,note3 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive_/,am]ican ,libr>ies4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/fundam5ta lphilo#ja;balm ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,a c>at "* is us$ to d5ote sup]scription4 ,a s+le "* foll[+ ! c>at is sup]script$ 7example3 #b;a74 ,multiple sup]script$ *>act]s are enclos$ by curly brackets 7example3 #a;ire74 ,,fundam5tal ,,philosophy4 by ,,rev4 ,,james ,,balmes4 ,translat$ f ! ,spani% by ,h5ry ,f4 ,br[nson1 ,m4,a4 ,9 ,two ,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,j4 ,sadli] ,co41 #afd ,william ,/reet1 ,bo/on3--#abh ,f$]al ,/reet4 ,montreal3--,cor4 ( ,notre ,dame & ,/4 ,francis ,xavi] ,/s4 #ahef4 ,ent]$ accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahef1 ,by ,d4 ,j4 ,sadli] ,co41 ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! ,s\!rn ,di/rict ( ,new ,york4 ,new ,york3 ,bill9 ,bro!r1 ,pr9t]s1 ,,xx ,nor? ,william ,/4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,book ,,fir/4 ,,on ,,c]ta9ty4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,importance & ,utility ( ! ,"q ( ,c]ta9ty #c ,,ii4 ,true ,/ate ( ! ,"q #g ,,iii4 ,c]ta9ty ( ! ,human ,race & ,philosophical ,c]ta9ty #ad ,,iv4 ,exi/5ce ( ,transc5d5tal ,sci5ce 9 ! ,absolute ,intellectual ,ord] #bd ,v4 ,transc5d5tal ,sci5ce 9 ! ,human ,intellectual ,ord] _c emanate f ! ,s5ses #cb ,,vi4 ,transc5d5tal ,sci5ce4--,insuffici5cy ( ,real ,tru?s #cg ,,vii4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,me _c produce ,transc5d5tal ,sci5ce #da ,,viii4 ,univ]sal ,id5tity #ef ,,ix4 ,univ]sal ,id5tity1--,cont9u$ #fd ,x4 ,problem ( ,repres5tation3 ,monads ( ,leibnitz #fg ,,xi4 ,problem ( ,repres5tation exam9$ #ga ,,xii4 ,imm$iate ,intelligibility #gf ,,xiii4 ,repres5tation ( ,causality & ,ideality #hc ,,xiv4 ,impossibility ( ,f9d+ ! fir/ ,pr9ciple 9 ! ,ideal ,ord] #hi ,,xv4 ,! ,indisp5sable ,condition ( all ,human ,k4--,means ( p]ceiv+ ,tru? #ib ,,xvi4 ,confusion ( ,ideas 9 ,disputes on ! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple #ajb ,,xvii4 ,?\ght & ,exi/5ce4--,desc>tes' ,pr9ciple #aje ,,xviii4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,desc>tes1 cont9u$4--,8 ,me?od #aaa ,,xix4 ,value ( ! ,pr9ciple1 ,i ,?9k3--,its ,analysis #aah ,,xx4 ,true ,s5se ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction4--,kant's ,op9ion #abf ,,xxi4 ,does ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction m]it ! ,title ( ,fundam5tal2 & if s1 9 :at ,s5se8 #adj ,,xxii4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,evid5ce #adf ,,xxiii4 ,! ,crit]ion ( ,consci\sness #aea ,,xxiv4 ,! ,crit]ion ( ,evid5ce #aeg ,,xxv4 ,! ,objective ,value ( ,ideas #afc ,,xxvi4 ,c all ,cognitions be r$uc$ to ! ,p]ception ( ,id5tity8 #aga ,,xxvii4 ,cont9uation ( ! same subject #agf ,,xxviii4 ,cont9uation ( ! same subject #ahc ,,xxix4 ,are !re true ,syn!tic ,judgm5ts a priori 9 ! ,s5se ( ,kant8 #ahh ,,xxx4 ,vico's ,crit]ion #bjj ,,xxxi4 ,cont9uation ( ! same subject #bab ,,xxxii4 ,! ,crit]ion on ,common ,s5se #bai ,,xxxiii4 ,error ( ,lam5nais on ,common ,cons5t #bcj ,,xxxiv4 ,summ>y & ,conclusion #bec ,,book ,,second4 ,,on ,,s5sation4 ,i4 ,s5sation 9 ,itself #bdi ,,ii4 ,matt] is incapable ( ,s5sation #bee ,,iii4 ,sleep & ,wak+ #bfc ,,iv4 ,relation ( ,s5sations to an ,ext]nal ,_w #bfg ,v4 ,an ,ideali/ ,hypo!sis #bgc ,,vi4 ,is ! ,ext]nal & ,imm$iate ,cause ( ,s5sations a ,free ,cause8 #bgf ,,vii4 ,analysis ( ! ,objectiv5ess ( ,s5sations #bgi ,,viii4 ,s5sation ( ,ext5sion #bhc ,,ix4 ,objectiv5ess ( ! ,s5sation ( ,ext5sion #bhg ,x4 ,=ce ( ,t\* to make ,s5sations ,objective #bic ,,xi4 ,inf]iority ( ,t\* comp>$ ) o!r ,s5ses #bif ,,xii4 ,c ,sight alone give u ! ,idea ( a ,surface8 #cjb ,,xiii4 ,*eseld5's ,bl9d ,man #caj ,,xiv4 ,c ,sight give u ! ,idea ( a ,solid8 #cae ,,xv4 ,sight & ,motion #cai ,,xvi4 ,possibility ( o!r ,s5ses #cbd ,,xvii4 ,exi/5ce ( ,new ,s5ses #cbh ,,xviii4 ,solution ( ,lam5nais' ,objection #ccc ,,book ,,?ird4 ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,space4 ,i4 ,ext5sion ,insep>able f ! ,idea ( ,body #cci ,,ii4 ,ext5sion n ,p]ceptible z ! ,direct & ,imm$iate ,object ( ,s5sations #cde ,,iii4 ,sci5tific ,fruitfulness ( ! ,idea ( ,ext5sion #cdh ,,iv4 ,reality ( ,ext5sion #ceg ,v4 ,geometrical ,exactness ,realiz$ 9 ,nature #cfj ,,vi4 ,rem>ks on ,ext5sion #cfe ,,vii4 ,space4--,no?+ #cfi ,,viii4 ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz on ,space #cge ,,ix4 ,op9ion ( ^? :o attribute to ,space a ,nature di/9ct f ,bodies #chj ,x4 ,op9ion ( ^? :o hold ,space to be ! ,imm5sity ( ,god #chb ,,xi4 ,f5elon's ,op9ion #chf ,,xii4 ,:at ,space consi/s 9 #cia ,,xiii4 ,new ,difficulties #cif ,,xiv4 ,ano!r ,important ,consequ5ce #djj ,,xv4 ,illusion ( ,fix$ ,po9ts 9 ,space #djc ,,xvi4 ,obs]vations on ,kant's ,op9ion #djg ,,xvii4 ,inability ( ,kant's ,doctr9e to solve ! ,problem ( ! ,possibility ( ,exp]i5ce #dae ,,xviii4 ,! ,problem ( ,s5sible ,exp]i5ce #dah ,,xix4 ,ext5sion ab/ract$ f ,ph5om5a #dba ,,xx4 ,are !re ,absolute ,magnitudes8 #dbg ,,xxi4 ,pure ,intelligibility ( ! ,ext5d$ ,_w #dcb ,,xxii4 ,inf9ite ,divisibility #dcf ,,xxiii4 ,unext5d$ ,po9ts #dci ,,xxiv4 ,a ,conjecture on ! ,transc5d5tal ,notion ( ,ext5sion #ddb ,,xxv4 ,h>mony ( ! ,real1 ,ph5om5al1 & ,ideal ,ord]s #ddf ,,xxvi4 ,"* ( ! ,relations ( ! ,real ,ord] to ! ,ph5om5al #dej ,,xxvii4 ,:e!r e ,?+ mu/ be 9 "s ,place #deb ,,xxviii4 ,cont+5cy ( ,corporeal ,relations #dei ,,xxix4 ,solution ( two ,difficulties #dfb ,,xxx4 ,passive ,s5sibility #dff ,,xxxi4 ,possibility ( a great] ,sph]e 9 active ,s5sibility #dfi ,,xxxii4 ,possibility ( ! ,p5etration ( ,bodies #dhj ,,xxxiii4 ,a ,triumph ( ,religion 9 ! ,field ( ,philosophy #dhc ,,xxxiv4 ,conclusion & ,summ+ up #dhi ,,notes ,,to ,,book ,,fir/ #die ,,note ,,to ,,book ,,second #ead ,,notes ,,to ,,book ,,?ird #eag ,,introduction4 ,! foll[+ translation ( ! great "w ( ! lam5t$ ,james ,balmes on ,philosophy1 0 und]tak5 at my sugge/ion & recomm5dation1 & ?us f> ,i hold myself responsible = x4 ,i h comp>$ a consid]able portion ( x ) ! orig9al1 & z f> z ,i h comp>$ x1 ,i h f\nd x fai?fully execut$4 ,! translator appe>s to me to h r5d]$ ! au?or's ?\ght ) exactness & precision1 9 a /yle n inf]ior to 8 own4 ,i h n add$1 z 0 orig9ally contemplat$1 any ,notes to ^? ( ! au?or4 ,to h done s1 w\ld h swell$ ! volumes to an unreasonable size1 & ^u fur!r consid]ation1 !y did n seem to me to be necess>y4 ,!y w\ld1 9 fact1 h be5 an imp]t95ce on my "p1 & ! read] w r ?ank me = n hav+ done x4 ,! "w goes =?1 !re=e1 z x came f ! h&s ( its illu/ri\s au?or1 ) no addition or abbreviation1 or *ange1 except :at 0 dem&$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,spani% & ,engli% idioms4 ,james ,balmes1 9 ^: premature dea? 9 #ahdi1 ! fri5ds ( religion & sci5ce h /ill to deplore a s]i\s loss1 0 "o ( ! greate/ writ]s & pr(\nde/ ?9k]s ( ,spa91 & inde$ ( our times4 ,he is well & favorably kn[n to ! ,am]ican public by 8 excell5t "w on ,european civilization1--a "w :i* has be5 translat$ into ! pr9cipal languages ( ,europe4 ,9 t "w he prov$ himself a man ( free & lib]al ?\ght1 ( brilliant g5ius1 & v>i$ & pr(\nd le>n+4 ,b 8 "w on ! bases ( philosophy is 8 ma/]-piece1 &1 tak5 z a :ole1 ! greate/ "w t has be5 publi%$ on t important subject 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,yet x is r z a criticism on ! v>i\s errone\s sy/ems ( philosophy 9 mod]n times1 ?an z conta9+ a sy/em ( philosophy itself1 t ,i h wi%$ x translat$ & circulat$ 9 ,engli%4 ,z a refutation ( ,bacon1 ,locke1 ,hume1 & ,condillac1 ,kant1 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,sp9oza1 x is a ma/]-piece1 & leaves little to desire4 ,9 det]m9+ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( philosophy1 & con/ruct+ a sy/em 9 accordance ) ! real _w1 ! au?or is n always1 9 my judgm5t1 successful1 & mu/ yield to 8 ,italian contempor>y1 ! unhappy ,abbate ,giob]ti4 ,:5 criticiz+ ! errors ( o!rs1 ! di/+ui%$ au?or reasons z an ontologi/1 b :5 develop+ 8 own sy/em1 he is almo/ a psy*ologi/4 ,8 ontology is usually s\nd1 inde$1 & 8 conclusions are = ! mo/ "p j1 b n always logically obta9$4 ,he recognizes no philosophical =mula :i* embraces ! :ole subject-matt] ( philosophy1 & does n appe> to be aw>e t ! primum philosophicum is & mu/ be a syn!sis2 & h5ce he falls into :at we may call1 n eclecticism1 b syncretism4 ,?is is ow+ to ! fact t 8 g5ius is critical r ?an con/ructive1 & m apt to demoli% ?an to build up4 ,:at ,i reg>d z ! *ief error ( ! illu/ri\s ,spani>d1 is 8 n recogniz+ t conceptions )\t intuitions are1 z ,kant ju/ly ma9ta9s1 empty1 purely subjective1 ! m9d itself2 & h5ce1 :ile d5y+ t we h intuition ( ! inf9ite1 cont5d+ t we h a real & objectively valid conception ( x4 ,?r\gh\t 8 book ! read] w f9d him ma9ta9+ t ! human m9d may1 by discursion1 atta9 to valid conceptions ( a reality :i* transc5ds intuition4 ,?is ,i reg>d z an error4 ,discursion is an act ( reflection1 & ?\gh !re is always less !re c nev] be m 9 reflection ?an 9 intuition4 ,if we h no intuition ( ! inf9ite1 we h & c h no prop] conception ( x1 & :at is tak5 to be a conception ( x is simply ! human m9d itself1 & ( no objective application or validity4 ,! excell5t au?or is misl$ on ?is po9t1 by suppos+ t 9 intuition ( ! intelligible ! m9d is ! actor & n simply ! spectator1 & t an intuition ( ! inf9ite implies an inf9ite intuition4 ,9 bo? cases he is mi/ak54 ,9 intuition we are simply spectators1 & ! object affirms itself to u4 ,9 intuition ( ! inf9ite1 x is n we :o p]ceive & affirm ! inf9ite1 by our own intellectual act1 b ! inf9ite t reveals & affirms itself to our intellect4 ,9 appreh5d+ ! inf9ite z ?us reveal$ & affirm$1 we ( c\rse appreh5d x 9 a f9ite1 n 9 an inf9ite mann]4 ,t :i* is intuitively appreh5d$ is inf9ite1 b ! subjective appreh5sion is f9ite4 ,! limitation is on ! "p ( ! subject1 n on ! "p ( ! object4 ,! error arises f fail+ to di/+ui% %>ply betwe5 intuition & reflection4 ,9 intuition ! pr9cipal & prim>y actor is ! intelligible object4 ,9 reflection x is ! intellective subject2 9 ! intuitive ord] ! object pres5ts itself z x is1 ) its own *>act]i/ics2 9 ! reflective ord] x is repres5t$ ) ! limitations & *>act]i/ics ( ! ?9k+ subject4 ,z ! subject is limit$1 its conceptions are limit$1 & repres5t ! inf9ite n z inf9ite1 b z ! n-f9ite2 & x is 9 ! reflective ord]1 if we op]ate on our conceptions1 in/ead ( our intuitions1 only by a discursive process t we c come to ! conclusion t ! n-f9ite is ! inf9ite4 ,! au?or n di/+ui%+ ! two ord]s1 & tak+ conceptions :i* belong to ! reflective ord] z if !y belong$ to ! intuitive ord]1 supposes t we may h valid conceptions beyond ! sph]e ( intuition4 ,b a little reflection %\ld h taught him t1 if he _h no intuition1 he c\ld h no conception ( ! inf9ite4 ,foll[+ ,/4 ,?omas & all philosoph]s ( ! fir/ ord]1 ! au?or v prop]ly ma9ta9s t x is by ! div9e intelligibility1 or ! div9e light1 t ! human m9d sees :atev] x does see2 b he %r9ks f say+ t we h intuition ( ,god himself4 ,s f> z we are to und]/& intuition ( ,god z intuition1 or op5 vision ( him z he is 9 himself1 he is und\bt$ly "r4 ,b objects are intelligible only 9 ! light ( ,god1 & x is only by ?is light t we appreh5d !m4 ,d we ev] appreh5d objects by ! light ( ,god )\t appreh5d+ ! light :i* r5d]s !m appreh5sible8 ,9 appreh5d+ ! object1 we appreh5d fir/ ( all ! light :i* is ! m$ium ( its appreh5sion4 ,! light ( ,god is ,god1 & if we h intuition ( ! light1 we mu/ h intuition ( him :o is ! true light t enlight5e? e man com+ into ?is _w4 ,we _c see ,god z he is 9 himself1 n because he is n intelligible 9 himself1 b because ( ! excess ( 8 light1 :i* dazzles & bl9ds our eyes ?r\gh _! weakness4 ,s1 v few ( u c look /eadily 9 ! face ( ! sun )\t be+ dazzl$1 yet n !re=e is x to be said we _c & d n see ! sun4 ,! au?or does n seem to be aw>e t sub/ance z di/+ui%$ f be+ or exi/5ce is an ab/raction1 & !re=e purely subjective1 & no object ( intuition4 ,ab/ract f a ?+ all its prop]ties or attributes1 & y h rema9+ simply z]o4 ,! sub/ance is prop]ly ! concrete ?+ itself1 & 9 ! real ord] is di/+ui%able simply f its ph5om5a1 or accid5ts1--an ab/ract t]m1--n f its s-call$ attributes or prop]ties4 ,h5ce1 ! "q1 s mu* disput$1 :e!r we p]ceive sub/ances !mselves1 is only ! "q1 :e!r we see ?+s !mselves or only _! ph5om5a4 ,?is "q ! ,scotti% s*ool ( ,reid & ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 h settl$ =ev]1 & if x _h n1 ,balmes has done x1 mak+ ! correction ,i h sugge/$1 9 a mann] t leaves no?+ fur!r to be said4 ,! au?or's pro(s ( ! fact ( creation are /rong & well put1 b fail to be absolutely conclusive 9 consequ5ce ( 8 n recogniz+ intuition ( ! creative act4 ,!y all presuppose ?is intuition1 & are conclusive1 because we 9 reality h x2 b by d5y+ t we h x1 ! au?or r5d]s !m =mally inconclusive4 ,we h intuition ( ,god1 real & necess>y be+1 we h also intuition ( ?+s or exi/5ces1 & !re=e mu/ h intuition ( ! creative act1 = ?+s or exi/5ces are only ! ext]nal t]m9us ( ! creative act itself4 ,h5ce x is t ,giob]ti v prop]ly makes ! ideal =mula1 or primum philosophicum1 ! syn!tic judgm5t1 ,ens creat exi/5tias4 ,real & necess>y ,be+ creates exi/5ces4 ,?is =mula or judgm5t 9 all its t]ms is giv5 intuitively1 & simultane\sly1 & x is because x is s giv5 we are able at "o bl[ to conf\nd ! skeptic1 ! a!i/1 & ! pan!i/4 ,! illu/ri\s ,spani>d1 uses 9 all 8 argum5t ?is =mula1 b he does s unconsci\sly1 9 contradiction1 9 fact1 to 8 express /atem5ts1 because he c\ld n reason a mom5t1 =m a s+le conclusion )\t x4 ,8 argum5t 9 itself is good1 b 8 explication ( x is sometimes 9 fault4 ,if ! le>n$ & excell5t au?or _h recogniz$ ! fact t we h intuition ( ! creative act ( ! fir/ cause1 & ! fur!r fact t all second causes1 9 _! sev]al sph]es & degree1 imitate or copy ! fir/1 he w\ld h succe$$ bett] 9 expla9+ _! op]ation4 ,he does n seem to p]ceive cle>ly t ! nexus :i* b9ds toge!r cause & effect is ! act ( ! cause1 :i* is 9 its own nature causative ( ! effect1 & by d5y+ all intuition ( ?is nexus1 he seems to leave u 9 ! position :]e ,hume left u1 because x is impossible to atta9 by discursion to any objective reality ( :i* we h no intuition4 ,^! are all or ne>ly all ! criticisms ,i am dispos$ to make ^u ! admirable "w ( ,balmes4 ,!y are important1 no d\bt1 b really detract mu* less f its value ?an x w\ld seem4 ,x has1 9 spite ( ^! defects1 r>e & positive m]its4 ,! au?or has n inde$ a syn!tic g5ius1 b 8 p[]s ( analysis are unsurpass$1 & z f> z my philosophical read+ goes1 unequall$4 ,he has n giv5 u ! la/ ^w ( philosophy1 b he has giv5 u precisely ! "w mo/ ne$$ 9 ! pres5t an>*ical /ate ( philosophical sci5ce4 ,n "o ( ! errors to be detect$ 9 8 "w is peculi> to himself1 & ! mo/ t ! mo/ ill-natur$ critic c say aga9/ him is1 t1 :ile he reta9s & def5ds all ! tru? 9 ! prevail+ philosophy ( ! s*ools1 he has n escap$ all its errors4 ,:]ev] he dep>ts f s*ola/ic tradition he foll[s tru?1 & is defective only :]e t tradition is itself defective4 ,he has advanc$ f>1 correct$ innum]able errors1 p\r$ a flood ( light on a great v>iety ( pr(\nd1 intricate1 & important problems1 )\t introduc+ a new or add+ any ?+ to confirm an old error4 ,?is is high praise1 b ! philosophic read] w conc$e t x is well m]it$4 ,! "w is well adapt$ to create a ta/e = solid /udies4 ,x is writt5 9 a calm1 cle>1 & dignifi$ /yle1 sometimes ris+ to true eloqu5ce4 ,! au?or ?rew 8 :ole m9d & s\l into 8 "w1 & %[s himself ev]y:]e animat$ by a pure & noble _s1 free f all pride ( op9ion1 all love ( !oriz+1 & all dogmatism4 ,he evid5tly writes solely = ! purpose ( advanc+ ! cause ( tru? & virtue1 religion & civilization1 & ! effect ( 8 writ+s on ! he>t is no less salut>y ?an _! effect on ! m9d4 ,i h wi%$ ! "w to be translat$ & giv5 to ! ,engli% & ,am]ican public1 n z a "w free f all objections1 b z admirably adapt$ to ! pres5t /ate ( ! ,engli% & ,am]ican m9d1 z admirably fitt$ to correct ! m dang]\s errors n[ preval5t among u1 & to prep>e ! way = ! elaboration ( a positive philosophy wor?y ( ! "n4 ,we _h no?+ 9 ,engli% to comp>e ) x1 & x is f> bett] adapt$ to ! ,engli% & ,am]ican g5ius ?an ! mi/y speculations we are import+1 & attempt+ to naturalize1 f ,g]many4 ,x w lead no man into any error :i* he does n already ent]ta91 & few1 p]haps none1 c read x )\t positive b5efit1 at lea/ )\t gett+ rid ( _m errors4 ,) ^! rem>ks ,i commit ^! volumes to ! public1 bespeak+ = !m a c&id consid]ation4 ,! ne> relation 9 :i* ,i /& to ! translator makes me anxi\s t 8 labors %\ld be receiv$ ) a k9dly reg>d4 ,he :o translates well a good book f a =eign language into 8 own1 does a s]vice to 8 c\ntry next to t ( writ+ a good book himself4 ,o4 ,a4 ,,br[nson4 ,,augu/ #g1 #ahef4 ,,book ,,fir/4 ,,on ,,c]ta9ty4 ,,fundam5tal ,,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,importance ,,& ,,utility ,,( ,,! ,,"q ,,( ,,c]ta9ty4 #a4 ,we %\ld beg9 ! /udy ( philosophy by exam9+ ! "q ( c]ta9ty2 be=e rais+ ! edifice1 we mu/ lay ! f\ndation4 ,ev] s9ce !re has be5 philosophy1 t is1 ev] s9ce m5 fir/ reflect$ on !mselves & ! be+s ar\nd !m1 !y h be5 engag$ ) ^? que/ions :i* h = _! object ! basis ( human k1 & ?is %[s t on ?is subject s]i\s difficulties are enc\nt]$4 ,inquir]s1 h[ev]1 h n be5 disc\rag$ by ! /]ility ( philosophical labors2 & ?is %[s t 9 ! la/ t]m ( ! inve/igation an object ( high importance is discov]$4 ,philosoph]s h cavill$ 9 ! mo/ extravagant mann] ^u ! que/ions ( c]ta9ty2 on few subjects has ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d pres5t$ su* lam5table ab]rations4 ,?is consid]ation may excite suspicion t su* inve/igations (f] no?+ solid to ! m9d1 & s]ve only to fe$ ! vanity ( ! sophi/4 ,b "h1 z else:]e1 we attribute no exagg]at$ importance to ! op9ions ( philosoph]s1 & we are v f> f believ+ t !y ought to be reg>d$ z ! legitimate repres5tatives ( human reason4 ,x _c1 h[ev]1 be d5i$ t !y are 9 ! intellectual ord] ! mo/ active portion ( ! human race4 ,:5 ! :ole body ( philosoph]s dispute1 humanity itself may be said to dispute4 ,e fact affect+ ! human race m]its a ?or\gh exam9ation2 to und]value x1 on acc\nt ( ! sophisms :i* envelop x1 is to fall into ! wor/ ( all sophisms4 ,!re %\ld be no contradiction betwe5 reason & common s5se2 yet su* a contradiction !re w\ld be1 if we %\ld1 9 ! "n ( common s5se1 contemn :at occupies ! reason ( ! mo/ enlight5$ m9ds4 ,(t5times x happ5s t :at is grave & significant1 t :i* makes a ?9k+ man m$itate1 is ! result nei!r ( a disputation1 nor ( ! argum5ts !re9 adduc$1 b ! simple exi/5ce ( ! dispute itself4 ,9 itself x is sometimes ( little importance1 b by reason ( :at x indicates1 ( great consequ5ce4 #b4 ,all philosophical que/ions are 9 "s mann] involv$ 9 t ( c]ta9ty4 ,:5 we h completely unfold$ ?is1 we h exam9$ "u "o aspect or ano!r all t human reason c conceive ( ,god1 man1 & ! univ]se4 ,at fir/ sight x may p]haps seem to be ! simple f\ndation ( ! sci5tific /ructure2 b 9 ?is f\ndation1 if we c>efully exam9e x1 we %all see ! :ole edifice repres5t$3 x is a plane :]eon is project$1 visibly & 9 fair p]spective1 ! :ole body x is to support4 #c4 ,h[ev] limit$ may be ! direct & imm$iate result ( ^! inve/igations1 !y are ( incalculable advantage4 ,x is highly important to acquire sci5ce1 b n less important to "k its limits4 ,ne> ^! limits !re are %oals :i* ! navigator ought to "k4 ,x is by exam9+ ! "q ( c]ta9ty t we asc]ta9 ! limits ( human sci5ce4 ,9 desc5d+ to ! dep?s to :i* ^! que/ions lead u1 ! und]/&+ gr[s dim1 & ! he>t is aw$ ) a religi\s fe>4 ,a mom5t ago we 7 contemplat+ ! edifice ( human k1 & grew pr\d to see x ) its colossal dim5sions1 its beautiful =ms1 its f9e & bold con/ruction2 we ent] x1 & are l$ ?r\gh deep cav]ns1 &1 z if by en*antm5t1 ! f\ndation seems to be subtiliz$1 to evaporate1 & ! sup]b edifice rema9s float+ 9 ! air4 #d4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t 9 ent]+ on ! exam9ation ( ! "q ( c]ta9ty1 we d n conceal f ourselves its difficulties4 ,to conceal w\ld n be to solve !m2 on ! contr>y1 ! fir/ condition necess>y to _! complete solution1 is to see !m ) p]fect cle>ness1 & to feel _! full =ce4 ,x is no humiliation to ! human und]/&+ to seek ^? limits beyond :i* x _c pass1 b x is to elevate & confirm x4 ,?us ! intrepid naturali/1 :5 9 se>* ( "s object he has p5etrat$ to ! b[els ( ! e>?1 feels a mixture ( t]ror & pride to be ?us buri$ 9 subt]ranean cav]ns1 ) j light en\gh to see imm5se masses b>ely susp5d$ above 8 head & unfa?omable abysses b5ea? 8 feet4 ,!re is some?+ sublime1 some?+ attractive & captivat+ 9 ! obscurity ( ! my/]ies ( sci5ce1 9 unc]ta9ty itself1 9 ! v assaults ( d\bt1 ?reat5+ to de/roy 9 "o in/ant ! "w accompli%$ by ! human m9d only 9 ! space ( long ages4 ,! greate/ m5 h at all times enjoy$ ! contemplation ( ^! my/]ies4 ,! g5ius :i* spread its w+s ov] ! ea/1 ov] ,greece & ,rome1 ov] ! s*ools ( ! ,middle ,ages1 is ! same we n[ behold 9 mod]n ,europe4 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ,abel>d1 ,/4 ,anselm1 ,/4 ,?omas ( ,aqu91 ,luis ,vives1 ,bacon1 ,desc>tes1 ,malebran*e1 & ,leibnitz1 all1 ea* 9 8 own way1 felt ! sublime inspiration ( philosophy4 ,:atev] t5ds to raise man to l(ty contemplation 9 ! sanctu>y ( 8 s\l1 contributes to 8 aggr&izem5t2 = x sep>ates him f natural objects1 rem9ds him ( 8 noble orig91 & proclaims to him 8 high de/9y4 ,9 a me*anical & s5sual age1 :5 e ?+ seems oppos$ to ! activity ( ! p[]s ( ! s\l1 except :5 !y adm9i/] to ! wants ( ! body1 x is well to r5ew ^? great que/ions 9 :i* ! m9d roams free & untrammell$ ov] unb\nd5 realms ( space4 ,only intellect c exam9e itself4 ,! /one falls1 b kn[s n t x falls2 ! ray calc9es & pulv]izes1 ignorant ( its p[]2 ! fl[] kn[s n t its beauty is en*ant+2 & ! brute bea/ foll[s 8 in/9cts1 b asks n ! reason ( !m4 ,man alone1 a fragile organization1 appe>+ = a mom5t on e>? aga9 to return to ! du/1 h>bors a _s1 :i* fir/ inspects ! ext]nal _w1 & !n1 anxi\s to asc]ta9 its own nature1 ent]s into itself z into a sanctu>y1 & becomes its own oracle4 ,:at am ,i8 ,:at d ,i d8 ,:at d ,i ?9k8 ,:at ph5om5a d ,i exp]i5ce )9 myself8 ,:y am ,i subject to !m8 ,:at is _! cause1 _! ord] ( production1 _! relations8 ,! m9d asks itself ^! que/ions1--s]i\s & difficult inde$1 b noble & sublime que/ions2 an unfail+ pro( t !re is )9 u some?+ sup]ior to in]t matt] susceptible only ( motion & a v>iety ( =ms1 t !re is some?+1 :i*1 by an int]nal activity1 spontane\s & root$ 9 our v nature1 pres5ts u an image ( t inf9ite ,activity1 a s+le act ( ^: w creat$ ! _w f no?+47#a7 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,true ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,"q4 #e4 ,t we h c]ta9ty1 common s5se assures u1 b :at is its basis1 & h[ x is acquir$1 are two difficult que/ions1 :i* x is = philosophy to answ]4 ,?ree v diff]5t que/ions are involv$ 9 t ( c]ta9ty2 & if conf\nd$1 !y contribute n a little to ! creation ( difficulties1 & ! confusion ( matt]s :i*1 ev5 :5 !y h _! v>i\s aspects mo/ accurately m>k$1 are suffici5tly h>d & complicat$4 ,x w greatly conduce to ! due det]m9ation ( our ideas1 c>efully to di/+ui% betwe5 ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9ty1 its basis1 & ! mode 9 :i* x is acquir$4 ,its exi/5ce is an indisputable fact2 its basis ! object ( philosophical rese>*es1 & ! mode ( acquir+ x frequ5tly a conceal$ ph5om5on n op5 to obs]vation4 #f4 ,t bodies exi/ is a fact t no man ( sane m9d c d\bt4 ,no que/ions rais$ ^u ?is po9t c ev] %ake our firm conviction 9 ! exi/5ce1 )\t u1 ( :at we call ! corporeal _w4 ,?is conviction is a ph5om5on ( our exi/5ce4 ,expla9 x1 p]haps we _c2 b we c]ta9ly _c d5y x2 we submit to x z to an inevitable necessity4 ,:at is ! basis ( c]ta9ty8 ,"h we h n a simple fact1 b a "q solv$ by e philosoph] 9 8 own way4 ,desc>tes & ,malebran*e recur to ! v]acity ( ,god2 ,locke & ,condillac to ! peculi> "* & evolution ( c]ta9 s5sations4 ,h[ does man acquire ?is c]ta9ty8 ,he kn[s n3 he _h x be=e reflect+ on x2 he is a/\nd$ to he> x made a matt] ( dispute1 & he might nev] h suspect$ x c\ld be ask$1 :y we are c]ta9 t :at affects our s5ses exi/s4 ,x is ( no use to ask him h[ he made s preci\s an acquisition2 he reg>ds x z a fact sc>cely di/9ct f 8 own exi/5ce4 ,he has no recollection ( ! ord] ( s5sations 9 8 infancy2 he f9ds 8 m9d n[ develop$1 b is z ignorant ( ! laws ( its developm5t z he is ( ^? :i* presid$ ov] ! g5]ation & gr[? ( 8 body4 #g4 ,philosophy %\ld beg9 by expla9+1 n by disput+ ! fact ( c]ta9ty4 ,if we are c]ta9 ( no?+1 x is absolutely impossible = u to advance a s+le /ep 9 any sci5ce1 or to take any "p :atev] 9 ! affairs ( life4 ,a ?or\gh-go+ skeptic w\ld be insane1 & t too ) insanity ( ! highe/ grade4 ,to su* a "o1 all communication ) o!r m51 all succession ( ext]nal actions1 all ?\ghts1 & ev5 acts ( ! w w\ld be impossible4 ,let u1 !n1 admit ! fact1 & n be s extravagant z to say t madness sits on ! ?re%old ( philosophy4 ,x is ! "p ( philosophy to analyze1 n to de/roy its object2 = by de/roy+ its object x de/roys itself4 ,e argum5t mu/ h a re/+-po9t1 :i* mu/ be a fact4 ,:e!r x be int]nal or ext]nal1 idea or object1 ! fact mu/ exi/3 we mu/ beg9 by suppos+ some?+1 & ?is some?+ we call a fact4 ,:oev] beg9s by d5y+ or d\bt+ all facts1 is l ! anatomi/1 :o1 be=e dissect+ a corpse1 burns x1 & ca/s its a%es to ! w9d4 #h4 ,philosophy !n1 x may be said1 comm5ces n ) an exam9ation1 b ) an affirmation4 ,grant$1 & ?is is a tru? ^: admission closes ! door on mu* sophi/ry1 & %$s a brilliant light ov] ! :ole !ory ( c]ta9ty4 ,philosoph]s are deceiv$ :5 !y imag9e t !y beg9 by d\bt+4 ,no?+ is m false2 :5 !y ?9k1 !y affirm1 if no?+ else1 at lea/ _! own d\bt3 :5ev] !y reason1 !y ass]t ! connection ( ideas1 t is1 ! :ole logical _w4 ,fi*te1 :o c]ta9ly 0 n easily satisfi$ ) any?+1 beg9s to treat ( ! basis ( human k by mak+ an affirmation1 & ?is he confesses ) an +5u\sness t does him honor4 ,speak+ ( reflection1 ! f\ndation ( 8 philosophy1 he says3 ,! rules to :i* ?is reflection is subject1 are n prov$ to be valid1 b are tacitly presuppos$ to be kn[n & admitt$4 ,!y are1 9 _! remote/ orig91 d]iv$ f a pr9ciple1 ! legitimacy ( :i* c only be e/abli%$ on condition t !y are valid4 ,?is is a circle1 b an inevitable circle4 ,b suppos+ x to be inevitable1 & t we frankly confess x s to be1 x is1 9 ord] to e/abli% ! highe/ pr9ciple1 all[able to tru/ all ! laws ( g5]al logic4 ,we mu/ />t on ! road ( reflection ) a proposition conc$$ by all ! _w )\t any contradiction4#a #a ,fi*te1 ,grundlage d] gesammt5 ,wiss5s*aftslehre4 ,!il4 i41 #a4 ,ed4 ,b]l91 #ahde1 p4 #ib4 #i4 ,c]ta9ty is to u a happy necessity2 nature imposes x1 & philosoph]s d n ca/ (f nature4 ,pyrrho once came v ne> be+ hit by a /one1 b he v naturally took good c>e to get out ( its way1 )\t /opp+ to exam9e :e!r x 0 a real /one1 or only ! appe>ance ( "o4 ,! by/&]s laugh$ at him = ?is1 &1 at ! same "t1 %[$ h[ inconsi/5t ?is act 0 ) 8 doctr9e2 b he gave ?is answ]1 :i*1 "u ! circum/ances1 0 exce$+ly pr(\nd3 ,x is h>d entirely to ?r[ (f human nature4 #aj4 ,9 s\nd philosophy1 !n1 ! "q turns n ^u ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9ty1 b ^u its motives1 & ! means ( acquir+ x4 ,x is an inh]itance ( :i* we _c dive/ ourselves1 al?\gh we repudiate ^? v titles :i* gu>anty its possession to u4 ,:o is n c]ta9 t he ?9ks1 feels1 wills2 t he has a body1 & t !re are ar\nd him o!rs simil> to 81 ( :i* ! corporeal univ]se consi/s8 ,prior to all sy/ems1 humanity 0 9 possession ( ?is c]ta9ty1 s1 also1 is e individual1 al?\gh he may nev] dur+ 8 :ole life h once ask$ himself :at ! _w is1 :at bodies are1 or 9 :at s5sation1 ?\ght1 & w consi/4 ,n ev5 if we exam9e ! f\ndations ( c]ta9ty & ackn[l$ge ! s]i\s difficulties conc]n+ !m1 :i* arise f ratioc9ation1 is x possible to d\bt ev]y?+4 ,!re nev] 01 9 all ! rigor ( ! ^w1 a true skeptic4 #aa4 ,x is ! same ) c]ta9ty z ) o!r objects ( human k4 ,! fact is pres5t$ to u 9 all its magnitude1 & ) all cle>ness2 b we d n p5etrate to its inn]mo/ nature4 ,our und]/&+ is z well provid$ ) means to acquire k ( ph5om5a 9 ! spiritual z 9 ! mat]ial ord]1 & x is suffici5tly p]spicaci\s to detect1 del9eate1 & classify ! laws to :i* !y are subject2 b :5 x w\ld asc5d to ! cognition ( ! v ess5ce ( ?+s1 or w\ld inve/igate ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce :i* makes its boa/1 x feels its /r5g? fail1 & ! gr\nd :]eon x /&s1 tremble & s9k b5ea? its feet4 ,happily1 man possesses c]ta9ty indep5d5tly ( philosophical sy/ems1 n limit$ to ph5om5a ( ! s\l1 b ext5d+ z f> z is ne$$ 9 ord] to direct 8 conduct1 bo? ) reg>d to himself & to ext]nal objects4 ,be=e inquir+ if !re is c]ta9ty1 all m5 7 c]ta9 t !y ?\ght1 will$1 felt1 t !y _h a body ^: motions 7 gov]n$ by ! w1 & t !re exi/$ an assemblage ( v>i\s bodies1 call$ ! univ]se4 ,s9ce inquiries ) reg>d to c]ta9ty 7 fir/ in/itut$1 x has rema9$ ! same ) all m51 ev5 ) ^? :o disput$ x2 n "o ( :om c\ld ev] g f>!r ?an ,pyrrho1 & succe$ 9 ca/+ (f human nature4 #ab4 ,we _c det]m9e to :at ext5t ! =ce ( m9d ( "s philosoph]s1 engag$ 9 combatt+ nature1 may h succe$$ 9 creat+ d\bt on _m po9ts1 b c]ta9 x is3 fir/1 t no "o ev] w5t s f> z to d\bt ! int]nal ph5om5a ^: pres5ce he felt inw>dly2 second1 t if inde$ any "o ev] did p]suade himself t no ext]nal object correspond$ to ^! ph5om5a1 ?is mu/ h be5 s /range an exception z to m]it1 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & 9 ! eyes ( s\nd philosophy1 no m weight ?an ! illusions ( a maniac4 ,if ,b]kely w5t s f> z to d5y ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 ?us mak+ ! sophisms ( reason triumph ov] ! in/9cts ( nature1 he is alone1 & 9 opposition to all mank9d1 & ri*ly m]its to h ?is say+ appli$ to him3 ,insanity is insanity /ill1 no matt] h[ sublime x may be4 ,^? v philosoph]s1 :o c>ri$ _! skepticism ! f>!/1 agre$ ^u ! necessity ( accommodat+ !mselves 9 practice to ! appe>ances ( ! s5ses1 & ( res]v+ d\bt = ! _w ( speculation4 ,philosoph]s may dispute on e ?+ z mu* z !y please1 b1 ! dispute ov]1 !y cease to be philosoph]s1 & are aga9 m51 simil> to o!r m51 &1 l !m all1 enjoy ! fruits ( c]ta9ty4 ,?is1 ,hume1 :o d5i$ ) ,b]kely ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 confesses3 ,i d9e1 he says2 ,i play a game at backgammon2 ,i conv]se1 & am happy ) my fri5ds2 & :51 aft] ?ree or f\r h\rs ( amusem5t1 ,i w\ld return to ^! speculations1 !y appe> s cold1 s /ra9$1 & s ridicul\s1 t ,i _c f9d x 9 my he>t to ent] into !m any f>!r4 ,"h1 !n1 ,i f9d myself absolutely & necess>ily det]m9$ to live1 & talk1 & act1 l o!r p1 9 ! common affairs ( life4#b #b ,treatise ( ,human ,nature1 vol4 i41 p4 #dfg4 #ac4 ,we mu/1 9 discuss+ c]ta9ty1 gu>d aga9/ ! fev]i% desire ( %ak+ ! f\ndations ( human reason4 ,we %\ld1 9 ?is class ( que/ions1 seek a ?or\gh k ( ! pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 & ! laws :i* gov]n ! developm5t ( our m9d4 ,to labor to de/roy !m is to mi/ake ! object ( true philosophy3 we h only to make !m a matt] ( obs]vation1 j z we d ^? ( ! mat]ial _w1 )\t any int5tion ( di/urb+ ! admirable ord] prevail+ 9 ! univ]se4 ,skeptics1 :o1 9 ord] to r5d] _! philosophy m solid1 beg9 by d\bt+ e ?+1 resemble ! man1 :o1 desir\s ( asc]ta9+1 & exactly det]m9+ ! ph5om5a ( life1 %\ld b>e 8 bosom1 & ?ru/ ! knife into 8 he>t4 ,sobriety is z necess>y to ! heal? ( ! m9d1 z to t ( ! body3 !re is no wisdom )\t prud5ce1 no philosophy )\t judgm5t4 ,9 ! s\l ( man !re is a div9e light :i* directs him ) admirable c]ta9ty4 ,if we d n p]si/ 9 ext+ui%+ x1 its spl5dor guides u1 & :5 we rea* ! t]m ( sci5ce x %[s x to u1 & makes u read 9 di/9ct *>act]s ! words1--en\gh1 y c g no f>!r4 ,^! words are writt5 by ! ,au?or ( all be+s2 he x is t has giv5 laws to ! body z well z to ! m9d1 & he conta9s 9 8 inf9ite ess5ce ! ultimate reason ( all ?+s4 #ad4 ,! c]ta9ty :i* is prior to all exam9ation is n bl9d2 on ! contr>y1 x spr+s ei!r f ! cle>ness ( ! intellectual vision1 or f an in/9ct con=mable to reason3 x is n oppos$ to reason1 b is its basis4 ,our m9d1 9 discursive reason+1 kn[s tru? by ! connection ( propositions1 or by ! light :i* is reflect$ f "o tru? ^u ano!r4 ,9 primitive c]ta9ty ! vision is by direct light1 & does n ne$ reflection4 ,:51 !n1 we note ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9ty1 we d n speak ( a bl9d fact1 nor d we seek to ext+ui% ! light 9 its v s\rce2 we w\ld r say1 t x is m brilliant !re ?an 9 its radiations4 ,we see a body ^: spl5dor illum9es ! _w 9 :i* we live2 ought we1 if reque/$ to expla9 its nature & its relations ) o!r objects1 to beg9 by de/roy+ ^!8 ,:5 naturali/s w\ld exam9e ! nature ( light1 & det]m9e its laws1 !y d n beg9 by remov+ ! light itself1 & plac+ !mselves 9 d>kness4 #ae4 ,true1 ?is me?od ( philosophiz+ is some:at dogmatic1 b dogmatic z x is1 x has on its side1 z we h se51 ,pyrrho1 ,hume1 & ,fi*te4 ,x is n simply a me?od ( philosophy1 x is ! volunt>y submission ( our v nature to an inevitable necessity1 ! comb9ation ( reason ) in/9ct1 a simultane\s att5tion to diff]5t voices call+ f ! dep?s ( our s\l4 ,accord+ to ,pascal1 nature conf\nds ! ,pyrrhonians1 & reason ! dogmati/s4 ,?is passes = a pr(\nd say+1 & is s "u a c]ta9 aspect2 b x is not)/&+ some:at inexact4 ,! confusion is n ! same 9 bo? cases3 reason does n conf\nd ! dogmati/1 unless he sep>ates x f nature2 b nature conf\nds ! ,pyrrhonian1 ei!r alone or jo9$ ) reason4 ,! true dogmati/ f\nds 8 reason ^u nature2 x kn[s itself1 confesses ! impossibility ( prov+ e ?+1 & does n arbitr>ily assume any pr9ciple t x ne$s unless nature itself furni%es x4 ,& ?us x does n conf\nd ! dogmati/1 :5 guid$ by x he seeks a sure f\ndation = x4 ,nature1 :5 x conf\nds ! ,pyrrhonian1 atte/s ! triumph ( ! reason ( dogmati/s1 ^: pr9cipal argum5t aga9/ ,pyrrhonians1 is ! voice ( nature itself4 ,pascal's ?\ght w\ld h be5 m exact if ?us word$3 nature conf\nds ! ,pyrrhonian & is necess>y to ! reason ( dogmati/s4 ,?is is less anti!tical1 b m true4 ,dogmati/s d n d5y nature2 reason )\t x is impot5t2 to ex]cise its /r5g? x ne$s a re/+ po9t4 ,) su*1 ,ar*im$es (f]$ to move ! e>?1 )\t ?is 8 imm5se lev] c\ld n /ir a s+le atom47#b7 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,c]ta9ty ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,race1 ,,& ,,philosophical ,,c]ta9ty4 #af4 ,c]ta9ty does n orig9ate 9 reflection2 x is ! spontane\s product ( man's nature1 & is annex$ to ! direct act ( ! intellectual & s5sitive faculties4 ,x is a condition necess>y to ! ex]cise ( bo?1 & )\t x life 7 a *aos2 we !re=e possess x in/9ctively1 & )\t any reflection1 & we enjoy ! fruit ( ?is z ( all ^? o!r b5efits ( ! ,creator1 :i* are insep>ably jo9$ to our exi/5ce4 #ag4 ,x is1 !n1 necess>y to di/+ui% betwe5 ! c]ta9ty ( ! human race & philosophical c]ta9ty1 al?\gh1 to speak frankly1 x is n easy to conceive :at c be ! value ( any human c]ta9ty di/9ct f t ( ! human race4 ,if we set aside ! ef=ts :i* ! philosoph] sometimes makes to discov] ! basis ( human k1 we %all readily f9d him conf\nd$ ) ! re/ ( mank9d4 ,?is cavil leaves no trace 9 8 m9d ) respect to ! c]ta9ty ( all t ! human race is c]ta9 (4 ,he !n discov]s t ! d\bt :i* he felt 0 n a real d\bt1 al?\gh he may h delud$ himself into a contr>y belief4 ,8 d\bts 7 simple suppositions1 no?+ m4 ,:5 8 m$itation is ov]1 & p]haps ev5 :ile x la/s1 he f9ds t he is z c]ta9 z ! mo/ ignorant individual ( 8 int]nal acts1 ! exi/5ce ( 8 own body1 ( o!r bodies ar\nd him1 & ( a ?\s& o!r ?+s1 :i* con/itute ! am\nt ( k requisite to ! wants ( life4 ,"q all1 f ! infant ( a few summ]s1 to ! sage ( _m ye>s & mature judgm5t1 on ! c]ta9ty ( _! own exi/5ce1 _! acts int]nal or ext]nal1 _! fri5ds & relatives1 ! p among :om !y dwell1 objects se5 or he>d (1 & y w n detect any hesitation 9 _! answ]s1 or any k9d ( diff]5ce 9 ! grades ( _! c]ta9ty4 ,if !y h no k ( ! philosophical que/ions t\*+ ^! matt]s1 y may read 9 _! c\nt5ances wond] & a/oni%m5t t any "o %\ld s]i\sly inve/igate ?+s s evid5t4 #ah4 ,impossible z x is = u to "k 9 :at mann] ! s5sitive1 intellectual1 & moral p[]s ( *ildr5 are develop$1 x is equally impossible to prove a a priori1 by analyz+ ! op]ations ( 8 m9d1 t reflex acts d n concur to ! =mation ( c]ta9ty2 b x w n be difficult to f9d pro(s ( ?is 9 ! ex]cise ( ^! faculties :5 well develop$4 ,if we obs]ve att5tively1 we %all see t ! *ild's faculties habitually op]ate 9 a direct1 n a reflex mann]2 :i* %[s t ! developm5t is made directly1 n by reflection4 ,7 ! primitive developm5t ! "w ( reflexion1 ! reflective p[] w\ld be great 9 ! *ild4 ,b ?is is n ! case4 ,v few m5 are ev] end[$ ) x1 & 9 ! great] "p ( !m x is v ne>ly null4 ,!y :o atta9 to x1 acquire x only by assidu\s labor1 & n )\t great viol5ce to himself1 c any "o pass f direct to reflex cognition4 #ai4 ,no matt] :at y tea* a *ild1 he p]ceives x inde$1 b call 8 att5tion to ! p]ception itself1 & 8 und]/&+ is at once obscur$ & confus$4 ,let u make ! exp]im5t4 ,suppose we w\ld tea* a *ild ! elem5ts ( geometry4 ,d y see ?is figure b\nd$ by ?ree l9es8 ,x is call$ a triangle2 ! l9es are call$ sides1 & ! po9ts :]e !y unite ! v]tices ( ! angles4--,i und]/& t4--,d y see ?is o!r figure b\nd$ by f\r l9es8 ,x is call$ quadrilat]al1 &1 l ! triangle1 has its sides & v]tices ( angles4--,v well4--,c a quadrilat]al figure be a triangle1 or vice v]sa8--,x _c4--,nev]8--,nev]4--,:y n8--,"o has ?ree1 & ! o!r f\r sides3 h[ !n c !y be ! same ?+8--,:o kn[s8 ,x may seem s to y1 b----,see "h6 ,?is has ?ree1 & ?is f\r sides2 & ?ree & f\r are n ! same ?+4 ,torture 8 und]/&+ z mu* z y please1 b y _c drive him f 8 position3 & ?us we see t 8 p]ception & 8 reason op]ate directly1 t is1 by direct application to ! object4 ,( himself he does n direct 8 att5tion to 8 own int]nal acts1 does n ?9k ^u 8 own ?\ghts1 does n comb9e reflex ideas1 nor seek 9 !m ! c]ta9ty ( 8 judgm5t4 #bj4 ,& "h we detect a vital error 9 ! art ( ?9k+ z x has hi!rto be5 taught4 ,! "y intellect is ex]cis$ 9 reflection1 ! mo/ difficult "p ( sci5ce1 :i* is z inconsid]ate z x w\ld be to comm5ce 8 physical developm5t by ! mo/ pa9ful gymna/ic ex]cises4 ,man's sci5tific developm5t %\ld be gov]n$ by 8 natural developm5t1 :i* is direct n reflex4 #ba4 ,let u apply ?is rem>k to ! ex]cise ( ! s5ses4 ,d y he> t music8 asks ! *ild4--,:at music8--,did y n he> x8 ,are y deaf8--,x seems to y t y he> x4--,b1 sir1 ,i he> x s di/9ctly6 ,h[ c x be possible8--,b h[ d y "k8--,i he> x4 ,f 8 ,i he> x y _c drive him3 he w n hesitate a mom5t1 nor w he appeal to any reflex act 9 ord] to avoid y\r importunities4 ,i he> x3 d n y he> x8 ,he asks no?+ m1 & all y\r philosophy _c equal ! irresi/ible =ce ( s5sation :i* assures him t !re is music1 & t :oev] d\bts x is ei!r deaf or 9 je/4 #bb4 ,_h ! faculties ( ! *ild be5 develop$ by alt]nate direct & reflex acts2 _h he1 :5 acquir+ k ( ?+s1 ?\ght ( some?+ besides ! ?+s !mselves2 evid5tly a cont9uation ( su* acts w\ld h left "s impression on 8 m9d1 & urg$ to assign ! motives ( 8 c]ta9ty1 he w\ld indicate ^? v means t he made use ( 9 ! gradual developm5t ( 8 faculties2 he w\ld ab/ract ! object1 retire into himself1 ?9k ^u 8 own ?\ght 9 "o way or ano!r1 & ?us enc\nt] ! difficulty4 ,no?+ ( ?is "* takes place1 :i* proves t no su* reflex acts h be5 p]=m$1 t !re h be5 only p]ceptions accompani$ by int]nal consci\sness & c]ta9ty ( _! exi/5ce2 b all 9 a confus$1 in/9ctive mann]1 )\t any ?+ l philosophical reflection4 #bc4 ,:at has be5 said ( ! *ild1 may be prov$ true also ( adults1 h[ev] cle> & p]fect _! intellect4 ,if n initiat$ into que/ions ( philosophy1 !y w give v ne>ly ! same answ]s to difficulties propos$ on ! same matt]s1 & ev5 ^u _m o!rs m expos$ to d\bt4 ,exp]i5ce proves bett] ?an all ratioc9ation t no "o acquires c]ta9ty by reflex acts4 #bd4 ,philosoph]s tea* t ! s\rces ( c]ta9ty are ! int]nal s5se or consci\sness ( acts1 ! ext]nal s5ses1 common s5se1 reason1 & au?ority4 ,a few examples w %[ u t !re is reflection 9 all ^!1 & h[ mo/ m51 & ev5 philosoph]s1 :5 !y act l m5 & n l philosoph]s1 ?9k4 #be4 ,suppose a cle>-head$ p]son1 "o h[ev] :o is ignorant ( ! que/ions ( c]ta9ty1 has j se5 "s monum5t1 ! ,escurial = in/ance1 :i* leaves a lively & la/+ impression on 8 m9d1 & :ile he recollects 8 gratification on see+ x1 try to make him d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ?is recollection 9 8 m9d1 & its correspond5ce z well ) ! act ( see+ z ) ! edifice itself1 & he w v c]ta9ly ?9k y are 9 je/1 or w be a/\nd$1 & w suspect y ( be+ out ( y\r s5ses4 ,he discov]s no diff]5ce betwe5 ?+s diff]5t z are ! actual exi/5ce ( 8 recollection1 its correspond5ce ) ! pa/ act ( see+1 & ! agreem5t ( bo? ) ! edifice se54 ,he kn[s 9 ?is case no m ?an a *ild ( six ye>s3 ,i recollect x1 ,i saw x1 x is z ,i recollect x4 ,?is is all 8 sci5ce3 he nei!r reflects1 nor sep>ates2 all is direct & simultane\s4 ,no matt] :at suppositions y make1 y c nev] get f ! majority ( m5 any bett] acc\nt ( ! ph5om5a ( ! int]nal s5se1 ?an y got f ! suppos$ individual's recollection ( ! ,escurial3 all t ,i "k is t x is s4 ,!re are "h no reflex acts2 c]ta9ty att5ds ! direct act1 & no philosophical consid]ations c add "o iota to ! security giv5 by ! v =ce ( ?+s1 & ! in/9ct ( nature4 #bf4 ,example ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses4 ,if we see any object1 no matt] :at1 at a prop] di/ance & 9 suffici5t light1 we judge ( its size1 figure1 & color1 & we are v confid5t ( ! tru? ( our judgm5t1 al?\gh we may nev]1 9 all our life1 h ?\ght ( a !ory ( s5sation1 or ( ! relations ( our organs1 ei!r to ea* o!r or to ext]nal objects4 ,no reflex act accompanies ! =mation ( our judgm5t2 all is done in/9ctively1 & )\t ! int]v5tion ( philosophical consid]ations4 ,we see x1 & no?+ else3 ?is is en\gh = c]ta9ty4 ,x is only aft] hav+ h&l$ books 9 :i* ! "q ( c]ta9ty is agitat$1 t we turn our att5tion to our own acts2 b ?is att5tion1 x is to be rem>k$1 la/s only s long z we are engag$ 9 ! sci5tific analysis2 :5 ?is is =gott51 :i* x v soon is1 we return to our g5]al r\t9e1 & seldom recur to philosophy4 ,note well t we speak "h ( ! c]ta9ty ( ! judgm5t =m$ 9 consequ5ce ( s5sation only 9 s f> z x is connect$ ) ! uses ( life1 & n at all ( its great] or less exactness ) respect to ! nature ( ?+s4 ,?us x matt]s little t we consid] colors z inh]5t qualities ( bodies1 al?\gh 9 reality !y are n2 x is suffici5t t ! judgm5t =m$ does n 9 any s5se *ange our relations to objects1 :atev] may be ! philosophical !ory4 #bg4 ,example ( common s5se4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( a num]\s assembly1 ?r[ a quantity ( pr9t]'s types at r&om ^u ! gr\nd1 & tell ! by/&]s t _! names w all be f\nd pr9t$4 ,!y w all ) "o accord laugh at y\r folly4 ,b :at is ! reason ( ?is8 ,h !y all reflect$ ^u ! basis ( _! c]ta9ty8 ,assur$ly !y h n4 #bh4 ,example ( reason4 ,we all reason1 & 9 _m cases rightly4 ,)\t art or reflection ( any k9d1 we (t5 di/+ui% ! solid f ! futile1 ! sophi/ical f ! conclusive4 ,?is does n require u to reg>d ! c\rse ( our und]/&+2 )\t sc>cely notic+ x we foll[ ! "r road2 & a man may1 9 8 life1 h =m$ a ?\s& rigor\s & exact ratioc9ations )\t ev] hav+ once att5d$ to 8 me?od ( reason+4 ,ev5 ^? mo/ v]s$ 9 ! dialectic art1 repeat$ly =get x2 !y p]haps foll[ x v correctly 9 practice1 b !y pay no express att5tion to any "o ( its rules4 #bi4 ,ideologi/s h writt5 :ole volumes on ! op]ations ( our und]/&+1 & ! simple ru/ic p]=ms ^! op]ations )\t ?9k+ t he p]=ms !m4 ,h[ mu* has be5 writt5 on ab/raction1 g5]alization1 & univ]sals6 ,yet ?is is all well regulat$ 9 ! m9d ( e man1 ignorant z he may be ( a sci5ce :i* exam9es x4 ,9 8 language y w f9d ! univ]sal & ! p>ticul> express$1 & e ?+ occupy+ its prop] place 9 8 disc\rse3 he enc\nt]s no difficulty 9 8 direct acts4 ,b call 8 att5tion to ^! acts !mselves1 to ab/raction = example2 & :at 0 9 ! direct act s cle> & lucid1 becomes a *aos ! mom5t x passes to ! reflex ord]4 ,?us we see t reflection1 ^: object is ! act p]=m$1 is ( v little importance ev5 9 reason+1 its mo/ reflective m$ium4 #cj4 ,example ( au?ority4 ,all civiliz$ p "k ! exi/5ce ( ,engl&1 b mo/ ( !m "k ?is only f hav+ he>d or read ( x1 t is1 by au?ority4 ,_! c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( ,engl& evid5tly is n surpass$ by t ( objects ( _! own vision2 & yet h[ _m ( !m h ev] ?\ght ( analyz+ ! f\ndations ( su* a c]ta9ty8 ,yet is ! c]ta9ty ( ^? :o h exam9$ x great] ?an t ( ^? :o h n exam9$ x8 ,9 ! pres5t case1 z 9 an inf9ity ( o!rs analog\s to x1 !re is no int]v5tion ( reflex acts3 c]ta9ty is "h =m$ in/9ctively1 & ne$s no m$ium inv5t$ by philosoph]s4 #ca4 ,^! examples %[ t philosoph]s take a v diff]5t road to c]ta9ty f t taught by nature4 ,he :o creat$ all ?+s out ( no?+1 has provid$ !m ) all t is necess>y to ! ex]cise ( _! functions accord+ to _! respective positions 9 ! univ]se2 & "o ( ! fir/ necessities ( an intellig5t be+ is ! c]ta9ty ( "s tru?s4 ,:at w\ld become ( u1 if be=e beg9n+ to receive impressions1 & be=e ! g]m9ation ( prim>y ideas 9 our und]/&+1 we 7 oblig$ to p]=m ! pa9ful task ( elaborat+ "s sy/em capable ( sav+ u f unc]ta9ty8 ,7 x ?us1 our intellect w\ld p]i% at its v bir?1 = no soon] w\ld x op5 its eyes to ! light ?an x w\ld be involv$ 9 ! *aos ( its own cavils1 & x c\ld nev]1 ) its scatt]$ =ces1 succe$ 9 dissipat+ ! cl\ds :i* w\ld arise on all sides1 & :i* w\ld f9ally s9k x 9 total d>kness4 ,if ! greate/ philosoph]s1 ! mo/ cle> & acute intellects1 ! /ronge/ & mo/ vigor\s g5iuses h labor$ to s little purpose to e/abli% solid pr9ciples1 su* z might s]ve = ! f\ndations ( sci5ce1 :at w\ld h happ5$ _h n ! ,creator succor$ u 9 ?is necessity1 & giv5 c]ta9ty to ! t5d] intellect1 j z he prep>$ = ! pres]vation ( ! body ! milk t n\ri%es & ! air t vivifies x8 #cb4 ,if any "p ( sci5ce ought to be reg>d$ z purely speculative1 x is und\bt$ly ! "p :i* conc]ns c]ta9ty2 & ?is proposition1 p>adoxical z x may seem at fir/ sight1 is true1 & c be easily demon/rat$4 #cc4 ,:at does philosophy "h propose to d8 ,to produce c]ta9ty8 ,b x exi/s indep5d5tly ( all philosophical sy/ems1 & mank9d 7 c]ta9 ( _m ?+s be=e ev] any "o ?\ght ( su* que/ions4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! "q 0 fir/ rais$1 few1 comp>$ ) ! :ole human race1 h exam9$ x2 s x is n[1 & s x w be2 & all ! !ories inv5t$ on ?is po9t c h no effect ^u ! fact ( c]ta9ty4 ,:at has be5 said ( its production may be said ( ! attempt to consolidate x4 ,:5 h ! g5]ality ( m5 _h1 or :5 w !y h1 "t & opportunity to exam9e ^! que/ions8 #cd4 ,philosophy c\ld "h h produc$ no?+ b skepticism1 = ! v>iety & opposition ( sy/ems 7 m calculat$ to create ?an to dissipate d\bts4 ,happily nature is ! mo/ inv9cible oppon5t ( skepticism2 ! sage's dreams pass n f 8 libr>y to ! e day uses ( ! life ( ord9>y m51 or ev5 ( ^? :o labor "u or imag9e !m4 #ce4 ,philosophy "h c propose to itself no m reasonable object ?an simply to exam9e ! f\ndations ( c]ta9ty1 ) ! sole view ( m ?or\ghly kn[+ ! human m9d1 n ( mak+ any *ange 9 practice2 j z a/ronom]s obs]ve ! c\rse ( ! />s1 inve/igate & det]m9e ! laws to :i* !y are subject1 )\t !re=e presum+ to be able to modify !m4 #cf4 ,b ev5 ?is supposition places philosophy 9 a v unsatisfactory position2 = if we recollect :at we h already e/abli%$1 we %all see t sci5ce obs]ves a real & true ph5om5on1 b gives x a gratuit\s explanation1 by mak+ an imag9>y analysis ( x4 ,exp]i5ce has 9 fact %[n our und]/&+ to be guid$ by no "o ( ! consid]ations made by philosoph]s2 its ass5t1 :5 x is accompani$ by ! greate/ c]ta9ty1 is a spontane\s product ( a natural in/9ct1 n ( comb9ations2 x is a firm adhesion exact$ by ! evid5ce ( ! tru?1 ! p[] ( ! int]nal s5se1 or ! impulse ( in/9ct2 n a conviction produc$ by a s]ies ( ratioc9ations4 ,^! comb9ations & ratioc9ations !re=e exi/ only 9 ! m9d ( philosoph]s1 n 9 reality2 :51 !re=e1 !y attempt to designate ! f\ndations ( c]ta9ty1 we are told :at c\ld or %\ld h be51 b n :at is4 ,if philosoph]s w\ld only be guid$ by _! own sy/ems1 & w\ld n =get !m nor set !m aside z soon z1 or ev5 be=e1 !y h f9i%$ expla9+ !m1 x might be said1 t ev5 if no reason c be giv5 = human c]ta9ty1 "o c be giv5 = philosophical c]ta9ty2 b s9ce ^! same philosoph]s make no use ( ^! sci5tific means save :5 develop+ !m ex pr(esso1 x foll[s t _! pret5d$ f\ndations are a m]e !ory1 hav+ little or no connection ) ! reality4 #cg4 ,?is demon/ration ( ! vanity ( philosophical sy/ems relat+ to ! f\ndation ( c]ta9ty1 f> f lead+ to skepticism1 has a directly contr>y t5d5cy2 = x makes u appreciate at _! true value1 ! empt9ess ( our cavils1 comp>es _! impot5ce ) ! irresi/ible =ce ( nature1 & ?us de/roys t fooli% pride :i* w\ld make u sup]ior to ! laws impos$ ^u our und]/&+ by ! ,creator himself2 x places u 9 ! *annel ?r\gh :i* ! torr5t ( humanity has = ages run2 & x disposes u to receive ) s\nd philosophy :at ! laws ( our nature =ce u to accept47#c7 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,transc5d5tal ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,absolute ,,intellectual ,,ord]4 #ch4 ,philosoph]s h s\ght a fir/ pr9ciple ( human k2 ea* has assign$ 8 own1 & n[ aft] s mu* discussion x is d\btful :o is "r1 or ev5 if any "o is "r4 ,be=e inquir+ :at ! fir/ pr9ciple is1 !y ought to h asc]ta9$ :e!r !re be any su* pr9ciple4 ,we _c suppose ?is la/ "q to be answ]$ affirmatively2 = x is1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 susceptible ( diff]5t solutions1 accord+ to ! aspect "u :i* x is se54 ,! fir/ pr9ciple ( k may be und]/ood 9 ei!r ( two s5ses2 z d5ot+ "o fir/ tru? f :i* all o!rs fl[1 or z express+ a tru? :i* we mu/ suppose if we w\ld n h all o!r tru?s disappe>4 ,9 ! =m] s5se x is a spr+ f :i* ! wat]s fl[1 :i* f]tilize ! intellect2 9 ! second s5se x is a po9t :]eon to re/ a great weight4 #ci4 ,is !re any "o tru? f :i* all o!rs fl[8 ,!re is 9 reality1 9 ! ord] ( be+s1 9 ! univ]sal intellectual ord]2 b 9 ! human intellectual ord] !re is none4 #dj4 ,!re is 9 ! ord] ( be+s "o tru?1 ! orig9 ( all tru?s2 = tru? is reality1 & !re is "o ,be+1 au?or ( all be+s4 ,?is be+ is a tru?1--tru? itself1--! pl5itude ( tru?1--= he is be+ by ess5ce1 ! pl5itude ( be+4 ,e s*ool ( philosophy has 9 "s s5se recogniz$ ?is unity ( orig94 ,! a!i/ talks ( ! =ce ( nature2 ! pan!i/ ( an only sub/ance1 ( ! absolute1 ( ! uncondition$2 bo? h ab&on$ ! idea ( ,god1 & n[ lab\r to replace x by some?+ :i* may be made ! orig9 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! univ]se1 & ( ! developm5t ( its ph5om5a4 #da4 ,!re is 9 ! univ]sal intellectual ord] "o tru? f :i* all o!rs fl[2 x is1 t ! unity ( orig9 ( all tru?s is n only f\nd 9 realiz$ tru?s1 t is1 9 be+s consid]$ 9 !mselves1 b likewise 9 ! concat5ation ( ideas repres5t+ ^! be+s4 ,& ?us if our und]/&+ c\ld asc5d to ! k ( all tru?s1 & embrace !m 9 _! unity & 9 all ! relations unit+ !m1 x w\ld see !m aft] arriv+ at a c]ta9 height1 not)/&+ _! disp]sion & div]g5ce z n[ p]ceiv$ by u1 conv]ge to a c5tre1 9 :i* !y unite1 l rays ( light 9 ! lum9\s object f :i* !y issu$4 #db4 ,! mo/ pr(\nd philosophical doctr9es (t5 appe> 9 ! treatises ( !ologians expla9+ ! doctr9es ( ! *ur*4 ,?us ,/4 ,?omas1 9 8 que/ions on ! und]/&+ ( angels1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( 8 works1 has left u a v lum9\s & int]e/+ !ory4 ,accord+ to him1 spirits und]/& by a numb] ( ideas small] 9 proportion to ! sup]iority ( _! ord]2 & s ! dim9ution goes on ev5 to ,god1 :o und]/&s by means ( a s+le idea :i* is 8 own ess5ce4 ,& ?us accord+ to ! holy doctor1 n only is !re "o be+1 au?or ( all be+s1 b also "o inf9ite idea :i* includes all ideas4 ,:oev] fully possesses ?is idea w see e ?+ 9 x2 b s9ce ?is full possession1 call$ compreh5sion 9 !ology1 is solely a prop]ty ( ! inf9ite intellig5ce ( ,god1 creatures1 :5 9 ! o!r life !y %all h obta9$ ! beatific vision1 w see m or few] objects 9 ,god accord+ to ! great] or less p]fection 9 :i* !y possess x4 ,h[ wond]ful6 ,! dogma ( beatific vision well und]/ood1 is also a tru? :i* %$s mu* light ^u philosophical !ories4 ,malebran*e's sublime dream ab\t ideas 01 p]haps1 a rem9isc5ce ( 8 !ological /udies4 #dc4 ,! transc5d5tal sci5ce :i* embraces & expla9s !m all1 is a *im]a to our m9d s long z we inhabit ?is e>?1 b x is a reality to o!r spirits ( a high] ord]1 & x w also be s to u :51 fre$ f ?is mortal body1 we atta9 ! regions ( light4 #dd4 ,s f> z we may conjecture f analogy1 we h pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is transc5d5tal sci5ce1 :i* includes all sci5ces1 & is 9 its turn conta9$ 9 "o sole pr9ciple1 or r1 9 "o only idea1 9 "o only intuition4 ,if we obs]ve ! scale ( be+s1 ! grades ( di/9ction betwe5 individual intellig5ces1 & ! successive progress ( sci5ce1 ! image ( ?is tru? w be pres5t$ to u 9 a v /rik+ mann]4 ,"o ( ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ics ( our m9d is its p[] ( g5]alization1 ( p]ceiv+ ! common 9 ! v>i\s1 ( r$uc+ ! multiplex to unity2 & ?is p[] is proportional to its degree ( intellig5ce4 #de4 ,! brute is limit$ to its s5sations & ! objects caus+ !m4 ,x has no p[] ( g5]alization or ( classification2 no?+ beyond ! impression receiv$ or ! in/9ct ( satisfy+ its wants4 ,man1 h[ev]1 z soon z he op5s ! eyes ( 8 und]/&+1 p]ceives unnumb]$ relations2 he applies :at he has se5 9 "o case to diff]5t cases2 he g5]alizes & infolds v _m ideas 9 a s+le idea4 ,! *ild desires an object above 8 rea*2 he imm$iately takes a *air or a /ool1 & improvises a ladd]4 ,a brute w wat* ! object ( its appetite :ole h\rs :5 plac$ beyond its rea*1 )\t ev] ?9k+ ( do+ l ! *ild1 & =m+ a ladd]4 ,if e ?+ be s dispos$ z to enable x to climb1 x w climb1 b x is incapable ( ?9k+ t 9 simil> circum/ances x ought to act 9 l mann]4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we see a be+ hav+ ! g5]al idea ( a means1 & its relation to ! end1 ( :i* x makes use :5 necess>y3 9 ! latt] we see ano!r be+ hav+ inde$ be=e its eyes ! end & ! means1 b n p]ceiv+ _! relation1 unable to g beyond ! mat]ial individuality ( objects4 ,9 ! =m] !re is p]ception ( unity2 9 ! latt] !re is no bond to jo9 ! v>iety ( p>ticul> facts4 ,x is se5 by ?is simple example t ! *ild w r$uce all ! inf9ity ( cases1 9 :i* an object may be plac$ beyond 8 rea*1 to ?is "o case2 he possesses1 s to speak1 ! =mula ( ?is little problem4 ,true1 he does n r5d] himself an acc\nt ( ?is =mula1 t is1 does n reflect ^u x2 b he has x 9 reality2 & if y give him an opportunity he w at once apply x1 :i* proves t he has x4 ,or speak to him ( ?+s plac$ too high = 8 rea*1 & po9t rapidly f "o to ano!r ( ! objects be=e him2 he w at all times in/antly apply ! g5]al idea ( an auxili>y m$ium2 he w avail himself p]haps ( 8 fa!r's arm1 or t ( a s]vant1 a *air1 if 9 ! h\se1 a heap ( /ones1 if 9 ! fields2 he discov]s 9 all ?+s ! relation ( ! means to ! end4 ,:5 he sees ! end1 he imm$iately turns 8 att5tion to ! means ( atta9+ x3 ! g5]al idea seeks individualization 9 a p>ticul> case4 #df4 ,art is ! collection ( rules = do+ any ?+ well2 & is ! m p]fect 9 proportion z ea* rule embraces a great] numb] ( cases1 & consequ5tly z ! numb] ( ^! rules is small]4 ,d\btless1 build+s t 7 solid1 well proportion$1 & adapt$ to ! purpose = :i* !y 7 de/9$1 _h be5 con/ruct$ be=e ! rules ( ar*itecture 7 r$uc$ to =mulas2 b ! great progress ( intellig5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( build+s consi/$ 9 asc]ta9+ :at !re 0 common to all well-built h\ses1 9 det]m9+ ! cause ( beauty & ( solidity1 9 !mselves consid]$1 by pass+ f ! individual to ! univ]sal1 t is1 by =m+ g5]al ideas ( beauty & solidity applicable to an indef9ite numb] ( p>ticul> cases1 by simplify+4 #dg4 ,! same may be said ( all o!r lib]al & me*anical arts3 ! progress ( intellig5ce 9 all ( !m consi/s 9 r$uc+ multiplicity to unity1 & includ+ ! greate/ possible numb] ( applications 9 ! lea/ possible numb] ( ideas4 ,?is is :y lov]s ( lit]ature & ! f9e arts labor to discov] an idea ( beauty 9 g5]al1 9 ord] to atta9 a type applicable to all lit]>y & arti/ic objects4 ,x is also obvi\s t ^? engag$ 9 me*anical arts always endeavor to gov]n _! proce$+s by a few rules1 & he is held to be ! mo/ skilful :o succe$s 9 comb9+ ! greate/ v>iety ( results ) ! greate/ simplicity ( means1 by mak+ t1 :i* o!rs connect ) _m ideas1 dep5d ^u "o idea alone4 ,:5 we see a ma*9e produce wond]ful effects by a v simple process1 we praise ! artific] n less = ! means ?an = ! end3 ?is we say1 is gr&1 & ! simplicity ) :i* x works is ! mo/ a/oni%+4 #dh4 ,let u apply ?is doctr9e to ! natural & exact sci5ces4 ,! m]it ( our actual sy/em ( num]ation consi/s 9 includ+ ! expression ( all numb]s 9 a s+le idea1 mak+ ! value ( ea* figure t5 times t to ! "r1 & fill+ all int]vals ) z]os4 ,! expression ( inf9ite numb]s is r$uc$ to ! simplicity ( a s+le rule bas$ ^u a s+le idea2 ! relation ( position ) a t5fold value4 ,log>i?ms h enabl$ ari?metic to make a great advance by dim9i%+ ! numb] ( its fundam5tal op]ations1 s9ce1 ) !m x r$uces multiplication & division to addition & subtraction4 ,algebra is only ! g5]alization ( ari?metical expressions & op]ations1 _! simplification4 ,! application ( algebra to geometry is ! g5]alization ( geometrical expressions2 =mulas ( l9es1 figures1 bodies1 only ! expression ( _! univ]sal idea4 ,9 ?is idea z 9 a type1 geometry pres]ves its fir/ & g5]ative idea1 & x requires only ! simple/ applications 9 ord] to =m an exact calculation ( all l9es belong+ to ! same class1 :i* c possibly be met ) 9 practice4 ,9 ! simple expression dz_/dx ,a1 call$ ! diff]5tial coeffici5t1 is conta9$ ! :ole idea ( inf9itesimal calculus4 ,x orig9at$ 9 geometrical consid]ations1 b s soon z its univ]sality 0 conceiv$1 x p\r$ a flood ( light ^u e bran* ( ma!matical & natural sci5ce1 & l$ to ! discov]y ( a new _w1 ^: conf9es are /ill unkn[n4 ,! prodigi\s fecundity ( ?is calculus emanates f its simplicity1 its prompt g5]alization ( bo? algebra & geometry1 & its unit+ !m 9 a s+le po9t :i* is ! relation ( ! limits ( ! diff]5tials ( any function4 #di4 ,x is to ?is unity ( idea t ! human intellect 9 its ambition aspires1 & once obta9$1 x proves ! cause ( great progress4 ,! glory ( ! greate/ g5iuses is t !y discov]$ x3 ! advance ( sci5ce has consi/$ 9 pr(it+ by x4 ,vieta expla9$ & appli$ ! pr9ciple ( ! g5]al expression ( ari?metical quantities2 ,desc>tes ext5d$ ?is to geometrical quantities4 ,newton e/abli%$ ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal gravitation2 & he1 at ! same "t ) ,leibnitz1 inv5t$ ! inf9itesimal calculus2 & ! exact & natural sci5ces m>*1 by ! light ( a va/ flambeau1 ) gigantic /rides along pa?s nev] be=e trodd54 ,& all ?is because intellig5ce has approa*$ unity1 & become possess$ ( a g5]ative idea1 involv+ inf9ite o!r ideas4 #ej4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t z we advance 9 sci5ce1 we meet num]\s po9ts ( contact1 close relations1 :i* no "o at fir/ sight w\ld h suspect$4 ,anci5t ma!maticians discuss$ ! conic sections1 b 7 f> f imag9+ t ! idea ( ! ellipse c\ld be ! basis ( a sy/em ( a/ronomy3 ! foci to !m 7 simple po9ts1 ! curve a l9e1 & ! relations ( bo? ! object ( comb9ations at once pr(itless & )\t application4 ,ages pass away1 & ^! foci are ! sun1 ! curve ! orbit ( planets4 ,! l9es on ! geometrician's table repres5t$ a _w6 ,! intimate connection ( ma!matical & natural sci5ce _c be que/ion$2 & :o %all say to :at ext5t bo? are connect$ ) ontological1 psy*ological1 !ological1 & moral sci5ce8 ,! ext5d$ scale ov] :i* be+s are di/ribut$ may at fir/ sight seem to be an assemblage ( unconnect$ objects1 b se5 ) ! eyes ( sci5ce1 x is p]ceiv$ to be a delicately work$ *a91 ^: l9ks pres5t1 z we advance1 great] beauty & p]fection4 ,we see ! diff]5t realms ( nature unit$ by close relations3 ! sci5ces1 ( :i* !y are ! objects1 mutually borr[ ea* o!r's light1 & ent] on ea* o!r's t]ritory4 ,! complication ( objects among !mselves involves ?is complication ( sci5ce2 & ! unity ( ! laws impos$ ^u diff]5t ord]s ( be+s makes all sci5ces approa*1 & t5d to =m1 "o only sci5ce4 ,if x 7 giv5 u to see ! id5tity ( _! orig91 ! unity ( ! end & ! simplicity ( ! means1 we %\ld come into ! possession ( ! true transc5d5tal sci5ce1 ! only sci5ce :i* involves all o!rs1 or m correctly speak+1 ! only idea 9 :i* e ?+ is repres5t$ z x is1 & e ?+ se5 )\t any necessity ( comb9ation1 or ef=t ( any k9d1 j z a magnific5t l&scape1 its outl9es1 =m1 & colors are pictur$ on a p]fectly cle> mirror4 ,9 ! meantime1 we mu/ re/ satisfi$ ) %ad[s ( reality1 & mu/ see 9 ! in/9ctive t5d5cy ( our und]/&+ to simplify1 to r$uce e ?+ or make x approa* z mu* z possible to unity1 ! ann\ncem5t1 ! sign ( ?is s+le sci5ce1 ?is intuition ( ! "o inf9ite idea2 j z 9 ! desire = happ9ess :i* agitates our he>t1 ! ?ir/ aft] enjoym5t :i* torm5ts u we discov] a pro( t all is n end$ "h bel[1 & t our s\l has be5 creat$ = ! possession ( a good n to be atta9$ 9 ?is mortal life4 #ea4 ,if we comp>e m5 ) m51 & pay att5tion to ! "* ( g5ius1 ! mo/ elevat$ po9t ( human intellig5ce1 we %all see ! tru? ( :at has be5 said ( ! scale ( human be+s1 & ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,m5 ( true g5ius are di/+ui%$ by ! unity & ext5t ( _! conceptions4 ,if !y treat a difficult & complicat$ "q1 !y simplify x1 consid] x f a high po9t ( view1 & det]m9e "o g5]al idea :i* %$s light ^u all ! o!rs4 ,if !y h a difficulty to solve1 !y %[ ! root ( ! error1 & ) a ^w dispel all ! illusion ( sophi/ry4 ,if !y use syn!sis1 !y fir/ e/abli% ! pr9ciple :i* is to s]ve z its basis1 & ) "o da% trace ! road to be foll[$ 9 ord] to rea* ! wi%$-= result4 ,if !y make use ( analysis1 !y /rike 9 its secret resort ! po9t :]e decomposition is to comm5ce1 !y at once op5 ! object1 & reveal to u its mo/ obscure my/]ies4 ,if !re is "q ( a discov]y1 :ile o!rs are seek+ "h & !re1 !y /rike ! gr\nd ) _! foot1 & exclaim1 ! treasure is "h4 ,!y make no long argum5ts1 nor evasions2 _! ?\ghts are few b pregnant2 _! words are n _m1 b 9 ea* ( !m is set a pe>l ( ine/imable value4 #eb4 ,no d\bt !re is 9 ! intellectual ord] a s+le tru? f :i* all o!r tru?s emanate1 "o idea :i* includes all o!r ideas4 ,?is philosophy tea*es1 & ! ef=ts1 ! natural & in/9ctive t5d5cies ( e intellig5ce1 toil+ aft] simplicity & unity1 %[ x3 su* also is ! dictate ( common s5se1 :i* consid]s t ?\ght ! highe/ & mo/ noble :i* is ! mo/ compreh5sive & ! mo/ simple47#d7 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,transc5d5tal ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,human ,,intellectual ,,ord] ,,_c ,,emanate ,,f ,,! ,,s5ses4 #ec4 ,9 ! human intellectual ord]1 su* z x is 9 ?is life1 !re is no "o tru? f :i* all o!rs fl[3 philosoph]s h s\ght "o 9 va92 !y h f\nd none1 = !re 0 none to be f\nd4 ,9 fact1 :]e c\ld x be f\nd8 #ed4 ,w\ld x emanate f ! s5ses8 ,s5sations are z v>i\s z ! objects :i* produce !m3 by !m we acquire k ( individual & mat]ial ?+s2 b no "o tru?1 s\rce ( all o!r tru?s1 c be f\nd 9 any "o ( ^!1 or ! s5sations proce$+ f !m4 #ee4 ,if we obs]ve our impressions receiv$ ?r\gh s5sation1 we %all p]ceive t !y are all equal s f> z ! production ( c]ta9ty is conc]n$4 ,we are j z c]ta9 ( ! s5sation caus$ by any noise :atev]1 z we are ( t produc$ by an object :i* we see1 an odor\s body :i* we smell1 a savory morsel :i* we ta/e1 or any ?+ :i* /rongly affects our s5se ( t\*4 ,!re is no gradation 9 ! c]ta9ty produc$ by ^! s5sations3 !y are all equal2 = if we speak ( s5sation itself1 we exp]i5ce x 9 su* a mann] z to leave no unc]ta9ty2 & if we speak ( ! relation ( s5sation ) ! exi/5ce ( ! object caus+ x1 we are j z c]ta9 t ! s5sation call$ sight corresponds to an ext]nal object se51 z we are t an ext]nal object t\*$ corresponds to ! s5sation call$ t\*4 ,h5ce we inf] t no "o s5sation is ! orig9 ( ! c]ta9ty ( o!r s5sations2 9 ?is !y are all alike3 & mo/ m5 h no o!r reason ?an _! exp]i5ce :y !y %\ld be sure ( ?is c]ta9ty4 ,we are aw>e t :at happ5s to individuals f ^: eyes cat>acts h be5 remov$1 %[s t simple s5sation does n suffice = ! due appreciation ( ! object p]ceiv$1 & t "o s5se aids ano!r3 b ?is does n prove any "o ( !m to be pref]able2 = z ! bl9d man1 ^: sight 0 sudd5ly re/or$1 did n =m an exact judgm5t z to ! size & di/ance ( objects se5 by sight only1 b requir$ ! assi/ance ( t\*2 s is x v probable t if a p]son ( good eyesight _h be5 depriv$ f 8 bir? ( ! s5se ( t\*1 he w\ld n be able1 7 ?is s5se giv5 him sudd5ly1 to =m an exact judgm5t conc]n+ objects t\*$1 until1 by ! aid ( sight1 he _h become accu/om$ to comb9e ! new & ! old ord] ( s5sations1 & le>nt by practice to det]m9e ! relations ( s5sation ) its object1 or to "k by s5sation ! prop]ties ( its object4 #ef4 ,?is fact ( ! bl9d man is h[ev] contradict$ by o!rs :i* lead to a directly opposite result4 ,! y\?1 ^u :om ! oculi/1 ,jean ,jan91 p]=m$ ! same op]ation1 & o!r p]sons bl9d f _! bir?1 ^: eyesight ,luigi de' ,gregori p>tly re/or$1 did n1 l ! bl9d man ( ,*eseld51 deem ^! objects /uck to _! eyes1 b t !y saw !m z ?+s really ext]nal & sep>ate4 ,rosm9i ?us relates x1#c al?\gh he gives ! pref]5ce to ! ,*eseld5 case1 :i* he says 0 repeat$ 9 ,italy by ! pr(essor ,giacomo di ,pavia ) precisely ! same results4 #c ,saggio sull' orig9e delle idee1 p4 #e1 c4 iv41 tr4 #aa1 p4 #bhe1 :]e he cites ! !oretico-*emical obs]vations on ! cat>acts ( ^? born bl9d1 by ,luigi de' ,gregori1 pr(essor ( *emi/ry & op?almia1 publi%$ at ,rome 9 #ahbf4 #eg4 ,x is n easy to asc]ta9 h[ ?is comb9ation ( "o s5sation ) ano!r enables u to judge rightly ( ext]nal objects2 *iefly because ! developm5t ( our s5sitive & intellectual faculties is complet$ be=e we c reflect ^u x3 & ?us we f9d ourselves c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce & prop]ties ( ?+s be=e we h ?\ght ( c]ta9ty1 & mu* less ( ! means ( acquir+ x4 #eh4 ,b ev5 suppos+ u1 aft] occupy+ ourselves ) s5sations & _! relations ) objects1 to set aside ! c]ta9ty :i* we already h1 & to act z if we s\ght x1 we c f9d no "o s5sation ! basis ( ! c]ta9ty ( ! o!r s5sations4 ,we %\ld meet 9 t all ! difficulties to be enc\nt]$ 9 ! o!rs4 #ei4 ,"o ( ! *ief difficulties ^u ?is po9t is to det]m9e ! relations ( ! s5se ( sight ) t ( t\*1 & h[ f> ! "o dep5ds ^u ! o!r4 ,we propose h]eaft] to exam9e ^! que/ions at "s l5g?1 & we %all !re=e n[ refra9 f ent]+ ^u !m1 z well because !y are n ( a "* to be incid5tally inve/igat$1 z because :atev] _! solution1 x is n at all oppos$ to :at we %all "h e/abli%4 #fj4 ,x w\ld be ( no advantage to u to "k t ! c]ta9ty ( all s5sations 01 philosophically speak+1 f\nd$ ^u t ( "s "o s5sation4 ,e s5sation is a cont+5t1 individual fact3 h[ !n are we to draw f x light to guide u to necess>y tru?s8 ,no matt] "u :at aspect we consid] s5sation1 x is only an impression receiv$ ?r\gh our organs4 ,we are sure ( ! impression because x is intimately pres5t to our m9d2 & its repetition aid$ by o!r s5sations1 :e!r ( ! same or ano!r s5se1 makes u c]ta9 ( its relations ) ! object produc+ x3 b e ?+ is done in/9ctively1 ) little or no reflection2 & we are always condemn$1 h[ev] mu* we reflect1 to rea* a po9t beyond :i* we _c pass1 = nature h]self !re /ops u4 #fa4 ,f> !n f f9d+ 9 any s5sation a fundam5tal fact on :i* to f\nd a philosophical c]ta9ty1 we discov] a collection ( p>ticul> & mutually di/9ct facts1 equal1 h[ev]1 s f> z ! production 9 u ( t security :i* we call c]ta9ty is conc]n$4 ,x is ( no use to decompose man1 & r$uce him fir/ to an inanimate ma*9e1 !n all[ him "o s5se1 mak+ him p]ceive diff]5t s5sations1 aft]w>ds grant him ano!r s5se1 mak+ him comb9e ! new & ! old s5sations1 & s on syn!tically to ! possession & ex]cise ( !m all4 ,^! ?+s may d to ent]ta9 "o's curiosity1 to n\ri% philosophical pret5sions1 or to give a %[ ( probability to imag9>y sy/ems2 b !y are 9 reality ( little or no use2 ! evolutions :i* ! obs]v] imag9es d n resemble ^? ( nature2 & ! true philosoph] ought to exam9e :at really is1 n :at is only 9 8 conception4 ,condillac1 animat+ 8 /atue by degrees1 & mak+ ! :ole sum ( human k fl[ f "o s5sation1 is l ^? prie/s :o got inside ! /atue ( ! idol1 & !nce emitt$ _! oracles4 ,x is n ! /atue :i* receives animation1 t speaks & ?9ks1 x is ,condillac f )9 x4 ,let u1 h[ev]1 grant to ! s5si/ all he dem&s2 let u all[ him to regulate z he pleases ! mutual dep5d5ce ( s5sations2 = ! in/ant we require him to make use only ( pure s5sations 9 8 discussions1 he w be utt]ly disconc]t$1 h[ mu* soev] he may suppose !m to be trans=m$4 ,b we res]ve ^! que/ions to ! place 9 :i* we %all exam9e ! nature & orig9 ( ideas4 #fb4 ,:y are we sure t ! agreeable s5sation :i* we exp]i5ce 9 our s5se ( smell proce$s f an object call$ a rose8 ,because we recollect hav+ exp]i5c$ ! same s5sation on a ?\s& o!r occasions2 because bo? sight & t\* confirm ! te/imony ( smell4 ,b h[ d we "k t ^! s5sations are some?+ beside ! impressions receiv$ 9 our s\l8 ,:y may we n believe !m to come f "s cause or o!r1 )\t relation to ext]nal causes8 ,is x because o!r m5 say ! contr>y8 ,are we c]ta9 t !y exi/8 ,h[ d !y "k :at !y tell u8 ,h[ d we "k t we he> rightly8 ,!re is ! same difficulty ) ! o!r s5ses z ) t ( he>+1 & if we d\bt ! te/imony ( ?ree s5ses1 :y %all we n d\bt t ( f\r8 ,reason+ is "h ( no avail2 x w\ld lead u to cavils :i* w\ld require an impassible d\bt1 & w\ld te> f u a security1 ( :i*1 not)/&+ all our ef=ts1 we _c despoil ourselves4 ,moreov]1 if we appeal to ! pr9ciples ( reason1 9 ord] to prove ! tru? ( s5sation1 we leave ! t]ritory ( s5sations1 & d n place 9 !m ! primitive tru?1 orig9 ( all o!r tru?s1 nor accompli% :at we und]took4 #fc4 ,h5ce x foll[s3 ,fir/1 t !re is no "o s5sation :i* is ! orig9 ( ! c]ta9ty ( all o!rs2 ?is we h only indicat$ "h1 res]v+ ! demon/ration ( x to our treatise on s5sations4 ,secondly1 al?\gh su* a s5sation 7 to exi/1 x c\ld n s]ve z ! basis ( any ?+ 9 ! intellectual ord]1 = ) s5sation alone x is impossible ev5 to ?9k4 ,?irdly1 t s5sations1 s f> f be+ able to s]ve z ! basis ( transc5d5tal sci5ce1 _c s]ve ( !mselves alone to e/abli% any sci5ce2 because necess>y tru?s _c fl[ f !m1 s9ce !y are cont+5t facts47#e7 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,transc5d5tal ,,sci5ce4--,,insuffici5cy ,,( ,,real ,,tru?s4 #fd4 ,we h ?\ght prop] briefly to refute ,condillac's sy/em1 n on acc\nt ( its intr9sic importance1 or because x 0 n be=e 9 suffici5tly bad repute1 b 9 ord] to cle> ! field = high] & m /rictly philosophical discussions4 ,we %\ld n omit to gu>d philosophy aga9/ ! prejudice ca/ ^u x by a sy/em z va9 z x is pr(itless4 ,all t is mo/ sublime 9 ! sci5ce ( ! m9d disappe>s ) ! /atue-man & trans=m$ s5sations3 we v9dicate ! rights ( human reason by %[+ t be=e ent]+ ^u m transc5d5tal que/ions x is indisp5sable to disc>d ,condillac's sy/em2 j z x is necess>y be=e mak+ a good road to cle> away ! bru%wood :i* ob/ructs ! passage4 #fe4 ,we come n[ to ! pro( t 9 ! human intellectual ord]1 su* z x is 9 ?is life1 !re is no "o tru? ! s\rce ( all tru?s2 because no "o tru? includes !m all4 ,tru?s are ( two k9ds1 real & ideal4 ,we call facts1 or :atev] exi/s1 real tru?s2 we call ! necess>y connection ( ideas ideal tru?s4 ,a real tru? may be express$ by ! v]b to be1 tak5 sub/antively1 or at lea/ x supposes a proposition 9 :i* ?is v]b has be5 tak5 9 ?is s5se3 an ideal tru? is express$ by ! same v]b tak5 copulatively1 z signify+ ! necess>y relation ( a pr$icate ) a subject1 ab/ract+ x1 h[ev]1 f bo?4 ,we are1 t is1 we exi/1 expresses a real tru?1 a fact4 ,:oev] ?9ks exi/s1 expresses an ideal tru?1 = x does n affirm t !re is any "o :o ?9ks or exi/s1 b t if !re is any "o :o ?9ks1 he exi/s2 or1 9 o!r words1 x affirms a necess>y relation betwe5 ?\ght & be+4 ,to real tru?s corresponds ! real _w1 ! _w ( exi/5ces2 to ideal tru?s ! logical _w1 t ( possibility4 ,! v]b to be1 is sometimes tak5 copulatively1 al?\gh ! relation express$ by x be n necess>y3 su* is ! case ) all cont+5t propositions1 & :5 ! pr$icate does n belong to ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,sometimes ! necessity is conditional1 t is1 x supposes a fact2 & !n !re is no absolute necessity1 s9ce ! suppos$ fact is always cont+5t4 ,:5 we speak ( ideal tru?s1 we ref] to ^? t express an absolute necess>y relation1 ab/ract+ x f all ord] ( exi/5ce2 & on ! o!r h&1 we und]/& by real tru?s all ^? t suppose a proposition 9 :i* a fact has be5 e/abli%$4 ,to ?is class belong ! tru?s ( natural sci5ce1 = !y all suppose "s fact :i* is ! object ( obs]vation4 #ff4 ,no real f9ite tru? c be ! orig9 ( all o!rs4 ,tru? ( ?is k9d is ! expression ( a p>ticul> cont+5t fact1 & consequ5tly c nei!r include o!r real tru?s or ! _w ( exi/5ces1 nor ideal tru?s :i* ref] only to necess>y relations 9 ! _w ( possibility4 #fg4 ,7 we to see intuitively inf9ite exi/5ce1 cause ( all exi/5ces1 we %\ld "k a real tru?1 orig9 ( all o!rs2 b z we "k ?is inf9ite exi/5ce only by discursion & n by intuition1 x foll[s t we d n "k ! fact ( t exi/5ce 9 :i* ! reason ( all o!r exi/5ces is conta9$4 ,nei!r is x possible = u1 aft] hav+ by means ( discursion rea*$ ?is cognition1 to expla9 f ?is po9t ( view ! exi/5ce ( ! f9ite by ! sole exi/5ce ( ! inf9ite2 = if we ab/ract ! exi/5ce ( ! f9ite1 ! discursion1 by :i* we atta9$ to ! cognition ( ! inf9ite1 disappe>s1 & !n our :ole sci5tific fabric tumbles to ! gr\nd4 ,demon/rate to a man by means ( discursion ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 & require him1 sett+ aside ! po9t ( dep>ture1 & dep5d+ ^u ! sole idea ( ! inf9ite1 to expla9 n only ! possibility1 b also ! reality ( creation2 & he _c d x4 ,if he only sets aside ! f9ite all 8 reason+ fails1 & no ef=t c prev5t its fail+2 he is l an ar*itect :o1 aft] hav+ built a sup]b cupola1 is requir$ to support x al?\gh ! f\ndations ( ! edifice are remov$4 #fh4 ,take any real tru? :atev]1 ! pla9e/ & mo/ c]ta9 fact1 & yet we c d]ive no?+ f x if ideal tru? comes n to fecundate x4 ,we exi/1 we ?9k1 we feel2 ^! are indubitable facts1 b sci5ce c d$uce no?+ f !m2 !y are p>ticul> cont+5t facts1 ^: exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce nei!r affects o!r facts nor rea*es ! _w ( ideas4 ,^! tru?s are ( ! purely s5sible ord]1 h n ( !mselves any relation ) ! ord] ( sci5ce1 nor c !y be elevat$ to x if n comb9$ ) ideal tru?s4 ,desc>tes1 :5 he br\ght =w>d ! fact ( ?\ght & exi/5ce1 driv5 z he 0 by 8 attempt to raise a sci5tific edifice1 pass$ unaw>es f ! real to ! ideal ord]4 ,i ?9k1 he said2 & _h he /opp$ "h he w\ld h r$uc$ 8 philosophy to a simple intuition ( consci\sness2 b he wi%$ to g f>!r1 he wi%$ to reason1 & !n ( necessity avail$ himself ( an ideal tru?3 :oev] ?9ks exi/s4 ,?us ) a univ]sal & necess>y tru? he fecundat$ 8 individual & cont+5t fact2 & z he ne$$ "s rule to guide him 9 8 onw>d m>*1 he s\ght "o 9 ! admissibility ( ! evid5ce ( ideas4 ,& ?us also we see h[ ?is philosoph]1 :o s toil$ 9 se>* ( unity1 came all at once 9 contact ) triplicity3 a fact1 an objective tru?1 a crit]ion3 a fact 9 ! consci\sness ( ! subject2 an objective tru? 9 ! necess>y relation ( ?\ght ) exi/5ce2 a crit]ion 9 ! admissibility ( ! evid5ce ( ideas4 ,we may defy all ! philosoph]s 9 ! _w to reason ^u any fact :atev] )\t ! aid ( ideal tru?4 ,we %all f9d 9 all facts ! same /]ility z 9 ! fact ( consci\sness4 ,?is is no conjecture1 b a rigid demon/ration4 ,only "o exi/5ce conta9s ! reason ( all o!r exi/5ces2 if1 !n1 we d n imm$iately & intuitively "k x1 we _c discov] any "o real tru?1 orig9 ( all o!rs4 #fi4 ,ev5 suppos+ !re to be 9 ! ord] ( creation a fact ( su* a nature1 t ! :ole univ]se is only a simple developm5t ( x1 we %\ld n !re=e h f\nd ! real tru? s\rce ( all sci5ce1 = x w\ld n enable u to make any advance t[>ds ! _w ( possibility1 ! ideal ord]1 inf9itely sup]ior to t ( f9ite exi/5ces4 ,if we suppose ! progress ( natural sci5ce to lead to ! discov]y ( a s+le1 simple law1 :i* presides ov] ! developm5t ( all o!rs1 & ! application ( :i*1 v>i$ accord+ to circum/ances1 is a suffici5t reason ( all ! ph5om5a n[ ref]r$ to _m & v complicat$ laws2 ?is w\ld1 )\t d\bt1 be an imm5se progress 9 sci5ces ! object ( :i* is ! visible _w2 b :at w\ld x give u to "k ( ! _w ( intellig5ces8 ,:at ( ! _w ( possibility87#f7 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,me ,,_c ,,produce ,,transc5d5tal ,,sci5ce4 #gj4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness is sure & irresi/ible1 b x has no connection ) t ( evid5ce4 ,! object ( ! "o is a p>ticul> & cont+5t fact2 t ( ! o!r1 a necess>y tru?4 ,t ,i n[ ?9k1 is to me absolutely c]ta92 b ?is ?\ght ( m9e is n a necess>y b a decid$ly cont+5t tru?2 = ,i might nev] h ?\ght1 or ev5 exi/$3 x is a purely individual fact1 is conf9$ to me1 & its exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce 9 n[ise affects univ]sal tru?s4 ,consci\sness is an an*or1 n a beacon3 x saves ! und]/&+ f %ipwreck1 b does n light x on its way2 9 ! assaults ( univ]sal d\bt1 consci\sness is at h& to %ield x f de/ruction2 b if ask$ to direct u1 x gives u only p>ticul> facts4 ,^! facts h no sci5tific value1 except :5 made objective1 or r1 :5 ! m9d1 reflect+ ^u !m1 ba!s !m 9 ! light ( necess>y tru?s4 ,we ?9k1 we feel1 we are free2 ^! are facts2 b ( !mselves !y are b>r54 ,if we w\ld fecundate !m1 we mu/ take !m z a k9d ( mat]ial ( univ]sal tru?s4 ,?\ght becomes immovable1 x congeals1 if depriv$ ( ! impulse ( ^! ideas2 s5sation is common to u & ! brutes2 & lib]ty1 )\t comb9ation ( motives pres5t$ by reason1 has no object1 no life4 #ga4 ,"h we discov] ! cause ( ! obscurity & /]ility ( ,g]man philosophy s9ce ,fi*te4 ,kant fix$ himself ^u ! subject1 )\t1 h[ev]1 de/roy+ objectivity 9 ! int]nal _w2 & !re=e 8 philosophy1 al?\gh conta9+ _m errors1 (f]s to ! m9d "s lum9\s po9ts3 b ,fi*te w5t f>!r1 plant$ himself ^u ! me1 & made no use ( objectivity1 save :5 x 0 necess>y to ! m solid e/abli%m5t ( a fact ( consci\sness2 & s he f\nd only realms ( d>kness & contradiction4 ,m5 ( gift$ m9ds h labor$ 9 va9 to make "s ray ( light emanate f a po9t condemn$ to obscurity4 ,! s\l sees itself 9 its own acts2 & t x pres5ts imm$iately to itself facts conduc+ to its own cognition is ! only title x has1 m ?an o!r be+s di/9ct f x1 to be conceiv$ by itself4 ,:at w\ld x "k 7 x n to p]ceive its own ?\ght1 its w1 & ! ex]cise ( all its faculties8 ,h[ is x to discuss its own nature1 if n f data furni%$ by ! te/imony ( its own acts8 ,! me !n does n see itself intuitively2 is (f]$ to itself only m$iately1 by its acts2 t is1 s f> z x is kn[n1 x is 9 ! same category z all o!r ext]nal be+s1 :i* are all kn[n by _! effects ^u u4 ,! me 9 itself consid]$1 is n a lum9\s po9t2 x supports ! fabric ( reason1 b is n ! rule accord+ to :i* x is to be con/ruct$4 ,! true light is f\nd 9 objectivity1 = x is prop]ly ! object ( k4 ,! me c nei!r be kn[n nor ?\ght1 save inasmu* z x makes itself its own object1 & consequ5tly places itself on a level ) o!r be+s subject to intellectual activity1 :i* op]ates only by virtue ( objective tru?s4 #gb4 ,intellig5ce _c be conceiv$ )\t at lea/ int]nal objects2 b if ! und]/&+ d n conceive relations & consequ5tly tru?s 9 !m1 !y w be /]ile4 ,^! tru?s w h no connection1 w be isolat$ facts1 if !y involve no necessity2 & ev5 ^? relations :i* ref] to p>ticul> facts furni%$ by exp]i5ce w n be susceptible ( any comb9ation if !y d n1 at lea/ conditionally1 involve "s necessity4 ,! brilliancy ( ! light 9 ! room :]e ,i n[ write is 9 itself a p>ticul>1 cont+5t fact1 & sci5ce1 z su*1 _c make x its object except by subject+ ! movem5t ( ! light to geometrical laws1 t is1 to necess>y tru?s4 ,sci5ce !n may f9d a re/+-po9t 9 ! me itself z subject1 b no po9t ( dep>ture4 ,! individual is ( no s]vice to ! univ]sal1 nor ! cont+5t to ! necess>y4 ,assur$ly !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z ! individual ,a's sci5ce1 if ! individual ,a himself did n exi/2 b ! sci5ce :i* /&s 9 ne$ ( ! individual subject is n sci5ce prop]ly s call$1 b ! collection ( individual acts by :i* ! individual p]ceives sci5ce4 ,?is collection ( acts is n ! sci5ce p]ceiv$1 :i* is some?+ common to all intellects1 & does n ne$ ?is or t individual3 ! fund ( tru?s con/itut+ sci5ce does n spr+ f ?is collection ( individual acts1 p>ticul> facts1 :i* are lo/ l m9ute/ drops 9 ! ocean ( intellig5ce4 ,h[ !n c sci5ce be bas$ solely ^u ! subjective me8 ,h[ c ! object be made to spr+ f ?is subject8 ,consci\sness has no connection ) sci5ce1 except 9 s f> z x furni%es facts to :i* we may apply objective1 univ]sal1 & necess>y pr9ciples1 indep5d5t ( all f9ite individuality1 con/itut+ ! patrimony ( human reason1 b n requir+ ! exi/5ce ( any man4 #gc4 ,no analysis ( ! facts ( consci\sness w produce ! orig9 ( ! lights ( sci5ce4 ,su* an act w\ld be ei!r direct or reflex4 ,if direct1 its value is objective n subjective1 ! act does n f\nd sci5ce1 b ! tru? p]ceiv$1 n ! subject b ! object1 n ! me1 b t :i* is se5 by ! me4 ,if reflex1 x supposes ano!r previ\s act1 to wit1 ! object ( reflection1 :i* is primitive1 & n ! act4 ,nei!r is ! comb9ation ( ! direct ) ! reflex act ( any s]vice to sci5ce1 except z connect$ ) necess>y & objective tru?s1 :i* are indep5d5t ( ! subject4 ,an act individually consid]$1 is an int]nal ph5om5on1 :i*1 ap>t f objective tru?s1 tea*es u no?+4 ,x has1 inde$1 a sci5tific value1 if consid]$ "u ! g5]al ideas ( be+1 cause1 effect1 pr9ciple or product ( activity1 modification1 or its relations ) its subject1 :i* is ! sub/ratum ( o!r simil> acts2 t is1 if x be consid]$ z a p>ticul> case1 compris$ 9 ! g5]al ideas z a cont+5t ph5om5on1 to be appreciat$ by ! help ( necess>y tru?s1 z an exp]im5tal fact to :i* a !ory may be appli$4 ,! reflex act is only a cognition ( a cognition1 feel+1 or "s o!r int]nal ph5om5on2 & !re=e all reflection ^u consci\sness presupposes a prior direct act4 ,! object ( ?is direct act is n ! me2 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! cognition !re=e is n ! me1 z ! object kn[n1 b only z ! necess>y condition1 s9ce !re _c be ?\ght )\t a ?9k+ subject4 #gd4 ,^! consid]ations de/roy ! v f\ndations ( ! sy/em ( ,fi*te1 & t ( all :o take ! human me z _! po9t ( dep>ture on ! voyage ( sci5ce4 ,! me1 9 itself1 is n pres5t$ to u2 we "k x only by its acts2 & h]e9 x p>ticipates ( a quality ( o!r objects1 ! ess5ce ( :i* is n imm$iately (f]$ to u1 b only :at emanates f x by ! ex]cise ( _! activity ^u u4 ,?us guid$ by objective & necess>y tru?s1 :i* are ! laws ( our und]/&+1 ! type ( ! relations ( be+s1 & consequ5tly a sure /&>d ( !m1 we asc5d by reason+ to ! cognition ( ?+s !mselves4 ,we "k t our m9d is simple1 because x ?9ks1 :]eas ! composite1 ! multiplex _c ?9k4 ,x is ?us we "k ! me4 ,we are consci\s ( its ?9k+ activity1 & ?is is ! mat]ial furni%$ by ! fact1 b !n comes ! pr9ciple1 ! objective tru? to illum9e ! fact1 & %[ ! repugnance betwe5 ?\ght & composition1 & ! necess>y connection betwe5 simplicity & consci\sness4 ,^u exam9ation1 ?is reason+ w be f\nd to apply n only to ! me1 b to e ?9k+ be+2 & ?is is :y we c ext5d our demon/ration to all su* be+s3 ! me1 !re=e1 :i* applies ?is tru?1 does n create1 x only kn[s x1 & kn[s itself to be a p>ticul> case compris$ 9 ! g5]al rule4 #ge4 ,to pret5d t tru? has its s\rce 9 ! subjective me1 is to beg9 by suppos+ ! me to be an absolute1 inf9ite be+1 ! orig9 ( all tru?s1 & ! reason ( all be+s2 :i* is equival5t to mak+ philosophy comm5ce by deify+ ! human und]/&+4 ,b z "o individual has no m "r to ?is deification ?an ano!r1 to admit x is to e/abli% a rational pan!ism1 :i*1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 is ne>ly1 if n q1 id5tical ) absolute pan!ism4 ,if we suppose individual reason to be only a ph5om5on ( ! "o absolute reason1 & consequ5tly :at we call spirits n to be true sub/ances1 b modifications ( a s+le _s1 & ea* p>ticul> consci\sness to be only a manife/ation ( ! univ]sal consci\sness1 we c !n conceive :y ! s\rce ( all tru? is s\ght 9 ! me1 & :y we int]rogate our own consci\sness z a k9d ( oracle ?r\gh :i* ! univ]sal consci\sness speaks4 ,b ! difficulty is t su* a supposition is gratuit\s1 & t !y :o ?us seek ! reason ( all tru?s1 beg9 by e/abli%+ ! mo/ incompreh5sible & absurd ( propositions4 ,:o w p]suade u t our consci\sness is only ! modification ( ano!r8 ,:o w make u believe t :at we call ! me is common to all m51 to all intellig5t be+s1 & t ! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m is ! diff]5ce ( ! modifications ( "o absolute be+8 ,:y1 !n1 is n ?is absolute be+ consci\s ( e consci\sness :i* x comprises8 ,:y does x n "k t :i* x conta9s1 & by :i* x is modifi$8 ,:y does x believe itself multiplex1 if inde$ x be "o8 ,:]e is ! bond ( ?is multiplicity8 ,if ea* p>ticul> consci\sness 7 only a modification1 w\ld x pres]ve its unity1 & a connect$ s]ies ( all t happ5s to x1 :5 ?is s]ies1 ?is unity is want+ to ! sub/ance :i* x modifies8 #gf4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 n ev5 by suppos+ pan!ism1 c ! fri5ds ( subjective philosophy at all advance _! pret5sions4 ,) pan!ism !y legitimate1 s to speak1 _! pret5sion1 b d n realize x4 ,!y call !mselves gods1 & z su*1 h a reason = ! s\rce ( tru? be+ 9 !m2 b z !re is 9 _! consci\sness only "o app>ition ( _! div9ity only "o phase ( ! orb ( light1 !y c only see 9 x :at x pres5ts to !m2 & _! div9ity f9ds itself subject$ to c]ta9 laws :i* make x impossible = x to give ! light dem&$ by philosophy4 #gg4 ,if we int]rogate our consci\sness ^u necess>y tru?s1 we %all p]ceive t1 f> f pret5d+ to f\nd or to create !m1 x bo? kn[s & confesses !m to be indep5d5t ( itself4 ,if1 ?9k+ ( ?is proposition3 ,x is impossible = a ?+ to be1 & n be at ! same "t2 we ask ourselves if ! tru? ( ?is orig9ates 9 our ?\ght1 consci\sness at once answ]s t x does n4 ,! proposition 0 true be=e our consci\sness exi/$2 & %\ld x n[ cease to exi/1 ! proposition w\ld /ill be true2 true1 also1 :5 we d n ?9k ( x3 ! s\l is z an eye :i* contemplates ! sun1 b is n1 !re=e1 necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ! sun4 #gh4 ,ano!r consid]ation demon/rates ! /]ility ( all philosophy :i* seeks 9 ! me alone ! sole & univ]sal orig9 ( human k4 ,e cognition requires an object2 purely subjective cognition is inconceivable2 al?\gh we suppose ! subject & object to be id5tifi$1 duality ( relation1 real or conceiv$1 is /ill necess>y2 t is1 ! subject z kn[n mu/ /& 9 a c]ta9 opposition1--opposition at lea/ conceiv$1--) itself z subject kn[+4 ,n[1 :at is ! object s\ght 9 ! primitive act8 ,is x some?+ n ! subject8 ,!n ! philosophy ( ! subject falls into ! curr5t ( o!r philosophies1 s9ce 9 ?is some?+ :i* is n ! subject are objective tru?s4 ,is x ! subject itself8 ,!n we ask1 is x ! subject 9 itself or 9 its acts2 if ! subject 9 its acts1 !n ! philosophy is r$uc$ to ideological analysis1 & has no special *>act]i/ic2 if ! subject 9 itself1 we say x is n kn[n intuitively1 & lea/ ( all c !y :o call x ! absolute pret5d to ?is cognition2 x is = !m ev5 m ?an = o!rs a d>k abyss4 ,9 va9 w y /oop ov] ?is abyss1 & %\t = tru?2 ! dull rumbl+ :i* rea*es y\r e>s is only ! e*o ( y\r own voice2 ! pr(\nd cav]n rolls back to y only y\r own words /ill m holl[ & my/]i\s4 #gi4 ,em95t among ! philosoph]s mo/ giv5 to empty cavils is ! au?or ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,sci5ce1 ,fi*te1 ( ^: sy/em ,madame de ,/al +5u\sly rem>k$1 t x v mu* resembl$ ! awak5+ ( ,pygmalion's /atue f sleep1 :i*1 turn+ alt]nately to itself & to its p$e/al said1 ,i am1 ,i am n4 ,fi*te says1 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w entitl$ ,doctr9e ( ,sci5ce1 t he proposes to seek ! mo/ absolute pr9ciple1 ! absolutely uncondition$ pr9ciple ( all human k4 ,?is 8 me?od is errone\s3 he beg9s by suppos+ :at is unkn[n1 & does n ev5 suspect t !re may be a true multiplicity 9 ! basis ( human cognitions4 ,we believe t !re may be1 & t !re really is su* a multiplicity1 t ! s\rces ( our k are v>i\s1 & ( diff]5t ord]s1 & t we _c r$uce !m to unity )\t leav+ man & asc5d+ to ,god4 ,we repeat x1 ?is equivocation has become exce$+ly g5]al1 & its only result has be5 uselessly to fatigue inquir+ m9ds or to drive !m to extravagant sy/ems4 ,few philosoph]s h toil$ h>d] ?an ,fi*te aft] ?is absolute pr9ciple2 & yet1 to speak pla9ly1 he accompli%es no?+2 he ei!r repeats ,desc>tes' pr9ciple1 or amuses himself ) a play ^u words4 ,we feel pity at see+ him labor s e>ne/ly to s little purpose4 ,we beg ! read] to foll[ u ) pati5ce 9 our exam9ation ( ! ,g]man philosoph]'s doctr9e1 n ) ! hope ( f9d+ a ?read to s]ve z a clue to ! ,ddalus ( philosophy1 b 9 ord] to judge1 ) a k ( ! cause1 doctr9es :i* h made s mu* noise 9 ! _w4 ,if ?is pr9ciple1 says ,fi*te1 is absolutely ! fir/1 x c nei!r be def9$ nor demon/rat$4 ,x mu/ express ! act1 :i* nei!r is nor c be pres5t$ among ! empirical det]m9ations ( our consci\sness1 b r lies at ! bottom ( all consci\sness1 & alone makes consci\sness possible4#d #d ,wiss5s*aftslehre1 ,?4 #a1 #a4 ,)\t any antec$5t1 or any reason1 )\t ev5 tak+ ! tr\ble to %[ on :at he bases x1 ,fi*te assures u t ! fir/ pr9ciple mu/ express an act4 ,:y may x n be an objective tru?8 ,?is1 at lea/1 w\ld h des]v$ "s att5tion1 = all prec$+ s*ools1 ! ,c>tesian includ$1 locat$ ! fir/ pr9ciple among objective tru?s1 n among acts4 ,desc>tes himself ne$$ an objective tru? 9 ord] to e/abli% ! fact ( ?\ght & exi/5ce4 ,:oev] ?9ks exi/s1 or1 9 o!r words1 :oev] does n exi/ _c ?9k4 #hj4 ,?is la/ rem>k %[s "o ( ! radical vices affect+ ! doctr9e ( ,fi*te & o!r ,g]mans1 :o attribute an altoge!r unm]it$ importance to subjective philosophy4 ,!y accuse o!rs ( too easily mak+ ! transition f ! subject to ! object1 b =get t !y1 at ! same "t pass1 unau?oris$ by any reason or title1 f objective ?\ght to ! pure subject4 ,conf9+ ourselves to ! passage ( ,fi*te j cit$1 :at1 we ask1 w an act be :i* nei!r is nor c be pres5t$ among ! empirical det]m9ations ( our consci\sness8 ,! pr9ciple 9 "q is n exempt$ f be+ kn[n because x is absolute2 = if we d n "k x1 we _c ass]t t x is absolute2 & if x is n1 & _c be pres5t$ among ! empirical det]m9ations ( our consci\sness1 x nei!r is nor c be kn[n4 ,man kn[s n t :i* is n pres5t 9 8 consci\sness4 ,! absolute pr9ciple ^u :i* all consci\sness re/s1 & :i* makes x possible1 ei!r does or does n belong to consci\sness4 ,if ! =m]1 x is liable to all ! difficulties affect+ ! o!r acts ( consci\sness2 if ! latt]1 x _c be ! object ( obs]vation1 & !re=e we c "k no?+ ( x4 ,fi*te confesses t 9 ord] to arrive at ! primitive act1 & sep>ate f x all t does n really belong to x1 we mu/ suppose ! rules ( all reflection to be valid1 & />t ) "s "o ( ! _m univ]sally admitt$ propositions4 ,conc$+ u1 he says1 ?is proposition1 y mu/1 at ! same "t1 conc$e z act t :i* we desire to place z ! pr9ciple ( ! :ole ,doctr9e ( ,sci5ce2 & ! result ( ! reflection mu/ be t ?is act is conc$$ to u z ! pr9ciple toge!r ) ! proposition4 ,we take any fact ( empirical consci\sness1 & /rip x "o aft] ano!r ( all its empirical det]m9ations1 until r$uc$ to all its purity x conta9s t only :i* ?\ght _c absolutely exclude1 & f :i* no?+ fur!r c be tak54#e #e ,ibid4 ,^! words %[ t ! ,g]man philosoph] propos$ asc5d+ to a p]fectly pure & :olly indet]m9ate act ( consci\sness1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is impossible4 ,ei!r he takes ! act 9 a v broad s5se1 & und]/&s by x ! sub/ratum ( all consci\sness1 9 :i* case he only expresses 9 o!r words ! idea ( sub/ance2 or else he speaks ( an act prop]ly s call$1 t is1 ( "s ex]cise ( t activity1 t spontaneity :i* we feel )9 ourselves2 & 9 ?is s5se ! act ( consci\sness _c be sep>at$ f all det]m9ation )\t de/roy+ its individuality & exi/5ce4 ,man _c ?9k )\t ?9k+ some?+1 desire )\t desir+ some?+1 feel )\t feel+ some?+1 or reflect ^u int]nal acts )\t fix+ 8 reflection ^u some?+4 ,!re is "s det]m9ation 9 e act ( consci\sness3 an act p]fectly pure1 ab/ract$ f e ?+1 & :olly indet]m9ate1 is impossible1 absolutely impossible2 subjectively1 because ! act ( consci\sness1 al?\gh consid]$ 9 ! subject1 requires "s det]m9ation2 objectively1 because su* an act is inconceivable z individual1 & consequ5tly z exi/+1 s9ce x (f]s no?+ det]m9ate to ! m9d4 #ha4 ,fi*te's indet]m9ate act is only ! idea ( act 9 g5]al4 ,he imag9$ he _h made a great discov]y :5 he conceiv$ no?+ 9 ! gr\ndwork b ! pr9ciple ( act1 t is1 ! idea ( sub/ance appli$ to t active be+ ^: exi/5ce consci\sness itself makes kn[n to u4 ,if we may be all[$ to say c&idly :at we ?9k1 our op9ion is1 t ,fi*te1 ) all 8 analytical inve/igations1 has n advanc$ philosophy "o /ep t[>ds ! discov]y ( ! fir/ pr9ciple4 ,we see f :at has already be5 said h[ easy x is to /op him by simply dem&+ an acc\nt ( ! suppositions made on ! fir/ page ( 8 book4 ,/ill1 wi%+1 z we d1 to oppose him ) all fairness1 we w n take up 8 ideas )\t all[+ him to expla9 !m himself4 ,e "o admits ! proposition3 ,a is ,a2 j z t ,a ,a1 because su* is ! mean+ ( ! logical copula2 & inde$ )\t ! lea/ delib]ation we p]ceive & affirm its complete c]ta9ty4 ,%\ld any "o ask a demon/ration ( x1 we %\ld by no means give any1 b %\ld ma9ta9 t ! proposition is absolutely c]ta91 t is1 )\t any fur!r f\ndation4 ,?us inconte/ibly proce$+ ) g5]al cons5t1 we claim ! "r to suppose some?+ absolutely4 ,we d n1 9 affirm+ ! prec$+ proposition to be c]ta9 9 itself1 suppose t ,a is4 ,! proposition ,a is ,a1 is n equival5t to ?is3 ,a is1 or1 !re is an ,a4 7,to be plac$ )\t a pr$icate has an entirely diff]5t mean+ f to be ) a pr$icate1 :]e( m h]eaft]47 ,if we make ,a d5ote a space conta9$ betwe5 two /raight l9es1 ! proposition rema9s exact1 al?\gh ! proposition1 ,a is1 be evid5tly false4 ,b1 we ass]t3 if ,a is1 ,a is ?us4 ,! "q is 9 no wise :e!r ,a is 9 g5]al or n4 ,! "q is n ( ! cont5ts ( ! proposition1 b only ( its =m2 n :]e( we "k some?+1 b :at we "k ( any object :atev]4 ,consequ5tly1 by ! above ass]tion1 t ! proposition is absolutely c]ta91 ?is is e/abli%$1 t betwe5 ! if & ! ?us !re is a necess>y connection2 & x is ?is necess>y connection betwe5 bo? :i* is suppos$ absolutely & )\t o!r f\ndation4 ,i call ?is necess>y connection provisionally ,x4 ,all ?is %[ ( analysis am\nts only to :at e logical /ud5t kn[s1 t 9 e proposition ! copula1 or ! v]b to be1 d5otes n ! exi/5ce ( ! subject1 b its relation to ! pr$icate4 ,!re 0 no ne$ ( s _m words to tell u s simple a ?+1 nor ( su* affect$ ef=ts ( ! und]/&+ 9 treat+ ( an id5tical proposition4 ,b let u arm ourselves ) pati5ce1 & cont9ue to li/5 to ! ,g]man philosoph]3 ,b to return to ,a itself1 :e!r ,a is or n2 no?+ is z yet affirm$ !reon4 ,! "q !n occurs3 "u :at condition is ,a8 ,x at lea/ is suppos$ 9 & by ! me1 = x is ! me :i* judges 9 ! above proposition1 & inde$ judges by ,x z by a law1 :i* consequ5tly be+ giv5 to ! me1 & by x e/abli%$ absolutely & )\t o!r f\ndation1 mu/ !re=e be giv5 to ! me by ! me itself4 #hb4 ,:at does all ?is ,sanscrit mean8 ,we w translate x into ,engli%3 9 id5tical or equival5t propositions !re is a relation :i* ! m9d kn[s1 judges1 & accord+ to :i* x decides ^u ! re/3 ?is relation is giv5 to our m9d2 id5tical propositions ne$ no pro( 9 ord] to obta9 ass5t4 ,all ?is is v true1 v cle>1 & v simple2 b1 :5 ,fi*te adds t ?is relation mu/ be giv5 to ! me by ! me itself1 he ass]ts :at he nei!r does nor c "k4 ,:o told him t objective tru?s come to u f ourselves8 ,is "o ( ! pr9cipal philosophical que/ions1 su* z is t ( ! orig9 ( tru?1 to be ?us easily solv$ ) a da% ( ! p58 ,has he1 p]*ance1 def9$ 8 me1 or giv5 u any idea ( x8 ,ei!r 8 words mean no?+1 or !y mean ?is3 ,i judge ( a relation2 ?is judgm5t is 9 me2 ?is relation1 z kn[n & ab/ract$ f real exi/5ce1 is 9 me2 all :i* may be r$uc$ to ,desc>tes' m natural & simple expression3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i exi/4 #hc4 ,^u c>efully exam9+ ,fi*te's words1 we cle>ly see t he made no m progress ?an ! ,fr5* philosoph]4 ,he goes on3 ,:e!r & h[ ,a 9 g5]al is suppos$1 we "k n2 b z ,x mu/ m>k a relation betwe5 an unkn[n supposition ( ,a & an absolute supposition ( ,a "u ! condition ( ?is supposition1 9 s f> at lea/ z t relation is suppos$1 ,a exi/s 9 ! me1 & is suppos$ by ! me1 j z ,x4 ,x is possible only 9 relation to an ,a3 b ,x is really suppos$ 9 ! me1 !re=e ,a also mu/ be suppos$ 9 ! me 9 s f> z ,x is ref]r$ to x4 ,:at confusion & my/]y 9 ! expression ( ! commone/ ?+s6 ,h[ great ,desc>tes appe>s beside ,fi*te6 ,ea* makes ! fact ( consci\sness reveal+ exi/5ce ! beg9n+ ( 8 philosophy4 ,! "o expresses 8 ?\ghts cle>ly1 ) simplicity & 9 a language :i* all ! _w does or may und]/&2 ! o!r1 9 ord] to seem an inv5tor1 & to %[ t he has no ma/]1 envelops himself 9 a cl\d ( my/]y1 ) d>kness all ar\nd1 :5ce 9 a holl[ voice he pron\nces 8 oracles4 ,desc>tes says3 ,i ?9k1 ,i _c d\bt x1 x is a fact atte/$ to me by my int]nal s5se2 no "o c ?9k )\t exi/+2 !re=e ,i exi/4 ,?is is cle>1 simple1 & +5u\s2 x manife/s a true philosoph]1 "o )\t affectation or pret5sion4 ,fi*te says3 ,take any proposition :atev]2 = example1 ,a is ,a3 & !n goes on to expla9 h[ ! v]b to be 9 propositions does n express ! absolute exi/5ce ( ! subject1 b its relation ) ! pr$icate2 ! :ole ) a %[ ( doctr9e1 we>isome 9 its =m1 & ridicul\s 9 its /]ility2 & ?is too :5 he only wants to in=m u t ,a is 9 ! me1 because ! relation ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject1 t is1 ,x1 is possible only 9 a be+1 s9ce ,a d5otes "s be+ or o!r4 ,let u comp>e ! two syllogisms4 ,desc>tes says3 ,no "o c ?9k )\t exi/+2 b ,i ?9k2 !re=e ,i exi/4 ,fi*te says lit]ally :at foll[s3 ,x is only possible 9 relation to an ,a2 b ,x is really suppos$ 9 ! me2 !re=e ,a mu/ also be suppos$ 9 ! me4 ,!re is at bottom no diff]5ce at all1 & ! only diff]5ce 9 =m is t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! language ( a va9 man & t ( a s5sible man4 ,at bottom ! syllogisms are n diff]5t1 we repeat x4 ,desc>tes' major proposition is3 ,:atev] ?9ks exi/s4 ,he does n prove x1 & admits t x _c be prov$4 ,fi*te's major is3 ,x is possible only 9 relation to an ,a1 or1 9 o!r words1 no relation ( a pr$icate ) a subject1 9 s f> z x is kn[n1 is possible )\t a be+ :i* kn[s4 ,x mu/ m>k a relation betwe5 an unkn[n supposition ( ,a & an absolute supposition ( ! same ,a1 at lea/ 9 s f> z t relation is suppos$1 t is1 inasmu* z x is kn[n4 ,& h[ does ,fi*te prove a relative supposition to suppose an absolute supposition1 t is1 a subject 9 :i* x is suppos$8 ,l ,desc>tes1 he does n prove x at all4 ,!re is no relative ,a )\t an absolute ,a2 :at does n exi/ _c ?9k4 ,?is is cle> & evid5t2 f>!r ?an ?is nei!r ,fi*te nor ,desc>tes goes4 ,desc>tes' m9or is3 ,i ?9k2 ?is he does n prove1 b ref]s to consci\sness beyond :i* he confesses t he _c pass4 ,fi*te's m9or is ?is3 ,x is really ass]t$ 9 ! me2 :i* is equival5t to say+3 ! relation ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject is really kn[n by ! me2 & z1 accord+ to ,fi*te himself1 ! proposition may be select$ at pleasure1 to say t ! relation ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject is kn[n by ! me1 is ! same z to say t any relation :atev] is kn[n by ! me2 :i* 9 cle>] t]ms may be express$ ?us1 ,i ?9k4 #hd4 ,"h we w\ld rem>k1 t ! diff]5ce1 if any !re be1 is altoge!r 9 favor ( ! ,fr5* philosoph]1 :o und]/&s by ?\ght e int]nal ph5om5on ( :i* we are consci\s4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ?is fact1 he has no ne$ ( analyz+ propositions1 & confus+ ! und]/&+ ^u ^? v po9ts :]e x mo/ requires cle>ness & precision4 ,fi*te1 to arrive at ! same po9t1 takes a r\ndab\t way4 ,desc>tes po9ts 8 f+] to x1 & says3 ?is is x4 ,! "o acts l a sophi/1 ! o!r l a true man ( g5ius4 ,_h ! ,g]man philosoph] conf9$ 8 =ms1 little calculat$ z !y are to illu/rate sci5ce1 to :at we h ?us f> exam9$1 _! greate/ inconv5i5ce w\ld h be5 to we>y bo? ! au?or & 8 read]s2 b un=tunately 8 my/]i\s me1 :i* makes its appe>ance at ! v ve/ibule ( sci5ce1 & :i*1 9 ! eyes ( s\nd reason1 c only be :at x 0 to ,desc>tes1--! human m9d1 kn[+ its exi/5ce by its own ?\ght1--goes on dilat+ 9 ,fi*te's h&s1 l a gigantic spectre1 :i*1 beg9n+ 9 a s+le po9t1 ends by hid+ its head 9 ! heav5s & its feet 9 ! abyss4 ,?is me1 absolute subject1 is !n a be+ :i* exi/s because x suppos$ itself3 x is a be+ :i* creates its own self1 absorbs e ?+1 is e ?+1 & is reveal$ 9 ! human m9d z 9 "o ( ! inf9ite phases ( its inf9ite exi/5ce4 ,:at we h ?us f> said1 suffices to %[ ! t5d5cies ( ,fi*te's sy/em4 ,we are "h treat+ ( c]ta9ty & its f\ndations2 ?is1 !n1 is n ! place to anticipate :at we propose to say m at l5g? ^u ?is sy/em :5 we come to expla9 ! idea ( sub/ance & refute pan!ism3 = ?is is "o ( ! grave/ errors ( mod]n philosophy2 ev]y:]e1 & "u all aspects1 x mu/ be combatt$1 b to d ?is we mu/ attack x 9 its roots4 ,?is is :y we h exam9$ at su* l5g? ,fi*te's fundam5tal reflection 9 8 ,doctr9e ( ,sci5ce1 & /ripp$ x ( ! importance :i* he claim$ = x1 s z to make x ! basis ( a transc5d5tal sci5ce2 = he flatt]$ himself ) be+ able to det]m9e ! absolutely uncondition$ pr9ciple ( all human k47#g7 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,univ]sal ,,id5tity4 #he4 ,9 ord] to give unity to sci5ce1 "s appeal to univ]sal id5tity2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n to discov] unity1 b to take refuge 9 *aos4 ,univ]sal id5tity is n only an absurdity1 b a gr\ndless hypo!sis4 ,except+ ! unity ( consci\sness1 we f9d 9 ourselves no?+ t is "o2 b multiplicity ( ideas1 p]ceptions1 judgm5ts1 acts ( ! w1 impressions ( v>i\s k9ds2 & 9 relation to ext]nal objects1 we p]ceive multitude 9 ! be+s :i* surr\nd u1 or z "s pret5d1 9 _! appe>ances4 ,:]e !n are unity & id5tity1 = we c nei!r f9d !m )9 nor )\t ourselves8 #hf4 ,if x be said t no?+ is (f]$ to u b ph5om5a1 & t we d n atta9 to ! reality1 ! absolute & id5tical unity hidd5 b5ea? !m1 we c reply ) ?is dilemma3 ei!r our exp]i5ce is conf9$ to ph5om5a1 or x rea*es ! v nature ( ?+s3 if ! =m]1 we _c "k :at is conceal$ "u ! ph5om5a1 nor absolute & id5tical unity2 if ! latt]1 !n nature is n "o b multiplex1 = we ev]y:]e enc\nt] multiplicity4 #hg4 ,x is curi\s to obs]ve h[ easily m51 ! mo/ skeptical 9 ! simple/ ?+s1 sudd5ly become dogmatic at ! v po9t :]e ! greate/ motives ( d\bt are pres5t$4 ,) !m ! ext]nal _w is ei!r a pure appe>ance1 or a be+ hav+ no resemblance to ! conception =m$ ( x by ! human race3 ! crit]ion ( evid5ce1 t ( consci\sness1 & t ( common s5se h little p[] to comm& ass5t3 ! cr[d alone %\ld be satisfi$ ) su* weak f\ndations2 ! philosoph] dem&s o!rs f> m solid4 ,b /range z x may seem1 ! v philosoph] :o /yl$ reality a deceitful appe>ance1 & saw obscurity 9 :at ! human race consid]$ lum9\s1 s soon z he quitt$ ! _w ( ph5om5a & arriv$ 9 ! dom9ions ( ! absolute1 f9ds himself illum9$ by a my/]i\s spl5dor1 he requires no discussion1 b by a mo/ pure intuition1 he sees ! uncondition$1 ! inf9ite1 ! "o 9 :i* e ?+ multiplex is involv$1 ! great reality1 ! basis ( all ph5om5a1 ! great ,all :i* re-unites 9 its brea/ all exi/5ces1 re-assumes e ?+1 & absorbs e ?+ into mo/ p]fect id5tity4 ,he fixes 8 philosophic eye ^u ?is focus ( light & life1 sees x roll out l ! ocean ( exi/5ce 9 va/ bill[s1 & ?us expla9s :at is v>i\s by :at is "o1 ! composite by ! simple1 ! f9ite by ! inf9ite4 ,all ^! prodigies d n require him to leave himself2 he has only to g on de/roy+ all t is empirical1 to asc5d ev5 to pure act by my/]i\s by-pa?s unkn[n to all except himself4 ,?is me1 :i* may h believ$ itself an exi/5ce p]i%able & dep5d5t on ano!r sup]ior exi/5ce1 is a/\nd$ at f9d+ itself s great2 x discov]s 9 itself ! orig9 ( all be+s1 or1 m correctly speak+1 ! only be+1 ( :i* all o!rs are b ph5om5al exi/5ces2 x is ! univ]se itself become by a gradual developm5t consci\s ( itself3 :atev] is )\t itself1 & at fir/ appe>s di/9ct1 is only itself1 a reflection ( itself1 pres5t$ to its eyes1 & unfold$ "u a ?\s& diff]5t =ms l a magnific5t panorama4 ,let n ! read] ?9k we h imag9$ a sy/em = ! sake ( combatt+ x2 ! doctr9e :i* we h "h expos$1 is ! doctr9e ( ,s*ell+4 #hh4 ,"o cause ( ?is error is ! obscurity ( ! problem ( kn[+4 ,to "k1 is an imman5t action1 hav+1 at ! same "t1 relation to an ext]nal object1 except+ ^? cases 9 :i* ! intellig5t be+ becomes1 by a reflex act1 its own object4 ,9 ord] to "k a tru?1 :atev] x may be1 ! m9d does n quit itself2 x does n op]ate beyond itself2 its own consci\sness tells x t x rema9s1 & t its activity is develop$1 )9 itself4 ,?is imman5t action ext5ds to objects ! mo/ di/ant 9 "t & place1 & ! mo/ unlike 9 _! nature4 ,h[ is ! m9d to come 9 contact ) !m8 ,h[ is x to asc]ta9 :e!r _! repres5tation con=ms to reality8 ,!re c be no cognition )\t ?is repres5tation2 )\t con=mity1 !re is no tru?1 cognition is a pure illusion to :i* no?+ corresponds1 & ! human und]/&+ is unceas+ly ! sport ( va9 appe>ances4 ,und5iably ?is problem is liable to v s]i\s difficulties1 :i* p]haps ! sci5ce ( man1 :ile 9 ?is life1 _c solve4 ,"h arise all ! ideological & psy*ological que/ions ev] treat$ by ! mo/ em95t metaphysicians4 ,h[ev]1 z x is n our int5tion to anticipate :at is to be h]eaft] consid]$1 we %all conf9e ourselves to ! po9t ( view indicat$ by our pres5t "q ( c]ta9ty & its fundam5tal pr9ciple4 #hi4 ,consci\sness atte/s ! fact ( repres5tation2 )\t ?is !re is no ?\ght2 & ! affirmation ,i ?9k is1 if n ! orig9 ( all philosophy1 at lea/ its indisp5sable condition4 #ij4 ,:5ce comes ! repres5tation8 ,h[ is a be+ plac$ 9 su* communication ) o!r be+s1 & ?is n by a transi5t b by an imman5t act8 ,h[ expla9 ! con=mity betwe5 ! repres5tation & ! object8 ,does n ?is my/]y indicate t !re is unity1 id5tity1 at ! bottom ( all ?+s1 t ! be+ :i* kn[s1 is ! v be+ kn[n1 :i* appe>s to itself "u a di/9ct =m1 & t :at we call realities are only ph5om5a ( "o & ! same be+1 always id5tical1 inf9itely active1 :i* develops its /r5g? 9 v>i\s ways1 & =ms by its developm5t :at we call ! univ]se8 ,no6 ,?is nei!r is nor c be6 ,x is an absurdity :i* ! mo/ extravagant reason _c accept3 x is a res\rce z desp]ate z x is impot5t to expla9 a my/]y1 if y w1 b "o a ?\s& times less obscure ?an ! sy/em :i* pret5ds to cle> x up4 #ia4 ,univ]sal id5tity expla9s no?+1 b greatly confuses ev]y?+2 x does n dissipate ! difficulty1 b /r5g!ns x1 & r5d]s x insolvable4 ,x c]ta9ly is no easy matt] to expla9 h[ ! m9d obta9s ! repres5tation ( ?+s di/9ct f itself2 b x is no easi] to %[ h[ ! m9d c h ! repres5tation ( itself4 ,if !re is unity1 complete id5tity betwe5 ! subject & ! object1 h[ are ! two pres5t$ to u z di/9ct ?+s8 ,h[ c duality proce$ f unity1 or div]sity spr+ f id5tity8 ,x is a fact te/ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 n ! exp]i5ce ( ext]nal objects1 b t ( consci\sness1 by t :i* is mo/ hidd5 9 our s\l1 t !re is 9 e cognition a subject & an object1 p]ception & ! ?+ p]ceiv$1 & )\t ?is diff]5ce ! act is n possible4 ,ev5 :5 by an ef=t ( reflection1 we take ourselves = our own object1 ! duality appe>s2 if x does n exi/1 we imag9e x1 = )\t ?is fiction we _c ?9k4 #ib4 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ intimate & conc5trat$ reflection1 duality1 ^u c>eful exam9ation1 is to be f\nd1 n by fiction1 z x might seem at fir/ sight1 b 9 reality4 ,:5 ! und]/&+ turns ^u itself1 x does n see its own ess5ce1 = x has no direct intuition ( itself3 x sees its acts1 & ^! x takes = its object4 ,! reflex act is n ! act reflect$4 ,:5 ,i ?9k t ,i ?9k1 ! fir/ ?\ght is di/9ct f ! second1 & s di/9ct t "o succe$s ! o!r1 = ! reflective ?\ght c exi/ only subsequ5tly to ! ?\ght reflect$4 #ic4 ,?is is confirm$ by a pr(\nd analysis ( reflection4 ,is reflection possible )\t an object reflect$ ^u8 ,evid5tly n4 ,:at is ?is object 9 ! pres5t case8 ,! ?\ght itself3 !n ?is ?\ght mu/ h prec$$ ! reflection4 ,if x be suppos$ t !y mu/ n ( necessity foll[ 9 diff]5t in/ants ( "t1 & t ! dep5d5ce is sav$1 not)/&+ ! simultane\sness1 /ill ! =ce ( ! argum5t is n lo/2 we grant1 b d n conc$e1 t ! simultane\sness is possible2 b ! dep5d5ce at lea/ is n possible )\t di/9ction4 ,dep5d5ce is a relation2 relation supposes opposition ( extremes2 & ?is opposition draws ) x di/9ction4 #id4 ,t ^! acts are di/9ct1 al?\gh simultane\s1 may be demon/rat$ 9 ano!r mann]4 ,"o ( !m1 t reflect$ ^u1 may exi/ )\t ! reflex act4 ,we cont9ually ?9k1 )\t ?9k+ t we ?9k2 & ! same may be prov$ true ( e reflection :atev]1 :e!r x is occupi$ ) ! act ?\ght1 or x disappe>s & leaves only ! direct act3 ^! acts are1 !re=e1 n only di/9ct b sep>able2 !re=e1 ! duality ( ! subject & ! object exi/s n only 9 ! ext]nal _w1 b also 9 t :i* is ! mo/ intimate & pure 9 our s\l4 #ie4 ,x avails n to say t ! object ( reflection is n any det]m9ate act1 b ?\ght 9 g5]al4 ,?is is 9 _m cases false2 = we n only ?9k t we ?9k1 b t we ?9k a det]m9ate ?+4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh ! object ( reflection is sometimes ?\ght 9 g5]al1 n ev5 !n does ! duality disappe>3 9 t case ! subjective act is an individual act1 exi/+ 9 a det]m9ate in/ant ( "t1 & its object is ?\ght 9 g5]al1 t is1 an idea repres5tative ( all ?\ght1 an idea :i* involves a sort ( confus$ recollection ( all pa/ acts1 or ( :at is call$ activity1 intellectual =ce4 ,! duality !n exi/s m evid5tly1 if possible1 ?an :5 ! object is a det]m9ate ?\ght4 ,9 "o in/ance at lea/ two individual acts are comp>$2 b 9 ?is case an individual act is comp>$ ) an ab/ract idea1 a ?+ exi/+ 9 "o in/ant ( "t ) an idea t ei!r ab/racts x1 or confus$ly embraces all t has pass$ s9ce ! epo* :5 ! consci\sness ( ! reflect+ be+ comm5c$4 #if4 ,^! argum5ts h mu* great] weight :5 direct$ aga9/ ^? philosoph]s :o place ! ess5ce ( ! m9d n 9 ! p[] ( ?9k+ b 9 ?\ght itself2 :o give to ! me no o!r exi/5ce ?an :at spr+s f its own k1 affirm+ t x exi/s only because x supposes itself1 by kn[+ itself1 & only 9 s f> z x supposes itself1 t is1 9 s f> z x kn[s itself4 ,) ?is sy/em !re is duality1 or r plurality1 n only 9 ! acts1 b ev5 9 ! me itself2 because ?is me is an act1 & acts foll[ l a s]ies ( fluxions develop$ to inf9ity4 ,?us1 f> f sav+ ! unity & id5tity ( subject & object1 plurality & multiplicity are e/abli%$ 9 ! subject itself2 & ! unity ( consci\sness itself1 9 dang] ( be+ brok5 by ! cavils ( philosoph]s1 is =c$ to take refuge 9 ! obscurity ( inv9cible nature4 #ig4 ,we h ?us inconte/ably prov$ t !re is 9 u a duality ( subject & object1 t )\t x k is inconceivable1 & t repres5tation itself is a contradiction unless 9 "o s5se or ano!r we admit ?+s really di/9ct 9 ! recesses ( intellig5ce4 ,we beg to obs]ve t we h a sublime type ( ?is di/9ction 9 ! augu/ my/]y ( ! ,tr9ity1 ! fundam5tal dogma ( our holy religion1 cov]$1 inde$1 ) an imp5etrable veil1 b :i* s5ds =? light to illu/rate ! pr(\nde/ que/ions ( philosophy4 ,?is my/]y is n expla9$ by feeble man1 b is = him a sublime explanation4 ,?us ,plato avail$ himself ( glimm]+s f ?is focus z a treasure ( imm5se value to philosophical !ories2 ?us ! ,holy ,fa!rs & !ologians1 9 endeavor+ to ?r[ "s light ^u x by argum5ts ( congruity1 h illu/rat$ ! mo/ occult my/]ies ( human ?\ght4 #ih4 ,! uphold]s ( univ]sal id5tity1 besides contradict+ a primitive & fundam5tal fact ( consci\sness1 signally fail 9 _! ef=ts to expla9 by x ei!r ! orig9 ( intellectual repres5tation or its con=mity to its object4 ,evid5tly no man has an intuition ( ! nature ( ! individual me1 & /ill less ( ! absolute be+ :i* ^! philosoph]s suppose z ! sub/ratum ( :atev] exi/s or appe>s4 ,x is impossible = !m to expla9 a priori1 )\t ?is intuition1 ! repres5tation ( objects or _! con=mity to ! repres5tation4 ,! fact1 !re=e1 on :i* !y w\ld base _! :ole philosophy1 ei!r does n exi/1 or is unkn[n to u3 9 nei!r case c x s]ve z ! f\ndation ( a sy/em4 ,7 ?is fact to exi/1 x c\ld n be pres5t$ to our m9d by any enunciation to :i* we c\ld arrive by reason+4 ,x mu/ be se5 r ?an kn[n2 ei!r occupy ! fir/ place or none4 ,if we beg9 to reason )\t tak+ ?is fact = our basis1 we />t f ! app>5t 9 ord] to atta9 to :at truly is2 we make use ( an illusion to arrive at reality4 ,?us x evid5tly foll[s f ! sy/em ( our adv]s>ies t philosophy mu/ ei!r />t ) ! mo/ p[]ful intuition1 or else x _c advance a s+le /ep4 #ii4 ,! s*ools di/+ui% betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( be+ & ! pr9ciple ( k1 pr9cipium ess5di et pr9cipium cognosc5di2 b ?is di/9ction has no place 9 ! sy/em :i* we oppose2 be+ is !re conf\nd$ ) k2 :at exi/s1 exi/s because x is kn[n1 & x exi/s only 9 s f> z x is kn[n4 ,to draw out ! s]ies ( cognitions1 is to develop ! s]ies ( exi/5ces4 ,!y are n ev5 two p>allel movem5ts2 !y are b "o movem5t2 ! me is ! univ]se1 & ! univ]se is ! me2 :atev] exi/s is a developm5t ( ! primitive fact1 is ! fact itself :i* is display$ "u diff]5t =ms1 ext5d+ l an inf9ite ocean2 its position is unlimit$ space2 its duration et]nity47#h7 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,univ]sal ,,id5tity1--,,cont9u$4 #ajj4 ,^! sy/ems1 z absurd z !y are fatal1 al?\gh "u di/9ct =ms1 & by v>i\s means1 !y t5d to prep>e ! way = pan!ism1 conta9 a pr(\nd tru? :i*1 disfigur$ by va9 cavils1 seems to be an abyss ( d>kness1 :]eas x is 9 itself a ray ( mo/ brilliant light4 ,! human m9d seeks t by reason to :i* x is impell$ by an intellectual in/9ct2 h[ to r$uce plurality to unity1 to re-unite1 z x 71 all ! v>iety ( exi/5ces 9 a po9t f :i* !y all proce$1 & 9 :i* !y are all absorb$4 ,! und]/&+ kn[s t ! condition$ mu/ be includ$ 9 ! uncondition$1 ! relative 9 ! absolute1 ! f9ite 9 ! inf9ite1 ! v>i\s 9 ! "o4 ,9 ?is1 all religions1 all s*ools ( philosophy agree4 ,! proclamation ( ?is tru? belongs to no "o ( !m exclusively2 x is to be met ) 9 all c\ntries ( ! _w1 9 primitive times1 back ev5 to ! cradle ( ! human race4 ,beautiful1 sublime tradition6 ,pres]v$ ?r\gh all g5]ations1 amid ! ebb & fl[ ( ev5ts1 x (f]s u ! idea ( ! ,div9ity presid+ ov] ! orig9 & de/9y ( ! univ]se4 #aja4 ,yes6 ,! unity s\ght by philosoph]s is ! ,div9ity itself1--! ,div9ity ^: glory ! firmam5t decl>es1 & ^: augu/ face ( ineffable spl5dor appe>s to u 9 our inmo/ consci\sness4 ,yes6 x is ! ,div9ity :i* enlight5s & guides ! true philosoph]1 b bl9ds & conf\nds ! pr\d sophi/2 x is :at ! true philosoph] calls ,,god1 & v5]ates & adores 9 ! sanctu>y ( 8 s\l1 b :at ! ins5sate philosoph]1 ) sacrilegi\s pr(anation1 calls ! me4 ,consid]+ its p]sonality1 its consci\sness1 its inf9ite intellig5ce1 & its mo/ p]fect lib]ty1 x is ! f\ndation & ! cope/one ( religion3 di/9ct f ! _w1 x produc$ ! _w f no?+1 & pres]ves & gov]ns x1 & leads x by my/]i\s pa?s to ! de/9y assign$ 9 its immutable decrees4 #ajb4 ,!re is !n unity 9 ! _w2 !re is unity 9 philosophy4 ,9 ?is all agree2 ! diff]5ce is t "s sep>ate1 ) ! greate/ c>e1 ! f9ite f ! inf9ite1 ! ?+ creat$ f ! creative p[]1 unity f multiplicity1 & ma9ta9 ! necess>y communication betwe5 ! free w ( ! omnipot5t ag5t & f9ite exi/5ces1 betwe5 ! wisdom ( ! sov]eign intellig5ce & ! fix$ c\rse ( ! univ]se3 :ile o!rs1 affect$ ) melan*oly bl9dness1 conf\nd ! effect ) ! cause1 ! f9ite ) ! inf9ite1 ! v>i\s ) ! "o1 & reproduce 9 ! doma9 ( philosophy ! *aos ( primeval times2 b all scatt]+ & 9 frightful confusion1 )\t any hope ( ord] or union3 ! e>? ( ^! philosoph]s is void1 & d>kness is ^u ! face ( _! deep2 ! _s ( ,god has n mov$ ov] ! wat]s to fecundate ! *aos1 & produce oceans ( life & light out ( d>kness & dea?4 ,! absurd sy/ems inv5t$ by philosophical vanity expla9 no?+2 ! sy/em ( religion1 :i* is t also ( s\nd philosophy1 & ( all mank9d1 expla9s ev]y?+3 ! intellectual1 z well z ! corporeal _w1 is a *aos to ! human m9d ! in/ant x ab&ons ! idea ( ,god3 re/ore ?is & ord] reappe>s4 #ajc4 ,! two capital problems3 :5ce ! intellectual repres5tation1 & :5ce its con=mity to objects1 h ) u a mo/ simple explanation4 ,our und]/&+1 al?\gh limit$1 p>ticipates 9 ! inf9ite light2 ?is light is n t :i* exi/s 9 ,god himself1 b a semblance communicat$ to a be+ creat$ accord+ to 8 image4 ,illum9$ by ?is light1 objects %9e ^u ! eyes ( our m9d1 :e!r because !y are 9 communication ) x by means unkn[n to u1 or because ! repres5tation is giv5 to u directly by ,god1 9 ! pres5ce ( objects4 ,! con=mity ( ! repres5tation to ! ?+ repres5t$1 results f ! div9e v]acity4 ,an inf9itely p]fect ,god _c take pleasure 9 deceiv+ 8 creatures4 ,su* is ! !ory ( ,desc>tes & ,malebran*e1 em95t ?9k]s1 :o took no /ep 9 ! intellectual ord]1 )\t look+ to ! ,au?or ( all light1 & :o nev] wrote a page on :i* ! "n ( ,god 0 n trac$4 #ajd4 ,z w h]eaft] be se51 ,malebran*e admitt$ t man sees e ?+ 9 ,god1 ev5 9 ?is life2 b 8 sy/em1 f> f id5tify+ ! human me ) ! inf9ite be+1 c>efully di/+ui%es !m1 n f9d+ o!r means to su/a9 & enlight5 ! =m] ?an by approximat+ & unit+ x to ! second4 ,to read ! great metaphysician's immortal "w is en\gh to conv9ce "o t 8 sy/em 0 n t ( ?is pure1 primitive intuition1 :i* is an act requir$ ( all empiricism1 & :i* seems to rise )9 ! limits ( philosophy1 f t intuition ( ! simple fact1 ! orig9 ( all ideas & all facts1 9 :i* "o ( ! dogmas ( our religion1 ! beatific vision1 seems realiz$ ^u e>? 9 ! doma9 ( philosophy4 ,^! are s5seless pret5sions1 & z f> f ! m9d z f ! sy/em ( ,malebran*e47#i7 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,problem ,,( ,,repres5tation3 ,,monads ,,( ,,leibnitz4 #aje4 ,! pret5sion to f9d a real tru?1 ! f\nta9 ( all o!rs1 is dang]\s 9 ! extreme1 h[ev] indiff]5t x may at fir/ sight appe>4 ,pan!ism1 & ! deification ( ! me1 two sy/ems :i* co9cide at bottom1 are a consequ5ce n easy to be avoid$ if x be attempt$ to e/abli% all human sci5ce ^u "o fact4 #ajf4 ,! real tru? or fact1 :i* w\ld s]ve z ! basis ( all sci5ce1 %\ld be imm$iately p]ceiv$1 o!rwise x w\ld lack ! "* ( orig9 & basis ( o!r tru?s2 because ! m$ium by :i* x %\ld be p]ceiv$ w\ld itself h ! bett] "r to ! title ( fir/ tru?4 ,if ?is int]m$iate fact 7 ! cause ( ! o!r1 evid5tly ?is latt] w\ld n be primitive2 & if ! priority 7 giv5 to ! ord] ( k in/ead ( ! ord] ( be+1 we %\ld /ill h ! same difficulty z n[ to expla9 ! transition f subject to object1 or ! legitimacy ( ! m$ium by :i* we p]ceive ! primitive fact4 ,s9ce !n1 ! imm$iate pres5ce1 ! intimate union ( ! und]/&+ ) ! ?+ kn[n is necess>y1 x is cle> t z ! me has ?is imm$iate pres5ce only = itself & its own acts1 ! fact s\ght = mu/ be ! me itself4 ,t :i* is imm$iately pres5t to u is ! facts ( consci\sness2 by !m we place ourselves 9 communication ) :at is di/9ct f u4 ,9 case !n t we mu/ f9d a primitive fact1 ! orig9 ( all o!rs1 ?is fact mu/ be ! me4 ,if we d5y ?is consequ5ce1 we mu/ d5y ! possibility ( f9d+ any fact :i* may be ! s\rce ( transc5d5tal sci5ce4 ,"h we see h[ ! app>5tly mo/ innoc5t philosophical pret5sions lead to fatal results4 #ajg4 ,!re is "h c]ta9ly v little *ance = evasion1 b !re is "o s speci\s z to m]it an exam9ation4 ,! fact1 :i* is ! sci5tific orig9 ( all o!rs1 is n necess>ily _! true orig94 ,by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( be+ & ! pr9ciple ( k1 all difficulty seems to be avoid$4 ,x is absurd & contr>y to common s5se1 t ! me is ! orig9 ( all t exi/s2 b n t x is ! repres5tative pr9ciple ( all t is or c be kn[n4 ,repres5tation is n synonym\s ) causality4 ,ideas repres5t b d n cause ! objects repres5t$4 ,:y1 !n1 is x n possible to admit a fact repres5tative ( all t ! human und]/&+ c "k8 ,x is c]ta9 t ! p]ception ( ?is fact mu/ be imm$iate1 t is1 x mu/ be suppos$ intimately pres5t to ! und]/&+ p]ceiv+ x2 = :i* reason1 x c be no?+ else ?an ! me3 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n to deify ! me1 b only to conc$e to x a repres5tative =ce1 :i* may h be5 giv5 to x by a sup]ior be+4 ,x makes ! me n an univ]sal cause1 b a mirror :i* reflects ! int]nal & ext]nal worlds4 ,?is explanation rem9ds u ( ! fam\s sy/em ( monads advanc$ by ,leibnitz2 an +5i\s sy/em inde$1 ! l(ty flight ( "o ( ! mightie/ g5iuses t ev] honor$ ! human race4 ,! :ole _w =m$ ( invisible be+s1 all repres5tative ( ! same univ]se1 :]e( !y are a "p1 b by a repres5tation adequate to _! respective categories1 & 9 con=mity to _! correspond+ po9t ( view1 accord+ to ! place :i* !y occupy1 unroll+ !mselves 9 an imm5se s]ies1 :i*1 comm5c+ ) ! l[e/ ord]1 goes on asc5d+ to ! v portal ( inf9ity2 & at ! upp]mo/ po9t ( exi/5ces is ! monad1 :i*1 9 itself conta9s ! reason ( all ?+s1 :i* has produc$ !m f no?+1 giv5 to !m _! repres5tative =ce1 & di/ribut$ !m into _! prop] categories1 e/abli%+ among !m a sort ( p>allelism ( p]ception1 w1 action1 & motion1 9 su* a mann] t1 )\t any "o communicat+ any ?+ to ano!r1 !y all move on 9 mo/ p]fect con=mity1 9 ineffable h>mony4 ,?is is gr&1 beautiful1 & wond]ful2 a colossal hypo!sis :i* ! g5ius ( ,leibnitz alone c\ld ev] h conceiv$4 #ajh4 ,hav+ paid ?is tribute ( admiration to ! em95t au?or ( ! ,monadology1 we obs]ve t its gigantic conception is only an hypo!sis :i* all ! tal5t ( its inv5tor c\ld nev] base ^u a s+le fact capable ( giv+ to x an appe>ance ( probability4 ,omitt+ ! v s]i\s difficulties1 :i* ?is sy/em1 d\btless aga9/ ! w ( its au?or1 opposes to ! explanation ( free w1 we %all conf9e ourselves to ! exam9ation ( ! be>+s ( ?is sy/em ^u ! "q n[ be=e u4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! repres5tation ( ! monads1 be+ a m]e hypo!sis1 c s]ve to expla9 no?+1 unless philosophy is to be made ! sport ( +5i\s comb9ation4 ,! me is a monad1 t is1 an indivisible unity2 ( ?is !re c be no d\bt4 ,! me is a monad repres5tative ( ! univ]se3 ?is is an absolutely gratuit\s ass]tion1 & until x is prov$ 9 "s way or o!r1 we h ! "r to ignore x4 #aji4 ,n[1 suppose ! repres5tative =ce1 z und]/ood by ,leibnitz1 to exi/ 9 ! me2 ?is hypo!sis does n impugn :at has be5 said aga9/ ! primitive orig9 ( transc5d5tal sci5ce4 ,on close inspection1 ! hypo!sis ( ,leibnitz w be f\nd to expla9 ! orig9 ( ideas1 b n _! connection4 ,make ! s\l a mirror1 9 :i*1 by an effect ( ! creative w1 e ?+ is repres5t$2 /ill x does n expla9 ! ord] ( ^! repres5tations1 %[ h[ "o ( !m spr+s f ano!r1 or assign to !m any o!r bond ?an ! unity ( consci\sness4 ,?is sy/em !n is q out ( ! "q3 we are n disput+ on ! mann] 9 :i* repres5tations exi/ 9 ! s\l1 nor on _! orig92 b we are exam9+ ! op9ion :i* pret5ds to f\nd all sci5ce ^u a s+le fact1 & to unfold all ideas z simple modifications ( t fact4 ,?is ,leibnitz nev] said1 nor c any ?+ be f\nd 9 any ( 8 works to indicate su* a ?\ght4 ,moreov]1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is sy/em ( ,monadology & t ( ! ,g]man ,philosoph]s1 :i* we impugn1 is too palpable to escape any "o4 ,i4 ,s f> is ,leibnitz f advocat+ univ]sal id5tity1 t he e/abli%es an inf9ite plurality & multiplicity3 8 monads are be+s really diff]5t & di/9ct among !mselves4 ,,ii4 ,! :ole univ]se1 compos$ ( monads1 proce$$1 accord+ to ,leibnitz1 f "o inf9ite monad2 & ?is procession 0 n by emanation1 b by creation4 ,,iii4 ,9 ! inf9ite monad1 9 ,god1 ,leibnitz places ! suffici5t reason ( e ?+4 ,,iv4 ,k has be5 freely giv5 by ,god himself to ! monads4 ,v4 ,?is k1 & ! consci\sness ( x1 belong to ! monads individually1 & ,leibnitz nev] ev5 remotely took into consid]ation ?is f\ndation ( all ?+s1 :i* by its trans=mation asc5ds f nature to consci\sness1 or desc5ds f ! region ( consci\sness & is conv]t$ into nature4 #aaj4 ,^! diff]5ces s m>k$ ne$ no comm5ts2 !y %[ mo/ evid5tly t ! philosoph]s ( mod]n ,g]many _c %ield !mselves "u ! "n ( ,leibnitz2 al?\gh1 9 tru?1 ^! philosoph]s h no fail+ ( t k9d3 f> f seek+ guides1 !y all aspire to orig9ality1 & ?is is "o pr9cipal cause ( _! extravagance1 ,hegel1 ,s*ell+1 & ,fi*te1 all pret5d to be f\nd]s ( a philosophy2 & ,kant 0 s gov]n$ by ! same ambition1 t he made v important alt]ations 9 ! second edition ( 8 ,critic ( ,pure ,reason1 le/ he %\ld be tak5 = a plagi>i/ f ,b]keley's idealism47#aj7 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,problem ,,( ,,repres5tation ,,exam9$4 #aaa4 ,all our k is by repres5tation1 )\t :i* x w\ld be inconceivable2 & yet :at is repres5tation 9 itself consid]$8 ,we _c say3 x enlight5s u z to o!r objects1 b n z to itself4 ,x is obvi\s t we d n attempt to conceal ! v grave difficulties :i* ! solution ( ?is problem (f]s3 on ! contr>y1 we po9t !m out ) all cle>ness1 9 ord] to avoid t va9 presumption :i* is z fatal to sci5ce z to e ?+ else4 ,b let x n be suppos$ t we int5d to bani% ?is "q f ! ar5a ( philosophy3 = _m & s]i\s z are its difficulties1 we are yet ( op9ion t !y all[ ( suffici5tly probable conjectures4 #aab4 ,! repres5tative =ce may emanate f any "o ( ^! ?ree s\rces3 id5tity1 causality1 or ideality4 ,we w expla9 ourselves4 ,a ?+ may repres5t itself2 & ?is we call repres5tation ( id5tity4 ,a cause may repres5t its effect2 & ?is is :at we und]/& by repres5tation ( causality4 ,a be+1 :e!r sub/ance or accid5t1 may repres5t ano!r di/9ct f itself1 :i* is n its effect2 & ?is we call repres5tation ( ideality4 ,we d n see h[ x is possible to assign any o!r s\rce ( repres5tation3 hold+1 !re=e1 ! division to be complete1 we w exam9e its ?ree po9ts2 & we beg to call ! att5tion ( ! read] m especially to ?is matt]1 because x is "o ( ! mo/ important 9 philosophy4 #aac4 ,t :i* repres5ts mu/ h "s relation to ! ?+ repres5t$3 :e!r ess5tial or accid5tal1 inh]5t or communicat$1 ?is relation mu/ exi/4 ,two be+s1 hav+ absolutely no relation1 "o ( :i* nev]!less repres5ts ! o!r1 are a mon/rosity4 ,!re is no?+ )\t a suffici5t reason2 & !re be+ no relation betwe5 ! ?+ repres5t+1 & t repres5t$1 !re is no suffici5t reason ( ! repres5tation4 ,x is "h to be borne 9 m9d t1 = ! pres5t1 we ab/ract ! nature ( ?is relation2 we d n ass]t x to be ei!r real or ideal2 we only say t1 betwe5 ! ?+ repres5t+ & t repres5t$1 !re mu/ be "s l9k1 :atev] t l9k may be4 ,its my/]ies1 its incompreh5sibility1 d n de/roy its exi/5ce4 ,philosophy p]haps may be unable to expla9 ! enigma2 b x c demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( ! l9k4 ,?us1 ab/ract+ all exp]i5ce1 x is possible to demon/rate a priori1 t !re is a relation betwe5 ! me & o!r be+s1 by ! m]e fact ( _! repres5tation exi/+ 9 ! me4 ,! incessant communication ( intellig5ces ) ea* o!r1 & ) ! univ]se1 proves t !re is a po9t ( union = !m all4 ,repres5tation1 alone1 is a conv9c+ pro( ( ?is3 s _m be+s1 app>5tly disp]s$ & unconnect$1 are intimately unit$ 9 "s c5tre1 s t ! simple ph5om5on ( intellig5ce leads u to affirm ! common l9k1 ! unity 9 :i* plurality is jo9$4 ,?is unity1 ) pan!i/s1 is univ]sal id5tity2 ) u1 x is ,god4 #aad4 ,"h obs]ve t ?is relation betwe5 ! ?+ repres5t+ & t repres5t$1 is n necess>ily direct or imm$iate2 x suffices t x be ) a ?ird object3 ?us1 !y :o expla9 repres5tation by id5tity1 & !y :o acc\nt = x by int]m$iate ideas1 mu/ equally admit x2 =1 on ! pres5t matt]1 !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ^? :o hold ^! ideas to be produc$ by ! action ( objects ^u our m9d1 & ^? :o make !m proce$ imm$iately f ,god4 #aae4 ,:atev] repres5ts any ?+1 conta9s 9 "s s5se ! ?+ repres5t$2 = an object _c be repres5t$ unless x is 9 "s mann] or o!r 9 ! repres5tation4 ,x may be ! object itself1 or its image2 b ?is image _c repres5t ! object1 unless x is kn[n to be its image4 ,e idea !n involves ! relation ( objectivity2 o!rwise x c\ld n repres5t ! object1 b only itself4 ,! act ( intellig5ce is imman5t1 b 9 su* a mann]1 t ! intellect does n ne$ to g out ( itself to atta9 its object4 ,:5 we ?9k ( a /> a million leagues di/ant1 our m9d c]ta9ly does n g to ! po9t :]e ! /> is2 b by means ( ! idea1 x de/roys 9 an in/ant ?is imm5se di/ance1 & unites itself ) ! />4 ,:at x p]ceives is n ! idea1 b its object3 if ?is idea did n involve a relation to ! object1 x w\ld cease to be an idea to ! m9d1 & w\ld repres5t no?+ except itself4 #aaf4 ,!re is !n1 9 e p]ception1 a connection ( ! be+ t p]ceives ) ! ?+ p]ceiv$4 ,:5 ?is p]ception is n imm$iate1 ! m$ium mu/ be su* z to conta9 a necess>y relation to ! object2 x mu/ conceal itself 9 ord] to (f] to ! eye ( ! m9d only ! ?+ repres5t$4 ,f ! in/ant t x pres5ts itself1 & is se51 or ev5 notic$1 x ceases to be an idea & becomes an object4 ,! idea is a mirror1 :i* is mo/ p]fect :5 x creates ! mo/ p]fect illusion4 ,x mu/ necess>ily pres5t only ! objects1 & project !m at ! prop] di/ance1 )\t all[+ ! eye to see ! cry/all9e plane :i* reflects !m4 #aag4 ,?is union ( ! ?+ repres5t+1 ) t repres5t$1 ( ! intellect ) its objects1 may1 9 "s in/ances1 be expla9$ by id5tity4 ,9 g5]al1 no contradiction is discov]$ 9 any ?+ repres5t+ itself to ! eye ( ! und]/&+1 if we suppose !m to be unit$ 9 "s way or o!r4 ,9 case !n t ! ?+ kn[n is itself intellig5t1 we see no difficulty 9 its be+ its own repres5tation1 & consequ5tly none 9 conf\nd+ ideality & reality 9 ! same be+4 ,if an idea c repres5t an object1 :y may x n repres5t itself8 ,if an intellig5t be+ c "k an object ?r\gh ! m$ium ( an idea1 :y may x n "k t object imm$iately8 ,! union ( ! ?+ kn[n ) ! intellect is to u a my/]y1 x is true2 b is ! union effect$ by ! m$ium ( an idea less s8 ,to ! idea may be object$ all t c be br\ght aga9/ ! ?+ itself2 & x is ev5 m inexplicable h[ "o ?+ repres5ts ano!r1 ?an h[ x repres5ts itself4 ,! ?+ repres5t+ & t repres5t$1 h betwe5 !m a sort ( relation ( conta9+ & conta9$4 ,x is easily conceiv$ t ! id5tical conta9s itself1 s9ce id5tity expresses mu* m ?an to conta92 b x is n s easily conceiv$ h[ ! accid5t c conta9 ! sub/ance1 ! transitory ! p]man5t1 ! ideal ! real4 ,id5tity is !n a true pr9ciple ( repres5tation4 #aah4 ,we w\ld "h make ! foll[+ rem>ks necess>y to avoid equivocations4 ,i4 ,we d n ass]t a necess>y relation betwe5 id5tity & repres5tation2 = ?is w\ld make e be+ repres5tative1 s9ce e be+ is id5tical ) itself4 ,we e/abli% ?is proposition3 id5tity may be ! orig9 ( repres5tation2 b we d5y ! two foll[+3 id5tity is ! necess>y orig9 ( repres5tation2 repres5tation is a sign ( id5tity4 ,,ii4 ,we det]m9e no?+ z to ! application ( ! relations betwe5 repres5tation & id5tity1 s f> z f9ite be+s are conc]n$4 ,,iii4 ,we ab/ract ! duality :i* results f suppos+ only subject & object1 & ent] into no "q on ! nature ( ?is duality4 #aai4 ,^! ideas be+ fix$1 we may obs]ve t we h an inconte/able pro( t !re is no intr9sic repugnance betwe5 id5tity & repres5tation 9 two dogmas ( ! ,ca?olic religion3 ! beatific vision & ! div9e intellig5ce4 ,! dogma ( ! beatific vision tea*es u t ! human s\l 9 ! mansion ( ! bless$ is intimately unit$ to ,god1 & sees him face to face 9 8 v ess5ce4 ,no "o ev] said t ?is vision 0 made by ! m$ium ( an idea1 b !ologians1 & among !m ,/4 ,?omas1 expressly tea* ! contr>y4 ,we h !n id5tity unit$ ) repres5tation1 t is1 ! div9e ess5ce repres5t+1 or r pres5t+1 itself to ! eyes ( ! human m9d4 ,! dogma ( div9e intellig5ce tea*es t ,god is inf9itely intellig5t4 ,god does n ne$ to g out ( himself1 nor employ di/9ct ideas 9 ord] to und]/&2 he sees himself 9 8 ess5ce4 ,"h1 too1 id5tity is unit$ ) repres5tation1 & ! intellig5t be+ id5tifi$ ) ! ?+ und]/ood47#aa7 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,imm$iate ,,intelligibility4 #abj4 ,nei!r active nor passive repres5tation c be pr$icat$ ( all ?+s2 we mean to say1 t !re are "s be+s :i* are n end[$ ) intellectual activity1 & _c be ev5 passively ! object ( ! acts ( ! intellect4 ,z reg>ds ! p[] ( active repres5tation1 :i* is at bottom only ! faculty ( intellig5ce1 x is evid5t t _m be+s are de/itute ( x4 ,!re may be great] difficulty ) reg>d to passive repres5tation1 or ! fitness to be ! imm$iate object ( ! intellect4 #aba4 ,an object _c be kn[n imm$iately1 t is1 )\t ! m$iation ( an idea1 if x d n itself p]=m ! functions ( ?is idea1 & unite itself to ! intellect :i* is to "k x4 ,?is alone takes f all mat]ial objects ! "* ( be+ imm$iately intelligible3 s t if a m9d be imag9$ hav+ no idea ( ! corporeal univ]se1 x c\ld "k no?+ ( x1 al?\gh = all et]nity 9 ! mid/ ( x4 ,h5ce x foll[s t matt] nei!r is1 nor c be1 intellig5t or intelligible3 ! ideas :i* we h ( x come f ano!r s\rce2 )\t !m we might be unit$ to matt]1 & nev] "k or ev5 suspect its exi/5ce4 #abb4 ,an opportunity is "h pres5t$ ( expla9+ an exce$+ly curi\s doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas4 ,?is em95t metaphysician 0 ( op9ion t x requir$ great] p]fection to be imm$iately intelligible ?an to be intellig5t2 s t ! human m9d1 al?\gh end[$ ) intellig5ce1 does n possess intelligibility4 ,9 8 ,summa ,!ologica1#f ! holy ,doctor asks if ! s\l kn[s itself by its ess5ce1 & answ]s t x does n1 & ?us def5ds 8 position3 #f ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #hg;a1 ,a4 #ao4 ,?+s are intelligible accord+ly z !y act1 & n z !y h ! p[] to act1 z is said 9 ! n9? book ( ,metaphysics 7tex4 #bj tr4 #c74 ,= any ?+ t comes "u k is be+1 is ! true1 9 s f> z x is 9 act1 & ?is is manife/ly app>5t 9 s5sible ?+s4 ,?us ! sight does n p]ceive t :i* may be color$1 b t only :i* actually is color$4 ,& 9 ! same mann] z is manife/1 ! intellect1 9 s f> z x kn[s mat]ial ?+s1 kn[s t only :i* is 9 act4444 ,h5ce1 also1 9 immat]ial sub/ances1 ea* "o is intelligible by its ess5ce1 accord+ly z x is 9 act by its ess5ce4 ,!re=e1 ! ess5ce ( ,god1 :i* is a pure & p]fect act1 is absolutely & p]fectly intelligible by itself2 ?us ,god kn[s1 by 8 ess5ce1 n only himself b also all o!r ?+s4 ,b ! ess5ce ( ! angel belongs to ! class ( intelligible be+s z an act1 b n z a pure & complete act1 :]e=e 8 und]/&+ is n complet$ by 8 ess5ce4 ,=1 al?\gh ! angel kn[s himself by 8 ess5ce1 he _c "k all ?+s by 8 ess5ce1 b kn[s ^? di/9ct f himself only by _! images4 ,b ! human intellect 9 ! class ( intelligible be+s is only a possible be+4444 ,!re=e1 consid]$ 9 its ess5ce1 x is an intellig5t p[]2 h5ce ( itself x has ! faculty ( und]/&+1 b n ( be+ und]/ood1 except inasmu* z x acts4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! ,platoni/s plac$ ! ord] ( intelligible be+s above ! ord] ( intellect2 because ! intellect und]/&s only by p>ticipation ( ! intelligible2 b accord+ to !m1 t :i* p>ticipates is b5ea? t ( :i* x p>ticipates4 ,if1 !n1 ! human intellect places itself 9 act by ! p>ticipation ( sep>ate intelligible =ms1 z ! ,platoni/s held1 x w\ld "k itself by ?is p>ticipation ( incorporeal ?+s4 ,b z x is natural to our intellect 9 ! pres5t life to look to mat]ial & s5sible ?+s1 x foll[s t our intellect kn[s itself only z x is plac$ 9 act by ! species 7ideas7 ab/ract$ f s5sible ?+s by ! light ( ! intellect act+1 :i* is ! act ( ! intelligible ?+s !mselves4444 ,!re=e our intellect does n "k itself by its ess5ce b by its acts4 ,su* is ! doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas4 ,c>d9al ,cajetan1 "o ( ! mo/ p5etrat+ & subtile m9ds t ev] exi/$1 has a comm5t>y on ?is passage1 wor?y ( ! text4 ,^! are 8 words3 ,two ?+s expressly foll[1 f :at is said 9 ! text4 ,! fir/ is1 t our intellect has ( itself ! faculty ( und]/&+4 ,! second is1 t our intellect has n ( itself ! faculty ( be+ und]/ood4 ,h5ce ! ord] ( intellect is bel[ ! ord] ( intelligible be+s4 ,= if ! p]fection1 :i* our intellect has ( itself1 is suffici5t to und]/&1 b n to be und]/ood1 x necess>ily foll[s t great] p]fection is requir$ 9 a ?+ to be und]/ood ?an to und]/&4 ,& because ,/4 ,?omas saw ?is consequ5ce1 :i* at fir/ sight does n seem true1 & might ev5 be object$ to him1 he excludes ?is appreh5sion1 by %[+ t ?is mu/ be admitt$ to be true n only by ! ,p]ipatetics1 f ^: doctr9e x results1 b also by ! ,platoni/s4 ,b aft]w>ds1 9 answ] to an objection br\ght by ,scotus1 call$ ! ,subtle ,doctor1 he adds3 ,b because 9 ord] to und]/& an intellect & an intelligible object are requir$1 & ! relation ( ! intellect to ! intelligible1 is ! relation ( ! p]fectible to its p]fection1 s9ce ! intellect 9 act consi/s 9 its be+ itself ! intelligible ?+1 z is evid5t f :at has be5 said above2 x foll[s t immat]ial be+s are divid$ into two ord]s1 intellects1 & ?+s intelligible4 ,& z ! intelligible consi/s 9 p]fective immat]iality1 x foll[s t any ?+ is intelligible inasmu* z x is immat]ially p]fective4 ,t intelligibility requires immat]iality is %[n by ?is1 t no mat]ial ?+ is intelligible1 unless1 inasmu* z x is ab/ract$ f matt]4444 ,x has already be5 %[n t any ?+ is intelligible by ?is1 t n only itself1 b o!rs1 also1 are 9 ! intelligible ord]1 ei!r 9 act or 9 pot5tiality2 x is ?us no?+ m ?an to be p]fect$ or p]fectible by ! intelligible4 #abc4 ,?is !ory may be m or less solid1 b x is 9 ei!r case some?+ m ?an +5i\s2 x raises a new problem 9 philosophy ( ! highe/ importance3 to assign ! conditions ( intelligibility4 ,x has moreov] ! advantage ( be+ 9 accordance ) a fact atte/$ by exp]i5ce2 ?is fact is ! difficulty exp]i5c$ by ! m9d 9 kn[+ itself4 ,if x is imm$iately intelligible1 :y does x n "k itself8 ,:at condition is want+8 ,its intimate pres5ce8 ,x has n only pres5ce b id5tity4 ,p]haps ! ef=t to "k itself8 ,b ! great] "p ( philosophy has no o!r end ?an ?is k4 ,by d5y+ imm$iate intelligibility to ! s\l1 we c expla9 :y s great a difficulty is involv$ 9 ideological & psy*ological inve/igations1 by %[+ ! reason ( ! obscurity exp]i5c$ 9 pass+ f direct to reflex acts4 #abd4 ,! op9ion ( ,/4 ,?omas is n a m]e conjecture3 we may1 9 ord] to e/abli% x 9 "s mann] ^u fact1 assign a reason :i* seems to u greatly to /r5g!n x1 & :i* may be reg>d$ z m]ely an ext5sion ( ! "o already giv54 ,a ?+ to be intelligible mu/ h two qualities3 immat]iality1 & ! activity necess>y to op]ate ^u ! intellig5t be+4 ,?is activity is indisp5sable1 = 9 ! act ( intellig5ce1 ! intellect is 9 "s s5se passive4 ,:5 ! idea is pres5t1 ! intellect _c b "k x3 :5 x is want+1 x is impossible = ! intellect to "k x4 ,! idea1 !re=e1 enables ! intellect to act2 )\t x ! intellect c d no?+4 ,consequ5tly1 if we admit t any be+ c s]ve z idea to ! intellect1 we mu/ conc$e t be+ an activity to excite intellectual action2 & s f> we make x sup]ior to ! intellect excit$4 ,?us we expla9 :y our intellect1 9 ?is life at lea/1 does n "k itself by itself4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t its activity ne$s to be excit$4 ,left to itself x is l "o asleep2 & ?is want ( activity 9 our m9d1 9 ! abs5ce ( excit+ influ5ces1 is "o ( ! mo/ con/ant ( psy*ological facts4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 to say t we h no spontaneity1 & t no action is possible )\t an ext]nal det]m9+ cause2 b only t ?is same spontane\s developm5t w\ld n exi/1 if we _h n previ\sly be5 subject$ to ! influ5ce ( causes :i* br\ght out our activity4 ,we may le>n ?+s n taught u2 b we c\ld le>n no?+1 if tea*+ _h n presid$ ov] ! fir/ developm5t ( our m9d4 ,!re are1 x is true1 _m ideas 9 our m9d1 :i* are n s5sations1 & :i* _c h emanat$ f !m2 b x is equally true t a man1 depriv$ ( all 8 s5ses1 c\ld n ?9k1 because 8 m9d w\ld want ! excit+ cause4 #abe4 ,we h dwelt ?us long ^u ! explanation ( ! problem ( intelligibility1 because we consid] x ( sc>cely less importance ?an t ( intellig5ce1 al?\gh we d n f9d x treat$ 9 philosophical works z x m]its4 ,we w n[ r$uce ?is doctr9e to cle> & simple propositions1 s t ! read] may =m a m complete conception ( x2 & also1 9 ord] to d$uce "s consequ5ces :i* h be5 only slightly indicat$ 9 our exposition3 ,i4 ,a ?+ mu/ be immat]ial 9 ord] to be imm$iately intelligible4 ,,ii4 ,matt] _c be intelligible by itself4 ,,iii4 ,! relations ( spirits to bodies1 or ! repres5tation ( ! latt] 9 ! =m]1 _c be purely objective4 ,,iv4 ,"s o!r class ( relations mu/ necess>ily be admitt$ to expla9 ! repres5tative union ( ! _w ( intellig5ces ) ! corporeal _w4 ,v4 ,imm$iate objective repres5tation supposes activity 9 ! object4 ,,vi4 ,! p[] ( an object to repres5t itself to ! eyes ( an intellig5ce1 supposes 9 x a faculty ( act+ on t intellig5ce4 ,,vii4 ,?is faculty necess>ily produces an effect1 & consequ5tly involves a k9d ( sup]iority ( ! object ov] ! intellig5ce4 ,,viii4 ,an intellig5t be+ is n necess>ily imm$iately intelligible4 ,,ix4 ,imm$iate intelligibility seems to require great] p]fection ?an intellig5ce4 ,x4 ,al?\gh n e intellig5t be+ is intelligible1 yet e intelligible be+ is intellig5t4 ,,xi4 ,god1 :o is 9 e s5se inf9ite activity1 is inf9itely intellig5t & inf9itely intelligible by himself4 ,,xii4 ,god is intelligible by all creat$ intellects1 provid$ x be 8 w to pres5t himself imm$iately to !m1 & /r5g!n & elevate !m z may be necess>y4 ,,xiii4 ,!re is no repugnance 9 imm$iate intelligibility be+ communicat$ to "s be+s1 :i* are consequ5tly intelligible by !mselves4 ,,xiv4 ,our s\l1 :ile unit$ to our body1 is n imm$iately intelligible1 & we "k x only by its acts4 ,,xv4 ,9 ?is want ( imm$iate intelligibility is f\nd ! reason ( ! difficulty ( ideological & psy*ological /udies1 & ! obscurity :i* we exp]i5ce 9 pass+ f direct to reflex k4 ,,xvi4 ,!re=e1 ! philosophy ( ! me1 or t :i* seeks to expla9 ! int]nal & ext]nal _w by />t+ f ! me1 is impossible2 x comm5ces by d5y+ "o ( ! fundam5tal facts ( psy*ology4 ,,xvii4 ,!re=e1 ! doctr9e ( univ]sal id5tity is also absurd1 s9ce x gives bo? intellig5ce & imm$iate intelligibility to matt]1 :i* c h nei!r4 ,,xviii4 ,spiritualism1 !re=e1 is a tru? :i* spr+s z well f subjective z f objective philosophy1 f intellig5ce z f intelligibility4 ,,xix4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 g beyond ourselves1 & ev5 rise above ! univ]se to f9d ! orig9 ( ei!r subjective or objective repres5tation4 ,,xx4 ,!re=e1 we mu/ asc5d to a primitive1 inf9ite activity1 :i* places intellig5ces 9 communication among !mselves & ) ! corporeal _w4 ,,xxi4 ,!re=e1 purely ideological & psy*ological philosophy leads u to ,god4 ,,xxii4 ,!re=e1 philosophy _c comm5ce by a s+le fact1 ! orig9 ( all o!r facts1 b mu/1 & does end ) ?is supreme fact1 ! inf9ite exi/5ce1 :i* is ,god47#ab7 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,repres5tation ,,( ,,causality ,,& ,,ideality4 #abf4 ,besides ! repres5tation ( id5tity1 !re is :at ,i h call$ ! repres5tation ( causality4 ,a be+ may repres5t itself1 a cause its effect4 ,productive activity is inconceivable1 if ! pr9ciple ( ! productive act does n 9 "s mann] conta9 ! ?+ produc$4 ,!re=e we say t ,god1 ! univ]sal cause ( all t does or c exi/1 conta9s 9 8 ess5ce all real & possible be+s 9 a virtual or em95t mann]4 ,a be+ c j z well pres5t :atev] x conta9s 9 itself1 z x c repres5t itself2 causality1 !re=e1 "u ! conditions above expla9$1 may be an orig9 ( repres5tation4 #abg4 ,& "h we w\ld rem>k h[ pr(\nd a philosoph] ,/4 ,?omas %[s himself to be1 :5 he expla9s ! mann] 9 :i* ,god kn[s 8 creatures4 ,9 8 ,summa ,!ologica1#g he asks if ,god kn[s ?+s di/9ct f himself1 & answ]s 9 ! affirmative2 n t he reg>ds ! div9e ess5ce z a mirror1 b t by rec\rse to a m pr(\nd consid]ation he seeks ! orig9 ( ?is k 9 causality4 ,?is is 8 doctr9e 9 a few words3 ,x is manife/ t ,god kn[s himself p]fectly2 !re=e he kn[s all 8 p[]1 & consequ5tly all ! ?+s to :i* x ext5ds4 ,ano!r reason1 or r enl>gem5t ( ! same reason1 is1 t ! be+ ( ! fir/ cause is its intellect3 all effects pre-exi/ 9 ,god z 9 _! cause2 !y mu/1 !re=e1 be 9 him 9 an intelligible mann]1 s9ce !y are 8 intellect itself4 ,god !n sees himself by 8 ess5ce2 b he sees o!r ?+s n 9 !mselves1 b 9 8 ess5ce1 inasmu* z 8 ess5ce conta9s ! similitude ( ev]y?+4 #g ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #ad;a1 ,a4 #eo4 ,! same doctr9e is f\nd 9 ano!r place1#h :]e he asks if !y :o see ! div9e ess5ce see all ?+s 9 ,god4 #h ,q4 #ab;a1 ,a4 #ho4 #abh4 ,repres5tation ( ideality is t :i* nei!r proce$s f ! id5tity ( ! ?+ repres5t+ ) t repres5t$1 nor f ! relation ( cause & effect4 ,our ideas are ( ?is class1 = !y are nei!r id5tical ) _! objects nor d !y cause !m4 ,x is impossible = u to "k :e!r1 besides ?is repres5tative =ce :i* we exp]i5ce 9 our ideas1 !re are f9ite sub/ances capable ( repres5t+ ?+s di/9ct f1 & n caus$ by1 !mselves4 ,leibnitz ma9ta9s t !re are su* sub/ances2 b1 z we h se51 8 sy/em ( monads mu/ be reg>d$ z m]ely hypo!tical4 ,x is bett] to say no?+ ?an to make conjectures :i* lead to no result2 we %all !re=e cont5t ourselves ) e/abli%+ ! foll[+ propositions3 ,i4 ,if any be+ repres5t ano!r :i* is n its effect1 x has n ?is repres5tative =ce ( itself1 b has receiv$ x f ano!r4 ,,ii4 ,! communication ( intellig5ces c only be expla9$ by recurr+ to a fir/ intellig5ce1 :i*1 be+ ! cause ( ! o!rs1 c give !m ! =ce to act ^u "o ano!r1 & consequ5tly to produce repres5tation4 #abi4 ,causality may be a pr9ciple1 b is n a suffici5t reason1 ( repres5tation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a cause _c repres5t its effect unless intelligible 9 itself4 ,?us1 al?\gh we attribute to matt] an activity ( its own1 we _c conc$e x ! p[] to repres5t its effects1 = want ( ! indisp5sable condition ( imm$iate intelligibility4 #acj4 ,9 ord] t effects may be intelligible 9 _! cause1 x mu/ ( necessity possess ! "* ( cause 9 its fulness1 by unit+ all ! conditions & det]m9ations requisite to ! production ( ! effect4 ,free causes d n repres5t _! effects1 because ^! effects ) relation to _! causes are f\nd only 9 ! sph]e ( possibility4 ,! production may be realiz$1 b is n necess>y2 & ?us ! possible1 b n ! real1 is se5 9 ! cause4 ,god kn[s future cont+5cies1 :i* dep5d ^u ! human w1 n precisely because he kn[s ! activity ( man1 b because he sees 9 himself1 )\t succession ( "t1 n only all t may1 b all t w happ52 s9ce no?+ c exi/ 9 ! pres5t or 9 ! future )\t 8 w or p]mission4 ,he also kn[s future cont+5cies dep5d5t solely on 8 own w1 because he kn[s f all et]nity :at he has resolv$1 & 8 decrees are indefectible & immutable4 #aca4 ,ev5 if we ref] to ! necess>y ord] ( nature1 & suppose "o or m second causes to be kn[n1 x is n possible to see 9 !m all _! effects ) entire security1 unless ! cause act 9 isolation1 or all ! o!rs are kn[n toge!r ) x4 ,z exp]i5ce %[s u t all ! p>ts ( nature are 9 intimate & reciprocal communication1 we _c suppose ! above isolation1 & consequ5tly ! action ( e second cause is subject$ to ! comb9ations ( o!rs1 :i* may ei!r imp$e or modify its effect4 ,h5ce ! difficulty ( e/abli%+ g5]al1 & at ! same "t1 p]fectly safe laws 9 all t conc]ns nature4 #acb4 ,! prec$+ consid]ations1 x is to be obs]v$1 demon/rate anew ! impossibility ( transc5d5tal sci5ce bas$ ^u a fact f :i* all o!r facts proce$4 ,intellectual repres5tation is n expla9$ by sub/itut+ necess>y emanation = free creation4 ,ev5 suppos+ ! v>iety ( ! univ]se to be purely ph5om5al1 & at bottom only a be+ always "o1 id5tical1 & absolute1 x _c be d5i$ t ! ph5om5a are gov]n$ by c]ta9 laws1 & subject to v>i\s conditions4 ,ei!r ! human intellect c see ! absolute 9 su* a way z to disc]n by a simple intuition :atev] is conta9$ 9 x1 all t x is or c be1 "u all possible =ms2 or else x is condemn$ to foll[ ! unfold+ ( ! uncondition$1 ! absolute1 & ! p]man5t1 ?r\gh its condition$1 relative1 & v>iable =ms4 ,! =m]1 :i* is a sort ( ridicul\s plagi>ism f ! dogma ( beatific vision1 is1 9 treat+ ( ! intellect 9 its pres5t /ate1 s palpable an absurdity1 z to m]it nei!r debate nor refutation4 ,! latt] subjects ! intellect to all ! fatigue ( inve/igation1 & de/roys at "o bl[ all ! illusory promises ( transc5d5tal sci5ce4 #acc4 ,! und]/&+ is1 9 its acts1 subject to a law ( succession1 or ! idea ( "t4 ,! same ?+ obta9s 9 nature1 :e!r x is s v]ifi$ 9 reality1 or "t is consid]$ z a subjective condition :i* we transf] to objects2 be ?is doctr9e ( ,kant1 :i* we %all 9 due "t exam9e1 z x may1 x is c]ta9 t succession1 at lea/ = u1 exi/s1 & t we _c ignore x4 ,9 ?is hypo!sis an inf9ite evolution c be kn[n to u only 9 an inf9ite "t4 ,?us1 by a metaphysical necessity1 we are unable to "k n only ! future evolution ( ! absolute1 b also ! pres5t & ! pa/4 ,?is evolution be+ absolutely necess>y1 accord+ to ! doctr9e to :i* we h ref]5ce1 an inf9ite succession mu/ h prec$$ u2 ?us ! pres5t organization ( ! univ]se mu/ be reg>d$ z "o r\nd ( an unlimit$ ladd]1 :i* 9 ! pa/ z 9 ! future1 has no measure b et]nity4 ,we c "k ! pres5t /ate ( ! _w solely by obs]vation1 & !n only to a v limit$ degree2 we mu/1 !re=e1 ( necessity1 d$uce x f ! idea ( ! absolute1 by foll[+ x 9 its inf9ite evolution4 ,7 ?is n1 h[ev]1 9 itself radically impossible1 x w\ld1 nev]!less1 labor "u ! inconv5i5ce ( be+ too long a task to be accompli%$ 9 ! life-"t ( any "o man1 or ev5 9 t ( all m5 :o h ev] liv$1 tak5 collectively4 #acd4 ,b let u return to ! repres5tation ( causality4 ,! ideal repres5tation may be r$uc$ to t ( causality2 = s9ce a _s c h no idea ( an object n produc$ by x1 unless communicat$ to x by ano!r _s1 ! cause ( ! ?+ repres5t$1 we inf] t all purely ideal repres5tations proce$ ei!r directly or indirectly1 m$iately or imm$iately1 f ! cause ( ! objects kn[n4 ,& s9ce1 on ! o!r h&1 z we h already se51 ! fir/ be+ kn[s ?+s di/9ct f himself only1 z he is _! cause2 we hold ! repres5tation ( ideality to be r$uc$ to t ( causality1 ?us 9 "p v]ify+ ! pr9ciple ( ,vico1 ! pr(\nd ,neapolitan ?9k]3 ! intellect only kn[s :at x does4 #ace4 ,f ?is doctr9e fl[ two consequ5ces ( :i* we mu/ take note3 ,i4 ,!re are only two primitive s\rces ( intellectual repres5tation3 id5tity & causality4 ,t ( ideality is necess>ily d]iv$ f t ( causality4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! real ord]1 ! pr9ciple ( be+ is id5tical ) ! pr9ciple ( k4 ,t only :i* gives be+ c give k4 ,! fir/ cause c give k only 9 s f> z x gives be+3 x repres5ts because x causes4 #acf4 ,! repres5tation ( ideality1 al?\gh connect$ ) t ( causality1 is yet really di/9ct f x4 ,! explanation ( its nature belongs inde$ to ! treatise on ideas2 b we _c rel9qui%1 )\t an illu/ration1 a po9t s closely connect$ ) ! problem ( intellectual repres5tation4 ,"s conceive ideas to be a sort ( image or copy ( ! object2 b ?is is true only ) respect to ! repres5tations ( ! imag9ation1 t is1 ! purely corporeal2 & ev5 "h x is necess>y to suppose ! ext]nal _w to be su* z ! s5ses pres5t x1 :i*1 h[ev]1 "u _m aspects1 is n true4 ,to be conv9c$ h[ illusory is ! !ory f\nd$ on ! lik5ess ( s5sible ?+s1 we h only to ask1 :at ! image ( a relation is1 or1 h[ causality1 sub/ance1 & be+ are portray$4 ,9 ! p]ception ( ^! ideas1 !re is some?+ m pr(\nd ?an any ?+ app>5t 9 s5sible ?+s1 some?+ ( an entirely diff]5t ord]4 ,necessity has l$ u to comp>e ! und]/&+ to an eye :i* sees1 & ! idea to an image pres5t2 b ?is is only a comp>ison2 ! reality is some?+ m my/]i\s1 m secret1 m intimate3 !re is an ineffable union betwe5 ! p]ception & ! idea3 man _c expla9 x1 b he exp]i5ces x4 #acg4 ,our consci\sness atte/s t !re is 9 u unity ( be+1 t ! s\l is at all times id5tical ) itself1 & t x rema9s con/ant not)/&+ ! v>iety ( ideas & ( acts :i* pass ov] x1 l waves ov] ! surface ( a lake4 ,ideas are a mode ( be+ ( ! m9d3 b :at is ?is mode8 ,9 :at does x consi/8 ,does ! production & reproduction ( ideas proce$ f a di/9ct cause :i* cont9ually acts ^u our s\l1 & produces imm$iately ^? modes ( be+ :i* we call repres5tations1 or ideas8 ,or mu/ we admit t !re has be5 giv5 to ! m9d an activity to produce ^! repres5tations1 subject1 h[ev]1 to ! det]m9ation ( excit+ causes8 ,^! are que/ions :i*1 = ! pres5t1 we %all only indicate47#ac7 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,impossibility ,,( ,,f9d+ ,,! ,,fir/ ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,! ,,ideal ,,ord]4 #ach4 ,we %all 9 va9 seek 9 ! region ( ideas = t :i* we c\ld n f9d 9 t ( facts1 = !re is no ideal tru?1 ! orig9 ( all o!r tru?s4 ,ideal tru? only expresses ! necess>y relation ( ideas1 ab/ract+ ! exi/5ce ( ! objects to :i* !y relate3 h5ce x foll[s1 fir/ ( all1 t ideal tru?s are absolutely incapable ( produc+ ! k ( reality4 ,no ideal tru? c lead to any result 9 ! ord] ( exi/5ces1 unless !re be "s fact to :i* x applies4 ,o!rwise1 h[ev] fruitful x may be 9 ! ord] ( ideas1 x w be absolutely /]ile 9 t ( facts4 ,! fact )\t ! ideal tru? rema9s 9 its isolat$ individuality1 incapable ( produc+ any ?+ m ?an cognition ( itself3 b 9 return1 ! ideal tru?1 ap>t f ! fact1 rema9s purely objective 9 ! logical _w1 & has no means ( desc5d+ to t ( exi/5ces4 #aci4 ,let u apply ?is doctr9e to ! mo/ c]ta9 & mo/ evid5t ideal pr9ciples1 to ^? :i* conta9 ! mo/ g5]al ideas1 & :i* ought1 !re=e1 to possess ! fecundity 9 "q1 if1 inde$1 x be any:]e to be enc\nt]$4 ,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be at ! same "t4 ,?is is ! fam\s pr9ciple ( contradiction1 :i* may und\bt$ly claim to be reg>d$ z "o s\rce ( tru? to ! human und]/&+4 ,! ideas conta9$ 9 x are ! cle>e/ & mo/ simple conceivable2 9 x is affirm$ ! repugnance ( be+ to n-be+1 & ( n-be+ to be+1 at ! same "t1 :i* is mo/ evid5t4 ,b :at advance c we make ) ?is pr9ciple alone8 ,pres5t x to ! mo/ p5etrat+ m9d1 to ! mo/ p[]ful g5ius2 leave !m alone ) x1 & !re w result only a /]ile1 al?\gh pure & mo/ cle> intuition4 ,s9ce x does n affirm t any ?+ is or is n1 no?+ c be inf]r$ ei!r = or aga9/ any exi/5ce3 x only (f]s to ! m9d ?is conditional relation3 t if any ?+ does exi/1 x is repugnant = x n to exi/ at ! same "t t x exi/s1 or to exi/ at ! same "t t x does n exi/4 ,b if ! condition ( exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce be n giv51 yes & no 9 ! real ord] are indiff]5t2 no?+ is kn[n conc]n+ !m1 h[ev] great ! evid5ce 9 ! ideal ord]4 ,to pass f ! logical _w to t ( reality1 all t is requir$ is a fact to s]ve z a bridge4 ,if ?is fact be (f]$ to ! und]/&+1 ! two banks are jo9$1 & sci5ce comm5ces4 ,i feel1 ,i ?9k1 ,i exi/3 ^! are facts ( consci\sness2 comb9e any "o ( !m ) ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & :at be=e 7 /]ile intuitions become prolific ratioc9ations1 embrac+ at once ! _w ( ideas1 & t ( reality4 #adj4 ,ev5 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is /]ile unless jo9$ ) p>ticul> tru?s ( ! same ord]4 ,9 geometry1 = example1 x is (t5 argu$ ?us3 su* a quantity is ei!r great] or less ?an ano!r1 or equal to x2 = o!rwise x w\ld be bo? great] & less1 equal & unequal1 at ! same "t1 :i* is absurd4 ,"h ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is effectively appli$1 n alone1 b toge!r ) a p>ticul> tru? :i* makes su* an application available4 ,?us1 9 ! above argum5t1 no use c\ld be made ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 to prove equality or inequality 7 n ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( "o ( ! two previ\sly prov$ or suppos$3 s9ce ?is nei!r does nor c result f ! pr9ciple ( contradiction :i* includes1 n a p>ticul> idea1 b ! mo/ g5]al ideas pres5t$ to ! human m9d4 #ada4 ,g5]al tru?s1 ( !mselves1 ev5 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 lead to no?+1 because ( ! indet]m9at5ess ( ! ideas :i* !y conta92 &1 on ! o!r h&1 p>ticul> tru?s ( !mselves produce no result1 because !y are limit$ to :at !y are1 mak+ reason+1 :i* _c take "o /ep )\t ! aid ( g5]al ideas & propositions1 impossible4 ,light results f ! union ( "o ) ! o!r2 sep>at$ !y af=d only an ab/ract & vague intuition1 or ! contemplation ( a p>ticul> tru?1 :i*1 limit$ to a contract$ sph]e1 c give no k ( be+s consid]$ "u a sci5tific aspect4 #adb4 ,we %all see :5 we come to treat ( ideas1 t our m9d has two v di/9ct classes ( !m2 ! "o supposes space1 & _c ab/ract x1 su* are all geometrical ideas3 ! o!r does n relate to space1 & includes all non-geometrical ideas4 ,^! two ord]s ( ideas are sep>at$ by an impassable abyss1 if ! two ord]s are n approximat$ by a simultane\s use ( bo?4 ,! ideal ord] is n complete )\t ?is approximation2 & ! real ord] ( ! univ]se is turn$ into a *aos1 or r disappe>s1 if real & ideal tru?s are n comb9$1 9 bo? ! geometrical & non-geometrical ord]s4 ,f all geometrical ideas imag9able1 consid]$ 9 all _! ideal purity1 no?+ w\ld result = ! ideal non-geometrical ord]1 = ! _w ( mat]ial1 mu* less ( immat]ial realities2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 f non-geometrical ideas alone we c\ld n get s mu* z ! idea ( a "r l9e4 ,?is obs]vation %[s t !re is = u 9 ! ideal ord] no "o tru?1 ! orig9 ( all o!r tru?s2 = if we take ! geometrical ord]1 we are limit$ to ^? comb9ations :i* d n g out ( x2 if ! non-geometrical ord]1 we lack ! idea ( space1 )\t :i* we lose ev5 ! possibility ( conceiv+ ! corporeal _w47#ad7 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,indisp5sable ,,condition ,,( ,,all ,,human ,,k4--,,means ,,( ,,p]ceiv+ ,,tru?4 #adc4 ,we h n be5 able to discov]1 ei!r 9 ! real or ! ideal ord]1 a tru?1 ! orig9 ( all o!r tru?s to our intellect :ile 9 ?is life4 ,!re=e x /&s prov$ t transc5d5tal sci5ce prop]ly s call$ is = u a *im]a4 ,our cognitions mu/1 d\btless1 h "s re/+-po9t1 & ?is we %all n[ inve/igate4 ,= ! bett] und]/&+ ( ! subject n[ be=e u1 we w recall ! true /ate ( ! "q4 ,we d n seek a fir/ pr9ciple1 :i* ( itself alone illum9es or produces all tru?s2 b we seek a tru? :i* %all be ! indisp5sable condition ( all k2 = ?is reason1 we d n call x an orig91 b a re/+-po9t4 ,! edifice does n orig9ate 9 ! f\ndation1 b re/s ^u x4 ,we mu/ consid] ! pr9ciple s\ght = z a f\ndation1 j z 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 we treat$ ( discov]+ a se$4 ,^! two images se$ & f\ndation1 p]fectly express our ideas1 & exactly trace ! limits ( ! two que/ions4 #add4 ,is !re a re/+-po9t ( all sci5ce1 & ( all k1 sci5tific or n sci5tific8 ,if !re is1 :at is x8 ,are !re _m1 or only "o8 ,evid5tly !re mu/ be a re/+-po9t4 ,if ask$ ! reason ( an ass5t1 we mu/ at la/ come to a fact or a proposition1 beyond :i* we _c g2 = we _c admit ! process ad inf9itum4 ,?is is ! po9t :]e we mu/ ( necessity /op1 & consequ5tly ! re/+-po9t ( c]ta9ty4 #ade4 ,/>t+ ) a giv5 ass5t1 we may1 p]haps1 arrive at diff]5t pr9ciples1 indep5d5t "o ( ! o!r1 all equally fundam5tal1 z reg>ds our m9d3 9 ?is case !re w be n only "o1 b _m re/+-po9ts4 ,we d n believe x possible to det]m9e a priori1 :e!r !re is unity or plurality = our intellect 9 ?is matt]4 ,t human sci5ce mu/ be r$uc$ to a s+le pr9ciple is a proposition t has be5 ass]t$1 b nev] yet prov$4 ,s9ce ! s\rce ( all tru?1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 is n 9 man1 x is evid5t t ! pr9ciples1 on :i* 8 k is f\nd$1 mu/ be communicat$4 ,:o %all assure u t !y are n _m 9 numb]1 & ( diff]5t ord]s8 ,no?+ !n 9 ! pres5t "q c be resolv$ a priori1 & we mu/ desc5d to ideological & psy*ological obs]vations4 #adf4 ,our m9d acquires tru?1 or at lea/ ! appe>ance ( tru?2 t is to say1 t 9 "o way or ano!r1 x p]=ms ^? acts :i* we call p]ception & s5sation4 ,:e!r ! reality does or does n correspond to ! acts ( our s\l1 is at pres5t ( no consequ5ce1 is n :at we n[ seek3 we place ! "q on a gr\nd accessible to ! mo/ skeptical2 = ev5 !y d n d5y p]ception & s5sation2 al?\gh !y de/roy reality1 !y admit appe>ance4 #adg4 ,! means by :i* we p]ceive tru? are ( diff]5t ord]s2 & ?is is :y tru?s p]ceiv$ correspond equally to diff]5t ord]s1 p>allel1 s to speak1 ) ! respective means ( p]ception4 ,consci\sness1 evid5ce1 & intellectual in/9ct or common s5se1 are ! ?ree means2 to :i* correspond tru?s ( consci\sness1 necess>y tru?s1 & common-s5se tru?s4 ,^! are di/9ct1 diff]5t1 & 9 _m cases unconnect$ ) ea* o!r2 & he1 :o seeks to acquire complete & accurate ideas ^u matt]s relat+ to ! fir/ pr9ciple ( human k1 mu/ m>k out _! limits ) great c>e4 #adh4 ,t means :i* we h call$ consci\sness1 or ! intimate s5se ( t :i* passes )9 u1 t :i* we exp]i5ce1 is indep5d5t ( all ! o!rs4 ,de/roy evid5ce1 de/roy intellectual in/9ct1 yet consci\sness rema9s4 ,9 ord] to feel1 & to be sure t we feel1 & :at we feel1 we ne$ only exp]i5ce4 ,if we suppose ! pr9ciple ( contradiction to be d\btful1 /ill x w n %ake our c]ta9ty t we suff] :5 we suff]1 t we rejoice :5 we rejoice1 t we ?9k :5 we ?9k4 ,! pres5ce ( ! act1 or ! impression at ! bottom ( our s\l1 is intimate1 imm$iate to u1 & ( irresi/ible efficacy to place u above all d\bt4 ,sleep+ or wak+1 sane or insane1 ! te/imony ( consci\sness is ! same2 !re may be an error 9 ! object1 b !re c be none 9 ! int]nal ph5om5on4 ,! lunatic :o believes t he c\nts numb]less bags ( doll>s1 c]ta9ly does n c\nt !m1 & 9 ?is he is deceiv$2 yet he has 9 8 m9d ! consci\sness ( :at he does1 & 9 ?is he is infallible4 ,a man :o dreams t he has fall5 into ! h&s ( robb]s1 is deceiv$ z to ! ext]nal object1 b n z reg>ds ! act by :i* he believes x4 ,consci\sness is indep5d5t ( all extr9sic te/imony2 its necessity is inevitable1 its =ce irresi/ible 9 produc+ c]ta9ty2 x is infallible 9 :at conc]ns only itself2 if x exi/ x mu/ give te/imony ( itself2 if x does n exi/ x _c give x4 ,9 x reality & appe>ance are conf\nd$2 x _c be app>5t )\t be+ real2 ! appe>ance alone is already a true consci\sness4 #adi4 ,we include 9 ! te/imony ( consci\sness all t :i* we exp]i5ce 9 our s\l1 all t :i* affects :at "s call ! human me1 ideas1 ?\ghts ( e class1 acts ( ! w1 s5tim5ts1 s5sations2 9 a ^w1 e ?+ ( :i* we c say3 ,i exp]i5ce x4 #aej4 ,manife/ly ! tru?s ( consci\sness are r facts to be po9t$ out1 ?an comb9ations to be enunciat$4 ,?is is n to say t !y _c be enunciat$1 b t 9 !mselves !y ab/ract all intellectual =m1 are simple elem5ts1 9 ord]+ & comp>+ :i* ! intellect may occupy itself1 b :i* ( !mselves give no light1 repres5t no?+1 b only pres5t :at !y are2 t !y are m]e facts1 beyond :i* we _c g4 #aea4 ,! habit ( reflect+ ^u consci\sness1 & ( jo9+ purely intellectual op]ations ) facts ( simple int]nal exp]i5ce1 makes x difficult to conceive ?is isolation1 9 :i* e ?+ purely subjective is by its nature f\nd4 ,we endeavor to ab/ract reflection1 b we reflect ^u our v ef=t to ab/ract x4 ,our intellect is a fire1 :i*1 ext+ui%$ on "o side1 burns on ! o!r2 ! v ef=t to ext+ui% x ord9>ily makes x burn bright]4 ,h5ce ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ ! two *>act]s ( purely subjective & purely objective1 to m>k ! divid+ l9e betwe5 evid5ce & consci\sness1 betwe5 ! kn[n & ! exp]i5c$4 ,nev]!less1 ! sep>ation ( two su* diff]5t elem5ts may be made easy1 by consid]+ t brutes are1 9 _! own way1 consci\s ( :at !y inw>dly exp]i5ce2 n suppos+ !m to be m]e ma*9es1 we mu/ all[ !m consci\sness1 or ! intimate pres5ce ( _! s5sations4 ,)\t ?is ev5 s5sation is inconceivable1 = t c h no s5sation :i* does n p]ceive t x feels4 ,brutes reflect n on :at passes )9 !mselves2 !y exp]i5ce x1 b no?+ m4 ,s5sations succe$ "o ano!r 9 _! s\l1 connect$ only by ! unity ( ! be+ exp]i5c+ !m2 b !y d n take !m = objects & consequ5tly1 d n comb9e or trans=m !m 9 any mann]2 !y leave !m z !y are1 simple facts4 ,f ?is we may d]ive "s light = ! conception ( :at ! simple facts ( consci\sness are 9 u :5 ab&on$ to !mselves1 p]fectly isolat$1 sep>at$ f purely intellectual op]ations1 & "u no subjection to reflective activity1 :i*1 comb9+ !m 9 v>i\s ways1 & elevat+ !m to ! region ( ! purely ideal1 pres5ts !m to u 9 su* a mann] z to make u =get _! primitive purity4 ,an ef=t is necess>y 9 ord] cle>ly to p]ceive :at ! facts ( consci\sness are1 & :at its te/imony is2 = )\t ?is x is impossible to advance "o /ep 9 ! inve/igation ( ! fir/ pr9ciple ( human k4 ,confusion on ?is po9t makes u fall into transc5d5tal equivocations4 ,we %all h]eaft] h occasion to obs]ve ?is1 & we h already enc\nt]$ lam5table examples ( su* deviations 9 ! errors ( ! philosophy ( ! me4 #aeb4 ,evid5ce is usually call$ an intellectual light4 ,?is is a v happy metaphor1 & ev5 exact2 b1 l all metaphors1 x has ! defect ( be+ ( b little s]vice to expla9 ! my/]ies ( philosophy4 ,we also f9d intellectual light 9 _m acts ( consci\sness4 ,!re is also a sort ( cle> light 9 t intimate pres5ce by :i* an op]ation or an impression is (f]$ to ! m9d2 x %9es ^u ! eye ( ! s\l1 & makes x see :at is be=e x4 ,if1 !n1 we def9e evid5ce only by call+ x ! light ( ! intellect1 we conf\nd x ) consci\sness1 or1 at lea/1 by ! use ( ambigu\s language1 give o!rs occasion ( conf\nd+ !m4 ,let u n be ?\ght to blame ^? :o h us$ ! metaphor ( light1 or to flatt] ourselves ) be+ able to def9e evid5ce ) all exactness2 = :o c express 9 words ?is ph5om5on ( our m9d8 ,if we are to h any metaphor1 t ( ! intellectual light seems to be ! mo/ adequate4 ,=1 9 tru?1 :5 we fix our att5tion ^u evid5ce1 9 ord] to exam9e its nature & its effects on ! m9d1 x v naturally pres5ts itself "u ! image ( a light1 ^: spl5dor illum9es ! objects1 & enables ! m9d to contemplate !m3 b ?is1 we repeat1 is n en\gh4 ,we w1 !n1 al?\gh we d n und]take exactly to def9e x1 po9t out a m>k to di/+ui% x f e ?+ else4 #aec4 ,evid5ce is always accompani$ by ! necessity1 & consequ5tly1 by ! univ]sality1 ( ! tru?s :i* x atte/s4 ,!re is no evid5ce ( ! cont+5t1 except 9 s f> z subject$ to a necess>y pr9ciple4 ,let u expla9 ?is doctr9e by comp>+ examples tak5 respectively f consci\sness & evid5ce4 ,t !re is 9 me a be+ :i* ?9ks1 ,i "k1 n by evid5ce1 b by consci\sness4 ,t :atev] ?9ks exi/s1 ,i "k1 n by consci\sness1 b by evid5ce4 ,9 bo? cases ! c]ta9ty is absolute1 irresi/ible2 b 9 ! fir/ x re/s ^u a p>ticul>1 cont+5t fact2 9 ! second ^u a univ]sal & necess>y tru?4 ,t ,i ?9k is c]ta9 = me1 b n necess>ily s = o!rs2 ! disappe>ance ( my ?\ght does n ov]turn ! _w ( intellig5ces2 if my ?\ght %\ld n[ cease to exi/1 tru? 9 itself w\ld suff] no *ange2 o!r intellects might & w\ld cont9ue to p]ceive tru?2 & nei!r 9 ! real nor 9 ! ideal ord] w\ld !re be less conc]t & h>mony4 ,i ask myself if ,i ?9k1 & 9 ! bottom ( my s\l ,i read t ,i d ?9k3 ,i ask myself if ?is ?\ght is necess>y1 & n only does exp]i5ce tell me t x is n1 b ,i c f9d no reason :y x %\ld be necess>y4 ,ev5 suppos+ t my ?\ght ceases to exi/1 ,i p]ceive t ,i cont9ue to reason 9 due =m4 ,?us ,i exam9e :at w\ld h happ5$ if ,i _h n exi/$1 or :at may h]eaft] happ5 if ,i cease to exi/2 & ,i ass5t to pr9ciples & draw conclusions )\t transgress+ any law ( ! intellect4 ,! ideal _w & ! real _w are pres5t$ to my eyes z a magnific5t spectacle at :i* ,i inde$ assi/1 b f :i* ,i may )draw )\t ! repres5tation und]go+ any *ange1 except t ,i %\ld leave vacant ! imp]ceptible place :i* ,i n[ occupy4 ,b x is v diff]5t ) ! tru?s :i* are ! object ( evid5ce4 ,x is n necess>y = me to ?9k2 b x is s necess>y = :atev] ?9ks to exi/1 t no ef=ts ( m9e c\ld suffice to ab/ract ?is necessity = "o mom5t4 ,if1 tak+ an absurd position1 ,i suppose ! contr>y1 & imag9e = an in/ant ! relation betwe5 ?\ght & be+ to be cut %ort1 ,i break ! *a9 :i* supports ! ord] ( ! entire univ]se2 e ?+ is rev]s$1 ?r[n into confusion2 & ,i "k n if :at ,i see be *aos or non5tity4 ,:at has tak5 place8 ,! intellect has only suff]$ a contradiction1 at ! same "t affirm+ & d5y+ ?\ght1 because x affirm$ a ?\ght to :i* x d5i$ exi/5ce4 ,x has violat$ a univ]sal & absolutely necess>y law1 ! violation ( :i* ?r[s e ?+ into *aos4 ,n ! c]ta9ty ( ! s\l's exi/5ce1 support$ by ! te/imony ( consci\sness1 suffices to prev5t ! confusion3 ! intellect by contradict+ itself has d5i$ itself2 f its ins5sate words1 n be+1 b non5tity has result$1 n light1 b d>kness2 & ?is d>kness ca/ ov] :atev] exi/s or is possible turns back ^u x & involves x 9 et]nal night4 #aed4 ,we h "h fix$ & def9$ ! conditions ( consci\sness & evid5ce4 ,! object ( ! =m] is ! individual1 ! cont+5t2 t ( ! latt] ! univ]sal & ! necess>y4 ,only 9 ,god1 ! s\rce ( all tru?1 ! univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciple ( be+ & ( k1 is consci\sness id5tifi$ ) evid5ce2 & x is n possible to ab/ract ! te/imony ( 8 consci\sness1 )\t annihilat+ ev]y?+4 ,:at w\ld rema9 9 ! _w 7 ,i to disappe>8 ! creature asks itself1 & answ]s3 ev]y?+ except myself4 ,7 ,god to ask himself ?is "q1 he w\ld answ]3 no?+4 #aee4 ,we h giv5 ! "n ( intellectual in/9ct to ! impulse :i* 9 _m cases produces c]ta9ty )\t ! aid ( ! te/imony ei!r ( consci\sness or ( evid5ce4 ,if y %[ a man a t>get1 !n bl9dfold 8 eyes1 & turn him ar\nd at r&om sev]al times1 &1 aft] ?is1 place a b[ 9 8 h&s1 & assure him t ! arr[ w /rike ! precise c5tre ( ! t>get1 he w say t ?is is impossible2 & no?+ c induce him to believe s great an absurdity4 ,& :y n8 ,because ( ! te/imony ( consci\sness8 ,no6 ,= ! "q is n[ ( ext]nal objects4 ,nei!r does he dep5d on evid5ce2 = ! objects ( evid5ce are ?+s necess>y1 & x is n intr9sically impossible = ! arr[ to hit ! m>k assign$4 ,on :at !n re/s 8 pr(\nd conviction t ?is is n possible8 ,if we suppose him to "k no?+ ( !ories1 ( probabilities1 & comb9ations1 to h no k ( ?is sci5ce1 & nev] to h s mu* z ?\ght ( su* ?+s1 8 c]ta9ty is j z great z x w\ld be 7 he able to base x ^u "s sort ( calculation4 ,all ! by/&]s1 :e!r rude or cultivat$1 ignorant or le>n$1 ne$ no reflection to be equally c]ta92 all w say1 or ?9k1 ?is is impossible2 x _c happ54 ,we aga9 ask1 :at is ! f\ndation ( s /rong a conviction8 ,n spr++ f consci\sness1 or f ei!r m$iate or imm$iate evid5ce1 x manife/ly c h no o!r orig9 ?an t int]nal =ce :i* we call intellectual in/9ct1 & :i* may be call$ common s5se1 or any?+ else1 s long z ! fact itself is recogniz$4 ,x is a preci\s gift1 :i* ! ,creator has giv5 to u1 to make u reasonable ev5 be=e we reason1 & to enable u rightly to gov]n our conduct :5 we lack "t to exam9e motives ( prud5ce4 #aef4 ,?is intellectual in/9ct embraces _m objects ( diff]5t ord]s2 x is ! guide & ! %ield ( reason3 ! guide1 because x prec$es & %[s ! way2 ! %ield1 because x def5ds reason f h] own cavils1 & because sophi/ry becomes dumb 9 its pres5ce4 #aeg4 ,! te/imony ( human au?ority1 equally necess>y to ! individual & to society1 comm&s our ass5t1 by means ( an intellectual in/9ct4 ,man believes man1 believes society1 ev5 be=e ?9k+ ( ! motives ( 8 fai?2 few exam9e !m at all1 & yet ?is fai? is univ]sal4 ,we d n "h inquire if intellectual in/9ct sometimes deceives1 or :y1 or 9 :at cases x deceives2 at pres5t we only seek to e/abli% its exi/5ce2 & ) reg>d to ! errors to :i* x leads1 we %all simply rem>k1 t 9 a weak be+1 su* z man1 ! rule is cont9ually *ang+1 & z x is n possible to f9d a man good1 )\t any admixture ( evil1 s is x impossible to f9d tru? )\t "s admixture ( error4 #aeh4 ,we make s5sations objective only by virtue ( an irresi/ible in/9ct4 ,no?+ is m c]ta91 m evid5t to ! eyes ( philosophy1 ?an ! subjectivity ( all s5sations2 t is1 s5sations are imman5t ph5om5a1 are )9 u1 & d n g out ( u2 & yet no?+ is m con/ant ?an ! transition made by ! :ole human race f ! subjective to ! objective1 f ! int]nal to ! ext]nal1 f ! ph5om5on to ! reality4 ,on :at is ?is transition gr\nd$8 ,if ! mo/ em95t philosoph]s exp]i5c$ s mu* difficulty 9 f9d+ ! bridge1 :i* unites ! two opposite banks2 if "s ( !m1 we>i$ ) inve/igation1 resolutely ass]t$ t x 0 n possible to discov] x1 w ! commonalty ( mank9d discov] x f _! v *ildhood8 ,evid5tly1 motives ( reason+ d n expla9 ! transition2 appeal mu/ be made to ! in/9ct ( nature4 ,!re is !n an in/9ct1 :i* by itself assures u ( a tru? demon/rat$ ) difficulty by ! mo/ ab/ruse philosophy4 #aei4 ,"h ,i %all notice ! errors ( ^? me?ods :i* isolate man's faculties1 &1 9 ord] bett] to "k ! m9d1 disfigure & mutilate x4 ,"o ( ! mo/ con/ant & fundam5tal facts ( ideological & psy*ological sci5ce1 is ! multiplicity ( acts & faculties ( ! s\l1 not)/&+ its simplicity atte/$ by ! unity ( consci\sness4 ,!re is 9 man1 & 9 ! univ]se1 an assemblage ( laws1 ! effects ( :i* are simultane\sly evolv$ ) h>moni\s regul>ity2 to sep>ate !m1 is (t5 equival5t to plac+ !m 9 contradiction2 =1 no "o ( !m be+ capable ( produc+ its effect if isolat$1 b requir+ to be comb9$ ) ! o!rs1 !y produce1 :5 made to op]ate alone1 in/ead ( _! regul> effects1 ! mo/ hide\s mon/rosities4 ,if y reta9 9 ! _w only ! law ( gravitation n comb9$ ) t ( projection1 e ?+ w be precipitat$ t[>ds "o c5tre2 in/ead ( t inf9ity ( sy/ems :i* adorn ! firmam5t1 y w h only a rude & indige/$ mass4 ,if y de/roy gravitation1 & pres]ve ! =ce ( projection1 all bodies w be decompos$ into imp]ceptible atoms1 & be disp]s$1 l mo/ subtle e!r1 ?r\gh regions ( imm5sity47#ae7 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,confusion ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,disputes ,,on ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciple4 #afj4 ,!re are1 9 our op9ion1 v>i\s pr9ciples1 :i*1 ) reg>d to ! human intellect1 may be call$ equally fundam5tal1 bo? because !y s]ve z f\ndation 9 ! common & sci5tific ord]s1 & because !y d n re/ ^u any o!r1 s9ce x is impossible to assign any "o :i* enjoys ?is quality z an exclusive privilege4 ,9 seek+ ! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 x is cu/om>y 9 ! s*ools to obs]ve t !y d n endeavor to f9d a tru? f :i* all o!rs emanate1 b an axiom ! de/ruction ( :i* draws ) x t ( all o!r tru?s1 & ! firmness ( :i* su/a9s !m1 at lea/ indirectly1 9 su* mann] t :oev] d5ies !m may be refut$ by indirect demon/ration1 or r$uction ad absurdum2 t is1 admitt+ ! above axiom1 x may foll[ t :oev] d5ies ! o!rs w be convict$ ( be+ 9 opposition to "o :i* he himself has ackn[l$g$ to be true4 #afa4 ,x has be5 mu* disput$ :e!r ?is or t pr9ciple m]it ! pref]5ce4 ,we believe t !re is "h a confusion ( ideas1 proce$+ 9 great "p f n suffici5tly m>k+ ! limits ( te/imonies s di/9ct z ^? ( consci\sness1 ( evid5ce1 & ( common s5se4 ,desc>tes' fam\s pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am2 t ( contradiction1 x is impossible = a ?+ to be & n to be at ! same "t2 & :at is call$ ! pr9ciple ( ! ,c>tesians1 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any?+1 may be affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty2 are ! ?ree pr9ciples t h divid$ ! s*ools4 ,9 favor ( ea*1 reasons ! mo/ p[]ful1 & ev5 conclusive aga9/ ! o!rs1 consid]+ ! gr\nd on :i* ! "q 0 plac$1 h be5 br\ght =w>d4 ,if y are n c]ta9 t y ?9k1 argues ! p>tisan ( ,desc>tes1 y _c be c]ta9 ev5 ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 or "k ! crit]ion ( evid5ce to be valid2 = bo?1 x is necess>y to ?9k2 :oev] affirms or d5ies any?+1 ?9ks2 )\t ?\ght1 nei!r affirmation nor negation is possible4 ,b let u admit ?\ght3 we h already a f\ndation1 & "o ( su* a nature t we f9d x 9 ourselves1 atte/$ by consci\sness1 irresi/ibly =c+ ^u u ! c]ta9ty ( its exi/5ce4 ,! f\ndation once laid1 we see h[ ! edifice c be rais$2 = ?is we ne$ n g out ( our own ?\ght2 !re is ! lum9\s po9t to conduct u 9 ! pa? to tru?2 let u foll[ its spl5dor1 & hav+ e/abli%$ an immovable po9t1 let u draw f x ! my/]i\s ?read to guide u 9 ! labyr9? ( sci5ce4 ,?us our pr9ciple is ! fir/1 ! basis ( all o!rs2 x has suffici5t p[] to su/a9 itself1 suffici5t also to imp>t firmness to o!rs4 ,?is language is c]ta9ly reasonable2 b x has ?is fault1 t ! conviction :i* x is int5d$ to produce1 is neutraliz$ by ! n less reasonable language ( ^? :o hold a directly contr>y op9ion4 ,"o :o ma9ta9s ! pr9ciple ( contradiction may reason ?us3 if y d n admit x to be impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be at ! same "t1 x may be possible t y ?9k & d n ?9k at ! same "t2 y\r ass]tion1 !n1 ,i ?9k1 is ( no weight1 = its opposite1 ,i d n ?9k1 may1 at ! same "t1 be true4 ,9 ?is case1 ! conclusion ( exi/5ce is invalid2 =1 ev5 admitt+ ! legitimacy ( ! consequ5ce1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 z we "k on ! o!r h& t ?is o!r premise1 ,i d n ?9k1 is possible1 ! d$uction _c be made4 ,nor is ! o!r pr9ciple3 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any?+1 may he affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty1 ( any m value )\t ! pr9ciple ( contradiction2 because if be+ & n-be+ are possible at ! same "t1 an idea may be cle> & obscure1 di/9ct & confus$2 a pr$icate may be conta9$ & n conta9$ 9 ! subject2 we may be c]ta9 & unc]ta91 affirm & d5y2 !re=e x is ( no s]vice4 ,he :o argues ?us seems q reasonable2 b /rangely en\gh1 ! advocate ( ! ?ird pr9ciple br+s equally /rong argum5ts aga9/ 8 two adv]s>ies4 ,h[ is x kn[n1 he asks1 t ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is true8 ,only because we see 9 ! idea ( be+ ! impossibility ( its be+ & n be+ at ! same "t1 & vice v]sa2 !re=e1 we are sure ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction only f ! application ( ! pr9ciple3 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any?+1 may he affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty4 ,if no?+ c be su/a9$ )\t rely+ ^u ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1--& ?is is bas$ ^u our pr9ciple1--ours is ! f\ndation ( !m all4 #afb4 ,!y are all ?ree "r1 & all ?ree wrong4 ,!y are "r 9 ass]t+ t ! d5ial ( _! respective pr9ciples is ! ru9 ( ! o!rs4 ,!y are all wrong 9 pret5d+ t ! d5ial ( ! o!rs is n ! ru9 ( _! own4 ,:5ce !n ! dispute8 ,f ! confusion ( ideas1 by :i* !y comp>e pr9ciples ( v diff]5t ord]s1 all inde$ v true1 b n to be comp>$ ) ea* o!r = ! same reason t we _c comp>e ! :ite & ! w>m1 & dispute :e!r a ?+ has m degrees ( heat or :it5ess4 ,comp>ison requires n only opposition 9 ! extremes1 b also some?+ 9 common2 if ?+s are totally unlike1 comp>ison is impossible4 ,desc>tes' pr9ciple is ! enunciation ( a simple fact ( consci\sness2 t ( contradiction is a tru? kn[n by evid5ce2 & t ( ! ,c>tesians is an ass]tion t ! crit]ion ( evid5ce is valid1 & t x is a tru? ( reflection express+ ! intellectual impulse by :i* we are borne to believe ! tru? ( :at we "k by evid5ce4 ,! importance ( ?is "q requires a special exam9ation ( ea* ( ! ?ree pr9ciples1 :i* we %all make 9 ! next *apt]s47#af7 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,?\ght ,,& ,,exi/5ce4--,,desc>tes' ,,pr9ciple4 #afc4 ,am ,i c]ta9 t ,i exi/8 ,yes4 ,c ,i prove x8 ,no4 ,pro( supposes reason+2 !re is no solid reason+ )\t a firm pr9ciple on :i* to re/ x2 & !re is no firm pr9ciple unless we suppose ! exi/5ce ( ! reason+ be+4 ,9 effect1 if he :o reasons is n c]ta9 ( 8 own exi/5ce1 he _c be c]ta9 ( 8 own reason+1 s9ce !re w be no reason+ if !re be no "o to reason4 ,!re=e !re are1 unless we suppose ?is1 no pr9ciples on :i* to re/2 !re is no?+ b illusion1 or r !re is nei!r any illusion1 = !re c be none :]e !re is no "o illud$4 ,our exi/5ce _c be demon/rat$3 we h s cle> & /rong a consci\sness ( x t x leaves u no unc]ta9ty2 b x is impossible to prove x by reason+4 #afd4 ,x is a prejudice & a fatal error to believe ourselves able to prove ev]y?+ by ! use ( reason2 ! pr9ciples on :i* x is f\nd$ are prior to its use2 ! exi/5ce ( reason1 & t ( ! be+ t reasons1 are prior to bo?4 ,n only are n all ?+s demon/rat$1 b x may ev5 be demon/rat$ t "s ?+s are indemon/rable4 ,demon/ration is a ratioc9ation 9 :i* we inf] f evid5t propositions1 a proposition evid5tly connect$ ) !m4 ,if ! premises are ( !mselves evid5t1 !y d n admit ( demon/ration2 if we suppose !m 9 _! turn demon/rable1 we %all h ! same difficulty ) respect to ^? on :i* ! new demon/ration is f\nd$2 !re=e we mu/ ei!r /op at an indemon/rable po9t1 or proce$ to inf9ity1 :i* w\ld be nev] to f9i% ! demon/ration4 #afe4 ,& x is to be rem>k$ t indemon/rability does n belong solely to c]ta9 premises2 x is f\nd1 9 "s measure1 9 e argum5t by its v nature1 ab/ract+ ! propositions :i* compose x4 ,we "k t ! premises ,a & ,b are c]ta92 f !m we inf] ! proposition ,c4 ,by :at "r8 ,because we see t ,c is connect$ ) ,a & ,b4 ,b h[ d we "k ?is8 ,if by imm$iate evid5ce1 by intuition1 "h is some?+ else t _c be demon/rat$1 ! connection ( ! conclusion ) ! premises4 ,if by argum5t1 ratioc9ation1 e/abli%+ ourselves on ! art ( reason+1 !re are two consid]ations1 bo? t5d+ to demon/rate indemon/rability4 ,i4 ,if ! pr9ciples ( ! art are indemon/rable1 we h at once some?+ indemon/rable2 if !y are demon/rable1 we mu/ make use ( o!rs :i* s]ve z _! basis1 & at la/ ei!r come to "o :i* does n admit ( demon/ration1 or else proce$ to inf9ity4 ,,ii4 ,h[ d we "k ! pr9ciples ( reason+ to be applicable to ?is case8 ,by ano!r act ( reason+8 ,!n we %all enc\nt] ! same difficulty z 9 ! o!r case4 ,is x because we see t x is s8 because x is imm$iately evid5t8 ,!n "h aga9 we h an indemon/rable po9t4 ,^! reflections w cle>ly %[ t to dem& pro( ( ev]y?+ is to dem& :at is impossible4 #aff4 ,a be+ :i* does n ?9k has no consci\sness ( itself3 ! /one exi/s1 b does n "k t x exi/s1 nei!r w\ld man himself 9 a simil> case1 7 all 8 intellectual & s5sible faculties 9 complete inaction4 ,we easily conceive ! diff]5ce ( ^! two /ates by call+ to m9d :at occurs1 :5 f wak+ we pass into a pr(\nd sleep1 & aga9 :5 we awake f x4 ,! fir/ />t+-po9t ( our cognitions is ?is intimate pres5ce ( our int]nal acts1 ab/raction made ( ! que/ions :i* may be rais$ ^u _! nature4 ,if e ?+ exi/$ z at pres5t1 & !re also exi/$1 besides ! _w :i* we see1 inf9ite o!r worlds1 n ev5 !n w\ld any ?+ exi/ = u1 _h we n ^? int]nal acts ( :i* we are speak+4 ,we %\ld be l an ins5sible body plac$ 9 ! imm5sity ( space1 :i* w\ld suff] no mutation 7 e ?+ ar\nd x to disappe>1 & w\ld p]ceive no *ange ev5 if x 7 itself to s9k into ! abyss ( no?+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we suppose e ?+ to be annihilat$ except ?is be+ )9 u :i* feels1 ?9ks1 & wills1 !re /ill rema9s a po9t :]eon to base ! edifice ( human cognitions3 ?is be+1 ?\gh alone 9 imm5sity1 w\ld r5d] itself an acc\nt ( its own acts to ! ext5t ( its ability1 & might g into numb]less comb9ations hav+ = _! object ! possible ?\gh n ! real4 #afg4 ,! fam\s pr9ciple ( ,desc>tes1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 has be5 (t5 attack$1 & ju/ly & conclusively s1 if ?is philosoph] really und]/ood 8 pr9ciple 9 ! s5se :i* ! s*ools are accu/om$ to give x4 ,if ,desc>tes pres5t$ x z a true argum5t1 z an en?ymema ) an antec$5t & a consequ5t1 ! argum5t 0 cle>ly defective 9 its f\ndation4 ,= :5 he said1 ,i am go+ to prove my exi/5ce ) ?is en?ymema3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am3 ?is objection might h be5 made2 y\r en?ymema is equival5t to a syllogism 9 ?is =m3 :atev] ?9ks1 exi/s2 b ,i ?9k2 !re=e1 ,i exi/4 ,?is syllogism1 9 ! supposition ( a univ]sal d\bt1 exclud+ ev5 ! supposition ( exi/5ce itself1 is inadmissable 9 its propositions & 9 _! connection4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 h[ d y "k t :atev] ?9ks exi/s8 ,because no?+ c ?9k )\t exi/+4 ,h[ d y "k t8 ,because :at does n exi/1 does n act4 ,b h[ 9 its turn d y "k ?is8 ,suppos+ e ?+ to be d\bt$1 no?+ to be kn[n1 ^! pr9ciples are n kn[n2 o!rwise we fall %ort ( ! supposition ( univ]sal d\bt1 & consequ5tly g out ( ! "q4 ,if any "o ( ^! pr9ciples mu/ be admitt$ )\t pro(1 x is j z well to admit y\r own exi/5ce & save y\rself ! tr\ble ( prov+ x ) an en?ymema4 ,9 ! second place1 h[ d y "k t y ?9k8 ,y\r argum5t may be retort$1 z dialecticians say1 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 no?+ c ?9k )\t exi/+2 b y\r exi/5ce is d\btful1 = y are try+ to prove x2 !re=e y are n sure t y ?9k4 #afh4 ,manife/ly1 !n1 ,desc>tes' pr9ciple1 tak5 z a true argum5t1 _c be def5d$2 & x is s easy to see its defect1 t x seems impossible = s cle> & p5etrat+ an intellect to h ov]look$ x4 ,x is !re=e probable t ,desc>tes und]/ood 8 pr9ciple 9 a v diff]5t s5se2 & we w n[ briefly %[ :at mean+1 9 our judgm5t1 ! illu/ri\s philosoph] mu/ h giv5 to x4 ,suppos+ himself = a mom5t 9 univ]sal d\bt1 )\t accept+ = c]ta9 any?+ t is kn[n1 he conc5trat$ himself on himself1 & 9 ! dep? ( 8 s\l s\ght a po9t :]eon to base ! edifice ( human cognitions4 ,al?\gh we ab/ract all ar\nd u1 we cle>ly _c ab/ract ourselves1 our m9d1 :i* is pres5t to its own eyes1 only ! m lucidly1 ! great] ! ab/raction 9 :i* we place ourselves ) respect to et]nal objects4 ,n[ 9 ?is conc5tration1 ?is collection ( himself )9 himself1 ?is )drawal f e ?+ = fe> ( error1 & ask+ himself if !re be any ?+ c]ta91 if !re be any f\ndation & />t+-po9t 9 ! c>e] ( k2 fir/ ( all is pres5t$ to him ! consci\sness ( ?\ght1 ! v pres5ce ( ! acts ( 8 m9d4 ,if we mi/ake n1 ?is 0 ,desc>tes' ?\ght3 ,i wi% to d\bt ( e ?+2 ,i refra9 f affirm+ z f d5y+ any ?+2 ,i isolate myself f :atev] surr\nds me1 because ,i "k n if x be any ?+ m ?an an illusion4 ,b 9 ?is v isolation1 ,i meet ) ! intimate s5se ( my int]nal acts1 ) ! pres5ce ( my m9d2 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am2 ?is ,i feel 9 a mann] t leaves no room = d\bt or unc]ta9ty2 !re=e1 ,i am2 t is to say1 ?is s5se ( my ?\ght makes me "k my exi/5ce4 #afi4 ,?is expla9s :y ,desc>tes did n pres5t 8 pr9ciple z a m]e en?ymema1 z an ord9>y argum5t1 b z det]m9+ a fact pres5t$ to him & fir/ 9 ! ord] ( facts3 ev5 if he inf]r$ exi/5ce f ?\ght1 x 0 n by d$uction1 prop]ly s call$1 b z "o fact conta9$ 9 ano!r1 or r id5tifi$ ) x4 ,we say id5tifi$1 because x really is s 9 ,desc>tes' op9ion2 & ?is confirms :at we h already advanc$1 t ?is philosoph] did n (f] an argum5t1 b laid d[n a fact4 ,accord+ to him1 ! ess5ce ( ! s\l consi/s 9 ?\ght2 & z o!r s*ools ( philosophy di/+ui% betwe5 sub/ance & its acts1 consid]+ ! m9d 9 ! fir/ class1 & ?\ght 9 ! second1 s ,desc>tes held t !re 0 no di/9ction betwe5 m9d & ?\ght1 t !y 7 ! same ?+1 t ?\ght con/itut$ ! ess5ce ( ! s\l4 ,al?\gh "o attribute1 he says1 suffices to make u "k ! sub/ance1 !re is1 nev]!less1 9 e sub/ance "o attribute1 :i* con/itutes its nature & its ess5ce1 & on :i* all ! o!rs dep5d4 ,ext5sion 9 l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?1 con/itutes ! ess5ce ( corporeal sub/ance2 & ?\ght con/itutes ! nature ( ! sub/ance :i* ?9ks4#i ,f ?is x foll[s t ,desc>tes1 9 lay+ d[n ! pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i exi/1 only decl>$ a fact atte/$ by consci\sness2 & s simple did he consid] x1 & s unique1 t 9 evolv+ 8 sy/em1 he id5tifi$ ?\ght ) ! s\l1 & its ess5ce ) its exi/5ce4 ,he 0 consci\s ( ?\ght1 & said3 ?is ?\ght is my s\l2 ,i am4 ,x is n n[ our purpose to weigh ! value ( ?is doctr9e1 b only to expla9 9 :at x consi/s47#ag7 #i ,desc>tes4 ,pr9cipes de la ,philosophie1 #a;ire p>tie4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,desc>tes1 ,,cont9u$4--,,8 ,,me?od4 #agj4 ,desc>tes did n always express himself )1 suffici5t accuracy :5 ann\nc+ & expla9+ 8 pr9ciple2 & h5ce 8 words h be5 mis9t]pret$4 ,9 ! passage :]e he e/abli%es consci\sness ( our own ?\ght & exi/5ce z ! f\ndation :]eon all our cognitions mu/ re/1 he uses t]ms f :i* x c be inf]r$ t he n only means to decl>e a fact1 b t he also int5ds to af=d a true argum5t4 ,nev]!less1 if we read 8 words att5tively1 & comp>e !m ) "o ano!r1 x w be evid5t t su* 0 n 8 idea1 al?\gh we %\ld n sometimes be wrong 9 say+ t he did n make suffici5t acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce1 :i* we h j po9t$ out1 betwe5 an argum5t & ! simple decl>ation ( a fact2 & t1 :5 conc5trat+ himself on himself1 he did n h a suffici5tly cle> reflex k ( ! mann] 9 :i* he re/$ ^u 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,to conv9ce ourselves ( ?is1 let u exam9e 8 own words3 ,:ile we ?us reject e ?+ ( :i* we c h ! lea/ d\bt1 & ev5 feign t x is false1 we easily suppose t !re is no ,god1 no heav51 no e>?2 t we h n a body3 b we _c 9 l mann] suppose t we are n :il/ we d\bt ! tru? ( all ^! ?+s2 = we exp]i5ce s great repugnance to conceive t :at ?9ks is n at ! same "t t x ?9ks1 t not)/&+ all ! mo/ extravagant suppositions1 we _c help believ+ ?is conclusion1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 to be true1 & consequ5tly ! fir/ & mo/ c]ta9 to pres5t itself to him :o ord]s well 8 ?\ghts4#aj #aj ,desc>tes4 ,pr9cipes de la ,philosophie1 #a;ire p>tie1 ,n4 #g4 ,9 ?is passage we detect a true syllogism3 :atev] ?9ks1 exi/s2 b ,i ?9k2 !re=e ,i exi/4 ,we h1 says ,desc>tes1 s great repugnance to conceive t :at ?9ks is n at ! same "t t x ?9ks2 :i* is ! same z to say1 :atev] ?9ks1 exi/s2 & ?is1 9 s*ola/ic t]ms1 is to e/abli% ! major4 ,he !n says3 not)/&+ all ! mo/ extravagant suppositions1 we _c help believ+ ?is conclusion1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 to be true2 :i* is equival5t to prov+ ! m9or1 & ! conclusion ( ! syllogism4 ,we "k t ,desc>tes 0 some:at tak5 up ) ! idea ( prov+ at ! same "t t he 0 engag$ 9 decl>+4 ,?is 0 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( 8 age1 & ev5 ! mo/ ard5t re=m]s ) difficulty pres]v$ !mselves f ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,we enc\nt] ?is same _s ?r\gh\t 8 m$itations1 admirably jo9$1 h[ev]1 ) ! _s ( obs]vation4 ,b ?r\gh ^! obscure or ambigu\s explanations1 :at ?\ght d we discov] at ! bottom ( ,desc>tes' sy/em :5 we ab/ract 8 hav+1 or n hav+1 r5d]$ himself an exact acc\nt ( :at he exp]i5c$8 ,?is ?\ght3 ,by an ef=t ( my m9d ,i c d\bt ! tru? ( ev]y?+2 b ?is ef=t has a limit 9 myself4 ,:5 ,i turn my att5tion ^u myself1 ^u ! consci\sness ( my int]nal acts1 ^u my exi/5ce1 d\bt is at an end2 x _c ext5d s f>3 ,i f9d s great repugnance t ! mo/ extravagant suppositions _c ov]come x4 ,?is 8 v words %[3 besides decl>+ ?is fact1 he rises to a g5]al & und\bt$ly true proposition2 he draws a conclusion also v legitimate2 b nei!r ( ^! 0 at all necess>y to ! pres5t case2 nei!r seem$ to expla9 well 8 op9ion1 b ei!r s]v$ to confuse x4 #aga4 ,desc>tes did no?+ m 9 ?is po9t ?an :at all philosoph]s d2 & /range z x may seem1 he did n diff] f ! *iefs ( ! metaphysical s*ool diametrically oppos$ to 8 own1 t ( ,locke & ,condillac4 ,t man1 9 seek+ to exam9e ! orig9 ( 8 cognitions1 & ! pr9ciples on :i* 8 c]ta9ty is bas$1 enc\nt]s ! fact ( consci\sness ( 8 int]nal acts1 t ?is consci\sness produces a firm c]ta9ty1 & t we c conceive no?+ m c]ta91 is a fact on :i* all ideologi/s agree1 & :i* all e/abli%1 al?\gh n 9 ! same words4 ,! m we reflect on ^! matt]s1 ! m we discov] 9 !m ! realization ( a pr9ciple confirm$ by reason & exp]i5ce1 t _m tru?s are n new1 b only pres5t$ "u a new =m1 & t _m sy/ems are n new1 b only express$ 9 new =mulas4 #agb4 ,ev5 ! univ]sal d\bt ( ,desc>tes1 rightly und]/ood1 is practis$ by e philosoph]2 :5ce we see t ! basis ( 8 sy/em1 oppos$ by _m1 is 9 fact adopt$ by all4 ,9 :at does 8 me?od consi/8 ,x may all be r$uc$ to ^! two po9ts3 ,i4 ,i wi% to d\bt ( ev]y?+3 ,,ii4 ,:5 ,i wi% to d\bt ( myself1 ,i _c4 ,let u exam9e ^! po9ts1 & we %all see t !y are common to all philosoph]s ) ,desc>tes4 ,:y does ,desc>tes wi% to d\bt ( ev]y?+8 ,because he proposes to exam9e ! orig9 & c]ta9ty ( 8 cognitions1 8 :ole k2 & !re=e he _c help suppos+ no?+ to be true4 ,if !n he supposes any?+1 he does n exam9e ! orig9 & motives ( ! c]ta9ty ( ev]y?+1 s9ce he excepts t :i* he supposes to be true4 ,he mu/ suppose no?+ to be true1 t he kn[s no?+ ( any?+2 o!rwise he _c say t he exam9es ! f\ndation ( ev]y?+4 ,ei!r !re is no su* philosophical "q1 al?\gh "o is f\nd 9 all books ( philosophy1 or else ,desc>tes' me?od mu/ ( necessity be foll[$4 ,b 9 :at does ?is d\bt consi/8 ,c x1 rationally speak+1 be a real & true d\bt8 ,no6 t is absolutely impossible4 ,man does n1 because a philosoph]1 de/roy 8 nature2 & nature is inv9cibly oppos$ to ?is d\bt tak5 9 a /rict s5se4 #agc4 ,:at !n is ?is d\bt8 ,no?+ m ?an a supposition1 a fiction2 a supposition & fiction su* z we make at e /ep 9 all sci5ce1 & :i*1 9 reality1 is only non-att5tion to a conviction ( our own4 ,use is made ( ?is d\bt 9 ord] to discov] ! fir/ tru? on :i* our und]/&+ re/s2 & ?is only requires a fictiti\s d\bt3 !re is no necessity ( its be+ positive1 = x w evid5tly make no diff]5ce :e!r we really d\bt ( ev]y?+1 admit absolutely no?+1 or say3 ,i suppose t ,i h no?+ = c]ta91 "k no?+1 admit no?+4 ,an example w make ?is explanation m evid5t4 ,:oev] kn[s ! rudim5ts ( geometry1 kn[s t 9 a triangle1 ! great] angle is opposite to ! great] side1 & he is absolutely c]ta9 ( ! tru? ( ?is !orem2 b if he propose to demon/rate x to ano!r1 or repeat ! demon/ration to himself1 he ab/racts ! said c]ta9ty1 & proce$s z ?\gh he _h x n1 9 ord] to %[ t x is f\nd$ ^u some?+4 ,9 all our /udies1 at e /ep1 we d ! same4 ,su* expressions z ^! are common3 ,?is is s1 x is evid5t2 b let u suppose t x is n2 :at w be ! result8 ,?is demon/ration is conclusive1 b let u set x aside & suppose t we h x n2 h[ %all we demon/rate :at we desire8 ,argum5ts ad absurdum1 s mu* 9 use 9 e sci5ce1 m especially 9 ma!matics1 consi/ n only 9 ab/ract+ :at we "k1 b 9 suppos+ some?+ directly contr>y4 ,if ! l9e ,a1 says cont9ually ! geometrician1 is n equal to ,b1 x is ei!r great] or less3 let u suppose x to be great]1 etc4 ,?us to inve/igate tru?1 we frequ5tly ab/ract :at we "k1 & ev5 suppose ! contr>y4 ,apply ?is sy/em to ! inve/igation ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( our cognitions1 & ,desc>tes' univ]sal d\bt w foll[1 9 ! only s5se admissible at ! tribunal ( reason1 & possible to human nature4 ,x is probable t ! illu/ri\s philosoph] und]/ood x 9 ! same s5se1 al?\gh we mu/ confess t 8 words are ambigu\s4 ,we _c conceive :at object he c\ld h _h 9 und]/&+ x diff]5tly1 suppos+1 z we d1 t he _h no o!r purpose ?an to pave ! way = ! inve/igation ( tru?4 ,by 8 mann] ( express+ himself1 he gave occasion to disputes1 :i* great] cle>ness w\ld h prev5t$4 ,z he did n express himself ) suffici5t cle>ness1 s 8 adv]s>ies did n press him ) all ! precision & en]gy possible4 ,to settle ?is :ole matt]1 x w\ld h suffic$ to ask him ?is "q3 ,d y mean to say t1 9 comm5c+ our philosophical inve/igations1 !re is a mom5t 9 :i* we really & actually d\bt ( e ?+2 or d y deem x suffici5t to ab/ract c]ta9ty1 & to suppose t we h x n1 z is frequ5tly done 9 o!r /udies8 #agd4 ,desc>tes 0 l all re=m]s :o are rul$ by "o idea1 & express x s /rongly z to seem to admit no o!r beside x4 ,9 _! language e ?+ is absolute1 exclusive4 ,!y anticipate ! combat :i* !y mu/ su/a91 p]haps already exp]i5ce x1 & s !y conc5trate all _! /r5g? on ! idea ^: triumph !y propose1 & lose sight ( e ?+ else4 ,x _c be inf]r$ f ?is t !y h no o!rs :i* notably modify ! pr9cipal2 b to oppose _! adv]s>ies1 :o say1 ,?is is absolutely false1 !y ass]t t x is absolutely true4 ,hi/ory & exp]i5ce furni% innum]able examples ( su* exagg]ations4 ,! dom9ant idea ( ,desc>tes 0 to demoli% ! philosophy :i* at t "t reign$ 9 ! s*ools2 & he gave x s rude a %ock z to make ! _w tremble4 ,see h[ he express$ 8 contempt = _m call$ philosoph]s3 ,exp]i5ce %[s t !y :o make pr(ession ( be+ philosoph]s are (t5 less wise & less reasonable ?an !y :o nev] appli$ !mselves to ?is /udy4#aa #aa ,les ,pr9cipes de la ,philosophie4 ,preface1 p4 #ac4 #age4 ,! second "p ( ,desc>tes' me?od consi/s 9 tak+ ?\ght = ! po9t ( dep>ture1 & 9 decl>+ t 9 try+ to d\bt ( e ?+ man f9ds a limit 9 ! consci\sness ( 8 ?\ght1 8 exi/5ce4 ,?is is evid5tly ! ph5om5on :i* rema9s 9 ! m9d ( ! obs]v] aft] d\bt+ ( e ?+ else2 at lea/ he _c d\bt t he d\bts1 & consequ5tly t he ?9ks2 = x mu/ be rem>k$ t ?is is an argum5t :i* has always be5 us$ aga9/ skeptics1 :i* is equival5t to ,desc>tes' me?od1 & e/abli%es z an und5iable ph5om5on a c]ta9ty sup]ior to all sophisms1 ! consci\sness ( "o's self4 ,:5 ,desc>tes said1 ,i ?9k1 he meant by ?is ^w e int]nal act1 e ph5om5on imm$iately pres5t to ! s\l2 he spoke n ( ?\ght tak5 9 a purely intellectual s5se1 b includ$ 9 x all t ( :i* we h imm$iate consci\sness4 ,by ! ^w ?\ght1 he says1 ,i und]/& all t is done )9 u1 9 su* a mann] t we p]ceive x imm$iately by ourselves3 ?is is :y n only to und]/&1 to w1 to imag9e1 b also to feel1 are "h ! same ?+ z to ?9k4 ,= if ,i say t ,i see1 or t ,i walk1 & !nce ,i inf] t ,i am2 if ,i mean to speak ( ! action p]=m$ ) my eyes or ) my feet1 ?is conclusion is n s infallible t ,i h no reason to d\bt x2 because x may be t ,i ?9k ,i see1 or walk1 al?\gh ,i d n op5 my eyes or /ir f my seat2 = ?is sometimes happ5s :5 ,i am asleep1 & ! same might also happ5 ev5 if ,i _h no body2 b if ,i mean to speak only ( ! action ( my ?\ght or ( ! feel+1 t is to say1 ! k t ,i possess1 :i* makes x seem to me t ,i see1 or t ,i walk1 ?is same conclusion is s absolutely true t ,i _c d\bt x2 because x relates to ! s\l1 :i* alone has ! faculty ( feel+1 or ( ?9k+1 9 any o!r mann] :atev]4#ab #ab ,les ,pr9cipes de la ,philosophie4 #a;ire4 p>tie1 ,n4 #i4 #agf4 ,?is passage %[s v cle>ly ,desc>tes' ideas2 he de/roy$ e ?+ by d\bt1 except+ "o ?+ :i* defi$ all 8 ef=ts1 ! consci\sness ( himself2 & ?is consci\sness he took = ! basis1 on :i*1 ) full c]ta9ty1 he might build anew ! edifice ( sci5ce4 ,locke & ,condillac did no?+ else2 !y foll[$1 inde$1 a diff]5t pa?1 b _! po9t ( dep>ture 0 at all times ! same4 ,locke says3 ,fir/1 ,i %all inquire into ! orig9al ( ^? ideas1 notions1 or :atev] else y please to call !m1 :i* a man obs]ves1 & is consci\s to himself he has 9 8 m9d2 & ! ways :]eby ! und]/&+ comes to be furni%$ by !m4#ac ,s9ce ! m9d1 9 all its ?\ghts & reason+s1 ha? no o!r imm$iate object b its own ideas1 :i* x alone does or c contemplate1 x is evid5t t our k is only conv]sant ab\t !m4#ad ,:e!r1 to speak metaphorically1 says ,condillac1 we asc5d ev5 to ! heav5s1 or desc5d into ! abysses1 we d n g out ( ourselves1 & x is always our own ?\ght t we p]ceive4#ae #ac ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+4 ,prologue4 #ad ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+4 ,book iv41 ,*ap4 ,i41 #a4 #ae ,essai sur l',orig9e des ,connaissances4 ,premire p>tie1 ,c4 #a41 #a4 #agg4 ,all ideological labors comm5ce !n by e/abli%+ ! fact ( consci\sness ( our ideas2 & x _c be o!rwise ) respect to _! c]ta9ty4 ,man1 al?\gh he ov]?r[ & de/roy e ?+1 /ill enc\nt]s himself1 ! "o :o ov]?r[s & de/roys e ?+4 ,:5 he has gone s f> z to d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! _w1 8 fell[-be+s1 8 own body1 he /ill1 9 ! mid/ ( ?is imm5se solitude1 enc\nt]s himself4 ,! ef=t to conceal himself f 8 own eyes s]ves only to r5d] him m visible3 he is a _s to be kill$ by no bl[1 & rays ( light fl[ f e w\nd inflict$ on him4 ,if he d\bts t he feels1 he at lea/ feels t he d\bts2 if he d\bts ( ?is d\bt1 he feels t he d\bts ( d\bt itself2 ?us1 9 d\bt+ ( direct acts1 he ent]s into an int]m9able s]ies ( reflex acts1 necess>ily l9k$ "o ) ! o!r1 & unroll$ to ! int]nal view l folds ( a sc>f :i* has no end47#ah7 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple1 ,i ,,?9k3 ,,its--,,analysis4 #agh4 ,we h already se5 t ,desc>tes' pr9ciple1 consid]$ z an en?ymema1 _c aspire to be fundam5tal4 ,9 e argum5t !re are premises & a consequ5ce2 & to be conclusive1 ! premises mu/ be true1 & ! consequ5ce legitimate4 ,to say t an argum5t may be a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 is a manife/ contradiction4 ,b if we take ,desc>tes' pr9ciple 9 ! s5se above expla9$1 t is1 n z an argum5t b z ! decl>ation ( a fact1 ! contradiction ceases1 & x is a "q1 wor?y to be exam9$1 :e!r x m]its ! title ( fundam5tal pr9ciple or n1 & 9 :at s5se4 ,we h already some:at illu/rat$ ?is matt]1 b n yet suffici5tly cle>$ x up2 we h made "s prelim9>y rem>ks 9 ord] to %[ ! /ate ( ! "q1 b h n yet completely solv$ x4 #agi4 ,! proposition1 ,i ?9k1 z we h rem>k$1 expresses some?+ m ?an m]ely ?\ght1 /rictly s call$3 x embraces acts ( ! w1 s5tim5ts1 s5sations1 acts1 & expressions ( all k9ds :i* are realiz$ )9 u2 x includes all ph5om5a imm$iately pres5t to our m9d1 & atte/$ by consci\sness4 ,no?+ t di/+ui%es betwe5 v>i\s acts & impressions c be a fundam5tal pr9ciple3 su* a di/9ction supposes analysis1 & analysis requires reflection4 ,we d n reflect )\t rules & objects already kn[n2 consequ5tly1 to admit classifications 9 ! fir/ pr9ciple1 is to dive/ x ( its "* & to contradict ourselves4 #ahj4 ,we mu/ n conf\nd :at is express$ by ! proposition ,i ?9k ) ! proposition itself4 ,! ?+ itself & ! =m are "h v diff]5t3 ! nature ( ! =m may make u conceive ambigu\s ideas ( ! ?+ itself3 ! ?+ itself is a mo/ simple fact2 ! =m is a logical comb9ation1 & includes v het]og5e\s elem5ts4 ,?is dem&s explanation4 ,! fact ( consci\sness1 9 itself consid]$1 ab/racts all relations2 x is no?+ b itself1 leads to no?+ b itself2 x is ! pres5ce ( ! act or impression1 or r x is ! act1 ! impression itself1 :i* is pres5t to ! m9d4 ,!re is no comb9ation ( ideas1 no analysis ( conceptions2 :5 x comes to ?is latt]1 x leaves ! t]ritory ( pure consci\sness1 & ent]s ! objective regions ( intellectual activity4 ,b z language is to express ! products ( ?is activity1 & z x is ca/1 s to say1 n 9 ! m\ld ( consci\sness1 b 9 t ( ! intellect1 x is impossible = u to speak )\t "s logical or ideal comb9ation4 ,7 we seek+ an expression ( pure consci\sness1 unmix$ ) intellectual elem5ts1 we %\ld seek x n 9 language1 b 9 ! natural sign ( grief1 joy1 or "s o!r passion2 9 ?is alone is x express$ spontane\sly & uncomb9$ ) =eign elem5ts1 t some?+ passes 9 our m9d1 t we are consci\s ( some?+2 b ! in/ant t we speak1 we express some?+ m ?an pure consci\sness3 ! ext]nal _w indicates ! int]nal1 ! product ( intellectual activity1 its conception2 & ?is involves a subject & an object1 & !re=e p]ta9s to an ord] f> sup]ior to t ( consci\sness4 #aha4 ,to demon/rate ! tru? ( :at we h j said1 let u exam9e ! expression1 ,i ?9k4 ,?is is a true proposition1 & x may1 )\t be+ 9 ! lea/ *ang$1 be pres5t$ "u a /rictly logical =m1 ,i am ?9k+4 ,"h we h a subject1 a pr$icate1 & a copula4 ,! subject is ,i2 t is to say1 we at once f9d ! idea ( a be+1 ! subject ( acts & impressions1 ! possessor ( an activity express$ 9 ! pr$icate4 ,?is ,i is !n pres5t$ to u z some?+ f> sup]ior to ! ord] ( pure consci\sness2 x is no?+ less ?an ! idea ( sub/ance4 ,we w analyze m at l5g? :at is conta9$ "u x4 ,we h1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! idea ( unity3 ! ,i has no mean+1 if x d n d5ote t some?+ is "o & id5tical1 not)/&+ ! plurality & div]sity realiz$ 9 x4 ,! exp]im5tal unity ( consci\sness draws ) x1 z a rigid consequ5ce1 ! unity ( ! be+ possess+ x4 ,?is be+ is ! subject2 & 9 x are realiz$ ! v>iations )\t :i* x w\ld be impossible to say ,i4 ,we hold !n t 9 s simple an expression ! ideas ( unity & its relation to plurality1 ( sub/ance & its relations to accid5ts1 are conta9$2 t is1 ! idea ( ! s\l1 al?\gh expressive ( a mo/ simple unity1 is1 "u ! logical aspect1 composite1 & conta9s _m ?+s p]ta9+ to ! ideal ord]1 & n to be f\nd 9 pure consci\sness4 ,! idea ( ! s\l1 /rictly speak+1 al?\gh 9 a c]ta9 s5se common to all m51 is 9 itself highly philosophical1 = x involves a comb9ation ( elem5ts belong+ to ! intellectual ord]4 #ahb4 ,! pr$icate ?9k+ is ! expression ( a g5]al idea1 compreh5d+ n only all ?\ght1 b also all ph5om5a :i* imm$iately affect ! m9d4 ,^! ph5om5a1 consid]$ 9 :at !y h 9 common1 "u ! g5]al idea ( pres5t to ! m9d1 are express$ 9 ! ^w ?9k+4 ,! relation ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject1 or ! agreem5t ( ?9k+ ) ! s\l1 also expresses an analysis wor?y ( att5tion4 ,we at once detect a decomposition ( ! conception ( ! s\l into two ideas2 t ( ! subject ( v>i\s modifications1 & t ( ?9k+4 ,o!rwise ! proposition has no mean+1 or r its expression becomes impossible4 ,! idea ( subject involves ! ideas ( unity & sub/ance1 & t ( ?9k+ involves ! idea ( activity1 or ( passivity1 s to speak1 accompani$ by consci\sness4 #ahc4 ,to r5d] ! proposition possible1 we mu/ suppose ! decomposition ( ! ideas to comm5ce at "s po9t1 t is1 ei!r 9 ! idea ( ! s\l we f9d t ( ?9k+1 or 9 t ( ?9k+ we f9d t ( ! s\l4 ,fix+ ourselves 9 ! s\l1 & ab/ract+ ?9k+1 we meet ) ! idea ( subject1 or ( sub/ance 9 g5]al2 & !re1 h[ev] mu* we cavil1 we %all nev] f9d ! idea ( ?9k+4 ,! s\l 9 itself is n manife/$ to u2 we "k x by ?\ght2 9 ?\ght !re=e we mu/ fix ! po9t ( dep>ture1 n 9 ! s\l2 :]e=e 9 ! above proposition1 :at is primitively kn[n is r ! pr$icate ?an ! subject2 & ( ! two conceptions1 t ( subject has r ! "* ( a ?+ conta9$1 ?an ( a ?+ conta9+4 ,! s\l by itself1 s to speak1 spr+s up ) ! pres5ce ( ?\ght4 ,if ! intellectual activity is conc5trat$ 9 se>* ( its fir/ basis1 x f9ds x1 n 9 ! pure subject1 b 9 its acts1 t is1 9 its ?\ghts4 ,^! la/ are !n ! fir/ object ( reflective intellectual activity1 its fir/ elem5t ( comb9ation1 its fir/ datum = ! solution ( ! problem4 ,fix+ its sight on ?is elem5t1 x discov]s a unity 9 ! mid/ ( plurality1 a be+ t rema9s ! same ?r\gh ! ebb & fl[ ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness2 & ?is id5tity is inconte/ably ass]t$ by consci\sness itself4 ,! idea ( ! s\l !n is tak5 f t ( ?\ght1 & consequ5tly ! subject spr+s f ! pr$icate1 r ?an ! pr$icate f ! subject4 #ahd4 ,! ?\ght f :i* we d]ive ! idea ( ! s\l is n ?\ght 9 g5]al1 b ?\ght realiz$1 exi/+ 9 ourselves4 ,b ?is reality is /]ile unless (f]$ to ! m9d "u a g5]al idea2 = x is evid5t t ! s\l does n come f "o s+le act1 s9ce x is unity1 ! subject ( plurality4 ,to arrive at ! idea ( ! s\l we require unity ( consci\sness1 & ?is we "k only z we h exp]i5c$ x1 t is1 s f> z we p]ceive ! relation ( ! "o to ! multiple1 ( a subject to its modifications4 ,su* elaboration is necess>y to ! production ( s simple an expression z ,i ?9k2 & "h we see h[ mu* reason !re is to di/+ui% betwe5 ! ?+ itself & ! =m1 & h[ inconsid]ately !y act :o conf\nd ?+s s diff]5t4 ,?us1 f want ( due analysis1 !y take 9 philosophy imm5se /rides f "o ord] to ano!r1 conf\nd ideas & entangle matt]s4 #ahe4 ,to completely illu/rate ?is matt]1 we w exam9e ! relations ( exi/5ce to ?\ght2 a v easy exam9ation1 if we be> 9 m9d ! obs]vation j made4 ,x is c]ta9 t we conceive exi/5ce be=e ?\ght3 no?+ c ?9k )\t exi/+3 exi/5ce is an indisp5sable condition to ?\ght3 to ?9k & n to exi/ is a manife/ contradiction4 ,b :at is fir/ (f]$ to our m9d is n exi/5ce1 b ?\ght1 & ?is n 9 ! ab/ract1 b det]m9ate1 exp]im5tal1 or z ! expression n[ is1 empyrical4 ,! idea ( exi/5ce is g5]al1 includes all be+s1 & consci\sness _c comm5ce ) x4 ,at "o "t we obta9 ?is idea by ab/raction2 at ano!r1 x is a =m pre-exi/+ 9 our m9d1 n ! fir/ t occurs to u1 or to speak m exactly1 n ! la/ po9t to be atta9$ :5 we foll[ back ! ?read ( our cognitions 9 ord] to discov] _! />t+-po9t4 ,?is consci\sness1 :5 made objective1 & :5 ! conception :i* x (f]s is analyz$1 pres5ts to u ! idea ( exi/5ce z conta9$ 9 itself4 ,h5ce we inf] t ! !re=e ,i exi/ is n1 /rictly speak+1 a consequ5ce ( ! ,i ?9k1 b ! intuition ( ! idea ( exi/5ce 9 t ( ?\ght4 ,!re are "h two propositions p] se n1 z ! s*ola/ics say3 ! "o g5]al1 ! ?9k+ is exi/+2 ! o!r p>ticul>1 ,i ?9k+ am exi/+4 ,! fir/ belongs to ! purely ideal ord]1 & is intr9sically evid5t1 indep5d5tly ( all p>ticul> consci\sness2 ! second p>ticipates ( ! two ord]s1 ! real & ! ideal2 ! real1 9 s f> z x includes ! p>ticul> fact ( consci\sness2 ! ideal1 9 s f> z x includes a comb9ation ( ! g5]al idea ( exi/5ce ) ! p>ticul> fact2 s9ce ?us only is ! union ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject conceivable4 #ahf4 ,x w n[ be v easy to solve all ! que/ions discuss$ 9 ! s*ools4 ,fir/ "q4 ,does ! pr9ciple ,i ?9k dep5d on ano!r8 ,we answ] ) a di/9ction4 ,if by ?is pr9ciple is meant ! simple fact ( consci\sness1 x evid5tly does n4 ,= our und]/&+ !re is no?+ prior to ourselves2 :atev] we "k s f> =? z kn[n by u1 supposes our consci\sness2 if we suppress x1 we de/roy e ?+1 & al?\gh we attempt to de/roy e ?+1 x /ill rema9s inde/ructible1 s9ce x dep5ds on no?+1 presupposes no?+4 ,if by ! pr9ciple ,i ?9k is meant a proposition1 x c only h proce$$ f reason+ or analysis1 & s _c be ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( our cognitions4 #ahg4 ,second "q4 ,:5 ! o!r pr9ciples are want+1 is ?is "o also want+8 ,we mu/ apply ! same di/9ction "h3 z a simple fact8 ,no6 z a proposition8 ,yes6 ,d5y e ?+1 ev5 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & consci\sness /ill subsi/s2 b d5y ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & e proposition is de/roy$1 e comb9ation becomes absurd3 analysis1 & ! relation ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject1 are unmean+ words4 #ahh4 ,?ird "q4 ,admitt+ ! pr9ciple ,i ?9k1 c he :o d5ies ! o!rs be r$uc$ at lea/ indirectly to tru?8 ,we aga9 di/+ui%3 y speak ( r$uc+ him ei!r by reason+ or by obs]vation2 t is1 ei!r y wi% to conv9ce him by argum5ts1 or else to turn 8 att5tion to himself1 z is done ) a man di/ract$1 or "o suff]+ m5tal d]angem5t4 ,! second is possible1 b n ! fir/4 ,:oev] d5ies all pr9ciples1 t ( contradiction includ$1 makes all argum5t impossible2 9 va9 !n w y reason ) him4 ,let u see4 ,y ?9k1 "o may say to him1 at lea/ y s ass]t1 :5 y admit ! pr9ciple ,i ?9k4 ,true4 ,!n y mu/ also admit ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,:y s8 ,because o!rwise y c\ld ?9k & n ?9k at ! same "t4 ,v well4 ,b !n y de/roy y\r own ?\ght4 ,h[8 ,is x n true t y ?9k8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,accord+ to y\rself x is possible t at ! same "t y d n ?9k4 ,i agree ) y4 ,!re=e1 y de/roy y\r ?\ght2 = if y d n ?9k1 ! ,i ?9k is de/roy$1 &1 z all ?is is simultane\s1 y de/roy y\r own ?\ght4 ,n at all4 ,:at ,i object to 9 y\r sy/em is t y suppose true ! v ?+ :i* ,i d5y1 & s fall into ! sophism nam$ by logicians petitio pr9cipii4 ,by ! v fact ( my d5y+ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 ,i d5y t n-be+ de/roys be+1 & t be+ de/roys n-be+2 consequ5tly1 ,i d n admit t ! ,i d n ?9k de/roys ! ,i ?9k4 ,:5 y argue aga9/ me 9 ?is way1 y suppose ! v po9t 9 "q1 & attack me ) pr9ciples :i* ,i d n admit4 ,9 y\r sy/em1 9 :i* be+ de/roys n-be+1 & vice v]sa1 x is c]ta9 t to ?9k1 & n ?9k1 are incompatible2 b on my pr9ciples1 x is a v simple ?+2 s9ce1 accord+ to !m1 x is n impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be at ! same "t1 :5 ,i d n ?9k1 ,i d n cease to ?9k4 ,?is is inde$ absurd1 b n illogical2 d5y ! pr9ciple1 & ! d$uction is necess>y4 ,& if x be said t 9 su* a case he _c reason1 z he j has reason$1 he may reply t nei!r c 8 adv]s>ies reason2 or1 if y *oose1 he sees no difficulty 9 _! bo? reason+ & n reason+4 ,obs]vation is ! only means ( br++ back "o :o has ?us /ray$ away2 su* a "o has dep>t$ f reason1 & _c be br\ght back to x by means ( reason4 ,obs]vations direct$ to him mu/ be m ( a call1 a sort ( al>m to ar\se reason1 n a comb9ation to re-con/ruct x3 he is z a man asleep1 or "o 9 a swoon1 & we mu/ call him1 & %ake him1 9 ord] to ar\se him2 we mu/ n dispute ) him z ) an adv]s>y47#ai7 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,true ,,s5se ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,contradiction4--,,kant',s ,,op9ion4 #ahi4 ,be=e exam9+ ! value ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction z a basis = our cognitions1 x w be well to fix its true & exact s5se4 ,?is r5d]s necess>y "s consid]ations ^u an op9ion ( ,kant1 advanc$ 9 8 ,critic ( ,pure ,reason1 :5 treat+ ( ! =m 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( contradiction has hi!rto be5 enunciat$ 9 all s*ools ( philosophy4 ,! ,g]man metaphysician grants1 t :atev] may be ! matt] ( our cognitions1 & 9 :atev] mann] !y may relate to _! object1 x is a g5]al1 al?\gh a purely negative1 condition ( all our judgm5ts1 t !y %\ld n mutually contradict ea* o!r2 o!rwise1 ev5 )\t ref]5ce to _! object1 !y are no?+ 9 !mselves4 ,?is doctr9e e/abli%$1 he obs]ves t :at is call$ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is ! foll[+3 ,a pr$icate t is oppos$ to a subject does n belong to x2 & !n goes on to say1 t ?is is a univ]sal1 al?\gh purely negative crit]ion ( all tru?2 t x moreov] belongs exclusively to logic1 s9ce x is ( use to pure cognitions z to cognitions 9 g5]al1 )\t relation to _! object1 & he decl>es t ! contradiction makes !m completely disappe>4 ,b ( ?is celebrat$ pr9ciple1 al?\gh /ripp$ ( all cont5ts1 & purely =mal1 he cont9ues1 !re is /ill a =mula conta9+ a syn!sis1 :i* has inadv]t5tly1 & q unnecess>ily1 be5 mix$ up !re94 ,x is ?is3 ,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be at ! same "t4 ,n only has ! apodictic c]ta9ty 7by ! ^w impossible7 be5 unnecess>ily add$1 :i* c]ta9ty w\ld h be5 ( itself und]/ood f ! proposition2 b ! proposition is affect$ by ! condition ( "t1 & says1 z x 73 a ?+ ,a1 :i* is some?+ ,b1 _c at ! same "t be n ,b1 b x c v well be bo? 7,b z well z n ,b7 9 succession4 ,= example3 a man :o is "y1 _c at ! same "t be old2 b ! same p]son may v well be "y at "o "t1 at ano!r n "y1 t is1 old4 ,n[1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 z a m]e logical pr9ciple1 mu/ n at all re/rict its mean+ to ! relations ( "t1 & consequ5tly1 su* a =mula is q oppos$ to its int5tion4 ,! misappreh5sion arises simply f ?is3 t we fir/ sep>ate ! pr$icate ( a ?+ f its conception1 & aft]w>ds unite its opposite ) ?is pr$icate1 :i* nev] gives a contradiction ) ! subject1 b only ) its pr$icate1 :i* is syn!tically jo9$ ) t subject1 & t only :5 ! fir/ & second pr$icates are ass]t$ at ! same "t4 ,if ,i say a man :o is unle>n$ is n le>n$1 ! condition1 at ! same "t1 mu/ be express$2 = he :o is unle>n$ at "o "t may v well be le>n$ at ano!r4 ,b if ,i say no unle>n$ man is le>n$1 ! proposition is analytic1 s9ce ! sign 7! unle>n$ness7 n[ con/itutes ! conception ( ! subject1 & !n ! negative proposition is evid5t imm$iately f ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 )\t x be+ necess>y = ! condition1 at ! same "t1 to be add$4 ,?is is also ! cause :y ,i h s *ang$ ! =mula ( ?is pr9ciple1 t ! nature ( an analytic proposition might be cle>ly express$4#af #af ,transc5d5tal ,logic1 ,b4 ii41 ,c4 #b1 ,sect4 #a1 pp4 #adj-ada4 ,ed4 ,leipsic4 #ahbh4 #aij4 ,! read] w n easily compreh5d ! mean+ ( ?is passage1 n v cle> ( itself1 unless he kn[s :at ,kant und]/&s by analytic & syn!tic propositions4 ,we w expla9 ?is4 ,9 all affirmative judgm5ts1 ! relation ( a pr$icate to a subject is possible 9 two mann]s3 ei!r ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject z conta9$ 9 x1 or is completely extrane\s to x al?\gh jo9$ ) x4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! judgm5t is analytic2 9 ! latt]1 x is syn!tic4 ,analytic affirmative judgm5ts are ^? 9 :i* ! union ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject is conceiv$ by id5tity3 ^? are call$ syn!tic 9 :i* ?is union is conceiv$ )\t id5tity4 ,kant illu/rates 8 idea by ! foll[+ examples3 ,:5 ,i say all bodies are ext5d$1 ,i express an analytic judgm5t2 = ,i ne$ n g out ( ! conception ( body 9 ord] to f9d t ( ext5sion1 :i* ,i connect ) x1 b ,i h only to analyze ! conception ( body1 t is1 to become consci\s ( ! div]sity :i* ,i always ?9k 9 ?is conception1 9 ord] to f9d ! pr$icate4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an analytic judgm5t4 ,b :5 ,i say1 all bodies are heavy1 ! pr$icate heav9ess is by no means includ$ 9 my conception ( ! subject1 t is1 ( body 9 g5]al4 ,x is a conception add$ to ! conception ( body4 ,! addition 9 ?is way ( ! pr$icate to ! subject gives a syn!tic judgm5t4#ag #ag ,critic ( ,pure ,reason4 ,introduction1 ,sect4 #d41 p4 #i4 ,x is easy to see ! reason ( ! new nom5clature employ$ by ! ,g]man philosoph]4 ,he calls ^? judgm5ts analytical1 9 :i* x suffices to decompose ! subject to f9d !re9 ! pr$icate1 )\t ! necessity ( add+ any ?+ n already ?\ght1 at lea/ obscurely1 9 ! v conception ( ! subject2 & he calls syn!tic ^? 9 :i* x is necess>y to add some?+ to ! conception ( subject1 s9ce ! pr$icate is n f\nd 9 ?is conception h[ev] mu* we decompose x4 #aia4 ,?is division ( judgm5t1 into analytic & syn!tic1 is mu* us$ 9 mod]n philosophy1 above all among ! ,g]mans2 c]ta9ly !re are "s :o may imag9e ?is to be a discov]y made by ! au?or ( ! ,critic ( ,pure ,reason2 & ! v novelty ( ! "n may give occasion to equivocation4 ,yet1 9 all ! s*ola/ic writ]s :o lie =gott51 & cov]$ ) du/1 9 ! recesses ( libr>ies1 we f9d analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts1 ?\gh n "u ^! names4 ,!y said !re 7 two k9ds ( judgm5ts2 "s1 9 :i* ! pr$icate 0 conta9$ 9 ! idea ( subject1 & o!rs1 9 :i* x 0 n4 ,!y call$ ! propositions :i* express$ judgm5ts ( ! =m] class1 p] se n1 or kn[n by !mselves1 because1 ! mean+ ( ! t]ms be+ und]/ood1 ! pr$icate 0 se5 to be conta9$ 9 ! idea1 or ! conception ( ! subject4 ,!y also call$ !m fir/ pr9ciples1 & ! p]ception ( !m1 intellig5ce1 intellectus1 to di/+ui% !m f reason1 :i* is conv]sant ab\t ! cognitions ( m$iate evid5ce1 or ratioc9ation4 ,see if ! foll[+ texts ( ,/4 ,?omas leave any ?+ to be desir$ 9 cle>ness or precision3 ,a proposition is kn[n by itself1 p] se n1 :5 ! pr$icate is conta9$ 9 ! subject1 z2 man is an animal2 = animal is ( ! ess5ce ( man4 ,if1 !n1 x is kn[n to all1 :at ! subject & ! pr$icate are1 t proposition w be kn[n by itself to all1 z is se5 9 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( demon/ration1 :i* are c]ta91 common ?+s1 n unkn[n to any "o1 z be+ & n-be+1 ! :ole1 ! "p1 & o!rs simil>4#ah #ah ,summa ,!ologica4 ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #b;a1 ,a4 #ao1 9 corp4 ,any proposition ! pr$icate ( :i* is ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 is kn[n by itself1 al?\gh su* a proposition is n kn[n by itself = any "o :o is ignorant ( ! def9ition ( ! subject4 ,?us ?is proposition1 man is rational1 is by its nature kn[n by itself1 because :oev] says man1 says rational4#ai #ai #a;a #b;dae1 ,q4 #id;a1 ,a4 #bo1 9 corp4 #aib4 ,by ^!1 & _m o!r examples1 :i* x w\ld be easy to adduce1 x is se5 t ! di/9ction betwe5 analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts 0 common 9 ! s*ools c5turies be=e ,kant fl\ri%$4 ,analytic judgm5ts 7 all ^? =m$ by imm$iate evid5ce2 & syn!tic1 ^? result+ f m$iate evid5ce1 :e!r ( ! purely ideal ord]1 or 9 "s s5se dep5d+ on exp]i5ce4 ,x 0 well kn[n t !re 7 conceptions ( ! subject1 9 :i* ! pr$icate 0 ?\ght1 at lea/ confus$ly2 & ?us union1 or id5tity1 0 expla9$ by say+ t ! propositions1 9 :i* x 0 f\nd1 7 p] se n ex t]m9is4 ,9 analytic judgm5ts1 ! pr$icate is 9 ! subject2 no?+ is add$1 accord+ to ,kant1 x is only unfold$4 ,:oev] says man says rational1 are ! words ( ,/4 ,?omas3 ! idea is ! same z t ( ! ,g]man philosoph]4 #aic4 ,b let u see if x is necess>y to *ange ! =mula by :i* ! pr9ciple ( contradiction has hi!rto be5 express$4 ,! fir/ obs]vation ( ,kant ref]s to ! ^w impossible1 :i* he consid]s unnecess>ily add$1 s9ce ! apodictic c]ta9ty1 :i* we wi% to express1 %\ld be conta9$ 9 ! proposition itself4 ,kant's =mula ( ! pr9ciple is ?is3 a pr$icate :i* is oppos$ to a subject1 does n belong to x4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! ^w impossible8 ,possible & impossible absolutely1 are said 9 relation to ! t]ms4 ,possible1 because ! pr$icate is n oppos$ to ! subject2 impossible1 because ! pr$icate is oppos$ to ! subject2 says ,/4 ,?omas1#bj & ) him agree all ! s*ools4 ,!re=e1 impossibility is ! opposition ( ! pr$icate to ! subject1 & to be repugnant is ! same ?+ z to be impossible1 & ,kant uses ! v language :i* he blames 9 o!rs4 ,! common =mula might be express$ 9 ?is mann]3 !re is opposition 9 ! same ?+ be+ & n-be+ at ! same "t1 or1 be+ is oppos$ to n-be+1 or1 be+ excludes n-be+1 or1 e ?+ is equal to itself2 & ,kant expresses no?+ m :5 he says3 a pr$icate :i* is oppos$ to a subject does n belong to x4 #bj ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #be;a1 ,a4 #c4 #aid4 ,z a univ]sal crit]ion1 !re is m exactness 9 ! common =mula ?an 9 t ( ,kant4 ,! latt] re/ricts ! pr9ciple to ! relation ( pr$icate & subject1 & consequ5tly to ! purely ideal ord]1 mak+ x ( no value = ! real1 unless by a sort ( enl>gem5t4 ,?is enl>gem5t1 al?\gh legitimate & easy1 is n ne$$ 9 ! common =mula3 by say+ be+ excludes n-be+1 we embrace ! ideal & ! real1 & pres5t to ! m9d ! impossibility1 n only ( contradictory judgm5ts1 b also ( contradictory ?+s4 ,kant admits t ! pr9ciple is ! condition s9e qua non ( ! tru? ( our cognitions1 s t we mu/ take c>e n to place ourselves 9 contradiction ) x1 "u pa9 ( annihilat+ all cognition4 ,let u put ?is to ! pro(4 ,give a man1 unacqua9t$ ) ^! matt]s1 al?\gh n ignorant ( :at is meant by pr$icate & subject1 ^! two =mulas2 :i* w appe> to him ! be/ = all uses 9 ! ext]nal z 9 ! int]nal8 ,c]ta9ly n t ( ,kant4 ,he sees 9 an in/ant1 9 all its g5]ality1 t a ?+ _c bo? be & n be at ! same "t2 & he applies ! pr9ciple to all uses z well 9 ! real z 9 ! ideal ord]4 ,treat+ ( an ext]nal object1 he says1 ?is _c bo? be & n be at ! same "t2 treat+ ( contradictory judgm5ts1 ( ideas :i* exclude "o ano!r1 he says1 )\t any difficulty1 ?is _c be1 because x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be at ! same "t4 ,b x is n s easily & s readily se5 h[ transition is made f ! ideal to ! real ord]1 or h[ ! purely logical ideas ( pr$icate & subject c be us$ 9 ! ord] ( facts4 ,! common =mula1 !n1 besides be+ fully z exact z t ( ,kant1 is m simple1 m intelligible1 & m easy ( application4 ,are !re any qualities m desirable ?an ^! 9 a univ]sal crit]ion1 9 ! condition s9e qua non ( ! tru? ( our cognitions8 #aie4 ,we h ?us f> suppos$ ,kant's =mula really to express ! pr9ciple ( contradiction2 b ?is supposition is f> f be+ exact4 ,und\bt$ly !re w\ld be a contradiction1 7 a pr$icate oppos$ to a subject1 & yet to belong to x2 & 9 ?is s5se x may be said t ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is 9 "s mann] express$ 9 ,kant's =mula4 ,b ?is is n en\gh2 = we %\ld !n be oblig$ to say t e axiom expresses ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 s9ce no axiom c be d5i$ )\t a contradiction4 ,! =mula ( ! pr9ciple mu/ directly express reciprocal exclusion1 opposition betwe5 be+ & n-be+2 ?is is :at 0 int5d$1 & no?+ else 0 ev] meant by ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,kant1 9 8 new =mula1 does n directly express ?is exclusion3 :at he expresses is1 t :5 ! pr$icate is exclud$ f ! idea ( ! subject1 x does n belong to x4 ,s f> f express+ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 x is ! fam\s pr9ciple ( ! ,c>tesians3 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any ?+ may be affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty4 ,9 sub/ance ! two =mulas express ! same ?+1 & are only di/+ui%$ by ^! purely accid5tal diff]5ces3 fir/1 t ,kant's =mula is ! m concise2 second1 t x is negative1 & t ( ! ,c>tesians affirmative4 #aif4 ,kant says3 :atev] is exclud$ f ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any ?+1 may be d5i$ ( x4 ,a pr$icate :i* is oppos$ to a subject is ! same ?+ z t :i* is exclud$ f ! idea ( any ?+2 does n belong to x is ! same z may be d5i$ ( x4 ,& z1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pr9ciple ( ! ,c>tesians mu/ be und]/ood 9 bo? s5ses1 ! affirmative & ! negative1 because :5 !y say t :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any ?+ may be affirm$ ( x1 !y mean also t :5 any ?+ is exclud$1 x may be d5i$2 x foll[s t ,kant says ! same ?+ z ! ,c>tesians2 & ?us1 9 attempt+ to correct all ! s*ools1 he has fall5 into an equivocation n ( a nature to acquire him any great cr$it = p]spicacity4 ,x is cle> t ,kant's =mula implies ?is3 ! pr$icate conta9$ 9 ! idea ( a subject belongs to x4 ,?is condition is equally ! condition s9e qua non ( all analytic affirmative judgm5ts2 = ^! disappe> if t does n belong to ! subject :i* is conta9$ 9 its idea4 ,9 ?is case !re is n ev5 an app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ,kant's =mula & t ( ! ,c>tesians2 ! only diff]5ce is 9 t]ms2 ! propositions are exactly ! same4 ,h5ce we see t in/ead ( affirm+ t ! s*ools express$ !mselves inaccurately 9 ! cle>e/ & mo/ fundam5tal po9t ( human k1 we ought to proce$ ) great circumspection2 witness ! orig9ality ( ,kant's =mula4 #aig4 ,! au?or ( ! ,critic ( ,pure ,reason 0 n m =tunate 9 c5sur+ ! condition1 at ! same "t1 :i* is g5]ally add$ to ! =mula ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,s9ce he took ! lib]ty ( believ+ t no philosoph] be=e himself _h express$ ?is =mula 9 ! prop] mann]1 we beg to say t he did n himself well und]/& :at ! o!rs int5d$ to express1 & we d n1 9 say+ ?is1 deem ourselves guilty ( a philosophical pr(anation4 ,if ,kant is an oracle = c]ta9 p]sons1 all philosoph]s toge!r & all mank9d are also oracles to be he>d & respect$4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is ! condition s9e qua non ( all human cognitions4 ,if1 !n1 ?is condition is to s]ve z _! object1 x mu/ be s express$ z to be applicable to all cases4 ,our cognitions are n compos$ solely ( necess>y elem5ts1 b admit1 to a great ext5t1 ideas connect$ ) ! cont+5t2 s9ce1 z we h se51 purely ideal tru?s lead to no?+ positive1 unless br\ght d[n to ! gr\nd ( reality4 ,cont+5t be+s are subject to ! condition ( "t1 & all cognitions relat+ to !m mu/ always dep5d on ?is condition4 ,_! exi/5ce is limit$ to a det]m9ate space ( "t2 & x is necess>y to ?9k & speak ( x con=mably to ?is det]m9ation4 ,ev5 _! ess5tial prop]ties are 9 "s mann] affect$ by ! condition ( "t2 because if ab/ract$ f x1 & consid]$ 9 g5]al1 !y are n z !y are :5 realiz$2 t is1 :5 !y cease to be a pure ab/raction1 & become some?+ positive4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! reason1 & a v pr(\nd & cog5t reason1 :y all ! s*ools jo9$ ! idea ( "t to ! =mula ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction3 ! reason1 we repeat1 is v pr(\nd1 & x is /range h[ x escap$ ! ,g]man philosoph]'s p5etration4 #aih4 ,! importance ( ?is subject requires /ill fur!r explanation4 ,:at is ess5tial to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 is ! exclusion ( be+ by n-be+1 & ( n-be+ by be+4 ,! =mula mu/ express ?is fact1 ?is tru?1 :i* is pres5t$ by imm$iate evid5ce1 & is contemplat$ by ! intellect 9 a mo/ cle> intuition1 admitt+ nei!r d\bt nor obscurity ( any k9d4 ,! ^w be+ may be tak5 9 two s5ses3 sub/antively1 inasmu* z x signifies exi/5ce2 & copulatively1 z x expresses ! relation ( pr$icate to subject4 ,pet] is3 "h ! v]b is signifies ! exi/5ce ( ,pet]1 & is equival5t to ?is3 ,pet] exi/s4 ,! equilat]al triangle is equiangul>3 "h ! v]b is is tak5 copulatively1 s9ce x is n affirm$ t any equilat]al triangle exi/s2 m]ely ! relation ( equality ( angles to equality ( sides is e/abli%$ absolutely1 ab/raction made f ! exi/5ce ( ei!r4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction mu/ ext5d to ! cases 9 :i* be+ is copulative1 & to ^? 9 :i* x is sub/antive2 = :5 we say x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be1 we speak n only ( ! ideal ord]1 or ( ! relations betwe5 pr$icates & subjects1 b also ( ! real ord]4 ,7 no ref]5ce made to ?is la/1 we %\ld hold ! entire _w ( exi/5ces to be depriv$ ( ?is indisp5sable condition ( all cognitions4 ,moreov] ?is condition is n only necess>y to e cognition1 b also to e be+ 9 itself1 ab/ract+ its be+ kn[n1 or be+ intellig5t4 ,:at w\ld a be+ be t c\ld bo? be & n be8 ,:at is ! mean+ ( a contradiction realiz$8 ,! pr9ciple mu/ ext5d to ! ^w be+1 n only z copulative1 b also z sub/antive4 ,all f9ite exi/5ces1 our own includ$1 are measur$ by a successive duration2 !re=e1 if ! =mula ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is to be applicable to :atev] we "k 9 ! univ]se1 x mu/ be accompani$ by ! condition ( "t4 ,all f9ite ?+s1 :i* n[ exi/1 at "o "t did n exi/1 & x may aga9 be true t !y d n exi/4 ,( no "o c x be truly said t its non-exi/5ce is impossible2 ?is impossibility spr+s f exi/5ce 9 a giv5 "t1 & c only be ass]t$ ) respect to t "t4 ,!re=e1 ! condition ( "t is absolutely necess>y 9 ! =mula ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 if ?is =mula is to s]ve = ! exi/5t1 t is1 = t :i* is ! real object ( our cognitions4 #aii4 ,let u n[ see :at happ5s 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 :]e ! ^w be+ is tak5 copulatively4 ,propositions ( ! purely ideal ord] are ( two classes2 9 ! fir/1 ! subject is a g5]ic idea1 :i*1 by ! union ( ! specific diff]5ce1 becomes a det]m9ate species2 9 ! second1 ! subject is ?is det]m9ate species1 or ! g5]ic idea jo9$ ) ! diff]5ce4 ,! ^w angle expresses ! g5]ic idea compreh5d+ all angles1 :i*1 unit$ ) ! correspond+ diff]5ce1 con/itutes ! species ( acute1 obtuse1 or "r angle4 ,at e /ep we modify ! g5]ic idea 9 v>i\s ways1 & z a succession1 9 :i* are repres5t$ to u di/9ct conceptions1 all hav+ = _! basis ! g5]ic idea1 necess>ily ent]s into x1 x foll[s t we consid] ?is idea z a be+ :i* is successively trans=m$4 ,to express ?is succession1 :i* is purely intellectual1 we employ ! idea ( "t2 & "h is "o ( ! reasons :i* ju/ify ! use ( ?is condition ev5 9 ! purely ideal ord]4 ,?us we say1 an angle _c at ! same "t be bo? a "r angle & a n-"r angle2 = ! idea ( angle may be successively det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce :i* con/itutes x a "r angle1 & a n-"r angle2 b ^! det]m9ations _c co-exi/ ev5 9 our conception1 = :i* reason we d n ass]t ! union ( ! diff]5ce ) ! g5us to be absolutely impossible1 b limit ! impossibility to ! condition ( simultane\sness4 ,9 ?is proposition1 a "r angle _c be obtuse2 ! subject is n ! g5]ic idea alone1 b is unit$ ) ! diff]5ce express$ by ! ^w "r4 ,9 ! conception =m$ ( ^! two ideas1 "r & angle1 we see ! impossibility ( unit+ ! idea obtuse ) !m4 ,?is is )\t any condition ( "t1 & "h !re is none express$4 ,we frequ5tly say1 an angle _c be at ! same "t "r & obtuse2 b we nev] say1 a "r angle c nev] at ! same "t be obtuse1 b1 absolutely1 a "r angle _c be obtuse4 #bjj4 ,kant obs]ves t ! equivocation proce$s f comm5c+ by sep>at+ ! pr$icate ( a ?+ f ! conception ( ?is ?+1 & aft]w>ds jo9+ to ?is same pr$icate its opposite1 :i* nev] makes a contradiction to ! subject1 b to ! pr$icate1 :i* is syn!tically unit$ ) x2 a contradiction :i* happ5s only :5 ! fir/ & second pr$icates are suppos$ at ! same "t4 ,?is obs]vation ( ,kant is at bottom v true1 b x has its defects3 fir/1 x pret5ds to be orig9al1 :5 x only says ?+s already well kn[n2 & secondly1 x is us$ to combat an equivocation exi/+ only 9 ! m9d ( ! philosoph] :o wants to free o!rs f x4 ,! two propositions analyz$ 9 ! la/ p>agraph confirm :at we h j said4 ,an angle _c be bo? "r & n "r4 ,"h ! condition ( "t is necess>y1 because ! opposition is n betwe5 ! pr$icate & ! subject1 b betwe5 ! two pr$icates4 ,! angle may be "r or n "r1 only at diff]5t times4 ,a "r angle _c be obtuse2 "h ! condition ( "t mu/ n be express$1 because ! idea "r ent]+ into ! conception ( ! subject1 entirely excludes ! idea obtuse4 #bja4 ,if ! pr9ciple ( contradiction 7 to s]ve only = analytic judgm5ts1 t is1 = ^? 9 :i* ! pr$icate is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject1 ! condition ( "t %\ld nev] be express$2 b z ?is pr9ciple is to guide u 9 all o!r judgm5ts1 x foll[s t1 9 ! g5]al =mula1 we _c ab/ract a condition absolutely indisp5sable 9 mo/ cases4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our und]/&+1 :ile we are 9 ?is life1 non-ab/raction ( "t is ! rule1 ab/raction ! exception2 & w\ld y h a g5]al =mula con=m to ! exception & neglect ! rule8 #bjb4 ,we _c conceive :at reason ,kant _h to illu/rate ?is subject ) ! examples above cit$4 ,no?+ c be m common & inopportune ?an :at he adds 9 illu/ration ( ?is matt] by examples4 ,if ,i say a man :o is unle>n$ is n le>n$1 ! condition at ! same "t mu/ be und]/ood2 = he :o is unle>n$ at "o "t1 may v well be le>n$ at ano!r4 ,?is is n only v common & inopportune1 b x is exce$+ly inexact4 ,if ! proposition 73 a man _c be ignorant & in/ruct$2 !n ! condition at ! same "t %\ld be add$1 because n giv+ pref]5ce to ei!r pr$icate ov] ! o!r indicates ! mann] ( ! opposition1 :i* is ( pr$icate to pr$icate1 & n ( pr$icate to subject4 ,b 9 ! example adduc$ by ,kant1 ! man t is ignorant is n in/ruct$4 ,! subject is n man alone1 b an ignorant man2 ! pr$icate in/ruct$ devolves on man modifi$ by ! pr$icate ignorant1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! expression ( "t is n necess>y1 nor is x us$ 9 ord9>y language4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two propositions3 a man t is ignorant is n in/ruct$2 & a man t is ignorant _c be in/ruct$4 ,! condition ( "t mu/ n be express$ 9 ! =m]1 = ! reason already giv52 x mu/ be 9 ! latt]1 because speak+ ( ! impossibility 9 an absolute mann]1 we %\ld d5y ! ignorant man ev5 ! p[] to be in/ruct$4 #bjc4 ,kant's o!r example is ! foll[+3 ,b if ,i say no unle>n$ man is le>n$1 ! proposition is analytical1 s9ce ! sign ( unle>n$ness n[ con/itutes ! conception ( ! subject1 & !n ! negative proposition is imm$iately evid5t f ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 )\t x be+ necess>y = ! condition at ! same "t to be add$4 ,we _c see :y ,kant makes s great diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two propositions3 a man :o is unle>n$ is n le>n$1 & no unle>n$ man is le>n$2 9 bo?1 ! pr$icate relates n only to man1 b to an unle>n$ man2 & x is ! same to say1 a man t is unle>n$1 z1 an unle>n$ man4 ,if1 !n1 ! expression ( "t is n necess>y 9 ! "o1 nei!r is x 9 ! o!r4 ,if ! idea ( unle>n$ affects ! subject1 ! pr$icate is necess>ily exclud$1 because ! ideas1 le>n$ & unle>n$1 are contradictory2 & we enc\nt] ! rule ( logic1 t 9 necess>y matt]s1 an indef9ite is equival5t to a univ]sal proposition4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction mu/1 !re=e1 be pres]v$ z x is2 ! condition ( "t mu/ n be suppress$1 = ?is w\ld r5d] ! =mula1 9 _m cases1 inapplicable47#bj7 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,does ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,contradiction ,,m]it ,,! ,,title ,,( ,,fundam5tal2 ,,& ,,if ,,s1 ,,9 ,,:at ,,s5se8 #bjd4 ,hav+ cle>$ up ! true s5se ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 let u n[ see :e!r x m]its to be call$ fundam5tal1 :e!r x possesses all ! *>act]i/ics requisite to su* a dignity4 ,^! *>act]i/ics are ?ree 9 numb]3 fir/1 t x dep5d on no o!r pr9ciple2 secondly1 t its fall involve ! ru9 ( all o!rs2 ?irdly1 t x may1 :ile x rema9s firm1 be conclusively urg$ aga9/ all :o d5y ! o!rs1 & be ( avail to br+ !m back to ! tru? by a demon/ration at lea/ indirect4 99 99 99 99 99 #bje4 ,9 ord] completely to solve all que/ions dep5d+ on ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 we %all /ate a few propositions1 & accompany !m ) _! prop] demon/rations3 ,,fir/ ,,proposition4 ,if ! pr9ciple ( contradiction be d5i$1 all c]ta9ty1 all tru?1 & all k are at an end4 ,demon/ration4--,if a ?+ may be & n be at ! same "t1 we may be c]ta9 & n c]ta91 "k & n "k1 exi/ & n exi/2 affirmation may be jo9$ ) negation1 contradictory ?+s unit$1 di/9ct ?+s id5tifi$1 & id5tical ?+s di/+ui%$3 ! intellect is a *aos to ! full ext5t ( ! ^w2 reason is ov]turn$2 language is absurd2 subject & object cla% 9 ! mid/ ( frightful d>kness1 & all intellectual light is = ev] ext+ui%$4 ,all pr9ciples are involv$ 9 ! univ]sal wreck1 & consci\sness itself w\ld tott]1 7 x n1 :5 ?is absurd supposition is made1 upheld by ! inv9cible h& ( nature4 ,consci\sness1 inde$1 9 ?is absurd hypo!sis1 does n p]i%1 = ?is is impossible1 b x sees itself c>ri$ away by ?is viol5t :irlw9d1 :i* precipitates x & e ?+ else into *aotic d>kness4 ,9 va9 does x /rive to save its ideas2 !y all vani% be=e ! =ce ( contradiction3 9 va9 does x g5]ate new ideas to be sub/itut$ = ^? x loses2 ^! also disappe>3 9 va9 does x seek new objects1 = !y1 too1 disappe> 9 l mann]1 & x endures only to feel ! radical impossibility ( all ?\ght1 & see contradiction lord+ x ov] ! intellect1 & de/roy+1 ) irresi/ible might1 :atev] w\ld g]m9ate !re4 ,,second ,,proposition4 #bjf4 ,x is n en\gh n to suppose ! pr9ciple ( contradiction false2 we mu/ suppose x to be true1 if we w\ld n h all c]ta9ty1 all k1 all tru? to p]i%4 ,demon/ration4--,! reasons giv5 = ! fir/ proposition avail also to prove ?is4 ,9 ! "o case ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is suppos$ to be d5i$2 9 ! o!r1 x is nei!r suppos$ true nor false2 b ?is evid5tly is n en\gh1 =1 until ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is plac$ beyond all d\bt1 we rema9 9 d>kness1 & mu/ d\bt ( e ?+4 ,we d n mean to say t x is impossible = u to h c]ta9ty ( any ?+1 if we d n ?9k explicitly ( ?is pr9ciple2 b t x mu/ be s firmly e/abli%$1 t we _c raise ! lea/ d\bt conc]n+ x1 & t1 :5 we see any ?+ connect$ ) x1 we mu/1 ( necessity1 consid] t ?+ z f\nd$ ^u an immovable basis3 ! lea/ vacillation1 ! lea/ d\bt ( ?is pr9ciple utt]ly de/roys x2 ! possibility ( an absurdity is itself an absurdity4 ,,?ird ,,proposition4 #bjg4 ,! c]ta9ty ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction re/s ^u no o!r pr9ciple4 ,demon/ration4--,x is1 z we h se51 necess>y 9 e cognition to suppose ! tru? ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction2 !re=e1 no "o c avail to demon/rate x4 ,e argum5t1 made to demon/rate ?is1 necess>ily involves a vici\s circle2 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is prov$ by ano!r pr9ciple1 :i*1 9 its turn1 supposes t ( contradiction2 & s we %all h a sup]/ructure re/+ ^u a f\ndation1 :i* f\ndation re/s ^u ! sup]/ructure itself4 ,,f\r? ,,proposition4 #bjh4 ,:oev] d5ies ! pr9ciple ( contradiction c nei!r directly nor indirectly be refut$ by any o!r4 ,demon/ration4--,x w\ld be amus+ to he> ! argum5ts direct$ aga9/ a man :o admits bo? affirmation & negation to be at ! same "t possible2 al?\gh =c$ to admit ! affirmative1 he w /ill hold ! negative1 & vice v]sa4 ,x is impossible n only to argue1 b ev5 to speak1 or to ?9k on su* a supposition4 ,,fif? ,,proposition4 #bji4 ,x is n exact to say1 z is g5]ally said1 t by ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 we may argue conclusively aga9/ :oev] d5ies ! o!rs4 ,"h take notice t we only say x is n exact1 = we believe x at bottom to be true1 al?\gh n free f inexactness4 ,to %[ ?is1 let u exam9e ! weight ( ! demon/ration ord9>ily giv54 ,! reasons1 argum5ts1 & replies may be pres5t$ mo/ cle>ly & /rongly 9 ! =m ( a dialogue4 ,let u suppose "s "o to d5y ?is axiom3 ! :ole is great] ?an its "p4 ,if y d5y ?is1 y admit t ! same ?+ may bo? be & n be at ! same "t4 ,?is is :at y h to prove4 ,) y ! :ole is ! :ole & n ! :ole1 & ! "p ! "p & n ! "p4 ,:y s8 ,fir/1 x is ! :ole by supposition4 ,admitt$4 ,& at ! same "t x is n4 ,d5i$4 ,x is n ! :ole because x is n great] ?an its "p4 ,an excell5t way ( argu+6 ,?is is a petitio pr9cipii4 ,i comm5ce by ass]t+ t ! :ole is n great] ?an its "p1 & y argue on ! contr>y supposition2 = y tell me ! :ole w\ld n be ! :ole 7 x n great] ?an its "p4 ,if ,i _h conc$$ t ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 & !n d5i$ ?is prop]ty1 ,i %\ld inde$ fall into a contradiction1 mak+ t a :ole1 :i*1 accord+ to my pr9ciples1 is n a :ole2 b z ,i n[ d5y t ! :ole mu/ be great] ?an its "p1 ,i mu/ also d5y t x ceases to be a :ole by n be+ great] ?an its "p4 #baj4 ,:at w y reply to "o reason+ ?us4 ,c]ta9ly no?+ 9 ! =m ( an argum5t3 all t y c d is to call 8 att5tion to ! absurdity ( 8 position2 b ?is is to be done n by argum5t1 b by exactly det]m9+ ! mean+ ( ! words & analyz+ ! conceptions :i* !y express4 ,?is is all t c or %\ld be done4 ,! contradiction exi/s2 ?is is c]ta92 b :at is want$ is1 t he see t he has fall5 into x2 & if ! explanation ( ! t]ms1 & ! analysis ( ! conceptions d n suffice1 no?+ else w4 ,let u see h[ ?is may be done 9 ! same example4 ,! :ole is great] ?an its "p4 ,:at is ! :ole8 ,! collection ( ! p>ts1 ! p>ts !mselves unit$4 ,! idea ( ! p>ts !n ent]s into ! idea ( ! :ole4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( great]8 ,"o ?+ is said to be great] ?an ano!r1 :51 besides conta9+ an equal quantity1 x also conta9s some?+ else4 ,sev5 is great] ?an five1 because1 besides ! same five1 x conta9s also two4 ,! :ole conta9s "o "p & also ! o!r p>ts2 !re=e1 ! idea ( great] ?an its "p ent]s into ! idea ( :ole4 ,?us x is t we mu/ refute :oev] d5ies ?is pr9ciple2 & ?is me?od1 bett] ?an t ( argum5tation1 may be said to expla9 ! t]ms & analyze ! conceptions1 = x cle>ly does no?+ b def9e ! =m] & decompose ! latt]4 ,,six? ,,proposition4 #baa4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction is kn[n only by imm$iate evid5ce4 ,demon/ration4--,two ?+s are "h to be prov$3 t ! k is by evid5ce1 & t ! evid5ce is imm$iate4 ,z reg>ds ! =m] we w rem>k t ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is n a simple fact ( consci\sness1 b a purely ideal tru?4 ,e fact ( consci\sness involves reality1 & _c be express$ )\t ! ass]tion ( "s exi/5ce3 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction nei!r affirms nor d5ies any ?+ positive2 t is1 x does n say t any ?+ exi/s or does n exi/2 x only expresses ! opposition ( be+ to n-be+1 & ( n-be+ to be+1 ab/raction made f our tak+ ! ^w be+ copulatively or sub/antively4 #bab4 ,e fact ( consci\sness is n only some?+ exi/5t1 b some?+ det]m9ate2 x is n a ?\ght 9 ! ab/ract1 b is ?is or t ?\ght4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction conta9s no?+ det]m9ate2 x ab/racts n only ! exi/5ce1 b also ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 s9ce x relates n only to exi/+ ?+s1 b also to ?+s possible3 x di/+ui%es no species among !m1 b embraces !m all 9 _! greate/ g5]ality4 ,:5 we say1 x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be1 ! ^w ?+ does n at all re/rict ! mean+2 x expresses be+ 9 g5]al1 9 its greate/ indet]m9at5ess4 ,9 ! to be or n be1 ! ^w be expresses n only exi/5ce1 b also e class ( ess5ces 9 _! mo/ complete indet]m9at5ess4 ,?us ! pr9ciple is equally applicable 9 ^! two propositions3 x is impossible = ! moon to be & n be2 x is impossible = a circle to be & n be a circle2 al?\gh ! fir/ is 9 ! real ord]1 & !re ! ^w be expresses exi/5ce1 & ! second is 9 ! ideal ord]1 & ! ^w be expresses only ! relation ( pr$icate to subject4 #bac4 ,e fact ( consci\sness is individual2 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is ! mo/ univ]sal imag9able3 e fact ( consci\sness is cont+5t2 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction is absolutely necess>y1 a necessity :i* is a m>k ( tru?s kn[n by evid5ce4 #bad4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction is a law ( all intellig5ce2 x is ( absolute necessity = ! f9ite z = ! inf9ite2 n ev5 ! inf9ite intellig5ce is beyond ?is necessity1 = inf9ite p]fection _c be an absurdity4 ,e fact ( consci\sness z purely individual1 relates only to ! be+ t exp]i5ces x2 nei!r ! ord] ( intellig5ces1 nor t ( tru? suff]s any mutation f my exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce4 #bae4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 besides ! m>ks ( necessity & univ]sality1 :i* di/+ui% tru?s ( evid5ce1 possesses also t ( be+ se5 ) t imm$iate1 intellectual cle>ness1 ( :i* we h already treat$4 ,9 ! idea ( be+ we see mo/ cle>ly ! exclusion ( n-be+4 ,h5ce ! pro( ( ! second "p ( ! proposition3 because !re is imm$iate evid5ce ( ! relation ( ! pr$icate to ! subject1 :5 ! sole idea ( ! subject1 )\t ! necessity ( comb9ation ) o!r ideas1 enables u to p]ceive ?is relation3 ?is is s 9 ! pres5t case1 = n only no comb9ation is ne$$1 b all comb9ations are impossible if ! tru? ( ?is pr9ciple be n suppos$47#ba7 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,evid5ce4 #baf4 ,among ! pr9ciples :i*1 by _! pret5sions to ! title ( fundam5tal1 h mo/ figur$ 9 ! s*ools1 is "o call$ ! pr9ciple ( ! ,c>tesians3 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any ?+1 may be affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty4 ,we h already se5 ,kant resuscitate ?is pr9ciple1 al?\gh 9 o!r words1 equivocally tak+ x z synonym\s ) t ( contradiction4 ,^u close exam9ation we %all easily p]ceive t ! =mula ( ! ,c>tesians1 l t ( ,kant1 only expresses ! legitimacy ( ! crit]ion ( evid5ce4 ,bo? may be simplifi$ to ?is3 evid5ce is a crit]ion ( tru?2 or1 :atev] is evid5t is true4 ,z we %all h]eaft] use ?is trans=mation to di/+ui% ideas :i* we consid] v confus$1 we w %[ ! reason ( ! equality ( ! two expressions4 #bag4 ,to say t any ?+ is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( ano!r ?+1 is ! same z to say t !re is evid5ce t a pr$icate belongs to a subject2 ! words h1 & c h1 no o!r mean+4 ,to be conta9$ 9 a cle> & di/9ct idea1 is equival5t to see+ "o ?+ 9 ano!r by t intellectual light :i* we call evid5ce2 !re=e1 ?is expression1 :atev] is conta9$ 9 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( any ?+1 is exactly equival5t to ?is1 :atev] is evid5t4 ,to say1 t any ?+ may be affirm$ ( ano!r ) all c]ta9ty1 is ! same z to say1 ?is ?+ is true1 & we may be p]fectly c]ta9 ( x4 ,x is ! tru? t is affirm$1 & ! tru? only2 !re=e1 ?is expression1 may be affirm$ ( x ) all c]ta9ty1 is exactly equival5t to ?is1 x is true4 ,?us ! expression ( ! ,c>tesians may be trans=m$ into ?is3 ,:atev] is evid5t is true1 or its equival5t1 evid5ce is a sure crit]ion ( tru?4 #bah4 ,a pr$icate t is oppos$ to a subject does n belong to x1 is ,kant's =mula4 ,! opposition "h meant is t f\nd$ on ideas1 :5 ! pr$icate is necess>ily exclud$ by intr9sic opposition f ! idea ( ! subject4 ,! expression1 !n1 a pr$icate t is oppos$ to a subject1 is equival5t to ?is3 :5 ! pr$icate is cle>ly se5 exclud$ f ! idea ( ! subject1 :i* la/ is 9 its turn equival5t to ?is3 ! exclusion1 or ! opposition betwe5 ! subject & ! pr$icate1 is evid5t4 ,does n belong to x1 means ! same z1 x is true t x does n belong to x2 & s9ce ^! =mulas h two values1 "o = affirmative1 ano!r = negative cases1 if we say ! pr$icate t is oppos$ to a subject does n belong to x1 we may ) equal reason say1 ! pr$icate conta9$ 9 ! idea ( a subject belongs to x2 :]e=e1 ,kant's =mula exactly co9cides ) ?is3 :atev] is evid5t is true4 #bai4 ,?is trans=mation gives u great] simplicity & g5]ality2 simplicity by ! v expression1 & g5]ality1 because affirmative z well z negative cases are includ$4 ,! words1 :atev] is evid5t1 embrace affirmations z well z negations1 = ! inclusion ( a pr$icate 9 a subject may be j z evid5t z _! mutual opposition4 ,?us1 we may see "o ?+ conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ano!r1 j z we may see x exclud$ f t idea4 ,"u all conceptions ! =mula1 :atev] is evid5t is true1 is pref]able2 & if we w\ld express x n z a pr9ciple1 b z a rule to be appli$1 x may be conv]t$ into ?is3 evid5ce is a sure crit]ion ( tru?4 #bbj4 ,?is trans=mation mu/ n be suppos$ to be ! only object ( ! prec$+ analysis2 al?\gh 9 ^! matt]s cle>ness & precision %\ld be c>ri$ to ! highe/ possible po9t1 we %\ld nev]!less h ab/a9$ f ^! consid]ations1 _h we only propos$ to make an innovation1 & "o p]haps ( little practical consequ5ce2 ! same ?+ is express$ 9 bo? =mulas1 & he :o does n und]/& ! fir/ w n und]/& ! second4 ,our pr9cipal object 0 n1 h[ev]1 to make ?is innovation1 b to %[ into :at a confusion ( ideas ^? fall :o inquire :e!r ! pr9ciple involv+ ! legitimacy ( ! crit]ion ( evid5ce ought1 or ought n1 to be consid]$ z fundam5tal1 & be pref]r$ to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 z also to t ( ,desc>tes4 #bba4 ,we beg9 by e/abli%+ a proposition :i* may seem a mo/ /range p>adox1 b is f> f be+ s3 ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce is n evid5t4 ,demon/ration4--,?is pr9ciple 9 its simple/ =m is ?is3 ! evid5t is true4 ,?is proposition1 we say1 is n evid5t4 ,:5 is a proposition evid5t8 ,:5 we see ! pr$icate 9 ! idea ( ! subject2 & "h ?is does n occur4 ,evid5t is ! same ?+ z cle>ly se51 z (f]$ to ! intellect 9 a mo/ lucid mann]4 ,true is ! same z con=mity ( ! idea ) ! object4 ,we n[ ask1 c y1 h[ev] mu* y analyze ?is idea1 se5 ) cle>ness1 ev] f9d ?is o!r1 con=m$ to ! object8 ,no4 ,?is is an imm5se leap3 we pass f subjectiv5ess to objectiv5ess2 we affirm subjective to be ! reflex ( objective conditions2 we g f ! idea to its object1 & ?is transition is ! mo/ transc5d5tal1 difficult1 & obscure problem ( philosophy4 ,let ! read] n[ decide if we _h n gr\nd to ass]t t ! proposition1 ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce is n evid5t1 0 n a p>adox4 #bbb4 ,:at1 !n1 %all we say ( ?is proposition3 ,:atev] is evid5t is true8 ,x is n an axiom1 = ! pr$icate is n conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject2 x is n a demon/rable proposition1 = all demon/ration re/s on evid5t pr9ciples1 & consi/s 9 d$uc+ f !m a consequ5ce evid5tly connect$ ) !m2 ?is _c take place unless we presuppose ! legitimacy ( evid5ce1 t is to say1 t :i* is ! object ( ! demon/ration4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! argum5t1 x might be ask$1 h[ d y "k ! pr9ciple on :i* y\r argum5t is bas$8 ,h[ d y "k x to be true8 ,by evid5ce4 ,b recollect y are prov+ t :atev] is evid5t is true1 &1 !re=e1 y beg ! "q4 ,! tru? ( ! laws ( logic1 to :i* e argum5t mu/ con=m1 is kn[n only by evid5ce2 !re=e if we d n suppose :atev] is evid5t to be true1 we _c argue at all4 #bbc4 ,we hold !n t ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce c be bas$ on no o!r pr9ciple1 & t1 consequ5tly1 x has ! fir/ m>k ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,if x fails1 all o!r pr9ciples1--t ( contradiction1 kn[n l ! o!rs only by evid5ce1 includ$1--fail ) x2 ?is is ano!r m>k ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,let u see if x has ! ?ird1 by aid ( :i*1 :oev] d5ies ! re/ may be refut$4 ,r>ely does any "o d5y ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & admit t ( evid5ce2 yet1 mak+ ?is extravagant supposition1 ?is pr9ciple alone w\ld be ( avail1 because ! "q w\ld be r$uc$ to ?is3 does he admit ! pr9ciples to be evid5t8 ,if he does n1 8 intellect is unlike t ( o!r m52 if he does1 ! argum5t br\ght aga9/ him is conclusive4 ,y admit t :atev] is evid5t is true2 su* or su* a pr9ciple is evid5t = y1 !re=e x is true4 ,! premises are evid5t ( !mselves2 ! legitimacy ( ! consequ5ce is also evid5t2 & he mu/ consequ5tly admit x1 s9ce he admits ! crit]ion ( evid5ce to be a g5]al rule4 #bbd4 ,:5ce !n ! s+ul>ity we h notic$ 9 ?is pr9ciple8 ,x is nei!r evid5t1 nor demon/rable2 x is necess>y to all o!rs1 & :oev] d5ies !m is refut$ by x4 ,:5ce1 !n1 su* a s+ul>ity8 ,x has a v simple cause2 x is1 t ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce expresses no objective tru?1 & !re=e is n demon/rable3 x is n a simple fact ( consci\sness1 = x expresses ! relation ( ! subject to ! object1 = :i* reason x _c be limit$ to ! purely subjective2 x is a proposition kn[n by a reflex act1 & x expresses ! prim>y law ( all our objective cognitions4 ,^! are f\nd$ on evid5ce2 ?is we exp]i5ce3 b :5 ! m9d asks :y we tru/ evid5ce1 we c make no o!r answ] ?an t :atev] is evid5t is true4 ,:at is ! f\ndation ( ?is proposition8 ,ord9>ily x has none2 we con=m to x )\t ev] ?9k+ ( x2 b if we take ! pa9s to reflect1 we f9d ?ree motives = ass5t+ to x3 ! fir/ is an irresi/ible in/9ct ( nature2 ! second is ! de/ruction ( all our cognitions & ! impossibility ( ?\ght1 if we d n admit ! legitimacy ( ! crit]ion2 ! ?ird is ! p]ceiv+ t1 admitt+ ?is crit]ion1 e ?+ is co-ord9at$ 9 ! intellect1 t an ideal univ]se admirably h>moniz$1 takes ! place ( *aos1 & t we feel possess$ ( ! means necess>y to reason & to con/ruct a sci5tific edifice 9 ! real univ]se1 ! k ( :i* we h f exp]i5ce47#bb7 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,! ,,crit]ion ,,( ,,consci\sness4 #bbe4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ! wor? ( ! pr9ciples ( consci\sness1 ( evid5ce1 & ( contradiction1 9 relation to ! dignity ( fundam5tal1 we w n[ exam9e ! intr9sic value ( ! diff]5t crit]ia4 ,& "h ! doctr9e ( ! prec$+ *apt]s1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! developm5t & complem5t1 furni%es mu* light4 ,we w beg9 ) consci\sness1 or ! int]nal s5se4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness includes all ph5om5a1 ei!r actively or passively1 realiz$ 9 our s\l4 ,x is by its nature purely subjective2 s t 9 itself consid]$1 ap>t f ! intellectual in/9ct & ! light ( evid5ce1 x te/ifies no?+ ) respect to objects4 ,by x we "k :at we exp]i5ce1 n :at is2 we p]ceive ! ph5om5on1 n ! reality2 :at au?orizes u to say3 su* a ?+ appe>s to me2 b n1 su* a ?+ is4 ,! transition f subject to object1 f ! idea repres5t+ to ! ?+ repres5t$1 f ! impression to ! cause impress+1 belongs to o!r crit]ia3 consci\sness is limit$ to ! int]ior1 or r1 to itself1 :i* is no?+ b an act ( our s\l4 #bbf4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 direct & reflex consci\sness3 ! =m] accompanies e int]nal ph5om5on2 ! latt] does n3 ! =m] is natural2 ! latt] philosophical3 ! =m] ab/racts ! act ( reason2 ! latt] is "o ( ^! acts4 ,direct consci\sness is ! pres5ce ( ! ph5om5on to ! m9d1 :e!r t ph5om5on be a s5sation or an idea1 an act or an impression1 9 ! intellectual or ! moral ord]4 ,?is di/9ction %[s t direct consci\sness accompanies e ex]cise1 :e!r active or passive1 ( ! faculties ( our s\l4 ,x is a contradiction to say t ^! ph5om5a exi/ 9 ! s\l1 & are n pres5t to x4 ,^! ph5om5a are n modifications l ^? :i* occur 9 ins5sible ?+s2 we "h treat ( liv+ modifications1 s to speak1 9 a liv+ be+2 9 ! idea ( ^! modifications is conta9$ _! pres5ce to ! m9d4 ,x is impossible = u to h a s5sation )\t exp]i5c+ x2 = :oev] says he has a s5sation1 says t he exp]i5ces a s5sation3 ?is exp]i5ce is its pres5ce2 an exp]i5c$ s5sation is a pres5t s5sation4 ,?\ght is by its ess5ce1 a repres5tation t c nei!r exi/ nor be conceiv$ )\t pres5ce2 ! "n itself %[s ?is1 & ! idea :i* we jo9 ) x confirms ! mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,:5 we speak ( repres5tation1 we und]/& t !re is "s real or imag9>y object1 :i* m$iately or imm$iately (f]s itself to ! subject4 ,!re is !n pres5ce 9 e repres5tation1 & consequ5tly 9 e ?\ght4 ,if1 f :at is passive1 l s5sations & repres5tations1 we pass to ! active1 t is1 to ! ph5om5a :5 ! s\l freely evolves its =ce 9 ! intellectual or moral ord]1 9 comb9+ or will+1 ?is pres5ce is1 if possible1 yet m evid5t4 ,! be+ t ?us acts1 does n obey a natural impulse1 b motives :i* x proposes to itself1 & to :i* x may or may n att5d4 ,to make intellectual comb9ations & to ex]cise acts ( ! w1 )\t ei!r be+ pres5t to ! s\l1 are contradictory ass]tions4 #bbg4 ,reflex consci\sness1 call$ by ! ,fr5* ap]ception1 f ! v]b s'ap]cevoir1 & d5ot+ p]ception ( ! p]ception1 is ! act :]eby ! m9d explicitly kn[s any ph5om5on :i* is realiz$ 9 x4 ,?us1 ,i he> a noise3 ! simple s5sation1 pres5t to & affect+ my m9d1 con/itutes :at we h call$ direct consci\sness2 b if besides he>+1 ,i also ap]ceive1 to use a ,gallicism1 t ,i he>2 !n ,i n only he>1 b also ?9k t ,i he>3 ?is we call reflex consci\sness4 #bbh4 ,x is cle> f ?is example1 t direct & reflex consci\sness are n only di/9ct b sep>able4 ,i may he> )\t ?9k+ t ,i he>2 & ?is is v (t5 ! case4 #bbi4 ,mo/ m5 h little reflex consci\sness1 & ! greate/ intellectual =ce op]ates directly4 ,?is ideological fact is connect$ ) moral tru?s ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,! human m9d 0 n born to contemplate itself1 to ?9k t x ?9ks3 its affections 7 n giv5 z an object ( reflection1 b z impulses :i* elevate x to :at x is call$ to3 ! pr9cipal object ( its intellig5ce & love is1 9 ?is life z 9 ! o!r1 ! inf9ite be+4 ,! wor%ip ( itself is an ab]ration ( pride2 its puni%m5t is d>kness4 #bcj4 ,all great sci5tific discov]ies lie 9 ! objective1 n 9 ! subjective ord]4 ,! exact sci5ces1 natural z well z moral1 h emanat$ n f reflexion ( ! subject ^u itself1 b f k ( objects & _! relations4 ,ev5 ! metaphysical sci5ces1 9 all t is mo/ solid 9 !m1 ontology1 cosmology1 & !ology1 are purely objective3 ideology & psy*ology :i* consid] ! subject1 are full ( ! obscurity inh]5t 9 all t is subjective2 ideology sc>cely does m ?an m]ely obs]ve int]nal ph5om5a1--an obs]vation1 we may rem>k1 g5]ally v defective1 poorly made1 & bewild]$ ) va9 cavils2 & :at has psy*ology itself1 truly demon/rat$1 except ! simplicity ( ! s\l1 ! necess>y consequ5ce ( ! unity ( consci\sness8 ,9 all else x resembles ideology1 & to a c]ta9 po9t1 is conf\nd$ ) x2 x obs]ves ph5om5a1 & aft]w>ds def9es & classifies !m bett] or worse1 b fails to expla9 _! my/]i\s nature4 #bca4 ,consci\sness is ! f\ndation ( ! o!r crit]ia1 n z a proposition :i* s]ves z _! basis1 b z a fact :i* is a necess>y condition ( !m all4 #bcb4 ,consci\sness tells u t we see ! idea ( "o ?+ conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ano!r3 ?us f> !re is no?+ b appe>ance2 ! =mula1 to express its te/imony w\ld be3 x appe>s to me2 :i* d5otes a purely subjective ph5om5on4 ,b ?is ph5om5on is accompani$ by an intellectual in/9ct1 an irresi/ible impulse ( nature1 :i* makes u ass5t to ! tru? ( ! relation1 n only s f> z x is 9 u1 b z x is =m$ )\t u1 9 ! purely objective ord]1 :e!r 9 ! sph]e ( reality or possibility4 ,?us x is expla9$ h[ evid5ce is f\nd$ on consci\sness1 n z id5tifi$ ) x1 b z re/+ ^u x z a fact f :i* x _c be ab/ract$1 & z also conta9+ ! intellectual in/9ct :i* makes u believe :atev] is evid5t to be true4 #bcc4 ,s5sation1 9 itself consid]$1 is a fact ( pure consci\sness1 s9ce x is imman5t 9 u3 s f> is x f be+ an act :]eby ! m9d passes beyond itself1 translates itself to ! object1 t x ought r to be reg>d$ z a passion ?an an action1 & ?is accords ) ! common mode ( speak+1 :i* ascribes x to a passive r ?an to an active faculty4 ,nev]!less on ?is m]e fact ( consci\sness is 9 "s s5se f\nd$ :at is call$ ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 & consequ5tly all k ( ! ext]nal _w1 its prop]ties1 & relations4 ,9 ! s5sation :]eby we see ! sun1 !re are two ?+s3 ! s5sation itself1 t is1 ! repres5tation :i* ,i exp]i5ce 9 myself1 & :i* ,i call sight2 & ! correspond5ce ( ?is s5sation to ! ext]nal object :i* ,i call ! sun4 ,evid5tly1 ^! are two v di/9ct ?+s1 & yet we always unite !m4 ,consci\sness is c]ta9ly ! fir/ basis ( ! =mation ( judgm5t2 b alone x does n suffice1 = x only te/ifies t ! s5sation is1 n :at x is4 ,h[ is ! judgm5t complet$8 ,by means ( a natural in/9ct :i* makes u r5d] s5sations objective1 t is1 makes u believe 9 an ext]nal object correspond+ to ! int]nal ph5om5a4 ,?us ! te/imony ( ! s5ses is 9 "s mann] f\nd$ on consci\sness2 x does n1 h[ev]1 proce$ f consci\sness alone1 b requires ! natural in/9ct1 by means ( :i* we =m our judgm5ts 9 p]fect security4 #bcd4 ,we mu/ "h rem>k t evid5ce has no?+ to d ) ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 ev5 9 _! intellectual "p1 :]e9 we judge t an ext]nal object corresponds to ! s5sation4 ,! idea ( ! exi/5ce or possibility ( an ext]nal object does n ent] into ! idea ( ! s5sation z purely subjective1 & )\t ?is indisp5sable condition !re c be no evid5ce4 ,n only is ?is cle> ( itself1 b x is confirm$ by daily exp]i5ce4 ,we cont9ually h ! repres5tation ( ! ext]nal subjectively consid]$1 z a pure ph5om5on 9 our s\l1 al?\gh no real object corresponds to x2 m or less cle> :5 we are awake1 b mo/ vivid1 ev5 s z to produce a p]fect illusion1 :5 we are asleep4 #bce4 ,) ?is exposition1 ! value & ext5t ( consci\sness may be exactly det]m9$3 ?is we %all see 9 ! foll[+ propositions1 9 all ( :i*1 we w\ld obs]ve1 we treat only ( direct consci\sness4 ,,fir/ ,,proposition4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness ext5ds to all ! ph5om5a t are realiz$ 9 our s\l1 reg>d$ z an intellectual & s5sitive be+4 ,,second ,,proposition4 #bcf4 ,if !re exi/ 9 our s\l ph5om5a ( a diff]5t ord]1 t is to say1 if x may 9 "s s5se be modifi$ 9 non-repres5tative faculties1 ! te/imony ( consci\sness does n ext5d to su* ph5om5a4 ,we d n advance ?is proposition )\t a solid reason4 ,x is probable1 & ev5 v probable1 t our s\l has active faculties1 ( ! ex]cise ( :i* x is n consci\s2 o!rwise h[ expla9 ! my/]ies ( organic life8 ,! s\l is unit$ to ! body1 & is = x ! vital pr9ciple1 ! sep>ation f :i* causes dea?1 manife/$ 9 complete disorganization & decomposition4 ,?is activity is ex]cis$ )\t consci\sness1 ei!r ( ! mode or ( ! fact ( its exi/5ce4 ,x may be said t !re is "h a s]ies ( ^? confus$ p]ceptions ( :i* ,leibnitz speaks 9 8 ,monadologie2 or t ^! p]ceptions are s slight1 s wan1 z to leave no trace 9 ! memory1 nor be an object ( reflection3 b ^! are only conjectures4 ,x is h>d to p]suade "o's self t ! ftus 9 ! "m's womb has any consci\sness ( ! activity ex]cis$ = ! developm5t ( its organization3 x is also h>d to p]suade "o's self t ev5 9 adults !re is any consci\sness ( t same activity produc+ circulation ( ! blood1 nutrition1 & o!r ph5om5a :i* con/itute life4 ,if ^! ph5om5a are produc$1 z !y c]ta9ly are1 by ! s\l1 !re is 9 x1 an ex]cise ( activity ( :i* x ei!r has no consci\sness1 or "o s weak & confus$ t x is z if x 7 n4 ,,?ird ,,proposition4 #bcg4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness1 9 itself consid]$1 is s limit$ to ! purely int]nal1 t x is ( itself wor? no?+ 9 ! ext]nal ord]1 ei!r = ! crit]ion ( evid5ce or t ( ! s5ses4 ,,f\r? ,,proposition4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness is ! f\ndation ( ! o!r crit]ia1 inasmu* z x is a fact :i* !y all require1 & )\t :i* !y are impossible4 ,,fif? ,,proposition4 #bch4 ,f ! comb9ation ( consci\sness ) intellectual in/9ct arise all ! o!r crit]ia47#bc7 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,crit]ion ,,( ,,evid5ce4 #bci4 ,!re are two species ( evid5ce1 m$iate & imm$iate4 ,we call imm$iate evid5ce t :i* requires only und]/&+ ( ! t]ms2 & m$iate evid5ce t :i* requires reason+4 ,t ! :ole is great] ?an its "p is evid5t by imm$iate evid5ce2 t ! squ>e ( ! hypo!nuse is equal to ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! o!r two sides1 is kn[n by m$iate evid5ce1 t is1 by demon/rative reason+4 #bdj4 ,we h said t "o ( ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ics ( evid5ce is ! necessity & univ]sality ( its object4 ,?is is a *>act]i/ic z well ( m$iate z ( imm$iate evid5ce4 ,besides ?is *>act]i/ic !re is ano!r1 call$ ) m reason ess5tial1 not)/&+ "s d\bt z to :e!r x ext5ds to m$iate evid5ce or n2 x is t ! idea ( ! pr$icate is f\nd conta9$ 9 t ( ! subject4 ,?is is ! mo/ complete ess5tial notion ( ! crit]ion ( imm$iate evid5ce1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f ! crit]ia ( consci\sness & common s5se4 ,we h said !re is "s d\bt z to ?is *>act]i/ic ext5d+ to m$iate evid5ce2 by ?is we mean t also 9 m$iate evid5ce ! idea ( ! pr$icate may be conta9$ 9 t ( ! subject4 ,9 ?is x is n our int5tion to ignore ! diff]5ce betwe5 !orems & axioms1 b to call ! read]'s att5tion to a doctr9e :i* we propose to develop1 :ile treat+ ( m$iate evid5ce4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] we %all only treat ( evid5ce 9 g5]al1 or ( imm$iate evid5ce alone4 #bda4 ,evid5ce involves relation1 = x implies comp>ison4 ,:5 ! und]/&+ does n comp>e1 x has no evid5ce1 b only a p]ception1 :i* is a pure fact ( consci\sness2 & ?is evid5ce does n ref] to p]ception alone1 b always supposes or produces a judgm5t4 ,we f9d two ?+s 9 e act :]e !re is evid5ce3 ! pure intuition ( ! idea1 & ! decomposition ( ?is idea into v>i\s conceptions accompani$ ) ! p]ception ( _! mutual relations4 ,?is we w expla9 by an example f geometry4 ,! triangle has ?ree sides3 ?is is an evid5t proposition1 = 9 ! v idea ( triangle1 we f9d ! ?ree sides2 & 9 conceiv+ ! triangle1 we 9 "s s5se conceive ! ?ree sides4 ,_h we limit$ ourselves to ! contemplation ( ! simple idea ( triangle1 we %\ld h _h intuition ( ! idea1 b n evid5ce1 :i* beg9s only :5 we f9d1 9 decompos+ ! conception ( triangle1 & consid]+ 9 x ! idea ( figure 9 g5]al1 ( side1 & ( ! numb] ?ree1 ^! all conta9$ 9 ! primitive conception4 ,evid5ce consi/s 9 ! cle> conception ( ?is4 ,s true is ?is t ! v nature ( ?+s makes common language philosophical4 ,we d n say1 an idea is evid5t1 b a judgm5t is3 no "o calls a t]m evid5t1 b a proposition only4 ,& :y8 ,because ! t]m simply expresses ! idea )\t any relation1 or decomposition into its p>tial conceptions2 :]eas ! proposition expresses ! judgm5t1 t is1 affirms or d5ies t "o conception is conta9$ 9 ano!r1 :i*1 9 ! pres5t matt]1 supposes decomposition ( ! entire conception4 #bdb4 ,imm$iate evid5ce is ! p]ception ( id5tity betwe5 v>i\s conceptions1 sep>at$ by ! analytical p[] ( ! intellect4 ,?us id5tity comb9$ 9 a c]ta9 way ) div]sity is n a contradiction1 z x might at fir/ sight seem1 b some?+ v natural1 if we obs]ve "o ( ! mo/ con/ant facts ( our intellect1 ! faculty ( analyz+ ! mo/ simple conceptions1 & ( see+ relations betwe5 id5tical ?+s4 ,:at are all axioms8 ,:at are all propositions p] se n8 ,no?+ b expressions1 9 :i* x is affirm$ t a pr$icate belongs to ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 or is conta9$ 9 its idea4 ,! m]e conception ( ! subject includes ! pr$icate3 ! t]m :i* d5otes ! fir/ also d5otes ! second2 yet ! intellect1 ) a my/]i\s p[] ( analysis1 di/+ui%es betwe5 id5tical ?+s1 & !n comp>es !m 9 ord] to make !m aga9 id5tical4 ,:oev] says triangle1 expresses a figure compos$ ( ?ree sides & ?ree angles2 b ! intellect may take ?is idea & consid] 9 x ! ideas ( ! numb] ?ree1 side1 & angle1 & comp>e !m ) ! primitive conception4 ,9 ?is di/9ction !re is no deception2 !re is only ! ex]cise ( ! faculty1 :i* reg>ds ! ?+ "u diff]5t aspects1 9 ord] to arrive at ! intuition & affirmation ( ! id5tity ( ! v ?+s x _h be=e di/+ui%$4 #bdc4 ,evid5ce is a sort ( calculation ( ! intellect1 :]eby x f9ds 9 ! conception analyz$ :atev] 0 plac$ 9 ! pr9ciple or 0 conta9$ 9 x4 ,h5ce ! necessity & univ]sality ( ! object ( evid5ce1 inasmu* z1 & 9 ! mann]1 9 :i* x is express$ by ! idea4 ,to ?is !re are no exceptions4 ,ei!r a pr$icate is or is n plac$ 9 a primitive pr9ciple3 if x is1 x is !re1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,ei!r x 0 or 0 n exclud$ f ! conception2 if ! conception itself excludes or d5ies x1 ?is x does by virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,?us ! m fundam5tal ( ! two *>act]i/ics ( evid5ce giv5 above is1 t ! idea ( ! pr$icate is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject4 ,h5ce ! necessity & univ]sality2 s9ce1 9 v]ify+ ?is condition1 x is impossible = ! pr$icate n to belong necess>ily to all ! subjects4 #bdd4 ,?us f> we h enc\nt]$ no difficulty1 because we h treat$ only ( evid5ce subjectively consid]$1 t is1 z relat+ to pure conceptions2 b ! intellect does n /op ) ! conception1 b ext5ds to ! object1 & says n only t x sees ! ?+1 b t ! ?+ is z x sees x4 ,?us ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 consid]$ 9 ! purely subjective ord]1 means t ! conception ( be+ is oppos$ to t ( n-be+1 :i* de/roys x1 j z ! conception ( be+ de/roys t ( n-be+2 x means1 t 9 endeavor+ to conceive jo9tly ^! two ?+s1 & to make !m co-exi/1 a sort ( /ruggle ( ?\ghts1 reciprocally annihilat+ ea* o!r1 takes place 9 ! dep?s ( our s\l1--a /ruggle :i* ! und]/&+ is condemn$ to witness )\t hope ( e/abli%+ peace betwe5 ! combatants4 ,if we conf9e ourselves to ?is ph5om5on1 no objection c be made4 ,we exp]i5ce x1 & !re is no fur!r "q ab\t x2 b 9 ann\nc+ ! pr9ciple1 we w\ld ann\nce some?+ m ?an ! incompatibility ( ! conceptions2 we w\ld transf] ?is incompatibility to ! ?+s !mselves1 & ass]t t n only our own conceptions1 b also all real & possible be+s are subject$ to ?is law4 ,:atev] be ! object ( :i* we treat1 :atev] ! conditions "u :i* we suppose x exi/5t or possible1 we say t :ile x is1 x _c n be2 & :ile x is n x _c be4 ,we affirm1 !n1 ! law ( contradiction1 n only = our own conceptions1 b also = ?+s !mselves2 ! intellect applies to e ?+ ! law :i* x f9ds necess>y to itself4 ,by :at "r8 ,an inconte/ible "r1 = x is ! law ( necessity4 ,) :at reason8 ,) none1 = we are n[ at ! f\ndation ( reason2 ?is is ! ne plus ultra ( ! human und]/&+2 philosophy c g no f>!r4 ,let u n1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght to ab&on ! field to skeptics1 or to entr5* ourselves 9 necessity1 cont5t$ ) po9t+ out a fact ( our nature4 ,! "q is susceptible ( diff]5t solutions1 :i* may n1 inde$1 g beyond ! ne plus ultra ( our m9d1 b :i* yet leaves ! cause ( skepticism 9 great /raits4 #bde4 ,to ask :y ! crit]ion ( evid5ce is legitimate1 is to ask :y ?is proposition is true3 :atev] is evid5t is true2 x is to raise ! "q ( ! objectiv5ess ( ideas4 ,! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 dogmati/s & skeptics1 is n t ! latt] d5y ! facts ( consci\sness1--! mo/ ref9$ skepticism has n come to ?is1 & bo? agree 9 recogniz+ ! purely subjective appe>ance ( ph5om5a2 b x is t dogmati/s f\nd sci5ce on consci\sness1 & skeptics ma9ta9 t ?is is an illegitimate transition1 & t we mu/ despair ( sci5ce1 & conf9e ourselves to m]e consci\sness4 ,accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 ideas are empty =ms ( ! und]/&+1 mean no?+1 & c lead to no?+2 al?\gh !y ent]ta9 ! und]/&+1 & (f] to x an imm5se field = comb9ations1 ! _w !y pres5t to x is purely illusory1 & c s]ve = no?+ 9 ! real ord]4 ,9 contemplat+ ^! entirely empty =ms1 ! intellect is ! sport ( fanta/ic visions1 f ! union ( :i* results ! spectacle :i* seems n[ to belong to reality1 & n[ to possibility2 ei!r x is a m]e non5tity1 or some?+1 & if s1 x c nev] make u sure ( ! reality x possesses4 #bdf4 ,x is difficult to fight skepticism :5 x takes ?is gr\nd3 situat$ beyond ! doma9s ( reason1 ! decisions ( reason _c rea* x4 ,x w appeal f !m all1 = x beg9s by d5y+ ! compet5cy ( ! judge4 ,b z ^! skeptics admit consci\sness1 x is "r t !y %\ld def5d x aga9/ :oev] attempts to deprive !m ( x4 ,we believe t if ! objectiv5ess ( ideas be d5i$1 n only all sci5ce1 b also all consci\sness is annihilat$2 & "h skeptics are guilty ( an inconsequ5ce2 =1 :ile !y d5y ! objectiv5ess ( "s ideas1 !y admit t ( o!rs4 ,no consci\sness1 prop]ly s call$1 c exi/1 if ?is objectiv5ess be absolutely de/roy$4 ,we beg ! read] to foll[ u 9 a brief1 b sev]e analysis ( ! facts ( consci\sness1 9 _! relations ) ! objectiv5ess ( ideas47#bd7 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,objective ,,value ,,( ,,ideas4 #bdg4 ,! transition f subject to object1 f subjective appe>ance to objective reality1 is a problem :i* vexes fundam5tal philosophy4 ,consci\sness w n p]mit u to d\bt t c]ta9 ?+s appe> to u 9 su* a mann]2 b are !y 9 reality :at !y appe> to u8 ,h[ are we to "k ?is8 ,:at %all assure u ( ?is con=mity ( ! idea ) ! object8 ,! "q does n relate solely to s5sations2 x also ext5ds to purely intellectual ideas1 ev5 to ^? inundat$ ) t int]nal light :i* we call evid5ce4 ,:at ,i evid5tly see 9 ! idea ( a ?+1 is z ,i see x1 philosoph]s h said1 & all mank9d ) !m4 ,no "o d\bts :at is pres5t$ to him z evid5tly true4 ,b h[ prove t evid5ce is a legitimate crit]ion ( tru?8 #bdh4 ,god is tru?ful1 says ,desc>tes1 & c\ld n h deceiv$ u2 ,he c\ld n h tak5 pleasure 9 mak+ u ! victims ( p]petual illusions4 ,all ?is is true4 ,b ! skeptic w ask h[ we "k t ,god is tru?ful1 or ev5 t he exi/s4 ,if we f\nd ! v]acity ( ,god on ! idea ( an inf9itely p]fect be+1 z ,desc>tes does1 !re is /ill ! same difficulty ) respect to ! correspond5ce ( ! idea ) ! object4 ,if we draw ! demon/ration ( ! v]acity & exi/5ce ( ,god f ! ideas ( necess>y & cont+5t be+s1 ( effect & cause1 ( ord] & intellig5ce1 we aga9 meet ! same ob/acle1 & are /ill unable to pass f ! idea to ! object4 ,no matt] h[ mu* we cavil1 we %all nev] get out ( ?is circle1 we %all always return to ! same po9t4 ,! m9d _c ?9k out ( itself2 :at x kn[s1 x kn[s by means ( its ideas2 if ^! deceive1 x has no?+ left to set x "r4 ,all rectification1 all pro( mu/ employ ^! ideas1 & ^!1 9 _! turn1 require new pro( & rectification4 #bdi4 ,_m books ( philosophy exagg]ate ! illusions ( ! s5ses1 & ! difficulty ( assur+ ourselves ( ! s5sible reality1 :5 !y solve ?is "q3 ,i p]ceive x to be s2 b is x z ,i p]ceive8 ,^! same books imm$iately aft]w>ds speak ( ! ord] ( ideas ) security equal to _! mi/ru/ 9 ! s5sible ord]4 ,?is does n seem v logical1 = ph5om5a relat+ to ! s5ses1 may be exam9$ by ! light ( reason1 & x may be se5 h[ f> !y agree ) x3 b :at t\*-/one h we = ! ph5om5a ( reason itself8 ,if !re be difficulty 9 ! s5sible1 !re is likewise 9 ! intellectual1 & ! m s]i\s1 s9ce x affects ! v basis ( all cognitions1 ev5 ^? :i* relate to s5sations4 ,if we d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w :i* ! s5ses pres5t to u1 we may appeal to ! connection ( ! s5sations ) causes n 9 u2 & s d$uce by demon/ration ! relations ( ! appe>ances ) ! reality3 b ?is requires ! ideas ( cause & effect2 we mu/ h "s tru?1 "s g5]al pr9ciples1 z = example1 t no?+ c produce itself1 & o!rs simil>1 )\t :i* we _c take "o /ep4 #bej4 ,we d n believe any satisfactory reason c be giv5 = ! v]acity ( ! crit]ion ( evid5ce1 al?\gh x is impossible n to yield to x4 ,! connection1 !re=e1 ( evid5ce ) reality1 & consequ5tly1 ! transition f ! idea to ! object1 are primitive facts ( our nature1 a necess>y law ( our und]/&+1 ! f\ndation ( all t x conta9s1--a f\ndation :i* 9 its turn re/s1 & c re/ only on ,god1 ! ,creator ( our s\l4 #bea4 ,we mu/ obs]ve ! contradiction into :i* ^? philosoph]s fall :o say3 ,i _c d\bt :at is subjective1 :at affects myself1 :at ,i feel )9 myself2 b ,i h no "r to g out ( myself1 & affirm t :at ,i ?9k is 9 reality z ,i ?9k4 ,d y "k t y feel1 t y ?9k1 t y h )9 y su* or su* an appe>ance8 ,c y prove x8 ,evid5tly y _c4 ,y yield to a fact1 to an int]nal necessity :i* =ces y to believe t y ?9k1 t y feel1 or t su* a ?+ appe>s to y2 b !n !re is equal necessity 9 ! connection ( ! object ) ! idea1 an equal necessity =ces y to believe t :at appe>s to y to be 9 su* or su* a condition is z x appe>s4 ,nei!r case admits ( demon/ration2 9 bo? !re is an indecl9able necessity3 :]e1 !n1 is philosophy1 :5 x is attempt$ to e/abli% s great a diff]5ce betwe5 ?+s :i* admit ( none8 ,fi*te says3 ,x is impossible to expla9 9 a precise mann] h[ a philosoph] c get beyond ! me3#ba & we may ) equal reason say1 t we _c conceive h[ he has be5 able to raise a sy/em ^u ! me4 ,to :at does he appeal8 ,to a fact ( consci\sness1 t is1 to a necessity4 ,& is n ! ass5t to evid5ce1 ! c]ta9ty to :i* ! reality app>5tly corresponds1 also a necessity8 ,on :at does ,fi*te f\nd 8 sy/em ( ! me & ! n-me8 ,we h only to read 8 works to see t he only f\nds x on consid]ations :i* suppose a value 9 c]ta9 ideas1 a tru? 9 c]ta9 judgm5ts4 ,o!rwise x is impossible to speak or to ?9k3 & ?is ev5 he himself admits :51 9 comm5c+ 8 inve/igations on ! pr9ciple ( our cognitions1 he utt]s ! words we h j quot$4 ,he !n confesses t we _c take "o /ep )\t tru/+ all ! laws ( g5]al logic1 :i* are n always demon/rat$1 b are suppos$ tacitly admitt$4 ,& :at are ^! laws1 )\t objective tru?s8 ,:at are !y )\t ! value ( ideas1 )\t correspond5ce ) objects8 ,fi*te says rightly1 x is a circle2 b he c no m get out ( x ?an o!r philosoph]s4 #ba ,wiss5s*aftslehre4 ,er/] ,!il4 #c4 #beb4 ,to take f ideas _! objective value1 to r$uce !m to m]e subjective ph5om5a1 to resi/ t int]nal necessity :i* obliges u to admit ! correspond5ce ( ! s\l to objects1 is to de/roy ! v consci\sness ( ! s\l4 ,?is mu/ h be5 se51 & ?is we ?9k we c mo/ evid5tly demon/rate4 #bec4 ,we h consci\sness ( ourselves4 ,we n[ ab/ract :at we feel1 :at we are2 b we "k t we feel & t we are4 ,?is exp]i5ce is s cle>1 s vivid1 t we _c resi/ ! tru? ( :at x atte/s to u4 ,b ?is me is n only ! me ( ! pres5t in/ant1 x is also ! me ( ye/]day1 & ( all prior "t ( :i* we h consci\sness4 ,we are ! same t we 7 ye/]day1 ! be+ 9 :i* ?is succession is v]ifi$1 to :i* ?is v>iety ( appe>ances is pres5t$4 ,! consci\sness ( ! me !n includes ! id5tity ( a be+ at di/9ct times1 9 v>i\s situations1 ) diff]5t ideas1 & div]se affections1--! id5tity ( a be+ :i* endures & is ! same ?r\gh\t ! *anges succe$+ 9 x4 ,if ?is duration ( id5tity be brok51 if ,i be n sure t ,i am ! same me t ,i 0 previ\sly1 ! consci\sness ( ! me is de/roy$4 ,!re w\ld exi/ a s]ies ( unconnect$ facts1 isolat$ acts ( consci\sness1 b n t intimate consci\sness ,i n[ exp]i5ce4 ,?is _c be d\bt$2 e man feels x 9 himself2 x admits nei!r discussion nor pro( 9 any "o1 x requires !m ( no "o4 ,! mom5t ?is consci\sness ( id5tity fails1 we are 9 our own eyes annihilat$2 :atev] we may be 9 reality1 = ourselves we are no?+4 ,:at is ! consci\sness ( a be+1 =m$ f a s]ies ( acts ( consci\sness1 )\t connection or mutual relation8 ,x is a be+ reveal$ successively to itself1 yet n z itself1 b z a new be+1 a be+ :i* is born & dies1 & dies & is born be=e its eyes1 )\t its kn[+ t :at is born is :at di$1 or t :at di$ is :at 0 born3 x is a light :i* burns & is ext+ui%$1 & aga9 burns & is aga9 ext+ui%$1 )\t its kn[+ t x is ! same light4 #bed4 ,?is consci\sness is completely de/roy$ by ^? :o d5y ! connection betwe5 ! idea & object4 ,demon/ration4--,9 ! in/ant ,a1 ,i h no o!r subjective pres5ce ( my acts ?an ! v act ,i am at t mom5t p]=m+3 ,i _c !re=e be c]ta9 t ,i h _h any previ\sly1 if !y be n repres5t$ 9 ! pres5t idea2 !re is !re=e a connection betwe5 ?is idea & its object4 ,att5d+ !n simply to ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 to ! m]e consci\sness ( ! subject1 we f9d t we d1 by an irresi/ible necessity1 attribute an objective value to ideas1 an objective tru? to judgm5ts4 #bee4 ,)\t ?is objective tru?1 all c]ta9 recollection ev5 ( int]nal ph5om5a1 & by a legitimate consequ5ce1 all reason+1 judgm5t1 & ?\ght1 are impossible4 ,recollection is ( pa/ acts4 ,:5 we recollect !m1 !y already are n2 =1 if !y 71 we %\ld n h recollection1 b pres5t consci\sness ( !m4 ,ev5 :5 9 ! act ( recollect+ !m we h o!r simil> acts1 ^! are n ! same1 = some?+ ( pa/ "t always ent]s into ! idea ( recollection4 ,!re=e1 we c h no c]ta9ty ( !m1 b by _! connection ) ! pres5t act1 _! correspond5ce ) ! idea pres5t+ !m to u4 #bef4 ,we h said t if1 9 int]nal ph5om5a1 ! c]ta9ty ( ! objective tru? fail1 all reason+ is impossible4 ,9 fact1 all reason+ supposes a succession ( acts2 :5 "o ( !m exi/s 9 ! m9d1 ! o!r does n exi/2 !re=e1 cont9u$ m9ute recollections are requir$1 le/ ! *a9 be brok52 & ?us1 )\t ?is *a91 !re is no reason+2 )\t recollection ?is *a9 is n2 )\t objective tru?1 !re is no c]ta9 recollection2 !re=e1 )\t objective tru? !re is no reason+4 #beg4 ,all judgm5ts also seem impossible4 ,judgm5ts are ( two classes3 "s require demon/ration1 o!rs d n4 ,^? t require demon/ration w\ld be impossible1 = !re c be no demon/ration )\t reason+1 & reason+ 9 ?is case is impossible4 ,z to ^? t d n ne$ demon/ration1 because !y %9e ) imm$iate evid5ce2 all ( !m1 n relat+ to ! pres5t act ( ! s\l1 9 ! v in/ant :5 ! judgm5t is pron\nc$1 w\ld be impossible4 ,!re=e1 !re c\ld be no judgm5t b t ( ! pres5t act1 t is1 ! consci\sness ( ! pres5t )\t relation to ! prec$+4 ,b x is rem>kable t ev5 ) respect to ! acts ( consci\sness1 ?is judgm5t w\ld be little less ?an impossible2 = :5 we =m a judgm5t ^u an act ( consci\sness1 ?is we d n by ?is act1 b by a reflex act4 ,?is reflection requires succession1 & succession _c be kn[n ) c]ta9ty if !re be no objective tru?4 ,x is ev5 v d\btful if ! judgm5ts ( imm$iate evid5ce w\ld be possible4 ,!y suppose1 z we expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 relation ( ! p>tial conceptions into :i* ! :ole is decompos$2 & h[ c !re be decomposition )\t succession8 ,if !re is succession1 !re is recollection2 if !re is recollection1 !re is no imm$iate pres5ce ( ! ?+ recollect$4 #beh4 ,su* consequ5ces are a/\nd+1 b !y are inevitable4 ,if we de/roy objective tru?1 all rational ?\ght disappe>s4 ,su* ?\ght includes a c]ta9 cont9uity ( acts correspond+ to diff]5t in/ants2 if ?is cont9uity be brok51 ! human ?\ght ceases to be :at x is1 ceases to exi/ z reason4 ,x is a s]ies ( acts :i* h no sort ( connection1 & :i* lead to no?+4 ,9 su* a case1 all expression1 all words fail2 no?+ has a fix$ value2 e ?+ is +ulf$ 9 obscurity4 ,?us x is 9 ! intellectual & moral ord] z 9 ! mat]ial2 & man has n ev5 ! com=t ( possess+ himself2 he vani%es f himself l an empty %ad[4 #bei4 ,s5sations may also exi/ z an unconnect$ s]ies1 b !re w be no c]ta9 recollection ( !m1 s9ce ! objective tru? is want+2 pa/ s5sations exi/ only z pa/1 &1 consequ5tly1 z simple objects4 ,all intellectual reflection ^u !m w be impossible1 = reflection is n s5sation2 s5sation is an object ( reflection1 n reflection itself4 ,?us1 ! ignorant man has ! same s5sation z ! philosoph]1 b n ! same reflection ^u x4 ,a ?\s& times we h s5sations )\t reflect+ t we h !m4 ,s5sible is v diff]5t f intellectual consci\sness2 ! =m] is ! simple pres5ce ( ! s5sation1 or ! s5sation itself2 ! latt] is ! act ( ! intellect occupi$ ) ! s5sation4 #bfj4 ,?is di/9ction is also f\nd 9 all purely intellectual acts3 ! reflection ^u ! act is n ! act itself4 ,"o is ! object ( ! o!r2 !y are n id5tical1 & are (t5 f\nd sep>at$4 ,if1 !n1 !re 7 no objective tru?1 reflection w\ld be impossible4 #bfa4 ,x is likewise difficult to compreh5d h[ any act ( ! consci\sness ( ! me1 ev5 z pres5t1 c be possible4 ,we h already se5 ! me disappe> :5 ! s]ies ( recollections is brok51 & )\t objective tru? x is n ev5 possible to conceive ! me = "o in/ant4 ,! me ?9k+ kn[s ! me ?\ght only z object4 ,:e!r x p]ceive or "k x1 to acc\nt to itself = itself1 x mu/ reflect ^u itself1 & take itself = its own object2 & !re be+ no objective tru?1 x is inconceivable h[ an object c h any value4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t !y :o oppose objectiv5ess1 attack a fundam5tal law ( our m9d1 de/roy ?\ght1 ev5 consci\sness1 & e ?+ subjective :i* c\ld s]ve z its basis4 #bfb4 ,9 _! argum5ts aga9/ objective c]ta9ty1 its oppon5ts are accu/om$ to dep5d ^u ! errors into :i* x leads u4 ,! madman believes he sees objects1 :i* d n exi/2 ! lunatic believes firmly 9 8 disconnect$ ?\ghts2 & :y may n t :i* deceives u 9 "o in/ance1 also deceive u 9 ano!r1 & all cases8 ,c t be a c]ta9 crit]ion :i* sometimes fails8 ,:y n /op ) ! purely subjective8 ,! madman1 ! lunatic1 are deceiv$ 9 ! object1 n 9 ! subject2 al?\gh :at !y ?9k is n true1 x is /ill v true & c]ta9 t !y ?9k x4 ,?is is a speci\s objection2 b x does n remove ! difficulties "u :i* ! sy/em1 9 favor ( :i* x is adduc$1 labors2 & x may1 on ! o!r h&1 be solv$ 9 s f> z x t5ds to weak5 objective tru?4 ,! madman1 ! lunatic1 h also recollections ( ?+s t nev] exi/$4 ,^! recollections d n relate solely to ext]nal1 b likewise to _! int]nal acts4 ,! madman :o calls himself k+1 acts 9 accordance ) 8 ?\ght1 ) :at he felt :5 cr[n$1 :5 de?ron$2 & yet1 ^! intellectual ph5om5a nev] exi/$4 ,&1 h[ev] ?is may be1 he himself may h produc$ ^! recollections4 ,we hold1 !n1 t ! crit]ion ) respect to memory is wrong 9 ?is case1 & c be ( avail 9 no case4 ,!re=e1 ev51 al?\gh we _h n %[n t )\t objective tru? !re is no recollection ev5 ( ! int]nal1 ! argum5ts ( our adv]s>ies w\ld h suffic$4 ,?is objection1 if x prove any ?+1 confirms all t we h advanc$ 9 demon/rat+ t )\t objectiv5ess !re is no consci\sness prop]ly s call$1 & ?is ev5 our oppon5ts d n admit4 #bfc4 ,moreov]1 we at once see :at weight an argum5t bas$ on craz9ess %\ld h at ! tribunal ( reason4 ,x all1 at ! mo/1 only proves ! weakness ( our nature1 t 9 "s un=tunate individuals ! e/abli%$ ord] ( humanity is rev]s$2 t ! rule ( tru?1 z x exi/s 9 s weak a creature1 admits ( "s exceptions2 b ^! exceptions are kn[n1 = _! *>act]s are m>k$4 ,! exception does n de/roy1 x only confirms ! rule47#be7 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,c ,,all ,,cognitions ,,be ,,r$uc$ ,,to ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,id5tity8 #bfd4 ,imm$iate evid5ce has = its objects ^? tru?s :i* ! intellect sees ) all cle>ness1 & to :i* x ass5ts )\t ! int]v5tion ( any m$ium1 z its "n d5otes4 ,^! tru?s are enunciat$ 9 propositions call$ p] se n1 fir/ pr9ciples1 or axioms1 9 :i* x is suffici5t to "k ! mean+ ( ! t]ms to see t ! pr$icate is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject4 ,propositions ( ?is class are few 9 all sci5ces2 ! great] "p ( our cognitions are ! fruit ( reason+ :i* proce$s by m$iate evid5ce4 ,9 geometry ! numb] ( tru?s t d n require demon/ration1 b only explanation1 is v limit$4 ,! body ( geometrical sci5ce1 ) its pres5t colossal dim5sions1 has proce$$ f reason+3 ev5 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive works ! axioms occupy b a few pages2 ! re/ is compos$ ( !orems1 propositions n ( !mselves evid5t1 b requir+ demon/ration4 ,! same is true ( all o!r sci5ces4 #bfe4 ,s9ce 9 axioms ! intellect p]ceives ! id5tity ( ! subject ) ! pr$icate1 intuitively see+ t ! idea ( ! latt] is conta9$ 9 t ( ! =m]1 !re arises a v grave philosophical "q :i* may prove v difficult1 & cause /range controv]sies1 if c>e be n tak5 to place x ^u its true gr\nd4 ,is e human cognition r$uc$ to ! simple p]ception ( id5tity8 & c its g5]al =mula be ?is3 ,a is ,a1 or3 a ?+ is itself8 ,"s philosoph]s ( note ma9ta9 ! affirmative2 o!rs ! contr>y4 ,we ?9k !re is a confusion ( ideas n s mu* z to ! "q itself z to its /ate4 ,cle> & exact ideas ( :at judgm5t is1 & ( ! relation affirm$ or d5i$ by x1 w greatly facilitate ! accurate solution ( ! "q4 #bff4 ,!re is 9 e judgm5t p]ception ( id5tity or non-id5tity1 accord+ly z x is affirmative or negative4 ,! v]b is does n express ! union1 b ! id5tity ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject2 & :5 accompani$ ) ! negation n1 x simply expresses non-id5tity1 ab/ract+ union or sep>ation4 ,?is is s true & s exact1 t 9 ?+s really unit$ an affirmative judgm5t is impossible1 because !y h no id5tity4 ,we mu/1 !n1 9 su* cases1 if we w\ld be enabl$ to make an affirmation1 express ! pr$icate 9 ! concrete1 t is1 9 "s s5se involv+ ! idea ( ! subject itself 9 x2 = ! same prop]ty affirm$ 9 ! concrete _c be 9 ! ab/ract1 b mu/ r be d5i$4 ,?us we may say1 man is rational2 b n1 man is rationality3 a body is ext5d$2 b n1 a body is ext5sion3 pap] is :ite2 b n1 pap] is :it5ess4 ,:y is ?is8 ,is x t rationality is n 9 man1 ext5sion is n unit$ to body1 nor :it5ess to pap]8 ,c]ta9ly n2 b if rationality be 9 man1 ext5sion 9 body1 & :it5ess 9 pap]1 we h only n to p]ceive id5tity betwe5 ! pr$icates & subjects1 to r5d] affirmation impossible2 on ! contr>y1 despite ! union1 we h negation3 ?us we may say1 man is n rationality2 a body is n ext5sion2 pap] is n :it5ess4 ,we h said t1 9 ord] to save ! expression ( id5tity1 we us$ ! concrete in/ead ( ! ab/ract t]m1 & involv$ 9 ! =m] ! idea ( ! subject4 ,x _c be said t pap] is :it5ess1 b x may be said t pap] is :ite2 = ?is la/ proposition means t pap] is a :ite ?+2 t is1 we make ! g5]al idea ( a ?+1 or ! idea ( a modifiable subject1 ent] into ! pr$icate :ile 9 ! concrete2 & ?is subject is id5tical ) ! pap] modifi$ by :it5ess4 #bfg4 ,?us x is easy to see1 t ! expression1 union ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject1 is1 at ! be/1 inexact4 ,e affirmative proposition expresses ! id5tity ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject4 ,use au?orizes ^! modes ( speak+1 :i* /ill produce "s confusion :5 we endeavor p]fectly to und]/& ^! matt]s4 ,& x mu/ be obs]v$1 t ord9>y language "h1 z (t5 else:]e1 is admirably exact & appropriate4 ,nobody says1 pap] is :it5ess1 b1 pap] is :ite4 ,x is only :5 we w\ld greatly height5 ! degree1 to :i* a subject possesses a quality1 t we express x 9 ! ab/ract1 & !n we jo9 ) x ! pron\n itself4 ,?us1 speak+ hyp]bolically1 we say a ?+ is beauty itself1 :it5ess itself1 goodness itself4 #bfh4 ,ev5 :at 9 ma!matics is call$ equality1 also means id5tity4 ,?us 9 ?is class ( judgm5ts1 besides :at we h obs]v$ ( g5]al 9 !m all1 to wit3 ! id5tity sav$ by express+ ! pr$icate 9 ! concrete1 ! v relation ( equality d5otes id5tity4 ,?is ne$s explanation4 ,:oev] says #f #c #i1 expresses ! same z he :o says #f #c are id5tical ) #i4 ,cle>ly 9 ! affirmation ( equality1 no att5tion is paid to ! =m 9 :i* ! quantities are express$1 b to ! quantities !mselves alone2 o!rwise we %\ld be unable to affirm n only id5tity1 b also equality2 = x is evid5t t #f #c1 z to _! =m1 nei!r writt51 spok51 nor ?\ght1 are id5tical )1 or equal to1 #i4 ,! equality is 9 ! values express$1 & ^! are n only equal b id5tical2 #f #c are ! same z #i4 ,! :ole is n di/+ui%$ f its unit$ "p2 #i is ! :ole1 #f #c its unit$ p>ts4 ,! diff]5t mann] ( conceiv+ #f #c & #i does n exclude ! id5tity4 ,! diff]5ce is 9 ! intellectual =m1 & occurs n only "h b also 9 ! p]ceptions ( ! simple/ ?+s2 !re is no?+ :i* we d n conceive "u diff]5t aspects1 & ^: conception we may n decompose 9 v>i\s ways2 b we d n !re=e say t ! ?+ ceases to be simple & id5tical ) itself4 ,:at we h said ( an ari?metical equation may be ext5d$ to algebraical & geometrical equations4 ,if we h an equation :]e( ! fir/ memb] is v simple1 z ,z1 & ! second v complicat$1 z ! developm5t ( a s]ies1 we _c say t ! fir/ expression is equal to ! second2 ! equality is n 9 ! expression b 9 ! ?+ express$1 9 ! value designat$ by ! lett]s2 9 ?is s5se x is true1 9 ! =m] x is evid5tly false4 ,two circumf]5ces hav+ ! same radius are equal4 ,"h we seem to treat solely ( equality1 s9ce !re are two di/9ct objects1 ! two circumf]5ces1 :i* may be trac$ on pap] or repres5t$ 9 ! imag9ation2 yet n ev5 9 ?is case is ! di/9ction true1 x is only app>5t1 = "h1 z 9 algebraical & ari?metical equations1 !re is di/9ction & ev5 div]sity 9 =m ) id5tity at bottom4 ,! pr9cipal argum5t1 on :i* ! di/9ction is f\nd$1 may be combatt$ by obs]v+ t ! circumf]5ces :i* may be trac$ or repres5t$1 are only =ms ( ! idea1 n ! idea itself4 ,:e!r trac$ or repres5t$ !y h a det]m9ate size & a c]ta9 position on ! planes se5 or imag9$2 9 ! idea1 & 9 ! proposition conta9+ x1 !re is no?+ ( ?is2 we ab/ract all size1 all position1 & speak 9 a g5]al & absolute s5se4 ,true1 ! repres5tations may be inf9ite ei!r ext]nally or 9 ! imag9ation2 b ?is1 s f> f prov+ !m id5tical1 %[s _! div]sity1 s9ce ! idea is "o & !y are inf9ite2 ! idea is con/ant1 !y are v>iable2 ! idea is indep5d5t ( !m1 !y are dep5d5t on ! idea1 & h ! "* & d5om9ation ( circumf]5ces1 inasmu* z !y approa* x by repres5t+ :at x conta9s4 ,:at1 !n1 is express$ 9 ! proposition3 two circumf]5ces1 hav+ ! same radius1 are equal8 ,! fundam5tal idea is1 t ! value ( ! circumf]5ce dep5ds ^u ! radius1 & ! proposition "h enunciat$ is simply an application ( ?is prop]ty to ! case ( ! equality ( radii4 ,! circumf]5ces1 !n1 conceiv$ by u z di/9ct1 are only examples :i* we inw>dly consid] 9 ord] to r5d] ! tru? ( ! application app>5t2 b 9 :at is purely intellectual1 we f9d only ! decomposition ( ! idea ( circumf]5ce1 or its relation to ! radius appli$ to ! case ( equality4 ,!n !re are n two circumf]5ces 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 b "o only1 ^: prop]ties we "k "u diff]5t conceptions1 & express 9 v>i\s ways4 ,if 9 all judgm5ts !re is affirmation ( id5tity1 or non-id5tity1 & all our cognitions ei!r beg9 or end 9 a judgm5t1 x w\ld seem t !y all ought to be r$uc$ to a simple p]ception ( id5tity4 ,! g5]al =mula ( our cognitions w !n be3 ,a is ,a1 or1 a ?+ is itself4 ,?is result /rikes "o z an extravagant p>adox1 & is s1 or n1 accord+ to ! s5se 9 :i* x is und]/ood2 b if rightly expla9$1 x may be admitt$ z a tru?1 & a v simple "o4 ,f :at has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs1 ! mean+ ( ?is op9ion may be disc]n$3 b ! importance ( ! pres5t matt] requires /ill fur!r explanation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,cont9uation ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,subject4 #bfi4 ,x is ev5 ridicul\s to say t ! cognitions ( ! sublime/ philosoph]s may be r$uc$ to ?is equation3 ,a is ,a4 ,?is1 absolutely speak+1 is n only false1 b contr>y to common s5se2 b x is nei!r contr>y to common s5se nor false to say t all cognitions ( ma!maticians are p]ceptions ( id5tity1 :i*1 pres5t$ "u diff]5t conceptions1 und]goes inf9ite v>iations ( =m1 & s fecundates ! intellect & con/itutes sci5ce4 ,= ! sake ( great] cle>ness we w take an example1 & foll[ "o idea ?r\gh all its trans=mations4 #bgj4 ,! equation circle circle 7#a7 is v true1 b n v lucid1 s9ce x s]ves no purpose1 because !re is id5tity n only ( ideas b likewise ( conceptions & expression4 ,to h a true progress 9 sci5ce we mu/ n only *ange ! expression1 b also v>y 9 "s way ! conception "u :i* ! id5tical ?+ is pres5t$4 ,?us1 if we abbreviate ! above equation 9 ?is =m3 ,c circle 7#b71 we make no progress1 unless ) respect to ! purely mat]ial expression4 ,! only possible advantage ( ?is is to assi/ ! memory1 z in/ead ( express+ ! circle by a ^w1 we express x by its initial lett]1 ,c4 ,:y is ?is8 ,because ! v>iety is 9 ! expression1 n 9 ! conception4 ,if1 in/ead ( consid]+ ! id5tity 9 all its simplicity 9 bo? memb]s ( ! equation1 we give ! value ( ! circle ) ref]5ce to ! circumf]5ce1 we %all h ,c circumf]5ce #a_/b ,r 7#c71 t is1 ! value ( ! circle is equal to ! circumf]5ce multipli$ by "o-half ! radius4 ,9 ! equation 7#c7 !re is id5tity z 9 7#a7 & 7#b71 because x is affirm$ 9 x t ! value express$ by ,c is ! same z t express$ by circumf]5ce #a_/b ,r2 j z 9 ! o!r two x is express$ t ! value ( ! circle is ! value ( ! circle4 ,b is ?is equation diff]5t f ! o!r two8 ,x is v diff]5t4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce8 ,! fir/ two simply express ! id5tity conceiv$ "u ! same po9t ( view2 ! circle express$ 9 ! second memb] excites no idea n already excit$ by ! fir/2 b 9 ! la/1 ! second memb] expresses ! same circle inde$1 b 9 its relations ) ! circumf]5ce & radius2 &1 consequ5tly1 besides conta9+ a sort ( analysis ( ! circle1 x records ! analysis previ\sly made ( ! idea ( ! circumf]5ce 9 relation to ! idea ( radius4 ,! diff]5ce is n1 !n1 solely 9 ! mat]ial expression1 b 9 ! v>iety ( conceptions "u :i* ! same ?+ is pres5t$4 ,call+ ! value ( ! relation ( ! circumf]5ce ) ! diamet] ,n1 & ! circle ,c1 ! equation becomes3 ,c ,,nr#b 7#d74 ,"h1 also1 !re is id5tity ( value2 b we discov] a notable progress 9 ! expression ( ! second memb]1 9 :i* ! value ( ! circle is giv51 fre$ f its relations ) ! value ( ! circumf]5ce1 & dep5d5t solely on a num]ical value1 ,n1 & a "r l9e1 :i* is ! radius4 ,)\t los+ ! id5tity1 & only by a succession ( p]ceptions ( id5tity1 we h advanc$ 9 sci5ce1 & />t+ f s /]ile a proposition z circle circle1 we h obta9$ ano!r1 by means ( :i* we may at once det]m9e ! value ( any circle f its radius4 ,leav+ elem5tal geometry1 & consid]+ ! circle z a curve ref]r$ to two axes1 ) respect to :i* its po9ts are det]m9$1 we %all h ,z #b;,bx-x#b7e72 ,z express+ ! value ( ! ord9ate2 ,b ! con/ant "p ( ! axis ( abscissas2 & x ! abscissa correspond+ to ,z4 ,we h "h a /ill m notable progress ( ideas3 9 bo? memb]s we n[ express ! value1 n ( ! circle1 b ( l9es1 by :i* we may det]m9e all po9ts ( ! curve2 & we easily conceive t ?is curve1 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! figure ^: prop]ties we det]m9$ 9 elem5tal geometry1 may be conceiv$ "u su* a =m z belongs to a g5us ( curves1 :]e( x con/itutes a species by ! p>ticul> relations ( ! quantities #bx & ,b2 ?us modify+ ! expression by add+ a new quantity1 comb9$ 9 ?is or t mann]1 we may obta9 a curve ( ano!r species4 ,if1 !re=e1 we w\ld det]m9e ! value ( ! surface conta9$ 9 ?is circle1 we may consid] x1 n solely ) respect to ! radius1 b to ! areas compris$ betwe5 ! v>i\s p]p5dicul>s ! extremities ( :i* det]m9e po9ts ( ! curve & are call$ ord9ates4 ,x results f ?is1 t ! same value ( ! circle may be det]m9$ "u v>i\s conceptions1 al?\gh ?is value is at all times id5tical2 ! transition f "o conception to ano!r is ! succession ( ! p]ceptions ( id5tity pres5t$ "u diff]5t =ms4 ,let u n[ consid] ! value ( ! circle dep5d5t on ! radius3 ?is w give u ,c function x 7#f74 ,?is equation enables u to conceive ! circle "u ! g5]al idea ( a function ( its radius1 or ( x1 & consequ5tly au?orizes u to subject x to all ! laws to :i* a function is subject1 & leads u to ! prop]ties ( _! diff]5tials1 limits1 & relations4 ,by ?is equation we ent] into inf9itesimal calculus1 ! expressions ( :i* pres5t id5tity "u a =m :i* records a s]ies ( conceptions ( long & pr(\nd analysis4 ,?us1 express+ ! diff]5tial ( ! circle by dc1 & its integral by ,s4 dc1 we %all h ,c ,s4 dc1 7#g71 an equation 9 :i* are express$ ! same values z 9 circle circle1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! equation 7#g7 records imm5se analytical labors3 x results f a long succession ( conceptions ( integral calculus1 ( diff]5tials1 & limits ( ! diff]5tials ( ! functions1 ( ! application ( algebra to geometry1 & ( a multitude ( elem5t>y geometrical notions1 algebraical rules & comb9ations1 & ( :atev] else 0 ne$$ to arrive at ?is result4 ,!re=e1 :5 we f9d ! integral ( ! diff]5tial1 & obta9 by integration ! value ( ! circle1 x w\ld cle>ly be mo/ extravagant to affirm t ! integral equation is no?+ m ?an ! equation circle circle2 b x is n s to say t at bottom !re is id5tity1 & t ! div]sity ( expression to :i* we h come1 is ! result ( a succession ( p]ceptions ( ! same id5tity pres5t$ "u diff]5t aspects4 ,suppos+ ! conceptions1 ?r\gh :i* x has be5 necess>y to pass1 to be ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,m1 ! law ( _! sci5tific connection may be ?us express$3 ,a ,b1 ,b ,c1 ,c ,d1 ,d ,e1 ,e ,m2 !re=e ,a ,m4 #bga4 ,:at we h j expla9$ _c be well und]/ood unless we recall "s *>act]i/ics ( our intellect1 9 :i* is f\nd ! reason ( s great anomalies4 ,our intellect is s weak z to p]ceive ?+s only successively3 only aft] mu* /udy does x see :at is conta9$ 9 ! cle>e/ ideas4 ,h5ce a necessity1 to :i* corresponds ) admirable h>mony a faculty t satisfies x3 ! necessity is ( conceiv+ "u v>i\s1 & diff]5t1 z well z di/9ct1 =ms1 ev5 ! simple/ ?+s3 ! faculty is t ( decompos+ ! conception into _m p>ts1 & multiply+ 9 ! ord] ( ideas :at 9 t ( reality is only "o4 ,?is faculty ( decomposition w\ld be useless 7 n ! intellect1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! succession ( conceptions1 to f9d means ( connect+ & reta9+ !m3 o!rwise x w\ld cont9ually lose ! fruit ( its labors2 x w\ld slip f its h&s z fa/ z x grasp$ x4 ,happily x has ?is means 9 signs ei!r writt51 spok51 or ?\ght2 ^? my/]i\s expressions :i* at times n only designate an idea1 b also are ! comp5dium ( ! labors ( a :ole life1 & p]haps ( a long s]ies ( ages4 ,:5 ! sign is pres5t$ to u1 we d n see c]ta9ly & ) full cle>ness all t x expresses1 nor :y ! expression is legitimate2 b we "k confus$ly ! mean+ !re9 conta9$2 we "k t 9 case ( necessity1 x is en\gh = u to foll[ ! ?read ( ! p]ceptions ?r\gh :i* we h pass$1 ?us go+ back ev5 to ! simple/ elem5ts ( sci5ce4 ,9 mak+ calculations1 ! mo/ em95t ma!matician does n cle>ly see ! mean+ ( ! expressions he uses1 except z !y relate to ! object be=e him2 b he is c]ta9 t !y d n deceive him1 t ! rules by :i* he is guid$ are sure2 because he kn[s t at ano!r "t he e/abli%$ !m by inconte/ible demon/rations4 ,! progress ( a sci5ce may be comp>$ to a s]ies ( po/s on :i* ! di/ances ( a road are m>k$3 he :o m>k$ ! numb]s on ! po/s uses !m )\t necessity ( recall+ ! op]ations :i* l$ him to m>k ! quantity be=e him2 he is satisfi$ ) kn[+ t ! op]ations 7 well made1 & t he wrote ! result correctly4 #bgb4 ,! pro( ( ?is necessity ( decomposition1 besides be+ fully e/abli%$ by ! above example1 is f\nd 9 ! elem5ts ( all in/ruction1 :]e1 "u a =m ( demon/ration1 x is necess>y to expla9 propositions :i* express simply ! def9itions or axioms t h be5 be=e e/abli%$4 ,= example3 we f9d 9 ! elem5t>y works on geometry ?is !orem3 all ! diamet]s ( a circle are equal2 & we mu/1 if we w\ld h beg9n]s und]/& x1 give a demon/rative =m to t :i* nei!r is nor c be any ?+ m ?an an explanation1 & is almo/ a repetition ( ! idea ( ! circle4 ,:5 we describe a circle1 we fix a po9t ar\nd :i* we revolve a l9e call$ ! radius2 s9ce !n ! diamet] is no?+ m ?an ! sum ( two radii cont9u$ 9 ! same "r l9e1 ! m]e enunciation ( ! !orem w\ld seem suffici5t to %[ t x is evid5tly conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! circle1 & is z a sort ( repetition ( ! po/ulate1 on :i* ! con/ruction ( ! curve is f\nd$3 /ill x is n s1 & x mu/ be expla9$ z if x 7 a pro(2 we mu/ %[ ! diamet] to be equal to two radii1 ^! radii to be equal1 & at times repeat t ?is is suppos$ 9 its con/ruction3 9 a ^w1 x is necess>y to employ _m conceptions to %[ a tru?1 :i* ought to h be5 kn[n by ! simple intuition ( "o alone1 z is ! case :5 ! geometrical p[]s ( ! intellect h acquir$ a c]ta9 /r5g? & robu/ness4 #bgc4 ,we may n[ appreciate at its j value1 ! op9ion ( ,dugald ,/ew>t1 :o1 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 says3 ,x may be fairly que/ion$1 too1 :e!r x c1 ) /rict correctness1 be said ( ! simple ari?metical equation1 #b plus #b #d1 t x may be repres5t$ by ! =mula ,a ,a4 ,! "o is a proposition ass]t+ ! equival5ce ( two diff]5t expressions2 to asc]ta9 :i* equival5ce may1 9 numb]less cases1 be an object ( ! highe/ importance4 ,! o!r is altoge!r unmean+ & nugatory1 & _c1 by any possible supposition1 admit ( ! slighte/ application ( a practical nature4 ,:at op9ion !n %all we =m ( ! proposition ,a ,a1 :5 consid]$ z ! repres5tative ( su* a =mula z ! b9omial !orem ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton8 ,:5 appli$ to ! equation #b plus #b #d1 7:i* 9 its extreme simplicity & famili>ity is apt to be reg>d$ 9 ! light ( an axiom37 ! p>adox does n appe> to be s manife/ly extravagant2 b1 9 ! o!r case1 x seems q impossible to annex to x any mean+ :atev]4#bb ,?is philosoph] does n obs]ve t ! pret5d$ extravagance arises f 8 wrong int]pretation ( 8 adv]s>ies' op9ion4 ,no "o ev] ?\ght ( d5y+ ! importance ( ! discov]ies :i* prove diff]5t expressions equival5t3 no "o d\bts t ,newton's =mula ( ! b9omial is a great advance ^u ! =mula ,a ,a3 b ! "q consi/s n 9 ?is1 b 9 see+ :e!r ,newton's =mula ( ! b9omial is any ?+ m ?an ! expression ( id5tical ?+s2 & :e!r ev5 ! m]it ( ! expression is or is n ! fruit ( a s]ies ( p]ceptions ( id5tity4 ,7 ! "q pres5t$ "u ,dugald ,/ew>t's po9t ( view1 x w\ld be unwor?y ( discussion3 = philosophy %\ld n dispute ^u ?+s t are ridicul\s z well z absurd4 #bb ,"p ,,ii41 ,*ap4 ,,ii41 ,sect4 #c1 #b1 pages #dcf-g4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,cont9uation ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,subject4 #bgd4 ,we w n[ expla9 h[ ! doctr9e ( id5tity is appli$ 9 g5]al to all reason+1 :e!r ^u ma!matical objects or n3 ) ?is view we w exam9e "s ( ! dialectical =ms 9 :i* ! art ( reason+ is taught4 ,e ,a is ,b2 ,m is ,a3 !re=e ,m is ,b4 ,9 ! major ( ?is syllogism we f9d ! id5tity ( e ,a ) ,b2 & 9 ! m9or1 ! id5tity ( ,m ) ,b4 ,9 ea* ( ^! propositions !re is affirmation1 &1 consequ5tly1 p]ception ( id5tity4 ,let u n[ see :at takes place 9 ! connection :i* con/itutes ! =ce ( ! argum5t4 ,:y d we say t ,m is ,b8 ,because ,m is ,a1 & e ,a is ,b4 ,m is "o ( ! ,z1 express$ 9 ! words e ,a2 !re=e1 :5 we say1 ,m is ,a1 we say only :at we _h be=e said by e ,a4 ,:at diff]5ce1 !n1 is !re8 ,!re is ?is diff]5ce1 t 9 ! expression e ,a1 no att5tion is paid to "o ( ,a's cont5ts1 ,m1 ( :i* we _h nev]!less affirm$ t x 0 ,b1 9 affirm+ t e ,a is ,b4 ,if1 9 ! expression e ,a1 we h di/9ctly se5 ,m1 ! syllogism w\ld n h be5 necess>y1 because1 9 say+ e ,a is ,b1 we _h already und]/ood t ,m is ,b4 ,?is obs]vation is s true & exact1 t 9 treat+ ( v cle> relations we suppress ! syllogism1 & replace x ) ! en?ymema1 :i* is1 x is true1 an abbreviation ( ! syllogism2 b we mu/ see 9 ?is abbreviation besides a sav+ ( words1 a sav+ ( conceptions1 = ! intellect sees "o intuitively 9 ! o!r1 )\t necessity ( decomposition4 ,he is a man1 !re=e he is rational2 we omit ! major1 & d n ev5 ?9k ( x1 = we intuitively see1 9 ! idea ( man1 & its application to an individual1 ! idea ( rational )\t any gradation ( ideas or succession ( conceptions4 ,let u suppose t we h to demon/rate t ! p]imet] ( a polygon inscrib$ 9 a circle is less ?an ! circumf]5ce1 & t we make ! foll[+ syllogism3 ,! sum ( all ! "r l9es inscrib$ 9 _! respective curves is less ?an ! sum ( ^? curves2 b ! p]imet] ( ! polygon is ! sum ( ! "r l9es1 & ! circumf]5ce is ! sum ( ! arcs or curves2 !re=e ! inscrib$ p]imet] is less ?an ! circumf]5ce4 ,we n[ ask1 w any "o :o kn[s t ! sum ( ! "r l9es is less ?an ! sum ( ! curves1 fail to see ) equal facility t ! p]imet] is less ?an ! circumscrib$ circumf]5ce1 provid$ he und]/&s ! mean+ ( ! words8 ,x is evid5t t he w n4 ,:at necessity1 !n1 ( repeat+ ! g5]al pr9ciple8 ,is x to add any ?+ to ! p>ticul> conception8 ,c]ta9ly n2 because no?+ c be cle>] ?an ! foll[+ propositions3 ! p]imet] ( ! polygon is a sum ( "r l9es2 ! circumf]5ce is a sum ( arcs or curves2 :at ! g5]al pr9ciple does1 is to call att5tion to a phase ( ! p>ticul> conception1 s t :at o!rwise c\ld n be se5 9 x may be se5 on reflection4 ,! c]ta9ty ( ! conclusion does n dep5d on ! g5]al pr9ciple2 because1 f ?9k+ on ! relations ( great] & less only ) respect to ! "r l9es ( ! p]imet] & ! arcs1 ! sum ( :i* =ms ! circumf]5ce1 any "o w\ld h inf]r$ ! same ?+4 ,?is example also t5ds to prove t ! en?ymema is n a m]e abbreviation ( words2 & x %[s :y we employ x 9 reason+ ^u matt]s famili> to ! und]/&+4 ,9 any "o ( ! conceptions we see all t is necess>y = ! consequ5ce2 &1 !re=e1 "o premise suffices1 z 9 x ! o!r is includ$ r ?an und]/ood4 ,a beg9n] may say3 ! arc is great] ?an ! *ord1 because ! curve is great] ?an ! "r l9e2 b :5 famili>iz$ ) geometrical ideas1 he w simply say1 ! arc is great] ?an ! *ord2 he w see ! idea ( ! curve 9 t ( ! arc1 & ! idea ( ! "r l9e 9 t ( ! *ord1 )\t ne$ ( decomposition4 ,if ! arc is great] ?an its *ord1 ?is is n because e curve is great] ?an ! correspond+ "r l9e4 ,did ! ab/ract idea ( curve n exi/1 & 7 ?is p>ticul> arc ( a circle ! only curve ?\ght (2 did ! ab/ract idea ( "r l9e n exi/1 & 7 ?is p>ticul> *ord ! only "r l9e ?\ght (1 x w\ld /ill1 z at pres5t1 be true t ! arc is great] ?an ! *ord4 #bge4 ,:5 treat+ ( ! necess>y relations ( ?+s1 ! g5]al pr9ciples1 ! middle t]ms1 & all ! auxili>ies to reason+ furni%$ by logic1 are only inv5tions ( art to make u reflect ^u ! conception ( ! ?+1 & see 9 x :at o!rwise we %\ld n see4 ,h5ce our judgm5ts on necess>y objects are 9 "s s5se analytical2 & ,kant equivocates1 :5 he says !re are syn!tic judgm5ts n dep5d5t on exp]i5ce4 ,)\t exp]i5ce we h only ! conception ( ! ?+4 ,we d n pret5d t all propositions express su* a relation betwe5 ! subject & ! pr$icate1 t ! conception ( ! =m] w always give t ( ! latt]2 b we d hold1 t ! reason ( ?is insuffici5cy is ! incomplet5ess ( ! conception1 ei!r 9 itself1 or 9 relation to our compreh5sion4 ,b if we suppose ! conception complete 9 itself1 & a due capacity 9 our intellect to und]/& :atev] x conta9s1 we %all f9d 9 ! conception all t c be ! object ( sci5ce4 #bgf4 ,an example f ma!matics w make ?is cle>]4 ,l>ge works on geometry are fill$ ) explanations1 demon/rations1 & applications ( ! prop]ties ( ! triangle4 ,! conceptions ( "r l9es1 & ! angles =m$ by !m1 ent] into ! conception ( ! triangle4 ,we ask1 c all ! explanations & demon/rations ( ! prop]ties ( triangles 9 g5]al ev] g beyond ! ideas ( "r l9es & angles8 ,no4 ,= ! new elem5ts introduc$ w\ld be =eign to ! triangle1 & w\ld consequ5tly *ange its nature4 ,necess>y relations nei!r admit ( m nor ( less1 nei!r additions nor subtractions ( any sort2 :at is1 is1 & no?+ m4 ,9 pass+ f ! triangle 9 g5]al to its diff]5t species1 su* z equilat]al1 isosceles1 "r angl$1 scal5e1 x is to be obs]v$ t ! demon/ration mu/ rigor\sly att5d to :at is conta9$ 9 ! g5]al conception1 modifi$ by ! det]m9+ prop]ties ( ! species1 t is1 ! equality ( ! ?ree sides1 ( two1 ! inequality ( all1 ! supposition ( a "r angle1 & o!rs4 #bgg4 ,:at we are n[ expla9+ is cle>ly se5 9 ! application ( algebra to geometry4 ,a curve is express$ by a =mula conta9+ ! conception ( ! curve1 or its ess5ce4 ,! geometrician1 to demon/rate ! prop]ties ( ! curve1 does n ne$ to g out ( ?is =mula2 x is a t\*-/one 9 8 h&1 & he f9ds 9 x all t he wants4 ,he inscribes triangles1 or o!r figures 9 ! curve1 draws "r l9es f x to po9ts )\t1 b nev] goes out ( ! conception express$ 9 ! =mula2 he decomposes x1 & f9ds 9 x :at be=e he _h n discov]$4 ,9 ?is equation z#b 7e#b_/;,e#b77b;,ex-x#b71 we f9d ! expression ( ! relations :i* con/itute ! ellipse2 ,e expresses ! great] semi-axis1 e ! less]1 z ! ord9ates1 & x ! abscissas4 ,) ?is equation v>i\sly develop$ & trans=m$1 ! prop]ties ( ! curve are det]m9$2 x %[s1 ) ! help ( con/ructions1 t ! new prop]ty is conta9$ 9 ! conception1 & to f9d x1 we h only to analyze x4 ,if we suppose an intellig5ce capable ( conceiv+ ! ess5ce ( ! curve1 by an imm$iate intuition ( ! law gov]n+ ! inflection ( po9ts1 )\t ! necessity ( ref]r+ x to any l9e1 :e!r "o axis in/ead ( two suffices1 or 9 any o!r mann] n ev5 imag9able by u2 ?is intellig5ce w n ne$ to foll[ all ! evolutions :i* we h made 9 demon/rat+ ! prop]ties ( ! curve2 = x w p]ceive !m to be cle>ly conta9$ 9 ! v conception ( ! curve4 ,?is supposition is n arbitr>y2 we see x realiz$ e day1 ?\gh on a small] scale4 ,an ord9>y geometrician conceives a curve z also does ,pascal2 b :ile ,pascal at a glance sees ! mo/ recondite prop]ties ( ! curve 9 ?is conception1 an ord9>y geometrician sees only aft] long /udy its mo/ common prop]ties4 ,kant made no acc\nt ( ?is doctr9e1 & !re=e c\ld n solve ! problem ( pure syn!tic judgm5ts3 _h he exam9$ ! subject m pr(\ndly he w\ld h se5 t1 /rictly speak+1 !re are no su* judgm5ts2 & in/ead ( we>+ out 8 g5ius 9 attempt+ to solve an insolvable problem1 he w\ld h ab/a9$ f rais+ x47#bf7 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,are ,,!re ,,true ,,syn!tic ,,judgm5ts ,a ,,priori ,,9 ,,! ,,s5se ,,( ,,kant8 #bgh4 ,! great importance attribut$ by ! ,g]man philosoph] to 8 imag9>y discov]y1 requires u to exam9e x at l5g?4 ,?is importance may be e/imat$ f :at he himself says3 ,if any ( ! anci5ts _h only _h ! idea ( propos+ ! pres5t "q1 x w\ld h be5 a mighty b>ri] aga9/ all ! sy/ems ( pure reason d[n to our days1 & w\ld h sav$ _m va9 attempts :i* 7 bl9dly made )\t kn[+ :at 0 treat$ (4#bc ,?is passage is q mode/ & naturally excites our curiosity to "k :at is ! problem :i* ne$$ only to be propos$ 9 ord] to avoid all ! ab]rations ( pure reason4 #bc ,critik d] re95 ,v]nunft4 ,e9leitung4 ,"h are 8 words3 ,all empirical judgm5ts1 z su*1 are syn!tic4 ,= x w\ld be absurd to gr\nd an analytic judgm5t on exp]i5ce1 s9ce ,i am n oblig$ to g out ( ! conception itself 9 ord] to =m ! judgm5t1 & !re=e c h no ne$ ( ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce4 ,t a body is ext5d$1 is a proposition :i* /&s firm a priori4 ,x is no empirical judgm5t2 =1 prior to exp]i5ce1 ,i h all ! conditions ( =m+ x 9 ! conception ( body1 f :i* ,i d$uce ! pr$icate1 ext5sion1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 by :i* ,i at once become consci\s ( its necessity1 :i* ,i c\ld n le>n f exp]i5ce4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i d n include1 9 ! primitive conception ( body 9 g5]al1 ! pr$icate1 heav9ess2 yet ?is conception ( body 9 g5]al indicates1 ?r\gh exp]i5ce ( a "p ( x1 an object ( exp]i5ce1 to :i* ,i may add f exp]i5ce o!r p>ts also belong+ to x4 ,i c atta9 to ! conception ( body be=eh&1 analytically1 ?r\gh its *>act]i/ics ext5sion1 imp5etrability1 =m1 etc41 all ( :i* are includ$ 9 ! prim>y conception ( body4 ,b ,i n[ ext5d my cognition1 &1 z ,i recur to exp]i5ce1 f :i* ,i h obta9$ ! conception ( body 9 g5]al1 ,i f9d along ) ^! *>act]i/ics ! conception ( heav9ess4 ,i !re=e add ?is1 z a pr$icate1 to ! conception ( body4 ,! possibility ( ?is syn!sis !re=e re/s on exp]i5ce2 = bo? conceptions1 al?\gh "o does n conta9 ! o!r1 yet belong z p>ts to a :ole1 t is to say1 to exp]i5ce1 :i* is itself a union ( syn!tic1 ?\gh cont+5t intuitions4 ,b 9 ! case ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori we h n ?is assi/ance4 ,"h we h n ! advantage ( return+ & support+ ourselves on exp]i5ce4 ,if ,i mu/ g out ( ! conception ,a 9 ord] to f9d ano!r conception ,b1 :i* is to be jo9$ to x1 on :at am ,i to rely8 & by :at means does ! syn!sis become possible8#bd #bd ,ibid4 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #bgi4 ,! reason ( ?is syn!sis is f\nd 9 ! faculty ( our m9d ( =m+ total conceptions1 9 :i* ! relation ( ! p>tial conceptions compos+ x is discov]$2 & ! legitimacy ( ! same syn!sis is f\nd$ on ! pr9ciples on :i* ! crit]ion ( evid5ce is bas$4 ,! syn!sis ( ! s*oolm5 consi/s 9 ! union ( conceptions1 & does n refuse to admit z analytical ! total conceptions1 f ! decomposition ( :i* results ! k ( ! relations ( ! p>tial conceptions4 ,if ,kant _h /opp$ ) ! judgm5ts ( exp]i5ce1 !re w\ld be no objection to 8 doctr9e4 ,b ext5d$ to ! purely intellectual ord]1 x is ei!r inadmissible1 or at lea/ express$ )\t mu* exactness4 #bfj4 ,kant says all ma!matical judgm5ts are analytic1 & t ?is tru? :i* 9 8 op9ion is c]ta9ly inconte/ible & important on acc\nt ( its consequ5ces1 seems to h hi!rto escap$ ! sagacity ( ! analy/s ( human reason1 caus+ v contr>y op9ions4 ,we ?9k x is ! sagacity ( 8 ,ari/>*us1 & n t ( ! analy/s1 t is at fault4 ,"o w\ld c]ta9ly ?9k at fir/ sight t ! proposition1 #g #e #ab1 is a purely analytic proposition1 :i* foll[s f ! conception ( a sum ( sev5 & five1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,b if we exam9e x m closely1 we f9d t ! conception ( ! sum ( sev5 & five conta9s no?+ f>!r ?an ! union ( bo? numb]s 9 "o1 f :i* x _c by any means be inf]r$ :at ?is o!r numb] is :i* conta9s !m bo?4#be #be ,kant1 ubi supra1 #e4 ,7 we to say t :oev] he>s sev5 plus five1 does n always ?9k ( twelve1 because he does n see cle>ly en\gh t "o conception is ! same z ! o!r1 al?\gh x is "u a diff]5t =m1 x w\ld be true4 ,b f ?is x does n foll[ t ! conception is n purely analytic4 ,! m]e explanation ( bo? suffices to %[ _! id5tity4 ,t ?is may be bett] und]/ood1 we w inv]t ! equation ?us3 #ab #g #e4 ,x is evid5t t if any "o does n "k t #g #e #ab1 he w n "k t #ab #g #e4 ,n[1 9 exam9+ ! conception #ab1 we c]ta9ly see #g #e conta9$ 9 x4 ,!re=e1 ! conception ( #ab is id5tical ) ! conception ( #g #e2 & j z1 because he :o he>s #ab1 does n always ?9k ( #g #e1 we _c !nce inf] t #ab does n conta9 #g #e2 s1 also1 we _c1 because he :o he>s #g #e1 does n always ?9k ( #ab1 !nce inf] t ! fir/ conception does n conta9 ! second4 ,! cause ( ! equivocation is1 t ! two id5tical conceptions are pres5t$ to ! intellect "u diff]5t =ms2 & until we h ! =m1 & look to :at is "u x1 we %all n discov] ! id5tity4 ,?is is n1 /rictly speak+1 reason+ b explanation4 ,:at ,kant adds conc]n+ ! necessity ( recurr+1 9 ?is case1 to an intuition1 ) respect to "o ( ! numb]s1 add+ five to sev5 on ! f+]s1 is exce$+ly futile4 ,fir/1 9 :atev] way he adds ! five1 !re w nev] be any?+ b ! five t is add$1 & x w nei!r give m nor less ?an #g #e4 ,secondly1 ! successive addition on ! f+]s is equival5t to say+ #a #a #a #a #a #e4 ,?is trans=ms ! expression1 #g #e #ab1 into ?is o!r1 #g #a #a #a #a #a #ab2 b ! conception1 #a #a #a #a #a1 has ! same relation to #e1 z #g #e to #ab2 !re=e1 if #g #e are n conta9$ 9 #ab1 nei!r are #g #a #a #a #a #a conta9$ 9 x4 ,x may be repli$ t ,kant does n speak ( id5tity1 b ( intuitions4 ,?is intuition1 h[ev]1 is n ! s5sation1 b ! idea2 & if ! idea1 x is only ! conception expla9$4 ,?irdly1 we "k ?is me?od ( intuition n to be ev5 necess>y = *ildr54 ,f\r?ly1 ?is me?od is impossible 9 ! case ( l>ge numb]s4 #bha4 ,kant adds t ?is proposition1 a "r l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts1 is n purely analytic1 because ! idea ( %orte/ di/ance is n conta9$ 9 ! idea ( "r l9e4 ,waiv+ ! demon/rations :i* "s au?ors give1 or pret5d to give1 ( ?is proposition1 we %all conf9e ourselves to ,kant's reasons4 ,he =gets t "h ! "r l9e is n tak5 alone1 b comp>$ ) o!r l9es4 ,! idea ( "r l9e alone nei!r does nor c conta9 ! ideas ( m or less2 = ^! ideas suppose a comp>ison4 ,b f ! mom5t ! "r l9e & ! curve are comp>$1 ) respect to l5g?1 ! relation ( sup]iority ( ! curve ov] ! "r l9e is se54 ,! proposition is !n ! result ( ! comp>ison ( two purely analytic conceptions ) a ?ird1 :i* is l5g?4 #bhb4 ,if ,kant's reason+ 7 good1 ev5 ?is judgm5t1 ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 w\ld n be analytic2 = ! idea ( great] ent]s n into ! conception ( ! :ole until ! :ole is comp>$ ) its "p4 ,?us1 ! judgm5t1 f\r is great] ?an ?ree1 w\ld n be analytic1 because ! idea ( f\r until comp>$ ) ?ree does n include ! conception ( great]4 ,! axiom3 ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r1 w\ld n be analytic1 because ! conception1 equal to ea* o!r1 does n ent] into ! conception ( ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+1 until we reflect t ! equality ( ! middle t]m implies ! equality ( ! extremes4 ,! x1 ( :i* ,kant speaks1 w\ld be f\nd 9 almo/ all judgm5ts1 if we c\ld n =m total conceptions involv+ comp>ison ( p>tial conceptions3 9 ?is case we %\ld h no analytic judgm5ts except su* z are :olly id5tical1 or directly conta9$ 9 ?is =mula1 ,a is ,a4 #bhc4 ,! comp>ison ( two conceptions ) a ?ird1 does n take f ! result ! "* ( analytic judgm5t1 z a pr$icate _c be se5 9 ! idea ( ! subject1 )\t ! aid ( ?is comp>ison4 ,?is comp>ison is (t5 necess>y1 because we only confus$ly ?9k ( :at is conta9$ 9 ! conception :i* we already h2 & sometimes x ev5 happ5s t we d n ?9k at all ( x4 ,"o (t5 says a ?+ & !n contradicts himself1 n obs]v+ t :at he adds is oppos$ to :at he _h already said4 ,we (t5 ask1 9 conv]sation1 d y n see t y suppose ! contr>y ( :at y j said2 t ! conditions y h j e/abli%$ imply ! contr>y ( :at y n[ ass]t8 #bhd4 ,a conception includes n only all t is expressly ?\ght 9 x1 b all t c be ?\ght4 ,if1 on decompos+ x1 we f9d 9 x o!r ?+s1 x _c be said t we add !m1 b t we f9d !m4 ,x is n a syn!sis1 b an analysis4 ,o!rwise we mu/ admit no analytic conceptions1 or only su* z are purely id5tical4 ,except 9 ?is la/ case1 ( :i* ! g5]al =mula is1 ,a is ,a1 !re is always 9 ! pr$icate some?+ n ?\ght 9 ! subject1 if n 9 sub/ance at lea/ 9 =m4 ,! circle is a curve2 ?is und\bt$ly is "o ( ! simple/ analytical propositions imag9able2 /ill ! pr$icate expresses ! g5]al conception ( curve1 :i* may be conta9$ 9 ! subject1 9 a confus$ mann]1 ) relation to a p>ticul> species ( curve4 ,foll[+ a gradation 9 geometrical propositions1 we may obs]ve t !re is no?+ 9 "o proposition n 9 ! prec$+1 except ! great] or less difficulty ( decompos+ ! conception1 s z to see 9 x :at be=e we _h n se54 ,if we say1 ! circle is a conic section1 evid5tly any "o ignorant ( ! t]ms1 or :o has n reflect$ on _! true s5se1 w n ?9k ( ! attribute 9 ! subject4 ,no addition is made to ! conception ( ! circle2 only a prop]ty n be=e kn[n is discov]$1 & ?is discov]y results f comp>ison ) ! cone4 ,is !re any syn!sis "h8 ,no4 ,!re is only an analysis ( ! two conceptions1 ! circle & ! cone1 comp>$4 ,z ?is error de/roys ! f\ndation ( ,kant's doctr9e on ?is po9t1 we w develop x & place x on a m solid f\ndation4 #bhe4 ,syn!sis1 prop]ly s call$1 requires some?+ to be add$ to ! conception1 :i* 9 n[ise belongs to x1 z ! example br\ght by ,kant %[s4 ,! conception1 ext5sion1 is conta9$ 9 ! conception1 body2 b heav9ess is an entirely =eign idea1 :i* we c unite to ! conception1 body1 only because exp]i5ce au?orizes x4 ,only ) ?is addition is !re prop]ly syn!sis4 ,! union ( ideas :i* results f ! conception ( ! ?+1 al?\gh comp>ison may be necess>y 9 ord] to fecundate !m1 does n make a syn!sis4 ,! conceptions are n :olly absolute1 !y conta9 relations1 & ! discov]y ( ^! relations does n give a syn!sis1 b a m complete analysis4 ,if x be said t 9 ?is case !re is some?+ m ?an ! primitive conception1 we answ] t ! same ?+ happ5s 9 all n purely id5tical4 ,we may also add t by ! comp>ison a new total conception is =m$ result+ f ! primitive conceptions2 & ! prop]ties ( ! relations are !n se51 n by syn!sis1 b by ! analysis ( ! total conception4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 true syn!sis requires ! union ( ?+s s diff]5t f "o ano!r1 t ! bond unit+ !m is a sort ( my/]y1 an x1 ^: det]m9ation is a great philosophical problem4 ,if ?is x is f\nd 9 ! ess5tial relation ( ! p>tial conceptions con/itut+ ! total conception1 ! problem is resolv$ by a simple analysis1 or1 to speak m exactly1 x is %[n t ! problem did n exi/1 because ! x 0 a kn[n quantity4 ,we "k ( no judgm5t m analytical ?an t 9 :i* we see ! p>ts 9 ! :ole1 s9ce ! :ole is only ! p>ts unit$4 ,if we say1 "o & "o are two1 or1 two is equal to "o plus "o2 x _c be d5i$ t we h a total conception1 two1 9 ! decomposition ( :i*1 we f9d "o plus "o4 ,if ?is be n an analytic conception1 t is to say1 if ! pr$icate be n "h conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject1 x w be h>d to tell :at is4 ,b ev5 "h !re are diff]5t conceptions1 "o plus "o2 unite !m1 & !y =m ! total conception4 ,! relation1 al?\gh mo/ simple1 exi/s2 & :e!r x be m or less1 simple or complicat$1 &1 consequ5tly1 se5 ) m or less facility1 does n alt] ! "* ( ! judgm5ts1 or f syn!tic conv]t !m into analytic4 #bhf4 ,we w complete ?is explanation ) an example f elem5t>y geometry4 ,! surface ( a rhomboid is equal to ! surface ( a rectangle hav+ ! same base & altitude4 ,fir/3 9 ! idea ( ! rhomboid1 we d n see ! idea ( its equality ) ! rectangle2 & ?is we _c see1 because ! relation does n exi/ :5 !re is no o!r t]m to :i* x may relate4 ,! idea ( ! p>allelogram does n conta9 t ( ! rectangle1 & consequ5tly n t ( equality4 ,second3 ! relation results f ! comp>ison ( ! rhomboid ) ! rectangle2 &1 consequ5tly1 x mu/ be f\nd 9 a total conception conta9+ !m bo?4 ,x _c1 !re=e1 be said t we add any ?+ to ! conception ( ! p>allelogram :i* does n belong to x4 ,on ! contr>y1 we see ?is equality fl[ f ! conception ( ! rhomboid & t ( ! rectangle1 z p>tial conceptions ( ! total conception1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( !m bo?4 ,! analysis ( ?is total conception op5s to u ! relation we are n[ 9 que/ (2 = x mu/ be obs]v$ t :5 ! simple union ( ! conceptions comp>$ does n suffice1 we make use ( ano!r includ+ !m1 & also some?+ m2 & f ! new conception1 duly analyz$1 we d$uce ! relation ( ! p>ts comp>$4 #bhg4 ,9 ! geometrical con/ruction1 t s]ves = ! demon/ration ( ! above !orem1 :i* we h us$ z an example1 may be se5 :at we h j expla9$ ) reg>d to total conceptions conta9+ o!r conceptions besides ^? comp>$4 ,if we place ! rectangle & ! rhomboid ^u ! same base1 we at once see t !re is some?+ common to bo?1 namely1 ! triangle =m$ by ! base1 a "p ( "o side ( ! rhomboid1 & a "p ( "o side ( ! rectangle4 ,nei!r syn!sis nor analysis is "h requir$1 because !re is p]fect co9cid5ce1 & ?is 9 geometry is equival5t to p]fect equality4 ,! difficulty is 9 ! two rema9+ p>ts1 t is1 9 ! trapezoids to :i* ! p>allelograms are r$uc$ by ! subtraction ( ! common triangle4 ,! m]e sight ( ! figures tea*es no?+ conc]n+ ! equival5ce ( ! two surfaces2 we see only t ! two sides ( ! rhomboidal surface g on ext5d+1 b includ+ a less di/ance 9 proportion z ! angle becomes m oblique1 "u ^! two conditions3 l5g? ( sides1 & dim9ution ( di/ances betwe5 two limits1 ( :i* "o is inf9ity1 & ! o!r ! rectangle4 ,! relation ( ! equival5ce ( ! surfaces may be demon/rat$ by prolong+ ! p>allel opposite ! base1 & ?us =m+ a quadrilat]al ( :i* ! trapezoids are p>ts2 to discov] ! equality ( ^! trapezoids1 x is only necess>y to decompose ! quadrilat]al1 att5d+ to ! equality ( two triangles1 ea* respectively =m$ by "o ( ! trapezoids & a common triangle4 ,is any ?+ "h add$ to ! conception ( ea* trapezoid8 ,no4 ,we only comp>e !m4 ,!y c\ld n be comp>$ directly1 & !re=e we includ$ !m 9 a total conception1 ! m]e analysis ( :i* enabl$ u to discov] ! relation s\ght =4 ,! conception does n give ?is relation2 x only %[s x2 = if ! conception ( ! two figures comp>$ 7 m p]fect1 s t we might intuitively behold ! relation exi/+ betwe5 ! increm5t ( ! sides & ! decrem5t ( _! di/ance f ea* o!r1 we %\ld see t !re is "h a con/ant law1 :i* supplies on "o side :at is lo/ on ! o!r2 & consequ5tly we %\ld discov]1 9 ! v conception ( ! rhomboid1 ! fundam5tal reason ( ! equality1 t is1 ! p]man5t value ( ! surface1 not)/&+ ! great] or less obliquity ( ! angles2 ?us obta9+ :at we d$uc$ f ! above comp>ison1 & g5]alize ) ref]5ce to two con/ant l9eal values1 base & altitude4 ,! same w\ld happ5 ) respect to ! equival5ce ( all v>iable quantities diff]5tly express$1 c\ld we r$uce _! conceptions to su* cle> & simple =mulas z ^? ( app>5t functions2 = example1 nx_/mx1 f :i*1 :atev] ! value ( ! v>iable1 !re always results ! same value ( ! expression1 :i* is con/ant1 to wit1 n_/m4 #bhh4 ,let n ^! inve/igations be imag9$ useless4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r que/ions1 x happ5s t mo/ important tru?s are ! result ( a philosophical problem :i*1 9 appe>ance1 is m]ely speculative4 ,?us1 9 ! pres5t case1 we obs]ve ,kant expla9+ ! pr9ciple ( causality1 9 an inexact1 &1 z we und]/& him1 9 an altoge!r false s5se2 b1 p]haps1 ! orig9 ( 8 equivocation lies 9 8 consid]+ ! pr9ciple ( causality z syn!tic1 al?\gh a priori1 :]eas x mu/ be reg>d$ z analytic1 z we %all %[ :5 treat+ ( ! idea ( cause4 ,9 consid]ation ( ! great importance ( cle> & di/9ct ideas on ! pres5t subject1 we w 9 a few words1 sum up ! doctr9e we h expla9$ conc]n+ m$iate & imm$iate evid5ce4 ,!re is imm$iate evid5ce :51 9 ! conception ( ! subject1 we see its agreem5t or disagreem5t ) ! pr$icate1 )\t requir+ any o!r means ?an m]e reflection on ! mean+ ( ! t]ms4 ,judgm5ts ( ?is class are ) propriety call$ analytic1 because we h only to analyze ! conception ( ! subject to f9d !re9 its agreem5t or disagreem5t ) ! pr$icate4 ,!re is m$iate evid5ce :51 9 ! conception ( ! subject1 we d n imm$iately see its agreem5t or disagreem5t ) ! pr$icate1 & !re=e h to call 9 a middle t]m to make x manife/4 #bij4 ,"h arises ! "q :e!r judgm5ts ( m$iate evid5ce are analytic4 ,x is cle> t if we mean by analytic only ^? 9 :i* we h solely to und]/& ! mean+ ( ! t]ms 9 ord] to see ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( ! pr$icate1 ! judgm5ts ( m$iate evid5ce _c be call$ analytic2 b if by analytic judgm5t we mean a judgm5t 9 :i* x is only necess>y to decompose ! conception ( ! subject 9 ord] to f9d !re9 its agreem5t or disagreem5t ) ! pr$icate1 we mu/ say t ! judgm5ts ( m$iate evid5ce are analytic1 & ! means employ$ is only ! =mation ( a total conception conta9+ ! p>tial conceptions1 ! relation ( :i* we seek to discov]4 ,9 ! union ( ^! p>tial conceptions !re is a syn!sis1 x is true2 b !re is none 9 ! discov]y ( _! relation1 = ?is is done by analysis4 ,a judgm5t is n ! less analytic because =m$ by ! union ( diff]5t conceptions2 = !n no judgm5t w\ld be analytic4 ,:5 we say1 man is rational1 ! two conceptions ( animal & rational ent] into ! conception ( man1 b d n take f x its analytical "*2 = ?is1 z its v "n imports1 consi/s 9 ! analysis ( a conception1 be+ suffici5t to %[ c]ta9 pr$icates 9 x1 )\t ref]5ce to ! mann] ( ?is conception's =mation1 :e!r two or m conceptions are unit$ 9 x1 or n4 #bia4 ,?is cle>ly %[s 9 :at m$iate evid5ce consi/s4 ,! pr$icate is inde$ conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject2 b1 ow+ to ! limitation ( our intellect1 ei!r ^! ideas are incomplete1 or we d n see !m 9 all _! ext5sion1 or else we d n well di/+ui% :at we 9 a confus$ mann] p]ceive 9 !m2 & h5ce1 to "k ! mean+ ( ! t]ms does n enable u imm$iately to see t ! pr$icate is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject4 ,moreov]1 ! objects1 ev5 su* z are purely ideal1 are pres5t$ to u sep>ately2 & h5ce1 n kn[+ ! sum ( !m all1 we pass successively f "o to ano!r1 discov]+ _! mutual relations 9 proportion z we approa* !m4 #bib4 ,x may1 f :at we h said1 be inf]r$ t all judgm5ts 9 ! purely ideal ord] are analytic1 s9ce e cognition ( ?is ord] is obta9$ by ! intuition ( :atev] is m or less complicat$ 9 ! conception1 & !re is no m syn!sis ?an is necess>y to br+ ! objects toge!r1 by unit+ _! conceptions 9 "o total conception1 :i* s]ves = ! discov]y ( ! relation ( ! p>tial conceptions4 #bic4 ,! x1 !re=e1 ( :i* ,kant speaks1 & ! removal ( :i* is "o ( ! mo/ important problems ( philosophy1 is no?+ m ?an ! faculty possess$ by ! s\l to unite ! conceptions ( diff]5t ?+s 9 "o total conception1 & to discov] 9 x _! mutual relations4 ,?is faculty is no new discov]y1 = ! s*ools h all recogniz$ x "u "o "n or ano!r4 ,no "o ev] d5i$ to ! intellect ! faculty ( comp>+2 & comp>ison is ! act :]eby ! intellect places two or m objects be=e its sight s z to p]ceive _! mutual relations4 ,9 ?is act ! intellect =ms a total conception1 ( :i* ! conceptions comp>$ are a "p4 ,?us we h se5 t 9 geometry to v]ify ! mutual relation ( c]ta9 figures1 we con/ruct a new figure :i* includes !m all1 & is a sort ( field :]eon ! comp>ison is made4 ,?is exposition ( analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts w suffice = ! pres5t2 z we propos$ to treat ( !m "h only 9 g5]al1 & z relat$ to c]ta9ty2 consequ5tly we w n desc5d to _! p>ticul> application to v>i\s ideas1 ! analysis ( :i* belongs to o!r p>ts ( ?is "w4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,vico',s ,,crit]ion4 #bid4 ,! doctr9e ( ,vico on ! crit]ion ( tru? is connect$ ) ! matt] ( ! prec$+ *apt]s on imm$iate & m$iate evid5ce4 ,?is philosoph] ?9ks t ! crit]ion consi/s 9 hav+ made ! tru? :i* is kn[n2 t our cognitions !n only are completely c]ta91 & t !y lose _! c]ta9ty 9 proportion z ! intellect loses its "* ( cause ) respect to its objects4 ,god1 ! cause ( all1 kn[s e ?+ p]fectly3 creatures1 ^: causality is v limit$1 are v limit$ 9 _! cognitions2 & if 9 any ?+ !y may be lik5$ to ! inf9ite1 x is 9 t ideal _w :i* !y con/ruct = !mselves1 & ext5d at pleasure1 /opp$ by no impassable limits4 ,let ! au?or speak = himself4 ,! t]ms v]um & factum1 ! true & ! made1 are us$ "o = ! o!r1 9 ! ,lat9 language1 or1 z ! s*oolm5 say1 are conv]tible4 ,intellig]e1 to und]/&1 is ! same z to read ) cle>ness & to "k ) evid5ce4 ,!y us$ cogit>e 9 ! s5se ( ! ,italian p5s>e e &> raccogli5do2 ratio ) !m meant a collection ( num]ical elem5ts1 & also ! gift by :i* man is di/+ui%$ f1 & made sup]ior to1 ! brute4 ,!y def9$ man to be an animal p>ticipat+ ( reason2 animal rationis p>ticeps3 & consequ5tly n absolutely possess$ ( x4 ,z words are ! signs ( ideas1 s also are ideas ! signs & repres5tations ( ?+s4 ,?us1 z to read1 leg]e1 is to unite ! elem5ts ( writ+1 :i* =m ! words2 s to und]/&1 intellig]e1 is to unite all ! elem5ts :i* con/itute ! p]fect idea ( any?+4 ,h5ce we inf] t ! doctr9e ( ! anci5t ,italians conc]n+ tru? 0 z foll[s3 ,tru? is ! same z fact2 & consequ5tly ,god is ! fir/ tru?1 because he is ! fir/ mak]1 factor2 ! inf9ite tru?1 because he made all ?+s2 ! absolute tru?1 because he repres5ts all ! elem5ts ( ?+s1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 = he conta9s !m4 ,to "k is to unite ! elem5ts ( ?+s3 h5ce x foll[s t ?\ght1 cogitatio1 is a prop]ty ( ! human m9d2 & intellig5ce a prop]ty ( ! div9e m9d1 because ,god conta9s all ! int]nal & all ! ext]nal elem5ts ( ?+s1 & !re=e he unites !m1 & he x is t disposes !m2 :]eas ! human m9d limit$ z x is1 & sep>at$ f all t is n itself1 may br+ toge!r extreme po9ts1 b _c unite !m2 x may ?9k ( ?+s1 b _c und]/& !m2 & ?is is :y x is said to p>ticipate ( reason1 b n to possess x4 ,let u expla9 ^! ideas by a comp>ison4 ,div9e tru? is a solid image ( ?+s1 a sort ( pla/ic figure2 human tru? is an image on a plane1 x has no dep?1 b is a sort ( pa9t+4 ,div9e tru? is true1 because ,god kn[s 9 ! same act by :i* he disposes & produces2 human tru? is 9 relation to ?+s :i* man 9 l mann] disposes & creates4 ,sci5ce is ! cognition ( ! mode 9 :i* ! ?+ is made2 a cognition 9 :i* ! m9d makes its object1 s9ce x recomposes its elem5ts4 ,= ,god1 :o und]/&s e ?+1 ! object is a solid2 b x is a surface = man :o und]/&s only ! ext]ior4 ,^! po9ts be+ settl$1 9 ord] t we may m easily make !m h>monize ) our religion1 let u obs]ve t ! anci5t philosoph]s ( ,italy id5tifi$ tru? & fact1 = !y believ$ ! _w to be et]nal4 ,?us ! pagan philosoph]s ador$ a ,god :o always op]at$ ad extra1 a po9t reject$ by our !ology4 ,:]e=e 9 our religion1 9 :i* we pr(ess t ! _w 0 creat$ 9 "t1 & out ( no?+1 x is necess>y to di/+ui%1 & id5tify creat$ tru? ) :at is made1 & uncreat$ tru? ) :at is begott51 g5ito4 ,?us ! ,sacr$ ,scriptures1 ) an elegance truly div9e1 give ! "n ( ! ,^w to ! wisdom ( ,god1 :i* conta9s 9 itself ! ideas ( all ?+s & ! elem5ts ( ^! ideas4 ,9 ! ,^w1 tru? is ! compreh5sion ( all ! elem5ts ( ?is univ]se1 & x might produce inf9ite worlds4 ,f ^! elem5ts1 kn[n & conta9$ 9 ! div9e omnipot5ce1 is =m$ ! ,^w real & absolute1 kn[n by ! ,fa!r f all et]nity & begott5 by him also f all et]nity4#bf #bf ,anci5t ,wisdom ( ,italy1 ,l4 #a1 ,c4 #a4 #bie4 ,f ^! pr9ciples ,vico d$uces "s v transc5d5tal consequ5ces1 among o!rs1 ! explanation ( ! reason :y our sci5ces are divid$ into _m bran*es1 & t ( ! diff]5t grades ( c]ta9ty by :i* !y are di/+ui%$4 ,ma!matics is ! mo/ c]ta91 because a k9d ( creation ( ! intellect1 :i*1 />t+ ) ! unity ( a po9t1 con/ructs a _w ( =ms & numb]s by prolong+ l9es1 & multiply+ unity ev5 to inf9ity4 ,?us x kn[s :at x produces itself1 & h5ce x is t ! !orems commonly held to be objects ( pure contemplation dep5d ^u action j z ! problems d4 ,me*anics is a less c]ta9 sci5ce ?an ei!r geometry or ari!metic1 because x consid]s motions z realiz$ by ma*9es2 & physics is ev5 less c]ta9 yet1 because x does n1 l me*anics1 consid] ! ext]nal motion ( circumf]5ces1 b ! int]nal motion ( _! c5tres4 ,!re is /ill less c]ta9ty 9 sci5ces ( ! moral ord]1 because ^! d n consid] ! motions ( bodies aris+ f "o c]ta9 & common orig91 :i* is nature1 b ! motions ( ! s\l1 (t5 mo/ pr(\nd1 (t5 also caprici\s4 ,human sci5ce1 he says1 owes its orig9 to a defect ( ! human m9d2 x is beyond all ?+s 9 its extreme limitation1 conta9s no?+ ( :at x seeks to "k1 & is consequ5tly unable to make ! tru? to :i* x aspires4 ,! mo/ p]fect sci5ces are ^? :i* h expiat$ ! vice ( _! orig91 & are assimilat$1 z a creation1 to div9e sci5ce1 t is1 ^? 9 :i* ! tru? & ! fact are mutually conv]tible4 ,f :at proce$s1 we may inf] t ! crit]ion ( tru?1 & ! rule to recognize x1 is to h made x3 consequ5tly1 ! cle> & di/9ct idea ( our m9d :i* we h1 is n a crit]ion ( ! tru?1 nor is x ev5 a crit]ion ( our m9d2 because ! s\l does n1 by kn[+ itself1 make itself2 & n mak+ itself1 x kn[s n 9 :at way x kn[s itself4 ,s9ce human sci5ce takes ab/raction = its basis1 sci5ces are s mu* ! m unc]ta91 z !y m ne>ly approa* corporal matt]4444 ,9 a ^w1 ! true & ! good are conv]tible1 if :at is kn[n z true d]ives its be+ f ! m9d :i* kn[s x2 z human sci5ce imitates div9e sci5ce1 :]e9 ,god1 by kn[+ ! true1 begets x int]nally 9 et]nity1 & makes x ext]nally 9 "t4 ,! communication ( goodness to ! objects ( 8 ?\ght is to ,god ! crit]ion ( ! true3 vidit ,deus quod ess5t bona2 to m5 x is to h made ! tru? :i* !y "k4#bg #bg ,ibidem1 #a4 #bif4 ,vico's sy/em und5iably %[s him to h be5 a pr(\nd ?9k]1 & to h c>efully m$itat$ ! problems ( intellig5ce4 ,8 l9e divid+ ! c]ta9ty ( sci5ces is exce$+ly int]e/+4 ,at fir/ sight1 no?+ is m speci\s ?an ! diff]5ce m>k$ betwe5 ma!matical1 natural1 & moral sci5ces4 ,ma!matics is absolutely c]ta91 because ! "w ( ! und]/&+1 x is z ! und]/&+1 :i* con/ruct$ !m1 sees !m to be4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! natural & moral sci5ces reg>d objects indep5d5t ( reason1 hav+ by !mselves an exi/5ce ( _! own2 :]e=e1 ! und]/&+ kn[s little ( !m1 & ev5 9 ?is little x is ! m liable to err z x p5etrates deep] into a sph]e :]e x _c con/ruct4 ,we call ?is sy/em speci\s1 because :5 exam9$1 x is f\nd to be de/itute ( all solid f\ndation4 ,we recognize1 h[ev]1 a pr(\nd ?\ght 9 its au?or2 = "o he mu/ h _h to consid] sci5ce "u su* a po9t ( view4 #big4 ,! und]/&+ kn[s only :at x makes4 ,?is proposition sums up ,vico's :ole sy/em2 & x mu/ h "s f\ndation1 or he _c advance "o /ep )\t begg+ 8 "q4 ,:y does ! und]/&+ "k only :at x makes8 ,:y c ! problem ( repres5tation h no possible solution out ( causality8 ,we ?9k we h %[n ano!r orig9 besides ?is 9 id5tity1 also 9 ideality duly connect$ ) causality4 #bih4 ,to und]/& is n to cause4 ,!re may be1 & !re really is1 a productive intellig5ce2 b ! act ( und]/&+ & t ( caus+1 9 g5]al1 (f] di/9ct ideas4 ,intellig5ce supposes an activity2 o!rwise t intimate life :i* di/+ui%es ! intellig5t be+ is inconceivable3 b ?is activity does n produce ! objects kn[n2 x op]ates 9 an imman5t mann] on ^! objects1 presuppos$ to be ei!r m$iately or imm$iately 9 union ) ! intellect4 #bii4 ,if ! intellect be condemn$ to "k no?+ n made by itself1 x is difficult to conceive h[ ! act ( und]/&+ c comm5ce4 ,if we place ourselves 9 ! initial mom5t1 we %all n "k h[ to expla9 ! developm5t ( ?is activity2 =1 if x c only "k :at x has made1 :at is x to und]/& 9 ! fir/ mom5t be=e x has made any ?+8 ,9 ! sy/em be=e u1 ! intellect has no object b :at x has itself produc$2 b to und]/&1 )\t an object und]/ood1 is a contradiction1 s t n hav+ 9 its initial mom5t yet produc$ any ?+1 !re c be no?+ und]/ood2 &1 consequ5tly1 intellig5ce is inexplicable4 ,we _c suppose its activity to be bl9dly ex]cis$3 no?+ is done bl9dly :5 !re is "q ( repres5tation1 & ! productive activity ess5tially relates to ?+s repres5t$ z repres5t$4 ,s f> z ! problem ( intellig5ce is conc]n$1 x makes no diff]5ce t ^! are produc$ ext]nally1 ) an exi/5ce di/9ct f ! intellectual repres5tation4 ,z ,vico himself expla9s1 human reason kn[s :at x con/ructs 9 a purely ideal _w2 & ,god kn[s ! ,^w :i* he begets1 al?\gh ! ,^w is n )\t ! div9e ess5ce1 b is id5tifi$ ) x4 #cjj4 ,! ,neapolitan philosoph]1 n satisfi$ ) apply+ 8 sy/em to human reason1 makes x applicable to all intellig5ces1 n except+ ! div9e2 al?\gh ) a praisewor?y reg>d = religion1 he endeavors to reconcile 8 ideological doctr9e ) ! dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,truly1 ! problems ( intellig5ce _c be completely solv$ )\t greatly cumulat+ !m4 ,to trace ! foot/eps ( human reason does n suffice to make u "k ! human und]/&+2 we mu/1 moreov]1 propose ! g5]al problem ( intellig5ce itself1 n[ limit$1 l our own1 to fa9t glimm]+s1 n[ dilat+ itself 9 a sea ( light ov] ! regions ( inf9ity4 ,! sublime words1 ) :i* ,/4 ,john comm5ces 8 ,gospel1 besides ! augu/ tru? taught by div9e inspiration1 involve transc5d5tal doctr9es ( an importance high] ?an c be f\nd 9 ! words ( any man1 ev5 if consid]$ "u a m]ely philosophical po9t ( view4 ,:5 ,vico id5tifies tru? ) ! made1 he is aw>e t he mu/1 accord+ to a dogma ( our religion1 di/+ui% betwe5 :at is creat$ & :at is uncreat$4 ,:at is creat$ is made2 :at is uncreat$1 begott54 ,he admires ! div9e elegance ( ! ,holy ,scriptures 9 call+ ! wisdom ( ,god1 9 :i* ! ideas ( all ?+s are conta9$1 & ! elem5ts ( ideas !mselves1 8 ,^w3 b :5 he w\ld expla9 ! conception ( ! ,^w1 8 expressions are v inexact2 he w\ld h u und]/&1 s x w\ld seem1 t ! ,^w only results f ! elem5ts kn[n & conta9$ 9 ! div9e omnipot5ce4 ,9 ?is ,^w1 he says1 ! true is ! compreh5sion ( all ! elem5ts ( ?is univ]se2 & x might =m inf9ite worlds3 f ^! elem5ts1 kn[n & conta9$ 9 ! div9e omnipot5ce1 is =m$ ! ,^w real & absolute1 kn[n by ! ,fa!r f all et]nity1 & by him begott5 also f all et]nity4#bh #bh ,anci5t ,wisdom ( ,italy1 ,l4 #a1 ,c4 #a4 ,if ! au?or means t ! ,^w is conceiv$ by ! m]e k ( :at is conta9$ 9 ! div9e omnipot5ce1 8 ass]tion is false2 if he does n1 8 mode ( speak+ is inexact4 ,/4 ,?omas asks :e!r any relation to creature be conta9$ 9 ! "n ( ! ,^w3 utrum 9 nom9e ,v]bi importetur respectus ad creaturam2 & he resolves ! "q ) admirable laconism & solidity4 ,i reply t 9 ! ,^w relation to creature is conta9$4 ,= ,god1 by kn[+ himself1 kn[s e creature4 ,! ,^w1 !re=e1 conceiv$ 9 ! m9d1 is repres5tative ( all actually und]/ood by x4 ,:]e=e !re are 9 u diff]5t words accord+ to ! diff]5t ?+s we und]/&4 ,b because ,god by "o act und]/&s bo? himself & all ?+s1 8 only ,^w is expressive n only ( ! ,fa!r1 b also ( creatures4 ,& z ! sci5ce ( ,god is1 ) respect to himself1 cognition1 b ) respect to creatures1 cognition & cause2 s ! ,^w ( ,god is expressive only ( :at is 9 ,god ! ,fa!r1 b bo? expressive & productive ( creatures2 & ?is is :y x is said 9 ! ,?irty-second ,psalm3 ,he said1 & !y 7 made2 because ! productive reason ( ^? ?+s1 :i* ! ,fa!r makes1 is conta9$ 9 ! ,^w4#bi #bi ,respondeo dic5dum1 quod 9 ,v]bo importatur respectus ad creaturam4 ,deus enim cognosc5do se1 cognoscit omnem creaturam4 ,v]bum igitur 9 m5te conceptum e/ repres5tativum omnis ejus1 quod actu intelligitur4 ,unde 9 nobis sunt div]sa v]ba1 secundum div]sa1 qu intelligimus4 ,s$ quia ,deus uno actu et se1 et omnia intelligit1 unicum v]bum ejus e/ expressivum1 non solum ,patris s$ etiam creatur>um4 ,et sicut ,dei sci5tia1 ,dei quidem e/ cognoscitiva tantum1 creatur>um autem cognoscitiva et factiva2 ita v]bum ,dei1 ejus quod 9 ,deo ,patre e/1 e/ expressivum tantum1 creatur>um v]o e/ expressivum et op]ativum1 et propt] hoc dicitur 9 ,psal4 #cb2 ,dixit1 et facta sunt1 quia importatur 9 ,v]bo ratio factiva eorum qu ,deus facit4 ,summa ,!ologi1 ,p4 #a;a1 ,qa1 #cd;a1 ,a #co4 ,we see by ?is passage1 t1 accord+ to ,/4 ,?omas1 ! ,^w also expresses creatures1 & t x is conceiv$ n only by ! cognition ( !m1 b1 & ?is too1 prim>ily1 by ! cognition ( ! div9e ess5ce4 ,else:]e1 ! ,holy ,doctor says3 ,! ,fa!r1 by und]/&+ himself1 ! ,son1 & ! ,holy ,gho/1 & all o!r ?+s includ$ 9 ,8 sci5ce1 conceives ! ,^w1 9 su* a mann] t ! :ole ,tr9ity is express$ 9 ! ,^w1 & also all creatures4#cj #cj ,pat] enim intellig5do se1 et ,filium1 et ,spiritum ,sanctum1 et omnia alia qu ejus sci5tia cont95tur1 concipit ,v]bum1 ut sic tota ,tr9itas ,v]bo dicatur1 et etiam omnis creatura4 ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #cd;a1 ,a4 #ao1 ad4 #cun4 #cja4 ,ano!r doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas is also oppos$ to ?is sy/em ( ,vico1 accord+ to :om1 ! intellect kn[s :at x makes1 & t only1 & because x makes x2 & ! made be+ ! sole crit]ion ( ! true1 ! true & ! made are conv]tible4 ,vico applies ?is doctr9e to ! div9e intellig5ce1 only sub/itut+ begott5 = made2 b ?is inv]ts ! ord] ( ideas1 s9ce1 accord+ to our mode ( conceiv+1 ,god does n und]/& because he begets1 b begets because he und]/&s3 intellig5ce mu/ be conceiv$ be=e ! ,^w c be conceiv$4 ,9 :oev] und]/&s1 says ,/4 ,?omas1 by ! v fact ( und]/&+1 some?+ proce$s )9 him1 :i* is ! conception ( ! ?+ und]/ood com+ f ! intellective p[]1 & proce$+ f its k4#ca #ca ,quicunque autem intelligit1 ex hoc ipso quod intelligit1 proc$it aliquid intra ipsum1 quod e/ conceptio rei intellect ex vi intellectiva prov5i5s et ex ejus notitia proc$5s4 ,quam quidem conceptionem vox significat1 et dicitur v]bum cordis1 significatum v]bo vocis4 ,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #bg;a1 ,a4 #ao4 ,?is doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas confirms ! op9ion1 express$ above1 conc]n+ ! impossibility ( expla9+ ! intellectual act solely by production4 ,to produce 9 ! intellectual ord]1 x is evid5tly necess>y to und]/&2 & consequ5tly 9 ! initial mom5t ( e intellig5ce1 ! productive act _c be p]=m$ )\t intuition ( ! object4 ,/4 ,?omas speaks 9 ?is same s5se ( div9e ?+s1 z mu* z "o c s speak2 he does n f\nd ! div9e intellig5ce on ! g5]ation ( ! ,^w1 b r ! g5]ation ( ! ,^w on ! div9e intellig5ce4 ,god1 accord+ to ,/4 ,?omas1 begets ! ,^w because he und]/&s1 b does n und]/& because he begets4 ,/4 ,?omas comprises 9 ! ,^w ! expression ( e ?+ conta9$ 9 ,god2 = he presupposes ! div9e intellig5ce1 by :i* he makes x possible to speak or utt] ! ,^w4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! ord] ( conceptions2 und]/&+1 object und]/ood1 ^w proce$+ f ! act ( und]/&+1 :]eby ! intellig5t be+ expresses1 or says to itself1 ! ?+ und]/ood4 ,^! ideas appli$ to ,god1 are3 ,god ! ,fa!r und]/&+2 div9e ess5ce & all t x conta9s und]/ood2 ,^w or ,son g5]at$ by ?is intellectual act1 expressive ( all t is conta9$ 9 ! g5]ative act4 #cjb4 ,we h no disposition to blame ,vico2 we h only endeavor$ to m>k ! inexactness ( 8 words1 do+ him1 at ! same "t1 ! ju/ice to believe t he und]/ood ?+s diff]5tly f :at he expla9$ !m1 :i*1 inde$1 he has n succe$$ 9 do+ ) due cle>ness4 ,let u n[ consid] 8 sy/em "u less subtle po9ts ( view4 ,if ! made be admitt$ z ! only crit]ion ( ! true1 ! und]/&+ is obvi\sly exclud$ f communication ) all t x has n itself produc$4 ,& n hav+ made itself1 x _c "k itself4 ,! s\l1 says ,vico1 kn[+ itself does n make itself1 & !re=e kn[s n 9 :at mann] x kn[s4 ,?us ab/ract+ ! problem ( intelligibility propos$ 9 our twelf? *apt]1 ,vico d5ies to our s\l a crit]ion ( itself1 = ! sole reason t x is n its own cause4 ,id5tity1 !re=e1 f> f be+ an orig9 ( repres5tation1 z 0 prov$ 9 our elev5? *apt]1 is incompatible ) x2 no?+ c "k itself1 because no?+ has made itself4 ,h5ce results a v grave error2 = x may be inf]r$ t n ev5 ,god c "k himself1 s9ce he is n 8 own cause4 ,x is n en\gh to say t he kn[s himself 9 ! ,^w1 s9ce ! ,^w is impossible if intellig5ce be n suppos$4 #cjc4 ,! :ole _w ( reality1 di/9ct f t ( intellectual be+1 w =ev] rema9 unkn[n 9 ,vico's sy/em1 :i*1 = ?is reason1 leads to ! mo/ rigid skepticism4 ,:at does he admit8 ,! cognition by ! m9d ( ! m9d's own "w2 & 9 ?is are compris$ ! acts ( consci\sness & all ! purely ideal objects :i* we create 9 x4 ,?is1 also1 is admitt$ by ! skeptics1 no "o ( :om w\ld d5y t we h consci\sness1 & t !re is an ideal _w ! "w ( ?is consci\sness1 or at lea/ atte/$ by x4 ,if1 !n1 we admit no crit]ion ( tru? b ! made1 we op5 ! door to skepticism1 & ab&on ! _w ( reality to fix ourselves 9 t ( appe>ance4 ,nev]!less1 s /range are human op9ions1 ,vico ?\ght directly ! contr>y2 he believ$ t only ) 8 sy/em 0 x possible to refute skepticism4 ,x is curi\s to he> him say ) p]fect s]i\sness3 ,! only means ( de/roy+ skepticism is to take ?is = ! crit]ion ( tru?1 t e "o is c]ta9 ( ! tru? :i* he makes4 ,b :at is ! f\ndation ( s odd an op9ion8 ,let u li/5 to ! philosoph] himself1 :o says1 inde$1 _m good ?+s1 b does n %[ h[ !y may t5d to ! ov]?r[ ( skepticism3 ,skeptics are always repeat+ t ?+s seem to !m1 b t !y d n "k :at !y really are4 ,!y confess effects1 & consequ5tly conc$e causes to !m2 b !y ass]t t !y d n "k ^! causes1 because !y d n "k ! g5us or =m accord+ to :i* ?+s are made4 ,admit ^! propositions1 & retort !m ?us3 ! compreh5sion ( causes :i* conta9s all ! g5]a & all ! =ms "u :i* effects are produc$1 & ! appe>ances ( :i* ! skeptic confess$ly sees1 al?\gh he d5ies t he kn[s _! real ess5ce1 is f\nd 9 ! fir/ tru? :i* comprises all1 & 9 :i* all1 ev5 to ! la/1 are conta9$4 ,& s9ce ?is tru? comprises all tru?s1 x is inf9ite1 x excludes none1 & x has a sup]iority ov] e body1 :i* is only an effect4 ,?is tru? is consequ5tly some?+ spiritual2 9 o!r words1 x is ,god1 ! ,god ( ! ,*ri/ian4 ,by ?is we mu/ measure human tru?2 = human tru? is t tru?1 ! elem5ts ( :i* we h co-ord9at$ )9 u1 & :i*1 by means ( c]ta9 po/ulates1 we may ext5d & foll[ to inf9ity4 ,by co-ord9at+ ^! tru?s we "k & make !m at "o & ! same "t2 & ?is is :y1 9 ?is case1 we h ! g5us & ! =m accord+ to :i* we make4#cb #cb ,ibid4 #c4 ,we discov] no?+ 9 ?is refutation ( skepticism calculat$ to de/roy x4 ,ev5 suppos+ all to admit ! pr9ciple ( causality1 :i* all d n admit1 :at aid c he draw f ?is pr9ciple1 :5 he makes ! "w ( t v und]/&+1 :i* mu/ make use ( x1 ! only crit]ion8 ,if causality be ! only crit]ion ( tru?1 ! und]/&+ is isolat$1 & _c1 9 ! ord] ( effects1 take "o /ep beyond :at x has itself produc$2 &1 9 ! ord] ( causes1 x _c asc5d high] ?an itself2 =1 7 x s to asc5d1 x w\ld "k ?+s n made by itself1 w\ld "k its own cause4 ,) ?is supposition ! skeptics mu/ triumph2 cognition is conf9$ to ! int]nal _w1 to simple appe>ances2 & :5 "o w\ld g out ( ^!1 he /umbles aga9/ ! only crit]ion :i* opposes ! cognition ( all n made by ! und]/&+ itself4 ,we d !n see reality1 b are sep>at$ f x by an impassable abyss4 ,! _w 9 itself may be any ?+ we *oose to suppose x2 b ) respect to u1 x w be no?+4 ,?is law applies to e intellig5ce1 s t vitality c only be kn[n by ! fir/ cause4 ,^! consequ5ces1 inadmissible z !y are1 if we w\ld n ?r[ ourselves unres]v$ly into ! tide ( skepticism1 are nev]!less inevitable 9 ,vico's sy/em4 ,an orig9al way truly ( combatt+ skepticism1 ?us to ?r[ op5 its wide/ gates6 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,cont9uation ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,subject4 #cjd4 ,if ! ,neapolitan philosoph]'s crit]ion be any:]e admissible1 x c only be 9 ideal tru?s2 = z ^! are absolutely cut (f f exi/5ce1 we may well suppose !m to be kn[n ev5 by an und]/&+ :i* has n 9 reality produc$ !m4 ,s f> z kn[n by ! und]/&+ !y involve no reality1 & consequ5tly no condition t exacts any productive =ce n ref]able to a purely ideal ord]4 ,9 ?is ord] ! human reason seems really to produce4 ,if we1 = example1 take geometry1 we %all readily p]ceive t1 ev5 9 its pr(\nde/ p>ts & 9 its greate/ complications1 x is only a k9d ( intellectual con/ruction1 :]e9 t only is to be f\nd :i* reason has plac$ !re4 ,reason x is :i* by =ce ( p]sev]ance has succe$$ 9 unit+ elem5ts & s dispos+ !m z to atta9 t wond]ful result1 ( :i* x may say ) tru?3 ?is is my "w4 ,if we c>efully obs]ve ! developm5t ( ! sci5ce ( geometry1 we %all p]ceive t ! ext5d$ s]ies ( axioms1 !orems1 problems1 demon/rations & solutions1 beg9s ) a few po/ulates1 & t x goes on ) ! aid ( ! same1 or o!rs discov]$ by reason accord+ to ! dem&s ( necessity or utility4 ,:at is a l9e8 ,a s]ies ( po9ts4 ,! l9e1 !n1 is an intellectual con/ruction1 & involves only ! successive fluxions ( a po9t4 ,:at is a triangle8 ,an intellectual con/ruction :]e9 ! extremities ( ?ree l9es are unit$4 ,:at is a circle8 ,also an intellectual con/ruction2 ! space enclos$ by a circumf]5ce =m$ by ! extremity ( a l9e revolv$ ar\nd a po9t4 ,:at are all o!r curves8 ,l9es describ$ by ! movem5t ( a po9t gov]n$ by a c]ta9 law ( inflexion4 ,:at is a surface8 ,is n its idea g5]at$ by ! motion ( a l9e1 j z t ( a solid is g5]at$ by ! motion ( a surface8 ,& :at are all ! objects ( geometry b l9es1 surfaces1 & solids ( v>i\s k9ds1 comb9$ 9 v>i\s ways8 ,univ]sal ari?metic1 :e!r ari?metic prop]ly s call$1 or algebra1 is a creation ( ! und]/&+4 ,numb] is a collection ( units1 & x is ! und]/&+ t collects !m4 ,two is only "o & "o1 & ?ree only two & "o2 & ?us ) all num]ical values4 ,! ideas express+ ^! values consequ5tly conta9 a creation ( our m9d1 are its "w1 & include no?+ n plac$ !re by x4 ,we h already obs]v$ t algebra is a k9d ( language4 ,its rules are p>tly conv5tional1 & its mo/ complicat$ =mulas may be r$uc$ to a conv5tional pr9ciple4 ,take "o ( ! simple/3 a#j #a3 b :y is x8 ,because a#j an-n2 :y8 ,because !re is a conv5tional usage to m>k division by ! rema9d] ( ! expon5ts2 & consequ5tly an_/an1 :i* is evid5tly equal to "o1 may be express$ an_/an an-n #a4 #cje4 ,^! obs]vations seem to prove ,vico's sy/em to be really true1 s f> z pure ma!matics1 t is1 sci5ce ( ! purely ideal ord]1 is conc]n$4 ,possibly also ! same may be said ( x 9 relation to o!r sci5ce1 z = example1 metaphysics2 b we %all n foll[ x f>!r1 s9ce x is n easy to f9d a gr\nd free f conflict+ op9ions4 ,moreov]1 hav+ %[n h[ f> ,vico's sy/em is admissible 9 ma!matics1 we h !reby giv5 a solution to difficulties to :i* x is subject 9 its o!r bran*es4 #cjf4 ,t 9 a purely ideal ord] ! und]/&+ con/ructs is und5iable1 & ! s*ools agree 9 ?is4 ,!re is no d\bt t reason supposes1 comb9es1 comp>es1 d$uces2 op]ations :i* are inconceivable )\t "s k9d ( intellectual con/ruction4 ,! und]/&+ 9 ?is case kn[s :at x makes1 because its "w is pres5t to x3 :5 x comb9es x kn[s t x comb9es2 :5 x comp>es or d$uces1 x kn[s t x comp>es or d$uces2 :5 x builds ^u c]ta9 suppositions1 :i* x has itself e/abli%$1 x kn[s 9 :at !y consi/1 s9ce x re/s ^u !m4 #cjg4 ,! und]/&+ kn[s :at x makes2 b ?is is n all t x kn[s2 = x has tru?s :i* nei!r are nor c be its works1 s9ce !y are ! basis ( all its works1 z1 = example1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,c ! impossibility ( a ?+ be+ & n be+ at ! same "t be said to be ! "w ( our reason8 ,assur$ly n4 ,reason itself is impossible if ?is pr9ciple be n suppos$2 ! und]/&+ f9ds x 9 itself z an absolutely necess>y law1 z a condition s9e qua non ( all its acts4 ,"h1 !n1 ,vico's crit]ion fails3 ! und]/&+ kn[s only ! tru? x makes3 & yet ! und]/&+ kn[s b does n make ! tru? ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 #cjh4 ,facts ( consci\sness are kn[n by reason1 al?\gh !y are n its production4 ,^! facts are n only pres5t to consci\sness1 b are also objects ( ! comb9ations ( reason3 "h1 !n1 ,vico's crit]ion aga9 fails4 #cji4 ,al?\gh 9 ^? ?+s t are a purely intellectual "w1 ! und]/&+ kn[s :at x makes1 x does n make :atev] x *ooses2 = !n we %\ld h to say t sci5ce is p]fectly arbitr>y3 in/ead ( ! geometrical results we n[ h1 we might h o!rs z num]\s z ! individuals :o deal 9 l9es1 surfaces1 & solids4 ,?is %[s reason to be subject to c]ta9 laws1 its con/ructions to be connect$ ) conditions :i* x _c ab/ract4 ,"o ( ^! conditions is ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 :i* w\ld1 7 x to fail1 annihilate all k4 ,true1 by a s]ies ( intellectual con/ructions "o may asc]ta9 ! size ( a sph]e2 b c two und]/&+s obta9 two diff]5t values ( x8 ,!y _c1 = t w\ld be an absurdity3 !y may *oose diff]5t ways1 or express _! demon/rations & conclusions 9 diff]5t t]ms2 b ! value is ! same3 if !re be any discrepancy1 x is because "o or ! o!r has fall5 into an error4 #caj4 ,if we ?or\ghly exam9e ?is matt]1 we %all p]ceive t ! intellectual con/ruction1 ( :i* ,vico speaks1 is a fact g5]ally admitt$4 ,!re are 9 ?is philosoph]'s sy/em two new ?+s1 ! "o good1 ! o!r bad2 ! good1 is to h indicat$ "o reason ( ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matics2 ! bad1 is to h exagg]at$ ! value ( 8 crit]ion4 ,we h said t 8 sy/em express$ a fact g5]ally recogniz$1 b exagg]at$ by him4 ,! und]/&+ und\bt$ly creates1 9 "s s5se1 ideal sci5ces2 b 9 :at s5se8 ,solely by tak+ po/ulates1 & comb9+ its data 9 v>i\s ways4 ,"h ends its creative p[]1 = 9 ^! po/ulates & comb9ations x discov]s tru?s n plac$ !re by itself4 ,:at is ! triangle 9 ! purely ideal ord]8 ,a creation ( ! und]/&+1 :i* disposes ! l9es 9 a triangul> =m1 &1 pres]v+ ?is =m1 modifies x 9 a ?\s& ways4 ,?us f> !re is only "o po/ulate & diff]5t comb9ations ( x3 b ! prop]ties ( ! triangle fl[ by absolute necessity f ! conditions ( ! po/ulate3 ! und]/&+1 h[ev]1 does n make ^! prop]ties1 x discov]s !m4 ,! example ( ! triangle is applicable to all geometry4 ,! und]/&+ takes a po/ulate2 ?is is its free "w1 b x mu/ n come 9 conflict ) ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,f ?is po/ulate fl[ absolutely necess>y consequ5ces1 indep5d5t ( intellectual action1 & involv+ an absolute tru? kn[n by ! und]/&+ itself4 ,consequ5tly x is false to say ( !m t x makes !m4 ,suppose a man s to place a body1 t1 left to itself1 x w fall to ! gr\nd3 is x ! man :o gives x ! =ce to fall8 ,c]ta9ly n1 b nature4 ,! man only supplies ! condition necess>y = ! =ce ( gravity to produce its effect3 :5 once ! condition is p]=m$1 ! fall is inevitable4 ,"h1 !n1 is a simile :i* %[s cle>ly & exactly :at happ5s 9 ! purely ideal ord]4 ,! und]/&+ p]=ms ! conditions2 f !m fl[ o!r tru?s1 n made1 b kn[n1 by ! und]/&+4 ,?is tru? is absolute1 is z ! =ce ( gravity 9 ! ord] ( ideas4 ,h5ce we see :at is admissible1 & :at inadmissible 9 ,vico's sy/em4 ,! p[] ( comb9ation1 a g5]ally recogniz$ fact1 is admissible2 ! exagg]ation ( ?is fact ext5d$ to all tru?s1 :5 x only comprises po/ulates 9 _! v>i\s comb9ations1 is inadmissible4 ,! rules ( algebra are conv5tional inasmu* z !y relate to ! expression1 = ?is might evid5tly h be5 diff]5t4 ,suppos+1 h[ev]1 ! expression1 ! developm5t ( ! rules1 is n conv5tional1 b necess>y4 ,9 ! expression an_/an ! numb] ( times ! quantity has ent]$ z factor might cle>ly h be5 express$ 9 inf9ite ways2 b suppos+ ! pres5t to h be5 adopt$1 ! rule is n conv5tional1 b absolutely necess>y2 s9ce :atev] ! expression1 x is always c]ta9 t ! division ( a quantity by itself1 ) di/9ct expon5ts1 gives = result ! dim9ution ( ! numb] ( times x has ent]$ z factor3 ?is is d5ot$ by ! rema9d] ( ! expon5ts2 & consequ5tly if ! numb] ( times be equal 9 ! divid5d & ! divisor1 ! result w be #j4 ,?us we see t ev5 9 algebra1 :at ! und]/&+ has to d1 is to p]=m ! conditions1 & express !m z seems to x be/3 b "h its free "w ends1 = necess>y tru?s result f ^! conditions2 & ^! x does n make1 b only kn[s4 #caa4 ,vico's m]it 9 ?is po9t consi/s 9 hav+ express$ a v cle> idea ( ! cause ( ! great] c]ta9ty ( ! purely ideal sci5ces4 ,9 ^! ! und]/&+ itself p]=ms ! conditions ^u :i* x has to build its edifice2 x *ooses ! gr\nd1 =ms ! plan1 & raises ! con/ruction con=mably to x4 ,9 ! real ord] ?is gr\nd is already designat$1 j z are ! plan ( ! edifice & ! mat]ials = its con/ruction4 ,9 bo? cases x is subject to ! g5]al laws ( reason1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 x has to reg>d ^! laws & no?+ else2 b 9 ! real ord]1 x _c ab/ract ! objects consid]$ 9 !mselves1 & is condemn$ to submit to all ! inconv5i5ces !y are ( a nature to cause4 ,we w expla9 ^! ideas by an example4 ,if we w\ld det]m9e ! relation ( ! sides ( a triangle "u c]ta9 conditions1 we h only to suppose ! conditions & att5d to !m4 ,! ideal triangle is 9 our und]/&+ a p]fectly exact1 & also a fix$1 ?+4 ,if we suppose x to be an isosceles triangle ) ! relation ( ! sides to ! base z sev5 to five1 ?is ratio is absolute1 immutable1 s long z ! supposition rema9s un*ang$4 ,9 all our op]ations ^u ^! data1 we are liable to mi/akes ( calculation1 b no error c arise f inexactness ( data4 ,! und]/&+ kn[s1 inde$1 = :at x kn[s is its own "w4 ,if ! triangle be n purely ideal1 b realiz$ ^u pap]1 or on ! gr\nd1 ! und]/&+ vacillates because ^? conditions1 :i*1 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 x fixes ) all exactness1 _c be transf]r$ 9 l mann] to ! real ord]2 & ev5 7 !y transf]r$1 ! und]/&+ w\ld h no means ( appreciat+ !m4 ,!re=e1 ,vico says1 ) great tru?1 t our cognitions lose 9 c]ta9ty 9 ! same proportion z !y are remov$ f ! ideal ord] & swall[$ up 9 ! reality ( ?+s4 #cab4 ,dugald ,/ew>t probably _h 9 view ?is doctr9e ( ,vico :5 he expla9$ ! cause ( ! great] c]ta9ty ( ma!matical sci5ces4 ,x does n1 he says1 dep5d ^u axioms1 b ^u def9itions2 t is1 he adopts1 ) a slight modification1 ! sy/em ( ! ,neapolitan philosoph]1 t ! ma!matical are ! mo/ c]ta91 because !y are an intellectual con/ruction f\nd$ ^u c]ta9 conditions plac$ by ! und]/&+ & express$ by ! def9ition4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! purely ideal & ! real ord] did n escape ! s*ola/ics4 ,!y 7 accu/om$ to say t !re 0 no sci5ce ( cont+5t & p>ticul>1 b only ( necess>y & univ]sal ?+s4 ,9 ! place ( cont+5t sub/itute reality1 s9ce all f9ite reality is cont+5t2 & in/ead ( univ]sal put ideal1 s9ce ! purely ideal is all univ]sal2 & y w h ! same doctr9e enunciat$ 9 di/9ct words4 ,x is n easy to %[ exactly h[ f> mod]n philosoph]s h avail$ !mselves ( ! s*ola/ic doctr9e1 9 s f> z ! di/9ction betwe5 pure & empirical cognitions is conc]n$2 b x is c]ta9 t "s v cle> passages ^u ^! que/ions are to be f\nd 9 ! works ( ! s*ola/ics4 ,x w\ld n be /range if "s mod]ns1 p>ticul>ly ,g]mans1 ^: labori\sness is prov]bial1 especially 9 matt]s ( erudition1 _h read !m47#bg7 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,! ,,crit]ion ,,( ,,common ,,s5se4 #cac4 ,common s5se is an exce$+ly vague expression4 ,x %\ld1 l all expressions :i* conta9 _m & diff]5t ideas1 be consid]$ "u two aspects3 t ( its etymological1 & t ( its real value4 ,^! two values are n always ! same2 !y are sometimes greatly discrepant2 b ev5 9 _! discrepancy1 !y usually pres]ve intimate relations4 ,we mu/ n1 9 ord] duly to appreciate ! mean+ ( su* expressions1 conf9e ourselves to _! philosophical1 & contemn _! vulg> mean+4 ,9 ! latt] !re is (t5 a pr(\nd philosophy2 =1 9 su* cases1 ! vulg> s5se is a k9d ( preci\s s$im5t left by ! fl[ ( reason ^u ! ^w dur+ _m ages4 ,x ?us happ5s t 9 measure1 z ! vulg> s5se is und]/ood & analyz$1 ! philosophical "q is det]m9$1 & ! mo/ intricate que/ions solv$ ) ! greate/ facility4 #cad4 ,x is rem>kable1 t besides ! corporal s5ses !re %\ld be ano!r1 call$ common s5se4 ,s5se3 ,?is ^w excludes reflection1 all reason+1 all comb9ation2 no?+ ( ?is k9d ent]s into ! mean+ ( ! ^w to s5se4 ,:5 we s5se1 ! m9d is r passive ?an active2 x does no?+ ( itself2 x does n give1 x receives2 x suff]s1 b does n p]=m1 an action4 ,?is analysis leads u to a v important result1 & ?is is1 ! sep>ation f common s5se ( all t ^u :i* ! m9d ex]cises its activity2 & ! det]m9ation ( "o "* ( ?is crit]ion1 :i* is1 ) respect to common s5se2 ! und]/&+ has no?+ to d b submit itself to a law p]ceiv$1 to an in/9ctive & unavoidable necessity4 #cae4 ,common3 ,?is ^w excludes all individuality1 & %[s ! object ( common s5se to be g5]al to all m54 ,! simple facts ( consci\sness are facts ( s5se1 b n ( common s5se2 ! m9d feels !m :5 x ab/racts objectiv5ess & g5]ality2 :at x exp]i5ces )9 itself is an exp]i5ce exclusively its own1 & "o :i* has no connection ) o!rs4 ,! ^w common %[s ! objects ( ?is crit]ion to be common to all m51 & consequ5tly ref]able to ! objective ord]1 s9ce ! purely subjective1 z su*1 is limit$ to ! individual1 & 9 no wise affects :at is g5]al4 ,s exact is ?is obs]vation1 t 9 ord9>y language no int]nal ph5om5on1 h[ev] extravagant1 is ev] said to be oppos$ to common s5se1 provid$ x be express$ simply ) ab/raction f its relation to ! object4 ,if a man says3 ,i exp]i5ce su* or su* a s5sation1 ,i seem to see su* or su* a ?+1 common s5se is n aga9/ him2 b if he says1 su* or su* a ?+ is 9 su* a mann]1 & ! ass]tion is extravagant1 x is aga9/ him1 = ?is is contr>y to common s5se4 #caf4 ,i believe ! expression common s5se to d5ote a law ( our m9d1 app>5tly diff]+ accord+ to ! diff]5t cases to :i* x applies1 b 9 reality & ap>t f its modifications1 only "o1 always ! same1 consi/+ 9 a natural incl9ation ( our m9d to give its ass5t to "s tru?s n atte/$ by consci\sness nor demon/rat$ by reason1 necess>y to all m5 9 ord] to satisfy ! wants ( s5sitive1 intellectual1 & moral life4 ,if ! fact be agre$ on1 ! "n is ( little mom5t3 :e!r common s5se be or be n ! mo/ adequate to signify x1 is a philological1 n a philosophical1 "q4 ,:at we h to d1 is to inquire if ?is incl9ation ( :i* we h spok51 really exi/s1 "u :at =ms x is pres5t$1 to :at cases x is applicable1 & h[ f>1 & to :at degree x may be consid]$ a crit]ion ( tru?4 ,evid5tly ?is incl9ation _c1 9 ! complication ( ! acts & faculties ( our s\l1 & 9 ! multitude & div]sity ( ! objects (f]$ to x1 always be pres5t$ ) ! same "*2 x mu/ und]go v>i\s modifications capable ( caus+ x to be consid]$ z a di/9ct fact1 al?\gh 9 reality /ill ! same1 trans=m$ 9 a suitable mann]4 ,! be/ means ( avoid+ a confusion ( ideas1 w be to designate ! v>i\s cases 9 :i* ! ex]cise ( ?is incl9ation occurs4 #cag4 ,we at once detect x 9 ! case ( tru?s imm$iately evid5t4 ,! und]/&+ nei!r does nor c prove !m1 & yet x mu/ ass5t to !m1 or p]i% l a flame t has no?+ to fe$ ^u4 ,! possession ( "o or m ( ^! primitive tru?s is an indisp5sable condition to intellectual life2 )\t !m intellig5ce is an absurdity4 ,"h1 !n1 we f9d all t is compris$ 9 ! def9ition ( common s5se3 ! impossibility ( pro(2 an intellectual necessity1 :i* mu/ be satisfi$ by ass5t2 & an irresi/ible & univ]sal incl9ation to give ?is ass5t4 ,is !re any objection to call+ ?is incl9ation common s5se8 ,= myself1 ,i %all n dispute ^u words2 ,i m>k ! fact1 & ?is is all ,i ne$ d 9 philosophy4 ,i grant t ! incl9ation to ass5t is n1 9 treat+ ( imm$iate evid5ce1 usually call$ common s5se1 & ?is n )\t a reason4 ,9 ord] t ! ^w s5se may be prop]ly appli$ to x1 ! und]/&+ ought to feel r ?an "k3 b 9 imm$iate evid5ce x kn[s r ?an feels4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ,i repeat t ! "n is ( no acc\nt2 yet1 x w\ld n be difficult to f9d ?is crit]ion ( tru? call$ by grave au?ors common s5se4 ,:at ,i wi% is to e/abli% ?is law ( our nature incl9+ u to give our ass5t to c]ta9 tru?s1 indep5d5tly ( consci\sness & ratioc9ation4 #cah4 ,n imm$iate evid5ce alone has ?is irresi/ible incl9ation 9 its favor2 m$iate evid5ce also has x4 ,our und]/&+ necess>ily ass5ts1 n only to fir/ pr9ciples1 b also to all propositions cle>ly connect$ ) !m4 ,! natural incl9ation to ass5t is n limit$ to ! subjective value ( ideas2 x also ext5ds to _! objective value4 ,we h already se5 t ?is objectiv5ess is n directly demon/rable a priori1 & yet we /& 9 ne$ ( x4 ,if our und]/&+ is n to be limit$ to a purely ideal & subjective _w1 we mu/ "k n only t ?+s seem to u1 z !y d ) m$iate or imm$iate evid5ce1 b also t !y really are su* z !y seem to be4 ,x is !n necess>y to ass5t to ! objectiv5ess ( ideas1 & we f9d )9 ourselves an irresi/ible & univ]sal incl9ation to su* an ass5t4 #cai4 ,:at we h said ( imm$iate & m$iate evid5ce relatively to ! objective value ( ideas1 is true1 n only 9 ! purely intellectual1 b also 9 ! moral ord]4 ,! s\l1 end[$ z x is ) free w1 ne$s rules = its direction3 if fir/ intellectual pr9ciples are necess>y 9 ord] to "k1 moral pr9ciples are n less s 9 ord] to w & "w4 ,:at tru? & error are to ! und]/&+1 good & evil are to ! w4 ,besides ! life ( ! und]/&+1 !re is a life ( ! w2 ! "o1 )\t pr9ciples on :i* to re/1 is annihilat$2 ! o!r1 z a moral be+1 p]i%es1 or becomes an inconceivable absurdity1 if x h no rule1 ! obs]vation or violation ( :i* con/itutes its p]fection or imp]fection4 ,"h is ano!r necessity = ! ass5t to c]ta9 moral tru?s1 & ano!r reason ( ?is irresi/ible & univ]sal incl9ation to ass5t4 ,i w\ld "h rem>k1 t z x is n en\gh 9 ! intellectual ord] to "k1 b x is also necess>y to act1 & "o ( ! pr9ciples ( action is p]ception by ! s5ses2 s moral tru?s are n only kn[n b felt4 ,:5 !y are (f]$ to ! m9d ! und]/&+ ass5ts to !m z un%ak51 & ! he>t embraces !m ) en?usiasm & love4 #cbj4 ,s5sations consid]$ z purely subjective d n meet ! wants ( s5sitive life4 ,we mu/ be sure t our s5sations correspond to an ext]nal _w1 real & true1 n ph5om5al4 ,m5 d n ord9>ily possess ei!r ! capacity or ! "t requisite to inve/igate ! philosophical que/ions ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 & to decide = or aga9/ ,b]keley & 8 foll[]s4 ,:at is necess>y is p]fect c]ta9ty t bodies d exi/1 t s5sations h an ext]nal object 9 reality4 ,all m5 h ?is c]ta9ty :5 !y ass5t ) an irresi/ible =ce to ! objectiv5ess ( ideas1 t is1 to ! exi/5ce ( bodies4 #cba4 ,fai? 9 human au?ority furni%es u ) ano!r case ( ?is wond]ful in/9ct4 ,bo? ! individual & society require fai?3 )\t x society & family w\ld be impossible2 ! individual w\ld be condemn$ to isolation1 &1 !re=e1 to dea?4 ,! spee* ( man1 ! human race itself1 w\ld disappe> 7 x n = fai?4 ,?is belief has di/9ct grades accord+ to diff]5t circum/ances1 b x always exi/s2 man is incl9$1 by a natural in/9ct1 to believe 8 fell[ man4 ,:5 _m m5 speak1 & none raise _! voices aga9/ !m1 ! =ce ( ?is incl9ation increases 9 ! same proportion z ! numb] ( witness1 until x becomes irresi/ible4 ,:o d\bts ! exi/5ce ( ,rome8 ,& yet1 ! great] "p ( u only "k x ^u ! au?ority ( o!r m54 ,:at f\ndation has fai? 9 human au?ority8 ,mo/ m5 are ignorant ( ! philosophical reasons :i* may be assign$2 b _! fai? is n !re=e less lively ?an t ( philosoph]s4 ,b :y is ?is s8 ,because !re is a necessity1 & at its side an in/9ct to be satisfi$4 ,man mu/ believe 9 man1 & he believes4 ,& "h note well1 t ! great] ! necessity1 ! great] ! fai?4 ,! v ignorant & imbecile believe all t is told !m2 !y make o!r m5 _! guide1 & bl9dly foll[ !m4 ,! t5d] *ild1 kn[+ no?+1 ab&ons itself to ! absolute belief ( ! greate/ m>vels3 ! ^w ( ^? ar\nd is to x an invaluable crit]ion ( tru?4 #cbb4 ,besides ! cases ( fir/ intellectual & moral pr9ciples1 ! objectiv5ess ( ideas & s5sations1 ! weight ( human au?ority1 man mu/ give 8 in/antane\s ass5t to c]ta9 tru?s1 :i*1 al?\gh he might1 _h he ! "t1 demon/rate1 he _c n[1 because s sudd5ly are !y pres5t$ to him1 t !y exact an imm$iate =mation ( judgm5t1 &1 sometimes1 also action4 ,9 all ^! cases1 !re is a natural incl9ation impell+ u to ass5t4 ,h5ce x is t we in/9ctively judge x impossible1 or little less ?an impossible1 to cause a det]m9ate effect1 by a =tuit\s comb9ation2 z1 = example1 to =m a page ( ,virgil by a *ance mixture ( types1 or to hit ! bull's eye ( a t>get )\t tak+ aim1 & o!r simil> ?+s4 ,9 ?is !re is assur$ly a philosophical reason1 b "o n kn[n to common p4 ,!re is evid5ce ( ?is reason 9 ! !ory ( probabilities3 x is a di/9ct application ( ! pr9ciple ( causality1 & ( ! natural opposition ( our und]/&+ to suppos+ an effect )\t a cause1 & ord] :]e !re is no ord]+ intellig5ce4 #cbc4 ,argum5ts ( analogy1 are 9 human life necess>y 9 inf9ite cases4 ,h[ d we "k t ! sun w rise to-morr[8 ,by ! laws ( nature4 ,h[ d we "k t ^! w cont9ue 9 =ce8 ,evid5tly1 we mu/ f9ally recur to analogy4 ,! sun w rise to-morr[1 because x has ris5 to-day2 x rose ye/]day1 & x has nev] fail$ to rise4 ,h[ d we "k t spr+ w aga9 br+ fl[]s1 & autumn fruits8 ,because x has s happ5$ 9 =m] ye>s4 ,m5 ord9>ily d n "k ! reasons :i* might be giv5 = f\nd+ ! argum5t f analogy on ! con/ancy ( ! laws ( nature1 & on ! relation betwe5 c]ta9 physical causes & det]m9ate effects2 b _! ass5t is requir$ & giv54 #cbd4 ,9 all ! cases cit$1 except+1 p]haps1 t ( imm$iate evid5ce1 ! incl9ation to ass5t may be1 & really is1 call$ common s5se4 ,! reason ( ?is exception is1 t 9 ?is case1 al?\gh !re is no demon/ration1 ! pr$icate is nev]!less mo/ cle>ly se5 conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! subject2 b 9 ! o!r cases !re is nei!r demon/ration nor ?is vision4 ,man ass5ts by a natural impulse2 & if any ?+ is object$ to 8 belief1 he does n call att5tion to 8 conception1 z 9 imm$iate evid5ce1 b is completely disconc]t$1 & kn[s n :at to answ]2 he !n applies to ! objection1 n ! "n ( error1 nor ( absurdity1 b t ( extravagance1 ( some?+ contr>y to common s5se4 ,suppose1 = example1 a little gra9 ( s& to be mix$ ) a great heap1 & "s "o to come & say3 ,i w put my h& into ! heap1 & in/antly draw out ! "o gra9 hidd5 !re4 ,:at w y object to su* a "o8 ,:at w ! behold]s reply8 ,no?+2 or1 look+ at ea* o!r 9 p]fect surprise1 !y w exclaim3 ,:at extravagance6 ,he has no common s5se6 ,or suppose "s "o to say1 t all we see is no?+1 t !re is no ext]nal _w1 t we h no body1 or t all told u ( ! exi/5ce ( a city call$ ,london is untrue4 ,:oev] he>s su* madness1 kn[s n :at to answ]2 b he repels x by a natural impulse1 & ! m9d feels t ?is is nons5se )\t /opp+ to exam9e4 #cbe4 ,we %all n[ inquire :e!r common s5se be a c]ta9 crit]ion ( tru?1 :e!r x be s 9 all1 or 9 :at cases1 & :at *>act]s x mu/ h 9 ord] to be an infallible crit]ion4 ,man _c lay aside 8 nature3 :5 x speaks1 reason w n all[ x to be ignor$4 ,a natural incl9ation1 simply because x is natural1 is 9 ! eyes ( philosophy some?+ highly respectable3 x is ! prov9ce ( reason & free w n to all[ x to g a/ray4 ,:at is natural to man is n always s p]fectly fix$ z x is 9 brutes1 :]e in/9ct is bl9d z x mu/ be1 :]e !re is nei!r reason nor free w4 ,! ex]cise ( man's natural incl9ations is subord9ate to 8 reason & free w1 &1 consequ5tly1 :5 ^! are call$ in/9cts1 ! ^w has a v diff]5t mean+ f :at x has :5 appli$ to brutes4 ,:at happ5s 9 ! moral ord] is also v]ifi$ 9 ! intellectual4 ,we h n only our he>t to wat*1 b also our und]/&+2 bo? are subject to ! law ( p]fectibility2 ! objects :i* !y (f] to u are good & evil1 tru? & error4 ,nature h]self %[s u :i* "o we ought to *oose1 b does n =ce our *oice2 life & dea? are be=e u1 we may select ! "o we please4 #cbf4 ,!re is 9 man1 indep5d5tly ( ! action ( free w1 a quality :i* (t5times has ! effect ( turn+ 8 natural incl9ations f _! object2 x is weakness4 ,h5ce1 x is no?+ extraord9>y = ^! incl9ations to be s di/ort$ z to lead to error in/ead ( tru?1 & ?is r5d]s x necess>y to det]m9e :at *>act]s common s5se %\ld h1 9 ord] to be an absolutely infallible crit]ion4 #cbg4 ,we w po9t out ! conditions1 su* z we conceive !m to be1 ( true & nev]-err+ common s5se4 ,fir/ ,condition4--,t ! incl9ation be e way irresi/ible1 s t "o _c1 ev5 by ! aid ( reflection1 resi/ or avoid x4 ,second ,condition4--,t e tru? ( common s5se be absolutely c]ta9 to ! :ole human race4 ,?is condition foll[s f ! fir/4 ,?ird ,condition4--,t e tru? ( common s5se /& ! te/ ( reason4 ,f\r? ,condition4--,t e tru? ( common s5se h = its object ! satisfaction ( "s great necessity ( s5sitive1 intellectual1 or moral life4 #cbh4 ,:5 possess$ ( all ^! *>act]s1 ! crit]ion ( common s5se is absolutely infallible1 & may defy skeptics to assign a case :]e9 x has fail$4 ,! high] ! degree 9 :i* ! conditions are satisfi$1 ! m c]ta9 w ! crit]ion be4 ,we w expla9 ?is by a few examples4 ,!re is no d\bt t ord9>y m5 make _! s5sations s f> objective z to transf] :at passes )9 !mselves to ! ext]ior1 )\t di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective4 ,?us1 :5 !y consid] colors to be 9 ?+s !mselves1 !y d n take ! gre51 = example1 to be ! s5sation ( ! gre51 b a ?+ c]ta91 a quality1 or :atev] else x may be call$1 inh]5t 9 ! object4 ,b 9 reality ?is c]ta9ly is n s4 ,! cause ( ! s5sation is 9 ! ext]nal object2 su* a disposition ( facts also z to produce ?r\gh ! m$ium ( light ! impression call$ gre54 ,common s5se "h deceives2 = philosophical analysis convicts x ( error4 ,b "h common s5se has n ! requisite conditions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x ought to /& ! te/ ( reason2 s soon z we reflect ^u ! case1 we discov] an illusion z fair z innoc5t4 ,moreov]1 x is n irresi/ible1 = our ass5t is )held ! in/ant we are conv9c$ ( ! illusion4 ,nei!r is ! ass5t univ]sal1 = n all philosoph]s h x4 ,nor is x indisp5sable to ! satisfaction ( "s great necessity ( life4 ,x !re=e has no "o ( ! conditions j laid d[n4 ,:at we h said ( sight is applicable to ! o!r s5ses4 ,:at is ! value ( ! te/imony ( common s5se inasmu* z x leads u to make s5sations objective8 ,we w answ] ?is "q4 ,a c]ta9ty t s5sations correspond to ext]nal objects is necess>y to ! wants ( life4 ,^u ?is all m5 )\t exception are agre$4 ,reflection _c despoil u ( our natural incl9ation2 & al?\gh reason1 :5 mo/ x cavils1 may %ake ! f\ndations ( ?is belief1 x nev] succe$s 9 convict+ x ( error4 ,ev5 !y :o give ! mo/ weight to su* cavils1 _c prove t bodies d n exi/3 !y c only say t we d n "k t !y exi/4 ,! natural incl9ation !n possesses ^u ?is po9t all ! *>act]i/ics necess>y to elevate x to ! rank ( an infallible crit]ion3 x is irresi/ible1 univ]sal1 satisfies a great necessity ( life1 & /&s ! te/ ( reason4 ,z to qualities1 ! direct objects ( s5sation1 x is n necess>y = u t !y exi/ 9 bodies !mselves2 x is en\gh t ^! bodies h some?+ :i* produces 9 u1 9 "s way or o!r1 a correspond+ impression4 ,x is ( little mom5t :e!r a gre51 or orange color be1 or be n1 a quality ( objects1 s long z !y h "s quality :i* produces 9 u ! s5sation ( gre51 or orange color1 z ! case may be4 ,! ord9>y wants ( life are n at all affect$ by ?is "q2 & man's relations ) ! s5sible _w w\ld n be di/urb$ by ! g5]alization ( philosophical analysis4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 a k9d ( dis5*antm5t ( nature1 s9ce1 despoil$ ( s5sations1 x is n ne>ly s beautiful2 b ! en*antm5t /ill cont9ues ) mo/ m52 & philosophy itself1 except 9 brief mom5ts ( reflection1 is subject to x2 & ev5 9 ^! mom5ts x exp]i5ces an en*antm5t ( a diff]5t k9d1 z x consid]s h[ mu* ( ! beauty attribut$ to objects1 belong to man 9 8 own "r1 & t ! simple ex]cise ( a s5sible be+'s h>moni\s faculties suffices to make ! :ole univ]se gl[ ) spl5dor & glory47#bh7 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,error ,,( ,,lam5nais ,,on ,,common ,,cons5t4 #cbi4 ,! in/9ctive fai? 9 human au?ority1 ( :i* we h j treat$1 is a fact atte/$ by exp]i5ce1 & "o :i* no philosoph] has presum$ to call 9 d\bt4 ,?is fai?1 duly direct$ by reason1 con/itutes "o crit]ion ( tru?4 ,! errors to :i* x may sometimes lead are inh]5t 9 human weakness1 & are amply comp5sat$ = by ! advantages d]iv$ f x by society & individuals4 ,a celebrat$ writ] und]took to include all crit]ia 9 t ( human au?ority1 resolutely affirm+ common cons5t1 s5sus communis1 to be to u ! only seal ( tru?4#cc ,8 sy/em1 z /range z errone\s1 9 :i* words z unlike z s5sus & cons5sus are conf\nd$1 is def5d$ ) t eloqu5t exagg]ation *>act]i/ic ( its em95t au?or2 b pr(\nd philosophy does n always accompany eloqu5ce4 ,! sad fate ( ?is g5ius1 z brilliant z err+1 %[s ! results ( su* a doctr9e2 x op5s an abyss :i* swall[s up all tru?1 & ! au?or himself 0 ! fir/ to fall into x4 ,to appeal to ! au?ority ( o!rs 9 all ?+s1 & = all ?+s1 is to despoil ! individual ( e crit]ion1 to annihilate !m all1 n except+ ! v "o he attempts to e/abli%4 ,x is inconceivable h[ su* a sy/em c\ld h f\nd favor ) s gift$ an intellect4 ,we feel1 :5 read+ ! eloqu5t pages ( its developm5t1 an undef9able pa9 to see su* brilliant passages squ&]$ on ! repetition ( all ! common-places ( skepticism1 end+ 9 a mo/ gl>+ p>adox1 & ! lea/ philosophical sy/em imag9able4 #cc ,lam5nais1 ,essai sur l',indiff]5ce en ,matire de ,religion4 ,t4 #b1 ,c4 #ac4 ,lam5nais calls common s5se ! only crit]ion2 nev]!less1 we h only to glance at ! o!rs to be conv9c$ t ?is new crit]ion is /]ile1 & c\ld n produce !m4 #ccj4 ,! te/imony ( consci\sness1 9 ! fir/ place1 _c re/ 9 any s5se ^u ! au?ority ( o!rs4 ,=m$ z x is by a s]ies ( acts intimately pres5t to our own m9d1 &1 z )\t x1 x is n possible = u ev5 to conceive individual ?\ght1 x mu/ evid5tly exi/ prior to ! application ( any crit]ion1 s9ce no crit]ion is possible to him :o does n ?9k4 ,"u a sci5tific aspect no?+ c be weak] ?an 8 pret5d$ refutation ( ,desc>tes' pr9ciple4 ,:51 try+ to rise f 8 me?odical d\bt1 ,desc>tes e/abli%es ?is proposition1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 he passes an imm5se abyss1 & lays 9 ! cl\ds ! corn]-/one ( ! edifice he is ab\t to raise2 =1 /rictly speak+1 we _c say ,i ?9k1 we _c say ,i am1 we _c say !re=e1 or affirm any?+ z a consequ5ce4#cd #cd ,ibid4 ,desc>tes' pr9ciple m]it$ a m c>eful exam9ation f :oev] w\ld inv5t a sy/em4 ,to oppose to x t we _c say !re=e1 is to repeat ! worn-out argum5t ( ! s*ools2 & to affirm t we _c say ,i ?9k1 is to contradict a fact ( consci\sness n d5i$ ev5 by skeptics4 ,9 place ( ?is1 we w expla9 at due l5g? :at is1 or at lea/1 :at ought to be1 ! s5se ( ,desc>tes' pr9ciple4 ,if1 accord+ to ,lam5nais1 we _c say ,i ?9k1 /ill less c we say t o!rs ?9k2 & z 8 sy/em recognizes "o only crit]ion1 common cons5t1 :i* absolutely ne$s ! ?\ght ( o!rs1 x foll[s t ,lam5nais has laid 8 corn]-/one high] 9 ! cl\ds ?an he :o f\nd$ philosophy ^u a fact ( consci\sness4 #cca4 ,a crit]ion1 especially :5 x pret5ds to be ! only "o1 ought to h ^! two conditions3 to apply to all cases1 & n to suppose ano!r4 ,n[ ! crit]ion ( common cons5t is precisely t :i* is f>!/ f possess+ ^! conditions3 prior to x is ! te/imony ( consci\sness2 prior also to x is ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 = we _c "k ! cons5t ( o!rs if sight or he>+ d n make u c]ta9 ( x4 #ccb4 ,9 _m cases ?is crit]ion is impossible2 9 _m o!rs x is exce$+ly difficult if n :olly impossible4 ,to :at po9t is common cons5t ne$$8 ,if ! ^w common ref]s to ! :ole human race1 h[ are ! suffrages ( all mank9d to be recogniz$8 ,if ! cons5t ne$ n be unanim\s1 to :at po9t does ! contradiction1 or ! simple non-ass5t ( "s1 de/roy ! legitimacy ( ! crit]ion8 #ccc4 ,lam5nais' error consi/s 9 tak+ ! effect = ! cause1 & ! cause = ! effect4 ,we detect c]ta9 tru?s1 ^u :i* all m5 are agre$1 & we say3 ! gu>anty t ea* "o is "r is ! cons5t ( all4 ,if we analyze ?is well1 we %all p]ceive t ! reason ( ea* individual's c]ta9ty is n ! cons5t ( o!rs2 b on ! contr>y ! reason :y all agree is t ea* "o = himself feels oblig$ to give 8 ass5t4 ,9 ?is univ]sal vot+ ( ! human race1 ea* "o gives 8 own vote1 impell$ 9 a c]ta9 s5se by nature h]self2 & z all exp]i5ce ! same impulse1 all vote alike4 ,lam5nais says e "o votes 9 ! same way1 because all vote s2 b he does n obs]ve t !n ! vot+ c\ld nev] beg9 nor end4 ,?is comp>ison is n an accid5tal satire1 b a /rictly philosophical argum5t1 to :i* !re c be no reply2 x suffices to %[ ! sy/em ( ,lam5nais to be unf\nd$ & contradictory2 j z1 on ! o!r h&1 x indicates ! orig9 ( ! equivocation1 ! tak+ ! effect = ! cause4 #ccd4 ,lam5nais1 9 ord] to prove 8 crit]ion to be ! only "o1 appeals to ! te/imony ( consci\sness4 ,9 our op9ion ?is te/imony e/abli%es directly ! contr>y4 ,:o ev] wait$ = ! au?ority ( o!rs to be c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies8 ,d we n see ev5 brutes1 by =ce ( a natural impulse1 mak+1 9 _! own way1 _! s5sations objective8 ,_h we n 9 giv+ our ass5t to ! words ( m5 "s o!r crit]ion ?an common cons5t1 we c\ld nev] believe any "o1 = ! simple reason t x w\ld be impossible to be c]ta9 ( :at o!rs say or ?9k )\t beg9n+ by believ+ "s "o4 ,does ! *ild ref] to ! au?ority ( o!rs be=e giv+ fai? to :at its "m rec\nts8 ,does x n r obey ! natural in/9ct communicat$ to x by ! b5efic5t h& ( ! ,creator8 ,x does n believe because all believe2 b all *ildr5 believe because ea* "o ( !m believes3 _! individual belief does n spr+ f a g5]al belief1 b r ! g5]al belief is =m$ f ! assemblage ( individual beliefs2 x is n natural because univ]sal1 b univ]sal because natural4 #cce4 ,lam5nais' *ief argum5t consi/s 9 ?is3 t 9 c]ta9 cases 9 ord] to make sure ( ! tru? relatively to ! o!r crit]ia1 we appeal to t ( common cons5t1 & t folly itself is only ! deviation f ?is cons5t4 ,if y tell a man t 8 eyes deceive him z to an object :i* he sees1 he in/9ctively turns to o!r m51 & asks !m if !y d n see x 9 ! same way4 ,if all agree t he is wrong1 & he is satisfi$ !y are 9 e>ne/1 he w exp]i5ce a mom5t>y vacillation ( 8 fai? 9 ! te/imony ( sight2 he w approa* ! object1 w take a diff]5t position1 or adopt :atev] o!r means may seem to him be/ suit$ to make sure t he is "r4 ,if he /ill sees ! object 9 ! same way1 & ! same p]sons & o!rs :o arrive p]si/ 9 assur+ him t ! ?+ is n z he sees x1 he w di/ru/ ! te/imony ( sight1 & believe himself subject to "s infirmity affect+ 8 sight4 ,to ?is is ! argum5t ( ,lam5nais r$uc$4 ,:at results f x8 ,no?+ to support ! sy/em ( common cons5t4 ,true1 ! o!r crit]ia are1 9 exceptional circum/ances1 liable to error2 9 c]ta9 cases :5 a d\bt arises an appeal is tak5 to ! te/imony ( o!rs3 b :y8 ,simply1 9 ord] to make sure t "o has n labor$ "u "o ( ^? d]angem5ts to :i* human mis]y is subject4 ,we "k t :at is natural is g5]al2 & he :o d\bts inquires ( o!rs1 t he may asc]ta9 if he has by "s accid5t be5 out ( 8 ord9>y natural /ate4 ,:o sees n ! unreasonabl5ess ( rais+ an exceptional means to ! rank ( sole & g5]al crit]ion8 ,:o sees n ! extravagance ( ass]t+ t we are assur$ ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses by ! au?ority ( o!r m51 solely because1 9 extreme cases fe>+ "s d]angem5t ( our organs1 we ask o!rs if some?+ appe>s to !m z x does to u8 #ccf4 ,great] exagg]ation we _c h ?an t ( ,lam5nais1 :5 he affirms t ! exact sci5ces are also f\nd$ on common cons5t2 t 9 ?is !y enjoy no privilege1 & t ! v t]m exact1 is "o ( ^? empty titles "u :i* man seeks to conceal 8 weakness2 t geometry itself only exi/s by virtue ( a tacit conv5tion1 a conv5tion :i* may be ?us express$3 we are oblig$ to hold su* pr9ciples to be c]ta91 & we pron\nce e "o a rebel to common s5se1 t is1 to ! au?ority ( ! numb]1 :o %all dem& a demon/ration ( !m4 ,?is is an intol]able exagg]ation4 ,! argum5ts :i* he adduces 9 8 notes to prove ! intr9sic unc]ta9ty ( ma!matics are exce$+ly feeble2 & "s ( !m might make u suspect ! au?or ( ! ,essai sur l',indiff]5ce to be a less pr(\nd philosoph] ?an eloqu5t writ]4 ,i am n ignorant ( :at has be5 advanc$ aga9/ ! c]ta9ty ( ! exact sci5ces1 nor ( ! difficulties !y pres5t :5 call$ be=e ! tribunal ( metaphysics4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ( ,prote/antism comp>$ ) ,ca?olicity1 ,i consecrat$ a *apt] to :at ,i call in/9ct ( fai?2 & ?is in/9ct1 ,i !re ma9ta9$1 also ex]cises its influ5ce ^u ! exact sci5ces4 ,^! ,i d n place above moral sci5ces2 ,i e/eem ^! latt] ! m2 b ,i mu/ avoid an exagg]ation t w\ld de/roy !m all4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,summ>y ,,& ,,conclusion4 #ccg4 ,9 conclud+ ?is book1 ,i wi% to give a summ>y ( my views on c]ta9ty1 :]e9 ,i %all %[ ! connection betwe5 ! doctr9es expos$ 9 ! diff]5t *apt]s4 ,:5 philosophy meets a necess>y fact its duty is to accept x4 ,su* a fact is c]ta9ty4 ,to dispute its exi/5ce1 is to dispute ! spl5dor ( ! sun at mid-day4 ,mank9d are c]ta9 ( _m ?+s2 philosoph]s1 skeptics n exclud$1 are equally s4 ,absolute skepticism is impossible4 ,sett+ aside ! "q ( c]ta9ty1 philosophy is free f extravagance1 & is e/abli%$ 9 ! doma9 ( reason2 x c !re exam9e h[ we acquire c]ta9ty1 & ^u :at x is bas$4 ,! human race is end[$ ) c]ta9ty z a quality annex$ to life1 a spontane\s result ( ! developm5t ( ! s\l's faculties4 ,c]ta9ty is natural2 consequ5tly x prec$es all philosophy1 & is indep5d5t ( ! op9ions ( m54 ,= ! same reason ! "q ( c]ta9ty1 al?\gh important to ! k ( ! laws to :i* our m9d is subject1 is1 & always w be1 unproductive ( practical results4 ,x is a divid+ l9e fix$ by reason le/ at any "t some?+ %\ld desc5d f ! realm ( ab/raction prejudicial to society or individuals4 ,?us f its fir/ inve/igations1 philosophy =ms a k9d ( alliance ) good s5se2 !y mutually promise nev] to be ho/ile to ea* o!r4 ,:5 we exam9e ! f\ndations ( c]ta9ty a "q arises ^u ! fir/ pr9ciple ( human cognitions3 does x exi/1 & :at is x8 ,?is "q may h a d\ble mean+4 ,x may ei!r mean a primitive tru? conta9+ all o!rs1 z ! se$ does plants & fruits2 or simply a re/+-po9t4 ,! =m] gives rise to ! "q ( transc5d5tal sci5ce2 ! latt] is ! cause ( ! disputes 9 ! s*ools on ! pref]5ce ( diff]5t tru?s 9 relation to ! dignity ( fir/ pr9ciple4 ,if tru? exi/s1 !re mu/ be means ( kn[+ x1 h5ce ! "q ( ! value ( crit]ia4 ,!re is 9 ! ord] ( be+ "o tru?1 ! orig9 ( all tru?s1 ,god1 :o is also 9 ! absolute intellectual ord] ! orig9 ( all tru?s4 ,9 ! human intellectual ord] !re is no "o tru?1 ! orig9 ( all o!rs2 nei!r is !re 9 ! real1 nor 9 ! ideal ord]4 ,! philosophy ( ! me c be ( no acc\nt 9 e/abli%+ transc5d5tal sci5ce4 ,! doctr9e ( absolute id5tity is an absurdity2 besides1 x expla9s no?+4 ,! problem ( repres5tation is "h propos$4 ,! repres5tation may be ( id5tity1 causality1 or ideality4 ,! la/ is f\nd$ on ! prec$+1 b is di/9ct f x4 ,besides ! problem ( repres5tation we exam9$ t ( imm$iate intelligibility1 a difficult problem1 b "o ( ! greate/ importance to a p]fect k ( ! _w ( intellig5ces4 ,! disputes on ! value ( diff]5t pr9ciples1 z to :i* has ! "r to be call$ fundam5tal1 orig9ate 9 a confusion ( ideas4 ,we attempt to comp>e ?+s ( v div]se ord]s1 :]eas ?is is impossible4 ,desc>tes' pr9ciple is ! enunciation ( a simple fact ( consci\sness2 t ( contradiction1 an objective tru?1 ! indisp5sable condition ( e cognition3 t ( ! ,c>tesians is ! expression ( a law ( our m9d4 ,! ?ree1 ea* 9 its own way & sph]e1 are necess>y2 no "o ( !m is totally indep5d5t ( ! o!rs2 ! ru9 ( any "o de/roys our intellig5ce4 ,we h v>i\s crit]ia2 b !y may all be r$uc$ to ?ree3 consci\sness1 or int]nal s5se1 evid5ce1 & intellectual in/9ct1 or common s5se4 ,consci\sness embraces all facts intimately pres5t to our s\l z purely subjective2 evid5ce ext5ds to all objective tru?s1 ^u :i* our reason is ex]cis$2 intellectual in/9ct is ! natural incl9ation to ass5t 9 cases :i* lie )\t ! doma9 ( consci\sness & evid5ce4 ,! intellectual in/9ct obliges u to give an objective value to ideas2 9 ?is case x m+les ) ! tru?s ( evid5ce1 & is1 9 ord9>y language1 conf\nd$ ) evid5ce4 ,:5 ! intellectual in/9ct op]ates ^u non-evid5t objects & incl9es u to ass5t1 x is call$ common s5se4 ,consci\sness & ! intellectual in/9ct con/itute ! o!r crit]ia4 ,! crit]ion ( evid5ce includes two ?+s3 ! appe>ance ( ideas1 :i* belongs to consci\sness2 ! objective value1 exi/+ or possible1 :i* belongs to ! intellectual in/9ct4 ,! te/imony ( ! s5ses also has two p>ts3 s5sation z purely subjective1 & ?is p]ta9s to consci\sness2 & ! belief 9 ! objectiv5ess ( s5sations1 & ?is p]ta9s to ! intellectual in/9ct4 ,! te/imony ( human au?ority is compos$ ( t ( ! s5ses1 :i* place u 9 relation ) our fell[-m51 & t ( ! intellectual in/9ct1 :i* induces u to believe !m4 ,n ev]y?+ is susceptible ( pro(2 b e crit]ion /&s ! te/ ( reason4 ,! crit]ion ( consci\sness is a primitive fact ( our nature2 9 t ( evid5ce we discov] ! indisp5sable condition ( ! exi/5ce ( reason itself2 9 t ( ! intellectual in/9ct by :i* we make our ideas objective1 is f\nd a law ( our nature likewise indisp5sable to ! v exi/5ce ( reason2 9 t ( common s5se1 prop]ly s call$1 is ! in/9ctive ass5t to tru?s1 :i*1 :5 exam9$1 are se5 to be p]fectly reasonable2 9 t ( ! s5ses1 & 9 t ( human au?ority1 we discov] ! same ?+ z 9 ! o!r cases ( common s5se1 :i* is a means ( satisfy+ ! necessities ( s5sation1 intellectual1 & moral life4 ,! crit]ia d n conflict )1 b mutually aid & confirm ea* o!r4 ,nei!r is reason at w> ) nature1 nor nature ) reason2 bo? are necess>y to u2 bo? direct u ) c]ta9ty1 al?\gh !y are bo? liable to err1 s9ce !y belong to a limit$ & v feeble be+4 #cch4 ,! philosophy :i* consid]s man only "u a s+le aspect is incomplete1 & 9 dang] ( becom+ false4 ,s f> z c]ta9ty is conc]n$1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d ?is la/ obs]vation3 to become excessively exclusive is to place "o's self on ! br9k ( error4 ,we may analyze if we w ! s\rces ( tru?2 b we mu/ n lose sight ( _! connection :5 exam9+ !m sep>ately4 ,to beg9 by conceiv+ a sy/em1 & !n mak+ ev]y?+ con=m to its dem&s1 is to place tru? 9 ! b$ ( ,procru/es4 ,unity is a great good2 b we mu/ be satisfi$ ) ! measure impos$ ^u u by nature4 ,we mu/ seek tru? by human means1 & 9 proportion to our capacity4 ,! faculties ( our s\l are subject to c]ta9 laws1 :i* we _c ab/ract4 ,"o ( ! mo/ con/ant laws ( our be+ is ! necessity ( a simultane\s ex]cise ( our faculties1 n only 9 ord] to become c]ta9 ( tru?1 b ev5 to discov] x4 ,man jo9s ! greate/ multiplicity ) simplicity3 8 s\l is "o1 is end[$ ) v>i\s faculties1 & unit$ to a body ( su* v>iety & complication z to be call$ ) mu* reason a little _w4 ,8 faculties are 9 intimate & mutual relation2 !y ex]t a cont9u\s influ5ce ^u ea* o!r4 ,to isolate !m is to mutilate1 & sometimes to ext+ui% !m4 ,?is rem>k is important1 = x indicates ! radical vice ( all exclusive philosophy4 ,if a man h no s5sations1 8 und]/&+ has no mat]ials1 nor has x t /imulus1 )\t :i* x rema9s dormant4 ,:5 ,god unit$ our s\l & body1 x 0 t "o might aid ! o!r2 :]e=e he e/abli%$ t admirable correspond5ce betwe5 ! impressions ( ! body & ! affections ( ! s\l1 :i*1 !re=e1 ne$s ! body z a m$ium1 z an in/rum5t1 :e!r ! action ( ! body ^u x be suppos$ to be a true action1 or only a simple occasion ( causality ( a high] ord]4 ,if a man1 hav+ no s5sations1 7 to ?9k1 he w\ld only ?9k z a pure _s2 he w\ld n be 9 relation ) ! ext]nal _w1 nor w\ld he be a man 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we use ?is ^w4 ,9 su* a case ! body is sup]flu\s1 & !re is no reason :y x %\ld be unit$ to ! s\l4 ,if we admit s5sations1 & ab/ract reason1 man is conv]t$ into a brute4 ,he feels1 b does n ?9k3 he exp]i5ces impressions1 b does n comb9e !m1 = he is incapable ( reflect+4 ,e ?+ succe$s 9 him z a s]ies ( necess>y1 isolat$ ph5om5a1 :i* indicate no?+1 lead to no?+1 & are no?+ b affections ( a p>ticul> be+ :o does n compreh5d !m1 nor r5d] to himself an acc\nt ( !m4 ,x is ev5 difficult to say ( :at k9d are 8 relations ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,argu+ f appe>ances & analogy1 x is probable t brutes also make _! s5sations objective2 b ord9>ily1 _! objectiv5ess diff]s f ours4 ,let u take sleep = example4 ,if brutes sleep1 & !y probably d sleep1 z c]ta9 appe>ances seem to indicate1 x w\ld n be /range %\ld !y n di/+ui% z we d betwe5 wak+ & sleep+4 ,?is supposes "s reflection ^u acts1 "s comp>ison betwe5 ! ord] & con/ancy ( "s1 & ! disord] & incon/ancy ( o!rs2 a reflection :i* man makes ev5 9 infancy1 & cont9ues to make all 8 life )\t adv]t+ to x4 ,:5 we awake f a deep sleep1 we sometimes rema9 = sev]al mom5ts 9 d\bt if we are asleep or awake3 ?is d\bt alone supposes a comp>ative reflection ( ! two /ates4 ,:at d we d 9 ord] to resolve ?is d\bt8 ,we exam9e ! place :]e we are2 & ! fact t we are ab$1 9 ! sil5ce & d>kness ( night1 indicates t ! previ\s vision _h no connection ) our situation1 & !re=e t we 7 asleep4 ,)\t ?is reflection1 ! s5sations ( sleep+ & wak+ w\ld be connect$1 & all conf\nd$ 9 "o & ! same class4 ,! in/9ct conc$$ to brutes1 b d5i$ to m51 %[s t reason 0 giv5 to u 9 ord] to appreciate s5sations4 ,!re are1 !n1 9 man no crit]ia ( tru? absolutely isolat$4 ,!y are all 9 relation ) ea* o!r1 !y mutually affirm & complete ea* o!r2 = we mu/ note t ^? tru?s1 ( :i* all m5 are c]ta91 d 9 "s s5se re/ ^u all ! crit]ia4 ,s5sations in/9ctively lead u to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w2 & if ?is belief be submitt$ to ! exam9ation ( reason1 x confirms ! same tru?1 re/+ ^u ! g5]al ideas ( cause & effect4 ,! pure und]/&+ kn[s c]ta9 pr9ciples1 & ass5ts to !m z to necess>y tru?s4 ,! s5ses1 if ^! pr9ciples be submitt$ to _! exp]i5ce1 confirm !m z mu* z _! own p]fection1 or t ( ! in/rum5ts :i* !y use1 p]mit4 ,all ! radii ( a circle are equal4 ,?is is a necess>y tru?4 ,! s5ses p]ceive no p]fect circle1 b !y see t ! m p]fect ! in/rum5t is ) :i* !y con/ruct x1 s mu* m ne>ly equal are ! radii4 ,!re is no *ange )\t a cause to produce x4 ,! s5ses _c prove ! proposition 9 all its univ]sality1 = !y are by nature limit$ to a det]m9ate numb] ( p>ticul> cases2 b1 s f> z _! exp]i5ce goes1 !y discov] ! ord] ( su* a dep5d5ce 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a4 ,! s5ses mutually aid ea* o!r4 ,! s5sation ( "o s5se is comp>$ ) ^? ( ! o!rs1 :5 !re arises a d\bt z to its correspond5ce ) its object4 ,we seem to he> ! :i/l+ ( ! w9d2 b our he>+ has m ?an once deceiv$ u3 to make sure ( ! tru? we look at trees or o!r objects4 ,we see a figure1 b !re is n light suffici5t to di/+ui% x f a %ad[1 we approa* & t\* x4 ,! intellectual & moral faculties also ex]cise a salut>y influ5ce ^u ea* o!r4 ,ideas rectify s5tim5ts1 & s5tim5ts ideas4 ,! value ( ! ideas ( "o ord] is v]ifi$ by ^? ( ano!r ord]2 & ! same ) s5tim5ts4 ,pity = "o suff]+ puni%m5t inspires ! p>don ( all crim9als2 ! indignation inspir$ at see+ ! victims ( crime1 induces to ! application ( puni%m5t2 bo? s5tim5ts involve some?+ t is good2 b ! "o w\ld eng5d] impunity1 ! o!r cruelty2 x is to temp] !m t ! ideas ( ju/ice exi/4 ,b ?is ju/ice 9 its turn might pron\nce excessively absolute s5t5ces2 ju/ice is "o1 & ! circum/ances ( peoples v diff]5t4 ,ju/ice only consid]s ! culpability1 & consequ5tly pron\nces su* s5t5ces4 ,a s5t5ce may n be prop]2 = "h come 9 o!r moral ideas ( a di/9ct ord]1 ! am5dm5t ( ! guilty jo9$ ) rep>ation made to ! injur$ p>ty2 ideas also ( public conv5i5ce :i* are n repugnant to s\nd morals1 & :i* may direct _! application4 ,complete tru?1 l p]fect good1 exi/s only ) h>mony4 ,?is is a necess>y law1 & to x man is subject4 ,s9ce we d n intuitively see ! inf9ite tru? 9 :i* all tru?s are "o1 & all good is "o2 & z we are 9 relation ) a _w ( f9ite1 & consequ5tly multiple be+s1 we ne$ diff]5t p[]s to place u 9 contact1 s to speak1 ) ?is v>iety ( tru?s & f9ite goods2 b z !y1 9 _! turn1 spr+ f "o same pr9ciple1 & are direct$ to "o same end1 !y are submitt$ to h>mony1 :i* is ! unity ( multiplicity4 #cci4 ,) ^! doctr9es we believe philosophy )\t skepticism to be possible4 ,exam9ation is n exclud$2 on ! contr>y1 x is ext5d$ & complet$4 ,?is me?od has ano!r advantage2 x does n make philosophy extravagant1 & philosoph]s exceptional4 ,philosophy _c be s g5]aliz$ z to become popul>2 human nature is oppos$ to ?is2 b !re is n on ! o!r h& any necessity ( condemn+ x to a misan?ropic isolation by =ce ( extravagant pr(essions4 ,9 su* a case philosophy deg5]ates into philosophism4 ,exposition ( facts1 consci5ti\s exam9ation1 cle> language2 su* we conceive s\nd philosophy to be4 ,?is does n require x to cease to be pr(\nd1 unless by pr(\ndness be meant d>kness4 ,! rays ( ! sun light up ! remote/ dep?s ( space4 #cdj4 ,i am aw>e t "s philosoph]s ( our age ?9k o!rwise1 t !y deem x necess>y1 :5 !y exam9e ! fundam5tal que/ions ( philosophy1 to %ake ! f\ndations ( ! _w2 & yet ,i h nev] be5 able to p]suade myself t x 0 necess>y to de/roy 9 ord] to exam9e1 or t 9 ord] to become philosoph]s we ought to become madm54 ,we may r5d] ! unreasonabl5ess & extravagance ( ^! ma/]s ( humanity s5sible by an allegory1 al?\gh ! simplicity ( my language may some:at mortify _! philosophical pr(\ndness4 ,! read] ne$s "s solace & re/1 n[ t he has foll[$ me ?r\gh su* ab/ruse treatises1 :i* all ! p[] ( ! writ] does n suffice to illu/rate1 & /ill less to r5d] attractive4 ,a noble1 ri*1 & num]\s family pres]ves 9 magnific5t ar*ives ! records ( its nobility1 alliances1 & possessions4 ,"s ( ^! docum5ts are h>dly legible1 ei!r on acc\nt ( ! h&writ+1 _! great antiquity1 or ! we> & te> ( ye>s4 ,!re is also a suspicion t _m ( ^! docum5ts are apocryphal2 al?\gh x is c]ta9 t _m mu/ be au!ntic1 s9ce ! nobility & o!r rights ( ! family1 s univ]sally recogniz$1 mu/ be f\nd$ on "s ( !m1 & x is kn[n t no o!r exi/s4 ,su* is ! /ate ( ?+s4 ,"s curi\s p]son ent]s ! ar*ives1 & ca/+ a glance ^u ! %elves1 recesses1 & draw]s1 says3 ,?is is all confusion2 to di/+ui% :at is au!ntic f ! apocryphal1 & put all 9 good ord]1 we mu/ light a fire at ! f\r corn]s ( ! ar*ives1 & !n exam9e ! a%es4 ,:at %all we ?9k ( su* a proce$+8 ,?is curi\s p]son is ! philosoph] :o1 to di/+ui% ! true & ! false 9 our cognitions1 beg9s by d5y+ all tru?1 all c]ta9ty1 all reason4 ,we may be told t !re is no "q ( d5y+1 b ( d\bt+2 b :oev] d\bts all tru?1 de/roys x2 :oev] d\bts all c]ta9ty d5ies x2 :oev] d\bts all reason annihilates x4 ,prud5ce & common s5se 9 small ?+s are bas$ ^u ! same pr9ciples z wisdom 9 great ?+s4 ,let u g on ) our allegory1 & see :at common s5se w\ld indicate ought to be done 9 ?is case4 ,to take an inv5tory ( :atev] n[ exi/s1 )\t =gett+ any ?+1 h[ev] contemptible x may appe>2 to make su* tempor>y classifications z are deem$ mo/ prop] to facilitate ! exam9ation1 res]v+ ! f9al classification to ! close2 to note c>efully dates1 *>act]s1 ref]5ces1 & ?us to di/+ui% priority & po/]iority2 to see if !re may be f\nd "s primitive docum5ts1 ref]r+ to o!rs ant]ior1 :i* c]tify ! orig9 ( ! family2 to e/abli% cle> rules = ! di/+ui%+ t :i* is primitive f :at is only second>y2 & n to insi/ on ref]r+ all docum5ts to "o alone1 exact+ a unity :i*1 p]haps1 !y h n2 = x may h happ5$ t !re 7 sev]al primitive & mutually indep5d5t docum5ts4 ,x w\ld ev5 be advisable 9 di/+ui%+ ! au!ntic f ! apocryphal n to burn any ?+1 = ! apocryphal sometimes aids 9 ! int]pretation ( :at is au!ntic1 & x may be desirable to asc]ta9 :o 7 ! falsifi]s1 & :at _! motives4 ,moreov]1 :o kn[s b :at he judges a docum5t to be apocryphal1 :i* seems to him s to be solely because he does n und]/& x8 ,c>e1 !n1 is to be tak5 to make a due sep>ation1 & if ! apocryphal is ( no use 9 e/abli%+ titles1 or 9 def5d+ !m1 x may s]ve = ! hi/ory ( ! ar*ives1 :i* is no trifl+ reason = di/+ui%+ ! apocryphal f ! au!ntic4 ,! human m9d does n exam9e itself until well develop$2 !n1 at ! fir/ glance1 x sees 9 itself a connection ( s5sations1 ideas1 judgm5ts1 & affections ( a ?\s& k9ds1 ! :ole int]wov5 9 an inextricable mann]4 ,to increase ! complication1 x is n alone1 b 9 intimate relation ) its l1 9 mutual communication ( s5sations1 ideas1 & s5tim5ts2 & all 9 _! turn 9 contact )1 & "u ! influ5ce (1 dissimil> be+s ( amaz+ v>iety1 ! union ( :i* =ms ! univ]se4 ,%all x beg9 by ?r[+ x all d[n8 ,%all x r$uce all to a%es1 & hope to rise l ! ph5ix f ! pyre8 ,%all x arbitr>ily inv5t a fact1 a pr9ciple1 & say3 ,i mu/ h a re/+-po9t1 ,i w take ?is1 & ^u x ,i w f\nd sci5ce6 ,%all we1 be=e exam9+1 be=e analyz+1 say3 all ?is is "o2 !re is no?+ if !re be n absolute unity2 9 x ,i place myself1 & all t ,i d n see f my po9t ( view ,i reject8 ,no6 :at we h to d1 is fir/ to asc]ta9 :at is 9 our m9d1 & !n to exam9e1 classify x1 & give to x its true value2 n comm5ce by mad & impot5t ef=ts aga9/ nature1 b to l5d an att5tive e> to h] inspirations4 ,!re is no philosophy )\t a philosoph]2 no reason )\t a rational be+2 ! exi/5ce ( ! subject is !n a necess>y supposition4 ,no reason is possible if ! contradiction ( be+ & n-be+ be possible2 all reason1 !n1 supposes ! pr9ciple ( contradiction to be true4 ,:5 we exam9e reason x is reason t exam9es2 x ne$s rules1 light2 all exam9ation1 !n1 supposes ?is light1 ! evid5ce & ! legitimacy ( its crit]ion4 ,man does n make himself1 he f9ds himself already made2 x is n he :o imposes ! conditions ( 8 be+2 he f9ds !m already impos$4 ,^! conditions are ! laws ( 8 be+1 & :y cont5d aga9/ !m8 ,besides factiti\s prejudices1 says ,s*ell+1 man has o!rs primordial1 plac$ 9 him n by education1 b by nature h]self1 :i* 9 all m5 hold ! place ( pr9ciples ( cognition1 & are a %oal to ! free-?9k]4 ,= my own "p ,i d n seek to be m ?an all m52 if ,i _c be a philosoph] )\t ceas+ to be a man1 ,i r5\nce philosophy & adh]e to humanity4 ,,book ,,second4 ,,on ,,s5sation4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,s5sation ,,9 ,,itself4 #a4 ,s5sation consid]$ 9 itself is simply an int]nal affection2 b x is almo/ always accompani$ by a judgm5t4 ,?is judgm5t may be m or less explicit & m or less notic$ by ! subject ( ! s5sation4 ,suppose ,i see two ar*itectural ornam5ts at a prop] di/ance1 & ,i discov] no diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,9 ?is s5sation !re are two ?+s to be consid]$4 ,i4 ,! int]nal affection :i* we call see+4 ,on ?is po9t all d\bt is impossible4 ,:e!r ,i am asleep or awake1 rav+ or 9 my sob] s5ses1 :e!r ! ornam5ts are alike or unlike1 :e!r1 9 f9e1 !y exi/ or n1 !re /ill exi/s 9 my s\l ! repres5tation :i* ,i call see+ ! ornam5ts4 ,,ii4 ,i also at ! same "t =m a judgm5t t1 besides ! int]nal affection :i* ,i exp]i5ce1 ! ornam5ts exi/1 t !y are 9 relief1 & t !y are be=e my eyes4 ,9 ?is judgm5t ,i may be deceiv$2 = ,i may be asleep or 9 a delirium2 x may be t ! ornam5ts are beh9d me1 & t ,i only see _! reflection 9 a mirror2 x may be t :at ,i see is only a pap] plac$ 9 su* a mann] beh9d a glass1 z to make ^u ! ret9a ( my eyes ! same impression z ! ornam5ts w\ld if !y 7 really pres5t2 or1 f9ally1 x may all be ! "w ( a skilful pa9t] :o has giv5 ?is illusory appe>ance to 8 canvas4 ,f ?is we see t1 admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( ! int]nal fact ( s5sation1 x is possible3 ,i4 ,t !re is no ext]nal object4 ,,ii4 ,t ! objects exi/s1 b n 9 ! position suppos$4 ,,iii4 ,t ! object is n ! ar*itectural ornam5ts4 ,,iv4 ,t bo? are plane surfaces2 or1 t "o is 9 relief1 & ! o!r a plane4 ,?is br+s u to ! evid5t conclusion t m]e s5sation has no necess>y relation to an ext]nal object2 = x n only c1 b x n unfrequ5tly does1 exi/ )\t any su* object4 ,?is correspond5ce ( ! int]nal to ! ext]nal belongs to ! judgm5t :i* accompanies s5sation1 n to s5sation itself4 ,if brutes ref] _! s5sations to objects1 z !y probably d1 in/9ct mu/ supply 9 !m ! want ( judgm5t1 z 9 ! *ild :o has n acquir$ ! use ( ! intellectual faculties4 ,s5sation1 !re=e1 9 itself consid]$1 affirms no?+4 ,x is a m]e affection ( our be+1 an effect produc$ 9 our s\l1 & does n det]m9e :e!r !re is any action ( an ext]nal object ^u our s5ses1 nor :e!r ! object is :at x seems to be4 #b4 ,let u imag9e an animal r$uc$ to ! "o s5se ( t\*1 & t n develop$ z 9 u1 b conf9$ to a few rude impressions l ^? ( heat & cold1 w>m? & dryness2 & let u comp>e x ) human s5sibility4 ,:at an imm5se di/ance betwe5 ! two6 ,s5sibility 9 su* an animal bord]s on ins5sibility1 :il/ 9 man x approa*es intellig5ce1 ! repres5tations ( 8 s5ses are s v>i$ & s ext5d$ z to produce )9 him a :ole _w1 & !y might produce inf9ite o!rs4 ,man is at ! highe/ r\nd ( ! ladd]1 s f> z our obs]vation goes1 b :o c tell h[ mu* high] x may be possible to g8 #c4 ,h[ev] develop$ & p]fect$ we suppose s5sibility1 x falls f> %ort ( intellig5ce1 f :i* x mu/ ev] rema9 sep>at$1 z f a faculty ( a diff]5t ord]4 ,?\gh we suppose ! s5sitive faculties capable ( indef9ite p]fectibility1 !y c nev] rea* ! sph]e ( intellig5ce1 prop]ly s call$4 ,?is p]fectibility w\ld lie 9 a diff]5t ord]1 et]nally di/9ct f t ( intellectual be+s4 ,if we suppose a color inf9itely p]fect$1 x w nev] become a s\nd1 a s\nd a ta/e1 a ta/e a s\nd1 nor a s\nd a color2 because p]fectibility is conf9$ to its own ord]4 ,!re=e1 h[ev] x may be p]fect$1 s5sibility c nev] become intellig5ce4 ,?is obs]vation w s]ve to gu>d aga9/ "o ( ! mo/ fatal errors ( our age1 :i* consi/s 9 reg>d+ ! univ]se z ! result ( a my/]i\s =ce1 :i*1 develop+ itself by a cont9ual movem5t1 at once spontane\s & necess>y1 goes on giv+ bir? to be+s & elevat+ species by a p]petual trans=mation4 ,?us ! great] p]fection ( ! vegetable organization w\ld produce ! animal faculties2 ^! be+ p]fect$ w\ld become s5sitive1 & 9 measure z !y progress$ 9 ! ord] ( s5sation !y w\ld approa* ! realm ( intellig5ce1 & w\ld f9ally atta9 x4 ,!re is n a little analogy betwe5 ?is sy/em & t :i* makes ?\ght a trans=m$ s5sation2 x effaces ! divid+ l9e betwe5 intellig5t & non-intellig5t be+s2 ! s5sations ( an oy/] may1 accord+ to x1 be s p]fect$ z to be conv]t$ into an intellig5ce sup]ior to t ( ,bossuet or ( ,leibnitz2 & ! developm5t ( ! faculties ( ! man-/atue w\ld be an emblem ( ! developm5t ( ! univ]se4 #d4 ,x may h be5 already rem>k$ t we are n[ speak+ ( ! s5sitive faculty 9 itself consid]$1 ab/ract+ f its relations to ext]nal objects2 & t we !re=e compreh5d 9 ! ^w s5sation1 all affections ( ! s5ses1 :e!r actually produc$1 recollect$1 or imag9$2 t is1 all affections 9 all degrees f ! fir/ direct consci\sness ( !m1 or :5 !y are pres5t$ to ! be+ :i* exp]i5ces !m1 until !y rea* ! limit :]e intellig5ce1 /rictly s call$1 comm5ces4 ,x is impossible "h to draw ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! s5sible & ! intelligible2 ?is requires pr(\nd & ext5sive /udies ^u s5sations comp>$ ) ideas1 :i* does n belong to ?is place3 b x w be well to h po9t$ out ! exi/5ce ( ?is l9e1 9 ord] to avoid confusion 9 a mo/ subtle matt]1 9 :i* e error is att5d$ ) ! mo/ s]i\s consequ5ces4 #e4 ,9 :at does s5sation consi/8 ,:at is its int]nal nature8 ,we only "k t x is a modification ( our be+1 & t we _c expla9 x4 ,no words suffice to convey an idea ( a s5sation to "o :o has nev] exp]i5c$ x4 ,! man born bl9d may li/5 to all t philosoph]s h said & writt5 on light & colors1 b c nev] imag9e :at light & colors are4 ,exp]i5ce is ! only tea*] "h2 & ?us1 if we suppose a man's s5ses to be *ang$ s t gre5 appe>s to him purple1 & purple gre51 not)/&+ 8 con/ant communication ) o!r m51 he w nev] be fre$ f 8 error1 & he w nev] suspect t dur+ 8 :ole life he has made use ( ! words gre5 & purple 9 a diff]5t s5se f o!r m54 #f4 ,analogy & nature incl9e u to believe t brutes are n m]e ma*9es1 b t !y also h s5sations4 ,! va/ scale ov] :i* irrational be+s are di/ribut$1 %[s t ! faculty ( feel+ is spread ov] ! univ]se 9 diff]5t degrees1 & ) a wond]ful pr(usion4 ,our exp]i5ce is conf9$ to ! globe 9 :i* we live2 b are ! limits ( s5sitive life ! same z ^? ( our exp]i5ce8 ,ev5 on ?is globe our obs]vation is conf9$ to :at ! imp]fection ( our s5ses1 & ! in/rum5ts :i* we use1 p]mit2 b h[ f> is ! *a9 ( life prolong$8 ,:]e is its t]m8 ,is !re n "s p>ticipation ( ?is my/]i\s faculty 9 ^? be+s :i* we hold to be inanimate8 ,is ! univ]se1 z ,leibnitz pret5ds1 compos$ ( a collection ( monads end[$ ) a c]ta9 p]ception8 ,?is is inde$ an unf\nd$ hypo!sis2 b s9ce our means ( obs]vation are s limit$1 we %\ld be cauti\s h[ we assign b\nd>ies to ! realm ( life4 #g4 ,we ord9>ily speak ( ! faculty ( s5sation z ( some?+ belong+ to a v inf]ior ord]2 s x is1 9 fact1 if comp>$ ) intellectual faculties2 b ?is does n prev5t x1 9 itself consid]$1 f be+ a wond]ful ph5om5on1 ( a nature to a/oni% & conf\nd all :o m$itate ^u x4 ,s5sation6 ,) ?is ^w alone we pass an imm5se gap 9 ! scale ( be+s4 ,:at is ! non-s5sible comp>$ ) ! s5sible8 ,! ins5sible is1 b exp]i5ces n t x is2 !re is no?+ 9 x b itself3 ! s5sible exp]i5ces t x is2 & !re is 9 x some?+ besides itself1 all t x feels1 all t is repres5t$ 9 x4 ,! ins5sible1 al?\gh surr\nd$ ) be+s1 is 9 complete isolation1--9 solitude2 ! s5sible1 al?\gh alone1 may be 9 a _w ( inf9itely v>i$ repres5tations4 #h4 ,! idea ( ! me is 9 "s s5se applicable to e s5sitive be+2 = s5sation is inconceivable )\t a p]man5t be+1 :i* exp]i5ces :at is transitory2 t is1 )\t a be+ :i* is "o 9 ! mid/ ( multiplicity4 ,e s5sible be+1 7 x capable ( reflection1 might1 9 its own way1 say ,i2 = x is true ( all ( !m t x is "o same be+ t exp]i5ces ! v>iety ( s5sations4 ,)\t ?is bond1 ?is unity1 !re is no "o s5sible be+1 b a succession ( s5sations z unconnect$ ph5om5a ( ! :ole4 #i4 ,!re is no s5sation )\t direct consci\sness2 =1 z ?is is no?+ b ! v pres5ce ( ! ph5om5on to ! be+ exp]i5c+ x1 x w\ld be contradictory to say t x feels )\t consci\sness4 ,a s5sation exp]i5c$1 is a s5sation pres5t2 a s5sation n pres5t1 t is1 n exp]i5c$1 is inconceivable1 is an absurdity4#ce #ce ,see ,bk4 ,,ii41 ,*4 ,,xxiii41 #bbf4 #aj4 ,e s5sation involves pres5ce1 or direct consci\sness1 b n repres5tation4 ,i ?9k ?is di/9ction important4 ,! s5sations ( smell1 ta/e1 & he>+1 are n repres5tative2 !y rema9 9 !mselves1 & 9 _! object4 ,! be+ exp]i5c+ !m might believe himself enclos$ 9 himself1 9 an absolute solitude1 ) no relation to o!r be+s2 b t\*1 &1 above all1 sight1 are by _! nature repres5tative2 !y involve relation to objects2 & !y imply relation to o!r be+s1 n z to m]e causes ( ! int]nal affection1 b z ! orig9als repres5t$ 9 ! s5sation4 ,! class ( s5sible be+s end[$ ) ! faculty ( repres5tation seems to be ( an ord] v sup]ior to ! o!rs2 ^! be+s n only h consci\sness1 b also a my/]i\s p[] :]eby !y see )9 !mselves an entire _w4 #aa4 ,:at is ! mo/ p]fect degree ( s5sitive life8 ,:at ! mo/ imp]fect8 ,^! que/ions we _c answ]1 = we _c judge ( ^! ?+s o!rwise ?an by exp]i5ce & analogy4 ,b view+ ! imm5sity ( ! scale1 exp]i5ce %[s u we may inf] t nature is f> ri*] ?an we imag9e4 ,let u n di/urb its pr(\nd secrets1 b be cont5t to suspect t !y exi/4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,incapable ,,( ,,s5sation4 #ab4 ,! ph5om5on ( s5sibility reveals to u ! exi/5ce ( an ord] ( be+s di/9ct f matt]4 ,h[ev] p]fect we may suppose mat]ial organization1 x _c rise to s5sation2 matt] is :olly incapable ( s5sation2 & ! absurd sy/em ( mat]ialism c nei!r expla9 ! ph5om5a ( intellig5ce1 nor ev5 ( s5sation4 ,x is ( little consequ5ce to u t we d n "k ! intr9sical nature ( s5sitive be+1 or ( matt]2 x is en\gh to "k _! ess5tial prop]ties1 9 ord] to inf] ) c]ta9ty t !y belong to di/9ct ord]s4 ,x is n true t ! pr9cipal idea ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s is necess>y1 9 ord] to demon/rate _! absolute contradiction2 ?\s&s ( times we consid] two geometrical figures ^: ess5tial prop]ty we d n "k2 yet n1 !re=e1 d we fail to see t !y are diff]5t1 & t "o _c possibly be ! o!r4 ,matt]1 :atev] op9ion may be ent]ta9$ ( its ess5tial prop]ty1 is necess>ily a composite be+2 matt] )\t p>ts1 is n matt]4 ,a composite be+1 al?\gh call$ "o1 inasmu* z its p>ts are unit$ toge!r1 & conspire to ! same end1 is always a collection ( _m be+s2 = ! p>ts ?\gh unit$ are /ill di/9ct ,if s5sation c\ld be pr$icat$ ( a composite be+1 ! s5sitive w\ld n be a s+le be+1 b a collection ( be+s2 b s5sation ess5tially belongs to a be+ :i* is "o1 & if divid$ is de/roy$2 !re=e1 no composite be+1 h[ev] well organiz$1 is capable ( s5sation4 ,if we obs]ve :at takes place 9 u1 & reason f analogy1 to o!r s5sitive be+s1 we %all discov] amid ! v>iety ( s5sations a s+le be+ :i* p]ceives !m2 x is "o & ! same be+ t he>s1 sees1 t\*es1 smells1 & ta/es2 t rememb]s s5sations aft] !y h disappe>$2 t seeks !m :5 agreeable1 & avoids !m :5 unpleasant1 enjoys ! =m] & suff]s 9 ! latt]4 ,all ?is ent]s into ! idea ( s5sitive be+2 if brutes _h n ?is common subject ( all s5sations2 7 !y n "o 9 ! mid/ ( multiplicity1 id5tical 9 div]sity1 & p]man5t "u succession1 !y w\ld n be s5sitive be+s1 su* z we conceive !m to be2 !y w\ld h no s5sation1 prop]ly s call$2 = !re is no s5sation1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we "h und]/& x1 )\t a be+ affect$ by x1 a be+ :i* p]ceives x4 ,if we imag9e a fl[ & ebb ( s5sations )\t any connection1 )\t a con/ant be+ to exp]i5ce !m1 ! result w n be a s5sitive be+1 b a collection ( ph5om5a1 ea* "o ( :i* by itself alone (f]s ! same difficulty z all unit$1 ! necessity ( a be+ to exp]i5ce x4 #ac4 ,let u take a be+ compos$ ( two p>ts1 ,a & ,b1 & see if x c acquire1 = in/ance1 ! s5sation ( s\nd4 ,if bo? p>ts p]ceive1 ei!r bo? p]ceive ! :ole s\nd1 or ea* a portion ( x4 ,if bo? p]ceive x entire1 "o ( !m is sup]flu\s1 = we are only seek+ to expla9 ! realization ( ! ph5om5on1 :i* w\ld ?us be v]ifi$ 9 "o alone4 ,if ea* "p he> ! s\nd1 n entire1 b only a portion ( x1 we %all h a divid$ s\nd2 & :at is ! division ( a s\nd8 ,b ev5 su* an imag9>y division does n s]ve to expla9 ! ph5om5on2 = ! "p ( ! s\nd p]ceiv$ by ,a w n be p]ceiv$ by ,b2 nev]1 !re=e1 w !re result a complete s5sation4 ,%all we suppose ,a & ,b to be 9 relation1 & to mutually communicate _! correspond+ p>ts8 ,b !n ,a p]ceives all its own "p & also :at ,b communicates to x3 ( :at use1 !n1 is ,b1 if ,a p]ceives ! :ole8 ,:y n place ! :ole primitive s5sation 9 ,a8 ,we "h see t su* a communication is an absurd hypo!sis1 s9ce x w\ld make a successive & mutual communication ( ! p>ts1 & a p]ception by ea* ( its own "p1 & also ( t transmitt$ to x by ! o!rs1 indisp5sable to ! =mation ( an entire s5sation4 ,?us we %\ld h n "o s5sation only1 b z _m z !re are p>ts2 n "o s5sitive be+ only1 b z _m su* be+s z !re are p>ts4 ,?is hypo!sis ( communication ( ! p>ts paves ! way = our sy/em1 s9ce x recognizes ! necessity ( unity to con/itute s5sation4 ,:y d ! p>ts mutually communicate :at !y h respectively p]ceiv$8 ,because an entire s5sation c\ld n o!rwise be =m$1 & s ea* "p mu/ receive :at x has n ( itself4 ,! object ( ?is is1 t ea* "o may p]ceive ! :ole2 ! s5sation1 !re=e1 mu/ be :olly 9 only "o subject2 !re=e1 at ! v "t t unity is d5i$1 x is ackn[l$g$ to be necess>y4 #ad4 ,^! p>ts1 ,a & ,b1 ei!r are simple or !y are n2 if !y are simple1 :y p]si/ 9 advocat+ mat]ialism1 :5 we mu/ f9ally return to simple be+s8 ,x is a manife/ contradiction to say t s5sation is an effect ( organization1 & yet place x 9 a simple be+1 = ! simple _c be organiz$2 !re is no organization :]e !re are no p>ts organiz$4 ,if we admit ! simple be+1 & place ! s5sation 9 x1 ! organization w !n be1 if y *oose1 a m$ium1 a conduit1 an indisp5sable condition to ! realization ( ! ph5om5on2 !n n x1 b ! simple be+ w be ! subject4 ,if ^! p>ts are n simple1 !y are compos$ ( o!rs2 & ( ^! we may argue ! same z ( ! =m]2 = we mu/ come to simple be+s1 or else proce$ to inf9ity4 ,if we admit su* a process1 ! s5sible be+ w n be "o1 b inf9ite2 ! difficulties enc\nt]$ ) only two p>ts1 ,a & ,b1 w be multipli$ ev5 to inf9ity1 & s ! s5sible be+ w be n "o b inf9ite1 & e s5sation inf9ite4 #ae4 ,"h we f9d a v s]i\s difficulty4 ,if matt] be incapable ( p]ceiv+1 ! s\l ( brutes is n mat]ial2 if immat]ial1 x is a _s1 :i* _c be admitt$4 ,let u det]m9e well ! mean+ ( ! words1 & ?is difficulty w vani%4 ,an immat]ial be+ is n ! same z a _s2 e _s is immat]ial1 b n e ?+ immat]ial is a _s4 ,immat]ial d5otes negation ( matt]2 _s implies m ?an ?is2 = we und]/& by x a simple be+ end[$ ) und]/&+ & free-w4 ,! s\l ( brutes is !n immat]ial1 b n a _s4 ,"s "o may say1 t :at is n body is _s1 t betwe5 ^! two classes ( be+s !re is no m$ium4 ,b :y8 ,:5ce su* c]ta9ty8 ,if x be said t !re is no m$ium betwe5 ! mat]ial & ! immat]ial1 ?is is true2 = !re is1 9 tru?1 no m$ium betwe5 yes & no2 e ?+ ei!r is or is n2 b !re ent]s into ! idea ( _s mu* m ?an ! simple negation ( matt]2 !re is ! idea ( an active1 intellig5t1 & free pr9ciple4 #af4 ,x may !n be ask$3 :]e9 consi/s ! nature ( ! s\l ( brutes8 ,& we ask1 :]e9 consi/s ! nature ( ! great] "p ( ! ?+s :i* we p]ceive8 ,d we "k ?is nature 9 itself or 9 its acts8 ,d we see our own s\l intuitively8 ,or d we1 p]*ance1 "k x by ! acts ( :i* we are consci\s8 ,if s1 we "k 9 l mann] ! s5sitive s\l by its acts1 t is1 by p]ception ( ! s5ses2 we "k t x is n matt]1 = matt] is incapable ( s5sation2 & ! reasons :i* %[ u t our s\l is a simple be+1 an active pr9ciple end[$ ) und]/&+ & free-w enable u to say t ! s\l ( brutes is a simple be+ end[$ ) ! faculty ( feel+1 & ) in/9cts & appetites ( ! s5sible ord]4 ,we "k n :at ?is active pr9ciple 9 itself consid]$ is1 b its acts %[ x to be a =ce sup]ior to bodies1 "o ( ! _m activities :i* are ! life ( nature4 ,we enc\nt] ?is liv+ =ce 9 a portion ( matt] admirably organiz$2 ! end ( ?is organization is ! h>moni\s ex]cise ( ! faculties ( t liv+ be+ :i* we call animal4 ,n to "k :at ?is =ce 9 itself is1 does n prev5t u f affirm+ its exi/5ce1 = ph5om5a reveal x to u 9 an indisputable mann]4 #ag4 ,:at1 !n1 w be ! fate ( ^! s\ls1 or liv+ =ces1 if ! organization :i* gives !m life be de/roy$8 ,w !y be r$uc$ to non-exi/5ce1 s9ce1 n be+ compos$ ( p>ts1 !y _c be decompos$8 ,w !y cont9ue to exi/ until _! turn %all come to preside ov] a new organization8 ,x w be well to sep>ate ^! v>i\s que/ions1 & exam9e !m ap>t4 ,if ! s\l ( brutes be n compos$ ( p>ts1 x _c p]i% by disorganization2 :at has no organizable p>ts is n organiz$1 & :at is n organiz$ _c be disorganiz$4 ,h5ce we inf] t ! s\l ( brutes _c p]i% by corruption1 prop]ly s call$2 = no be+ n compos$ ( matt] c4 ,we see n :at difficulty c arise f ?is view2 b ! "q is only resolv$ 9 its negative "p1 = ?us f> we "k only t ! s\l ( brutes _c die1 or be corrupt$ by decomposition2 we mu/ "k :at is done ) x4 ,is x annihilat$8 ,does x cont9ue to exi/8 ,& if s1 9 :at way8 ,^! are diff]5t que/ions4 ,fir/ ( all we mu/ obs]ve1 t we h "h only conjectures1 & ^! r z to ! possibility ?an z to ! reality4 ,philosophy may inde$ enable u to see :at may be1 b n :at is1 = we c "k ! reality only by exp]i5ce1 :i* 9 ! pres5t case we _c h4 ,:5 s\nd philosophy1 exam9+ ?is po9t1 is ask$ :at is1 its be/ reply is1 t x kn[s n2 if x is ask$ :at may be1 x ent]s into an argum5tation f\nd$ on g5]al pr9ciples1 & m especially ^u analogy4 #ah4 ,x is usually said t no?+ is annihilat$2 b ?is ne$s "s explanation4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( annihilation8 ,to cease to be1 s t no?+1 :i* be=e 01 rema9s4 ,if a body be disorganiz$1 x ceases to be z an organiz$ body2 b ! matt] rema9s1 & !re is no annihilation4 ,is x true t no?+ is annihilat$8 ,"s say we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 sub/ances & accid5ts2 =1 z ^! latt] are a k9d ( incomplete be+s1 !re is no reason :y !y %\ld n cease to exi/1 & no?+ ( !m rema92 b 9 ?is disappe>ance !re is no annihilation1 /rictly s call$2 ?us we see ?+s cont9ually trans=m$1 & und]go+ a succession ( accid5ts :i* cease to exi/ :5ev] ! ?+ ceases to be modifi$ by !m4 ,z to sub/ances1 !re w\ld inde$ be true annihilation %\ld !y cease to exi/1 b ?is !y d n1 because no sub/ance is annihilat$4 ,?us "s ?9k2 we "k n h[ true ?is sy/em may be1 = we "k n ^u :at solid f\ndation x re/s4 ,if a sub/ance be de/9$ to an end1 :y may x n be annihilat$ :5 ?is end no long] exi/s8 ,a creat$ be+ incessantly ne$s ! cons]vatory action ( ! ,creator1 = :i* reason cons]vation is said to be a cont9u$ creation2 :51 !n1 ! end to :i* ! creat$ sub/ance 0 de/9$ ceases1 :y may x n be annihilat$8 ,we see no?+ 9 its be+ annihilat$ repugnant to ! wisdom or goodness ( ,god4 ,! artific] ab&ons a tool no long] s]viceable2 ?is1 9 ,god1 w\ld be equival5t to ! )drawal ( 8 cons]vatory act1 & 9 ! creature1 to ! r$uction to non-exi/5ce4 ,if x be n repugnant to ! wisdom & goodness ( ,god = an organiz$ be+ to be disorganiz$1 or cease to exi/ z an organiz$ be+1 :y may he n all[ a sub/ance :i* has accompli%$ ! object = :i* x 0 creat$ to cease to exi/8 ,f ?is we inf] t x w\ld n be aga9/ s\nd philosophy to ma9ta9 t ! s\ls ( brutes are r$uc$ to non-exi/5ce4 #ai4 ,b suppos+ !re is no "q ( annihilation1 is !re any reason aga9/ _! cont9u+ to exi/8 ,if !re be1 we "k n :at x is4 ,we "k n ( :at use !y w\ld be2 b we may conjecture t absorb$ anew into ! bosom ( nature !y w\ld n be useless4 ,nei!r d we "k ! use ( _m o!r be+s1 & yet we _c !re=e d5y _! exi/5ce1 or d\bt _! utility4 ,:o says t ! vital pr9ciple resid+ 9 brutes c h no object if ! organization :i* x animates be de/roy$8 ,does ! de/ruction ( a plant involve1 p]*ance1 ! ext9ction ( all ! vital pr9ciples resid+ 9 x8 ,d ^! pr9ciples1 by n op]at+ ^u ! organiz$ be+ j de/roy$1 !re=e cease to be ( any use 9 ! wond]ful laboratory ( nature8 ,:o w say t a vital pr9ciple _c be useful if x does n act ^u an object )9 our obs]vation8 ,:o w ass]t t vital pr9ciples d n 9 ! recesses ( nature act 9 _m & diff]5t ways1 & t ! effects ( _! activity are n pres5t$ v diff]5tly accord+ to circum/ances1 yet always 9 con=mity to laws e/abli%$ by inf9ite wisdom8 ,d n ! magnific5t pr(usion ( radical mat]ials1 ! gems )\t numb] :i* we ev]y:]e discov]1 ! imm5se am\nt ( matt] susceptible ( trans=mation & assimilation by ! liv+ be+1 ! my/]ies ( g5]ation 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 all indicate to u t !re are scatt]$ ov] ! univ]se an inf9ite numb] ( vital pr9ciples1 :i* ex]cise _! activity 9 v diff]5t ways1 & ov] a scale ( a/oni%+ ext5t8 ,:o %all assure u t ! same vital pr9ciple may n pres5t v div]se ph5om5a1 accord+ to ! conditions :i* det]m9e its action8 ,does n ! same pr9ciple reside 9 ! acorn1 z 9 ! gn>l$ old oak t = ages has defi$ ! fury ( ! tempe/8 ,did exp]i5ce n %[ x to be s1 :o w\ld ev] h suspect$ ! vital pr9ciple ( a %apeless & fil?y cat]pill> to be ! same z t ( a beautiful butt]fly8 ,x is n !n contr>y ei!r to reason or to exp]i5ce to suppose ! s\l ( brutes1 ! vital pr9ciple resid+ 9 !m1 to cont9ue aft] ! organization ( ! body is de/roy$1 &1 absorb$ anew 9 ! treasures ( nature1 to be !re pres]v$1 n z a useless ?+1 b 9 ! ex]cise ( its faculties 9 diff]5t ways1 accord+ to ! conditions to :i* x is subject$47#bi7 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sleep ,,& ,,wak+4 #bj4 ,! fact ( s5sation is connect$ ) _m o!rs1 & f ?is connection results a great "p ( our k4 ,x has be5 said 9 a tone ( great confid5ce1 t x 0 n possible to demon/rate by s5sations ! exi/5ce ( bodies2 = z s5sations are some?+ purely int]nal1 !y _c enable u to inf] ! exi/5ce ( any ?+ ext]nal1 & !re is no reason = n reg>d+ all our s5sations z a collection ( individual ph5om5a1 inclos$ 9 our s\l4 ,at fir/ view x seems impossible to solve ! difficulty2 nev]!less1 if we exam9e x ?or\ghly1 we %all see t too great importance has be5 atta*$ to x4 #ba4 ,! fir/ objection ord9>ily made to ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 is ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ ) c]ta9ty betwe5 ! /ate ( sleep & t ( wak+4 ,we receive :5 asleep impressions simil> to ^? we receive :5 awake3 h[ %all we "k t ! illusion is n p]petual8 ,lam5nais1 ) *>act]i/ic exagg]ation1 says3 ,he :o %all %[ t all life is n a sleep1 an indef9able *im]a1 w d m ?an all philosoph]s h ?us f> be5 able to d4 ,!re are "h1 no d\bt1 grave difficulties2 b we _c p]suade ourselves t !y are insolvable4 ,fir/ ( all we %all exam9e if sleep & wak+ be diff]5t1 n only 9 ! eyes ( common s5se1 b also 9 ^? ( reason4 ,lam5nais pret5ds t only at ! tribunal ( common cons5t c a satisfactory & def9itive s5t5ce be obta9$3 we are conv9c$ t v close reason+ c arrive at ! same result to :i* consci\sness1 common s5se1 common cons5t1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! te/imony ( our own be+ & t ( our fell[ mortals1 conjo9tly conduce4 #bb4 ,man f9ds 9 himself a p]fectly satisfactory c]ta9ty ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 sleep & wak+3 we ne$ no te/imony ( o!rs to "k t we are awake4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! /ates mu/ n be solely s\ght 9 ! cle>ness & vividness ( s5sations1 & ! c]ta9ty :i* !y g5]ate4 ,und\bt$ly images are sometimes pres5t$ to u 9 sleep ) z mu* cle>ness z if we 7 awake1 & our c]ta9ty = ! in/ant is complete4 ,:o has n 9 sleep exp]i5c$ great joy1 or t]rible angui%8 ,sometimes1 b v r>ely1 we h1 :5 we awake1 ! rem9isc5ce ( hav+ 9 ! v act ( sleep d\bt$ if we 7 asleep2 b ?is seldom happ5s1 & x is 9 g5]al true1 t ev5 our dreams are n accompani$ by ?is twilight ( reflex reason :i* w>ns u ( our /ate & ( ! illusion t we are "u4 ,ord9>ily1 :ile we dream1 we h no ?\ght t we are asleep1 & we embrace a fri5d ) ! same effusion ( t5d]ness1 or weep disconsolately ov] 8 tomb1 ) ! same affections z we %\ld 7 all real4 #bc4 ,! diff]5ce is n 9 mom5t>y unc]ta9ty1 = we usually h1 on ! contr>y1 complete c]ta9ty4 ,:5ce1 !n1 is ?is8 ,h[ does reason expla9 x8 ,h[ does philosophy come to ! support ( consci\sness & common s5se8 ,?is is ! matt] we n[ purpose to exam9e4 ,if we ab/ract s5sations hav+ or n hav+ relation to ext]nal objects1 & also ! suffici5cy ( _! te/imony 9 any p>ticul> case1 & consid] !m solely z ph5om5a ( our s\l1 we %all f9d two ord]s ( facts completely di/+ui%$ by m>k$ *>act]s1 sleep & wak+4 ,9 our s\l ^! two ord]s are totally di/9ct2 ev5 9 ! sy/em ( ! ideali/ ?is di/9ction mu/ be recogniz$4 ,if we reflect ^u :at we h exp]i5c$ s9ce fir/ we _h consci\sness ( :at passes )9 u1 we %all obs]ve 9 our be+1 two classes ( ph5om5a4 ,p]iodically & con/antly we exp]i5ce two s]ies ( s5sations2 "s m or less cle>1 m or less vivid1 are conf9$ simply to _! object1 )\t ! concurr5ce ( _m ( our faculties1 & above all1 )\t reflection ^u !m2 o!rs are always cle>1 always vivid1 accompani$ by acts ( all our faculties1 our reflection ^u !m1 & _! diff]5ce f ^? t w5t be=e1 is entirely subject to our free w 9 all t is relative2 we v>y & modify !m 9 a ?\s& diff]5t ways1 or suppress & reproduce !m4 ,i see ! pap] ^u :i* ,i write2 ,i reflect ^u ?is sight2 ,i ab&on & resume x at pleasure2 & if ,i *oose1 ,i connect ?is s5sation ) o!rs1 ) a ?\s& ?\ghts or diff]5t caprices4 ,:at takes place 9 ?is act1 always has happ5$ to me1 & always w1 :5ev] t same s]ies ( ph5om5a is produc$ 9 me :ile awake4 ,b if ,i dream t ,i write1 al?\gh x happ5 n1 z x ord9>ily does1 t ,i _c hold my p5 exactly "r1 nor see cle>ly1 b only confus$ly1 ,i nei!r feel ! simultane\s ex]cise ( all my faculties1 nor reflect ^u my pres5t /ate2 ,i d n h t full consci\sness ( :at ,i am do+1 t cle> & /rong light :i* is scatt]$ ov] all my wak+ actions & _! objects4 ,:5 awake ,i ?9k ^u :at ,i h done1 :at ,i am do+1 :at ,i %all d2 ,i recollect my dreams & call !m illusions1 pron\nce !m unconnect$ & extravagant appe>ances1 & comp>e !m ) ! ord] & connection ( ph5om5a (f]$ to me :ile awake4 ,no?+ ( ?is k9d takes place 9 dreams2 ,i may1 p]haps1 h a cle>1 lively s5sation b x is indep5d5t ( my w1 x is an isolat$ impression1 ! use ( only "o faculty )\t ! aid ( ! o!rs1 )\t fix$ & con/ant comp>isons1 su* z ,i make :5 awake2 & above all1 ?is ph5om5on quickly vani%es1 & ,i ei!r fall into a /ate ( unconsci\sness ( my be+1 or ent] ano!r /ate 9 :i* ! same s]ies ( ph5om5a z be=e is reproduc$2 !y are cle>1 lucid1 connect$2 !y /& ! te/ ( reason1 :i* comp>es !m ) ea* o!r1 & ) ant]ior ph5om5a4 ,ap>t1 !n1 f all idea ( ! ext]nal _w1 & ev5 ( all be+ outside ( ourselves1 we are c]ta9 ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two ord]s ( ph5om5a1 ^? ( sleep & ^? ( wak+4 ,!re=e1 !y :o attack ! c]ta9ty ( our cognitions because ( ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ^! /ates1 make use ( a v weak argum5t1 & rely ^u a fact entirely false4 ,s f> am ,i f believ+ x impossible to di/+ui% philosophically betwe5 sleep & wak+1 t ,i deem ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two /ates "o ( ! cle>e/ & mo/ c]ta9 facts ( our nature4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ?is tru?1 & suppos+ no "o to d\bt t ! s5sations exp]i5c$ 9 sleep are n produc$ by ext]nal objects1 & t1 consequ5tly1 !y _c be a means ( acquir+ tru?1 ,i pass to ano!r m difficult & important "q4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,( ,,s5sations ,,to ,,an ,,ext]nal ,,_w4 #bd4 ,h our s5sations any relation to ext]nal objects1 or are !y m]ely ph5om5a ( our nature8 ,c we inf] ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w f ! exi/5ce ( t int]nal _w result+ f ! union ( ! sc5es pres5t$ by s5sations8 ,?is "q is !oretical1 n practical1 & dep5ds solely on ! =ce ( reason+1 n on ! voice ( nature1--a voice /rong] ?an all argum5t1 & irresi/ible4 ,to :atev] result ! philosophical exam9ation ( ! relations ( ! ideal & ! real worlds may lead1 we mu/ submit to t necessity ( our nature :i* makes u believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( su* relations4 ,! great majority ( mank9d nev] h ?\ght1 & probably nev] w ?9k ( mak+ su* an exam9ation2 & yet !y h no %ad[ ( d\bt t !re exi/s a real _w1 di/9ct f u1 b 9 incessant communication ) u4 ,nature prec$es philosophy4 ,we h no wi% to %[ reason to be unable to v9dicate ! legitimacy ( ! inf]5ce :]eby ! real is d$uc$ f ! ideal1 ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w f t ( ! int]nal2 we w\ld only po9t out a l&m>k to philosophy1 :i*1 if x does n illu/rate x1 may at lea/ inspire x ) sobriety 9 inve/igat+1 & ) mi/ru/ 9 its results4 ,inde$ we _c b see t t sci5ce mu/ be errone\s :i* is oppos$ to a necessity1 & contradicts an evid5t fact3 x m]its n to be call$ philosophy1 if x /ruggles ) a law to :i* all humanity1 n ev5 except+ ! philosoph] :o presumes to prote/ aga9/ x1 is inevitably subject4 ,all t c be said aga9/ ?is law1 may be z speci\s z y please1 b x w only be a va9 cavil1 a cavil :i*1 if unansw]able by our weak und]/&+1 nature h]self w resi/ until we %all 9 ano!r life see ! dep?s ( ^! secrets1 & h[ ^? l9ks are jo9$ ^: po9ts ( contact reason _c detect1 al?\gh nature feels _! irresi/ible union at e mom5t ( h] exi/5ce4 #be4 ,t s5sations are some?+ m ?an m]e ph5om5a ( our s\l1 t !y are effects ( a cause di/9ct f ourselves1 is se5 by comp>+ !m ) ea* o!r4 ,we ref] "s to an ext]nal object2 o!rs we d n3 ^! two ord]s ( ph5om5a pres5t v diff]5t *>act]s4 ,i n[ h )9 me ! repres5tation ( ! c\ntry :]e ,i 0 born & sp5t my e>lie/ ye>s4 ,i see cle>ly a va/ pla9 ) its fields & prairies1 its little hills1 n[ =m+ only isolat$ hillocks1 n[ /ret*+ 9 v>i\s directions1 s9k+ to ! level ( ! pla91 or gradually ris+ until incorporat$ ) ! m\nta9s1 ! l(ty *a9 ( :i* surr\nds all ! pla91 & makes x a great amphi!atre1 ) no outlet except on ! s\?1 & "h & !re a *asm1 seem+ly torn 9 ! mighty wall re>$ by nature4 ,all ?is is v p]fectly repres5t$ )9 me1 al?\gh m ?an a hundr$ leagues di/ant1 & ?is :5ev]1 & z long z ,i *oose4 ,! same spectacle may1 p]haps1 be (f]$ to me )\t ! concurr5ce ( my w1 b ,i am always free to di/ract myself f x2 ,i may drop ! curta9 ^u ?is sc5e1 or raise x anew at my pleasure4 ,:at happ5s 9 ?is case is confirm$ by _m o!rs2 & ?us ,i int]nally exp]i5ce a s]ies ( ph5om5a repres5tative ( ext]nal objects1 b am "u no necessity to submit to !m1 = ,i c ab&on or resume !m by simple acts ( my free w4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 ,i feel )9 myself ano!r class ( ph5om5a :i* are n dep5d5t ^u my w1 & :i* ,i _c ab&on & resume at pleasure2 !y are subject to c]ta9 conditions :i* ,i _c disp5se ) "u pa9 ( n atta9+ my purpose4 ,i n[ exp]i5ce t a pa9t+ is repres5t$ to me2 or1 9 ord9>y language1 ,i see a pa9t+ be=e me4 ,let u suppose ?is to be a purely int]nal ph5om5on1 & obs]ve ! conditions ( its exi/5ce1 ab/ract+1 h[ev]1 all ext]nal reality1 t ( my own body includ$1 & t1 also1 ( ! organs :]eby ! s5sation is1 or seems to be1 transmitt$ to me4 ,n[ ,i exp]i5ce ! s5sation2 n[ ,i d n4 ,:at has int]v5$8 ,! s5sation ( a motion t has produc$ ano!r s5sation ( sight1 & has de/roy$ ! fir/2 or1 pass+ f ideal to real language1 ,i h plac$ my h& betwe5 my eyes & ! object4 ,b :y c ,i n dur+ ! la/1 reproduce ! fir/ s5sation8 ,we see cle>ly t if ext]nal objects d exi/1 & my s5sations are produc$ by !m1 my s5sations mu/ be subject to ! conditions :i* !y impose ^u !m2 b if !y are only int]nal ph5om5a1 !re is no way ( expla9+ !m4 ,?is is only ! m incompreh5sible z we d n f9d 9 ! s5sations1 :i* we consid] z m]e ph5om5a ) no imm$iate relation to an ext]nal object1 a close dep5d5ce ( "s ^u o!rs1 b r1 on ! contr>y1 great discordance4 #bf4 ,purely int]nal ph5om5a1 ^? :i* we reg>d z truly su*1 are1 s f> z _! exi/5ce & _! modifications are conc]n$1 greatly dep5d5t ^u ! w4 ,i produce 9 my imag9ation1 :5ev] ,i please1 a sc5e repres5t+ ! ,column ( ! ,place ,v5dme at ,p>is1 & ,i suppress x at my pleasure4 ,! same occurs ) respect to all o!r objects :i* ,i recollect to h se52 _! pres5ce )9 me dep5ds ^u my w4 ,x is true t sometimes objects :i* we d n wi% are repres5t$ to u1 & t "s ef=t is necess>y to make !m disappe>4 ,if we see a dy+ p]son1 8 c\nt5ance pale & damp ) sweat1 8 w&]+ eyes1 8 cl5*$ h&s1 8 di/ort$ m\? & pa9ful brea?+1 int]rupt$ ) pite\s groans1 rema9 long aft] /amp$ ^u our imag9ation3 ?is sad spectacle w (t5 recur to u 9 spite ( ourselves2 b x is v c]ta9 t if we g into "s complicat$ calculation1 or engage 9 ! solution ( "s difficult problem1 we %all succe$ 9 mak+ x disappe>4 ,we see by ?is1 t ev5 9 exceptional cases1 s long z we are ( sane m9d1 our w always ex]ts a great influ5ce ov] purely int]nal ph5om5a4 ,x is o!rwise ) ^? :i* h imm$iate relation to ext]nal objects4 ,we _c1 :5 9 pres5ce ( ! dy+ p]son1 avoid see+ & he>+ him4 ,if ^! s5sations be only a purely int]nal ph5om5on1 ?is ph5om5on is ( a v diff]5t ord] f t ( ! o!r4 ,! "o is :olly indep5d5t ( our w1 n s ! o!r4 ,purely int]nal ph5om5a h a v diff]5t mutual relation f t ( ext]nal ph5om5a4 ,! w ex]ts a great influ5ce ^u ! =m]1 b n ^u ! latt]4 ,! =m] also are (f]$ ei!r by a m]e act ( ! w1 or by !mselves1 9 isolation1 & ne$ no connection ) o!r prec$+ ph5om5a4 ,i write at ,madrid1 & all at once ,i f9d myself on ! banks ( ! ,?ames1 ) its c\ntless fleet ( %ips & /eam]s4 ,b ?is did n require me to pass ?r\gh ! s]ies ( ph5om5a :i* repres5t :at are call$ ,france & ,spa94 ,i c repres5t ! ,?ames to myself imm$iately1 aft] a ?\s& s5sations1 nei!r connect$ among !mselves1 nor ) x2 b if ,i w\ld produce 9 myself ! ph5om5on call$ see+1 ,i mu/ pass ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies ( ph5om5a consequ5t ^u a voyage2 & ?is n 9 any way ,i may fancy1 b s z to feel really & truly all ! accompany+ pleasures & inconv5i5ces2 ,i mu/ make a true resolution to dep>t1 & arrive punctually at su* an h\r1 at ! risk ( miss+ ! s5sation call$1 see+ ! /age1 & ano!r1 :i* ,i call1 see+ myself />t$2 9 f9e1 all ! disagreeable s5sations aris+ f su* a mis*ance4 ,:5 ,i w\ld repres5t ?is s]ies ( int]nal ph5om5a1 or1 9 common language1 adv5tures ( travel1 only int]nally1 ,i dispose all at my pleasure2 ,i /op1 or travel fa/]2 ,i take /eps ( a hundr$ leagues1 & pass imm$iately f "o po9t to ano!r1 & ,i exp]i5ce none ( ^? inconv5i5ces :i* r5d] ! reality fatigu+4 ,i am 9 a _w :]e ,i am ma/]4 ,i comm&1 & ! coa* is ready1 ! driv] on 8 box1 ! po/ilion 9 8 saddle2 & ,i fly z borne on ! w+s ( ! w9d4 ,beautiful l&scapes1 b>r5 l&s1 gigantic m\nta9s1 & pla9s ^: b\nd>ies jo9 ! heav5s1 all pass be=e my eyes ) wond]ful rapidity4 ,tir$ ( ! l&1 ,i emb>k ^u ! l(ty deep2 ,i see ! angry waves1 & he>1 amid _! ro>+ & da%+ aga9/ ! %ip1 ! voice ( ! capta9 giv+ 8 ord]s4 ,i see ! sailors "w ! %ip2 ,i speak ) ! pass5g]s1 & roam ?r\gh ! cab9s2 & yet p]ceive no (f5sive smell1 & nei!r feel ! qualms ( sea-sickness1 nor obs]ve !m 9 o!rs4 #bg4 ,if purely int]nal s5sations1 especially :5 !y proce$ f ext]nal s5sations1 be inde$ mutually connect$1 _! connection is n su* t x may n be modifi$ 9 a ?\s& ways4 ,:5 we ?9k ( ! ,obelisk ( ! ,place de la ,concorde1 its f\nta9s & /atues1 are v naturally pres5t$ to u2 s1 also1 are ! ,palace ( ! ,tuil]ies1 & t ( ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies1 ! ,madele9e1 & ! ,*amps-,elyses2 b we c1 by an act ( ! w1 *ange ! sc5e2 & if we *oose we may transf] ! ,obelisk to ! ,place du ,c>r\sel1 & admire ! effect x produces !re1 until1 satisfi$ ) ! op]ation1 we re/ore x to its granite base1 or ?9k no m ( x4 ,b ) sight1 or ! ext]nal ph5om5on1 we %\ld 9 va9 /rive to p]=m su* manuvres2 ev]y?+ keeps its place1 or1 at lea/1 seems to2 & ! s5sations are b\nd toge!r ) b&s ( iron4 ,"o comes aft] ! o!r1 & we _c pass by any4 ,! m]e obs]vation1 !n1 ( :at passes )9 u reveals ! exi/5ce ( two :olly di/9ct ord]s ( ph5om5a3 9 ! "o1 ev]y?+1 or almo/ ev]y?+1 dep5ds ^u our w2 9 ! o!r1 no?+4 ,9 ! "o1 ! ph5om5a h c]ta9 mutual relations1 v v>iable1 h[ev]1 & to a great ext5t subject to our fancy2 9 ! o!r1 !y are dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r1 & are produc$ only "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,we _c see1 if we d n op5 ! bl9ds s z to all[ ! light to ent]4 ,"h ! ph5om5a ( bl9ds & sight are necess>ily connect$2 b !y are n always s2 = we may op5 !m at night1 & yet n see2 & !n we require ano!r auxili>y ph5om5on1 :i* is1 artificial light4 ,we _c1 if we w\ld1 *ange ?is law ( dep5d5ce4 #bh4 ,:at does all ?is %[8 ,does x n %[ t ! ph5om5a n dep5d5t ^u our w1 b subject bo? z to _! exi/5ce & accid5ts to laws :i* we _c *ange1 are produc$ by be+s di/9ct f ourselves8 ,!y are n ourselves1 = we (t5 exi/ )\t !m2 !y are n caus$ by our w1 = !y (t5 occur )\t its concurr5ce1 (t5 also aga9/ x2 !y are n produc$ "o by ! o!r 9 ! purely int]nal ord]1 = x v frequ5tly happ5s t a ph5om5on :i* has a ?\s& times foll[$ ano!r sudd5ly ceases1 h[ev] (t5 ! =m] be reproduc$4 ,?is leads u to exam9e an hypo!sis :i* w greatly confirm ! doctr9e we h laid d[n4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,an ,,ideali/ ,,hypo!sis4 #bi4 ,! sy/em ( ! ,ideali/s _c /& )\t suppos+ ! connection & dep5d5ce :i* we ref] to ext]nal objects1 to exi/ only )9 u1 & ! causality :i* we attribute to ext]nal objects1 to belong solely to our own acts4 ,i pull a rope 9 my *amb]1 & a bell nev] fails to r+2 or 9 ideali/ language1 ! s5sation =m$ f t union ( s5sations into :i* ent]s :at we call ! rope & pull+ x1 produces or involves t o!r1 :i* we call r++ a bell4 ,ei!r f habit or "s hidd5 law1 t relation ( two ph5om5a w exi/1 ! nev] int]rupt$ succession ( :i* causes ! illusion 9 u1 :]eby we transf] to ! real ord]1 :at is purely imag9>y4 ,?is is ! mo/ irrational explanation possible1 & a few obs]vations w %[ x to be futile4 ,today1 we pull ! rope1 & /rangely en\gh1 no bell r+s3 b :y n8 ,! caus+ ph5om5on exi/s2 = und\bt$ly !re passes )9 u ! act call$ pull+ ! rope1 & yet we pull & pull aga91 & ! bell does n r+4 ,:o has *ang$ ! succession ( ph5om5a8 ,:y does n ! ph5om5on :i* a little :ile ago produc$ ano!r1 n produce x n[8 ,no?+ new has happ5$ )9 u1 we exp]i5ce ! fir/ ph5om5on j z cle>ly & vividly z be=e2 :y1 !n1 is n ! second pres5t$8 ,:y is x t =m]ly we exp]i5c$ ! second :5ev] we wi%$1 by only excit+ ! fir/1 & n[ we _c8 ,we make ! act ( our w j z efficaci\sly z be=e2 :o1 !n1 has r5d]$ our w impot5t8 ,h5ce we inf]3 fir/1 t ! second ph5om5on does n dep5d ^u ! fir/1 consid]$ only z a purely int]nal fact1 = ?is n[ exi/s precisely z x did be=e1 & yet produces n ! same ph5om5on2 secondly1 t x does n dep5d ^u ! act ( our w2 = ?is is n[ z firm & /rong z be=e1 & yet produces no?+4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 d\bt t !re is "s connection betwe5 ! two ph5om5a1 = we h innum]able times se5 "o foll[ ! o!r1 & ?is _c be expla9$ by m]e *ance4 ,s9ce !n1 "o does n cause ! o!r 9 ! int]nal ord]1 !y mu/ h "s dep5d5ce 9 ! ext]nal ord]2 9 o!r words1 /ill keep+ 9 view ! case "u exam9ation1 al?\gh ! cause :i* produc$ ! fir/ ph5om5on cont9ues to exi/1 its connection ) t :i* produc$ ! o!r ph5om5on mu/ be int]rupt$2 & s x 01 9 fact2 = :5 we pull$ ! rope no s\nd foll[$1 = ! simple reason t ! bell _h be5 remov$4 ,?is is compreh5sible1 if !re be causes ext]nal to :at we call s5sations2 b if !re be only simple int]nal ph5om5a1 no rational explanation c be giv54 #cj4 ,& "h x is to be obs]v$1 t :5 we w\ld expla9 ! failure ( succession ( ^? ph5om5a :i* always h be5 unit$1 we may recur to _m v diff]5t ones1 su* z are int]nal ph5om5a1 :i*1 z su*1 h nei!r relation nor resemblance1 & c only h "s connection z correspond+ to ext]nal objects4 ,we may1 :5 seek+ ! reason :y ! bell did n r+1 9 ord] to expla9 ! cause ( ! *ange 9 ! regul> ord] ( appe>ances1 ?9k ( v>i\s causes1 :i* we n[ consid] z m]e appe>ances or int]nal ph5om5a2 we may h ! foll[+ s5sations3 ! rope brok51 or caught1 ! bell brok51 or remov$1 or )\t a tongue4 ,we may attribute ! failure ( s\nd to any "o ( ^! s5sations3 b no?+ c possibly be m irrational ?an to attribute x to !m1 if we reg>d !m z m]e int]nal facts2 = z s5sations1 !y n[h]e appe>4 ,we _c disc\rse rationally if we d n make an ext]nal object correspond to ea* ( ^! s5sations1 ( itself alone suffic+ to int]rupt ! connection betwe5 pull+ ! rope & ! vibration ( ! air :i* produces ! s\nd4 #ca4 ,h5ce we conclude3 ,fir/1 t our s5sations consid]$ z purely int]nal ph5om5a1 are divid$ into two v diff]5t classes2 "s dep5d ^u our w1 o!rs d n2 "s h no mutual connection1 or are v>iable 9 _! relations1 at ! pleasure ( him :o exp]i5ces !m2 o!rs h a c]ta9 connection :i* we c nei!r *ange nor de/roy4 ,secondly1 we conclude t ! exi/5ce z well z ! modifications ( ?is la/ class1 proce$s f causes n ourselves1 indep5d5t ( our w1 & outside ( u4 ,t in/9ct1 !re=e1 :i* impels u to ref] ^! s5sations to ext]nal objects1 is confirm$ by reason3 !re=e ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 9 s f> z x assures u ( ! reality ( objects1 is admissible at ! tribunal ( philosophy4 ,?is demon/rates1 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 ! exi/5ce ( bodies2 = we f9d1 9 philosophically exam9+ ! conception ( body1 some?+ 9 x di/9ct f our own be+1 ! pres5ce ( :i* causes u su* & su* s5sations4 ,we "k n ! intimate ess5ce ( bodies2 b ev5 if we did "k x1 x w\ld n aid our pres5t purpose1 = we are n treat+ ( ! idea :i* a philosoph] w\ld 9 su* a case =m1 b ( t =m$ by ! g5]ality ( m54 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,is ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,& ,,imm$iate ,,cause ,,( ,,s5sations ,a ,,free ,,cause8 #cb4 ,a difficulty1 at fir/ sight s]i\s1 b 9 reality futile1 may be br\ght aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( bodies4 ,:o kn[s1 x may be ask$1 b :at "s cause1 n at all resembl+ ! idea :i* we =m ( bodies1 produces 9 u all ! ph5om5a t we exp]i5ce8 ,god may1 if he pleases1 cause "o or _m s5sations 9 u2 & :o %all assure u t he does n8 ,:o %all assure u t o!r be+s may n d ! same1 & s all our imag9ations ( a corporeal _w be a pure illusion8 #cc4 ,! fir/ & simple/ solution t c be giv5 is1 t ,god1 be+ inf9itely true1 c nei!r deceive u himself1 nor all[ o!r creatures to deceive u con/antly & 9 a way t we _c resi/4 ,b ?is solution al?\gh well f\nd$1 j1 & reasonable1 labors "u ! inconv5i5ce ( e/abli%+ ! physical by recurr+ to ! moral ord]2 & s x w\ld nev] satisfy ^? :o desire to see ! tru? ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses demon/rat$ by argum5ts drawn f ! nature ( ?+s4 ,su* argum5ts we ?9k we c supply4 #cd4 ,our s5sations d n proce$ imm$iately f a free cause2 ! be+ t produces !m1 z well z t :i* exp]i5ces !m1 is subject to fix$ & necess>y laws4 ,to be conv9c$ ( ?is1 we h only to reflect t we _c1 if plac$ 9 c]ta9 conditions1 fail to exp]i5ce a det]m9ate s5sation1 & t if ^! conditions be want+1 we _c exp]i5ce x4 ,& ?is proves t we1 z well z ! be+ :i* causes ! impression 9 u1 are subject to a necess>y ord]4 ,7 x n ?us1 we c\ld n produce ! s5sation ev5 by ! means ( c]ta9 conditions2 = z its cause w\ld be subject to no law1 b only to its own free w1 x might a ?\s& times happ51 t our w w\ld n agree ) its w1 & s ! desir$ impression w\ld n be produc$4 ,aft] exp]i5c+ a s5sation ( t\* 9 :i* x seems t an opaque body cov]s our eyes1 we d n see1 & we _c ) all our ef=ts produce1 ! s5sation call$ see+2 on ! o!r h&1 if at a correspond+ h\r & place ?is s5sation ( contact ceases to exi/1 we _c possibly fail to exp]i5ce ! s5sation ( see+ diff]5t objects4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we are subject to a necessity2 ! be+1 also1 t causes ! s5sations 9 u1 is subject to a l necessity2 = if we p]=m ! condition once or a ?\s& times ( clos+ our eyes1 once or a ?\s& times ! s5sation w disappe>2 or if we op5 !m once or a ?\s& times 9 a light place1 s _m times also ! s5sation w be produc$2 ! same1 if we reta9 ev]y?+ 9 ! same /ate1 & v>i$ at our pleasure1 if we *ange our situation or ! objects ar\nd u4 ,!re does1 !re=e1 exi/ )\t u1 subject to necess>y laws1 a collection ( be+s :i* produce our s5sations4 #ce4 ,x is rem>kable n only t ! influ5ce !y ex]t ^u u does n fl[ f election or spontaneity 9 !m1 b t !y are n ev5 pres5t$ z end[$ ) an activity ( _! own4 ,a pa9t+ hung ^u ! wall produces 9 u ! same s5sation z (t5 z we look at x2 &1 sav+ ! det]ioration ( "t1 x w cont9ue = ev] to produce ! same s5sation4 ,x is1 moreov]1 evid5t t ^! be+s are subject to our action1 = we c1 by act+ ^u !m diff]5tly1 make !m produce diff]5t impressions4 ,we t\* a ball1 & ! cont9uation ( ! s5sation ( a h>d1 poli%$1 sph]ical body1 assures u t x is "o & ! same be+ t produces x = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t2 & yet1 9 ?is int]val1 we may receive _m & v>i\s s5sations f ! same object1 by pres5t+ x to ! light 9 diff]5t ways4 #cf4 ,! subjection ( ^! be+s to necess>y laws is n necess>ily ) respect to s5sations1 b is r a mutual connection ( _! own4 ,! connection ( impressions :i* we receive f !m is an effect ( ! dep5d5ce ( "s ( !m ^u o!rs2 s t1 9 ord] to produce a det]m9ate impression1 we (t5 employ an object :i* is1 9 itself consid]$1 ( no direct use1 b :i* br+s ano!r into action1 & s leads to :at we desire4 ,to raise a curta9 has no connection ) a magnific5t l&scape2 & yet1 (t5times1 we d no?+ else :5 we wi% to obta9 a pleasant prospect4 ,! relation 9 "q is n !n ( s5sations1 b ( _! objects2 ! connection ( ^! is :at induces u to make use ( "o ( !m 9 ord] to obta9 ano!r4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 outside ( u a collection ( be+s subject to fix$ laws1 z well ) respect to our s5sations z to !mselves mutually2 !re=e ! ext]nal _w exi/s1 & ! int]nal _w1 :i* repres5ts x to u1 is n a pure illusion4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,objectiv5ess ,,( ,,s5sations4 #cg4 ,is ! ext]nal _w su* z we believe x to be8 ,are ! be+s1 call$ bodies1 :i* cause our s5sations 9 reality :at we believe !m8 ,may we n1 ev5 aft] hav+ demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( ^! be+s1 & _! necess>y subjection to con/ant laws1 /ill d\bt :e!r we h demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( bodies8 ,does x suffice = ?is to h prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal be+s 9 relation among !mselves & ) u by means ( laws fix$ & indep5d5t ( !m z ( ourselves8 #ch4 ,?or\ghly to und]/& ?is "q1 x w be well to simplify x1 & conf9e x to a s+le object4 ,i hold 9 my h& & see an orange4 ,i am c]ta91 f :at has j be5 demon/rat$1 t an ext]nal object exi/s 9 relation ) o!r be+s1 & ) myself1 by necess>y laws2 ,i am also c]ta9 t ,i may receive diff]5t impressions f x2 ,i see its color1 size1 & %ape1 p]ceive its odor1 try its ta/e2 feel 9 my h& its size1 weight1 & =m1 its concavities & convexities1 & also he> a little noise :5 ,i press x ) my h&4 ,! idea ( body is composite1 & su* is t ( ! orange2 = x is t ( some?+ ext]nal1 ext5d$1 color$1 odor\s1 & savory4 ,:5ev] all ^! circum/ances exi/ toge!r1 :5ev] ,i receive f an object ^! same impressions1 ,i say t ,i see an orange4 #ci4 ,let u n[ exam9e h[ f> ! object corresponds to ! s5sations x causes 9 u4 ,:at d we mean :5 we say a ?+ is savory8 ,simply1 t x produces an agreeable impression ^u our palate2 & ! same is true ( smell4 ,!re=e1 ! two words1 odor\s & savory1 express only ! causality ( ^! s5sations resid5t 9 ! ext]nal object4 ,we may say ! same ( color1 =1 al?\gh we commonly transf] ! s5sation to ! object1 & op5ly contradict ! philosophical !ory ( light & color1 ?is contradiction is less real ?an app>5t2 = ! judgm5t well exam9$ is f\nd to consi/ only 9 ref]r+ ! impression to det]m9ate objects2 s t :5 we = ! fir/ "t he> pr(essors ( physics tell u t colors are n 9 ! object1 we easily accu/om ourselves to reconcile ! philosophical !ory ) ! impression ( ! s5se2 especially s9ce ?is !ory does n r5d] x less true t ?is or t impression comes to u f ?is or t object1 or its diff]5t p>ts4 #dj4 ,"h1 x is n difficult to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( s5sation or _! correspond5ce ) ext]nal objects2 = ! correspond5ce is sav$ if ^! objects be really ! cause 7or occasion7 ( ! s5sations4 ,! "q ( ext5sion is m difficult2 = ?is is z ! basis ( all o!r s5sible prop]ties2 & ab/ract+ its con/itut+ or n con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( bodies1 x is c]ta9 t we "k no body )\t ext5sion4 #da4 ,! foll[+ obs]vation w r5d] palpable ! diff]5ce betwe5 ext5sion & o!r s5sible qualities4 ,he :o has nev] ?\ght ( ! relation ( ext]nal objects to 8 s5sations is indescribably confus$2 he 9 "s s5se transf]s color1 odor1 ta/e1 & ev5 s\nd1 to objects !mselves1 & consid]s confus$ly ^! ?+s to be qualities inh]5t 9 !m4 ,?us ! *ild & ! un$ucat$ man believe ! color gre5 to be really 9 ! foliage1 odor 9 ! rose1 s\nd 9 ! bell1 ta/e 9 ! fruit4 ,b ?is is readily se5 to be a confus$ judgm5t1 ( :i* !y r5d] no p]fectly cle> acc\nt to !mselves2 a judgm5t :i* may be *ang$ or ev5 de/roy$ )\t *ang+ or de/roy+ ! relations ( our s5sations ) _! objects4 ,ev5 at a v t5d] age we easily accu/om ourselves to ref] color to light1 & ev5 n to fix x def9itively1 b to reg>d x z an impression produc$ ^u our s5se by ! action ( t my/]i\s ag5t4 ,x co/s u no m to consid] smell z a s5sation produc$ by ! action ( ! effluvia ( bodies ^u ! organ ( smell2 we also cease to consid] s\nd z some?+ inh]5t 9 ! sonor\s body1 & come to see 9 x only ! impression caus$ ^u ! s5se by ! vibration ( ! air1 excit$ 9 its turn by ! vibration ( ! sonor\s body4 ,^! philosophical consid]ations may1 at fir/ sight1 seem to be 9 contradiction to our judgm5t1 b !y d n *ange to u ! ext]nal _w2 !y cause no inv]sion ( our ideas ( x2 !y only make u fix our att5tion ^u "s relations :i* we _h imp]fectly def9$1 & d n all[ u to attribute to objects :at 9 reality does n belong to !m4 ,!y make u limit ! te/imony ( ! s5ses to _! appropriate sph]e1 & 9 "s mann] rectify our judgm5ts2 b ! _w cont9ues ! same t x 0 be=e1 except+ t we h discov]$ 9 ! m>vels ( nature a clos] relation ) our own be+1 & h p]ceiv$ t our organization & our s\l play a m important "p 9 !m ?an we _h imag9$4 #db4 ,if we de/roy ext5sion1 take ?is quality f ext]nal objects1 & reg>d x z only a m]e s5sation1 ( :i* we only "k t !re is an ext]nal object :i* causes x1 ! corporeal _w at once disappe>s4 ,! :ole sy/em ( ! univ]se w be r$uc$ to a collection ( be+s :i* cause u diff]5t impressions2 )\t ! idea ( ext5sion we c nei!r =m any idea ( body1 nor "k if all t we h ?\ght ( ! _w be aught else ?an a pure illusion4 ,i c easily resign my infantile belief t ! color ,i see 9 my h& is 9 x1 or ! noise made :5 ,i clap my h&s is 9 !m2 b ,i _c1 d :at ,i w1 lay aside ! idea ( ext5sion2 ,i _c imag9e ! di/ance f my wri/ to ! extremity ( my f+]s to be only a pure illusion1 t !re only exi/s a be+ :i* causes x )\t my kn[+ :e!r 9 reality ?is di/ance exi/s4 ,i c easily sep>ate f ! fruit :i* ,i f9d savory ! quality ( savor2 & ,i may1 if ,i exam9e x philosophically1 admit1 )\t any inconv5i5ce1 t x has no?+ resembl+ ta/e1 b t x is only compos$ s to affect my palate z to produce an agreeable s5sation4 ,b ,i _c take f ! fruit its ext5sion2 9 no wise c ,i reg>d x z some?+ indivisible2 ,i _c possibly reg>d ! di/ance f "o ( its po9ts to ano!r z a m]e s5sation4 ,my ef=ts to consid] ! savory object z 9 itself indivisible are all 9 va92 & if1 = a s+le in/ant1 ,i seem to h ov]come ! in/9ct ( nature1 e ?+ is ov]turn$4 ,by ! same "r t ,i make ! fruit some?+ indivisible1 ,i may make ! :ole univ]se s2 b an indivisible univ]se is to me no univ]se2 my intellect is conf\nd$1 & all ar\nd me is annihilat$4 ,i am 9 worse ?an *aos2 = *aos is at lea/ some?+1 al?\gh ! elem5ts are 9 horrible confusion & frightful d>kness2 b n[ ,i am worse (f1 = ! corporeal _w1 su* z ,i h conceiv$ x to be1 returns to no?+4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,s5sation ,,( ,,ext5sion4 #dc4 ,two ( our s5ses p]ceive ext5sion2 sight & t\*4 ,s\nd1 ta/e1 & smell accompany ext5sion1 b are some?+ diff]5t f x4 ,! sight p]ceives no?+ n ext5d$2 ext5sion is e way insep>able f ?is s5sation4 ,we may be s en*ant$ by ! sweet h>mony ( _m in/rum5ts z to =get ! ext5sion ( ! in/rum5ts1 ! air1 & our organs2 b we _c1 9 contemplat+ a pa9t+ ev5 9 ! mid/ ( our mo/ ard5t en?usiasm1 make its ext5sion vani%4 ,if we )draw f ! ,transfiguration ( ,raphael its ext5sion1 ! m>vel disappe>s2 = ev5 consid]$ z a simple ph5om5on ( our s\l1 cont9uity & di/ance ent] ( necessity into its v ess5ce4 ,! same is true ( t\*1 al?\gh less g5]ally s4 ,h>dness & s(tness1 r\ghness & smoo?ness1 squ>5ess & r\ndness1 all involve ext5sion2 b x _c be d5i$ t !re are "s impressions ( t\*1 9 :i* x is less cle>ly involv$4 ,! acute pa9 ( a puncture1 & o!rs felt )\t any kn[n ext]nal cause1 are n s cle>ly ref]r$ to ext5sion1 b seem to h some?+ ( t simplicity :i* di/+ui%es ! impressions ( ! o!r s5ses4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is c]ta9 t ! p]ception ( ext5sion belongs 9 a special mann] to sight & t\*4 #dd4 ,9 ord] to =m a cle> idea ( ext5sion 9 its relations to s5sation1 we w analyze x at "s l5g?4 ,& fir/ ( all1 x is to be rem>k$1 t ext5sion involves multiplicity4 ,an ext5d$ be+ is ( necessity a collection ( be+s1 m or less closely unit$ by a bond :i* makes !m all con/itute "o :ole1 b does n prev5t !m f cont9u+ _m4 ,a spl5did pa9t+1 :]e9 ! unity ( ! arti/'s ?\ght dom9ates1 does n cease to be compos$ ( _m p>ts2 ! moral *a9 :i* unites1 does n id5tify !m2 x only connects1 co-ord9ates !m1 & makes !m conspire to "o end4 ,! firm adhesion ( ! molecules =m+ ! diamond does n prev5t ^! molecules f be+ di/9ct3 ! mat]ial *a9 unites1 b does n id5tify !m4 ,!re is !n no ext5sion )\t multiplicity3 :]e !re is ext5sion1 !re is1 rigor\sly speak+1 n "o only be+1 b _m be+s4 #de4 ,multiplicity does n con/itute ext5sion1 = x may exi/ )\t ext5sion4 ,nei!r ! multiplicity ( s\nds1 ( ta/es1 nor ( odors1 con/itutes ext5sion4 ,we conceive 9 ! mat]ial1 z 9 ! moral & intellectual ord]s1 multiplicity ( be+s ( diff]5t ord]s1 & yet ?is multiplicity involves no idea ( ext5sion4 ,ev5 if we conf9e ourselves to ! purely ma!matical ord]1 we f9d multiplicity )\t ext5sion1 9 ari?metical & algebraic quantities4 ,!re=e multiplicity1 al?\gh necess>y1 does n alone suffice to con/itute ext5sion4 ,if we reflect ^u ! species ( multiplicity requir$ to con/itute ext5sion1 we %all obs]ve t x mu/ be accompani$ by cont9uity4 ,s5sations ( t\* z well z ( sight involve cont9uity2 = x is impossible = u to see or to t\*1 )\t receiv+ ! impression ( objects cont9u\s1 imm$iately adjo9+ ea* o!r1 co-exi/+ 9 _! duration1 & at ! same "t pres5t$ z cont9u\s "o ) ano!r 9 space4 ,)\t ?is cont9uity1 multiplicity does n con/itute ext5sion4 ,if1 = example1 we take f\r or m po9ts on ! pap] on :i* we n[ write1 & by an ab/raction consid] !m z indivisible1 ?is multiplicity w n con/itute ext5sion3 we mu/ unite !m by l9es at lea/ imag9>y2 & if cont9uity be want+ to ! body 9 :i* we suppose !m situat$1 we %all f9d x necess>y to recur to ! cont9uity ( space2 t is1 to reg>d ?is space z a collection ( po9ts ^: cont9uation connects ! fir/ po9ts4 ,no possible ef=ts c enable u to consid] a collection ( indivisible po9ts1 nei!r cont9u\s nor unit$ by l9es1 z ext5sion2 ?is collection w be to u z t ( be+s hav+ no connection ) ext5sion4 ,x is wor?y ( obs]vation1 t if we assign !m a det]m9ate position 9 space1 ?is we d only by connect+ !m ) o!r po9ts1 by means ( imag9>y l9es3 = we _c o!rwise conceive ei!r di/ances or position 9 space4 ,if we attempt to ab/ract all ?is1 we ei!r fall into intellectual no?+ness1 we annihilate all idea ( ! object1 or we pass to ano!r ord] ( be+s hav+ no relation ei!r to ext5sion or space4 ,we quit matt] & s5sations1 & m\nt to ! realm ( spirits4 #df4 ,multiplicity & cont9uity are !re=e necess>y to con/itute ext5sion2 & we believe t ^! two conditions suffice2 = :]e !y exi/1 ext5sion exi/s1 & ) !m alone1 we =m ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,! object ( geometry is ext5sion2 & only multiplicity & cont9uity con/itute x4 ,l9es1 surfaces1 solids1 su* z are ! object ( geometry1 are only ?is cont9uity consid]$ 9 its greate/ ab/raction4 ,empty space suffices1 or r is requisite = geometry2 s9ce1 x does n1 9 mak+ its applications to bodies1 f9d all ! exactness ( cont9uity 9 ! ab/ract4 #dg4 ,if multiplicity & cont9uity con/itute ext5sion 9 space1 x really exi/s 9 ! objects :i* cause our s5sations4 ,bas+ ourselves ^u ! relation ( ph5om5a among !mselves & to _! causes1 we h %[n t ext]nal objects correspond to s5sations3 ?us x is t ?is relation also exi/s ) respect to multiplicity & cont9uity2 ^! two prop]ties are !re=e f\nd 9 nature4 ,! impressions t we receive by sight & t\*1 are1 al?\gh we conf9e ourselves to a s+le object1 multiple1 & consequ5tly correspond to _m objects3 !y are cont9u\s1 & consequ5tly correspond to cont9u\s objects4 ,we w expla9 ?is reason+4 ,look+ at a pa9t+1 ,i receive an impression com+ f _m diff]5t po9ts2 & ?is impression1 x mu/ be obs]v$1 comes un9t]rupt$ly f ! :ole surface pres5t$4 ,if1 z we h %[n1 ! sight ( "o ext]nal po9t suffic$ to conv9ce me ( its exi/5ce1 t ( _m w make me sure ( ! exi/5ce ( _m2 & ! cont9uity ( ! impression w also make me c]ta9 ( ! cont9uity ( ! impress+ po9ts4 ,if ,i t\* ! object se51 my t\* w confirm t te/imony ( sight1 9 :at corresponds to x1 t is1 ! multiplicity & cont9uity1 ,i exp]i5ce ! same cont9u$ succession ( s5sations2 & ?is %[s me ! exi/5ce & cont9uity ( ! objects caus+ !m4 #dh4 ,9 a few words1 ext5sion supposes ! co-exi/5ce ( _m objects1 9 su* a way1 h[ev]1 t !y are "o by cont9uation ( o!rs3 ( bo?1 s5sation makes u c]ta93 !re=e ! te/imony ( ! s5ses suffices to make u c]ta9 t !re are ext]nal objects1 & t !y may produce v>i\s impressions4 ,^! ideas conta9 e ?+ includ$ 9 ! idea ( body3 !re=e ! te/imony ( ! s5ses makes u c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,objectiv5ess ,,( ,,! ,,s5sation ,,( ,,ext5sion4 #di4 ,hav+ prov$ ! te/imony ( ! s5ses suffici5t to assure u ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 we n[ come to exam9e h[ f> ! ideas x makes u =m are correct4 ,x is n en\gh to "k t we may be sure ( ! exi/5ce ( ext5sion2 we mu/ inquire if x 9 reality be su* z ! s5ses repres5t x2 & :at we say ( ext5sion is applicable to ! o!r prop]ties ( bodies4 ,9 our op9ion1 ! only s5sation t we transf]1 & _c help transf]r+1 to ! ext]nal1 is t ( ext5sion2 all o!rs relate to objects only z effects to causes1 n z copies to orig9als4 ,s\nd1 ta/e1 & smell repres5t no?+ resembl+ ! objects caus+ !m1 b ext5sion does2 we attribute ext5sion to objects1 & )\t x we _c conceive !m4 ,s\nd outside ( me is n s\nd1 b only a simple vibration ( ! air1 produc$ by ! vibration ( a body4 ,ta/e outside ( me is n ta/e1 b only a body appli$ to an organ ( :i* x causes a me*anical or *emical modification4 ,! same is true ( smell4 ,ev5 9 light & colors1 outside ( me1 !re is only a fluid :i* falls ^u a surface1 & ei!r directly or reflexly comes1 or may come1 to my eyes4 ,b ext5sion outside ( me1 indep5d5tly ( all relation ) ! s5ses1 is true ext5sion1 is some?+ ^: exi/5ce & nature /& 9 no ne$ ( my s5ses4 ,:5 ,i p]ceive1 or imag9e t ,i p]ceive x1 !re is 9 x1 & 9 my impressions1 some?+ besides ! relation ( an effect to its cause2 !re is ! repres5tation1 ! int]nal image ( :at exi/s ext]nally4 #ej4 ,9 ord] t ! tru? ( :at we h j advanc$ may be p]fectly und]/ood1 & /rongly felt1 we w\ld (f] ! read] a picture :5ce det]m9ate s5sations may be successively elim9at$1 & made to m>k ! degree ( elim9ation :i* x is possible to rea*1 b n pass4 ,let u suppose all animals at once to lose ! s5se ( ta/e1 or all bodies to be by nature de/itute ( ! prop]ty ( caus+ by _! contact ) an organ ! s5sation call$ ta/e4 ,! ext]nal _w1 nev]!less1 cont9ues to exi/ z be=e2 ! same bodies t caus$ 9 u ! s5sations n[ lo/1 cont9ue to exi/1 & may be appli$ to ! v organ !y be=e affect$1 & cause 9 x s5sations ( t\*1 z ( s(t or h>d1 w>m or cold4 ,ei!r savory bodies1 or ! organs ( animals1 h und]gone "s *ange1 :i* has int]rupt$ _! previ\s relations2 a cause :i* be=e produc$ an effect is n[ se5 to be impot5t to produce x4 ,?is may be ow+ to a modification ( ! bodies )\t *ang+ _! nature1 s f> z we "k x2 & x is also possible t !y h n be5 *ang$1 b t ?is diff]5ce arises solely f an alt]ation ( ! organs4 ,b 9 any case1 ! disappe>ance ( ?is s5sation has n made any?+ resembl+ x disappe> f ! univ]se2 if ! *ange has be5 only 9 ! organs1 ext]nal bodies rema9 unt\*$2 & if x has tak5 place 9 bodies1 x has made !m lose a caus+ prop]ty ( ! s5sation1 b n a prop]ty repres5t$ by ! s5sation4 ,we h tak5 all ta/e f food1 & ! univ]se exi/s z be=e2 let u n[ take away all odors1 by *ang+ odorif]\s bodies1 or ! organ ( smell4 ,! same foll[s z 9 ! case ( ta/e4 ,odorif]\s bodies w cont9ue to exi/1 & ev5 transmit to our organ ! effluvia t be=e produc$ ! s5sation ( smell2 & ! only novelty w be ! non-exi/5ce ( t s5sation4 ,ei!r ! disposition to receive ! necess>y impression w be want+ 9 our organs1 or a causality w h disappe>$ f ! univ]se1 b n a ?+ repres5t$ by ! s5sation4 ,g>d5s w n be despoil$ ( _! beauty1 nor ! fields ( _! luxuriant v]dure2 ! tree w /ill display its leafy b[]1 & ! fair fruit hang f its b\ghs1 & be %ak5 by ! w9d4 ,let u proce$ 9 our de/ructive m>*1 & n[ sudd5ly make all animals deaf4 ,! musician becomes ! actor ( a sil5t pantomime2 ! bell-rope is pull$1 & only ! mute metal is /ruck2 conv]sation is r$uc$ to oral ge/ures1 & ! h[l+s ( brutes are only ! op5+ & clos+ ( _! m\?s4 ,b ! air vibrates z be=e2 its columns /rike z be=e ! drum ( ! e>2 no?+ has be5 *ang$2 no?+ has fail$ 9 ! univ]se b "o s5sation4 ,! lightn+ pl\ghs ! skies1 riv]s foll[ _! maje/ic c\rse1 torr5ts da% onw>ds ) ! same rapidity1 & ! pr\d cascade /ill leaps f its l(ty rocks1 & displays its *ang+ hues & foam+ waves4 ,b let u n[ commit ! greate/ cruelty2 let u make all liv+ creatures bl9d4 ,! sun /ill p\rs out 8 imm5se torr5ts ( ! fluid we call light2 x is reflect$ f surfaces1 & is refract$ f ! bodies x meets1 & passes to ! ret9as ( eyes t =m]ly saw1 b are n[ conv]t$ into ins5sible membranes1 plac$ beh9d a cry/al2 b e ?+ call$ color & s5sation ( light has disappe>$4 ,yet ! univ]se exi/s z be=e1 & ! cele/ial bodies /ill foll[ _! imm5se orbits4 ,z x is mo/ difficult = u to ab/ract ! s5sation ( light & colors f objects2 or1 9 o!r words1 z we h a c]ta9 prop5sity to imag9e t !re really exi/ )\t u impressions :i* are only 9 u1 & to consid] ! s5sation z a repres5tation ( ! ext]ior2 s x co/s u mo/ to conceive all liv+ creatures to be bl9d1 & no?+ to rema9 ( :at s5sations ( ?is k9d repres5t$ to u1 n ev5 a fluid :i* reflects f c]ta9 surfaces1 & passes ?r\gh "s bodies1 n o!rwise ?an z an invisible fluid4 ,:]e=e1 9 condesc5sion to ! difficulty :i* "s exp]i5ce 9 ceas+ to ext]nally realize :at exi/s only )9 !m1 we w frame our supposition diff]5tly2 = x w !n be all t ! demon/ration requires1 & we may elim9ate f objects :atev] relates to any s5sation except+ t ( ext5sion4 ,we w n !n make all animals bl9d1 nor practise ! cruelty ( ,ulysses 9 ! cave ( ,polyphemus1 b sp>e 9 our inv]sion ( ! _w t de/ructive in/9ct4 ,x matt]s little t m5 & animals are n bl9d1 provid$ !y _c see4 ,we w !n leave ^? organs unt\*$1 b we w 9 return1 take all light f ! univ]se2 qu5* l fa9t tor*es ! sun & />s & all ! cele/ial bodies1 ext+ui% _! feeble/ sc9tillations ^u ! e>?1 ! tall tap]s :i* illum9e ! ri* man's dwell+1 & ! fire k9dl$ 9 ! peasant's cot1 ! sp>k /ruck f ! fl9t1 & ! pale phosphoresc5ces emitt$ f ! graves ( ! dead4 ,e ?+ is involv$ 9 obscurity1 & x is z if t d>kness :i* re/$ ^u ! face ( ! abyss be=e ! ,creator said3 let !re be light1 7 re/or$4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t we h n1 by plung+ ! _w into su* frightful obscurity1 *ang$ any "o ( its laws4 ,! gigantic orbs describe z be=e ) a/oni%+ rapidity & admirable precision _! imm5se orbits4 ,h5ce we inf] t al?\gh we de/roy smell1 ta/e1 s\nd1 light1 & colors1 ! _w /ill exi/s1 & we may )\t difficulty s conceive x to be4 ,we may ev5 de/roy ! s5sation ( t\*1 = x is easy to suppose t we p]ceive no impression by ?is s5se4 ,we may sub/itute "s s5sations1 ^: causes lie 9 bodies l ^? ( heat & cold1 h>dness & s(tness1 = o!rs1 )\t !re=e believ+ ! univ]se no long] to exi/4 #ea4 ,let u n[ make ano!r ab/raction1 & see :at w happ54 ,let u de/roy ext5sion4 ,! _w resi/s n ?is trial2 ! />s vani%1 & ! e>? disappe>s b5ea? our feet1 di/ances no long] exi/1 & motion is an absurdity3 our own body fades away & ! :ole univ]se is tumbl$ into no?+ness1 or if x cont9ues someh[ to exi/1 x is totally diff]5t f :at we n[ imag9e x to be4 ,& s inde$ x is4 ,if we ab/ract ext5sion1 if we d n ext]nally realize t s5sation1 or idea1 or :atev] else x may be1 :i* we h ( x1 if we d n consid] x z ! repres5tation ( :at exi/s )\t u1 e ?+ is ov]?r[n3 we "k n :at to ?9k ei!r ( our s5sations1 or _! relation to ! objects caus+ !m2 ?+s all g r\ndab\t1 & "o basis ( our cognitions fails3 9 va9 we /ret* out our arms to lay hold ( "s fix$ po9t2 & we ask 9 our tr\ble1 if all t we p]ceive be only a pure illusion1 if ,b]keley's extravagances be true4 #eb4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t1 ev5 if we make ext5sion objective by transf]r+ x to ! ext]nal1 x is n altoge!r correct to say t x is repres5t$ by ! s5sation4 ,x is bett] to say t x is a receptacle ( c]ta9 s5sations1 a condition necess>y to ! functions ( "s ( ! s5ses1 b n _! object4 ,ext5sion ab/ract$ f ! s5sations ( sight & t\*1 is1 z we h already said1 r$uc$ to multiplicity & cont9uity4 ,! k ( x comes to u f ! s5ses1 b x is diff]5t f :at ! s5ses repres5t x to u4 ,:5 we take color & light f ! s5sations1 receiv$ ?r\gh ! s5se ( sight1 we c]ta9ly /ill reta9 ! idea ( a ?+ ext5d$1 b n ( a visible ?+1 nor ( an object repres5t$ by ! s5sation4 ,9 l mann]1 if we despoil ! s5sations receiv$ ?r\gh ! s5se ( t\*1 ( ^? qualities :i* affect ?is s5se1 ! object t caus$ !m is n annihilat$1 nei!r is x repres5t$ by ! impressions x transmits to u4 #ec4 ,^! rem>ks %[ t we d n transf] our s5sations to ! ext]ior1 t !y are a m$ium :]eby our s\l is in=m$1 b n images :]e9 x contemplates its objects4 ,all s5sations indicate an ext]nal cause2 b "s1 l ^? ( sight & t\*1 9 an especial mann] d5ote multiplicity & cont9uity1 or ext5sion4 ,h5ce we also inf] t ! ext]nal _w is n a pure illusion1 b t x really exi/s ) its great masses1 its v>i\s motions1 its unlimit$ geometry3 b mu* ( its beauty lies r )9 ourselves ?an 9 x4 ,! ,creator ( x has 9 an especial mann]1 %[n 8 inf9ite wisdom & omnipot5t h& 9 s5sible be+s1 & above all 9 intellig5ces4 ,:at w\ld ! univ]se be 7 !re no "o to feel & to und]/&8 ,! beauty1 ! h>mony1 ! m>vels ( nature consi/ 9 ! close relation1 ! cont9u\s communication ( objects & s5sible be+s4 ,! r>e/ pa9t+1 7 !re no "o to p]ceive & admire its beauty1 w\ld be only a collection ( l9eam5ts1 a hi]oglyphic ( un9telligible *>act]s2 b s soon z x is se5 by a feel+ & kn[+ be+1 x is animat$1 is :at x ought to be2 & 9 ?is wond]ful communication ! object ga9s 9 beauty all t x imp>ts ( pleasure4 ,suppose a collection ( in/rum5ts dispos$ by ! prop] me*anism to execute ) admirable precision ! highe/ conceptions ( ,bell9i or ,moz>t3 to :at is x all r$uc$ if !re be no s5sitive be+8 ,to vibrations 9 ! air gov]n$ by "s law1 to m]e movem5ts ( a fluid1 subject to geometrical necessity4 ,introduce a man1 & ! geometry is *ang$ into cele/ial h>mony1 !n !re is music1 en*antm5t4 ,! symmetry ( ! walks ( a g>d51 ! elegance ( its %rubb]y1 ! color & beauty ( its fl[]s1 ! fragrance ( its odors1 are1 )\t a s5sitive be+1 only geometrical figures1 surfaces dispos$ accord+ to "s law1 volumes ( su* or su* a k9d1 columns ( fluids spr++ f !m & disappe>+ 9 space4 ,introduce man1 & ! geometrical figures are adorn$ ) a ?\s& beauties1 ! fl[]s cov]$ ) gay colors1 & ! columns ( fluids *ang$ into exquisite p]fumes4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,=ce ,,( ,,t\* ,,to ,,make ,,s5sations ,,objective4 #ed4 ,x has be5 said t t\* is ! sure/1 & p]haps ! only witness ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies2 = )\t x1 all s5sations w\ld be no?+ m ?an simple modifications ( our be+1 to :i* we c\ld attribute no ext]nal object4 ,b ?is ,i d n believe to be true4 ,we receive by t\* an impression1 j z we d by ! o!r s5ses2 ?is impression is 9 all cases an affection ( our be+1 & n some?+ ext]nal4 ,:51 f ! cont9uance ( ^! impressions1 _! ord]1 & _! indep5d5ce ( our w1 we judge !m to proce$ f objects )\t u1 our judgm5t is true n only ( impressions ( ! s5se ( t\*1 b also ( ^? ( ! o!r s5ses4 #ee4 ,"o ( ! reasons :]eon x has be5 attempt$ to base ! sup]iority ( t\* to atte/ ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 is t x gives u ! idea or s5sation ( ext5sion2 = if we suppose a man to be depriv$ ( all 8 s5ses b t ( t\*1 & to pass 8 h& ov] ! surface ( a body1 he w exp]i5ce t cont9uity ( ! s5sation :i* involves ext5sion4 ,?is obs]vation ( ^? :o ma9ta9 ! supremacy ( t\* does n prove :at !y propose4 ,if we pass our sight ov] v>i\s objects1 or ! diff]5t p>ts ( "o object1 we %all exp]i5ce ! s5sation ( cont9uity j z cle>ly z by t\*4 ,we _c conceive :y ! s5sation ( ext5sion mu/ be any cle>] :5 ! h& is pass$ along a balu/rade ?an :5 x is se5 by ! eyes4 #ef4 ,! advocates ( ?is op9ion ass]t t we acquire by ! t\* ( our body a d\ble s5sation1 :i* we d n by ! o!r s5ses4 ,if we pass our h& ov] our =ehead1 we feel ) bo? our h& & our =ehead1 & s v]ify a cont9uity ( s5sations1 all orig9at+ & t]m9at+ 9 ourselves4 ,?us we are consci\s t bo? ! s5sations ( our h& & our =ehead belong to u4 ,b ?is reason1 by "s deem$ conclusive1 is nev]!less exce$+ly futile2 x labors "u ! sophism call$ by dialecticians begg+ ( ! "q1 = x supposes :at 0 to be prov$4 ,! man de/itute ( all s5ses b t ( t\* w1 inde$1 exp]i5ce ! two s5sations & _! cont9uity2 b :at c he inf] f !m8 ,does he ev5 "k t he has ei!r h& or =ehead8 ,suppose him n to "k1 h[ is he to acquire ?is k8 ,bo? s5sations belong to him1 & ( ?is he is int]nally consci\s2 b :5ce !y came1 he kn[s n4 ,does ! co9cid5ce ( ! two s5sations1 p]*ance1 prove some?+ 9 favor ( ! exi/5ce ( 8 =ehead & h&1 objects ( :i* we suppose him to h no idea8 ,if ?is co9cid5ce prov$ :at is pret5d$1 ) /ill great] reason w\ld x prove ! comb9ation ( "s s5ses ) o!rs to elevate u to ! k ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 & consequ5tly t ?is k is n produc$ exclusively by t\*4 ,:5ev] ,i h ! s5sation ( ! motion ( plac+ my h& be=e my eyes1 ,i f9d t ,i lose sight ( ! objects be=e me1 & 9 _! room is pres5t$ ano!r always ! same1 my h&4 ,if1 f ?is co9cid5ce1 ,i inf] ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal objects1 ! supremacy ( t\* is de/roy$1 = sight1 also1 acts a "p 9 ! =mation ( su* a judgm5t4 ,i also obs]ve t :5 ,i h ! s5sation ( clapp+ my h&s toge!r1 ,i exp]i5ce ! s5sation ( he>+ ! noise ( _! contact2 if1 !re=e1 co9cid5ce is ( any acc\nt1 he>+ z well z t\* comes 94 ,:at ,i say conc]n+ ! clapp+ ( my h&s1 is applicable to :at ,i exp]i5ce :5 ,i pass a h& ov] any "p ( my body1 = in/ance my arm1 s z to produce "s noise4 ,9 ?is case !re are two s5sations co9cid5t & cont9u\s4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be repli$1 t ^! examples ref] to diff]5t s5ses1 & produce s5sations ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is ( no consequ5ce2 =1 if ! be+ t p]ceives1 inf]s ! exi/5ce ( objects f ! co9cid5ce ( v>i\s s5sations1 ! supremacy ( t\* is de/roy$1 :i* is :at we und]took to demon/rate4 #eg4 ,! s5sation ( ! h& is n t ( ! =ehead1 = ! "o is w>m] or cold]1 h>d] or s(t] ?an ! o!r1 & s ! s5sation caus$ by ! h& ^u ! =ehead w n be ! same z t produc$ ^u ! h& by ! =ehead4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 t ! less diff]5ce we suppose betwe5 ! two s5sations1 ! less lively w be ! p]ception ( _! duality1 & consequ5tly ! less m>k$ ! co9cid5ce on :i* ! judgm5t is f\nd$4 ,?us by rigor\sly analyz+ ?is matt] we discov] t ! div]sity ( s5sations contributes 9 an especial mann] to =m judgm5ts ( ! exi/5ce ( objects1 & !re=e ! comb9ation ( two s5ses w m conduce to ?is end ?an two s5sations ( "o s5se4 ,f>1 !n1 f its be+ necess>y to consid] t\* z alone or sup]ior ^u ?is po9t1 x is only to be held z auxili>y to ! o!r s5ses4 ,9 tru?1 x is almo/ beyond d\bt t ! s5se ( t\* also requires ! aid ( ! o!r s5ses1 & t ! judgm5ts result+ f x are simil> to ^? com+ f ! o!r s5ses4 ,x is probable t only aft] repeat$ trials d we ref] ! s5sation ( t\* to ! object t causes x1 or ev5 to ! "p affect$4 ,! man :o has _h 8 arm amputat$1 feels pa9 z if he /ill pres]v$ x2 & ?is is because a repetition ( acts has =m$ ! habit ( ref]r+ ! c]ebral impression to ! po9t :]e ! n]ves transmitt+ x t]m9ate4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no necess>y relation betwe5 ! s5se ( t\* & ! object2 & ?is s5se is1 l ! o!rs1 liable to illusions4 ,!re=e1 x is n exact to say t ! idea ( body spr+s up "u our h&1 if ?is be und]/ood z exclud+ t\*2 = ! same is true ( ! o!r s5ses1 p>ticul>ly ( sight4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,inf]iority ,,( ,,t\* ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,o!r ,,s5ses4 #eh4 ,t sup]iority1 or r t exclusive privilege1 conc$$ by ,condillac & o!r philosoph]s to t\*1 n only has no f\ndation1 z we h j se51 b seems to be 9 contradiction to ! v nature ( ?is s5se4 ,9 %ort1 x assigns ! fir/ place to ! co>se/1 ! mo/ mat]ial ( all ! s5ses4 ,x _c be kn[n :at ideas a man r$uc$ to ! "o s5se ( t\* w\ld =m ( ?+s2 b x seems to me t f> f ent]+ into cle> & vivid communication ) ! ext]nal _w1 & f9d+ a suffici5t f\ndation :]eon to base 8 cognitions1 he w\ld grope 9 ! pr(\nde/ ignorance1 & labor "u ! mo/ transc5d5tal errors4 #ei4 ,if we comp>e t\* ) sight1 or ev5 ) he>+ & smell1 we %all at once p]ceive a v important diff]5ce to its disadvantage4 ,t\* transmits to u only impressions ( objects imm$iately jo9+ our body2 :]eas1 ! o!r ?ree1 & especially sight1 place u 9 communication ) f> di/ant objects4 ,! fix$ />s are sep>at$ f u by a di/ance su* z almo/ to pass our imag9ation1 & yet we see !m4 ,nei!r smell nor he>+1 x is true1 g s f>2 b ! =m] fails n to w>n u ( ! exi/5ce ( a g>d5 at _m paces f u2 & ! latt] gives u notice ( a battle f\ght at _m leagues di/ance1 ( ! electric sp>k :i* has clov5 ! cl\ds on ! conf9es ( ! horizon1 or ( ! tempe/ ro>+ ov] ! imm5sity ( ocean4 #fj4 ,! limitation ( t\* to :at is imm$iate to x involves a sc>city ( ! ideas orig9at+ 9 x alone1 & ( necessity places x 9 a l[] grade ?an ! o!r ?ree s5ses1 p>ticul>ly sight4 ,let u 9 ord] to =m cle> ideas ^u ?is po9t comp>e ! range ( sight ) t ( t\* relatively to "s object1 = example1 a build+4 ,by means ( sight we 9 a few in/ants obta9 an idea ( its front1 & o!r ext]nal p>ts2 & 9 a %ort "t become acqua9t$ ) its int]nal divisions1 ) ! arrangem5t ev5 ( its ornam5ts & furniture4 ,c we accompli% all ?is by t\*8 ,ev5 if we suppose ! mo/ delicate s5se ( t\*1 & ! mo/ t5aci\s memory ( ! impressions communicat$1 long h\rs w\ld be necess>y to pass ! h& ov] ! front ( ! build+1 & =m "s idea ( x4 ,h[ w x be :5 we come to ! :ole ext]ior ( ! build+8 ! :ole int]ior8 ,we see t x w\ld be necess>y to r5\nce su* a task1 t ! elaborate workman%ip ( a cornice1 a p$e/al1 a p]i/yle1 ! magnific5ce ( a t[]1 a cupola1 ! boldness ( an ar*1 a vault1 :i* ! eye seizes 9 an in/ant1 w\ld require ! poor be+ possess$ ( t\* alone to g (t5 on all f\rs1 climb ov] dang]\s scaffold+s1 & expose himself to ! dang] ( fall+ f fe>ful heights2 & yet he w\ld nev] be able to acquire ! million? "p ( :at ! eyes s easily & s quickly p]ceive4 ,apply ^! obs]vations to a city1 to va/ c\ntries1 to ! univ]se1 & see :at imm5se sup]iority sight has ov] t\*4 #fa4 ,we d n inde$ f9d s va/ a sup]iority :5 we comp>e t\* ) ! o!r s5ses2 nev]!less1 x does exi/ 9 a v high degree4 ,! fir/ diff]5ce is ! ability to act f a di/ance4 ,c]ta9ly1 t\* also may 9 "s mann] p]ceive ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! sun1 by means ( ! impressions ( heat & cold2 & 9 l mann] ! pres5ce or abs5ce1 & ! m or less close proximity ( "s bodies1 etc42 b n only are ^! impressions f> f hav+ ! same v>iety & rapidity z ^? ( he>+1 b !y w\ld n ev5 give u any idea ( di/ance1 if we _h n already p]ceiv$ x o!rwise ?an by t\*4 ,heat & cold1 dryness & moi/ness1 are :at ! impressions :i* "s bodies1 ?\gh di/ant1 may make ^u t\* are r$uc$ to2 & ^! impressions are cle>ly ( a nature to be expos$ to _m s]i\s errors4 #fb4 ,if we suppose a man1 hav+ only ! s5se ( t\*1 to "k ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! sun above ! horizon1 8 only rule be+ ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* dep5ds ^u a ?\s& causes hav+ no connection ) ! orb ( day1 x w happ5 t ! natural or artificial *ange ( x w lead him into error4 ,! dampness :i* we p]ceive ar\nd a lake is a sign ( ! ne>ness ( ! wat]2 b d we n a ?\s& times exp]i5ce ! feel+ ( dampness f causes op]at+ on ! atmosph]e1 altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! wat]s ( a lake8 ,x is c]ta9 t ! conc5tration ( all s5sitive =ces ^u "o s5se1 ! abs5ce ( all di/raction1 & cont9ual att5tion to only "o k9d ( s5sations1 might raise ! delicacy ( t\* to a degree ( p]fection :i* we probably d n "k2 j z ! habit ( connect+ ideas ) respect to only "o ord] ( s5sations1 & ( =m+ judgm5ts conc]n+ !m1 produces a precision1 exactness1 & v>iety1 f> sup]ior to all t we c imag9e4 ,b h[ev] f> we might ext5d our conjectures ^u ?is head1 x is c]ta9 t !re is a limit 9 ! nature ( ! organ & ( its relations to bodies4 ,?is organ mu/ be limit$ to contigu\s objects1 9 ord] to receive well det]m9$ impressions2 & ) respect to ^? t are di/ant1 & c act ^u x1 !y c d ?is by caus+ on x an impression su* z ! nature ( bo? p]mits1 heat or cold1 dryness or dampness1 & if y w1 a c]ta9 pressure ei!r great] or less4 ,s f> z a great _m o!r objects are conc]n$1 we _c imag9e any action4 ,h[ev] mu* ! circle ( ?is class ( s5sations be enl>g$1 x mu/ ev] be v limit$4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ obs]ve1 t ! p]fectibility ( t\* by means ( its isolation does n belong to x exclusively1 b ext5ds likewise to ! o!r s5ses2 = x is f\nd$ on ! laws ( organization1 & ! g5]ation ( our ideas4 #fc4 ,to compreh5d ! sup]iority ( he>+ to t\* 9 ?is matt]1 we h only to consid] ! relation ( di/ances1 ! v>iety ( objects1 ! rapidity ( ! succession ( s5sations1 ! simultane\sness s mu* great] 9 he>+ ?an 9 t\*1 & _! relations to spee*4 ,i4 ,relation ( di/ances4 ,on ?is po9t1 he>+ is cle>ly sup]ior to t\*1 = ! latt] g5]ally requires contact1 ! =m] does n1 b = ! due appreciation ( its object ev5 requires a di/ance suit$ to ! class ( ! s\nd4 ,( h[ _m di/ant objects does he>+ in=m u ( :i* t\* c tell u no?+8 ,! gallop ( ! horse ?reat5+ to trample u "u foot1 ! ro>+ ( ! torr5t :i* may c>ry u away 9 its c\rse1 ! ?und] rumbl+ f af>1 & ann\nc+ ! tempe/1 ! ro> ( cannon1 tell+ t a battle has begun1 ! rattle ( c>riages 9 ! /reets1 drums & bells1 & clamor ( voices :i* indicate ! explosion ( popul> fury1 ! noisy music t proclaims ! joy caus$ by happy news1 ! conc]t d$icat$ to ! pleasures ( ! saloon1 ! song t br+s back melan*oly recollections1 s5tim5ts also ( hope & love1 ! groan t w>ns u ( suff]+1 ! pla9t t afflicts u ) ! idea ( mis]y2 all ?is he>+ tells u1 b t\* c tell u no?+ ( any ( ^!4 ,,ii4 ,v>iety ( objects4 ,^? di/ant objects :i* we "k by t\*1 are ( necessity little v>i$2 & = ! same reason ! ideas result+ f x w be liable to a deplorable confusion & to great unc]ta9ty4 ,he>+1 on ! contr>y1 in=ms u ( inf9ite & exce$+ly diff]5t objects1 & t1 too1 ) p]fect precision & exactness4 ,,iii4 ,rapidity ( ! succession ( impressions4 ,x is evid5t t he>+ has "h an incalculable sup]iority ov] t\*4 ,:5 t\* p]ceives by juxtaposition1 x is "u ! necessity ( successively go+ ov] ! objects & ev5 _! diff]5t p>ts if x w\ld receive v>i$ impressions2 & ?is1 h[ev] small _! numb]1 requires mu* "t4 ,if ! objects d n act by juxtaposition1 b by "s m$ium1 ! succession w require mu* m "t1 & !re w be mu* less v>iety4 ,comp>e ?is sl[ness to ! rapidity ) :i* he>+ p]ceives a :ole s]ies ( s\nds 9 musical comb9ations1 ! inf9ite inflexions ( ! voice1 ! c\ntless numb] ( di/9ct articulations1 ! inf9ity ( noises ( all k9ds :i* we un9t]rupt$ly p]ceive & classify1 & ref] to _! correspond+ objects4 ,,iv4 ,! simultane\sness ( s5sations s va/ 9 he>+1 is extremely limit$ 9 t\*2 = 9 ! latt] x c only be 9 relation to a few objects2 b 9 ! o!r x ext5ds to _m v diff]5t objects4 ,v4 ,b :at mo/ triumphantly indicates ! sup]iority ( he>+ to t\*1 is ! facility x af=ds u ( plac+ ourselves 9 communication1 by means ( spee*1 ) ! m9d ( our fell[-mortals1--a facility1 result+ f ! rapidity ( succession already rem>k$4 ,und\bt$ly1 ?is communication ( m9d ) m9d1 may be e/abli%$ by t\*1 if we express our words by *>act]s suffici5tly rais$ to be di/+ui%$3 b :at an imm5se diff]5ce betwe5 ^! impressions & ^? ( he>+8 ,ev5 if we suppose habit & a conc5tration ( all ! s5sitive =ces to h produc$ su* a facility 9 pass+ ! f+]s ov] l9es1 z f> to surpass all t we see 9 ! mo/ dext]\s play]s ( musical in/rum5ts1 :at comp>ison c !re be in/itut$ betwe5 ?is velocity & t ( he>+8 ,h[ mu* "t w\ld be requisite only to g ov] tablets :]eon is writt5 a disc\rse :i* we he> 9 a few m9utes8 ,moreov]1 all m5 h means ( he>+1 !y ne$ only make use ( _! organs4 ,b 9 ord] to conv]se by t\*1 x is necess>y to prep>e tablets1 :i* c only s]ve = "o object1 & _c be at ! same "t us$ by two p]sons2 :]eas by means ( he>+1 "o man alone may 9 brief "t communicate an inf9ity ( ideas to ?\s&s ( li/5]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,c ,,sight ,,alone ,,give ,,u ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,surface8 #fd4 ,i h1 ,i believe1 made ! inf]iority ( t\* to sight & he>+ palpable1 & h1 consequ5tly1 %[n ! extravagance ( endeavor+ to make x ! basis ( all cognitions1 to f\nd ^u x ! c]ta9ty ( ! judgm5ts to :i* our o!r s5ses lead u1 & to make x a supreme judge to decide 9 ! la/ appeal ^u ! d\bts t may arise4 ,i hold x to be manife/ly untrue t we _c make ! transition f ! int]nal to ! ext]nal _w1 or f ! exi/5ce ( s5sations to t ( ! objects caus+ !m1 o!rwise ?an by means ( t\*2 = n only h ,i combat$ ! pr9cipal1 or r ! solit>y reason ^u :i* x is pret5d$ to f\nd ?is privilege1 b ,i h also demon/rat$ ! mode ( mak+ ?is transition ) respect to all ! s5ses1 reason+ f ! v nature & connection ( int]nal ph5om5a4 ,i h likewise said & prov$ t ! s5sation ( ext5sion is ! only "o t is repres5tative1 & t 9 all o!rs !re 0 only a relation ( causality1 t is1 a connection ( "s s5sation or an int]nal ph5om5on ) an ext]nal object1 )\t our transf]r+ to ?is any ?+ resembl+ :at we exp]i5c$ 9 t4 #fe4 ,!re are two s5ses :i* in=m u ) c]ta9ty ( ext5sion1 sight & t\*4 ,we %all n n[ inquire if t be a true s5sation :i* we h ( ext5sion1 or if x be an idea ( a v diff]5t ord]1 result+ f ! s5sation4 ,i propose h]eaft] to exam9e ?is po9t1 b %all n[ conf9e myself to comp>+ sight ) t\* only z t5d+ to give u ! s5sation ( ext5sion1 or1 if y w1 to furni% u ) :at is necess>y to =m an idea ( x4 ,we _c b see t ext5sion lies )9 ! doma9 ( t\*1 & t1 too1 :e!r x be consid]$ only z a surface1 or also z a solid4 ,! same faculty _c be d5i$ to sight1 s f> z surfaces are conc]n$2 = x is impossible to see if at lea/ a plane be n pres5t$ to ! eye4 ,a po9t )\t ext5sion _c be pa9t$ ^u ! ret9a1 b ! in/ant an object is pa9t$1 x has pa9t$ p>ts4 ,we c by no ef=t ( our imag9ation1 conceive colors )\t ext5sion2 = :at is color )\t a surface ov] :i* x may ext5d8 #ff4 ,s ho/ile 0 ,condillac to ! s5se ( sight t he 0 unwill+ to all[ x ev5 ! faculty ( p]ceiv+ ext5sion 9 surfaces2 b z he is ( all philosoph]s ! "o :o has mo/ contribut$ to ! propagation & e/abli%m5t ( ?is op9ion1 we w exam9e 8 doctr9e & its fundam5tal reasons4 ,we h only to read ! *apt]s 9 :i* he expla9s x1 to see t he 0 n himself v confid5t ( its tru?1 b t he felt himself contradict$ by bo? exp]i5ce & reason4 ,9 8 ,trait des ,s5sations1#cf :]e he exam9es ! ideas ( a man limit$ to ! s5se ( sight1 he says t colors are di/+ui%$ by ! sight because !y seem to =m a surface ( :i* ! eyes occupy a "p1 & !n asks3 ,w our /atue1 judg+ itself to be at "o "t _m colors1 p]ceive itself z a sort ( color$ surface8 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t1 accord+ to ,condillac1 ! /atue conf9$ to "o s5se w believe itself ! s5sation1 t is1 x w ?9k t x is ! odor1 ! s\nd1 or ! ta/e1 accord+ z ! s5se ( smell1 he>+1 or ta/e1 is ! s5se 9 ex]cise2 = :i* reason1 if a surface ent] into ! s5sation ( sight1 ! /atue ought to believe itself a color$ surface4 ,i %all n exam9e ! correctness ( ^! obs]vations1 b %all conf9e myself to ! ma9 po9t1 :i* is ! relation ( sight to a surface4 #cf ,p4 #a4 ,c4 xi4 #fg4 ,accord+ to ,condillac1 ! /atue w nev] believe itself a color$ surface1 t is1 al?\gh x may p]ceive ! color1 x w n p]ceive ! surface4 ,let ! philosoph] himself speak1 = 8 own words w suffice to condemn 8 op9ion1 & to %[ ! unc]ta9ty ) :i* he advanc$ x1 or else ! obscurity "u :i* x labors3 ,! idea ( ext5sion supposes ! p]ception ( _m ?+s1 "s di/9ct f o!rs4 ,?is p]ception we _c d5y to ! /atue1 = x feels t x is repeat$ outside ( itself z _m times z !re are colors modify+ x4 ,:5 x is ! r$1 x feels itself outside ( ! gre52 :5 ! gre51 x feels itself outside ( ! r$1 & s ) o!r colors4 ,"s may imag9e t1 con=mably to ^! pr9ciples1 ,condillac goes on to e/abli% t sight gives u ! idea ( ext5sion1 s9ce x makes u p]ceive ?+s1 "s outside ( o!rs1 9 :i*1 accord+ to him1 ! idea ( ext5sion exactly consi/s4 ,b he does n2 f> f foll[+ ! true road1 he mis]ably loses 8 way2 he n only violates ! pr9ciple he has j laid d[n1 b notably *anges ! /ate ( ! "q4 ,he cont9ues3 ,b 9 ord] to h a di/9ct & precise idea ( magnitude1 x is necess>y to see h[ ! ?+s p]ceiv$1 "s outside ( o!rs1 are connect$1 h[ !y mutually t]m9ate1 & h[ !y are all enclos$ 9 ! limits :i* b\nd !m4 ,?is1 ,i repeat1 is to *ange ! /ate ( ! "q2 we are n n[ treat+ ( a di/9ct & precise idea1 b simply ( an idea4 ,h[ f> ! idea ( ext5sion giv5 by sight is p]fect1 is ano!r "q2 al?\gh x is manife/ t if sight c give u an idea ( ext5sion1 x w come by cont9ual ex]cise to r5d] ?is idea m p]fect4 #fh4 ,! /atue1 9 ,condillac's op9ion1 c\ld n p]ceive itself to be circumscrib$ by any limit1 because x c\ld "k no?+ beyond itself2 b did he n j n[ tell u t ! /atue w\ld believe itself diff]5t colors2 t "s ( ^! 7 outside ( o!rs2 & t :5 x w\ld be "o1 x w\ld p]ceive itself outside ( ! o!rs8 ,does ?is n imply n only "o b _m limits8 ,?is difficulty did n altoge!r escape ,condillac2 = aft] hav+ ask$ if ! me ( ! /atue1 :5 modifi$ by a blue surface1 bord]$ ) :ite1 w\ld n believe itself a limit$ blue color1 he says3 ,at fir/ sight we 7 incl9$ to believe t x w\ld2 b ! contr>y op9ion is mu* m probable4 ,b :y8 ,! /atue _c p]ceive itself ext5d$ by ?is surface1 save inasmu* z ea* "p modifies x 9 ! same way2 ea* "p %\ld produce ! s5sation ( blue color2 b if x is alike modifi$ by a foot ( ?is surface & by an in*1 x _c p]ceive itself1 9 ?is modification1 to be "o magnitude r ?an ano!r4 ,!re=e x does n p]ceive itself z magnitude2 !re=e ! s5sation ( color does n involve ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,x is easy to see t ,condillac ei!r supposes :at is 9 debate1 or else says no?+ to ! po9t4 ,accord+ to him1 ! /atue is alike modifi$ by a foot ( color$ surface & by an in*4 ,if by ?is he means t ! two modifications are id5tical "u all aspects1 he supposes ! v ?+ he ought to h prov$2 = ?is is precisely ! po9t 9 dispute1 :e!r surfaces diff]+ 9 magnitude d1 or d n1 produce diff]5t s5sations4 ,if he means1 z 8 words seem to indicate1 t ! s5sation z color1 & solely z color1 is ! same 9 a foot ( color$ surface z 9 an in*1 he utt]s1 inde$1 an inconte/able tru?1 b "o n at all to 8 purpose4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! s5sation ( blue1 z blue1 is ! same 9 diff]5t magnitudes1 & no "o ev] ?\ght ( d5y+ x4 ,b ?is is n ! "q3 x is :e!r1 ! color rema9+ "o & ! same1 ! s5sation ( sight is modifi$ diff]5tly1 accord+ to ! v>iety ( magnitude ( ! color$ surface4 ,condillac d5ies x1 b 9 an unc]ta9 & hesitat+ way4 ,we believe 8 negation to be s gr\ndless t ! direct contr>y may be prov$4 #fi4 ,i w\ld ask ,condillac if he c h color )\t surface2 if an object )\t ext5sion c be pa9t$ ^u ! ret9a2 if we c ev5 conceive a color )\t ext5sion4 ,no "o ( ^! is possible1 sight is !re=e necess>ily accompani$ by ext5sion4 #gj4 ,condillac places ! idea ( ext5sion 9 "s ?+s be+ pres5t$ to u outside ( o!rs4 ,?is1 z he him self confesses1 is v]ifi$ 9 ! s5sation ( color2 !re=e ! sight ( :at is color$ mu/ produce ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,condillac's subt]fuge "h is an exce$+ly weak "o4 ,he pret5ds t x is necess>y1 9 ord] to h ! idea ( ext5sion1 to h t ( its limits4 ,b fir/ ( all1 we h %[n f 8 own doctr9e t ^! limits are p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses2 besides x is a v /range pret5sion to attribute to sight ! faculty ( giv+ u ! idea ( unlimit$ ext5sion1 & to d5y to x t ( produc+ ! idea ( limitation2 z if !re did n by ! v fact ( our see+ :at is ext5d$1 rise )9 u ! idea ( limitation1 if f no o!r cause1 f ! v limitation ( our organ2 or z if an unlimit$ 7 n m inconceivable ?an a limit$ s5sation4 ,b suppose ! limits n be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 does unlimit$ ext5sion !re=e cease to be ext5sion8 ,is x n r ext5sion ( ! highe/ ord]8 ,does ! idea ( space )\t end1 because unlimit$1 cease to be an idea ( ext5sion8 #ga4 ,two color$ circles1 "o an in*1 & ! o!r a y>d 9 diamet]1 are plac$ be=e our eyes2 w ! effect produc$ ^u ! ret9a be ! same 9 bo?1 ab/raction made f all s5sation ( t\*8 ,evid5tly n2 exp]i5ce %[s ! contr>y1 & ! reason is f\nd$ on ! laws ( ! reflection ( light1 & on ma!matical pr9ciples4 ,if ! impressions are diff]5t1 ! diff]5ce w be p]ceiv$2 !re=e ! diff]5ce ( magnitude c be appreciat$4 ,we w n[ suppose "s "o 9 spite ( reason & exp]i5ce to p]si/ 9 ma9ta9+ t ! s5sation ( ! two circles w be ! same 9 ord] to make ! extravagance1 ev5 ! ridicul\sness ( ?is op9ion palpable4 ,let u imag9e ! two circles to be ( a r$ color1 & t]m9at$ by a blue l9e2 & n[ plac+ ! less ^u ! great] circle s z to br+ _! c5tres toge!r1 we ask1 w n ! eye ca/ ^u ! figure see ! less )9 ! great] circle8 ,w n ! blue l9e t t]m9ates ! circle ( an in* 9 diamet] be sure to be conta9$ )9 ! blue l9e t t]m9ates ! o!r circle ( a y>d 9 diamet]8 ,b :at else is ! p]ception ( ext5sion ?an ! p]ception ( "s p>ts beyond o!rs8 ,is x n to p]ceive ! diff]5ce ( magnitude1 to p]ceive "s great] ?an o!rs1 & conta9+ !m8 ,evid5tly x is4 ,! sight !re=e p]ceives magnitude2 !re=e x p]ceives ext5sion4 #gb4 ,we may /ill fur!r confirm ?is tru?4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es1 & did x n exi/1 reason w\ld /ill tea* t !re mu/ be a limit to ! field ( sight1 accord+ to our di/ance f ! object4 ,?us1 :5 we fix our sight ^u a wall ( great ext5t we d n see x all1 b only a "p4 ,n[ suppose an object ( giv5 magnitude to be )9 ! range ( sight1 b n s great z to cov] ! surface embrac$ by ! eye4 ,accord+ to ,condillac's sy/em1 !re c be no diff]5ce 9 ! p]ception1 provid$ ! color be ! same2 :5ce1 x w foll[1 t ! s5sation w be j ! same1 :e!r ! object occupy ! :ole1 or only an exce$+ly m9ute "p1 ( ! visual field4 ,x w likewise foll[1 t1 if ?is visual field be1 = example1 a great :ite curta9 a hundr$ y>ds squ>e1 & ! object a piece ( blue clo? a y>d squ>e1 ! s5sation w be j ! same :e!r ! blue clo? be "o in* or n9ety y>ds squ>e4 #gc4 ,^! argum5ts1 :i* mu/ h occurr$ at lea/ confus$ly to ,condillac1 made him hesitate 9 8 expressions1 & ev5 use contradictory language4 ,we may h already obs]v$ ?is 9 ! passages cit$1 b we %all see x yet m cle>ly 9 ! foll[+3--,we h no t]m to express ) exactness ! s5tim5t t ! /atue modifi$ by _m colors at "o "t has ( itself2 b 9 f9e1 x kn[s t x exi/s 9 _m ways1 & p]ceives itself 9 a c]ta9 mode z a color$ po9t beyond :i* are o!rs1 9 :i* x turns to f9d itself2 & "u ?is po9t ( view1 x may be said1 t x p]ceives itself ext5d$4 ,he _h be=e said1 t color did n seem ext5d$ to ! /atue1 until1 sight be+ in/ruct$ by t\*1 ! eye became accu/om$ to ref] ! "o simple s5sation to all ! po9ts ( ! surface3 & 9 ! v next l9e1 z we h j se51 he ass]ts ! contr>y2 ! /atue n[ p]ceives itself to be ext5d$1 & ! ideologi/ discov]s no way ( avoid+ ! contradiction1 b to w>n u t ! s5tim5t ( ext5sion w be vague because x wants limits4 ,?is is a contradiction :i* we h already made evid5t4 ,b :5ce ?is want ( limits8 ,if v>i\s figures ( diff]5t colors1 gre51 r$1 etc41 be suppos$ to be ^u a visual field ( a hundr$ y>ds squ>e ( :ite surface1 ! sight w1 z is evid5t1 p]ceive ! limits ( ^! figures2 :]e1 !n1 did ,condillac discov] t illimitation ( :i* he talks8 #gd4 ,al?\gh x is v true t ev5 if ! s5sation ( color 7 to involve t ( ext5sion1 x w\ld n !re=e foll[ t x w\ld produce x 9 u1 because we d n take f s5sations all ! ideas !y conta91 b ^? only :i* we "k4 ,?is does n at all affect ! pres5t "q4 ,we d n treat ( :at we c take f ! s5sation1 b ( :at is 9 x4 ,if ,condillac ma9ta9s t we may take ! idea ( ext5sion f ! s5sation ( t\*1 by :at "r does he d5y ! same faculty ) respect to sight1 suppos+ ! idea ( ext5sion to be conta9$ 9 bo? s5sations8 ,if ,i mi/ake n1 ?is is a tacit confession ( ! fals5ess ( 8 op9ion4 ,! idea ( ext5sion is 9 ! s5sation ( sight1 b we _c take x !nce4 ,:y n8 ,because x is vague4 ,b !n :at is to prev5t ex]cise1 involv+ comp>ison & reflection1 f r5d]+ x di/9ct8 ,! difficulty consi/s 9 acquir+ x 9 "o way or ano!r2 to p]fect x is ! "w ( "t4 ,und\bt$ly ! fir/ s5sations ( sight w n h t exactness :i* !y h aft] mu* ex]cise2 b ! same is true ( ! s5se ( t\*4 ,?is s5se is p]fect$ l ! o!rs2 x l !m ne$s to be educat$1 s to speak2 & ^? born bl9d1 :o1 by =ce ( conc5tration & labor1 come to possess x to an a/oni%+ degree ( delicacy1 (f] u a manife/ pro( ( ?is tru?4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,*eseld5',s ,,bl9d ,,man4 #ge4 ,*eseld5's bl9d man1 ( :om ,condillac spoke1 9 confirmation ( 8 op9ions1 pres5ts no ph5om5on ^u :i* !y c re/4 ,?is bl9d p]son 0 a y\? ( ?irte5 or f\rte5 ye>s ( age1 ^u :om ,*eseld51 a di/+ui%$ ,london surgeon1 p]=m$ ! op]ation ( remov+ cat>acts1 fir/ f "o eye1 !n f ! o!r4 ,he c\ld be=e ! op]ation tell day & night1 & 9 a v /rong light di/+ui%1 :ite1 black1 & r$4 ,?is is an important circum/ance1 & m]its att5tion4 ,! ph5om5a ! mo/ rem>kable1 & hav+ ! mo/ relation to ! "q n[ be=e u1 7 ! foll[+3 ,i4 ,:5 he began to see1 he believ$ t objects t\*$ ! ext]nal surface ( 8 eye4 ,?is w\ld seem to %[ t sight alone _c enable u to judge ( di/ances2 b1 aft] close exam9ation1 we %all cle>ly see t ! argum5t is n conclusive4 ,no "o w pret5d t sight1 9 ! fir/ mom5t ( its ex]cise1 c communicate equally cle> & di/9ct ideas to u1 z :5 exp]i5ce has accu/om$ u to comp>e its diff]5t impressions4 ,?is is ! same ) t\* z ) sight4 ,a bl9d p]son1 f 8 frequ5t cu/om ( guid+ himself1 9 _m ( 8 movem5ts by s5sations ( t\* alone1 comes to "k ! position & di/ances ( objects ) wond]ful precision4 ,if we suppose a man depriv$ ( ! s5se ( t\* sudd5ly to acquire x1 nei!r w he at fir/ judge ) ! same c]ta9ty ! objects ( ?is s5se z aft] hav+ ex]cis$ x4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es t ! s5se ( t\* is capable ( a high degree ( p]fection4 ,we see x 9 bl9d p]sons at its highe/ po9t2 & probably ! l[e/ po9t ( its p]fection1 9 ! fir/ mom5ts ( its ex]cise1 w\ld greatly resemble t ( sight at ! in/ant ( be+ fre$ f ! cat>acts2 objects w\ld be pres5t$ to x likewise 9 confusion2 & ! subject exp]i5c+ !m c\ld n well appreciate _! diff]5ces until practice _h taught him h[ to di/+ui% & classify4 ,) respect to di/ance1 x is to be obs]v$1 t ?is bl9d p]son ( ,*eseld51 s f> f hav+ ! habit ( appreciat+ x1 _h false ideas ^u x4 ,z he 0 n totally bl9d1 ! light1 :i* he p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! cat>acts1 0 suffici5t to ev5 enable him to di/+ui% betwe5 :ite1 black1 & r$1 :i* seem$ to him to t\* 8 eye4 ,we may =m "s idea ( ?is by obs]v+ :at happ5s to u if we close our eyes 9 a v /rong light4 ,h5ce he ought1 :5 he ga9$ 8 sight1 to h imag9$ t ! new sight 0 ! same z ! old1 &1 consequ5tly1 t no?+ _h happ5$ b a simple *ange ( object4 ,a p]son totally bl9d w\ld h bett] %[n ! p[] ( sight to appreciate di/ances2 = he w\ld h _h no habit ei!r favorable or unfavorable to _! k4 ,,ii4 ,x co/ him mu* tr\ble to conceive t !re 7 o!r objects beyond ^? he saw2 he c\ld n di/+ui% limits2 e ?+ seem$ to him imm5se4 ,al?\gh he knew by exp]i5ce t 8 *amb] 0 small] ?an ! :ole h\se1 he c\ld n conceive h[ he c\ld see ?is4 ,f ^! facts ,condillac draws a confirmation ( 8 sy/em4 ,we are a/oni%$ t he %\ld pret5d to f\nd an entire philosophy ^u su* data4 ,we submit ! foll[+ consid]ations to ! read]3 #gf4 ,! subject is "h a y\? ( ?irte5 or f\rte5 ye>s1 & consequ5tly )\t any habit ( obs]vation4 ,he w\ld naturally express v confus$ly ! impressions he receiv$ 9 s new & /range a situation4 ,! organ ( sight mu/1 :5 ex]cis$ = ! fir/ "t1 be exce$+ly weak1 & consequ5tly p]=m its s5sitive functions only 9 a v imp]fect way4 ,we ourselves repeat$ly exp]i5ce t we _c1 if we sudd5ly pass f d>kness to light1 especially if x be a v /rong light1 di/+ui% objects1 b we see e ?+ 9 great confusion2 :at !n w\ld happ5 to a poor *ild1 :5 at ! age ( ?irte5 ye>s1 he = ! fir/ "t op5s 8 eyes to ! light8 ,accord+ to ,*eseld5's own acc\nt1 objects 7 pres5t$ to him 9 su* confusion t he c\ld n di/+ui% !m1 no matt] :at _! size or %ape4 ,?is confirms :at we h j said1 t ! p>tial1 if n ! sole cause ( ! confusion1 0 t ! organ did n produce impressions well1 because if ^! _h be5 prop]ly produc$1 he w\ld h be5 able to di/+ui% ! limits ( ! diff]5t colors2 =1 9 simple s5sation1 to see is to di/+ui%4 ,we are also told t he c\ld n recognize by sight ! objects :i* he knew by t\*4 ,b ?is only proves t n hav+ be5 able to comp>e ! two ord]s ( s5sations1 he c\ld n "k :at correspond$ 9 "o to ! impressions ( ! o!r4 ,by t\* he w\ld h kn[n a sph]ical body2 b z he 0 /ill ignorant ( ! impression :i* a globe makes on ! eye1 x is cle> t if any "o %\ld %[ him a ball :i* he _h h&l$ a ?\s& times1 he w\ld n ev5 h suspect$ t ! object se5 0 ! same :i* he _h t\*$4 ,?is leads me to ano!r obs]vation :i* ,i consid] v important4 #gg4 ,! *ild on :om ^! exp]im5ts 7 made 0 oblig$ to express 8 s5sations 9 ! visual ord]1 9 a language :i* he did n und]/&4 ,= any "o :o is depriv$ ( "o ( ! s5ses mu/ be absolutely ignorant ( all ! ideas :i* h _! orig9 9 t s5sation4 ,h5ce x foll[s t he kn[s no?+ ( ! language relat+ to t s5se1 & ! ideas :i* he jo9s to ! words are entirely diff]5t f :at ^? :o possess t s5se mean to express4 ,! bl9d man w speak ( colors & ! impressions produc$ by sight1 because he he>s o!rs speak ( ^! ?+s2 b = him ! ^w to see does n mean to see1 light is n light1 nor color color1 z we und]/& !m1 b !y express diff]5t ideas :i* he has =m$ accord+ to ! circum/ances1 9 con=mity ) ! explanations he has he>d4 ,:at importance !n %\ld we atta* to :at a *ild may say :o1 besides ! ?\ghtlessness natural to 8 age1 is plac$ 9 a situation new to him1 & requir$ to express 8 ideas 9 a language :i* he does n "k8 ,he is ask$1 = example1 if he c di/+ui% a great] object f ano!r :i* is small]1 )\t consid]+ t ! words great] & small] z he und]/ood !m1 inasmu* z !y express$ ab/ract ideas1 or 7 ref]r$ to ! s5sations ( t\*1 7 altoge!r new to him :5 appli$ to objects se51 s9ce he _h no means ( kn[+ :at 0 meant :5 ref]r$ to a s5sation :i* he exp]i5c$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,if )9 a circle1 a numb] ( small] circles ( a diff]5t color 7 describ$1 he w\ld see ! small] circles )9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! great]2 b if ask$ if "o appe>$ great] ?an ! re/1 or if he c\ld di/+ui% ! limits :i*1 sep>at$ ! small] circles f ea* o!r1 he c\ld n b give v absurd answ]s1 :i* ! obs]v]s might p]haps take z ! expression ( curi\s ph5om5a4 ,!y speak to him ( figures1 l9es1 extremities1 size1 position1 & di/ances 9 relation to sight1 & z he is ignorant ( ?is language1 yet kn[s n t he is ignorant ( x1 he mu/ necess>ily talk 9 a v /range mann]4 ,a m att5tive & pr(\nd obs]v] w\ld h p]ceiv$ ! same misund]/&+ z :5 a deaf man disputes )\t he>+ :at 0 said4 ,^! rem>ks are fur!r confirm$ by ! contradiction 9 ! acc\nt ( ,*eseld54 ,! oculi/ tells u t ! *ild c\ld n di/+ui% ! objects1 ev5 ^? :i* diff]$ mo/ 9 =m & size3 b t he f\nd ^? mo/ agreeable :i* 7 ! mo/ regul>4 ,he mu/ !n h di/+ui%$ !m2 = o!rwise1 ! s5sation c\ld n h be5 m or less pleas+4 ,& "h 9 *oos+ an alt]native 9 ?is contradiction1 we mu/ hold t he di/+ui%$ ! objects1 s9ce !re is a /rong argum5t 9 its favor4 ,:5 two objects1 ! "o regul>1 ! o!r irregul>1 7 pres5t$ to him1 & he 0 que/ion$ z to _! resemblance & diff]5ce1 he mu/ h answ]$ s absurdly z to create ! suspicion t he c\ld n di/+ui% !m4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 t besides ! confusion ( s5sations1 to :i* he 0 always m or less subject1 he 0 also ignorant ( ! language1 & al?\gh he di/+ui%$ ! objects pla9ly1 /ill he c\ld n und]/& :at he 0 ask$1 nor express :at he felt4 ,b :5 exam9$ z to ! nature ( ! impression & :e!r x 0 pleas+ or o!rwise1 he f\nd himself on a field common to all s5sations1 ! ideas ( pleasure & displeasure 7 n new to him1 & he c\ld say )\t confusion1 ?is pleases me2 t is displeas+ to me4 ,to sum up :at ,i h said1 ,i believe t ! ph5om5a ( ,*eseld5's bl9d man1 only prove t sight1 l all ! o!r s5ses1 ne$s a c]ta9 education1 t its fir/ impressions are necess>ily confus$1 t ! organ acquires ! prop] /r5g? & precision only aft] long practice1 & f9ally1 t ! judgm5ts =m$ 9 consequ5ce1 mu/ be v incorrect until comp>ison1 jo9$ ) reflection1 has taught h[ to rectify inaccuracies4#cg #cg ,see ,book #a1 #ef4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,c ,,sight ,,give ,,u ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,solid8 #gh4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t sight c n give u ! idea ( size or ( a solid1 b t ?is c be obta9$ only by ! help ( t\*4 ,i believe ! contr>y may be prov$ ) conv9c+ c]ta9ty4 ,:at is a solid8 ,x is ! union ( ?ree dim5sions4 ,if sight c give u ! idea ( surfaces :i* consi/ ( two1 :y n also ( solids :i* consi/ ( ?ree dim5sions8 ,?is "o reflection is en\gh to %[ t x has be5 d5i$ )\t reason2 b ,i %all n /op ) ?is1 b %all prove1 by ! mo/ rigor\s obs]vation1 & ! analysis ( its ph5om5a1 t sight c give u ! idea ( a solid4 #gi4 ,i will+ly agree1 t if we suppose a man depriv$ ( all ! o!r s5ses1 to h 8 eyes immovably fix$ on an immovable object1 he w\ld nev] be able to di/+ui% betwe5 :at is solid & :at is m]ely p]spective 9 ! object2 or1 9 o!r words1 t all ! objects p]man5tly pa9t$ on ! ret9a w appe> to be project$ on a plane4 ,! reason ( ?is is f\nd$ on ! v laws ( ! organ ( ?is s5se1 & ( ! transmission ( its impressions to ! bra94 ,! s\l ref]s ! s5sation to ! extremity ( ! visual ray2 & s9ce 9 ! pres5t in/ance x has be5 unable to make any comp>isons1 x c h no motive = plac+ ^! extremities at unequal di/ances1 :i* con/itutes ! ?ird dim5sion4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is bett]1 let u suppose ! object to be a cube plac$ s t ?ree ( its sides are se54 ,x is evid5t t al?\gh ! ?ree surfaces are equal1 !y w n appe> s to ! eye1 because _! respective positions d n p]mit !m to s5d _! rays equally to x4 ,b z ! s\l has n _h occasion to comp>e ?is s5sation ) any o!r1 x c n calculate ! diff]5ce produc$ by ! diff]5t positions & di/ances1 b mu/ ref] all ! po9ts to ! same plane1 reg>d+ ! sides ( ! cube z unequal2 ?\gh1 9 reality1 !y are n s4 ,sight1 9 ?is case1 pres5ts ! :ole object on a p]spective plane2 & z x c\ld h no means ( calculat+ ! di/ance ( ! object f ! eye1 x w\ld probably believe x jo9$ to ! eye1 or1 m /rictly speak+1 ! s5sation w\ld repres5t only a simple ph5om5on1 ! relations & cause ( :i* we c\ld n expla94 #hj4 ,x is likewise probable1 t if1 :ile ! eye rema9$ fix$1 we c\ld op5 & %ut ! lids1 we might =m ! idea t ! object se5 0 outside ( u2 s t by ?is motion alone1 we %\ld obta9 a po9t ( comp>ison1 by ! succession ( ! alt]nate disappe>ance & reproduction ( ! s5sation ( ! object by ! int]position or non-int]position ( an ob/acle4 ,!n ! idea ( a great] or less di/ance w\ld arise1 & z ?is w\ld be 9 ! direction p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( ! object1 we %\ld already h ! idea ( a solid4 ,=tunately1 nature has be5 m b5efic5t to u1 & we are n oblig$ to limit ourselves to a supposition :i* ?us curtails our means ( acquir+ ideas4 ,/ill x w n be useless to h exam9$ ! ph5om5on on ?is supposition2 =1 f ?is exam9ation1 we %all ga9 light to und]/& :at ,i propose to demon/rate4 #ha4 ,9 ord] t sight may orig9ate ! idea ( a solid1 x requires motion4 ,?is motion is an indisp5sable condition1 ?\gh x may be ei!r 9 ! object or 9 ! eye itself4 ,let u suppose an immovable eye1 & see h[ by ! motion ( ! objects1 ! s5sation ( sight may pres5t or produce ! idea ( a solid4 ,! only difficulty is to %[ h[ x c add to ! two dim5sions :i* con/itute ! plane1 ! ?ird :i* =ms ! solid4 ,let a fix$ eye be direct$ to a po9t :]e !re is a "r rectangul> p>allelopip$on ,b1 s plac$ t its two bases are :olly conceal$1 & let ! "r l9e drawn f ! c5tre ( ! eye to ! edge ( ! p>allelopip$on divide ! plane angle into two equal p>ts4 ,let u also suppose ! sides ( ! p>allelopip$on to be ( diff]5t colors1--:ite1 gre51 r$1 & black4 ,9 ?is case1 ! eye sees ! two planes z "o1 & ! edge appe>s z a "r l9e sep>at+ ! two p>ts ( ! same plane :i* diff] only 9 color4 ,x is impossible = x to conceive ! incl9ation ( ! two planes1 because z x ref]s ! object to ! extremity ( ! visual ray1 & has n be5 able to comp>e ! v>ieties :i* result f diff]5ce ( position & di/ance1 & f ! mann] 9 :i* ! object receives ! light1 x c only di/+ui% ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plane4 ,x is well kn[n t p]spective c p]fectly imitate a solid4 ,=1 if in/ead ( ! solid ,b1 we suppose two planes exactly repres5t+ ! two sides se51 ! s5sation w be ! same1 ! illusion complete4 ,!re=e1 !re are two di/9ct ways ( produc+ ! same s5sation2 & consequ5tly1 unless !re has be5 a previ\s comp>ison1 !re is no means ( di/+ui%+ !m ap>t2 b ! idea :i* w\ld naturally result w\ld be ! mo/ simple2 t is1 ! idea ( a plane4 #hb4 ,if we suppose ! p>allelopip$on ,b to revolve on a v]tical axis1 x w pres5t ! f\r planes successively to ! eye1 & !y w appe> great] or less accord+ to _! incl9ation to ! visual ray1 ! surface ( ! plane rea*+ its maximum :5 p]p5dicul> to ! ray1 & its m9imum :5 p>allel to x4 ,! succession & v>iety ( ! s5sations w imm$iately produce ! idea ( motion2 = ! same planes ( ! p>allelopip$on are se5 9 diff]5t positions4 ,! uni=m mann] 9 :i* ^! planes succe$ "o ano!r1 w also sugge/ ! idea t ! gre5 :i* appe>s a few mom5ts aft] ! black1 is ! same :i* 0 se5 a few mom5ts be=e2 & s ( ! o!r colors4 ,also1 z "o is con/antly hid+ beh9d ! o!r1 ?is naturally gives rise to ! idea ( ext5sion 9 ! direction1 or cont9uation ( ! visual ray2 & ?is is suffici5t to produce ! idea ( size or ( a solid4 ,:5 we see a plane we h ! two dim5sions :i* con/itute a surface2 to =m ! idea ( a solid1 we ne$ only ! idea ( "o dim5sion m2 ?is c n be f\nd 9 ! same plane1 b is produc$ by ! motion ( ! p>allelopip$on4 #hc4 ,?is motion :i* we h suppos$ to be ar\nd a v]tical axis1 we may equally suppose to take place ar\nd a horizontal axis4 ,we %all !n see 9 succession ! two opposite sides1 & ! bases ( ! p>allelopip$on ) diff]5t appe>ances1 accord+ to _! v>i\s positions2 or1 9 o!r words1 accord+ to ! angle =m$ by ! planes & ! visual ray4 ,^! appe>ances w help m & m to =m ! idea ( ! ?ird dim5sion1 :i* is n to be f\nd 9 ! primitive plane1 & consequ5tly to supply :at 0 want$ to con/itute ! idea ( a solid4 #hd4 ,j z we h suppos$ ! eye fix$ & ! object movable1 we may suppose ! eye 9 motion & ! object immovable4 ,! result is ! same2 =1 x is evid5t t if ! eye %\ld move ar\nd ! p>allelopip$on1 n[ v]tically1 & n[ horizontally1 x w\ld exp]i5ce ! same s5sations z :5 x 0 quiet1 & ! p>allelopip$on mov$4 ,?us1 al?\gh we suppose ! subject :olly depriv$ ( ! s5se ( t\*1 s z to be unable to p]ceive its own motion1 x c /ill =m ! idea ( solid by ! impressions ( sight alone4 ,true1 x c\ld di/+ui% :i* mov$1 ! eye or ! object1 b ?is does n int]f]e ) ! =mation ( ! idea compos$ ( ! ?ree dim5sions4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,sight ,,& ,,motion4 #he4 ,i said t ! obs]v] c\ld n di/+ui% betwe5 8 own motion & t ( ! object2 sight alone c n give u a true idea ( motion4 ,?us 9 a boat1 al?\gh we are c]ta9 t we are mov+1 ! motion seems to u to be 9 ! objects along ! %ore4 ,also if ! motion ( ! object & t ( ! obs]v] are simultane\s1 9 ! same direction1 & ) ! same velocity1 all appe>ance ( motion is lo/4 ,b if !re are two objects1 "o ( :i* moves 9 ! same direction z ourselves1 & ! o!r 9 ! opposite direction1 we p]ceive only ! latt]4 ,?us 9 a canal boat1 ! horse :i* walks on ! bank 9 ! same direction :i* ! boat foll[s1 seems to move )\t advanc+4 ,( ! two motions ( ! horse1 we p]ceive only ! v]tical1 ! horizontal escapes u4 ,! reason ( ?is is cle>1 we c judge ! object only by our impressions4 ,:5 ! impression v>ies1 we h ! idea ( motion2 b n o!rwise4 ,:5 ! object or ! eye is 9 motion1 !re is a succession ( impressions on ! ret9a1 f :i* ! idea ( motion arises4 ,b if ! motion ( ! eye accompanies ! motion ( ! object1 "o cancels ! o!r1 ! impression on ! ret9a is con/ant1 & ! object does n seem to move4 #hf4 ,9 ! same mann] if ! motion ( ! object & t ( ! eye are simultane\s1 b ( unequal velocity1 we p]ceive only ! diff]5ce2 t is to say1 if ! motion ( ! eye be repres5t$ by #c & t ( ! object by #e1 ! motion ( ! object w appe> z #b1 or ! diff]5ce betwe5 #e & #c4 ,if our motion is m rapid ?an ! motion ( ! object1 al?\gh 9 ! same direction1 ! object w appe> to move 9 ! opposite direction1 z :5 we sail d[n a riv] fa/] ?an ! curr5t1 ! wat] seems to fl[ backw>ds4 ,an immovable object at ! same "t seems to move 9 a direction opposite to our own ) great] velocity ?an ! curr5t2 =1 "h also1 ( ! two motions we p]ceive only ! diff]5ce4 ,! motion ( ! boat1 :i* is equal to #e1 seems transf]r$ to ! fix$ object1 :i* appe>s to move 9 ! opposite direction ) ! velocity repres5t$ by #e2 & if we suppose ! velocity ( ! curr5t to be equal to #c1 x w h ! appe>ance ( mov+ backw>ds ) a velocity ( #e-c1 or #b4 #hg4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w\ld seem to foll[ t al?\gh sight is suffici5t to give u ! idea ( motion1 x is n suffici5t to enable u to di/+ui% our own motion f t ( ! object1 b = ?is we h ne$ ( t\*4 ,b ?is is n s2 = by sight alone1 we c di/+ui% ! motion ( ! eye f t ( ! object1 & if 9 "s cases ?is is impossible1 ! same is true ( t\*4 ,we mu/ obs]ve t 9 ! above examples t\* is ( mu* less use ?an sight 9 ord] to pres]ve u f illusions4 ,h[ by ! aid ( t\* alone c\ld we p]ceive ! motion ( a boat glid+ smoo?ly d[n a riv]8 ,sometimes by ! help ( sight we obs]ve ?is motion1 especially if we reg>d ! objects along ! bank :i* we pass2 b t\* is ess5tially limit$ to :at affects ! body imm$iately1 & !re=e _c discov] motion :5 ! body is n affect$ by x4 ,x is also well to obs]ve t we d n ref] ! motion p]ceiv$ by t\* to ! objects ar\nd u until aft] we h acquir$ ?is habit by means ( repeat$ comp>isons4 ,:5 = ! fir/ "t ! h& is pass$ ov] an object1 we are unable to tell :e!r ! h& moves ov] ! body1 or ! body "u ! h&4 ,! reason ( ?is is t ! s5sation ( motion is ess5tially a successive s5sation1 & ?is succession exi/s equally :e!r ! h& moves or ! object4 ,let u suppose ! h& to pass along an object ( a v>i$ surface1 we %all exp]i5ce ! v>iety ( s5sations correspond+ to ! surface2 suppose n[ t ! h& rema9s motionless1 & ! object passes "u x ) ! same velocity1 pressure1 & friction1 ! s5sations w be ! same z be=e4 ,e "o mu/ h obs]v$ t :5 lean+ on a slipp]y object1 x is (t5 difficult to tell :e!r x is ! object :i* moves1 or ourselves4 ,!re=e t\* also confirms :at we h advanc$1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! motion ( ! memb] & t ( ! object does n arise f simple s5sation4 #hh4 ,9 ?is respect1 !re=e1 t\* does n help sight2 let u see if sight alone c enable u to di/+ui% betwe5 ! motion ( ! eye & t ( ! object4 ,we h already obs]v$ t a s+le s5sation ) respect to "o object only is insuffici5t1 b !re is no difficulty 9 prov+ t ?is result may be obta9$ by ! comp>ison ( diff]5t s5sations4 ,let u suppose ! eye at a po9t ,a1 look+ at an object ,b2 ! object w appe> at ! extremity ( ! range ( ! sight z if project$ on a plane4 ,to be m def9ite we w imag9e ! object ,b to be a column 9 ! middle ( a l>ge hall1 & ! po9t ,a a corn] ( ! same hall4 ,! column w appe> to ! eye to be a "p ( ! opposite wall4 ,if ! eye *anges its position1 ! column w appe> 9 ano!r "p ( ! wall2 s t if ! eye %\ld pass ar\nd ! column1 x w\ld appe> successively on e "p ( ! wall4 ,! same succession ( ph5om5a w\ld be obs]v$ if ! eye %\ld rema9 fix$ & ! column %\ld move ar\nd x2 = x is evid5t t if ! obs]v] is plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! room1 & ! column moves ar\nd him1 ! column w appe> on all ! p>ts ( ! opposite wall4 ,f ?is we inf] t only "o s5sation ( sight1 ) only "o object1 is n en\gh to det]m9e :e!r ! eye moves or ! object4 ,b if in/ead ( "o object we suppose sev]al mov+ simultane\sly1 x is easy to see h[ ! di/9ction ( motions arises4 ,let u suppose t at ! same "t t ! eye sees ! column1 x also sees o!r objects1 su* z *&eli]s1 /atues1 or o!r columns1 plac$ betwe5 ! eye & ! opposite wall4 ,if ! eye moves e "t ! column *anges its position on ! opposite wall1 ! o!r columns1 ! *&eli]s1 /atues1 ev]y?+ 9 ! room seems to *ange its position2 :]eas1 if ! column moves & ! eye rema9s fix$1 ! column alone *anges its position1 :ile ev]y?+ else rema9s motionless4 ,!re=e sight alone gives u two di/9ct ord]s ( ph5om5a ( motion3 ,i4 ,! fir/1 9 :i* all ! objects *ange _! position4 ,,ii4 ,! second1 9 :i* "o object only *anges its position4 ,^! two ord]s ( ph5om5a _c rema9 unp]ceiv$2 = by ! help ( reflection excit$ & enlight5$ by ! repetition ( ! ph5om5a1 we mu/ come to ! conclusion t :5 !re is an entire & con/ant *ange ( all ! objects1 x is n !y t move1 b ! eye2 & t :5 only "o or a "p ( ! objects *ange _! position1 ! re/ rema9+ fix$1 x is n ! eye t moves1 b ! objects :i* *ange _! position4 ,:5 ev]y?+ ar\nd u *anges we inf] t x is ! eye t moves2 :5 "o or two *ange _! position we conclude t !y move & n ! eye4 ,?is is n m]ely a supposition1 x is ! reality4 ,! ideas d]iv$ f t\* are ess5tially limit$1 & x is !re=e impossible t !y %\ld proce$ f di/ant objects :i* _c be t\*$4 #hi4 ,i believe ,i h demon/rat$ t ! pret5d$ sup]iority ( t\* is )\t f\ndation1 & t ! op9ion :i* makes ?is ! basis ( our k ( ext]nal objects1 ! t\*-/one ( ! c]ta9ty ( ! s5sations transmitt$ by ! o!r s5ses1 is an error4 ,)\t x we c acquire ! c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies2 )\t x we c =m ! idea ( surfaces & solids2 )\t x we discov] motion1 & di/+ui% ! motion ( ! object f t ( ! organ :i* receives ! impression4 ,! !ory ( s5sation "h expla9$1 & ! results :i* are d$uc$ f ! relations ( ! dep5d5ce or indep5d5ce ( ! ph5om5a among !mselves1 & ) our w1 may all be appli$ to ! sight z well z to ! t\*4 #ij4 ,summ+ up all we h said1 we h ! foll[+ results3 ,i4 ,we di/+ui% sleep f wak+1 ev5 ab/ract+ ! objectiv5ess ( ! s5sations4 ,,ii4 ,we di/+ui% two ord]s ( ph5om5a ( s5sation2--! "o int]nal1 ! o!r ext]nal1 "h also ab/ract+ _! objectiv5ess4 ,,iii4 ,! s5ses give u c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies4 ,,iv4 ,s5sations h no type 9 ! ext]nal object ( :at !y repres5t1 except ext5sion & motion4 ,v4 ,t\* is n ! basis or t\*-/one ( c]ta9ty4 ,,vi4 ,all t we "k by means ( ! s5ses may be r$uc$ to ?is2 t !re are ext]nal be+s1 t is to say1 be+s plac$ outside ( ourselves1 :i* are ext5d$1 subject to necess>y laws1 & :i* produce 9 u ! effects :i* we call s5sations4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,possibility ,,( ,,o!r ,,s5ses4 #ia4 ,lam5nais writes3 ,:o c say t a six? s5se w\ld n di/urb ! h>mony ( ! o!rs by a contr>y impression8 ,on :at f\ndation c\ld he d5y x8 ,if we suppose o!r s5ses diff]5t f ^? :i* nature gave u1 might n our s5sations & our ideas be diff]5t8 ,p]haps a slight modification 9 our organs w\ld be suffici5t to ru9 our :ole sci5ce4 ,p]haps !re are be+s s organiz$ t _! s5sations are :olly oppos$ to ours1 & :at is true = u is false = !m1 & reciprocally4 ,=1 if we exam9e ! matt] closely1 :at necess>y connection is !re betwe5 our s5sations & ! reality8 ,& if !re 7 su* a connection1 h[ c\ld ! s5ses make x kn[n to u8#ch #ch ,essai sur l',indiff]5ce1 ,tome ,,ii41 ,"p ,,iii41 ,*4 ,i4 ,! que/ions :i* ^! words raise are ( ! highe/ importance & m]it a s]i\s exam9ation4 #ib4 ,is !re any intr9sical impossibility ( an organization diff]5t f ours1 & an ord] ( s5sations diff]5t f ^? :i* we exp]i5ce8 ,x seems n2 & if ?is impossibility exi/s1 x is unkn[n to man4 ,:atev] op9ion we adopt z to ! mann] 9 :i* ext]nal objects act ^u ! s\l by means ( ! organs ( ! body1 !re is no necess>y relation1 nor ev5 analogy1 betwe5 ! object & ! effect :i* x produces 9 u4 ,a body receives ^u its surface rays ( ! fluid :i* we call light1 ^! rays are reflect$ ^u ! ret9a1 :i* is ano!r surface 9 communication ) ! bra94 ,s f> all is well1 & easily und]/ood4 ,!re is a fluid :i* moves1 goes f "o surface to ano!r1 & may cause ?is or t purely physical effect on ! c]ebral matt]2 b :at connection is !re betwe5 ?is & ! impression ( a di/9ct ord] :i* we call see+1 an impression :i* is nei!r ! fluid nor ! motion1 b an affection ( :i* ! liv+ & ?9k+ be+1 ! me is intimately consci\s8 ,if1 in/ead ( ! lum9\s fluid & its me*anism1 we suppose ano!r1 z1 = example1 ! air :i* vibrates ^u ! tympanum1 :at ess5tial reason is !re :y ?is %\ld n produce a s5sation simil> to t ( sight8 ,x mu/ be confess$ t x is impossible to assign an ess5tial reason4 ,to "o :o has no idea ( our pres5t organization1 bo? ph5om5a are equally incompreh5sible4 #ic4 ,:at has be5 said ( sight & he>+ may be appli$ to ! o!r s5ses4 ,9 all !re is a bodily organ affect$ by a body2 we see ! surfaces plac$ "o be=e or "u ! o!r1 we see motions ( "o k9d or ano!r2 b h[ c we pass ov] ! imm5se di/ance :i* sep>ates ^! physical ph5om5a f ! ph5om5on ( s5sation8 ,= my "p1 ,i see no way to d x2 ?is po9t is a b>ri] to ! human intellect2 all appe>ances indicate t !re is no connection betwe5 ^! two ord]s ( ph5om5a except :at ! w ( ! ,creator has freely e/abli%$2 if !re is any necess>y connection1 ?is necessity is a secret to man4 ,exam9e ! textures :i* receive ! impression ( ! objects1 ! mat]ial sub/ance :i* composes ! n]v\s sy/em :i* is ! organ ( s5sations1 & say :at relation y c f9d betwe5 ! physical ph5om5a ( ?is matt] & ! wond]ful h>mony ( s5sible ph5om5a4 #id4 ,/ill great] w be ! difficulty if y consid] t1 al?\gh protect$ f any injury1 ! organs cease to produce s5sations f ! mom5t !y are depriv$ ( communication ) ! sub/ance ( ! bra94 ,! ph5om5a ( light are produc$ 9 ! cavity ( ! skull amid ! mo/ pr(\nd d>kness2 & all ! wond]ful magic ( s5sations by :i* ! magnific5t spectacle ( ! univ]se is pres5t$ to our m9d1 :i* plunges ! s\l into raptures at ! s\nd ( music1 & :i* produces su* v>i$ & delightful s5sations ( ta/e & odors1 all arises 9 ! bra91 a :iti%1 rude1 & un=m$ sub/ance1 f ! appe>ance ( :i* no "o c\ld imag9e x de/9$ to su* noble functions4 #ie4 ,:y is x t :5 ! n]ve ,a1 9 communication ) ! bra9 is affect$1 we exp]i5ce ! s5sation :i* we call see+1 or if ! n]ve ,b is affect$1 ! s5sation :i* we call he>+1 & s ( ! o!r s5ses8 ,!re may be a reason1 b1 at lea/1 we d n "k x2 & x is probably no o!r ?an ! free w ( ! ,creator4 ,"h1 x is true1 philosophy confesses its weakness1 b1 at ! same "t1 x %[s its p[]2 = x sees ! imm5se di/ance :i* sep>ates ^! ph5om5a1 betwe5 :i* !re c be no po9t ( communication b :at is e/abli%$ by ! ,almighty4 ,:5 !re are second causes1 x is ! m]it ( philosophy to discov] !m2 b :5 !re are none1 its m]it is 9 ris+ to ! fir/ cause4 ,a confession ( its ignorance is sometimes a m sublime act ( reason ?an ! impot5t ef=t ( an unb\nd$ pride4 ,if ! p]ception ( pr(\nd tru?s exalts ! intellect1 is n ! intellect exalt$ 9 p]ceiv+ its own ignorance1 :i* is sometimes a pr(\nd tru?8 #if4 ,! exi/5ce ( ano!r s5se is1 !n1 possible2 at lea/1 we see no impossibility ( x4 ,if ! deaf man :o has no idea ( s\nd1 & ! bl9d man :o kn[s n :at color is1 w\ld be fooli% to d5y ! possibility ( ^? s5sations ( :i* !y are depriv$1 c we1 ) any m %[ ( reason1 ass]t ! impossibility ( an ord] ( s5sations diff]5t f :at we possess8 ,if we exam9e ! sy/em ( s5sations by ! light ( reason1 we c discov] no ess5tial dep5d5ce betwe5 ! s5sations & _! respective organs1 nor betwe5 ! organs & ! objects & circum/ances by :i* !y are affect$4 ,:y does ! impression ( ! light ^u my eyes cause 9 me a p>ticul> s5sation1 :i* _c result f ! same impression on a diff]5t "p ( my body8 ,:y may n ! bra9 receive ! same impression 9 v>i\s =ms8 ,:y mu/ ?is fluid :i* we call light1 & no o!r1 produce ! impression8 ,:y may n ?is same s5sation ( see+ proce$ equally f o!r affections ( ! bra98 ,a viol5t bl[ on ! head produces ! s5sation ( _m lum9\s po9ts1 :5ce ! common expression ( see+ />s by daylight4 ,we mu/ confess t philosophy kn[s no?+ ( ^! secrets1 t z yet x has n be5 able to p5etrate !m1 & x c give no answ] to ^! que/ions4 ,x sees an ord] ( facts1 b no necess>y connection betwe5 !m1 or r1 judg+ f its ideas ( m9d & body1 e ?+ induces x to believe t ^! ph5om5a 9 our life dep5d solely on ! w ( our ,creator4 #ig4 ,if an entirely new ord] ( s5sations is possible1 !re may be be+s ) six or sev5 s5ses4 ,! imag9ation _c conceive _! nature2 b reason sees 9 !m no impossibility4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,new ,,s5ses4 #ih4 ,is x c]ta9 t we h only five ways ( s5sation8 ,i h "s d\bts on ?is po9t4 ,9 ord] to pres5t !m ) ! greate/ cle>ness1 & solve ! que/ions :i* !y raise1 x is well to settle ! mean+ ( ! t]ms4 ,:at is s5sation8 ,9 ! ord9>y acceptation ( ! ^w1 x is ! p]ception ( ! impression transmitt$ to u by "o ( ! organs ( ! five s5ses4 ,?us und]/ood x is cle>ly limit$ to ! action ( ! organs1 b if consid]$ z express+ a c]ta9 class ( animal ph5om5a1 x is ! exp]i5c+ ( any affection produc$ by an impression ( ! organism4 ,ev5 9 common use ! ^w s5sation 9 its broade/ signification is n re/rict$ to ! impressions ( ! five s5ses1 & al?\gh we make a great diff]5ce betwe5 s5tim5t & s5sation2 /ill we are (t5 =c$ to conf\nd !m1 & to use ! ^w s5sation to express ?+s :i* h no?+ :atev] to d ) ! five s5ses4 ,?us we say3 ,! news made a great s5sation2 ,i _c resi/ ! =ce ( su* /rong s5sations1 etc41 9 :i* cases x is evid5t t !re is no ref]5ce to see+1 he>+1 smell+1 ta/+1 or t\*+1 b to a diff]5t ord] ( affections ( ! s\l4 #ii4 ,i said we 7 =c$ to use ! ^w 9 ! broad] mean+2 x is ! tru? :i* =ces u4 ,=1 to ! eyes ( philosophy1 ! ph5om5on ( s5sation consi/s 9 ! production 9 ! s\l ( a p>ticul> affection det]m9$ by an impression on an organ2 & ( :atev] ord] ?is affection may be1 & :atev] organ may be affect$1 ! animal ph5om5on is sub/antially ! same4 ,! diff]5ce is 9 ! class ( affections & ( ! organ :i* is _! m$ium1 ! ess5ce ( ! ph5om5on does n *ange4 ,& if by s5sations we und]/& su* di/9ct ord]s ( affections z ^? ( sight & ( t\*1 :y may we n include o!r impressions caus$ by any o!r organ1 :atev] t organ may be8 #ajj4 ,:atev] use we may make ( ! ^w s5sation1 x is c]ta9 t we exp]i5ce _m affections caus$ by organic impressions1 besides ^? ( ! five s5ses4 ,:at are passions b affections ( ! s\l1 spr++ f organic impressions8 ,does n ! m]e pres5ce ( an object (t5 excite love1 ang]1 pity1 joy1 grief1 & _m o!r s5tim5ts ( ! s\l8 ,y may say !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! impressions ( ! s5ses & ^? ( ! passions1 t ! =m] are indep5d5t ( all previ\s idea & reflection1 :i* ! latt] m or less presuppose4 ,?us1 :5 an object is pres5t to our op5 eyes1 we _c b see x & always 9 ! same mann]2 & yet ?is object w excite 9 u at "o "t "o passion1 at ano!r "t ano!r1 & sometimes none2 & almo/ always ) great diff]5ce 9 ! degree ( its int5sity4 ,moreov] x is n only ! m]e pres5ce ( ! object :i* causes an affection1 b c]ta9 conditions are necess>y1 = example2 ! remembrance ( a b5efit or ( an injury1 etc41 f :i* x is easy to see t !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! two classes ( impressions4 #aja4 ,if we reflect well ^u ?is objection we %all f9d t ?\gh x is speci\s & "u _m aspects true1 x contradicts no?+ :i* ,i h ass]t$4 ,i did n d5y t ! new impressions 7 subject to v diff]5t conditions f ^? t gov]n ! five s5ses2 b on ! contr>y ,i h all along suppos$ a diff]5ce n only 9 ! class ( impressions & ! div]sity ( ! organ1 b also 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! organ is affect$1 & ! circum/ances 9 :i* ! s5sation is produc$ 9 ! s\l4 ,i only cont5d$ t ! animal ph5om5on 0 sub/antially ! same1 t we f9d 9 x ! ?ree ?+s :i* con/itute its nature2 a corporeal object2 an organ affect$ by ?is object2 & an impression produc$ 9 ! s\l4 ,because ?is impression _c exi/ )\t ! aid ( ?is or t idea1 ?is or t recollection1 x does n foll[ t ! ph5om5on does n exi/1 or t x is n ! same2 x is m]ely to impose a new condition1 & no?+ m4 #ajb4 ,b !re is no necessity ( admitt+ t "s previ\s idea or reflection is requisite 9 ord] t ! sight ( ! object may produce c]ta9 impressions 9 ! s\l2--daily exp]i5ce proves ! contr>y4 ,h[ is x t ! pres5ce ( an object *>ms 9 an in/ant a t5d] & p]haps innoc5t he>t8 ,:5ce !n arises t sudd5 fasc9ation :i* is prec$$ by no idea1 accompani$ by no affection1 & is sc>ce volunt>y8 ,n f ! ?\ght ( gross enjoym5ts2 = p]haps he ( :om ,i speak kn[s n _! exi/5ce until he exp]i5ces ?is emotion2 he feels = ! fir/ "t 9 8 brea/ a tr\ble unkn[n be=e4 ,we mu/ !re=e recur to an organic affection simil> to t :i* we f9d 9 ! o!r s5ses4 ,c]ta9 conditions ( age & temp]am5t may be requisite1 "o object may h be5 necess>y1 among a ?\s&1 9 p>ticul> circum/ances1 ( :i* ! s\l c give no acc\nt to itself ?\gh affect$ by !m2 yet x is /ill true t !re is an ext]nal object1 an affection ( ! organism1 & an impression 9 ! s\l1 all connect$ toge!r by a my/]i\s1 b und5iable bond4 ,x is easy to discov] a s]ies ( /rong impressions 9 ! ph5om5a relat+ to reproduction2 b al?\gh !y presuppose ! action ( "s "o ( ! five s5ses1 !y nev]!less belong to a diff]5t ord]4 ,no physiological /udies are necess>y to prove t ^! affections dep5d on ! organization1 & t !y are greatly influ5c$ by age1 heal?1 temp]am5t1 food1 climate1 & ! seasons4 #ajc4 ,!re is a diff]5ce betwe5 s5tim5ts & s5sations :i*1 ?\gh x does n *ange ! fact physiologically & psy*ologically consid]$1 /ill greatly modifies x 9 its intellectual & moral relations4 ,! passions are commonly excit$ by an animate & s5sible object1 :5ce x w\ld seem t !re is m communication betwe5 m9d & m9d1 betwe5 s\l & s\l1 ?an !re is betwe5 "o body & ano!r4 ,! sad & m\rnful appe>ance n only ( a man1 b ev5 ( an animal1 imm$iately excites 9 our brea/ ! s5tim5t ( compassion1 because x expresses ! suff]+ ( a liv+ be+4 ,?is only proves t nature has my/]i\s ways by :i* x transmits to u ! k ( hidd5 ?+s2 b ?is transmission is made by ! m$ium ( a body :i* affects 9 "s way our organic con/itution4 ,!re is "h1 if y please1 a m admirable1 m p5etrat+1 & m spiritual a magic ?an t ( ! s5ses alone2 b ! diff]5ce is 9 ! degree1 n 9 ! nature ( ! ph5om5a4 ,x is c]ta9 t liv+ be+s1 & ^? ( ! same species 9 p>ticul>1 are 9 a con/ant communication :i* mutually excites _! affections1 & t ^! affections frequ5tly suppose a my/]i\s correspond5ce ) unkn[n ag5cies4 ,physical nature is full ( fluids ^: qualities are daily becom+ kn[n ?r\gh sci5tific obs]vation4 ,! ph5om5a ( electricity & galvanism h reveal$ secrets ( :i* we _h no suspicion be=e4 ,:o c tell by :at means ! functions ( ?is va/ & complicat$ sy/em ( animal life1 spread ov] ! univ]se1 are p]=m$8 ,x is probable t !re are pr(\nd secrets 9 ! correspond5ce & relation ( organisms & 9 ! way 9 :i* !y influ5ce "o ano!r yet to be discov]$2 p]haps !y w rema9 =ev] veil$ to ! eyes ( mortality4 #ajd4 ,is x true t s5sible be+s c alone excite ! passions8 or h n inanimate causes repeat$ly affect$ our organs8 ,:y are we sometimes joyful & sometimes sad1 at "s times peaceful & at o!rs irritable1 :5 we h _h no communication ) any liv+ be+8 ,x is cle> t ?is dep5ds on ! affections ( our organism1 & has no relation to ! /ate ( o!r s5sible be+s4 #aje4 ,!re=e1 besides ! impressions caus$ by ! five s5ses1 !re are o!rs :i* proce$ f purely corporeal & inanimate objects4 ,besides ! ph5om5a ( ord9>y s5sations1 !re are o!rs :i* diff] f !m only 9 ! k9d ( impression & ! organ affect$2 & !re is no m diff]5ce betwe5 ^! s5sations & ! =m] ?an !re is betwe5 ! impressions ( "o & ^? ( ano!r ( ! five s5ses4 ,!re=e x is n correct to say t !re are only five k9ds ( s5sation4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,solution ,,( ,,lam5nais' ,,objection4 #ajf4 ,f ! prec$+ obs]vations we %all n[ d$uce an important consequ5ce1--! solution ( ! difficulty pres5t$ by ,lam5nais4 ,! exi/5ce ( new s5ses w\ld involve new s5sations1 x is true2 b !y w\ld n di/urb ! h>mony ( ^? we already h4 ,we h %[n t bodies affect our organs 9 a diff]5t mann]1 & produce impressions diff]5t f ^? ( ! five s5ses2 b ?is does n di/urb ! agreem5t ( our s5sations1 nor *ange our ideas4 ,consequ5tly1 ! supposition ( ,lam5nais w\ld n involve ! disord] :i* he suspects4 #ajg4 ,s5sations 9 !mselves are m]e affections ( ! s\l1 & h no ext]nal object :i* corresponds to !m except ! exi/5ce & ext5sion ( bodies4 ,!re=e a new ord] ( s5sations w\ld only be a new ord] ( affections1 :i* w\ld 9 n[ise alt] our ideas4 ,f :at we h hi!rto said1 x is easy to see t ! supposition ( ,lam5nais is already realiz$2 = !re are s5sations diff]5t f ^? ( ! five s5ses2 !re=e ?is supposition does n contradict ! nature & ord] ( our ideas1 nor ! c]ta9ty ( our k4 ,a musical in/rum5t beautifully fa%ion$ has *>ms = ! e>1 ! eye1 & ! t\*1 none ( ^! impressions de/roys ! o!r2 if we suppose x plac$ 9 new relations ) our organs1 s z to produce 9 ! s\l new impressions1 :y is x impossible t !y %\ld accord8 ,does ! melody ( its s\nd cease because our s\l exp]i5ces new affections ^: nature has no connection ) x8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,:y !n fe> ! ov]?r[ ( our k by ! introduction ( a new ord] ( s5sations8 ,:y give su* importance to a supposition1 ! effects ( :i* we c v well calculate1 & :i*1 if we exam9e ! ph5om5a ( our pres5t s5sations1 we f9d already realiz$8 #ajh4 ,x is true t we "k ( no o!r means ( plac+ ourselves 9 contact ) ext]nal objects ?an ! five s5ses2 b x is equally true1 t ?is contact exi/+1 ! impressions 9 ! s\l correspond my/]i\sly to ! ext]nal objects2 s t1 :ile we obs]ve ! s5sations by :i* ! communication is e/abli%$1 x is /ill impossible = u to expla9 !m4 ,let u exam9e ! magical effects ( music4 ,!y are ( two ord]s2 ! purely auditive1 & ! intellectual or moral4 ,! fir/ /op at ! e>1 ! second pass to ! bra9 & to ! he>t2 & "o may be admirably organiz$ = ! =m]1 yet unable to appreciate ! latt]4 ,two p]sons li/5 to a sonata1 bo? he> ! mat]ial music1 b ! intellectual & moral effects are n ! same on bo?4 ,bo? p]ceive ! lea/ defect 9 ! "t or 9 ! in/rum5t1 bo? admire ! art ( ! compos]1 bo? are *>m$2 b :ile ! he>t ( "o is unmov$1 ! bra9 & ! he>t ( ! o!r are b\nd+ ) delight1 ! p[] ( 8 fancy is multipli$1 ?\ghts & images cr[d ^u 8 m9d1 z ?\gh he _h caught inspiration f ! magic notes ( ! music4 ,8 he>t is transport$ ) t5d]ness1 melan*oly1 hatr$1 love1 ang]1 g5]osity1 & c\rage4 ,he is "u a magical influ5ce :i*1 moves him 9 spite ( himself2 ! vibrations ( a *ord h rais$ 9 8 he>t a my/]i\s tempe/ :i* ! might ( reason c h>dly quiet4 #aji4 ,f ?is we mu/ conclude1 t besides ! ord9>y relations betwe5 objects & ! organs ( ! s5ses1 !re are o!r relations /ill m intimate & m delicate betwe5 ^! objects & our organic sy/em1 & t ^! latt] are z c]ta9 z ! =m]4 ,9 !m !re is great] v>iety ( individuals1 & ! conditions necess>y to produce det]m9ate results are less kn[n1 b !re c be no d\bt ( _! exi/5ce1 & ?is 9 ! eyes ( s\nd philosophy is suffici5t to dissipate ^? absurd suppositions :i* w\ld pret5d to und]m9e ! edifice ( our k4 #aaj4 ,?us1 !n1 ! objection is answ]$1 :i* says3 ,if we _h ano!r s5se1 :at w\ld x tell u8 ,no?+ :i* w\ld de/roy ! c]ta9ty ( our k1 or ! nature & ord] ( our ideas4 ,! only new result w\ld be "o m add$ to ! _m ways 9 :i* objects n[ affect u4 ,! same ?+ w\ld happ5 to u z to a man :o aft] be+ depriv$ ( ! s5se ( smell1 %\ld sudd5ly rega9 x3 he w\ld h "o s5sation m2 ! same ?+ w\ld happ5 to u z to a man :o exp]i5ces a new s5tim5t :i* he _h n kn[n be=e3 he has "o affection m4 ,new impressions h _! own rank1 nei!r int]f]+ )1 nor *ang+ ^? :i* previ\sly exi/$4 ,,book ,,?ird4 ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,space4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,ext5sion ,,insep>able ,,f ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,body4 #a4 ,hav+ se5 t among ! objects ( our s5sations1 ext5sion alone has any ext]nal exi/5ce = u z any ?+ m ?an a pr9ciple ( causality1 let u n[ try to und]/& :at ext5sion is4 ,! idea ( ext5sion seems to be insep>able f t ( body2 at lea/1 ,i am unable to conceive a body )\t ext5sion4 ,take away ext5sion1 & ! p>ts disappe>1 & ) !m all t has relation ) our s5ses2 !re is no long] an object1 or1 if ! object rema9s1 x is some?+ altoge!r diff]5t f :at is conta9$ 9 ! idea ( body4 ,imag9e an apple1 = in/ance1 f :i* y sudd5ly take away ext5sion4 ,:at w rema9 ( x8 ,i am n n[ go+ to exam9e :e!r ,desc>tes is "r :5 he says1 t ! ess5ce ( body consi/s 9 ext5sion2 all t ,i "h ass]t is t a body _c be conceiv$ )\t ext5sion4 ,i d n affirm ! id5tity ( two ?+s1 b only ! insep>ability ( two ideas 9 our m9d4 ,x is n an op9ion1 b a fact ass]t$ by consci\sness1 :i* is n[ "u discussion4 ,ab/ract+ ext5sion1 ,i c conceive1 x is true1 a sub/ance1 or1 to speak m g5]ally1 a be+2 b1 !n1 !re is no idea ( body1 unless we conf\nd ?is idea )1 t ( sub/ance or ( be+1 9 g5]al4 #b4 ,all our notions ( bodies are obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses1 b )\t ext5sion no s5sation is possible2 = )\t x !re c be no color1 no s\nd1 no t\*1 no smell1 & no ta/e2 !re=e1 )\t ext5sion !re rema9s only some?+ ( :i* we h no idea1 a vague notion :i* _c enable u to di/+ui% "o object f ano!r1 a pure ab/raction1 & no?+ m4 #c4 ,to solve ! difficulties :i* att5d ! sep>ation ( ! two ideas ( ext5sion & ( body1 x is necess>y to det]m9e ! ess5ce ( body4 ,:5 we c di/+ui% ! ess5ce ( a body f its ext5sion1 ! difficulty w be ov]come1 b n until !n4 #d4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! reason ( ?is insep>ability1 x is necess>y to rememb] :at 0 said be=e1 t ext5sion is ! basis ( all o!r s5sations2 x is ! sub/ratum :i* is conf\nd$ ) none1 dep5ds on none ( !m 9 p>ticul>1 yet is an indisp5sable condition ( !m all4 ,i look at an apple1 & exam9e ! mutual relations ( ! s5sations :i* x produces4 ,x is evid5t t ?\gh ,i ab/ract ! smell1 ,i d n !reby de/roy any ( ! o!r s5sations :i* x causes4 ,?\gh x lose its odor1 x is /ill ext5d$1 color$1 x has a ta/e1 & may produce a s\nd4 ,i may also1 9 l mann]1 ab/ract its ta/e1 its color1 & all t relates to ! sight1 b ,i h /ill an object :i* is tangible1 & consequ5tly ext5d$1 figur$1 & possess$ ( all its o!r prop]ties :i* affect ! t\*4 ,if in/ead ( ab/ract+ :at relates to ! sight1 ,i ab/ract :at belongs imm$iately to ! t\*1 ,i may d ?is )\t de/roy+ ! o!r s5sations2 = ,i c /ill see ! apple1 its ext5sion1 =m1 & color4 ,i may ev5 g f>!r1 & /rip ! apple ( all its s5sible qualities1 ( its ta/e1 smell1 color1 h>dness1 & :atev] ! s5ses c p]ceive1 /ill !re rema9s ext5sion1 n inde$ s5sible1 b conceivable4 ,ext5sion exi/s ab/ract$ f its visibility1 s9ce x exi/s = ! bl9d man3 ab/ract$ f its tangibility1 s9ce x exi/s = ! sight2 ab/ract$ f odor1 ta/e1 & s\nd1 s9ce x exi/s = ^? :o are depriv$ ( ^! s5sations1 s long z !y h sight or t\*4 #e4 ,"h a difficulty arises4 ,!re seems to be a mi/ake 9 :at we h said ( ! exi/5ce ( ext5sion ab/ract$ f o!r s5sations2 =1 al?\gh 9 mak+ ?is ab/raction we conceive ourselves to be depriv$ ( ^! s5sations1 /ill we reta9 ! imag9ation ( !m2 ?us1 :5 ,i /rip ! apple ( all light & color1 x is /ill ext5d$2 b t is because ,i /ill imag9e a color1 or1 if ,i make a /rong ef=t to de/roy ! color1 x appe>s to me l a black object1 on a gr\nd ( great] or less d>kness1 di/9ct f ! apple4 ,does n ?is prove t !re is an illusion 9 su* ab/ractions1 & t !re is no complete ab/raction1 s9ce ! reality :i* we ab/ract is succe$$ by ! imag9ation ( ! same qualities1 or ( o!rs :i* supply _! place1 s z to make ! ext5sion p]ceptible8 ,?is objection is speci\s1 & x w\ld be difficult to give a satisfactory answ] if ! exi/5ce ( m5 depriv$ ( sight did n in/antly dissipate x4 ,no su* imag9ation is possible 9 ! case ( a bl9d man1 = him !re is no color1 no %ade1 no light1 no d>kness1 nor any?+ :i* relates to sight1 & /ill he conceives ext5sion4 #f4 ,b at lea/1 "s "o w answ]1 x mu/ be confess$ t ! idea ( ext5sion is necess>ily dep5d5t on ! s5sations ( t\*2 bl9d m5 also possess ?is s5se1 & by x !y acquire ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,!re=e ! idea ( ext5sion is insep>able f ! s5sations ( t\*4 ,?is argum5t is no bett] ?an ! o!r2 =1 al?\gh we may acquire ! idea ( ext5sion by ! s5se ( t\*1 & ?is s5se is all t is requir$ to produce x1 x is n true t ?is idea c only be acquir$ by t\*4 ,i h already prov$ t sight is suffici5t ( itself alone to produce ! idea ( ! ?ree dim5sions :i* con/itute a solid or ext5sion 9 its full complem5t4 ,b "h ,i d n ne$ ! idea ( a solid1 t ( a surface is suffici5t2 ! ext5sion ( a surface is insep>able f sight4 ,!re is no sight )\t color1 or light ( "s k9d or o!r1 & ?is _c ev5 be imag9$ )\t a surface4 ,i h ano!r argum5t4 ,geometricians1 d\btless1 conceive ext5sion1 & yet !y ab/ract all its relations to sight or t\*2 !re=e1 !re is no necess>y connection betwe5 !m4 ,9 any object submitt$ to ! sight1 :at quality relat+ to ! t\* is necess>y 9 ord] to produce ! idea ( ext5sion8 ,if we exam9e x closely1 we %all f9d t !re is none4 ,let u take a liquid2 is its fluidity ! necess>y quality8 ,no2 = :5 congeal$ ext5sion rema9s4 ,is x heat or cold8 ,no2 = )\t de/roy+ its ext5sion we may *ange its temp]ature z mu* z we please1 no alt]ation is p]ceptible4 ,:atev] quality relative to t\* we may take1 we %all f9d t x may be v>i$1 modifi$1 or entirely de/roy$1 )\t visibly affect+ ! ext5sion4 ,x (t5 happ5s t we h a cle> & def9ite idea ( ! ext5sion ( an object )\t kn[+ any ?+ ( its qualities 9 relation to t\*4 ,i see an object at a di/ance1 ,i di/+ui% its color & its =m1 b ,i "k n ( :at mat]ial x is1 :e!r x is ( m>ble1 or wood1 or wax1 nor :e!r ?is mat]ial is h>d or s(t1 moi/ or dry1 w>m or cold4 ,i d n ev5 "k if x is tangible1 z 9 ! case ( figures =m$ by vapors :i* are imp]ceptible to ! t\*4 #g4 ,)\t ext5sion !re c be nei!r sight1 nor t\*1 nor any o!r s5sation4 ,z to ta/e1 x is cle> t x requires t\*1 & _c exi/ )\t x4 ,our ass]tion is less cle> ) reg>d to s\nd & smell2 =1 al?\gh we _c sep>ate ^! s5sations f ! idea ( ext5sion z !y always involve ?is idea 9 "o way or ano!r1 we d n "k h[ x w\ld be ) a man :o 0 depriv$ ( all ! o!r s5ses1 & reta9$ only ^? ( smell+ & he>+4 ,b )\t speculat+ on ?is hypo!sis1 x is en\gh to "k3 ,i4 ,t no?+ :i* is n ext5d$ c act ^u our organs1 unless by means :olly unkn[n to u1 & :i* w\ld give no idea ( :at we und]/& by body4 ,,ii4 ,t ev5 suppos+ ! s5sations ( smell+ & he>+ to be possible )\t ! idea ( ext5sion1 !y w\ld 9 t case be only simple ph5om5a ( our be+1 & w\ld n place u 9 communication ) ! ext]nal _w1 z we n[ p]ceive x2 because1 if we %\ld n "k t !y proce$$ f ano!r cause1 we c\ld h no m consci\sness ( !m ?an t :i* we h ( ! me2 & if we %\ld "k x1 ?is cause w\ld be repres5t$ to u only z an ag5t influ5c+ u1 & n by any means z a be+ hav+ any ?+ simil> to :at we und]/& by body4 ,,iii4 ,t 9 su* a case we %\ld h no idea ( our own organization1 nor ( ! univ]se2 = x is cle> t e ?+ be+ r$uc$ to m]e int]nal ph5om5a1 & _! relation to ! ag5ts produc+ !m1 & ! idea ( ext5sion want+1 nei!r ! univ]se nor our own body w\ld be to u :at !y n[ are4 ,:at w\ld ! univ]se1--:at w\ld our body be )\t ext5sion8 ,,iv4 ,t = ! pres5t we limit ourselves to ! demon/ration ( ! dep5d5ce :i* 9 ! pres5t sy/em1 ( ?+s1 all s5sations h 9 relation to ext5sion2 & ?is demon/ration holds good1 ev5 ?\gh we suppose ! man :o possesses only ! s5se ( smell+ or t ( he>+ n to =m any idea ( ext5sion1 & n to ne$ x 9 ord] to exp]i5ce its s5sations4 ,v4 ,t ev5 on ?is supposition1 ! proposition be=e e/abli%$1 t ! idea ( ext5sion is indep5d5t ( ! o!r s5sations1 /ill rema9s unassail$4 ,,vi4 ,t ! tru? :i* we are pr9cipally endeavor+ to demon/rate1 t = u ! idea ( ext5sion is insep>able f t ( body1 also /&s firm4 #h4 ,?is insep>ability is s c]ta91 t !ologians expla9+ ! augu/ my/]y ( ! ,eu*>i/1 di/+ui% 9 ! ext5sion ( bodies ! relations ( ! p>ts to ea* o!r1 & _! relation to place1 9 ord9e ad se1 et 9 ord9e ad locum2 & !y say t ! sacr$ body ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/ is 9 ?is augu/ ,sacram5t1 by ext5sion 9 ord9e ad se1 ?\gh n by ext5sion 9 ord9e ad locum4 ,?is proves t ! !ologians saw t x is n possible = man to lose all idea ( ext5sion1 )\t at ! same "t los+ all idea ( body2 & ?us !y inv5t$ ?is +5i\s di/9ction1 ( :i* ,i %all speak at great] l5g? 9 ano!r place4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ext5sion ,,n ,,p]ceptible ,,z ,,! ,,direct ,,& ,,imm$iate ,,object ,,( ,,s5sations4 #i4 ,ext5sion has ! rem>kable peculi>ity ( be+ p]ceiv$ by diff]5t s5ses4 ,z reg>ds sight & t\* ?is is evid5t2 x is also true z f> z conc]ns ! o!r s5ses4 ,we p]ceive ta/e 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! palate1 & we ref] s\nd & smell to di/9ct po9ts 9 space1 & ?is involves ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,b :at is m /range is1 t al?\gh ext5sion is ! indisp5sable basis ( all s5sations & !re=e p]ceiv$ by all ! s5ses1 x is1 9 itself1 & sep>at$ f e o!r quality1 imp]ceptible to !m all4 ,! eye p]ceives only light1 & ! e> s\nd1 ! palate ta/e1 ! smell odor1 & ! object ( t\* is t :i* is w>m or cold1 moi/ or dry1 solid or liquid1 etc4 ,none ( ^! objects is ext5sion1 none 9 p>ticul> is necess>y = ! p]ception ( ext5sion2 = we con/antly f9d x sep>at$ f ea* ( ^! qualities1 & yet x is /ill p]ceptible4 ,no "o 9 p>ticul> is necess>y = ! p]ceptibility ( ext5sion1 b "s "o is indisp5sable2 =1 unless accompani$ by "s "o ( !m1 x is imp]ceptible to ! s5ses4 ,h5ce1 ext5sion is a necess>y condition ( our s5sations1 b is n itself p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,/ill x is n !re=e unkn[n1 & ?is br+s me to "s o!r reflections :i* take u out ( ! ph5om5al into ! transc5d5tal ord]1 & give rise to v s]i\s & difficult que/ions1 :i* h hi!rto be5 insolvable1 & x is to be fe>$ mu/ ev] rema9 s4 #aj4 ,we h se5 t ext5sion 9 itself is n ! direct object ( s5sation4 ,:at1 !n1 is x8 ,:at is its nature8 ,!re are two ?+s :i* may be consid]$ 9 ! idea ( ext5sion3 t :i* x is 9 u1 & t :i* x repres5ts to u2 or1 9 o!r words1 its relation to ! subject1 & its relation to ! object4 ,! fir/ be+ subject to imm$iate obs]vation1 inasmu* z x exi/s )9 u1 is difficult b n impossible to expla94 ,! second is m difficult1 & almo/ impossible to expla91 because x is a v ab/ract & transc5d5tal idea1 & also requires a s]ies ( argum5ts1 ! ?read ( :i* may be brok5 )\t ! "o :o reasons p]ceiv+ x4 #aa4 ,ext5sion 9 u is n a s5sation1 b an idea4 ,sometimes we imag9e x "u a s5sible =m1 conf\nd+ x ) a det]m9ate object2 at o!r times we picture x to ourselves z a vague obscurity 9 :i* bodies are plac$2 b ^! are only fictions ( ! imag9ation4 ,a man born bl9d c h none ( ^! int]nal repres5tations1 & yet he =ms a v good conception ( ext5sion4 ,we ourselves 9 ?9k+ ( ext5sion ab/ract all ^! =ms "u :i* we imag9e x4 ,two diff]5t s5sations1 ^? ( sight & t\*1 produce ! same idea ( ext5sion4 ,?is is conclusive pro( t ext5sion is r intelligible ?an s5sible4 ,:atev] may be ! relation ( ext5sion to s5sation1 we _c d5y t x is an idea if we reflect t x is ! f\ndation ( ! :ole sci5ce ( geometry4 ,?us1 al?\gh we =m v>i\s images ( ext5sion1 !y are only ! p>ticul> =ms ) :i* ! m9d clo!s ! idea1 if we may use ! expression1 accord+ to ! circum/ances ( ! case4 ,t :i* is fundam5tal & ess5tial 9 ! idea1 is ( a diff]5t & high] ord]1 & has no?+ 9 common ) ! applications :i* ! m9d makes 9 ord] to expla9 & apply x4 ,?is idea includes dim5sions1 b n det]m9$ or appli$2 !y are m]e conceptions :i* repres5t no?+ 9 p>ticul>4 #ab4 ,! idea ( ext5sion is a primitive fact ( our m9d4 ,x is n produc$ by s5sations1 b prec$es !m1 if n 9 "t1 at lea/ 9 ! ord] ( be+4 ,!re is no gr\nd = ass]t+ t ! idea ( ext5sion exi/s 9 ! m9d prior to ! fir/ impression ( ! s5ses1 b unless ext5sion s]ves z _! basis ^! impressions are inconceivable4 ,:e!r ?is idea is innate or develop$1 or produc$ 9 ! m9d by ! impressions1 !re c be no d\bt t x is di/9ct f !m1 necess>y to !m1 & indep5d5t ( any "o ( !m 9 p>ticul>4 ,x may be t :5 ^! impressions are fir/ receiv$ ext5sion may n be kn[n z a sep>ate idea2 b x is c]ta9 t x is aft]w>ds sep>at$ & /ripp$ ( ! corporeal =m1 & spiritualiz$1 & t ?is ph5om5on may be occasion$ b n caus$ by ! s5sation4 ,9 sight1 ab/ract+ ext5sion1 !re is color1 b we _c discov] 9 x any ?+ f :i* we c produce s fruitful an idea z t ( ext5sion4 ,ev5 at fir/ we see t ! color itself is n p]ceptible )\t ext5sion1 & s f> f ext5sion be+ produc$ by color1 x is on ! contr>y an indisp5sable condition )\t :i* color _c be p]ceiv$4 ,colors z ! objects ( s5sation are only individual ph5om5a1 :i* h no connection ) "o ano!r nor ) ! g5]al idea ( ext5sion4 ,:at has be5 said ( !m w equally apply to all ! impressions ( t\*4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sci5tific ,,fruitfulness ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,ext5sion4 #ac4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! sup]iority ( ! idea ( ext5sion ov] m]e s5sations2 or r1 9 ord] to und]/& t !re is a true idea ( ext5sion consid]$ 9 itself1 & t !re is no su* idea ( ! direct & imm$iate objects ( s5sation1 ,i wi% to call att5tion to ! fact t among all ! objects ( ! s5ses1 ext5sion alone gives orig9 to a sci5ce4 ,?is is a v important fact2--to expla9 x z x des]ves1 ,i %all e/abli% ! foll[+ propositions3 ,,fir/ ,,proposition4 ,ext5sion is ! basis ( geometry4 ,,second ,,proposition4 ,n only is ext5sion ! basis ( geometry1 b all t we "k ( ! nature ( bodies may be r$uc$ to ! manife/ations1 applications1 & modifications ( ext5sion1 ) ! addition ( ! ideas ( numb] & "t4 ,,?ird ,,proposition4 ,:atev] we "k ( s5sations t des]ves ! "n ( sci5ce is includ$ 9 ! modifications ( ext5sion4 ,,f\r? ,,proposition4 ,we c =m no fix$ idea ( corporeal objects1 nor make any obs]vation on ! s5sible _w1 unless we are guid$ by ! rule ( ext5sion4 ,^! f\r propositions are no?+ m ?an ! enunciation ( c]ta9 facts1 ! m]e exposition ( :i* is a suffici5t demon/ration4 #ad4 ,ext5sion is ! basis ( geometry4 ,?is is evid5t1 s9ce geometry treats only ( dim5sions1 & ! idea ( dim5sion is ess5tial to ext5sion4 ,:5 geometry treats ( figures1 x is /ill ext5sion :i* x is treat+ (2 = figures are only ext5sion ) c]ta9 limitations4 ,! quadrilat]al conta9s two triangles4 ,to di/+ui% !m1 x is only necess>y to draw _! limit1 :i* is ! diagonal4 ,! idea ( figure is m]ely ! idea ( limit$ ext5sion1 & ! figure is ( ?is or t k9d accord+ to ! nature ( its limits4 ,consequ5tly1 ! idea ( figure is no?+ new sup]add$ to ext5sion2 b m]ely its application4 ,moreov]1 limit or t]m9ation is n a positive idea2 x is a pure negation4 ,if ,i h ext5sion & wi% to =m all ! figures possible1 ,i ne$ n conceive any ?+ new1 b only ab/ract :at ,i h already2 ,i d n add1 b take away4 ,?us 9 ! quadrilat]al ,i obta9 ! conception ( ! triangle by ab/ract+ "o ( ! two equal p>ts into :i* x is divid$ by ! diagonal4 ,9 ! same mann] ,i d$uce ! quadrilat]al f a p5tagon by ab/ract+ ! triangle =m$ by a l9e drawn f "o ( its angles to ei!r ( ! opposite angles4 ,^! obs]vations apply to all geometrical figures4 ,! idea ( ext5sion is l an imm5se gr\nd on :i* we h only to draw limits 9 ord] to obta9 :atev] we want4 ,x does n foll[ f ?is t ! und]/&+ _c proce$ by addition or ! syn!tic me?od2 =1 j z ! subtraction ( "o ( ! p>ts ( ! quadrilat]al =m$ a triangle1 s also ! addition ( two triangles ) an equal side w produce a quadrilat]al4 ,& 9 ! same way po9ts produce l9es1 l9es surfaces1 & surfaces solids4 ,9 all ^! cases ! idea ( figure is t ( limit$ ext5sion1 s9ce ! quantities :i* con/itute x are m]ely ext5sion ) c]ta9 limitations4 #ae4 ,an obs]vation "h pres5ts itself to my m9d1 :i* ,i ?9k mu/ ?r[ great light ^u ! "q :i* we are n[ discuss+4 ,if we comp>e ! two me?ods by :i* ! idea ( figure is obta9$2 ! syn!tic1 or t ( composition or addition1 & ! analytic1 or t ( subtraction or limitation1 we %all f9d t ! second is m natural ?an ! o!r2 because t :i* ! analytic me?od produces is p]man5t 9 ! figure & ess5tial to x1 :il/ ! syn!tic only seems to con/itute x1 & z soon z x is ?us con/itut$ ! m>ks ( its =mation are oblit]at$4 ,an example w make ?is cle>]4 ,9 ord] to conceive a rectangle ,i h only to limit indef9ite space by f\r l9es 9 a rectangul> position2 t is1 to affirm a "p1 & d5y ! re/4 ,! l9es are no?+ 9 !mselves1 & repres5t only ! limit beyond :i* ! space includ$ 9 ! rectangle _c pass4 ,to ab/ract ?is limitation or d5ial ( all t is n conta9$ 9 ! surface ( ! rectangle1 w\ld be to de/roy ! rectangle4 ,!re=e1 ! d5ial 9 :i* ?is me?od consi/s is always p]man5t1 ! mann] ( ! production ( ! idea is insep>able f ! idea itself4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i proce$ to =m ! rectangle by addition or by jo9+ ! hypo!neuse ( two "r-angle triangles1 ! ideas ( ! two compon5t p>ts are n necess>y to ! idea ( ! rectangle aft] its =mation4 ,i c conceive ! rectangle ev5 ab/ract+ ! diagonal4 ,?us1 !n1 x is demon/rat$ t ! idea ( ext5sion is ! only basis ( geometry1 & t ?is idea is an imm5se field on :i*1 by means ( limitation or ab/raction1 we c obta9 all ! figures :i* =m ! object ( geometry4 ,figures are only ext5sion limit$1 a positive ext5sion accompani$ by a negation1 & consequ5tly :atev] is positive 9 geometry is ext5sion4 #af4 ,we _c d\bt t1 :atev] we "k ( ! nature ( bodies1 may be r$uc$ to c]ta9 modifications or prop]ties ( ext5sion1 if we obs]ve t ! entire object ( ! natural sci5ces is ! k ( ! motion or ( ! diff]5t relations ( ?+s 9 space1 :i* is no?+ m ?an ! k ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( ext5sion4 ,/atics is occupi$ 9 det]m9+ ! laws ( ! equilibrium ( bodies1 b 9 :at way8 ,does x p5etrate into ! nature ( ! causes8 ,no2 x only det]m9es ! conditions to :i* ! ph5om5on is subject1 & ! only ideas :i* ent] into ^! conditions are ! direction ( ! =ce1 t is to say1 a l9e 9 space1 & ! velocity1 :i* is ! relation ( space to "t4 ,! idea ( "t is ! only idea :i* is "h jo9$ ) t ( ext5sion4 ,9 ano!r place ,i %all prove t "t1 sep>at$ f ?+s1 is no?+1 & consequ5tly1 al?\gh ?is idea is "h jo9$ to t ( ext5sion1 x does n int]f]e ) ! tru? ( :at ,i h e/abli%$4 ,9 /atics1 all t relates to o!r s5sations is c\nt$ z no?+2 9 ord] to solve ! problems ( ! composition & decomposition ( =ces1 we ab/ract all color1 smell1 & o!r s5sible qualities ( bodies 9 motion4 ,:at has be5 said ( /atics applies equally to dynamics1 hydro/atics1 hydraulics1 a/ronomy1 & to all sci5ces :i* reg>d motion4 #ag4 ,"h an objection may be made4 ,t ) ! ideas ( "t & space1 we seem to comb9e ano!r :i* is di/9ct f !m1 & necess>y1 9 ord] to complete ! idea ( motion1 & ?is is ! idea ( a body mov$4 ,x is n "t1 nor is x space1 = space is n mov$1 !re=e x is di/9ct f !m4 ,to ?is ,i reply1 fir/1 t ,i am speak+ ( ext5sion1 & n ( space alone1 :i* x is important to rememb]1 = :at ,i %all aft]w>ds say2 & secondly1 t sci5ce reg>ds ! ?+ mov$ z a po9t1 & ?is is suffici5t = all its purposes4 ,?us 9 ! sy/ems ( =ces !re is a po9t ( application = ea* ( ! compon5t =ces1 & ano!r = ! resultant4 ,?is po9t is n reg>d$ z hav+ any prop]ties1 b is 9 relation to motion :at ! c5tre is 9 relation to a circle4 ,e ?+ is relat$ to x1 yet x is no?+ 9 itself1 except inasmu* z x occupies a def9ite position 9 space4 ,x may *ange accord+ to ! quantity & direction ( ! =ces1 x may run ov] or describe a l9e 9 space ) great] or less velocity1 & ! l9e may be ( ?is or t class1 & accompani$ by v>i\s conditions4 ,if a body be impell$ by two =ces1 ,b & ,c1 act+ ^u a po9t ,a1 sci5ce consid]s 9 ! body only ! po9t ?r\gh :i* ! resultant ( ! =ces ,b & ,c passes1 & ab/racts all ! o!r po9ts ( ! body :i*1 be+ jo9$ to ! po9t ,a1 move ) x4 #ah4 ,:5 ,i say t ! natural sci5ces g no f>!r ?an ! consid]ation ( ext5sion1 ,i only mean to exclude ! o!r s5sations1 b n ideas2 = x is cle> t ! ideas ( "t & numb] are comb9$ ) ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,?is is s true 9 me*anics1 9 ?is s5se at lea/1 t all its !orems & problems are r$uc$ to geometrical expressions1 & ev5 ! idea ( "t is express$ by l9es4 ,9 e =ce !re are ?ree ?+s to be consid]$3 ! direction1 po9t ( application1 & int5sity4 ,! direction is repres5t$ by a l9e1 & ! po9t ( application by a po9t 9 space4 ,! int5sity is repres5t$ only 9 ! effect :i* x c produce1 & ?is is express$ by a l9e1 ! l5g? ( :i* expresses ! int5sity ( ! =ce4 ,! effect ( ! int5sity :i* is repres5t$ by a l9e includes ! "t also2 = ! measure ( a motion _c be det]m9$ until we "k its velocity1 :i* is m]ely ! relation ( space to "t4 ,!re=e1 al?\gh ! idea ( "t is comb9$ ) t ( ext5sion1 ! result is express$ by l9es1 t is1 by ext5sion4 #ai4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance /ill :i* %[s ! fruitfulness ( ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,x is t 9 ! expression ( ! laws ( nature1 x rea*es cases :i* are beyond ! idea ( numb]4 ,if we suppose two equal rectangul> =ces1 ,,ab & ,,ac1 act+ on ! po9t ,a1 ! resultant w be ,,ar4 ,n[1 if we consid] ,,ar to be ! hypo!neuse ( a "r-angl$ triangle1 ,,ar#b ,,ab#b ,,ac#b1 extract+ ! squ>e root ,,ar 7,,ab#b ,,ac#b74 ,if we suppose ea* ( ! compon5t =ces equal to #a1 ,,ar 7#ab #ab7 #b1 a value :i* c nei!r be express$ 9 :ole numb]s nor 9 fractions1 b :i* is repres5t$ by ! hypo!neuse4 #bj4 ,9 ! physical sci5ces1 su* words z =ce1 cause1 ag5t1 etc41 are frequ5tly us$1 b ! ideas :i* ^! t]ms express are a "p ( sci5ce only inasmu* z !y are repres5t$ by effects4 ,?is is n because true philosophy conf\nds ! cause ) ! effect1 b z physical sci5ce reg>ds only ! ph5om5on 9 all t relates to ! cause1 x limits itself to ! ab/ract idea ( causality1 :i* pres5ts no?+ det]m9ate1 & consequ5tly is n ! object ( its sci5tific labors4 ,! sy/em ( univ]sal attraction has immortaliz$ ! "n ( ,newton1 & he beg9s by confess+ 8 ignorance ( ! cause ( ! effect :i* he expla9s4 ,:5 we g beyond ! ph5om5a & ! calculations to :i* !y give rise1 we ent] ! field ( metaphysics4 #ba4 ,! natural sci5ces consid] c]ta9 qualities ( bodies :i* h no relation to ext5sion1 z1 = example1 heat & light1 & ?is might seem to be a refutation ( :at we h said ( ext5sion4 ,/ill ?is objection disappe>s :5 we exam9e 9 :at mann] sci5ce takes note ( ^! qualities1 & in/ead ( ov]?r[+ our !sis1 ! result w /r5g!n1 ext5d1 & expla9 x4 ,heat is n measur$ by ! s5sation :i* x produces 9 u4 ,if we ent] a room :]e ! temp]ature is v high1 we exp]i5ce a /rong s5sation ( heat1 :i* gradually gr[s weak]1 :ile ! temp]ature rema9s ! same4 ,if we rea* our h& to a fri5d we exp]i5ce a s5sation ( heat or cold1 9 proportion z 8 h& is w>m] or cold] ?an our own4 ,heat & cold are measur$1 n 9 !mselves1 nor 9 relation to our s5sations1 b 9 ! effect :i* !y produce4 ,^! effects are includ$ 9 ! modification ( ext5sion2 = ! !rmomet] m>ks ! temp]ature by a great] or less elevation ( ! m]cury 9 a l9e4 ,its degrees are express$ by p>ts ( a l9e1 on :i* !y are m>k$4 ,i "k t :at is measur$ is di/9ct f ext5sion2 b1 its measurem5t is only possible by relation to ext5sion1 & by att5d+ to effects :i* are modifications ( ext5sion4 ,?us1 ! temp]ature at :i* wat] boils is #bab1 & ?is is discov]$ by ! motion ( ! wat]1 & has relation to ext5sion4 ,s1 also1 ! r>efaction & cond5sation ( bodies are modifications ( ext5sion1 s9ce ^! /ates consi/ 9 ! occupation ( great] or less space1 or 9 ! increase or dim9ution ( _! dim5sions4 #bb4 ,all t sci5ce tea*es u ( light & colors relates to ! diff]5t directions & comb9ations ( ! rays ( light4 ,our obs]vation goes no f>!r ?an s5sation4 ,we "k t we c comb9e ! rays 9 diff]5t mann]s1 & direct !m1 s z to modify our s5sation1 b ?is is no?+ m ?an ! sci5tific k ( ext5sion 9 ! m$ium :i* we make use (1 & ( ! s5sation exp]i5c$ 9 consequ5ce4 ,all beyond ?is is entirely unkn[n4 #bc4 ,we may say ! same ( all o!r s5sations1 t ( t\* includ$4 ,:at is t quality ( bodies :i* we call h>dness8 ! resi/ance :i* we enc\nt] :5 we t\* !m8 ,b ab/ract+ s5sation1 :i* only produces ! consci\sness ( itself1 :at d we f9d8 ,imp5etrability4 ,& :at d we und]/& by imp5etrability8 ,! impossibility ( two bodies occupy+ ! same space at ! same "t4 ,"h1 !n1 we meet ) ext5sion4 ,if1 by h>dness1 we mean ! cohesion ( molecules1 9 :at does cohesion consi/8 ,9 ! juxtaposition ( p>ts 9 su* mann] t !y _c1 )\t difficulty1 be sep>at$4 ,b1 to be sep>at$1 is to be made to occupy a place diff]5t f t :i* 0 be=e occupi$4 ,"h1 too1 we f9d ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,( s\nd we "k no?+ sci5tifically1 except z relates to ext5sion & motion4 ,! musical scale is express$ by a s]ies ( fractional numb]s repres5t+ ! vibrations ( ! air4 #bd4 ,^! examples demon/rate ! ?ird ( ! above propositions1 t :atev] we "k ( s5sations t des]ves ! "n ( sci5ce1 is includ$ 9 ! modifications ( ext5sion4 #be4 ,x is ! same ) ! f\r? proposition1 t )\t ! idea ( ext5sion1 we c h no fix$ idea ( any ?+ corporeal1 no fix$ rule 9 relation to ph5om5a1 b are l bl9d m54 ,if1 = an in/ant1 we ab/ract ! idea ( ext5sion1 x is impossible = u to take a /ep 9 advance4 ,! examples already adduc$ 9 ord] to demon/rate ! second proposition1 r5d] fur!r explanation "h unnecess>y4 #bf4 ,al?\gh ext5sion is ess5tially compos$ ( p>ts1 !re is 9 x some?+ fix$1 unalt]able1 &1 9 "s mann]1 simple4 ,!re may be m or less ext5sion1 b n diff]5t k9ds4 ,"o "r l9e may be long] or %ort] ?an ano!r1 b its l5g? is n ( a diff]5t species4 ,"o surface may be l>g] ?an ano!r1 a solid ( a c]ta9 k9d great] ?an ano!r ( ! same k9d1 b n 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,:5 ,i say t 9 ! idea ( ext5sion objectively consid]$ !re is a c]ta9 sort ( simplicity1 ,i d n mean t !re is any ?+ entirely simple2 = ,i h j said t its object is ess5tially composite4 ,nei!r d ,i ab/ract its ess5tial elem5ts1 :i* are ! ?ree dim5sions1 nor any idea :i* x involves1 z its limitability1 or capacity to be limit$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,all ,i wi% to %[ is t 9 all ! diff]5t figures ^! fundam5tal notions are suffici5t1 t !y are nev] modifi$1 b always pres5t ! same ?+ to ! m9d4 ,let u comp>e a "r l9e ) a curve4 ,a "r l9e is a direction :i* is always con/ant2 ! curve a direction :i* is always v>i$4 ,a direction always v>i$ is a collection ( "r directions inf9itely small4 ,!re=e1 ! circumf]5ce ( a circle is consid]$ z a polygon ( an inf9ite numb] ( sides4 ,! curve is !re=e =m$ by ! v>iety ( directions r$uc$ to inf9itesimal values4 ,?is !ory :i* expla9s ! diff]5ce ( ! "r l9e & ! curve1 is evid5tly applicable to surfaces & solids4 ,let u comp>e a quadrilat]al ) a p5tagon2 all t ! second has :i* ! fir/ has n is "o side m 9 p]imet]1 & 9 area ! space conta9$ 9 ! triangle =m$ by a l9e drawn f "o ( its angles to ei!r ( ! opposite angles4 ,! l9es are ( ! same k9d1 ! surfaces diff] only 9 ! ways 9 :i* !y t]m9ate4 ,b t]m9ation is ! same z limitation4 ,!re=e1 all t is ess5tial to ! idea ( ext5sion1 t is1 direction & limitability1 rema9 always ! same & un*angeable4 ,?is intr9sical con/ancy is indisp5sable to sci5ce4 ,t :i* is mutable1 may be ! object ( p]ception1 b n ( sci5tific p]ception4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,reality ,,( ,,ext5sion4 #bg4 ,we n[ come to m difficult que/ions4 ,is ext5sion any ?+ 9 itself1 ab/ract$ f ! idea ( x8 ,if any ?+1 :at is x8 ,is x id5tifi$ ) bodies1 or is x conf\nd$ ) space8 ,i h prov$#ci t ext5sion exi/s outside ( ourselves1 t x is n an illusion ( ! s5ses2 & ?is solves ! fir/ "q1 :e!r ext5sion is any ?+4 #ci ,book ,,ii4 ,*4 ix4 ,:atev] may be its nature or our ignorance on ?is po9t1 !re is 9 reality some?+ :i* corresponds to our idea ( ext5sion4 ,:oev] d5ies ?is tru? mu/ be cont5t to d5y e ?+ except ! consci\sness ( himself1 if inde$ he does n exp]i5ce d\bts ev5 ( ?is too4 ,:atev] ideali/s may ass]t1 !re is n1 nor ev] 0 a man :o 9 8 s\nd judgm5t s]i\sly d\bt$ ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w4 ,?is conviction is = man a necessity aga9/ :i* x is va9 to cont5d4 ,?is ext]nal _w is = u insep>able f t :i* is repres5t$ by ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,x ei!r does n exi/1 or else x is ext5d$4 ,if we c\ld be p]suad$ t x is n ext5d$1 x w\ld n be difficult to conv9ce u t x does n exi/4 ,= my "p1 ,i f9d x j z difficult to imag9e ! _w )\t ext5sion z )\t exi/5ce1 & if ,i c\ld be made to believe its ext5sion an illusion1 ,i %\ld easily believe its exi/5ce also an illusion4 #bh4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t al?\gh we confess our ignorance ( ! int]nal nature ( ext5sion1 x is /ill necess>y to admit t we "k some?+ ( x2 its dim5sions1 namely1 & :at s]ves z ! basis ( geometry4 ,! difficulty is n 9 kn[+ :at ext5sion is geometrically consid]$1 b :at x is 9 reality4 ,we "k ! geometrical ess5ce1 b :at we want to asc]ta9 is1 :e!r ?is ess5ce realiz$ is some?+ :i* is conf\nd$ ) "s o!r real ?+1 or is only a quality :i* we "k )\t kn[+ ! be+ to :i* x belongs4 ,)\t ?is di/9ction we %\ld d5y ! basis ( geometry2 =1 x is evid5t t if we %\ld n "k ! ess5ce ( ext5sion 9 ! a=esaid mann]1 we c\ld n be sure t we are n build+ 9 ! air :5 we raise ^u ! idea ( ext5sion ! :ole sci5ce ( geometry4 #bi4 ,?us !n "u ?is aspect1 we are c]ta9 t ext5sion exi/s outside ( u1 & t !re are true dim5sions4 ,?is idea is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! idea ( ! ext]nal _w1 z we said be=e4 ,! dim5sions 9 ! ext]nal _w mu/ be subject to ! same pr9ciples z ^? :i* we conceive1 or ! v idea :i* we h =m$ ( ! ext]nal _w is rev]s$4 ,i d n mean by ?is t a real circle may be a geometrical circle1 b only t :at is true ( ! second mu/ be true ( ! fir/ also1 9 proportion z x is con/ruct$ ) great] or less exactness4 ,beyond :at c be =m$ by ! mo/ p]fect & exact in/rum5ts1 ,i c conceive1 )\t pass+ f ! ord] ( reality1 a circle or any o!r figure1 z ne> z ,i please to ! geometrical idea4 ,! %>pe/ in/rum5t c nev] m>k an indivisible po9t1 nor draw a l9e )\t bread?2 b ?is surface1 on :i* ! po9t is m>k$1 on ! l9e drawn1 be+ inf9itely divisible1 ,i c conceive a case 9 :i* ! reality w come inf9itely ne> to ! geometrical idea4 #cj4 ,a/ronomy & all ! physical sci5ces re/ on ! supposition t real ext5sion is subject to ! same pr9ciples z ideal ext5sion2 & t exp]i5ce comes clos] to !ory 9 proportion z ! conditions ( ! second are m exactly fulfill$ 9 ! fir/4 ,! art ( con/ruct+ ma!matical in/rum5ts1 :i* has be5 br\ght 9 our day to a surpris+ p]fection1 reg>ds ! ideal z ! type ( ! real ord]2 & progress 9 ! latt] is ! approximation to ! models ( ! =m]4 ,!ory directs ! op]ations ( practice1 & ^! 9 _! turn confirm by ! result ! =esight ( !ory4 ,!re=e1 ext5sion exi/s n only 9 ! ideal ord]1 b also 9 ! real2 & x is some?+1 indep5d5tly ( our ideas2 & geometry1 t va/ repres5tation ( a _w ( l9es & figures1 has a real object 9 nature4 ,h[ f> ! real corresponds ) ! ideal1 we %all exam9e 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,geometrical ,,exactness ,,realiz$ ,,9 ,,nature4 #ca4 ,! disagreem5t :i* we discov] betwe5 ! ph5om5a & ! geometrical !ory makes u apt to ?9k t reality is r\gh & co>se1 & t purity & exactness are f\nd only 9 our ideas4 ,?is is a mi/ak5 op9ion caus$ by want ( reflection4 ,! reality is z geometrical z our ideas2 ! ph5om5on realizes ! idea 9 all its purity & vigor4 ,be n />tl$ by ?is seem+ p>adox2 = x w soon appe> to y a v true1 reasonable1 & well-gr\nd$ proposition4 ,we %all fir/ prove t ! ideas :i* are ! elem5ts ( geometry h _! objects 9 ! real _w1 & t ^! objects are subject to precisely ! same conditions z ! ideas4 ,?is prov$1 x cle>ly foll[s t geometry 9 all its /rictness exi/s z well 9 ! real z 9 ! ideal ord]4 #cb4 ,let u beg9 ) a po9t4 ,9 ! ideal ord]1 a po9t is an invisible ?+1 x is ! limit ( a l9e & its g5]at+ elem5t1 & x occupies a det]m9ate position 9 space4 ,x is ! limit ( a l9e2 = :5 we take away its l5g?1 we h a po9t rema9+ :i* we are =c$ to reg>d z ! limit ( ! l9e unless we de/roy x entirely s z to h no?+ left4 ,! m ! l9e is %ort5$ ! ne>] x approa*es to a po9t1 yet c nev] be id5tifi$ ) x until its l5g? is :olly suppress$4 ,! po9t is ! g5]at+ elem5t ( ! l9e2 = we =m ! idea ( l9eal dim5sion by consid]+ a po9t 9 motion4 ,! occupation ( a det]m9ate position 9 space is ano!r indisp5sable condition ( ! idea ( a po9t1 if we wi% to use x 9 geometrical figures4 ,! c5tre ( a circle is a po9t 9 itself indivisible1 x fills no space2 b 9 ord] t x be ( any use z c5tre1 we mu/ be able to ref] all ! radii to x1 & ?is is impossible unless x occupy a det]m9ate position equidi/ant f all po9ts ( ! circumf]5ce4 ,z a g5]al rule1 geometry acts ^u dim5sions1 & ^! dim5sions require po9ts 9 :i* !y comm5ce1 po9ts ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 & po9ts 9 :i* !y end1 & by :i* di/ances1 incl9ations1 & all t relates to ! position ( l9es & planes1 are measur$4 ,no?+ ( all ?is c be conceiv$ unless ! po9t1 al?\gh n ext5d$1 occupies a det]m9ate position 9 space4 #cc4 ,does !re exi/ 9 nature any?+ :i* corresponds to ! geometrical po9t1 & unites all its conditions ) z great exactness z sci5ce 9 its pure/ idealism c desire8 ,i believe !re does4 ,philosoph]s h adopt$ diff]5t op9ions z to ! divisibility ( matt]4 ,"s ma9ta9 t !re are unext5d$ po9ts 9 :i* ! division ends1 & t all composite bodies are =m$ ( ^!4 ,o!rs ass]t t x is n possible to arrive at simple elem5ts1 b ! division may cont9ue ad inf9itum cont9ually approa*+ ! limit ( composition1 b nev] rea*+ x4 ,! fir/ ( ^! op9ions is equival5t to ! admission ( geometrical po9ts realiz$ 9 nature2 ! second1 ?\gh app>5tly less favorable to ?is realization1 mu/ come to x at la/4 ,unext5d$ molecules are ! realization ( ! geometrical po9t1 9 all its exactness4 ,!y are ! limit ( dim5sion1 because division ends ) !m4 ,!y are ! g5]ative elem5ts ( dim5sion1 because !y =m ext5sion4 ,!y occupy a det]m9ate position 9 space1 because bodies ) all _! conditions & det]m9ations 9 space are =m$ ( !m4 ,!re=e1 f ?is op9ion1 held by em95t philosoph]s l ,leibnitz & ,bosc[i*1 x foll[s t ! geometrical po9t exi/s 9 nature 9 all ! purity & exactness ( ! sci5tific ord]4 ,! op9ion :i* d5ies ! exi/5ce ( unext5d$ po9ts1 admits1 z x necess>ily mu/ admit1 inf9ite divisibility4 ,ext5sion has p>ts1 & !re=e is divisible2 ^! p>ts1 9 _! turn1 are ei!r ext5d$ or n ext5d$2 if unext5d$1 ! supposition fails1 & ! op9ion ( unext5d$ po9ts is admitt$2 if ext5d$1 !y are divisible1 & we mu/ ei!r come at la/ to unext5d$ po9ts1 or cont9ue ! division ad inf9itum4 ,i rem>k$ above t1 al?\gh less favorable to ! real exi/5ce ( geometrical po9ts1 ?is op9ion z well z ! o!r does ackn[l$ge _! realization4 ,! p>ts into :i* ! composite is divid$ are n creat$ by ! division1 b exi/ be=e ! division1 & )\t !m ! division w\ld be impossible4 ,!y d n exi/ because !y may be divid$1 b !y may be divid$ because !y exi/4 ,?is op9ion !re=e1 does n expressly admit ! exi/5ce ( unext5d$ po9ts1 b x admits ! possibility ( et]nally com+ ne>] to !m1 & ?is n only 9 ! ideal1 b also 9 ! real ord]2 because ! divisibility is n affirm$ ( ! ideas1 b ( ! matt] itself4 ,al?\gh our exp]i5ce ( division is limit$1 divisibility itself is unlimit$4 ,a be+ end[$ ) great] p[]s ?an we possess1 might c>ry ! division fur!r ?an we are able to d4 ,our ability to divide is limit$1 b ,god1 by 8 inf9ite p[]1 c pu% ! division ad inf9itum1 & ,8 inf9ite intellig5ce sees 9 an in/ant all ! p>ts into :i* ! composite may be divid$4 ,omitt+ ! difficulties :i* att5d an op9ion :i* seems to suppose ! exi/5ce ( :at x d5ies1 ,i w ask if geometry c require m rigor\s exactness ?an is f\nd 9 ! po9ts to :i* inf9ite p[] c come1 if we suppose x to ex]cise its et]nal action 9 divid+ ! composite2 or1 9 o!r words1 c !re be any m /rictly geometrical po9ts ?an ^? se5 by an inf9ite intellig5ce 9 an inf9itely divisible be+8 ,?is n only satisfies our imag9ation & our ideas ( exactness1 b goes ev5 beyond4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es u t to imag9e an unext5d$ po9t is n impossible2 & to ?9k x 9 ! purely intellectual ord]1 is only to conceive ! possibility ( ?is inf9ite divisibility1 & to be sudd5ly plac$ at ! la/ limit1--a limit :i* mu/ /ill be f> di/ant f t to :i*1 n ab/raction1 b ! sight ( inf9ite intellig5ce c rea*4 ,if ! geometrical po9t exi/s1 ! geometrical l9e also exi/s2 = x is only a s]ies ( unext5d$ po9ts2 or1 if we are unwill+ to ackn[l$ge ^!1 a s]ies ( extremes to :i* division inf9itely cont9u$ at la/ arrives4 ,a s]ies ( geometrical l9es =ms a surface2 & a union ( surfaces =ms a solid1 ! ideal ord] agree+ ) reality 9 its =mation z 9 its nature4 #cd4 ,?is !ory ( ! realization ( geometry ext5ds equally to all ! natural sci5ces4 ,x is an error to say1 = example1 t ! reality does n correspond to ! !ories ( me*anics4 ,x %\ld r be said t x is n ! reality t is at fault1 b ! means ( exp]im5t+2 ! blame %\ld n be imput$ to ! reality1 b r to ! limitation ( our exp]i5ce4 ,! c5tre ( gravity 9 a body1 is ! po9t :]e all ! =ces ( gravitation 9 ! body unite4 ,me*anics supposes ?is po9t to be indivisible1 & 9 accordance ) ?is supposition1 e/abli%es & demon/rates its !orems1 & solves its problems4 ,"h /ops ! me*anician1 & ! ma*9i/ beg9s1 :o c nev] discov] ! /rict c5tre ( gravity suppos$ 9 ! !ory4 ,exp]i5ce disagrees ) ! pr9ciples1 & we ought to correct ! =m] by adh]+ to t :i* is det]m9$ by ! latt]4 ,is ?is because ! c5tre ( gravity does n exi/ 9 nature ) all ! exactness :i* sci5ce supposes8 ,no2 ! c5tre exi/s1 b ! means ( f9d+ x are want+4 ,nature goes z f> z sci5ce2 nei!r rema9s beh9d2 b our means ( exp]i5ce are unable to keep up ) !m4 ,! me*anician det]m9es ! indivisible po9t 9 :i* ! c5tre ( gravity is situat$1 suppos+ ! surface )\t ?ickness1 l9es )\t bread?1 & ! l5g? divid$ at a det]m9ate po9t ( space1 :i* has no ext5sion4 ,nature entirely fulfills ^! conditions4 ,! po9t exi/s1 & ! reality %\ld n be blam$ = ! limitation ( our exp]i5ce4 ,! po9t exi/s 9 ei!r ( ! hypo!ses m5tion$ above4 ,! fir/1 :i* favors unext5d$ po9ts1 admits ! exi/5ce ( ! c5tre ( gravity 9 all its sci5tific purity4 ,! o!r is n s decid$1 b x says to u3 ,d y see ?is molecule1 ?is little globe ( inf9itesimal diamet]1 ! smallness ( :i* ! imag9ation _c repres5t8 ,make x /ill small]1 by divid+ x = all et]nity1 9 decreas+ geometrical progression1 & y w always be com+ ne>] ! c5tre ( gravity )\t ev] rea*+ x4 ,nature w nev] fail2 ! limit w ev] retire f y2 b y w "k y are approa*+ x4 ,)9 ?is molecule is :at y seek4 ,cont9ue to advance1 y w nev] rea* x1--b :at y want is !re4 ,9 ?is case ,i d n see t ! reality falls %ort ( sci5tific exactness2 no me*anical !ory imag9$ or conceiv$ c g f>!r4 #ce4 ,^! reflections place beyond all d\bt t geometry ) all its exactness1 & !ories 9 all _! rigor1 exi/ 9 nature4 ,if we c\ld foll[ x 9 our exp]i5ce1 we %\ld f9d ! real con=m$ to ! ideal ord]1 & we %\ld discov] t :5 exp]i5ce is oppos$ to !ory1 x is n ! latt] :i* is wrong1 b ! limitation ( our means makes u lay aside ! conditions impos$ by ! !ory4 ,! ma*9i/ :o con/ructs a sy/em ( ind5t$ :eels f9ds himself oblig$ to correct ! rules ( !ory1 on acc\nt ( friction1 & o!r circum/ances1 proce$+ f ! mat]ial :i* he employs4 ,if he c\ld see ) a glance ! bosom ( nature1 he w\ld discov] 9 ! friction itself a new sy/em ( inf9itesimal ge>+ :i* w\ld confirm ) wond]ful exactness ^? v rules :i* a rude exp]i5ce repres5ts to him z oppos$ to reality4 #cf4 ,if ! univ]se is admirable 9 its masses ( gigantic imm5sity1 x is n less s 9 its smalle/ p>ts4 ,we are plac$ betwe5 two inf9ities4 ,man 9 8 weakness1 unable to rea* ei!r "o or ! o!r1 mu/ cont5t himself ) feel+ !m1 hop+ t a new exi/5ce 9 ano!r _w w cle> up ! secrets :i* are n[ veil$ 9 imp5etrable d>kness4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,ext5sion4 #cg4 ,if ext5sion is some?+ z we h prov$2 :at is x8 ,we f9d ext5sion 9 bodies & also 9 space because 9 bo? we f9d t :i* con/itutes its ess5ce1 :i* is dim5sion4 ,is ! ext5sion ( bodies ! same z ! ext5sion ( space8 ,i see & hold 9 my h& a p53 x is c]ta9ly ext5d$4 ,x moves1 & its ext5sion moves ) x4 ,! space 9 :i* its motion is execut$ rema9s immovable4 ,at ! in/ant ,a ! ext5sion ( ! p5 occupies ! po9t ,a2 at ! mom5t ,b ! same ext5sion ( ! p5 occupies ! "p ,b ( space :i* is di/9ct f ! "p ,a2 !re=e nei!r ! "p ,a ( space nor ! "p ,b is id5tifi$ ) ! ext5sion ( ! body4 ,?is seems to h all ! =ce ( a demon/ration2 b to make x m cle> & m g5]al1 ,i w put x into ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,?+s :i* are sep>at$ or may be sep>at$ are di/9ct2 b ! ext5sion ( bodies may be sep>at$ f any "p ( space2 !re=e ! ext5sion ( bodies & ! ext5sion ( space are di/9ct4 ,i said t ?is reason+ seems to h all ! =ce ( a demon/ration1 b x is nev]!less subject to s]i\s difficulties4 ,^! difficulties _c be und]/ood )\t a pr(\nd analysis ( ! idea ( space1 & !re=e ,i %all res]ve my op9ion until ?is has be5 treat$ ( 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 #ch4 ,is ! ext5sion ( a body ! body itself8 ,i _c conceive a body )\t ext5sion1 b ?is does n prove t ext5sion is ! same ?+ z ! body4 ,my s\l has acquir$ a k ( ! body by means ( ! s5ses4 ,^! s5ses h awak5$ 9 me ! idea ( ext5sion2 b !y h told me no?+ ( ! intr9sic nature ( ! body p]ceiv$4 ,9 ^? be+s :i* we call bodies we f9d ! p[] ( produc+ 9 u impressions v di/9ct f t ( ext5sion4 ,f two bodies ( equal ext5sion we receive v diff]5t impressions1 !re=e !re is 9 !m some?+ besides ext5sion4 ,if ext5sion 0 _! only quality1 ?is be+ equal1 ! effect w\ld be ! same2 b exp]i5ce tea*es u t x is n s4 ,moreov] we conceive ext5sion 9 pure space :]e !re is no body4 ,! idea ( body implies ! idea ( mobility1 :ile space is immovable4 ,x implies ! p[] ( produc+ impressions2 ! ext5sion ( space has n ( itself ?is p[]4 ,!re=e ! simple idea ( ext5sion does n include ev5 9 our cognitions ! :ole idea ( a body4 ,we d n "k 9 :at ! ess5ce ( body consi/s2 b we "k t 9 ! idea :i* we h ( x !re is some?+ m ?an ext5sion4 #ci4 ,:5 x is said t a body is inconceivable )\t ext5sion x is n meant t ext5sion is ! con/itutive notion ( ! ess5ce ( body4 ,?is ess5ce is unkn[n to u1 & !re=e we _c "k :at does or does n belong to x4 ,! true mean+ ( ?is insep>ability ( ! two ideas ( ext5sion & body is ?is3 ,z we h no k a priori ( bodies1 b :atev] we "k ( !m1 _! exi/5ce includ$1 we d]ive ?r\gh ! s5ses1 all t we ?9k or imag9e conc]n+ !m mu/ presuppose t :i* is ! basis ( our s5sations4 ,?is basis1 z we h already se51 is ext5sion2 )\t x !re is no s5sation1 & consequ5tly )\t x a body ceases to exi/ = u1 or is r$uc$ to a be+ :i* we _c di/+ui% f o!rs4 ,i w expla9 my ideas4 ,if ,i /rip bodies ( ext5sion & leave !m only ! nature ( a be+ :i* causes ! impressions :i* ,i receive2 ?is be+ is ! same1 s f> z ,i am conc]n$1 z a _s :i* %\ld produce ! same impressions4 ,i see ?is pap]1 & x causes 9 me ! impression ( a :ite surface4 ,!re is no d\bt t ,god c\ld produce 9 my m9d ! same s5sation )\t ! exi/5ce ( any body4 ,!n suppos+ t ,i knew t no ext]nal ext5d$ object correspond$ to my s5sation1 :i* 0 caus$ by a be+ act+ ^u me1 x is evid5t t !re w\ld be two di/9ct ?+s 9 my m9d4 ,fir/1 ! ph5om5on ( s5sation1 :i* "u all hypo!ses is ! same2 & secondly1 ! idea ( ! be+ :i* produc$ x1 :i* is only ! idea ( a be+ di/9ct f myself1 act+ ^u me1 :i* 9 relation to ! ext]nal _w1 w\ld involve two ideas2 ^? ( di/9ction & causality4 ,i n[ take f ! pap] ext5sion1 & :at rema9s8 ,! same z be=e4 #a4 ,an int]nal ph5om5on1 made kn[n by consci\sness4 #b4 ,! idea ( a be+ ! cause ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,i d n "k :e!r ?is mu/ always be a body2 b ,i "k t ! idea ( a body1 z ,i und]/& x1 includes some?+ m ?an ?is4 ,i "k t be+ is n 9 relation to myself di/+ui%able f o!r be+s1 & t if !re is any ?+ 9 its nature to di/+ui% x f !m1 x is some?+ unkn[n to me4#dj #dj ,see ,*4 ,i4 #dj4 ,?is is ! s5se 9 :i* ,i say t we _c sep>ate ! idea ( ext5sion f ! body4 ,b f ?is x mu/ n be inf]r$ t ! ?+s !mselves are id5tifi$2 p]haps1 ev51 a m pr(\nd k ( matt] w\ld %[ u t in/ead ( be+ id5tical1 !y are entirely di/9ct4 ,we h se5 t x is s ) _! ideas1 & ?is is a sign t x is s 9 reality4 #da4 ,we h few ideas z cle> z t ( ext5sion geometrically consid]$2 e attempt to expla9 x is useless2 we "k x m p]fectly by m]e intuition ?an :ole volumes c\ld make x kn[n to u4 ,x is s cle> an idea1 t on x is f\nd$ a :ole sci5ce1 ! mo/ ext5sive & evid5t :i* we possess1 t ( geometry4 ,!re=e !re is reason to believe t we "k ! true ess5ce ( ext5sion1 s9ce we "k its necess>y prop]ties1 & ev5 base a :ole sci5ce on ?is k4 ,yet we d n discov] 9 ?is idea1 ei!r imp5etrability or any ( ! prop]ties ( bodies2 b r on ! contr>y1 we f9d a capacity indiff]5t to !m all4 ,we conceive ext5sion p5etrable z easily z imp5etrable1 empty or full1 :ite or gre51 ) prop]ties by :i* x c be plac$ 9 relation ) our organs1 z easily z )\t !m4 ,we c conceive ext5sion 9 a body act+ on ano!r body1 or 9 pure space2 9 ! sun :i* enlight5s & w>ms ! _w1 or 9 ! vague dim5sions ( an empty imm5sity4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,space4--,,no?+4 #db4 ,x may h be5 rem>k$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s t ! idea ( ext5sion is always unit$ ) t ( space1 & :5 we endeavor to det]m9e ! real nature ( ! =m]1 we enc\nt] ! que/ions :i* relate to ! latt]4 ,x is n possible to expla9 "o1 :ile ! o!r rema9s 9 obscurity4 ,x is = ?is reason t ,i h conclud$ to exam9e c>efully ! que/ions conc]n+ space "u its ideal z well z "u its real aspect2 s9ce only 9 ?is mann] is x possible to det]m9e cle>ly ! nature ( ext5sion4 #dc4 ,space is "o ( ^? pr(\nd my/]ies :i* ! natural ord] pres5ts to man's weak und]/&+4 ,! deep] he exam9es x ! m obscure he f9ds x2 ! m9d is buri$ 9 ! d>kness :i* we imag9e to exi/ beyond ! b\nds ( ! f9ite1 9 ! abyss ( imm5sity4 ,we "k n if :at we behold is an illusion or a reality4 ,= a mom5t we seem to h f\nd ! tru?1 & !n we discov] t we h /ret*$ our arms to embrace a %ad[4 ,we =m argum5ts :i* 9 any o!r matt] w\ld be conclusive1 b are n s "h1 because !y are 9 direct contradiction to o!rs equally conclusive4 ,we seem to h rea*$ ! limit :i* ! ,creator has put to our inve/igations2 & 9 endeavor+ to pass beyond x1 our /r5g? fails1 = we f9d ourselves out ( ! elem5t :i* is natural to our life4 ,:5 c]ta9 philosoph]s pass rapidly ov] ! que/ions relat+ to space1 & flatt] !mselves ) expla9+ !m 9 a few words1 we c assure !m t ei!r !y h n m$itat$ mu* ^u ! difficulty :i* ^! que/ions involve1 or else !y h n und]/ood !m4 ,x 0 n s t ,desc>tes1 ,malebran*e1 ,newton1 or ,leibnitz proce$$4 ,to desc5d ?is bottomless abyss is n to lose "t 9 useless discussion2 ev5 ?\gh we %\ld n f9d :at we seek1 we obta9 a mo/ preci\s result1 = we rea* ! limits assign$ to our intellect4 ,x is well to "k :at may be kn[n & :at _c2 = f ?is k philosophy draws high & valuable consid]ations4 ,moreov]1 ?\gh we h small hope ( success1 we _c pass ov] )\t exam9+ an idea t is s closely connect$ ) all our k ( corporeal objects1 t is to say1 ext5sion4 ,!re mu/ be a motive ( inve/igation s9ce all philosoph]s h inve/igat$ x1 & :o c say t aft] long ages ( ef=ts ! tru? is n p]haps res]v$ z ! rew>d ( con/ancy8 #dd4 ,:at !n is space8 ,is x some?+ real or only an idea8 ,if an idea is !re any object 9 ! ext]nal _w :i* corresponds to x8 ,is x a pure illusion8 ,& is ! ^w space )\t mean+8 ,if we d n "k :at space is1 let u at lea/ fix ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 & ?us det]m9e 9 "s measure ! /ate ( ! "q4 ,by space we und]/& ! ext5sion 9 :i* we imag9e bodies to be plac$1 or ! capacity to conta9 !m to :i* we attribute none ( _! qualities except ext5sion4 ,let u suppose a glass to be h]metically seal$1 & ! int]ior to rema9 empty by ! annihilation ( :at x conta9$2 ?is cavity or capacity :i* 9 our way ( und]/&+ x may be occupi$ by a body is a "p ( space4 ,let u imag9e ! _w to be an imm5se receptacle 9 :i* all bodies are conta9$2 let u sudd5ly make x empty & we h a cavity equal 9 space to ! univ]se4 ,if we imag9e beyond ! limits ( ! _w a capacity to conta9 o!r bodies1 we h an unlimit$ or imag9>y space4 ,space appe>s to u at fir/ sight1 if n inf9ite1 at lea/ indef9ite4 ,= 9 :atev] "p we conceive a body to be plac$1 we also conceive ! possibility ( its mov+1 describ+ any class ( l9es1 or tak+ any k9d ( direction & dep>t+ indef9itely f its fir/ position4 ,!re=e we imag9e no limit to ?is capacity1 to ^! dim5sions4 ,!re=e space appe>s to u z indef9ite4 #de4 ,is space a pure no?+8 ,"s philosoph]s ma9ta9 t ab/ract$ f ! surface ( bodies1 & consid]$ z a m]e int]val1 x is a pure no?+4 ,at ! same "t !y admit t x is only ow+ to space t two bodies are really di/ant f ea* o!r1 & add t if we suppose ! :ole _w1 ) ! exception ( "o body only1 to be r$uc$ to no?+1 ?is body c\ld move & *ange its place4 ,i am confid5t t ?is op9ion involves irreconcilable contradictions4 ,to say ext5sion-no?+ is a contradiction 9 t]ms1 & ! op9ion ( ^! philosoph]s is r$uc$ to ?is expression4 #df4 ,if e ?+ 9 a room be r$uc$ to no?+1 x seems impossible = ! walls to rema9 di/ant f ea* o!r2 = ! idea ( di/ance implies a m$ium betwe5 ! two objects2 & no?+1 be+ no?+1 _c be ! m$ium requir$4 ,if ! int]val is no?+1 !re is no di/ance4 ,to attribute prop]ties to no?+1 is to de/roy all ideas1--to affirm t a ?+ may be & n be at ! same "t1--& consequ5tly to ov]?r[ ! f\ndation ( human k4 #dg4 ,to say t if ! cont5ts 7 annihilat$1 a negative space w\ld rema91 is only to play ) words )\t t\*+ ! difficulty to be solv$4 ,?is negative space is ei!r some?+ or no?+2 if x is some?+1 ! op9ion we are oppos+ is false2 if x is no?+1 ! difficulty rema9s ! same4 #dh4 ,b1 x may be said1 al?\gh no?+ rema9s betwe5 ! surfaces1 !y /ill reta9 ! capacity ( conta9+ some?+4 ,to ?is ,i reply1 t ?is capacity is n 9 ! surfaces !mselves1 b 9 _! di/ance f ea* o!r2 = if x 7 9 ! surfaces1 !y w\ld /ill pres]ve x1 no matt] h[ !y may be plac$1 :i* is absurd4 ,we h n !re=e advanc$ a s+le /ep4 ,we mu/ expla9 :at ?is capacity1 or ?is di/ance1 is2 & ?is is /ill unt\*$4 #di4 ,p]haps x may be said t annihilat+ all t is conta9$ betwe5 ! surfaces1 does n de/roy ! volume :i* !y =m1 & ! idea ( ?is volume implies ! idea ( capacity4 ,b ,i reply1 t ! idea ( volume involves t ( di/ance1 & !re is no di/ance if ?is di/ance is a pure no?+4 #ej4 ,9 our ef=ts to surm\nt ^! difficulties1 ano!r seem+ly speci\s solution (f]s1 b if we exam9e x we %all f9d x z weak z ! o!rs4 ,di/ance1 x might be said1 is a m]e negation ( contact1 b negation is a pure no?+2 !re=e ?is no?+ is :at we seek4 ,i say ?is solution is z weak z ! o!rs2 =1 if di/ance is only ! negation ( contact1 all di/ances mu/ be equal1 because negation _c be great] or less4 ,! negation ( contact is ! same :e!r ! surfaces are a million leagues or only ! million? "p ( an in* di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,?is negation1 !re=e1 expla9s no?+1 & ! difficulty /ill rema9s4 #ea4 ,n only is ! idea ( di/ance n expla9$ by ! idea ( contact1 b on ! contr>y1 ! idea ( contact c only be expla9$ by ! idea ( di/ance4 ,contiguity is expla9$ by imm$iate union ( two surfaces2 we say t !y t\* ea* o!r because !re is no?+ betwe5 !m1 or !re is no di/ance4 ,! idea ( contact does n involve ! qualities :i* relate to ! s5ses1 nor ! action :i* "o body may ex]cise ^u ano!r :i* t\*es x1 z impulse or compression4 ,contiguity is a negative1 & purely geometrical1 idea1 & implies only ! negation ( di/ance4 ,contiguity _c be great] or less2 x is all t x c be :5 !re is a true negation ( di/ance4 ,two objects may be m or less di/ant1 b !y _c t\* m or less1 ) respect to ! same p>ts4 ,!re may be contact ( m po9ts1 b n m contact ( ! same po9ts4 #eb4 ,if we attribute di/ance & capacity to space1 ! argum5t 9 favor ( its reality becomes /ill /rong]4 ,let u suppose an empty sph]e two feet 9 diamet]4 ,)9 !re is only space2 if space is no?+ !re is no?+ 9 x4 ,is motion possible 9 ?is empty sph]e8 ,x does n seem t !re c be any d\bt ( ?is4 ,!re is a movable body1 an ext5sion great] ?an ! ext5sion ( ! body1 & a di/ance to be pass$ ov]4 ,we may add to ?is1 t if motion 7 n possible1 x w\ld n be possible to make ! sph]e empty1 or aft] mak+ x empty1 to fill x4 ,nei!r empty+ nor fill+ ! sph]e c be done )\t motion ( bodies 9 ! int]ior ( ! sph]e1 & motion ( a body 9 ano!r body is only possible 9 space1 because bodies are imp5etrable1 & also because1 :5 ! sph]e is fill$ aft] x is empty1 ! body :i* ent]s does n meet ano!r body2 & :5 ! sph]e is made empty1 ! body :i* passes out1 moves ov] ! space :i* x ab&ons1 & 9 :i* no?+ rema9s aft] x has pass$ out4 ,!re=e1 suppos+ ! sph]e empty1 !re may be motion 9 x4 ,b if ! space conta9$ 9 ! sph]e is a pure no?+1 ! motion also is no?+1 & consequ5tly does n exi/4 ,motion c nei!r exi/ nor be p]ceiv$ )\t a di/ance pass$ ov]4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! di/ance is no?+1 !re is no motion4 ,if we say t ! body has pass$ ov] half ( ! diamet]1 or "o foot1 :at does ?is mean8 ,if ! space is no?+1 x c mean no?+4 ,i see no reply :i* c be made to ^! argum5ts1 :i* are all bas$ on ! axiom1 t no?+ has no prop]ties4 #ec4 ,h[ev] great may be ! difficulties oppos$ to ! reality ( space1 !y are n s great z ^? :i* are br\ght aga9/ ! op9ion1 :i*1 :ile grant+ ext5sion to space1 /ill reg>ds x z a pure no?+4 ,! =m]1 z we %all soon see1 are produc$ by c]ta9 inaccuracies 9 our way ( conceiv+ ?+s1 r ?an by argum5ts f\nd$ on ! nature ( ?+s2 :il/ ^? objections :i* we h br\ght aga9/ ! op9ion d5y+ ! reality ( space1 are f\nd$ on ! ideas :i* are ! basis ( all our k1 & on ?is evid5t proposition3 no?+ has no prop]ties4 ,if ?is proposition is n admitt$ z an e/abli%$ axiom1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction falls1 & all human k is de/roy$4 ,=1 x w\ld be a pla9 contradiction1 if no?+ c\ld h any prop]ties or p>ts2 if any ?+ c\ld be affirm$ ( no?+1 or c\ld be mov$ 9 no?+2 if a sci5ce l geometry c\ld be f\nd$ ^u no?+2 or if all ! calculations :i* are made on nature are ref]r$ to no?+4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,desc>tes ,,& ,,leibnitz ,,on ,,space4 #ed4 ,if space is some?+1 :at is x8 ,"h is ! difficulty4 ,to ov]?r[ ! op9ion ( our adv]s>ies 0 easy1 b to ma9ta9 our position is m difficult4 ,c we say t space is only ! ext5sion ( bodies2 t conceiv$ 9 ! ab/ract x gives u ! idea ( :at we call pure space2 & t ! diff]5t po9ts & positions are m]e modifications ( ext5sion8 ,x is easy to see t if space is ! ext5sion ( bodies1 :]e !re is no body !re c be no space1 & consequ5tly vacuum is impossible4 ,?is consequ5ce is unavoidable4 ,?is has be5 ! op9ion ( celebrat$ philosoph]s l ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz2 b ,i _c und]/& :y !y bo? gave ! univ]se an indef9ite ext5sion4 ,x is true t by ?is means !y avoid ! difficulty ( ! space :i* we imag9e beyond ! limits ( ! univ]se2 s9ce1 if ! univ]se is n limit$1 !re c be no?+ beyond its limits1 & !re=e1 :atev] we c imag9e1 mu/ be )9 ! univ]se4 ,b our object is n to avoid difficulties1 b to solve !m2 & x argues no?+ = ! s\ndness ( our op9ion t x escapes difficulties4 #ee4 ,accord+ to ,desc>tes1 ! ess5ce ( body is 9 ext5sion1 & z we necess>ily conceive ext5sion 9 space1 x foll[s t space1 body1 & ext5sion1 are ?ree ess5tially id5tical ?+s4 ,vacuum1 z x is g5]ally conceiv$1 t is1 an ext5sion )\t a body1 is !n a contradiction2 = x is a body1 because x is ext5sion1 & x is n a body1 because we suppose t !re is no body4 ,desc>tes accepts all ! consequ5ces ( ?is doctr9e4 ,he does n admit ! supposition t if ,god %\ld annihilate all ! matt] conta9$ 9 a vessel1 ?is vessel c\ld /ill reta9 its =m4 ,we %all obs]ve1 he says1 9 opposition to ?is s]i\s error1 t !re is no necess>y connection betwe5 ! vessel & ! body :i* fills x2 b su* is ! inv9cible necessity ( ! relation betwe5 ! concave figure ( ! vessel & ! ext5sion conta9$ 9 ?is concavity1 t x is n m difficult to imag9e a m\nta9 )\t a valley1 ?an to conceive ?is concavity )\t ! ext5sion conta9$ 9 x1 or ?is ext5sion )\t a ?+ ext5d$4 ,no?+1 z we h (t5 said1 _c be ext5d$4 ,!re=e1 if any "o %\ld ask1 :at w\ld happ5 if ,god %\ld de/roy ! matt] conta9$ 9 a vessel1 )\t replac+ x1 we mu/ say t ! sides ( ! vessel w\ld come s closely toge!r z to t\* ea* o!r4 ,two bodies mu/ t\* ea* o!r1 :5 !re is no?+ betwe5 !m4 ,x w\ld be a contradiction to ass]t t ^! two bodies 7 sep>at$2 t is to say1 t !re 0 a di/ance betwe5 !m1 if ?is di/ance 7 no?+1 or did n exi/4 ,di/ance is a prop]ty ( ext5sion1 & _c exi/ )\t ext5sion4#da #da ,desc>tes1 ,pr9cipes de la ,philosophie4 ,p4 #b1 #ah4 #ef4 ,if ,desc>tes _h gone no f>!r ?an to ma9ta9 t space1 because x conta9s real di/ances1 _c be a m]e no?+1 8 reason+ w\ld seem conclusive4 ,b :5 he adds t space is body1 because space is ext5sion1 & ext5sion con/itutes ! ess5ce ( body1 he ass]ts :at he does n prove4 ,because we _c imag9e or conceive a body )\t ext5sion1 x only foll[s t ext5sion is a prop]ty ( bodies )\t :i* we _c conceive !m1--n t x is _! ess5ce4 ,to be able to say ?is1 x w\ld be necess>y = u to h ! idea ( body z we h t ( ext5sion1 9 ord] t we might see if !y are id5tical4 ,b all t we "k ( bodies is d]iv$ ?r\gh ! s5ses2 we are n able to p5etrate into _! m intimate nature4 ,:5ce arises ! insep>ability ( ! ideas ( body & ext5sion8 ,x arises f ! idea :i* we h ( bodies be+ a confus$ idea1 s9ce we conceive x to be a sub/ance 9 c]ta9 relations to ourselves1 & caus+ 9 u ! impressions :i* we call s5sations4 ,b s9ce ! basis ( s5sations is ext5sion1 z we h demon/rat$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 ?is is ! only m$ium by :i* we are plac$ 9 relation ) bodies4 ,:5 we suppress ?is basis1 by ab/ract+ x1 we reta9 no?+ ( body beyond a g5]al idea ( be+ or sub/ance )\t any ?+ to *>act]ize x1 or to di/+ui% x f o!rs4 ,we f9d all ?is 9 ! ord] ( our ideas1 b we _c inf] f ?is t bodies h no o!r reality ?an ext5sion4 #eg4 ,! same reason+ de/roys ! op9ion ( indef9ite or inf9ite ext5sion4 ,desc>tes1 expla9+ 8 doctr9e on ! idea ( ext5sion1 says3 ,we %all also "k t ?is _w1 or ! ext5d$ matt] :i* composes ! univ]se1 is )\t limits2 =1 no matt] h[ f> (f we place ^! limits1 we c imag9e spaces indef9itely ext5d$ beyond !m2 & we n only imag9e ^! spaces1 b we conceive !m z really exi/+ su* z we imag9e !m1 & conta9+ an indef9itely ext5d$ body1 z ! idea ( ext5sion :i* we conceive 9 e space is ! true idea :i* we ought to =m ( a body4#db #db ,desc>tes1 ,ibid41 ,,ii1 p4 #ba4 ,9 ?is passage1 besides ! error 9 relation to ! ess5ce ( bodies1 !re is a gratuit\s transition f a purely ideal or r1 imag9>y ord]1 to ! real ord]4 ,x is c]ta9 t :]ev] ,i may imag9e ! limits ( ! univ]se1 if ,i consid] !m z an imm5se ar* surr\nd+ x1 ,i /ill imag9e new imm5sities ( space beyond ?is ar*2 b to conclude t ! reality is z ,i imag9e x1 does n seem con=m$ to ! rules ( good logic4 ,if x is z cle> z ,desc>tes supposes1 if x is n only an imag9ation1 b a conception f\nd$ on cle> & di/9ct ideas1 h[ happ5s x t s _m philosoph]s see 9 all ?is only a play ( ! imag9ation8 #eh4 ,leibnitz ?9ks t space is a relation1 an ord]1 n only betwe5 ?+s exi/+1 b also betwe5 possible ?+s z if !y exi/$4#dc ,he also believes vacuum impossible1 b n = ! reason :i* ,desc>tes gives4 ,^! are 8 words3 #dc ,leibnitz1 ,n\veaux ,essais4 ,l4 ,,ii41 ,c4 ,,xiii41 #ag4 ,philale!s4--,^? :o take matt] & ext5sion = ! same ?+1 pret5d t ! sides ( a holl[ empty body w\ld t\* ea* o!r4 ,b ! space :i* is betwe5 ! two bodies is en\gh to prev5t _! mutual contact4 ,!ophilus4--,i am ( y\r op9ion2 =1 al?\gh ,i d n admit a vacuum1 ,i di/+ui% matt] f ext5sion1 & conc$e t al?\gh !re 7 a vacuum 9 a sph]e1 ! opposite poles w\ld n on t acc\nt unite4 ,b ,i d n believe ?is is a case :i* ! div9e p]fection w\ld p]mit4#dd #dd ,leibnitz1 ,ibid41 #ba4 #ei4 ,leibnitz seems to me to commit :at logicians call petitio pr9cipii1 or1 begg+ ! "q4 ,he says t 9 ! case suppos$1 ! sides w\ld n t\* ea* o!r1 because ! space betwe5 !m w\ld prev5t x2 b ?is is :at he _h to prove1--! real exi/5ce ( ?is space4 ,?is reality is :at ,desc>tes d5ies4 #fj4 ,if we comp>e ! op9ions ( ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz1 we %all see t bo? agree 9 d5y+ to space a reality di/9ct f bodies1 b bas+ _! d5ial on v diff]5t reasons4 ,desc>tes places ! ess5ce ( body 9 ext5sion2 :]e !re is ext5sion !re is body2 :]e !re is space !re is ext5sion2 consequ5tly1 !re nei!r is nor c be a vacuum4 ,leibnitz does n believe an empty capacity intr9sically absurd1 & t he does n admit x is solely because1 9 8 conception1 x is repugnant to ! div9e p]fection4 ,! two illu/ri\s philosoph]s />t$ f v diff]5t pr9ciples1 b arriv$ at ! same conclusion4 ,desc>tes re/s ^u metaphysical reasons1 f\nd$ on ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,leibnitz bases 8 op9ion on ! absolute ess5ce ( ?+s only 9 its relations ) ! div9e p]fection4 ,empty capacity is a contradiction 9 ! op9ion ( ,leibnitz1 only inasmu* z x is oppos$ to optimism4 #fa4 ,x is v rem>kable t ?ree s di/+ui%$ philosoph]s z ,ari/otle1 ,desc>tes1 & ,leibnitz1 %\ld agree 9 d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ?is capacity :i* is call$ space1 consid]$ z a be+ di/9ct f bodies1 & ) ! possibility ( exi/+ by itself4 ,! diff]5ce ( _! op9ions only proves t at ! bottom ( ! "q !re is a difficulty m s]i\s ?an "s ideologi/s believe1 :o expla9 ! idea ( space & its g5]ation ) ! same ease z ?\gh !y 7 treat+ ( ! simple/ matt]s4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,op9ion ,,( ,,^? ,,:o ,,attribute ,,to ,,space ,a ,,nature ,,di/9ct ,,f ,,bodies4 #fb4 ,! prec$+ consid]ations seem to me to e/abli% beyond any "q1 t space & no?+ are contradictory t]ms4 ,if space is a capacity ) dim5sions t c be really measur$1 x has real prop]ties1 & !re=e is di/9ct f a pure no?+4 ,we h ! idea ( space1 on x is bas$ a c]ta9 & evid5t sci5ce1 t ( geometry2 ?is idea is also necess>y = ! conception ( motion4 ,a pure no?+ _c be ! object :i* corresponds to ?is idea4 ,is space some?+ di/9ct f ! ext5sion ( bodies8 ,x is object$ to ! op9ion :i* ma9ta9s ?is1 t space mu/ be ei!r body or _s1 & if n body x mu/ be _s1 :i* is absurd1 s9ce t :i* is ess5tially compos$ ( p>ts1 z space is1 _c be a _s1 :i* is a simple be+4 ,!re are /rong argum5ts aga9/ ! op9ion :i* attributes to space a nature di/9ct f bodies1 b ,i d n atta* mu* weight to ! above objection2 = x is only necess>y to d5y ! disjunctive proposition & ! :ole argum5t falls to ! gr\nd4 ,h[ c x be prov$ t !re is no m$ium betwe5 body & _s8 ,we "k ! ess5ce ( nei!r body nor _s1 & %all we arrogate to ourselves ! "r to ass]t t !re is no?+ 9 ! univ]se :i* is n compris$ "u "o ( two extremes1 ! nature ( :i* we "k n4 #fc4 ,x may be repli$1 t !re is no m$ium betwe5 ! simple & ! composite1 any m ?an betwe5 yes & no2 & !re=e !re is no m$ium betwe5 body :i* is composite1 & _s :i* is simple4 ,i conc$e t !re is no m$ium betwe5 ! simple & ! composite1 & t :atev] exi/s is "o or ! o!r2 b ,i d5y t :atev] is composite is body1 & :atev] is simple is _s4 ,^! two propositions3 e composite is a body1 &3 e body is composite1 are n id5tical4 ,!re may1 !re=e1 be composites t are n bodies4 ,composition1 or ! possession ( p>ts1 is a prop]ty ( bodies1 b does n con/itute _! ess5ce1 or1 at lea/1 we d n "k t x does4 ,if x 7 s1 we %\ld be oblig$ to embrace ! op9ion ( ,desc>tes1 t ext5sion con/itutes ! ess5ce ( bodies4 ,h[ d we "k t !re may n be ?+s :i* h p>ts1 & yet are n bodies8 #fd4 ,ev5 ! /ate ( ! "q makes u suppose space to be a sub/ance1 t is1 a be+ subsi/+ by itself )\t requir+ ano!r be+ 9 :i* to exi/4 ,! difficulty once ov]come on ?is supposition1 x is solv$ 9 its mo/ ess5tial & inaccessible po9t1 & !re=e 9 all o!rs4 ,if we suppose space to be di/9ct f bodies1 & at ! same "t a true reality1 we mu/ consid] x z a sub/ance1 z x exi/s 9 itself )\t any o!r be+ 9 :i* x inh]es4 #fe4 ,i said t a simple be+ is n necess>ily a _s4 ,to expla9 ?is1 ,i ne$ only obs]ve1 t to say e _s is simple1 is n ! same z to say e simple be+ is a _s4 ,simplicity is a necess>y attribute ( a _s1 b does n con/itute its ess5ce4 ,! idea ( simplicity expresses only ! negation ( p>ts1 & ! ess5ce ( _s _c consi/ 9 a negation4 #ff4 ,! argum5t ( ^? :o object to ?is op9ion :i* attributes to space a nature di/9ct f bodies1 mak+ x an ext5d$ sub/ance1 t x mu/ also be inf9ite1 is equally inconclusive4 ,= ev5 on ?is hypo!sis1 !re is no reason :y a limit may n be assign$ to space4 ,:at is !re beyond ?is limit8 ,no?+4 ,we may1 x is true1 conceive a vague ext5sion1 b imag9ation is n reality4 ,we also imag9e an epo* prior to ! ,creation2 if1 !n1 imag9ation 7 an argum5t 9 favor ( ! inf9ity ( ! _w1 x w\ld also be an argum5t = its et]nity4 ,! argum5ts ) :i* ,i h f\ght aga9/ ! op9ion t space is a pure no?+1 are n f\nd$ on our imag9ations1 b on ! impossibility ( no?+ be+ ext5d$1 or hav+ any prop]ties4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal argum5t :i* ,i h us$ aga9/ ^? :o1 :ile !y hold space to be a pure no?+1 ma9ta9 ! possibility ( ! conception or exi/5ce ( ! prop]ties :i* !y attribute to space4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,op9ion ,,( ,,^? ,,:o ,,hold ,,space ,,to ,,be ,,! ,,imm5sity ,,( ,,god4 #fg4 ,ov]:elm$ by ^! difficulties1 & unable to reconcile ! reality :i* space (f]s u ) no?+1 or to conceive 9 any ?+ creat$ ! immobility1 inf9ity1 & p]petuity :i* we imag9e 9 space1 "s philosoph]s h put =? ! op9ion t space is ! imm5sity ( ,god4 ,at fir/ sight ?is seems an extravagant absurdity1 b if we wi% fairly to prove ! falsity ( ?is op9ion1 we mu/ d ju/ice n only to ! "r int5tion ( ^? :o h def5d$ x1 & ! s\nd explanations :i* !y br\ght to _! assi/ance1 b also to ! reasons :i* =c$ !m to ?is extremity1 & :i*1 ?\gh c]ta9ly n weighty or solid1 are f> f be+ s contemptible z "o may imag9e4 #fh4 ,! argum5t 9 favor ( ?is op9ion may be put 9 ! foll[+ =m4 ,space is some?+4 ,be=e ,god creat$ ! _w space exi/$4 ,x is n possible to conceive bodies z exi/+ )\t space 9 :i* !y are ext5d$4 ,be=e !y exi/1 we conceive ?is capacity 9 :i* !y may be plac$1 z already exi/+4 ,!re=e1 space is et]nal4 ,!re is no motion )\t space2 & 9 ! fir/ in/ant ( ! creation bodies c\ld move & be mov$4 ,?\gh we suppose only "o body 9 ! _w1 x c\ld be mov$2 & ?is motion c\ld be inf9itely cont9u$4 ,!re=e space is inf9ite4 ,annihilate n[ ?is body also1 & ! ext5sion 9 :i* x mov$ w rema92 9 x new bodies1 new worlds may be creat$4 ,!re=e space is inde/ructible4 ,b an et]nal1 inf9ite1 & inde/ructible be+ _c be creat$4 ,!re=e1 space is uncreat$4 ,!re=e x is ,god himself4 ,b x mu/ be ,god inasmu* z we conceive him 9 relation to ext5sion2 &1 !re=e1 space is ! imm5sity ( ,god4 ,imm5sity is ! attribute by :i* ,god is 9 e "p2 x is an attribute :i* relates to ext5sion4 ,space is1 !re=e1 ! imm5sity ( ,god4 ,only by adopt+ ?is !ory c we reasonably admit t space is et]nal1 inf9ite1 & inde/ructible4 #fi4 ,! objection to ?is op9ion is t x de/roys ! simplicity ( ,god4 ,if space is a prop]ty ( ,god1 x is ,god2 =1 :atev] is 9 ,god1 is ,god4 ,!re=e1 z space is ess5tially ext5d$1 ,god too mu/ be ext5d$4 ,cl>ke saw ! =ce ( ?is argum5t2 he 0 made to feel x by ! argum5ts ( 8 adv]s>y1 ,leibnitz2 b he answ]s x v weakly4 ,he says t space has p>ts1 b !y are n sep>able4 ,b1 h[ev] ?is may be1 x is c]ta9 t space has p>ts4 ,true1 9 ! idea ( space we di/+ui% p>ts )\t sep>at+ !m2 b we really conceive !m 9 x1 & we _c conceive space )\t !m4 ,besides1 if we %\ld admit ?is !ory1 :at w\ld become ( ! pro(s ( ! immat]iality ( ! s\l8 ,if ! inf9ite wisdom is ext5d$1 :y may n ! human s\l ) mu* m reason be s8 ,c>ri$ away by 8 favorite idea1 ,cl>ke w5t s f> z to write :at we %\ld n h expect$ f su* a man1 t3 ,9 que/ions ( ?is nature1 :5 we speak ( p>ts1 we mean p>ts t are sep>able1 composite1 & disunit$ l ^? ( matt]1 :i* = ?is reason is always a comp\nd & nev] a simple sub/ance4 ,matt] is n "o sub/ance1 b a composition ( sub/ances4 ,?is is :y1 9 my op9ion1 matt] is incapable ( ?9k+4 ,?is incapacity does n proce$ f ext5sion1 b f ! p>ts be+ di/9ct sub/ances1 disunit$1 & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4#de ,?is explanation t5ds to de/roy ! simplicity ( ?9k+ be+s2 = by simplicity has always be5 und]/ood ! absolute want+ ( all p>ts & n ! abs5ce ( ?is or t k9d ( p>ts4 ,insep>ability does n de/roy ! exi/5ce ( p>ts2 x m]ely ass]ts ! =ce ( cohesion4 #de ,fragm5t ( a ,lett]4--7,i d n "k :at lett] ! au?or "h ref]s to1 b ! same op9ion 9 almo/ ! same words may be f\nd 9 ,cl>ke's f\r? & fif? lett]s to ,leibnitz1 ,tr47 #gj4 ,x is also to be fe>$ t ?is doctr9e op5s ! door to pan!ism4 ,x 0 ev5 object$ to ,cl>ke t x made ,god ! s\l ( ! _w1 & al?\gh he def5d$ himself f ?is *>ge1 !re /ill rema9s an objection :i* 0 n propos$ to him1 & :i* is a v s]i\s "o4 ,if we say t ,god is space1 or t space is a prop]ty ( ,god1 :at h9d]s our say+ t ,god is ! _w1 or t ! _w is a prop]ty ( ,god8 ,! _w is ext5d$2 b s is space4 ,if ,god & space are n contradictory ideas 9 ! same be+1 :y are ,god & ! univ]se contradictory8 ,cl>ke says t bodies are compos$ ( diff]5t sub/ances1 t !y are n "o sub/ance2 b x is c]ta9 t all we "k ( bodies is t !y are ext5d$1 & t !y cause c]ta9 impressions 9 u4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ext5sion is n repugnant to ,god1 & mu* less s ! causality ( impressions1 !re c be no reason aga9/ say+ t :at ,cl>ke calls di/9ct sub/ances1 are only ! p>ts1 or1 if he pref]s x1 ! prop]ties ( ! inf9ite sub/ance4 ,newton w5t s f> z to say t space 0 ! s5sorium ( ,god1 & ev5 ,cl>ke ma9ta9$ aga9/ ,leibnitz t ,newton's expression might be> a s\nd int]pretation1 z x 0 int5d$ only z a comp>ison4 ,b ,leibnitz insi/s s /rongly on ?is *>ge t x is pla9 t he _h v great objections to ?is ^w4 #ga4 ,:atev] t5ds to conf\nd ,god ) nature1 or to place him 9 con/ant communication ) x1 o!rwise ?an by pure acts ( intellect & w1 places u on a v slipp]y declivity1 :]e we c h>dly help be+ precipitat$ to ! bottom1 & at ?is bottom is pan!ism1 :i* is b a phasis ( a!ism47#cj7 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,f5elon',s ,,op9ion4 #gb4 ,cl>ke's op9ion is v simil> to t ( ,f5elon1 :o 9 8 ,treatise on ! exi/5ce & attributes ( ,god1 expla9s imm5sity 9 a v surpris+ mann]4 ,he says3 ,aft] consid]+ ! et]nity & immutability ( ,god1 :i* are ! same ?+1 ,i ought to exam9e 8 imm5sity4 ,s9ce he is by himself1 he is sov]eignly1 & s9ce he is sov]eignly1 he has all be+ 9 himself4 ,s9ce he has all be+ 9 himself1 he has )\t d\bt ext5sion2 ext5sion is a mann] ( be+1 ( :i* ,i h an idea4 ,i h already se5 t my ideas ^u ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 are real degrees ( be+1 :i* actually exi/ 9 ,god1 & are possible out ( him1 because he c produce !m4 ,!re=e1 ext5sion is 9 him2 he c produce x outside ( himself1 only because x is conta9$ 9 ! fulness ( 8 be+4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t ! words ( ,f5elon may be expla9$ 9 a s5se :i* mo/ !ologians w\ld n reject4 ,!y di/+ui% two classes ( p]fections2 ^? :i* involve no imp]fection2 su* z wisdom1 hol9ess1 & ju/ice2 & ^? :i* involve imp]fection1 z1 = example1 all :i* belong to bodies1 ext5sion1 =m1 etc4 ,! =m]1 :i* are also call$ p]fections simplicit]1 are 9 ,god =malit]2 t is to say1 j z !y are1 because _! nature involves no k9d ( imp]fection1 &1 !re=e1 9 ,god1 !y d n dim9i% nor t>ni% 8 inf9ite p]fection4 ,^? ( ! second class1 :i* are call$ p]fections secundum quid1 are 9 ,god n =malit]2 = ! imp]fection :i* !y involve is repugnant to 8 inf9ite p]fection1 b virtualit] or em95t]2 t is to say1 t all ! p]fection1 all ! be+ :i* !y conta9 is 9 ,god1 :o is inf9ite p]fection1 inf9ite be+2 & ,god c produce !m ext]iorly by 8 creative omnipot5ce4 ,b inasmu* z !y pre-exi/ 9 an inf9ite be+1 !y are fre$ f all limitation & imp]fection1 & id5tifi$ ) ! inf9ite ess5ce1 & h a mode ( be+ f> sup]ior to :at !y are 9 reality4 ,?is is express$ by ! t]m em95t]4 ,among ^! p]fections secundum quid1 ext5sion has always be5 numb]$4 #gc4 ,if ! illu/ri\s ,ar*bi%op ( ,cambrai _h held to ?is s5se1 we %\ld h no?+ to say 9 relation to 8 doctr9e1 b ! words :i* foll[ seem to %[ t he incl9$ to ! op9ion ( ^? :o ma9ta9 t space is ! imm5sity ( ,god4 ,:5ce1 !n1 he adds1 is x t ,i d n call him ext5d$ & corporeal8 ,x is because !re is an extreme diff]5ce1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 betwe5 attribut+ to ,god all t is positive 9 ext5sion1 & attribut+ to him ext5sion ) a limit or negation4 ,he t places ext5sion )\t limits *anges ext5sion into imm5sity2 he :o places ext5sion ) limits1 makes a corporeal nature4 ,f ^! words x might be believ$ t ,f5elon did n di/+ui% ! two modes ( be+ ( ext5sion z !ologians d2 b he gives to ,god all t is positive 9 ext5sion1 ?\gh he gives x to him )\t limit4 ,f ?is x w\ld seem to foll[ t ,god is really ext5d$1 al?\gh 8 ext5sion is inf9ite4 ,) all ! respect due to ! illu/ri\s %ade ( "o ( ! greate/ ornam5ts ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 & "o ( ! greate/ m5 ( mod]n times1 ,i mu/ say t su* an op9ion does n seem to me to be su/a9able4 ,a ,god really ext5d$ ?\gh ) an inf9ite ext5sion is n ,god4 ,t :i* is ext5d$ is ess5tially composite2 ,god is ess5tially simple4 ,!re=e1 ,god & ext5sion are contradictory4 #gd4 ,b let u he> ! illu/ri\s prelate cont9ue ! explanation & def5ce ( 8 op9ion4 ,he says3 ,f ! mom5t t y place no limit to ext5sion1 y take f x figure1 divisibility1 motion1 & imp5etrability2--figure1 because ?is is only a mode ( limit+ by surfaces2--divisibility1 because1 z we h se51 t :i* is inf9ite _c be dim9i%$1 !re=e1 x _c be divid$1 & consequ5tly1 x is n composite & divisible2--motion1 because1 if y suppose a :ole1 :i* has no p>ts nor limits1 x _c move beyond its place1 because !re c be no place beyond ! true inf9ite2 nei!r c x *ange ! arrangem5t & situation ( its p>ts1 because x has no p>ts ( :i* x is compos$2--imp5etrability1 9 f9e1 because imp5etrability c only be conceiv$ by conceiv+ two limit$ bodies1 "o ( :i* is n ! o!r1 & _c occupy ! same space z ! o!r4 ,!re are no two su* bodies 9 inf9ite & indivisible ext5sion2 !re=e !re is no imp5etrability 9 ?is ext5sion4 ,^! pr9ciples e/abli%$1 x foll[s t all t is positive 9 ext5sion is 9 ,god1 al?\gh ,god has no figure1 is n movable1 divisible1 or imp5etrable1 & consequ5tly is n palpable1 nor measurable4 ,f ?is passage x is v evid5t t ,f5elon 0 f> f imag9+ a composite ,god1 a ,god ) p>ts4 ,he expressly d5ies x m ?an once 9 ^! few l9es4 ,n less 0 to be look$ = f 8 deep p5etration & ! purity ( 8 doctr9es2 b1 al?\gh ?is saves ! rectitude ( 8 int5tion1 x does n satisfy philosophical exactness4 ,= my "p1 ,i hone/ly confess t if ext5sion is to be tak5 9 its true s5se1 ,i _c conceive h[ tak+ away its limits de/roys its p>ts4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i %\ld r say t an inf9ite ext5sion w\ld h inf9ite p>ts4 ,if x is inf9ite x w h no figure2 because figure involves a limit2 b if x be true ext5sion1 x is a sort ( imm5se field on :i* all imag9able figures may be trac$4 ,x w h no ess5tial figure ( its own1 b x w be ! recipi5t ( all figures1 ! inexhau/ible sea f :i* !y all arise4 ,t :i* is trac$ 9 x1 w be 9 x2 ! po9ts :i* t]m9ate ! figures mu/ be 9 x4 ,is n ?is to h p>ts1 composition8 ,inf9ite ext5sion c\ld h no figure1 n because x has no p>ts1 or is simple1 b because x has inf9ite p>ts1 because its composition is inf9ite4 ,i agree t an inf9ite ext5sion w\ld n be divisible1 if by divid+1 is meant sep>at+2 because 9 t imm5se fulness ev]y?+ w\ld be 9 its position ) inf9ite firmness4 ,s also we imag9e space1 ! place ( all motion1 ) its p>ts immovable1 ! field ( all sep>ation1 ) its p>ts insep>able2 b we are treat+ ( division1 n ( sep>ation4 ,if !re is true ext5sion1 x is divisible2 we conceive space ) its p>ts insep>able1 b /ill divisible2 = we measure !m1 c\nt !m1 & x is by relation to !m t we =m an idea ( ! size1 di/ance1 & motion ( bodies4 #gd4 ,su* cle> & conclusive reflections c\ld n fail to pres5t !mselves to ! m9d ( ! illu/ri\s philosoph]2 b he seems to h pref]r$ inconsequ5ce or obscurity ( language to ! fatal coroll>ies ( 8 fir/ proposition4 ,he said pla9ly & )\t any re/riction1 t all t is positive 9 ext5sion1 except ! limit1 is 9 ,god4 ,he _h ass]t$ t ext5sion ) limits is corporeal1 & t to *ange ext5sion into imm5sity x 0 only necess>y to take away its limits4 ,he consequ5tly attribut$ to ,god a true1 al?\gh inf9ite1 ext5sion1 & !n wi%+ to expla9 & /r5g!n 8 doctr9e he tells u t ?is ext5sion has no p>ts4 ,:at is ext5sion )\t p>ts8 ,:o c conceive x8 ,does n ext5sion necess>ily imply an ord] ( ?+s ( :i* "s are outside ( o!rs4 ,x has be5 always s und]/ood4 ,to speak ( an ext5sion )\t p>ts is to speak ( an ext5sion improp]ly s call$4 ,:5 speak+ ( su* ext5sion x is n en\gh to say x has no limits1 x %\ld be add$ t x is ( an entirely diff]5t nature1 t ! ^w ext5sion is us$ 9 ano!r s5se4 ,f5elon seem$ to "k ?is1 :51 not)/&+ ! obscurity ( 8 =m] expressions1 elevat$ on ! w+s ( 8 religion & 8 g5ius1 he says3 ,god is 9 no place1 z 9 no "t2 = 8 absolute & inf9ite be+ has no relation to place or "t1 :i* are b limits & re/rictions ( be+4 ,to ask if he is beyond ! univ]se1 if he exce$s its extremities 9 l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?1 is z absurd a "q z to ask if he 0 be=e ! _w1 & if he w /ill be :5 ! _w is no m4 ,z !re is nei!r pa/ nor future 9 ,god1 s !re is nei!r hi!r nor ?i!r4 ,z 8 absolute p]man5ce excludes all measure ( succession1 s also 8 imm5sity excludes all measure ( ext5sion4 ,he has n be51 he w n be1 b he is4 ,9 ! same mann]1 to speak prop]ly1 he is n "h1 he is n !re1 he is n beyond su* a limit1 b he is1 absolutely4 ,all expressions :i* place him 9 relation to any t]m1 or fix him 9 a c]ta9 place1 are improp] & unbecom+4 ,:]e !n is he8 ,he is4 ,he is 9 su* a mann] t we mu/ n ask :]e4 ,t :i* only half is1 or ) limits1 is a c]ta9 ?+ 9 su* a way t x is no?+ else4 ,b ,god is n any p>ticul> & re/rict$ ?+4 ,he is all2 he is be+2 or bett] & m simply1 he is4 ,= ! few] words we use1 ! m we say4 ,he is4 ,bew>e ( add+ any ?+ to ?is4 #gf4 ,:ile read+ ^! magnific5t words1 ,i am c>ri$ away by ! elevation & gr&eur ( 8 ideas ( ,god & ( 8 imm5sity1 & ,i =get ! objections to ! fir/ proposition1 :i*1 if n false or inexact1 is n1 to say ! lea/1 express$ ) all ! cle>ness t c\ld be desir$4 ,/ill1 ,i d n hesitate to ma9ta9 t 8 op9ion co9cides ) ,cl>ke's2 al?\gh ! illu/ri\s writ]1 ,*ri/ian1 & poet1 seem to m]it a p>don = ! philosoph]4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,:at ,,space ,,consi/s ,,94 #gg4 ,desc>tes' op9ion :olly conf\nds space & bodies1 mak+ ! ess5ce ( bodies consi/ 9 ext5sion1 & ass]t+ t :]ev] !re is space1 !re is body4 ,?is op9ion we h se5 to be void ( all reasonable f\ndation4 ,p]haps he w\ld come ne>] ! tru? :o %\ld say1 t 9 reality space is no?+ m ?an ! ext5sion ( bodies1 )\t ref]5ce to ! "q :e!r ext5sion does or does n con/itute ! ess5ce ( bodies1 & d5y+ its inf9ity4 #gh4 ,let u exam9e ?is la/ op9ion4 ,analyz+ ! orig9 ( ! idea ( space1 we f9d t x is m]ely ! idea ( ext5sion tak5 9 ! ab/ract4 ,if ,i hold be=e my eyes an orange1 ,i may1 by means ( ab/ractions1 arrive at ! idea ( a pure ext5sion1 equal to t ( ! orange4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 ,i beg9 by ab/ract+ its color1 ta/e1 smell1 & all its qualities :i* affect ! s5ses4 ,i !n h left only an ext5d$ be+1 & if ,i take f x its mobility1 x is r$uc$ to a "p ( space equal to ! size ( ! orange4 ,x is pla9 t ! same ab/raction is possible 9 relation to ! univ]se1 & ! result w be ! idea ( all ! space :i* ! univ]se occupies4 #gi4 ,"h ,i %all answ] an objection :i* might be made to ?is explanation ( ! idea ( space1 & !reby take advantage ( ?is opportunity to ?r[ "s light ^u ! orig9 ( ! idea ( inf9ite1 or imag9>y space4 ,! difficulty is ?is4 ,if we =m ! idea ( space by ! m]e ab/raction ( ! qualities :i* accompany ext5sion1 we c only conceive a space equal to ! size ( ! body f :i* we h ab/ract$ all its s5sible qualities4 ,! ab/raction made ^u an orange c only give a space equal to ! size ( ! orange1 & t made ^u ! univ]se c only give a space equal to :at we conceive 9 ! univ]se4 ,consequ5tly1 we c nev]1 by ?is means1 obta9 ! idea ( a space )\t limits :i* always pres5ts itself to our m9d :5 we ?9k ( space consid]$ 9 itself4 ,! solution ( ?is difficulty is 9 ! tru? t ab/raction rises f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al4 ,f ! idea ( gold1 by ab/ract+ ^? prop]ties :i* con/itute gold1 & att5d+ only to ^? :i* x possesses z metal1 ,i arrive at ! mu* m g5]al idea ( metal1 :i* belongs n only to gold1 b to all o!r metals4 ,by ?is ab/raction ,i pass ! limit :i* sep>ates gold f o!r metals1 & =m an idea :i* ext5ds to all1 nei!r specify+1 nor exclud+ any4 ,if f ! idea ( metal ,i ab/ract all t con/itutes metal1 & att5d only to :at con/itutes m9]al1 ,i pass ano!r limit1 & arrive at a /ill m g5]al idea4 ,?us pass+ successively ! idea ( inorganic1 ( body1 & ( sub/ance1 until ,i come to ! idea ( be+1 ,i ?us =m ! mo/ g5]al idea possible1 & :i* includes e ?+4#df #df ,i take no notice 9 ?is place ( ! diff]5t mann] 9 :i* ! idea ( be+ is applicable to ,god & to creatures4 ,?us pass+ ov] ! limits :i* di/+ui% &1 z x 71 sep>ate objects1 ab/raction rises to ! mo/ g5]al4 ,if we apply ?is doctr9e to ! ab/ractions made ^u bodies1 we %all discov] ! reason ( ! illimitability ( ! idea ( space4 ,:5 aft] ! ab/ractions made ^u ! orange1 ,i h left only ! idea ( its ext5sion1 ! ab/raction has n rea*$ ! highe/ po9t possible2 = my conception is n t ( ext5sion 9 itself1 b only ( ! ext5sion ( ! orange2 ,i conceive its ext5sion1 n ext5sion itself4 ,b if ,i ab/ract all t makes ?is ext5sion ! ext5sion ( ! orange1 & att5d only to ext5sion 9 itself1 !n ! idea ( figure disappe>s1 ! ext5sion exp&s indef9itely1 x is impossible = me to assign any t]m to x1 = any limit w\ld make x a det]m9ate1 a p>ticul> ext5sion1 n ext5sion 9 itself4 ,!n ! fronti]s ( ! univ]se1 s to speak1 disappe>2 = h[ev] great ! univ]se may be1 x is limit$1 & c give only a p>ticul> ext5sion1 n ext5sion itself4 ,?is is ! mann] 9 :i* ! idea ( imag9>y space seems to be =m$4 #hj4 ,an obs]vation ( ! ph5om5a ( ! imag9ation w confirm :at we h expla9$ by ! m]e ord] ( intellig5ce4 ,:5 ,i imag9e ! ext5sion ( an orange1 ,i imag9e x ) a limit1 ) ?is or t color1 & ) ^! or ^? qualities2 s9ce x is n possible = me to imag9e a figure )\t l9es :i* t]m9ate x4 ,?is limit 9 ! imag9ation is di/9ct bo? f ! ext5sion :i* x encloses1 & f ! ext5sion :i* x excludes4 ,if x 7 n s di/+ui%$1 we c\ld n imag9e x z limit1 & x w\ld n answ] its object1 :i* is to enable u to di/+ui% t :i* x encloses4 ,!re=e1 ! ab/raction is n complete4 ,9 ! imag9ation !re is always some?+ det]m9ate1 :i* is ! limit or ! l9es :i* con/itute ! limit4 ,de/roy ^! limits1 & ! imag9ation exp&s1 until x becomes lo/ 9 a sort ( d>k1 unb\nd$ abyss1 su* z we imag9e beyond ! univ]se4 ,a v simple example w make ?is explanation cle>]4 ,our imag9ation may be comp>$ to a black bo>d on :i* a figure is m>k$ ) *alk4 ,:5 we see ! :ite l9e on ! bo>d :i* =ms ! figure1 we see ! figure also2 b if we rub out ! l9e1 !re rema9s only ! uni=m figure ( ! bo>d4 ,if we suppose ! l9es :i* t]m9ate ! black bo>d to be indef9itely )drawn1 we %all look 9 va9 = a figure2 we see only a black surface indef9itely ext5d$4 ,!re is a suffici5t p>ity betwe5 ?is & ! mann] 9 :i* ! imag9ation pictures to itself an endless space4 #ha4 ,! idea ( an ab/ract ext5sion :i* is limit$1 is a contradiction4 ,limit takes f ext5sion g5]ality2 & g5]ality de/roys ! limit4 ,!re c1 !re=e1 be no ab/ract idea ( limit$ ext5sion2 b :5 we =m an idea ( ext5sion 9 ! ab/ract1 we conceive x z unlimit$1 & ! imag9ation attempt+ to foll[ ! und]/&+1 pictures to itself an indef9ite space4 #hb4 ,summ+ up ?is doctr9e1 & d$uc+ its inevitable consequ5ces1 we may say3 ,i4 ,t space is no?+ else ?an ! ext5sion ( bodies4 ,,ii4 ,t ! idea ( space is ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,,iii4 ,t ! diff]5t p>ts conceiv$ 9 space are ! ideas ( p>ticul> ext5sions1 f :i* we h n tak5 _! limits4 ,,iv4 ,t ! idea ( inf9ite space is ! idea ( ext5sion 9 g5]al1 ab/ract$ f all limit4 ,v4 ,t indef9ite space arises necess>ily f ! imag9ation1 :i* de/roys ! limit 9 attempt+ to foll[ ! g5]aliz+ m>* ( ! und]/&+4 ,,vi4 ,t :]e !re is no body !re is no space4 ,,vii4 ,t :at is call$ di/ance is only ! int]position ( a body4 ,,viii4 ,t if e int]m$iate body be tak5 away1 di/ance ceases2 !re is !n contiguity1 &1 consequ5tly1 absolute contact4 ,,ix4 ,t if !re 7 only two bodies 9 exi/5ce1 x w\ld be metaphysically impossible = !m to be di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,x4 ,t all vacuum1 ( :atev] k9d1 or h[ev] obta9$1 is absolutely impossible4 #hc4 ,^! are ! consequ5ces :i* foll[ f ! pr9ciple expla9$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,if ! read] ask me :at ,i ?9k ( !m & ( ! pr9ciple on :i* !y are bas$1 ,i frankly confess t1 al?\gh ! pr9ciple seems true & ! conclusions legitimate1 /ill ! /rang5ess ( "s ( !m1 & yet m s ) reg>d to o!rs :i* ,i %all po9t out z we come to !m1 makes me suspect t !re is "s error conceal$ 9 ! pr9ciple1 or else ! reason+ :i* d$uces ^! consequ5ces conta9s "s defect :i* is n easy to discov]4 ,i d n put =? a settl$ op9ion1 s mu* z a s]ies ( conjectures1 ) ! argum5ts 9 _! favor4 ,! read] may see by ?is :at s5se ,i atta* to ! ^w demon/ration1 :5 9 ! sequel he sees x (t5 employ$ 9 treat+ ( ! d$uction ( c]ta9 consequ5ces :i* are exce$+ly /range1 al?\gh1 9 my op9ion1 des]v+ a c>eful att5tion4 ,i say ?is n only to expla9 :at is pass+ 9 my own m9d1 b also to w>n ! read] aga9/ too great confid5ce on ^! po9ts1 :atev] may be ! op9ion :i* he adopts4 ,be=e comm5c+ ^! inve/igations on space1 ,i rem>k$ t ! argum5ts on bo? sides seem$ equally conclusive2 :i* %[s t ! human reason has rea*$ its b\nds1 & makes u suspect t ?is inve/igation is beyond ! sph]e to :i* ! m9d is re/rict$ by a prim>y condition ( its nature4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 let u cont9ue to conjecture2 & al?\gh we _c pass beyond c]ta9 limits1 let u ex]cise ! und]/&+ by exam9+ !m 9 _! full ext5t4 ,?us1 if we 7 plac$ on a v elevat$ gr\nd ) deep precipices on all sides1 we %\ld take pleasure 9 walk+ ar\nd ! circumf]5ce1 & gaz+ ^u ! imm5se dep? "u our feet4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to d$uce o!r results1 & to solve z f> z possible ! difficulties :i* arise1 mak+ "s applications1 ! imm5se importance ( :i* produces unc]ta9ty & causes fe>4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,new ,,difficulties4 #hd4 ,if space is ! ext5sion ( bodies1 x foll[s t ext5sion has no recipi5t1 t is to say1 no place 9 :i* x c be situat$4 ,?is seems to be 9 direct contradiction to our mo/ common ideas2 = :5 we conceive any ?+ to be ext5d$1 we conceive ! necessity ( a place equal to x 9 :i* x c be conta9$ & situat$4 ,?is difficulty1 :i* seems s s]i\s at fir/1 imm$iately vani%es if we d5y t e ext5d$ ?+ ne$s a place 9 :i* x may be situat$4 ,:at is ?is place8 ,x is an ext5sion 9 :i* ! ?+ may be conta9$4 ,does ?is ext5sion also require ano!r ext5sion 9 :i* x may be plac$1 or does x n8 ,if x does1 !n ! same "q may be ask$ ( ?is new place 9 :i* ! o!r place is conta9$1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,?is is evid5tly impossible1 & !re=e we mu/ admit t x is false t all ext5sion requires ano!r ext5sion 9 :i* x may be plac$4 ,j z ! ext5sion ( space does n require ano!r ext5sion1 s ! ext5sion ( bodies does n require space4 ,!re is no disp>ity betwe5 ! two cases4 ,!re=e ! necessity ( a place = e ext5sion is m]ely imag9>y1 & is oppos$ to reason4 ,ext5sion1 !re=e1 may exi/ 9 itself1 & !re is no reason :y ! ext5sion ( bodies may n also exi/ 9 ?is mann]4 #he4 ,:at 9 ?is case w\ld be ! mean+ ( *ang+ place8 ,x w\ld simply mean t bodies *ange _! respective position4 ,?is is ! explanation ( motion4 ,suppose ?ree bodies1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 to be situat$ 9 space4 ,_! respective di/ances are ! bodies :i* are int]pos$ betwe5 !m4 ,! *ange :i* a new position causes1 is motion4 #hf4 ,!re=e1 if !re 7 only "o body !re c\ld be no motion4 ,= motion is necess>ily ! pass+ ov] a di/ance1 &1 !re is no di/ance :5 !re is only "o body4 ,?is seems at fir/ absurd1 because x is oppos$ to our way ( ?9k+ & imag9+2 b if we c>efully exam9e ?is way ( ?9k+ & imag9+1 we %all see t ! ph5om5a ( our m9d are 9 accordance ) ?is !ory4 ,motion has no mean+ = u1 we d n feel or p]ceive x1 :5 we _c ref] x to ! position ( diff]5t bodies among !mselves4 ,if we sail d[n a riv]1 %ut up 9 ! cab9 ( ! vessel :i* be>s u on1 we really move1 ?\gh we h no p]ception ( ?is motion4 ,we "k t we move :5 wat*+ ! objects on ! %ore1 we see t !y are cont9ually *ang+4 ,ev5 !n1 ! motion seems to be 9 ! objects ar\nd u1 n 9 ourselves1 & ! ph5om5a w\ld be absolutely ! same ) respect to u1 if1 in/ead ( ! objects be+ at re/1 & ! vessel 9 motion1 ! vessel %\ld be at re/ & ! objects 9 motion1 suppos+ ! motion ( ! objects to be prop]ly comb9$4#dg #dg ,see ,book ,,ii41 ,*ap4 xv4 ,!re=e1 take away ! agitation1 :i* is all t in=ms u ( our own motion1 & we are unable to di/+ui% :e!r ! motion is 9 u or 9 ! objects2 & we are naturally m incl9$ to ref] ! motion to !m ?an to ourselves4 ,:5 ! vessel t c>ries u leaves ! port1 we "k v well t x is n ! port :i* moves1 & yet ! illusion is complete1 ! port seems to retire f u4 ,h5ce motion = u is only ! *ange ( ! respective position ( bodies4 ,if we _h n exp]i5c$ ?is *ange1 we %\ld h no idea ( motion4 ,?us no "o d5ies t ! ph5om5a ( diurnal motion are ! same1 :e!r ! heav5s revolve ar\nd u f ea/ to we/1 or ! e>? turns on its axis f we/ to ea/4 ,!re=e1 ! motion ( only "o body is a pure illusion2 & !re is no pro( ( ! argum5t f\nd$ on x :i* is br\ght to oppose our doctr9e ( space4 ,h5ce1 also1 ! :ole univ]se consid]$ z only "o body1 is immovable1 motion takes place only 9 its int]ior4 #hg4 ,b "o ( ! /range/ results ( ?is !ory is ! a priori demon/ration t ! univ]se c only be t]m9at$ 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 to ! exclusion ( a multitude ( figures :i* are ess5tially repugnant to x4 ,accord+ to ! doctr9e :i* we h put =?1 if we suppose only "o body to exi/1 x _c h any "p ( its surface s dispos$ t ! %orte/ l9e f any "o po9t to ano!r %all pass outside ( ! body4 ,=1 z we suppose only "o body1 outside ( x is pure no?+2 & c1 !re=e1 conta9 no di/ances :i* c be measur$ by l9es4 ,?is excludes a multitude ( irregul> figures1 & ?us we f9d geometrical regul>ity gr[+ out ( a metaphysical idea4 ,h5ce if only "o body 7 9 exi/5ce1 x w\ld be impossible = x to h any angles ent]+ into x4 ,=1 its figure requires t ! po9t ,a1 ! v]tex ( ! angle1 %\ld be at ! di/ance ,a ,d f ! po9t ,d1 ! v]tex ( ano!r angle4 ,?is di/ance _c exi/1 = !re is no di/ance :]e !re is no body4 ,!re=e1 ! di/ance w\ld exi/ & n exi/ at ! same "t1 :i* is contradictory4 ,x w\ld also be an absurdity1 because ! capacities m>k$ by ! angles w\ld n be fill$4 ,! obs]vation ( nature confirms ! =m] result1 inasmu* z its t5d5cy is always to t]m9ate e ?+ ) curv$ l9es & surfaces4 ,! orbits ( ! />s are curves1 & ! />s !mselves t]m9ate 9 curve surfaces4 ,! great irregul>ities :i* are obs]v$ 9 _! surfaces might seem to de/roy ?is conclusion1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ ! limit ( ! figure is n 9 ^! irregul>ities1 b 9 ! atmosph]e :i* surr\nds !m1 & :i*1 be+ a fluid1 c h no irregul>ities ( surface4 #hh4 ,ano!r consequ5ce1 z /range z ! =m]1 is1 t we are oblig$ to admit ! exi/5ce ( a p]fect geometrical surface1 & ?is a priori4 ,if1 :]e !re is no body1 di/ance is metaphysically impossible1 ?is mu/ be j z true 9 small z 9 great ?+s1 & ev5 9 inf9itesimals4 ,?is is also a reason ( ! impossibility ( vacuum4 ,x is evid5t t a surface is n p]fect :5 "s ( its po9ts g f>!r out ?an o!rs1 s t ! less !y g out f ! surface ! m p]fect x becomes4 ,z !re are no su* po9ts 9 ! la/ surface ( ! univ]se1 ?is surface is ! realization ( geometrical p]fection4 ,we h demon/rat$ t x is impossible = ! surface to h any angles ent]+ into x2 x is equally impossible = x to h any1 ev5 ! lea/1 prom95ce4 ,! diff]5ce is only 9 great] or less1 :i* does n affect ! metaphysical impossibility4 ,x is1 !re=e1 demon/rat$ t 9 ! ultimate surface ( ! univ]se !re is no irregul>ity1 b t its surface is geometrically p]fect4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,ano!r ,,important ,,consequ5ce4 #hi4 ,i n[ proce$ to d$uce ! la/ consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple expla9$ above4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance1 & seems to des]ve ! c>eful att5tion ( all ^? :o unite _! metaphysical & physical /udies4 ,! exi/5ce ( univ]sal gravitation may be demon/rat$ a priori4 ,univ]sal gravitation is a law ( nature by :i* "s bodies are direct$ to o!rs4 ,we ab/ract "h ! mann]4 ,?is direction is metaphysically necess>y1 if we suppose t !re is no di/ance :]e !re is no body4 ,=1 if ?is be s1 two bodies _c exi/ sep>at$4 ,! law ( contiguity is a metaphysical necessity1 & !re=e ! incessant approa*+ ( "s bodies to o!rs is a cont9ual ob$i5ce to ?is necessity4 ,! velocity ) :i* !y approa* mu/ be 9 ! ratio ( ! velocity ) :i* ! m$ium dep>ts4 ,! limit ( ! velocity ( ?is motion is ! relation ( space ) an indivisible in/ant1 su* z we might suppose if ,god %\ld sudd5ly annihilate ! int]v5+ body4 ,z ! solid masses :i* revolve above our heads w\ld 9 ?is case be subm]g$ 9 a fluid1 suppos+ ?is fluid to be ( su* nature z easily to *ange its place1 x foll[s t ! />s mu/ be subject to ! law ( approximation1 because ! m$ium :i* sep>ates !m is cont9ually retir+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,if we suppose ?is fluid to be immovable1 ! metaphysical necessity ( ?is approximation ceases4 #ij4 ,?is !ory seems to lead to ! explanation ( ! me*anism ( ! univ]se1 by simple geometrical laws1 & de/roys :at "s h call$ occult prop]ties1 & o!rs =ces4 ,al?\gh x is easy to expla9 by metaphysical & geometrical ideas1 ! fact ( gravitation1 or ! m]e t5d5cy ( bodies mutually to approa*1 x is /ill v difficult to det]m9e by ?is ord] ( ideas ! conditions :i* gov]n gravitation4 #ia4 ,if ! motion ( approximation dep5d$ only on ! int]v5+ body1 inequality ( ^! bodies w\ld produce unequal motions4 ,x is impossible to calculate ! degree ( ?is inequality 9 bodies :i* are n subject to our obs]vation4 #ib4 ,besides ?is difficulty !re is ano!r /ill great]1 :i* is1 t bodies :i* move 9 a m$ium h no fix$ direction1 b v>y _! motions ) ! v>iations ( ! m$ium4 ,if ! gravitation ( ! body ,a t[>ds ! body ,b1 dep5ds only on ! motion ( ! retir+ m$ium1 ! gravitation w n be 9 ! "r l9e ,,ab1 b w foll[ ! undulations describ$ by ! m$ium4 ,?is is contr>y to exp]i5ce4 #ic4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 x foll[s t ev5 ?\gh ! gravitation naturally arises f ! position ( ! bodies1 /ill ?is necessity w\ld n produce ! ord] :i* exi/s1 if its results 7 n subject to c]ta9 laws4 ,&1 !re=e1 ! ph5om5a ( nature1 al?\gh f\nd$ on a necessity1 w\ld /ill1 admitt+ ! exi/5ce & position ( bodies1 be cont+5t 9 all t relates to ! application ( ?is necessity4 #id4 ,go+ /ill deep] into ?is matt]1 we f9d t ! t5d5cy to approximation1 al?\gh necess>y1 is n suffici5t ei!r to produce motion or to pres]ve x4 ,:5ev] "o body moves1 x is always necess>y t ano!r %\ld foll[ x1 9 ord] to pres]ve ! contiguity2 b1 !re be+ no vacuum1 !re is no reason :y any body %\ld move1 & consequ5tly1 no cause ( motion4 ,!re=e1 geometrical ideas are n suffici5t to expla9 ! orig9 ( motion1 b we mu/ look = its cause else:]e4 ,contiguity be+ a metaphysical necessity1 if ! body ,a moves 9 any direction1 ! contigu\s bodies ,b & ,c mu/ also move2 b if ! contiguity already exi/$1 !re is no reason :y ! body ,a %\ld beg9 to move1 nor1 consequ5tly1 :y ! bodies ,b & ,c %\ld foll[ its motion4 ,at any in/ant :atev]1 if we suppose motion1 we mu/ suppose contiguity2 = ! /ate ( ! "q supposes ?is condition always pres5t1 z be+ metaphysically necess>y4 ,!re is !n no reason :y ! motion %\ld at any "t be prolong$2 = ! bodies be+ at e in/ant contigu\s !re is no reason = its cont9uation4 ,! motion ( ! body ,a draws ) x ! body ,b2 ,b draws ,c1 & s on4 ,n[1 if ! motion ( ! body ,b has no o!r orig9 ?an its contiguity to ,a1 ! motion ( ,c has no o!r orig9 ?an its contiguity to ,b4 ,! cause ( ! motion is only n to int]rupt ! contiguity2 ?is contiguity always exi/+ z is absolutely necess>y1 !re is no reason :y ! motion %\ld beg91 or aft] x has begun1 :y x %\ld cont9ue4 #ie4 ,! laws ( nature _c !n be expla9$ by geometrical & metaphysical ideas1 al?\gh we suppose approximation to be an intr9sical necessity ( bodies4 ,"u any supposition x is necess>y to seek out ( matt] a sup]ior cause :i* impresses1 regulates1 & cont9ues motion4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,illusion ,,( ,,fix$ ,,po9ts ,,9 ,,space4 #if4 ,s9ce space is only ! ext5sion ( bodies1 & !re is no space :]e !re are no bodies1 x foll[s t ! ext5sion :i* we conceive di/9ct f bodies1 ) fix$ po9ts & dim5sions1 immovable 9 itself1 & ! receptacle ( all t is movable1 is a pure illusion1 & !re is no?+ 9 reality correspond+ to x4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is doctr9e & at ! same "t to solve c]ta9 objections :i* may be made1 x w n be out ( place to analyze ! idea :i* we =m ( fix$ness 9 relation to space4 ,because !re are c]ta9 immovable po9ts 9 ! _w 9 relation to :i* we conceive directions1 we =m ! idea t ^! po9ts are fix$1 & 9 relation to !m & because ( !m we imag9e fix$ness1 immobility1 z "o ( ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% ?is ideal receptacle :i* we call space4 ,! f\r c>d9al po9ts1 ,ea/1 ,we/1 ,nor?1 & ,s\?1 h _h a great influ5ce 9 produc+ ?is idea4 ,/ill x is easy to %[ t !re is no su* ?+ & t x is a pure illusion4 #ig4 ,we %all fir/ de/roy ! fix$ness ( ,ea/ & ,we/4 ,suppos+ ! e>? to h a diurnal motion ( rotation on its axis1 z a/ronom]s n[ hold1 ! po9ts ( ,ea/ & ,we/1 s f> f be+ fix$1 are cont9ually *ang+ _! position4 ,?us1 suppos+ an obs]v] at ! po9t ,a ( ! e>?1 ,ea/ to him w be ! po9t ,b1 & ,we/ ! po9t ,c4 ,if ! e>? revolves on its axis1 ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ( ! obs]v] w be successively at ! po9ts ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 ,q1 etc4 ( ! heav5ly ar*4 ,al?\gh we suppose ?is ar* fix$1 ,ea/ & ,we/ h no fix$ mean+4 ,if we d5y ! rotation ( ! e>?1 ! appe>ances w be ! same z ?\gh ?is rotation exi/$2 & ! mo/ t we c say is t ?is fix$ness is an appe>ance4 ,besides1 if we suppose ! e>? to be at re/1 & ! heav5s to move r\nd x1 x is /ill m impossible to det]m9e ! fix$ po9ts ( ,ea/ & ,we/2 =1 9 ?is case1 ! po9ts 9 ! heav5s to :i* we ref] !m are 9 cont9ual motion4 ,we repeat t all ?is is a m]e appe>ance4 ,if a man :o kn[s n t ! e>? is sph]ical1 b imag9es x to be a plane surface1 walks f ,we/ to ,ea/1 he w believe t ^! two po9ts are immovable1 al?\gh !y are cont9ually *ang+4 ,he w\ld /ill imag9e t he 0 go+ f>!r f ! place :]e he />t$1 al?\gh1 aft] pass+ ov] ! :ole circumf]5ce ( ! e>?1 he w\ld f9d himself :]e he 0 at fir/4 #ih4 ,nor? & ,s\? seem to pres5t great] difficulty1 by reason ( _! fix$ness 9 relation to u2 /ill x is easy to %[ t ?is is n absolute1 b only app>5t4 ,let ,n & ,s repres5t ! nor? & s\? poles4 ,if we imag9e ! e>? & ! heav5s to turn at ! same "t f s\? to nor?1 x is evid5t t ! fix$ness ( ! po9ts ,n & ,s w\ld n exi/1 & yet ! obs]v] ,a w\ld believe t e ?+ 0 immovable1 because ! appe>ances w\ld be absolutely ! same4 ,to an obs]v] travell+ f ! equator t[>d ei!r pole1 ! pole w\ld rise ov] ! horizon1 :ile to ano!r :o rema9s 9 ! same place1 ! pole w\ld be at re/4 ,ev5 9 relation to ! same position on ! e>? ! altitude ( ! pole *anges1 by ! v>iation ( ! angle =m$ by ! plane ( ! ecliptic ) ! plane ( ! equator1 :i* v>iation is accord+ to "s calculations #h 9 a c5tury1 accord+ to o!rs #j4eba 9 a ye>1 or #eb4a 9 a c5tury4 #ii4 ,x foll[s f ^! reflections t ! position ( bodies is n absolute1 b relative2 t "o body might exi/ alone1 b !n x w\ld h no position1 z ?is is entirely a relative idea1 & !re is no relation 9 ?is case1 because !re is no po9t ( comp>ison2 & t absolutely speak+ !re is no su* ?+ z above or bel[2 = al?\gh we imag9e ^! to be fix$ po9ts1 ?is imag9ation is only a comp>ison :i* we make betwe5 two po9ts3 bel[ be+ t po9t t[>d :i* we gravitate1 & above ! opposite4 ,?us 9 ! antipodes above is :at we call bel[1 & bel[ :at we call above4 #ajj4 ,direction is impossible )\t po9ts to :i* x c be ref]r$4 ,!re=e1 )\t ! exi/5ce ( bodies1 directions are purely ideal1 & if only "o body exi/$1 x c\ld h no directions out ( its own ext5sion4 #aja4 ,"h arises a difficulty app>5tly s]i\s1 b 9 reality ( little weight4 ,if only "o body exi/$1 c\ld ,god give x motion8 ,to d5y x seems to limit ! omnipot5ce ( ,god2 & to conc$e x is to de/roy all t has be5 said aga9/ space di/9ct f bodies4 ,?is objection d]ives its seem+ importance f a confusion ( ideas1 :i* is caus$ by n und]/&+ ! true /ate ( ! "q4 ,is ?is motion intr9sically impossible1 or is x n8 ,if x is impossible1 !re is no reason :y we %\ld be afraid to say t ,god _c produce x3 = omnipot5ce does n ext5d to ?+s :i* are contradictory4 ,if ! possibility ( ?is motion is admitt$1 !n we mu/ return to ! que/ions on ! nature ( space1 & exam9e :e!r ! reasons on :i* ?is impossibility is f\nd$ are1 or are n1 valid4 ,! que/ions relat+ to omnipot5ce are out ( place "h1 & ?is difficulty c be solv$ )\t !m4 ,if ! impossibility ( ! motion is demon/rat$1 x is no limitation ( ! omnipot5ce ( ,god to say t he _c produce x1 no m ?an x is :5 we say t he _c make a triangle a circle4 ,if ! impossibility is n demon/rat$1 !n ! "q ( omnipot5ce does n come 9 at all4 #ajb4 ,nei!r does ! argum5t f\nd$ on ! exi/5ce ( vacuum de/roy ! doctr9e :i* we h e/abli%$4 ,natural philosoph]s g5]ally admit vacuum1 & suppose x necess>y = ! explanation ( motion1 cond5sation1 r>efaction1 & o!r ph5om5a ( nature4 ,b to ?is ,i reply z foll[s3 ,i4 ,! op9ions ( ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz are ( weight 9 :at relates to nature1 :e!r exp]im5tal or transc5d5tal1 & nei!r ( !m admitt$ a vacuum4 ,,ii4 ,no obs]vation c prove its exi/5ce1 because dissem9at$ vacuum w\ld occupy su* small spaces t no in/rum5t c\ld rea* !m1 & also because obs]vation c only be made on ^? objects :i* affect our s5ses1 & we "k n b :at !re may be bodies :i*1 on acc\nt ( _! excessive t5uity1 are n p]ceptible by ! s5ses4 ,,iii4 ,we c det]m9e no?+ c]ta9 conc]n+ ! int]nal modifications ( matt] 9 motion1 cond5sation1 & r>efaction1 until we "k ! elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,,iv4 ,x is n /range t we are unable to compreh5d ! ph5om5a :i* seem incompatible ) ! d5ial ( matt]3 = we c nei!r und]/& inf9ite divisibility1 nor h[ ext5sion c be compos$ ( unext5d$ po9ts4 ,v4 ,! exi/5ce ( vacuum is a metaphysical "q :i* does n belong to ! regions ( exp]i5ce1 & is n affect$ by ! sy/em ( ! sci5ces ( obs]vation4 #ajc4 ,by mak+ ! idea ( space consi/ 9 ab/ract or g5]aliz$ ext5sion we reconcile all t is necess>y1 absolute1 & inf9ite 9 x ) its objective reality4 ,?is reality is ! ext5sion ( bodies1 :ile necessity & inf9ity are n f\nd 9 ! bodies !mselves1 b 9 ! ab/ract idea4 ,objects !mselves are conf9$ to ! sph]e ( reality1 & are1 !re=e1 limit$ & cont+5t4 ,! objectiv5ess ( ! ab/ract idea includes bo? ! exi/5t & ! possible1 & has1 !re=e1 no limits1 & is n subject to any cont+5cy4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,kant',s ,,op9ion4 #ajd4 ,we h already %[n t ext5sion consid]$ 9 u1 is some?+ m ?an a m]e s5sation1 t x is a true idea1 ! basis ( "s s5sations1 & at ! same "t a pure idea4 ,z f> z x relates to s5sations1 x is ! f\ndation ( our s5sitive faculties2 & 9 s f> z x is an idea1 x is ! root ( geometry4 ,?is is an important di/9ction1 & we %all f9d x useful to enable u rightly to appreciate ! value ( ,kant's op9ion ( space4 #aje4 ,all our s5sations are1 ei!r m or less1 connect$ ) ext5sion2 al?\gh if we consid] s5sation a priori by itself1 & indep5d5tly ( all habit1 x w\ld seem z ?\gh only ! s5sations ( sight & t\* 7 necess>ily connect$ ) an ext5d$ object4 ,x does n seem to me t ! loss ( ^! two s5ses w\ld necess>ily involve ! privation ( ! impressions ( he>+ or smell+1 or1 p]haps1 ev5 ( ta/e2 = al?\gh x is true t ! s5sations ( t\*1 su* z h>dness or s(tness1 etc41 are always unit$ ) ! s5sations ( ! palate2 x is equally c]ta9 t ^? s5sations are :olly di/9ct f ! s5sation ( ta/e1 & we h no reason = ass]t+ t !y _c be sep>at$ f x4 #ajf4 ,ext5sion1 consid]$ 9 u or 9 its intuition1 may be reg>d$ z a necess>y condition ( our s5sitive faculties4 ,kant saw ?is1 b he exagg]at$ x :5 he d5i$ ! objective reality ( space1 ass]t+ t space is only a subjective condition a priori )\t :i* we _c receive impressions1 ! =m ( ph5om5a1 t is1 ( appe>ances1 b no?+ 9 reality4 ,i h already said t space1 z di/+ui%$ f bodies1 is no?+1 b ! object ( ! idea ( space is ! ext5sion ( bodies2 or1 r1 ?is ext5sion is ! f\ndation f :i* we d$uce ! g5]al idea ( space1 & is conta9$ 9 ?is idea4 #ajg4 ,to say1 z ,kant does1 t space is ! =m "u :i* ! ph5om5a are pres5t$ to u1 & t x is a necess>y subjective condition ( _! p]ception1 is equival5t to say+ t ! ph5om5a :i* are pres5t$ z ext5d$1 require t ! m9d %\ld be capable ( p]ceiv+ ext5sion4 ,?is is v true1 b x ?r[s no light on ! nature ( ! idea ( space1 ei!r 9 itself or 9 its object4 ,space1 says ,kant1 is no empirical conception :i* is d]iv$ f ext]nal exp]i5ce4 ,= 9 ord] t c]ta9 s5sations may be ref]r$ to some?+ out ( me1 t is1 to some?+ 9 ano!r "p ( space ?an t 9 :i* ,i am1 & 9 ord] t ,i may conceive !m z outside ( & ne> "o ano!r1 &1 consequ5tly1 n only z sep>at$1 b also z occupy+ sep>ate places1 ! conception ( space mu/ be plac$ z ! f\ndation4 ,!re=e1 ! conception ( space _c be obta9$ by exp]i5ce f ! relations ( ! ext]nal ph5om5on1 b ?is ext]nal exp]i5ce itself is possible only by ?is conception4#dh #dh ,kant1 ,transc4 /h4 ,i4 ,abs*4 #b1 #a4 ,!re is a great confusion ( ideas "h4 ,:at are ! conditions :i* are necess>y to ! ph5om5on ( ! s5sation ( ! ext5d$8 ,we are n "h treat+ ( ! appreciation ( dim5sions1 b m]ely ( ext5sion z repres5t$ or conceiv$4 ,i d n see h[ ?is ph5om5on requires any ?+ a priori1 except ! s5sitive faculty :i*1 9 fact1 exi/s a priori1 t is to say1 is a primitive fact ( our s\l 9 its relations to ! organization ( ! body :i* is unit$ to x1 & ( ! o!r bodies :i* surr\nd x4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions ( our organization1 & ( ! bodies :i* affect x1 ! s\l receives ! impressions ( sight or t\*1 & ) !m ! impression ( ext5sion4 ,?is ext5sion is n pres5t$ to ! m9d 9 ! ab/ract1 or z sep>at$ f ! o!r s5sation :i* accompany x1 b z unit$ ) !m4 ,! m9d does n reflect1 !n1 ^u ! position ( ! objects1 b x has an intuition ( ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts4 ,s long z ! fact is conf9$ to m]e s5sation1 x is common to ! le>n$ & ! unle>n$1 to ! old & ! "y1 & ev5 to all animals4 ,?is requires no?+ a priori except ! s5sitive faculty1 :i* simply means t a be+1 9 ord] to p]ceive1 mu/ h ! faculty ( p]ceiv+1 & %\ld h>dly des]ve to be ann\nc$ z a discov]y ( philosophy4 #aji4 ,!re is no su* discov]y 9 ,kant's doctr9e ( space1 = on ! "o side he ass]ts a well kn[n fact1 t ! intuition ( space is a necess>y subjective condition1 )\t :i* x is impossible = u to p]ceive ?+s1 "o outside ( ano!r2 & on ! o!r side he falls into idealism1 inasmu* z he d5ies ?is ext5sion all reality1 & reg>ds ?+s & _! position 9 space z pure ph5om5a1 or m]e appe>ances4 ,! fact :i* he ass]ts is true at bottom2 = x is1 9 fact1 impossible to p]ceive ?+s z di/9ct among !mselves1 & z outside ( u1 )\t ! intuition ( space2 b1 at ! same "t1 x is n accurately express$1 = ! intuition ( space is ?is p]ception itself2 &1 consequ5tly1 he ought to h said t !y are id5tical1 n t "o is an indisp5sable condition ( ! o!r4 #aaj4 ,prior to ! impressions1 !re is no su* intuition1 & if we reg>d x z a pure intuition & sep>at$ f intellectual conception1 we c only conceive x z accompani$ by "s repres5tation ( "o ( ! five s5ses4 ,let u imag9e a pure space )\t any ( ^! repres5tations1 )\t ev5 t my/]i\s vagu5ess :i* we imag9e 9 ! mo/ di/ant regions ( ! univ]se4 ,! imag9ation f9ds no object2 ! intuition ceases2 !re rema9s only ! purely intellectual conceptions :i* we =m ( ext5sion1 ! ideas ( an ord] ( possible be+s1 & ! ass]tion or d5ial ( ?is ord]1 accord+ to our op9ion ( ! reality or non-reality ( space4 #aaa4 ,x is evid5t t a s]ies ( pure s5sations _c produce a g5]al idea4 ,sci5ce requires "s o!r f\ndation4 ,! ph5om5a leave traces ( ! s5sible object 9 ! memory1 & are s connect$ ) ea* o!r1 t ! repres5tation ( "o _c be repeat$ )\t excit+ ! repres5tation ( ! o!r1 b !y produce no g5]al result :i* c\ld s]ve z ! basis ( geometry4 ,a dog sees a man /oop1 & make a c]ta9 motion1 & is imm$iately /ruck ) a /one1 :i* causes 9 him a s5sation ( pa92 :5 ! dog sees ano!r man p]=m ! motion1 he runs away2 because ! s5sations ( ! motions are connect$ 9 8 memory ) ! s5sation ( pa91 & 8 natural in/9ct ( avoid+ pa9 inspires him to fly4 #aab4 ,:5 ^! s5sations are produc$ 9 an intellig5t be+1 !y excite o!r int]nal ph5om5a1 di/9ct f ! m]e s5sitive intuition4 ,:e!r g5]al ideas already exi/ 9 our m9d1 or are =m$ by ! aid ( s5sation1 x is c]ta9 t !y are develop$ 9 ! pres5ce ( s5sation4 ,?us1 9 ! pres5t case we n only h ! s5sitive intuition ( ext5sion1 b we also p]ceive some?+ :i* is common to all ext5d$ objects4 ,ext5sion ceases to be a p>ticul> object1 & becomes a g5]al =m applicable to all ext5d$ ?+s4 ,!re is !n a p]ception ( ext5sion 9 itself1 al?\gh !re is no intuition ( ! ext5d$2 we !n beg9 to reflect ^u ! idea & analyze x1 & d$uce f x ^? pr9ciples1 :i* are ! fruitful g]ms f ! inf9ite developm5t ( :i* is produc$ ! tree ( sci5ce call$ geometry4 #aac4 ,?is transition f ! s5sation to ! idea1 f ! cont+5t to ! necess>y1 f ! p>ticul> fact to ! g5]al sci5ce1 pres5ts important consid]ations on ! orig9 & nature ( ideas1 & ! high "* ( ! human m9d4 ,kant seems to h conf\nd$ ! imag9ation ( space ) ! idea ( space1 & not)/&+ 8 attempts at analysis1 he is n s pr(\nd z he ?9ks1 :5 he consid]s space z ! receptacle ( ph5om5a4 ,?is a v common idea1 & all t ,kant has done is to de/roy its objectiv5ess1 mak+ space a purely subjective condition4 ,accord+ to ?is philosoph]1 ! _w is ! sum ( ! appe>ances :i* are pres5t$ to our m9d2 & j z we imag9e 9 ! ext]nal _w an unlimit$ receptacle :i* conta9s e ?+1 b is di/9ct f :at x conta9s1 s he has plac$ space )9 u z a prelim9>y condition1 z a =m ( ! ph5om5a1 z a capacity 9 :i* we may di/ribute & classify !m4 #aad4 ,9 ?is he conf\nds1 ,i say1 ! vague imag9ation ) ! idea4 ,! limit betwe5 ! two is /rongly m>k$4 ,:5 we see an object we h ! s5sation & intuition ( ext5sion4 ,! space p]ceiv$ or s5s$ is1 9 ?is case1 ! ext5sion itself p]ceiv$4 ,we imag9e a multitude ( ext5d$ objects1 & a capacity :i* conta9s !m all4 ,we imag9e ?is capacity z ! imm5sity ( ! e!real regions1 a b\ndless abyss1 a d>k region beyond ! limits ( creation4 ,s f> !re is no idea1 !re is only an imag9ation aris+ f ! fact t :5 we beg9 to see bodies we d n see ! air :i* surr\nds !m1 & ! transp>5cy ( ! air p]mits u to see di/ant objects1 & ?us f our infancy we are accu/om$ to imag9e an empty capacity 9 :i* all bodies are plac$1 b :i* is di/9ct f !m4 ,b ?is is n ! idea ( space2 x is only an imag9ation ( x1 a sort ( rude1 s5sible idea1 probably common to man & ! bea/s4 ,! true idea1 & ! only "o des]v+ ! "n1 is t :i* our m9d possesses :5 x conceives ext5sion 9 itself1 )\t any mixture ( s5sation1 & :i* is1 z x 71 ! se$ ( ! :ole sci5ce ( geometry4 #aae4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! ^w repres5tation z appli$ to purely intellectual ideas mu/ be tak5 9 a purely metaphorical s5se1 unless we elim9ate f its mean+ all t relates to ! s5sible ord]4 ,we "k objects by ideas1 b !y are n repres5t$ to u4 ,repres5tation1 prop]ly speak+1 occurs only 9 ! imag9ation :i* necess>ily relates to s5sible ?+s4 ,if ,i demon/rate ! prop]ties ( a triangle1 x is cle> t ,i mu/ "k ! triangle1 t ,i mu/ h an idea ( x2 b ?is idea is n ! natural repres5tation :i* is pres5t$ to me l a figure 9 a pa9t+4 ,all ! _w1 ev5 irrational animals h ?is repres5tation1 yet we _c say t brutes h ! idea ( a triangle4 ,?is repres5tation has no degrees ( p]fection1 b is equally p]fect 9 all4 ,any "o :o imag9es ?ree l9es ) an area enclos$1 possesses ! repres5tation ( a triangle ) z mu* p]fection z ,ar*im$es2 b ! same _c be said ( ! idea ( a triangle1 :i* is evid5tly susceptible ( v>i\s degrees ( p]fection4 #aaf4 ,! repres5tation ( a triangle is always limit$ to a c]ta9 size & figure4 ,:5 we imag9e a triangle1 x is always ) su* or su* ext5sion & ) great] or small] angles4 ,! imag9ation repres5t+ an obtuse angl$ triangle sees some?+ v diff]5t f an acute or "r angl$ triangle4 ,b ! idea ( ! triangle 9 itself is n subject to any p>ticul> size or figure2 x ext5ds to all triangul> figures ( e size4 ,! g5]al idea ( triangle ab/racts necess>ily all species ( triangles1 :il/ ! repres5tation ( a triangle is necess>ily ! repres5tation ( a triangle ( a det]m9ate species4 ,!re=e ! repres5tation & ! idea are v diff]5t1 ev5 9 relation to s5sible objects4 #aag4 ,x is ! same ) space4 ,its repres5tation is n its idea4 ,! repres5tation is always pres5t$ to u z some?+ det]m9ate1 ) a cle>ness l t ( ! air illum9at$ by ! sun1 or a blackness l ! d>kness ( night4 ,!re is no?+ ( ?is sort 9 ! idea1 or :5 we reason ^u ext5sion & di/ances4 ,! idea ( space is "o2 its repres5tations are _m4 ,! idea is common to ! bl9d man & to him :o sees4 ,= bo? x is equally ! basis ( geometry1 b ! repres5tation is v diff]5t 9 ^! two4 ,! latt] repres5ts space z a confus$ reproduction ( ! s5sations ( sight2 ! bl9d man c only repres5t x z a confus$ repetition ( ! s5sations ( t\*4 ,! repres5tation ( space is only indef9ite1 & ev5 ?is progressively4 ,! imag9ation runs ov] "o space aft] ano!r1 b x _c at once repres5t a space )\t limits2 x c no m d ?is ?an ! sight c take 9 an endless object4 ,! imag9ation is a sort ( int]ior sight1 x rea*es a c]ta9 po9t1 b !re x f9ds a limit4 ,x c1 x is true1 pass beyond ?is limit1 & exp& /ill f>!r1 b only successively1 & always ) ! condition ( enc\nt]+ a new limit4 ,space is n repres5t$ z inf9ite1 b z indef9ite1 t is to say1 t aft] a giv5 limit !re is always m space1 b we c nev] advance s f> z to imag9e an inf9ite totality4 ,x is ! contr>y ) ! idea2 we conceive in/antane\sly :at is meant by inf9ite space1 we dispute on its possibility or impossibility1 we di/+ui% x p]fectly f indef9ite space1 we ask if x has 9 reality limits or n1 call+ x 9 ! fir/ case f9ite1 9 ! latt] inf9ite4 ,we see 9 ! ^w indef9ite ! impossibility ( f9d+ limits1 b at ! same "t we di/+ui% betwe5 ! exi/5ce ( ^! limits1 & f9d+ !m4 ,all ?is %[s t ! idea is v diff]5t f ! repres5tation4 ,to reg>d space z a m]e condition ( s5sibility is to conf\nd ! two aspects "u :i* ext5sion %\ld be consid]$1 z ! basis ( s5sations1 & z idea2 z ! field ( all s5sible repres5tations1 & z ! orig9 ( geometry4 ,i h (t5 insi/$ on ?is di/9ction1 & %all nev] we>y ( repeat+ x2 because x is ! l9e :i* divides ! s5sible f ! purely intellectual ord]1 & s5sations f ideas4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,inability ,,( ,,kant',s ,,doctr9e ,,to ,,solve ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,possibility ,,( ,,exp]i5ce4 #aah4 ,i ?9k t ,kant's ,transc5d5tal /hetics1 or !ory ( s5sibility1 is n suffici5tly transc5d5tal4 ,x is too mu* conf9$ to ! empirical "p1 & does n rise to ! height :i* we %\ld expect f ! title4 ,! problem ( ! possibility ( exp]i5ce :i* ,kant propos$ to solve1 ei!r is n at all t\*$ by 8 doctr9e1 or else x is solv$ 9 a /rictly ideali/ s5se4 ,x leaves ! problem unt\*$1 if we consid] only :at relates to obs]vation2 = he only repeats :at we already knew 9 e/abli%+ ! fact ( ! ext]iority ( ?+s2 x solves ! problem 9 a /rictly ideali/ s5se1 inasmu* z ^! ?+s are only consid]$ z ph5om5a or appe>ances4 #aai4 ,a purely subjective space ei!r does n expla9 ! problems ( ! ext]nal _w1 or x d5ies !m 9 d5y+ all reality4 ,:at progress has philosophy made by affirm+ t space is a purely subjective condition8 ,be=e ,kant1 did we1 p]*ance1 n "k t we _h p]ception ( ext]nal ph5om5a8 ,! difficulty 0 n 9 ! exi/5ce ( ?is p]ception atte/$ by consci\sness2 b 9 its value to prove ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w1 9 relation ) x4 ,! difficulty 0 9 ! objective1 n ! subjective "p ( ! p]ception4 #abj4 ,to say t ! p]ception is no?+ m ?an a condition ( ! subject1 is to cut ! knot in/ead ( unty+ x4 ,x does n expla9 ! mann] ( ! possibility ( exp]i5ce1 b d5ies ?is possibility4 ,:at is exp]i5ce if !re is only ! subject8 ,!re w be ! ph5om5on or appe>ance ( objectiv5ess1 b nature is !n only a m]e appe>ance1 & !re is no?+ 9 reality :i* corresponds to our exp]im5tal p]ceptions4 ,we !n h exp]i5ce r$uc$ to ! p]ception ( appe>ances2 & z ev5 ?is purely ph5om5al exp]i5ce is only possible by virtue ( a purely subjective condition1 ! intuition ( space2 all exp]i5ce rema9s purely subjective1 & we f9d ourselves hold+ ! sy/em ( ,fi*te1 admitt+ ! me z ! primitive fact1 ! developm5t ( :i* con/itutes ! univ]se4 ,?us ! sy/em ( ,fi*te foll[s f ,kant's doctr9e2 ! =m] has only c>ri$ out ! pr9ciples ( 8 ma/]4 #aba4 ,9 ord] to make ! connection betwe5 ! two doctr9es /ill cle>]1 we %all make "s fur!r reflections on ,kant's sy/em4 ,if space is some?+ purely subjective1 a condition ( ! s5sibility & ( ! possibility ( exp]i5ce1 x foll[s t ! m9d in/ead ( receiv+ any ?+ f ! object1 creates :atev] is 9 ! object1 or r1 :atev] we consid] z 9 x4 ,?+s 9 !mselves are n ext5d$2 ext5sion is only a =m ) :i* ! m9d clo!s !m4 ,9 ! same mann]1 !y are n color$1 sonor\s1 ta/eful1 or odor\s1 except inasmu* z we transf] to !m t :i* is 9 ourselves alone4 ,e ?+ be+ r$uc$ to m]e appe>ances1 !re is 9 ! ext]nal _w n ev5 ! pr9ciple ( causality ( subjective ext5sion2 ! m9d gives x to objects1 does n receive x f !m4 ,^! objects are pure ph5om5a2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! s\l only sees :at x conta9s 9 itself1 x kn[s no o!r _w ?an t :i* is its own creation4 ,?us1 we see ! real _w spr+ f ! me2 or1 r1 ! real _w is only ! ideal creation ( ! m9d4 ,on ?is supposition1 ! laws ( nature are only ! laws ( our own m9d1 & in/ead ( seek+ = ! types ( our ideas 9 nature1 we ought to reg>d our ideas z ! g5]ative pr9ciple ( all t exi/s1 or seems to exi/2 & ! laws ( ! univ]se are m]ely ! subjective condition ( ! me appli$ to ph5om5a4 #abb4 ,"s ( ! disciples ( ,kant %[ no fe> ( 8 ideali/ t5d5cies2 9 fact !y accept !m )\t any hesitation1 z may be se5 by ! comp>isons :i* !y use 9 expla9+ 8 doctr9e4 ,if a seal be appli$ to a piece ( s(t wax1 x w leave its impression on ! wax2 if we suppose ! seal to be capable ( p]ception1 x w\ld see its m>k on ! wax1 & attribute to ! object :at x _h itself giv5 x4 ,if a vase full ( wat] 7 capable ( p]ception1 x w\ld attribute to ! wat] ! =m1 :i* 9 reality is only ! =m ( ! vase itself1 & is communicat$ f x to ! wat]4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! m9d con/ructs ! ext]nal _w1 giv+ to x its impression & =m1 & !n believ+ x has receiv$ f ! ext]nal _w :at x has itself communicat$ to x4 #abc4 ,/ill we mu/ confess t ,kant1 9 ! second edition ( 8 ,critic ( ,pure ,reason1 rejects ^! conclusions1 & expressly combats idealism4 ,!re is no necessity ( exam9+ h[ f> ! second edition contradicts ! fir/3 x is suffici5t = me to in=m ! read] t ?is contradiction exi/s1 & t 9 ! fir/ edition !re are expressions :i* s pla9ly lead to idealism1 t x is impossible n to be surpris$ on f9d+ ! same au?or 9 ! second edition ( 8 "w /rongly oppos+ ! ideali/ sy/em4 ,i h po9t$ out ! consequ5ces ( ! doctr9e2 if ! au?or und]/ood x 9 a diff]5t s5se f t :i* 8 words express$1 ?is is m]ely a p]sonal1 n a philosophical "q47#ca7 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,s5sible ,,exp]i5ce4 #abd4 ,! great problem ( philosophy does n consi/ 9 ! explanation ( ! possibility ( exp]i5ce2 b 9 e/abli%+ ! reason ( ! consci\sness ( exp]i5ce1 z exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce 9 itself is a fact ( our s\l atte/$ by consci\sness1 b to "k t ?is fact is a fact ( exp]i5ce1 is some?+ v diff]5t f m]e exp]i5ce2 =1 by kn[+ ?is1 we pass f ! subjective to ! objective1 ref]r+ to ! ext]nal _w :at we exp]i5ce )9 u4 ,we ref] objects to diff]5t po9ts ( space1 & reg>d !m z outside (1 & di/9ct f1 ea* o!r3 to say t ! in/9ct by :i* we s reg>d !m is a condition ( ! subject & ( s5sible exp]i5ce is to e/abli% a /]ile fact4 ,! difficulty is 9 kn[+ :y we h ?is in/9ct2 :y ! repres5tation ( an ext5sion is 9 our s\l2 & :y ?is subjective ext5sion 9 a simple be+ %\ld be pres5t$ to our p]ception z ! image ( some?+ ext]nal & really ext5d$4 #abe4 ,transc5d5tal e/hetics may det]m9e ! foll[+ problems3 ,i4 ,to expla9 :at is ! subjective repres5tation ( ext5sion1 ab/ract$ f all t is objective4 ,,ii4 ,:y ?is repres5tation is f\nd 9 our s\l4 ,,iii4 ,:y a simple be+ conta9s 9 itself ! repres5tation ( multiplicity1 & an unext5d$ be+ ! repres5tation ( ext5sion4 ,,iv4 ,:y & h[ we pass f ideal to real ext5sion4 ,v4 ,to det]m9e h[ f> we may apply to ext5sion :at is true ( ! o!r s5sations1 :i* are consid]$ z ph5om5a ( our s\l1 hav+ no ext]nal object l !m1 & no o!r correspond5ce ) ! ext]nal _w ?an ! relation ( effects to _! cause4 #abf4 ,:at is ! subjective repres5tation ( ext5sion1 ab/ract$ f all t is objective8 ,x is a fact ( our s\l2 no fur!r explanation is possible2 he t has x1 kn[s :at x is2 he t has x n1 does n1 except intellig5ces ( a high] ord]1 :i* "k :at ?is repres5tation is1 )\t exp]i5c+ x z we d4 #abg4 ,i d n pret5d t x is possible to expla9 :y ! repres5tation ( ext5sion is f\nd 9 our s\l2 we might z well ask :y we are intellig5t & s5sible be+s4 ,! only reason a priori :i* we c give1 is t ,god has s creat$ u4 ,?is repres5tation may be f\nd 9 u1 & x is s f\nd1 = we exp]i5ce x2 b ?is int]nal exp]i5ce is ! limit ( philosophy2 imm$iate obs]vation c g no f>!r back4 ,reason raises u to ! k ( a cause :i* creat$ u1 b n to a ph5om5on :i* is ! s\rce ( ! ph5om5a ( exp]i5ce4 #abh4 ,:y a simple be+ conta9s 9 itself ! repres5tation ( multiplicity1 & an unext5d$ be+ ! repres5tation ( ext5sion1 is ! problem ( intellig5ce1 :i*1 because x is intellig5ce1 is "o & simple1 & capable ( p]ceiv+ multiplicity & composition4 #abi4 ,we pass f ideal to real ext5sion by a natural & irresi/ible impulse1 :i* is confirm$ by ! ass5t ( reason4 ,?is has be5 demon/rat$ 9 ! fir/ book1 & also 9 ! second :5 treat+ ( ! objectiv5ess ( s5sations4 #acj4 ,( ! five problems ! la/ rema9s4 ,we mu/ det]m9e h[ f> we may apply to ext5sion :at is true ( ! o!r s5sations1 :i* are consid]$ z ph5om5a ( our s\l1 hav+ no ext]nal object l !m1 & no o!r correspond5ce ) ! ext]nal _w ?an ! relation ( effects to _! cause4 #aca4 ,! solution ( ?is problem settles ! "q = or aga9/ ! ideali/s4 ,if we may apply to ext5sion :at is true ( ! o!r s5sations1 idealism triumphs1 & ! real _w1 if x exi/s1 is a be+ :i* has no resemblance to ! _w :i* we ?9k4 ,i h prov$ 9 treat+ ( s5sations#di t ext5sion is some?+ real1 & indep5d5t ( our s5sations1 & ,i h %[n#ej t x repres5ts multiplicity & cont9uity4 ,?is is suffici5t to ov]?r[ idealism1 & also to expla91 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 :at ext5sion consi/s 92 b z ! idea ( space1 :i* is closely connect$ ) ext5sion1 _h n !n be5 exam9$1 x 0 n possible = u to rise above ! ord] ( ph5om5a & reg>d ext5sion "u a transc5d5tal aspect1 exam9+ x 9 itself1 ab/ract$ f all its relations ) ! _w ( appe>ances4 ,?is is :at ,i propose to d 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 #di ,bk4 ,,ii41 ,*s4 ,,vii41 ,,viii41 & ,,ix41 & ,bk4 ,,iii41 ,*4 ,,iv4 #ej ,bk4 ,,ii41 ,*4 ,,viii41 & ,bk4 ,,iii41 ,*4 ,,vi4 #acb4 ,we come n[ to a m cragg$ pa?2 we h to di/+ui% ! reality f appe>ance2 our und]/&+1 :i* is always accompani$ by s5sible repres5tations1 mu/ n[ dep>t f !m1 & place itself 9 opposition to a condition to :i* x is naturally subject$ 9 ! ex]cise ( its functions4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,ext5sion ,,ab/ract$ ,,f ,,ph5om5a4 #acc4 ,t :i* is ext5d$ is n "o be+ only2 x is a collection ( be+s4 ,ext5sion necess>ily conta9s p>ts1 "s outside (1 & consequ5tly di/9ct f1 o!rs4 ,_! union is n id5tity2 =1 ! v fact t !y are unit$1 supposes !m di/9ct1 s9ce any ?+ is n unit$ ) itself4 ,x w\ld seem f ?is t ext5sion 9 itself & di/+ui%$ f ! ?+s ext5d$1 is no?+2 to imag9e ext5sion z a be+ ^: real nature c be inve/igat$ is to resign "o's self to be ! sport ( "o's fancy4 ,ext5sion is n id5tifi$ 9 p>ticul> ) any "o ( ! be+s :i* compose x1 b x is ! result ( _! union4 ,?is is equally true :e!r we consid] ext5sion compos$ ( unext5d$ po9ts1 or ( po9ts t are ext5d$ b inf9itely divisible4 ,if we suppose ! po9ts unext5d$1 x is evid5t t !y are n ext5sion1 because ext5d$ & unext5d$ are contradictory4 ,nei!r are ^! po9ts id5tifi$ ) ext5sion1 if we suppose !m ext5d$2 = ext5sion implies a :ole1 & a :ole _c be id5tifi$ ) any ( its p>ts4 ,if a l9e be f\r feet long1 !re _c be id5tity betwe5 ! :ole l9e & "o ( its p>ts a foot long4 ,we may suppose ^! p>ts1 in/ead ( a foot1 to be only an in* 9 l5g?1 & we may divide !m ad inf9itum1 b we %all nev] f9d any ( ^! p>ts equal to any ( its subdivisions4 ,!re=e1 ext5sion is n id5tical ) any ( ! p>ticul> be+s :i* compose x4 #acd4 ,! idea ( multiplicity be+ involv$ 9 ! idea ( ext5sion1 x w\ld seem t ext5sion ought to be consid]$1 n z a be+ 9 itself1 b z ! result ( a union ( _m be+s4 ,?is result is :at we call cont9uity4 ,we h already se5#ea t multiplicity is n suffici5t to con/itute ext5sion4 ,x ent]s into ! idea ( numb]1 & yet numb] does n repres5t any ?+ ext5d$4 ,we also conceive a union ( acts1 faculties1 activities1 sub/ances1 & be+s ( v>i\s classes1 )\t conceiv+ ext5sion1 & yet multiplicity is a "p ( all ^! conceptions4 #ea ,bk4 ,,ii4 ,*ap4 ,,viii4 #ace4 ,!re=e cont9uity is necess>y1 9 ord] to complete ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,:at1 !n1 is cont9uity8 ,x is ! position ( p>ts outside (1 b jo9$ to o!r p>ts4 ,b :at is ! mean+ ( ! t]ms1 outside (1 & jo9$ to8 ,inside & outside1 jo9$ & sep>at$1 imply ext5sion1 !y presuppose t :i* is to be expla9$2 ! ?+ to be def9$ ent]s into ! def9ition 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* x is to be def9$4 ,exactly2 =1 to expla9 ! cont9uity ( ext5sion is ! same z to %[ ! mean+ ( ! t]ms inside & outside1 jo9$ & sep>at$4 #acf4 ,we mu/ n =get ?is obs]vation1 unless we wi% to accept ! explanations :i* are f\nd 9 almo/ all ! books on ! subject4 ,to def9e ext5sion by ! words inside & outside1 is n to add any ?+1 "u a philosophic aspect2 x is m]ely to express ! same ?+ 9 diff]5t words4 ,)\t d\bt ?is language w\ld be ! simple/1 if all we want$ 0 to e/abli% ! ph5om5on only1 b philosophy w n be satisfi$ ) x4 ,x is a practical1 n a speculative1 explanation4 ,! same may be said ( ! def9ition ( ext5sion by space or places4 ,:at is ext5sion8--! occupation ( place3--b1 :at is a place8--a portion ( space t]m9at$ by c]ta9 surfaces3--:at is space8--! ext5sion 9 :i* bodies are plac$1 or ! capacity to receive !m4 ,b ev5 admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( space z some?+ absolute1 :at is ! capacity ( bodies to fill space8 ,:o does n see t ?is is to def9e a ?+ by itself1 a vici\s circle8 ,! ext5sion ( space is expla9$ by ! capacity ( receiv+2 ! ext5sion ( bodies by ! capacity ( fill+4 ,! idea ( ext5sion rema9s unt\*$2 x is n def9$1 x is m]ely express$ 9 diff]5t words1 b :i* mean ! same ?+4 ,to suppose ! exi/5ce ( space z some?+ absolute1 does n help ! "q1 & is1 besides1 an entirely gratuit\s supposition4 ,to take ! ext5sion ( space z a t]m by relation to :i* we may expla9 ! ext5sion ( bodies1 is to suppose t to be f\nd :i* we are look+ =4 ,we run into ! same error if we try to expla9 ! words inside & outside1 by ref]r+ !m to di/9ct po9ts 9 space1 we %\ld def9e a ?+ by itself2 =1 we h ! same difficulty ) respect to space to det]m9e ! mean+ ( inside & outside1 jo9$ & sep>at$1 & contigu\s & di/ant4 ,if we presuppose ! ext5sion ( space z some?+ absolute1 & try to expla9 o!r ext5sions by relation to ?is1 we only make ! illusion m complete4 ,we h to expla9 ext5sion 9 itself1 ! ext5sion ( space mu/ be expla9$ z well z ! re/2 to presuppose x is to assume ! "q already solv$1 n to solve x4 #acg4 ,ext5sion 9 relation to its dim5sions seems to be indep5d5t ( ! ?+ ext5d$ 9 ! same place4 ,an ext5sion may rema9 absolutely fix$ ) ! same dim5sions1 not)/&+ ! *ange ( place ( ! ?+ ext5d$4 ,if we suppose a s]ies ( objects to pass ov] a fix$ visual field1 ! ?+s ext5d$ v>y incessantly1 b ! ext5sion rema9s ! same4 ,if we suppose a v l>ge object to pass be=e a w9d[1 x *anges cont9ually2 = ! "p :i* we see at ! in/ant ,a is n ! "p :i* we see at ! in/ant ,b1 b ! ext5sion has n v>i$ 9 its dim5sions4 ,?is reg>ds surfaces only1 b ! same doctr9e may be appli$ to solids4 ,a space may be successively fill$ ) a v>iety ( objects1 b its capacity rema9s ! same4 ,!re is no id5tity betwe5 ! object & ! ext5sion :i* conta9s x2 = any numb] ( objects ( ! same size may occupy ! same place2 nei!r is ! air1 or any surr\nd+ object1 id5tifi$ ) ! ext5sion2 = ^!1 too1 may *ange )\t affect+ ! ext5sion 9 :i* ! object is conta9$4 #ach4 ,?\gh ! dim5sions rema9 fix$ :ile ! objects v>y1 x does n foll[ t ext5sion is purely subjective1 ev5 ?\gh we suppose t ! objects :i* v>y _c be di/+ui%$4 ,if ! contr>y 7 ma9ta9$1 ! *ange ( ! dim5sions w\ld prove !m to be objective2 & ! argum5t might be retort$ aga9/ our adv]s>ies4 ,t ! dim5sions are fix$ %[s t diff]5t objects may produce simil> impressions2 & !re=e we c =m an idea ( a det]m9ate dim5sion or figure1 )\t ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> object to :i* x does1 or may correspond4 ,no "o w d5y t we h ! repres5tation ( dim5sions1 )\t necess>ily ref]r+ !m to any ?+ 9 p>ticul>2 b :at we wi% to det]m9e is1 :e!r ^! dim5sions exi/ 9 reality1 & :at is _! nature1 indep5d5tly ( _! relations to u4 #aci4 ,if we admit t cont9uity has no ext]nal object ei!r 9 pure space or 9 bodies1 :at becomes ( ! corporeal _w8 ,x is inde$ to a collection ( be+s :i* 9 "o way or ano!r1 & 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 act ^u our be+4 ,! difficulties aga9/ ! realization ( ph5om5al cont9uity are n de/roy$ by appeal+ to ! necessities ( ! corporeal organization ( s5sible be+s4 ,if any "o %\ld ask h[ ext]nal be+s c act ^u u1 & affect our organs1 if !y h n 9 !m ! cont9uity ) :i* !y are pres5t$ to u2 su* a "o w\ld %[ t he does n und]/& ! /ate ( ! "q4 ,= x is evid5t t if we %\ld take f ! ext]nal _w all real cont9uity1 leav+ only ! ph5om5al1 we %\ld at ! same "t take x f our own organization1 :i* is b a "p ( ! univ]se4 ,!re is "h a mutual relation & sort ( p>allelism ( ph5om5a & realities :i* mutually complete & expla9 ea* o!r4 ,if ! univ]se is a collection ( be+s act+ ^u u 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 our organization is ano!r collection ( be+s1 receiv+ _! influ5ce 9 ! same ord]4 ,ei!r bo? are inexplicable1 or else ! explanation ( "o involves ! explanation ( ! o!r4 ,if t ord] is fix$ & con/ant1 & its correspond5ce rema9s ! same1 no?+ is *ang$1 no matt] :at hypo!sis is assum$ 9 ord] to expla9 ! ph5om5on4 #adj4 ,! object ( our se>*es "h1 is ! reality subject to ! condition ( expla9+ ! ph5om5on1 & n contradict+ ! ord] ( our ideas4 ,x might be object$ to ^? :o take f ! ext]nal _w ! ph5om5al or app>5t qualities ( cont9uity1 t !y de/roy geometry1 :i* is bas$ on ! idea ( ph5om5al cont9uity4 ,b ?is objection _c /&2 = x supposes ! idea ( geometry to be ph5om5al1 :]eas x is transc5d5tal4 ,we h already %[n t ! idea ( ext5sion is n a s5sation1 b a pure idea1 & t ! imag9>y repres5tations by :i* x is made s5sible are n ! idea1 b only ! =ms ) :i* ! idea is clo!d4 #ada4 ,all ph5om5al ext5sion is pres5t$ to u ) a c]ta9 magnitude2 geometry ab/racts all magnitude4 ,its !orems & problems relate to figures 9 g5]al ab/ract$ absolutely f _! size1 & :5 ! size is tak5 into consid]ation x is only 9 s f> z relative4 ,( two triangles ( equal bases t :i* has great] altitude has ! great] surface4 ,"h ! ^w great] relates to size1 x is true2 b to a relative1 n to any absolute size2 ! "q is n ( ! magnitudes !mselves1 b ( _! relation4 ,consequ5tly1 ! !orem is equally true :e!r ! triangles are imm5se1 or inf9itely small4 ,!re=e1 geometry ab/racts absolutely all magnitudes consid]$ z ph5om5a1 & makes use ( !m only 9 ord] to assi/ ! intellectual p]ception by ! s5sible repres5tation4 #adb4 ,?is is an important tru?1 & ,i %all expla9 x fur!r :5 combat+ ,condillac's sy/em 9 ! treatise on ideas1 :]e ,i %all %[ t ev5 ! ideas :i* we h ( bodies nei!r are1 nor c be1 a trans=m$ s5sation4 ,accord+ to ^! pr9ciples1 geometry is a sci5ce :i* makes its pure ideas s5sible by a ph5om5al repres5tation4 ,?is repres5tation is necess>y s long z geometry is a human sci5ce1 & man is subject to ph5om5a2 b geometry 9 itself & 9 all its purity has no ne$ ( su* repres5tations4 #adc4 ,9 ord] t ?is doctr9e may seem less /range1 & may be m readily accept$1 ,i w ask1 :e!r pure spirits possess ! sci5ce ( geometry8 ,we mu/ answ] 9 ! affirmative2 =1 o!rwise we %\ld be =c$ to conclude t ,god1 ! au?or ( ! univ]se & greate/ ( geometricians1 does n "k geometry4 ,does ,god1 !n1 h ^! repres5tations1 by ! aid ( :i* we imag9e ext5sion8 ,no2 ^! repres5tations are a sort ( cont9uation ( s5sibility :i* ,god has n2 !y are ! ex]cise ( ! int]nal s5se1 :i* is n f\nd 9 ,god4 ,/4 ,?omas calls !m phantasmata1 & says !y are n f\nd 9 ,god1 or 9 pure spirits1 nor ev5 9 ! s\l sep>at$ f ! body4 ,!re=e1 ! sci5ce ( geometry is possible1 & does really exi/ )\t s5sible repres5tations1 &1 consequ5tly1 we may di/+ui% two ext5sions1 ! "o ph5om5al1 & ! o!r real1 )\t !reby de/roy+ ei!r ! ph5om5on or ! reality1 s long z we admit ! correspond5ce betwe5 !m2 s long z we d n break ! ?read :i* unites our be+ ) ^? ar\nd u2 s long z ! conditions ( our be+ h>monize ) ^? ( ! ext]nal _w47#cb7 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,are ,,!re ,,absolute ,,magnitudes8 #add4 ,! prec$+ doctr9e w seem mu* m probable if we reflect t all purely intellectual p]ceptions ( ext5sion may be r$uc$ to ! k ( ord] & relation4 ,!re is no?+ absolute 9 ! eyes ( sci5ce1 n ev5 ( ma!matical sci5ce4 ,! absolute1 9 relation to ext5sion1 is an ignorant fancy :i* ! obs]vation ( ! ph5om5a is suffici5t to dissipate4 ,9 ! ord] ( appe>ances !re are no absolute magnitudes2 all are relations4 ,we c n ev5 =m an idea ( a magnitude1 unless ) ref]5ce to ano!r :i* s]ves = a measure4 ,! absolute is f\nd only 9 numb]1 & nev] 9 ext5sion2 a magnitude is absolute1 n 9 itself1 b only by be+ numb]$4 ,a surface two feet squ>e1 pres5ts two di/9ct ideas2 ! numb] ( its p>ts1 & ! k9d ( p>ts4 ,! numb] is a fix$ idea1 b ! k9d is purely relative4 ,i w try to make ?is cle>]4 #ade4 ,:5 ,i speak ( a surface f\r feet squ>e1 ! numb] f\r is a simple1 fix$1 & un*angeable idea2 b ,i c expla9 a squ>e foot only by relations4 ,if ,i am ask$ :at is a squ>e foot1 ,i c answ] only by comp>ison ) a squ>e rod or a squ>e in*2 b if ,i am aga9 ask$ :at is a squ>e rod or a squ>e in*1 ,i am aga9 =c$ to recur to o!r measures :i* are great] or small]2 ,i c n[h]e f9d a fix$ magnitude4 #adf4 ,if !re 7 "s fix$ measure x might be "s dim5sion ( ! body1 my h&1 or foot1 or arm4 ,b :o does n see t ! dim5sions ( my body are n a univ]sal measure1 & t ! h&s1 or feet1 or arms1 ( all m5 are n equal8 ,& ev5 9 ! same individual !y are subject to a ?\s& *anges m or less p]ceptible4 ,%all we take = our fix$ measure ! radius ( ! e>?1 or ( a heav5ly body8 ,b "o has no claim to pref]5ce be=e ! o!r4 ,e "o kn[s t a/ronom]s take sometimes ! radius ( ! e>?1 & sometimes ! radius ( its orbit z ! unity ( measure4 ,if we suppose ^! radii to be great] or small]1 c we n equally 9 ei!r case take !m z ! measure8 ,!y are pref]r$ because !y d n *ange4 ,b ev5 a/ronom]s reg>d ^! magnitudes z purely relative1 & at "o "t consid] !m inf9itely l>ge1 at ano!r inf9itely small1 accord+ to ! po9t ( view f :i* !y look at !m4 ,! radius ( ! e>?'s orbit is consid]$ inf9ite 9 comp>ison ) a small inequality on ! e>?'s surface1 & inf9itely small :5 comp>$ ) ! di/ance ( ! fix$ />s4 ,we c =m no idea ( ^! measures except by comp>ison ) ^? 9 con/ant use4 ,:at idea %\ld we h ( ! magnitude ( ! radius ( ! e>? if we did n "k h[ _m million measures x is equal to8 ,:at idea %\ld we h 9 turn ( ^! measures if we _h no?+ con/ant to :i* we c\ld ref] !m8 #adg4 ,!re is some?+ absolute 9 magnitudes1 x may be object$2 = a foot is a c]ta9 l5g? :i* we bo? see & t\*1 & _c be great] or small]2 ! surface ( a squ>e y>d is 9 l mann] some?+ def9ite :i* we see & :i* we t\*2 & ! same may be appli$ to solids4 ,!re is no necessity ( go+ f>!r to f9d t :i* is s cle>ly pres5t$ to u 9 s5sible intuition4 ,?is objection supposes t !re is some?+ fix$ & con/ant 9 intuition2 ?is is false4 ,i appeal to exp]i5ce4 ,x is probable t m5 see ! same magnitudes v diff]5tly accord+ to ! disposition ( _! eyes4 ,no "o is ignorant t ?is happ5s :5 ! objects are at a di/ance2 =1 !n1 "o sees cle>ly :at ano!r _c ev5 di/+ui%2 to "o x is a surface1 :ile to ano!r x is n ev5 s mu* z a po9t4 ,we all "k :at a great v>iety !re is 9 ! size ( objects :5 look$ at ?r\gh diff]5tly graduat$ glasses4 ,f all ?is we conclude t !re is no?+ fix$ 9 ph5om5al magnitude2 b t e ?+ is subject to cont9ual *anges4 ,:5 we look ?r\gh a microscope objects :i* 7 be=e invisible1 take l>ge dim5sions2 & z ! microscope may be inf9itely p]fect$1 x is n absurd to suppose t !re are animals to :om :at is invisible to u appe>s l>g] ?an ! :ole e>?4 ,! con/ruction ( ! eye may also be consid]$ 9 an inv]se s5se1 & z inf9ite p]fection is also possible 9 ?is case1 x is possible t magnitudes :i* to u are imm5se may be invisible to o!r be+s4 ,to ?is eye ( colossal vision ! t]re/rial globe w\ld p]haps be an imp]ceptible atom4 ,?is is no m ?an :at happ5s by ! int]position ( di/ance2 imm5se masses 9 ! firmam5t seem to u to be only small specks ( light4 #adh4 ,x mu/ n[ be v evid5t t !re is no?+ absolute 9 magnitudes ( sight2 b t all is relative1 & t objects appe> to u great] or less1 accord+ to habit1 ! con/ruction ( our organs1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,! v>iety ( appe>ances is 9 accordance ) philosophy2 s9ce no necess>y relation c be discov]$ betwe5 ! size ( ! organ & ! object4 ,:at connection is !re betwe5 a n>r[ surface l ! ret9a ( our eye & ! imm5se surfaces :i* are pa9t$ on x8 #adi4 ,f sight we may pass to t\*1 b we f9d no reason ( ! fixity ( ph5om5al magnitude4 ,! s5se ( t\* gives u ! ideas ( magnitudes by relation to ! "t x takes to pass ov] !m1 & to ! velocity ( our motion4 ,! ideas ( "t & velocity are also relative2 !y ref] to ! space pass$ ov]4 ,:5 we measure velocity we say t x is ! space divid$ by ! "t2 9 measur+ "t we say t x is ! space divid$ by ! velocity2 & we measure space by multiply+ ! velocity by ! "t4 ,all ^! ideas are correlative1 & are measur$ by ea* o!r1 & by _! mutual relations4 ,?is %[s t ^! ideas h no?+ absolute2 _! :ole "* is t ( a relation :i* is incomplete1 or r does n exi/1 if "o ( ! t]ms is want+4 #aej4 ,we %all f9d x equally impossible to det]m9e ^! measures by ! impressions :i* ! motion causes 9 u4 ,if = example we propose to measure ! degree ( velocity1 by ! agitation :i* we feel 9 our body1 we %all f9d t ! measure v>ies ) ! agitation1 b ?is agitation dep5ds on ! degree ( =ce ex]t$1 & /ill m on ! /r5g? ( ! subject4 ,?us a little *ild is oblig$ to run till he is almo/ out ( brea?1 to keep up ) 8 fa!r :o is walk+ fa/4 ,! impossibility ( any fix$ measure by means ( impressions w be /ill m app>5t if we comp>e ! motion ( a horse ) ! motion ( a microscopic animal4 ,! di/ance :i* a horse w\ld pass ov] almo/ )\t any s5sible motion1 w\ld require ! microscopic animal to display its :ole activity1 & run p]haps a :ole day4 ,! horse w\ld sc>ce believe he _h *ang$ 8 place1 :]eas ! poor animalcule w\ld at night be ov]come by fatigue l "o :o has travell$ a long j\rney4 ,comp>e n[ ! motion ( ! horse ) ! motion ( ^? fabul\s giants :o pil$ up m\nta9s to scale ! heav5s2 a s+le /ep ( "o ( ^? giants w\ld be a long di/ance = ! horse to travel4 #aea4 ,art seems to be 9 accordance ) sci5ce on ?is po9t4 ,9 art1 size is no?+1 ! only ?+ :i* is reg>d$ is ! proportion or relation4 ,a skilful m9iature repres5ts a p]son z cle>ly z a pa9t+ ! size ( life4 ,! same pr9ciple is appli$ to all ! objects embrac$ by art1 ! arti/ic ?\ght nev] ref]s directly to ! size2 proportion1 ! relative is all t is att5d$ to2 ! absolute c\nts = no?+4 ,we see ! sy/em ( relations transf]r$ to ! ord] ( appe>ances1 inasmu* z !y affect ! faculties susceptible ( pleasure2 reason is ?us admirably h>moniz$ ) s5tim5t1 9 ! same mann] z we h f\nd intellect h>moniz$ ) ! s5ses4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,pure ,,intelligibility ,,( ,,! ,,ext5d$ ,,_w4 #aeb4 ,objects 9 !mselves d n *ange _! nature1 by ! v>iety ( appe>ances :i* !y produce 9 u4 ,a polygon turn+ ) rapidity has ! appe>ance ( a circle2 ! />s appe> l small po9ts2 & consid]+ ! v>i\s classes ( objects1 we may obs]ve t !re is a great v>iety ( appe>ances dep5d+ on circum/ances4 ,! nature ( a be+ does n consi/ 9 :at x appe>s1 b 9 :at x is4 ,suppose !re 7 no s5sitive be+ 9 ! _w1 ! pres5t ord] ( s5sibility w\ld disappe>2 = )\t s5sitive be+s !re w\ld be no repres5tations4 ,:at w\ld ! _w be 9 t case8 ,?is is a great problem ( metaphysics4 #aec4 ,a pure _s1--! exi/5ce ( :i* we mu/ always suppose2 =1 ?\gh all f9ite be+s 7 annihilat$1 !re w\ld /ill rema9 ! inf9ite be+ :i* is ,god1--a pure _s w\ld "k ! ext5d$ _w j z x is 9 itself1 & w\ld n h ! s5sible repres5tations ei!r ext]nal or int]nal1 :i* we h4 ,?is is c]ta91 unless we mean to attribute imag9ation & s5sibility to pure spirits1 & ev5 to ,god himself4 ,on ?is supposition ,i ask1 :at w\ld a pure _s "k ( ! ext]nal _w8 or1 to speak m prop]ly1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( su* a _s is c]ta9 & its intellig5ce inf9ite1 :at does ?is _s "k ( ! ext]nal _w8 #aed4 ,t :i* ?is _s kn[s ( ! _w is ! _w1 because he _c be deceiv$4 ,b ?is _s does n "k ! _w "u any s5sible =m4 ,!re=e ! _w may be kn[n )\t any ( ! =ms ( s5sibility1 & consequ5tly may be ! object ( a pure intellig5ce4 ,!re is no difficulty on ?is po9t 9 :at reg>ds s5sations4 ,x is only necess>y t we %\ld say t ! pure _s kn[s p]fectly ! pr9ciple ( causality :i* resides 9 ! object1 & produces ! impressions :i* we exp]i5ce4 ,!re is no ne$ ( attribut+ to ! intellig5t _s any s5sation ( ! ?+ und]/ood4 ,?is "q is m difficult :5 we come to expla9 :at relates to ext5sion4 ,=1 if we say t ! _s only kn[s ! pr9ciple ( causality ( ! subjective repres5tation ( ! ext5d$1 x foll[s t !re is no true ext5sion 9 ! objects1 because ! _s sees all t !re is1 & if ! _s does n see x1 x is because x is n4 ,we fall into ,b]keley's idealism2 an ext]nal _w )\t ext5sion is n ! _w ( common s5se1 b ! _w ( ! ideali/s4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we say t ?is pure _s does "k ext5sion1 we seem to attribute to ! _s s5sible repres5tation2 because ! ext5sion repres5t$ seems to involve s5sible repres5tation4 ,:at is an ext5sion ) l9es1 surfaces1 & figures8 ,& ^! objects1 z we und]/& !m1 are s5sible2 if1 h[ev]1 !y be tak5 9 ano!r s5se1 ! ext5sion ( ! _w w be ( ano!r nature1 x w be some?+ ( :i* we h no idea2 & "h aga9 we fall into idealism4 #aee4 ,to solve ?is difficulty1 :i* is really a s]i\s "o1 x is necess>y to recollect ! di/9ction on :i* ,i insi/$ s e>ne/ly betwe5 ext5sion z s5sation & ext5sion z idea4 ,! =m] c become subjective only 9 a s5sible be+2 ! second may be1 & is1 subjective 9 a purely intellectual be+4 ,ext5sion z s5sation is some?+ subjective1 x is an appe>ance2 its object exi/s 9 reality1 b )\t includ+ 9 its ess5ce any ?+ m ?an is necess>y 9 ord] to produce ! s5sation4 ,ext5sion z idea is also subjective2 b x has a real object :i* corresponds to x1 & satisfies all ! conditions ( ! idea4 #aef4 ,does n ?is !ory seem to e/abli% two geometries8 ,we mu/ di/+ui%4 ,! sci5tific & ! pure ideal geometry w rema9 ! same1 save ! diff]5ce ( ! intellig5ces :i* possess x4 ,b not)/&+ ?is diff]5ce1 :at is true 9 "o is true 9 ! o!r4 ,empirical geometry z ! repres5tative "p ( geometry w be diff]5t3 we h ! idea only ( our own4 #aeg4 ,9 fact we obs]ve two p>ts 9 geometry ev5 9 ourselves2 ! "o purely sci5tific1 ! o!r ( s5sible repres5tation4 ,! =m] includes ! connection ( ideas2 ! latt] ! images & p>ticul> cases by means ( :i* we make ! ideas s5sible3 ! fir/ is ! gr\nd2 ! second is ! =m4 ,b al?\gh ! two are diff]5t1 we _c sep>ate !m entirely3 we _c h ! geometrical idea )\t ! s5sible repres5tation1 we und]/& x only p] conv]sionem ad phantasmata1 z say ! s*ola/ics4 ,?us ! two ord]s ( geometry1 ! s5sible & ! intellectual1 ?\gh diff]5t1 are always jo9$ 9 u2 :e!r because ! pure geometrical idea arises f ! s5sible1 or is excit$ by x1 or because ?is is p]haps a necess>y primitive condition impos$ on our m9d by its union ) ! body4 #aeh4 ,?is %[s h[ ! pure geometry may be sep>at$ f ! s5sible1 & h[ x may exi/ 9 pure intellectual be+s1 )\t any ( ! =ms :i* repres5t ! geometrical idea 9 s5sible be+s4 #aei4 ,b :at becomes ( ext5sion 9 itself & /ripp$ ( all s5sible =m8 ,:5 we speak ( ext5sion /ripp$ ( all s5sible =m1 we d n mean to deprive x ( its capacity to be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 we m]ely ab/ract ! relations ( ?is capacity to s5sible be+s4 ,ext5sion is !n r$uc$1 n to an imag9>y space1 nor to an et]nal & inf9ite be+1 b to an ord] ( be+s1 to ! sum ( _! con/ant relations subject to necess>y laws4 ,:at !n are ^! relations8 ,i "k n4 ,b ,i "k t !y exi/ & t ^! necess>y laws exi/4 ,t !y exi/ 9 reality ,i "k by exp]i5ce1 :i* gives te/imony ( _! exi/5ce2 t !y are possible1 ,i "k on ! au?ority ( my ideas1 ! connection ( :i* =ces my ass5t to _! intr9sical evid5ce4 #afj4 ,t ?is evid5ce t\*es b "o aspect ( ! object1 is true2 t !re are _m ?+s 9 ! object :i* we d n "k1 is likewise true2 b ?is only proves t our sci5ce is incomplete1 n t x is illusory or false4 #afa4 ,x is difficult = u to conceive ! pure intelligibility ( ! s5sible _w1 bo? because our ideas are always accompani$ by repres5tations ( ! imag9ation1 & because we try to expla9 x by simple addition & subtraction ( p>ts1 z ?\gh all ! problems ( ! univ]se c\ld be r$uc$ to expressions ( l9es1 surfaces1 & solids4 ,geometry plays an important "p 9 all t reg>ds ! appreciation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature2 b :5 we want to p5etrate to ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 we mu/ lay aside geometry & take up metaphysics4 ,!re is no m s$uctive philosophy ?an t :i* r$uces ! _w to motions & figures1 b at ! same "t !re is none m sup]ficial4 ,a slight reflection on ! reality ( ?+s %[s ! insuffici5cy ( su* a sy/em4 ,=1 ?\gh ! imag9ation be satisfi$ ) x1 ! und]/&+ is n1 & x takes a noble rev5ge on its unfai?ful companion1 :51 =c+ ! imag9ation to fix itself ^u objects1 ! und]/&+ s9ks x 9 an ocean ( d>kness & contradiction4 ,^? :o laugh at ! =ms1 ! acts1 ! =ces1 & o!r su* expressions us$ ) m or less exactness 9 diff]5t s*ools1 ought to reflect t ev5 9 ! physical _w !re is some?+ m ?an is p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses2 & t ev5 s5sible ph5om5a _c be expla9$ by m]e s5sible repres5tations4 ,physical sci5ce is n complete until x calls to its aid metaphysics4 ,! be/ pro( ( ?is w be f\nd 9 ! next *apt]1 :]e we %all see ! imag9ation entangl$ 9 its own repres5tations4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,inf9ite ,,divisibility4 #afb4 ,! divisibility ( matt] is a "q t torm5ts philosoph]s4 ,matt] is divisible because x is ext5d$1 & !re is no ext5sion )\t p>ts4 ,^! p>ts are ext5d$ or are n3 if !y are1 !y are aga9 divisible2 if !y are n1 !y are simple1 & 9 ! division ( matt] we mu/ come to unext5d$ po9ts4 ,?is la/ consequ5ce c be avoid$ only by rec\rse to ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 & ev5 ?is is a means ( escap+ ! difficulty r ?an a true solution4 ,i intimat$ else:]e#eb t inf9ite divisibility seems to suppose ! v ?+ :i* x d5ies4 ,division does n make ! p>ts1 x supposes !m2 t :i* is simple _c be divid$2 !re=e1 ! p>ts :i* may be divid$ pre-exi/ 9 ! inf9itely divisible composition4 #eb ,*ap4 v4 ,let u imag9e ,god to ex]t 8 inf9ite p[] 9 divid+1 w he exhau/ divisibility8 ,if y say no1 y seem to place limits to 8 omnipot5ce2 if y say yes1 we %all h arriv$ at simple po9ts1 z o!rwise ! divisibility w\ld n be exhau/$4 ,ev5 suppos+ t ,god does n make ?is division1 8 inf9ite intellig5ce c]ta9ly sees all ! p>ts into :i* ! composite is divisible2 ^! p>ts mu/ be simple1 or else ! inf9ite intellig5ce w\ld n see ! limit ( divisibility4 ,if y answ] t ?is limit does n exi/1 & !re=e _c be se51 ,i reply t we mu/ !n admit an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 ea* portion ( matt]2 !re w\ld1 9 ?is case1 be no limit ( divisibility1 because ! numb] ( p>ts w\ld be inexhau/ible2 b ?is inf9ite numb] w\ld be se5 by ! inf9ite intellig5ce1 z x is1 & all ^! p>ts w\ld be kn[n z !y are4 ,! difficulty /ill rema9s2 ^! p>ts are simple or composite2 if simple1 ! op9ion :i* we are oppos+ does1 at lea/1 admit unext5d$ po9ts2 if composite1 ! same argum5t may be repeat$2 !y are aga9 divisible4 ,we %all !n h a new inf9ite numb] 9 ea* "o ( ! p>ts ( ! fir/ inf9ite numb]2 b z ?is s]ies ( inf9ities mu/ be always kn[n to ! inf9ite intellig5ce1 we mu/ come to simple po9ts1 or else say t ! inf9ite intellig5ce does n "k all t !re is 9 matt]4 ,x does n m5d ! matt] to say t ! p>ts are n actual b only possible4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 possible p>ts are exi/+ p>ts1 because1 if ! p>ts are n real1 !re mu/ be real simplicity1 & consequ5tly1 indivisibility4 ,secondly1 if !y are possible1 !y may be made to exi/ by ! int]v5tion ( an inf9ite p[]2 & !n :at are ^! p>ts8 !y are ei!r ext5d$ or unext5d$1 & ! matt] returns to :]e x 0 be=e4 #afc4 ,"s say t a ma!matical quantity1 or a body ma!matically consid]$1 is inf9itely divisible1 b t natural bodies are n1 because _! natural =m requires a det]m9ate quantity4 ,?is is ! explanation :i* 0 giv5 9 ! s*ools2 b x is v cle> t !re is no gr\nd = affirm+ t ^! natural bodies require a c]ta9 quantity1 beyond :i* division is impossible4 ,?is _c be prov$ ei!r a priori nor a po/]iori3 n a priori1 because we d n "k ! ess5ce ( bodies1 & _c say t !re is a po9t :]e ! natural =m requires ! limit ( divisibility2 nei!r c x be prov$ a po/]iori1 because ! means ( obs]vation at our disposal are s co>se1 t x is impossible = u to rea* ! la/ limit ( division & discov] a "p :i* _c be divid$4 ,besides1 :5 we rea* ?is quantity beyond :i* division _c g1 we h a true quantity1 by ! supposition2 if x is quantity x is ext5d$2 if x is ext5d$ x has p>ts2 if x has p>ts x is divisible4 ,!re=e !re is no reason = say+ t !re is any natural =m :i* limits division4 #afd4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a natural & a ma!matical body is n admissible 9 :at relates to division4 ,?is is a result ( ! nature ( ext5sion1 :i* is real 9 natural bodies1 & ideal 9 ma!matical4 ,t ! p>ts 9 natural bodies are n actual b possible1 may be und]/ood 9 two ways2 x may mean t !y are n actually sep>at$2 or1 t !y are n di/9ct4 ,t !y are n sep>at$ has no be>+ on ! "q2 = division may be conceiv$ )\t sep>at+ ! p>ts4 ,b1 if !y are n di/9ct1 ! division is impossible2 = x _c ev5 be conceiv$ :]e ! ?+s are n di/9ct4 #afe4 ,?is di/9ction seems to h orig9at$ 9 ! attempt to avoid ! necessity ( admitt+ inf9ite divisibility 9 natural bodies4 ,b ! difficulty /ill rema9+ ) reg>d to ma!matical bodies1 ! philosophical my/]y /ill subsi/s4 ,x consi/s 9 ?is1 t no limit c be assign$ to division s long z !re is any ?+ ext5d$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 if1 9 ord] to assign ?is limit1 we come to simple po9ts1 !n x is impossible to recon/itute ext5sion4 ,! difficulty arises f ! v nature ( ext5d$ ?+s1 :e!r realiz$ or only conceiv$2 ! real ord] escapes none ( ! difficulties ( ! ideal4 ,if ideal ext5sion _c be con/itut$ out ( unext5d$ po9ts1 nei!r c real ext5sion2 if ideal ext5sion has no limit to its divisibility until we come to simple po9ts1 ! same is also true ( real ext5sion2 = 9 bo? x is a result ( ! ess5ce ( ext5sion1 & insep>able f x4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,unext5d$ ,,po9ts4 #aff4 ,!re are two /rong argum5ts aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( unext5d$ po9ts3 ! fir/ is1 t we mu/ suppose !m inf9ite 9 numb]1 = o!rwise x does n seem possible to arrive at ! simple1 />t+ f ! ext5d$3 ! second is1 t ev5 suppos+ !m inf9ite 9 numb] !y are incapable ( produc+ ext5sion4 ,^! argum5ts are s p[]ful z to excuse all ! ab]rations ( ! contr>y op9ion1 :i*1 h[ev] /range !y may seem1 are n m /range ?an ! simple =m+ ext5sion1 & ! smalle/ portion ( matt] conta9+ an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 #afg4 ,x does n seem possible to arrive at unext5d$ po9ts unless by an inf9ite division4 ,! unext5d$ is z]o 9 ! ord] ( ext5sion1 & 9 ord] to arrive at z]o by a decreas+ geometrical progression x mu/ be cont9u$ ad inf9itum4 ,ma!matical calculation pres5ts a s5sible image ( ?is4 ,:5 two p>ts are unit$ !y mu/ h a side :]e !y t\*1 & ano!r :]e !y are n 9 contact4 ,if we sep>ate ! int]ior side f ! ext]ior we h two new sides1 "o :i* t\*es & ano!r :i* does n4 ,cont9u+ ! division ! same ?+ happ5s aga92 we mu/1 !re=e1 pass ?r\gh an inf9ite s]ies 9 ord] to arrive at ! unext5d$1 :i* is equival5t to say+ t we %all nev] arrive !re4 ,to cont9ue ! division ad inf9itum we mu/ suppose inf9ite p>ts1 & consequ5tly ! exi/5ce ( an actual inf9ite numb]4 ,f ! mom5t t we suppose ?is inf9ite numb] to exi/ x seems to become f9ite1 s9ce we already see a limit to ! division1 & also o!r numb]s great] ?an x4 ,let u suppose t ?is inf9ite numb] ( p>ts is f\nd 9 a cubic in*2 !re are numb]s :i* are great] ?an ?is :i* we suppose inf9ite2 a cubic foot1 = example1 w conta9 #a1gbh times ! inf9ite numb] ( p>ts conta9$ 9 ! cubic in*4 ,?us ! op9ion ( unext5d$ po9ts seek+ to avoid inf9ite division1 runs into x2 j z its adv]s>ies try+ to escape f unext5d$ po9ts are =c$ to ackn[l$ge _! exi/5ce4 ,! imag9ation loses itself & ! und]/&+ is confus$4 #afh4 ,! o!r objection is n less unansw]able4 ,suppose we h arriv$ at unext5d$ po9ts1 h[ %all we recon/itute ext5sion8 ,! unext5d$ has no dim5sions2 !re=e1 no matt] h[ _m unext5d$ po9ts we may take1 we c nev] =m ext5sion ) !m4 ,let u imag9e two po9ts to be unit$1 z nei!r ( !m alone occupies any place1 nei!r w !y bo? toge!r4 ,we _c say t !y p5etrate ea* o!r2 = p5etration _c exi/ )\t ext5sion4 ,we mu/ admit t ^! p>ts be+ z]o 9 ! ord] ( ext5sion1 _! sum c nev] give ext5sion1 no matt] h[ _m ( !m we may add toge!r4 #afi4 ,x is c]ta9 t a sum ( z]os c give only z]o = ! result1 b ma!maticians admit t !re are c]ta9 expressions equal to z]o1 :i* multipli$ by an inf9ite quantity w give a f9ite quantity = ! product4 #j #j #j #j ,n #j #j2 b if we take #j_/,m #j1 & multiply x by ! expression ,m_/#j #j1 we %all h 7#j_/,m7 7,m_/#j7 7#j ,m7_/7,m #j7 #j_/j :i* is equal to any f9ite quantity1 :i* we may express by ,a4 ,?is is %[n by ! pr9ciples ( elem5t>y algebra only2 if we pass to ! transc5d5tal we h dz_/dx o_/o ,b2 ,b express+ ! diff]5tial coeffici5t :i* may be equal to a f9ite value4 ,c ^! ma!matical doctr9es s]ve to expla9 ! g5]ation ( ! ext5d$ f unext5d$ po9ts8 ,i ?9k n4 ,x is evid5t t1 multiplication be+ only addition %ort5$1 if an inf9ite addition ( z]os c give only z]o2 multiplication c give no o!r result1 al?\gh ! o!r factor be inf9ite4 ,:y !n d ma!matical results say ! contr>y8 ,?is contradiction is n true1 b only app>5t4 ,9 ! multiplication ( ! inf9itesimal by ! inf9ite we may obta9 a f9ite quantity = product1 because ! inf9itesimal is n reg>d$ z a true z]o1 b z a quantity less ?an all imag9able quantities1 b /ill x is some?+4 ,if ?is condition 7 want+1 all ! op]ations w\ld be absurd1 because !y w\ld turn ^u a pure no?+4 ,%all we !re=e say t ! equation1 dz_/dx o_/o1 is only approximate8 ,no2 = x expresses ! relation ( ! limit ( ! decrem5t1 :i* is equal to ,b only :5 ! diff]5tials are equal to z]o4 ,b z geometricians only consid] ! limit 9 itself1 !y pass ov] all ! int]vals ( ! decrem5t1 & place !mselves at once at ! po9t ( true exactness4 ,:y !n op]ate on ^! quantities8 ,because ! op]ations are a sort ( algebraic language1 & m>k ! c\rse t has be5 foll[$ 9 ! calculations1 & recall ! connection ( ! limit ) ! quantity to :i* x ref]s4 #agj4 ,unity :i* is n numb] produces numb]2 :y !n _c po9ts )\t ext5sion produce ext5sion8 ,!re is a great disp>ity betwe5 ! two cases4 ,! unext5d$1 z su*1 involves only ! negative idea ( ext5sion2 b 9 unity1 al?\gh numb] is d5i$1 ?is negation does n con/itute its nature4 ,no "o ev] def9$ unity to be ! negation ( numb]1 yet we always def9e ! unext5d$ to be t :i* has no ext5sion4 ,unity is any be+ tak5 9 g5]al1 )\t consid]+ its divisibility2 numb] is a collection ( unities2 !re=e ! idea ( numb] involves ! idea ( unity1 ( an undivid$ be+1 numb] be+ no?+ m ?an ! repetition ( ?is unity4 ,x belongs to ! ess5ce ( all numb] t x c be resolv$ into unity2 x conta9s unity 9 a det]m9ate mann]4 ,b ! ext5d$ c n be resolv$ into ! unext5d$1 unless by proce$+ ad inf9itum1 or else by "s process ( decomposition :i* we "k no?+ (4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,a ,,conjecture ,,on ,,! ,,transc5d5tal ,,notion ,,( ,,ext5sion4 #aga4 ,! argum5ts = or aga9/ unext5d$ po9ts1 = or aga9/ ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt] seem equally conclusive4 ,! und]/&+ is afraid t x has met ) contradictory demon/rations2 x ?9ks x discov]s absurdities 9 inf9ite divisibility1 & absurdities 9 limit+ x2 absurdities 9 d5y+ unext5d$ po9ts1 & absurdities 9 admitt+ !m4 ,x is inv9cible attack+ an op9ion1 b its /r5g? is turn$ into weakness z soon z x attempts to e/abli% or def5d any ?+ ( its own4 ,yet reason c nev] contradict itself2 two contradictory demon/rations w\ld be ! contradiction ( reason1 & w\ld produce its ru92 ! contradiction c1 !re=e1 only be app>5t4 ,b :o %all flatt] himself t he c untie ! knot8 ,excessive confid5ce on ?is po9t is a sure pro( t "o has n und]/ood ! true /ate ( ! "q1 & su* vanity w\ld be puni%$ by ! conviction ( ignorance4 ,) all ^! res]ves ,i n[ proce$ to make a few obs]vations on ?is my/]i\s subject4 #agb4 ,i am incl9$ to believe t 9 all inve/igations on ! fir/ elem5ts ( matt]1 !re is an error :i* r5d]s any result impossible4 ,y wi% to "k :e!r ext5sion may be produc$ f unext5d$ po9ts1 & ! me?od :i* y employ consi/s 9 imag9+ !m already approa*$1 & !n try+ to see if any "p ( space c be fill$ by !m4 ,?is seems to me l try+ to make a d5ial correspond to an affirmation4 ,! unext5d$ po9t repres5ts no?+ det]m9ate to u except ! d5ial ( ext5sion2 :51 !re=e1 we ask if ?is po9t jo9$ ) o!rs l x c occupy space1 we ask if ! unext5d$ c be ext5d$4 ,our imag9ation makes u presuppose ext5sion 9 ! v act 9 :i* we wi% to exam9e its primitive g5]ation4 ,space1 su* z we conceive x1 is a true ext5sion2 &1 z has be5 %[n1 is ! idea ( ext5sion 9 g5]al2 to imag9e1 !re=e1 t ! unext5d$ c fill space1 is to *ange non-ext5sion into ext5sion4 ,x is true t ?is is precisely :at is requir$1 & 9 ?is consi/s ! :ole difficulty2 b ! error is 9 attempt+ to solve x by a juxtaposition :i* makes ^! po9ts bo? unext5d$ & ext5d$1 an evid5t contradiction4 #agc4 ,9 ord] to "k h[ ext5sion is g5]at$1 x w\ld be necess>y to free ourselves f all s5sible repres5tations1 & f all ideas :i* are 9 ! lea/ degree affect$ by ! ph5om5on1 & to contemplate x ) an eye z simple1 a look z p5etrat+1 z t ( a pure _s4 ,x w\ld be necess>y to take f all geometrical ideas all ph5om5al =ms1 all repres5tations ( ! imag9ation1 & pres5t !m to ! imag9ation purifi$ f all mixture ) ! s5sible ord]4 ,x w\ld be necess>y to "k h[ f> ext5sion1 real cont9uity1 agrees ) ! ph5om5al4 ,x w\ld1 9 f9e1 be necess>y to elim9ate f ! object p]ceiv$1 all t relates to ! subject :i* p]ceives x4 #agd4 ,9 ext5sion1 z we h already se51 !re are two ?+s to be consid]$2 multiplicity1 & cont9uity4 ,z to ! fir/1 !re is no objection to suppos+ t x may be ! result ( unext5d$ po9ts1 s9ce numb] results f v>i\s units :e!r !y are simple or composite4 ,b ! difficulty is ) reg>d to cont9uity1 :i* s5sible intuition cle>ly pres5ts to u z ! basis ( ! repres5tations ( ! imag9ation1 b ! nature ( :i* is a puzzle to ! und]/&+4 ,x may p]haps be said t cont9uity1 ab/ract$ f ! s5sible repres5tation1 & consid]$ only 9 ! transc5d5tal ord]1 is1 9 its reality & z x appe>s to a pure _s1 no?+ m ?an ! con/ant relation ( _m be+s1 :i* are ( a nature to produce 9 a s5sitive be+ ! ph5om5on ( repres5tation1 & to be p]ceiv$ 9 ! intuition :i* we call ! repres5tation ( space4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis ext5sion 9 ! ext]nal _w is real1 n only z a pr9ciple ( causality ( our impressions1 b also z an object subject to ! necess>y relations :i* we conceive4 #age4 ,b1 !n1 x w be ask$1 is ! ext]nal _w su* z we imag9e x8 ,to ?is we mu/ answ]1 9 accordance ) :at we h said :5 treat+ ( s5sations1 t x is necess>y to take f s5sations all t is subjective1 & :i* by an innoc5t illu/ration we look ^u z objective2 we may !n say t ext5sion really exi/s outside ( u & indep5d5t ( our s5sations2 consid]$ 9 itself1 x exi/s free f all s5sible repres5tation1 & 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* a pure _s may p]ceive x4 #agf4 ,we see no objection :i* c reasonably be made to ?is !ory :i* affirms ! reality ( ! corporeal _w1 at ! same "t t x settles ! difficulties ( idealism4 ,to give my op9ion 9 a few words1 ,i say3 ,t ext5sion 9 itself1 exi/s su* z ,god kn[s x1 & 9 ! cognition ( ,god !re is no mixture ( any ( ! s5sible repres5tations :i* always accompany man's p]ception4 ,t :i* is positive 9 ext5sion is multiplicity1 toge!r ) a c]ta9 con/ant ord]2 cont9uity is no?+ m ?an ?is con/ant ord]1 9 s f> z s5sibly repres5t$ 9 u1 x is a purely subjective ph5om5on :i* does n at all affect ! reality4 #agg4 ,we may ev5 assign a reason :y s5sible intuition has be5 giv5 to u4 ,our s\l is unit$ to an organiz$ body1--t is to say1 a collection ( be+s b\nd toge!r by con/ant relation to ea* o!r & to ! o!r bodies ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ord] t ! h>mony might n be int]rupt$1 & t ! s\l :i* presides ov] ?is organization might rightly ex]cise its functions1 !re 0 ne$ ( a cont9u$ repres5tation ( ?is collection ( ! relations ( our own & o!r bodies4 ,?is repres5tation mu/ be simultane\s & indep5d5t ( intellectual comb9ations2 = o!rwise ! animal faculties c\ld n be ex]cis$ ) ! promptness & p]sev]ance :i* ! satisfaction ( ! necessities ( life dem&s4 ,!re=e x is t all s5sible be+s1 ev5 ^? :i* h n reason1 h be5 end[$ ) ?is intuition ( ext5sion or space3 :i* is l an unlimit$ field on :i* ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! univ]se are repres5t$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,h>mony ,,( ,,! ,,real1 ,,ph5om5al1 ,,& ,,ideal ,,ord]s4 #agh4 ,we may consid] two natures 9 ! ext]nal _w1 ! "o real1 ! o!r ph5om5al2 ! fir/ is p>ticul> & absolute1 ! second is relative to ! be+ :i* p]ceives ! ph5om5on2 by ! fir/ ! _w is1 by ! second x appe>s4 ,a pure intellectual be+ kn[s ! _w z x is2 a s5sitive be+ exp]i5ces x z x appe>s4 ,we c discov] ?is duality 9 ourselves2 9 s f> z we are s5sitive be+s1 we exp]i5ce ! ph5om5on1 b 9 s f> z intellig5t1 al?\gh we d n "k ! reality1 we attempt to rea* x by reason+ & conjecture4 #agi4 ,! ext]nal _w 9 its real nature1 ab/ract$ f ! ph5om5al1 is n an illusion4 ,its exi/5ce is kn[n to u n by ph5om5a only1 b by pr9ciples ( pure intellig5ce :i* are sup]ior to all t is individual & cont+5t4 ,^! pr9ciples1 bas$ on ! data ( exp]i5ce1--t is1 on s5sations ! exi/5ce ( :i* we "k f consci\sness1 assure u t ! objectiv5ess ( s5sations1 or ! reality ( ! ext]nal _w1 is a tru?4 #ahj4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5tial & ! accid5tal1 & betwe5 ! absolute & ! relative1 0 admitt$ 9 ! s*ools4 ,ext5sion 0 consid]$ n z ! ess5ce1 b z an accid5t ( bodies2 ! relations ( bodies to our s5ses are n f\nd$ imm$iately on _! ess5ce1 b on _! accid5ts4 ,matt] & sub/antial =m unit$ con/itute ! ess5ce ( bodies2 ! matt] receiv+ ! =m1 & ! =m actuat+ ! matt]4 ,nei!r ! matt] nor ! sub/antial =m c be imm$iately p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 because ?is p]ception requires ! det]m9ation ( figure & o!r accid5ts di/9ct f ! ess5ce ( body4 ,!re=e ! s*ola/ics di/+ui%$ s5sible objects into ?ree classes2 p>ticul>1 common1 & accid5tal1 proprium1 commune1 et p] accid5s4 ,! p>ticul> is t :i* appe>s imm$iately to ! s5ses1 & is only p]ceiv$ by "o ( !m1 z color1 s\nd1 ta/e1 & smell4 ,! common is t :i* is p]ceiv$ by m ?an "o s5se1 z figure1 :i* is ! object ( sight & ( t\*4 ,! accid5tal is t :i* is n directly p]ceiv$ by any ( ! s5ses1 b is hidd5 "u s5sible qualities1 by means ( :i* x is discov]$1 z are sub/ances4 ,! s5sible p] accid5s is connect$ ) s5sible qualities2 b !y d n pres5t x to ! und]/&+ z an image pres5ts ! orig9al1 b z a sign ! signifi$4 ,h5ce !y did n consid] ! s5sible p] accid5s z proce$+ f ! species & r$uc+ ! s5sitive faculty to act3 x 0 intelligible r ?an s5sible4 #aha4 ,9 ! corporeal univ]se consid]$ 9 its ess5ce1 !re is no necessity ( suppos+ any ?+ resembl+ ! s5sible repres5tation1 b we mu/ suppose ! object to correspond to ! idea2 = o!rwise we %\ld h to admit t geometrical tru?s may be contradict$ by exp]i5ce4 #ahb4 ,al?\gh ext5sion is an ord] ( be+s ( :i* we _c =m a p]fect conception1 because we _c purify our ideas f all s5sible =m1 /ill ?is ord] mu/ correspond to our ideas1 & ev5 to our s5sible repres5tations1 s f> z is necess>y to prove ! tru? ( ! ideas4 ,x is evid5t t al?\gh ! ph5om5al ord] is di/9ct f ! real1 x dep5ds on x1 & is connect$ ) x by con/ant laws4 ,if we suppose t !re is no p>allel betwe5 ! reality & ! ph5om5on1 & t ! reality has n all ! conditions necess>y to satisfy ! dem&s ( ! ph5om5on1 !re c be no reason :y ! ph5om5a %\ld be subject to con/ant laws1 & :y exp]i5ce %\ld n suff] cont9ual confusion4 ,)\t a fix$ & con/ant correspond5ce betwe5 ! reality & ! appe>ance1 ! _w becomes a *aos to u1 & all regul> & con/ant exp]i5ce becomes impossible4 #ahc4 ,let u exam9e ?is at great] l5g?4 ,"o ( ! elem5t>y propositions ( geometry says3 ,:5 two /raight l9es int]sect ea* o!r1 ! opposite or v]tical angles1 :i* !y =m1 are equal4 ,9 ord] to demon/rate ?is1 ,i mu/ h ! int]nal intuition ( two l9es int]sect+ ea* o!r4 ,b ! geometrical proposition is n conf9$ to any p>ticul> intuition1 b embraces all t c be imag9$1 )\t any limit to _! numb]1 or any det]m9ation z to ! measure ( ! angles1 ! l5g? ( ! l9es1 or _! position 9 space4 ,"h ! pure idea ext5ds to an inf9ity ( cases1 :]eas ! s5sible intuition repres5ts !m only "o at a "t1 & isolat$ if repres5t$ successively4 ,! und]/&+ is n limit$ to ! affirmation ( ?is relation betwe5 ! ideas1 b applies x to ! reality1 & says3 ,:5ev] ! conditions ( ?is ideal ord] are realiz$1 t :i* ,i see 9 my ideas is true 9 reality1 & ! relation express$ w be m or less exact 9 proportion to ! exactness ( ! realization ( ! conditions2 ! m delicate ! real l9es are1 t is1 ! m !y approa* ! condition ( "r l9es1 ! ne>] w ! relation ( ! two angles approa* to p]fect equality4 ,?is conviction is f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 :i* w\ld be false if ! proposition 7 n true2 & x is confirm$ by exp]i5ce1 s f> z x t\*es ! conditions ( ! ideal ord]4 #ahd4 ,:at is !re 9 reality :i* corresponds to ?is proposition8 ,an exi/+ or real l9e is an ord] ( be+s2 two l9es :i* int]sect ea* o!r are two ord]s ( be+s ) a det]m9ate relation2 ! angle is ! result ( ?is relation1 or1 r1 x is ! relation itself2 ! equality ( ! opposite angle is ! correspond5ce ( ^! relations 9 ! ratio ( equality by ! cont9uation ( ! same ord] 9 ano!r s5se4 ,^! relations betwe5 ! ord]s & ! be+s1 & ! correspond5ce ( ^! ord]s to ea* o!r1 is :at corresponds 9 reality to ! pure geometrical idea1 or to ! idea sep>at$ f all s5sible repres5tation4 ,s9ce ! relations ( ! idea h _! correspond+ objects 9 ! relations ( ! reality1 geometry exi/s n only 9 ! ideal ord]1 b also 9 ! real4 ,s9ce ! ph5om5on or s5sible repres5tation is subject to ! same conditions z ! idea1 because ! ord] ( ph5om5a pres5ts c]ta9 relations ( ! same nature z ! relations ( ! idea & ! fact2 ! idea1 ! ph5om5on1 & ! reality agree1 & x is expla9$ :y ! intellectual ord] is confirm$ by exp]i5ce1 & exp]i5ce receives ) confid5ce ! direction x gives4 #ahe4 ,?is h>mony mu/ h a cause2 we mu/ look = a pr9ciple :i* is ! suffici5t reason ( ?is wond]ful agreem5t betwe5 ?+s s di/9ct4 ,"h new problems arise :i* ov]:elm ! und]/&+1 b at ! same "t exp& & invigorate x by ! gr&eur ( ! spectacle pres5t$ to its view1 & ! imm5sity ( ! field op5$ to its inve/igations4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,real ,,ord] ,,to ,,! ,,ph5om5al4 #ahf4 ,is ! agreem5t ( ! idea1 ! ph5om5on1 & ! reality necess>y1 is x f\nd$ on ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 or has x be5 freely e/abli%$ by ! w ( ! ,creator8 ,if ! _w _h no o!r reality ?an t express$ by ! s5sible repres5tation1 if ! appe>ances 7 an exact copy ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 we %\ld h to say t ?is agreem5t is unalt]able1 t ?+s are :at !y appe>1 & t if we suppose !m to exi/1 x is absolutely necess>y t !y %\ld be j :at !y appe>2 = no?+ c be 9 contradiction ) its con/itutive notion4 ,t :i* n[ is ext5d$1 w\ld be necess>ily ext5d$1 & c\ld n b be ext5d$ 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* x appe>s to u1 & "u ! same conditions2 ! relation ( bodies to ea* o!r w\ld be necess>ily subject to ! same ph5om5al laws1 & all :i* does n come "u ?is ord] w\ld be a contradiction1 & beyond ! limit ( omnipot5ce4 #ahg4 ,bodies are pres5t$ to u 9 ! s5sible intuition ) a det]m9ate magnitude1 & 9 a c]ta9 fix$ relation :i* we calculate by comp>ison ) an immovable ext5sion1 su* z we imag9e space4 ,by magnitude1 bodies occupy a c]ta9 space1 det]m9ate1 ?\gh *angeable by motion2 by ! relation ( magnitudes !y occupy a great] or small] place1 & mutually exclude ea* o!r2 ?is exclusion is call$ imp5etrability4 ,! "q to be exam9$ "h is1 :e!r ! det]m9ation ( magnitudes1 & _! relation 9 respect to ! occupation ( place1 are ?+s absolutely necess>y1 s t _! alt]ation involves a contradiction1 or n4 ,i answ] t !y are n4 #ahh4 ,relation to place consid]$ z a portion ( pure space1 means no?+2 = ,i h already %[n t ?is space is only an ab/raction ( our und]/&+1 & t 9 itself x has no reality1--x is no?+4 ,!re=e ! relation to x mu/ be no?+ also1 because ! relation is de/roy$ if "o ( ! t]ms is no?+4 ,!re=e1 ! relations ( bodies to place c only be ! relations ( bodies to "o ano!r4 #ahi4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal ?+ to be notic$ 9 ?is "q4 ,! und]/&+ gets confus$ :5 x beg9s by suppos+ space an absolute nature ) necess>y relation to all bodies4 ,we mu/ rememb] ! doctr9e ( ! *apt]s1#ec :]e we expla9$ h[ ! idea ( space is g5]at$ 9 u1 :at object corresponds to ?is idea 9 reality1 & h[2 & we %all easily p]ceive t ! absolute & ess5tial relations :i* we ?9k we discov] betwe5 bodies & a vacant & real capacity1 are illusions ( our imag9ation1 9 consequ5ce ( our n suffici5tly purify+ ! ideal ord] by sep>at+ f x all s5sible impressions4 ,we _c und]/& s mu* z ! mean+ ( ^! que/ions1 if we d n make an attempt at ?is sep>ation z f> z is possible to our nature4 ,if ?is is done1 !n ! que/ions propos$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s w appe> v philosophical1 & _! solution w seem probable1 if n true2 b !y mu/ seem absurd1 if we conf\nd ! pure intellectual ord] ) ! s5sible4 ,we _c admit ! idealism :i* de/roys ! real _w2 b ! empiricism :i* annihilates ! ideal ord]1 is equally objectionable4 ,if we _c rise above ! s5sible repres5tations1 let u r5\nce philosophy1 give up ?9k+1 & conf9e ourselves to s5sation4 #ec ,,xii41 ,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 & ,,xv4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,:e!r ,,e ,,?+ ,,mu/ ,,be ,,9 ,,"s ,,place4 #aij4 ,is x necess>y t :atev] exi/s %\ld be 9 "s place8 ,?is "q may seem /range1 b x is pr(\ndly philosophical4 ,to be is n ! same z to be 9 a place4 ,to be1 :e!r tak5 sub/antively z signify+ to exi/1 or copulatively1 z express+ ! relation ( ! pr$icate to ! subject1 does n involve ! idea ( be+ 9 a place4 ,! relation ( an object to place is n necess>y to x2 = x is n conta9$ 9 ! notion ( object4 ,x is some?+ add$ to ! object1 :e!r x is giv5 to ! object ) m or less f\ndation by ourselves1 or ! object has x 9 reality by communication f "s o!r4 ,! imag9ation c repres5t no?+ :i* does n occupy a place1 b ! und]/&+ may conceive ?+s t are n situat$ 9 any place4 ,:5 we reflect on ! ess5ce ( objects1 :at position does our m9d give !m8 ,! intellectual act is always accompani$ by s5sible repres5tations1 :i* sometimes assi/ x1 & sometimes emb>rass & confuse x2 b 9 ei!r case ! act ( ! und]/&+ is always di/9ct f ^! repres5tations4 #aia4 ,!re is no reason = say+ t e ?+ mu/ occupy a place4 ,! imag9ation _c see h[ any ?+ c exi/ o!rwise1 b ! und]/&+ f9ds no absurdity 9 x1 & x is 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples ( philosophy4 ,if place consid]$ 9 itself is only a "p ( space t]m9at$ by a surface1 & space ab/ract$ f bodies is no?+1 ! relation to place or to po9ts 9 space mu/ be no?+4 ,we mu/ h bodies 9 ord] to h a t]m ( ! relation2 !re=e1 if we suppose a be+ :i* has no relation to bodies1 x is n necess>y t x %\ld be 9 any place4 #aib4 ,! relation ( a be+ to bodies may be ( ?ree k9ds3 t ( comm5suration1 z is ! relation ( l9es1 surfaces1 & solids to ea* o!r2 t ( g5]ation1 z we conceive ! l9e g5]at$ by ! po9t2 & t ( action 9 g5]al1 z we conceive ! relation ( pure spirits to matt]4 ,! fir/ _c exi/ if ! object has no dim5sions2 = !n x _c be measur$2 ! second c exi/ only 9 unext5d$ or inf9itesimal po9ts1 f :i* ext5sion is g5]at$2 !re=e ^! two relations c only exi/ betwe5 bodies1 or _! g5]ative elem5ts4 ,!re=e1 no?+ :i* is n a body or an elem5t ( body1 c occupy place "u ei!r ( ^! aspects4 ,z to ! ?ird relation1 t ( action ( a cause ^u a body1 x may be f\nd 9 all ag5ts capable ( act+ ^u matt]2 b x is evid5t t ! position :i* results f ?is1 is some?+ v diff]5t f t :i* we conceive 9 bodies or _! elem5ts2 x is some?+ ( a :olly di/9ct ord]1 & belongs r to ! pure idea ( causality ?an to ! intuition ( space4 #aic4 ,we c conceive a be+ :i* is n a body1 nor an elem5t ( body1 & :i* does n ex]cise any action on bodies2 9 ?is case1 ?is be+ has none ( ! ?ree relations ( :i* we h spok51 consequ5tly x is n 9 any place1 & to say t x is "h1 or t x is !re1 t x is ne> or di/ant1 w\ld be us+ words )\t mean+4 #aid4 ,view$ f ! po9t ( ?is doctr9e1 ! foll[+ que/ions are easy to answ]3 ,:]e mu/ a pure _s be :i* has no relation ( causality nor influ5ce ( any k9d ^u ! corporeal _w8 ,n[h]e4 ,! answ] w n seem /range to "o :o und]/&s t ! "q is absurd4 ,9 ! case suppos$1 !re is no :]e1 = ?is involves a relation & !re are no relations "h4 ,:]e w\ld ! pure spirits be if ! _w did n exi/8 ,n[h]e1 unless we h a m9d to say !y w\ld be 9 !mselves4 ,b1 ! ^w to be does n mean ! position ( :i* we are speak+ "h1 b only ! exi/5ce ( ! _s1 or its id5tity ) itself4 ,:]e 0 ,god be=e ! _w 0 creat$8 ,he 01 b he 0 n 9 any place2 = he has no p>ts4 #aie4 ,i wi% "h to expose an error ( ,kant4 ,?is philosoph] believ$ t space 0 conceiv$ by u z a condition ( all exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 & on ?is he f\nd$ "o ( 8 argum5ts t space 0 a purely subjective =m4 ,9 ! second edition ( 8 ,critic ( pure ,reason1 expla9+ ! subjectiv5ess ( space1 he seems to hold1 t we d n ev5 conceive ?+s 9 ! pure intellectual ord]1 )\t ref]r+ !m to space4 ,he obs]ves t 9 natural !ology1 :5 treat+ ( ?+s :i* _c be ! object ( intuition ei!r = u or = !mselves1 we are v c>eful n to attribute to ?is intuition or mann] ( p]ception "t & space1 :i* are ! conditions ( human intuition4 ,b1 he adds1 by :at "r d we proce$ ?us1 :5 "t & space h already be5 e/abli%$ z ! =ms ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 & conditions ( _! exi/5ce a priori1 subsi/+ /ill aft] all else has be5 annihilat$ by ?\ght8 ,z conditions ( all exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 !y mu/ be ! conditions ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,if we d n make space & "t ! objective =ms ( all ?+s1 x only rema9s = u to make !m ! subjective =ms ( our mode ( intuition1 z well int]nal z ext]nal4 ,kant is "r 9 say+ t space & "t ought n to be consid]$ z real =ms1 n susceptible ( annihilation1 & !re=e necess>y & et]nal2 b ,i d n see ! necessity ( ! disjunctive by :i* he ass]ts t if we d n make space & "t ! objective =ms ( all ?+s1 we mu/ make !m ! subjective =ms1 & t1 o!rwise1 we %\ld make space & "t conditions ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 #aif4 ,we reg>d space z an actual condition ( ?+s1 :i* occupy place1 b n ( all ?+s4 ,we conceive exi/5ce 9 pure spirits )\t ! necessity ( any relation to place1 &1 consequ5tly1 indep5d5t ( all position 9 space4 ,on ?is po9t1 z on all relat+ to ! pure intellectual ord]1 we f9d 9 ! !ologians doctr9es :i* are highly important1 & des]ve to be consult$ by all :o wi% to g deeply into philosophical que/ions4 ,! au?or ( ! ,critic ( ,pure ,reason w\ld h f\nd !re "s obs]vations :i* w\ld h cle>$ up ! difficulties :i* emb>rass$ him4 ,he w\ld h f\nd h[ incorrect x is to say t space is a condition ( ! exi/5ce ( all ?+s1 9 ! beautiful z well z pr(\nd !ory by :i* _m ( ! s*ola/ics expla9 ! pres5ce ( ,god 9 ! corporeal _w1 & ! pres5ce ( ! angels 9 diff]5t places1 _! motion f "o po9t to ano!r )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate po9ts1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! s\l is :olly 9 ! :ole body & 9 e "p ( ! body4 ,9 ^! works1 un=tunately s little consult$1 ! ,g]man philosoph] w\ld h le>n$ t ! pres5ce ( a _s 9 a place is some?+ diff]5t f ! pres5ce ( a body1 & has no relation to ! intuition ( space1 :e!r reg>d$ z ! basis ( s5sible repres5tations or z a geometrical idea4 #aig4 ,/4 ,?omas#ed asks if ,god is 9 all ?+s1 & answ]s t he is4 ,9 prov+ ?is ass]tion he does n consid] ! necessity ( e ?+ be+ 9 "s place1 b on ! contr>y seems r to =get ! idea ( space1 & reg>ds only causality4 #ed ,sum4 ,!ol4 ,p4 ,i41 ,q4 viii41 ,art4 #a4 ,z ,god1 he says1 is be+ itself by 8 ess5ce1 creat$ be+ mu/ be 8 effect1 z to burn is ! effect ( fire4 ,b ,god causes ?is effect 9 ?+s n only :5 !y beg9 to be1 b z long z !y are pres]v$ 9 be+2 ?us ! light is caus$ 9 ! air by ! sun z long z air rema9s illum9at$4 ,z long !re=e z ?+s reta9 _! be+1 ,god is necess>ily pres5t to !m1 accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* !y h _! be+4 ,b be+ is t :i* is mo/ int]nal1 & mo/ closely inh]5t 9 e ?+ because x is ! =m ( all t is 9 x1 ,god !re=e is 9 all ?+s int]nally4 ,to be situat$ 9 space is to be conta9$ 9 x2 s1 at lea/1 we conceive :atev] we consid] situat$ 9 space4 ,/4 ,?omas rejects ?is mean+ z appli$ to spiritual be+s1 & says1 t al?\gh corporeal be+s are conta9$ 9 ?+s1 spiritual be+s on ! contr>y conta9 ! ?+s 9 :i* !y are4 ,9 ! second article he asks :e!r ,god is 9 all places 7ubique72 &1 he says1 t z ,god is 9 all ?+s1 giv+ !m be+ & ! p[] ( act+1 s he is 9 all places giv+ !m be+ & capacity 7virtutem locativam74 ,he /ates z an objection t incorporeal ?+s are n 9 any place1 & answ]s 9 ! foll[+ philosophical words3 ,incorporeal ?+s are n 9 place by ! contact ( measurable quantity1 l bodies2 b by ! contact ( activity 7virtutis74 ,!n expla9+ h[ ! indivisible c be 9 diff]5t places1 he says3 ,! indivisible is ( two k9ds2 fir/1 x is ! limit ( ! cont9u$1 z a po9t 9 p]man5t ?+s1 & a mom5t 9 successive ?+s4 ,! indivisible 9 p]man5t ?+s1 _c be 9 diff]5t p>ts ( place or 9 diff]5t places1 because x has a det]m9ate position2 & 9 ! same mann] ! indivisible 9 action or 9 motion _c be 9 diff]5t p>ts ( "t1 because x has a det]m9ate ord] 9 action or motion4 ,b !re is ano!r indivisible :i* is beyond all k9d ( cont9uation1 & 9 ?is s5se incorporeal sub/ances1 z ,god1 ! angels1 & ! s\l1 are call$ indivisible4 ,! indivisible 9 ?is mann]1 is n appli$ to ! cont9u$ z any ?+ :i* belongs to x1 b only z rea*+ x by its activity2 !re=e z its activity may ext5d to "o or _m1 to ! small or to ! great1 x may be 9 "o place or 9 _m places1 9 a small place or 9 a great place4 ,:at c be cle>]1 relatively to ! intuition ( space1 ?an t :5 any ?+ is 9 a place x _c be out ( t place8 ,b ! holy ,doctor1 ris+ above s5sible repres5tations1 boldly ma9ta9s t ,god may be :ole 9 ! :ole1 & 9 e "p ( ! :ole1 z ! s\l is :ole 9 e "p ( ! body4 ,& :y8 ,because :at is call$ totality 9 corporeal ?+s relates to quantity1 b ! totality ( incorporeal ?+s relates to ess5ce1 & _c be measur$ by quantity1 & is n conf9$ to any place4 ,9 ! ,treatise on ! ,angels1#ee he says t ! expression to be 9 place is us$ equivocally 7quivoce71#ef :5 appli$ to angels & bodies4 ,bodies are 9 place by ! contact ( measurable quantity1 b angels by virtual quantity1 t is to say1 by ! action :i* !y may ex]cise ^u a body4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 say t an angel has a position 9 ! cont9u$ 7quod habeat situm 9 cont9uo74 ,9 ! ,treatise on ! ,s\l#eg he ma9ta9s t ! s\l is :ole 9 e "p ( ! body4 ,he di/+ui%es ! totality ( ess5ce f ! totality ( quantity1 & makes use ( an argum5t simil> to t :i* he us$ ) respect to ! angels4 ,! m we reflect on ?is doctr9e ! m pr(\nd x appe>s2 ^? :o h made light ( x1 h %[n t !y nev] p5etrat$ beyond ! surface 9 all t conc]ns ! relations ( spiritual to corporeal ?+s4 ,x is g5]ally dang]\s to laugh at op9ions held by great m52 = if !y are n c]ta91 !y h1 at lea/1 p[]ful argum5ts 9 _! favor4 ,no?+ is m contr>y to s5sible repres5tations ?an ! possibility ( any ?+ be+ 9 diff]5t places at ! same "t1 b we %all f9d no?+ m 9 con=mity ) ! pr9ciples ( s\nd philosophy ?an ?is possibility1 aft] we h pr(\ndly analyz$ ! relations ( ext5sion ) unext5d$ ?+s1 & discov]$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! position ( quantity & ! position ( causality4 #ee ,sum4 ,!ol4 ,q4 ,,lii41 ,art4 ,i4 #ef ,dialecticians und]/& by an equivocal t]m "o :i* 9 diff]5t ?+s has an entirely diff]5t mean+4 ,!y give z an example ! t]m ,,lion :i* is appli$ equivocally to an animal1 or a con/ellation4 quivoca sunt quorum nom5 commune e/1 et ratio p] nom5 significata1 simplicit] div]sa1 is ! s*ola/ic def9ition4 #eg ,sum4 ,!ol4 ,q4 lxxvi41 ,art4 #h4 #aih4 ,f ^! doctr9es x may be conclud$1 t to be 9 space is n a g5]al condition ( all exi/5ces1 ev5 accord+ to ! mann] ( exi/5ces2 = we c conceive exi/5ces )\t relation to any place4 ,_m h conf\nd$ imag9ation ) und]/&+ on ?is po9t1 & believ$ t :at is impossible = ! =m] is equally s = ! latt]4 ,x is c]ta9 t we c imag9e no?+ )\t ref]r+ x to po9ts ( space1 & ev5 9 purely intellectual objects !re is always a s5sible repres5tation1 b ! und]/&+ reg>ds ^! repres5tations z false & does n con=m to !m4 ,z imag9ation is a sort ( cont9uation ( s5sibility1 or an int]nal s5se1 & ! basis ( s5sations is ext5sion2 x is impossible = u to ex]cise ?is int]nal s5se1 )\t ! pres5ce ( space1 :i*1 z we h %[n1 is only ! idea ( ext5sion 9 g5]al4 ,position 9 space is consequ5tly a g5]al condition ( all ?+s1 z p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 b n z p]ceiv$ by ! intellect4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,cont+5cy ,,( ,,corporeal ,,relations4 #aii4 ,position 9 place is ! relation ( a body to o!r bodies4 ,is ?is relation necess>y8 ,i di/+ui%3 conditionally1 yes2 ess5tially1 no4 ,god has e/abli%$ ?is relation1 & !re=e x is necess>y2 b ,god might h ord]$ x o!rwise1 & c ev5 n[ *ange x1 )\t v>y+ ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,if we admit1 z we mu/1 a correspond5ce betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective1 or betwe5 ! appe>ance & ! reality1 we _c d5y t ! relations ( bodies are con/ant1 & ?is con/ancy mu/ proce$ f "s necessity4 ,b t ! exi/+ ord] is subject to fix$ laws1 does n prove t ^! laws h _! root 9 ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 9 su* a mann] t1 suppos+ ! exi/5ce ( objects1 _! relations c\ld n h be5 v diff]5t f :at !y actually are4 #bjj4 ,9 ord] to ass]t t ! exi/+ ord] ( ! univ]se is intr9sically necess>y1 we mu/ "k ! ess5ce ( ?+s2 b ?is is n possible = u1 because objects are n imm$iately pres5t to our und]/&+1 & we see !m only "u "o aspect1 t :i* places !m 9 relation ) our s5sitive faculties4 ,! be/ pro( ( our ignorance ( ! ess5ce ( bodies is ! great division ( op9ion on ?is subject4 ,"s ma9ta9 t ! ess5ce ( bodies is ext5sion or dim5sions2 & o!rs t ext5sion is m]ely an accid5t1 n only di/9ct1 b ev5 sep>able f corporeal sub/ance4 ,! great obscurity 9 :i* ! inve/igation ( ! con/itutive elem5ts ( bodies is involv$1 proves t _! ess5ce is unkn[n to u1 & t we "k no?+ ( !m except _! relation to our s5sibility4 #bja4 ,x is n necess>y t ! aspect "u :i* be+ is pres5t$ to u %\ld conta9 its :ole nature4 ,to say t bodies conta9 no?+ besides :at we p]ceive 9 !m1 is to make our faculties ! type ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 a ridicul\s pret5sion 9 a be+ :i* f9ds its activity limit$ at e /ep & is almo/ always passive 9 its relations to bodies1 & :i*1 9 ord] to ex]cise its faculties ext]nally1 is =c$ to submit to ! laws ( ! ext]nal _w1 or else to enc\nt] ob/acles :i* are absolutely insurm\ntable4 ,if we are ignorant ( ! ess5ce ( bodies we c h no c]ta9 k ( :at is intr9sically necess>y 9 !m2 ) ! exception ( composition1 :i* ev5 ! s5sible ord] pres5ts to u1 & :i* we _c take f bodies )\t seem+ to run into a contradiction4 ,simplicity & composition 9 ! same object are incompatible & contradictory4 #bjb4 ,h5ce1 9 all t p]ta9s to ! relations ( bodies we mu/ ab/a9 f judg+ absolutely1 & speak only conditionally4 ,we may say3 ,?is happ5s n[2 ?is mu/ happ5 accord+ to ! ord] n[ e/abli%$2 b we _c say3 ,?is happ5s1 & x is absolutely necess>y t x %\ld happ54 ,! transition f ! fir/ proposition to ! second1 implies ! k ( :at no man c "k1 t ! aspect "u :i* ! ext]nal _w is pres5t$ to u is ! image ( its ess5ce4 #bjc4 ,"o ( ! greate/ errors ( ,desc>tes 01 t he did n make suffici5t acc\nt ( ?is diff]5ce3 he plac$ ! ess5ce ( bodies 9 dim5sions1 :i* is to conf\nd ! real _w ) ! ph5om5al1 & to take "o aspect ( ?+s = _! nature4 ,x is true t :atev] affects u has ext5sion1 & t ext5sion is ! basis ( ! relations ( our s5sibility ) ! ext]nal _w2 b x does n foll[ t ! ess5ce ( ?is _w is no?+ m ?an :at is pres5t$ to u 9 its dim5sions4 ,we might z well say t ! ess5ce ( man is ! l9es :i* m>k 8 =m4 #bjd4 ,! diff]5t aspects "u :i* ! ext]nal _w is pres5t$ to our s5ses1 ought to prev5t u f conf\nd+ :at is absolute 9 x ) :at is relative4 ,a man depriv$ ( "o s5se w\ld n reason well if he %\ld conclude t ! _w has no o!r aspects ?an ^? :i* he p]ceives4 ,:at d we "k ( ! mann] 9 :i* objects are pres5t$ to pure spirits1 or ( ! _m o!r phases :i* !y might (f] to our s5sibility8 ,let u !n leave nature its secrets2 & let u n limit omnipot5ce by say+1 t ! ord] ( ! _w is s intr9sically necess>y t its pres5t relations _c be *ang$ )\t contradiction4 ,:5 we exam9e ! possibility ( a new ord] ( relations betwe5 ! be+s :i* we call bodies1 let u n settle ! "q too quickly1 tak+ = our only type ( ! possible ! va9 impot5ce ( our faculties4 ,:at %\ld we ?9k ( a bl9d man :o %\ld laugh at ^? :o see1 if he he>d !m speak ( ! relations ( objects z se58 ,yet we pres5t ! same spectacle to a pure _s :5 we talk ( ! impossibility ( an ord] diff]5t f :at our s5ses p]ceive4 #bje4 ,! pr9ciples ( physical sci5ce are 9 great "p conditional2 = !y are true only on ! supposition ( ! reality ( ! data furni%$ by exp]i5ce4 ,if position & relation to place are n ess5tial to bodies1 di/ance & motion are conditional facts true only "u c]ta9 suppositions4 ,all ! natural sci5ces1 z we h se51 are r$uc$ to ! calculation ( ext5sion & motion2 !y d n rea* ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 b are limit$ to "o aspect1 t pres5t$ by exp]i5ce4 ,9 ^! sci5ces !re is consequ5tly no?+ /rictly absolute2 9 ?is respect1 !y are f> bel[ metaphysics1 :i* kn[s ?+s t are absolutely necess>y4 ,a fur!r explanation ( ?is doctr9e is requir$1 & w be giv5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,solution ,,( ,,two ,,difficulties4 #bjf4 ,mu/ n ! !ory :i* supposes ! relations ( bodies to be v>iable1 put an end to all ! natural sci5ces8 ,c !re be sci5ce )\t a necess>y object8 & c !re be a necessity :i* is compatible ) v>iability8 ,! natural sci5ces h two p>ts3 "o physical1 & ! o!r geometrical4 ,! fir/ supposes ! data furni%$ by exp]i5ce2 ! second =ms its calculations relative to ^! data4 ,*ange ! relations ( ext]nal be+s1 & ! data w be diff]5t1 y w h a new exp]i5ce produc+ a new physical sci5ce3 ! calculation w be ! same1 only new results w be obta9$ f ! new data4 ,! difficulty ?us disappe>s4 ,all ! physical sci5ces are bas$ on obs]vation1 all _! comb9ations are made f data furni%$ by exp]i5ce2 !re=e ! physical sci5ces are n :olly absolute1 b !y h a "p :i* is conditional4 ,! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation is develop$ z a body ( geometrical sci5ce1 b x />ts f ! data furni%$ by exp]i5ce4 ,de/roy ^! data & f a body ( physical sci5ce x becomes a body ( pure geometry4 ,9 me*anics1 ! problems ( ! composition & decomposition ( =ces h a physical signification1 inasmu* z !y presuppose ! data ( exp]i5ce2 suppress ^! data & !re rema9s only a composition ( l9es :i* mean no?+ :5 we call !m =ces4 ,!re=e me*anics is only a sy/em ( geometrical applications4 #bjg4 ,"h ano!r difficulty arises :i* is app>5tly m s]i\s ?an ! o!r4 ,if ! relations ( bodies are n ess5tial1 b are subject to v>iation2 if our calculations ^u !m are n f\nd$ ^u data :i* are intr9sically necess>y1 x seems t geometry is de/roy$1 or limit$ 9 su* a way to ! ideal ord]1 t x _c be sure t on desc5d+ to ! field ( exp]i5ce x w n f9d t false :i* x reg>d$ z true1 & t true :i* x reput$ false4 ,= example1 ! di/ances ( bodies are calculat$ by consid]ations ( geometry3 if ! relation ( di/ance is v>iable1 & a body may be 9 _m places at ! same "t1 geometry turns out false4 ,su* a supposition is no m ?an ! application ( ! =ego+ !ory2 =1 if ! relations are v>iable1 ?is v>iation may affect di/ance1 :i* is only a relation4 ,i said ?is difficulty 0 m s]i\s ?an ! o!r1 because x leaves ! field ( exp]i5ce1 & attacks ! ord] ( our ideas1 an ord] :i* we mu/ hold to be inde/ructible1 unless we wi% to give up our reason4 ,:at w\ld become ( our reason if geometry 7 contradict$ by ! reality8 :at w\ld become ( an ord] ( ideas 9 contradiction to facts8 ,/ill ,i repeat t ! =ce ( ?is difficulty is only app>5t1 & if analyz$ w be f\nd ( no m weight ?an ! objection :i* we h already answ]$4 ,a body :i* is a hundr$ y>ds di/ant f ano!r1 _c be only "o y>d di/ant2 geometry w\ld be oppos$ to x4 ,b if ! relations ( bodies are v>iable ?is proposition c mean no?+ ) respect to ! reality4 ,!re=e geometry is false4 ,i admit ! consequ5ce2 b ! pr9ciple on :i* x is bas$ involves a supposition contr>y to my !ory4 ,if y alt] or de/roy ! relations ( bodies1 y de/roy di/ance1 :i* is a relation1 consequ5tly y _c h a di/ance ( "o hundr$ y>ds1 nor ( "o y>d1 nor any di/ance at all1 & if !re is no di/ance !re is no contradiction4 ,if1 !n1 y ask h[ great is ! di/ance betwe5 !m1 y\r "q is absurd2 = x supposes a di/ance1 :]eas !re is no di/ance at all4 #bjh4 ,?is solution re/s on a fundam5tal pr9ciple :i* we ought nev] to lose sight (4 ,geometrical tru? is true 9 reality :5 ! conditions ( geometry exi/ 9 reality2 if ^! conditions d n exi/1 !re is no real geometry4 ,!re is no?+ /range 9 ?is3 9 fact1 ! same occurs 9 ! purely ideal ord]2 ev5 !re1 geometry re/s on c]ta9 po/ulates1 )\t :i* x is impossible4 ,two triangles ) ! same base & altitude are equival5t to ea* o!r4 ,?is is a true proposition1 b only on ! supposition t !re are ^? ord]s ( po9ts :i* are call$ l9es1 & t ! l9es =m angles1 & are unit$ at ?ree po9ts4 ,if ^! relations are n presuppos$1 ! geometrical !orem has no mean+4 #bji4 ,geometry 9 itself1 or 9 ! purely ideal ord]1 is f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,! tru? ( ?is pr9ciple be+ absolutely necess>y1 t ( geometry is equally s4 ,b ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 l all purely ideal pr9ciples1 ab/racts exi/5ce1 & is appli$ to no?+ 9 practice1 unless we suppose "s fact to support x4 ,yes & no at ! same "t are impossible2 b ! pr9ciple det]m9es no?+ = or aga9/ ei!r ( ! extremes4 ,x only affirms t "o excludes ! o!r2 if we suppose yes1 x excludes no1 & if we suppose no1 x excludes yes2 t is to say1 x always ne$s a condition1 a datum :i* only exp]i5ce c furni%4 ,x is ! same ) geometry4 ,all its !orems & problems ref] to ! ideal field )9 u1 :]e !re are c]ta9 conditions :i* lead to c]ta9 results1 by virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction3 :5ev] ! conditions exi/1 ! results are true2 b if ! =m] fail ! latt] are false4 ,ideal sci5ces consid] ! connection ( conclusions ) pr9ciples 9 ! ord] ( possibility1 b take no note ( facts4 ,if ! connection is admitt$ ! sci5ce is true4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,passive ,,s5sibility4 #baj4 ,active s5sibility1 or ! faculty ( p]ceiv+ by ! s5ses1 has be5 a subject ( great dispute among philosoph]s4 ,passive s5sibility1 or ! capacity ( an object to be p]ceiv$1 is a "q ( n less int]e/4 ,c e ?+ :i* exi/s be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses8 ,be=e answ]+ ?is "q1 let u rememb] t to be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses may be und]/ood 9 two ways3 ,fir/1 x may mean1 to cause an impression 9 a s5sitive be+2 & secondly1 to be ! imm$iate object ( s5sible intuition4 ,! fir/ is true ( e be+ capable ( produc+ ! impression2 ! second is true only ( ^? be+s :i* unite ! conditions :i* ! intuition supposes4 #baa4 ,to produce an impression is simply to cause2 & causality is n repugnant to simple be+s4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no absurdity 9 suppos+ t pure spirits c produce s5sible impressions3 7 x o!rwise ,god c\ld n act ^u our s\l1 caus+ an impression 9 x1 )\t ! m$iation ( bodies4 ,?is causality _c be call$ passive s5sibility2 ! be+ :i* has x is n p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,! relation ( ! s5sation to ! be+ :i* produces x w\ld be only t ( an effect to its cause4 #bab4 ,to be ! imm$iate object ( s5sible intuition1 is to be pres5t$ to ?is intuition z an orig9al to ! copy4 ,"u ?is view1 only ! ext5d$ c be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses2 t is to say1 multiplicity comb9$ ) cont9uity is an absolutely necess>y condition ( our s5sitive faculties 9 relation to ext]nal objects4 #bac4 ,9 ?is mann]1 x is a manife/ contradiction to say t ! simple c be s5sible4 ,in/9ct & reason =ce u to suppose a real object ( s5sible intuition4 ,?is intuition is ref]r$ to ! object z to some?+ ess5tially composite1 belong+ to ! ord] :i* we call cont9uity4 ,if we make ?is object simple1 x ceases to be s5sible2 & we bo? affirm & d5y its s5sible objectiv5ess4 ,x is a contradiction to suppose a faculty 9 act1 & at ! same "t to deprive x ( ! conditions to :i* its action is necess>ily subject4 #bad4 ,x may be said1 t !re is no necessity ( transf]r+ to ! object ! conditions ( ! subject1 & !re=e a simple object may be pres5t$ to ! s5ses4 ,b ?is is to elude ! "q at issue4 ,=1 ei!r ! s5sible intuition is ref]r$ to ! object1 or x is n2 if x is1 ! object _c be simple2 if x is n1 we fall into idealism1 :i* we h s (t5 combat$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w4 #bae4 ,if y answ]1 t our s\l1 :i* is simple1 has ! repres5tation ( ! composite1 ,i reply1 t ! objective repres5tation is n ! same ?+ z ! subjective p]ception ( ! composite2 nor ! pres5tation ( ! object z multiple ! same ?+ z ! p]ception ( ! multiple4 ,our s\l p]ceives ! multiple1 & = ?is reason mu/ itself be "o1 or x c\ld n p]ceive t :i* is multiple4 ,s mu* = ! subjective2 z to ! objective1 we mu/ rem>k1 t our s5sible repres5tations d n always proce$ f real objects2 b !y always ref] to objects :i* are at lea/ possible2 t is to say1 ! intuition is nev] entirely void2 & :5 x has no object 9 reality1 x f9ds "o 9 possibility4 #baf4 ,! ext]nal _w1 z involv+ multiplicity1 or a collection ( _m be+s1 & z susceptible ( ?is ord] :i* we call cont9uity1 may be ! object ( s5sible intuition1 z we exp]i5ce 9 reality4 ,b ?is passive s5sibility is n intr9sically necess>y to x3 ,i mean t ,god c\ld s h dispos$ ! collection ( be+s con/itut+ ! univ]se z n to be s5sible4 ,?is is bas$ on ! v>iability ( ! relations ( bodies2 =1 x is evid5t t if ^! relations did n exi/1 or 7 n subject to ! conditions requir$ by s5sible repres5tation1 ?is repres5tation w\ld be impossible1 & ! _w n s5sible4 #bag4 ,exp]i5ce confirms ?is conclusion :i* is obta9$ f transc5d5tal philosophy4 ,we f9d a slight alt]ation cont9ually *ang+ s5sible bodies into ins5sible1 & mak+ s5sible ^? t 7 ins5sible4 ,! cond5sation ( ! air makes x visible2 & its r>efaction invisible4 ,a liquid body is tangible1 b x ceases to be s :5 conv]t$ into vapor4 ,! same v>iety :i* is caus$ by ! alt]ation ( ! object may also proce$ f a modification ( ! organ4 ,a pro( ( ?is is f\nd 9 :at happ5s to ! sight :5 aid$ by c]ta9 in/rum5ts4 ,if1 !n1 ^! transitions f s5sible to ins5sible are n[ possible1 )\t infr+em5t ( ! fundam5tal laws ( ! relations ( bodies1 :y c\ld !re n be a radical *ange 9 ^! relations :i* %\ld make bodies :olly ins5sible8 #bah4 ,by ! v>iation ( ! relations ( ! be+s :i* compose ! corporeal univ]se1 ! s5sible might become ins5sible2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are _m ins5sible be+s :i* by a diff]5t arrangem5t might be made s5sible4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t we h some?+ besides idle conjectures on ?is matt]3 facts speak2 9 proportion z ! field ( exp]i5ce is exp&$1 new ph5om5a are discov]$2 ?us magnetic attraction1 electricity1 & galvanism1 h be5 add$ to exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,9 ^! ph5om5a !re are ag5ts at "w :i* are n p]ceptible to ! s5ses2 :y may !y n be dispos$ 9 su* way z to be p]ceiv$ l o!r bodies8 ,:]e is ! limit ( ^! ag5ts8 ,we "k n2 b reason+ f analogy we may believe t !re are _m o!rs ^: exi/5ce is n kn[n to u4 ,! p]fection ( a s5sitive organ by means ( in/rum5ts1 is an arrangem5t by :i* we v>y ! ord9>y sy/em ( ! relations ( our body to ^? ar\nd u4 ,?is p]fectibility is indef9ite1 & ! f>!r we advance1 ! great] d we f9d its ext5sion4 ,x is !re=e probable1 t 9 ! univ]se !re are _m be+s :i* are imp]ceptible to our s5ses1 b :i* a modification ( our organs1 or a *ange ( "s ( ! laws ( nature w\ld r5d] s5sible4 ,:at a va/ field ( bold conjectures & sublime m$itations6 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,possibility ,,( ,a ,,great] ,,sph]e ,,9 ,,active ,,s5sibility4 #bai4 ,hav+ treat$ ( passive s5sibility 9 ! ord] ( possibles1 a simil> "q naturally arises ) respect to ! active s5sibility ( be+s subject to diff]5t conditions f ^? ( our s\l :ile unit$ to ! body4 ,i speak only ( possibility1 =1 limit$ to :at exp]i5ce tea*es u1 we "k n :at may be 9 ! sph]e ( be+s ) :i* we h no communication4 ,:atev] we "k ( !m is by div9e revelation2 & ! object ( revelation is n to tea* u philosophy1 b virtue4 #bbj4 ,to exam9e h[ f> active s5sibility is possible 9 an ord] diff]5t f t ( our exp]i5ce1 n only raises curi\s & int]e/+ que/ions1 b x also gives an opportunity to expla9 by new reflections1 ! nature ( ?is ph5om5on 9 its relations to bodily organization4 ,!re is a special reason :y we %\ld seek to inve/igate ?is "q4 ,x consi/s 9 ! int]e/ inspir$ by e ?+ :i* relates to a /ate ( exi/5ce into :i* we mu/ soon ent]4 ,%ort are ! mom5ts allott$ to man to dwell 9 ?is _w4 ,we all ha/5 ) a/oni%+ rapidity to ! f9al in/ant :5 ! fragile organization :i* envelops our mortal _s %all dissolve1 & crumble into du/1--:5 ! be+ :i* feels1 ?9ks1 & wills )9 u1 %all pass to a new /ate1 & be sep>at$ f ! bodily organization4 ,:at w !n be its faculties8 ,?is is a "q :i* we _c be indiff]5t to2 = x conc]ns u1 & ! /ate ( our future exi/5ce4 #bba4 ,if we are ask$ :e!r a pure _s is capable ( s5sible p]ception1 we mu/ answ] negatively2 because we are treat+ ( active s5sibility1 :i* is n possible )\t ! m$iation ( a body4 ,i believe t "s explanation ( ! "q may be giv54 ,b we mu/ fir/ ( all det]m9e ! mean+ ( ! words4 ,sometimes we und]/& by a pure _s1 "o :i* is n unit$ to a body2 b1 m /rictly speak+1 ! t]m is conf9$ to a _s :i* nei!r is unit$ to a body1 nor de/9$ to ?is union4 ,?us ! human s\l is a _s1 b n a pure _s2 = x is ei!r actually unit$ to a body or is de/9$ to ?is union4 ,x might appe> at fir/ sight t z we are limit+ ourselves to ! sph]e ( possibility1 !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ! two acceptations ( ! t]m2 =1 if x is n ess5tially repugnant to ! s\l :5 sep>at$ f ! body1 to h s5sible intuition1 x w n be s to o!r spirits4 ,! p>ity is n c]ta92 /ill1 = ! pres5t1 :5 speak+ ( pure spirits 9 g5]al1 ,i %all include s\ls sep>at$ f bodies4 #bbb4 ,:at d we und]/& by s5s+8 ,?is ^w may mean two ?+s4 ,x may mean ! receiv+ ( an impression by means ( bodily organs2 or x may mean simply ! exp]i5c+ ( ! impression1 indep5d5tly ( ! bodily organ4 ,= example3 ,i see an object4 ,"h is ! affection call$ see+1 & ! me*anism by :i* ! object transmits light to ! ret9a1 & a c]ta9 impression to ! bra94 ,^! are two v diff]5t ?+s2 ! fir/ is a fact ( my m9d2 ! second a modification ( my body4 #bbc4 ,if by s5s+ is meant ! receiv+ ( ! impression ( a bodily organ1 x is cle> t a _s :i* has no body _c s5se2 b if by x is meant only ! subjective affection ab/ract$ f ! m$ium by :i* x is produc$ or communicat$1 !n ! "q is diff]5t1 & ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( bodies _c affect its answ] ei!r affirmatively or negatively4 #bbd4 ,! "q !n becomes ?is3 ,c a pure _s h ! v>i\s affections & repres5tations :i* we call s5sible8 ,simplicity is n oppos$ to ! s5sitive faculty4 ,our s\l s5ses1 & /ill x is simple4 ,! body aids x 9 ! ex]cise ( ! s5sitive faculties2 b ?is aid is in/rum5tal1 n1 h[ev]1 9 su* a mann] t ! s\l s5ses by ! body1 z an action is p]=m$ by means ( ! in/rum5t4 ,t :i* s5ses is ! s\l itself1 & ! in/rum5tal action ( ! body consi/s 9 provid+ c]ta9 conditions f :i* s5sation foll[s1 by a physical or occasional influx4 ,!re=e1 ! simplicity ( a pure _s is no argum5t aga9/ ! s5sitive faculties4 ,su* an argum5t w\ld prove too mu*2 consequ5tly1 x proves no?+4 #bbe4 ,h5ce !re w\ld be no intr9sical repugnance 9 ,god communicat+ to a pure _s s5sitive faculties2 :e!r repres5tative l ^? :i* place u 9 relation ) ! corporeal _w1 or purely subjective1 l ^? ( pleasure or pa94 #bbf4 ,al?\gh 9 ! pres5t ord] ^! functions dep5d on c]ta9 conditions to :i* bodies are subject1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 inasmu* z !y are a modification ( ! s\l1 !y h no ess5tial relation to ! corporeal _w4 ,x w\ld !re=e seem contr>y to ! pr9ciples ( s\nd philosophy to say1 t ! s\l sep>at$ f ! body c\ld n exp]i5ce affections simil> to ^? x has 9 ?is life4 ,if ?is is n repugnant to ! s\l 9 its sep>ate exi/5ce1 :y %\ld x be s to o!r spirits8 ,! s5sitive faculties are a sort ( inf]ior ord] ( p]ception4 ,we see !m 9 be+s unit$ to bodies1 b !y are n ex]cis$ imm$iately by a bodily organ4 ,s f> f contradict+ simplicity1 !y require x2 & !re=e we h se5#eh t matt] is incapable ( s5sation4 ,_m grave philosoph]s are ( op9ion t ! causality ( bodies ) respect to s5sations1 is only occasional4 ,?is op9ion is f\nd$ on ! difficulty ( expla9+ h[ a composite be+ c produce affections ( any k9d 9 a simple be+4 ,in/ead ( a repugnance betwe5 simplicity & ! s5sitive faculties1 !re is1 on ! contr>y1 a necess>y connection4 ,no composite be+ c be s5sitive4 #eh ,b4 ,,ii41 ,*4 ,,ii4 #bbg4 ,p]haps x may n[ be ?\ght t !re is no long] any d\bt ( ! possibility ( s5sation indep5d5tly ( ! bodily organs2 & t to hold ! contr>y1 x w\ld be necess>y to ma9ta9 t ,god c n produce imm$iately t :i* he produces by means ( second causes4 ,! obs]vations :i* we h made may seem to h exhau/$ ! matt]1 b if we reflect on x1 we %all f9d t we h sc>ce ent]$ on x4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t we are exam9+ ! possibility ( s5sitive faculties1 9 relation to "o attribute only1 t ( simplicity4 ,?is greatly limits ! "q1 z x leaves x to be solv$ "u "o aspect only4 ,simplicity is a negative prop]ty4 ,:5 we say t any ?+ is simple1 we d5y t x has p>ts1 b we affirm none ( its prop]ties2 we say :at x is n1 n :at x is4 ,!re=e1 9 ma9ta9+ t s5sitive faculties are n repugnant to a pure _s1 we ought to re/rict ! proposition2 we %\ld express our mean+ m exactly1 if in/ead ( say+ s5sitive faculties are n repugnant to a pure _s1 we %\ld say1 s5sitive faculties are n repugnant to ! simplicity ( a pure _s4 #bbh4 ,?is la/ obs]vation seems to me to pres5t ! "q 9 its true po9t ( view4 ,any o!r expression ( x seems only to confuse ideas & raise problems :i* we h n suffici5t data to solve4 ,9 fact1 h[ d we "k b :at ! repugnance :i* does n exi/ betwe5 s5sibility & simplicity1 may exi/ betwe5 s5sibility & "s attribute :i* we "k no?+ ab\t8 ,?is argum5t is n valid = ! human s\l1 because we already "k t ! s\l is capable ( s5s+2 b x is valid = o!r spirits1 ^: ess5ce is unkn[n to u1 & ! "* ( ^: p]ceptive faculties exp]i5ce has n discov]$ to u4 #bbi4 ,"o ( ! di/9ctive m>ks ( s5sitive p]ception is ! ref]5ce to individual objects1 n 9 :at conc]ns _! ess5ce1 b inasmu* z !y are arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 ! v>iations ( :i* d n affect _! int]nal nature4 ,ext5sion itself1 :i* bo? in/9ct & reflection tea* u to reg>d z objective1 is r a result ( ! relations ( ! be+s :i* =m ! composite ext5d$ object1 ?an ^? be+s !mselves4 ,! s5sitive faculties are ! l[e/ grade 9 ! ord] ( p]ception4 ,_! sole function is to make kn[n to _! possessor a c]ta9 arrangem5t ( ext]nal objects1 b !y tea* him no?+ conc]n+ ! nature ( ^? objects4 ,pure spirits are a grade high] 9 ! scale ( p]ceptive be+s1 & "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( intellig5ce is1 t x p5etrates to ! inw>d nature ( ?+s4 ,!re=e x might easily happ5 t ! s5sible faculties are repugnant to intellig5ces ( a high] ord] ?an ours1 n by reason ( _! simplicity1 b on acc\nt ( ! diff]5t mann] ( _! p]ception4 #bcj4 ,reason+ by analogy f :at takes place )9 ourselves1 we are confirm$ 9 ?is op9ion4 ,s5sible repres5tations are (t5 p[]ful auxili>ies to purely intellectual p]ception2 b !y j z (t5 emb>rass & confuse x4 ,9 m$itat+ on v ab/ract matt]s s5sible repres5tations are a h9d]ance to ! und]/&+1 f :i* we %\ld be glad to free ourselves4 ,e "o has exp]i5c$ ?is to be s4 ,!y are l %ad[s :i* come betwe5 ! eye ( ! intellect & ! object3 ! necessity ( cont9ually remov+ !m delays & weak5s our p]ception4 ,?us1 we propose1 = example1 to ?9k ( causality4 ,no s5sible repres5tation %\ld f9d place 9 ?is idea 9 ! ab/ract1 yet 9 spite ( all our ef=ts ! repres5tation haunts u4 ,at "o "t x is ! ^w causality1 writt5 or spok52 at ano!r1 ! image ( a man do+ some?+1 or ( any o!r ag5t4 ,! s5sible repres5tation is always 9 our way1 & we _c free ourselves f its pres5ce4 ,! und]/&+ is =c$ to repeat cont9ually to itself1 ,?is is n ! idea ( causality2 x is only an image1 a comp>ison1 an expression2 9 ord] to def5d itself aga9/ illusions1 :i* w\ld make x conf\nd ! p>ticul> ) ! univ]sal1 ! cont+5t ) ! necess>y1 ! ph5om5al ) ! real4 #bca4 ,we mu/ conclude f ?is t a repugnance ( s5sitive faculties to ! nature ( a pure _s1 might proce$ f ! "* ( its intellig5ce1 :i* by reason ( its p]fection rejects ! duality ( p]ception :i* exi/s 9 u4 ,! object ( ! und]/&+ is ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ und]/ood1 quidditas1 z ! s*ola/ics call$ x4 ,s5sible repres5tations tell u no?+ ( ?is ess5ce4 ,!y (f] only "o aspect ( ?+s1 & ev5 ?is is limit$ to ! p]ception ( ext5sion2 = z reg>ds ! o!r s5sations1 !y are a subjective fact :i* in/9ct & reason tea* u to attribute to ext]nal causes1 r ?an a p]ception ( ! real disposition ( ?+s4 #bcb4 ,?is sugge/s ano!r obs]vation :i* supports ! conjecture t ! elevation ( intellig5ce above a c]ta9 degree makes x incompatible ) s5sitive faculties4 ,s5sations w\ld tell u no?+ ev5 ( ?is aspect & disposition ( ?+s if !y did n h ext5sion = _! basis4 ,to :at %\ld we r$uce ! corporeal _w if we suppos$ x unext5d$8 ,s9ce ext5sion1 z we h %[n1#ei al?\gh ! basis ( "s s5sations1 is n ! direct & imm$iate object ( s5sation2 t :i* 9 ! s5sitive faculties makes u p]ceive some?+ ( ! reality ( objects1 is n /rictly s5sible4 ,!re=e1 if x is ! "* ( intellectual p]ception to "k ! reality ( ! object1 ! m elevat$ an intellig5ce is ! f>!r x w be f s5sation1 & !re may be a subject 9 :i* intellectual faculties are incompatible ) s5sitive faculties4 #ei ,*4 ,,ii4 #bcc4 ,we %all bett] und]/& ! =ce ( ?is obs]vation by ca/+ a glance at ! scale ( be+s1 & not+ ! diff]5ce 9 !m 9 proportion to _! p]fection4 ,! isolation ( a be+ is a m>k ( its imp]fection4 ,! l[e/ idea ( an object is t :i* we =m :5 we conceive x absolutely limit$ to exi/5ce1 completely in]t1 )\t ei!r int]nal or ext]nal activity4 ,a /one has exi/5ce & a det]m9ate =m2 x is :at x 0 made1 & no?+ m2 x pres]ves ! =m :i* 0 giv5 to x1 b x has no activity to communicate ) o!r be+s1 no consci\sness ( :at x is2 9 all its relations x is passive2 x receives b _c give4 #bcd4 ,9 proportion z be+s rise 9 ! scale ( p]fection1 ?is isolation ceases2 active prop]ties are comb9$ ) ! passive2 su* we conceive to be ! corporeal ag5ts1 :i*1 al?\gh !y d n rea* ! category ( liv+ be+s1 take an active "p 9 ! production ( ph5om5a 9 ! laboratory ( nature4 ,9 ^! be+s we f9d besides :at !y are1 :at !y c d2 _! relations ) o!r be+s are _m & v>i$2 _! exi/5ce is n conf9$ to ! circle ( _! own exi/5ce2 b x exp&s & is communicat$ 9 "s way to o!rs4 #bce4 ,9 organiz$ be+s we f9d a m expansive nature4 ,_! life is a cont9ual expansion4 ,! liv+ be+ ext5ds 9 a measure beyond ! limits ( its own exi/5ce2 = x be>s )9 x ! g]ms ( its reproduction4 ,its exi/5ce is n = itself alone1 b = o!rs also4 ,x is only an imp]ceptible l9k 9 ! great *a9 ( nature2 b ! vibrations ( ?is l9k are felt 9 ! remote/ conf9es ( ! univ]se4 #bcf4 ,life is /ill m ext5d$ :5 x becomes s5sation4 ,! s5sitive be+ conta9s 9 himself1 z x 71 ! univ]se4 ,by ! consci\sness ( its affections1 x places itself 9 new relations ) all t acts ^u x4 ,p]ception is imman5t1 t is to say1 x rema9s 9 ! subject1 b ) ! subjective is comb9$ ! objective1 by :i* ! univ]se is reflect$ on a po9t4 ,be+ does n !n exi/ 9 itself alone1 x becomes 9 "s mann] o!r ?+s4 ,!re is a pr(\nd tru? 9 ! expression ( ! s*ola/ics3 ,t :i* kn[s is ! ?+ kn[n4 ,!re is a c]ta9 ord] 9 s5sations2 !y are m p]fect 9 proportion z !y are less subjective2 ! mo/ noble are ^? :i* place u 9 communication ) objects consid]$ 9 !mselves1--^? :i* are n limit$ to ! exp]i5ce ( :at ! objects cause 9 u1 b include ! k ( :at ! objects are4 #bcg4 ,ext5sion is ! basis ( ! objectiv5ess ( s5sations1 b x is n ! direct & imm$iate object ( s5sation4 ,al?\gh ext5sion tea*es u some?+ ( ! reality ( be+s z reg>ds a c]ta9 arrangem5t ( !m among !mselves1 x is n s mu* ! object ( a s5sitive faculty z ( intellig5ce4 ,"h s5sation ceases & sci5ce comm5ces4 ,sci5ce is n satisfi$ ) :at ! objects appe>4 ,x p5etrates to ! reality2 ! und]/&+ does n /op ) ! subjective1 b passes to ! objective1 & :5 x _c rea* ! reality1 x w&]s 9 ! regions ( possibility4 #bch4 ,?us we see t ! p]fection ( be+s is 9 proportion to _! expansion4 ,accord+ly z !y are m p]fect1 !y g f>!r out ( _! own sph]e1 & ex]cise a m ext5d$ activity4 ,h5ce ! highe/ degree ( p]ception is ! lea/ subjective2 ! l[e/ is s5sation1 :i* is limit$ to ! exp]i5ce ( ! s5ti5t subject4 ,intellig5ce :i* is ! highe/ degree1 ab/racts exp]i5ce1 & gives its :ole att5tion to reality1 its prop] object4 #bci4 ,if we c\ld "k ! intimate nature ( pure spirits1 p]haps we %\ld f9d t ! s5sitive faculties are altoge!r incompatible ) ! elevation ( _! intellig5ce1 & t ! analogy f\nd$ on ! nature ( our p]ceptions has no value :5 appli$ to a m p]fect ord] ( intellig5ce4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 we mu/ admit t ! "q w\ld h be5 solv$ 9 a v incomplete way1 if we _h limit$ x to ! s+le aspect ( simplicity4 ,^! obs]vations on ! nature ( intellig5ce ought to make u v cauti\s 9 affirm+ to be possible1 :at we %\ld p]haps see to be impossible1 if our k ( ! nature ( ?+s 7 great]4 #bdj4 ,s f> we h spok5 only ( ! intr9sical possibility2 :at %all we say ( ! reality8 ,?is is a "q ( fact :i* c only be solv$ on data :i* our exp]i5ce is unable to furni%1 z we are n 9 imm$iate communication ei!r ) s\ls sep>at$ f bodies1 or ) pure spirits4 #bda4 ,if we wi% to look = an argum5t to prove t pure spirits & s\ls aft] !y are sep>at$ f bodies1 h no s5sitive faculties1 we %all f9d x 9 ! consid]ation ( ! end to :i* ^! faculties are de/9$1 bett] ?an by attempt+ to discov] ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,! body1 to :i* ! s\l is unit$ 9 ?is life1 is an organization subject to ! g5]al laws ( ! corporeal univ]se4 ,9 ord] t ! s\l may rightly ex]cise its functions1 x mu/ be 9 con/ant communication ) its own body & ! bodies ar\nd x2 x mu/ h s5sible intuition ( ! relations ( bodies2 x mu/ be notifi$ by pa9 ( any disord] :i* occurs 9 its body1 & guid$ by ! s5tim5t ( pleasure z by an in/9ct :i*1 direct$ & mod]at$ by reason1 may po9t out to x :at is pr(itable or necess>y4 ,:5 ! s\l is no long] unit$ to ! body1 !re is no reason :y x %\ld h ^! affections1 z x does n require to be direct$ 9 its acts4 ,z ?is applies equally to pure spirits1 we may =m a conjecture z to ! cause ( ! diff]5ce :i* !re mu/ be betwe5 ! /ate ( our s\l 9 ?is life1 & t ( spiritual be+s :i* are n unit$ to bodies4 ,?is argum5t1 d$uc$ f ! f9al cause1 is n to be consid]$ z a pro(2 at be/ x is only a conjecture3 = we d n "k h[ f> ! s\l 9 its sep>ate exi/5ce1 or pure spirits1 may be 9 relation ) bodies2 & consequ5tly1 we d n "k :e!r ^! s5sible affections w\ld be useful or necess>y = ends ( :i* we h no conception4 ,& ev5 suppos+ t nei!r ! s\l nor pure spirits h any relations ) bodies1 we are f> f sure t s5sible affections w\ld be useless to !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 s f> z we c =m an op9ion on ! subject1 x seems t to take f ! s\l its imag9ation & s5sation1 w\ld be to deprive x ( two ( its mo/ beautiful faculties2 = !y n only assi/ ! und]/&+1 b are (t5 a /rong motive ( its acts4 #bdb4 ,x is difficult = u to =m an idea ( pleasure or pa91 )\t s5sible affections4 ,9 ! purely intellectual w1 we conceive only will+ & n will+1 acts ( a mo/ simple relation1 :i* d n h = u ! same mean+ z a pleasant or unpleasant affection4 ,we (t5 wi% a ?+ 9 :i* we exp]i5ce pa92 & z (t5 f9d pleasure 9 :at we d n wi%4 ,!re=e to wi% & n to wi% d n imply pleasure & displeasure1 b are indep5d5t ( ^! affections & may exi/ 9 opposition to !m4 #bdc4 ,x might be said t ! cause ( ?is discord is 9 ! disagreem5t ( ! s5sitive ) ! intellectual faculties4 ,?is is true1 b x proves no?+ aga9/ :at ,i h be5 say+4 ,! purely intellectual w1 9 opposition ) ! s5sible affections1 does n involve pleasure or exclude pa94 ,! w triumphs1 x is true1 b x does s by virtue ( its fre$om4 ,its triumph is l t ( a ma/] oblig$ to exact ob$i5ce by sev]e puni%m5t1 :o exp]i5ces pa9 at ! v "t :5 he is obta9+ ! execution ( 8 comm&s4 ,:o c tell1 !n1 :e!r ! w1 aft] ?is life1 w be accompani$ by affections simil> to ^? :i* x n[ has1 b purifi$ f ! grossness ( ! body :i* weighs d[n ! s\l8 ,i see no intr9sical impossibility 9 x4 ,if que/ions ( philosophy c\ld be solv$ by s5tim5t1 ,i %\ld n hesitate to express my op9ion t ?is fair & noble union ( faculties :i* we call ! he>t1 does n g d[n to ! grave1 b flies ) ! s\l to ! regions ( immortality4 #bdd4 ,z to ! imag9ation1--t my/]i\s faculty :i* n only gives life to ! real _w1 b possesses an inexhau/ible activity 9 creat+ new worlds ( its own1 display+ be=e ! eyes ( ! s\l ri* & spl5did panoramas2 :y %\ld x des]t ! s\l on its sep>ation f ! body8 ,:y may n ! h>mony ( nature be p]ceiv$ 9 a simil> mann] h]eaft]8 ,let u n advance op9ions on secrets ( :i* we are ignorant1 b1 at ! same "t1 let u bew>e ( sett+ b\nds to ! omnipot5ce ( ,god4 ,s\nd philosophy %\ld n multiply op9ions beyond measure2 b nei!r %\ld x circumscribe )9 ! limits ( human reason ! sph]e ( possibility4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,possibility ,,( ,,! ,,p5etration ,,( ,,bodies4 #bde4 ,! m we m$itate on ! corporeal _w1 ! m we discov] ! cont+5cy ( _m ( its relations1 & ! consequ5t necessity ( rec\rse to a high] cause :i* has e/abli%$ !m4 ,ev5 ^? prop]ties :i* seem mo/ absolute cease to appe> s :5 submitt$ to ! exam9ation ( reason4 ,:at m necess>y ?an imp5etrability8 ,yet f ! mom5t x is c>efully analyz$1 x becomes r$uc$ to a fact ( exp]i5ce n f\nd$ on ! nature ( ?+s1 :i* consequ5tly may exi/ or cease to exi/ )\t any contradiction4 #bdf4 ,imp5etrability is t prop]ty ( bodies by :i* two or m _c be 9 ! same place at ! same "t4 ,= ^? :o d n make pure space a reality indep5d5t ( bodies ?is def9ition has no mean+2 = if place l pure space is no?+1 to speak ( ! same place ab/ract$ f bodies1 is to speak ( no?+4 ,9 t case1 imp5etrability c only be a c]ta9 relation ei!r ( bodies or ( ideas4 #bdg4 ,above all1 we mu/ di/+ui% ! real ord] f ! purely ideal4 ,we may consid] two k9ds ( imp5etrability2 physical imp5etrability1 & geometrical imp5etrability4 ,! physical is t :i* we see 9 nature2 ! geometrical t :i* is f\nd 9 our ideas4 ,two balls ( metal _c be 9 ! same place3 ?is is physical imp5etrability4 ,! ideas ( ! two balls pres5t two ext5sions :i* mutually exclude ea* o!r 9 ! s5sible repres5tation3 ?is is geometrical imp5etrability4 ,if we imag9e two balls :i* p]fectly co9cide1 !y are no long] two1 b only "o2 & if we imag9e "o ball to occupy a "p ( ! o!r1 we h a new figure1 or1 r1 "o is consid]$ z a portion ( ! o!r1 & is consequ5tly conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! o!r1 z a small ball inside ( a l>g] ball4 ,on ei!r supposition ! balls are reg>d$ z p5etrat+ ea* o!r 9 :ole or 9 "p2 b by p5etration is "h meant only t !re are c]ta9 p>ts 9 "o1 consid]$ z pure space1 :i* ! o!r1 also consid]$ z pure space1 occupies4 ,geometrical imp5etrability exi/s only :5 ! two objects are suppos$ to be sep>at$1 & only inasmu* z !y are sep>at$2 9 :i* case imp5etrability is absolutely necess>y1 because p5etration w\ld be to conf\nd :at is by ! supposition sep>at$1 & w\ld imply sep>ation & non-sep>ation1 :i* are contradictory4 ,!re=e1 geometrical imp5etrability is no argum5t 9 favor ( physical imp5etrability2 = ! =m] exi/s only 9 case x is presuppos$ or requir$ "u pa9 ( contradiction4 ,! same w\ld occur 9 reality2 = if we suppose two bodies sep>at$1 !y _c be 9 ! same place :il/ !y are sep>at$1 )\t a manife/ contradiction4 ,on ?is po9t1 !re=e1 ! ideal tea*es u no?+ z to ! real4 #bdh4 ,c p5etration exi/ 9 reality8 ,c "o ball ( metal1 = example1 ent] ano!r ball ( metal1 z we make "o geometrical ball ent] ano!r8 ,we are n treat+ ( ! regul> ord] ( ?+s :i* is repugnant to su* suppositions1 b ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,on ?is supposition1 ,i ma9ta9 t !re is no contradiction 9 mak+ bodies p5etrable1 & t an analysis ( ?is matt] proves t ! imp5etrability ( bodies is n ess5tial4 ,we h se5 t ! idea ( place z pure space is an ab/raction4 ,x is !re=e an entirely imag9>y supposition on :i* we give to e body a c]ta9 ext5sion to fill a c]ta9 place1 necess>ily1 & 9 su* a mann] t x is impossible = x to admit ano!r body into ! same place at ! same "t4 ,! position ( bodies 9 g5]al is ! sum ( _! relations2 ! p>ticul> ext5sion ( ea* body is only ! sum ( ! relations ( its p>ts among !mselves1 until we come by an inf9ite division to unext5d$ or inf9itesimal po9ts4 ,! sum ( ! relations ( indivisible or inf9itesimal be+s con/itutes :at we call ext5sion & space1 & all t is conta9$ 9 ! va/ field ( s5sible repres5tation4 ,:o c assure u t ^! relations are n v>iable8 ,is our exp]i5ce1 p]haps1 ! limit ( ! nature ( ?+s8 ,evid5tly n4 ,! univ]se 0 n plann$ aft] our exp]i5ce1 b our exp]i5ce is obta9$ f ! univ]se4 ,to say t x conta9s1 & c conta9 only :at our exp]i5ce sees 9 x1 is to make ! me ! type ( ! univ]se2 to affirm t its laws are d]iv$ f u1 t !y are emanations f our be+4 ,fooli% pride ( an imp]ceptible atom1 :i* appe>s = an in/ant on ! great !atre ( nature1 & goes out l a sp>k ( fire2 fooli% pride = a _s :i*1 despite its great idea ( its own importance1 feels t x is unable to )draw itself f ^! laws & ph5om5a1 :i* x pret5ds to consid] z its own creation6 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,a ,,triumph ,,( ,,religion ,,9 ,,! ,,field ,,( ,,philosophy4 #bdi4 ,!re are two ?+s 9 ext5d$ objects3 multiplicity & cont9uity4 ,! fir/ is absolutely necess>y to ext5sion2 x supposes di/9ct p>ts1 & t :i* is di/9ct _c be id5tical )\t evid5t contradiction4 ,! cont9uity repres5t$ 9 ! s5sible impression is n ess5tial to ext5sion1 because x is only ! result ( a union ( relations insep>able 9 ! pres5t ord] ( s5sibility1 b n absolutely necess>y 9 ! ord] ( reality4 ,transc5d5tal philosophy ris+ above s5sible repres5tations1 & leav+ ph5om5a to ent] on ! contemplation ( be+s 9 !mselves1 n[h]e discov]s ! necessity ( ^! relations1 & is oblig$ to consid] !m z simple facts :i* might cease to be )\t any contradiction4 ,9 ?is mann] ! correspond5ce ( ! ph5om5on ) ! reality is sav$1 & ! int]nal _w h>moniz$ ) ! ext]nal1 b ! subjective conditions ( ! =m] are n all transf]r$ to ! latt] 9 su* a way z to make :at is necess>y = our repres5tations1 absolutely necess>y 9 itself4 #bej4 ,arriv$ at ?is po9t ( transc5d5tal philosophy1 ! m9d beholds new worlds unfold$ to its view4 ,we rejoice to say t ?is discov]s to u a new pro( ( ! div9ity ( ! ,ca?olic religion1 & tea*es u to di/ru/ t pr\d philosophy :i* f9ds a contradiction 9 e ?+ :i* x _c und]/&4 #bea4 ,!re is a my/]y :i* ! ,*ur* celebrates ) augu/ c]emonies1 & ! ,*ri/ian adores ) fai? & ) love4 ,! unbeliev] sees ! holy ,tab]nacle1 & exclaims1 9 ! pride ( 8 ignorance3 ,"h is a monum5t ( sup]/ition2 "h man adores an absurdity4 ,z ! pres5t is a "w ( philosophy1 n ( !ology1 ,i might pass ov] )\t answ]+ ! objections ( infidelity1 b ! occasion seems s well suit$ = ! solution ( "s difficulties br\ght by light & sup]ficial ?9k]s1 t ,i am unwill+ to pass !m 9 sil5ce4 ,! nature ( ! "w requires me to be brief 9 ?is discussion1 ?\gh ! subject is too important to be entirely omitt$2 ! m s1 z ,ca?olic writ]s on philosophy h giv5 _! explanations on ^! po9ts 9 :at !y consid]$ ! mo/ seasonable place1 & mo/ frequ5tly :5 treat+ ( ext5sion4 #beb4 ,t ! my/]y ( ! ,eu*>i/ is a sup]natural fact incompreh5sible to man1 & inexplicable by human words1 is confess$ by ,ca?olics & ackn[l$g$ by ! ,*ur*4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 give a philosophical reason to expla9 ?is secret2 no "o 0 ev] s va9 z to attempt x4 ,we c only exam9e :e!r ! my/]y is absurd & intr9sically contradictory2 = if x 71 x w\ld n be a tru? b an error1 because div9e omnipot5ce does n ext5d to :at is absurd4 ,! "q is1 :e!r ! fact1 al?\gh beyond ! laws ( nature1 is intr9sically possible2 = !n x belongs to ! field ( criticism4 ,if ! incr$ul\s man admits ,god1 he mu/ admit 8 omnipot5ce2 ! discussion mu/ !n be1 n :e!r ,god c p]=m ?is miracle1 b :e!r he has p]=m$ x4 #bec4 ,! objections br\ght aga9/ ! ,eu*>i/ may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+3 a body exi/s )\t ! conditions to :i* o!r bodies are subject2 x produces none ( ! s5sible impressions :i* we receive f o!r bodies2 & is 9 _m places at ! same "t4 ,to answ] ^! objections1 let u fir/ det]m9e our ideas4 #bed4 ,! doctr9es expla9$ 9 ! !ory ( s5sations 9 ?is volume1 %[ h[ false x is to say t ! ,eu*>i/ is impossible4 ,"u ! sacr$ species is a body :i* does n affect our s5ses2 "h is a miracle1 b n an impossible ?+4 ,i h %[n t !re is no necess>y relation betwe5 bodies & our s5sibility4 ,! connection :i* n[ exi/s _c be expla9$ by any intr9sical prop]ty ( spirits & bodies2 we mu/1 !re=e1 recur to a high] cause :i* freely e/abli%$ ^! relations4 ,! same cause c susp5d !m4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! "q becomes ?is3 ,c ! p[] ( ,god make a body :i* %all n produce ! ph5om5a ( s5sibility1 & susp5d ! laws :i* he 0 free to e/abli%8 ,?us pres5t$1 ! "q _c be> two answ]s4 ,x mu/ be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 or ! omnipot5ce ( ,god is d5i$4 #bee4 ,^? :o attempt to %[ ! impossibility ( our dogma1 mu/ prove ! foll[+ propositions3 ,i4 ,passive s5sibility is s ess5tial to bodies t !y _c lose x )\t de/roy+ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,,ii4 ,! relations ( our organs to objects are intr9sically immutable4 ,,iii4 ,! transmission ( ! impressions ( ! organ to ! s5sitive faculties ( ! s\l is equally ess5tial1 & c fail "u no supposition4 ,if !y d n prove ! tru? ( ^! ?ree propositions1 all ! objections f\nd$ on ! ph5om5a ( s5sibility fall to ! gr\nd4 ,if "o only is n prov$1 all ! objections are solv$2 = x is evid5t t ! ph5om5a ( s5sibility may be alt]$ by ?ree causes3 ,i4 ,by ! abs5ce ( ! dispositions necess>y to ! body1 t x may be ! object ( s5sibility4 ,,ii4 ,by ! int]ruption ( ! ord9>y relations betwe5 our organs & ! body4 ,,iii4 ,by ! failure ( ! transmission ( ! impressions ( ! organ to ! s5sitive faculties4 ,consequ5tly1 if "o ( ! fir/ propositions is false1 ! d\bt] is r$uc$ to sil5ce4 #bef4 ,:oev] %\ld attempt to prove ^! ?ree propositions1 n only w\ld fail1 b ! attempt w\ld prove 8 ignorance ( ! ph5om5a ( s5sibility1 & t 8 philosophy on ?is po9t is ! notions ( ! vulg>4 ,x is n necess>y to be a philosoph]1 x is suffici5t to h acquir$ a v slight k ( philosophy to see t su* an attempt w\ld suppose a complete ignorance ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,at any rate1 ,i ne$ n insi/ on ?is po9t2 = ,i h treat$ ^! que/ions at l5g? 9 ! la/ two books ( ?is volume4 #beg4 ,! solution !re giv5 ought to suffice to answ] satisfactorily ! objection f\nd$ on ! p>ticul> /ate ( a body )\t ! conditions ( ext5sion :i* we f9d 9 o!rs4 ,f ! mom5t t we suppose ! correspond5ce ( a body ) our s5ses to be susp5d$1 z ^! are ! only means by :i* we are in=m$ ( :at passes 9 ! ext]nal _w1 x is impossible = u to affirm t !re is any absurdity 9 t ( :i* we h no exp]i5ce4 ,we p]ceive ext5sion only by s5sation1 !re=e we c say no?+ 9 relation to ! ext5sion ( an object ( :i* we h no s5sation4 ,b al?\gh ?is answ] %\ld cut %ort all objections1 ,i %all n conf9e myself to ?is alone4 #beh4 ,:at is ext5sion8 ,9 reality x is ! sum ( ! relations ( ! be+s :i* compose ! ext5d$ object4 ,^! relations1 z ,i h prov$1 are n intr9sically necess>y3 !re=e ,god c alt] !m4 ,?us ?is "q comes to ! same po9t z ! prec$+3 c ! p[] ( ,god susp5d1 alt]1 or entirely take away relations :i* are n intr9sically necess>y8 ,evid5tly x c4 ,! difficulty !n is n z to :at c\ld h be51 b z to :at is4 ,aga9 we f9d ourselves out ( ! field ( philosophy 9 t ( facts1 or ! exam9ation ( ! motives ( cr$ibility4 #bei4 ,! o!r objection f\nd$ on ! impossibility ( body be+ 9 sev]al places at ! same "t1 ?\gh 9 appe>ance m difficult1 am\nts to ! same z ! =m]4 ,to be 9 a place1 z we n[ und]/& x1 is to h a p>ticul> ext5sion1 ) ! ord9>y =m & relations ) respect to ! ext5sion ( o!r bodies4 ,if we suppose a body ) ext5sion subject to o!r conditions1 )\t ! ord9>y relation to ! ext5sion ( o!r bodies1 we de/roy ! supposition on :i* we base ! impossibility ( a body be+ at ! same "t 9 sev]al places4 ,!re=e1 z we h prov$ t ! omnipot5ce ( ,god c alt] & ev5 take away ^! relations1 !re is no contradiction 9 admitt+ ! de/ruction ( ! results :i* proce$ f ^! relations4 #bfj4 ,?is is :y ! di/9ction ( ! s*ola/ics betwe5 two classes ( ext5sion3 9 ord9e ad se1 et 9 ord9e ad locum1 or quantitative & sacram5tal ext5sion1 ?\gh to ! eyes ( a sup]ficial philosophy x might appe> to be an empty subtlety1 inv5t$ = ! purpose ( avoid+ ! difficulty1 is nev]!less a pr(\nd obs]vation1 confirm$ by ! analysis ( ! reality & ! ph5om5on 9 ! s5sible ord]4 ,i d n mean by ?is to say t :5 ?is di/9ction 0 made 9 ! s*ools1 !y und]/ood p]fectly all ! tru? & philosophical nicety :i* x involves2 nor t ! di/9ction 0 always accompani$ by ! critical analysis :i* belongs to x4 ,at pres5t ,i ab/ract ! m]it ( ! m5 & reg>d only ! ?+4 ,! less philosophical intellig5ce we suppose 9 ^? :o us$ ! di/9ction1 ! m admirable appe>s t religion :i* inspires its def5d]s ) fruitful ?\ghts :i* ! ages to come might unfold4 ,! philosophical s*ools disput$ w>mly on ext5sion1 on accid5ts1 & on ! s5sitive faculties3 ! ,ca?olic dogma taught a tru? :i* 0 contr>y to all appe>ances1 x /imulat$ !m to exam9e m pr(\ndly ! di/ance ( ! ph5om5on f ! reality1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! cont+5t & ! necess>y2 ! my/]y :i* ! ,*ur* taught introduc$ into philosophy que/ions :i* )\t x w\ld probably nev] h occurr$ to man's und]/&+4 #bfa4 ,bacon express$ a pr(\nd tru? :5 he said t a little philosophy c>ri$ its possessor f religion1 & a great deal ( philosophy leads him to x4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! objections br\ght aga9/ ,*ri/ianity1 lays b>e a tru? confirm$ by ! hi/ory ( eighte5 c5turies2 ! mo/ weighty objections aga9/ ,ca?olicity1 in/ead ( prov+ any ?+ aga9/ x1 involve a pro( :i* confirms x4 ,! secret = discov]+ ?is pro(1 is to g to ! bottom ( ! objection1 & exam9e x "u all its aspects4 ,orig9al s9 is a my/]y1 b x expla9s ! :ole _w2 ! ,inc>nation is a my/]y1 b x expla9s ! traditions ( ! human race2 fai? is full ( my/]ies1 b x satisfies "o ( ! greate/ necessities ( reason2 ! hi/ory ( ! creation is a my/]y1 b ?is my/]y cle>s up *aos1 ?r[s light on ! _w1 & is ! key to ! hi/ory ( mank9d2 all ,*ri/ianity is a collection ( my/]ies1 b ^! my/]ies are connect$ by a secret union ) all t is pr(\nd1 gr&1 sublime1 or beautiful 9 heav5 or e>?2 !y are connect$ ) ! individual1 ) ! family1 ) society1 ) ,god1 ) ! und]/&+1 ) ! he>t1 ) languages1 sci5ces1 & art4 ,! inve/igator :o rejects religion & ev5 seeks means to oppose x1 f9ds x at ! entrance z at ! outlet ( ! my/]i\s ways ( life2 at ! cradle ( ! infant z 9 ! %ad[ ( ! tomb2 9 "t z 9 et]nity2 expla9+ e ?+ by a ^w2 li/5+ unmov$ to ! w&]+s ( ignorance & ! s>casms ( unbelief1 pati5tly await+ till ! c\rse ( ages %all ackn[l$ge its tru?1 :i* exi/$ be=e all ages4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,conclusion ,,& ,,summ+ ,,up4 #bfb4 ,be=e pass+ to ano!r subject1 let u fix our att5tion = a few mom5ts on ! nature & orig9 ( ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,we %all ?us collect ! fruit ( ! prec$+ inve/igations1 & prep>e ! way = ^? :i* foll[4 ,! sci5tific fruitfulness ( ?is idea to our m9d proves h[ di/ant s5sible impressions are f intellectual p]ception4 ,we _c "k :e!r ?is idea exi/$ 9 our m9d be=e ! s5sible impression2 if x did exi/ we 7 n consci\s ( x1 & 9 ?is respect x is affirm+ a gratuit\s proposition to say t x is an innate idea4 ,:at we c safely say1 is1 t !re are two di/9ct ord]s ( int]nal ph5om5a1 t s5sation c\ld n h produc$ ! idea1 t ?is idea is immeasurably sup]ior to ! ext]nal impression1 or ev5 ! int]nal s5sitive intuition1 & t if x did n already exi/ 9 ! m9d1 x 0 n produc$ by s5sation z an effect is produc$ by its cause4 #bfc4 ,"h we make an important transition f ! ord] ( s5sations1 to ! ord] ( ideas1 & discov] 9 our m9d a new class ( facts4 ,x matt]s little :e!r ^! facts exi/ be=e ! impression1 or result f its pres5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 we see 9 ! m9d a deposit ( g]ms :i* ne$ only ! w>m? ( life 9 ord] to be develop$2 9 ! second1 we f9d 9 ! m9d a f]tility :i* produces ^! g]ms4 ,9 ei!r case we f9d a be+ ( a privileg$ nature1 a sublime be+ :i* by a s+le leap rises above ! region ( matt]1 & awak5$ by ! ext]nal impression1 arises to a new life :i* ?is _w _c conta94 #bfd4 ,9 ?is s5se !re are innate ideas2 ideas :i* s5sation c\ld n h produc$4 ,9 ?is s5se all g5]al & necess>y ideas are innate2 = s5sation c\ld n produce !m4 ,s5sation is nev] any ?+ m ?an a ph5om5on1 a p>ticul> & cont+5t fact1 & consequ5tly incapable ( produc+ g5]al ideas1 or ! ideas ( ! necess>y relations ( be+4 ,sight1 or ! imag9>y repres5tation ( a triangle1 is a cont+5t ph5om5on :i* tells u no?+ ( ! necess>y relations ( ! sides & angles to ea* o!r4 ,9 ord] to p]ceive ^! relations1 ?is necessity1 some?+ else is requir$4 ,?is some?+ else1 call x innate ideas1 =ce1 fecundity1 or activity ( ! m9d1 or any ?+ y please1 exi/s1 & c\ld n h be5 produc$ by s5sation1 b belongs to a high] ord] di/9ct f s5sible ph5om5a4 #bfe4 ,aft] su* long inve/igations ( ! ph5om5a ( s5sation1 we at la/ f9d an idea2 x is ! idea ( ext5sion1 ! f\ndation ( all ! ma!matical sci5ces & ( _! application to ! laws ( nature4 ,! human m9d1 9 all its relations ) ! mat]ial _w1 seems to h "o great idea1 t ( ext5sion1 :i*1 modifi$ 9 inf9ite ways1 is ! orig9 ( all ! sci5ces :i* relate to matt]4 ,! :ole mat]ial _w re/s on ?is idea1 & all k ( mat]ial objects proce$s f x4 ,x is a pure idea 9 its necess>y relations & 9 its necess>y bran*es4 ,x is a light giv5 to ! "l ( creation t he may "k & admire ! prodigies ( nature4 #bff4 ,we f9d ! same wond]ful simplicity amid/ s complicat$ a multiplicity 9 ano!r ord] ( ideas4 ,h5ce we inf] t ! :ole edifice ( ! sci5ces & all human k are f\nd$ on a small numb] ( ideas1 p]haps on two alone4 ,^! ideas are n s5sible repres5tations1 !y are ! objects ( pure intuitions2 !y _c be decompos$1 b !y may be appli$ to an inf9ite v>iety ( ?+s2 !y are n expla9$ by words1 z a union includ+ v>i\s conceptions2 by !m a m9d acts on ano!r m9d1 n to tea* x any ?+1 b to make x conc5trate its activity 9 ord] to note :at x conta9s )9 itself1 & le>n1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 :at x already kn[s4 ,try to expla9 ext5sion1 ! idea by :i* we p]ceive ?is ord] :i* we _c express 9 words1 b on :i* we f\nd s5sible exp]i5ce & geometrical sci5ce1 & y c f9d no expression4 ,w y def9e x to be p>ts outside ( p>ts8 ,b :at are p>ts1 & :at does outside mean1 if y h n ! idea ( ext5sion8 ,take any ext5d$ ?+1 make y\r m9d conc5trate itself & ex]cise its activity 9 g5]alization4 ,is ?is triangle a quadrilat]al8 ,no4 ,are !y bo? ext5d$8 ,yes4 ,is ?is surface a solid8 ,no4 ,are !y bo? ext5d$8 ,yes4 ,are all triangles diff]5t f quadrilat]als8 ,yes4 ,h all surfaces & solids ext5sion8 ,yes4 ,h[ d y pass f "o fact to all ! facts ( ! same k9d1 f ! cont+5t to ! necess>y8 ,h y expla9$ :at ext5sion is8 ,no4 ,h y %[n :at !re is common to all ^! diff]5t ?+s8 ,no4 ,all t y h done !n is to ar\se ! activity ( y\r m9d1 & to make x direct its att5tion to ! g5]al idea ( ext5sion1 & ! m9d applies ?is idea to v>i\s ?+s :i* are diff]5t1 yet h some?+ 9 common1 x applies ! diff]5t modifications ( ?is idea to v>i\s ?+s :i* h some?+ 9 common1 & f9ds !m diff]5t4 ,y h n taught ! tru?s ( geometry to ! m9d1 b h awak5$ !m 9 x1 :e!r !y already exi/$ 9 x1 or ! m9d _h ! faculty ( produc+ !m4 #bfg4 ,let u n[ collect ! result ( ! inve/igations we h made4 ,i d n give an equal value to all ! propositions :i* foll[4 ,i h expla9$ my op9ion ( ea* 9 its prop] place1 b ,i consid] x well to sum !m all up "h 9 ord] to assi/ ! und]/&+ & help ! memory4 ,i4 ,!re is imm$iate c]ta9ty ( our relations ) be+s di/9ct f u4 ,,ii4 ,!re is c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w4 ,,iii4 ,! ext]nal _w 9 relation to u1 is only an ext5d$ be+ :i* affects u1 & is subject to con/ant laws :i* we may det]m9e4 ,,iv4 ,we h ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,v4 ,! idea ( ext5sion is excit$ by s5sations1 b x is n conf\nd$ ) !m4 ,,vi4 ,! idea ( ext5sion is ! basis ( all our cognitions ( bodies4 ,,vii4 ,! idea ( ext5sion %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ! imag9>y repres5tation ( ext5sion4 ,,viii4 ,an ext5d$ space :i* is no?+ real1 is an absurdity4 ,,ix4 ,space is no?+ real di/+ui%$ f ! ext5sion ( bodies4 ,x4 ,:]e !re are no bodies1 !re are no di/ances4 ,,xi4 ,motion is ! *ange ( ! positions ( bodies among !mselves4 ,,xii4 ,!re is n & _c be vacuum ( any k9d4 ,,xiii4 ,! idea ( space is ! idea ( ext5sion 9 ! ab/ract4 ,,xiv4 ,! imag9ation ( an unlimit$ space is only an attempt ( ! imag9ation to foll[ ! und]/&+ 9 ! ab/raction ( ext5sion4 ,x also arises f our habit ( see+ ?r\gh transp>5t m$iums1 & mov+ 9 fluids ^: resi/ance is n p]ceptible4 ,,xv4 ,z all t we "k ( bodies is1 t !y are ext5d$ & affect u1 :atev] has ^! two conditions is to u a body4 ,,xvi4 ,b z we d n "k ! ess5ce ( bodies1 we d n "k :e!r a body c exi/ )\t ext5sion4 ,,xvii4 ,nei!r d we "k :at modifications ! ext5sion ( "o body may be subject to1 ) respect to o!rs4 ,,xviii4 ,! elem5ts ( :i* bodies are compos$ are unkn[n to u4 ,,xix4 ,! approximation ( "s bodies to o!rs1 & ! gravitation :i* results f x1 seem to be ! necess>y effect ( _! pres5t relations4 ,,xx4 ,! necessity ( approximation does n suffice to expla9 ! laws ( motion1 or _! beg9n+1 or _! cont9uation4 ,,xxi4 ,! idea ( space is n an absolutely necess>y condition ( s5sation4 ,,xxii4 ,! idea ( ext5sion has a real objectiv5ess4 ,,xxiii4 ,! transition f ! subjective to ! objective 9 relation to ext5sion is a primitive fact ( our nature4 ,,xxiv4 ,!re=e bodily ph5om5a h a real exi/5ce outside ( u4 ,,xxv4 ,!re=e a real c]ta9ty1 sci5tific z well z ph5om5al1 arises f ! te/imony ( ! s5ses4 ,,xxvi4 ,reason ju/ifies ! in/9ct ( nature :5 x exam9es ! relation ( subjectiv5ess ) objectiv5ess 9 s5sations4 ,,xxvii4 ,geometry consid]s ext5sion 9 ! ab/ract2 b ) ! c]ta9ty t :5 ! pr9ciple exi/s 9 ! real ord]1 ! consequ5ces _c fail to be produc$1 & t ! consequ5ces w be m or less exact 9 proportion z ! pr9ciple is m or less exactly realiz$4 ,,xxviii4 ,not)/&+ our c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w we d n "k its ess5ce4 ,,xxix4 ,we d n "k :at ?is _w is :5 se5 by a pure _s4 ,,xxx4 ,s5sible intuition1 to :i* our geometry relates1 does n con/itute ! ess5ce ( sci5tific k1 & may be sep>at$ f x4 ,,xxxi4 ,a *ange 9 ! relations ( corporeal be+s among !mselves1 & ) our s5sitive faculties1 is n intr9sically impossible4 ,,notes ,,to ,,book ,,fir/4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,i4 7#a7 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 c]ta9ty & tru?3 !re are intimate relations betwe5 !m1 yet !y are v diff]5t ?+s4 ,tru? is ! con=mity ( ! intellect ) ! object4 ,c]ta9ty is a firm ass5t to a real or app>5t tru?4 ,c]ta9ty is n tru?1 b x mu/ at lea/ h ! illusion ( tru?4 ,we may be c]ta9 ( :at is false1 b n unless we believe x to be true4 ,!re is no tru? s long z !re is no judgm5t2 = )\t judgm5t !re is only p]ception1 b no comp>ison ( ! idea ) ! ?+2 & )\t comp>ison !re c be nei!r con=mity nor discrepancy4 ,if we conceive a m\nta9 a ?\s& miles high1 we conceive a ?+ t does n exi/2 b we d n err s long z we d n ass]t ! exi/5ce ( ! m\nta94 ,if we affirm x1 !re is opposition betwe5 our judgm5t & ! reality3 ?is con/itutes error4 ,! object ( ! intellect is tru?2 !re=e1 we at lea/ require ! illusion ( tru? 9 ord] to be c]ta93 our intellect is weak2 h5ce its c]ta9ty is liable to error4 ,! fir/ is a law ( ! intellect1 ! second a pro( ( its frailty4 ,philosophy1 or1 r1 man1 _c re/ cont5t ) appe>ances1 b dem&s reality2 if any "o be conv9c$ t he has only ! appe>ance1 or if he ev5 d\bt ( x1 he loses 8 c]ta9ty1 = x admits appe>ances only on condition ( _! be+ disguis$4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,ii4 7#b7 ,ev5 ,pyrrho did n d\bt ( e ?+ z "s pret5d2 he admitt$ s5sations s f> z passive1 & resign$ himself to ! consequ5ces ( ^! impressions1 & yield$ to ! necessity ( con=m+ 9 practice to :at !y indicat$4 ,no "o ev] yet d5i$ appe>ances3 x is reality t is disput$2 "s hold t man mu/ be cont5t ) say+ x appe>s2 o!rs t he c g s f> z to say x is4 ,x is useful to pres]ve ?is di/9ction1 z x prev5ts confusion ( ideas 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 & conduces to r5d] cle> ! "q ( c]ta9ty4 ,?us ( ! ?ree que/ions3 is !re c]ta9ty8 on :at is x f\nd$8 h[ is x acquir$8 ! fir/ is resolv$ alike by all ! s*ools1 s f> z x relates to a fact ( our s\l3 by only admitt+ appe>ances1 !y admit ! c]ta9ty ( !m4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,iii4 7#c7 ,9 ord] to =m cle> ideas ( ! developm5t ( ! und]/&+1 & ! o!r faculties ( our s\l1 ! read] may ref] to :at we advanc$ 9 our "w1 entitl$ ,! ,crit]ion1 & p>ticul>ly to ! *apt]s ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,xii41 ,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 ,,xviii41 & ,,xxii4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,iv4 7#d7 ,we subjo9 ! passages f ,/4 ,?omas on ! unity & multiplicity ( ideas1 to :i* we ref]r$ 9 ! text4 ,we believe ! fri5ds ( solid & pr(\nd metaphysics w read !m ) great pleasure4 ,9 omnibus enim sub/antiis intellectualibus1 inv5itur virtus intellectiva p] influ5tiam div9i lum9is4 ,quod quidem 9 primo pr9cipio e/ unum et simplex1 et quanto magis creatur intellectuales di/ant a primo pr9cipio1 tanto magis dividitur illud lum51 et div]sificatur1 sicut accidit 9 l9eis a c5tro egr$i5tibus4 ,et inde e/ quod ,deus p] suam ess5tiam omnia intelligit3 sup]iores autem intellectualium sub/anti>um1 etsi p] plures =mas intelligant1 tam5 intelligunt p] pauciores et magis univ]sales et virtuosiores ad compreh5sionem r]um propt] efficaciam virtutis intellectiv1 qu e/ 9 eis4 ,9 inf]ioribus autem sunt =m plures et m9us univ]sales1 et m9us efficaces ad compreh5sionem r]um1 9 quantum deficiunt a virtute intellectiva sup]iorum4 ,si ergo inf]iores sub/anti hab]5t =mas 9 illa univ]salitate1 9 qua hab5t sup]iores1 quia non sunt tant efficaci 9 intellig5do1 non accip]5t p] eas p]fectam cognitionem de rebus1 s$ 9 quadam communitate1 et confusione1 quod aliqualit] app>et 9 hom9ibus4 ,nam qui sunt debilioris intellectus1 p] univ]sales conceptiones magis intellig5tium1 non accipiunt p]fectam cognitionem1 nisi eis s+ula 9 speciali explic5tur4 7,p4 #an1 ,q4 #hib1 ,a4 #a47 ,intellectus quanto e/ altior et p]spicacior tanto ex uno pote/ plura cognosc]e4 ,et quia intellectus div9us e/ altissimus1 p] unam simplicem ess5tiam suam omnia cognoscit2 nec e/ ibi aliqua pluralitas =m>um idealium1 nisi secundum div]sos respectus div9 ess5ti ad res cognitas2 s$ 9 intellectu creato multiplicatur secundum rem quod e/ unum secundum rem 9 m5te div9a1 ut non possit omnia p] unum cognosc]e2 ita tam5 quod quanto intellectus creatus e/ altior1 tanto pauciores habet =mas ad plura cognosc5da efficaces4 ,et hoc e/ quod ,dio4 dicit1 #ab1 c4 hi]4 quod sup]iores ord9es hab5t sci5tiam magis univ]salem 9 inf]ioribus4 ,et 9 lib4 de causis dicitur1 quod intellig5ti sup]iores hab5t =mas magis univ]sales2 hoc tam5 obs]vato1 quod 9 infimis angelis sunt =m adhuc univ]sales 9 tantum1 quod p] unam =mam possunt cognosc]e omnia individua unius speciei3 ita quod illa species sit propria1 uniuscujusque p>ticul>ium secundum div]sos respectus ejus ad p>ticul>ia1 sicut ess5tia div9a efficitur propria similitudo s+ulorum secundum div]sos respectus2 s$ intellectus humanus qui e/ ultimus 9 ord9e sub/anti>um intellectualium habet =mas 9 tantum p>ticulatas quod non pote/ p] unam speciem nisi unum quid cognosc]e4 ,et ideo similitudo speciei exi/5s 9 intellectu humano non sufficit ad cognosc5da plura s+ul>ia2 et propt] hoc intellectui adjuncti sunt s5sus quibus s+ul>ia accipiat4 7,quodlib4 #g1 ,a4 #c47 ,respondeo dic5dum1 quod ex hoc sunt 9 rebus aliqua sup]iora1 quod sunt uni primo1 quod e/ ,deus1 prop9quiora et similiora4 ,9 ,deo autem tota pl5itudo intellectualis cognitionis cont9etur 9 uno1 scilicet 9 ess5tia div9a1 p] quam ,deus omnia cognoscit4 ,qu quidem intelligibilis pl5titudo1 9 intelligibilibus creaturis inf]iori modo et m9us simplicit] inv5itur4 ,unde oportet1 quod ea qu ,deus cognoscit p] unam1 inf]iores intellectus cognoscant p] multa2 et tanto amplius p] plura1 quanto amplius intellectus inf]ior fuit4 ,sic igitur quanto angelus fu]it sup]ior1 tanto p] pauciores species univ]sitatem intelligibilium appreh5d]e pot]it1 et ideo oportet quod ejus =m s9t univ]saliores1 quasi ad plura se ext5d5tes unaquque eorum4 ,et de hoc1 exemplum aliqualit] 9 nobis p]spici pote/3 sunt enim quidam1 qui v]itatem intelligibilem cap]e non possunt2 nisi eis p>ticulatim p] s+ula explicatur4 ,et hoc quidem ex debilitate intellectus eorum cont+it4 ,alii v]o qui sunt =tioris intellectus1 ex paucis multo cap]e possunt4 7,p4#a;a1 ,q4 #ee;a ,a4 #c47 ,,on ,,*apt] ,v4 7#e7 ,"h is ! idea ( ,condillac's man-/atue expla9$ by himself3 ,to ga9 ?is object we imag9$ a /atue int]nally organiz$ l ourselves1 & animat$ ) a m9d depriv$ ( e sort ( ideas4 ,we also suppos$ its ext]ior compos$ :olly ( m>ble1 to all[ x ! use ( none ( its s5ses1 & we res]v$ to ourselves ! lib]ty to op5 !m at our pleasure to ! diff]5t impressions ( :i* !y are susceptible4 ,we ?\ght we ought to comm5ce ) smell1 because ( all ! s5ses ?is is ! "o :i* lea/ contributes to cognitions ( ! m9d4 ,next we _h to exam9e ! o!rs1 & aft] hav+ consid]$ !m ap>t & toge!r1 we saw ! /atue become an animal able to att5d to its own pres]vation4 ,! pr9ciple t det]m9es ! developm5t ( its faculties is simple2 ev5 s5sations conta9 x2 =1 all be+ ( necessity ei!r agreeable or ! contr>y1 ! /atue is int]e/$ 9 enjoy+ "s & %unn+ o!rs4 ,! read] w n[ be conv9c$ t ?is int]e/ suffices to give occasion to ! gradations ( ! w & ! und]/&+4 ,judgm5ts1 reflection1 desires1 passions1 are only s5sations v>i\sly trans=m$4 ,?is is :y x seem$ to u useless to suppose ! s\l to h receiv$ imm$iately f nature all ! s5sations ) :i* x is end[$4 ,nature has giv5 u organs :i* %[ u by pleasure or pa9 :at we ought to seek or to avoid2 b "h %e /ops1 & leaves to exp]i5ce ! task ( lead+ u to contract habits1 & f9i% ! "w %e has comm5c$4 ,?is object is new1 & %[s all ! simplicity ( ! ways ( ! ,au?or ( nature4 ,is x n a ?+ wor?y ( our admiration ?us to see1 f man's s5sibility to pleasure or pa91 spr+ up 9 him ideas1 desires1 habits1 & tal5ts ( v>i\s k9ds8--,traite des ,s5sations4 ,desse9 de l'ouvrage4 ,:at we admire 9 ,condillac is n 8 sy/em1 b 8 c&or2 & we wond] yet m t1 = a "t1 he %\ld h _h num]\s foll[]s ( 8 s poor & sup]ficial sy/em4 ,! au?or proposes ! difficulty1 t z !re is 9 our s\l no?+ b trans=m$ s5sations1 x is /range t brutes1 :i* also h s5sations1 %\ld n be end[$ ) ! same faculties z man4 ,c ! read] imag9e :at pr(\nd reason ! ,fr5* philosoph] assign$8 ,we d\bt x v mu*4 ,x is a curi\s ?\ght3 ! organ ( t\* is less p]fect 9 brutes1 & consequ5tly x _c be to !m an occasional cause ( all ! op]ations :i* we obs]ve 9 ourselves4 ,he did well to adopt ! motto3 nec tam5 quasi ,py?ius ,apollo6 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,vi4 7#f7 ,! works ( ! s*ola/ics are wor? read+ on ^! po9ts4 ,treat+ ( ! object ( sci5ce1 !y are at once exact & pr(\nd4 ,x is n easy to ?9k ( any ?+ conc]n+ ! classification ( tru?s n expla9$ or indicat$ by !m4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,vii4 7#g7 ,let u n be ?\ght to judge too sev]ely ( ! =ms adopt$ by ! ,g]man philosoph]s4 ,x is well kn[n h[ ,madame de ,/al speaks ( !m2 b happily we c cite 9 our favor a m compet5t judge4 ,s*ell+1 "o ( ! *iefs ( ,g]man philosophy1 says3 ,! ,g]mans h s long philosophiz$ among !mselves1 z to gradually dep>t m & m1 9 _! ?\ghts & _! words1 f :at is univ]sally intelligible2 & ! degree ( dep>ture !refrom has almo/ come at la/ to be ! measure ( philosophical ability4 ,examples are n want+ to u4 ,z families :i* sep>ate f g5]al society1 & live :olly among !mselves1 among o!r repulsive s+ul>ities1 come to use expressions intelligible only to !mselves1 s is x ) ! ,g]mans 9 philosophy2 & aft] va9 ef=ts to spread ! ,kantian philosophy out ( ,g]many1 !y r5\nc$ ! attempt to make !mselves intelligible to o!r nations2 !y became accu/om$ to reg>d !mselves z ! *os5 p ( philosophy1 =gett+ t ! prim>y end ( philosophy1--an end (t5 neglect$1 b n ! less to be s\ght = on t acc\nt1--is to ga9 univ]sal cons5t1 by mak+ !mselves univ]sally intelligible4 ,?is is n to say t we mu/ judge works ( ?\ght l ex]cises 9 /yle2 b all philosophy n intelligible to all civiliz$ nations1 & accessible 9 e language1 _c1 = ?is reason alone1 be ! univ]sal & true philosophy4--,s*ell+'s ,judgm5t ( ,v4 ,c\s91 & ! /ate ( ,fr5* & ,g]man ,philosophy 9 g5]al4 #ahcd4 p4 #d4 ,s*ell+ flatt]s himself t ,g]man philosophy is ab\t to take a bett] c\rse ) respect to cle>ness1 & adds3 ,! philosophical writ] :o1 = t5s ( ye>s pa/1 0 unable to dep>t f ! t]ms & =ms ( ! s*ool1 )\t loss ( 8 sci5tific reputation1 may h]eaft] emancipate himself f ?is re/ra9t4 ,he w seek dep? ( ?\ght2 & an absolute incapacity to express himself ) cle>ness1 w no long] be reg>d$ z ! m>k ( tal5t & philosophical inspiration4 ,we h no?+ to add to ?is passage2 we w\ld only rem9d its au?or t3 mutato nom9e1 de te fabula n>ratur4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,viii4 7#h7 ,! p]usal ( ,s*ell+'s "w on ,ideal ,transc5d5talism leaves no d\bt z to 8 view ( ?is id5tity1 :i* at bottom nei!r is nor c be any ?+ else ?an pan!ism2 yet1 = ! sake ( tru?1 we w all[ t ,s*ell+ seems to h modifi$ 8 doctr9e1 or to h fe>$ its consequ5ces1 if we are to consid] ! indications f\nd 9 8 disc\rse at ! op5+ ( 8 c\rse ( philosophy1 at ,b]l91 ! #ac? ( ,novemb]1 #ahda4 ,we !re f9d ! foll[+ passage1 wor?y ( ! att5tion ( all ?9k+ m53 ,! difficulties & ob/acles ( all k9ds1 aga9/ :i* philosophy cont5ds are visible1 & 9 va9 w\ld we attempt to dissemble !m4 ,nev] 0 !re a m p[]ful reaction aga9/ philosophy on ! "p ( real & active life ?an at ?is pres5t epo*2 & ?is proves philosophy to h p5etrat$ ev5 to ! vital que/ions ( society1 ^? conc]n+ :i* no "o c re/ indiff]5t4 ,s long z a philosophy is only 9 ! fir/ /ages ( =mation1 tak+ ! fir/ /eps 9 its m>*1 no "o c>es = x1 except philosoph]s !mselves2 o!r m5 await ! la/ ^w ( philosophy1 s9ce x is important to ! g5]al public only 9 its results4 ,we confess t we ought n to take z ! practical result ( a solid & pr(\ndly m$itat$ philosophy :atev] x may please any body to designate z su*3 7 x s1 ! _w w\ld be subject$ to doctr9es ! mo/ repugnant to s\nd morality1 ev5 su* z sap its f\ndation4 ,no6 ,no "o judges ( philosophy by ! practical conclusions drawn by ignorance or presumption4 ,moreov]1 le/ deception on ?is po9t be possible1 ! public %\ld reject a philosophy :i* has su* results1 )\t exam9+ or ev5 judg+ x 9 its pr9ciples2 x %\ld say t x _c und]/& ! dep? ( ^! que/ions1 or ! artificial & intricate m>* ( ! argum5ts2 b )\t paus+ "h x %\ld promptly decide t a philosophy lead+ to su* conclusions _c be true 9 its pr9ciples4 ,:at ! ,roman morali/ said ( ! useful3 nihil utile nisi quod hone/um1 is equally applicable to ! inve/igation ( tru?3 no philosophy t respects itself w all[ t x leads to irreligion4 ,yet actual philosophy is 9 su* a /ate1 t1 h[ev] mu* x promises a religi\s result1 no "o admits x2 = d$uctions drawn f x conv]t ! dogmas ( ! ,*ri/ian religion into a va9 phantasmagory4 ,z to ?is1 "s ( its mo/ fai?ful disciples are op5ly agre$2 be ! suspicion well f\nd$ or n1 its exi/5ce suffices1 & ?is op9ion is e/abli%$4 ,b active life 9 ! la/ result is always "r2 & s philosophy is expos$ to great risks4 ,!y :o w> on "o philosophy are n f> f condemn+ all philosophy2 !y say 9 _! he>t1 !re is no long] philosophy 9 ! _w4 ,i myself am n exempt f ^! condemnations1 s9ce x is pret5d$ t x is ,i1 :o fir/ gave impulse to ?is philosophy :i* is at pres5t s badly judg$ (1 because ( its religi\s results4 ,h[ %all ,i def5d myself8 ,c]ta9ly ,i w\ld nev] attack a philosophy = its la/ results2 b ,i w\ld judge x 9 its fir/ pr9ciples1 z e philosophical m9d %\ld4 ,x is moreov] well en\gh kn[n t ,i h %[n myself little satisfi$ ) ! philosophy ( :i* ,i speak4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! moral & spiritual worlds are s divid$ t any po9t ( union = an in/ant %\ld be a motive ( satisfaction4 ,besides to de/roy1 is a v sad ?+ :5 !re is no?+ :]e) to replace ! ?+ de/roy$4 ',d x bett] y\rself1' we say to "o :o c d no?+ b criticize4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i !re=e consecrate myself entirely to ! mission ) :i* ,i am *>g$2 = y ,i w live2 = y ,i w labor )\t ceas+ :ile !re rema9s 9 me ! brea? ( life1 & :ile ,he p]mits me1 )\t ^: p]mission n a hair c fall f our head1 & yet less a deeply felt ^w proce$ f our m\?4 ,he1 )\t ^: inspiration n "o lucid idea c %9e on our m9d1 nor "o ?\ght ( tru? & lib]ty illum9e our s\l4 ,?is passage %[s ! emb>rassm5t ( ! ,g]man philosoph]'s position1 & ! irreligi\s consequ5ces atta*$ to 8 doctr9es4 ,x is consol+ to see him pay "s homage to tru?2 b x is afflict+ to see him /ill pret5d to save its inconsequ5ce4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,ix4 7#i7 ,9 ^! latt] days !re h n be5 want+ "s to c\nt ! illu/ri\s ,malebran*e among ! p>tisans ( pan!ism4 ,we _c conceive h[ ,m4 ,c\s9 c\ld say2 ,malebran*e e/ avec ,sp9oza le plus gr& disciple de ,desc>tes4 ,comme lui il a tir des pr9cipes de leur commun matre les consqu5ces que ces pr9cipes r5f]mai5t4 ,malebran*e e/ la lettre ,sp9oza *rti54 7,fragm5ts ,philosophiques4 ,t4 #bme4 p4 #afg4 ,ed4 #c;ieme47 ,we repeat t we _c conceive h[ any "o1 :o _h read ev] s little ( ! great metaphysician's works1 %\ld ass]t su* a p>adox4 ,! slighte/ glance at 8 writ+s suffices to %[ 9 !m ! mo/ l(ty spiritualism unit$ ) pr(\nd respect = ! dogmas ( our mo/ holy religion4 ,:5 we treat ( ! v>i\s philosophical sy/ems ( ! orig9 ( ideas & ! problem ( ! univ]se1 we %all h o!r occasions to v9dicate ! wise & pi\s au?or ( ! ,inve/igation de la ,v]it4 ,yet we 7 unwill+ to pass by ! pres5t occasion )\t do+ him ! ju/ice to def5d him f imputations1 :i* he w\ld1 7 he liv+1 repel z intol]able calumnies4 ,:o w\ld h ?\ght :5 he wrote ^? works1 on e page ( :i* we f9d1 ,god1 ! m9d1 ! ,*ri/ian religion1 et]nal tru?1 & orig9al s91 ) frequ5t texts f ! sacr$ ,scriptures & ,/4 ,augu/9e1 t he w\ld ev] be rank$ ) ,sp9oza1 ) ! absurd epi!t ( ,*ri/ian ,sp9oza8 ,su* is at times ! sad lot ( great m51 ?us to be held z *iefs ( sects !y abhorr$4 ,malebran*e /yl$ ,sp9oza1 l'impie de nos j\rs1 & ,m4 ,c\s9 d>es call ,malebran*e ! ,*ri/ian ,sp9oza4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,x4 7#aj7 ,we are n ignorant ( ! difficulties to :i* ,leibnitz's sy/ems are subject2 b x is necess>y to %[ t 9 ?is great man's m9d ! errone\s doctr9es ( mod]n ,g]mans _h no place4 ,et c'e/ a9si1 he says1 9 8 ,monadologie 7,no4 #ch71 que la d]nire raison des *oses doit tre dans une sub/ance necessaire1 dans laquelle le dtail des *angm5s ne soit qu'em9emm5t1 comme dans la s\rce1 et c'e/ ce que n\s appelons ,dieu4 ,or cette sub/ance tant une raison suffisante de t\t ce dtail1 lequel e/ aussi li p>t\t1 il n'y a qu'un ,dieu1 et ce ,dieu suffit4 ,on peut jug] aussi que cette sub/ance suprme qui e/ unique1 univ]selle1 et necessaire1 n'ayant ri5 hors d'elle qui en soit indp5dant1 et tant une suite simple de l'tre possible1 doit tre incapable de limites et cont5ir t\t autant de realit qu'il e/ possible4 ,d'o il s'ensuit1 que ,dieu e/ absolum5t p>fait1 la p]fection n'tant autre *ose1 que la gr&eur de la realit positive prise prcism5t en mettant "p les limites ou bornes dans les *oses qui en ont4 ,et l1 o il n'y a po9t de bornes1 c'e/--dire1 en ,dieu1 la p]fection e/ absolum5t inf9ie4 ,il s'ensuit aussi que les cratures ont leur p]fections de l'influ5ce de ,dieu1 mais qu'elles ont leurs imp]fections de leur nature propre1 incapable d'tre sans bornes4 ,c> c'e/ en cela qu'elles sont di/+ues de ,dieu4 ,il e/ vrai aussi1 qu'en ,dieu e/ non seulem5t la s\rce des exi/5ces1 mais encore celle des ess5ces1 en tant que relles1 ou de ce qu'il y a de rel dans la possibilit4 ,9 8 diss]tation on ! ,platonic philosophy he combats ! pan!i/ic t5d5cies ( ,val5t9e ,weigel1 9 ^! words3 ,val5t9um ,weigelium1 qui non tantum vitam beatam peculi>i lib]o p] ,deificationem explicat1 s$ et passim mortem et quietem hujusmodi comm5dat1 vellem cum aliis ,quieti/is suspicionem similis s5t5ti non d$isse4 99 99 99 ,sp9oza alit] eodem t5debat2 ei una sub/antia e/1 ,deus2 creatur ejus modificationes1 et figur 9 c]a cont9ue p] motum nasc5tes et p]euntes4 ,ita ipsi1 p]9de ut ,alm]ico1 anima non sup]e/1 nisi p] suum esse ideale 9 ,deo ut ibi ab t]no fuit4 ,s$ nihil 9 ,platone animadv]to1 unde colligam1 animos propriam sibi sub/antiam non s]v>e2 quod etiam sane philosophanti extra controv]siam e/1 neque intelligi contr>ia pote/ s5t5tia1 nisi ,deum et animam corporea f+as1 neque enim alit] ex ,deo animas1 tanquam p>ticulas divellas2 s$ talis de ,deo atque anima notio1 aliunde absurda e/4 7,leibnitz4 ,epi/4 ad ,hans*ium de ,philos4 ,platon47 ,s f> 0 ,leibnitz f deem+ ! t5d5cy to pan!ism an elevat$ philosophy1 t1 z we h j se51 he consid]$ x ! result ( a rude imag9ation4 ,x is v rem>kable t "u an hi/orical z "u a metaphysical aspect ,leibnitz agrees ) ,/4 ,?omas2 bo? express ! same ideas 9 v simil> words4 ,! holy doctor asks if ! s\l is made f ! sub/ance ( ,god1 & !re takes occasion to exam9e ! orig9 ( ! error1 & says3 ,respondeo dic5dum1 quod dic]e animam esse de sub/antia ,dei1 manife/am improbabilitatem cont9et4 ,ut enim ex dictis patet1 anima humana e/ qu&oque intellig5s 9 pot5tia1 et sci5tiam quodammodo a rebus acquirit1 et habet div]sas pot5tias2 qu omnia ali5a sunt a ,dei natura1 qui e/ actus purus1 et nihil ab alio accipi5s1 et nullam 9 se div]sitatem hab5s1 ut supra probatum e/4 ,s$ hic error pr9cipium habuisse videtur ex duabus positionibus antiquorum4 ,primi enim1 qui naturas r]um consid]>e incep]unt1 imag9ationem transc5d]e non val5tes1 nihil prt] corpora esse posu]unt4 ,et ideo ,deum dicebant esse quoddam corpus1 quod aliorum corporum judicabant esse pr9cipium4 ,et quia animam ponebant esse de natura illius corporis1 quod dicebant esse pr9cipium1 ut dicitur 9 primo de anima1 p] consequ5s sequebatur quod anima esset de sub/antia ,dei4 ,juxta quam positionem etiam ,mani*i1 ,deum esse quamdam lucem corpoream exi/imantes1 qu&am p>tem illius lucis animam esse posu]unt corpori alligatam4 ,secundo v]o processum fuit ad hoc quod aliqui aliquid incorporeum esse appreh5d]unt2 non tam5 a corpore sep>atum1 s$ corporis =mam4 ,unde et ,v>ro dixit quod ,deus e/ anima1 mundum intuitu1 vel motu et ratione gub]nans3 ut ,augu4 n>rat #g de ,civit4 ,dei4 ,sic igitur illius totalis anim p>tem1 aliqui posu]unt animam hom9is3 sicut homo e/ p>s totius mundi2 non val5tes intellectu p]t+]e ad di/+u5dos spiritualium sub/anti>um gradus1 nisi secundum di/9ctiones corporum4 ,hc autem sunt omnia impossibilia1 ut supra probatum e/1 unde manife/e falsum e/ animam esse de sub/antia ,dei4 7,p4 #a;a1 ,q4 #ij;a1 ,a4 #ao47 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xi4 7#aa7 ,we (t5 f9d ! intellect id5tifi$ by ! s*ola/ics ) ! ?+ kn[n1 ev5 :5 !y treat ( creat$ intellects2 b ?is id5tity is limit$ to ! purely ideal ord]1 & d5otes only ! intimate union ( ! idea & ! intellect4 ,x is well kn[n :at importance !y atta*$ to matt]s & =ms2 & ?is di/9ction is also appli$ to ! ph5om5a ( intellig5ce4 ,al?\gh ! idea 0 consid]$ z a ?+ di/9ct f ! intellect1 yet1 z ! intellect is p]fect$ by x1 & plac$ 9 relation ) ! ?+ repres5t$1 !y said t ! intellect 0 ! same z ! ?+ kn[n4 ,we mu/ ?us expla9 passages 9 ,/4 ,?omas & o!r s*ola/ics1 s9ce1 al?\gh _! expressions1 if consid]$ 9 isolation1 w\ld be inexact1 !y are n s1 if reg>d be _h to ! mean+ :i* !y attribut$ to !m1 & :i* cle>ly foll[s f _! fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,?us ,/4 ,?omas 7,quodlibet4 #g ,a4 #b71 to prove t ! creat$ intellect _c "k _m ?+s at ! same "t1 says3 ,s$ quod intellectus simul intelligat plura intelligibilia1 primo et pr9cipalit]1 e/ impossibile4 ,cujus ratio e/ quia intellectus secundum actum e/ omn9o1 id e/1 p]fecte res intellecta3 ut dicitur 9 #c de anima4 ,quod quidem intellig5dum e/ non quod ess5tia intellectus fiat res intellecta vel species ejus2 s$ quia complete in=matur p] speciem rei intellect1 dum eam actu intelligit4 ,unde intellectum simul plura intellig]e primo1 idem e/ ac si res una simul esset plura4 ,9 rebus enim mat]iabilus videmus quod una res num]o non pote/ esse simul plura 9 actu1 s$ plura 9 pot5tia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,unde patet quod sicut una res mat]ialis non pote/ esse simul plura actu1 ita unus intellectus non pote/ simul plura intellig]e primo4 ,et hoc e/ quod ,alga1 dicit1 quod sicut unum corpus non pote/ simul figur>i pluribus figuris2 ita unus intellectus non pote/ simul plura intellig]e4 ,nec pote/ dici quod intellectus in=matur p]fecte simul pluribus speciebus intelligibilibus1 sicut unum corpus simul in=matur figura et colore2 quia figura et color non sunt =m unius g5]is1 nec 9 eodem ord9e accipiuntur quia non ord9antur ad p]fici5dum 9 esse unius rationis2 s$ omnes =m intelligibiles 9 quantum hujusmodi1 sunt unius g5]is1 et 9 eodem ord9e se hab5t ad intellectum1 9 quantum p]ficiunt intellectum 9 hoc quod e/ esse intellectum 9 actu4 ,unde plures species intelligibiles se hab5t sicut figur plures1 vel plures colores1 qui simul 9 actu 9 eodem esse non possunt secundum idem4 ,by ! fir/ passage1 we see t ! mean+ ( id5tity ( ! intellect ) ! ?+ kn[n1 is ! same z expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is note2 to wit1 ! intimate union ( ! idea ( intelligible species ) ! intellect1 z ! =m ) its matt]1--a =m :i* p]fects ! intellect1 makes x pass f pot5tiality to actuality1 & places x 9 relation ) ! ?+ repres5t$4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xii4 7#ab7 ,! doctr9e ( imm$iate intelligibility is susceptible ( /ill fur!r illu/ration2 b z ?is _c be cle>ly done )\t exam9+ at l5g? ! nature ( ideas1 :i* does n p]ta9 to our pres5t treatise1 we %all res]ve x = its prop] place4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 7#ac7 ,en\gh1 p]haps1 0 n said 9 ! text to enable all read]s to =m cle> & complete ideas ( ! repres5tation ( causality2 b ?is doctr9e1 z reg>ds ! fir/ intellig5ce1 is closely alli$ to ! que/ions on ! f\ndation ( ! possibility ev5 ( non-exi/5t ?+s1--que/ions :i* we _c "h inve/igate )\t rev]s+ ! ord] ( subjects4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 7#ad7 ,! di/9ction ( geometrical & non-geometrical ord]s ( ideas is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ideology4 ,we h giv5 ?is di/9ction 9 ord] t ! exam9ation ( a tru? fundam5tal among purely ideal tru?s might n rema9 incomplete4 ,b its explanation & f\ndation w be giv5 9 our treatise on ! ( space & ext5sion4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xv4 7#ae7 ,! ^w in/9ct1 :5 appli$ to ! intellect1 is cle>ly tak5 9 a diff]5t s5se ?an x is :5 appli$ to irrational animals4 ,x has "h no ignoble mean+2 & ?is is 9 accordance ) ! use made ( x :5 div9e ?+s are spok5 (4 ,"o mean+ giv5 x by ! diction>y is1 impulse1 or movem5t ( ! ,holy ,gho/1 9 speak+ ( sup]natural inspirations4 ,! ,lat91 in/9ctus1 means inspiration4 ,?us3 ,sacro m5s in/9cta furore4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 7#af7 ,! confusion ( ideas ^u ?is po9t orig9ates 9 t t5d5cy to unity ( :i* we spoke 9 our ,f\r? ,*apt]4 ,we fir/ suppose !re mu/ be "o only pr9ciple1 & we ask :at x is2 :]eas1 be=e inquir+ :at x is1 we %\ld asc]ta9 if !re be "o only1 z is suppos$4 ,we h already se5 t ,fi*te's sy/em re/$ on ! same supposition4 ,?us ! cause ( innoc5t disputes 9 ! s*ools may lead to m transc5d5tal errors4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 7#ag7 ,we h1 we ?9k1 fai?fully int]pret$ ! ?\ght ( ,desc>tes1 b le/ !re %\ld be "s d\bt z to ?is1 we subjo9 a notable passage f 8 answ] to ! objections collect$ by ,pre ,m]s5ne f v>i\s philosoph]s & !ologians1 aga9/ ! ,second1 ,?ird1 ,f\r?1 ,fif?1 & ,six? ,m$itations4 ,:5 we "k t we are some?+ t ?9ks1 ?is fir/ notion is tak5 f no syllogisms2 & :5 any "o says3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 or exi/1 he does n inf] 8 exi/5ce f ?\ght1 z by ! =ce ( a syllogism1 b z a ?+ kn[n by itself2 he sees x by a simple inspection ( ! m9d2 = if he d$uc$ x f a syllogism1 he w\ld h to "k be=eh& ?is major2 :atev] ?9ks1 is1 or exi/s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ?is proposition is manife/$ to him by 8 own s5tim5t t he _c ?9k )\t exi/+4 ,x is a prop]ty *>act]i/ic ( our m9d to =m g5]al propositions f ! k ( p>ticul> propositions4 ,desc>tes does n always expla9 himself ) ?is cle>ness2 ! objections ( 8 adv]s>ies made him exam9e 8 doctr9e m ?or\ghly1 & ?is contribut$ to cle> up 8 ideas4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 7#ah7 ,to =m an accurate e/imate ( ,desc>tes' views1 let u li/5 to 8 own explanation ( 8 sy/em4 ,z ! s5ses sometimes deceive u1 ,i wi%$ to suppose t no?+ ( :at !y make u imag9e appe>$2 z !re are m5 :o are deceiv$1 & make p>alogisms ev5 :5 reason+ ^u ! simple/ matt]s ( geometry1 ,i judg$ myself z liable to err z !y are1 & ,i reject$ z false all ^? reasons ,i _h be=e held to be demon/rations2 & also consid]+ t ev5 ! ?\ghts :i* we h :ile awake may come to u :ile asleep1 al?\gh no "o ( !m may be true1 ,i resolv$ to feign t all ?+s :i* _h ent]$ my m9d conta9$ no m tru? ?an illusory dreams4 ,b ,i imm$iately obs]v$ t1 :ile ,i wi%$ to ?9k t e ?+ 0 false1 x 0 necess>y = me1 :o ?\ght ?is1 to be some?+2 &1 not+ t ?is tru?3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 0 s firm & secure1 t ! mo/ extravagant suppositions c\ld n %ake x1 ,i judg$ t ,i might1 )\t scruple1 receive x z ! fir/ tru? ( philosophy4--,disc\rs sur la ,m?ode4 ,p4 #d;ieme4 ,we said t ! d\bt ( ,desc>tes 0 a supposition1 a fiction1 & ^! are ! v t]ms he himself uses4 ,9 8 reply to ! objections ( ,pre ,m]s5ne1 we f9d ! foll[+ confirmatory extract3 ,i h read ) great satisfaction y\r obs]vations ^u my treatise on philosophy1 = !y %[ y\r good-w t[>ds me1 y\r piety t[>ds ,god1 & y\r zeal = ! advance ( 8 glory4 ,i _c b rejoice t y h judg$ my argum5ts wor?y ( y\r criticism1 b also t y say no?+ n easily answ]able4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 y rem9d me t ,i h reject$ ! ideas ( phantasms ( bodies1 n truly1 b only by a m]e fiction1 9 ord] to conclude t ,i am some?+ t ?9ks1 fe>+1 p]haps1 t ,i %\ld believe x foll[$ f ?is t ,i am only some?+ t ?9ks2 b ,i h already %[n1 9 my ,second ,m$itation1 t ,i agre$ ) ?is1 & ,i said3 ',b ^! ?+s1 :i* ,i suppose n to be1 because ,i d n "k !m1 may n really be any ?+ diff]5t f me :o "k !m2 ( ?is ,i c say no?+1 ,i h at pres5t no?+ to d ) x4' 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,we "h see t ,desc>tes did n d5y 8 d\bt to be a m]e fiction2 he ev5 says t he does no?+ b apply a me?od1 ! necessity ( :i* all philosoph]s admit4 ,i pray y1 he cont9ues1 to rememb] t ) respect to matt]s ( ! w1 ,i h always made a broad di/9ction betwe5 ! contemplation ( tru? & ! uses ( life2 z reg>ds ! latt]1 ,i am s f> f ?9k+ t we mu/ foll[ only ?+s v cle>ly kn[n1 t ,i believe we mu/ n always consid] ev5 :at is mo/ probable1 b t we mu/1 among ?+s :olly unkn[n or unc]ta91 sometimes *oose "o1 & hold firmly to x1 s long z we see no reason = n do+ s1 j z if we _h *os5 x f evid5t & c]ta9 motives1 z ,i h already expla9$ 9 ! ,disc\rs sur la ,m?ode2 b :5 we treat only ( ! contemplation ( tru?1 :o ev] d\bt$ t x 0 necess>y to susp5d ! judgm5t ^u ?+s t are obscure or n di/9ctly kn[n8 ,9 :at1 !n1 consi/s ,desc>tes' m]it8 ,9 hav+ appli$ a rule kn[n to all1 & employ$ by few1 & 9 s do+ at ! v "t t prejudices 9 favor ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e 7 ! /ronge/4 ,desc>tes pla9ly says s2 8 me?od ( d\bt+ is n new1 only ! application ( x 0 want+2 =1 z reg>ds its fundam5tal pr9ciple1 :o ev] d\bt$ t x 0 necess>y to susp5d ! judgm5t ^u ?+s t are obscure or n di/9ctly kn[n8 ,und]/&+ ,desc>tes' me?od 9 ?is s5se1 t is1 tak+ ! d\bt z a supposition1 a m]e fiction1 x is n oppos$ to s\nd religi\s & moral pr9ciples4 ,! pr(\nd philosoph] does n seem to disda9 to set 8 read]s at re/ ^u ?is po9t2 he +5u\sly %[s1 9 comm5c+ 8 inve/igations1 t 8 religi\s belief 0 safe4 ,f9ally1 z be=e und]tak+ to rebuild ! h\se :]e9 "o lives1 x is n en\gh to demoli% ! old "o1 & provide mat]ials & workm51 or to ex]cise "o's self 9 ar*itecture1 & to c>efully trace ! design ( ! new h\se2 b x is also necess>y to h ano!r h\se 9 :i* to live1 :ile ! new "o is build+2 s t my actions might n be unresolv$1 l my judgm5ts1 & t ,i might1 9 ! meantime1 live z happily z possible1 ,i made a provision = myself2 x consi/s ( ?ree or f\r maxims4 ,! fir/ is1 to obs]ve ! laws & cu/oms ( my c\ntry1 & con/antly to pres]ve ! religion 9 :i*1 by ! grace ( ,god1 ,i h be5 in/ruct$ f my infancy4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,aft] hav+ assur$ myself ( ^! maxims1 & laid !m aside ) ! tru?s ( fai? :i* h always be5 fir/ 9 my belief1 ,i judg$ t ,i might freely reject ! re/ ( my op9ions4--,disc\rs sur la ,m?ode1 ,p4 #c;ieme4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xix4 7#ai7 ,) respect to ! di/9ction betwe5 ! te/imony ( consci\sness & t ( evid5ce1 z 9 ! analysis ( ! proposition3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am2 !re c be no d\bt t ,desc>tes did n express himself ) suffici5t precision & exactness4 ,see1 = example1 ?is extract3 ,aft] ?is1 ,i consid]$ 9 g5]al :at is necess>y = a proposition to be true & c]ta92 =1 al?\gh ,i _h n yet met su* a "o1 ,i nev]!less ?\ght ,i ought to "k 9 :at ?is c]ta9ty consi/$2 & obs]v+ t 9 ! proposition1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 !re is no?+ to assure me ( its tru?1 except ! cle> p]ception t 9 ord] to ?9k ,i mu/ be1 ,i judg$ t ,i c\ld take x to be a g5]al rule t ?+s cle>ly & di/9ctly conceiv$ are all true2 only !re is "s difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ :at ?+s we d di/9ctly conceive4--,disc\rs sur la ,m?ode4 ,p>tie #dme4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xx4 7#bj7 ,! apodictical c]ta9ty ( :i* ,kant speaks 9 ! passage cit$1 is ! result ( ! intr9sic evid5ce ( ideas1 or1 9 o!r words1 x is :at ! s*oolm5 call$ metaphysical c]ta9ty4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 7#ba7 ,besides ! que/ions on ! pr9ciple ( contradiction z ! only f\ndation ( c]ta9ty1 !re are o!rs z to its sci5tific utility & importance4 ,we %all1 :5 we come to treat ( ! idea ( be+ 9 g5]al1 exam9e ^! po9ts at l5g?2 :]e=e we w n[ pass !m by4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 7#bb7 ,we see by a passage f ! f\r? "p ( ! ,disc\rse on ,me?od1 by ,desc>tes1 cit$ 9 note xv41 t besides ! pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 he admitt$ ! pr9ciple ( ! legitimacy ( evid5ce2 =1 ask+ :at is necess>y 9 ord] t a proposition may be true & c]ta91 he says1 t hav+ rem>k$ t if he 0 c]ta9 ( ! tru? ( ?is proposition 7,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am71 he 0 s only because he saw x to be s2 he believ$ t he c\ld take x to be a g5]al rule t ?+s kn[n cle>ly & di/9ctly are all true4 ,?is %[s two pr9ciples1 closely connect$1 al?\gh v unlike1 to ent] into ,desc>tes' sy/em4 ,! fir/ is ! fact ( consci\sness ( ?\ght2 ! second is ! g5]al rule ( ! legitimacy ( ! crit]ion ( evid5ce4 ,x is also to be rem>k$ t !re is "h "s confusion ( ideas1 :i* we h already po9t$ out4 ,x is n exact to say t ! pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 is evid5t3 ! evid5ce relates to ! consequ5ce2 b !re is1 prop]ly speak+1 no evid5ce ( ! act ( ?\ght1 except+ consci\sness4 ,evid5ce is a crit]ion1 b n ! only "o4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 7#bc7 ,:at we h said ( ! second proposition ( ?is *apt] is indep5d5t ( ! mode 9 :i* ! s\l & body ex]cise _! mutual influ5ce4 ,^! que/ions belong else:]e4 ,?is influ5ce is1 9 e sy/em1 a fact atte/$ by exp]i5ce2 & ?is is all t is ne$$ = :at we propose to e/abli% "h4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 7#bd7 ,= ! bett] und]/&+ ( :at we h said 9 ?is *apt] on evid5ce1 x w be well to consid] :at w be advanc$ 9 *apt]s ,,xxvi4 to ,,xxxi41 inclusive4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 7#be7 ,:at has be5 said 9 ?is *apt] %[s ! tru? ( :at we said 9 ! tw5ty-f\r? *apt]1 ^u ! connection ( ! diff]5t crit]ia1 & ! necessity ( n conf9+ "o's self to an exclusive philosophy4 ,consci\sness s]ves z ! basis ( ! o!r crit]ia1 z an indisp5sable fact2 b if we d5y ! o!rs1 we also d5y consci\sness4 ,,on ,,*apt]s ,,xxvi41 ,,xxvii41 ,,& ,,xxviii4 7#bf7 ,dugald ,/ew>t 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 7,p4 ,,ii41 ,c4 ,,ii41 ,section #c1 #b17 cites a passage f a diss]tation pr9t$ at ,b]l9 9 #agfd1 :i* does n appe> s unreasonable z he pret5ds4 ,we subjo9 x1 because ! ,g]man philosoph]'s op9ion seems to u ! same t we gave 9 ! text4 ,omnes ma!maticorum propositiones sunt id5tic et repres5tantur hac =mula1 ,a,a4 ,sunt v]itates id5tic1 sub v>ia =ma express1 imo ipsum quod dicitur contradictionis pr9cipium v>io modo enuntiatum et involutum2 si quidem omnes hujus g5]is propositiones rev]a 9 eo cont95tur4 ,secundum no/ram autem intellig5di facultatem ea e/ propositionum diff]5tia1 quod qudam longa ratioc9iorum s]ie1 alia autem breviore via1 ad primum omnium pr9cipiorum r$ucantur1 et 9 illud resolvantur4 ,sic4 v4 g4 propositio #bbd /atim huc c$it3 #aaaaaaaa2 id e/1 idem e/ idem2 et1 proprie loqu5do1 hoc modo enunti>i debet1--si cont+at adesse vel exi/]e quatuor entia1 tum exi/unt quatuor entia2 nam de exi/5tia non agunt geometr1 s$ ea hypo!tice tantum sub9telligitur4 ,inde summa oritur c]titudo ratioc9ia p]spici5ti2 obs]vat nempe ide>um id5titatem2 et hc e/ evid5tia ass5sum imm$iate cog5s1 quam ma!maticam aut geometricam vocamus4 ,ma!si tam5 sua natura priva non e/ et propria2 oritur et5im ex id5titatis p]ceptione1 qu locum hab]e pote/1 etiamsi ide non reprs5t5t ext5sum4 ,,on ,,*apt]s ,,xxx ,,& ,,xxxi4 7#bg7 ,we h %[n t ,dugald ,/ew>t _h p]haps 9 view ,vico's doctr9e2 b )\t wi%+ to br+ aga9/ him ! *>ge he br\ght aga9/ 8 ma/]1 ,reid1 t ( resuscitat+ ! doctr9es ( ! ,jesuit ,buffi]1 we w\ld1 9 ord] t ! read] may judge ) full k ( ! cause1 subjo9 a rem>kable extract f ! ,scot* philosoph]1 :i* w %[ co9cid5ce betwe5 "s ( 8 doctr9es & ^? ( ! ,neapolitan4 ,_h ,/ew>t read ,vico1 we are incl9$ to believe t he w\ld n h compla9$ ( ! confusion ) :i* v>i\s anci5t & mod]n au?ors h expla9$ ?is doctr9e4 ,! peculi>ity ( t species ( evid5ce :i* is call$ demon/rative1 & :i* s rem>kably di/+ui%es our ma!matical conclusions f ^? to :i* we are l$ 9 o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 is a fact :i* mu/ h arre/$ ! att5tion ( e p]son :o possesses ! slighte/ acqua9tance ) ! elem5ts ( geometry4 ,& yet1 ,i am d\btful if a satisfactory acc\nt has hi!rto be5 giv5 ( ! circum/ance 9 :i* x arises4 ,mr4 ,locke tells u1 t ':at con/itutes a demon/ration is intuitive evid5ce ( e /ep2' & ,i readily grant1 t if 9 a s+le /ep su* evid5ce %\ld fail1 ! o!r p>ts ( ! demon/ration w\ld be ( no value4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 seem to me t x is on ?is consid]ation t ! demon/rative evid5ce ( ! conclusion dep5ds1 n ev5 :5 we add to x ano!r :i* is mu* insi/$ on by ,dr4 ,reid1--t '9 demon/rative evid5ce our fir/ pr9ciples mu/ be intuitively c]ta94' ,! inaccuracy ( ?is rem>k ,i =m]ly po9t$ out :5 treat+ ( ! evid5ce ( axioms2 on :i* occasion ,i also obs]v$1 t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( our reason+s 9 ma!matics are n axioms1 b def9itions4 ,x is 9 ?is la/ circum/ance 7,i mean ! peculi>ity ( reason+ f def9itions7 t ! true !ory ( ma!matical demon/ration is to be f\nd2 & ,i %all accord+ly endeavor to expla9 x at consid]able l5g?1 & to /ate "s ( ! m important consequ5ces to :i* x leads4 ,t ,i may n1 h[ev]1 h ! appe>ance ( claim+1 9 behalf ( ! foll[+ discussion1 an undue %>e ( orig9ality1 x is necess>y = me to rem>k t ! lead+ idea :i* x conta9s has be5 repeat$ly />t$1 & ev5 to a c]ta9 l5g? prosecut$1 by diff]5t writ]s1 anci5t z well z mod]n2 b t1 9 all ( !m1 x has be5 s bl5d$ ) collat]al consid]ations1 al?\gh =eign to ! po9t 9 "q1 z to div]t ! att5tion bo? ( writ] & read]1 f t s+le pr9ciple on :i* ! solution ( ! problem h+es4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,x 0 already rem>k$1 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is "p1 t :]eas1 9 all o!r sci5ces1 ! propositions :i* we attempt to e/abli%1 express facts real or suppos$1--9 ma!matics1 ! propositions :i* we demon/rate only ass]t a connection betwe5 c]ta9 suppositions & c]ta9 consequ5ces4 ,our reason+s1 !re=e1 9 ma!matics1 are direct$ to an object ess5tially diff]5t f :at we h 9 view1 9 any o!r employm5t ( our intellectual faculties2--n to asc]ta9 tru?s ) respect to actual exi/5ces1 b to trace ! logical filiation ( consequ5ces :i* foll[ f an assum$ hypo!sis4 ,if1 f ?is hypo!sis1 we reason ) correctness1 no?+1 x is manife/1 c be want+ to complete ! evid5ce ( ! result2 z ?is result only ass]ts a necess>y connection betwe5 ! supposition & ! conclusion4 ,9 ! o!r sci5ces1 admitt+ t e ambiguity ( language 7 remov$1 & t e /ep ( our d$uctions 7 rigor\sly accurate1 our conclusions w\ld /ill be att5d$ ) m or less ( unc]ta9ty1 be+ ultimately f\nd$ on pr9ciples :i* may1 or may n1 correspond exactly ) ! fact4 7,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d4 ,p4 ,,ii41 ,c4 ,,ii41 ,s4 #c1 #a47 ,?is is exactly ,vico's doctr9e ( ! cause ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! degrees ( evid5ce & c]ta9ty2 al?\gh he makes a g5]al sy/em1 9 ord] to expla9 ! problem ( intellig5ce1 :at ! ,scot*man only assigns z a fact to %[ ! reason ( ma!matical evid5ce4 ,pre ,buffi] 7,trait4 des prem4 ,vrits1 ,p4 ,i41 ,c4 ,,ii47 expla9s ! same ?+ ) great cle>ness4 ,we h said t1 consid]+ ! indefatigable labori\sness :i* di/+ui%es ! ,g]mans1 x w\ld n be /range if !y _h read ! s*ola/ics4 ,9 confirmation ( ?is1 we notice t ,leibnitz urg5tly recomm5ds ! read+ ( !m1 & ! m mod]n ,g]mans are n likely to =get ! advice ( s able an au?or4 ,among v>i\s passages ( ,leibnitz1 we select ! foll[+ extract1 because x seems to u r curi\s3 ,tru? is m spread ?an "o w\ld believe2 b x is (t5 color$1 also (t5 cov]$ ov]1 & ev5 weak5$1 mutilat$1 & corrupt$ by additions :i* spoil x1 or r5d] x less useful4 ,by obs]v+ ! traces ( tru? 9 ! anci5ts1 or1 to speak m g5]ally1 9 all :o h prec$$ u1 we dig gold f dirt1 & draw ! diamond f its m9e1 light f d>kness1 & ?is w\ld really be p]5nis qudam ,philosophia4 ,x may ev5 be said t "s progress w\ld be obs]vable 9 k4 ,! ,ori5tals h great & beautiful ideas ( ! ,div9ity2 ! ,greeks add$ reason+ & a =m ( sci5ce2 ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* reject$ :atev] 0 bad 9 ,greek philosophy2 b ! s*ola/ics labor$ to usefully employ :atev] 0 acceptable 9 ,pagan philosophy4 ,i h frequ5tly said3 aurum lat]e 9 /]core illo s*ola/ico b>b>iei1 & ,i wi% we c\ld f9d "s "o v]s$ 9 ! ,iri% & ,spani% philosophy1 to cull f x :at is good2 ,i am sure he w\ld f9d 8 labor repaid by _m & beautiful tru?s4 ,!re 0 once a ,swiss :o ma!matiz$ s*ola/ically2 8 works are b little kn[n2 al?\gh1 f :at ,i h se5 ( !m1 ,i %\ld judge !m to be pr(\nd & wor?y ( consid]ation4 7,lettre #c;ieme ,m4 ,remond de ,montmort47 ,?us speaks ,leibnitz1 "o ( ! mo/ em95t m5 ( mod]n times1 & ( :om ,font5elle said3 ,he l$ ! van 9 all ! sci5ces4 ,see1 !n1 if he 0 wrong 9 recomm5d+ ! /udy ( ^? au?ors to all desir\s ( acquir+ a pr(\nd k ( philosophy4 ,?is /udy1 sett+ aside its intr9sic utility1 is ( great advantage 9 judg+1 ) k ( ! cause1 a s*ool1 :i*1 :atev] its wor?1 occupies a page 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 7#bh7,! au?or to :om ,i allude 7#cag7 is ,f5elon1 :o1 "u ! "n ( common s5se1 includes also ! crit]ion ( evid5ce1 z may be se5 by ?is extract3 ,:at is common s5se8 ,does x n consi/ 9 ! fir/ notions :i* all m5 h ( ! same ?+s8 ,?is common s5se1 :i* always & ev]y:]e is ! same1 :i* prec$es all exam9ation1 & ev5 holds x 9 ridicule on c]ta9 que/ions1 9 :i* "o laughs in/ead ( exam9+2 :i* r5d]s man unable to d\bt1 no matt] h[ great 8 ef=ts may be2 ?is s5se :i* belongs to all m51 :i* only waits to be consult$ 9 ord] to discov] itself & %[ u ! evid5ce or ! absurdity ( ! "q1 is n ?is :at ,i call my ideas8 ,"h1 !n1 are ^! g5]al ideas or notions :i* ,i _c contradict or exam9e1 b accord+ to :i* ,i exam9e & judge e ?+1 s t1 in/ead ( reply+1 ,i laugh :5 any ?+ is propos$ cle>ly 9 opposition to :at ^! immutable ideas repres5t4--,exi/5ce de ,dieu1 ,p4 ,,ii41 v4 #cc4 ,!re is no d\bt t ,f5elon speaks ( evid5ce 9 ?is extract1 s9ce1 besides us+ ?is v t]m1 he ref]s to immutable ideas2 by common s5se he und]/&s ! g5]al ideas by :i* we judge ( all ?+s1 or 9 o!r words1 ! ideas f :i* evid5ce proce$s4 ,,note ,,to ,,book ,,second4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,ii4 7#bi7 ,! immat]iality ( ! s\ls ( brutes is n a discov]y ( mod]n philosophy1 ! s*ola/ics ma9ta9$ x1 & c>ri$ _! ideas on ?is subject s f> z to ass]t t no vital pr9ciple c be a body4 ,9 ?is s5se !y taught t ev5 ! pr9ciple ( life1 or ! s\l ( plants1 0 some?+ sup]ior to ! body4 ,/4 ,?omas 7,p4 ,i41 ,q4 ,,lxxv41 ,a4 ,i47 asks1 9 g5]al1 if ! s\l is a body3 ,utrum anima sit corpus1 & answ]s z foll[s3 ,respondeo dic5dum1 quod ad inquir5dum de natura anim1 oportet prsuppon]e1 quod anima dicitur esse primum pr9cipium vit1 9 iis qu apud nos vivunt4 ,animata enim viv5tia dicimus1 res v]o inanimatas vita c>5tes2 vita autem maxime manife/atur duplici op]e1 scilicet cognitionis1 et motus4 ,horum autem pr9cipium antiqui philosophi imag9ationem transc5d]e non val5tes1 aliquod corpus ponebant1 sola corpora res esse dic5tes1 et quod non e/ corpus1 nihil esse1 et secundum hoc1 animam aliquod corpus esse dicebant4 ,hujus autem op9ionis falsitas1 licet multiplicit] o/5di possit1 tam5 uno utemur1 quo etiam communius et c]tius patet animam corpus non esse4 ,manife/um e/ enim1 quod non quodcumque vitalis op]ationis pr9cipium e/ anima2 sic enim oculus esset anima1 cum sit quoddam pr9cipium visionis1 et idem esset dic5dum de aliis anim in/rum5tis3 s$ primum pr9cipium vit dicimus esse animam4 ,quamvis autem aliquod corpus possit esse quoddam pr9cipium vit1 sicut cor e/ pr9cipium vit 9 animali2 tam5 non pote/ esse primum pr9cipium vit aliquod corpus4 ,manife/um e/ enim1 quod esse pr9cipium vit1 vel viv5s1 non conv5it corpori ex hoc quod e/ corpus1 alioqu9 omne corpus esset viv5s1 aut pr9cipium vit1 conv5it igitur alicui corpori quod sit viv5s1 vel etiam pr9cipium vit1 p] hoc quod e/ tale corpus4 ,quod autem e/ actu tale1 habet hoc ab aliquo pr9cipio1 quod dicitur actus ejus4 ,anima igitur qu e/ primum pr9cipium vit1 non e/ corpus1 s$ corporis actus1 sicut calor qui e/ pr9cipium calefactionis1 non e/ corpus1 s$ quidam corporis actus4 ,not)/&+ ?is doctr9e1 x might /ill be d\bt$ :e!r matt] does n ent] z a compon5t elem5t 9 ! s\l1 al?\gh ! s\l itself is n corporeal1 &1 !re=e1 ! holy doctor 7,ib41 ,a4 #e7 asks if ! s\l is compos$ ( matt] & =m2 & "h he is speak+ ( ! s\l 9 g5]al z ! pr9ciple ( life1 & n ( ! intellectual s\l alone4 ,he answ]s 9 ! negative1 z foll[s3 ,respondeo dic5dum1 quod anima non habet mat]iam1 et hoc pote/ consid]>i duplicit]4 ,primo quidem1 ex ratione anim 9 communi1 e/ enim de ratione anim1 quod sit =ma alicujus corporis4 ,aut igitur e/ =ma secundum se totam1 aut secundum aliquam p>tem sui4 ,si secundum se totam1 impossibile e/ quod p>s ejus sit mat]ia1 si dicatur mat]ia aliquid ejus 9 pot5tia tantum1 quia =ma1 9 quantum =ma1 e/ actus4 ,id autem quod e/ 9 pot5tia tantum1 non pote/ esse p>s actus1 cum pot5tia repugnet actui1 utpote contra actum divisa4 ,si autem sit =ma secundum aliquam p>tem sui1 illam p>tem dicemus esse animam1 et illam mat]iam cujus primo e/ actus1 dicemus esse primum animatum4 ,secundo specialit] ex ratione human anim1 9 quantum e/ intellectiva4 ,al?\gh ^! passages are cle> en\gh1 !re is ano!r :]e x is expressly ass]t$ t ! s\ls ( p]fect animals are absolutely indivisible1 s t division c be pr$icat$ ( !m nei!r p] se nor p] accid5s4 ,he asks1 7,q4 ,,lxxvi41 art4 #h17 if ! s\l 9 g5]al is 9 any "p ( ! body2 & he answ]s1 yes3 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ess5tial & quantitative totality3 ,s$ =ma1 qu requirit div]sitatem 9 p>tibus1 sicut e/ anima1 et prcipue animalium p]fectorum1 non equalit] se habet ad totum et ad p>tes2 unde non dividitur p] accid5s1 scilicet p] divisionem quantitatis4 ,sic ergo totalitas quantitativa1 non pote/ attribui anim1 nec p] se1 nec p] accid5s4 ,s$ totalitas secunda1 qu att5ditur secundum rationis et ess5ti p]fectionem1 proprie et p] se1 conv5it =mis4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t ?is doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas met ) opposition1 f "s p]sons :o c\ld n conceive h[ ! s\l ( brutes c\ld be inext5sive1 z !y reg>d$ ?is z ! exclusive prop]ty ( ! intellectual s\l4 ,c>d9al ,gaetano1 9 8 comm5ts on ,/4 ,?omas1 und]takes 8 def5ce4 ,he %[s t he und]/ood ! doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas conc]n+ ! indivisibility ( ! s\ls ( brutes1 9 its /ricte/ s5se4 ,he gives ! objection 9 ! foll[+ words3 ,dubium secundo e/ circa c&em totalitatem quoniam ,s4 ,?omas a communi op9ione discord>e videtur hoc 9 loco1 eo quod ponat prt] animam intellectivam1 aliquam aliam =mam 9 mat]ia inext5sam1 scilicet animam s5sitivam animalium p]fectorum1 cum tam5 vix possit su/9]i1 quod anima intellectiva de =is v5i5s1 in=met secundum esse1 et sit inext5sa4 ,in/ead ( m or less plausible int]pretations ( ! text 9 ord] to solve ! objection1 ! le>n$ comm5tator boldly ma9ta9s ! indivisibility ( ! s\ls ( brutes1 & treats almo/ ) contempt ^? :o ?9k diff]5tly3 ,ad secundum dubium dicitur1 quod doctr9a hic tradita1 e/ quidem contra mod]norum communem phantasiam1 s$ non contra philosophicas rationes1 p>um e/ autem de horum auc?oritate cur&um4 ,cum autem dicitur1 quod s9e ratione hoc e/ dictum1 respondetur quod ratio ins9uata e/ a po/]iori1 quia scilicet div]sam totalit] habet habitud9em ad totum et p>tem ipsa =ma ex propria ratione4 ,si enim habet totalit] div]sam habitud9em ad totum et ad p>tes1 hoc prov5it ex indivisibilitate =m4 ,quia si divid]etur =ma ad divisionem totius1 jam p>s =m proportion>etur p>ti corporis1 et cum p>s quantitativa =m sit tota ess5tia =m1 ergo ipsa =ma secundum rationem su ess5ti non habet totalit] div]sam habitud9em ad totum et ad p>tes3 s$ utrumque1 scilicet tam totum quam p>tem respicit1 ut proportionatum p]fectible4 ,et confirm>i pote/ i/a ratio1 quia =ma ext5sa ex vi solius divisionis1 non des9it esse secundum illam p>tem quam habet 9 p>te decisa3 imo qu quodammodo erat p] modum pot5ti1 p]ficitur1 et fit actu seorsum1 ut patet 9 =mis naturalibus1 ergo a de/ructione consequ5tis1 si ex sola divisione p>s decisa non pote/ ret9]e e&em speciem1 ergo non erat ext5sa et divisibilis ad divisionem subjecti4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,non e/ ergo s9e ratione dictum1 quod anim aliqu prt] intellectivam sunt tant p]fectionis quod sunt inext5s1 tam p] se quam p] accid5s3 quamquam pot5ti omnes e>um s9t ext5s p] accid5s3 qualitates enim1 sunt corporis p>tibus accommodat4 ,,notes ,,to ,,book ,,?ird4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,x4 7#cj7 ,leibnitz & ,cl>ke _h a v int]e/+ dispute on space1 f :i* ,i %all extract a few passages4 ,leibnitz wrote a lett] to ! ,pr9cess ( ,wales1 9 :i* he repeat$ ! expression ( ,newton1 t space 0 ! organ :i* ,god uses 9 8 s5sations ( ?+s4 ,leibnitz argu$ aga9/ ?is op9ion1 t if ,god1 9 ord] to p]ceive ?+s1 ne$s any m$ium1 !y d n dep5d entirely on him1 & are n produc$ by him4 ,cl>ke ,answ]$3 ,m4 le *evali] ,newton ne dit pas que l'espace e/ l'organe dont ,dieu se s]t p\r ap]cevoir les *oses2 il ne dit pas non plus que ,dieu ait beso9 d'aucun moy5 p\r les ap]cevoir4 ,au contraire1 il dit que ,dieu1 tant prs5t p>t\t1 ap]oit les *oses p> sa prs5ce immdiate1 dans t\t l'espace o elles sont1 sans l'int]v5tion ou le sec\rs d'aucun organe ou d'aucun moy54 ,p\r r5dre cela plus intelligible1 il l'claircit p> une comp>aison4 ,il dit que comme l'me1 tant immdiatem5t prs5te aux images qui se =m5t dans le c]veau p> le moy5 des organes des s5s1 voit ces images comme si elles tai5t les *oses mmes qu'elles reprs5t5t2 de mme ,dieu voit t\t p> sa prs5ce immdiate1 tant actuellem5t prs5t aux *oses mmes1 t\tes les *oses qui sont dans l'univ]s1 comme l'me e/ prs5te t\tes les images qui se =m5t dans le c]veau4 ,m4 ,newton considre le c]veau et les organes des s5s comme le moy5 p> lequel ces images sont =mes1 et non comme le moy5 p> lequel l'me voit ou ap]oit ces images lorsqu'elles sont a9si =mes4 ,et dans l'univ]s il ne considre pas les *oses comme si elles tai5t des images =mes p> un c]ta9 moy5 ou p> des organes1 mais comme des *oses relles que ,dieu lui-mme a =mes et qu'il voit dans t\s les lieux o elles sont sans l'int]v5tion d'aucun moy54 ,c'e/ t\t ce que ,m4 ,newton a v\lu dire p> la comp>aison dont il s'e/ s]vi lorsqu'il suppose que l'espace inf9i e/1 p\r a9si dire1 le s5sorium de l',etre qui e/ prs5t p>t\t4 ,leibnitz ,repli$3 ,il se tr\ve expressm5t dans l'app5dice de l',optique de ,m4 ,newton que l'espace e/ le s5sorium de ,dieu4 ,or le mot s5sorium a t\j\rs signifi l'organe de la s5sation4 ,p]mis lui et ses amis de s'expliqu] ma9t5ant t\t autrem5t1 je ne m'y oppose pas4 ,on suppose que la prs5ce de l'me suffit p\r qu'elle s'ap]oive de se qui se passe dans le c]veau2 mais c'e/ ju/em5t ce que le ,p4 ,malebran*e et t\te l'cole c>tsi5ne ni5t et ont raison de ni]4 ,il faut t\te autre *ose que la seule prs5ce p\r qu'une *ose reprs5te ce qui se passe dans l'autre4 ,il faut p\r cela quelque communication explicable1 quelque manire d'influ5ce4 ,l'espace1 selon ,m4 ,newton1 e/ intimem5t prs5t au corps qu'il conti5t1 et qui e/ comm5sur avec lui2 s'ensuit-il p\r cela que l'espace s'ap]oive de ce qui se passe dans le corps1 et qu'il s'en s\vi5ne aprs que le corps en s]a sorti8 ,outre que l'me tant indivisible1 sa prs5ce immdiate1 qu'on p\rrait s'imag9] dans le corps1 ne s]ait que dans un po9t4 ,comm5t donc s'ap]cevrait-elle de ce qui se fait hors de ce po9t8 ,je prt5ds d'tre le premi] qui ait montr comm5t l'me s'ap]oit de ce qui se passe dans le corps4 ,la raison p\rquoi ,dieu s'ap]oit de t\t n'e/ pas sa simple prs5ce1 mais encore son opration2 c'e/ p>ce qu'il cons]ve les *oses p> une action qui produit cont9uellem5t ce qu'il y a de bont et de p]fection en elles4 ,mais les mes n'ayant po9t d'influ5ce immdiate sur les corps1 ni les corps sur les mes1 leur correspondance mutuelle ne saurait tre explique p> la prs5ce4 ,cl>ke ,answ]$3 ,le mot de s5sorium ne signifie pas proprem5t l'organe1 mais le lieu de la s5sation4 ,l'il1 l'oreille1 etc41 sont des organes1 mais ce ne sont pas des s5soria4 ,d'ailleurs ,m4 le *evali] ,newton ne dit pas que l'espace e/ un s5sorium1 mais qu'il e/ 7p> voie de comp>aison7 p\r a9si dire le s5sorium1 etc4 ,on n'a jamais suppos que la prs5ce de l'me suffit p\r la p]ception2 on a dit seulem5t que cette prs5ce e/ ncessaire af9 que l'me ap]oive4 ,si l'me n'tait pas prs5te aux images des *oses qui sont ap]ues1 elle ne p\rrait pas les ap]cevoir2 mais sa prs5ce ne suffit pas1 mo9s qu'elle ne soit aussi une sub/ance vivante4 ,les sub/ances inanimes1 quoique prs5tes1 n'ap]oiv5t ri52 et une sub/ance vivante n'e/ capable de p]ception que dans le lieu o elle e/ prs5te2 soit aux *oses mmes1 comme ,dieu e/ prs5t t\t l'univ]s2 soit aux images des *oses1 comme l'me leur e/ prs5te dans son s5sorium4 ,il e/ impossible qu'une *ose agisse ou que quelque sujet agisse sur elle dans un lieu o elle n'e/ pas prs5te1 comme il e/ impossible qu'elle soit dans un lieu o elle n'e/ pas4 ,quoique l'me soit indivisible1 il ne s'ensuit pas qu'elle n'e/ prs5te que dans un seul po9t4 ,l'espace f9i ou inf9i es absolum5t indivisible1 mme p> la p5se2 c> on ne peut s'imag9] que ses p>ties se sp>5t l'une de l'autre sans s'imag9] qu'elles sort5t1 p\r a9si dire1 hors d'elle-mmes2 et cep5dant l'espace n'e/ pas un simple po9t4 ,dieu n'ap]oit pas les *oses p> sa simple prs5ce1 ni p>ce qu'il agit sur elles1 mais p>ce qu'il e/ non-seulem5t p>t\t1 mais encore un tre vivant et intellig5t4 ,on doit dire la mme *ose de l'me1 dans sa petite sphre1 ce n'e/ po9t p> sa simple prs5ce1 mais p>ce qu'elle e/ une sub/ance vivante1 qu'elle ap]oit les images auxquelles elle e/ prs5te1 et qu'elle ne saurait ap]cevoir sans leur tre prs5te4 ,reply ( ,leibnitz4 ,ces messieurs s\ti5n5t donc que l'espace e/ un tre rel absolu2 mais cela les mne de gr&es difficults1 c> il p>at que cet tre doit tre t]nel et inf9i4 ,c'e/ p\rquoi il y en a qui out cru que c'tait ,dieu lui-mme1 ou bi5 son attribut1 son imm5sit4 ,mais comme il a des p>ties1 ce n'e/ pas une *ose qui puisse conv5ir ,dieu4 ,p\r moi1 j'ai m>qu plus d'une fois que je t5ais l'espace p\r quelque *ose de purem5t relatif1 comme le temps1 p\r un ordre des coexi/5ces1 comme le temps e/ un ordre de successions4 ,c> l'espace m>que1 en t]ms de possibilit1 un ordre des *oses qui exi/5t en mme temps1 en tant qu'elles exi/5t ensemble1 sans entr] dans leurs manires d'exi/]4 ,et lorsqu'on voit plusieurs *oses ensemble1 on s'ap]oit de cet ordre des *oses entre elles4 ,p\r rfut] l'imag9ation de ceux qui pr5n5t l'espace p\r une sub/ance1 ou du mo9s p\r quelque tre absolu1 j'ai plusieurs dmon/rations2 mais je ne veux me s]vir prs5t que de celle dont on me f\rnit ici l'occasion4 ,je dis donc que si l'espace tait un tre absolu1 il arriv]ait quelque *ose dont il s]ait impossible qu'il y et une raison suffisante1 ce qui e/ contre notre axiome4 ,voici comm5t je le pr\ve4 ,l'espace e/ quelque *ose d'uni=me absolum5t2 et sans les *oses y places1 un po9t de l'espace ne diffre absolum5t en ri5 d'un autre po9t de l'espace4 ,or il suit de cela 7suppos que l'espace soit quelque *ose en lui-mme outre l'ordre des corps entre eux7 qu'il e/ impossible qu'il y ait une raison p\rquoi ,dieu1 g>dant les mmes situations des corps entre eux1 ait plac les corps dans l'espace a9si et non autrem5t2 et p\rquoi t\t n'a pas t pris reb\rs 7p> exemple71 p> un *ange de l'ori5t et de l'occid5t4 ,mais si l'espace n'e/ autre *ose que cet ordre ou rapport1 et n'e/ ri5 du t\t sans les corps1 que la possibilit1 d'en mettre1 ces deux tats1 l'un tel qu'il e/1 l'autre suppos reb\rs1 ne diffr]ai5t po9t entre eux4 ,leur diffr5ce ne se tr\ve donc que dans notre supposition *imrique de la ralit de l'espace en lui-mme4 ,mais dans la vrit1 l'un s]ait ju/em5t la mme *ose que l'autre1 comme ils sont absolum5t indisc]nables2 et p> consqu5t il n'y a pas lieu de dem&] la raison de la prfr5ce de l'un l'autre4 ,il en e/ de mme du temps4 ,suppos que quelqu'un dem&e p\rquoi ,dieu n'a pas t\t cr un an plus tt1 et que ce mme p]sonnage veuille infr] de l que ,dieu a fait quelque *ose dont il n'e/ pas possible qu'il y ait une raison p\rquoi il a fait a9si plutt qu'autrem5t3 on lui rpondrait que son illation s]ait vraie1 si le temps tait quelque *ose1 hors des *oses temporelles2 c> il s]ait impossible qu'il y et des raisons p\rquoi les *oses euss5t t appliques plutt de tels in/ants qu' d'autres1 leur succession demeurant la mme4 ,mais cela mme pr\ve que les in/ants hors des *oses ne sont ri51 et qu'ils ne consi/5t que dans leur ordre successif2 lequel demeurant le mme1 l'un des deux tats1 comme celui de l'anticipation imag9e1 ne diffrait en ri51 et ne saurait tre disc]n de l'autre qui e/ ma9t5ant4444 ,il s]a difficile de n\s faire accroire que1 dans l'usage ord9aire1 s5sorium ne signifie pas l'organe de la s5sation4444 ,la simple prs5ce d'une sub/ance mme anime ne suffit pas p\r la p]ception2 un aveugle et mme un di/rait ne voit po9t4 ,il faut expliqu] comm5t l'me s'ap]oit de ce qui e/ hors d'elle4 ,dieu n'e/ pas prs5t aux *oses p> situation1 mais p> ess5ce2 sa prs5ce se manife/e p> son opration immdiate4 ,la prs5ce de l'me e/ t\te d'une autre nature4 ,dire qu'elle e/ diffuse p> le corps1 c'e/ la r5dre t5due et divisible2 dire qu'elle e/ t\t entire en *aque p>tie de quelque corps1 c'e/ la r5dre divisible d'elle-mme4 ,l'atta*] un po9t1 la rp&re p> plusieurs po9ts1 t\t cela ne sont qu'expressions abusives1 ,idola ,tribus4 ,cl>ke's ,answ]3 ,il e/ indubitable que ri5 n'exi/e sans qu'il y ait une raison suffisante de son exi/5ce1 et que ri5 n'exi/e d'une c]ta9e manire plutt que d'une autre1 sans qu'il y ait aussi une raison suffisante de cette manire d'exi/]4 ,mais l'g>d des *oses qui sont indiffr5tes en elles-mmes1 la simple volont e/ une raison suffisante p\r leur donn] l'exi/5ce1 ou p\r les faire exi/] d'une c]ta9e manire2 et cette volont n'a pas beso9 d'tre dt]m9e p] une cause trangre4444 ,l'espace n'e/ pas une sub/ance1 un tre t]nel et inf9i1 mais une proprit ou une suite de l'exi/5ce d'un tre inf9i et t]nel4 ,l'espace inf9i e/ l'imm5sit mais l'imm5sit n'e/ pas ,dieu2#fj donc l'espace inf9i n'e/ pas ,dieu4 ,ce que l'on dit ici de l'espace n'e/ po9t une difficult4 ,l'espace inf9i e/ absolum5t et ess5tiellem5t indivisible1 et c'e/ une contradiction dans les t]mes que de suppos] qu'il soit divis2 c> il faudrait qu'il y et un espace entre les p>ties que l'on suppose diviss2 ce qui e/ suppos] que l'espace e/ divis et non divis en mme temps4#fa 444 #fj ,9 ?is proposition ,cl>ke is ei!r inexact & obscure1 or else he falls into a s]i\s error4 ,! imm5sity ( ,god is ,god himself4 ,e attribute ( ,god is ,god4 #fa ,"h ,cl>ke conf\nds divisibility ) sep>ability4 ,see *apt]s ,x4 & ,,xi4 ( ?is book4 ,il ne s'agit pas de savoir ce que ,gocl5ius#fb ent5d p> le mot de s5sorium1 mais en quel s5s ,m4 le *evali] ,newton s'e/ s]vi de ce mot dans son livre4 ,si ,gocl5ius croit que l'il1 l'oreille1 ou quelque autre organe des s5s e/ le s5sorium1 il se trompe4 ,mais qu& un auteur emploie un t]me d'art et qu'il dcl>e en quel s5s il s'en s]t1 quoi bon re*]*] de quelle manire d'autres criva9s ont ent5du ce mme t]me8 ,scapula traduit le mot dont il s'agit ici1 domicilium1 c'e/--dire le lieu ou l'me rside4 #fb ,gocl5ius is ! au?or ( a philosophical diction>y quot$ by ,leibnitz4 ,reply ( ,leibnitz3 ,si l'espace inf9i e/ l'imm5sit1 l'espace f9i s]a l'oppos de l'imm5sit1 c'e/--dire la m5surabilit ou l't5due borne4 ,or l't5due doit tre l'affection d'un t5du4 ,mais si cet espace e/ vide1 il s]a un attribut sans sujet1 une t5due d'aucun t5du4 ,c'e/ p\rquoi1 en faisant de l'espace une proprit1 l'on tombe dans mon s5tim5t1 qui le fait un ordre des *oses et non pas quelque *ose d'absolu4 ,si l'espace e/ une ralit absolue1 bi5 lo9 d'tre une proprit ou accid5talit oppose la sub/ance1 il s]a plus subsi/ant que les sub/ances4 ,dieu ne le saurait dtruire1 ni mme *ang] en ri54 ,il e/ non-seulem5t imm5se dans le t\t1 mais encore immuable et t]nel en *aque p>tie4 ,il y aura une inf9it de *oses t]nelles hors de ,dieu4 ,dire que l'espace inf9i e/ sans p>ties1 c'e/ dire que les espaces f9is ne le compos5t po9t1 et que l'espace inf9i p\rrait subsi/] qu& t\s les espaces f9is s]ai5t rduits ri54 ,ce s]ait comme si l'on disait1 dans la supposition c>tsi5ne1 d'un univ]s t5du sans bornes1 que cet univ]s p\rrait subsi/] qu& t\s les corps qui le compos5t s]ai5t rduits ri5 444 ,je s]ais bi5 aise de voir le passage d'un philosophe qui pr5ne s5sorium autrem5t que ,gocl5ius4 ,si ,scapula dit que s5sorium e/ la place o l'ent5dem5t rside1 il ent5dra l'organe de la s5sation int]ne2 a9si il ne s'loign]a po9t de ,gocl5ius4 ,s5sorium a t\j\rs t l'organe de la s5sation4 ,la gl&e p9ale s]ait1 selon ,desc>tes1 le s5sorium dans le s5s qu'on rapporte de ,scapula4 ,il n'y a gure d'expression mo9s conv5able sur se sujet que celle qui donne ,dieu un s5sorium3 il semble qu'elle le fait l'me du monde4 ,et on aurait bi5 de la pe9e donn] l'usage que ,m4 ,newton fait de ce mot un s5s qui le puisse ju/ifi]4 ,cl>ke's ,answ]3 ,on revi5t encore ici l'usage du mot de s5sorium1 quoique ,m4 ,newton se soit s]vi d'un correctif lorsqu'il a employ ce mot4 ,il n'e/ pas ncessaire de ri5 aj\t] ce que j'ai dit sur cela 444 ,l'espace de/itu de corps e/ une proprit d'une sub/ance immatrielle2 l'espace n'e/ pas born p> les corps1 mais il exi/e galem5t dans les corps et hors des corps4 ,l'espace n'e/ pas r5f]m entre les corps2 mais les corps tant dans l'espace imm5se sont eux-mmes borns p> leurs propres dim5sions4 ,l'espace vide n'e/ pas un attribut sans sujet2 c> p> cet espace n\s n'ent5dons pas un espace o il n'y a ri51 mais un espace sans corps4 ,dieu e/ c]ta9em5t prs5t dans t\t l'espace vide1 et peut-tre qu'il y a aussi dans cet espace plusieurs autres sub/ances qui ne sont pas matrielles1 et qui p> consqu5t ne peuv5t tre tangibles ni ap]ues p> aucun de nos s5s4 ,l'espace n'e/ pas une sub/ance1 mais un attribut2 et si c'e/ un attribut d'un tre ncessaire1 il doit 7comme t\s les autres attributs d'un tre ncessaire7 exi/] plus ncessairem5t que les sub/ances mmes1 qui ne sont pas ncessaires4 ,l'espace e/ imm5se1 immuable et t]nel2 et l'on doit dire la mme *ose de la dure4 ,mais il ne s'ensuit pas de l qu'il n'y ait ri5 d't]nel hors de ,dieu1 c> l'espace et la dure ne sont pas hors de ,dieu1 ce sont des suites immdiates et ncessaires de son exi/5ce1 sans lesquelles il ne s]ait po9t t]nel et prs5t p>t\t4 ,les inf9is ne sont composs de f9is que comme les f9is sont composs d'inf9itsimes2 j'ai fait voir ci-dessus en quel s5s on peut dire que l'espace a des p>ties ou qu'il n'en a pas4 ,les p>ties dans le s5s que l'on donne ce mot1 lorsqu'on l'applique au corps1 sont sp>ables1 composes1 dsunies1 indp5dantes les unes des autres et capables de m\vem5t4 ,mais quoique l'imag9ation puisse en quelque manire concevoir des p>ties dans l'espace inf9i1 cep5dant1 comme ces p>ties1 improprem5t a9si dites1 sont ess5tiellem5t immobiles et insp>ables les unes des autres1 il s'ensuit que cet espace e/ ess5tiellem5t simple et absolum5t indivisible4#fc #fc ,"h ,cl>ke falls aga9 into ! confusion we h spok5 (1 & mak+ divisibility ! same ?+ z sep>ability1 he ass]ts contradictory propositions4 ,reply ( ,leibnitz3 ,comme j'avais object que l'espace pris p\r quelque *ose de rel et d'absolu1 sans les corps1 s]ait une *ose t]nelle1 impassible1 indp5dante de ,dieu1 on a t* d'lud] cette difficult en disant que l'espace e/ une proprit de ,dieu4 ,j'ai oppos cela1 dans mon crit prcd5t1 que la proprit de ,dieu e/ l'imm5sit2 mais que l'espace1 qui e/ s\v5t comm5sur avec les corps1 et l'imm5sit de ,dieu1 n'e/ pas la mme *ose4 ,j'ai encore object que1 si l'espace e/ une proprit1 et si l'espace inf9i e/ l'imm5sit de ,dieu1 l'espace f9i s]a l't5due ou la m5surabilit de quelque *ose f9ie4 ,a9si l'espace occup p> un corps s]a l't5due de ce corps1 *ose absurde1 puisqu'un corps peut *ang] d'espace1 mais qu'il ne peut po9t quitt] son t5due4 ,j'ai encore dem&3 si l'espace e/ une proprit1 de quelle *ose s]a donc la proprit1 un espace vuide born1 tel qu'on s'imag9e dans le rcipi5t puis air8 ,il ne p>at po9t raisonnable de dire que cet espace vuide1 rond ou qu>r1 soit une proprit de ,dieu4 ,s]a-ce donc peut-tre la proprit de quelques sub/ances immatrielles1 t5dues1 imag9aires1 qu'on se figure 7se semble7 dans les espaces imag9aires8 ,si l'espace e/ la proprit ou l'affection de la sub/ance qui e/ dans l'espace1 le mme espace s]a tantt l'affection d'un corps1 tantt d'un autre corps1 tantt d'une sub/ance immatrielle1 tantt1 peut-tre1 de ,dieu1 qu& il e/ vuide de t\te autre sub/ance matrielle ou immatrielle4 ,mais voil une trange proprit ou affection1 qui passe de sujet en sujet4 ,les sujets quitt]ont a9si leurs accid5ts comme un habit1 af9 que d'autres sujets s'en puiss5t revtir4 ,aprs cela comm5t di/+u]a-t-on les accid5ts et les sub/ances8 ,que si les espaces borns qui y sont1 et si l'espace inf9i e/ la proprit de ,dieu1 il faut 7*ose trange7 que la proprit de ,dieu soit compose des affections des cratures2 c> t\s les espaces f9is1 pris ensemble1 compos5t l'espace inf9i4 ,que si l'on nie que l'espace born soit une affection des *oses bornes1 il ne s]a pas raisonnable non plus que l'espace inf9i soit l'affection ou la proprit d'une *ose inf9ie4 ,j'avais ins9u t\tes ces difficults dans mon crit prcd5t1 mais il ne p>at po9t qu'on ait t* d'y satisfaire4 ,j'ai encore d'autres raisons contre l'trange imag9ation que l'espace e/ une proprit de ,dieu4 ,si cela e/1 l'espace entre dans l'ess5ce de ,dieu4 ,or l'espace a des p>ties2 donc il y aurait des p>ties dans l'ess5ce de ,dieu1 spectatum admissi4 ,de plus des espaces sont tantt vuides1 tantt remplis2 donc il y aura dans l'ess5ce de ,dieu des p>ties tantt vuides1 tantt remplies1 et p> consqu5t sujettes un *angem5t p]ptuel4 ,les corps remplissant l'espace remplirai5t une p>tie de l'ess5ce de ,dieu1 et y s]ai5t comm5surs2 et1 dans la supposition du vuide1 une p>tie de l'ess5ce s]a dans le rcipi5t4 ,ce dieu p>ties ressembl]a =t au dieu /oci51 qui tait l'univ]s enti]1 considr comme un animal div94 ,si l'espace inf9i e/ l'imm5sit de ,dieu1 le temps inf9i s]a l't]nit de ,dieu2 il faudra donc dire que ce qui e/ dans l'espace e/ dans l'imm5sit de ,dieu1 et p> consqu5t dans son ess5ce2 et que ce qui e/ dans le temps e/ dans l't]nit de ,dieu4 ,phrases tranges1 et qui font bi5 connatre qu'on abuse des t]mes4 ,en voici encore une autre in/ance4 ,l'imm5sit de ,dieu fait que ,dieu e/ dans t\s les espaces4 ,mais si ,dieu e/ dans l'espace1 comm5t peut-on dire que l'espace e/ en ,dieu1 ou qu'il e/ sa proprit8 ,on a bi5 ou dire que la proprit soit dans le sujet2 mais on n'a jamais ou dire que le sujet soit dans la proprit4 ,de mme1 ,dieu exi/e en *aque temps1 comm5t donc le temps e/-il dans ,dieu1 et comm5t peut-il tre une proprit de ,dieu8 ,ce sont des alloglossies p]ptuelles4444 ,comme j'avais object que l'espace a des p>ties1 on *]*e un autre *appatoire en s'loignant du s5s reu des t]mes1 et s\t5ant que l'espace n'a po9t de p>ties2 p>ce que ses p>ties ne sont po9t sp>ables et ne saurai5t tre loignes les unes des autres p> disc]ption4 ,mais il suffit que l'espace ait des p>ties1 soit que ces p>ties soi5t sp>ables ou non2 et on les peut assign] dans l'espace1 soit p> les corps qui y sont1 soit p> les lignes ou surfaces qu'on peut m5]4444 ,on s'excuse de n'avoir po9t dit que l'espace e/ le s5sorium de ,dieu1 mais seulem5t comme son s5sorium4 ,il semble que l'un e/ aussi peu conv5able et aussi peu intelligible que l'autre4444 ,si ,dieu s5t ce qui ce passe dans le monde1 p> le moy5 d'un s5sorium1 il semble que les *oses agiss5t sur lui1 et qu'a9si il e/ comme on conoit l'me du monde4 ,on m'impute de rpt] les objections1 sans pr5dre connaissance des rponses2 mais je ne vois po9t qu'on ait satisfait cette difficult2 on f]ait mieux de r5onc] t\t fait ce s5sorium prt5du4 ,= ! re/ ( ?is int]e/+ discussion1 ,i ref] ! read] to ! works ( ,leibnitz4 ,^! extracts may s]ve to %[ :at importance em95t philosoph]s attribut$ to ! que/ions on space4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 7#ca7 ,9 ord] t ! read] may =m a p]fect conception ( ,kant's op9ion ( space1 & judge = himself :e!r !re is or n ! contradiction :i* we h intimat$1 ,i extract a few passages f 8 works4 ,! transc5d5tal conception ( ph5om5a#fd 9 space is a critical obs]vation t1 9 g5]al no?+ p]ceiv$ 9 space is any ?+ 9 itself2 t space is1 moreov]1 a =m ( ?+s1 & w\ld belong to !m if consid]$ 9 !mselves2 b t objects 9 !mselves are :olly unkn[n to u1 & ^? ?+s :i* we call ext]nal objects1 are only ! pure repres5tations ( our s5sibility1 ^: =m is space1 & ^: true correlative1 t is to say1 ! ?+ 9 itself1 is = ?is reason :olly unkn[n1 & w always rema9 s2 = exp]i5ce c tell u no?+ ( x4 #fd ,kant def9es ph5om5on1 ! indet]m9ate object ( an empirical intuition4 ,he calls empirical intuition1 t :i* relates to an object by means ( s5sation4 ,he und]/&s by s5sation1 ! effect ( an object on ! repres5tative faculty1 9 s f> z we are affect$ by x4--,transc5d4 /het4 ,i4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is altoge!r c]ta91 & n m]ely possible or probable1 t space & "t1 z ! necess>y conditions ( all exp]i5ce1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 are purely subjective conditions ( all our intuitions4 ,x is !re=e equally c]ta9 t all objects 9 relation ) space & "t1 are only simple ph5om5a & n ?+s 9 !mselves1 if consid]$ accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* !y are giv5 u4 ,mu* may be said a priori ( ! =m ( objects1 b no?+ ( ! ?+ 9 itself1 :i* s]ves z ! gr\nd ( ^! ph5om5a4--,transc4 /h4 ,i4 ,?is doctr9e ( ,kant's br\ght ^u him ! *>ge ( idealism1 & drew f ! ,g]man philosoph] explanations :i* "s look ^u z a manife/ contradiction4 ,"h is h[ ,kant def5ds himself f idealism3 ,:5 ,i say t 9 space & "t ! intuitions ( ext]nal objects1 & ( ! m9d1 repres5t ^! two ?+s z !y affect our s5ses1 ,i d n mean to say t objects are a pure appe>ance2 = 9 ! ph5om5on1 ! objects1 & ev5 ! prop]ties :i* we attribute to !m1 are always consid]$ z some?+ really giv52 b t z ?is quality ( be+ giv5 dep5ds only on ! mann] ( p]ception ( ! subject 9 its relation ) ! object giv51 ?is object z ph5om5on1 is diff]5t f :at x is z object 9 itself4 ,i d n say t bodies m]ely seem to be ext]nal1 or t my s\l m]ely seems to h be5 giv5 me 9 consci\sness4 ,:5 ,i ass]t t ! qualities ( space & "t 79 con=mity to :i* ,i place ! body & ! s\l z ! condition ( _! exi/5ce7 exi/ only 9 my mode ( intuition1 & n 9 ! objects !mselves1 ,i %\ld d wrong to conv]t into a m]e appe>ance :at ,i mu/ take = a ph5om5on2 b ?is does n occur1 if my pr9ciple ( ! ideality ( all our s5sible intuitions is admitt$4 ,on ! contr>y1 if an objective reality is giv5 to all ^! =ms ( s5sible repres5tations1 e ?+ is inevitably conv]t$ into a pure appe>ance2 =1 if space & "t are consid]$ z qualities :i*1 z to _! possibility1 mu/ be f\nd 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 & we reflect on ! absurdities :i* foll[1 s9ce two inf9ite ?+s1 :i* c nei!r be sub/ances1 nor any ?+ inh]5t 9 a sub/ance1 b :i* are /ill some?+ exi/5t1 & ev5 ! necess>y condition ( ! exi/5ce ( all ?+s w\ld /ill subsi/1 ?\gh all ! re/ 7 annihilat$1 we _c blame ,b]keley = r$uc+ bodies to a m]e appe>ance4--,ibid4 #b;d ,edition4 ,9 ! ,transc5d5tal ,logic !re is also a reputation ( idealism4 ,!re ,kant e/abli%es ?is !orem3 ,! m]e consci\sness ( my own exi/5ce1 empirically det]m9$1 proves ! exi/5ce ( objects outside ( me 9 space4 ,x is n possible = me to give "h ! doctr9es ( ,kant's ,transc5d5tal ,logic2 x is en\gh to h giv5 8 rem>ks on ! reality ( objects2 o!rs call !m retractations or contradictions1 & give v>i\s causes = !m1 :i*1 h[ev]1 d n belong to ! field ( philosophy4 ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xix4 7#cb7 ,! s*ola/ics always c>efully sep>at$ ! s5sible ord] f ! intelligible4 ,kant 0 n ! fir/ to discov] ! limits :i* divide ! intelligible f ! s5sible1 ?+s 9 !mselves z objects ( ! und]/&+1 n\m5a1 z he calls !m1 f ?+s z repres5t$ 9 s5sible intuition1 ph5om5a4 ,! s*ola/ics 7 s f> f reg>d+ s5sible repres5tations z suffici5t = intellig5ce1 t !y d5i$ t !y 7 intelligible4 ,! intellect might "k s5sible ?+s1 b x 0 necess>y = x to ab/ract !m f mat]ial conditions4 ,on acc\nt ( its limitation1 x requir$ ! intuition ( objects 9 s5sible repres5tation1 conv]sio ad phantasmata2 b ^! intuitions 7 n ! intellectual act1 !y 7 only its necess>y conditions4 ,h5ce proce$$ ! !ory ( ! intellectus ag5s1 :i* "s h laugh$ at1 because !y did n und]/& x4 ,?is hypo!sis has /rong reasons 9 its favor1 :atev] may be its intr9sic value1 if1 sett+ aside ! =m 9 :i* x is express$1 we att5d only to its ideological pr(\ndness4 ,9 read+ "s passages 9 ,kant's ,transc5d5tal ,logic on ph5om5a & n\m5a1 on ! necessity ( s5sible intuition 9 pure conceptions1 & ! di/9ction ( ! intuition f ! conception1 & on ! s5sible & intelligible worlds correspond+ to ! s5sitive & intellective faculties1 we might suppose t ! ,g]man philosoph] _h read ! s*ola/ics4 ,true1 he dep>t$ f _! doctr9es1 b :at ( t8 ,! au?ors f :om we le>n ! mo/1 are n always ^? ^: op9ions we foll[4 ,9 ! treatise on ideas1 ,i %all h occasion to expla9 my op9ion on ?is po9t2 = ! pres5t ,i %all only make a few extracts f ,/4 ,?omas1 ! mo/ illu/ri\s repres5tative ( ! s*ola/ic philosophy4 ,! read] w f9d t he cle>ly expla9s our necessity ( s5sible repres5tations1 7phantasmata17 & ! l9e :i* divides ^! repres5tations f ! purely intellectual ord]4 7,p>s #a1 ,q4 ,,lxxix41 art4 #c47 ,s$ quia ,ari/oteles non posuit =mas r]um naturalium subsi/]e s9e mat]ia1 =m autem 9 mat]ia exi/5tes non sunt intelligibiles actu2 sequebatur1 quod natur1 seu =m r]um s5sibilium1 quas intelligimus1 non ess5t intelligibiles actu4 ,nihil autem r$ucitur de pot5tia 9 actum1 nisi p] aliquod ens actu3 sicut s5sus fit 9 actu p] s5sibile 9 actu4 ,oportet igitur pon]e aliquam virtutem ex p>te intellectus1 qu fac]et intelligibilia 9 actu p] ab/ractionem speci]um a conditionibus mat]ialibus4 ,et hc e/ necessitas pon5di intellectum ag5tem4 7,p4 #a1 ,q4 ,,lxxix41 art4 #d74 ,ad cujus evid5tiam consid]&um e/1 quod supra animam intellectivam humanam1 necesse e/ pon]e aliquem sup]iorem intellectum1 a quo anima virtutem intellig5di obt9eat4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,nihil autem e/ p]fectius 9 inf]ioribus rebus anima humana4 ,unde oportet dic]e1 quod 9 ipsa sit aliqua virtus d]ivata a sup]iori intellectu1 p] quam possit phantasmata illu/r>e4 ,et hoc exp]im5to cognoscimus1 dum p]cipimus nos ab/rah]e =mas univ]sales a conditionibus p>ticul>ibus1 quod e/ fac]e actu intelligibilia4 7,p4 #a4 ,q41 ,,lxxxiv41 art4 #a47 ,hoc autem necess>ium non e/3 quia etiam 9 ipsis s5sibilibus videmus1 quod =ma alio modo e/ 9 uno s5sibilium1 quam 9 alt]o2 puta cum 9 uno e/ alb$o int5sior1 9 alio remissior1 ut cum 9 uno e/ alb$o cum dulc$9e1 9 alio s9e dulc$9e4 ,et p] hunc etiam modum1 =ma s5sibilis alio modo e/ 9 re1 qu e/ extra animam1 et alio modo 9 s5su1 qui suspicit =mas s5sibilium absque mat]ia1 sicut colorem auri s9e auro4 ,et similit] intellectus species corporum1 qu sunt mat]iales et mobiles1 recipit immat]ialit]1 et immobilit]1 secundum modum suum1 nam receptum e/ 9 recipi5te p] modum recipi5tis4 ,dic5dum e/ ergo1 quod anima p] intellectum cognoscit corpora1 cognitione immat]iali1 univ]sali et necess>ia4 7,p4 ,i1 ,q4 ,,lxxxiv41 art4 #f47 ,et ideo ad caus&am intellectualem op]ationem secundum ,ari/otelem non sufficit sola impressio s5sibilium corporum1 s$ requiritur aliquid nobilius1 quia ag5s e/ honorabilius pati5te1 ut ipse dicit4 ,non autem quod intellectualis op]atio causetur ex sola impressione aliqu>um r]um sup]iorum1 ut ,plato posuit1 s$ illud sup]ius1 et nobilius ag5s1 quod vocat intellectum ag5tem1 de quo jam supra diximus quod facit phantasmata a s5sibus accepta intelligibilia 9 actu1 p] modum ab/ractionis cuiusdam4 ,secundum hoc ergo1 ex p>te phantasmatum intellectualis op]atio a s5su causatur4 ,s$ quia phantasmata non sufficiunt immut>e intellectum possibilem1 s$ oportet quod fiant intelligibilia actu p] intellectum ag5tem1 non pote/ dici quod s5sibilis cognitio sit totalis1 et p]fecta causa intellectualis cognitionis1 s$ magis quodammodo e/ mat]ia caus4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,hyph5ation has be5 /&>dis$4 ,v>iations 9 spell+1 punctuation & acc5ts are z 9 ! orig9al4 ,repetition ( ! titles ( ,books #b & #c has be5 remov$4 ,footnotes1 id5tifi$ ?us #a1 are plac$ at ! end ( p>agraph4 ,ref]5ces to ! ,notes on ,*apt]s are id5tifi$ ?us 7#a7 at ! end ( ! *apt] z 9 ! orig9al4 ,page #dcc1 p>a #aed1 ,!re is no ne$ ( attribut+ to ! inlig5t _s4444 ,inlig5t correct$ to intellig5t4 ,page #dhf1 ,,ii4 ,! relations ( our organs to objects are intr9sically immutable4 ,! to has be5 add$4