 and among a  
few herb-dealers and physicians1 who1 on
 the  authority of the ancients1        
ascribed to it eminent virtues1 which   
others  doubted or altogether denied4   
,in the above year1 however1 a property 
of  it was discovered by accident1 as   
usual1 which rendered it an object of   
more attention4 ,john ,belchier1 an     

,english surgeon1 having dined with a   
cotton-printer1 observed that the bones 
of the pork which was brought  to the   
table were red4 ,as he seemed surprised 
at this circumstance1 his  host assured 
him that the redness was occasioned by  
the swine feeding  on the water mixed   
with bran in which the cotton cloth was 
boiled1 and  which was coloured by the  
madder used in printing it4             
,belchier#bgf1 to  whom this effect was 
new1 convinced himself by experiments   
that the red  colour of the bones had   
arisen from the madder employed in      
printing the  cotton1 and from no other 
cause2 and he communicated his discovery
 to  the ,royal ,society1 in a paper    
which was printed in their              
,transactions4    ,this singularity was 
now soon known to all the naturalists1  
several  of whom made new experiments1  
the result of which brought to light    
many truths useful to physiology4       
,besides the roots of madder1 those  of 
the ,galium 7yellow ladies-bed-straw7   

and other plants which  have an affinity
 to madder1 produce the like effects2   
but this is the  case neither with      
saffron nor woad1 nor with many others  
much used in  dyeing4 ,the colouring    
takes place soonest in young animals2   
and is  strongest where the bones are   
hardest and thickest4 ,on the other     
hand1  it does not reach the soft parts2
 appears only a little in the milk2  and
 in general is not perceptible in the   
animal juices#bgg4    ,as the ,english  
calico-printers were acquainted with    
this effect of  madder before it was    
known to naturalists1 it is not         
improbable that it  was known much      
sooner in other places1 where the plant 
has been much  cultivated and used since
 the earliest periods4 ,from what ,j4   
,e4 ,stief  says1 we have reason to     
believe that the people in the          
neighbourhood  of ,breslau1 his native  
city1 who gave the stalks of the madder 
plant  to their cows instead of straw1  
must have first discovered that it      

possessed the property of communicating 
a red colour to the bones#bgh4    ,as   
many truths not yet investigated by     
means of new experiments1 and  which on 
that account have not yet been          
acknowledged1 are concealed  among the  
evidently false assertions to be found  
in the works of the  ancients1 and as   
these works were thrown aside too early1
 before their  contents were properly   
examined1 ,i was induced to suspect that
 some  hints of this colouring property 
might also be mentioned in them1 which  
indeed is the case4    ,we learn from   
the works of ,galen and ,dioscorides1   
that the ancient  physicians remarked   
that the use of certain roots1 which    
they  administered to their patients1   
communicated a colour to their urine    
and excrements2 and this observation has
 been repeated by ,cardan1              
,thurneisser1 ,porta1 ,castor1          
,durantes1 and others4 ,had those       
ancient  physicians1 who often          
prescribed these roots1 and paid        

attention to the  colour of the         
excrements of their patients1 been      
accustomed to open  their bodies when   
they died under their hands1 they would 
have perhaps  remarked1 in human bones1 
what was observed long after in the     
bones of  animals1 when the roots were  
no longer used in medicine2 and what1 if
  ,i am not mistaken1 was never yet     
observed in the bones of the human      
species#bgi4    ,bhmer1 who made        
researches respecting the antiquity of  
this  observation1 found it neither in  
,rombert4 ,dodonus1 ,mich4 ,ettmuller1  
,morin1 ,will4 ,salmon1 nor others1 who1
 however1 speak of coloured urine4  ,in 
his opinion the oldest writer who speaks
 of coloured bones is  ,mizaldus2 but   
what he relates is all taken from the   
treatise of ,lemnius  ,de ,miraculis    
,occultis ,natur2 and the latter        
therefore is the oldest  writer that ,i 
at present can mention as acquainted    
with this property4  ,he was a physician
 in ,zealand1 where madder has been     

cultivated since  the earliest ages1 and
 where he had an opportunity of         
remarking it4  ,he says that the bones  
of animals became red1 as had been      
observed  when the flesh was dressed1 by
 their eating only the leaves1 and not  
the roots4 ,in the first edition of the 
above work1 printed in octavo1  in the  
year #aeei1 which consists of two books1
 this information will  not be found2   
but it may be contained in the second of
 #aefd1 which  comprehends four books4  
,the madder plant is much cultivated in 
,holland1 but ,macquei observes  that   
the ,dutch were first indebted to the   
,flemish refugees for their  knowledge  
of the method of preparing this plant4  
,its culture has often  been attempted  
in ,england1 but always without         
success#bhj4 ,it is  also largely       
cultivated in ,alsace and ,provence in  
,france1 especially  near ,avignon1 in  
,asiatic ,turkey1 and in ,italy2 from   
which places it  is largely exported4   
,the ,turkey and ,provence madder is    

procured from  ,rubia peregrina2 the    
remainder from ,r4 tinctorum4 ,to       
prepare the  root1 which is the part    
used in dyeing1 it is removed from the  
ground1  picked1 dried and ground4      
,madder contains three distinct         
colouring principles2 two of these are  
red1 viz4 alizarine and purpurine1 and  
one1 xanthine1 is yellow4    ,since     
#ahcf1 two new products have been       
introduced into commerce1  which are    
destined to replace madder in the       
operations of dyeing and                
calico-printing2 one is called          
garancine1 the other colorine4          
,garancine  is prepared by washing and  
macerating madder1 and filtering through
  linen4 ,the grounds are then crushed  
and mixed with sulphuric acid1  equal to
 half the amount of madder first        
employed2 the acid should be  somewhat  
dilute4 ,it is then poured hot upon the 
madder1 agitated1 and  when the mixture 
appears intimate1 the temperature is    
raised to #bab1  and maintained for     

about an hour4 ,it is then again mixed  
with water1  filtered1 and thoroughly   
washed4 ,it is finally pressed1 dried   
and  passed through the sieve4 ,this is 
the process patented by ,,mm4 ,lagier1  
,robiquet and ,colin1 in #ahbh4    ,it  
was first introduced into commerce by   
the house of ,lagier and  ,thomas1 at   
,avignon1 in #ahbi4    ,the great       
advantage of garancine over madder is   
that it does not change  the white1 and 
that the bleaching of the stuffs dyed   
with it is reduced  to a mere nothing4  
,hot water or bran are the only means   
used for  clearing them4 ,madder is an  
adjective colour1 that is to say1 one   
which  requires to be combined with some
 basic substance or mordant to render   
its fixture upon the dye-stuff          
permanent4      ,,footnotes    #bgd     
,some also may with equal propriety have
 called it sandyx2  and ,i am of opinion
 that under this name we are to         
understand our  madder1 at least in a   
passage of ,virgil1 ,eclogue iv4 #de1   

where he  says1 8,sponte sua sandyx     
pascentes vestiet agnos40 ,as the wool  
of the  sheep became red by eating the  
madder which grew in the fields1 it     
could be immediately manufactured1      
without dyeing it artificially4 ,we     
manufacture the wool of our brown sheep 
in its natural colour1 and this  was    
done also by the ancients4 ,cloths of   
this kind were the panni  nativi        
coloris1 as they are called by ,pliny1  
xxxvi4 #g2 and the words  of ,martial1  
xiv4 #acc1 allude to a dress made of    
such cloth3      ,non est lana mihi     
mendax1 nec mutor ano1    444 me mea    
tinxit ovis4    ,i shall here take      
occasion to remark1 that the word lutum1
 in  the line preceding the above       
passage of ,virgil1 must be translated  
yellow-weed1 and not woad4 ,the former1 
,reseda luteola1 dyes  yellow2 but the  
latter1 ,isatis1 dyes blue4 ,lutum1     
however1 in  ,csar ,de bello ,gallico1  
v4 #ad1 seems to have been woad3 8,omnes
  se ,britanni luteo inficiunt1 quod et 

cruleum efficit colorem40 ,it  appears1 
therefore1 that both names were liable  
to be confounded in the  ,latin1 as they
 are in the ,german2 unless ,davis be   
right1 who1 instead  of luteo1 reads    
vitro4 ,that sandyx1 in ,virgil1        
signifies a plant  rather than a        
mineral1 is to me far more probable4    
,the author speaks of  plants which the 
sheep ate while feeding 7pascentes72 and
 both the  above-mentioned dye-plants1  
yellow-weed and woad1 grow wild in      
,italy4  ,the opinion of ,pliny1 who    
understood the passage so1 is not to be 
despised2 and therefore the poetical    
account1 that the pasture dyed the      
wool1 is not altogether without         
foundation2 especially as not only the  
roots1 but also the leaves of madder1   
communicate a colour to the solid  parts
 of animal bodies4 ,i will however allow
 that most people readily  fall into the
 error of being led away by imagination2
 and often suppose  that they find in   
passages of ancient authors more than   

others can  discover1 or perhaps even   
than they contain4    #bge ,lib4 xxiv4  
#i1 p4 #cda4    #bgf ,the first account 
of this circumstance may be found in the
  ,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4    
xxxix4 n4 #ddb1 p4 #bhg2 n4 #ddc1 p4    
#bii4  ,among the principal experiments 
made on this subject1 are those of  the 
,italian ,matth4 ,bazanus1 in ,comment4 
,bononiens4 and of ,j4 ,h4 ,benj4       
,bhmer1 in a dissertation entitled      
,radicis ,rubi tinctorum effectus in    
,corpore ,animali1 ,lips4 #agea4 ,other 
works and observations relative to  this
 singularity are mentioned in ,haller's 
,elementa ,physiologi1 v4 p4  #cbg4     
#bgg ,that the ,rubia colours the milk  
has been denied by many1 who  are       
mentioned in ,haller's ,physiol4 viii4  
p4 #cbh4 ,young1 in his ,treatise  ,de  
,lacte1 says only that it has no effect 
on carnivorous animals4  ,being once    
engaged in making experiments on the    
madder dye1 ,i gave  the plant to a cow 
for several days1 and ,i found that the 

milk became  reddish and streaked with  
veins which were of a darker colour than
 the  other parts4 ,that well-known     
farmer1 ,gugenmus1 gave the             
madder-plant1  formed into hay1 to his  
cows1 who ate it readily4 ,their milk   
was  somewhat reddish1 and the butter   
and cheese acquired by these means  in  
winter an agreeable colour4 ,perhaps the
 effects do not take place  when the    
animals get other food at the same time4
 ,or may not the state  of their health 
occasion some difference8 ,this much is 
certain1 that  ,chelidonium             
7swallow-wort7 makes the milk of cows   
that are weak  appear bloody1 while the 
same effect does not follow1 or at least
  immediately1 in those that are strong4
 ,ruellius1 ,de ,natura ,stirpium1      
,basili1 #aedc1 fol4 p4 #egb1 says of   
the ,rubia1 8,folia capillum  tingunt40 
,if he meant that the hair became red by
 eating the leaves1 he  committed a     
mistake4    #bgh ,dissertatio de ,vita  
,nuptiisque ,plantarum4 ,lipsi1 #agda1  

p4 #aa4    #bgi ,i do not know that any 
one ever remarked human bones to have   
been  dyed by madder1 though the        
proposal for using the roots of it      
against  the rachitis might have given  
occasion to make observations on that   
subject4 ,see ,g4 ,l4 ,hansen1 ,diss4 de
 ,rachitide4 ,gotting1 #agfb1 p4 #cf4   
,professor ,arnemann1 who has a very    
numerous and valuable collection of     
skeletons1 and who carefully examined   
many of the like kind during his        
travels1 assured me that he never saw   
any bones that had been dyed by  madder 
in the human body4    #bhj ,on          
,vegetable ,substances1 by the ,society 
for the ,diffusion of  ,useful          
,knowledge4          ,,jugglers1        
,,rope-,,dancers1 ,,automata1 ,,etc4    
,under this title ,i comprehend not only
 those properly called jugglers1  who1  
for the sake of money1 by quick and     
artful motions of their hands1  bodies1 
and limbs1 and by various preparations1 
delude the senses in an  agreeable      

manner1 or practise an innocent         
deception on the spectators1  so that   
they think they hear and see what they  
do not really hear and  see1 but also   
rope-dancers2 people who place their    
bodies in positions  according to all   
appearance dangerous2 and those who for 
pay exhibit  animals taught to perform  
uncommon tricks1 as well as automata1   
which  by their concealed construction  
seem to produce wonderful effects4      
,but is it worth while to inquire into  
the antiquity of all these arts1        
unprofitable to the public1 which form  
the favourite amusements of  the        
populace8 ,the selfish question cui     
bono1 which is often thrown  out by way 
of reproach to men of letters1 but      
oftener to naturalists1  and even to    
jurists1 when1 in their researches1 they
 advance beyond  the beaten track1 ,i   
might easily get rid of by civilly      
telling the  querists to pass over this 
article if they think they are not      
likely to  derive benefit from it4 ,i   

might also apologise for employing my   
time  and labour on this subject1 by    
using the words of a certain historian3 
8,frivola hc fortassis cuipiam et nimis 
levia esse videantur1 sed  curiositas   
nihil recusat40 ,i shall however adopt  
neither of these  methods2 as ,i flatter
 myself that this essay may afford as   
much  amusement as many that are read   
daily2 and that therefore it may not    
only be excused1 but even justified4    
,those arts and employments which are   
most necessary in life were  undoubtedly
 the earliest1 and they have still      
continued to be the most  important2 but
 when these were sufficiently occupied1 
or carried on  by as many persons as    
could live by them1 the rest1 who were  
excluded  from them1 conceived the idea 
of amusing the former when tired with   
their labour1 that by these means they  
might obtain from them a part of  the   
fruits of their industry4 ,i request my 
readers to reflect how many  occupations
 have been devised for no other purpose4

 ,they will find that  several of these 
have acquired a pre-eminence over the   
necessary or  useful arts2 and to the   
same class belong jugglers4    ,all     
political writers tell us1 as a         
fundamental principle of  government1   
that population ought to be increased4  
,this maxim however  is just only under 
certain circumstances2 that is1 when    
employment can  be procured to a greater
 number of inhabitants than a country   
already  possesses4 ,of beggars we have 
to maintain too many4 ,all our trades   
and  occupations are not only filled up 
with workmen1 but overflow4 ,our        
farmers can employ no more labourers1   
and our manufacturers no more  hands    
than they have at present2 our regiments
 are full2 and in every  employment     
there are more candidates and more      
supernumeraries than is  consistent with
 the good of the public4 ,must it not   
therefore give us  pleasure1 when       
necessity invents new means of acquiring
 a livelihood1  although they could be  

dispensed with8 ,it is much better that 
those who  have learned no useful art2  
who have lost their youth in the service
  of others2 or who are destitute1      
through any other cause1 should gain    
their bread by amusing their            
fellow-citizens1 than that they should  
either beg or steal4    ,these arts are 
indeed not unprofitable1 for they afford
 a comfortable  subsistence to those who
 practise them2 but their gain is       
acquired  by too little labour to be    
hoarded up2 and1 in general1 these      
roving  people spend on the spot the    
fruits of their ingenuity2 which is an  
additional reason why their stay in a   
place should be encouraged4 ,i  have    
however known some who saved so much    
from their earnings1 that1  in their old
 age1 they were enabled to enter into   
some business more  certain as well as  
more profitable4    ,people of this     
description will never want             
encouragement and support  while they   
exhibit with confidence anything        

uncommon1 and know how to  suit the     
nature of their amusements to the taste 
of the spectators4  ,the greater part of
 mankind love deception so much1 that   
they reward  liberally those who impose 
on their senses1 as is proved by the    
ready  sale of gilt articles1 artificial
 gems1 and a thousand other things      
which are not in reality what they      
appear to be4 ,i do not know whether    
,montagne is right in considering it as 
a sign of the weakness of our           
judgement1 that we take a pleasure in   
beholding objects on account of  their  
rarity1 novelty1 or the difficulty that 
attends them1 though they  may be       
subservient to no useful purpose#bha4   
,this appears to me to  proceed from    
that innate curiosity which serves as a 
spur to incite us  to enlarge our       
knowledge1 and to engage in researches  
and undertakings  that often lead to    
discoveries of greater importance4      
,jugglers indeed seldom exhibit anything
 that can appear wonderful to  those    

acquainted with natural philosophy and  
mathematics2 but these  even often find 
satisfaction in seeing truths already   
known to them  applied in a new manner2 
and they readily embrace every          
opportunity  of having them further     
illustrated by experiments4 ,many       
however are  too precipitate1 and       
attempt to explain before they have     
sufficiently  examined1 of which the    
golden tooth at the end of the sixteenth
  century1 the conjuring-rod at the end 
of the seventeenth1 and the             
chess-player and speaking-machine at the
 end of the eighteenth1 may  serve as   
instances4 ,but it often happens1 that  
what ignorant persons  first employ1    
merely as a show1 for amusement or      
deception1 is  afterwards ennobled by   
being applied to a more important       
purpose4 ,the  machine with which a     
,savoyard1 by means of shadows1 amused  
children  and the populace1 was by      
,lieberkhn converted into a solar       
microscope2  and to give one example    

more1 which may convince female readers1
 if  ,i can hope for such1 the art of   
making ice in summer1 or in a heated    
oven1 enables guests1 much to the credit
 of their hostess1 to cool the  most    
expensive dishes4 ,the ,indian discovers
 precious stones1 and the  ,european1 by
 polishing1 gives them a lustre4    ,but
 if the arts of juggling served no other
 end than to amuse the most  ignorant of
 our citizens1 it is proper that they   
should be encouraged  for the sake of   
those who cannot enjoy the more         
expensive deceptions  of an opera4 ,they
 answer other purposes however than that
 of merely  amusing2 they convey        
instruction in the most acceptable      
manner1 and  serve as a most agreeable  
antidote to superstition1 and to that   
popular  belief in miracles1 exorcism1  
conjuration1 sorcery1 and witchcraft1   
from which our ancestors suffered so    
severely4 ,wherever the vulgar were     
astonished at the effects of shadows1   
electricity1 mirrors1 and the  magnet1  

interested persons endeavoured by these 
to frighten them2 and  thus misapplied  
the powers of nature to promote their   
own advantage4  ,the pontiffs and their 
clergy ought1 undoubtedly1 to be        
detested for  discouraging experimental 
philosophy4 ,that science they          
considered as a  formidable enemy2 and  
they thought they gained no small       
advantage when  they induced the house  
of ,medici1 by granting it the          
cardinalship1 to  suppress the ,academy 
del ,cimento4 ,when ,gasner exhibited   
his deceptions1  some one proposed to   
him to try his art at ,berlin or        
,gttingen1 and to  drive out there if it
 were only the smallest of all the      
devils2 but  these cities were not      
theatres where he was likely to succeed1
 and he  never ventured to appear in    
them#bhb4 ,it is however better that the
  populace1 if they will absolutely pay 
for being deceived1 should be  exposed  
to a momentary deception from jugglers  
than to a continual  deception from     

priests4 ,as the former are not covered 
with the sacred  cloak of religion1     
their deceptions are more easily seen   
through and  detected2 and they         
consequently soon cease to be hurtful4  
,so late as  the year #afja1 a horse1   
which had been taught to perform a      
number of  tricks1 was tried1 as        
possessed by the devil1 and condemned to
 be  burnt#bhc4 ,at present horses of   
this kind are so often exhibited        
publicly in the heretical countries of  
,europe1 that the ,spanish              
,inquisition1 perhaps1 will soon be     
ashamed of considering such proofs  of  
the docility of these animals1 and of   
the patient dexterity of their          
teachers1 as the work of the devil1 as  
they did at the above period4  ,those   
who view the art of the juggler in the  
same light as ,i do1 will1  ,i hope1    
forgive me for introducing these        
observations1 and allow me to  continue 
them while ,i inquire into the antiquity
 of this employment2  especially as ,i  

shall endeavour by these means to       
illustrate more fully  my subject4      
,had that book which ,celsus wrote      
against the ,magi been preserved1 we    
should have been much better acquainted 
with the art of the ancient  conjurors  
or jugglers4 ,this ,celsus1 without     
doubt1 is the same author  whose        
virulent attack against the ,christians 
was refuted by ,origen2 and  we have1   
therefore1 greater cause to regret that 
a work on the above  subject1 by so     
learned and acute a philosopher1 should 
have been lost4  ,he is mentioned with  
respect by ,lucian1 and even by ,origen2
 and the  former derived from him the   
account which he gives of ,alexander the
  impostor#bhd4 ,more ancient authors   
also wrote upon the same subject4  ,some
 of them are mentioned by ,diogenes     
,lartius in his preface2 and  ,suidas   
quotes the ,magicon of ,antisthenes1    
though neither of these  speaks of      
,celsus2 but of all those writings none 
are now extant4    ,the deception of    

breathing out flames1 which at present  
excites in a  particular manner the     
astonishment of the ignorant1 is very   
ancient4  ,when the slaves in ,sicily1  
about a century and a half before our   
ra1  made a formidable insurrection1 and
 avenged themselves in a cruel  manner  
for the severities which they had       
suffered1 there was amongst  them a     
,syrian named ,eunus#bhe1 a man of great
 craft and courage1 who1  having passed 
through many scenes of life1 had become 
acquainted with  a variety of arts4 ,he 
pretended to have immediate             
communication with  the gods2 was the   
oracle and leader of his fellow-slaves2 
and1 as is  usual on such occasions1    
confirmed his divine mission by         
miracles4  ,when1 heated by enthusiasm  
and desirous of inspiring his followers 
with courage1 he breathed flames or     
sparks among them from his mouth  while 
he was addressing them4 ,we are told by 
historians1 that for  this purpose he   
pierced a nut-shell at both ends1 and1  

having filled  it with some burning     
substance1 put it into his mouth and    
breathed  through it4 ,this deception1  
at present1 is performed much better4   
,the  juggler rolls together some flax  
or hemp1 so as to form a ball about  the
 size of a walnut2 sets it on fire2 and 
suffers it to burn till it  is nearly   
consumed2 he then rolls round it1 while 
burning1 some more  flax2 and by these  
means the fire may be retained in it for
 a long  time4 ,when he wishes to       
exhibit1 he slips the ball unperceived  
into his  mouth and breathes through it2
 which again revives the fire1 so that  
a number of weak sparks proceed from it2
 and the performer sustains  no hurt1   
provided he inspire the air not through 
the mouth1 but the  nostrils#bhf4    ,by
 this art the rabbi ,bar-,cocheba1 in   
the reign of the emperor ,hadrian1  made
 the credulous ,jews believe that he was
 the hoped-for ,messias#bhg2  and two   
centuries after1 the emperor            
,constantius was thrown into great      

terror1 when ,valentinian informed him  
that he had seen one of the  body-guards
 breathing out fire and flames in the   
evening#bhh4    ,for deceptions with    
fire the ancients employed also naphtha1
 a liquid  mineral oil1 which kindles   
when it only approaches a flame4 ,galen 
informs us1 that a person excited great 
astonishment by extinguishing  a candle 
and again lighting it1 without any other
 process than holding  it immediately   
against a wall or a stone4 ,the whole   
secret of this  consisted in having     
previously rubbed over the wall or stone
 with  sulphur4 ,but as the author1 a   
few lines before1 speaks of a mixture of
  sulphur and naphtha1 there is reason  
to think that he alludes to the  same   
here4 ,plutarch#bhi relates how         
,alexander the ,great was astonished    
and delighted with the secret effects of
 naphtha1 which were exhibited  to him  
at ,ecbatana4 ,the same author1 as well 
as ,pliny1 ,galen1 and  others1 has     
already remarked1 that the substance    

with which ,medea  destroyed ,creusa1   
the daughter of ,creon1 was nothing else
 than this  fine oil#bij4 ,she sent to  
the unfortunate princess a dress        
besmeared  with it1 which burst into    
flames as soon as she approached the    
fire of  the altar4 ,the blood of       
,nessus1 wherein the dress of ,hercules1
 which  took fire likewise1 had been    
dipped1 was undoubtedly naphtha         
also#bia2  and this oil must have been  
always employed when offerings caught   
fire  in an imperceptible manner#bib4   
,in all periods of the world priests    
have acted as jugglers to simple and    
ignorant people4    ,in modern times1   
persons who could walk over burning     
coals or red-hot  iron1 or who could    
hold them in their hands and their      
teeth1 have often  excited wonder4 ,in  
the end of the seventeenth century1 an  
,englishman1  named ,richardson1 who1 as
 we are assured1 could chew burning     
coals1  pour melted lead upon his       
tongue1 swallow melted glass1 c41       

rendered  himself very famous by these  
extraordinary feats#bic4 ,laying aside  
the  deception#bid practised on the     
spectators1 the whole of this secret    
consists in rendering the skin of the   
soles of the feet and hands so  callous 
and insensible1 that the nerves under   
them are secured from all  hurt1 in the 
same manner as by shoes and gloves4     
,such callosity will  be produced if the
 skin is continually compressed1 singed1
 pricked1 or  injured in any other      
manner4 ,thus do the fingers of the     
industrious  sempstress become horny by 
being frequently pricked2 and the case  
is  the same with the hands of          
fire-workers1 and the feet of those who 
walk  bare-footed over scorching        
sand#bie4    ,in the month of           
,september1 #agfe1 when ,i visited the  
copper-works at  ,awestad1 one of the   
workmen1 for a little drink-money1 took 
some of  the melted copper in his hand1 
and after showing it to us1 threw it    
against a wall#bif4 ,he then squeezed   

the fingers of his horny hand  close to 
each other2 put it a few minutes under  
his armpit1 to make  it sweat1 as he    
said2 and1 taking it again out1 drew it 
over a ladle  filled with melted copper1
 some of which he skimmed off1 and moved
 his  hand backwards and forwards1 very 
quickly1 by way of ostentation4 ,while  
,i was viewing this performance1 ,i     
remarked a smell like that of singed    
horn or leather1 though his hand was not
 burnt4 ,the workmen at the  ,swedish   
melting-houses showed the same thing to 
some travellers in the  seventeenth     
century2 for ,regnard saw it in #afha1  
at the copper-works  in ,lapland4 ,it is
 highly probable that the people who    
hold in their  hands red-hot iron1 or   
who walk upon it1 as ,i saw done at     
,amsterdam1  but at a distance1 make    
their skin callous before1 in the like  
manner4  ,this may be accomplished by   
frequently moistening it with oil of    
vitriol2 according to some the juice of 
certain plants will produce the  same   

effect2 and we are assured by others    
that the skin must be very  frequently  
rubbed1 for a long time1 with oil1 by   
which means1 indeed1  leather also will 
become horny4    ,of this art1 traces   
may be found also in the works of the   
ancients4  ,a festival was held annually
 on ,mount ,soracte1 in ,etruria1 at    
which  the ,hirpi1 who lived not far    
from ,rome1 jumped through burning      
coals2  and on this account they were   
indulged with peculiar privileges by    
the ,roman senate#big4 ,women also1 we  
are told1 were accustomed to  walk over 
burning coals at ,castabala in          
,cappadocia1 near the temple  dedicated 
to ,diana#bih4 ,servius remarks1 from a 
work of ,varro now  lost1 that the      
,hirpi trusted not so much to their own 
sanctity as to  the care which they had 
taken to prepare their feet for that    
operation4    ,i am not acquainted with 
everything that concerns the trial by   
ordeal1  when persons accused were      
obliged to prove their innocence by     

holding  in their hands red-hot iron2   
but ,i am almost convinced that this    
also  was a juggling trick of the       
priests1 which they employed as might   
best suit their views4 ,it is well known
 that this mode of exculpation  was     
allowed only to weak persons1 who were  
unfit to wield arms1 and  particularly  
to monks and ecclesiastics1 to whom1 for
 the sake of  their security1 that by   
single combat was forbidden4 ,the trial 
itself  took place in the church        
entirely under the inspection of the    
clergy2  mass was celebrated at the same
 time2 the defendant and the iron were  
consecrated by being sprinkled with holy
 water2 the clergy made the  iron hot   
themselves2 and they used all these     
preparatives1 as jugglers  do many      
motions1 only to divert the attention of
 the spectators4 ,it  was necessary that
 the accused persons should remain at   
least three  days and three nights under
 their immediate care1 and continue as  
long  after4 ,they covered their hands  

both before and after the proof2 sealed 
and unsealed the covering3 the former1  
as they pretended1 to prevent  the hands
 from being prepared any how by art2 and
 the latter to see if  they were burnt4 
,some artificial preparation was        
therefore known1 else no precautions    
would have been necessary4 ,it is highly
 probable that during the first  three  
days the preventive was applied to those
 persons whom they  wished to appear    
innocent2 and that the three days after 
the trial  were requisite to let the    
hands resume their natural state4 ,the  
sacred  sealing secured them from the   
examination of presumptuous unbelievers2
  for to determine whether the hands    
were burnt1 the last three days  were   
certainly not wanted4 ,when the ordeal  
was abolished1 and this  art rendered   
useless1 the clergy no longer kept it a 
secret4 ,in the  thirteenth century an  
account of it was published by ,albertus
 ,magnus1  a ,dominican monk#bii4 ,if   
his receipt be genuine1 it seems to have

  consisted rather in covering the hands
 with a kind of paste than in  hardening
 them4 ,the sap of the ,altha           
7marsh-mallow71 the slimy seeds  of the 
flea-bane1 which is still used for      
stiffening by the hat-makers  and       
silk-weavers1 together with the white of
 an egg1 were employed to  make the     
paste adhere2 and by these means the    
hands were as safe as  if they had been 
secured by gloves4 ,the use of this     
juggling trick is  very old1 and may be 
traced back to a pagan origin4 ,in the  
,antigone of  ,sophocles1 the guards    
placed over the body of ,polynices1     
which had been  carried away and buried 
contrary to the orders of ,creon1       
offered1 in  order to prove their       
innocence1 to submit to any trial3 8,we 
will10 said  they1 8take up red-hot iron
 in our hands1 or walk through          
fire#cjj40    ,the exhibition of balls  
and cups1 which is often mentioned in   
the  works of the ancients as the most  
common art of jugglers1 is also of      

great antiquity4 ,it consists in        
conveying speedily and with great       
dexterity1 while the performer          
endeavours by various motions and cant  
phrases to divert the attention of the  
simple spectators from observing  his   
movements too narrowly1 several light   
balls1 according to the  pleasure of any
 person in company1 under one or more   
cups2 removing  them sometimes from the 
whole2 and conveying them again back in 
an  imperceptible manner4 ,in general1  
three leaden cups are used1 and as  many
 balls of cork2 and to prevent all      
discovery by their slipping from  the   
thumbs of the juggler1 or making a      
noise1 as he must lay hold of  them with
 much quickness1 the table before which 
he sits is covered  with a cloth4       
,these small balls were by the ancients 
called calculi2 and the cups  acetabula1
 or paropsides4 ,casaubon#cja has       
already quoted most of  those passages  
in ancient authors which relate to this 
subject2 and  they have been repeated by

 ,bulenger#cjb2 but neither of these    
writers  makes mention of the fullest   
and clearest description given in the   
letters of ,alciphron#cjc4 ,we have     
there an account of a countryman who    
came to town1 and was conducted by a    
merchant to the theatre1 where he  saw  
with great astonishment the exhibition  
of cups and balls4 8,such an  animal10  
says he1 8as the performer ,i would not 
wish to have near me  in the country2   
for in his hands my property would soon 
disappear40  ,the art of oratory1       
because it deceives the auditors1 is    
frequently  compared to that of balls   
and cups4 ,from the ,latin word gabata1 
mentioned by ,martial1 together with    
paropsides1 the ,french have made       
gobelets and hence their common         
expressions jouer des gobelets1 and     
joueur des gobelets1 which they use when
 speaking of jugglers4    ,in all ages  
of the world there have been men who    
excited great wonder  by extraordinary  
strength4 ,instances of this have been  

already  collected2 but they do not     
belong to my present subject#cjd4 ,i    
can1  however1 prove that above fifteen 
hundred years ago there were people     
who1 by applying a knowledge of the     
mechanical powers to their bodies1      
performed feats which astonished every  
ignorant spectator2 though it  is       
certain that any sound man of common    
strength could perform the  same by     
employing the like means4 ,of these one 
may say with ,celsus1  8,neque hercule  
scientiam prcipuam habent hi1 sed       
audaciam usu ipso  confirmatam40        
,about the beginning of the last        
century1 such a strong man1 or ,samson1 
as he called himself1 a native of       
,germany1 travelled over almost all     
,europe2 and his pretended art has been 
mentioned by so many writers1  that we  
may conclude it had not been often      
exhibited before2 and that  it was then 
considered as new4 ,his name was ,john  
,charles von ,eckeberg2  he was born at 
,harzgerode in ,anhalt2 and at that time

 was thirty-three  years of age4 ,when  
he fixed himself between a couple of    
posts1 on any  level place1 two or more 
horses were not able to draw him from   
his  position2 he could break ropes     
asunder1 and lift a man up on his knee  
while he lay extended on the ground4    
,but what excited the greatest          
astonishment was1 that he suffered large
 stones to be broke on his  breast with 
a hammer1 or a smith to forge iron on an
 anvil placed above  it4    ,this last  
feat was exhibited even in the third    
century1 by ,firmus or  ,firmius1 who1  
in the time of ,aurelian1 endeavoured to
 make himself  emperor in ,egypt4 ,he   
was a native of ,seleucia in ,syria2    
espoused the  cause of ,zenobia1 the    
celebrated queen of ,palmyra2 and was at
 length  executed publicly by order of  
the emperor ,aurelian4 ,it is of this   
,firmus1 and not of another1 who a      
century after was overcome in ,africa   
by the father of the emperor            
,theodosius1 that ,vopiscus speaks where

 he  relates that he could suffer iron  
to be forged on an anvil placed on  his 
breast4 ,for this purpose he lay on his 
back2 but he put himself in  such a     
position1 by resting with his feet and  
shoulders against some  support1 that   
his whole body formed an arch2 so that  
he seemed rather  to be suspended than  
to lie at full length#cje4 ,this art1   
which is  explained and illustrated by  
,desaguliers#cjf and ,professor         
,kuhn#cjg  of ,dantzic1 has now become  
so common that it is often exhibited    
without  occasioning much surprise4     
,in the works of the ancients1          
rope-dancers are frequently mentioned4  
,the passages where they occur have been
 collected by various authors1  though  
never completely2 and ,i am inclined to 
think that those who have  seen many    
performers of this kind would be able to
 clear up some that  are obscure4 ,i    
have seen many myself2 but ,i have      
forgot the greater  part of what ,i     
observed2 and there are other reasons   

also which prevent  me from undertaking 
that task3 ,i dread the reproach of     
8multum agendo  nihil agis40 ,that ,i   
may not1 however1 pass over this subject
 entirely1  ,i shall present the reader 
with what follows#cjh4 ,we meet with    
various appellations given to           
rope-dancers1 which do not1 as some have
  imagined1 point out different kinds1  
but allude only to new-invented  arts1  
leaps1 or dexterities1 which1 while     
recommended by novelty1 were  much      
wondered at1 though they were afterwards
 imitated by all4 ,to  these belong the 
schnobat1 oribat1 neurobat1 petaminarii1
  funambuli1 c4 ,some of the ancient    
rope-dancers seem to have used  a       
balancing-pole1 or at least to have had 
weights in their hands to  preserve an  
equipoise#cji4 ,it is certain also that 
rope-dancers were  not wanting in the   
middle ages4 ,in the year #abcg they    
were very common  in ,italy#caj2 and in 
#acic there were some of them at        
,augsburg1 who  exhibited their         

dexterity on the rope1 and received from
 each spectator  three ,german          
halfpence#caa4    ,to place men upon the
 shoulders of each other in such a      
manner that  every row consists of a man
 fewer1 till they form a pyramid ending 
in a single person1 upon whose head a   
boy often stands with his feet  upwards1
 is likewise an ancient piece of        
dexterity4 ,this exhibition  is varied  
many ways2 and on that account it is    
difficult to form even  conjectures     
respecting it1 especially as the        
description given of it by  a ,roman    
poet is very unintelligible#cab4    ,i  
am however still less acquainted with an
 art in which hoops  and wheels were    
employed by the petaurist1 who excited  
great  astonishment among the populace4 
,the first part of the art may have     
consisted in nothing more than the      
varied contortions and tumbling  which  
we still see practised by children      
trained for that purpose4  ,cilano      
explains a well-known passage of        

,manilius1 as if the performers  had    
darted through suspended iron hoops1    
made often red-hot4 ,of this  ,i        
entertain less doubt than how we ought  
to understand the corpora  jactata      
petauro of ,juvenal#cac2 and the corpora
 valido excussa  petauro of             
,manilius#cad1 which many have attempted
 to explain  already4 ,at any rate this 
wheel was different from that upon which
 a  female dancer1 as mentioned by      
,xenophon1 wrote and read while it      
turned  round with great velocity#cae4  
,the art of exhibiting various feats of 
horsemanship1 which has been  practised 
so much in modern times1 seems to have  
come first from the  ,east4 ,at any     
rate1 those performers in that way who1 
in the thirteenth  century1 were at the 
,byzantine court1 and who travelled all 
over  ,europe1 came from ,egypt4 ,they  
could stand on the horses when at a     
gallop2 mount and dismount while on full
 speed at the chase2 tumble  on         
horseback1 and do many other things     

equally extraordinary#caf4 ,at  the end 
of the sixteenth century1 an ,italian1  
who had learned this art  while a slave 
in ,turkey1 went about exhibiting his   
dexterity in various  parts of ,europe4 
,montagne saw him at ,rome in #aehacag2 
and the year  following he was at       
,paris#cah4 ,some of these feats were   
performed by  the ancient desultores4   
,whether the ancients taught horses1    
dogs1 birds1 and other animals1  to     
perform various tricks which are        
frequently exhibited at present  for    
money1 ,i do not know2 but it is certain
 that what they made the  elephant1     
which undoubtedly is the most sagacious 
and tractable of all  animals1 perform1 
exceeds everything yet known of the     
kind4 ,without  repeating what has been 
so often related1 ,i shall only mention 
the  elephant which walked upon a rope  
backwards and forwards1 as well as  up  
and down2 and which ,galba first caused 
to be shown to the ,roman  people4      
,after this1 so much confidence was     

placed in the dexterity of  the animal1 
that a person sat on an elephant's back 
while he walked  across the theatre upon
 a rope extended from the one side to   
the other4  ,lipsius1 who has collected 
the testimonies1 thinks they are so     
strong  that they cannot be doubted#cai4
    ,the training of horses to obey a   
private signal1 imperceptible to the    
most attentive spectator1 and to perform
 actions which appear1 to  those        
unacquainted with the art1 to display   
rational faculties1 ,i have  never found
 mentioned in the works of the ancients4
 ,that the ,sybarites  however taught   
their horses to dance to the sound of   
music1 is asserted  by a variety of     
authors#cbj4 ,in the sixteenth century1 
dogs trained in  the like manner excited
 great wonder#cba4    ,in the year      
#agff1 an ,englishman1 named ,wildman1  
made himself much  known by taming or   
training bees1 in such a manner that    
they not only  followed him wherever he 
went1 but settled even on his face and  

hands  without stinging him1 and seemed 
as if obedient to his orders#cbb4  ,some
 years after1 a person who practised the
 like art1 travelled about  through     
,germany1 and gave himself out to be    
,wildman2 but ,m4 ,riem  proved that he 
was not ,wildman1 and published the     
secret by which he  acquired so much    
power over these insects#cbc4 ,i cannot 
say whether  the ancients were          
acquainted with this art2 but ,i shall  
here remark1  that it was known in the  
kingdom of ,galam1 at ,senegal1 a       
hundred years  before ,wildman2 for when
 ,brue1 a ,frenchman1 was there in      
#afih1 he was  visited by a man who     
called himself the king of the bees#cbd4
 8,let  his secret10 says that          
traveller1 8consist in what it may1 this
 much  is certain2 that they followed   
him wherever he went1 as sheep do their 
shepherd4 ,his whole body1 and          
particularly his cap1 was so covered    
with  them that they appeared like a    
swarm just settled4 ,when he departed   

they went along with him2 for besides   
those on his body1 he was  surrounded by
 thousands which always attended        
him#cbe40    ,in modern times1 persons  
destitute of arms and hands1 or who have
 these  limbs formed very imperfectly1  
but who possess the art of supplying    
that want by the use of their feet and  
toes1 show themselves sometimes  for    
money2 and as they entertain the        
spectators by exciting their  wonder1   
they deserve from them that support     
which they are not able to  obtain in   
any other manner4 ,instances of such    
people who had acquired  this art1 have 
been very common within the last two    
centuries#cbf2 but  in the works of the 
ancients ,i have found only one4 ,an    
,indian king1  named ,porus1 sent to the
 emperor ,augustus an embassy with      
presents1  among which were some rare   
animals1 and a man without arms1 who    
with  his feet1 however1 could bend a   
bow2 discharge arrows2 and put a        
trumpet to his mouth and blow it4 ,dio  

,cassius confesses that he did  not know
 how this was possible2 but ,strabo     
refers for his authority to  ,nicolaus  
of ,damascus1 who saw all the presents  
as they passed through  ,antioch#cbg4   
,had this deformed person1 whom ,strabo 
compares to a  ,hermes1 travelled about1
 according to the modern practice1 as a 
show1  he would have been better known1 
and in all probability his example      
would have induced others to imitate his
 art#cbh4 ,manilius says1  however1 that
 there were people1 who1 in playing at  
ball1 could use  their feet with as much
 dexterity as their hands1 who could    
catch the  ball with them1 and again    
throw it back2 but the poet1 perhaps1   
did not  allude to the small hand-ball1 
but to the large one which is struck    
with the fist1 and which may be stopped 
also by the foot4 ,besides1 the  passage
 is read and explained different        
ways#cbi4    ,figures or puppets1 which 
appear to move of themselves1 were      
employed  formerly to work miracles2 but

 they could hardly be used for that     
purpose at present in any catholic      
country of ,europe1 though they still   
serve to amuse the vulgar4 ,among these 
are the marionettes#ccj1  as they are   
called1 the different parts of which are
 put in motion  imperceptibly by a      
thread4 ,of a still more ingenious      
construction are  those which are moved 
by the turning of a cylinder1 as is the 
case  in the machines with which some of
 the old miners in ,germany earn a      
livelihood2 but the most ingenious of   
all are those which are kept  in        
continual movement for a certain time1  
by the help of wheels with  a weight or 
spring4 ,the latter are called automata2
 and1 when they  represent human        
figures1 androides4 ,under the former   
general name are  comprehended our      
watches1 the most useful of all1 and    
also jacks#cca1  with many others4 ,the 
latter appellation is given to small    
puppets1  which1 when their inner works 
have been wound up1 run upon the table  

or  pavement1 and as they advance move  
their head1 eyes1 and hands4 ,they  have
 been exhibited sometimes under the name
 of courrante ,margarethe1  which gave  
rise perhaps to the word marionette4    
,the proper marionettes are very old4   
,they were common among the  ,greeks1   
and from them they were brought to the  
,romans4 ,they were known  by the name  
of neurospasta1 and were much used at   
their shows4  ,aristotle speaks of some 
which moved their head1 eyes1 hands and 
limbs  in a very natural manner#ccb4    
,they are mentioned with equal precision
  by ,galen1 ,xenophon1 ,antoninus1     
,horace1 ,gellius1 and others4 ,to these
  belong the phalli1 which were carried 
round during the festivals of  ,osiris  
and ,bacchus1 and of which one member   
only1 that properly meant  by the name1 
and which was almost as large as the    
whole body1 moved  upon certain threads 
being pulled#ccc4 ,count ,caylus has    
given an  engraving of the body of a    
small puppet1 made of ivory or bone2 but

  he requires too much when he desires  
us to consider that fragment1  merely on
 his word1 as a piece of ,greek or      
,roman antiquity4 ,he at least  ought to
 have informed us where it was found1   
and by what means he  procured it4 ,in  
regard to such articles1 it is as easy  
to deceive as  to be led into an error2 
and objects of bone are certainly of no 
great  duration#ccd4    ,the question   
concerning the antiquity of automata1   
properly so called1  which are moved by 
wheels1 weights and springs1 ,i shall   
leave to  those who have read the works 
of the ancient mathematicians1 and who  
may be desirous of writing on the       
history of mechanics4 ,as far as ,i     
know1 the ancients were not acquainted  
with the art of making them1  unless    
some propositions of ,ctesibius1        
mentioned by ,vitruvius1 allude  to that
 subject4 ,when clocks were brought to  
perfection1 some artists  added to them 
figures1 which at the time of striking  
performed various  movements2 and as    

they succeeded in these1 some attempted 
to make1  detached from clocks1 single  
figures1 which either moved certain     
limbs1 or advanced forward and ran4 ,in 
the middle of the sixteenth  century1   
when ,hans ,bullmann#cce1 a             
padlock-maker at ,nuremberg1            
constructed figures of men and women    
which moved backwards and forwards  by  
clock-work1 beat a drum1 and played on  
the lute according to musical  time1    
they excited universal astonishment as a
 new invention4 ,it was  about the same 
period that watches came into use4 ,the 
accounts however  which speak of much   
older automata deserve to be examined   
with more  attention4    ,the most      
ancient of all are undoubtedly the      
tripods constructed by  ,vulcan#ccf1    
which being furnished with wheels1      
advanced forwards to be  used1 and again
 returned to their places4 ,but what was
 impossible to  the gods of ,homer8 ,an 
unbeliever might conjecture that these  
tripods1  which are mentioned also by   

,aristotle#ccg1 and which perhaps were  
only  a kind of small tables or         
dumb-waiters1 had wheels so contrived   
that  they could be put in motion and   
driven to a distance on the smallest    
impulse1 like the fire-pans in our      
country beer-houses1 at which the  boors
 light their pipes4    ,that ,ddalus    
made statues which could not only walk1 
but which it  was necessary to tie1 in  
order that they might not move1 is      
related  by ,plato#cch1 ,aristotle1 and 
others4 ,the latter speaks of a wooden  
,venus1 and remarks that the secret of  
its motion consisted in  quicksilver    
having been poured into it4 ,what the   
author here means ,i  cannot comprehend2
 but ,i do not imagine that this ,venus 
threw itself  topsy-turvy backwards1    
like the ,chinese puppets4 ,however this
 may  be1 it is astonishing that the    
,chinese should have fallen upon the    
invention of giving motion to puppets by
 means of quicksilver1 and in  so       
ingenious a manner1 that                

,muschenbroek#cci thought it worth his  
while to describe their whole           
construction1 and to illustrate it by   
figures4 ,but before this method was    
known in ,europe1 ,kircher had an  idea 
of putting a small waggon in motion by  
adding to it a pipe filled  with        
quicksilver1 and heating it with a      
candle placed below it#cdj4  ,the       
account of ,aristotle is more           
mysterious1 for he does not inform us   
how the quicksilver acted4              
,callistratus1 another writer1 who was  
the tutor of ,demosthenes1 gives  us to 
understand that the statues of ,ddalus  
were made to move by the  mechanical    
powers#cda4 ,but what has been asserted 
by ,palphatus1 and  by ,gedoyn#cdb1     
,banier1 ,goguet1 and others among the  
moderns1 is most  probable4 ,the first  
statues of the ,greeks were imitations  
of those  of the ,egyptians1 for the    
most part clumsy figures1 with their    
eyes  shut1 their arms hanging down     
close to the body on each side1 and     

their  feet joined together4 ,those made
 by ,ddalus had their eyes open1 as     
well as their feet and hands free2 and  
the artist gave them such a  posture1   
that they seemed either reclining1 or   
appeared as if ready  to walk or to run4
 ,as ,anacreon#cdc1 struck with wonder1 
exclaimed  when he saw a waxen image of 
his favourite object1 8,begone1 wax1    
thou  wilt soon speak60 the astonished  
,greeks in like manner cried out1 when  
they beheld the statues of ,ddalus1     
8,they will soon walk40 ,the next       
generation affirmed that they really    
walked2 and their posterity1  adding    
still to what was told them1 asserted   
that they would have run  had they not  
been bound4    ,equally imperfect is the
 account given of the wooden pigeon     
constructed  by ,archytas of ,tarentum4 
,we are informed that it flew2 but when 
it  had once settled1 it could not again
 take flight4 ,the latter is not        
incredible2 but even if we allow that   
arostatic machines were then  known1 it 

is impossible to believe the former4 ,at
 present one cannot  determine with any 
probability1 what piece of mechanism    
gave rise to  this relation#cdd4 ,the   
head of ,albertus ,magnus1 which is said
 not only  to have moved1 but to have   
spoken1 is too little known for any     
opinion  to be formed concerning it4    
,the construction of it must have been  
very  ingenious and complex1 if it be   
true that he was employed upon it       
thirty years#cde4    ,in the fourteenth 
and following centuries1 automata1 as ,i
 have said1  were frequently made4      
,among these was the iron fly of ,john  
,mller or  ,molitor1 or1 as he is       
sometimes called1 ,regiomontanus1 which 
is said  to have flown about2 and his   
artificial eagle1 which flew to meet the
  ,emperor ,maximilian on his arrival at
 ,nuremberg1 ,june the #gth1 #adgj4     
,none of the contemporary writers1      
however1 though they often speak  of    
this very learned man1 make the least   
mention of these pieces of  mechanism2  

and it is probable that the whole tale  
originated with  ,peter ,ramus#cdf1 who 
never was at ,nuremberg till the year   
#aega4 ,j4 ,w4  ,baier#cdg endeavours to
 prove that the above-mentioned fly1    
moved by  wheel-work1 leaped about upon 
a table2 and that the eagle perched upon
  the town-gate1 stretched out its wings
 on the emperor's approach1 and  saluted
 him by an inclination of its body4 ,we 
know that ,charles ,v41  after his      
abdication1 amused himself during the   
latter period of his  life with automata
 of various kinds#cdh4    ,the most     
ingenious1 or at least the most         
celebrated automata1 were  those made by
 ,vaucanson1 which he exhibited publicly
 at ,paris1 for the  first time1 in     
#agch4 ,one of them1 which represented a
 flute-player  sitting1 performed twelve
 tunes1 and1 as we are assured1 by wind 
issuing from its mouth into a           
,german-flute1 the holes of which it    
opened and shut with its fingers4 ,the  
second was a standing figure1  which in 

the like manner played on the ,provenal 
shepherd's pipe1 held  in its left hand1
 and with the right beat upon a drum or 
tambour de  ,basque4 ,the third was a   
duck1 of the natural size1 which moved  
its  wings1 exhibited all the gestures  
of that animal1 quacked like a duck1    
drank water1 ate corn1 and then after a 
little time let drop behind it          
something that resembled the excrement  
of a duck#cdi4 ,these pieces  must have 
been often imitated4 ,i saw some of the 
like kind in the year  #agfd1 at the    
palace of ,zarsko-,selo1 near           
,petersburg1 and was told that  they had
 been purchased from ,vaucanson#cej4 ,as
 far as ,i can remember1  the tambourin 
was damaged4 ,i saw there also a        
regiment of soldiers1  which went       
through their exercise1 moved by        
wheel-work#cea4    ,in the year #ageb1  
one ,du ,moulin1 a silversmith1         
travelled about through  ,germany with  
automata like those of ,vaucanson4 ,in  
#aged1 he wished to  dispose of them to 

the margrave of ,bayreuth2 but he was   
obliged to  pawn them in ,nuremberg1 at 
the house of ,pfluger1 who offered to   
sell  them for #cjjj florins1 the sum   
lent upon them4 ,they were afterwards   
purchased by counsellor ,beireis1 at    
,helmstadt1 who kindly showed them  to  
me4 ,it is much to be regretted that the
 machinery of them is greatly  deranged2
 the flute-player emits only some very  
faint tones2 but the  duck eats1 drinks1
 and moves still4 ,the ribs1 which are  
of wire1 had  been covered with duck's  
feathers1 so as to imitate nature2 and  
as  these are now lost1 one can see     
better the interior construction2       
respecting which ,i shall only observe1 
that the motion is communicated  by     
means of a cylinder and fine chains1    
like that of a watch1 all  proceeding   
through the feet of the duck1 which are 
of the usual size4  ,nicolai#ceb says   
that ,du ,moulin came to ,petersburg in 
#agee1 and died  at ,moscow in #agfe4   
,it is probable that he made the        

automata which ,i  saw in ,russia4      
,those which he left behind him at      
,nuremberg seem either  not to have been
 completed1 or to have been designedly  
spoiled by him2  for they appeared to   
have defects which could not be ascribed
 to any  accident4 ,m4 ,beireis however 
has begun to cause them to be repaired4 
,of all these automata1 the duck ,i     
confess appeared to me the most         
ingenious2 but ,i can prove that like   
pieces of mechanism were made  before   
the time of ,vaucanson4 ,we are told by 
,labat#cec1 that the  ,french general   
,de ,gennes1 who1 about the year #afhh1 
defended the  colony of ,st4            
,christopher against the ,english1      
constructed a peacock  which could walk 
about1 pick up from the ground corn     
thrown before  it1 digest it1 according 
to appearance1 and afterwards drop      
something  that resembled excrement4    
,this man was of an ancient noble family
 in  ,brittany1 which had however been  
so reduced1 that the father carried on  

a handicraft4 ,the son became acquainted
 with the marquis de ,vivonne1  who1 on 
account of his promising talents1 bred  
him to the sea4 ,he  rose to be         
commander of a vessel1 conducted a      
squadron to the ,straits  of ,magellan1 
where it was intended to form a colony1 
and obtained in  ,cayenne a tract of    
land1 which he got erected into a       
county1 under  the name of ,oyac4 ,he   
invented machines of various kinds      
useful in  navigation and gunnery1 and1 
as we are told1 constructed clocks that 
moved without weights or springs4       
,the flute-player also of ,vaucanson was
 not the first of its kind4 ,in  the    
beginning of the sixteenth century1 the 
anonymous author of that  well-known    
poem ,zodiacus ,vit1 saw at ,rome a     
figure made in the like  manner by a    
potter4 ,it is much to be regretted that
 no account is given  of its            
construction4      ,vidi ego dum ,rom1  
decimo regnante ,leone1    ,essem1 opus 
a figulo factum1 juvenisque figuram1    

,efflantem angusto validum ventum oris  
hiatu#ced4    ,i shall here beg leave to
 say a few words respecting an object of
  juggling1 which1 however old it may   
be1 still excites astonishment1 and  has
 often imposed upon the credulity of men
 of learning#cee3 ,i mean  those        
speaking machines1 which1 according to  
appearance1 answer various  questions   
proposed to them1 sometimes in different
 languages1 sing1  and even blow a      
huntsman's horn4 ,the figure1 or only a 
head1 is often  placed upon a box1 the  
forepart of which1 for the better       
deception1 is  filled with a pair of    
bellows1 a sounding-board1 cylinder1 and
 pipes1  supposed to represent the      
organs of speech4 ,at other times the   
machine  is only like a peruke-maker's  
block1 hung round with a ,turkish dress1
  furnished with a pair of arms1 and    
placed before a table1 and sometimes    
the puppet stands upon the table1 or    
against a wall4 ,the sounds are  heard  
through a speaking-trumpet1 which the   

figure holds in its mouth4    ,many     
jugglers are so impudent as to assert   
that the voice does not  proceed from a 
man1 but is produced by machinery1 in   
the same manner  as the music of an     
organ4 ,some1 like the last whom ,i saw1
 are more  modest or timorous1 and give 
evasive answers to the questions asked  
them respecting the cause of the voice1 
with as much art as those  who exhibit  
with balls and cups4 ,concerning these  
speaking machines1  however1 different  
opinions are entertained4 ,some affirm  
that the  voice issues from the machine2
 others1 that the juggler answers       
himself1 by speaking as ventriloquists  
do1 or by having the power to  alter his
 voice2 and some believe that the       
answers are given by a  man somewhere   
concealed4 ,the violence with which     
these opinions are  maintained exposes  
the juggler often to the danger of      
losing his life2  for1 when the illusion
 is detected1 the populace1 who in part 
suffer  themselves willingly to be      

deceived1 and who even pay the juggler  
for  his deception1 imagine that they   
have a right to avenge themselves for   
being imposed on4 ,the machines are     
sometimes broken2 and the owners of     
them are harshly treated as impostors4  
,for my part1 ,i do not see why a       
juggler1 with a speaking machine1 is a  
more culpable impostor than he  who     
pretends to breathe out flames and to   
swallow boiling oil1 or to  make puppets
 speak1 as in the ,chinese shadows4 ,the
 spectators pay for  the pleasure which 
they receive from a well-concealed      
deception1 and  with greater            
satisfaction the more difficult it is   
for them to discover  it4 ,but the      
person who speaks or sings through a    
puppet1 is so well  hid1 that people of 
considerable penetration have imagined  
that such  concealment was impossible4  
,at present this art is well known4     
,either a child or a woman is concealed 
in the juggler's box2 or some  person1  
placed in a neighbouring apartment1     

speaks into the end of a  pipe which    
proceeds through the wall to the puppet1
 and which conveys  the answers to the  
spectators4 ,the juggler gives every    
necessary  assistance to the person by  
signs previously agreed on4 ,i was once 
shown1 in company with ,m4 ,stock1 upon 
promising secrecy1 the assistant  in    
another apartment1 standing before the  
pipe1 with a card in his hand  on which 
the signs were marked2 and he had been  
brought into the house  so privately    
that the landlady was ignorant of the   
circumstance4 ,the  juggler1 however1   
acknowledged that he did not exhibit    
without fear2  and that he would not    
venture to stay long at a place like    
,gttingen1  or to return with his       
,turks1 though the populace were so     
civil as to  permit him to depart       
peaceably with what he had gained4      
,the invention of causing statues to    
speak by this method seems so  simple1  
that one can scarcely help conjecturing 
that it was employed in  the earliest   

periods to support superstition2 and    
many have imagined  that the greater    
part of the oracles spoke in the same   
manner#cef4  ,this1 however1 is false1  
as has been proved by the ,jesuit       
,baltus1  and the anonymous author of a 
,reply to ,fontenelle's ,history of     
,oracles#ceg4 ,it appears that the pagan
 priests1 like our jugglers1  were      
afraid that their deceptions1 if long   
practised1 might be  discovered4 ,they  
considered it therefore as more secure  
to deliver the  answers themselves2 or  
cause them to be delivered by women     
instructed  for that purpose1 or by     
writing1 or by any other means4 ,we     
read1  nevertheless1 that idols#ceh and 
the images of saints once spoke2 for  at
 present the latter will not venture to 
open their mouths4 ,if their  votaries  
ever really heard a voice proceed from  
the statue1 it may have  been produced  
in the before-mentioned manner4         
,whether the head of ,orpheus spoke in  
the island of ,lesbos1 or1 what  is more

 probable1 the answers were conveyed to 
it by the priests1  as was the case with
 the tripod at ,delphi1 cannot with     
certainty be  determined4 ,that the     
impostor ,alexander1 however1 caused his
 sculapius  to speak in this manner1 is 
expressly related by ,lucian#cei4 ,he   
took1 says that author1 instead of a    
pipe1 the gullet of a crane1 and        
transmitted the voice through it to the 
mouth of the statue4 ,in the  fourth    
century1 when bishop ,theophilus broke  
to pieces the statues  at ,alexandria1  
he found some which were hollow1 and    
placed in such a  manner against a wall 
that a priest could slip unperceived    
behind them1  and speak to the ignorant 
populace through their mouths#cfj4 ,i am
  acquainted with a passage which seems 
to imply that ,cassiodorus1 who1  it is 
well known1 constructed various pieces  
of mechanism1 made also  speaking       
machines2 but ,i must confess that ,i do
 not think ,i understand  the words     
perfectly#cfa4    ,that people ventured 

more than a hundred years ago to exhibit
 speaking  machines for money1 has been 
proved by ,reitz in his annotations  to 
,lucian1 where he produces the instance 
of one ,thomas ,irson1 an  ,englishman1 
whom he himself knew1 and whose art     
excited much wonder in  king ,charles   
,,ii4 and his whole court4 ,when the    
astonishment1 however1  became general1 
one of the pages discovered1 in the     
adjoining chamber1  a popish priest who 
answered in the same language1 through a
 pipe1 the  questions proposed to the   
wooden head by whispering into its ear4 
,this  deception ,irson often related   
himself#cfb4    ,i shall now add only a 
few observations respecting the ,chinese
 shadows1  which ,i have occasionally   
mentioned before4 ,this ingenious       
amusement  consists in moving1 by pegs  
fastened to them1 small figures cut out 
of  pasteboard1 the joints of which are 
all pliable1 behind a piece of fine     
painted gauze placed before an opening  
in a curtain1 in such a manner  as to   

exhibit various scenes1 according to    
pleasure2 while the opening  covered    
with gauze is illuminated1 towards the  
apartment where the  spectators sit1 by 
means of light reflected back from a    
mirror2 so that  the shadows of the pegs
 are concealed4 ,when it is requisite to
 cause  a figure to perform a variety of
 movements1 it is necessary to have     
several persons1 who must be exceedingly
 expert4 ,when a snake is to be         
represented gliding1 the figure1 which  
consists of delicate rings1 must  be    
directed at least by three assistants4  
,this amusement1 which one can hardly   
see the first time without  pleasure1 is
 really a ,chinese invention4 ,many     
years ago1 ,i have seen  ,chinese boxes 
on which such moveable figures were     
apparent only when  the box was held    
against the light4 ,in ,china1 these    
shadows are used  at the well-known     
feast of lanterns2 and a description of 
them may be  found in the works of some 
travellers4 ,that they were common also 

in  ,egypt1 we are informed by ,prosper 
,alpinus#cfc1 who admired them much2    
but he was not able to discover the     
method by which they were produced1  as 
it was kept a secret4 ,i was told by an 
,italian1 who exhibited them  at        
,gttingen some years ago1 that they were
 first imitated1 from the  ,chinese1 at 
,bologna4      ,,footnotes    #bha      
,essais1 i4 #ed4    #bhb ,the juggler   
mentioned in ,xenophon requested the    
gods to allow him  to remain only in    
places where there was much money and   
abundance of  simpletons4    #bhc ,le   
,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv4 ,berlin1 #agea1 
#abmo1 i4 p4 #dd4 ,this horse  was seen 
in the above-mentioned year by          
,casaubon1 to whom the owner1  an       
,englishman1 discovered the whole art by
 which he had been trained4  ,see       
,casauboniana1 p4 #ef4 ,we are assured  
by ,jablonski1 in his ,lexicon  der     
,knste und ,wissenschaften1 p4 #edg1    
that he was condemned to the  flames at 
,lisbon4 ,in the year #agci1 a juggler  

in ,poland was tortured  till he        
confessed that he was a sorcerer1 and   
without further proof he  was hanged4   
,the whole account of this circumstance 
may be found in the  ,schlesischen      
gelehrten ,neuigkeiten for the year     
#agci4    #bhd ,see ,luciani ,opera1 ed4
 ,bipont4 v4 pp4 #chh1 #djg4    #bhe    
,florus1 iii4 #ai1 #d4    #bhf          
,directions for performing this trick   
may be found in various  works1 such as 
,joh4 ,wallbergen's ,zauberknste1       
,stuttgard1 #aged1 #hvo1  and           
,natrliches ,zauberbuch1 ,nurnberg1     
#agdj1 #hvo4    #bhg ,see ,bayle's      
,diction4 i4 p4 #dej1 art4              
,barchochebas4    #bhh ,philostorgii    
,hist4 ,eccles4 vii4 #g1 p4 #ic4    #bhi
 ,vita ,alexandri1 p4 #fhg4    #bij     
,galen1 l4 c4    #bia ,ovid4 ,met4 lib4 
ix4 #afj4    #bib ,instances may be     
found collected in ,huetii ,alnetan     
,qustion4  lib4 ii4 and in ,bayle's     
,dictionary1 art4 ,egnatia4    #bic     
,journal des ,savans1 #affg1 pp4 #ed1   

#bbb2 and #afhj1 p4 #bib4  ,deslandes1  
,mmoires de ,physique1 ii4 and          
,bremenscher ,magazin1 i4 p4  #ffe4 ,see
 also ,busbequii ,omnia1 ,basil1 #agdj1 
#hvo1 p4 #cad4    #bid ,deception might 
have been easily practised in this case4
  ,fusible metal1 as suggested by ,sir  
,david ,brewster1 ,nat4 ,magic1 p4 #cja1
  which consists of mercury1 tin and    
bismuth1 and which melts at a low       
temperature1 might easily have been     
substituted in place of lead2 and       
fluids1 the boiling-point of which is   
lower than water1 might easily  have    
been substituted for that liquid4    ,a 
solution of spermaceti in sulphuric     
ther1 tinged with alkanet root1  which  
solidifies at #ej ,f41 and melts and    
boils with the heat of the  hand1 is    
supposed to be the substance which is   
used at ,naples1 when the  dried blood  
of ,st4 ,januarius melts spontaneously  
and boils over the  vessel which        
contains it4    ,the experiments of ,m4 
,tillet1 ,dr4 ,fordyce and ,sir ,charles

 ,blagden1  will show the great heat    
which may be endured by the human body4 
,some  of these gentlemen remained in a 
room where the heat was one or two      
degrees above #bfj ,f4 for eight        
minutes2 a beaf-steak was cooked in the 
same atmosphere1 and was overdone in    
thirty-three minutes2 when the  steak   
was blown upon with a pair of bellows1  
it was found to be pretty  well done in 
thirteen minutes4 ,but ,sir ,f4 ,chantry
 exposed himself to  a still greater    
heat in the furnace used for drying his 
moulds4 ,when  raised to its highest    
temperature1 the thermometer indicated  
#cej ,f41  and the iron floor was       
red-hot4 ,the workmen often entered it  
at #cdj4  ,on one occasion ,sir ,f41    
accompanied by five or six of his       
friends1  entered the furnace1 and after
 remaining two minutes1 they brought out
  a thermometer which indicated #cbj4   
,some of the party experienced sharp    
pains in the tips of their ears1 and in 
the septum of the nose1 whilst  others  

felt a pain in their eyes4--,brewster1  
l4 c4    #bie ,the peculiar property of 
minerals and various salts1 as alum1 in 
forming and protecting articles of      
dress1 c4 from the effects of fire1  has
 long been known4 ,but the art of       
practically applying it1 is due to  the 
ingenuity of the ,chevalier ,aldini of  
,milan4 ,his dress consisted of  a      
strong cloth covering which had been    
steeped in a solution of alum1  for the 
body1 arms and legs2 whilst the         
head-dress was a large cap  enveloping  
the whole head down to the neck1 with   
holes for the nose1  eyes and mouth2 the
 covering for the feet was composed of  
asbestos1  or amianthus cloth4 ,the     
stockings and cap were single1 but the  
gloves  were double1 to enable the      
fireman to take burning or red-hot      
bodies  into his hands4 ,a metallic     
dress was added to this1 consisting of a
  cap1 with a mask1 leaving a space     
between it and the asbestos cap2 a      
cuirass2 a piece of armour for the trunk

 and thighs2 a pair of boots of  double 
wire-gauze2 and an oval shield five feet
 long by two and a half  wide1 made by  
stretching the wire-gauze over a slender
 frame of iron4  ,all these pieces were 
made of wire-gauze4    ,it was found1   
that when armed with this apparatus1 a  
man could walk  upon hot iron1 in the   
midst of high flames1 keep his head over
 a pan  of flaming fire1 c4 for several 
minutes1 and this in some cases where   
the heat was so intense that bystanders 
were obliged to stand at the  distance  
of eight or ten yards4 ,this was        
remarkably shown in #ahbi1 in  the yard 
of the barracks of ,st4 ,jervais4 ,two  
towers were erected1 two  stories high1 
and were surrounded with heaps of       
inflamed faggots and  straw4 ,one of the
 firemen1 with a child on his back1 in a
 wicker basket  covered with metallic   
gauze1 and having a cap of amiantheric  
cloth1  rushed into a narrow place1     
where the flames were raging eight yards
  high4 ,the violence of the fire was so

 great that he could not be seen1  while
 a thick black smoke spread around1     
throwing out a heat which was           
insupportable to the spectators4 ,the   
man remained so long invisible  that    
serious doubts were entertained of his  
safety4 ,he at length1  however1 issued 
from the fiery gulf uninjured4    #bif  
,the same thing was performed by        
,schreber in #agfj4    #big ,plin4 vii4 
#aa4--,virg4 n4 xi4--,silius ,ital4     
v4--,strabo1 v4    #bih ,strabo1 xii4   
#bii ,in his work ,de ,mirabilibus      
,mundi1 at the end of his book ,de      
,secretis ,mulierum1 ,amstelod4 #agjb1  
#abmo1 p4 #ajj4    #cjj ,antigone1 #bgj4
    #cja ,animad4 in ,athen4 lib4 i4    
#ae4    #cjb ,de ,theatro1 lib4 i4 #dj1 
in ,grvii ,thes4 ,ant4 ,rom4 ix4    #cjc
 ,lib4 iii4 epist4 #bj4--,seneca1       
,epist4 #de4 ,compare ,suidas1 ,pollux1 
and ,atheni ,deipn4 #d4 ,it is probable 
that ,quintilian alludes to this  art in
 his ,institut4 x4 #g1 #aa4    #cjd     
,plin4 vii4 #bj1 p4 #che4--,martial4 v4 

#ab4--,suidas1 speaking of  ,theogenes  
,thasius4--,haller1 ,elem4 ,physiol4 iv4
 p4 #dhf4    #cje ,vopiscus1 ,vita      
,firmi4 ,see the figure in ,desaguliers1
 tab4 xix4  fig4 #e4 ,he describes the  
position thus3--,the pretended ,samson  
puts  his shoulders 7not his head1 as he
 used to give out7 upon one chair1  and 
his heels upon another 7the chairs being
 made fast71 and supports  one or two   
men standing on his belly1 raising them 
up and down as he  breathes1 making with
 his backbone1 thighs and legs1 an arch 
whose  abutments are the chairs4    #cjf
 ,a course of ,experimental ,philosophy4
 ,lond4 #agde1 #dto1 i4 p4 #bff4  ,a    
popular account of these extraordinary  
feats1 with illustrations and           
explanations of the principles on which 
they depend1 is given by ,sir  ,david   
,brewster in his interesting volume on  
,natural ,magic1 p4 #bdf4    #cjg       
,versuche und ,abhandl4 der             
,naturforsch4 ,geselsch4 in ,danzig4    
#cjh ,a great many of these passages of 

the ancients have been  collected by    
,bulenger1 in his work ,de ,theatro1 i4 
cap4 #da4 ,see also ,des  ,camps in a   
dissertation contained in ,recherches   
,curieuses d',antiquit1  par ,spon4 ,a  
,lyon #afhc4--,mercurialis ,de ,arte    
,gymnast4 and ,fabricii  ,biblioth4     
,antiq4 p4 #iie4    #cji ,an epigram1   
ascribed to ,petronius1 at page #edb of 
the edition of  ,hadrianides1 belongs to
 this subject4    #caj ,muratori        
,antiquit4 ,ital4 ,med4 vi1 ii4 p4 #hdf4
    #caa ,von ,stetten1 ,kunstgeschichte
 von ,augsburg1 ii4 p4 #agg4    #cab    
,claudian4 de ,mallii ,consul4 #cbj4 ,in
 ,cilano's ,rmischen  ,alterthmer1 ii4  
fig4 #h1 there is a representation like 
what ,i have  often seen exhibited4 ,but
 the most dangerous and the most curious
 is  that of which an engraving is given
 in ,splendor ,urbis ,venetiarum1 to be 
found in ,grvii ,thesaurus ,antiquit4   
,itali1 v4 #c4 p4 #cgd4    #cac ,sat4   
xiv4 #bfe4    #cad ,lib4 v4 #dcc4       
#cae ,symposium1 p4 #fee1 edition of    

,basle1 #aeee4 fol4        '   4 ,in the
  old edition of ,j4 ,ribittus1 this    
passage is thus translated3 8,allata    
est saltatrici orbis saltatorius1 in quo
 admiranda erat editura40 ,the  first   
question that arises is1 what was   4   
,the  last word alluded to a place at   
,athens where wrestling was exhibited   
every year2 and on that account         
,aristophanes uses the expression   4   
,this however affords no explanation4   
,bulenger1  who quotes the same passage1
 translates it in the following manner3 
8,illata est saltatrici figularis rota1 
per quam se trajiceret1 et  miracula    
patraret40 ,he means here therefore a   
potter's wheel1 the  invention of       
,anacharsis1 but that was always called 
1  and not   4 ,but even allowing that a
 potter's  wheel is meant1 it is wrong  
to add per quam se trajiceret2 for the  
potter's wheel is not like a hoop1 but  
like a plate or dish2 and when  turned  
round revolves not vertically1 but      
horizontally4 ,besides1 how  the        

performer could write or read on a wheel
 that she jumped through1  he has not   
thought proper to explain4 8,scribere et
 legere in rota  dum versatur1 mirabile 
quiddam est40 ,if a potter's wheel be   
meant1 ,i  consider it as certainly     
possible for a person to stand upon it  
whilst  it revolves with the greatest   
velocity1 and even to read or write2 but
  it would be necessary to lift up the  
legs1 in turn1 with the utmost          
quickness4    #caf ,nicephorus ,gregor4 
viii4 #aj4 p4 #bae4 ,this company of    
rope-dancers  came from ,egypt4 ,they   
travelled through the greater part of   
,asia1 and  all ,europe1 as far as the  
extremity of ,spain4 ,at ,constantinople
 they  extended the ropes1 on which they
 first exhibited their art1 between  the
 masts of ships4 ,one is almost induced 
to believe that stupid  superstition did
 not then prevail so much in ,europe as 
at the beginning  of the last century4  
,the historian says that the company at 
first  consisted of forty persons2 but  

that the half of them were cast away  on
 their passage to ,constantinople4 ,he  
does not1 however1 tell us that  they or
 their horses were anywhere burnt as    
conjurors1 or possessed  with the devil4
    #cag ,see the ,german translation of
 his ,travels1 ii4 p4 #bch4    #cah     
,journal du ,rgne de ,henri ,,iii4 p4   
#eg4--,recueil de ,pices servant        
l',hist4 de ,henri ,,iii4 ,cologne1     
#afff1 #abmo4    #cai ,epistolarum      
,selectarum ,centuria4 ,antverpi1 #afje1
 #dto1 i4 epist4  #ej4 p4 #ei4--,plin4  
viii4 #a and #c4--,seneca1 epist4       
#hf4--,suetonii ,vit4  ,galb4--,dio     
,cassius4 ,a great many also may be     
found collected in  ,hartenfels         
,elephantographia1 ,erfordi1 #agae1     
#dto4 ,it appears that in  the          
thirteenth century some ventured to ride
 a horse upon a rope4 ,see  the         
,chronicle ,alberichi ,monachi          
,trium-,fontium1 inserted by ,leibnitz  
in  ,accessiones ,historic1 vol4 ii41   
where a description is given of the     

solemnities at the wedding of ,robert1  
brother to the king of ,france1 in  the 
year #abcg4    ,several instances of the
 dexterity of the elephant may be found 
in  ,lipsii ,laus ,elephantis1 inserted 
in ,dissertat4 ,ludicrarum et ,amnitatum
  ,scriptores varii1 ,lugd4 ,bat4       
#afch4--,,trans4    #cbj liani ,hist4   
,an4 xvi4 #bc4 vi4 #aj4--;,athenus1 lib4
 xii4--,plinius4    #cba ,one instance  
may be found in ,theophanis             
,chronographia1 which was  printed at   
,paris #afee1 fol4 ,it occurred in the  
seventeenth year of the  reign of       
,justinian1 or #edc4    #cbb ,universal 
,magazine1 #agff1 ,october1 p4 #bag4    
#cbc ,der entlarvte ,wildman1 ,betrger  
grosser ,hfe4 ,berlin1 #aggd1  #hvo4    
,see also ,gttingische ,gelehrte        
,anzeig4 #agge1 p4 #haf4 ,the name of   
impostor given to ,wildman was1 however1
 too harsh2 for ,i do not think  that he
 who performs anything extraordinary1   
never done by any one  before1 becomes  
an impostor when another discovers his  

art4    #cbd ,the voyage of ,brue is in 
,labat's ,afrique ,occidentale1 iv4     
#cbe ,a curious exhibition of this kind 
has been made public for  several years 
in the ,strand1 viz4 the 8industrious   
fleas40 ,these  noxious animals are here
 seen to draw and drive a coach and     
four2 fire  off a small cannon2 and     
various other performances of a similar 
kind4    #cbf ,several instances of the 
like kind may be found also in          
,monstrorum ,historia ,memorabilis a ,j4
 ,g4 ,schenkio a ,grafenberg filio1     
,francof4 #afji1 #dto1 p4 #bh et seq4   
,one of the most curious is that  of    
,thomas ,schweicker1 born at ,halle in  
,prussian ,saxony1 in the year  #aehf4  
,camerarius saw him not only write1 but 
even make a pen with his                
feet4--,,trans4    #cbg ,strabo1 lib4   
xv4 p4 #ajdh4 ed4 ,almel4--,dio         
,cassius1 lib4 liv4 p4  #gci4           
,suetonius1 ,eutropius1 ,eusebius and   
,orosius1 speak of this embassy1  but   
make no mention of the presents4    #cbh

 ,in modern times the idle portion of   
the public has been  gratified by the   
exhibition of the ,siamese twins2 the   
diminutive  monster ,tom ,thumb2 and    
quite recently a child with three legs4 
,the  birth of such monsters is         
equivalent to a legacy or fortune to the
  parents1 who by their exhibitions     
realise large sums3 the morbid taste  of
 the public1 especially the weaker      
portion1 for such sights is truly       
deplorable4    #cbi ,man4 ,astron4 lib4 
v4 #afe4    #ccj ,frisch derives this   
word from morio1 a fool or buffoon4     
#cca ,this piece of kitchen furniture   
was known in the middle of the          
sixteenth century4 ,montagne saw one at 
,brixen1 in ,tyrol1 in the year  #aehj1 
and wrote a description of it in his    
,journal1 as a new invention4  ,he says 
it consisted entirely of wheels2 that it
 was kept in motion  by a heavy piece of
 iron1 as clocks are by a weight1 and   
that when  wound up in the like manner1 
it turned the meat for a whole hour4 ,he

  had before seen1 in some other place1 
another driven by smoke4--,reise1  i4   
pp4 #aee1 #bdi4 ,the latter kind seem to
 be somewhat older4 ,scappi1  cook to   
pope ,pius ,v41 gave a figure of one in 
his book ,opera di ,m4  ,bartolomeo     
,scappi1 printed at ,venice #aegj1 which
 is exceedingly scarce4  ,i lately saw a
 copy1 which1 instead of eighteen1 had  
twenty-four  engravings4 ,it was printed
 twice afterwards at the same place1    
viz4 in  #aega and #afje1 in quarto4    
,the third edition says1 8con due       
aggiunte1  cio  il ,trinciante et il    
,maestro di casa40 ,bayle seems to      
confound  this book with that of        
,platina ,de ,honesta ,voluptate1 or to 
think that  the latter was the real     
author of it4 ,this however cannot be1  
as there  were more than a hundred years
 between the periods when ,scappi and   
,platina lived4 ,platina died in #adha1 
and not in #aeha1 as we read in  ,bayle4
    #ccb ,de ,mundo4 cap4 vi4    #ccc   
,herodot4 ii4 #dh4 p4 #abg4--,lucian4 de

 ,syria ,dea1 #af1 ed4 ,bipont4  ix4 p4 
#ii4    #ccd ,recueil des ,antiquit4 iv4
 p4 #bei4    #cce ,doppelmayer1 p4 #bhe4
    #ccf ,iliad1 xviii4 #cgc4 ,it       
deserves to be remarked1 that there     
were also such   at the banquet of      
,iarchas4 ,see  ,philostrat4 ,opera1 ed4
 ,olearii1 pp4 #aag1 #bdj4    #ccg      
,polit4 i4 #c4    #cch ,in his ,menon1  
p4 #dbf4--;,euthyphron1 pp4 #h1 #aa4    
#cci ,introd4 in ,philos4 ,nat4 i4 p4   
#adc4    #cdj ,physiologia ,kircheriana1
 fol4 p4 #fi4    #cda ,in ,philostrati  
,opera1 ed4 ,olearii1 p4 #hii4    #cdb  
,in ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscr4 xiii4  
p4 #bgd4    #cdc ,ode xxvii4    #cdd    
,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ab4    #cde ,see   
,naud's ,apology1 ,bayle's ,dictionary1 
c4 ,thomas ,aquinas is  said to have    
been so frightened when he saw this     
head1 that he broke  it to pieces1 and  
,albertus thereupon exclaimed1 8,periit 
opus triginta  annorum60    #cdf ,schol4
 ,mathemat4 lib4 ii4 p4 #fe4    #cdg    
,dissertat4 de ,regiomontani ,aquila et 

,musca ,ferrea4 ,altorfi1  #agji4--,see 
,mmoires de ,trevoux1 #agaj1 ,juillet1  
p4 #abhc4--;,doppelmayer1  p4           
#bc4--;,fabricii ,bibl4 ,med4 tat4 iv4  
p4 #cee4--;,heilbronner ,hist4 ,math4   
p4 #ejd4    #cdh ,strada ,de ,bello     
,belgico4 ,mogunt4 #afea1 #dto1 p4 #h4  
,he calls the  artist ,jannellus        
,turrianus ,cremonensis4    #cdi ,in the
 year #agch1 ,le ,mchanisme du ,fluteur 
,automate1 par  ,vaucanson1 was printed 
at ,paris1 in a thin #dto4 ,it contains 
only  a short description of the        
flute-player1 which is copied into the  
,encyclopdie1 i4 p4 #ddh1 under the     
article ,androide4 ,the duck1 as far  as
 ,i know1 has been nowhere described4   
#cej ,vaucanson died at ,paris in #aghb4
    #cea ,the publisher is in possession
 of an elegantly formed mechanical      
bird-cage1 in which two artificial      
bullfinches wheel about on a perch1     
flutter their wings1 and move their     
beaks1 while emitting musical  sounds in
 imitation of their natural note4 ,a    

fountain constructed of  spiral glass   
plays in the centre4 ,beneath the cage  
is a clock which  sets the whole in     
motion hourly1 for three or four        
minutes2 but it may  be set going       
independently1 like a musical snuff-box4
 ,it is presumed to  have been made by  
,vaucanson about a hundred years ago1   
and was at one  time a principal        
attraction at ,weeks's celebrated       
,museum1 where that  singular piece of  
mechanism the ,tarantula spider was     
first exhibited4    #ceb ,nicolai1      
,reise1 i4 p4 #bhg4    #cec ,nouveau    
,voyage aux ,iles de l',amerique4 ,a la 
,haye #agbd1 #b vols4  #dto1 ii4 pp4    
#bih1 #chd4 ,from his county he was     
called ,count de ,gennes4    #ced       
,zodiacus ,vit1 xi4 #hdf4    #cee ,see a
 small treatise ,ueber ,h4 ,d4 ,muller's
 ,redende ,maschine1  und ber redende   
,maschinen berhaupt4 ,nurnberg1 #aghh1  
#hvo4--,algem4  ,teutsches ,biblioth4   
vol4 lxxxvii4 p4 #dgc4 ,the ,speaking   
,figure and the  ,automaton             

,chess-player exposed and detected4     
,london1 #aghd1 #hvo4--,this  celebrated
 chess-playing automaton1 invented by   
,m4 ,vankempelin1 was  repaired and     
exhibited in ,london in #ahbj1 by the   
ingenious mechanician  ,maelzel1 with   
considerable success4 ,the figure and   
machinery were  always submitted to the 
inspection of the visitors1 and shifted 
along  the floor in various directions  
before the game commenced1 and the      
deception was so adroitly managed as to 
escape the detection of the  most       
scrutinizing4 ,the proprietor always    
took care to secure the best            
chess-player in the town before he      
commenced operations1 the wonder        
therefore was greatly increased by the  
superiority of the automaton's  play4   
,mr4 ,lewis directed it in ,london4 ,it 
is now generally admitted  that a boy   
was concealed inside4    #cef ,van ,dale
 ,de ,oraculis4 ,amstelod4 #agjj1 #dto1 
i4 #aj1 p4 #bbb4    #ceg ,rponse        
l',histoire des ,oracles de ,m4 de      

,fontenelle4    #ceh ,a few instances   
are related by ,livy1 ,valerius         
,maximus1 and  ,plutarch4 ,among the    
fables of the ,christian church they are
 more  numerous4    #cei ,vol4 v4 p4    
#ij4 editio ,bipont4    #cfj ,theodoreti
 ,hist4 ,eccles4 v4 #bb4    #cfa        
,cassiodori ,variar4 i4 ep4 #de4    #cfb
 ,speaking ,automaton4--,there is a     
piece of mechanism now  exhibiting to   
the public at the ,egyptian ,hall--the  
work of ,professor  ,faber1 of ,vienna1 
and the result1 as he states1 of        
twenty-five years  of labour and        
preparation4 ,the name which he has     
given to this product  of his ingenuity 
is the ,euphonia2 and the work1 as that 
name implies1  is another of those many 
combinations which have attempted1 by   
the  anatomical and physiological study 
of the structures that contribute  to   
the human voice1 to attain to an        
imitation of that organ as regards  both
 sound and articulation4 ,as an example 
of inductive and mechanical  skill this 

exhibition is well deserving of         
attention4 ,the professor  himself1 by  
an arrangement of bellows-pipes1 pedal  
and keys1 which  he plays somewhat like 
the keys of a piano1 prompts the        
discourse of  his automaton2 which      
certainly does enunciate both sounds and
 words4  ,when we entered the room we   
found it singing to a select society4   
,it  requires all our sense of the      
ingenuity and perseverance which have   
been bestowed on the work to induce our 
assent to the proposition which  calls  
the voice human2 but undoubtedly it is a
 remarkable result of  contriving skill 
and scientific patience4--,athneum4     
#cfc ,historia gypti ,natural4 ,lugd4   
,bat4 #agce1 #dto1 p4 #fj4              
,,artificial ,,ice4 ,,cooling ,,liquors4
      ,the art of preserving snow for   
cooling liquors during the summer1  in  
warm countries1 was known in the        
earliest ages4 ,this practice is        
mentioned by ,solomon#cfd1 and proofs of
 it are so numerous in the  works of the

 ,greeks and the ,romans1 that it is    
unnecessary for me to  quote them1      
especially as they have been collected  
by others#cfe4 ,how  the repositories   
for keeping it were constructed1 we are 
not expressly  told2 but what ,i know on
 the subject ,i shall here lay before   
the reader4    ,that the snow was       
preserved in pits or trenches1 is       
asserted by  many#cff4 ,when ,alexander 
the ,great besieged the city of ,petra1 
he  caused thirty trenches to be dug and
 filled with snow1 which was  covered   
with oak branches1 and which kept in    
that manner for a long  time#cfg4       
,plutarch says that a covering of chaff 
and coarse cloth is  sufficient#cfh2 and
 at present a like method is pursued in 
,portugal4  ,where the snow has been    
collected in a deep gulf1 some grass or 
green  sods1 covered with dung from the 
sheep-pens1 is thrown over it2 and      
under these it is so well preserved1    
that the whole summer through it  is    
sent the distance of sixty ,spanish     

miles to ,lisbon#cfi4    ,when the      
ancients therefore wished to have       
cooling liquors1 they either  drank the 
melted snow or put some of it in their  
wine1 or they placed  jars filled with  
wine in the snow1 and suffered it to    
cool there as  long as they thought     
proper4 ,it appears that in these       
trenches it could  not remain long      
clean2 on the contrary1 it was generally
 so full of  chaff1 that the snow-water 
was somewhat coloured with it1 and had a
  taste of it1 and for this reason it   
was necessary to strain either it  or   
the wine that had been cooled by it#cgj4
    ,that ice also was preserved for the
 like purpose1 is probable from the     
testimony of various authors#cga2 but it
 appears not to have been used  so much 
in warm countries as in the northern4   
,even at present snow is  employed in   
,italy1 ,spain1 and ,portugal2 but in   
,persia1 ice#cgb4 ,i have  never        
anywhere found an account of ,grecian or
 ,roman ice-houses4 ,by the  writers on 

agriculture they are not mentioned4     
,mankind however soon conceived the idea
 of cooling water without snow  or ice1 
from having remarked that it became cold
 more speedily when  it had been        
previously boiled1 or at least warmed1  
and then put in a  vessel among snow1 or
 in a place much exposed to the air4    
,pliny seems  to give this as an        
invention of ,nero#cgc2 and a jocular   
expression  in ,suetonius#cgd makes it  
at any rate probable that he was fond of
  water cooled by this method2 but it   
appears to be much older4 ,it seems  to 
have been known even to ,hippocrates3 at
 least ,galen#cge believes  so4 ,and    
,aristotle#cgf was undoubtedly          
acquainted with it2 for he says  that   
some were accustomed1 when they wished  
water to become soon cold1  to place it 
first in the sun and suffer it to grow  
warm4 ,he relates  also that1 the       
fishermen near the ,black ,sea poured   
boiling water over  the reeds which they
 used in fishing on the ice to cause    

them to freeze  sooner4 ,galen#cgg on   
this subject is still more precise4 ,he 
informs us  that the above practice was 
not so much used in ,italy and ,greece1 
where  snow could be procured1 as in    
,egypt and other warm countries1 where  
neither snow nor cool springs were to be
 found4 ,the water after it had  been   
boiled was put into earthen vessels or  
jars1 and exposed in the  evening on the
 upper part of the house to the night   
air4 ,in the morning  these vessels were
 put into the earth 7perhaps in a pit71 
moistened  on the outside with water1   
and then bound round with fresh or green
  plants1 by which means the water could
 be preserved cool throughout  the whole
 day4 ,athenus#cgh1 who gives a like    
account from a book of  ,protagorides1  
remarks1 that the pitchers filled with  
water1 which had  become warm by        
standing all day long in the sun1 were  
kept continually  wet during the night1 
by servants destined to that office1 and
 in the  morning were bound round with  

straw4 ,in the island of ,cimolus#cgi1  
water which had become warm in the      
day-time was put into earthen jars1  and
 deposited in a cool cellar1 where it   
grew as cold as snow4 ,it was  generally
 believed therefore1 that water which   
had been warmed or  boiled1 was soonest 
cooled1 as well as acquired a greater   
degree of  refrigeration2 and on this   
account boiled water is mentioned so    
often  in the works of the ancients#chj4
    ,the same opinion prevails at       
present in the southern countries of    
,asia1  and people there still let their
 water boil before they expose it to    
the air to cool#cha4 ,the experiments   
however which have been made on  this   
subject by philosophers1 have proved    
very different in the result4  ,when one
 indeed places boiling and cold water1  
all other circumstances  being equal1 in
 frosty air1 the latter will become ice 
before the  former has cooled2 but when 
one exposes to the cold1 water that has 
been boiled1 and unboiled water of equal

 temperatures1 the former will  be      
converted into ice somewhat sooner4     
,the experiments made by ,mariotte#chb1 
,perrault#chc1 the ,academy del         
,cimento#chd1 ,marian#che and others1   
showed no perceptible difference  in the
 time of freezing1 between boiled and   
unboiled water2 but the  former produced
 ice harder and clearer1 the latter ice 
more full  of blisters4 ,in later times1
 ,dr4 ,black of ,edinburgh has1 from his
  experiments1 asserted the contrary4   
,boiled water1 he says1 becomes ice     
sooner than unboiled1 if the latter be  
left at perfect rest2 but if the  latter
 be stirred sometimes with a chocolate  
stick1 it is converted  into ice as soon
 as the former4 ,this difference he     
explains in the  following              
manner3--,some motion promotes          
congelation2 this arises in  the boiled 
water through its re-imbibing air2 and  
therefore it must  necessarily freeze   
before the unboiled1 provided the latter
 be kept  at perfect rest4 ,fahrenheit  

had before remarked that water not      
moved1  would show a cold several       
degrees below the freezing-point1       
without  becoming ice#chf4    ,m4       
,lichtenberg1 with whom ,i conversed on 
these contradictory results1  assured me
 that he was not surprised at this      
difference in the  experiments4 ,the    
time of congelation is regulated by     
circumstances1  with which philosophers 
are not yet sufficiently acquainted4 ,a 
certain1 but not every degree of        
stirring hastens it2 so that every  icy 
particle which is formed on the side of 
the vessel1 or which falls  from the    
atmosphere1 may convert the water       
sufficiently cooled into ice            
instantaneously2 and such unavoidable   
accidents must1 where all other         
circumstances are equal1 cause a great  
difference in the period of  freezing4  
,i am inclined to think that the cooling
 of water1 in ancient times1  of which  
,i have already spoken1 is not to be    
ascribed so much to the  boiling as to  

the jars being kept continually wet1 and
 to the air to  which it was exposed4 ,a
 false opinion seems therefore to have  
prevailed  respecting the cause2 and    
because it was considered to be the     
boiling1  many have not mentioned the   
real cause1 which appeared to them only 
to afford a trifling assistance1 though 
it has been remarked both by  ,galen and
 ,athenus4 ,we know at present that     
coolness is produced by  evaporation4 ,a
 thermometer kept wet in the open air   
falls as long as  evaporation           
continues#chg4 ,with sulphuric ther1 and
 still better  with that of nitre1 which
 evaporates very rapidly1 water may be  
made  to freeze even in the middle of   
summer2 and ,cavallo saw in summer a    
,fahrenheit's thermometer1 which stood  
at #fd1 fall in two minutes1 by  means  
of ther1 to #c1 that is to #bi below the
 freezing-point#chh4    ,on this        
principle depends the art of making ice 
at ,calcutta and other  parts of ,india1
 between #be #cj and #bc #cj of north   

latitude1 where  natural ice is never   
seen unless imported4 ,trenches two feet
 deep1  dug in an open plain1 are       
strewed over with dry straw2 and in     
these  are placed small shallow unglazed
 earthen pans1 filled with water  at    
sunset4 ,the ice which is produced in   
them is carried away before  sunrise    
next morning1 and conveyed to an        
ice-cellar fifteen feet deep2  where it 
is carefully covered with straw to be   
preserved from the  external heat and   
air4 ,a great deal1 in this process1    
depends upon  the state of the          
atmosphere4 ,when calm1 pure and serene1
 it is most  favourable to the          
congelation2 but when the winds are     
variable1 or the  weather heavy and     
cloudy1 no ice is formed2 and the same  
is often the  case when the nights are  
raw and cold#chi4    ,it was once       
believed that this freezing was         
occasioned principally by  the water    
having been boiled2 but it seems to be  
owing much rather to  evaporation#cij4  

,it is not however said that the vessels
 are kept  continually wet on the       
outside1 but that they are unglazed1 and
 so  porous or little burnt1 that the   
water oozes through them2 and on  that  
account their exterior surface appears  
always moist#cia4 ,by  vessels of this  
kind the trouble of wetting is saved4   
,what has been  said respecting the     
influence of the weather serves1 in some
 measure1  to confirm my conjecture4    
,the more it favours evaporation1 the   
ice is  not only formed more easily1 but
 it is better2 and when evaporation is  
prevented by the wind or the weather1 no
 ice is produced4 ,the latest  accounts 
how ice is made at ,benares1 say        
expressly that boiled water  is not     
employed2 and that all those vessels1   
the pores of which are  stopped by      
having been used1 do not yield ice so   
soon or so good4 ,in  porcelain vessels 
none is produced2 and this is the case  
also when the  straw is wet#cib4        
,another method of cooling water also   

seems to have been known to  ,plutarch4 
,it consisted in throwing into it small 
pebbles or plates of  lead#cic4 ,the    
author refers to the testimony of       
,aristotle2 but this  circumstance ,i   
cannot find in the works of that        
philosopher which  have been preserved4 
,it seems to be too unintelligible to   
admit of any  opinion being formed upon 
it2 and the explanation given by        
,plutarch  conveys still less           
information than the proposition itself4
 ,this is the  case1 in general1 with   
almost all the propositions of the      
ancients4  ,we indeed learn from the    
questions that they were acquainted with
  many phnomena2 but the answers        
scarcely ever repay the trouble which   
one must employ in order to understand  
them4 ,they seldom contain any  further 
illustration2 and never a satisfactory  
explanation4    ,it appears that the    
practice of cooling liquors1 at the     
tables of the  great1 was not usual in  
any country besides ,italy and the      

neighbouring  states1 before the end of 
the sixteenth century4 ,in the middle of
 that  century there were no ice-cellars
 in ,france2 for when ,bellon relates1  
in the ,account of his travels1 in      
#aeec1 how snow and ice were preserved  
at ,constantinople throughout the whole 
summer1 for the purpose of  cooling     
sherbet1 he assures us that the like    
method might be adopted  by his         
countrymen2 because he had found        
ice-cellars in countries  warmer than   
,france4 ,the word glacire also is not  
to be met with in  the older            
dictionaries2 and it does not occur even
 in that of ,monet1  printed in         
#afcecid4 ,champier1 the physician who  
attended ,francis ,i4  when he had a    
conference with the emperor ,charles ,v4
 and pope ,paul ,,iii4  at ,nice1 saw   
the ,spaniards and ,italians put snow1  
which they caused to  be brought from   
the neighbouring mountains1 into their  
wine in order  to cool it4 ,that        
practice1 which excited his             

astonishment1 he declared  to be        
unhealthful2 and this proves that in his
 time it had not been  introduced at the
 ,french court#cie4    ,grand d',aussy  
quotes an anecdote1 related by          
,brantome1 from which  he forms the same
 conclusion4 ,the dauphin1 son of       
,francis ,i41 being  accustomed to drink
 a great deal of water at table1 even   
when he was  overheated1 ,donna ,agnes  
,beatrix ,pacheco1 one of the ladies of 
the  court1 by way of precaution1 sent  
to ,portugal for earthen vessels1  which
 would render the water cooler and more 
healthful2 and from which  all the water
 used at the court of ,portugal was     
drunk4 ,as these vessels  are still used
 in ,spain and ,portugal1 where the wine
 is cooled also  with snow1 both methods
 might have been followed in ,france4 ,i
 have in  my collection of curiosities1 
fragments of these ,portuguese vessels2 
they are made of red bole2 are not      
glazed1 though they are smooth1 and     
have a faint gloss on the surface like  

the ,etruscan vases4 ,they are so       
little burnt that one can easily break  
them with the teeth2 and the  bits      
readily dissolve to a paste in the      
mouth4 ,if water be poured into  such   
vessels1 it penetrates their substance2 
so that1 when in the least  stirred1    
many air-bubbles are produced2 and it at
 length oozes entirely  through         
them#cif4 ,the water that has stood in  
them acquires a taste  which many       
consider as agreeable2 and it is        
probable that it proceeds  from the bark
 of the fir-tree1 with which1 as we     
read1 they are burnt4  ,when the vessels
 are new1 they perform their service    
better2 and they  must then also have a 
more pleasant smell4 ,if they really    
render water  cold1 or retain it cool1  
that effect1 in my opinion1 is to be    
ascribed  to the evaporation4 ,their    
similarity to those in which the        
,indians make  ice is very apparent4    
,towards the end of the sixteenth       
century1 under the reign of ,henry      

,,iii41 the use of snow must have been  
well known at the ,french court1  though
 it appears that it was considered by   
the people as a mark of  excessive and  
effeminate luxury4 ,in the witty and    
severe satire on  the voluptuous life of
 that sovereign and his favourites1     
known under  the title of ,l',isle des  
,hermaphrodites#cig1 a work highly      
worthy  of notice but which is          
exceedingly scarce1 we find an order of 
the  ,hermaphrodites that large         
quantities of ice and snow should       
everywhere  be preserved1 in order that 
people might cool their liquors with    
them1  even though they might occasion  
extraordinary maladies1 which1 it       
seems1 were then apprehended4 ,in the   
description of an entertainment we  are 
told that snow and ice were placed upon 
the table before the king2  and that he 
threw some of them into his wine2 for   
the art of cooling it  without weakening
 it was not then known4 ,the same method
 was practised  even during the whole   

first quarter of the seventeenth        
century#cih4    ,towards the end of the 
above century this luxury must have been
 very  common in ,france4 ,at that      
period there were a great many who dealt
 in  snow and ice2 and this was a free  
trade which every person might carry    
on4 ,government1 however1 which could   
never extort from the people  money     
enough to supply the wants of an        
extravagant court1 farmed out1  towards 
the end of the century1 a monopoly of   
these cooling wares4  ,the farmers1     
therefore1 raised the price from time to
 time2 but the  consumption and revenue 
decreased so much that it was not       
thought worth  while to continue the    
restriction2 and the trade was again    
rendered  free4 ,the price immediately  
fell2 and was never raised afterwards   
but  by mild winters or hot summers4    
,the method of cooling liquors by       
placing them in water in which          
saltpetre has been dissolved1 could not 
be known to the ancients1  because they 

were unacquainted with that salt4 ,they 
might however1 have  produced the same  
coolness by other salts which they knew1
 and which  would have had a better     
effect2 but this1 as far as ,i have been
 able to  learn1 they never attempted4  
,the above property of saltpetre was    
first  discovered in the first half of  
the sixteenth century2 and it was not   
remarked till a long period afterwards1 
that it belongs to other salts  also4   
,the ,italians at any rate were the     
first people by whom it was employed2   
and about the year #aeej1 all the water1
 as well as the wine1 drunk  at the     
tables of the great and rich families at
 ,rome1 was cooled in  this manner4     
,blasius ,villafranca1 a ,spaniard1 who 
practised physic in  that capital1 and  
attended many of the nobility1          
published1 in the  before-mentioned     
year1 an account of it1 in which he     
asserts1 more  than once1 that he was   
the first person who had made the       
discovery  publicly known4 ,in his      

opinion it was occasioned by the remark 
that  salt water in summer was always   
cooler than fresh water4 ,according to  
his directions1 which are illustrated by
 a figure1 the liquor must be  put into 
a bottle or globular vessel with a long 
neck1 that it may  be held with more    
convenience2 and this vessel must be    
immersed in  another wide one filled    
with cold water4 ,saltpetre must then be
 thrown  gradually into the water2 and  
while it is dissolving1 the bottle must 
be driven round with a quick motion on  
its axis1 in one direction4             
,villafranca thinks that the quantity of
 saltpetre should be equal to a  fourth 
or fifth part of the water2 and he      
assures us1 that when again             
crystallized1 it may be employed several
 times for the same use1 though  this1  
before that period1 had by many been    
denied4 ,whether other salts  would not 
produce the like effect1 the author did 
not think of trying2  but he attempts to
 explain this of saltpetre from the     

principles of  ,aristotle2 and he tells 
his noble patrons what rules they should
  observe for the preservation of their 
health1 in regard to cooling  liquors4  
,towards the end of the sixteenth       
century this method of cooling liquors  
was well known1 though no mention is    
made of it by ,scappi1 in his  book on  
cookery4 ,marcus ,antonius ,zimara1     
however1 speaks of it in his            
,problems#cii4 ,i do not know at what   
time this ,appulian physician  lived4   
,in a list of the professors of ,padua1 
his name is to be found  under the year 
#aebe1 as ,explicator philosophi        
ordinari2 and because  another is named 
under the year #aecb1 we have reason to 
conjecture that  he died about that     
time4 ,but in that case the physician   
,villafranca  would probably have been  
acquainted with the ,problemata of      
,zimara2 and  would not have said that  
no one had spoken of this use of        
saltpetre  before him4    ,levinus      
,lemnius#djj also mentions the art of   

cooling wine by this  method so much1   
that the teeth can scarcely endure it4  
,we are informed  by ,bayle that the    
earliest edition of his work1 which has 
been often  reprinted1 was published at 
,antwerp1 in the year #aeei1 in octavo4 
,it  contains only the first two books2 
but as the above account occurs in  the 
second book1 it must be found in this   
edition4    ,nicolaus ,monardes1 a      
,spanish physician1 who died about the  
year #aegh1  mentions this use of       
saltpetre likewise4 ,it was invented1 as
 he says1  by the galley-slaves2 but he 
condemns it as prejudicial to health4   
,from  some expressions which he uses1  
,i am inclined to think that he was not 
sufficiently acquainted with it2 and    
that he imagined that the salt  itself  
was put into the liquor4 ,at a later    
period we find some account  of it in   
various books of receipts2 such as that 
written by ,mizaldus in  #aeff1 and     
which was printed for the first time the
 year following#dja4    ,in the         

,mineralogy of ,aldrovandi1 first       
printed in #afdh1 this process  is      
described after ,villafranca2 but where 
the editor1 ,bartholomus  ,ambrosianus1 
speaks of common salt1 he relates that  
it was usual in  countries where fresh  
water was scarce to make deep pits in   
the earth2  to throw rock-salt into     
them2 and to place in them vessels      
filled with  water1 in order that it    
might be cooled4 ,this remark proves    
that the  latter salt was then employed 
for the same purpose2 but it has led the
  editor into a very gross error4 ,he   
thinks he can conclude from it1 that    
the intention of potters1 when they mix 
common salt with their clay1  is not    
only to render the vessel more compact1 
but also to make it  more cooling for   
liquors4 ,but the former only is true4  
,the addition of  salt produces in clay1
 otherwise difficult to be fused1 the   
faintest  commencement of vitrification2
 a cohesion by which the vessel becomes 
so solid that it can contain fluids1    

even when unglazed2 but for this  very  
reason it would be most improper for    
cooling1 which is promoted by  the      
evaporation of the water that oozes     
through4    ,the ,jesuit ,cabeus1 who   
wrote a voluminous commentary on the    
,meteorologica of ,aristotle1 which were
 printed at ,rome in #afdf1 assures  us 
that with thirty-five pounds of         
saltpetre one can not only cool a       
hundred pounds of water1 by quickly     
stirring it1 but convert it also  into  
solid ice2 and for the truth of this    
assertion he refers to an  experiment   
which he made4 ,bartholin says that for 
the above account  he can give him full 
credit#djb2 but the truth of it is      
denied by  ,duhamel1 who suspects that  
this ,jesuit took the shooting crystals 
of  the salt to be ice#djc4    ,who     
first conceived the idea of mixing snow 
or ice with saltpetre and  other salts1 
which increases the cold so much1 that a
 vessel filled  with water1 placed in   
that mixture1 is congealed into a solid 

mass of  ice that may be used on the    
table1 ,i cannot with certainty         
determine2  but ,i shall mention the    
earliest account of it that ,i have been
 able  to find4 ,latinus ,tancredus1 a  
physician and professor at ,naples1     
whose  book ,de ,fame et ,siti was      
published in #afjg1 speaks of this      
experiment2  and assures us that the    
cold was so much strengthened by        
saltpetre1  that a glass filled with    
water1 when quickly moved in the above  
mixture1 became solid ice#djd4    ,in   
the year #afbf1 the well-known          
commentary on the works of ,avicenna1   
by ,sanct4 ,sanctorius1 was published at
 ,venice4 ,the author in this work      
relates1 that in the presence of many   
spectators1 he had converted  wine into 
ice1 not by a mixture of snow and       
saltpetre1 but of snow and  common      
salt#dje4 ,when the salt was equal to a 
third part of the snow1  the cold was   
three times as strong as when snow was  
used alone4    ,lord ,bacon1 who died in

 #afbf1 says that a new method had been 
found  out of bringing snow and ice to  
such a degree of cold1 by means of      
saltpetre1 as to make water freeze4     
,this1 he tells us1 can be done  also   
with common salt2 by which it is        
probable he meant unpurified  rock-salt2
 and1 he adds1 that in warm countries1  
where snow was not to  be found1 people 
made ice with saltpetre alone2 but that 
he himself  had never tried the         
experiment#djf4 ,boyle1 who died in     
#afia1 made  experiments with various   
kinds of salts2 and he describes how1 by
 means  of salt1 a piece of ice may be  
frozen to another solid body#djg4       
,descartes says that in his time this   
was a well-known phnomenon1 but  highly 
worthy of attention#djh4    ,since that 
period the art of making ice has been   
spoken of in the  writings of all       
philosophers where they treated on heat 
and cold1 and  with many other          
experiments has been introduced into    
various books of  receipts4 ,it was then

 employed merely for amusement#dji2 and 
no one  suspected that it would ever    
form an important item of luxury4 ,in   
the  like manner ,fugger's first bills  
of exchange were said to be useful  only
 for gambling1 and gunpowder was called 
a trifling discovery4    ,in the        
beginning of the seventeenth century1   
drinking-cups made of ice  and iced     
fruit were first brought to the table2  
but towards the end of  that century it 
appears that the ,french began to       
congeal in this manner  all kinds of    
well-tasted juices1 which were served up
 as refreshments  at the tables of the  
great and wealthy#daj4 ,this was a grand
 invention  for the art of cookery2     
which became common among the ,german   
cooks1  both male and female1 about the 
middle of the last century2 and since   
that time our confectioners sell single 
glasses of iced articles at  balls and  
in the theatres4    ,i am acquainted    
with no older information respecting    
this invention  than what is contained  

in ,barclay's ,argenis1 which is1       
indeed1 a  romance2 but the author's    
account makes the possibility of its    
being  used so clear1 that we may       
certainly conclude it was then employed2
  especially as he mentions it several  
times4 ,arsidas finds in the middle  of 
summer1 at the table of ,juba1 fresh    
apples1 one-half of which was  encrusted
 with transparent ice4 ,a basin1 made   
also of ice and filled  with wine1 was  
handed to him2 and he was informed that 
to prepare all  these things in summer  
was a new art4 ,snow was preserved      
throughout  the whole year in pits lined
 with straw4 ,two cups made of copper   
were  placed the one within the other1  
so as to leave a small space between    
them1 which was filled with water2 the  
cups were then put into a pail1  amidst 
a mixture of snow and unpurified salt   
coarsely pounded1 and  the water in     
three hours was converted into a cup of 
solid ice1 as  well-formed as if it had 
come from the hands of a pewterer4 ,in  

the like  manner apples just pulled from
 the tree were covered with a coat of   
ice4    ,the first edition of the       
,argenis was printed at ,paris in #afba1
 and in  that year the author died at   
the age of thirty-nine4    ,after       
brandy1 from being a medicine1 came into
 general use as a liquor  at table1 and 
was drunk in common by the populace1 the
 ,italians1 above  all1 endeavoured to  
render it weaker and more pleasant by   
various  mixtures2 and by raising its   
value to make it more respectable1 and  
at the same time more useful to people  
of the first rank4 ,that their  wares   
might be distinguished with more        
certainty1 they gave them the  name of  
liquori2 and under that appellation sold
 them to foreign  nations4 ,the ,french 
were the first who adopted the use of   
these  articles2 particularly after the 
marriage of ,henry ,,ii41 when duke of  
,orleans1 with ,catharine de ,medici1 in
 the year #aecc4 ,this event brought  to
 ,france great numbers of ,italians1 who

 made the ,french acquainted  with these
 delicacies of their native country2 and
 who taught them  to prepare and to use 
them4 ,they were the first1 therefore1  
who made  and sold the fine liqueurs at 
,paris2 and in order to serve those  who
 could not bear heating liquors1 or     
rather to serve themselves by  filling  
their pockets with money1 their         
successors in this business  invented   
about the year #afcj or #afcc that      
beverage called lemonade1  because the  
juice of lemons or oranges was its chief
 component part4  ,this liquor soon came
 into high repute1 as it not only served
 for  cooling and refreshing people     
during the sultry heats of summer1 but  
was even recommended by physicians      
against putrid diseases4    ,the        
limonadiers1 or venders of lemonade1    
endeavoured to increase  the first      
property1 which occasioned the far      
greatest consumption1 by  the means of  
ice2 and one of them1 ,procope          
,couteaux1 an ,italian from  ,florence1 

about the year #affj1 conceived the     
happy idea of converting  such beverage 
entirely into ice1 by a process which   
had been before  employed only by       
jugglers4 ,the ready sale which he found
 for his  invention induced others to   
make articles of the like kind4 ,his    
example1 therefore1 was followed by ,le 
,fevre and ,foi2 and these three  for   
some years enjoyed a monopoly of this   
new-fashioned commodity4  ,about the    
year #afgf1 liquors cooled by1 or       
changed into ice1 must  however have    
been the principal things sold by the   
limonadiers2  for being then formed into
 a company1 the following delicacies    
were  mentioned in the patent which they
 received on that occasion3 8,eaux  de  
gele et glaces de fruits et de fleurs1  
d'anis et de canelle1  franchipanne1    
d'aigre de cetre1 du sorbec10 c4 ,there 
were at that time  in ,paris two hundred
 and fifty masters in this employment4  
,in #afij1  when ,de la ,quintiny wrote1
 iced liquors were extremely common#daa4

    ,people1 however1 long imagined that
 such articles could be used  only      
during the hot months of summer4 ,in the
 year #agej1 ,dubuisson1  successor to  
the celebrated ,procope1 au caf de la   
rue des ,fosss de  ,s4 ,germain des     
,prs1 and author of the ,art du         
,dstillateur1 began to  keep ready      
prepared1 the whole year through1 ices  
of every kind for the  use of those who 
were fond of them4 ,at first they were  
little called  for1 except in the       
dog-days2 but some physicians           
recommended them in  certain disorders4 
,have the physicians then1 by their     
opinion1 done  most service to the      
venders of liqueurs and to cooks1 or the
 latter  to the physicians8 ,this would 
make a fine subject for an inaugural    
dissertation4 ,it is1 however1 certain1 
for we are told so by ,dubuisson        
himself1 that after two cures1 in which 
ices had been of the greatest  service1 
the more discerning part of the public  
made use of them in  every season of the

 year4 ,that this part of the public    
might never lose  their conceit1 the    
venders of liqueurs always employed     
their thoughts  upon new inventions4    
,among the latest is that of iced       
butter1 which  acquired its name on     
account of some likeness to that        
substance4 ,it  was first known at the  
,parisian coffee-house 7caveau7 in      
#aggd4 ,the  ,duke de ,chartres often   
went thither to enjoy a glass of iced   
liquor2  and the landlord1 to his great 
satisfaction and surprise1 having one   
day presented him with his arms formed  
of eatable ice1 articles of a  similar  
kind immediately became fashionable4    
,ice is now used extensively for a      
variety of conomical purposes1 such  as 
packing salmon1 cooling liquors1 c4 ,of 
late years it has become a  regular     
article of commerce4 ,in ,september     
#ahcc1 a cargo of ice1 shipped  at      
,boston1 was discharged at ,calcutta4   
,it was sold at threepence per  pound1  
while the native ice fetched sixpence4  

,it was packed in solid  masses1 within 
chambers of double planking1 with a     
layer of refuse  tan or bark between    
them4 ,the quantity shipped was #ahj    
tons1 of which  about #fj wasted on the 
voyage1 and #bj on the passage up the   
river  to ,calcutta4 ,thousands of tons 
are now annually shipped from ,boston   
7,united ,states7 to our ,east ,indies1 
to the ,west ,indian ,archipelago1  and 
to the ,continent of ,south ,america1   
and quite recently #8,the ,wenham  ,lake
 ,ice ,company' have erected extensive  
ice-houses in ,london and at            
,liverpool1 and arranged for the        
transportation to this country of       
thousands of tons of ice4 ,one          
surprising circumstance connected with  
the trade1 is the fact that their ice1  
though transported to this  country in  
the heat of summer1 is scarcely reduced 
in bulk4 ,the masses  are so large that 
they expose a very small surface to     
atmospheric  action in proportion to    
their weight1 and therefore do not      

suffer from  exposure to it1 as the     
smaller and thinner fragments do1 which 
are  obtained in our own or other warmer
 climates4 ,it appears1 also1 that  ice 
frozen upon very deep water1 is more    
hard and solid than ice of  the same    
thickness obtained from shallow water2  
and even when an equal  surface is      
exposed1 melts more slowly4 ,in this    
country1 the collection  of ice1 even by
 those largely engaged in the trade1 is 
an occasional  and fitful undertaking2  
depending1 both as to time and quantity1
 upon  the accidental occurrence of     
severe frost2 and when the process of   
collection is carried on1 it is with    
very few artificial aids4 ,in  ,america1
 on the other hand1 this labour can be  
regularly carried on  through the whole 
winter2 while the adjuncts of machinery 
for cutting  and storing1 and of steam  
for transporting it1 are brought        
extensively  into action4    ,the       
details connected with this trade1 as   
carried on in ,america1 are so  novel   

and so interesting1 that we lay them    
before our readers with the  confident  
belief that the result of our labours   
will prove attractive  to them4 ,wenham 
,lake1 whence a large proportion of the 
ice now  imported to this country is    
obtained1 is eighteen miles from        
,boston1 in  the ,state of              
,massachusets2 it occupies a very       
elevated position1 and  lies embosomed  
in hills of majestic height and bold    
rugged character4  ,the lake has no     
inlet whatever1 but is fed solely by the
 springs which  issue from the rocks at 
its bottom1 a depth of #bjj feet from   
its  surface4 ,the ice-house1 which is  
capable of storing #bj1jjj tons of ice1 
is built of wood1 with double walls1 two
 feet apart1 all around2 the  space     
between which is filled with sawdust2   
thus interposing a medium1  that is a   
non-conductor of heat1 between the ice  
and the external air2  the consequence  
of which is1 that the ice is scarcely   
affected by  any condition or           

temperature of the external atmosphere1 
and can be  preserved without waste for 
an indefinite time4    ,the machinery   
employed for cutting the ice is very    
curious1 and was  invented for that     
express purpose4 ,it is worked by men   
and horses in  the following            
manner3--,from the time when the ice    
first forms1 it is  carefully kept free 
from snow until it is thick enough to be
 cut2 that  process commences when the  
ice is a foot thick4 ,a surface of some 
two  acres is then selected1 which at   
that thickness will furnish about #bjjj 
tons1 and a straight line is then drawn 
through its centre from side to  side   
each way4 ,a small hand-plough is pushed
 along one of these lines1  until the   
groove is about three inches deep and a 
quarter of an inch  in width1 when the  
#8,marker' is introduced4 ,this         
implement is drawn  by two horses1 and  
makes two new grooves1 parallel with the
 first1  twenty-one inches apart2 the   
gauge remaining in the original groove4 

,the marker is then shifted to the      
outside groove1 and makes two more4     
,having drawn these lines over the whole
 surface in one direction1 the  same    
process is repeated in a transverse     
direction1 marking all the ice  out into
 squares of #ba inches4 ,in the         
meantime1 the #8,plough1' drawn  by a   
single horse1 is following in these     
grooves1 cutting the ice to  a depth of 
#f inches4 ,one entire range of blocks  
is then sawn out1 and  the remainder are
 split off toward the opening thus made 
with an iron  bar4 ,this bar is shaped  
like a spade and of a wedge-like form4  
,when  it is dropped into the groove1   
the block splits off2 a very slight     
blow being sufficient to produce that   
effect1 especially in very cold         
weather4 ,the labour of #8splitting' is 
slight or otherwise1 according  to the  
temperature of the atmosphere4          
#8,platforms1' or low tables of         
frame-work1 are placed near the opening 
made in the ice1 with iron  slides      

extending into the water1 and a man     
stands on each side of this  slide1     
armed with an ice-hook4 ,with this hook 
the ice is caught and by  a sudden jerk 
thrown up the #8slide' on to the        
#8platform4' ,in a cold day  everything 
is speedily covered with ice by the     
freezing of the water on  the platforms1
 slides1 c41 and the enormous blocks of 
ice1 weighing  some of them more than   
two cwt41 are hurled along these        
slippery  surfaces1 as if they were     
without weight4 ,beside this platform1  
stands a #8sled' of the same height1    
capable of containing about three  tons2
 which1 when loaded1 is drawn upon the  
ice to the front of the  store-house1   
where a large stationary platform of    
exactly the same  height1 is ready to   
receive its load2 which1 as soon as     
discharged1 is  hoisted block by block1 
into the house4    ,forty men and twelve
 horses will cut and stow away #djj tons
 a day4 ,in  favourable weather #ajj men
 are sometimes employed at once4 ,when a

 thaw  or a fall of rain occurs1 it     
entirely unfits the ice for market1 by  
rendering it opake and porous2 and      
occasionally snow is immediately        
followed by rain1 and that again by     
frost1 forming snow-ice1 which  is      
valueless1 and must be removed by the   
#8plane4' ,the operation of  #8planing' 
is somewhat similar to that of          
#8cutting4' ,a plane gauged to  run in  
the grooves made by the #8marker1' and  
which shaves the ice to  the depth of   
three inches1 is drawn by a horse1 until
 the whole surface  of the ice is       
planed4 ,the chips thus produced are    
then scraped off2  and if the clear ice 
is not reached1 the process is repeated4
 ,if this  makes the ice too thin for   
cutting1 it is left in statu quo1 and a 
few nights of hard frost will add below 
as much as has been taken off  above4   
,in addition to filling their ice-houses
 at the lake and in the  large towns1   
the company fill a large number of      
private ice-houses  during the winter1  

all the ice for these purposes being    
transported  by railway4 ,it will easily
 be believed1 that the expense of       
providing  tools1 building houses1      
furnishing labour1 and constructing and 
keeping  up the railway1 is very great2 
but the traffic is so extensive1 and the
  management of the trade so good1 that 
the ice can be furnished1 even in       
,england1 at a very trifling cost#dab   
7it is retailed at twopence per  pound74
      ,,footnotes    #cfd ,proverbs1    
xxv4 ver4 #ac4    #cfe ,bartholini de   
,nivis ,usu ,medico ,observationes1     
,hafn4 #affa4    #cff ,seneca1 ,qust4   
,natur4 iv4 #ac4    #cfg ,athenus1 iii4 
p4 #abd4    #cfh ,sympos4 vi4 qust4     
#f4--;,augustinus ,de ,civitate ,dei1   
xxi4 #d1 p4 #faj4    #cfi ,mmoires      
,instructifs pour un ,voyageur4 ,how the
 snow repositories  at ,constantinople  
are constructed1 is related by ,bellon  
in his  ,observat4 iii4 #bb4    #cgj    
,the dissipated ,heliogabalus caused    
whole mounts of snow to be  heaped up in

 summer in order to cool the air4 ,see  
,lampridius1 ,vita  ,heliogab4 cap4 #bc4
    #cga ,plin4 xix4 #d4--,latinus      
,pacatus in ,panegyr4 ,theodos4    #cgb 
,de la ,valle1 iii4 p4 #fj1 where the   
,persian ice-pits are  described1 as    
well as in ,chardin1 iv4 p4 #aie4       
#cgc ,hist4 ,nat4 xxxi4 #c1 #bc1 p4     
#eeb4    #cgd ,vita ,neronis1 cap4 #dh3 
,hc est ,neronis decocta4    #cge ,in   
lib4 vi4 ,hippocrat4 de ,morbis ,vulgar4
 comment4 #d1 #aj4    #cgf ,meteorol4 i4
 cap4 #ab4    #cgg ,in the place before 
quoted4    #cgh ,deipnos4 iii4 p4 #abd4 
#cgi ,ibid4 p4 #abc4    #chj ,see       
,pitisci ,lex4 ,antiq4 ,rom4 under the  
word ,decocta4    #cha ,philosoph4      
,transact4 vol4 lxv4 part i4 p4 #abf4   
#chb ,trait du ,mouvement des ,eaux4    
#chc ,du ,hamel1 ,hist4 de l',academ4 l4
 i4 c4 #c1 p4 #ii4    #chd ,tentamina   
,experimentorum ,acad4 del ,cim4 p4     
#ahc4    #che ,dissertation sur la      
,glace4 ,paris1 #agdi1 #abmo1 p4 #ahg4  
#chf ,philosoph4 ,transact4 vol4 lxv4   

part i4 p4 #abd4    #chg ,in ,india1 one
 mode of cooling wines1 is to suspend   
the bottle  in a thick flannel bag1 or  
folds of blotting-paper1 kept constantly
  wetted1 and placed in the sun's rays1 
or a current of air1 or both2  by which 
means the evaporation1 and therewith    
intense coldness1 is  produced4    #chh 
,philosoph4 ,transact4 vol4 lxxi4 part  
ii4 p4 #eaa4 ,m4 ,boutigny's  beautiful 
experiment of making ice in a red-hot   
crucible is a striking  phnomenon of    
this kind4 ,it is thus performed3--,a   
deep crucible of  platinum is heated to 
a glowing red heat2 liquid sulphurous   
acid1 which  has been preserved in the  
fluid state by a freezing mixture1 and  
some  water are then at the same instant
 poured into the crucible4 ,the rapid   
evaporation of the volatile sulphurous  
acid1 which boils below the             
freezing-point of water1 produces such  
an intense degree of cold as to  freeze 
the water1 which is then thrown out of  
the crucible as a solid  lump4    #chi  

,philosoph4 ,transact4 vol4 lxxi4 part  
ii4 p4 #beb3 the process of  making ice 
in the ,east ,indies2 by ,robert        
,barker4    #cij ,there is no question  
that this refrigeration is caused by the
  evaporation of a portion of the water1
 whereby a very large quantity of  heat 
becomes latent in the vapour4 ,a clear  
serene sky being necessary  for the     
success of the production of the ice1   
would tend to show that  the further    
loss of heat by radiation1 which always 
ensues to a great  extent at nights1    
when the sky is clear1 is necessary4    
#cia 444 a number of small1 shallow1    
earthen pans4 ,these are unglazed1      
scarce a quarter of an inch thick1 about
 an inch and a quarter in  depth1 and   
made of an earth so porous1 that it was 
visible from  the exterior part of the  
pans1 the water had penetrated the whole
  substance4 ,our ordinary wine-coolers1
 which consist of extremely  porous     
vessels1 act from evaporation4 ,a       
portion of the water1 which is  placed  

in the interior of the cooler1          
evaporates through its pores1 and       
produces cold by rendering a            
considerable amount of heat latent4     
#cib ,see the account of ,lloyd         
,williams1 in the ,universal ,magazine1 
,june #agic1 p4 #daj4 ,thin unglazed    
vessels are employed at present in      
,egypt also for cooling water1 as we are
 told in several books of  travels4     
#cic ,sympos4 vi4 #e1 p4 #fij4    #cid  
,the word however may be found in       
,dictionnaire par ,richelet1  ,genve    
#afhj1 #dto4    #cie ,j4 ,b4 ,campegii  
,libri xxii4 de re cibaria1 xvi4 #i1 p4 
#ffi4    #cif ,most vessels of this kind
 in ,portugal are made at ,estremos1 in 
the province of ,alentejo4 ,the         
description given of them by ,brantome  
is  as follows3--8,cette terre toit     
tanne1 si subtile et si fine qu'on      
diroit proprement que c'est une terre   
sigille2 et porte telle vertu1  que     
quelque eau froide que vous y mettiez   
dedans1 vous la verrez  bouillis et     

faire de petits bouillons1 comme si elle
 estoit sur le  feu2 et si pourtant elle
 n'en perd sa froideur1 mais            
l'entretient1 et  jamais l'eau ne fait  
mal  qui la boit1 quelque chaud qu'il   
fasse1 ou  quelque exercice violent     
qu'il fasse40 ,this clay seems to be the
 same  as that which the ladies in      
,spain and ,portugal chew for the sake  
of  its pleasant taste1 though to the   
prejudice of their health4 ,they are  so
 fond of it that their confessors make  
them abstain from the use of  it some   
days by way of penance for their        
transgressions4 ,see ,madame  ,d',aunoi1
 ,voy4 en ,espagne1 ii4 pp4 #ib1 #aji4  
,mmoires ,instructifs pour un           
,voyageur4 ,a vessel of the above kind  
is called bucaro and barro4  ,see       
,diccion4 de la ,lengua ,castellana1    
,madrid1 #aghc1 fol4    #cig ,this      
curious work contains so much valuable  
information  respecting the ,french     
manners in the sixteenth century1 that  
some  account of it may not prove       

unacceptable to my readers4 ,the title  
is1  ,dscription de ,l',isle des        
,hermaphrodites1 nouvellement dcouverte 
444 pour servir de ,supplement au       
,journal de ,henri ,,iii4 ,the preface1 
to which there is no signature1 says    
that the book was printed for  the first
 time in #afje4 ,in the first editions  
neither date nor place  is mentioned2   
but one edition is dated #afab4 ,it     
appears to have  been written in the    
reign of ,henry ,,iv41 after the peace  
of ,vervins1  concluded in #aeih1 which 
the author mentions in the beginning4   
,henry  ,,iv4 would not suffer any      
inquiry to be made respecting the author
 that  he might be punished1 because1 he
 said1 though he had taken great        
liberty in his writing1 he had written  
truth4 ,he is not therefore  known4     
,some have conjectured that it was the  
production of cardinal  ,perron1 and    
others of sieur d',emery1 ,thomas       
,artus4 ,but the former would  not have 
chosen to lash vices such as those      

mentioned in this satire1  with so much 
wit and severity2 and the latter could  
not have done it4  ,the one was too     
vicious1 and the other too vehement4    
,the cardinal  must have delineated his 
own picture2 and ,artus have exceeded   
what  he was capable of4 ,the same      
opinion respecting ,artus is entertained
  by ,marchand1 in his ,dict4           
,historique4 ,the frontispiece1 which in
  many editions is wanting1 represents  
an effeminate voluptuary with a         
womanish face1 dressed half in men's and
 half in women's clothing4  ,marchand   
says the inscription is ,les            
,hermaphrodites4 ,in some editions      
however it is much more cutting3 8,pars 
est una patris2 ctera matris  habet40   
,this pentameter is taken from ,martial1
 lib4 xiv4 ep4 #agd4 ,the  whole work is
 inserted also in ,journal de ,henri    
,,iii41 par ,pierre de  l',estoiles1  la
 ,haye #agdd1 #hvo1 iv4 p4 #a4 ,for     
further information on  this subject see
 ,le ,long1 ,bibliothque ,historique de 

la ,france1 ii4 p4  #cbf1 n4 #aiabh4    
#cih ,in the ,contes de ,gaillard1      
printed in #afbj1 it is said1 8,il alla 
un jour d'est souper chez un voluptueux1
 qui lui fit mettre de la  glace en son 
vin40    #cii ,problema #ajb4 ,these    
,problemata are often printed with the  
,problemata ,aristotelis1 ,alexandri    
,aphrodis4 and others4 ,the collection  
which ,i have was printed at ,amsterdam1
 #afhe1 #abmo4    #djj ,de ,miraculis1  
libri iv4 ,colon4 #aeha1 #hvo1 p4 #bhh4 
#dja ,centuri ix ,memorabilium4         
,francof4 #aeii1 #abmo1 p4 #fg4    #djb 
,de ,nive1 p4 #ch4    #djc ,j4 ,b4 ,du  
,hamel1 ,opera ,philosophica1 ,norimb4  
#afha1 #dto4    #djd ,l4 ,tancredi de   
,fame et ,siti libri tres4 ,ven4 #afjg1 
#dto1 lib4 iii4    #dje ,when snow or   
ice is mixed with salt1 both begin to be
 liquid4  ,this process is employed in  
,russia to clean windows covered with   
frost4  ,they are rubbed with a sponge  
dipped in salt1 and by these means they 
become immediately transparent4 ,the    

rationale of this appears to  consist in
 the salt absorbing water and           
deliquescing1 and in this fluid  the    
snow subsequently dissolves1 the mixture
 requiring a much lower  temperature for
 its assuming the solid state4    #djf  
,historia ,vit et ,mortis1  #dd4--;,de  
,augmentis ,scient4 v4 #b4--,silva      
,silvarum1 cent4 i4    #djg ,history of 
,cold1 title i4 #ag2 title v4 #c2 title 
xv4 #g4 ,the  method of making one or   
two freezing or cooling mixtures will   
not  perhaps be without interest here4  
,where snow is not at hand1 a mixture   
of #e parts of powdered nitre and #e of 
powdered sal-ammoniac may be  mixed with
 #af parts of water4 ,this reduces the  
thermometer from #ej  to about #aj ,f41 
or1 #i parts of phosphate of soda1 #f of
 nitrate of  ammonia1 and #d of dilute  
nitric acid1 reduce the thermometer from
 #ej  to -#ba2 #e parts of common salt1 
#e of nitrate of ammonia and #ab of     
snow1 reduce it from the ordinary       
temperature to -#bh4 ,the most intense  

degree of cold1 probably known1 has been
 produced by ,dr4 ,faraday in  his      
experiments upon the liquefaction of    
gases4 ,this was effected by  placing   
solid carbonic acid mixed with ther1    
under the air-pump1 and  exhausting4    
#djh ,des ,cartes ,specimina            
,philosophi4 ,amst4 #afej1 #dto1 p4     
#baf4    #dji ,von ,hohberg says1 in his
 ,adliches ,landleben1 8,the following1 
which serves more for amusement than    
use1 is well-known to children4 ,if  one
 put snow and saltpetre into a jug1 and 
place it on a table1 over  which water  
has been poured1 and stir the snow and  
salt well round in  the jug with a      
stick1 the jug will be soon frozen to   
the table40 ,this  baron1 therefore1    
who1 after he had sold his property in  
,austria on  account of the persecution 
against the ,protestants1 wrote at      
,regensburg  7,ratisbon71 where he died 
in #afhh1 at the age of seventy-six1 was
 not  acquainted with iced delicacies4  
,had they been known to him1 he would   

have certainly mentioned them where1 in 
his ,book of ,cookery1 he gives  ample  
directions for laying out a table of the
 first rank4    #daj ,the application of
 ice to the purposes of confectionary1  
has1  within the last few years1 become 
much more extensive2 encouraged1 no     
doubt1 by the facility with which it is 
now procurable at all seasons  of the   
year1 and in any quantity4 ,imitations  
of peaches1 nectarines1  apricots1 and  
other fruits1 are now produced in ice   
paste in such  perfection1 as at first  
sight to deceive the most practised eye2
 and  such elegances are no longer      
confined to the tables of the wealthy4  
#daa ,instruction pour les ,jardins4    
,paris1 #agcj1 #dto1 i4 p4 #bfc4 ,the   
author says that ice in summer is indeed
 useful2 but1 as a gardener1 he  wishes 
that frost could be prevented2 and that 
ice might be imported  from the ,north1 
as olives and oranges are from the      
,south4 ,some years  ago1 as no ice     
could be procured on account of the     

great mildness of  the preceding winter1
 the merchants at ,hamburg sent a ship  
to ,greenland  for a load of it1 by     
which they acquired considerable profit4
    #dab ,for the above account of the  
mode of collecting the ice at ,wenham   
,lake1 we are indebted to the           
#8,illustrated ,london ,news' for ,may  
#ag1 #ahde4          ,,hydrometer4      
,this instrument1 called in ,latin      
hydrometrum1 hygroscopium1              
hygrobaroscopium1 hydroscopium1         
areometrum1 and baryllion1  serves to   
determine the weight or specific gravity
 of different fluid  masses1 by the     
depth to which it sinks in them4    ,the
 laws respecting the comparative        
specific gravity of fluids and  solid   
bodies immersed in them were discovered 
by ,archimedes1 when he  tried the      
well-known experiment1 by order of      
,hiero king of ,sicily1  to find the    
content of a golden crown1 made for that
 sovereign4 ,upon  these is founded the 
construction of the hydrometer2 and it  

is not  improbable that ,archimedes1 who
 was killed in the year #bab before the 
,christian ra1 was the inventor of it1  
though no proofs to warrant this        
conjecture are to be found in the       
writings of that great man1 or in  those
 of any other author4    ,the oldest    
mention of the hydrometer occurs in the 
fifth century1 and  may be found in the 
letters of ,synesius to ,hypatia4 ,of   
the lives of  these two persons ,i must 
here give some anecdotes1 as they       
deserve  to be known on account of the  
singular fate which attended them4      
,hypatia was the daughter of ,theon1 a  
well-known mathematician of             
,alexandria1 some of whose writings are 
still extant4 ,by her father she  was   
instructed in mathematics1 and from     
other great men1 who at that  time      
abounded in ,alexandria1 she learned the
 ,platonic and ,aristotelian            
philosophy1 and acquired such a complete
 knowledge of these sciences1  that she 
taught them publicly with the greatest  

applause4 ,she was young  and beautiful1
 had a personable figure1 was sprightly 
and agreeable  in conversation1 though  
at the same time modest2 and she        
possessed  the most rigid virtue1 which 
was proof against every temptation4 ,she
  conducted herself with so much        
propriety towards her lovers1 that  they
 never could obtain more than the       
pleasure of her company and of  hearing 
her discourse2 and with this1 which they
 considered as an  honour1 they were    
contented4 ,those who wished to intrude 
further were  dismissed2 and she        
destroyed the appetite of one who would 
not suffer  her to philosophise1 by     
means of some strong preparation1 which1
 as far  as ,i know1 remained a secret4 
,she was not baptized1 and with all her 
knowledge1 adopted the blind            
superstition of paganism4 ,had she been 
a  ,christian1 and suffered a cruel     
death from heathen persecution1 she     
would have merited a place in the       
martyrology of the saints3 but the  case

 was reversed2 for1 by the conduct of   
the ,christians towards her1  she became
 entitled to have her name enrolled in  
the martyrology of the  philosophers4   
,the patriarch of ,alexandria1 at the   
time when she lived1 was ,cyril1  whose 
family for a hundred years before had   
produced bishops1 who were  of more     
service to their relations than to the  
church4 ,this prelate  was a proud1     
litigious1 vindictive and intolerant    
man1 who thought  every thing lawful    
which he conceived to be for the glory  
of ,god2 and  who1 as prosecutor and    
judge1 condemned ,nestorius without     
hearing his  defence4 ,in the city of   
,alexandria1 which was then very        
flourishing on  account of its commerce1
 the emperor allowed greater toleration 
than  he imagined could be justified to 
the clergy in any other place2 and  it  
contained a great many ,jews1 who       
carried on an extensive trade1 as  well 
as a number of pagan families who were  
of service to the city1 or  at least did

 it no harm4 ,this1 in the eyes of      
,cyril1 was not proper2  he would have  
the sheep-fold clean1 and the ,jews must
 be banished4  ,orestes1 however1 the   
governor1 who was a man of prudence1 and
 better  acquainted with the interests  
of the city1 opposed a measure that was 
likely to be attended with mischief1 and
 he even caused to be condemned  to     
death a ,christian profligate1 who had  
done some injury to the ,jews4  ,this   
malefactor was1 by the order of ,cyril1 
buried in the church  as a martyr2 and  
he immediately collected five hundred   
monks1 who  ill-treated ,orestes in the 
streets1 and excited an insurrection    
among  the people1 who plundered the    
unfortunate ,jews1 and expelled them    
from  a city in which they had lived    
since the time of ,alexander the ,great4
    ,cyril1 observing one day a great   
number of horses and servants  belonging
 to persons of the first rank1 before a 
certain house in the  city1 inquired the
 cause of their being assembled in that 

manner4  ,he was informed that the house
 was the habitation of the celebrated   
female philosopher ,hypatia1 who1 on    
account of her extensive learning  and  
eminent talents1 was visited not only by
 people of the highest  distinction1 but
 even by the governor himself4 ,this was
 sufficient to  excite the bishop's     
jealousy against the unbelieving        
,hypatia1 and he  resolved to effect her
 ruin4 ,as he had instigated the people 
against  the ,jews1 he in like manner   
encouraged them to attack ,hypatia4     
,they  seized her in the street1 hurried
 her to the church1 stripped off her    
clothes1 tore her flesh to pieces with  
potsherds1 dragged her mangled  limbs   
about through the city1 and at length   
burned them4 ,this bloody  tragedy1     
which took place in the year #dae1 could
 tend only to inspire  the heathens with
 a greater hatred to ,christianity1 and 
to make  sensible ,christians ashamed of
 the conduct of their brethren4 ,to     
,cyril1  however1 it occasioned no      

shame2 on the contrary1 he endeavoured  
to  divert the emperor from punishing   
those who had been guilty of so gross  a
 violation of the principles of justice1
 and in this he was assisted  by his    
numerous adherents and friends4 ,in some
 circumstances of this  relation        
historians are not agreed1 but they all 
concur in bestowing  praise on ,hypatia1
 whose memory was honoured and preserved
 by her  grateful and affectionate      
scholars#dac4    ,among these was       
,synesius1 of a noble pagan family1 who 
cultivated  philosophy and the          
mathematics with the utmost ardour1 and 
who had  been one of her most intimate  
friends and followers4 ,on account of   
his  learning1 talents1 and open        
disposition1 he was universally         
esteemed1  and he had been employed with
 great success on public occasions of   
importance4 ,the church at ,ptolemais at
 length wished to have him  for their   
bishop4 ,after much reluctance he       
accepted the office1 but  on condition  

that they should not require him to     
acknowledge the  resurrection of the    
dead1 which he doubted4 ,the people     
having consented  to allow him this     
indulgence1 he suffered himself to be   
baptized1  and became their bishop4 ,he 
was confirmed by the orthodox patriarch 
,theophilus1 the predecessor of ,cyril1 
to whose jurisdiction ,ptolemais        
belonged2 and he afterwards renounced   
his errors1 and declared himself        
convinced of the truth of the           
resurrection4 ,this learned man showed  
his  gratitude to ,hypatia1 by the      
honourable mention which he made of her 
in  some letters that are still         
preserved among his writings4    ,in his
 fifteenth letter1 he tells ,hypatia    
that he was so unfortunate1  or found   
himself so ill1 that he wished to use a 
hydroscopium1 and  he requests that she 
would cause one to be constructed for   
him4 8,it is  a cylindrical tube10 adds 
he1 8of the size of a reed or pipe4 ,a  
line  is drawn upon it lengthwise1 which

 is intersected by others1 and these    
point out the weight of water4 ,at the  
end of the tube is a cone1 the  base of 
which is joined to that of the tube1 so 
that they have both  only one base4     
,this part of the instrument is called  
baryllion4 ,if it  be placed in water1  
it remains in a perpendicular direction1
 so that  one can discover by it the    
weight of the fluid40    ,petavius1 who 
published the works of ,synesius in the 
year #afdj1  acknowledges in his        
annotations1 that this passage he did   
not  understand4 ,an old scholiast1 he  
says1 who had added some illegible      
words1 seemed to think that it referred 
to a water-clock2 but this he  considers
 improbable1 as a clepsydra was not     
immersed in water1 but  filled with it4 
,he conjectures1 therefore1 that it may 
allude to some  such instrument as that 
which ,vitruvius calls chorobates4 ,the 
latter  however was employed for        
leveling2 and it appears that ,synesius1
 who  complains of the bad state of his 

health1 could not think of leveling4    
,besides1 no part of the description in 
,vitruvius agrees with that which  is   
given in so clear a manner by ,synesius4
    ,petau published his edition of the 
works of this philosopher in the  time  
of ,peter de ,fermat1 conseiller au     
parlement de ,toulouse1 a man of  great 
learning1 who was an excellent          
mathematician1 and well-acquainted  with
 antiquities and the works of the       
ancients4 ,we have by the latter a      
commentary upon some obscure passages of
 ,athenus1 annotations on the  writings 
of ,theon of ,smyrna1 and emendations   
from a manuscript to the  ,stratagemata 
of ,polynus1 which may be found also in 
his ,miscellanies4  ,mursinna1 in his   
edition of the same author1 has added   
them to the end  of the preface4 ,as    
,fermat was often consulted respecting  
difficult  passages of the ancients1 he 
could not be unacquainted with that in  
the new edition of ,synesius4 ,he drew  
up an explanation of it1 and gave  it to

 a friend who was then about to publish 
a ,french translation of  ,bened4       
,castelli's book1 ,della ,misura        
dell',acque ,correnti1 and who  caused  
it to be printed along with that work4  
,fermat died in the year  #affe4 ,after 
his death his son published some of his 
writings under  the title of ,varia     
,opera ,mathematica#dad2 and in this    
collection is  inserted his short       
treatise on the hydroscopium1 from which
 ,i have  extracted the following       
explanation4    ,it is impossible1 says 
he1 that the hydroscopium could be the  
level or chorobates of ,vitruvius1 for  
the lines on the latter were            
perpendicular to the horizon1 whereas   
the lines on the former were  parallel  
to it4 ,the hydroscopium was undoubtedly
 a hydrometer of  the simplest          
construction4 ,the tube may be made of  
copper1 and open  at the top2 but at the
 other end1 which1 when used1 is the    
lowest1 it  must terminate with a cone1 
the base of which is soldered to that of

  the tube4 ,lengthwise1 along the tube1
 are drawn two lines1 which are         
intersected by others1 and the more     
numerous these divisions are1 the       
instrument will be so much more correct4
 ,when placed in water1 it sinks  to a  
certain depth1 which will be marked by  
the cross lines1 and which  will be     
greater in proportion to the lightness  
of the water4 ,a figure1  which is      
added1 illustrates this explanation more
 than was necessary4  ,when a common    
friend of ,fermat and ,petavius showed  
it to the latter1 he  considered it to  
be so just1 that he wished to have an   
opportunity of  introducing it in a new 
edition4    ,mersenne1 on the other     
hand1 entertains some doubt#dae         
respecting  this instrument1 though he  
does not mention ,fermat1 with whom he  
was well-acquainted2 for in the dispute 
which the latter had with  ,descartes1  
,mersenne was the bearer of the letters 
that passed  between them1 as we learn  
from the ,life of ,descartes1 by        

,baillet4  ,his objections however are  
of little weight4 ,why should ,synesius1
  asks ,mersenne1 consider himself      
unfortunate1 because he had not a       
hydrometer8 ,it may be here replied1    
that he was in an infirm state1  and    
that the physicians seem to have ordered
 him to drink no water  but what was    
pure and light4 ,we know that in former 
times1 when so  many artificial liquors 
were not in use1 people were accustomed1
 more  than at present1 to good water4  
,we read in the works of the ancient    
physicians1 such as ,galen and ,celsus1 
directions how to examine the  lightness
 and purity of water4 ,he might have    
tried it1 says ,mersenne1  with a common
 balance4 ,he indeed might1 but not so  
conveniently4 ,that  ,synesius was in a 
bad state of health is apparent from    
several of his  letters2 otherwise one  
might say that in a letter many         
expressions may  be only jocular1       
respecting some circumstance known to   
the friend to  whom one writes2 and that

 every expression is not to be taken    
according  to its literal meaning4 ,one 
might confess also1 without weakening a 
received explanation1 not to know what  
,synesius alludes to in the first  line 
of his letter4 ,but even if we allow    
that the instrument was not a           
hydrometer1 but a water-clock1 or a     
level2 it may be asked how the want  of 
these could make him unfortunate8       
,mersenne thinks further1 that the      
cone1 added to the end of the tube1     
would have been unnecessary in a        
hydrometer2 but it serves to keep the   
instrument with more ease in a          
perpendicular direction in the water4   
,such is the opinion of ,h4 ,klugel1    
whom ,i shall soon have occasion to     
quote4    ,for the explanation of       
,fermat one may produce a still stronger
  testimony1 with which he seems not to 
have been acquainted4 ,it can be  proved
 that this instrument was used in the   
next1 or at least in the  sixth century4
 ,of that period1 we have a ,latin poem 

on weights and  measures1 which contains
 a very just description of a           
hydrometer4 ,the  author1 in            
manuscripts1 is called sometimes        
,priscianus1 and sometimes  ,rhemnius   
,fannius ,palmon2 but we know1 from     
grounds which do not  belong to this    
subject1 that the former was his real   
name4 ,two persons  of that name are    
known at present4 ,the one1 ,theodore   
,priscian1 was a  physician1 and lived  
in the time of the emperor ,valentinian1
 towards  the end of the fourth century4
 ,as more physicians have written on    
weights and measures1 with which it is  
indispensably necessary they  should be 
acquainted1 one might conjecture that   
this ,priscian was the  author of the   
above poem4 ,the rest of his writings1  
however1 still  preserved1 are in so    
coarse and heavy a style1 that one can  
scarcely  ascribe to him a work which is
 far from being ill-written2 especially 
as it is nowhere said that he was a     
poet4 ,with much more probability  may  

we consider as the author the well-known
 grammarian ,priscian1 who  died about  
the year #ebh4    ,this poem has been   
often printed1 and not unfrequently at  
the end of  ,q4 ,sereni ,samonici ,de   
,medicina ,prcepta4 ,the best edition is
 that  inserted by ,wernsdorf in the    
fifth part of the first volume of his   
,poet ,minores1 where an account may be 
found of the other editions4    ,be the 
author who he may1 this much is evident1
 that he was acquainted  with the       
hydrometer of ,synesius1 and has        
described it in a very clear  manner4   
8,fluids10 says he1 8are different in   
weight1 as may be proved by the         
specific gravity of oil and honey       
compared with that of pure water20  and 
the given proportion agrees almost with 
that found by modern  experiments4      
8,this10 adds he1 8may be discovered by 
an instrument10  which he thus          
describes3--8,it consists of a thin     
metallic cylinder made  of silver or    
copper1 about as large as the joint of a

 reed between two  knots1 to the end of 
which is added a cone4 ,this cone makes 
the lower  end so heavy1 that the       
instrument1 without sinking or floating 
on the  surface1 remains suspended      
perpendicularly in the water4           
,lengthwise1  upon the cylinder1 is     
drawn a line1 which is divided by cross 
lines  into as many parts as are equal  
to the weight of the instrument in      
scripla4 ,if placed in light fluids1    
more of the divisions will be  covered  
than when put into heavy fluids2 or it  
sinks deeper into those  which are light
 than into those which are heavy4 ,this 
difference of  gravity may be found     
also10 continues he1 8by filling vessels
 of equal  size with the fluids and     
weighing them2 for the heavier must then
 weigh  most2 but when one takes an     
equal weight of two fluids1 the lighter 
will occupy more space than the heavier4
 ,if twenty-one divisions of  the       
instrument are covered in water1 and    
twenty-four in oil1 and if  one take    

twenty-four scripla of water1 twenty-one
 scripla of oil  only can be contained  
in the space occupied by the water40    
,such is the  manner in which ,professor
 ,klugel has conjectured the meaning of 
the  author from hydrostatic principles2
 though neither he nor ,wernsdorf  has  
ventured to give a literal translation  
of the words which ought to  convey this
 explanation4 ,but however obscure they 
may be1 it evidently  appears that they 
allude to a hydrometer4    ,this poem   
was once published together with ,celsus
 ,de ,re ,medica1 in  #aeff1 by ,robert 
,constantin1 who died at an advanced age
 in #afje1 and  who added a few1 but    
excellent notes1 which have been        
inserted by  ,wernsdorf in his edition4 
,this ,constantin seems to have known   
that the  instrument of ,priscian and   
the hydroscopium of ,synesius were the  
same2 and that they were used for       
determining the weight of fluids4 ,he   
explains the use of them very properly2 
but is mistaken in supposing  the cone  

to have been of wood1 though it served  
to render the lower  part of the        
instrument heavier1 as the poet himself 
says3 8cui cono  interius modico pars   
ima gravatur40 ,i am almost induced to  
think that  interius implies that       
additional weight was given to the cone 
by  throwing some small heavy bodies    
into it1 through the opening above2  and
 at present grains of leaden shot are   
employed for that purpose4  ,it appears 
therefore that the honour of having     
first given a good  explanation of the  
before-quoted passage of ,synesius      
belongs rather to  ,constantin than to  
,fermat2 but ,i can readily believe that
 the latter  was not acquainted with the
 observations made on it by the former4 
,before ,i conclude the history of this 
instrument among the ancients1  ,i shall
 add two remarks further4 ,it is        
evidently wrong when one1 with          
,muschenbroek and others1 whose opinion 
,i adopted before ,i engaged in  this   
research1 considers ,hypatia as the     

inventress of the hydrometer4  ,it was  
known at her time1 and was made at      
,alexandria2 but it seems not  to have  
been very common1 as ,synesius wrote to 
,hypatia to procure him  one1 and even  
thought it necessary to give her a      
description of it4    ,those are        
mistaken likewise1 who say that this    
instrument was called  also baryllium4  
,that word1 as far as ,i have been able 
to learn1  occurs only in ,synesius1 who
 expressly tells us that the small heavy
  cone alone was meant by it4 ,in the   
same manner has it been understood  by  
,constantin4 ,in the ,dictionary of     
,basle it is said to be hydroscopii     
pars2 and in ,stephen's ,dictionary it  
is explained by pondusculum1  as well as
 in that of ,ernest1 where it is given  
as the diminutive of  baros4 ,it        
signified therefore the heavy part of   
the hydrometer only4    ,it is equally  
erroneous when one says1 with           
,muschenbroek and others1  that those   
who among the ,romans made it their     

employment to examine  the quality of   
water with the hydrometer1 were called  
baryllist  or barynil4 ,these words do  
not occur in the works of the ancient   
,latin authors1 nor in any of the       
completest dictionaries4 ,we read  only 
the following passage in some editions  
of the ,commentary of  ,servius upon    
,virgil3 8,scrutatores et repertores    
aquarum 7aquilices  dicuntur7 barinulas 
dixerunt#daf40 ,if these words were     
really written  by ,servius1 who lived  
in the fifth century1 he either         
confounded the  water-searchers1        
aquilices1 those who sought for springs1
 with those  who examined the nature of 
water when found1 as the hydrometer was 
of  no service to the former in their   
business2 or both employments must at   
that time have been followed by the same
 people1 and these must have  acquired  
their name from a part only of one      
instrument they used1 which  is not at  
all probable4    ,i think we may with   
certainty believe that the hydrometer   

was not  known to ,seneca1 ,pliny1 or   
,galen1 who died about the end of the   
second  century4 ,were not this the     
case1 it would certainly have been      
mentioned  by the first1 where he speaks
 so minutely of the specific gravity of 
hard and fluid bodies#dag2 by the       
second1 where he says that the  weight  
of water was ascertained by a common    
balance#dah2 and by the  last1 where he 
gives directions how to discover its    
lightness4 ,galen  adds1 that in his    
time a method had been invented of      
determining the  quality of salt-lye by 
placing an egg in it1 and observing     
whether it  floated#dai4 ,have we not   
reason to think that on this occasion   
the  hydrometer must have occurred to   
him had it been then used8    ,but      
however well-known it may have been in  
the fifth century1 it seems  that it was
 afterwards entirely forgotten1 and that
 towards the end of  the sixteenth it   
was again for the first time revived or 
invented anew4  ,to ,george ,agricola it

 was scarcely known2 for where he speaks
 of the  weight of different kinds of   
water1 and particularly of that of salt 
springs#dbj1 he does not mention it4    
,constantin1 however1 who lived at  the 
same time1 must have been acquainted    
with it1 else he could not  have        
explained the before-mentioned passages 
of ,synesius and ,priscian4    ,i am    
inclined to think that the first account
 of the hydrometer being  again brought 
into use must be found in the oldest    
,german books on  salt-works4 ,it is at 
any rate certain that from these the    
modern  philosophers became first       
acquainted with it4 ,one of the earliest
  who has described it is the ,jesuit   
,cabeus1 who wrote about the year       
#afdddba2 but he confesses that he      
acquired his information from a  ,german
 treatise by ,tholden1 whom ,kircher#dbb
 calls a ,german artist4  ,he was       
however not properly an artist4 ,he was 
a native of ,hesse2 a  good chemist for 
his time2 and resided about the year    

#afjj or #afad as  overseer of the      
salt-works at ,frankenhausen in         
,thuringia4 ,his treatise1  which       
,cabeus had in his possession1 was      
entitled ,tholden's ,haligraphia1       
printed at ,leipsic in #afjc4 ,another  
edition1 printed at the same place  in  
#afac1 is mentioned by ,draudius2 but at
 present ,i have not been able  to find 
it2 and can say only from ,cabeus and   
,leupold1 that ,tholden's  hydrometer   
had a weight suspended to it2 and that  
he speaks of the  instrument not as a   
new but a well-known invention1 and on  
that account  has described it only     
imperfectly4    ,kircher1 whose works   
were generally read1 seems to have      
principally  contributed towards making 
it publicly known2 and ,schott#dbc1     
,sturm#dbd and others1 in their account 
of it1 refer to his writings4  ,the     
artists at ,nuremberg1 who worked in    
glass1 and who constructed a  great many
 hydrometers which were everywhere sold1
 assisted in this  likewise4 ,one1 above

 all1 made by ,michael ,sigismund ,hack1
 was highly  valued about the beginning 
of the last century1 as we are told by  
,j4  ,henry ,muller1 professor at       
,altorf4 ,of this artist1 often         
mentioned by  ,sturm and other          
philosophers1 an account has been given 
by ,doppelmayer4  ,he died in #agbd4    
,many improvements1 or perhaps only     
alterations1 have been made in  this    
instrument in later times by a variety  
of artists4 ,the task of  collecting    
these completely in chronological order 
with explanations1  ,i shall leave to   
others2 and only mention a few of them4 
,one of the  first who endeavoured to   
adapt the hydrometer for determining the
  specific gravity and purity of metals 
was ,monconys4 ,almost about the  same  
period ,cornelius ,mayer and ,boyle seem
 to have conceived the idea  of         
facilitating the weighing of solid      
bodies by a weighing-scale  added to the
 instrument4 ,the former affirms that   
this improvement  was invented by him as

 early as the year #affhdbe2 whereas    
,boyle  did not make his known till     
#afgedbf4 ,besides these the following  
also are worthy of notice3 ,feuille#dbg1
 ,fahrenheit1 ,clark#dbh1 and           
,leutmann#dbi1 whose improvements have  
been described by ,wolf#dcj1            
,leupold#dca1 ,gesner1 ,weigel and      
others4    ,the principal hydrometer now
 in use is that of ,sykes1 this is      
adopted  in estimating excise duties on 
liquids4 ,that of ,baum is principally  
employed abroad4 ,those of ,beck or     
,cartier are but rarely used4  ,these   
instruments differ merely in their      
graduation4 ,sykes's plan  of increasing
 the extent of the indications without  
enlarging the  instrument is ingenious4 
,it is effected by means of a number of 
weights  which may be appended as       
collars to the stem of the instrument4  
,a useful method of ascertaining        
specific gravities for commercial       
purposes1 consists in using a series of 
glass beads1 previously  adjusted and   

numbered4 ,when thrown into any liquid1 
the heavier ones  sink and the lighter  
float on the surface2 but the one which 
has the  same density as the liquid will
 remain indifferent1 or perhaps slightly
  below the surface4 ,the specific      
gravity is then found by the number     
with which it is marked4                
,,footnotes    #dac ,a fuller account of
 ,hypatia may be found in ,menagii      
,histor4  ,mulier4 ,philosoph4 ,lugd4   
#afij2 ,bruckeri ,hist4 ,crit4 ,philos4 
ii4 p4 #cea2  and ,wolfii ,fragmenta    
,mulierum ,grc4 ,gott4 #agci1 #dto4     
#dad ,varia ,opera ,mathematica ,d4     
,petri de ,fermat1 ,tolos1 #afgi1 folio4
    #dae ,cogitata ,physico-,mathem4    
,par41 #afdd1 and in ,phnomena          
,hydraulica4    #daf ,on ,georg4 i4     
#aji4 ,these words are quoted by        
,emmenessius1 the  editor of the        
,variorum edition of ,virgil1 but in the
 edition of  ,servius1 ,venetiis1 #aefb1
 fol41 they are not to be found4 ,the   
,commentary  of ,servius may at present 

be no longer indispensable for          
explaining  ,virgil2 but it deserves to 
be printed once more as completely and  
accurately as possible4 ,it contains    
much useful information1 as well as     
many fragments of works now lost2 and on
 this account cannot well be  entirely  
dispensed with4    #dag ,qust4 ,nat4    
iii4 #be1 p4 #gbf4    #dah ,hist4 ,nat4 
xxxi4 #c1 sect4 #bc1 p4 #eeb4--;,athen4 
ii4 p4  #df4--,plutarchi ,qust4 ,nat4   
#g4    #dai ,de ,simplic4 ,med4         
,facultatibus1 iv4 #bj4    #dbj ,de     
,natura eorum qu effluunt ex ,terra1    
lib4 ii4 p4 #abd4    #dba ,philosophia  
,experimentalis1 sive ,commentaria in   
,aristotelis  ,meteorolog4 lib4 ii4     
textus #bf1 qust4 #b1 tom4 ii4 p4 #aeh1 
b4    #dbb ,mundus ,subterraneus1 vol4  
i4 p4 #bed4    #dbc ,cursus ,mathemat4  
p4 #dee1 icon4 #bj4    #dbd ,collegii   
,experiment4 pars ii4 ,norimb4 #agae1   
#dto4    #dbe ,nuovi ,ritrovamenti4     
,roma1 #afif1 fol4    #dbf ,philosoph4  
,transact4 #afge3 where an engraving is 

given of all the  parts4    #dbg        
,journal des ,observations ,physiques et
 ,math4 ,par4 #agad1 #dto4    #dbh      
,philosoph4 ,transact4 ,no4 #chd1 p4    
#adj2 and ,no4 #dac1 p4 #bgg4    #dbi   
,comment4 ,acad4 ,petrop4 v4 p4 #bgd4   
#dcj ,in his ,versuchen4 ,halle1 #agcg1 
#hvo1 i4 p4 #eef4    #dca ,theatrum     
,hydrostaticum4          ,,lighting ,,of
 ,,streets4      ,the lighting of       
streets1 while it greatly contributes to
 ornament  our principal cities1 adds   
considerably also to the convenience and
  security of the inhabitants4 ,but of  
whatever benefit it may be1 it  is      
generally considered as a modern        
invention4 ,m4 ,st4 ,evremond says1     
8,the invention of lighting the streets 
of ,paris during the night1 by a        
multitude of lamps1 deserves that the   
most distant nations should go  to see  
what neither the ,greeks nor the ,romans
 ever thought of for the  police of     
their republics40 ,this opinion appears 
to be well-founded2  for ,i have never  

yet met with any information which      
proves that the  streets of ,rome were  
lighted4 ,some passages1 indeed1 in     
ancient  authors rather indicate the    
contrary2 and according to my ideas1 the
  ,romans would not have considered the 
use of flambeaux and lanterns so        
necessary on their return from their    
nocturnal visits1 as they seem to  have 
done1 had their streets been lighted2   
though ,i will allow that the  public   
lighting of the streets in our cities   
does not render links or  lanterns      
altogether superfluous4 ,whoever walked 
the streets of ,rome at  night without a
 lantern1 was under the necessity of    
creeping home in  perfect darkness1 and 
in great danger#dcb1 like ,alexis in    
,athenus4  ,meursius endeavours to make 
it appear that the streets of ,rome were
  lighted2 and in support of this       
opinion quotes ,ammianus ,marcellinus1  
and the ,life of ,julius ,csar in       
,suetonius2 but his arguments to me are 
far from being convincing#dcc4 ,that    

,naples was not lighted1 appears  from  
the return of ,gito in the night-time1  
mentioned by ,petronius#dcd4  ,some     
circumstances however related by ancient
 authors make it probable  that         
,antioch1 ,rome and a few other cities  
had public lanterns1 if not  in all the 
streets1 at least in those which were   
most frequented4    ,libanius1 who lived
 in the beginning of the fourth century1
 says in his  ,panegyric#dce1 where he  
praises his native city ,antioch1 8,the 
light  of the sun is succeeded by other 
lights1 which are far superior to the   
lamps lighted by the ,egyptians on the  
festival of ,minerva of ,sais4 ,the     
night with us differs from the day only 
in the appearance of the light3  with   
regard to labour and employment         
everything goes on well4 ,some  work    
continually2 but others laugh and amuse 
themselves with singing40  ,i cannot    
allow myself to imagine that the sophist
 here considers  it as a subject of     
praise to his native city1 that the     

inhabitants  after sun-set did not sit  
in darkness1 but used lights to work by4
 ,it  appears1 therefore1 that he       
alludes to the lighting of the streets4 
,in another passage1 in the oration to  
,ellebichus#dcf1 the same author  tells 
us1 that the ropes from which the lamps 
that ornamented the  city were          
suspended1 had been cut by some riotous 
soldiers1 not far  from a bath4         
8,proceeding10 says he1 8to a bath not  
far off1 they cut  with their swords the
 ropes from which were suspended the    
lamps that  afforded light in the       
night-time1 to show that the ornaments  
of the  city ought to give way to them40
 ,this quotation indicates1 at any rate1
  that there were lamps suspended from  
ropes near the baths and places  of     
greatest resort4 ,the following passage 
of ,jerome1 however1 seems  to make it  
probable1 or rather certain1 that the   
streets of ,antioch  were lighted4 ,in  
the altercation between a ,luciferan and
 an ,orthodox1  he relates that an      

adherent of the schismatic ,lucifer     
disputed in the  street with a true     
believer till the streets were lighted1 
when the  listening crowd departed2 and 
that they then spat in each other's     
face1  and retired4    ,in the elegant  
edition of the works of that father1 by 
,dominicus  ,vallarsius1 we have a short
 dissertation on the time when this     
unmannerly dispute took place2 and the  
editor shows that it happened at        
,antioch in the year #cghdcg4           
,basilius the ,great1 in a letter to    
,martinianus1 giving an account of  the 
miserable situation of his native city  
,csarea1 in ,cappadocia1  in the year   
#cga1 says they had nights without      
lights 7noctes non  illustratas74 ,most 
commentators explain this passage as if 
it meant  that the lamps in the streets 
had not been lighted#dch4    ,that the  
streets1 not only of ,antioch1 but also 
of ,edessa1 in ,syria1  were lighted in 
the fifth century1 seems proved by a    
passage in the  ,history of ,jesue      

,stylites4 ,it is there expressly said1 
that ,eulogius1  governor of ,edessa1   
about the year #eje1 ordered lamps to be
 kept  burning in the streets during the
 night2 and that he employed for that   
purpose a part of the oil which was     
before given to the churches and        
monasteries#dci4    ,with regard to the 
public lighting of whole cities on      
festivals1  and particularly on joyful  
occasions1 which we call illuminations1 
that practice seems to be of great      
antiquity4 ,of this kind was a          
particular festival of the              
,egyptians#ddj1 during which lamps were 
placed before all the houses throughout 
the country1 and kept burning  the whole
 night#dda4 ,during that festival of the
 ,jews1 called festum  encniorum1 the   
feast of the ,dedication of the ,temple1
 which1  according to common opinion1   
was celebrated in ,december1 and        
continued  eight days1 a number of lamps
 were lighted before each of their      
houses4  ,a passage in schylus shows    

that such illuminations were used also  
in  ,greece4 ,at ,rome1 the forum was   
lighted when games were exhibited in    
the night-time2 and ,caligula1 on a like
 occasion1 caused the whole  city to be 
lighted#ddb4 ,as ,cicero was returning  
home late at night1  after ,catiline's  
conspiracy had been defeated1 lamps and 
torches were  lighted in all the streets
 in honour of that great orator4 ,the   
emperor  ,constantine caused the whole  
city of ,constantinople to be           
illuminated  with lamps and wax candles 
on ,easter eve#ddc4 ,the fathers of the 
first century frequently inveigh against
 the ,christians1 because1 to  please   
the heathens1 they often illuminated    
their houses1 on idolatrous  festivals1 
in a more elegant manner than they4     
,this they considered  as a species of  
idolatry#ddd4 ,that the houses of the   
ancients were  illuminated on           
birth-days1 by suspending lamps from    
chains1 is too well  known to require   
any proof#dde4    ,of modern cities1    

,paris1 as far as ,i have been able to  
learn1 was  the first that followed the 
example of the ancients by lighting its 
streets4 ,as this city1 in the beginning
 of the sixteenth century1 was  much    
infested with street robbers and        
incendiaries1 the inhabitants  were1    
from time to time1 ordered to keep      
lights burning1 after nine in  the      
evening1 before the windows of all the  
houses which fronted the  street4 ,this 
order was issued in the year #aebd1 and 
renewed in #aebf  and #aeecddf2 but in  
the month of ,october #aeeh1 falots were
 erected  at the corners of the streets1
 or1 when the street was so long that   
it could not be lighted by one1 three   
were erected in three different  parts  
of it4 ,these lights had1 in a certain  
measure1 a resemblance to  those used in
 some mines2 for we are told1 in the    
,grand ,vocabulaire  ,franois#ddg1 that 
falot is a large vase filled with pitch1
 rosin1  and other combustibles1        
employed in the king's palace and houses

 of  princes to light the courts4 ,at   
that period there were in ,paris #iab   
streets2 so that the number of lights   
then used must have been less  than     
#bgcf4    ,in the month of ,november1   
the same year1 these lights were changed
 for  lanterns of the like kind as those
 used at present4 ,the lighting of  the 
streets of ,paris continued1 however1   
for a long time to be very  imperfect1  
till the abb ,laudati1 an ,italian of   
the ,caraffa family1  conceived the idea
 of letting out torches and lanterns for
 hire4 ,in  the month of ,march #affb1  
he obtained an exclusive privilege to   
this  establishment for twenty years2   
and he undertook to erect1 at certain   
places1 not only in ,paris1 but also in 
other cities of the kingdom1  booths or 
posts where any person might hire a link
 or lantern1 or1 on  paying a certain   
sum1 might be attended through the      
streets by a man  bearing a light4 ,he  
was authorised to receive from every one
 who hired  a lantern to a coach1 five  

sous for a quarter of an hour2 and from 
every foot-passenger1 three sous4 ,to   
prevent all disputes in regard  to time1
 it was ordered that a regulated        
hour-glass should be carried  along with
 each lantern4    ,in #affg1 however1   
the lighting of the city of ,paris was  
put on that  footing on which it is at  
present4 ,at the same time the police   
was  greatly improved1 and it afterwards
 served as a pattern to most of the     
other cities in ,europe4 ,affairs of    
judicature1 and those respecting  the   
public police1 instead of being         
committed1 as before1 to one            
magistrate1 called the 8,lieutenant     
civil du prevost de ,paris10 were  by a 
royal edict1 of the month of ,march in  
the above year1 divided  between two    
persons4 ,one of them1 who had the      
management of judicial  affairs1        
retained the old title2 and the other1  
who superintended the  police1 had that 
of 8,lieutenant du prevost de ,paris    
pour la police10  or 8,lieutenant gnral 

de police40 ,the first lieutenant of    
police  was ,nicholas de ,reynie1 a man 
who1 according to the praises bestowed  
on him by ,french writers1 formed an    
epoch in the history of modern  police4 
,in the ,history of ,paris1 so often    
already quoted1 he is called  an        
enlightened1 upright1 and vigilant      
magistrate1 as zealous for the  service 
of the king as for the good of the      
public1 and who succeeded  so well in   
this new office1 that we may say1 adds  
the author1 it is  to him1 more than to 
any other1 that we are indebted for the 
good  order which prevails at present in
 ,paris4 ,the first useful regulation   
by which ,la ,reynie rendered a service 
to the police1 was that for  improving  
the 7guet7 night-watch1 and the lighting
 of the streets4  ,i can find no        
complete account of the changes he      
introduced2 but four  years after1 that 
is1 on the #bcrd of ,may #afga1 an order
 was made that  the lanterns every year 
should be lighted from the #bjth of     

,october till  the end of ,march in the 
year following1 and even during         
moonlight2  because the latter was of   
little use in bad weather1 and even in  
fine  weather was not sufficient to     
light some of the most dangerous        
streets4    ,before this period the     
streets were lighted only during the    
four  winter months2 and on account of  
the numberless atrocities committed  in 
the night-time1 when there were no      
lights1 the ,parisians offered to       
contribute as much money as should be   
sufficient to defray the expense  of    
keeping the lamps lighted throughout the
 whole winter4 ,the lamps  employed by  
,la ,reynie were1 on account of their   
likeness to a bucket1  called lanternes 
seau1 and succeeded those invented by   
one ,herault1  called lanternes         
cul-de-lampe4    ,when ,de ,sartines    
held the office of lieutenant de police1
 a premium  was offered to whoever      
should discover the most advantageous   
means of  improving the lighting of the 

streets2 and the ,academy of ,sciences  
were to decide on the different plans   
that might be proposed4 ,in  consequence
 of this offer1 a journeyman glazier1   
named ,goujon1 received  a premium of   
#bjj livres1 and ,messrs4 ,bailly1 ,le  
,roy1 and ,bourgeois de  ,chateaublanc  
#bjjj livres4 ,to the last-mentioned    
gentleman is ascribed  the invention of 
the present reverberating lamps1        
described by ,la  ,vieil1 which were    
introduced in #agff4    ,in a small     
work1 called an ,essay on ,lanterns1 by 
a society of literary  men#ddh1 which1  
though written to ridicule antiquarian  
researches  and certain persons at      
,paris1 contains some authentic         
information  respecting the lighting of 
the streets1 we are told that           
reverberating  lamps were invented by an
 abb ,p41 who therefore1 says the author
  humorously1 is the second abb who can 
boast of having enlightened  the first  
city in the world4 ,the superiority of  
these lamps cannot  be denied2 but1     

besides their expense1 they are attended
 with this  disadvantage when they hang 
in the middle of the street1 that they  
throw a shade over it1 so that one      
cannot be known by those who pass4  ,in 
cities also1 where people walk          
principally in the middle of the        
streets1 or where the streets are broad1
 they are not very convenient1  and they
 occasion a stoppage when it is         
necessary to clean them4    ,in the year
 #agba1 the lamps in ,paris are said to 
have amounted to #eggb2  but in the     
,tableau de ,paris1 printed in #agfj1   
the number is reckoned to  be only      
#efid1 and in the ,curiosits de ,paris1 
#agga1 they are stated to  be #fbcb4    
,in #aggg1 the road between ,paris and  
,versailles1 which is about nine  miles 
in length1 was lighted at the yearly    
expense of #ae1jjj livres by  the same  
contractors who lighted ,paris4 ,the    
city of ,nantes was lighted  the same   
year2 and in #aghj had #ejj lamps4      
,strasburg began to be lighted  in      

#aggi4    ,if what ,maitland says in his
 history#ddi be true1 that in the year  
#adad an order was issued for hanging   
out lanterns to light the streets1  and 
if that regulation was continued after  
the above period1 which ,i  very much   
doubt1 then must it be allowed that     
,london preceded ,paris in  this useful 
establishment4 ,maitland refers for his 
authority to ,stow's  ,survey of        
,london2 but in the edition of that work
 published in #afcc1  ,i find only1     
where a list of the magistrates is      
given1 the following                    
information3--8#adag1 ,mayor1 ,sir      
,henry ,barton1 skinner4 ,this ,henry   
,barton ordained lanthorns with lights  
to bee hanged out on the winter         
evenings1 betwixt ,hallontide and       
,candlemasse40 ,nothing more occurs in  
the edition by ,strype1 published in    
#agbj4    ,in the year #affh1 when      
several regulations were made for       
improving  the streets1 the ,londoners  
were reminded that they should hang out 

lanterns duly at the accustomed         
time#dej4 ,in the year #afij this order 
was renewed1 and every housekeeper was  
required to hang out a light  or lamp   
every night as soon as it was dark1     
between ,michaelmas and  ,lady-day2 and 
to keep it burning till the hour of     
twelve at night4  ,in the year #agaf it 
was ordained by an act of common        
council1 that  all housekeepers1 whose  
houses fronted any street1 lane1 or     
public  passage1 should1 in every dark  
night1 that is1 every night between the 
second night after every full moon till 
the seventh night after every  new moon1
 set or hang out one or more lights1    
with sufficient cotton  wicks1 that     
should continue to burn from six o'clock
 at night till  eleven o'clock of the   
same night1 under the penalty of one    
shilling4  ,all these regulations1      
however1 seem to have been ineffectual1 
owing to  bad management4 ,the city was 
lighted by contract1 and the contractors
  for liberty to light it were obliged  

to pay annually to the city the  sum of 
six hundred pounds4 ,besides1 the       
contractors received only six  shillings
 per annum from every housekeeper whose 
rent exceeded ten  pounds2 and all      
persons who hung out a lantern and      
candle before their  houses were        
exempted from paying towards the public 
lamps4 ,the streets  were lighted no    
more than one hundred and seventeen     
nights2 and as this  gave great         
opportunity to thieves and robbers to   
commit depredations in  the night-time1 
the lord mayor and common council judged
 it proper1 in  the year #agcf1 to apply
 to parliament for power to enable them 
to light  the streets of the city in a  
better manner2 and an act was           
accordingly  passed1 by which they were 
empowered to erect a sufficient number  
of  such sort of glass lamps as they    
should judge proper1 and to keep them   
burning from the setting to the rising  
of the sun throughout the year4         
,instead therefore of a thousand lamps1 

the number was now increased  to #dfgi2 
but as these even were not sufficient1  
several of the wards  made a            
considerable augmentation1 so that the  
whole could amount to no  less than     
#ejjj4 ,this1 however1 was not the      
amount of all the lamps in  ,london1 but
 of those in what is properly called the
 city and liberties4  ,as this division 
forms only a fifth part of ,london1     
,maitland reckons  the whole number of  
public and private lamps to have been1  
even at that  period1 upwards of        
#ae1jjj4 ,the time of lighting also1    
which before had  been only #gej hours  
annually1 was increased to #ejjj4 ,in   
our cities of  ,lower ,saxony1 the      
streets of which are not so dark as     
those of ,london1  the lighting         
continues #aeai hours4    ,in the year  
#agdd1 owing to the great number of     
robberies committed  in the streets     
during the night1 it was found necessary
 to apply for  another act of parliament
 to regulate still farther the lighting 

of  the city2 and at that period this   
establishment was placed upon that      
footing on which it now stands4    ,the 
lamps of ,london1 at present 7#aghf71   
are all of crystal glass2 each  is      
furnished with three wicks2 and they are
 affixed to posts placed at  the        
distance of a certain number of paces   
from each other4 ,they are  lighted     
every day in the year at sunset4        
,oxford-street alone is said  to contain
 more lamps than all ,paris4 ,the roads1
 even1 seven or eight  miles round      
,london1 are lighted by such lamps2 and 
as these roads  from the city to        
different parts are very numerous1 the  
lamps seen  from a little distance1     
particularly in the county of ,surrey1  
where a  great many roads cross each    
other1 have a beautiful and noble       
effect4  ,birmingham was lighted1 for   
the first time1 in #agcc1 with #gjj     
lamps4    ,it appears that the streets  
of ,amsterdam were lighted by lanterns  
as  early as #affi2 for in the month of 

,february that year1 the magistrates1   
who in #affe had forbidden the use of   
torches1 issued an order against        
destroying the lamp-posts1 to which it  
was customary to fasten horses4  ,this  
order1 as well as the instructions given
 to the lamp-lighters  in #affi1 may be 
found in a work called the ,privileges  
of the city  of ,amsterdam4 ,the        
lanterns were not of glass1 but of horn2
 for the  lamp-lighters were ordered1 in
 their instructions1 to wipe off every  
day the smoke of the train-oil which    
adhered to the horn of the  lanterns4   
,at the ,hague an order was issued in   
the month of ,october #aeec1 that the   
inhabitants should place lights before  
their doors during dark nights2  and    
afterwards small stone buildings were   
erected at the corners of the  principal
 streets1 in which lights were kept     
burning2 but in the year  #afgh lamps   
were fixed up in all the streets4       
,the streets of ,copenhagen were first  
lighted by lamps in #afha2 and on  the  

#afth of ,july #afhc new regulations    
were made1 by which the plan was  much  
improved1 as well as that of the        
night-watch4    ,the streets of ,rome   
are not yet lighted4 ,sixtus ,v4 was    
desirous  to introduce this improvement 
in the police1 but he met with          
insurmountable obstacles4 ,that the     
benefit of lighting might be enjoyed  in
 some measure1 he ordered the number of 
the lights placed before the  images of 
saints to be augmented4 ,de la ,lande   
says1 in his ,travels1  that ,venice had
 been lighted for some years before the 
period when he  wrote1 by #cjjj lamps4  
,messina and ,palermo1 in ,sicily1 are  
both lighted4    ,madrid1 which till    
lately was the dirtiest of all the      
capital cities of  ,europe1 is at       
present as well lighted as ,london#dea4 
,valencia in ,spain  was some years ago 
indebted for this improvement to        
,joachim ,manuel ,fos1  then inspector  
of the manufactories4 ,barcelona is     
lighted also#deb4  ,lisbon however has  

no lights4    ,the streets of           
,philadelphia are lighted1 and on each  
side there is a  foot-pavement4    ,in  
the year #afgb the council of ,hamburg  
made a proposal to the citizens  for    
lighting the streets4 ,the year         
following this proposal was  accepted1  
but the lamps were not fixed up till two
 years after1 that is  to say in #afge4 
,in the year #afgi1 ,berlin had advanced
 so far towards this improvement1  that 
the inhabitants were obliged in turns to
 hang out a lantern with  a light at    
every third house4 ,in #afhb1 the       
,elector ,frederick ,william  caused    
lamp-posts with lamps to be erected1    
notwithstanding the  opposition made by 
the inhabitants on account of the       
expense4 ,in a  petition which they     
presented in #afhj1 they stated that the
 lamps cost  #ejjj dollars1 and that    
#cjjj were required yearly to keep them 
lighted4  ,at present ,berlin has #bced 
lamps1 which are kept lighted from      
,september  till ,may1 and at the king's

 expense4 ,potsdam has #eijdec4         
,vienna began to be lighted in the year 
#afhg4 ,the lights were hung  out in the
 evening on a signal given by the       
fire-bell4 ,in #agjd lamps  were        
introduced2 but at first the light which
 they afforded was very  imperfect1 as  
the lamps burned badly1 and because1 to 
save the expense  of lamp-lighters1     
every housekeeper was obliged daily to  
remove the  empty lamps1 to carry them  
to the lamp-office to be filled1 and to 
light them again on a signal given with 
a bell4 ,in #aggf1 the lamps1  which    
before amounted to #bjjj1 were increased
 to #cjjj1 and a contract  was entered  
into for lighting them at the rate of   
#cj1jjj florins4  ,these lamps were     
invented by counsellor ,sonnenfels1 and 
amounted in  #aggi to #cdde4 ,they are  
made of white glass1 in a globular form1
 and  have a covering of tin-plate1     
painted red on the outside and polished 
within4 ,they are supported by          
lamp-irons1 fixed in the houses at the  

height of fifteen feet from the earth4  
,each lantern is only sixteen  paces    
distant from the other1 so that the     
streets are completely  illuminated4    
,they are kept lighted both summer and  
winter1 whether the  moon shines or not2
 and this is more necessary at ,vienna  
than anywhere  else1 on account of the  
height of the houses and the narrowness 
and  crookedness of the streets4 ,the   
lamp-lighters wear an uniform1 and are  
under military discipline4 ,in #aghc the
 yearly expense of the lamps was        
estimated at only #ag1jjj florins#ded4  
,leipzig was lighted in #agjb1 and      
,dresden in #agje4 ,in #agff1 the number
  of lamps at the latter amounted only  
to #gbh1 for the lighting of which  oil 
of rape-seed was employed4    ,in       
,cassel the streets began to be lighted 
under the ,landgrave ,charles1  in      
#agba2 but as regulations were not made 
sufficient to support this  improvement1
 it was at length dropped4 ,it was      
however revived in #agdh1  and in #aggh 

the number of the lamps was increased to
 #ajac1 besides  those at the           
landgrave's palace4    ,hanover was     
lighted in #afif1 ,halle in #agbh1 and  
,gttingen in #agce4  ,brunswick since   
#agfe has had #aefe lamps4 ,zurich has  
been lighted since  #aggh1 but the lamps
 are very few in number4    ,such was   
the state of street-lighting towards the
 end of the last  century1 and many of  
the readers of this work will remember  
the round  glass lamps and their dismal 
oil-light1 which long after the streets 
of  ,london were illuminated with gas1  
still continued to be employed in the   
outskirts of this immense metropolis4   
,how changed is all this now1 and  how  
surprising must it appear1 that a thing 
so simple as the employment  of the     
combustible gases produced in the       
distillation of coal and other  bodies  
of organic origin should date from so   
recent a period6 ,but such  is the case 
with most of the improvements which tend
 to the comfort and  happiness of the   

human race2 slow and by degrees they    
progress towards  perfection1--a fact   
most admirably illustrated by numerous  
articles  contained in these volumes4   
,the first idea of applying coal-gas to 
conomical purposes is generally         
attributed to ,mr4 ,william ,murdoch1   
who in #agib employed coal-gas for      
lighting his house and offices at       
,redruth in ,cornwall1 and in #agih     
constructed the apparatus for the       
purpose of lighting ,boulton and        
,watt's celebrated manufactory at ,soho1
 near ,birmingham1 which on the         
occasion of the peace in #ahjb was      
publicly illuminated by the same  means4
 ,this display vastly attracted public  
attention to the subject1  and soon     
after several manufacturers whose works 
required light and  heat adopted the use
 of gas2 a button manufactory at        
,birmingham used  it largely for        
soldering2 ,halifax1 ,manchester and    
other towns soon  followed4 ,a single   
cotton-mill in ,manchester used above   

#ijj burners1  and had several miles of 
pipe laid down to supply them4 ,mr4     
,murdoch1  who erected the apparatus    
used in this mill1 sent a detailed      
account  of his operations to the ,royal
 ,society in #ahjh1 and received the    
gold  medal of that body4 ,it appears1  
however1 from an interesting paper by   
,r4 ,c4 ,taylor on the coal-fields of   
,china#dee1 that the ,chinese1 if  not  
manufacturers1 are nevertheless gas     
consumers and employers on a  grand     
scale1 and have evidently been so ages  
before the knowledge of  its application
 was acquired by ,europeans4 ,beds of   
coal are frequently  pierced by the     
borers for salt water2 and the          
inflammable gas is forced  up in jets   
twenty or thirty feet in height4 ,from  
these fountains the  vapour has been    
conveyed to the salt-works in pipes1 and
 there used  for the boiling and        
evaporation of the salt2 other tubes    
convey the  gas intended for lighting   
the streets and the larger apartments   

and  kitchens4 ,as there is still more  
gas than required1 the excess is        
conducted beyond the limits of the      
salt-works1 and there forms separate    
chimneys or columns of flame4 ,but this1
 like many other discoveries  of the    
,chinese1 remained1 owing to their      
exclusive habits1 unknown  to us till   
within a recent period1 and the world   
may fairly be said  to be indebted to   
,mr4 ,winsor1 for the vast benefit      
conferred upon it  by gas-illumination4 
,after several experiments1 this        
gentleman in  #ahjc-ahjd lighted the    
,lyceum theatre1 and shortly afterwards1
 in #ahjg1  one side of ,pall-,mall with
 gas distilled from coal4 ,soon after   
that  period companies were formed for  
carrying on the manufacture of gas  upon
 an extensive scale1 oil-lamps were     
banished from all the great             
thoroughfares of the metropolis1 and in 
the course of fifteen years not  only   
was every street and alley illuminated  
from the same source1 but  it was       

generally introduced into shops and     
houses1 was carried into  the suburbs1  
and has now become general in every town
 and city of the  empire4    ,it would  
lead us too far to enter into minute    
details concerning the  structure1 uses 
and arrangement of the various apparatus
 employed in  the production of gas2 it 
will suffice to observe that when coal  
is  heated to redness in a close vessel1
 it yields a variety of products  which 
may be classed under three heads1       
as1--#ast1 permanent gases2  #bndly1    
vapours condensable into the liquid or  
solid state by cooling2  and #crdly1 the
 residuary matter1 coke1 which remains  
in the retort4 ,the  object of gas      
manufacture is to separate these from   
each other1 and to  purify the gaseous  
products by washing and other means1 so 
as to render  them fit for combustion4  
,the following particulars1 taken from  
,brande's ,dictionary of ,science1  may 
serve to give an idea of the quantity of
 gas annually consumed  in ,london4 ,the

 oldest of the ,london gas-works is the 
establishment  belonging to the original
 chartered company4 ,they have three    
stations2  the largest situated in      
,peter-street1 ,westminster2 the second 
in  ,brick-lane1 ,st4 ,luke's1 and the  
third in the ,curtain-road1 ,shoreditch4
  ,this company consumes #ej1jjj        
chaldrons of coals annually1 the produce
  of which in gas may be estimated at   
about six hundred million cubic  feet1  
or about eighteen million seven hundred 
and fifty thousand pounds  weight of    
gas4 ,it may be assumed that each       
chaldron of coals weighs  #bhhj lbs41   
and yields an average produce of #ab1jjj
 cubic feet of  purified gas4 ,the prime
 cost of gas is about four or five      
shillings per  #ajjj cubic feet2 the    
usual retail price is from seven to ten 
shillings  per #ajjj cubic feet4    ,the
 chartered company probably supplies    
about a fifth part of the  whole of the 
gas consumed in ,london and the suburbs2
 so that the total  annual consumption  

of coal employed for this important     
manufacture  in the ,london district    
only1 probably exceeds two hundred and  
fifty  thousand chaldrons1 and the      
quantity of gas produced for the supply 
of  this district amounts annually to   
three thousand million cubic feet4  ,the
 weight of this quantity of gas exceeds 
seventy-five millions of  pounds2 and   
the light produced by its combustion may
 be considered  as equivalent to that   
which would be obtained by the          
combustion of one  hundred and sixty    
millions of pounds of mould-candles of  
six to the  pound4    ,the operations of
 the ,london ,gas-light ,company1 which 
was established  in the year #ahcc1 are 
also on a scale of great magnitude4     
,their works1  situated at ,vauxhall1   
are not only the most powerful1 but the 
most  complete in arrangement of any in 
the world4 ,from this point their  mains
 ramify to a prodigious extent in       
,middlesex as well as ,surrey1  and by  
the admirable mode in which they are    

laid1 aided by the power  of their      
works1 they are enabled to supply gas at
 ,highgate ,hill 7seven  miles distance7
 with the same precision and in the same
 abundance as at  ,vauxhall4 ,the extent
 of their pipes exceeds one hundred and 
fifty miles4    ,the cost of light      
equivalent to that of seven mould       
candles 7six to the  pound7 is in       
coal-gas three farthings per hour1 in an
 ,argand oil-lamp  #c;d4 per hour1 in   
mould candles #c;d4 per hour1 and in wax
 candles  #as4 #b;d4 per hour4    ,gas  
has also been manufactured from oil1    
rosin and other substances4  ,oil-gas is
 procured abundantly by the             
decomposition of oil1 trickled  into a  
red-hot retort1 half-filled with coke or
 brick4 ,it contains no  sulphuretted   
hydrogen1 requires no purification1 and 
is much richer in  carburetted hydrogen 
than coal-gas4 ,its expense has however 
led nearly  to the entire disuse of this
 kind of gas4    ,in ,london there are  
eighteen public gas establishments and  

twelve  companies2 the capital invested 
in works and apparatus is estimated at  
#c1jjj1jjjl4      ,,footnotes    #dcb   
,athen4 ,deipn4 vi4 #h4 p4 #bcf4    #dcc
 ,joh4 ,meursii ,opera1 ex recensione   
,joannis ,lami4 ,florent4 #agde1  fol4  
v4 p4 #fce4    #dcd ,pet4 cap4 lxxix4   
,that the author here speaks of ,naples1
 ,i  conclude from cap4 lxxxi41 where   
the city is called ,grca urbs4  ,others1
 however1 with less probability1 are of 
opinion that ,capua is  meant4    #dce  
,libanii ,opera1 ,lutet4 #afbg1 fol4 ii4
 p4 #chg4    #dcf ,ib4 #ebf4    #dcg    
,see vol4 ii4 p4 #agj4    #dch ,valesius
 informs us1 in his observations on     
,ammianus ,marcellinus1  that to denote 
public sorrow1 on occasions of great    
misfortune1 it was  customary not to    
light the streets2 and in proof of this 
assertion  he quotes a passage of       
,libanius1 where it is said that the    
people of  ,antioch1 in order to        
mitigate the anger of the emperor1      
bethought  themselves of lighting either

 no lamps or a very small number4       
#dci ,assemani ,bibliotheca ,orientalis4
 ,rom1 #agai1 fol4 i4 p4 #bha4    #ddj  
,it was called by the ,greeks 4    #dda 
,herodot4 lib4 ii4 cap4 #fb4    #ddb    
,suet4 ,vita ,calig4 c4 #ah4    #ddc    
,euseb4 lib4 iv4 ,de ,vita ,constantini1
 cap4 #bb4 ,compare with the  above     
,greg4 ,naz4 ,orat4 #ai1 and ,orat4 #b1 
where the author alludes to the         
festival of ,easter4    #ddd            
,tertuliian4 de ,idololatria1 cap4 xv4  
p4 #ebc4 ,see also his  ,apologet4 cap4 
#ce1 p4 #agh4 ,in both places ,la ,cerda
 quotes similar  passages from other    
writers4 ,in ,concilio ,eliberitano1    
cap4 #cg1 it was  decreed 8prohibendum  
etiam ne lucernas publice accendant40   
,see also  ,joh4 ,ciampini ,vetera      
,monumenta1 in quibus musiva opera      
illustrantur4  ,rom1 #afij1 #b vols4    
fol4 i4 p4 #ij1 where1 on a piece of    
mosaic work1  said to be of the fifth   
century1 some lamps are represented     
hanging  over a door4    #dde ,j4       

,lipsii ,electa1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #c4      
#ddf ,this order may be seen in that    
large and elegant work1 entitled        
,histoire de la ,ville de ,paris1       
,felibien1 revue1 augmente par          
,lobineau1  ,paris1 #agbe1 #e vols4     
folio4 ,see vol4 ii4 pp4 #iea1 #igg1 and
 vol4 iv4 pp4  #fdh1 #fgf1 #gfd4    #ddg
 ,paris1 #aggj1 x4 p4 #bfe4    #ddh     
,essai sur les ,lanternes4 ,a ,dole1    
#agge4    #ddi ,history of ,london4     
,london1 #agef1 #b vols4 fol4 i4 p4     
#ahf4    #dej ,noorthouck's ,history of 
,london4 ,lond4 #aggc1 #dto1 p4 #bcc4   
,for the  safety and peace of the city1 
all inhabitants were ordered to hang out
  candles duly at the accustomed hour4  
#dea ,see ,twiss and ,dalrymple's       
,travels4    #deb ,swinburne's ,travels 
through ,spain1 #aggi1 #dto4    #dec    
,nicolai ,beschreibung von ,berlin und  
,potsdam1 pp4 #cjh1 #iga4    #ded       
,nicolai ,beschreibung einer ,reise1    
iii4 pp4 #bab1 #bad4    #dee            
,philosophical ,magazine for ,march1    

#ahdf4          ,,night-,,watch4        
,the establishment of those people who  
are obliged to keep watch in the        
streets of cities during the night1     
belongs to the oldest regulations  of   
police4 ,such watchmen are mentioned in 
the ,song of ,solomon1 and  they occur  
also in the book of ,psalms4 ,athens and
 other cities of  ,greece had at least  
sentinels posted in various parts2 and  
some of the  thesmothet were obliged to 
visit them from time to time1 in order  
to  keep them to their duty#def4 ,at    
,rome there were triumviri nocturni1    
cohortes vigilum1 c4    ,the object of  
all these institutions seems to have    
been rather the  prevention of fires    
than the guarding against nocturnal     
alarms or  danger2 though in the course 
of time attention was paid to these     
also4  ,when ,augustus wished to        
strengthen the night-watch1 for the     
purpose of  suppressing nocturnal       
commotions1 he used as a pretext the    
apprehension  of fires only4 ,the       

regulations respecting these watchmen1  
and the  discipline to which they were  
subjected1 were almost the same as those
  for night-sentinels in camps during   
the time of war2 but it does not  appear
 that the night-watchmen in cities were 
obliged to prove their  presence and    
vigilance by singing1 calling out1 or by
 any other means4  ,signals were made by
 the patroles alone1 with bells1 when   
the watchmen  wished to say anything to 
each other4 ,singing by sentinels in    
time of  war was customary1 at least    
among some nations2 but in all          
probability  that practice was not      
common in the time of peace#deg4        
,calling out the hours seems to have    
been first practised after the  erection
 of city gates1 and1 in my opinion1 to  
have taken its rise  in ,germany2 though
 indeed it must be allowed that such a  
regulation  would have been very useful 
in ancient ,rome1 where there were no   
clocks1 and where people had nothing in 
their houses to announce the  hours in  

the night-time4 ,during the day people  
could know the hours  after water-clocks
 had been constructed at the public     
expense1 and  placed in open buildings  
erected in various parts of the city4   
,the  case seems to have been the same  
in ,greece2 and rich families kept      
particular servants both male and       
female1 whose business it was to        
announce to their masters and mistresses
 certain periods of the day1 as  pointed
 out by the city clocks4 ,these servants
 consisted principally  of boys and     
young girls1 the latter being destined  
to attend on the  ladies4 ,it appears1  
however1 that in the course of time     
water-clocks  were kept also in the     
palaces of the great3 at any rate       
,trimalchio1  the celebrated voluptuary 
mentioned in ,petronius1 had one in his 
dining-room1 and a servant stationed    
near it to proclaim the progress  of the
 hours1 that his master might know how  
much of his lifetime was  spent2 for he 
did not wish to lose a single moment    

without enjoying  pleasure4    ,i have  
not read everything that has been       
written by others on the  division of   
time among the ancients2 but after the  
researches ,i  have made1 ,i must       
confess that ,i do not know whether the 
hours were  announced in the night-time 
to those who wished and had occasion to 
know them4 ,there were then no clocks   
which struck the hours1 as has  been    
already said2 and as water-clocks were  
both scarce and expensive1  they could  
not be procured by labouring people1 to 
whom it was of most  importance to be   
acquainted with the progress of         
time#deh4 ,it would  therefore have been
 a useful and necessary regulation to   
have caused  the watchmen in the streets
 to proclaim the hours1 which they could
  have known from the public            
water-clocks1 by blowing a horn1 or by  
calling out4    ,it appears1 however1   
that people must have been soon led to  
such an  institution1 because the above 
methods had been long practised in  war4

 ,the periods for mounting guard were   
determined by water-clocks2  at each    
watch a horn was blown1 and every one   
could by this signal  know the hour of  
the night#dei2 but ,i have met with no  
proof that  these regulations were      
established in cities during the time of
  peace1 though many modern writers have
 not hesitated to refer to  the         
night-watch in cities what alludes only 
to nocturnal guards in  the time of war4
 ,on the contrary1 ,i am still more     
strongly inclined  to think that ancient
 ,rome was entirely destitute of such a 
police  establishment4 ,the bells borne 
by the night watchmen were used only  by
 the patroles1 as we are expressly told1
 or to give signals upon  extraordinary 
occasions1 such as that of a fire1 or   
when any violence  had been committed4  
,cicero1 comparing the life of a civil  
with that of  a military officer1 says1 
8,the former is awaked by the crowing of
 the  cock1 and the latter by the sound 
of the trumpet40 ,the former therefore  

had no other means of knowing the hours 
of the night but by attending  to the   
noise made by that animal#dfj4 ,an      
ancient poet says that the  cock is the 
trumpeter which awakens people in the   
time of peace#dfa4  ,the ancients indeed
 understood much better than the vulgar 
at present1  who are already too much   
accustomed to clocks1 how to determine  
the  periods of the night by observing  
the stars2 but here ,i am speaking of   
capital cities1 and in these people are 
not very fond of quitting their  beds to
 look at the stars1 which are not always
 to be seen4    ,without entering into  
further researches respecting watchmen  
among  the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 
,i shall prove1 by such testimonies as  
,i am acquainted with1 that the police  
establishment of which ,i speak  is more
 modern in our cities than one might    
suppose4 ,but ,i must except  ,paris2   
for it appears that night-watching was  
established there1 as  at ,rome1 in the 
commencement of its monarchy4 ,de la    

,mare#dfb quotes  the ordinances on this
 subject of ,clothaire ,,ii41 in the    
year #eie1  of ,charlemagne1 and of the 
following periods4 ,at first the        
citizens  were obliged to keep watch in 
turns1 under the command of a miles     
gueti1 who was called also chevalier4   
,the ,french writers remark on  this    
circumstance1 that the term guet1 which 
occurs in the oldest  ordinances1 was   
formed from the ,german words wache1    
wacht1 the  guard1 or watch2 and in like
 manner several other ancient ,german   
military terms1 such as bivouac1        
landsquenet1 c4#dfc have been  retained 
in the ,french language4 ,in the course 
of time1 when general  tranquillity     
prevailed1 a custom was gradually       
introduced of avoiding  the duty of     
watching by paying a certain sum of     
money1 until at length  permanent       
compagnies de guet were established in  
,paris1 ,lyons1  ,orleans1 and          
afterwards in other cities4    ,if ,i am
 not mistaken1 the establishment of     

single watchmen1 who go  through the    
streets and call out the hours1 is      
peculiar to ,germany1  and was copied   
only in modern times by our neighbours4 
,the antiquity  of it however ,i will   
not venture to determine#dfd4 ,at       
,berlin1 the  elector ,john ,george     
appointed watchmen in the year #aehhdfe2
 but  in #afgg there were none in that  
capital1 and the city officers were     
obliged to call out the hours#dff4      
,montagne1 during his travels in  #aehj1
 thought the calling out of the         
night-watch in the ,german cities a     
very singular custom4 8,the watchmen10  
says he1 8went about the houses  in the 
night-time1 not so much on account of   
thieves as on account of  fires and     
other alarms4 ,when the clocks struck1  
the one was obliged  to call out aloud  
to the other1 and to ask what it was    
o'clock1 and  then to wish him a good   
night#dfg40 ,this circumstance he       
remarks also  when speaking of          
,inspruck4 ,mabillon likewise1 who made 

a literary  tour through ,germany1      
describes calling out the hours as a    
practice  altogether peculiar to that   
country4    ,the horn of our watchmen   
seems to be the buccina of the ancients1
  which1 as we know1 was at first an    
ox's horn1 though it was afterwards     
made of metal#dfh4 ,rattles1 which are  
most proper for cities1 as  horns are   
for villages1 seem to be of later       
invention#dfi4 ,the common  form1       
8,hear1 my masters1 and let me tell     
you10 is very old4 ,i am not  the only  
person to whom this question has        
occurred1 why it should not  rather be1 
8,ye people1 or citizens40 ,the         
chancellor von ,ludwig deduces  it from 
the ,romans1 who1 as he says1 were more 
liberal with the word  ,master1 like our
 neighbours with ,messieurs1 than the   
old ,germans2 but  the ,roman watchmen  
did not call out1 nor yet do the ,french
 at present4  ,if ,i may be allowed a   
conjecture on so trifling an object1 ,i 
should say  that the city servants or   

beadles were the first persons appointed
 to  call out the hours1 as was the case
 at ,berlin4 ,these therefore called    
out to their masters1 and 8,our masters0
 is still the usual appellation  given  
to the magistrates in old cities1       
particularly in the central  and        
southern portions of ,germany1 and in   
,switzerland4 ,at ,gttingen the  ancient
 form was abolished in the year #agia1  
and the watchmen call out  now1 8,the   
clock has struck ten1 it is ten         
o'clock40    ,watchmen who were         
stationed on steeples by day as well as 
by night1  and who1 every time the clock
 struck1 were obliged to give a proof of
  their vigilance by blowing a horn1    
seem to have been first established  on 
a permanent footing in ,germany1 and    
perhaps before watchmen in the  streets4
 ,in ,england there are none of these   
watchmen2 and in general  they are very 
rare beyond the boundaries of ,germany4 
,that watchmen were  posted on the tops 
of towers1 in the earliest ages1 to look

 out for the  approach of an enemy1 is  
well known4 ,in the times of feudal     
dissension1  when one chief1 if he      
called in any assistance1 could often do
 a great  deal of hurt to a large city1 
either by plundering and burning the    
suburbs and neighbouring villages1 or by
 driving away the cattle of the         
citizens1 and attacking single          
travellers1 such precaution was more    
necessary than at present4 ,the nobility
 therefore kept in their strong  castles
 watchmen1 stationed on towers2 and this
 practice prevailed  in other countries 
besides ,ireland and ,burgundy#dgj4 ,it 
appears by  the laws of ,wales1 that a  
watchman with a horn was kept in the    
king's  palace#dga4 ,the ,german princes
 had in their castles1 at any rate in   
the sixteenth century1 tower-watchmen1  
who were obliged to blow a horn  every  
morning and evening4    ,at first1 the  
citizens themselves were obliged to keep
 watch in turns  on the church-steeples1
 as well as at the town-gates2 as may be

 seen  in a police ordinance of the city
 of ,einbeck#dgb1 in the year #aegc4    
,it was the duty of these watchmen1     
especially where there were no town     
clocks1 to announce certain periods1    
such as those of opening and  shutting  
the city-gates4 ,the idea of giving     
orders to these watchmen to  attend not 
only to danger from the enemy but from  
fire also1 and1 after  the introduction 
of public clocks1 to prove their        
vigilance by making a  signal with their
 horn1 must have naturally occurred2 and
 the utility  of this regulation was so 
important1 that watchmen on steeples    
were  retained1 even when cities1 by the
 prevalence of peace1 had no occasion   
to be apprehensive of hostile           
incursions4    ,after this period       
persons were appointed for the          
particular purpose  of watching2 and    
small apartments were constructed for   
them in the  steeples4 ,at first they   
were allowed to have their wives with   
them2  but this was sometimes           

prohibited1 because a profanation of the
 church  was apprehended4 ,in most1 if  
not in all cities1 the town-piper1 or   
as we say at present1 town-musician1 was
 appointed steeple-watchman2  and       
lodgings were assigned to him in the    
steeple2 but in the course of  time1 as 
these were too high and too             
inconvenient1 a house was given  him    
near the church1 and he was allowed to  
send one of his servants  or domestics  
to keep watch in his stead4 ,this is the
 case still at  ,gttingen4 ,the city    
musician was called formerly the        
,hausmann1  which name is still retained
 here as well as at the ,hartz1 in      
,halle1  and several other places2 and  
the steeple in which he used to  dwell  
and keep watch was called the           
,hausmann's ,thurm#dgc4 ,these          
establishments1 however1 were not       
general2 and were not everywhere  formed
 at a period equally early1 as will be  
shown by the proofs which  ,i shall here
 adduce4    ,if we can credit an        

,arabian author1 whose ,travels were    
published by  ,renaudot1 the ,chinese   
were accustomed1 so early as the ninth  
century1  to have watchmen posted on    
towers1 who announced the hours of the  
day as well as of the night1 by striking
 or beating upon a suspended  board4    
,marco ,paulo1 who1 in the thirteenth   
century1 travelled through  ,tartary and
 ,china1 confirms this account2 at least
 in regard to a city  which he calls    
,quinsai1 though he says that signals   
were given only  in cases of fire and   
disturbance4 ,such boards are used in   
,china even  at present#dgd2 and in     
,petersburg the watchmen who are        
stationed  at single houses or in       
certain parts of the city1 are          
accustomed to  announce the hours by    
beating on a suspended plate of iron4   
,such  boards are still used by the     
,christians in the ,levant to assemble  
people to divine service1 either because
 they dare not ring bells or  are unable
 to purchase them4 ,the former is       

related by ,tournefort of  the          
inhabitants of the ,grecian islands1 and
 the latter by ,chardin of  the         
,mingrelians4 ,the like means were      
employed in monasteries1 at the         
earliest periods1 to give notice of the 
hours of prayer1 and to awaken  the     
monks#dge4 ,mahomet1 who in his form of 
worship borrowed many  things from the  
,christians of ,syria and ,arabia1      
adopted the same method  of assembling  
the people to prayers2 but when he      
remarked that it  appeared to his       
followers to savour too much of         
,christianity1 he again  introduced the 
practice of calling out4    ,the        
steeple-watchmen in ,germany are often  
mentioned in the fourteenth  and        
fifteenth centuries4 ,in the year #acea1
 when the council of ,erfurt  renewed   
that police ordinance which was called  
the ,zuchtbrief1 letter  of discipline1 
because it kept the people in proper    
subjection1 it  was ordered1 besides    
other regulations in regard to fire1    

that two  watchmen should be posted on  
every steeple4 ,a watchman of this kind 
was  appointed at ,merseburg and        
,leisnig so early as the year #adjj4 ,in
 the  beginning of the seventeenth      
century the town-piper of ,leisnig lived
  still in apartments in the steeple4   
,in the year #aefc1 a church-steeple    
was erected in that place1 and an       
apartment built in it for a permanent   
watchman1 who was obliged to announce   
the hours every time the clock  struck4 
,in the fifteenth century the city of   
,ulm kept permanent watchmen in  many of
 the steeples4 ,in the year #adeb a bell
 was suspended in the  tower of the     
cathedral of ,frankfort-on-the-,maine1  
which was to be  rung in times of feudal
 alarm1 and all the watchmen on the     
steeples  were then to blow their horns 
and hoist their banners4 ,in the year   
#adgf1 a room for the watchman was      
constructed in the steeple of the       
church of ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,in the year  
#aeji1 watchmen were kept both on  the  

watch-towers and steeples1 who gave     
notice by firing a musket  when         
strangers approached4 ,the watchman on  
the tower of the cathedral  immediately 
announced1 by blowing a trumpet1 whether
 the strangers  were on foot or on      
horseback2 and at the same time hung out
 a red flag  towards the quarter in     
which he observed them advancing4 ,the  
same  watchman was obliged1 likewise1 to
 blow his horn on an alarm of fire2  and
 that these people might be vigilant day
 and night1 both in winter  and summer1 
the council supplied them with          
fur-cloaks1 seven of which1  in the     
above-mentioned year1 were purchased for
 ten florins and a half4    ,in the year
 #adif1 the large clock was put up in   
the steeple of  ,oettingen1 and a person
 appointed to keep watch on it#dgf4 ,in 
#aehj1  ,montagne was much surprised to 
find on the steeple at ,constance a man 
who kept watch there continually2 and   
who1 on no account1 was permitted  to   
come down from his station4    ,one of  

the greatest improvements of modern     
times1 in this country1  is the         
establishment of that highly efficient  
body1 the new police4  ,the first       
introduction of the police was made by  
the magistrates of  ,cheshire in #ahbi1 
under an authority from parliament 7,act
 #aj ,geo4 ,,iv4  c4 #ig74 ,the first   
metropolitan establishment was also made
 in #ahbi4  ,before this time the total 
old force of the metropolitan watchmen  
consisted of #gig parochial day         
officers1 #bghe night-watch1 and upward 
of #ajj private watchmen2 including the 
,bow-street day and night patrol1  there
 were about #djjj men employed in the   
district stretching from  ,brentford    
,bridge on the west to the river ,lea on
 the east1 and from  ,highgate on the   
north to ,streatham on the south1       
excluding the city  of ,london4 ,the act
 of parliament creating the new police  
force 7#aj  ,geo4 ,,iv4 c4 #dd7 placed  
the control of the whole body in the    
hands of  two commissioners1 who devote 

their whole time to their duties4 ,the  
total number of the metropolitan police 
in ,january #ahdj consisted of  #cdhf   
men4 ,these are arranged in divisions1  
each of which is employed  in a distinct
 district4 ,the metropolis is divided   
into 8beats0 and  is watched day and    
night4 ,since ,august #ahci1 the        
horse-patrol1  consisting of seventy-one
 mounted men1 who are employed within a 
distance of several miles around        
,london1 has been incorporated with  the
 metropolitan police4 ,the ,thames      
police consists of twenty-one           
surveyors1 each of whom has charge of   
three men and a boat when on  duty4 ,the
 establishment is under the immediate   
direction of the  magistrates of the    
,thames police-office4    ,the police   
affairs of the city of ,london are still
 under its own  management4 ,in #ahcc1  
the number of persons employed in the   
several  wards of the city              
was1--ordinary watchmen1 #ejj2          
superintending  watchmen1 #fe2          

patrolling watchmen1 #ia2 beadles1 #ed2 
total1 #gaj4 ,there  are about #djj men 
doing duty in the city at midnight4 ,in 
addition to  the paid watchmen1 about   
#djj ward-constables are appointed4 ,the
 expense  of the day-police1 consisting 
of about #abj men1 amounts to about     
#ijjj  a year1 and is defrayed by the   
corporation3 and the sum levied on the  
wards for the support of the night-watch
 averages about #db1jjj per  annum4     
,the police of the metropolis and the   
district within fifteen miles  of       
,charing ,cross 7exclusive of the city7 
is regulated by the acts #aj  ,geo4     
,,iv4 c4 #dd1 and #b and #c ,vict4 c4   
#dg4 ,in nearly all the boroughs        
constituted under the ,municipal ,reform
 ,act1 a paid police force has  been    
established on the same footing as the  
metropolitan police4      ,,footnotes   
#def ,they were called bell-bearers or  
bellmen1 because while going  the rounds
 they gave a signal with their bells1   
which the sentinels  were obliged       

immediately to answer4 ,see the         
,scholiasts on the ,aves of             
,aristophanes1 ver4 #hda4 ,dio ,cassius1
 lib4 liv4 #d1 p4 #ggc1 says1 8,the     
watchmen in the different quarters of   
the city have small bells1 that  they   
may make signals to each other when they
 think proper40 ,the bells  therefore   
did not serve for announcing the hours1 
as some have imagined4    #deg ,the     
,persian sentinels sung in this manner  
when they were  surprised in the city by
 the ,romans4--,ammianus ,marcell4 xxiv4
 #ae4    #deh ,that the servants in many
 houses were wakened by the ringing of a
  bell1 appears from what ,lucian says  
in his treatise1 ,de iis qui mercede    
conducti in divitum familiis vivunt1    
cap4 xxiv4 p4 #bde1 and cap4 xxxi4  p4  
#bed1 ,bipont edition1 vol4 iii4 ,it    
does not however follow that there  were
 then striking or alarm-clocks1 as some 
have thence concluded4 ,see  ,magius ,de
 ,tintinnabulis1 cap4 #f1 in ,sallengre1
 ,thesaurus ,antiquit4 ii4  p4 #aagg4   

#dei ,vegetius ,de ,re ,milit4 iii4 #h4 
,that ,csar had such clocks may be      
concluded from the observation which he 
makes in his ,commentaries1  on the     
length of the day in the islands near   
,ireland1 lib4 v4 #ac4  ,maternus1 in   
,romische ,alterthmer1 iii4 p4 #dg1     
endeavours to prove by  what ,suetonius 
relates of ,domitian1 cap4 #af1 that    
this prince had in  his palace neither a
 sun-dial nor a water-clock4 ,but what  
kind of  a proof6 ,domitian asked what  
the hour was1 and some one answered1    
the sixth4 ,such insignificant dicta    
probantia have been banished  from      
philosophy by the moderns1 and ought    
they not to be banished  from           
antiquities likewise8 ,the often-quoted 
passage also of ,valerius  ,maximus1    
viii4 #g1 #e1 proves nothing1 unless we 
first adopt the  amendment of ,green4   
,carneades1 it is said1 was so engaged  
in the study  of philosophy1 that he    
would have forgot his meals had not     
,melissa put  him in mind of them4      

,green reads monitrix domestica2 but    
,valerius  says1 8,melissa1 quam uxoris 
loco habebat40 ,see ,sallengre1 ,thes4  
,antiq4  ,rom4 i4 p4 #gba4 ,a passage   
likewise in ,pliny's ,epistles1 iii4 #a1
 p4  #aha1 8ubi hora balinei nunciata   
est10 does not properly prove that  it  
alludes to one of those boys who        
announced the hours4 ,that such         
servants however were kept1 is evident  
from the undoubted testimony of  various
 authors4 ,martial1 viii4 ep4           
#fg4--;,juven4 ,sat4 x4 #baf4--,seneca  
,de ,brevit4 ,vit1 c4 #ab4--;,alciphron1
 ,epist4 lib4 iii4 p4 #bhb4--,sidon4    
,apollin4 ii4 ep4 #i1 p4 #abj4    #dfj  
,cic4 ,orat4 pro ,murna1 cap4 #bb4      
#dfa ,sil4 ,ital4 vii4 #aee4    #dfb    
,trait de la ,police1 vol4 i4 in the    
,index under the word ,guet4    #dfc    
,bivouac1 from the ,german beiwacht1 is 
an additional  night-guard during a     
siege1 or when an army is encamped near 
the enemy4  ,lansquenets were ,german   
soldiers added by ,charles ,,viii4 of   

,france to  his infantry1 and who were  
continued in the ,french army till      
,francis ,i4  introduced his            
legions4--,,trans4    #dfd ,with respect
 to the institution of night-watch in   
this country1  ,stow says1 8,for a full 
remedy of enormities in the night1 ,i   
read1 that  in the year #abec ,henry    
,,iii4 commanded watches in the cities  
and borough  towns to be kept1 for the  
better observing of peace and quietness 
among his people4444 ,and further1 by   
the advice of them of ,savoy1  he       
ordained1 that if any man chanced to be 
robbed1 or by any means  damnified by   
any thief or robber1 he to whom the     
charge of keeping that  country1 city1  
or borough1 chiefly appertained1 where  
the robbery was  done1 should           
competently restore the loss4 ,and this 
was after the use  of ,savoy1 but yet   
thought more hard to be observed here   
than in those  parts2 and therefore1    
leaving those laborious watches1 ,i will
 speak of  our pleasures and pastimes in

 watching by night40 7,survey of        
,london1  ,thoms's edition1 #ahdb1 p4   
#ci47 ,he then describes the marching   
watches  which were instituted in the   
months of ,june and ,july1 on the vigils
 and  evenings of festival days2 with   
the cresset lights1 c4 ,but he does not 
state whether these watches were        
continued in his time2 nor does he      
state the author of the information     
which he gives us from his reading4     
,the statute of ,winchester1 #ac ,edward
 ,i4 c4 #d1 enforces a continuation  of 
the watches as they had previously been 
made1 from ,ascension-day to            
,michaelmas-day2 the night-watch from   
sun-set to sunrise1 in every city  by   
six men at each gate1 in every borough  
by twelve men1 in every open  town by   
six or four men4    #dfe ,nicolai       
,beschreib4 von ,berlin1 i1 p4 #ch4     
#dff ,ib4 p4 #di4    #dfg ,iter         
,germanicum4 ,hamburgi1 #agag1 #hvo1 p4 
#bf4    #dfh ,lipsius ,de ,milit4 ,rom4 
iv4 #aj1 p4 #aih4--;,bochart4           

,hierozoic4 i4    #dfi ,from the name of
 this instrument1 called in some places 
of  ,germany a ratel1 arose the         
appellation of ratelwache1 which was    
established at ,hamburg in #afga4 ,in   
the ,dutch language the words  ratel1   
ratelaar1 ratelen1 ratelmann1           
ratelwagter 7a  night-watchman71 are    
quite common4    #dgj ,stanihurst ,de   
,rebus in ,hibernia ,gestis1 lib4 i4 p4 
#cc4    #dga ,leges ,walli4 ,lond4      
#agcj1 fol4    #dgb ,the person whose   
turn it was to watch at the gates1 was  
obliged  to perform the duty himself1 or
 to cause it to be performed by a fit   
and proper young citizen4 ,those who    
attended to trade and neglected the     
watch1 paid for every omission one mark 
to the council4 ,the case was  the same 
with the watch on the tower in the      
market-place4    #dgc ,in the ,berlin   
police ordinance of the year #aehj1 it  
was  ordered that the ,raths-thurn oder 
,hausmann1 steeple-watchman or          
city-musician1 should attend at weddings

 with music for the accustomed  pay1 but
 only till the hour of nine at night1 in
 order that he might  then blow his horn
 on the steeple1 and place the          
night-watch4    #dgd ,martini ,atlas    
,sinens4 p4 #ag4 ,matches or links1 to  
which alarums  are sometimes added1 are 
employed in ,china to point out the     
hours2 and  these are announced by      
watchmen placed on towers who beat a    
drum4 ,see  ,kmpfer's ,japan1 where the 
mention of matches is omitted4 ,thunberg
  says1 8,time is measured here not by  
clocks or hour-glasses1 but by  burning 
matches1 which are plaited like ropes1  
and have knots on them4  ,when the match
 burns to a knot1 which marks a         
particular lapse of time1  the hour is  
announced1 during the day1 by a certain 
number of strokes  on the bells in the  
temples2 and in the night by watchmen   
who go round  and give a like signal    
with two pieces of board1 which they    
knock  against each other40    #dge ,a  
great deal of important information1    

which is as yet too little  known1 has  
been collected on this subject by       
,reiske1 on ,constantini  ,lib4 de      
,ceremoniis ,aul ,byzant4 ii4 p4 #gd4   
#dgf ,this is related in the            
,oettingisches ,geschichts-almanach1 p4 
#g1  on the authority of an account in  
the parish books of ,oettingen1 said  to
 be extracted from an ancient chronicle 
of that town4 ,the author of  this      
almanac1 which is now little known1 was1
 as ,i have been told1  ,schablen1      
superintendant at ,oettingen4           
,,plant-,,skeletons4      ,plants1 as   
well as animals1 are organised bodies1  
and like them their  parts may be       
dissected and decomposed by art2 but the
 anatomy of the  former has not been    
cultivated so long and with so much zeal
 and  success as that of animals4 ,some 
naturalists1 about the beginning of  the
 last century1 first began to make it an
 object of attention1 to  compare the   
structure of plants with that of        
animals2 and for that  purpose to employ

 the microscope4 ,among these1 two      
distinguished  themselves in a          
particular manner2 ,marcellus ,malpighi1
 an ,italian2  and ,nehemiah ,grew1 an  
,englishman2 who both undertook almost  
the same  experiments and made them     
known at the same time2 so that it is   
impossible to determine which of them   
was the earlier4 ,it appears1  however1 
that ,grew published some of his        
observations a little sooner2  but      
,malpighi was prior in making his known 
in a complete manner4 ,but  even        
allowing that the one had received hints
 of the processes of the  other1 they   
are both entitled to praise that each   
made experiments of  his own1 and from  
these prepared figures1 which are always
 more correct  the nearer they          
correspond with each other4    ,among   
the various helps towards acquiring a   
knowledge of the anatomy  of plants1 one
 of the principal is the art of reducing
 to skeletons  leaves1 fruit and roots2 
that is1 of freeing them from their     

soft1  tender and pulpy substance1 in   
such a manner1 that one can survey alone
  their internal1 harder vessels in     
their entire connexion4 ,this may be    
done by exposing the leaves to decay for
 some time soaked in water1 by  which   
means the softer parts will be          
dissolved1 or at least separated  from  
the internal harder parts1 so that one1 
by carefully wiping1  pressing and      
rinsing them1 can obtain the latter     
alone perfectly  entire4 ,one will      
possess then a tissue composed of       
innumerable woody  threads or filaments1
 which1 in a multiplicity of ways1 run  
through  and intersect each other4 ,by  
sufficient practice and caution one may 
detach1 from each side of a leaf1 a very
 thin covering1 between which  lies a   
delicate web of exceedingly tender      
vessels4 ,these form a woody  net-work1 
between the meshes of which fine        
glandules are distributed4  ,this net is
 double1 or at least can be divided     
lengthwise into halves1  between which  

may be observed a substance that appears
 as it were to be  the marrow of the    
plant4 ,persons who are expert often    
succeed so far1  with many leaves1 as to
 separate the external covering on both 
sides  from the woody net1 and to split 
the latter into two1 so that the whole  
leaf seems to be divided into four4     
,one might conjecture that this method  
of reducing leaves to skeletons  must   
have been long known1 as one frequently 
finds in ponds leaves  which have       
dropped from the neighbouring trees1 and
 which by  decomposition1 without the   
assistance of art1 have been converted  
into  such a woody net-work1 quite      
perfect and entire4 ,it is however      
certain  that a naturalist1 about the   
year #afde1 first conceived the idea of 
employing decomposition for the purpose 
of making leaf-skeletons1 and  of       
assisting it by ingenious operations of 
art4    ,this naturalist1 ,marcus       
,aurelius ,severinus1 professor of      
anatomy and  surgery at ,naples1 was    

born in #aehj1 and died of the plague in
 #afef4  ,in his ,zootomia ,democrita1  
printed in #afde1 he gave the figure1   
with  a description of a leaf of the    
,ficus ,opuntia reduced to a skeleton4  
,of the particular process employed to  
prepare this leaf1 the figure  of which 
is very coarse and indistinct1 he gives 
no account4 ,he says  only that the soft
 substance was so dissolved that the    
vessels or  nerves alone remained2 and  
that he had been equally successful with
  a leaf of the palm-tree4 ,a piece of a
 leaf of the like kind he sent  by      
,thomas ,bartholin to ,olaus ,wormius1  
who caused it to be engraved on  copper1
 in a much neater manner1 without saying
 anything of the method  in which it had
 been prepared#dgg4 ,the process        
,severin kept secret2  but he           
communicated it to ,bartholin1 in a     
letter1 on the #beth of  ,february      
#afde1 on condition that he would not   
disclose it to any one4  ,at that       
period1 however1 it excited very little 

attention1 and was soon  forgotten1     
though in the year #afhe one ,gabriel   
,clauder made known that  he had reduced
 vine-leaves1 the calyx of the winter   
cherry1 and a root  of hemlock1 to a net
 or tissue by burying them in sand      
during the heat  of summer1 and hanging 
them up some months in the open air till
 they  were completely dried4    ,this  
art was considered to be of much more   
importance when it was again  revived by
 the well-known ,dutchman1 ,frederick   
,ruysch4 ,that naturalist  found means  
to conduct all his undertakings and     
labours in such a  manner as to excite  
great wonder2 but we must allow him the 
merit of  having brought the greater    
part of them to a degree of perfection  
which no one had attained before4 ,by   
the anatomy of animals1 in which  he was
 eminently skilled1 he was led to the   
dissection of plants2 and  as it seemed 
impossible to fill their tender vessels1
 like those of  animals1 with a coloured
 solid substance#dgh1 he fell upon a    

method of  separating the hard parts    
from the soft1 and of preserving them in
 that  manner4    ,for this purpose he  
first tried a method which he had       
employed with  uncommon success1 in     
regard to the parts of animals4 ,he     
covered the  leaves and fruit with      
insects1 which ate up the soft or pulpy 
parts1  and left only those that were   
hard4 ,but however well these insects1  
which he called his little assistants1  
may have executed their task1  they did 
not abstain altogether from the solid   
parts1 so that they  never produced a   
complete skeleton4 ,he dismissed them1  
therefore1 and  endeavoured to execute  
with his own fingers what he had before 
caused  the insects to perform1 after he
 had separated the soft parts from the  
hard by decomposition4 ,in this he      
succeeded so perfectly1 that all who    
saw his skeletons of leaves or fruit    
were astonished at the fineness of  the 
work and wished to imitate them4    ,i  
cannot exactly determine the year in    

which ,ruysch began to prepare  these   
skeletons4 ,trew thinks that it must    
have been when he was in a  very        
advanced age1 or at any rate after the  
year #agah2 for when he was  admitted to
 ,ruysch's collection in that year1 he  
observed none of these  curiosities4    
,rundmann1 however1 saw some of them in 
his possession in  the year #agjhdgi4   
,at first ,ruysch endeavoured to keep   
the process  a secret1 and to evade     
giving direct answers to the questions  
of the  curious4 ,we are informed by    
,rundmann1 that he attempted to imitate 
his  art by burying leaves at the end of
 harvest in the earth1 and leaving  them
 there till the spring1 by which their  
soft parts became so tender  that he    
could strip them off with the greatest  
ease4 ,he produced also  the same effect
 by boiling them4    ,the first account 
which ,ruysch himself published of his  
process1  was1 as far as ,i know1 in the
 year #agbc4 ,after he had sufficiently 
excited the general curiosity1 he gave  

figures of some of his  vegetable       
skeletons1 related the whole method of  
preparing them1 and  acknowledged that  
he had accidentally met with an         
imperfect engraving  of a leaf-skeleton 
in the ,museum of ,wormius1 which had at
 one time  occasioned much wonder#dhj4  
,it is not improbable that he knew how  
the  ,italian1 whom he does not mention1
 though he is mentioned by ,wormius1    
and though he must certainly have been  
acquainted with his ,zootomia1  prepared
 his skeletons4 ,i must however observe1
 that it is remarked by  those who knew 
,ruysch1 that he had read few books1 and
 was very little  versed in the         
literature of his profession4    ,in the
 year following1 ,ruysch described more 
articles of the like kind1  and gave    
figures of some pears prepared in this  
manner4 ,in #agbf1 when  ,vater1        
professor at ,wittenberg1 expressed     
great astonishment at the  fineness of  
his works1 he replied1 in a letter      
written in #agbg1 that he  had at first 

caused them to be executed by insects1  
but that he then  made them himself with
 his fingers#dha4 ,he repeated the same 
thing  also in #agbh1 when he described 
and gave engravings of more of these    
curious objects#dhb4 ,the progress of   
this invention is related in the  same  
manner by ,schreiber1 in his ,life of   
,ruysch4    ,when the method of         
producing these skeletons became        
publicly known1  they were soon prepared
 by others2 some of whom made           
observations1  which were contrary to   
those of ,ruysch4 ,among these in       
particular  were ,j4 ,bapt4 ,du ,hamel1 
who1 so early as the year #agbg1        
described and  illustrated with elegant 
engravings the interior construction of 
a  pear#dhc2 ,trew#dhd1 in whose        
possession ,keysler saw such skeletons  
in #agcj2 ,p4 ,h4 ,g4 ,mohring#dhe2     
,seba#dhf2 ,francis ,nicholls#dhg1  an  
,englishman2 ,professor ,hollmann#dhh at
 ,gttingen1 ,ludwig#dhi1  ,walther#dij1 
,gesner#dia and others4 ,nicholls seems 

to have been the  first who split the   
net of an apple- or a pear-tree leaf    
into two equal  parts1 though ,ruysch   
split a leaf of the opuntia into three1 
four1 and  even five layers1 as he      
himself says4    ,in the year #agdh1    
,seligmann1 an engraver1 began to       
publish1 in  folio plates1 figures of   
several leaves which he had reduced to  
skeletons#dib4 ,as he thought it        
impossible to make drawings             
sufficiently correct1 he took           
impressions from the leaves or nets     
themselves1 with red ink1 and in a      
manner which may be seen described  in  
various books on the arts4 ,of the      
greater part he gave two figures1  one  
of the upper and another of the under   
side4 ,he promised also to  give figures
 of the objects as magnified by a solar 
microscope2 and two  plates were to be  
delivered monthly4 ,seligmann however   
died soon after1  if ,i am not mistaken2
 and a lawsuit took place between his   
heirs1 by  which the whole of the copies

 printed were arrested1 and for this    
reason the work was never completed1 and
 is to be found only in a very  few     
libraries4    ,cobres says that eight   
pages of text1 with two black and       
twenty-nine  red copper-plates1 were    
completed4 ,the copy which is in the    
library of  our university has only     
eight pages of text1 consisting partly  
of a  preface by ,c4 ,trew1 and partly  
of an account of the author1 printed in 
,latin and ,german opposite to each     
other4 ,trew gives a history of the     
physiology of plants and of             
leaf-skeletons2 and ,seligmann treats on
  the methods of preparing the latter4  
,the number of the plates however  is   
greater than that assigned by ,cobres4  
,the copy which is now before  me       
contains thirty-three plates1 printed in
 red2 and besides these1  two plates in 
black1 with figures of the objects      
magnified4 ,of the  second plate in red1
 there is a duplicate with this title1  
8,leaves of  a bergamot pear-tree1 the  

fruit of which is mild20 but the figures
 in  both are not the same2 and it      
appears that the author considered one  
of the plates as defective1 and         
therefore gave another4 ,the leaves     
represented in the plates are those of  
the orange-tree1 lemon-tree1            
shaddock-tree1 butcher's-broom1         
walnut-tree1 pear-tree1 laurel1         
lime-tree1 ivy1 medlar1 chestnut-tree1  
maple-tree1 holly1 willow1 white        
hawthorn1 c4    ,i shall take this      
opportunity of inserting here the       
history of the art  of raising trees    
from leaves4 ,the first who made this   
art known was  ,agostino ,mandirola1    
doctor of theology1 an ,italian minorite
 of the  ,franciscan order4 ,in a small 
work upon ,gardening1 which1 as ,i      
think1  was printed for the first time  
at ,vicenza1 in duodecimo1 in the year  
#afeb1 and which was reprinted          
afterwards in various places1 he gave   
an account of his having produced trees 
from the leaves of the cedar-  and      

lemon-tree#dic2 but he does not relate  
this circumstance as if  he considered  
it to be a great discovery4 ,on the     
contrary1 he appears  rather to think it
 a matter of very little importance4    
,his book was  soon translated into     
,german2 and his account copied by other
 writers1  such as ,bckler#did and      
,hohberg#die1 who were at that time much
 read4  ,a gardener of ,augsburg1 as we 
are told by ,agricola1 was the first who
  imitated this experiment1 and proved  
the possibility of it to others4  ,he is
 said to have tried it with good success
 in the garden of count de  ,wratislau1 
ambassador at ,ratisbon from the elector
 of ,bohemia4    ,but never was this    
experiment so often and so successfully 
repeated as  in the garden of baron de  
,munchhausen1 at ,swobber4 ,a young tree
 was  obtained there from a leaf of the 
,limon a ,rivo1 which produced fruit    
the second year4 ,it was sent to ,m4    
,volkamer1 at ,nuremberg1 who caused  a 
drawing to be made from it1 which was   

afterwards engraved1 in order  that it  
might be published in the third volume  
of his ,hesperides2 but  as the author  
died too early1 it was not printed4 ,the
 exact drawing1 as  it was then executed
 at ,nuremberg1 and an account of the   
whole process  employed in the          
experiment at ,swobber1 have been       
published by the baron  de ,munchhausen 
himself1 from authentic papers in his   
grandfather's own  writing#dif4    ,no  
one1 however1 excited so much attention 
to this circumstance as the  well-known 
,george ,andrew ,agricola1 physician at 
,ratisbon1 who1 with  that confidence   
and prolixity which were peculiar to    
him1 ventured  to assert that trees     
could be propagated in the speediest    
manner by  planting the leaves1 after   
being steeped in a liquor which he had  
invented2 and for the truth of his      
assertion he referred to his own        
experiments#dig4 ,among the naturalists 
of that period none took more  trouble  
to examine the possibility of this      

effect than ,thummig#dih1  who          
endeavoured to prove that not only      
leaves with eyes left to them1  could1  
in well-moistened earth1 throw out roots
 which would produce  a stem1 but that  
leaves also without eyes would grow up  
to be trees4  ,baron ,munchhausen1 on   
the other hand1 assures us1 that        
according to the  many experiments made 
in his garden1 one can only expect young
 plants  from the leaves of those trees 
which do not bring forth buds2 that     
experiments made with the leaves of the 
lemon-tree had alone succeeded1  but    
never those made with the leaves of the 
orange- or lime-tree2 and  that         
,agricola and ,thummig had erroneously  
imagined that the leaves  themselves    
shot up into trees1 their middle fibre  
7rachis7 becoming  the stem1 and the    
collateral fibres the branches4 ,but the
 leaf decays  as soon as it has resigned
 all its sap to the young tree1 which is
  springing up below it4    ,to         
conclude3 ,it is probable that the      

well-known multiplication of the        
,indian fig1 or ,opuntia1 gave the first
 idea of this experiment2 for  every    
joint of that plant1 stuck into the     
earth1 and properly nurtured1  throws   
out roots and grows4 ,as these joints   
were commonly considered to  be leaves1 
people tried whether other leaves would 
not grow in the like  manner4 ,luckily1 
those of the lemon-tree were chosen for 
this purpose2  and what was expected    
took place4 ,thus from a false          
hypothesis have new  truths often been  
derived2 and thus was ,kepler1 by a     
false and even  improbable opinion1 led 
to an assertion1 afterwards confirmed1  
that  the periodical revolutions of the 
planets were in proportion to their     
distance from the sun4 ,but the raising 
of trees from leaves was too  rashly    
declared to be a method that might be   
generally employed2 for it  is certain  
that it now seldom succeeds4            
,beckmann certainly overrates the value 
of these plant-skeletons in  assisting  

the acquirement of a knowledge of the   
anatomy of plants4 ,by  macerating      
plants in water1 all but the woody      
fibres are decomposed  by the           
putrefactive fermentation which ensues4 
,from an examination of  these1 a       
knowledge of structure merely is        
attainable1 which may be  now truly said
 to be thoroughly understood4 ,it gives 
us no insight  into its functions4 ,the 
modern microscope has revealed to us the
  structure of all the components of    
vegetable tissues1 and has most         
materially assisted in developing the   
functions of several2 many1  however1   
remain in the hands of the physiologist4
 ,nevertheless1 these  plant-skeletons  
exhibit the true course and arrangement 
of the woody  fibres1 and form most     
beautiful objects4 ,the leaves are not  
the only  parts which can be thus       
prepared2 the petals of many plants are 
even  more delicate and beautiful in    
their ligneous structure1 as evidenced  
in the hydrangea and several others4    

,their preparation is exceedingly       
simple1 but tedious1 and can only be    
well effected by maceration in  water1  
which frequently requires to be         
considerably prolonged4 ,the  pulpy     
half-decomposed portions are gradually  
removed by a camel-hair  pencil1 or     
other means1 with great delicacy and    
care2 they are finally  washed and      
bleached1 if necessary1 with chloride of
 lime or soda4 ,by  washing in          
considerably diluted muriatic acid and  
water1 all traces of  this reagent are  
removed2 they are then dried1 and will  
keep for an  indefinite period4         
,,footnotes    #dgg ,museum ,wormianum4 
,lugd4 ,bat4 #afee1 fol4 p4 #adi4       
#dgh ,the well-known ,sir ,john ,hill1  
an ,englishman1 has proved1 however1  in
 later times1 the possibility of        
injecting a substance into the  vessels 
of plants also4 ,he dissolved sugar of  
lead in water1 suspended  in it bits of 
the finest wood1 so that one-half of    
them was under water  and the other     

above it1 and covered the vessel in     
which they were  placed with an inverted
 glass4 ,at the end of two days he took 
the bits  of wood out1 cut off the parts
 which had been immersed in the water1  
dipped them in a warm lye made of       
unslaked lime and orpiment1 like  what  
was used formerly for proving wine2 and 
by these means the finest  vessels1     
which had been before filled with sugar 
of lead1 acquired  a dark colour1 and   
their apertures became much more        
distinct4 ,this  process he describes   
himself in his work on the ,construction
 of ,timber4    #dgi ,rariora ,natur et 
,artis4 ,breslau and ,leipsic1 #agcg1   
fol4 p4 #dba4    #dhj ,adversariorum    
decas iii4 in ,ruyschii ,opera ,omnia   
,anat4 ,med4    #dha ,a4 ,vateri ,epist4
 ad ,ruyschium de ,musculo ,orbiculari1 
#agbg4 ,of  employing different kinds of
 insects1 particularly the dermestes1   
as they are called1 for reducing animal 
and vegetable bodies to  skeletons1     
,hebenstreit has treated in ,program4 de

 ,vermibus ,anatomicorum  administris4  
,lips4 #agda4 ,figures of the insects   
and of some of their  preparations are  
added4    #dhb ,acta ,eruditorum1 #agbi1
 ,febr4 p4 #fc4    #dhc ,mmoires de     
l',acad4 des ,sciences1 ann4 #agcj1     
#agca1 #agcb4    #dhd ,commerc4 ,litter4
 ,norim4 #agcb1 p4 #gc4    #dhe ,ib4    
#dhf ,phil4 ,transact4 #agcj1 ccccxvi4  
p4 #dda4    #dhg ,ib4 ccccxiv4 p4 #cga4 
#dhh ,ib4 cccclxi4 p4 #ghi1 and         
cccclxiii4 p4 #gif4--;,commerc4 ,litter4
  ,norimb4 #agce1 p4 #cec4    #dhi      
,institutiones ,regni ,vegetabil4 ,in   
the part on ,leaves4    #dij ,programma 
de ,plantarum ,structura4 ,lips4 #agdj1 
#dto1  #e1 #f4    #dia ,dissertat4      
,phys4 de ,vegetabilibus1 printed with  
,linni ,orat4 de  ,necessitate          
,peregrinat4 intra ,patriam4 ,lugd4 ,b4 
#agdc4    #dib ,die ,nahrungs-,gefsse in
 den ,blttern der ,bume4 ,nurnb4 #agdh4 
#dic ,many editions of this book may be 
found mentioned in ,halleri  ,bibl4     
,botan4 i4 p4 #dhd2 ,bhmeri ,bibl4      

,hist4 ,nat4 iii4 p4 #fgi4    #did      
,haus- und ,feld-,schule1 i4 #bf4       
#die ,georgica ,curiosa1 i4 p4 #ghg4    
#dif ,hausvater1 vol4 v4 p4 #ffb4       
#dig ,versuch der ,universal-vermehrung 
aller ,bume4 ,regensb4 #agaf1  fol41 or 
the edition by ,brauser4 ,regensb4      
#aggb4    #dih ,thummigii ,meletemata4  
,brunsw4 #agbg1 #hvo1 p4 #e4            
,,bills ,,of ,,exchange4      ,i shall  
not here repeat what has been collected 
by many learned men  respecting the     
important history of this noble         
invention1 but only  lay before my      
readers an ordinance of the year #acid1 
concerning the  acceptance of bills of  
exchange1 and also two bills of the year
 #adjd1  as they may serve to illustrate
 further what has been before said on   
the subject by others4 ,these documents 
are1 indeed1 more modern than  those    
found by ,raphael de ,turre#dii in the  
writings of the jurist  ,baldus#ejj1    
which are dated ,march #i1 #acbh2 but   
they are attended with  such            

circumstances as sufficiently prove that
 the method of transacting  business by 
bills of exchange was fully established 
so early as the  fourteenth century2 and
 that the present form and terms were   
even then  used4 ,for this important    
information ,i am indebted to ,von      
,martens1  who found it in a ,history1  
written in ,spanish1 of the maritime    
trade  and other branches of commerce at
 ,barcelona1 taken entirely from the    
archives of that city1 and accompanied  
with documents from the same  source1   
which abound with matter highly         
interesting#eja4    ,among these is an  
ordinance issued by the city of         
,barcelona in the year  #acid1 that     
bills of exchange should be accepted    
within twenty-four  hours after they    
were presented2 and that the acceptance 
should be  written on the back of the   
bill#ejb4    ,in the year #adjd1 the    
magistrates of ,bruges1 in ,flanders1   
requested the  magistrates of ,barcelona
 to inform them what was the common     

practice1  in regard to bills of        
exchange1 when the person who presented 
a bill  raised money on it in an unusual
 manner1 in the case of its not being   
paid1 and by these means increased the  
expenses so much that the drawer  would 
not consent to sustain the loss4 ,the   
bill which gave occasion  to this       
question is inserted in the memorial4   
,it is written in the  short form still 
used1 which certainly seems to imply    
great antiquity4  ,it speaks of usance2 
and it appears that first and second    
bills were  at that time drawn1 and that
 when bills were not accepted1 it was   
customary to protest them4    ,it may   
not1 perhaps1 be uninteresting to the   
reader to give a short  account of the  
present mode of conducting transactions 
of bills of  exchange2 this we condense 
from ,waterston's ,encyclopdia of       
,commerce1  which contains the most     
recent and practical account4    ,the   
individual who issues the bill is called
 the drawer1 the person to  whom it is  

addressed the drawee1 until he consent  
to honour the draft  or obey the order  
or bill1 by writing his name on the face
 of it1 after  which he is called the   
acceptor4 ,the bill may be passed from  
hand to  hand by delivery or            
indorsation1 and in the latter case the 
person  who makes over is called the    
indorser1 and the person who receives   
the indorsee4 ,the indorser commonly    
puts his name on the back1 with  or     
without a direction to pay to a         
particular person4 ,he who is in  legal 
possession of the bill and the          
obligation contained in it1 is  called  
the holder or the payee4 ,there is no   
particular form for a bill  of exchange 
required by law1 further than that the  
mandate to pay in  money be distinct1   
and the person who is to pay1 the person
 who is to  receive1 and the time of    
payment shall be ascertainable beyond a 
doubt4  ,by special statute in ,england1
 all bills under #bjs4 are void2 and    
those between that sum and #e must be   

made payable within twenty-one  days    
after date1 contain the name and        
description of the payee1 and  bear date
 at the time of making4 ,bills of       
exchange must be on a proper  stamp4    
,bills1 though they are of the nature of
 a 8chose in action10 which  is not     
strictly assignable1 may be transferred 
from hand to hand or  negociated4 ,to   
allow of this1 there must be negotiable 
words1 as 8or  order0 or 8bearer40 ,the 
various parties upon a bill1 besides the
  acceptors1 indorsers1 drawers and     
others1 become liable for its payment   
on failure of the acceptor4    ,bills of
 exchange cease in ,england to be       
documents of debt on the  expiration of 
six years from the time named for       
payment4    ,in foreign bills1 the term 
8usance0 is sometimes employed to       
express  the period of running in       
foreign bills4 ,it means a certain time 
fixed  by custom1 as between any two    
places4 ,an usance between this kingdom 
and ,rotterdam1 ,hamburg1 ,altona1 or   

,paris1 or any place in ,france1 is  one
 calendar month from the date of the    
bill2 an usance between us  and ,cadiz1 
,madrid or ,bilboa1 two2 an usance      
between us and ,leghorn1  ,genoa1 or    
,venice1 three4      ,,footnotes    #dii
 ,disp4 i4 qust4 #d4 n4 #bc4    #ejj    
,consil4 #cdh4    #eja ,memorias        
,historicas sobre la ,marina ,commercio1
 etc4 de ,barcelona1  por ,d4 ,ant4 de  
,capmany4 ,madrid1 #aggi1 #b vols4 #dto4
 ,the following  important articles will
 be found in this work3--,a custom-house
 tariff1  written in ,latin1 of the year
 #abba1 in which occur a great number of
  remarkable names and articles of      
merchandise not explained4 ,another of  
the like kind1 of the year #abeb4       
,letters of power to appoint consuls in 
distant countries1 such as ,syria1      
,egypt1 c41 dated in the years #abff1   
#abfh1 and #acba4 ,an ordinance of the  
year #adeh1 respecting insurance1  which
 required that under-writing should be  
done in the presence of a  notary1 and  

declared polices o scriptures privades  
to be null and  void4 ,a privilegium of 
the emperor ,andronicus ,,ii4 to the    
merchants of  ,barcelona1 written in    
,greek and ,spanish1 in #abij4 ,account 
of the oldest  ,spanish trade with wool1
 silk1 salt1 and saffron2 and of the    
oldest  guilds or incorporated societies
 of tradesmen at ,barcelona1 c4    #ejb 
,vol4 ii4 p4 #chb4          ,,tin4      
,,tinning4      ,it is generally        
believed that the metal called at       
present tin was  known and employed in  
the arts1 not only in the time of       
,pliny1 but as  early as that of        
,herodotus1 ,homer1 and ,moses4 ,this ,i
 will not venture  to deny2 but ,i can  
only admit that it is probable1 or that 
the great  antiquity of this metal      
cannot be so fully proved as that of    
gold1  silver1 copper1 iron1 lead1 and  
quicksilver4    ,tin is one of those    
minerals which hitherto have been found 
in quantity  only in a few countries1   
none of which ever belonged to the      

,greeks  or the ,romans#ejc1 or were    
visited1 at an early period1 by their   
merchants4 ,as it never occurs in a     
native state#ejd1 the discovery  of it  
supposes some accident more             
extraordinary than that of those  metals
 which are commonly1 or at any rate1    
often found native4 ,i  cannot1 however1
 attach much importance to this         
circumstance1 as the  ancients became   
acquainted with iron at an early period1
 though not so  early as with copper4 ,i
 must also admit that tin might have    
been more  easily discovered1 because it
 is frequently found near the surface of
  the earth2 does not require a strong  
heat or artificial apparatus for  fusing
 it1 and therefore can be more easily   
won than copper4    ,but if tin was     
known so early as has hitherto been     
believed1 it must1  on account of the   
circumstance here first remarked1 have  
been scarce  and therefore exceedingly  
dear4 ,in this manner the aurichalcum or
  ,corinthian brass1 according to the   

expression of ,plautus1 was 8auro       
contra carum40 ,the metal of the        
ancients1 however1 which is believed to 
have been tin1 was not so rare and      
costly4 ,vessels of it are not often    
mentioned1 in general2 but they never   
occur among valuable articles4  ,the    
circumstance also1 that vessels of tin  
have never or very seldom  been found   
among ,greek or ,roman antiquities1 and 
that when discovered  the nature of the 
metal has been very doubtful1 though tin
 is not apt  to change from the action  
of the air1 water1 or earth1 and at any 
rate  far surpasses in durability copper
 and lead1 ancient articles made  of    
which are frequently found1 appears to  
me worthy of attention4 ,it  possesses  
also so many excellent properties1 that 
it might be expected  that the people of
 every age1 to whom it was known1 would 
have employed  it in a great variety of 
ways4 ,it recommends itself by its      
superior  silvery colour2 its ready     
fusion2 the ease with which it can be   

hammered and twisted2 its lightness1 and
 its durability4 ,it is not soon        
tarnished2 it is still less liable to   
rust or to become oxidized2 it  retains 
its splendour a long time1 and when it  
is lost easily recovers  it again4 ,it  
is not so soon attacked by salts as many
 other metals2  and this till lately has
 been considered a proof of its being   
less  pernicious than it possibly may   
be4 ,after an accurate investigation1   
should everything said by the ancients  
of their supposed tin be as  applicable 
to a metallic mixture as to our tin1 my 
assertion1 that it  is probable1 but by 
no means certain1 that the ancients were
 acquainted  with our tin1 will be fully
 justified4    ,the oldest mention of   
this metal1 as generally believed1 is to
 be  found in the sacred scriptures4 ,in
 the book of ,numbers1 chap4 xxxi4  ver4
 #bb1 ,moses seems to name all the      
metals then known2 and1 besides  gold1  
silver1 brass 7properly copper71 iron1  
and lead1 he mentions  also bedil1 which

 all commentators and dictionaries make 
to be  tin4 ,when ,ezekiel1 chap4 xxvii4
 ver4 #ab1 gives an account of the      
commerce of ,tyre1 he names1 among the  
commodities1 silver1 iron1  copper1 and 
bedil4 ,in ,zechariah1 chap4 iv4 ver4   
#aj1 the plummet of  the builder or     
architect is said to be made of the     
bedil stone4 ,in  ,isaiah1 chap4 i4 ver4
 #be1 the word occurs in the plural     
number1 and  appears there to denote    
either scori1 or all those inferior     
metallic  substances which must be      
separated from the noble metals4 ,in the
 old  ,greek versions of these ,hebrew  
books1 bedil is always translated  by   
cassiteros1 except in the passage of    
,isaiah1 where no metal is  mentioned4  
,in ,zechariah1 the translator calls the
 bedil stone    4 ,there can hardly be a
 doubt1 that for the purpose  here      
mentioned1 people would employ1 not the 
lighter metal tin1 but  lead1 and that  
the plummet was called the lead-stone1  
because at first  a stone was used4     

,it seems1 however1 probable that in the
 first-quoted passage bedil  is our tin2
 but must it not appear astonishing that
 the ,midianites1  in the time of       
,moses1 should have possessed this      
metal8 ,is it not  possible that the    
,hebrew word denoted a metallic mixture 
or artificial  metal1 which formerly was
 an article of commerce1 as our brass is
 at  present#eje8    ,the ,greek        
translators considered bedil to be what 
they called  cassiteros2 and as the     
moderns translated this by stannum1     
these  words have thus found their way  
into the ,latin1 ,german1 and other     
versions of the ,hebrew scriptures1     
which therefore can contribute very     
little towards the history of this      
metal4 ,the examination of the word     
cassiteros would be of more importance2 
but before ,i proceed to it1 ,i  shall  
make some observations on what the      
ancients called stannum4    ,this1 at   
present1 is the general name of our tin2
 and from it seem  to be formed the     

estain of the ,french1 the tin of the   
,low ,german  and ,english1 and the zinn
 of the ,high ,german4 ,it can1 however1
 be  fully proved that the stannum of   
the ancients was no peculiar metal2  at 
any rate not our tin1 but rather a      
mixture of two other metals1  which1    
like our brass1 was made into various   
articles and employed  for different    
purposes1 on which account a great trade
 was carried on  with it4 ,this1 at     
least1 may with great certainty be      
concluded from a  well-known passage of 
,pliny#ejf2 though to us1 because we are
 not  fully acquainted with the         
metallurgic operations of the ancients1 
it  is not sufficiently intelligible4   
,what ,i have been able to collect1     
however1 towards illustrating the       
passage1 with the assistance of my      
predecessors1 and by comparing myself   
the account of the ,roman with our      
works1 ,i shall here lay before the     
reader2 and perhaps it may induce       
others to improve and enlarge it4       

,but ,i must first observe1 that there  
can be no doubt that the nigrum  plumbum
 of the ancients was our lead4 ,this    
metal1 according to ,pliny's  account1  
they obtained in two ways4 ,first1 from 
their own lead mines or  lead ore1 which
 immediately on its fusion gave pure or 
saleable lead4  ,to comprehend this1 it 
is necessary to know that most kinds of 
lead ore  contain also silver1 and many 
of them in such quantity that they might
  with more propriety be called silver  
ores1 or rather argentiferous lead  ores
 or plumbiferous silver ores4 ,those    
which contain no silver are so  scarce1 
that ,i am ignorant whether any other   
has yet been found1 except  that of     
,bleyberg1 not far from ,villach1 in    
,carinthia4 ,as ,villach lead1          
according to some experiments made on a 
large scale1 is entirely free  from     
silver1 it is well-known1 and           
particularly useful for assaying4    ,it
 may therefore appear singular that the 
ancients had lead of this  kind in such 

abundance that ,pliny was able to make  
of it a particular  division4 ,but it is
 to be observed1 that in ancient times  
people paid  little attention to a small
 admixture of silver2 and that they were
  accustomed to separate this metal only
 when it was capable1 by the old        
imperfect process of smelting1 to defray
 the expenses1 which certainly  would   
not be the case1 when a quintal of ore  
contained only a few  ounces1 or even a 
pound of silver4 ,strabo says this      
expressly of some  ,spanish ores4 ,such 
poor ores were then used merely for     
lead2 and our  silver refiners1 without 
doubt1 would separate silver with       
considerable  advantage from the lead of
 the ancients4 ,hence has arisen the    
common  opinion1 that lead and also     
copper1 with which some of the oldest   
buildings are covered1 had in the course
 of time become argentiferous4  ,this is
 impossible2 but it is possible for us  
to separate from them the  noble metal1 
which the ancients either could not do1 

or did not think  it worth the trouble  
to attempt4    ,secondly1 the ancients  
obtained1 as we do1 a great deal of lead
 from  argentiferous ores1 from which   
they separated the silver and revived   
the lead4 ,the ore was pounded very     
fine1 or1 as we say1 stamped2 it  was   
then washed and roasted1 and formed into
 a powder or paste4 ,this  was then put 
into the furnace1 and by the first      
fusion gave a regulus  consisting of    
silver and lead1 which was called       
stannum1 and was  the same substance as 
that known to our metallurgists by the  
name  of werk4 ,if it was required to   
separate the silver1 it was again       
fused1 not in the first furnace1 but in 
a particular refining furnace  with a   
hearth of lixiviated ashes4 ,this       
circumstance ,pliny has not  mentioned2 
perhaps it appeared to him unnecessary2 
perhaps he did not  fully understand    
every part of the process2 and were one 
inclined to  say anything in his        
defence1 modern travels and other works 

might be  quoted1 in which metallurgic  
operations are described in a manner no 
less imperfect4 ,the produce obtained by
 the second fusion1 called  in ,german  
treiben or abtreiben1 was silver1 and   
besides that  half-vitrified lead1      
gltte1 which in part falls into the     
hearth4  ,this substance1 called by     
,pliny galena1 a word which denotes also
  molybdna#ejg1 was once more fused or  
revived1 and then gave lead4  ,in this  
manner were obtained three different    
productions1 which were  all used in    
commerce1 namely1 stannum1 argentum and 
galena1 or  revived lead1 plumbum       
nigrum4 ,these ,pliny seems to have     
considered as  component parts of lead  
ore2 but not indeed according to the    
present  signification#ejh4    ,though  
it must be confessed that this passage  
of ,pliny cannot be  fully understood by
 any explanation1 it proves to          
conviction that the  stannum of the     
ancients was neither our tin nor a      
peculiar metal1  but the werk of our    

smelting-houses4 ,this was long ago     
remarked by  those writers who were     
acquainted with metallurgy1 of whom ,i  
shall  here mention ,agricola#eji1      
,encelius#eaj1 ,fallopius#eaa1          
,savot#eab1  ,bernia#eac1 and ,jung#ead4
    ,the ancients used1 as a peculiar   
metal1 a mixture of gold and silver1    
because they were not acquainted with   
the art of separating them1 and         
afterwards gave it the name of electrum4
 ,in the like manner they  employed werk
 or stannum1 which was obtained almost  
in the same  manner in the fusion of    
silver4 ,in all probability it was      
employed  before people became          
acquainted with the art of separating   
these two  metals1 and continued in use 
through habit1 even after a method of   
separating them was discovered4 ,if the 
ore subjected to fusion was  abundant in
 silver1 this mixture approached near to
 the noble metals2  if poor in silver1  
it consisted chiefly of lead4 ,when it  
consisted of  silver and lead only1 it  

was soft and ductile2 but if other      
metals1  difficult of fusion1 such as   
copper1 iron1 or zinc1 were intermixed1 
it  was harder and more brittle1 and in 
that case approached nearer to what  the
 ,german silver refiners call abzug and 
abstrich4    ,that this stannum was     
employed as an article of commerce1 and 
that  the ancients made of it vessels of
 various kinds1 cannot be doubted4  ,the
 vasa stannea however may be considered 
as vessels which were  covered with tin 
only in the inside2 for that this was   
customary ,i  shall prove hereafter4 ,in
 general1 these vasa stannea are named  
where  mention is made of saline or oily
 things1 or such as would readily       
acquire a taste and smell from other    
metals1 were they boiled or  preserved  
in them for any length of time#eae4     
,it has been long ago remarked that most
 of the ,roman vessels were  made of    
copper1 and that these people were      
acquainted with the art of  tinning or  
silvering them2 but that tinned vessels 

have never been  found1 and silvered    
ones very rarely4 ,hence so many things 
appear  to have been made of what is    
called bronze1 which is less liable  to 
acquire that dangerous rust or oxide1   
known under the name of  verdigris1 than
 pure copper4 ,this bronze is sometimes 
given out as  ,corinthian and sometimes 
,syracusan brass1 as the gold-coloured  
coins of  the first size were considered
 to be ,corinthian brass also4 ,but in  
my  opinion1 a great and perhaps the    
greater part of all these things were   
made of stannum1 properly so called1    
which by the admixture of the  noble    
metals1 and some difficult of fusion1   
was rendered fitter for use  than pure  
copper4 ,we are told by ,suetonius1 that
 the emperor ,vitellius  took away all  
the gold and silver from the temples and
 substituted in  their stead aurichalcum
 and stannum#eaf4    ,whether the       
,greeks worked stannum1 and under what  
name1 ,i do not  know3 perhaps we ought 
to class here the  of the oldest  times1

 of which ,i shall speak hereafter4     
,what ,i have already said in regard to 
werk will be rendered more  certain by  
the circumstance1 that even two         
centuries ago1 vessels of  all kinds    
called halbwerk were made of it in      
,germany4 ,this we are  told by         
,encelius#eag as a thing well-known in  
his time1 which however  ,i should wish 
to see further examined4 ,i have        
searched in vain for  this name in a    
great many works of the sixteenth       
century2 but ,i have  long entertained  
an idea1 which ,i shall take this       
opportunity of  mentioning3--,among the 
oldest church vessels ,i have seen some 
articles  which ,i considered to be vasa
 stannea1 ,i mean such as when newly    
scoured and polished had a silvery      
brightness1 and when they remained  long
 without being cleaned acquired a dull  
gray colour1 and a greater  weight than 
bronze4 ,those who show these things    
commonly say that the  method of        
composing the metal is lost2 but that it

 contains silver1 and  according to the 
assertion of many1 even gold4 ,such     
articles deserve1  undoubtedly1 to be   
examined by our chemists4    ,i shall   
further remark1 on this subject1 that   
the abstrich1 as it  is called1 which in
 many respects has a resemblance to     
stannum1 and  contains also lead and    
silver1 but at the same time metals     
difficult  of fusion1 is employed in the
 arts1 and collected for the use of the 
letter-founders#eah4 ,for this purpose  
it is well-adapted1 on account  of its  
hardness and durability2 and in want of 
it lead must be mixed  with regulus of  
antimony4 ,at the ,lower ,harze the     
workmen began so early  as #afhh to     
revive this abstrich in particular2 and 
as the lead thence  obtained1 on account
 of its hardness1 could not be disposed 
of like  common lead1 it was sold to the
 letter-founders at ,brunswick1 at first
  at the rate of a hundred weight for   
two and a half dollars1 and in the  year
 #afhi for three dollars4 ,but in       

,schlter's time a small quantity of  it 
only was made annually1 because the     
abstrich could be used with  more       
advantage for other purposes4 ,this     
lead1 says ,schlter1 had the  appearance
 of bronze1 and was so brittle1 that a  
piece of it broke into  fragments when  
struck#eai4    ,speise also1 which is   
obtained at the blue colour-works1 can  
be  employed in the same manner4 ,under 
this term is understood a metallic      
mixture deposited during the preparation
 of blue glass1 and which is  composed  
of various metals combined with cobalt1 
but particularly  nickel1 iron1 copper1 
arsenic1 and perhaps also bismuth4 ,it  
is hard1  brittle1 sonorous1 and assumes
 a good polish1 though it is not always 
of the same quality in all              
manufactories4 ,as it contains some     
colouring  particles1 it is in general  
again added to the glass residuum4 ,but 
when  ,i lately paid a visit to the     
colour-mill at ,carlshafen1 ,m4         
,birnstein  the inspector told me1 that 

the speise was manufactured at ,halle   
into buttons of every kind4 ,this       
probably is the case there in those     
button-manufactories established by ,g4 
,h4 ,schier1 in which buttons of  all   
patterns are made annually to the value 
of #cj1jjj dollars#ebj4 ,the  ancients1 
in my opinion1 employed in a similar    
manner the werk of  their silver        
smelting-houses4    ,i shall now proceed
 to examine that metal which the ,greeks
 named  1 or1 as ,pliny says1           
,cassiteron1 and which he expressly     
adds was called by the ,latins plumbum  
candidum 7white lead74 ,i have  no new  
hypothesis to recommend2 my sole object 
is truth4 ,i wish for  certainty1 and1  
when that is not to be obtained1        
probability2 at the  same time1 however1
 ,i cannot rest satisfied with the      
judgement given  by the compilers of    
dictionaries1 and the translators and   
commentators  of ancient authors1       
because ,i firmly believe that they     
never made any  researches themselves on

 the subject4    ,that the ancients were
 acquainted with our tin as early as we 
find  the word cassiteros mentioned by  
them1 ,i am not able to prove1 and  ,i  
doubt whether it is possible to do so2  
the contrary seems to me to  be more    
probable4 ,in my opinion1 it was        
impossible for the ,phnicians1  at so   
early a period1 to obtain this metal    
from ,portugal1 ,spain1 and  ,england1  
in such quantity that it could be spread
 all over the old  world4 ,the carriage 
of merchandise was not then so easy4 ,if
 all the  cassiteron was procured from  
the north-west parts of ,europe1 it     
appears to me that it must have been    
much dearer than it seems to have  been 
in the oldest times1 to judge from the  
information that has been  preserved4   
,in my opinion1 the oldest cassiteron   
was nothing else than the  stannum of   
the ,romans1 the werk of our            
smelting-houses1 that is1  a mixture of 
lead1 silver1 and some other accidental 
metals4 ,that this  has not been        

expressly remarked by any ,greek writer1
 is to me not  at all surprising4 ,the  
works of those who might be supposed to 
have  possessed knowledge of this kind  
have not been handed down to us4 ,we    
should not have known what stannum was1 
had not the only passage of  ,pliny     
which informs us been preserved4 ,i am  
as little surprised that  ,herodotus    
should say he did not know where        
cassiteron was obtained4  ,how many     
modern historians are ignorant of the   
place from which zinc1  bismuth1 and    
tombac are brought6 and however easy it 
might be for our  historians to acquire 
knowledge of this kind if they chose1 it
 was  in the same degree difficult for  
,herodotus1 in whose time there were    
not works on mineralogy1 technology1 and
 commerce1 to furnish such  information4
 ,at the period when he lived1          
cassiteron perhaps was  no metallurgic  
production of any neighbouring mines1   
but a foreign  commodity1 a knowledge of
 which1 mercantile people endeavoured in

 those  early ages1 much more than is   
the case in modern times1 to conceal1   
and  which also could be better         
concealed than at present4    ,that real
 tin was afterwards known to the        
,greeks1 ,i readily believe2  but ,i    
find no proof of it1 nor can ,i         
determine the time at which they  first 
became acquainted with this metal4 ,it  
is not improbable that  they considered 
it only as a variety of their old       
cassiteron1 or the  stannum of the      
,romans1 as the latter declared both to 
be a variety of  lead4 ,it might be     
expected that the ,greeks would have    
given a peculiar  name to the new tin1  
in order to distinguish it from the old1
 as the  ,romans really did2 but this   
appears not to have been the case4 ,i   
think1  however1 to have remarked that1 
so early as the time of ,aristotle1 real
  foreign tin was called the ,tyrian or 
,celtic1 because ,tyre undoubtedly  was1
 at that period1 the market for this    
commodity4    ,according to the         

conjectural accounts hitherto given1    
there is no  necessity for believing the
 word cassiteron to be ,phnician or     
,celtic4 ,the ,greeks seem to have used 
it before they had ,phnician tin2  and  
because they afterwards considered the  
,phnician ware as a kind of  their      
cassiteron1 and at the same time heard  
of islands from which it  was brought1  
they named these islands the            
,cassiterian1 as ,herodotus  has done1  
though he expressly says that he did not
 know where they  were situated4 ,this  
ancient historian seems to have         
entertained nearly  the same opinion in 
regard to the origin of the name1 for he
 adds1 8,at  any rate the name ,eridanus
 is not foreign1 but originally         
,greek#eba40  ,it is1 however1 very     
possible that every thing said of these 
islands1  in the time of ,herodotus1 was
 merely a fabrication of the ,greek     
merchants1 none of whom had the least   
knowledge of the ,phnician trade  to    
,england#ebb4 ,in this case the bedil of

 the ,hebrews might be  only stannum1   
and thus would be removed the wonder of 
,michaelis1  how the ,midianites could  
have obtained tin so early#ebc4 ,i will 
not1  however1 deny that the contrary of
 what has been here stated is equally   
possible4 ,the ,greeks might have       
obtained real tin at a very early       
period by trade1 and along with it the  
foreign name1 from which was  formed    
cassiteros4 ,the art of preparing       
stannum may not have been  known among  
them1 and therefore under the cassiteron
 of the ,greeks  we must undoubtedly    
understand tin4 ,in this case one could 
comprehend  why stannum is not mentioned
 in the works of the ,greeks2 and if the
  plumbum album of ,pliny be our tin1 of
 which there can be scarcely  a doubt1  
his testimony that the cassiteron of    
,homer was the same  belongs to this    
place4    ,in regard to the question1   
which opinion seems the most probable1  
,i  will not enter into any dispute2 but
 ,i must maintain that1 in regard to    

the periods of ,homer and ,herodotus1 no
 certainty can be obtained4 ,to  justify
 this assertion1 ,i shall here point out
 everything ,i have found  relating to  
cassiteron1 and1 as far as possible1 in 
the original  words1 quoting the        
different works in the manner in which  
all the words  for dictionaries of      
natural history ought to be arranged4   
,i4 ,vocatur ,latinis plumbum candiduma 
sive albumab1 et ,grcis  jam ,iliacis   
temporibus teste ,homero cassiterona4   
,,ii4 ,miner 7calculi7 coloris nigri1   
quibus eadem gravitas qu auroa4         
,,iii4 ,non nascitur cum argento1 quod  
ex nigro fita4    ,,iv4 ,nascitur summa 
tellure arenosaa2 sed etiam ex profunda 
effoditurh4    ,v4 ,aren ist lavantur a 
metallicis1 conflatque in album plumbum 
resolvuntura4    ,,vi4 ,plumbum candidum
 est pretiosius nigroa4    ,,vii4       
,facile in igne fluit1 ita ut plumbi    
albi experimentum in charta  sit1 ut    
liquefactum pondere videatur1 non calore
 rupisseac4  ,celticum citius quam      

plumbum fluit1 atque adeo in aqua2      
colore  inficit1 qucunque tangatc4      
,,viii4 ,nulli rei sine mixtura utilea4 
,,ix4 ,adulteratur plumbo nigrod4    ,x4
 ,stannum adulteratur addita ris candidi
 tertia portione in plumbum  albuma4    
,,xi4 ,incoquitur ris operibus1         
,galliarum invento1 ita ut vix discerni 
possit ab argento1 eaque incoctilia     
vocanta4    ,,xii4 ,adhibetur ad ocreas 
heroump2 ad thoraces exornandosqr2 ad   
scuta ornandast2 ad speculay4    ,,xiii4
 ,ex eo nummos percussit ,dionysius     
tyrannus ,syrac4uv4    ,,xiv4 ,secum    
jungi nequit sine plumbo nigro1 nec     
plumbum nigrum inter se  jungi potest   
sinealboax4    ,,xv4 ,gignitur in       
,hispaniah2 ,lusitaniaah ,gallciaa1 in  
,iberiakl1 apud ,artabrosh1 in          
,britanniaj3 in insulis qu              
,cassiterides dict sunt ,grcisefhkw1 in 
insula quam ,mictim  vocat ,timus1 et a 
,britannia sex dierum navigatione abesse
 refertg2  in insulis ,hesperidibusmno  
apud ,drangas populos ,persicos         

regionis ,ariani4#ebd    ,to this ,i    
shall add the following illustration4   
,the name cassiteron  is supposed1 in   
general1 to be derived from the         
,phnician or  ,chaldaic#ebe2 but on this
 point ,i am not able to decide4 ,mela1 
where he explains the name of the       
,cassiterian islands1 calls it only     
plumbum1 without the addition of any    
epithet1 unless it has been  lost in    
transcribing4 ,but ,pliny himself       
says#ebf1 8,cassiterides dict  ,grcis a 
fertilitate plumbi40 ,it is possible1   
therefore1 that the  leaden vessels1    
which are often mentioned in the works  
of the ancients1  were in part tin2 but 
,i cannot possibly agree with           
,millin#ebg1 who  makes the cyanos of   
,homer to be tin4 ,this word evidently  
denotes  mountain-green1 or some species
 of stone coloured by it1 which in      
former times1 like the lapis lazuli at  
present1 was employed for making        
various kinds of ornaments4 ,besides1   
cyanos and cassiteros are  mentioned in 

the ,iliad#ebh as two different         
things#ebi4    ,what ,pliny says of the 
colour and weight of those minerals that
  produced tin1 corresponds exceedingly 
well with tin ore1 which1 as is  well   
known1 is among the heaviest of         
minerals1 though the specific  gravity  
of the metal itself is but small4 ,it is
 also true that lead is  seldom found   
without silver2 and tin perhaps has     
never been found with  the latter4 ,what
 we read in regard to the obtaining of  
tin ore1 agrees  very well with our     
washing-works4 ,even at present the     
greater part of  the tin ores are found 
in fragments and washed4    ,the        
smelting of this metal1 even when all   
the rules of art are not  employed1 is  
attended with little difficulty1 though 
,goguet is of a  different opinion4 ,as 
of all metals it melts easiest in the   
fire1 it  requires only a small degree  
of heat and no artificial furnace2 but  
as it is readily calcined1 and after    
repeated reduction loses its            

malleability1 care must be taken that   
the reduced metal can immediately  flow 
off2 and on that account our furnaces   
have an aperture always kept  open4 ,it 
is probable that the ancients1 in their 
small furnaces1 could  easily make a    
similar arrangement4    ,tin at all     
times must have been dearer than lead1  
as the latter was  found in abundance1  
but the former in small quantities4 ,in 
,england at  present tin costs about    
four times as much as lead4 ,at         
,hamburg1 in  #agid1 a pound of ,english
 block tin cost eleven schillings and a 
half1  and tin in bars thirteen         
schillings2 but a hundred pounds of     
,english  lead were worth at that time  
only fourteen marks1 and ,goslar lead   
eleven and a half marks ready money4    
,that tin melts easier than lead is very
 true4 ,according to the latest         
experiments the former fuses at #ddb1   
whereas lead requires #fab of           
,fahrenheit's thermometer4 ,both metals 
can be fused in paper when it  is       

closely wrapped round them4 ,aristotle  
and ,pliny meant to say the  same thing 
of their paper2 and the latter adds that
 the paper1 even  when it became torn1  
was not burnt4 ,what the first says of  
melting in  water1 some have too        
inconsiderately declared to be a fable2 
but it is  not entirely false4 ,tin1    
when mixed with lead and bismuth in     
certain  proportions1 is so fusible that
 it melts in boiling water1 because it  
requires less heat to be fused than     
water does to be brought to a state  of 
ebullition4 ,that the ,celtic tin       
contained a great deal of lead1  appears
 from the observation1 that when rubbed 
it made the fingers  black2 an effect   
which would not have been produced by   
pure tin4    ,that tin in the time of   
,pliny was mixed with lead1 and in      
various  proportions1 we are told by    
himself4 ,at that period a mixture of   
equal parts tin and lead was called     
argentarium2 and that of two  parts lead
 and one part tin1 tertiarium4 ,others  

mixed the latter  composition with an   
equal quantity of tin1 and named the    
mixture also  argentarium1 and this was 
commonly used for tinning4    ,i must1  
however1 acknowledge that the last words
 of ,pliny ,i do not  fully comprehend4 
,they have not indeed been noticed by   
any commentator2  but ,i do not on that 
account believe that ,i am the only     
person to whom  they have been in part  
unintelligible4 ,savot and ,watson#ecj1 
who were  undoubtedly capable of giving 
some decisive opinion on them1 have     
purposely left that part1 which to me   
appears obscure1 untranslated and       
without any explanation4 ,pliny says1   
8,improbiores ad tertiarium additis     
quis partibus albi1 argentarium vocant1 
et eo qu volunt1 incoquunt40  ,he seems 
here to throw out a reproach against    
those who melted together  equal        
quantities of tertiarium and pure tin1  
and then gave it the  name of           
argentarium1 as if it had been of an    
inferior quality to the  argentarium    

first named4 ,but equal quantities of   
tertiarium and  pure tin produced a     
mixture1 in which for one part of lead  
there  were two of tin4 ,how then could 
those who made this mixture be called   
improbiores8 ,to answer this question ,i
 shall venture to give my  conjecture4  
,pliny perhaps meant to say1 that       
tinning properly ought to  be done with 
pure tin1 but that unprincipled artists 
employed for that  purpose tin mixed    
with lead4 ,if this be the true meaning1
 his reproach  was not unfounded4 ,on   
the same account1 because all tin was   
then  adulterated with lead1 ,galen     
gives cautions against the use of tinned
  vessels1 and advises people to        
preserve medicines rather in glass  or  
in golden vessels4 ,but why does ,pliny 
add1 8ideo album nulli rei  sine mixtura
 utile80 ,in using these words1 it is   
possible he may have  alluded1 not to   
tinning1 but to things cast of tin1     
which1 according  to the ideas of that  
time or the nature of the tin1 if of    

that metal  alone1 would be too brittle4
 ,this seems to be said by the preceding
  words1 to which the ideo refers3 8albi
 natura plus aridi habet1  contraque    
nigri tota humida est1 ideo album44440  
,i hope the reader  will forgive me for 
entering so deeply into criticism2 but  
if ,pliny's  valuable work is ever to   
become intelligible1 occasional         
contributions  of this kind must not be 
despised4    ,of the process employed in
 tinning in ancient times1 we have no   
account2 but the words of ,pliny        
incoquere and incoctilia seem  almost to
 denote that it was performed1 as in    
tinning our iron wares1  by immersing   
the vessels in melted tin4 ,it appears  
also to have  been done at an early     
period in a very perfect manner1 both   
because  the tinned articles1 as ,pliny 
says1 could scarcely be distinguished   
from silver1 and because the tinning1 as
 he adds1 with an expression  of wonder1
 did not increase the weight of the     
vessels4 ,the metal1  therefore1 was    

applied so thin that it could make no   
perceptible  addition to the weight4    
,this is the case still1 when the work  
has  been skilfully executed2 and it    
affords a remarkable proof of the       
astonishing divisibility of metal4 ,dr4 
,watson caused a vessel1 the  surface of
 which contained #bed square inches1 and
 which weighed  twenty-six ounces1 to be
 tinned1 and found that the weight was  
increased only half an ounce2           
consequently half an ounce of tin was   
spread over #bed square inches4    ,but1
 notwithstanding all this dexterity1    
which must be allowed to  the ,romans1  
they appear to have employed tinning at 
any rate for  kitchen utensils and      
household furniture very seldom4 ,it is 
scarcely  ever mentioned1 and never     
where one might expect it1 that is to   
say1  in works on cookery and domestic  
conomy1 where the authors give          
directions for preparing and preserving 
salt provisions4 ,when they  speak of   
the choice of vessels1 they merely say  

that new earthen ones  should be        
employed4 ,some of the physicians only  
have had the foresight  to recommend    
tinned vessels4 ,it does not appear     
indeed that the ,romans1  though copper 
vessels were in general use among them1 
employed any  precautions to prevent    
them from being injurious to the health4
 ,pliny  only says that a coating of    
stannum improved the taste of food1 and 
guarded against verdigris4 ,the former  
part is to be thus understood2  that the
 bad taste occasioned by copper was     
prevented2 but he does not  say that the
 health was secured by it4 ,the term    
also incoctilia1  usual in the time of  
,pliny1 is found in his works alone4 ,it
 is likewise  remarkable1 that among the
 numerous vessels found at ,herculaneum1
 as  ,i have already remarked1 the      
greater part of them were of copper or  
stannum1 few of which were silvered1 and
 none tinned4 ,had tinning  been then as
 much used as at present1 some tinned   
vessels must have  been found4    ,i    

shall further remark1 that ,pliny       
ascribes the invention of tinning to    
the ,gauls2 and that he extols in       
particular the work of the ,bituriges1  
the old inhabitants of the province of  
,berry1 and those articles made  at     
,alexia or ,alegia1 which is considered 
to have been ,alise in ,auxois2  that he
 speaks of tinning copper and not iron1 
and that according to  his account not  
only tin was used for that purpose1 but 
also stannum4  ,by the passages already 
quoted1 it is proved that in the time of
 ,homer  cassiteron was employed for    
ornamenting shields and certain kinds of
  dresses2 but the further illustration 
of them ,i shall leave to others4  ,the 
shields perhaps were inlaid with tin2   
and it is not improbable that  threads  
were then made of this metal1 and used  
for embroidering4 ,that  this art was at
 that period known may be readily       
believed1 since the  women of ,lapland  
embroider their dresses1 and            
particularly their fur  cloaks1 in so   

delicate and ingenious a manner1 with   
tin threads drawn  out by themselves1 as
 to excite astonishment#eca4    ,what   
,pliny says is true1 that lead cannot be
 soldered without tin1 or  tin without  
lead4 ,for this operation a mixture of  
both metals1 which  fuses more readily  
than each of them singly1 is employed4  
,instead  of oil1 mentioned by ,pliny1  
workmen use at present in this process  
colophonium1 or some other resin4       
,that vessels were made of cast tin at  
an early period is highly  probable2 but
 ,i do not remember to have seen any of 
them in collections  of antiquities4 ,i 
am acquainted only with two instances of
 their being  found1 both of which      
occurred in ,england4 ,in the beginning 
of the last  century some pieces of tin 
were discovered in ,yorkshire1 together 
with  other ,roman antiquities#ecb2 and 
in #agef some tin vessels of ,roman     
workmanship with ,roman inscriptions    
were dug up in ,cornwall#ecc4    ,i     
shall pass over the history of the tin  

trade of the ,phnicians1 the  ,greeks1  
the ,gauls and the ,romans1 respecting  
which only scanty and  doubtful         
information is to be found in the works 
of the ancients1 but  in those of the   
moderns a greater number of hypotheses4 
,the situation  even of the             
,cassiterides islands cannot with       
certainty be determined1  though it is  
supposed in general1 and not without    
probability1 that  they were the ,scilly
 islands1 which lie at the distance of  
about thirty  miles from the most       
western part of the ,english coast2 that
 is1 the  extremity of ,cornwall1 or1 as
 it is called1 the ,land's ,end4 ,at the
 same  time we must adopt the opinion of
 ,ortelius1 that under that appellation 
were included the coasts of ,cornwall   
and ,devonshire#ecd4 ,to those  who are 
on the ,scilly islands1 ,cornwall1 as   
,borlase remarks1 appears  to be an     
island2 and as it is impossible that the
 ,scilly islands1  which were called    
also ,silures1 could furnish tin        

sufficient for the  ancient trade1      
especially as few and very small traces 
of old works  are observed in them1 it  
is more probable that the greater part  
of  the metal was obtained from         
,cornwall4 ,that the ,phnicians         
themselves  worked mines there1 cannot  
be proved2 it is rather to be supposed  
that  they procured the metal from the  
inhabitants by barter2 but1 on the      
other hand1 there is reason to believe1 
from various antiquities1 that  the     
,romans dug up the ore themselves from  
the mine1 and had works for  extracting 
the metal4    ,the island ,ictis of     
,diodorus ,siculus1 to which the ancient
 ,britons  carried tin1 and from which  
it was conveyed by the ,gallic          
merchants1  is generally considered as  
the ,isle of ,wight2 but ,borlase       
remarks  very properly#ece1 that ,ictis1
 according to the account of the        
ancients1 must have been much nearer to 
the coast of ,cornwall4 ,he  conjectures
 therefore1 and with great probability1 

that this word was  the general         
appellation of a peninsula1 or bay1 or a
 place of dept for  merchandise#ecf4 ,if
 the ,mictis of ,timus and the ,vectis  
of ,pliny are  not this island ,ictis1  
it will be difficult to find them4 ,it  
is very  singular1 that ,dionysius1 a   
later writer1 and his follower          
,priscian1  and ,avienus1 call the      
,cassiterides islands the               
,hesperides#ecg4    ,that the ,drangians
 had tin mines appears to me highly     
improbable2  ,strabo is the only writer 
who says so1 in a few words2 and nothing
 of  the kind is to be found in any     
other author4 ,if ,drangiana be         
considered  as a part of ,persia1 to    
which that district belongs at present1 
it is  stated by all modern travellers  
that tin is not to be found anywhere in 
the ,persian empire#ech4 ,if we reckon  
it a part of ,india1 ,pliny asserts     
that no tin-works were then known in    
that country4 ,in his time1 this  metal 
was sent thither as an article of       

commerce1 and was purchased  with       
precious stones and pearls4 ,this last  
circumstance has by some  been          
considered as a proof of the high price 
of the metal at that  period2 but he    
says nothing further than that tin was  
among the imports  of ,india at that    
time1 and that jewels and pearls formed 
a part of the  exports4 ,it may be said 
that the inhabitants of the ,spanish    
colonies  in ,america gave their silver 
for our linen1 but we cannot thence     
prove  that it bears a high price4      
,that the word stannum1 in the time of  
,pliny1 did not signify tin but  a      
compounded metal1 is as certain as that 
in later times it became the  common    
name of tin4 ,hence arises the question1
 ,since what time has our  tin been     
known under the appellation of stannum8 
,this question1 as far as ,i know1 has  
never yet been examined2 and this1  ,i  
hope1 will be a sufficient excuse if ,i 
should not be able to give an  answer   
completely satisfactory4 ,the first     

author in whom ,i find the  ,greek word 
cassiteros translated by stannum is     
,avienus1 in the free  translation of   
,dionysius2 who1 as proved by           
,wernsdorf1 lived about the  middle of  
the fourth century4 ,the next who       
translates the ,greek word in  the same 
manner1 is ,priscian2 who1 according to 
the grounds alleged by  ,wernsdorf1 must
 have lived in the beginning of the     
sixth century4    ,from what ,i already 
know1 ,i suspect that the long and      
improper name  plumbum candidum began in
 the fourth century to be exchanged  for
 stannum2 and it is probable that1 at   
that time1 tin was so  abundant that it 
banished the old stannum1 to which it   
might have  a resemblance4 ,in later    
centuries1 then1 stannum always         
signified  tin2 and in the middle ages  
various words were arbitrarily formed   
from  it which do not occur in the      
,latin authors4 ,the stannea tecta1 or  
roof of the church at ,agen1 on the     
,garonne1 in ,guienne1 described by  the

 ecclesiastical poet ,fortunatus#eci1   
about the end of the sixth  century1    
consisted undoubtedly of tinned plates  
of copper4 ,stagnare  occurs often for  
tinning1 as stagnator does for a        
tin-founder4 ,in  the thirteenth        
century1 ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england gave 
as a present a  stagnarium or a         
stannaria1 a tin mine or tin work1 or as
 others  say1 fodina stanni4 ,in the    
fourteenth century1 there was in        
,england1  under ,edward ,,iii41 a      
stannaria curia2 and in the same        
century1  besides various other         
ornaments1 lunul stanneat were forbidden
 to  the clergy4 ,in a catalogue of the 
year #acgi1 the following articles      
occur3 8tria parva stanna modici valoris
 444 item unum stannum parvum  444 item 
duo magna stanna#edj40    ,in regard to 
the tin trade of the ,spaniards1 ,i can 
unfortunately say  nothing3 the         
tin-works in ,spain1 we are told1 were  
abandoned under the  government of the  
,moors4 ,england1 as is generally       

asserted1 enjoyed an  exclusive trade in
 this metal till the thirteenth century1
 when the  tin mines were discovered and
 worked in ,bohemia4 ,but the exact time
  when this took place ,i am not able to
 determine4 ,the ,bohemian works1 in    
all probability1 are older than the     
,saxon2 but it is still more certain    
that the account given by ,hagec1 that  
they were known so early as the  year   
#gih1 is entirely void of               
foundation#eda4    ,when the ,english   
writers#edb treat on the history of this
 metal1 they  seldom fail to repeat what
 has been said on the subject by        
,matthew  ,paris4 ,this ,benedictine    
monk1 who was by birth an ,englishman1  
and  died in #abei1 relates1 in his     
,history of ,england1 that a            
,cornish-man  having fled to ,germany1  
on account of a murder1 first discovered
 tin  there in the year #abda4 ,he adds1
 that the ,germans soon after furnished 
this metal at so cheap a rate1 that they
 could sell it in ,england1  on which   

the price there fell1 very much to the  
loss of ,richard ,earl  of ,cornwall1 so
 well known by his having been elected  
king of the  ,romans#edc4 ,since        
,matthew relates this as an event which 
took place  in his time1 it would       
perhaps be improper to doubt it2 but it 
still  appears strange that no mention  
is to be found of this circumstance in  
the ,bohemian or ,german ,annals4       
,gmelin also must not have met with any 
account of it1 else he would have       
announced it4 ,peithner likewise is     
silent respecting it3 on the contrary1  
he says that the tin mines in  the      
neighbourhood of the town of ,grauppen  
were discovered as early as  the year   
#aadf1 by a peasant named ,wnadec1      
belonging to the village of  ,chodicze4 
,of the antiquity of the ,saxon mines ,i
 can give no account3  had any          
information on that subject existed1 it 
would certainly have  been noticed by   
,gmelin4    ,brusch1 who was murdered by
 two noblemen in #aeei1 seems to place  

the discovery of the tin mines at       
,schlackenwalde1 which he says  are     
younger than those of ,schnfeld1 in the 
thirteenth or twelfth  century#edd4     
,albertus ,magnus1 who died in #abhj1   
says that in his time  a great deal of  
tin was dug up in various parts of      
,germany4 ,at present  the principal tin
 works are at ,geyer1 ,ehrenfriedersdorf
 and ,altenberg4    ,the art of tinning 
plate-iron was invented either in       
,bohemia or  ,germany1 and introduced at
 a later period into ,england1 ,france1 
and  other countries4 ,but as the whole 
history of the ,german mines is  very   
defective and uncertain1 the period when
 this useful and highly  profitable     
branch of business was begun is not     
known4 ,yarranton1 an  ,english writer1 
of whom ,i shall speak more hereafter1  
relates that  the first tinning of this 
kind was made in ,bohemia2 that a       
,catholic  clergyman1 who embraced the  
,lutheran religion1 brought the art1    
about  the year #afbj1 to ,saxony1 and  

that since that time all ,europe has    
been  furnished with tin-plate from     
,germany4    ,this much1 however1 is    
certain1 that the tinning of iron is    
more  modern than the tinning of copper4
 ,the first articles made by the        
bottle-makers were flasks of copper     
tinned1 which in old times were  used in
 war and on journeys1 like the stagnone1
 still employed in  ,spain and          
,portugal1 in which all kinds of        
distilled waters are sent  from         
,malta#ede4    ,among the ,english1 who 
formerly had a monopoly of the tin      
trade1 and  who still possess the best  
and richest tin mines1 the introduction 
of  this art of employing their native  
production did not at first succeed2    
and this circumstance afforded ,becher a
 subject for raillery#edf4 ,but  about  
the year #afgj1 a company sent to       
,saxony1 at their expense1 an  ingenious
 man named ,andrew ,yarranton1 in order 
to learn the process of  tinning4       
,having acquired there the necessary    

knowledge1 he returned to  ,england with
 some ,german workmen1 and manufactured 
tin-plate1 which  met with general      
approbation4 ,before the company1       
however1 could carry  on business on an 
extensive scale1 a man of some          
distinction1 having  made himself       
acquainted with ,yarranton's process1   
obtained a patent  for this art2 and the
 first undertakers were obliged to give 
up their  enterprise1 which had cost    
them a great deal of money1 and yet no  
use  was made of the patent which had   
been obtained#edg4    ,about the year   
#agbj1 which1 on account of the many new
 schemes and  the deceptive trade       
carried on in consequence of them1 will 
ever be  memorable in the history of    
,english folly1 among the many bubbles1 
as  they were then called1 was an       
establishment for making tin-plate2 and 
this was one of the few speculations of 
that period which were attended  with   
advantage4 ,the first manufactory of    
this kind was established in            

,monmouthshire1 perhaps at the village  
of ,pontypool1 where tin-plate was  at  
any rate made so early as #agcjedh4 ,in 
,france1 the first experiment  to       
introduce this branch of manufacture was
 made under ,colbert1 who  procured     
workmen1 some of whom were established  
at ,chenesey1 in  ,franche-,comt1 and   
others at ,beaumont-la-,ferriere in the 
,nivernois4  ,but the want of skill and 
proper support rendered this expensive  
undertaking fruitless4 ,some            
manufactories1 however1 were brought to 
be  productive in the last century2 the 
oldest of which was established at      
,mansvaux in ,alsace1 in the year #agbf4
 ,this was followed1 in #agcc1 by       
another at ,bain in ,lorraine1 which    
obtained its privilege from ,duke       
,francis ,,iii41 and this was confirmed 
by ,stanislaus in #agdeedi4    ,that    
tin1 in modern times1 has been brought  
from the ,east ,indies to  ,europe is   
well-known2 but ,i have never been so   
fortunate as to discover  when this     

trade began4 ,it is1 however1 known1    
that at the commencement  of the        
sixteenth century a good deal of        
information had been obtained  in       
,europe in regard to ,east ,indian tin4 
,louis ,barthema1 who was  then in      
,india1 speaks of ,malacca tin#eej1 as  
does also ,f4 ,mendez  ,pinto1 who was  
there in #aecg1 and ,odoard ,barbosa    
mentions that which  was carried from   
,caranguor to ,malacca4 ,barbosa wrote  
in #aeafeea4  ,munster1 ,mercator1 and  
other old geographers relate1 that      
before the  establishment of the        
,portuguese dominion in ,india1 large   
tin coins were  in circulation in the   
island of ,sumatra4    ,the greater part
 of the ,east-,indian tin comes from    
,siam1 ,malacca1  and ,banca4 ,in the   
last-mentioned place1 which is an island
 near the  south-east coast of ,sumatra1
 the mines are said to have been        
discovered  in #agaa4 ,in #aggf there   
were ten pits1 which were worked by     
,chinese1 on  account of the king of    

,palimbang4 ,one hundred and twenty-five
 pounds  cost him only five rix dollars2
 and for this quantity he received from 
the ,dutch ,east-,india company1 to     
whose government he was subject1 from   
thirteen to fifteen dollars4 ,the       
greater part went to ,china1 or was     
used in ,india2 but in the year #aggh   
the company sent #gjj1jjj pounds to     
,europe1 which was sold at the rate of a
 hundred pounds for forty-two  florins4 
,malacca furnishes yearly about three or
 four hundred thousand  pounds2 but the 
principal part of it remains in ,india4 
,in the year #aggh  the company sold    
#ajj1jjj pounds in ,amsterdam4 ,a great 
deal of tin is  sold also in its factory
 at ,siam4 ,all the tin sold by it at   
,amsterdam  between the years #agge and 
#aggi amounted to #b1dba1eig pounds4    
,tin occurs native in two forms1 as     
peroxide and as sulphuret of tin  and   
copper4 ,the last is rare2 the former   
constitutes the great source  of tin1   
and in its native state mixed with      

arsenic1 copper1 zinc and  tungsten1 is 
called tin-stone2 but when occurring in 
rounded masses1  grains1 or sand in     
alluvial soil1 is called stream-tin4    
,the metal  reduced from the tin-stone  
forms block-tin2 whilst that from the   
stream-tin1 and which is the purest1 is 
called grain-tin4    ,the annual produce
 of the tin mines and works of ,cornwall
 is  estimated at #djjj tons1 worth from
 #fe to #hj a ton4 ,about #cj1jjj  cwt4 
of unwrought tin are annually exported  
from ,britain1 chiefly  to ,france1     
,italy and ,russia2 which is1 exclusive 
of tin and pewter  wares and tin-plates1
 in declared value nearly #djj1jjj1 sent
 to the  ,united ,states1 ,italy1       
,germany1 ,france1 the colonies1 c4     
,moreover1  from #aj1jjj to #cj1jjj cwt4
 of ,banca and ,malay tin are imported  
for  re-exportation to the continent and
 the ,united ,states4    ,an important  
enamel has lately been patented for     
lining the interior of  cast iron       
vessels and utensils used in cooking1   

chemical operations1  c41 which will    
probably replace tinned articles in a   
great degree4  ,to apply the process1   
the vessels are cleansed with weak      
sulphuric  acid1 then washed and dipped 
into a thin paste made with quartz first
  melted with borax1 felspar and clay   
free from iron1 then reduced to an      
impalpable powder1 and sufficient water 
added to form thinnish paste4  ,the     
vessels are then powdered inside with a 
linen bag1 containing a  very finely    
powdered mixture of felspar1 carbonate  
of soda1 borax1 and  a little oxide of  
tin4 ,the articles are then dried and   
heated in an  enamelling furnace4 ,the  
coating is very white1 bears the action 
of fire  without cracking1 and          
completely resists acid or alkaline     
solutions4      ,,footnotes    #ejc     
,tin-stone however occurs in ,spain and 
,portugal2 and ,watson1 in  his         
,chemical ,essays1 states that ,spain   
furnished the ancients with             
considerable quantities of tin4    #ejd 

,native tin never1 or at any rate1 very 
rarely occurs4 ,in the  year #agfe a    
piece was supposed to be found1 of which
 an account may  be seen in the ,phil4  
,trans4 vol4 lvi4 p4 #ce1 and vol4 lix4 
p4 #dg4 ,but  the truth of this was     
denied by most mineralogists1 such for  
example  as ,jars in ,mmoires de        
l',acad4  ,paris1 anne #aggj1 p4 #edj4  
,soon after  the above-mentioned piece  
of tin was found in ,cornwall1 some     
dealers  in minerals sold similar pieces
 to amateurs at a very dear rate2 but   
all these had been taken from           
roasting-places1 where the tin exudes2  
and very often what is supposed to be   
tin is only exuded bismuth1 as is       
proved by some specimens in my          
collection4    ,i shall here observe1   
that it may not be improper1 in the     
history of  tin1 to show that it was    
believed more than two hundred years ago
 that  this metal was found in a native 
state4    #eje ,having requested        
,professor ,tychsen1 to whose profound  

knowledge  of ,oriental history1        
languages1 and literature ,i have been  
already  indebted for much assistance1  
to point out the grounds on which bedil 
is considered to be our tin1 ,i received
 the following answer1 with  permission 
to insert it in this place4    8,bedil1 
1 according to the most probable        
derivation1  means the separated4 ,it   
may therefore1 consistent with          
etymology1 be  what ,pliny calls        
stannum1 not tin1 but lead from which   
the silver has  not been sufficiently   
separated4 ,the passage in ,isaiah1     
chap4 i4 ver4  #be1 appears to afford a 
confirmation1 because the word there is 
put in  the plural1 equivalent to scori1
 as something separated by fusion4      
8,others derive bedil from the meaning  
of the ,arabic word  badal1  that is1   
substitutum1 succedaneum4 ,in this case 
indeed it might  mean tin1 which may be 
readily confounded with silver4    8,the
 questions1 why bedil has been          
translated tin1 and how old this        

explanation may be1 are answered by     
another3 ,is  tin8 ,if  this be         
admitted1 the explanation is as old as  
the ,greek version of  the seventy      
interpreters1 who in most passages1     
,ezekiel1 chap4 xxii4  ver4 #ah and #bj1
 and chap4 xxvii4 ver4 #ab1 express it  
by the word  4 ,in the last-mentioned   
passage1 tin and iron have exchanged    
places4 ,the ,targumists also call it   
tin2 and some1 with the ,samaritan      
translation1 use the ,greek word1 but   
corrupted into kasteron1  kastira4 ,it  
is also the usual ,jewish explanation1  
that bedil means  tin1 as oferet does   
lead4    8,in the oldest passage1       
however1 where bedil occurs1 that is in 
,numbers1 chap4 xxxi4 ver4 #bb1 the     
,seventy translate it by 1  lead1 and   
the ,vulgate by plumbum1 and vice vers1 
the ,seventy for  oferet put 1 and the  
,vulgate stannum4 ,this1 as the  oldest 
explanation which the ,latin translator 
found already in the  ,septuagint1 is   
particularly worthy of notice4          

,according to it1 one  might take 1 1   
stannum1 for the stannum of ,pliny1 lead
  with silver2 the gradation of the     
metals still remains2 the   of the      
,seventy may be tin or real lead4 ,it   
may have denoted tin and  lead together1
 and perhaps the ,seventy placed here 1 
in  order that they might have one metal
 more for the ,hebrew oferet4 ,but  from
 this explanation it would follow that  
,moses was not acquainted  with tin4    
8,the ,east has still another name for  
lead and tin1 1 anac1 which  occurs only
 in ,amos1 chap4 vii4 ver4 #g and #h1   
but is abundant in the  ,syriac1        
,chaldaic1 and ,armenian1 and           
comprehends plumbum1 nigrum1  and       
candidum4    8,in the ,persian tin is   
named kalai1 ress1 arziz1 which are all 
of ,arabic1 or1 like kalai1 of ,turkish 
extraction4 ,none of these have  any    
affinity to  and bedil4    8,as tin is  
brought from ,india1 it occurred to me  
whether the oldest  name1 like tombak1  
might not be ,malayan4 ,but in the      

,malayan1 tima  is the name for tin and 
lead4 ,relandi ,dissertat4 ,miscell4    
iii4 p4 #fe4  ,it would indeed be in    
vain to look for ,asiatic etymologies in
 regard to  1 since1 according to the   
express assertion of ,herodotus1  the   
,greeks did not procure tin from ,asia1 
but from the ,cassiterides  islands4    
,the name may be ,phnician2 and though  
,bochart has not ventured  to give any  
etymology of it1 one1 in case of        
necessity1 might have been  found       
equally probable as that which he has   
given of ,britannia4 ,but  it appears to
 me more probable that the word is of   
,celtic extraction1  because similar    
names are found in ,britain1 such as    
,cassi1 an old  ,british family2        
,cassivelaunus1 a ,british leader       
opposed to ,csar2  ,cassibelanus1 in all
 probability1 the same name in the time 
of  ,claudius4 ,cassi-ter1 with the     
,greek termination 1 seems to be  a     
,celtic compound1 the meaning of which  
might perhaps be found in  ,pelletier1  

,bullet1 c40    #ejf ,plin4 lib4 xxxiv4 
cap4 #af1  #dg1 p4 #ffi4    #ejg ,the   
last meaning is found in ,pliny1 xxxiii4
 #f1  #ca1 and xxxiv4  #ah1             
#ec3--8;,est et molybdna1 quam alio loco
 galenam vocavimus1  vena argenti       
plumbique communis4 ,adhrescit et auri  
et argenti  fornacibus2 et hanc         
metallicam vocant40 ,here then there are
 both the  significations1 first        
bleyglanz1 secondly ofenbruch4 ,the name
  galena seems to have been borrowed    
from foreign metallurgic works1  perhaps
 from the ,spanish1 as was conjectured  
by ,agricola in ,bermannus1  p4 #dcd4   
,this1 at any rate1 is more probable    
than the derivation of  ,vossius from 1 
splendere1 especially as the ,greeks    
have not  the word galena4    #ejh ,i   
explain the passage in this manner1 but 
,i acknowledge that  difficulties still 
remain4 ,i have however thought that it 
might perhaps  be thus understood2 that 
in the process of fusion1 as then used1 
the  galena formed the third part of the

 weight of the ore or paste1 and  lead a
 third part of the galena2 though ,i    
doubt whether the products  of metallic 
works were then so accurately weighed4  
,i shall leave the  reader to determine 
whether the two explanations of ,savot  
are better4  ,he supposes either that   
,pliny gives three ways of obtaining    
lead1  namely1 from lead ore1           
argentiferous ore1 and galena2 or that  
he says  that silver forms a third1 lead
 a third1 and slag the remaining third4 
,but if the first opinion be correct1   
why did ,pliny say 8,plumbi origo       
duplex80    #eji ,bermannus1 pp4 #dej1  
#dhe4    #eaj ,de ,re ,metallica1 lib4  
iii4 ,franc4 7#aeea71 #hvo4    #eaa ,de 
,metallis1 cap4 #bb4 ,franc4 #afjf1 fol4
 i4 p4 #cbb4    #eab ,discours sur les  
mdailles antiques par ,louis ,savot4    
,paris1 #afbg1  #dto1 ii4 #b1 p4 #dh4   
,this work contains valuable information
 in regard to  the mineralogy of the    
ancients4    #eac ,in ,aldrovandi ,musum
 ,metallicum4 ,bonon4 #afdh1 fol4 p4    

#aha4    #ead ,j4 ,jungii ,doxoscopia1  
,hamb4 #affb1 cap4 #e1 de metalli       
speciebus4    #eae ,i shall here point  
out a few passages where such vessels   
are mentioned4 ,dioscorides1 ii4 #hd1 p4
 #aji4--,plin4 xxix4 #b1  #bj2  xxx4 #e1
  #ab1 and xxx4 #g1  #ai4--;,columella1 
xii4 #da4--,vegetius1 i4                
#af4--,scribonius ,largus ,composit4    
,med4 ,patavii1 #afee1 #dto1  #bcj4     
#eaf ,sueton4 ,vitell4 #f1 p4 #aib2     
where it is said tin1 which was of a    
white colour1 was to serve instead of   
silver4    #eag ,in the work already    
quoted1 i4 cap4 #cb1 p4 #fd3 8,vides    
stannum  ,plinio esse quiddam de plumbo 
nigro1 nempe primum fluorem plumbi      
nigri20 so that when our lead ore is    
fused1 the first part that flows  would 
be the stannum of ,pliny4 8,et hoc docet
 ,plinius adulterari  plumbo candido20  
with our tin1 and properly considered   
the stannum of  ,pliny is merely our    
halbwerk1 of which those cans called    
halbwerk  are made4    ,entzel deserves 

that ,i should here revive the          
remembrance of him4 ,he  was a native of
 ,salfeld2 preacher1 pastor             
,osterhusensis1 and a friend  of        
,melancthon1 who recommended the book   
for publication to ,egenholf1 a         
bookseller of ,frankfort1 in a letter   
dated #aeea1 in which year it was  first
 printed4 ,it was reprinted at the same 
place in #aeeg1 and at ,basle  in #aeee1
 #hvo4    #eah ,the ,french             
letter-founders take four-fifths of lead
 and one-fifth  regulus of antimony2    
those of ,berlin use eleven pounds of   
antimony1  twenty-five of lead1 and five
 of iron4 ,many add also tin1 copper1   
and  brass4 ,those of ,england use three
 parts of lead and one of antimony4     
#eai ,von ,hutten-werken1 p4 #cgf4      
#ebj ,a good account of this manufactory
 may be found in the ,journal  fr       
,fabrik1 ,manufact4 ,handlung und ,mode1
 #agic4 ,we are told there that  the    
buttons were made of a composition which
 had a white silver-like  colour1 and   

was susceptible of a fine polish4 ,this 
was probably some  alloy of nickel1 one 
of the principal constituents of ,german
 silver4    #eba ,lib4 iii4 p4 #bed4    
#ebb ,that the merchants1 in the oldest 
periods1 endeavoured by false           
information to conceal the sources of   
their trade1 might be proved by  various
 instances4    #ebc ,supplementa in     
,lexica ,hebraica p4 #aea4    #ebd ,the 
authors here quoted1 corresponding to   
the above letters1 are  as follows3--   
a ,plinius1 xxxiv4 #af1 p4 #ffh4      b 
,csar ,de ,bello ,gallico1 v4 #ab4      
c ,aristot4 ,auscult4 ,mirab4 cap4 #ea1 
p4 #ajj4      d ,galenus ,de ,antidot4  
i4 #h4 p4 #bji4 ed4 gr4 ,basil4 vol4 ii4
 p4 #dca4      e ,plin4 iv4 #bb4 p4     
#fcj4      f ,herodot4 lib4 iii4 p4     
#bed4 edit4 ,wess4      g ,plin4 iv4    
#af1 p4 #bbc4      h ,strabo1 lib4 iii4 
p4 #bai4 ed4 ,almel4      i ,strabo1    
lib4 xv4 p4 #ajee4      j ,diodor4 ,sic4
 lib4 v4 p4 #cdg4 ed4 ,wess4      k     
,diod4 ,sic4 lib4 v4 p4 #cfa4      l    

,stephan4 ,byzant4 v4 ,tartessus1 p4    
#fci4      m ,dionys4 ,periegesis1 v4   
#efc4      n ,prisciani ,perieg4 v4     
#ege4      o ,avienus ,descript4 ,urbis1
 v4 #gdc4      p ,homeri ,iliad4 xviii4 
#fab4      q ,iliad4 xi4 #be4      r    
,iliad4 xxiii4 #efa4      s ,iliad4     
xviii4 #efe1 #egd4      t ,hesiod4      
,scut4 ,herculis1 v4 #bjh4      u       
,aristot4 conom4 lib4 ii4 p4 #eid4      
v ,pollux ,onomast4 p4 #ajee4      w    
,pomp4 ,mela1 iii4 #f1 #bd1 p4 #bge4    
x ,plin4 xxxiii4 #e1 p4 #fba4      y    
,plin4 xxxiv4 #ag1  #dh1 p4 #ffi2 and   
lib4 xxxiii4  #de3 ,optima              
specula apud majores fuerant            
,brundisiana stanno et re        mixtis4
 ,from a similar mixture the best       
metallic specula are        cast at     
present4    #ebe ,borlase's ,antiquities
 of ,cornwall4 ,ox4 #aged1 fol4 p4 #bi4 
#ebf ,lib4 iv4 cap4 #bb1 p4 #bcj4       
#ebg ,minralogie ,homerique1 ,par4      
#agij1 #hvo4 ,a small treatise much     
esteemed4    #ebh ,lib4 xi4 #bd1 #be4   

#ebi ,see what ,i have already said1    
vol4 i4 p4 #dgb4    #ecj ,savot1 p4     
#ec4--,watson's ,chemical ,essays1 iv4  
p4 #ahg4    #eca ,schefferi ,lapponia1  
,francof4 #afgc1 #dto1 pp4 #baj1 #bfa1  
where a  figure is given of a ,lapland  
woman drawing threads4    #ecb ,phil4   
,trans4 #agjb1 #agjc1 vol4 xxiii4 p4    
#aabi4    #ecc ,phil4 ,trans4 #agei1    
vol4 li4 p4 #ac1 where figures of the   
vessels  are given4 ,whitaker's ,hist4  
of ,manchester1 i4 p4 #cjf4    #ecd     
,borlase's ,cornwall1 p4 #cj2 and his   
,observations on the ,islands of        
,scilly4 ,oxf4 #agef1 #dto4    #ece     
,natural ,hist4 of ,cornwall1 p4 #agg4  
#ecf ,in the ,antiquities of ,cornwall1 
p4 #cid3 ,ik1 yk1 ick1 a  common        
termination of creeks in ,cornwall1 as  
,pordinik1 ,pradnik4    #ecg ,dionysii  
,orbis ,descriptio4 ,londini1 #afgi1    
#hvo1 p4 #bbj1 where  ,hill's           
observations deserve to be read4    #ech
 ,voyages de ,chardin4 ,rouen1 #agbc1   
#abmo1 iv4 #fe1 where it is  expressly  

said that ,persia has no tin1 but that  
it obtains it from  ,india4 ,the same   
thing is confirmed by ,tavernier4       
#eci ,fortunati ,opera4 ,rom1 #aghf1    
#dto1 i4 p4 #ad1 lib4 i4 cap4 #h4       
#edj ,proofs may be found in ,dufresne4 
#eda ,wencesl4 ,hagec ,bhmische         
,chronik4 ,nrnb4 #afig1 fol4 p4 #ec4    
#edb ,for example1 ,borlase in ,natur4  
,hist4--,speed's ,theatre of ,great     
,britain4--,camden's                    
,britannia4--,anderson's ,hist4 of      
,commerce1 c4    #edc ,this metal1      
however1 must have remained long dear2  
for it is  remarked in the ,archologia1 
vol4 iii4 p4 #aed1 from an expense-book 
of the ,earls of ,northumberland1 that  
vessels of tin1 about the year  #aejj1  
in consequence of their dearness1 had   
not become common4 ,this is  confirmed  
also by a regulation respecting the     
household of ,henry ,,viii41  printed   
also in the ,archologia1 where it is    
said1 8,officers of the  squillery to   
see all the vessels1 as well silver as  

pewter1 be kept and  saved from         
stealing40    #edd ,c4 ,bruschii        
redivivi ,beschreib4 des ,fichtelberges4
 ,nrnb4 #afhc4    #ede ,see             
,gegenwrtiger ,staat von ,england1      
,portugal1 und ,spanien 7by  ,theodore  
,king of ,corsica71 ii4 p4 #be4    #edf 
,narrisch ,weisheit1 p4 #ea4    #edg    
,yarranton's ,england's ,improvement by 
,sea and ,land1 #afih4    #edh ,watson's
 ,chem4 ,essays1 iv4 p4                 
#bjc4--;,anderson's ,commerce4    #edi  
,this is related by ,diderot in his     
article ,fer-blanc in the  ,encyclopdie4
 ,that the ,fer-blanc of the ,french is 
tin plate every  one knows2 but what are
 we to understand by ferrum candidum1 a 
hundred talents of which were given as a
 present to ,alexander in ,india8  ,no  
commentator has noticed this            
appellation4 ,in the index1 however1  to
 ,snakenburg's ,curtius1 ,i find the    
conjecture that it may mean the  ferrum 
,indicum1 which1 lib4 xvi4  #g4 ff de   
,publicanis1 or ,digest4  xxxix4 #d1    

#af1 #g1 is named among the articles    
liable to pay duty2 but  some editions  
in this passage have ebenum ,indicum4   
,the reader is  referred also to ,photii
 ,biblioth4 p4 #ade1 where ,ctesias     
relates a fable  in regard to ,indian   
iron4 ,pliny1 xxxiv4 #ad1 p4 #ffg1      
mentions ferrum  ,sericum1 which in his 
time was considered as the best2 but    
still it  may be asked1 why is the      
epithet white applied in particular to  
the  ,indian iron8 ,compare ,aristot4 de
 ,mirab4 ,auscult4 pp4 #if1 #dbf4       
#eej ,ramusio1 fol4 i4 p4 #aff4 c4      
#eea ,ib4 i4 p4 m4 #cag4 d4             
,,sowing-,,machines4      ,that under   
the terms sowing-machine1 semoir1       
drill-plough1 macchine  per seminare1   
are understood implements by which the  
seeds of those  plants cultivated on a  
large scale1 and particularly the       
different  species of corn1 can be      
regularly deposited in the earth1 and at
 any  distance from each other1 at      
pleasure1 is at present generally known4

  ,the principal part of the machine    
consists of a box1 having within it  a  
cylinder furnished with cogs1 which     
forms the axes of two wheels1  and      
which1 as it revolves1 assists the seed 
put into the box to escape  through     
holes formed at a proper distance from  
each other in the bottom4    ,at first1 
these machines were exceedingly simple1 
and had only in the  fore-part a        
ploughshare2 but afterwards a harrow was
 applied behind1 so  that with such an  
apparatus one could plough1 sow1 and    
harrow at the  same time4 ,it was       
attended1 however1 with the common fault
 of all very  complex machines2 it was  
too artificial1 too expensive1 and too  
easily  deranged4 ,the greater part1    
therefore1 of those lately made have    
only a  harrow behind them4    ,since   
the beginning of the last century so    
many machines of this kind  have been   
invented1 that to give a complete       
catalogue of them would be  difficult4  
,the invention1 however1 does not belong

 either to our period  or to the        
,english1 who have hitherto paid the    
greatest attention to the  improvement  
and employment of it4 ,i have somewhere 
read that a proposal  for a machine of  
this kind occurs in ,theophrastus2 but  
,i have not yet  been able to discover  
the passage4 ,i am much rather inclined1
 from the  information ,i have hitherto 
obtained1 to place this invention in the
  sixteenth century1 and to ascribe the 
merit of it to the ,italians4  ,by our  
oldest writers on agriculture1          
,heresbach1 ,colerus1 ,florinus1        
,hohberg and others1 it is not          
mentioned4    ,joseph ,locatelli1 of    
whom1 however1 very little is known1 is 
commonly  considered as the inventor4   
,that he was a nobleman of ,carinthia1  
but  not a count1 as he is called in    
,icher's ,dictionary of ,learned ,men1  
is proved by a small work consisting of 
two sheets in quarto1 now in  my        
possession#eeb4 ,it is there stated1    
that experiments were made  with a      

machine of this kind by the emperor's   
order1 at the imperial  palace and      
market of ,laxenburg1 in the presence of
 a commissioner1  named ,pietro         
,bonaventura von ,crollolanza1 appointed
 for that purpose4  ,these experiments  
succeeded so well1 that a crop of sixty 
for one was  obtained from land not     
manured1 and subject to frequent        
inundation4  ,on this account the       
emperor rewarded the inventor1 and sent 
him with  letters of recommendation to  
the king of ,spain4    ,in this small   
work no date is mentioned but on the    
title-page2 and if  that be correct1 the
 invention must be placed in the last   
year of the  sixteenth or the first of  
the seventeenth century1 consequently in
  the reign of the emperor ,rudolphus   
,,ii41 who had a great fondness for     
mechanical inventions4 ,this treatise is
 certainly the same which1 as  ,reinman 
says1 was printed in #afij without any  
place being mentioned1  and according to
 ,haller1 at ,jena1 #afij2 but the      

author of it cannot  have been the      
inventor1 as asserted by ,icher1 who    
adds1 that the tract  in question was   
printed at ,vienna in the year          
above-mentioned4    ,the date #afjc1    
however1 can hardly be correct2 it ought
 rather to  be #afic1 and in that case  
the tract might have been three times   
printed between that period and #afij4  
,the date in the title-page of  my copy 
appears properly to have in it a #i1    
which resembles a zero1  only because   
the compositor used a type on which the 
lower part of  the figure was broke4    
,that this conjecture is true1 ,i have1 
,i think1  sufficiently proved2 though  
,munchhausen1 ,haller1 and others read  
the  date #afjc4    ,in the year #affi1 
,john ,evelyn gave to the ,royal        
,society of ,london a  complete         
description of ,locatelli's             
invention#eec4 ,he there says  that the 
inventor went with his machine to       
,spain1 where he proved  the advantage  
of it by public experiments1 and        

described them in a  ,spanish work1     
dedicated to ,geronimo de ,camargo1     
member of the ,consejo  real de         
,castilla1 who was commissioned by the  
king to make known and  promote the use 
of this machine1 the sale of which was  
secured to the  inventor at a price     
fixed in his patent4 ,this ,spanish     
work1 from which  ,evelyn made an       
extract1 was printed with the ,austrian 
approbation of  ,crollolanza1 and the   
date ,aug4 #ast1 #affc4 ,locatelli must 
immediately  after have gone to ,spain1 
for it is there stated that his machines
 were  made and sold in great abundance 
at ,madrid1 in #affd4 ,the invention    
belongs1 therefore1 to the year #affc4  
,this machine was exceedingly simple4   
,the seed-box1 the cylinder of  which   
was furnished with two small wheels1    
required only to be hooked  or fastened1
 by means of ropes1 to the stilt of the 
plough4 ,a figure  of it may be found in
 the before-mentioned ,german tract2    
also in the  ,philosophical             

,transactions1 and thence copied into   
,duhamel's ,trait de  la ,culture des   
,terres#eed4    ,the ,italians1 however1
 dispute with ,locatelli the honour of  
the  invention4 ,they assert that one of
 their countrymen1 named ,m4 ,giovanni  
,cavallina1 of ,bologna1 proposed such a
 sowing-machine a century and a  half   
before2 and they refer for a proof to   
the account preserved by  ,gio ,battista
 ,segni in his work upon ,scarcity4     
,this book ,i have never  seen4 ,haller 
gives the title from ,seguier1 and says 
that it was first  printed at ,bologna1 
in #afjb2 but ,zanon states #afje1 and  
says that this  ,segni1 who is not      
noticed by ,icher1 was a canonicus      
regularis#eee4  ,of ,cavallina ,i have  
not been able to find any further       
account2 not even  in the large and full
 work of ,fantuzzi4 ,i can therefore    
give only the  description of ,segni as 
transcribed by ,zanon#eef4 ,from this it
 appears  that the machine alluded to   
had also a seed-box with two wheels1 and

  might be compared to a bolting-mill1  
but below each hole of the bottom  board
 there seems to have been an iron       
funnel1 which before was shaped  like a 
plough-share4 ,the machine1 therefore1  
seems to have formed as  many small     
furrows as it dropped grains of corn2   
and1 as far as can be  judged1 there was
 in the bottom only one row of holes4   
,it appears also  that each grain of    
corn1 as soon as it dropped1 was covered
 with earth  by the machine4 ,whether   
,locatelli took advantage of this       
invention1  and gave it out1 with some  
alteration1 as his own1 cannot be easily
  determined4    ,soon after            
,locatelli's invention another          
sowing-machine was proposed  at         
,brescia1 by the ,jesuit ,lana1 who     
seems to have had no knowledge of  the  
preceding ones2 at least he makes no    
mention of them4 ,the case  with ,lana  
was perhaps the same as with many       
ingenious men1 who possess  great powers
 of invention4 ,as they never read1 but 

only think1 they  are unacquainted with 
what others have done before them1 and  
therefore  consider every idea which    
comes into their mind as new4 ,he       
proposed a  harrow1 the spikes of which 
should make holes in the earth1 in the  
same  manner as gardeners do with their 
bean-planter1 and the grains of corn    
were to fall into these holes from a box
 pierced like a sieve1 and  placed over 
the harrow#eeg4    ,i do not know       
whether this1 at present1 could be      
called a  sowing-machine2 but it is not 
improbable that an apparatus of this    
kind  would facilitate the planting1 or1
 as it is termed1 setting of wheat1     
which in modern times has been revived  
in ,england1 and particularly  in       
,suffolk4 ,for this purpose holes are   
made three inches apart1 in  rows four  
inches distant from each other1 with a  
bean-planter1 by men  and women4 ,each  
labourer is followed by three children1 
who throw  two or three grains of seed  
into each hole4 ,one labourer in a      

second  can make four holes1 and in two 
or three days plant an acre4 ,for  this 
he obtained nine shillings1 one-half of 
which was given to the  children#eeh4   
,by these means there is a saving of    
one-half the seed2  and this defrays the
 expenses4 ,the wheat also1 when it     
grows up1 is  cleaner as well as more   
beautiful2 and this method1 besides1    
affords  employment to a great number of
 persons4    ,however minute and        
ridiculous this method of planting may  
appear to  our practical farmers1 it is 
nevertheless true that it has been found
  beneficial in ,upper ,lusatia#eei4    
,the objection that corn when planted in
 this manner may throw out too  many    
stems1 which will not all ripen at the  
same time1 can be true only  when the   
grains are placed at too great a        
distance from each other4 ,the  ,german 
mode of farming however is still too    
remote from horticulture to  admit of   
our attaching great value to the        
advantages with which this  method is   

attended4    ,i shall here remark1 that 
,sir ,francis ,bacon says that in his   
time1 that  is1 in the beginning of the 
seventeenth century1 attempts had been  
made to plant wheat1 but being too      
laborious it was again abandoned1       
though he declares it to be undoubtedly 
advantageous#efj4 ,in the most  populous
 districts of ,china almost all the corn
 is set1 or it is first  sown in        
forcing-beds1 and then transplanted4    
,the ,english call the  labour with the 
sowing-machine drilling1 and the        
planting of wheat  they name dibbling4  
,several sowing-machines have been      
invented1 and patents taken out  for    
them in late years4 ,as it is very      
difficult to give a description  of     
them1 and still more so for the reader  
to comprehend them without  figures1 we 
refer to the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 art4    
8,sowing-machine10 for  an account of   
the more important4      ,,footnotes    
#eeb ,the title is1 ,beschreibung eines 
neuen ,instruments mit welchem  das     

,getraide zugleich geackert und geset   
werden kan2 erfunden von  ,locatelli1   
,landmann im ,erz-,herzogthum ,crndten4 
,anno #afjc4 ,without the  name of any  
place1 printer1 or publisher4    #eec   
,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 v4 ,no4 #fj1 p4     
#ajef4    #eed ,paris1 #agec1 #abmo1 i4 
p4 #cfh1 tab4 #f4 ,duhamel has committed
 a  double error4 ,he speaks of the     
invention as if the first experiments   
were made in ,spain1 and as if those in 
,austria had been later4 ,he  says also1
 that the latter were made dans le      
,luxembourg in ,istria4  ,the ,english  
account also says erroneously           
,luxembourg1 instead of  ,lachsenburg or
 ,laxemburg1 which is in ,austria1 and  
not in ,istria4    #eee ,of ,segni an   
account may be found in ,notizie degli  
,scrittori  ,bolognesi raccolte da      
,giovanni ,fantuzzi4 ,in ,bologna       
#aghd-agid1 #i vols4  #dto1 vii4 p4     
#cgg4 ,segni1 who died in #afaj1 wrote a
 great many ascetic  books1 the names of
 which are there given4    #eef ,dell'  

agricultura1 dell' arti e del commercio4
 ,lettere di ,antonio  ,zanon4 ,in      
,venezia #agfd1 #hvo1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cbe4
    #eeg ,prodromo1 overo saggio di     
alcune inventioni nuove1 premesso  all' 
arte maestra4 ,in ,brescia #afgj1 fol4  
p4 #if1 fig4 #bf4    #eeh ,see the      
excellent account of the agriculture in 
,suffolk in my  ,journal1 the ,beytragen
 zur ,oekonomie1 c41 i4 p4 #a4 ,it was  
written by  ,m4 ,f4 ,wild1 of ,durlach1 
who in the year #agfg was one of my     
pupils1 and  afterwards became teacher  
in the ,institute of ,education at      
,colmar4 ,but  alas6 ,i do not know     
whither he has now been swept by the    
vortex of the  revolution4    #eei      
,leske ,reise durch ,sachsen4 ,leipzig1 
#aghe1 #dto1 p4 #cai4    #efj ,sylva    
,sylvarum1 cent4 #e1  #ddb4             
,,manganese#efa4      ,that the art of  
glass-making may have arisen from an    
accident1 such as  that mentioned by    
,pliny#efb1 ,i am ready to admit2 but by
 what accident  were artists made       

acquainted with the use of manganese1 a 
mineral  the outward appearance of which
 seems to announce nothing that could   
be useful to the glass-maker8 ,it is not
 found in such abundance as  to allow us
 to suppose that it naturally presented 
itself2 nor do we  know that any older  
application of it may have induced the  
ancients to  employ and examine it in   
such a manner that the present use of it
 might  be accidentally discovered4 ,in 
general1 it resembles some kinds of     
iron-stone1 which it was considered to  
be till a very late period4 ,that  iron1
 however1 colours glass must have been  
very early remarked2 and  therefore it  
could occur to no one to employ         
manganese for depriving  frit#efc of its
 colour4 ,it produces this decoloration 
only when it is  added sparingly1 and   
according to a determinate proportion2  
otherwise  it gives to the glass a      
violet colour1 something similar to that
 of the  amethyst4    ,the application  
of manganese was certainly taught by    

accident1 and  not by theory4 ,but in   
regard to the question1 why it frees    
glass from  its dirty colour1 it must be
 admitted1 if we readily acknowledge the
  truth1 that we can offer only         
hypotheses2 as the old chemists called  
in the aid of phlogiston1 and the new   
that of oxygen#efd4 ,did a false        
hypothesis1 then1 conduct to this       
discovery8 ,that this was the case1  has
 been asserted by old as well as more   
modern writers1 and is no  doubt        
possible4 ,thus ,kepler1 from an        
erroneous hypothesis in regard to  the  
revolution of the planets1 discovered   
the ratio of their motion1  according to
 their distance from the sun2 and such  
instances may be  adduced in favour of  
hypotheses which have done more harm    
than good4  ,but1 in my opinion1 in     
examining the origin of the ancient     
arts1 we  ought not to give credit to   
any cause assigned for an invention     
until  no other can be found4 ,in regard
 to the art in question1 ,i think ,i can

  mention one which1 at any rate1 has   
probability in its favour1 and  which ,i
 shall here submit to the reader's      
decision4    ,that it was observed at an
 early period that metallic oxides1 and 
particularly that of iron1 which most   
frequently occurs1 communicate  various 
colours to glass1 has been already      
proved#efe4 ,it needs  therefore excite 
no wonder that men should be induced to 
make  experiments on colouring glass    
with various minerals1 and especially   
such as contained iron4 ,now1 since     
manganese1 as already said1 has a  great
 resemblance to iron-stone1 it was also 
occasionally employed2  and it was soon 
found that this supposed species of     
iron-stone1  according as it is used in 
greater or less quantity1 gives to glass
  many beautiful shades of a violet1    
red1 and dark brown colour4 ,as it  was 
necessary that the artist should weigh  
the manganese1 in order to  proportion  
it to the vitreous mass1 according to   
the required colour1  it is possible    

that the glass1 when a very small       
quantity had been  added1 was found to  
be colourless4 ,this observation must   
have been made  with the greater        
satisfaction1 and more readily turned to
 advantage1  the higher colourless      
glass1 which approached nearest to rock 
crystal1  was at that time esteemed#eff4
    ,the period however when this great 
improvement in one of the most  useful  
arts was fortunately introduced1 cannot 
with certainty be  determined2 but it is
 very probable that it was practised in 
the time  of ,pliny4 ,were not this the 
case1 what should have induced him1 more
  than once1 to remark that the magnet  
was employed in glass8 ,under  this name
 the ancients certainly comprehended    
manganese2 which1 in  general1 had a    
resemblance to the magnet1 and was      
considered as such by  ,agricola1       
,kircher1 and others1 at a more modern  
period4 ,pliny#efg1 in  one passage1    
speaks of a kind of magnet which was    
found in ,cantabria1  not in veins1 but 

interspersed or in nuclei2 and he adds  
that he did  not know whether it was    
useful in glass-making1 because no one  
had  ever tried it4 ,this use of        
manganese then must at that time have   
been  very common1 since it occurred so 
readily to a writer in speaking of a    
supposed magnet4    ,another passage of 
,pliny has been supposed to allude to   
manganese1  but in my opinion with much 
less probability4 ,it is that where  he 
says ,alabandicus flows in the fire1 and
 is fused at the  glass-houses#efh4 ,but
 by that term he seems to understand a  
kind  of marble1 according to the       
opinion of ,isidorus1 by whom the word  
is repeated4 ,as a calcareous earth it  
was perhaps added to promote  the fusion
 of the sand4 ,camillus ,leonardus1     
however1 considered the  ,alabandicus as
 manganese#efi4    ,it is not improbable
 that the ancients employed manganese1  
if not for  glazing1 at any rate for    
painting their pottery or earthenware1  
as soon  as they became acquainted at   

the glass-houses with its susceptibility
  of being converted into a coloured    
vitreous mass4    ,but this is far from 
being proved1 though count ,caylus1     
,genssane and  others positively assert 
that the so-called ,etruscan vases and  
lamps  were painted with the same       
manganese that we use for our           
earthen-ware4    ,those who attempt to  
trace out the history of the arts must  
be very  cautious not to admit1 without 
sufficient proof1 that what the ancients
  accomplished was effected by the same 
means as those employed by us  for the  
same purpose4 ,this1 in some cases1 may 
be true2 but in many  others false4     
,thus1 they made a beautiful kind of    
blue and red glass1  without being      
acquainted with our cobalt and mineral  
purple2 and they  performed very long   
sea voyages without our compass4 ,it is 
the duty  of the historian either to    
point out the means which the ancients  
employed1 whether they were the same or 
not as those used at present1  or to    

acknowledge that their processes are    
unknown to us4 ,those who  invariably   
follow this rule will sometimes discover
 that1 in ancient  times1 men were able 
to accomplish the same objects and to   
produce the  same effects1 by means     
totally different from those used at    
present2  and then the question will    
sometimes arise1 ,which of the means1   
the old  or the new1 are the cheapest1  
the most convenient1 and the surest8    
,this  leads to technological problems1 
the solution of which1 notwithstanding  
the great superiority we possess in     
those auxiliaries of the arts1  natural 
history1 chemistry1 c41 is impossible4  
,i have indulged in  these observations1
 in mentioning the celebrated ,caylus1  
because ,i well  know that he has often 
erred in not attending to them4 ,i      
acknowledge  and respect the service of 
this eminent man2 but ,i am convinced   
that by  the boldness of his assertions 
he acquired greater confidence and more 
celebrity than he deserved4    ,the     

colours on the ,etruscan vases have a   
resemblance indeed to those  on our     
stone-ware1 but it is also true that    
they might be produced by  oxide of     
iron4    ,the substances used by the    
ancient potters can be determined only  
by  the testimony of the ancients or by 
experiments2 but the former is not  to  
be found2 and the latter have never been
 made1 though they would not  be        
difficult to any chemist who might      
choose to sacrifice a few vessels  of   
that kind4    ,the question how the use 
of manganese was first found out1       
occurred  even to ,pliny2 and his       
opinion on that subject deserves to be  
quoted1  especially as it was long      
considered as true by ,albertus ,magnus1
  ,caneparius1 and many later writers4  
,to understand it one must know  that it
 was at first believed that the magnet1 
as it attracts iron1  could attract     
other bodies also2 and it was           
conjectured that other  minerals might  
possess a similar property4 ,some       

imagined that they  had found magnets   
for gold and silver4 ,in the oldest     
times men had so  erroneous an opinion  
of the art of glass-making1 that they   
conceived  that glass was obtained from 
sand1 as metal from its ore2 and ,pliny 
thinks that they then conjectured that a
 magnet could attract glass as  well as 
it does iron4 ,now as manganese1 on     
account of its similarity1  was         
considered to be a magnet1 it was       
consequently subjected to  experiments1 
which gave rise to the beneficial       
discovery that it  renders glass        
colourless4    ,this use of it then has 
been retained through every age to the  
present  time1 and it is mentioned by   
all those authors who have written on   
glass-making4 ,avicenna#egj makes so    
complete a distinction between it  and  
the magnet1 that he treats of each in a 
particular section1 though  he says     
nothing of its employment in the        
glass-houses2 but indeed as  a physician
 he had no opportunity of doing so4     

,albertus ,magnus#ega1  however1 who    
lived a century later1 ,roger ,bacon1   
,basilius ,valentine1  ,camillus        
,leonardus1 ,biringoccio1 ,mercati1     
,neri and many others have  spoken in   
the plainest terms of this application4 
,it is seen by the words quoted from    
different authors1 that the name1  which
 as far as ,i know occurs first in      
,albertus ,magnus1 was written  in a    
great many different ways3 magnesia1    
magnosia1 magnasia1  manganensis1       
mangadesum1 and in ,french magalaise1   
mganaise1  magnese4 ,one might imagine  
that it is derived from magnet1 partly  
on account of the similarity of the two 
substances1 and partly on  account of   
its supposed power to attract glass4    
,besides1 its other name  sidera seems  
to have a reference to the ,greek word  
for iron4 ,mercati1  however1 deduces   
the term from mangonizare1 because      
potters besmear  their wares with this  
mineral2 but ,i suspect that the name   
was common  before that use of the      

substance was known4 ,it is to be       
observed that  to this word various     
other significations have been given4   
,sometimes  it seems to denote common   
iron-stone1 and sometimes pyrites4 ,what
 the  gold-makers understood by it will 
be best discovered by consulting  the   
works of their followers4 ,braunstein   
also1 the ,german name1 the  earliest   
mention of which occurs perhaps in the  
writings of ,basilius  ,valentine1      
denoted at first every kind of          
ferruginous earth employed  by the      
potters for painting4 ,thus ,schwenkfeld
 gave the name of  ,braunstein and      
,braunfarbe to a kind of bloodstone#egb4
    ,for a long time the manganese      
imported from ,piedmont was in ,germany 
accounted the best1 and therefore was   
much sought after by the artists  of    
,nuremberg4 ,afterwards1 a kind brought 
from ,perigord1 a place in  ,guyenne1   
and named pierre de ,prigueux1 or lapis 
petracorius1 was  highly esteemed4      
,wallerius gives this as a peculiar     

species2 and in  my opinion he is right4
 ,its distinguishing characters are1    
that it  resembles a burnt coal or      
cinder2 has a somewhat shining surface1 
and  on the fracture appears to be      
finely striped and a little coloured4   
,a piece which ,i have in my possession 
exhibits all these marks4 ,this  species
 has been mentioned by very few of the  
new mineralogists4  ,germany1 however1  
for some centuries past has employed its
 own  manganese1 which even in the time 
of ,biringoccio was sent as an article  
of commerce to ,italy4    ,the          
distinctness of the metal contained in  
the manganese of commerce  from iron was
 first proved by the experiments of     
,pott in #agdj1 by ,kaim  and ,winterl  
in #aggj1 and by ,scheele and ,bergman  
in #aggd4 ,soon after  this the metal   
itself was obtained in an isolated state
 by ,gahn1 who  gave to it the name of  
magnesium1 which term however was       
subsequently  applied to the metal      
contained in magnesia1 and the word     

manganese  has been adopted to designate
 both the metal and the black ore4 ,in  
addition to its application in the      
manufacture of glass1 it is now very    
extensively used in the decomposition of
 common salt for the production  of     
chlorine for bleaching4 ,some salts of  
the lower oxides of manganese  have     
lately been used in calico-printing as a
 source of brown colours4               
,,footnotes    #efa ,the word manganese1
 strictly speaking1 designates the metal
  itself1 the peroxide of which is      
understood by the author whenever the   
word manganese occurs in the text4      
#efb ,lib4 xxxvi4 #bf1  #be4--,see      
,hambergeri ,vitri ,historia1 in        
,comment4  ,societ4 ,gtting4 tom4 iv4   
anni #aged1 p4 #dhg4    #efc ,under this
 appellation1 writers on the art of     
glass-making  understand a mixture of   
sand or siliceous earth and alkaline    
salts1  which at the ,german            
glass-houses1 where the above word is   
seldom heard1  is called ,einsatz4 ,it  

appears to have been brought to us1     
along with  the art1 from ,italy1 where 
it is written at present fritta1 and to 
be  derived from fritto1 which signifies
 something broiled or roasted4  ,it     
seems to be the same word as freton1    
which occurs in ,thomas  ,norton's      
,poem1 ,crede mihi1 sive ,ordinale1     
where it however signifies a  particular
 kind of solid glass1 fused together    
from small fragments4  ,this ,englishman
 lived about the year #adgg4 ,his       
treatise was several  times printed4    
#efd ,the action of peroxide of         
manganese 7the only compound of  the    
metal used in the manufacture of glass7 
is simple and clearly  understood4 ,the 
sand 7silica7 used in the manufacture of
 glass  frequently contains iron1 which 
by the heat necessary for the fusion  of
 the glass becomes reduced to the state 
of protoxide1 giving the  glass a       
greenish or yellowish colour2 also1 if  
any organic substance be  present in the
 materials 7and where sulphate of soda  

is used1 charcoal  is added71 the glass 
is not colourless4 ,when peroxide of    
manganese  is added1 it parts with some 
of its oxygen1 becoming reduced to the  
protoxide1 which remains colourless in  
the glass1 the protoxide of  iron       
absorbing the oxygen1 becomes at the    
same time converted into the  peroxide1 
which also imparts no colour to the     
glass1 which is thus  rendered          
colourless4 ,if more of the peroxide of 
manganese be added than  the carbon or  
protoxide of iron can reduce1 it will   
tinge the glass of  an amethyst colour1 
as stated in the text4    #efe ,see the 
,history of ,ruby-glass in vol4 i4 p4   
#abc4    #eff ,plin4 xxxvi4 #bf1 p4     
#gei1 and lib4 xxxvii4 cap4 #f1 p4 #gfi2
 he says  that artists could make glass 
vessels nearly similar to those of rock 
crystal2 but he remarks that the latter 
had nevertheless risen in price4    #efg
 ,lib4 xxxvii4 #bd1  #ff4    #efh ,plin4
 xxxvi4 #h1  #ac1 p4 #gce4    #efi      
,speculum ,lapidum1 ,parisiis1 #afaj1   

#hvo1 p4 #ga4 ,it may not be            
superfluous here to remark1 that this   
,alabandicus of ,pliny must not1  as is 
often the case1 be confounded with the  
precious stone to which  he gives the   
same name1 lib4 xxxvii4 cap4 #h4 ,the   
name properly denotes  only a stone from
 ,alabanda in ,caria4 ,it occurs1 but   
much corrupted1  as the name of a costly
 stone1 in writings of the middle ages4 
,see in  ,du ,cange ,alamandin1         
,alavandin1 ,almandin2 and even in our  
period so  fertile in names1 a stone    
which is sometimes classed with the ruby
  and sometimes with the garnet1 and    
which is sometimes said to have  an     
affinity to the topaz and hyacinth1 is  
called ,alamandine and  ,alabandiken4   
,see ,brckman on ,precious ,stones1 who 
in the second  continuation1 p4 #fd1    
deduces the word from ,allemands1       
without  recollecting the proper        
derivation1 which he gives himself1 i4  
p4 #hi  according to ,pliny4    #egj    
,canon ,medicin1 lib4 ii4 tract4 #b1    

cap4 #dgj1 de ,magnete2 and cap4  #dgb1 
de ,magnesia4    #ega ,in his book ,de  
,mineralibus1 lib4 ii4 tract4 #b1 cap4  
#aa4    #egb ,stirpium et ,fossilium    
,silesi ,catalogus1 ,lipsi1 #afjj1 #dto1
 p4  #cha4          ,,prince ,,rupert',s
 ,,drops4 ,,lacrym ,,vitre4      ,it is 
more than probable that these drops1 and
 the singular property  which they      
possess1 have been known at the         
glass-houses since time  immemorial4    
,all glass1 when suddenly cooled1       
becomes brittle1 and  breaks on the     
least scratch4 ,on this account1 as far 
back as the  history of the art can be  
traced1 a cooling furnace was always    
constructed close to the fusing furnace4
 ,a drop of fused glass falling  into   
water#egc might easily have given rise  
to the invention of these  drops2 at any
 rate this might have been the case in  
rubbing off what  is called the         
navel#egd4 ,it is however certain that  
they were not  known to experimental    
philosophers till the middle of the     

seventeenth  century4 ,their            
withstanding great force applied at the 
thick end1 and  even blows2 and on the  
other hand1 bursting into the finest    
dust when  the smallest fragment is     
broken off from the thin end1 are       
properties  so peculiar that they must  
excite the curiosity of philosophers1   
and  induce them to examine these       
effects1 especially at a time when      
mankind  in general exert themselves    
with the greatest zeal to become better 
acquainted with the phnomena of natural 
bodies4 ,on this account  they have been
 noticed in almost every introduction to
 experimental  philosophy4 ,to determine
 the time then in which they were first 
made  known1 seems to be attended with  
little difficulty2 but it still  remains
 doubtful by whom and in what country4  
,it appears certain that the first      
experiments were made by philosophers   
with these drops in the year #afef4     
,monconys#ege1 who travelled at that    
period1 was present when such           

experiments were made at ,paris1 before 
a  learned society1 which assembled at  
the house of ,mommor1 the well-known    
patron of ,gassendi2 and the same year  
he saw similar experiments made  by     
several scientific persons at ,london4  
,he tells us expressly that  ,chanut1   
the ,swedish resident1 procured glass   
drops for the first  ,parisian          
experiments1 and that these drops were  
brought from ,holland4    ,it appears1  
therefore1 that the first glass drops   
were made in ,holland2  yet ,montanari1 
who was professor of mathematics at     
,bologna1 says that  the first were not 
made by the ,dutch1 but by the ,swedes4 
,the grounds1  however1 on which he     
rests his assertion are exceedingly     
weak4 ,because  a ,swedish resident     
procured those used for the first       
experiments1  it does not follow that   
they were made at ,swedish glass-houses1
  especially as it is positively said   
that they were brought from  ,holland4  
,it was indeed stated so early as #affa1

 by ,henry ,regius or ,van  ,roy1       
professor at ,utrecht1 that these glass 
drops came from ,sweden2  but may not   
this have been a lapse of memory1       
occasioned by the  circumstance that the
 first drops used by the natural        
philosophers of  ,paris were procured by
 a ,swedish resident4    ,monconys1     
whose relation indeed bears evident     
marks of great haste as  well as        
credulity1 calls ,chanut ,rsident de    
,sude1 and seems to have  considered him
 as a ,swedish resident at the ,french  
court2 an opinion  in which he has been 
followed by many literary men4 ,but     
,pierre ,chanut  was ,french resident at
 ,stockholm1 and at that time so        
well-known that  ,monconys could hardly 
be unacquainted with his quality4 ,he   
was resident  from the year #afde to    
#afdi2 and he was afterwards envoy for  
adjusting  the disputes between ,sweden 
and ,poland1 which were to be settled at
  ,lubec4 ,he is often mentioned in     
,puffendorf's book ,de ,rebus ,suecicis1

  and the printed account of his        
missions and negociations contain       
important materials towards a history of
 queen ,christina1 with whom he  was a  
great favourite4 ,he superintended the  
funeral of ,descartes1 who  was interred
 with great honour4 ,he was born in     
#afja2 but with the time  of his death  
,i am unacquainted4 ,he was celebrated  
as a man of great  learning1 and        
particularly an able mathematician2 and 
it is neither  improbable nor even      
impossible that he may have sent the    
first glass  drops to ,paris from       
,sweden2 but why does ,monconys add that
 they were  brought from ,holland8      
,it deserves to be mentioned1 that about
 fifteen years before1 that is  in      
#afda1 the first glass-houses were      
established in ,sweden1 and in all      
probability by ,germans4 ,it is possible
 that when the blowing of glass  was    
first seen1 glass drops may have excited
 an attention which they  had not met   
with in ,germany1 where no one expected 

anything new in  glass-houses1 which    
were there common and had long been     
established4 ,it  can nevertheless be   
proved that they were known to our      
glass-blowers at  a much earlier period4
    ,in #afie1 ,john ,christian         
,schulenburg1 subrector of the cathedral
 school  of ,bremen1 published there a  
,german ,dissertation on glass drops and
  their properties1 in which he says    
that he was informed by glass-makers    
worthy of credit1 that these drops had  
been made more than seventy  years      
before at the ,mecklenburg glass-houses1
 that is to say1 about the  year #afbe4 
,samuel ,reyher1 professor at ,kiel1    
says that ,henry ,sievers1 teacher of   
mathematics in the gymnasium of         
,hamburg1 had assured him that such     
glass drops were given to his father by 
a glass-maker so early as the  year     
#afcg2 and that his father had exhibited
 them in a company of  friends1 who were
 much astonished at their effects4      
,reyher adds1 that  he himself had seen 

at ,leyden1 in #afef1 the first of these
 glass drops1  which had been made at   
,amsterdam1 where he afterwards         
purchased some  of the same kind2 but in
 #afff he procured for a very small sum 
a great  many of them from the          
glass-houses in the neighbourhood of    
,kiel4 ,it is  worthy of remark1 that   
,huet#egf1 who paid considerable        
attention to  the history of inventions1
 says that the first glass drops1 which 
he  had seen also in the society held at
 the house of ,mommor1 were brought  to 
,france from ,germany4 ,according to    
,anthony ,le ,grand they came from      
,prussia#egg4    ,the first glass drops 
were brought to ,england by the         
well-known ,prince  ,rupert1 third son  
of the elector ,palatine1 ,frederic ,v41
 and the  princess ,elizabeth1 daughter 
of ,james ,i42 and experiments1         
described by  ,rupert ,moray1 were made 
with them in #affa by command of his    
majesty4  ,this is expressly stated by  
,merret#egh2 and therefore what some    

,english writers have supposed1 that    
,prince ,rupert himself was the         
inventor1 is entirely erroneous#egi4    
,the services which he rendered to  the 
useful arts were too great and too      
numerous to be either lessened  or      
increased by such trifles4    ,i shall  
take this opportunity of remarking1 that
 those small glasses  hermetically      
sealed and containing a drop of water1  
which when placed  on hot coals burst   
with a loud report1 and therefore are   
called in  ,german knallglser1          
fulminating glasses1 were known before  
#affe4  ,hooke speaks of them in his    
,micrographia#ehj printed in that year1 
and  they were mentioned by ,reyher in  
#affi1 in his ,dissertation already     
quoted4 ,in ,germany they are made      
chiefly by ,nuremberg artists2 one of   
the most celebrated of whom was ,michael
 ,sigismund ,hack4 ,he learnt the  art  
of glass-blowing in ,england1 and in    
#afgb returned to ,nuremberg1  where he 
was born in #afdceha4      ,,footnotes  

#egc ,it is not always necessary that   
the water should be cold2 these  drops  
will be formed also in warm water1 as   
well as in every other  fluid1 and even 
in melted wax4 ,see ,redi's experiments 
in ,miscellan4  ,natur ,curios4 anni    
secundi1 #afga1 p4 #dbf4 ,they succeed  
best with  green glass1 yet ,i have in  
my possession some of white glass1 which
 in  friability are not inferior to     
those of green4    #egd ,the navel1 in  
,german nabel1 is that piece of glass   
which  remains adhering to the pipe when
 any article has been blown1 and which  
the workman must rub off4 ,these navels1
 however1 are seldom in so fluid  a     
state as to form drops4    #ege ,journal
 des ,voyages de ,m4 ,monconys1 ,lyon1  
#afff1 #dto1 ii4 p4 #afb4    #egf       
,commentarius de rebus ad eum           
pertinentibus1 ,lips4 #agai4    #egg    
,historia ,naturalis4 ,edit4 secunda1   
,londini #afhj1 #dto1 p4 #cg4    #egh   
,in his ,observations on ,neri ,ars     
,vitraria1 ,amstel4 #affh1 #abmo4       

#egi ,this is said1 for example1 by     
,grainger in his ,biographical  ,history
 of ,england4 ,london1 #agfi1 vol4 ii4  
part #b1 p4 #djg4    #ehj ,this book was
 only once printed1 but the title-page  
has the date  #affg4 ,see ,biographia   
,britannica1 iv4 p4 #bfed4    #eha      
,doppelmayer1 p4 #bgf4                  
,,fire-,,engines4      ,the invention of
 pumps ,i shall leave to those who      
undertake to write  the history of      
hydraulics1 and here only remark that1  
on the testimony  of ,vitruvius#ehb1 it 
is in general ascribed to ,ctesibius1 on
 which  account they are called machin  
,ctesibic2 and that ,ctesibius  lived at
 ,alexandria in the time of ,ptolemy    
,philadelphus and ,ptolemy  ,euergetes  
,i41 consequently two centuries before  
the ,christian ra4 ,my  present object  
extends no further than to state what ,i
 know in regard  to the question1 ,at   
what time were these machines first     
employed for  extinguishing fires8      
,for this purpose1 however1 it was      

necessary that the pump-work employed   
at first only for raising water should  
undergo some alteration4 ,to use  it for
 extinguishing fires1 it was requisite  
that the water should be  speedily      
driven from the upper aperture as high  
as possible2 whereas  for the first     
purpose1 it is enough if the water be   
thrown out in  sufficient quantity to be
 conveyed to the place of its           
destination4  ,more additional parts    
necessary for extinguishing fires would 
then be  an imperfection2 as the power  
which gives the water a needless        
velocity  might be employed with more   
advantage to raise a greater quantity of
 it4    ,in my opinion it is highly     
probable that ,ctesibius had an idea  of
 converting his pump into a fire-engine1
 for his scholar1 ,hero  of ,alexandria1
 speaks expressly of this use1 and      
describes the  construction of a        
forcing-pump with two cylinders#ehc2 but
 it is very  doubtful whether this      
application of it soon became general1  

and  whether this advantageous machine  
was known to the ancient ,romans4 ,what 
,i have been able to learn on the       
subject is as follows4    ,pliny the    
younger1 after telling the emperor      
,trajan1 in one of his  letters1 that   
the town of ,nicomedia in ,bithynia had 
been almost  entirely destroyed by a    
fire1 adds1 that the devastation had    
been  increased by a violent storm which
 took place at the time2 by the         
laziness of the inhabitants1 and by the 
want of machines or apparatus  proper   
for extinguishing the flames#ehd4 ,the  
word sipho1 which the  author here uses1
 was certainly the fire-engine of       
,ctesibius2 though  some under this term
 understand only aqueducts1 canals1 and 
pipes for  distributing water throughout
 the city4 ,i will not deny that this   
word  may have signified such pipes1    
particularly on account of a passage  in
 ,strabo#ehe1 where he speaks of the    
subterranean conduits of ,rome1  and    
says that almost all the houses had     

cisterns1 siphones1 or  water-pipes1 and
 running streams4 ,but ,pliny at the    
same time mentions  water-buckets1 which
 may be considered as an appendage      
absolutely  necessary to a fire-engine4 
,it is also hardly possible to believe  
that  a town1 immediately situated on an
 arm of the sea1 should be destitute  of
 water#ehf4    ,i can however produce   
from a contemporary writer1 a strong    
proof that  ,pliny alluded here to a    
fire-engine1 and ,i do not find that the
 passage  has been before quoted4       
,apollodorus1 the architect1 who was    
employed  by the emperor ,trajan in     
constructing the celebrated bridge over 
the  ,danube1 and erecting some large   
works at ,rome1 and who was put to death
  by his successor ,adrian1 out of      
revenge for a jeering answer which he   
received from him1 as we are told by    
,dio ,cassius1 describes in the         
fragment of his book on warlike         
machines1 how assistance may be given   
when the upper part of a building is on 

fire1 and the machine called  sipho is  
not at hand4 ,in this case leathern bags
 filled with water  are to be fastened  
to long pipes in such a manner1 that by 
pressing the  bags the water may be     
forced through the pipes to the place   
which is  in flames#ehg4 ,the sipho1    
therefore1 was a machine by which water 
might be easily projected to a          
considerable height1 to extinguish a    
place on fire that could not be reached 
by any other means4    ,that in the     
fourth century at least a fire-engine1  
properly so called1  was understood     
under the term sipho1 is fully proved by
 ,hesychius1  and also by ,isidorus1 who
 lived in the beginning of the seventh  
century#ehh4 ,as the latter remarks that
 such engines were employed in  the     
,east for extinguishing fires1 there is 
reason to conclude that they  were not  
then used in the west4    ,the question 
still remains1 at what time this        
apparatus for  extinguishing fires was  
introduced at ,rome4 ,from the numerous 

ordinances for preventing accidents by  
fire1 and in regard to  extinguishing   
fires1 which occur in the ,roman        
laws#ehi1 there is  reason to conjecture
 that this capital was not unprovided   
with those  useful implements and       
machines1 of the want of which in a     
provincial  town ,pliny complains1 and  
which he himself had supplied4 ,this    
conjecture1 however1 ,i am not able to  
prove2 and instances both in  ancient   
and modern times show that the good     
police establishments of  small towns   
are not always to be found in capitals4 
,antioch and several  other towns were  
provided with lanterns1 which were      
wanting even in the  proud ,rome4 ,but  
what excites some doubt is1 that        
fire-engines are never  mentioned in the
 numerous accounts given of the fires   
which took place  in that city4 ,at     
present it is impossible to speak of a  
misfortune of  this kind without stating
 whether a sufficient number of engines 
were  assembled1 and what they effected1

 as ,pliny has not failed to do in his  
short account of the fire at ,nicomedia4
    ,one passage1 however1 in ,ulpian is
 commonly quoted as a proof that in  his
 time there were fire-engines at ,rome4 
,where he enumerates those  things which
 ought to belong to a house when sold1  
he mentions1  besides other articles    
used for extinguishing fires1           
siphones#eij4  ,but if this word means  
here fire-engines1 the passage seems to 
prove too much2 for it must then be     
admitted that each house had a          
fire-engine of its own4 ,these          
implements therefore must have been     
small  hand-engines1 such as are kept in
 many houses at present2 and in that    
case the passage cannot be adduced as a 
proof of public engines1 such  as ,pliny
 regrets the want of at ,nicomedia4 ,but
 it is much more probable  that ,ulpian 
alludes only to those siphones which1   
according to the  account of ,strabo1   
were to be found in every house at      
,rome2 that is1  pipes which conveyed   

water to it for domestic purposes4      
,from the total want of fire-engines1 or
 the imperfect manner in  which they    
were constructed1 what ,seneca says must
 have been true1  namely1 that the      
height of the houses at ,rome rendered  
it impossible  to extinguish them when  
on fire#eia4 ,that the buildings there  
were  exceedingly high1 and the lanes1  
the bridges and even the principal      
streets remarkably narrow1 is           
well-known#eib4 ,it is supposed by      
,archenholz and others1 that the houses 
at ,rome were built of such a  height on
 account of the great heat in that warm 
climate2 but the chief  reason was      
undoubtedly that assigned by            
,vitruvius#eic1 which still  produces a 
like effect4 ,for want of room on the   
earth1 the buildings  were extended     
towards the heavens2 so that at last the
 greatest height  of an edifice was     
fixed by law at seventy1 and afterwards 
at sixty  feet4 ,in ,hamburg1 at        
present1 where ground is dear and daily 

becoming  more valuable1 the greater    
part of the houses are little less than 
sixty feet in height2 a few even are    
seventy2 and that it is thereby         
rendered difficult1 if not impossible1  
notwithstanding the perfection  of the  
,german engines1 to extinguish fires1 is
 proved by the melancholy  instance of  
,gera1 where the houses are now built   
lower4 ,with ,neubert's  engine1 which  
was tried at ,hamburg in #agfi1 eight   
firemen threw  eleven and a half cubic  
feet of water to the height of sixty-two
 or  sixty-three feet4    ,in the ,east 
engines were employed not only to       
extinguish but to  produce fires4 ,the  
,greek fire1 invented by ,callinicus1 an
 architect  of ,heliopolis1 a city      
afterwards named ,balbec1 in the year   
#fgh1 the  use of which was continued in
 the ,east till #abiaeid1 and which was 
certainly liquid#eie1 was employed in   
many different ways2 but chiefly  on    
board ship1 being thrown from large     
fire-engines on the ships of  the enemy4

 ,sometimes this fire was kindled in    
particular vessels1  which might be     
called fire-ships1 and which were       
introduced among a  hostile fleet2      
sometimes it was put into jars and other
 vessels1 which  were thrown at the     
enemy by means of projectile            
machines#eif1 and  sometimes it was     
squirted by the soldiers from           
hand-engines2 or1 as  appears1 blown    
through pipes4 ,but the machines with   
which this fire  was discharged from the
 fore-part of ships1 could not have been
 either  hand-engines or such           
blow-pipes4 ,they were constructed of   
copper and  iron1 and the extremity of  
them sometimes resembled the open mouth 
and  jaws of a lion or other animal2    
they were painted and even gilded1  and 
it appears that they were capable of    
projecting the fire to a  great         
distance#eig4 ,these machines by ancient
 writers are expressly  called          
spouting-engines4 ,john ,cameniata1     
speaking of the siege of his  native    

city1 ,thessalonica1 which was taken by 
the ,saracens in the  year #ijd1 says   
that the enemy threw fire into the      
wooden works of the  besieged1 which was
 blown into them by means of tubes1 and 
thrown  from other vessels#eih4 ,this   
passage1 which ,i do not find quoted in 
any of the works that treat on the      
,greek fire1 proves that the ,greeks  in
 the beginning of the tenth century were
 no longer the only people  acquainted  
with the art of preparing this fire1 the
 precursor of our  gunpowder4 ,the      
emperor ,leo1 who about the same period 
wrote his art of  war1 recommends such  
engines1 with a metal covering1 to be   
constructed  in the fore-part of        
ships#eii1 and he twice afterwards      
mentions  engines for throwing out      
,greek fire#fjj4 ,in the ,east one may  
easily  have conceived the idea of      
loading some kind of pump with the      
,greek  fire2 as the use of a           
forcing-pump for extinguishing fires was
 long  known there before the invention 

of ,callinicus4    ,at what time the    
towns in ,germany were first furnished  
with  fire-engines ,i am not able to    
determine4 ,in my opinion they had      
regulations in regard to fires much     
earlier than engines2 and the  former do
 not seem to be older than the first    
half of the sixteenth  century4 ,the    
oldest respecting the city of           
,frankfort-on-the-,maine1  with which ,i
 am acquainted1 is of the year #adfj4   
,the first general  ordinance respecting
 fires in ,saxony was issued by ,duke   
,george in #aeba4  ,the first for the   
city of ,dresden1 which extended also to
 the whole  country1 was dated #aebi4   
,in many towns1 the first regulations   
made by  public authority for preventing
 fires will no doubt be found in the    
general regulations in regard to        
building1 which seem to be somewhat     
older than the particular ordinances    
concerning fires4 ,at ,augsburg an      
express regulation in regard to building
 was drawn up and made publicly  known  

as early as #addg4 ,in turning over old 
chronicles1 it is remarked  that great  
fires began to occur less frequently in 
the sixteenth  century2 and this is     
undoubtedly to be ascribed to the       
improved mode  of building#fja1 the     
precautions enjoined by governments to  
prevent  fires1 and the introduction of 
apparatus for extinguishing them4 ,but  
by the invention of fire-engines1 every 
thing in this respect was so  much      
changed1 that a complete revision of the
 regulations in regard to  the          
extinguishing of fires became necessary2
 and therefore the first  mention of    
town fire-engines will in all           
probability be found in the  new fire   
ordinances of the sixteenth and         
following century4    ,it has been      
remarked by ,von ,stetten1 that in the  
building accounts of  the city of       
,augsburg1 fire-engines are first       
mentioned in the year  #aeah4 ,they are 
called there instruments for fires1     
water syringes  useful at fires2 and    

these names seem to announce that the   
machine  was then in its infancy4 ,at   
that time they were made by a goldsmith 
at ,friedberg1 named ,anthony ,blatner1 
who the same year became a  citizen of  
,augsburg4 ,from the account            
added1--that the wheels and  levers were
 constructed by a wheelwright1 and from 
the greatness of the  expense1--there is
 reason to conclude that these were not 
small1 simple  hand-engines1 but large  
and complex machines4 ,in that          
respectable  dictionary entitled        
,maaler's ,teutschsprach1 ,zurich1      
#aefa1 ,i find  fire-hooks and          
fire-ladders1 but no instrument similar 
to a fire-engine4    ,in the year #afeg1
 the well-known jesuit ,caspar ,schott  
was struck  with admiration on seeing at
 ,nuremberg a fire-engine1 which had    
been  made there by ,john ,hautsch4 ,it 
stood on a sledge1 ten feet long and    
four feet broad4 ,the water-cistern was 
eight feet in length1 four  in height1  
and two in width4 ,it was moved by      

twenty-eight men1 and  forced a stream  
of water an inch in diameter to the     
height of eighty  feet#fjb2 consequently
 over the houses4 ,the machine was drawn
 by  two horses4 ,hautsch distributed   
throughout ,germany an engraving of  it1
 with an offer of constructing similar  
ones at a moderate price1  and teaching 
the use of them2 but he refused to show 
the internal  construction of it to     
,schott1 who however readily conjectured
 it4  ,from what he says of it1 one may 
easily perceive that the cylinders  did 
not stand in a perpendicular direction1 
but lay horizontally in a  box1 so that 
the pistons moved horizontally1 and not 
vertically1 as at  present4 ,upright    
cylinders therefore seem to belong to   
the more modern  improvements4 ,schott  
adds1 that this was not a new invention1
 as there  were such engines in other   
towns2 and he himself forty years       
before1  and consequently in #afag1 had 
seen one1 but much smaller1 in his      
native city4 ,he was born1 as is        

well-known1 in #afjh1 at ,knigshofen1   
not far from ,wrzburg4 ,george ,hautsch 
also1 son of the above artist1          
constructed similar engines1 and perhaps
 with improvements1 for  ,wagenseil#fjc 
and others have ascribed to him the     
invention4    ,the first regulations at 
,paris respecting fires1 as far as is   
known1  were made to restrain           
incendiaries1 who in the fourteenth     
century1  under the name of ,boutefoux1 
occasioned great devastation1 not  only 
in the capital1 but in the provinces4   
,this city appears to have  obtained    
fire-engines for the first time in the  
year #afii2 at any  rate the king at    
that period gave an exclusive right to  
,dumourier  ,duperrier to construct     
those machines called pompes portatives2
 and  he was engaged at a certain salary
 to keep in repair seventeen of  them1  
purchased for ,paris1 and to procure and
 to pay the necessary  workmen4 ,in the 
year #agbb the number of these engines  
was increased  to thirty1 which were    

distributed in different quarters of the
 city2  and at that time the contractors
 received annually #bj1jjj livres4 ,the 
city1 however1 besides these thirty     
royal engines1 had a great many  others 
which belonged to the ,hotel de ,ville1 
and with which the ,sieur  ,duperrier   
had nothing to do#fjd4    ,in the middle
 of the seventeenth century fire-engines
 indeed were  still very imperfect4     
,they had neither an air-chamber nor    
buckets1 and  required a great many men 
to work them4 ,they consisted merely of 
a  sucking-pump and forcing-pump united1
 which projected the water only  in     
spurts1 and with continual interruption4
 ,such machines1 on each  movement of   
the lever1 experience a stoppage1 during
 which no water  is thrown out2 and     
because the pipe is fixed1 it cannot    
convey water  to remote places1 though  
it may reach a fire at no great         
distance1  where there are doors and    
windows to afford it a passage4 ,at the 
same time the workmen are exposed to    

danger from the falling of the  houses  
on fire1 and must remove from them to a 
greater distance4  ,hautsch1 however1   
had adapted to his engine a flexible    
pipe1 which  could be turned to any side
 as might be necessary1 but certainly   
not  an air-chamber1 otherwise ,schott  
would have mentioned it4 ,in the time   
of ,belidor there were no other engines 
in ,france1 and the same kind  alone    
were used in ,england in #agfj4         
,professor ,busch at least concludes    
so#fje1 from the account then given by  
,ferguson1 who called ,newsham's        
engine1 which threw the water out in a  
continued stream1 a new  invention4 ,in 
,germany the oldest engines are of this 
kind4    ,who first conceived the idea  
of applying to the fire-engine an       
air-chamber1 in which the included air1 
by compressing the water1  forces it out
 in a continued stream1 is not known4   
,according to  a conjecture of          
,perrault1 ,vitruvius seems to speak of 
a similar  construction2 but ,perrault  

himself acknowledges that the obscure   
passage in question#fjf might be        
explained in another manner4 ,the       
air-chamber in its action has a         
similarity to ,hero's fountain1 in which
  the air compressed by the water       
obliges the latter to ascend#fjg4    ,i 
can find no older fire-engine           
constructed with an air-chamber than    
that of which ,perrault has given a     
figure and description4 ,he says it  was
 kept in the king's library at ,paris1  
and during fires could project  water to
 a great height2 that it had only one   
cylinder1 and yet threw  out the water  
in one continued jet4 ,he mentions      
neither its age nor the  inventor2 and  
,i can only add that his book was       
printed in #afhd4 ,the  principle of    
this machine1 however1 seems to have    
been mentioned before  by ,mariotte1 who
 on this account is by some considered  
as the inventor2  but he does not appear
 to have had any idea of a fire-engine1 
at least  he does not mention it4    ,it

 is certain that the air-chamber1 at    
least in ,germany1 came into  common use
 after it was applied by ,leupold to    
fire-engines1 a great  number of which  
he manufactured and sold4 ,he gave an   
account of it in  a small work1         
consisting of four sheets quarto1 which 
was published  in #agbj1 but at first he
 kept the construction a secret4 ,the   
engines  which he sold consisted of a   
strong copper box closely shut and      
well-soldered4 ,they weighed no more    
than sixteen pounds1 occupied  little   
room1 had only one cylinder2 and a man  
with one of them could  force up the    
water without interruption to the height
 of from twenty  to thirty feet4 ,about 
#agbe ,du ,fay saw one of ,leupold's    
engines at  ,strasburg1 and discovered  
by conjecture the construction of it1   
which  he made known in the             
,transactions of the ,academy of        
,sciences at ,paris  for that year4 ,it 
is very singular that on this occasion  
,du ,fay says  nothing of ,mariotte1 or 

of the engine in the king's library4    
,leupold1  however1 had some time       
before1 that is in #agbd1 given a       
description  and figure in his ,theatrum
 ,machinarum ,hydraulicarum#fjh1 with   
which  undoubtedly ,du ,fay was not     
acquainted4    ,another improvement1 no 
less useful1 is the leather hose added  
to the  engine1 which can be lengthened 
or shortened as necessary1 and to which 
the fire-pipe is applied1 so that the   
person who directs the jet of  water can
 approach the fire with less danger4    
,this invention1 it is  well known1     
belongs to two ,dutchmen1 both named    
,jan van der ,heide#fji1  who were      
inspectors of the apparatus for         
extinguishing fires at  ,amsterdam4 ,the
 first public experiments made with it  
took place in  #afgb2 and were attended 
with so much success1 that at a fire    
next  year1 the old engines were used   
for the last time1 and the new ones     
introduced in their stead4 ,in #afgg1   
the inventor obtained an exclusive      

privilege to make these engines during  
the period of twenty-five years4  ,in   
#afhb1 engines on this construction were
 distributed in sufficient  number      
throughout the whole city1 and the old  
ones were entirely  laid aside4 ,in     
#afie there were in ,amsterdam sixty of 
these engines1  the nearest six of which
 were to be employed at every fire4 ,in 
the  course of a few years they were    
common throughout all the towns in the  
,netherlands4    ,all these             
circumstances have been related by the  
inventor in a  particular work2 which1  
on account of the excellent engravings  
it  contains1 is exceedingly            
valuable#faj4 ,of these1 the first seven
  represent dangerous conflagrations at 
which the old engines were used1  but   
produced very little effect4 ,one of    
them is the fire which took  place in   
the stadthouse of ,amsterdam in the year
 #afeb4 ,the twelve  following plates   
represent fires which were extinguished 
by means of  the new engines1 and       

exhibit1 at the same time1 the various  
ways in  which the engines may be       
employed with advantage4 ,according to  
an  annexed calculation1 the city of    
,amsterdam lost by ten fires1 when the  
old apparatus was in use1 #a1jbd1acj    
florins2 but in the following five      
years1 after the introduction of the new
 engines1 the loss occasioned  by forty 
fires amounted only to #ah1cee florins2 
so that the yearly  saving was          
ninety-eight per cent4 ,of the internal 
construction of these  engines no       
description or plates have been given2  
nor do ,i remember to  have read a      
passage in any author from which it can 
be concluded that  they were furnished  
with an air-chamber1 though in the      
patents they  were always called        
spouting-engines1 which threw up one    
continued jet  of water4 ,the account   
given even of the nature of the pipe or 
hose is  short and defective1 probably  
with a view to render it more difficult 
to be imitated4 ,it is only said that it

 was made of leather in a  particular   
manner2 and that1 besides being thick1  
it was capable of  resisting the force  
of the water4    ,the conveyer or       
bringer was invented also about the same
 time by these  two ,dutchmen4 ,this    
name is given at present to a box which 
has on the  one side a sucking-pump1 and
 on the other a forcing-pump4 ,the      
former  serves to raise the water from a
 stream1 well1 or other reservoir1  by  
means of a stiff leathern pipe1 having  
at the extremity a metal  strainer      
pierced with holes to prevent the       
admission of dirt1 and  which is kept   
suspended above the mud by a round piece
 of cork4 ,the  forcing-pump drives the 
water thus drawn up through a leathern  
pipe  into the engine1 and renders the  
laborious conveyance of water by        
buckets unnecessary4    ,at first1      
indeed1 this machine was exceedingly    
simple4 ,it consisted  only of a        
leathern pipe screwed to the engine1 the
 end of which widened  into a bag       

supported near the reservoir1 and kept  
open by means of a  frame1 while the    
labourers poured water into it from     
buckets4 ,a pump1  however1 to answer   
this purpose was soon constructed by the
 ,van der  ,heides1 who named it a      
snake-pump4 ,by its means they were able
 to  convey the water from the distance 
of a thousand feet2 but ,i can find  no 
account of the manner in which it was   
made4 ,from the figure1 ,i  am inclined 
to think that they used only one        
cylinder with a lever4  ,sometimes also 
they placed a portable pump in the      
water1 which was  thus drawn into a     
leathern hose connected with it1 and    
conveyed to  the engine4 ,every pipe or 
hose for conveying water in this manner 
they called a wasserschlange1           
water-snake1 and this was not made of   
leather1 like the hose furnished with a 
fire-pipe1 but of sail-cloth4  ,they    
announced1 however1 that it required a  
particular preparation1  which consisted
 in making it water-tight by means of a 

proper cement4  ,the pipe also1 through 
which the water is drawn up1 must be    
stiffened  and distended by means of    
metal rings2 otherwise the external air1
 on  the first stroke of the pump1 would
 compress the pipe1 so that it could    
admit no water4 ,it is here seen that   
pipes made of sail-cloth are not  so new
 an invention as many have supposed4    
,that our present apparatus  for        
conveying water to the fire-engine is   
much more ingenious1 as well  as        
convenient1 must be allowed2 but ,i     
would strongly recommend that in  all   
cities there should be pumps1 or running
 wells of water1 to the  spout of which 
pipes having one end screwed to a       
fire-engine might be  affixed4 ,the ,van
 der ,heides1 among the advantages of   
their invention1  stated that this      
apparatus rendered it unnecessary to    
have leathern  buckets1 which are       
expensive1 or at any rate lessened their
 number1 as  well as that of the        
workmen4    ,from this account1 the     

truth of which cannot be doubted1 one   
may  readily believe that engines with  
leathern hose were certainly not        
invented by ,gottfried ,fuchs1 director 
of the fire apparatus at  ,copenhagen1  
in the year #afig1 as publicly announced
 in #agag1 with the  addition1 that this
 invention was soon employed both in    
,holland and at  ,hamburg4 ,fuchs seems 
only to have made known the ,dutch      
invention in  ,denmark1 on occasion of  
the great fire which took place on the  
#aith  of ,april #afhi1 at the          
,opera-house of ,amalienburg1 when the  
beautiful  palace of that name1 and more
 than #cej persons were consumed4 ,at   
any  rate we are told in history1 that1 
in consequence of this calamity1  an    
improvement was made in the fire        
establishment1 by new regulations       
issued on the #bcrd of ,july #afhi1 and 
that engines on the ,dutch              
construction1 which had been used more  
than twelve years at ,amsterdam1  were  
introduced4    ,hose or pipes of this   

kind for conveying water were however   
not  entirely unknown to the ancients4  
,at least the architect ,apollodorus    
says1 that to convey water to high      
places exposed to fiery darts1 the  gut 
of an ox1 having a bag filled with water
 affixed to it1 might  be employed2 for 
on compressing the bag1 the water would 
be forced  up through the gut to the    
place of its destination#faa4 ,this was 
a  conveyer of the simplest kind4       
,among the latest proposals for         
improving the hose is that of weaving   
one without a seam4 ,in #agbj1 some of  
this kind were made of hemp at          
,leipsic1 by ,beck1 a lace-weaver1 as we
 are told by ,leupold1 in his           
before-mentioned work on fire-engines1  
which was printed the same  year4 ,after
 this they were made by ,erke1 a        
linen-weaver of ,weimar2 and  at a later
 period they were made of linen at      
,dresden1 and also in  ,silesia#fab4 ,in
 ,england1 ,hegner and ,ehrliholzer had 
a manufactory at  ,bethnal-green1 near  

,london1 where they made water-tight    
hose without  seams#fac4 ,some of the   
same kind are made by ,m4 ,mgling on his
 estate  near ,stutgard1 on a loom of   
his own invention1 and are now used in  
many  towns of the duchy of ,wirtemberg4
 ,i shall here remark1 that ,braun had a
  loom on which shirts could be wove    
without a seam1 like those curious      
works of art sometimes brought from the 
,east ,indies1 and of which he  has     
given a full description with an        
engraving#fad4    ,in the last place1 ,i
 shall observe1 that notwithstanding the
 belief of  the ,turks in               
predestination1 fire-engines are in use 
at ,constantinople1  having been        
introduced by ,ibrahim ,effendi4    ,the
 fire-engines now in use are made upon  
the air-chamber principle               
above-described4 ,mr4 ,braithwaite has  
applied steam-power to the working  of  
fire-engines4 ,on this principle a      
locomotive and a floating engine  have  
been constructed4 ,the former was first 

employed at a fire in the  ,argyle      
,rooms in #ahcj4 ,it required eighteen  
minutes to elapse before the  water in  
the boiler was raised to #bab1 and threw
 up from thirty to  forty tons of water 
per hour1 to a height of ninety feet4   
,two others  have been constructed by   
the same engineer1 one of which threw up
  ninety tons of water per hour1 and one
 made for the king of ,prussia  threw up
 about #fa tons per minute4 ,in the     
steam floating engine which  lies in the
 ,thames1 the machinery either propels  
the vessel1 or works  the pumps as      
required4 ,the pipes used for conveying 
the water from the  plugs to the engines
 are now constructed of leather1 the    
seams being  either sewed up or fastened
 with metallic rivets4      ,,footnotes 
#ehb ,lib4 x4 cap4 #ab1 p4 #cdg4        
,compare lib4 ix4 cap4 #i4 p4 #cba4     
#ehc ,in that book entitled 1 or        
,spiritualia4 ,it may be  found ,greek  
and ,latin in ,veterum ,mathematicorum  
,opera1 ,parisiis #afic1  fol4 p4 #ahj4 

#ehd ,epist4 #db1 lib4 x4    #ehe ,lib4 
v4 edit4 ,almel4 p4 #cfj4    #ehf ,plin4
 lib4 v4 cap4 ult4    #ehg              
,poliorcetica1 p4 #cb1 in ,veterum      
,mathematicorum ,opera4    #ehh ,orig4  
xx4 #f4 ,fire-engines are used in many  
towns to wash the  windows in the upper 
stories1 which cannot be taken out4     
#ehi ,see ,digest4 i4 tit4 #ae1 where   
all persons are ordered to have  water  
always ready in their houses4 ,also     
,digest4 #dg1 tit4 #i4 ,many  things    
relating to this subject may be found in
 ,l4 ,a4 ,hambergeri  ,opuscula1 ,jen et
 ,lips4 #agdj1 #hvo1 p4 #ab2 in the     
,dissertation de  ,incendiis4 ,further  
information respecting the police       
establishment  of the ,romans in regard 
to fires1 is contained in two           
dissertations1  entitled ,g4 ,c4        
,marquarti de ,cura ,romanorum circa    
,incendia4 ,lips4 #afhi1  #dto4 ,and    
,ev4 ,ottonis ,dissertat de ,officio    
,prfecti ,vigilum circa  ,incendia4     
,ultrajecti #agcc4    #eij ,digest4     

xxxiii4 #g1 #ah4 ,dier4 ,genial4 v4 #bd4
    #eia ,controvers4 #i1 libri ii4     
#eib ,in ,germany also the roads and the
 distance between the ruts made  by     
cart-wheels were in old times very      
narrow4 ,some years ago1 when the  new  
tile-kiln was built before the ,geismar 
gate at ,gttingen1 there  was found at a
 great depth1 a proof of its antiquity1 
a street or road  which had formerly    
proceeded to the city with so small a   
space marked  out by carriage-wheels1   
that one like it is not to be seen in   
,germany4    #eic ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #h4    
#eid ,hanovii ,disquisitiones4 ,gedani  
#agej1 #dto1 p4 #fe4    #eie ,ann       
,comnen ,alexiad4 lib4 #af4 p4 #che2  4 
#eif ,a projectile machine of this kind 
is mentioned by ,joinville1 p4  #ci4    
#eig ,see the passage of ,anna ,comnena 
quoted by ,hanov4 p4 #cce4    #eih ,in  
,leonis ,allatii 4 ,colon4 #afec1 #hvo1 
p4 #bci4    #eii ,cap4 #ai1  #f1 p4     
#cbb4    #fjj ,pp4 #cdd1 #cdf4    #fja  
,thus in the year #adff straw thatch1   

and in #adgd the use of  shingles were  
forbidden at ,frankfort4--,lersner1 ii4 
p4 #bb4    #fjb ,doppelmayer says that  
the water was driven to the height of a 
hundred feet4    #fjc ,doppelmayer1 p4  
#cjc4    #fjd ,contin4 du ,traite de la 
,police1 par ,de la ,mare1 p4 #acg4     
#fje ,mathematik zum ,nutzen und        
,vergngen1 #hvo1 p4 #cif4    #fjf ,lib4 
x4 cap4 #ab4    #fjg ,spiritualia1 #cf1 
p4 #ce4    #fjh ,vol4 i4 p4 #abj1 tab4  
#de1 fig4 #b4    #fji ,in the patent1   
however1 they were named ,jan and       
,nicholas van  der ,heyden4    #faj     
,beschryving der nieuwliiks uitgevonden 
,slang-,brand-,spuiten1 ,jan  van der   
,heide1 ,amst4 #afij1 folio4    #faa    
,poliorcet4 page #cb4    #fab ,leipziger
 ,intelligenzblatt1 #agge1 p4 #cde2 and 
#agfg1 p4 #fi4  ,teutscher ,merkur1     
#aghc4    #fac ,lysons's ,environs of   
,london4    #fad ,vestitus ,sacerdotum  
,hebrorum4 ,amst4 #agja1 #dto1 i4 p4    
#bgc4 ,much  useful information in      
regard to various improvements in the   

apparatus  for extinguishing fires may  
be found in ,aug4 ,niemann ,uebersicht  
der  ,sicherungsmittel gegen            
,feuersgefahren4 ,hamb4 und ,kiel1      
#agif1 #hvo4          ,,indigo4      ,it
 is more than probable that indigo1 so  
early as the time of  ,dioscorides and  
,pliny1 was brought to ,europe1 and     
employed there in  dyeing and painting4 
,this ,i shall endeavour to show2 but   
under that  name must be understood     
every kind of blue pigment1 separated   
from  plants by fermentation1 and       
converted into a friable substance by   
desiccation2 for those who should       
maintain that real indigo must be  made 
from those plants named in the botanical
 system ,indigofera  tinctoria1 would   
confine the subject within too narrow   
limits2 as the  substance which our     
merchants and dyers consider as real    
indigo is  prepared1 in different       
countries1 from so great a number of    
plants1  that they are not even         
varieties of the same species4          

,before the ,american colonies were     
established1 all the indigo employed  in
 ,europe came from the ,east ,indies2   
and till the discovery of a  passage    
round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 it was  
conveyed1 like other ,indian            
productions1 partly through the ,persian
 ,gulf1 and partly by land to  ,babylon1
 or through ,arabia and up the ,red ,sea
 to ,egypt1 from which  it was          
transported to ,europe4 ,considering    
this long carriage1 as the  article was 
not obtained1 according to the ,italian 
expression1 a  drittura1 that is1 in a  
direct manner1 it needs excite no       
surprise1  that our knowledge1 in regard
 to its real country and the manner of  
preparing it1 should be exceedingly     
uncertain and imperfect4 ,is it         
astonishing that articles1 always       
obtained through ,arabia1 should be     
considered as productions of that       
country2 and that many commodities      
which were the work of art1 should be   
given out to be productions of  nature8 

,for more than a hundred years the      
,dutch purchased from the  ,saxons      
cobalt1 and smalt made from it1 and sold
 them again in ,india2  and the ,indians
 knew as little where and in what manner
 the ,dutch  obtained them1 as the      
,saxons did the people who were the     
ultimate  purchasers and consumers4 ,the
 real nature of indigo was not generally
  known in ,europe till the ,europeans  
procured it from the first hand2  yet   
long after that period1 and even in the 
letters-patent obtained  on the #bcrd of
 ,december #agje1 by the proprietors of 
the mines in the  principality of       
,halberstadt and the county of          
,reinstein1 indigo  was classed among   
minerals on account of which works were 
suffered  to be erected2 but this only  
proves the individual ignorance of the  
undertakers1 and also of their          
superiors1 when they read what they had 
written1 and confirms the justness of   
,ovid's advice1      ,disce bonas artes1
 moneo1 ,germana juventus2      ,non    

tantum trepidos ut tueare reos4    ,what
 ,dioscorides calls ,indicon1 and ,pliny
 and ,vitruvius ,indicum1  ,i am        
strongly inclined to believe to have    
been our indigo#fae4 ,it  was a blue    
pigment brought from ,india1 and used   
both in painting and  in dyeing4 ,when  
pounded it gave a black powder1 and when
 suspended in  water it produced an     
agreeable mixture of blue and purple4   
,it belonged  to the costly dye-stuffs1 
and was often adulterated by the        
addition  of earth4 ,on this account1   
that which was soft without any         
roughness1  and which resembled an      
inspissated juice1 was esteemed the     
best4 ,pliny  thinks#faf that pure      
indigo may be distinguished from that   
which is  adulterated by burning it1 as 
the former gives an exceedingly         
beautiful  purple flame1 and emits a    
smell similar to that of sea-water4     
,both he  and ,dioscorides speak of two 
kinds1 one of which adheres to reeds1   
in the form of slime or scum thrown up  

by the sea2 the other1 as  ,dioscorides 
says1 was scraped from the sides of the 
dye-pans in the  form of a              
purple-coloured scum2 and ,pliny        
expressly remarks1 that it  was         
collected in this manner in the         
establishments for dyeing purple4  ,the 
former relates also1 that ,indicum      
belonged to the astringent  medicines2  
that it was used for ulcers and         
inflammations1 and that it  cleansed and
 healed wounds4    ,this is all1 as far 
as ,i know1 that is to be found in the  
works of  the ancients respecting       
,indicum4 ,i have given it at full      
length1 as  accurately as possible1 and 
,i have added1 in order that the reader 
may  be better able to compare and      
judge1 references to the original words 
of the authors4 ,indicon1 it is true1   
occurs in other passages2 but  it was   
certainly different from the one already
 mentioned4 ,i allude1  for example1 to 
the black ,indicon of ,arrian and the   
,indicon of  ,hippocrates4 ,of the      

former ,i shall treat in particular     
hereafter2  and in regard to the latter1
 ,i refer to the author quoted in the   
note  below#fag4 ,it is not at all      
surprising that these names should be   
applied to more ,indian commodities1    
since at present we give to many  kinds 
of fruit1 flowers1 fowls and other      
things1 the appellation of  ,indian4    
,the ancients1 indeed1 were not so      
careful as to distinguish  always1 by a 
proper addition1 the many articles to   
which they gave  the name of ,indica2   
and they had reason to expect that their
  contemporaries would readily          
comprehend by the connexion1 the kind   
that  was properly meant4 ,their        
commentators1 however1 in later times   
have  for the most part thought only of 
one species or thing1 and by these      
means they have fallen into mistakes    
which ,i shall here endeavour to        
rectify4    ,everything said by the     
ancients of ,indicum seems to agree     
perfectly  with our indigo4 ,the proper 

country of this production is ,india2   
that  is to say1 ,gudscharat or         
,gutscherad1 and ,cambaye or ,cambaya1  
from which  it seems to have been       
brought to ,europe since the earliest   
periods4  ,it is found mentioned1 from  
time to time1 in every century2 it is   
never spoken of as a new article1 and it
 has always retained its old  name2     
which seems to be a proof that it has   
been used and employed in  commerce     
without interruption4    ,it is true1 as
 the ancients say1 that good indigo1    
when pulverized1  is of a blackish      
colour4 ,the tincture1 however1 is      
partly blue and  partly purple2 but     
under the latter term we must understand
 an  agreeable violet1 and not1 as is   
often the case1 our scarlet4 ,it is     
true also that good indigo is soft or   
smooth to the touch#fah when  pounded2  
it floats on water1 and at present1 as  
in the time of ,pliny1  is adulterated  
and rendered heavier by the admixture of
 some earth1  which in general1 as      

appears1 is fine pounded slate#fai4 ,it 
is further  true that the purity of it  
can be discovered by burning it4 ,indigo
  free from all foreign bodies leaves   
but little ash1 while that which  is    
impure leaves a large quantity of earth4
 ,pliny1 perhaps1 did not  rightly      
understand this test by fire1 and added 
from conjecture1 what  he says in regard
 to the colour of the flame and the     
smell of the  smoke1 that this proof    
might not remain without an explanation4
 ,it is1  however1 possible that those  
who considered indigo to be sea-slime1  
imagined that they perceived in it a    
smell of sea-water4 ,a naturalist  of   
modern times1 who refers petrifactions  
to ,noah's flood1 believed  that he     
could smell sea-water in them after the 
lapse of so many  thousand years4       
,indicum1 on account of its long        
carriage by land1 must have been  dear1 
and therefore it was one of those       
pigments which the ancient  painters1   
who were often poor slaves1 were not    

accustomed to keep in  any quantity by  
them1 and with which it was necessary   
they should be  supplied by those for   
whom they executed paintings#fbj4 ,our  
indigo was  also exceedingly dear till  
it was cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 
where  the value of it decreased as long
 as good land was plentiful and the     
price of labour was lessened by the     
slave-trade4    ,that indigo1 which at  
present is used only by dyers1 should   
have been  employed also for painting1  
needs excite no surprise4 ,it was       
applied to  this purpose till the       
invention of painting in oil1 and the   
discovery  of ,prussian blue1 smalt and 
other pigments of a superior quality4   
,it is  even still used by              
landscape-painters to produce a pale    
gray2 but it  will not harmonise with   
oil4 ,as to the medical properties of   
indigo1  ,i can at any rate show that   
the experiments made with it at the end 
of the seventeenth and the beginning of 
the eighteenth century fully  confirm   

the high encomium bestowed by           
,dioscorides upon his ,indicum4  ,there 
was a time when the former was much     
prescribed and recommended4  ,at present
 our physicians are acquainted with     
purer and more powerful  remedies than  
indigo1 the internal use of which1 as   
the fermented mass  is prepared in      
copper vessels1 must be attended with   
suspicion4    ,that the author1 so often
 mentioned already1 was not acquainted  
with  the preparation of indigo1 cannot 
be denied4 ,it would1 indeed1 have  been
 extraordinary had the account of it    
reached the ,greeks and the  ,romans    
undisguised by fables1 added either to  
answer the purposes of  the interested  
merchant1 or accidentally in the course 
of its long  journey1 in passing through
 so many countries and languages4 ,it   
appears  to me1 however1 that through   
these it may still be discovered2 and in
  all probability we should be better   
able to form some idea of it were  the  
oldest method of making indigo still    

known4 ,in the slime deposited  on the  
reeds1 ,i think ,i can remark the first 
degree of fermentation1 or  commencement
 of putrefaction1 without which the     
pigment could not be  separated4 ,who   
knows whether the indigo plants in the  
earliest times  were not deposited in   
pits or in stagnant water1 in the same  
manner  as our flax and hemp8 ,who knows
 whether after putrefaction they were   
not taken out1 and the colouring parts  
adhering to them washed off  and        
collected8 ,the quantity indeed obtained
 by this process would not  be great1   
and at present a much better method is  
employed2 but the  improvements made in 
every art have been gradual4 ,the old   
inhabitants  of the ,canary islands     
scratched their land with the horns of  
oxen1  because they were not acquainted 
with the spade1 and far less with the   
plough4 ,the above conjecture will      
appear much more probable1 when it  is  
known that in many parts of ,india the  
plants were formerly placed  in large   

pits2 and in ,malta1 where indigo was   
still cultivated in  the seventeenth    
century1 they were put into reservoirs  
or basins in  order to ferment#fba4 ,if 
this was usual in the oldest times1 it  
may  be easily seen how fabulous        
accounts might arise4 ,indigo was a     
slime  attracted from the water by a    
reed1 which the indigo plant1 stripped  
of  its bark1 was considered to be4     
,dioscorides speaks of another kind of  
indigo1 which was the dried             
purple-coloured scum of the dye-pans4   
,my predecessors1 considering this      
account as an error1 which might have   
arisen either from conjecture or        
misconception1 or which was purposely   
occasioned by merchants1 did not  think 
it worthy of further examination4 ,i    
cannot1 however1 refrain from           
remarking1 that a blue pigment1 and even
 a very fine one1 if the proper         
preparations had been made for that     
purpose1 might have been obtained  in   
this manner4 ,it was not indeed indigo1 

in the proper sense of the  word1 but a 
pigment of a similar nature4 ,that fine 
high-priced powder  sold1 at present1   
under the name of blue carmine1 is made 
from the  separated scum of a           
dye-liquor1 in which the finest         
colouring particles  remain suspended4  
,the scum or flower of a blue pan#fbb   
which floats  on the surface exhibits a 
play of many colours2 and as among these
 the  ancient purple is frequently      
observed1 it may therefore very properly
  be said to have a purple colour#fbc4  
,in my opinion1 there is no reason  to  
disbelieve ,dioscorides1 when he says   
that in his time a blue pigment  named  
indigo was made in this manner1         
especially as it can be proved  that the
 woad-dyers1 at the end of the sixteenth
 century1 separated  from their pans a  
colouring substance1 which they sold    
instead of  indigo1 an article at that  
time exceedingly dear#fbd4 ,besides1 we 
read that in the establishments for     
dyeing black1 the scum was in like      

manner collected in old times in the    
form of a black pigment1 and this       
practice1 as appears1 was usual in all  
the dye-houses in general4  ,pliny1 who 
says that this indigo was made in the   
purple dye-houses1  seems either to have
 misunderstood ,dioscorides1 or to have 
been too  precipitate2 but it is certain
 that the scum in the purple dye-houses 
may have been collected and dried into a
 purple-coloured carmine4    ,as the    
,europeans did not become acquainted    
with the nature of indigo  till modern  
times1 it needs excite no astonishment  
that the old  commentators should have  
erred in explaining the passages to     
which ,i  here allude2 and their opinion
 can therefore be of little weight in   
opposition to mine4 ,those who have     
approached nearest to the truth1        
,sarazen1 ,mathioli1 ,salmasius1 c41    
speak as if indigo were made from  our  
woad1 which however does not grow in    
,india4 ,dioscorides speaks  also of    
woad in a particular section4 ,marcellus

 ,vergilius says1 that  ,dioscorides    
meant indigo is certain2 and this       
article is so generally  known that it  
is not worth while to mention it4 ,but  
he himself seems  not to have been      
acquainted with it1 else he would have  
amended the  erroneous passage which    
speaks of ,indian stone#fbe4 ,this arose
 from  the ignorance of the old         
transcribers1 who being unacquainted    
with  ,indicum thought only of gemma    
,indica1 mentioned by ,pliny#fbf4 ,but  
,vergilius was right in this1 that the  
purple lake1 spoken of by ,pliny1  and  
not by ,dioscorides as he believes1 can 
no longer be produced4    ,i have long  
made it a rule1 and prescribed it to    
others1 in explaining  any object       
mentioned by the ancients1 never to     
admit1 without the  strongest proofs1   
that the same article is denoted by     
different  appellations4 ,this1 it is   
true1 has been often done4 ,by these    
means  the small knowledge we possess of
 a thing that occurs under one name     

only may be increased4 ,a wider field   
may thus be opened for conjecture1  and 
more latitude may be given to the       
imagination2 but at the same  time one  
may fall into groundless explanations1  
and hazard assertions1  which1 with     
whatever caution and learning proposed1 
will1 on closer  examination1 be found  
either false or highly improbable4      
,according  to this rule1 ,i have       
carefully endeavoured not to suffer     
myself to  be so far misled by the      
respectability of my predecessors1 as to
  consider the ,indicum and ,indicum    
nigrum of the ancients to be the  same  
substance4 ,on further research ,i find 
that the latter not only  appears by the
 epithet to be different from indigo1   
but that it is  ,china1 or1 as the      
,dutch call it1 ,indian ink4 ,to prove  
this1 ,i must  refer to the passage of  
,pliny#fbg on which my assertion is     
founded2  and perhaps the short         
illustrations added will render this    
minuteness  less tedious to those who   

are fond of such disquisitions4 ,in the 
passage referred to1 ,pliny enumerates  
all the materials which in his  time    
were used for black ink4 ,he therefore  
mentions two vitriolic  substances1 a   
slime or sediment 7salsugo71 and a      
yellow vitriolic  earth 7called also    
misy74 ,such minerals continued in use  
as long  as men were unacquainted with  
the art of lixiviating the salt1 and    
causing it to crystallize2 or in other  
words1 as long as they had no           
vitriol-manufactories4 ,he speaks also  
of lamp-black being made in huts  built 
for the purpose1 which are described by 
,vitruvius1 and from which  the smoke of
 burning pine-wood was conveyed into a  
close apartment4 ,the  article was      
certainly adulterated1 when soot1 taken 
from the baths and  other places where  
an open fire was maintained with wood of
 all kinds1  was intermixed with it4 ,it
 is very remarkable that black from     
burnt  refuse of grapes1 noir de vigne1 
which at present our artists1 and       

particularly our copper-plate printers1 
consider as the most beautiful  black1  
was made even at that period4 ,germany  
hitherto has obtained the  greater part 
of this article from ,mentz1 through    
,frankfort1 and on that  account it is  
called ,frankfort black4 ,some is made  
also at ,kitsingen1  ,markbreit1 and    
,munich4 ,for this purpose the refuse of
 the grapes is  charred in a close fire1
 and being then finely pounded is packed
 into  casks4 ,pliny observes1 that it  
was asserted that from this substance   
one could obtain a black which might be 
substituted for indigo4 ,another        
pigment was bone-black1 or burnt ivory1 
which is highly esteemed even  at       
present4 ,besides these1 continues he1  
there is obtained from ,india  what is  
called ,indicum1 the preparation of     
which ,i have not yet been  able to     
learn3 but a similar pigment is made    
from the black scum of  the dye-pans1 in
 places for dyeing black1 and another   
kind is obtained  from charred fir-wood 

finely pulverized4 ,the cuttle-fish     
7sepia7  likewise gives a black2 but    
that however has nothing to do with the 
present question4 ,he remarks1 in the   
last place1 that every kind of  black   
pigment is improved1 or rather the      
preparation of it completed1  by        
exposure to the sun#fbh2 that is to say1
 after gum has been added  to that      
intended for writing1 and size to that  
destined for painting4  ,but that which 
was made with vinegar was more durable1 
and could not  be easily effaced by     
washing4 ,all this is very true4 ,our   
ink acquires  a superior quality when   
exposed to the light of the sun in flat 
vessels4 ,that vinegar renders black    
colours faster1 is well known to  our   
calico-printers2 and those who wish to  
have good ink must employ in  making it 
the brightest vinegar of beer4 ,it is   
equally true1 that every  black pigment 
mixed up with gum or size can be sooner 
and easier washed  out again with       
water#fbi4    ,a considerable part of   

what has hitherto been quoted from      
,pliny1 may  be found also in           
,vitruvius#fcj4 ,the latter1 in like    
manner1 mentions  huts for making       
lamp-black2 he speaks also of           
ivory-black1 and says  expressly1 that  
when it is properly made it not only    
forms a good  colour and excellent ink1 
but approaches very near to ,indicum4   
,now ,i might here ask1 whether it is at
 all probable that the learned  ,pliny  
and the practical connoisseur of        
painting1 the architect  ,vitruvius1    
could consider and describe our blue    
indigo as a pigment  which1 like        
lamp-black1 could be employed as a black
 colour and  as ink8 ,is it credible    
that ,pliny1 if he meant blue indigo in 
the  before-mentioned passage1 would    
have said that he was not able to  learn
 the preparation of it1 when he         
expressly describes it1 as he  believed 
it to be1 in the course of a few lines  
further8 ,would ,pliny  and ,vitruvius1 
had they been acquainted with black     

indigo only1 remark  immediately after1 
that1 when costly indigo could not be   
obtained1  earth saturated with woad1   
consequently a blue earth1 might be used
 in  its stead8 ,is not allusion here   
made to a blue pigment1 as was before   
to a black one8 ,is it not therefore    
evident1 that the name of ,indicum  was 
given to a black and also to a blue     
pigment brought from ,india8 ,and  if   
this be the case1 is it not highly      
probable that the black ,indicum  was   
what we at present call ,indian ink1    
which approaches so near to  the finest 
ivory-black1 and black of wine lees1    
that it is often  counterfeited by these
 substances1 a preparation of which is  
frequently  sold as ,indian ink to      
unwary purchasers8 ,indian ink is in    
general use  in ,india1 and has been so 
in all probability since the earliest   
ages4  ,in ,india all artificial        
productions are of very great antiquity2
 and  therefore ,i will venture to say1 
that it is not probable that ,indian    

ink is a new invention in ,india1       
although it may probably have been      
improved1 and particularly by the       
,chinese4    ,to confound the two       
substances1 however1 called indigo      
7indicum7  at that period was not       
possible1 as every painter and dealer in
  colours would know that there were two
 kinds1 a blue and a black4 ,it  has1   
nevertheless1 occurred to me1 that in   
the works of the ancients  obscurity may
 have sometimes been avoided by the     
addition of an  epithet2 and ,i once    
thought ,i had found in ,pliny an       
instance of this  foresight2 that is1   
where he names all kinds of             
colours--purpurissum1  ,indicum cruleum1
 melinum1 auripigmentum1 cerussa#fca4 ,i
  conceived that in this passage our    
indigo was distinguished from  the black
 indicum by the epithet cruleum4 ,but my
 joy at this  discovery was soon damped 
by ,hardouin1 who places between        
,indicum and  cruleum a comma1 which is 
not to be found in many of the oldest   

and  best editions4 ,i cannot1          
therefore1 get rid of this comma2 for it
 is  beyond all dispute that cruleum was
 the common appellation of blue  copper 
ochre1 that is1 mountain blue4 ,i shall 
now proceed to examine  whether my      
observation be true1 that the ,greeks   
frequently used the  term black indicum1
 when they meant to denote the black1   
and not the  blue4    ,the term nigrum  
,indicum occurs in ,arrian1 ,galen1     
,paulus gineta1  and perhaps in the     
works of other ,greek physicians2 and as
 the ,latin  writers were acquainted    
with an ,indicum which dyed black1 there
 is  reason to conjecture that this was 
the ,indicum nigrum of the ,greeks1     
though ,i should rather be inclined to  
translate this appellation by the  words
 ,indian black1 in the same manner as we
 may say ,berlin blue1 ,roman  red1     
,naples yellow1 ,brunswick green1       
,spanish brown1 c42 or ,i should as     
readily translate it ,indian ink4       
,arrian introduces it along with other  

,indian wares4 ,i do not indeed find    
that he makes any mention of indigo     
properly so called2 but a complete      
catalogue of merchandise is not to  be  
expected from him4 ,indicum1 however1   
occurs once more in this  author2 but in
 the passage where it is found it is    
only an epithet to  another article4    
,speaking of cinnabar1 he adds1 that he 
means that kind  called ,indian1 which  
is obtained from a tree in the same     
manner as gum4  ,i am inclined to think 
that he alludes to dragon's blood1 which
 on  account of its colour was at that  
time called cinnabar4    ,some have     
conjectured that what in ,arrian is     
named laccos chromatinos  was our       
indigo1 which indeed might be classed   
among the lakes1  according to the      
present meaning of that word4 ,others   
understand by it  gum-lac#fcb4 ,but ,i  
am unacquainted with any proofs that    
gum-lac was  known at so early a period4
 ,i much doubt whether this meaning of  
the  word lac be so old2 and ,i must    

confess that the opinion of ,salmasius  
appears to me highly probable1 namely1  
that ,arrian alluded to a kind of       
party-coloured garment3 for besides the 
grounds adduced by ,salmasius1  it      
deserves to be remarked1 that in the    
passage in question different  kinds of 
clothes1 and no other articles are      
mentioned4 ,besides1 the  epithet       
chromatinos is applied by the same      
writer1 in the same sense1  to other    
kinds of clothing4 ,it cannot therefore 
be said that ,arrian  mentions our      
gum-lac1 the origin of which word       
,salmasius endeavours to  discover4     
,in the works of ,galen1 which have not 
yet been sufficiently  illustrated1 ,i  
have found ,indicum nigrum only four    
times4 ,in a place  where he speaks of  
diseases of the eyes#fcc1 he extols it  
on account  of its cleansing quality2   
and says it can be used for wounds1 when
  there is no inflammation4 ,in another 
place#fcd1 it occurs in three           
prescriptions for eye-salves4 ,i have   

however endeavoured1 but without        
success1 to find in this excellent      
writer an explanation of what he  calls 
,indicum2 though he has explained almost
 all the different  articles then used  
in the ,materia medica4 ,it appears     
therefore that the  ,greeks gave the    
name of ,indicum to our indigo1 and also
 to ,indian  black or ,indian ink4      
,it however cannot be denied that1 in   
opposition to this opinion1             
considerable doubts arise4 ,many who    
think that the black indigo  7nigrum    
,indicum7 of ,pliny and ,vitruvius was  
not ink1 but our  indigo1 remark1 that  
things of a dark blue or dark violet    
colour were  by the ,greeks and the     
,romans frequently named black2 and     
therefore  that the blue indigo might in
 this manner be called black#fce4 ,but  
the examples adduced as proofs are      
epithets applied by the poets  to       
dark-coloured flowers4 ,because nature  
produces no black flowers1  the poets1  
who are fond of everything uncommon1    

extraordinary1 and  hyperbolic1 call    
flowers black1 when they are of so dark 
a tint as to  approach nearly to black4 
,thus clear and deep water is called    
black4 ,it  is however hardly credible  
that painters and dyers1 who must       
establish  an accurate distinction      
between colours1 should have spoken in  
so vague  a manner4 ,salmasius suspects 
that ,nil and ,nir1 the ,arabic names of
  indigo1 have arisen from the ,latin   
word niger4    ,the objection1 that     
,paulus gineta1 the physician1 in a     
passage where  he refers to ,dioscorides
 for the medical virtues of ,indicum1   
applies  to it the epithet black1 seems 
to have more weight#fcf4 ,it may be     
added also1 that the virtues1 in        
general1 which ,galen ascribes to the   
,indicum nigrum1 appear to be similar to
 those ascribed by ,dioscorides  to     
,indicum2 and the latter in one         
place#fcg1 where he speaks of  the      
healing of wounds1 uses only the        
expression ,indicum1 and not  ,indicum  

nigrum4 ,it is particularly worthy of   
remark1 that ,zosimus1  the chemist1    
declares the hyacinth colour of the     
ancients1 that of  woad1 and the        
,indicum nigrum1 to be the same#fch or  
similar4 ,but to  those who know on how 
slight grounds the ancient physicians   
ascribed  medicinal qualities to many   
substances1 it will not perhaps appear  
strange1 that1 in consequence of the    
same name1 they should ascribe  the same
 qualities to two different things4 ,it 
is not improbable  that in cases of     
external injury1 for which the ,indicum 
nigrum was  recommended1 indigo and     
,indian ink might produce as much or as 
little  effect4 ,i should consider of   
far greater importance the opinion of   
the  chemist ,zosimus2 but unfortunately
 his writings have not yet been         
printed4 ,the period in which he lived  
is still uncertain1 and it is not  known
 whether all the chemical manuscripts   
which bear that name were  written by   
the same author4    ,from what has been 

said1 ,i think it may1 at any rate1 be  
inferred1 that  in the time of          
,vitruvius and ,pliny1 indigo1 as well  
as ,indian ink1 was  procured from      
,india1 and that both were named        
,indicum4 ,it is less  certain that the 
,greeks called indigo ,indicum1 and     
,indian ink ,indian  black4 ,nay1 it    
appears that indigo1 on account of the  
very dark blue  colour which it exhibits
 both when dry and in the state of a    
saturated  tincture1 was often named    
,indian black4 ,in my opinion1 it is    
proved  also that1 in the old           
dye-houses1 the workmen collected the   
scum thrown  up by the dye-pans1 and    
dried it into a kind of lake or carmine4
    ,i shall now prove what ,i have     
already asserted1 that indigo was at all
  times used1 and continued without     
interruption to be imported from        
,india4 ,i shall quote mention made of  
it in various centuries2 but ,i am      
convinced that attentive readers may    
find instances where it occurs in  many 

other writers4    ,the ,arabian         
physicians1 it is probable1 all speak of
 indigo2 but it is  unfortunate that in 
this point we must depend upon very     
incorrect ,latin  translations4 ,it     
appears also that they often repeat the 
information  of the ,greeks1 in regard  
to articles of the ,materia medica1     
without  having been acquainted with    
them themselves4 ,rhases1 who lived at  
the end of the tenth century#fci1       
mentions1 8,nil1 alias ,indicum40       
,avicenna1 who died in #ajcf1 often     
speaks of indigo#fdj2 but in the  margin
 of the wretched translation it is      
remarked1 that under the term  ,indicum1
 alum 7or much rather green vitriol7 is 
to be understood4  ,in a passage1       
however1 where he speaks of dyeing the  
hair black1 he  certainly alludes to    
indigo1 which1 according to the         
translation1  produced colorem          
pavonaceum1 or a violet colour4 ,in the 
,latin we find  8,indicum indum bonum10 
and this awkward expression ,salmasius  

explains  by remarking1 that the words  
in the ,arabic are ,alusma ,alhendia1   
that  is1 ,indian woad4 ,in the same    
place he mentions ,indicum carmenum1 a  
kind of indigo which did not dye so much
 a violet colour as a black1  that is to
 say with the addition of green vitriol4
 ,carmania1 indeed1  bordered on        
,gedrosia1 which is the proper country  
of indigo1 where the  best is still     
prepared at ,guzerat4 ,in the           
explanation of some ,arabic  words1     
printed in my copy of ,avicenna1        
,indicum is translated granum  ,nil4    
,serapion1 about the end of the eleventh
 century1 mixed together1  as appears1  
every thing that the ,greeks have said  
in regard to indigo  and woad4          
,averroes1 in the middle of the twelfth 
century1 mentions the  medicinal        
qualities of indigo as given by the     
,greeks1 and adds1 that it  was much    
used for dyeing4    ,muratori gives a   
treaty1 written in ,latin1 of the year  
#aaic1 between  the citizens of ,bologna

 and ,ferrara1 which contains a list of 
those  articles subject to pay duty4    
,among these occurs indigum#fda4 ,in the
  thirteenth century1 the celebrated    
,marco ,polo1 who spent twenty-six      
years in travelling through ,asia1 and  
even some parts of ,china1 relates  that
 he saw indigo1 which the dyers used1   
made in the kingdom of ,coulan  or      
,coilum2 and he describes the process   
for preparing it#fdb4 ,much  curious    
information in regard to the trade with 
this article1 in the  middle of the     
fourteenth century1 is contained in the 
valuable work of  ,francesco ,balducei  
,pegolotti#fdc4 ,we there find the names
 of different  kinds1 such as ,indaco di
 ,baldacca detto buccaddeo1 in all      
probability  from ,bagdad1 a city which 
in many old books of travels is called  
,baldach or ,baldac2 also ,indaco del   
,golfo1 ,indaco di ,cipri1 ,indaco      
,rifanti4 ,indigo1 at that time1 was    
imported in hides 7cuojo71 or in        
leather bags 7otre71 and also in boxes  

7casse74 ,what this traveller  says in  
regard to the signs by which its        
goodness may be known1 is  very         
remarkable4 ,nicolo ,conti1 who         
travelled through ,india before the     
year #addd1 mentions endego among the   
merchandise of ,camboia#fdd4  ,that the 
expression color indicus was used in the
 middle ages to  denote blue mixed with 
violet1 is proved by ,du ,cange4 ,it    
appears to me  therefore highly         
improbable that indigo should not be    
known to ,rosetti1  as ,professor       
,bischof supposes#fde4 ,in that         
important work on dyeing1  however1     
which ,i mentioned long ago#fdf1 it     
occurs several times1 and  always under 
the name endego4    ,i shall here make  
one observation1 which is of some       
importance in  the history of dyeing4   
,it is found that in the middle ages the
 ,jews  maintained in the ,levant a     
great many establishments for dyeing1   
and  were the principal people who      
carried on this branch of business4     

,benjamin the ,jew1 who died in #aagc1  
says in his travels1 in speaking of     
some places1 that 8a ,jew lived there   
who was a dyer20 or he remarks1  in     
regard to others1 that 8most of the     
,jews followed the occupation of        
dyeing40 ,a scarlet-dyer lived at       
,tarento1 and a purple-dyer at ,thebes4 
,at that period the ,jews at ,jerusalem 
had hired from the king a place         
particularly well-fitted for dyeing1 on 
the express condition that no  person   
besides themselves should be suffered to
 carry on there the  same business#fdg4 
,i am fully aware that well-founded     
doubts have  been entertained in regard 
to the credit which ought to be given to
  ,benjamin's narration1 and ,jewish    
vanity is everywhere well-known2 but  ,i
 do not see why he ought not to be      
believed in regard to this point2  for  
it may very naturally be asked1 why he  
should have falsely ascribed  this      
occupation to his countrymen and no     
other8 ,he speaks only once of  a ,jew  

glass-maker1 a woollen- and a           
silk-weaver4 ,to this may be added1     
that it is frequently stated in various 
authors1 that the business  of dyeing   
was carried on in ,italy by the ,jews4  
,thus1 in the eleventh  century1 among  
the branches of revenue arising to the  
popes from  ,benevento1 mention is made 
of the taxes paid by the ,jews on       
account of  their dye-houses4 ,in the   
middle ages princes seem to have        
maintained  dye-houses on their own     
account4 ,instances occur of their      
giving away1  as presents1 such         
establishments with all their           
apparatus#fdh4 ,a place  of this kind   
was called tincta1 tingta1 or tintoria4 
,this dye  regale is to be deduced      
perhaps from the old establishments for 
dyeing  purple1 which could be formed   
only by sovereigns1 and not by private  
individuals4 ,along with these tinct the
 ,jews are often mentioned1  so that it 
appears probable they were employed     
there as workmen4    ,there is reason   

therefore to conjecture that the ,jews  
learned this  art in the ,east1 and that
 they employed in ,italy the same       
pigments  as were used in the dye-houses
 of the ,levant4 ,it is not improbable  
also1 that in the room of woad1 which   
was then cultivated in ,italy1  they    
introduced indigo1 a substance richer in
 colouring matter1 or at  any rate1     
rendered it more common4 ,the ,italians 
were the first people  in ,europe who   
brought this art to a greater degree of 
perfection1 as  they did many others2   
and it can be proved that the knowledge 
of it  was thence diffused to other     
countries4 ,in the same proportion as   
this  took place1 indigo1 in my opinion1
 banished the native woad1 which was    
neither so advantageous1 nor            
communicated so beautiful a colour as   
the  ,italians were able to dye with the
 former4 ,the use of it became more     
extended when the productions of the    
,east ,indies were brought to ,europe   
by sea1 and particularly after it could 

be obtained from ,america at a  much    
cheaper rate4    ,the first ,portuguese 
ship1 that commanded by ,vasco de ,gama1
 returned  from the ,east ,indies in the
 year #adii1 and was soon followed by   
several  more1 all laden with the most  
valuable merchandise of the ,east4 ,i   
have never yet been able to find any    
invoice of the cargoes of these         
vessels2 and1 unfortunately1 we have no 
account of the early trade  carried on  
by the ,portuguese with ,indian         
productions4 ,i have no means1          
therefore1 of proving that indigo was   
among the commodities first  imported4  
,spices1 which in consequence of the    
general prevalence of  luxury1 sold at  
that time exceedingly dear1 together    
with precious  stones1 formed1 no doubt1
 the first articles of trade2 but it is 
not improbable that they were soon      
followed by indigo1 for all the         
travellers who about that period visited
 ,india1 speak of it as one of  the most
 current articles4    ,barbosa1 a       

,portuguese1 who collected there in     
#aeaf valuable information  in regard to
 geography and trade1 who afterwards    
accompanied ,magelhaens  on his voyage  
round the world1 and perished with him  
at the island of  ,zebu1 has given a    
price-current of the merchandise at     
,calecut1 in which  the value of good   
indigo at that time is stated#fdi4      
,corsali also1 in  his letters written  
from ,india in #aeaf1 mentions indigo   
among the wares  of ,camboya4 ,louis    
,guicciardini1 who wrote first in #aefc1
 and died in  #aehi1 speaking of the    
merchandise obtained by ,antwerp from   
,portugal1  mentions anil among that of 
the ,east ,indies#fej4    ,it is however
 certain that the trading company       
established in the  ,netherlands in     
#afjb1 who learned at an early period   
the art of  rendering indispensably     
necessary to the ,europeans cottons1    
tea1 sago1  and other things of which   
they could always hope to find a        
sufficient  supply in ,india1 carried on

 the greatest trade with these articles4
 ,the  first ,german writers who        
complain of indigenous woad being       
banished  by indigo1 and those          
sovereigns who1 by public orders1       
endeavoured to  prevent this change1    
ascribe the fault to the ,netherlanders4
 ,niska1 who  wrote in #afcj1 says      
indigo had been introduced into ,germany
 only thirty  years2 and an order of the
 emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii41 dated #afed1
 says  that it had been imported into   
,germany from ,holland some years before
  that period4    ,that the importation 
at this time was very great1 is proved  
by the  cargoes of the ships which      
arrived in ,holland from the ,east      
,indies  in #afca4 ,the first had       
#ac1eci pounds of ,sirches indigo2 the  
second  #hb1gcd pounds of ,guzerat      
indigo2 the third #ff1iif pounds of the 
same2  the fourth #ej1gie pounds of     
,bajano indigo2 the fifth #cb1bea pounds
  of ,chirches indigo2 the sixth #ei1fih
 pounds of ,bejana indigo2 and  the     

seventh #bg1ecb pounds of ,chirches4 ,i 
have mentioned these so  particularly1  
as one may thence see the different     
kinds1 and the places  where made4      
,these seven vessels1 therefore1 brought
 to ,europe #ccc1ede  pounds1 which1 at 
a low valuation1 were worth five tons of
 gold1 or  #ejj1jjj dollars4 ,in the    
month of ,april #afcc1 three ships      
brought home  #djib kartel of indigo1   
which were worth #b1jdf1jjj rix-dollars4
    ,the profit attending this trade    
induced people1 soon after the          
discovery of ,america1 to manufacture   
indigo in that country2 and  they were  
the more encouraged to do so by         
observing that the native  ,americans1  
before they had the misfortune to become
 known to the  ,christians1 tinged their
 bodies and faces of a blue-violet      
colour1 by  means of indigenous plants1 
which resembled the indigo plant of     
,asia4    ,whether the two plants are of
 the same genus1 or whether the         
,american  is different from that used  

in the other quarters of the globe1 has 
not yet1 as far as ,i can find1 been    
with certainty determined#fea4 ,it  is  
however proved1 that the assertion of   
,raynal and others1 that this  plant was
 first conveyed to the new world from   
,asia by the ,europeans1  is entirely   
erroneous4 ,it is mentioned by ,francis 
,colon 7or ,columbus71  in the ,life of 
his father#feb1 among the valuable      
productions of the  island of           
,hispaniola or ,st4 ,domingo4 ,francis  
,hernandes reckons it among  the natural
 plants of ,mexico1 and says that the   
,americans used it for  dyeing their    
hair black4 ,he adds1 that they made    
from it a pigment  which they named     
,mohuitli and ,tleuohuilli1 the same as 
the ,latins  named cruleum1 and he      
describes also the method of preparing  
it4  ,this is confirmed by ,clavigero in
 his account of ,mexico4    ,this plant 
therefore must be reckoned among the few
 which are  indigenous in three-quarters
 of the globe4 ,it is1 however1 highly  

probable that the ,europeans1 in the    
course of time1 introduced a better     
species or variety into ,america1 where 
several kinds are actually  cultivated  
at present4    ,in the history of the   
,american indigo1 ,i must here leave a  
considerable  hiatus1 which perhaps may 
be one day filled up from books of      
travels  and topography4 ,all that ,i   
know at present is1 that the first      
indigo  brought to ,europe was procured 
from ,guatimala1 consequently from      
,mexico1 and that this article was      
supplied at first1 and for a long  time1
 by none of the ,west ,india islands but
 ,st4 ,domingo alone4    ,krunitz       
says#fec1 but on what authority ,i do   
not know1 that ,lopez  de ,gomes        
relates1 that in his time a very fine   
sky-blue colour was  prepared in        
,hispaniola4 ,if the person here alluded
 to be ,lopez de  ,gomara1 who          
accompanied ,ferdinand ,cortez as       
chaplain#fed1 this  would be the oldest 
testimony that could be expected1 and   

would  correspond with the account given
 by ,labat4 ,but ,i shall leave the     
further investigation of this subject to
 others1 and observe1 that the          
cultivation of indigo was begun in      
,carolina in #agdg1 and according to    
,anderson1 was encouraged the year      
following by premiums4    ,this article1
 therefore1 was brought from both the   
,indies to ,europe1  and recommended    
itself so much by the superiority and   
richness of its  dye1 by the facility   
with which it could be used1 and the    
advantages  attending it1 that it       
suddenly banished from all dye-houses   
the  ,european woad1 which was          
cultivated1 in particular1 in ,thuringia
 in  ,germany1 in ,languedoc in ,france1
 and in the neighbourhood of ,rieti  in 
the dominions of the church4 ,at first1 
a small quantity of indigo  only was    
added to the woad1 by which the latter  
was improved2 more was  afterwards      
gradually used1 and at last the quantity
 became so large1  that the small       

admixture of woad served only to revive 
the fermentation  of the indigo1 but was
 not capable itself of communicating any
 colour4  ,it was soon observed that    
every yard of cloth could be dyed       
somewhat  cheaper when indigo was used  
along with woad1 than when the latter   
was  employed alone1 according to the   
ancient method4 ,germany then lost a    
production by which farmers1 merchants1 
carriers1 and others1 acquired  great   
riches4    ,in the sixteenth century    
people began1 in many countries1 to make
  considerable improvements in dyeing4  
,for this purpose1 new dye-stuffs1  both
 indigenous and foreign1 were subjected 
to experiment1 and trials  were made    
with salts which had never before been  
employed4 ,in this  manner dyers        
sometimes obtained colours which pleased
 by their novelty  and beauty2 but it   
needs excite no surprise that many new  
methods of  dyeing did not produce the  
desired effect4 ,many communicated      
colours  which were agreeable to the    

eye1 but they soon faded2 and some      
rendered  the dyed cloth so tender that 
it soon rotted on the shopkeepers'      
shelves4 ,governments conceiving it then
 necessary to do something for  the     
security of the purchaser1 considered   
the imperfection of the art  as a       
premeditated deception2 and as it was at
 that time supposed that  some pigments 
could give durable and genuine colours1 
and others fading  or false ones2 and   
also that the pernicious effects of     
salts could not  be prevented or        
moderated1 they1 in general1 prohibited 
the use of all  new materials from which
 hurtful consequences had been observed 
to  arise4    ,legislators are neither  
almighty1 omniscient1 nor infallible4   
,with the  best views1 and a firm       
determination to discharge their duty1  
they may  recommend things hurtful1 and 
prohibit others that might be attended  
with advantage4 ,were their commands and
 prohibitions inviolable1  insuperable1 
and irresistible1 they would often      

confine the progress of  the arts and   
sciences1 and render useful inventions  
impossible4 ,but the  people1 when they 
have not entirely become machines1 know 
how to elude1  even at great personal   
hazard1 faulty regulations1 and by      
prohibited  ways to obtain greater      
advantages than those which formed the  
object of  the orders issued by their   
government4 ,this was the case in regard
 to  the art of dyeing in the sixteenth 
century4    ,a recess of the diet held  
in #aegg1 prohibited1 under the severest
  penalties1 the newly invented         
pernicious1 deceitful1 eating1 and      
corrosive dye called the devil's dye1   
for which vitriol and other  eating     
substances were used instead of woad4   
,this prohibition was  renewed in #aeid 
and #afjc1 with the addition of this    
remark1 that1 in  consequence of the    
weight of the bad dyes1 a pound of      
undyed silk for  sewing or embroidery   
would produce two or three pounds of    
dyed#fee4    ,allusion seems to be made 

here to black1 which at that time was   
the  colour of the higher orders4 ,it   
appears that at this period astringent  
juices and green vitriol began to be    
used more than they had been  formerly1 
and cloth when too long boiled with     
these substances1 becomes  exceedingly  
tender3 black cloth is even sometimes   
spoilt in this manner  at present4 ,it  
is also true that cloth receives the    
greatest addition  in weight when dyed  
black1 and the next greatest when dyed  
blue4 ,i am  not acquainted with        
accurate experiments in regard to the   
weight which  cloth acquires by dyeing2 
but one may safely assert1 that it is   
stated  far too high in the recess of   
the diet4 ,fifteen ounces of raw silk   
lose by that kind of scouring which the 
,french call dcruement1 four  ounces2   
consequently white silk weighs eleven   
ounces1 but after it is  dyed black its 
weight is increased to thirteen ounces4 
,in general1 a  black dye increases the 
weight of cloth a fifth more than bright

 dyes4    ,as indigo after this soon    
became common1 and the sale of woad was 
injured1 the first prohibition against  
the former was issued by ,saxony  in the
 year #afej2 and because government well
 knew how much depends on  a name1 when 
one wishes to render an object odious or
 estimable1 the  prohibition was couched
 in terms which seemed to show that     
indigo was  included among those eating 
substances1 termed in the recess already
  mentioned devil's dyes4 ,in the year  
#afeb1 ,duke ,ernest the ,pious  caused 
a proposal to be made to the diet by his
 envoy1 ,dr4 ,hnnen1  that indigo should
 be entirely banished from the empire1  
and that an  exclusive privilege should 
be granted to those who dyed with woad4 
,this  was followed by an imperial      
prohibition on the #bast of ,april      
#afed1 in  which every thing ordered in 
regard to the devil's dyes is repeated1 
with this addition1 that great care     
should be taken to prevent the  private 
introduction of indigo1 by which the    

trade in woad was  lessened1 dyed       
articles injured1 and money carried out 
of the country4  ,the elector took the  
earliest opportunity the same year to   
make known  and enforce this prohibition
 with great severity in his             
dominions#fef4    ,the people of        
,nuremberg1 who at that time cultivated 
woad1 went still  further4 ,they made a 
law that their dyers should annually    
take an oath  not to use indigo2 and at 
present they are obliged to do the same 
thing1 though indigo is as necessary to 
them as to others2 a most  indecent     
disregard to religion1 which1 however1  
is not without example4  ,in the ,french
 monarchy1 where all offices were       
purchased and sold1  every counsellor of
 parliament1 on his entrance1 was       
obliged to swear  that he had not       
obtained his place by money1 until at   
length some one  had the courage to     
refuse taking a false oath4 ,thus also  
in ,germany  many placemen must swear   
that they will observe all the orders of

  government1 yet many of them are daily
 violated1 and indeed cannot be         
observed1 or at any rate1 not without   
great mischief and confusion4    ,what  
was done in ,germany in regard to       
,thuringia1 was done in ,france  in     
regard to ,languedoc4 ,in consequence of
 an urgent representation by  the states
 of that province1 the use of indigo was
 forbidden in #aeih2  and this          
prohibition was afterwards repeated     
several times4 ,but in the  well-known  
edict of #affi1 in which ,colbert       
separated the fine from the  common     
dyers1 it was stated that indigo should 
be used without woad2  and in #agcg     
dyers were left at liberty to use indigo
 alone1 or to  employ a mixture of      
indigo and woad#feg4    ,in ,england1   
where1 ,i believe1 woad was not at that 
time cultivated1  the first mention of  
indigo in the laws occurs in the year   
#aeha1 under  the reign of ,elizabeth1  
not1 however1 on account of a blue but a
 black  dye4 ,no woollen articles were  

to be dyed black with the gall-nut1     
madder or other materials1 till they had
 received the first ground1 or  been    
rendered blue by woad1 or woad and      
indigo together#feh4 ,in like  manner it
 was long believed that no durable black
 could be produced  unless the article  
were first dyed in a blue pan4 ,hats    
also were not  considered to be properly
 dyed unless traces of a blue tint could
 be  discovered on the place where they 
were cut#fei4 ,at present our dyers  can
 communicate a durable black without a  
blue ground1 as well as dye  a fixed    
blue without woad2 and in every part of 
,europe foreign indigo  will continue to
 be the most common material for dyeing1
 till its high  price render it         
necessary to obtain a similar pigment   
from indigenous  plants#ffj4    ,the    
dye-stuff of indigo is obtained from the
 plant by allowing it to  ferment with  
water2 during this process it subsides  
in the form of a  blue deposit1 which is
 collected and dried4 ,as it occurs in  

commerce1  it contains several          
impurities1 such as lime1 silica1       
alumina1 and  oxide of iron1 in addition
 to the colouring matters1 which are    
three in  number1 a brown1 red and blue2
 as also some glutinous matter4    ,the 
chief localities of the indigo-plant at 
present are ,bengal and  ,guatimala1    
though of late years the exportation    
from the latter has  been materially    
checked by the disturbed state of       
,central ,america4  ,in the early period
 of our occupation of ,india1 indigo    
formed a  leading branch of the         
,company's trade2 but the rude          
manufacture of  the native population   
was in the course of time expelled from 
the  markets of ,europe by the more     
skilfully prepared drug of ,america and 
the ,west ,indies4 ,soon after the peace
 of #aghc1 the ,west ,indian process  of
 manufacture was introduced into        
,bengal1 and the directors having       
relaxed their prohibitory system so far 
as to permit the application  of        

,british capital and skill to the       
cultivation of the plant on the         
alluvial depositions of the ,ganges1 the
 exportations were gradually  increased1
 and the ,american and ,west ,indian    
indigo almost entirely  driven from the 
market4 ,the manufacture was also       
introduced into  ,oude and the other    
north-western districts of the great    
plain of the  ,ganges2 and in later     
periods into some of the ,madras        
provinces1 into  ,java and the          
,philippine ,islands4 ,the indigo       
produced everywhere else  is1 however1  
very secondary both in quantity and     
quality to that of  ,bengal and ,bahar1 
the soil and climate of which seem to be
 particularly  congenial to the plant4  
,the average supply of indigo at present
 may  be estimated as follows3--,bengal 
provinces1 #cd1ejj chests1 or about     
#i1jjj1jjj lbs42 other countries1       
including ,madras and ,guatimala1 #hejj 
chests2 total1 #dc1jjj chests4 ,of this 
there are consumed in the ,united       

,kingdom1 #aa1ejj chests1 or about      
#c1jjj1jjj lbs42 ,france1 #hjjj chests2 
,germany and the rest of ,europe1       
#ac1ejj chests2 ,persia1 #cejj chests2  
,india1 #bejj chests2 ,united ,states1  
#bjjj chests2 other countries1  #bjjj   
chests2 total1 #dc1jjj chests1 or       
upwards of #aa1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,the        
quantity imported into the ,united      
,kingdom in #ahdj amounted to #e1hca1bfi
  lbs41 and the quantity entered for    
home consumption amounted to  #c1jaa1iij
 lbs4 ,upwards of four-fifths of the    
imports are from the ,east  ,indies2 the
 remainder chiefly from the ,west       
,indies1 ,guatimala1 ,peru  and the     
,philippine ,islands4 ,the surplus      
imported beyond the quantity  consumed  
is re-exported to ,germany1 ,russia1    
,italy1 ,holland and other  parts of the
 continent of ,europe4 ,france and the  
,united ,states derive  their main      
supplies by direct importation from     
,calcutta4      ,,footnotes    #fae     
,dioscor4 lib4 v4 cap4 #ajg1 p4 #cff4  4

    #faf ,plin4 lib4 xxxv4 cap4 #f1     
#bg1 p4 #fhh2 and ,isidorus1 ,origin4   
lib4  xix4 cap4 #g1 p4 #dfd4    #fag    
,foesii conomia ,hippocratis4 ,francof4 
#aehh1 fol4 p4 #bha4    #fah  means also
 juicy1 or something that has a taste4  
,neither  of these significations is    
applicable here1 where the subject      
relates  to a substance which is dry and
 insipid1 or at any rate which can      
possess only a small degree of          
astringency4 ,it must in this place     
denote an inspissated or dried juice2   
but ,i can find no other passage  to    
support this meaning4    #fai ,in       
,pliny's time people coloured a white   
earth with indigo1 or  only with woad1  
vitrum1 in the same manner as coarse    
lakes and  crayons are made at present1 
and sold it for indigo4 ,one of them he 
calls annularia1 and this was one of the
 sealing earths1 of which ,i  have      
already spoken in the first volume4 ,in 
my opinion it is the same  white pigment
 which ,pliny immediately after calls   

annulare3 8,annulare  quod vocant1      
candidum est1 quo muliebres pictur      
illuminantur40  ,these words ,i find    
nowhere explained1 and therefore ,i     
shall hazard a  conjecture4 ,pliny1 ,i  
think1 meant to say that 8this was the  
beautiful  white with which the ladies  
painted or ornamented themselves40      
#fbj ,plin4 lib4 xxxv4  #ab1 p4         
#fhd4--,vitruv4 lib4 vii4 cap4 #ad4     
#fba ,tavernier1 ii4 p4 #aab4 ,we are   
told so in ,malta ,vetus et ,nova a     
,burchardo ,niederstedt adornata4       
,helmest4 #afei1 fol4 lib4 iv4 cap4 #f1 
a  work inserted in ,grvii ,thesaurus   
,ital4 vi4 p4 #cjjg4 ,this man brought  
home with him to ,germany1 after his    
travels1 a great many ,persian          
manuscripts1 which were purchased for   
the king's library at ,berlin4          
,niederstedt1 however1 is not the only  
person who speaks of indigo being       
cultivated in ,malta4 ,bartholin1       
,epist4 ,med4 cent4 i4 ep4 #ec1 p4 #bbd1
  says the same4    #fbb ,it is entirely

 different from the molybdate of tin1   
the laborious  preparation of which is  
described by ,j4 ,b4 ,richter in his    
,chemie1 part  ii4 p4 #ig4    #fbc ,it  
deserves to be remarked1 that the ,greek
 dyers1 speaking of a  fermenting       
dye-pan covered with scum1 used to say1 
like our dyers1 that  it had its flower1
 4 ,in ,hippocrates the words    denote 
a scum which arises on the surface4     
,among the ,latins  flos in this sense  
is very common4    #fbd ,caneparius de  
,atramentis1 ,rot4 #agah1 #dto1 v4 #b4  
#ag4--,valentini  ,museum ,museor4 i4 p4
 #bbe4--,pomet1 i4 p4 #aib4    #fbe ,see
 his edition of ,dioscorides1 ,colon4   
#aebi1 fol4 p4 #ffg4    #fbf ,lib4      
xxxvii4 #aj4 sect4 #fa1 p4 #gia4    #fbg
 ,lib4 xxxv4 cap4 #f4    #fbh ,perfici  
is a term of art which is often used to 
express  the finishing or last labour   
bestowed upon any article3 ,vasa sole   
perficiuntur4 ,when vessels of          
earthen-ware have been formed1 they must
  be suffered to dry and become hard in 

the sun4 ,see ,hardouin's index to      
,pliny4    #fbi ,gum and gummy          
substances of every kind used to make   
ink thicker  and give it more body1 were
 called ferrumen4 ,see ,petronius1 cap4 
#ajb1  #ae4    #fcj ,vitruv4 vii4 #aj1  
p4 #bdf4    #fca ,lib4 xxxv4 cap4 #g4   
#fcb ,exercitat4 ,plin4 p4 #haf1 b4 ,and
 in the ,annotationes in ,flavium       
,vopiscum1 p4 #cih1 in ,histori         
,august21 ,paris1 #afbj1 fol4    #fcc   
,de ,composit4 ,pharmac4 secundum locos1
 lib4 iv4 cap4 #d4 ,edit4  ,gesn4       
,class4 v4 p4 #cjd4    #fcd ,lib4 iv4   
cap4 #g4    #fce ,salmasii ,exercitat4  
,plin4 p4 #ijh1 a4    #fcf ,pauli ginet 
libri vii4 ,basili1 #aech1 fol4 p4 #bdf1
 lib4 vii4    #fcg ,parabilium lib4 i4  
#afa1 p4 #dc4    #fch ,salmasius in     
,homonymis ,hyl4 ,iatr4 p4 #agg1 a2 and 
in ,exercitat4  ,plin4 p4 #haj1 b2 and  
p4 #icf1 b4 ,in regard to the           
manuscripts of the  work of ,zosimus1   
which is commonly called ,panopolita1   
see ,fabricii  ,bibl4 ,grca1 vol4 vi4   

pp4 #fab1 #fac2 and vol4 xii4 pp4 #gdh1 
#gfa4 ,i wish  ,i may be so fortunate as
 to outlive the publication of it2 it   
will  certainly throw much light on the 
history of the arts4 ,it is remarkable  
that ,zosimus calls indigo-dyers  and 1 
in order  perhaps to distinguish them   
from the dyers with woad4 ,the          
distinction  therefore between          
indigo-dyers and those who dyed with    
woad must be  very old4    #fci ,in the 
edition of some ,arabian physicians1    
published by ,brunfels1  at ,strasburg1 
#aeca1 fol4    #fdj ,avicenn ,canon4    
,med4444 ,venet4 #afjh1 fol4 ii4 p4     
#bcg4    #fda ,antiquitates ,itali      
,medii vi1 ii4 p4 #hid4    #fdb ,lib4   
iii4 cap4 #ca1 p4 #aej4    #fdc ,lisbona
 e ,lucca1 #agff1 #dto4    #fdd ,ramusio
 ,viaggi1 #afac1 i4 p4 #cdb4    #fde    
,geschichte der ,farberkunst4 ,stendal1 
#aghj1 #hvo1 p4 #fi4    #fdf ,anleitung 
zur ,technologie1 fourth edit4 p4 #abc4 
,i can now add1  that ,roso1 in ,memorie
 della ,societa ,italiana1 ,verona1     

#agid1 #dto1 vii4  p4 #bea1 quotes also 
the edition per ,francesco ,rampazetto1 
#aedj1 #dto4    #fdg ,itinerarium       
,benjaminis1 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #afcc1 #hvo4  
#fdh ,du ,cange quotes a diploma of the 
emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 dated  #abaj1 
and under the word ,tintoria1 a diploma 
of ,charles ,,ii4 king of  ,sicily4     
#fdi ,ramusio1 i4 p4 #cbc4    #fej      
,totius ,belgii ,descript4 ,amst4 #affj1
 #abmo1 i4 p4 #bdb4    #fea ,they both  
belong to the same genus but are        
specifically  distinct1 the species     
cultivated in ,india being principally  
the  ,indigofera tinctoria1 and that in 
,america the ,indigofera anil4    #feb  
,this work has been several times       
printed4 ,it is also in ,barcia         
,historiadores primitivos de las ,indias
 ,occidentales4 ,madrid1 #agdi1  fol4   
vol4 i4 ,at p4 #fa1 we find among the   
productions of the above  island1 minas 
de cobre1 anil1 ambar1 c4 ,an ,english  
translation  in ,churchill's            
,collection1 ii4 p4 #fba1 renders these 

words mines of  copper1 azure1 and      
amber4    #fec ,encyclop4 vol4 xxix4 p4 
#edh4    #fed ,his works may be found in
 ,barcia's ,collection1 vol4 ii4    #fee
 ,all these prohibitions may be found in
 ,schreber's ,beschreibung  des         
,waidtes4 ,halle1 #ageb1 #dto1 in the   
appendix1 pp4 #a1 #b4    #fef ,schreber 
ut supra1 p4 #aa4    #feg ,see ,mmoires 
de l',acad4  ,paris1 anne #agdj4    #feh
 ,statutes at ,large1 vol4 ii4 ,lond4   
#agce1 p4 #bej4 ,dr4 ,ure1  however1    
says that indigo was actually denounced 
as a dangerous drug1  and forbidden to  
be used by our ,parliament in the reign 
of ,queen  ,elizabeth4 ,an ,act was     
passed authorizing searchers to burn    
both it and  logwood in every dye-house 
where they could be found4 ,this ,act   
remained  in full force till the time of
 ,charles ,,ii41 that is1 for a great   
part  of a century4    #fei ,marperger's
 ,beschreibung des ,hutmacher-handwerks4
 ,altenburg1  #agai1 #hvo1 p4 #he4      
#ffj ,this observation has been         

verified2 for tolerably large           
quantities of indigo are now extracted  
from the ,polygonum tinctorium1  which  
is cultivated in some parts of ,france  
and ,belgium for that  purpose4         
,,vanes4 ,,weathercocks4      ,if the   
poet ,seneca was well informed1 mankind1
 in the infancy of  navigation1 had no  
particular names for distinguishing the 
principal  winds#ffa4 ,this is not at   
all incredible2 because with their rafts
 and  floats1 which were the first      
vessels1 they for a long time ventured  
out to sea only so far that they could  
easily return to the shore2 and         
therefore while navigation continued in 
this state1 they had little  reason to  
trouble themselves about the direction  
of the winds4 ,it is  more certain that 
those nations respecting whom we have   
the oldest  information1 distinguished  
by names the four principal winds only4 
,this  is generally proved by a passage 
in ,homer1 where he intends to mention  
all the winds1 and names only four#ffb2 

but this proof is of little  weight2 for
 what poet at present would1 with the   
like view1 think of  boxing the compass1
 or of introducing into a poem the names
 of all the  thirty-two points8 ,would  
he not rather be satisfied with the     
names  of the four chief winds alone8   
,if more names1 therefore1 were usual   
in ,homer's time1 he would not consider 
it necessary to name them4 ,in  another 
passage he names only two winds#ffc2 and
 from these some have  endeavoured to   
prove that no more were then known2 but 
this assertion  indeed is completely    
refuted by the passage first quoted4 ,it
 can1  however1 be easily proved1 that  
for a long time names were given to the 
four principal winds only4    ,it is    
easily seen what at first gave rise to  
this distinction4 ,the sun  at noon     
stands always over one point of the     
horizon1 which appears  to the observer 
as a circle1 having the place where he  
himself is at  its centre4 ,this point  
is called the meridian or south1 and the

 one  opposite to it the north4 ,if the 
observer turns his face towards the     
north1 he will have on his right-hand   
the east1 and on his left the  west4    
,the space between these principal winds
 contains ninety degrees1  or a right   
angle4 ,the number1 however1 must soon  
have been raised to  eight1 and this    
division was usual in the time of       
,aristotle#ffd4  ,afterwards twelve     
points in the heavens were adopted1 also
 as many  winds2 and in the time of     
,vitruvius twenty-four were             
distinguished and  named1 though this   
division was very little used4 ,to      
determine the  names1 however1 employed 
in the last two divisions is attended   
with  some difficulties2 and it almost  
appears as if writers did not always    
apply to them the same meaning4    ,the 
,greeks considered olus as the first    
person who made navigators  acquainted  
with the winds4 ,he is said to have     
ruled over the ,volcanic  islands1      
afterwards named the olian2 and if this 

be true1 he would  certainly have a good
 opportunity of observing the weather1  
and marking  the winds by the smoke     
continually rising up there from burning
  volcanoes4 ,this celebrated personage1
 who received ,ulysses on his  return   
from the ,trojan war1 by the knowledge  
thus obtained may have  assisted        
navigators1 who afterwards made known   
the services which he  rendered to them4
    ,the antiquity of the division into 
thirty-two points1 used at  present1 ,i 
am not able to determine4 ,riccioli     
thinks that they have  been employed    
since the time of ,charles the ,great1  
but ,i do not know  whether this can be 
proved4 ,that assertion perhaps is      
founded only on  the opinion1 that this 
emperor gave ,german names to the winds 
and the  quarters of the world4 ,this   
indeed is stated by his historian       
,eginhart1  who mentions the names1     
which ,i shall here insert1 together    
with the  ,latin names added by         
,eginhart1 and those usual at           

present#ffe4      ,subsolanus           
,ostroniwind       ,,east4    ,eurus    
,ostsundroni       ,east-south-east4    
,euroauster         ,sundostroni        
,south-east4    ,auster                 
,sundroni          ,,south4             
,austroafricus      ,sundwestroni       
,south-south-west4    ,africus          
,westsundroni      ,south-west4         
,zephyrus           ,westroni           
,,west4    ,corus                       
,westnordroni      ,west-north-west4    
,circius            ,nordwestroni       
,north-west4    ,septemtrio             
,nordroni          ,,north4    ,aquilo  
,nordostroni       ,north-north-east4   
,vulturnus          ,ostnordroni        
,north-east4    ,it has however been    
long since remarked1 that these names   
are much  older than ,charles the       
,great#fff2 and it is highly probable   
that  they were only more accurately    
defined1 or publicly confirmed by this  
prince1 or that in his time they came   
into general use4 ,how often have  early

 inventions been ascribed to sovereigns1
 though they were only  made in their   
reign6 ,even whole nations have been    
said to be descended  from those princes
 under whom they first became known to  
foreigners2  as1 for example1 the ,poles
 from ,lech1 and the ,bohemians from    
,zech4    ,charles1 however1 did not    
give names to thirty-two1 but to twelve 
winds4 ,nor was he the first who added  
to the four cardinal points eight       
others1 for the same thing is asserted  
of many4 ,but it deserves to  be        
remarked1 that in ,charles's names one  
can discover traces of that  ingenious  
mode of denoting all the winds with four
 words2 that is to  say1 by different   
combinations of ,east1 ,west1 ,south1   
and ,north4 ,it is  certain that the    
names of the different points and winds 
used by all  the ,european nations1 the 
,italians only excepted1 are of ,german 
origin1  as well as the greater part of 
the terms of art employed in navigation 
and naval architecture4    ,it appears  

to me not improbable that the division  
used at present was  introduced soon    
after the invention of the magnetic     
needle2 at least  ,honorius1 surnamed   
,augustodunensis#ffg1 who must have     
flourished  before the year #aabe1      
speaks only of twelve winds2 as do also 
,gervasius  in #abaa1 and ,vincent de   
,beauvois in the middle of the          
thirteenth  century1 who gives from     
,isidorus1 who lived about the year     
#fcf1 the  twelve ,latin names used by  
,eginhart#ffh4    ,it can scarcely be   
doubted that means for indicating the   
winds were  invented at a very early    
period4 ,i here allude to vanes1 flags1 
and  every other apparatus by which the 
direction of the wind can be            
conveniently and accurately discovered1 
and similar to those erected  at present
 on many private houses1 on most of our 
church steeples1 and  on board ships4 ,i
 must however confess that ,i have      
hitherto scarcely  observed any trace of
 them among the ,greeks and the ,romans4

 ,i can  find no account of them in     
works where all the parts of edifices   
are  named2 where ships and everything  
belonging to them are expressly         
described2 nothing in ,pollux1 and      
nothing in any of the poets4 ,i  am     
unacquainted also with any old ,greek or
 ,latin word that can be  applied to an 
apparatus for pointing out the wind4 ,in
 the edition  of ,kirsch's ,german and  
,latin ,dictionary1 printed in #aged1 we
 find  ,wetterhahn 7a weathercock7      
petalum1 triton2 but the latter  term is
 borrowed from the tower of ,andronicus1
 of which ,i shall have  occasion to    
speak hereafter2 and neither this word  
nor petulum1  or petul1 arum1 which     
,kirsch gives also1 occurs in this sense
  in any ancient author2 and the case is
 the same with pinnacella1  ventilogium1
 aurologium1 and other names which are  
to be found in  some dictionaries4    ,i
 am acquainted with no older information
 in regard to an apparatus for          
observing the winds1 than what is given 

by ,vitruvius respecting the  tower     
built at ,athens by ,andronicus         
,cyrrhestes1 that is1 of ,cyrrhus1 a    
town in ,syria4 ,this tower1 which was  
built of marble1 in an octagonal  form1 
had on each side a representation of    
that wind opposite to which  it was     
placed4 ,its summit terminated in a     
small spire1 on which was a  copper     
triton1 made to turn in such a manner as
 to present its front to  the wind1 and 
to point with a rod held in its         
right-hand to the image  of the wind    
blowing at the time#ffi4 ,this tower is 
still standing2 and  a description and  
figure of it may be seen in the travels 
of ,spon and  ,wheeler1 and in those    
also of ,pocock#fgj4 ,the figures       
representing the  winds1 which are      
larger than the life1 are executed in   
basso-relievo1  and correspond to the   
seasons at which they generally blow4   
,at the  top of each side1 under the    
architrave1 the name of the wind is     
inscribed in ,greek characters4 ,boreas1

 the ,north wind1 holds in his  hand a  
mussel-shell1 which seems to denote his 
peculiar power over the  sea4 ,the      
,zephyr has its bosom full of flowers1  
because it prevails in  ,march1 at the  
time when the flowers chiefly blow in   
,greece2 and similar  attributes are    
assigned to the rest4    ,varro had an  
apparatus of the same kind at his       
farm#fga4 ,within the  building was a   
circle1 in which the eight winds were   
represented1 and  an index1 like that of
 a clock1 pointed to that wind which was
 blowing  at the time4 ,nothing         
therefore was necessary but to look at  
the ceiling  to know from what quarter  
the wind came4 ,i have seen an apparatus
 of  the same kind on some exchange1    
either at ,lubec or ,rotterdam4 ,varro  
calls the tower of ,andronicus          
horologium1 a word which ,salmasius     
wishes to change into aurologium4 ,but  
it contained also a sun-dial1  as we are
 assured by ,pocock1 who observed the   
necessary hour-lines2 and  therefore it 

is not improbable1 that the people1 who 
through the want  of clocks would       
oftener look to the dial than to the    
weathercock1 gave  to the tower a name  
alluding to the former rather than to   
the latter4    ,du ,cange says1 that a  
triton1 by way of weathercock1 was      
placed on the  temple of ,androgeus at  
,rome2 but ,i am unacquainted with the  
source from  which he derived this      
information1 and of that temple ,i have 
not been  able to obtain any            
account#fgb4 ,whether the tritons placed
 on the  temple of ,saturn at ,rome were
 indicators of the wind1 or whether they
  had a learned signification1 as       
,macrobius asserts1 ,i will not venture 
to determine#fgc4 ,it is probable that  
the pillar1 some remains of  which were 
found at ,gaeta 7,cajeta71 in the       
kingdom of ,naples1 and on  which the   
names of the winds were cut out in      
,greek and ,latin1 served as  a wind    
indicator also4    ,but it is more than 
probable that an apparatus for pointing 

out the  wind1 similar to that at       
,athens1 was erected also at            
,constantinople4  ,at least ,i consider 
as such what was called by some         
anemodulium1 and  by others anemoderium2
 the information respecting which has   
not1  as ,i conceive1 been hitherto     
understood1 not even by ,banduri4 ,in my
  opinion it was not a building or      
tower1 but a column furnished with a    
vane1 somewhat similar to what is still 
seen in many places on the sea  coast1  
where a high pole is erected with a     
flag4 ,this pillar1 if ,i may  be       
allowed the expression1 consisted       
entirely of copper2 it was square1  and 
in height not inferior to the loftiest  
columns in the city4 ,its  summit formed
 a pyramid1 and1 as ,i conjecture1 an   
octagonal one1 upon  which stood a      
female figure that turned round with    
every wind1 and  consequently was a     
vane1 only not a triton1 as at ,athens4 
,below it1  on each side of the pyramid1
 were seen a great many figures1 which  

,i will venture to assert were          
attributes or images of the winds1 to   
which the female figure pointed4        
,nicetas says1 that there were observed 
among them birds1 agricultural          
implements1 the sea with shipping1      
fishing-boats1 and naked cupids sporting
 with apples1 which in my  opinion      
denoted the different seasons in which  
each wind was accustomed  to blow#fgd4  
,it is not improbable that the whole    
pillar was constructed of different     
pieces of copper1 cast singly and then  
joined together2 and it appears  that   
neither ,nicetas1 nor ,cedrenus1 nor the
 ,latins1 who in the  thirteenth century
 pulled down and melted the numerous    
objects of art1  plundered from various 
cities by the emperor ,constantine to   
ornament  his capital1 were acquainted  
with the purpose for which this pillar  
was originally destined1 or the meaning 
of the emblematical figures  represented
 upon it4 ,nay1 there is even reason to 
think that the ,greeks  themselves1 at  

this time1 were so ignorant as to       
believe such objects  to be the         
productions of magic4 ,according to     
,cedrenus1 this costly wind  indicator  
was erected by ,theodosius the ,great1  
and according to others  by ,leo        
,isauricus4 ,were the first assertion   
true1 it would belong to  the fourth    
century1 and in the second case to the  
eighth2 but ,i cannot  help suspecting  
that it was constructed before the time 
of ,theodosius4  ,the female figure     
which indicated the wind1 was1 according
 to ,nicetas1  called anemodoulon1 but  
according to ,cedrenus anemoderion4 ,the
  former denotes a person who belongs to
 the wind2 the latter one who  contends 
with the wind2 and both these           
appellations are well suited to  a vane 
or wind indicator4 ,if my explanation be
 correct1 this work of  art at          
,constantinople had nothing in common   
with the statue of ,jupiter  constructed
 by ,lysippus at ,tarentum#fge4 ,the    
latter was forty cubits  in height2 and 

what excited great astonishment was1    
that though it  would shake when pushed 
with the hand1 it withstood the force of
 the  most violent storms4 ,i should    
rather compare the statue of ,lysippus  
to  those moveable masses of rock which 
are mentioned by various authors1  both 
ancient and modern4    ,it is not       
improbable that there may have been wind
 indicators of  this kind in other      
places1 and that more passages alluding 
to them1  not hitherto remarked1 may be 
found in different authors4 ,professor  
,michaelis1 who was desirous to assist  
me in my researches1 pointed out  to me 
an account1 undoubtedly written before  
the year #aaeafgf1 in  which it is      
stated that there was at ,hems1 in      
,syria1 formerly called  ,emessa1 a high
 tower1 on the summit of which was a    
copper statue of  a horseman that turned
 with every wind4 ,it is worthy of      
remark1 that  under the vane there were 
figures1 among which was that of a      
scorpion2  in all probability the emblem

 of some season4    ,in ,europe1 the    
custom of placing vanes on the summits  
of the  church-steeples is very old2 and
 as these vanes were made in the figure 
of a cock1 they have thence been        
denominated weathercocks4 ,in the       
,latin1 therefore1 of the middle ages1  
we meet with the words gallus  and      
ventilogium4 ,the latter is used by     
,radulphus1 who wrote about  the year   
#abgjfgg4 ,mention of weathercocks      
occurs in the ninth#fgh1  eleventh1     
twelfth and thirteenth#fgi centuries4   
,there is no doubt that  the cock was   
intended as an emblem of clerical       
vigilance4 ,in the ages  of ignorance   
the clergy frequently styled themselves 
the cocks of the  ,almighty1 whose duty 
it was1 like the cock which roused      
,peter1 to call  the people to          
repentance1 or at any rate to           
church#fhj4 ,the ,english1  therefore1  
are mistaken when they suppose that the 
figure of a cock  was first made choice 
of for vanes in the fourteenth century1 

under the  reign of ,edward ,,iii41 in  
order to ridicule the ,french1 with whom
 they  were then at war2 and that the   
custom of cock-throwing1 that is to     
say1 of throwing sticks at a cock       
exposed with his wings tied1 as then    
practised1 took its rise at the same    
time4    ,in ,france1 in the twelfth    
century1 none but noblemen were allowed 
to  have vanes on their houses2 nay1 at 
one time this was the privilege of      
those who1 at the storming of a town1   
first planted their standards  on the   
ramparts4 ,these vanes were painted with
 the knights' arms1  or the arms were   
cut out in them1 and in that case they  
were called  panonceaux#fha4    ,flags  
or vanes on ships occur very early1 but 
they are always mentioned  on account of
 their use in making signals4 ,they were
 of various forms  and colours2 were    
sometimes drawn up1 and sometimes taken 
down2 placed  sometimes on the right and
 sometimes on the left side of the ship1
 and  were changed in various other     

ways1 directions for which may be seen  
in  the ,tactics of the emperor ,leo4   
,they were named vexilla1 flammul1  also
 flammula and banda1 and the last two   
appellations occur in the  works of the 
younger ,greek writers#fhb4    ,but     
though the oldest writers on the art of 
naval warfare1 such as  ,vegetius1      
recommend a knowledge of the winds1 ,i  
have not yet met with  any certain      
account of apparatus for determining the
 direction of them  on board a ship4    
,before the discovery of the magnetic   
needle1 such  accuracy as is necessary  
at present would have been superfluous2 
yet  naval commanders must long before  
have had some means of distinguishing   
at least the twelve winds then defined1 
though no traces of them are to  be     
found in the works which have been      
accidentally preserved to us4           
,scheffer#fhc1 who1 as is well-known1   
collected from the works of the         
ancients all the terms of art applicable
 to navigation1 thinks that the  band1  

tnia1 affixed to a pole at the stern of 
the ship#fhd1 did not  serve so much for
 an ornament as to indicate the course  
of the wind4  ,he is1 however1 able to  
produce no other authority for this     
opinion  than a passage in one of       
,cicero's letters1 which has been       
changed and  amended1 till it at length 
seems to say that ,cicero had resolved  
to  embark1 because the vanes had       
announced a favourable wind#fhe4    ,i  
must acknowledge that at present ,i can 
produce no older information  in regard 
to vanes used on board ship1 to indicate
 the course of the  wind1 than of the   
eleventh century1 taken from the life of
 ,emma1 the  consort of ,canute the     
,great1 king of ,denmark1 ,norway and   
,england1 the  author of which was an   
eye-witness of what he relates4         
,describing the  magnificent ,norman    
fleet sent to ,england in the year      
#ajac1 he says that  birds1 which turned
 round with the wind1 were placed on the
 top of the  masts#fhf4    ,at that     

time1 therefore1 instead of the flags   
used at present1 a vane1  shaped like a 
bird1 was placed at the summit of the   
mast2 perhaps also  the figure of a     
cock1 as the emblem of vigilance1 but in
 this case not  of clerical vigilance4  
,in the cathedral of ,bayeux1 in        
,france1 is a  piece of tapestry1       
representing the actions of ,william the
 ,conqueror1  executed with the needle1 
either by his consort or under her      
direction1  in which vanes are seen at  
the top of the masts in many of the     
ships#fhg4    ,anemoscopes1 or          
instruments for showing the direction of
 the wind1 are  now in constant use in  
meteorological establishments2 the      
indications  are made upon dials1 and   
the apparatus does not differ in        
principle  from that described by       
,beckmann4    ,anemometers1 or          
instruments for measuring the power or  
force of the  wind1 have also been      
contrived of various kinds4 ,the first  
was invented  by ,wolf4 ,in this the    

wind acted upon four sails somewhat     
resembling  those of a windmill1 the    
motion being communicated by cog-wheels 
to a  lever loaded with a weight4 ,when 
the wind acted upon the sails1 the  bar 
rose1 this motion continuing until the  
increased leverage of  the weight       
counterpoised the moving power of the   
wind4 ,others on a  different principle 
have been made by ,lind1 ,regnier1      
,martin1 and a very  beautiful          
instrument for this purpose1 constructed
 by ,mr4 ,dent1 may be  seen at ,lloyd's
 room in the ,royal ,exchange4          
,,footnotes    #ffa ,medea1 ver4 #caf4  
#ffb ,odyss4 v4 #bie4    #ffc ,iliad1   
ix4 #e4    #ffd ,aristot4 ,meteorol4 ii4
 cap4 #e et #f4 ,on this account1 as    
,salmasius  remarks1 the book ,de ,mundo
 cannot belong to ,aristotle1 as mention
 is  made in it of twelve winds4    #ffe
 ,de ,vita et ,gestis ,caroli ,magni4   
,traj4 #agaa1 #dto1 pp4 #acb1 #acc4     
#fff ,adelung's ,wrterbuch1 under the   
word ,east4    #ffg ,of the writings of 

this monk1 whom ,i shall again have     
occasion to  quote1 separate editions   
are scarce4 ,they are however to be     
found in  ,maxima ,bibliotheca ,patrum1 
tom4 xx4    #ffh ,speculum ,natur4 iv4  
#cd1 p4 #bed4    #ffi ,vitruv4 i4 #f1 p4
 #da4    #fgj ,see ,stuart's            
,antiquities of ,athens1 i4 #c1 tab4    
i4--xix4    #fga ,varro ,de ,re ,rust4  
iii4 #e4 #ag4 ,our common weathercocks  
and vanes1  when well made1 and         
preserved from rust1 show the point from
 which the  wind proceeds1 but do not   
tell their names4 ,by the vanes on      
church  steeples1 one knows that our    
churches stand in a direction from east 
to west1 and that the altar is placed in
 the eastern end4 ,on other  buildings  
an arrow1 which points to the north1 is 
placed under the vane4    #fgb ,du      
,cange refers to ,anonymus de ,arte     
,architectonica1 cap4 #b4    #fgc       
,saturn4 i4 #h1 p4 #bbc4    #fgd ,the   
passage of ,nicetas may be found in     
,fabricii ,biblioth4 ,grca1  vi4 p4     

#djg1 and in ,banduri ,imperium         
,orientale1 ,par4 #agaa1 fol4 tom4 i4   
lib4 vi4 p4 #ajh4 ,nicetas speaks of it 
again in lib4 ii4 de ,andronico1        
,venet4 #agbi1 fol4 p4 #age4 ,he there  
says that the emperor was desirous  of  
placing his image on the anemodulium1   
where the cupids stood4  ,another       
writer1 in ,banduri ,imper4 ,orient4 i4 
p4 iii4 lib4 i4 p4 #ag1  says expressly 
that the twelve winds were represented  
on it1 and that  it was erected with    
much astronomical knowledge by          
,heliodorus1 in the  time of ,leo       
,isauricus4    #fge ,plin4 ,hist4 ,nat4 
xxxiv4 #g4 sect4 #ah4 p4 #fdg4    #fgf  
,geographia ,nubiensis4 ,parisiis1      
#afai1 #dto1 p4 #aah4    #fgg ,in ,vita 
,s4 ,richardi ,cicestrensis4 ,see also  
,du ,cange4    #fgh ,in ,ughelli ,italia
 ,sacra1 ,rom1 #afeb1 fol4 iv4 p4 #gce1 
we  find the following inscription on a 
weathercock then existing at            
,brixen3--8,dominus ,rampertus ,episc4  
gallum hunc fieri prcepit an4 #hbj40    

#fgi ,raynerus2 cap4 #e4    #fhj        
,ambrosius1 v4 cap4 #bd4--,vossius de   
,idol4 iii4 cap4 #hf4--,pierii          
,valeriani ,hieroglyphica4 ,franc4 ad   
,m4 #afgh1 p4 #bhh4    #fha             
,dictionnaire  ,trevoux1 #agjd1 fol4    
article ,girouette4    #fhb ,hirtius de 
,bello ,alexand4 cap4 #de4--,tacit4     
,annal4 #bb4--,livius1  lib4 xxxvii4    
cap4 #bd4--,leonis ,tactica1 cap4 #ai1  
#dj1 #db1 pp4 #cdb1 #cdc1  edit4        
,meursii4 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #afab1 #dto4     
#fhc ,de ,milit4 ,navali4 ,upsali1      
#afed4    #fhd ,pollux1 i4 #i1  #ij1 p4 
#fa4    #fhe ,epist4 ad ,atticum1 v4    
#ab4    #fhf ,the ,encomium ,emm is     
printed in ,du ,chesne1 ,histori        
,normannor4  ,scriptor4 ,paris1 #afai1  
fol4    #fhg ,this honourable memorial  
of the last half of the eleventh century
  is explained and illustrated by a     
figure in ,mmoires de l',academ4 des    
,inscript4 ,paris1 #agcc1 #dto1 vol4    
viii4 p4 #fjb4          ,,gilding4      
,the astonishing extensibility of gold1 

a property in which it far  surpasses   
all other metals1 induced mankind1 at an
 early period1 to  attempt beating it   
into thin plates1 as the value of it led
 them to  the art of covering or gilding
 things of every kind with leaves of    
it4 ,it is proved by ,herodotus1 that   
the ,egyptians were accustomed to  gild 
wood and metals#fhh2 and gilding is     
frequently mentioned in the  books of   
the ,old ,testament#fhi4 ,the gold      
plates1 however1 used for  this purpose1
 as may be readily conceived1 were not  
so thin as those  made at present2 and  
for this reason1 the gilding on statues1
 which  have lain many centuries in the 
earth1 appears to be still entire4      
,winkelmann says#fij1 that among the    
ruins of two apartments in the  imperial
 palace1 on the palatine hill1 in the   
,villa ,farnese1 the gold  ornaments    
were found to be as fresh as if they had
 been newly applied1  though these      
apartments1 in consequence of being     
buried under the  earth1 were           

exceedingly damp4 ,the circular bands of
 sky-blue1 with  small figures in gold1 
could not be seen without admiration4   
,the  gilding also is still preserved in
 the ruins of ,persepolis4    ,but1 in  
the time of ,pliny1 the art of          
gold-beating was carried so  far at     
,rome1 that an ounce of gold could be   
beat into seven hundred  and fifty      
leaves and more1 each four square inches
 in size#fia4 ,i  shall not compare this
 result with what the art can do at     
present1  because the account of ,pliny 
is not the most accurate1 and because   
the conversion of the old measures into 
the modern standard is  always attended 
with uncertainty4 ,buonarotti1 however1 
who made some  researches on this       
subject#fib1 is of opinion that the gold
 used  at ,rome for fire-gilding in his 
time1 that is1 at the end of the        
seventeenth century1 was beat six times 
as thin2 and that the gold  employed for
 gilding wood and other things1 without 
the application  of fire1 was twenty-two

 times as thin as the gold leaf made at 
,rome  in the time of ,pliny4 ,but this 
,italian author1 as appears to me1 has1 
through too great precipitation1        
translated the words 8septingen et      
quinquagen bracte0 fifty and seventy4   
,gold1 however1 at that time1  was beat 
so thin at ,rome1 that ,lucretius       
compares it to a spider's web1  and     
,martial to a vapour#fic4    ,i have1   
however1 not yet met with any           
information in regard to the  method in 
which the ancient artists beat the gold1
 or the instruments  and apparatus they 
employed for that purpose4 ,but the     
,german monk  ,theophilus1 whose real   
name seems to have been ,rger1 and who1 
as  ,lessing thinks1 lived in the ninth1
 but1 according to ,morelli1 in the     
twelfth century1 describes the process  
nearly as it is at present#fid4  ,the   
gold1 at that time1 was beat between    
parchment1 in the same manner  as is    
still practised2 and the artists knew   
how to prevent the gold  from adhering  

to the parchment1 by covering it over   
with burnt ochre  reduced to a very fine
 powder1 and then rubbing it smooth with
 a tooth4  ,with the like view1 our     
gold-beaters rub over with a fine bolus 
the  thin paper used for making the     
books into which they put their gold    
leaf1 in order to preserve it4 ,but the 
flatting-mills1 between the  steel      
rollers of which cast and hammered      
ingots of gold are at present  reduced  
to thin leaves1 seem not to have been   
then known1 at least this  monk makes no
 mention of them4 ,lessing1 to whom we  
are indebted for  this curious fragment 
of ,theophilus1 is of opinion that each 
artist  at that time was obliged to beat
 the gold leaf which he used1 because   
gold-beating was not then a distinct    
branch of business4 ,this ,i will  not  
controvert2 but it is no proof of it1   
that the monk taught the  art to his    
brethren2 for in convents the clergy    
endeavoured to make  everything they    
used1 in order that they might purchase 

as little as  possible4    ,during the  
progress of the art1 it being found that
 parchment was too  thick and hard for  
the above purpose1 workmen endeavoured  
to procure  some finer substance1 and at
 length discovered that the skin of an  
unborn calf was the most convenient4 ,by
 means of this improvement1 gold  leaf  
was made much thinner than it had ever  
been before possible2 but  the art was  
brought to still greater perfection by  
employing that fine  pellicle which is  
detached from the gut of an ox or a cow4
 ,lancellotti1  who wrote in the first  
half of the seventeenth century#fie1    
says  that this invention was made by   
the ,german gold-beaters1 when1 in      
consequence of the war1 they were not   
able to obtain from ,flanders the  skins
 of unborn calves4    ,i have often     
heard that the preparation of this      
pellicle1 which the  ,french call       
baudruche and the ,dutch liezen1 and    
which is so thin  that two of them must 
be pasted together1 is a secret1 and    

that the  best is obtained from         
,england4 ,but in the year #aghe1 when  
,i paid a  visit to a very ingenious    
gold-beater at ,hamburg1 he assured me  
that  he prepared this substance        
himself1 and that the case was the same 
with most of the gold-beaters in        
,germany4 ,even in ,england1 in the year
  #agfc1 this art was known only to two 
or three persons1 who practised it  as a
 business1 but kept it so secret that   
,lewis was not able to obtain  a proper 
account of it#fif4 ,in ,ireland also    
this skin is prepared  and sent to      
,england#fig4 ,when the ,french1 in the 
beginning of the  revolutionary war1    
hoped to out-manuvre the ,germans by the
 use of  aerostatic machines1 it became 
of some importance to them to obtain a  
supply of these skins4 ,on this account1
 the ,commission des armes et  poudres  
drew up instructions for preparing them1
 which they caused to  be printed and   
distributed to all the butchers4 ,at    
,strasburg they were  printed in        

,french1 and at the same time in        
,german1 but in many parts  faulty and  
unintelligible4    ,about the year      
#afba1 ,mersenne excited general        
astonishment1 when he  showed that the  
,parisian gold-beaters could beat an    
ounce of gold into  #afjj leaves1 which 
together covered a surface of #aje      
square feet4 ,but  in #agaa1 when the   
pellicles1 discovered by the ,germans1  
came to be used  in ,paris1 ,reaumur    
found that an ounce of gold1 in the form
 of a cube1  five and a quarter lines at
 most in length1 breadth1 and thickness1
  and which covered only a surface of   
about twenty-seven square lines1  could 
be so extended by the gold-beaters as to
 cover a surface of more  than one      
hundred and forty-six and a half square 
feet4 ,this extension1  therefore1 is   
nearly one-half more than was possible  
about a century  before4    ,when these 
skins are worn out by the hammer of the 
gold-beater1 they  are employed1 under  
the name of ,english skin1 for plasters1

 or properly  to unite small wounds4 ,by
 the ,english they are called           
gold-beaters'  skin#fih2 but1 since silk
 covered with isinglass and ,peruvian   
balsam1  which in ,germany is named     
,english plaster1 for the ,germans at   
present  call every thing ,english1 has 
become the mode1 this skin is much  less
 used#fii4 ,i mention this that ,i might
 have an opportunity of  remarking1 that
 in the middle of the twelfth century1  
in the ,levant at  least1 a very thin   
pellicle was in like manner used for    
wounds4 ,for  when the emperor1 ,john   
,comnenus1 accidentally wounded himself 
in the  hand with a poisoned arrow while
 hunting1 a piece of skin1 which1 from  
the name and description may be         
considered the same as that used at     
present by the gold-beaters1 was applied
 to the wound4 ,the emperor1  however1  
died in consequence of this wound1 after
 it had become  inflamed under the      
pellicle1 which1 in large wounds1 and   
when the skin  is suffered to remain too

 long1 is commonly the case1 though the 
poison  alone would have been a         
sufficient cause of death4 ,reaumur and 
others  are astonished that artists     
should have sought for and found a part 
of  their apparatus in the bowels of an 
ox2 but ,i am of opinion that this      
pellicle1 which is sometimes separated  
in washing and cleaning the  bowels1 was
 first observed by the butchers1 and    
made known by them as a  plaster2 and   
that it came into request among the     
,german gold-beaters1  as the finest of 
all the pellicles then known1 in the    
beginning of the  seventeenth century4  
,the art of gilding1 and particularly   
unmetallic bodies1 was much  facilitated
 by the invention of oil-painting2 but  
it must be  acknowledged that the       
process employed by the ancients in     
cold-gilding  was nearly the same as    
that used at present4 ,pliny says#gjj   
that  gold leaves were applied to marble
 with a varnish1 and to wood with  a    
certain kind of cement1 which he calls  

leucophoron4 ,without  entering into any
 research respecting the minerals       
employed for this  cement1 one may      
readily conceive that it must have been 
a ferruginous  ochre1 or kind of bole1  
which is still used as a ground         
7poliment1  assiette7#gja4 ,but gilding 
of this kind must have suffered from    
dampness1 though many specimens of it   
are still preserved4 ,some of the       
ancient artists1 perhaps1 may have      
employed resinous substances1 on  which 
water can produce very little effect4   
,that gold-leaf was affixed to metals by
 means of quicksilver1 with  the        
assistance of heat1 in the time of      
,pliny1 we are told by himself  in more 
places than one4 ,the metal to be gilded
 was prepared by salts  of every kind1  
and rubbed with pumice-stone in order to
 clean it  thoroughly1 and to render the
 surface a little rough#gjb4 ,this      
process  is similar to that used at     
present for gilding with amalgam1 by    
means  of heat1 especially as           

amalgamation was known to the ancients4 
,but1  to speak the truth1 ,pliny says  
nothing of heating the metal after the  
gold is applied1 or of evaporating the  
quicksilver1 but of drying  the cleaned 
metal before the gold is laid on4 ,had  
he not mentioned  quicksilver1 his      
gilding might have been considered as   
that with  gold-leaf by means of heat1  
dorure en feuille  feu1 in which the    
gold is laid upon the metal after it has
 been cleaned and heated1  and strongly 
rubbed with blood-stone1 or polished    
steel4 ,felibien  was undoubtedly right 
when he regretted#gjc that the process  
of the  ancients1 the excellence of     
which is proved by remains of antiquity1
  has been lost4    ,false gilding1 that
 is1 where thin leaves of a white metal1
 such as tin  or silver1 are applied to 
the article to be gilded1 and then      
rubbed  over with a yellow transparent  
colour1 through which the metallic      
splendour appears1 is much older than ,i
 believed it to be in the year  #aghj4  

,the process for this purpose is given  
by the monk ,theophilus1  whose         
fragments were first printed in         
#aghagjd4 ,according to his  directions1
 tin beat into thin leaves was to be    
rendered of a golden  yellow colour by a
 vinous tincture of saffron1 so that    
other pigments  could be applied over   
it4 ,the varnish or solution of resin in
 spirit  of wine or oil1 used for this  
purpose at present1 appears not then to 
have been known4 ,but in the sixteenth  
century this art was very common2  and  
instructions respecting it were given by
 ,garzoni#gje1 ,cardan#gjf1             
,caneparius#gjg and others in their     
writings4 ,about the same period a      
pewterer at ,nuremberg1 named ,melchior 
,koch1 was acquainted with the art  of  
communicating a golden colour1 in the   
like manner1 to tin goblets  and dishes4
 ,he died in #aefg2 and with him1 as    
,doppelmayer says1 the  art was lost4 ,a
 method of applying a white metal to    
paper1 and then  drawing over it a gold 

varnish1 has been known in ,china since 
the  earliest periods#gjh4 ,at present  
this method of gilding is practised     
more in ,sicily than in any other       
country4 ,it appears also to have been  
used1 at an early period1 for gilding   
leather and leather tapestry2 and  this 
perhaps was first attempted at ,messina1
 as we are told by ,john  ,matthus#gji1 
who1 however1 in another place ascribes 
the invention to  a saint of ,lucca1    
named ,cita4 ,but gilt leather was made 
as early as the  time of ,lucian1 who   
conjectures that ,alexander the impostor
 had a piece  of it bound round his     
thigh#gaj4 ,the dress of the priests1 on
 the  festival of ,bacchus1 was perhaps 
of the same kind#gaa4      ,,footnotes  
#fhh ,herodot4 lib4 ii4 #fc4 ,see       
,winkelmann ,hist4 de l',art4--,caylus1 
,recueil d',antiquits1 i4 p4 #aic4 ,gori
 seems to have had in his  possession   
two ,egyptian gilt figures4 ,see ,mus4  
,etr4 t4 i4 p4 #ea4    #fhi ,in the     
books of the ,old ,testament gilding and

 gold plates are  clearly mentioned4    
,moses caused several parts of the      
sanctuary to be  overlaid with gold4    
#ast4 ,the ark of shittim wood was      
covered with gold  both on the outside  
and inside1 ,exodus1 chap4 xxv4 ver4    
#aa2 also the  staves1 ver4 #ac4 #bnd4  
,the wooden table with its staves1 ver4 
#bc and #bh4  #crd4 ,the altar of burnt 
incense1 chap4 xxx4 ver4 #c4 #dth4 ,the 
boards  which formed the sides of the   
tabernacle1 chap4 xxvi4 ver4 #bi4       
,solomon caused various parts of the    
temple to be overlaid with gold4  #ast4 
,the whole inside of the house1 #a      
,kings1 chap4 vi4 ver4 #ba and  #bb4    
#bnd4 ,the altar of burnt incense1 ver4 
#bj and #bb4 #crd4 ,the wooden  cherubim
 above seventeen feet in height1 ver4   
#bh4 #dth4 ,the floor1 ver4  #cj4 #eth4 
,the doors of the oracle1 on which were 
carved cherubims1  palm-trees and open  
flowers1 ver4 #cb and #ce1 so that the  
gold  accurately exhibited the figures  
of the carved work4    ,now the question

 is1 whether all these were gilt1 or    
covered1 or  overlaid with gold plates4 
,but when the passages are compared with
 each  other1 ,i am inclined to think   
that gilding is denoted4    8,the       
,hebrews probably brought the art of    
gilding with them from ,egypt1  where it
 seems to have been very old1 as gilding
 is found not only on  mummies1 the     
antiquity of which indeed is uncertain2 
but1 if ,i am not  mistaken1 in the     
oldest temples1 on images4 ,it appears  
also1 that in  the time of ,moses the   
,hebrews understood the art both of     
gilding and of  overlaying with plates  
of gold1 and expressed both by the      
general term  40    #fij ,page #ecd4    
#fia ,lib4 xxxiii4 #c4 ,the thicker     
gold-leaf was called1 at that time1     
bractea ,prnestina2 the thinner1 bractea
 qustoria4    #fib ,osservazioni        
,istoriche sopra alcum ,medaglioni      
,antichi4 ,in ,roma1  #afih1 fol4 p4    
#cgj4    #fic ,lucret4 iv4              
#gcj4--,martial4 viii4 #cc4    #fid     

,lessing zur ,geschichte und            
,litteratur1 iv4 p4 #cji4    #fie       
,l'oggidi overo gl'ingegni non inferiori
  passati4 ,venet4 #afcf4  #hvo4    #fif
 ,zusammenhang der ,knste4 ,zurich1     
#agfd1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #ge4 ,for further    
information see ,trait des ,monnoies1   
par ,abot de ,bazinghen4 ,paris1  #agfd1
 #dto1 i4 p4 #ajb4    #fig ,rutty's     
,natural ,history of ,dublin1 #aggb1 #b 
vols4 #hvo1 i4 p4 #bfd4    #fih ,von    
,uffenbach ,reisen1 iii4 p4 #bah4       
#fii ,i was told that ,professor ,pickel
 of ,wrzburg prepares  gold-beaters'    
skin by means of a varnish1 which       
renders it fitter for  use2 and that a  
student of that place had found out the 
art of making  it transparent1 in order 
that the wound might be seen4    #gjj   
,lib4 xxxiii4  #bj1 p4 #faf4    #gja    
,plin4 lib4 xxxv4  #ag1 p4 #fhe4    #gjb
 ,lib4 xxxiii4  #cb1 p4 #fbb4 8,cum ra  
inaurantur1 sublitum bracteis           
pertinacissime retinet4 ,verum pallore  
detegit simplices aut prtenues          

bracteas4 ,quapropter id furtum qurentes
 ovi liquore candido usum  eum          
adulteravere40 ,see also sect4 #db1 p4  
#fbf4 ,i acknowledge that  this passage 
,i do not fully comprehend4 ,it seems to
 say that the  quicksilver1 when the    
gold was laid on too thin1 appeared     
through it1  but that this might be     
prevented by mixing with the quicksilver
 the  white of an egg4 ,the quicksilver 
then remained under the gold2 but  this 
is impossible4 ,when the smallest drop  
of quicksilver falls upon  gilding1 it  
corrodes the noble metal1 and produces  
an empty spot4 ,it  is therefore        
incomprehensible to me how this could be
 prevented by  the white of an egg4 ,did
 ,pliny himself completely understand   
gilding8  ,perhaps ,pliny only meant to 
say1 that many artists gave out the     
cold-gilding1 where the gold-leaf was   
laid on with the white of an egg1  as   
gilding by means of heat4 ,i shall here 
remark1 that the reader may  spare      
himself the trouble of turning over     

,durand's ,histoire ,naturelle  de l',or
 et d',argent1 ,londres #agbi1 fol4     
,this ,frenchman did not  understand    
what he translated4    #gjc ,principes  
de l',architecture4 ,paris1 #afgf1 #dto1
 p4 #bhj4    #gjd ,lessing zur          
,geschichte und ,litteratur1 vi4 p4     
#caa4    #gje ,piazza ,universale4      
,venet4 #afaj1 #dto1 p4 #bha4    #gjf   
,de ,rerum ,var4 xiii4 cap4 #ef4    #gjg
 ,de ,atramentis4    #gjh ,mmoires      
concernant les ,chinois1 xi4 p4 #cea4   
#gji ,de ,rerum ,inventoribus1 ,hamb4   
#afac1 #hvo1 pp4 #da1 #cg4    #gaj      
,luciani ,opera1 ed4 ,bipont4 v4 p4     
#ajj4    #gaa ,plutarchi ,sympos4 iv4 in
 fine4          ,,fur ,,dresses4        
,as long as mankind lived under         
palm-trees in their original country1   
between the tropics1 they had no        
occasion to provide either food or      
clothing3 the former was spontaneously  
supplied by the earth1 that  is1 without
 care or labour2 and the latter in that 
warm climate was  superfluous4 ,the art 

of cultivating plants1 and that of      
preparing  clothes1 were not innate1 but
 first taught by necessity2 and this did
  not exist till men1 in consequence of 
their increase1 were obliged to  spread 
towards both the poles4 ,in proportion  
as they removed from  their former      
abode1 provisions became scarcer1 and   
the climate colder4  ,hence arose the   
breeding of cattle1 as well as          
agriculture2 and men  then first        
ventured on the cruelty of killing      
animals1 in order that  they might      
devour them as food1 and use their skins
 to shelter them  against the severity  
of the weather4    ,at first these skins
 were used raw1 without any preparation2
 and many  nations did not till a late  
period fall upon the art of rendering   
them softer1 and making them more       
pliable1 durable1 and convenient4  ,as  
long as mankind traded only for         
necessaries1 and paid no attention  to  
ornaments1 they turned the hairy side   
towards the body2 but as the  art of    

dressing skins was not then understood1 
the flesh side must  have given to this 
kind of clothing1 when the manners of   
people began  to be more refined1 an    
appearance which could not fail of      
exciting  disgust4 ,to prevent this the 
,ozol inverted the skins1 and wore the  
hair outwards2 and in this manner some  
account for the bad smell which  exhaled
 from their bodies#gab4 ,this custom1   
however1 was so general1  that ,juvenal1
 where he describes a miserly person1   
says1 8to guard  himself against the    
cold he does not wear the costly woollen
 clothing  of the luxurious ,romans1 but
 the skins of animals1 and these even   
inverted1 that is to say1 with the hairy
 side turned inwards1 without  caring   
whether the appearance be agreeable or  
not#gac40 ,in what manner  the art of   
tanning was afterwards found out1       
,goguet has endeavoured  to conjecture  
from the accounts given by travellers1  
in regard to the  savages in the        
northern parts of ,america and ,asia1   

but particularly  in regard to the      
,greenlanders4 ,the far more ingenious  
method of  manufacturing wool1 first    
into felt and then into cloth1 seems to 
have  been discovered by the inhabitants
 of temperate districts1 where the      
mildness of the winter rendered fur     
dresses unnecessary4    ,the sheep came 
from ,africa2 but in that country it has
 hair and not  wool2 and it is only in  
colder climates that the former acquires
 a  woolly nature4 ,if it be true that a
 ,hercules first brought this species   
of animal from ,africa to ,greece#gad1  
that improvement may have first  been   
effected in the latter country2 in which
 case it is probable that  the first    
attempts to manufacture wool were made  
by the ,athenians1  that is to say1     
among the ,greeks2 for this art was     
before known to the  ,egyptians1 who    
ascribe the invention of it to their    
,isis4    ,it may be readily            
comprehended that many centuries must   
have elapsed  before the tender sheep   

could be conveyed to and reared in the  
northern  countries1 where thick and    
immense forests produced in abundance a 
great variety of those animals which    
were capable of supplying the  best     
furs2 where mankind increased but       
slowly2 applied to hunting till  a later
 period2 and were not so soon compelled 
to employ artificial  methods of        
obtaining the most necessary            
productions2 and where they  also lived 
too widely scattered to be soon         
conducted to the arts by  a             
communication of experience and         
inventions4 ,the northern nations1      
therefore1 clothed themselves in the raw
 skins of animals1 a long  time after   
the southern tribes were acquainted with
 the spinning and  weaving of wool1     
flax1 and cotton2 and on this account   
the former were  astonished at the      
appearance of the latter4    ,when the  
,greeks give us a picture of these      
barbarians1 they scarcely  ever fail to 
state how disgusting they were on       

account of their dress2  which however1 
by the acknowledgement of their         
historians1 was long  worn by their own 
forefathers#gae4 ,the heroes even of the
 ,grecian  fabulous history clothed     
themselves in the skins of the most     
terrible  animals#gaf1 such as lions and
 tigers1 and on these they also slept4  
,when the ,romans wished to describe the
 manners of their ancestors1 and  to    
exhibit the difference between them and 
their own1 they commonly  mentioned the 
use of skins4 ,thus ,propertius calls   
the senators of the  earliest periods   
the pelliti#gag1 and ,valerius ,maximus 
says#gah1  speaking of the luxury of his
 time1 that no one in imitation of ,cato
  would use goat skins as a covering to 
his bed4 ,but it appears that  the      
,greeks and the ,romans1 at the time of 
their prosperity1 when the  arts and    
sciences were cultivated among them1    
made little use of fur  clothing4 ,it   
was worn at that period only on certain 
festivals1 and  merely by the poorer    

classes and rustics#gai1 or employed in 
the time  of war#gbj4 ,at any rate1 it  
is not mentioned among the dresses of   
the  rich1 or articles of magnificence  
and ornament4    ,the ancient           
physicians1 where they treat on the     
influence which  clothing has on the    
health1 and the choice of it for winter 
and summer1  make no mention of furs4   
,suetonius1 describing the manner in    
which the  emperor ,augustus dressed in 
winter1 names various articles of       
clothing1  but no furs2 which the       
emperor1 who was so sensible of cold1   
would  certainly have worn1 had they    
been usual4 ,they no doubt would have   
been much more convenient and answered  
the purpose better1 than the  four tunic
 drawn over each other1 and the thick   
toga1 the woollen  shirt and            
breast-cloth1 and all the other articles
 mentioned4 ,martial  ridicules a       
petit-matre1 who wished for the arrival 
of winter and  for severe weather in    
that season1 in order that he might     

exhibit his  costly winter dresses4 ,had
 furs1 at that period1 been the         
fashionable  and principal winter       
clothing1 the poet certainly would not  
have  omitted to mention them4 ,at      
present the baccar for the like reason  
make their appearance as soon as the    
first frost takes place1 along  with    
large muffs1 which leave scarcely any   
part of the body to be seen  but the    
head and the feet4 ,had furs been       
employed by way of ornament  in the time
 of ,pliny1 he no doubt would have      
noticed this use of them1  especially as
 he mentions and ridicules so many      
superstitious ways of  applying the     
skins of animals2 but ,i do not remember
 to have read in  the works of this     
naturalist any account of fur clothing4 
,he relates  that an attempt had been   
made to manufacture the fur of the hare2
 but  it had not succeeded1 because the 
fur1 on account of its shortness1 as  he
 supposes1 would not adhere1 or1 as we  
say at present1 could not be            

felted#gba4 ,he1 however1 says nothing  
of hare's fur being employed  to line   
clothes4 ,it appears also that furs do  
not often occur as  clothing in the     
sacred scriptures#gbb4 ,in the third1 or
 perhaps even  the second century of the
 ,christian ra1 fur dresses seem to have
  been known to the ,romans1 and to have
 been much esteemed by them4 ,the       
numerous northern tribes1 who at that   
time advanced towards the south1  were  
clothed in furs2 but they were not all  
raw1 dirty1 and disgusting1  like those 
which had before been in use4 ,it may   
with certainty be  supposed that the    
chief men among them had the most       
beautiful furs2  and that in general    
they were so well acquainted with the   
art of  preparing them1 and wearing them
 in the most graceful manner1 that they 
by these means recommended them to the  
notice of the young ,romans4  ,for that 
all those warlike tribes who attacked   
the ,roman empire1 and  in part subdued 
it1 are not to be considered as         

uncultivated1 savage  barbarians1       
unacquainted with the arts or the       
sciences1 addicted  to plundering and   
murder1 who overturned governments and  
destroyed  public happiness and trade1  
has been lately remarked1 when the      
,french  applied the term ,vandalism to 
the horrid cruelties committed during   
the  late revolution#gbc4 ,it can be    
proved that the ,romans adopted from    
their uninvited guests those kinds of   
dress2 that furs soon became            
fashionable among them1 and were an     
object of luxury and of commerce2  and  
it appears that skins were the first    
article which occasioned a  trade from  
,italy to the most distant parts of the 
,north1 as in the  fifteenth century    
they were the cause of the discovery and
 conquest of  ,siberia4    ,the later   
the art of manufacturing wool1 and of   
converting the noble  metals into lace  
and other ornaments1 was known1 in the  
northern  countries1 and the later the  
inhabitants became acquainted with      

cotton1  silk1 and precious stones1 the 
earlier and the more they exerted       
themselves to find out and prepare the  
most beautiful furs1 and to trim  and to
 border with them their dresses2 and it 
needs excite no surprise  that the      
southern nations1 though their climate  
did not require it1  adopted this       
magnificence2 especially as the distance
 and scarcity of  furs made them dear   
enough to be considered by the rich and 
people of  rank as a luxurious mark of  
distinction4 ,this1 in my opinion1 will 
be  proved by what follows4    ,when    
historians speak of those northern      
nations with whom the ,romans  carried  
on long and for the most part           
unfortunate wars1 they scarcely  ever   
forget to mention their fur clothing2   
and this is the case in  particular with
 those writers who lived at the time4   
,we are told by  ,herodotus1 that the   
people near the ,caspian sea clothed    
themselves in  seal-skins4 ,the same    
thing is related by ,strabo of the      

,massaget2 and  ,csar and ,sallust both 
assert1 that the skin of the rein-deer  
formed  in part the clothing of the     
ancient ,germans4 ,i allude here to     
those  dresses which they call renones4 
,that this word is derived from the     
animal named at present by the ,swedes  
,ren2 that the rein-deer was  common in 
ancient ,germany1 when1 in consequence  
of its being covered  with forests and  
marshes1 it had a much colder climate   
and produced  more rein-deer moss than  
at present2 and that ,csar1 where he    
describes  the most remarkable things of
 ,germany1 mentions the rein-deer under 
the name of bos cervi figura1 ,i think  
,i have proved in my juvenile           
production on the ancient animals of    
that country4 ,reno is also  ,lappmud1  
or the rein-deer skin1 which is still   
worn in ,sweden1  which ,i have worn    
there myself1 and which is handsome and 
costly4 ,the  objection of ,wachter#gbd 
to this opinion is of very little       
weight4 ,how  is it possible to believe1

 says he1 that these animals were       
formerly  so numerous1 that all the     
,germans and ,gauls could clothe        
themselves in  their skins8 ,but on this
 occasion he does not recollect what he 
has  often proved by examples1 that the 
name of a species is often given  to the
 whole genus4 ,because a great many wore
 renones1 of which the  ,romans perhaps 
were fondest1 they gave the name of     
renones to all  these fur dresses of the
 ,germans4 ,the proofs1 in ancient      
authors1 in  regard to the fur clothing 
of the ,scythians1 the ,goths1 the ,get1
 and  ,huns1 are too numerous to be     
collected4 ,i shall therefore refer only
 to  those passages which ,i have       
occasionally remarked1 and which ,i     
shall  soon employ for another          
purpose#gbe4    ,it can easily be proved
 that the ,germans and other northern   
nations1  in consequence of their       
intercourse with the ,romans1 gradually 
left  off the use of furs1 and became   
more and more accustomed to woollen     

clothing2 and1 on the other hand1 that  
the ,romans adopted the state  dress of 
their conquerors4 ,even in the time of  
,tacitus1 those ,germans  who lived on  
the ,rhine and the ,danube1 and         
consequently who were  nearest to the   
,romans1 set much less value on furs    
than those who1  residing further within
 the country1 were at a greater distance
 from  intercourse with foreigners and  
from trade#gbf4 ,the latter had the     
most costly furs1 which they knew how to
 ornament and variegate with  trimmings 
of every kind1 in the same manner       
perhaps as our furriers  at present     
ornament white fur with the tail of the 
ermine#gbg4 ,these  people possessed no 
other articles of luxury1 and had no    
other means  of distinguishing          
themselves among their countrymen1 but  
by the rarity  and costliness of their  
furs4 ,such was the case with the       
,spartans  when ,lycurgus deprived them 
of all their superfluities4 ,they then  
ornamented1 and thereby enhanced the    

value of the necessary articles  they   
had left1 beds1 tables and wooden bowls1
 from which they drank  water1 and to   
such a degree1 that at length these     
things were as  capable of gratifying   
the taste of luxury as the foreign wares
 they had  before purchased at so dear a
 rate#gbh4    ,the same thing has been  
remarked by the ,danish and ,swedish    
historians4  ,when these nations1 by    
their sea voyages1 piratical expeditions
 and  trade1 became acquainted with     
foreign manners1 and more convenient    
kinds of clothing1 they accustomed      
themselves to wool1 cotton and silk2    
yet1 in so slow a manner1 that the use  
of these wares was introduced as  an    
extravagant luxury4 ,harold ,hrdrt      
,sigurdson1 or ,harold ,,iv4 king  of   
,norway1 in the middle of the eleventh  
century1 who had collected  great riches
 in the ,levant1 wore a red mantle lined
 with white furs4 ,in  the twelfth      
century the principal men at the ,danish
 court were clothed  in sheep-skins#gbi2

 and when ,duke ,canute1 or ,canute     
,laward1 the son  of ,eric ,eiegod1 who 
was assassinated in the year #aaca1     
appeared at a  festival at ,ripe in a   
dress of red cloth1 he excited attention
 and  envy1 and was subjected to the    
mortification of hearing the most bitter
  sarcasms from ,henry ,skatteler1 or   
rather ,skokal1 that is1 the lame1 who  
wore a native sheep-skin#gcj4    ,that  
furs were considered by the ,get as     
objects of magnificence1 and  that as   
such they were worn by their kings and  
the principal men at  court1 is proved  
by the passages ,i have quoted4 ,the    
reproach thrown  out by ,claudian       
against ,rufinus1 that he was not       
ashamed to wear ,getic  furs1 proves    
that the ,romans adopted the manners of 
their conquerors1  and that this        
practice was censured by their patriots4
 ,it is worthy of  remark also1 that the
 jurists1 ,ulpian and ,paulus1 reckon   
furs among  articles of dress1 to which 
before their time they did not          

belong#gca4    ,acron1 an old           
commentator on ,horace1 whose period1 as
 far as ,i know1  has not yet been      
determined1 says that in his time the   
senators and  principal men1 when they  
appeared in their official dresses1 wore
  costly furs obtained from foreign     
countries1 and ,tertullian#gcb          
indignantly inveighs against the female 
dresses bordered and trimmed  with furs1
 which seem to be mentioned also by     
bishop ,maximus in the  fifth century4  
,in the year #cig1 the emperor ,honorius
 forbade ,gothic dresses1 and in        
particular furs1 to be worn either in   
,rome or within the jurisdiction  of the
 city2 but that such orders against     
fashions had very little  effect appears
 from this circumstance1 that these     
laws1 extended as  well as rendered more
 severe1 were renewed in #cii and #daf1 
and yet  were not obeyed4 ,even the     
,goths themselves were forbidden to use 
such  dresses4 ,the ,gothic servants1   
who at that time were kept in most      

families1 were to be subjected to       
corporal punishment1 and those of       
higher rank to a fine1 in case they     
transgressed this prohibition4 ,but     
,synesius1 who lived at that period1 and
 as a good patriot lamented the  use of 
these outlandish dresses1 which afforded
 a melancholy presage  that the dominion
 of the ,goths would at length prevail1 
relates1 that  the principal men among  
these people appeared at ,rome in the   
,roman  dress1 but on their return home 
they exchanged it for their native      
clothing1 and again assumed their furs4 
,furs1 however1 were not the only part  
of the ,gothic costume which  became    
modish among the ,romans2 for they      
adopted also their breeches  or hose4   
,that such articles of dress were not   
used before that time1  either by the   
,greeks1 the ,romans1 or the ,hebrews1  
has been proved by  many4 ,on this      
account mention is so often made of     
indecent postures1  as when the ,scotch 
,highlanders rendent les armes1 by which

 parts are  exposed that modesty        
requires to be concealed4 ,this is      
considered by  ,theophrastus as one of  
the marks of clownishness#gcc4 ,thus1 a 
posture  inadvertently assumed1 exposed 
,philip to reproach1 as we are told by  
,plutarch#gcd2 and to guard against a   
similar indecorum1 ,csar1 as he  fell1  
collected his robes around him4 ,hence1 
as is well known1 the  expression       
retained by ,luther1 seine ,fsse        
bedecken1 8to cover one's  feet10 or as 
the ,greeks say1 8to compose one's      
clothes#gce40 ,persons  who laboured    
under weakness or indisposition1 wrapped
 bandages around  their legs2 and in the
 time of ,quintilian1 the use of these  
could be  excused only by sickness#gcf4 
,they1 however1 became afterwards more  
common1 so that by ,ulpian they are     
reckoned among the ordinary articles  of
 dress#gcg4 ,they formed a step towards 
breeches1 properly so called1  which1 as
 is well known1 covered for many        
centuries the loins1 thighs  and legs1  

as may be seen on seals and carved work 
of the thirteenth  century#gch4 ,that   
the ,batavians1 ,gauls1 ,germans1       
,sarmatians1 ,get1  ,goths1 c4 had such 
articles of clothing1 is proved by many 
passages  in ancient authors1 already   
quoted by others1 and by the well-known 
appellation ,gallia braccata4 ,the      
anaxurides also of the ,persians  were  
breeches1 which the ,romans adopted1 not
 from these people1 but  from the       
northern nations1 yet without the       
approbation of the patriots1  who       
exclaimed against them1 as they had     
before done against furs4 ,at  first    
they seem to have been used only on     
journeys and in war4 ,when  the ,gothic 
costume was forbidden by ,honorius1     
breeches were expressly  mentioned2 and 
,ovid reproaches the people of ,tomi1 on
 the ,pontus  ,euxinus1 that though they
 wished to be thought of ,greek         
extraction1  they were not ashamed to   
wear ,persian breeches#gci4    ,as furs 
for dresses of ceremony were either not 

used at all by the  ,greeks and the     
,romans1 or were adopted only at a late 
period and seldom  employed1 an account 
of the fur trade is not to be expected  
in their  writings4 ,i am well aware    
that ,isaac ,vossius had an idea that   
the  history of the golden fleece might 
be considered as the oldest trace  of   
it#gdj1 and therefore asserted that the 
object of the ,argonautic  expedition to
 ,colchis was a commercial speculation1 
as was the case  with the voyages of the
 ,english to ,nootka ,sound4 ,it is also
 true that  this opinion met with some  
approbation2 but it has no more         
probability  than that entertained by   
the alchymists in regard to the same    
expedition since the time of ,suidas4   
,that the ,colchi1 indeed1 carried  on a
 very extensive trade is sufficiently   
proved by the testimony of  ,pliny and  
,strabo2 but the latter1 in the         
catalogue of wares1 mentions  timber for
 ship-building1 pitch1 wax1 linen and   
hemp1 but not furs1  which at that time 

could not be an article much sought     
after in foreign  commerce4    ,another 
account which we read in ,pliny seems   
much rather to refer to  the fur trade4 
,i here allude to that quoted by        
,bttiger#gda1 from  which it appears    
that furs were reckoned among the       
articles obtained  at that time from the
 ,seres#gdb4 ,i1 however1 freely confess
 that ,i  cannot readily admit this     
single word of ,pliny as a complete     
proof4 ,as  far as ,i have yet been able
 to find1 other writers1 among the      
articles  furnished by the ,chinese1    
mention iron1 pearls1 silk1 cotton1 and 
silk  or cotton clothes1 but say nothing
 of furs2 and it is very improbable     
that a country which produced silk or   
cotton could supply such furs as  would 
be worth conveying to so great a        
distance4 ,the only thing ,i can  admit 
is1 that the furs were brought by a     
transit trade to ,europe2 that  is to   
say1 the ,seres obtained them from the  
fur countries1 properly  so called1 or  

those which at present furnish sables1  
and again sold  them to the ,romans4    
,now this was a very circuitous route1  
whether we  consider ,serica to have    
been ,china1 ,siam1 or the ,lesser      
,bucharia2  yet not so circuitous as    
that by which the ,chinese obtained from
 the  ,english1 through ,russia1 the    
best beaver-skins brought from ,canada  
and  ,hudson's ,bay4    ,were we to     
reckon among the pelles ,serum of ,pliny
 the lucida  vellera1 tactu mollia      
,serum1 mentioned by ,seneca1 ,boethius 
and  others1 we should undoubtedly be in
 an error2 for these may be  explained  
by the false information which at that  
time was obtained  partly in regard to  
cotton1 and partly in regard to silk1   
and which  may be seen in ,solinus#gdc  
and others4 ,is it not possible that    
these  lucida vellera may have been     
meant likewise by ,pliny8    ,i have    
some doubts also respecting a passage of
 ,strabo1 where he  relates that among  
the wares brought by the nomadic tribes 

of ,europe  and ,asia to the ,tanais1 or
 present ,azoph1 at the mouth of the    
,don1  there were slaves and furs#gdd4  
,it is certain that dermata may         
signify1 not only furs1 but also tanned 
skins4 ,if ,strabo here meant  furs1 ,i 
am inclined to conjecture that they were
 disposed of in the  nearest countries1 
but did not come into the ,european     
trade2 and  the case1 perhaps1 was the  
same with the slaves mentioned in the   
same passage4 ,polybius also1 among the 
wares brought from ,pontus to           
,byzantium1 mentions dermata#gde4 ,i    
must1 however1 confess1 that if ,i      
found that the ,romans actually obtained
 dermata from ,asia1 ,i should          
carefully examine whether under that    
term skins1 or even dyed leather1  were 
not rather meant4 ,skins1 and           
particularly for military purposes1     
they indeed procured from very distant  
places4 ,thus the ,frieslanders1        
instead of a tax1 were obliged to supply
 ox-hides#gdf2 and it may be  proved by 

the testimony of various writers1 that  
the art of giving a  beautiful dye to   
leather is very old in ,asia2 and       
therefore that many  kinds of what we   
call morocco was at an early period     
brought from  thence to ,europe4    ,on 
the other hand1 from what is said by    
lian#gdg1 ,i entertain no  doubt that in
 his time a trade in furs was carried on
 with ,persia4 ,to  that country were   
sent1 he says1 the soft skins of the    
,pontic mouse1  which1 when sewed       
together1 formed warm dresses4 ,i am    
convinced also  that more proofs might  
be found of the use of fur-clothing     
among  the ,persians4 ,they employed    
furs likewise instead of mattresses and 
bolsters4 ,thus we are told by          
,plutarch#gdh that ,pharnabazus reclined
  upon soft furs3 and it is not         
improbable that the rough or thick      
winter gloves of the ,persians1         
mentioned by ,xenophon1 were of the same
  material#gdi4 ,it is stated by modern 
travellers1 that at present sable  and  

ermine skins are among the most common  
and valuable ornaments of  the          
,persians2 and it is well known that the
 costume of these people is  very old1  
because they are not exposed as we are  
to the influence of  fickle fashion4    
,but the ,persian skins1 pelles ,parthic
 or ,persic1 which are often  extolled1 
especially in later times1 on account of
 their beauty1 do  not belong to this   
head2 though ,vossius1 ,brisson and     
,gesner1 consider  them to have been    
sables4 ,they were undoubtedly different
 kinds of  dyed leather1 of which shoes 
were made for princes and opulent       
persons4  ,in the time of the emperor   
,maximianus1 a ,roman soldier having    
found  a leathern purse which contained 
real pearls1 threw away the latter  and 
retained only the purse1 because it had 
a beautiful colour#gej4  ,of the same   
kind of leather was that dyed with      
kermes1 mentioned by  ,zosimus#gea2 and 
that which by ,constantine              
,porphyrogenetes1 where he  mentions all

 those wares which the northern nations 
obtained through  ,constantinople1 is   
expressly named highly-dyed ,persian    
leather4    ,of a similar kind1 as      
appears1 was the ,babylonian leather4   
,zonaras#geb  speaks of a costly tent   
made of it2 and in the time of ,st4     
,jerome  it was considered as an object 
of luxury4 ,as ,persian and ,babylonian 
leather are mentioned at the same time1 
there is reason to think that  a        
distinction was made in commerce between
 these two kinds#gec4 ,the  emperor     
,constantine1 among the persons charged 
to furnish articles  for the imperial   
wardrobe at ,constantinople1 and who on 
that account  enjoyed certain           
immunities1 mentions the parthicarii1   
particarii1  or parthiarii#ged2 and     
though we are uncertain in regard to the
  orthography1 it may be readily        
conceived that these words do not       
allude1 as ,vossius says1 to furriers1  
but to merchants who dealt in  costly   
dyed1 and perhaps painted skins1 which  

they procured from  ,persia4 ,it is     
well-known that at present the ,persians
 understand the  art of preparing and   
dyeing many kinds of leather in a more  
beautiful  manner than the ,europeans2  
and among these in particular are       
shagreen  and morocco1 which are still  
imported from the ,east#gee4    ,from   
the grounds here adduced1 ,i am led to  
conjecture that the trade in  furs to   
the southern parts of ,europe had its   
commencement during the  expeditions of 
the northern tribes to ,italy2 and ,i   
must acknowledge  that ,i have found no 
older information on this subject than  
that  furnished by ,jordanes or         
,jornandes1 who lived in the sixth      
century4  ,this writer1 speaking of the 
northern nations1 mentions the          
,suethans1  and says#gef1 that these are
 the people who send to the ,romans the 
celebrated furs2 which1 however1 passed 
necessarily through the hands  of many  
intermediate tribes4 ,these ,suethans1  
according to his account1  inhabited a  

part of ,scanzia1 and that under this   
name he included  ,sweden1 ,norway1     
,lapland1 ,finland1 c4 has been already 
proved by  ,mascou#geg4 ,soon after he  
mentions also ,hanugari1 whom he reckons
  among the ,scythians2 these he says   
were known on account of their trade    
with mouse-skins#geh4    ,it is too well
 known to require any proof1 that in the
 oldest periods  the whole riches of the
 northern countries consisted in furs2  
that  these1 if not the only1 were the  
principal wares exported1 and that  all 
taxes were paid with them4 ,other1 who  
lived in the ninth century1  states the 
number of marten1 rein-deer1 bear and   
otter skins1 which  were delivered      
annually by the ,finlanders and         
,norwegians#gei4 ,when  ,thorolf1 in the
 year #hgh1 sent a ship to ,england with
 merchandise1  there were among it      
pelles mustelin alb#gfj4 ,i shall remark
  also1 that so early as the third      
century skins and leather began to be   
counted by decuri2 from which is derived

 the appellation decher1  adopted into  
the ,english1 ,swedish and ,danish      
languages1 as well as the  word dacra or
 dacrum pellium#gfa1 used in the middle 
ages4 ,sables  and ermines1 however1 are
 still sold by zimmern2 and this        
appellation  also is very old4 ,a timber
 of hare-skins occurs about the year    
#acjj1  and unum timbrium martrinarum as
 early as #abjg4 ,at present a zimmer   
makes four dechers or twenty pairs1 and 
in the time of ,george  ,agricola       
sable-skins were sold in this manner1   
forty in one lot#gfb4  ,but a zimmer has
 not always been the same in all        
countries and at  all times2 at any rate
 in ,france a zimmer1 timbre1 was       
reckoned to  contain sixty skins4       
,before ,i proceed further1 ,i must     
endeavour to explain the different      
names of furs which occur in the works  
of the ancients2 but in this  attempt ,i
 can scarcely hope to attain to great   
probability4 ,the  information of the   
ancients in regard to those species of  

animals  with the country of which they 
were not acquainted1 is exceedingly     
defective4 ,what they relate was        
obtained from the accounts of           
merchants2 and these1 in all            
probability1 through a principle of     
self-interest1 falsified the little that
 they really knew4 ,besides1  the       
ancient writers do not always accurately
 distinguish the names of  the different
 furs1 nor affix to them the same       
meaning2 which is the  less surprising1 
as few know how to give proper names to 
the principal  kinds of furs even at    
present4 ,it is probable that the skins 
of the  ermine1 marten1 and squirrel1   
became at a very early period objects of
  commerce1 and formed the chief        
articles in this branch of trade2 but   
from the little known on this subject1  
no zoologist would venture to  determine
 with certainty the species4 ,he must be
 so candid as to admit  all conjectures 
which he is not able to refute4    ,if  
,i am not mistaken1 the skin of the     

mouse1 and particularly the  ,pontic or 
,caspian mouse1 is that of which the    
first and most frequent  mention occurs 
in the oldest times4 ,that the name mus 
denoted at  first not only that animal  
to which we apply it1 but also all small
  warm-blooded quadrupeds1 has been long
 ago remarked4 ,in the same manner      
every large animal was formerly called  
bos4 ,when the ,romans first  saw       
elephants they gave them the name of    
boves luc4 ,pausanias also  calls the   
rhinoceros the ,ethiopian ox2 and ,csar 
names the rein-deer1  the ox with stag's
 horns4 ,the ox was the largest1 as the 
mouse was the  smallest1 warm-blooded   
animal with which the ancients were     
acquainted1  and therefore they called  
all large animals oxen1 and all small   
ones  mice#gfc4 ,it is to be observed1  
in explaining the ancient names of      
animals1 that at first they had a much  
more extensive signification1  and one  
must endeavour to conjecture what the   
animals comprehended  under them had in 

common with each other1 according to the
 ideas of  the ancients4 ,to words of   
this kind formica seems to belong1 and  
perhaps the principal idea related to   
collecting and laying up2 and  perhaps  
in this manner one might be able to     
explain the fable of the  gold-searching
 ants1 mentioned by ,herodotus4 ,it is  
however often  difficult to conjecture  
what the principal idea was4 ,what idea 
did the  ancients affix to the term     
passer 7sparrow71 when they called the  
ostrich the large ,libyan or ,arabian   
sparrow8 ,we learn nothing more         
therefore from the words pelles murium1 
than that they were not the  skins of   
large animals4 ,the epithets ,pontic and
 ,caspian only show1 that  these wares1 
like many others1 were brought from     
,pontus and the ,caspian  sea4 ,from    
such epithets were we to determine the  
original country of  any article used in
 commerce1 or the place where it was    
first produced1  we should often fall   
into error4 ,wares were frequently      

called ,syrian1  ,turkish and ,arabian1 
though it is certain that they were     
brought from  very different countries4 
,what further information ,i have been  
able to find in regard to this  species 
of animal1 merely is1 that its skin was 
exceedingly soft2  that it formed a good
 defence against the wind1 and that a   
great many  of them were sewed together 
in order to make a garment#gfd4 ,now1 if
  credit be given to the account of     
,aristotle and ,pliny1 that the ,pontic 
mouse belongs to the ruminating class of
 animals1 how can anything              
characteristic be deduced from it8      
,those who wish to afford more room for 
conjecture might1 from a  passage of    
,st4 ,jerome1 render it probable that   
this kind of fur had  the same smell as 
musk4 ,musk indeed was then known2 but  
is it not  possible that this father may
 have considered the musk animal to be  
a mouse1 as ,conrad ,gesner suspected8  
,to me it is more probable that  he was 
acquainted with the musk bags used in   

commerce1 and named them  peregrini     
muris olentes pellicul4 ,it however     
cannot be proved by  this passage1 that 
the skin of the musk animal was         
purchased for fur  clothing on account  
of its smell4 ,for1 in the first place1 
the skin  of this animal1 with the hair 
on it1 has not a musky smell2 and this  
is known not only from the description  
given of it1 but is proved by  a skin   
which ,i obtained in a very fresh state4
 ,in the second place1  this animal is  
as large as a deer half a year old2 the 
size therefore  will not warrant the use
 of the diminutive pellicula4 ,and1 in  
the  third place1 the skin does not     
afford valuable fur4 ,the hair is thick2
  almost bristly1 and so tender that it 
breaks with the least force4  ,these    
skins are used only by the natives of   
the country where they are  produced1   
for caps and winter clothing2 but when  
they have been freed  from the hair1 and
 tanned white1 they form leather        
exceedingly soft and  fine4 ,those who  

are satisfied with an appearance of     
probability may  recollect1 in reading  
the passage of ,jerome1 that the sable1 
when daily  used1 throws out a faint and
 not unpleasant smell of musk1 and      
assert  that the ,pontic mouse was the  
sable4    ,far more probable is the     
conjecture of our great zoologist1 that 
mus ,ponticus was the name given at     
first to the earless marmot1  ,m4       
catili1 and that it was afterwards      
applied to the squirrel and  ermine#gfe4
 ,this opinion he supports by the       
observation1 that the  torpidity in     
winter1 the rumination1 and the affinity
 to the alpine  mouse1 ,m4 alpinus1     
which ,pliny seems to acknowledge#gff1  
agree  better with the ,m4 catili than  
any other animal4 ,to this may be       
added1 that it is said by ,hesychius and
 ,phavorinus1 that the ,parthian  name  
of the animal was simoor2 and that the  
earless marmot is still  named by the   
,tartars symron1 and by the ,calmucks   
dshymbura4 ,the  similarity is indeed   

great1 and this opinion is further      
confirmed  by the skins of the earless  
marmot being used at present by some of 
the ,siberian tribes for summer         
clothing1 and sent as articles of       
commerce1 with other furs1 to ,china1   
though they belong only to the  cheapest
 kinds1 so that a thousand of them cost 
scarcely eight or ten  roubles#gfg4     
,amidst this scanty information1 were ,i
 allowed to offer a conjecture1  ,i     
should be inclined rather to the opinion
 of those who consider the  ,pontic     
mouse to have been our ermine4 ,for1 in 
the first place1 this  animal is very   
abundant in the countries from which the
 ancients  obtained their beautiful     
furs2 and it seems almost impossible    
that they  should not at an early period
 have remarked the superiority of its   
skin  to that of the earless marmot4    
,secondly1 it appears that the ,pontic  
mouse has been commonly considered as   
the ermine1 since that name in  general 
was known2 and there is reason to think 

that our forefathers  could not err in  
the name of an article which has been   
uninterruptedly  employed in commerce4  
,the name ermine occurs very often in   
works of the middle ages1  and written  
in various ways1 such as ,harmellina1   
,harmelinus1  ,ermelinus1 ,harmini and  
,armini or ,armerin or heremini  pelles1
 ,ermena1 ,erminea and erminatus1       
ornamented with ermine2  all which words
 ,du ,cange supports by proofs4 ,at what
 time these names  were first used ,i am
 not able to determine2 but they are to 
be found1  at any rate1 as early as the 
eleventh century1 in the letters of     
,peter  ,damiani#gfh4 ,du ,cange asserts
 that they came from ,armenia1 in which 
country this kind of fur was in old     
times highly esteemed1 as is proved  by 
a passage in ,julius ,pollux2 and this  
appears the more probable1 from  the    
circumstance that the words ,hermenia   
and ,hermenii were formerly  used and   
written instead of ,armenia and         
,armenii#gfi4 ,fischer has  rejected    

this opinion too inconsiderately1       
because the ermine was not  procured    
from ,armenia1 but sent through it1 from
 the northern countries  to ,europe4    
,the same thing is said by ,du ,cange2  
but he gives it to be  understood that  
this commodity was among the ,armenian  
productions2 and  even if he has erred  
in this respect1 his derivation still   
remains the  most probable4 ,marco      
,polo1 the celebrated traveller of the  
thirteenth  century1 mentions the ermine
 among the most expensive ornaments of  
the  ,tartars1 and says that it was     
brought from the northern countries to  
,europe4    ,the sable seems to have    
been known much later than the ermine4  
,its  real country is the most northern 
part of ,asia1 to which commerce  was   
not extended till a late period2 yet it 
is probable that it was  known before   
the ,russians became acquainted with    
,siberia1 by means  of the ,permians1   
,woguls and ,samoeides1 at the end of   
the fifteenth  century4 ,it is also     

fully proved that the fine furs of      
,siberia were  the production which     
induced the ,russians to make a conquest
 of that  country#ggj4 ,besides1 sables 
existed formerly in ,permia1 where at   
present they are very scarce4 ,the      
numerous remains of antiquity still     
found in ,siberia prove that at a very  
early period it was inhabited by  a     
people who carried on commerce1 and were
 well-acquainted with the  arts4        
,conrad ,gesner believed that the name  
sable occurs for the first time in      
,albertus ,magnus1 who wrote in the     
thirteenth century1 under the word      
,cebalus1 or ,chebalus4 ,in the same    
century ,marco ,polo mentions1  at least
 in the ,latin translation1 zibellina   
pellis1 as a valuable  kind of fur4 ,but
 if sabelum be the sable1 as the        
similarity of the  word seems to show1  
it must have been known in the twelfth  
century1  and even earlier4 ,the name   
sabelum occurs in ,alanus ,insulanus1   
and  ,du ,cange found sabelin pelles as 

early as the year #aach1 though  sabelum
 perhaps means the marten4 ,gebellinica 
pellis1 gibelini  or gibellini martores1
 were mentioned in the eleventh century1
 and  sabellin and gebellinic pelles    
were undoubtedly the same#gga4  ,i shall
 not however enter further into this    
inquiry1 which it appears  would be     
endless1 and at the same time of little 
benefit4    ,the marten1 the fur of     
which approaches nearest to that of the 
sable1  appears to be first mentioned by
 ,martial1 who says1 speaking of an     
unsuccessful hunting excursion1 that the
 hunter was overjoyed if he  caught only
 a marten#ggb4 ,but the reading is very 
doubtful2 for many1  instead of martes1 
read meles2 and the latter occurs in    
,varro1  ,pliny1 and other writers1     
whereas the former is found nowhere     
else4  ,in the middle ages1 however1 or 
at any rate in the twelfth century1     
martures1 mardrini1 and marturin vestes 
frequently occur2 and  ,i can see no    
reason why they may not be considered as

 marten skins1 a  name which has been   
retained in all the ,european languages4
    ,with as little certainty can it be 
determined what our forefathers  meant  
by the words vares1 varii1 vairus1      
vajus1 varus1  vayrus1 veyrus or the    
vair of the ,french1 and under griseum  
and grisum4 ,that they belong to costly 
kinds of fur is universally  admitted4  
,sometimes varium and griseum appear to 
be the same2 and  sometimes the former  
seems to be more valuable than the      
latter4 ,that  the former was spotted1  
or parti-coloured1 is apparently        
announced by  the name2 for both the    
leopard and panther are by ,pliny called
 vari4  ,what in heraldry is named by   
the ,french vair1 and the ,germans      
eisenhtlein1 vellus varium1 and which is
 considered by the former  as the skin  
of an animal gray on the back and white 
on the belly#ggc1  alludes to this also4
 ,sometimes1 however1 it seems to       
signify a fur  dress composed of        
differently-coloured pieces of fur sewed

 together4  ,most writers are of opinion
 that it means grauwerk1 petit-gris1    
vech1 veh1 vech1 vehwammen1 also the    
squirrel2 and there  is certainly a     
species of that animal which might      
justify the name  varius1 as its skin is
 at present employed for variegated     
bordering  or trimming2 but ,i do not   
know whether grauwerk#ggd could be so   
dear as varium is said to have been1 as 
it is among the productions  of ,europe1
 though the best at present comes from  
,siberia4 ,the word  veeh is derived1 as
 ,frisch says1 from the ,italian vaio2  
the latter1  according to ,muratori#gge1
 is formed from varius1 and even at     
present a dress lined with fur is called
 roba vaja4    ,cirogillin pelles1 named
 by the council of ,paris in the year   
#abab1  were rabbit skins#ggf4 ,rabbit  
warrens1 so early as the thirteenth     
century1 were not scarce in ,england2   
for in a letter of grace  respecting the
 forests1 in #abae1 every proprietor was
 permitted to  establish them on his own

 lands#ggg4    ,by the term cattin      
pelles#ggh1 which are also often named1 
must  undoubtedly be understood cats'   
skins4 ,in ,france1 in the twelfth      
century1 the skins of native animals    
were considered as of little  value2 but
 the ,spanish and ,italian were highly  
prized4 ,the skins of  the black fox1   
which at present are the dearest kind of
 furs1 as a  single one in ,russia is   
often sold for six hundred and even a   
thousand  roubles1 occur in the         
thirteenth century1 among the wares     
which were  sent from the most northern 
countries to ,europe#ggi2 and without   
doubt  these were meant by ,damiani in  
the passage above quoted#ghj4           
,clothing made of the beaver skin occurs
 much earlier4 ,it seems to be          
mentioned by ,claudian#gha in the fourth
 century2 and it is spoken of  by       
,ambrosius#ghb1 who lived at the same   
period4 ,sidonius ,apollinaris1  in the 
fifth century1 called those who wore it 
castorinati4 ,the  scholiast of         

,juvenal1 who indeed belongs to an      
unknown but much later  period1 has also
 pelles bebrin or beverin4 ,as the      
ermine was  called the ,pontic mouse1   
the beaver was named the ,pontic dog4   
,i however firmly believe that this     
castor clothing was no more fur         
clothing1 than our beaver hats are fur  
hats4 ,at that time the hair was  spun  
and wove2 and ,claudian1 in my opinion1 
speaks of a worn-out beaver  dress1     
which had nothing more left of that     
valuable fur but the name4  ,this method
 of manufacturing beavers' hair seems   
not to have been known  in the time of  
,pliny2 for though he speaks much of the
 castor1 and  mentions pellis           
fibrina#ghc three times1 he says nothing
 in regard  to manufacturing the hair1  
or to beaver fur4 ,as attempts1 however1
 had  then been made to manufacture the 
fur of the hare1 it is probable that    
beaver hair began to be worn soon after4
 ,isidorus1 who lived nearly  about that
 period1 as he died in #fcf1 reckons    

beaver hair1 which he  calls fibrinum1  
among the materials employed for making 
cloth#ghd2  and where he enumerates the 
different kinds of cloth1 he mentions   
also  vestis fibrina1 and says that the 
warp was of beaver1 and the woof of     
goats' hair1 perhaps the so-called camel
 hair#ghe4 ,an upper garment  of this   
cloth was worn by the emperor           
,nicephorus ,,ii4 ,phocas1 at his       
coronation in the year #ifc1 which      
undoubtedly was not a castor pelisse2   
because fur clothing1 as ,i shall soon  
prove1 was not fashionable at the  court
 of the ,greek emperors#ghf4    ,it     
deserves here to be remarked1 that furs 
began to be dyed so early  as the       
twelfth century2 and it appears that the
 colour was chiefly  red1 for we find   
pelles rubricat arietum1 that is1       
sheep-skins dyed  red2 but ,du ,cange   
thinks he can prove that the skins of   
the marten and  ermine were dyed of the 
same colour4 ,this ,i can believe in    
regard to  the ermine2 but to dye the   

dark fur of the marten and sable would1 
in  my opinion1 be hardly possible4 ,st4
 ,bernard#ghg says1 that such red  dyed 
leather in the twelfth century was      
called gul1 which1 with  ,hermin engol  
of the old poets1 seems to signify the  
same thing1  ermine skins dyed red4     
,when fur dresses became fashionable in 
,italy1 they were soon spread  all over 
,europe4 ,at first the best indigenous  
furs were employed2  but afterwards     
those of foreign countries1 as being    
superior2 and  the dearer they were1 the
 more they were esteemed4 ,at every     
court  they formed the state costume of 
the reigning family1 and in a little    
time that of the richest nobility4 ,in  
particular1 the mantle1 cottes  d'armes 
of the knights1 which they drew over    
their cuirass or harness1  was bordered 
with the costliest furs4 ,it had no     
sleeves1 and resembled  the dress of    
ceremony worn by our heralds4 ,on this  
account1 as is  well known1 ermine and  
other kinds of fur became parts of the  

oldest  coats of arms4 ,sometimes       
magnificence1 in this respect1 was      
carried  to such an extravagant length1 
that moralists declaimed against it1    
while governments endeavoured to limit  
the use of furs by laws1 and the  clergy
 to prohibit them entirely4 ,many kinds1
 therefore1 were retained  only by the  
principal nobility1 and others were     
forbidden4    ,charlemagne1 however1    
wore in winter a pelisse which covered  
his  shoulders and breast2 but being an 
enemy to all foreign dress1 he  employed
 only the furs of his native country2   
and1 according to the  statement of some
 manuscripts1 otter skins alone#ghh4 ,it
 nevertheless  appears that the costly  
oriental furs were then known at his    
court2 for  having gone out hunting with
 his suite1 on a cold rainy holiday1 he 
himself wore only a sheep's skin2 but   
the dresses of his attendants1  who had 
become acquainted in ,italy with the    
valuable articles in which  the         
,venetians then dealt1 consisted of     

foreign cloth and furs4 ,these1  when   
thoroughly drenched and dried at the    
fire1 crumbled to pieces4  ,the emperor 
then caused his sheep's skin when dried 
to be rubbed1  and showing it to his    
courtiers ridiculed them on their       
foreign fur  dresses1 which though      
expensive were of little use#ghi4 ,the  
imperial  princesses1 however1 on       
holidays wore dresses ornamented with   
precious  stones1 gold1 silver and silk1
 and also foreign furs2 at any rate the 
princess ,berta had a valuable mantle or
 tippet of ermine1 which ,alcuin  calls 
murina#gij4    ,fur gloves were at that 
time usual also4 ,the monks1 at least1  
in winter  wore gloves of sheep's skin1 
which were called mufful2 whereas the   
summer gloves were named wanti#gia4     
,in the ,welsh laws of ,hywel ,dda1 who 
reigned in the tenth century1 the  skin 
of an ox1 a deer1 a fox1 a wolf and an  
otter1 are estimated at  the same price1
 that is1 eight times as dear as the    
skin of a sheep  or a goat4 ,the skin of

 a white weazle was eleven times as     
dear1 that  of a marten twenty-four     
times1 and that of a beaver one hundred 
and  twenty#gib4    ,in the year #ajja  
the emperor ,otto ,,iii4 sent an        
ambassador to  ,constantinople1 whose   
attendants were clothed in costly       
furs#gic4 ,adam  of ,bremen1 who lived  
in the same century1 says1 in his       
description of  the countries bordering 
on ,poland and ,russia1 that from these 
districts  were procured those costly   
furs which were so eagerly purchased by 
the  luxurious#gid4 ,when ,godfrey of   
,bouillon1 in the year #ajif1 paid a    
visit to the emperor ,alexius at        
,constantinople1 what the latter chiefly
  admired was the rich and costly       
dresses of the ,europeans bordered with 
furs#gie4 ,in the beginning of the      
twelfth century the canons of a         
cathedral suffered themselves to be     
corrupted by beautiful furs#gif4  ,the  
use of them1 however1 was forbidden to  
the clergy at one of the  councils4     

,according to that of ,london1 in #aabg1
 the abbesses and nuns  were to wear    
those only made of lamb-skins and       
cat-skins#gig4 ,in the  year #aahg1 when
 the ,christians were beaten near       
,tiberias1 count ,raimond  having       
treacherously gone over to the ,turks1  
the latter found among the  plunder of  
the ,christian camp a complete          
assortment of furs#gih4 ,at  the end of 
the twelfth century1 ,gottfried or      
,gaufred1 prior of ,vigeois1  complained
 that no one would any longer wear      
sheep-skins and fox-skins1  which before
 had been worn by barons and the        
principal clergy#gii4    ,we however    
find that princes sometimes endeavoured 
by the most  effective means to restrain
 this magnificence4 ,when ,philip ,,ii4 
of  ,france and ,richard ,i4 of         
,england1 about the end of the twelfth  
century1  undertook a crusade to the    
,holy ,land1 they resolved that neither 
of  them should wear ermine1 sable1 or  
other costly furs#hjj4 ,it appears  that

 a similar resolution was adopted by    
,st4 ,louis 7,louis ,,ix47 in  the      
following century2 for the historians1  
speaking of his crusade1  expressly say 
that he avoided all magnificence1 and   
wore no costly  furs#hja4 ,in the year  
#accf1 in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41  
king of  ,england1 when foreign articles
 imported into the kingdom began to be  
taxed1 it was enacted1 that no person   
whose yearly income did not  amount to a
 hundred pounds should wear furs1 under 
the penalty of  losing them#hjb4    ,in 
,germany1 in #adig1 citizens who did not
 belong to the nobility or  equestrian  
order were forbidden to wear lining of  
sable or ermine4  ,according to an      
ordinance of #aecj1 common citizens1    
tradesmen1 and  shopkeepers were to wear
 no trimmed clothes1 nor to use marten  
or  other costly lining1 and the rich   
were to wear lining made only of        
lamb-skins1 or those of the cow1 fox1   
weasel1 and the like4 ,merchants  and   
tradespeople were not to wear marten1   

sable1 or ermine1 and at  most          
weasel-skins2 and their wives were to   
wear the fur only of the  squirrel4     
,counts and lords were allowed all kinds
 of lining1 sable and  such like        
expensive kinds excepted4 ,the latter   
permission was repeated1  word for word1
 in the year #aedh4    ,when one        
considers how much the use of fur       
dresses was spread all over  ,europe1 it
 must excite astonishment that they were
 not introduced  at the court of        
,byzantium4 ,no traces of them are to be
 found in any  of the ,byzantine        
historians2 not even in that work in    
which the  emperor ,constantine         
describes the whole ceremonial of his   
court1 and  in which dresses of various 
kinds are named1 as ,reiske has already 
remarked#hjc4 ,furs are nowhere         
represented on ,grecian statues1 in     
paintings1 or other works of art2 and it
 will be seen in the passages  quoted1  
that in the magnificence which the      
,european princes displayed  in the time

 of the crusades at the court of        
,constantinople1 nothing  attracted so  
much attention as the different kinds of
 fur dresses4 ,this  seems the more     
astonishing1 as a great trade was       
carried on at that  time between        
,constantinople and those countries from
 which these wares  were sent to        
,europe4    ,over one of the gates of   
,milan is an image cut out in stone of  
the  twelfth century1 representing an   
emperor whose mantle is ornamented  with
 small triangular patches of fur4       
,flamma believed that this carving  was 
intended to represent one of the ,greek 
emperors2 but ,giulini justly  remarks1 
in opposition to this opinion1 that furs
 never occur in any  of the ,greek      
sculpture4 ,besides1 that image was     
evidently formed to  ridicule the       
emperor1 as is proved by the hideous    
monster seated  close to him4 ,but at   
that time the ,milanese certainly had no
 cause  to offend the ,greek emperor1   
with whom they were in alliance2 and    

,giulini has proved1 in a very          
satisfactory manner1 that the ,milanese 
erected this image to ridicule the      
emperor ,frederick ,i41 who was their   
bitterest enemy#hjd4 ,on another image  
at ,milan1 cut out in stone1 of  the    
thirteenth century1 which represents the
 emperor of ,germany on his  throne1    
surrounded by the electors1 the latter  
have small mantles1  which are          
ornamented with triangular patches of   
fur of the same  kind#hje4    ,since the
 discovery and settlement of ,canada1   
furs or peltries have  mostly been      
obtained from the northern parts of     
,america1 some from the  states of ,rio 
de la ,plata1 a few from ,germany1      
,holland1 c4    ,the success obtained by
 the ,french after their settlement in  
,canada in  #afjh1 induced the formation
 of the ,english ,hudson's ,bay         
,company1 which  was chartered by       
,charles ,,ii4 in #afgj1 with the       
exclusive privilege of  trading with the
 ,indians in the vast territories       

adjoining ,hudson's  ,bay4 ,but their   
charter never having been confirmed by  
parliament1  hunting in those regions   
was still considered as open to all     
,british  subjects1 and many engaged in 
it4 ,in #agff1 private adventurers began
 to  traffic from ,michillimakinac1     
whose success incited others to follow  
their example2 and independent traders  
gradually spread over every  part of the
 country1 until #aghg1 when these       
scattered parties were  united into one 
great body1 under the name of the       
8,north-west ,company40  ,the rivalry of
 these associations had the effect of   
inspiriting and  extending the trade1   
and led to constant and furious         
disturbances  between the two4 ,at      
length1 in #ahba1 the two concerns      
united1 under  the title of the         
8,hudson's ,bay ,fur ,company10 with    
much advantage to  the peace of the fur 
countries1 and perhaps to the permanent 
interests  of the trade4 ,the skins     
collected by this company are all       

shipped to  ,london1 mostly from their  
factories of ,york ,fort and ,moose     
,fort in  ,hudson's ,bay2 others from   
,fort ,vancouver1 on the river          
,columbia1 and  from ,montreal4    ,on  
the part of the ,united ,states1 the fur
 trade is chiefly prosecuted  by the    
,north ,american ,fur ,company1 whose   
principal establishment is  at          
,michillimakinac1 where it receives     
skins from the posts depending  on that 
station and from those on the           
,mississippi1 ,missouri and             
,yellowstone rivers1 and the great range
 of country extending thence  to the    
,rocky ,mountains4 ,of other            
associations in the ,united ,states1    
the most celebrated are ,ashley's       
,company from ,st4 ,louis1 and ,captain 
,bonneville's1 formed at ,new ,york in  
#ahca2 which last has pushed its        
enterprises into tracts between the     
,rocky ,mountains and the coasts of     
,monterrey and ,upper ,california4      
,indeed the whole of the districts from 

the ,mississippi to the ,pacific1 and   
from the ,arctic ,sea to the ,gulf  of  
,mexico1 are now traversed in every     
direction by the hunter4 ,almost  all   
the ,american furs which do not belong  
to the ,hudson's ,bay ,company  find    
their way to ,new ,york1 where they are 
either distributed for home             
consumption1 or exported chiefly to     
,london4    ,the fur trade is also      
extensively pursued by the ,russians in 
the north  of ,asia and the north-west  
coast of ,america4 ,their chief         
association is  the ,russian ,american  
,company of ,moscow2 and the principal  
markets for  their furs are the fairs of
 ,kiachta1 ,novgorod and ,leipsic4      
,london is the principal emporium of the
 fur trade3 the vessels of the          
,hudson's ,bay ,company arrive here     
about ,september2 the public sales are  
held in ,march1 and are attended by a   
great many foreign merchants1  whose    
purchases are chiefly sent to the great 
fairs of ,leipsic1 whence  they are     

distributed to various parts of the     
continent4      ,,footnotes    #gab     
,pausan4 x4 #ch4 p4 #hie4    #gac ,sat4 
xiv4 #ahe4    #gad ,varro ,de ,re ,rust4
 lib4 i4 #a1 #f4    #gae ,diodor4       
,siculus1 ,pausanias1 ,propertius4      
#gaf ,virg4 neid4 viii4 #agg1 #cfh2 ix4 
#cjf2 xi4 #egf4 ,to the same  purpose   
are various passages in the ,odyssey4   
#gag ,eleg4 iv1 #a4 #ab4    #gah ,lib4  
iv4 #c1 #aa4    #gai ,see ,ferrarius ,de
 ,re ,vestiar4 iv4 #b4 #b4 in ,thesaurus
 ,antiquitat4  ,roman4 vi4 p4 #ijh4     
,aristophan4 ,nubes1 #a1 #a1 #gc4       
#gbj ,livius1 v4 #b4 p4 #aa4--;,florus1 
#a4 #ab4--,tacit4 ,annal4 #ad4          
#ch4--;,corn4 ,nepos1 ,agesil4 cap4     
#h4--,lipsius ,de ,militia ,rom4 lib4 v4
  dial4 #a1 p4 #cac4    #gba ,lib4 viii4
 #ee1 p4 #dhc4 ,the hair of this animal 
seems to have been  an article of trade1
 and comprehended under the head of     
wool1 as we  find by the ,roman code of 
laws4 ,l4 #gj4  #i4--;,de ,legat4 #c1 or
 ,digest4  lib4 xxxii4 leg4 #gj4 #i4    

,cushions however were stuffed with it4 
,see  ,waarenkunde1 i4 p4 #bga4    #gbb 
,for the following information on this  
subject ,i am indebted to  the          
friendship of ,professor ,eichorn3--8,of
 furs being used as dresses of          
magnificence ,i find very faint traces4 
,i shall however quote all the  passages
 where allusion is made to furs4    8,in
 ,genesis1 chap4 xxv4 ver4 #be1 ,esau is
 said to have felt to the touch  like a 
hairy garment1  4 ,a fur dress must here
 be meant2 for  ,rebecca endeavoured to 
make ,jacob like his brother1 by binding
 pieces  of goats' skins around his     
hands and neck4--,genesis xxvii4 ver4   
#af4    8,in ,joshua1 chap4 vii4 ver4   
#ba1 the true reading is  1  and        
signifies a ,babylonian mantle1         
consequently one made of wool1          
respecting which many passages have been
 collected by various authors1  and     
particularly ,fischer in ,prolus4 de    
,vers4 ,grc4 ,vet4 ,test4 p4  #hg4 ,one 
manuscript1 according to ,kennicot1 has 

however  1 a  hairy mantle or fur2 but  
this has arisen either through an error 
in  transcribing1 one consonant1  ,nun1 
being omitted2 or from the  conjecture  
of some ,jewish copyist1 who was        
acquainted with costly furs  but not    
with a ,babylonian mantle4 ,if the      
reading of ,kennicot is to be  retained1
 it would1 on account of the price1 be  
an important passage1  in regard to     
costly furs4    8,among the ,hebrews1   
the prophets wore fur dresses1 if not in
 general1  at any rate very often4      
8,the mantle of ,elijah1 #b ,kings1     
chap4 ii4 ver4 #h1 #ac1 #ad1 was of fur2
  because on account of his clothing he 
was called a hairy man1 #b ,kings1      
chap4 i4 ver4 #h4    8,a hairy mantle1  
as a mark of distinction1 is mentioned  
in the book of  ,zechariah1 chap4 xiii4 
ver4 #d4    8,in #a ,maccabees1 chap4   
xiii4 ver4 #cg1 the high priest ,simon  
obtained  from king ,demetrius 1 which  
is certainly a false reading for  1 or 4
 ,the only question is1 whether 1 which 

was  merely a shepherd's dress1         
consequently made of sheep skins1       
signified  also a dress of state1 as    
there is reason to conjecture from the  
persons who sent and who received it as 
a present4 ,see ,theocrit4 ,idyll4  iii4
 #be4 et ibi ,schol4 ,furs1 as a        
present1 in the hot climate of          
,bassorah1 are mentioned by ,niebuhr40  
#gbc ,the best refutation of this       
supposed ,vandalism is to be found in   
,schlzer's ,essay1 in the second edition
 of ,f4 ,i4 ,l4 ,mayers ,fragmenten  aus
 ,paris4 ,hamb4 #agih1 #hvo1 ii4 p4     
#cec4 ,nowhere do we find that the      
works of art were destroyed by the      
,goths or ,vandals2 on the contrary1  it
 appears that they had sufficient       
culture to hold them in just            
estimation4 ,genseric carried away works
 of art from ,rome1 in the same  manner 
as the ,romans had done from ,greece2   
but they were carefully  packed up and  
not destroyed2 he did therefore what    
,bonaparte did in  those countries which

 were unable to withstand the force of  
his armies4  ,if the epithet of         
,vandalism is to be applied to modern   
events1 it seems  most applicable to    
those who carried away works of art from
 countries  into which the conquerors   
promised to introduce the rights of man1
  liberty1 and happiness4 ,the          
,christian writers1 even1 and among     
these  ,st4 ,augustine1 admit that the  
,goths after their victories were not so
  cruel and rapacious as the ,romans4   
,orosius1 who lived in the beginning  of
 the fifth century1 relates1 that a     
,goth of high rank1 after the  taking of
 ,rome1 having found in a house some    
gold and silver vessels  which had been 
plundered from the church of ,st4       
,peter1 gave notice  to ,alaric1 and    
that the latter caused them to be sent  
back safe to  the church4 ,the account  
given of the arms and accoutrements of  
these  northern tribes proves also that 
they were acquainted with the arts1  and
 that they employed them to ornament    

their clothing4 ,the fur dresses        
therefore may have been very handsome4  
#gbd ,glossarium1 p4 #abhb4    #gbe     
,virgilii ,georg4 iii4 #cha4--,ovid4    
,trist4 iii4 #aj1 #ai2 v4 #g1           
#di4--;,ex ,ponto1 iv4 #aj1             
#a4--;,justinus1 ii4 #b1 p4             
#dc4--,seneca1 epist4  #ij4--,rutilii   
,itiner4 ii4 #di4--;,claudian1 viii4    
#dff2 xxvi4 #dha4--;,ammian4  ,marcell4 
xxxi4 #b4--,prudentius in ,symmachum1   
ii4 #fie4--;,isidor4 ,origin4  xix4     
#bc4--,sidon4 ,apollin4 epist4 i4 #b1   
where he describes ,theodoric ,,ii4     
king of the ,goths1 the son of          
,theodoric ,i4 and brother of           
,thorismundus3  pellitorum turba        
satellitum4 ,in epist4 vii4 #i1 the     
kings of the ,goths  are called pelliti 
reges4    #gbf ,tacitus ,de ,moribus    
,german4 #ag4    #gbg ,variegated furs  
of this kind sewed together are         
mentioned by  ,pollux1 vii4 #fj1 p4     
#gbi4    #gbh ,plutarchus in ,lycurgo4  
,in like manner1 the savages in the     

,south  ,seas are acquainted with the   
art of giving more beauty and value to  
their ornaments made of feathers1       
shells1 and the teeth of their  enemies 
killed in battle4    #gbi ,lagerbring   
,svea ,rikes ,hist4 ,part #b4 p4 #hh4   
#gcj ,at this period the ,danes appear  
to have spent in eating and  drinking   
the treasure they obtained in           
plundering2 they employed their  time   
only in hunting and breeding cattle1 and
 clothed themselves in  the skins of    
their sheep2 but ,canute endeavoured to 
introduce among  them the ,saxon manners
 and dress4 ,he had invited into his    
kingdom from  ,lower ,saxony1 which at  
that time was considered the seat of the
 arts  and sciences1 and refined        
manners1 a great many workmen and       
artists1 a  colony of whom he           
established in ,roeskild1 the capital4  
#gca ,digestor4 lib4 xxxiv4    #gcb ,de 
,habitu ,muliebri1 cap4 i4 p4 #eea4     
#gcc ,charact4 cap4 #e et #ab4    #gcd  
,apophthegm4    #gce ,see ,herodian1 ix4

 #ac4    #gcf ,de ,institut4 ,orat4 xi4 
#c1 #add4    #gcg ,lex4 #be1 ,de ,auro1 
,argento1 ,mundo4    #gch ,see the      
instances quoted by ,g4 ,s4 ,treuer in  
,anastasis ,veteris  ,germani ,germanque
 ,femin4 ,helmst4 #agbi1 #dto4    #gci  
,trist4 v4 #aj1 #ca4 ,for a complete    
history of their dress the  reader must 
consult the authors quoted in ,fabricii 
,bibliograph4  ,antiquaria1 p4 #hfa2 and
 in ,pitisci ,lex4 ,antiq4 v4 ,bracca4  
#gdj ,in his ,annotations on ,catullus1 
p4 #ajj4    #gda ,in that learned and   
ingenious work1 ,erklrung der           
,vasengemlde1  i4 #c1 p4 #ahf4    #gdb  
,lib4 xxxiv4 cap4 #ad1  #da1 p4 #ffg4   
#gdc ,cap4 #ej1  #c4    #gdd ,lib4 xi4  
p4 #gee3   4    #gde ,histor4 lib4 iv4  
p4 #cjf4    #gdf ,tacitus1 ,annal4 iv4  
#gb4    #gdg ,hist4 ,animal4 xviii4 #ag4
 ,the singular word 1  respecting which 
a great deal has been said by ,pauw in  
his annotations  to ,phile de ,animal4  
#dh1 p4 #bdf1 has lately been translated
 by ,bttiger  very happily1 by the word 

kaftane1 a kind of ,turkish robe4 ,in   
the  present day these dresses of       
ceremony are of cotton1 with flocks of  
silk worked into them1 and for the most 
part are whitish1 with a few            
rudely-formed pale yellow flowers3 but  
the word formerly may have  signified   
clothes in general1 or fur clothing in  
particular1 and  perhaps the silk flocks
 may have been at first intended to     
represent  fur4 ,that furs at present   
are employed at ,bassorah as presents1  
is  proved by ,professor ,eichorn4      
#gdh ,vita ,agesilai1 p4 #fjb4 ,see also
 ,hellenica1 lib4 iv4    #gdi ,cyropdia1
 lib4 viii41 where he mentions  4 ,the  
,greeks and the ,romans1 however1 did   
not wear gloves4    #gej ,ammian4       
,marcell4 xxii4 #e1 p4 #bcb4    #gea    
,lib4 v4 #da4    #geb ,annal4 lib4 xiii4
 ,in ,athenus1 ,deipnos4 v4 p4 #aig1    
,callixenus  describes ,persian         
counterpanes with figures representing  
animals1 but  ,i do not know whether ,i 
ought not1 with ,valois1 to consider    

them as  painted leather1 or rather     
worked tapestry4    #gec ,digest4 lib4  
xxxix4 tit4 #d1 #af1 #g1 or ,l4 ult4    
#g1 de publicanis4  ,in ,gronovii       
,geographia ,antiqua1 p4 #bfa1 it is    
said that a great trade  was carried on 
in ,cappadocia with ,babylonian leather4
 ,the vestes  leporin appear to have    
been made of the hair of the ,angora    
rabbits4    #ged ,l4 #g1 ,c4 de excus4  
mun4 or ,cod4 lib4 #aj1 tit4 #dg1 #g4   
#gee ,chardin1 iv4 p4 #bde4    #gef ,de 
,rebus ,geticis1 cap4 #c1 p4 #fab4      
#geg ,history of the ,germans1 vol4 ii4 
#geh ,cap4 #e1 p4 #faf4    #gei         
,langebek ,scriptores ,rerum ,danicarum1
 fol4 ii4 p4 #aaa4    #gfj ,torfi ,hist4
 ,norveg4 ,p4 #b1 p4 #cd4 ,compare      
,schlzer's ,nordische  ,geschichte in   
,algem4 ,welthistor4 vol4 xxxi4 pp4     
#dde1 #deh4--;,having heard  from ,m4   
,schlzer that the first certain traces  
of the ,russian fur trade  were to be   
found in the ,russian ,chronicles1 works
 never yet used1 ,i  requested him1 as  

the only person in ,germany who could   
draw from these  sources1 to transmit to
 me what he had remarked on that        
subject4 ,i am  indebted to him1        
therefore1 for the following valuable   
information1 the  result of a laborious 
comparison of various manuscript        
chronicles1 for  which he will no doubt 
receive the reader's thanks4    8,the   
following passages are taken from the   
ten ,russian ,chronicles1 the  greater  
part of them still in manuscript1 as a  
proof that from the  ninth century      
tribute in furs was demanded from the   
people in ,russia by  their conquerors4 
,i4 8,in the year #hei1 the ,waringians1
 who came by sea1 had tribute from  the 
,tschudi1 the ,slavi1 the ,meri1 and the
 ,kriwitsches1 a squirrel per  man4 ,the
 ,chazares 7in the ,crimea7 had tribute 
from the ,poles 7the  inhabitants of the
 ,ukrain71 the ,severians and the       
,witsches1 a squirrel  for each         
fireplace or hearth4    8,the squirrel  
,sciurus vulgaris had in the old and new

 ,russian  language the five following  
names3--#ast4 #8,bla4' ,this primitive  
word  has been lost in the new ,russian 
language1 but is still preserved in  the
 ,chronicles1 and in the adjectives     
#8blij' and #8bliczij mch1  ,grauwerk'  
7squirrel-skins74 #8,bl' in all the     
,sclavonic dialects  signifies white4   
,can any connexion be discovered between
 the squirrel  and a white colour8 #bnd4
 #8,blka1' the diminutive of the former1
 is at  present generally current4 #crd4
 #8,wkscha1' from which is derived1     
#dth4  #8,wkschitza1' the diminutive4   
#eth4 #8,weweritza' is old1 but still   
exists  in the ,polish4    8,the        
variations of these words which occur in
 manuscripts are abundant1  and some of 
them exceedingly laughable4 ,one        
transcriber has #8bla2'  most of the    
rest add #8wkscha1' #8wkschitza' or     
#8weweritza1' as if  #8bla' were the    
adjective white4 ,two manuscripts say   
expressly1 #8bla1'  that is #8wkscha4'  
,in one1 however1 from #8bla weweritza' 

has been made  #8bla #8dewitza1' a fair 
or beautiful maid4    ,,ii4 8,in the    
year #hhc ,oleg went against the        
,drewians and ,severians1 whom  he      
obliged to pay tribute1 each a black    
marten4    8#8,po czern kun' stands in  
all the manuscripts2 one only has the   
diminutive #8kunitz4' ,another bad      
manuscript1 which has #8kon1' a black   
horse1 is not worthy of any remark4     
,,iii4 8,in #ifi ,svtoslav spoke to his 
mother and boyars3 #8,i am not fond  of 
,kief2 ,i will reside in ,pereyaslawetz 
on the ,danube4 ,there ,i shall be  in  
the middle of my lands1 to which every  
thing good in my territories  flows3    
from the ,greeks gold and pavoloki      
7silk-stuffs871 and wine  and fruit of  
every kind2 from the ,tscheches         
7,bohemians7 and ,hungarians  silver and
 horses2 from ,russia skora1 wax1 honey1
 and servants4'  ,skora1 skura1 furs    
7according to the ,great ,lexicon of the
 ,russian  ,academy71 from which is     
derived skornak1 similar furs prepared4 

,that  coarse skins or furs 7in ,russian
 schurka71 such as the terga boum1      
imposed by the ,romans on the           
,frieslanders1 are not here meant1 is   
proved by a passage in the ,chronicle of
 ,nicon1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ae1 where it  is  
related of a savage people1 who lived   
far to the north on the ,ural1  that    
they gave skora for a knife and a       
hatchet4    8,that marten-skins1 as well
 as pieces of them 7mortki7 and of      
squirrel-skins1 were used as money in   
,novogorod1 till the year #adaa1 is     
well-known from ,saml4 ,russ4           
,geschichte1 vol4 v4 p4 #dcj40    #gfa  
,du ,cange ,glossarium4    #gfb ,de     
,animantibus ,subter4 p4 #dij4    #gfc  
,varro ,de ,ling4 ,lat4 lib4 vi4 p4 #ea4
    #gfd ,seneca1 epist4 #ij4    #gfe   
,pallas1 ,nov ,species ,quadr4 e        
,glirium ord4 #aggh1 p4 #abj4    #gff   
,lib4 viii4 #cg4    #gfg ,pallas1 p4    
#adb4 ,i shall here take occasion to    
remark1 that the  use of this animal's  
skin1 as well as the name1 occurs in the

 eleventh  century1 in ,bernardus       
,sylvester4    #gfh ,lib4 ii4 ep4 #b4   
#gfi ,see a dissertation ,de l',origine 
des ,couleurs et des ,mtaux dans  les   
,armoiries1 added by ,du ,cange to his  
edition of ,joinville4 ,paris1  #affh1  
fol4 p4 #abg4 ,see also the article     
,hermine1 in his ,glossary to  ,geoffroy
 de ,ville-,hardouin's ,conqueste de    
,constantinople2 or the same  in        
,diction4 ,etymolog4    #ggj ,mullers   
,samlung ,russischer ,geschichte1 vi4 p4
 #dia4 ,fischers  ,sibirische           
,geschichte4 ,st4 ,petersb4 #agfh1 #hvo1
 p4 #bij4    #gga ,du ,cange1 in his    
observations on ,joinville1 p4 #acg1    
thinks that  the zebelin or sabelin     
pelles came from ,zibel or ,zibelet1 a  
maritime town in ,palestine1 formerly   
called ,biblium1 because the  skins were
 sent from it to ,europe4 ,this author  
meant ,byblus1 at  present ,gibelet or  
,gibeletto2 but this derivation appears 
to me  highly improbable4    #ggb       
,epigram4 x4 #cg1 #ah4    #ggc ,trier's 

,wapen-,kunst1 p4 #fb4--;,gatterers     
,heraldik4 p4 #da4    #ggd ,grauwerk veh
 or feh means properly a kind of fur1   
composed of  that of the ,siberian      
squirrel and the marten joined          
together4--,,trans4    #gge ,antiquit4  
,ital4 ,medii vi1 ii4 p4 #dac4    #ggf  
,see the passages quoted by ,du ,cange1 
and what ,gesner has said in  ,histor4  
,animal4 under the head ,cuniculus4     
#ggg ,rapin's ,england4    #ggh ,see    
this article in ,du ,cange and          
,hoffmann's ,lexicon4    #ggi ,marco    
,polo4    #ghj ,lib4 ii4 epist4 #b4     
#gha ,epig4 #ib3 de birro castoreo4     
#ghb ,de dignitate sacerdotali1 cap4 #e4
    #ghc ,lib4 xvii4 cap4 #bh4  #dg2    
xxxii4 cap4 #i and #aj4    #ghd ,lib4   
xix4 cap4 #bg1 p4 #dgd4    #ghe ,lib4   
xix4 cap4 #bb4    #ghf ,constantin4 de  
,ceremoniis ,aul ,byzantin1 i4 p4 #bed3 
4 ,the editor1 ,reiske1 thinks that it  
may have been a pelisse1  because       
,herodotus1 iv4 #aji1 speaks of the     
beaver's skin being used for  clothing4 

,but how different must the old         
,sarmatian manners have been  from the  
,byzantine6    #ghg ,epist4 #db4    #ghh
 ,eginhartus1 ,vita ,caroli ,magni1 cap4
 #bc4    #ghi ,this anecdote is related 
by the monk of ,st4 ,gall1 whose name is
  supposed to be ,notker1 in his book   
,de ,gestis ,caroli ,magni1 ii4 #bg1    
printed in ,bouquet1 ,historiens de la  
,gaule1 v4 p4 #aeb4 ,whether ,notker    
was the author of this chronicle or not1
 there can be no doubt that it  was     
written after the year #hhc and before  
#hhg1 as has been proved by  ,basnage4  
,pavontalis vestis1 a term used in this 
passage1 does not  always signify cloth 
wove or painted so as to resemble the   
colours of  the peacock2 the skin of the
 peacock was used for ornament2 the     
people  of all nations indeed decorated 
themselves with feathers till they      
became acquainted with dyeing4 ,the art 
of those who prepared feathers  was     
banished by that of the dyers4    #gij  
,carmen ,de ,carolo ,magno1 in ,op4 ii4 

p4 #dec1 v4 #bbe4    #gia ,at the       
council of ,aix-la-,chapelle in #hag1   
where the dress of  the monks was       
defined1 it was ordered1 8abbas         
provideat1 unusquisque  monachorum      
habeat 444 wantos in state1 muffulas in 
hieme  vervecinas40 ,see ,sirmond's     
,concil4 ,antiq4 ,galli1 ,paris1 #afbi1 
fol4 i4  p4 #ddb4 ,wantus is still      
retained in the ,netherlandish dialect1 
where  want signifies a glove without   
fingers1 having only a place for the    
thumb2 perhaps it is the same word as   
want1 wand1 or gewand1  which formerly  
denoted every kind of woollen cloth4    
,hence is derived  the ,french word     
gand2 for gwantus and gantus were       
formerly used  instead of wantus4 ,it is
 equally certain that muffula is of     
,german  extraction2 mouw at present in 
,dutch signifies a sleeve4 ,but at what 
time that covering came into use into   
which both hands are thrust at  present 
to secure them from the frost1 and which
 according to the size  now fashionable 

covers the whole body and is called a   
muff1 ,i am not  able to determine4     
#gib ,leges ,wallic1 ed4 ,wottoni4      
,londini1 #agcj1 fol4 p4 #bfa4    #gic  
,landulphus1 lib4 ii4 c4 #ah1 in ,murat4
 ,rer4 ,ital4 ,script41 tom4 iv4    #gid
 ,adam ,bremensis in ,lindenbrogii      
,script4 ,rer4 ,germ41 p4 #fg4    #gie  
,albertus ,aquensis1 in ,gesta ,dei per 
,francos1 i4 p4 #bjc4    #gif ,ivo      
,carn4 ,epistol #ajd4    #gig ,canon    
#ab4    #gih ,albertus ,aquensis1 in    
,gesta ,dei per ,francos1 i4 p4 #cba4   
#gii ,in ,labbei ,biblioth4 ,nova1 tom4 
ii4    #hjj ,wilhelmus ,neubrigensis1   
lib4 iii4 cap4 #bb4    #hja ,wilhelmus  
de ,nangis1 p4 #cdf4 ,gottfr4 de ,bello 
,loco1 cap4 #h4  ,joinville ,hist4 de   
,st4 ,louis1 p4 #aah4    #hjb           
,barrington's ,obs4 on the more ,ancient
 ,statutes1 #dto1 p4 #baf4    #hjc      
,constantini lib4 de ,ceremoniis ,aul   
,byzantin1 #aged4    #hjd ,giulini1     
,mem4 della ,citt di ,milano1 vi4 p4    
#djg4    #hje ,ib4 viii4 p4 #ddc4       

,,steel4      ,steel is a carburet of   
iron1 and possesses some remarkable     
properties1  by which it is             
distinguished from common iron4 ,it is  
of such a superior  degree of hardness1 
that it is capable of filing the latter2
 it strikes  fire with siliceous stones1
 and scratches the hardest glass2 it is 
heavier1 emits a stronger sound1        
exhibits on fracture a finer grain1     
assumes a brighter white lustre when    
polished1 is susceptible of  greater    
elasticity2 becomes more slowly         
magnetic1 but retains that  power       
longer2 does not so easily acquire rust2
 in the fire it assumes  various strong 
tints1 and when heated is speedily      
cooled in cold water1  but is then      
harder1 more brittle and less pliable4  
,in consequence of  these qualities it  
is fit for many uses to which common    
iron either  cannot be applied1 or is   
less proper4    ,it is certain that the 
invention of steel is of very great     
antiquity4  ,in the ,old ,testament1    

however1 the mention of it is very      
doubtful1  according to ,professor      
,tychsen1 whose remarks on this subject 
,i subjoin  in a note below#hjf2 but it 
appears that it was used as early as the
  time of ,homer1 and that the ,greeks  
gave to it different names1 one of  the 
most common of which was stomoma1 though
 it seems certain that  this word did   
not so much denote steel itself as the  
steeled part of  an instrument1 or the  
operation of steeling4 ,the name chalybs
 was  given to steel from the ,chalybes1
 a people on the southern shore of the  
,pontus ,euxinus1 between ,colchis and  
,paphlagonia1 who had considerable      
mines1 and in particular iron and steel 
works3 though others1 on the  contrary1 
derive the name of the people from the  
principal article of  their commerce4   
,this derivation appears the more       
probable1 as ,justin  says that a river 
of ,spain1 on which there were steel    
works1 was named  ,chalybs1 but at a    
much later period4 ,some also have      

ascribed to the  ,chalybes the invention
 of iron1 which however is much older4  
,but it seems to be less known that     
adamas also at first denoted  steel4    
,this is expressly said by ,hesychius1  
and many epithets derived  from adamas  
are applied to articles made of steel or
 of iron4 ,among  these may be mentioned
 the helmet of ,hercules1 in            
,hesiod#hjg1 and the  so-called         
adamantine chains1 gates1 and bars of   
the poets1 which in  dictionaries are   
always explained as consisting of       
precious stones4    ,it was not till a  
late period that this word was applied  
to the most  costly of all the precious 
stones4 ,in this sense it occurs neither
 in  ,homer1 ,hesiod1 ,herodotus1       
,orpheus1 nor ,dioscorides1 though the  
first  of these writers often describes 
various kinds of valuable ornaments4    
,goguet and others thence conclude that 
the diamond was not then known4  ,at    
present ,i cannot enter into the history
 of this stone2 but ,i must  own1 that  

,i consider the knowledge of it to be   
older1 and suspect that  it was first   
introduced under another name1 and is   
mentioned by ,orpheus  and some others  
under that of jasper 7jaspis74 ,this    
poet compares his  jaspis to rock       
crystal1 and says that it kindles fire  
in the same  manner4 ,that he knew how  
to use rock crystal as a burning-glass1 
he  expressly tells us himself2 but he  
certainly could not procure a  diamond  
of such a size as to be able to burn    
with it4 ,from its vitreous  nature     
however he conjectured1 and very        
properly1 that it might be  employed for
 that purpose4 ,he calls the jaspis     
transparent1 compares  it to glass1 and 
says that it had that sky colour which  
at present is  named color hyalinus4    
,this is probably the reason why        
,dioscorides  and others call some kinds
 of jasper transparent and sky-coloured4
  ,the jaspis in the ,revelation of ,st4
 ,john#hjh1 described as a costly       
transparent crystalline kind of stone1  

was perhaps our diamond1 which          
afterwards was everywhere distinguished 
by that name4    ,the ,romans borrowed  
from the ,greeks the word chalybs2 and  
in  consequence of a passage in         
,pliny#hji1 many believe that they gave 
also to steel the name of acies1 from   
which the ,italians made their  acciajo1
 and the ,french their acier4 ,the word 
acies1 however1  denoted properly the   
steeled or cutting part only of an      
instrument4  ,from this1 in later times1
 was formed aciarium1 for the steel     
which  gave the instrument its          
sharpness1 and also aciare to steel#haj4
    ,at present there are two methods of
 making steel2 the first of which  is by
 fusion either from iron-stone or raw   
iron1 and the second by  cementation4 ,i
 have never found in the works of the   
ancients any  traces of steel prepared  
by cementation2 nor am ,i acquainted    
with the  antiquity of that process1    
though the ancients1 without knowing it1
  employed it for brass4 ,spielman      

says#haa1 that ,pliny in one part calls 
it tostio2 but this word occurs neither 
in ,pliny nor in any ancient  writer4   
,it is however possible that the word   
torrere may somewhere  signify          
cementation1 but ,i have not yet met    
with an instance of it4    ,the         
preparation however by fusion1 as       
practised by the ,chalybes1  has been   
twice described by ,aristotle2 but as ,i
 have already given  in another work#hab
 everything ,i was able to collect      
towards an  explanation of these        
passages1 ,i shall not here repeat it4  
,i shall  only remark1 that the steel of
 the ancients1 in consequence of not    
being cemented1 suffered itself to be   
hammered1 and was not nearly so  brittle
 as the hardest with which we are       
acquainted at present4    ,on the other 
hand1 the singular method of preparing  
steel employed by  the ,celtiberians1 in
 ,spain1 deserves to be here described4 
,according  to the account of           
,diodorus#hac and ,plutarch#had1 the    

iron was buried  in the earth1 and left 
in that situation till the greater part 
of it  was converted into rust4 ,what   
remained1 without being oxydized1 was   
afterwards forged and made into weapons1
 and particularly swords1 with  which   
they could cut asunder bones1 shields1  
and helmets4 ,however  improbable this  
may appear1 it is nevertheless the      
process still used  in ,japan2 and      
,swedenborg has introduced it among the 
different methods  of making steel#hae4 
,the art of hardening steel by immersing
 it suddenly1 when red-hot1  in cold    
water1 is very old#haf4 ,homer says1    
that when ,ulysses bored  out the eye of
 ,polyphemus with a burning stake1 it   
hissed in the same  manner as water when
 the smith immerses in it a piece of    
red-hot  iron1 in order to harden       
it#hag4 ,sophocles uses the comparison  
of  being hardened like immersed        
iron#hah2 and ,salmasius#hai quotes a   
work of an old ,greek chemist1 who      
treats on the method of hardening  iron 

in ,india4 ,it is also a very ancient   
opinion1 that the hardening  depends    
chiefly on the nature of the water4     
,many rivers and wells were  therefore  
in great reputation1 so that steel works
 were often erected  near them1 though  
at a considerable distance from the     
mines4 ,instances  of this may be found 
in ,pliny#hbj and in ,justin#hba4 ,the  
more  delicate articles of iron were not
 quenched in water1 but in oil4    ,an  
opinion1 it is well known1 long         
prevailed1 that there were various      
fluids and mixtures which communicate to
 steel different degrees of  hardness1  
and every artist thought he knew a      
peculiar hardening kind  of water1 the  
preparation of which he kept a secret4  
,this notion is  by some still          
maintained#hbb2 because there are often 
found stones  cut by the ancients1 which
 the moderns1 on account of their       
hardness1  as is believed1 have seldom  
ventured to touch4 ,of this kind is the 
hardest porphyry4 ,there are people who 

still endeavour to find out that        
hardening kind of water1 in which the   
ancients prepared their tools for       
cutting such stones4 ,according to      
,vasari#hbc1 that water was actually    
discovered by the archduke ,cosmo1 in   
the year #aeee4 ,among a large          
collection of stones he had a block of  
porphyry1 from which he wished  a bason 
to be made for a well1 but was told by  
the most experienced  artists that it   
was impossible4 ,on this1 says ,vasari1 
in order to  render the work possible1  
he prepared from certain herbs1 which he
 does  not name1 a water wherein the    
red-hot tools were quenched1 and by     
these  means so hardened1 that they were
 capable of cutting porphyry4 ,with     
tools tempered in this manner the artist
 ,francesco del ,tadda not only  made   
the required bason1 but various other   
curious articles#hbd4    ,winkelman1    
therefore1 does injustice to ,vasari    
when he says1 8,vasari1  in pretending  
that ,cosmo archduke of ,tuscany        

discovered a water for  making porphyry 
soft1 betrays childish credulity40 ,on  
the contrary1 he  very properly asserts 
that there is no water of such a quality
 as to  soften porphyry2 though ,porta  
and many old writers imagined that they 
were acquainted with one capable of     
producing on that stone1 which they     
considered as a species of marble1 the  
same effects as an acid does on  the    
latter4 ,but ,vasari says nothing of the
 kind4    ,after ,tadda's death1 the art
 of cutting porphyry came to ,raphael   
,curradi1 who communicated to ,dominico 
,corsi this secret1 which was           
afterwards employed by ,cosimo          
,silvestrini#hbe4 ,i1 however1 agree in 
opinion with ,winkelman and ,fiorillo1  
our learned connoisseur in the  arts1   
that the method of working porphyry was 
known in every age1 even  in the most   
barbarous1 though artists1 no doubt1    
preferred working on  other stones which
 were less brittle and hard4 ,we know   
however from  the latest researches1    

that all the kinds of hardening water   
hitherto  invented are in nothing       
superior to common water2 and that in   
hardening  more depends on the nature of
 the steel1 or rather on the degree of  
heat1 than on the water2 although it is 
true that the workman does  right when  
he adds to the water a thin cake of     
grease1 or pours over it  hot oil1      
through which the steel must necessarily
 pass before it enters  the water1 for  
by these means it is prevented from     
acquiring cracks and  flaws4    ,the    
invention of converting bar iron into   
steel by dipping it into  other fused   
iron1 and suffering it to remain there  
several hours1 is  commonly ascribed to 
,reaumur#hbf4 ,but this process is      
mentioned by  ,agricola1 ,imperati and  
others1 as a thing well-known and       
practised in  their time4    ,pliny1    
,daimachus#hbg and other ancient writers
 mention various  countries and places  
which1 in their time1 produced excellent
 steel4  ,among the dearest kinds were  

the ferrum ,indicum and ,sericum4 ,the  
former appears to be the ferrum         
candidum1 a hundred talents of  which   
were given as a present to ,alexander in
 ,india#hbh4 ,is it not  probable that  
this was the excellent kind of steel    
still common in that  country1 and known
 under the name of wootz1 some pieces of
 which  were sent from ,bombay in the   
year #agie to the ,royal ,society of    
,london8  ,its silver-coloured          
appearance when polished may have1      
perhaps1 given  occasion to the epithet 
of candidum4 ,the method of preparing it
 is  still unknown1 but it is supposed  
to be a kind of fused steel#hbi4  ,this 
however is a mere conjecture1           
unsupported by any proofs#hcj4 ,at  what
 time was damasked steel obtained from  
the ,levant8    ,three kinds of steel   
are now principally manufactured2 bar or
  blistered steel1 shear steel and cast 
steel4    ,the bar or blistered steel is
 made by the process of cementation3    
this  consists in putting bars of the   

purest malleable iron alternately  with 
layers of charcoal or soot into a proper
 furnace2 the air being  carefully      
excluded and the whole kept at a red    
heat for several days4  ,by this process
 the carbon combines with the iron1     
altering its texture  from fibrous to   
granular or crystalline1 and rendering  
the surface  blistered4 ,the action of  
the carbon occasions fissures and       
cavities in  the substance of the bars1 
rendering them unfit for tool-making1   
until  they are condensed and rendered  
uniform by the operation of tilting1  i4
 e4 compression by a powerful hammer    
worked by machinery4    ,shear steel is 
made by breaking up bars of blistered   
steel into lengths  of about #ah inches1
 and binding four or six of them        
together with a  steel rod1 and then    
heating them to a full welding heat1 the
 surface  being covered with fine clay  
or sand to prevent oxidation4 ,they are 
then drawn out into a bar1 hammered1    
tilted and rolled4 ,in this state  it is

 susceptible of a much finer polish1 and
 is also more tenacious  and malleable1 
and fit for making strong springs1      
knives1 c4    ,cast steel1 which was    
first made by ,mr4 ,huntsman at         
,attercliff1  ,sheffield1 in #aggj1 is  
made by melting blistered steel1 casting
 it  into ingots and rolling it into    
bars4 ,in this condition its texture is 
much more uniform1 closer and finer     
grained4 ,the different degrees of      
hardness required for steel are given by
 the process called tempering1  which is
 effected by heating the steel up to a  
certain temperature1 and  then quenching
 it suddenly in cold water4 ,its        
hardness and brittleness  are thus much 
increased1 but it may be again softened 
by exposure to  heat simply4            
,,footnotes    #hjf ,in regard to the   
hardening of iron and the quenching of  
it in  water1 nothing1 as far as ,i     
know1 occurs in the ,hebrew text of the 
,scriptures4 ,the passages where it     
seems to be mentioned are1 ,isaiah1     

chap4 xliv4 ver4 #ab4 8,the smith bends 
the iron1 works it in a fire of  coals1 
and forms it with the hammer2 he labours
 on it with a strong  arm10 c4 according
 to the translation of ,michaelis4 ,it  
may indeed be  translated otherwise1 but
 it certainly alludes to the formation  
of an  image of metal4 ,the words1 chap4
 liv4 ver4 #af1 are still more general4 
,iron1 barzel1 often occurs1 and in some
 passages indeed steel may be           
understood under this name2 for example1
 in ,ezekiel1 chap4 xxvii4 ver4  #ai1   
ferrum fabrefactum1 or1 according to    
,michaelis and others1 sabre  blades    
from ,usal 7,sanaa in ,yemen74 ,a pretty
 clear indication of steel  is given in 
,jeremiah1 chap4 xv4 ver4 #ab3 8,iron   
from the north10 which  is described    
there as the hardest4 ,to the north of  
,juda was situated  ,chalybia1 the      
ancient country of steel4 ,it appears   
that the ,hebrews had  no particular    
name for steel1 which they perhaps      
comprehended under  the term barzel1 or 

distinguished it only by the epithet    
,northern1  especially as the later     
,jews have for it no other name than 1  
istoma1 which however is nothing else   
than the ,greek 1 and  signifies rather 
steeling or hardening4    ,chalamisch is
 certainly a hard kind of stone2 granite
 or porphyry1  according to ,michaelis1 
who treats expressly of it in ,supplem4 
ad ,lex4  ,hebr4 ,n4 #gdj4    #hjg      
,scutum ,herculis1 x4 #acg4    #hjh     
,chap4 xxi4 ver4 #aa1 #ah1 #ai4    #hji 
,lib4 xxxiv4 sect4 #da4 p4 #fff4        
8,strictur vocantur h omnes1  quod non  
in aliis metallis a stringenda acie     
vocabulo imposito4 ,et  fornacum maxima 
differentia est2 nucleus quidem ferri   
excoquitur in  his ad indurandam aciem2 
aliqu modo ad densandas incudes1        
malleorumve  rostra40 ,according to my  
opinion1 strictur was the name given to 
pieces of steel completely manufactured 
and brought to that state which         
rendered them fit for commerce4 ,at     
present steel comes from ,biscay in     

cakes1 from other places in bars1 and   
both these formerly were called         
strictur1 because they were employed    
chiefly for giving sharpness  to        
instruments or tools1 that is1 for      
steeling them4 ,in speaking of  other   
metals1 ,pliny says that the finished   
productions at the works  were not      
called strictur 7this was the case1 for 
example1 with  copper71 though sharpness
 could be given to instruments with     
other  metals also4 ,the words of ,pliny
 last quoted are read different ways1   
and still remain obscure4 ,i conjecture 
that he meant to say that some  steel   
works produced things which were        
entirely of steel1 and that  others were
 employed only in steeling4 ,i shall    
here remark that the  strictur ferri    
remind us of the strigiles auri3 such   
was the name  given to native pieces of 
gold1 which without being smelted were  
used  in commerce4--,plin4 xxxiii4 #c4  
p4 #faf4    #haj ,see ,vossii ,etymol4  
and ,martinii ,lex4 ,philolog4    #haa  

,institut4 ,chimi1 p4 #beb4 ,he refers  
to lib4 xxxiii4 cap4 #d4    #hab ,in my 
observations on ,aristot4 ,auscult4     
,mirab4 cap4 #di4    #hac ,diod4 lib4 v4
 cap4 #cc4    #had ,plut4 de ,garrul4   
#hae ,de ,ferro1 i4 p4 #aid4 ,see also  
,watson's ,chem4 ,essays1 i4 p4 #bbj4   
,of the iron works in ,japan ,i know    
nothing further than what has been  said
 by ,thunberg in his ,travels4 ,that    
country possesses very little of  this  
metal3 but the sabres made there are    
incomparable2 without hurting  the edge 
one can easily cut through a nail with  
them2 and1 as the  ,japanese say1 cleave
 asunder a man at one blow4 ,these      
sabres are often  sold for fifty1       
seventy1 and even a hundred dollars4    
#haf ,lord ,bacon seems not to have been
 of this opinion2 see his ,silva        
,silvarum1 cent4 i4  #hf4 ,but this     
method of hardening was usual in  the   
eleventh or twelfth century2 for it is  
described by ,theophilus  ,presbyter1   
lib4 iii4 cap4 #ai4    #hag ,odyss4 ix4 

#cia4    #hah ,ajax1 #gbj4    #hai      
,exercitat4 ,plin4 p4 #gfc4    #hbj     
,lib4 xxxiv4 #ad1 p4 #fff4    #hba ,lib4
 xliv4 p4 #fbj4    #hbb ,there can be no
 question that the hardening or         
tempering effect  produced by the sudden
 immersion of heated steel in fluids has
 no  relation to the quality of the     
fluid1 save as regards its conducting   
power of heat4 ,the more suddenly the   
heat is abstracted from the metal1  the 
greater is the amount of hardness and   
brittleness4 ,mercury has been  found   
superior to any other fluid for this    
purpose1 undoubtedly because  it is so  
good a conductor of heat4    #hbc ,le   
,vite de ,pittori4 ,bologna1 #afha1     
#dto1 i4 p4 #aa4    #hbd ,some account  
of this artist is given in ,j4 ,c4      
,bulengeri de  ,pictura1 lib4 ii4 cap4  
#g1 in ,gronovii ,thesaurus ,antiq4     
,grc4 ix4 p4  #hge4 ,on the other hand1 
,sturm says1 in that part of the        
,ritterplatzes  which relates to        
architecture1 p4 #ah3 8,an archduke at  

,florence  discovered again the art of  
working porphyry1 but suffered it to die
  with him in the year #aeef40    #hbe  
,florillo ,gesch4 der ,zeichnenden      
,knste1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #dfa4    #hbf ,art  
de convertir le ,fer en ,acier1 p4 #bde4
    #hbg ,stephanus de ,urbibus1 under  
the word 1 p4 #dac4    #hbh ,clemens    
,alexandr4 in ,pdagog4 ii4 p4 #afa1     
edit4 ,cologne1 #afhh1  fol4 says1      
speaking of luxury1 8,one can cut meat  
without having ,indian  iron40    #hbi  
,philos4 ,transact4 #agie1 ii4 p4 #cbb4 
#hcj ,the manner in which iron ore is   
smelted and converted into wootz  or    
,indian steel1 by the natives at the    
present day1 is probably the  very same 
that was practised by them at the time  
of the invasion of  ,alexander2 and it  
is a uniform process1 from the ,himalaya
 ,mountains to  ,cape ,comorin4 ,the    
furnace or bloomery in which the ore is 
smelted1 is  from four to five feet     
high2 it is somewhat pear-shaped1 being 
about  two feet wide at bottom and one  

foot at top2 it is built entirely of    
clay1 so that a couple of men may finish
 its erection in a few hours1  and have 
it ready for use the next day4 ,there is
 an opening in front  about a foot or   
more in height1 which is built up with  
clay at the  commencement1 and broken   
down at the end1 of each smelting       
operation4  ,the bellows are usually    
made of a goat's skin1 which has been   
stripped  from the animal without       
ripping open the part covering the      
belly4 ,the  apertures at the legs are  
tied up1 and a nozzle of bamboo is      
fastened  in the opening formed by the  
neck4 ,the orifice of the tail is       
enlarged  and distended by two slips of 
bamboo4 ,these are grasped in the hand1 
and kept close together in making the   
stroke for the blast2 in the  returning 
stroke they are separated to admit the  
air4 ,by working  a bellows of this kind
 with each hand1 making alternate       
strokes1  a tolerably uniform blast is  
produced4 ,the bamboo nozzles of the    

bellows are inserted into tubes of clay1
 which pass into the furnace  at the    
bottom corners of the temporary wall in 
front4 ,the furnace is  filled with     
charcoal1 and a lighted coal being      
introduced before the  nozzles1 the mass
 in the interior is soon kindled4 ,as   
soon as this is  accomplished1 a small  
portion of the ore1 previously moistened
 with  water1 to prevent it from running
 through the charcoal1 but without  any 
flux whatever1 is laid on the top of the
 coals1 and covered with  charcoal to   
fill up the furnace4 ,in this manner ore
 and fuel are  supplied1 and the bellows
 are urged for three or four hours1 when
 the  process is stopped1 and the       
temporary wall in front broken down2 the
  bloom is removed with a pair of tongs 
from the bottom of the furnace4  ,in    
converting the iron into steel1 the     
natives cut it into pieces to  enable it
 to pack better in the crucible1 which  
is formed of refractory  clay1 mixed    
with a large quantity of charred husk of

 rice4 ,it is seldom  charged with more 
than a pound of iron1 which is put in   
with a proper  weight of dried wood1    
chopped small1 and both are covered with
 one or  two green leaves2 the          
proportions being in general ten parts  
of iron  to one of wood and leaves4 ,the
 mouth of the crucible is then stopped  
with a handful of tempered clay1 rammed 
in very closely1 to exclude the  air4   
,as soon as the clay plugs of the       
crucibles are dry1 from twenty  to      
twenty-four of them are built up in the 
form of an arch in a small  blast       
furnace2 they are kept covered with     
charcoal1 and subjected to  heat urged  
by a blast for about two hours and a    
half1 when the process  is considered to
 be complete4 ,the crucibles being now  
taken out of  the furnace and allowed to
 cool1 are broken1 and the steel is     
found  in the form of a cake1 rounded by
 the bottom of the crucible4--,ure's    
,dictionary of ,arts and ,manufactures1 
art4 ,,steel4                           

,,stamping-,,works#hca4      ,in order  
to separate metallic ores from the      
barren rock or stones with  which they  
occur1 and to promote their fusion1 it  
is necessary that  the pieces of rock or
 stone should be reduced to small       
fragments by  stamping them4 ,for those 
ores which occur in a sandy form1 this  
is  unnecessary2 and in regard to rich  
silver ore1 which contains very  little 
or no lead and other metals1 this       
process might be hurtful2 for  with dry 
stamping a great deal would fly off in  
dust1 and with wet  stamping a          
considerable part would be washed away  
by the water4    ,however imperfect the 
knowledge of the ancients may have been 
in  regard to the fusion of ores1 they  
were acquainted with the benefit of     
stamping2 but the means they employed   
for that purpose were the most          
inconvenient and expensive4 ,they       
reduced the ore to coarse powder1  by   
pounding it in mortars1 and then ground 
it in hand-mills1 like  those used for  

corn1 till it acquired such a degree of 
fineness that  it could be easily       
washed4 ,this is proved by the scanty   
information  which we find in ,diodorus 
,siculus#hcb and ,agatharcides#hcc1 in  
regard to the gold mines of the         
,egyptians2 in ,hippocrates1 respecting 
the smelting-works of the ,greeks#hcd1  
and in ,pliny in regard to the          
metallurgy of the ,romans#hce4 ,remains 
of such mortars and mills as  were used 
by the ancients have been found in      
places where they carried  on           
metallurgic operations2 for instance1 in
 ,transylvania and the  ,pyrenees4 ,the 
hand-mills had a resemblance to our     
mustard-mills#hcf2  and for washing the 
mud they employed a sieve1 but in       
washing  auriferous sand they made use  
of a raw hide4 ,from the latter1 ,count 
von  ,veltheim has explained1 in a very 
ingenious manner1 the fable of the      
ancients concerning the ants which dug  
up gold#hcg4    ,our works for pounding 
ore1 at present1 are stamping-mills1    

which  consist of heavy stampers shod   
with iron4 ,these stampers are put  in  
motion by a cylinder furnished with     
cogs1 which is driven by a  water-wheel1
 and pound the ore in troughs lined with
 iron4 ,when the  ore subjected to this 
operation is poor1 water is introduced  
into the  troughs1 which running through
 grates in the bottoms of them1 carries 
with it the pounded matter into a       
gutter1 where it becomes purified1  and 
deposits the mud mixed with sand4       
,one might conjecture that this         
apparatus was invented soon after the   
invention of cylinders with cogs2 but   
this was not the case1 though ,i  am not
 able to determine the antiquity of     
these cylinders4 ,at any rate1  it is   
certain that mortars and sieves were    
used in ,germany throughout  the whole  
of the fifteenth century2 and in        
,france1 to which the art  of mining was
 conveyed in general from that country  
at a late period1  they were still      
employed about the year #aegihch4 ,in   

the oldest times  men were not          
acquainted with the art of employing    
water at mines in so  advantageous a    
manner as at present4 ,the bellows were 
worked by men2  and those aqueducts     
raised on posts1 by which distant water 
may be made  to act on machines1 was not
 yet invented4 ,on this account1 remains
  of ore are found in places where the  
moderns1 in consequence of that         
indispensable article water1 would not  
be able to maintain metallurgic         
works#hci4 ,according to the researches 
which ,i have hitherto had  an          
opportunity to make1 our stamping-mills 
were invented about the  beginning of   
the sixteenth century1 and1 as appears1 
in ,germany2 but ,i  cannot determine   
with certainty either the name of the   
inventor or his  country4 ,those who    
established or introduced the first     
stamping-works  in ,saxony and the ,harz
 are only mentioned2 and these1 as      
usual1 have  been considered as the     
inventors4    ,in the year #aeai the    

processes of sifting and wet-stamping   
were  established in ,joachimsthal by   
,paul ,grommestetter1 a native of       
,schwarz1 named on that account the     
,schwarzer1 whom ,melzer praises as  an 
ingenious and active washer2 and we are 
told that he had before  introduced the 
same improvements at ,schneeberg4 ,soon 
after1 that is  in #aeba1 a large       
stamping-work was erected at            
,joachimsthal1 and the  process of      
washing was begun4 ,a considerable      
saving was thus made1 as  a great many  
metallic particles were before left in  
the washed sand1  which was either      
thrown away or used as mortar for       
building4 ,in the  year #aebe ,hans     
,prtner employed at ,schlackenwalde the 
wet method of  stamping1 whereas before 
that period the ore there was ground4   
,in the ,harz this invention was        
introduced at ,wildenmann by ,peter     
,philip1 who was assay-master there1    
soon after the works at the ,upper      
,harz were resumed by ,duke ,henry the  

younger about the year #aebd4 ,this  we 
learn from the papers of ,herdan ,hacke 
or ,hcke1 who was preacher  at          
,wildenmann in #aegb4 ,as far as can be 
concluded from his imperfect            
information1 the first stamping-work    
there consisted only of a stamper       
raised by means of two levers fixed to  
the axis of a wheel4 ,the pounded  ore  
was then thrown into a sieve1 called in 
,german the sachs#hdj1  and freed from  
the coarser parts4 ,but as this stamping
 was performed  in the dry manner1 it   
produced so much dust that the labourers
 were  impeded by it1 and the ore on    
that account could not be properly      
smelted4 ,the business however was not  
given up2 new improvements were  made1  
and soon after ,simon ,krug and         
,nicholas ,klerer introduced the wet    
method1 and fortunately brought it to   
perfection#hda4    ,it is said in       
several modern works that wet stamping  
was invented in  #aeje1 by a ,saxon     
nobleman named von ,maltitz4 ,this      

assertion has been  so often repeated1  
that it was known to ,gobet#hdb1 who    
adopted it as  truth4 ,i have not       
however been able to find the historian 
on whose  testimony it is founded2 but  
it appears by ,gauhen's ,dictionary of  
,nobility that ,sigismund ,maltitz was  
chief surveyor of forests at the        
,erzgebrge1 to the electorate of ,saxony
 in the sixteenth century4              
,,footnotes    #hca ,i shall refer those
 desirous of being acquainted with the  
nature of this labour1 to ,gatterer's   
,anleitung den ,harz zu bereisen4       
,gttingen1 #aghe1 #hvo4 i4 p4 #aja4     
,figures of the stamping-works may be   
seen in ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts and 
,manufactures1 pp4 #hah and #aaai4      
#hcb ,diodor4 iii4 #ac1 p4 #ahb4    #hcc
 ,photii ,bibl4 p4 #acdb4    #hcd       
,hippocrates de ,victus ,rat4 lib4 i4   
sect4 #d4    #hce ,plin4 xxxiii4 #d1    
sect4 #ba4    #hcf ,gensane ,trait de la
 ,fonte des ,mines4 ,par4 #aggj1 i4 p4  
#ad4    #hcg ,von d4 goldgrabenden      

,ameisen u4 ,greiffen der ,alten4       
,helmst4  #agii4 ,this dissertation may 
be found also in a valuable collection  
of  different pieces by the same author1
 printed at ,helmstadt1 #ahjj4    #hch  
,see ,franois ,garrault1 ,des ,mines    
d',argent trouves en ,france1  ,paris   
#aegi1 where mention is made only of    
mortars1 mills and sieves4  ,this       
,garrault is the first ,french writer on
 mining4 ,his work1 which  is scarce1   
was printed by ,gobet in the first part 
of the ,anciens  ,minralogistes de      
,france1 ,paris #aggi1 #hvo4    #hci ,at
 the ,nertschinsk works in ,siberia1 the
 machinery must be still  driven by men 
or cattle1 because all the dams and     
sluices are destroyed  by the frost1 and
 the water converted into ice4 ,some of 
the works there  however have machinery 
driven by water during the few summer   
months4    #hdj ,sachs or sx in old     
times denoted a cutting or stabbing     
instrument1 such for example as         
schaar-sachs1 a razor2  schreib-sachs1 a

 penknife4 ,see ,fritsch's ,wrterbuch1  
who derives  sachs from secare4 ,may not
 the word 1 which in ,pollux  means the 
sieve used at smelting-works1 be of the 
same origin8 ,i  conjecture also that   
the coulter of the plough1 which cuts   
the earth  in a perpendicular direction1
 had the name of sech1 and that the     
words sge and sichel have an affinity to
 it4 ,if this derivation  be right1 the 
,high but not the ,low ,german must have
 of sachs made  sech4 ,the latter would 
have said sas or ses1 as it says instead
  of sechs1 ses2 instead of wachs1 was2 
instead of flachs1  flas2 and instead of
 fuchs1 fos4 ,sech is named also kolter1
  as in the ,netherlands kouter1 which  
words have arisen no doubt from  culter4
    #hda ,calvr ,maschinenwesen1 ii4 p4 
#gd4    #hdb ,anciens ,minral41 i4 p4   
#bbe4          ,,kitchen ,,vegetables4  
,the greater part of our kitchen        
vegetables1 that is to say those plants 
which1 independently of the corn kinds1 
are cultivated as food in our  gardens1 

are partly indigenous and partly        
foreign4 ,of the former many  at present
 grow wild1 such as asparagus2 but by   
continued cultivation1  through a long  
series of years1 they have produced     
numerous varieties1  which differ as    
much from the wild plants as the        
,european females from  those of ,new   
,zealand4 ,many of our indigenous       
vegetables are collected  for food1 but 
are not reared expressly for that       
purpose2 and these  even1 in all        
probability1 might be improved by       
culture4 ,some indeed are  here and     
there reared in an artificial manner1   
though we reckon them  among our weeds2 
for example1 dandelion1 ,leontodon      
taraxacum1 the  first leaves of which in
 spring are employed in the northern    
countries  as salad4 ,in some parts of  
,england this plant is sown throughout  
the  whole summer2 and its leaves being 
blanched1 it is used in winter as       
endive4 ,culture frees many plants from 
their harsh taste1 makes them  tender1  

larger and more pulpy1 and produces them
 at a season when the  wild ones have   
become unfit for use4    ,our foreign   
kitchen vegetables have1 for the most   
part1 been procured  from the southern  
countries1 but chiefly from ,italy2 and 
the number  of them has increased in an 
uncommon degree in the course of the    
last  two centuries4 ,many of them      
require laborious attention to make them
  thrive in our severe climate4 ,on the 
other hand1 some grow so readily1  and  
increase so much without culture1 even  
in the open fields1 that  they have     
become like indigenous weeds1 as is the 
case with hops1 which  at present abound
 in our hedges4 ,some plants1 however1  
both indigenous  and foreign1 which were
 formerly raised by art and used at the 
table1  are no longer cultivated1       
because we have become acquainted with  
others  more beneficial4 ,many of them  
served our forefathers in the room of   
foreign spices1 to the use of which     
trading companies have accustomed  us1  

much to their advantage and to our hurt4
 ,it is true also that many  have been  
banished merely by fashion2 for this    
tyrant1 which rules with  universal     
sway1 commands the taste as well as the 
smell to consider as  intolerable       
articles to which our ancestors had a   
peculiar attachment4    ,in the oldest  
times mankind were so fond of sweet     
things1 that the  goodness and agreeable
 taste of every kind of food was        
determined  according to the degree of  
its sweetness2 and such is the manner of
  judging even at present throughout all
 the ,east1 in ,africa1 and in          
,america4 ,this is the case also among  
us with the greater part of the  lower  
classes1 who are not able to follow the 
mode of richer tables4  ,in the northern
 countries this taste is almost         
everywhere prevalent4  ,thus the ,swedes
 spoil1 by the addition of sugar1 costly
 ,rhenish wine1  sour kraut1 and other  
articles1 the agreeable tartness of     
which is  gratifying to other nations4  

,in proportion to their population and  
luxury1 the ,swedes seem to use more    
sugar than the ,germans1 and  the       
,germans more than the ,english or      
,french2 and one might almost  suspect  
that a taste for sweet things were in   
the inverse ratio of  civilization#hdc4 
,at any rate1 one can thus explain why  
many vegetable  productions1 which some 
centuries ago were reckoned among the   
most  agreeable dishes1 appear to us to 
be nauseously sweet4 ,skirret1 which    
the emperor ,tiberius caused to be      
brought for the use of his table from   
the ,rhine1 is little relished at       
present2 and the case is the same with  
parsnips1 some kinds of apples1 and     
several other things4    ,fashion       
sometimes recalls into use species long 
forgotten1 and with  the greatest       
success1 when they are introduced under 
a different name4  ,thus1 after an      
interval of many years1 some began to   
cultivate again  monks-rhubarb#hdd1 and 
to recommend this sourish plant instead 

of  the more savoury spinage4 ,according
 to ,bock1 it was transplanted in  the  
middle ages by the monks from the woods 
into gardens1 to which it  has been     
again brought back under the imposing   
appellation of ,english  spinage4       
,before the commencement of the         
,christian ra1 when the use of sensual  
enjoyments was not so well-regulated and
 modified by religious and  political   
principles1 many vegetables and other   
dishes were praised  and recommended by 
writers on agriculture and cookery1 as  
well as  by the most favourite poets and
 eminent authors1 on account of  effects
 which cannot at present be named1      
except in the writings of  physicians1  
without disgusting the reader and       
incurring the imputation  of indelicacy4
 ,when this mode of thinking began to   
prevail1 people  detested to see in     
their gardens or on their tables plants 
which1  in consequence of indecent      
properties1 were generally known2 and by
  being thus disused1 the knowledge of  

them was at length so much lost1  that  
we know only their old names1 and what  
the ancients have related  respecting   
them4 ,in this manner1 many receipts in 
,apicius are totally  unintelligible1   
because we are no longer acquainted with
 the things  for the preparation of     
which he gives directions4 ,of this kind
 are  the numerous bulbous roots        
7bulbi71 which formed the most favourite
  dishes of the ,greeks and the ,romans1
 and which at present no botanist1  much
 less commentator1 would be able to     
determine4 ,they belong to the  lost    
arts1 but not to those which were       
abandoned because better ones  were     
found to supply their place4 ,the       
,american vanilla1 which perhaps  was   
indebted only to its high price for the 
permission of being mixed  with         
chocolate1 does not certainly supply the
 place of the ancient  ,megarean bulbs1 
as our gunpowder does that of the ,greek
 fire4    ,among those kitchen          
vegetables which were formerly          

cultivated1 but at  present are no more 
esteemed1 are the                       
following3--,winter-cresses#hde1  an    
indigenous plant1 the young leaves of   
which1 like water-cresses1  may be eaten
 in winter as salad2 also common        
alexanders#hdf1 which  in the           
seventeenth century was used instead of 
celery2 bulbous  chrophyllum#hdg1 the   
roots of which are still brought to     
market at  ,vienna1 where people well   
know what is good1 and where they are   
boiled  and eaten as salad with vinegar 
and oil4 ,rampion#hdh was formerly used 
in the like manner4 ,the earth-nut#hdi1 
which grows wild in many parts  of      
,germany1 is still cultivated in        
,holland and in some districts on the   
,rhine4 ,rocket 7,eruca sativa71 the    
young leaves of which were readily      
eaten by our forefathers as salad1 is no
 longer esteemed1 partly on  account of 
its harsh taste1 and partly on account  
of its nauseous  smell1 which resembles 
that of rancid bacon2 it has however    

been still  retained in ,italy1 8excitet
 ut ,veneri tardos eruca maritos#hej40  
,vetches 7,lathyrus sativus1 and ,cicer7
 are now banished from our  gardens1 as 
experience has shown that they are      
prejudicial to the  health4 ,when pepper
 was so dear1 that to promise a saint   
yearly a  pound of it was considered as 
a liberal bequest1 economical housewives
  seasoned their dishes with the leaves 
of pepper-wort 7,lepidium  latifolium71 
which on this account is called at      
present in ,england  poor man's pepper4 
,borage 7,borago officinalis71 since the
 fourteenth1 or at least the  fifteenth 
century1 has been sown not only for     
medicinal purposes1  but for the use of 
the kitchen4 ,the young leaves1 which   
however soon  become hard1 rough1 and   
unfit for the table1 were used in soup1 
and the  beautiful blue flowers were put
 into salad and wine4 ,this plant was   
not known to the ancients2 for the      
conjecture that it was what they  called
 buglossum1 is not very probable4 ,as   

far as ,i have been able to  learn1     
,nicholas ,myrepsus1 who lived in the   
beginning of the fourteenth  century1 is
 the first who uses the name 1 which    
certainly  means borago4 ,but who knows 
whence this writer1 who introduces in   
his works a great many new inexplicable 
names1 some of them formed  from the    
,greek1 ,latin1 and ,italian1 obtained  
that appellation8 ,some  of the old     
botanists have conjectured that it is   
derived from the  word corago1 which    
,apuleius1 whose period is uncertain1   
gives as a  synonym of buglossum4 ,some 
think that the reading in ,apuleius     
ought  to be borago2 and others assert  
that corago is the true name1 and  arose
 from the quality which the plant has of
 strengthening the heart2  consequently 
we ought properly to read corago1 and   
not borago#hea4  ,it is probable that   
our forefathers1 under the idea that    
their borage  was the buglossum of the  
ancients1 and therefore had the property
  of strengthening the heart1 threw the 

flowers into wine1 that their  spirits  
might by these means be more enlivened4 
,our borage is certainly  a foreign     
plant1 and ,csalpinus said that it was  
brought from other  countries to ,italy4
 ,linnus#heb positively states that it  
first came  from ,aleppo2 but ,i have   
not yet been able to find on what       
authority  this assertion is founded4   
,at present borage1 at least in the     
,german  cookery1 is no longer used4    
,among the kitchen vegetables of which  
no certain traces are to be found  in   
the works of the ancients1 is spinage   
7,spinacea oleracea74 ,its  native      
country is unknown2 but the name is new1
 and certainly derived  from the nature 
of its prickly seeds4 ,as far as ,i     
know1 it first occurs  in the year      
#acea1 among the food used by the monks 
on fast-days#hec2  and at that time it  
was ,spinargium or ,spinachium4         
,meursius found  in the middle ages 1 in
 a poem which he has often mentioned1   
but not defined with sufficient         

accuracy#hed4 ,this plant seems to have 
been made known from ,spain2 for many of
 the old botanists1 such for  example as
 ,bock1 call it olus ,hispanicum4       
,ruellius and others name  it ,atriplex 
,hispaniensis2 and the latter adds1 that
 the ,arabians  or ,moors called it     
,hispanach1 which signifies ,spanish    
plant2 it is  however well known that   
formerly everything foreign was styled  
,spanish4  ,none of the kitchen         
vegetables of the ancients seem to      
approach nearer  to spinage than their  
,blitum1 which ,rondolet considered to  
be the  same4 ,but all the properties   
assigned to this vegetable production1  
namely1 that it was insipid1 and that on
 this account it was necessary  to      
render it palatable by the addition of  
vinegar1 pepper1 and other  things2 that
 it readily multiplied2 that it was     
indigestible and  gently aperient2      
perfectly correspond1 not only with our 
spinage1 but  with many other plants1   
such1 for example1 as our beet and      

orach1 and  the good king ,henry        
7,chenopodium bonus ,henricus71 the     
young leaves  of which are still dressed
 as spinage4 ,it is also possible that  
the  blitum of the ancients may have    
been a kind of ,amaranthus1 some        
species of which are certainly eatable4 
,blitum1 therefore1 will  remain as     
difficult to be defined as the malva1   
which was used at the  same time4       
,the ,brassic of the ancients belonged  
certainly to the cabbage genus2  yet no 
one1 as far as ,i know1 has examined    
botanically what is said  of them1 and  
completely proved their identity4 ,it   
would however be  fruitless labour to   
attempt to apply our modern names to the
 cabbage  kinds of the ancients1 and    
search out in the writings of the       
,greeks and  the ,romans those which we 
use at present2 for by continued        
culture1  through so many ages and in so
 many countries1 new varieties have from
  time to time arisen1 and old ones must
 have become lost2 so that it  is       

impossible for us to have all the       
varieties of the ancients1 as  it was   
for them to be acquainted with the whole
 of those produced in  our times4 ,i    
cannot therefore venture to assert that 
we still possess  that kind of cabbage  
which the ancients1 to prevent          
intoxication1 ate  raw like salad#hee4  
,we can dress in this manner cabbage    
heads when  they are chopped fine1 but  
we do not know with certainty whether   
the  ancients were acquainted with our  
cabbage2 though ,ruellius1 not without  
probability1 considered as such that    
species which in the time of ,pliny  was
 known under the name of lacuturris#hef4
    ,but even if this be admitted as    
true1 we nowhere find any traces of     
that excellent preparation of cabbage   
called by the ,germans sour kraut2      
though the ancients were acquainted with
 the art of preparing turnips  in the   
same manner#heg4 ,i should have been    
inclined to consider  sour kraut as a   
,german invention1 first made in ,lower 

,saxony1 which  our neighbours learnt   
from us in modern times1 had not        
,bellon#heh  related that the ,turks are
 accustomed to pickle cabbage for winter
  food4 ,it appears1 however1 that these
 people take the whole heads1 as  in    
,germany1 but particularly in ,upper    
more than ,lower ,saxony1 some  preserve
 kumskohl1 a name which1 as well as     
compost and the ,french  word compote1  
,frisch derives with great probability  
from compositum  7preserved74    ,the   
ancients were acquainted with curled    
cabbage1 and even with some of  those   
kinds which we call broccoli4 ,under    
this term is understood all  those      
species1 the numerous young flowery     
heads of which1 particularly  in spring 
and autumn1 can be used like            
cauliflowers4 ,such young shoots  are   
called cym1 but not turiones2 for the   
latter term denotes  the first shoots   
that arise1 like those of hops1         
asparagus1 and other  esculent plants4  
,the broccoli used at present was       

however first  brought from ,italy to   
,france1 together with the name1 about  
the end of  the sixteenth century#hei4  
,our cauliflower1 about the end of the  
same century1 was first brought  from   
the ,levant to ,italy2 and in the end of
 the seventeenth was  transplanted      
thence to ,germany4 ,for a long time the
 seeds were procured  annually from     
,cyprus1 ,candia1 and ,constantinople1  
by the ,venetians and  ,genoese1 who    
sent them to every part of ,europe1     
because at that time  the art of raising
 seed was not understood#hfj4 ,prosper  
,alpinus1 in  the year #aehh1 found     
abundance of this vegetable in ,egypt1  
and from  his account there is reason to
 conjecture that it was then very little
  known in ,europe4 ,conrad ,gesner     
seems not to have been acquainted  with 
it2 at any rate it is not mentioned by  
him in a list of the  cabbage kind of   
plants#hfa4 ,even in the time of ,bauhin
 it must have  belonged to those        
vegetables which were scarce2 because he

 has been so  particular in naming the  
garden in which he saw it4 ,von         
,hohberg1 who  wrote about #afhb1 says  
that cauliflower1 a few years before1   
had been  brought to ,germany for the   
first time#hfb4    ,it would be         
difficult to define all the species of  
the cabbage  kind1 the leaves and       
flowers of which were used by the       
ancients as  food2 but it would be a    
task still more arduous to determine    
those  which have esculent roots4 ,to   
render this clear1 and to show what     
information ,i have been able to obtain 
on the subject by my researches1  ,i    
must venture to indulge in a little     
botanical criticism4 ,our               
plant-connoisseurs have unfortunately   
not yet condescended to examine  the    
class of kitchen vegetables2 though it  
would certainly be rendering  a far     
greater service to botany1 and promote  
its utility much more1 to  describe and 
delineate all the species1 varieties1   
and deviations1 than  to give new names 

to a dozen of new genera from           
,polynesia4 ,according  to the ,linnan  
system1 we have at present the following
 species of the  cabbage1 which have    
been adopted by all botanists1 without  
further  observation4    ,first1        
,brassica oleracea1 to which belong all 
those kinds the leaves  and flowers of  
which are eaten4 ,it is certainly       
probable that all these  have been      
gradually produced from one parent      
stock1 which it is now  impossible      
perhaps to find in its original wild    
state4 ,a similarity  is remarked       
between all these kinds2 and with a     
little ingenuity one  might form a      
genealogical tree of them1 as ,buffon   
has done in regard  to the race of dogs2
 but a genealogical tree without proofs 
is of as  little value in natural       
history as in claims for hereditary     
titles or  estates4 ,at present1 in our 
system1 we must admit that such plants  
as  always grow up from their seeds1    
without variation1 and do not pass  into

 other forms1 are peculiar species2 but 
this will not prove that  these supposed
 species were not originally produced   
from one maternal  stem2 for the        
variation of the succeeding plants took 
place gradually2  and the later ones    
always deviated more and more from the  
parent stock4  ,who knows how many steps
 and gradations were necessary before   
cabbage1  savoys1 and cauliflower were  
produced from our common colewort8 ,not 
fewer1 perhaps1 than were required to   
produce white men from ,moors1 or  the  
terrier and lap-dog from the bull-dog4  
,i shall call the mother plant1 or      
original species1 ,a1 which by unknown  
causes has produced ,b1 and the latter  
by continued and frequently  changed    
culture has become ,c2 from this has    
been produced ,d1 and from  this ,e1 and
 from this ,f1 c4 ,now as we are        
unacquainted with the art of  changing  
,a into ,f1 and ,f into ,a1 we believe  
that ,f is a species really  different  
from ,a4 ,as we here compare two distant

 links of a chain1  the various parts of
 which increase very gradually1 we find 
them so  different1 that it is          
impossible for us to consider them as   
the same4  ,but sometimes1 perhaps1 ,f  
changes again into ,e2 ,e into ,d2 ,d   
into ,c2  and ,c into ,b or into ,a4    
,perhaps also ,b may be again produced  
from ,a1  or ,f from ,e4 ,had a botanist
 observed this by experience1 he        
probably  would have no hesitation to   
consider ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f as      
varieties of  ,a4 ,but such observations
 seldom occur2 we have not the power of 
making  them according to our pleasure1 
for we do not know all the causes by    
which these numerous variations are     
produced4 ,the few observations  which  
have been made no one has yet collected1
 compared1 and employed  for            
establishing any certain conclusions4   
,the division1 therefore1 of  the       
cultivated plants into species and      
varieties would be a fruitless  and     
uncertain undertaking1 respecting which 

one ought not to dispute  without       
sufficient proofs4    ,it is needless to
 refer to the form1 colour1 smell1 and  
taste of the  leaves1 flowers1 and      
roots4 ,that the indented leaves1 such  
as those  which all the cabbage species 
have1 are most liable to change1 is     
shown  by experience4 ,the colour is no 
less variable2 and ,reichard1 who had  a
 great belief in the perpetuity of the  
species of plants1 asserts1  that in the
 same country and climate he could      
produce from the seeds of  red cabbage  
and black radishes1 white cabbage and   
white radishes#hfc4  ,the production and
 change of the hermaphrodite plants is  
so well known  that it is only necessary
 to mention them4 ,the smell1 for       
example2 but  the musky smell of cabbage
 establishes no essential difference4   
,nay1 a  plant may entirely lose its    
odorous principle1 spiritus rector1 and 
yet retain its old form1 as well as all 
its other component parts and           
properties#hfd4 ,in sandy soil the smell

 of plants is often entirely  lost2 and 
the taste is frequently changed1        
according to the nature  of the land and
 the manure4 ,the most powerful         
medicinal plants are  those which grow  
wild in their native country1 and not   
those reared  in rich gardens1 where    
many poisonous plants become eatable4   
,even the  duration does not always     
determine the difference of the species4
  ,thus it is certain that winter and   
summer rape are the same plants1  though
 the former is a biennial and the latter
 an annual4 ,where then  are the proofs 
in regard to the cabbage kind1 and1 in  
general1 those  which show that         
different plants are species of one     
genus1 and others  only varieties8      
,precision or certainty in systems can  
be expected  only by novices2 but in    
botany the case is the same as in every 
other  science1 mathematics excepted2   
the more we learn1 the more uncertainty 
we discover1 and the more circumscribed 
is the real knowledge which we  acquire4

 ,it is necessary that this should be   
known to those who may  take the trouble
 to examine the history of kitchen      
vegetables and other  conomical plants2 
and therefore ,i shall offer no apology 
for having  entered into this botanical 
disquisition4    ,to the ,brassica      
oleracea belong two plants which are    
used in the same  manner as turnips or  
roots4 ,the first is the turnip-cabbage1
 kohlrabi  above the earth 7,brassica   
gongylodes71 the stem of which swells   
out1 above the earth1 into a thick pulpy
 turnip-like tubercle1 which  is dressed
 and eaten in the same manner as        
turnips4 ,it is a monstrous  excrescence
 of the stem1 which is hereditary1 like 
the broad stem of  the ,italian fennel4 
,this turnip-cabbage was certainly not  
known to  the ancients2 it occurs for   
the first time among the botanists of   
the  sixteenth century4 ,spielmann      
conjectures that it was brought from the
  ,levant during the crusades2 but it   
was known at too late a period to       

warrant this opinion4    ,still newer is
 that variety called kohlrabi1          
subterranean or  turnip-rooted cabbage1 
the stem of which produces a similar    
tubercle  at the surface of the earth or
 immediately under it4 ,in my opinion1  
it  was first described by ,caspar      
,bauhin1 in the year #afbj1 under the   
name  napo-brassica1 which it still     
retains1 as a new species1 to which  he 
was not able to assign any synonyms4 ,he
 says that this turnip was  cultivated  
on the ,bohemian frontiers1 where it was
 called ,dorsen  or ,dorschen2 and the  
same name is given to it there at       
present1  as is confirmed by ,mehler1 in
 whose work there is a good figure of   
it#hfe4 ,in ,germany it is commonly     
called ,steckrbe1 and1 as is  said1 was 
first made known there about the year   
#agfd by the ,bohemian  glass-dealers4  
,the second cabbage species in the      
,linnan system is the ,brassica  napus1 
a plant which grows wild on the sandy   
sea-coasts of ,england1 as  well as in  

the island of ,gothland1 and which in   
many of the northern  countries is      
cultivated for the oil obtained from the
 seeds1 under the  name of winter and   
summer rape4 ,when thinly planted in a  
nourishing  soil it produces esculent   
roots1 which have a somewhat harsh      
taste1  and properly in ,german it ought
 to be called ,steckrbe4 ,such is the   
name given to it in the works of all the
 old writers by whom it was  first      
mentioned2 and it is called so at       
present in ,bohemia1 where it is        
cultivated1 as well as kohlrabi under   
the earth1 which in some parts  of      
,germany is improperly named ,steckrbe1 
and a proper distinction  is made       
between the two species#hff4 ,this kind1
 the real ,steckrbe1  is never very     
thick1 being only of the size of those  
which grow in  the ,mark4 ,the leaves   
arise immediately from the roots1 but in
 the  gongylodes and napo-brassica they 
proceed from the stem4    ,this species 
of turnip ,i did not expect to find     

among the ancients4  ,i conceived that  
it might perhaps have been produced in  
the northern  countries1 since rape     
began to be cultivated for oil4         
,afterwards this  plant may have become 
so much domesticated among us1 as to be 
found not  unfrequently in a wild state4
 ,some person may then have easily      
remarked  the pulpy roots of plants     
growing in a manured soil1 and making a 
trial  of them found them well-tasted4  
,when first cultivated1 it must have    
been observed that their harsh taste was
 moderated1 sometimes more and          
sometimes less1 in a sandy soil1 and    
rendered in some degree aromatic2  by   
which means they acquired so great a    
superiority to the common and  almost   
insipid rape1 that they were brought to 
the first-rate tables  under the name of
 the ,markish1 ,teltow1 ,borsfeld1      
,bobenhuser and  ,wilhelmsburg rapes4   
,in each country they were named after  
those places  where they acquired the   
best savour2 and this was the case only 

where  the soil consisted of clay mixed 
with more or less sand4 ,from such      
districts large quantities of them were 
sent to a great distance2 but  perhaps  
never in more abundance than from       
,teltow1 in the ,middle ,mark1  which   
small town sold to the amount of more   
than two thousand dollars1  chiefly to  
,berlin and ,hamburg2 and from ,hamburg 
these agreeable roots  were frequently  
sent to both the ,indies4 ,around       
,stendal also1 in the  ,old ,mark1 they 
were raised in considerable quantity1   
but the seeds are  procured there from  
,teltow#hfg4 ,if we wish to introduce   
them into our  gardens1 we must either  
mix much sand with the soil1 or procure 
fresh  seeds annually4    ,the ,greeks  
and the ,romans had little occasion for 
cultivating rape4  ,they had other      
vegetables1 from the seeds or fruit of  
which they could  obtain a better oil1  
and in more abundance4 ,where the olive 
would not  thrive1 they cultivated1 as  
at present1 sesamum2 or expressed oil   

from  the nuts and seeds of the         
turpentine tree#hfh1 without speaking of
 the  many essential oils which they    
used for salves4    ,but however        
probable this may appear1 ,i am inclined
 to suspect1 that  under  and napus our 
steckrben are to be understood1 as  most
 of the old botanists have admitted2 and
 that the roots of them  were used for  
food1 before the seeds were employed for
 making oil4  ,the napus of the ancients
 had long thin roots1 which were so     
small  that they could be preserved     
without being cut into slices2 on the   
other hand1 the rapa had large conical  
roots1 which could not be  preserved    
till they were sliced4 ,the napus1      
because the roots grew  chiefly         
downwards1 were sown thicker than the   
rapum4 ,the napus  was cultivated only  
for the use of man2 but the rapum was   
raised in  great abundance as fodder for
 cattle4 ,of the napus there were many  
known varieties1 of different degrees of
 goodness1 which1 as is the  case at    

present with steckrben1 were named from 
the place where they  chiefly grew4     
,when sown late in the season1 they were
 injured by the  earth-flea2 to prevent 
which1 the young plants were strewed    
over with  soot4 ,both the napi and rapa
 were buried in the earth1 where they   
were kept in a fresh state during the   
winter4 ,the former1 to prevent  them   
from degenerating1 required careful     
cultivation2 and indeed  there are few  
kitchen vegetables which so easily      
change their state1  according to the   
nature of the soil1 as the steckrben4   
,but what opinion can be formed of the  
assertion1 often repeated1  that        
brassica napus1 and rapum1 or rapa1     
readily change into  each other2        
consequently are only varieties or      
deviations of the  same species#hfi8 ,i 
am not disposed to declare this         
assertion to  be altogether false2      
though ,i will not vouch for the        
possibility of  converting our ,markish 
rapes into turnips or cabbage4 ,i       

conjecture that  in the oldest times1   
when these three plants were not so far 
separated  from each other by           
intermediate species or degrees of      
degeneration1 as  they had a greater    
resemblance to each other1 and were all 
nearer to  the original species1 such   
transitions were easier than they       
possibly  could be at present4    ,the  
third species of cabbage in the ,linnan 
system1 belonging to this  place1 is the
 ,brassica rapa1 or turnip1 the roots of
 which1 more or  less conical1 differ in
 figure1 colour and taste#hgj4 ,that    
these roots  are the same as those      
called by the ,romans rapa1 and by the  
,greeks   or 1 appears to be subject to 
no doubt1 though at  present we may have
 a greater number of varieties4    ,the 
turnip was well-known to the ,romans1   
and all that can be gathered  on this   
subject from the writings of the        
ancients renders it probable  that it   
occupied nearly the same place in ,roman
 culture as it does in  ,british        

husbandry at the present day4           
,columella#hga recommended that  the    
growth of turnips should be abundant1   
because those which were not  required  
for human food could be given with much 
advantage to cattle2  and both he and   
,pliny concur in their testimony1 that  
this produce  was esteemed next to corn 
in utility and value4 ,the best grew in 
the  country of the ,sabines1 and were  
worth at ,rome a sestertius1 or #b;d4   
each#hgb4    ,it is stated that the     
,roman method of cultivation must have  
been  superior to that of the moderns1  
since ,pliny relates that some single   
roots weighed as much as forty pounds1 a
 weight far surpassing any  which has   
been obtained by the most skilful modern
 agriculturists4 ,it  is very probable  
that the garden culture of the turnip   
was introduced  by the ,romans into this
 country1 and that1 like some of the    
fruit  trees which they had transplanted
 here1 though neglected1 it was never   
altogether lost4 ,there is no doubt that

 this root was in cultivation  in the   
sixteenth century4 ,whether revived by  
native industry1 or  introduced at that 
period by the ,flemings1 is a question  
differently  answered by different      
writers4 ,towards the latter end of the 
sixteenth  century it is mentioned by   
more than one writer4 ,cogan1 in his    
,haven of  ,health1 published in #aeig1 
says1 that 8although many men love to   
eat  turnips1 yet do swine abhor them40 
,gerarde1 who published in the same     
year1 and who had rather more rational  
views on the subject of plants1  leads  
us to conclude that more than one       
variety was cultivated in the  environs 
of ,london at that time4 8,the small    
turnips10 says he1 8grown  by a village 
near ,london1 called ,hackney1 in a     
sandie ground1 and  brought to the      
crosse in ,cheapside by the women of the
 village to be  solde1 are the best that
 ,i ever tasted40 ,gerarde is silent    
concerning  the field culture of        
turnips2 neither is this mentioned by   

,parkinson1  who wrote in #afbi4 ,we do 
not find any account of the root being  
grown  in any part of the country until 
the close of the seventeenth century    
7loc4 sup4 citat474 ,turnips sometimes  
attain a very large size in  this       
country2 ,tull#hgc speaks of some       
weighing as much as nineteen  pounds1   
and of often meeting with others of     
sixteen pounds4 ,one was dug  up in     
,surrey1 in ,july #ahbh1 which weighed  
twenty-one pounds1 and was  one yard in 
circumference#hgd4 ,our more immediate  
ancestors appear to  have applied the   
turnip to more extensive uses as an     
esculent than is  done at present4 ,it  
is stated1 that in #afbi and #afcj1 when
 there was a  dearth in ,england1 very  
good1 white1 lasting and wholesome bread
 was  made of boiled turnips1 deprived  
of their moisture by pressure1 and  then
 kneaded with an equal quantity of      
wheaten flour4 ,the same was had        
recourse to in ,essex in #afichge4      
,the question whether the ,greeks and   

the ,romans were acquainted with  our   
carrots#hgf1 seems to be attended with  
more difficulties than  might be        
expected4 ,whoever wishes to answer it  
fully1 and at the same  time explain the
 information of the ancients1 and       
examine the opinions  of the botanists  
of the sixteenth and seventeenth        
centuries 7for the  modern botanists    
give themselves very little trouble in  
regard to such  researches71 must enter 
into a disquisition of such length as   
might be  agreeable perhaps to few      
readers4 ,i shall however here state    
what ,i  think ,i know1 and however     
little it may be1 it will perhaps afford
 some  assistance to those who are      
desirous to illustrate the works of the 
ancient physicians and agriculturists4  
,dioscorides1 who1 next to ,theophrastus
 among the ,greeks1 possessed the       
greatest share of botanical knowledge1  
was certainly acquainted with  our      
carrot1 and gave it the name of         
staphylinos4 ,for this plant1 he  says1 

like dill1 bears umbell consisting of   
white flowers1 which  in the middle are 
of a purple red or almost saffron red   
colour4 ,our  carrots1 it is well known1
 have these characteristics1 before the 
umbell1 towards the time of their       
ripening1 form themselves into a  nidus4
 ,the plant meant by ,dioscorides grew  
wild1 but was reared in  gardens1 on    
account of its esculent root2 and our   
carrots are certainly  descended from   
plants which grew wild1 though ,miller1 
author of the  ,gardener's ,dictionary1 
could not succeed in rendering the small
 pungent  roots eatable by culture4     
,we must believe ,columella and ,pliny1 
that the staphylinos of the  ,greeks    
was1 in their time1 called pastinaca2   
though they give no  information from   
which it can be concluded that their    
pastinaca was  our carrot4 ,the former  
speaks of it as a plant useful to bees1 
which is  the case also with our wild   
and cultivated carrots4 ,afterwards he  
tells  us that it was cultivated like   

siser4 ,those therefore have erred who  
consider siser and pastinaca as the same
 plant1 and believe it to  be our       
liquorice4    ,that staphylinus1 or     
patinaca1 or our carrot1 was by the     
,greeks  called also daucus1 is asserted
 by ,pliny1 as well as ,galen2 and  in  
the ,geoponica1 daucon is named among   
the kitchen vegetables4  ,but           
,dioscorides seems to make a difference 
between staphylinus and  daucon1 as he  
treats of them in different sections4   
,he however says  that daucon is like   
staphylinus1 and has also a white       
umbella4  ,daucon perhaps may have      
signified a peculiar variety of carrot4 
,in the last place1 that the pastinac1  
or carrots1 were named  also carot1 is  
mentioned by ,apicius4 ,this word is    
derived perhaps  from 1 which in        
,athenus denotes the large roots of the 
staphylinus1 and also from 1 which      
occurs in ,hesychius and  ,apuleius as a
 synonym of pastinaca1 staphylinus1 and 
daucion2  but it is possible that all   

these words may have been corrupted by  
transcribers4 ,the ,germans and ,french 
however have thence formed the          
appellation carrottes4 ,but 1 a plant   
which ,galen#hgg names  along with the  
roots of the staphylinus and daucus1    
signified1  undoubtedly1 our caraway    
7,carum ,carvi74 ,dioscorides says that 
the  spicy aromatic seeds of the  were  
used1 and that the roots also  were     
boiled and eaten like carrots4 ,pliny   
calls the plant careum4  ,the ,greeks   
and the ,romans therefore were          
acquainted with our carrots2  but in my 
opinion they were far less used in      
cookery and as fodder  for cattle than  
they are at present1 otherwise they must
 have more  frequently occurred in the  
works of the ancients4    ,but whether1 
under the term pastinaca1 the ancients  
did not sometimes  understand our       
parsnip1 ,i will not venture to         
determine4 ,i can only  assert1 with    
some degree of probability1 that the    
latter is by  ,dioscorides called       

elaphoboscon1 a name which occurs also  
in ,pliny4  ,the former says expressly  
that this plant had umbell with yellow  
flowers1 and large white sweet roots fit
 to be eaten4 ,now among our            
umbelliferous plants1 besides dill1     
fennel and lovage1 the parsnip is  the  
only one which has yellow flowers2 at   
any rate ,i know of no other  with      
yellow flowers and esculent roots4 ,if  
the parsnip had no other  names among   
the ,greeks and the ,romans1 it must    
have been very little  used by them2 for
 it is mentioned only by ,dioscorides   
and ,pliny4 ,at  present we know that it
 forms excellent fodder for black       
cattle1 sheep  and swine4    ,it needs  
however excite little wonder that it is 
so difficult to  discover these plants  
in the works of the ,greeks and the     
,romans4  ,they all belong to one       
natural order1 the species of which can 
with  difficulty be distinguished by the
 most expert botanist4 ,i mean to  say1 
that all the umbelliferous plants are so

 like to each other1  that they may be  
readily confounded4 ,this difficulty is 
still further  increased by the old     
physicians1 who used a great many plants
 of this  kind1 and named them after the
 kitchen vegetables to which they had  a
 resemblance1 so that by these means    
plants totally different occur  under   
the same name4 ,to distinguish these1 it
 is necessary first to  examine which of
 them was a kitchen vegetable1 and which
 was used in  medicine4    ,among our   
kitchen vegetables1 as among the spices1
 there are many  kinds which1 at first1 
were known only on account of their     
medicinal  properties1 but afterwards   
were esteemed and cultivated on account 
of  their good taste4 ,of this kind is  
the scorzonera#hgh1 which became  first 
known in the middle of the sixteenth    
century1 in ,spain1 where it  was       
considered as an antidote to the poison 
of a snake called there  scurzo4 ,a     
,moor1 who had learnt this property of  
it in ,africa1 cured  with the juice of 

the leaves and the roots a great many   
peasants bitten  by snakes while mowing2
 but he would not discover the plant1   
that he  might retain all the advantage 
to himself4 ,some persons1 however1 who 
followed him to the mountains1 where he 
collected it1 observed that it  was the 
,scurzonera1 or ,scorzonera hispanica1  
so called from the  name of the snake4  
,petrus ,cannizer transmitted the plant1
 together with  a drawing of it1 to     
,john ,odorich ,melchior1 physician to  
the queen of  ,bohemia2 and the latter  
sent what he had obtained to ,matthioli1
 who at  that time was not acquainted   
with it#hgi4 ,soon after the roots were 
extolled in a particular tract by       
,nicholas ,monardes1 as a powerful      
remedy for the poison of snakes#hhj4 ,it
 is probable also that these  roots were
 first used in ,spain as food1 and about
 the beginning of the  sixteenth century
 were carried thence to ,france4 ,the   
anonymous author  of the well-known work
 ,le ,jardinier ,franois1 who was a     

gardener1 and  dealt in trees and seeds 
at ,paris1 boasts of having been the    
first who  introduced these roots into  
the ,french gardens4 ,the first edition 
of  his book1 which greatly contributed 
to improve gardening in ,france1 was    
printed in #afaf4 ,at present the roots 
of the scorzonera are to be found  in   
most gardens1 but no one places faith in
 their medicinal virtue2 and  when they 
are occasionally prescribed by any      
physician for a ptisan  perhaps1 the    
other kind1 the ,scorzonera humilis1 is 
preferred1  though in the apothecaries' 
shops the ,spanish1 taken from the      
gardens1  is used in its stead#hha4     
,among our species of the ,allium genus1
 shallots1 in consequence of  their mild
 taste1 are preferred4 ,there can be no 
doubt that this name1  as well as the   
,french chalotte1 is derived from       
,ascalonia2 and  the above species in   
the system is called ,allium            
ascalonicum#hhb4  ,theophrastus1 ,pliny1
 ,columella1 ,apicius1 and others1 speak

 of a species  called ascalonia1 brought
 from the city of ,ascalon1 in          
,palestine1 as  we are told by ,pliny1  
,strabo1 and ,stephanus4 ,the           
last-mentioned author  states it as a   
report1 that the first bulbs were       
observed in that  neighbourhood4 ,these 
names are found in the oldest catalogues
 of the  ,german garden vegetables4     
,there is sufficient reason also to     
conjecture  that our shallots were the  
ascaloni of the ancients1 and that they 
came originally from ,palestine2        
especially as ,hasselquist found the    
same species growing there wild4 ,an    
important doubt1 however1 against  this 
opinion arises from what is said by     
,theophrastus and ,pliny2  namely1 that 
their ascaloni could not be propagated  
by bulbs1 but  by seeds#hhc2 on the     
other hand1 our shallots in ,germany1   
and perhaps  in every other part of     
,europe1 never come to flower1 and are  
obtained  only by the bulbs2 so that    
,linnus procured the first flowers1     

through  ,hasselquist1 from ,palestine4 
,but why should not all the other allium
  species be propagated by planting the 
bulbs8    ,the kitchen-gardens of       
,england were as scantily supplied with 
vegetables1 until about the end of the  
sixteenth century1 as the               
pleasure-grounds were with shrubs and   
flowers4 8,it was not10 says  ,hume1    
8till the end of the reign of ,henry    
,,viii4 that any salads1  carrots1      
turnips or other edible roots were      
produced in ,england2 the  little of    
these vegetables that was used was      
imported from ,holland and  ,flanders4  
,queen ,catherine1 when she wanted a    
salad1 was obliged to  despatch a       
messenger thither on purpose40 ,hume is 
not however quite  correct in this      
point4 ,our ancestors1 before ,henry    
,v,i,i,ith's time1 had  always their    
winter-cresses and water-cresses1 and   
common ,alexanders1  which served them  
for celery2 they had rampion and rocket2
 borage for  their cool tankard1 and    

amaranthus and goose-foot1 or good      
,henry with  sprout-kales1 which they   
used as greens4 ,their fruits were      
neither  numerous nor good1 being       
chiefly confined to gooseberries1       
currants  and strawberries2 the apples  
and pears were generally indifferent1   
and  their plums and cherries bad2      
although the latter are supposed to have
  been planted in this country so early 
as the year #hjj1 at which time  they   
were brought from ,italy4    ,the most  
important of kitchen vegetables of the  
present day is  certainly the potato4   
,there is scarcely a doubt of the potato
 being  a native of ,south ,america1 and
 its existing in a wild state in        
elevated places in the tropical regions 
and in the more temperate  districts of 
the western coast of that country4 ,it  
appears probable  that it was first     
brought into ,europe from the           
mountainous parts of  ,south ,america in
 the neighbourhood of ,quito1 to ,spain1
 early in the  sixteenth century2 they  

were here called papas4 ,from ,spain    
they were  carried to ,italy1 and there 
received the same name as the truffle1  
taratoufli4 ,from ,italy they went to   
,vienna1 through the governor of  ,mons 
in ,hainault1 who sent some to ,clusius 
in #aeih4 ,the potato arrived  in       
,england from ,north ,america1 being    
brought from ,virginia by the  colonists
 sent out by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh in   
#aehd1 and who returned  in ,july #aehf1
 and in all probability brought back the
 potato with  them4 ,such is the opinion
 of ,sir ,joseph ,banks2 moreover1 in   
,de ,bry's  ,collection of ,voyages#hhd1
 he describes a plant called openawk1   
which is in all probability identical   
with the potato4 ,gerarde1 in his       
herbal1 published in #aeig1 figures the 
potato1 under the name of the  potato of
 ,virginia1 whence he says he received  
the roots4 ,the potato  was first       
cultivated in ,ireland by the           
grandfather of ,sir ,robert  ,southwell1
 from tubers given him by ,sir ,w4      

,raleigh4 ,some time after1  they were  
grown in ,lancashire1 as some say1 being
 conveyed there  through a shipwreck2   
thence their culture has gradually      
diffused itself  throughout the country4
    ,the great dependence for           
nourishment placed in the potato by so  
many  of the poor1 has been lately      
exhibited in the great distress caused  
by the disease of the crops4 ,in        
addition to its use as a direct  article
 of food1 the potato is applied to      
furnish starch1 which is not            
unfrequently substituted for arrow-root 
and sugar4    ,in the year #afai1 the   
common market-price of the potato was   
#as4 per  lb4      ,,footnotes    #hdc  
,the very reverse of this is now        
generally admitted1 and the  prosperity 
of a country may be judged of from the  
amount of sugar  consumed in it4    #hdd
 ,rumex patientia4 ,kerner1 tab4 #gbj4  
#hde ,barbarea plantaginea4 ,kerner's   
konom4 ,pflanzen1 tab4 #efb4    #hdf    
,smyrnium olusatrum4 ,kerner1 #cef4     

#hdg ,chrophyllum bulbosum4 ,kerner1    
tab4 #bii4 ,jacquin1 ,flora  ,austriaca1
 i4 tab4 #fc4    #hdh ,phyteuma spicata4
 ,kerner1 tab4 #aec4    #hdi ,the       
tuberous roots of the ,lathyrus         
tuberosus4 ,kerner1 tab4 #cbh4    #hej  
,columella4 x4 #aji4 ,virgil1 ,moretum1 
#he4    #hea ,apuleius de ,virtute      
,herbar4 cap4 #da4 ,plinius1 xxv4 #h4   
#heb ,spec4 ,plantarum4    #hec ,du     
,cange4    #hed ,meursii ,glossar4      
,anonymus de vulpe et lupo4 ,in p4 #feg1
 he says  that this poem was printed1   
but where we are not told4    #hee ,see 
the passages quoted by ,niclas in       
,geopon4 v4 #aa4 #c1 p4 #cde4    #hef   
,plin4 xix4 #h4 sect4 #da4 ,the same    
species is mentioned by  ,columella1 x4 
#ach4 ,but of red cabbage no account is 
found in any  ancient author4    #heg   
,columella1 xii4 #ed4 ,pallad4 ,decem4  
#e4 ,nicander in ,athenus1 iv4    #heh  
,bellonii ,obs4 ,itin4 iii4 #bg4    #hei
 ,menage1 ,dict4 v4 ,broccoli4    #hfj  
,this is stated in ,vincenzo ,tanaro    

,economica del ,cittadino in  ,villa4   
,this book1 written about the year      
#afdb1 was often printed2 but  ,i have  
never been so fortunate as to meet with 
a copy4 ,the eleventh  edition1 being   
the latest1 was printed at ,venice in   
#agde1 #dto4 ,in  ,nonnii ,diteticon1 p4
 #di1 the first edition of which was    
printed in  #afbg1 it is said that the  
seeds of cauliflower were brought from  
,italy to ,antwerp1 where no seed was   
raised1 or such only as produced        
degenerate plants4    #hfa ,in ,horti   
,germani1 at the end of ,cordi ,opera1  
p4 #bej1 ,b4    #hfb ,georgica ,curiosa1
 ,nurnberg1 #agaf1 fol4 i4 p4 #fdc4     
#hfc ,land- und ,gartenschatz1 p4 #hd4  
#hfd ,see the ingenious experiments of  
,dalibert in ,mmoires prsentes  sur les 
,mathmatiques et la ,physique1 tom4 i4  
,strong-smelling  plants lose their     
smell in a sandy soil1 and do not       
recover it when  transplanted into a    
rich soil4 ,on this ,rozier founds his  
proposal for  improving rape-oil4       

#hfe ,mehler1 p4 #af1 tab4 vi4--,kerner1
 tab4 #cab4    #hff ,a good figure is   
given by ,mehler1 tab4 viii4    #hfg    
,see a figure of the ,teltow rapes in   
,kerner1 tab4 #ecd4    #hfh ,geopon4    
lib4 ix4 #ah1 p4 #faa4 ,the oil of      
turpentine of the present  day is       
obtained from the resin by distillation1
 a process with which  the ancients were
 unacquainted4    #hfi ,columella1 ii4  
#aj1 #bb-be2 xi4 #c1 #fj2 xii4          
#ed4--,plinius1 xx4 #d2  and xix4 #aj   
and #e4 ,that ,i may not be too prolix1 
,i shall leave the  confusion which     
occurs in the works of the ancients     
untouched4    #hgj ,see the figure of   
the ,mayrbe in ,kerner1 tab4 #eec2 of   
the  ,guckelrbe1 tab4 #eaf2 and         
,mehler's tab4 vii4 7or #cg47    #hga   
,de ,re ,rustica1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #aj4    
#hgb ,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 xviii4 c4 #ac2   
lib4 xix4 c4 #e4    #hgc ,tull's        
,horse-,hoeing ,husbandry4    #hgd      
,gard4 ,magaz4    #hge ,lib4 ,entert4   
,knowledge1 ,,vegetable ,,substances4   

#hgf ,kerner's konom4 ,pflanzen1 tab4   
#cai4--,mehler1 tab4 x4 7or #dj47       
#hgg ,de ,aliment4 ,facult4 ii4 #fg4    
,galen has  1 not 4    #hgh ,kerner1    
tab4 #ia4    #hgi ,matthioli ,epist4    
,med4 v4 p4 #bji2 in ,opera1 ,basil4    
#afgd1 fol4    #hhj ,a translation1     
printed for the first time in ,spanish  
in #aefi1 is  in ,clusii ,exotica1 p4   
#ae4    #hha ,murray1 ,apparat4 ,med4 i4
 p4 #afj4    #hhb ,kerner1 tab4 #cjg4   
#hhc ,cep fissiles1 or scissiles1 or    
schist1 are leeks1 as  ,theophrastus    
tells us himself1 which1 when the leaves
 become yellow1  are taken from the     
earth1 and being freed from the leaves1 
are  separated from each other1 then    
dried1 and in spring again put into the 
ground4 ,if we believe that the ascaloni
 can be propagated only by  seed1 we    
must certainly read in ,theophrastus    
1 as  ,scaliger has already remarked4   
#hhd ,vol4 i4 p4 #ag4                   
,,knitting ,,nets ,,and ,,stockings4    
,,stocking-,,loom4      ,in the art of  

weaving1 the woof is thrown or made to  
pass through the  numerous threads of   
the warp#hhe1 and is retained by them2  
but in  knitting there is only one      
thread1 which is entwined in so         
ingenious  a manner that it produces a  
tissue approaching near to cloth1 both  
in  its use and appearance1 though it   
cannot be called cloth1 because it is   
formed without warp and woof4 ,i will   
not1 however1 quarrel in regard to      
names3 the spider's web is produced by  
only one thread1 but in a manner  indeed
 which differs as much from weaving as  
it does from knitting2 and  it is not   
known with certainty whether ,arachne   
found out the art of  weaving cloth or  
of making nets#hhf4    ,there are two   
methods of knitting1 essentially        
different from each  other2 the one     
employed in making nets1 and the other  
in knitting  stockings4 ,in the former  
the twine is knotted into meshes by     
means of  a knitting-needle2 whereas in 
the knitting of stockings the meshes    

are produced without knots4 ,hence it   
may be readily comprehended why  knit   
stockings can be so easily and so       
speedily un-knit1 in order  that the    
thread may be employed for new work2 and
 why in nets this is  impossible4 ,the  
knots which prevent it render it on the 
other hand  possible for nets to be cut 
or torn asunder1 without destroying     
more meshes than those immediately      
exposed to the force applied4 ,one  may 
easily see also the cause why things    
knit in the same manner as  stockings   
can be stretched without being torn1    
and1 like elastic  bodies1 again        
contract as soon as the action of the   
distending force  ceases4 ,on this      
account no kind of cloth has yet been   
found fitter  for gloves1 stockings1    
garters and bandages4 ,when not too     
closely  knit1 single parts can be      
extended without injury1 as the threads 
in  the neighbouring meshes give way1   
and the meshes become narrow or         
contracted4 ,this1 on account of the    

knots1 is not possible in knitting  of  
the first kind1 which however produces  
the best nets1 as the meshes  suffer the
 water and mud1 together with the fish  
that are too small1 to  pass through    
them1 and retain only the fish that are 
larger4 ,a captured  fish1 in order to  
escape1 must tear to pieces1 after each 
other1 as  many meshes as are equal to  
the circumference of its body4 ,were the
 net  formed in the same manner as a    
stocking1 a single mesh1 if torn1 would 
suffer it to pass through#hhg4    ,it is
 to be reckoned among the advantages of 
the present age1 that a  readiness in   
knitting is required as a part of female
 education in  all ranks2 and it may be 
easily acquired even by children1 with  
the  assistance of an expert and        
indulgent instructress4 ,it is however  
astonishing that this art has not been  
banished by the refinement of  modern   
manners1 especially as so much of the   
time of young females  is employed in   
the reading of novels and romances4 ,but

 it is to  be observed1 that this       
occupation1 which1 with a little        
practice1  becomes so easy that it may  
be called rather an amusement1 does not 
interrupt discourse1 distract the       
attention or check the powers of  the   
imagination4 ,it forms a ready resource 
when a vacuity occurs in  conversation1 
or when a circumstance takes place which
 ought to be  heard or seen1 but not    
treated with too much seriousness3 the  
prudent  knitter then hears and sees    
what she does not wish to seem to hear  
or  to see4 ,knitting does no injury    
either to the body or the mind1 the     
latter of which suffers from romances4  
,it occasions no prejudicial or         
disagreeable position1 requires no      
straining of the eye-sight1 and can  be 
performed with as much convenience when 
standing or walking as when  sitting4   
,it may be interrupted without loss1 and
 again resumed without  trouble2 and the
 whole apparatus for knitting1 which is 
cheap1 needs  so little room1 and is so 

light1 that it can be kept and          
gracefully  carried about in a basket1  
the beauty of which displays the        
expertness1  or at any rate the taste1  
of the fair artist4 ,knitting belongs to
  the few useful occupations of old     
persons1 who have not lost the use  of  
their hands4 ,those who wish to reproach
 the fair sex for the time  they waste  
in endeavouring to please the men1 ought
 not to forget  that the former know how
 to occupy those moments which the      
latter  devote1 not to labour1 but to   
social enjoyment or pleasure1 or which  
would be otherwise lost--the time in    
which the male sex are able to do       
nothing that is useful4 ,no one1        
however1 will seriously object this  to 
the male sex1 whose daily occupations   
tend so much to exhaust the  spirits2   
but is it not to be regretted that those
 who1 in consequence  of their          
situation1 perform properly no work1 who
 are scarcely under  the necessity of   
thinking1 and who rather become         

corrupted through  idleness1 do not     
employ their vacant hours in knitting1  
in order to  gain money8 ,what ,i mean  
to say is1 should not servants1         
soldiers1  shepherds1 and the male      
children of the peasants who are unfit  
for hard  labour1 learn to knit1 that   
they might earn something for themselves
  and their families8 ,a sale for knit  
articles1 stockings1 mitts1 caps1  nets 
and fine lace can never be wanting4 ,my 
panegyric1 however1 on  knitting is     
applicable1 strictly speaking1 to the   
second kind only1  which surpasses the  
first in utility1 but is a much more    
modern  invention2 for fishing and      
hunting were the oldest occupations1 and
  mention of nets occurs in the earliest
 writings4    ,it is not improbable that
 the people who resided on the banks of 
rivers  abundant in fish1 endeavoured to
 catch them at first with baskets1 such 
as those which most of the ,indians know
 how to make1 or with other  vessels    
which suffered the water to run through 

them2 but that in the  course of time a 
piece of thin cloth was employed1 and at
 a still  later period1 what was far    
more convenient1 nets4 ,mention however 
of  fishing and hunting nets occurs very
 often in the ,scriptures2 and in  some 
passages it is clearly proved that we   
are to understand by them  such as were 
knit4 ,but ,i shall leave commentators  
to determine whether  gins composed of  
ropes or cords#hhh are not often meant  
where the  translators have introduced  
nets4 ,the former are certainly older   
than  the latter2 they were long used   
both in hunting and in war1 and are     
still employed among some savage tribes 
who are not acquainted with  fire-arms4 
,that nets1 however1 should be invented 
at an early period needs excite  no     
wonder1 for they have been found in     
modern times among very rude  nations4  
,wafer#hhi saw some among the ,american 
savages which were made  of the bark of 
a tree2 and the ,greenlanders made some 
of the same kind  of the hair of the    

whale's beard1 and of the sinews of     
other animals4  ,i shall omit here what 
has been said in regard to nets in the  
works  of the ancients1 and particularly
 in those which treat on fishing and    
hunting4 ,the ,latins say texere retia2 
and ,pliny calls the yarn or  twine of  
which nets were made stamen2 yet ,i am  
inclined to believe1  that both the     
,greeks and the ,romans made their nets 
in the same manner  as we do at present4
    ,weaving1 properly so called1 is out
 of the question2 and it appears  that  
these words were used in a very general 
sense1 because there was  then no term  
of art to denote knitting4 ,at any rate1
 ,i cannot believe  that the far more   
ingenious process by which our          
lace-weavers prepare  the netted scarfs 
used by military officers was then      
known1 as ,braun  seems to think#hij4   
,meshes were called by the ,latins macul
 and  nodi2 but ,i as little understand 
what ,pliny says1 8retia succino        
nodantur10 as the supposed explanation  

of ,hardouin1 8retia nodos  e succino   
habebant#hia40 ,the author alludes here 
perhaps to some  ornament added to those
 nets which were drawn round the boxes  
or seats  of the senators4 ,some        
manuscripts read notantur3 ,i should    
have  preferred ornantur4    ,the art of
 making nets of fine yarn1 silk1 or     
cotton1 by the process of  knitting1 and
 employing them as articles of dress or 
ornament1 is not  an invention of modern
 luxury4 ,i remember to have seen in old
 churches  retiform hangings1 and on old
 dresses of ceremony borders or trimming
  of the same kind1 which fashion seems 
alternately to have banished and        
recalled4 ,that in the middle ages the  
mantles of the clergy had often         
coverings of silk made in the same      
manner as fishing-nets1 has been  proved
 by ,du ,cange#hib4 ,i suspect also that
 the transparent dresses  used by the   
ladies1 more than four hundred years    
ago1 to cover those  beauties which they
 still wished to be visible1 were nets  

of this  kind#hic4    ,far more         
ingenious and of much later invention is
 that art which  was undoubtedly first  
employed in making stockings1 and on    
that  account called stocking-knitting4 
,that the ,romans and most of the       
ancient nations had no particular       
clothing for the lower part of the      
body1 is so well known1 that it is      
unnecessary for me to repeat the        
proofs4 ,their legs however did not     
suffer more from the cold than our      
hands when they are not covered by      
gloves1 or than the feet of the         
,franciscans at present2 and what is    
common is not indecent4 ,it is well     
known that the northern nations first   
had hose or trowsers1 which  covered not
 only the legs but the thighs and loins2
 and it was not till  a few centuries   
ago1 that from this article of dress    
people began to  make two2 the upper    
part retained the old name1 and the     
lower1 that  which covered the legs1 was
 called in ,german strumpf1 truncus1    

which word ,maler in his ,dictionary    
explains by halbhosen1 half-hose1  and  
hosenstrumpf4 ,the diminutive strmpfle  
signifies1 according  to this author1   
hose that reach to the calf of the leg4 
,the first  stockings were of cloth1 and
 made by the tailors2 consequently they 
were not so commodious as our           
knit-stockings1 which1 for the reason   
already mentioned1 become closely       
contracted1 without pressing the foot   
or impeding a person in walking4    ,it 
is more than probable that the art of   
knitting stockings was first  found out 
in the sixteenth century1 but the time  
of the invention is  doubtful2 it is    
also uncertain to what people we are    
indebted for it1  and the name of the   
inventor is entirely unknown4 ,savary   
appears to  be the first person who     
hazarded the conjecture#hid1 that this  
art  is a ,scottish invention1 because  
the ,french stocking-knitters1 when     
they became so numerous as to form a    
guild1 made choice of ,st4 ,fiacre1  a  

native of ,scotland1 to be their patron2
 and besides this1 there is  a          
tradition1 that the first knit stockings
 were brought to ,france  from that     
country4 ,however this may be1 it is    
certain that the first  letter of       
foundation for this guild1 named 8la    
,communaut des ,maitres  ,bonnetiers au 
,tricot10 is dated the #afth1 or1 as    
others say1 the #bfth  of ,august #aebg4
 ,st4 ,fiacre1 ,i shall here remark1 was
 the second son of  ,eugenius1 who is   
said to have been king of ,scotland in  
the beginning  of the seventh century2  
he lived as a hermit at ,meaux in       
,france1  and his name in the sacred    
calendar stands opposite to the #cjth of
  ,august#hie4 ,it must however be      
acknowledged that ,savary's conjecture  
rests only on a very slight foundation4 
,somewhat more probable is an opinion1  
which has been long prevalent  in       
,england1 and is supported by the       
testimony of respectable writers4       
,howell1 in his ,history of the ,world1 

printed in #afhj1 relates that  ,henry  
,,viii41 who reigned from #aeji to      
#aedg1 and who was fond of show  and    
magnificence1 wore at first woollen     
stockings2 till by a singular           
occurrence he received a pair of knit   
silk stockings from ,spain4 ,his  son   
,edward ,,vi41 who succeeded him on the 
throne1 obtained by means  of a merchant
 named ,thomas ,gresham1 a pair of long 
,spanish knit silk  stockings2 and this 
present was at that time highly prized4 
,queen  ,elizabeth1 in the third year of
 her reign1 that is in #aefa1 received  
by  her silk-woman1 named ,montague1 a  
pair of black silk knit stockings1  and 
afterwards would not wear any other     
kind#hif4    ,this information is       
confirmed by another account4 ,it is    
related in  ,stow's ,chronicle1 that the
 earl of ,pembroke was the first        
nobleman  who wore worsted knit         
stockings4 ,in the year #aefd1 ,william 
,rider1 an  apprentice of ,master       
,thomas ,burdet1 having accidentally    

seen in the  shop of an ,italian        
merchant a pair of knit worsted         
stockings1 procured  from ,mantua1 and  
having borrowed them1 made a pair       
exactly like them1  and these were the  
first stockings knit in ,england of     
woollen yarn4    ,from this testimony1  
it has been hitherto believed in        
,england that knit  stockings were first
 made known there under ,henry ,,viii42 
that they were  brought from ,spain to  
that country2 and that the invention    
belongs1  in all probability1 to the    
,spaniards4 ,were this really the case1 
one  might conjecture that the first    
knit stockings known in ,england were of
  silk1 though the imitations made by   
,rider were of wool4 ,for under ,henry  
,,viii41 ,edward ,,vi41 and ,elizabeth1 
silk stockings only are mentioned2  and 
at that period silk1 and not woollen    
articles1 were imported from  ,italy and
 ,spain4 ,did the invention belong to   
the ,spaniards1 ,i should be  inclined  
to conjecture that these people obtained

 it from the ,arabians1  to whom we are 
indebted for many useful and ingenious  
arts4 ,but at  any rate the conjecture  
of ,savary falls to the ground2 for as  
the  ,french had a stocking-knitters'   
guild as early as #aebg1 it is highly   
improbable that the ,english1 forty     
years after1 or about the year #aefd1   
should have been unacquainted with the  
invention of their nearest  neighbours1 
the ,scots4    ,some years ago1 however1
 several learned men in ,england were   
led1  by a singular circumstance1 to    
collect information in regard to the    
antiquity of the art of knitting        
stockings4 ,i here allude to the        
forgeries of ,thomas ,chatterton1 who   
was born on the #bjth of ,november      
#ageb1 and terminated his unfortunate   
life by suicide on the #bdth  of ,august
 #aggj4 ,this ingenious youth published 
some poems which he  pretended were     
written by ,thomas ,rowley1 who lived in
 the reign of  ,edward ,,iv41 that is   
about the year #adfa4 ,many literary men

 denied  the authenticity of these      
poems1 though they possessed great      
beauty2  proclaimed ,chatterton to be a 
second ,psalmanasar2 and justified their
  opinion by the circumstance of knit   
stockings being mentioned in  them4     
,this they said was an anachronism1 as  
the invention of knitting  stockings1   
according to ,howell and ,stow1 must be 
a century later than  the supposed poet 
,rowley4 ,others1 who supported the     
genuineness of  these poems1 endeavoured
 on that account to make the invention  
older1  and collected information in    
regard to the history of it1 from which 
,i  have made the following extract#hig4
    ,in the beginning of the sixteenth  
century the people of ,scotland  had    
breeches1 in the proper sense of the    
word1 and wore a kind of  stockings2 for
 ,hector ,boethius1 who was professor at
 ,aberdeen in #adig1  relates that the  
,scots wore hose which reached only to  
the knee1  consequently stockings made  
of linen or woollen1 and breeches       

chiefly  of hemp#hih4    ,these         
particular articles of dress were usual 
at that time even in  ,england2 for in  
the year #aeaj king ,henry ,,viii4      
appeared1 on a public  occasion1 with   
his attendants1 in elegant dresses1 in  
the description  of which breeches and  
hose are particularly mentioned#hii4    
,in the year #aecj1 the word knit1      
applied to stockings1 must have been    
common in ,england2 for at that time    
,john ,palsgrave1 ,french master to  the
 ,princess ,mary1 daughter of ,henry    
,,viii41 published a grammar1 in  which 
he stated that this word in ,french was 
applied to the making of  nets as well  
as of caps and stockings4    ,from a    
household book of a noble family in the 
time of ,henry ,,viii41 we  learn that  
knit stockings1 both for grown-up people
 and children1 were  sold at so low a   
price that it cannot be supposed they   
were foreign  articles#ijj4    ,in the  
reign of ,edward ,,vi4 various kinds of 
knit articles must have  been made in   

,england1 as appears by some regulations
 relating to trade  and manufactures    
issued in #aeebija4    ,it nevertheless 
can be proved1 that in the fifth year of
 the reign  of queen ,mary1 that is in  
#aeeh1 there were many who wore         
stockings  of cloth2 for ,dr4 ,sands1   
who was afterwards archbishop of ,york1 
sent  for a tailor to measure him for a 
pair of hose#ijb4 ,this might serve  to 
confirm the assertion of ,stow1 that    
stockings were not knit in  ,england    
till six years after4 ,but according to 
the testimonies already  produced1 this 
cannot be true4 ,it is much more        
credible1 that the  clergy and old      
people1 who are not ready to adopt new  
modes1 wore  some years later the       
old-fashioned stockings of cloth1 which 
in all  probability were similar to our 
gaiters4    ,it might be mentioned1 as a
 further proof1 if necessary1 of        
breeches  and stockings being           
considered1 long before the reign of    
queen  ,elizabeth1 as separate parts of 

dress1 that in the catalogue then drawn 
up of the revenue of the bishop of ,st4 
,asaph1 it is stated that he  received  
as a perquisite1 on the death of every  
clergyman who had a  living1 his best   
breeches and stockings#ijc4    ,about   
#aegg1 that is ten years after the      
period of the invention as  given by    
,stow1 knitting must have been common   
throughout all ,england1  and practised 
even in villages4 ,the bark of the alder
 was used by  the wives of the peasants 
for dyeing the stockings which they had 
knitted#ijd4    ,according to the       
well-known poet ,george ,gascoigne#ije1 
the greatest  ornaments in dress1 about 
the year #aegf1 were knit silk stockings
 and  ,spanish leather shoes4    ,about 
#aegi1 and not #aegj as stated in the   
,gentleman's ,magazine1 when  queen     
,elizabeth was at ,norwich1 several     
female children appeared before  her1   
some of whom were spinning worsted yarn1
 and others knitting  worsted yarn      
hose#ijf4    ,the art of knitting       

stockings would be much older in        
,germany than in  ,france or in         
,england2 and ,chatterton1 at any rate1 
would be freed from  the charge of      
committing an anachronism1 were it true1
 as ,micrlius  wrote in the year #afci1 
that the consort of the duke of         
,pomerania1  who died in #adag1 when she
 could no longer sew or embroider amused
  herself with knitting#ijg4 ,but it is 
very probable that this good man        
committed an anachronism1 like          
,chatterton2 and1 in order to show the  
industry of the duchess1 named those    
occupations which were usual in  his own
 time4    ,in ,germany1 as far as ,i    
know at present1 stocking-knitters occur
 for  the first time about the middle of
 the sixteenth century1 under the  name 
of hosenstricker1 a term which in ,lower
 ,saxony is still not  uncommon4 ,at    
,hamburg the people say hasenkntter1 and
 use the word  hase for stockings4 ,in  
,berlin there were stocking-knitters    
about the  year #aeij4 ,in many         

countries they had a particular guild2  
and this  is the case at present in the 
duchy of ,wirtemberg1 where they are    
entirely different from those who work  
at the loom1 and who are called         
stocking-weavers4 ,each have their own  
regulations1 in which it is  ordered    
that the stocking-knitters shall wear no
 articles wove1 that  is knit1 in a     
loom1 and the stocking-weavers no       
articles knit with  the hand4 ,that     
knitting however may be left free1 as an
 occasional  occupation to every one1   
the following words are inserted in the 
regulations of the                      
stocking-knitters3--8,poor people1 who  
through want  of other means procure a  
subsistence by knitting stockings1 and  
those  who at the gates keep watch for  
themselves or others1 and at the same   
time knit1 shall be at liberty to wear  
whatever they make with their  own      
hands40    ,the ,german terms of art    
which relate to knitting are older than 
the art  itself1 for they are all       

borrowed from the making of nets2       
kntten1  knteisen1 kntholz1 kntspan1    
stricken and stricknadel1 and  also     
maschen1 are all terms which occur in   
the fishing-regulations of  ,brandenburg
 for the year #aegd1 and no doubt       
earlier4 ,the tricoter of  the ,french  
had the same origin as the ,german word 
stricken3 ,trica  was a lock of hair1 a 
noose2 and tricare signified to         
entangle1 and  deceive4 ,lacer is       
derived from laqs1 a rope1 a noose2 and 
this  comes from laqueus4 ,the ,english 
word stocking is derived from  stock1   
truncus1 the trunk of a tree1 a word    
still retained by the  ,german          
foresters1 who in the ,low ,german speak
 of rooting out stocks4    ,silk        
stockings1 however1 in consequence of   
their high price1 were  for a long time 
used only on very grand occasions4      
,henry ,,ii41 king  of ,france1 wore    
such stockings for the first time at the
 marriage of  his sister with the duke  
of ,savoy in #aeeiijh4 ,in the reign of 

,henry  ,,iii41 who ascended the throne 
in #aege1 the consort of ,geoffroy      
,camus  de ,pontcarre1 who held a high  
office in the state1 would not wear silk
  stockings given to her by a nurse1 who
 lived at court1 as a ,christmas        
present1 because she considered them to 
be too gay4 ,in the year #aefi1  when   
the privy-counsellor ,barthold von      
,mandelsloh1 who had been envoy  to many
 diets and courts1 appeared on a        
week-day at court with silk  stockings  
which he had brought from ,italy1 the   
margrave ,john of ,custrin  said to him1
 8,barthold1 ,i have silk stockings     
also2 but ,i wear them  only on ,sundays
 and holidays40 ,the celebrated ,leonard
 ,thurneisser1  however1 who lived at   
the court of ,brandenburg about the end 
of the  sixteenth century1 wore silk    
stockings daily1 and in general dressed 
very magnificently in silk and velvet4  
,knitting with wires1 the method of     
which ,i have hitherto spoken1 has      
always appeared to me so ingenious1 that

 ,i conceived the inventor of  it must  
have had a pattern to serve as a guide4 
,this pattern ,i think  ,i have         
discovered4 ,wire-workers1 and other    
artists who used wire1  exercised their 
ingenuity some centuries ago1 more than 
at present1  in making wire-screens in  
various ways2 and it must be confessed  
that  many of them produced articles1   
which even at present1 though not       
suited to the modern taste1 deserve     
admiration4 ,works of this kind  may    
still be found in old churches4 ,the art
 of making them has often  been         
considered as too difficult for human   
hands2 and hence popular  tradition has 
asserted that the artists were assisted 
by the devil4 ,a  tale of this kind is  
still related1 though no longer         
believed1 to those  whose curiosity     
induces them to view the wire-screen    
which surrounds  the baptismal font in  
,st4 ,mary's church at ,wismar1 and     
which is plaited  or wove in so         
ingenious a manner1 as if with ropes1   

that neither the  beginning nor end of  
the wires can be observed4 ,a similar   
legend is  told to strangers when shown 
the screen around the pulpit in the     
cathedral of ,lubec1 which1 according to
 the inscription1 was made in  #aegb4   
,it is not improbable that1 among works 
of this kind1 some may be  found made   
with meshes1 as if formed by knitting4  
,our pin-makers can  construct some much
 more ingenious4 ,that ,i might be      
better able in my  technological        
lectures to convey to my pupils an idea 
of knitting1 ,i  made a drawing on the  
subject1 and caused a pin-maker to weave
 for me a  small screen of brass wire4  
,this work is easy1 because it is       
executed  in a frame of strong but      
pliable wire4 ,i suspect therefore that 
some  one first tried to make an        
imitation of such a wire-net with yarn1 
and  in one expanded piece1 for which   
only two or three small sticks would  be
 necessary4 ,instead of having a frame1 
the inventor1 it is probable1  fastened 

to his clothes the stick on which the   
meshes were made1 or  on which he       
knitted2 but afterwards employed a      
sheath to perform that  service4 ,thus1 
most of the ,wirtemberg                 
stocking-knitters1 at present1  knit    
with two wires and a sheath4 ,hence     
their stockings1 like those  wove in the
 stocking-loom1 are sewed or have a seam
 behind4    ,among the master-pieces of 
the ,wirtemberg stocking-knitters1 a    
carpet  of beautiful flower-work and    
figures is mentioned in their           
regulations4  ,it is milled1 and when   
spread out measures three ells in length
 and one  and a half in breadth4 ,it is 
probable that some person1 by repeated  
trials1 found out the method of knitting
 in a circular form2 but for  this      
purpose several wires would be          
necessary4 ,in order to render this     
improved art of knitting similar to the 
old method1 the meshes were so  arranged
 that the stockings seemed to have a    
seam1 for which however  there was no   

occasion4 ,the sheath1 which was        
fastened to the left side1  was long    
retained by our knitters2 but as it     
retarded the work1 and  as it was       
necessary to keep the body in an uneasy 
posture1 injurious  to the growth of    
young and industrious persons1 means    
were devised to  dispense with it and to
 knit with much less restraint4 ,in this
 manner  the art was brought to its     
present perfection2 and it must excite  
no  small astonishment when it is       
considered that it was invented all at  
once1 and by one person4    ,the        
invention of the stocking-loom is worthy
 of more admiration1  when one reflects 
that it was not a matter of accident1   
like most  of the great discoveries1 but
 the result of talents and genius4 ,it  
is a machine exceedingly complex1       
consisting of two thousand parts1       
which1 in a moment almost1 can make two 
hundred meshes of loops1  without       
requiring much skill or labour in the   
workman4 ,there are few  descriptions of

 this machine2 and those published do   
not fully answer  the purpose#iji4 ,but 
my object is merely the question1 ,who  
was the  inventor1 in what country1 and 
at what time did he live8 and ,i can    
say1  that after the most diligent      
research1 it does not appear subject to 
any doubt1 as some have hitherto        
believed4    ,under the administration  
of ,cromwell1 the stocking-knitters of  
,london  presented a petition1 in which 
they requested permission to establish  
a guild4 ,in this petition they gave to 
the ,protector an account of the  rise1 
progress1 and importance of their art or
 trade2 and there can be  no doubt that 
this well-written document contains the 
oldest authentic  information in regard 
to this invention1 which was then       
scarcely  fifty years old4 ,every thing 
must then have been fresh in the memory 
of those by whom it was drawn up2 every 
circumstance could easily  be examined2 
and the petitioners must have been      
sensible that their  misrepresentations1

 for which however they had no reason1  
could easily  be contradicted4 ,however 
unimportant my research may appear1 it  
gave me  much pleasure to find a copy of
 this petition in ,deering's ,account of
  ,nottingham1 already mentioned1 in    
which the author has collected many     
authentic circumstances from the records
 of that town1 where the loom  was first
 employed and enriched many families1   
and whence the use of it  was spread all
 over ,england and ,europe#iaj4    ,from
 these it appears that the real inventor
 was ,william ,lee1 whose  name in the  
petition is written ,lea1 a native of   
,woodborough1 in  ,nottinghamshire1 a   
village about seven miles distant from  
the town  of ,nottingham4 ,he was heir  
to a considerable freehold estate1 and a
  graduate of ,st4 ,john's ,college1    
,cambridge4 ,it is reported1 that being 
enamoured of a young country-girl1 who  
during his visits paid more  attention  
to her work1 which was knitting1 than to
 her lover and his  proposals1 he       

endeavoured to find out a machine which 
might facilitate  and forward the       
operation of knitting1 and by these     
means afford more  leisure to the object
 of his affection to converse with him4 
,love  indeed is fertile in inventions1 
and gave rise1 it is said1 to the art   
of painting2 but a machine so complex in
 its parts and so wonderful  in its     
effects1 would seem to require longer   
and quieter reflection1  more judgement1
 and more time and patience1 than can be
 expected in a  lover4 ,but even if the 
cause should appear problematical1 there
 can be  no doubt in regard to the      
inventor1 whom most of the ,english     
writers  positively assert to have been 
,william ,lee4    ,aaron ,hill seems to 
make the stocking-loom younger1 and     
relates the  circumstance in the        
following manner4 ,a student of ,oxford 
was so  imprudent as to marry at an     
early period1 without money and without 
income4 ,his young wife1 however1 was   
able to procure the necessaries of  life

 by knitting2 but as the natural        
consequences of love1 an increase  of   
family1 was likely to render this soon  
insufficient1 the husband  invented a   
machine by which knitting could be      
performed in a speedier  and more       
profitable manner4 ,having thus         
completed a stocking-loom1 he  became by
 its means a man of considerable        
wealth#iaa4 ,but ,hill1 in his  account1
 gives neither names1 date1 nor proofs2 
and as he seems to have  formed it from 
an imperfect remembrance of what he had 
heard or read in  regard to ,lee1 it is 
not worthy of further examination4      
,deering says expressly1 that ,lee made 
the first loom in the year #aehi2  and  
this account has been adopted by        
,anderson and most of the ,english      
writers4 ,in the stocking-weavers' hall1
 at ,london1 is an old painting1  in    
which ,lee is represented pointing out  
his loom to a female knitter1  who is   
standing near him2 and below it is seen 
an inscription with the  date #aehi1    

which was the year of the invention#iab4
 ,other accounts  make it somewhat      
later4 ,thus ,howell1 after relating    
that ,queen  ,elizabeth obtained the    
first stockings in #aefa1 says that     
thirty-nine  years after the loom was   
invented by ,lee1 in which case the     
period  would be #afjjiac4 ,in the      
petition of the stocking-knitters it is 
stated1 that the loom1 at that time1 had
 been found out about fifty  years4 ,it 
is to be regretted that this document   
has no date2 but as  ,cromwell reigned  
from #afec to #afeh1 the invention would
 fall in the  beginning of the          
seventeenth century4 ,it is more        
probable1 however1  that it belongs to  
the end of the sixteenth4    ,lee       
instructed his brother ,james in the use
 of the loom1 and took  apprentices and 
assistants1 with whom he carried on     
business for some  years at ,calverton1 
a village five miles distant from       
,nottingham4 ,on  this account1         
,calverton has by some been considered  

as his birth-place4  ,he showed his work
 to ,queen ,elizabeth1 who died in      
#afjc1 and requested  from that princess
 some support or remuneration2 but he   
obtained  neither1 and was impeded      
rather than assisted in his undertaking4
  ,under these circumstances1 ,lee      
accepted an invitation from ,henry ,,iv4
  king of ,france1 who had heard of this
 invention1 and promised to give  a     
handsome reward to the author of it4 ,he
 therefore carried nine  journeymen and 
several looms to ,rouen in ,normandy1   
where he worked  with great approbation2
 but the king being assassinated1 and   
internal  commotions having taken place1
 ,lee fell into great distress1 and died
  soon after at ,paris4 ,two only of his
 people remained in ,france1 one of     
whom was still alive when the           
before-mentioned petition was presented 
to ,cromwell4 ,seven of them returned to
 ,england2 and these1 with a  person    
named ,aston1 who at first was a miller 
at ,thoroton1 the place of  his         

birth#iad1 but afterwards an apprentice 
of ,lee1 by whom he had  been left      
behind in ,england1 where he made some  
improvements in the  loom1 laid the     
foundation of the stocking-manufactory  
in that country4  ,the number of masters
 increased there in the course of fifty 
years so  much1 that it was found       
necessary to unite them into one guild2 
for  which ,cromwell1 however1 in       
consequence of reasons not known1       
refused  the proper sanction2 but in    
#affc they received letters patent1     
which  gave them certain privileges to  
the extent of ten miles round ,london4  
,in the year #afad1 the ,venetian       
ambassador1 ,antonio ,correr1 persuaded 
an  apprentice1 ,henry ,mead1 by the    
promise of five hundred pounds sterling1
  to go with a loom to ,venice for a    
stated time1 and to teach there the  use
 of it4 ,mead met with a favourable     
reception in that city1 and was  much   
admired2 but the loom becoming deranged1
 and no person at ,venice  being able to

 repair it1 when the time of his        
agreement was expired1  he returned to  
,england4 ,the ,venetians had not       
resolution enough to  continue the      
attempt2 and sent the damaged loom1     
together with some bad  imitations of   
it1 to ,london1 where they were sold for
 a mere trifle4  ,such is the account   
given in the petition before-mentioned4 
,zano1 however1 an ,italian writer#iae1 
asserts1 on the authority of            
information preserved in manuscript     
among family documents1 that ,correr    
carried two stocking-weavers with looms 
to ,venice2 that he immediately  placed 
under them four apprentices1 and when   
they went back to ,england  sent with   
them a boy1 who returned to ,venice     
well-instructed in the  art1 and who    
continued to carry on business there    
with great success4  ,giambattista      
,carli of ,gemona1 a smith who worked in
 steel1 saw the loom  at ,venice1 which 
had been made after the model of those  
brought from  ,england and sold to      

,francesco ,alpruni of ,udina4 ,in a    
short time a great  many stockings were 
manufactured there1 and sent for sale1  
chiefly to  ,gradisca in ,austria4 ,but1
 in consequence of the poverty of the   
,venetian  stocking-knitters1 an order  
was issued that ,carli should make no   
more  looms2 and this productive branch 
of business at ,udina was so much       
deranged1 that the masters removed with 
their looms to ,gradisca1 where  the    
inhabitants of ,udina were obliged to   
purchase such stockings as  they had    
occasion to use4    ,some years after   
the stocking-loom had been introduced at
 ,venice1  ,abraham ,jones1 who         
understood stocking-weaving and the     
construction  of the loom1 though never 
regularly taught1 went with some        
assistants  to ,amsterdam1 where he     
worked on his own account two or three  
years1  till he and his people were     
carried off by a contagious disease4    
,the  looms1 because no one could use   
them1 were sent to ,london and sold for 

a low price4 ,in the petition to        
,cromwell the masters state1 with great 
satisfaction1 that in this manner the   
trade had remained in ,england2  and1   
that it may be exclusively retained in  
their native country1 they  wish for the
 establishment of a privileged company4 
,it appears to me therefore proved      
beyond all doubt1 that the              
stocking-loom was invented by ,william  
,lee1 an ,englishman1 about the end  of 
the sixteenth century2 and this is      
admitted by some ,french writers1  such 
as ,voltaire#iaf and the editor of the  
first ,encyclopdie1 whom  the author of 
the ,encyclopdie ,mthodique however     
finds fault with4  ,other ,french       
writers1 who are the more numerous      
party1 wish to ascribe  the honour of   
this invention to one of their own      
countrymen2 but the  proofs they bring  
are so weak that they scarcely deserve  
notice4 ,savary  perhaps is the first   
person who publicly ventured to support 
this  instance of ,gallic vanity2 at any

 rate he is quoted by the more modern   
writers as their authority when they    
wish to contradict the ,english4        
,according to his account1 a ,frenchman1
 of whom however he knows  nothing      
further1 invented the stocking-loom2 but
 not being able to  obtain the exclusive
 privilege of using it in his own       
country1 went  with it to ,england4 ,the
 utility of it being soon discovered    
there1  it was forbidden1 under pain of 
death1 to carry a loom or a model of  it
 out of the kingdom4 ,but another       
,frenchman1 respecting whom he is       
equally ignorant1 having seen the loom1 
the form of it made so deep  an         
impression on his memory1 that on his   
return he copied it exactly2  and from  
this loom all the others used in ,france
 and ,holland were  constructed4 ,savary
 adds1 did the invention belong to the  
,english1  who are accustomed to pay due
 honour to those who discover useful    
things1 they undoubtedly could tell the 
name of the inventor1 which  however    

they are not able to do4 ,it is very    
strange that this should be  written by 
a ,frenchman1 who himself did not know  
the name of the ,french  inventor1 or of
 the person who carried back the        
invention4 ,no order  to prevent the    
exportation of the stocking-loom was    
issued in ,england  so early1 else it   
would certainly have been mentioned in  
the petition  presented to ,cromwell4   
,it was not till the eighth year of the 
reign of  ,william ,,iii41 that is      
#afif1 when looms were everywhere       
common1 that  the exportation of them   
was forbidden2 probably because the best
 were  made in ,england1 and it was     
wished that the gradual improvement of  
them  should be kept secret4 ,the       
penalty also was not death1 but a fine  
and  confiscation of the looms4    ,some
 have endeavoured to give an air of     
probability to this assertion  of       
,savary1 by the relation of an          
apothecary in the ,hotel-,dieu at       
,paris4  ,this person is said to have   

declared that the inventor was a        
journeyman  locksmith of ,lower         
,normandy1 who gave a pair of silk      
stockings1 his own  workmanship1 to     
,colbert1 in order that they might be   
presented to ,louis  ,,xiv42 but as the 
marchands bonetiers1 who dealt in       
articles knit  according to the old     
manner1 caused several loops of these   
stockings  to be cut by some of the     
servants at court1 whom they had bribed 
for  that purpose1 they did not meet    
with approbation4 ,the inventor was so  
hurt by this disappointment1 that he    
sold the loom to an ,englishman1  and   
died an old man in the ,hotel-,dieu1    
where the apothecary became  acquainted 
with him4 ,it was necessary to expose   
the lives of many  workmen1 and even of 
some men of learning1 in order to bring 
back a  loom to ,france4 ,rom de la     
,platire adds1 that he heard at ,nimes1 
that  in the time of ,colbert a person  
of that place1 named ,cavellier1 carried
  the first loom to ,france2 and that1  

in the course of fifty years1 the       
number of the looms in that town and    
neighbourhood increased to some         
thousands4 ,it appears much more certain
 that the stocking manufactory1  as     
,savary asserts1 was established at the 
castle of ,madrid in the ,bois          
,boulogne near ,paris1 in the year      
#afef1 under the direction of ,john     
,hindret4    ,i do not know at what time
 the first loom was brought to ,germany2
 but  it is certain that this branch of 
manufacture was spread chiefly by the   
,french refugees who sought shelter in  
that country after the revocation  of   
the edict of ,nantes4 ,winkelmann says  
expressly1 that they carried  the first 
looms to ,hesse4 ,this is not at all    
improbable1 because our  stocking       
manufacturers give ,french names to     
every part of their looms1  as well as  
to their different kinds of work4       
,becher boasts of having  introduced the
 loom at ,vienna1 and of having first   
constructed looms  of wood4 ,at present 

many wooden ones are made at ,obernhau  
in the  ,erzgebrge1 and sold at the rate
 of twenty-eight dollars2 whereas iron  
ones1 of the most inferior kind1 are    
sold in ,vogtland for sixty or  seventy4
    ,in #affc a charter was granted by  
,charles ,,ii4 to the ,frame-work       
,knitters' ,society of ,london          
7stocking-makers71 which had been       
refused  to them a few years before by  
,oliver ,cromwell4 ,six years afterwards
  the number of stocking-frames in      
,england amounted to #gjj1 employing    
#abjj workmen1 three-fifths of whom made
 silk stockings1 and the others         
worsted2 for cotton was not then ranked 
among ,english manufactures4 ,by  #agad 
the number of frames had increased to   
#hjjj or #ijjj4 ,some years  after this1
 the ,frame-work ,knitters' ,company    
attempted to control both  the          
manufacture itself1 and the making and  
selling of the stockings2  but the      
project failed4 ,by the year #agec the  
number of frames in  ,england was       

#ad1jjj4 ,in #ageh a machine for making 
ribbed stockings was  patented by ,mr4  
,strutt of ,belper4    ,in #ahch        
stocking-frames with a rotatory action1 
and worked by steam1  were successfully 
brought into use in ,nottingham4 ,of the
 present extent  and value of the       
hosiery manufacture1 perhaps the best   
estimate is  that made a few years ago  
by ,mr4 ,felkin of ,nottingham4 ,this   
gentleman  calculates the value of      
cotton hosiery annually made at         
#hhj1jjj1 that  of worsted at #hgj1jjj1 
and that of silk at #bda1jjj4 ,he       
estimates  the number of stockings      
annually manufactured at #c1eaj1jjj     
dozens2  and in the production of these 
there are used #d1ehd1jjj lbs4 of raw   
cotton1 value #aec1jjj2 #adj1jjj lbs4 of
 raw silk1 value #ia1jjj2 and           
#f1cah1jjj lbs4 of ,english wool1 value 
#caf1jjj2 making the total value  of the
 materials #efj1jjj1 which are          
ultimately converted into the           
exchangeable value of #a1iia1jjj4 ,the  

total number of persons employed  is    
#gc1jjj4      ,,footnotes    #hhe ,it is
 scarcely necessary to inform the reader
 that the warp  consists of the         
longitudinal threads of a woven fabric1 
which are  crossed by the transverse    
threads or woof4    #hhf ,ovidii        
,metamorph4 vi4 #e-ade4 ,plin4 ,hist4   
,nat4 vii4 #ef4    #hhg ,an ,englishman1
 named ,j4 ,w4 ,boswel1 invented a      
machine on which  sixty-eight meshes1   
with perfect knots1 could be knit at the
 same time3  it could be adapted also to
 fine works1 and to lace4 ,a description
 of  it may be seen in the ,transactions
 of the ,society for the ,encouragement 
of the ,arts1 vol4 xiv4    #hhh ,many   
commentators on the ,greek and ,roman   
writers have fallen  into mistakes      
respecting these noose-ropes1 because   
they were not  acquainted with the      
nature of them4 ,their use among the    
,parthians is  confirmed by ,suidas1    
under the word 1 p4 #cjc2 where he says 
that  on that account they were called 4

 ,josephus asserts that  they were      
employed by the ,alani1 and relates that
 ,tiridates would have  been caught in  
this manner1 had he not quickly cut to  
pieces the rope4  ,under the same head  
may be comprehended the retiarii and    
laquearii1  in the bloody spectacles of 
the ,romans1 whose method of fighting is
  said to have been found out by        
,pittacus4 ,see ,diogen4 ,laert4 i4 #gd4
 ,to  this subject belong the snares of 
the devil1 pestilence1 and death1 in    
the ,scriptures1 and particularly in    
,psalm xviii4 ver4 #e4 ,the laquei      
mortis of ,horace1 ,carm4 iii4 #bd1 #h1 
were hence to be explained1 and  not by 
a ,hebraism1 as some of the old         
commentators have imagined4 ,in  the    
ordeals of the ancient ,germans1 when a 
man was obliged to combat  with a woman1
 the latter had a rope with a noose1    
which she threw over  her antagonist1   
who stood in a pit1 in order that she   
might more easily  overcome him4 ,that  
such ropes are still employed among     

various nations  is proved by           
,vancouver4 ,in ,hungary the wild horses
 at present are said  to be caught by   
ropes of this kind4    #hhi ,wafer's    
,voyage4 ,anderson's ,iceland4 ,the     
author says that the  beards are cut    
into slips2 but these slips were        
fish-bone1 which could  be made into    
baskets but not into nets4 ,he certainly
 meant the hair on  the beard1 which in 
,holland is used for wigs4    #hij ,de  
,vest4 ,sac4 ,hebr4 p4 #ajj4    #hia    
,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 xxxvii4 cap4 #c4      
#hib ,rete1 id est ornamentum sericum ad
 instar retis contextum4--,acta  ,s4    
,deodati1 tom4 iii4 ,junii1 p4 #hga4    
#hic ,in the ,limpurg ,chronicle1 which 
may be found in ,von ,hontheim1  ,hist4 
,trevirensis1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajhd1 is the 
following passage3 8,the  ladies wore   
new weite hauptfinstern1 so that the men
 almost saw  their breasts20 and ,moser1
 who quotes this passage in his         
,phantasien1  conjectures that the      
hauptfinstern might approach near to    

lace4 ,i  never met with the word       
anywhere else2 but ,frisch1 in his      
,dictionary1  says1 8,vinster in a      
,vocabularium of the year #adib is      
explained by the  words drat1 schudrat1 
thread1 coarse thread40 ,may it not be  
the  word fenster1 a window8 ,and in    
that case may it not allude to the  wide
 meshes8 ,fenestratum meant formerly1   
perforated or reticulated2  and this    
signification seems applicable to those 
shoes mentioned by ,du  ,cange under the
 name of calcei fenestrati4 ,at any rate
 it is certain  that the article denoted
 by hauptfinstern belonged to those     
dresses  mentioned by ,seneca in his    
treatise ,de ,beneficiis1 #ei4 ,pliny   
says that  such dresses were worn1 8ut  
in publico matrona transluceat40    #hid
 ,dict4 de ,commerce4 ,copenh4 #agei1   
fol4 i4 pp4 #chh1 #egf4    #hie         
,gentleman's ,magazine1 vol4 liii4      
#aghc1 p4 #ch4 ,in the ,heiligen        
,lexicon ,st4 ,fiacre is improperly     
called the son of an ,irishman of       

distinction4    #hif ,howell1 in        
speaking of the trade in the oldest     
times1 says1  p4 #bbb1 8,silk is now    
grown nigh as common as wool1 and become
 the  cloathing of those in the kitchin 
as well as the court2 we wear it  not   
onely on our backs1 but of late years on
 our legs and feet1 and  tread on that  
which formerly was of the same value    
with gold itself4  ,yet that magnificent
 and expensive prince1 ,henry ,,viii41  
wore ordinarly  cloth-hose1 except there
 came from ,spain1 by great chance1 a   
pair of  silk stockins4 ,k4 ,edward1 his
 son1 was presented with a pair of long 
,spanish silk stockins by ,thomas       
,gresham1 his merchant1 and the present 
was taken much notice of4 ,queen        
,elizabeth in the third year of her     
reign was presented by ,mrs4 ,montague1 
her silk-woman1 with a pair of  black   
knit silk stockins1 and thenceforth she 
never wore cloth any  more40    #hig    
,the lines which allude to this subject 
are in the tragedy of  ,ella3--         

8,she sayde1 as herr whytte hondes whyte
 hosen were knyttinge1    ,whatte       
pleasure ytt ys to be married60    #hih 
,in his ,description of ,scotland1      
according to the old translation1  in   
,hollingshed1 8,their hosen were shapen 
also of linnen or woolen1  which never  
came higher than their knees2 their     
breeches were for the  most part of     
hempe40    #hii 8,the king and some of  
the gentlemen had the upper parts of    
their hosen1 which was of blue and      
crimson1 powdered with castels and      
sheafes of arrows of fine ducket gold1  
and the nether parts of scarlet1        
powdered with timbrels of fine10 c4444  
,there is reason however to  suppose    
that the upper and nether parts of the  
hose were separate  pieces1 as they were
 of different colours4 ,this description
 stands  in the third volume of         
,hollingshed's ,chronicles1 p4 #hjg1    
where it is  said1 speaking of another  
festival1 8,the garments of six of them 
were  of strange fashion1 with also     

strange cuts1 everie cut knit with      
points of fine gold1 and tassels of the 
same1 their hosen cut in and  tied      
likewise40 ,what the word knit here     
signifies might perhaps be  discovered  
if we had an ,english ,journal of       
,luxury and ,fashions for the  sixteenth
 century4    #ijj ,gentleman's          
,magazine1 #aghb1 vol4 lii4 p4 #bbi4    
,from an authentic  and curious         
household book kept during the life of  
,sir ,tho4 ,l',estrange1  ,knt4 of      
,hunstanton in ,norfolk1 by his lady    
,ann1 daughter of the lord  ,vaux1 are  
the following entries3--      #aecc4 #be
 ,h4 #h4 #g ,sept4 ,peyd for #d peyr of 
knytt hose  ,,viii s4    #aech4 #cj ,h4 
#h4 #c ,oct4  44444444 two peyr of knytt
 hose   ,i s4    ,it is to be observed1 
that the first-mentioned were for ,sir  
,thomas and  the latter for his         
children4    #ija ,the act made on this 
occasion is not to be found in any of   
the  old or new editions of the         
,statutes at ,large4 ,it is omitted in  

that  published at ,london1 #agce1 fol4 
ii4 p4 #fc1 because it was afterwards   
annulled4 ,smith1 in ,memoirs of ,wool1 
,lond4 #agdg1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #hi1 says  it 
was never printed2 but it is to be found
 in a collection of the  acts of king   
,edward ,,vi41 printed by ,richard      
,grafton1 #aeeb1 fol4 ,the  following   
passage from this collection1 which is  
so scarce even in  ,england that it is  
not named in ,ames's ,typographical     
,antiquities1 is  given in the          
,gentleman's ,magazine1 vol4 liii4 part 
#a1 p4 #abg3--8;,in this  acte limitinge
 the tymes for buieing and sellyng of   
wolles1 mention is  made of chamblettes1
 wolstende1 saies1 stamine1 knitte hose1
 knitte  peticotes1 knitte gloves1      
knitte slieves1 hattes1 coives1 cappes1 
arrasse1 tapissery1 coverlettes1        
girdles1 or any other thing used to be  
made of woolle40    #ijb ,this account  
is to be found in ,hollingshed's        
,chronicles4 8,dr4  ,sands at his going 
to bed in ,hurleston's house1 had a     

paire of hose  newlie made1 that were   
too long for him4 ,for while he was in  
the ,tower1  a tailor was admitted to   
make him a pair of hose4 ,one came in to
 him  whose name was ,beniamin1 dwelling
 in ,birchin-lane2 he might not speak   
to him or come to him to take measure of
 him1 but onelie to look upon  his leg2 
he made the hose1 and they were two     
inches too long4 ,these  hose he praied 
the good wife of the house to send to   
some tailor to cut  two inches shorter4 
,the wife required the boy of the house 
to carrie  them to the next tailor1     
which was ,beniamin that made them4 ,the
 boy  required him to cut the hose4 ,he 
said ,i am not the maister's tailor4    
,saith the boy1 because ye are our next 
neighbour1 and my maister's  tailor     
dwelleth far off1 j come to you4        
,beniamin took the hose and  looked upon
 them1 he took his handle work in hand1 
and said1 these are  not thy maister's  
hose1 but ,dr4 ,sands1 them j made in   
the ,tower40    #ijc 8,item1 his best   

coat1 jerkin1 doublet and breeches4     
,item1 his  hose or nether stockings1   
shoes and garters40--,survey of the     
,cathedral  of ,st4 ,asaph1 by ,browne  
,willis1 #agbj1 #hvo4    #ijd           
,hollingshed's ,chronicle1 #aegg1 p4    
#bac4    #ije ,in his satyre called ,the
 ,steel of ,glass3--8,in silk knitt     
hose1  and ,spanish leather shoes40     
#ijf ,in ,hollingshed1 third part1 p4   
#abij3--8,upon the stage there stood  at
 the one end eight small women children1
 spinning worsted yarne1 and  at the    
other as manie knitting of worsted yarn 
hose40    #ijg ,buch des ,alten         
,pommerlandes1 #afci1 #dto1 p4          
#chh3--8;,duke ,bogislaus  ,,viii4      
suffered himself at length to be        
overcome by love1 and married  ,sophia1 
daughter of ,procopius margrave of      
,moravia1 who was a very  prudent and   
moderate lady4 ,in her old age1 when her
 sight became bad1  so that she was     
incapable of sewing or embroidering1 she
 never put the  knitting-needle out of  

her hands1 as is written in our         
chronicles4 ,the  rhymes which she      
always had in her mouth are             
remarkable3--      ,nicht beten1 gern   
spatzieren gehn1    ,oft im ,fenster und
 vorm ,spiegel stehn1    ,viel geredet1 
und wenig gethan1    ,mein ,kind1 da ist
 nichts ,fettes an4    #8,never to pray2
 to be fond of walking2 to stand often  
at the window and  before the           
looking-glass2 to talk much and do      
little2 is not1 my child1  the way to be
 rich4'0    #ijh ,mezeray1 where he     
speaks of the silk manufactories under  
,henry ,,iv4    #iji ,the first         
description of the stocking-loom        
illustrated by  figures1 with which ,i  
am acquainted1 is in ,deering's         
,nottingham1 #agea1  #dto1 but it is    
very imperfect4 ,a much better is to be 
found in the  second volume of the      
,encyclopdie1 printed at ,paris1 #agea1 
fol4 p4  #id-aac4 ,the figures are in   
the first volume of the second part of  
the  ,planches1 and make eleven plates1 

eight of which are full sheets4 ,the    
reader will also find a very good       
description of the stocking-loom        
illustrated with woodcuts in ,ure's     
,dictionary1 art4 ,,hosiery4    #iaj    
,the following passage occurs in the    
petition1 p4 #cjb3 8,which  trade is    
properly stiled framework-knitting1     
because it is direct and  absolute      
knit-work in the stitches thereof1      
nothing different therein  from the     
common way of knitting 7not much more   
antiently for publick  use practised in 
this nation than this71 but only in the 
numbers  of needles1 at an instant      
working in this1 more than in the other 
by an hundred for one1 set in an engine 
or frame composed of above  #bjjj pieces
 of smith1 joiners1 and turners work1   
after so artificial  and exact a manner1
 that1 by the judgement of all          
beholders1 it far  excels in the        
ingenuity1 curiosity1 and subtility of  
the invention and  contexture1 all other
 frames or instruments of manufacture in

 use in  any known part of the world40  
#iaa ,this account is given by ,aaron   
,hill in his ,rise and ,progress of  the
 ,beech-oil ,invention1 #agae1 #hvo4    
#iab ,the inscription may be found in   
,seymour's ,survey of ,london1  #agcc1  
fol4 vol4 i4 p4 #fjc3 8,in the year     
#aehi the ingenious ,william  ,lee1     
,master of ,arts of ,st4 ,john's        
,college1 ,cambridge1 devised this      
profitable art for stockings 7but being 
despised went to ,france7 yet of  iron  
to himself1 but to us and others of     
gold2 in memory of whom this  is here   
painted40    #iac ,in his ,history of   
the ,world1 already quoted1 p4 #aga3    
8,nine  and thirty years after was      
invented the weaving of silk stockings1 
westcoats1 and divers other things1 by  
engines1 or steel looms1 by  ,william   
,lee1 ,master of ,arts of ,st4 ,john's  
,college in ,cambridge1 a  native of    
,nottingham1 who taught the art in      
,england and ,france1 as his  servants  
in ,spain1 ,venice1 and ,ireland2 and   

his device so well took1  that now in   
,london his artificers are become a     
company1 having an hall  and a master1  
like as other societies40    #iad ,of   
this ,aston the following account is to 
be found in ,thoroton's                 
,nottinghamshire1 #afgg1 fol4 p4 #big3  
8,at ,calverton was born ,william  ,lee1
 ,master of ,arts in ,cambridge1 and    
heir to a pretty freehold here2  who    
seeing a woman knit1 invented a loom to 
knit1 in which he or his  brother ,james
 performed and exercised before ,queen  
,elizabeth1 and  leaving it to 444      
,aston his apprentice1 went beyond the  
seas1 and was  thereby esteemed the     
author of that ingenious engine1        
wherewith they  now weave silk and other
 stockings4 ,this 444 ,aston added      
something to  his master's invention2 he
 was some time a miller at ,thoroton1   
nigh  which place he was born40    #iae 
,dell' ,agricoltura1 dell' ,arti1 e del 
,commercio4 ,ven4 #agfc1 #hvo4    #iaf  
,le ,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv4             

,,hops4      ,my object1 in this        
article1 is not to give a history of    
beer1 because  for that purpose it would
 be necessary to define accurately the  
different kinds of grain mentioned in   
the writings of the ,greeks and  the    
,romans2 and this would be a tedious1 as
 well as difficult1 and  to me a very   
unpleasant labour2 as ,i should be      
obliged to controvert  a great many     
received opinions4 ,i shall only        
endeavour to answer the  question1      
,where and at what time did hops begin  
to be used as an  addition to beer8     
,this subject has already engaged the   
attention of two  learned men#iag1 whose
 researches ,i shall employ and enlarge 
by my own  observations4    ,hops at    
present are so well known1 that a formal
 description of them  would be          
superfluous4 ,i think it necessary1     
however1 for the sake of  perspicuity1  
to state what follows4 ,this plant at   
present grows wild in  the greater part 
of ,europe1 and in ,germany is common in

 the hedges and  fences4 ,it clings to  
the trunks of trees1 and often climbs   
round poles1  if long enough1 to the    
height of twenty or thirty feet4 ,it is 
almost  everywhere rough and sharp to   
the touch1 and sometimes clammy4 ,the   
leaves are generally divided into three1
 and often into five indented  lobes2   
but the upper ones are shaped like a    
heart and undivided4 ,the  male plants  
bear flowers1 like those of the         
currant-bush or of the  male hemp2 the  
female plants produce their flowers in  
cones1 which are  not unlike those of   
the fir1 except that the latter are     
woody1 while  the former are foliaceous4
 ,these cones only are used for beer2 on
 that  account the female plants alone  
are cultivated1 and from these they  are
 picked and dried as soon as they begin 
to become pulverulent4 ,they  are       
transplanted or propagated by means of  
seedlings1 in hop-grounds  properly     
prepared1 where the cones become larger 
and better than those  of the wild      

plants1 which however are not entirely  
useless4 ,they are  added to beer to    
render it more palatable1 by giving it  
an agreeable  bitter taste2 and1 at the 
same time1 to make it keep longer2 and  
it  must indeed be confessed1 that of   
the numerous and various additions      
which since the earliest periods have   
been tried1 none has better  answered   
the purpose1 or been more generally     
employed4    ,among the botanists of the
 last two centuries1 who perused the    
writings  of the ,greeks and the        
,romans1 and endeavoured to discover    
those plants  which they meant to       
describe1 many imagined that they found 
in them  hops4 ,but when one takes the  
trouble to examine without prejudice    
their  opinions1 nothing appears but a  
very slight probability2 and some  even 
of these learned botanists1 such as     
,matthioli and others1 have             
acknowledged that it cannot be proved   
that the ,greeks and the ,romans  were  
acquainted with our hops4    ,the plant 

which perhaps has been chiefly          
considered as the hop is the  ,smilax   
aspera#iah of ,dioscorides#iai1 the same
 no doubt as that  described by         
,theophrastus under the name of smilax1 
without any  epithet#ibj4 ,that the     
description agrees for the most part    
with our  hops cannot be denied2 but it 
is equally true that it might be        
applied1  with no less propriety1 to    
many other creeping plants1 and         
certainly  with the greatest probability
 to that which in the ,linnan system has
  retained the name ,smilax aspera4     
,what the ,grecian writer says of the   
fruit is particularly applicable to this
 plant2 but1 on the other hand1  it     
differs from the fruit of the hop4      
,one might with more probability        
conjecture that hops occur in           
,pliny#iba1 under the name ,lupus       
salictarius4 ,but the whole of what  he 
says of this plant is1 that it was      
esculent1 and grew in the willow        
plantations4 ,this is undoubtedly true  

of hops1 for that the young  shoots are 
eaten in spring as salad is well known2 
but the name lupus  alone has induced   
the commentator to apply all this1      
though equally  applicable to other     
plants1 to our hop1 which at present is 
called  lupulus4 ,much more unfounded is
 the conjecture1 that the hop is that   
wild plant which1 according to the      
account of ,cato1 was used as fodder    
for cattle#ibb4 ,but the word in        
manuscripts is differently written1  and
 consequently uncertain2 besides1 there 
are many plants which might  be employed
 in the place of straw4    ,it is       
certainly possible that hops might have 
been in use among the  northern nations1
 at the time of these writers1 without  
their having  any knowledge of them2 for
 the ,romans were acquainted with beer  
only  from the accounts given of the    
,germans and their manners#ibc1 and they
  considered that beverage merely as an 
unsuccessful imitation of their  wine4  
,but ,i agree in opinion with ,conring1 

,meibomius1 and others1 that  hops were 
not used till a much later period4 ,the 
names humulus and  lupulus also are of  
no great antiquity4 ,the former is the  
oldest1 and  seems to belong to the     
people who first added this improvement 
to beer4  ,the humble and humle of the  
,swedes and ,danes1 the chumel of the   
,bohemians1 the houblon of the ,french  
and the ,spanish1 ,hungarian and        
,persian appellations1 all seem to be   
derived from the same origin1 as  well  
as the ,latin names of later times1     
humelo1 humolo1 humulo1  humlo#ibd4     
,lupulus does not occur till a much     
later period4 ,the  ,german word1 which 
the ,english also have adopted1 appears 
first to have  been written hoppe1 from 
which was formed afterwards in ,high    
,german  ,hopfen1 by converting1 as it  
commonly does1 the double p into the    
harder pf4 ,thus from toppe it has made 
topf1 and from koppe1  kopf1 c4 ,as far 
as ,i know1 this word is found1 for the 
first time1  in a dictionary which seems

 to be of the tenth century#ibe1 and    
which  has ,timalus1 ,hoppe and         
,brandigabo ,feldhoppe4 ,according to my
  conjecture1 timalus has been          
erroneously printed for humulus2  but in
 regard to brandigabo ,i can give no    
explanation4 ,it is  derived perhaps    
from brace or bracium4 ,the former was  
known to  ,pliny#ibf2 and the latter    
occurs in the same dictionary along with
 the  translation1 malt4    ,no mention 
is made of hops either in ,walafrid     
,strabo1 who died in  #hdi1 or in milius
 ,macer1 who cannot have lived earlier  
than the year  #hej2 in the laws of the 
old ,franks1 in which beer and malt are 
often  mentioned1 or in the ,capitulare 
de ,villis ,imperatoris1 which are      
ascribed to ,charles the ,great4 ,had   
beer been then used and brewed in       
,germany1 it would certainly have been  
at any rate mentioned by the  emperor4  
,haller says#ibg it is related by       
,isidorus that the experiment  of adding
 hops to beer was first made in ,italy4 

,were this the case1 it  would be the   
oldest mention of that circumstance1 for
 ,isidorus died in  the year #fcf4 ,it  
is however not only highly improbable   
that the use  of hops should be         
discovered in ,italy1 which is a wine   
country1 but  it can be proved to be    
false4 ,not the smallest notice of it is
 to be  found in the whole work of      
,isidorus2 and in the ,bibliotheca      
,botanica1  when ,haller had the book   
before him and extracted from it many   
things  remarkable1 he does not repeat  
this assertion#ibh4 ,the passage which  
has given rise perhaps to this error1   
appears to be that where the  author    
describes a kind of beer called by him  
celia1 and where the  germination of    
corn1 the shooting of malt1 and the     
sweet wort made  from it1 together with 
its fermentation1 are clearly mentioned1
 but  not hops#ibi4 ,some one perhaps   
thought that hops also ought to be      
supposed in this passage1 else beer     
would not acquire that strong taste  and

 intoxicating quality spoken of by      
,isidorus1 who very properly  ascribes  
both to fermentation4 ,the same account 
has been repeated  by ,vincentius#icj1  
without any change or addition4 ,but as 
,isidorus  scarcely contains anything   
which is not borrowed from earlier      
writers1  ,i endeavoured to discover the
 source of that information1 and at     
length  found it in the history of      
,orosius#ica1 who1 as is well known1    
lived  in the fifth century4    ,in the 
,latin translation of the works of the  
,arabian physician  ,mesue#icb is a     
description1 but as is commonly the     
case1 a defective  one1 of a creeping   
plant1 with rough indented leaves under 
the name of  lupulus1 which indeed      
corresponds exceedingly well with our   
hops4  ,the cones in particular are     
exactly described4 ,the author1 however1
  speaks there only of the medicinal    
qualities of the plant1 and makes  no   
mention of its application to beer4     
,mesue lived about the year #hde1       

consequently is the first who uses the  
term lupuli4 ,but we have only  a       
wretched old translation of the writings
 of this physician2 it is  probable that
 the word lupulus comes only from the   
translator4 ,this  passage therefore can
 prove nothing4    ,it is however       
certain that hops were known in the time
 of the  ,carolingian dynasty1 for a    
letter of donation by ,king ,pepin      
speaks  of humolari1 which without doubt
 must have been hop-gardens#icc4  ,in   
like manner ,adelard1 abbot of ,corbey1 
in the year #hbb1 freed the  millers    
belonging to his district from all      
labour relating to hops1  and on this   
occasion employed the words humlo and   
brace1 by which  is to be understood    
corn and malt used for beer4 ,in the    
,frisingen  collection of ancient       
documents1 there are many which were    
written  in the time of ,ludovicus      
,germanicus1 consequently in the middle 
of  the ninth century2 and in some of   
these1 hop-gardens1 which were then     

called humularia1 are mentioned#icd4 ,in
 the tax registers of the  two following
 centuries1 among the articles delivered
 to churches and  monasteries1 modii and
 moldera humuli are very often          
named#ice4  ,hop-fields and the delivery
 of hops occur much oftener in the      
thirteenth century1 under the           
appellations humuleta1 humileta1  and   
humularia#icf4 ,in the                  
,sachsenspiegel#icg and the municipal   
law of ,magdeburg                       
7,weichbildsrechte#ich71 there is an    
order in regard  to the hop-plants which
 grew over hedges4 ,i shall omit the    
still more  numerous instances where    
they occur in the fourteenth century as 
well  as the proofs that hops were then 
cultivated in many parts of ,germany2   
and it is perhaps true1 as said by      
,mhsen1 and after him by ,fischer1  on  
whose bare word however ,i do not       
entirely rely1 that many towns in       
,germany were indebted for the great    
sale of their beer to the use of  hops  

7which undoubtedly appears to be a      
,german discovery71 and to their        
peculiar goodness4 ,however1 it is      
certain that this method of seasoning   
beer was adopted at a much later period 
by our neighbours the ,english1  ,dutch1
 ,swedes1 and others4    ,if the two    
passages above quoted1 where the word   
lupuli occurs1 be  rejected because they
 are doubtful1 ,i must consider this    
name of hops  to be more modern than the
 word humulus2 and if this be true1 it  
is  impossible to believe1 with ,du     
,cange1 that the latter was formed from 
the first by throwing away the initial  
letter4 ,as yet ,i had not found  the   
name lupulus given to hops earlier than 
the thirteenth century4    ,about this  
time lived ,simon of ,genoa1 commonly   
called ,johannes de  ,janua or          
,januensis1 who also had the surname of 
,cordus4 ,he was  physician to ,pope    
,nicholas ,,iv42 afterwards chaplain and
 sub-deacon  to ,pope ,boniface ,,viii42
 and therefore flourished at the end of 

the  thirteenth century4 ,of his        
writings none is better known1 or was   
formerly more esteemed1 than his        
,catholicon1 a book in which he         
describes1 in alphabetical order1 all   
the substances then used in  medicine1  
and on which1 as he says himself1 he was
 employed thirty  years4 ,in this       
dictionary1 which is commonly considered
 as the first  of the ,materia medica1  
there is an article under the head      
lupulus1  copied however from the       
before-mentioned ,latin translation of  
,mesue1  but with the addition1 that    
this plant by the ,french and ,germans  
is  named humilis1 and that the flowers 
of it were used in a beverage  which he 
calls medo#ici4 ,this ,italian1 however1
 does not seem  to have been properly   
acquainted with the subject2 for he     
tells us  himself#idj1 that under the   
name medo or mead1 is understood a      
beverage made of diluted honey1 for     
which hops are never employed4  ,in     
,italy also1 at that time1 hops were not

 in use4 ,about the same  period1       
,arnold de ,villanova1 in his commentary
 on the work on ,regimen1  published by 
,john of ,milan1 in the name of the     
celebrated school of  ,salerno1 mentions
 lupuli1 and the use of them in brewing 
beer#ida4    ,professor ,tychsen1 to    
whose friendship ,i have been frequently
 indebted  for assistance in my         
researches1 suggested to me the         
conjecture that  lupulus perhaps is     
derived from lupinus1 because ,columella
 says  that the bitter seeds of this    
plant were added1 in ,egypt1 to beer in 
order to moderate its sweetness#idb4    
,this use is confirmed also by ,g4  ,w4 
,lorsbach1 from the ,arabic historian   
,ebn ,chalican#idc4 ,at any rate1  this 
proves that in ,egypt at that time      
bitter things began to be added  to     
beer4 ,it is also well known that in    
,italy lupines were rendered  fit for   
the use of man as well as of animals1 by
 macerating them in  water#idd2 and ,i  
am of opinion1 that on this account     

,varro required  water to be in the     
neighbourhood of a farm-yard#ide4       
,lupines softened  in water are still   
employed for making dough4 ,but if      
lupulus was  formed from lupinus1 it    
must however be proved that the use of  
it for  beer was common beyond the      
boundaries of ,egypt4 ,even if we admit 
with  ,schttgen1 that the poet employs  
zythum for beer in general1 this        
beverage was never used in ,italy1 and  
,i have met with no other mention  of   
lupines in brewing4    ,in the breweries
 of the ,netherlands1 hops seem to have 
been first  known in the beginning of   
the fourteenth century2 for about this  
time  we find many complaints that the  
new method of brewing with hops         
lessened the consumption of gruit1 and  
also the income arising from  gruitgeld4
 ,the word gruit seems to have many     
meanings3 in the first  place it        
signifies malt2 but though ,i formerly  
considered this as the  proper meaning1 
and though some approved my opinion1 ,i 

must confess  that on further           
examination ,i am not able fully to     
prove it4 ,in the  second place1 it     
signified a certain tax paid at each    
time of brewing3  thirdly1 a certain    
addition of herbs used for beer in the  
fourteenth  century3 and in the last    
place1 the beer brewed with it was      
itself  sometimes called gruit4    ,that
 this word always denoted malt is       
impossible2 for it is said  that after  
hops were introduced1 less gruit was    
used and sold than  formerly had been   
the case4 ,but how could hops be        
employed instead of  malt8 ,john1 bishop
 of ,liege and ,utrecht1 complained to  
the emperor  ,charles ,,iv41 that for   
thirty or forty years a new method of   
brewing1  that is to say1 with the      
addition of a certain plant called      
humulus  or hoppa1 had been introduced1 
and that his income arising from        
gruitgeld had been thereby much         
lessened4 ,the emperor1 therefore1  in  
the year #acfd1 permitted him1 for the  

purpose of making good his  loss1 to    
demand a groschen for each cask of hops2
 and this right was  confirmed to bishop
 ,arnold by pope ,gregory#idf4 ,by this 
and similar  accounts ,i am induced to  
conjecture that a beverage composed of  
different herbs was at that time        
prepared1 and that the sale of this     
mixture and of gruit was converted into 
a so-called regale4 ,nay1 it  almost    
appears that gruit was a fermenting     
substance1 indispensably  necessary to  
beer1 instead of the yeast used at      
present4    ,according to every         
appearance the ancient beer could not be
 long kept2  and beer fit to be         
preserved seems to have come into use   
after the  introduction of hops4 ,the   
oldest writers who treat of the good and
  bad effects of hops1 reckon among the 
latter1 that they dried up the  body and
 increased melancholy2 but among their  
good qualities1 they  praise their      
property of preserving liquors from     
corruption#idg4 ,it  was soon remarked  

also1 that the keeping of beer depended 
a great deal  on the season in which it 
was brewed2 for ,m4 ,anton quotes from  
the  ,ilm statutes of #acej1 that people
 were permitted to brew only from       
,michaelmas to ,st4 ,walpurgis' day#idh2
 at other times it was forbidden  under 
certain penalties4 ,at that period      
various kinds of beer seem  to have been
 in use1 and perhaps became fashionable 
instead of wine1  coffee1 and tea4 ,thus
 ,m4 ,anton quotes1 from a ,hervord     
document of the  year #aadd1 cervisia   
mellita and non mellita4 ,however1 even 
at  present1 honey is used for many     
kinds of beer2 such for example as  that
 brewed at ,nimeguen1 which has an      
extensive sale under the name of  moll1 
a word derived no doubt from mollig1    
mild2 which is applied  also to wine4   
,in the same manner the ,english used   
liquorice4    ,in ,england1 the use of  
hops seems to have been introduced at a 
much  later period2 but it is said that 
they were at first considered as a      

dangerous production1 and that the      
planting of them was forbidden in  the  
reign of ,henry ,,vi41 about the middle 
of the fifteenth century#idi4  ,this ,i 
will not venture to deny1 though ,i very
 much doubt it4 ,i have  found no proof 
of it in any ,english writer1 and ,i    
have searched in vain  for the          
prohibition among the orders of that    
prince1 in which however  there occurs  
one in regard to malt#iej4 ,on the      
contrary1 many ,english  historians     
assert that the use of hops was first   
made known in ,england  by some people  
from ,artois1 in the reign of ,henry    
,,viii41 or about the  year #aebdiea4   
,it is nevertheless true1 that this     
sovereign1 in an  order respecting the  
servants of his household1 in the       
twenty-second  year of his reign1 that  
is in #aecj1 forbade brewers to put into
  ale hops and sulphur#ieb4 ,but perhaps
 his majesty was not fond of  hopped    
beer4 ,even at present1 most of the     
dictionaries call ale1 beer  brewed     

without hops2 and an ,english physician 
says expressly that the  difference     
between ale and beer is1 that hops are  
not employed for the  former#iec4 ,but  
according to the ,english instructions  
for brewing1  hops are required for ale 
also4    ,in the ,english laws hops are 
mentioned for the first time in the     
fifth  year of the reign of ,edward     
,,vi41 that is in #aeeb1 at which period
 some  privileges were granted to       
hop-grounds4 ,the cultivation of hops   
however1 which1 like the art of brewing1
 has in ,england been carried  to the   
greatest perfection1 was very limited   
even in the beginning of  the           
seventeenth century2 for ,james ,i41 in 
the fifth year of his reign1  that is in
 #afjc1 found it necessary to forbid1   
under severe penalties1  the            
introduction and use of spoilt and      
adulterated hops4 ,at that time1        
therefore1 ,england did not produce a   
quantity sufficient for its own         
consumption4    ,in ,sweden1 at least in

 the fifteenth century1 hops seem not to
 have  been very common#ied2 for at that
 time sweet gale 7,myrica gale7 was     
employed for beer2 and so generally1    
that king ,christopher1 in #addj1       
confirmed the old law1 that those who   
collected this plant before a  certain  
period1 on any common or on another     
person's land1 should be  subjected to a
 fine4 ,a similar punishment however was
 appointed for the  too early picking of
 hops2 and the cultivation of them was  
so strongly  enforced1 that every farmer
 who had not forty poles with hops      
growing  round them was punished1 unless
 he could show that his land was unfit  
for producing them#iee4    ,but it was  
long doubted in ,sweden whether this    
plant would thrive in  the cold climate 
of that country2 in which however it    
grows wild4 ,in  the time of ,gustavus  
,i41 who became king in #aebc1 ,sweden  
was obliged to  give for the foreign    
hops it used #abjj schifpfunds of iron1 
which was  about the ninth part of all  

the iron made in the kingdom4 ,in the   
year  #aeeh the king complained1 in an  
edict1 that a pound of hops cost as     
much as a barrel of malt1 and on that   
account was desirous to encourage  the  
cultivation of the hop-plant4 ,but his  
exertions were attended with  so little 
effect1 that even under the reign of    
queen ,christina1 that  is1 in the      
middle of the seventeenth century1 all  
the hops used in the  kingdom were      
imported from ,germany1 and particularly
 from ,brunswick  and ,saxony4 ,the     
queen had some hop plantations as       
rarities in her  garden2 yet the        
cultivation of hops was begun under this
 princess1 and  carried so far that     
,german hop farmers1 who before had been
 accustomed  to travel to ,sweden every 
three years1 to receive payment and take
 new  orders1 returned very much        
dissatisfied1 and suffered a part of    
their  hop-grounds to run to waste4     
,under ,charles ,,xi41 however1 who     
reigned  from #affj to #afig1 the       

cultivation of hops was first brought to
 a state  of considerable improvement4  
,in the year #agff1 ,linnus hazarded a  
conjecture that hops1 spinage1          
chenopodium1 tarragon1 and many other   
garden vegetables were brought  to      
,europe by the ,goths1 during their     
periods of emigration1 from  ,russia and
 particularly the ,ukraine1 because the 
old writers make no  mention of these   
plants1 and because in those districts  
they all grow  wild at present#ief4 ,it 
however appears certain that hops belong
  to our indigenous plants1 as they grow
 everywhere wild in ,germany1           
,switzerland1 ,england1 and ,sweden1 and
 even in countries into which the       
cultivation of them has never yet been  
introduced1 and where it cannot  be     
supposed that they accidentally became  
wild by being conveyed from  hop-fields 
and gardens4 ,the want of information in
 works older than  the emigrations of   
the northern tribes1 is no proof that a 
plant did  not then exist4 ,at that time

 there was no ,linnus to transmit plants
  to posterity1 as ,hipparchus1         
according to the expression of ,pliny1  
did  the stars4 ,such vegetable         
productions only as had become          
remarkable  on account of their utility 
or hurtful qualities1 or by some        
singular  circumstance1 occur in the    
works of the ancients4 ,many others     
remained  unknown1 or at least without  
names1 till natural history acquired  a 
systematic form2 and even at present    
botanists have often the  satisfaction  
to discover some plant not before       
observed4    ,is it probable that the   
,chinese even are acquainted with our   
hops8  ,they have a kind of beer made   
from barley and wheat1 which is called  
tarasun2 and according to the account of
 ,j4 ,g4 ,gmelin1 who purposely  made   
himself acquainted with the preparation 
of it1 hops formed by  pressure into    
masses1 shaped like a brick1 are added  
to it#ieg4 ,it  is well known that the  
,chinese have also a kind of tea formed 

into  cakes by strong pressure4 ,our    
hops are compressed in the same manner  
in ,bohemia2 and in that state will keep
 without losing any of their  strength  
for fifty years4 ,they are put into a   
sack or bag of coarse  canvass1 and     
subjected to a press4 ,a square sewed   
bag1 each side of  which is two ells1   
contains fifty bushels of hops prepared 
in this  manner2 and when any of them   
are required for brewing1 the bag is    
made  fast to a beam1 and as much as may
 be necessary is cut out with an axe4   
,the whole mass is of a brown colour1   
and has a resemblance to pitch1 in      
which not a single hop-leaf can be      
distinguished4 ,whether the ,chinese    
conceived the idea of employing our     
common hops for the like purpose1  is a 
question of some importance in regard to
 the history of them2 but  at present ,i
 am not able to answer it4    ,hops are 
extensively cultivated in ,kent1        
,sussex1 and ,herefordshire2  and to a  
less extent in ,worcestershire1         

,wiltshire1 ,hampshire1                 
,gloucestershire1 ,surrey1 and several  
other counties4    ,from #ej1jjj to     
#fj1jjj acres of land are covered in    
,england with  hop-gardens1 about       
one-half being in ,kent2 an excise duty 
of #ahs4  #h;d4 per cwt4 is levied upon 
their produce4 ,british hops are        
exported  to ,hamburg1 ,antwerp1 ,st4   
,petersburg1 ,new ,york1 ,australia1 and
 other  places4 ,a trifling quantity is 
also imported1 principally from         
,flanders4 ,the duty on hops of the     
growth of ,great ,britain produced in   
#ahdb1 #bfj1igi4      ,,footnotes       
#iag ,one of these1 in particular1 is   
,j4 ,f4 ,tresenreuter1 in ,a            
,dissertation on ,hops1 which was       
printed at ,nuremberg1 #agei1 #dto1 with
 a  preface by ,j4 ,heumann4    #iah  4 
#iai ,dioscor41 iv4 #bdd4    #ibj ,hist4
 ,plant4 iii4 #ah4    #iba xxi4 #ae1    
sect4 #ej4    #ibb ,cato ,de ,re        
,rustica1 xxxvii4 p4 #ee4    #ibc ,most 
of the passages in ancient authors which

 relate to beer have  been collected by 
,dithmar in his edition of ,tacitus ,de 
,moribus ,german4  cap4 xxiii42 and by  
,meibom ,de ,cerevisiis ,veterum in     
,gronovii ,thes4  ,antiq4 ,grc41 ix4 p4 
#edh4    #ibd ,the word humulus is      
derived from humus1 fresh earth1 the hop
  only growing in rich soils4--,loudon  
and ,sir ,w4 ,hooker4    #ibe ,this     
valuable monument of antiquity is to be 
found in 7,nyerup7  ,symbol ad          
,literaturam ,teutonicam1 sumtibus ,a4  
,f4 ,suhm1 ,havni #aghg1  #dto1 pp4     
#cca1 #djd4    #ibf ,lib4 xviii4 cap4   
#g4    #ibg ,histor4 ,stirpium1 ii4 p4  
#bij4    #ibh ,biblioth4 ,botan4 i4 p4  
#afa4    #ibi ,originum lib4 xx4 #c1 p4 
#dhg4    #icj ,speculum ,naturale1 lib4 
xi4 #aji4    #ica ,lib4 v4 cap4 #g4     
#icb ,joh4 ,mesu ,opera4 ,venetiis1     
#aehi1 fol4    #icc ,du ,cange ,doublet 
,hist4 ,sandionys4 i4 #c1 p4 #ffi4      
#icd ,in ,c4 ,meichelbeck's ,histor4    
,frising4 ,i4 ,instrument4 p4 #cei4     
#ice ,see the works quoted by           

,tresenreuter1 p4 #ae3 ,pezii ,thesaur4 
,anecdot4 i4 ,p4 #c1 pp4 #fh1 #gb4--;,j4
 ,c4 ,harenberg ,histor4 ,gandersheim4  
p4  #acej4--;,eccard ,origin4 ,saxon4 p4
 #ei4--,leukfeld ,antiquit4 ,poeldens4  
p4 #gh4    #icf ,f4 ,g4 de ,sommersberg 
,silesiac4 ,rer4 ,scriptor4 i4 pp4 #hja1
 #hbi1  #heg4--,von ,ludwig ,reliq4     
,histor4 v4 p4 #dbe4--,tresenreuter1 p4 
#bj1 quotes  later information in the   
fourteenth century4    #icg ,l4 ii4 art4
 #eb4    #ich ,art4 #abf4    #ici ,for  
an account of the author and his works1 
which are now scarce1  see ,haller's    
,bibliotheca ,botan4 i4 p4 #bbb4    #idj
 ,article ,ydromel4    #ida ,this       
celebrated work1 known as the ,schola   
,salernitatis1 was  first printed in    
#afdi1 and has since been frequently    
republished and  translated into various
 languages4 ,a very complete edition1   
with an  ,english version and a history 
of the book1 was given by the late ,sir 
,herbert ,croft4 ,the history of this   
book may also be found in ,giannone's   

,history of ,naples4    #idb ,loudon    
observes in his ,encycl4 ,plants1 that  
lupulus is a  contraction of ,lupus     
salictarius1 the name by which it was1  
according  to ,pliny1 formerly called1  
because it grew among the willows1 to   
which1  by twining round and choking up1
 it proved as destructive as the wolf   
to the flock4    #idc ,columella1 x4    
#aaf4 ,the root 7radish87 was sliced and
 put into the  ,egyptian beer along with
 steeped lupines1 in order to render it 
more  palatable4 ,lorsbach ber eine     
,stelle des ,ebn ,chalican4 ,marburg1   
#aghi1  #hvo1 p4 #ba4    #idd ,plin4    
xviii4 #ad1 sect4 #cf4--;,geopon4 ii4   
#ci1 p4 #ahi1 and the  passages quoted  
there by ,niclas3 ,galen4 de ,fac4      
,simpl4 ,med4 vi4 #add3  and ,alim4     
,fac4 i4 #cj4    #ide ,de ,re ,rustica1 
i4 #ac1 #c4    #idf ,this document is in
 ,matthi ,analecta ,vet4 vi1 iii4 p4    
#bfj4 ,see  also ,du ,cange1 under the  
word ,grutt1 and its derivatives4       
#idg ,st4 ,hildegard in ,physic1 lib4   

ii4 cap4 #gd4 ,petro ,crescentio        
d',agricoltura1 lib4 vi4 cap4 #ef4 ,this
 writer lived in the thirteenth         
century4    #idh ,a celebrated female   
saint of the eighth century1 said to    
have  been a native of ,england1 but    
canonised in ,germany1 where she was    
abbess of a nunnery at ,heidensheim in  
,thuringia4--,,trans4    #idi ,this is  
asserted in the ,gtting4 ,gel4          
,anzeigen1 #aggh1 p4 #cbc4    #iej      
,statutes at ,large1 vol4 i4 p4 #eia4   
#iea ,husbandry and ,trade ,improved1 by
 ,j4 ,houghton4 ,lond4 #agbg1 #hvo4  ii4
 p4 #deg4--;,anderson's ,hist4 of       
,commerce4 ,the fermented liquor        
anciently in use in this country is     
usually termed ale1 but we have in  fact
 no certain account of its composition1 
and all that is now known  respecting it
 is1 that it was a pleasant but         
intoxicating liquor4 ,our  ,saxon       
ancestors were so far addicted to its   
use1 that so far back  as the time of   
king ,edgar1 it was found necessary to  

order marks to  be made in their cups at
 a certain height1 beyond which they    
were  forbidden to fill1 under a severe 
penalty4 ,this probably gave rise to    
the peg tankard1 of which there are a   
few still remaining4 ,it held  two      
quarts1 and had on the inside a row of  
eight pegs1 one above the  other1 from  
top to bottom1 so that the space between
 each contained  half a pint4 ,the law  
of compotation was1 that every one who  
drank was  to empty the exact space     
between peg and peg1 and if he either   
exceeded  or fell short of his measure1 
he was bound to drink down to the next4 
,in archbishop ,anselm's canons1 made in
 the council of ,london1 ,a4,d4  #aajb1 
we find an order1 by which priests were 
enjoined not to go to  drinking bouts1  
nor to drink to pegs4    #ieb           
,archologia1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aeg4 ,indeed1
 at a much later period1  the common    
council of the city of ,london          
petitioned parliament against  the use  
of hops1 8in regard that they would     

spoyl the taste of drinks  and endanger 
the people40--,see ,walter ,blithe in   
his ,improver ,improved1  published in  
#afdi4    #iec ,hamburgisches ,magazin1 
xxxiii4 p4 #dfe4    #ied ,instead of    
this plant1 which grows wild in ,sweden1
 another wild  plant in ,germany called 
post1 and by botanists ,ledum palustre1 
was in old times used for beer by poor  
people in its stead2 but it  occasioned 
violent headaches4--,see ,linni         
,amnitat4 ,acad4 viii4 p4  #bgj4 ,this  
plant is still extensively used in the  
northern parts of  ,germany for         
imparting a bitter flavour to beer1     
although1 owing to  its deleterious     
nature1 it is strictly forbidden by the 
laws4 ,in this  country ,cocculus       
indicus is sometimes employed for a like
 purpose4    #iee ,this law is said to  
have been made as early as the reign of 
,magnus ,smeek2 but it was confirmed by 
king ,christopher in #addj1 and  by the 
command of ,charles ,,ix4 was printed at
 ,stockholm1 in folio1 in  #afjh1 in a  

work entitled ,swerikes ,rijkes         
,landz-lagh4 ,the passage which  belongs
 to this subject stands in ,bygninga    
,balker1 cap4 #di and #ej1 p4  xl4 a4   
#ief ,linni ,amnitat4 ,academ4 vii4 p4  
#deb4    #ieg ,gmelin's ,reise durch    
,sibirien4 ,gtt4 #ageb1 #hvo1 iii4 p4   
#ee4          ,,black ,,lead4      ,to  
ascertain how old the use of black lead 
is for writing might be of  some        
importance in diplomatics1 as the       
antiquity of manuscripts ruled  or      
written with this substance1 or of      
drawings made with it1 could then  be   
determined4    ,i allude here to pencils
 formed of that mineral called1 in      
common1  plumbago and molybdna1 though a
 distinction is now made between  these 
names by mineralogists4 ,the mineral    
used for black-lead pencils  they call  
reissbley1 plumbago1 or graphites2 but  
under the term  wasserbley and molybdna 
they understand a mineral once          
considered  to be the same as the       
former1 but which1 however like it may  

be in  appearance1 differs from it in   
being heavier1 occurring much seldomer1 
and containing a new metal1 almost of a 
steel-grey colour1 exceedingly  brittle1
 and named molybdnum4 ,plumbago1 which  
is the substance here  meant1 when      
exposed to an open fire1 is almost      
entirely consumed1  leaving nothing but 
a little iron and siliceous earth4 ,it  
contains  no lead2 and the names        
reissbley and bleystift have no other   
foundation than the lead-coloured traces
 which it leaves upon paper4  ,the      
darker1 finer1 and cleaner the lines it 
makes are1 the fitter it is  for drawing
 and writing4 ,these lines are durable1 
and do not readily  fade2 but when one  
chooses1 they may be readily rubbed out4
 ,black  lead1 therefore1 can be used   
with more convenience and speed than any
  coloured earth1 charcoal1 or even ink4
    ,it is well known that transcribers1
 more than a thousand years ago1  when  
they wished their writing to be in a    
particular manner beautiful  and        

regular1 drew fine parallel lines1 which
 they followed in writing4  ,these lines
 may be still clearly distinguished in  
old manuscripts4  ,in many instances1   
they have only been impressed on the    
parchment by  some hard1 sharp body2 but
 they often exhibit a leaden colour2    
from  which one might suppose that they 
had been drawn with our plumbago1  and  
consequently believe that the use of    
this substance is as old as  we must    
consider1 from certain marks1 the oldest
 ruled manuscripts4  ,but1 on a little  
reflection1 one will be convinced that  
this would be a  very fallacious        
conclusion4 ,for lines so like those    
made with plumbago1  that the eye can   
scarcely perceive the difference1 may be
 made with  lead#ieh4    ,it can be     
proved that the ancients drew their     
lines with lead2 and this  could be done
 with more convenience1 as this soft    
metal was easily  rubbed off by the     
parchment1 which1 being harder and      
rougher than our  paper1 had therefore  

more body4 ,it is well known that1      
formerly1 when  people wished to draw   
lines1 a small round plate of lead1     
which could  not so readily cut the     
parchment or become bent as a leaden    
style1 was  employed#iei4    ,old       
manuscripts1 ruled with lead-coloured   
lines1 have been pointed  out by modern 
diplomatists4 ,our learned ,professor   
,schnemann1 who was  unfortunately      
hurried off by a premature death1 has   
given a description  of the ,codex      
,berengaris ,turonensis1 of the eleventh
 or twelfth century1  and the ,codex    
,theophyli ,presbyteri de ,temperamento 
,colorum of the  latter century1 both   
preserved in the library of             
,wolfenbuttel2 and  remarks that lines  
are drawn on the first partly with a    
style and  partly in a light manner with
 lead2 but he says of the other1 that it
  exhibits very fine lines drawn with a 
black-lead pencil#ifj4 ,le ,moine       
quotes a document of the year #achg1    
which is ruled with black lead1  and at 

the same time says that the custom of   
ruling ceased about the  year #adba and 
#adbd4 ,the lines1 therefore1 after that
 period1 became  crooked and            
oblique#ifa4    ,but the antiquity of   
black-lead pencils cannot be determined 
by the  help of diplomatic documents4   
,it might be traced out with more ease  
were it known by what mineralogical     
writer plumbago1 and the uses of  it1   
were first mentioned4 ,the following is 
what ,i have remarked on this  subject2 
but ,i suspect that there must be some  
older mention of it than  any ,i have   
yet been able to find4 ,i do not1       
however1 believe that those  who require
 more than bare conjecture will discover
 this mineral in the  works of the      
,greeks and the ,romans2 for it cannot  
possibly be proved  that it is to be    
understood under the terms plumbago1    
galena1  molybdna1 and molybdoides1 as  
has been confidently asserted by  many1 
who1 were it not superfluous1 might     
easily be refuted4 ,but in  whatever    

obscurity these names may be involved1  
one can with certainty  discover that   
they sometimes denote galena1 or a real 
lead ore1 or  else some production of   
lead works4    ,the first author in     
whose writings ,i have as yet found     
certain mention  of plumbago is ,conrad 
,gesner1 whose name ,i can never        
pronounce  without respect4 ,in his book
 on fossils1 printed at ,zurich in      
#aefe1  he says that people had pencils 
for writing which consisted of a  wooden
 handle1 with a piece of lead1 or1 as he
 believed1 an artificial  mixture1      
called by some stimmi ,anglicanum4 ,such
 pencils must at  that time have been   
scarce1 because he has given a figure of
 them in  a wood-cut4 ,to judge by this1
 the pencil seems to have had a wooden  
sheath or covering4    ,thirty years    
after1 ,csalpinus gave a more complete  
account of this  mineral1 which he calls
 molybdoides1 because he thinks it was  
so  named by ,dioscorides4 ,he says that
 it was a lead-coloured shining  stone1 

as smooth as if rubbed over with oil2 it
 gave to the fingers  an ash-grey tint1 
with a plumbeous lustre1 and pointed    
pencils were  made of it for the use of 
painters and draftsmen4 ,he adds1 that  
it was  called ,flanders' stone1 because
 it was brought from the ,netherlands to
  ,italy#ifb4    ,three years after     
,csalpinus1 a still better description  
was given by  ,imperato4 ,the latter    
calls the black lead grafio piombino1   
and says  that it is much more          
convenient for drawing than pen and ink1
 because  the marks made with it appear 
not only on a white ground1 but1 in     
consequence of their brightness1 show   
themselves also on black2 because  they 
can be preserved or rubbed out at       
pleasure2 and because one can  retrace  
them with a pen1 which drawings made    
with lead or charcoal will  not         
admit#ifc4 ,this mineral is smooth2     
appears greasy to the touch1  and has a 
leaden colour1 which it communicates    
with a sort of metallic  lustre4 ,it can

 resist for a long time the strongest   
fire2 it even  acquires in it more      
hardness1 and therefore has been        
considered as a  kind of talc4          
,sometimes it is foliaceous1 and may be 
crumbled to pieces  in scales2 but it is
 frequently found denser and stronger1  
and in this  case writing-pencils are   
made of it4 ,the first kind was mixed   
with that  clay called rubrica1 and     
manufactured into crucibles1 which were 
exceedingly durable in the fire4 ,it is 
here seen that these ,italians1  at that
 time1 were well acquainted with this   
mineral4 ,it has been  reckoned a       
species of talc by ,justi1 by ,wallerius
 in the first edition  of his           
mineralogy1 and also by others4 ,its    
durability in resisting heat  is        
certainly manifested1 when it is kept in
 a close fire and between  coals4 ,but  
it is proved by the experiments of      
modern mineralogists1  that in an open1 
strong1 and long-continued fire1 it     
becomes almost  entirely consumed4      

,bartholomew ,ambrosinus1 in the        
continuation of ,aldrovandi's ,musum    
,metallicum1 printed at ,bologna in     
#afdh1 uses the name lapis  plumbarius4 
,the short account which he gives of it 
has been borrowed  from the two         
,italians last mentioned2 but it        
deserves to be remarked1  that even then
 he thought it worth his while to give  
,gesner's figure  enlarged4    ,in the  
works of ,albertus ,magnus1 ,george     
,agricola1 ,encelius1 ,csius1  ,kircher1
 and many other old mineralogists1 ,i   
have found no mention of  black lead4   
,but as the advantageous use of it for  
crucibles was known  to ,imperato1 and  
as the crucibles made at ,ips1 which    
till very lately  were employed by all  
the mints in ,europe1 and even in other 
parts1  derived their superiority from  
plumbago being mixed with the blue      
clay1 and as these crucibles are        
introduced more than once by ,agricola  
without any mention of the addition1 it 
must either at that time have  not been 

usual1 or it must have escaped the      
notice of this diligent  man4 ,how old  
then are the pits at ,leizersdorf1 which
 furnish plumbago  for the crucibles of 
,ips or ,passau8 ,i know of one         
mineralogist only who  has described    
that district1 but on this subject he   
has given us no  information4    ,i am  
equally unacquainted with the time when 
the pits in ,cumberland1  which1 as is  
well known1 produce the best plumbago1  
were discovered4  ,they are situated on 
the ,borrowdale mountains1 about ten    
miles from the  town of ,keswick4 ,the  
families to whom these pits belong1     
according to  an established regulation1
 can open them only once every seven    
years1  and take out but a certain      
quantity of the mineral1 in order to    
keep  up the price1 and prevent the pits
 from being exhausted#ifd4 ,this        
production is called there black lead1  
kellow or killow1 wad  or wadt1 which   
words properly mean black#ife4 ,i have  
found no older  information in regard to

 these pits than that of ,merret1 who   
wrote in  the year #affg1 and who calls 
this mineral nigrica fabrilis1 because  
it had then no ,latin name#iff4 ,pettus 
remarked1 in his ,fleta ,minor1         
published #afhc1 that the pencils made  
from it were inclosed in fir or  cedar4 
,it is related by ,robinson#ifg and     
others1 that at first the               
country-people around ,keswick marked   
their sheep with it4 ,afterwards  the   
art was discovered of employing it for  
earthenware1 and for  preserving iron   
from rust4 ,the last-mentioned author   
says also1 that it  is used by the      
,dutch in dyeing1 in order to render    
black more durable1  and that it is     
bought up by them in large quantities   
for that purpose4  ,but this is only a  
pretence4 ,i am inclined to think that  
they prepare  from it black-lead        
pencils4    ,the greater part of the    
plumbago at present used in commerce1   
but  which1 as far as ,i know1 is fit   
only for iron-black1 comes from ,spain1 

where it is dug up in the neighbourhood 
of ,ronda1 a town in ,grenada1  a few   
miles distant from the sea2 but1 in     
regard to the antiquity of  these pits1 
,i have found no information4 ,in       
commerce1 it is called  potloth2 and the
 mills1 such as those at ,bremen1 where 
it is  ground fine1 are named potloth   
mills1 an appellation which in all      
probability has been borrowed from the  
,dutch1 among whom potloot  signifies as
 much as potters' lead4 ,from this word 
the ,french have made  potelot1 which   
however in many dictionaries is omitted4
 ,if ,i am not  mistaken1 this mineral  
was first found in ,france at a very    
late period  in ,upper ,provence1 near  
,curban1 and not far from the river     
,durance1  between ,sisteron and ,gap1  
from which it is sent to ,marseilles4   
,it appears to me probable1 that in the 
sixteenth century the use of  plumbago  
was first introduced into ,italy1 a     
country which abounds with  draftsmen   
and drawing-schools2 where other        

minerals had been long used  for        
drawing1 and where the best kinds had   
been carefully sought out4  ,it is      
likely1 therefore1 that some one may    
have made a trial with  plumbago1       
induced by its appearance2 and indeed   
nothing but a trial  was necessary to   
show its superiority to charcoal1 and to
 black and  red chalk4 ,i am inclined to
 think also1 that the earliest mention  
of  it will be found in the oldest      
,italian works on drawing1 rather than  
in those on mineralogy1 to the authors  
of which this substance first  became   
known by its use4 ,for a long time1 all 
the black-lead pencils  employed in     
,germany and in the neighbouring        
countries were made at  ,nuremberg4 ,i  
shall here observe1 that the very       
convenient method of  wiping out writing
 made with a black-lead pencil1 by means
 of ,indian  rubber1 was discovered     
about twenty or thirty years ago1 and1  
as ,i  believe1 first in ,england4      
,after ,i had completed this article1   

,professor ,fiorillo1 who as an  artist 
has studied the master-pieces1 and as a 
man of letters the  writings of the     
,italians1 communicated to me1 at my    
request1 the  following information1    
which at any rate will form an          
additional  fragment towards the history
 of drawing4 ,the pencils first used in 
,italy for drawing were composed of a   
mixture of lead and tin fused  together1
 and the proportion was two parts of the
 former and one of the  latter#ifh4 ,to 
obliterate a drawing or piece of        
writing1 it was rubbed  over with crumbs
 of bread4 ,a pencil of this kind was   
called stile4  ,petrarch has            
immortalized a painter named ,simone    
,memmi by a couple of  sonnets1 out of  
gratitude for a picture of his beloved  
,laura#ifi4  ,in these he says that the 
artist made the drawing with a stile in 
carte4 ,the author here evidently       
alludes to a drawing-pencil1 and not  to
 a graver1 as some have supposed4       
,boccacio1 a scholar of ,petrarch1      

celebrates an artist who was equally    
expert at drawing with the  stile1 the  
pen1 and the pencil4 ,michael ,angelo   
also1 who died in  #aefd1 says1 in a    
sonnet on ,vasari1 quoted by ,fiorillo1 
8,se con lo stile  e co' colori avete40 
,such pencils were long used also in    
,germany2 and  formerly they were found 
at the most common writing-desks4       
,the use of red and black chalk seems to
 be more modern4 ,the former  is called 
by the ,italians matita rossa1 and the  
latter matita  nera4 ,this name is      
derived from hmatites4 ,vasari          
celebrates ,baccio  ,bondinelli1 who    
died in the middle of the sixteenth     
century1 because  he could handle       
equally well lo stile1 e la penna1 e la 
matita rossa  e nera4 ,baldinucci says1 
that the best red chalk comes from      
,germany2  good black chalk from        
,france2 but the very best from ,spain1 
whence that  of the first quality is    
obtained at present4    ,i can1 however1
 point out no mention of our plumbago in

 the works  of the old ,italian artists4
 ,armenini1 who wrote at the end of the 
sixteenth century1 relates how pupils   
were taught to draw a hundred  years    
before his time#igj4 ,he says that they 
made the first sketches  with piombo    
over cannella col lapis nero1 and       
afterwards filled them  up with a pen4  
,but when his whole description is read1
 there can remain  no doubt that the    
substance here meant is black chalk4    
,baldinucci1  who did not write till    
#afha1 has introduced particularly into 
his  dictionary matita rossa1 nera1 and 
also lapis piombino2 and says  that the 
last-mentioned is an artificial         
production1 which gives a  leaden       
colour1 and is employed for drawing4 ,it
 is evident therefore  that the author  
here alludes to plumbago1 which was then
 very common4  ,but when ,bottari       
says#iga that artists first began to use
 red and  black chalk in the time of    
,vasari1 whereas lapis piombino only was
  employed before that period1 he has   

named plumbago1 commonly used in  his   
time1 instead of the metallic pencil    
which was called stile4 ,if  ,i am not  
mistaken1 the ,italians have no proper  
appellation for black  lead1 but call it
 sometimes matita and sometimes         
piombino4    ,great difficulty was      
formerly experienced in protecting the  
,borrowdale  black-lead mine from       
robbery4 ,at present1 the treasure is   
protected by  a strong building1        
consisting of four rooms upon the ground
 floor2 and  immediately under one of   
them is the opening1 secured by a       
trap-door1  through which workmen alone 
can enter the interior of the mountain4 
,in this apartment1 called the          
dressing-room1 the miners change their  
ordinary clothes for their working-dress
 as they come in2 and after  their six  
hours1 post or journey1 they again      
change their dress1 under  the          
superintendence of the steward1 before  
they are allowed to go out4  ,in the    
innermost of the four rooms two men are 

seated at a large table1  sorting and   
dressing the plumbago1 who are locked in
 while at work1 and  watched by the     
steward from an adjoining room1 who is  
armed with two  loaded blunderbusses4   
,in some years the net produce of the   
six weeks'  annual working of the mine  
has1 it is said1 amounted to from       
#cj1jjjl4  to #dj1jjjl4    ,an inferior 
kind of plumbago is imported from       
,mexico and ,ceylon2 and a  composition 
with which more common pencils are      
manufactured is made of  a mixture of   
plumbago-powder1 lamp black and clay4   
,a useful and convenient application of 
the black lead in the form of  minute   
cylinders which slightly projected from 
a cylindrical cone1 and  which was      
fitted to a pencil-case1 was patented in
 #ahbb by ,mr4 ,mordan1  and has come   
into general use3 the cylindrical form  
of the plumbago  is produced by passing 
square strips of it through holes in a  
ruby1  somewhat in the manner of        
wire-drawing4 ,it is stated that the    

supply  of plumbago from the ,cumberland
 mine is almost exhausted2 fortunately1 
a process has been devised by which the 
same firmness and equality  may be      
communicated to the powder by           
compression4 ,this is effected by       
carefully washing and grinding the dust 
obtained in sawing plumbago  into thin  
plates1 sifting it through spaces less  
than the #a_/ejjjjth  part of an inch1  
and placing it under a powerful press1  
on a strong die  or bed of steel1 with  
air-tight fittings4 ,the air is then    
pumped from  the dust1 and while thus   
freed from air1 a plunger descends upon 
it and  it becomes solidified4 ,the     
power employed to perform this operation
 is  estimated at #ajjj tons1 several   
blows having been given1 each of this   
power4 ,this process was invented by    
,mr4 ,w4 ,brockedon1 the talented       
draftsman of ,alpine and ,italian       
scenery4      ,,footnotes    #ieh ,plin4
 lib4 xxxiii4 #c1 sect4 #ai4    #iei ,a 
plate of this kind was called 1 also 1  

1 1 which last appellation denotes the  
form4 ,the  ,romans1 at least those of  
later times1 named this lead prductal4  
,the  ruler by which the lines were     
drawn was called  and 4  ,thus the ruled
 sheet which ,suffenus filled with      
wretched verses is  styled by ,catullus 
membrana directa plumbo4 ,pollux has    
4 ,see ,salmasius ad ,solinum1 p4 #fdd1 
where some passages1  in which these    
leaden plates are described1 are quoted 
from the  ,anthologia4    #ifj ,versuchs
 e4 ,system d4 ,diplomatik4 ,hamb4      
#ahjb1 #hvo1 ii4 p4 #ajh4    #ifa       
,diplomatique-pratique3  ,metz1 #agfe1  
#dto1 p4 #fb4    #ifb ,de ,metallicis1  
lib4 iii4 ,rome1 #aeif1 or ,norib4      
#afjb4    #ifc ,this1 however1 is not   
exactly the case4 ,with ink somewhat    
thick  one may indeed write on a piece  
of paper which has been rubbed over     
with black lead4    #ifd ,this was      
formerly the case1 but for a            
considerable number of  years past the  
mine has been constantly open4 ,the     

whole of the produce  is sent up to     
,london 7,essex ,street1 ,strand71 where
 it is disposed of by  public auction1  
held once a month4    #ife ,in the      
,cumberland dialect1 killow or collow1  
as well as  wad1 means black4 ,therefore
 when the manganese earth1 which is     
found  chiefly at ,elton not far from   
,winster1 and when burnt is employed as 
an  oil-colour1 but particularly for    
daubing over ships1 is called black     
wad1 that expression signifies as much  
as black black4 ,see ,pennant's  ,tour  
in ,scotland1 i4 p4 #db4 ,gentleman's   
,magazine1 #agdg1 p4 #ehc4    #iff      
,pinax ,rerum ,natural4 ,london1 #affg1 
#hvo1 p4 #bah4    #ifg ,natural ,hist4  
of ,westm4 and ,cumberland1 #agji1 #hvo1
 p4 #gd4 ,see  also ,gent4's ,mag4 xxi4 
#agea1 p4 #ea1 where there is a map of  
this  remarkable district4    #ifh      
,borghini1 il ,riposo4 ,artists used    
sometimes also silver pencils4          
,baldinucci's ,vocab4 dell' arte del    
,disegno3 ,stile4    #ifi ,these sonnets

 are the #egth and #ehth4 ,of ,simon and
 his drawings an  account may be found  
in ,fiorillo ,gesch4 der zeichnenden    
,knste1 ,gtt4  #agih1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #bfi4 
#igj ,de' veri precetti della pittura4  
,ravenna1 #aehg1 #dto1 p4 #ec4    #iga  
,in his observations on ,vasari1 iii4 p4
 #caj4          ,,sal-,,ammoniac4       
,it is not very probable that           
,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 and others who    
lived  nearly about the same time1 were 
acquainted with sal-ammoniac1 or        
mentioned it in their works2 for no part
 of mineralogy was then so  defective as
 that which is the most important1 and  
which treats of  salts4 ,the art of     
lixiviating earths and causing saline   
solutions to  crystallize was then so   
little known1 that1 instead of green    
vitriol1  vitriolic minerals1 however   
impure1 were employed in making ink1    
dye-liquors1 and other things4 ,places  
for boiling vitriol were not  then      
established1 and therefore ,pliny beheld
 with wonder blue vitriol1  which in his

 time was made only in ,spain1 as a     
thing singular in its  kind1 or which   
had not its like4 ,on this account those
 salts only were  known which occur in a
 native state1 or which crystallize as  
it were  of themselves1 without any     
artificial preparation1 as is the case  
with  bay salt4 ,but that neutral salt1 
formed of muriatic acid and ammonia1    
occurs very seldom in a native state1   
and almost exclusively among the        
productions of volcanoes4 ,i do not1    
however1 suppose that this volcanic     
sal-ammoniac was the first known1 but   
that it was first considered  to be     
sal-ammoniac after that salt had been   
long obtained by another  method1 and   
long used4    ,but even if it should be 
believed that our sal-ammoniac was known
  to the ancients1 how are we to        
discover it with certainty in their     
writings8 ,this salt has little or      
nothing by which these writers could    
characterize it4 ,neither its external  
form nor taste is so striking  that it  

could be described by them with         
sufficient precision4 ,the use  of it   
also could not at that time be so       
important and necessary1 as to  enable  
us to determine whether they were       
acquainted with it2 whereas1  on the    
other hand1 green vitriol and alum can  
easily be distinguished  among the      
materials for dyeing4    ,nay1 if this  
salt had been then made1 as it is made  
at present in  ,egypt1 and if any       
allusion to it were found1 one might    
readily  conjecture that sal-ammoniac   
were really meant4 ,but even though it  
must be admitted that traces of         
sublimation being employed occur in  the
 writings of ,dioscorides and others1   
who lived nearly at the same  period1 we
 are not authorized to suppose that the 
knowledge of it was  sufficient for the 
preparation of this salt4    ,besides1  
there are two properties with which the 
ancients might have  accidentally become
 acquainted1 and which in that case     
would have  been sufficient to make     

known or define to us this salt4 ,in the
 first  place1 by an accidental mixture 
of quicklime1 the strong smell or       
unsupportable vapour diffused by the    
volatile alkali separated from the  acid
 might have been observed4 ,in the      
second place1 it is very possible  that 
the complete volatilization of this salt
 on burning coals may have  been        
remarked2 for it had been long known    
that common salt decrepitates  in the   
fire4 ,this excited wonder1 and in      
examining other salts people  were      
accustomed to observe whether they      
possessed that property also4  ,had any 
one1 with this view1 thrown a bit of    
sal-ammoniac on a burning  coal1 he must
 have seen with astonishment that       
instead of decrepitating  it became     
entirely volatilized4 ,for this         
experiment1 however1 very pure          
sal-ammoniac would have been necessary4 
,had a little common salt been  mixed   
with it1 decrepitation would not have   
been altogether prevented2  and if the  

sal-ammoniac had been rendered impure by
 earthy particles1  as is almost always 
the case with the volcanic1 some earth  
at least  would have remained behind on 
the coals4    ,the name sal-ammoniacus  
is indeed old2 but as those who1 in     
consequence of the name1 considered the 
alumen of the ancients to be  our alum1 
and their nitrum to be our saltpetre1   
were in an error1 we  should be equally 
so were we to consider their            
sal-ammoniac to be the  same as ours4   
,our forefathers believed that the      
ancient writers were  acquainted with   
all minerals1 as well as with all       
plants2 and when  they discovered a new 
one1 they searched in old books till    
they found  a name which would suit it1 
or which at any rate had not been given 
to  another4 ,our sal-ammoniac1 in all  
probability1 acquired in the same       
manner its name1 which is not often to  
be found in the writings of the         
ancients#igb4    ,when everything they  
have said of it is collected and        

impartially  examined1 no proofs will be
 found that under that name they        
understood  our sal-ammoniac4 ,on the   
contrary1 one will soon be convinced    
that  sal-ammoniacus was nothing else   
than impure marine salt4 ,as the        
ancients were not acquainted with the   
art of separating salts1 of  refining   
and crystallising them1 they gave to    
each variety or kind in  the least      
different1 which was distinguished      
either by the intermixture  of some     
foreign substance or by an accidental   
formation1 a particular  name2 and1     
considering the wants of that period1   
this method was not  so bad4 ,for among 
the impure saline substances1 there were
 always  some which were found to be    
fitter than others for certain purposes4
  ,on this account they distinguished   
with so much care misy1 sory1  chalcitis
 and melanteria1 instead of which we use
 a substance  contained in all these    
minerals1 that is to say1 green vitriol4
 ,our  apothecary shops however have at 

present the lixivious salt under the    
name of various plants1 from which it is
 extracted1 with different  degrees of  
purity4    ,when this is known1 it will 
excite no wonder that the sal-ammoniacus
  of the ancients was nothing else than 
our common salt4 ,dioscorides and       
,pliny speak of it expressly as a kind  
of this salt2 and ,columella#igc1  in a 
prescription for an eye-salve1          
recommends rock-salt1 either  ,spanish1 
,ammoniacal1 or ,cappadocian4 ,pliny    
says#igd that  sal-ammoniacus was found 
in the dry sandy deserts of ,africa1 as 
far  as the oracle of ,ammon4 ,it is    
stated1 both by him and                 
,dioscorides#ige1  that this salt can be
 split or broken into smooth pieces2 and
 the  former adds1 that the best are    
white and transparent2 that it however  
has an unpleasant taste1 but can be used
 in medicine4 ,in like manner  later    
physicians1 when they wish to prescribe 
common salt1 recommend in  particular   
the ammoniac4 ,thus ,aetius1 who lived  

in the fifth century1  remarks1 that    
when fossil1 or as we say at present    
native salt1 is  employed1 ammoniac or  
,cappadocian ought to be chosen4        
,from what is said by ,pliny1 it may    
with certainty be concluded that  this  
salt was dug up from pits or mines in   
,africa2 for he relates1  that it       
appeared wonderful that a piece of it1  
which in the pit was  very light1       
became1 on exposure to the open air1    
much heavier4 ,without  repeating the   
explanation which he gives of this      
phnomenon1 ,i shall  only remark1 that  
many kinds of rock-salt1 taken from the 
mines of  ,wieliczka1 experience the    
same change in the air2 so that blocks  
which  a labourer can easily carry in   
the mine1 can scarcely be lifted by him 
after they have been some time exposed  
to the air4 ,the cause here is          
undoubtedly the same as that which makes
 many kinds of artificial salt  to      
become moist and to acquire more weight4
 ,in this case it is owing to  some     

impurity1 such as muriate of lime1 which
 is called sal-ammoniacus  fixus#igf1   
and which attracts from the atmosphere  
so much moisture1  that it deliquesces  
in it to the so-called oil of lime4     
,synesius1 who was born in ,egypt in the
 fifth century1 in the  ,pentapolitan   
town ,cyrene1 and who resided as bishop 
in ,ptolemais1  the capital of the      
district1 says1 in a letter wherein he  
describes  many rarities of his native  
country1 that what was called           
sal-ammoniacus#igg1 both according to   
its appearance and taste1 was  a salt of
 a good quality1 fit for use2 that it   
lay under a soft kind of  stone which   
covered it like a crust1 and that it    
could be easily dug  up when this stone 
was removed4    ,herodotus1 ,strabo1    
,arrian1 and others1 speak of rock-salt 
which was dug  up in ,ammonia1 and      
carried thence as an article of         
merchandise4 ,the  first mentions a hill
 of salt2 and we are told by the last1  
that native  salt was brought to ,egypt 

as a present to the king and others1    
from the  neighbourhood of the oracle of
 ,ammon1 by the priests of that place1  
in boxes made of palms worked together4 
,many pieces were three inches  in      
length2 and because this substance was  
purer than bay salt1 and as  clear as   
crystal1 it was particularly employed in
 sacrifices4 ,this salt  is certainly   
that which1 under the name of           
sal-ammoniacus1 was sent  from ,egypt to
 the king of ,persia1 like the water of 
the ,nile1 as is  related by ,athenus   
from an historian long since lost#igh4  
,it is also certain that the old        
,arabian physicians1 ,avicenna and      
,serapion1 who both lived in the        
eleventh century1 under the name        
sal-ammoniacus understood nothing else  
than rock-salt4 ,the former  says that  
it ought to split easily1 and to be     
clear and transparent  like crystal2 and
 the latter states that this salt is cut
 from the  solid rock1 and that it is   
sometimes clear as crystal1 sometimes   

reddish1 sometimes blackish1 sometimes  
of another colour1 sometimes  hard1 and 
sometimes friable1 or1 as the translator
 expresses it1  pulverulent4 ,all these 
colours and properties are not uncommon 
in rock-salt1 and always proceed1 no    
doubt1 from an admixture of  ferruginous
 earth4 ,serapion says that this salt   
was obtained from  ,corasini4 ,i shall  
leave it to others to determine where   
this country  was situated4 ,he often   
names it1 and says that mala granata and
  bezaar were obtained from it4 ,but who
 knows how the name was written  in the 
original8 ,and the ,arabian author      
perhaps did not mention the  place where
 the salt was dug up1 but that from     
which1 in his time1 it  was             
procured#igi4    ,in regard to the      
purpose to which the ancients applied   
their  sal-ammoniacus1 it appears that  
it required only common salt and  not   
sal-ammoniac4 ,it is oftenest mentioned 
by the physicians1 because  it was the  
purest table salt that could then be    

procured4 ,on that  account it has been 
praised by ,scribonius ,largus1 who     
lived in the  first century1 and by     
,aetius who lived in the fifth1 as well 
as by  ,avicenna1 ,serapion1 and others4
 ,i have however not yet met with it  in
 the writings of ,hippocrates or ,galen4
 ,in the works of the ,greek            
agriculturists it occurs in a recipe for
 the preparation of a cement  employed  
to close up wine vessels#ihj4 ,according
 to a recipe of  ,apicius1 in his book  
on cookery1 sal-ammoniacus was to be    
roasted4  ,by these means this rock-salt
 lost its water of crystallization and  
became stronger4 ,on this account1 in   
,transylvania1 ,siberia1 and other      
countries1 before it is brought to the  
table it is pounded and roasted4  ,of   
our sal-ammoniac1 however1 were it      
roasted1 very little would  remain4 ,but
 whether the ammonium which ,palladius  
recommends for a  cement#iha be that    
salt1 ,i will not pretend to determine4 
,on the other  hand1 ,i have no         

hesitation to contradict the old        
commentator on ,ovid1  who1 in a passage
 where the poet recommends              
sal-ammoniacus in making  a cosmetic    
water1 understands the resin or gum of  
that name4 ,ovid  however had no        
intention that young women should lacker
 themselves4    ,for the reasons        
therefore already mentioned1 ,i am      
convinced that  the sal-ammoniacus of   
the ancients was rock-salt1 and not our 
sal-ammoniac4 ,the oldest commentators  
also on these writers had no  idea of   
any other than rock-salt2 and it was not
 till a later period1  when our         
sal-ammoniac was introduced into        
commerce1 and acquired that  name1 that 
the most learned commentators began     
expressly to remark1  that the new      
sal-ammoniac1 notwithstanding its       
appellation1 was  different from the    
sal-ammoniacus of the ancients4 ,as this
 could not  then be obtained1 people    
used the former1 which they considered  
only  as an artificial substitute for   

the latter1 though it was incapable of  
supplying its place4 ,but in more modern
 times1 when our sal-ammoniac  became   
common1 and physicians and mineralogists
 no longer took the  trouble to read the
 works of the ancients1 some of them1 if
 not the  greater part1 spoke in such a 
manner as if our sal-ammoniac had  been 
the sal-ammoniacus of the ancients2 and 
it was then generally  believed that it 
had been1 at any rate1 known and used   
since the time  of ,dioscorides and     
,pliny4    ,no one has maintained this  
with greater confidence and zeal than   
,f4 ,i4  ,w4 ,schrder#ihb1 whose        
judgement however was perverted by      
alchemistic  conceits4 ,according to his
 assertion1 the ,egyptians practised    
from the  earliest periods the art of   
making sal-ammoniac1 but they kept it a 
secret2 and he obscurely hints at the   
purpose for which these great  chemists 
used so much salt4 ,he refers1 on this  
occasion1 to what ,pliny  says of flos  
salis#ihc1 in which he thinks he can    

find the martial  sal-ammoniac#ihd      
flowers of our chemists1 or the         
so-called flores  salis ammoniaci       
martiales4 ,those who cannot make this  
discovery he  declares to be ignorant   
and blind4 ,this decision1 however1 when
 the  character of the person who gives 
it is considered1 cannot dissipate a    
single doubt4 ,it is certain that what  
,dioscorides and ,pliny call flos  salis
 has never yet been defined4 ,it was    
moist1 oily1 and saline2  and in the    
vessels1 in which it was sent from      
,egypt1 was grey at the  top1           
saffron-coloured at the bottom1 and     
emitted a bad smell4 ,the most          
ingenious conjecture was that of        
,cordus#ihe1 who thought that it might  
be sperma ceti2 but though ,i should    
prefer this opinion to that of          
,schrder1 ,i must confess that1 on the  
grounds adduced by ,matthioli and       
,conrad ,gesner1 it has too much against
 it to be admitted as truth4    ,the    
first distinct traces of our            

sal-ammoniac which ,i have yet met  with
 are to be found in the works of the    
,arabians#ihf4 ,in a writing  of ,geber1
 there is a prescription how to purify  
sal-ammoniac by  sublimation1 and in    
another a receipt for making it2 so that
 there  can be no doubt that the author 
was acquainted with our salt4 ,but  this
 furnishes very little towards the      
history of it4 ,the period when  that   
celebrated chemist lived is uncertain4  
,if1 as ,leo says#ihg1 he  flourished a 
hundred years after ,mahomet1 that is to
 say in the eighth  century1 his works  
must have been interpolated with many   
additions1  which criticism has not yet 
been able to separate4 ,many of them    
cannot  be of great antiquity2 and the  
uncertainty is increased by some of  the
 editions differing from each other in  
important passages4 ,whole  sections1   
which some have1 are wanting in others2 
and the titles and  order of the books  
and sections are different almost in    
each4 ,when the  same circumstances are 

found in several editions1 it is        
observed that  they essentially differ4 
,what1 therefore1 is now found in the   
writings  of ,geber1 as they are called1
 was certainly not all known in the     
eighth  century4    ,the same           
uncertainty prevails in regard to the   
chemical works of  ,avicenna1 who lived 
in the beginning of the eleventh        
century1 and who  certainly treats of   
sal-ammoniac4 ,but when these are       
compared with the  medical works of this
 author1 which are subject to no doubt1 
it is  evidently perceived that the     
former must have been the production of 
a  very different and much younger      
writer4 ,in the works of the physician  
,avicenna1 sal-ammoniacus means always  
rock-salt4 ,it is worthy of  remark1    
that ,avicenna the chemist says1 that   
sal-ammoniac comes from  ,egypt1 ,india1
 and ,forperia4    ,we know with more   
certainty that ,albucasis1 or ,bulcasis1
 was acquainted  with sal-ammoniac1 as  
well as the method of preparing it1     

which he  describes1 and also the       
preparation of medicines in general1 in 
his  book often printed under the title 
of ,liber servitoris#ihh4 ,however      
unintelligible the translation often is1
 one can easily discover in  what manner
 sublimation was formerly performed in  
earthen vessels4 ,but  the period when  
this ,arabian writer lived is doubtful1 
though it is  generally admitted that he
 died in the year #aabb4    ,but whence 
did ,europe obtain this salt1 in the    
twelfth and succeeding  centuries8 ,when
 and in what manner was the preparation 
of it found  out in ,egypt8 ,for what   
purpose was it first used by our        
ancestors8 ,i  have not yet met with any
 information to enable me to answer     
these  questions1 though it is probable 
that it might be found in old books  of 
travels1 and particularly in the works  
of ,arabian writers4 ,in the  valuable  
but not altogether intelligible book of 
,pegolotti#ihi1 from  which ,i have     
learned many things respecting the trade

 of the fourteenth  and fifteenth       
centuries1 nothing is said in regard to 
the place where  it was obtained1 but   
that it was procured in white1 hard1 and
 opake  cakes4 ,it is mentioned in the  
custom-house tariff of ,pisa for the    
year  #adjh4    ,biringoccio1 who lived 
in the end of the fifteenth and         
beginning of  the following century#iij1
 knew nothing more than that1 according 
to  report1 it came from ,cyrene or     
,armenia4 ,csalpin1 his contemporary1   
gave1 for the preparation of it1 a      
prescription which is undoubtedly       
borrowed from the ,arabians4 ,this      
author says1 very properly1 that it is  
obtained in white transparent cakes1    
blackish on the outside2 but adds1      
erroneously1 that it comes from         
,germany1 though the same thing has been
  repeated by ,brasavolus and           
,matthioli4 ,porta says1 with more      
truth1 that  it comes from the ,east4   
,he asserts also1 that he was the first 
person  who found real sal-ammoniac on  

volcanic mountains1 and he wishes that  
his discovery might be confirmed by     
skilful naturalists#iia4 ,this  may     
serve as an additional proof1 were such 
necessary1 in opposition  to those who  
think that the first real sal-ammoniac  
introduced into  commerce was the       
volcanic4 ,imperato considers ,porta's  
observation  as generally acknowledged1 
but without naming him4 ,the former has 
described1 in a fuller and more correct 
manner than any of his  predecessors1   
the properties of sal-ammoniac#iib2 and 
he states1 as  does also ,agricola#iic1 
that it is entirely dissipated in the   
fire4 ,he  adds1 that it promotes the   
production of a celestial blue colour1  
and  in all probability he here alludes 
to a solution of copper4    ,without    
attempting to examine at what time the  
art was discovered  of converting the   
nitric acid into aqua regia by the      
addition of  sal-ammoniac1 ,i shall only
 remark that1 at any rate1 it was known 
in  the sixteenth century2 for ,imperato

 says that sal-ammoniac is employed  in 
the solution of gold2 and               
,biringoccio#iid1 who is older1         
recommends  nitrous acid prepared with  
sal-ammoniac for dissolving metals1 and 
particularly gold4 ,i will not either   
determine how old the use of this  salt 
is in soldering and tinning2 but ,i must
 observe1 that it was known  to         
,agricola#iie and ,imperato4 ,i however 
doubt whether it was very  common1      
because ,biringoccio#iif recommends     
borax for that purpose1  without so much
 as mentioning sal-ammoniac2 though it  
is possible that  ,i may have overlooked
 it4    ,we are now arrived at the      
modern history1 which ,i shall give in  
as  brief a manner as ,i can1 because it
 has been already fully treated on  by  
others4 ,what was long ago shown by the 
celebrated ,mr4 ,boyle was  proved in   
the year #agaf by ,geoffroy the younger1
 that sal-ammoniac was  composed of the 
muriatic acid and volatile alkali1 and  
that it could  be thence prepared in    

,europe by sublimation#iig4 ,in the same
 year  the jesuit ,sicard gave the first
 certain account of the sal-ammoniac    
manufactories at ,damayer1 in the       
,delta1 and described in what manner    
this salt was prepared there1 by        
sublimation in glass vessels1 from  the 
soot of the burnt dung of camels and    
cows1 which is used in ,egypt  for fuel1
 with the addition of sea salt and      
urine#iih4 ,in the year  #agai1 the     
,academy of ,sciences at ,paris received
 from ,lemere1 the  ,french consul at   
,cairo1 an account of the process       
employed2 but it  contained no mention  
either of sea salt or of urine#iii4     
,afterwards  this information was in    
part confirmed1 and in part rectified   
and  enlarged1 by ,paul ,lucas#ajjj1    
,granger1 or1 as he was properly called1
  ,tourtechot#ajja1 and the celebrated  
travellers ,shaw1 ,pocock1 ,norden1     
,hasselquist1 ,niebuhr1 and ,mariti4    
,several writers have asserted that     
sal-ammoniac comes also from the  ,east 

,indies4 ,it is mentioned by ,tavernier 
among the wares which in  his time were 
brought from ,amadabat1 in the          
territories of the ,mogul1  to ,surat2  
and ,geoffroy states1 that when the     
trade of ,marseilles  was interrupted by
 the plague1 the ,french obtained from  
,holland  sal-ammoniac1 which was shaped
 like a truncated cone1 and was given   
out  to be ,indian#ajjb4 ,pomet also    
says1 that some of the same kind was    
formerly procured from ,venice and      
,holland4 ,but ,gaubius asserts that he 
was never able to hear of any such      
sal-ammoniac in ,holland#ajjc2 nor  is  
it to be found in the price currents of 
the ,east ,india ,company4 ,i  am almost
 inclined to suspect that these         
truncated cones were formed  by the     
merchants from broken pieces or         
fragments of the ,egyptian              
sal-ammoniac1 by solution and imperfect 
crystallization or sublimation4  ,in    
this manner the merchants at ,marseilles
 convert the refuse of the  ,egyptian   

sal-ammoniac into cakes by a new        
sublimation1 in order that  it may      
become more saleable1 though it is not  
readily purchased by  artists4 ,gaubius1
 however1 has described a kind of       
sal-ammoniac which  he obtained from    
,india1 with the information that it was
 made in  ,hindostan from the soot of   
animal dung2 but in my opinion this     
requires  further confirmation#ajjd4    
,where and at what time the first works 
for making sal-ammoniac were            
established in ,europe1 ,i am not able  
to determine4 ,the account given  by    
,thurneisser1 that the first            
sal-ammoniac was made in the ,tyrol in  
the ninth century1 is truly ridiculous4 
,it is not worth the trouble to  inquire
 where he or ,paracelsus found this     
foolish assertion4 ,one might  be almost
 induced to believe1 that in the time of
 ,boyle there were  manufactories of    
sal-ammoniac in ,europe#ajje4 ,but      
perhaps there may  be no other          
foundation for all this than the        

before-mentioned assertion  of          
,csalpinus1 that this salt came from    
,germany4 ,at ,bamberg1 the  ,germans   
were long accustomed to boil the        
sediment of the salt-pans with  old     
urine1 and to sell it cheap for         
sal-ammoniac2 and ,weber asserts  that  
some of the same kind is still made at  
,vienna4 ,the hundred weight  costs from
 twenty to thirty florins1 but the      
refuse may be purchased  for a mere     
trifle4 ,if ,i am not mistaken1 the     
first real manufactories  of            
sal-ammoniac were established in        
,scotland2 and the oldest of these1     
perhaps1 was that erected by ,dovin and 
,hutton at ,edinburgh in #agef1  and    
which1 like many in ,england1           
manufactures this salt on a large       
scale#ajjf4 ,among the later            
undertakings of this kind is            
,gravenhorst's  manufactory at          
,brunswick1 and that which in the       
neighbourhood of  ,gothenburg           
manufactures sal-ammoniac from the      

refuse left in making  train oil4       
,sal-ammoniac is now prepared either by 
the destructive distillation of  bones  
or coal4 ,the gas-liquor supplies1 we   
believe1 the largest part4  ,this fluid 
contains hydrosulphuret and carbonate   
with some other salts  of ammonia4 ,it  
is decomposed with sulphuric acid1 and  
on evaporation  the sulphate of ammonia 
is obtained in a crystalline state4     
,this is  then mixed with common salt   
and the mixture heated in iron vessels1 
whereupon the muriate of ammonia        
sublimes4    ,sal-ammoniac is exported  
in considerable quantities to ,russia   
and other  parts of the continent and to
 the ,united ,states4      ,,footnotes  
#igb ,it is indeed a matter of          
indifference whether the name be derived
  from 1 arena1 or rather from ,ammonia1
 the name of a district  in ,libya1     
where the oracle of ,jupiter ,ammon was 
situated4 ,the district  had its name   
from sand4 ,an ,h also may be prefixed  
to the word4 ,see  ,vossii ,etymol4 p4  

#bd4 ,but sal-armoniacus1 armeniacus1   
sal-armoniac1  is improper4    #igc ,de 
,re ,rust4 vi4 #ag1 #g4    #igd ,lib4   
xxxi4 cap4 #g1 sect4 #ci4    #ige ,lib4 
v4 cap4 #abf4    #igf ,this name was    
first used by ,js4 ,holland4    #igg    
,synesii ,opera1 ep4 #adg4    #igh      
,athen4 lib4 ii4 cap4 #bi1 p4 #fg4      
#igi ,i am fully of opinion that a town 
named in the new maps ,kesem1  and which
 lies in ,arabia ,felix1 opposite to the
 island of ,socotora1 is  here meant4   
,it has a good harbour4 ,see ,bsching's 
,geography1 where the  name ,korasem    
also occurs4    #ihj ,geopon4 lib4 vi4  
cap4 #f4    #iha ,pallad4 i4 tit4 #da4  
#ihb ,bibliothek d4 ,naturwiss4 u4      
,chemie4 ,leip4 #agge1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #bai4
    #ihc ,lib4 xxxi4 cap4 #g1 sect4 #db4
    #ihd ,the double chloride of        
ammonium and iron4    #ihe ,liber de    
holosantho in ,c4 ,gesner's treatise ,de
 omni ,rerum  ,fossilium ,genere4       
,tiguri #aefe1 #hvo1 p4 #ae4    #ihf    
,what a noble people were the ,arabs6 we

 are indebted to them  for much         
knowledge and for many inventions of    
great utility2 and we  should have still
 more to thank them for were we fully   
aware of the  benefits we have derived  
from them4 ,what a pity that their works
 should  be suffered to moulder into    
dust1 without being made available6     
,what  a shame that those acquainted    
with this rich language should meet     
with so little encouragement6 ,the few  
old translations which exist  have been 
made by persons who were not            
sufficiently acquainted either  with    
languages or the sciences4 ,on that     
account they are for the most  part     
unintelligible1 uncertain1 in many      
places corrupted1 and besides           
exceedingly scarce4 ,even when obtained1
 the possessors are pretty much  in the 
same state as those who make their way  
with great trouble to a  treasure1 which
 after all they are only permitted to   
see at a distance1  through a narrow    
grate4 ,had ,i still twenty years to    

live1 and could  hope for an abundant   
supply of ,arabic works1 ,i would learn 
,arabic4 ,but    1    4    #ihg ,afric  
,descriptio1 iii4 p4 #acf1 b4    #ihh   
,this book is often printed along with  
,mesue4 ,see ,haller's  ,biblioth4      
,botan4 i4 p4 #bja4 ,biblioth4 ,chirur4 
i4 p4 #acg4    #ihi ,della decima1 iii4 
pp4 #bih1 #cgc2 and iv4 pp4 #ei1 #aia4  
#iij ,pirotechnia1 #aeej1 #dto1 p4 #cf1 
a4    #iia ,magia ,natur4 lib4 x4 cap4  
#bj4 ,porta was born in #aede1 and died 
in  #afae4    #iib ,lib4 iii4 cap4 #h4  
#iic ,de ,natura ,fossil1 lib4 iii4 p4  
#bab4    #iid ,lib4 ix4 cap4 #f1 p4     
#aca1 b3 also lib4 ix4 cap4 #aj1 p4     
#ada1 b4    #iie ,de ,natura ,fossil4   
lib4 iii4 p4 #bae2 in which he speaks of
 iron  pins with tinned heads4    #iif  
,page #ace1 a and b1 pp4 #acf1 #cge4    
#iig ,mmoires de l',acad4 #agbj1 p4     
#aie4 ,basil ,valentine had before      
taught how to separate the volatile     
alkali from sal-ammoniac by means  of   
the fixed alkali4    #iih ,nouveaux     

,mmoires des ,missions de la ,compag4 de
 ,jesus1 ii4    #iii ,mmoires de        
l',acad4 #agbj1 p4 #aia4    #ajjj ,voy4 
au ,levant4    #ajja ,mmoires de        
l',acad4 #agce1 p4 #ajg4    #ajjb ,mm4  
de l',acad4 #agbc1 p4 #bba1 where a     
figure is given of it4    #ajjc ,gaubii 
,adversaria4 ,leid #agga1 #dto1 p4 #ach4
    #ajjd ,as ,dr4 ,royle observes1 in  
his ,essay on the ,antiquity of ,hindoo 
,medicine1 p4 #da1 this salt must have  
been familiar to the ,hindoos  ever     
since they have burnt bricks1 as they   
now do1 with the manure  of animals2 as 
some may usually be found crystallized  
at the unburnt  extremity of the kiln4  
#ajje ,though the sal-ammoniac that is  
made in the ,east may consist in  great 
part of camel's urine1 yet that which is
 made in ,europe 7where  camels are     
rarities7 and is commonly sold in our   
shops1 is made of  man's urine4--,nat4  
,hist4 of the ,human ,blood 7,works1 iv4
 p4 #ahh74    #ajjf ,arnot's ,history of
 ,edinburgh4 ,ed4 #aggi1 #dto1 p4 #fja4 

,,forks4      ,at present forks are so  
necessary at table among polished       
nations1  that the very idea of eating a
 meal without them excites disgust4 ,the
  introduction of them1 however1 is of  
so modern a date1 that they have        
scarcely been in use three centuries4   
8,tam prope ab origine rerum  sumus10   
says ,pliny1 in speaking of a thing     
which1 though very new1 was  then       
exceedingly common4 ,neither the ,greeks
 nor the ,romans have any  name for     
these instruments2 and no phrase or     
expression which1 with the  least       
probability1 can be referred to the use 
of them1 occurs anywhere  in their      
writings4 ,but had forks been known1    
this could not have been  the case1     
since so many entertainments are        
celebrated by the poets or  described by
 other writers2 and they must also have 
been mentioned  by ,pollux1 in the very 
full catalogue which he has given of    
articles  necessary for the table4      
,the ,greek word creagra signified      

indeed a fork1 but not a fork used  at  
table4 ,it meant merely a flesh-fork1 or
 that instrument employed by  cooks to  
take meat from a boiling pot1 as is     
proved by the connexion  of the words in
 all those passages where it occurs4 ,it
 is mentioned  by ,pollux1 and by       
,anaxippus1 in ,athenus#ajjg1 among the 
utensils of  the kitchen2 and the       
scholiast on ,aristophanes says that    
this fork had  a resemblance to the     
hand1 and was used to prevent the       
fingers from  being scalded4 ,suidas    
quotes a passage where the word denotes 
a hook  at the end of a long pole1 with 
which people1 even at present1 draw  up 
water-buckets from wells and other deep 
places4 ,this instrument1  therefore1   
appears sometimes to have had only a    
hook1 but sometimes two  or more prongs4
 ,creagra occurs once in ,martianus     
,capella1 a ,latin  writer1 but in a    
passage which is not intelligible4      
,equally inapplicable to our forks are  
the words furca1 fuscina1  fucilla1     

fuscinula1 and gabalus1 which are given 
in dictionaries4  ,the first two were   
undoubtedly instruments which approached
 nearly  to our furnace and hay forks4  
,the trident of ,neptune also was called
  fuscina4 ,the furcilla even was large 
enough to be employed for a  weapon of  
defence1 as is proved by the expressions
 furcillis ejicere  and expellere4      
,fuscinula1 which in modern times is    
used chiefly  for a table fork1 is not  
to be found even once in any of the old 
,latin  writers4 ,the old translation of
 the ,bible only explains the word   by 
fuscinula4 ,gabalus1 according to every 
appearance1 has  given rise to the      
,german word gabeln1 but it denotes the 
cross or  gallows1 which last word      
,voscius deduces from it4    ,a learned 
,italian1 who asserts also that the use 
of forks is very  new1 is of opinion    
that the ,romans often used ligul       
instead of  forks#ajjh4 ,this ,i shall  
not deny2 but the ligula certainly had  
more resemblance to a small spatula1 or 

tea-spoon1 than to our forks4           
,according to ,martial1 many spoons at  
the other end seem to have been         
ligul#ajji4 ,but the two epigrams must  
be read in conjunction1  so that the    
second may appear a continuation of the 
first2 for the  epithets habilis and    
utilis can be applied to no other term  
than  ligula4 ,besides1 it is certain   
that the titles of the epigrams1 or  at 
least the greater part of them1 were not
 added by the poet1 but by              
transcribers4 ,the name also1 which     
originally was lingula1 gives an  idea  
of the form4 ,we read likewise that this
 instrument was used for  scumming1 for 
which purpose nothing is less fit than a
 fork#ajaj4    ,i have1 ,i know not how1
 a great unwillingness to represent the 
tables  of our ancestors as without     
forks2 yet this was certainly the case3 
and  when we reflect on their manner of 
eating1 it will readily be perceived    
that they could much easier dispense    
with the use of them than we can4  ,all 

their food1 as is still customary in the
 ,east1 was dressed in such  a manner as
 to be exceedingly tender1 and therefore
 could be easily  pulled to pieces4 ,it 
appears however that people1 though not 
in the  earliest periods1 employed the  
same means as our cooks1 and suffered   
meat to lie some time that it might be  
easier dressed4 ,we often read  that    
cooks1 in order to provide an           
entertainment speedily1 will kill an    
animal1 and having cleaned and divided  
it1 roast it immediately1 and  then     
serve it up to their guests4 ,but it is 
well known that the flesh  of animals   
newly killed1 if cooked before it has   
entirely lost its  natural warmth1 is   
exceedingly tender and savoury1 as we   
are assured in  many books of travels4  
,formerly all articles of food were cut 
into small morsels before they  were    
served up2 and this was the more        
necessary1 as the company did not  sit  
at table1 but lay on couches turned     
towards it1 consequently could  not well

 use both their hands for eating4 ,for  
cutting meat1 persons of  rank kept in  
their houses a carver1 who had learned  
to perform his duty  according to       
certain rules1 and who was called       
scissor1 carpus1  carptor1 and by       
,apuleius is named diribitor#ajaa4 ,this
 person used  a knife1 the only one     
placed on the table1 and which in the   
houses  of the opulent had an ivory     
handle1 and was commonly ornamented with
  silver#ajab4    ,bread also was never 
cut at table4 ,in former times it was   
not baked so  thick as at present1 but  
rather like cakes1 and could easily be  
broken2  hence mention is so often made 
of the breaking of bread4 ,juvenal1     
when he wishes to describe old bread1   
does not say that it could not  be cut1 
but that it could not be broken#ajac4   
,the ancient form of  bread is still    
retained in the paschal cake of the     
,jews1 and in the  knckbrd#ajad of the  
,swedes4 ,the latter1 which is almost as
 brittle  as biscuit1 is not cut when   

used1 but broken4    ,the ,chinese1 who 
also use no forks1 have however small   
sticks of ivory1  which are often of    
very fine workmanship1 and inlaid with  
silver and  gold4 ,a couple of these is 
placed before each guest1 who employs   
them  for putting into his mouth the    
meat which has been cut into small bits4
  ,but even this resource was not known 
two centuries ago in ,europe1 where     
people1 as is still done by the ,turks1 
everywhere used their fingers4  ,as a   
proof1 ,i shall not quote passages where
 mention is made of  persons putting    
their hands or fingers into the         
dish#ajae2 for such a  mode of speaking 
is yet employed1 though forks1 as is    
well known1 are  in common use4 ,i shall
 refer only to one passage in ,ovid1    
which admits  of no doubt#ajaf1 and     
where the author would certainly have   
mentioned  these instruments1 or rather 
have communicated to his pupils in the  
art  of love a precept which at present 
is given to children1 had the former    

been taught when young how to make use  
of forks4    ,had they been used by the 
,romans1 they must necessarily have     
occurred  among the numerous remains of 
antiquity which have been collected  in 
modern times4 ,but ,baruffaldi and      
,birnsthl#ajag1 who both made           
researches respecting them1 assure us   
that they were never able to find  any4 
,count ,caylus#ajah and ,grignon#ajai   
only assert the contrary4 ,the  former  
has given a figure and description of a 
silver two-pronged fork1  which was     
found among rubbish in the ,appian ,way4
 ,it is of exceedingly  beautiful       
workmanship1 and at one end terminates  
in a stag's foot4  ,notwithstanding the 
high reputation of this ,french author1 
,i cannot  possibly admit that          
everything of which he has given figures
 is so old  as he seems to imagine4     
,grignon found in the ruins of a ,roman 
town  in ,champagne some articles which 
he considers as table-forks2 but  he    
merely mentions them1 without giving a  

description sufficient to  convince one 
of the truth of what he asserts1 which1 
in regard to a  thing so unexpected1 was
 certainly requisite4 ,one fork was of  
copper or  brass2 two others were of    
iron2 and he says1 speaking of the      
latter1  that they seem to have served  
as table-forks1 but were coarsely made4 
,i  however doubt whether he conjectured
 right in regard to the use of them4    
,as far as ,i know1 the use of forks was
 first known in ,italy towards  the end 
of the fifteenth century2 but at that   
time they were not very  common4        
,galeotus ,martius1 an ,italian1        
resident at the court of ,matthias      
,corvinus1 king of ,hungary1 who reigned
 from #adeh to #adij1 relates1 in a     
book which he wrote in regard to the    
life and actions of this prince1  that  
in ,hungary1 at that time1 forks were   
not used at table1 as they  were in many
 parts of ,italy#ajbj1 but that at meals
 each person laid  hold of the meat with
 his fingers1 and on that account they  

were much  stained with saffron1 which  
was then put into sauces and soup4 ,he  
praises the king for eating without a   
fork1 yet conversing at the same  time  
and never dirtying his clothes4    ,that
 in ,france1 at the end of the sixteenth
 century1 forks even at  court were     
entirely new1 is proved by a book1      
already quoted in the  present volume of
 this work1 entitled l',isle des        
,hermaphrodites4 ,it  will therefore    
excite no wonder that in the same       
century forks were not  used in ,sweden4
    ,but it must appear very strange    
that ,thomas ,coryate1 the traveller1   
should see forks for the first time in  
,italy1 and in the same year be  the    
first person who used them in ,england1 
on which account he was  called1 by way 
of joke1 ,furcifer#ajba4    ,in many    
parts of ,spain1 at present1            
drinking-glasses1 spoons and forks  are 
rarities#ajbb2 and even yet1 in taverns1
 in many countries1  particularly in    
some towns of ,france1 knives are not   

placed on the  table1 because it is     
expected that each person should have   
one of his  own2 a custom which the     
,french seem to have retained from the  
old  ,gauls4 ,but as no person would any
 longer eat without forks1 landlords    
were obliged to furnish these1 together 
with plates and spoons4    ,among the   
,scotch highlanders1 as ,dr4 ,johnson   
asserts1 knives have been  introduced at
 table only since the time of the       
revolution4 ,before that  period every  
man had a knife of his own as a         
companion to his dirk or  dagger4 ,the  
men cut the meat into small morsels for 
the women1 who then  put them into their
 mouths with their fingers4 ,the use of 
forks at  table was at first considered 
as a superfluous luxury1 and therefore  
they were forbidden to convents1 as was 
the case in regard to the  congregation 
of ,st4 ,maur4    ,the ,english1 ,dutch 
and ,french have adopted the ,italian   
names forca  and forchetta1 given to our
 table-forks2 though these appellations1

  in my opinion1 were used at an earlier
 period to denote large  instruments1   
such as pitch-forks1 flesh-forks1       
furnace-forks2 because  in the low      
,german1 forke is a very old name given 
to such implements4  ,the ,german word  
gabel1 which occurs first in            
dictionaries for these  large           
instruments1 is of great antiquity1 and 
has been still retained  in the ,swedish
 and ,dutch4 ,it appears to have been   
used for many things  which were split  
or divided into two2 at any rate1 it is 
certain that  it is not derived from the
 ,latin word gabalus4      ,,footnotes  
#ajjg ,athen4 lib4 iv4 p4 #afi4    #ajjh
 ,hieron4 ,baruffaldi ,sched4 de armis  
convivalibus4 ,in ,salengri  ,nov4      
,thes4 ,antiq4 ,rom4 iii4 p4 #gdb4      
#ajji ,mart4 ,epigr4 xiv4    #abj4      
,ligula ,argentea4      ,quamvis me     
ligulam dicant equitesque patresque1    
,dicor ab indoctis lingula grammaticis4 
#aba4 ,cochlearia4      ,sum cochleis   
habilis1 sed nec minus utilis ovis2     

,num quid scis potius cur cochleare     
vocer8    #ajaj ,plin4 ,hist4 ,natur4   
xxi4 #ad4 ,columella1 ix4 #ae1 #ac4     
,that the  ligula was smaller than the  
cochlear is proved by ,martial1 viii4   
#bc4    #ajaa ,see this word in         
,pitisci1 ,lexicon ,antiq4 ,rom4        
#ajab ,clemens ,alexandr4 ,pdagog4 lib4 
ii4 p4 #afa4 ,posidonius relates1  in   
,athenus1 iv4 #ac1 p4 #aea1 that the    
,gauls used to take roast meat in  their
 hand and tear it to pieces with their  
teeth1 or to cut it with a  small knife 
which each carried in his girdle4 ,this 
was told as a thing  uncommon to the    
,greeks4 ,baumgarten1 who quotes this   
passage in ,algem4  ,welgeschichte1 xvi4
 p4 #feg1 adds1 that ,posidonius said   
also that the  ,gauls had bread so flat 
and hard that it could be easily broken4
 ,but  this circumstance ,i cannot find 
in ,athenus4    #ajac ,sat4 v4 #fe4     
#ajad ,this word1 according to the      
,swedish dictionaries1 signifies thin   
cakes1 hard and crisp4    #ajae ,homeri 

,odyss4 xiv4 #dec4    #ajaf ,de ,arte   
,amandi1 iii4 #gee4    #ajag ,reisen1 i4
 p4 #bfh4    #ajah ,rec4 d',antiq4 iii4 
p4 #cab4 tab4 lxxxiv4    #ajai ,bulletin
 des ,fouilles1 i4 p4 #ag2 ii4 p4 #aca4 
#ajbj ,galeoti ,martii de ,dictis et    
,factis ,regis ,matthi ,liber4 ,this    
work has also been printed in           
,schwandtneri ,script4 ,rerum ,hungar4  
tom4  i4 p4 #edh4    #ajba ,coryate1 in 
the year #afjh1 travelled for five      
months1 through  ,france1 ,italy1       
,switzerland1 and a part of ,germany4   
,an account of  this tour was published 
by him1 in #afaa1 under the singular    
title  of ,crudities1 a new edition of  
which appeared in #aggf4 ,he travelled  
afterwards to the ,east ,indies1 and in 
#afae wrote in that country some        
letters which may be seen in ,purchas   
his ,pilgrims1 vol4 ii42 also in  the   
second edition of the ,crudities        
published in #aggf4 ,in page #ij of  the
 ,crudities the author says1 8,here j   
will mention a thing that might  have   

been spoken of before in discourse of   
the first ,italian towne4 ,j  observed a
 custome in all those ,italian cities   
and townes through the  which j passed1 
that is not used in any other country   
that j saw in my  travels1 neither do j 
thinke that any other nation of         
,christendome doth  use it1 but only    
,italy4 ,the ,italian1 and also most    
strangers that are  commorant in ,italy1
 do alwaies at their meales use a little
 forke when  they cut their meat4 ,for  
while with their knife which they hold  
in one  hand they cut the meate out of  
the dish1 they fasten their forke1 which
  they hold in their other hand1 upon   
the same dish2 so that whatsoever  he be
 that sitting in the company of any     
others at meale1 should  unadvisedly    
touch the dish of meate with his fingers
 from which all at  the table doe cut1  
he will give occasion of offence unto   
the company1  as having transgressed the
 lawes of good manners1 insomuch that   
for his  error he shall be at least brow

 beaten if not reprehended in wordes4   
,this form of feeding j understand is   
generally used in all places of  ,italy2
 their forkes being for the most part   
made of yron or steele1  and some of    
silver1 but those are used only by      
gentlemen4 ,the reason  of this their   
curiosity is1 because the ,italian      
cannot by any meanes  indure to have his
 dish touched with fingers1 seeing all  
men's fingers  are not alike cleane4    
,hereupon j myselfe thought good to     
imitate the  ,italian fashion by this   
forked cutting of meate1 not only while 
j was  in ,italy1 but also in ,germany1 
and oftentimes in ,england since j came 
home1 being once quipped for that       
frequent using of my forke by a  certain
 learned gentleman1 a familiar friend of
 mine1 one ,mr4 ,laurence  ,whitaker1   
who in his merry humour doubted not to  
call me at table  furcifer1 only for    
using a forke at feeding1 but for no    
other cause40    ,the use of forks was  
at first much ridiculed in ,england1 as 

an  effeminate piece of finery2 in one  
of ,beaumont and ,fletcher's plays1     
8your fork-carving traveller0 is spoken 
of with much contempt2 and ,ben  ,jonson
 has joined in the laugh against them in
 his ,devil's an ,ass1 ,act4  v4 ,scene 
#d4 ,meercraft says to ,gilthead and    
,sledge3--      8,have ,i deserved this 
from you two8 for all      ,my pains at 
court1 to get you each a patent4        
8,gilthead4 ,for what8      8,meercraft4
 ,upon my project of the forks4         
8,sledge4 ,forks6 ,what be they8        
8,meercraft4 ,the laudable use of forks1
      ,brought into custom here as they 
are in ,italy1      ,to the sparing of  
napkins40    #ajbb ,fischer's ,reise    
nach ,madrid1 p4 #bch4                  
,,lottery4 ,,tontine4      ,at present  
there are two kinds of lottery in       
,europe4 ,one is called  the ,italian or
 ,genoese lotto1 or merely the lotto2   
the other is the  common lottery well   
known in ,england4 ,of the former1 which
 has been  long proved to be attended   

with great deception1 and must soon be  
universally acknowledged to be hurtful1 
,i do not mean here to treat1  but only 
of the latter1 which at any rate may be 
honourable or  harmless1 if we do not   
take into account the delusion it       
occasions to  credulous and ignorant    
people1 by exciting hopes which have    
little  probability in their favour4 ,i 
however do not promise a complete       
history of this invention3 it           
experienced so many changes before it   
acquired its present form1 that to give 
a full account of them would be         
tiresome to me as well as to the reader4
    ,i shall not either1 as some have   
done1 reckon among the first traces of  
lotteries every division of property    
made by lot1 otherwise it might be      
said1 that ,joshua partitioned the      
promised land into lottery-prizes1      
before it was conquered4 ,in my opinion 
the peculiarity of lotteries  consists  
in this1 that numbers are distributed   
gratuitously1 or1 as  in our public     

lotteries1 for a certain price1 and it  
is then left to  chance to determine    
what numbers are to obtain the prizes1  
the value  of which is previously       
settled4 ,the various conditions and    
changes  invented by ingenuity to entice
 people to purchase shares1 and to      
conceal and increase the gain of the    
undertakers1 are not here taken  into   
consideration1 because they do not      
appear to be essential4    ,in the whole
 history of antiquity1 ,i find nothing  
which has a greater  resemblance to our 
lotteries than the congiaria of the     
,romans2  and ,i am inclined to think   
that the latter furnished the first hint
  for the establishment of the former4  
,rich persons at ,rome1 as is  well     
known1 and particularly the emperors1   
when they wished to gain  or to         
strengthen the attachment of the people1
 distributed among  them presents1      
consisting of eatables and other        
expensive articles1  which were named   
congiaria4 ,in general1 tokens or       

tickets called  tesser#ajbc were given  
out1 and the possessors of these1 on    
presenting them at the store or magazine
 of the donor1 received  those things   
which they announced4 ,in many cases    
these tickets were  distributed viritim1
 that is1 to every person who applied   
for them2  and in that case these       
donations had a resemblance to our      
distributions  of bread1 but not to our 
lotteries1 in which chance must         
determine the  number of those who are  
to participate in the things            
distributed4    ,but in the course of   
time it became customary to call the    
people  together1 and to throw among    
them1 from a stage1 the articles        
intended  for distribution1 in the same 
manner as money is scattered among the  
populace at the coronation of the       
emperor1 and on other solemnities4      
,such things1 in this case1 were called 
missilia1 and belonged to  those who had
 the good fortune to catch them4 ,but as
 oil1 wine1 corn  and other articles of 

the like kind1 could not be distributed 
by  throwing them in this manner1 and as
 some articles were so much injured  by 
the too great eagerness of the people1  
that they could be of little  or no use1
 tokens or tickets were thrown out in   
their stead4 ,at first  these were      
square pieces of wood or metal1 but     
sometimes also balls of  wood inscribed 
with the name of the article which the  
possessor was  to receive from the      
magazine#ajbd4 ,like bank-notes they    
were payable  to the bearer2 and those  
who had obtained tesser were allowed to 
transfer or to sell them to others4     
,this is proved by a passage in         
,juvenal#ajbe1 where allusion however is
 made only to the tesser  frumentari1   
which were not thrown out1 but          
distributed4    ,imitations of these    
,roman congiaria1 but indeed on a very  
reduced  scale1 have been employed in   
modern times by princes and princesses1 
in order to amuse themselves with       
distributing small presents to their    

courtiers4 ,for this purpose various    
trinkets or toys are marked with        
numbers2 these numbers are written upon 
separate tickets1 which are  rolled up  
and put into a small basket or basin4   
,each of the company  then draws one    
out1 and receives as a present the      
article marked with  the same number4   
,these small congiaria were formerly    
called in ,german  glckstpfe1 or        
glckshfen2 and in the course of time the
 present  lotteries took their rise from
 them4    ,in ,italy1 where commerce1 as
 is well known1 was first formed into a 
regular system1 and where the principal 
mercantile establishments and  useful   
regulations were invented1 the merchants
 or shopkeepers1 even in  the middle    
ages1 were accustomed1 in order that    
they might sell their  wares in a       
speedier manner and with more advantage1
 to convert their  shops into a         
glcksbude1 where each person for a small
 sum of money  was allowed to draw a    
number from the glckstpfe 7jar of       

fortune71  which entitled him to the    
article written upon it4 ,at first      
governments  gave themselves very little
 trouble about this mode of selling     
merchandise4 ,but as the shopkeepers    
gained excessive profits1 and  cheated  
the credulous people by setting on their
 wares an extravagant  price1 which was 
concealed by the blanks1 these glckshfen
 were  forbidden1 or permitted only     
under strict inspection1 and in the     
course  of time on paying a certain sum 
to the poor1 or to the sovereign4 ,in   
,germany they are still retained at many
 of the annual fairs2 but in  most      
countries they are subject to many      
limitations4    ,from these glckshfen   
were produced our lotteries1 when       
articles  of merchandise were no longer 
employed as prizes1 but certain  sums of
 money1 the value of which was          
determined by the amount of  the money  
received1 after the expenses and gain   
required by the  undertakers were       
deducted1 and when the tickets were     

publicly drawn by  charity-boys         
blindfolded4 ,as these lotteries could  
not be conducted  without defrauding the
 adventurers1 it was at first believed1 
through  old-fashioned                  
conscientiousness1 that it was unlawful 
to take advantage  of the folly and     
credulity of the people1 but for pious  
or charitable  purposes4    ,lotteries  
were then established by private        
persons1 and in the course  of time even
 by governments2 and the clear gain was 
applied to the  purpose of portioning   
poor young women1 of redeeming slaves1  
of forming  funds for the indigent1 and 
to other objects of beneficence4 ,it was
  also hoped that these public games of 
hazard would banish other kinds  still  
more dangerous2 and no one suspected    
that the exposing of  tickets for sale1 
and the division of them1 so that one   
could purchase  an eighth or even a     
smaller share1 would maintain and       
diffuse the taste  of the public for    
gambling4 ,this1 however1 increased2 and

 the profit  of lotteries became so     
great1 that princes and ministers were  
induced  to employ them as an operation 
of finance1 and to hold the bank which  
always enriched the undertakers4 ,people
 were then forbidden to purchase        
tickets in foreign lotteries1 that the  
money won from the adventurers  might   
pass into the sovereign's treasury1 or  
at any rate be retained  in the country2
 and in order that tickets might be     
disposed of sooner  and with more       
certainty1 many rulers were so shameless
 as to pay the  salaries of their       
servants partly in tickets1 and to      
compel guild  companies and societies to
 expend in lotteries what money they had
  saved#ajbf4    ,of the oldest         
lotteries among the ,italians ,i have   
not been able to  find any account4     
,varchi1 who wrote about the year #aecg1
 relates  that during a great scarcity  
of money at ,florence in #aecj1 a       
lottery  was established for the benefit
 of the state1 and that the price of  a 

ticket was a ducat4 ,he however does not
 employ the term lottery1  but uses the 
words un lotto1 and calls a ticket      
polizza1 a term  which1 as is well      
known1 is generally used in regard to   
insurance4 ,le  ,bret says1 that at     
,venice1 in #aegb1 the inspection of    
lotteries was  entrusted to the         
proveditori del commune2 but as he does 
not mention  the historian from whom    
this account is borrowed1 the word which
 he  translates lottery cannot be known4
 ,we nevertheless learn from his        
account1 that this game was established 
at ,venice in the middle of the         
sixteenth century1 and placed under the 
inspection of the government4    ,it is 
certain that the chance game which gave 
rise to lotteries was  brought from     
,italy to ,france under the name of     
blanque1 a word formed  from the        
,italian bianca4 ,the greater part of   
the tickets drawn were  always white    
paper1 carta bianca1 consequently       
blanks2 and because  that word occurred 

oftenest in drawing1 it gave rise to the
 general  appellation4 ,hence also is   
derived the phrase trouver blanque1 to  
obtain nothing1 to get a blank1 or to   
lose4 ,at the time ,pasquier            
wrote#ajbg1 that is1 in the last half of
 the sixteenth century1 the  name numero
 was also usual1 because the numbers of 
the tickets1 which  were then called    
devises1 were announced in the time of  
drawing4  ,this name1 instead of nombre1
 confirms the ,italian origin4 ,as each 
person in the time of drawing was       
attentive to his number1 the phrase     
entendre le numero was applied to those 
who knew or did not forget  their       
numbers4 ,hence the expression1 as      
,pasquier remarks1 ,il entend  le       
numero1 which is still said of those who
 know their own interest1  or understand
 how to pursue it4 ,frisch and others1  
therefore1 in their  dictionaries have  
derived it improperly from the numbers  
with which  merchants marked their      
goods4    ,in ,france also the first    

blanques 7lotteries7 had no other prizes
  than articles of merchandise2 and on  
that account they were set on  foot only
 by merchants4 ,but in the year #aeci   
,francis ,i4 endeavoured to  turn them  
to his own advantage by imitating the   
public establishment  of them usual at  
,venice1 ,florence1 and ,genoa4 ,he     
permitted these games  of chance under  
the inspection of certain members of the
 government1  with a view1 as was       
pretended1 of banishing deceptive and   
pernicious  games of chance1 on         
condition that for every ticket1 devise 
or  mise#ajbh1 a teston de dix sols six 
deniers should be given  to the king4   
,but however small the sum required may 
have been1 this  blanque was not filled 
up in the course of two years1 and the  
king  was obliged to recommend it by an 
order issued in the month of ,february  
#aeda2 yet it is not known whether it   
was ever completed#ajbi4    ,in the     
years #aegb and #aehh1 ,louis de        
,gonzague1 duke de ,nivernois  and      

,rethelois1 established a blanque at    
,paris1 for the purpose of  giving      
marriage portions to poor virtuous young
 women belonging to his  estates4 ,no   
lottery was ever drawn with so much     
ceremony and parade4  ,before the       
drawing1 which began every year on ,palm
 ,sunday1 mass was  said2 the servants  
employed were obliged to swear that they
 would  act in a faithful and impartial 
manner2 and even ,sextus ,v4 gave to    
those who should promote this good work 
remission of their sins4 ,the  prize    
tickets were inscribed as follows3 ,dieu
 vous a lue1 or ,dieu  vous console4    
,the former ensured to the young woman  
who drew it #ejj  francs1 which were    
paid to her on her wedding-day2 the     
latter was the  inscription of blanks1  
but suggested the hope of being more    
fortunate  the year following#ajcj4     
,this example induced ladies of quality 
from time to time to establish  similar 
blanques 7lotteries7 for benevolent     
purposes4 ,some destined  the profit to 

the building or repairing of certain    
churches and  convents4 ,three ladies1  
whose names history has not thought     
proper  to communicate1 set on foot a   
lottery containing a certain number of  
tickets at forty sous each1 and employed
 the gain in redeeming1 by  means of the
 ,mathurines or ,patres1 as they were   
called1 persons who  had fallen into    
slavery among the ,turks4 ,on one       
occasion a blanque  or lottery of a very
 singular nature was instituted by some 
ladies1 in  order to raise a fund for   
their spiritual guide or confessor1 who 
had  been chosen bishop1 but had no     
property1 that they might purchase for  
him a carriage and horses1 with every   
thing necessary to support his          
ecclesiastical dignity4 ,each of these  
grateful ladies was obliged to  procure 
or present to him the article announced 
by the ticket she had  drawn1 8pour le  
remercier1 par cette petite largesse1   
pour le bon ordre  qu'il avoit apport   
leurs consciences40    ,but these games 

of chance occur much oftener in the     
,french history1  as the means employed 
to make valuable presents to ladies and 
other  persons of distinction4 ,the     
largest1 in all probability1 is that by 
which ,cardinal ,mazarine endeavoured to
 increase his splendour1 and  render    
himself more popular among the          
courtiers4 ,the tickets were            
distributed as presents2 each was a     
prize1 and the prizes were rarities  of 
various kinds1 and of different values4 
,this1 says the historian1  was perhaps 
the first time that fortune did good to 
all and hurt to no  one#ajca4    ,that  
these games of chance became in the     
middle of the seventeenth  century      
lotteries1 in the proper sense of the   
word1 is unanimously  asserted by all   
the ,french historians who have touched 
on this subject1  though in some        
circumstances they differ from each     
other4 ,in the year  #afdd1 ,laurence   
,tonti came from ,naples to ,paris1 and 
during a scarcity  of money which then  

prevailed1 proposed that kind of        
life-rents or  annuities which at       
present are named after him ,tontines1  
though they  were used in ,italy long   
before his time4 ,but after tedious     
disputes  in regard to his proposal1    
which was at length rejected1 he gave in
  its stead a new plan for a large      
blanque1 or lottery1 which in #afef     
obtained the royal approbation4 ,it was 
to consist of #ej1jjj tickets1  each at 
two ,louis d'ors1 so that the whole     
receipt would amount to  #a1ajj1jjj     
livres2 but it is to be recollected that
 a ,louis d'or at  that time was only   
eleven livres4 ,of this sum #edj1jjj    
livres were to  be deducted for building
 a stone bridge and an aqueduct4 ,the   
expenses  of the blanque were estimated 
at #fj1jjj livres1 and the remaining    
#ejj1jjj were to be divided into prizes1
 the highest of which was #cj1jjj       
livres4 ,but this blanque royale1 for so
 it was called1 was never  filled up1   
and consequently never drawn4 ,on this  

account it was found  necessary to      
construct a wooden bridge in the room of
 that which had  been burnt4 ,as        
complaints were often made by mercantile
 people in  regard to the disposal of   
merchandise in this manner1 which had   
been  hitherto permitted1 and as this   
practice had evidently injured the      
blanque royale1 the former in the month 
of ,january #afeh was entirely          
forbidden4    ,in the year #affj1 when  
the conclusion of peace and the marriage
 of  ,louis ,,xiv4 were celebrated1 the 
first lottery on the plan of ,tonti  was
 set on foot at ,paris4 ,it was drawn   
publicly under the inspection  of the   
police4 ,a ticket cost only a ,louis    
d'or1 and the highest  prize was        
#ajj1jjj livres4 ,this was won by the   
king himself2 but he  would not receive 
it1 and left it to the next lottery in  
which he  had no ticket#ajcb4 ,this was 
soon followed by several others4 ,on    
that account1 in the year #affa1 all    
private lotteries were expressly        

forbidden under severe penalties1 and   
this prohibition was repeated in  #afgj1
 #afha1 #afhg1 and #agjjajcc4 ,since    
that time there have been no  other     
lotteries but the loteries royales1 the 
profits of which were1  in general1     
applied to public buildings1 as was the 
case in regard to  the magnificent      
church of ,st4 ,sulpice1 and on that    
account they met  with great support4   
,sauval1 and some others1 ascribe the   
introduction of lotteries  to a person  
from ,lyons1 named ,de ,chuyes1 who by  
profession was a  gold-beater1 but had a
 great knowledge of trade4 ,he          
afterwards  undertook long sea voyages1 
and published a book entitled1 ,la      
,guide des  ,chemins de ,paris1 redige  
par ordre alphabetique4 ,his name       
however does  not occur in any of the   
king's patents1 but that only of ,tonti4
    ,this ,de ,chuyes1 according to     
,sauval1 first proposed the name        
lottery1  then usual in ,italy1 which   
however the other persons concerned did 

not approve4 ,in particular1 the        
well-known ,de ,vaugelas1 who had been  
chosen director of the undertaking1 and 
who thereby hoped to pay his  debts1    
strongly opposed it1 and recommended the
 title blanque royale1  though1 in      
consequence of the many deceptions      
practised in the old  games of chance   
known under that name1 it was not likely
 to become  popular4 ,this much is      
certain1 that the name lottery was first
 used  in ,france about the year #afeh2 
for the order before-mentioned of #afef 
has the name blanque1 but in that of    
#afeh1 the word lottery occurs  for the 
first time1 and in that of #affa we find
 espce de blanque et  loterie1 and in   
that of #afgj1 loteries et blanques4    
,it is certain that the name was much   
earlier used in ,italy and  other       
countries1 though ,varchi employs only  
the word ,lotto4 ,i am  acquainted with 
no older mention of the name ,lottery   
than that in the  passage quoted by     
,menage1 from a letter of ,christopher  

,longolius1 or1  as he is called by the 
,french1 ,longueuil4 ,it certainly seems
 to show  that lotteries1 in the first  
half of the sixteenth century1 were new2
  but ,i doubt much whether it can be   
proved from it that the name is of      
,french1 and not ,italian extraction1 as
 ,menage thinks1 because ,longolius     
generally gave himself out as a         
,frenchman1 though he was born at       
,mechlin in #adij4 ,as the name is much 
newer in ,france1 and as the letter  was
 written from ,padua1 where ,longolius  
died in #aebb1 it is far more  probable 
that the name had its origin in         
,italy#ajcd4    ,in the last place1 this
 letter was written a short time before 
,longolius's death2 for he mentions the 
election of pope ,adrian1 which  took   
place the same year4    ,the name       
lottery has been used also by ,simon    
,majolus1 who describes the  oldest     
manner in which it was conducted#ajce2  
but ,i have not been able  to find at   
what time this ,italian ecclesiastic    

wrote1 though in all  probability about 
the end of the sixteenth century4       
,however it is still  doubtful whether  
he was the author of the portion of the 
work referred  to2 for it is known that 
the greater part of the ,dies           
,caniculares1  published under his name1
 was written by ,petrus ,draudius1 who  
died in  the year #afcj4    ,the word   
,lot1 in many ancient as well as modern 
languages1 and  particularly in the     
,english1 ,swedish1 ,danish and ,dutch1 
has the same  signification as sors1 and
 is evidently the lotto of the          
,italians1  and the los or loos of the  
,germans2 consequently there is no      
proof that the word lottery is of       
,french extraction1 as ,menage has      
supposed#ajcf4    ,in ,england the first
 lottery was proposed in the years #aefg
 and #aefh1  and1 as the historian says1
 held at the west door of ,st4 ,paul's  
,cathedral1 and was drawn day and       
night#ajcg1 from the #aath of ,january  
#aefi1 to the #fth of ,may the same     

year4 ,it contained #djj1jjj tickets1   
at ten shillings each4 ,the prizes      
consisted partly in money1 and  partly  
of silver plate and other articles4 ,the
 net profit was to be  employed in      
improving the ,english harbours4 ,the   
,antiquarian ,society  of ,london have  
still in their possession the original  
scheme1 as it  was then printed#ajch2   
from which it appears that the name     
lottery  was at that time used in       
,england4 ,in the year #afab a lottery  
was  drawn for the benefit of the       
,english colonies in ,virginia2         
permission  was granted by special      
favour of king ,james ,i42 the largest  
prize in  which1 being silver-plate to  
the value of #djjj crowns1 fell to the  
share of a tailor4 ,in #afbj lotteries  
were suspended1 in consequence of  a    
representation from the ,house of       
,commons that they were prejudicial  to 
the morals of the nation2 but one was   
afterwards permitted in #afcj1  by a    
special license from king ,charles ,i41 

in aid of the expenses of  a project for
 conveying water to ,london2 and        
,anderson#ajci says that  this is the   
first time that lotteries are mentioned 
either in the  ,fdera or ,statutes4     
,in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 one of 
the methods resorted to by that  monarch
 to reward the officers who had remained
 faithful to his  cause1 was to give    
them grants of plate and other          
valuables1 with  permission to dispose  
of them by a lottery4 ,this gave rise to
 various  schemes1 under the titles of  
royal-oak and twelve-penny lotteries1   
c42 which were sanctioned by government1
 as we learn by the following           
advertisement1 which appeared soon after
 the ,restoration3--8,this is  to give  
notice1 that any persons who are        
desirous to farm any of the  counties   
within the kingdom of ,england or       
dominion of ,wales1 in order  to the    
setting up of a plate lottery1 or any   
other lottery whatsoever1  may repair to
 the lottery-office in ,mermaid-court1  

over against the  mews1 where they may  
contract with the trustees commissioned 
by his  majesty's letters patent for the
 management of the said patent1 on      
behalf of the truly loyal indigent      
officers40    ,in #afid1 a loan of a    
million was raised by the sale of       
tickets at  #aj each1 the prizes in     
which were funded at the rate of #d per 
cent4  for sixteen years certain4 ,in   
the reign of queen ,anne lotteries were 
forbidden as hurtful1 but soon after    
they were again permitted under  a      
variety of conditions1 and were commonly
 for terminable annuities1  to which    
both blanks and prizes became entitled  
at different rates2  thus in #agaj1 the 
lottery consisted of #aej1jjj tickets1  
valued at #aj  each2 every ticket being 
entitled to an annuity for thirty-two   
years1  the blanks at #ads4 per annum1  
and the prizes to various annuities1    
from #e to #ajjj4 ,tickets appear to    
have been first divided into shares     
during the administration of ,sir       

,robert ,walpole4    ,in #agdf1 a loan  
of three millions was raised on #d per  
cent4 annuities1  and a lottery of      
#ej1jjj tickets at #aj each2 and in     
#agdg1 one million  was raised by the   
sale of #ajj1jjj tickets1 the prizes in 
which were  founded in perpetual        
annuities1 at the rate of #d per cent4  
per annum4  ,during the same century    
government constantly availed itself of 
this  means to raise money for various  
public works1 of which the ,british     
,museum and ,westminster-bridge are     
well-known examples4    ,probably the   
last occasion on which this taste for   
gambling was thus  made use of occurred 
in #aghj1 when every subscriber of #ajjj
 towards  a loan of twelve millions1 at 
#d per cent41 received a bonus of four  
lottery tickets1 the intrinsic value of 
each of which was #aj4    ,in #aggh an  
act was passed obliging every person who
 kept a  lottery-office to take out an  
annual license1 and to pay #ej for the  
same1 a measure which reduced the number

 of lottery-offices from #djj to  #ea4  
,in #ahbc1 however1 the last act        
sanctioned by parliament for the sale of
  lottery tickets1 contained provisions 
for putting down all state and  private 
lotteries1 and for rendering illegal the
 sale1 in this kingdom1  of all tickets 
or shares of tickets in any foreign     
lottery4    ,a lottery was drawn at     
,amsterdam in #aedi1 the profit of which
 was  employed in building a church     
steeple#ajdj2 and another was drawn  at 
,delft in #aeie4 ,i was informed by     
,professor ,fiorillo that there is      
still preserved at ,amsterdam1 in the   
hospital for old men1 oude mannen  huys1
 a beautiful painting by ,david         
,vinckenbooms1 eight feet in height  and
 fourteen in breadth1 which represents  
the drawing of a lottery in  the        
night-time4 ,the artist is said to have 
been born in the year #aegh4    ,this   
game of chance must have been known also
 at an early period in  ,germany2 for1  
in the year #aeba1 a lottery was        

established by the  council at          
,osnaburg1 and is mentioned in a work   
published in #aehb2 but  the prizes     
consisted only in articles of           
merchandise4 ,the citizens of  ,hamburg 
having proposed a lottery1 according to 
the ,dutch manner1 for  the purpose of  
building a house of correction1 the     
magistrates gave  their approbation in  
the month of ,november #afaa1 and in    
#afae it was  drawn4 ,at ,nuremberg the 
first lottery seems to have been drawn  
in the  year #agae4 ,at any rate1 ,von  
,murr1 in his ,description of the       
remarkable  things in that city1        
mentions an engraving with the following
 title3  8,representation of the ,lotto 
publico1 which was drawn in the large   
hall of the council-house1 at           
,nuremberg1 anno #agae40 ,it is certain 
that we are not here to understand the  
so-called ,italian lotto1 but  a common 
lottery1 as the former was not          
introduced into ,germany till a  much   
later period4 ,at ,berlin the first     

lottery was drawn in the month  of ,july
 #agdj4 ,it consisted only of one class 
of prizes1 as was probably  the case    
with all lotteries at first4 ,it        
contained #bj1jjj tickets1  each of     
which cost five dollars2 so that the    
whole income amounted to  #ajj1jjj      
dollars4 ,there were #djbh prizes1 the  
largest of which was a  house worth     
#bd1jjj dollars4    ,the ill-famed      
,italian or ,genoese lottery was1 as its
 name shows1 an  invention of the       
,genoese#ajda1 and arose from the mode  
in which the  members of the senate were
 elected2 for when that republic existed
 in  a state of freedom1 the names of   
the eligible candidates were thrown     
into a vessel called seminario1 or1 in  
modern times1 into a wheel of  fortune2 
and during the drawing of them it was   
customary for people to  lay bets in    
regard to those who might be successful4
 ,that is to say1  one chose the names  
of two or three nobili1 for these only  
could be  elected1 and ventured upon    

them1 according to pleasure1 a piece of 
money2 while1 on the other hand1 the    
opposite party1 or the undertaker  of   
the bank1 who had the means of forming a
 pretty accurate conjecture  in regard  
to the names that would be drawn1       
doubled the stakes several  times4      
,afterwards the state itself undertook  
the bank for these bets1  which was     
attended with so much advantage2 and the
 drawing of the names  was performed    
with great ceremony4 ,the venerabile was
 exposed1 and  high mass was celebrated1
 at which all the candidates were       
obliged to  be present4    ,a member of 
the senate1 named ,benedetto ,gentile1  
is said to have first  introduced this  
lottery1 in the year #afbj2 and it is   
added1 that the  name of ,gentile having
 never been drawn1 the people took it   
into their  heads that he and his names 
had been carried away by the devil1 in  
the  same manner as ,schwartz1 the      
inventor of gunpowder1 as a punishment  
for this unfortunate invention4 ,but at 

length1 the wheel being taken  to pieces
 in order to be mended1 the name1 which 
by some accident had  never been drawn1 
was found concealed in it4 ,hence it may
 be easily  seen how this game of chance
 was formed1 by introducing numbers     
instead  of the names of the nobility4  
,however1 if ,i am not mistaken1 it     
continued to be peculiar to the         
,genoese till nearly the middle of the  
eighteenth century4 ,but as all         
travellers spoke of this lotto di       
,genoa1 and many wished to try their    
fortune in it1 the ,genoese1 for their  
own benefit1 established in many  large 
towns commissioners1 whose business was 
to dispose of tickets1  and to pay the  
prizes to those who had been fortunate4 
,as an immoderate spirit of gambling was
 thus excited at ,rome1 ,pope  ,benedict
 ,,xiii41 who sat on the papal throne   
from #agbd to #agcj1 forbade  the       
,genoese lottery1 under the pain of     
banishment to those who gambled  in it1 
and to those who received the money4 ,as

 this threat however did  not remove the
 evil1 the succeeding pope1 ,clement    
,,xii41 who died in  #agdj1 followed the
 example of our ,german princes1 and    
caused a lottery  to be established even
 at ,rome4 ,since that time1 permission 
for the  same purpose has been renewed  
from year to year4    ,it was not till a
 much later period that the ,genoese    
lottery was  introduced into ,germany4  
,according to the account of ,j4 ,a4    
,kalzabigi1  who had made himself known 
in ,italy by many projects1 and was     
appointed a ,prussian privy-counsellor  
of commerce and finance1 the  first was 
drawn at ,berlin on the #cast of ,august
 #agfc4 ,in #agfi1  one was established 
in the principality of ,anspach and     
,bayreuth1  where it was continued till 
the year #aghh4 ,in #aggd1 a person     
named  ,wenceslaus ,maurer came to      
,neufchatel1 with permission from the   
king1  and established a ,lotto there   
much against the will of the prudent    
inhabitants2 but some one having won a  

capital prize1 for which the            
undertakers ought to have paid #cj1jjj  
francs1 after procrastinating  as long  
as they could1 under various pretences1 
they at length became  bankrupts1 and   
made their escape from the country4     
,these pernicious lotteries continued   
till the end of the eighteenth  century1
 when they were almost everywhere       
abolished and forbidden4 ,they  are now 
permitted only in a very few states1    
which are not able to give  up the      
paltry income derived from them4 ,to the
 honour of the ,hanoverian  government1 
no ,lotto was ever introduced into it1  
though many  foreigners have offered    
large sums for permission to cheat the  
people  in this manner4 ,those who wish 
to see the prohibitions issued against  
the ,lotto1 after making a great part of
 the people lazy1 indigent  and         
thievish1 may find them by the help of  
the index in ,schltzer's                
,staats-,anzeigen4      ,si son excrable
 mmoire      ,parvient  la posterit1    

,c'est que le crime1 aussi bien que la  
gloire1      ,conduit  l'immortalit4    
,the only lottery at present existing in
 ,england under the sanction  of the    
government is the art-union of ,london4 
,the first institution  of this kind in 
,great ,britain originated at ,edinburgh
 in #ahcf1 from  the models existing in 
,prussia1 formed under the patronage of 
the king  and his minister ,von         
,humboldt1 about the year #ahbe4 ,the   
money annually  subscribed is expended  
in pictures1 sculptures1 c4 ,it is      
divided by  the committee into several  
portions or prizes1 from #aj to #djj1   
and  on a certain day the prizes are    
distributed among the subscribers in    
the ordinary way4 ,the prize-holders are
 then allowed to select works  of art to
 the value of their respective prizes   
from any of the five  annual exhibitions
 of works of art in the metropolis for  
the current  year4 ,a portion of the    
total sum subscribed is set aside and   
applied  to the purpose of engraving and

 printing some work of art1 a copy of   
which is given to each subscriber4      
,hence1 by the combination of a very    
large number of persons to subscribe for
 this one work of art1 and the          
avoidance of risk1 incidental expenses1 
and publisher's profits1 the  print1    
though at least equal to what would be  
charged a guinea 7the  amount of        
subscription7 in the ordinary course of 
trade1 is supplied to  the subscribers  
at so small a cost as to leave by far   
the greater part  of the subscribed sum 
as a fund applicable to the purchase of 
prizes4  ,several similar associations  
have been since formed on a smaller     
scale  in other parts of ,great         
,britain4      ,,footnotes    #ajbc ,and
 in ,greek 4    #ajbd ,many have written
 at considerable length on the          
congiaria1  yet the difference between  
the missilia and tesser has not been    
sufficiently explained4 ,the first1 or  
at least the best account1 is in        
,turnebi ,adversaria1 xxix4 #i1 p4 #fcg4

 ,in a passage in the ,life of ,nero  by
 ,suetonius1 xi4 #aa1 p4 #ba1 the       
articles which were thrown among the    
people are called missilia2 but in      
regard to corn1 the term tesser  is     
expressly named4    ,the passages where 
a description is given of the manner in 
which the  tesser were thrown out1 are  
to be found in ,dio ,cassius4 ,the      
wooden  balls1 like those of the ,lotto1
 appear to have been hollow1 and to have
  contained the ticket or written order4
 ,those desirous of knowing how  these  
tesser were formed1 and of what they    
were made1 may consult  ,hugo de ,prima 
,scribendi ,origine1 ,traj4 #agch1 #hvo1
 cap4 #ae1 p4 #bbi4    #ajbe ,juven4    
,sat4 vii4 #agd4    #ajbf ,this abuse of
 lotteries was mentioned by the states  
of  ,wirtemberg1 in the year #agfd1     
among the public grievances2 and in     
#aggj  the duke promised that it should 
be abolished4 ,i must here mention1  to 
the honour of our prince and government 
7the author alludes to  ,hanover71 that 

since lotteries were found necessary in 
this country1  not a farthing of the    
profit has gone to the treasury of the  
prince1  but the whole has been employed
 for pious or charitable purposes4      
#ajbg ,recherches de la ,france4 ,paris1
 #affe1 fol4 viii4 #di1 p4 #gbi4        
#ajbh ,this word is still used in       
,germany by the writers on ,tontines2   
such1 for example1 as ,michelsen4       
#ajbi ,both the orders may be found in  
,trait de la ,police1 par ,de la  ,mare1
 ,paris #agbb1 fol4 i4 pp4 #ejb1 #ejd4  
#ajcj ,the whole establishment is       
particularly described in ,sauval1      
,histoire et ,recherches des ,antiquits 
de ,paris1 #agbd1 fol4    #ajca ,sauval1
 pp4 #ga1 #gc1 #gf4    #ajcb            
,dictionnaire de ,commerce1 par ,savary4
 ,art4 ,lotterie4    #ajcc ,all the     
orders here quoted may be found in ,de  
la ,mare4 ,those  desirous of being     
fully acquainted with the nature of the 
first  ,parisian lotteries1 and the     
method of drawing them1 may consult     

,histoire de la ,ville de ,paris1 par   
,felibien4 ,paris1 #agbe1 fol4 ii4 p4   
#adfb4    #ajcd ,christ4 ,longolii      
,epistolarum libri iv4 ,basili1 #aegj1  
#hvo1 iii4  #cc1 p4 #bci4 ,the letter is
 addressed to ,octavius ,grimoaldo1 who 
lived1 ,i  think1 at ,venice1 and had   
written1 it seems1 to ,longolius1 that  
he was  unwilling to venture his money  
in the lottery4 ,that ,longolius had in 
his hands money belonging to ,grimoaldo 
is proved by the letters iii4 #c1  iii4 
#g1 #bj4 8,that new kind of gambling is 
truly ours1 and is called by  us        
,loteria1 as it were1 a table-vessel    
7vasculia72 doubtless from  an          
arrangement of silver vessels appended  
to the gaming-table1 which  are         
distributed amongst those whose names   
are in the lottery1 in such  a manner   
that one vessel is assigned to each4    
,but as you signify your  disapproval of
 that kind of gaming1 and do not think  
fit to expose my  money to so much      
hazard1 ,i acknowledge your prudence and

 kindness to  me40 ,this derivation of  
the word ,loteria is undoubtedly false1 
as  ,menage has already remarked1 in his
 dictionary1 art4 ,lot4 ,he there  says1
 8,je n'ay point lu ailleurs que lot    
signifiast de la vaiselle4  ,et je croy 
,longueuil s'est mal expliqu1 et qu'il a
 voulu dire qu'on  appelloit ,loterie la
 vaiselle d'argent d'un buffet1 parceque
 de son  tems on mettoit ordinairement  
la loterie la vaiselle d'argent d'un    
buffet40    #ajce ,dier4 ,canicul4      
#afia1 fol4 tom4 ii4 colloq4 #b4        
#ajcf ,see ,du ,cange1 art4 ,lot4       
,muratori1 ,antiquit4 ,ital4 ,medii  vi1
 ii4 p4 #abdj4 ,among the oldest ,german
 words in ,lipsii ,epistol  ad ,belgas1 
,cent4 #c1 #dd1 p4 #di1 stands ,los1    
sors4 ,the t is often  changed into s4  
,thus nut in the ,english and ,low      
,german1 noot in  the ,dutch1 and nt in 
the ,swedish1 are the same as the       
,german nuss4    #ajcg ,the convenient  
machine and apparatus1 by which the     
drawing is  much forwarded at present1  

were not then known4 ,a description of  
them  may be found in ,savary's         
,diction4 de ,commerce4    #ajch ,gent4 
,mag4 xlviii4 an4 #aggh1 p4 #dgj1 from  
which ,i shall also  transcribe the     
whole title of the scheme3--8,a proposal
 for a very  rich lottery general1      
without blanks1 contayning a great      
number of  good prizes1 as well as of   
redy money as of plate1 and certain     
sorts  of merchandises1 having been     
valued and prized by the commandment of 
the queen's most excellent majesties    
order1 to the intent that such          
commodities as may chance to arise      
thereof1 after the charges borne1  may  
be converted towards the reperations of 
the havens and strength  of the realme1 
and towards such other public good      
workes4 ,the number  of lotts shall be  
foure hundred thousand1 and no more2 and
 every lott  shall be the sum of tenne  
shillings sterling1 and no more4 ,to be 
filled by the feast of ,st4             
,bartholomew4 ,the show of prises are to

 be  seen in ,cheapside1 at the sign of 
the ,queene's ,armes1 the house of ,mr4 
,dericke1 goldsmith1 servant to the     
queene1 #aefg1 #hvo4 ,printed by ,hen4  
,bynneman40 ,see also ,maitland's       
,history of ,london1 #agef1 fol4 i4 p4  
#beg4--,northouck's ,history of ,london4
 ,lond4 #aggc1 #dto1 p4 #beg4    #ajci  
,hist4 of ,commerce4    #ajdj           
,commelin's ,amsterdam1 i4 p4 #ddj4 ,in 
the year #aefa the profit  on a lottery 
was employed for enlarging the ,orphan  
,house4 ,see ,pontani  ,rerum ,amst4    
,hist4 #afaa1 fol4 lib4 ii4 c4 #b4      
#ajda ,lotto does not consist1 like the 
lottery1 of a fixed number of  tickets  
and a certain number of specified       
prizes1 but is1 in fact1 a  mere game of
 chance1 at which the stakes are        
indefinite1 and is thus  played4 ,a     
given quantity of numbers are placed    
together1 of which a  few are only to be
 drawn3 the adventurers then select any 
one or more1  on which they bet any sum 
they think proper2 and1 should they     

prove  successful1 they draw so much    
more than their stake1 in a settled     
proportion1 according as their risk was 
increased by the quantity of  numbers   
which they named together4 ,thus the    
usual quantity is ninety  numbers1 from 
one upwards1 and five only of these are 
drawn3 if the  adventurer chooses but   
one number out of the #ij1 and that it  
be  one of those drawn1 his stake is    
returned fifteen fold2 if two1 he       
receives1 if they be drawn1 #bgj times  
the stake2 if three1 #eejj  times2 if   
four1 #ge1jjj times2 and should he name 
the entire five1  in the exact order in 
which they happen to be drawn1 he is    
entitled  to #a1jjj1jjj times more than 
the stake he ventured4 ,these chances   
are  all calculated largely in favour of
 the banker or holder of the lotto1  and
 there is no instance upon public record
 of any person having named  the five   
numbers in regular succession2 but three
 have been frequently  fixed upon1 and  
even four have been sometimes1 though   

rarely1 attained3  by the latter chance1
 the lotto established in #aggd at      
,neufchatel was  ruined4                
,,bologna ,,stone4      ,the ,bologna   
stone1 in consequence of its property of
 shining in the  dark1 which was        
observed by accident1 has given rise to 
many laborious  researches and          
experiments1 and to writings almost     
without number1  which have not so much 
enlarged our knowledge of light1 as     
proved that  all the hypotheses hitherto
 offered by philosophers for explaining 
it1  if not entirely false1 are at least
 insufficient and uncertain4 ,the       
history of this stone1 therefore1 though
 not unknown1 deserves to be  here      
repeated1 especially as many parts of it
 require to be rectified4    ,as a      
complete description of it would be     
superfluous to mineralogists1  it may be
 sufficient to remark1 that this kind of
 stone is found  in plates or single    
pieces1 which in general are more or    
less of a  conical form1 have a dirty   

white or semi-transparent water-colour1 
and  a foliaceous structure1 which is   
observed on its being broken1 though    
the stone1 considered in another        
direction1 appears to be fibrous4 ,the  
surface of single pieces is uneven4 ,but
 what distinguishes this species  from  
the gypseous spars1 to which it bears   
the greatest resemblance1  is its       
extraordinary weight2 and this it has in
 common with all the  varieties of heavy
 spar1 to which1 according to its       
component parts1 it  belongs4    ,this  
stone is found on different eminences   
around ,bologna1 and  particularly on   
the hill of ,paderno1 which is situated 
at the distance  of about a ,german mile
 from the city1 loose1 and scattered    
about  between gypseous stones1 in a    
marly earth1 some of which is still seen
  adhering to pieces in my possession4  
,it is found most readily after  heavy  
rains1 particularly in the streams which
 run down the sides of  the hill2 and it
 is there collected by persons who sell 

it at ,bologna4  ,in the year #agcj1    
when ,keysler was there1 a pound of it  
could be  purchased for a paolo#ajdb4   
,i shall take this opportunity of       
remarking1 that the ,bologna stone1     
according to its external               
characteristics1 heaviness and hardness 
excepted1 has a great similarity to     
those gypseous spars or selenites  which
 were first described by ,lehman#ajdc1  
and at the time perhaps  by him alone2  
according to whose account1 it is       
mentioned also by  ,vogel#ajdd and by   
,wallerius#ajde1 under the name of      
,selenites  globosus3 on the other hand1
 it has not been mentioned by modern    
mineralogists under any particular      
appellation4 ,in the county of          
,mansfeld it is found in detached masses
 or single pieces1 more or less         
conical2 and1 to judge from the earth   
purposely left on the specimens  in my  
possession1 which were picked up in the 
neighbourhood of  ,sangershausen1 in a  
yellowish-red sandy clay4 ,the pieces1  

many of which  are round balls1 two or  
three inches in diameter1 and others    
longish  rolls1 have1 externally as well
 as internally1 a grayish colour1 appear
  foliated on the fracture1 or seem to  
consist of cuneiform radii1 which  meet 
in the centre of the ball4 ,many are    
hollow in the inside2 and in  this case 
the ends of the cunei or needles1 which 
have between them a  granulated gypsum  
mixed with a little clay1 project into  
the cavity4  ,lehman says that the      
leaves1 when placed in a heated stove1  
emit a  hesperus1 that is1 shine2 and   
this circumstance made ,wallerius       
doubtful  whether this selenite did not 
belong to the fluor-spars2 but it is    
undoubtedly a sulphate of baryta4 ,when 
the crude stone is put into  acids1 a   
very faint effervescence is sometimes   
observed1 arising from  foreign matters2
 but when burnt pieces are employed1    
this effect is  much stronger4 ,it does 
not crack or break in the fire2 but if  
exposed  only a short time to a red     

heat1 it becomes totally opake1 whiter1 
and  void of all lustre2 it is also more
 friable1 and crumbles to dust in       
water1 exactly in the same manner as    
bastard lapis specularis4 ,the  luminous
 appearance in a warm stove ,i did not  
observe in the few pieces  which ,i     
subjected to experiment4 ,i was desirous
 to make this remark1  because the      
mineralogists before-mentioned place    
globular selenite  along with the       
,bologna stone1 to which however it does
 not belong4    ,to render it capable of
 shining in the dark1 a piece           
particularly  heavy1 foliaceous and     
pure1 must be selected#ajdf4 ,after     
being made  red-hot1 it is pounded and  
reduced to a fine powder1 which1 by     
means  of a solution of gum-tragacanth1 
is converted into a kind of paste1  and 
formed into small cakes4 ,when these are
 dried1 they are brought  to a state of 
ignition between coals1 and then        
suffered to cool2  after which they are 
preserved from the air and moisture in a

 close  vessel4 ,if one of these cakes  
be exposed a few minutes to the light1  
and then carried into a dark place1 it  
will shine like a burning coal4  ,it    
appears therefore to attract the light1 
or to be as it were a  light-magnet4    
,this power of emitting light becomes   
lost in the course  of time2 but it may 
be restored at first by heating1 and    
afterwards by  exposure again to        
ignition4 ,i shall pass over the rules  
necessary to be  observed in the        
numerous experiments made with this     
stone1 as well as  the consequences     
deduced from them4 ,the former may be   
found in works on  chemistry1 and the   
latter in those on natural philosophy4  
,all the ,italian writers who first     
describe this remarkable phnomenon  give
 the following account of the discovery4
 ,at the beginning of  the seventeenth  
century there was at ,bologna a         
shoemaker1 who1  having quitted his     
trade1 applied himself to chemical      
labours1 and  particularly to the art of

 gold-making4 ,i do not know whether    
those  who have made the very just      
remark1 that many shoemakers go beyond  
their last into the province of other   
arts or sciences1 have mentioned  among 
the already numerous instances this     
shoemaker of ,bologna1 whose  name was  
,vincentius ,casciorolus2 but he        
certainly deserves a niche in  the      
temple of fame1 because it may with     
truth be said of him1 that he  kindled  
up a light to the learned2 whereas the  
shoemaker of ,grlitz1  ,jacob ,behmen1  
darkened or extinguished the existing   
light to the  learned as well as the    
unlearned1 so that the minds of many are
 still  left in obscurity4    ,in the   
year #afjb ,casciorolus came to ,scipio 
,begatello of ,bologna1 who  at that    
time was particularly well known by his 
attachment to the art  of gold-making1  
and showed him this stone1 under the    
mystical name of  lapis solaris1 which1 
on account of its weight and the sulphur
 it  contained1 as well as of its       

attracting the golden light of the sun1 
seemed to be fit for converting the more
 ignoble metals into gold1  the sol of  
the alchemists4 ,he showed it also to   
,j4 ,a4 ,maginus1 the  professor of     
mathematics2 and the latter1 who in all 
probability was no  adept1 sent both the
 natural and prepared stones to princes 
and learned  men1 and perhaps           
contributed more than any other person  
to make known  this singular            
discovery#ajdg4    ,it however appears  
as if the ,italian chemists concealed   
the preparation  of this stone1 or were 
not all acquainted with it4 ,it was     
always said  to be a secret known only  
to a few individuals in ,bologna4       
,misson1  who was there in the year     
#afij1 asserts that ,bartholomew        
,zanichelli  was the only person at that
 time in possession of it4 ,in #afff it 
was  announced in the ,philosophical    
,transactions#ajdh1 that a clergyman1   
who exclusively possessed the art1 had  
died1 without communicating it  to any  

one4 ,niceron#ajdi1 ,lemery#ajej1 and   
many others say1 that  ,homberg1 during 
his residence at ,bologna1 had again    
discovered it1  after many experiments2 
and that ,lemery learned it from him and
 made it  publicly known4    ,this      
however cannot be altogether true2 for  
in the year #afbb1 ,p4  ,potier1 or     
,poterius1 a ,french chemist1 who lived 
at ,bologna1 taught  the preparation of 
it in his work already quoted1 as did   
,kircher#ajea  in #afda1 and the jesuit 
,casati#ajeb in #afhf2 though the       
process  then employed was indeed not   
the best or most convenient2 the proper 
method being first found out1 after many
 accurate experiments1 by the  ,german  
chemist ,marggraf1 who showed also how  
similar light-magnets  or luminous      
stones can be prepared from most of the 
heavy spars and  fluor-spars#ajec4      
,but even at present1 those who prepare 
this stone for sale at ,bologna  talk in
 such a manner as if the secret were    
known to them alone4 ,this  was the     

case1 in #agga1 with the director of the
 institute in that  city#ajed4 ,keysler 
purchased a piece1 as large as a dried  
fig pressed  flat1 for about two or     
three paoli4    ,i shall embrace this   
opportunity of bringing to recollection1
 from  ,de ,thou's history of his own   
times1 a relation which indeed contains 
many things incredible1 and in all      
probability exaggerated1 yet seems  to  
be too well confirmed to be altogether  
rejected as false4 ,if this  be         
admitted1 it may then be conjectured    
that1 about the year #aeej1  either the 
,bologna stone1 or what at present is   
called phosphorus  and pyrophorus1 was  
known to a few individuals4 ,in the     
above year1  when ,henry ,,ii4 king of  
,france made his solemn entrance into   
the town  of ,boulogne1 on its          
restoration by the ,english1 a stone    
from ,india1  which was not hard1 which 
had a luminous appearance like fire1 and
  which could not be touched without    
danger1 was presented to him by  a      

stranger4 ,for the truth of this account
 ,de ,thou refers to the  testimony of  
,j4 ,pipin1 in a letter to ,ant4        
,mizaud1 who asserts that  he himself   
saw the stone4 ,morhof1 who seems       
inclined to consider this  stone as that
 of the philosophers#ajee1 remarks that 
this passage  is found in the first     
,paris edition in octavo1 and in the    
,frankfort  re-impressions1 both in     
folio and octavo2 but not in the other  
editions4 ,he quotes also the words from
 the letter to ,mizaud1 which  must be  
printed somewhere1 but in what work ,i  
do not know4 ,it appears  that the      
historian inserted it almost without any
 change4    ,we may take this           
opportunity of describing one or two    
other pyrophori3  thus ,canton's        
pyrophorus is prepared by heating a     
mixture of three  parts of sifted       
calcined oyster-shells with one part of 
flowers of  sulphur to an intense heat  
for one hour2 ,homberg's1 by mixing     
equal  weights of alum and brown sugar1 

and stirring the mixture over the fire  
in an iron ladle until quite dry2 it is 
then put into an earthenware or  coated 
glass bottle and heated red-hot as long 
as a flame appears at  the mouth2 it is 
then removed1 carefully stopped and     
suffered to cool4  ,the black powder    
which it contains becomes glowing hot   
when exposed for  a few minutes to the  
air4      ,,footnotes    #ajdb ,several 
localities are now known for this       
peculiar variety of  heavy spar2 among  
others we may mention ,amberg in the    
,upper ,palatinate1  and near ,osterode 
in the ,harz mountains4    #ajdc        
,geschichte von ,fltz-,gebrgen4 ,berl4  
#agef1 #hvo4    #ajdd ,mineral ,system4 
,leip4 #agfb1 #hvo4    #ajde ,syst4     
,mineral4 #aggb1 #hvo1 i4 p4 #afb4      
#ajdf ,in preparing solar phosphorus    
from the ,bolognian stone1 it  should be
 carefully separated from any           
contamination of iron or other  heavy   
metals1 formed into a paste as          
above-described1 and exposed to  the    

heat of a wind-furnace for an hour or   
two4    #ajdg ,fortunii ,liceti         
,litheosphorus1 sive de lapide          
,bononiensi4  ,utini #afdj1 #dto1 p4    
#ac4 ,he calls the shoemaker            
,casciorolus1 which  seems to be wrong1 
as ,lemery and others write his name    
,cascariolo4  ,licetus refers to the    
letters of ,ovidio ,montalbani4 ,epist4 
var4 ad  ,eruditos viros de ,rebus in   
,bononiensi tractu indigenus1 ut est    
lapis  ,illuminabilis et lapis          
specularis1 calamonastos1 c41 ,bonon4   
#afcd1  #dto4 ,among the oldest accounts
 are those in ,petri ,poterii           
,pharmacopia  spagyrica1 ii4 #bg1 in    
,opera1 ,fran4 #afih1 #dto4 ,in this    
work the  alchemist is called ,scipio   
,bagatellus1 a name which does not occur
 in  ,fantuzzi1 ,notizie degli scrittori
 ,bolognesi4    #ajdh ,an4 #afff1 n4    
#ba1 p4 #cge4    #ajdi ,mmoires des     
,hommes ,illustres4    #ajej ,cours de  
,chymie4 ,dresd4 #agcd1 #hvo4    #ajea  
,magnes1 p4 #dha4    #ajeb ,de ,igne4   

,franc4 #afhh1 #dto1 p4 #cej4    #ajec  
,marggrafs ,chymische ,schriften1 ii4 p4
 #aai4 ,this author says the  cakes must
 be only as thick as the back of a      
knife2 but that which ,i  obtained in   
the year #aghb from ,bologna1 was an    
inch ,english measure in  diameter1 and 
two lines in thickness4 ,it still       
weighs1 after the brass  box in which ,i
 long preserved it between cotton in a  
luminous state1  has become black1 and  
itself has lost its virtue1 three       
drachms4 ,in  colour it has a perfect   
resemblance to the star which ,marggraf 
prepared  from ,german stones1 and      
presented to ,professor ,hollman1 and   
which is  now in my possession4 ,it is  
contained in a capsule of tin plate1    
over  which a piece of glass is         
cemented4    #ajed ,ferber's ,briefe aus
 ,wlschland1 p4 #ge4    #ajee ,polyhist4
 i4 #a1 #ac1 #bf1 p4 #abg4              
,,foundling ,,hospitals4                
,child-murder is so unnatural a crime1  
that mankind can be brought  to the     

commission of it only by the greatest   
desperation1 for which  unfortunately   
there is too much cause4 ,to parents who
 are just able by  incessant labour to  
procure those things indispensably      
necessary to  support life1 the birth of
 every child increases the fear of      
starving  or of being reduced to        
beggary4 ,those who have secured to them
 a  scanty subsistence1 but who live    
amidst the torments of slavery1  wish to
 the new-born child1 which at any rate  
is doomed to death1 a  speedy           
dissolution1 before it can know that it 
has had the misfortune  to be brought   
into the world1 in order that they may  
not bequeath to  it their poverty4 ,a   
young female who has acquired by        
education the  most delicate sense of   
honour and shame1 finds herself1 on the 
birth  of an illegitimate child1 exposed
 at once to the utmost disgrace  and    
contempt4 ,her misfortune1 though viewed
 with an eye of pity by  the            
compassionate1 excites the hatred of the

 greater part of her  relations and     
friends1 by whom she was before loved   
and respected1  and who endeavoured to  
render her happy2 and often amidst the  
most  poignant feelings1 and an         
agitation bordering on madness1 she sees
 no  other means of saving her honour   
than the total concealment of her  error
 by destroying the child3 a resolution  
which1 notwithstanding the  vigilance of
 the laws1 is too often attended with   
success4 ,a young  woman who at this    
moment finds herself suddenly despised  
and neglected  by her admirer1 who      
gained her affections by the most       
powerful of all  means1 love and        
confidence1 and obtained from her what  
she can never  recover1 is often        
induced1 in a fit of despair1 to vent   
her fury on the  consequences of her    
seduction--the child of her seducer4    
,these misfortunes of mankind are among 
the disadvantages attending  civilised  
society1 which always render marriage   
more difficult as  well as burthensome1 

and thereby make it impossible to       
gratify one of  the most powerful       
impulses of nature4 ,in the savage      
state1 parents  require no more for     
themselves and their children than what 
they can  easily obtain4 ,the           
inhabitants of ,terra del ,fuego1 who   
live at the  greatest distance from all 
culture1 find shell-fish and esculent   
plants sufficient to appease their      
hunger2 never are their thoughts        
disturbed by care for the maintenance of
 a child4 ,the black slaves  in ,st4    
,domingo say1 that 8it is only the white
 man who begs20 and  indeed in this they
 are right#ajef4 ,beggars exist only    
where they are  established by religion 
and governments which command them to be
 fed4  ,but the transition from living  
by one's own industry to beggary is1 in 
consequence of the shame attending it1  
most painful and insupportable  to those
 who with the greatest exertion and     
waste of strength1 amidst  the privation
 of every comfort1 are exposed with     

their children to the  horrors of       
famine4 ,on the other hand1 to those    
who1 in our states1  are obliged to eat 
the bread of mendicity1 children are a  
blessing2  because as long as they are  
incapable of running alone1 they        
increase  their alms by exciting greater
 compassion1 and afterwards by begging  
in  the streets#ajeg4    ,it is not     
therefore poverty already reduced to the
 state of beggary1  but the dread of    
being at length overwhelmed             
notwithstanding every  exertion to swim 
against the stream1 that occasions      
child-murder4 ,the  same is the effect  
of slavery1 which excludes the          
possibility of even  hoping for a change
 to a better condition4 ,the serfs of a 
hard-hearted  land-proprietor1 who      
however acted according to the          
established laws1  entered into a       
resolution to get no children1 that they
 might not be  under the necessity of   
putting any of them to death#ajeh4 ,the 
sense  of honour becomes stronger the   

more the manners approach towards a     
certain degree of refinement2 and it is 
proved that it is this cause  which1 in 
most instances1 gives rise to           
child-murder4 ,in vain have  legislators
 endeavoured to prevent this crime by   
capital punishment1  more cruel than the
 crime itself4 ,but indeed it is        
difficult1 or rather  impossible1 to    
proportion punishment to delinquency or 
the just degree  of guilt4    ,it needs 
excite no wonder that many states where 
the ,christian  religion was not        
introduced1 and even the ,jewish1 made  
no law against  child-murder1 though the
 atrocity of it was never denied#ajei4  
,to  render this crime less frequent1   
men fell upon the way of exposing       
children1 in the hope that they might be
 found by benevolent persons1  who would
 educate and maintain them4 ,parents    
imagined that in this  manner less      
violence was offered to humanity1 and   
they could more  easily be induced to   
resign their children to chance than to 

become  their murderers4 ,they consoled 
themselves with the possibility1 proved 
by various examples1 that the exposed   
children might be saved1 and  be more   
fortunate than their parents#ajfj4 ,to  
promote this1 they  deposited them in   
places where a great many people might  
be expected  soon to pass1 and where the
 child would consequently be found      
before it  should perish by cold and    
hunger or be devoured by ravenous       
animals4    ,with this view they made   
choice of the market-places1 temples1   
places  where two or more highways met1 
wells1 the banks of rivers or the       
sea-shore1 from which water was brought 
or which were the usual places  of      
bathing2 and even1 when the children    
were placed in the water1 means  were   
contrived that they should at any rate  
float some time without  being injured4 
,for this purpose they were placed in   
small chests1  trays1 or close baskets1 
or wrapped up in waterproof             
bandages#ajfa4  ,at ,athens children    

were commonly exposed in that place     
called  cynosarges1 which was one of the
 gymnasia4 ,at ,rome the most usual     
place was that pillar called columna    
lactaria1 which stood in the  market    
where kitchen vegetables were sold#ajfb4
    ,when the exposure of children in   
civilised states began to be  condemned 
as unlawful1 it was however suffered to 
pass unpunished1  even under the first  
,christian emperors4 ,legislators only  
endeavoured  by regulations of every    
kind to render it less common1 and to   
provide  for the maintenance of         
children2 until at last1 through horror 
at the  cruelty of it1 but without      
thinking of the causes or attempting to 
remove them1 they conceived the         
unfortunate idea1 in order to guard     
against this crime1 of declaring it to  
be murder1 and punishing it as  such4   
,it became then much safer for parents  
to bury children1 or to  throw them into
 the sea1 than to run the chance of     
exposing themselves  to the utmost shame

 and punishment1 when they were searched
 out and  discovered4 ,in ,greece1 but  
not at ,thebes in ,botia#ajfc1 the      
exposure  of children was permitted and 
common1 and therefore many of the ,greek
  historians mention the contrary as a  
foreign but meritorious custom4         
,strabo#ajfd1 on this account1 praises  
the ,egyptians1 and lian#ajfe  extols   
the laws of the ,thebans against the    
killing and exposing of  children4 ,this
 cruel practice was equally common at   
,rome4 ,romulus  however1 who was       
himself a foundling1 endeavoured to     
restrain it1  and his order was         
confirmed in the twelve tables2 but as  
population1  luxury1 scarcity1 and      
dissipation increased1 it became        
customary for  those who had more       
children than they wished1 to expose    
some of them4  ,many deposited with them
 rings and other costly ornaments2 and  
those  who were poorer1 trinkets of     
little value1 partly to entice people to
  receive the children1 and partly that1

 by describing these appendages1  when  
the children were grown up1 or their own
 circumstances had become  better1 they 
might be able to recover them4    ,even 
at present1 in many places1 the children
 carried to foundling  hospitals are    
accompanied by tokens1 which are        
carefully preserved1 as  is the case in 
the ,spedale degl' ,innocenti at        
,florence1 where a piece  of lead       
imprinted with a number is hung round   
the neck of each babe1  in such a manner
 that it cannot be easily removed1 and  
occasions no  inconvenience in the      
wearing4 ,by these means one can obtain 
information  there1 even at a late      
period1 in regard to each child#ajff4   
,it is mentioned by ,tacitus#ajfg1 as a 
circumstance deviating from the  ,roman 
manners1 that the old ,germans          
considered child-murder as a crime2  and
 where he speaks of the peculiarities of
 the ,jews1 he does not fail  to relate 
the same thing of them#ajfh4 ,dionysius 
of ,halicarnassus  bestows the like     

praise on the ,aborigines#ajfi4    ,when
 the morals of mankind began to be      
improved under the influence of         
,christianity1 its followers endeavoured
 by every means in their power  to      
banish from among them this cruelty1 on 
account of which they so  bitterly      
reproached the ,romans#ajgj4 ,the first 
,christian emperors1  however1 did not  
venture to forbid it as a crime2 though 
,constantine  called exposure a kind of 
murder1 and wisely exerted himself to   
remove  the causes of it4 ,by an order  
issued in the year #cca1 he endeavoured 
to deter parents from it1 as he there   
deprived them of all hope of  being able
 to claim or recover exposed children1  
even if they should  make good the      
expenses incurred by those who had      
maintained them#ajga4  ,this cruel      
practice was nevertheless continued for 
a long time after4  ,lactantius#ajgb1   
who lived under the reign of            
,constantine1 describes  it as a still  
prevailing remnant of barbarity2 and    

,julius ,firmicus1  who wrote about the 
year #ccf1 considered it worth his while
 to give  particular instructions for   
casting the nativity of foundlings#ajgc4
  ,the exposure of children was not     
completely prohibited till the time  of 
,valentinian1 ,valens and ,gratian1 in  
the last half of the fourth             
century#ajgd4    ,one cannot1 without   
reluctance1 believe that this barbarous 
practice  was so long permitted1 or     
remained unpunished1 in civilised       
states2  but it must be mentioned1 to   
the honour of antiquity1 that in many   
countries the care of government was    
directed at an early period to  exposed 
children4 ,not only were means pursued  
in ,greece and ,rome to  encourage the  
reception and educating of foundlings1  
by assigning them  as property to those 
who took them under their protection2   
but it was  also made a law1 that       
foundlings who were not received by     
private  persons should be educated at  
the public expense4 ,at ,thebes1 where1 

as already observed1 child-murder and   
the exposure of children were           
forbidden1 parents in needy             
circumstances were desired to carry     
their  new-born children to the         
government1 and the latter committed    
them into  the hands of those who       
engaged to take the best care of them   
for the  least money4 ,in the like      
manner1 at present1 foundlings are      
placed with  nurses to be maintained at 
the cheapest rate2 but with this        
difference1  that at ,thebes the        
children became slaves for life to those
 by whom  they were educated1 whereas in
 our times1 when they grow up they are  
free people and learn to gain a         
livelihood for themselves4    ,the      
humane decrees of the emperor           
,constantine the ,great1 both for       
,italy and ,africa1 the first in the    
year #cae1 and the second in #cbb1      
deserve here to be mentioned4 ,the      
governments in those countries were     
enjoined to prevent the murder1 sale1   

giving in pawn1 or the exposure  of     
children1 by taking care that parents   
who were too poor to educate  their     
offspring1 should receive from the      
public treasury or magazines1  or from  
the emperor's privy purse1 as we say at 
present1 food1 clothing  and other      
necessaries2 and as new-born children   
required immediate  attention1 that this
 should be done without any delay#ajge4 
,the conjecture of ,gothofredus1 that   
the emperor was induced to adopt  these 
measures by the urgent representation of
 ,lactantius1 appears to  me highly     
probable4 ,this writer1 from the year   
#cag1 had been tutor to  prince         
,crispus1 and had before dedicated or   
transmitted to the emperor  his book1   
wherein he painted1 in glowing colours1 
the detestable  practice of parents then
 prevalent1 which gave rise to the      
greatest  disorders2 and on that account
 he offered them the specious advice not
  to beget more children than they were 
able to maintain4 ,i am inclined  to    

think that this advice did not much     
please the emperor1 who was  obliged to 
keep on foot a numerous army2 and as it 
could not be very  agreeable to many    
married persons1 he comprehended this   
recommendation  of prudence or          
moderation among those calamities from  
which he was  desirous to preserve      
parents by the above decrees4    ,after 
these imperial orders1 children remained
 with their parents1 and  were educated 
by them2 but it appears that the cities 
of ,athens and  ,rome had1 at an early  
period1 public orphan-houses1 in which  
children  were educated at the public   
expense4 ,what has been already said of 
the  gymnasium called cynosarges may    
serve as a proof2 and ,festus and       
,victor make it still more certain that 
there was an institution of this  kind  
at the columna lactaria4 ,at any rate   
there can be no doubt that1  in the     
sixth century1 there were houses at     
,rome for the reception of  deserted    
children4    ,the emperor ,justinian1   

who by a particular law1 in the year    
#ebi1  declared foundlings to be free1  
and forbade those by whom they were     
received and educated to treat them and 
detain them as slaves#ajgf1  often      
introduces these establishments1 under  
the appellation of  brephotrophium1 in  
his laws respecting donations to        
churches and  other beneficent          
institutions#ajgg4 ,this word1 composed 
of the ,greek  term brephos a child1 and
 trepho to educate1 seems to show that  
houses of this kind were established at 
an earlier period in the cities  of     
,greece1 and were only imitated at      
,rome2 though of this ,i have as yet    
found no proof4 ,du ,cange and ,stephen 
have both introduced the word in  their 
,greek dictionaries1 but refer only to  
the ,justinian code4 ,gesner1  in       
,stephen's lexicon1 makes a distinction 
between brephotrophium and              
curotrophium2 the latter1 it is said1   
means a house in which grown-up  and not
 new-born children are educated1 and the

 same thing is repeated  in the same    
words in ,calvini ,lexicon ,juridicum4  
,both assert that this  word1 formed    
from  or 1 puer1 is used by ,justinian1 
but  does not occur in the book of laws1
 nor is used by ,brisson4 ,it is not  to
 be found in the dictionary of ,basle   
nor in ,stephen's ,greek ,lexicon1  but 
both these have the word 1 which indeed 
occurs in ,homer  and in ,hesiod4 ,as   
,calvin and ,gesner refer to ,hottoman1 
,i am inclined  to think that the word  
was coined by him1 especially as ,gesner
 in the  ,thesaurus of ,faber says1     
8,curotrophium potest dici domus alendis
  parvulis destinata40    ,it is rather 
astonishing that no mention of the      
oldest institutions  of this kind1 or of
 their establishment1 is to be found in 
the works  of the ancients4 ,there is   
reason however to conjecture1 that as   
long  as the sale of children and the   
slavery of foundlings were permitted1   
the number of those maintained at the   
public expense could not be  very great4

 ,but respecting the brephotrophia1 even
 under the later  ,christian emperors1  
nothing is said to be found that can    
give us any  idea of the manner in which
 they were regulated2 nothing in regard 
to  the place from which the nurses were
 procured1 or how food and clothing     
were provided for the children1 and as  
little in regard to the number  of      
children reared in these benevolent     
institutions who lived to become  old4  
,it might be satisfactory to know1      
whether the oldest institutions  of this
 kind were more fortunate in answering  
the object of their  establishment than 
our expensive orphan-houses are at      
present4    ,the great difficulties     
which attend institutions of this kind  
are1 no  doubt1 the chief cause why     
mention of them so seldom occurs during 
the  later centuries1 in which the      
foundation of hospitals1 and donations  
to these and other pious establishments1
 were so numerous2 they are  however    
found so often1 that it is impossible to

 consider them as an  invention of      
modern times4 ,i shall here point out   
those instances  which have hitherto    
occurred to me2 but must first observe1 
that many  more will be found in        
perusing the lives of saints1 and the   
history  of convents1 religious orders1 
churches and towns4 ,wherever they are  
mentioned1 they are always under the    
inspection of the clergy4    ,the oldest
 establishment for orphans in ,germany1 
which ,i can mention at  present1 is    
that at ,triers1 in the eighth1 or      
seventh1 or even sixth  century2 the    
account of it is to be found in the life
 of ,st4 ,goar1 who  lived at ,triers   
under ,childebert1 consequently in the  
last half of  the sixth century4 ,his   
historians or panegyrists relate that1  
being  accused before archbishop        
,rusticus of many misdemeanours1 as a   
proof  of his innocence he hung up his  
hood upon one of the sun's rays1 which  
entered his cell1 as if upon a nail1 and
 that his enemies were still so         

incredulous as to consider him guilty4  
,the archbishop then1 continue  they1 to
 whom a new-born child1 which had been  
deposited in the marble  conch before   
the church-door1 had been brought1 asked
 him1 as a proof  of his sanctity1      
whether he could tell the father of it2 
upon which  ,goar1 after a most fervent 
prayer1 commanded the child1 in the name
 of  the ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,ghost1
 to declare who were its parents4 ,the  
child1 with a clear voice1 immediately  
named its mother1 and also its  father1 
the archbishop himself1 who in          
consequence was deprived of his         
dignity#ajgh4    ,the small portion of  
truth contained in this ridiculous story
 is1 that1  at the time when the author 
wrote1 there was an establishment for   
foundlings at the church of ,triers2    
that the children were deposited  in a  
marble conch placed before the church2  
that they were received  by poor people 
maintained in order to watch the church1
 and who were  called matricarii1       

because they were matriculated in it1   
and by  them carried immediately to the 
bishop1 and that the child under his    
sanction was given to some person in the
 community who agreed to take  care of  
it4 ,these foster-parents were named    
nutricarii4 ,it may be  thence easily   
perceived1 that there were then no      
orphan-houses properly  so called1 in   
which children are educated2 but that   
the children1 as is  the case in our    
institutions for the poor1 were given to
 others to be  nursed1 and in all       
probability the clergy paid to the      
nutricarii a  certain sum from the alms 
destined for that purpose4    ,one of   
the lives which relates to the silly    
tale already mentioned was  written by  
an author who1 according to the opinion 
of ,mabillon1 lived  at a period not    
much later than ,st4 ,goar4 ,the other  
is by ,wandelbart1  who lived in the    
ninth century1 and who refers for his   
authorities  to old manuscripts and     
other documents1 vetusta et perantiqua  

exemplaria4 ,it may therefore with      
safety be asserted1 that this           
establishment for foundlings existed at 
,triers in the eighth century4  ,the    
annalists of ,triers1 indeed1 do not    
mention any bishop named  ,rusticus who 
lived about that period2 but no doubt   
needs be excited  on that account1 as   
this difficulty may be solved in more   
ways than  one#ajgi4    ,in the seventh 
century there were similar              
establishments at ,anjou1 or  ,angers1  
in ,france4 ,st4 ,magnebodus1 who was   
bishop of that place1 where  he died1   
and was buried in the church called at  
present ,saint ,mainbeuf1  is praised in
 a very old life of him1 never yet      
printed1 for having  caused several     
houses for the rearing of children to be
 erected#ajhj4    ,in the following     
century1 that is about the year #ghg1 an
 arch-priest  named ,datheus1           
established at ,milan1 at his own       
expense1 a foundling  hospital1 in order
 to put a stop to the crime of          

child-murder1 which  had been           
introduced1 and of which he gives a very
 affecting account  in the letter of    
foundation4 ,with this view he purchased
 a house near  the church1 and issued an
 order that the foundlings 7jactati7    
should  be suckled in it by hired       
nurses1 and educated for seven years4   
,they  were to be taught some           
handicraft2 to be supplied in the       
establishment  with food1 clothing and  
shoes1 and at the age of seven to be    
discharged  as free-born#ajha4 ,it      
deserves to be remarked1 that the       
mothers of  children carried to such    
establishments strewed salt between the 
swaddling-clothes1 when they wished to  
announce that the child had not  been   
baptized4 ,this perhaps had a reference 
to the circumstance of  new-born        
children being washed in salt water2 but
 ,i conjecture that the  salt thus      
interspersed was meant to denote that   
the child had not been  washed1 and much
 less baptized4    ,in the capitulary of

 ,charlemagne we meet with all the loci 
venerabiles of the ,justinian code3     
xenodochium1 ptochotrophium1            
nosocomium1 orphanotrophium#ajhb1       
gerontocomium1 and also                 
brephotrophium#ajhc4 ,but at that time1 
at least among the ,franks1  the        
foundlings belonged to those by whom    
they had been received and  educated1   
unless they were demanded back by their 
parents or relations  within ten        
days#ajhd4 ,it is not improbable that   
the same practice  prevailed at this    
time in other countries2 and perhaps the
 founder of  the foundling hospital at  
,milan1 on this account1 declared so    
expressly  that the children1 when they 
grew up1 were to be discharged from the 
institution1 as persons born free4      
,in the year #aafh1 ,st4 ,galdinus1     
cardinal and archbishop of ,milan1      
exercised great severity against        
heretics2 but took particular care of   
the poor1 who believed what he taught2  
namely1 that the hospital there         

considered itself obliged1 not only to  
receive the sick1 but also such         
children as might be exposed in the     
city1 and to provide them with food  and
 clothing#ajhe4    ,in #ajgj ,olivier de
 la ,trau founded at ,montpellier an    
order1 the  members of which called     
themselves hospitalarii1 sive spiritus4 
,they entered into an engagement to take
 care of the poor as soon  as possible1 
and to provide for the maintenance and  
education of  foundlings and orphans4   
,in the course of a little time they    
spread  themselves into different       
countries2 and wherever they went1 the  
effects of their benevolent vow are     
still to be found4 ,some say that  the  
institution for foundlings1 or the      
,hospital of the ,holy ,ghost1 at       
,montpellier1 was established in the    
year #aahj4 ,in #abja they settled  at  
,rome1 and1 according to the testimony  
of historians1 formed there  an         
establishment of the same kind1 after   
they had been confirmed by  ,pope       

,innocent ,,iii41 in the year #aaih1 and
 obtained for that purpose  an elegant  
mansion1 fitted up in the best manner4  
,in the papal bulls  mention is made of 
many convents founded by this order2 and
 ,i am  inclined to think that those who
 might take the trouble to examine      
thoroughly the confused history of these
 hospitallers1 or of this order  of the 
,holy ,ghost1 and of the still existing 
hospitals distinguished  by that title1 
would find much information in regard to
 this subject4  ,i call the history     
confused1 because there have been many  
kinds of  hospitallers and similar      
orders1 and these have often been       
confounded  with each other#ajhf4       
,our neighbourhood had similar          
establishments at an early period4 ,at  
any rate there was one of this kind at  
,einbeck1 before the year #abgd1  that  
is to say1 an hospital of the ,holy     
,ghost4 ,it began to be built  by duke  
,albert1 who brought ,einbeck to the    
house of ,brunswick1 when  it submitted 

to him in #abgb1 in order to get rid of 
the importunity  of count von ,dassel4  
,alms were collected for its            
establishment and  maintenance2 and to  
promote these1 the council issued       
recommendations1  or letters-patent1 in 
which it was expressly stated1 that not 
only  the indigent1 and among these     
foreigners1 were received into their    
hospital1 but also orphans and          
foundlings1 who were maintained and     
educated till they grew up4 ,such       
recommendations were from time to  time 
repeated1 for one still exists of the   
year #acjj1 which is a  literal         
transcript of that issued in #abgd4 ,i  
do not believe that the  hospital at    
,einbeck was established by the order   
before-mentioned2 at  any rate1         
hospitals of the ,holy ,ghost occur     
chiefly in the twelfth and  two         
following centuries2 and were founded1  
not by hospitallers1 but  established   
perhaps upon their model4    ,in this   
manner a rich citizen of ,nuremberg1    

,conrad ,heinz1 surnamed  der ,grosse1  
founded the hospital of the ,holy       
,ghost1 in #acca4 ,it  began to be built
 in #accc1 and was completed in #acda4  
,neither in the  letter of foundation1  
however1 nor in the confirmation1 are   
foundlings  particularly named2 but it  
may be readily seen that this           
institution  received poor pregnant     
women1 and educated the children which  
were  either born in it or admitted into
 it4 ,in the like manner pregnant       
females1 both married and unmarried1 and
 also foundlings1 are received  into the
 hospital of ,st4 ,john1 at ,turin4 ,the
 founder of the house at  ,nuremberg    
made it a rule1 that the day of the     
birth or reception of  each child should
 be written down1 in order that the     
expense incurred  by it might be known1 
in case it should ever be able and      
inclined to  repay it#ajhg4    ,the     
magnificent foundling hospital at       
,florence1 called at present  ,spedale  
degl' ,innocenti1 was founded in #acaf1 

by one ,pollini4 ,there  can be little  
doubt that this is the same             
establishment for which the  well-known 
,camaldule monk1 ,ambrosius1 often      
mentioned under his family  name        
,traversari1 solicited support from the 
pope1 in the beginning of  the fifteenth
 century4 ,he boasts that the foundlings
 received by this  institution1 which he
 calls brephotrophium1 were first given 
to  nurses to be suckled1 and then      
admitted into the house and instructed4 
,girls fit for marriage were furnished  
with a portion4 ,citizens also  were    
accustomed to send their children to be 
educated in the school of  this         
hospital#ajhh4    ,l',hopital du ,s4    
,esprit1 at ,paris1 is said to have been
 founded in  #acfb1 and various persons 
out of compassion for the exposed       
children  contributed the money         
necessary to its support4 ,a            
brotherhood1 called  la ,confrairie du  
,s4 ,esprit1 established to conduct the 
affairs of the  institution1 was        

confirmed the same year by pope ,urban  
,v4    ,paris1 however1 from time to    
time obtained more institutions of this 
kind4 ,in the year #afch a widow devoted
 her house to this purpose1 and  on that
 account it was called la ,maison de la 
,couche1 a name still  given to the     
foundling hospital at the church of     
,notre ,dame4 ,but it  was soon found   
necessary to abandon this well-meant    
institution1 in  consequence of the     
shameful abuses which had crept into it4
 ,the nurses  often sold the children to
 beggars1 who distorted or mutilated    
their  limbs1 in order that they might  
excite more compassion1 and thereby     
obtain greater alms4 ,many were         
purchased also for magical purposes4    
,the  price for each was twenty sous4   
,st4 ,vincent de ,paule1 of the         
congregation ,st4 ,lazare1 founded1 in  
#afdj1  a new institution1 which in     
#afgj was transferred to the street     
,notre  ,dame4 ,it obtained new         
improvements by the chancellor ,etienne 

d',aligre  and his lady ,elizabeth      
,luillier4 ,at present this house is    
known  under the name l',hopital des    
,enfans ,trouvs1 or de ,notre ,dame de  
la  ,misericorde4    ,that an           
institution for foundlings at ,venice1  
named before the  destruction of the    
republic ,della ,piet1 was established  
in #achj1 by a  ,franciscan named       
,petruccio1 ,i have somewhere read1 but 
in what author ,i  do not at present    
remember4    ,in ,england a proposal for
 a similar institution was made so early
 as  #afhg2 but the present foundling   
hospital was not established till the   
year #agciajhi4 ,i shall not however    
enlarge further on the modern           
institutions of this kind3 my object was
 to show that they are by no  means a   
new invention1 and that they have been  
continued from the  oldest periods to   
the present time through all ages1 and  
even in those  which we are accustomed  
to call barbarous4    ,in our times most
 of the foundling hospitals have been   

suffered to  fall to decay2 chiefly     
because1 to answer the benevolent       
purpose for  which they are intended1   
they would require to be on a larger    
scale  and better supported than it is  
possible for them to be at present2     
also because they do not entirely       
prevent child-murder1 as they  are not  
capable of completely removing the      
causes of it4 ,after the  establishment 
of the foundling institution at ,cassel1
 not a year passed  without some        
children being found murdered1 either in
 that place or  its neighbourhood4 ,to  
this may be added also1 that it is      
impossible  with the utmost exertion to 
provide sound nurses for the continually
  increasing number of children brought 
in1 and to ensure to them  sufficient   
attention4    ,from the year #agfc to   
the end of #agha the number of children 
brought  into the foundling hospital at 
,cassel amounted to #gdj1 of whom no    
more  than eighty-eight remained alive  
at the end of the latter year4 ,more    

than one half of them died under the age
 of eight1 and scarcely ten  attained to
 their fourteenth year4 ,in ,paris1 in  
the year #agij1 more  than #bc1jjj1 and 
in #ahjj about #fb1jjj children were    
brought in#ajij4  ,in #agij1 of the     
children which had been brought in      
between #aggd and  that period1 #ae1jjj 
only were alive2 and it is estimated    
that #aa_/ac of  all the children       
brought in perish annually through      
hunger or neglect4  ,of #ajj foundlings 
in the foundling hospital at ,vienna1   
#ed died in the  year #aghi4 ,in #agig1 
the nurses in the foundling hospital at 
,metz had  for fourteen months received 
no wages1 and calculation showed that   
#g_/hths of the whole children perished4
 ,in an institution of this kind1  in a 
certain ,german principality1 only one  
of the foundlings in twenty  years      
attained to manhood1 and yet the        
establishment had cost the  country     
annually #bj1jjj dollars at least4 ,the 
education of no ,german  prince ever    

cost so much4    ,the case with         
foundling hospitals is the same as with 
the artificial  breeding of fowls2 it is
 easy to obtain chickens1 but for want  
of  maternal feeding and care it is     
almost impossible to rear them4 ,of what
  use then is it to collect chickens8   
,,footnotes    #ajef ,the negroes in    
,st4 ,domingo cannot bear to be thought 
poor1 or to  be called beggars4 ,they   
say none but white men beg2 and when any
 one  asks alms at the door1 they       
observe to their master1 8,there is a   
poor  white man1 or a poor ,frenchman1  
begging40 ,labat had a negro who gave   
away a small part of his property1      
merely that he might have the proud     
satisfaction of being able to say1      
8,there1 white man2 there is an alms    
for you40 ,but1 in all probability1     
there will be beggars even in ,st4      
,domingo1 if the negroes are so         
fortunate as to establish the freedom   
which they have obtained at the expense 
of so much blood1 and to form a  negro  

state4    #ajeg ,during a great scarcity
 at ,hamburgh1 when bread was           
distributed  to the poor1 one woman told
 another1 to whose request no attention 
had  been paid1 that she brought her    
child with her1 and pinching it so as   
to make it cry1 excited compassion and  
by these means received bread4  ,the    
latter begged the other to lend her the 
child for the like purpose1  and having 
made it cry obtained bread also2 but    
when she returned and  wished to restore
 the child with thanks1 the mother was  
not to be  found1 and therefore she was 
obliged to keep the child4    #ajeh ,in 
the course of nine years not a single   
individual announced an  intention of   
marrying4 ,the young people supplied    
their wants in another  manner4 ,hence  
arose a scarcity of men1 who cannot be  
purchased in  ,europe1 as in the ,west  
,indies4 ,the proprietor1 therefore1 was
 obliged  to sell his estate4 ,the      
purchaser improved the condition of his 
serfs1  and marriages became common     

among them4 ,see ,bsch vom ,geld-umlauf4
 vi4  #c4  #ce1 p4 #cic4 8,la duret du  
gouvernement peut aller jusqu' detruire 
les sentimens naturels1 par les         
sentimens naturels mmes4 ,les femmes  de
 l',amerique ne se faisoient-elles pas  
avorter1 pour que leurs enfans          
n'eussent pas des matres aussi          
cruels80--,montesquieu1 ,esprit des     
,loix4  ,amst4 #ageh1 #abmo1 ii4 p4     
#djb4    #ajei ,see an ,enquiry by      
,michaelis1 why ,moses did not introduce
 into  his laws anything in regard to   
child-murder4    #ajfj ,the cause of    
children being exposed in this manner   
has  been assigned and ably examined by 
,lactantius1 vi4 #bj1 #ba2 from  whose  
remarks one will readily comprehend how 
parents could be so  hard-hearted4      
#ajfa ,many preparations for this       
purpose may be seen quoted in  ,hofmanni
 ,lexicon ,universale3 art4 ,exponendi  
mos4    #ajfb ,pomp4 ,festus de ,verb4  
,signif4 p4 #bjc4    #ajfc ,aristot4    
,polit4 vii4 #af4    #ajfd ,lib4 xvii4  

#ajfe ,vari ,histor4 ii4 #g4    #ajff   
,such appendages or tokens were called  
crepundia4 ,instances  of their use may 
be found in ,heliodor4 thiop4 iv4 #g41  
also in many  comedies4    #ajfg ,de    
,mor4 ,germ4 cap4 #ai4    #ajfh ,histor4
 v4 #e4    #ajfi ,lib4 i4 cap4 #af4     
#ajgj ,minucii ,felicis ,octav4 xxx4    
xxxi4    #ajga ,cod4 ,theodos4 lib4 v4  
tit4 #g1 ,de ,expositis1 l4 #a1 p4 #dhg1
 edit4  ,ritteri1 where the whole has   
been proved and illustrated by          
,gothofredus4    #ajgb ,lactant4 vi4    
#bj1 #ba4    #ajgc ,astronom4 lib4 vii4 
c4 #a4 ,i shall refer those desirous of 
becoming acquainted with all the proofs 
belonging to this subject to  ,ger4     
,noot1 ,opera ,omnia1 ,col4 #agcb1 fol4 
p4 #dic4 ,the observations on  ,minucius
 ,felix1 pp4 #cjg and #cbf1 in the      
beautiful edition ,lugd4 ,bat4  #agji1  
#hvo1 deserve in particular to be read4 
#ajgd ,cod4 ,justin4 lib4 iv4 tit4 #eb4 
#ajge ,codex4 ,theodos4 lib4 xi4 tit4   
#bg4    #ajgf ,cod4 lib4 viii4 tit4 ,de 

,infant4 ,expos4 l4 #c4    #ajgg ,cod4  
lib4 i4 tit4 #b1 ,de ,sacrosanctis      
,eccles4 #ai1 p4 #ai3 8,si quis  vero   
donationes usque ad #ejj solidos in     
quibuscunque rebus fecerit1  vel in     
sanctam ecclesiam1 vel in xenodochium1  
vel in nosocomium1 vel  orphanotrophium1
 vel in ptochotrophium1 vel in          
gerontocomium1 vel in  brephotrophium1  
vel in ipsos pauperes1 vel in quamcunque
 civitatem2  ist donationes04444 ,the   
same names are repeated in the law #bc  
immediately following2 also in ,novell4 
,collat4 #h1 tit4 #ab1 cap4 #a1  p4     
#bai1 and ,coll4 #i1 tit4 #c1 cap4 #a1  
p4 #bde4 ,here not only foundling       
hospitals1 but poor-houses in           
particular1 are mentioned4 ,the former  
are  named also in ,cod4 lib4 #a1 tit4  
#c1 ,de ,episc4 et ,clericis1 l4 #cb1 p4
 #cb1  and in the same l4 #db1 #e and   
#i2 likewise l4 #df1 #a4    #ajgh ,the  
life of ,st4 ,goar is to be found in    
,acta ,sanctorum1 ,jul4 #b1  pp4        
#cbg-cdf2 also in ,mabillon's ,acta     

,sanctorum ,ordinis ,s4 ,benedicti1     
,venetiis1 #agcc1 fol4 p4 #bff2 but at  
page #bgc of ,mabillon there is  another
 life by ,wandelbart1 in which the story
 is fuller and more  circumstantial4    
#ajgi ,meusel's ,geschichtforscher1 iv4 
p4 #bcb4    #ajhj ,du ,cange1 under the 
word brephotrophium1 has quoted the     
passage4    #ajha ,muratori has printed 
the letter of foundation in ,antiq4     
,ital4  ,medii vi1 t4 iii4 p4 #ehg4     
#ajhb 8,in quo parentibus orbati pueri  
pascuntur40 ,these orphan-houses  then  
were expressly distinguished from the   
foundling hospitals4    #ajhc ,baluzii  
,capitularia ,reg4 ,franc4 i4 p4 #gdg2  
,capit4 lib4 ii4 #bi4    #ajhd ,in the  
,capitulare1 composed about the year    
#gdd1 in ,baluz4 p4 #aea4    #ajhe ,see 
,muratori ,antiq4 ,ital4 ,medii vi1 iii4
 p4 #eia4    #ajhf ,see ,greg4 ,rivii   
,monastica ,historia ,occidentis4 ,lips4
 #agcg1 #hvo  cap4 #cd4 ,the name of the
 author was ,lauterbach4    #ajhg ,the  
documents may be found in ,von ,murr    

,beschreibung der ,merkw4  in ,nrnberg1 
#ahja1 #hvo4    #ajhh ,martenne1 ,vet4  
,script4 amplis4 ,collectio4 ,paris1    
#agbd1 fol4 iii4  p4 #ae4    #ajhi ,the 
foundling hospital of ,london was       
founded in the year #agci1  by charter  
of king ,george ,,ii41 on the petition  
of captain ,thomas  ,coram1 and the     
memorial of sundry persons of quality   
and distinction4  ,it maintains and     
educates #ejj children1 from extreme    
infancy to a  period of life when they  
are capable of being placed out in the  
world4  ,illegitimate children are the  
objects of this hospital4 ,the child    
must be under twelve months old when    
offered for admission1 and the          
committee require to be satisfied of the
 previous good character and  present   
necessity of the mother1 and that the   
father has deserted both  mother and    
infant2 and that the reception of the   
infant will1 in all  probability1 be the
 means of replacing the mother in the   
course of  virtue and the way of an     

honest livelihood4    #ajij ,the number 
of illegitimate births in ,france is    
truly fearful4  ,in #ahca there were    
#ga1daa1 about #a-acth of the total     
number of births2  in ,paris the        
proportion is still larger1 being about 
one in every three  births6--,penny     
,cyclopdia4          ,,orphan ,,houses4 
,as so ancient proofs are found of      
public attention paid to foundlings1  it
 may be readily supposed that in        
well-regulated states care was  employed
 at an early period to provide also for 
the maintenance and  education of       
orphans4 ,there is reason to believe    
that this was the  case at ,thebes1     
which took under its protection the     
children of all  poor parents4 ,solon   
made a law1 that children whose fathers 
had fallen  in the defence of their     
country should be educated at the       
expense and  under the inspection of    
government#ajia4 ,the same thing was    
customary  among the ,iasei1 who        
inhabited an island on the western coast

 of  ,caria#ajib4    ,at ,rome children 
maintained at the public expense were   
called pueri  alimentarii1 and puell    
alimentari#ajic4    ,the emperor ,trajan
 was the first who formed large         
establishments for  this purpose2 and   
the children maintained in them were    
called1 from  his family name1 pueri    
,ulpiani4 ,pliny relates in his         
panegyric1 that  he had caused five     
thousand free-born children to be sought
 out and  educated4 ,it is more than    
probable that he suffered them to remain
  with their parents1 and that those who
 were unable to educate them            
themselves1 received a monthly or annual
 allowance in corn or money4  ,orphans  
perhaps were given out to board at a    
certain fixed sum4 ,it  deserves to be  
remarked1 that the emperor in this      
manner might afford  assistance1 not    
only to such as were depressed by       
poverty1 but also  to persons of        
distinction who were not able1 according
 as we say at  present1 to support their

 families in a manner suitable to their 
rank4  ,to have an offspring therefore  
was not a misfortune1 but rather a      
blessing4 ,children were begotten in    
order that the parents might take       
advantage of this beneficence1 as some  
people build houses that they  may      
obtain the offered premium2 and the     
large capitals required were  not taken 
from the public treasury1 but from the  
emperor's own privy  purse4 ,that these 
establishments might exist after his    
death1 the  money in different parts    
destined for their support was laid out 
on  land1 which produced a perpetual    
income4 ,this is shown by a letter of   
foundation for the town of ,veleia#ajid1
 which is still extant4    ,in the year 
#agdg1 some peasants while ploughing in 
the neighbourhood  of ,placentia found1 
together with several other antiquities1
 a  copper-plate five and a half feet in
 height and ten and a half in  breadth1 
which weighed #fjj pounds4 ,they broke  
it in great haste1  because they        

expected to find under it a treasure1   
and sold the pieces  as old copper4 ,one
 of these having fallen into the hands  
of the learned  count ,giovanni         
,roncovieri1 he remarked that it        
contained a part of a  public document  
belonging to the reign of ,trajan4 ,with
 much trouble  and at considerable      
expense he at length collected all the  
pieces1 the  possessors of which1 on    
account of the eagerness shown to obtain
 them1  expected for them a high price1 
and thus was the means of saving one  of
 the most beautiful monuments of        
antiquity1 a complete document in       
regard to the imperial establishment for
 the community of ,valeia#ajie4  ,the   
inscription forms six hundred and       
seventy lines1 and is divided  into     
seven columns1 over which stands the    
following title3 8,obligatio4           
praediorum4 ob4 ,h--,s4 deciens4        
quadraginta4 quatuor4 milia4 vt4 ex4    
indulgentia4 optimi maximique4          
principis4 imp4 caes4 ,nervae4 ,trajani4

  ,aug4 ,germanici4 ,dacici4 pueri4     
puellaeque4 alimenta4 accipiant4        
legitimi4 n4 ,,ccxlv4 in4 singulos      
,h--,s4 ,,xvi4 n4 f4 ,h--,s ,,xlvii4    
,,xl n4  legitimae4 n4 ,,xxxiv4 sing4   
,h--,s4 ,,xii4 n4 f4 ,h--,s4 ,,iv4      
,,dcccxcvi4 spurius  ,i4 ,h--,s4        
,,cxliv4 spuria4 ,i4 ,h--,s4 ,,cxx4     
summa4 ,h--,s4 ,,liicc4 quae4 sit  vsura
 #ee #e #ee sortis4 supra4 scriptae40   
,trajan therefore laid out a capital of 
#a1jdd1jjj sesterces at five  per cent4 
interest on forty-six farms around      
,valeia1 which town or  community was   
destined for this establishment4 ,these 
farms formed the  mortgage1 and on that 
account are particularly named1 together
 with  the sum for which they were      
security4 ,the annual interest amounted 
to  #eb1bjj sesterces4 ,of this sum #bde
 boys born in wedlock received monthly  
sixteen sesterces each1 which in a year 
makes #dg1jdj2 and #cd girls of  the    
same description twelve sesterces       
monthly1 making in a year #dhif         

sesterces4 ,besides these1 one          
illegitimate male child received yearly 
#add sesterces1 and one illegitimate    
female child #abj sesterces4 ,these     
different sums amounted exactly to the  
interest of the capital laid out4    ,it
 is hardly worth while to reduce these  
sums to our present currency4  ,for even
 if we should calculate how many pounds 
or shillings the  silver contained in   
#a1jdd1jjj sesterces would make1 this   
result would  not give us the real      
value1 because we have no standard by   
which the  relative value can be        
determined2 that is to say1 it is not   
known what  proportion silver and copper
 bore in those periods to the prices of 
the necessaries of life4 ,the price of  
grain proposed by ,unger as a  standard1
 can be employed only for later times1  
when corn began to be a  more general   
article of trade4    ,however1 ,trajan's
 capital1 according to our money at     
present1 makes  about #ed1cge dollars1  
and the sum of the interest #bgah       

dollars2  consequently a legitimate male
 child obtained yearly ten dollars1 and 
a legitimate female child between seven 
and eight dollars4 ,such is the         
calculation made from the principles    
laid down in ,rom de l',isle's          
,metrology by ,professor ,hegewisch1 who
 has endeavoured also to compare  some  
pieces in the time of ,trajan with those
 at present4    ,it appears1 therefore1 
that among #cjj children the emperor    
admitted  only two illegitimate2 and    
,professor ,hegewisch is inclined to    
believe  that this was the actual       
proportion at that time2 which indeed   
would  induce one to form a very        
favourable opinion of the state of      
public  morals1 under the reign of      
,trajan1 in the district above named4   
,that it was then customary to pay      
interest1 salaries1 and  pensions1 not  
annually but monthly1 is known from     
other sources of  information4 ,the case
 was the same in regard to the          
distribution  of corn 7frumentatio71 as 

is proved by a passage in ,dionysius of 
,halicarnassus#ajif1 and when money was 
bequeathed in perpetuity for  benevolent
 purposes by any person's will#ajig4    
,muratori is of opinion that these      
pensions were paid to boys till  they   
arrived at the age of eighteen1 and to  
girls till they attained  to that of    
fourteen2 and for a proof he refers to  
an order of ,adrian1  confirmed by the  
emperor ,alexander ,severus#ajih4 ,at   
the above age the  males could become   
soldiers and gain their pay2 and girls  
of fourteen  were fit either to be given
 in marriage1 or to be employed in such 
a  way as to obtain a livelihood by     
their industry4 ,that the emperor1  in  
forming this establishment1 had an eye  
to recruits for the army1  appears      
probable from a passage in ,pliny#ajii2 
and the example of  ,trajan induced rich
 private individuals during his         
life-time1 and  afterwards many of his  
successors1 to form similar             
establishments for  the like purpose4   

,the same plate was destined also to    
eternise the  bequest of one ,cornelius1
 according to which #cfjj sesterces1 or 
about  #ahg dollars1 being the interest 
of #gb1jjj sesterces1 or #cgej dollars1 
were to be employed in maintaining      
eighteen legitimate male children1  and 
one legitimate female child1 at the rate
 before-mentioned4 ,pliny  even1 the    
panegyrist of ,trajan1 founded from his 
own property pensions  for the free-born
 children of poor parents2 a            
circumstance which he  does not forget  
to mention in his letters1 and the same 
thing is  confirmed by an inscription   
still extant#aajj4 ,antoninus ,pius made
  a similar establishment for poor      
girls1 which after his consort were     
called puell ,faustinian#aaja4 ,the     
emperor ,antoninus ,philosophus  did the
 same thing2 and from the name of the   
empress the girls  were called          
,faustinian1 but by way of distinction  
nov puell  ,faustinian#aajb4 ,alexander 
,severus formed an institution for the  

education of boys and girls1 whom he    
caused to be named from his mother      
mammani and mamman#aajc4    ,in regard  
to the manner in which these            
establishments were managed we  are     
entirely ignorant4 ,it is known only1   
that in each of the provinces  into     
which ,italy was divided1 there was a   
public functionary of  some rank1 with  
the title procurator ad alimenta1 to    
whom1 in all  probability1 the          
inspection of them was entrusted4 ,this 
is known to  have been an honourable    
office4 ,it was held by the emperor     
,pertinax  when a young man1 in the     
towns and villages on the ,via ,ancilia1
 and in  his old age at ,rome           
itself#aajd4 ,it was held also by       
,didius ,julianus  before he became     
emperor1 after he had been prtor and    
consul1 that is1  enjoyed the highest   
offices next to the imperial dignity1   
and after he  had been governor of      
,germany#aaje4 ,on ancient monuments    
erected to  the memory of persons of    

distinction1 by their children1         
relations or  friends1 it is mentioned1 
that1 besides filling other places of   
honour1  they had been procuratores ad  
alimenta in certain districts there     
named4    ,these are the oldest         
instances1 with which ,i am at present  
acquainted1  of institutions for the    
benefit of poor children and orphans4   
,orphan-houses1 properly so called1 in  
which the children were  educated       
together1 ,i find mentioned for the     
first time1 under the  name of          
orphanotrophium1 in the laws of the     
emperor ,justinian4 ,at  later periods  
they occur frequently in the decrees of 
the different  councils1 such as that of
 ,chalcedon in the fifth century4 ,at   
the court  of ,byzantium the office of  
inspector of orphans1 orphanotrophi1    
was so honourable and important1 that it
 was filled by a brother of  the emperor
 ,michael ,,iv4 7,paphlago71 in the     
beginning of the eleventh  century#aajf4
 ,but under the latter emperors this    

place was entirely  suppressed4    ,at  
present1 orphan-houses have been        
abolished1 since it has been shown1  by 
many years' experience1 that the        
children cannot be educated in  them    
healthy and at a sufficiently cheap     
rate4 ,the children are placed  out to  
be boarded and educated by individuals1 
under the inspection of  those who      
manage everything relating to the poor4 
,,footnotes    #ajia ,diogen4 ,laert4 i4
  #ee1 and the observation of ,menage4  
,this  law is praised by ,plato in      
,menexenus1 and by ,demosthenes1        
adversus  ,macartatum4    #ajib         
,heraclides de ,politiis1 added to the  
addition of ,aristot4  ,politic4        
,heinsii1 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #afba1 #hvo1 p4  
#ajjd4    #ajic ,mention is made of them
 several times in the ,roman code of    
laws1  ,l4 #h1  #i1 et  #bd1 ,d4 de     
,transact4 ,l4 pen4  #a1 ,d4 ad leg4    
,falcid4 ,see  also lii ,spart4 ,vita   
,adriani1 c4 #g4--l4 ,capitolin4 ,vita  
,antonini4  ,p4 cap4 #h4--,vita ,pertin4

 c4 #i1 p4 #eee4--l4 ,lamprid4 ,vita    
,alexandri  ,severi1 c4 #dd1 p4 #iie4   
#ajid ,this city was situated at no     
great distance from ,piacenza           
7,placentia74 ,it is mentioned by       
,horace1 ,pliny and ,phlego ,trallianus 
de  ,longvis1 i4 p4 #aad4 ,see ,cluverii
 ,ital4 p4 #abei4    #ajie ,this        
remarkable inscription was first printed
 at ,florence in  #agdi1 by itself1 with
 the title ,exemplar ,tabul ,trajan pro 
,pueris et  ,puellis ,alimentariis      
,reip4 ,veleiatium4 ,secondly1 in       
,museum ,veronense1  ,veron1 #agdi1     
fol41 to which some explanations are    
added4 ,thirdly1 in  ,histoire de la    
,jurisprudence ,romaine1 par ,a4        
,terrasson4 ,paris1 #agej1  fol4 in the 
,appendix1 pp4 #bg-dc4    #ajif ,lib4   
iv4 p4 #bbh4    #ajig ,see the proofs   
quoted by ,brisson1 under the word      
,menstruum4    #ajih ,digest1 #cd1 tit4 
#a4 #ad4    #ajii 8,crescerent de tuo   
qui crescerent tibi1 alimentisque tuis  
ad  stipendia tua pervenirent40    #aajj

 ,plin4 ,epist4 i4 #h1 #aj1 and vii4    
#ah4 ,gruteri ,inscript4 p4  ,,mxxviii4 
n4 #e4    #aaja ,capitolin4 cap4 #h4    
#aajb ,ib4 cap4 #bf4    #aajc ,lamprid4 
cap4 #eg4    #aajd lian4 ,spartian4 cap4
 #a4 p4 #egd4    #aaje ,capitolin4 cap4 
#b1 p4 #ecb2 and cap4 #d1 p4 #ecg4      
#aajf ,zonaras in the ,life of that     
,emperor4 ,hist4 ,august4               
,,infirmaries4 ,,hospitals ,,for        
,,invalids4 ,,field ,,lazarettos4       
,by the preceding article ,i am induced 
to give some information in  regard to  
the history of infirmaries4 ,to offer   
anything complete on  this subject1 it  
would be necessary to enter also into   
the history  of inns established for the
 use of pilgrims and strangers1 which   
in general were combined with them1 and 
likewise into that of the  different    
orders instituted for the like purpose1 
and of taverns which  arose at a later  
period4    ,it is certain that ancient  
,rome1 though a magnificent city1 had no
  houses into which sick persons were   

admitted in order to be taken care  of  
and cured4 ,diseased people1 however1   
were carried to the temple  of          
sculapius1 but for a very different     
purpose4 ,they waited there  for a cure1
 as some ,christian believers still do  
in churches which  contain              
wonder-working images2 but no           
preparations were made there for  their 
accommodation4 ,those numerous          
benevolent institutions for the         
accommodation of travellers1 the        
indigent1 and the sick1 which do so     
much honour to modern times1 were first 
introduced by ,christianity4            
,bodin#aajg1 who could not deny this    
service1 endeavoured to lessen  it1 by  
asserting that1 on the introduction of  
,christianity1 freedom  was given to    
many slaves1 who possessed nothing else2
 and who1 having  learned no trade or   
handicraft by which they could gain a   
living1  became so burdensome to the    
state1 that the clergy were obliged to  
devise some means to remove them from   

the public view1 and to provide  with   
the necessary support these unfortunate 
beings1 abandoned by all  mankind1 whose
 increasing number was asserted by      
unbelievers to be an  effect of the     
,christian religion4    ,in this        
representation however there is some    
truth4 ,it indeed cannot  be denied that
 our religion1 as it requires humanity  
and compassion1  though the intolerance 
it occasions converts the severest      
cruelties  into good works1 procures to 
beggars more indulgence and respect than
  they in general deserve1 and thereby  
causes a continual increase of  their   
number4 ,but it is to be observed that  
,bodin1 notwithstanding his  acuteness  
and great learning1 often suffers       
himself to be led away  by the effects  
of his innate ,jewish hatred to the     
,christians2 and he  readily embraces   
every opportunity of exalting his       
paternal religion1  the ,jewish1 and    
depreciating the ,christian1 by which he
 obtained riches  and honour4    ,the   

enemies of ,christianity1 however1      
during the first years of our  ra1 could
 not but observe the numerous means for 
alleviating human  misfortunes which    
were introduced by the new religion4 ,it
 was galling  to the emperor ,julian to 
acknowledge this superiority2 and in    
order  to banish it1 he caused his      
priests to provide for the poor1 and to 
establish for them inns 7,xenodochia71  
into which they could be  received2 and 
he assigned to them the funds necessary 
for that purpose4  ,into these were     
admitted not only persons of his own    
religion but of  every other1 in        
imitation of the ,christians1 who1      
besides supporting  their own poor1     
maintained those of the pagans also4    
,how much he  interested himself to     
weaken this means1 by which the impious 
,galilans  procured respect1 love1 and  
attachment1 may be seen by an oration   
wherein he inculcated the ,christian    
morality as his own#aajh4 ,this         
imitation of the new religion1 which    

contributed more perhaps to  recommend  
it than to bring it into discredit1 is  
ridiculed by ,gregory  ,nazianzenus in  
his third oration4    ,the care of      
providing the necessary assistance to   
those sick persons  who can expect no   
help and attention from individuals1    
belongs to  the police2 and because this
 forms a part of government1 rulers and 
sovereigns ought at all times to have   
made the establishments requisite  for  
that purpose4 ,but in the oldest        
periods1 as appears1 they had  too much 
to do in administering justice1 and     
securing the state  against hostile     
attacks1 to be able to attend to the    
necessary police  establishments4    ,on
 the other hand1 the clergy1 whose first
 duty was to maintain good  order1      
discipline1 and virtue1 however much    
they might often in private  offend     
against them themselves1 endeavoured to 
supply this want2 and1  on that account1
 among the decrees of various councils1 
we find a great  many regulations which 

have not yet been sufficiently employed 
to  illustrate the history of police4   
,the establishment of the first houses  
for the reception of the sick is among  
the services rendered by the  clergy2   
and to mention all the places of this   
kind1 either founded by  them or at     
their instigation1 would form a very    
long list4 ,the first1  or at least one 
of the first houses for the reception of
 indigent sick  was that built at ,rome 
by ,fabiola1 a ,roman lady1 the friend  
of ,st4  ,jerome1 consequently in the   
fifth century#aaji4    ,when pilgrimages
 to holy places1 as they were called1   
and often from  very distant countries1 
came to be considered as a part of      
religion1  the number of these houses   
was much increased4 ,taverns1 in which  
pilgrims could procure proper care and  
attention for payment1 were  not then to
 be found2 and most people travelled    
without money1 in the  full confidence  
of meeting with gratuitous assistance4  
,when the clergy  wished to maintain and

 increase the number of pilgrims1 which 
their  own advantage induced them to do1
 it was necessary that they should      
afford them every facility of           
travelling1 and consequently provide    
for the wants of indigent pilgrims2 and 
it was impossible that among  these     
there should not be some sick1          
especially as the inconvenience1        
fatigue1 and dangers of the journey were
 much increased by many things          
injurious to the health4    ,but as the 
principal and most dangerous pilgrimages
 were made to  ,palestine1 which is     
situated beyond the boundaries of       
,europe1 where  no countrymen1 and not  
even ,christians1 one of whose religious
 duties  it is to be compassionate1     
could be expected1 institutions for the 
reception of sound as well as of sick   
pilgrims were erected by the  clergy at 
a very early period on the road thither1
 and also at the holy  places4 ,thus    
,jerome built an hospital at ,bethlem2  
and his friend ,paula  caused several to

 be erected on the road to that village1
 in order that  the devout idlers1 as   
she says1 might fare better than the    
mother of  ,god1 who1 on her necessary  
journey thither1 could find no inn#aaaj4
 ,in  the like manner1 the ,scots and   
,irish erected hospitals in ,france for 
the use of their countrymen1 who1 on    
their pilgrimage to ,rome1 might be     
desirous of passing through that        
kingdom#aaaa4    ,but hospitals were    
most necessary in wild and desert parts1
 where  human habitations were not to be
 expected2 and particularly in woody    
mountainous districts1 and on the banks 
of broad rivers1 where  travellers were 
stopped for the want of bridges1 and    
collected together  in great numbers4   
,it is probable that many of these      
hospitals may have  given rise to the   
villages which are still found in such  
situations4    ,pope ,adrian ,i4        
recommended to the notice of            
,charlemagne#aaab the  hospitals built  
in the ,alps2 and in the year #hee1 the 

emperor ,louis ,,ii4  caused those      
situated on mountains to be visited and 
repaired#aaac4  ,the ruins of many of   
these edifices still exist4    ,towards 
the end of the eleventh century1        
brotherhoods1 which undertook  to       
provide for the wants of sick pilgrims1 
were formed in the ,holy  ,land2 and    
these became richer and more numerous as
 the crusades  increased4 ,it was not   
uncommon for opulent persons1 when      
dying1 to  bequeathe their property to  
establishments in which they had found  
consolation and relief2 and very often  
those who had experienced a  cure gave  
their money and effects1 or a           
considerable part of them1  to some     
brotherhood1 either in consequence of a 
vow1 or in order to  show their         
gratitude4 ,on this account the         
hospitals in ,palestine  could be       
constructed on a larger scale1 and      
provided with better  accommodations1   
than any before seen in ,europe4 ,they  
were therefore  considered as models2   

and princes and rich persons1 on        
returning safe  from their pilgrimages1 
caused similar ones to be established in
 their  own countries4 ,many princes    
even brought with them to ,europe       
members  of these brotherhoods1 which in
 the course of time were converted into 
orders of knighthood1 that they might   
employ them in the erection of          
hospitals4 ,instances of this           
circumstance have been given by ,mhsen1 
in his ,history of the ,sciences in the 
,mark of ,brandenburg1 and these  might 
be easily increased4 ,in the same author
 may be seen an account  of the         
establishment of houses for the         
reception of persons afflicted  with    
cutaneous disorders1 and of their       
conversion into pest-houses4 ,i  shall  
here only remark1 that these inns and   
hospitals contributed1 in  no small     
degree1 to facilitate the travelling of 
mercantile people1  who in the infancy  
of trade1 when the roads were insecure  
and no means  of conveyance established1

 were obliged to accompany their        
merchandise  themselves4    ,the        
assertion of ,muratori1 however1 that   
the oldest hospitals were not  properly 
established for sick travellers1 but    
rather for the sound1  is undoubtedly   
true2 and it appears that hospitals1    
according to the  meaning of the word at
 present1 that is1 such as were destined
 for the  sick alone1 were not          
introduced before the eleventh century4 
,the above  author quotes#aaad from the 
life of ,st4 ,lanfranc1 who was         
archbishop  of ,canterbury in the year  
#ajgj1 that he caused an hospital to be 
built  there1 and fitted up in such a   
manner1 that one part of it was destined
  for sick men1 and the other for sick  
women4 ,it is probable1 or rather       
almost certain1 that this prelate formed
 the institution here mentioned  after  
the model of those which he had seen in 
his native country1  ,italy4 ,after this
 period similar establishments for the  
sick are  mentioned in various other    

parts4    ,the first hospitals1 at least
 in general1 were built close to        
cathedrals or monasteries2 and the      
bishops themselves had the  inspection  
of them2 but afterwards1 either for the 
greater convenience  or the want of     
leisure1 when their occupations         
increased1 they  committed this charge  
to the deacons4 ,in the course of time1 
when  houses for the sick were erected  
by laymen1 and entirely separate from   
monasteries1 the bishops asserted their 
right1 often confirmed to them  by      
imperial as well as pontifical laws1 of 
visiting these institutions4  ,we find1 
however1 that in later times they were  
deprived of this  privilege by princes  
and sovereigns1 either because they     
wished to  omit no opportunity of       
lessening the power of the clergy1 or   
because  the latter had given reason to 
suspect that the incomes destined for   
the use of the hospitals were not always
 applied to the intended  purpose4      
,instances are found also1 where1 by the

 letters of foundation1  the whole      
management is consigned to the sovereign
 or the heirs of  the founder4 ,these   
institutions1 however1 have the         
appearance of  ecclesiastical           
establishments1 and still retain in many
 cases similar  privileges4 ,as such    
they are free from all taxes1 are spared
 as much as  possible in war1 and enjoy 
the same rank as churches4    ,of the   
internal conomy of the oldest houses for
 the reception of the  sick1 no         
information1 however1 is to be found4   
,it is not even known  whether          
physicians and surgeons belonged to     
them1 nor in what manner  they were     
supplied with medicines4 ,apothecary    
shops were not then  established2 and   
those found in hospitals at present1 are
 but of modern  existence4    ,in the   
hospitals at ,jerusalem the knights and 
brothers attended  the sick themselves1 
bound up their wounds1 and1 in imitation
 of  the ,grecian heroes1 ,hercules1    
,achilles and others1 acted as their    

physicians4 ,thus we find in ,amadis1   
and other books of knight-errantry      
written in the middle ages1 how much the
 knights exerted themselves to  obtain  
the best balsamic mixtures1 and that1 in
 general1 they dressed  each other's    
wounds4 ,the well-known baume de        
commendeur is one of the  oldest        
compositions of this kind1 belonging to 
the times of knighthood4    ,profound or
 extensive knowledge of medicine could  
not be expected  among these knights1   
were we even unacquainted with the      
account given  of their skill by ,guy de
 ,chauliac4 ,this author1 who wrote his 
book on  the healing of wounds in the   
year #acfc1 mentions the different      
medical  sects1 and among these names   
the ,german knights as the fourth sect1 
who1 he says1 cured wounds by exorcism1 
beverages1 oil1 wool1 and               
cabbage-leaves1 and trusted to the      
belief that ,god had conferred a        
supernatural power upon words1 plants1  
and stones#aaae4    ,the oldest mention 

of physicians and surgeons1 established 
in houses  for the sick belonging to the
 order of ,templars1 is under the       
government of ,john de ,lastic1 who1 in 
#adcg1 undertook the office of          
grand-master1 and defined very exactly  
the duty of physician and  surgeon#aaaf4
 ,it however appears to me1 as it does  
to ,mhsen1 that the  hospitals had      
regular and learned physicians at a     
period much earlier4    ,but1 as long as
 this was not the case1 they could      
afford no instruction  to young         
physicians in the theory or practice of 
their art1 like our  hospitals at       
present4 ,we1 however1 find a very      
singular account in  regard to ,persia1 
where it is said that some ,nestorian   
priests had an  hospital adjacent to    
their monastery1 together with an       
institute or  school for young          
physicians1 who under certain prescribed
 rules were  allowed to visit the sick4 
,this establishment was in a town called
  ,gandisapora1 or1 as ,professor       

,sprengel writes it1 ,dschandisabor1 the
  medical school of which is not        
unfrequently mentioned after the seventh
  century4 ,the pupils who were desirous
 of attending the hospital for  their   
improvement1 were first obliged to      
submit to a trial1 and to read  the     
psalms of ,david and the ,new           
,testament4 ,many of those who had here 
studied medicine attained to high       
ecclesiastical dignity1 which is the    
more surprising as the rest of the      
,nestorian schools in the ,east pay     
attention only to theology1 and prohibit
 the young clergy entirely from         
studying medicine#aaag4    ,mad-houses1 
or houses for the reception and cure of 
insane persons1  seem also to have been 
first established in the ,east4         
,zimmerman1 in his  work on ,solitude1  
says that as early as the year #dia     
there was a house  of this kind at      
,jerusalem1 the chief object of which   
was to take care  of such monks as      
became insane in the monasteries1 or    

such hermits as  were visited by the    
same affliction in the deserts2 but1 as 
usual1 he  has given no proofs4 ,in the 
twelfth century1 when the ,jew1         
,benjamin  of ,tudela1 was in ,bagdad1  
he found many hospitals having nearly   
sixty  shops or dispensaries belonging  
to them1 which distributed1 at the      
public expense1 the necessary medicines4
 ,a large building called  ,dal         
almeraphtan1 that is1 the ,house of     
,grace1 was destined for the  reception 
of those who lost their reason in       
summer4 ,they were kept  there in chains
 till they were cured2 and every month  
this house was  visited by magistrates1 
who examined the state of the patients  
and  suffered those who had recovered   
their reason to return to their         
relations or friends4    ,to those      
police establishments which form the    
subject of this article  belong also    
hospitals for invalids4 ,though it may  
be true1 that among  many ancient       
nations the soldiers1 as sailors in some

 privateers at  present1 served         
voluntarily and without pay1 in the hope
 of acquiring  by plunder a sufficient  
compensation for the expenses1 labour1  
and dangers to which they were exposed  
in war1 it was at any rate  considered  
as a general duty to make such provision
 for the indigent1  and also for those  
become incapable of military service1   
when they  had no means of support1 that
 they might not be a burthen on the     
public4 ,if any one should be so devoid 
of feeling as to suppose that  our      
soldiers1 after enjoying years of peace 
without much waste of  their bodily     
powers or laborious occupation1 free    
from care1 amidst  every necessary of   
life1 and the enjoyment of rank above   
those members  of the state from which  
they were taken1 ought to consider it no
  hardship to perform military service  
when war renders it necessary2  it still
 remains a duty incumbent on the        
government to provide for  soldiers     
incapable of further service1 who are   

destitute of support2  and besides1     
political prudence requires it1 in order
 that others may  not be deterred from  
defending their native country or       
sovereign1 but  rather by the confident 
hope of a future provision may have     
their  courage and fidelity             
strengthened2 which1 notwithstanding the
 strictest  subordination1 and though   
fire-arms require less personal bravery 
than  bows and arrows1 is still         
indispensably necessary4 ,this truth    
seems to  have been fully acknowledged  
in the oldest periods4    ,solon        
deducted something from the pay of      
soldiers1 and employed it  for the      
education of children whose fathers had 
fallen in battle1 in  order that others 
might be encouraged to bravery#aaah4    
,pisistratus1  following this example1  
made an order that those who had lost   
any  of their limbs in war should be    
maintained at the public expense4  ,the 
pensions granted do not seem at all     
times to have been equally  great1 and  

they appear to have been even modified  
according to  circumstances#aaai4    ,of
 the attention paid by the ,romans to   
the care of their invalids1  milites    
causarii1 or soldiers become unfit for  
service1 either by  wounds or old-age1  
many instances may be found1 some of    
which occur  in the ,justinian and      
several in the ,theodosian code#aabj4   
,they were  not only exempted from      
taxes1 but frequently obtained lands and
 cattle  as well as money1 and were     
assigned over1 to be taken care of by   
rich  families and communities#aaba4    
,the assertion1 however1 that the       
,romans  had particular houses for      
invalids1 in which soldiers worn out by 
the  fatigues of war were taken care of1
 and that the taberna meritoria  was a  
house of this kind1 is one of the many  
errors of ,peter von ,andlo1  canon of  
,colmer1 who is entitled to the merit of
 having written in the  fifteenth       
century1 and with a great deal of       
freedom1 the first work on  the ,german 

public law#aabb4    ,how such an idea   
could be conceived by this author ,i do 
not know1 for  the following is the only
 account of the taberna meritoria to be 
found among the ancients4 ,in the first 
place we are told by ,valerius          
,maximus#aabc1 that a traveller was     
murdered in one of them in which  he    
lodged4 ,judging from this circumstance1
 the taberna meritoria  appears to have 
been a public tavern or inn1 a meaning  
which writers  on jurisprudence seem    
always to have adopted#aabd4 ,in the    
next place  ,eusebius1 who died in the  
year #cdj1 relates in his               
,chronicon#aabe1  that under the second 
or third year of the reign of ,augustus1
 an oil  issued from the earth in a     
taberna meritoria1 on the other side  of
 the ,tiber1 and continued flowing      
without interruption the whole  day2 but
 ,i cannot see what relation this       
phenomenon can have to ,jesus  ,christ4 
,in the third place1 the same thing is  
related by ,orosius#aabf1  who lived    

about the year #daf2 but he makes the   
time of this event much  later1 that is 
to say1 in the year #gcj or #gca after  
the building of the  city1 which would  
be about twenty years before the birth  
of ,christ4  ,nevertheless1 ,martinus   
,polonus said1 in the thirteenth        
century1 that  this oil appeared at the 
birth of ,christ#aabg4 ,damasus 7,pope  
,formosus8  in the ninth century7 added 
that1 on this account1 ,pope ,callistus 
,i41 so early as the third century1     
caused a ,christian church to be  built 
in that place2 and some modern writers  
believe1 contrary to the  assertion of  
,platina#aabh1 that it is the present   
church of ,st4 ,mary  ,transtiberina1   
,maria in ,trastevere2 and in this      
church a stone is  still shown with the 
inscription fons olei4 ,to render the   
building of  a church in the third      
century probable1 some moderns have     
conjectured  that this taberna was the  
cook's shop purchased by the ,christians
  under the reign of ,alexander         

,severus1 who assigned it to them with  
the observation that 8it was better that
 ,god should be served in any  manner in
 that place1 than that tavern-keepers1  
cooks1 or perhaps the  ministers of     
voluptuousness1 popinarii1 should there 
carry on their  occupations#aabi40 ,our 
writers on historical criticism         
positively deny  that ,callistus ,i4    
built a church at ,rome#aacj4 ,it is to 
be observed  also1 that ,donatus1 who   
died in #afdj1 confidently asserts that 
the  taberna meritoria was the house    
where the people of ,ravenna lodged     
when they came to ,rome to see the      
public spectacles2 but he does not  tell
 us whence he derived this              
information#aaca4 ,what ,i have here    
collected in regard to the taberna      
meritoria may serve to correct a  false 
and often repeated relation2 but all ,i 
can prove from it is1 that  this taberna
 was not an hospital for invalids4      
,hardouin also was of opinion that there
 were hospitals for invalids at  ,rome1 

one of which was built by ,metellus1 the
 son-in-law of ,pompey2  but for proof  
he refers only to a coin with the image 
of ,metellus1 on  the reverse of which  
is the naked figure of a man walking1   
who holds  in his right-hand the        
palladium1 and bears on his left        
shoulder a  naked man1 with the         
inscription on the face1 8,q4 ,metellus 
,pius40 ,from  this ,hardouin infers    
that ,metellus built an ,htel des       
,invalides for  sick or wounded         
soldiers1 which he dedicated to ,pallas1
 and that on  this account he obtained  
the surname of ,pius#aacb4 ,it is indeed
  remarkable1 that two coins having the 
same reverse1 and the inscription       
pietas1 occur in ,patin4 ,i shall leave 
to the judgement of the critics  this   
opinion of ,hardouin2 but ,i must       
confess that the explanation  of        
ambiguous figures on coins1 has a       
resemblance to the far-fetched          
derivations of etymologists4 ,both may  
be learned1 ingenious1 and  probable2   

but they cannot be employed alone as    
evidence1 except to add  more force to a
 truth already proved4 ,these coins1    
perhaps1 allude  to some other attention
 paid to wounded soldiers1 of which     
,metellus1  ,herennius1 and ,csar may   
have given examples2 and the people are 
always  weak enough to set too high a   
value on every mark of compassion or    
benevolence exhibited by their          
sovereigns or commanders1 because it is 
seldom that they observe as they ought  
the general duties incumbent  upon them4
    ,i do not consider it a reproach to 
the ,romans1 notwithstanding  their     
propensity to war and robbery1 that they
 had no hospitals for  invalids2 because
 the remark already made in regard to   
orphan-houses  is applicable also to    
them4 ,magnificent buildings1 fitted up 
at great  expense1 afford a proof of the
 wealth and perhaps the liberality of   
the  founder2 but there can be no doubt 
that1 with the capital employed1  a     
greater number of invalids might be     

maintained1 and in a manner  much more  
beneficial to the public2 that is to    
say1 by making such  arrangements that  
the invalids could be distributed       
throughout the  country1 and placed out 
at board and lodging for a certain sum4 
,in  this case many families would be   
glad to receive them1 both on account   
of the money1 and because these invalids
 could be of great assistance  to them  
in their domestic conomy1 either by     
labouring themselves or  overlooking    
others4 ,people may praise large and    
expensive hospitals as  much as they    
please2 but the sight of so many men who
 have lost their  health or limbs in war
 is but a melancholy spectacle1 and     
gives too  great occasion to reflect how
 much mankind suffer from the avarice1  
pride1 and revenge of sovereigns1       
without which wars would be less        
frequent4    ,the first establishment   
for the reception of invalids which1 as 
far as  ,i know at present1 occurs in   
history1 was that formed at             

,constantinople  by the emperor ,alexius
 ,comnenus1 at the end of the eleventh  
century4 ,a  complete description of it 
may be found in the history of that     
prince1  written by his learned daughter
 ,anna ,comnena1 who says that the      
emperor  caused a great number of       
buildings standing around a church to be
  fitted up as an hospital1 which       
undoubtedly was never exceeded in size2 
though other historians relate that     
,alexius only revived and enlarged  in  
an uncommon degree an old institution4  
,it was indeed called the               
,orphan-house2 but sick and indigent    
persons of both sexes and of every  age1
 and1 as the female historian expressly 
says1 soldiers dismissed  from service1 
were admitted into it1 and provided with
 bed1 board1 and  clothing#aacc4 ,though
 the emperor secured to this institution
 several  sources of revenue1 it however
 appears not to have long existed2 at   
any  rate1 in the time of ,george       
,codinus1 that is1 in the fifteenth     

century1  the high office of director or
 manager had long been disused4    ,of  
the hospitals for invalids existing at  
present1 the oldest and  largest is the 
,htel des ,invalides at ,paris4 ,the    
kings of ,france  enjoyed from the      
earliest times what was called droit    
d'oblat1 which  consisted in the power  
of sending to abbeys and monasteries1 in
 order  to be maintained1 officers and  
soldiers unfit for further service1 and 
particularly such as had been wounded4  
,traces of this practice are  said to   
occur under the reign of ,charles the   
,great2 at least ,seissel1  in the ,life
 of ,louis ,,xii41 relates that there   
was an old tradition  in an abbey in    
,languedoc1 that the abbot had been     
punished by that  prince1 because he    
would not receive the soldiers assigned 
to him4 ,it  may be readily conceived   
how unpleasant these guests must have   
been to  the clergy1 and how little the 
ideas1 mode of living1 and manners of   
these two classes would accord with each

 other4 ,the complaints on this  subject
 had become so great under ,henry ,,iv41
 that he at length resolved  to cause   
all invalids to be lodged and maintained
 together in a palace  called 8,la      
,maison ,royale de la ,charit           
,chretienne40 ,but as the revenues      
destined for the support of this        
establishment were not sufficient1 it   
was abolished under the same sovereign1 
and the invalids were again  distributed
 among the abbeys and convents4 ,in the 
course of time these  houses purchased  
exemption from this burthen1 by giving  
an annual  pension to their guests2 but 
they soon spent their money1 and then   
fell into a state of the greatest       
poverty4 ,on this account ,louis ,,xiii4
  renewed the experiment of founding an 
hospital for invalids1 which  through   
the want of money was never completed4  
,at length ,louis ,,xiv41 in  the year  
#afgj1 began to build the ,htel des     
,invalides1 the extravagant             
magnificence of which is rather a proof 

and monument of the profusion  and pride
 of that sovereign1 than of his care for
 meritorious soldiers4    ,in the year  
#afhb1 the hospital for soldiers at     
,chelsea was founded in  ,england by    
,charles ,,ii4#aacd1 carried on by      
,james ,,ii41 and completed  by ,william
 ,,iii4 ,but far larger and more        
magnificent is the hospital  for seamen 
at ,greenwich1 which was first suggested
 by ,queen ,mary1 the  consort of ,king 
,william4 ,the building1 determined on  
in the year #afid1  was begun in #afie1 
and from time to time enlarged and      
beautified#aace4  ,as ,france was the   
first country in ,europe that maintained
 a standing  army of national troops1 it
 had therefore first occasion to make   
provision for its native soldiers when  
disabled by service4 ,as long  as       
military men consisted chiefly of       
foreigners1 who served during a  certain
 period for pay and plunder1 sovereigns 
believed that when a  war was ended1    
they were no further indebted to these  

aliens2 they  consequently suffered them
 to retire wherever they thought proper1
 and  gave themselves no further trouble
 respecting them4    ,in the last place1
 ,i shall here consider the question1   
,since what time  have regular surgeons 
been appointed to armies8 and lay before
 the  reader the little ,i have been    
able to collect towards answering it4   
,in  the ,trojan war they were indeed   
not known4 ,at that period many of the  
principal heroes had acquired some      
knowledge of surgery1 and1 like the     
knights in the time of the crusades1    
undertook the office of assisting  and  
curing the wounded#aacf4 ,such persons  
in armies were particularly  honoured1  
and considered to be of great value1 as 
appears from what  ,idomeneus1 speaking 
of ,machaon1 says3           4          
,medicus vir multis quiparandus         
aliis#aacg4    ,yet the instance of     
,machaon shows how little care was then 
taken of the  wounded2 for ,virgil makes
 him even1 whose assistance must every  

moment  have been necessary1 mount into 
the wooden horse1 and he was the first  
who came out of it#aach4 ,there is      
reason to think that the armies in      
,homer1 and until the introduction of   
,christianity1 and the invention  of    
gunpowder1 had in every battle but few  
wounded1 and always a much  greater     
proportion of killed than in modern     
times4 ,hostile bands stood  nearer to  
each other2 all came to close action2   
prisoners were not  exchanged1 but made 
slaves1 and among the ,romans sold to   
the infamous  schools for gladiators4   
,wounded prisoners were a burthen to the
  victorious party2 such as could not   
escape defended themselves to the  last1
 and were put to death by the           
conquerors4    ,in ,achilles            
,tatius#aaci1 who seems to have lived in
 the third century  of the ,christian   
ra1 ,i find that an army-physician1     
exercitus  medicus1 was called in to a  
sick person2 and one might almost       
believe  that a regular physician       

appointed to attend an army is here     
meant1  especially as ,salmasius1 on    
this passage1 says that each cohort had 
in  general a physician1 and therefore  
the appellations medicus cohortis1      
medicus legionis1 were found in ancient 
inscriptions4 ,i will not  venture to   
contradict so great an authority on a   
subject of this kind2  but ,i am sorry  
that ,i have not been able to find any  
other evidence of  such army-physicians4
    ,the first traces of                
field-hospitals1 or1 as they are        
commonly called  at present1            
flying-hospitals1 occur perhaps in the  
,east4 ,at any rate1  the emperor       
,mauricius1 in the sixth century1 had   
along with his armies  deputati1 whose  
duty he describes1 as did also the      
emperor ,leo ,,vi4 in  the ninth        
century1 who has copied many things     
verbatim from the work  of that prince4 
,these deputati were distributed in the 
armies among  the cavalry1 and were     
obliged to carry off those wounded in   

battle4  ,on this account they had on   
the left side of the saddle two         
stirrups1  in order that they might more
 easily take up the wounded behind them2
  and for every person thus saved1 they 
obtained a certain reward4 ,they  were  
obliged also to carry with them a bottle
 containing water1 for  the purpose of  
reviving those who might have fainted   
through the loss  of blood4 ,leo1       
besides the officers necessary for each 
band or company  of a regiment1 mentions
 expressly not only the deputati1 but   
also  physicians and attendants on the  
sick#aadj4    ,though an order was made 
by the ,convention of ,ratisbon#aada in 
#gdb1  that every commander of an army  
should have along with him two bishops1 
with priests and chaplains1 and that    
every colonel should be attended  by a  
confessor1 no mention is to be found    
either of field-hospitals or            
army-surgeons belonging to the first    
,christian armies in the writings  of   
the middle ages4 ,we read1 however1 in  

the works of ,paracelsus1  ,thurneyser1 
,lottich and others1 that they were     
present at battles  and sieges2 but it  
can be proved that they were not        
appointed as  army-surgeons1 but served 
merely as soldiers4    ,the             
field-surgeons1 who occur as            
accompanying armies in the beginning  of
 the fifteenth century1 were destined   
rather for the use of the  commanders   
and principal officers1 than for the    
service of the  field-hospital4 ,their  
number was too small for a whole army2  
and as  they were authorised by their   
commission to receive prisoners and     
booty1 and1 like the knights1 were      
obliged to bring with them archers1  it 
is highly probable that to fight was a  
part of their duty also4    ,when ,henry
 ,v4 of ,england carried on war with    
,france in #adae1 he took  into his     
service ,nicholas ,colnet1 as           
field-surgeon1 for a year#aadb4  ,he was
 bound to carry with him three archers  
on horseback1 and to  accompany the king

 wherever he went4 ,in return he was to 
receive yearly  forty marks or pounds1  
to be paid at the rate of ten marks     
every  quarter4 ,he was allowed also    
twelve pennies per day as subsistence   
money1 and each of his archers had      
twenty marks a year1 and six pennies    
daily for subsistence4 ,the chief       
army-surgeon1 ,morstede1 was engaged    
with fifteen men1 three of whom were to 
be archers1 and the remaining  twelve   
surgeons4 ,he received also ten pounds  
quarterly as pay1 and  twelve pennies   
daily for subsistence4 ,his archers and 
surgeons were  placed on an equal       
footing2 each was to receive quarterly  
five pounds1  and six pennies daily as  
subsistence4 ,both ,colnet and ,morstede
 could  receive prisoners and plunder2  
but when the latter amounted to more    
than twenty pounds in value1 a third    
part of it was to be given to the  king4
 ,both these head-men had a quarter's   
pay in advance2 and1 that  they might   
always have security for the next       

quarter1 the king engaged  to put into  
their hands1 by way of pledge1 as many  
jewels or other  articles as might be   
equivalent to one quarter's pay and     
subsistence4    ,harte1 in his ,life of 
,gustavus ,adolphus1 seems to believe   
that this  prince first appointed four  
surgeons to each regiment1 which he     
reduced  from the number of two or three
 thousand1 first to #abjj1 and          
afterwards  to #ajjh2 and he is of      
opinion that it may with certainty be   
believed  that the imperial troops at   
that time had no surgeons1 because      
,tilly  himself1 after the battle at    
,leipsic1 was obliged to cause his      
wounds  to be dressed by a surgeon      
established at ,halle4 ,he adds in a    
note1  that he was told that the        
,austrians1 till about the year #agah1  
had no  regimental surgeons regularly   
appointed4 ,however this may be1 it is  
certain that the field-hospital         
establishments of the imperial army1    
till the beginning of the eighteenth    

century1 were on a very bad  footing4   
,even in the year #agah1 they had no    
field-surgeons2 but at this  period the 
company surgeons were dismissed1 and a  
regimental surgeon1  with six           
assistants1 was appointed to each       
regiment2 and beside the  field         
medicine-chest1 surgical instruments    
were provided at the  emperor's         
expense#aadc4    ,the establishment of  
field-hospitals in ,germany is certainly
 much  older2 for ,fronsperger1 who     
wrote in the middle of the sixteenth    
century1 does not speak of              
field-surgeons1 army-surgeons and  their
 servants1 as if they had been then     
newly introduced2 but in  such a manner 
as shows that the need of them had been 
generally  acknowledged long before that
 period#aadd4 ,according to his         
statement1 it was necessary that there  
should be along with the                
commander-in-chief1 or1 according to the
 modern phrase1 the general  staff1 a   
field-surgeon-in-chief1 a doctor who had

 the inspection of  the field-surgeons1 
the barbers and their servants1 whose   
duty was to  drag the wounded from the  
heaps of slain and to convey them to the
  former4 ,he was obliged to keep by him
 instruments and medicines1 and  at each
 mustering to examine the instruments   
and apparatus of the  field-surgeons2 he
 decided also1 in disputed cases1 how   
much soldiers  whose wounds had been    
cured ought to pay to the field-surgeon4
 ,during  marches he was bound to remain
 with the commander-in-chief4           
,fronsperger  says also1 that there     
ought to be with the artillery a        
field-surgeon  of arckelley1 and with   
each company a particular field-surgeon1
  not however a paltry beard-scraper    
7bart-scherer71 but a regularly         
instructed1 experienced and             
well-practised man4 ,this person was    
bound  always to accompany1 with able   
servants1 the ensign1 and he received   
double pay4    ,to give a description of
 all the hospitals1 infirmaries and     

dispensaries in this country would fill 
volumes4 ,it may be sufficient  here to 
observe1 that there are ten large       
hospitals in the metropolis1  each of   
which receives a considerable number of 
patients into the  house1 and a still   
larger number of out-door patients are  
prescribed  for and supplied with       
medicines1 but attend at the            
establishments4 ,in  the largest of     
these1 which is that of ,st4            
,bartholomew1 the annual  number of     
patients1 both in-door and out1 is about
 #ab1jjj2 about  three-fifths of these  
are out-door patients4 ,the number of   
beds in the  hospital amounts to upwards
 of #eej4    ,there are twenty-eight    
dispensaries2 such patients as are able1
 attend  at these establishments2 those 
who are incapable1 are visited and      
relieved at their own homes4            
,moreover1 there are in the metropolis  
ten midwifery establishments1  three    
ophthalmic institutions1 three public   
lunatic asylums1 a venereal  hospital1 a

 small-pox and a fever hospital1 as also
 one for patients  suffering from       
consumption4    ,there are also         
ninety-seven county hospitals1          
infirmaries and  dispensaries#aade4     
,admission to the hospitals is gained by
 the presentation of a petition  signed 
by a governor1 on a certain day in each 
week2 of course1  out of the number of  
patients who apply1 the worst cases have
 the  preference4 ,accidents and very   
severe cases are admitted at any time1  
and without any petition or             
recommendation4 ,the out-patients       
require  no recommendation4 ,the same   
general rule gains attendance at the    
other  medical establishments4          
,,footnotes    #aajg ,j4 ,bodini ,de    
,republica libri vi41 lib4 #a4 cap4 #e4 
#aajh ,the imperial order has been      
preserved by ,sozomenus in his          
,ecclesiastic ,history1 v4 #af1 where   
more information on this subject1       
worthy of attention1 has been collected4
 ,see ,juliani ,opera1 edit4            

,spanhemii1 ,lips4 #afif1 fol4 p4 #dcj4 
#aaji ,hieron4 ep4 #ci4    #aaaj        
,hieron4 ,epitaph4 ,paul4    #aaaa      
,baronii ,annal4 ad an4 #hde1 xxxvi4 ed4
 ,mansii4 ,luc #agdc1 tom4  xiv4 p4     
#cbe4    #aaab ,muratori ,antiq4 ,ital4 
,med4 vi1 iii4 p4 #eha4    #aaac ,ib4 et
 ,antiquitat4 ,ital4 ,med4 vi1 iii4 p4  
#eha4    #aaad ,antiquitat4 l4 c4 p4    
#eic4    #aaae ,see ,la ,grande         
,chirurgie de ,m4 ,guy de ,chauliac1    
,medecin  tres-fameux de l',universit de
 ,montpelier1 restitue par ,m4 ,laurens 
,joubert4 ,a ,rouen #afda1 #hvo4        
#aaaf ,there are various editions of the
 statutes of this order4 #a4  ,nova     
,stat4 ord4 ,s4 ,joannis                
,hierosolymitani4 ,madriti #aegg1 small 
folio4  #b4 ,privilegia ordinis ,s4 ,jo4
 ,hierosol4 small folio1 ,rom #aehh4 #c4
  ,statuta ,hospitalis1 without place or
 date1 small folio4 ,each copy1         
however1 has many things which in the   
others are wanting4 #d4 ,histoire  de   
,malthe1 avec les ,statuts et les       

,ordonnances de l',ordre4 ,paris1 #afdc1
  fol4 #e4 ,codice del sacro militare   
ordine ,gerosolimitano4 ,in ,malta      
#aghb1  fol4 ,the words relating to this
 subject may be found in ,titulo quarto1
  xi et xii4    #aaag ,the proofs of    
this singular account may be seen in    
,assemani  ,bibliotheca ,orientalis1    
tom4 iii4 ,p4 #b4 pag4 ,,cmxl4    #aaah 
,diogen4 ,laert4 lib4 i4 seg4 #ee4 ,this
 regulation has been praised  by many4  
,plato in ,menexemo1 schines contra     
,ctesiphon4    #aaai ,suidas1 v4 1 ,lysi
 ,orat4 #bc1 contra ,pancleonem4        
#aabj ,cod4 ,theodos4 lib4 vii4 tit4    
#bj1 #h4 ,brissonius v4 ,causarius4     
#aaba ,livius1 ii4 #dg1 p4 #deh4--;,dio 
,cassius1 lib4 lv4 #bc1 p4              
#gic4--,sueton4 ,vita ,jul4 ,csar4 cap4 
#ch4 ,to this subject belong many       
passages in the ,auctor4 ,rei ,agrar4   
pp4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #bje1 ed4 ,amstelod4 
#afgd1 #dto4    #aabb ,de ,imperio      
,romano1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #ab4 ,argent4    
#afab1 #dto4    #aabc ,lib4 i4 cap4 #g1 

ext4 #aj4    #aabd ,brisson de ,verbor4 
,signif4 v4 ,meritorius4    #aabe p4    
#adf4    #aabf ,histor4 lib4 vi4 cap4   
#bj4    #aabg ,this ,i learn from       
,pontac's ,observations on the          
,chronicon of  ,eusebius1 p4 #ejg1      
,chronica trium illustrium auctorum4    
,burdigal #afjd1  fol4    #aabh ,platina
 de vitis ,pontificum1 p4 #dh1 #affd1   
#abmo4    #aabi ,lamprid4 vita ,alex4   
,severi1 cap4 #di4    #aacj ,walch's    
,histor4 der ,pbste4 ,gttingen1 #ageh1  
#hvo1 p4 #eg4    #aaca ,roma ,vet4 et   
,nova4 lib4 iii4 cap4 #ba4    #aacb ,see
 ,hardouin's ,observations on ,plin4    
lib4 viii4 seg4 #gd1 p4 #dgg2  and the  
figure of the coin1 plate vii4    #aacc 
,ann ,comnen ,alexiados lib4 xv4 p4     
#dhd4 ,the authoress says  expressly1   
that the name  is taken only a parte    
potiori1 as it is known that at later   
periods not only children who  had lost 
their parents1 but others also who were 
entirely or in part  educated at the    
public expense1 and likewise the        

children of the  choir1 were called 4   
,see ,du ,cange1 ,gloss4 ,grcit4 ,the   
emperor  was accustomed to send orphans 
to the monasteries to be educated and   
instructed2 but with this express       
intimation1 that they were not to be    
treated and instructed as serfs1 but as 
the children of freemen4--,anna  ,comn4 
p4 #cha4    #aacd ,there is a tradition 
that this institution owes its rise to  
the  patriotic exertions of ,nell       
,gwynn1 the celebrated mistress of      
,charles  ,,ii4 ,a paragraph in a       
newspaper of the day seems to give some 
little  strength to the supposition that
 her family once dwelt in the vicinity2 
and a public-house still exists at no   
great distance from the hospital1       
having her portrait for its sign1 with  
an inscription ascribing to her  the    
merit of the foundation4 ,the anonymous 
author also of the life of  ,eleanor    
,gwynn states1 that it was at her       
instigation that this noble  charity was
 established4 8,another act of          

generosity10 he says1 8which  raised the
 character of this lady above every     
other courtezan of these  or any other  
times1 was her solicitude to effect the 
institution of  ,chelsea ,hospital4 ,one
 day1 when she was rolling about town in
 her  coach1 a poor man came to the     
coach-door soliciting charity1 who  told
 her a story1 whether true or false is  
immaterial1 of his having  been wounded 
in the civil wars in defence of the     
royal cause4 ,this  circumstance greatly
 affected the benevolent heart of       
,eleanor2 she  considered that 7besides 
the hardships of their being exposed to 
beggary by wounds received in defence of
 their country7 it seemed to  be the    
most monstrous ingratitude in the       
government to suffer those to  perish   
who had stood up in their defence4      
8,warm with these reflections and the   
overflow of pity1 she hurried to  the   
king1 and represented the misery in     
which she had found an old  servant2    
entreated that he might suffer some     

scheme to be proposed to  him towards   
supporting those unfortunate sons of    
valour1 whose old  age1 wounds1 or      
infirmities1 rendered them unfit for    
service2 so that  they might not close  
their days with repining against        
fortune1 and be  oppressed with the     
misery of want40    ,another anecdote of
 that period states1 with somewhat more 
probability1  8,that when the garrison  
was withdrawn from ,tangiers1 there was 
among  them a considerable number of    
aged and decrepid persons4 ,it was      
therefore proposed to build an hospital 
for them2 and the king being  applied to
 for a piece of ground for the site1 he 
offered the spot on  which king ,james's
 ,college stood2 but recollecting       
himself1 #8,odso1'  says he1 #8'tis true
 ,i have already given that land to     
,nell1 here4'  ,she1 who was one of the 
most generous and benevolent of human   
beings1  immediately said1 #8,have you  
so1 ,charles8 then ,i will return it to 
you  again for this purpose2' and the   

hospital was accordingly erected4 ,the  
king however built a house for ,eleanor 
in ,pall ,mall40    ,it is however very 
probable1 according to ,mr4 ,evelyn's   
,memoirs1 that  the design originated   
with ,sir ,stephen ,fox1 who for some   
years had  been paymaster of the forces1
 and certainly had better opportunities 
of becoming acquainted with the wants   
and distresses of the aged and  worn-out
 veterans1 great numbers of whom had    
been thrown on the charity  of the      
country at this period4 ,the building   
was erected under the  superintendence  
of ,sir ,c4 ,wren1 and cost #aej1jjj4   
,it usually contains  about #ejj        
invalids2 there are also a number of    
out-door pensioners1  amounting to about
 #he1jjj4    #aace ,an ,historical      
,account of the ,royal ,hospital for    
,seamen at  ,greenwich4 ,london1 #aghi1 
#dto4 ,the foundation-stone of this     
magnificent  building was laid on ,june 
#c1 #afif1 and the whole of the         
superstructure1  under the honorary     

superintendence of ,sir ,christopher    
,wren1 was  finished within two years2  
the hospital was opened for the         
reception of  pensioners in #agje4 ,in  
the year of the foundation an act was   
passed1 #g  and #h ,william ,,iii41 cap4
 #ba1 by which sixpence a month of the  
wages of  all seamen belonging to the   
royal navy is appropriated to the       
benefits  of the institution4 ,since    
that time large sums have been          
bequeathed  for the use of the hospital1
 and the buildings have been            
successively  enlarged and improved4    
,the indoor pensioners1 of whom there   
are #bgjj 7which number is kept up  by  
filling the vacancies twice a month71   
are maintained1 clothed1 and  lodged1   
having also a weekly allowance for      
pocket-money4    ,by the act1 #aj ,anne1
 cap4 #bg1 it is enacted that the seamen
 of the  merchant service shall         
contribute equally with those of the    
royal  navy2 and that such of the former
 as may be wounded in the defence of    

property belonging to ,her ,majesty's   
subjects1 or otherwise disabled  while  
capturing vessels from an enemy1 shall  
also be admitted to the  benefits of the
 institution4 ,the money received from  
visitors and  other sources is          
appropriated to the support of a school1
 wherein  upwards of #djjj boys have    
been 7#ahch7 educated1 from the         
foundation  of the establishment to the 
present time4 ,there are also about     
#cb1jjj  out-pensioners4    #aacf ,even 
,alexander the ,great undertook this    
office1 as ,plutarch  expressly says in 
his life4    #aacg ,iliad4 xi4 #ead4    
#aach neid4 ii4 #bfc4    #aaci ,achil4  
,tat4 ,lugd4 ,batav4 #afdj1 #abmo1 pp4  
#bdc1 #fag4    #aadj ,mauricii ,ars     
,militaris1 pp4 #bi1 #fb4 ,upsali #affd1
 #hvo4--,leonis  ,tactica1 ed4 ,meursii1
 ,lugd4 ,batt4 #afab1 #dto1 lib4 iv4 #f2
 xii4 #ea1  #ec1 p4 #aej2 #aai1 p4 #abh4
 ,to this subject belongs1 in           
particular1 a  passage in the ,tactica  
of the emperor ,leo1 p4 #dcj1 n4 #fb1   

#fc1 where it  is recommended that      
medicines both for the healing of wounds
 and the  curing of diseases should be  
kept in readiness in armies4    #aada   
,often called ,concilium ,carolomanni4  
,see ,semleri ,hist4 ,eccles4  ,selecta 
,capita4 ,hal1 #agfi1 #hvo1 ii4 p4 #add4
    #aadb ,rymer's ,fdera1 t4 iv4 #b1   
pp4 #aaf1 #aag4    #aadc ,see ,hoyers   
,gesch4 der ,kriegskunst1 #agii1 #hvo1  
ii4 p4 #agf4    #aadd ,kriegsbuch1 durch
 ,leonhart ,fronsperger4 ,frankfort1    
#aefe4    #aade ,the ,margate           
sea-bathing infirmary deserves especial 
mention1 as  being the only institution 
of the kind in ,england1 perhaps in     
,europe4  ,its object is to provide     
sea-bathing for necessitous patients    
suffering  under scrofulous and such    
other diseases as are likely to yield   
only  to sea-air and bathing4 ,it was   
set on foot in #agic1 and established in
  #agif1 by a few benevolent individuals
 in ,london1 under the fostering        
auspices of ,dr4 ,lettsom1 ,john        

,nichols1 ,esq4 7the eminent printer71  
and  his son-in-law1 the ,rev4 ,john    
,pridden4 ,its present site1 ,westbrook1
  near ,margate1 was selected after much
 inquiry1 as the most salubrious  spot  
on the coast within a convenient        
distance of the metropolis4 ,from  a    
small beginning this excellent charity  
has arisen to considerable  importance  
in the scale of those valuable          
institutions which are  designed to     
lessen the amount of human suffering1   
and it now numbers  #bcj in-door and    
about as many out-door patients4 ,this  
praiseworthy  institution however is    
closed during six months in the year    
7from  ,november to ,april71 and the    
in-door patients are required to pay1   
either by themselves or their friends1  
from #es4 to #fs4 per week  for adults1 
and #ds4 to #ds4 #f;d4 per week for     
children2 which1 as  scrofulous diseases
 more particularly afflict the very     
poorer classes1  are subjects of regret4
          ,,cock-,,fighting4      ,until

 a recent period the ,english were      
almost the only people among  whom      
cock-fighting was a favourite amusement2
 and on that account it is  considered  
as peculiar to them1 though it was      
esteemed among various  nations many    
centuries ago4 ,it is not improbable    
that it was first  introduced into      
,england by the ,romans4 ,that it1      
however1 has been  constantly retained  
there1 though the practice of inciting  
animals  to fight has been long scouted 
by moral and enlightened nations1 is  as
 singular an anomaly1 as that the       
,spaniards should still continue  their 
bull-fights1 and that princes who wish  
to avoid the appearance  of cruelty     
should nevertheless pursue1 with        
immoderate passion1 the  detestable and 
so often condemned hunting with dogs4 ,i
 shall leave to  others the task of     
moralising on these contradictions in   
the character  of whole nations as well 
as individuals1 and shall here only give
 the  history of cock-fighting as far as

 ,i am acquainted with it4    ,this     
pastime is certainly very old2 but ,i   
agree in opinion with ,mr4  ,pegge#aadf1
 that ,palmerius#aadg has made it much  
older than can  fully be proved4 ,the   
latter supposes that ,adrastus1 the son 
of ,midas1  king of ,phrygia1 killed his
 brother in consequence of a quarrel    
which  took place between them in regard
 to a battle of quails4 ,adrastus on    
account of this murder fled to ,crsus2  
and as that prince lived about  #eej    
years before the ,christian ra1         
quail-fighting1 according to the        
opinion of ,palmerius1 must have been   
customary at that time2 and in  this    
case one might admit that cock-fighting 
was of the same antiquity1  because the 
battles of the domestic cock are still  
more violent1 and  can afford more      
amusement4 ,herodotus#aadh1 who relates 
the story of  ,adrastus1 does not       
mention the cause of the quarrel2 but it
 is given by  the historian ,ptolemy1   
the son of ,hephestion1 called also     

,alexandrinus1  who lived about the time
 of ,trajan and ,adrian#aadi4 ,he       
however only  says that the two brothers
 quarrelled about a quail4 ,did any     
other  proofs exist that quail-fighting 
was common at so early a period1 it     
would indeed be then probable that the  
brothers quarrelled during that         
pastime4 ,but as no such proofs are to  
be found1 many other causes of          
quarrelling in regard to a quail1 either
 in catching or pursuing it1  may be    
conceived4    ,it is however certain    
that quails1 as well as the domestic    
cock1 are  exceedingly irritable and    
quarrelsome birds2 and that1 like the   
latter1  they can be employed for       
fighting2 but it appears that           
quail-fighting  was first practised by  
the ,romans1 in whose writings it is    
frequently  mentioned#aaej2 whereas     
among the ,greeks it seldom or never    
occurs1  while cock-fighting is spoken  
of on many occasions4 ,the latter       
however  sported with quails2 but their 

pastime with these birds seems not to   
have been fighting1 properly so called1 
where the great object of  contest is   
whose quail shall be the victor2 but the
 information on  this subject is so     
imperfect that it cannot be fully       
understood#aaea4  ,sometimes the parties
 laid bets who could kill the other's   
quails1 or  the greatest number of them1
 with one blow4 ,one placed a quail     
within  a circle1 and another           
endeavoured by irritating the animal to 
make it  go beyond it4 ,if he proved    
successful in this attempt1 he was      
declared  the winner4 ,several were     
often placed within a circle at the same
 time1  and the person lost whose bird  
first quitted it4 ,khn and others are of
  opinion1 that each of the parties     
endeavoured to induce the quail of  the 
other to leave the circle1 by irritating
 or enticing it2 but the  words appear  
without doubt to allude to a contest of 
several quails  with each other#aaeb1   
were it possible that the later ,greeks 

had  learned to play at this game from  
the contests of the ,romans4    ,solon1 
however1 in ,lucian#aaec1 speaks of     
cock-fights and quail-fights  exhibited 
publicly at ,athens4 ,but ,lucian lived 
in the second century1  had travelled   
into ,italy1 was well acquainted with   
the ,roman customs1  and made ,solon    
mention quail-fighting1 which he never  
saw in ,greece1  merely because he      
himself had seen it in ,italy4 ,this    
blunder may  appear too gross1 perhaps1 
for so acute a writer as ,lucian2 but   
since  he has fallen into two           
anachronisms in the same dialogue1 as he
 not  only makes ,solon a contemporary  
of ,lycurgus1 who lived two centuries   
earlier1 but also introduces him as     
speaking of public cock-fights at       
,athens1 which were first established   
half a century later1 that is to  say1  
after the battle of ,marathon1 he may   
readily have been guilty of a  third    
oversight1 by transferring              
quail-fighting to ,athens4 ,but at any  

rate similar games were usual in the    
island of ,cyprus in the sixteenth      
century4    ,it appears1 however1 that  
the ,romans bred and employed partridges
  for fighting in the same manner as    
quails4 ,lampridius relates1 that  the  
emperor ,alexander ,severus was fond of 
seeing battles of this  kind#aaed2 and  
lian1 who lived in ,italy under         
,heliogabalus1 in the  second           
century#aaee1 says that those who kept  
partridges for fighting1  when they     
pitted them against each other1 placed  
the females close to  the males1 in     
order to render them more courageous4   
,without doubt he  here speaks of what  
was then usual at ,rome4                
,cock-fighting was appointed at ,athens 
to be a public or solemn pastime1  in   
consequence of a circumstance which     
occurred to ,themistocles4 ,at  least   
lian relates#aaef that this commander1  
when he led out the  ,greeks against the
 ,persians1 happening to see two cocks  
fighting1 took  that opportunity to     

rouse the courage of his soldiers1 by   
telling them  that as these animals     
contended with so much obstinacy1 though
 they  fought neither for their country1
 their families1 nor their liberty1  but
 merely for the honour of victory1 it   
was much more incumbent on  them to     
exert themselves with bravery1 as they  
had all these causes of  incitement4    
,having defeated the enemy1 as a        
memorial of his victory and  a future   
encouragement to bravery1 it was ordered
 that fighting-cocks  should be         
exhibited every year1 in a public       
theatre1 in the presence of  the whole  
people4    ,mr4 ,pegge and others are of
 opinion that the ,greeks afterwards    
took  so much pleasure in the fighting  
of these birds1 that they were          
generally employed throughout all       
,greece for this pastime and for        
betting4 ,i am ready to admit that this 
is probable2 but the institution  of    
,themistocles appears to me to be no    
proof that cock-fighting was  not       

practised at an earlier period4 ,even if
 it had been common1 the  ,athenians    
might have thought proper to establish a
 religious or at  least solemn          
cock-fighting to be exhibited every     
year4 ,themistocles  however is not the 
only person who employed the courage of 
game-cocks  as an incitement to bravery4
 ,socrates inspired ,iphicrates with    
courage1  by showing him with what      
ferocity the cock of ,midas1 or         
,meidias1 and  that of ,callias attacked
 each other#aaeg4 ,what ,themistocles   
said to  his soldiers was addressed by  
,musonius as a philosopher to mankind1  
to  encourage them to support labour1   
danger1 and pain1 when duty or honour   
require it#aaeh4    ,many modern writers
 ascribe the establishment of public    
cock-fighting  at ,athens1 not to       
,themistocles1 but to his contemporary  
,miltiades4  ,i have hitherto suspected 
that this arises merely from a confusion
  of names1 as is certainly the case in 
,moses du ,soul#aaei1 where a  reference

 is made to lian1 by whom however       
,miltiades is not mentioned4  ,at       
present1 ,i am of opinion that ,philo   
,judus1 who wrote in the first  century1
 gave occasion to this assertion4 ,he   
relates1 that when  ,miltiades was about
 to lead the ,grecian troops against the
 ,persians1 he  exhibited a cock-fight1 
in a place which had been employed for  
public  shows1 in order to inspire      
courage into his soldiers by this       
spectacle1  and that the end proposed   
was accomplished2 but nothing is said by
 that  author in regard to the          
establishment of annual                 
cock-fights#aafj4  ,according to this   
account1 cock-fighting seems to have    
been at that  time not uncommon2 but as 
it remains doubtful whether ,philo      
speaks of  the campaign before the      
battle of ,marathon1 in which ,miltiades
 and  ,themistocles were both present1  
very little can be gathered from his    
relation1 and it appears to me not      
sufficient to contradict the more       

circumstantial account of lian4         
,another small mistake1 which ,pegge    
thought it worth while to notice1       
deserves also perhaps to be rectified4  
,dalechamp#aafa and ,potter#aafb  assert
 that ,themistocles1 while leading out  
his army1 having heard a  cock crow1    
declared this to be an omen of victory1 
and after beating  the enemy he         
instituted cock-fighting in remembrance 
of that event4  ,i shall here remark1   
that ,dalechamp is not the first person 
who made  this assertion4 ,peucer#aafc1 
and at a period still earlier1          
,alexander  ab ,alexandro#aafd mentioned
 the same thing1 but no one ever pointed
  out the passage in any ancient author 
upon which this assertion  was founded2 
and ,i have been as unsuccessful in my  
endeavours to  find it1 as those who    
attempted to discover the sources from  
which  ,alexander derived his           
information4 ,this author perhaps       
collected from  manuscripts1 in the     
fifteenth century1 many things never    

printed1 and  which therefore have been 
lost4 ,he may also have written many    
things  from memory without remembering 
them all with accuracy4    ,it is indeed
 true1 that the crowing of a cock was   
sometimes considered  as a presage of   
victory4 ,thus ,cicero quotes an        
instance#aafe where a  ,botian          
soothsayer promised victory to the      
,thebans from the crowing  of a cock2   
and according to ,pliny#aaff1 the same  
circumstance once  served to the        
,botians as an omen of victory over the 
,lacedmonians4  ,how then could         
,themistocles make choice of a          
cock-fight to commemorate  a victory    
announced by the crowing of a cock8     
,besides1 ,anacharsis  in ,lucian       
confirms the object of the institution  
assigned by lian4  ,in the history of   
antiquity many things are often         
repeated1 without  any one taking the   
trouble to examine whether they can be  
proved by  the testimony of the         
ancients4 ,those who wish to attain to  

truth  and certainty in matters of this 
kind1 will not consider such short      
examinations to be of so little         
importance as they may to others appear4
    ,dempster has assigned another      
reason for the cock-fights established  
by ,themistocles1 which1 though adopted 
by many1 is not even supported  by      
probability4 ,he conceives that these   
cock-fights were like a kind  of        
permanent trophies or monuments of the  
conquered ,persians1 because  the       
game-cock was indigenous in ,persia1 and
 conveyed thence to other               
countries#aafg4    ,athenus#aafh1       
indeed1 quotes from a work of ,menodotus
 some lines  by which the latter part of
 this assertion is confirmed2 and       
,aristophanes#aafi in two places calls  
the domestic cock a ,persian  bird4 ,it 
is proved by more modern accounts1 that 
this species of fowl  is at present     
found wild in the ,east ,indies and many
 neighbouring  countries4 ,sonnerat#aagj
 found them in ,hindostan2 and they were

  seen by ,cook and by ,dampier on ,pulo
 ,condor and many islands of the  ,south
 ,sea4 ,according to the testimony of   
,gemelli ,careri1 they were  indigenous 
in the ,philippine islands1 and         
according to ,morolla in  the kingdom of
 ,congo4 ,that they are still found wild
 in ,georgia is  asserted by            
,reineggs#aaga4 ,the account therefore  
of the ,greeks1 that  they obtained     
domestic fowls from ,persia1 may be     
admitted2 but as in  cock-fights one    
,persian overcame another1 how could    
these convey the  idea of a victory of  
the ,greeks over the ,persians8 ,is the 
object1 then1  as stated by ,lucian and 
lian not sufficient and intelligible8   
,that cock-fighting1 in the course of   
time1 became a favourite pastime  among 
the people1 is proved by the frequent   
mention which is made of it  in various 
authors4 ,pliny says#aagb that it was   
exhibited annually at  ,pergamus1 in the
 same manner as combats of gladiators4  
,in this city1  according to            

,petronius#aagc1 a boy was promised a   
fighting-cock2 and  therefore it appears
 that boys kept cocks there for this    
pastime4  schines reproaches ,timarchus 
with spending the whole day in gaming   
and  cock-fighting4 ,plato#aagd         
complains1 that not only boys but       
grown-up  persons1 instead of labouring1
 bred birds for fighting1 and employed  
their whole time in such idle           
amusements4    ,cock-fights were        
represented also by the ,greeks on coins
 and on cut  stones4 ,that the ,dardani 
had them on their coins we are told by  
,pollux#aage2 and this seems to prove   
that these people were as fond of  that 
sport as their neighbours of ,pergamus4 
,mr4 ,pegge caused engravings  to be    
made of two gems in the collection of   
,sir ,william ,hamilton1 on  one of     
which is seen a cock in the humble      
attitude of defeat1 with its  head      
hanging down1 and another in the        
attitude of victory1 with an ear  of    
corn in its bill as the object of       

contest4 ,on the other stone two  cocks 
are fighting1 while a mouse carries away
 the ear of corn for  the possession of 
which they had quarrelled2 a happy      
emblem of our  law-suits1 in which the  
greater part of the property in dispute 
falls  to the lawyers and attorneys4    
,two cocks in the attitude of fighting  
are  represented also on a lamp found in
 ,herculaneum#aagf4    ,that the ,greeks
 employed various means to increase the 
irritability  and courage of            
fighting-cocks is beyond all doubt4     
,besides the  circumstance already      
mentioned in regard to the females1 they
 gave  them also food which produced    
nearly the same effect as opium does  in
 ,india1 and as brandy did some years   
ago on the ,european armies4            
,dioscorides#aagg and ,pliny#aagh       
ascribe this effect to a plant which    
they call adiantum4 ,the former says it 
was given to game-cocks and  quails1 and
 the latter that it was given to        
game-cocks and partridges1  to incite   

them to fight4 ,garlick1 allium1 was    
employed also1 as we  are told by       
,xenophon1 not only for game-cocks but  
also for horses and  soldiers4 ,that the
 ,greeks1 however1 like the ,english at 
present1 armed  their cocks with steel  
spurs1 in order to render their battles 
more  bloody1 is denied by ,pegge2      
though the contrary seems to be proved  
by  a passage in ,aristophanes1 now     
become a proverb1 and the remarks of    
the scholiast#aagi4 ,as the ,english    
procure the strongest and best          
fighting-cocks from other countries1 and
 often from ,germany1 through  ,hamburg1
 the ,greeks1 in the like manner1       
obtained foreign game-cocks  for the    
same purpose#aahj4    ,why the ,romans  
showed more fondness for quail-fighting 
than for  cock-fighting ,i do not know2 
but it is certain that they had not the 
latter1 or at any rate only seldom and  
at a late period1 which appears  to be  
very singular1 as they began then more  
and more to imitate the  ,greeks4 ,varro

 mentions the breeds which were chiefly 
sought for in  ,greece2 but he adds1    
that though they might be good for      
fighting1 they  were not fit for        
breeding#aaha4 ,had the breeding of     
game-cocks been an  employment1 he would
 have spoken in a different manner4     
,columella also  ridicules the breeding 
of these cocks1 as a ,grecian custom1   
and prefers  the native race to all     
others4 ,eustathius1 in the place       
already quoted1  says expressly that the
 ,romans preferred quails to game-cocks2
 yet in  later times we find mention    
among them of cock-fighting1 as has been
  before remarked4    ,there were cocks 
in ,england in the time of ,julius      
,csar#aahb2 but  it is said that they   
were kept there merely for pleasure1 and
 not  used as food4 ,the latter part of 
this account is not improbable4 ,the    
inhabitants of the ,pelew ,islands1 we  
are told1 eat only the eggs of  their   
hens1 and not the flesh4 ,but the       
question1 how old cock-fighting  is in  

,england1 cannot be determined4 ,pegge  
says1 the oldest information  which he  
found on this subject was in the        
,description of the ,city  of ,london by
 ,william ,fitz-,stephens1 who lived in 
the reign of ,henry  ,,ii41 and died in 
#aaiaaahc4 ,this writer relates that    
every year on  ,shrove ,tuesday the boys
 at school brought their game-cocks to  
the  master1 and the whole forenoon was 
devoted to cock-fighting1 for the       
amusement of the pupils4 ,the theatre or
 cock-pit1 therefore1 was in the        
school-house1 and the pupils seem to    
have had the direction of it4 ,to  this 
information ,i can add1 that            
cock-fighting in ,france was forbidden  
by a council in #abfj1 on account of    
some mischief to which it had given     
rise#aahd4    ,this pastime has been    
sometimes forbidden even in ,england1 as
 was the  case under ,edward ,,iii4 and 
,henry ,,viii42 also in the year #aefi1 
and even  later2 but it was nevertheless
 retained to a late period4 ,even ,henry

  ,,viii4 himself instituted fights of  
this kind2 and a writer worthy of       
credit relates1 that ,james ,i4 took    
great delight in them#aahe4 ,in  modern 
times this cruel amusement has been     
carried beyond all bounds2  so that the 
cock-fights in ,china#aahf1             
,persia#aahg1 ,malacca#aahh1  and       
,america#aahi1 are nothing in comparison
 of those called the  battle-royal and  
the ,welsh main4 ,in the former a       
certain number  of cocks are let loose  
to fight1 and when they have destroyed  
each  other1 the survivor is accounted  
the victor1 and obtains the prize4 ,in  
the latter kind of battle1 sixteen pair 
of cocks1 for example1 being  pitted    
against each other1 the sixteen         
conquerors are made to fight  again2 the
 eight of these which are victors1 must 
fight a third time2  and the four       
remaining a fourth time1 till at length 
the two last  conquerors terminate1 by a
 fifth contest1 this murderous game1    
after  thirty-one cocks have            

successively butchered each other amidst
 the  noisy exultation of the           
spectators1 who however make a pretence 
to the  character of magnanimity4       
,cock-fighting is one of the chief      
amusements throughout the ,east  ,indies
 and ,china1 and it is a fashionable    
pastime for ladies in ,peru4  ,the spot 
on which the cock-pit ,royal1 which was 
built in the reign of  ,charles ,,ii41  
existed1 is now used for the meetings of
 the members of  ,her ,majesty's ,privy 
,council4 ,the custom of cock-throwing1 
that is1 of  throwing sticks at a cock  
exposed at a stake and which was        
practised  in this country at           
,shrovetide1 is supposed to have        
originated during  the war with ,france 
in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 and to  
have been  considered a mark of hatred  
and contempt for the ,french people1 of 
whom  that bird was the national emblem2
 but the conjecture rests upon no  solid
 authority and must be regarded as mere 
legend4    ,cock-fighting is now        

forbidden and punishable by law in      
,great ,britain1  and every attempt is  
made to prevent this and other similar  
barbarous  sports and to convict the    
offenders1 by the ,society for the      
,prevention  of ,cruelty to ,animals4   
,,footnotes    #aadf ,archologia1 vol4  
iii4 p4 #acb4 ,a ,memoir on             
,cock-fighting1 by  ,samuel ,pegge1     
,m4,a41 ,rector of ,wittington4 ,as this
 learned antiquary  made use of what was
 collected by others on this subject1 ,i
 have taken  the same liberty with his  
paper2 but have rectified some mistakes 
and  made new additions4    #aadg       
,palmerii ,exercit4 in ,auct4 ,grcos4   
,ultraj4 #afid1 #dto1 p4 #c4    #aadh   
,lib4 i4 cap4 #ce et #de4    #aadi ,see 
,vossius de ,historicis ,grcis1 lib4 ii4
 cap4 #aj4 ,extracts  from this book of 
,ptolemy may be found in ,photii        
,bibliotheca1 #afab1  fol4 p4 #dgb4     
#aaej ,the passages which indisputably  
relate to quail-fighting1 as  far as ,i 
know1 are as follows3 ,plutarch4        

,apophthegm4 p4 #bjg1 ed4  ,francofurt1 
#afbj1 fol4 ,csar ,augustus caused a    
person to be punished  for having       
purchased and used as food a quail which
 had always been  victorious2 and in    
,vita ,antonini1 p4 #icj1 it is said    
that ,antoninus  often had the          
satisfaction of seeing his game-cocks   
and quails  victorious4 ,m4 ,antoninus  
de ,se-ipso1 i4  #f1 declares that he   
never  took pleasure in keeping quails  
for fighting4 ,herodian1 iii4 #aj1 #d1  
says that the son of ,septimus ,severus 
always got into quarrels at  quail- and 
cock-fighting4    #aaea ,this account is
 given by ,jul4 ,pollux1 lib4 ix4 cap4  
#g1  #ajb et  #ajh4--,suidas1 v4 1 ed4  
,kusteri1 ii4 p4 #gag4--,meursius de    
,ludis ,grcorum1 in ,gronovii ,thes4    
,grc4 ,antiq4 vii4 p4 #igi4    #aaeb    
,pollux1 p4 #ajie4    #aaec ,de         
,gymnasiis1 cap4 #cg4    #aaed ,cap4    
#da1 p4 #ihe4    #aaee ,histor4 ,anim4  
iv4 #a4    #aaef ,var4 ,histor4 ii4 #bh4
 ,khn quotes from ,eustathius's         

commentary on  the ,iliad1 p4 #gdj1 a   
passage which contains a new proof that 
the ,romans  had quail-fighting rather  
than cock-fighting4 ,the words of lian  
are  admitted by ,petit among the ,attic
 laws4 ,see his ,leges ,attic1 p4 #aef4 
#aaeg ,diogen4 ,laert4 ii4 #cj4 p4 #ih4 
#aaeh ,stobi ,eclog4 ed4 ,gesneri4      
,tiguri #aedc1 fol4 p4 #bih4 ,clius     
,rhodiginus ,lection4 ,antiq4 xvi4 #ac1 
and after him ,delechamp1 ,khn1  ,pegge1
 and others say1 that the philosopher   
,chrysippus extols the  game-cock also  
on account of its courage2 but none of  
these writers has  told us where this   
fragment of the lost works of that      
polygraph is to  be found4 ,i met with  
it in ,plutarchi lib4 de ,stoicorum     
repugnantiis1 p4  #ajdi4    #aaei       
,solanus ad ,luciani lib4 c4    #aafj   
,the passage occurs in the treatise1    
,liber quisquis virtuti  studet1 in op4 
ed4 ,mangey1 ii4 p4 #dff4    #aafa ,in  
his observations on ,pliny1 lib4 x4 #ba1
 sect4 #cd4    #aafb ,antiq4 of ,greece4

    #aafc ,de ,divinationum ,generibus1 
#aeia1 #hvo1 #bcb1 b4    #aafd ,geniales
 ,dies1 v4 #ac4    #aafe ,de            
,divinatione1 i4 cap4 #cd4    #aaff     
,plin4 x4 #ba1 sect4 #cd4    #aafg ,in  
his ,annotations on ,rosini ,antiquit4  
,rom4 iii4 cap4 #aj4 ,see  ,hyde de     
,religione ,persarum1 p4 #afc4    #aafh 
,lib4 xiv4 cap4 #bj4    #aafi ,aves1    
#dhd1 #gjg4 ,beck1 in his edition of    
this comedy1 ,lips4 #aghb1  #hvo1 p4    
#ej1 thinks that the ancients themselves
 did not know whence  this appellation  
arose4 ,he refers therefore to the      
scholiasts1 and to  ,suidas1 v4  1 p4   
#ajb1 whose words have been copied by   
,phavorinus into his dictionary1 p4     
#eih2 and he supposes1 with ,suidas1    
that the similarity of the cock's comb  
to the ,persian covering for the  head  
gave occasion to the name4 ,but the     
passage quoted from ,athenus  assigns a 
much more probable reason4    #aagj     
,voy4 aux ,indes ,or4 ii4 p4 #aag1 where
 there is also a figure of  the wild    

fowls4    #aaga ,reineggs ,beschreibung 
des ,kaukasus1 #agig1 #hvo1 p4 #fi4     
#aagb ,lib4 x4 c4 #g4    #aagc ,cap4    
#hf4    #aagd ,de ,legibus1 l4 vii4     
#aage ,onomast4 ix4 #hd4    #aagf       
,antich4 di ,ercolano1 tom4 viii4       
,lucerne1 p4 #fc4 ,more engravings  of  
coins with similar impressions may be   
found in ,haym4 ,thes4 ,brit4 i4  pp4   
#bac1 #bcd1 in ,agostini ,gem4 ,p4 i4 p4
 #aii1 and in ,gorleus1 ,p4 i4 #ea1  and
 #aad1 also ,p4 ii4 #bdf4 ,frlich       
,notit4 ,numism4 p4 #ha4 ,a single cock 
may often have been the emblem of       
vigilance4    #aagg ,lib4 iv4 cap4 #cf4 
#aagh ,lib4 xxii4 cap4 #ba1 sect4 #cj3  
8perdices et gallinaceos  pugnaciores   
fieri putant1 in cibum eorum additis40  
,this affords a  further proof that     
partridges also were made to fight4     
#aagi ,aves1 #gfj3    3 tolle calcar si 
pugnas4 ,see  what has been said in     
regard to this proverb by ,suidas1 and  
by ,erasmus  in his ,adagia4    #aahj   
,the most celebrated breeds are         

mentioned by ,columella1 viii4          
#b4--,plin4 x4 #ba4--;,geopon4 xvi4 #c1 
#cj4    #aaha ,varro1 iii4 #i4    #aahb 
,de ,bello ,gallico1 lib4 v4 #ab4       
#aahc 8,prterea quotannis die1 qu       
dicitur carnivale 7ut a puerorum  ludis 
incipiamus1 omnes enim pueri fuimus7    
scholarum singuli pueri suos  apportant 
magistro suo gallos gallinaceos         
pugnatores1 et totum illud              
antemeridanum datur ludo puerorum       
vacantium spectare in scholis suorum    
pugnas gallorum40 ,i have transcribed   
these words from the first edition  of  
this old topography1 which is entitled  
,a ,survey of ,london1 written  in the  
year #aeih1 by ,john ,stow 444 with an  
appendix containing ,libellum  de situ  
et nobilitate ,londini1 written by      
,william ,fitzstephen4 ,lond4  #aeii1   
#dto1 p4 #dhj4 ,stow translates the word
 ,carnivale by ,shrove  ,tuesday4       
#aahd ,du ,cange1 ,glossarium4 ,this    
council1 as ,i conjecture1 was held in  
the town of ,copriniacum in diocesi     

,burdegalensi1 which1 as some think1    
was ,cognac4    #aahe ,see ,maitland's  
,london1 and ,stow's ,survey1 by        
,strype1 i4 p4 #cjb4  edit4 #aged4      
#aahf ,bell's ,travels1 p4 #cjc4        
#aahg ,tavernier4    #aahh ,dampier4    
,also the ,gentleman's ,mag4 #aggj1 p4  
#efd4    #aahi ,wafer1 p4 #aah4         
,,saltpetre4 ,,gunpowder4 ,,aquafortis4 
,in examining the question1 whether     
,theophrastus1 ,pliny1 and in general   
the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 were   
acquainted with our saltpetre1 or  at   
what period it became known1 ,i shall   
perhaps meet with as little  success as 
those who have preceded me in the same  
research#aaij4 ,i  shall therefore be   
satisfied if competent judges allow that
 ,i have  contributed anything new that 
can tend to illustrate the subject4     
,our saltpetre1 which is commonly called
 nitrum1 and sometimes1 though  more    
rarely1 sal nitr1 is a neutral salt     
composed of a peculiar  acid1 named the 
acid of saltpetre or nitric acid1 and   

that alkali  called potash4 ,the        
characters by which it is most readily  
distinguished  from other salts are its 
cooling taste1 its fusibility when      
exposed to  a small degree of heat1 and 
in particular its so-called             
deflagration2  that is1 the property it 
has when placed in the fire1 or on an   
ignited  body1 or when melted in a      
crucible1 with a combustible substance1 
of  suddenly bursting into a very bright
 flame1 by which it loses its acid1  and
 nothing remains but a carbonate of     
potash4 ,the principal use of  it is in 
making gunpowder1 and for the           
preparation of that acid known  under   
the name of aquafortis#aaia1 which is   
employed in various ways4    ,native    
saltpetre is so rare1 that ,cronstedt   
was not acquainted with it4  ,at        
present1 however1 it is known to occur  
in the ,east ,indies1 in the  lower part
 of ,italy1 also in ,portugal#aaib1     
,spain1 ,america1 and some  other       
countries#aaic4 ,but almost all the     

saltpetre obtained in ,europe  is       
produced partly by nature and partly by 
art4 ,the putrefaction of  organic      
bodies gives rise1 under certain        
circumstances1 to nitric acid1  which in
 general combines with calcareous earth 
wherever it finds it1  and forms the    
so-called earthy saltpetre4 ,this is    
decomposed by potash1  and the latter   
uniting with the acid forms common      
saltpetre4 ,sometimes  also it is found 
that the nitric acid1 instead of being  
united with  calcareous earth1 is       
combined with soda1 which produces the  
so-called  cubic saltpeter#aaid4 ,both  
these saline substances1 but the earthy 
more frequently than the cubic1 are     
often found on effloresced walls2  and  
both are then comprehended under the    
common names of ,mauersalz or           
,mauerbeschlag1 sal murale4    ,this    
efflorescence on walls was observed1 in 
all probability1 at a  very early       
period1 especially as it is produced in 
many parts in great  abundance1 and as  

it makes itself perceptible by the decay
 of walls1  which it seems to corrode4  
,it is the plague or leprosy of houses  
mentioned in the ,mosaic code of laws4  
,as the ancients were so much  inclined 
to expect medicinal virtue in all       
natural bodies1 there is  reason to     
think that they soon collected and made 
trial of this saline  incrustation4     
,that this indeed was actually the case1
 and that they  gave the name of nitrum 
to this saline mass1 may be proved from 
their  writings4 ,their nitrum1 however1
 must have been exceedingly various  in 
its properties4 ,for this incrustation  
is not always calcareous  saltpetre2 it 
is often soda#aaie1 mixed with more or  
less calcareous  earth2 and sometimes it
 consists of salts of sulphuric acid4   
,in  modern times1 on closer            
examination1 other salts of nitric acid 
have  been found in the incrustation of 
walls1 such as flaming saltpetre or     
nitrate of ammonia1 bitter saltpetre or 
nitrate of magnesia2 but of  these no   

mention can be expected in the works of 
the ancients4    ,substances so         
different ought not indeed to have been 
all named  nitrum2 but before natural   
history began to be formed into a       
regular  system1 mankind in general fell
 into an error directly contrary to that
  committed at present4 ,objects        
essentially different were comprehended 
under one name1 if they any how         
corresponded with each other even in    
things accidental4 ,whereas at present  
every variety1 however small1  obtains a
 distinct appellation2 because many wish
 to have the pleasure1  if not of       
forming new species1 at any rate of     
giving new names4 ,the  elephant and    
rhinoceros were formerly called oxen2   
the sable and ermine  were named mice1  
and the ostrich was distinguished by the
 appellation  of sparrow4 ,in the like  
manner1 calcareous saltpetre and alkali 
might  be called nitrum4 ,the ancients1 
however1 gave to their nitrum some      
epithets1 but they seem to have been    

used only to denote uncommon  varieties4
    ,now1 as the ancients were not      
acquainted with any accurate method of  
separating and distinguishing salts1 it 
needs excite no wonder that  they should
 ascribe to their nitrum properties     
which could not  possibly be united in a
 salt1 and much less exist in our       
saltpetre4  ,but as they were neither   
acquainted with aquafortis nor          
manufactured  gunpowder1 and as no      
particular use of calcareous saltpetre  
was known1  the nitrum most valuable to 
them must have been that which consisted
  chiefly of soda1 and which            
consequently could be employed in       
washing1  in painting1 and in           
glass-making4    ,it is well known that 
in warm countries this alkali           
effloresces here  and there from the    
earth1 particularly in a dry soil1 and  
even in  such quantity as to be employed
 in commerce4 ,hence it may be readily  
comprehended why this effloresced salt1 
which is very often mixed with  common  

salt1 obtained the name of nitrum4      
,the important discovery1 that a similar
 salt1 having the like  properties1 and 
applicable to the same uses1 named at   
present soda1  may be obtained from the 
ashes of certain plants1 was first made1
 in  my opinion1 by the ancient         
,egyptians or ,arabians#aaif4 ,this salt
  also1 at least by the ,greeks1 was    
named nitrum1 or considered as a        
species of it4 ,by the incineration of  
the plants this salt was rendered       
slightly caustic2 and it then became    
moist in the air1 and deliquesced  when 
not preserved in very close vessels4 ,it
 was therefore like those  salts which  
are obtained1 in the same manner1 from  
the ashes of all  other plants2 though  
the latter are essentially different    
from the  former1 and in the course of  
time obtained the peculiar appellation  
of  potash or pearlash4 ,one can hardly 
be surprised that the ancients were  not
 able to distinguish soda from potash1  
especially as they were both  obtained  

from vegetable ashes4    ,but were the  
ancients1 under the ambiguous name of   
nitrum1 acquainted  with our saltpetre8 
,there is certainly reason to think that
 it became  known to them by lixiviating
 earths impregnated with salts4 ,there  
are1  as already said1 not only in      
,india but also in ,africa1 and         
particularly  in ,egypt1 earths which1  
without the addition of ashes or potash1
 give  real saltpetre1 like that of the 
rubbish-hills on the road from new  to  
old ,cairo#aaig1 and like the earth in  
some parts of ,spain4 ,it is  a         
knowledge only of this natural kind of  
saltpetre1 which required no  artificial
 composition1 that can be allowed to the
 ancients1 as it does  not appear by    
their writings that they were           
sufficiently versed in  chemistry to    
prepare the artificial kind used at     
present4    ,but even admitting that    
they had our saltpetre1 where and by    
what  means can we be convinced of it8  
,is it to be expected that any of the   

before-mentioned characters or          
properties of this salt should occur in 
their writings8 ,they neither made      
aquafortis nor gunpowder2 and they  seem
 scarcely to have had any occasion or   
opportunity to discover its             
deflagration and the carbonization      
thereby effected1 or1 when observed1  to
 examine and describe it4 ,no other use 
of our saltpetre which could  properly  
announce this phenomenon has yet been   
known4 ,how then can it  be ascertained 
that under the term nitrum they         
sometimes meant our  saltpetre8         
,those inclined to believe too little   
rather than too much1 who cannot  be    
satisfied with mere conjectures or      
probabilities1 but always require  full 
proof1 will acknowledge with me1 that   
the first certain accounts  of our      
saltpetre cannot be expected much before
 the invention of  aquafortis and       
gunpowder4 ,it deserves also to be      
remarked1 that the  real saltpetre1 as  
soon as it became known1 was named also 

nitrum2  but1 by way of distinction1    
either sal nitrum1 or sal nitri1 or  sal
 petr4 ,the first appellation1 from     
which our ancestors made  salniter1 was 
occasioned by an unintelligible passage 
of ,pliny1  which ,i shall afterwards   
point out4 ,the two other names signify1
  like sal tartari1 sal succini1 a salt 
which was not nitrum but  obtained from 
nitrum4 ,sal-nitri1 therefore1 or       
salniter1 was  that salt which1         
according to the representation of the  
ancients1 was  separated by art from    
nitrum1 yet was essentially different   
from the  nitrum or soda commonly in    
use4 ,biringoccio says expressly1 that  
the artificial nitrum1 for the sake of  
distinction1 was named1 not  nitrum1 but
 sal nitrum4    ,the name nitrum is of  
great antiquity1 and seems to have been 
conveyed from ,egypt and ,palestine to  
,greece1 and thence to ,italy and  every
 part of ,europe4 ,for it is evidently  
the neter mentioned by  the prophet     
,jeremiah1 chap4 ii4 ver4 #bb2 and which

 occurs also in the  ,proverbs of       
,solomon1 chap4 xxv4 ver4 #bj4 ,but     
whether the name nitrum1  as ,jerome    
says#aaih1 be derived from the ,egyptian
 province ,nitria1  whence it was       
exported in great abundance1 or the name
 of the province  was derived from      
nitrum1 is a question of little         
importance in  regard to this research4 
,nitron is mentioned by ,herodotus1     
where he  describes the ,egyptian method
 of embalming dead bodies#aaii2 by some 
of the ,greeks the word was written and 
pronounced litron4 ,in the same  manner 
people say nympha and lympha4 ,in order 
to avoid confusion1 ,i  shall here call 
the nitrum of the ancients nitrum1 and  
the nitrum  of the mineralogists        
saltpetre4    ,in the course of time men
 became acquainted with the purer1 more 
useful1 and cheaper mineral alkali which
 was furnished1 under the name  of soda1
 by the ,moors and inhabitants of the   
southern countries1 who  had learned the
 method of preparing it4 ,the vegetable 

alkali also was  always more and more   
manufactured in woody districts1 as an  
article in  great request1 and sold     
under the name of potash1 cineres       
clavellati4  ,all knowledge of the      
impure alkali from the incrustation of  
walls  was then lost2 and as there was  
no further need of guarding against     
confusion1 it was not longer thought    
worth while to name saltpetre sal       
nitri3 it was called nitrum2 and the    
oldest signification of this  word being
 forgotten1 it was admitted without     
further examination1 that  the nitrum of
 the ancients was nothing else than our 
saltpetre4    ,in the sixteenth century 
some learned ,europeans1 while          
travelling  through the ,east1 heard the
 name natrum given to the mineral alkali
  which was then exported as an article 
of commerce1 and introduced in  their   
works this transformation of the ancient
 word nitrum4 ,this  appellation was    
employed by the systematic              
mineralogists1 who1 giving  themselves  

little trouble about the original       
meaning of words1 and  taking care only 
to avoid confusion1 called the mineral  
alkali also  natrum1 and applied the    
name of nitrum to saltpetre4 ,as far as 
,i know at present1 it was first stated 
by ,peter ,bellon and ,prosper          
,alpinus#abjj1 that the mineral alkali  
was in the ,east called natrum4  ,the   
former returned in #aedi1 and the latter
 was still in ,cairo in #aehj4    ,this 
word was adopted in mineralogy by       
,linnus1 in the year #agcf1 as  the name
 of a species1 in which he comprehended 
for the first time  the alkaline        
incrustation found on walls4 ,in this he
 is followed  by ,wallerius1 who        
includes also the mineral alkali from   
the ,east4  ,afterwards the word natrum 
was employed in the same sense by all   
mineralogists4    ,it deserves here to  
be remarked1 that ,boyle had even       
examined and  determined the difference 
between the fixed and volatile alkalies2
 but  that mineralogists and chemists1  

till the latest periods1 believed that  
all fixed alkali arose1 or at least was 
obtained1 by the incineration  of       
plants4 ,the difference between the     
mineral and vegetable alkalies  was     
first defined1 in a proper manner1 by   
the exertion of the ,german  chemists   
,pott1 ,model and ,marggraf#abja2       
especially after the last had  proved1  
in the year #ageh1 that the basis of    
common salt was not1 as had  before been
 generally believed1 an alkaline earth1 
but a fixed alkali1  to which1 because  
it was in many of its properties        
different from the  fixed vegetable     
alkali1 he gave the name of fixed       
mineral alkali4 ,soon  after this       
substance was discovered in mineral     
springs2 and ,model and  others have    
shown that it is not essentially        
different from that which  in the ,east 
is called natrum4    ,it is singular1   
and yet may be accounted for1 that since
 that time many  have spoken of the     
nitrum and natrum of the ancients1      

though they  are only different         
pronunciations of the same word2 and    
natrum is  never found in the works of  
the ,greeks or the ,romans1 and not even
 in  writings of the middle ages4       
,but if the greater part of what ,i have
 here said should be considered  only as
 conjecture1 it must nevertheless be    
acknowledged that it is  deduced from   
the nature of the thing2 and when       
impartially compared  with what we read 
in the ancients1 the latter ,i hope will
 be better  understood than it hitherto 
has been2 the impropriety of many       
readings  will become apparent1 and the 
truth of this conjecture be admitted4   
,were ,i here to relate everything that 
we read of nitrum1 in order  to compare 
it with nature and to examine it        
thoroughly1 ,i should be  obliged to    
extend this article to a greater length 
than might be  agreeable to the reader4 
,i shall therefore give only the        
principal  proofs of my assertion1      
premising1 that doubts which might be   

excited  by single passages not here    
mentioned1 will1 on a closer comparison1
  vanish without my assistance4 ,but ,i 
maintain that those who wish to  explain
 the old names of natural objects must  
relate everything said  of them1 and not
 that alone which is favourable to their
 opinion1 and  which may be often       
contradicted by what was purposely or   
accidentally  concealed4 ,the first part
 of such an examination is always a     
careful  collection from the writings of
 the ancients of all the predicates of  
the natural object1 the systematic name 
of which one is endeavouring to  prove4 
,there is reason however to conjecture1 
that the ancients1 in the  history of   
their impure nitre1 the manner of       
obtaining which the ,romans  at least   
had no opportunity themselves of seeing1
 for ,pliny says  expressly that it was 
not procured in ,italy1 fell into many  
errors and  mistakes1 which at present  
cannot all be explained4    ,hence it   
happened that the ancients did not      

understand the art of  purifying the    
salt which they obtained from minerals2 
and therefore  they were obliged to use 
it in the same impure state in which    
they  found it4 ,on this account they   
considered each natural mixture as a    
peculiar kind2 gave to the greater part 
of them1 or those most useful1          
particular names2 and of these          
recommended for different purposes those
  which1 according to their purity or   
mixture1 or according to other          
circumstances1 were the most convenient4
 ,it is not probable that all  these    
varieties could be again found out or   
defined2 and it seems to be  of little  
importance1 when it is known that the   
names denote nothing  more than the     
varieties of a mineral4    ,in this     
examination it is to be regretted that  
the book of  ,theophrastus1 in which he 
expressly treated of nitrum1 has not    
been  preserved4 ,but it may be         
believed1 even without the testimony of 
,pliny1  that he was one of the most    

accurate and acute naturalists among the
  ancients1 and that he gave the best   
account of this substance#abjb4  ,it    
must1 however1 be admitted that ,pliny  
thoroughly understood this  author1 and 
gave a correct extract from him1 and    
that the transcriber  fell into no      
mistake4    ,that the nitrum of the     
ancients was an alkali more or less     
impure1  but not saltpetre1 has been    
long admitted by those who had the least
  knowledge of mineralogy1 as well as by
 the most sagacious physicians4  ,the   
grounds for this opinion1 as far as ,i  
have yet learned1 are as  follows3 more 
indeed might be found1 but these are    
sufficient to afford  a complete proof4 
,galen1 a cautious writer1 says that    
nitrum was in  general burnt1 by which  
means its effects were                  
strengthened#abjc4 ,had  it been        
saltpetre1 it is impossible that the    
ancients should not in  burning it have 
observed its deflagration1 and this     
property is too  remarkable not to have 

been mentioned4 ,but nothing is to be   
found that  can with any probability be 
supposed to allude to it4    ,but should
 it be admitted without any grounds that
 it was not an alkali  but saltpetre    
which they burnt1 it must certainly have
 been carbonized2  for a burning body   
may easily have fallen into the         
crucible1 and in  general nitrum seems  
to have been burnt in an open fire1 like
 our  lime1 because ,pliny1 speaking of 
the ,egyptian1 considers the contrary   
as somewhat uncommon4 ,physicians then1 
at any rate1 must have observed1  that a
 body very different both in its        
appearance and effects was  produced    
from saltpetre by burning1 but which    
could not be used for any  other purpose
 than that salt4 ,of this however we do 
not find the least  intimation4    ,but 
nitrum was undoubtedly soda1 and on that
 account when burnt must  have become   
more caustic as well as stronger in most
 of its effects1  and in this respect   
similar to potash1 since owing to       

impurities it  in the same manner became
 moist and deliquesced in the air4 ,what
 ,pliny  relates of the ,egyptian nitrum
 becomes then intelligible4 ,the latter1
  he says1 was transported in pitched   
vessels1 because it would otherwise     
have deliquesced2 and he afterwards     
adds1 that it was burnt before it  was  
sent off4 ,had he known that the latter 
was the cause and the former  the       
effect1 he would have mentioned the     
latter first2 but his whole  extract1 in
 regard to nitre1 is written in general 
without order4 ,the  vessels1 no doubt1 
were of clay2 but whether he means in   
what he adds  that they were not burnt  
but only baked in the sun1 or that      
before they  were filled they were      
completely dried in the sun1 has been   
determined  by no commentator4 ,to me   
the latter is the more probable4 ,pliny 
also  mentions another circumstance in  
regard to the burning of the ,egyptian  
nitrum2 namely1 that it must be done in 
a close vessel1 otherwise  it would     

decrepitate or fly off4 ,this is        
perfectly intelligible1 when  it is     
considered that it contained a great    
deal of common salt1 which  alone       
possessed the property of decrepitating2
 and it is well known in  mineralogy    
that native soda1 and even that which in
 modern times has  been introduced into 
our collections from ,tripoli1 and of   
which ,i have  in my possession a       
specimen1 contains common salt#abjd1 and
 often in  cubic crystals4 ,pliny had   
just reason to add1 that nitrum         
otherwise  does not properly            
decrepitate4 ,the ancients were well    
acquainted with  the resemblance of     
their nitrum to lime1 and especially of 
that which  was burnt4 ,on this account1
 because the ,egyptian was exported     
after it  had been burnt1 it could      
easily be mixed with quicklime1 or1 as  
,pliny  says1 be adulterated4 ,but the  
proof which he gives he does not seem to
  have thoroughly understood4 ,the      
,egyptian must at all times have been   

caustic 7pungens7 even without lime2 but
 that which was mixed with  lime could  
not so speedily or completely dissolve  
on the tongue as that  which was pure1  
and left behind it more earth4 ,what he 
says of a test  by the smell1 ,i cannot 
understand in any other manner than that
 burnt  lime1 when moistened with water1
 diffused that disagreeable vapour      
observed in apartments the walls of     
which have been newly plastered2  though
 when the quantity is small this is     
hardly perceptible4    ,if ,i understand
 ,theophrastus#abje properly1 he seems  
to say1 that  if nitrum be burnt as soon
 as it is dug up1 it communicates heat  
to water in the same manner as lime4 ,it
 may here be seen how great a           
resemblance the ancients found between  
their nitrum1 alkaline earth  and lime4 
,the similarity of wood-ashes to the    
nitrum of the ancients1 which  they     
acknowledged1 proves also that it was in
 reality an alkaline salt4  ,we are told
 by ,theophrastus#abjf that nitrum was  

said to be produced  from oak-ashes2 and
 ,pliny#abjg1 who borrowed from this    
writer1 remarks  that it was certain the
 ashes of that wood were nitrous4 ,he   
ascribes  also to burnt wine-lees the   
nature and properties of nitrum#abjh4   
,nay he considers as a kind of nitrum   
those saline ashes which1 in  many      
countries destitute of salt1 were used  
for seasoning food1 and  which were     
prepared by pouring sea-water or salt   
brine over burning  piles of wood1      
gradually and in small quantities1 so   
that the fire was  not extinguished1 by 
which means the water evaporated1       
leaving the salt  behind1 but mixed     
indeed with charcoal1 ashes1 earth1 and 
alkaline  salts2 consequently it must   
have been moist1 or at any rate         
nauseous1  if not refined by a new      
solution4 ,this method of preparing or  
boiling  salt1 which perhaps is the     
oldest1 has been mentioned by various   
writers2 but many of them1 through      
ignorance or neglect1 have not told  us 

that sea-water or brine was employed1 as
 they speak in such a manner  as if any 
kind and even fresh water had been used 
for that purpose4    ,varro relates that
 he saw this process employed on the    
,rhine#abji4  ,pliny says#abaj that oak 
timber had before been burnt for that   
purpose4 ,in another place he mentions a
 similar process among the  ,gauls and  
the ,germans#abaa1 as ,tacitus does     
among the ,hermanduri  and the          
,catti#abab4 ,the former also states1 on
 the authority of  ,theophrastus1 that  
the ,umbri burnt salt in the like       
manner#abac4 ,it is  however certain    
that ,pliny and other ancient writers   
often quote from  ,theophrastus what1 at
 present1 is not to be found in the     
works of that  naturalist1 but in those 
of his preceptor ,aristotle#abad4       
,pliny adds1 that this paltry method of 
obtaining salt had been long  given up2 
and this indeed was the natural         
consequence of increased  civilization4 
,it is however certain that it was long 

continued in many  countries1 and in    
some still exists4    ,about two        
centuries ago the inhabitants of the    
province of ,zeeland1  descendants      
perhaps of the ,catti1 used no other    
salt than what  they obtained in the    
like manner1 from mud thrown up by the  
sea1  which they burned and moistened   
with sea-water1 as we are told by       
,lemnius1 who was himself a native of   
that country4 ,boxhorn says1 in  his    
annotations on the above-quoted passage 
of ,tacitus1 that he saw  a painting at 
,zirkzee1 in which the whole process was
 represented4  ,it is probable that salt
 was boiled exactly in the same manner  
as at  some of the ,sleswic islands1    
described by ,denkwerth#abae1 from whose
  account it is seen that the gleb      
marin1 of which ,lemnius speaks1        
consisted of mud mixed with roots       
growing in them2 and that the salt  when
 afterwards refined was called there    
,frisic1 in all probability  because the
 inhabitants had learned to make it from

 their ancestors the  ,frieslanders4 ,i 
remember somewhere to have read that    
salt was made for  a long time in this  
manner by the so-called                 
,wurst-,frieslanders1 in the  country of
 ,wurst1 belonging to the duchy of      
,bremen4 ,the inhabitants  also of the  
,austrian part of ,moldavia1 or         
,buccowina as it is called1  still use a
 salt1 which they do not boil1 but burn 
with their  superfluous wood1 in the    
like manner from the brine of a saline  
spring4  ,a member of the former        
,academy of ,brussels#abaf took the     
trouble to  examine the process as      
described by the ancients1 and obtained1
 as  might certainly have been expected1
 a highly alkaline kind of common  salt1
 similar to that which ,pliny1 not      
without reason1 considered as  a sort of
 nitrum1 because undoubtedly it may     
oftener have been an  alkaline carbonate
 than common salt4    ,boerhaave#abag1  
in quoting the passages of the ancients1
 did not  reflect that1 during the      

incineration of the wood1 salt water was
  poured over it4 ,he considered the    
whole process as a burning of potash1   
and thought that the salt obtained was  
fit for use only because it  was made   
according to the manner of ,tachenius4  
,that indeed gives a  carbonated salt1  
which is almost saponaceous1 and so     
mixed with  various parts of the burnt  
plants that it is much milder1          
consequently  fitter for use than common
 soda or pearlash can be2 but that salt 
was not so much of the ,tachenian kind  
as a species of common salt             
superabundant in alkali4    ,if the     
nitrum was carbonated alkali1 there is  
reason to suppose that  the ancients    
must have occasionally mentioned in     
their writings that  it effervesced with
 acids4 ,with the mineral acids indeed  
they were  not acquainted2 but they had 
vinegar1 and that nitrum produced with  
this an effervescence had been known in 
the oldest times4 ,a very clear         
allusion to this circumstance is found  

in the book of ,proverbs1 chap4  xxv4   
ver4 #bj2 where ,luther however         
translates the word by chalk4  ,jerome1 
whose explanation ,i have already       
quoted1 was in some degree  acquainted  
with this phnomenon2 and therefore to   
him the comparison of  ,solomon was     
intelligible#abah4 ,but at present ,i   
can produce no proofs  from ,greek      
writers2 though they might have occurred
 during the use of  nitrum in medicine1 
in consequence of which it was often put
 into  vinegar4    ,we shall be further 
convinced what nitrum really was1 when  
the uses  to which it was applied1 as   
mentioned in the works of the ancients1 
are  considered4 ,the most common1 as   
soap was not then known1 appears to     
have been in washing1 a purpose for     
which our saltpetre would not be  fit2  
besides1 it is at all times too scarce  
and too dear4 ,i shall not  here adduce 
any proofs of its being employed in this
 manner1 as they  often occur1 and as   
several have been already given in the  

preceding  volume#abai4 ,many salves and
 cosmetics were prepared with nitrum2   
and in all probability articles of this 
kind1 used chiefly among the  women1 are
 to be understood by the term nitron    
parthenicon1 which  occurs in ,nicholas 
,myrepsius1 in the beginning of the     
fourteenth  century2 matronicon1        
mentioned by the same1 and by ,alexander
 of  ,tralles1 about the year #efe2 and 
the nitrum matronale of ,marcellus      
,empiricus1 in the fifth century4 ,that 
the use of it for washing still         
continues in the ,east1 is confirmed in 
various books of travels4    ,the oldest
 glass1 of the preparation of which any 
account is to be  found in history1 was 
made by means of nitrum or mineral      
alkali4 ,for  though ,i doubt that it   
could have been produced on the sandy   
banks of  the ,belus1 where some        
merchants1 when cooking1 supported their
 pots  with lumps of nitrum#abbj1       
because sand is not so easily brought to
  a state of fusion2 it at any rate     

remains certain1 that this supposed     
fusion with our saltpetre is altogether 
impossible4    ,the use of nitrum for   
painting announces1 without doubt1 an   
alkaline  carbonate1 and not            
saltpetre#abba2 and the case is the same
 with  the various uses in the cookery  
of the ancients1 many of which we  have 
still retained4 ,it was added to bread  
in baking1 according to  ,pliny#abbb1 in
 the stead of salt1 but probably to     
promote its rising1  for which purpose  
it is still employed by the ,egyptians1 
as potash was  by our bakers4 ,for this 
use the mineral alkali was formerly     
brought  from the ,levant to ,france1   
till it was declared by the physicians  
to be  injurious to the health#abbc4    
,when meat which was too fresh was to be
 dressed1 it was put into  nitrum#abbd1 
in order to make it tender2 and1        
according to ,forskl  and others1 this  
is still practised in the ,east4 ,our   
cooks also know  that smoked meat1 fish 
and other dried provisions become more  

tender  when placed in a ley of potash1 
or when a little potash is added while  
they are boiling4    ,nitrum1 however1  
was employed for curing articles of food
 which  people wished to preserve4 ,this
 appears to contradict what has been    
mentioned above2 but in all probability 
a caustic sort was used for the  former 
purpose2 but for the latter a mild kind1
 mixed with a great deal  of common     
salt4 ,there were so many species1 that 
some of them might  have been applied to
 quite contrary purposes4    ,as ,i     
conjecture1 the use of nitrum for       
causing chestnuts and other  husky      
fruits to boil soft1 was also known3 to 
produce the same effect1  potash is at  
present thrown among boiling lentils and
 peas4 ,i am  inclined to think that for
 this reason ,apicius caused chestnuts  
to be  boiled with nitre4    ,it is     
highly probable that this effect of     
alkaline carbonates induced             
agriculturists to believe that beans1   
peas1 lentils and other  leguminous     

fruits1 if steeped1 before they were    
sown1 in water in  which nitre had been 
dissolved1 or if the dung spread over   
the earth  had been mixed with nitre1   
the future product could be more easily 
boiled soft#abbe4 ,however useful this  
addition may be in cookery1 it  would   
produce little effect on seed2 and it   
appears to me that the  old             
agriculturists placed little confidence 
in the last-mentioned  use1 because they
 were not agreed in regard to the       
result4 ,virgil  and others seem to     
expect from it an increase of the       
fruit#abbf2  but others1 security       
against beetles1 which eat the fruit and
 leave  the husks empty#abbg4 ,when     
cabbages were transplanted they were    
strewed over with nitre1 and by these   
means were said to come sooner  to      
maturity#abbh4 ,radishes also were      
treated in the same manner1 or          
besprinkled with nitrous water1 in order
 to make them more tender#abbi4    ,a   
common method employed by the ancient   

cooks to give a beautiful  green colour 
to pickled or boiled vegetables1 was to 
add nitrum to  them while boiling2 but  
this effect could be produced by natrum1
  and not by the nitrum of the moderns1 
or that neutral salt called             
saltpetre#abcj4    ,among the oldest    
accounts of nitrum is that where it is  
mentioned  as being employed for        
embalming dead bodies4 ,it would be     
tiresome  to read over and examine      
everything written on that subject by   
the  learned2 but this much ,i think is 
clear1 that either the flesh1 and in    
general the softer parts of the body    
could be corroded in the course  of     
seventy days by the ,egyptian           
nitrum#abca1 which1 as above shown1  was
 burnt1 and in general mixed with       
unslaked lime1 and consequently         
caustic#abcb2 or that the moist parts   
could be desiccated by carbonate        
alkali1 in the same manner as the       
manufacturers of parchment purify and   
dry their skins by the application of   

chalk4 ,that saltpetre in no case  could
 be useful for this purpose needs hardly
 be mentioned4    ,the ancient          
physicians1 who were unacquainted with  
our numerous class  of salts1 employed  
their nitrum in many ways1 and for a    
great variety  of mixtures2 but no      
writer1 as far as ,i know1 ever took the
 trouble  to examine these recipes1     
though it has long since been declared  
that  nitrum must have been potash or   
salt of tartar4 ,matthioli#abcc         
asserted1 that those physicians would   
act very improperly who should          
prescribe our saltpetre where the       
ancients employed their nitrum2  and    
indeed those in the least acquainted    
with the effects of salts  must know1   
that all those extolled by the ancients 
announce carbonated  alkalies4 ,thus    
burnt nitrum was employed for cleaning  
black teeth1 as  at present many use    
tobacco ashes instead of tooth-powder4  
,it is seen  by the works of ,aretus and
 others1 that burnt nitrum was used as a

  caustic1 till people learned in modern
 times to prepare the more active       
causticum potentiale1 or sal causticum4 
,what the ancients say of the taste of  
their nitrum seems1 however1  not       
entirely applicable to pure carbonated  
alkali2 and much less1 or  not at all1  
to our saltpetre4 ,had they meant the   
latter1 they would  certainly not have  
failed to mention the sensation of      
coolness which  it occasions when       
applied to the tongue4 ,galen and       
,aetius say1 that  nitrum is as bitter  
as gall2 but ,serapio ascribes to it a  
saline  taste1 with a small degree of   
bitterness2 as does also ,pliny1 only   
that  for bitterness he substitutes the 
word sharpness4 ,the names of tastes1   
however1 are as uncertain as the names  
of the colours which occur in  the works
 of the ancients4 ,both certainly       
deserve to be more accurately  examined1
 and to be defined by comparing the     
things to which these  names are given4 
,prosper ,alpinus1 however1 is of       

opinion that what the  ancients called  
amarum1 is not inapplicable to the taste
 of natrum4    ,the ancients mention    
various springs and streams which       
contained what  they called nitrum#abcd2
 but nitrous water1 according to the    
present  acceptation of the word1 that  
is1 water which contains saltpetre1 does
  not exist2 and if credit is to be     
given to ,marggraf and others1 that     
they observed traces of saltpetre in    
some kinds of water1 the instances  must
 have been so rare that mention of them 
could not be expected  among the        
ancients4 ,their nitrous water was      
undoubtedly alkaline1 and  this indeed  
is not scarce4 ,such water was          
recommended by the ancient  physicians1 
both for bathing and drinking#abce2 and 
,pliny says1 it was  singular that the  
salt of such water would not shoot into 
crystals1  like common salt1 which is   
undoubtedly true#abcf4    ,alkaline     
water of this kind1 such as that of     
,armenia1 was used for  washing1 and    

also by fullers4 ,in ,egypt1 at present1
 people wash in the  same manner with   
nitrum4    ,it appears to me that many  
kinds of water1 which were only impure  
and  not potable on account of their    
nauseous taste1 were considered by  the 
ancients as nitrous4 ,this seems to be  
proved by the means which  they propose 
for rendering nitrous water fit to be   
drunk2 that is1 by  throwing into it    
clay1 or some grains of barley#abcg4 ,in
 the like  manner1 ,i saw the brewers at
 ,amsterdam improve their dirty water1  
in  some degree1 by putting into it     
kneaded clay1 and allowing it to sink   
to the bottom4    ,one foundation more  
for my assertion may be found1 ,i think1
 in the name  borax4 ,the ancient nitrum
 by the ,arabians was called ,bauracon  
or  ,baurach4 ,when that salt1 which at 
present is everywhere called borax1     
became known to the ,arabians1 it was at
 first generally considered as  a kind  
of nitre1 and on that account called    
,baurach1 because in most  of its       

properties it approached near to the    
nitrum of the ancients1  that is1 the   
natrum of the present day4 ,but         
afterwards1 when the  difference became 
known1 our borax1 at least in ,europe1  
retained  exclusively the general name  
of ,baurach1 from which at length was   
formed the present word borax4 ,my      
conclusion therefore is1 that the       
nitrum of the ancients must have been   
mineral alkali2 otherwise it is         
impossible that our borax1 which till   
modern times was reckoned to be  mineral
 alkali1 should have been considered as 
a nitrum4    ,for many centuries past1  
the people in ,africa and ,asia1 and    
also in  ,spain and ,sicily1 have       
cultivated some kinds of plants1 which  
they dry  and then burn to ashes4 ,by   
regulating the fire in a particular     
manner1  they cause these ashes to      
assume a certain degree of concretion1  
or  vitrification1 by which means they  
are formed into solid cakes of  a grey  
colour1 interspersed with many white and

 black spots4 ,this  substance1 which in
 consequence of the vitrification does  
not become  moist in the air1 is broken 
into fragments1 and sent to every part  
of ,europe under the name of soda1 for  
the use of the glass-houses1            
soap-boilers1 dyers1 and for other      
purposes4    ,these plants were         
undoubtedly first cultivated and        
employed in ,europe  by the ,arabians1  
who made known the use of them4 ,those  
first or chiefly  employed were named by
 them axnan1 usnan1 usnen1 or uscnanon2 
and also ,hasciscio alcali1 that is1    
herba kali1 the plant or herb  kali1    
because the name kali1 or1 with the     
article prefixed1 al  kali1 was not     
given to the plant but to the           
half-vitrified ashes  kali4 ,hence the  
chemists call salts obtained from the   
ashes of  plants1 alkaline salts4 ,i do 
not know how old this appellation may   
be2  but it is to be found in ,vincent  
,bellovacensis and in the interpolated  
writings of ,geber and ,avicenna1 and   

particularly in a passage quoted by  the
 former from an old alchemist named     
,jahie1 where it is called sal          
alchali#abch4 ,all these salts formerly 
were considered as nitrous  salts1 or a 
kind of nitrum4 ,it was indeed soon     
observed that soda  and wood-ashes1     
which from the earliest periods had been
 burnt in  woody districts1 and which   
are now called potash1 were not all of  
the  same nature2 but when the          
difference between the mineral and      
vegetable  alkalies began to be studied1
 it was then known that soda contains   
the  former1 that is1 our natrum1 and   
potash the latter1 but both indeed      
often rendered impure by earthy and     
foreign saline particles2 and that      
there are many plants from the ashes of 
which mineral and not vegetable  alkali 
is obtained4 ,a question now arises1    
,how old in the ,levant is the  method  
of preparing this natrum from the ashes 
of plants8    ,michaelis is of opinion  
that it is mentioned in ,malachi1 chap4 

iii4  ver4 #b2 which passage ,i shall   
give according to ,luther's translation3
  8,who shall stand when he appeareth8  
for he is like the fire of the          
goldsmith1 and the soap of the scourer4 
,he will sit and melt and purify  the   
silver1 and make pure like gold and     
silver40 ,this learned man here  seems  
to think that the sacred writer alludes 
to refining the noble  metals1 and that 
the word borith means soda1 which indeed
 may serve  as a flux in the            
purification of them4 ,i at first       
considered this  meaning as true2 but1  
on closer examination1 ,i am fully      
convinced that  we have both erred4     
,those who read without prejudice the   
above passage of ,malachi1 must  remark1
 that a double comparison or double     
image is employed4 ,the  messenger there
 promised was to separate the good from 
the bad1 the  clean from the unclean4   
,the first occupation is compared with  
the  labour of the gold-refiner2 the    
other1 with that of the scourer of      

clothes4 ,the first image is afterwards 
heightened1 because the poet1  in all   
probability1 was desirous of applying   
the separation of the  ignoble parts1   
such as slag1 by means of fire1 as being
 the stronger  image which denotes      
punishment1 in a closer manner to the   
,levites and  priests4 ,at the time of  
the poet1 before the invention of soap1 
people  employed for washing either     
nitre or the saponaceous juice of       
certain  plants1 which ,i have already  
endeavoured to determine4 ,the borith of
  the washer there expressly named1 was 
undoubtedly one of these soap  plants1  
and not the half-vitrified ashes either 
of soda or potash4    ,this passage of  
,malachi was so understood in the oldest
 times4  ,professor ,tychsen1 a true    
pupil and intimate friend of ,michaelis1
  to whose opinion ,i subjected my      
doubts1 assured me that ,michaelis  was 
never able to convince him of the       
justness of his exposition2  especially 
as ,jerome#abci1 without the least      

hesitation1 understood  borith to be a  
plant growing in ,palestine1 and used   
there for  washing2 and as the ,greek   
translators1 who were much nearer to the
  period of the poet1 and could not be  
unacquainted with a thing so much  used1
 have translated borith by the word 1 a 
plant4    ,in ,jeremiah1 chap4 ii4 ver4 
#bbabdj1 both the substances formerly   
used for washing1 nitrum and the        
soap-plant1 are so clearly named1  that 
,michaelis was obliged to admit that we 
cannot understand there  soda or potash1
 but a ley or soap1 the last of which   
however was not  at that time known4    
,but1 to speak the truth1 potash and    
soda would not  be altogether unfit for 
washing2 at any rate1 not less fit than 
the  nether or nitrum there named4 ,what
 may serve1 however1 to refute  entirely
 the opinion of ,michaelis is1 that no  
proof has yet been found  that soda is  
of so great antiquity4 ,for my part1 ,i 
am acquainted with  no older mention of 
it than that which occurs in the works  

of the more  modern ,arabian physicians1
 ,avicenna1 ,serapio1 and others#abda4  
,all these grounds afford sufficient    
proof that the nitrum of the  ancients  
was our natrum1 and not our saltpetre4  
,but still1 in the  account given by the
 ancients of that salt1 there remain    
many things  inexplicable4 ,thus1 for   
example1 no one can accurately define   
the  epithets1 chalastricum1 halmirhaga1
 agrium1 spuma nitri1  aphronitrum1 and 
others1 because they do not indicate    
different  kinds1 as already said1 but  
accidental properties of the same salt4 
,without enlarging further on this      
subject1 ,i shall only remark that      
,pliny admits a natural and an          
artificial kind of nitrum1 and this     
division is adopted by ,serapio2 but the
 latter term has not the meaning  which 
we affix to it at present4 ,the ancients
 were acquainted with no  other than    
native nitrum1 which they called        
artificial only when it  required a     
little more trouble and art to obtain   

it4    ,most of the physicians recommend
 red nitrum1 which is mentioned also  by
 many of the modern travellers4 ,when   
,prosper ,alpinus was in ,egypt the     
rose-red nitrum cost twice as much as   
the white4 ,the red colour1 in  all     
probability1 arises from a metallic     
admixture2 yet the red nitrum  may be   
purer than the other1 as red or violet  
rock-salt is often  clearer and purer   
than that which is colourless4    ,one  
of the darkest parts in the history of  
nitrum is the following  passage of     
,pliny3 8,faciunt ex his vasa1 nec non  
frequenter liquatum  cum sulphure1      
coquentes in carbonibus40 ,the latter   
words he seems soon  after to repeat3   
8,sal nitrum sulphuri concoctum in      
lapidem vertitur40  ,from these words   
,j4 ,rhodius#abdb concludes that nitrum 
fixum was at  that time known1 because  
he considered nitrum to be saltpetre2   
but in  that case with the sulphur1     
,glaser's sal polychrest must properly  
have  been produced4 ,this1 however1 was

 not the case1 because nitrum was  fixed
 alkali4 ,the ancients therefore1 when  
they placed it with sulphur  in a       
crucible upon burning coals must have   
obtained liver of sulphur1  which when  
it cools is hard1 but soon becomes moist
 when exposed to the  air4 ,but ,i will 
not venture to determine whether        
anything of this kind  is to be supposed
 in ,pliny1 who did not himself fully   
understand the  subject on which he     
touches4    ,the account of vessels made
 of nitrum is still more singular4      
,michaelis conjectured#abdc that        
articles of various kinds were cut out  
of this substance1 not for real use but 
merely for ornament1 in the  same manner
 as similar things are cut out of       
rock-salt in ,transylvania1  many       
specimens of which ,i have in my        
collection#abdd4 ,but even if  nitrum   
had been compact and strong enough for  
this purpose1 there  could not be the   
same inducement to employ it as         
rock-salt1 which1 in  consequence of its

 solidity1 transparency1 brightness and 
smoothness1  appears to be capable of   
furnishing vessels equal to those made  
of  the most beautiful crystal4         
,dalechamp seems to explain the whole as
  applicable to glazing2 but in this    
case nitrum could serve only as a  flux4
    ,though it can be certainly proved  
that the nitrum of the ancients  was an 
alkaline salt1 it is difficult to       
determine the time when our  saltpetre  
was discovered or made known4 ,as many  
have conjectured that  it was a         
component part of the ,greek fire1      
invented about the year #fgh1  which1 in
 all probability1 gave rise to the      
invention of gunpowder1 ,i  examined the
 prescriptions for the preparation of   
it4 ,the oldest1 and  perhaps the most  
certain1 is that given by the princess  
,anna ,comnena2  in which however ,i    
find only resin1 sulphur and oil1 but   
not saltpetre4  ,klingenstierna#abde    
therefore judged very properly1 that all
 recipes  in which saltpetre occurs are 

either forged or of modern invention4   
,of this kind are those which ,scaliger1
 at least according to his  own account1
 found in ,arabic works1 and in which   
mention is made of  oleum de nitro and  
sal petr#abdf4 ,but it does not occur in
 that  prescription given by ,marcus    
,grcus1 and copied by ,albertus ,magnus1
 who  died in #abhjabdg4    ,i must     
still believe that the first certain    
mention of saltpetre will  be found in  
the oldest account of the preparation of
 gunpowder1 which1  in my opinion1      
became known in ,europe in the          
thirteenth century1 about  the same time
 that the use of the ,greek fire1 of    
which there were many  kinds1 began to  
be lost4 ,among the oldest information  
on this subject  is that found in the   
above-quoted work of ,albertus ,magnus1 
and the  writings of ,roger ,bacon1 who 
died in #abgh4 ,it is doubted whether   
the  first-mentioned treatise belongs to
 ,albertus2 but it is certain that  the 
author1 whoever he may have been1 and   

also ,bacon1 both derived  their        
information from the same source4       
,when ,m4 von ,arretin lately announced 
that he was about to publish  a         
manuscript preserved in the electoral   
library at ,munich1 which  contained the
 true recipe for making the ,greek fire 
and the oldest  for gunpowder1 the same 
writing1 as appears1 was printed from   
two  manuscripts in the library at      
,paris4 ,i have now before me a copy of 
it1  which was transmitted to the       
library of our university by ,m4        
,laporte  ,dutheil1 conservateur des    
,manuscrits de la ,bibliothque#abdh4    
,it contains many recipes1 but only with
 a few variations1 as in  ,albertus     
,magnus2 and it may be evidently seen   
that ,roger ,bacon employed  this       
writing1 which is mentioned by ,jebb in 
the preface to his edition1  from a copy
 preserved in the library of ,dr4 ,mead4
 ,of this ,marcus  ,grcus nothing at    
present is known4 ,according to some1 he
 lived in the  ninth century2 but       

others1 with more probability1 place him
 in the  thirteenth4 ,of his work1      
perhaps1 we have only a translation2    
for1 from  the surname ,grcus1 there is 
reason to think that the original was   
written in the ,greek language4 ,i must1
 however1 remark that ,cardan1  where he
 gives directions for making a fire     
which can be kindled by  water1 names   
,marcus ,gracchus1 but not ,grcus4      
,scaliger1 who1 as is  very probable1   
had this writing also1 makes no mention 
of it or its  author4    ,this ,marcus  
speaks of saltpetre three times2 first  
under the name  of sal petrosum1 which  
occurs also in the same prescription in 
,albertus ,magnus2 but the addition1    
which ,albertus does not repeat1  is    
very remarkable4 ,in my opinion1        
scrophul contra lapides means  the      
incrustation found on walls1 which was  
represented as a kind  of leprosy4 ,the 
addition of ashes1 or alkaline salts1   
the author  either forgot or omitted1   
because perhaps he did not consider it  

as  indispensably necessary4 ,in another
 place it is said1 ,lapis qui  dicitur  
petra solis1 or1 as it is in other      
manuscripts1 salis2 but  whether        
saltpetre is here understood ,i will not
 venture to determine4  ,in a third     
passage we find the words de sale       
petroso1 or de  salepetro4    ,in the   
works of ,bacon the term sal petr occurs
 at least three times4  ,according to   
,casiri1 the term pulvis nitratus is to 
be found in an  ,arabic manuscript1 the 
author of which lived about the year    
#abdiabdi4  ,if the work of ,geber1     
already quoted1 be genuine1 and if this 
writer  lived1 as some think1 in the    
eighth century1 it would be the oldest  
where saltpetre is mentioned1 in a      
prescription for an aqua solutiva  or   
dissolutiva1 which almost seems to be   
aqua regia4 ,i have not  observed the   
name sal petr in the works of ,vincent  
,bellovacensis1  who lived in the       
thirteenth century4    ,in a word1 ,i am
 more than ever inclined to accede to   

the opinion of  those who believe that  
gunpowder was invented in ,india1 and   
brought  by the ,saracens from ,africa  
to the ,europeans1 who however improved 
the preparation of it1 and found out    
different ways of employing it  in war1 
as well as small arms and cannon#abej4  
,in no country could  saltpetre1 and the
 various uses of it1 be more easily     
discovered than  in ,india1 where the   
soil is so rich in nitrous particles    
that nothing  is necessary but to       
lixiviate it in order to obtain         
saltpetre2 and  where this substance is 
so abundant1 that almost all the        
gunpowder  used in the different wars   
with which the sovereigns of ,europe    
have  tormented mankind was made from   
,indian saltpetre#abea4 ,if it be true  
that saltpetre was not known in ,europe 
till the thirteenth century1  neither   
gunpowder nor aquafortis could have been
 made before that time2  for the former 
cannot be prepared without saltpetre1   
nor the latter  without nitre4 ,but if  

it be true that this salt was known at a
 much  earlier period in ,india1 it is  
not improbable that both gunpowder and  
aquafortis were used by the ,indians and
 the ,arabians before they were         
employed by the ,europeans1 especially  
as the former were the first  teachers  
of chemistry to the latter4 ,in my      
opinion1 what ,i have already  related  
proves this in regard to gunpowder2 and 
what ,i shall here add  will afford an  
equal proof in regard to aquafortis4    
,it is difficult to discover the first  
mention of mineral acids in the         
writings of the ancient chemists4 ,in   
the course of their numerous            
experiments they obtained indeed1 at an 
early period1 acids1 the  utility of    
which they extol2 but each concealed the
 process by which  they were made2 and  
as they had no method of obtaining them 
pure1 they  were for a long time        
unacquainted with the difference between
 the  kinds4 ,their prescriptions1 when 
they are found1 are so contradictory    

and so carelessly written1 that it is   
almost impossible to conjecture  which  
of the known acids forms the principal  
component parts in their  recipes or    
mixtures4    ,it appears to me1 that the
 first intelligible account of          
aquafortis  occurs in the writings of   
the ,arabians1 or of the pupils of      
,arabian  chemists4 ,at present ,i am   
acquainted with none older than that to 
be  found in the works of ,geber4 ,for  
though ,i do not believe that those  of 
which we have ,latin translations belong
 to a ,geber of the eighth  or ninth    
century1 ,i am ready to admit that they 
may be1 at any rate1  of the twelfth4   
,this appears probable1 because about   
that period  aquafortis and various arts
 are oftener mentioned1 and in a much   
clearer manner1 in these writings4      
,it is to be regretted in the history of
 chemistry1 that it is  impossible to   
determine the period of the ,greek      
chemist or alchemist  known under the   
name of ,synesius2 but it cannot be     

doubted that he  borrowed a great deal  
from the works of the ,arabians4 ,this  
,synesius1  among the chemical solvents1
 mentions water of saltpetre1 which     
might  be considered as aquafortis#abeb4
 ,but1 as he mentions at the same  time 
aqua fcis1 he appears to me to allude to
 the nitrum of the  ancients1 not to our
 saltpetre1 and in general to strong    
alkaline leys1  which indeed are capable
 of dissolving many bodies4    ,the monk
 ,theophilus1 of whom ,i have already   
spoken1 and who in all  probability     
lived in the twelfth century1 appears   
also to have been  acquainted with      
aquafortis2 for in some of the passages 
quoted from  his works by ,raspe#abec1  
he speaks of an acid which dissolved all
  metals4 ,in the writings of ,vincent  
,bellovacensis1 in the thirteenth       
century1 some traces1 but very doubtful1
 are found of aquafortis4 ,where  he    
mentions the different sorts of gold he 
speaks of dissolving it1  but by this   
expression he does not allude to its    

treatment with fire1  which he speaks of
 separately#abed4 ,in another place he  
mentions the  different solvents1 and   
among these names vegetable acids1 a    
water of  sal-ammoniac1 and a water     
obtained from alum by distillation4 ,he 
here  means undoubtedly a mineral       
acid#abee4 ,michael ,meier1 the most    
learned  chemist of the seventeenth     
century1 says that ,vincentius speaks of
  aquafortis as of a secret2 but the    
passage ,i have not yet been able to    
find#abef4    ,spielman states that     
,lullius1 who died in #acae1 in the     
eightieth  year of his age1 gave an     
account of his obtaining aquafortis from
  saltpetre by the addition of vitriol1 
and that ,basilius ,valentin was        
acquainted with the use of clay for the 
same purpose4 ,picus ,mirandula  however
 declares it to be uncertain whether    
,arnoldus de ,villa ,nova was           
acquainted with the acid of saltpetre in
 the fourteenth century4    ,it appears 
to be an old tradition that this acid   

was first employed  at ,venice1 by some 
,germans1 for separating the noble      
metals1 and  conveyed thence as an      
article of merchandize to every part of 
,europe4  ,the persons who prepared it  
were there narrowly watched1 in order   
that the process might not become known4
 ,they were employed chiefly  for       
separating the gold from the ,spanish   
silver1 and by these means  acquired    
great riches4 ,hence arose the report   
that the people of  ,venice understood  
the art of making gold2 and it is       
certain that in  many countries the gold
 refiners were for a long time          
considered as  gold makers2 but in no   
period were there more gold makers than 
in that  when separation in the moist   
way became known4 ,i can however give   
less  account of this art of the        
,venetians than of the introduction of  
it  into ,france in the fifteenth or the
 beginning of the sixteenth century4    
,william ,budus1 who was born in #adfg1 
and died in #aedj1 speaks of it  in his 

book1 printed for the first time in     
#aeaf1 as a thing entirely  new at that 
period#abeg4 ,a man of low extraction1  
named ,le ,cointe1  first undertook to  
separate gold from silver at ,paris1 by 
means of  a water which ,budus calls    
aqua chrysulca4 ,it is very remarkable1 
that by means of this water he could    
separate the smallest particle of  gold 
from silver1 and from every other metal2
 nay1 he could even take  from vessels  
their gilding without altering their    
form4 ,by this art he  acquired great   
wealth2 which together with his secret  
descended to his  son1 who at the time  
was the only gold refiner at ,paris4    
,he adds1 that the art was exceedingly  
dangerous as well as unhealthy1  and    
required great precaution4 ,the         
possessor of it1 when he became  rich1  
left the execution of the work to a     
servant1 whom he directed at  a         
distance1 that he might not expose      
himself to the pernicious fumes of  the 
effervescing liquor4 ,the fumes of the  

acid derived from saltpetre  are indeed 
prejudicial to the health2 but the      
danger has been much  exaggerated1 and  
no doubt with a view to deter people    
from attempting  to discover the art1   
and to furnish a pretence for raising   
the price of  the production#abeh4      
,budus relates also1 that the gold was  
left behind undissolved4 ,the  silver   
only was dissolved1 and by another art  
was separated from the  water and       
washed4 ,it may here be easily perceived
 that ,le ,cointe  employed aquafortis2 
but if he was able to loosen the gold   
from gilt  vessels without destroying   
them1 he must have used aqua regia1     
which  consequently was not then        
unknown4    ,from other information1 it 
appears that the mint at ,paris         
purchased  the art from ,le ,cointe's   
son1 but still kept it a secret4 ,on    
this  account ,francis ,i41 by a decree 
issued at ,blois on the #aith of ,march 
#aedj1 authorized the raising the value 
of coin1 in order to defray the  expense

 of fuel and assaying-water4 ,in the    
middle of the seventeenth  century1 the 
preparation of aquafortis and the       
process of assaying in  the moist way   
were fully known in ,france4 ,at any    
rate1 in the month  of ,january #afcg1  
the distillers obtained a guild letter1 
in which  aquafortis is mentioned among 
the articles sold by them4    ,when     
saltpetre became necessary to           
governments for the manufacture  of     
gunpowder1 they endeavoured to obtain it
 at as cheap a rate as  possible4 ,no   
one before suspected that rulers would  
be justified in  exclusively carrying   
away the incrustation of walls from     
private  houses1 which1 when it could be
 used1 became accessorium fundi4  ,but  
the idea of regalia1 so often abused1   
was extended so wide under  various     
pretences1 that the saltpetre regale and
 the letting of it  was one of the      
severest oppressions to which the people
 were exposed  by their rulers1 and     
which occasioned almost as bitter       

complaints as  the hunting regale1      
founded on no better grounds4 ,i shall  
not here  attempt to delineate the      
sufferings which were thus occasioned in
 many  countries2 they are still fresh  
in remembrance4    ,the oldest mention  
of this hated regale which ,i myself    
have found is  of the year #adai4 ,at   
that time1 ,gunther1 archbishop of      
,magdeburg1  granted to some person the 
right of searching out saltpetre and    
boiling  it1 during a year1 in the      
district of ,gibichenstein1 for which he
  was to pay a barrel of saltpetre1 and 
deliver to the archbishop the  remainder
 at the rate of five cross-groschens per
 pound4 ,the succeeding  archbishop1    
,frederick1 let in the year #adfj1 to a 
burgher of ,halle1  all the earth and   
the saltpetre that could be collected   
from it in  the bailiwick of            
,gibichenstein1 for four years1 at the  
annual rent of  a barrel of good refined
 saltpetre4 ,on the same conditions1    
bishop  ,ernest1 in #adgg1 let to some  

one for his lifetime the collection of  
the saltpetre4 ,in #aedd1 a certain     
person obtained the collection  of      
saltpetre from two heaps of rubbish     
before the gates at ,halle4  ,the       
magistrates of ,halle also in #aede had 
a saltpetre-work and a  powder-mill4 ,in
 the year #aefj1 ,john ,,vi41 archbishop
 of ,triers1 gave to  some one          
permission to search for and dig up     
saltpetre4 ,in #aehc1 the  saltpetre    
regale was confirmed by a ,brandenburg  
decree as a thing long  known1 and the  
case was the same with a ,hessian of the
 year #aehi4    ,it is very probable    
that this example was soon followed by  
most  sovereigns2 but even if they had  
collected and scraped together the      
nitrous incrustation of all the walls in
 ,europe1 they certainly would  not have
 found a quantity of saltpetre          
sufficient for the gunpowder  used in   
the numerous wars which took place1 had 
not a much greater  supply been obtained
 from ,india1 and particularly from     

,patna4 ,i do not  know whether the     
,portuguese brought this article to     
,europe2 but that  it was imported at a 
very early period by the ,dutch is      
proved by the  oldest ladings of their  
return ships2 and they at length found  
means to  appropriate this branch of    
trade so entirely to themselves1 that   
the  other ,europeans for a long time   
could not obtain any saltpetre in       
,india4    ,in the seventeenth century1 
when chemistry began to be studied with 
more care and attention in ,europe1 and 
particularly in ,germany1 and  the      
component parts and production of       
saltpetre became better known1  many    
conceived the idea of improving the     
methods of obtaining it  in ,europe so  
much1 that it might be possible to      
dispense with the  ,indian saltpetre1   
and flattered themselves with the hopes 
of thence  deriving great advantages4   
,some proposed to fill tubes with       
putrifiable  substances and earth       
capable of fixing of the nitric acid2   

others  preferred building vaults of    
these substances1 and ,glauber          
recommended  the filling of pits with   
them4 ,the proposal1 however1 which met 
with  the greatest approbation was that 
of building walls of them4 ,through a   
confidence in this idea1 towns and      
villages were compelled to erect and    
maintain a certain number of saltpetre  
walls1 under the most gracious  promise 
that the collectors of saltpetre should 
no longer be allowed  to spoil private  
dwellings1 or render them unhealthful4  
,but experience has shown that all the  
means and coercive measures  hitherto   
employed have rendered the ,european    
saltpetre much dearer  than that        
obtained by commerce from ,bengal4 ,this
 will be readily  comprehended1 when it 
is known that earth richly impregnated  
with  saltpetre abounds in ,india1 and  
that it may be extracted by lixiviation 
without any addition1 and brought to    
crystallize in that warm climate        
without the aid of fire2 that the price 

of labour there is exceedingly  low2    
that this salt is brought from ,india   
instead of ballast by all  the          
commercial nations of ,europe1 where the
 competition of the sellers  prevents   
the price from ever being extravagantly 
high1 while the  preparation of it in   
,europe1 in consequence of the still    
increasing  price of labour1 fuel and   
ashes1 is always becoming dearer4 ,this 
regale  will at length be everywhere    
scouted4 ,in the duchy of ,wurtemberg   
and  the ,prussian states1 where it was 
most rigidly enforced1 in consequence   
of an urgent representation from the    
,states it was abolished in #agih2  but 
in both countries an indemnification was
 given to government for  the loss4 ,the
 case also has been the same in         
,sweden#abei4 ,in the  duchy of         
,brunswick it was soon suffered to drop2
 but in the electoral  dominions it     
never was introduced4    ,the greater   
part of our nitre is derived from       
,bengal1 where1 as in  ,egypt1 ,persia1 

,spain1 c41 it exists in the soil4 ,it  
is separated by  lixiviation and        
crystallization4 ,in ,france1 ,sweden   
and some other  countries it is prepared
 artificially in nitre-beds4 ,these are 
formed  of various animal matters1 mixed
 with lime or mortar-rubbish2 the       
mixture is watered and stirred          
occasionally1 and allowed to remain  for
 a considerable time4 ,the whole is then
 lixiviated and decomposed  by carbonate
 of potash4 ,the nitre is then separated
 and purified by  crystallization4 ,in  
some cases wood-ashes are mixed with the
 animal  matters2 the decomposition with
 potash is then unnecessary4    ,it is a
 question whether the nitric acid in the
 nitre arises from the  nitrogen of the 
atmosphere or that in the animal        
matters4 ,dr4 ,davy  has found nitre in 
a cave at ,ceylon1 where no nitrogenous 
matter was  present2 and in some parts  
of ,india1 ,spain1 and some other       
countries1  at a distance from all      
habitations1 immense quantities of nitre

 are  reproduced in soils which have    
been washed the year before4 ,nitre  is 
directly brought into this country from 
,calcutta and ,madras1 in  bags         
containing from #aej lbs4 to #age lbs4  
each4 ,from #bjj1jjj cwts4 to  #bfj1jjj 
cwts4 are annually imported into the    
,united ,kingdom4    ,in making         
gunpowder1 the components1 the sulphur1 
nitre1 and charcoal  should be as pure  
as possible1 and reduced to the finest  
possible  powder2 they are sifted and   
mixed in the proper proportions4 ,the   
mixture is then made into a cake with   
water1 and ground between  calcareous   
millstones4 ,it is then granulated      
through sieves in  another mill1 and    
again sifted4 ,it is then polished and  
hardened by  revolving rapidly in a     
cask1 and finally dried4 ,the           
proportions of the  constituents vary in
 different countries2 at ,waltham ,abbey
 they are  seventy-five nitre1 fifteen  
charcoal and ten sulphur4 ,the quantity 
of  gunpowder consumed in this country  

is enormous2 moreover1 #d1jjj1jjj  lbs4 
are annually exported1 the greater part 
of which is sent to the  western coast  
of ,africa4    ,the force of the        
explosion of gunpowder is owing to the  
sudden  disengagement of gaseous        
products2 these consist of nitrogen1    
carbonic  oxide1 carbonic acid1 and     
sulphurous acid gases2 and their volume 
has  been calculated to amount to #bjjj 
times the bulk of the powder4           
,,footnotes    #aaij ,to this subject   
belong the following works3--,ars ,magna
  ,artilleri1 ,auct4 ,cas4              
,siomienowicz4 ,amst4 #afej1 fol4 p4    
#fa4 ,the author  thinks that the nitrum
 of the ancients is not at present      
known4    ,natural ,history of ,nitre1  
by ,w4 ,clarke4 ,lond4 #afgj1 #hvo4 ,it 
is here  said that the nitrum of the    
ancients was impure saltpetre1 and that 
the  latter is produced from the former 
by purification4    ,g4 ,c4 ,schelhameri
 de ,nitro1 cum veterum1 tum nostro     
commentatio1 ,amst4  #agji1 #hvo1       

contains good philological observations1
 particularly in  regard to the period1 
but leaves the question undetermined4   
,saggi sul ristabilimento dell' antica  
arte de' ,greci e ,romani pittori1  del 
,sig4 ,doct4 ,vin4 ,requeno4 ,parma1    
#aghg1 #b tomi in #hvo1 ii4 pp4 #ie1    
#aca3 a learned but diffuse work4 ,he   
thinks that the nitrum of the  ancients 
was our saltpetre2 and what others      
consider as proofs of  its being        
mineralized alkali1 he understands as   
indicating alkalized  saltpetre4 ,i am  
not1 however1 convinced4 ,before ,i     
ascribe to the  ancients a knowledge of 
our saltpetre1 ,i must be shown in their
  writings properties of their nitrum   
sufficient to satisfy me that it  was   
the same substance4    ,commentat4 de   
nitro ,plinii1 in ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis    
commentationes4 ,brem  #aghd1 #dto4 ,the
 author only illustrates the account of 
,pliny1 and states  what1 according to  
his opinion1 we are to understand in it 
in regard to  alkali1 and what in regard

 to our saltpetre4    #aaia ,since the  
discovery of the immense deposits of    
nitrate of  soda in ,peru1 this salt1   
from its being much cheaper1 has        
replaced  the nitrate of potash in the  
manufacture of aquafortis1 but it is not
  adapted to the making of gunpowder    
owing to its deliquescent property4     
#aaib ,i found the account of the       
,portuguese saltpetre in ,mmoires       
,instructifs pour un ,voyageur4 ,the    
author of this work was the  well-known 
,theodore king of ,corsica4    #aaic    
,more accounts of native saltpetre may  
be found in ,recueil  de ,mmoires sur la
 ,formation du ,salpetre4 ,par les      
,commissaires de  l',academie4 ,paris1  
#aggf1 #hvo4 ,del ,nitro ,minerale      
,memoria dell' ab4  ,fortis1 #aghg1     
#hvo4    #aaid ,the first1 or one of the
 first1 who was acquainted with and     
made known the cubic saltpetre1 was     
professor ,john ,bohn of ,leipsic1  in  
the ,acta ,eruditorum1 #afhc1 p4 #daj2  
but with more precision in his          

,dissertat4 ,chymico-,physic1 ,lips4    
#afif1 #hvo1 p4 #cf4    #aaie ,it is    
scarcely necessary to inform the reader 
that the author  understands the soda of
 commerce1 which is a carbonate of soda1
 and not  the hydrated or caustic soda  
of chemists4    #aaif ,crude soda or    
kelp was formerly manufactured to a very
 large  extent in the ,highlands1 by    
burning the sea-weed1 but since the tax 
has  been taken off salt1 most of the   
soda of ,british commerce is made by    
decomposing this with chalk and some    
carbonaceous matter4    #aaig ,in like  
manner1 a heap of dung covered with     
earth is lixiviated1  and the result1   
without the addition of ashes1 used as  
saltpetre4    #aaih ,the passage of     
,jerome relating to ,proverbs1 xxv4 #bj1
 ,i  here insert entire1 because ,i     
shall often have occasion to employ     
it3--8,nitrum a ,nitria provincia1 ubi  
maxime nasci solet1 nomen  accepit4 ,nee
 multum a salis ,ammoniaci specie       
distat4 ,nam sicut salem  in litore     

maris fervor solis conficit1 durando in 
petram aquas  marinas1 quas major vis   
ventorum1 vel ipsius maris fervor in    
litoris  ulteriora projecerit2 ita in   
,nitria1 ubi state pluvi prolixiores    
tellurem infundunt1 adest ardor sideris 
tantus1 quod ipsas aquas  pluviales per 
latitudinem arenarum concoquat in       
petram2 salis quidem  vel glaciei       
aspectui simillimam2 sed nil gelidi     
rigoris1 nil salsi  saporis habentem1 qu
 tamen1 juxta naturam salis1 in caumate 
durare1  et in nubilos1 aere fluere ac  
liquefieri solet4 ,hanc indigen         
sumentes servant1 et ubi opus extiterit1
 pro lomento utuntur4 ,unde  ,judo      
peccanti dicit propheta ,jeremias3 ,si  
laveris te nitro1 et  multiplicaveris   
tibi herbam borith1 maculata es in      
iniquitate tua1  dicit ,dominus ,deus4  
,crepitat autem in aqua quomodo calx    
viva2 et ipsum  quidem disperit1 sed    
aquam lavationi habilem reddit2 cujus   
natura cui  sit apta figur1 cernens     
,solomon ait3 ,acetum in nitro1 qui     

cantat  carmina cordi pessimo4 ,acetum  
quippe si mittatur in nitrum1 protinus  
ebullit40    #aaii ,herodot4 ii4 cap4   
#hf et #hg4    #abjj ,histor4 gypti     
,naturalis iii4 #b4 ,see also ,forskl   
,flora  gyptiaco-,arabica1 p4 xlv4      
#abja ,duhamel proved soda to be        
distinct from potash in #agcf1          
,marggraf confirmed it in #ageh4        
#abjb ,lib4 xxxi4 cap4 #aj4    #abjc ,de
 ,simplic4 ,med4 ,facult4 ix4           
,dioscorides also1 v4 #aca1 speaks as   
if it had been well known that nitrum   
was commonly burnt4    #abjd ,phil4     
,transactions1 #agga1 vol4 lxi4 p4 #efg4
    #abje ,de ,igne1 p4 #dce1 ed4       
,heinsii1 where he speaks of the heat   
produced in lime by slaking it4         
,aristotle also mentions together   and 
1 on account of similar properties4     
,problemat4 i4 #ci4 ed4  ,septalii1 p4  
#ga4    #abjf ,hist4 ,plant4 iii4 #i1 p4
 #ej4    #abjg xxvi4 #h4    #abjh xiv4  
#bj4    #abji ,de ,re ,rustica1 lib4 i4 
c4 #g4 ,little1 however1 depended on the

  wood2 the principal thing was the     
sprinkling with water4    #abaj xxxi4   
#aj4    #abaa xxxi4 #g4 ,here express   
mention is made of brine4    #abab      
,taciti ,annal4 xiii4 #eg4    #abac     
,lib4 xxx4 #g4    #abad ,this is        
particularly the case in regard to      
,aristot4 ,auscult4  ,mirab41 as ,i have
 remarked in the preface to my edition4 
#abae ,in the island of ,dagebull1 and  
also in ,faretoft and ,galmesbull1      
,frisio salt is made in the following   
manner4 ,the inhabitants proceed  along 
the coast in small vessels1 and at low  
water go on shore on  the mud1 which    
they dig up till they come to a kind of 
earth called  torricht2 it is of a turfy
 nature1 and interwoven with roots4     
,this  earth they convey to the islands1
 where they spread it out in the sun    
and leave it to dry1 after which it is  
formed into a heap and burnt to  ashes4 
,what remains is again spread out1      
moistened and trod upon with  the naked 
feet2 the small stones and other useless

 parts are picked  out1 and being again 
dried and besprinkled with water1 the   
ley is put  into salt-pans and boiled   
into salt4    #abaf ,mmoires de l',acad4
 de ,bruxelles1 #aggg1 i4 p4 #cde4      
#abag ,elementa ,chemi4 ,lugd4 ,bat4    
#agcb1 #dto1 i4 p4 #gfg4    #abah ,boyle
 considered the words of ,solomon as a  
proof that nether  must be fixed alkali2
 and he was the more convinced of it    
when he saw  nitre obtained from ,egypt 
effervesce with acids4    #abai ,see the
 ,history of ,soap in vol4 i4    #abbj  
,plin4 xxxvi4 #bf1  #fe4 ,the use of    
nitrum in making glass is  often        
mentioned4    #abba ,plin4 xxxi4 #aj4   
#abbb ,lib4 xxx4 #aj4    #abbc ,forskl  
,flora1 p4 xlvi4    #abbd ,plutarchi    
,sympos4 lib4 vi4 at the end4    #abbe  
,theophrasti ,histor4 ,plant4 ii4       
#e4--;,geopon4 ii4 #ce1 #b2 and ii4     
#da4--,palladius1 xii4 tit4 i4 #c1 p4   
#iif4    #abbf ,virg4 ,georg4 i4        
#aic4--,plin4 xviii4 #g4                
#hde4--;,geopon4 ii4 #cf1 p4  #ahd4     

#abbg ,columella1 ii4 #aj1 #aa4    #abbh
 ,plin4 xix4 #h1  #da4--,pallad4 iii4   
#bd1 #f4--;,geopon4 xii4 #ag1           
#a4--,theophrast4 de ,causa ,plant4 vi4 
#ad4    #abbi ,plin4 xxxi4 #aj2 and xix4
 #e1  #bf1 #aj4    #abcj ,apicius1 iii4 
#a1 p4 #gj4--,martial1 lib4 xiii4 ep4   
#ag4--,plin4  xix4 #h1 #da1 #c2 xxx4    
#aj4--;,columella1 xi4 #c1 #bc4         
,carbonate of soda1 as  is well known1  
is still frequently used for this       
purpose in culinary  operations4        
#abca ,herodot4 ii4 #hg4    #abcb ,our  
tanners use unslaked lime for a similar 
purpose4    #abcc ,annot4 to            
,dioscorides1 v4 #hi1 p4 #iea4    #abcd 
,a catalogue of such waters may be found
 in ,baccii ,liber de  ,thermis4        
,patavii1 #agaa1 fol4 v4 #e1 #f1 #g1 p4 
#afj4 ,carbonate of soda  occurs for    
instance in the celebrated mineral      
waters of ,seltzer and  ,carlsbad1 and  
also in the volcanic springs of         
,iceland1 especially the  ,geyser4      
#abce ,plin4 xxxi4 #f1  #cb1 p4 #eef4   

,vitruv4 viii4 #c1 p4 #aeh4    #abcf    
xxxi4 #aj4    #abcg ,plin4 xxiv4 #a2    
xxxi4 #c1  #bb4 ,geopon4 ii4 #e1 #ad1 p4
 #he4    #abch ,speculum ,natur1 vii4   
#hg1 p4 #dhj4    #abci ,hieronym4 ad    
,jerem4 ii4 #bb4    #abdj 8,for though  
thou wash thee with nitre1 and take much
 soap1 yet  thine iniquity is marked    
before me1 saith the ,lord ,god40       
#abda ,in regard to the two plants      
usnee1 asne1 and usnem1  assuan1 see    
,avicenn ,canon4 ,medic4 ,venet4 #afjh1 
fol4 pp4 #cch1 #djf1  #djg4 ,serapio de 
,temperam4 ,simplic4 p4 #afd4 ,in ,du   
,cange's ,gloss4 ,gr4  p4 #ab1 addend4 1
 and in ,gloss4 ,lat4 v4 the word alcali
 is  quoted only from modern writers4   
,that kali1 however1 does not mean  the 
plant1 but the concrete ashes1 is proved
 by the explanation in  ,castelli's     
,lexicon4    #abdb ,in the annotations  
to ,scribonius ,largus1 p4 #bbh4        
#abdc ,commentationes1 p4 #ade4 ,recueil
 des ,questions1 c41 p4 #bca4    #abdd  
,such things were known to ,aristotle4  

,see ,mirab4 ,ausc4 c4 #adf4    #abde   
,dissertat4 de ,igne ,grco4 ,upsali1    
#ageb4    #abdf ,de ,subtilitate1 xiii4 
#c4 p4 #ga4 ed4 ,francof4 #afab1 #hvo4  
#abdg ,de ,mirabilibus ,mundi1 p4 #bja2 
at the end of the book ,de ,secretis    
,mulierum4 ,amst4 #agjb1 #abmo4    #abdh
 ,liber ,ignium ad ,comburendos ,hostes1
 auctore ,marco ,grco2 ou1  ,trait des  
,feux propres  dtruire les ,ennemies1   
compos par ,marcus  le ,grec4 ,publi    
d'aprs deux manuscrits de la            
,bibliothque ,nationale4  ,paris1 #ahjd1
 three sheets in quarto4    #abdi       
,biblioth4 ,arab4 ,hisp4 ,escurial1 ii4 
#abej ,see the works quoted in ,fabricii
 ,bibliograph4 ,antiquar4 p4 #igh4  ,in 
the year #agih1 ,m4 ,langles proved1 in 
a paper read in the ,french  ,national  
,institute1 that the ,arabians obtained 
a knowledge of gunpowder  from the      
,indians1 who had been acquainted with  
it in the earliest  periods4 ,the use of
 it in war was forbidden in their sacred
 books1 the  ,veidam or ,vede4 ,it was  

employed in #fij at the battle of       
,mecca4    #abea ,the following may be  
advantageously consulted3--,archologia1 
v4 p4 #adh2 ,henry's ,hist4 of ,great   
,britain1 vol4 iv42 ,muratori ,antiq4   
,itali ,medii vi1 ii4 p4 #ead2 ,watson's
 ,chemical ,essays1 i4 pp4 #bhd1  #cbg2 
,histoire de ,france1 par ,velly1 xvi4  
p4 #ccj2 ,dow's ,hist4 of  ,hindostan1  
vol4 ii42 ,erdbeschreibung der          
entferntesten ,welttheile1 ii4  p4 #aei2
 ,stettler ,schweitzer ,chronik4 p4     
#aji4 ,the inhabitants of ,berne        
purchased the first gunpowder from the  
people of ,nuremberg in #adac4    #abeb 
,a fragment from the writings of        
,synesius was printed1 for the  first   
time1 in ,frabricii ,bibliotheca ,grca1 
viii4 p4 #bcf1 where the  words occur4  
#abec ,raspe on ,oil-painting4 ,london1 
#agha1 #dto1 p4 #ade4    #abed ,speculum
 ,naturale1 vii4 cap4 #ac1 p4 #dcb4     
#abee ,lib4 vii4 cap4 #hh1 p4 #dhj4     
#abef ,symbola ,aure ,mens4 ,francof4   
#afag1 #dto1 lib4 vii4 p4 #cce4    #abeg

 ,de ,asse1 #aeef1 fol4 lib4 iii4 p4    
#aja4    #abeh ,les                     
,anciens-,minralogistes de ,france1 par 
,gobet4 ,paris1 #aggi1 #b  vols4 #hvo1  
i4 p4 xxxiv4 i4 p4 #ea1 #bhd2 ii4 p4    
#hdg4    #abei ,the celebrated chemist  
,baron ,berzelius1 professor at         
,stockholm1  states in his ,manual of   
,chemistry 7edit4 #ahce1 vol4 iv4 p4    
#hf71 that  every possessor of land in  
,sweden is still compelled to deliver a 
certain quantity of saltpetre yearly to 
the state1 and gives directions  for    
testing its goodness4                   
,,book-,,censors4      8,on account of  
the great ease10 says ,m4 ,putter1 8with
 which1 after  the invention of         
printing1 copies of books could be      
multiplied and  dispersed1 it was       
necessary that some means should be     
devised to  prevent a bad use from being
 made of this art1 and to guard against 
its  being employed to the prejudice of 
either religion or good morals1 or  to  
the injury of states4 ,for this reason  

it was everywhere laid down as  a       
general maxim1 that no one should be    
allowed to establish a printing  office 
at pleasure1 but by the permission and  
under the inspection of  government2 and
 that no work should be suffered to go  
to press until it  had been examined by 
a censor appointed for that purpose1 or 
declared  by a particular order to be of
 a harmless nature#abfj40    ,many      
centuries however before the invention  
of printing1 books were  forbidden by   
different governments1 and even         
condemned to the flames4  ,a variety of 
proofs can be produced that this was the
 case among both  the ancient ,greeks   
and ,romans4 ,at ,athens the works of   
,protagoras  were prohibited2 and all   
the copies of them which could be       
collected  were burnt by the public     
crier#abfa4 ,at ,rome the writings of   
,numa1  which had been found in his     
grave1 were1 by order of the senate1    
condemned to the fire1 because they were
 contrary to the religion  which he had 

introduced#abfb4 ,as the populace at    
,rome were1 in times  of public         
calamity1 more addicted to superstition 
than seemed proper  to the government1  
an order was issued that all            
superstitious and  astrological books   
should be delivered into the hands of   
the prtor4  ,this order was often       
repeated2 and the emperor ,augustus     
caused more  than two thousand of these 
books to be burnt at one time#abfc4     
,under  the same emperor the satirical  
works of ,labienus were condemned to    
the fire1 which was the first instance  
of this nature2 and it is  related as   
something singular1 that a few years    
after the writings  of the person who   
had been the cause of the order for that
 purpose  shared the like fate1 and were
 also publicly burnt#abfd4 7,in a manner
  somewhat similar the works of ,ben4   
,arias ,montanus1 who assisted to  make 
the first catalogue of prohibited books 
in the ,netherlands1 were  afterwards   
inserted in a catalogue of the same     

kind74 ,the burning  of these works     
having induced ,cassius ,severus to say1
 in a sneering  manner1 that it would be
 necessary to burn him alive1 as he had 
got by  heart the writings of his friend
 ,labienus1 this expression gave rise   
to a law of ,augustus against abusive   
writings#abfe4 ,when ,cremutius         
,cordus1 in his ,history1 called ,c4    
,cassius the last of the ,romans1 the   
senate1 in order to flatter ,tiberius1  
caused the book to be burnt2  but a     
number of copies were saved by being    
concealed#abff4 ,antiochus  ,epiphanes  
caused the books of the ,jews to be     
burnt#abfg2 and in the  first centuries 
of our ra the books of the ,christians  
were treated  with equal severity1 of   
which ,arnobius bitterly complains#abfh4
 ,we  are told by ,eusebius1 that       
,diocletian caused the sacred           
,scriptures  to be burnt#abfi4 ,after   
the spreading of the ,christian religion
  the clergy exercised against books    
that were either unfavourable or        

disagreeable to them1 the same severity 
which they had censured in the  heathens
 as foolish and prejudicial to their own
 cause4 ,thus were the  writings of     
,arius condemned to the flames at the   
council of ,nice2 and  ,constantine     
threatened with the punishment of death 
those who should  conceal them#abgj4    
,the clergy assembled at the council of 
,ephesus  requested the emperor         
,theodosius ,,ii4 to cause the works of 
,nestorius  to be burnt2 and this desire
 was complied with#abga4 ,the writings  
of  ,eutyches shared the like fate at   
the council of ,chalcedon2 and it would 
not be difficult to collect examples of 
the same kind from each of the          
following centuries4    ,we have        
instances also that1 many centuries     
prior to the invention of  printing1    
authors submitted their works1 before   
they were published1  to the judgement  
of their superiors4 ,this was done      
principally by the  clergy2 partly to   
secure themselves from censure or       

punishment1 and  partly to show their   
respect to the pope or to bishops4 ,it  
however does  not appear that this was a
 duty1 but a voluntary act4 ,in the year
 #gfh1  ,ambrosius ,autpert1 a          
,benedictine monk1 sent his ,exposition 
of the book  of ,revelation to ,pope    
,stephen ,,iii41 and begged that he     
would publish  the work and make it     
known4 ,on this occasion he says        
expressly1 that  he is the first writer 
who ever requested such a favour2 that  
liberty  to write belongs to every one  
who does not wish to depart from the    
doctrine of the fathers of the church2  
and he hopes that this freedom  will not
 be lessened on account of his voluntary
 submission#abgb4    ,soon after the    
invention of printing1 laws began to be 
made for  subjecting books to           
examination2 a regulation proposed even 
by ,plato1  and which has been wished   
for by many since4 ,it is very probable 
that the fear under which the clergy    
were1 lest publications should  get     

abroad prejudicial to religion1 and     
consequently to their power1            
contributed not a little to hasten the  
establishment of book-censors4  ,the    
earliest instance of a book printed with
 a permission from  government1 is      
commonly supposed to occur in the year  
#adhj2 and ,dom  ,liron1 a ,benedictine 
monk1 is perhaps the first person who   
made that  remark4 ,he is the author of 
a work called ,singularits ,historiques 
et ,litteraires#abgc2 in the last part  
of which1 where he speaks of  the       
,heidelberg edition of the book ,nosce  
te ipsum1 in #adhj1 he says1  8,this is 
the first publication ,i found          
accompanied with several solemn         
approbations and attestations in its    
favour40 ,the same thing is said by  ,j4
 ,n4 ,weislinger1 one of the most       
illiberal defenders of the ,catholic    
church1 in whose work1 entitled         
,armamentarium ,catholicum#abgd1 there  
is an account of that book4 ,he there   
tells us in ,latin1 without  mentioning 

,liron1 8,this is the first book which  
,i have seen1 subjected  to the         
examination1 reading1 and approbation of
 the clergy20 and in the  opinion of    
,mercier1 it really is the oldest4 ,it  
has four approbations  7in ,latin72 the 
first and last of which ,i shall here   
insert 7in  ,english71 as they will     
serve to show the foolish pride of the  
clergy  at that period3--8,i ,philip    
,rota1 doctor of laws1 though the least 
of  all1 have read over carefully1 and  
diligently examined1 this small  work1  
,nosce te2 and as ,i have found it not  
only composed devoutly and              
catholically1 but abounding also with   
matter of wonderful utility1 ,i  do not 
hesitate1 in testimony of the above1 to 
subscribe my name4444 ,i  ,mapheus      
,girardo1 by the divine mercy patriarch 
of ,venice and primate of  ,dalmatia1   
confiding in the fidelity of the above  
gentlemen1 who have  examined and       
approved the above-mentioned book1 do   
testify that it is a  devout and        

orthodox work40 ,there were1 therefore1 
censors at this early  period who gave  
their opinion of books without reading  
them4    ,i should have considered these
 instances as the oldest information    
respecting book-censors1 had ,i not been
 induced by ,m4 ,eccard1 the  learned   
amanuensis belonging to our library1 to 
look into the ,literary  ,weekly        
,journal of ,cologne1 for the year      
#aggh4 ,in that work ,i found  an       
ingenious account1 by an anonymous      
author1 of the early state of  printing 
in that city1 and of two books printed  
almost a year sooner  than #adgi1 with  
the approbation of the public censor4   
,the first is  ,wilhelmi episcopi       
,lugdunensis ,summa de ,virtutibus2 at  
the end of  which are the following     
words3--8,benedictus sit dominus        
virtutum1 qui  hoc opus earundem felici 
consummatione terminari dedit in        
laudabili  civitate ,coloniensi1        
temptatum1 admissumque et approbatum ab 
alma  universitate studii civitatis     

praedictae1 de consensu et voluntate    
spectabilis et egregii viri pro tempore 
recteris ejusdem1 impressum  per ,henr4 
,quentel40 ,the other book is a ,bible1 
with the following  conclusion3--8,anno 
incarnationis dominice millesimo        
quadringentesimo  ,,lxxix ipsa vigilia  
,matthaei apostoli4 ,quando insigne     
veteris novique  testamenti opus cum    
canonibus evangelistarum et eorum       
concordantiis in  laudem et gloriam     
sancte et individue trinitatis          
intemerateque virginis  ,marie impressum
 in ,civitate ,coloniensi per ,conradum 
de ,homborch1  admissum1 approbatum ab  
alma universitate ,coloniensi40    ,the 
oldest mandate for appointing a         
book-censor is1 as far as ,i know  at   
present1 that issued by ,berthold1      
archbishop of ,mentz1 in the year       
#adhf1 and which may be found in the    
fourth volume of ,guden's ,codex        
,diplomaticus#abge4    ,in the year     
#aeja1 pope ,alexander ,,vi4 published a
 bull1 the first  part of which may form

 an excellent companion to the mandate  
of the  archbishop of ,mentz#abgf4      
,after some complaints against the      
devil1  who sows tares among the wheat1 
his holiness proceeds thus3 8,having    
been informed1 that by means of the said
 art many books and treatises           
containing various errors and pernicious
 doctrines1 even hostile to  the holy   
,christian religion1 have been printed1 
and are still printed  in various parts 
of the world1 particularly in the       
provinces of  ,cologne1 ,mentz1 ,triers1
 and ,magdeburg2 and being desirous1    
without  further delay1 to put a stop to
 this detestable evil 444 we1 by these  
presents1 and by authority of the       
,apostolic chamber1 strictly forbid  all
 printers1 their servants1 and those    
exercising the art of printing  under   
them1 in any manner whatsoever1 in the  
abovesaid provinces1  under pain of     
excommunication1 and a pecuniary fine1  
to be imposed  and exacted by our       
venerable brethren the archbishops of   

,cologne1  ,mentz1 ,triers1 and         
,magdeburg1 and their vicars-general or 
official in  spirituals1 according to   
the pleasure of each in his own         
province1 to  print hereafter any books1
 treatises1 or writings1 until they have
  consulted on this subject the         
archbishops1 vicars1 or officials       
above-mentioned1 and obtained their     
special and express licence1 to be      
granted free of all expense1 whose      
consciences we charge1 that before  they
 grant any licence of this kind1 they   
will carefully examine1 or  cause to be 
examined1 by able and catholic persons1 
the works to be  printed2 and that they 
will take the utmost care that nothing  
may be  printed wicked and scandalous1  
or contrary to the orthodox faith40     
,the rest of the bull contains          
regulations to prevent works already    
printed from doing mischief4 ,all       
catalogues and books printed before     
that period were to be examined1 and    
those which contained anything          

prejudicial to the ,catholic religion   
were to be burned4    ,in the beginning 
of the sixteenth century1 it was ordered
 by the  well-known council of the      
,lateran1 held at ,rome in the year     
#aeae1 that  in future no books should  
be printed but such as had been         
inspected by  ecclesiastical censors4   
,in ,france1 the faculty of ,theology   
usurped1 as some say1 the right of      
censuring books2 but in the year #afej1 
when public censors1 whom the  faculty  
opposed1 were appointed without their   
consent1 they stated the  antiquity of  
their right to be two hundred years4    
,for they said1 8,it  is above two      
hundred years since the doctors of      
,paris have had a right  to approve     
books without being subjected but to    
their own faculty1 to  which they assert
 they are alone responsible for their   
decisions#abgg40    ,in no country of   
,europe does the liberty of the press   
prevail to such  an extent as with us1  
the only vestige of censorship being the

 censor  for the drama4 ,in ,rome the   
same strictness prevails as ever1 but a 
brighter day seems dawning4 ,in ,germany
 the censorship is excessively  severe1 
especially in ,austria1 ,bavaria1 and   
,prussia4 ,however1 most of  the        
prohibited works are printed in         
,switzerland1 ,hamburg1 or ,leipsig1    
and there being a very large demand for 
such works1 they may be had  of almost  
any bookseller in every principal town4 
,to put a stop to  this1 the present    
monarch of ,prussia1 professedly a      
liberal1 placed  under ban all the works
 issued by the firm of ,hoffmann and    
,campe of  ,hamburg1 because they       
published the political poems of        
,hoffmann von  ,fallersleben4           
,caricatures are1 as the reader may     
suppose1 subject to as  strict a law1   
and no ,h4,b4 could be tolerated there4 
,,footnotes    #abfj ,der               
,bchernachdruck nach chten ,grundstzen  
des ,rechts geprft4  #aggd1 #dto4       
#abfa ,diogenes ,laert4 lib4 ix4        

#eb4--;,cicero de ,nat4 ,deor4 lib4 i4  
cap4  #bc4--,lactantius ,de ,ira1 ix4   
#b4--;,eusebius ,de ,prparatione ,evang4
 xiv4 p4  #ai4--,minucius ,felix1 viii4 
#ac4    #abfb ,livius1 lib4 xl4 c4      
#bi4--,plin4 xiii4 #ac4--,plutarchus in 
,vita  ,num4--,lactantius de ,falsa     
,relig4 i4 #be1 #e4--,valer4 ,max4 i4   
cap4 #a1 #ab4    #abfc ,sueton4 lib4 ii4
 cap4 #ca4    #abfd ,the whole          
circumstance is related by ,seneca the  
rhetorician1 in  the introduction to the
 fifth1 or1 as others reckon1 the tenth 
book of  his ,controversi4    #abfe     
,taciti ,annal4 lib4 i4 c4 #gb4 ,bayle1 
in his ,dictionary1 has  endeavoured to 
clear up some doubts respecting the     
history of ,cassius  and ,labienus4 ,see
 the article ,cassius4    #abff ,tacit4 
,annal4 lib4 iv4 cap4 #ce4    #abfg     
,maccab4 ii4    #abfh ,adversus ,gentes1
 lib4 iii4    #abfi ,hist4 ,eccles4 #a4 
viii4 cap4 #b4 ,suidas says the same4   
#abgj ,socrates1 lib4 i4 cap4 #f4       
#abga ,digestor1 lib4 x4 tit4 #b1 #d1   

#a4    #abgb ,baillet1 ,jugemens des    
,savans1 #dto1 i4 p4 #bf4    #abgc      
,paris1 #agch-dj1 #dto1 vol4 viii4      
#abgd ,argentin #agdi1 fol4    #abge    
,codex ,diplomaticus4 ,franc4 #ageh1    
#dto1 iv4 p4 #dfj4 ,an account of  the  
establishment of a book-censor at ,mentz
 may be found also in ,g4 ,c4  ,johannis
 ,rerum ,mogunt4 i4 p4 #gih4    #abgf   
,the whole bull may be seen in ,baronii 
,annales ,ecclesiastici tom4  xix4      
,colon4 #afia1 p4 #ead4    #abgg        
,baillet1 ,jugemens des ,savans1 i4 p4  
#ai4          ,,exclusive ,,privilege   
,,for ,,printing ,,books4      ,i do not
 mean in this article to give a complete
 catalogue of all  the books printed    
under a privilege in the fifteenth and  
sixteenth  centuries1 for such a list   
would be attended with very little      
utility4  ,all ,i wish is to contribute 
something towards answering the         
question1  ,what are the oldest         
privileges granted to books8    ,the    
oldest known at present is that granted 

in the year #adij1 by ,henry  bishop of 
,bamberg1 to the following book3 ,liber 
,missalis secundum  ordinem ecclesi     
,bambergensis--,anno incarnationis      
dominice ,,mccccxc4  nono vero kal4     
,april4--,in civitate ,babenbergn4 per  
magistrum ,johannem  ,sensenschmidt1    
prefate civitatis incolam1 et ,heinr4   
,petzensteiner4 ,this  privilege was    
first noticed by ,panzer1 in his        
,history of the ,nuremberg  editions of 
the ,bible1 and afterwards by ,mr4 ,am  
,ende1 in ,meusel's  ,collection for    
enlarging ,historical ,knowledge4 ,the  
latter says1 8,one  may readily believe 
that this bishop was not the inventor of
 such  privileges1 and that they are    
consequently of much greater antiquity  
than has hitherto been supposed40 ,mr4  
,am ,ende mentions also a privilege  of 
the year #adia1 to a work called ,hortus
 ,sanitatis1 typis ,iacobi              
,meydenbach4444 ,impressum autem est hoc
 ipsum in incl4 civ4 ,moguntina  444 sub
 ,archipraesulatu rever4 et benigniss4  

principis et ,d4 ,d4  ,bertholdi1       
archiep4 ,moguntinensis ac princ4       
elector4 cujus felicissimo  auspicio    
graditur1 recipitur et auctorisatur4    
,this1 says ,mr4 ,am ,ende1  may allude 
to a privilege1 and perhaps not4 ,for my
 part1 ,i conjecture  that it refers    
only to a permission to print1 granted  
in consequence of  the institution of   
book-censors by the archbishop          
,berthold1 in the year  #adhf4    ,the  
oldest ,venetian privilege at present   
known1 is of the year #adia1  found by  
,m4 ,ptter to the following work3       
,foenix ,magistri ,petri  memoriae      
,ravennatis4 ,the ,colophon is          
,bernardinus de ,choris de ,cremona     
impressor delectus impressit4 ,venetias 
die ,x ,ianuarii ,,mccccxci4 ,the  book 
is in quarto1 and has the privilege on  
both the last pages4 ,there  is a       
,venetian privilege also of the year    
#adib1 to ,senec ,tragedi cum           
commento4444 ,cum privilegio ne quis    
audeat hoc opus cum hoc commento        

imprimere1 sub pena in eo contenta1     
,venetiis per ,lazarum ,issarda de      
,saliviano #adib1 die ,,xii4 ,decembris4
    ,the oldest ,papal privilege        
hitherto known is of the year #aeje1 to 
,hervei ,britonis in ,,iv ,petri        
,lombardi ,sententiarum volumina1       
scripta  subtilissima4    ,in the year  
#adie1 ,aldus published the works of    
,aristotle1 at the end  of the first    
part of which we find the following     
notice3 8,concessum  est eidem ,aldo    
inventori ab illustrissimo senatu       
,veneto1 ne quis queat  imprimere neque 
hunc librum1 neque caeteros quos is ipse
 impresserit2  neque ejus uti invento40 
,the last words allude to the ,greek    
types which  were employed in printing  
the ,aldine editions of the ,greek      
classics4    ,the following among other 
early privileges are quoted by          
,ptter#abgh  and ,hoffmann#abgi--       
#adie4 ,a ,milanese1 by duke ,louis     
,sforza1 to ,michael ,ferner and        
,eustachius ,silber for ,i4 ,a4 ,campani

 ,opera4        #aeja4 ,privilegium     
sodalitatis ,celtic a senatu ,romani    
imperii      impetratum1 to ,conrade    
,celtes' edition of the works of        
,hroswitha4        #aejf4 ,a papal1 of  
pope ,julius ,,ii41 to ,evangelista     
,tosino the      bookseller1 for        
,ptolomaei ,geographia4        #aejg4 ,a
 ,french1 of ,louis ,,xii4 to ,antoine  
,verard4        #aeaj4 ,the first       
,imperial1 to ,lectura aurea semper     
,domini abbatis      antiqui4           
#aeab4 ,an ,imperial1 to ,rosslin's     
,swangere ,frauwen ,rosegarten4         
#aebg4 ,a privilege from the duke of    
,saxony to the edition of the ,new      
,testament by ,emser4    ,anderson      
remarks on the year #aeij1 that the     
first exclusive patent1  for printing a 
book in ,england1 which occurs in       
,rymer's ,fdera#abhj1  was granted in   
the above year by queen ,elizabeth1 to  
,richard ,weight  of ,oxford1 for a     
,translation of ,tacitus4 ,i am much    
astonished that  ,anderson1 who was so  

often obliged to use ,rymer's ,fdera1   
and who seems  indeed to have consulted 
it with attention1 should have          
overlooked  the oldest patents which are
 to be found in that collection4 ,in    
that  laborious work1 so important to   
those who wish to be acquainted with    
the history of ,british literature1     
,ames' ,typographical ,antiquities1     
there are privileges of still greater   
antiquity4 ,the oldest which ,i         
observed in this work are the           
following3--        #aeaj4 ,the history 
of king ,boccus 444 printed at ,london  
by ,thomas      ,godfry4 ,cum privilegio
 regali4        #aeah4 ,oratio ,richardi
 ,pacei 444 ,impressa per ,richardum    
,pynson1      regium impressorem1 cum   
privilegio a rege indulto1 ne quis hanc 
orationem intra biennium in regno ,angli
 imprimat1 aut alibi      impressam et  
importatam in eodem regno ,angli vendat4
    ,other works printed cum gratia et  
privilegio occur #aebj1 #aeba1 #aebe1   
#aebh1 #aecj1 c4    ,in the year #adhc1 

when the well-known act was made against
 foreign  merchants1 foreigners however 
were permitted to import books and      
manuscripts1 and also to print them in  
the kingdom2 but this liberty  was      
afterwards revoked by ,henry ,,viii41 in
 the year #aecc1 by an order  which may 
be found in ,ames4 ,in #aech1 ,henry    
issued an order respecting  the printing
 of bibles2 and in #aedb1 he gave a     
bookseller an exclusive  privilege      
during four years for that purpose#abha4
    ,with a view of finding the oldest  
,spanish privilege1 ,i consulted  a     
variety of works1 and among others      
,specimen ,bibliothecae                 
,hispano-,majansianae1 but ,i met with  
none older than that to the  following  
book3 ,aelii ,antonii ,nebrissensis     
,introductiones in ,latinam             
,grammaticen4 ,logronii ,cantabrorum    
,vasconum urbe nobilissima2 anno        
salutis millesimo quingentesimo decimo4 
fol4 ,that privileges to  books were    
usual in ,poland1 has been shown by ,am 

,ende1 in ,meusel's  ,collections       
before-mentioned4      ,,footnotes      
#abgh ,der ,bchernachdruck nach chten   
,grundstzen des ,rechts geprft4    #abgi
 ,von denen altesten kayserlichen und   
landesherrlichen  ,bcherdruck-oder      
,verlag-privilegien1 #aggg1 #hvo4       
#abhj ,vol4 xvi4 p4 #if4    #abha       
,exclusive privileges for printing the  
,english ,bible and ,prayer  have been  
granted by the ,crown at different      
periods up to the present  time1 with   
the exception of the period of the      
,commonwealth1 during  which they were  
abolished4 ,in the #bgth year of        
,charles ,,ii4 a ,royal  patent was     
granted to ,thomas ,newcomb and ,henry  
,hills4 ,in the #abth of  ,anne to      
,benjamin ,tooke and ,john ,barber2 in  
the #bbnd of ,george ,i4 to  ,john      
,basket4 ,then came ,john ,reeves1 who  
received his patent from ,george  ,,iii4
 in the #cith year of his reign1 and in 
association with ,george ,eyre  and     
,andrew ,strahan1 printed the many      

editions of the ,bible and ,prayer      
described as ,reeves' editions4 ,the    
present patent was conferred by  ,george
 ,,iv4 upon ,andrew ,strahan1 ,george   
,eyre1 and ,andrew ,spottiswoode1  for a
 term of thirty years1 which commenced  
,january #ba1 #ahcj1 and  consequently  
ceases in #ahfj4 ,by this last patent   
every one but the  patentees is         
prohibited from printing in ,england any
 ,bible or ,new  ,testament in the      
,english tongue1 of any translation1    
with or without  notes2 or any ,prayers1
 ,rites1 or ,ceremonies of the ,united  
,church of  ,england and ,ireland2 or   
any books commanded to be used by the   
,crown2  nor can either of the above be 
imported from abroad1 if printed in     
,english1 or in ,english mixed with any 
other tongue4 ,the ,universities of     
,oxford and ,cambridge also enjoy the   
right of printing ,bibles1 c41 in       
common with the patentees2 but in their 
case it is a simple affair of           
permission1 they having no power to     

prohibit or prosecute4 ,the present     
patentees1 it may be here observed1 have
 not of late years attempted to  enforce
 their rights1 and ,bibles are now      
printed almost ad libitum4    ,in       
,scotland1 prior to #agjj1 various      
persons held concurrent licenses1       
consequently it is very difficult to say
 who were king's printers and  who were 
not4 ,on ,july #f1 #agaf1 ,george ,i4   
granted a patent to ,john  ,basket1 the 
,english patentee1 and ,agnes ,campbell1
 jointly for forty-one  years4 ,to them 
succeeded ,alexander ,kincaird1 whose   
patent dates from  ,june #ba1 #agdi2 and
 then ,james ,hunter ,blair and ,john   
,bruce1 whose patent  commenced in #agih
 and expired in the hands of their      
heirs1 ,sir ,d4 ,h4  ,blair and ,miss   
,bruce4 ,in #ahcc the patent ceased1 and
 has never been  renewed4 ,unlike either
 ,england or ,ireland1 the four ,scotch 
,universities  have never participated  
in this monopoly4    ,in ,ireland1      
,george ,,iii4 in #agff granted a ,bible

 patent to ,boulter  ,grierson for forty
 years4 ,he was succeeded by his son    
,george ,grierson1  who1 in #ahaa1      
obtained a renewal1 and is still with   
,mr4 ,keene1 the  ,irish patentee4      
,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 has also a  
concurrent right1  but both ,oxford and 
,cambridge are1 by the ,irish printers' 
own patent1  permitted to import their  
,bibles into ,ireland4--,dr4 ,campbell's
 ,letters  on the ,bible ,monopoly4     
,,catalogues ,,of ,,books4      ,the    
first printers printed books at their   
own expense1 and sold them  themselves4 
,it was necessary therefore that they   
should have large  capitals4 ,paper and 
all other materials1 as well as labour1 
were in  the infancy of the art         
exceedingly dear for those periods2 and 
on  the other hand the purchasers of    
books were few1 partly because the      
price of them was too high1 and partly  
because1 knowledge being less  widely   
diffused1 they were not so generally    
read as at present4 ,for  these reasons 

many of the principal printers1         
notwithstanding their  learning and     
ingenuity1 became poor#abhb4 ,in this   
manner my countrymen  ,conrade          
,sweynheim and ,arnold ,pannarz1 who    
were the first1 and for a  long time the
 only printers at ,rome1 a city which on
 many accounts1  particularly in the    
sixteenth century1 might be called the  
first in  ,christendom1 were obliged1   
after the number of the volumes in their
  warehouses amounted to #ab1dge1 to    
solicit support from the pope#abhc4  ,in
 the course of time this profession was 
divided1 and there arose  booksellers4  
,it appears that the printers themselves
 first gave up the  bookselling part of 
the business1 and retained only that of 
printing2  at least this is said to have
 been the case with that well-known     
bookseller ,john ,rainmann1 who was born
 at ,oehringen1 and resided at          
,augsburg#abhd4 ,he was at first a      
printer and letter-founder1 and from    
him ,aldus purchased his types4 ,books  

of his printing may be found from  the  
year #aejh to #aebd2 and in many he is  
styled the celebrated ,german           
bookseller4 ,about the same period lived
 the booksellers ,jos4 ,burglin  and    
,george ,diemar4 ,sometimes there were  
rich people of all conditions1          
particularly eminent merchants1 who     
caused books which they sold to be      
printed at their own expense4 ,in this  
manner that learned man ,henry          
,stephens was printer at ,paris to      
,ulric ,fugger at ,augsburg1 from whom  
he  received a salary for printing the  
many manuscripts which he purchased4    
,in some editions1 from the year #aeeh  
to #aefg1 he subscribes himself         
,henricus ,stephanus1 illustris viri    
,hulderici ,fuggeri typographus4 ,in    
the like manner also1 in the beginning  
of the seventeenth century1 a  society  
of learned and rich citizens of         
,augsburg1 at the head of whom  was     
,marx ,welser1 the city-steward1 printed
 a great number of books1  which had    

commonly at the end these words1 ad     
insigne pinus4 ,printing  therefore thus
 gave rise to a new and important branch
 of trade1 that  of bookselling1 which  
was established in ,germany1 chiefly at 
,frankfort  on the ,maine1 where1       
particularly at the time of the fairs1  
there were  several large bookseller's  
shops in that street which still retains
 the  name of ,book-street4    ,george  
,willer1 whom some improperly call      
,viller1 and others ,walter1  a         
bookseller at ,augsburg1 who kept a very
 large shop1 and frequented  the        
,frankfort fairs1 first fell upon the   
plan of publishing every fair  a        
catalogue of all the new books1 adding  
the size1 and publishing  names4 ,le    
,mire1 better known under the name of   
,mirus#abhe1 says1  that catalogues were
 first printed in the year #aeed2 but   
,labbe#abhf1  ,reimann#abhg1 and        
,heumann#abhh1 who took their           
information from  ,le ,mire1 make the   
year1 perhaps erroneously1 to be #aefd4 

,willer's  catalogues were printed till 
the year #aeib1 by ,nicol4 ,bassus1     
printer  at ,frankfort4 ,other          
booksellers however must have soon      
published  catalogues of the like kind1 
though that of ,willer continued a long 
time to be the principal#abhi4    ,in   
all these catalogues1 which are in      
quarto1 and not paged1 the  following   
order is observed4 ,the ,latin books    
occupy the first place1  beginning with 
the ,protestant theological works1      
perhaps because  ,willer was a          
,lutheran2 then come the ,catholic2 and 
after these1 books  of jurisprudence1   
medicine1 philosophy1 poetry1 and music4
 ,the second  place is assigned to      
,german books1 which are arranged in the
 same  manner4    ,in the year #afjd1   
the general ,easter ,catalogue was      
printed with a  permission from         
government4    ,after this the ,leipsic 
booksellers began not only to reprint   
the  ,frankfort catalogues1 but to      
enlarge them with many books which had  

not  been brought to the fairs in that  
city4 ,i have1 dated #afjj1 a catalogue 
of all the books on sale in             
,book-street1 ,frankfort1 and also of   
the  books published at ,leipsic1 which 
have not been brought to ,frankfort2    
with the permission of his highness the 
elector of ,saxony to those new  works  
which have appeared at ,leipsic4        
,printed at ,leipsic1 by ,abraham       
,lamberg2 and to be had at his shop4 ,on
 the ,september catalogue of the  same  
year1 it is said that it is printed from
 the ,frankfort copy1  with additions4  
,i find an imperial privilege1 for the  
first time1 on  the ,frankfort          
,september catalogue of #afaf4 ,some    
imperial permissions  however may be of 
an earlier date2 for ,i have not seen a 
complete  series of these catalogues4   
,reimmann says that1 after ,willer's    
death1 the catalogue was published  by  
the ,leipsic bookseller ,henning        
,grosse1 and by his son and grandson4   
,the council of ,frankfort caused       

several regulations to be issued        
respecting catalogues1 an account of    
which may be seen in ,orth's  work on   
the ,imperial ,fairs at ,frankfort#abij4
 ,after the business  of bookselling was
 drawn from ,frankfort to ,leipsic1     
occasioned  principally by the          
restrictions to which it was subjected  
at the  former by the censors1 no more  
catalogues were printed there2 and the  
shops in ,book-street were gradually    
converted into taverns4    ,in perusing 
these old catalogues one cannot help    
being astonished at  the sudden and     
great increase of books2 and when one   
reflects that  a great many of them no  
longer exist1 this perishableness of    
human  labours will excite the same     
sensations as those which arise in the  
mind when one reads in a church-yard the
 names and titles of persons  long since
 mouldered into dust4 ,in the sixteenth 
century there were  few libraries2 and  
these1 which did not contain many books1
 were in  monasteries1 and consisted    

principally of theological1             
philosophical  and historical works1    
with a few however on jurisprudence and 
medicine2  while those which treated of 
agriculture1 manufactures and trade1    
were  thought unworthy of the notice of 
the learned1 and of being preserved  in 
large collections4 ,the number of these 
works was1 nevertheless1 far  from being
 inconsiderable2 and at any rate many of
 them would have been  of great use1 as 
they would have served to illustrate the
 instructive  history of the arts4      
,catalogues which might have given      
occasion to  inquiries after books1 that
 may be still somewhere preserved1 have 
suffered the fate of tombstones1 which1 
being wasted and crumbled to  pieces by 
the destroying hand of time1 become no  
longer legible4 ,a  complete series of  
them1 perhaps1 is nowhere to be found4  
,this loss might in some measure be     
supplied by two works1 were they not    
now exceedingly scarce4 ,i mean those of
 ,cless and ,draudius1 who1 by  the     

desire of some booksellers1 collected   
together1 as ,georg#abia did  at a later
 period1 all the catalogues published at
 the different fairs  in different      
years4 ,the work of ,cless has the      
following title3--,unius  sculi ejusque 
virorum litteratorum monumentis tum     
florentissimi1 tum  fertilissimi1 ab    
anno #aejj ad #afjb nundinarum          
autumnalium inclusive1  elenchus        
consummatissimus--desumtus partim ex    
singularum nundinarum  catalogis1 partim
 ex bibliothecis4 ,auctore1 ,joanne     
,clessio1  ,wineccensi1 ,hannoio1       
philosopho ac medico#abib4 ,by the      
editor's  preface it appears that the   
first edition was published in #aeib4   
,the  order is almost the same as that  
observed by ,willer in his catalogues4  
,the work of ,draudius1 which was       
printed in several quarto volumes1  for 
the first time1 in #afaa1 and afterwards
 in #afbe1 is far larger1  more         
complete1 and more methodical4 ,i have  
never seen a perfect copy  of either    

edition2 but perhaps the following      
information may afford  some            
satisfaction to those who are fond of   
bibliography4 ,one part1  which ,i      
consider as the first1 has the title of 
,bibliotheca ,classica1  sive ,catalogus
 officinalis1 in quo singuli singularum 
facultatum ac  professionum libri1 qui  
in quavis fere lingua extant1           
recensentur2  usque ad annum #afbd      
inclusive4 ,auctore ,m4 ,georgio        
,draudio4 ,it contains  ,latin works on 
theology1 jurisprudence1 medicine1      
history1 geography  and politics4 ,the  
copy in the library of our university   
ends at  page #acjd1 which has however a
 catchword that seems to indicate a     
deficiency4 ,the second part is entitled
 ,bibliotheca ,classica1 sive           
,catalogus officinalis1 in quo          
philosophici artiumque adeo humaniorum1 
poetici etiam et musici libri usque ad  
annum #afbd continentur4    ,this part1 
containing ,latin books also1 begins at 
page #abih1 and ends  with page #afed1  

which is followed by an index of all the
 authors  mentioned4 ,a smaller volume  
of #cjb pages1 without an index1 has for
  title1 ,bibliotheca ,exotica1 sive    
,catalogus officinalis librorum         
peregrinis linguis usualibus scriptorum2
 and a fourth part1 forming #gei  pages 
besides an index of the authors1 is     
called1 ,bibliotheca ,librorum          
,germanicorum ,classica2 that is1 ,a    
,catalogue of all the books printed in  
the ,german language till the year      
#afbe4 ,by the indices1 and the proper  
arrangement of the matter1 the use of   
this work is much facilitated4 ,i  must 
however observe that the oldest         
catalogues had the same faults as  those
 of the present time1 and that these    
have been copied by ,draudius4  ,many   
books are mentioned which were never    
printed1 and many titles1  names and    
dates1 are given incorrectly2 but       
,draudius1 nevertheless1 is  well worth 
the attention of any one who may be     
inclined to employ his  time and        

ingenuity on the history of literature4 
,towards the end of the seventeenth and 
especially during the  eighteenth       
century1 book-catalogues of every       
description multiplied  rapidly4 ,their 
progress is copiously treated of in     
,nichols's ,literary  ,anecdotes1 vol4  
iii4 pp4 #fjh-fic1 to which the reader  
is referred4  ,perhaps the most         
remarkable bookseller's-catalogue ever  
printed is ,mr4  ,henry ,bohn's         
so-called ,guinea ,catalogue1 which is  
upwards of six inches  thick1 and       
contains1 in about #bjjj pages1 merely  
the details of his own  stock4          
,,footnotes    #abhb ,several of them   
were editors1 printers1 and proprietors 
of the  books which they sold4    #abhc 
,their lamentable petition of the year  
#adgb has been inserted by  ,fabricius  
in his ,bibliotheca ,latina4 ,hamburghi1
 #aggb1 #hvo1 iii4 p4 #hih4  ,see also  
,ptter von ,bchernachdruck1 p4 #bi4     
#abhd ,von ,stetten1 ,kunst-geschichte  
von ,augsburg1 p4 #dc4    #abhe ,le     

,mire1 a ,catholic clergyman1 who was   
born in #aeih1 and died in  #afdj1 wrote
 a work ,de ,scriptoribus               
,ecclesiasticis ,sculi xvi41 which  is  
printed in ,fabricii ,bibliotheca       
,ecclesiastica1 ,hamburgi #agah1 fol4   
,the passage to which ,i allude may be  
found p4 #bcb2 but perhaps #aefd has    
been given in ,fabricius instead of     
#aeed by an error of the press4    #abhf
 ,labbe ,bibliotheca ,bibliothecarum1   
,lips4 #afhb1 #abmo1 p4 #aab4    #abhg  
,hist4 ,lit4 i4 p4 #bjc4    #abhh       
,conspectus ,reip4 ,litter1 c4 vi4  #b1 
p4 #caf4    #abhi ,the earliest known   
catalogue of ,english printed books on  
sale  by a ,london bookseller1 was      
published in #aeie1 by ,andrew          
,maunsell1 in  folio4 ,it was classed   
and consisted of two parts2 the first   
containing  ,divinity1 the second the   
,arts and ,sciences2 a third1 containing
  ,history and ,polite ,literature1 was 
intended but never published4    #abij  
,frankf4 #agfe1 #dto1 p4 #ejj4    #abia 

,bcher ,lexicon2 a ,catalogue of books  
printed in ,europe1 to  #agej2 with     
supplements to #ageh1 #h parts in #d    
vols4 folio4 ,a very  elaborate         
compilation1 in which the title1 place  
of publication1 name  of publisher1     
date1 size1 number of sheets1 and       
publication price1  of all the books    
known at the time1 are given1 including 
even those  printed as early as #adfb4  
,it mentions however a great many books 
which  never existed4    #abib          
,francofurti1 ex offic4 ,joannis        
,saurii1 impensis ,petri ,kopffii1      
#afjb1 #dto4 ,the first part contains   
#efc pages1 and the second #bib4        
,,ribbon-,,loom4      ,among the        
inventions1 which1 by lessening labour1 
render a great  number of workmen       
unnecessary1 and consequently deprive   
many of  bread1 and which1 with whatever
 ingenuity they may be contrived1  have 
been considered as hurtful1 and were for
 a long time suppressed  by governments1
 may be reckoned the ribbon-loom4 ,in   

its general  construction1 this machine 
approaches very near to that of the     
common  weaving loom2 but the workman1  
instead of weaving one piece1 or one    
ribbon1 as is the case when the latter  
is used1 can1 on the former when  it has
 all the necessary apparatus1 weave     
sixteen or twenty pieces at  the same   
time1 and even of different patterns4   
,such a loom is so made1  that the      
workman can move the batten as in the   
common loom1 towards him  and from him1 
and also to the right and left1 with all
 the shuttles it  contains2 or1 it is   
furnished with certain machinery below1 
which can  be moved by a boy            
unacquainted with the art of weaving1   
and which keeps  the whole loom with all
 its shuttles in motion4 ,looms of the  
former  kind are certainly much simpler 
than those of the latter1 and in all    
probability are older4 ,to the first    
kind belongs the loom at ,erfurt1  and  
that which was lately brought thence to 
,gttingen4 ,of the other  kind there are

 two at ,berlin2 and some of them may be
 seen in many  other places4 ,the art   
has been discovered also of causing such
 looms to  be driven by water2 and an   
instance of this may be found1 as ,i    
have  been told1 in the neighbourhood of
 ,iserlohe#abic4 ,the proprietors       
however in most places keep the         
construction of their looms a secret1   
and1 as far as appears1 no complete     
description or figure of them has  ever 
been published4 ,there is reason to     
believe that this invention is  as yet  
little used in ,france2 no mention at   
least is made of it in the              
,encyclopedie1 where1 however1 the      
common loom of the ribbon-weavers  and  
lace-weavers is fully represented with  
all its parts in ten  copper-plates4    
,attempts were made in ,europe to       
suppress this invention1 as was the     
case with printing in ,turkey4 ,but     
without here inquiring whether          
inventions may not save too much labour1
 and be therefore hurtful1 as           

,montesquieu affirms1 or whether it     
would be possible to suppress them      
throughout all ,europe1 ,i shall        
restrict myself to the history of the   
ribbon-loom as far as information is to 
be collected on the subject4    ,we are 
told by ,m4 ,jacobson1 that it is       
believed the ,swiss invented  such looms
 above a hundred years ago2 but ,i do   
not know any grounds  upon which this   
conjecture can be supported4 ,to me it  
appears much  more probable that this   
invention had its rise in the           
,netherlands  or ,germany1 either about 
the end of the sixteenth or beginning   
of the seventeenth century4 ,the oldest 
account with which ,i am  acquainted    
seems to be in favour of ,germany and   
the sixteenth century4  ,lancellotti1 in
 a work#abid published at ,venice in    
#afcf1 says 8,anthony  ,moller of       
,dantzic relates1 that he saw in that   
city about fifty years  before a very   
ingenious machine1 on which1 from four  
to six pieces  could be wove at the same

 time2 but as the council were afraid   
that  by this invention a great many    
workmen might be reduced to beggary1    
they suppressed it and caused the       
inventor to be privately strangled or   
drowned40 ,who this ,anthony ,moller was
 ,i do not know2 but that he saw a      
ribbon-loom at ,dantzic is beyond all   
doubt4 ,if the date of the printing  of 
the book be taken as the time in which  
,lancellotti wrote1 there is  reason to 
believe that there was a ribbon-loom at 
,dantzic about the  year #aehf2 but it  
appears to me that the book was written 
in #afbi1  which would bring us to the  
year #aegi4    ,the next oldest         
information with which ,i am acquainted1
 is that given  by ,boxhorn1 who says1  
8,about twenty years ago some persons in
 this  city 7,leyden7 invented a        
weaving-machine on which one workman    
could  with ease make more cloth than   
several others in the same space of     
time4 ,this gave rise to rioting among  
the weavers1 and to such loud           

complaints1 that the use of this machine
 was at length prohibited by  the       
magistrates40 ,according to this        
account1 ,leyden was the place  of the  
invention2 but1 in order to determine   
the time1 it will  be necessary to      
attend to the following circumstances4  
,boxhorn's  ,institutiones ,politic have
 been often printed1 as for example1 at 
,amsterdam #affc1 in #abmo4 ,boxhorn    
read lectures on the ,institutiones     
,politic1 and gave verbal illustrations 
of them to his scholars1  one of whom1  
in the year #afda1 carried a fairly     
written copy of the  latter to ,germany1
 and gave them to ,professor ,c4 ,f4    
,franckenstein1 who  caused them to be  
printed for the first time at ,leipsic  
in #afeh1 and  again in #affe1 #abmo4   
,the passage above-quoted is to be found
 in the  illustrations which are        
appended4 ,hence there is reason to     
conclude  that the ribbon-loom was known
 in ,holland about the year #afba4      
,it is some confirmation of ,boxhorn's  

account1 that the ,states-,general1  as 
early as the #aath of ,august #afbc1 if 
they did not totally prohibit  the use  
of the ribbon-loom1 as commonly         
asserted1 at any rate greatly           
circumscribed it4 ,the proclamation for 
that purpose may be found in the  ,groot
 ,placaet-,boeck#abie1 a valuable       
collection published at the ,hague  in  
seven large folio volumes1 between the  
years #afeh and #agdf4 ,nothing  further
 however is found there respecting the  
history of ribbon-looms1  which are     
called ,lint-molens1 than that they had 
been in use for  several years to the   
great injury and even total ruin of many
 thousands  of workmen1 who were        
accustomed to weave ribbons on the      
common loom4  ,this prohibition was     
renewed on the #adth of ,march #afci1   
and again on  the #agth of ,september   
#afdh1 as appears by the same work#abif4
 ,on the  #eth of ,december #affa1 the  
use of them was extended a little       
longer1 and  defined with more          

precision#abig2 but as far as ,i have   
been able to  find1 no other regulations
 were made respecting these machines in 
the  ,netherlands4    ,the council of   
,nuremberg1 it is said1 prohibited the  
use of them in  #affd1 as is mentioned  
in the ,hanau work1 which ,i shall soon 
have  occasion to quote4    ,on the     
#bdth of ,december1 the same year1      
ribbon-looms were prohibited in  the    
,spanish ,netherlands4 ,in the          
proclamation for that purpose1 it is    
stated that a great number of articles  
manufactured on these looms were        
privately imported from ,viane and      
,culenburg4    ,in the year #affe1 there
 was to be seen at                      
,frankfort-on-the-,maine1 a  loom which 
of itself wove all kinds of lace1 tape1 
c41 provided the  silk or yarn was      
properly arranged in the usual manner2  
but if a thread  happened to break1 it  
was necessary that some one should again
 join  it by means of a knot#abih4 ,the 
year following1 some person in that     

city applied not only to the council1   
but even to the emperor1 for  permission
 to establish such a loom1 but was not  
able to obtain it4    ,in #afgf the     
ribbon-loom was prohibited at ,cologne1 
and the same year  some disturbance took
 place in consequence of its being      
introduced into  ,england#abii4 ,it is  
probable that ,anderson#acjj alludes to 
this loom  when he says1 speaking of the
 above year1 8,as was also brought from 
,holland to ,london1 the weavers'       
loom-engine1 then called the ,dutch     
loom-engine40 ,he however praises the   
machine without describing it2 nor  does
 he mention that it occasioned any      
commotion4    ,the lace-weavers in      
,germany1 but in particular the councils
 of ,augsburg  and ,cologne1 applied to 
,frederick ,casimir1 count of ,hanau1   
who had  great influence in the empire1 
and requested that he would endeavour to
  procure a general prohibition of      
ribbon-looms throughout all ,germany2   
and the count accordingly presented a   

representation on this subject  to the  
electors and states4    ,on the #hth of 
,january #afha1 it was declared by      
,imperial authority that  a prohibition 
of ribbon-looms was both useful and     
necessary4 ,this was  followed by an    
imperial decree1 dated ,january the     
#eth1 #afhe1 and on the  first of       
,september following it was strengthened
 by a conclusum in  senatu of the       
council of ,frankfort4    ,the council  
of ,hamburg1 it is said1 ordered a loom 
to be publicly  burnt2 and the emperor  
,charles ,,vi4 caused the prohibition of
 #afhe to  be renewed on the #aith of   
,february #agai2 though some mercantile 
people  made considerable opposition to 
this measure4 ,a general prohibition was
  likewise issued in the electorate of  
,saxony1 on the #bith of ,july #agbj4   
,all these coercive means however were  
ineffectual2 and the ribbon-loom1  being
 found useful1 has now become common4   
,in the year #agah1 the first loom of   
this kind was brought from ,holland  to 

,charlottenburg on the ,spree2 but      
,nicolai1 in his ,description of        
,berlin1 says that this circumstance    
took place in the year #agbh4 ,the      
workmen were then engaged from foreign  
countries2 and the loom was  supported  
at the king's expense4 ,the electorate  
of ,saxony also1 in the  year #agfe1    
revoked its prohibition1 and permitted  
such looms to be  publicly used4 ,in the
 rescript dated ,march the #bjth1 it is 
said1 that  as things were much changed1
 and as other ,german states had        
annulled  the prohibitions against      
ribbon-looms1 it was induced to grant   
full  liberty to the lace-weavers to    
employ freely and publicly in future1   
ribbon and lace-looms1 and to           
manufacture all kinds of ribbons and    
other articles of the like kind that    
could be wove on them4 ,it stated       
further1 that the lace-weavers should   
give notice whether any of them  wished 
to establish ribbon-looms1 and how soon 
they could get them  ready for work2    

that such of them as did not choose to  
be at the  expense1 should for every    
loom constructed receive a certain sum1 
besides being admitted a member of the  
company2 and that three months  after   
the publication of this order1 fifty    
rix-dollars would be given1  by way of  
premium1 for every loom on which from   
twelve to fifteen  pieces of silk-ribbon
 could be wove2 and thirty rix-dollars  
for every  loom employed to weave ferret
 and articles of woollen#acja4    ,the  
profitable application of steam-power to
 silk weaving was long  considered to be
 almost impossible2 so much time being  
consumed in the  handling and trimming  
of the silk1 in proportion to the time  
that the  loom is in motion1 there was  
consequently a waste of power4 ,a small 
factory was built in #ahca1 for the     
purpose of making the experiment  on    
ribbons4 ,it was1 however1 burnt during 
a disturbance relating to  prices2 and  
though the act was disclaimed by weavers
 in general1  the feeling amongst them  

was so strong against the employment of 
inanimate labour whilst their own was   
superabundant1 that the scheme  was     
given up4 ,within a few years there were
 numerous steam-factories  at work at   
,congleton1 ,leek1 ,derby and other     
places1 which made large  quantities of 
plain ribbons1 chiefly black sarsenets4 
,the ,coventry  manufacturers1 alarmed  
for the interests of their trade1 formed
 in #ahcf  a steam-company1 and erected 
a large factory1 but difficulties arose 
as  to the apportionment of the power   
among the different parties1 and it  has
 never yet been fitted up for its       
original purpose4 ,another large        
factory was soon after built1 and       
applied to the making of figured        
ribbons1 but owing to the failure of the
 parties1 the experiment was  not in    
this instance fairly tested4 ,one       
experiment on a smaller scale  had some 
success4 ,the factories of the ,north   
and of ,derby have proved  the advantage
 of steam-power as applied to plain     

ribbons4 ,at ,congleton  there were in  
#ahch1 #bed power-looms engaged in the  
manufacture of  plain silk1 a few black 
satin and some plain coloured ribbons2  
at ,leek  there were #ajj employed in   
the same way1 and at ,derby #bcc4 ,in   
these1  each loom is tended by one pair 
of hands1 which pick up and keep the    
machinery in order3 the gain consists1  
not in a more rapid motion of  the      
shuttles1 the delicacy of the materials 
not allowing of this2 but  in the       
shooting down being seldom interrupted  
during the picking up1  as in hand-loom 
weaving2 in the greater regularity of   
the fabric1 and  also in the addition of
 from one-fifth to one-third more       
shuttles1 for  which one workman        
suffices1 the loom being so constructed 
as to enable  him to reach from the     
front over the batten to the warps      
behind4 ,but  when two pairs of hands   
are required for one loom1 as is the    
case with  the ,jacquard loom1 one      
before to tend the work and one behind  

to pick  up1 the advantage is much      
lessened4 ,steam-loom weaving is        
undoubtedly  making great progress      
notwithstanding all disadvantages3 in   
#ahdj1 the  steam-factory at ,coventry1 
which formerly failed1 was again at work
  under fresh parties1 who were making  
both plain and fancy ribbons with  a    
strong probability of ultimate success4 
,the fine factory belonging  to the     
,steam ,company1 which is now occupied  
by broad silk steam-looms1  has one     
ribbon-loom at work2 and in one other   
instance1 in ,coventry1  ,jacquard      
steam-looms are employed in making light
 figured ribbons with  great beauty and 
precision1 and in this case it is found 
that one man  is able to tend the front 
and another the back of two looms4      
,there can  be little doubt that the    
time is approaching when steam will be  
the  chief motive-power of the ribbon as
 of other manufacturing districts1  and 
that the strength of ,english machinery 
will be called for to enter  into       

competition with ,french taste4         
,coventry is the great city for the     
manufacture of ribbons in ,england2  in 
#ahch1 the number of persons employed   
there was #fjjj or #gjjj1 and in  the   
rural parishes1 #aj1jjj or #aa1jjjacjb4 
,,footnotes    #abic ,looms of the first
 kind are seldom capable of weaving     
above  sixteen pieces at one time3 and  
very rarely eighteen1 because  the      
breadth necessary for that purpose would
 render them highly  inconvenient4 ,at a
 ribbon manufactory in the ,milanese1   
there were some  years ago1 thirty looms
 of an excellent construction1 each of  
which  could weave twenty-four pieces   
together1 so that sixty dozen of pieces 
were wove by the whole at the same time4
 ,see ,voyage d'un ,franois par         
,italie1 i4 p4 #chg4 ,m4 ,escher1 at    
,zurich1 is said to have had a large    
ribbon-loom which was driven by water2  
but the traveller who saw the  work1    
assured me that it was a machine for    
winding silk2 and this seems  to be     

probable1 from the short account given  
of it by ,m4 ,andre1 in his  ,briefen   
aus der ,schweitz1 pp4 #di1 #ej4        
#abid ,l',hoggidi overo gl'ingegni non  
inferiori a' passati4    #abie ,page #g4
    #abif ,page #aaia4    #abig ,ibid4  
p4 #bgfb4    #abih ,von ,lersner1       
,chronica der ,stadt ,frankfurt1 ii4 p4 
#eff4    #abii ,relatio ,historica      
semestralis vernalis #aggf1 ,art4 #aj4  
#acjj ,hist4 of ,commerce4    #acja ,see
 this rescript in the ,leipsiger        
,intelligenz-,blattern1 #agfe1  p4 #aai4
    #acjb ,penny ,cyclopdia4            
,,guns4 ,,gun-,,locks4      ,the first  
portable fire-arms were discharged by   
means of a match1 which  in the course  
of time was fastened to a cock1 for the 
greater security  of the hand while     
shooting4 ,afterwards a fire-stone was  
screwed into  the cock1 and a steel     
plate or small wheel1 which could be    
cocked or  wound up by a particular kind
 of key1 was applied to the barrel4     
,this  fire-stone was not at first of a 

siliceous nature1 like that used at     
present for striking fire1 but a compact
 pyrites or marcasite1 which  was long  
distinguished by that name4 ,but as an  
instrument of this  kind often missed   
fire1 a match till a late period was    
retained along  with the wheel2 and it  
was not till a considerable time after1 
that  instead of a friable pyrites1 so  
much exposed to decay1 a siliceous      
stone came into use with the improved   
cock or present lock4 ,on each new      
improvement1 the piece1 the caliber and 
length of which were sometimes  enlarged
 and sometimes lessened1 obtained       
various new names2 such1 for  example1  
as ,bchse1 ,hakenbchse1 ,arquebuse2     
,matchlock1 ,musket1  ,pistol1 ,flinte1 
c4 ,but ,i shall leave it to those who  
are versed in  matters of artillery to  
determine the difference between these  
kinds1  and shall here add only what    
follows4    ,the first name undoubtedly 
arose from the oldest portable kind of  
fire-arms having some similarity to a   

box4 ,there were long and short  bchse1 
the latter of which1 as ,hortleder says1
 were peculiar to  the cavalry4 ,the    
long kind also1 on account of their     
similarity to a  pipe1 were called rohr4
 ,large pieces1 which were conveyed on  
cars or  carriages1 were called         
karrenbchse1 but soon after also canna1 
cannon4 ,instead of artillery-man1      
artillery and arsenal1 people used  the 
terms bchsenmeister1 bchsenmeistery1    
bchsenhaus1 c4 ,the  hakenbchsen were so
 large and heavy that they could not be 
carried  in the hand2 it was necessary  
therefore to support them with a prop1  
called bock1 because it had two horns1  
between which the piece was  fixed with 
a hook that projected from the          
stock#acjc4 ,hence arose  the name      
hakenbchse1 hakenbsse1 which the ,french
 and different  nations1 along with many
 other ,german words1 adopted1 and      
corrupted  till they at length became   
arquebuse1 archibugio1 archibuso1  c4   
,from the passages of ancient writers   

collected by ,daniel1 it may  be        
concluded that these hakenbchsen with a 
wheel were invented  in ,germany1 in the
 beginning of the sixteenth century2 and
 this is  confirmed by the testimony of 
,martin ,bellay4 ,speaking of the league
  formed between the emperor ,charles   
,v4 and pope ,leo ,x4 against ,france1  
and the siege of ,parma undertaken in   
the year #aeba1 he says1 8,de ceste     
heure l furent inventes les             
harcquebouzes qu'on tiroit sur une      
fourchette40    ,pistols also1 which at 
first had a wheel1 seem to have been    
used at an  earlier period by the       
,germans than by the ,french4 ,bellay   
mentions them  in the year #aedd1 in the
 time of ,francis ,i41 and under ,henry 
,,ii4 the  ,german horsemen1 des        
reiters1 were called pistoliers4 ,de la 
,noue1  who served under both these     
kings1 says1 in his ,discours           
,politiques et  ,militaires1 that the   
,germans first employed pistols4 ,i know
 no probable  derivation of this term4  

,frisch conjectures that it may have    
arisen  from ,pistillo or ,stiopo1      
because pistols used to have large knobs
  on the handle4 ,daniel and others     
think that the name comes from ,pistoia 
in ,tuscany1 because they were there    
first made4 ,he says he saw an old      
pistol1 which1 except the ramrod1 was   
entirely of iron4    ,muskets received  
their name from the ,french mouchet1 or 
the ,latin  muschetus1 which signifies a
 male sparrow-hawk4 ,this derivation is 
the less improbable1 as it is certain   
that various kinds of fire-arms  were   
named after ravenous animals1 such1 for 
example1 as falconet4  ,daniel proves   
that they were known in ,france as early
 as the time of  ,francis ,i4 ,brantome 
however asserts1 that they were first   
introduced  by the duke of ,alva1 in the
 year #aefg1 when he exercised his      
cruelty  in the ,netherlands1 in order  
to overawe and keep in subjection the   
people of that country2 and that they   
were not then known in ,france4 ,in     

another place he says that they were    
first made general in ,france by ,m4  de
 ,strozzi1 under ,charles ,,ix4#acjd    
,that the lock was invented in ,germany1
 and in the city of ,nuremberg1  in     
#aeag1 has been asserted by many1 and   
not without probability2 but ,i  do not 
know whether it can be proved that we   
are here to understand a  lock of the   
present construction4 ,in my opinion1   
the principal proof  rests on a passage 
made known by ,wagenseil#acje1 from an  
unprinted  ,nuremberg ,chronicle1 the   
antiquity of which he has not           
determined4 ,the  same year is given by 
,j4 ,guler von ,weineck#acjf1           
,walser#acjg1 ,m4  von ,murr and others4
 ,it is also certain that in the        
sixteenth century  there were very      
expert makers of muskets and fire-locks2
 for example1  ,george ,khfuss1 who died
 in #afjj1 and also others1 whose names 
may be  seen in ,doppelmayer4 ,i must   
not omit here to remark1 that many call 
the  fire-lock the ,french lock1 and    

ascribe the invention to these people2  
yet as1 according even to ,daniel's     
account1 the far more inconvenient      
wheels on pistols were used in ,france  
in #afeh1 it is probable that our       
neighbours1 as is commonly the case1 may
 have made some improvement  in the     
,german invention4 ,in the history of   
the ,brunswick regiments1  it is stated 
that the soldiers of that duchy first   
obtained1 in #afhg1  flint-locks instead
 of match-locks4 ,it has often been     
asserted1 that  fire-tubes1 which took  
fire of themselves1 were forbidden first
 in  ,bohemia and ,moravia1 and         
afterwards in the whole ,german empire1 
under  a severe penalty1 by the emperor 
,maximilian ,i42 but ,i have not found  
any allusion to this circumstance in the
 different police laws of that  emperor4
    ,that the first fire-stones were    
pyrites1 appears from various accounts2 
and as a siliceous kind of stone was    
introduced in its stead1 this           
circumstance gave often rise to         

confusion1 some instances of which are  
related by ,henkel1 so that many applied
 to the stone what was related  by our  
forefathers of pyrites4 ,in the greater 
part of ,europe#acjh  people use at     
present that hornstein called by        
,wallerius ,silex  igniarius1 and by    
,linnus ,s4 cretaceus4 ,in ,germany it  
was formerly  called ,flins or ,vlins1  
which some consider as more proper2 and 
in  the ,swedish1 ,danish and ,english1 
,flinta and ,flint4 ,this appellation   
is of great antiquity2 for the ,wends   
had a pagan deity of that name1  which  
they erected on a stone called          
,flynstein#acji4 ,in some  districts of 
,germany this word has been still       
retained2 for example1  white or grey   
ferruginous spar1 ,minera ferri alba1 is
 called in  ,styria ,flins1 or1 as it is
 often improperly written1 ,pflinz2 and 
in ,bayreuth that fire-stone is still   
called flint-stone#acaj4 ,in  our       
neighbourhood the same name is still    
used by the stone-cutters4  ,it cannot  

be doubted that the weapon which is     
fired by the help of  this stone1       
obtained from it1 in ,german1 the names 
of ,flintgewehr1  ,flint1 or ,flinte2   
but since the old name of the stone has 
been  forgotten1 it is in general named 
from the weapon flint-stone4 ,those     
acquainted with the ,german and northern
 antiquities1 know that the  knives     
employed at the ancient sacrifices1 and 
other articles1 were  made of this kind 
of stone1 as appears by the remains     
still found in  old barrows and between 
urns#acaa4 ,this proves that these      
stones  were much used by the ancients4 
,in ,england and ,france old buildings  
constructed of them are still to be     
seen1 and the stones appear to  have    
been cut with the greatest care#acab4   
,the above articles1 which  have lain in
 the earth more than a thousand years1  
and these edifices1  among which some at
 ,norwich were inhabited in #adjc1 show 
the wonderful  durability of this kind  
of stone4 ,some imagine that the art of 

working  it has been lost2 but though   
our artists prefer employing their      
talents  and dexterity on stones which  
have a more beautiful appearance and    
less brittleness1 they are able to cut  
also the flint-stone4 ,enamel  painters1
 for the most part1 rub their glass     
enamel on plates made of  it2 but they  
are obliged to purchase them at a very  
dear rate#acac4    ,many of my readers  
will perhaps be desirous to know in what
 manner our  gun-flints are prepared4   
,considering the great use made of them1
 it  will hardly be believed how much   
trouble ,i had to obtain information  on
 this subject4 ,one would laugh were ,i 
to repeat the various answers  which ,i 
obtained to my inquiries4 ,many thought 
that the stones were cut  down by       
grinding them2 some conceived that they 
were formed by means  of red-hot        
pincers2 and many asserted that they    
were made in mills4  ,on the least      
reflection it may be readily            
conjectured1 that the double  cuneiform 

shape is given to these stones without  
much labour1 because  they are so cheap2
 and as every country1 at all times1    
with whatever  other it may be engaged  
in war1 can obtain them in sufficient   
quantity1  no nation can have an        
exclusive trade in them4 ,it is         
nevertheless  difficult to discover the 
places whence they are procured2 and in 
works  which give an account of the     
different articles of merchandise they  
are not named4 ,the best account with   
which ,i am acquainted1 is that         
collected by my brother1 and published  
in the ,hanoverian ,magazine for  the   
year #aggb4 ,shepherds1 and other       
persons who gain little by their        
service1 break the flint-stone merely by
 manual labour1 and chiefly in          
,champagne and ,picardy4 ,some years    
ago1 ,gilbert de ,montmeau1 a merchant  
at ,troye1 carried on the greatest trade
 with them1 and sold them at  the rate  
of five livres six sous per thousand4   
,the ,dutch always buy  up large        

quantities of them1 which they keep in  
reserve1 in order to  sell them when the
 exportation of them is forbidden by    
,france1 in  the time of war4 ,savary1  
however1 relates that the largest       
quantity  and best stones come from     
,berry1 and particularly the            
neighbourhood  of ,st4 ,agnau and       
,meusne4 ,i know also that a great many 
are made at  ,stevensklint in           
,zeeland#acad1 and exported from that   
country4 ,in the  year #agbg1 the       
chancery of war at ,hanover sent some   
persons to learn  the art of breaking   
flints2 but after their return1 it was  
given out  that our horn-stone was unfit
 for that purpose4 ,it is possible that 
those stones which occur in continued   
veins may be split easier in any        
required direction than those found in  
single pieces1 as it appears to  me that
 the latter are harder and more compact 
than the former4 ,perhaps  the case is  
the same with flints as with vermilion1 
the preparation of  which we endeavoured

 to learn from the ,english and ,dutch1 
though from  the earliest periods it had
 been made better in the very centre of 
,germany than anywhere else4    ,that   
stones were used at least in the middle 
of the sixteenth century1  is confirmed 
by the account of an ingenious ,italian1
 named ,francis  ,angelerius4 ,this     
artist had constructed a short piece of 
wood1 to  which he applied a wheel1 and 
instead of a cock substituted a dog1    
which held the stone in its mouth1 the  
whole so ingeniously made1 that  a      
person who appeared with it at a        
masquerade was arrested by the  guard1  
because it was considered to be a real  
pistol#acae4 ,i have  thought it proper 
to mention this circumstance1 because it
 proves that  the wheel was then        
invented and known under the appellation
 of pistol4  ,in old arsenals and       
armouries1 large collections of arms    
with the wheel  are still to be seen4 ,i
 have inspected those preserved in the  
arsenal  at ,hanover4 ,what ,i consider 

to be the oldest1 have on the barrel the
  figure of a hen with a musket in its  
mouth1 because perhaps they were  made  
at ,henneberg4 ,a pistol of this kind   
was entirely of brass without  any part 
of wood1 and therefore exceedingly      
heavy4 ,on the lower part of  the handle
 were the letters ,j4 ,h4 ,z4 ,s4       
perhaps ,john duke of ,saxony4 ,a  piece
 with a wheel1 which seemed to be one of
 the most modern1 had on  the barrel the
 date #afjf4    ,together with          
fire-stones1 properly so called1        
pyrites1 which is  sometimes named      
fire-stone1 continued long in use4 ,in  
the year #aehf1  under duke ,julius of  
,brunswick1 when abundance of           
sulphureous pyrites  was found near     
,seefen1 the duke caused it to be       
collected1 and formed  it himself into  
the necessary shape1 though in doing so 
he often  bruised his fingers1 and was  
advised by the physicians not to expose 
himself to the sulphureous vapour       
emitted by that substance4    ,the use  

of flint-locks to guns has1 within the  
last few years1  been almost entirely   
laid aside in this country2 the         
percussion- or  detonating-lock being   
substituted for it4 ,the certainty and  
rapidity  with which the discharge takes
 place1 gives them a very great         
superiority4 ,this ingenious invention  
belongs to a ,scottish clergyman1  the  
,rev4 ,mr4 ,forsyth1 minister of        
,belhelvie in ,aberdeenshire1 but  it   
has since received some great           
improvements1 especially in the         
application of the copper cap1 to which 
indeed may be attributed all  its       
superiority4--,brande4      ,,footnotes 
#acjc ,a figure and description of the  
,hakenbchse1 the bock1 the  wheels and  
key1 may be found in ,daniel ,histoire  
de la ,milice ,francaise4  ,amst4 #agbd1
 #b vols4 #dto1 i4 p4 #ccd4 ,at ,dresden
 there is still preserved  an old       
,bchse1 on which1 instead of a lock1    
there is a cock with  a flint-stone     
placed opposite to the touch-hole1 and  

this flint was  rubbed with a file till 
it emitted a spark4    #acjd ,the       
musquet or musket is said to be a       
,spanish invention1 and  to have been   
first used at the battle of ,pavia4     
,they were so long and  heavy as to     
require the support of a rest4 ,in the  
time of ,elizabeth  and long after1 the 
,english musqueteer was very different  
from one at  the present day4 ,in       
addition to the musquet itself1 he had  
to carry a  flask of coarse powder for  
loading1 and a touch-box of fine powder 
for  priming2 the bullets were contained
 in a leathern bag1 the strings of      
which he had to draw to get at them2    
while in his hand was his burning  match
 and musquet-rest4    #acje ,de         
,civitate ,noribergensi ,commentat4     
#afig1 #dto1 p4 #aej3 ,in  chronico     
quodam ,,ms4 legitur3 the fire-locks    
belonging to the shooting  tubes were   
first found out at ,nuremberg in #aeag4 
#acjf ,raetia das ist ,beschreibung1 c4 
,zurich1 #afaf1 fol4 p4 #aeb4    #acjg  

,appenzeller ,chronik4 ,st4 ,gall1      
#agdj1 #hvo1 p4 #aid4    #acjh ,this    
kind of stone is not everywhere used for
 this purpose4 ,in  the ,tyrol1 for     
example1 the hardest ferruginous        
granite1 which consists  of corneous1   
partly irregular and partly polyedral1  
pieces1 is employed  as flints1 which   
therefore are called ,tyrol flints4 ,in 
other places1  jasper1 such as that     
found in great abundance in ,turkey1 is 
formed by  grinding1 and used in the    
same manner4    #acji ,of this deity an 
account may be found in ,schedii        
,syntagma de  ,diis ,germanis4 ,hal1    
#agbh1 #hvo1 p4 #gbf4    #acaj ,esper   
,nachricht von neu entdeckten           
,zoolithen1 ,nurnberg1 #aggd1  fol4 ,mr4
 ,esper says1 those fire-stones only    
which contain fossils or  petrifactions 
are called flins1 flint2 and it is      
possible that the  singular formation   
may be the cause why they have retained 
longest the  name of the pagan deity4   
#acaa ,figures of such instruments may  

be found in the fifth volume of  the    
,archologia ,britannica4    #acab       
,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 #dgd4
    #acac ,a polished plate a foot      
square is sold at the ,vienna porcelain 
manufactory for five hundred florins4   
#acad ,chemnitz regrets that the largest
 and most beautiful pieces are  broken  
in many thousand fragments1 and         
afterwards sold for a trifle as         
gun-flints4--,berliner ,beschftigungen1 
p4 #bac4    #acae ,hippolytus           
,angelerius1 in a work entitled ,de     
,antiquitate  ,atestin1 p4 #ad1 in vol4 
vii4 of ,thes4 ,antiquit4 ,itali4       
,,finis4          ,,index4              
,adulteration of wine1 i4 #bde2         
ancients clarified their wine with      
gypsum1 i4 #bej2      potters-earth used
 for clarifying wine1 ib42      ,jacob  
,ehrni beheaded for adulterating wine1  
i4 #bec2      arsenical liver of sulphur
 used for detecting metal in wine1 ib42 
fumigating with sulphur1 i4 #bee2       
adulteration with milk1 i4 #bef2        

adulteration of wine in ,england1 ib4   
,air-chamber1 when first applied to the 
fire-engine1 ii4 #beb4      ,alum1 i4   
#ahj2      alum of the ancients was     
vitriol1 ib42      places where they    
procured it1 i4 #ahb2      use of the   
ancient alum to secure buildings from   
fire1 i4 #ahd2      invention of the    
modern alum1 i4 #ahe2      alumen rocc1 
i4 #ahf2      the oldest alum-works in  
the ,levant1 i4 #ahg2      the oldest in
 ,europe on the island of naria1 i4     
#ahh2      origin of those at ,tolfa or 
,civita ,vecchia1 i4 #aij2      at      
,volterra1 i4 #aic2      ,popes'        
exclusive trade in alum1 i4 #aid2       
oldest alum-work in ,germany1 i4 #aie2  
the first in ,england1 i4 #aif4         
,apothecaries1 i4 #cbf2      ,greek and 
,roman physicians prepared their own    
medicines1 i4 #cbg2      their          
employment in the #acth and #adth       
centuries1 i4 #cbi2      pharmacy first 
separated from medicine by the ,arabian 
physicians1          ib42      medical  

establishments in ,europe formed after  
that at ,salerno1          i4 #cca2     
,english apothecaries1 i4 #ccc2         
,french1 ib42      ,german1 i4 #ccc-cch2
      portable apothecary's shop at the 
,byzantine court1 i4 #cci2      first   
dispensatory1 ib4      ,aquafortis1     
first intelligible account of1 i4 #ejf4 
,archil1 i4 #ce2      known to the      
ancients1 i4 #cf2      art of dyeing    
with1 brought1 in #acjj1 from the       
,levant1 i4 #ch2      account of the    
family of the ,oricellarii or ,rucellai1
 who made that          art known in    
,italy1 ib42      trade of the ,canary  
islands with1 i4 #ci2      of the ,cape 
de ,verde islands1 i4 #dj2              
invention of ,lacmus1 #da4              
,artichoke1 i4 #bab2      cinara of the 
ancients the same with the carduus1 i4  
#bac2      ,scolymus described1 i4 #bae2
      not our artichoke1 i4 #baf2       
,cactus1 what parts of it were eaten1 i4
 #bai2      our artichoke known in the  
fifteenth century1 i4 #bbj2      origin 

of the name1 ib41      opinions         
respecting the country from which it was
 first brought1          i4 #bba4       
,artificial ice1 ii4 #adb2              
preserving snow for cooling liquors1    
known to the ancients1 ib42      ice    
preserved for the same use1 ii4 #adc2   
,nero's method of cooling water1 ib42   
how cooled in ,egypt1 ii4 #add2         
water made to freeze in summer1 ii4     
#adf2      art of making ice at         
,calcutta1 ib42      method of cooling  
water mentioned by ,plutarch1 ii4 #adg2 
earthen vessels used in ,portugal for   
cooling water1 ib42      use of snow    
known at the ,french court under ,henry 
,,iii41 ii4 #adi2      trade carried on 
with snow and ice in ,france1 ii4 #aej2 
cooling property of saltpetre1 when     
discovered1 ii4 #aea2      drinking-cups
 of ice used in ,france1 ii4 #aee2      
ice extensively used for conomical      
purposes1 ii4 #aeh2      machinery      
employed for cutting it1 ii4 #aei4      
,aurum fulminans1 i4 #eji2      of what 

composed1 ib42      invention of it     
obscure1 ib42      said to have been    
discovered by a ,german monk1 i4 #eaj2  
,valentin's receipt for preparing it1   
ib42      deprived of its power by means
 of vinegar1 i4 #eaa4        ,bankers1  
the oldest at ,rome1 ii4 #e4            
,bellows1 wooden1 i4 #fc2      whether  
first invented by ,anacharsis1 i4 #fd2  
bellows at the oldest melting-houses    
driven by men1 ib42      leather and    
wooden bellows compared1 ib42           
description of the latter1 i4 #fe2      
advantages of them1 i4 #ff2             
invented in ,germany1 ib42      the     
inventor supposed to be ,hans           
,lobsinger1 ,shellhorn a miller1        
or a bishop of ,bamberg1 i4 #ff1 #fg2   
introduction of them at the mines of the
 ,harz ,forest1 i4 #fg4      ,bills of  
exchange1 ii4 #bjc2      account of the 
oldest1 ib42      ordinance issued at   
,barcelona respecting them1 ii4 #bjd4   
,black lead1 ii4 #chh2      names by    
which it is known1 ib42      ancient    

manuscripts ruled with lead1 ii4 #chi2  
plumbago1 by whom first mentioned1 ii4  
#cij2      black lead pits in           
,cumberland1 ii4 #cib2      in commerce1
 called potloth1 ii4 #cic2      first   
pencils used for drawing1 ib42          
black and red chalk1 ii4 #cid4          
,bologna stone1 ii4 #dbi2               
description of1 ii4 #dbi-dcj2      how  
rendered capable of shining in the dark1
 ii4 #dca2      discovery of this1 by   
whom made1 ib42      preparation of the 
stone concealed by the ,italian         
chemists1 ii4 #dcb2      taught by      
,poterius1 a ,french chemist1 ib42      
luminous stone from ,india mentioned by 
,de ,thou1 ii4 #dcc2      other kinds of
 pyrophori1 ii4 #dcd4                   
,book-censors1 ii4 #eab2      reason of 
their being established1 ib42      books
 forbidden and burnt before the         
invention of printing1 ii4 #eac2        
books of the ,jews and ,christians      
burnt1 ii4 #ead2      works of ,arius   
and ,nestorius burnt1 ib42      earliest

 instance of books published by         
permission of government1          ib42 
mandate respecting book-censors1 ii4    
#eaf2      bull of ,alexander ,,vi4     
prohibiting books unless previously     
examined1          ii4 #eag2            
book-censors established in ,france1 ib4
      ,book-keeping1 history of1 i4 #a4 
,buckingham1 duke of1 the first person  
in ,england who used six horses         
to his carriage1 i4 #gf4                
,buck-wheat1 i4 #dbe2      not known to 
the ancients1 i4 #dbf2      introduced  
into ,europe the beginning of the #afth 
century1 ib42      said to have been    
brought from ,asia1 ib42                
conjectures respecting other names given
 to it1 i4 #dbh2      when cultivated in
 ,england1 ib42      account of a new   
species1 ib42      sows itself in       
,siberia1 i4 #dbi2      difficult to be 
cultivated1 i4 #dcj4      ,butter1 i4   
#dii2      whether known to the         
,hebrews1 i4 #ejj2      passage in      
,proverbs respecting it wrongly         

translated1 ib42      oldest mention of 
it in ,greek writers1 ib42      known to
 the ,scythians1 ib42      used by the  
,lusitanians instead of oil1 ib42       
elephants drank it1 ib42      anecdote  
related by ,plutarch1 i4 #ejc2          
invention of butter ascribed by ,pliny  
to the ,germans1 i4 #ejd2      uses to  
which butter was applied by the         
ancients1 i4 #ejf1 #ejg2      butter of 
the ancients was fluid1 ib42      scarce
 in ,norway during the ages of paganism1
 i4 #ejh4        ,camp-mills1 ii4 #ee2  
invention ascribed to the ,germans1 ii4 
#ef4      ,canary-birds1 i4 #cb2        
when known in ,europe1 ib42      flew   
from a ship wrecked on the roast of     
,italy to ,elba1 where they             
multiplied1 ib42      trade with them1  
i4 #cc2      ,canary seed1 where first  
cultivated1 i4 #cd2      use of1 might  
be extended1 i4 #ce4      ,carp1 history
 of1 ii4 #df2      ,cassiodorus the     
oldest author who uses the term carpa1  
ii4 #ea2      origin of the name1 ii4   

#eb2      carp supposed to have been    
first found in the southern parts of    
,europe1 ib42      known in ,england1   
ii4 #ec4      ,catalogues of books1 ii4 
#ebb2      first printers printed books 
at their own expense1 ib42      when    
bookselling became a distinct business1 
ib42      catalogues first printed1 ii4 
#ebc2      account of some of the       
earliest1 ii4 #ebd2      rapid increase 
of catalogues1 ii4 #ebg2      ,bohn's   
guinea catalogue1 ib4      ,cauliflower1
 brought from the ,levant to ,italy1 ii4
 #cde4      ,cheese known earlier than  
butter1 i4 #ejb4      ,chemical names of
 metals1 ii4 #bc2      given first to   
the heavenly bodies1 ib42               
nomination of metals after the heathen  
deities1 ii4 #bd2      astrological     
nomination known to the ,brahmans in    
,india1 ii4 #bf2      origin of the     
characters by which the planets are     
expressed1 ii4 #bg2      those by which 
the metals are signified1 ii4 #bh2      
list of metals known at the present day1

 ii4 #ca4      ,chimneys1 i4 #bie2      
no traces of at ,herculaneum1 i4 #bif2  
principal writers on their antiquity1 i4
 #bif1 #big2      passages in ,greek    
authors supposed to allude to them1 i4  
#big-bii2      in ,roman authors1 i4    
#bii-cja2      houses of the ancients   
had no chimneys1 ib42      in what      
manner they warmed their apartments1 i4 
#cje2      description of the stoves    
used in ,persia1 ib42      derivation of
 the word chimney1 i4 #cjh2      houses 
of the ancients kept warm by pipes1 i4  
#cji2      ,winkelmann's description of 
stoves found in a ruined villa1 ib42    
no chimneys in the #ajth1 #abth and     
#acth centuries1 i4 #cab2      oldest   
account of chimneys in an inscription at
 ,venice1 i4 #cac2      first           
chimney-sweepers in ,germany came from  
,savoy and ,piedmont1          i4 #cad2 
chimney-sweeps at ,paris ,savoyards1 ib4
      ,clocks and watches1 history of1  
i4 #cdj2      clocks known in the       
eleventh century1 i4 #cdf2      first   

public clock at ,padua1 i4 #cea2        
when in use among private persons1 i4   
#ced2      first mention of watches1    
ib42      history of clocks and watches1
 by ,barrington1 i4 #cee2      ,queen   
,mary's watch1 i4 #cfb2      ,sir       
,richard ,burton's1 ib42      letter on 
the watch said to have belonged to      
,robert ,bruce1 i4 #cfd2                
,harrison's invention1 i4 #cfh2         
,arnold's chronometer1 i4 #cgj4         
,coaches1 i4 #fh2      covered carriages
 at ,rome1 ib42      women only rode in 
carriages at the beginning of the #afth 
century1          i4 #gj2      use of   
covered carriages forbidden1 ib42       
order of ,julius duke of ,brunswick1    
forbidding his vassals to ride          
in carriages1 i4 #gb2      ,french      
monarchs rode on horseback in the #adth1
 #aeth and #afth          centuries1 i4 
#gd2      citizens' wives at ,paris     
forbidden to use carriages1 ib42        
,henry ,,iv4 had only one coach1 i4 #ge2
      whirlicotes1 the oldest carriages 

used by the ,english ladies1 ib42       
coaches first known in ,england1 i4 #gf2
      when introduced into ,italy1      
,spain1 ,sweden1 and ,russia1 ib42      
origin of the word coach1 i4 #gg2       
berline1 invention of1 i4 #gh2          
first coaches let out for hire at       
,paris1 i4 #gi2      hackney-coaches    
first established at ,london1 i4 #ha2   
number of coaches in some of the        
principal cities of ,europe1 ib4        
,cobalt1 i4 #dgh2      is melted with   
siliceous earth and potashes to a blue  
glass called          smalt1 ib42       
ground smalt1 or powder-blue1 ib42      
cobalt not known to the ancients1 ib42  
reason why ,lehmann and others think    
that the ancients used smalt1           
i4 #dha2      ,gmelin's experiments on  
the blue of the ancients1 ib42          
origin of the name cobalt1 i4 #dhc2     
first colour-mills in ,germany for      
grinding smalt1 i4 #dhd2      smalt not 
mentioned in books till a later period1 
i4 #dhf2      the oldest description    

found in the works of ,biringoccio1 ib4 
,cock-fighting1 ii4 #dgc2               
reflections on1 ib42      antiquity of1 
ib42      quail-fighting among the      
,romans1 ii4 #dgd2      cock-fights and 
quail-fights mentioned by ,solon1 ii4   
#dge2      ,romans employed partridges  
for fighting1 ib42      cock-fighting   
instituted by ,themistocles1 ib42       
ascribed to ,miltiades1 ii4 #dgf2       
mentioned by ancient authors1 ii4       
#dgg-dgi2      oldest information about 
cock-fighting in ,england1 ii4 #dha2    
this pastime forbidden1 ib4      ,cork1 
i4 #cah2      properties of1 ib42       
account of the cork-tree1 i4 #cai2      
known to the ,greeks and ,romans1 ib42  
cork used by the ancient fishermen as   
floats to their nets1 i4 #cba2          
anchor-buoys made of it1 ib42           
,romans made soles of it1 i4 #cbb2      
cork jackets1 antiquity of1 ib42        
ancient methods of closing up wine-casks
 and other vessels1 i4 #cbc2      cork  
stoppers1 i4 #cbd2      various         

substitutes for corks1 i4 #cbe1 #cbf4   
,corn-mills1 i4 #adg2      earliest     
methods of grinding corn1 ib42      the 
oldest hand-mills1 ib42                 
cattle-mills1 i4 #adh2      water-mills1
 i4 #aea2      mills constructed at     
,rome by ,belisarius1 i4 #aed2          
invention of floating-mills1 i4 #aee2   
of wind-mills1 i4 #aeh2      difference 
between ,german and ,dutch wind-mills1  
i4 #afj2      bolting-machinery1 when   
invented1 i4 #afa2      bolting-cloth1  
i4 #afb2      invention of barley-mills1
 i4 #afh2      anecdote of a feudal     
lord1 i4 #agj4      ,cryptography1 when 
invented1 i4 #ajf4        ,diamond1 when
 first used for writing on glass1 ii4   
#hg4      ,diving-bell1 i4 #aaa2        
ancient divers1 ib42      principles    
explained1 i4 #aac2      earliest use in
 ,europe1 ib42      described by ,lord  
,bacon1 i4 #aae2      cannon fished up  
by it from the wreck of the ,spanish    
,armada1 ib42      old inventions1 i4   
#aag2      ,dr4 ,halley's diving-bell1  

i4 #aah2      ,triewald's improvement1  
i4 #aai2      when employed in civil    
engineering1 i4 #aba2      apparatus for
 walking at the bottom of the sea1 i4   
#abb4        ,embroidery1 antiquity of1 
i4 #dae4      ,enamel1 i4 #acb4         
,etching on glass discovered by ,henry  
,schwanhard1 ii4 #hh2      process which
 he employed1 ii4 #hi4      ,etruscan   
vases1 colours of1 produced by calx of  
iron1 ii4 #bci4      ,exclusive         
privilege for printing books1 ii4 #eah2 
oldest privilege known1 granted in      
#adij1 ib42      account of some granted
 in different countries1 ii4 #eai1 #ebj2
      privileges granted in ,england1   
ii4 #ebj2      in ,spain1 ii4 #eba4     
,falconry1 i4 #aih2      not a modern   
invention1 i4 #aii2      birds of prey  
used in ,india and ,thrace1 i4 #bja2    
employed also in ,italy1 ib42           
forbidden to the clergy in the sixth    
century1 i4 #bjc2      ancients bred    
other rapacious animals besides hawks1  
ib42      falconry common in the twelfth

 century1 ib42      ,frederick ,,ii4    
wrote a book upon it1 ib42      ladies  
formerly fond of falconry1 i4 #bjd2     
oldest writers on this art1 ib4         
,fire-engines1 ii4 #bde2      idea      
borrowed from the common pump1 ib42     
sipho mentioned by ,pliny1 a            
fire-engine1 ii4 #bdf2      fire-engines
 at ,rome1 ii4 #bdg2      in the ,east1 
engines employed to produce fires1 ii4  
#bdi2      ,greek fire1 ib42            
fire-engines introduced into ,germany   
uncertain1 ii4 #bej2      first         
mentioned in the building accounts of   
,augsburg1 ib42      fire-engines at    
,nuremberg1 ii4 #bea2      fire-engines 
very imperfect in the seventeenth       
century1 ii4 #beb2      air-chamber1    
when added1 ib42      improved engines  
made by ,leupold1 ii4 #bec2      ,dutch 
improvements1 ii4 #bee-bef2      pipes  
for conveying water not unknown to the  
ancients1 ii4 #bef2      fire-engines1  
when introduced at ,constantinople1 ii4 
#beg4      ,floating of wood1 i4 #ded2  

what gave rise to this invention1 i4    
#dee2      wood floated by ,solomon for 
the temple at ,jerusalem1 i4 #def2      
wood transported on water by the        
,romans1 ib42      earliest account of  
floating wood in ,germany1 i4 #deh2     
in ,france1 i4 #dei1 #dfj4      ,forks1 
ii4 #djg2      ,greeks and ,romans had  
no name for them1 ii4 #djh2      ,romans
 often used ligul instead1 ii4 #dji2    
forks not employed by the ancients1 ib42
      meat cut by a carver1 ii4 #daj2   
forks not in use among the ,chinese1    
ib42      forks supposed to be found    
among the ruins of a ,roman town1 ii4   
#daa2      when first known in ,italy1  
ib42      forks and spoons still        
rarities in some parts of ,spain1 ii4   
#dac2      table knives1 when introduced
 among the ,highlanders1 ib42           
,english1 ,dutch1 and ,french have      
adopted the ,italian names forca        
and forchetta1 ib42      ,german word   
gabel of great antiquity1 ii4 #dad4     
,foundling hospitals1 ii4 #dcd2         

reflections on child-murder1 ib42       
no law against it formerly in ,christian
 states1 ii4 #dcf2      children exposed
 by the ancients1 ii4 #dcg2             
permitted in ,greece but not at ,thebes1
 ii4 #dch2      when prohibited by the  
,romans1 ii4 #dci2      humane decrees  
of ,constantine the ,great1 ii4 #ddj2   
public orphan-houses at ,athens and     
,rome1 ib42      foundlings declared to 
be free by ,justinian1 ii4 #dda2        
oldest establishments for orphans in    
,germany1 ii4 #ddb2      similar        
establishments in ,france1 ii4 #ddd1    
#dde2      one of the same kind at      
,einbeck1 ii4 #dde2      hospital at    
,nuremberg1 ii4 #ddf2      institution  
for foundlings at ,venice1 ib42         
foundling hospital in ,england1 ib42    
inefficiency of such institutions1 ii4  
#ddh4      ,fowls said to thrive near   
smoke1 i4 #cjc4      ,fur dresses1 ii4  
#bif2      raw skins first used for     
clothing1 ii4 #big2      fur clothing   
little used by the ,romans1 ib42        

introduced by their northern invaders1  
ii4 #cja2      seal-skins1 ii4 #cjb2    
rein-deer skins1 used by the ancient    
,germans1 ib42      furs1 considered by 
the ,get objects of magnificence1 ii4   
#cjd2      forbidden by ,honorius1 ib42 
,gothic breeches adopted by the ,romans1
 ii4 #cje2      furs employed by the    
,persians instead of mattresses and     
bolsters1          ii4 #cjh2      origin
 of the fur trade to the southern parts 
of ,europe1 ii4 #cji2      riches of the
 northern nations consisted in furs1 ii4
 #caj2      skins counted by decuri or  
decher1 ii4 #caa2      skins of the     
,pontic mouse1 ii4 #cab2      ermine1   
various names of1 ii4 #cae2      the    
sable1 ib42      marten1 ii4 #caf2      
grauwerk1 meaning of1 ii4 #cag2         
cats' and rabbits' skins1 ib42          
beaver skins1 ii4 #cah2      furs1 when 
they began to be dyed1 ii4 #cai2        
,charlemagne1 anecdote respecting his   
dress of sheep's skin1 ib42      fur    
gloves1 ii4 #cbj2      use of furs      

forbidden1 ii4 #cba1 #cbb2      not used
 at the court of ,byzantium1 ii4 #cbb2  
fur trade in modern times1 ii4 #cbc4    
,garden-flowers1 history of1 i4 #eab2   
modern taste came from ,persia and      
,constantinople1 ib42      tuberose1    
when first brought to ,europe1 ib42     
auricula carried to ,brussels1 i4 #eac2 
ranunculus brought from the ,levant1 i4 
#eaf2      fondness of ,mahomet ,,iv4   
for this flower1 ib42      favourite    
flowers of the present day1 i4 #eag4    
,gilding1 ii4 #bij2      mentioned in   
the books of the ,old ,testament1 ib42  
art of gold-beating at ,rome in the time
 of ,pliny1 ii4 #bia2      process of   
gold-beating in the twelfth century1    
ib42      pellicle first used by the    
,german gold-beaters1 ii4 #bib2      art
 of gilding facilitated by the invention
 of oil-painting1          ii4 #bid2    
gold-leaf affixed to metals by          
quicksilver in the time of ,pliny1      
ii4 #bie2      false gilding1 ib42      
gilding leather1 ii4 #bif4              

,glass-cutting1 ii4 #hd2      known to  
the ancients1 ib42      revived by      
,caspar ,lehmann1 ii4 #he2      figures 
engraved on glass with a diamond1 ii4   
#hf2      etching on glass1 ii4 #hh2    
history of sparry fluor1 ii4 #ij2       
its property of emitting light          
discovered1 ib42      ornaments of1 made
 in ,derbyshire1 ii4 #ib4      ,guns1   
gun-locks1 ii4 #ecc2      first portable
 fire-arms discharged by a match1 ib42  
when flints were used1 ii4 #ecd2        
pistols1 when brought into use1 ii4     
#ece2      derivation of the word1 ib42 
muskets1 whence they received their     
name1 ib42      gun-lock1 when invented1
 ib42      how gun-flints are prepared1 
ii4 #ech4        ,honey used by the     
ancients for preserving natural         
curiosities1 i4 #bhf4      ,hops1 ii4   
#cgf2      whether known to the         
ancients1 ii4 #cgg2      known in the   
time of the ,carolingian dynasty1 ii4   
#chj2      in ,egypt bitter things added
 to beer1 ii4 #chb2      when hops were 

used in the ,netherlands1 ib42      when
 in ,england1 ii4 #chd2      sweet gale 
employed for beer in ,sweden1 ii4 #che2 
,chinese hops1 how prepared1 ii4 #chg2  
cultivation of hops in ,england1 ib4    
,horse1 burnt as being possessed by the 
devil1 ii4 #aah4      ,horse-shoes1 i4  
#ddb2      writers on their antiquity1  
i4 #ddc2      methods employed by the   
ancients to preserve the feet of cattle1
          ib42      mules shod with     
silver and gold1 i4 #ddd2      hoofs of 
the ancient cavalry soon worn out1 i4   
#ddf2      ancients unacquainted with   
horse-shoes such as ours1 ib42          
horses not shod in ,ethiopia1 ,japan and
 ,tartary1 i4 #ddi2      horse-shoe said
 to have been found in the grave of     
,childeric1          i4 #dea2      first
 mentioned in the ninth century1 i4     
#deb2      mentioned by ,italian1       
,english and ,french writers of the same
           century1 i4 #dec2            
shoeing horses1 when introduced into    
,england1 i4 #ded4      ,hungary water1 

i4 #cae2      method of preparing it1   
ib42      fabulous origin of the name1  
ib42      receipt for making it first   
mentioned in a small book by ,john      
,prevot1 i4 #caf2      copy of the      
receipt1 ib4      ,hydrometer1 ii4 #afa2
      earliest mention of it occurs in  
the fifth century1 ib42      description
 of the hydrometer by ,synesius1 ii4    
#afc2      ,hypatia not the inventress  
of the hydrometer1 ii4 #afh2            
revived in the sixteenth century1 ii4   
#afi2      improvements in1 ii4 #aga4   
,indigo1 ii4 #beh2      brought first   
from the ,east ,indies1 ib42            
medicinal properties of1 ii4 #bfa2      
cultivated in ,malta in the seventeenth 
century1 ii4 #bfb2      the ,indicum    
nigrum of the ancients was ,china ink1  
ii4 #bfd2      authors in which this    
term occurs1 ii4 #bfg2      indigo1 as  
well as ,indian ink1 procured from      
,india1 and named          indicum1 ii4 
#bgj2      indigo mentioned by ,arabian 
physicians1 ib42      indigo substituted

 in dyeing for woad1 ii4 #bgc2      when
 introduced into ,germany1 ii4 #bgd2    
great importation into ,holland1 ib42   
,american indigo1 ib42      indigo      
prohibited in ,germany1 ii4 #bgg2       
dyers obliged to take an oath not to use
 it1 ii4 #bgh2      first mention of it 
in the ,english laws1 ii4 #bgi4         
,infirmaries1 hospitals1 lazarettos1 ii4
 #ded2      no hospitals for sick at    
,rome1 ib42      pilgrimages gave rise  
to their erection1 ii4 #def2            
brotherhoods established to provide for 
sick pilgrims1 ii4 #deg2      first     
hospitals built close to cathedrals1 ii4
 #deh2      mad-houses1 where first     
established1 ii4 #dfa2      attention   
paid by the ,romans to their invalids1  
ii4 #dfb2      first establishment for  
invalids at ,constantinople1 ii4 #dfe2  
,htel des ,invalides1 at ,paris1 ib42   
regular surgeons1 when appointed to     
armies1 ii4 #dfh-dga2      establishment
 of field hospitals in ,germany1 ii4    
#dga4      ,ink1 sympathetic1 history   

of1 i4 #ajf4      ,ink1 in what manner  
it acquires a superior quality1 ii4     
#bff4      ,insurance1 i4 #bcd2      not
 known to the ,romans1 ib42             
,puffendorf and others endeavour to     
prove the contrary1 ib42      does not  
occur in the ,hanseatic maritime laws1  
ib42      policies drawn up in #aebc1   
still used in ,leghorn1 i4 #bcg2        
insurance-laws of the #afth and #agth   
centuries1 i4 #bch2      invention of   
insurance against fire1 i4 #bdj2        
insurance companies in ,england1 i4     
#bdb-bdd4        ,jackets1 cork1 of the 
ancients1 i4 #cbb4      ,jugglers1 ii4  
#aae2      who comprehended under that  
title1 ib42      observations on their  
employment1 ii4 #aae-aai2      breathing
 out flames very ancient1 ii4 #aai2     
how performed1 ib42      deceptions with
 naphtha1 ii4 #abj2      feats of       
,richardson with burning coals and      
melted lead1 ii4 #aba2      feat with   
melted copper1 ii4 #abb2      ancient   
,hirpi could walk through burning coals1

 ii4 #abc2      ordeal1 a juggling trick
 of the priests1 ib42      secret of it 
disclosed1 ii4 #abd2      exhibition    
with balls and cups mentioned by the    
ancients1 ib42      ,von ,eckeberg      
suffered large stones to be broken on   
his breast1          ii4 #abf2          
ancient rope-dancers1 ib42      feats of
 horsemanship came from the ,east1 ii4  
#abh2      performers at the ,byzantine 
court1 ib42      ,romans taught         
elephants to walk on a rope1 ii4 #abi2  
,sybarites taught horses to dance1 ii4  
#acj2      ,wildman's exhibition with   
bees1 ib42      puppets1 ii4 #acb2      
antiquity of automata1 ii4 #acc2        
tripods of ,vulcan1 ii4 #acd2           
moving statues of ,ddalus1 ib42         
pigeon of ,archytas1 ii4 #ace2          
wooden eagle and iron fly of            
,regiomontanus1 ib42      automata of   
,vaucanson and ,du ,moulin1 ii4 #acf1   
#acg2      of ,de ,gennes1 ii4 #acg2    
speaking machines1 ii4 #ach-ada2        
,chinese shadows1 ii4 #ada4             

,kermes and cochineal1 i4 #che2         
belong to the same genus1 i4 #chf2      
three kinds described1 ib42      places 
where the ancients collected them1 i4   
#chg2      still found in the ,levant1  
i4 #chh2      ,french and ,spanish      
kermes1 ib42      name given to them in 
the middle ages1 i4 #cij2      how      
preserved at those periods1 ib42        
when this dye was known in ,germany1 i4 
#cia2      origin of the name kermes1 i4
 #cib2      discovery of ,american      
cochineal1 i4 #cif2      disputes       
whether cochineal was insects or        
berries1 i4 #cih2      real cochineal   
brought to ,st4 ,domingo1 i4 #cii2      
kermes early employed in the ,east to   
dye red1 ib42      derivation of the    
word scarlet1 i4 #djj2      ,drebbel    
discovered that a solution of tin       
produced with cochineal a               
beautiful scarlet colour1 i4 #djb2      
,gobelin improved the art of dyeing     
scarlet in ,france1 i4 #djc2      first 
dye-house for scarlet in ,england       

established by a ,fleming1          ib42
      three kinds of cochineal in the   
,english market1 i4 #djd4      ,kitchen 
vegetables1 ii4 #ccf2      bulbous      
roots1 favourite dishes among the       
ancients1 ii4 #cch2      some           
vegetables1 formerly cultivated1 now    
little esteemed1 ib42      borage not   
known to the ancients1 ii4 #cci2        
spinage1 no traces of in the works of   
the ancients1 ii4 #cdj2      its native 
country unknown1 ib42      broccoli1    
known to the ancients1 ii4 #cdb2        
species of the cabbage according to     
,linnan system1 ii4 #cdc-cdh2           
whether the ,greeks and ,romans were    
acquainted with our carrots1 ii4        
#cdi-cea2      shallots brought from    
,ascalon in ,palestine1 ii4 #cec2       
our shallots obtained only by the bulbs1
 ib42      potatoes1 when introduced    
into ,europe1 ii4 #ced4      ,kircher1  
whether the inventor of the             
speaking-trumpet1 i4 #ig2      read the 
litany through one to a congregation    

from two to five          ,italian miles
 off1 i4 #ii4      ,knitting1           
stocking-loom1 ii4 #cee2      fishing   
and hunting-nets mentioned in the       
,scriptures1 ii4 #ceg2      nets1 in    
modern times found among very rude      
nations1 ii4 #ceh2      mantles of the  
clergy in the middle ages covered with  
silk nets1          ii4 #cei2           
stocking-knitting1 when invented1 ii4   
#cfj2      when known in ,england1 ii4  
#cfa2      breeches and hose1 when worn 
in ,scotland1 ii4 #cfb2      stockings  
of cloth1 in the time of ,queen ,mary1  
ii4 #cfd2      knitting1 when common    
throughout ,england1 ii4 #cfe2      art 
of knitting stockings in ,germany1 ib42 
terms which relate to knitting older    
than the art itself1 ii4 #cff2          
wire-screens of curious workmanship1 ii4
 #cfg2      stocking-loom1 invention of1
 ii4 #cfh-cgc2      stocking-looms at   
,venice1 ii4 #cgc2      invention       
claimed by the ,french1 ib42            
brought to ,germany1 ii4 #cge2          

present state of the hosiery            
manufacture1 ib4        ,lace1 i4 #dfc2 
method of making it1 ib42      not known
 to the ancients1 i4 #dfd2      lace    
among old church furniture1 i4 #dfe2    
establishment of the lace manufacture in
 ,france1 ib42      lace a ,german      
invention1 ib42      application of     
machinery to the manufacture of lace1 i4
 #dff4      ,lapidary's wheel known to  
the ancients1 ii4 #hd4      ,lead1 sugar
 of1 when invented1 i4 #bej2            
whether used for secret poison1 i4 #fj4 
,leaf-skeletons1 ii4 #aie2      first   
made by ,severin1 ii4 #aig2      also by
 ,gabriel ,clauder1 ib42      insects   
employed for this purpose by ,ruysch1   
ii4 #aih2      leaf-skeletons by        
,seligmann1 ii4 #bjj2      art of       
raising trees from leaves1 ii4 #bja4    
,lending-houses1 history of1 ii4 #a2    
ancient princes lent money to the poor  
without interest1 ii4 #b2      their    
example followed in modern ,italy1 ii4  
#c2      ,tabern argentari of the       

,romans different from lending-houses1  
ii4 #e2      public loans in the        
fourteenth century1 ib42                
lending-houses opposed by the           
,dominicans1 ii4 #g2      ,tomitano     
preached in favour of them1 ii4 #i2     
established in different parts of       
,italy1 ii4 #aj-ab2      dispute        
respecting their legality1 ii4 #ab2     
confirmed at the council of the         
,lateran1 ii4 #ac2      ,banco de'      
poveri at ,naples1 ib42      origin of  
the name ,mons pietatis1 ii4 #ae2       
account of the oldest public loans1 ii4 
#af2      first lending-house in        
,germany1 ii4 #ag2      ,lombards in the
 ,netherlands1 ii4 #ah2      ,mont de   
pit at ,paris1 ii4 #bj2      account of 
pawnbroking in ,england1 ii4 #ba4       
,lighting of streets1 ii4 #agb2         
,rome not lighted1 ib42      contrary   
opinion of ,meursius1 ib42      streets 
of ,antioch lighted1 ii4 #agc2          
,csarea not lighted1 ib42      antiquity
 of illuminations1 ii4 #agd2      ,paris

 lighted1 ii4 #age2      reverberating  
lamps invented1 ii4 #agg2      first    
account of lighting ,london1 ii4 #agh2  
,amsterdam1 the ,hague1 and ,copenhagen1
 ii4 #ahj2      streets of ,rome have no
 lights but those before the images of  
saints1 ib42      lighting at           
,philadelphia1 ,hamburg1 ,berlin1 ii4   
#aha2      at ,vienna and other cities1 
ii4 #aha1 #ahb2      introduction of    
gas1 ii4 #ahb-ahe4      ,lottery1 ii4   
#dad2      two kinds in ,europe1 ib42   
,congiaria of the ,romans resembled our 
lotteries1 ib42      shopkeepers in the 
middle ages sold wares in the manner of 
a          lottery1 ii4 #daf2           
established at ,florence1 ii4 #dag2     
brought from ,italy to ,france1 ii4     
#dah2      lottery for giving portions  
to young women1 ii4 #dai2      others   
for similar purposes1 ib42              
lotteries1 properly so called1 when     
established1 ii4 #dbj2      lottery     
proposed by ,tonti1 ib42      ,french   
lotteries1 ii4 #dba2      origin of the 

name1 ii4 #dbb2      first in ,england1 
ii4 #dbc2      at ,amsterdam1 ii4 #dbe2 
in ,germany1 ib42      ,genoese lottery1
 ii4 #dbf2      ,art-,unions1 the only  
lottery existing in ,england1 ii4 #dbh4 
,machine for noting down music1 i4 #ab2 
one invented in ,germany by ,unger1 ib42
      another1 constructed by ,hohlfeld1
 ib42      ,dr4 ,burney ascribes this   
invention to the ,english1 i4 #ac4      
,madder1 ii4 #ajh2      known to the    
ancients1 ii4 #aaj2      in the middle  
ages1 ii4 #aaa2      its property of    
colouring the bones1 ib42               
cultivation of1 ii4 #aac1 #aad4         
,mad-houses1 where first established1   
ii4 #dfa4      ,magnetic cures1 i4 #dc2 
external use of the magnet in curing the
 tooth-ache1 known in the          #fth 
century1 i4 #dd2      mentioned by      
writers in the #aeth and #afth          
centuries1 ib42      effect of on the   
bodies of animals1 ib42      properties 
of1 i4 #de4      ,maize brought from    
,america1 i4 #dig4      ,manganese1 ii4 

#bce2      employed in glass-making1    
ib42      frees glass from dirt1 ii4    
#bcf2      use of it retained1 ii4 #bci2
      brought from ,piedmont and        
,perigord1 in ,france1 ii4 #bdj4        
,mantles of the knights bordered with   
furs1 ii4 #cai4      ,mantles of the    
clergy covered with silk nets1 ii4 #cei4
      ,manuscripts1 ancient1 ruled with 
lead1 ii4 #chi4      ,mills1 history of1
 i4 #adg2      ,east ,indian oil-mills1 
i4 #adh2      philosophical mill1 by    
whom invented1 i4 #aej2                 
water-mills1 when invented1 i4 #aea2    
floating mills1 i4 #aee2                
wind-mills1 i4 #aeh4      ,mirrors1 ii4 
#ef2      the oldest of metal1 ii4 #eg2 
known in the time of ,moses1 ib42       
ancient mirrors of silver1 ib42      of 
copper1 brass1 and gold1 ii4 #fb2       
how cleaned1 ii4 #fc2      chemical     
examination of the metal1 ib42          
mirrors made of stones1 ii4 #fe2        
mirrors of the native ,americans1 ii4   
#fh2      mirrors of glass made at      

,sidon1 ii4 #fi2      mirrors in the    
twelfth century1 ii4 #ge2      first    
certain mention in the thirteenth       
century1 ii4 #gf2      manner in which  
the oldest were made1 ib42      process 
for silvering them described1 ii4 #gi2  
,venetian mirrors esteemed till the     
seventeenth century1 ib42               
establishment of glass-houses in        
,france1 ib42      invention of casting 
glass plates for mirrors1 ii4 #hj2      
advantage and disadvantage of this1 ii4 
#ha2      abandoned for the old method  
of blowing1 ii4 #hb2      ingenious     
process for silvering glass1 ii4 #hc4   
,mosaic work1 i4 #acj4        ,natural  
curiosities1 collections of1 i4 #bhb2   
deposited by the ancients in their      
temples1 i4 #bhc2      an account of    
different articles of this kind1 and    
where kept1          i4 #bhc-bhd2       
collection formed by ,augustus1 i4 #bhe2
      natural bodies preserved in       
ancient times by means of salt1 ib42    
dead bodies among the ,scythians1       

,assyrians and ,persians covered with   
wax1 i4 #bhg2      fish and apples      
transported in wax1 i4 #bhh2      origin
 of wrapping up dead bodies in wax      
cloth1 ib42      books found in the     
grave of ,numa1 how preserved1 i4 #bhi2 
where collections were first formed by  
private persons1 i4 #bij2      first    
private collections in the #afth        
century1 ib42      oldest catalogues of 
such collections1 i4 #bia2              
collections in ,england1 i4 #bic4       
,night-watch1 ii4 #ahe2      among the  
ancients1 ib42      when calling the    
hours began to be practised1 ii4 #ahf2  
rich people kept servants to announce   
certain periods of the day1             
ib42      methods of watching in time of
 war1 ii4 #ahg2      ancient watchmen   
carried bells1 ii4 #ahh2                
night-watching established early at     
,paris1 ib42      at ,berlin1 ii4 #ahi2 
in ,germany1 ii4 #aij2      watchmen    
stationed on steeples and towers1 ib42  
watchmen posted on towers among the     

,chinese1 ii4 #aib2      watchmen in    
times of feudal alarm1 ii4 #aic2        
modern system of1 ii4 #aid4             
,ordeal1 account of1 ii4 #abc4          
,odometer1 i4 #e2      supposed to be   
mentioned by ,capitolinus1 ib42         
figure of one on the ducal palace of    
,urbino erected in #adhb1 ib42      one 
made by ,paul ,pfinzing1 ib42           
odometer with which ,augustus elector of
 ,saxony measured his                   
territories1 i4 #g2      odometers of   
,rodolphus ,,ii41 ib42                  
,butterfield's odometer1 ib42           
,meynier's1 i4 #h2      ,hohlfeld's1    
ib42      ,payne's1 i4 #aa4             
,orphan-houses1 ii4 #ddi2      first    
formed by ,trajan1 ib42      inspector  
of orphans1 an office at the court of   
,byzantium1 ii4 #ded4        ,painters1 
ancient1 often poor slaves1 ii4 #bfa4   
,paper-hangings1 i4 #cgi2      velvet   
paper1 how prepared1 i4 #chj2           
invented by ,jerome ,lanyer1 ib42       
called at first ,londrindiana1 i4 #cha2 

,audran1 his invention1 i4 #chb2        
art of imprinting gold and silver       
figures on paper invented by            
,eccard1 ib42      oldest account of    
such hangings in ,germany1 ib42      new
 improvement in1 i4 #chc2      metallic 
dust invented at ,nuremberg1 ib42       
silver-coloured glimmer1 i4 #chd4       
,paving of streets1 i4 #bfi2      first 
by the ,carthaginians1 i4 #bgj2         
,thebes paved1 ib42      whether        
,jerusalem was paved not known1 ib42    
when ,rome began to be paved uncertain1 
i4 #bga2      information by ,livy1 ib42
      pavement of ,herculaneum and      
,pompeii1 i4 #bgb2      ,cordova paved  
in the ninth century1 ib42      ,paris  
not paved in the twelfth century1 ib42  
cause of its being paved1 ib42          
,london not paved in the eleventh       
century1 i4 #bgc2                       
,smithfield-market1 when paved1 i4 #bgd2
      ,german cities1 when paved1 ib42  
citizens of ,paris obliged in #abhe to  
repair and clean the streets1           

i4 #bge2      reason why no swine were  
suffered about the streets1 i4 #bgf2    
privies erected in ,france by an order  
from government1 i4 #bgh2      earlier  
in ,germany than ,paris1 i4 #bgi2       
wooden pavement1 i4 #bha4      ,pearls1 
artificial1 i4 #beh2      art of forcing
 shell-fish to produce1 known to the    
ancients1 i4 #bfj2      how the ,chinese
 cause mussels to produce pearls1 ib42  
invention of ,linnus for the same       
purpose1 i4 #bfa2      how pearl-fishers
 know shells which contain pearls1 i4   
#bfc2      different kinds of artificial
 pearls1 i4 #bfd2      invention of     
,jaquin for preparing them1 i4 #bfe4    
,pilgrimages1 the cause of hospitals1   
ii4 #def4      ,plague1 origin of1 i4   
#cgd4      ,poison1 secret1 i4 #dg2     
mentioned by ,plutarch and ,quintilian1 
i4 #dh2      dreadful poison of the     
,indians1 ib42      secret poison known 
to ,theophrastus1 i4 #di2      invention
 of it falsely ascribed to ,thrasyas1   
ib42      when known at ,rome1 ib42     

employed by ,sejanus and ,agrippina1    
ib42      secret poison1 supposed to    
have been given to ,regulus1 ib42       
ancients unacquainted with mineral      
poisons1 i4 #ea2      ,toffania invented
 a kind of secret poison1 i4 #ea1 #eb2  
detected and strangled1 i4 #ec2         
,marchioness de ,brinvillier's          
poisonings1 i4 #ee2      seized and     
beheaded1 i4 #ef2      chambre de poison
 established at ,paris1 i4 #eg2         
,count ,corfitz de ,ulfeld intended to  
poison the king of ,denmark1            
ib42      ,charles ,,xi41 king of       
,sweden1 poisoned1 ib42      ingredients
 of1 i4 #fj1 #fa2      antidote1 i4 #fa2
      powst1 a kind of secret poison    
used in the ,east ,indies1 i4 #fc4      
,prince ,rupert's drops1 ii4 #bda2      
not known till the seventeenth century1 
ii4 #bdb2      first experiments with1  
ib42      brought to ,england by prince 
,rupert1 ii4 #bdd4      ,pumps1 by whom 
invented1 ii4 #bde4        ,quarantine1 
i4 #cgc2      origin of1 obscure1 ib42  

said to have been established by the    
,venetians1 ib42      account by ,le    
,bret1 i4 #cgf2      institution of the 
council of health1 i4 #cgg2      when   
letters of health were first written1   
ib4      ,quicksilver used for purifying
 gold ore1 i4 #ad2      how recovered   
afterwards1 i4 #ae4      ,quills for    
writing1 antiquity of1 i4 #dje2         
scarcity of1 i4 #dac4                   
,ribbon-loom1 ii4 #ebg2                 
construction of it1 ib42      attempts  
made to suppress it1 ii4 #ebh2      such
 looms invented by the ,swiss1 ib42     
loom seen by ,anthony ,moller at        
,dantzic1 ib42      inventor of it put  
to death1 ii4 #ebi2      weaving machine
 mentioned by ,boxhorn1 ib42            
ribbon-looms prohibited in ,holland1 ii4
 #ecj2      prohibited also in the      
,spanish ,netherlands and at ,cologne1  
ib42      prohibited by imperial        
authority1 ii4 #eca2      loom burnt    
publicly at ,hamburg1 ib42              
prohibition of this kind annulled in    

,germany1 ib4      ,rubies1 artificial1 
how to make1 i4 #abe4        ,saddles1  
i4 #dca2      coverings1 when           
introduced1 ib42      order of          
,theodosius a proof of their antiquity1 
i4 #dcc2      prohibition of ,leo ,i4   
that no one should ornament them with   
precious stones1 i4 #dcd2               
conjecture that they were invented by   
the ,salii1 ib42      invented by the   
,persians1 i4 #dce4      ,saffron1 i4   
#age2      medicinal use of1 i4 #agf2   
employed by the ,romans for perfuming   
apartments1 ib42      scented salves    
made with it1 ib42      used by the     
ancients for seasoning dishes1 ib42     
introduced into ,spain by the ,arabs1 i4
 #agh2      by whom brought to ,france1 
i4 #agi2      introduced into ,england  
in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 ib42    
when cultivated in ,austria1 ib42       
an important article in husbandry in the
 fifteenth century1 ib42                
adulteration of it1 i4 #ahj4            
,sal-ammoniac1 ii4 #cif2      whether   

known to the ancients1 ii4 #cig2        
first traces in the works of the        
,arabians1 ii4 #djb2      recipe for its
 preparation1 ii4 #djd2      invention  
of aqua regia1 ii4 #dje2      obtained  
from ,egypt1 ib42      brought also from
 the ,east ,indies1 ii4 #djf2      first
 works for making it in ,europe1 ib4    
,saltpetre1 gunpowder1 aquafortis1 ii4  
#dhb2      saltpetre1 properties of1 ii4
 #dhc2      native saltpetre1 where     
found1 ii4 #dhd2      name nitrum1 of   
great antiquity1 ii4 #dhg2              
difference between mineral alkalies1    
when defined1 ii4 #dhi2      nitrum of  
the ancients an impure alkali1 but not  
saltpetre1          ii4 #dia2      was a
 real lixivious salt1 ii4 #dib2      red
 nitrum1 ii4 #ejb2      saltpetre1 when 
first mentioned1 ii4 #ejc2              
gunpowder invented in ,india1 ii4 #eje2 
used by ,indians and ,arabians before   
,europeans1 ii4 #ejf2      first account
 of aquafortis1 ib42      said to have  
been employed at ,venice for separating 

the noble          metals1 ii4 #ejh2    
saltpetre regale1 ii4 #eji2      when   
abolished1 ii4 #eaa4      ,saw-mills1 i4
 #bbb2      ancient method of making    
boards1 ib42      our saw not known to  
the ,americans1 ib42      by whom       
invented1 i4 #bbc2      bone of the     
saw-fish used by the old inhabitants of 
,madeira1 i4 #bbd2      ancient saws1 i4
 #bbd1 #bbe2      invention of          
saw-mills1 i4 #bbe2      the first      
saw-mills in ,norway1 i4 #bbh2          
first saw-mill in ,holland1 ib42        
the first in ,england erected by a      
,dutchman1 i4 #bbi2      saw-mill at    
,limehouse destroyed by the mob1 ib42   
saw-mill at ,leith in ,scotland1 i4     
#bcj4      ,sealing-wax1 i4 #acg2       
substances used by the ancients1 ib42   
wax employed in the earliest ages1 i4   
#adj2      red1 green1 and black        
sealing-wax1 ib42      impressions made 
on paste1 i4 #ada2      how public acts 
have been forged1 i4 #adc2      ,east   
,indian and ,turkish sealing-wax1 ib42  

oldest known seal on a letter written   
from ,london1 i4 #add2      oldest      
printed receipt for making sealing-wax1 
i4 #ade2      ,spanish wax1 i4 #adf2    
antiquity of wafers1 ib4      ,ships at 
first were a kind of rafts1 i4 #dee4    
,sowing-machines1 ii4 #bcj2             
,locatelli considered as the inventor1  
ii4 #bca2      his machine described by 
,evelyn1 ii4 #bcb2      honour of this  
invention disputed by the ,italians1 ii4
 #bcc4      ,snow1 used by the ancients 
for cooling liquors1 ii4 #adb4          
,soap1 ii4 #ib2      invented by the    
,gauls1 ib42      used at ,rome as a    
pomade1 ii4 #ic2      ,germans dyed     
their hair with it1 ib42      oldest    
method of washing1 ii4 #ie2             
alkaline water in ,armenia1 ib42        
urine employed for washing1 ii4 #ig2    
tax upon it1 ii4 #ih2      saponaceous  
plants1 ii4 #ih-ajb2      bran1 ii4     
#ajb2      fullers-earth1 ib42          
manufactory in ,england1 ii4 #ajg1 #ajh4
      ,spangles1 how made1 and when     

invented1 i4 #dbc4                      
,speaking-trumpet1 i4 #ic2              
speaking-trumpet of ,alexander the      
,great1 i4 #id2      ear-trumpet older  
than the speaking-trumpet1 i4 #if2      
invention of the latter disputed by ,sir
 ,s4 ,morland and ,kircher1             
ib42      ear of ,dionysius described1  
i4 #ig2      ,kircher constructed an    
ear-trumpet in the ,jesuits' ,college at
 ,rome1          i4 #ii4      ,stamped  
paper1 i4 #bcj2      whether introduced 
by ,justinian1 ib42      ,romans marked 
their runaway slaves1 i4 #bca2          
stamped paper invented in ,holland1 i4  
#bcc2      introduced into ,saxony1 ib42
      used in ,denmark and other        
countries1 ib4      ,stamping works1 ii4
 #ccc2      ancients acquainted with the
 art of stamping ores1 ib42      remains
 of mills used for that purpose1 ib42   
modern stamping-mills1 ii4 #ccd2        
invention of1 ib42      process of      
sifting and wet stamping1 ii4 #cce2     
wet stamping said to have been invented 

in #aeje1 ii4 #ccf4      ,steel1 ii4    
#cbd2      its properties1 ib42         
invention very old1 ii4 #cbe2      two  
methods of making1 ii4 #cbg2      art of
 hardening it1 ii4 #cbh2      supposed  
hardening water1 ii4 #cbi2              
invention of converting bar-iron into   
steel1 ii4 #ccj2      three kinds of    
steel now principally manufactured1 ii4 
#ccc4      ,stirrups1 i4 #dce2      no  
traces of any such invention in ancient 
works1 i4 #dcf2      no term for them in
 ,greek or ,latin1 i4 #dcg2             
warriors had a projection on their      
spears for resting the foot1            
while getting on horseback1 i4 #dci2    
first certain account of stirrups1 i4   
#ddj2      ,isidore in the seventh      
century speaks of them1 i4 #dda2        
appear in a piece of tapestry of the    
#aath century1 i4 #ddb2      pride of   
the clergy in causing kings to hold     
their stirrups1 ib4      ,surgeons1 in  
the time of the ,trojan war1 unknown1   
#dia4        ,telescope1 invention of it

 made metal mirrors necessary1 ii4 #fj4 
,tin1 ii4 #bjf2      employed in the    
time of ,homer and ,moses1 ib42         
oldest mention in the ,scriptures1 ii4  
#bjg2      stannum of the ancients not  
our tin1 ii4 #bji2      as an article of
 commerce1 ii4 #bab2      tin of the    
ancients mixed with lead1 ii4 #bbj2     
names of such mixtures1 ib42            
tinning seldom employed by the ,romans1 
ii4 #bba2      according to ,pliny1     
invented by the ,gauls1 ii4 #bbb2       
ancient vessels of cast tin dug up in   
,england1 ii4 #bbc2      tin1 where     
procured by the ancients1 ii4 #bbc1     
#bbd2      tin mines in ,germany1 ii4   
#bbf2      invention of tinning plate   
iron1 ii4 #bbg2      ,east ,indian tin1 
ii4 #bbh2      produce of the ,cornish  
mines1 ii4 #bbi4      ,tourmaline1 i4   
#hf2      supposed to be the lyncurium  
of the ancients1 ib42      probably     
belongs to the carbuncles1 i4 #hh2      
tourmaline brought from ,ceylon about   
the end of the last century1          i4

 #hi2      first described in ,germany1 
ib42      its electrical properties     
first known to ,linnus1 i4 #ib2         
investigated by pinus1 ib42             
,huygens' discovery1 ib4      ,trees1   
how raised from leaves1 ii4 #bjj4       
,tulips1 i4 #bb2      came from ,turkey1
 ib42      effects produced by          
cultivation1 ib42      how called by the
 ,turks1 i4 #bc2      first described by
 ,gesner1 i4 #bd2      origin of the    
name1 ib42      first introduced into   
,england1 ib42      tulipomania1 i4 #be2
      the tulip-trade and stock-jobbing 
compared1 i4 #bi2      lesser           
tulipomania1 i4 #cj2      anecdotes1 ib4
      ,turf1 i4 #bje2      use of1      
discovered by the earth catching fire1  
ib42      known to the ,chauci1 i4 #bjf2
      whether known to the ,dutch in the
 thirteenth century1 ib42      invention
 ascribed to ,erasmus1 i4 #bjg2         
,williams' patent1 i4 #baa4             
,turkeys1 i4 #dhg2      not known in    
,europe before the discovery of         

,america1 i4 #dij2      first mentioned 
by ,oviedo1 ib42      called by ,lopez  
de ,gomara galloparones1 i4 #dia2       
still found wild in ,america1 ib42      
earliest account of ,turkeys in ,italy1 
i4 #dib2      in ,england1 i4 #dic2     
in ,france1 ib42      in ,germany1 c41  
i4 #die2      in ,asia and ,africa1 i4  
#dif4        ,ultramarine1 i4 #dfg2     
how prepared from lapis lazuli1 ib42    
price of ultramarine1 i4 #dfi2          
origin of the name1 i4 #dgc2      oldest
 mention of1 ib42      preparation of it
 found out in ,england1 i4 #dgf2        
artificial method of making1 i4 #dgg4   
,vanes1 weathercocks1 ii4 #bha2      the
 oldest nations distinguished the four  
principal winds only1          ib42     
olus first made navigators acquainted   
with the winds1 ii4 #bhb2      names    
given by ,charles the ,great1 ib42      
means for indicating the winds invented 
early1 ii4 #bhc2      ,varro's          
apparatus1 ii4 #bhe2      similar       
apparatus at ,constantinople1 ib42      

when constructed1 ii4 #bhf2             
wind-indicator at ,emessa1 ii4 #bhg2    
weathercocks in the ninth century1 ib42 
in ,france1 in the twelfth century1 none
 but noblemen allowed to have           
vanes on their houses1 ii4 #bhh2        
flags or vanes on ships1 ib42           
,norman fleet had vanes at the tops of  
the masts1 ii4 #bhi2      anemoscopes   
and anemometers described1 ib4          
,verdigris1 method of making1 i4 #aga2  
used in early periods for plasters1 i4  
#agb2      made formerly in ,cyprus and 
,rhodes1 i4 #agd2      why called       
,spanish green1 ib4      ,vitriol1      
white1 when first known1 ii4 #ch4       
,water-clocks1 i4 #hb2      invention   
ascribed to ,ctesibius of ,alexandria1  
i4 #hc2      ,clepsydr1 when introduced 
at ,rome1 ib42      modern water-clock  
described1 ib42      by whom invented1  
i4 #hd2      latest improvements1 i4    
#he4      ,wheat1 attempts to plant it  
in the time of ,sir ,f4 ,bacon1 ii4     
#bcd4      ,windows in ,russia1 how     

cleaned when frozen1 ii4 #aed4          
,wire-drawing1 i4 #dad2      earliest   
use of gold threads for dresses1 ib42   
cloth of ,attalus embroidered with the  
needle1 i4 #dae2      wire-drawing not  
known in ,italy in the time of          
,charlemagne1 i4 #daf2      brought to  
great perfection at ,nuremberg1 i4 #dbj2
      art of wire-making1 when known in 
,england1 i4 #dbb2      in ,france1 ib42
      filigrane work1 antiquity of1 i4  
#dbc4      ,writing-pens1 i4 #dje2      
instruments used by the ancients1 ib42  
still in ,persia for writing1 i4 #djf2  
use of quills said to be as old as the  
#eth century1 i4 #dji2      oldest      
certain account of them1 ib42           
mentioned by ,alcuin1 i4 #daj2      used
 in the #ith1 #aath and #abth centuries1
 ib42      substitution of steel pens1  
i4 #dac4        ,zinc1 ii4 #cb2         
unknown to the ancients1 ib42           
furnace-calamine1 ii4 #cd2      use of  
in making brass1 known to ,albertus     
,magnus1 ii4 #cf2      first brought in 

use at the furnaces of ,rammelsberg1 ii4
 #cg2      the name zinc occurs first in
 ,paracelsus1 ii4 #dj2      procured    
from calamine1 ii4 #db2      imported   
from the ,east ,indies1 ii4 #dc2        
origin of its different names1 ii4 #dd2 
zinc works in ,england1 ii4 #de4        
,printed by ,richard and ,john ,e4      
,taylor1 ,red ,lion ,court1 ,fleet      
,street4          ,transcribers' ,notes 
,text contains ,greek1 ,hebrew1 ,arabic1
 and astronomical symbols4  ,equipment  
that cannot display these characters may
 substitute question  marks or other    
placeholders4    ,punctuation1          
hyphenation1 and spelling were made     
consistent when a  predominant          
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not  changed4 ,words
 spelled differently in quoted text than
 elsewhere were  not changed4    ,simple
 typographical errors were silently     
corrected1 except as noted  below2      
ambiguous unbalanced quotation marks and
 hyphens at the ends of  lines were     

retained4    ,text often uses periods   
where commas might be expected4 ,as the 
author's  intent is unknown1 all of them
 have been retained4    ,in some cases1 
it was not possible to distinguish      
between the letter  8l40 and the number 
8#a401 usually in footnotes1 and usually
 followed  by a period4    ,the spelling
 and accent marks of non-,english words 
have been retained  as printed in the   
original book2 some possible or likely  
errors are  noted below1 but not        
comprehensively4    ,footnotes1         
originally at the bottom of the page1   
have been renumbered  and moved to the  
end of each chapter4 ,the footnotes to a
 footnote  retain their original        
letter-identifications4    ,index       
references not checked for accuracy4    
,text uses both 8lye0 and 8ley02 both   
retained4    ,text uses both 8,duhamel0 
and 8,du ,hamel02 both retained4        
,frontispiece3 ,the artist's initials   
actually were 8,j4 ,j40    ,page #ai3   
8give then in return0 was printed that  

way4    ,footnote #fg1 referenced on    
page #bf3 contains an extra closing     
quotation  mark or is missing an opening
 one4    ,page #ce3 80 is a             
typographical error for 804    ,footnote
 #aai1 referenced on page #ej3 8,greek  
names0 was misprinted as  8games02      
changed here4    ,page #eg3             
8interpretators0 was printed that way4  
,page #aif3 8one of the principle is the
 art0 was printed that way4    ,page    
#cjj3 8 0 is a typographical error for 8
 04    ,page #cjj3 8 0 probably is a    
typographical error for 8 04    ,page   
#cag3 ,one 8vech0 in 8vech1 veh1 vech10 
probably is a  misprint for 8veeh04     
,page #cec3 8 0 is a typographical error
 for 8 04    ,page #dbc3 8,january      
#aefi0 was printed as 8,january #afei0  
and has been  changed here1 based on the
 dates earlier in the same sentence4    
,page #ddh3 8scarcely ten0 and 8#ed     
died0 were printed that way4    ,page   
#dea3 ,some of the ,roman ,numerals were
 overlined in the original1  but not    

here4 ,in the same paragraph1 8#ee #e   
#ee0 was printed with the  digits       
sideways4    ,page #dfh3 80 is a        
typographical error for 804    ,page    
#dgh3 80 is a typographical error for   
804    ,footnote #abai1 referenced on   
page #die1 references 8,soap0 in vol4   
i41  but it's actually in this volume4  
,volume ,i of this set is available at  
no charge from ,project ,gutenberg1     
www4gutenberg4org1 e,book number #dhaea4