,,transcriber',s ,,note ,this is ,volume #b of a #c-volume set4 ,the other two volumes are also ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,several pages of the book contain a description and examples of a modified alphabet proposed by ,b4,f4 ,there are six new characters1 which are denoted by the ,unicode characters below 7these are similar to1 but not a precise rendering of the original printed characters74 for the 'o' sound as in 7,john1 folly1 ball7 #jx#c;d#f for the 'u' sound as in 7umbrage1 unto1 er7 #jx#agc for the 'sh' sound as in 7ship1 wish7 #jx#ec;b for the 'ng' sound as in 7ing1 repeating1 among7 #jx#ad;b for the 'th' sound as in 7think1 width7 #jx#bfg for the 'th' sound as in 7thy1 weather7 #jx#aie ,more detail can be found at the end of the book4 ,the ,,works ,of ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,l4,l4,d4 ,,vol4 #b4 ,illustration3 7,w ,g ,cooke ,sculptor47 ,,printed1 for ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees1 ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row1 ,london4 ,,the ,,complete ,,works1 ,,in ,,philosophy1 ,,politics1 ,,and ,,morals1 ,,of ,,the ,,late ,,dr4 ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,now ,,first ,,collected ,,and ,,arranged3 ,,with ,,memoirs ,,of ,,his ,,early ,,life1 ,,written ,,by ,,himself4 ,,in ,,three ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,j4 ,,johnson1 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,church-,,yard2 ,,and ,,longman1 ,,hurst1 ,,rees ,,and ,,orme1 ,,paternoster-,,row4 #ahjf4 ,j4 ,,cundee1 ,,printer ,,london ,,contents4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,letters ,,and ,,papers ,,on ,,philosophical ,,subjects4 ,physical and meteorological observations1 conjectures and suppositions #a ,on water-spouts #aa ,the same subject continued #ac ,water-spouts and whirlwinds compared #ai ,description of a water-spout at ,antigua #cd ,shooting stars #cf ,water-spouts and whirlwinds #cg ,observations on the meteorological paper2 by a gentleman in ,connecticut #de ,observations in answer to the foregoing1 by ,b4 ,franklin #di ,observations on the meteorological paper2 sent by a gentleman in ,new ,york to ,b4 ,franklin #ea ,answer to the foregoing observations1 by ,b4 ,franklin #ee ,gentleman of ,new ,york in reply #eh ,account of a whirlwind at ,maryland #fa ,on the north east storms in ,north ,america #fc ,meteorological imaginations and conjectures #ff ,suppositions and conjectures towards forming an hypothesis1 for the explanation of the aurora borealis #fi ,on cold produced by evaporation #ge ,on the same subject #hc ,concerning the light in sea-water #hh ,on the saltness of sea-water #ia ,on the effect of air on the barometer1 and the benefits derived from the study of insects #ib ,on the ,bristol waters1 and the tide in rivers #ie ,on the same subject #ajb ,salt-water rendered fresh by distillation4--,method of relieving thirst by sea-water #ajc ,tendency of rivers to the sea4--,effect of the sun's rays on cloth of different colours #aje ,on the vis inerti of matter #aaj ,on the different strata of the earth #aaf ,on the theory of the earth #aag ,new and curious theory of light and heat #abb ,queries and conjectures relating to magnetism and the theory of the earth #abe ,on the nature of sea coal #abe ,effect of vegetation on noxious air #abi ,on the inflammability of the surface of certain rivers in ,america #acj ,on the different quantities of rain which fall at different heights over the same ground #acc ,slowly sensible hygrometer proposed1 for certain purposes #ace ,curious instance of the effect of oil on water #adb ,letters on the stilling of waves by means of oil #add ,extract of a letter from ,mr4 ,tengnagel to ,count ,bentinck1 dated at ,batavia1 the #eth of ,january1 #aggj #aed ,on the difference of navigation in shoal and deep water #aeh ,sundry maritime observations #afb ,remarks upon the navigation from ,newfoundland to ,new-,york1 in order to avoid the ,gulph ,stream on one hand1 and on the other the shoals that lie to the southward of ,nantucket and of ,st4 ,george's ,banks #aig ,observations of the warmth of the sea-water1 c4 by ,fahrenheit's ,thermometer1 in crossing the ,gulph ,stream2 with other remarks made on board the ,pensylvania packet1 ,capt4 ,osborne1 bound from ,london to ,philadelphia1 in ,april and ,may1 #agge #aii ,observations of the warmth of the sea-water1 c4 by ,fahrenheit's thermometer2 with other remarks made on board the ,reprisal1 ,capt4 ,wycks1 bound from ,philadelphia to ,france1 in ,october and ,november1 #aggf #bjj ,a journal of a voyage from the ,channel between ,france and ,england towards ,america #bjb ,on the art of swimming #bjf ,on the same subject1 in answer to some enquiries of ,m4 ,dubourg #baj ,on the free use of air #bac ,on the causes of colds #bad ,dr4 ,stark1 and ,dr4 ,letsom #bae ,number of deaths in ,philadelphia by inoculation ibid ,answer to the preceding #bag ,on the effects of lead upon the human constitution #bai ,observations on the prevailing doctrines of life and death #bbb ,an account of the new-invented ,pensylvanian fire-places #bbe ,on the causes and cure of smoky chimneys #bef ,description of a new stove for burning of pitcoal1 and consuming all its smoke #bif ,method of contracting chimneys4--,modesty in disputation #cag ,covering houses with copper #cah ,on the same subject #cbj ,paper referred to in the preceding letter #cbb ,magical square of squares #cbd ,magical circle #cbh ,new musical instrument composed of glasses #ccj ,best mediums for conveying sound #cce ,on the harmony and melody of the old ,scotch tunes #cch ,on the defects of modern music #cdc ,description of the process to be observed in making large sheets of paper in the ,chinese manner1 with one smooth surface #cdi ,on modern innovations in the ,english language and in printing #cea ,a scheme for a new alphabet and reformed mode of spelling2 with remarks and examples concerning the same2 and an enquiry into its uses1 in a correspondence between ,miss ,s---- and ,dr4 ,franklin1 written in the characters of the alphabet #ceg ,rules for a club formerly established in ,philadelphia #cff ,questions discussed by the ,junto forming the preceding club #cfi ,sketch of an ,english school2 for the consideration of the trustees of the ,philadelphia ,academy #cgj ,advice to youth in reading #cgh ,,papers ,,on ,,subjects ,,of ,,general ,,politics4 ,observations concerning the increase of mankind1 peopling of countries1 c #chc ,remarks on some of the foregoing observations1 showing particularly the effect which manners have on population #cib ,plan by ,messieurs ,franklin and ,dalrymple1 for benefiting distant unprovided countries #djc ,concerning the provision made in ,china against famine #djg ,positions to be examined1 concerning national wealth #djh ,political fragments1 supposed either to be written by ,dr4 ,franklin1 or to contain sentiments nearly allied to his own #daa ,on the price of corn1 and management of the poor #dah ,on luxury1 idleness1 and industry #dbd ,on smuggling1 and its various species #dcj ,observations on war #dce ,notes copied from ,dr4 ,franklin's writing in pencil in the margin of ,judge ,foster's celebrated argument in favour of the impressing of seamen #dcg ,on the criminal laws1 and the practice of privateering #dda ,a parable against persecution1 in imitation of scripture language #dej ,a letter concerning persecution in former ages1 the maintenance of the clergy1 ,american bishops1 and the state of toleration in ,old ,england and ,new ,england compared #deb ,on the slave trade #dei ,account of the highest court of judicature in ,pensylvania1 viz4 ,the court of the press #dfc ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,plates ,,plate ,v4 ,water-,spouts facing page #af ,,plate ,,vi4 ,maritime ,observations #afc ,,plate ,,vii4 ,a ,chart of the ,gulph ,stream #aig ,,plate ,,viii4 ,pensylvania ,fire-,place #bce ,,plate ,,viii994 ,profile of the ,pensylvania ,chimnie #bch ,,plate ,,ix4 ,remedies for ,smoky ,chimnies #bfi ,,plate ,x4 ,stove for ,burning ,pit-,coal #big ,,plate ,,xi4 ,a ,magic ,square of ,squares #cbg ,,plate ,,xii4 ,a ,magic ,circle of ,circles #cbh ,,errata4 ,page4 ,line4 #aag penult4 for preceding day1 read the preceding day4 #bed #ag3 for the annexed cut1 read ,plate ,,viii4 #bgf #aa3 for ,plate ,i1 read ,plate ,,ix4 #bic #bc3 for ,fig4 #ac1 read ,fig4 #aj4 #cah #i3 for descent1 read decent4 #cbf #e3 for ,plate ,,xi1 read ,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #c4 ,,letters ,,and ,,papers ,,on ,,philosophical ,,subjects4 ,,letters ,,and ,,papers ,,on ,,philosophical ,,subjects4 ,physical and ,meteorological ,observations1 ,conjectures and ,suppositions4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #c1 #agef4 ,the particles of air are kept at a distance from each other by their mutual repulsion4 ,every three particles1 mutually and equally repelling each other1 must form an equilateral triangle4 ,all the particles of air gravitate towards the earth1 which gravitation compresses them1 and shortens the sides of the triangles1 otherwise their mutual repellency would force them to greater distances from each other4 ,whatever particles of other matter 7not endued with that repellency7 are supported in air1 must adhere to the particles of air1 and be supported by them2 for in the vacancies there is nothing they can rest on4 ,air and water mutually attract each other4 ,hence water will dissolve in air1 as salt in water4 ,the specific gravity of matter is not altered by dividing the matter1 though the superficies be increased4 ,sixteen leaden bullets1 of an ounce each1 weigh as much in water as one of a pound1 whose superficies is less4 ,therefore the supporting of salt in water is not owing to its superficies being increased4 ,a lump of salt1 though laid at rest at the bottom of a vessel of water1 will dissolve therein1 and its parts move every way1 till equally diffused in the water2 therefore there is a mutual attraction between water and salt4 ,every particle of water assumes as many of salt as can adhere to it2 when more is added1 it precipitates1 and will not remain suspended4 ,water1 in the same manner1 will dissolve in air1 every particle of air assuming one or more particles of water4 ,when too much is added1 it precipitates in rain4 ,but there not being the same contiguity between the particles of air as of water1 the solution of water in air is not carried on without a motion of the air1 so as to cause a fresh accession of dry particles4 ,part of a fluid1 having more of what it dissolves1 will communicate to other parts that have less4 ,thus very salt water1 coming in contact with fresh1 communicates its saltness till all is equal1 and the sooner if there is a little motion of the water4 ,even earth will dissolve1 or mix with air4 ,a stroke of a horse's hoof on the ground1 in a hot dusty road1 will raise a cloud of dust1 that shall1 if there be a light breeze1 expand every way1 till1 perhaps1 near as big as a common house4 ,it is not by mechanical motion communicated to the particles of dust by the hoof1 that they fly so far1 nor by the wind1 that they spread so wide3 but the air near the ground1 more heated by the hot dust struck into it1 is rarefied and rises1 and in rising mixes with the cooler air1 and communicates of its dust to it1 and it is at length so diffused as to become invisible4 ,quantities of dust are thus carried up in dry seasons3 showers wash it from the air1 and bring it down again4 ,for water attracting it stronger1 it quits the air1 and adheres to the water4 ,air1 suffering continual changes in the degrees of its heat1 from various causes and circumstances1 and1 consequently1 changes in its specific gravity1 must therefore be in continual motion4 ,a small quantity of fire mixed with water 7or degree of heat therein7 so weakens the cohesion of its particles1 that those on the surface easily quit it1 and adhere to the particles of air4 ,a greater degree of heat is required to break the cohesion between water and air4 ,air moderately heated will support a greater quantity of water invisibly than cold air2 for its particles being by heat repelled to a greater distance from each other1 thereby more easily keep the particles of water that are annexed to them from running into cohesions that would obstruct1 refract1 or reflect the light4 ,hence when we breathe in warm air1 though the same quantity of moisture may be taken up from the lungs1 as when we breathe in cold air1 yet that moisture is not so visible4 ,water being extremely heated1 i4e4 to the degree of boiling1 its particles in quitting it so repel each other1 as to take up vastly more space than before1 and by that repellency support themselves1 expelling the air from the space they occupy4 ,that degree of heat being lessened1 they again mutually attract1 and having no air-particles mixed to adhere to1 by which they might be supported and kept at a distance1 they instantly fall1 coalesce1 and become water again4 ,the water commonly diffused in our atmosphere never receives such a degree of heat from the sun1 or other cause1 as water has when boiling2 it is not1 therefore1 supported by such heat1 but by adhering to air4 ,water being dissolved in1 and adhering to air1 that air will not readily take up oil1 because of the mutual repellency between water and oil4 ,hence cold oils evaporate but slowly1 the air having generally a quantity of dissolved water4 ,oil being heated extremely1 the air that approaches its surface will be also heated extremely2 the water then quitting it1 it will attract and carry off oil1 which can now adhere to it4 ,hence the quick evaporation of oil heated to a great degree4 ,oil being dissolved in air1 the particles to which it adheres will not take up water4 ,hence the suffocating nature of air impregnated with burnt grease1 as from snuffs of candles and the like4 ,a certain quantity of moisture should be every moment discharged and taken away from the lungs2 air that has been frequently breathed1 is already overloaded1 and1 for that reason1 can take no more1 so will not answer the end4 ,greasy air refuses to touch it4 ,in both cases suffocation for want of the discharge4 ,air will attract and support many other substances4 ,a particle of air loaded with adhering water1 or any other matter1 is heavier than before and would descend4 ,the atmosphere supposed at rest1 a loaded descending particle must act with a force on the particles it passes between1 or meets with1 sufficient to overcome1 in some degree1 their mutual repellency1 and push them nearer to each other4 ,illustration3 7of air particles interacting7 ,a ,o ,o ,o ,f ,b ,c ,g ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,d ,o ,o ,o ,o ,e ,thus1 supposing the particles ,a ,b ,c ,d1 and the other near them1 to be at the distance caused by their mutual repellency 7confined by their common gravity7 if ,a would descend to ,e1 it must pass between ,b and ,c2 when it comes between ,b and ,c1 it will be nearer to them than before1 and must either have pushed them nearer to ,f and ,g1 contrary to their mutual repellency1 or pass through by a force exceeding its repellency with them4 ,it then approaches ,d1 and1 to move it out of the way1 must act on it with a force sufficient to overcome its repellency with the two next lower particles1 by which it is kept in its present situation4 ,every particle of air1 therefore1 will bear any load inferior to the force of these repulsions4 ,hence the support of fogs1 mists1 clouds4 ,very warm air1 clear1 though supporting a very great quantity of moisture1 will grow turbid and cloudy on the mixture of a colder air1 as foggy turbid air will grow clear by warming4 ,thus the sun shining on a morning fog1 dissipates it2 clouds are seen to waste in a sun-shiny day4 ,but cold condenses and renders visible the vapour2 a tankard or decanter filled with cold water will condense the moisture of warm clear air on its outside1 where it becomes visible as dew1 coalesces into drops1 descends in little streams4 ,the sun heats the air of our atmosphere most near the surface of the earth2 for there1 besides the direct rays1 there are many reflections4 ,moreover1 the earth itself being heated1 communicates of its heat to the neighbouring air4 ,the higher regions1 having only the direct rays of the sun passing through them1 are comparatively very cold4 ,hence the cold air on the tops of mountains1 and snow on some of them all the year1 even in the torrid zone4 ,hence hail in summer4 ,if the atmosphere were1 all of it 7both above and below7 always of the same temper as to cold or heat1 then the upper air would always be rarer than the lower1 because the pressure on it is less2 consequently lighter1 and therefore would keep its place4 ,but the upper air may be more condensed by cold1 than the lower air by pressure2 the lower more expanded by heat1 than the upper for want of pressure4 ,in such case the upper air will become the heavier1 the lower the lighter4 ,the lower region of air being heated and expanded heaves up1 and supports for some time the colder heavier air above1 and will continue to support it while the equilibrium is kept4 ,thus water is supported in an inverted open glass1 while the equilibrium is maintained by the equal pressure upwards of the air below2 but the equilibrium by any means breaking1 the water descends on the heavier side1 and the air rises into its place4 ,the lifted heavy cold air over a heated country1 becoming by any means unequally supported1 or unequal in its weight1 the heaviest part descends first1 and the rest follows impetuously4 ,hence gusts after heats1 and hurricanes in hot climates4 ,hence the air of gusts and hurricanes cold1 though in hot climes and seasons2 it coming from above4 ,the cold air descending from above1 as it penetrates our warm region full of watry particles1 condenses them1 renders them visible1 forms a cloud thick and dark1 overcasting sometimes1 at once1 large and extensive2 sometimes1 when seen at a distance1 small at first1 gradually increasing2 the cold edge1 or surface of the cloud1 condensing the vapours next it1 which form smaller clouds that join it1 increase its bulk1 it descends with the wind and its acquired weight1 draws nearer the earth1 grows denser with continual additions of water1 and discharges heavy showers4 ,small black clouds thus appearing in a clear sky1 in hot climates1 portend storms1 and warn seamen to hand their sails4 ,the earth1 turning on its axis in about twenty-four hours1 the equatorial parts must move about fifteen miles in each minute2 in northern and southern latitudes this motion is gradually less to the poles1 and there nothing4 ,if there was a general calm over the face of the globe1 it must be by the air's moving in every part as fast as the earth or sea it covers4 ,he that sails1 or rides1 has insensibly the same degree of motion as the ship or coach with which he is connected4 ,if the ship strikes the shore1 or the coach stops suddenly1 the motion continuing in the man1 he is thrown forward4 ,if a man were to jump from the land into a swift sailing ship1 he would be thrown backward 7or towards the stern7 not having at first the motion of the ship4 ,he that travels by sea or land1 towards the equinoctial1 gradually acquires motion2 from it1 loses4 ,but if a man were taken up from latitude #dj 7where suppose the earth's surface to move twelve miles per minute7 and immediately set down at the equinoctial1 without changing the motion he had1 his heels would be struck up1 he would fall westward4 ,if taken up from the equinoctial1 and set down in latitude #dj1 he would fall eastward4 ,the air under the equator1 and between the tropics1 being constantly heated and rarefied by the sun1 rises4 ,its place is supplied by air from northern and southern latitudes1 which coming from parts where the earth and air had less motion1 and not suddenly acquiring the quicker motion of the equatorial earth1 appears an east wind blowing westward2 the earth moving from west to east1 and slipping under the air#a4 ,thus1 when we ride in a calm1 it seems a wind against us3 if we ride with the wind1 and faster1 even that will seem a small wind against us4 ,the air rarefied between the tropics1 and rising1 must flow in the higher region north and south4 ,before it rose1 it had acquired the greatest motion the earth's rotation could give it4 ,it retains some degree of this motion1 and descending in higher latitudes1 where the earth's motion is less1 will appear a westerly wind1 yet tending towards the equatorial parts1 to supply the vacancy occasioned by the air of the lower regions flowing thitherwards4 ,hence our general cold winds are about north west1 our summer cold gusts the same4 ,the air in sultry weather1 though not cloudy1 has a kind of haziness in it1 which makes objects at a distance appear dull and indistinct4 ,this haziness is occasioned by the great quantity of moisture equally diffused in that air4 ,when1 by the cold wind blowing down among it1 it is condensed into clouds1 and falls in rain1 the air becomes purer and clearer4 ,hence1 after gusts1 distant objects appear distinct1 their figures sharply terminated4 ,extreme cold winds congeal the surface of the earth1 by carrying off its fire4 ,warm winds afterwards blowing over that frozen surface will be chilled by it4 ,could that frozen surface be turned under1 and a warmer turned up from beneath it1 those warm winds would not be chilled so much4 ,the surface of the earth is also sometimes much heated by the sun3 and such heated surface not being changed heats the air that moves over it4 ,seas1 lakes1 and great bodies of water1 agitated by the winds1 continually change surfaces2 the cold surface in winter is turned under by the rolling of the waves1 and a warmer turned up2 in summer1 the warm is turned under1 and colder turned up4 ,hence the more equal temper of sea-water1 and the air over it4 ,hence1 in winter1 winds from the sea seem warm1 winds from the land cold4 ,in summer the contrary4 ,therefore the lakes north-west of us#b1 as they are not so much frozen1 nor so apt to freeze as the earth1 rather moderate than increase the coldness of our winter winds4 ,the air over the sea being warmer1 and therefore lighter in winter than the air over the frozen land1 may be another cause of our general ,n4 ,w4 winds1 which blow off to sea at right angles from our ,north-,american coast4 ,the warm light sea air rising1 the heavy cold land air pressing into its place4 ,heavy fluids descending1 frequently form eddies1 or whirlpools1 as is seen in a funnel1 where the water acquires a circular motion1 receding every way from a centre1 and leaving a vacancy in the middle1 greatest above1 and lessening downwards1 like a speaking trumpet1 its big end upwards4 ,air descending1 or ascending1 may form the same kind of eddies1 or whirlings1 the parts of air acquiring a circular motion1 and receding from the middle of the circle by a centrifugal force1 and leaving there a vacancy2 if descending1 greatest above1 and lessening downwards2 if ascending1 greatest below1 and lessening upwards2 like a speaking trumpet1 standing its big end on the ground4 ,when the air descends with violence in some places1 it may rise with equal violence in others1 and form both kinds of whirlwinds4 ,the air in its whirling motion receding every way from the centre or axis of the trumpet leaves there a vacuum1 which cannot be filled through the sides1 the whirling air1 as an arch1 preventing2 it must then press in at the open ends4 ,the greatest pressure inwards must be at the lower end1 the greatest weight of the surrounding atmosphere being there4 ,the air entering rises within1 and carries up dust1 leaves1 and even heavier bodies that happen in its way1 as the eddy1 or whirl1 passes over land4 ,if it passes over water1 the weight of the surrounding atmosphere forces up the water into the vacuity1 part of which1 by degrees1 joins with the whirling air1 and adding weight1 and receiving accelerated motion1 recedes still farther from the centre or axis of the trump1 as the pressure lessens2 and at last1 as the trump widens1 is broken into small particles1 and so united with air as to be supported by it1 and become black clouds at the top of the trump4 ,thus these eddies may be whirlwinds at land1 water-spouts at sea4 ,a body of water so raised1 may be suddenly let fall1 when the motion1 c4 has not strength to support it1 or the whirling arch is broken so as to admit the air3 falling in the sea1 it is harmless1 unless ships happen under it2 but if in the progressive motion of the whirl it has moved from the sea1 over the land1 and then breaks1 sudden1 violent1 and mischievous torrents are the consequences4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see a paper on this subject1 by the late ingenious ,mr4 ,hadley1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 wherein this hypothesis for explaining the trade-winds first appeared4 #b ,in ,pensylvania4 ,,doctor ----#c ,,of ,,boston1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,philadelphia4 ,on ,water-,spouts4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #c1 #agef4 ,boston1 ,october #af1 #ageb4 ,,sir1 ,i find by a word or two in your last#d1 that you are willing to be found fault with2 which authorises me to let you know what ,i am at a loss about in your papers1 which is only in the article of the water-spout4 ,i am in doubt1 whether water in bulk1 or even broken into drops1 ever ascends into the region of the clouds per vorticem2 i4 e4 whether there be1 in reality1 what ,i call a direct water-spout4 ,i make no doubt of direct and inverted whirl-winds2 your description of them1 and the reason of the thing1 are sufficient4 ,i am sensible too1 that they are very strong1 and often move considerable weights4 ,but ,i have not met with any historical accounts that seem exact enough to remove my scruples concerning the ascent abovesaid4 ,descending spouts 7as ,i take them to be7 are many times seen1 as ,i take it1 in the calms1 between the sea and land trade-winds on the coast of ,africa4 ,these contrary winds1 or diverging1 ,i can conceive may occasion them1 as it were by suction1 making a breach in a large cloud4 ,but ,i imagine they have1 at the same time1 a tendency to hinder any direct or rising spout1 by carrying off the lower part of the atmosphere as fast as it begins to rarefy2 and yet spouts are frequent here1 which strengthens my opinion1 that all of them descend4 ,but however this be1 ,i cannot conceive a force producible by the rarefication and condensation of our atmosphere1 in the circumstances of our globe1 capable of carrying water1 in large portions1 into the region of the clouds4 ,supposing it to be raised1 it would be too heavy to continue the ascent beyond a considerable height1 unless parted into small drops2 and even then1 by its centrifugal force1 from the manner of conveyance1 it would be flung out of the circle1 and fall scattered1 like rain4 ,but ,i need not expatiate on these matters to you4 ,i have mentioned my objections1 and1 as truth is my pursuit1 shall be glad to be informed4 ,i have seen few accounts of these whirl or eddy winds1 and as little of the spouts2 and these1 especially1 lame and poor things to obtain any certainty by4 ,if you know any thing determinate that has been observed1 ,i shall hope to hear from you2 as also of any mistake in my thoughts4 ,i have nothing to object to any other part of your suppositions3 and as to that of the trade-winds1 ,i believe nobody can4 ,i am1 c4 ,p4 ,s44 ,the figures in the ,philosophical ,transactions show1 by several circumstances1 that they all descended1 though the relators seemed to think they took up water4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,dr4 ,perkins4 ,editor4 #d ,a ,letter on ,inoculation1 which is transferred to a subsequent part of this volume1 that the papers on meteorological subjects may not be interrupted4 ,editor4 ,,dr4 ,,perkins ,,of ,,boston1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,philadelphia4 ,the same ,subject continued4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #bd1 #agef4 ,boston1 ,october #bc1 #ageb4 ,,sir1 ,in the inclosed1 you have all ,i have to say of that matter#e4 ,it proved longer than ,i expected1 so that ,i was forced to add a cover to it4 ,i confess it looks like a dispute2 but that is quite contrary to my intentions4 ,the sincerity of friendship and esteem were my motives2 nor do ,i doubt your scrupling the goodness of the intention4 ,however1 ,i must confess ,i cannot tell exactly how far ,i was acted by hopes of better information1 in discovering the whole foundation of my opinion1 which1 indeed1 is but an opinion1 as ,i am very much at a loss about the validity of the reasons4 ,i have not been able to differ from you in sentiment concerning any thing else in your ,suppositions4 ,in the present case ,i lie open to conviction1 and shall be the gainer when informed4 ,if ,i am right1 you will know that1 without my adding any more4 ,too much said on a merely speculative matter1 is but a robbery committed on practical knowledge4 ,perhaps ,i am too much pleased with these dry notions3 however1 by this you will see that ,i think it unreasonable to give you more trouble about them1 than your leisure and inclination may prompt you to4 ,i am1 c4 ,since my last ,i considered1 that1 as ,i had begun with the reasons of my dissatisfaction about the ascent of water in spouts1 you would not be unwilling to hear the whole ,i have to say1 and then you will know what ,i rely upon4 ,what occasioned my thinking all spouts descend1 is1 that ,i found some did certainly do so4 ,a difficulty appeared concerning the ascent of so heavy a body as water1 by any force ,i was apprised of1 as probably sufficient4 ,and1 above all1 a view of ,mr4 ,stuart's portraits of spouts1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,some observations on these last will include the chief part of my difficulties4 ,mr4 ,stuart has given us the figures of a number observed by him in the ,mediterranean3 all with some particulars which make for my opinion1 if well drawn4 ,the great spattering1 which relators mention in the water where the spout descends1 and which appears in all his draughts1 ,i conceive to be occasioned by drops descending very thick and large into the place4 ,on the place of this spattering1 arises the appearance of a bush1 into the centre of which the spout comes down4 ,this bush ,i take to be formed by a spray1 made by the force of these drops1 which being uncommonly large1 and descending with unusual force by a stream of wind descending from the cloud with them1 increases the height of the spray3 which wind being repulsed by the surface of the waters rebounds and spreads2 by the first raising the spray higher than it otherwise would go2 and by the last making the top of the bush appear to bend outwards 7i4 e47 the cloud of spray is forced off from the trunk of the spout1 and falls backward4 ,the bush does the same where there is no appearance of a spout reaching it2 and is depressed in the middle1 where the spout is expected4 ,this1 ,i imagine1 to be from numerous drops of the spout falling into it1 together with the wind ,i mentioned1 by their descent1 which beat back the rising spray in the centre4 ,this circumstance1 of the bush bending outwards at the top1 seems not to agree with what ,i call a direct whirlwind1 but consistent with the reversed2 for a direct one would sweep the bush inwards2 if1 in that case1 any thing of a bush would appear4 ,the pillar of water1 as they call it1 from its likeness1 ,i suppose to be only the end of the spout immersed in the bush1 a little blackened by the additional cloud1 and1 perhaps1 appears to the eye beyond its real bigness1 by a refraction in the bush1 and which refraction may be the cause of the appearance of separation1 betwixt the part in the bush1 and that above it4 ,the part in the bush is cylindrical1 as it is above 7i4 e47 the bigness the same from the top of the bush to the water4 ,instead of this shape1 in case of a whirlwind1 it must have been pyramidical4 ,another thing remarkable1 is1 the curve in some of them3 this is easy to conceive1 in case of descending parcels of drops through various winds1 at least till the cloud condenses so fast as to come down1 as it were1 uno rivo4 ,but it is harder to me to conceive it in the ascent of water1 that it should be conveyed along1 secure of not leaking or often dropping through the under side1 in the prone part3 and1 should the water be conveyed so swiftly1 and with such force1 up into the cloud1 as to prevent this1 it would1 by a natural disposition to move on in a present direction1 presently straiten the curve1 raising the shoulder very swiftly1 till lost in the cloud4 ,over every one of ,stuart's figures1 ,i see a cloud3 ,i suppose his clouds were first1 and then the spout2 ,i do not know whether it be so with all spouts1 but suppose it is4 ,now1 if whirlwinds carried up the water1 ,i should expect them in fair weather1 but not under a cloud2 as is observable of whirlwinds2 they come in fair weather1 not under the shade of a cloud1 nor in the night2 since shade cools the air3 but1 on the contrary1 violent winds often descend from the clouds2 strong gusts which occupy small spaces2 and from the higher regions1 extensive hurricanes1 c4 ,another thing is the appearance of the spout coming from the cloud4 ,this ,i cannot account for on the notion of a direct spout1 but in the real descending one1 it is easy4 ,i take it1 that the cloud begins first of all to pour out drops at that particular spot1 or foramen2 and1 when that current of drops increases1 so as to force down wind and vapour1 the spout becomes so far as that goes opaque4 ,i take it1 that no clouds drop spouts1 but such as make very fast1 and happen to condense in a particular spot1 which perhaps is coldest1 and gives a determination downwards1 so as to make a passage through the subjacent atmosphere4 ,if spouts ascend1 it is to carry up the warm rarefied air below1 to let down all and any that is colder above2 and1 if so1 they must carry it through the cloud they go into 7for that is cold and dense1 ,i imagine7 perhaps far into the higher region1 making a wonderful appearance at a convenient distance to observe it1 by the swift rise of a body of vapour1 above the region of the clouds4 ,but as this has never been observed in any age1 if it be supposeable that is all4 ,i cannot learn by mariners1 that any wind blows towards a spout more than any other way2 but it blows towards a whirlwind1 for a large distance round4 ,i suppose there has been no instance of the water of a spout being salt1 when coming across any vessel at sea4 ,i suppose too1 that there have been no salt rains2 these would make the case clear4 ,i suppose it is from some unhappy effects of these dangerous creatures of nature1 that sailors have an universal dread on them of breaking in their decks1 should they come across them4 ,i imagine spouts1 in cold seasons1 as ,gordon's in the ,downs1 prove the descent4 ,query4 ,whether there is not always more or less cloud1 first1 where a spout appears8 ,whether they are not1 generally1 on the borders of trade-winds2 and whether this is for1 or against me8 ,whether there be any credible account of a whirlwind's carrying up all the water in a pool1 or small pond3 as when shoal1 and the banks low1 a strong gust might be supposed to blow it all out8 ,whether a violent tornado1 of a small extent1 and other sudden and strong gusts1 be not winds from above1 descending nearly perpendicular2 and1 whether many that are called whirlwinds at sea1 are any other than these2 and so might be called air-spouts1 if they were objects of sight8 ,i overlooked1 in its proper place1 ,stuart's ,no4 #aa1 which is curious for its inequalities1 and1 in particular1 the approach to breaking1 which1 if it would not be too tedious1 ,i would have observed a little upon1 in my own way1 as1 ,i think1 this would argue against the ascent1 c4 but ,i must pass it1 not only for the reason mentioned1 but want of room besides4 ,as to ,mr4 ,stuart's ocular demonstration of the ascent in his great perpendicular spout1 the only one it appears in1 ,i say1 as to this1 what ,i have written supposes him mistaken1 which1 yet1 ,i am far from asserting4 ,the force of an airy vortex1 having less influence on the solid drops of water1 than on the interspersed cloudy vapours1 makes the last whirl round swifter1 though it descend slower3 and this might easily deceive1 without great care1 the most unprejudiced person4 ,,footnote3 #e ,water-,spouts4 ,,to ,,doctor ----#f1 ,,of ,,boston4 ,water-,spouts and ,whirlwinds compared4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #bd1 #agef4 ,philadelphia1 ,feb4 #d1 #agec4 ,,sir1 ,i ought to have written to you1 long since1 in answer to yours of ,october #af1 concerning the water-spout2 but business partly1 and partly a desire of procuring further information1 by enquiry among my seafaring acquaintance1 induced me to postpone writing1 from time to time1 till ,i am now almost ashamed to resume the subject1 not knowing but you may have forgot what has been said upon it4 ,nothing certainly1 can be more improving to a searcher into nature1 than objections judiciously made to his opinion1 taken up1 perhaps1 too hastily3 for such objections oblige him to re-study the point1 consider every circumstance carefully1 compare facts1 make experiments1 weigh arguments1 and be slow in drawing conclusions4 ,and hence a sure advantage results2 for he either confirms a truth1 before too slightly supported2 or discovers an error1 and receives instruction from the objector4 ,in this view ,i consider the objections and remarks you sent me1 and thank you for them sincerely3 but1 how much soever my inclinations lead me to philosophical enquiries1 ,i am so engaged in business1 public and private1 that those more pleasing pursuits are frequently interrupted1 and the chain of thought1 necessary to be closely continued in such disquisitions1 is so broken and disjointed1 that it is with difficulty ,i satisfy myself in any of them3 and ,i am now not much nearer a conclusion1 in this matter of the spout1 than when ,i first read your letter4 ,yet1 hoping we may1 in time1 sift out the truth between us1 ,i will send you my present thoughts1 with some observations on your reasons on the accounts in the ,transactions1 and on other relations ,i have met with4 ,perhaps1 while ,i am writing1 some new light may strike me1 for ,i shall now be obliged to consider the subject with a little more attention4 ,i agree with you1 that1 by means of a vacuum in a whirlwind1 water cannot be supposed to rise in large masses to the region of the clouds2 for the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere could not force it up in a continued body1 or column1 to a much greater height1 than thirty feet4 ,but1 if there really is a vacuum in the centre1 or near the axis of whirlwinds1 then1 ,i think1 water may rise in such vacuum to that height1 or to a less height1 as the vacuum may be less perfect4 ,i had not read ,stuart's account1 in the ,transactions1 for many years1 before the receipt of your letter1 and had quite forgot it2 but now1 on viewing his draughts1 and considering his descriptions1 ,i think they seem to favour my hypothesis2 for he describes and draws columns of water1 of various heights1 terminating abruptly at the top1 exactly as water would do1 when forced up by the pressure of the atmosphere into an exhausted tube4 ,i must1 however1 no longer call it my hypothesis1 since ,i find ,stuart had the same thought1 though somewhat obscurely expressed1 where he says1 he imagines this phenomenon may be solved by suction 7improperly so called7 or rather pulsion1 as in the application of a cupping glass to the flesh1 the air being first voided by the kindled flax4 ,in my paper1 ,i supposed a whirlwind and a spout to be the same thing1 and to proceed from the same cause2 the only difference between them being1 that the one passes over land1 the other over water1 ,i find1 also1 in the ,transactions1 that ,m4 de la ,pryme was of the same opinion2 for he there describes two spouts1 as he calls them1 which were seen at different times1 at ,hatfield1 in ,yorkshire1 whose appearances in the air were the same with those of the spouts at sea1 and effects the same with those of real whirlwinds4 ,whirlwinds have generally a progressive1 as well as a circular motion2 so had what is called the spout1 at ,topsham--7,see the account of it in the ,transactions7 which also appears1 by its effects described1 to have been a real whirlwind4 ,water-spouts have1 also1 a progressive motion2 this is sometimes greater1 and sometimes less2 in some violent1 in others barely perceivable4 ,the whirlwind at ,warrington continued long in ,acrement-,close4 ,whirlwinds generally arise after calms and great heats3 the same is observed of water-spouts1 which are1 therefore1 most frequent in the warm latitudes4 ,the spout that happened in cold weather1 in the ,downs1 described by ,mr4 ,gordon in the ,transactions1 was1 for that reason1 thought extraordinary2 but he remarks withal1 that the weather1 though cold when the spout appeared1 was soon after much colder2 as we find it1 commonly1 less warm after a whirlwind4 ,you agree1 that the wind blows every way towards a whirlwind1 from a large space round4 ,an intelligent whaleman of ,nantucket1 informed me that three of their vessels1 which were out in search of whales1 happening to be becalmed1 lay in sight of each other1 at about a league distance1 if ,i remember right1 nearly forming a triangle3 after some time1 a water-spout appeared near the middle of the triangle1 when a brisk breeze of wind sprung up1 and every vessel made sail2 and then it appeared to them all1 by the setting of the sails1 and the course each vessel stood1 that the spout was to the leeward of every one of them2 and they all declared it to have been so1 when they happened afterwards in company1 and came to confer about it4 ,so that in this particular likewise1 whirlwinds and water-spouts agree4 ,but1 if that which appears a water-spout at sea1 does sometimes1 in its progressive motion1 meet with and pass over land1 and there produce all the phenomena and effects of a whirlwind1 it should thence seem still more evident1 that a whirlwind and a spout are the same4 ,i send you1 herewith1 a letter from an ingenious physician of my acquaintance1 which gives one instance of this1 that fell within his observation4 ,a fluid1 moving from all points horizontally1 towards a centre1 must1 at that centre1 either ascend or descend4 ,water being in a tub1 if a hole be opened in the middle of the bottom1 will flow from all sides to the centre1 and there descend in a whirl4 ,but1 air flowing on and near the surface of land or water1 from all sides1 towards a centre1 must1 at that centre ascend2 the land or water hindering its descent4 ,if these concentring currents of air be in the upper region1 they may1 indeed1 descend in the spout or whirlwind2 but then1 when the united current reached the earth or water1 it would spread1 and1 probably1 blow every way from the centre4 ,there may be whirlwinds of both kinds1 but from the commonly observed effects1 ,i suspect the rising one to be the most common3 when the upper air descends1 it is1 perhaps1 in a greater body1 extending wider1 as in our thunder-gusts1 and without much whirling2 and1 when air descends in a spout1 or whirlwind1 ,i should rather expect it would press the roof of a house inwards1 or force in the tiles1 shingles1 or thatch1 force a boat down into the water1 or a piece of timber into the earth1 than that it would lift them up1 and carry them away4 ,it has so happened1 that ,i have not met with any accounts of spouts1 that certainly descended2 ,i suspect they are not frequent4 ,please to communicate those you mention4 ,the apparent dropping of a pipe from the clouds towards the earth or sea1 ,i will endeavour to explain hereafter4 ,the augmentation of the cloud1 which1 as ,i am informed1 is generally1 if not always the case1 during a spout1 seems to shew an ascent1 rather than a descent of the matter of which such cloud is composed2 for a descending spout1 one would expect1 should diminish a cloud4 ,i own1 however1 that cold air descending1 may1 by condensing the vapours in a lower region1 form and increase clouds2 which1 ,i think1 is generally the case in our common thunder-gusts1 and1 therefore1 do not lay great stress on this argument4 ,whirlwinds and spouts1 are not always1 though most commonly1 in the day time4 ,the terrible whirlwind which damaged a great part of ,rome1 ,june #aa1 #agdi1 happened in the night of that day4 ,the same was supposed to have been first a spout1 for it is said to be beyond doubt1 that it gathered in the neighbouring sea1 as it could be tracked from ,ostia to ,rome4 ,i find this in ,pere ,boschovich's account of it1 as abridged in the ,monthly ,review for ,december #agej4 ,in that account1 the whirlwind is said to have appeared as a very black1 long1 and lofty cloud1 discoverable1 notwithstanding the darkness of the night1 by its continually lightning or emitting flashes on all sides1 pushing along with a surprising swiftness1 and within three or four feet of the ground4 ,its general effects on houses1 were stripping off the roofs1 blowing away chimneys1 breaking doors and windows1 forcing up the floors1 and unpaving the rooms 7some of these effects seem to agree well with a supposed vacuum in the centre of the whirlwind7 and the very rafters of the houses were broken and dispersed1 and even hurled against houses at a considerable distance1 c4 ,it seems1 by an expression of ,pere ,boschovich's1 as if the wind blew from all sides towards the whirlwind2 for1 having carefully observed its effects1 he concludes of all whirlwinds1 that their motion is circular1 and their action attractive4 ,he observes1 on a number of histories of whirlwinds1 c4 that a common effect of them is1 to carry up into the air1 tiles1 stones1 and animals themselves1 which happen to be in their course1 and all kinds of bodies unexceptionably1 throwing them to a considerable distance1 with great impetuosity4 ,such effects seem to shew a rising current of air4 ,i will endeavour to explain my conceptions of this matter by figures1 representing a plan and an elevation of a spout or whirlwind4 ,i would only first beg to be allowed two or three positions1 mentioned in my former paper4 #a4 ,that the lower region of air is often more heated1 and so more rarefied1 than the upper2 consequently1 specifically lighter4 ,the coldness of the upper region is manifested by the hail which sometimes falls from it in a hot day4 #b4 ,that heated air may be very moist1 and yet the moisture so equally diffus'd and rarefied1 as not to be visible1 till colder air mixes with it1 when it condenses1 and becomes visible4 ,thus our breath1 invisible in summer1 becomes visible in winter4 ,now let us suppose a tract of land1 or sea1 of perhaps sixty miles square1 unscreened by clouds1 and unfanned by winds1 during great part of a summer's day1 or1 it may be1 for several days successively1 till it is violently heated1 together with the lower region of air in contact with it1 so that the said lower air becomes specifically lighter than the superincumbent higher region of the atmosphere1 in which the clouds commonly float3 let us suppose1 also1 that the air surrounding this tract has not been so much heated during those days1 and1 therefore1 remains heavier4 ,the consequence of this should be1 as ,i conceive1 that the heated lighter air1 being pressed on all sides1 must ascend1 and the heavier descend2 and1 as this rising cannot be in all parts1 or the whole area of the tract at once1 for that would leave too extensive a vacuum1 the rising will begin precisely in that column that happens to be the lightest1 or most rarefied2 and the warm air will flow horizontally from all points to this column1 where the several currents meeting1 and joining to rise1 a whirl is naturally formed1 in the same manner as a whirl is formed in the tub of water1 by the descending fluid flowing from all sides of the tub1 to the hole in the centre4 ,and1 as the several currents arrive at this central rising column1 with a considerable degree of horizontal motion1 they cannot suddenly change it to a vertical motion2 therefore as they gradually1 in approaching the whirl1 decline from right to curve or circular lines1 so1 having joined the whirl1 they ascend by a spiral motion1 in the same manner as the water descends spirally through the hole in the tub before-mentioned4 ,lastly1 as the lower air1 and nearest the surface1 is most rarefied by the heat of the sun1 that air is most acted on by the pressure of the surrounding cold and heavy air1 which is to take its place2 consequently1 its motion towards the whirl is swiftest1 and so the force of the lower part of the whirl1 or trump1 strongest1 and the centrifugal force of its particles greatest2 and hence the vacuum round the axis of the whirl should be greatest near the earth or sea1 and be gradually diminished as it approaches the region of the clouds1 till it ends in a point1 as at ,p in ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,plate ,v4 forming a long and sharp cone4 ,in ,fig4 ,i4 which is a plan or ground-plat of a whirlwind1 the circle ,v4 represents the central vacuum4 ,between a a a a and b b b b ,i suppose a body of air1 condensed strongly by the pressure of the currents moving towards it1 from all sides without1 and by its centrifugal force from within1 moving round with prodigious swiftness1 7having1 as it were1 the momenta of all the currents ----- ----- ----- ----- united in itself7 and with a power equal to its swiftness and density4 ,illustration3 7,water ,spouts7 ,plate ,v4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #bf4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,it is this whirling body of air between a a a a and b b b b that rises spirally2 by its force it tears buildings to pieces1 twists up great trees by the roots1 c4 and1 by its spiral motion1 raises the fragments so high1 till the pressure of the surrounding and approaching currents diminishing1 can no longer confine them to the circle1 or their own centrifugal force encreasing1 grows too strong for such pressure1 when they fly off in tangent lines1 as stones out of a sling1 and fall on all sides1 and at great distances4 ,if it happens at sea1 the water under and between a a a a and b b b b will be violently agitated and driven about1 and parts of it raised with the spiral current1 and thrown about so as to form a bush-like appearance4 ,this circle is of various diameters1 sometimes very large4 ,if the vacuum passes over water1 the water may rise in it in a body1 or column1 to near the height of thirty-two feet4 ,if it passes over houses1 it may burst their windows or walls outwards1 pluck off the roofs1 and pluck up the floors1 by the sudden rarefaction of the air contained within such buildings2 the outward pressure of the atmosphere being suddenly taken off3 so the stopped bottle of air bursts under the exhausted receiver of the air-pump4 ,,fig4 ,,ii4 is to represent the elevation of a water-spout1 wherein ,i suppose ,p ,p ,p to be the cone1 at first a vacuum1 till ,w ,w1 the rising column of water1 has filled so much of it4 ,s ,s ,s ,s1 the spiral whirl of air1 surrounding the vacuum1 and continued higher in a close column after the vacuum ends in the point ,p1 till it reaches the cool region of the air4 ,b ,b1 the bush described by ,stuart1 surrounding the foot of the column of water4 ,now1 ,i suppose this whirl of air will1 at first1 be as invisible as the air itself1 though reaching1 in reality1 from the water1 to the region of cool air1 in which our low summer thunder-clouds commonly float2 but presently it will become visible at its extremities4 ,at its lower end1 by the agitation of the water1 under the whirling part of the circle1 between ,p and ,s forming ,stuart's bush1 and by the swelling and rising of the water1 in the beginning vacuum1 which is1 at first1 a small1 low1 broad cone1 whose top gradually rises and sharpens1 as the force of the whirl encreases4 ,at its upper end it becomes visible1 by the warm air brought up to the cooler region1 where its moisture begins to be condensed into thick vapour1 by the cold1 and is seen first at ,a1 the highest part1 which being now cooled1 condenses what rises next at ,b1 which condenses that at ,c1 and that condenses what is rising at ,d1 the cold operating by the contact of the vapours faster in a right line downwards1 than the vapours themselves can climb in a spiral line upwards2 they climb1 however1 and as by continual addition they grow denser1 and1 consequently1 their centrifugal force greater1 and being risen above the concentrating currents that compose the whirl1 fly off1 spread1 and form a cloud4 ,it seems easy to conceive1 how1 by this successive condensation from above1 the spout appears to drop or descend from the cloud1 though the materials of which it is composed are all the while ascending4 ,the condensation of the moisture1 contained in so great a quantity of warm air as may be supposed to rise in a short time in this prodigiously rapid whirl1 is1 perhaps1 sufficient to form a great extent of cloud1 though the spout should be over land1 as those at ,hatfield2 and if the land happens not to be very dusty1 perhaps the lower part of the spout will scarce become visible at all2 though the upper1 or what is commonly called the descending part1 be very distinctly seen4 ,the same may happen at sea1 in case the whirl is not violent enough to make a high vacuum1 and raise the column1 c4 ,in such case1 the upper part ,a ,b ,c ,d only will be visible1 and the bush1 perhaps1 below4 ,but if the whirl be strong1 and there be much dust on the land1 and the column ,w ,w be raised from the water1 then the lower part becomes visible1 and sometimes even united to the upper part4 ,for the dust may be carried up in the spiral whirl1 till it reach the region where the vapour is condensed1 and rise with that even to the clouds3 and the friction of the whirling air1 on the sides of the column ,w ,w1 may detach great quantities of its water1 break it into drops1 and carry them up in the spiral whirl mixed with the air2 the heavier drops may1 indeed1 fly off1 and fall1 in a shower1 round the spout2 but much of it will be broken into vapour1 yet visible2 and thus1 in both cases1 by dust at land1 and1 by water at sea1 the whole tube may be darkened and rendered visible4 ,as the whirl weakens1 the tube may 7in appearance7 separate in the middle2 the column of water subsiding1 and the superior condensed part drawing up to the cloud4 ,yet still the tube1 or whirl of air1 may remain entire1 the middle only becoming invisible1 as not containing visible matter4 ,dr4 ,stuart says1 ,it was observable of all the spouts he saw1 but more perceptible of the great one2 that2 towards the end1 it began to appear like a hollow canal1 only black in the borders1 but white in the middle2 and though at first it was altogether black and opaque1 yet1 now1 one could very distinctly perceive the sea-water to fly up along the middle of this canal1 as smoak up a chimney4 ,and ,dr4 ,mather1 describing a whirlwind1 says1 a thick dark small cloud arose1 with a pillar of light in it1 of about eight or ten feet diameter1 and passed along the ground in a tract not wider than a street1 horribly tearing up trees by the roots1 blowing them up in the air like feathers1 and throwing up stones of great weight to a considerable height in the air1 c4 ,illustration3 7cross-section of a whirlwind7 ,these accounts1 the one of water-spouts1 the other of a whirlwind1 seem1 in this particular1 to agree2 what one gentleman describes as a tube1 black in the borders1 and white in the middle1 the other calls a black cloud1 with a pillar of light in it2 the latter expression has only a little more of the marvellous1 but the thing is the same2 and it seems not very difficult to understand4 ,when ,dr4 ,stuart's spouts were full charged1 that is1 when the whirling pipe of air was filled between a a a a and b b b b1 ,fig4 ,i41 with quantities of drops1 and vapour torn off from the column ,w ,w1 ,fig4 ,,ii41 the whole was rendered so dark1 as that it could not be seen thro'1 nor the spiral ascending motion discovered2 but when the quantity ascending lessened1 the pipe became more transparent1 and the ascending motion visible4 ,for1 by inspection of the figure in the opposite page1 representing a section of our spout1 with the vacuum in the middle1 it is plain that if we look at such a hollow pipe in the direction of the arrows1 and suppose opaque particles to be equally mixed in the space between the two circular lines1 both the part between the arrows a and b1 and that between the arrows c and d1 will appear much darker than that between b and c1 as there must be many more of those opaque particles in the line of vision across the sides1 than across the middle4 ,it is thus that a hair in a microscope evidently appears to be a pipe1 the sides shewing darker than the middle4 ,dr4 ,mather's whirl was probably filled with dust1 the sides were very dark1 but the vacuum within rendering the middle more transparent1 he calls it a pillar of light4 ,it was in this more transparent part1 between b and c1 that ,stuart could see the spiral motion of the vapours1 whose lines on the nearest and farthest side of the transparent part crossing each other1 represented smoak ascending in a chimney2 for the quantity being still too great in the line of sight through the sides of the tube1 the motion could not be discovered there1 and so they represented the solid sides of the chimney4 ,when the vapours reach in the pipe from the clouds near to the earth1 it is no wonder now to those who understand electricity1 that flashes of lightning should descend by the spout1 as in that of ,rome4 ,but you object1 if water may be thus carried into the clouds1 why have we not salt rains8 ,the objection is strong and reasonable1 and ,i know not whether ,i can answer it to your satisfaction4 ,i never heard but of one salt rain1 and that was where a spout passed pretty near a ship1 so ,i suppose it to be only the drops thrown off from the spout1 by the centrifugal force 7as the birds were at ,hatfield7 when they had been carried so high as to be above1 or to be too strongly centrifugal for1 the pressure of the concurring winds surrounding it3 and1 indeed1 ,i believe there can be no other kind of salt rain2 for it has pleased the goodness of ,god so to order it1 that the particles of air will not attract the particles of salt1 though they strongly attract water4 ,hence1 though all metals1 even gold1 may be united with air1 and rendered volatile1 salt remains fixt in the fire1 and no heat can force it up to any considerable height1 or oblige the air to hold it4 ,hence1 when salt rises1 as it will a little way1 into air with water1 there is instantly a separation made2 the particles of water adhere to the air1 and the particles of salt fall down again1 as if repelled and forced off from the water by some power in the air2 or1 as some metals1 dissolved in a proper menstruum1 will quit the solvent when other matter approaches1 and adhere to that1 so the water quits the salt1 and embraces the air2 but air will not embrace the salt1 and quit the water1 otherwise our rains would indeed be salt1 and every tree and plant on the face of the earth be destroyed1 with all the animals that depend on them for subsistence4----,he who hath proportioned and given proper qualities to all things1 was not unmindful of this4 ,let us adore ,,him with praise and thanksgiving6 ,by some accounts of seamen1 it seems the column of water ,w ,w1 sometimes falls suddenly2 and if it be1 as some say1 fifteen or twenty yards diameter1 it must fall with great force1 and they may well fear for their ships4 ,by one account1 in the ,transactions1 of a spout that fell at ,colne in ,lancashire1 one would think the column is sometimes lifted off from the water1 and carried over land1 and there let fall in a body2 but this1 ,i suppose1 happens rarely4 ,stuart describes his spouts as appearing no bigger than a mast1 and sometimes less2 but they were seen at a league and a half distance4 ,i think ,i formerly read in ,dampier1 or some other voyager1 that a spout1 in its progressive motion1 went over a ship becalmed1 on the coast of ,guinea1 and first threw her down on one side1 carrying away her foremast1 then suddenly whipped her up1 and threw her down on the other side1 carrying away her mizen-mast1 and the whole was over in an instant4 ,i suppose the first mischief was done by the fore-side of the whirl1 the latter by the hinder-side1 their motion being contrary4 ,i suppose a whirlwind1 or spout1 may be stationary1 when the concurring winds are equal2 but if unequal1 the whirl acquires a progressive motion1 in the direction of the strongest pressure4 ,when the wind that gives the progressive motion becomes stronger below than above1 or above than below1 the spout will be bent1 and1 the cause ceasing1 straiten again4 ,your queries1 towards the end of your paper1 appear judicious1 and worth considering4 ,at present ,i am not furnished with facts sufficient to make any pertinent answer to them2 and this paper has already a sufficient quantity of conjecture4 ,your manner of accommodating the accounts to your hypothesis of descending spouts1 is1 ,i own1 ingenious1 and perhaps that hypothesis may be true4 ,i will consider it farther1 but1 as yet1 ,i am not satisfied with it1 though hereafter ,i may be4 ,here you have my method of accounting for the principal phenomena1 which ,i submit to your candid examination4 ,and as ,i now seem to have almost written a book1 instead of a letter1 you will think it high time ,i should conclude2 which ,i beg leave to do1 with assuring you1 that ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #f ,perkins4 ,editor4 ,,doctor ,m----#g1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,philadelphia4 ,description of a ,water-,spout at ,antigua4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #bd1 #agef4 ,new-,brunswick1 ,november #aa1 #ageb4 ,,sir1 ,i am favoured with your letter of the #b;d instant1 and shall1 with pleasure1 comply with your request1 in describing 7as well as my memory serves me7 the water-spout ,i saw at ,antigua2 and shall think this1 or any other service ,i can do1 well repaid1 if it contributes to your satisfaction in so curious a disquisition4 ,i had often seen water-spouts at a distance1 and heard many strange stories of them1 but never knew any thing satisfactory of their nature or cause1 until that which ,i saw at ,antigua2 which convinced me that a water-spout is a whirlwind1 which becomes visible in all its dimensions by the water it carries up with it4 ,there appeared1 not far from the mouth of the harbour of ,st4 ,john's1 two or three water-spouts1 one of which took its course up the harbour4 ,its progressive motion was slow and unequal1 not in a strait line1 but1 as it were1 by jerks or starts4 ,when just by the wharf1 ,i stood about one hundred yards from it4 ,there appeared in the water a circle of about twenty yards diameter1 which1 to me1 had a dreadful1 though pleasing appearance4 ,the water in this circle was violently agitated1 being whisked about1 and carried up into the air with great rapidity and noise1 and reflected a lustre1 as if the sun shined bright on that spot1 which was more conspicuous1 as there appeared a dark circle around it4 ,when it made the shore1 it carried up with the same violence shingles1 staves#h1 large pieces of the roofs of houses1 c4 and one small wooden house it lifted entire from the foundation on which it stood1 and carried it to the distance of fourteen feet1 where it settled without breaking or oversetting2 and1 what is remarkable1 though the whirlwind moved from west to east1 the house moved from east to west4 ,two or three negroes and a white woman1 were killed by the fall of timber1 which it carried up into the air and dropped again4 ,after passing through the town1 ,i believe it was soon dissipated2 for1 except tearing a large limb from a tree1 and part of the cover of a sugar-work near the town1 ,i do not remember any farther damage done by it4 ,i conclude1 wishing you success in your enquiry1 ,and am1 c4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,dr4 ,mercer4 ,editor4 #h ,i suppose shingles1 staves1 timber1 and other lumber1 might be lying in quantities on the wharf1 for sale1 as brought from the northern colonies4 ,b4 ,f4 ,,doctor ----#i1 ,,of ,,boston1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,philadelphia4 ,shooting ,stars4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,july #h1 #agef4 ,boston1 ,may #ad1 #agec4 ,,sir1 ,i received your letter of ,april last1 and thank you for it4 ,several things in it make me at a loss which side the truth lies on1 and determine me to wait for farther evidence4 ,as to shooting-stars1 as they are called1 ,i know very little1 and hardly know what to say4 ,i imagine them to be passes of electric fire from place to place in the atmosphere1 perhaps occasioned by accidental pressures of a non-electric circumambient fluid1 and so by propulsion1 or allicited by the circumstance of a distant quantity minus electrified1 which it shoots to supply1 and becomes apparent by its contracted passage through a non-electric medium4 ,electric fire in our globe is always in action1 sometimes ascending1 descending1 or passing from region to region4 ,i suppose it avoids too dry air1 and therefore we never see these shoots ascend4 ,it always has freedom enough to pass down unobserved1 but1 ,i imagine1 not always so1 to pass to distant climes and meridians less stored with it4 ,the shoots are sometimes all one way1 which1 in the last case1 they should be4 ,possibly there may be collections of particles in our atmosphere1 which gradually form1 by attraction1 either similar ones per se1 or dissimilar particles1 by the intervention of others4 ,but then1 whether they shoot or explode of themselves1 or by the approach of some suitable foreign collection1 accidentally brought near by the usual commotions and interchanges of our atmosphere1 especially when the higher and lower regions intermix1 before change of winds and weather1 ,i leave4 ,i believe ,i have now said enough of what ,i know nothing about4 ,if it should serve for your amusement1 or any way oblige you1 it is all ,i aim at1 and shall1 at your desire1 be always ready to say what ,i think1 as ,i am sure of your candour4 ,i am1 c4 ,,footnote3 #i ,dr4 ,perkins4 ,editor4 ,a subsequent ,paper from the same4 ,water-,spouts and ,whirlwinds4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,july #h1 #agef4 ,spouts have been generally believed ascents of water from below1 to the region of the clouds1 and whirlwinds the means of conveyance4 ,the world has been very well satisfied with these opinions1 and prejudiced with respect to any observations about them4 ,men of learning and capacity have had many opportunities in passing those regions where these phenomena were most frequent1 but seem industriously to have declined any notice of them1 unless to escape danger1 as a matter of mere impertinence in a case so clear and certain as their nature and manner of operation are taken to be4 ,hence it has been very difficult to get any tolerable accounts of them4 ,none but those they fell near can inform us any thing to be depended on2 three or four such instances follow1 where the vessels were so near1 that their crews could not avoid knowing something remarkable with respect to the matters in question4 ,capt4 ,john ,wakefield1 junior1 passing the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 had one fall by the side of his ship2 it came down of a sudden1 as they think1 and all agree the descent was certain4 ,captain ,langstaff1 on a voyage to the ,west ,indies1 had one come across the stern of his vessel1 and passed away from him4 ,the water came down in such quantity that the present ,captain ,melling1 who was then a common sailor at helm1 says it almost drowned him1 running into his mouth1 nose1 ears1 c4 and adds1 that it tasted perfectly fresh4 ,one passed by the side of ,captain ,howland's ship1 so near that it appeared pretty plain that the water descended from first to last4 ,mr4 ,robert ,spring was so near one in the ,straits of ,malacca1 that he could perceive it to be a small very thick rain4 ,all these assure me1 that there was no wind drawing towards them1 nor have ,i found any others that have observed such a wind4 ,it seems plain1 by these few instances1 that whirlwinds do not always attend spouts2 and that the water really descends in some of them4 ,but the following consideration1 in confirmation of this opinion1 may1 perhaps1 render it probable that all the spouts are descents4 ,it seems unlikely that there should be two sorts of spouts1 one ascending and the other descending4 ,it has not yet been proved that any one spout ever ascended4 ,a specious appearance is all that can be produced in favour of this2 and those who have been most positive about it1 were at more than a league's distance when they observed1 as ,stuart and others1 if ,i am not mistaken4 ,however1 ,i believe it impossible to be certain whether water ascends or descends at half the distance4 ,it may not be amiss to consider the places where they happen most4 ,these are such as are liable to calms from departing winds on both sides1 as on the borders of the equinoctial trade1 calms on the coast of ,guinea1 in the ,straits of ,malacca1 c4 places where the under region of the atmosphere is drawn off horizontally4 ,i think they do not come where the calms are without departing winds2 and ,i take the reason to be1 that such places1 and places where winds blow towards one another1 are liable to whirlwinds1 or other ascents of the lower region1 which ,i suppose contrary to spouts4 ,but the former are liable to descents1 which ,i take to be necessary to their production4 ,agreeable to this1 it seems reasonable to believe1 that any ,mediterranean sea should be more subject to spouts than others4 ,the sea usually so called is so4 ,the ,straits of ,malacca is4 ,some large gulphs may probably be so1 in suitable latitudes2 so the ,red ,sea1 c4 and all for this reason1 that the heated lands on each side draw off the under region of the air1 and make the upper descend1 whence sudden and wonderful condensations may take place1 and make these descents4 ,it seems to me1 that the manner of their appearance and procedure1 favour the notion of a descent4 ,more or less of a cloud1 as ,i am informed1 always appears over the place first2 then a spattering on the surface of the water below2 and when this is advanced to a considerable degree1 the spout emerges from the cloud1 and descends1 and that1 if the causes are sufficient1 down to the places of spattering1 with a roaring in proportion to the quantity of the discharge2 then it abates1 or stops1 sometimes more gradually1 sometimes more suddenly4 ,i must observe a few things on these particulars1 to shew how ,i think they agree with my hypothesis4 ,the preceding cloud over the place shews condensation1 and1 consequently1 tendency downwards1 which therefore must naturally prevent any ascent4 ,besides that1 so far as ,i can learn1 a whirlwind never comes under a cloud1 but in a clear sky4 ,the spattering may be easily conceived to be caused by a stream of drops1 falling with great force on the place1 imagining the spout to begin so1 when a sudden and great condensation happens in a contracted space1 as the ,ox-,eye on the coast of ,guinea4 ,the spout appearing to descend from the cloud seems to be1 by the stream of nearly contiguous drops bringing the air into consent1 so as to carry down a quantity of the vapour of the cloud2 and the pointed appearance it makes may be from the descending course being swiftest in the middle1 or centre of the spout3 this naturally drawing the outer parts inward1 and the centre to a point2 and that will appear foremost that moves swiftest4 ,the phenomenon of retiring and advancing1 ,i think may be accounted for1 by supposing the progressive motion to exceed or not equal the consumption of the vapour by condensation4 ,or more plainly thus3 the descending vapour which forms the apparent spout1 if it be slow in its progress downwards1 is condensed as fast as it advances1 and so appears at a stand2 when it is condensed faster than it advances1 it appears to retire2 and vice versa4 ,its duration1 and manner of ending1 are as the causes1 and may vary by several accidents4 ,the cloud itself may be so circumstanced as to stop it2 as when1 extending wide1 it weighs down at a distance round about1 while a small circle at the spout being exonerated by the discharge ascends and shuts up the passage4 ,a new determination of wind may1 perhaps1 stop it too4 ,places liable to these appearances are very liable to frequent and sudden alterations of it4 ,such accidents as a clap of thunder1 firing cannon1 c4 may stop them1 and the reason may be1 that any shock of this kind may occasion the particles that are near cohering1 immediately to do so2 and then the whole1 thus condensed1 falls at once 7which is what ,i suppose is vulgarly called the breaking of the spout7 and in the interval1 between this period and that of the next set of particles being ready to unite1 the spout shuts up4 ,so that if this reasoning is just1 these phenomena agree with my hypothesis4 ,the usual temper of the air1 at the time of their appearance1 if ,i have a right information1 is for me to2 it being then pretty cool for the season and climate2 and this is worth remark1 because cool air is weighty1 and will not ascend2 besides1 when the air grows cool1 it shews that the upper region descends1 and conveys this temper down2 and when the tempers are equal1 no whirlwind can take place4 ,but spouts have been known1 when the lower region has been really cold4 ,gordon's spout in the ,downs is an instance of this--7,vide ,philosophical ,transactions7--where the upper region was probably not at all cooler1 if so cold as the lower3 it was a cold day in the month of ,march1 hail followed1 but not snow1 and it is observable1 that not so much as hail follows or accompanies them in moderate seasons or climes1 when and where they are most frequent4 ,however1 it is not improbable1 that just about the place of descent may be cooler than the neighbouring parts1 and so favour the wonderful celerity of condensation4 ,but1 after all1 should we allow the under region to be ever so much the hottest1 and a whirlwind to take place in it3 suppose then the sea-water to ascend1 it would certainly cool the spout1 and then1 query1 whether it would not very much1 if not wholly1 obstruct its progress4 ,it commonly rains when spouts disappear1 if it did not before1 which it frequently does not1 by the best accounts ,i have had2 but the cloud encreases much faster after they disappear1 and it soon rains4 ,the first shews the spout to be a contracted rain1 instead of the diffused one that follows2 and the latter that the cloud was not formed by ascending water1 for then it would have ceased growing when the spout vanished4 ,however1 it seems that spouts have sometimes appeared after it began to rain2 but this is one way a proof of my hypothesis1 viz4 as whirlwinds do not come under a cloud4 ,i forgot to mention1 that the increase of cloud1 while the spout subsists1 is no argument of an ascent of water1 by the spout4 ,since thunder-clouds sometimes encrease greatly while it rains very hard4 ,divers effects of spouts seem not so well accounted for any other way as by descent4 ,the bush round the feet of them seems to be a great spray of water made by the violence of descent1 like that in great falls of water from high precipices4 ,the great roar1 like some vast inland falls1 is so different from the roar of whirlwinds1 by all acounts1 as to be no ways compatible4 ,the throwing things from it with great force1 instead of carrying them up into the air1 is another difference4 ,there seems some probability that the sailors traditionary belief1 that spouts may break in their decks1 and so destroy vessels1 might originate from some facts of that sort in former times4 ,this danger is apparent on my hypothesis1 but it seems not so on the other3 and my reason for it is1 that the whole column of a spout from the sea to the clouds1 cannot1 in a natural way1 even upon the largest supposition1 support more than about three feet water1 and from truly supposeable causes1 not above one foot1 as may appear more plainly by and by4 ,supposing now the largest of these quantities to rise1 it must be disseminated into drops1 from the surface of the sea to the region of the clouds1 or higher2 for this reason it is quite unlikely to be collected into masses1 or a body1 upon its falling2 but would descend in progression according to the several degrees of altitude the different portions had arrived at when it received this new determination4 ,now that there cannot more rise upon the common hypothesis than ,i have mentioned1 may appear probable1 if we attend to the only efficient cause in supposed ascending spouts1 viz4 whirlwinds4 ,we know that the rarefaction of the lower1 and the condensation of the upper region of air1 are the only natural causes of whirlwinds4 ,let us then suppose the former as hot as their greatest summer heat in ,england1 and the latter as cold as the extent of their winter4 ,these extremes have been found there to alter the weight of the air one-tenth1 which is equal to a little more than three feet water4 ,were this case possible1 and a whirlwind take place in it1 it might act with a force equal to the mentioned difference4 ,but as this is the whole strength1 so much water could not rise2 therefore to allow it due motion upwards1 we must abate1 at least1 one-fourth part1 perhaps more1 to give it such a swift ascension as some think usual4 ,but here several difficulties occur1 at least they are so to me4 ,as1 whether this quantity would render the spout opaque8 since it is plain that in drops it could not do so4 ,how1 or by what means it may be reduced small enough8 or1 if the water be not reduced into vapour1 what will suspend it in the region of the clouds when exonerated there8 ,and1 if vapourized while ascending1 how can it be dangerous by what they call the breaking8 ,for it is difficult to conceive how a condensative power should instantaneously take place of a rarefying and disseminating one4 ,the sudden fall of the spout1 or rather1 the sudden ceasing of it1 ,i accounted for1 in my way1 before4 ,but it seems necessary to mention something ,i then forgot4 ,should it be said to do so 7i4 e47 to fall1 because all the lower rarefied air is ascended1 whence the whirlwind must cease1 and its burden drop2 ,i cannot agree to this1 unless the air be observed on a sudden to have grown much colder1 which ,i cannot learn has been the case4 ,or should it be supposed that the spout was1 on a sudden1 obstructed at the top1 and this the cause of the fall1 however plausible this might appear1 yet no more water would fall than what was at the same time contained in the column1 which is often1 by many and satisfactory accounts to me1 again far from being the case4 ,we are1 ,i think1 sufficiently assured1 that not only tons1 but scores or hundreds of tons descend in one spout4 ,scores of tons more than can be contained in the trunk of it1 should we suppose water to ascend4 ,but1 after all1 it does not appear that the above-mentioned different degrees of heat and cold concur in any region where spouts usually happen1 nor1 indeed1 in any other4 ,observations on the ,meteorological ,paper2 by a ,gentleman in ,connecticut4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,nov4 #d1 #agef4 ,air and water mutually attract each other1 7saith ,mr4 ,f47 hence water will dissolve in air1 as salt in water4 ,i think that he hath demonstrated1 that the supporting of salt in water is not owing to its superficies being increased1 because the specific gravity of salt is not altered by dividing of it1 any more than that of lead1 sixteen bullets of which1 of an ounce each1 weigh as much in water as one of a pound4 ,but yet1 when this came to be applied to the supporting of water in air1 ,i found an objection rising in my mind4 ,in the first place1 ,i have always been loth to seek for any new hypothesis1 or particular law of nature1 to account for any thing that may be accounted for from the known1 general1 and universal law of nature2 it being an argument of the infinite wisdom of the author of the world1 to effect so many things by one general law4 ,now ,i had thought that the rising and support of water in air1 might be accounted for from the general law of gravitation1 by only supposing the spaces occupied by the same quantity of water increased4 ,and1 with respect to the lead1 ,i queried thus in my own mind2 whether if the superficies of a bullet of lead should be increased four or five fold by an internal vacuity1 it would weigh the same in water as before4 ,i mean1 if a pound of lead should be formed into a hollow globe1 empty within1 whose superficies should be four or five times as big as that of the same lead when a solid lump1 it would weigh as much in water as before4 ,i supposed it would not4 ,if this concavity was filled with water1 perhaps it might2 if with air1 it would weigh at least as much less1 as this difference between the weight of that included air1 and that of water4 ,now although this would do nothing to account for the dissolution of salt in water1 the smallest lumps of salt being no more hollow spheres1 or any thing of the like nature than the greatest2 yet1 perhaps1 it might account for water's rising and being supported in air4 ,for you know that such hollow globules1 or bubbles1 abound upon the surface of the water1 which even by the breath of our mouths1 we can cause to quit the water1 and rise in the air4 ,these bubbles ,i used to suppose to be coats of water1 containing within them air rarefied and expanded with fire1 and that1 therefore1 the more friction and dashing there is upon the surface of the waters1 and the more heat and fire1 the more they abound4 ,and ,i used to think1 that although water be specifically heavier than air1 yet such a bubble1 filled only with fire and very rarefied air1 may be lighter than a quantity of common air1 of the same cubical dimensions1 and1 therefore1 ascend2 for the rarefied air inclosed1 may more fall short of the same bulk of common air1 in weight1 than the watery coat exceeds a like bulk of common air in gravity4 ,this was the objection in my mind1 though1 ,i must confess1 ,i know not how to account for the watery coat's encompassing the air1 as above-mentioned1 without allowing the attraction between air and water1 which the gentleman supposes2 so that ,i do not know but that this objection1 examined by that sagacious genius1 will be an additional confirmation of the hypothesis4 ,the gentleman observes1 that a certain quantity of moisture should be every moment discharged and taken away from the lungs2 and hence accounts for the suffocating nature of snuffs of candles1 as impregnating the air with grease1 between which and water there is a natural repellency2 and of air that hath been frequently breathed in1 which is overloaded with water1 and1 for that reason1 can take no more air4 ,perhaps the same observation will account for the suffocating nature of damps in wells4 ,but then if the air can support and take off but such a proportion of water1 and it is necessary that water be so taken off from the lungs1 ,i queried with myself how it is we can breathe in an air full of vapours1 so full as that they continually precipitated4 ,do not we see the air overloaded1 and casting forth water plentifully when there is no suffocation8 ,the gentleman again observes1 ,that the air under the equator1 and between the tropics1 being constantly heated and rarefied by the sun1 rises2 its place is supplied by air from northern and southern latitudes1 which1 coming from parts where the air and earth had less motion1 and not suddenly acquiring the quicker motion of the equatorial earth1 appears an east wind blowing westward2 the earth moving from west to east1 and slipping under the air4 ,in reading this1 two objections occurred to my mind3 ,first1 that it is said1 the trade-wind doth not blow in the forenoon1 but only in the afternoon4 ,secondly1 that either the motion of the northern and southern air towards the equator is so slow1 as to acquire almost the same motion as the equatorial air when it arrives there1 so that there will be no sensible difference2 or else the motion of the northern and southern air towards the equator1 is quicker1 and must be sensible2 and then the trade-wind must appear either as a south-east or north-east wind3 south of the equator1 a south-east wind2 north of the equator1 a north-east4 ,for the apparent wind must be compounded of this motion from north to south1 or vice versa2 and of the difference between its motion from west to east1 and that of the equatorial air4 ,observations in ,answer to the foregoing1 by ,b4 ,franklin4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,nov4 #d1 #agef4 #ast4 ,the supposing a mutual attraction between the particles of water and air is not introducing a new law of nature2 such attractions taking place in many other known instances4 #b;dly4 ,water is specifically #hej times heavier than air4 ,to render a bubble of water1 then1 specifically lighter than air1 it seems to me that it must take up more than #hej times the space it did before it formed the bubble2 and within the bubble should be either a vacuum or air rarefied more than #hej times4 ,if a vacuum1 would not the bubble be immediately crushed by the weight of the atmosphere8 ,and no heat1 we know of1 will rarefy air any thing near so much2 much less the common heat of the sun1 or that of friction by the dashing on the surface of the water4 ,besides1 water agitated ever so violently produces no heat1 as has been found by accurate experiments4 #c;dly4 ,a hollow sphere of lead has a firmness and consistency in it1 that a hollow sphere or bubble of fluid unfrozen water cannot be supposed to have4 ,the lead may support the pressure of the water it is immersed in1 but the bubble could not support the pressure of the air1 if empty within4 #dthly4 ,was ever a visible bubble seen to rise in air8 ,i have made many1 when a boy1 with soap-suds and a tobacco-pipe2 but they all descended when loose from the pipe1 though slowly1 the air impeding their motion4 ,they may1 indeed1 be forced up by a wind from below1 but do not rise of themselves1 though filled with warm breath4 #ethly4 ,the objection relating to our breathing moist air seems weighty1 and must be farther considered4 ,the air that has been breathed has1 doubtless1 acquired an addition of the perspirable matter which nature intends to free the body from1 and which would be pernicious if retained and returned into the blood2 such air then may become unfit for respiration1 as well for that reason1 as on account of its moisture4 ,yet ,i should be glad to learn1 by some accurate experiment1 whether a draft of air1 two or three times inspired1 and expired1 perhaps in a bladder1 has1 or has not1 acquired more moisture than our common air in the dampest weather4 ,as to the precipitation of water in the air we breathe1 perhaps it is not always a mark of that air's being overloaded4 ,in the region of the clouds1 indeed1 the air must be overloaded if it lets fall its water in drops1 which we call rain2 but those drops may fall through a drier air near the earth2 and accordingly we find that the hygroscope sometimes shews a less degree of moisture1 during a shower1 than at other times when it does not rain at all4 ,the dewy dampness1 that settles on the insides of our walls and wainscots1 seems more certainly to denote an air overloaded with moisture2 and yet this is no sure sign3 for1 after a long continued cold season1 if the air grows suddenly warm1 the walls1 c4 continuing longer their coldness1 will1 for some time1 condense the moisture of such air1 till they grow equally warm1 and then they condense no more1 though the air is not become drier4 ,and1 on the other hand1 after a warm season1 if the air grows cold1 though moister than before1 the dew is not so apt to gather on the walls4 ,a tankard of cold water will1 in a hot and dry summer's day1 collect a dew on its outside2 a tankard of hot water will collect none in the moistest weather4 #fthly4 ,it is1 ,i think1 a mistake that the trade-winds blow only in the afternoon4 ,they blow all day and all night1 and all the year round1 except in some particular places4 ,the southerly sea-breezes on your coasts1 indeed1 blow chiefly in the afternoon4 ,in the very long run from the west side of ,america to ,guam1 among the ,philippine ,islands1 ships seldom have occasion to hand their sails1 so equal and steady is the gale1 and yet they make it in about #fj days1 which could not be if the wind blew only in the afternoon4 #gthly4 ,that really is1 which the gentleman justly supposes ought to be on my hypothesis4 ,in sailing southward1 when you first enter the trade-wind1 you find it north-east1 or thereabouts1 and it gradually grows more east as you approach the line4 ,the same observation is made of its changing from south-east to east gradually1 as you come from the southern latitudes to the equator4 ,observations on the ,meteorological ,paper2 sent by a ,gentleman#aj in ,new-,york to ,b4 ,franklin4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,nov4 #d1 #agef4 ,that power by which the air expands itself1 you attribute to a mutual repelling power in the particles which compose the air1 by which they are separated from each other with some degree of force3 now this force1 on this supposition1 must not only act when the particles are in mutual contact1 but likewise when they are at some distance from each other4 ,how can two bodies1 whether they be great or small1 act at any distance1 whether that distance be small or great1 without something intermediate on which they act8 ,for if any body act on another1 at any distance from it1 however small that distance be1 without some medium to continue the action1 it must act where it is not1 which to me seems absurd4 ,it seems to me1 for the same reason1 equally absurd to give a mutual attractive power between any other particles supposed to be at a distance from each other1 without any thing intermediate to continue their mutual action4 ,i can neither attract nor repel any thing at a distance1 without something between my hand and that thing1 like a string1 or a stick2 nor can ,i conceive any mutual action without some middle thing1 when the action is continued to some distance4 ,the encrease of the surface of any body lessens its weight1 both in air1 and water1 or any other fluid1 as appears by the slow descent of leaf-gold in the air4 ,the observation of the different density of the upper and lower air1 from heat and cold1 is good1 and ,i do not remember it is taken notice of by others2 the consequences also are well drawn2 but as to winds1 they seem principally to arise from some other cause4 ,winds generally blow from some large tracts of land1 and from mountains4 ,where ,i live1 on the north side of the mountains1 we frequently have a strong southerly wind1 when they have as strong a northerly wind1 or calm1 on the other side of these mountains4 ,the continual passing of vessels on ,hudson's ,river1 through these mountains1 give frequent opportunities of observing this4 ,in the spring of the year the sea-wind 7by a piercing cold7 is always more uneasy to me1 accustomed to winds which pass over a tract of land1 than the north-west wind4 ,you have received the common notion of water-spouts1 which1 from my own ocular observation1 ,i am persuaded is a false conception4 ,in a voyage to the ,west-,indies1 ,i had an opportunity of observing many water-spouts4 ,one of them passed nearer than thirty or forty yards to the vessel ,i was in1 which ,i viewed with a good deal of attention2 and though it be now forty years since ,i saw it1 it made so strong an impression on me1 that ,i very distinctly remember it4 ,these water-spouts were in the calm latitudes1 that is1 between the trade and the variable winds1 in the month of ,july4 ,that spout which passed so near us was an inverted cone1 with the tip or apex towards the sea1 and reached within about eight feet of the surface of the sea1 its basis in a large black cloud4 ,we were entirely becalmed4 ,it passed slowly by the vessel4 ,i could plainly observe1 that a violent stream of wind issued from the spout1 which made a hollow of about six feet diameter in the surface of the water1 and raised the water in a circular uneven ring round the hollow1 in the same manner that a strong blast from a pair of bellows would do when the pipe is placed perpendicular to the surface of the water2 and we plainly heard the same hissing noise which such a blast of wind must produce on the water4 ,i am very sure there was nothing like the sucking of water from the sea into the spout1 unless the spray1 which was raised in a ring to a small height1 could be mistaken for a raising of water4 ,i could plainly distinguish a distance of about eight feet between the sea and the tip of the cone1 in which nothing interrupted the sight1 which must have been1 had the water been raised from the sea4 ,in the same voyage ,i saw several other spouts at a greater distance1 but none of them whose tip of the cone came so near the surface of the water4 ,in some of them the axis of the cone was considerably inclined from the perpendicular1 but in none of them was there the least appearance of sucking up of water4 ,others of them were bent or arched4 ,i believe that a stream of wind issued from all of them1 and it is from this stream of wind that vessels are often overset1 or founder at sea suddenly4 ,i have heard of vessels being overset when it was perfectly calm1 the instant before the stream of wind struck them1 and immediately after they were overset2 which could not otherwise be but by such a stream of wind from a cloud4 ,that wind is generated in clouds will not admit of a dispute4 ,now if such wind be generated within the body of the cloud1 and issue in one particular place1 while it finds no passage in the other parts of the cloud1 ,i think it may not be difficult to account for all the appearances in water-spouts2 and from hence the reason of breaking those spouts1 by firing a cannon-ball through them1 as thereby a horizontal vent is given to the wind4 ,when the wind is spent1 which dilated the cloud1 or the fermentation ceases1 which generates the air and wind1 the clouds may descend in a prodigious fall of water or rain4 ,a remarkable intestine motion1 like a violent fermentation1 is very observable in the cloud from whence the spout issues4 ,no salt-water1 ,i am persuaded1 was ever observed to fall from the clouds1 which must certainly have happened if sea-water had been raised by a spout4 ,,footnote3 #aj ,mr4 ,cadwallader ,colden4 ,editor4 ,answer to the foregoing ,observations1 by ,b4 ,franklin4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,,nov4 #d1 #agef4 ,i agree with you1 that it seems absurd to suppose that a body can act where it is not4 ,i have no idea of bodies at a distance attracting or repelling one another without the assistance of some medium1 though ,i know not what that medium is1 or how it operates4 ,when ,i speak of attraction or repulsion1 ,i make use of those words for want of others more proper1 and intend only to express effects which ,i see1 and not causes of which ,i am ignorant4 ,when ,i press a blown bladder between my knees1 and find ,i cannot bring its sides together1 but my knees feel a springy matter1 pushing them back to a greater distance1 or repelling them1 ,i conclude that the air it contains is the cause4 ,and when ,i operate on the air1 and find ,i cannot by pressure force its particles into contact1 but they still spring back against the pressure1 ,i conceive there must be some medium between its particles that prevents their closing1 though ,i cannot tell what it is4 ,and if ,i were acquainted with that medium1 and found its particles to approach and recede from each other1 according to the pressure they suffered1 ,i should imagine there must be some finer medium between them1 by which these operations were performed4 ,i allow that increase of the surface of a body may occasion it to descend slower in air1 water1 or any other fluid2 but do not conceive1 therefore1 that it lessens its weight4 ,where the increased surface is so disposed as that in its falling a greater quantity of the fluid it sinks in must be moved out of its way1 a greater time is required for such removal4 ,four square feet of sheet-lead sinking in water broadways1 cannot descend near so fast as it would edgeways1 yet its weight in the hydrostatic balance would1 ,i imagine1 be the same1 whether suspended by the middle or by the corner4 ,i make no doubt but that ridges of high mountains do often interrupt1 stop1 reverberate1 or turn the winds that blow against them1 according to the different degrees of strength of the winds1 and angles of incidence4 ,i suppose1 too1 that the cold upper parts of mountains may condense the warmer air that comes near them1 and so by making it specifically heavier1 cause it to descend on one or both sides of the ridge into the warmer valleys1 which will seem a wind blowing from the mountain4 ,damp winds1 though not colder by the thermometer1 give a more uneasy sensation of cold than dry ones2 because 7to speak like an electrician7 they conduct better2 that is1 are better fitted to convey away the heat from our bodies4 ,the body cannot feel without itself2 our sensation of cold is not in the air without the body1 but in those parts of the body which have been deprived of their heat by the air4 ,my desk1 and its lock1 are1 ,i suppose1 of the same temperament when they have been long exposed to the same air2 but now if ,i lay my hand on the wood1 it does not seem so cold to me as the lock2 because 7as ,i imagine7 wood is not so good a conductor1 to receive and convey away the heat from my skin1 and the adjacent flesh1 as metal is4 ,take a piece of wood1 of the size and shape of a dollar1 between the thumb and finger of one hand1 and a dollar1 in like manner1 with the other hand2 place the edges of both1 at the same time1 in the flame of a candle2 and though the edge of the wooden piece takes flame1 and the metal piece does not1 yet you will be obliged to drop the latter before the former1 it conducting the heat more suddenly to your fingers4 ,thus we can1 without pain1 handle glass and china cups filled with hot liquors1 as tea1 c4 but not silver ones4 ,a silver tea-pot must have a wooden handle4 ,perhaps it is for the same reason that woollen garments keep the body warmer than linen ones equally thick2 woollen keeping the natural heat in1 or1 in other words1 not conducting it out to air4 ,in regard to water-spouts1 having1 in a long letter to a gentleman of the same sentiment with you as to their direction1 said all that ,i have to say in support of my opinion2 ,i need not repeat the arguments therein contained1 as ,i intend to send you a copy of it by some other opportunity1 for your perusal4 ,i imagine you will find all the appearances you saw1 accounted for by my hypothesis4 ,i thank you for communicating the account of them4 ,at present ,i would only say1 that the opinion of winds being generated in clouds by fermentation1 is new to me1 and ,i am unacquainted with the facts on which it is founded4 ,i likewise find it difficult to conceive of winds confined in the body of clouds1 which ,i imagine have little more solidity than the fogs on the earth's surface4 ,the objection from the freshness of rain-water is a strong one1 but ,i think ,i have answered it in the letter above-mentioned1 to which ,i must beg leave1 at present1 to refer you4 ,in ,mr4 ,collinson's edition1 there followed here1 several extracts1 on water-spouts1 from ,dampier's ,voyages1 which1 as ,dampier's book is by no means scarce1 and is consequently accessible to the reader1 we have omitted1 and shall content ourselves with giving the references4 ,the extracts are three4 ,the first is from ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dea4 ,the second and third from ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ahb and #bbc4 ,gentleman of ,new ,york in ,reply4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,december #f1 #agef4 ,april #b1 #aged4 ,any knowledge ,i have of the winds1 and other changes which happen in the atmosphere1 is so very defective1 that it does not deserve the name2 neither have ,i received any satisfaction from the attempts of others on this subject4 ,it deserves then your thoughts1 as a subject in which you may distinguish yourself1 and be useful4 ,your notion of some things conducting heat or cold better than others pleases me1 and ,i wish you may pursue the scent4 ,if ,i remember right1 ,dr4 ,boerhaave1 in his chymistry1 thinks that heat is propagated by the vibration of a subtle elastic fluid1 dispersed through the atmosphere and through all bodies4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton says1 there are many phenomena to prove the existence of such a fluid2 and this opinion has my assent to it4 ,i shall only observe that it is essentially different from that which ,i call ether2 for ether1 properly speaking1 is neither a fluid nor elastic2 its power consists in re-acting any action communicated to it1 with the same force it receives the action4 ,i long to see your explication of water-spouts1 but ,i must tell you before-hand1 that it will not be easy for you to convince me that the principal phenomena were not occasioned by a stream of wind issuing with great force1 my eyes and ears both concurring to give me this sentiment1 ,i could have no more evidence than to feel the effects1 which ,i had no inclination to do4 ,it surprises me a little1 that wind1 generated by fermentation1 is new to you1 since it may be every day observed in fermenting liquor4 ,you know with what force fermenting liquors will burst the vessels which contain them1 if the generated wind have not vent2 and with what force it issues on giving it a small vent1 or by drawing the cork of a bottle4 ,dr4 ,boerhaave says1 that the steam issuing from fermenting liquors received through a very small vent-hole1 into the nose1 will kill as suddenly and certainly as lightning4 ,that air is generated by fermentation1 ,i think you will find fully proved in ,dr4 ,hales's ,analysis of the ,air1 in his ,vegetable ,statics4 ,if you have not read the book1 you have a new pleasure to come4 ,the solution you give to the objection ,i made from the contrary winds blowing from the opposite sides of the mountains1 from their being eddies1 does not please me1 because the extent of these winds is by far too large to be occasioned by any eddy4 ,it is forty miles from ,new ,york to our mountains1 through which ,hudson's ,river passes4 ,the river runs twelve miles in the mountains1 and from the north side of the mountains it is about ninety miles to ,albany4 ,i have myself been on board a vessel more than once1 when we have had a strong northerly wind against us1 all the way from ,new ,york1 for two or three days4 ,we have met vessels from ,albany1 who assured us1 that1 on the other side of the mountains1 they had1 at the same time1 a strong continued southerly wind against them2 and this frequently happens4 ,i have frequently seen1 both on the river1 in places where there could be no eddy-weeds1 and on the open sea1 two vessels sailing with contrary winds1 within half a mile of each other2 but this happens only in easy winds1 and generally calm in other places near these winds4 ,you have1 no doubt1 frequently observed a single cloud pass1 from which a violent gust of wind issues1 but of no great extent4 ,i have observed such a gust make a lane through the woods1 of some miles in length1 by laying the trees flat to the ground1 and not above eight or ten chains in breadth4 ,though the violence of the wind be in the same direction in which the cloud moves and precedes it1 yet wind issues from all sides of it2 so that supposing the cloud moves south-easterly1 those on the north-east side of it feel a south-west wind1 and others on the south-west side1 a north-east4 ,and where the cloud passes over1 we frequently have a south-east wind from the hinder part of it1 but none violent1 except the wind in the direction in which the cloud moves4 ,to shew what it is which prevents the wind from issuing out equally on all sides1 is not an easy problem to me1 and ,i shall not attempt to solve it2 but when you shall show what it is which restrains the electrical fluid from spreading itself into the air surrounding it1 when it rushes with great violence through the air along1 or in the conductor1 for a great extent in length1 then ,i may hope to explain the other problem1 and remove the difficulty we have in conceiving it4 ,,to ,,peter ,,collinson1 ,,esq4 ,,london4 ,account of a ,whirlwind at ,maryland4 ,philadelphia1 ,aug4 #be1 #agee4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,as you have my former papers on whirlwinds1 c4 ,i now send you an account of one which ,i had lately an opportunity of seeing and examining myself4 ,being in ,maryland1 riding with ,colonel ,tasker1 and some other gentlemen1 to his country seat1 where ,i and my son were entertained by that amiable and worthy man with great hospitality and kindness1 we saw1 in the vale below us1 a small whirlwind beginning in the road1 and shewing itself by the dust it raised and contained4 ,it appeared in the form of a sugar-loaf1 spinning on its point1 moving up the hill towards us1 and enlarging as it came forward4 ,when it passed by us1 its smaller part near the ground appeared no bigger than a common barrel1 but widening upwards1 it seemed1 at forty or fifty feet high1 to be twenty or thirty feet in diameter4 ,the rest of the company stood looking after it1 but my curiosity being stronger1 ,i followed it1 riding close by its side1 and observed its licking up1 in its progress1 all the dust that was under its smaller part4 ,as it is a common opinion that a shot1 fired through a water-spout1 will break it1 ,i tried to break this little whirlwind1 by striking my whip frequently through it1 but without any effect4 ,soon after1 it quitted the road and took into the woods1 growing every moment larger and stronger1 raising1 instead of dust1 the old dry leaves with which the ground was thick covered1 and making a great noise with them and the branches of the trees1 bending some tall trees round in a circle swiftly and very surprisingly1 though the progressive motion of the whirl was not so swift but that a man on foot might have kept pace with it1 but the circular motion was amazingly rapid4 ,by the leaves it was now filled with1 ,i could plainly perceive that the current of air they were driven by moved upwards in a spiral line2 and when ,i saw the passing whirl continue entire1 after leaving the trunks and bodies of large trees which it had enveloped1 ,i no longer wondered that my whip had no effect on it in its smaller state4 ,i accompanied it about three quarters of a mile1 till some limbs of dead trees1 broken off by the whirl1 flying about1 and falling near me1 made me more apprehensive of danger2 and then ,i stopped1 looking at the top of it as it went on1 which was visible1 by means of the leaves contained in it1 for a very great height above the trees4 ,many of the leaves1 as they got loose from the upper and widest part1 were scattered in the wind2 but so great was their height in the air1 that they appeared no bigger than flies4 ,my son1 who was1 by this time1 come up with me1 followed the whirlwind till it left the woods1 and crossed an old tobacco-field1 where1 finding neither dust nor leaves to take up1 it gradually became invisible below as it went away over that field4 ,the course of the general wind then blowing was along with us as we travelled1 and the progressive motion of the whirlwind was in a direction nearly opposite1 though it did not keep a strait line1 nor was its progressive motion uniform1 it making little sallies on either hand as it went1 proceeding sometimes faster1 and sometimes slower1 and seeming sometimes for a few seconds almost stationary1 then starting forwards pretty fast again4 ,when we rejoined the company1 they were admiring the vast height of the leaves now brought by the common wind1 over our heads4 ,these leaves accompanied us as we travelled1 some falling now and then round about us1 and some not reaching the ground till we had gone near three miles from the place where we first saw the whirlwind begin4 ,upon my asking ,colonel ,tasker if such whirlwinds were common in ,maryland1 he answered pleasantly1 ,no1 not at all common1 but we got this on purpose to treat ,mr4 ,franklin4 ,and a very high treat it was to1 ,dear ,sir1 ,your affectionate friend and humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,alexander ,,small1 ,,london4 ,on the ,north-,east ,storms in ,north ,america4 ,may #ab1 #agfj4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,agreeable to your request1 ,i send you my reasons for thinking that our north-east storms in ,north ,america begin first1 in point of time1 in the south-west parts3 that is to say1 the air in ,georgia1 the farthest of our colonies to the south-west1 begins to move south-westerly before the air of ,carolina1 which is the next colony north-eastward2 the air of ,carolina has the same motion before the air of ,virginia1 which lies still more north-eastward2 and so on north-easterly through ,pensylvania1 ,new-,york1 ,new-,england1 c4 quite to ,newfoundland4 ,these north-east storms are generally very violent1 continue sometimes two or three days1 and often do considerable damage in the harbours along the coast4 ,they are attended with thick clouds and rain4 ,what first gave me this idea1 was the following circumstance4 ,about twenty years ago1 a few more or less1 ,i cannot from my memory be certain1 we were to have an eclipse of the moon at ,philadelphia1 on a ,friday evening1 about nine o'clock4 ,i intended to observe it1 but was prevented by a north-east storm1 which came on about seven1 with thick clouds as usual1 that quite obscured the whole hemisphere4 ,yet when the post brought us the ,boston news-paper1 giving an account of the effects of the same storm in those parts1 ,i found the beginning of the eclipse had been well observed there1 though ,boston lies ,n4 ,e4 of ,philadelphia about four hundred miles4 ,this puzzled me1 because the storm began with us so soon as to prevent any observation1 and being a north-east storm1 ,i imagined it must have begun rather sooner in places farther to the north-east-ward than it did at ,philadelphia4 ,i therefore mentioned it in a letter to my brother1 who lived at ,boston2 and he informed me the storm did not begin with them till near eleven o'clock1 so that they had a good observation of the eclipse3 and upon comparing all the other accounts ,i received from the several colonies1 of the time of beginning of the same storm1 and since that of other storms of the same kind1 ,i found the beginning to be always later the farther north-eastward4 ,i have not my notes with me here in ,england1 and cannot1 from memory1 say the proportion of time to distance1 but ,i think it is about an hour to every hundred miles4 ,from thence ,i formed an idea of the cause of these storms1 which ,i would explain by a familiar instance or two4--,suppose a long canal of water stopped at the end by a gate4 ,the water is quite at rest till the gate is open1 then it begins to move out through the gate2 the water next the gate is first in motion1 and moves towards the gate2 the water next to that first water moves next1 and so on successively1 till the water at the head of the canal is in motion1 which is last of all4 ,in this case all the water moves indeed towards the gate1 but the successive times of beginning motion are the contrary way1 viz4 from the gate backwards to the head of the canal4 ,again1 suppose the air in a chamber at rest1 no current through the room till you make a fire in the chimney4 ,immediately the air in the chimney being rarefied by the fire rises2 the air next the chimney flows in to supply its place1 moving towards the chimney2 and1 in consequence1 the rest of the air successively1 quite back to the door4 ,thus to produce our north-east storms1 ,i suppose some great heat and rarefaction of the air in or about the ,gulph of ,mexico2 the air thence rising has its place supplied by the next more northern1 cooler1 and therefore denser and heavier1 air2 that1 being in motion1 is followed by the next more northern air1 c4 c4 in a successive current1 to which current our coast and inland ridge of mountains give the direction of north-east1 as they lie ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w4 ,this ,i offer only as an hypothesis to account for this particular fact2 and perhaps1 on farther examination1 a better and truer may be found4 ,i do not suppose all storms generated in the same manner4 ,our north-west thunder-gusts in ,america1 ,i know are not2 but of them ,i have written my opinion fully in a paper which you have seen4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,meteorological ,imaginations and ,conjectures#aa4 ,there seems to be a region higher in the air over all countries1 where it is always winter1 where frost exists continually1 since in the midst of summer1 on the surface of the earth1 ice falls often from above in the form of hail4 ,hailstones1 of the great weight we sometimes find them1 did not probably acquire their magnitude before they began to descend4 ,the air1 being eight hundred times rarer than water1 is unable to support it but in the shape of vapour1 a state in which its particles are separated4 ,as soon as they are condensed by the cold of the upper region1 so as to form a drop1 that drop begins to fall4 ,if it freezes into a grain of ice1 that ice descends4 ,in descending1 both the drop of water and the grain of ice are augmented by particles of the vapour they pass through in falling1 and which they condense by coldness1 and attach to themselves4 ,it is possible that1 in summer1 much of what is rain1 when it arrives at the surface of the earth1 might have been snow when it began its descent2 but being thawed1 in passing through the warm air near the surface1 it is changed from snow into rain4 ,how immensely cold must be the original particle of hail1 which forms the centre of the future hailstone1 since it is capable of communicating sufficient cold1 if ,i may so speak1 to freeze all the mass of vapour condensed round it1 and form a lump of perhaps six or eight ounces in weight6 ,when1 in summer time1 the sun is high1 and continues long every day above the horizon1 his rays strike the earth more directly1 and with longer continuance1 than in the winter2 hence the surface is more heated1 and to a greater depth1 by the effect of those rays4 ,when rain falls on the heated earth1 and soaks down into it1 it carries down with it a great part of the heat1 which by that means descends still deeper4 ,the mass of earth1 to the depth perhaps of thirty feet1 being thus heated to a certain degree1 continues to retain its heat for some time4 ,thus the first snows that fall in the beginning of winter1 seldom lie long on the surface1 but are soon melted1 and soon absorbed4 ,after which1 the winds1 that blow over the country on which the snows had fallen1 are not rendered so cold as they would have been1 by those snows1 if they had remained1 and thus the approach of the severity of winter is retarded2 and the extreme degree of its cold is not always at the time we might expect it1 viz4 when the sun is at its greatest distance1 and the day shortest1 but some time after that period1 according to the ,english proverb1 which says1 as the day lengthens1 the cold strengthens2 the causes of refrigeration continuing to operate1 while the sun returns too slowly1 and his force continues too weak to counteract them4 ,during several of the summer months of the year #aghc1 when the effects of the sun's rays to heat the earth in these northern regions should have been the greatest1 there existed a constant fog over all ,europe1 and great part of ,north ,america4 ,this fog was of a permanent nature3 it was dry1 and the rays of the sun seemed to have little effect towards dissipating it1 as they easily do a moist fog1 arising from water4 ,they were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it1 that when collected in the focus of a burning glass1 they would scarce kindle brown paper4 ,of course1 their summer effect in heating the earth was exceedingly diminished4 ,hence the surface was early frozen4 ,hence the first snows remained on it unmelted1 and received continual additions4 ,hence perhaps the winter of #aghc-d1 was more severe than any that had happened for many years4 ,the cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained4 ,whether it was adventitious to this earth1 and merely a smoke proceeding from the consumption by fire of some of those great burning balls or globes which we happen to meet with in our rapid course round the sun1 and which are sometimes seen to kindle and be destroyed in passing our atmosphere1 and whose smoke might be attracted and retained by our earth2 or whether it was the vast quantity of smoke1 long continuing to issue during the summer from ,hecla1 in ,iceland1 and that other volcano which arose out of the sea near that island1 which smoke might be spread by various winds1 over the northern part of the world1 is yet uncertain4 ,it seems however worth the enquiry1 whether other hard winters1 recorded in history1 were preceded by similar permanent and widely extended summer fogs4 ,because1 if found to be so1 men might from such fogs conjecture the probability of a succeeding hard winter1 and of the damage to be expected by the breaking up of frozen rivers in the spring2 and take such measures as are possible and practicable1 to secure themselves and effects from the mischiefs that attended the last4 ,passy1 ,may #aghd4 ,,footnote3 #aa ,this paper is taken from the ,memoirs of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #cgc4 ,it was communicated by ,dr4 ,percival1 and read ,december #bb1 #aghd4 ,editor4 ,suppositions and ,conjectures towards forming an ,hypothesis1 for the ,explanation of the ,aurora ,borealis#ab4 #a4 ,air heated by any means1 becomes rarefied1 and specifically lighter than other air in the same situation not heated4 #b4 ,air being made thus lighter rises1 and the neighbouring cooler heavier air takes its place4 #c4 ,if in the middle of a room you heat the air by a stove1 or pot of burning coals near the floor1 the heated air will rise to the ceiling1 spread over the cooler air till it comes to the cold walls2 there1 being condensed and made heavier1 it descends to supply the place of that cool air1 which had moved towards the stove or fire1 in order to supply the place of the heated air1 which had ascended from the space around the stove or fire4 #d4 ,thus there will be a continual circulation of air in the room2 which may be rendered visible by making a little smoke1 for that smoke will rise and circulate with the air4 #e4 ,a similar operation is performed by nature on the air of this globe4 ,our atmosphere is of a certain height1 perhaps at a medium miles3 above that height it is so rare as to be almost a vacuum4 ,the air heated between the tropics is continually rising2 its place is supplied by northerly and southerly winds1 which come from the cooler regions4 #f4 ,the light heated air1 floating above the cooler and denser1 must spread northward and southward2 and descend near the two poles1 to supply the place of the cool air1 which had moved towards the equator4 #g4 ,thus a circulation of air is kept up in our atmosphere1 as in the room above-mentioned4 #h4 ,that heavier and lighter air may move in currents of different and even opposite direction1 appears sometimes by the clouds that happen to be in those currents1 as plainly as by the smoke in the experiment above-mentioned4 ,also in opening a door between two chambers1 one of which has been warmed1 by holding a candle near the top1 near the bottom1 and near the middle1 you will find a strong current of warm air passing out of the warmed room above1 and another of cool air entering below2 while in the middle there is little or no motion4 #i4 ,the great quantity of vapour rising between the tropics forms clouds1 which contain much electricity4 ,some of them fall in rain1 before they come to the polar regions4 #aj4 ,if the rain be received in an isolated vessel1 the vessel will be electrified2 for every drop brings down some electricity with it4 #aa4 ,the same is done by snow or hail4 #ab4 ,the electricity so descending1 in temperate climates1 is received and imbibed by the earth4 #ac4 ,if the clouds are not sufficiently discharged by this gradual operation1 they sometimes discharge themselves suddenly by striking into the earth1 where the earth is fit to receive their electricity4 #ad4 ,the earth in temperate and warm climates is generally fit to receive it1 being a good conductor4 #ae4 ,a certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors1 that will not otherwise conduct4 #af4 ,thus wax rendered fluid1 and glass softened by heat1 will both of them conduct4 #ag4 ,and water1 though naturally a good conductor1 will not conduct well1 when frozen into ice by a common degree of cold2 not at all1 where the cold is extreme4 #ah4 ,snow falling upon frozen ground has been found to retain its electricity2 and to communicate it to an isolated body1 when after falling1 it has been driven about by the wind4 #ai4 ,the humidity1 contained in all the equatorial clouds that reach the polar regions1 must there be condensed and fall in snow4 #bj4 ,the great cake of ice that eternally covers those regions may be too hard frozen to permit the electricity1 descending with that snow1 to enter the earth4 #ba4 ,it may therefore be accumulated upon that ice4 #bb4 ,the atmosphere being heavier in the polar regions than in the equatorial1 will there be lower2 as well from that cause1 as from the smaller effect of the centrifugal force3 consequently the distance of the vacuum above the atmosphere will be less at the poles1 than elsewhere2 and probably much less than the distance 7upon the surface of the globe7 extending from the pole to those latitudes in which the earth is so thawed as to receive and imbibe electricity2 7the frost continuing to lat4 #hj1 which is ten degrees1 or six hundred miles from the pole2 while the height of the atmosphere there of such density as to obstruct the motion of the electric fluid1 can scarce be esteemed above miles74 #bc4 ,the vacuum above is a good conductor4 #bd4 ,may not then the great quantity of electricity1 brought into the polar regions by the clouds1 which are condensed there1 and fall in snow1 which electricity would enter the1 earth1 but cannot penetrate the ice2 may it not1 ,i say1 7as a bottle overcharged7 break through that low atmosphere1 and run along in the vacuum over the air towards the equator2 diverging as the degrees of longitude enlarge2 strongly visible where densest1 and becoming less visible as it more diverges2 till it finds a passage to the earth in more temperate climates1 or is mingled with their upper air8 #be4 ,if such an operation of nature were really performed1 would it not give all the appearances of an aurora borealis8 #bf4 ,and would not the auroras become more frequent after the approach of winter3 not only because more visible in longer nights2 but also because in summer the long presence of the sun may soften the surface of the great ice cake1 and render it a conductor1 by which the accumulation of electricity in the polar regions will be prevented8 #bg4 ,the atmosphere of the polar regions being made more dense by the extreme cold1 and all the moisture in that air being frozen2 may not any great light arising therein1 and passing1 through it1 render its density in some degree visible1 during the night time1 to those who live in the rarer air of more southern latitudes2 and would it not in that case1 although in itself a complete and full circle1 extending perhaps ten degrees from the pole1 appear to spectators so placed 7who could see only a part of it7 in the form of a segment2 its chord resting on the horizon1 and its arch elevated more or less above it as seen from latitudes more or less distant2 darkish in colour1 but yet sufficiently transparent to permit some stars to be seen through it4 #bh4 ,the rays of electric matter issuing out of a body1 diverge by mutually repelling each other1 unless there be some conducting body near1 to receive them3 and if that conducting body be at a greater distance1 they will first diverge1 and then converge in order to enter it4 ,may not this account for some of the varieties of figure seen at times in the motions of the luminous matter of the auroras3 since it is possible1 that in passing over the atmosphere1 from the north in all directions or meridians1 towards the equator1 the rays of that matter may find1 in many places1 portions of cloudy region1 or moist atmosphere under them1 which 7being in the natural or negative state7 may be fit to receive them1 and towards which they may therefore converge3 and when one of those receiving bodies is more than saturated1 they may again diverge from it1 towards other surrounding masses of such humid atmosphere1 and thus form the crowns1 as they are called1 and other figures mentioned in the histories of this meteor8 #bi4 ,if it be true that the clouds which go to the polar regions1 and carry thither the vapours of the equatorial and temperate regions1 have their vapours condensed by the extreme cold of the polar regions1 and fall in snow or hail2 the winds which come from those regions ought to be generally dry1 unless they gain some humidity by sweeping the ocean in their way4 ,and if ,i mistake not1 the winds between the north east and the north west1 are for the most part dry1 when they have continued for some time4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #aggd1 p4 #abb1 is a letter from ,mr4 ,i4 ,s4 ,winn to ,dr4 ,franklin1 stating1 that since he had first made the observation concerning the south or south west winds succeeding an aurora1 he had found it invariably obtaining in twenty-three instances2 and he adds in a note a fresh confirming instance4 ,in reply1 ,dr4 ,franklin makes the following conjecture4 ,the ,auror ,boreales1 though visible almost every night of clear weather in the more northern regions and very high in the atmosphere1 can scarce be visible in ,england1 but when the atmosphere is pretty clear of clouds for the whole space between us and those regions2 and therefore are seldom visible here4 ,this extensive clearness may have been produced by a long continuance of northerly winds4 ,when the winds have long continued in one quarter1 the return is often violent4 ,allowing the fact so repeatedly observed by ,mr4 ,winn1 perhaps this may account for the violence of the southerly winds1 that soon follow the appearance of the aurora on our coasts4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,if ,i mistake not1 this paper was read to the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 at ,paris1 at the meeting held immediately after ,easter1 #aggi4 ,b4 ,v#ac4 #ac ,for an explanation of the signature ,b4 ,v4 see the note in page #cii of ,vol4 ,i4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,l4#ad ,,at ,,charles-,,town1 ,,south-,,carolina4 ,on ,cold produced by ,evaporation4 ,new-,york1 ,april #ad1 #ageg4 ,,sir1 ,it is a long time since ,i had the pleasure of a line from you2 and1 indeed1 the troubles of our country1 with the hurry of business ,i have been engaged in on that account1 have made me so bad a correspondent1 that ,i ought not to expect punctuality in others4 ,but being about to embark for ,england1 ,i could not quit the continent without paying my respects to you1 and1 at the same time1 taking leave to introduce to your acquaintance a gentleman of learning and merit1 colonel ,henry ,bouquet1 who does me the favour to present you this letter1 and with whom ,i am sure you will be much pleased4 ,professor ,simpson1 of ,glasgow1 lately communicated to me some curious experiments of a physician of his acquaintance1 by which it appeared1 that an extraordinary degree of cold1 even to freezing1 might be produced by evaporation4 ,i have not had leisure to repeat and examine more than the first and easiest of them1 viz4--,wet the ball of a thermometer by a feather dipt in spirit of wine1 which has been kept in the same room1 and has1 of course1 the same degree of heat or cold4 ,the mercury sinks presently three or four degrees1 and the quicker1 if1 during the evaporation1 you blow on the ball with bellows2 a second wetting and blowing1 when the mercury is down1 carries it yet lower4 ,i think ,i did not get it lower than five or six degrees from where it naturally stood1 which was1 at that time1 sixty4 ,but it is said1 that a vessel of water being placed in another somewhat larger1 containing spirit1 in such a manner that the vessel of water is surrounded with the spirit1 and both placed under the receiver of an air-pump2 on exhausting the air1 the spirit1 evaporating1 leaves such a degree of cold as to freeze the water1 though the thermometer1 in the open air1 stands many degrees above the freezing point4 ,i know not how this phenomenon is to be accounted for1 but it gives me occasion to mention some loose notions relating to heat and cold1 which ,i have for some time entertained1 but not yet reduced into any form4 ,allowing common fire1 as well as electrical1 to be a fluid capable of permeating other bodies1 and seeking an equilibrium1 ,i imagine some bodies are better fitted by nature to be conductors of that fluid than others2 and that1 generally1 those which are the best conductors of the electrical fluid1 are also the best conductors of this2 and e contra4 ,thus a body which is a good conductor of fire readily receives it into its substance1 and conducts it through the whole to all the parts1 as metals and water do2 and if two bodies1 both good conductors1 one heated1 the other in its common state1 are brought into contact with each other1 the body which has most fire readily communicates of it to that which had least1 and that which had least readily receives it1 till an equilibrium is produced4 ,thus1 if you take a dollar between your fingers with one hand1 and a piece of wood1 of the same dimensions1 with the other1 and bring both at the same time to the flame of a candle1 you will find yourself obliged to drop the dollar before you drop the wood1 because it conducts the heat of the candle sooner to your flesh4 ,thus1 if a silver tea-pot had a handle of the same metal1 it would conduct the heat from the water to the hand1 and become too hot to be used2 we therefore give to a metal tea-pot a handle of wood1 which is not so good a conductor as metal4 ,but a china or stone tea-pot being in some degree of the nature of glass1 which is not a good conductor of heat1 may have a handle of the same stuff4 ,thus1 also1 a damp moist air shall make a man more sensible of cold1 or chill him more1 than a dry air that is colder1 because a moist air is fitter to receive and conduct away the heat of his body4 ,this fluid1 entering bodies in great quantity1 first expands them1 by separating their parts a little1 afterwards1 by farther separating their parts1 it renders solids fluid1 and at length dissipates their parts in air4 ,take this fluid from melted lead1 or from water1 the parts cohere again1 the first grows solid1 the latter becomes ice3 and this is sooner done by the means of good conductors4 ,illustration3 7of wooden former for molten lead7 ,thus1 if you take1 as ,i have done1 a square bar of lead1 four inches long1 and one inch thick1 together with three pieces of wood planed to the same dimensions1 and lay them1 as in the margin1 on a smooth board1 fixt so as not to be easily separated or moved1 and pour into the cavity they form1 as much melted lead as will fill it1 you will see the melted lead chill1 and become firm1 on the side next the leaden bar1 some time before it chills on the other three sides in contact with the wooden bars1 though before the lead was poured in1 they might all be supposed to have the same degree of heat or coldness1 as they had been exposed in the same room to the same air4 ,you will likewise observe1 that the leaden bar1 as it has cooled the melted lead more than the wooden bars have done1 so it is itself more heated by the melted lead4 ,there is a certain quantity of this fluid called fire1 in every living human body1 which fluid1 being in due proportion1 keeps the parts of the flesh and blood at such a just distance from each other1 as that the flesh and nerves are supple1 and the blood fit for circulation4 ,if part of this due proportion of fire be conducted away1 by means of a contact with other bodies1 as air1 water1 or metals1 the parts of our skin and flesh that come into such contact first draw more near together than is agreeable1 and give that sensation which we call cold2 and if too much be conveyed away1 the body stiffens1 the blood ceases to flow1 and death ensues4 ,on the other hand1 if too much of this fluid be communicated to the flesh1 the parts are separated too far1 and pain ensues1 as when they are separated by a pin or lancet4 ,the sensation that the separation by fire occasions1 we call heat1 or burning4 ,my desk on which ,i now write1 and the lock of my desk1 are both exposed to the same temperature of the air1 and have therefore the same degree of heat or cold2 yet if ,i lay my hand successively on the wood and on the metal1 the latter feels much the coldest1 not that it is really so1 but being a better conductor1 it more readily than the wood takes away and draws into itself the fire that was in my skin4 ,accordingly if ,i lay one hand1 part on the lock1 and part on the wood1 and after it had lain so some time1 ,i feel both parts with my other hand1 ,i find the part that has been in contact with the lock1 very sensibly colder to the touch1 than the part that lay on the wood4 ,how a living animal obtains its quantity of this fluid called fire1 is a curious question4 ,i have shown1 that some bodies 7as metals7 have a power of attracting it stronger than others2 and ,i have sometimes suspected1 that a living body had some power of attracting out of the air1 or other bodies1 the heat it wanted4 ,thus metals hammered1 or repeatedly bent1 grow hot in the bent or hammered part4 ,but when ,i consider that air1 in contact with the body1 cools it2 that the surrounding air is rather heated by its contact with the body2 that every breath of cooler air drawn in1 carries off part of the body's heat when it passes out again2 that therefore there must be in the body a fund for producing it1 or otherwise the animal would soon grow cold2 ,i have been rather inclined to think1 that the fluid fire1 as well as the fluid air1 is attracted by plants in their growth1 and becomes consolidated with the other materials of which they are formed1 and makes a great part of their substance3 that when they come to be digested1 and to suffer in the vessels a kind of fermentation1 part of the fire1 as well as part of the air1 recovers its fluid active state again1 and diffuses itself in the body digesting and separating it3 that the fire so reproduced1 by digestion and separation continually leaving the body1 its place is supplied by fresh quantities1 arising from the continual separation4 ,that whatever quickens the motion of the fluids in an animal quickens the separation1 and reproduces more of the fire2 as exercise4 ,that all the fire emitted by wood1 and other combustibles1 when burning1 existed in them before1 in a solid state1 being only discovered when separating4 ,that some fossils1 as sulphur1 sea-coal1 c4 contain a great deal of solid fire2 and that1 in short1 what escapes and is dissipated in the burning of bodies1 besides water and earth1 is generally the air and fire that before made parts of the solid4 ,thus ,i imagine that animal heat arises by or from a kind of fermentation in the juices of the body1 in the same manner as heat arises in the liquors preparing for distillation1 wherein there is a separation of the spirituous1 from the watry and earthy parts4 ,and it is remarkable1 that the liquor in a distiller's vat1 when in its highest and best state of fermentation1 as ,i have been informed1 has the same degree of heat with the human body2 that is1 about #id or #if4 ,thus1 as by a constant supply of fuel in a chimney1 you keep a warm room1 so1 by a constant supply of food in the stomach1 you keep a warm body2 only where little exercise is used1 the heat may possibly be conducted away too fast2 in which case such materials are to be used for cloathing and bedding1 against the effects of an immediate contact of the air1 as are1 in themselves1 bad conductors of heat1 and1 consequently1 prevent its being communicated through their substance to the air4 ,hence what is called warmth in wool1 and its preference on that account1 to linen2 wool not being so good a conductor3 and hence all the natural coverings of animals1 to keep them warm1 are such as retain and confine the natural heat in the body1 by being bad conductors1 such as wool1 hair1 feathers1 and the silk by which the silk-worm1 in its tender embrio state1 is first cloathed4 ,cloathing1 thus considered1 does not make a man warm by giving warmth1 but by preventing the too quick dissipation of the heat produced in his body1 and so occasioning an accumulation4 ,there is another curious question ,i will just venture to touch upon1 viz4 ,whence arises the sudden extraordinary degree of cold1 perceptible on mixing some chemical liquors1 and even on mixing salt and snow1 where the composition appears colder than the coldest of the ingredients8 ,i have never seen the chemical mixtures made1 but salt and snow ,i have often mixed myself1 and am fully satisfied that the composition feels much colder to the touch1 and lowers the mercury in the thermometer more than either ingredient would do separately4 ,i suppose1 with others1 that cold is nothing more than the absence of heat or fire4 ,now if the quantity of fire before contained or diffused in the snow and salt was expelled in the uniting of the two matters1 it must be driven away either through the air or the vessel containing them4 ,if it is driven off thro' the air1 it must warm the air1 and a thermometer held over the mixture1 without touching it1 would discover the heat1 by the rising of the mercury1 as it must1 and always does in warm air4 ,this1 indeed1 ,i have not tried1 but ,i should guess it would rather be driven off through the vessel1 especially if the vessel be metal1 as being a better conductor than air2 and so one should find the bason warmer after such mixture4 ,but1 on the contrary1 the vessel grows cold1 and even water1 in which the vessel is sometimes placed for the experiment1 freezes into hard ice on the bason4 ,now ,i know not how to account for this1 otherwise than by supposing1 that the composition is a better conductor of fire than the ingredients separately1 and1 like the lock compared with the wood1 has a stronger power of attracting fire1 and does accordingly attract it suddenly from the fingers1 or a thermometer put into it1 from the bason that contains it1 and from the water in contact with the outside of the bason2 so that the fingers have the sensation of extreme cold1 by being deprived of much of their natural fire2 the thermometer sinks1 by having part of its fire drawn out of the mercury2 the bason grows colder to the touch1 as1 by having its fire drawn into the mixture1 it is become more capable of drawing and receiving it from the hand2 and through the bason1 the water loses its fire that kept it fluid2 so it becomes ice4 ,one would expect1 that from all this attracted acquisition of fire to the composition1 it should become warmer2 and1 in fact1 the snow and salt dissolve at the same time into water1 without freezing4 ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #ad ,dr4 ,lining4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,the ,,same ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,subject4 ,london1 ,june #ag1 #ageh4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,in a former letter ,i mentioned the experiment for cooling bodies by evaporation1 and that ,i had1 by repeatedly wetting the thermometer with common spirits1 brought the mercury down five or six degrees4 ,being lately at ,cambridge1 and mentioning this in conversation with ,dr4 ,hadley1 professor of chemistry there1 he proposed repeating the experiments with ether1 instead of common spirits1 as the ether is much quicker in evaporation4 ,we accordingly went to his chamber1 where he had both ether and a thermometer4 ,by dipping first the ball of the thermometer into the ether1 it appeared that the ether was precisely of the same temperament with the thermometer1 which stood then at #fe2 for it made no alteration in the height of the little column of mercury4 ,but when the thermometer was taken out of the ether1 and the ether1 with which the ball was wet1 began to evaporate1 the mercury sunk several degrees4 ,the wetting was then repeated by a feather that had been dipped into the ether1 when the mercury sunk still lower4 ,we continued this operation1 one of us wetting the ball1 and another of the company blowing on it with the bellows1 to quicken the evaporation1 the mercury sinking all the time1 till it came down to #g1 which is #be degrees below the freezing point1 when we left off4 ,soon after it passed the freezing point1 a thin coat of ice began to cover the ball4 ,whether this was water collected and condensed by the coldness of the ball1 from the moisture in the air1 or from our breath2 or whether the feather1 when dipped into the ether1 might not sometimes go through it1 and bring up some of the water that was under it1 ,i am not certain2 perhaps all might contribute4 ,the ice continued increasing till we ended the experiment1 when it appeared near a quarter of an inch thick all over the ball1 with a number of small spicula1 pointing outwards4 ,from this experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day1 if he were to stand in a passage through which the wind blew briskly1 and to be wet frequently with ether1 a spirit that is more inflammable than brandy1 or common spirits of wine4 ,it is but within these few years1 that the ,european philosophers seem to have known this power in nature1 of cooling bodies by evaporation4 ,but in the east they have long been acquainted with it4 ,a friend tells me1 there is a passage in ,bernier's ,travels through ,indostan1 written near one hundred years ago1 that mentions it as a practice 7in travelling over dry deserts in that hot climate7 to carry water in flasks wrapt in wet woollen cloths1 and hung on the shady side of the camel1 or carriage1 but in the free air2 whereby1 as the cloths gradually grow drier1 the water contained in the flasks is made cool4 ,they have likewise a kind of earthen pots1 unglazed1 which let the water gradually and slowly ooze through their pores1 so as to keep the outside a little wet1 notwithstanding the continual evaporation1 which gives great coldness to the vessel1 and the water contained in it4 ,even our common sailors seem to have had some notion of this property2 for ,i remember1 that being at sea1 when ,i was a youth1 ,i observed one of the sailors1 during a calm in the night1 often wetting his finger in his mouth1 and then holding it up in the air1 to discover1 as he said1 if the air had any motion1 and from which side it came2 and this he expected to do1 by finding one side of his finger grow suddenly cold1 and from that side he should look for the next wind2 which ,i then laughed at as a fancy4 ,may not several phenomena1 hitherto unconsidered1 or unaccounted for1 be explained by this property8 ,during the hot ,sunday at ,philadelphia1 in ,june #agej1 when the thermometer was up at #ajj in the shade1 ,i sat in my chamber without exercise1 only reading or writing1 with no other cloaths on than a shirt1 and a pair of long linen drawers1 the windows all open1 and a brisk wind blowing through the house1 the sweat ran off the backs of my hands1 and my shirt was often so wet1 as to induce me to call for dry ones to put on2 in this situation1 one might have expected1 that the natural heat of the body #if1 added to the heat of the air #ajj1 should jointly have created or produced a much greater degree of heat in the body2 but the fact was1 that my body never grew so hot as the air that surrounded it1 or the inanimate bodies immersed in the same air4 ,for ,i remember well1 that the desk1 when ,i laid my arm upon it2 a chair1 when ,i sat down in it2 and a dry shirt out of the drawer1 when ,i put it on1 all felt exceeding warm to me1 as if they had been warmed before a fire4 ,and ,i suppose a dead body would have acquired the temperature of the air1 though a living one1 by continual sweating1 and by the evaporation of that sweat1 was kept cold4 ,may not this be a reason why our reapers in ,pensylvania1 working in the open field1 in the clear hot sun-shine common in our harvest-time#ae1 find themselves well able to go through that labour1 without being much incommoded by the heat1 while they continue to sweat1 and while they supply matter for keeping up that sweat1 by drinking frequently of a thin evaporable liquor1 water mixed with rum2 but if the sweat stops1 they drop1 and sometimes die suddenly1 if a sweating is not again brought on by drinking that liquor1 or1 as some rather chuse in that case1 a kind of hot punch1 made with water1 mixed with honey1 and a considerable proportion of vinegar8 ,may there not be in negroes a quicker evaporation of the perspirable matter from their skins and lungs1 which1 by cooling them more1 enables them to bear the sun's heat better than whites do8 7if that is a fact1 as it is said to be2 for the alledged necessity of having negroes rather than whites1 to work in the ,west-,india fields1 is founded upon it7 though the colour of their skins would otherwise make them more sensible of the sun's heat1 since black cloth heats much sooner1 and more1 in the sun1 than white cloth4 ,i am persuaded1 from several instances happening within my knowledge1 that they do not bear cold weather so well as the whites2 they will perish when exposed to a less degree of it1 and are more apt to have their limbs frostbitten2 and may not this be from the same cause8 ,would not the earth grow much hotter under the summer-sun1 if a constant evaporation from its surface1 greater as the sun shines stronger1 did not1 by tending to cool it2 balance1 in some degree1 the warmer effects of the sun's rays8 ,is it not owing to the constant evaporation from the surface of every leaf1 that trees1 though shone on by the sun1 are always1 even the leaves themselves1 cool to our sense8 at least much cooler than they would otherwise be8 ,may it not be owing to this1 that fanning ourselves when warm1 does really cool us1 though the air is itself warm that we drive with the fan upon our faces2 for the atmosphere round1 and next to our bodies1 having imbibed as much of the perspired vapour as it can well contain1 receives no more1 and the evaporation is therefore checked and retarded1 till we drive away that atmosphere1 and bring drier air in its place1 that will receive the vapour1 and thereby facilitate and increase the evaporation8 ,certain it is1 that mere blowing of air on a dry body does not cool it1 as any one may satisfy himself1 by blowing with a bellows on the dry ball of a thermometer2 the mercury will not fall2 if it moves at all1 it rather rises1 as being warmed by the friction of the air on its surface8 ,to these queries of imagination1 ,i will only add one practical observation2 that wherever it is thought proper to give ease1 in cases of painful inflammation in the flesh 7as from burnings1 or the like7 by cooling the part2 linen cloths1 wet with spirit1 and applied to the part inflamed1 will produce the coolness required1 better than if wet with water1 and will continue it longer4 ,for water1 though cold when first applied1 will soon acquire warmth from the flesh1 as it does not evaporate fast enough2 but the cloths wet with spirit1 will continue cold as long as any spirit is left to keep up the evaporation1 the parts warmed escaping as soon as they are warmed1 and carrying off the heat with them4 ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,b ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #ae ,pensylvania is in about lat4 #dj1 and the sun1 of course1 about #ab degrees higher1 and therefore much hotter than in ,england4 ,their harvest is about the end of ,june1 or beginning of ,july1 when the sun is nearly at the highest4 ,j4 ,b4#af ,,esq4 ,,in ,,boston1 ,,to ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,concerning the ,light in ,sea-,water4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,december #f1 #agef4 ,november #ab1 #agec4 99999999 ,when ,i was at the eastward1 ,i had an opportunity of observing the luminous appearance of the sea when disturbed3 at the head and stern of the vessel1 when under way1 it appeared very bright4 ,the best opportunity ,i had to observe it was in a boat1 in company with several gentlemen going from ,portsmouth1 about three miles1 to our vessel lying at the mouth of ,piscataqua ,river4 ,soon after we set off 7it being in the evening7 we observed a luminous appearance1 where the oars dashed the water4 ,sometimes it was very bright1 and afterwards1 as we rowed along1 gradually lessened1 till almost imperceptible1 and then re-illumined4 ,this we took notice of several times in the passage4 ,when ,i got on board the vessel1 ,i ordered a pail to be dipped up1 full of sea-water1 in which1 on the water's being moved1 a sparkling light appeared4 ,i took a linen cloth1 and strained some of the water through it1 and there was a like appearance on the cloth1 which soon went off2 but on rubbing the cloth with my finger1 it was renewed4 ,i then carried the cloth to the light1 but could not perceive any thing upon it which should cause that appearance4 ,several gentlemen were of opinion1 that the separated particles of putrid1 animal1 and other bodies1 floating on the surface of the sea1 might cause that appearance2 for putrid fish1 c4 they said1 will cause it3 and the sea-animals which have died1 and other bodies putrified therein since the creation1 might afford a sufficient quantity of these particles to cover a considerable portion of the surface of the sea2 which particles being differently dispersed1 might account for the different degrees of light in the appearance above-mentioned4 ,but this account seems liable to this obvious objection1 that as putrid fish1 c4 make a luminous appearance without being moved or disturbed1 it might be expected that the supposed putrid particles on the surface of the sea1 should always appear luminous1 where there is not a greater light2 and1 consequently1 that the whole surface of the sea1 covered with those particles1 should always1 in dark nights1 appear luminous1 without being disturbed4 ,but this is not fact4 ,among the rest1 ,i threw out my conjecture1 that the said appearance might be caused by a great number of little animals1 floating on the surface of the sea1 which1 on being disturbed1 might1 by expanding their finns1 or otherwise moving themselves1 expose such a part of their bodies as exhibits a luminous appearance1 somewhat in the manner of a glow-worm1 or fire-fly3 that these animals may be more numerous in some places than others2 and1 therefore1 that the appearance above-mentioned being fainter and stronger in different places1 might be owing to that3 that certain circumstances of weather1 c4 might invite them to the surface1 on which1 in a calm1 they might sport themselves and glow2 or in storms1 being forced up1 make the same appearance4 ,there is no difficulty in conceiving that the sea may be stocked with animalcula for this purpose1 as we find all nature crowded with life4 ,but it seems difficult to conceive that such small portions of matter1 even if they were wholly luminous1 should affect our sight2 much more so1 when it is supposed that only a part of them is luminous4 ,but1 if we consider some other appearances1 we may find the same difficulty to conceive of them2 and yet we know they take place4 ,for instance1 the flame of a candle1 which1 it is said1 may be seen four miles round4 ,the light which fills this circle of eight miles diameter1 was contained1 when it first left the candle1 within a circle of half an inch diameter4 ,if the density of light1 in these circumstances1 be as those circles to each other1 that is1 as the squares of their diameters1 the candle-light1 when come to the eye1 will be #ajbggjiccgfjj times rarer than when it quitted the half inch circle4 ,now the aperture of the eye1 through which the light passes1 does not exceed one-tenth of an inch diameter1 and the portion of the lesser circle1 which corresponds to this small portion of the greater circle1 must be proportionably1 that is1 #ajbggjiccgfjj times less than one-tenth of an inch2 and yet this infinitely small point 7if you will allow the expression7 affords light enough to make it visible four miles2 or1 rather1 affords light sufficient to affect the sight at that distance4 ,the smallness of the animalcula is no objection then to this conjecture2 for supposing them to be ten thousand times less than the minimum visibile1 they may1 notwithstanding1 emit light enough to affect the eyes1 and so to cause the luminous appearance aforesaid4 ,this conjecture ,i send you for want of something better 999999994 ,,footnote3 #af ,i4 ,badoin4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,p4 ,f4#ag ,,in ,,newport4 ,on the ,saltness of ,sea-,water4 ,london1 ,may #g1 #agfj4 ,,sir1 99999999 ,it has1 indeed1 as you observe1 been the opinion of some very great naturalists1 that the sea is salt only from the dissolution of mineral or rock-salt1 which its waters happened to meet with4 ,but this opinion takes it for granted that all water was originally fresh1 of which we can have no proof4 ,i own ,i am inclined to a different opinion1 and rather think all the water on this globe was originally salt1 and that the fresh water we find in springs and rivers1 is the produce of distillation4 ,the sun raises the vapours from the sea1 which form clouds1 and fall in rain upon the land1 and springs and rivers are formed of that rain4 ,as to the rock-salt found in mines1 ,i conceive1 that instead of communicating its saltness to the sea1 it is itself drawn from the sea1 and that of course the sea is now fresher than it was originally4 ,this is only another effect of nature's distillery1 and might be performed various ways4 ,it is evident from the quantities of sea-shells1 and the bones and teeth of fishes found in high lands1 that the sea has formerly covered them4 ,then1 either the sea has been higher than it now is1 and has fallen away from those high lands1 or they have been lower than they are1 and were lifted up out of the water to their present height1 by some internal mighty force1 such as we still feel some remains of1 when whole continents are moved by earthquakes4 ,in either case it may be supposed that large hollows or valleys among hills1 might be left filled with sea-water1 which evaporating1 and the fluid part drying away in a course of years1 would leave the salt covering the bottom2 and that salt coming afterwards to be covered with earth1 from the neighbouring hills1 could only be found by digging through that earth4 ,or1 as we know from their effects1 that there are deep fiery caverns under the earth1 and even under the sea1 if at any time the sea leaks into any of them1 the fluid parts of the water must evaporate from that heat1 and pass off through some volcano1 while the salt remains1 and by degrees1 and continual acretion1 becomes a great mass4 ,thus the cavern may at length be filled1 and the volcano connected with it cease burning1 as many it is said have done2 and future miners1 penetrating such cavern1 find what we call a salt-mine4 ,this is a fancy ,i had on visiting the salt-mines at ,northwich1 with my son4 ,i send you a piece of the rock-salt which he brought up with him out of the mine4 99999999 ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #ag ,peter ,franklin4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,miss ,,stephenson4 ,on the ,effect of ,air on the ,barometer1 and the ,benefits derived from the ,study of ,insects4 ,craven ,street1 ,june #aa1 #agfj4 ',tis a very sensible question you ask1 how the air can affect the barometer1 when its opening appears covered with wood8 ,if indeed it was so closely covered as to admit of no communication of the outward air to the surface of the mercury1 the change of weight in the air could not possibly affect it4 ,but the least crevice is sufficient for the purpose2 a pinhole will do the business4 ,and if you could look behind the frame to which your barometer is fixed1 you would certainly find some small opening4 ,there are indeed some barometers in which the body of mercury at the lower end is contained in a close leather bag1 and so the air cannot come into immediate contact with the mercury2 yet the same effect is produced4 ,for the leather being flexible1 when the bag is pressed by any additional weight of air it contracts1 and the mercury is forced up into the tube2 when the air becomes lighter1 and its pressure less1 the weight of the mercury prevails1 and it descends again into the bag4 ,your observation on what you have lately read concerning insects is very just and solid4 ,superficial minds are apt to despise those who make that part of the creation their study1 as mere triflers2 but certainly the world has been much obliged to them4 ,under the care and management of man1 the labours of the little silkworm afford employment and subsistence to thousands of families1 and become an immense article of commerce4 ,the bee1 too1 yields us its delicious honey1 and its wax useful to a multitude of purposes4 ,another insect1 it is said1 produces the cochineal1 from whence we have our rich scarlet dye4 ,the usefulness of the cantharides or ,spanish flies1 in medicine1 is known to all1 and thousands owe their lives to that knowledge4 ,by human industry and observation1 other properties of other insects may possibly be hereafter discovered1 and of equal utility4 ,a thorough acquaintance with the nature of these little creatures may also enable mankind to prevent the increase of such as are noxious1 or secure us against the mischiefs they occasion4 ,these things doubtless your books make mention of3 ,i can only add a particular late instance which ,i had from a ,swedish gentleman of good credit4 ,in the green timber1 intended for ship-building at the king's yards in that country1 a kind of worms were found1 which every year became more numerous and more pernicious1 so that the ships were greatly damaged before they came into use4 ,the king sent ,linnus1 the great naturalist1 from ,stockholm1 to enquire into the affair1 and see if the mischief was capable of any remedy4 ,he found1 on examination1 that the worm was produced from a small egg1 deposited in the little roughnesses on the surface of the wood1 by a particular kind of fly or beetle2 from whence the worm1 as soon as it was hatched1 began to eat into the substance of the wood1 and after some time came out again a fly of the parent kind1 and so the species increased4 ,the season in which the fly laid its eggs1 ,linnus knew to be about a fortnight 7,i think7 in the month of ,may1 and at no other time in the year4 ,he therefore advised1 that some days before that season1 all the green timber should be thrown into the water1 and kept under water till the season was over4 ,which being done by the king's order1 the flies missing their usual nests1 could not increase2 and the species was either destroyed or went elsewhere2 and the wood was effectually preserved1 for after the first year1 it became too dry and hard for their purpose4 ,there is1 however1 a prudent moderation to be used in studies of this kind4 ,the knowledge of nature may be ornamental1 and it may be useful1 but if to attain an eminence in that1 we neglect the knowledge and practice of essential duties1 we deserve reprehension4 ,for there is no rank in natural knowledge of equal dignity and importance with that of being a good parent1 a good child1 a good husband1 or wife1 a good neighbour or friend1 a good subject or citizen1 that is1 in short1 a good christian4 ,nicholas ,gimcrack1 therefore1 who neglected the care of his family1 to pursue butterflies1 was a just object of ridicule1 and we must give him up as fair game to the satyrist4 ,adieu1 my dear friend1 and believe me ever ,yours affectionately1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,the ,,same4 ,on the ,bristol ,waters1 and the ,tide in ,rivers4 ,london1 ,sept4 #ac1 #agfj4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend1 ,i have your agreeable letter from ,bristol1 which ,i take this first leisure hour to answer1 having for some time been much engaged in business4 ,your first question1 ,what is the reason the water at this place1 though cold at the spring1 becomes warm by pumping8 ,it will be most prudent in me to forbear attempting to answer1 till1 by a more circumstantial account1 you assure me of the fact4 ,i own ,i should expect that operation to warm1 not so much the water pumped1 as the person pumping4--,the rubbing of dry solids together has been long observed to produce heat2 but the like effect has never yet1 that ,i have heard1 been produced by the mere agitation of fluids1 or friction of fluids with solids4 ,water in a bottle shook for hours by a mill-hopper1 it is said1 discovered no sensible addition of heat4 ,the production of animal heat by exercise is therefore to be accounted for in another manner1 which ,i may hereafter endeavour to make you acquainted with4 ,this prudence of not attempting to give reasons before one is sure of facts1 ,i learnt from one of your sex1 who1 as ,selden tells us1 being in company with some gentlemen that were viewing1 and considering something which they called a ,chinese shoe1 and disputing earnestly about the manner of wearing it1 and how it could possibly be put on2 put in her word1 and said modestly1 ,gentlemen1 are you sure it is a shoe8--,should not that be settled first8 ,but ,i shall now endeavour to explain what ,i said to you about the tide in rivers1 and to that end shall make a figure1 which though not very like a river1 may serve to convey my meaning4--,suppose a canal one hundred and forty miles long1 communicating at one end with the sea1 and filled therefore with sea water4 ,i chuse a canal at first1 rather than a river1 to throw out of consideration the effects produced by the streams of fresh water from the land1 the inequality in breadth1 and the crookedness of courses4 ,illustration3 7showing tidal wave effects7 ,let ,a1 ,c1 be the head of the canal2 ,c1 ,d1 the bottom of it2 ,d1 ,f1 the open mouth of it next the sea4 ,let the strait pricked line1 ,b1 ,g1 represent low water mark the whole length of the canal1 ,a1 ,f1 high water mark3--,now if a person standing at ,e1 and observing at the time of high water there1 that the canal is quite full at that place up to the line ,e1 should conclude that the canal is equally full to the same height from end to end1 and therefore there was as much more water come into the canal since it was down at low water mark1 as would be included in the oblong space ,a1 ,b1 ,g1 ,f1 he would be greatly mistaken4 ,for the tide is a wave1 and the top of the wave1 which makes high water1 as well as every other lower part1 is progressive2 and it is high water successively1 but not at the same time1 in all the several points between ,g1 ,f1 and ,a1 ,b4--,and in such a length as ,i have mentioned it is low water at ,f1 ,g1 and also at ,a1 ,b1 at or near the same time with its being high water at ,e2 so that the surface of the water in the canal1 during that situation1 is properly represented by the curve pricked line ,b1 ,e1 ,g4 ,and on the other hand1 when it is low water at ,e1 ,h1 it is high water both at ,f1 ,g1 and at ,a1 ,b1 at or near the same time3 and the surface would then be described by the inverted curve line1 ,a1 ,h1 ,f4 ,in this view of the case1 you will easily see1 that there must be very little more water in the canal at what we call high water1 than there is at low water1 those terms not relating to the whole canal at the same time1 but successively to its parts4 ,and if you suppose the canal six times as long1 the case would not vary as to the quantity of water at different times of the tide2 there would only be six waves in the canal at the same time1 instead of one1 and the hollows in the water would be equal to the hills4 ,that this is not mere theory1 but conformable to fact1 we know by our long rivers in ,america4 ,the ,delaware1 on which ,philadelphia stands1 is in this particular similar to the canal ,i have supposed of one wave3 for when it is high water at the ,capes or mouth of the river1 it is also high water at ,philadelphia1 which stands about one hundred and forty miles from the sea2 and there is at the same time a low water in the middle between the two high waters2 where1 when it comes to be high water1 it is at the same time low water at the ,capes and at ,philadelphia4 ,and the longer rivers have some a wave and half1 some two1 three1 or four waves1 according to their length4 ,in the shorter rivers of this island1 one may see the same thing in part3 for instance1 it is high water at ,gravesend an hour before it is high water at ,london ,bridge2 and twenty miles below ,gravesend an hour before it is high water at ,gravesend4 ,therefore at the time of high water at ,gravesend the top of the wave is there1 and the water is then not so high by some feet where the top of the wave was an hour before1 or where it will be an hour after1 as it is just then at ,gravesend4 ,now we are not to suppose1 that because the swell or top of the wave runs at the rate of twenty miles an hour1 that therefore the current1 or water itself of which the wave is composed1 runs at that rate4 ,far from it4 ,to conceive this motion of a wave1 make a small experiment or two4 ,fasten one end of a cord in a window near the top of a house1 and let the other end come down to the ground2 take this end in your hand1 and you may1 by a sudden motion1 occasion a wave in the cord that will run quite up to the window2 but though the wave is progressive from your hand to the window1 the parts of the rope do not proceed with the wave1 but remain where they were1 except only that kind of motion that produces the wave4 ,so if you throw a stone into a pond of water when the surface is still and smooth1 you will see a circular wave proceed from the stone as its centre1 quite to the sides of the pond2 but the water does not proceed with the wave1 it only rises and falls to form it in the different parts of its course2 and the waves that follow the first1 all make use of the same water with their predecessors4 ,but a wave in water is not indeed in all circumstances exactly like that in a cord2 for water being a fluid1 and gravitating to the earth1 it naturally runs from a higher place to a lower2 therefore the parts of the wave in water do actually run a little both ways from its top towards its lower sides1 which the parts of the wave in the cord cannot do4 ,thus1 when it is high and standing water at ,gravesend1 the water twenty miles below has been running ebb1 or towards the sea for an hour1 or ever since it was high water there2 but the water at ,london ,bridge will run flood1 or from the sea yet another hour1 till it is high water1 or the top of the wave arrives at that bridge1 and then it will have run ebb an hour at ,gravesend1 c4 c4 ,now this motion of the water1 occasioned only by its gravity1 or tendency to run from a higher place to a lower1 is by no means so swift as the motion of the wave4 ,it scarce exceeds perhaps two miles in an hour4 ,if it went as the wave does twenty miles an hour1 no ships could ride at anchor in such a stream1 nor boats row against it4 ,in common speech1 indeed1 this current of the water both ways from the top of the wave is called the tide2 thus we say1 the tide runs strong1 the tide runs at the rate of one1 two1 or three miles an hour1 c4 and when we are at a part of the river behind the top of the wave1 and find the water lower than high-water mark1 and running towards the sea1 we say1 the tide runs ebb2 and when we are before the top of the wave1 and find the water higher than low-water mark1 and running from the sea1 we say1 the tide runs flood2 but these expressions are only locally proper2 for a tide1 strictly speaking1 is one whole wave1 including all its parts higher and lower1 and these waves succeed one another about twice in twenty-four hours4 ,this motion of the water1 occasioned by its gravity1 will explain to you why the water near the mouths of rivers may be salter at high water than at low4 ,some of the salt-water1 as the tide wave enters the river1 runs from its top and fore side1 and mixes with the fresh1 and also pushes it back up the river4 ,supposing that the water commonly runs during the flood at the rate of two miles in an hour1 and that the flood runs five hours1 you see that it can bring at most into our canal only a quantity of water equal to the space included in the breadth of the canal1 ten miles of its length1 and the depth between low and high-water mark2 which is but a fourteenth part of what would be necessary to fill all the space between low and high-water mark1 for one hundred and forty miles1 the whole length of the canal4 ,and indeed such a quantity of water as would fill that whole space1 to run in and out every tide1 must create so outrageous a current1 as would do infinite damage to the shores1 shipping1 c4 and make the navigation of a river almost impracticable4 ,i have made this letter longer than ,i intended1 and therefore reserve for another what ,i have further to say on the subject of tides and rivers4 ,i shall now only add1 that ,i have not been exact in the numbers1 because ,i would avoid perplexing you with minute calculations1 my design at present being chiefly to give you distinct and clear ideas of the first principles4 ,after writing six folio pages of philosophy to a young girl1 is it necessary to finish such a letter with a compliment8--,is not such a letter of itself a compliment8--,does it not say1 she has a mind thirsty after knowledge1 and capable of receiving it2 and that the most agreeable things one can write to her are those that tend to the improvement of her understanding8--,it does indeed say all this1 but then it is still no compliment2 it is no more than plain honest truth1 which is not the character of a compliment4 ,so if ,i would finish my letter in the mode1 ,i should yet add some thing that means nothing1 and is merely civil and polite4 ,but being naturally aukward at every circumstance of ceremony1 ,i shall not attempt it4 ,i had rather conclude abruptly with what pleases me more than any compliment can please you1 that ,i am allowed to subscribe myself ,your affectionate friend1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,the ,,same4 ,on the same ,subject4 ,craven-street1 ,monday1 ,march #cj1 #agfa4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend1 ,supposing the fact1 that the water of the well at ,bristol is warmer after sometime pumping1 ,i think your manner of accounting for that increased warmth very ingenious and probable4 ,it did not occur to me1 and therefore ,i doubted of the fact4 ,you are1 ,i think quite right in your opinion1 that the rising of the tides in rivers is not owing to the immediate influence of the moon on the rivers4 ,it is rather a subsequent effect of the influence of the moon on the sea1 and does not make its appearance in some rivers till the moon has long passed by4 ,i have not expressed myself clearly if you have understood me to mean otherwise4 ,you know ,i have mentioned it as a fact1 that there are in some rivers several tides all existing at the same time2 that is1 two1 three1 or more1 high-waters1 and as many low-waters1 in different parts of the same river1 which cannot possibly be all effects of the moon's immediate action on that river2 but they may be subsequent effects of her action on the sea4 ,in the enclosed paper you will find my sentiments on several points relating to the air1 and the evaporation of water4 ,it is ,mr4 ,collinson's copy1 who took it from one ,i sent through his hands to a correspondent in ,france some years since2 ,i have1 as he desired me1 corrected the mistakes he made in transcribing1 and must return it to him2 but if you think it worth while1 you may take a copy of it3 ,i would have saved you any trouble of that kind1 but had not time4 ,some day in the next or the following week1 ,i purpose to have the pleasure of seeing you at ,wanstead3 ,i shall accompany your good mamma thither1 and stay till the next morning1 if it may be done without incommoding your family too much4--,we may then discourse any points in that paper that do not seem clear to you2 and taking a walk to lord ,tilney's ponds1 make a few experiments there to explain the nature of the tides more fully4 ,in the mean time1 believe me to be1 with the highest esteem and regard1 your sincerely affectionate friend1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,the ,,same4 ,salt-,water rendered fresh by ,distillation4--,method of relieving ,thirst by ,sea-,water4 ,craven-street1 ,august #aj1 #agfa4 ,we are to set out this week for ,holland1 where we may possibly spend a month1 but purpose to be at home again before the coronation4 ,i could not go without taking leave of you by a line at least1 when ,i am so many letters in your debt4 ,in yours of ,may #ai1 which ,i have before me1 you speak of the ease with which salt water may be made fresh by distillation1 supposing it to be1 as ,i had said1 that in evaporation the air would take up water but not the salt that was mixed with it4 ,it is true that distilled sea water will not be salt1 but there are other disagreeable qualities that rise with the water in distillation2 which indeed several besides ,dr4 ,hales have endeavoured by some means to prevent2 but as yet their methods have not been brought much into use4 ,i have a singular opinion on this subject1 which ,i will venture to communicate to you1 though ,i doubt you will rank it among my whims4 ,it is certain that the skin has imbibing as well as discharging pores2 witness the effects of a blistering plaister1 c4 ,i have read that a man1 hired by a physician to stand by way of experiment in the open air naked during a moist night1 weighed near three pounds heavier in the morning4 ,i have often observed myself1 that however thirsty ,i may have been before going into the water to swim1 ,i am never long so in the water4 ,these imbibing pores1 however1 are very fine1 perhaps fine enough in filtering to separate salt from water2 for though ,i have soaked 7by swimming1 when a boy7 several hours in the day for several days successively in salt-water1 ,i never found my blood and juices salted by that means1 so as to make me thirsty or feel a salt taste in my mouth3 and it is remarkable1 that the flesh of sea fish1 though bred in salt-water1 is not salt4--,hence ,i imagine1 that if people at sea1 distressed by thirst when their fresh water is unfortunately spent1 would make bathing-tubs of their empty water-casks1 and1 filling them with sea-water1 sit in them an hour or two each day1 they might be greatly relieved4 ,perhaps keeping their clothes constantly wet might have an almost equal effect2 and this without danger of catching cold4 ,men do not catch cold by wet cloaths at sea4 ,damp1 but not wet linen may possibly give colds2 but no one catches cold by bathing1 and no clothes can be wetter than water itself4 ,why damp clothes should then occasion colds1 is a curious question1 the discussion of which ,i reserve for a future letter1 or some future conversation4 ,adieu1 my little philosopher4 ,present my respectful compliments to the good ladies your aunts1 and to miss ,pitt2 and believe me ever ,your affectionate friend1 ,and humble ,servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,the ,,same4 ,tendency of ,rivers to the ,sea4--,effect of the ,sun's ,rays on ,cloths of different ,colours4 ,sept4 #bj1 #agfa4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend1 ,it is1 as you observed in our late conversation1 a very general opinion1 that all rivers run into the sea1 or deposite their waters there4 ',tis a kind of audacity to call such general opinions in question1 and may subject one to censure4 ,but we must hazard something in what we think the cause of truth3 and if we propose our objections modestly1 we shall1 though mistaken1 deserve a censure less severe1 than when we are both mistaken and insolent4 ,that some rivers run into the sea is beyond a doubt3 such1 for instance1 are the ,amazons1 and ,i think the ,oronoko and the ,mississippi4 ,the proof is1 that their waters are fresh quite to the sea1 and out to some distance from the land4 ,our question is1 whether the fresh waters of those rivers whose beds are filled with salt water to a considerable distance up from the sea 7as the ,thames1 the ,delaware1 and the rivers that communicate with ,chesapeak-bay in ,virginia7 do ever arrive at the sea8 ,and as ,i suspect they do not1 ,i am now to acquaint you with my reasons2 or1 if they are not allowed to be reasons1 my conceptions at least1 of this matter4 ,the common supply of rivers is from springs1 which draw their origin from rain that has soaked into the earth4 ,the union of a number of springs forms a river4 ,the waters as they run1 exposed to the sun1 air1 and wind1 are continually evaporating4 ,hence in travelling one may often see where a river runs1 by a long blueish mist over it1 though we are at such a distance as not to see the river itself4 ,the quantity of this evaporation is greater or less1 in proportion to the surface exposed by the same quantity of water to those causes of evaporation4 ,while the river runs in a narrow confined channel in the upper hilly country1 only a small surface is exposed2 a greater as the river widens4 ,now if a river ends in a lake1 as some do1 whereby its waters are spread so wide as that the evaporation is equal to the sum of all its springs1 that lake will never overflow3--,and if instead of ending in a lake1 it was drawn into greater length as a river1 so as to expose a surface equal in the whole to that lake1 the evaporation would be equal1 and such river would end as a canal2 when the ignorant might suppose1 as they actually do in such cases1 that the river loses itself by running under ground1 whereas in truth it has run up into the air4 ,now1 many rivers that are open to the sea widen much before they arrive at it1 not merely by the additional waters they receive1 but by having their course stopped by the opposing flood-tide2 by being turned back twice in twenty-four hours1 and by finding broader beds in the low flat countries to dilate themselves in2 hence the evaporation of the fresh water is proportionably increased2 so that in some rivers it may equal the springs of supply4 ,in such cases1 the salt water comes up the river1 and meets the fresh in that part where1 if there were a wall or bank of earth across from side to side1 the river would form a lake1 fuller indeed at some times than at others1 according to the seasons1 but whose evaporation would1 one time with another1 be equal to its supply4 ,when the communication between the two kinds of water is open1 this supposed wall of separation may be conceived as a moveable one1 which is not only pushed some miles higher up the river by every flood tide from the sea1 and carried down again as far by every tide of ebb1 but which has even this space of vibration removed nearer to the sea in wet seasons1 when the springs and brooks in the upper country are augmented by the falling rains1 so as to swell the river1 and farther from the sea in dry seasons4 ,within a few miles above and below this moveable line of separation1 the different waters mix a little1 partly by their motion to and fro1 and partly from the greater specific gravity of the salt water1 which inclines it to run under the fresh1 while the fresh water1 being lighter1 runs over the salt4 ,cast your eye on the map of ,north ,america1 and observe the bay of ,chesapeak in ,virginia1 mentioned above2 you will see1 communicating with it by their mouths1 the great rivers ,sasquehanah1 ,potowmack1 ,rappahanock1 ,york1 and ,james1 besides a number of smaller streams1 each as big as the ,thames4 ,it has been proposed by philosophical writers1 that to compute how much water any river discharges into the sea in a given time1 we should measure its depth and swiftness at any part above the tide2 as1 for the ,thames1 at ,kingston or ,windsor4 ,but can one imagine1 that if all the water of those vast rivers went to the sea1 it would not first have pushed the salt water out of that narrow-mouthed bay1 and filled it with fresh8--,the ,sasquehanah alone would seem to be sufficient for this1 if it were not for the loss by evaporation4 ,and yet that bay is salt quite up to ,annapolis4 ,as to our other subject1 the different degrees of heat imbibed from the sun's rays by cloths of different colours1 since ,i cannot find the notes of my experiment to send you1 ,i must give it as well as ,i can from memory4 ,but first let me mention an experiment you may easily make yourself4 ,walk but a quarter of an hour in your garden when the sun shines1 with a part of your dress white1 and a part black2 then apply your hand to them alternately1 and you will find a very great difference in their warmth4 ,the black will be quite hot to the touch1 the white still cool4 ,another4 ,try to fire the paper with a burning glass4 ,if it is white1 you will not easily burn it2--but if you bring the focus to a black spot1 or upon letters1 written or printed1 the paper will immediately be on fire under the letters4 ,thus fullers and dyers find black cloths1 of equal thickness with white ones1 and hung out equally wet1 dry in the sun much sooner than the white1 being more readily heated by the sun's rays4 ,it is the same before a fire2 the heat of which sooner penetrates black stockings than white ones1 and so is apt sooner to burn a man's shins4 ,also beer much sooner warms in a black mug set before the fire1 than in a white one1 or in a bright silver tankard4 ,my experiment was this4 ,i took a number of little square pieces of broad cloth from a taylor's pattern-card1 of various colours4 ,there were black1 deep blue1 lighter blue1 green1 purple1 red1 yellow1 white1 and other colours1 or shades of colours4 ,i laid them all out upon the snow in a bright sun-shiny morning4 ,in a few hours 7,i cannot now be exact as to the time7 the black1 being warmed most by the sun1 was sunk so low as to be below the stroke of the sun's rays2 the dark blue almost as low1 the lighter blue not quite so much as the dark1 the other colours less as they were lighter2 and the quite white remained on the surface of the snow1 not having entered it at all4 ,what signifies philosophy that does not apply to some use8---,may we not learn from hence1 that black clothes are not so fit to wear in a hot sunny climate or season1 as white ones2 because in such clothes the body is more heated by the sun when we walk abroad1 and are at the same time heated by the exercise1 which double heat is apt to bring on putrid dangerous fevers8 ,that soldiers and seamen1 who must march and labour in the sun1 should in the ,east or ,west ,indies have an uniform of white8 ,that summer hats1 for men or women1 should be white1 as repelling that heat which gives head-achs to many1 and to some the fatal stroke that the ,french call the coup de soleil8 ,that the ladies summer hats1 however1 should be lined with black1 as not reverberating on their faces those rays which are reflected upwards from the earth or water8 ,that the putting a white cap of paper or linen within the crown of a black hat1 as some do1 will not keep out the heat1 though it would if placed without4 ,that fruit-walls being blacked may receive so much heat from the sun in the day-time1 as to continue warm in some degree through the night1 and thereby preserve the fruit from frosts1 or forward its growth8--with sundry other particulars of less or greater importance1 that will occur from time to time to attentive minds8--,i am1 ,yours affectionately1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,hopkinson4 ,on the ,vis ,inerti of ,matter4 ,philadelphia1 #agdh4 ,,sir1 ,according to my promise1 ,i send you in writing my observations on your book#ah3 you will be the better able to consider them2 which ,i desire you to do at your leisure1 and to set me right where ,i am wrong4 ,i stumble at the threshold of the building1 and therefore have not read farther4 ,the author's vis inerti essential to matter1 upon which the whole work is founded1 ,i have not been able to comprehend4 ,and ,i do not think he demonstrates at all clearly 7at least to me he does not7 that there is really such a property in matter4 ,he says1 ,no4 #b4 ,let a given body or mass of matter be called a1 and let any given celerity be called c4 ,that celerity doubled1 tripled1 c4 or halved1 thirded1 c4 will be #b c1 #c c1 c4 or c1 c1 c4 respectively3 also the body doubled1 tripled1 or halved1 thirded1 will be #b a1 #c a1 or a1 a1 respectively4 ,thus far is clear4--,but he adds1 ,now to move the body a with the celerity c1 requires a certain force to be impressed upon it2 and to move it with a celerity as #b c1 requires twice that force to be impressed upon it1 c4 ,here ,i suspect some mistake creeps in by the author's not distinguishing between a great force applied at once1 or a small one continually applied1 to a mass of matter1 in order to move it4 ,i think it is generally allowed by the philosophers1 and1 for aught we know1 is certainly true1 that there is no mass of matter1 how great soever1 but may be moved by any force how small soever 7taking friction out of the question7 and this small force continued1 will in time bring the mass to move with any velocity whatsoever4--,our author himself seems to allow this towards the end of the same ,no4 #b4 when he is subdividing his celerities and forces3 for as in continuing the division to eternity by his method of c1 c1 c1 c1 c4 you can never come to a fraction of velocity that is equal to #j c1 or no celerity at all2 so dividing the force in the same manner1 you can never come to a fraction of force that will not produce an equal fraction of celerity4--,where then is the mighty vis inerti1 and what is its strength2 when the greatest assignable mass of matter will give way to1 or be moved by the least assignable force8 ,suppose two globes1 equal to the sun and to one another1 exactly equipoised in ,jove's balance2 suppose no friction in the centre of motion1 in the beam or elsewhere3 if a musketo then were to light on one of them1 would he not give motion to them both1 causing one to descend and the other to rise8 ,if it is objected1 that the force of gravity helps one globe to descend1 ,i answer1 the same force opposes the other's rising3 here is an equality that leaves the whole motion to be produced by the musketo1 without whom those globes would not be moved at all4--,what then does vis inerti do in this case8 and what other effect could we expect if there were no such thing8 ,surely if it were any thing more than a phantom1 there might be enough of it in such vast bodies to annihilate1 by its opposition to motion1 so trifling a force8 ,our author would have reasoned more clearly1 ,i think1 if1 as he has used the letter a for a certain quantity of matter1 and c for a certain quantity of celerity1 he had employed one letter more1 and put f perhaps1 for a certain quantity of force4 ,this let us suppose to be done2 and then as it is a maxim that the force of bodies in motion is equal to the quantity of matter multiplied by the celerity1 7or f c ,x a72 and as the force received by and subsisting in matter1 when it is put in motion1 can never exceed the force given2 so if1 f moves a with c1 there must needs be required #b f to move a with #b c2 for a moving with #b c would have a force equal to #b f1 which it could not receive from #a f2 and this1 not because there is such a thing as vis inerti1 for the case would be the same if that had no existence2 but because nothing can give more than it has1 if #a f can to #a a give #a c1 which is the same thing as giving it #a f2 7i4 e4 if force applied to matter at rest1 can put it in motion1 and give it equal force7 where then is vis inerti8 ,if it existed at all in matter1 should we not find the quantity of its resistance subtracted from the force given8 ,in ,no4 #d4 our author goes on and says1 the body a requires a certain force to be impressed on it to be moved with a celerity as c1 or such a force is necessary2 and therefore makes a certain resistance1 c4 ,a body as #b a requires twice that force to be moved with the same celerity1 or it makes twice that resistance2 and so on4--,this ,i think is not true2 but that the body #b a moved by the force #a f 7though the eye may judge otherwise of it7 does really move with the same celerity as it did when impelled by the same force2 for #b a is compounded of #a a #a a3 and if each of the #a a's or each part of the compound were made to move with #a c 7as they might be by #b f7 then the whole would move with #b c1 and not with #a c1 as our author supposes4 ,but #a f applied to #b a1 makes each a move with c2 and so the whole moves with #a c2 exactly the same as #a a was made to do by #a f before4 ,what is equal celerity but a measuring the same space by moving bodies in the same time8--,now if #a a impelled by #a f measures #ajj yards in a minute2 and in #b a impelled by #a f1 each a measures #ej yards in a minute1 which added make #ajj2 are not the celerities as the forces equal8 and since force and celerity in the same quantity of matter are always in proportion to each other1 why should we1 when the quantity of matter is doubled1 allow the force to continue unimpaired1 and yet suppose one half of the celerity to be lost8--,i wonder the more at our author's mistake in this point1 since in the same number ,i find him observing3 ,we may easily conceive that a body as #c a1 #d a1 c4 would make #c or #d bodies equal to once a1 each of which would require once the first force to be moved with the celerity c4 ,if then in #c a1 each a requires once the first force f to be moved with the celerity c1 would not each move with the force f and celerity c2 and consequently the whole be #c a moving with #c f and #c c8 ,after so distinct an observation1 how could he miss of the consequence1 and imagine that #a c and #c c were the same8 ,thus as our author's abatement of celerity in the case of #b a moved by #a f is imaginary1 so must be his additional resistance4--,and here again1 ,i am at a loss to discover any effect of the vis inerti4 ,in ,no4 #f1 he tells us1 that all this is likewise certain when taken the contrary way1 viz4 from motion to rest2 for the body a moving with a certain velocity1 as c1 requires a certain degree of force or resistance to stop that motion1 c4 c4 that is1 in other words1 equal force is necessary to destroy force4 ,it may be so4 ,but how does that discover a vis inerti8 would not the effect be the same if there were no such thing8 ,a force #a f strikes a body #a a1 and moves it with the celerity #a c1 i4 e4 with the force #a f3 ,it requires1 even according to our author1 only an opposing #a f to stop it4 ,but ought it not 7if there were a vis inerti7 to have not only the force #a f1 but an additional force equal to the force of vis inerti1 that obstinate power by which a body endeavours with all its might to continue in its present state1 whether of motion or rest8 ,i say1 ought there not to be an opposing force equal to the sum of these8--,the truth however is1 that there is no body1 how large soever1 moving with any velocity1 how great soever1 but may be stopped by any opposing force1 how small soever1 continually applied4 ,at least all our modern philosophers agree to tell us so4 ,let me turn the thing in what light ,i please1 ,i cannot discover the vis inerti1 nor any effect of it4 ,it is allowed by all1 that a body #a a moving with a velocity #a c1 and a force #a f striking another body #a a at rest1 they will afterwards move on together1 each with c and f2 which1 as ,i said before1 is equal in the whole to #a c and #a f4 ,if vis inerti1 as in this case1 neither abates the force nor the velocity of bodies1 what does it1 or how does it discover itself8 ,i imagine ,i may venture to conclude my observations on this piece1 almost in the words of the author2 that if the doctrines of the immateriality of the soul and the existence of ,god and of divine providence are demonstrable from no plainer principles1 the deist i4e4 theist has a desperate cause in hand4 ,i oppose my theist to his atheist1 because ,i think they are diametrically opposite2 and not near of kin1 as ,mr4 ,whitfield seems to suppose2 where 7in his journal7 he tells us1 ,m4 ,b4 was a deist1 ,i had almost said an atheist2 that is1 chalk1 ,i had almost said charcoal4 ,the din of the market#ai increases upon me2 and that1 with frequent interruptions1 has1 ,i find1 made me say some things twice over2 and1 ,i suppose1 forget some others ,i intended to say4 ,it has1 however1 one good effect1 as it obliges me to come to the relief of your patience with ,your humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,baxter's ,inquiry into the ,nature of the ,human ,soul4 ,b4 ,v4 #ai ,philadelphia market1 in which ,dr4 ,franklin lived4 ,b4 ,v4 ,,to ,,john ,,pringle1 ,m4 ,d4 ,,and ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,on the different ,strata of the ,earth4 ,craven-,street1 ,jan4 #f1 #ageh4 ,,sir1 ,i return you ,mr4 ,mitchell's paper on the strata of the earth#bj with thanks4 ,the reading of it1 and perusal of the draft that accompanies it1 have reconciled me to those convulsions which all naturalists agree this globe has suffered4 ,had the different strata of clay1 gravel1 marble1 coals1 lime-stone1 sand1 minerals1 c4 continued to lie level1 one under the other1 as they may be supposed to have done before those convulsions1 we should have had the use only of a few of the uppermost of the strata1 the others lying too deep and too difficult to be come at2 but the shell of the earth being broke1 and the fragments thrown into this oblique position1 the disjointed ends of a great number of strata of different kinds are brought up to day1 and a great variety of useful materials put into our power1 which would otherwise have remained eternally concealed from us4 ,so that what has been usually looked upon as a ruin suffered by this part of the universe1 was1 in reality1 only a preparation1 or means of rendering the earth more fit for use1 more capable of being to mankind a convenient and comfortable habitation4 ,i am1 ,sir1 with great esteem1 yours1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bj ,see this paper afterwards printed in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,,to ,,the ,,abbe ,,soulavie4 ,occasioned by his sending me some notes he had taken of what ,i had said to him in conversation on the ,theory of the ,earth4 ,i wrote it to set him right in some points wherein he had mistaken my meaning4#ba ,passy1 ,september #bb1 #aghb4 ,,sir1 ,i return the papers with some corrections4 ,i did not find coal mines under the calcareous rock in ,derbyshire4 ,i only remarked1 that at the lowest part of that rocky mountain which was in sight1 there were oyster shells mixed in the stone2 and part of the high county of ,derby being probably as much above the level of the sea1 as the coal mines of ,whitehaven were below it1 seemed a proof1 that there had been a great bouleversement in the surface of that island1 some part of it having been depressed under the sea1 and other parts1 which had been under it1 being raised above it4 ,such changes in the superficial parts of the globe1 seemed to me unlikely to happen1 if the earth were solid to the centre4 ,i therefore imagined1 that the internal parts might be a fluid more dense1 and of greater specific gravity than any of the solids we are acquainted with1 which therefore might swim in or upon that fluid4 ,thus the surface of the globe would be a shell1 capable of being broken and disordered by the violent movements of the fluid on which it rested4 ,and as air has been compressed by art so as to be twice as dense as water1 in which case1 if such air and water could be contained in a strong glass vessel1 the air would be seen to take the lowest place1 and the water to float above and upon it2 and as we know not yet the degree of density to which air may be compressed1 and ,m4 ,amontons calculated1 that its density increasing as it approached the centre1 in the same proportion as above the surface1 it would at the depth of leagues1 be heavier than gold1 possibly the dense fluid occupying the internal parts of the globe might be air compressed4 ,and as the force of expansion in dense air when heated is in proportion to its density1 this central air might afford another agent to move the surface1 as well as be of use in keeping alive the subterraneous fires2 though1 as you observe1 the sudden rarefaction of water coming into contact without those fires1 may also be an agent sufficiently strong for that purpose1 when acting between the incumbent earth and the fluid on which it rests4 ,if one might indulge imagination in supposing how such a globe was formed1 ,i should conceive1 that all the elements in separate particles being originally mixed in confusion1 and occupying a great space1 they would 7as soon as the almighty fiat ordained gravity1 or the mutual attraction of certain parts1 and the mutual repulsion of others1 to exist7 all move to their common centre3 that the air being a fluid whose parts repel each other1 though drawn to the common centre by their gravity1 would be densest towards the centre1 and rarer as more remote2 consequently all matters lighter than the central parts of that air1 and immersed in it1 would recede from the centre1 and rise till they arrived at that region of the air which was of the same specific gravity with themselves1 where they would rest2 while other matter1 mixed with the lighter air1 would descend1 and the two meeting would form the shell of the first earth1 leaving the upper atmosphere nearly clear4 ,the original movement of the parts towards their common centre would naturally form a whirl there2 which would continue upon the turning of the new-formed globe upon its axis1 and the greatest diameter of the shell would be in its equator4 ,if by any accident afterwards the axis should be changed1 the dense internal fluid1 by altering its form1 must burst the shell1 and throw all its substance into the confusion in which we find it4 ,i will not trouble you at present with my fancies concerning the manner of forming the rest of our system4 ,superior beings smile at our theories1 and at our presumption in making them4 ,i will just mention1 that your observation of the ferruginous nature of the lava which is thrown out from the depths of our volcanoes1 gave me great pleasure4 ,it has long been a supposition of mine1 that the iron contained in the surface of the globe has made it capable of becoming1 as it is1 a great magnet2 that the fluid of magnetism perhaps exists in all space2 so that there is a magnetical north and south of the universe1 as well as of this globe1 and that if it were possible for a man to fly from star to star1 he might govern his course by the compass2 that it was by the power of this general magnetism this globe became a particular magnet4 ,in soft or hot iron the fluid of magnetism is naturally diffused equally2 when within the influence of the magnet it is drawn to one end of the iron1 made denser there and rarer at the other4 ,while the iron continues soft and hot1 it is only a temporary magnet2 if it cools or grows hard in that situation1 it becomes a permanent one1 the magnetic fluid not easily resuming its equilibrium4 ,perhaps it may be owing to the permanent magnetism of this globe1 which it had not at first1 that its axis is at present kept parallel to itself1 and not liable to the changes it formerly suffered1 which occasioned the rupture of its shell1 the submersions and emersions of its lands and the confusion of its seasons4 ,the present polar and equatorial diameters differing from each other near ten leagues1 it is easy to conceive1 in case some power should shift the axis gradually1 and place it in the present equator1 and make the new equator pass through the present poles1 what a sinking of the waters would happen in the present equatorial regions1 and what a rising in the present polar regions2 so that vast tracts would be discovered1 that now are under water1 and others covered1 that are now dry1 the water rising and sinking in the different extremes near five leagues4 ,such an operation as this possibly occasioned much of ,europe1 and among the rest this ,mountain of ,passy on which ,i live1 and which is composed of limestone1 rock and sea-shells1 to be abandoned by the sea1 and to change its ancient climate1 which seems to have been a hot one4 ,the globe being now become a perfect magnet1 we are1 perhaps1 safe from any change of its axis4 ,but we are still subject to the accidents on the surface1 which are occasioned by a wave in the internal ponderous fluid2 and such a wave is producible by the sudden violent explosion you mention1 happening from the junction of water and fire under the earth1 which not only lifts the incumbent earth that is over the explosion1 but impressing with the same force the fluid under it1 creates a wave1 that may run a thousand leagues1 lifting1 and thereby shaking1 successively1 all the countries under which it passes4 ,i know not1 whether ,i have expressed myself so clearly1 as not to get out of your sight in these reveries4 ,it they occasion any new enquiries1 and produce a better hypothesis1 they will not be quite useless4 ,you see ,i have given a loose to imagination2 but ,i approve much more your method of philosophising1 which proceeds upon actual observation1 makes a collection of facts1 and concludes no farther than those facts will warrant4 ,in my present circumstances1 that mode of studying the nature of the globe is out of my power1 and therefore ,i have permitted myself to wander a little in the wilds of fancy4 ,with great esteem1 ,i have the honour to be1 ,sir1 c4 ,,benj4 ,,franklin4 ,p4 ,s4 ,i have heard1 that chymists can by their art decompose stone and wood1 extracting a considerable quantity of water from the one1 and air from the other4 ,it seems natural to conclude from this1 that water and air were ingredients in their original composition3 for men cannot make new matter of any kind4 ,in the same manner may we not suppose1 that when we consume combustibles of all kinds1 and produce heat or light1 we do not create that heat or light2 but only decompose a substance1 which received it originally as a part of its composition8 ,heat may be thus considered as originally in a fluid state2 but1 attracted by organized bodies in their growth1 becomes a part of the solid4 ,besides this1 ,i can conceive1 that in the first assemblage of the particles of which this earth is composed1 each brought its portion of the loose heat that had been connected with it1 and the whole1 when pressed together1 produced the internal fire that still subsists4 ,,footnote3 #ba ,in an ,american periodical publication1 this paper is said to have been so endorsed in ,dr4 ,franklin's hand4 ,we extract the paper itself1 from the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 where it was read ,nov4 #ba1 #aghh4 ,the two papers that follow it are from the same work1 and were read in the ,society the preceding day1 and the other ,jan4 #ae1 #agij4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,david ,,rittenhouse1 ,,esq4 ,new and curious ,theory of ,light and ,heat4 ,no date4 ,universal space1 as far as we know of it1 seems to be filled with a subtle fluid1 whose motion1 or vibration1 is called light4 ,this fluid may possibly be the same with that1 which1 being attracted by1 and entering into other more solid matter1 dilates the substance by separating the constituent particles1 and so rendering some solids fluid1 and maintaining the fluidity of others2 of which fluid1 when our bodies are totally deprived1 they are said to be frozen2 when they have a proper quantity1 they are in health1 and fit to perform all their functions2 it is then called natural heat2 when too much1 it is called fever2 and when forced into the body in too great a quantity from without1 it gives pain1 by separating and destroying the flesh1 and is then called burning1 and the fluid so entering and acting is called fire4 ,while organised bodies1 animal or vegetable1 are augmenting in growth1 or are supplying their continual waste1 is not this done by attracting and consolidating this fluid called fire1 so as to form of it a part of their substance8 ,and is it not a separation of the parts of such substance1 which1 dissolving its solid state1 sets that subtle fluid at liberty1 when it again makes its appearance as fire8 ,for the power of man relative to matter1 seems limited to the separating or mixing the various kinds of it1 or changing its form and appearance by different compositions of it2 but does not extend to the making or creating new matter1 or annihilating the old4 ,thus1 if fire be an original element or kind of matter1 its quantity is fixed and permanent in the universe4 ,we cannot destroy any part of it1 or make addition to it2 we can only separate it from that which confines it1 and so set it at liberty2 as when we put wood in a situation to be burnt1 or transfer it from one solid to another1 as when we make lime by burning stone1 a part of the fire dislodged in the fuel being left in the stone4 ,may not this fluid1 when at liberty1 be capable of penetrating and entering into all bodies1 organised or not1 quitting easily in totality those not organised1 and quitting easily in part those which are2 the part assumed and fixed remaining till the body is dissolved8 ,is it not this fluid which keeps asunder the particles of air1 permitting them to approach1 or separating them more1 in proportion as its quantity is diminished or augmented8 ,is it not the greater gravity of the particles of air1 which forces the particles of this fluid to mount with the matters to which it is attached1 as smoke or vapour8 ,does it not seem to have a greater affinity with water1 since it will quit a solid to unite with that fluid1 and go off with it in vapour1 leaving the solid cold to the touch1 and the degree measurable by the thermometer8 ,the vapour rises attached to this fluid1 but at a certain height they separate1 and the vapour descends in rain1 retaining but little of it1 in snow or hail less4 ,what becomes of that fluid8 ,does it rise above our atmosphere1 and mix with the universal mass of the same kind8 ,or does a spherical stratum of it1 denser1 as less mixed with air1 attracted by this globe1 and repelled or pushed up only to a certain height from its surface1 by the greater weight of air1 remain there surrounding the globe1 and proceeding with it round the sun8 ,in such case1 as there may be a continuity or communication of this fluid through the air quite down to the earth1 is it not by the vibrations given to it1 by the sun1 that light appears to us8 ,and may it not be1 that every one of the infinitely small vibrations1 striking common matter with a certain force1 enters its substance1 is held there by attraction1 and augmented by succeeding vibrations1 till the matter has received as much as their force can drive into it8 ,is it not thus1 that the surface of this globe is continually heated by such repeated vibrations in the day1 and cooled by the escape of the heat when those vibrations are discontinued in the night1 or intercepted and reflected by clouds8 ,is it not thus1 that fire is amassed and makes the greatest part of the substance of combustible bodies8 ,perhaps1 when this globe was first formed1 and its original particles took their place at certain distances from the centre1 in proportion to their greater or less gravity1 the fluid fire1 attracted towards that centre1 might in great part be obliged1 as lightest1 to take place above the rest1 and thus form the sphere of fire above supposed1 which would afterwards be continually diminishing by the substance it afforded to organised bodies1 and the quantity restored to it again1 by the burning or other separating of the parts of those bodies4 ,is not the natural heat of animals thus produced1 by separating in digestion the parts of food1 and setting their fire at liberty8 ,is it not this sphere of fire which kindles the wandering globes that sometimes pass through it in our course round the sun1 have their surface kindled by it1 and burst when their included air is greatly rarefied by the heat on their burning surfaces8 ,may it not have been from such considerations that the ancient philosophers supposed a sphere of fire to exist above the air of our atmosphere8 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,bodoin4 ,queries and ,conjectures relating to ,magnetism and the ,theory of the ,earth4 ,no date4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i received your favours by ,messrs4 ,gore1 ,hilliard1 and ,lee1 with whose conversation ,i was much pleased1 and wished for more of it2 but their stay with us was too short4 ,whenever you recommend any of your friends to me1 you oblige me4 ,i want to know whether your ,philosophical ,society received the second volume of our ,transactions4 ,i sent it1 but never heard of its arriving4 ,if it miscarried1 ,i will send another4 ,has your ,society among its books the ,french work ,sur les ,arts1 et les ,metiers8 ,it is voluminous1 well executed1 and may be useful in our country4 ,i have bequeathed it them in my will2 but if they have it already1 ,i will substitute something else4 ,our ancient correspondence used to have something philosophical in it4 ,as you are now more free from public cares1 and ,i expect to be so in a few months1 why may we not resume that kind of correspondence8 ,our much regretted friend ,winthrop once made me the compliment1 that ,i was good at starting game for philosophers1 let me try if ,i can start a little for you4 ,has the question1 how came the earth by its magnetism1 ever been considered8 ,is it likely that iron ore immediately existed when this globe was first formed2 or may it not rather be supposed a gradual production of time8 ,if the earth is at present magnetical1 in virtue of the masses of iron ore contained in it1 might not some ages pass before it had magnetic polarity8 ,since iron ore may exist without that polarity1 and by being placed in certain circumstances may obtain it1 from an external cause1 is it not possible that the earth received its magnetism from some such cause8 ,in short1 may not a magnetic power exist throughout our system1 perhaps through all systems1 so that if men could make a voyage in the starry regions1 a compass might be of use8 ,and may not such universal magnetism1 with its uniform direction1 be serviceable in keeping the diurnal revolution of a planet more steady to the same axis8 ,lastly1 as the poles of magnets may be changed by the presence of stronger magnets1 might not1 in ancient times1 the near passing of some large comet of greater magnetic power than this globe of ours have been a means of changing its poles1 and thereby wrecking and deranging its surface1 placing in different regions the effect of centrifugal force1 so as to raise the waters of the sea in some1 while they were depressed in others8 ,let me add another question or two1 not relating indeed to magnetism1 but1 however1 to the theory of the earth4 ,is not the finding of great quantities of shells and bones of animals 7natural to hot climates7 in the cold ones of our present world1 some proof that its poles have been changed8 ,is not the supposition that the poles have been changed1 the easiest way of accounting for the deluge1 by getting rid of the old difficulty how to dispose of its waters after it was over8 ,since if the poles were again to be changed1 and placed in the present equator1 the sea would fall there about fifteen miles in height1 and rise as much in the present polar regions2 and the effect would be proportionable if the new poles were placed any where between the present and the equator4 ,does not the apparent wreck of the surface of this globe1 thrown up into long ridges of mountains1 with strata in various positions1 make it probable1 that its internal mass is a fluid2 but a fluid so dense as to float the heaviest of our substances8 ,do we know the limit of condensation air is capable of8 ,supposing it to grow denser within the surface1 in the same proportion nearly as it does without1 at what depth may it be equal in density with gold8 ,can we easily conceive how the strata of the earth could have been so deranged1 if it had not been a mere shell supported by a heavier fluid8 ,would not such a supposed internal fluid globe be immediately sensible of a change in the situation of the earth's axis1 alter its form1 and thereby burst the shell1 and throw up parts of it above the rest8 ,as1 if we would alter the position of the fluid contained in the shell of an egg1 and place its longest diameter where the shortest now is1 the shell must break2 but would be much harder to break2 if the whole internal substance were as solid and hard as the shell4 ,might not a wave1 by any means raised in this supposed internal ocean of extremely dense fluid1 raise in some degree1 as it passes1 the present shell of incumbent earth1 and break it in some places1 as in earthquakes8 ,and may not the progress of such wave1 and the disorders it occasions among the solids of the shell1 account for the rumbling sound being first heard at a distance1 augmenting as it approaches1 and gradually dying away as it proceeds8 ,a circumstance observed by the inhabitants of ,south ,america in their last great earthquake1 that noise coming from a place1 some degrees north of ,lima1 and being traced by enquiry quite down to ,buenos ,ayres1 proceeded regularly from north to south at the rate of leagues per minute1 as ,i was informed by a very ingenious ,peruvian whom ,i met with at ,paris4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,m4 ,,dubourg4 ,on the ,nature of ,sea ,coal#bb4 99999999 ,i am persuaded1 as well as you1 that the sea coal has a vegetable origin1 and that it has been formed near the surface of the earth2 but as preceding convulsions of nature had served to bring it very deep in many places1 and covered it with many different strata1 we are indebted to subsequent convulsions for having brought within our view the extremities of its veins1 so as to lead us to penetrate the earth in search of it4 ,i visited last summer a large coal-mine at ,whitehaven1 in ,cumberland2 and in following the vein and descending by degrees towards the sea1 ,i penetrated below the ocean1 where the level of its surface was more than eight hundred fathom above my head1 and the miners assured me1 that their works extended some miles beyond the place where ,i then was1 continually and gradually descending under the sea4 ,the slate1 which forms the roof of this coal mine1 is impressed in many places with the figures of leaves and branches of fern1 which undoubtedly grew at the surface when the slate was in the state of sand on the banks of the sea4 ,thus it appears that this vein of coal has suffered a prodigious settlement4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bb ,retranslated from the ,french edition of ,dr4 ,franklin's works4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,,priestley#bc4 ,effect of ,vegetation on noxious ,air4 99999999 ,that the vegetable creation should restore the air which is spoiled by the animal part of it1 looks like a rational system1 and seems to be of a piece with the rest4 ,thus fire purifies water all the world over4 ,it purifies it by distillation1 when it raises it in vapours1 and lets it fall in rain2 and farther still by filtration1 when1 keeping it fluid1 it suffers that rain to percolate the earth4 ,we knew before1 that putrid animal substances were converted into sweet vegetables1 when mixed with the earth1 and applied as manure2 and now1 it seems1 that the same putrid substances1 mixed with the air1 have a similar effect4 ,the strong thriving state of your mint1 in putrid air1 seems to shew1 that the air is mended by taking something from it1 and not by adding to it4 ,i hope this will give some check to the rage of destroying trees that grow near houses1 which has accompanied our late improvements in gardening1 from an opinion of their being unwholesome4 ,i am certain1 from long observation1 that there is nothing unhealthy in the air of woods2 for we ,americans have every where our country habitations in the midst of woods1 and no people on earth enjoy better health1 or are more prolific4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bc ,this extract is taken from ,dr4 ,priestley's ,experiments on ,air1 ,vol4 ,i4 page #id4 ,it was written in answer to a note from ,dr4 ,priestley1 informing our author of the result of certain experiments on some plants which he had seen at ,dr4 ,priestley's house in a very flourishing state1 in jars of highly noxious air4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,the ,,same#bd4 ,on the ,inflammability of the ,surface of certain ,rivers in ,america4 ,craven-street1 ,april #aj1 #aggd4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,in compliance with your request1 ,i have endeavoured to recollect the circumstances of the ,american experiments ,i formerly mentioned to you1 of raising a flame on the surface of some waters there4 ,when ,i passed through ,new ,jersey in #agfd1 ,i heard it several times mentioned1 that by applying a lighted candle near the surface of some of their rivers1 a sudden flame would catch and spread on the water1 continuing to burn for near half a minute4 ,but the accounts ,i received were so imperfect1 that ,i could form no guess at the cause of such an effect1 and rather doubted the truth of it4 ,i had no opportunity of seeing the experiment2 but calling to see a friend who happened to be just returning home from making it himself1 ,i learned from him the manner of it2 which was to choose a shallow place1 where the bottom could be reached by a walking-stick1 and was muddy2 the mud was first to be stirred with the stick1 and when a number of small bubbles began to arise from it1 the candle was applied4 ,the flame was so sudden and so strong1 that it catched his ruffle and spoiled it1 as ,i saw4 ,new ,jersey having many pine-trees in many parts of it1 ,i then imagined that something like a volatile oil of turpentine might be mixed with the waters from a pine-swamp1 but this supposition did not quite satisfy me4 ,i mentioned the fact to some philosophical friends on my return to ,england1 but it was not much attended to4 ,i suppose ,i was thought a little too credulous4 ,in #agfe1 the ,reverend ,dr4 ,chandler received a letter from ,dr4 ,finley1 ,president of the ,college in that province1 relating the same experiment4 ,it was read at the ,royal ,society1 ,november #ba of that year1 but not printed in the ,transactions2 perhaps because it was thought too strange to be true1 and some ridicule might be apprehended1 if any member should attempt to repeat it1 in order to ascertain1 or refute it4 ,the following is a copy of that account4 ,a worthy gentleman1 who lives at a few miles distance1 informed me1 that in a certain small cove of a mill-pond1 near his house1 he was surprized to see the surface of the water blaze like inflamed spirits4 ,i soon after went to the place1 and made the experiment with the same success4 ,the bottom of the creek was muddy1 and when stirred up1 so as to cause a considerable curl on the surface1 and a lighted candle held within two or three inches of it1 the whole surface was in a blaze1 as instantly as the vapour of warm inflammable spirits1 and continued1 when strongly agitated1 for the space of several seconds4 ,it was at first imagined to be peculiar to that place2 but upon trial it was soon found1 that such a bottom in other places exhibited the same phenomenon4 ,the discovery was accidentally made by one belonging to the mill4 ,i have tried the experiment twice here in ,england1 but without success4 ,the first was in a slow running water with a muddy bottom4 ,the second in a stagnant water at the bottom of a deep ditch4 ,being some time employed in stirring this water1 ,i ascribed an intermitting fever1 which seized me a few days after1 to my breathing too much of that foul air1 which ,i stirred up from the bottom1 and which ,i could not avoid while ,i stooped1 endeavouring to kindle it4 ,the discoveries you have lately made1 of the manner in which inflammable air is in some cases produced1 may throw light on this experiment1 and explain its succeeding in some cases1 and not in others4 ,with the highest esteem and respect1 ,i am1 dear ,sir1 your most obedient humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bd ,from his ,experiments on ,air1 ,vol4 ,i4 page #cba4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,,percival#be4 ,on the different ,quantities of ,rain which fall at different ,heights over the same ,ground4 ,no date4 ,on my return to ,london ,i found your favour of the #afth of ,may 7#agga74 ,i wish ,i could1 as you desire1 give you a better explanation of the phenomenon in question1 since you seem not quite satisfied with your own2 but ,i think we want more and a greater variety of experiments1 in different circumstances1 to enable us to form a thoroughly satisfactory hypothesis4 ,not that ,i make the least doubt of the facts already related1 as ,i know both ,lord ,charles ,cavendish1 and ,dr4 ,heberden to be very accurate experimenters3 but ,i wish to know the event of the trials proposed in your six queries2 and also1 whether in the same place where the lower vessel receives nearly twice the quantity of water that is received by the upper1 a third vessel placed at half the height will receive a quantity proportionable4 ,i will however endeavour to explain to you what occurred to me1 when ,i first heard of the fact4 ,i suppose it will be generally allowed1 on a little consideration of the subject1 that scarce any drop of water was1 when it began to fall from the clouds1 of a magnitude equal to that it has acquired1 when it arrives at the earth2 the same of the several pieces of hail2 because they are often so large and so weighty1 that we cannot conceive a possibility of their being suspended in the air1 and remaining at rest there1 for any time1 how small soever2 nor do we conceive any means of forming them so large1 before they set out to fall4 ,it seems then1 that each beginning drop1 and particle of hail1 receives continual addition in its progress downwards4 ,this may be several ways3 by the union of numbers in their course1 so that what was at first only descending mist1 becomes a shower2 or by each particle1 in its descent through air that contains a great quantity of dissolved water1 striking against1 attaching to itself1 and carrying down with it such particles of that dissolved water1 as happen to be in its way2 or attracting to itself such as do not lie directly in its course by its different state with regard either to common or electric fire2 or by all these causes united4 ,in the first case1 by the uniting of numbers1 larger drops might be made1 but the quantity falling in the same place would be the same at all heights2 unless1 as you mention1 the whole should be contracted in falling1 the lines described by all the drops converging1 so that what set out to fall from a cloud of many thousand acres1 should reach the earth in perhaps a third of that extent1 of which ,i somewhat doubt4 ,in the other cases we have two experiments4 #a4 ,a dry glass bottle filled with very cold water1 in a warm day1 will presently collect from the seemingly dry air that surrounds it a quantity of water1 that shall cover its surface and run down its sides1 which perhaps is done by the power wherewith the cold water attracts the fluid1 common fire that had been united with the dissolved water in the air1 and drawing the fire through the glass into itself1 leaves the water on the outside4 #b4 ,an electrified body left in a room for some time1 will be more covered with dust than other bodies in the same room not electrified1 which dust seems to be attracted from the circumambient air4 ,now we know that the rain1 even in our hottest days1 comes from a very cold region4 ,its falling sometimes in the form of ice1 shows this clearly2 and perhaps even the rain is snow or ice1 when it first moves downwards1 though thawed in falling3 and we know that the drops of rain are often electrified3 but those causes of addition to each drop of water1 or piece of hail1 one would think could not long continue to produce the same effect2 since the air1 through which the drops fall1 must soon be stripped of its previously dissolved water1 so as to be no longer capable of augmenting them4 ,indeed very heavy showers1 of either1 are never of long continuance2 but moderate rains often continue so long as to puzzle this hypothesis3 so that upon the whole ,i think1 as ,i intimated before1 that we are yet hardly ripe for making one4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #be ,this letter is taken from the ,memoirs of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #abf4 ,it was communicated by the person to whom it is addressed1 and was read in the ,society1 ,january #ba1 #aghd1 as an appendix to a paper by ,dr4 ,percival on the same subject4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,nairne1 ,,of ,,london#bf4 ,proposing a slowly sensible ,hygrometer for certain ,purposes4 ,passy1 near ,paris1 ,nov4 #ac1 #aghj4 ,,sir1 ,the qualities hitherto sought in a hygrometer1 or instrument to discover the degrees of moisture and dryness in the air1 seem to have been1 an aptitude to receive humidity readily from a moist air1 and to part with it is as readily to a dry air4 ,different substances have been found to possess more or less of this quality2 but when we shall have found the substance that has it in the greatest perfection1 there will still remain some uncertainty in the conclusions to be drawn from the degree shown by the instrument1 arising from the actual state of the instrument itself as to heat and cold4 ,thus1 if two bottles or vessels of glass or metal being filled1 the one with cold and the other with hot water1 are brought into a room1 the moisture of the air in the room will attach itself in quantities to the surface of the cold vessel1 while if you actually wet the surface of the hot vessel1 the moisture will immediately quit it1 and be absorbed by the same air4 ,and thus1 in a sudden change of the air from cold to warm1 the instrument remaining longer cold may condense and absorb more moisture1 and mark the air as having become more humid than it is in reality1 and the contrary in a change from warm to cold4 ,but if such a suddenly changing instrument could be freed from these imperfections1 yet when the design is to discover the different degrees of humidity in the air of different countries1 ,i apprehend the quick sensibility of the instrument to be rather a disadvantage2 since1 to draw the desired conclusions from it1 a constant and frequent observation day and night in each country will be necessary for a year or years1 and the mean of each different set of observations is to be found and determined4 ,after all which some uncertainty will remain respecting the different degrees of exactitude with which different persons may have made and taken notes of their observations4 ,for these reasons1 ,i apprehend that a substance which1 though capable of being distended by moisture and contracted by dryness1 is so slow in receiving and parting with its humidity1 that the frequent changes in the atmosphere have not time to affect it sensibly1 and which therefore should gradually take nearly the medium of all those changes and preserve it constantly1 would be the most proper substance of which to make such an hygrometer4 ,such an instrument1 you1 my dear sir1 though without intending it1 have made for me2 and ,i1 without desiring or expecting it1 have received from you4 ,it is therefore with propriety that ,i address to you the following account of it2 and the more1 as you have both a head to contrive and a hand to execute the means of perfecting it4 ,and ,i do this with greater pleasure1 as it affords me the opportunity of renewing that antient correspondence and acquaintance with you1 which to me was always so pleasing and so instructive4 ,you may possibly remember1 that in or about the year #ageh1 you made for me a set of artificial magnets1 six in number1 each five and a half inches long1 half an inch broad1 and one eighth of an inch thick4 ,these1 with two pieces of soft iron1 which together equalled one of the magnets1 were inclosed in a little box of mahogany wood1 the grain of which ran with1 and not across1 the length of the box3 and the box was closed by a little shutter of the same wood1 the grain of which ran across the box2 and the ends of this shutting piece were bevelled so as to fit and slide in a kind of dovetail groove when the box was to be shut or opened4 ,i had been of opinion1 that good mahogany wood was not affected by moisture so as to change its dimensions1 and that it was always to be found as the tools of the workman left it4 ,indeed the difference at different times in the same country is so small as to be scarcely in a common way observable4 ,hence the box1 which was made so as to allow sufficient room for the magnets to slide out and in freely1 and1 when in1 afforded them so much play that by shaking the box one could make them strike the opposite sides alternately1 continued in the same state all the time ,i remained in ,england1 which was four years1 without any apparent alteration4 ,i left ,england in ,august #agfb1 and arrived at ,philadelphia in ,october the same year4 ,in a few weeks after my arrival1 being desirous of showing your magnets to a philosophical friend1 ,i found them so tight in the box1 that it was with difficulty ,i got them out2 and constantly during the two years ,i remained there1 viz4 till ,november #agfd1 this difficulty of getting them out and in continued4 ,the little shutter too1 as wood does not shrink lengthways of the grain1 was found too long to enter its grooves1 and1 not being used1 was mislaid and lost2 and ,i afterwards had another made that fitted4 ,in ,december #agfd ,i returned to ,england1 and after some time ,i observed that my box was become full big enough for my magnets1 and too wide for my new shutter2 which was so much too short for its grooves1 that it was apt to fall out2 and to make it keep in1 ,i lengthened it by adding to each end a little coat of sealing-wax4 ,i continued in ,england more than ten years1 and during all that time1 after the first change1 ,i perceived no alteration4 ,the magnets had the same freedom in their box1 and the little shutter continued with the added sealing-wax to fit its grooves1 till some weeks after my second return to ,america4 ,as ,i could not imagine any other cause for this change of dimensions in the box1 when in the different countries1 ,i concluded1 first generally that the air of ,england was moister than that of ,america4 ,and this ,i supposed an effect of its being an island1 where every wind that blew must necessarily pass over some sea before it arrived1 and of course lick up some vapour4 ,i afterwards indeed doubted whether it might be just only so far as related to the city of ,london1 where ,i resided2 because there are many causes of moisture in the city air1 which do not exist to the same degree in the country2 such as the brewers' and dyers' boiling caldrons1 and the great number of pots and tea-kettles continually on the fire1 sending forth abundance of vapour2 and also the number of animals who by their breath continually increase it2 to which may be added1 that even the vast quantity of sea coals burnt there1 do in kindling discharge a great deal of moisture4 ,when ,i was in ,england1 the last time1 you also made for me a little achromatic pocket telescope1 the body was brass1 and it had a round case 7,i think of thin wood7 covered with shagrin4 ,all the while ,i remained in ,england1 though possibly there might be some small changes in the dimensions of this case1 ,i neither perceived nor suspected any4 ,there was always comfortable room for the telescope to slip in and out4 ,but soon after ,i arrived in ,america1 which was in ,may #agge1 the case became too small for the instrument1 it was with much difficulty and various contrivances that ,i got it out1 and ,i could never after get it in again1 during my stay there1 which was eighteen months4 ,i brought it with me to ,europe1 but left the case as useless1 imagining that ,i should find the continental air of ,france as dry as that of ,pennsylvania1 where my magnet box had also returned a second time to its narrowness1 and pinched the pieces1 as heretofore1 obliging me too1 to scrape the sealing-wax off the ends of the shutter4 ,i had not been long in ,france1 before ,i was surprised to find1 that my box was become as large as it had always been in ,england1 the magnets entered and came out with the same freedom1 and1 when in1 ,i could rattle them against its sides2 this has continued to be the case without sensible variation4 ,my habitation is out of ,paris distant almost a league1 so that the moist air of the city cannot be supposed to have much effect upon the box4 ,i am on a high dry hill1 in a free air1 as likely to be dry as any air in ,france4 ,whence it seems probable that the air of ,england in general may1 as well as that of ,london1 be moister than the air of ,america1 since that of ,france is so1 and in a part so distant from the sea4 ,the greater dryness of the air in ,america appears from some other observations4 ,the cabinet work formerly sent us from ,london1 which consisted in thin plates of fine wood glued upon fir1 never would stand with us2 the vaneering1 as those plates are called1 would get loose and come off2 both woods shrinking1 and their grains often crossing1 they were forever cracking and flying4 ,and in my electrical experiments there1 it was remarkable1 that a mahogany table1 on which my jars stood under the prime conductor to be charged1 would often be so dry1 particularly when the wind had been some time at north-west1 which with us is a very drying wind1 as to isolate the jars1 and prevent their being charged till ,i had formed a communication between their coatings and the earth4 ,i had a like table in ,london1 which ,i used for the same purpose all the time ,i resided there2 but it was never so dry as to refuse conducting the electricity4 ,now what ,i would beg leave to recommend to you1 is1 that you would recollect1 if you can1 the species of mahogany of which you made my box1 for you know there is a good deal of difference in woods that go under that name2 or if that cannot be1 that you would take a number of pieces of the closest and finest grained mahogany that you can meet with1 plane them to the thinness of about a line1 and the width of about two inches across the grain1 and fix each of the pieces in some instrument that you can contrive1 which will permit them to contract and dilate1 and will show1 in sensible degrees1 by a moveable hand upon a marked scale1 the otherwise less sensible quantities of such contraction and dilatation4 ,if these instruments are all kept in the same place while making1 and are graduated together while subject to the same degrees of moisture or dryness1 ,i apprehend you will have so many comparable hygrometers1 which1 being sent into different countries1 and continued there for some time1 will find and show there the mean of the different dryness and moisture of the air of those countries1 and that with much less trouble than by any hygrometer hitherto in use4 ,with great esteem1 ,i am1 ,dear ,sir1 your most obedient1 ,and most humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bf ,this letter is taken from the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in which it was read1 ,january #bf1 #aghf4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,p4#bg ,,in ,,london4 ,relating a curious ,instance of the ,effect of ,oil on ,water4 ,philadelphia1 ,dec4 #a1 #agfb4 ,,sir1 ,during our passage to ,madeira1 the weather being warm1 and the cabin windows constantly open for the benefit of the air1 the candles at night flared and run very much1 which was an inconvenience4 ,at ,madeira1 we got oil to burn1 and with a common glass tumbler or beaker1 slung in wire1 and suspended to the cieling of the cabin1 and a little wire hoop for the wick1 furnished with corks to float on the oil1 ,i made an ,italian lamp1 that gave us very good light all over the table4--,the glass at bottom contained water to about one third of its height2 another third was taken up with oil2 the rest was left empty that the sides of the glass might protect the flame from the wind4 ,there is nothing remarkable in all this2 but what follows is particular4 ,at supper1 looking on the lamp1 ,i remarked1 that though the surface of the oil was perfectly tranquil1 and duly preserved its position and distance with regard to the brim of the glass1 the water under the oil was in great commotion1 rising and falling in irregular waves1 which continued during the whole evening4 ,the lamp was kept burning as a watch light all night1 till the oil was spent1 and the water only remained4 ,in the morning ,i observed1 that though the motion of the ship continued the same1 the water was now quiet1 and its surface as tranquil as that of the oil had been the evening before4 ,at night again1 when oil was put upon it1 the water resumed its irregular motions1 rising in high waves almost to the surface of the oil1 but without disturbing the smooth level of that surface4 ,and this was repeated every day during the voyage4 ,since my arrival in ,america1 ,i have repeated the experiment frequently thus4 ,i have put a pack-thread round a tumbler1 with strings of the same1 from each side1 meeting above it in a knot at about a foot distance from the top of the tumbler4 ,then putting in as much water as would fill about one third part of the tumbler1 ,i lifted it up by the knot1 and swung it to and fro in the air2 when the water appeared to keep its place in the tumbler as steadily as if it had been ice4 ,but pouring gently in upon the water about as much oil1 and then again swinging it in the air as before1 the tranquility before possessed by the water1 was transferred to the surface of the oil1 and the water under it was agitated with the same commotions as at sea4 ,i have shewn this experiment to a number of ingenious persons4 ,those who are but slightly acquainted with the principles of hydrostatics1 c4 are apt to fancy immediately that they understand it1 and readily attempt to explain it2 but their explanations have been different1 and to me not very intelligible4 ,others1 more deeply skilled in those principles1 seem to wonder at it1 and promise to consider it4 ,and ,i think it is worth considering3 for a new appearance1 if it cannot be explained by our old principles1 may afford us new ones1 of use perhaps in explaining some other obscure parts of natural knowledge4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #bg ,dr4 ,pringle4 ,editor4 ,of the ,stilling of ,waves by ,means of ,oil4 ,extracted from ,sundry ,letters between ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,l4 ,l4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,william ,brownrigg1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 and the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,farish4 ,read at the ,royal ,society1 ,june #b1 #aggd4 ,extract of a ,letter from ,dr4 ,brownrigg to ,dr4 ,franklin1 dated ,ormathwait1 ,january #bg1 #aggc4 ,by the enclosed from an old friend1 a worthy clergyman at ,carlisle1 whose great learning and extensive knowledge in most sciences would have more distinguished him1 had he been placed in a more conspicuous point of view1 you will find1 that he had heard of your experiment on ,derwent ,lake1 and has thrown together what he could collect on that subject2 to which ,i have subjoined one experiment from the relation of another gentleman4 ,extract of a ,letter from the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,farish1 to ,dr4 ,brownrigg4 ,i some time ago met with ,mr4 ,dun1 who surprised me with an account of an experiment you had tried upon the ,derwent ,water1 in company with ,sir ,john ,pringle and ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,according to his representation1 the water1 which had been in great agitation before1 was instantly calmed upon pouring in only a very small quantity of oil1 and that to so great a distance round the boat as seemed incredible4 ,i have since had the same accounts from others1 but ,i suspect all of a little exaggeration4 ,pliny mentions this property of oil as known particularly to the divers1 who made use of it in his days1 in order to have a more steady light at the bottom4#bh ,the sailors1 ,i have been told1 have observed something of the same kind in our days1 that the water is always remarkably smoother1 in the wake of a ship that has been newly tallowed1 than it is in one that is foul4 ,mr4 ,pennant also mentions an observation of the like nature made by the seal catchers in ,scotland4 ,brit4 ,zool4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,article ,seal4 ,when these animals are devouring a very oily fish1 which they always do under water1 the waves alone are observed to be remarkably smooth1 and by this mark the fishermen know where to look for them4 ,old ,pliny does not usually meet with all the credit ,i am inclined to think he deserves4 ,i shall be glad to have an authentic account of the ,keswick experiment1 and if it comes up to the representations that have been made of it1 ,i shall not much hesitate to believe the old gentleman in another more wonderful phenomenon he relates of stilling a tempest only by throwing up a little vinegar into the air4 ,extract of a ,letter to ,dr4 ,brownrigg from ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,london ,nov4 #g1 #aggc4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i thank you for the remarks of your learned friend at ,carlisle4 ,i had1 when a youth1 read and smiled at ,pliny's account of a practice among the seamen of his time1 to still the waves in a storm by pouring oil into the sea2 which he mentions1 as well as the use made of oil by the divers2 but the stilling a tempest by throwing vinegar into the air had escaped me4 ,i think with your friend1 that it has been of late too much the mode to slight the learning of the ancients4 ,the learned1 too1 are apt to slight too much the knowledge of the vulgar4 ,the cooling by evaporation was long an instance of the latter4 ,this art of smoothing the waves by oil is an instance of both4 ,perhaps you may not dislike to have an account of all ,i have heard1 and learnt1 and done in this way4 ,take it if you please as follows4 ,in #ageg1 being at sea in a fleet of #if sail bound against ,louisbourg1 ,i observed the wakes of two of the ships to be remarkably smooth1 while all the others were ruffled by the wind1 which blew fresh4 ,being puzzled with the differing appearance1 ,i at last pointed it out to our captain1 and asked him the meaning of it4 ,the cooks1 says he1 have1 ,i suppose1 been just emptying their greasy water through the scuppers1 which has greased the sides of those ships a little2 and this answer he gave me with an air of some little contempt1 as to a person ignorant of what every body else knew4 ,in my own mind ,i at first slighted his solution1 though ,i was not able to think of another1 but recollecting what ,i had formerly read in ,pliny1 ,i resolved to make some experiment of the effect of oil on water1 when ,i should have opportunity4 ,afterwards being again at sea in #agfb1 ,i first observed the wonderful quietness of oil on agitated water1 in the swinging glass lamp ,i made to hang up in the cabin1 as described in my printed papers#bi4 ,this ,i was continually looking at and considering1 as an appearance to me inexplicable4 ,an old sea captain1 then a passenger with me1 thought little of it1 supposing it an effect of the same kind with that of oil put on water to smooth it1 which he said was a practice of the ,bermudians when they would strike fish1 which they could not see1 if the surface of the water was ruffled by the wind4 ,this practice ,i had never before heard of1 and was obliged to him for the information2 though ,i thought him mistaken as to the sameness of the experiment1 the operations being different as well as the effects4 ,in one case1 the water is smooth till the oil is put on1 and then becomes agitated4 ,in the other it is agitated before the oil is applied1 and then becomes smooth4 ,the same gentleman told me1 he had heard it was a practice with the fisherman of ,lisbon when about to return into the river 7if they saw before them too great a surf upon the bar1 which they apprehended might fill their boats in passing7 to empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea1 which would suppress the breakers1 and allow them to pass safely4 ,a confirmation of this ,i have not since had an opportunity of obtaining3 but discoursing of it with another person1 who had often been in the ,mediterranean1 ,i was informed1 that the divers there1 who1 when under water in their business1 need light1 which the curling of the surface interrupts by the refractions of so many little waves1 let a small quantity of oil now and then out of their mouths1 which rising to the surface smooths it1 and permits the light to come down to them4 ,all these informations ,i at times revolved in my mind1 and wondered to find no mention of them in our books of experimental philosophy4 ,at length being at ,clapham1 where there is1 on the common1 a large pond1 which ,i observed one day to be very rough with the wind1 ,i fetched out a cruet of oil1 and dropt a little of it on the water4 ,i saw it spread itself with surprising swiftness upon the surface2 but the effect of smoothing the waves was not produced2 for ,i had applied it first on the leeward side of the pond1 where the waves were largest1 and the wind drove my oil back upon the shore4 ,i then went to the windward side where they began to form2 and there the oil1 though not more than a tea spoonful1 produced an instant calm over a space several yards square1 which spread amazingly1 and extended itself gradually till it reached the lee side1 making all that quarter of the pond1 perhaps half an acre1 as smooth as a looking-glass4 ,after this ,i contrived to take with me1 whenever ,i went into the country1 a little oil in the upper hollow joint of my bamboo cane1 with which ,i might repeat the experiment as opportunity should offer1 and ,i found it constantly to succeed4 ,in these experiments1 one circumstance struck me with particular surprise4 ,this was the sudden1 wide and forcible spreading of a drop of oil on the face of the water1 which ,i do not know that any body has hitherto considered4 ,if a drop of oil is put on a highly polished marble table1 or on a looking-glass that lies horizontally1 the drop remains in its place1 spreading very little4 ,but when put on water1 it spreads instantly many feet round1 becoming so thin as to produce the prismatic colours1 for a considerable space1 and beyond them so much thinner as to be invisible1 except in its effect of smoothing the waves at a much greater distance4 ,it seems as if a mutual repulsion between its particles took place as soon as it touched the water1 and a repulsion so strong as to act on other bodies swimming on the surface1 as straw1 leaves1 chips1 c4 forcing them to recede every way from the drop1 as from a centre1 leaving a large clear space4 ,the quantity of this force1 and the distance to which it will operate1 ,i have not yet ascertained2 but ,i think it a curious enquiry1 and ,i wish to understand whence it arises4 ,in our journey to the north1 when we had the pleasure of seeing you at ,ormathwaite1 we visited the celebrated ,mr4 ,smeaton1 near ,leeds4 ,being about to show him the smoothing experiment on a little pond near his house1 an ingenious pupil of his1 ,mr4 ,jessop1 then present1 told us of an odd appearance on that pond1 which had lately occurred to him4 ,he was about to clean a little cup in which he kept oil1 and he threw upon the water some flies that had been drowned in the oil4 ,these flies presently began to move1 and turned round on the water very rapidly1 as if they were vigorously alive1 though on examination he found they were not so4 ,i immediately concluded that the motion was occasioned by the power of the repulsion above mentioned1 and that the oil issuing gradually from the spungy body of the fly continued the motion4 ,he found some more flies drowned in oil1 with which the experiment was repeated before us4 ,to show that it was not any effect of life recovered by the flies1 ,i imitated it by little bits of oiled chips and paper cut in the form of a comma1 of the size of a common fly2 when the stream of repelling particles issuing from the point made the comma turn round the contrary way4 ,this is not a chamber experiment2 for it cannot be well repeated in a bowl or dish of water on a table4 ,a considerable surface of water is necessary to give room for the expansion of a small quantity of oil4 ,in a dish of water1 if the smallest drop of oil be let fall in the middle1 the whole surface is presently covered with a thin greasy film proceeding from the drop2 but as soon as that film has reached the sides of the dish1 no more will issue from the drop1 but it remains in the form of oil1 the sides of the dish putting a stop to its dissipation by prohibiting the farther expansion of the film4 ,our friend ,sir ,john ,pringle1 being soon after in ,scotland1 learned there1 that those employed in the herring-fishery could at a distance see where the shoals of herrings were1 by the smoothness of the water over them1 which might possibly be occasioned1 he thought1 by some oiliness proceeding from their bodies4 ,a gentleman from ,rhode-island told me1 it had been remarked1 that the harbour of ,newport was ever smooth while any whaling vessels were in it2 which probably arose from hence1 that the blubber which they sometimes bring loose in the hold1 or the leakage of their barrels1 might afford some oil1 to mix with that water1 which from time to time they pump out to keep their vessel free1 and that some oil might spread over the surface of the water in the harbour1 and prevent the forming of any waves4 ,this prevention ,i would thus endeavour to explain4 ,there seems to be no natural repulsion between water and air1 such as to keep them from coming into contact with each other4 ,hence we find a quantity of air in water2 and if we extract it by means of the air-pump1 the same water1 again exposed to the air1 will soon imbibe an equal quantity4 ,therefore air in motion1 which is wind1 in passing over the smooth surface of water1 may rub1 as it were1 upon that surface1 and raise it into wrinkles1 which1 if the wind continues1 are the elements of future waves4 ,the smallest wave once raised does not immediately subside1 and leave the neighbouring water quiet3 but in subsiding raises nearly as much of the water next to it1 the friction of the parts making little difference4 ,thus a stone dropped in a pool raises first a single wave round itself2 and leaves it1 by sinking to the bottom2 but that first wave subsiding raises a second1 the second a third1 and so on in circles to a great extent4 ,a small power continually operating will produce a great action4 ,a finger applied to a weighty suspended bell can at first move it but little2 if repeatedly applied1 though with no greater strength1 the motion increases till the bell swings to its utmost height1 and with a force that cannot be resisted by the whole strength of the arm and body4 ,thus the small first-raised waves1 being continually acted upon by the wind1 are1 though the wind does not increase in strength1 continually increased in magnitude1 rising higher and extending their bases1 so as to include a vast mass of water in each wave1 which in its motion acts with great violence4 ,but if there be a mutual repulsion between the particles of oil1 and no attraction between oil and water1 oil dropped on water will not be held together by adhesion to the spot whereon it falls2 it will not be imbibed by the water2 it will be at liberty to expand itself2 and it will spread on a surface that1 besides being smooth to the most perfect degree of polish1 prevents1 perhaps by repelling the oil1 all immediate contact1 keeping it at a minute distance from itself2 and the expansion will continue till the mutual repulsion between the particles of the oil is weakened and reduced to nothing by their distance4 ,now ,i imagine that the wind1 blowing over water thus covered with a film of oil1 cannot easily catch upon it1 so as to raise the first wrinkles1 but slides over it1 and leaves it smooth as it finds it4 ,it moves a little the oil indeed1 which being between it and the water1 serves it to slide with1 and prevents friction1 as oil does between those parts of a machine1 that would otherwise rub hard together4 ,hence the oil dropped on the windward side of a pond proceeds gradually to leeward1 as may be seen by the smoothness it carries with it1 quite to the opposite side4 ,for the wind being thus prevented from raising the first wrinkles1 that ,i call the elements of waves1 cannot produce waves1 which are to be made by continually acting upon1 and enlarging those elements1 and thus the whole pond is calmed4 ,totally therefore we might suppress the waves in any required place1 if we could come at the windward place where they take their rise4 ,this in the ocean can seldom if ever be done4 ,but perhaps something may be done on particular occasions1 to moderate the violence of the waves when we are in the midst of them1 and prevent their breaking where that would be inconvenient4 ,for when the wind blows fresh1 there are continually rising on the back of every great wave a number of small ones1 which roughen its surface1 and give the wind hold1 as it were1 to push it with greater force4 ,this hold is diminished1 by preventing the generation of those small ones4 ,and possibly too1 when a wave's surface is oiled1 the wind1 in passing over it1 may rather in some degree press it down1 and contribute to prevent it1 rising again1 instead of promoting it4 ,this as mere conjecture would have little weight1 if the apparent effects of pouring oil into the midst of waves were not considerable1 and as yet not otherwise accounted for4 ,when the wind blows so fresh1 as that the waves are not sufficiently quick in obeying its impulse1 their tops being thinner and lighter are pushed forward1 broken1 and turned over in a white foam4 ,common waves lift a vessel without entering it2 but these when large sometimes break above and pour over it1 doing great damage4 ,that this effect might in any degree be prevented1 or the height and violence of waves in the sea moderated1 we had no certain account2 ,pliny's authority for the practice of seamen in his time being slighted4 ,but discoursing lately on this subject with his excellency ,count ,bentinck1 of ,holland1 his son the honourable ,captain ,bentinck1 and the learned professor ,allemand 7to all whom ,i showed the experiment of smoothing in a windy day the large piece of water at the head of the ,green ,park7 a letter was mentioned1 which had been received by the ,count from ,batavia1 relative to the saving of a ,dutch ship in a storm by pouring oil into the sea4 ,i much desired to see that letter1 and a copy of it was promised me1 which ,i afterward received4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,note by ,dr4 ,brownrigg4 ,sir ,gilfred ,lawson1 who served long in the army at ,gibraltar1 assures me1 that the fishermen in that place are accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea1 in order to still its motion1 that they may be enabled to see the oysters lying at its bottom2 which are there very large1 and which they take up with a proper instrument4 ,this ,sir ,gilfred had often seen there performed1 and said the same was practised on other parts of the ,spanish coast4 #bi ,see the preceding paper4 ,editor4 ,extract of a ,letter from ,mr4 ,tengnagel to ,count ,bentinck1 dated at ,batavia1 the #eth of ,january1 #aggj4 ,near the islands ,paul and ,amsterdam1 we met with a storm1 which had nothing particular in it worthy of being communicated to you1 except that the captain found himself obliged for greater safety in wearing the ship1 to pour oil into the sea1 to prevent the waves breaking over her1 which had an excellent effect1 and succeeded in preserving us4 ,as he poured out but a little at a time1 the ,east ,india ,company owes perhaps its ship to only six demi-ames of oil-olive4 ,i was present upon deck when this was done2 and ,i should not have mentioned this circumstance to you1 but that we have found people here so prejudiced against the experiment1 as to make it necessary for the officers on board and myself to give a certificate of the truth on this head1 of which we made no difficulty4 ,on this occasion1 ,i mentioned to ,captain ,bentinck1 a thought which had occurred to me in reading the voyages of our late circumnavigators1 particularly where accounts are given of pleasant and fertile islands which they much desired to land upon1 when sickness made it more necessary1 but could not effect a landing through a violent surf breaking on the shore1 which rendered it impracticable4 ,my idea was1 that possibly by sailing to and fro at some distance from such lee-shore1 continually pouring oil into the sea1 the waves might be so much depressed1 and lessened before they reached the shore1 as to abate the height and violence of the surf1 and permit a landing2 which1 in such circumstances1 was a point of sufficient importance to justify the expense of the oil that might be requisite for the purpose4 ,that gentleman1 who is ever ready to promote what may be of public utility1 though his own ingenious inventions have not always met with the countenance they merited1 was so obliging as to invite me to ,portsmouth1 where an opportunity would probably offer1 in the course of a few days1 of making the experiment on some of the shores about ,spithead1 in which he kindly proposed to accompany me1 and to give assistance with such boats as might be necessary4 ,accordingly1 about the middle of ,october last1 ,i went with some friends to ,portsmouth2 and a day of wind happening1 which made a lee-shore between ,haslar-hospital and the point near ,jillkecker1 we went from the ,centaur with the long-boat and barge towards that shore4 ,our disposition was this3 the long-boat was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the shore2 part of the company were landed behind the point 7a place more sheltered from the sea7 who came round and placed themselves opposite to the long-boat1 where they might observe the surf1 and note if any change occurred in it upon using the oil4 ,another party1 in the barge1 plied to windward of the long-boat1 as far from her as she was from the shore1 making trips of about half a mile each1 pouring oil continually out of a large stone-bottle1 through a hole in the cork1 somewhat bigger than a goose-quill4 ,the experiment had not1 in the main point1 the success we wished1 for no material difference was observed in the height or force of the surf upon the shore2 but those who were in the long-boat could observe a tract of smoothed water1 the whole of the distance in which the barge poured the oil1 and gradually spreading in breadth towards the long-boat4 ,i call it smoothed1 not that it was laid level2 but because1 though the swell continued1 its surface was not roughened by the wrinkles1 or smaller waves1 before-mentioned2 and none or very few white caps 7or waves whose tops turn over in foam7 appeared in that whole space1 though to windward and leeward of it there were plenty2 and a wherry1 that came round the point under sail1 in her way to ,portsmouth1 seemed to turn into that tract of choice1 and to use it from end to end1 as a piece of turnpike-road4 ,it may be of use to relate the circumstances of an experiment that does not succeed1 since they may give hints of amendment in future trials3 it is therefore ,i have been thus particular4 ,i shall only add what ,i apprehend may have been the reason of our disappointment4 ,i conceive1 that the operation of oil on water is1 first1 to prevent the raising of new waves by the wind2 and1 secondly1 to prevent its pushing those before raised with such force1 and consequently their continuance of the same repeated height1 as they would have done1 if their surface were not oiled4 ,but oil will not prevent waves being raised by another power1 by a stone1 for instance1 falling into a still pool2 for they then rise by the mechanical impulse of the stone1 which the greasiness on the surrounding water cannot lessen or prevent1 as it can prevent the winds catching the surface and raising it into waves4 ,now waves once raised1 whether by the wind or any other power1 have the same mechanical operation1 by which they continue to rise and fall1 as a pendulum will continue to swing1 a long time after the force ceases to act by which the motion was first produced3 that motion will1 however1 cease in time2 but time is necessary4 ,therefore1 though oil spread on an agitated sea may weaken the push of the wind on those waves whose surfaces are covered by it1 and so1 by receiving less fresh impulse1 they may gradually subside2 yet a considerable time1 or a distance through which they will take time to move1 may be necessary to make the effect sensible on any shore in a diminution of the surf3 for we know1 that when wind ceases suddenly1 the waves it has raised do not as suddenly subside1 but settle gradually1 and are not quite down till after the wind has ceased4 ,so though we should1 by oiling them1 take off the effect of wind on waves already raised1 it is not to be expected that those waves should be instantly levelled4 ,the motion they have received will1 for some time1 continue2 and if the shore is not far distant1 they arrive there so soon1 that their effect upon it will not be visibly diminished4 ,possibly1 therefore1 if we had begun our operations at a greater distance1 the effect might have been more sensible4 ,and perhaps we did not pour oil in sufficient quantity4 ,future experiments may determine this4 ,i was1 however1 greatly obliged to ,captain ,bentinck1 for the chearful and ready aids he gave me3 and ,i ought not to omit mentioning ,mr4 ,banks1 ,dr4 ,solander1 ,general ,carnoc1 and ,dr4 ,blagden1 who all assisted at the experiment1 during that blustering unpleasant day1 with a patience and activity that could only be inspired by a zeal for the improvement of knowledge1 such especially as might possibly be of use to men in situations of distress4 ,i would wish you to communicate this to your ingenious friend1 ,mr4 ,farish1 with my respects2 and believe me to be1 with sincere esteem1 ,dear ,sir1 ,your most obedient1 humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,sir ,,john ,,pringle1 ,,bart4 ,on the ,difference of ,navigation in shoal and deep ,water4 ,craven-street1 ,may #aj1 #agfh4 ,,sir1 ,you may remember1 that when1 we were travelling together in ,holland1 you remarked1 that the trackschuyt in one of the stages went slower than usual1 and enquired of the boatman1 what might be the reason2 who answered1 that it had been a dry season1 and the water in the canal was low4 ,on being again asked if it was so low as that the boat touched the muddy bottom2 he said1 no1 not so low as that1 but so low as to make it harder for the horse to draw the boat4 ,we neither of us at first could conceive that if there was water enough for the boat to swim clear of the bottom1 its being deeper would make any difference2 but as the man affirmed it seriously as a thing well known among them2 and as the punctuality required in their stages was likely to make such difference1 if any there were1 more readily observed by them1 than by other watermen who did not pass so regularly and constantly backwards and forwards in the same track2 ,i began to apprehend there might be something in it1 and attempted to account for it from this consideration1 that the boat in proceeding along the canal1 must in every boat's length of her course1 move out of her way a body of water1 equal in bulk to the room her bottom took up in the water2 that the water so moved must pass on each side of her and under her bottom to get behind her2 that if the passage under her bottom was straitened by the shallows1 more of that water must pass by her sides1 and with a swifter motion1 which would retard her1 as moving the contrary way2 or that the water becoming lower behind the boat than before1 she was pressed back by the weight of its difference in height1 and her motion retarded by having that weight constantly to overcome4 ,but as it is often lost time to attempt accounting for uncertain facts1 ,i determined to make an experiment of this when ,i should have convenient time and opportunity4 ,after our return to ,england1 as often as ,i happened to be on the ,thames1 ,i enquired of our watermen whether they were sensible of any difference in rowing over shallow or deep water4 ,i found them all agreeing in the fact1 that there was a very great difference1 but they differed widely in expressing the quantity of the difference2 some supposing it was equal to a mile in six1 others to a mile in three1 c4 ,as ,i did not recollect to have met with any mention of this matter in our philosophical books1 and conceiving that if the difference should really be great1 it might be an object of consideration in the many projects now on foot for digging new navigable canals in this island1 ,i lately put my design of making the experiment in execution1 in the following manner4 ,i provided a trough of plained boards fourteen feet long1 six inches wide and six inches deep1 in the clear1 filled with water within half an inch of the edge1 to represent a canal4 ,i had a loose board of nearly the same length and breadth1 that1 being put into the water1 might be sunk to any depth1 and fixed by little wedges where ,i would chuse to have it stay1 in order to make different depths of water1 leaving the surface at the same height with regard to the sides of the trough4 ,i had a little boat in form of a lighter or boat of burthen1 six inches long1 two inches and a quarter wide1 and one inch and a quarter deep4 ,when swimming1 it drew one inch water4 ,to give motion to the boat1 ,i fixed one end of a long silk thread to its bow1 just even with the water's edge1 the other end passed over a well-made brass pully1 of about an inch diameter1 turning freely on a small axis2 and a shilling was the weight4 ,then placing the boat at one end of the trough1 the weight would draw it through the water to the other4 ,not having a watch that shows seconds1 in order to measure the time taken up by the boat in passing from end to end1 ,i counted as fast as ,i could count to ten repeatedly1 keeping an account of the number of tens on my fingers4 ,and as much as possible to correct any little inequalities in my counting1 ,i repeated the experiment a number of times at each depth of water1 that ,i might take the medium4 ,and the following are the results4 ,water #a inches deep4 #b inches4 #d inches4 #ast exp4 #ajj #id #gi #b #ajd #ic #gh #c #ajd #ia #gg #d #ajf #hg #gi #e #ajj #hh #gi #f #ii #hf #hj #g #ajj #ij #gi #h #ajj #hh #ha ---- ---- ---- #hac #gag #fcb ---- ---- ---- ,medium #aja ,medium #hi ,medium #gi ,i made many other experiments1 but the above are those in which ,i was most exact2 and they serve sufficiently to show that the difference is considerable4 ,between the deepest and shallowest it appears to be somewhat more than one fifth4 ,so that supposing large canals and boats and depths of water to bear the same proportions1 and that four men or horses would draw a boat in deep water four leagues in four hours1 it would require five to draw the same boat in the same time as far in shallow water2 or four would require five hours4 ,whether this difference is of consequence enough to justify a greater expence in deepening canals1 is a matter of calculation1 which our ingenious engineers in that way will readily determine4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,alphonsus ,,le ,,roy1 ,,member ,,of ,,several ,,academies ,,at ,,paris4#cj ,containing sundry ,maritime ,observations4 ,at ,sea1 on board the ,london ,packet1 ,capt4 ,truxton4 ,aug4 #aghe4 ,,sir1 ,your learned writings on the navigation of the antients1 which contain a great deal of curious information1 and your very ingenious contrivances for improving the modern sails 7voilure7 of which ,i saw with great pleasure a successful trial on the river ,seine1 have induced me to submit to your consideration and judgment1 some thoughts ,i have had on the latter subject4 ,those mathematicians1 who have endeavoured to improve the swiftness of vessels1 by calculating to find the form of least resistance1 seem to have considered a ship as a body moving through one fluid only1 the water2 and to have given little attention to the circumstance of her moving through another fluid1 the air4 ,it is true that when a vessel sails right before the wind1 this circumstance is of no importance1 because the wind goes with her2 but in every deviation from that course1 the resistance of the air is something1 and becomes greater in proportion as that deviation increases4 ,i wave at present the consideration of those different degrees of resistance given by the air to that part of the hull which is above water1 and confine myself to that given to the sails2 for their motion through the air is resisted by the air1 as the motion of the hull through the water is resisted by the water1 though with less force as the air is a lighter fluid4 ,and to simplify the discussion as much as possible1 ,i would state one situation only1 to wit1 that of the wind upon the beam1 the ship's course being directly across the wind2 and ,i would suppose the sail set in an angle of #de degrees with the keel1 as in the following figure2 wherein 7,plate ,,vi1 ,fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4 ,,maritime ,,observations4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #afc4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,a ,b represents the body of the vessel1 ,c ,d the position of the sail1 ,,eee the direction of the wind1 ,,mm the line of motion4 ,in observing this figure it will appear1 that so much of the body of the vessel as is immersed in the water must1 to go forward1 remove out of its way what water it meets with between the pricked lines ,,ff4 ,and the sail1 to go forward1 must move out of its way all the air its whole dimension meets with between the pricked lines ,,cg and ,,dg4 ,thus both the fluids give resistance to the motion1 each in proportion to the quantity of matter contained in the dimension to be removed4 ,and though the air is vastly lighter than the water1 and therefore more easily removed1 yet the dimension being much greater its effect is very considerable4 ,it is true that in the case stated1 the resistance given by the air between those lines to the motion of the sail is not apparent to the eye1 because the greater force of the wind1 which strikes it in the direction ,,eee1 overpowers its effect1 and keeps the sail full in the curve a1 a1 a1 a1 a4 ,but suppose the wind to cease1 and the vessel in a calm to be impelled with the same swiftness by oars1 the sail would then appear filled in the contrary curve b1 b1 b1 b1 b1 when prudent men would immediately perceive1 that the air resisted its motion1 and would order it to be taken in4 ,is there any possible means of diminishing this resistance1 while the same quantity of sail is exposed to the action of the wind1 and therefore the same force obtained from it8 ,i think there is1 and that it may be done by dividing the sail into a number of parts1 and placing those parts in a line one behind the other2 thus instead of one sail extending from ,c to ,d1 figure #b1 if four sails containing together the same quantity of canvas1 were placed as in figure #c1 each having one quarter of the dimensions of the great sail1 and exposing a quarter of its surface to the wind1 would give a quarter of the force2 so that the whole force obtained from the wind would be the same1 while the resistance from the air would be nearly reduced to the space between the pricked lines a b and c d1 before the foremost sail4 ,it may perhaps be doubted whether the resistance from the air would be so diminished2 since possibly each of the following small sails having also air before it1 which must be removed1 the resistance on the whole would be the same4 ,this is then a matter to be determined by experiment4 ,i will mention one that ,i many years since made with success for another purpose2 and ,i will propose another small one easily made4 ,if that too succeeds1 ,i should think it worth while to make a larger1 though at some expense1 on a river boat2 and perhaps time1 and the improvements experience will afford1 may make it applicable with advantage to larger vessels4 ,having near my kitchen chimney a round hole of eight inches diameter1 through which was a constant steady current of air1 increasing or diminishing only as the fire increased or diminished1 ,i contrived to place my jack so as to receive that current2 and taking off the flyers1 ,i fixed in their stead on the same pivot a round tin plate of nearly the same diameter with the hole2 and having cut it in radial lines almost to the centre1 so as to have six equal vanes1 ,i gave to each of them the obliquity of forty-five degrees4 ,they moved round1 without the weight1 by the impression only of the current of air1 but too slowly for the purpose of roasting4 ,i suspected that the air struck by the back of each vane might possibly by its resistance retard the motion2 and to try this1 ,i cut each of them into two1 and ,i placed the twelve1 each having the same obliquity1 in a line behind each other1 when ,i perceived a great augmentation in its velocity1 which encouraged me to divide them once more1 and1 continuing the same obliquity1 ,i placed the twenty-four behind each other in a line1 when the force of the wind being the same1 and the surface of vane the same1 they moved round with much greater rapidity1 and perfectly answered my purpose4 ,the second experiment that ,i propose1 is1 to take two playing cards of the same dimensions1 and cut one of them transversely into eight equal pieces2 then with a needle string them upon two threads one near each end1 and place them so upon the threads that1 when hung up1 they may be one exactly over the other1 at a distance equal to their breadth1 each in a horizontal position2 and let a small weight1 such as a bird-shot1 be hung under them1 to make them fall in a straight line when let loose4 ,suspend also the whole card by threads from its four corners1 and hang to it an equal weight1 so as to draw it downwards when let fall1 its whole breadth pressing against the air4 ,let those two bodies be attached1 one of them to one end of a thread a yard long1 the other to the other end4 ,extend a twine under the ceiling of a room1 and put through it at thirty inches distance two pins bent in the form of fish-hooks4 ,on these two hooks hang the two bodies1 the thread that connects them extending parallel to the twine1 which thread being cut1 they must begin to fall at the same instant4 ,if they take equal time in falling to the floor1 it is a proof that the resistance of the air is in both cases equal4 ,if the whole card requires a longer time1 it shows that the sum of the resistances to the pieces of the cut card is not equal to the resistance of the whole one#ca4 ,this principle so far confirmed1 ,i would proceed to make a larger experiment1 with a shallop1 which ,i would rig in this manner4 7,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #d47 ,a ,b is a long boom1 from which are hoisted seven jibs1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 each a seventh part of the whole dimensions1 and as much more as will fill the whole space when set in an angle of forty-five degrees1 so that they may lap when going before the wind1 and hold more wind when going large4 ,thus rigged1 when going right before the wind1 the boom should be brought at right angles with the keel1 by means of the sheet ropes ,c ,d1 and all the sails hauled flat to the boom4 ,these positions of boom and sails to be varied as the wind quarters4 ,but when the wind is on the beam1 or when you would turn to windward1 the boom is to be hauled right fore and aft1 and the sails trimmed according as the wind is more or less against your course4 ,it seems to me1 that the management of a shallop so rigged would be very easy1 the sails being run up and down separately1 so that more or less sail may be made at pleasure2 and ,i imagine1 that there being full as much sail exposed to the force of the wind which impels the vessel in its course1 as if the whole were in one piece1 and the resistance of the dead air against the foreside of the sail being diminished1 the advantage of swiftness would be very considerable2 besides that the vessel would lie nearer the wind4 ,since we are on the subject of improvements in navigation1 permit me to detain you a little longer with a small relative observation4 ,being1 in one of my voyages1 with ten merchant-ships under convoy of a frigate at anchor in ,torbay1 waiting for a wind to go to the westward2 it came fair1 but brought in with it a considerable swell4 ,a signal was given for weighing1 and we put to sea all together2 but three of the ships left their anchors1 their cables parting just as the anchors came a-peak4 ,our cable held1 and we got up our anchor2 but the shocks the ship felt before the anchor got loose from the ground1 made me reflect on what might possibly have caused the breaking of the other cables2 and ,i imagined it might be the short bending of the cable just without the hause-hole1 from a horizontal to an almost vertical position1 and the sudden violent jerk it receives by the rising of the head of the ship on the swell of a wave while in that position4 ,for example1 suppose a vessel hove up so as to have her head nearly over her anchor1 which still keeps its hold1 perhaps in a tough bottom2 if it were calm1 the cable still out would form nearly a perpendicular line1 measuring the distance between the hause-hole and the anchor2 but if there is a swell1 her head in the trough of the sea will fall below the level1 and when lifted on the wave will be much above it4 ,in the first case the cable will hang loose and bend perhaps as in figure #e4 ,in the second case1 figure #f1 the cable will be drawn straight with a jerk1 must sustain the whole force of the rising ship1 and must either loosen the anchor1 resist the rising force of the ship1 or break4 ,but why does it break at the hause-hole8 ,let us suppose it a cable of three inches diameter1 and represented by figure #g4 ,if this cable is to be bent round the corner ,a1 it is evident that either the part of the triangle contained between the letters a1 b1 c1 must stretch considerably1 and those most that are nearest the surface2 or that the parts between d1 e1 f1 must be compressed2 or both1 which most probably happens4 ,in this case the lower half of the thickness affords no strength against the jerk1 it not being strained1 the upper half bears the whole1 and the yarns near the upper surface being first and most strained1 break first1 and the next yarns follow2 for in this bent situation they cannot bear the strain all together1 and each contributes its strength to the whole1 as they do when the cable is strained in a straight line4 ,to remedy this1 methinks it would be well to have a kind of large pulley wheel1 fixed in the hause-hole1 suppose of two feet diameter1 over which the cable might pass2 and being there bent gradually to the round of the wheel1 would thereby be more equally strained1 and better able to bear the jerk1 which may save the anchor1 and by that means in the course of the voyage may happen to save the ship4 ,one maritime observation more shall finish this letter4 ,i have been a reader of news-papers now near seventy years1 and ,i think few years pass without an account of some vessel met with at sea1 with no living soul on board1 and so many feet of water in her hold1 which vessel has nevertheless been saved and brought into port3 and when not met with at sea1 such forsaken vessels have often come ashore on some coast4 ,the crews1 who have taken to their boats and thus abandoned such vessels1 are sometimes met with and taken up at sea by other ships1 sometimes reach a coast1 and are sometimes never heard of4 ,those that give an account of quitting their vessels generally say1 that she sprung a leak1 that they pumped for some time1 that the water continued to rise upon them1 and that1 despairing to save her1 they had quitted her lest they should go down with her4 ,it seems by the event that this fear was not always well founded1 and ,i have endeavoured to guess at the reason of the people's too hasty discouragement4 ,when a vessel springs a leak near her bottom1 the water enters with all the force given by the weight of the column of water1 without1 which force is in proportion to the difference of level between the water without and that within4 ,it enters therefore with more force at first and in greater quantity1 than it can afterwards when the water within is higher4 ,the bottom of the vessel too is narrower1 so that the same quantity of water coming into that narrow part1 rises faster than when the space for it to flow in is larger4 ,this helps to terrify4 ,but as the quantity entering is less and less as the surfaces without and within become more nearly equal in height1 the pumps that could not keep the water from rising at first1 might afterwards be able to prevent its rising higher1 and the people might have remained on board in safety1 without hazarding themselves in an open boat on the wide ocean47,fig4 #h47 ,besides the greater equality in the height of the two surfaces1 there may sometimes be other causes that retard the farther sinking of a leaky vessel4 ,the rising water within may arrive at quantities of light wooden work1 empty chests1 and particularly empty water-casks1 which if fixed so as not to float themselves may help to sustain her4 ,many bodies which compose a ship's cargo may be specifically lighter than water1 all these when out of water are an additional weight to that of the ship1 and she is in proportion pressed deeper into the water2 but as soon as these bodies are immersed1 they weigh no longer on the ship1 but on the contrary1 if fixed1 they help to support her1 in proportion as they are specifically lighter than the water4 ,and it should be remembered1 that the largest body of a ship may be so balanced in the water1 that an ounce less or more of weight may leave her at the surface or sink her to the bottom4 ,there are also certain heavy cargoes1 that1 when the water gets at them1 are continually dissolving1 and thereby lightening the vessel1 such as salt and sugar4 ,and as to water-casks mentioned above1 since the quantity of them must be great in ships of war where the number of men consume a great deal of water every day1 if it had been made a constant rule to bung them up as fast as they were emptied1 and to dispose the empty casks in proper situations1 ,i am persuaded that many ships which have been sunk in engagements1 or have gone down afterwards1 might with the unhappy people have been saved2 as well as many of those which in the last war foundered1 and were never heard of4 ,while on this topic of sinking1 one cannot help recollecting the well known practice of the ,chinese1 to divide the hold of a great ship into a number of separate chambers by partitions tight caulked 7of which you gave a model in your boat upon the ,seine7 so that if a leak should spring in one of them the others are not affected by it2 and though that chamber should fill to a level with the sea1 it would not be sufficient to sink the vessel4 ,we have not imitated this practice4 ,some little disadvantage it might occasion in the stowage is perhaps one reason1 though that ,i think might be more than compensated by an abatement in the insurance that would be reasonable1 and by a higher price taken of passengers1 who would rather prefer going in such a vessel4 ,but our seafaring people are brave1 despise danger1 and reject such precautions of safety1 being cowards only in one sense1 that of fearing to be thought afraid4 ,i promised to finish my letter with the last observation1 but the garrulity of the old man has got hold of me1 and as ,i may never have another occasion of writing on this subject1 ,i think ,i may as well now1 once for all1 empty my nautical budget1 and give you all the thoughts that have in my various long voyages occurred to me relating to navigation4 ,i am sure that in you they will meet with a candid judge1 who will excuse my mistakes on account of my good intention4 ,there are six accidents that may occasion the loss of ships at sea4 ,we have considered one of them1 that of foundering by a leak4 ,the other five are1 #a4 ,oversetting by sudden flaws of wind1 or by carrying sail beyond the bearing4 #b4 ,fire by accident or carelessness4 #c4 ,a heavy stroke of lightning1 making a breach in the ship1 or firing the powder4 #d4 ,meeting and shocking with other ships in the night4 #e4 ,meeting in the night with islands of ice4 ,to that of oversetting1 privateers in their first cruize have1 as far as has fallen within my knowledge or information1 been more subject than any other kind of vessels4 ,the double desire of being able to overtake a weaker flying enemy1 or to escape when pursued by a stronger1 has induced the owners to overmast their cruizers1 and to spread too much canvass2 and the great number of men1 many of them not seamen1 who being upon deck when a ship heels suddenly are huddled down to leeward1 and increase by their weight the effect of the wind4 ,this therefore should be more attended to and guarded against1 especially as the advantage of lofty masts is problematical4 ,for the upper sails have greater power to lay a vessel more on her side1 which is not the most advantageous position for going swiftly through the water4 ,and hence it is that vessels1 which have lost their lofty masts1 and been able to make little more sail afterwards than permitted the ship to sail upon an even keel1 have made so much way1 even under jury masts1 as to surprize the mariners themselves4 ,but there is besides1 something in the modern form of our ships that seems as if calculated expressly to allow their oversetting more easily4 ,the sides of a ship1 instead of spreading out as they formerly did in the upper works1 are of late years turned in1 so as to make the body nearly round1 and more resembling a cask4 ,i do not know what the advantages of this construction are1 except that such ships are not easily boarded4 ,to me it seems a contrivance to have less room in a ship at nearly the same expense4 ,for it is evident that the same timber and plank consumed in raising the sides from a to b1 and from d to c1 would have raised them from a to e1 and from d to f1 fig4 #i4 ,in this form all the spaces between e1 a1 b1 and c1 d1 f1 would have been gained1 the deck would have been larger1 the men would have had more room to act1 and not have stood so thick in the way of the enemy's shot2 and the vessel1 the more she was laid down on her side1 the more bearing she would meet with1 and more effectual to support her1 as being farther from the centre4 ,whereas in the present form1 her ballast makes the chief part of her bearing1 without which she would turn in the sea almost as easily as a barrel4 ,more ballast by this means becomes necessary1 and that sinking a vessel deeper in the water occasions more resistance to her going through it4 ,the ,bermudian sloops still keep with advantage to the old spreading form4 ,the islanders in the great ,pacific ocean1 though they have no large ships1 are the most expert boat-sailors in the world1 navigating that sea safely with their proas1 which they prevent oversetting by various means4 ,their sailing proas for this purpose have outriggers generally to windward1 above the water1 on which1 one or more men are placed1 to move occasionally further from or nearer to the vessel as the wind freshens or slackens4 ,but some have their outriggers to leeward1 which1 resting on the water1 support the boat so as to keep her upright when pressed down by the wind4 ,their boats moved by oars or rather by paddles are1 for long voyages1 fixed two together by cross bars of wood that keep them at some distance from each other1 and so render their oversetting next to impossible4 ,how far this may be practicable in larger vessels1 we have not yet sufficient experience4 ,i know of but one trial made in ,europe1 which was about one hundred years since1 by ,sir ,william ,petty4 ,he built a double vessel1 to serve as a packet boat between ,england and ,ireland4 ,her model still exists in the museum of the ,royal ,society1 where ,i have seen it4 ,by the accounts we have of her1 she answered well the purpose of her construction1 making several voyages2 and though wrecked at last by a storm1 the misfortune did not appear owing to her particular construction1 since many other vessels of the common form were wrecked at the same time4 ,the advantage of such a vessel is1 that she needs no ballast1 therefore swims either lighter or will carry more goods2 and that passengers are not so much incommoded by her rolling3 to which may be added1 that if she is to defend herself by her cannon1 they will probably have more effect1 being kept more generally in a horizontal position1 than those in common vessels4 ,i think1 however1 that it would be an improvement of that model1 to make the sides which are opposed to each other perfectly parallel1 though the other sides are formed as in common thus1 figure #aj4 ,the building of a double ship would indeed be more expensive in proportion to her burthen2 and that perhaps is sufficient to discourage the method4 ,the accident of fire is generally well guarded against by the prudent captain's strict orders against smoking between decks1 or carrying a candle there out of a lanthorn4 ,but there is one dangerous practice which frequent terrible accidents have not yet been sufficient to abolish2 that of carrying store-spirits to sea in casks4 ,two large ships1 the ,seraphis and the ,duke of ,athol1 one an ,east-,indiaman1 the other a frigate1 have been burnt within these two last years1 and many lives miserably destroyed1 by drawing spirits out of a cask near a candle4 ,it is high time to make it a general rule1 that all the ship's store of spirits should be carried in bottles4 ,the misfortune by a stroke of lightning ,i have in my former writings endeavoured to show a method of guarding against1 by a chain and pointed rod1 extending1 when run up1 from above the top of the mast to the sea4 ,these instruments are now made and sold at a reasonable price by ,nairne ,co4 in ,london1 and there are several instances of success attending the use of them4 ,they are kept in a box1 and may be ran up and fixed in about five minutes1 on the apparent approach of a thunder gust4 ,of the meeting and shocking with other ships in the night1 ,i have known two instances in voyages between ,london and ,america4 ,in one both ships arrived though much damaged1 each reporting their belief that the other must have gone to the bottom4 ,in the other1 only one got to port2 the other was never afterwards heard of4 ,these instances happened many years ago1 when the commerce between ,europe and ,america was not a tenth part of what it is at present1 ships of course thinner scattered1 and the chance of meeting proportionably less4 ,it has long been the practice to keep a look-out before in the channel1 but at sea it has been neglected4 ,if it is not at present thought worth while to take that precaution1 it will in time become of more consequence2 since the number of ships at sea is continually augmenting4 ,a drum frequently beat1 or a bell rung in a dark night1 might help to prevent such accidents4 ,islands of ice are frequently seen off the banks of ,newfoundland1 by ships going between ,north-,america and ,europe4 ,in the day time they are easily avoided1 unless in a very thick fog4 ,i remember two instances of ship's running against them in the night4 ,the first lost her bowsprit1 but received little other damage4 ,the other struck where the warmth of the sea had wasted the ice next to it1 and a part hung over above4 ,this perhaps saved her1 for she was under great way2 but the upper part of the cliff taking her foretopmast1 broke the shock1 though it carried away the mast4 ,she disengaged herself with some difficulty1 and got safe into port2 but the accident shows the possibility of other ships being wrecked and sunk by striking those vast masses of ice1 of which ,i have seen one that we judged to be seventy feet high above the water1 consequently eight times as much under water2 and it is another reason for keeping a good look-out before1 though far from any coast that may threaten danger4 ,it is remarkable1 that the people we consider as savages have improved the art of sailing and rowing-boats in several points beyond what we can pretend to4 ,we have no sailing-boats equal to the flying proas of of the ,south ,seas1 no rowing or paddling-boat equal to that of the ,greenlanders for swiftness and safety4 ,the birch canoes of the ,north-,american ,indians have also some advantageous properties4 ,they are so light that two men may carry one of them over land1 which is capable of carrying a dozen upon the water2 and in heeling they are not so subject to take in water as our boats1 the sides of which are lowest in the middle where it is most likely to enter1 this being highest in that part1 as in figure #aa4 ,the ,chinese are an enlightened people1 the most antiently civilized of any existing1 and their arts are antient1 a presumption in their favour3 their method of rowing their boats differs from ours1 the oars being worked either two a-stern as we scull1 or on the sides with the same kind of motion1 being hung parallel to the keel on a rail and always acting in the water1 not perpendicular to the side as ours are1 nor lifted out at every stroke1 which is a loss of time1 and the boat in the interval loses motion4 ,they see our manner1 and we theirs1 but neither are disposed to learn of or copy the other4 ,to the several means of moving boats mentioned above1 may be added the singular one lately exhibited at ,javelle1 on the ,seine below ,paris1 where a clumsy boat was moved across that river in three minutes by rowing1 not in the water1 but in the air1 that is1 by whirling round a set of windmill vanes fixed to a horizontal axis1 parallel to the keel1 and placed at the head of the boat4 ,the axis was bent into an elbow at the end1 by the help of which it was turned by one man at a time4 ,i saw the operation at a distance4 ,the four vanes appeared to be about five feet long1 and perhaps two and a half wide4 ,the weather was calm4 ,the labour appeared to be great for one man1 as the two several times relieved each other4 ,but the action upon the air by the oblique surfaces of the vanes must have been considerable1 as the motion of the boat appeared tolerably quick going and returning2 and she returned to the same place from whence she first set out1 notwithstanding the current4 ,this machine is since applied to the moving of air-balloons3 an instrument similar may be contrived to move a boat by turning under water4 ,several mechanical projectors have at different times proposed to give motion to boats1 and even to ships1 by means of circular rowing1 or paddles placed on the circumference of wheels to be turned constantly on each side of the vessel2 but this method1 though frequently tried1 has never been found so effectual as to encourage a continuance of the practice4 ,i do not know that the reason has hitherto been given4 ,perhaps it may be this1 that great part of the force employed contributes little to the motion4 ,for instance1 7fig4 #ab7 of the four paddles a1 b1 c1 d1 all under water1 and turning to move a boat from ,x to ,y1 c has the most power1 b nearly though not quite as much1 their motion being nearly horizontal2 but the force employed in moving a1 is consumed in pressing almost downright upon the water till it comes to the place of b2 and the force employed in moving d is consumed in lifting the water till d arrives at the surface2 by which means much of the labour is lost4 ,it is true1 that by placing the wheels higher out of the water1 this waste labour will be diminished in a calm1 but where a sea runs1 the wheels must unavoidably be often dipt deep in the waves1 and the turning of them thereby rendered very laborious to little purpose4 ,among the various means of giving motion to a boat1 that of ,m4 ,bernoulli appears one of the most singular1 which was to have fixed in the boat a tube in the form of an ,l1 the upright part to have a funnel-kind of opening at top1 convenient for filling the tube with water2 which1 descending and passing through the lower horizontal part1 and issuing in the middle of the stern1 but under the surface of the river1 should push the boat forward4 ,there is no doubt that the force of the descending water would have a considerable effect1 greater in proportion to the height from which it descended2 but then it is to be considered1 that every bucket-full pumped or dipped up into the boat1 from its side or through its bottom1 must have its vis inerti overcome so as to receive the motion of the boat1 before it can come to give motion by its descent2 and that will be a deduction from the moving power4 ,to remedy this1 ,i would propose the addition of another such ,l pipe1 and that they should stand back to back in the boat thus1 figure #ac1 the forward one being worked as a pump1 and sucking in the water at the head of the boat1 would draw it forward while pushed in the same direction by the force at the stern4 ,and after all it should be calculated whether the labour of pumping would be less than that of rowing4 ,a fire-engine might possibly in some cases be applied in this operation with advantage4 ,perhaps this labour of raising water might be spared1 and the whole force of a man applied to the moving of a boat by the use of air instead of water2 suppose the boat constructed in this form1 figure #ad4 ,a1 a tube round or square of two feet diameter1 in which a piston may move up and down4 ,the piston to have valves in it1 opening inwards to admit air when the piston rises2 and shutting1 when it is forced down by means of the lever ,b turning on the centre ,c4 ,the tube to have a valve ,d1 to open when the piston is forced down1 and let the air pass out at ,e1 which striking forcibly against the water abaft must push the boat forward4 ,if there is added an air-vessel ,f properly valved and placed1 the force would continue to act while a fresh stroke is taken with the lever4 ,the boat-man might stand with his back to the stern1 and putting his hands behind him1 work the motion by taking hold of the cross bar at ,b1 while another should steer2 or if he had two such pumps1 one on each side of the stern1 with a lever for each hand1 he might steer himself by working occasionally more or harder with either hand1 as watermen now do with a pair of sculls4 ,there is no position in which the body of a man can exert more strength than in pulling right upwards4 ,to obtain more swiftness1 greasing the bottom of a vessel is sometimes used1 and with good effect4 ,i do not know that any writer has hitherto attempted to explain this4 ,at first sight one would imagine1 that though the friction of a hard body1 sliding on another hard body1 and the resistance occasioned by that friction1 might be diminished by putting grease between them1 yet that a body sliding on a fluid1 such as water1 should have no need of1 nor receive any advantage from such greasing4 ,but the fact is not disputed4 ,and the reason perhaps may be this--,the particles of water have a mutual attraction1 called the attraction of adhesion4 ,water also adheres to wood1 and to many other substances1 but not to grease3 on the contrary they have a mutual repulsion1 so that it is a question whether when oil is poured on water1 they ever actually touch each other2 for a drop of oil upon water1 instead of sticking to the spot where it falls1 as it would if it fell on a looking-glass1 spreads instantly to an immense distance in a film extremely thin1 which it could not easily do if it touched and rubbed or adhered even in a small degree to the surface of the water4 ,now the adhesive force of water to itself1 and to other substances1 may be estimated from the weight of it necessary to separate a drop1 which adheres1 while growing1 till it has weight enough to force the separation and break the drop off4 ,let us suppose the drop to be the size of a pea1 then there will be as many of these adhesions as there are drops of that size touching the bottom of a vessel1 and these must be broken by the moving power1 every step of her motion that amounts to a drop's breadth3 and there being no such adhesions to break between the water and a greased bottom1 may occasion the difference4 ,so much respecting the motion of vessels4 ,but we have sometimes occasion to stop their motion2 and if a bottom is near enough we can cast anchor3 where there are no soundings1 we have as yet no means to prevent driving in a storm1 but by lying-to1 which still permits driving at the rate of about two miles an hour2 so that in a storm continuing fifty hours1 which is not an uncommon case1 the ship may drive one hundred miles out of her course2 and should she in that distance meet with a lee shore1 she may be lost4 ,to prevent this driving to leeward in deep water1 a swimming anchor is wanting1 which ought to have these properties4 #a4 ,it should have a surface so large as1 being at the end of a hauser in the water1 and placed perpendicularly1 should hold so much of it1 as to bring the ship's head to the wind1 in which situation the wind has least power to drive her4 #b4 ,it should be able by its resistance to prevent the ship's receiving way4 #c4 ,it should be capable of being situated below the heave of the sea1 but not below the undertow4 #d4 ,it should not take up much room in the ship4 #e4 ,it should be easily thrown out1 and put into its proper situation4 #f4 ,it should be easy to take in again1 and stow away4 ,an ingenious old mariner1 whom ,i formerly knew1 proposed1 as a swimming anchor for a large ship1 to have a stem of wood twenty-five feet long and four inches square1 with four boards of #ah1 #af1 #ad1 and #ab1 feet long1 and one foot wide1 the boards to have their substance thickened several inches in the middle by additional wood1 and to have each a four inch square hole through its middle1 to permit its being slipt on occasionally upon the stem1 and at right angles with it2 where all being placed and fixed at four feet distance from each other1 it would have the appearance of the old mathematical instrument called a forestaff4 ,this thrown into the sea1 and held by a hauser veered out to some length1 he conceived would bring a vessel up1 and prevent her driving1 and when taken in might be stowed away by separating the boards from the stem4 ,figure #ae4 ,probably such a swimming anchor would have some good effect1 but it is subject to this objection1 that lying on the surface of the sea1 it is liable to be hove forward by every wave1 and thereby give so much leave for the ship to drive4 ,two machines for this purpose have occurred to me1 which1 though not so simple as the above1 ,i imagine would be more effectual1 and more easily manageable4 ,i will endeavour to describe them1 that they may be submitted to your judgment1 whether either would be serviceable2 and if they would1 to which we should give the preference4 ,the first is to be formed1 and to be used in the water on almost the same principles with those of a paper kite used in the air4 ,only as the paper kite rises in the air1 this is to descend in the water4 ,its dimensions will be different for ships of different size4 ,to make one of suppose fifteen feet high2 take a small spar of that length for the back-bone1 ,,ab1 figure #af1 a smaller of half that length ,,cd1 for the cross piece4 ,let these be united by a bolt at ,e1 yet so as that by turning on the bolt they may be laid parallel to each other4 ,then make a sail of strong canvas1 in the shape of figure #ag4 ,to form this1 without waste of sail-cloth1 sew together pieces of the proper length1 and for half the breadth1 as in figure #ah1 then cut the whole in the diagonal lines a1 b1 c1 and turn the piece ,f so as to place its broad part opposite to that of the piece ,g1 and the piece ,h in like manner opposite to ,i1 which when all sewed together will appear as in fig4 #ag4 ,this sail is to be extended on the cross of figure #af1 the top and bottom points well secured to the ends of the long spar2 the two side points d1 e1 fastened to the ends of two cords1 which coming from the angle of the loop 7which must be similar to the loop of a kite7 pass through two rings at the ends of the short spar1 so as that on pulling upon the loop the sail will be drawn to its extent4 ,the whole may1 when aboard1 be furled up1 as in figure #ai1 having a rope from its broad end1 to which is tied a bag of ballast for keeping that end downwards when in the water1 and at the other end another rope with an empty keg at its end to float on the surface2 this rope long enough to permit the kite's descending into the undertow1 or if you please lower into still water4 ,it should be held by a hauser4 ,to get it home easily1 a small loose rope may be veered out with it1 fixed to the keg4 ,hauling on that rope will bring the kite home with small force1 the resistance being small as it will then come end ways4 ,it seems probable that such a kite at the end of a long hauser would keep a ship with her head to the wind1 and1 resisting every tug1 would prevent her driving so fast as when her side is exposed to it1 and nothing to hold her back4 ,if only half the driving is prevented1 so as that she moves but fifty miles instead of the hundred during a storm1 it may be some advantage1 both in holding so much distance as is saved1 and in keeping from a lee-shore4 ,if single canvas should not be found strong enough to bear the tug without splitting1 it may be doubled1 or strengthened by a netting behind it1 represented by figure #bj4 ,the other machine for the same purpose1 is to be made more in the form of an umbrella1 as represented1 figure #ba4 ,the stem of the umbrella a square spar of proper length1 with four moveable arms1 of which two are represented ,c1 ,c1 figure #bb4 ,these arms to be fixed in four joint cleats1 as ,d1 ,d1 c4 one on each side of the spar1 but so as that the four arms may open by turning on a pin in the joint4 ,when open they form a cross1 on which a four-square canvas sail is to be extended1 its corners fastened to the ends of the four arms4 ,those ends are also to be stayed by ropes fastened to the stem or spar1 so as to keep them short of being at right angles with it3 and to the end of one of the arms should be hung the small bag of ballast1 and to the end of the opposite arm the empty keg4 ,this1 on being thrown into the sea1 would immediately open2 and when it had performed its function1 and the storm over1 a small rope from its other end being pulled on1 would turn it1 close it1 and draw it easily home to the ship4 ,this machine seems more simple in its operation1 and more easily manageable than the first1 and perhaps may be as effectual#cb4 ,vessels are sometimes retarded1 and sometimes forwarded in their voyages1 by currents at sea1 which are often not perceived4 ,about the year #agfi or #gj1 there was an application made by the board of customs at ,boston1 to the lords of the treasury in ,london1 complaining that the packets between ,falmouth and ,new-,york1 were generally a fortnight longer in their passages1 than merchant-ships from ,london to ,rhode-,island1 and proposing that for the future they should be ordered to ,rhode-,island instead of ,new-,york4 ,being then concerned in the management of the ,american post-office1 ,i happened to be consulted on the occasion2 and it appearing strange to me that there should be such a difference between two places1 scarce a day's run asunder1 especially when the merchant-ships are generally deeper laden1 and more weakly manned than the packets1 and had from ,london the whole length of the river and channel to run before they left the land of ,england1 while the packets had only to go from ,falmouth1 ,i could not but think the fact misunderstood or misrepresented4 ,there happened then to be in ,london a ,nantucket sea-captain of my acquaintance1 to whom ,i communicated the affair4 ,he told me he believed the fact might be true2 but the difference was owing to this1 that the ,rhode-,island captains were acquainted with the gulf-stream1 which those of the ,english packets were not4 ,we are well acquainted with that stream1 says he1 because in our pursuit of whales1 which keep near the sides of it1 but are not to be met with in it1 we run down along the sides1 and frequently cross it to change our side3 and in crossing it have sometimes met and spoke with those packets1 who were in the middle of it1 and stemming it4 ,we have informed them that they were stemming a current1 that was against them to the value of three miles an hour2 and advised them to cross it and get out of it2 but they were too wise to be counselled by simple ,american fishermen4 ,when the winds are but light1 he added1 they are carried back by the current more than they are forwarded by the wind3 and if the wind be good1 the subtraction of #gj miles a day from their course is of some importance4 ,i then observed it was a pity no notice was taken of this current upon the charts1 and requested him to mark it out for me1 which he readily complied with1 adding directions for avoiding it in sailing from ,europe to ,north-,america4 ,i procured it to be engraved by order from the general post-office1 on the old chart of the ,atlantic1 at ,mount and ,page's1 ,tower-hill2 and copies were sent down to ,falmouth for the captains of the packets1 who slighted it however2 but it is since printed in ,france1 of which edition ,i hereto annex a copy4 ,this stream is probably generated by the great accumulation of water on the eastern coast of ,america between the tropics1 by the trade-winds which constantly blow there4 ,it is known that a large piece of water ten miles broad and generally only three feet deep1 has by a strong wind had its waters driven to one side and sustained so as to become six feet deep1 while the windward side was laid dry4 ,this may give some idea of the quantity heaped up on the ,american coast1 and the reason of its running down in a strong current through the islands into the bay of ,mexico1 and from thence issuing through the gulph of ,florida1 and proceeding along the coast to the banks of ,newfoundland1 where it turns off towards and runs down through the ,western ,islands4 ,having since crossed this stream several times in passing between ,america and ,europe1 ,i have been attentive to sundry circumstances relating to it1 by which to know when one is in it2 and besides the gulph weed with which it is interspersed1 ,i find that it is always warmer than the sea on each side of it1 and that it does not sparkle in the night3 ,i annex hereto the observations made with the thermometer in two voyages1 and possibly may add a third4 ,it will appear from them1 that the thermometer may be an useful instrument to a navigator1 since currents coming from the northward into southern seas1 will probably be found colder than the water of those seas1 as the currents from southern seas into northern are found warmer4 ,and it is not to be wondered that so vast a body of deep warm water1 several leagues wide1 coming from between the tropics and issuing out of the gulph into the northern seas1 should retain its warmth longer than the twenty or thirty days required to its passing the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the quantity is too great1 and it is too deep to be suddenly cooled by passing under a cooler air4 ,the air immediately over it1 however1 may receive so much warmth from it as to be rarefied and rise1 being rendered lighter than the air on each side of the stream2 hence those airs must flow in to supply the place of the rising warm air1 and1 meeting with each other1 form those tornados and water-spouts frequently met with1 and seen near and over the stream2 and as the vapour from a cup of tea in a warm room1 and the breath of an animal in the same room1 are hardly visible1 but become sensible immediately when out in the cold air1 so the vapour from the gulph stream1 in warm latitudes is scarcely visible1 but when it comes into the cool air from ,newfoundland1 it is condensed into the fogs1 for which those parts are so remarkable4 ,the power of wind to raise water above its common level in the sea is known to us in ,america1 by the high tides occasioned in all our sea-ports when a strong north-easter blows against the gulph stream4 ,the conclusion from these remarks is1 that a vessel from ,europe to ,north-,america may shorten her passage by avoiding to stem the stream1 in which the thermometer will be very useful2 and a vessel from ,america to ,europe may do the same by the same means of keeping in it4 ,it may have often happened accidentally1 that voyages have been shortened by these circumstances4 ,it is well to have the command of them4 ,but may there not be another cause1 independent of winds and currents1 why passages are generally shorter from ,america to ,europe than from ,europe to ,america8 ,this question ,i formerly considered in the following short paper4 ,on board the ,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,capt4 ,osborne4 ,at ,sea1 ,april #e1 #agge4 ,suppose a ship to make a voyage eastward from a place in lat4 #dj north1 to a place in lat4 #ej north1 distance in longitude #ge degrees4 ,in sailing from #dj to #ej1 she goes from a place where a degree of longitude is about eight miles greater than in the place she is going to4 ,a degree is equal to four minutes of time2 consequently the ship in the harbour she leaves1 partaking of the diurnal motion of the earth1 moves two miles in a minute faster1 than when in the port she is going to2 which is #abj miles in an hour4 ,this motion in a ship and cargo is of great force2 and if she could be lifted up suddenly from the harbour in which she lay quiet1 and set down instantly in the latitude of the port she was bound to1 though in a calm1 that force contained in her would make her run a great way at a prodigious rate4 ,this force must be lost gradually in her voyage1 by gradual impulse against the water1 and probably thence shorten the voyage4 ,query1 ,in returning does the contrary happen1 and is her voyage thereby retarded and lengthened8#cc ,would it not be a more secure method of planking ships1 if1 instead of thick single planks laid horizontally1 we were to use planks of half the thickness1 and lay them double and across each other as in figure #bc8 ,to me it seems that the difference of expence would not be considerable1 and that the ship would be both tighter and stronger4 ,the securing of the ship is not the only necessary thing2 securing the health of the sailors1 a brave and valuable order of men1 is likewise of great importance4 ,with this view the methods so successfully practised by ,captain ,cook in his long voyages cannot be too closely studied or carefully imitated4 ,a full account of those methods is found in ,sir ,john ,pringle's speech1 when the medal of the ,royal ,society was given to that illustrious navigator4 ,i am glad to see in his last voyage that he found the means effectual which ,i had proposed for preserving flour1 bread1 c4 from moisture and damage4 ,they were found dry and good after being at sea four years4 ,the method is described in my printed works1 page #deb1 fifth edition#cd4 ,in the same1 page #dfi1 #dgjce1 is proposed a means of allaying thirst in case of want of fresh water4 ,this has since been practised in two instances with success4 ,happy if their hunger1 when the other provisions are consumed1 could be relieved as commodiously2 and perhaps in time this may be found not impossible4 ,an addition might be made to their present vegetable provision1 by drying various roots in slices by the means of an oven4 ,the sweet potatoe of ,america and ,spain is excellent for this purpose4 ,other potatoes1 with carrots1 parsnips and turnips1 might be prepared and preserved in the same manner4 ,with regard to make-shifts in cases of necessity1 seamen are generally very ingenious themselves4 ,they will excuse however the mention of two or three4 ,if they happen in any circumstance1 such as after shipwreck1 taking to their boat1 or the like1 to want a compass1 a fine sewing-needle laid on clear water in a cup will generally point to the north1 most of them being a little magnetical1 or may be made so by being strongly rubbed or hammered1 lying in a north and south direction4 ,if their needle is too heavy to float by itself1 it may be supported by little pieces of cork or wood4 ,a man who can swim1 may be aided in a long traverse by his handkerchief formed into a kite1 by two cross sticks extending to the four corners2 which1 being raised in the air when the wind is fair and fresh1 will tow him along while lying on his back4 ,where force is wanted to move a heavy body1 and there are but few hands and no machines1 a long and strong rope may make a powerful instrument4 ,suppose a boat is to be drawn up on a beach1 that she may be out of the surf2 a stake drove into the beach where you would have the boat drawn1 and another to fasten the end of the rope to1 which comes from the boat1 and then applying what force you have to pull upon the middle of the rope at right angles with it1 the power will be augmented in proportion to the length of rope between the posts4 ,the rope being fastened to the stake ,a1 and drawn upon in the direction ,c ,d1 will slide over the stake ,b2 and when the rope is bent to the angle ,a ,d ,b1 represented by the pricked line in figure #bd1 the boat will be at ,b4 ,some sailors may think the writer has given himself unnecessary trouble in pretending to advise them2 for they have a little repugnance to the advice of landmen1 whom they esteem ignorant and incapable of giving any worth notice2 though it is certain that most of their instruments were the invention of landmen4 ,at least the first vessel ever made to go on the water was certainly such4 ,i will therefore add only a few words more1 and they shall be addressed to passengers4 ,when you intend a long voyage1 you may do well to keep your intention as much as possible a secret1 or at least the time of your departure2 otherwise you will be continually interrupted in your preparations by the visits of friends and acquaintance1 who will not only rob you of the time you want1 but put things out of your mind1 so that when you come to sea1 you have the mortification to recollect points of business that ought to have been done1 accounts you intended to settle1 and conveniencies you had proposed to bring with you1 c4 c4 all which have been omitted through the effect of these officious friendly visits4 ,would it not be well if this custom could be changed2 if the voyager after having1 without interruption1 made all his preparations1 should use some of the time he has left1 in going himself to take leave of his friends at their own houses1 and let them come to congratulate him on his happy return4 ,it is not always in your power to make a choice in your captain1 though much of your comfort in the passage may depend on his personal character1 as you must for so long a time be confined to his company1 and under his direction2 if he be a sensible1 sociable1 good-natured1 obliging man1 you will be so much the happier4 ,such there are2 but if he happens to be otherwise1 and is only skilful1 careful1 watchful and active in the conduct of his ship1 excuse the rest1 for these are the essentials4 ,whatever right you may have by agreement in the mass of stores laid in by him for the passengers1 it is good to have some particular things in your own possession1 so as to be always at your own command4 #a4 ,good water1 that of the ship being often bad4 ,you can be sure of having it good only by bottling it from a clear spring or well and in clean bottles4 #b4 ,good tea4 #c4 ,coffee ground4 #d4 ,chocolate4 #e4 ,wine of the sort you particularly like1 and cyder4 #f4 ,raisins4 #g4 ,almonds4 #h4 ,sugar4 #i4 ,capillaire4 #aj4 ,lemons4 #aa4 ,jamaica spirits4 #ab4 ,eggs greased4 #ac4 ,diet bread #ad4 ,portable soup4 #ae4 ,rusks4 ,as to fowls1 it is not worth while to have any called yours1 unless you could have the feeding and managing of them according to your own judgment under your own eye4 ,as they are generally treated at present in ships1 they are for the most part sick1 and their flesh tough and hard as whit-leather4 ,all seamen have an opinion1 broached ,i supposed at first prudently1 for saving of water when short1 that fowls do not know when they have drank enough1 and will kill themselves if you give them too much1 so they are served with a little only once in two days4 ,this is poured into troughs that lie sloping1 and therefore immediately runs down to the lower end4 ,there the fowls ride upon one another's backs to get at it1 and some are not happy enough to reach and once dip their bills in it4 ,thus tantalized1 and tormented with thirst1 they cannot digest their dry food1 they fret1 pine1 sicken and die4 ,some are found dead1 and thrown overboard every morning1 and those killed for the table are not eatable4 ,their troughs should be in little divisions1 like cups1 to hold the water separately1 figure #be4 ,but this is never done4 ,the sheep and hogs are therefore your best dependance for fresh meat at sea1 the mutton being generally tolerable and the pork excellent4 ,it is possible your captain may have provided so well in the general stores1 as to render some of the particulars above recommended of little or no use to you4 ,but there are frequently in the ship poorer passengers1 who are taken at a lower price1 lodge in the steerage1 and have no claim to any of the cabin provisions1 or to any but those kinds that are allowed the sailors4 ,these people are sometimes dejected1 sometimes sick1 there may be women and children among them4 ,in a situation where there is no going to market1 to purchase such necessaries1 a few of these your superfluities distributed occasionally may be of great service1 restore health1 save life1 make the miserable happy1 and thereby afford you infinite pleasure4 ,the worst thing in ordinary merchant ships is the cookery4 ,they have no professed cook1 and the worst hand as a seaman is appointed to that office1 in which he is not only very ignorant but very dirty4 ,the sailors have therefore a saying1 that ,god sends meat and the devil cooks4 ,passengers more piously disposed1 and willing to believe heaven orders all things for the best1 may suppose1 that1 knowing the sea-air and constant exercise by the motion of the vessel would give us extraordinary appetites1 bad cooks were kindly sent to prevent our eating too much2 or that1 foreseeing we should have bad cooks1 good appetites were furnished to prevent our starving4 ,if you cannot trust to these circumstances1 a spirit-lamp1 with a blaze-pan1 may enable you to cook some little things for yourself2 such as a hash1 a soup1 c4 ,and it might be well also to have among your stores some potted meats1 which if well put up will keep long good4 ,a small tin oven1 to place with the open side before the fire1 may be another good utensil1 in which your own servant may roast for you a bit of pork or mutton4 ,you will sometimes be induced to eat of the ship's salt beef1 as it is often good4 ,you will find cyder the best quencher of that thirst which salt meat or fish occasions4 ,the ship biscuit is too hard for some sets of teeth4 ,it may be softened by toasting4 ,but rusk is better2 for being made of good fermented bread1 sliced and baked a second time1 the pieces imbibe the water easily1 soften immediately1 digest more kindly1 and are therefore more wholesome than the unfermented biscuit4 ,by the way1 rusk is the true original biscuit1 so prepared to keep for sea1 biscuit in ,french signifying twice baked4 ,if your dry peas boil hard1 a two-pound iron shot put with them into the pot1 will by the motion of the ship grind them as fine as mustard4 ,the accidents ,i have seen at sea with large dishes of soup upon a table1 from the motion of the ship1 have made me wish1 that our potters or pewterers would make soup-dishes in divisions1 like a set of small bowls united together1 each containing about sufficient for one person1 in some such form as fig4 #bf2 for then when the ship should make a sudden heel1 the soup would not in a body flow over one side1 and fall into people's laps and scald them1 as is sometimes the case1 but would be retained in the separate divisions1 as in figure #bg4 ,after these trifles1 permit the addition of a few general reflections4 ,navigation1 when employed in supplying necessary provisions to a country in want1 and thereby preventing famines1 which were more frequent and destructive before the invention of that art1 is undoubtedly a blessing to mankind4 ,when employed merely in transporting superfluities1 it is a question whether the advantage of the employment it affords is equal to the mischief of hazarding so many lives on the ocean4 ,but when employed in pillaging merchants and transporting slaves1 it is clearly the means of augmenting the mass of human misery4 ,it is amazing to think of the ships and lives risqued in fetching tea from ,china1 coffee from ,arabia1 sugar and tobacco from ,america1 all which our ancestors did well without4 ,sugar employs near one thousand ships1 tobacco almost as many4 ,for the utility of tobacco there is little to be said2 and for that of sugar1 how much more commendable would it be if we could give up the few minutes gratification afforded once or twice a day by the taste of sugar in our tea1 rather than encourage the cruelties exercised in producing it4 ,an eminent ,french moralist says1 that when he considers the wars we excite in ,africa to obtain slaves1 the numbers necessarily slain in those wars1 the many prisoners who perish at sea by sickness1 bad provisions1 foul air1 c4 c4 in the transportation1 and how many afterwards die from the hardships of slavery1 he cannot look on a piece of sugar without conceiving it stained with spots of human blood6 ,had he added the consideration of the wars we make to take and retake the sugar islands from one another1 and the fleets and armies that perish in those expeditions1 he might have seen his sugar not merely spotted1 but thoroughly dyed scarlet in grain4 ,it is these wars that make the maritime powers of ,europe1 the inhabitants of ,london and ,paris1 pay dearer for sugar than those of ,vienna1 a thousand miles from the sea2 because their sugar costs not only the price they pay for it by the pound1 but all they pay in taxes to maintain the fleets and armies that fight for it4 ,with great esteem1 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,your most obedient humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,this letter and the annexed paper on the ,gulph stream1 are taken from the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in which they were read ,december #b1 #aghe4 ,editor4 #ca ,the motion of the vessel made it inconvenient to try this simple experiment at sea1 when the proposal of it was written4 ,but it has been tried since we came on shore1 and succeeded as the other4 #cb ,captain ,truxton1 on board whose ship this was written1 has executed this proposed machine2 he has given six arms to the umbrella1 they are joined to the stem by iron hinges1 and the canvas is double4 ,he has taken it with him to ,china4 ,february1 #aghf4 #cc ,since this paper was read at the ,society1 an ingenious member1 ,mr4 ,patterson1 has convinced the writer that the returning voyage would not1 from this cause1 be retarded4 #cd ,see the ,paper referred to1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cgf4 ,editor4 #ce ,see ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ajd4 ,editor4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #aig4 ,a ,,chart of ,the ,,gulph ,,stream4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,remarks upon the ,navigation from ,newfoundland to ,new-,york1 in order to avoid the ,gulph ,stream on one hand1 and on the other the ,shoals that lie to the ,southward of ,nantucket and of ,st4 ,george's ,banks4 ,after you have passed the banks of ,newfoundland in about the #ddth degree of latitude1 you will meet with nothing1 till you draw near the ,isle of ,sables1 which we commonly pass in latitude #dc4 ,southward of this isle1 the current is found to extend itself as far north as #da #bj or #cj1 then it turns towards the ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 or ,s4 ,e4 ,e4 ,having passed the ,isle of ,sables1 shape your course for the ,st4 ,george's ,banks1 so as to pass them in about latitude #dj1 because the current southward of those banks reaches as far north as #ci4 ,the shoals of those banks lie in #da #ce4 ,after having passed ,st4 ,george's ,banks1 you must1 to clear ,nantucket1 form your course so as to pass between the latitudes #ch #cj and #dj #de4 ,the most southern part of the shoals of ,nantucket lie in about #dj #de4 ,the northern part of the current directly to the south of ,nantucket is felt in about latitude #ch #cj4 ,by observing these directions and keeping between the stream and the shoals1 the passage from the ,banks of ,newfoundland to ,new-,york1 ,delaware1 or ,virginia1 may be considerably shortened2 for so you will have the advantage of the eddy current1 which moves contrary to the ,gulph ,stream4 ,whereas if to avoid the shoals you keep too far to the southward1 and get into that stream1 you will be retarded by it at the rate of #fj or #gj miles a day4 ,the ,nantucket whale-men being extremely well acquainted with the ,gulph ,stream1 its course1 strength1 and extent1 by their constant practice of whaling on the edges of it1 from their island quite down to the ,bahamas1 this draft of that stream was obtained from one of them1 ,captain ,folges1 and caused to be engraved on the old chart in ,london1 for the benefit of navigators1 by ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,note1 ,the ,nantucket captains who are acquainted with this stream1 make their voyages from ,england to ,boston in as short a time generally as others take in going from ,boston to ,england1 viz4 from twenty to thirty days4 ,a stranger may know when he is in the ,gulph ,stream1 by the warmth of the water1 which is much greater than that of the water on each side of it4 ,if then he is bound to the westward1 he should cross the stream to get out of it as soon as possible4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,observations of the ,warmth of the ,,sea-,,water1 c4 by ,fahrenheit's ,thermometer1 in crossing the ,gulph ,stream2 with other ,remarks made on board the ,pennsylvania ,packet1 ,capt4 ,osborne1 bound from ,london to ,philadelphia1 in ,april and ,may1 #agge4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,date ,hour ,temp,temp ,wind,course,dist- ,lat ,long ,remarks4 of of ance ,n4 ,w4 ,air,water ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,apr #aj #fb #aa #fa #ab #fd #ac #fe #ad #fe #bf #fj #gj #cg #cifj #ch,much gulph weed2 saw a whale4 #bg #fj #gj ,,sse ,wb,s #cg #acfb #bi;,colour of water changed4 #bh #h ,a4,m4 #gj #fd ,,sw ,,wnw #cg #dhfd #ce,no gulph weed4 -- #f ,p4,m4 #fg #fj #cd ,sounded1 no bottom #bi #h ,a4,m4 #fc #ga ,n ,w #dd #cg #bfff #j,much light in the water last night4 -- #e ,p4,m4 #fe #gb ,,ne #eg ,water again of the --#aa dit4 #ff #ff ,n,wb,n ,wb,s #eg usual deep sea #cj #h ,a4,m4 #fd #gj ,,ne ,wb,n #fi colour1 little or no light in it at night4 --#ab #fb #gj ,eb,s #bd #cg #bjfh #ec;,freq4 gulph weed1 -- #f ,p4,m4 #fd #gb ,,ese ,wb,n #dc water continues of sea colour1 little light4 --#aj dit4 #fe #fe ,s #be ,much light4 ,may #a #g ,a4,m4 #fh #fc #fj ,much light all last night4 --#ab #fe #ef ,,ssw ,,wnw #dd #ch #acgb #b ,colour of water changed4 -- #d ,p4,m4 #fd #ef ,wb,n #ba --#aj dit4 #fd #eg ,,sw ,,wnw #ca ,much light4 #b #h ,a4,m4 #fb #ec #ah #ch #dcgd #c,much light4 ,thunder -gust4 --#ab #fj #ec ,,wsw ,,nw #ah -- #f ,p4,m4 #fd #ee ,,nw ,,wsw #ae --#aj #fe #ee ,nb,w ,wb,n #aj #c #g ,a4,m4 #fb #ed #cj #ch #cjge #j ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,observations of the ,warmth of the ,,sea-,,water1 c4 by ,fahrenheit's ,thermometer2 with other ,remarks made on board the ,reprisal1 ,capt4 ,wycks1 bound from ,philadelphia to ,france1 in ,october and ,november1 #aggf4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,date ,hour,hour,temp,temp ,wind,course,dist- ,lat ,long ,remarks ,a4,m4,p4,m4 of of ance ,n4 ,w4 ,air,water ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,oct ,left the capes #ca #aj #gf #gj ,,sse ,eb,s #ace #ch #abgj #cj,thursday night1 -- #d #ga ,oct #bi1 #aggf ,nov #a #aj #gh ,,wsw ,e,n #aji ,no ob#fh #ab -- #d #ga #ha #b #h #ga #ge ,n ,some sparks in -- #ab #gh #ada ditto#fe #bcthe water these -- #d #fg #gf two last nights #c #h #gf ,,nw ,,ese,e -- #ab #gf ,eb,s #afj #cg #jfb #g -- #d #gj #gf #d #i #fh #gf ,nb,e ,ditto4 -- #a #gf #aid #cf #bfeh #h -- #d #fh #gf -- #h #gh #e #h #fh #gf ,,ne ,ditto4 -- #ab #gj #ge #afc #ce #baee #c -- #d #ge -- #h #ge #f #h #gf ,eb,n ,s#ej;,e -- #ab #gg #g #ce #ccec #eb #g #h #gh ,s,eb,e ,n#cj,w -- #ab #gg #ajh #cf #feb #df -- #d #gg #h #i #ge #gg ,sb,e ,n#di;,e -- #ab #gg #age #ch #bej #a -- #d #gg #i #i #ge #gg -- #ab #ge #gj ,,sw ,n#cc;,e #age #ci #cidf #ee ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,observations ,,made ,,on ,,board ,,the ,,reprisal1 ,,continued4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,date4,hour,hour,temp,temp ,wind,course,dist- ,lat ,long ,remarks4 ,a4,m4,p4,m4 of of ance ,n4 ,w4 ,air,water ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,nov #i #d #ga #aj #h #gj #fh -- #ab #fd ,e ,n #ag ,e #fd #dj #cidf #bg #aa #h #fc -- #ab #fa ,s ,e ,n #h ,e #da #da #aidf #ai #ab #h #ef #ei -- #d #fi ,,nnw ,n #hj ,e #abj #da #cidc #db #ac all day #fh ,e ,s #hb ,e #fi #da #bidb #aj #ad #h #gj #gj ,n #gd ,e #aaa #db #jci #eg -- ,noon #gb ,,ese -- #d #ga #ae #h #fa #fi -- ,noon #fh ,,wsw ,n #gj ,e #ahf #dc #cce #ea -- #d #fg #af ,noon #fe #fg ,s ,w ,n #fg ,w #dh #dc #bbcd #ej -- #d #fc #ag #h #fc ,,ese ,n #ai ,e #ef #dd #aecd #be #ah all day #fe ,sb,w ,n #ge ,e #baj #de #fbi #dc,some gulph weed #ai ,noon #fe #fd ,s ,w ,n #hj ,e #bch #de #dfbd #b #bj #h #fb ,n ,s #hj ,e #aee #de #aibj #cj -- #d #fj #ba #i #fb ,s ,n #hh ,e #id #de #bbah #ag #bb #aj #fj #fb ,,ssw ,s #hi ,e #acc #de #aiae #ai #bc ,noon #fa ,,wsw ,s #hf ,e #aid #de #faj #ce #bd do4 #fj ,,nne ,n #gh ,e #aia #de #df #f #aj #be do4 #fj ,n ,e ,s #gf ,e #abe #de #d #c #bc #bf do4 #ef #fj ,e ,n #gc ,e #ca #de #ac #b #bj #bg do4 #eh ,soundings off #bh do4 #ed #ef ,bellisle4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,a ,journal of a ,voyage from the ,channel between ,france and ,england towards ,america4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,therm4 ,,am,therm4 ,,pm ,varia- ------------------ ,dis- tion ,date,latit4,long4,air,water,air,water,w inds,coursetance of the ,n4 ,w4 ,needle ,miles4 ,west4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,july #bi #fb #eg ,these are taken on an #cj #fb #eh #fc #eh average of #bd hours4 #ca #fj #eh #fb #fb ,aug #a #di #ae #d #ae #fc #fb #fj #fd ,east ,,sw ,w #fj #bb #j #b #dh #bh #h #eh #fd #fd #fd #fc ,e ,s ,e,wb,s ,s #agd #c #dg #j #ab #ac #fj #fg omitted ,n ,e ,,sw b,w #afj #d #de #j #ae #dc #ff #ff do4 #ff ,,nw b,w,,sw ,w #aij #e #dc #e #ag #be #fg #fe #fe #fh ,n ,e ,,sw b,s #aca #bj #j #f #da #c #ai #dd #gj #fh #ga #fi ,n ,e ,,sw ,s #aff #af #cj #g #ch #de #ba #cd #gj #gj #fh #gj ,n ,e ,,ssw ,w #afe #aa #cj #h #cf #db #bc #aj #gb #ga #gc #gb ,n ,e ,,ssw ,w #adi #aa #ae #i #ce #dj #be #dj #gc #gc #gc #gd ,n ,e ,,wsw ,s #acg ---------- #aj #ce #j #bg #j #ga #gc #gg #ge ,n ,w ,,wsw ,s #gf ,therm,noon #aa #cc #ea #bh #db #gd #gd #gf #gg ,north,,sw ,w #aab --------- #ab #cc #cj #ca #cj #gf #ge #gf #gf ,north,w ,s #adc ,a4 ,w4 #ac #cc #ag #cc #cb #gf #gf #gh #gg ,n ,e ,w ,s #ajc #gg #gh #ad #cc #bb #cd #ca #gf #gf #ha #gi ,s ,s ,e,w ,n #ej #ha #gi #ae #cc #de #ce #j #gh #gi #gi #gh ,w ,n ,w,,sw ,w #ce #gi #gi #af #cd #ad #ce #cj #gi #gh #ha #hj ,west ,,nw ,n #ch #ha #hj #ag #ce #cg #cf #d #hj #gi #hj #gh ,w ,s ,w,n ,n ,w #ge #hj #gh #ah #cf #g #cg #af #hj #gh omitted ,,nw b,w,,wnw ,n #fe #hj #gi #ai #cf #ch #ch #j #gh #gg #gh #gg ,w ,s ,w,,nw ,w #di #gi #gg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,journal of a ,voyage1 c4 continued4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,therm4 ,,am,therm4 ,,pm ,varia-,therm4 ------------------ ,dis- tion at ,noon4 ,date,latit4,long4,air,water,air,water,w inds,coursetance of the-------- ,n4 ,w4 ,needle ,miles4 ,west4 ,a4 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,aug _/ #bj #cg #ch #ch #f #gh #gf omitted ,west ,n ,w #fb #gg #ge #ba #cf #ae #ch #bf #gc #gd #gh #gf ,w ,n ,w,s b ,w #hb #gg #ge #bb #ce #dj #ch #dd #g #gf #hj #gg ,w b ,s,s ,s ,w #ch #hj #gg #bc #ce #ce #dj #eb #g #gg #gh #ge ,north,w ,s #ajj omitted4 #bd #ce #ab #da #ca #ge #gc #ge #gd ,w ,n ,w,s ,wb,w #da #ge #gd #be #ce #dj #db #cc #gi #gf #gi #gf ,w b ,n,w ,,nw,n #fj #hj #gf #bf #ce #cj #db #dd #gi #gf #hj #gf ,s ,wb,w,s ,w,s #ad #hj #gf #bg #ce #ad #dc #bc #gi #gg #ha #gi ,west ,w ,,sw,s #ch #ha #gh #bh #cd #bc #dd #j #g #gf #gh #gh ,n ,n ,e,s ,wb,s #fj #gh #gh #bi #cd #ab #de #eb #gg #gh #gh #gh ,n ,e ,w ,s #id #h #j #gi #gh #cj #cd #e #dh #ca #gh #gh #gh #gh ,east ,w ,s #acd #gh #gh #ca #cd #bj #ea #d #hj #gi #ha #gi ,east ,w ,s #abi #hj #hj ,sep #a #cd #bj #eb #dg #ha #gh omitted ,s ,s ,w,w ,n #hf #hc #hj #b #cd #ee #ee #ab #ha #hj #hc #hj ,s ,w ,wb,n ,w #abe #hc #hj #c #ce #cj #eg #bd #hc #hj #hc #hj ,s ,wb,s,wb,n ,n #aad #f #j #hd #ha #d #ce #ej #ei #a #hb #hj #hc #hj ,s ,w,w,wb,n ,n #hb #hc #ha #e #ce #ee #fa #j #ha #hj #hb #ha ,s ,s ,w,w ,n #if #hb #ha #f #cf #bj #fb #cj #hj #ha #gi #hj ,n ,wb,n,w b ,n #ge #gh #hj #g #cd #ej #fc #aj #hg #hj #gh #ha ,n ,wb,n,s ,s ,w #hf #gh #ha #h #cd #de #fd #dj #ge #gi #ge #gi ,north,w ,s #gd #ge #gi #i #ce #dc #ff #db #ge #gi #gg #gc ,n ,e ,w ,n ,w #ajh #gh #hj #aj #cg #bj #fh #dj #gg #gc #gg #gj ,e ,n ,e,n ,w #abf #gh #gb ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,n4,b4 ,longitude is reckoned from ,london1 and the ,thermometer is according to ,fahrenheit4 ,,observations4 ,july #ca4 ,at one ,p4,m4 the ,start bore ,,wnw4 distant six leagues4 ,august #a4 ,the water appears luminous in the ship's wake4 ---- #b4 ,the temperature of the water is taken at eight in the morning and at eight in the evening4 ---- #f4 ,the water appears less luminous4 ---- #g4 ,formegas ,,sw4 dist #cb deg4 ,st4 ,mary's ,,sw,s4 #cc leagues4 ---- #h4 ,from this date the temperature of the water is taken at eight in the morning and at six in the evening4 ---- #aj4 ,moonlight1 which prevents the luminous appearance of the water4 ---- #aa4 ,a strong southerly current4 ---- #ab4 ,ditto4 ,from this date the temperature of the air and water was taken at noon1 as well as morning and evening4 ---- #af4 ,northerly current4 ---- #ai4 ,first saw gulph weed4 ---- #ba4 ,southerly current4 ---- #bb4 ,again saw gulph weed4 ---- #bd4 ,the water appeared luminous in a small degree before the moon rose4 ---- #bi4 ,no moon1 yet very little light in the water4 ---- #cj4 ,much gulph weed to-day4 ---- #ca4 ,ditto4 ,sept4 #a4 ,ditto4 ---- #b4 ,a little more light in the water4 ---- #d4 ,no gulph weed to-day4 ,more light in the water4 ---- #e4 ,some gulph weed again4 ---- #f4 ,little light in the water4 ,a very hard thunder-gust in the night4 ---- #g4 ,little gulph weed4 ---- #h4 ,more light in the water4 ,little gulph weed4 ---- #i4 ,little gulph weed4 ,little light in the water last evening4 ---- #aj4 ,saw some beds of rock-weed2 and we were surprised to observe the water six degrees colder by the thermometer than the preceding noon4 ,this day 7#ajth7 the thermometer still kept descending1 and at five in the morning of the #aath1 it was in water as low as #gj1 when we struck soundings4 ,the same evening the pilot came on board1 and we found our ship about five degrees of longitude a-head of the reckoning1 which our captain accounted for by supposing our course to have been near the edge of the gulph stream1 and thus an eddy-current always in our favour4 ,by the distance we ran from ,sept4 #i1 in the evening1 till we struck soundings1 we must have then been at the western edge of the gulph stream1 and the change in the temperature of the water was probably owing to our suddenly passing from that current1 into the waters of our own climate4 ,on the #adth of ,august the following experiment was made4 ,the weather being perfectly calm1 an empty bottle1 corked very tight1 was sent down #bj fathoms1 and it was drawn up still empty4 ,it was then sent down again #ce fathoms1 when the weight of the water having forced in the cork1 it was drawn up full2 the water it contained was immediately tried by the thermometer1 and found to be #gj1 which was six degrees colder than at the surface3 the lead and bottle were visible1 but not very distinctly so1 at the depth of #ab fathoms1 but when only #g fathoms deep1 they were perfectly seen from the ship4 ,this experiment was thus repeated ,sept4 #aa1 when we were in soundings of #ah fathoms4 ,a keg was previously prepared with a valve at each end1 one opening inward1 the other outward2 this was sent to the bottom in expectation that by the valves being both open when going down1 and both shut when coming up1 it would keep within it the water received at bottom4 ,the upper valve performed its office well1 but the under one did not shut quite close1 so that much of the water was lost in hauling it up the ship's side4 ,as the water in the keg's passage upwards could not enter at the top1 it was concluded that what water remained in it was of that near the ground1 and on trying this by the thermometer1 it was found to be at #eh1 which was #ab degrees colder than at the surface4 ,this last ,journal was obligingly kept for me by ,mr4 ,j4 ,williams1 my fellow-passenger in the ,london ,packet1 who made all the experiments with great exactness4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,o4 ,n#cf4 ,on the ,art of ,swimming4 ,no date4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i cannot be of opinion with you that it is too late in life for you to learn to swim4 ,the river near the bottom of your garden affords a most convenient place for the purpose4 ,and as your new employment requires your being often on the water1 of which you have such a dread1 ,i think you would do well to make the trial2 nothing being so likely to remove those apprehensions as the consciousness of an ability to swim to the shore1 in case of an accident1 or of supporting yourself in the water till a boat could come to take you up4 ,i do not know how far corks or bladders may be useful in learning to swim1 having never seen much trial of them4 ,possibly they may be of service in supporting the body while you are learning what is called the stroke1 or that manner of drawing in and striking out the hands and feet that is necessary to produce progressive motion4 ,but you will be no swimmer till you can place some confidence in the power of the water to support you2 ,i would therefore advise the acquiring that confidence in the first place2 especially as ,i have known several who1 by a little of the practice necessary for that purpose1 have insensibly acquired the stroke1 taught as it were by nature4 ,the practice ,i mean is this4 ,chusing a place where the water deepens gradually1 walk coolly into it till it is up to your breast1 then turn round1 your face to the shore1 and throw an egg into the water between you and the shore4 ,it will sink to the bottom1 and be easily seen there1 as your water is clear4 ,it must lie in water so deep as that you cannot reach it to take it up but by diving for it4 ,to encourage yourself in order to do this1 reflect that your progress will be from deeper to shallower water1 and that at any time you may1 by bringing your legs under you and standing on the bottom1 raise your head far above the water4 ,then plunge under it with your eyes open1 throwing yourself towards the egg1 and endeavouring by the action of your hands and feet against the water to get forward till within reach of it4 ,in this attempt you will find1 that the water buoys you up against your inclination2 that it is not so easy a thing to sink as you imagined2 that you cannot but by active force get down to the egg4 ,thus you feel the power of the water to support you1 and learn to confide in that power2 while your endeavours to overcome it1 and to reach the egg1 teach you the manner of acting on the water with your feet and hands1 which action is afterwards used in swimming to support your head higher above water1 or to go forward through it4 ,i would the more earnestly press you to the trial of this method1 because1 though ,i think ,i satisfied you that your body is lighter than water1 and that you might float in it a long time with your mouth free for breathing1 if you would put yourself in a proper posture1 and would be still and forbear struggling2 yet till you have obtained this experimental confidence in the water1 ,i cannot depend on your having the necessary presence of mind to recollect that posture and the directions ,i gave you relating to it4 ,the surprize may put all out of your mind4 ,for though we value ourselves on being reasonable knowing creatures1 reason and knowledge seem on such occasions to be of little use to us2 and the brutes to whom we allow scarce a glimmering of either1 appear to have the advantage of us4 ,i will1 however1 take this opportunity of repeating1 those particulars to you1 which ,i mentioned in our last conversation1 as1 by perusing them at your leisure1 you may possibly imprint them so in your memory as on occasion to be of some use to you4 #a4 ,that though the legs1 arms1 and head1 of a human body1 being solid parts1 are specifically something heavier than fresh water1 yet the trunk1 particularly the upper part1 from its hollowness1 is so much lighter than water1 as that the whole of the body taken together is too light to sink wholly under water1 but some part will remain above1 until the lungs become filled with water1 which happens from drawing water into them instead of air1 when a person in the fright attempts breathing while the mouth and nostrils are under water4 #b4 ,that the legs and arms are specifically lighter than salt water1 and will be supported by it1 so that a human body would not sink in salt-water1 though the lungs were filled as above1 but from the greater specific gravity of the head4 #c4 ,that therefore a person throwing himself on his back in salt water1 and extending his arms1 may easily lie so as to keep his mouth and nostrils free for breathing2 and by a small motion of his hands may prevent turning1 if he should perceive any tendency to it4 #d4 ,that in fresh water1 if a man throws himself on his back1 near the surface1 he cannot long continue in that situation but by proper action of his hands on the water4 ,if he uses no such action1 the legs and lower part of the body will gradually sink till he comes into an upright position1 in which he will continue suspended1 the hollow of the breast keeping the head uppermost4 #e4 ,but if1 in this erect position1 the head is kept upright above the shoulders1 as when we stand on the ground1 the immersion will1 by the weight of that part of the head that is out of water1 reach above the mouth and nostrils1 perhaps a little above the eyes1 so that a man cannot long remain suspended in water with his head in that position4 #f4 ,the body continuing suspended as before1 and upright1 if the head be leaned quite back1 so that the face looks upwards1 all the back part of the head being then under water1 and its weight consequently in a great measure supported by it1 the face will remain above water quite free for breathing1 will rise an inch higher every inspiration1 and sink as much every expiration1 but never so low as that the water may come over the mouth4 #g4 ,if therefore a person unacquainted with swimming and falling accidentally into the water1 could have presence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling and plunging1 and to let the body take this natural position1 he might continue long safe from drowning till perhaps help would come4 ,for as to the cloaths1 their additional weight while immersed is very inconsiderable1 the water supporting it though1 when he comes out of the water1 he would find them very heavy indeed4 ,but1 as ,i said before1 ,i would not advise you or any one to depend on having this presence of mind on such an occasion1 but learn fairly to swim2 as ,i wish all men were taught to do in their youth2 they would1 on many occurrences1 be the safer for having that skill1 and on many more the happier1 as freer from painful apprehensions of danger1 to say nothing of the enjoyment in so delightful and wholesome an exercise4 ,soldiers particularly should1 methinks1 all be taught to swim2 it might be of frequent use either in surprising an enemy1 or saving themselves4 ,and if ,i had now boys to educate1 ,i should prefer those schools 7other things being equal7 where an opportunity was afforded for acquiring so advantageous an art1 which once learned is never forgotten4 ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #cf ,oliver ,neale4 ,editor4 ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,subject1 ,in ,answer to some ,enquiries of ,m4 ,dubourg#cg4 99999999 ,i am apprehensive that ,i shall not be able to find leisure for making all the disquisitions and experiments which would be desirable on this subject4 ,i must1 therefore1 content myself with a few remarks4 ,the specific gravity of some human bodies1 in comparison to that of water1 has been examined by ,mr4 ,robinson1 in our ,philosophical ,transactions1 volume #ej1 page #cj1 for the year #ageg4 ,he asserts1 that fat persons with small bones float most easily upon the water4 ,the diving-bell is accurately described in our ,transactions4 ,when ,i was a boy1 ,i made two oval pallets1 each about ten inches long1 and six broad1 with a hole for the thumb1 in order to retain it fast in the palm of my hand4 ,they much resembled a painter's pallets4 ,in swimming ,i pushed the edges of these forward1 and ,i struck the water with their flat surfaces as ,i drew them back4 ,i remember ,i swam faster by means of these pallets1 but they fatigued my wrists4 ,i also fitted to the soles of my feet a kind of sandals2 but ,i was not satisfied with them1 because ,i observed that the stroke is partly given by the inside of the feet and the ancles1 and not entirely with the soles of the feet4 ,we have here waistcoats for swimming1 which are made of double sail-cloth1 with small pieces of cork quilted in between them4 ,i know nothing of the scaphandre of ,m4 de la ,chapelle4 ,i know by experience1 that it is a great comfort to a swimmer1 who has a considerable distance to go1 to turn himself sometimes on his back1 and to vary in other respects the means of procuring a progressive motion4 ,when he is seized with the cramp in the leg1 the method of driving it away is to give to the parts affected a sudden1 vigorous and violent shock2 which he may do in the air as he swims on his back4 ,during the great heats of summer there is no danger in bathing1 however warm we may be1 in rivers which have been thoroughly warmed by the sun4 ,but to throw oneself into cold spring water1 when the body has been heated by exercise in the sun1 is an imprudence which may prove fatal4 ,i once knew an instance of four young men1 who1 having worked at harvest in the heat of the day1 with a view of refreshing themselves plunged into a spring of cold water3 two died upon the spot1 a third the next morning1 and the fourth recovered with great difficulty4 ,a copious draught of cold water1 in similar circumstances1 is frequently attended with the same effect in ,north ,america4 ,the exercise of swimming is one of the most healthy and agreeable in the world4 ,after having swam for an hour or two in the evening1 one sleeps coolly the whole night1 even during the most ardent heat of summer4 ,perhaps the pores being cleansed1 the insensible perspiration increases and occasions this coolness4 ,it is certain that much swimming is the means of stopping a diarrha1 and even of producing a constipation4 ,with respect to those who do not know how to swim1 or who are affected with a diarrha at a season which does not permit them to use that exercise1 a warm bath1 by cleansing and purifying the skin1 is found very salutary1 and often effects a radical cure4 ,i speak from my own experience1 frequently repeated1 and that of others to whom ,i have recommended this4 ,you will not be displeased if ,i conclude these hasty remarks by informing you1 that as the ordinary method of swimming is reduced to the act of rowing with the arms and legs1 and is consequently a laborious and fatiguing operation when the space of water to be crossed is considerable2 there is a method in which a swimmer may pass to great distances with much facility1 by means of a sail4 ,this discovery ,i fortunately made by accident1 and in the following manner4 ,when ,i was a boy ,i amused myself one day with flying a paper kite2 and approaching the bank of a pond1 which was near a mile broad1 ,i tied the string to a stake1 and the kite ascended to a very considerable height above the pond1 while ,i was swimming4 ,in a little time1 being desirous of amusing myself with my kite1 and enjoying at the same time the pleasure of swimming1 ,i returned2 and loosing from the stake the string with the little stick which was fastened to it1 went again into the water1 where ,i found1 that1 lying on my back and holding the stick in my hands1 ,i was drawn along the surface of the water in a very agreeable manner4 ,having then engaged another boy to carry my clothes round the pond1 to a place which ,i pointed out to him on the other side1 ,i began to cross the pond with my kite1 which carried me quite over without the least fatigue1 and with the greatest pleasure imaginable4 ,i was only obliged occasionally to halt a little in my course1 and resist its progress1 when it appeared that1 by following too quick1 ,i lowered the kite too much2 by doing which occasionally ,i made it rise again4 ,i have never since that time practised this singular mode of swimming1 though ,i think it not impossible to cross in this manner from ,dover to ,calais4 ,the packet-boat1 however1 is still preferable4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #cg ,this and the four following extracts of letters to ,m4 ,dubourg1 are re-translated from the ,french edition of ,dr4 ,franklin's works4 ,editor4 ,,to ,m4 ,,dubourg4 ,on the free ,use of ,air4 ,london1 ,july #bh1 #agfj4 99999999 ,i greatly approve the epithet which you give1 in your letter of the #hth of ,june1 to the new method of treating the small-pox1 which you call the tonic or bracing method2 ,i will take occasion1 from it1 to mention a practice to which ,i have accustomed myself4 ,you know the cold bath has long been in vogue here as a tonic2 but the shock of the cold water has always appeared to me1 generally speaking1 as too violent1 and ,i have found it much more agreeable to my constitution to bathe in another element1 ,i mean cold air4 ,with this view ,i rise almost every morning1 and sit in my chamber without any clothes whatever1 half an hour or an hour1 according to the season1 either reading or writing4 ,this practice is not in the least painful1 but1 on the contrary1 agreeable2 and if ,i return to bed afterwards1 before ,i dress myself1 as sometimes happens1 ,i make a supplement to my night's rest of one or two hours of the most pleasing sleep that can be imagined4 ,i find no ill consequences whatever resulting from it1 and that at least it does not injure my health1 if it does not in fact contribute much to its preservation4 ,i shall therefore call it for the future a bracing or tonic bath4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,on the ,causes of ,colds4 ,march #aj1 #aggc4 99999999 ,i shall not attempt to explain why damp clothes occasion colds1 rather than wet ones1 because ,i doubt the fact2 ,i imagine that neither the one nor the other contribute to this effect1 and that the causes of colds are totally independent of wet and even of cold4 ,i propose writing a short paper on this subject1 the first moment of leisure ,i have at my disposal4 ,in the mean time ,i can only say1 that having some suspicions that the common notion1 which attributes to cold the property of stopping the pores and obstructing perspiration1 was ill founded1 ,i engaged a young physician1 who is making some experiments with ,sanctorius's balance1 to estimate the different proportions of his perspiration1 when remaining one hour quite naked1 and another warmly clothed4 ,he pursued the experiment in this alternate manner for eight hours successively1 and found his perspiration almost double during those hours in which he was naked4 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,dr4 ,stark#ch4 ,may #d1 #aggc4 99999999 ,the young physician whom ,i mentioned is dead1 and all the notes which he had left of his curious experiments are by some accident lost between our friends ,sir ,john ,pringle and ,dr4 ,huck 7,saunders72 but these gentlemen1 if the papers cannot be recovered1 it is to be presumed1 will repeat the experiments themselves 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,dr4 ,lettsom4 ,london1 ,august #cj1 #agfi4 99999999 ,this letter will be forwarded to you by ,dr4 ,lettsom1 a young ,american physician of much merit1 and one of the peaceable sect of ,quakers3 you will therefore at least regard him as a curiosity1 even though you should have embraced all the opinions of the majority of your countrymen concerning these people 99999999 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,from ,,dr4 ----#ci ,,of ,,boston1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,of ,,philadelphia4 ,respecting the ,number of ,deaths in ,philadelphia by ,inoculation4 ,boston1 ,aug4 #c1 #ageb4 ,,sir1 ,this comes to you on account of ,dr4 ,douglass3 he desired me to write to you for what you know of the number that died of the inoculation in ,philadelphia1 telling me he designed to write something on the small-pox shortly4 ,we shall both be obliged to you for a word on this affair4 ,the chief particulars of our visitation1 you have in the public prints4 ,but the less degree of mortality than usual in the common way of infection1 seems chiefly owing to the purging method designed to prevent the secondary fever2 a method first begun and carried on in this town1 and with success beyond expectation4 ,we lost one in eleven one-sixth1 but had we been experienced in this way1 at the first coming of the distemper1 probably the proportion had been but one in thirteen or fourteen4 ,in the year #agcj we lost one in nine1 which is more favourable than ever before with us4 ,the distemper pretty much the same then as now1 but some circumstances not so kind this time4 ,if there be any particulars which you want to know1 please to signify what they are1 and ,i shall send them4 ,the number of our inhabitants decreases#dj4 ,on a strict inquiry1 the overseers of the poor find but fourteen thousand one hundred and ninety ,whites1 and one thousand five hundred and forty-four ,blacks1 including those absent1 on account of the small-pox1 many of whom1 it is probable1 will never return4 ,i pass this opportunity without any particulars of my old theme4 ,one thing1 however1 ,i must mention1 which is1 that perhaps my last letters contained something that seemed to militate with your doctrine of the ,origin1 c4 ,but my design was only to relate the phenomena as they appeared to me4 ,i have received so much light and pleasure from your writings1 as to prejudice me in favour of every thing from your hand1 and leave me only liberty to observe1 and a power of dissenting when some great probability might oblige me3 and if at any time that be the case1 you will certainly hear of it4 ,i am1 ,sir1 c4 ,,footnotes3 #ch ,the works of ,dr4 ,stark1 including the experiments alluded to1 have since been published4 ,editor4 #ci ,dr4 ,perkins4 ,editor4 #dj ,boston is an old town1 and was formerly the seat of all the trade of the country1 that was carried on by sea4 ,new towns1 and ports1 have1 of late1 divided the trade with it1 and diminished its inhabitants1 though the inhabitants of the country1 in general1 have greatly increased4 ,,from ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,of ,,philadelphia4 ,in ,answer to the preceding4 ,philadelphia1 ,aug4 #ac1 #ageb4 ,,sir1 ,i received your favour of the #c;d instant4 ,some time last winter ,i procured from one of our physicians an account of the number of persons inoculated during the five visitations of the small-pox we have had in twenty-two years2 which account ,i sent to ,mr4 ,w4 ,v4 of your town1 and have no copy4 ,if ,i remember right1 the number exceeded eight hundred1 and the deaths were but four4 ,i suppose ,mr4 ,v4 will show you the account1 if he ever received it4 ,those four were all that our doctors allow to have died of the small-pox by inoculation1 though ,i think there were two more of the inoculated who died of the distemper2 but the eruptions appearing soon after the operation1 it is supposed they had taken the infection before1 in the common way4 ,i shall be glad to see what ,dr4 ,douglass may write on the subject4 ,i have a ,french piece printed at ,paris1 #agbd1 entitled1 ,observations sur la ,saigne du ,pied1 et sur la ,purgation au commencement de la ,petite ,verole1 ,raisons de doubte contre l' ,inoculation4--,a letter of the doctor's is mentioned in it4 ,if he or you have it not1 and desire to see it1 ,i will send it4--,please to favour me with the particulars of your purging method1 to prevent the secondary fever4 ,i am indebted for your preceding letter1 but business sometimes obliges one to postpone philosophical amusements4 ,whatever ,i have wrote of that kind1 are really1 as they are entitled1 but ,conjectures and ,suppositions2 which ought always to give place1 when careful observation militates against them4 ,i own ,i have too strong a penchant to the building of hypotheses2 they indulge my natural indolence3 ,i wish ,i had more of your patience and accuracy in making observations1 on which1 alone1 true philosophy can be founded4 ,and1 ,i assure you1 nothing can be more obliging to me1 than your kind communication of those you make1 however they may disagree with my pre-conceived notions4 ,i am sorry to hear that the number of your inhabitants decreases4 ,i some time since1 wrote a small paper of ,thoughts on the peopling of ,countries#da1 which1 if ,i can find1 ,i will send you1 to obtain your sentiments4 ,the favourable opinion you express of my writings1 may1 you see1 occasion you more trouble than you expected from1 ,sir1 yours1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #da ,this paper will be found in a subsequent part of the present volume4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,vaughan1 ,,esq4 ,on the ,effects of ,lead upon the human ,constitution#db4 ,philadelphia1 ,july #ca1 #aghf4 ,,dear ,,friend1 ,i recollect that when ,i had last the pleasure of seeing you at ,southampton1 now a twelvemonth since1 we had some conversation on the bad effects of lead taken inwardly2 and that at your request ,i promised to send you in writing a particular account of several facts ,i then mentioned to you1 of which you thought some good use might be made4 ,i now sit down to fulfil that promise4 ,the first thing ,i remember of this kind was a general discourse in ,boston when ,i was a boy1 of a complaint from ,north ,carolina against ,new-,england rum1 that it poisoned their people1 giving them the dry-belly-ach1 with a loss of the use of their limbs4 ,the distilleries being examined on the occasion1 it was found1 that several of them used leaden still-heads and worms1 and the physicians were of opinion1 that the mischief was occasioned by that use of lead4 ,the legislature of ,massachussetts thereupon passed an act1 prohibiting1 under severe penalties1 the use of such still-heads and worms hereafter4 ,in #agbd1 being in ,london1 ,i went to work in the printing-house of ,mr4 ,palmer1 ,bartholomew-close1 as a compositor4 ,i there found a practice1 ,i had never seen before1 of drying a case of types 7which are wet in distribution7 by placing it sloping before the fire4 ,i found this had the additional advantage1 when the types were not only dried but heated1 of being comfortable to the hands working over them in cold weather4 ,i therefore sometimes heated my case when the types did not want drying4 ,but an old workman observing it advised me not to do so1 telling me ,i might lose the use of my hands by it1 as two of our companions had nearly done1 one of whom1 that used to earn his guinea a week1 could not then make more than ten shillings1 and the other1 who had the dangles1 but seven and sixpence4 ,this1 with a kind of obscure pain1 that ,i had sometimes felt1 as it were1 in the bones of my hand when working over the types made very hot1 induced me to omit the practice4 ,but talking afterwards with ,mr4 ,james1 a letter-founder in the same ,close1 and asking him if his people1 who worked over the little furnaces of melted metal1 were not subject to that disorder2 he made light of any danger from the effluvia1 but ascribed it to particles of the metal swallowed with their food by slovenly workmen1 who went to their meals after handling the metal1 without well washing their fingers1 so that some of the metalline particles were taken off by their bread and eaten with it4 ,this appeared to have some reason in it4 ,but the pain ,i had experienced made me still afraid of those effluvia4 ,being in ,derbyshire at some of the furnaces for smelting of lead ore1 ,i was told1 that the smoke of those furnaces was pernicious to the neighbouring grass and other vegetables2 but ,i do not recollect to have heard any thing of the effect of such vegetables eaten by animals4 ,it may be well to make the enquiry4 ,in ,america ,i have often observed1 that on the roofs of our shingled-houses1 where moss is apt to grow in northern exposures1 if there be any thing on the roof painted with white lead1 such as balusters1 or frames of dormant windows1 c4 there is constantly a streak on the shingles from such paint down to the eaves1 on which no moss will grow1 but the wood remains constantly clean and free from it4 ,we seldom drink rain-water that fall on our houses2 and if we did1 perhaps the small quantity of lead descending from such paint might not be sufficient to produce any sensible ill-effect on our bodies4 ,but ,i have been told of a case in ,europe1 ,i forget the place1 where a whole family was afflicted with what we call the dry-belly-ach1 or colica pictorum1 by drinking rain-water4 ,it was at a country-seat1 which1 being situated too high to have the advantage of a well1 was supplied with water from a tank1 which received the water from the leaded roofs4 ,this had been drank several years without mischief1 but some young trees planted near the house growing up above the roof1 and shedding their leaves upon it1 it was supposed1 that an acid in those leaves had corroded the lead they covered1 and furnished the water of that year with its baneful particles and qualities4 ,when ,i was in ,paris with ,sir ,john ,pringle in #agfg1 he visited ,la ,charit1 an hospital particularly famous for the cure of that malady1 and brought from thence a pamphlet1 containing a list of the names of persons1 specifying their professions or trades1 who had been cured there4 ,i had the curiosity to examine that list1 and found1 that all the patients were of trades1 that some way or other use or work in lead2 such as plumbers1 glaziers1 painters1 c4 excepting only two kinds1 stone-cutters and soldiers4 ,in them1 ,i could not reconcile it to my notion1 that lead was the cause of that disorder4 ,but on my mentioning it to a physician of that hospital1 he informed me1 that the stone-cutters are continually using melted lead to fix the ends of iron balustrades in stone2 and that the soldiers had been employed by painters as labourers in grinding of colours4 ,this1 my dear friend1 is all ,i can at present recollect on the subject4 ,you will see by it1 that the opinion of this mischievous effect from lead1 is at least above sixty years old2 and you will observe with concern how long a useful truth may be known and exist1 before it is generally received and practised on4 ,i am1 ever1 yours most affectionately1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #db ,this letter is taken from a work by ,dr4 ,john ,hunter1 entitled ,observations on the ,diseases of the ,army4 ,editor4 ,,to ,m4 ,,dubourg#dc4 ,observations on the prevailing ,doctrines of ,life and ,death4 99999999 ,your observations on the causes of death1 and the experiments which you propose for recalling to life those who appear to be killed by lightning1 demonstrate equally your sagacity and your humanity4 ,it appears1 that the doctrines of life and death1 in general1 are yet but little understood4 ,a toad buried in sand will live1 it is said1 till the sand becomes petrified3 and then1 being inclosed in the stone1 it may still live for we know not how many ages4 ,the facts which are cited in support of this opinion are too numerous1 and too circumstantial1 not to deserve a certain degree of credit4 ,as we are accustomed to see all the animals1 with which we are acquainted1 eat and drink1 it appears to us difficult to conceive1 how a toad can be supported in such a dungeon3 but if we reflect1 that the necessity of nourishment1 which animals experience in their ordinary state1 proceeds from the continual waste of their substance by perspiration1 it will appear less incredible1 that some animals in a torpid state1 perspiring less because they use no exercise1 should have less need of aliment2 and that others1 which are covered with scales or shells1 which stop perspiration1 such as land and sea-turtles1 serpents1 and some species of fish1 should be able to subsist a considerable time without any nourishment whatever4--,a plant1 with its flowers1 fades and dies immediately1 if exposed to the air without having its root immersed in a humid soil1 from which it may draw a sufficient quantity of moisture to supply that which exhales from its substance and is carried off continually by the air4 ,perhaps1 however1 if it were buried in quicksilver1 it might preserve for a considerable space of time its vegetable life1 its smell and colour4 ,if this be the case1 it might prove a commodious method of transporting from distant countries those delicate plants1 which are unable to sustain the inclemency of the weather at sea1 and which require particular care and attention4 ,i have seen an instance of common flies preserved in a manner somewhat similar4 ,they had been drowned in ,madeira wine1 apparently about the time when it was bottled in ,virginia1 to be sent hither 7to ,london74 ,at the opening of one of the bottles1 at the house of a friend where ,i then was1 three drowned flies fell into the first glass that was filled4 ,having heard it remarked1 that drowned flies were capable of being revived by the rays of the sun1 ,i proposed making the experiment upon these3 they were therefore exposed to the sun upon a sieve1 which had been employed to strain them out of the wine4 ,in less than three hours1 two of them began by degrees to recover life4 ,they commenced by some convulsive motions of the thighs1 and at length they raised themselves upon their legs1 wiped their eyes with their fore-feet1 beat and brushed their wings with their hind-feet1 and soon after began to fly1 finding themselves in ,old ,england1 without knowing how they came thither4 ,the third continued lifeless till sunset1 when1 losing all hopes of him1 he was thrown away4 ,i wish it were possible1 from this instance1 to invent a method of embalming drowned persons1 in such a manner that they may be recalled to life at any period1 however distant2 for having a very ardent desire to see and observe the state of ,america an hundred years hence1 ,i should prefer to any ordinary death1 the being immersed in a cask of ,madeira wine1 with a few friends till that time1 to be then recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country6 ,but since in all probability we live in an age too early and too near the infancy of science1 to hope to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection1 ,i must for the present content myself with the treat1 which you are so kind as to promise me1 of the resurrection of a fowl or a turkey-cock4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #dc ,this letter is translated from the ,french edition of ,dr4 ,franklin's works4 ,it has no date1 but the letter to which it is an answer is dated #aeth ,april1 #aggc4 ,an ,account of the new-invented ,pensylvanian ,fire-,places3 wherein their ,construction and ,manner of ,operation is particularly explained2 their ,advantages above every other ,method of warming ,rooms demonstrated2 and all ,objections that have been raised against the ,use of them answered and obviated4 ,with ,directions for putting them up1 and for using them to the best ,advantage4 ,and a ,copper-,plate1 in which the several parts of the ,machine are exactly laid down1 from a ,scale of ,equal ,parts4 ,,by ,b4 ,,franklin4 7,first printed at ,philadelphia in #agde47 ,in these northern colonies the inhabitants keep fires to sit by generally seven months in the year2 that is1 from the beginning of ,october1 to the end of ,april2 and1 in some winters1 near eight months1 by taking in part of ,september and ,may4 ,wood1 our common fuel1 which within these hundred years might be had at every man's door1 must now be fetched near one hundred miles to some towns1 and makes a very considerable article in the expence of families4 ,as therefore so much of the comfort and conveniency of our lives1 for so great a part of the year1 depends on the article of fire2 since fuel is become so expensive1 and 7as the country is more cleared and settled7 will of course grow scarcer and dearer1 any new proposal for saving the wood1 and for lessening the charge1 and augmenting the benefit of fire1 by some particular method of making and managing it1 may at least be thought worth consideration4 ,the new fire-places are a late invention to that purpose1 of which this paper is intended to give a particular account4 ,that the reader may the better judge whether this method of managing fire has any advantage over those heretofore in use1 it may be proper to consider both the old and new methods separately and particularly1 and afterwards make the comparison4 ,in order to this1 it is necessary to understand well1 some few of the properties of air and fire1 viz4 #a4 ,air is rarefied by heat1 and condensed by cold1 i4 e4 the same quantity of air takes up more space when warm than when cold4 ,this may be shown by several very easy experiments4 ,take any clear glass bottle 7a ,florence flask stript of the straw is best7 place it before the fire1 and as the air within is warmed and rarefied1 part of it will be driven out of the bottle2 turn it up1 place its mouth in a vessel of water1 and remove it from the fire2 then1 as the air within cools and contracts1 you will see the water rise in the neck of the bottle1 supplying the place of just so much air as was driven out4 ,hold a large hot coal near the side of the bottle1 and as the air within feels the heat1 it will again distend and force out the water4--,or1 fill a bladder not quite full of air1 tie the neck tight1 and lay it before a fire as near as may be without scorching the bladder2 as the air within heats1 you will perceive it to swell and fill the bladder1 till it becomes tight1 as if full blown3 remove it to a cool place1 and you will see it fall gradually1 till it becomes as lank as at first4 #b4 ,air rarefied and distended by heat is#dd specifically lighter than it was before1 and will rise in other air of greater density4 ,as wood1 oil1 or any other matter specifically lighter than water1 if placed at the bottom of a vessel of water1 will rise till it comes to the top2 so rarefied air will rise in common air1 till it either comes to air of equal weight1 or is by cold reduced to its former density4 ,a fire then being made in any chimney1 the air over the fire is rarefied by the heat1 becomes lighter1 and therefore immediately rises in the funnel1 and goes out2 the other air in the room 7flowing towards the chimney7 supplies its place1 is rarefied in its turn1 and rises likewise2 the place of the air thus carried out of the room1 is supplied by fresh air coming in through doors and windows1 or1 if they be shut1 through every crevice with violence1 as may be seen by holding a candle to a key-hole3 ,if the room be so tight as that all the crevices together will not supply so much air as is continually carried off1 then1 in a little time1 the current up the funnel must flag1 and the smoke being no longer driven up1 must come into the room4 #a4 ,fire 7i4 e4 common fire7 throws out light1 heat1 and smoke 7or fume47 ,the two first move in right lines1 and with great swiftness1 the latter is but just separated from the fuel1 and then moves only as it is carried by the stream of rarefied air3 and without a continual accession and recession of air1 to carry off the smoaky fumes1 they would remain crouded about the fire1 and stifle it4 #b4 ,heat may be separated from the smoke as well as from the light1 by means of a plate of iron1 which will suffer heat to pass through it without the others4 #c4 ,fire sends out its rays of heat as well as rays of light1 equally every way2 but the greatest sensible heat is over the fire1 where there is1 besides the rays of heat shot upwards1 a continual rising stream of hot air1 heated by the rays shot round on every side4 ,these things being understood1 we proceed to consider the fire-places heretofore in use1 viz4 #a4 ,the large open fire-places used in the days of our fathers1 and still generally in the country1 and in kitchens4 #b4 ,the newer-fashioned fire-places1 with low breasts1 and narrow hearths4 #c4 ,fire-places with hollow backs1 hearths1 and jams of iron 7described by ,m4 ,gauger1 in his tract entitled1 ,la ,mechanique de ,feu7 for warming the air as it comes into the room4 #d4 ,the ,holland stoves1 with iron doors opening into the room4 #e4 ,the ,german stoves1 which have no opening in the room where they are used1 but the fire is put in from some other room1 or from without4 #f4 ,iron pots1 with open charcoal fires1 placed in the middle of a room4 #a4 ,the first of these methods has generally the conveniency of two warm seats1 one in each corner2 but they are sometimes too hot to abide in1 and1 at other times1 incommoded with the smoke2 there is likewise good room for the cook to move1 to hang on pots1 c4 ,their inconveniencies are1 that they almost always smoke1 if the door be not left open2 that they require a large funnel1 and a large funnel carries off a great quantity of air1 which occasions what is called a strong draft to the chimney1 without which strong draft the smoke would come out of some part or other of so large an opening1 so that the door can seldom be shut2 and the cold air so nips the backs and heels of those that sit before the fire1 that they have no comfort till either screens or settles are provided 7at a considerable expence7 to keep it off1 which both cumber the room1 and darken the fire-side4 ,a moderate quantity of wood on the fire1 in so large a hearth1 seems but little2 and1 in so strong and cold a draught1 warms but little2 so that people are continually laying on more4 ,in short1 it is next to impossible to warm a room with such a fire-place3 and ,i suppose our ancestors never thought of warming rooms to sit in2 all they purposed was1 to have a place to make a fire in1 by which they might warm themselves when cold4 #b4 ,most of these old-fashioned chimneys in towns and cities1 have been1 of late years1 reduced to the second sort mentioned1 by building jambs within them1 narrowing the hearth1 and making a low arch or breast4 ,it is strange1 methinks1 that though chimneys have been so long in use1 their construction should be so little understood till lately1 that no workman pretended to make one which should always carry off all smoke1 but a chimney-cloth was looked upon as essential to a chimney4 ,this improvement1 however1 by small openings and low breasts1 has been made in our days2 and success in the first experiments has brought it into general use in cities1 so that almost all new chimneys are now made of that sort1 and much fewer bricks will make a stack of chimneys now than formerly4 ,an improvement1 so lately made1 may give us room to believe1 that still farther improvements may be found to remedy the inconveniencies yet remaining4 ,for these new chimneys1 though they keep rooms generally free from smoke1 and1 the opening being contracted1 will allow the door to be shut1 yet the funnel still requiring a considerable quantity of air1 it rushes in at every crevice so strongly1 as to make a continual whistling or howling2 and it is very uncomfortable1 as well as dangerous1 to sit against any such crevice4 ,many colds are caught from this cause only1 it being safer to sit in the open street1 for then the pores do all close together1 and the air does not strike so sharply against any particular part of the body4 ,the ,spaniards have a proverbial saying1 ,if the wind blows on you through a hole1 ,make your will1 and take care of your soul4 ,women particularly1 from this cause1 as they sit much in the house1 get colds in the head1 rheums and defluctions1 which fall into their jaws and gums1 and have destroyed early many a fine set of teeth in these northern colonies4 ,great and bright fires do also very much contribute to damage the eyes1 dry and shrivel the skin1 and bring on early the appearances of old age4 ,in short1 many of the diseases proceeding from colds1 as fevers1 pleurisies1 c4 fatal to very great numbers of people1 may be ascribed to strong drawing chimneys1 whereby1 in severe weather1 a man is scorched before while he is froze behind4#de ,in the mean time1 very little is done by these chimneys towards warming the room2 for the air round the fire-place1 which is warmed by the direct rays from the fire1 does not continue in the room1 but is continually crouded and gathered into the chimney by the current of cold air coming behind it1 and so is presently carried off4 ,in both these sorts of fire-places1 the greatest part of the heat from the fire is lost2 for as fire naturally darts heat every way1 the back1 the two jambs1 and the hearth1 drink up almost all that is given them1 very little being reflected from bodies so dark1 porous1 and unpolished2 and the upright heat1 which is by far the greatest1 flies directly up the chimney4 ,thus five-sixths at least of the heat 7and consequently of the fuel7 is wasted1 and contributes nothing towards warming the room4 #c4 ,to remedy this1 the ,sieur ,gauger gives1 in his book entitled1 ,la ,mechanique de ,feu1 published in #agji1 seven different constructions of the third sort of chimneys mentioned above1 in which there are hollow cavities made by iron plates in the back1 jambs1 and hearths1 through which plates the heat passing warms the air in those cavities1 which is continually coming into the room fresh and warm4 ,the invention was very ingenious1 and had many conveniencies3 the room was warmed in all parts1 by the air flowing into it through the heated cavities3 cold air was prevented rushing through the crevices1 the funnel being sufficiently supplied by those cavities3 much less fuel would serve1 c4 ,but the first expence1 which was very great1 the intricacy of the design1 and the difficulty of the execution1 especially in old chimneys1 discouraged the propagation of the invention2 so that there are1 ,i suppose1 very few such chimneys now in use4 ,the upright heat1 too1 was almost all lost in these1 as in the common chimneys4 #d4 ,the ,holland iron stove1 which has a flue proceeding from the top1 and a small iron door opening into the room1 comes next to be considered4 ,its conveniencies are1 that it makes a room all over warm2 for the chimney being wholly closed1 except the flue of the stove1 very little air is required to supply that1 and therefore not much rushes in at crevices1 or at the door when it is opened4 ,little fuel serves1 the heat being almost all saved2 for it rays out almost equally from the four sides1 the bottom and the top1 into the room1 and presently warms the air around it1 which1 being rarefied1 rises to the ceiling1 and its place is supplied by the lower air of the room1 which flows gradually towards the stove1 and is there warmed1 and rises in its turn1 so that there is a continual circulation till all the air in the room is warmed4 ,the air1 too1 is gradually changed1 by the stove-door's being in the room1 through which part of it is continually passing1 and that makes these stoves wholesomer1 or at least pleasanter than the ,german stoves1 next to be spoken of4 ,but they have these inconveniencies4 ,there is no sight of the fire1 which is in itself a pleasant thing4 ,one cannot conveniently make any other use of the fire but that of warming the room4 ,when the room is warm1 people1 not seeing the fire1 are apt to forget supplying it with fuel till it is almost out1 then1 growing cold1 a great deal of wood is put in1 which soon makes it too hot4 ,the change of air is not carried on quite quick enough1 so that if any smoke or ill smell happens in the room1 it is a long time before it is discharged4 ,for these reasons the ,holland stove has not obtained much among the ,english 7who love the sight of the fire7 unless in some workshops1 where people are obliged to sit near windows for the light1 and in such places they have been found of good use4 #e4 ,the ,german stove is like a box1 one side wanting4 ,it is composed of five iron plates screwed together1 and fixed so as that you may put the fuel into it from another room1 or from the outside of the house4 ,it is a kind of oven reversed1 its mouth being without1 and body within the room that is to be warmed by it4 ,this invention certainly warms a room very speedily and thoroughly with little fuel3 no quantity of cold air comes in at any crevice1 because there is no discharge of air which it might supply1 there being no passage into the stove from the room4 ,these are its conveniencies4 ,its inconveniencies are1 that people have not even so much sight or use of the fire as in the ,holland stoves1 and are1 moreover1 obliged to breathe the same unchanged air continually1 mixed with the breath and perspiration from one another's bodies1 which is very disagreeable to those who have not been accustomed to it4 ,illustration3 7of the ,pensylvania fireplace7 ,plate ,,viii4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #bce4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 #f4 ,charcoal fires in pots are used chiefly in the shops of handicraftsmen4 ,they warm a room 7that is kept close1 and has no chimney to carry off the warmed air7 very speedily and uniformly2 but there being no draught to change the air1 the sulphurous fumes from the coals be they ever so well kindled before they are brought in1 there will be some mix with it1 render it disagreeable1 hurtful to some constitutions1 and sometimes1 when the door is long kept shut1 produce fatal consequences4 ,to avoid the several inconveniencies1 and at the same time retain all the advantages of other fire-places1 was contrived the ,pensylvania fire-place1 now to be described4 ,this machine consists of ,a bottom-plate1 7i7 7,see the ,plate annexed47 ,a back plate1 7ii7 ,two side plates1 7iii iii7 ,two middle plates1 7iv iv7 which1 joined together1 form a tight box1 with winding passages in it for warming the air4 ,a front plate1 7v7 ,a top plate 7vi7 ,these are all cast of iron1 with mouldings or ledges where the plates come together1 to hold them fast1 and retain the mortar used for pointing to make tight joints4 ,when the plates are all in their places1 a pair of slender rods1 with screws1 are sufficient to bind the whole very firmly together1 as it appears in ,fig4 #b4 ,there are1 moreover1 two thin plates of wrought iron1 viz4 the shutter1 7vii7 and the register1 7viii72 besides the screw-rods ,o ,p1 all which we shall explain in their order4 7i7 ,the bottom plate1 or hearth-piece1 is round before1 with a rising moulding1 that serves as a fender to keep coals and ashes from coming to the floor1 c4 ,it has two ears1 ,f ,g1 perforated to receive the screw-rods ,o ,p2 a long air-hole1 a a1 through which the fresh outward air passes up into the air-box2 and three smoke-holes ,b ,c1 through which the smoke descends and passes away2 all represented by dark squares4 ,it has also double ledges to receive between them the bottom edges of the back plate1 the two side-plates1 and the two middle plates4 ,these ledges are about an inch asunder1 and about half an inch high2 a profile of two of them1 joined to a fragment of plate1 appears in ,fig4 #c4 7ii7 ,the back plate is without holes1 having only a pair of ledges on each side1 to receive the back edges of the two4 7iii iii7 ,side-plates3 ,these have each a pair of ledges to receive the side-edges of the front-plate1 and a little shoulder for it to rest on2 also two pair of ledges to receive the side-edges of the two middle plates which form the air-box2 and an oblong air-hole near the top1 through which is discharged into the room the air warmed in the air-box4 ,each has also a wing or bracket1 ,h and ,i1 to keep in falling brands1 coals1 c4 and a small hole1 ,q and ,r1 for the axis of the register to turn in4 7iv iv7 ,the air-box is composed of the two middle plates1 ,d ,e and ,f ,g4 ,the first has five thin ledges or partitions cast on it1 two inches deep1 the edges of which are received in so many pair of ledges cast in the other4 ,the tops of all the cavities formed by these thin deep ledges1 are also covered by a ledge of the same form and depth1 cast with them2 so that when the plates are put together1 and the joints luted1 there is no communication between the air-box and the smoke4 ,in the winding passages of this box1 fresh air is warmed as it passes into the room4 7v7 ,the front plate is arched on the under side1 and ornamented with foliages1 c4 it has no ledges4 7vi7 ,the top plate has a pair of ears1 ,m ,n1 answerable to those in the bottom plate1 and perforated for the same purpose3 it has also a pair of ledges running round the under side1 to receive the top edges of the front1 back1 and side-plates4 ,the air-box does not reach up to the top plate by two inches and a half4 7vii7 ,the shutter is of thin wrought iron and light1 of such a length and breadth as to close well the opening of the fire-place4 ,it is used to blow up the fire1 and to shut up and secure it at nights4 ,it has two brass knobs for handles1 d d1 and commonly slides up and down in a groove1 left1 in putting up the fire-place1 between the foremost ledge of the side-plates1 and the face of the front plate2 but some chuse to set it aside when it is not in use1 and apply it on occasion4 7viii7 ,the register is also of thin wrought iron4 ,it is placed between the back plate and air-box1 and can1 by means of the key ,s1 be turned on its axis so as to lie in any position between level and upright4 ,the screw-rods ,o ,p are of wrought iron1 about a third of an inch thick1 with a button at bottom1 and a screw and nut at top1 and may be ornamented with two small brasses screwed on above the nuts4 ,to put this machine to work1 #a4 ,a false back of four inch 7or1 in shallow small chimneys1 two inch7 brick work is to be made in the chimney1 four inches or more from the true back2 from the top of this false back a closing is to be made over to the breast of the chimney1 that no air may pass into the chimney1 but what goes under the false back1 and up behind it4 #b4 ,some bricks of the hearth are to be taken up1 to form a hollow under the bottom plate2 across which hollow runs a thin tight partition1 to keep apart the air entering the hollow and the smoke2 and is therefore placed between the air-hole and smoke-holes4 #c4 ,a passage is made1 communicating with the outward air1 to introduce that air into the fore part of the hollow under the bottom plate1 whence it may rise through the air-hole into the air-box4 #d4 ,a passage is made from the back part of the hollow1 communicating with the flue behind the false back3 through this passage the smoke is to pass4 ,the fire-place is to be erected upon these hollows1 by putting all the plates in their places1 and screwing them together4 ,its operation may be conceived by observing the plate entitled1 ,profile of the ,chimney and ,fire-,place4 ,m ,the mantle-piece1 or breast of the chimney4 ,c ,the funnel4 ,b ,the false back and closing4 ,e ,true back of the chimney4 ,t ,top of the fire-place4 ,f ,the front of it4 ,a ,the place where the fire is made4 ,d ,the air-box4 ,k ,the hole in the side-plate1 through which the warmed air is discharged out of the air-box into the room4 ,h ,the hollow filled with fresh air1 entering at the passage ,i1 and ascending into the air-box through the air-hole in the bottom plate near ,g ,the partition in the hollow to keep the air and smoke apart4 ,p ,the passage under the false back and part of the hearth for the smoke4 ,the arrows show the course of the smoke4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii994 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #bch4 ,,profile ,,of ,,the ,,pensylvania ,,chimney ,,fire-,,place4 ,,staffordshire ,,fire-,,place4 ,front ,view ,side ,view ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,the fire being made at ,a1 the flame and smoke will ascend and strike the top ,t1 which will thereby receive a considerable heat4 ,the smoke1 finding no passage upwards1 turns over the top of the air-box1 and descends between it and the back plate to the holes in the bottom plate1 heating1 as it passes1 both plates of the air-box1 and the said back plate2 the front plate1 bottom and side plates are also all heated at the same time4 ,the smoke proceeds in the passage that leads it under and behind the false back1 and so rises into the chimney4 ,the air of the room1 warmed behind the back plate1 and by the sides1 front1 and top plates1 becoming specifically lighter than the other air in the room1 is obliged to rise2 but the closure over the fireplace hindering it from going up the chimney1 it is forced out into the room1 rises by the mantle-piece to the cieling1 and spreads all over the top of the room1 whence being crouded down gradually by the stream of newly-warmed air that follows and rises above it1 the whole room becomes in a short time equally warmed4 ,at the same time the air1 warmed under the bottom plate1 and in the air-box1 rises and comes out of the holes in the side-plates1 very swiftly1 if the door of the room be shut1 and joins its current with the stream before-mentioned1 rising from the side1 back1 and top plates4 ,the air that enters the room through the air-box is fresh1 though warm2 and1 computing the swiftness of its motion with the areas of the holes1 it is found that near ten barrels of fresh air are hourly introduced by the air-box2 and by this means the air in the room is continually changed1 and kept1 at the same time1 sweet and warm4 ,it is to be observed1 that the entering air will not be warm at first lighting the fire1 but heats gradually as the fire increases4 ,a square opening for a trap-door should be left in the closing of the chimney1 for the sweeper to go up3 the door may be made of slate or tin1 and commonly kept close shut1 but so placed as that1 turning up against the back of the chimney when open1 it closes the vacancy behind the false back1 and shoots the soot1 that falls in sweeping1 out upon the hearth4 ,this trap-door is a very convenient thing4 ,in rooms where much smoking of tobacco is used1 it is also convenient to have a small hole1 about five or six inches square1 cut near the ceiling through into the funnel3 this hole must have a shutter1 by which it may be closed or opened at pleasure4 ,when open1 there will be a strong draught of air through it into the chimney1 which will presently carry off a cloud of smoke1 and keep the room clear3 if the room be too hot like-wise1 it will carry off as much of the warm air as you please1 and then you may stop it entirely1 or in part1 as you think fit4 ,by this means it is1 that the tobacco smoke does not descend among the heads of the company near the fire1 as it must do before it can get into common chimneys4 ,the ,manner of using this ,fire-,place4 ,your cord-wood must be cut into three lengths2 or else a short piece1 fit for the fire-place1 cut off1 and the longer left for the kitchen or other fires4 ,dry hickery1 or ash1 or any woods that burn with a clear flame are rather to be chosen1 because such are less apt to foul the smoke-passages with soot2 and flame communicates with its light1 as well as by contact1 greater heat to the plates and room4 ,but where more ordinary wood is used1 half a dry faggot of brush-wood1 burnt at the first making the fire in the morning1 is very advantageous1 as it immediately1 by its sudden blaze1 heats the plates1 and warms the room 7which with bad wood slowly kindling would not be done so soon7 and at the same time by the length of its flame1 turning in the passages1 consumes and cleanses away the soot that such bad smoaky wood had produced therein the preceding day1 and so keeps them always free and clean4 ,when you have laid a little back log1 and placed your billets on small dogs1 as in common chimneys1 and put some fire to them1 then slide down your shutter as low as the dogs1 and the opening being by that means contracted1 the air rushes in briskly1 and presently blows up the flames4 ,when the fire is sufficiently kindled1 slide it up again4#df ,in some of these fire-places there is a little six-inch square trap-door of thin wrought iron or brass1 covering a hole of like dimensions near the fore-part of the bottom plate1 which being by a ring lifted up towards the fire1 about an inch1 where it will be retained by two springing sides fixed to it perpendicularly 7,see the ,plate1 ,fig4 #d47 the air rushes in from the hollow under the bottom plate1 and blows the fire4 ,where this is used1 the shutter serves only to close the fire at nights4 ,the more forward you can make your fire on the hearth-plate1 not to be incommoded by the smoke1 the sooner and more will the room be warmed4 ,at night1 when you go to bed1 cover the coals or brands with ashes as usual2 then take away the dogs1 and slide down the shutter close to the bottom-plate1 sweeping a little ashes against it1 that no air may pass under it2 then turn the register1 so as very near to stop the flue behind4 ,if no smoke then comes out at crevices into the room1 it is right3 if any smoke is perceived to come out1 move the register1 so as to give a little draught1 and it will go the right way4 ,thus the room will be kept warm all night2 for the chimney being almost entirely stopt1 very little cold air1 if any1 will enter the room at any crevice4 ,when you come to re-kindle the fire in the morning1 turn open the register before you lift up the slider1 otherwise1 if there be any smoke in the fireplace1 it will come out into the room4 ,by the same use of the shutter and register1 a blazing fire may be presently stifled1 as well as secured1 when you have occasion to leave it for any time2 and at your return you will find the brands warm1 and ready for a speedy rekindling4 ,the shutter alone will not stifle a fire1 for it cannot well be made to fit so exactly but that air will enter1 and that in a violent stream1 so as to blow up and keep alive the flames1 and consume the wood1 if the draught be not checked by turning the register to shut the flue behind4 ,the register has also two other uses4 ,if you observe the draught of air into your fire-place to be stronger than is necessary 7as in extreme cold weather it often is7 so that the wood is consumed faster than usual2 in that case1 a quarter1 half1 or two-thirds turn of the register1 will check the violence of the draught1 and let your fire burn with the moderation you desire3 and at the same time both the fire-place and the room will be the warmer1 because less cold air will enter and pass through them4 ,and if the chimney should happen to take fire 7which indeed there is very little danger of1 if the preceding direction be observed in making fires1 and it be well swept once a year2 for1 much less wood being burnt1 less soot is proportionably made2 and the fuel being soon blown into flame by the shutter1 or the trap-door bellows1 there is consequently less smoke from the fuel to make soot2 then1 though the funnel should be foul1 yet the sparks have such a crooked up and down round about way to go1 that they are out before they get at it74 ,i say1 if ever it should be on fire1 a turn of the register shuts all close1 and prevents any air going into the chimney1 and so the fire may easily be stifled and mastered4 ,the ,advantages of this ,fire-,place4 ,its advantages above the common fire-places are1 #a4 ,that your whole room is equally warmed1 so that people need not croud so close round the fire1 but may sit near the window1 and have the benefit of the light for reading1 writing1 needle-work1 c4 ,they may sit with comfort in any part of the room1 which is a very considerable advantage in a large family1 where there must often be two fires kept1 because all cannot conveniently come at one4 #b4 ,if you sit near the fire1 you have not that cold draught of uncomfortable air nipping your back and heels1 as when before common fires1 by which many catch cold1 being scorched before1 and1 as it were1 froze behind4 #c4 ,if you sit against a crevice1 there is not that sharp draught of cold air playing on you1 as in rooms where there are fires in the common way2 by which many catch cold1 whence proceed coughs#dg1 catarrhs1 tooth-achs1 fevers1 pleurisies1 and many other diseases4 #d4 ,in case of sickness1 they make most excellent nursing rooms2 as they constantly supply a sufficiency of fresh air1 so warmed at the same time as to be no way inconvenient or dangerous4 ,a small one does well in a chamber2 and1 the chimneys1 being fitted for it1 it may be removed from one room to another1 as occasion requires1 and fixed in half an hour4 ,the equal temper too1 and warmth of the air of the room1 is thought to be particularly advantageous in some distempers2 for it was observed in the winters of #agcj and #agcf1 when the small-pox spread in ,pensylvania1 that very few children of the ,germans died of that distemper in proportion to those of the ,english2 which was ascribed1 by some1 to the warmth and equal temper of air in their stove-rooms1 which made the disease as favourable as it commonly is in the ,west ,indies4 ,but this conjecture we submit to the judgment of physicians4 #e4 ,in common chimneys1 the strongest heat from the fire1 which is upwards1 goes directly up the chimney1 and is lost2 and there is such a strong draught into the chimney that not only the upright heat1 but also the back1 sides1 and downward heats are carried up the chimney by that draught of air2 and the warmth given before the fire1 by the rays that strike out towards the room1 is continually driven back1 crouded into the chimney1 and carried up by the same draught of air4 ,but here the upright heat strikes and heats the top plate1 which warms the air above it1 and that comes into the room4 ,the heat likewise1 which the fire communicates to the sides1 back1 bottom1 and air-box1 is all brought into the room2 for you will find a constant current of warm air coming out of the chimney-corner into the room4 ,hold a candle just under the mantle-piece1 or breast of your chimney1 and you will see the flame bent outwards3 by laying a piece of smoaking paper on the hearth1 on either side1 you may see how the current of air moves1 and where it tends1 for it will turn and carry the smoke with it4 #f4 ,thus1 as very little of the heat is lost1 when this fire-place is used1 much less wood#dh will serve you1 which is a considerable advantage where wood is dear4 #g4 ,when you burn candles near this fire-place1 you will find that the flame burns quite upright1 and does not blare and run the tallow down1 by drawing towards the chimney1 as against common fires4 #h4 ,this fire-place cures most smoaky chimneys1 and thereby preserves both the eyes and furniture4 #i4 ,it prevents the fouling of chimneys2 much of the lint and dust that contributes to foul a chimney being1 by the low arch1 obliged to pass through the flame1 where it is consumed4 ,then1 less wood being burnt1 there is less smoke made4 ,again1 the shutter1 or trap-bellows1 soon blowing the wood into a flame1 the same wood does not yield so much smoke as if burnt in a common chimney3 for as soon as flame begins1 smoke in proportion ceases4 #aj4 ,and if a chimney should be foul1 it is much less likely to take fire4 ,if it should take fire1 it is easily stifled and extinguished4 #aa4 ,a fire may be very speedily made in this fire-place by the help of the shutter1 or trap-bellows1 as aforesaid4 #ab4 ,a fire may be soon extinguished1 by closing it with the shutter before1 and turning the register behind1 which will stifle it1 and the brands will remain ready to rekindle4 #ac4 ,the room being once warm1 the warmth may be retained in it all night4 #ad4 ,and lastly1 the fire is so secured at night1 that not one spark can fly out into the room to do damage4 ,with all these conveniences1 you do not lose the pleasing sight nor use of the fire1 as in the ,dutch stoves1 but may boil the tea-kettle1 warm the flat-irons1 heat heaters1 keep warm a dish of victuals by setting it on the top1 c4 ,objections answered4 ,there are some objections commonly made by people that are unacquainted with these fire-places1 which it may not be amiss to endeavour to remove1 as they arise from prejudices which might otherwise obstruct1 in some degree1 the general use of this beneficial machine4 ,we frequently hear it said1 ,they are of the nature of ,dutch stoves2 stoves have an unpleasant smell2 stoves are unwholesome2 and1 warm rooms make people tender1 and apt to catch cold4--,as to the first1 that they are of the nature of ,dutch stoves1 the description of those stoves1 in the beginning of this paper1 compared with that of these machines1 shows that there is a most material difference1 and that these have vastly the advantage1 if it were only in the single article of the admission and circulation of the fresh air4 ,but it must be allowed there may have been some cause to complain of the offensive smell of iron stoves4 ,this smell1 however1 never proceeded from the iron itself1 which1 in its nature1 whether hot or cold1 is one of the sweetest of metals1 but from the general uncleanly manner of using those stoves4 ,if they are kept clean1 they are as sweet as an ironing-box1 which though ever so hot1 never offends the smell of the nicest lady3 but it is common to let them be greased1 by setting candlesticks on them1 or otherwise2 to rub greasy hands on them2 and1 above all1 to spit upon them1 to try how hot they are1 which is an inconsiderate filthy unmannerly custom2 for the slimy matter of spittle drying on burns and fumes when the stove is hot1 as well as the grease1 and smells most nauseously1 which makes such close stove-rooms1 where there is no draught to carry off those filthy vapours1 almost intolerable to those that are not from their infancy accustomed to them4 ,at the same time nothing is more easy than to keep them clean2 for when by any accident they happen to be fouled1 a lee made of ashes and water1 with a brush1 will scour them perfectly3 as will also a little strong soft soap and water4 ,that hot iron of itself gives no offensive smell1 those know very well who have 7as the writer of this has7 been present at a furnace when the workmen were pouring out the flowing metal to cast large plates1 and not the least smell of it to be perceived4 ,that hot iron does not1 like lead1 brass1 and some other metals1 give out unwholesome vapours1 is plain from the general health and strength of those who constantly work in iron1 as furnace-men1 forge-men1 and smiths2 that it is in its nature a metal perfectly wholesome to the body of man1 is known from the beneficial use of chalybeate or iron-mine-waters2 from the good done by taking steel filings in several disorders2 and that even the smithy water in which hot irons are quenched1 is found advantageous to the human constitution4--,the ingenious and learned ,dr4 ,desaguliers1 to whose instructive writings the contriver of this machine acknowledges himself much indebted1 relates an experiment he made1 to try whether heated iron would yield unwholesome vapours3 he took a cube of iron1 and having given it a very great heat1 he fixed it so to a receiver1 exhausted by the air-pump1 that all the air rushing in to fill the receiver1 should first pass through a hole in the hot iron4 ,he then put a small bird into the receiver1 who breathed that air without any inconvenience1 or suffering the least disorder4 ,but the same experiment being made with a cube of hot brass1 a bird put into that air died in a few minutes4 ,brass1 indeed1 stinks even when cold1 and much more when hot2 lead1 too1 when hot1 yields a very unwholesome steam2 but iron is always sweet and every way taken is wholesome and friendly to the human body--except in weapons4 ,that warmed rooms make people tender1 and apt to catch cold1 is a mistake as great as it is 7among the ,english7 general4 ,we have seen in the preceding pages how the common rooms are apt to give colds2 but the writer of this paper may affirm from his own experience1 and that of his family and friends who have used warm rooms for these four winters past1 that by the use of such rooms1 people are rendered less liable to take cold1 and1 indeed1 actually hardened4 ,if sitting warm in a room made one subject to take cold on going out1 lying warm in bed1 should by a parity of reason1 produce the same effect when we rise4 ,yet we find we can leap out of the warmest bed naked1 in the coldest morning1 without any such danger2 and in the same manner out of warm cloaths into a cold bed4 ,the reason is1 that in these cases the pores all close at once1 the cold is shut out1 and the heat within augmented1 as we soon after feel by the glowing of the flesh and skin4 ,thus no one was ever known to catch cold by the use of the cold bath3 and are not cold baths allowed to harden the bodies of those that use them8 ,are they not therefore frequently prescribed to the tenderest constitutions8 ,now every time you go out of a warm room into the cold freezing air1 you do as it were plunge into a cold bath1 and the effect is in proportion the same2 for 7though perhaps you may feel somewhat chilly at first7 you find in a little time your bodies hardened and strengthened1 your blood is driven round with a brisker circulation1 and a comfortable steady uniform inward warmth succeeds that equal outward warmth you first received in the room4 ,farther to confirm this assertion1 we instance the ,swedes1 the ,danes1 and the ,russians3 these nations are said to live in rooms1 compared to ours1 as hot as ovens#di2 yet where are the hardy soldiers1 though bred in their boasted cool houses1 that can1 like these people1 bear the fatigues of a winter campaign in so severe a climate1 march whole days to the neck in snow1 and at night entrench in ice as they do8 ,the mentioning of those northern nations1 puts me in mind of a considerable public advantage that may arise from the general use of these fire-places4 ,it is observable1 that though those countries have been well inhabited for many ages1 wood is still their fuel1 and yet at no very great price2 which could not have been1 if they had not universally used stoves1 but consumed it as we do1 in great quantities1 by open fires4 ,by the help of this saving invention our wood may grow as fast as we consume it1 and our posterity may warm themselves at a moderate rate1 without1 being obliged to fetch their fuel over the ,atlantic2 as1 if pit-coal should not be here discovered 7which is an uncertainty7 they must necessarily do4 ,we leave it to the political arithmetician to compute how much money will be saved to a country1 by its spending two-thirds less of fuel2 how much labour saved in cutting and carriage of it2 how much more land may be cleared by cultivation2 how great the profit by the additional quantity of work done1 in those trades particularly that do not exercise the body so much1 but that the workfolks are obliged to run frequently to the fire to warm themselves3 and to physicians to say1 how much healthier thick-built towns and cities will be1 now half-suffocated with sulphury smoke1 when so much less of that smoke shall be made1 and the air breathed by the inhabitants be consequently so much purer4 ,these things it will suffice just to have mentioned2 let us proceed to give some necessary directions to the workman who is to fix or set up these fire-places4 ,directions to the ,bricklayer4 ,the chimney being first well swept and cleansed from soot1 c4 lay the bottom plate down on the hearth1 in the place where the fire-place is to stand1 which may be as forward as the hearth will allow4 ,chalk a line from one of its back corners round the plate to the other corner1 that you may afterwards know its place when you come to fix it2 and from those corners1 two parallel lines to the back of the chimney3 make marks also on each side1 that you may know where the partition is to stand1 which is to prevent any communication between the air and smoke4 ,then1 removing the plate1 make a hollow under it and beyond it1 by taking up as many of the bricks or tiles as you can1 within your chalked lines1 quite to the chimney-back4 ,dig out six or eight inches deep of the earth or rubbish1 all the breadth and length of your hollow2 then make a passage of four inches square 7if the place will allow so much7 leading from the hollow to some place communicating with the outer air2 by outer air we mean air without the room you intend to warm4 ,this passage may be made to enter your hollow on either side1 or in the fore part1 just as you find most convenient1 the circumstances of your chimney considered4 ,if the fire-place is to be put up in a chamber1 you may have this communication of outer air from the stair-case2 or sometimes more easily from between the chamber floor1 and the ceiling of the lower room1 making only a small hole in the wall of the house entering the space betwixt those two joists with which your air-passage in the hearth communicates4 ,if this air passage be so situated as that mice may enter it1 and nestle in the hollow1 a little grate of wire will keep them out4 ,this passage being made1 and1 if it runs under any part of the earth1 tiled over securely1 you may proceed to raise your false back4 ,this may be of four inches or two inches thickness1 as you have room1 but let it stand at least four inches from the true chimney-back4 ,in narrow chimneys this false back runs from jamb to jamb1 but in large old-fashioned chimneys1 you need not make it wider than the back of the fire-place4 ,to begin it1 you may form an arch nearly flat1 of three bricks end to end1 over the hollow1 to leave a passage the breadth of the iron fire-place1 and five or six inches deep1 rounding at bottom1 for the smoke to turn and pass under the false back1 and so behind it up the chimney4 ,the false back is to rise till it is as high as the breast of the chimney1 and then to close over to the breast#ej2 always observing1 if there is a wooden mantle-tree1 to close above it4 ,if there is no wood in the breast1 you may arch over and close even with the lower part of the breast4 ,by this closing the chimney is made tight1 that no air or smoke can pass up it1 without going under the false back4 ,then from side to side of your hollow1 against the marks you made with chalk1 raise a tight partition1 brick-on-edge1 to separate the air from the smoke1 bevelling away to half an inch the brick that comes just under the air-hole1 that the air may have a free passage up into the air-box3 lastly1 close the hearth over that part of the hollow that is between the false back and the place of the bottom plate1 coming about half an inch under the plate1 which piece of hollow hearth may be supported by a bit or two of old iron-hoop2 then is your chimney fitted to receive the fire-place4 ,to set it1 lay first a little bed of mortar all round the edges of the hollow1 and over the top of the partition3 then lay down your bottom plate in its place 7with the rods in it7 and tread it till it lies firm4 ,then put a little fine mortar 7made of loam and lime1 with a little hair7 into its joints1 and set in your back plate1 leaning it for the present against the false back3 then set in your air-box1 with a little mortar in its joints2 then put in the two sides1 closing them up against the air-box1 with mortar in their grooves1 and fixing at the same time your register3 then bring up your back to its place1 with mortar in its grooves1 and that will bind the sides together4 ,then put in your front plate1 placing it as far back in the groove as you can1 to leave room for the sliding plate3 then lay on your top plate1 with mortar in its grooves also1 screwing the whole firmly together by means of the rods4 ,the capital letters ,a ,b ,d ,e1 c4 in ,plate ,,viii41 shew the corresponding parts of the several plates4 ,lastly1 the joints being pointed all round on the outside1 the fire-place is fit for use4 ,when you make your first fire in it1 perhaps if the chimney be thoroughly cold1 it may not draw1 the work too being all cold and damp4 ,in such case1 put first a few shovels of hot coals in the fire-place1 then lift up the chimney-sweeper's trap-door1 and putting in a sheet or two of flaming paper1 shut it again1 which will set the chimney a drawing immediately1 and when once it is filled with a column of warm air1 it will draw strongly and continually4 ,the drying of the mortar and work by the first fire may smell unpleasantly1 but that will soon be over4 ,in some shallow chimneys1 to make more room for the false back and its flue1 four inches or more of the chimney back may be picked away4 ,let the room be made as tight as conveniently it may be1 so will the outer air1 that must come in to supply the room and draught of the fire1 be all obliged to enter through the passage under the bottom plate1 and up through the air-box1 by which means it will not come cold to your backs1 but be warmed as it comes in1 and mixed with the warm air round the fire-place1 before it spreads in the room4 ,but as a great quantity of cold air1 in extreme cold weather especially1 will presently enter a room if the door be carelessly left open1 it is good to have some contrivance to shut it1 either by means of screw hinges1 a spring1 or a pulley4 ,when the pointing in the joints is all dry and hard1 get some powder of black lead 7broken bits of black lead crucibles from the silver-smiths1 pounded fine1 will do7 and mixing it with a little rum and water1 lay it on1 when the plates are warm1 with a hard brush1 over the top and front-plates1 part of the side and bottom-plates1 and over all the pointing2 and1 as it dries1 rub it to a gloss with the same brush1 so the joints will not be discerned1 but it will look all of a piece1 and shine like new iron4 ,and the false back being plaistered and white-washed1 and the hearth reddened1 the whole will make a pretty appearance4 ,before the black lead is laid on1 it would not be amiss to wash the plates with strong lee and a brush1 or soap and water1 to cleanse them from any spots of grease or filth that may be on them4 ,if any grease should afterwards come on them1 a little wet ashes will get it out4 ,if it be well set up1 and in a tolerable good chimney1 smoke will draw in from as far as the fore part of the bottom plate1 as you may try by a bit of burning paper4 ,people are at first apt to make their rooms too warm1 not imagining how little a fire will be sufficient4 ,when the plates are no hotter than that one may just bear the hand on them1 the room will generally be as warm as you desire it4 ,soon after the foregoing piece was published1 some persons in ,england1 in imitation of ,mr4 ,franklin's invention1 made what they call ,pensylvanian ,fire-places1 with improvements2 the principal of which pretended improvements is1 a contraction of the passages in the air-box1 originally designed for admitting a quantity of fresh air1 and warming it as it entered the room4 ,the contracting these passages gains indeed more room for the grate1 but in a great measure defeats their intention4 ,for if the passages in the air-box do not greatly exceed in dimensions the amount of all the crevices by which cold air can enter the room1 they will not considerably prevent1 as they were intended to do1 the entry of cold air through these crevices4 ,,footnotes3 #dd ,body or matter of any sort1 is said to be specifically heavier or lighter than other matter1 when it has more or less substance or weight in the same dimensions4 #de ,as the writer is neither physician nor philosopher1 the reader may expect he should justify these his opinions by the authority of some that are so4 ,m4 ,clare1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 in his treatise of ,the ,motion of ,fluids1 says1 page #bdf1 c4 ,and here it may be remarked1 that it is more prejudicial to health to sit near a window or door1 in a room where there are many candles and a fire1 than in a room without2 for the consumption of air thereby occasioned1 will always be very considerable1 and this must necessarily be replaced by cold air from without4 ,down the chimney can enter none1 the stream of warm air always arising therein absolutely forbids it1 the supply must therefore come in wherever other openings shall be found4 ,if these happen to be small1 let those who sit near them beware2 the smaller the floodgate1 the smarter will be the stream4 ,was a man1 even in a sweat1 to leap into a cold bath1 or jump from his warm bed1 in the intensest cold1 even in a frost1 provided he do not continue over-long therein1 and be in health when he does this1 we see by experience that he gets no harm4 ,if he sits a little while against a window1 into which a successive current of cold air comes1 his pores are closed1 and he gets a fever4 ,in the first case1 the shock the body endures1 is general1 uniform1 and therefore less fierce2 in the other1 a single part1 a neck1 or ear perchance1 is attacked1 and that with the greater violence probably1 as it is done by a successive stream of cold air4 ,and the cannon of a battery1 pointed against a single part of a bastion1 will easier make a breach than were they directed to play singly upon the whole face1 and will admit the enemy much sooner into the town4 ,that warm rooms1 and keeping the body warm in winter1 are means of preventing such diseases1 take the opinion of that learned ,italian physician ,antonino ,parcio1 in the preface to his tract de ,militis ,sanitate tuenda1 where1 speaking of a particular wet and cold winter1 remarkable at ,venice for its sickliness1 he says1 ,popularis autem pleuritis qu ,venetiis sviit mensibus ,dec4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ex cli1 arisque inclementia facta est1 quod non habeant hypocausta stove-rooms quod non soliciti sunt ,itali omnes de auribus1 temporibus1 collo1 totoque corpore defendendis ab injuriis aris2 et tegmina domorum ,veneti disponant parum inclinata1 ut nives diutius permaneant super tegmina4 ,e contra1 ,germani1 qui experiuntur cli inclementiam1 perdidicere sese defendere ab aris injuria4 ,tecta construunt multum inclinata1 ut decidant nives4 ,germani abundant lignis1 domusque hypocaustis2 foris autem incedunt pannis pellibus1 gossipio1 bene mehercule loricati atque muniti4 ,in ,bavaria interrogabam 7curiositate motus videndi ,germaniam7 quot nam elapsis mensibus pleuritide vel peripneumonia fuissent absumti3 dicebant vix unus aut alter illis temporibus pleuritide fuit correptus4 ,the great ,dr4 ,boerhaave1 whose authority alone might be sufficient1 in his ,aphorisms1 mentions1 as one antecedent cause of pleurisies1 ,a cold air1 driven violently through some narrow passage upon the body1 overheated by labour or fire4 ,the eastern physicians agree with the ,europeans in this point2 witness the ,chinese treatise entitled1 ,tschang seng2 i4e4 ,the ,art of procuring ,health and long ,life1 as translated in ,pere ,du ,halde's account of ,china1 which has this passage4 ,as1 of all the passions which ruffle us1 anger does the most mischief1 so of all the malignant affections of the air1 a wind that comes through any narrow passage1 which is cold and piercing1 is most dangerous2 and coming upon us unawares insinuates itself into the body1 often causing grievous diseases4 ,it should therefore be avoided1 according to the advice of the ancient proverb1 as carefully as the point of an arrow4 ,these mischiefs are avoided by the use of the new-invented fire-places1 as will be shown hereafter4 #df ,the shutter is slid up and down in this manner1 only in those fire-places which are so made as that the distance between the top of the arched opening1 and the bottom plate1 is the same as the distance between it and the top plate4 ,where the arch is higher1 as it is in the draught annexed 7which is agreeable to the last improvements7 the shutter is set by1 and applied occasionally2 because if it were made deep enough to close the whole opening when slid down1 it would hide part of it when up4 #dg ,my ,lord ,molesworth1 in his account of ,denmark1 says1 ,that few or none of the people there are troubled with coughs1 catarrhs1 consumptions1 or such like diseases of the lungs2 so that in the midst of winter in the churches1 which are very much frequented1 there is no noise to interrupt the attention due to the preacher4 ,i am persuaded 7says he7 their warm stoves contribute to their freedom from these kind of maladies4 page #ia4 #dh ,people who have used these fire-places1 differ much in their accounts of the wood saved by them4 ,some say five-sixths1 others three-fourths1 and others much less4 ,this is owing to the great difference there was in their former fires2 some 7according to the different circumstances of their rooms and chimneys7 having been used to make very large1 others middling1 and others1 of a more sparing temper1 very small ones3 while in these fire-places 7their size and draught being nearly the same71 the consumption is more equal4 ,i suppose1 taking a number of families together1 that two-thirds1 or half the wood1 at least1 is saved4 ,my common room1 ,i know1 is made thrice as warm as it used to be1 with a quarter of the wood ,i formerly consumed there4 #di ,mr4 ,boyle1 in his experiments and observations upon cold1 ,shaw's ,abridgement1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #fhd1 says1 ,it is remarkable1 that while the cold has strange and tragical effects at ,moscow1 and elsewhere1 the ,russians and ,livonians should be exempt from them1 who accustom themselves to pass immediately from a great degree of heat1 to as great an one of cold1 without receiving any visible prejudice thereby4 ,i remember being told by a person of unquestionable credit1 that it was a common practice among them1 to go from a hot stove1 into cold water2 the same was also affirmed to me by another who resided at ,moscow4 ,this tradition is likewise abundantly confirmed by ,olearius4--,it is a surprising thing1 says he1 to see how far the ,russians can endure heat2 and how1 when it makes them ready to faint1 they can go out of their stoves1 stark naked1 both men and women1 and throw themselves into cold water2 and even in winter wallow in the snow4 #ej ,see page #bdj1 where the trap-door is described that ought to be in this closing4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,,ingenhausz1 ,,physician ,,to ,,the ,,emperor1 ,,at ,,vienna#ea4 ,on the ,causes and ,cure of ,smoky ,chimnies4 ,at ,sea1 ,aug41 #bh1 #aghe4 ,,dear ,,friend1 ,in one of your letters1 a little before ,i left ,france1 you desire me to give you in writing my thoughts upon the construction and use of chimneys1 a subject you had sometimes heard me touch upon in conversation4 ,i embrace willingly this leisure afforded by my present situation to comply with your request1 as it will not only show my regard to the desires of a friend1 but may at the same time be of some utility to others2 the doctrine of chimneys appearing not to be as yet generally well understood1 and mistakes respecting them being attended with constant inconvenience1 if not remedied1 and with fruitless expence1 if the true remedies are mistaken4 ,those who would be acquainted with this subject should begin by considering on what principle smoke ascends in any chimney4 ,at first many are apt to think that smoke is in its nature and of itself specifically lighter than air1 and rises in it for the same reason that cork rises in water4 ,these see no case why smoke should not rise in the chimney1 though the room be ever so close4 ,others think there is a power in chimneys to draw up the smoke1 and that there are different forms of chimneys which afford more or less of this power4 ,these amuse themselves with searching for the best form4 ,the equal dimensions of a funnel in its whole length is not thought artificial enough1 and it is made1 for fancied reasons1 sometimes tapering and narrowing from below upwards1 and sometimes the contrary1 c4 c4 ,a simple experiment or two may serve to give more correct ideas4 ,having lit a pipe of tobacco1 plunge the stem to the bottom of a decanter half filled with cold water2 then putting a rag over the bowl1 blow through it and make the smoke descend in the stem of the pipe1 from the end of which it will rise in bubbles through the water2 and being thus cooled1 will not afterwards rise to go out through the neck of the decanter1 but remain spreading itself and resting on the surface of the water4 ,this shows that smoke is really heavier than air1 and that it is carried upwards only when attached to1 or acted upon1 by air that is heated1 and thereby rarefied and rendered specifically lighter than the air in its neighbourhood4 ,smoke being rarely seen but in company with heated air1 and its upward motion being visible1 though that of the rarefied air that drives it is not so1 has naturally given rise to the error4 ,i need not explain to you1 my learned friend1 what is meant by rarefied air2 but if you make the public use you propose of this letter1 it may fall into the hands of some who are unacquainted with the term and with the thing4 ,these then may be told1 that air is a fluid which has weight as well as others1 though about eight hundred times lighter than water4 ,that heat makes the particles of air recede from each other and take up more space1 so that the same weight of air heated will have more bulk1 than equal weights of cold air which may surround it1 and in that case must rise1 being forced upwards by such colder and heavier air1 which presses to get under it and take its place4 ,that air is so rarefied or expanded by heat may be proved to their comprehension1 by a lank blown bladder1 which1 laid before a fire1 will soon swell1 grow tight and burst4 ,illustration3 7remedies for smoky chimnies7 ,plate ,,ix4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #bfi4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,another experiment may be to take a glass tube about an inch in diameter1 and twelve inches long1 open at both ends and fixed upright on legs1 so that it need not be handled1 for the hands might warm it4 ,at the end of a quill fasten five or six inches of the finest light filament of silk1 so that it may be held either above the upper end of the tube or under the lower end1 your warm hand being at a distance by the length of the quill4 7,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #a47 ,if there were any motion of air through the tube1 it would manifest itself by its effect on the silk2 but if the tube and the air in it are of the same temperature with the surrounding air1 there will be no such motion1 whatever may be the form of the tube1 whether crooked or strait1 narrow below and widening upwards1 or the contrary2 the air in it will be quiescent4 ,warm the tube1 and you will find1 as long as it continues warm1 a constant current of air entering below and passing up through it1 till discharged at the top2 because the warmth of the tube being communicated to the air it contains rarefies that air and makes it lighter than the air without1 which therefore presses in below1 forces it upwards1 and follows and takes its place1 and is rarefied in its turn4 ,and1 without warming the tube1 if you hold under it a knob of hot iron1 the air thereby heated will rise and fill the tube1 going out at its top1 and this motion in the tube will continue as long as the knob remains hot1 because the air entering the tube below is heated and rarefied by passing near and over that knob4 ,that this motion is produced merely by the difference of specific gravity between the fluid within and that without the tube1 and not by any fancied form of the tube itself1 may appear by plunging it into water contained in a glass jar a foot deep1 through which such motion might be seen4 ,the water within and without the tube being of the same specific gravity1 balance each other1 and both remain at rest4 ,but take out the tube1 stop its bottom with a finger and fill it with olive oil1 which is lighter than water1 then stopping the top1 place it as before1 its lower end under water1 its top a very little above4 ,as long as you keep the bottom stopt1 the fluids remain at rest1 but the moment it is unstopt1 the heavier enters below1 forces up the lighter1 and takes its place4 ,and the motion then ceases1 merely because the new fluid cannot be successively made lighter1 as air may be by a warm tube4 ,in fact1 no form of the funnel of a chimney has any share in its operation or effect respecting smoke1 except its height4 ,the longer the funnel1 if erect1 the greater its force when filled with heated and rarefied air1 to draw in below and drive up the smoke1 if one may1 in compliance with custom1 use the expression draw1 when in fact it is the superior weight of the surrounding atmosphere that presses to enter the funnel below1 and so drives up before it the smoke and warm air it meets with in its passage4 ,i have been the more particular in explaining these first principles1 because1 for want of clear ideas respecting them1 much fruitless expence has been occasioned2 not only single chimneys1 but in some instances1 within my knowledge1 whole stacks having been pulled down and rebuilt with funnels of different forms1 imagined more powerful in drawing smoke2 but having still the same height and the same opening below1 have performed no better than their predecessors4 ,what is it then which makes a smoky chimney1 that is1 a chimney which1 instead of conveying up all the smoke1 discharges a part of it into the room1 offending the eyes and damaging the furniture8 ,the causes of this effect1 which have fallen under my observation1 amount to nine1 differing from each other1 and therefore requiring different remedies4 #a4 ,smoky chimneys in a new house1 are such1 frequently from mere want of air4 ,the workmanship of the rooms being all good1 and just out of the workman's hand1 the joints of the boards of the flooring1 and of the pannels of wainscotting are all true and tight1 the more so as the walls1 perhaps not yet thoroughly dry1 preserve a dampness in the air of the room which keeps the wood-work swelled and close4 ,the doors and the sashes too1 being worked with truth1 shut with exactness1 so that the room is as tight as a snuff-box1 no passage being left open for air to enter1 except the key-hole1 and even that is sometimes covered by a little dropping shutter4 ,now if smoke cannot rise but as connected with rarefied air1 and a column of such air1 suppose it filling the funnel1 cannot rise1 unless other air be admitted to supply its place2 and if1 therefore1 no current of air enter the opening of the chimney1 there is nothing to prevent the smoke coming out into the room4 ,if the motion upwards of the air in a chimney that is freely supplied1 be observed by the rising of the smoke or a feather in it1 and it be considered that in the time such feather takes in rising from the fire to the top of the chimney1 a column of air equal to the content of the funnel must be discharged1 and an equal quantity supplied from the room below1 it will appear absolutely impossible that this operation should go on if the tight room is kept shut2 for were there any force capable of drawing constantly so much air out of it1 it must soon be exhausted like the receiver of an air-pump1 and no animal could live in it4 ,those therefore who stop every crevice in a room to prevent the admission of fresh air1 and yet would have their chimney carry up the smoke1 require inconsistencies1 and expect impossibilities4 ,yet under this situation1 ,i have seen the owner of a new house1 in despair1 and ready to sell it for much less than it cost1 conceiving it uninhabitable1 because not a chimney in any one of its rooms would carry off the smoke1 unless a door or window were left open4 ,much expence has also been made1 to alter and amend new chimneys which had really no fault2 in one house particularly that ,i knew1 of a nobleman in ,westminster1 that expence amounted to no less than three hundred pounds1 after his house had been1 as he thought1 finished and all charges paid4 ,and after all1 several of the alterations were ineffectual1 for want of understanding the true principles4 ,remedies4 ,when you find on trial1 that opening the door or a window1 enables the chimney to carry up all the smoke1 you may be sure that want of air from without1 was the cause of its smoking4 ,i say from without1 to guard you against a common mistake of those who may tell you1 the room is large1 contains abundance of air1 sufficient to supply any chimney1 and therefore it cannot be that the chimney wants air4 ,these reasoners are ignorant1 that the largeness of a room1 if tight1 is in this case of small importance1 since it cannot part with a chimney full of its air without occasioning so much vacuum2 which it requires a great force to effect1 and could not be borne if effected4 ,it appearing plainly1 then1 that some of the outward air must be admitted1 the question will be1 how much is absolutely necessary2 for you would avoid admitting more1 as being contrary to one of your intentions in having a fire1 viz4 that of warming your room4 ,to discover this quantity1 shut the door gradually while a middling fire is burning1 till you find that1 before it is quite shut1 the smoke begins to come out into the room1 then open it a little till you perceive the smoke comes out no longer4 ,there hold the door1 and observe the width of the open crevice between the edge of the door and the rabbit it should shut into4 ,suppose the distance to be half an inch1 and the door eight feet high1 you find thence that your room requires an entrance for air equal in area to ninety-six half inches1 or forty-eight square inches1 or a passage of six inches by eight4 ,this however is a large supposition1 there being few chimneys1 that1 having a moderate opening and a tolerable height of funnel1 will not be satisfied with such a crevice of a quarter of an inch2 and ,i have found a square of six by six1 or thirty-six square inches1 to be a pretty good medium1 that will serve for most chimneys4 ,high funnels1 with small and low openings1 may indeed be supplied thro' a less space1 because1 for reasons that will appear hereafter1 the force of levity1 if one may so speak1 being greater in such funnels1 the cool air enters the room with greater velocity1 and consequently more enters in the same time4 ,this however has its limits2 for experience shows1 that no increased velocity1 so occasioned1 has made the admission of air through the key-hole equal in quantity to that through an open door2 though through the door the current moves slowly1 and through the key-hole with great rapidity4 ,it remains then to be considered how and where this necessary quantity of air from without is to be admitted so as to be least inconvenient4 ,for if at the door1 left so much open1 the air thence proceeds directly to the chimney1 and in its way comes cold to your back and heels as you sit before your fire4 ,if you keep the door shut1 and raise a little the sash of your window1 you feel the same inconvenience4 ,various have been the contrivances to avoid this1 such as bringing in fresh air through pipes in the jams of the chimney1 which1 pointing upwards1 should blow the smoke up the funnel2 opening passages into the funnel above1 to let in air for the same purpose4 ,but these produce an effect contrary to that intended3 for as it is the constant current of air passing from the room through the opening of the chimney into the funnel which prevents the smoke coming out into the room1 if you supply the funnel by other means or in other ways with the air it wants1 and especially if that air be cold1 you diminish the force of that current1 and the smoke in its effort to enter the room finds less resistance4 ,the wanted air must then indispensably be admitted into the room1 to supply what goes off through the opening of the chimney4 ,m4 ,gauger1 a very ingenious and intelligent ,french writer on the subject1 proposes with judgment to admit it above the opening of the chimney2 and to prevent inconvenience from its coldness1 he directs its being made to pass in its entrance through winding cavities made behind the iron back and sides of the fire-place1 and under the iron hearth-plate2 in which cavities it will be warmed1 and even heated1 so as to contribute much1 instead of cooling1 to the warming of the room4 ,this invention is excellent in itself1 and may be used with advantage in building new houses2 because the chimneys may then be so disposed1 as to admit conveniently the cold air to enter such passages3 but in houses built without such views1 the chimneys are often so situated1 as not to afford that convenience1 without great and expensive alterations4 ,easy and cheap methods1 though not quite so perfect in themselves1 are of more general utility2 and such are the following4 ,in all rooms where there is a fire1 the body of air warmed and rarefied before the chimney is continually changing place1 and making room for other air that is to be warmed in its turn4 ,part of it enters and goes up the chimney1 and the rest rises and takes place near the ceiling4 ,if the room be lofty1 that warm air remains above our heads as long as it continues warm1 and we are little benefited by it1 because it does not descend till it is cooler4 ,few can imagine the difference of climate between the upper and lower parts of such a room1 who have not tried it by the thermometer1 or by going up a ladder till their heads are near the ceiling4 ,it is then among this warm air that the wanted quantity of outward air is best admitted1 with which being mixed1 its coldness is abated1 and its inconvenience diminished so as to become scarce observable4 ,this may be easily done1 by drawing down about an inch the upper sash of a window2 or1 if not moveable1 by cutting such a crevice through its frame2 in both which cases1 it will be well to place a thin shelf of the length1 to conceal the opening1 and sloping upwards to direct the entering air horizontally along and under the ceiling4 ,in some houses the air may be admitted by such a crevice made in the wainscot1 cornish or plastering1 near the ceiling and over the opening of the chimney4 ,this1 if practicable1 is to be chosen1 because the entering cold air will there meet with the warmest rising air from before the fire1 and be soonest tempered by the mixture4 ,the same kind of shelf should also be placed here4 ,another way1 and not a very difficult one1 is to take out an upper pane of glass in one of your sashes1 set in a tin frame1 7,plate1 ,fig4 #b47 giving it two springing angular sides1 and then replacing it1 with hinges below on which it may be turned to open more or less above4 ,it will then have the appearance of an internal sky light4 ,by drawing this pane in1 more or less1 you may admit what air you find necessary4 ,its position will naturally throw that air up and along the ceiling4 ,this is what is called in ,france a ,was ist das8 ,as this is a ,german question1 the invention is probably of that nation1 and takes its name from the frequent asking of that question when it first appeared4 ,in ,england1 some have of late years cut a round hole about five inches diameter in a pane of the sash and placed against it a circular plate of tin hung on an axis1 and cut into vanes1 which1 being separately bent a little obliquely1 are acted upon by the entering air1 so as to force the plate continually round like the vanes of a windmill4 ,this admits the outward air1 and by the continual whirling of the vanes1 does in some degree disperse it4 ,the noise only1 is a little inconvenient4 #b4 ,a second cause of the smoking of chimneys is1 their openings in the room being too large2 that is1 too wide1 too high1 or both4 ,architects in general have no other ideas of proportion in the opening of a chimney1 than what relate to symmetry and beauty1 respecting the dimensions of the room2#eb while its true proportion1 respecting its function and utility depends on quite other principles2 and they might as properly proportion the step in a stair-case to the height of the story1 instead of the natural elevation of men's legs in mounting4 ,the proportion then to be regarded1 is what relates to the height of the funnel4 ,for as the funnels in the different stories of a house are necessarily of different heights or lengths1 that from the lowest floor being the highest or longest1 and those of the other floors shorter and shorter1 till we come to those in the garrets1 which are of course the shortest2 and the force of draft being1 as already said1 in proportion to the height of funnel filled with rarefied air2 and a current of air from the room into the chimney1 sufficient to fill the opening1 being necessary to oppose and prevent the smoke coming out into the room2 it follows1 that the openings of the longest funnels may be larger1 and that those of the shorter funnels should be smaller4 ,for if there be a large opening to a chimney that does not draw strongly1 the funnel may happen to be furnished with the air it demands by a partial current entering on one side of the opening1 and1 leaving the other side free of any opposing current1 may permit the smoke to issue there into the room4 ,much too of the force of draft in a funnel depends on the degree of rarefaction in the air it contains1 and that depends on the nearness to the fire of its passage in entering the funnel4 ,if it can enter far from the fire on each side1 or far above the fire in a wide or high opening1 it receives little heat in passing by the fire1 and the contents of the funnel is by that means less different in levity from the surrounding atmosphere1 and its force in drawing consequently weaker4 ,hence if too large an opening be given to chimneys in upper rooms1 those rooms will be smoky3 on the other hand1 if too small openings be given to chimneys in the lower rooms1 the entering air1 operating too directly and violently on the fire1 and afterwards strengthening the draft as it ascends the funnel1 will consume the fuel too rapidly4 ,remedy4 ,as different circumstances frequently mix themselves in these matters1 it is difficult to give precise dimensions for the openings of all chimneys4 ,our fathers made them generally much too large2 we have lessened them2 but they are often still of greater dimension than they should be1 the human eye not being easily reconciled to sudden and great changes4 ,if you suspect that your chimney smokes from the too great dimension of its opening1 contract it by placing moveable boards so as to lower and narrow it gradually1 till you find the smoke no longer issues into the room4 ,the proportion so found will be that which is proper for that chimney1 and you may employ the bricklayer or mason to reduce it accordingly4 ,however1 as1 in building new houses1 something must be sometimes hazarded1 ,i would make the openings in my lower rooms about thirty inches square and eighteen deep1 and those in the upper1 only eighteen inches square and not quite so deep2 the intermediate ones diminishing in proportion as the height of funnel diminished4 ,in the larger openings1 billets of two feet long1 or half the common length of cordwood1 may be burnt conveniently2 and for the smaller1 such wood may be sawed into thirds4 ,where coals are the fuel1 the grates will be proportioned to the openings4 ,the same depth is nearly necessary to all1 the funnels being all made of a size proper to admit a chimney-sweeper4 ,if in large and elegant rooms custom or fancy should require the appearance of a larger chimney1 it may be formed of expensive marginal decorations1 in marble1 c4 ,in time perhaps1 that which is fittest in the nature of things may come to be thought handsomest4 ,but at present1 when men and women in different countries show themselves dissatisfied with the forms ,god has given to their heads1 waists and feet1 and pretend to shape them more perfectly1 it is hardly to be expected that they will be content always with the best form of a chimney4 ,and there are some1 ,i know1 so bigotted to the fancy of a large noble opening1 that rather than change it1 they would submit to have damaged furniture1 sore eyes1 and skins almost smoked to bacon4 #c4 ,another cause of smoky chimneys is1 too short a funnel4 ,this happens necessarily in some cases1 as where a chimney is required in a low building2 for1 if the funnel be raised high above the roof1 in order to strengthen its draft1 it is then in danger of being blown down1 and crushing the roof in its fall4 ,remedies4 ,contract the opening of the chimney1 so as to oblige all the entering air to pass through or very near the fire2 whereby it will be more heated and rarefied1 the funnel itself be more warmed1 and its contents have more of what may be called the force of levity1 so as to rise strongly and maintain a good draft at the opening4 ,or you may in some cases1 to advantage1 build additional stories over the low building1 which will support a high funnel4 ,if the low building be used as a kitchen1 and a contraction of the opening therefore inconvenient1 a large one being necessary1 at least when there are great dinners1 for the free management of so many cooking utensils2 in such case1 ,i would advise the building of two more funnels joining to the first1 and having three moderate openings1 one to each funnel1 instead of one large one4 ,when there is occasion to use but one1 the other two may be kept shut by sliding plates1 hereafter to be described2#ec and two or all of them may be used together when wanted4 ,this will indeed be an expence1 but not an useless one1 since your cooks will work with more comfort1 see better than in a smoky kitchen what they are about1 your victuals will be cleaner dressed1 and not taste of smoke1 as is often the case2 and to render the effect more certain1 a stack of three funnels may be safely built higher above the roof than a single funnel4 ,the case of too short a funnel is more general than would be imagined1 and often found where one would not expect it4 ,for it is not uncommon1 in ill-contrived buildings1 instead of having a funnel for each room or fire-place1 to bend and turn the funnel of an upper room so as to make it enter the side of another funnel that comes from below4 ,by this means the upper room funnel is made short of course1 since its length can only be reckoned from the place where it enters the lower room funnel2 and that funnel is also shortened by all the distance between the entrance of the second funnel and the top of the stack3 for all that part being readily supplied with air through the second funnel1 adds no strength to the draught1 especially as that air is cold when there is no fire in the second chimney4 ,the only easy remedy here is1 to keep the opening shut of that funnel in which there is no fire4 #d4 ,another very common cause of the smoking of chimneys1 is1 their overpowering one another4 ,for instance1 if there be two chimneys in one large room1 and you make fires in both of them1 the doors and windows close shut1 you will find that the greater and stronger fire shall overpower the weaker1 and draw air down its funnel to supply its own demand2 which air descending in the weaker funnel will drive down its smoke1 and force it into the room4 ,if1 instead of being in one room1 the two chimneys are in two different rooms1 communicating by a door1 the case is the same whenever that door is open4 ,in a very tight house1 ,i have known a kitchen chimney on the lowest floor1 when it had a great fire in1 it1 overpower any other chimney in the house1 and draw air and smoke into its room1 as often as the door was opened communicating with the stair-case4 ,remedy4 ,take care that every room has the means of supplying itself from without1 with the air its chimney may require1 so that no one of them may be obliged to borrow from another1 nor under the necessity of lending4 ,a variety of these means have been already described4 #e4 ,another cause of smoking is1 when the tops of chimneys are commanded by higher buildings1 or by a hill1 so that the wind blowing over such eminences falls like water over a dam1 sometimes almost perpendicularly on the tops of the chimneys that lie in its way1 and beats down the smoke contained in them4 ,remedy4 ,that commonly applied to this case1 is a turncap made of tin or plate iron1 covering the chimney above and on three sides1 open on one side1 turning on a spindle1 and which1 being guided or governed by a vane1 always presents its back to the current4 ,this ,i believe may be generally effectual1 though not certain1 as there may be cases in which it will not succeed4 ,raising your funnels1 if practicable1 so as their tops may be higher1 or at least equal with the commanding eminence1 is more to be depended on4 ,but the turning cap1 being easier and cheaper1 should first be tried4 ,if obliged to build in such a situation1 ,i would chuse to place my doors on the side next the hill1 and the backs of my chimneys on the furthest side2 for then the column of air falling over the eminence1 and of course pressing on that below and forcing it to enter the doors or ,was ist dases on that side1 would tend to balance the pressure down the chimneys1 and leave the funnels more free in the exercise of their functions4 #f4 ,there is another case of command1 the reverse of that last mentioned4 ,it is where the commanding eminence is farther from the wind than the chimney commanded4 ,to explain this a figure may be necessary4 ,suppose then a building whose side ,a happens to be exposed to the wind1 and forms a kind of dam against its progress4 7,plate1 ,figure #c47 ,the air obstructed by this dam will1 like water1 press and search for passages through it2 and finding the top of the chimney ,b1 below the top of the dam1 it will force itself down that funnel1 in order to get through by some door or window open on the other side of the building4 ,and if there be a fire in such chimney1 its smoke is of course beat down1 and fills the room4 ,remedy4 ,i know of but one1 which is to raise such funnel higher than the roof1 supporting it1 if necessary by iron bars4 ,for a turn-cap in this case has no effect1 the dammed up air pressing down through it in whatever position the wind may have placed its opening4 ,i know a city in which many houses are rendered smoky by this operation4 ,for their kitchens being built behind1 and connected by a passage with the houses1 and the tops of the kitchen chimneys lower than the top of the houses1 the whole side of a street1 when the wind blows against its back1 forms such a dam1 as above described2 and the wind1 so obstructed1 forces down those kitchen chimneys 7especially when they have but weak fires in them7 to pass through the passage and house into the street4 ,kitchen chimneys1 so formed and situated1 have another inconvenience4 ,in summer1 if you open your upper room windows for air1 a light breeze blowing over your kitchen chimney towards the house1 though not strong enough to force down its smoke as aforesaid1 is sufficient to waft it into your windows1 and fill the rooms with it2 which1 besides the disagreeableness1 damages your furniture4 #g4 ,chimneys1 otherwise drawing well1 are sometimes made to smoke by the improper and inconvenient situation of a door4 ,when the door and chimney are on the same side of the room as in the figure1 if the door ,a1 being in the corner1 is made to open against the wall 7,plate1 ,figure #d7 which is common1 as being there1 when open1 more out of the way1 it follows1 that when the door is only opened in part1 a current of air rushing in passes along the wall into and across the opening of the chimney ,b1 and flirts some of the smoke out into the room4 ,this happens more certainly when the door is shutting1 for then the force of the current is augmented1 and becomes very inconvenient to those who1 warming themselves by the fire1 happen to sit in its way4 ,the remedies are obvious and easy4 ,either put an intervening skreen from the wall round great part of the fire-place2 or1 which is perhaps preferable1 shift the hinges of your door1 so as it may open the other way1 and when open throw the air along the other wall4 #h4 ,a room1 that has no fire in its chimney1 is sometimes filled with smoke which is received at the top of its funnel and descends into the room4 ,in a former paper#ed ,i have already explained the descending currents of air in cold funnels2 it may not be amiss however to repeat here1 that funnels without fires have an effect1 according to their degree of coldness or warmth1 on the air that happens to be contained in them4 ,the surrounding atmosphere is frequently changing its temperature2 but stacks of funnels1 covered from winds and sun by the house that contains them1 retain a more equal temperature4 ,if1 after a warm season1 the outward air suddenly grows cold1 the empty warm funnels begin to draw strongly upward2 that is1 they rarefy the air contained in them1 which of course rises1 cooler air enters below to supply its place1 is rarefied in its turn and rises2 and this operation continues till the funnel grows cooler1 or the outward air warmer1 or both1 when the motion ceases4 ,on the other hand1 if after a cold season1 the outward air suddenly grows warm and of course lighter1 the air contained in the cool funnels1 being heavier1 descends into the room2 and the warmer air which enters their tops being cooled in its turn1 and made heavier1 continues to descend2 and this operation goes on1 till the funnels are warmed by the passing of warm air through them1 or the air itself grows cooler4 ,when the temperature of the air and of the funnels is nearly equal1 the difference of warmth in the air between day and night is sufficient to produce these currents1 the air will begin to ascend the funnels as the cool of the evening comes on1 and this current will continue till perhaps nine or ten o'clock the next morning1 when it begins to hesitate2 and as the heat of the day approaches1 it sets downwards1 and continues so till towards evening1 when it again hesitates for some time1 and then goes upwards constantly during the night1 as before mentioned4 ,now when smoke issuing from the tops of neighbouring funnels passes over the tops of funnels which are at the time drawing downwards1 as they often are in the middle part of the day1 such smoke is of necessity drawn into these funnels1 and descends with the air into the chamber4 ,the remedy is to have a sliding plate1 hereafter described#ee1 that will shut perfectly the offending funnel4 #i4 ,chimneys which generally draw well1 do nevertheless sometimes give smoke into the rooms1 it being driven down by strong winds passing over the tops of their funnels1 though not descending from any commanding eminence4 ,this case is most frequent where the funnel is short1 and the opening turned from the wind4 ,it is the more grievous1 when it happens to be a cold wind that produces the effect1 because when you most want your fire1 you are sometimes obliged to extinguish it4 ,to understand this1 it may be considered that the rising light air1 to obtain a free issue from the funnel1 must push out of its way or oblige the air that is over it to rise4 ,in a time of calm or of little wind this is done visibly1 for we see the smoke that is brought up by that air rise in a column above the chimney4 ,but when a violent current of air1 that is1 a strong wind1 passes over the top of a chimney1 its particles have received so much force1 which keeps them in a horizontal direction and follow each other so rapidly1 that the rising light air has not strength sufficient to oblige them to quit that direction and move upwards to permit its issue4 ,add to this1 that some of the current passing over that side of the funnel which it first meets with1 viz4 at ,a1 7,plate ,,ix4 ,figure #e47 having been compressed by the resistance of the funnel1 may expand itself over the flue1 and strike the interior opposite side at ,b1 from whence it may be reflected downwards and from side to side in the direction of the pricked lines c c c4 ,remedies4 ,in some places1 particularly in ,venice1 where they have not stacks of chimneys but single flues1 the custom is1 to open or widen the top of the flue rounding in the true form of a funnel2 7,plate1 ,figure #f7 which some think may prevent the effect just mentioned1 for that the wind blowing over one of the edges into the funnel may be slanted out again on the other side by its form4 ,i have had no experience of this2 but ,i have lived in a windy country1 where the contrary is practised1 the tops of the flues being narrowed inwards1 so as to form a slit for the issue of the smoke1 long as the breadth of the funnel1 and only four inches wide4 ,this seems to have been contrived on a supposition1 that the entry of the wind would thereby be obstructed1 and perhaps it might have been imagined1 that the whole force of the rising warm air being condensed1 as it were1 in the narrow opening1 would thereby be strengthened1 so as to overcome the resistance of the wind4 ,this however did not always succeed2 for when the wind was at north-east and blew fresh1 the smoke was forced down by fits into the room ,i commonly sat in1 so as to oblige me to shift the fire into another4 ,the position of the slit of this funnel was indeed north-east and south-west4 ,perhaps if it had lain across the wind1 the effect might have been different4 ,but on this ,i can give no certainty4 ,it seems a matter proper to be referred to experiment4 ,possibly a turn-cap might have been serviceable1 but it was not tried4 ,chimneys have not been long in use in ,england4 ,i formerly saw a book printed in the time of queen ,elizabeth1 which remarked the then modern improvements of living1 and mentioned among others the convenience of chimneys4 ,our forefathers1 said the author1 had no chimneys4 ,there was in each dwelling house only one place for a fire1 and the smoke went out through a hole in the roof2 but now there is scarce a gentleman's house in ,england that has not at least one chimney in it4--,when there was but one chimney1 its top might then be opened as a funnel1 and perhaps1 borrowing the form from the ,venetians1 it was then the flue of a chimney got that name4 ,such is now the growth of luxury1 that in both ,england and ,france we must have a chimney for every room1 and in some houses every possessor of a chamber1 and almost every servant1 will have a fire2 so that the flues being necessarily built in stacks1 the opening of each as a funnel is impracticable4 ,this change of manners soon consumed the firewood of ,england1 and will soon render fuel extremely scarce and dear in ,france1 if the use of coals be not introduced in the latter kingdom as it has been in the former1 where it at first met with opposition2 for there is extant in the records of one of queen ,elizabeth's parliaments1 a motion made by a member1 reciting1 ,that many dyers1 brewers1 smiths1 and other artificers of ,london1 had of late taken to the use of pit-coal for their fires1 instead of wood1 which filled the air with noxious vapours and smoke1 very prejudicial to the health1 particularly of persons coming out of the country2 and therefore moving that a law might pass to prohibit the use of such fuel 7at least during the session of parliament7 by those artificers4--,it seems it was not then commonly used in private houses4 ,its supposed unwholesomeness was an objection4 ,luckily the inhabitants of ,london have got over that objection1 and now think it rather contributes to render their air salubrious1 as they have had no general pestilential disorder since the general use of coals1 when1 before it1 such were frequent4 ,paris still burns wood at an enormous expence continually augmenting1 the inhabitants having still that prejudice to overcome4 ,in ,germany you are happy in the use of stoves1 which save fuel wonderfully3 your people are very ingenious in the management of fire2 but they may still learn something in that art from the ,chinese#ef1 whose country being greatly populous and fully cultivated1 has little room left for the growth of wood1 and having not much other fuel that is good1 have been forced upon many inventions during a course of ages1 for making a little fire go as far as possible4 ,i have thus gone through all the common causes of the smoking of chimneys that ,i can at present recollect as having fallen under my observation2 communicating the remedies that ,i have known successfully used for the different cases1 together with the principles on which both the disease and the remedy depend1 and confessing my ignorance wherever ,i have been sensible of it4 ,you will do well1 if you publish1 as you propose1 this letter1 to add in notes1 or as you please1 such observations as may have occurred to your attentive mind2 and if other philosophers will do the same1 this part of science1 though humble1 yet of great utility1 may in time be perfected4 ,for many years past1 ,i have rarely met with a case of a smoky chimney1 which has not been solvable on these principles1 and cured by these remedies1 where people have been willing to apply them2 which is indeed not always the case2 for many have prejudices in favour of the nostrums of pretending chimney-doctors and fumists1 and some have conceits and fancies of their own1 which they rather chuse to try1 than to lengthen a funnel1 alter the size of an opening1 or admit air into a room1 however necessary2 for some are as much afraid of fresh air as persons in the hydrophobia are of fresh water4 ,i myself had formerly this prejudice1 this aerophobia1 as ,i now account it1 and dreading the supposed dangerous effects of cool air1 ,i considered it as an enemy1 and closed with extreme care every crevice in the rooms ,i inhabited4 ,experience has convinced me of my error4 ,i now look upon fresh air as a friend3 ,i even sleep with an open window4 ,i am persuaded that no common air from without1 is so unwholesome as the air within a close room that has been often breathed and not changed4 ,moist air too1 which formerly ,i thought pernicious1 gives me now no apprehensions3 for considering that no dampness of air applied to the outside of my skin can be equal to what is applied to and touches it within1 my whole body being full of moisture1 and finding that ,i can lie two hours in a bath twice a week1 covered with water1 which certainly is much damper than any air can be1 and this for years together1 without catching cold1 or being in any other manner disordered by it1 ,i no longer dread mere moisture1 either in air or in sheets or shirts3 and ,i find it of importance to the happiness of life1 the being freed from vain terrors1 especially of objects that we are every day exposed inevitably to meet with4 ,you physicians have of late happily discovered1 after a contrary opinion had prevailed some ages1 that fresh and cool air does good to persons in the small pox and other fevers4 ,it is to be hoped1 that in another century or two we may all find out1 that it is not bad even for people in health4 ,and as to moist air1 here ,i am at this present writing in a ship with above forty persons1 who have had no other but moist air to breathe for six weeks past2 every thing we touch is damp1 and nothing dries1 yet we are all as healthy as we should be on the mountains of ,switzerland1 whose inhabitants are not more so than those of ,bermuda or ,st4 ,helena1 islands on whose rocks the waves are dashed into millions of particles1 which fill the air with damp1 but produce no diseases1 the moisture being pure1 unmixed with the poisonous vapours arising from putrid marshes and stagnant pools1 in which many insects die and corrupt the water4 ,these places only1 in my opinion 7which however ,i submit to yours7 afford unwholesome air2 and that it is not the mere water contained in damp air1 but the volatile particles of corrupted animal matter mixed with that water1 which renders such air pernicious to those who breathe it4 ,and ,i imagine it a cause of the same kind that renders the air in close rooms1 where the perspirable matter is breathed over and over again by a number of assembled1 people so hurtful to health4 ,after being in such a situation1 many find themselves affected by that febricula1 which the ,english alone call a cold1 and1 perhaps from the name1 imagine that they caught the malady by going out of the room1 when it was in fact by being in it4 ,you begin to think that ,i wander from my subject1 and go out of my depth4 ,so ,i return again to my chimneys4 ,we have of late many lecturers in experimental philosophy4 ,i have wished that some of them would study this branch of that science1 and give experiments in it as a part of their lectures4 ,the addition to their present apparatus need not be very expensive4 ,a number of little representations of rooms composed each of five panes of sash glass1 framed in wood at the corners1 with proportionable doors1 and moveable glass chimneys1 with openings of different sizes1 and different lengths of funnel1 and some of the rooms so contrived as to communicate on occasion with others1 so as to form different combinations1 and exemplify different cases2 with quantities of green wax taper cut into pieces of an inch and half1 sixteen of which stuck together in a square1 and lit1 would make a strong fire for a little glass chimney1 and blown out would continue to burn and give smoke as long as desired4 ,with such an apparatus all the operations of smoke and rarified air in rooms and chimneys might be seen through their transparent sides2 and the effect of winds on chimneys1 commanded or otherwise1 might be shown1 by letting the entering air blow upon them through an opened window of the lecturer's chamber1 where it would be constant while he kept a good fire in his chimney4 ,by the help of such lectures our fumists would become better instructed4 ,at present they have generally but one remedy1 which perhaps they have known effectual in some one case of smoky chimneys1 and they apply that indiscriminately to all the other cases1 without success1--but not without expence to their employers4 ,with all the science1 however1 that a man shall suppose himself possessed of in this article1 he may sometimes meet with cases that shall puzzle him4 ,i once lodged in a house at ,london1 which1 in a little room1 had a single chimney and funnel4 ,the opening was very small1 yet it did not keep in the smoke1 and all attempts to have a fire in this room were fruitless4 ,i could not imagine the reason1 till at length observing that the chamber over it1 which had no fire-place in it1 was always filled with smoke when a fire was kindled below and that the smoke came through the cracks and crevices of the wainscot2 ,i had the wainscot taken down1 and discovered that the funnel1 which went up behind it1 had a crack many feet in length1 and wide enough to admit my arm1 a breach very dangerous with regard to fire1 and occasioned probably by an apparent irregular settling of one side of the house4 ,the air entering this breach freely1 destroyed the drawing force of the funnel4 ,the remedy would have been1 filling up the breach or rather rebuilding the funnel3 but the landlord rather chose to stop up the chimney4 ,another puzzling case ,i met with at a friend's country house near ,london4 ,his best room had a chimney in which1 he told me1 he never could have a fire1 for all the smoke came out into the room4 ,i flattered myself ,i could easily find the cause1 and prescribe the cure4 ,i had a fire made there1 and found it as he said4 ,i opened the door1 and perceived it was not want of air4 ,i made a temporary contraction of the opening of the chimney1 and found that it was not its being too large that caused the smoke to issue4 ,i went out and looked up at the top of the chimney3 its funnel was joined in the same stack with others1 some of them shorter1 that drew very well1 and ,i saw nothing to prevent its doing the same4 ,in fine1 after every other examination ,i could think of1 ,i was obliged to own the insufficiency of my skill4 ,but my friend1 who made no pretension to such kind of knowledge1 afterwards discovered the cause himself4 ,he got to the top of the funnel by a ladder1 and looking down1 found it filled with twigs and straw cemented by earth1 and lined with feathers4 ,it seems the house1 after being built1 had stood empty some years before he occupied it2 and he concluded that some large birds had taken the advantage of its retired situation to make their nest there4 ,the rubbish1 considerable in quantity1 being removed1 and the funnel cleared1 the chimney drew well1 and gave satisfaction4 ,in general smoke is a very tractable thing1 easily governed and directed when one knows the principles1 and is well informed of the circumstances4 ,you know ,i made it descend in my ,pensylvania stove4 ,i formerly had a more simple construction1 in which the same effect was produced1 but visible to the eye 7,plate1 ,figure #g74 ,it was composed of two plates ,a ,b and ,c ,d1 placed as in the figure4 ,the lower plate ,a ,b rested with its edge in the angle made by the hearth with the back of the chimney4 ,the upper plate was fixed to the breast1 and lapped over the lower about six inches wide and the length of the plates 7near two feet7 between them4 ,every other passage of air into the funnel was well stopped4 ,when therefore a fire was made at ,e1 for the first time with charcoal1 till the air in the funnel was a little heated through the plates1 and then wood laid on1 the smoke would rise to ,a1 turn over the edge of that plate1 descend to ,d1 then turn under the edge of the upper plate1 and go up the chimney4 ,it was pretty to see1 but of no great use4 ,placing therefore the under plate in a higher situation1 ,i removed the upper plate ,c ,d1 and placed it perpendicularly 7,plate1 ,figure #h7 so that the upper edge of the lower plate ,a ,b came within about three inches of it1 and might be pushed farther from it1 or suffered to come nearer to it1 by a moveable wedge between them4 ,the flame then ascending from the fire at ,e1 was1 carried to strike the upper plate1 made it very hot1 and its heat rose and spread with the rarefied air into the room4 ,i believe you have seen in use with me1 the contrivance of a sliding-plate over the fire1 seemingly placed to oppose the rising of the smoke1 leaving but a small passage for it1 between the edge of the plate and the back of the chimney4 ,it is particularly described1 and its uses explained1 in my former printed letter1 and ,i mention it here only as another instance of the tractability of smoke#eg4 ,what is called the ,staffordshire chimney1 7see the ,plate1 facing page #bch7 affords an example of the same kind4 ,the opening of the chimney is bricked up1 even with the fore-edge of its jams1 leaving open only a passage over the grate of the same width1 and perhaps eight inches high4 ,the grate consists of semicircular bars1 their upper bar of the greatest diameter1 the others under it smaller and smaller1 so that it has the appearance of half a round basket4 ,it is1 with the coals it contains1 wholly without the wall that shuts up the chimney1 yet the smoke bends and enters the passage above it1 the draft being strong1 because no air can enter that is not obliged to pass near or through the fire1 so that all that the funnel is filled with is much heated1 and of course much rarefied4 ,much more of the prosperity of a winter country depends on the plenty and cheapness of fuel1 than is generally imagined4 ,in travelling ,i have observed1 that in those parts where the inhabitants can have neither wood nor coal nor turf but at excessive prices1 the working people live in miserable hovels1 are ragged1 and have nothing comfortable about them4 ,but when fuel is cheap 7or where they have the art of managing it to advantage7 they are well furnished with necessaries1 and have decent habitations4 ,the obvious reason is1 that the working hours of such people are the profitable hours1 and they who cannot afford sufficient fuel have fewer such hours in the twenty four1 than those who have it cheap and plenty3 for much of the domestic work of poor women1 such as spinning1 sewing1 knitting2 and of the men in those manufactures that require little bodily exercise1 cannot well be performed where the fingers are numbed with cold1 those people1 therefore1 in cold weather1 are induced to go to bed sooner1 and lie longer in a morning1 than they would do if they could have good fires or warm stoves to sit by2 and their hours of work are not sufficient to produce the means of comfortable subsistence4 ,those public works1 therefore1 such as roads1 canals1 c4 by which fuel may be brought cheap into such countries from distant places1 are of great utility2 and those who promote them may be reckoned among the benefactors of mankind4 ,i have great pleasure in having thus complied with your request1 and in the reflection1 that the friendship you honour me with1 and in which ,i have ever been so happy1 has continued so many years without the smallest interruption4 ,our distance from each other is now augmented1 and nature must soon put an end to the possibility of my continuing our correspondence3 but if consciousness and memory remain in a future state1 my esteem and respect for you1 my dear friend1 will be everlasting4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,notes for the ,letter upon ,chimneys4 ,no4 ,i4 ,the latest work on architecture that ,i have seen1 is that entitled ,nutshells1 which appears to be written by a very ingenious man1 and contains a table of the proportions of the openings of chimneys2 but they relate solely to the proportions he gives his rooms1 without the smallest regard to the funnels4 ,and he remarks1 respecting those proportions1 that they are similar to the harmonic divisions of a monochord4#eh ,he does not indeed lay much stress on this2 but it shows that we like the appearance of principles2 and where we have not true ones1 we have some satisfaction in producing such as are imaginary4 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,the description of the sliding plates here promised1 and which hath been since brought into use under various names1 with some immaterial changes1 is contained in a former letter to ,j4 ,b4 ,esq4 as follows3 ,,to ,j4 ,b4#ei ,,esq4 ,,at ,,boston1 ,,in ,,new-,,england4 ,london1 ,dec4 #b1 #ageh1 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i have executed here an easy simple contrivance1 that ,i have long since had in speculation1 for keeping rooms warmer in cold weather than they generally are1 and with less fire4 ,it is this4 ,the opening of the chimney is contracted1 by brick-work faced with marble slabs1 to about two feet between the jams1 and the breast brought down to within about three feet of the hearth4 ,an iron frame is placed just under the breast1 and extending quite to the back of the chimney1 so that a plate of the same metal may slide horizontally backwards and forwards in the grooves on each side of the frame4 ,this plate is just so large as to fill the whole space1 and shut the chimney entirely when thrust quite in1 which is convenient when there is no fire4 ,drawing it out1 so as to leave a space between its further edge and the back1 of about two inches2 this space is sufficient for the smoke to pass2 and so large a part of the funnel being stopt by the rest of the plate1 the passage of warm air out of the room1 up the chimney1 is obstructed and retarded1 and by that means much cold air is prevented from coming in through crevices1 to supply its place4 ,this effect is made manifest three ways4 ,first1 when the fire burns briskly in cold weather1 the howling or whistling noise made by the wind1 as it enters the room through the crevices1 when the chimney is open as usual1 ceases as soon as the plate is slid in to its proper distance4 ,secondly1 opening the door of the room about half an inch1 and holding your hand against the opening1 near the top of the door1 you feel the cold air coming in against your hand1 but weakly1 if the plate be in4 ,let another person suddenly draw it out1 so as to let the air of the room go up the chimney1 with its usual freedom where chimneys are open1 and you immediately feel the cold air rushing in strongly4 ,thirdly1 if something be set against the door1 just sufficient1 when the plate is in1 to keep the door nearly shut1 by resisting the pressure of the air that would force it open3 then1 when the plate is drawn out1 the door will be forced open by the increased pressure of the outward cold air endeavouring to get in to supply the place of the warm air1 that now passes out of the room to go up the chimney4 ,in our common open chimneys1 half the fuel is wasted1 and its effect lost2 the air it has warmed being immediately drawn off4 ,several of my acquaintance1 having seen this simple machine in my room1 have imitated it at their own houses1 and it seems likely to become pretty common4 ,i describe it thus particularly to you1 because ,i think it would be useful in ,boston1 where firing is often dear4 ,mentioning chimneys puts me in mind of a property ,i formerly had occasion to observe in them1 which ,i have not found taken notice of by others2 it is1 that in the summer time1 when no fire is made in the chimneys1 there is1 nevertheless1 a regular draft of air through them1 continually passing upwards1 from about five or six o'clock in the afternoon1 till eight or nine o'clock the next morning1 when the current begins to slacken and hesitate a little1 for about half an hour1 and then sets as strongly down again1 which it continues to do till towards five in the afternoon1 then slackens and hesitates as before1 going sometimes a little up1 then a little down1 till1 in about a half an hour1 it gets into a steady upward current for the night1 which continues till eight or nine the next day2 the hours varying a little as the days lengthen and shorten1 and sometimes varying from sudden changes in the weather2 as if1 after being long warm1 it should begin to grow cool about noon1 while the air was coming down the chimney1 the current will then change earlier than the usual hour1 c4 ,this property in chimneys ,i imagine we might turn to some account1 and render improper1 for the future1 the old saying1 as useless as a chimney in summer4 ,if the opening of the chimney1 from the breast down to the hearth1 be closed by a slight moveable frame or two1 in the manner of doors1 covered with canvas1 that will let the air through1 but keep out the flies2 and another little frame set within upon the hearth1 with hooks on which to hang joints of meat1 fowls1 c4 wrapt well in wet linen cloths1 three or four fold1 ,i am confident1 that if the linen is kept wet1 by sprinkling it once a day1 the meat would be so cooled by the evaporation1 carried on continually by means of the passing air1 that it would keep a week or more in the hottest weather4 ,butter and milk might likewise be kept cool1 in vessels or bottles covered with wet cloths4 ,a shallow tray1 or keeler1 should be under the frame to receive any water that might drip from the wetted cloths4 ,i think1 too1 that this property of chimneys might1 by means of smoke-jack vanes1 be applied to some mechanical purposes1 where a small but pretty constant power only is wanted4 ,if you would have my opinion of the cause of this changing current of air in chimneys1 it is1 in short1 as follows4 ,in summer time there is generally a great difference in the warmth of the air at mid-day and mid-night1 and1 of course1 a difference of specific gravity in the air1 as the more it is warmed the more it is rarefied4 ,the funnel of a chimney1 being for the most part surrounded by the house1 is protected1 in a great measure1 from the direct action of the sun's rays1 and also from the coldness of the night air4 ,it thence preserves a middle temperature between the heat of the day1 and the coldness of the night4 ,this middle temperature it communicates to the air contained in it4 ,if the state of the outward air be cooler than that in the funnel of the chimney1 it will1 by being heavier1 force it to rise1 and go out at the top4 ,what supplies its place from below1 being warmed1 in its turn1 by the warmer funnel1 is likewise forced up by the colder and weightier air below1 and so the current is continued till the next day1 when the sun gradually changes the state of the outward air1 makes it first as warm as the funnel of the chimney can make it 7when the current begins to hesitate7 and afterwards warmer4 ,then the funnel1 being cooler than the air that comes into it1 cools that air1 makes it heavier than the outward air1 of course it descends2 and what succeeds it from above being cooled in its turn1 the descending current continues till towards evening1 when it again hesitates and changes its course1 from the change of warmth in the outward air1 and the nearly remaining same middle temperature in the funnel4 ,upon this principle1 if a house were built behind ,beacon-hill1 an adit carried from one of the doors into the hill horizontally1 till it meet with a perpendicular shaft sunk from its top1 it seems probable to me1 that those who lived in the house would constantly1 in the heat even of the calmest day1 have as much cool air passing through the house1 as they should chuse2 and the same1 though reversed in its current1 during the stillest night4 ,i think1 too1 this property might be made of use to miners2 as1 where several shafts or pits are sunk perpendicularly into the earth1 communicating at bottom by horizontal passages1 which is a common case1 if a chimney of thirty or forty feet high were built over one of the shafts1 or so near the shaft1 that the chimney might communicate with the top of the shaft1 all air being excluded but what should pass up or down by the shaft1 a constant change of air would1 by this means1 be produced in the passages below1 tending to secure the workmen from those damps1 which so frequently incommode them4 ,for the fresh air would be almost always going down the open shaft1 to go up the chimney1 or down the chimney1 to go up the shaft4 ,let me add one observation more1 which is1 that if that part of the funnel of a chimney1 which appears above the roof of a house1 be pretty long1 and have three of its sides exposed to the heat of the sun successively1 viz4 when he is in the east1 in the south1 and in the west1 while the north side is sheltered by the building from the cool northerly winds2 such a chimney will often be so heated by the sun1 as to continue the draft strongly upwards1 through the whole twenty-four hours1 and often for many days together4 ,if the outside of such a chimney be painted black1 the effect will be still greater1 and the current stronger4 ,no4 ,,iii4 ,it is said the northern ,chinese have a method of warming their ground floors1 which is ingenious4 ,those floors are made of tiles1 a foot square and two inches thick1 their corners being supported by bricks set on end1 that are a foot long and four inches square2 the tiles1 too1 join into each other1 by ridges and hollows along their sides4 ,this forms a hollow under the whole floor1 which on one side of the house has an opening into the air1 where a fire is made1 and it has a funnel rising from the other side to carry off the smoke4 ,the fuel is a sulphurous pitcoal1 the smell of which in the room is thus avoided1 while the floor1 and of course the room1 is well warmed4 ,but as the underside of the floor must grow foul with soot1 and a thick coat of soot prevents much of the direct application of the hot air to the tiles1 ,i conceive that burning the smoke1 by obliging it to descend through red coals1 would in this construction be very advantageous1 as more heat would be given by the flame than by the smoke1 and the floor being thereby kept free from soot would be more heated with less fire4 ,for this purpose ,i would propose erecting the funnel close to the grate1 so as to have only an iron plate between the fire and the funnel1 through which plate1 the air in the funnel being heated1 it will be sure to draw well1 and force the smoke to descend1 as in the figure 7,plate1 ,figure #i47 where ,a is the funnel or chimney1 ,b the grate on which the fire is placed1 ,c one of the apertures through which the descending smoke is drawn into the channel ,d of figure #aj1 along which channel it is conveyed by a circuitous route1 as designated by the arrows1 until it arrives at the small aperture ,e1 figure #aj1 through which it enters the funnel ,f4 ,g in both figures is the iron plate against which the fire is made1 which1 being heated thereby1 will rarefy the air in that part of the funnel1 and cause the smoke to ascend rapidly4 ,the flame thus dividing from the grate to the right and left1 and turning in passages1 disposed1 as in figure #aj1 so as that every part of the floor may be visited by it before it enters the funnel ,f1 by the two passages ,e ,e1 very little of the heat will be lost1 and a winter room thus rendered very comfortable4 ,no4 ,,iv4 ,page #bfe4 ,few can imagine1 c4 ,it is said the ,icelanders have very little fuel1 chiefly drift wood that comes upon their coast4 ,to receive more advantage from its heat1 they make their doors low1 and have a stage round the room above the door1 like a gallery1 wherein the women can sit and work1 the men read or write1 c4 ,the roof being tight1 the warm air is confined by it and kept from rising higher and escaping2 and the cold air1 which enters the house when the door is opened1 cannot rise above the level of the top of the door1 because it is heavier than the warm air above the door1 and so those in the gallery are not incommoded by it4 ,some of our too lofty rooms might have a stage so constructed as to make a temporary gallery above1 for the winter1 to be taken away in summer4 ,sedentary people would find much comfort there in cold weather4 ,no4 ,v4 ,page #bhe4 ,where they have the art of managing it1 c4 ,in some houses of the lower people among the northern nations of ,europe1 and among the poorer sort of ,germans in ,pensylvania1 ,i have observed this construction1 which appears very advantageous4 7,plate ,figure #aa47 ,a is the kitchen with its chimney2 ,b an iron stove in the stove-room4 ,in a corner of the chimney is a hole through the back into the stove1 to put in fuel1 and another hole above it to let the smoke of the stove come back into the chimney4 ,as soon as the cooking is over1 the brands in the kitchen chimney are put through the hole to supply the stove1 so that there is seldom more than one fire burning at a time4 ,in the floor over the stove-room1 is a small trap door1 to let the warm air rise occasionally into the chamber4 ,thus the whole house is warmed at little expence of wood1 and the stove-room kept constantly warm2 so that in the coldest winter nights1 they can work late1 and find the room still comfortable when they rise to work early4 ,an ,english farmer in ,america1 who makes great fires in large open chimneys1 needs the constant employment of one man to cut and haul wood for supplying them2 and the draft of cold air to them is so strong1 that the heels of his family are frozen while they are scorching their faces1 and the room is never warm1 so that little sedentary work can be done by them in winter4 ,the difference in this article alone of economy shall1 in a course of years1 enable the ,german to buy out the ,englishman1 and take possession of his plantation4 ,miscellaneous ,observations4 ,chimneys1 whose funnels go up in the north wall of a house and are exposed to the north winds1 are not so apt to draw well as those in a south wall2 because1 when rendered cold by those winds1 they draw downwards4 ,chimneys1 enclosed in the body of a house1 are better than those whose funnels are exposed in cold walls4 ,chimneys in stacks are apt to draw better than separate funnels1 because the funnels1 that have constant fires in them1 warm the others1 in some degree1 that have none4 ,one of the funnels1 in a house ,i once occupied1 had a particular funnel joined to the south side of the stack1 so that three of its sides were exposed to the sun in the course of the day1 viz4 7,plate1 ,figure #ab47 the east side ,e during the morning1 the south side ,s in the middle part of the day1 and the west side ,w during the afternoon1 while its north side was sheltered by the stack from the cold winds4 ,this funnel1 which came from the ground-floor1 and had a considerable height above the roof1 was constantly in a strong drawing state day and night1 winter and summer4 ,blacking of funnels1 exposed to the sun1 would probably make them draw still stronger4 ,in ,paris ,i saw a fire-place so ingeniously contrived as to serve conveniently two rooms1 a bedchamber and a study4 ,the funnel over the fire was round4 ,the fire-place was of cast iron 7,plate1 ,figure #ac47 having an upright back ,a1 and two horizontal semicircular plates ,b ,c1 the whole so ordered as to turn on the pivots ,d ,e4 ,the plate ,b always stopped that part of the round funnel that was next to the room without fire1 while the other half of the funnel over the fire was always open4 ,by this means a servant in the morning could make a fire on the hearth ,c1 then in the study1 without disturbing the master by going into his chamber2 and the master1 when he rose1 could1 with a touch of his foot1 turn the chimney on its pivots1 and bring the fire into his chamber1 keep it there as long as he wanted it1 and turn it again1 when he went out1 into his study4 ,the room which had no fire in it was also warmed by the heat coming through the back plate1 and spreading in the room1 as it could not go up the chimney4 ,,footnotes3 #ea ,this letter1 which has been published in a separate pamphlet1 both in this country and ,america1 first appeared in the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in which it was read ,oct4 #ba1 #aghe4 ,editor4 #eb ,see ,notes at the end of the ,letter1 ,no4 ,i4 #ec ,see ,notes at the end of the ,letter1 ,no4 ,,ii4 #ed ,see ,notes at the end of the letter1 ,no4 ,,ii4 #ee ,see ,notes at the end of the letter1 ,no4 ,,ii4 #ef ,see ,notes at the end of the letter1 ,no4 ,,iii4 #eg ,see ,notes at the end of the ,letter1 ,no4 ,,ii4 #eh ,it may be just remarked here1 that upon comparing these proportions with those arising from the common divisions of the monochord1 it happens that the first answers to unisons1 and although the second is a discord1 the third answers to the third minor1 the fourth to the third major1 the fifth to the fourth1 the sixth to the fifth1 and the seventh to the octave4 ,,nutshells1 page #he4 #ei ,badoin4 ,editor4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #big4 ,,stove ,,for ,,burning ,,pit-,,coal4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,description of a new ,stove for burning of ,pitcoal1 and consuming all its smoke4#fj ,by ,dr4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,towards the end of the last century an ingenious ,french philosopher1 whose name ,i am sorry ,i cannot recollect1 exhibited an experiment to show1 that very offensive things might be burnt in the middle of a chamber1 such as woollen rags1 feathers1 c4 without creating the least smoke or smell4 ,the machine in which it was made1 if ,i remember right1 was of this form1 7,plate ,x4 ,figure #a47 made of plate iron4 ,some clear burning charcoals were put into the opening of the short tube ,a1 and supported there by the grate ,b4 ,the air1 as soon as the tubes grew warm1 would ascend in the longer leg ,c and go out at ,d1 consequently air must enter at ,a descending to ,b4 ,in this course it must be heated by the burning coals through which it passed1 and rise more forcibly in the longer tube1 in proportion to its degree of heat or rarefaction1 and length of that tube4 ,for such a machine is a kind of inverted syphon2 and as the greater weight of water in the longer leg of a common syphon in descending is accompanied by an ascent of the same fluid in the shorter2 so1 in this inverted syphon1 the greater quantity of levity of air in the longer leg1 in rising is accompanied by the descent of air in the shorter4 ,the things to be burned being laid on the hot coals at ,a1 the smoke must descend through those coals1 be converted into flame1 which1 after destroying the offensive smell1 came out at the end of the longer tube as mere heated air4 ,whoever would repeat this experiment with success must take care that the part ,a1 ,b1 of the short tube1 be quite full of burning coals1 so that no part of the smoke may descend and pass by them without going through them1 and being converted into flame2 and that the longer tube be so heated as that the current of ascending hot air is established in it before the things to be burnt are laid on the coals2 otherwise there will be a disappointment4 ,it does not appear either in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences1 or ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,english ,royal ,society1 that any improvement was ever made of this ingenious experiment1 by applying it to useful purposes4 ,but there is a ,german book1 entitled ,vulcanus ,famulans1 by ,joh4 ,george ,leutmann1 ,p4 ,d4 printed at ,wirtemberg in #agbc1 which describes1 among a great variety of other stoves for warming rooms1 one1 which seems to have been formed on the same principle1 and probably from the hint thereby given1 though the ,french experiment is not mentioned4 ,this book being scarce1 ,i have translated the chapter describing the stove1 viz4 ,vulcanus ,famulans1 by ,john ,george ,leutmann1 ,p4 ,d4 ,wirtemberg1 #agbc4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,on a ,stove1 which draws downwards4 ,here follows the description of a sort of stove1 which can easily be removed and again replaced at pleasure4 ,this drives the fire down under itself1 and gives no smoke1 but however a very unwholesome vapour4 ,in the figure1 ,a is an iron vessel like a funnel1 7,plate ,x4 ,figure #bj47 in diameter at the top about twelve inches1 at the bottom near the grate about five inches2 its height twelve inches4 ,this is set on the barrel ,c1 which is ten inches diameter and two feet long1 closed at each end ,e ,e4 ,from one end rises a pipe or flue about four inches diameter1 on which other pieces of pipe are set1 which are gradually contracted to ,d1 where the opening is but about two inches4 ,those pipes must together be at least four feet high4 ,b is an iron grate4 ,f ,f are iron handles guarded with wood1 by which the stove is to be lifted and moved4 ,it stands on three legs4 ,care must be taken to stop well all the joints1 that no smoke may leak through4 ,when this stove is to be used1 it must first be carried into the kitchen and placed in the chimney near the fire4 ,there burning wood must be laid and left upon its grate till the barrel ,c is warm1 and the smoke no longer rises at ,a1 but descends towards ,c4 ,then it is to be carried into the room which it is to warm4 ,when once the barrel ,c is warm1 fresh wood may be thrown into the vessel ,a as often as one pleases1 the flame descends and without smoke1 which is so consumed that only a vapour passes out at ,d4 ,as this vapour is unwholesome1 and affects the head1 one may be freed from it1 by fixing in the wall of the room an inverted funnel1 such as people use to hang over lamps1 through which their smoke goes out as through a chimney4 ,this funnel carries out all the vapour cleverly1 so that one finds no inconvenience from it1 even though the opening ,d be placed a span below the mouth of the said funnel ,g4 ,the neck of the funnel is better when made gradually bending1 than if turned in a right angle4 ,the cause of the draft downwards in the stove is the pressure of the outward air1 which1 falling into the vessel ,a in a column of twelve inches diameter1 finds only a resisting passage at the grate ,b1 of five inches1 and one at ,d1 of two inches1 which are much too weak to drive it back again2 besides1 ,a stands much higher than ,b1 and so the pressure on it is greater and more forcible1 and beats down the frame to that part where it finds the least resistance4 ,carrying the machine first to the kitchen fire for preparation1 is on this account1 that in the beginning the fire and smoke naturally ascend1 till the air in the close barrel ,c is made thinner by the warmth4 ,when that vessel is heated1 the air in it is rarefied1 and then all the smoke and fire descends under it4 ,the wood should be thoroughly dry1 and cut into pieces five or six inches long1 to fit it for being thrown into the funnel ,a4 ,thus far the ,german book4 ,it appears to me1 by ,mr4 ,leutmann's explanation of the operation of this machine1 that he did not understand the principles of it1 whence ,i conclude he was not the inventor of it2 and by the description of it1 wherein the opening at ,a is made so large1 and the pipe ,e1 ,d1 so short1 ,i am persuaded he never made nor saw the experiment1 for the first ought to be much smaller and the last much higher1 or it hardly will succeed4 ,the carrying it in the kitchen1 too1 every time the fire should happen to be out1 must be so troublesome1 that it is not likely ever to have been in practice1 and probably has never been shown but as a philosophical experiment4 ,the funnel for conveying the vapour out of the room would besides have been uncertain in its operation1 as a wind blowing against its mouth would drive the vapour back4 ,the stove ,i am about to describe was also formed on the idea given by the ,french experiment1 and completely carried into execution before ,i had any knowledge of the ,german invention2 which ,i wonder should remain so many years in a country1 where men are so ingenious in the management of fire1 without receiving long since the improvements ,i have given it4 ,description of the ,parts4 ,a1 the bottom plate which lies flat upon the hearth1 with its partitions1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 7,plate ,x4 ,figure #b47 that are cast with it1 and a groove ,z ,z1 in which are to slide1 the bottom edges of the small plates ,y1 ,y1 figure #ab2 which plates meeting at ,x close the front4 ,b #a1 figure #c1 is the cover plate showing its under side1 with the grooves #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 to receive the top edges of the partitions that are fixed to the bottom plate4 ,it shows also the grate ,w ,w1 the bars of which are cast in the plate1 and a groove ,v ,v1 which comes right over the groove ,z ,z1 figure #b1 receiving the upper edges of the small sliding plates ,y ,y1 figure #ab4 ,b #b1 figure #d1 shows the upper side of the same plate1 with a square impression or groove for receiving the bottom mouldings ,t ,t ,t ,t of the three-sided box ,c1 figure #e1 which is cast in one piece4 ,d1 figure #f1 its cover1 showing its under side with grooves to receive the upper edges ,s ,s ,s of the sides of ,c1 figure #e1 also a groove ,r1 ,r1 which when the cover is put on comes right over another ,q ,q in ,c1 figure #e1 between which it is to slide4 ,e1 figure #g1 the front plate of the box4 ,p1 a hole three inches diameter through the cover ,d1 figure #f1 over which hole stands the vase ,f1 figure #h1 which has a corresponding hole two inches diameter through its bottom4 ,the top of the vase opens at ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 figure #h1 and turns back upon a hinge behind when coals are to be put in2 the vase has a grate within at ,n ,n of cast iron ,h1 figure #i1 and a hole in the top1 one and a half inches diameter1 to admit air1 and to receive the ornamental brass guilt flame ,m1 figure #aj1 which stands in that hole1 and1 being itself hollow and open1 suffers air to pass through it to the fire4 ,g1 figure #aa1 is a drawer of plate iron1 that slips in between in the partitions #b and #c1 figure #b1 to receive the falling ashes4 ,it is concealed when the small sliding plates ,y ,y1 figure #ab1 are shut together4 ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 ,i1 figure #h1 is a niche built of brick in the chimney and plastered4 ,it closes the chimney over the vase1 but leaves two funnels1 one in each corner1 communicating with the bottom box ,k ,k1 figure #b4 ,dimensions of the ,parts4 ,feet4 ,in4 ,front of the bottom box1 #b #j ,height of its partitions1 #j #d ,length of ,no4 #a1 #b1 #c and #d1 each1 #a #c ,length of ,no4 #e and #f1 each1 #j #h ,breadth of the passage between ,no4 #b and #c1 #j #f ,breadth of the other passages each1 #j #c ,breadth of the grate1 #j #f ,length of ditto1 #j #h ,bottom moulding of box ,c1 square1 #a #j ,height of the sides of ditto1 #j #d ,length of the back side1 #j #aj ,length of the right and left sides1 each1 #j #i ,length of the front plate ,e1 where longest1 #j #aa ,the cover ,d1 square1 #j #ab ,hole in ditto1 diameter1 #j #c ,sliding plates ,y ,y1 their length1 each1 #a #j ----- ----- ----- their breadth1 each1 #j #d ,drawer ,g1 its length1 #a #j ----- ----- breadth1 #j #e ----- ----- depth1 #j #d ----- ----- depth of its further end1 only1 #j #a ,grate ,h in the vase1 its diameter to the extremity of its knobs1 #j #e ,thickness of the bars at top1 #j #j ----- ----- ----- at bottom1 less1 #j #j ,depth of the bars at the top1 #j #j ,height of the vase1 #a #f ,diameter of the opening ,o1 ,o1 in the clear1 #j #h ,diameter of the air-hole at top1 #j #a ----- of the flame hole at bottom1 #j #b ,to fix this ,machine4 ,spread mortar on the hearth to bed the bottom plate ,a1 then lay that plate level1 equally distant from each jamb1 and projecting out as far as you think proper4 ,then putting some ,windsor loam in the grooves of the cover ,b1 lay that on3 trying the sliding plates ,y ,y1 to see if they move freely in the grooves ,z ,z1 ,v ,v1 designed for them4 ,then begin to build the niche1 observing to leave the square corners of the chimney unfilled2 for they are to be funnels4 ,and observe also to leave a free open communication between the passages at ,k ,k1 and the bottom of those funnels1 and mind to close the chimney above the top of the niche1 that no air may pass up that way4 ,the concave back of the niche will rest on the circular iron partition #a ,a #d1 figure #b1 then1 with a little loam1 put on the box ,c over the grate1 the open side of the box in front4 ,then1 with loam in three of its grooves1 the groove ,r ,r being left clean1 and brought directly over the groove ,q ,q in the box1 put on the cover ,d1 trying the front plate ,e1 to see if it slides freely in those grooves4 ,lastly1 set on the vase1 which has small holes in the moulding of its bottom to receive two iron pins that rise out of the plate ,d at ,i ,i1 for the better keeping it steady4 ,then putting in the grate ,h1 which rests on its three knobs h h h against the inside of the vase1 and slipping the drawer into its place2 the machine is fit for use4 ,to use it4 ,let the first fire be made after eight in the evening or before eight in the morning1 for at those times and between those hours all night1 there is usually a draft up a chimney1 though it has long been without fire2 but between those hours in the day there is often1 in a cold chimney1 a draft downwards1 when1 if you attempt to kindle a fire1 the smoke will come into the room4 ,but to be certain of your proper time1 hold a flame over the air-hole at the top4 ,if the flame is drawn strongly down for a continuance1 without whiffling1 you may begin to kindle a fire4 ,first put in a few charcoals on the grate ,h4 ,lay some small sticks on the charcoals1 ,lay some pieces of paper on the sticks1 ,kindle the paper with a candle1 ,then shut down the top1 and the air will pass down through the air-hole1 blow the flame of the paper down through the sticks1 kindle them1 and their flame passing lower kindles the charcoal4 ,when the charcoal is well kindled1 lay on it the sea-coals1 observing not to choak the fire by putting on too much at first4 ,the flame descending through the hole in the bottom of the vase1 and that in plate ,d into the box ,c1 passes down farther through the grate ,w ,w in plate ,b #a1 then passes horizontally towards the back of the chimney2 there dividing1 and turning to the right and left1 one part of it passes round the far end of the partition #b1 then coming forward it turns round the near end of partition #a1 then moving backward it arrives at the opening into the bottom of one of the upright corner funnels behind the niche1 through which it ascends into the chimney1 thus heating that half of the box and that side of the niche4 ,the other part of the divided flame passes round the far end of partition #c1 round the near end of partition #d1 and so into and up the other corner funnel1 thus heating the other half of the box1 and the other side of the niche4 ,the vase itself1 and the box ,c will also be very hot1 and the air surrounding them being heated1 and rising1 as it cannot get into the chimney1 it spreads in the room1 colder air succeeding is warmed in its turn1 rises and spreads1 till by the continual circulation the whole is warmed4 ,if you should have occasion to make your first fire at hours not so convenient as those above mentioned1 and when the chimney does not draw1 do not begin it in the vase1 but in one or more of the passages of the lower plate1 first covering the mouth of the vase4 ,after the chimney has drawn a while with the fire thus low1 and begins to be a little warm1 you may close those passages and kindle another fire in the box ,c1 leaving its sliding shutter a little open2 and when you find after some time that the chimney being warmed draws forcibly1 you may shut that passage1 open your vase1 and kindle your fire there1 as above directed4 ,the chimney well warmed by the first day's fire will continue to draw constantly all winter1 if fires are made daily4 ,you will1 in the management of your fire1 have need of the following implements3 ,a pair of small light tongs1 twelve or fifteen inches long1 plate1 figure #ac4 ,a light poker about the same length with a flat broad point1 figure #ad4 ,a rake to draw ashes out of the passages of the lower plate1 where the lighter kind escaping the ash-box will gather by degrees1 and perhaps once in a week or ten days require being removed1 figure #ae4 ,and a fork with its prongs wide enough to slip on the neck of the vase cover1 in order to raise and open it when hot1 to put in fresh coals1 figure #af4 ,in the management of this stove there are certain precautions to be observed1 at first with attention1 till they become habitual4 ,to avoid the inconvenience of smoke1 see that the grate ,h be clear before you begin to light a fresh fire4 ,if you find it clogged with cinders and ashes1 turn it up with your tongs and let them fall upon the grate below2 the ashes will go through it1 and the cinders may be raked off and returned into the vase when you would burn them4 ,then see that all the sliding plates are in their places and close shut1 that no air may enter the stove but through the round opening at the top of the vase4 ,and to avoid the inconvenience of dust from the ashes1 let the ash-drawer be taken out of the room to be emptied2 and when you rake the passages1 do it when the draft of the air is strong inwards1 and put the ashes carefully into the ash-box1 that remaining in its place4 ,if1 being about to go abroad1 you would prevent your fire burning in your absence1 you may do it by taking the brass flame from the top of the vase1 and covering the passage with a round tin plate1 which will prevent the entry of more air than barely sufficient to keep a few of the coals alive4 ,when you return1 though some hours absent1 by taking off the tin plate and admitting the air1 your fire will soon be recovered4 ,the effect of this machine1 well managed1 is to burn not only the coals1 but all the smoke of the coals1 so that while the fire is burning1 if you go out and observe the top of your chimney1 you will see no smoke issuing1 nor any thing but clear warm air1 which as usual makes the bodies seen through it appear waving4 ,but let none imagine from this1 that it may be a cure for bad or smoky chimneys1 much less1 that as it burns the smoke it may be used in a room that has no chimney4 ,it is by the help of a good chimney1 the higher the better1 that it produces its effect2 and though a flue of plate iron sufficiently high might be raised in a very lofty room1 the management to prevent all disagreeable vapour would be too nice for common practice1 and small errors would have unpleasing consequences4 ,it is certain that clean iron yields no offensive smell when heated4 ,whatever of that kind you perceive1 where there are iron stoves1 proceeds therefore from some foulness burning or fuming on their surface4 ,they should therefore never be spit upon1 or greased1 nor should any dust be suffered to lie upon them4 ,but as the greatest care will not always prevent these things1 it is well once a week to wash the stove with soap lees and a brush1 rinsing it with clean water4 ,the ,advantages of this ,stove4 #a4 ,the chimney does not grow foul1 nor ever need sweeping2 for as no smoke enters it1 no soot can form in it4 #b4 ,the air heated over common fires instantly quits the room and goes up the chimney with the smoke2 but in the stove1 it is obliged to descend in flame and pass through the long winding horizontal passages1 communicating its heat to a body of iron plate1 which1 having thus time to receive the heat1 communicates the same to the air of the room1 and thereby warms it to a greater degree4 #c4 ,the whole of the fuel is consumed by being turned into flame1 and you have the benefit of its heat1 whereas in common chimneys a great part goes away in smoke which you see as it rises1 but it affords you no rays of warmth4 ,one may obtain some notion of the quantity of fuel thus wasted in smoke1 by reflecting on the quantity of soot that a few weeks firing will lodge against the sides of the chimney1 and yet this is formed only of those particles of the column of smoke that happen to touch the sides in its ascent4 ,how much more must have passed off in the air8 ,and we know that this soot is still fuel2 for it will burn and flame as such1 and when hard caked together is indeed very like and almost as solid as the coal it proceeds from4 ,the destruction of your fuel goes on nearly in the same quantity whether in smoke or in flame3 but there is no comparison in the difference of heat given4 ,observe when fresh coals are first put on your fire1 what a body of smoke arises4 ,this smoke is for a long time too cold to take flame4 ,if you then plunge a burning candle into it1 the candle instead of inflaming the smoke will instantly be itself extinguished4 ,smoke must have a certain degree of heat to be inflammable4 ,as soon as it has acquired that degree1 the approach of a candle will inflame the whole body1 and you will be very sensible of the difference of the heat it gives4 ,a still easier experiment may be made with the candle itself4 ,hold your hand near the side of its flame1 and observe the heat it gives2 then blow it out1 the hand remaining in the same place1 and observe what heat may be given by the smoke that rises from the still burning snuff4 ,you will find it very little4 ,and yet that smoke has in it the substance of so much flame1 and will instantly produce it1 if you hold another candle above it so as to kindle it4 ,now the smoke from the fresh coals laid on this stove1 instead of ascending and leaving the fire while too cold to burn1 being obliged to descend through the burning coals1 receives among them that degree of heat which converts it into flame1 and the heat of that flame is communicated to the air of the room1 as above explained4 #d4 ,the flame from the fresh coals laid on in this stove1 descending through the coals already ignited1 preserves them long from consuming1 and continues them in the state of red coals as long as the flame continues that surrounds them1 by which means the fires made in this stove are of much longer duration than in any other1 and fewer coals are therefore necessary for a day4 ,this is a very material advantage indeed4 ,that flame should be a kind of pickle1 to preserve burning coals from consuming1 may seem a paradox to many1 and very unlikely to be true1 as it appeared to me the first time ,i observed the fact4 ,i must therefore relate the circumstances1 and shall mention an easy experiment1 by which my reader may be in possession of every thing necessary to the understanding of it4 ,in the first trial ,i made of this kind of stove1 which was constructed of thin plate iron1 ,i had instead of the vase a kind of inverted pyramid like a mill-hopper2 and fearing at first that the small grate contained in it might be clogged by cinders1 and the passage of the flame sometimes obstructed1 ,i ordered a little door near the grate1 by means of which ,i might on occasion clear it3 though after the stove was made1 and before ,i tried it1 ,i began to think this precaution superfluous1 from an imagination1 that the flame being contracted in the narrow part where the grate was placed1 would be more powerful in consuming what it should there meet with1 and that any cinders between or near the bars would be presently destroyed and the passage opened4 ,after the stove was fixed and in action1 ,i had a pleasure now and then in opening that door a little1 to see through the crevice how the flame descended among the red coals1 and observing once a single coal lodged on the bars in the middle of the focus1 a fancy took me to observe by my watch in how short a time it would be consumed4 ,i looked at it long without perceiving it to be at all diminished1 which surprised me greatly4 ,at length it occurred to me1 that ,i and many others had seen the same thing thousands of times1 in the conservation of the red coal formed in the snuff of a burning candle1 which while envelloped in flame1 and thereby prevented from the contact of passing air1 is long continued and augments instead of diminishing1 so that we are often obliged to remove it by the snuffers1 or bend it out of the flame into the air1 where it consumes presently to ashes4 ,i then supposed1 that to consume a body by fire1 passing air was necessary to receive and carry off the separated particles of the body3 and that the air passing in the flame of my stove1 and in the flame of a candle1 being already saturated with such particles1 could not receive more1 and therefore left the coal undiminished as long as the outward air was prevented from coming to it by the surrounding flame1 which kept it in a situation somewhat like that of charcoal in a well luted crucible1 which1 though long kept in a strong fire1 comes out unconsumed4 ,an easy experiment will satisfy any one of this conserving power of flame envelloping red coal4 ,take a small stick of deal or other wood the size of a goose quill1 and hold it horizontally and steadily in the flame of the candle above the wick1 without touching it1 but in the body of the flame4 ,the wood will first be inflamed1 and burn beyond the edge of the flame of the candle1 perhaps a quarter of an inch4 ,when the flame of the wood goes out1 it will leave a red coal at the end of the stick1 part of which will be in the flame of the candle and part out in the air4 ,in a minute or two you will perceive the coal in the air diminish gradually1 so as to form a neck2 while the part in the flame continues of its first size1 and at length the neck being quite consumed it drops off2 and by rolling it between your fingers when extinguished you will find it still a solid coal4 ,however1 as one cannot be always putting on fresh fuel in this stove to furnish a continual flame as is done in a candle1 the air in the intervals of time gets at the red coals and consumes them4 ,yet the conservation while it lasted1 so much delayed the consumption of the coals1 that two fires1 one made in the morning1 and the other in the afternoon1 each made by only a hatfull of coals1 were sufficient to keep my writing room1 about sixteen feet square and ten high1 warm a whole day4 ,the fire kindled at seven in the morning would burn till noon2 and all the iron of the machine with the walls of the niche being thereby heated1 the room kept warm till evening1 when another smaller fire kindled kept it warm till midnight4 ,instead of the sliding plate ,e1 which shuts the front of the box ,c1 ,i sometimes used another which had a pane of glass1 or1 which is better1 of ,muscovy talc1 that the flame might be seen descending from the bottom of the vase and passing in a column through the box ,c1 into the cavities of the bottom plate1 like water falling from a funnel1 admirable to such as are not acquainted with the nature of the machine1 and in itself a pleasing spectacle4 ,every utensil1 however properly contrived to serve its purpose1 requires some practice before it can be used adroitly4 ,put into the hands of a man for the first time a gimblet or a hammer 7very simple instruments7 and tell him the use of them1 he shall neither bore a hole or drive a nail with the dexterity and success of another who has been accustomed to handle them4 ,the beginner therefore in the use of this machine will do well not to be discouraged with little accidents that may arise at first from his want of experience4 ,being somewhat complex1 it requires as already said a variety of attentions2 habit will render them unnecessary4 ,and the studious man who is much in his chamber1 and has a pleasure in managing his own fire1 will soon find this a machine most comfortable and delightful4 ,to others who leave their fires to the care of ignorant servants1 ,i do not recommend it4 ,they will with difficulty acquire the knowledge necessary1 and will make frequent blunders that will fill your room with smoke4 ,it is therefore by no means fit for common use in families4 ,it may be adviseable to begin with the flaming kind of stone coal1 which is large1 and1 not caking together1 is not so apt to clog the grate4 ,after some experience1 any kind of coal may be used1 and with this advantage1 that no smell1 even from the most sulphurous kind can come into your room1 the current of air being constantly into the vase1 where too that smell is all consumed4 ,the vase form was chosen as being elegant in itself1 and very proper for burning of coals3 where wood is the usual fuel1 and must be burned in pieces of some length1 a long square chest may be substituted1 in which ,a is the cover opening by a hinge behind1 ,b the grate1 ,c the hearth-box with its divisions as in the other1 ,d the plan of the chest1 ,e the long narrow grate4 7,plate1 ,figure #ag47 ,this ,i have not tried1 but the vase machine was completed in #agga1 and used by me in ,london three winters1 and one afterwards in ,america1 much to my satisfaction2 and ,i have not yet thought of any improvement it may be capable of1 though such may occur to others4 ,for common use1 while in ,france1 ,i have contrived another grate for coals1 which has in part the same property of burning the smoke and preserving the red coals longer by the flame1 though not so completely as in the vase1 yet sufficiently to be very useful1 which ,i shall now describe as follows4 ,a1 is a round grate1 one foot 7,french7 in diameter1 and eight inches deep between the bars and the back2 7,plate1 ,figure #ah47 the sides and back of plate iron2 the sides having holes of half an inch diameter distant three or four inches from each other1 to let in air for enlivening the fire4 ,the back without holes4 ,the sides do not meet at top nor at bottom by eight inches3 that square is filled by grates of small bars crossing front to back to let in air below1 and let out the smoke or flame above4 ,the three middle bars of the front grate are fixed1 the upper and lower may be taken out and put in at pleasure1 when hot1 with a pair of pincers4 ,this round grate turns upon1 an axis1 supported by the crotchet ,b1 the stem of which is an inverted conical tube five inches deep1 which comes on as many inches upon a pin that fits it1 and which is fixed upright in cast iron plate ,d1 that lies upon the hearth2 in the middle of the top and bottom grates are fixed small upright pieces ,e ,e about an inch high1 which as the whole is turned on its axis stop it when the grate is perpendicular4 ,figure #ai is another view of the same machine4 ,in making the first fire in a morning with this grate1 there is nothing particular to be observed4 ,it is made as in other grates1 the coals being put in above1 after taking out the upper bar1 and replacing it when they are in4 ,the round figure of the fire when thoroughly kindled is agreeable1 it represents the great giver of warmth to our system4 ,as it burns down and leaves a vacancy above1 which you would fill with fresh coals1 the upper bar is to be taken out1 and afterwards replaced4 ,the fresh coals1 while the grate continues in the same position1 will throw up as usual a body of thick smoke4 ,but every one accustomed to coal fires in common grates must have observed1 that pieces of fresh coal stuck in below among the red coals have their smoke so heated as that it becomes flame as fast as it is produced1 which flame rises among the coals and enlivens the appearance of the fire4 ,here then is the use of this swivel grate4 ,by a push with your tongs or poker1 you turn it on its pin till it faces the back of the chimney1 then turn it over on its axis gently till it again faces the room1 whereby all the fresh coals will be found under the live coals1 and the greater part of the smoke arising from the fresh coals will in its passage through the live ones be heated so as to be converted into flame3 whence you have much more heat from them1 and your red coals are longer preserved from consuming4 ,i conceive this construction1 though not so complete a consumer of all the smoke as the vase1 yet to be fitter for common use1 and very advantageous4 ,it gives too a full sight of the fire1 always a pleasing object1 which we have not in the other4 ,it may with a touch be turned more or less from any one of the company that desires to have less of its heat1 or presented full to one just come out of the cold4 ,and supported in a horizontal position1 a tea-kettle may be boiled on it4 ,the author's description of his ,pensylvania fireplace1 first published in #agdd1 having fallen into the hands of workmen in ,europe1 who did not1 it seems1 well comprehend the principles of that machine1 it was much disfigured in their imitations of it2 and one of its main intentions1 that of admitting a sufficient quantity of fresh air warmed in entering through the air-box1 nearly defeated1 by a pretended improvement1 in lessening its passages to make more room for coals in a grate4 ,on pretence of such improvements1 they obtained patents for the invention1 and for a while made great profit by the sale1 till the public became sensible of that defect1 in the expected operation4 ,if the same thing should be attempted with this vase stove1 it will be well for the buyer to examine thoroughly such pretended improvements1 lest1 being the mere productions of ignorance1 they diminish or defeat the advantages of the machine1 and produce inconvenience and disappointment4 ,the method of burning smoke1 by obliging it to descend through hot coals1 may be of great use in heating the walls of a hot-house4 ,in the common way1 the horizontal passages or flues that are made to go and return in those walls1 lose a great deal of their effect when they come to be foul with soot2 for a thick blanket-like lining of soot prevents much of the hot air from touching and heating the brick work in its passage1 so that more fire must be made as the flue grows fouler3 but by burning the smoke they are kept always clean4 ,the same method may also be of great advantage to those businesses in which large coppers or caldrons are to be heated4 ,written at ,sea1 #aghe4 ,,footnote3 #fj ,from the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in which it was read ,january #bh1 #aghf4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,miss ,,stephenson4 ,method of ,contracting ,chimneys4 ,modesty in ,disputation4 ,craven-,street1 ,saturday ,evening1 past #aj4 ,the question you ask me is a very sensible one1 and ,i shall be glad if ,i can give you a satisfactory answer4 ,there are two ways of contracting a chimney2 one1 by contracting the opening before the fire2 the other1 by contracting the funnel above the fire4 ,if the funnel above the fire is left open in its full dimensions1 and the opening before the fire is contracted2 then the coals1 ,i imagine1 will burn faster1 because more air is directed through the fire1 and in a stronger stream2 that air which before passed over it1 and on each side of it1 now passing through it4 ,this is seen in narrow stove chimneys1 when a sacheverell or blower is used1 which still more contracts the narrow opening4--,but if the funnel only above the fire is contracted1 then1 as a less stream of air is passing up the chimney1 less must pass through the fire1 and consequently it should seem that the consuming of the coals would rather be checked than augmented by such contraction4 ,and this will also be the case1 when both the opening before the fire1 and the funnel above the fire are contracted1 provided the funnel above the fire is more contracted in proportion than the opening before the fire4--,so you see ,i think you had the best of the argument2 and as you notwithstanding gave it up in complaisance to the company1 ,i think you had also the best of the dispute4 ,there are few1 though convinced1 that know how to give up1 even an error1 they have been once engaged in maintaining2 there is therefore the more merit in dropping a contest where one thinks one's self right2 it is at least respectful to those we converse with4 ,and indeed all our knowledge is so imperfect1 and we are from a thousand causes so perpetually subject to mistake and error1 that positiveness can scarce ever become even the most knowing2 and modesty in advancing any opinion1 however plain and true we may suppose it1 is always decent1 and generally more likely to procure assent4 ,pope's rule ,to speak1 though sure1 with seeming diffidence1 is therefore a good one2 and if ,i had ever seen in your conversation the least deviation from it1 ,i should earnestly recommend it to your observation4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,michael ,,hillegras ,,esq4 ,respecting covering ,houses with ,copper4#fa ,london1 ,march #ag1 #aggj4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i received your favour of ,november #be1 and have made enquiries1 as you desired1 concerning the copper covering of houses4 ,it has been used here in a few instances only1 and the practice does not seem to gain ground4 ,the copper is about the thickness of a common playing card1 and though a dearer metal than lead1 ,i am told1 that1 as less weight serves1 on account of its being so much thinner1 and as slighter woodwork in the roof is sufficient to support it1 the roof is not dearer on the whole1 than one covered with lead4 ,it is said1 that hail and rain make a disagreeable drumming noise on copper2 but this ,i suppose is rather fancy2 for the plates being fastened on the rafters1 must1 in a great measure1 deaden such sound4 ,the first cost1 whatever it is1 will be all1 as a copper covering must last for ages2 and when the house decays1 the plates will still have intrinsic worth4 ,in ,russia1 ,i am informed many houses are covered with plates of iron tinned1 such as our tin pots and other vases are made of1 laid on over the edges of one another like tiles2 and which1 it is said1 last very long1 the tin preserving the iron from much decay by rusting4 ,in ,france and the ,low ,countries1 ,i have seen many spouts or pipes for conveying the water down from the roofs of houses1 made of the same kind of tin plates soldered together2 and they seem to stand very well4 ,with sincere regard1 ,i am1 ,yours1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #fa ,the two following letters1 and the accompanying paper1 appeared in several periodical publications1 both ,english and ,american1 many years before the death of ,franklin1 which is sufficient to give them authenticity4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,samuel ,,rhoads1 ,,esq4 ,on the same ,subject4 ,london1 ,june #bf1 #aggj4 ,,dear ,,friend1 ,it is a long time since ,i had the pleasure of hearing from you directly4 ,mrs4 ,franklin has indeed now and then acquainted me of your welfare1 which ,i am always glad to hear of4 ,it is1 ,i fear1 partly1 if not altogether1 my fault1 that our correspondence has not been regularly continued4 ,one thing ,i am sure of1 that it has been from no want of regard on either side1 but rather from too much business1 and avocations of various kinds1 and my having little of importance to communicate4 ,one of our good citizens1 ,mr4 ,hillegras1 anxious for the future safety of our town1 wrote to me some time since1 desiring ,i would enquire concerning the covering of our houses here with copper4 ,i sent him the best information ,i could then obtain1 but have since received the inclosed from an ingenious friend1 who is what they call here a civil engineer4 ,i should be glad you would peruse it1 think of the matter a little and give me your sentiments of it4 ,when you have done with the paper1 please to give it to ,mr4 ,hillegras4 ,i am told by ,lord ,despencer1 who has covered a long piazza1 or gallery1 with copper1 that the expence is charged in this account too high1 for his cost but one shilling and ten-pence per foot1 all charges included4 ,i suppose his copper must have been thinner4 ,and1 indeed1 it is so strong a metal1 that ,i think it may well be used very thin4 ,it appears to me of great importance1 to build our dwelling houses1 if we can1 in a manner more secure from danger by fire4 ,we scarcely ever hear of fire in ,paris4 ,when ,i was there ,i took particular notice of the construction of their houses1 and ,i did not see how one of them could well be burnt1 the roofs are slate or tile1 the walls are stone1 the walls generally lined with stucco or plaster1 instead of wainscot1 the floors of stucco1 or of six square tiles painted brown1 or of flag stone1 or of marble2 if any floors were of wood1 it was of oak wood1 which is not so inflammable as pine4 ,carpets prevent the coldness of stone or brick floors offending the feet in winter1 and the noise of treading on such floors1 overhead1 is less inconvenient than on boards4 ,the stairs too1 at ,paris1 are either stone or brick1 with only a wooden edge or corner for the step2 so that on the whole1 though the ,parisians commonly burn wood in their chimneys1 a more dangerous kind of fuel than that used here1 yet their houses escape extremely well1 as there is little in a room that can be consumed by fire except the furniture3 whereas in ,london1 perhaps scarcely a year passes in which half a million of property and many lives are not lost by this destructive element4 ,of late1 indeed1 they begin here to leave off wainscoting their rooms1 and instead of it cover the walls with stucco1 often formed into pannels like wainscot1 which being painted1 is very strong and warm4 ,stone staircases too1 with iron rails1 grow more and more into fashion here3 but stone steps cannot1 in some circumstances1 be fixed2 and there1 methinks1 oak is safer than pine2 and ,i assure you1 that in many genteel houses here1 both old and new1 the stairs and floors are oak1 and look extremely well4 ,perhaps solid oak for the steps would be still safer than boards2 and two steps might be cut diagonally out of one piece4 ,excuse my talking to you on a subject with which you must be so much better acquainted than ,i am4 ,it is partly to make out a letter1 and partly in hope1 that1 by turning your attention to the point1 some methods of greater security in our future building may be thought of and promoted by you1 whose judgment ,i know has deservedly great weight with our fellow-citizens4 ,for though our town has not hitherto suffered very greatly by fire1 yet ,i am apprehensive1 that some time or other1 by a concurrence of unlucky circumstances1 such as dry weather1 hard frost1 and high winds1 a fire then happening may suddenly spread far and wide over our cedar roofs1 and do us an immense mischief4 ,i am1 ,yours1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,paper referred to in the preceding ,letter4 ,the carpentry of the roof being formed with its proper descents1 is1 in the first place1 sheeted or covered with deals1 nailed horizontally upon the rafters1 after the same manner as when intended to be covered with lead4 ,the sheets of the copper for this covering are two feet by four1 and for covering the slopes of the roof are cast so thin1 as to weigh eight or nine pounds1 and for covering the flats or gutters1 ten or eleven pounds each1 or about one pound1 or a pound and a quarter1 to the superficial foot4 ,a string of strong cartridge paper 7over-lapping a little at its joints7 is regularly tacked down upon the sheeting1 under the copper covering1 as the work proceeds from eaves to ridge4 ,it prevents the jingling sound of hail or rain falling upon the roof1 and answers another purpose to be mentioned by-and-by4 ,in order to shew the regular process of laying down the roof1 we must begin with fastening two sheets together lengthwise4 ,the edges of two sheets are laid down so as to lap or cover each other an inch1 and a slip of the same copper1 about three and a half inches broad1 called the reeve1 is introduced between them4 ,four oblong holes1 or slits1 are then cut or punched through the whole1 and they are fastened or riveted together by copper nails1 with small round shanks and flat heads4 ,indents are then cut #a inch deep upon the seam at top and bottom4 ,the right hand sheet and the reeve are then folded back to the left4 ,the reeve is then folded to the right1 and the sheets being laid on the roof in their place1 it is nailed down to the sheeting with flat-headed short copper nails4 ,the right hand sheet is then folded over the reeve to the right1 and the whole beat down flat upon the cartridge paper covering the sheeting1 and thus they are fastened and laid in their places1 by nailing down the reeve only2 and by reason of the oblong holes through them and the reeve1 have a little liberty to expand or contract with the heat and cold1 without raising themselves up from the sheeting1 or tearing themselves or the fastening to pieces4 ,two other sheets are then fixed together1 according to the first and second operations above1 and their seam1 with the reeve1 introduced under the upper ends of the seam of the former1 so as to cover down about two inches upon the upper ends of the former sheets3 and so far the cartridge paper is allowed to cover the two first sheets4 ,this edge of the paper is dipped in oil1 or in turpentine1 so far before its application1 and thus a body between the sheets is formed impenetrable to wet1 and the reeve belonging to the two last sheets is nailed down to the sheeting as before1 and the left hand sheet is turned down to the right4 ,four sheets are now laid down1 with the seam or joint rising to the ridge2 and thus the work is continued1 both vertically and horizontally1 till the roof be covered1 the sides and ends of each sheet being alternately each way1 undermost and uppermost4 ,the price for copper1 nails1 and workmanship1 runs at about eight pounds ten shillings per hundred weight1 or two shillings and three-pence per foot1 superficial1 exclusive of the lappings2 and about two shillings and eight-pence per foot upon the whole2 which is rather above half as much more as the price of doing it well with lead4 ,,to ,,peter ,,collinson1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,london4 ,magical ,square of ,squares4 ,,sir1 ,according to your request ,i now send you the arithmetical curiosity1 of which this is the history4 ,being one day in the country1 at the house of our common friend1 the late learned ,mr4 ,logan1 he showed me a folio ,french book filled with magic squares1 wrote1 if ,i forget not1 by one ,m4 ,frenicle1 in which he said the author had discovered great ingenuity and dexterity in the management of numbers2 and though several other foreigners had distinguished themselves in the same way1 he did not recollect that any one ,englishman had done any thing of the kind remarkable4 ,i said1 it was1 perhaps1 a mark of the good sense of our ,english mathematicians1 that they would not spend their time in things that were merely difficiles nug1 incapable of any useful application4 ,he answered1 that many of the arithmetical or mathematical questions1 publicly proposed and answered in ,england1 were equally trifling and useless4 ,perhaps the considering and answering such questions1 ,i replied1 may not be altogether useless1 if it produces by practice an habitual readiness and exactness in mathematical disquisitions1 which readiness may1 on many occasions1 be of real use4 ,in the same way1 says he1 may the making of these squares be of use4 ,i then confessed to him1 that in my younger days1 having once some leisure 7which ,i still think ,i might have employed more usefully7 ,i had amused myself in making these kind of magic squares1 and1 at length1 had acquired such a knack at it1 that ,i could fill the cells of any magic square of reasonable size1 with a series of numbers as fast as ,i could write them1 disposed in such a manner as that the sums of every row1 horizontal1 perpendicular1 or diagonal1 should be equal2 but not being satisfied with these1 which ,i looked on as common and easy things1 ,i had imposed on myself more difficult tasks1 and succeeded in making other magic squares1 with a variety of properties1 and much more curious4 ,he then shewed me several in the same book1 of an uncommon and more curious kind2 but as ,i thought none of them equal to some ,i remembered to have made1 he desired me to let him see them2 and accordingly1 the next time ,i visited him1 ,i carried him a square of #h1 which ,i found among my old papers1 and which ,i will now give you1 with an account of its properties4 7,see ,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #c47 ,the properties are1 #a4 ,that every strait row 7horizontal or vertical7 of #h numbers added together makes #bfj1 and half each row half #bfj4 #b4 ,that the bent row of #h numbers1 ascending and descending diagonally1 viz4 from #af ascending to #aj1 and from #bc descending to #ag2 and every one of its parallel bent rows of #h numbers make #bfj4--;,also the bent row from #eb descending to #ed1 and from #dc ascending to #de2 and every one of its parallel bent rows of #h numbers make #bfj4--;,also the bent row from #de to #dc1 descending to the left1 and from #bc to #ag1 descending to the right1 and every one of its parallel bent rows of #h numbers1 make #bfj4--;,also the bent row from #eb to #ed1 descending to the right1 and from #aj to #af1 descending to the left1 and every one of its parallel bent rows of #h numbers make #bfj4--;,also the parallel bent rows next to the above-mentioned1 which are shortened to #c numbers ascending1 and #c descending1 c4 as from #ec to #d ascending1 and from #bi to #dd descending1 make1 with the two corner numbers1 #bfj4--;,also the #b numbers #ad1 #fa ascending1 and #cf1 #ai descending1 with the lower #d numbers situated like them1 viz4 #ej1 #a1 descending1 and #cb1 #dg1 ascending1 make #bfj4--;,and1 lastly1 the #d corner numbers1 with the #d middle numbers1 make #bfj4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #cbg4 ,a ,magic ,square of ,squares4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,so this magical square seems perfect in its kind4 ,but these are not all its properties2 there are #e other curious ones1 which1 at some other time1 ,i will explain to you4 ,mr4 ,logan then shewed me an old arithmetical book1 in quarto1 wrote1 ,i think1 by one ,stifelius1 which contained a square of #af1 that he said he should imagine must have been a work of great labour2 but if ,i forget not1 it had only the common properties of making the same sum1 viz4 #bjef1 in every row1 horizontal1 vertical1 and diagonal4 ,not willing to be out-done by ,mr4 ,stifelius1 even in the size of my square1 ,i went home1 and made1 that evening1 the following magical square of #af1 which1 besides having all the properties of the foregoing square of #h1 i4 e4 it would make the #bjef in all the same rows and diagonals1 had this added1 that a four-square hole being cut in a piece of paper of such a size as to take in and show through it just #af of the little squares1 when laid on the greater square1 the sum of the #af numbers so appearing through the hole1 wherever it was placed on the greater square1 should likewise make #bjef4 ,this ,i sent to our friend the next morning1 who1 after some days1 sent it back in a letter with these words3 ,i return to thee thy astonishing or most stupendous piece of the magical square1 in which---- but the compliment is too extravagant1 and therefore1 for his sake1 as well as my own1 ,i ought not to repeat it4 ,nor is it necessary2 for ,i make no question but you will readily allow this square of #af to be the most magically magical of any magic square ever made by any magician4 7,see the ,plate47 ,i did not1 however1 end with squares1 but composed also a magic circle1 consisting of #h concentric circles1 and #h radial rows1 filled with a series of numbers from #ab to #ge inclusive1 so disposed as that the numbers of each circle1 or each radial row1 being added to the central number #ab1 they make exactly #cfj1 the number of degrees in a circle2 and this circle had1 moreover1 all the properties of the square of #h4 ,if you desire it1 ,i will send it2 but at present1 ,i believe1 you have enough on this subject4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,,the ,,same4 ,magical ,circle4 ,,sir1 ,i am glad the perusal of the magical squares afforded you any amusement4 ,i now send you the magical circle4 7,see ,plate ,,xii47 ,its properties1 besides those mentioned in my former1 are these4 ,half the number in any radial row1 added with half the central number1 make #ahj1 equal to the number of degrees in a semi-circle4 ,also half the numbers in any one of the concentric circles1 taken either above or below the horizontal double line1 with half the central number1 make #ahj4 ,and if any four adjoining numbers1 standing nearly in a square1 be taken from any part1 and added with half the central number1 they make #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #cbh4 ,a ,,magic ,,circle ,,of ,,circles4 ,published as the ,act directs1 ,april #a1 #ahjf1 by ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees ,orme1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,there are1 moreover1 included four other sets of circular spaces1 excentric with respect to the first1 each of these sets containing five spaces4 ,the centres of the circles that bound them1 are at ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d4 ,each set1 for the more easy distinguishing them from the first1 are drawn with a different coloured ink1 red1 blue1 green1 and yellow4#fb ,these sets of excentric circular spaces intersect those of the concentric1 and each other2 and yet the numbers contained in each of the twenty excentric spaces1 taken all around1 make1 with the central number1 the same sum as those in each of the #h concentric1 viz4 #cfj4 ,the halves1 also of those drawn from the centres ,a and ,c1 taken above or below the double horizontal line1 and of those drawn from centres ,b and ,d1 taken to the right or left of the vertical line1 do1 with half the central number1 make just #ahj4 ,it may be observed1 that there is not one of the numbers but what belongs at least to two of the different circular spaces2 some to three1 some to four1 some to five2 and yet they are all so placed as never to break the required number #cfj1 in any of the #bh circular spaces within the primitive circle4 ,these interwoven circles make so perplexed an appearance1 that it is not easy for the eye to trace every circle of numbers one would examine1 through all the maze of circles intersected by it2 but if you fix one foot of the compasses in either of the centres1 and extend the other to any number in the circle you would examine belonging to that centre1 the moving foot will point the others out1 by passing round over all the numbers of that circle successively4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #fb ,in the plate they are distinguished by dashed or dotted lines1 as different as the engraver could well make them4 ,,to ,,the ,,rev4 ,,father ,,beccaria4 ,describing a new musical ,instrument composed of ,glasses4 ,london1 ,july #ac1 #agfb4 ,,rev4 ,,sir1 ,i once promised myself the pleasure of seeing you at ,turin1 but as that is not now likely to happen1 being just about returning to my native country1 ,america1 ,i sit down to take leave of you 7among others of my ,european friends that ,i cannot see7 by writing4 ,i thank you for the honourable mention you have so frequently made of me in your letters to ,mr4 ,collinson and others1 for the generous defence you undertook and executed with so much success1 of my electrical opinions2 and for the valuable present you have made me of your new work1 from which ,i have received great information and pleasure4 ,i wish ,i could in return entertain you with any thing new of mine on that subject2 but ,i have not lately pursued it4 ,nor do ,i know of any one here that is at present much engaged in it4 ,perhaps1 however1 it may be agreeable to you1 as you live in a musical country1 to have an account of the new instrument lately added here to the great number that charming science was before possessed of4--,as it is an instrument that seems peculiarly adapted to ,italian music1 especially that of the soft and plaintive kind1 ,i will endeavour to give you such a description of it1 and of the manner of constructing it1 that you or any of your friends1 may be enabled to imitate it1 if you incline so to do1 without being at the expence and trouble of the many experiments ,i have made in endeavouring to bring it to its present perfection4 ,you have doubtless heard the sweet tone that is drawn from a drinking glass1 by passing a wet finger round its brim4 ,one ,mr4 ,puckeridge1 a gentleman from ,ireland1 was the first who thought of playing tunes1 formed of these tones4 ,he collected a number of glasses of different sizes1 fixed them near each other on a table1 and tuned them by putting into them water more or less1 as each note required4 ,the tones were brought out by passing his fingers round their brims4--,he was unfortunately burned here1 with his instrument1 in a fire which consumed the house he lived in4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,delaval1 a most ingenious member of our ,royal ,society1 made one in imitation of it1 with a better choice and form of glasses1 which was the first ,i saw or heard4 ,being charmed with the sweetness of its tones1 and the music he produced from it1 ,i wished only to see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form1 and brought together in a narrower compass1 so as to admit of a greater number of tones1 and all within reach of hand to a person sitting before the instrument1 which ,i accomplished1 after various intermediate trials1 and less commodious forms1 both of glasses and construction1 in the following manner4 ,illustration3 7hemispherical glass vessel7 ,the glasses are blown as near as possible in the form of hemispheres1 having each an open neck or socket in the middle4 ,the thickness of the glass near the brim about a tenth of an inch1 or hardly quite so much1 but thicker as it comes nearer the neck1 which in the largest glasses is about an inch deep1 and an inch and half wide within1 these dimensions lessening as the glasses themselves diminish in size1 except that the neck of the smallest ought not to be shorter than half an inch4--,the largest glass is nine inches diameter1 and the smallest three inches4 ,between these three are twenty-three different sizes1 differing from each other a quarter of an inch in diameter4--,to make a single instrument there should be at least six glasses blown of each size2 and out of this number one may probably pick thirty-seven glasses 7which are sufficient for three octaves with all the semitones7 that will be each either the note one wants or a little sharper than that note1 and all fitting so well into each other as to taper pretty regularly from the largest to the smallest4 ,it is true there are not thirty-seven sizes1 but it often happens that two of the same size differ a note or half note in tone1 by reason of a difference in thickness1 and these may be placed one in the other without sensibly hurting the regularity of the taper form4 ,the glasses being chosen1 and every one marked with a diamond the note you intend it for1 they are to be tuned by diminishing the thickness of those that are too sharp4 ,this is done by grinding them round from the neck towards the brim1 the breadth of one or two inches1 as may be required2 often trying the glass by a well tuned harpsichord1 comparing the tone drawn from the glass by your finger1 with the note you want1 as sounded by that string of the harpsichord4 ,when you come nearer the matter1 be careful to wipe the glass clean and dry before each trial1 because the tone is something flatter when the glass is wet1 than it will be when dry2--and grinding a very little between each trial1 you will thereby tune to great exactness4 ,the more care is necessary in this1 because if you go below your required tone1 there is no sharpening it again but by grinding somewhat off the brim1 which will afterwards require polishing1 and thus increase the trouble4 ,the glasses being thus tuned1 you are to be provided with a case for them1 and a spindle on which they are to be fixed4 ,my case is about three feet long1 eleven inches every way wide within at the biggest end1 and five inches at the smallest end2 for it tapers all the way1 to adapt it better to the conical figure of the set of glasses4 ,this case opens in the middle of its height1 and the upper part turns up by hinges fixed behind4 ,the spindle1 which is of hard iron1 lies horizontally from end to end of the box within1 exactly in the middle1 and is made to turn on brass gudgeons at each end4 ,it is round1 an inch diameter at the thickest end1 and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the smallest4--,a square shank comes from its thickest end through the box1 on which shank a wheel is fixed by a screw4 ,this wheel serves as a fly to make the motion equable1 when the spindle1 with the glasses1 is turned by the foot like a spinning-wheel4 ,my wheel is of mahogany1 eighteen inches diameter1 and pretty thick1 so as to conceal near its circumference about #belb of lead4--,an ivory pin is fixed in the face of this wheel1 and about four inches from the axis4 ,over the neck of this pin is put the loop of the string that comes up from the moveable step to give it motion4 ,the case stands on a neat frame with four legs4 ,to fix the glasses on the spindle1 a cork is first to be fitted in each neck pretty tight1 and projecting a little without the neck1 that the neck of one may not touch the inside of another when put together1 for that would make a jarring4--,these corks are to be perforated with holes of different diameters1 so as to suit that part of the spindle on which they are to be fixed4 ,when a glass is put on1 by holding it stiffly between both hands1 while another turns the spindle1 it may be gradually brought to its place4 ,but care must be taken that the hole be not too small1 lest in forcing it up the neck should split2 nor too large1 lest the glass not being firmly fixed should turn or move on the spindle1 so as to touch and jar against its neighbouring glass4 ,the glasses thus are placed one in another1 the largest on the biggest end of the spindle which is to the left hand2 the neck of this glass is towards the wheel1 and the next goes into it in the same position1 only about an inch of its brim appearing beyond the brim of the first2 thus proceeding1 every glass when fixed shews about an inch of its brim 7or three quarters of an inch1 or half an inch1 as they grow smaller7 beyond the brim of the glass that contains it2 and it is from these exposed parts of each glass that the tone is drawn1 by laying a finger upon one of them as the spindle and glasses turn round4 ,my largest glass is ,g1 a little below the reach of a common voice1 and my highest ,g1 including three compleat octaves4--,to distinguish the glasses the more readily to the eye1 ,i have painted the apparent parts of the glasses within side1 every semitone white1 and the other notes of the octave with the seven prismatic colours1 viz4 ,c1 red2 ,d1 orange2 ,e1 yellow2 ,f1 green2 ,g1 blue2 ,a1 indigo2 ,b1 purple2 and ,c1 red again2--so that glasses of the same colour 7the white excepted7 are always octaves to each other4 ,this instrument is played upon1 by sitting before the middle of the set of glasses as before the keys of a harpsichord1 turning them with the foot1 and wetting them now and then with a spunge and clean water4 ,the fingers should be first a little soaked in water1 and quite free from all greasiness2 a little fine chalk upon them is sometimes useful1 to make them catch the glass and bring out the tone more readily4 ,both hands are used1 by which means different parts are played together4--,observe1 that the tones are best drawn out when the glasses turn from the ends of the fingers1 not when they turn to them4 ,the advantages of this instrument are1 that its tones are incomparably sweet beyond those of any other2 that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger1 and continued to any length2 and that the instrument1 being once well tuned1 never again wants tuning4 ,in honour of your musical language1 ,i have borrowed from it the name of this instrument1 calling it the ,armonica4 ,with great esteem and respect1 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,to ,a ,,friend#fc4 ,respecting the best ,mediums for conveying ,sound4 ,july #bj1 #agfb4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i have perused your paper on sound1 and would freely mention to you1 as you desire it1 every thing that appeared to me to need correction3--,but nothing of that kind occurs to me1 unless it be1 where you speak of the air as the best medium for conveying sound4 ,perhaps this is speaking rather too positively1 if there be1 as ,i think there are1 some other mediums that will convey it farther and more readily4--,it is a well-known experiment1 that the scratching of a pin at one end of a long piece of timber1 may be heard by an ear applied near the other end1 though it could not be heard at the same distance through the air4--,and two stones being struck smartly together under water1 the stroke may be heard at a greater distance by an ear also placed under water1 than it can be heard through the air4 ,i think ,i have heard it near a mile2 how much farther it may be heard ,i know not2 but suppose a great deal farther1 because the sound did not seem faint1 as if at a distance1 like distant sounds through air1 but smart and strong1 and as if present just at the ear4--,i wish you would repeat these experiments now you are upon the subject1 and add your own observations4--,and if you were to repeat1 with your naturally exact attention and observation1 the common experiment of the bell in the exhausted receiver1 possibly something new may occur to you1 in considering1 #a4 ,whether the experiment is not ambiguous2 i4 e4 whether the gradual exhausting of the air1 as it creates an increasing difference of pressure on the outside1 may not occasion in the glass a difficulty of vibrating1 that renders it less fit to communicate to the air without1 the vibrations that strike it from within2 and the diminution of the sound arise from this cause1 rather than from the diminution of the air8 #b4 ,whether1 as the particles of air themselves are at a distance from each other1 there must not be some medium between them1 proper for conveying sound1 since otherwise it would stop at the first particle8 #c4 ,whether the great difference we experience in hearing sounds at a distance1 when the wind blows towards us from the sonorous body1 or towards that from us1 can be well accounted for by adding to or subtracting from the swiftness of sound1 the degree of swiftness that is in the wind at the time8 ,the latter is so small in proportion1 that it seems as if it could scarce produce any sensible effect1 and yet the difference is very great4 ,does not this give some hint1 as if there might be a subtle fluid1 the conductor of sound1 which moves at different times in different directions over the surface of the earth1 and whose motion may perhaps be much swifter than that of the air in our strongest winds2 and that in passing through air1 it may communicate that motion to the air which we call wind1 though a motion in no degree so swift as its own8 #d4 ,it is somewhere related1 that a pistol fired on the top of an exceeding high mountain1 made a noise like thunder in the valleys below4 ,perhaps this fact is not exactly related3 but if it is1 would not one imagine from it1 that the rarer the air1 the greater sound might be produced in it from the same cause8 #e4 ,those balls of fire which are sometimes seen passing over a country1 computed by philosophers to be often thirty miles high at least1 sometimes burst at that height2 the air must be exceeding rare there1 and yet the explosion produces a sound that is heard at that distance1 and for seventy miles round on the surface of the earth1 so violent too as to shake buildings1 and give an apprehension of an earthquake4 ,does not this look as if a rare atmosphere1 almost a vacuum1 was no bad conductor of sound8 ,i have not made up my own mind on these points1 and only mention them for your consideration1 knowing that every subject is the better for your handling it4 ,with the greatest esteem1 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #fc ,mr4 ,oliver ,neave4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,lord ,,kaims1 ,,at ,,edinburgh4 ,on the ,harmony and ,melody of the old ,scotch ,tunes4 ,june #b1 #agfe4 99999999 ,in my passage to ,america ,i read your excellent work1 the ,elements of ,criticism1 in which ,i found great entertainment4 ,i only wished you had examined more fully the subject of music1 and demonstrated that the pleasure artists feel in hearing much of that composed in the modern taste1 is not the natural pleasure arising from melody or harmony of sounds1 but of the same kind with the pleasure we feel on seeing the surprising feats of tumblers and rope-dancers1 who execute difficult things4 ,for my part ,i take this to be really the case1 and suppose it the reason why those who are unpractised in music1 and therefore unacquainted with those difficulties1 have little or no pleasure in hearing this music4 ,many pieces of it are mere compositions of tricks4 ,i have sometimes1 at a concert1 attended by a common audience1 placed myself so as to see all their faces1 and observed no signs of pleasure in them during the performance of a great part that was admired by the performers themselves2 while a plain old ,scotch tune1 which they disdained1 and could scarcely be prevailed on to play1 gave manifest and general delight4 ,give me leave1 on this occasion1 to extend a little the sense of your position1 that melody and harmony are separately agreeable1 and in union delightful1 and to give it as my opinion1 that the reason why the ,scotch tunes have lived so long1 and will probably live for ever 7if they escape being stifled in modern affected ornament7 is merely this1 that they are really compositions of melody and harmony united1 or rather that their melody is harmony4 ,i mean the simple tunes sung by a single voice4 ,as this will appear paradoxical1 ,i must explain my meaning4 ,in common acceptation1 indeed1 only an agreeable succession of sounds is called melody1 and only the co-existence of agreeable sounds1 harmony4 ,but since the memory is capable of retaining for some moments a perfect idea of the pitch of a past sound1 so as to compare with it the pitch of a succeeding sound1 and judge truly of their agreement or disagreement1 there may and does arise from thence a sense of harmony between the present and past sounds1 equally pleasing with that between two present sounds4 ,now the construction of the old ,scotch tunes is this1 that almost every succeeding emphatical note is a third1 a fifth1 an octave1 or in short some note that is in concord with the preceding note4 ,thirds are chiefly used1 which are very pleasing concords4 ,i use the word emphatical to distinguish those notes which have a stress laid on them in singing the tune1 from the lighter connecting notes1 that serve merely1 like grammar articles in common speech1 to tack the whole together4 ,that we have a most perfect idea of a sound just past1 ,i might appeal to all acquainted with music1 who know how easy it is to repeat a sound in the same pitch with one just heard4 ,in tuning an instrument1 a good ear can as easily determine that two strings are in unison by sounding them separately1 as by sounding them together2 their disagreement is also as easily1 ,i believe ,i may say more easily and better distinguished1 when sounded separately2 for when sounded together1 though you know by the beating that one is higher than the other1 you cannot tell which it is4 ,i have ascribed to memory the ability of comparing the pitch of a present tone with that of one past4 ,but if there should be1 as possibly there may be1 something in the ear1 similar to what we find in the eye1 that ability would not be entirely owing to memory4 ,possibly the vibrations given to the auditory nerves by a particular sound may actually continue some time after the cause of those vibrations is past1 and the agreement or disagreement of a subsequent sound become by comparison with them more discernible4 ,for the impression made on the visual nerves by a luminous object will continue for twenty or thirty seconds4 ,sitting in a room1 look earnestly at the middle of a window a little while when the day is bright1 and then shut your eyes2 the figure of the window will still remain in the eye1 and so distinct that you may count the panes4 ,a remarkable circumstance attending this experiment1 is1 that the impression of forms is better retained than that of colours2 for after the eyes are shut1 when you first discern the image of the window1 the panes appear dark1 and the cross bars of the sashes1 with the window frames and walls1 appear white or bright2 but if you still add to the darkness in the eyes by covering them with your hand1 the reverse instantly takes place1 the panes appear luminous and the cross bars dark4 ,and by removing the hand they are again reversed4 ,this ,i know not how to account for4--,nor for the following2 that after looking long through green spectacles1 the white paper of a book will on first taking them off appear to have a blush of red2 and after long looking through red glasses1 a greenish cast2 this seems to intimate a relation between green and red not yet explained4 ,farther1 when we consider by whom these ancient tunes were composed1 and how they were first performed1 we shall see that such harmonical successions of sounds was natural and even necessary in their construction4 ,they were composed by the minstrels of those days to be played on the harp accompanied by the voice4 ,the harp was strung with wire1 which gives a sound of long continuance1 and had no contrivance like that in the modern harpsichord1 by which the sound of the preceding could be stopt1 the moment a succeeding note began4 ,to avoid actual discord1 it was therefore necessary that the succeeding emphatic note should be a chord with the preceding1 as their sounds must exist at the same time4 ,hence arose that beauty in those tunes that has so long pleased1 and will please for ever1 though men scarce know why4 ,that they were originally composed for the harp1 and of the most simple kind1 ,i mean a harp without any half notes but those in the natural scale1 and with no more than two octaves of strings1 from ,c to ,c1 ,i conjecture from another circumstance1 which is1 that not one of those tunes1 really ancient1 has a single artificial half note in it1 and that in tunes where it was most convenient for the voice to use the middle notes of the harp1 and place the key in ,f1 there the ,b1 which if used should be a ,b flat1 is always omitted1 by passing over it with a third4 ,the connoisseurs in modern music will say1 ,i have no taste1 but ,i cannot help adding1 that ,i believe our ancestors1 in hearing a good song1 distinctly articulated1 sung to one of those tunes1 and accompanied by the harp1 felt more real pleasure than is communicated by the generality of modern operas1 exclusive of that arising from the scenery and dancing4 ,most tunes of late composition1 not having this natural harmony united with their melody1 have recourse to the artificial harmony of a bass1 and other accompanying parts4#fd ,this support1 in my opinion1 the old tunes do not need1 and are rather confused than aided by it4 ,whoever has heard ,james ,oswald play them on his violoncello1 will be less inclined to dispute this with me4 ,i have more than once seen tears of pleasure in the eyes of his auditors2 and yet1 ,i think1 even his playing those tunes would please more1 if he gave them less modern ornament4 ,i am1 c4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #fd ,the celebrated ,rousseau in his ,dictionnaire de ,musique1 printed #agfh1 appears to have similar sentiments of our modern harmony1 viz4 ,m4 ,rameau prtend que les dessus d'une certaine simplicit suggernt naturellement leur basse1 qu'un homme ayant l'oreille juste non exerce1 entonnera naturellement cette basse4 ,c'est-l un prjug de musicien1 dmenti par toute exprience4 ,non seulement celui qui n'aura jamais entendu ni basse ni harmonie1 ne trouvera1 de lui-mme1 ni cette harmonie ni cette basse2 mais elles lui dplairont si on les lui fait entendre1 il aimera beaucoup mieux le simple unisson4 ,quand on songe que1 de tous les peuples de la terre1 qui tous ont une musique un chant1 les ,europens sont les seuls qui aient une harmonie des accords1 qui trouvent ce mlange agrable2 quand on songe que le monde a dur tant de sicles1 sans que1 de toutes les nations qui ont cultiv les beaux arts1 aucune ait connu cette harmonie2 qu'aucun animal1 qu'aucun oiseau1 qu'aucan tre dans la nature ne produit d'autre accord que l'unisson1 ni d'autre musique que la mlodie2 que les langues orientales1 si sonores1 si musicales2 que les oreilles ,grecques1 si dlicates1 si sensibles1 exerces avec tant d'art1 n'ont jamais guid ces peuples voluptueax passionns vers notre harmonie2 que1 sans elle1 leur musique avoits des effets si prodigieux3 qu'avec elle la ntre en a de si foibles3 qu'entin il toit rserv des peuples du ,nord1 dont les organes durs grossiers sont plus touchs de l'clat du bruit des voix1 que de la douceur des accens1 de la mlodie des inflexions1 de faire cette grande dcouverte1 de la donner pour principe toutes les rgles de l'art2 quand1 dis-je1 on fait attention tout cela1 il est bien difficile de ne pas souponner que toute notre harmonie n'est qu'une invention gothique barbare1 dont nous ne nous fussions jamais aviss1 si nous fussions t plus sensibles aux vritables beauts de l'art1 la musique vraiment naturelle4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,peter ,,franklin1 ,,newport1 ,,new ,,england4 ,on the ,defects of ,modern ,music4 ,no date4 ,,dear ,,brother1 99999999 ,i like your ballad1 and think it well adapted for your purpose of discountenancing expensive foppery1 and encouraging industry and frugality4 ,if you can get it generally sung in your country1 it may probably have a good deal of the effect you hope and expect from it4 ,but as you aimed at making it general1 ,i wonder you chose so uncommon a measure in poetry1 that none of the tunes in common use will suit it4 ,had you fitted it to an old one1 well known1 it must have spread much faster than ,i doubt it will do from the best new tune we can get composed for it4 ,i think too1 that if you had given it to some country girl in the heart of the ,massachusets1 who has never heard any other than psalm tunes1 or ,chevy ,chace1 the ,children in the ,wood1 the ,spanish ,lady1 and such old simple ditties1 but has naturally a good ear1 she might more probably have made a pleasing popular tune for you1 than any of our masters here1 and more proper for your purpose1 which would best be answered1 if every word could as it is sung be understood by all that hear it1 and if the emphasis you intend for particular words could be given by the singer as well as by the reader2 much of the force and impression of the song depending on those circumstances4 ,i will however get it as well done for you as ,i can4 ,do not imagine that ,i mean to depreciate the skill of our composers of music here2 they are admirable at pleasing practised ears1 and know how to delight one another2 but1 in composing for songs1 the reigning taste seems to be quite out of nature1 or rather the reverse of nature1 and yet like a torrent1 hurries them all away with it2 one or two perhaps only excepted4 ,you1 in the spirit of some ancient legislators1 would influence the manners of your country by the united powers of poetry and music4 ,by what ,i can learn of their songs1 the music was simple1 conformed itself to the usual pronunciation of words1 as to measure1 cadence or emphasis1 c4 never disguised and confounded the language by making a long syllable short1 or a short one long when sung2 their singing was only a more pleasing1 because a melodious manner of speaking2 it was capable of all the graces of prose oratory1 while it added the pleasure of harmony4 ,a modern song1 on the contrary1 neglects all the proprieties and beauties of common speech1 and in their place introduces its defects and absurdities as so many graces4 ,i am afraid you will hardly take my word for this1 and therefore ,i must endeavour to support it by proof4 ,here is the first song ,i lay my hand on4 ,it happens to be a composition of one of our greatest masters1 the ever-famous ,handel4 ,it is not one of his juvenile performances1 before his taste could be improved and formed3 it appeared when his reputation was at the highest1 is greatly admired by all his admirers1 and is really excellent in its kind4 ,it is called1 ,the additional favourite song in ,judas ,maccabeus4 ,now ,i reckon among the defects and improprieties of common speech1 the following1 viz4 #a4 ,wrong placing the accent or emphasis1 by laying it on words of no importance1 or on wrong syllables4 #b4 ,drawling2 or extending the sound of words or syllables beyond their natural length4 #c4 ,stuttering2 or making many syllables of one4 #d4 ,unintelligibleness2 the result of the three foregoing united4 #e4 ,tautology2 and #f4 ,screaming1 without cause4 ,for the wrong placing of the accent1 or emphasis1 see it on the word their instead of being on the word vain4 ,illustration 7music73 with their vain my-ste-rious ,art ,and on the word from1 and the wrong syllable like4 ,illustration 7music73 ,god like wisdom from a-bove4 ,for the drawling1 see the last syllable of the word wounded4 ,illustration 7music73 ,nor can heal the wounded heart ,and in the syllable wis1 and the word from1 and syllable bove ,illustration 7music73 ,god-like wisdom from a-bove ,for the stuttering1 see the words ne'er relieve1 in ,illustration 7music73 ,ma-gick charms can ne'er re-lieve you ,here are four syllables made of one1 and eight of three2 but this is moderate4 ,i have seen in another song that ,i cannot now find1 seventeen syllables made of three1 and sixteen of one3 the latter ,i remember was the word charms2 viz4 cha1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 arms4 ,stammering with a witness6 ,for the unintelligibleness2 give this whole song to any taught singer1 and let her sing it to any company that have never heard it2 you shall find they will not understand three words in ten4 ,it is therefore1 that at the oratorios and operas one sees with books in their hands all those who desire to understand what they hear sung by even our best performers4 ,for the tautology2 you have1 with their vain mysterious art1 twice repeated2 magic charms can ne'er relieve you1 three times4 ,nor can heal the wounded heart1 three times4 ,godlike wisdom from above1 twice2 and1 this alone can deceive you1 two or three times4 ,but this is reasonable when compared with the ,monster ,polypheme1 the ,monster ,polypheme1 a hundred times over and over1 in his admired ,acis and ,galatea4 ,as to the screaming2 perhaps ,i cannot find a fair instance in this song2 but whoever has frequented our operas will remember many4 ,and yet here methinks the words no and e'er1 when sung to these notes1 have a little of the air of screaming1 and would actually be screamed by some singers4 ,illustration 7music73 ,no magic charms can e'er re-lieve you4 ,i send you inclosed the song with its music at length4 ,read the words without the repetitions4 ,observe how few they are1 and what a shower of notes attend them3 you will then perhaps be inclined to think with me1 that though the words might be the principal part of an ancient song1 they are of small importance in a modern one2 they are in short only a pretence for singing4 ,i am1 as ever1 ,your affectionate brother1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,p4 ,s4 ,i might have mentioned inarticulation among the defects in common speech that are assumed as beauties in modern singing4 ,but as that seems more the fault of the singer than of the composer1 ,i omitted it in what related merely to the composition4 ,the fine singer in the present mode1 stifles all the hard consonants1 and polishes away all the rougher parts of words that serve to distinguish them one from another2 so that you hear nothing but an admirable pipe1 and understand no more of the song1 than you would from its tune played on any other instrument4 ,if ever it was the ambition of musicians to make instruments that should imitate the human voice1 that ambition seems now reversed1 the voice aiming to be like an instrument4 ,thus wigs were first made to imitate a good natural head of hair2--but when they became fashionable1 though in unnatural forms1 we have seen natural hair dressed to look like wigs4 ,description of the ,process to be observed in making large ,sheets of ,paper in the ,chinese ,manner1 with one smooth surface4#fe ,in ,europe to have a large surface of paper connected together and smooth on one side1 the following operations are performed4 #a4 ,a number of small sheets are to be made separately4 #b4 ,these are to be couched1 one by one1 between blankets4 #c4 ,when a heap is formed it must be put under a strong press1 to force out the water4 #d4 ,then the blankets are to be taken away1 one by one1 and the sheets hung up to dry4 #e4 ,when dry they are to be again pressed1 or if to be sized1 they must be dipped into size made of warm water1 in which glue and alum are dissolved4 #f4 ,they must then be pressed again to force out the superfluous size4 #g4 ,they must then be hung up a second time to dry1 which1 if the air happens to be damp1 requires some days4 #h4 ,they must then be taken down1 laid together1 and again pressed4 #i4 ,they must be pasted together at their edges4 #aj4 ,the whole must be glazed by labour1 with a flint4 ,in ,china1 if they would make sheets1 suppose of four and a half ells long and one and a half ells wide1 they have two large vats1 each five ells long and two ells wide1 made of brick1 lined with a plaster that holds water4 ,in these the stuff is mixed ready to work4 ,between these vats is built a kiln or stove1 with two inclining sides2 each side something larger than the sheet of paper2 they are covered with a fine stucco that takes a polish1 and are so contrived as to be well heated by a small fire circulating in the walls4 ,the mould is made with thin but deep sides1 that it may be both light and stiff3 it is suspended at each end with cords that pass over pullies fastened to the cieling1 their ends connected with a counterpoise nearly equal the weight of the mould4 ,two men1 one at each end of the mould1 lifting it out of the water by the help of the counterpoise1 turn it and apply it with the stuff to the smooth surface of the stove1 against which they press it1 to force out great part of the water through the wires4 ,the heat of the wall soon evaporates the rest1 and a boy takes off the dried sheet by rolling it up4 ,the side next the stove receives the even polish of the stucco1 and is thereby better fitted to receive the impression of fine prints4 ,if a degree of sizing is required1 a decoction of rice is mixed with the stuff in the vat4 ,thus the great sheet is obtained1 smooth and sized1 and a number of the ,european operations saved4 ,as the stove has two polished sides1 and there are two vats1 the same operation is at the same time performed by two other men at the other vat2 and one fire serves4 ,,footnote3 #fe ,communicated by ,dr4 ,franklin to the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in which it was read1 ,june #bj1 #aghh4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,noah ,,webster1 ,,jun4 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,hartford#ff4 ,on ,modern ,innovations in the ,english ,language and in ,printing4 ,philadelphia1 ,dec4#bf1 #aghi4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i received1 some time since1 your ,dissertations on the ,english ,language4 ,it is an excellent work1 and will be greatly useful in turning the thoughts of our countrymen to correct writing4 ,please to accept my thanks for it1 as well as for the great honour you have done me in its dedication4 ,i ought to have made this acknowledgment sooner1 but much indisposition prevented me4 ,i cannot but applaud your zeal for preserving the purity of our language both in its expression and pronunciation1 and in correcting the popular errors several of our states are continually falling into with respect to both4 ,give me leave to mention some of them1 though possibly they may already have occurred to you4 ,i wish1 however1 that in some future publication of yours1 you would set a discountenancing mark upon them4 ,the first ,i remember1 is the word improved4 ,when ,i left ,new ,england in the year #agbc1 this word had never been used among us1 as far as ,i know1 but in the sense of ameliorated1 or made better1 except once in a very old book of ,dr4 ,mather's1 entitled ,remarkable ,providences4 ,as that man wrote a very obscure hand1 ,i remember that when ,i read that word in his book used instead of the word employed1 ,i conjectured that it was an error of the printer1 who had mistaken a short l in the writing for an r1 and a y with too short a tail for a v1 whereby employed was converted into improved3 but when ,i returned to ,boston in #agcc1 ,i found this change had obtained favour1 and was then become common2 for ,i met with it often in perusing the newspapers1 where it frequently made an appearance rather ridiculous4 ,such1 for instance1 as the advertisement of a country house to be sold1 which had been many years improved as a tavern2 and in the character of a deceased country gentleman1 that he had been1 for more than thirty years1 improved as a justice of the peace4 ,this use of the word improve is peculiar to ,new ,england1 and not to be met with among any other speakers of ,english1 either on this or the other side of the water4 ,during my late absence in ,france1 ,i find that several other new words have been introduced into our parliamentary language4 ,for example1 ,i find a verb from the substantive notice4 ,i should not have noticed this1 were it not that the gentleman1 c4 ,also another verb1 from the substantive advocate2 ,the gentleman who advocates1 or who has advocated that motion1c4 ,another from the substantive progress1 the most awkward and abominable of the three3 the committee having progressed1 resolved to adjourn4 ,the word opposed1 though not a new word1 ,i find used in a new manner1 as1 the gentlemen who are opposed to this measure1 to which ,i have also myself always been opposed4 ,if you should happen to be of my opinion with respect to these innovations1 you will use your authority in reprobating them4 ,the ,latin language1 long the vehicle used in distributing knowledge among the different nations of ,europe1 is daily more and more neglected2 and one of the modern tongues1 viz4 ,french1 seems1 in point of universality1 to have supplied its place4 ,it is spoken in all the courts of ,europe2 and most of the literati1 those even who do not speak it1 have acquired enough knowledge of it1 to enable them easily to read the books1 that are written in it4 ,this gives a considerable advantage to that nation4 ,it enables its authors to inculcate and spread through other nations1 such sentiments and opinions1 on important points1 as are most conducive to its interests1 or which may contribute to its reputation1 by promoting the common interests of mankind4 ,it is1 perhaps1 owing to its being written in ,french1 that ,voltaire's ,treatise on ,toleration has had so sudden and so great an effect on the bigotry of ,europe1 as almost entirely to disarm it4 ,the general use of the ,french language has likewise a very advantageous effect on the profits of the bookselling branch of commerce1 it being well known1 that the more copies can be sold1 that are struck off from one composition of types1 the profits increase in a much greater proportion1 than they do in making a greater number of pieces in any other kind of manufacture4 ,and at present there is no capital town in ,europe without a ,french bookseller's shop corresponding with ,paris4 ,our ,english bids fair to obtain the second place4 ,the great body of excellent printed sermons in our language1 and the freedom of our writings on political subjects1 have induced a great dumber of divines of different sects and nations1 as well as gentlemen concerned in public affairs1 to study it1 so far at least as to read it4 ,and if we were to endeavour the facilitating its progress1 the study of our tongue might become much more general4 ,those1 who have employed some part of their time in learning a new language1 must have frequently observed1 that while their acquaintance with it was imperfect1 difficulties1 small in themselves1 operated as great ones in obstructing their progress4 ,a book1 for example1 ill printed1 or a pronunciation in speaking1 not well articulated1 would render a sentence unintelligible1 which1 from a clear print1 or a distinct speaker1 would have been immediately comprehended4 ,if1 therefore1 we would have the benefit of seeing our language more generally known among mankind1 we should endeavour to remove all the difficulties1 however small1 that discourage the learning of it4 ,but ,i am sorry to observe1 that1 of late years1 those difficulties1 instead of being diminished1 have been augmented4 ,in examining the ,english books1 that were printed between the restoration and the accession of ,george the ,second1 we may observe1 that all the substantives were begun with a capital1 in which we imitated our mother tongue1 the ,german4 ,this was more particularly useful to those1 who were not well acquainted with the ,english1 there being such a prodigious number of our words1 that are both verbs and substantives1 and spelt in the same manner1 though often accented differently in pronunciation4 ,this method has1 by the fancy of printers1 of late years been entirely laid aside2 from an idea1 that suppressing the capitals shows the character to greater advantage2 those letters prominent above the line1 disturbing its even1 regular appearance4 ,the effect of this change is so considerable1 that a learned man of ,france1 who used to read our books1 though not perfectly acquainted with our language1 in conversation with me on the subject of our authors1 attributed the greater obscurity he found in our modern books1 compared with those of the period above mentioned1 to a change of style for the worse in our writers3 of which mistake ,i convinced him1 by marking for him each substantive with a capital1 in a paragraph1 which he then easily understood1 though before he could not comprehend it4 ,this shows the inconvenience of that pretended improvement4 ,from the same fondness for an uniform and even appearance of characters in the line1 the printers have of late banished also the ,italic types1 in which words1 of importance to be attended to in the sense of the sentence1 and words1 on which an emphasis should be put in reading1 used to be printed4 ,and lately1 another fancy has induced other printers to use the round s instead of the long one1 which formerly served well to distinguish a word readily by its varied appearance4 ,certainly the omitting this prominent letter makes a line appear more even1 but renders it less immediately legible2 as the paring of all men's noses might smooth and level their faces1 but would render their physiognomies less distinguishable4 ,add to all these improvements backwards1 another modern fancy1 that grey printing is more beautiful than black4 ,hence the ,english new books are printed in so dim a character1 as to be read with difficulty by old eyes2 unless in a very strong light and with good glasses4 ,whoever compares a volume of the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 printed between the years #agca and #agdj1 with one of those printed in the last ten years1 will be convinced of the much greater degree of perspicuity given by black than by the grey4 ,lord ,chesterfield pleasantly remarked this difference to ,faulkener1 the printer of the ,dublin ,journal1 who was vainly making encomiums on his own paper1 as the most complete of any in the world4 ,but ,mr4 ,faulkener1 says my lord1 don't you think it might be still farther improved1 by using paper and ink not quite so near of a colour8--,for all these reasons1 ,i cannot but wish1 that our ,american printers would1 in their editions1 avoid these fancied improvements1 and thereby render their works more agreeable to foreigners in ,europe1 to the great advantage of our bookselling commerce4 ,farther1 to be more sensible of the advantage of clear and distinct printing1 let us consider the assistance it affords in reading well aloud to an auditory4 ,in so doing1 the eye generally slides forward three or four words before the voice4 ,if the sight clearly distinguishes what the coming words are1 it gives time to order the modulation of the voice to express them properly4 ,but if they are obscurely printed or disguised1 by omitting the capitals and long 's1 or otherwise1 the reader is apt to modulate wrong2 and finding he has done so1 he is obliged to go back and begin the sentence again2 which lessens the pleasure of the hearers4 ,this leads me to mention an old error in our mode of printing4 ,we are sensible1 that when a question is met with in the reading1 there is a proper variation to be used in the management of the voice4 ,we have therefore a point1 called an interrogation1 affixed to the question1 in order to distinguish it4 ,but this is absurdly placed at its end1 so that the reader does not discover it till he finds1 that he has wrongly modulated his voice1 and is therefore obliged to begin again the sentence4 ,to prevent this1 the ,spanish printers1 more sensibly1 place an interrogation at the beginning as well as at the end of the question4 ,we have another error of the same kind in printing plays1 where something often occurs1 that is marked as spoken aside4 ,but the word aside is placed at the end of the speech1 when it ought to precede it1 as a direction to the reader1 that he may govern his voice accordingly4 ,the practice of our ladies in meeting five or six together1 to form little busy parties1 where each is employed in some useful work1 while one reads to them1 is so commendable in itself1 that it deserves the attention of authors and printers to make it as pleasing as possible1 both to the reader and hearers4 ,my best wishes attend you1 being1 with sincere esteem1 ,sir1 ,your most obedient and very humble servant1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #ff ,this letter is taken from an ,american periodical publication entitled the ,columbian ,magazine4 ,editor4 ,a ,scheme for a ,new ,alphabet and reformed ,mode of ,spelling2 with ,remarks and ,examples concerning the same2 and an ,enquiry into its ,uses1 in a ,correspondence between ,miss ,s----#fg and ,dr4 ,franklin1 written in the ,characters of the ,alphabet#fh4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,reformed ,,alphabet ,to face page #ceg1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,characters ,sounded respectively1 as in the ,words in the ,column below4 ,names of ,letters as expressed in the reformed ,sounds and ,characters4 ,manner of pronouncing the ,sounds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- o ,old4 o ,the first ,,vowel naturally1 and deepest sound2 requires only the mouth1 and breathe through it4 99 ,john1 folly2 awl1 ball4 ,the next requiring the mouth opened a little more1 or hollower4 a ,man1 can4 a ,the next1 a little more4 e ,men1 lend1 name1 lane4 e ,the next requires the tongue to be a little more elevated4 i ,did1 sin1 deed1 seen4 i ,the next still more4 u ,tool1 fool1 rule4 u ,the next requires the lips to be gathered up1 leaving a small opening 99 ,um1 un2 as in umbrage1 ,the next a very short vowel1 the sound unto1 c4 and of which we should express in our as in er4 present letters thus1 uh2 a short1 and not very strong aspiration4 h ,hunter1 happy1 high4 huh ,a stronger or more forcible aspiration g ,give1 gather1 gi ,the first ,,consonant2 being formed by the root of the tongue2 this is the present hard g4 k ,keep1 kick4 ki ,a kindred sound2 a little more acute2 to be used instead of the hard c4 99 7sh7 ,ship1 wish4 ish ,a new letter wanted in our language2 our sh1 separately taken1 not being proper elements of the sound4 99 7ng7 ing1 repeating1 ing ,a new letter wanted for the same among1 reason3--,these are formed back in the mouth4 n ,end4 en ,formed more forward in the mouth2 the tip of the tongue to the roof of the mouth4 r ,art4 r ,the same2 the tip of the tongue a little loose or separate from the roof of the mouth1 and vibrating4 t ,teeth4 ti ,the tip of the tongue more forward2 touching1 and then leaving1 the roof d ,deed4 di ,the same2 touching a little fuller4 l ell1 tell4 el ,the same2 touching just about the gums of the upper teeth4 s ,essence4 es ,this sound is formed by the breath passing between the moist end of the tongue and the upper teeth4 z 7ez7 ,wages4 ez ,the same2 a little denser and duller4 99 7th7 ,think e ,the tongue under1 and a little behind1 the upper teeth2 touching them1 but so as to let the breath pass between4 99 7dh7 ,thy4 e ,the same2 a little fuller4 f ,effect4 ef ,formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth4 v ,ever4 ev ,the same2 fuller and duller4 b ,bees4 b ,the lips full together1 and opened as the air passes out4 p ,peep4 pi ,the same2 but a thinner sound4 m ,ember4 em ,the closing of the lips1 while the e here annexed is sounding4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 99 ,n4 ,b4 ,the six new letters are marked with an asterisk 7997 to distinguish them1 and show how few new characters are proposed4 ,b4 ,v4 ,transcriber ,note3 ,the original text used italic styling on each character in columns #a and #c above1 and column #a below4 ,this styling 7underscores7 has been removed from the tables for clarity4 ,,remarks on the ,alphabetical ,table4 ,it is endeavoured to give the alphabet o a more natural order2 beginning first with the simple sounds formed by the breath1 to with none or very little help of tongue1 teeth1 and lips1 and produced chiefly in huh the windpipe4 ,then coming forward to those1 formed g k by the roof of the tongue next to the windpipe4 r n ,then to those1 formed more forward1 t d the forepart of the tongue against the roof of the mouth4 ,then those1 formed still more forward l in the mouth1 by the tip of the tongue s z applied first to the roots of the upper teeth4 ,then to those1 formed by the tip of the tongue applied to the ends or edges of the upper teeth4 f ,then to those1 formed still more forward1 v by the under lip applied to the upper teeth4 b ,then to those1 formed yet more forward p by the upper and under lip opening to let out the sounding breath4 ,and lastly1 ending with the shutting m up of the mouth1 or closing the lips while any vowel is sounding4 ,in this alphabet c is omitted as unnecessary2 k supplying its hard sound1 and s the soft2 k also supplies well the place of q1 and with an s added the place of x3 q and x are therefore omitted4 ,the vowel u being sounded as oo makes the w unnecessary4 ,the y1 where used simply1 is supplied by i1 and where as a dipthong1 by two vowels3 that letter is therefore omitted as useless4 ,the jod j is also omitted1 its sound being supplied by the new letter 1 ish1 which serves other purposes1 assisting in the formation of other sounds2--thus the with a d before it gives the sound of the jod j and soft g1 as in ,james1 ,january1 giant1 gentle1 deems1 dhanueri1 diant1 dentel2 with a t before it1 it gives the sound of ch1 as in cherry1 chip1 teri1 tip2 and with a z before it1 the ,french sound of the jod j1 as in jamais1 zame4 ,thus the g has no longer two different sounds1 which occasioned confusion1 but is1 as every letter ought to be1 confined to one4 ,the same is to be observed in all the letters1 vowels1 and consonants1 that wherever they are met with1 or in whatever company1 their sound is always the same4 ,it is also intended1 that there be no superfluous letters used in spelling2 i4 e4 no letter that is not sounded2 and this alphabet1 by six new letters1 provides1 that1 there be no distinct sounds in the language1 without letters to express them4 ,as to the difference between short and long vowels1 it is naturally expressed by a single vowel where short1 a double one where long2 as for mend1 write mend1 but for remain'd1 write remeen'd2 for did write did1 but for deed write diid1 c4 ,what in our common alphabet is supposed the third vowel1 i1 as we sound it1 is as a dipthong1 consisting of two of our vowels joined2 viz4 as sounded in unto1 and i in its true sound4 ,any one will be sensible of this who sounds those two vowels i quick after each other2 the sounds begins and ends ii4 ,the true sound of the i is that we now give to e in the words deed1 keep--#fi4 ,,footnotes3 #fg ,stephenson4 ,editor4 #fh ,for the nature and intention of this alphabet1 c4 ,i must refer to what ,dr4 ,franklin has himself said upon the subject1 in answer to ,miss ,s----n's objections2 as the reader may understand the whole in an hour or two4--,it is necessary to add1 that the new letters2 used in the course of printing this paper1 are exactly copied from the manuscript in my possession2 there being no provision for a distinction in the character as written or printed4 ,i have no other way therefore of marking the scored parts of the manuscript 7answering to italics7 than by placing such passages between inverted commas4--,as to capitals1 ,i should have provided for them by means of larger types1 but the form of some of them would have made them too large for the page3 however1 were the author's general system ever adopted1 nothing would be easier than to remedy this particular4 ,b4 ,v4 #fi ,the copy1 from which this is printed1 ends in the same abrupt way with the above1 followed by a considerable blank space2 so that more perhaps was intended to be added by our author4 ,b4 ,v4 ,,examples of writing in this ,character4 ,so huen sm ,endel1 bi divin kmand1 ,ui rizi tempests eeks e gilti ,land2 7,st az v leet or peel ,britania past17 ,kalm and siriin hi drivs i fiuris blast2 ,and1 pliiz'd ' lmitis rdrs tu prfrm1 ,rids in i ,hurluind and direkts i ,strm4 ,so i piur limpid striim1 huen ful ui steens v ri ,trents and disendi ,reens1 ,urks itself kliir2 and az it rns rifins2 ,til bi digriis1 e floti mirr ins1 ,riflekts iit flur at n its brdr groz1 ,and e nu hev'n in its feer ,bzm oz4 ,kensitn1 ,septembr #bf1 #agfh4 ,diir ,sr1 i hav transkrb'd iur alfabet1 c4 huit i ink mit bi v srvis tu oz1 hu ui ta akuir an akiuret pronnsien1 if at kuld bi fiks'd2 bt i si meni inknviiniensis1 az uel oz difikltis1 at uuld atend i brii iur letrs and rgrafi intu kmn ias4 l ur etimlodiz uuld be lst1 knsikuentli ui kuld nt asrteen i miini v meni urds2 i distinkn tu1 bituiin urds v difrent miini and similar sund uuld bi iusles1 nles ui livi riters pbli nu iidins4 ,in rt i biliiv ui mst let piipil spel n in eer old ue1 7az ui find it iisiiest7 du i seem urselves4 ,with ease and with sincerity ,i can1 in the old way1 subscribe myself1 ,dear ,sir1 ,your faithful and affectionate ,servant1 ,m4 ,s4 ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,,answer ,,to ,,miss ,s999999994 ,diir ,madam1 i bdekyn iu meek to rektifii ur alfabet1 at it uil bi atended ui inkviniensiz and difikltiz1 iz e natural un2 fr it luaz krz huen eni refrmen iz propozed2 huer in rilidn1 gvernment1 lz1 and iven dun az lo az rods and huil karidiz4 i tru kuestn en1 is nt huehr aer uil bi no difikltiz r inknviniensiz1 bt hueer i difikltiz m nt bi srmunted2 and hueer i knviniensiz uil nt1 n i huol1 bi gretr an i inknviniensiz4 ,in is kes1 i difikltiz er onli in i bigini v i praktis3 huen er uns ovrkm1 i advantedez er lasti4--,to ir iu r mi1 hu spel uel in i prezent mod1 i imadin i difiklti v tendi at mod fr i nu1 iz nt so grt1 bt at ui mit prfektli git ovr it in a uiiks riti4--,az to oz hu du nt spel uel1 if i tu difikltiz er kmprd1 viz4 at v titi em tru speli in i prezent mod1 and at v titing em i nu alfabet and i nu speli akrdi to it1 i am knfident at i latr uuld bi byi far i liist4 natrali fl into i nu med alreadi1 az mt az i imperfekn v er alfabet uil admit v2 r prezent bad speli iz onli bad1 bikz kntreri to i prezent bad ruls3 ndr i nu ruls it uuld bi gud4--i difiklti v lrni to spel uel in i old u iz so grt1 at fiu atn it2 uzands and uzands riti n to old ed1 uiut ever bii ebil to akuir it4 ',tiz1 bisidz1 e difiklti kntinuali inkriisi az i sund graduali veriz mor and mor frm i speli2 and to frenrs#gj it mks i lrni to pronns ur laued1 az riten in ur buks1 almost impsibil4 ,nu az to i inknviniensiz iu menn4--i frst iz1 at l ur etimlodiz uuld bi lst1 knsikuentli ui kuld nt asrteen i miini v meni urds4--etimlodiz er at present veri nsrteen2 bt st az er1 i old buks uuld stil prizrv em1 and etimolodiz uuld r find em4 ,urds in i kors v tyim1 tend er miinis1 az uel az er speli and pronnsien2 and ui du nt luk to etimlodi fr er prezent miinis4 ,if i uld kl e man e ,neev and e ,vilen1 hi uuld hardli bi satisfid wi mi teli him1 at un v i urds oridinali signifid onli e lad r srvant2 and i r1 an ndr pluman1 r i inhabitant v e viled4 ,it iz frm prezent iused onli1 i miini v urds iz to bi ditrmined4 ,iur seknd inknviniens iz1 at i distinkn bituiin urds v difrent miini and similar sund uuld bi distrid4--at distinkn iz lreadi distrid in pronunsi em2 and ui rili n i sens alon v i sentens to asrteen1 huit v i several urds1 similar in sund1 ui intend4 ,if is iz sfient in i rapiditi v diskors1 it uil bi mut mor so in riten sentenses1 huit m bi red lezurli1 and atended to mor partikularli in kes v difiklti1 an ui kan atend to e past sentens1 huil e spikr iz hryi s alng ui nu uns4 ,iur rd inknviniens iz1 at l i buks alredi riten uuld bi iusles4--is inknviniens uuld onli km n graduali1 in e kors v edes4 ,iu and i1 and r nu livi ridrs1 uuld hardli frget i ius v em4 ,piipil uuld long lrn to riid i old riting1 o praktist i nu4--,and i inknvinens iz nt greter1 an huat hes aktuali hapend in a similar kes1 in ,iteli1 ,frmerli its inhabitants l spok and rot ,latin3 az i laued tendd1 i speli flo'd it4 ,it iz tru at at prezent1 e miir nlarn'd ,italien knt riid i ,latin buks2 o e er stil red and ndrstud bi meni4 ,bt1 if i speli had nevr bin tended1 hi uuld nu hev fund it mt mor difiklt to riid and ryit hiz on lauad2 fr riten urds uuld hev had no riln to sunds1 e uuld onli hev stud fr is2 so at if hi uuld ekspres in riti i idia hi hez1 huen hi sunds i urd ,vescovo1 hi mst iuz i leterz ,episcopus4--,in rt1 huatever i difikltiz and inknviniensiz nu er1 e uil bi mor iizili srmunted nu1 an hiraftr2 and sm tim r r1 it mst bi dn2 r ur riti uil bikm i sm ui i ,tiniiz#ga1 az to i difiklti v lrni and iuzing it4 ,and it uuld alredi hev bin st1 if ui had kntinud i ,saksn speli and riti1 iuzed bi our forfaers4 i am1 mi diir frind1 iurs afeknetli1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,lndn1 ,kreven-striit1 ,sept4 #bh1 #agfh4 ,,footnotes3 #gj ,dr4 ,franklin used to lay some little stress on this circumstance1 when he occasionally spoke on the subject4 ,a dictionary1 formed on this model1 would have been serviceable to him1 he said1 even as an ,american2 because1 from the want of public examples of pronunciation in his own country1 it was often difficult to learn the proper sound of certain words1 which occurred very frequently in our ,english writings1 and which of course every ,american very well understood as to their meaning4 ,b4 ,v4 #ga ,chinese4 ,rules for a ,club formerly established in ,philadelphia#gb4 ,previous question1 to be answered at every meeting4 ,have you read over these queries this morning1 in order to consider what you might have to offer the ,junto touching any one of them8 viz4 #a4 ,have you met with any thing1 in the author you last read1 remarkable1 or suitable to be communicated to the ,junto8 particularly in history1 morality1 poetry1 physic1 travels1 mechanic arts1 or other parts of knowledge4 #b4 ,what new story have you lately heard agreeable for telling in conversation8 #c4 ,hath any citizen in your knowledge failed in his business lately1 and what have you heard of the cause8 #d4 ,have you lately heard of any citizen's thriving well1 and by what means8 #e4 ,have you lately heard how any present rich man1 here or elsewhere1 got his estate8 #f4 ,do you know of any fellow citizen1 who has lately done a worthy action1 deserving praise and imitation8 or who has lately committed an error1 proper for us to be warned against and avoid8 #g4 ,what unhappy effects of intemperance have you lately observed or heard8 of imprudence8 of passion8 or of any other vice or folly8 #h4 ,what happy effects of temperance8 of prudence8 of moderation8 or of any other virtue8 #i4 ,have you or any of your acquaintance been lately sick or wounded8 ,if so1 what remedies were used1 and what were their effects8 #aj4 ,who do you know that are shortly going voyages or journies1 if one should have occasion to send by them8 #aa4 ,do you think of any thing at present1 in which the ,junto may be serviceable to mankind8 to their country1 to their friends1 or to themselves8 #ab4 ,hath any deserving stranger arrived in town since last meeting1 that you heard of8 and what have you heard or observed of his character or merits8 and whether think you1 it lies in the power of the ,junto to oblige him1 or encourage him as he deserves8 #ac4 ,do you know of any deserving young beginner lately set up1 whom it lies in the power of the ,junto any way to encourage8 #ad4 ,have you lately observed any defect in the laws of your country1 of which it would be proper to move the legislature for an amendment8 or do you know of any beneficial law that is wanting8 #ae4 ,have you lately observed any encroachment on the just liberties of the people8 #af4 ,hath any body attacked your reputation lately8 and what can the ,junto do towards securing it8 #ag4 ,is their any man whose friendship you want1 and which the ,junto1 or any of them1 can procure for you8 #ah4 ,have you lately heard any member's character attacked1 and how have you defended it8 #ai4 ,hath any man injured you1 from whom it is in the power of the ,junto to procure redress8 #bj4 ,in what manner can the ,junto1 or any of them1 assist you in any of your honourable designs8 #ba4 ,have you any weighty affair in hand1 in which you think the advice of the ,junto may be of service#gc8 #bb4 ,what benefits have you lately received from any man not present8 #bc4 ,is there any difficulty in matters of opinion1 of justice1 and injustice1 which you would gladly have discussed at this time8 #bd4 ,do you see any thing amiss in the present customs or proceedings of the ,junto1 which might be amended8 ,any person to be qualified1 to stand up1 and lay his hand on his breast1 and be asked these questions2 viz4 #a4 ,have you any particular disrespect to any present members8--,answer4 ,i have not4 #b4 ,do you sincerely declare1 that you love mankind in general2 of what profession or religion soever8 ,ans4 ,i do4 #c4 ,do you think any person ought to be harmed in his body1 name or goods1 for mere speculative opinions1 or his external way of worship8--,ans4 ,no4 #d4 ,do you love truth for truth's sake1 and will you endeavour impartially to find and receive it yourself and communicate it to others8--,ans4 ,yes4 ,,footnotes3 #gb ,this was an early performance1 and carries along with it an air of singularity1 accompanied with such operative good sense and philanthropy1 as characterizes it for ,dr4 ,franklin's4 ,the club1 for which it was written1 was held at ,philadelphia2 and1 if ,i am well informed1 was composed of men considerable for their influence and discretion2 for though the chief measures of ,pensylvania usually received their first formation in this club1 it existed for thirty years without the nature of its institution being publicly known4 ,b4 ,v4 #gc ,queries ,no4 #g and #h follow here1 in the original4 ,b4 ,v4 ,questions discussed by the ,junto forming the preceding ,club#gd4 ,is sound an entity or body8 ,how may the phenomena of vapours be explained8 ,is self-interest the rudder that steers mankind1 the universal monarch to whom all are tributaries8 ,which is the best form of government1 and what was that form which first prevailed among mankind8 ,can any one particular form of government suit all mankind8 ,what is the reason that the tides rise higher in the ,bay of ,fundy than the ,bay of ,delaware8 ,is the emission of paper-money safe8 ,what is the reason that men of the greatest knowledge not the most happy8 ,how may the possession of the ,lakes be improved to our advantage8 ,why are tumultuous1 uneasy sensations1 united with our desires8 ,whether it ought to be the aim of philosophy to eradicate the passions8 ,how may smoaky chimneys be best cured8 ,why does the flame of a candle tend upwards in a spire8 ,which is least criminal1 a bad action joined with a good intention1 or a good action with a bad intention8 ,is it consistent with the principles of liberty in a free government1 to punish a man as a libeller1 when he speaks the truth8 ,,footnote3 #gd ,these questions are from the ,eulogium of ,dr4 ,franklin1 delivered before the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 in #agia1 of which the ,junto was the foundation4 ,on the formation of that society1 a book1 containing many of the questions discussed by the ,junto1 was delivered into ,dr4 ,smith's hands1 for the purpose of being digested1 and in due time published among the transactions of that body4 ,many of the questions ,dr4 ,smith observes are curious and curiously handled1 and he selects the above as answering the description4 ,editor4 ,sketch of an ,english ,school2 for the ,consideration of the ,trustees of the ,philadelphia ,academy#ge4 ,it is expected that every scholar1 to be admitted into this school1 be at least able to pronounce and divide the syllables in reading1 and to write a legible hand4 ,none to be received1 that are under years of age4 ,first1 or lowest ,class4 ,let the first class learn the ,english ,grammar rules1 and at the same time let particular care be taken to improve them in orthography4 ,perhaps the latter is best done by pairing the scholars2 two of those nearest equal in their spelling to be put together4 ,let these strive for victory2 each propounding ten words every day to the other to be spelled4 ,he that spells truly most of the other's words is victor for that day2 he that is victor most days in a month1 to obtain a prize1 a pretty neat book of some kind1 useful in their future studies4 ,this method fixes the attention of children extremely to the orthography of words1 and makes them good spellers very early4 ,it is a shame for a man to be so ignorant of this little art1 in his own language1 as to be perpetually confounding words of like sound and different significations2 the consciousness of which defect makes some men1 otherwise of good learning and understanding1 averse to writing even a common letter4 ,let the pieces read by the scholars in this class be short2 such as ,croxal's fables1 and little stories4 ,in giving the lesson1 let it be read to them2 let the meaning of the difficult words in it be explained to them2 and let them con over by themselves before they are called to read to the master or usher1 who is to take particular care1 that they do not read too fast1 and that they duly observe the stops and pauses4 ,a vocabulary of the most usual difficult words might be formed for their use1 with explanations2 and they might daily get a few of those words and explanations by heart1 which would a little exercise their memories2 or at least they might write a number of them in a small book for the purpose1 which would help to fix the meaning of those words in their minds1 and at the same time furnish every one with a little dictionary for his future use4 ,the ,second ,class ,to be taught1 reading with attention1 and with proper modulations of the voice1 according to the sentiment and the subject4 ,some short pieces1 not exceeding the length of a ,spectator1 to be given this class for lessons 7and some of the easier ,spectators would be very suitable for the purpose74 ,these lessons might be given every night as tasks2 the scholars to study them against the morning4 ,let it then be required of them to give an account1 first of the parts of speech1 and construction of one or two sentences4 ,this will oblige them to recur frequently to their grammar1 and fix its principal rules in their memory4 ,next1 of the intention of the writer1 or the scope of the piece1 the meaning of each sentence1 and of every uncommon word4 ,this would early acquaint them with the meaning and force of words1 and give them that most necessary habit1 of reading with attention4 ,the master then to read the piece with the proper modulations of voice1 due emphasis1 and suitable action1 where action is required2 and put the youth on imitating his manner4 ,where the author has used an expression not the best1 let it be pointed out2 and let his beauties be particularly remarked to the youth4 ,let the lessons for reading be varied1 that the youth may be made acquainted with good styles of all kinds1 in prose and verse1 and the proper manner of reading each kind--sometimes a well-told story1 a piece of a sermon1 a general's speech to his soldiers1 a speech in a tragedy1 some part of a comedy1 an ode1 a satire1 a letter1 blank verse1 ,hudibrastic1 heroic1 c4 ,but let such lessons be chosen for reading1 as contain some useful instruction1 whereby the understanding or morals of the youth may at the same time be improved4 ,it is required that they should first study and understand the lessons1 before they are put upon reading them properly2 to which end each boy should have an ,english dictionary1 to help him over difficulties4 ,when our boys read ,english to us1 we are apt to imagine they understand what they read1 because we do1 and because it is their mother tongue4 ,but they often read1 as parrots speak1 knowing little or nothing of the meaning4 ,and it is impossible a reader should give the due modulation to his voice1 and pronounce properly1 unless his understanding goes before his tongue1 and makes him master of the sentiment4 ,accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand1 is the cause of those even set tones1 so common among readers1 which1 when they have once got a habit of using1 they find so difficult to correct2 by which means1 among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one4 ,for want of good reading1 pieces published with a view to influence the minds of men1 for their own or the public benefit1 lose half their force4 ,were there but one good reader in a neighbourhood1 a public orator might be heard throughout a nation with the same advantages1 and have the same effect upon his audience1 as if they stood within the reach of his voice4 ,the ,third ,class ,to be taught speaking properly and gracefully2 which is near a-kin to good reading1 and naturally follows it in the studies of youth4 ,let the scholars of this class begin with learning the elements of rhetoric from some short system1 so as to be able to give an account of the most useful tropes and figures4 ,let all their bad habits of speaking1 all offences against good grammar1 all corrupt or foreign accents1 and all improper phrases1 be pointed out to them4 ,short speeches from the ,romans1 or other history1 or from the parliamentary debates1 might be got by heart1 and delivered with the proper action1 c4 ,speeches and scenes in our best tragedies and comedies 7avoiding every thing1 that could injure the morals of youth7 might likewise be got by rote1 and the boys exercised in delivering or acting them3 great care being taken to form their manner after the truest models4 ,for their farther improvement1 and a little to vary their studies1 let them now begin to read history1 after having got by heart a short table of the principal epochs in chronology4 ,they may begin with ,rollin's ancient and ,roman histories1 and proceed at proper hours1 as they go through the subsequent classes1 with the best histories of our own nation and colonies4 ,let emulation be excited among the boys1 by giving1 weekly1 little prizes1 or other small encouragements to those1 who are able to give the best account of what they have read1 as to time1 places1 names of persons1 c4 ,this will make them read with attention1 and imprint the history well in their memories4 ,in remarking on the history1 the master will have fine opportunities of instilling instruction of various kinds1 and improving the morals1 as well as the understandings1 of youth4 ,the natural and mechanic history1 contained in the ,spectacle de la ,nature1 might also be begun in this class1 and continued through the subsequent classes1 by other books of the same kind2 for1 next to the knowledge of duty1 this kind of knowledge is certainly the most useful1 as well as the most entertaining4 ,the merchant may thereby be enabled better to understand many commodities in trade2 the handicraftsman1 to improve his business by new instruments1 mixtures and materials2 and frequently hints are given for new manufactures1 or new methods of improving land1 that may be set on foot greatly to the advantage of a country4 ,the ,fourth ,class ,to be taught composition4 ,writing one's own language well1 is the next necessary accomplishment after good speaking4 ,it is the writing-master's business1 to take care that the boys make fair characters1 and place them straight and even in the lines3 but to form their style1 and even to take care that the stops and capitals are properly disposed1 is the part of the ,english master4 ,the boys should be put on writing letters to each other on any common occurrences1 and on various subjects1 imaginary business1 c4 containing little stories1 accounts of their late reading1 what parts of authors please them1 and why2 letters of congratulation1 of compliment1 of request1 of thanks1 of recommendation1 of admonition1 of consolation1 of expostulation1 excuse1 c4 ,in these1 they should be taught to express themselves clearly1 concisely1 and naturally1 without affected words or high-flown phrases4 ,all their letters to pass through the master's hand1 who is to point out the faults1 advise the corrections1 and commend what he finds right4 ,some of the best letters published in our own language1 as sir ,william ,temple's1 those of ,pope and his friends1 and some others1 might be set before the youth as models1 their beauties pointed out and explained by the master1 the letters themselves transcribed by the scholar4 ,dr4 ,johnson's ,ethices ,elementa1 or ,first ,principles of ,morality1 may now be read by the scholars1 and explained by the master1 to lay a solid foundation of virtue and piety in their minds4 ,and as this class continues the reading of history1 let them now1 at proper hours1 receive some farther instruction in chronology1 and in that part of geography 7from the mathematical master7 which is necessary to understand the maps and globes4 ,they should also be acquainted with the modern names of the places they find mentioned in ancient writers4 ,the exercises of good reading1 and proper speaking1 still continued at suitable times4 ,fifth ,class ,to improve the youth in composition1 they may now1 besides continuing to write letters1 begin to write little essays in prose1 and sometimes in verse2 not to make them poets1 but for this reason1 that nothing acquaints a lad so speedily with variety of expression1 as the necessity of finding such words and phrases as will suit the measure1 sound and rhyme of verse1 and at the same time well express the sentiment4 ,these essays should all pass under the master's eye1 who will point out their faults1 and put the writer on correcting them4 ,where the judgment is not ripe enough for forming new essays1 let the sentiments of a ,spectator be given1 and required to be clothed in the scholar's own words2 or the circumstances of some good story1 the scholar to find expression4 ,let them be put sometimes on abridging a paragraph of a diffuse author3 sometimes on dilating or amplifying what is wrote more closely4 ,and now let ,dr4 ,johnson's ,noetica1 or ,first ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 containing a logic1 or art of reasoning1 c4 be read by the youth1 and the difficulties1 that may occur to them1 be explained by the master4 ,the reading of history1 and the exercises of good reading and just speaking still continued4 ,sixth ,class ,in this class1 besides continuing the studies of the preceding in history1 rhetoric1 logic1 moral and natural philosophy1 the best ,english authors may be read and explained2 as ,tillotson1 ,milton1 ,locke1 ,addison1 ,pope1 ,swift1 the higher papers in the ,spectator and ,guardian1 the best translations of ,homer1 ,virgil and ,horace1 of ,telemachus1 travels of ,cyrus1 c4 ,once a year1 let there be public exercises in the hall2 the trustees and citizens present4 ,then let fine gilt books be given as prizes to such boys1 as distinguish themselves1 and excel the others in any branch of learning1 making three degrees of comparison3 giving the best prize to him1 that performs best2 a less valuable one to him1 that comes up next to the best1 and another to the third4 ,commendations1 encouragement1 and advice to the rest2 keeping up their hopes1 that1 by industry1 they may excel another time4 ,the names of those1 that obtain the prize1 to be yearly printed in a list4 ,the hours of each day are to be divided and disposed in such a manner1 as that some classes may be with the writing-master1 improving their hands2 others with the mathematical master1 learning arithmetic1 accounts1 geography1 use of the globes1 drawing1 mechanics1 c4 while the rest are in the ,english school1 under the ,english master's care4 ,thus instructed1 youth will come out of this school fitted for learning any business1 calling1 or profession1 except such wherein languages are required3 and1 though unacquainted with any ancient or foreign tongue1 they will be masters of their own1 which is of more immediate and general use1 and withal will have attained many other valuable accomplishments3 the time usually spent in acquiring those languages1 often without success1 being here employed in laying such a foundation of knowledge and ability1 as1 properly improved1 may qualify them to pass through and execute the several offices of civil life1 with advantage and reputation to themselves and country4 ,,footnote3 #ge ,this piece1 which we believe to be an early production of our author1 is taken from the ,american ,museum1 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #dgc4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,miss ,s----,n#gf1 ,,at ,,wanstead4 ,advice to ,youth in ,reading4 ,craven-street1 ,may #ag1 #agfj4 ,i send my good girl the books ,i mentioned to her last night4 ,i beg her to accept of them as a small mark of my esteem and friendship4 ,they are written in the familiar easy manner for which the ,french are so remarkable1 and afford a good deal of philosophic and practical knowledge1 unembarrassed with the dry mathematics1 used by more exact reasoners1 but which is apt to discourage young beginners4 ,i would advise you to read with a pen in your hand1 and enter in a little book short hints of what you find1 that is curious1 or that may be useful2 for this will be the best method of imprinting such particulars in your memory1 where they will be ready1 either for practice on some future occasion1 if they are matters of utility1 or at least to adorn and improve your conversation1 if they are rather points of curiosity4 ,and as many of the terms of science are such1 as you cannot have met with in your common reading1 and may therefore be unacquainted with1 ,i think it would be well for you to have a good dictionary at hand1 to consult immediately when you meet with a word you do not comprehend the precise meaning of4 ,this may at first seem troublesome and interrupting2 but it is a trouble that will daily diminish1 as you will daily find less and less occasion for your dictionary as you become more acquainted with the terms2 and in the mean time you will read with more satisfaction1 because with more understanding4 ,when any point occurs1 in which you would be glad to have farther information than your book affords you1 ,i beg you would not in the least apprehend1 that ,i should think it a trouble to receive and answer your questions4 ,it will be a pleasure1 and no trouble4 ,for though ,i may not be able1 out of my own little stock of knowledge1 to afford you what you require1 ,i can easily direct you to the books1 where it may most readily be found4 ,adieu1 and believe me ever1 my dear friend1 ,yours affectionately1 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,,footnote3 #gf ,stevenson4 ,editor4 ,,papers ,,on ,,subjects ,,of ,,general ,,politics4 ,,papers ,,on ,,subjects ,,of ,,general ,,politics4 ,observations concerning the ,increase of ,mankind1 peopling of ,countries1 c#gg4 ,written in ,pensylvania1 #agea4 #a4 ,tables of the proportion of marriages to births1 of deaths to births1 of marriages to the number of inhabitants1 c4 formed on observations made upon the bills of mortality1 christenings1 c4 of populous cities1 will not suit countries2 nor will tables1 formed on observations made on full settled old countries1 as ,europe1 suit new countries1 as ,america4 #b4 ,for people increase in proportion to the number of marriages1 and that is greater1 in proportion to the ease and convenience of supporting a family4 ,when families can be easily supported1 more persons marry1 and earlier in life4 #c4 ,in cities1 where all trades1 occupations1 and offices are full1 many delay marrying1 till they can see how to bear the charges of a family2 which charges are greater in cities1 as luxury is more common2 many live single during life1 and continue servants to families1 journeymen to trades1 c4 ,hence cities do not1 by natural generation1 supply themselves with inhabitants2 the deaths are more than the births4 #d4 ,in countries full settled1 the case must be nearly the same1 all lands being occupied and improved to the height2 those who cannot get land1 must labour for others1 that have it2 when labourers are plenty1 their wages will be low2 by low wages a family is supported with difficulty2 this difficulty deters many from marriage1 who therefore long continue servants and single4 ,only1 as the cities take supplies of people from the country1 and thereby make a little more room in the country1 marriage is a little more encouraged there1 and the births exceed the deaths4 #e4 ,great part of ,europe is fully1 settled with husbandmen1 manufacturers1 c4 and therefore cannot now much encrease in people4 ,america is chiefly occupied by ,indians1 who subsist mostly by hunting4 ,but as the hunter1 of all men1 requires the greatest quantity of land from whence to draw his subsistence1 7the husbandman subsisting on much less1 the gardener on still less1 and the manufacturer requiring least of all7 the ,europeans found ,america as fully settled1 as it well could be by hunters2 yet these1 having large tracts1 were easily prevailed on to part with portions of territory to the new comers1 who did not much interfere with the natives in hunting1 and furnished them with many things they wanted4 #f4 ,land being thus plenty in ,america1 and so cheap1 as that a labouring man1 that understands husbandry1 can1 in a short time1 save money enough to purchase a piece of new land1 sufficient for a plantation1 whereon he may subsist a family2 such are not afraid to marry2 for if they even look far enough forward to consider how their children1 when grown up1 are to be provided for1 they see1 that more land is to be had at rates equally easy1 all circumstances considered4 #g4 ,hence marriages in ,america are more general1 and more generally early1 than in ,europe4 ,and if it is reckoned there1 that there is but one marriage per annum among #ajj persons1 perhaps we may here reckon two2 and if in ,europe1 they have but four births to a marriage1 7many of their marriages being late7 we may here reckon eight1 of which1 if one half grow up1 and our marriages are made1 reckoning one with another1 at twenty years of age1 our people must at least be doubled every twenty years4 #h4 ,but notwithstanding this increase1 so vast is the territory of ,north ,america1 that it will require many ages to settle it fully1 and till it is fully settled1 labour will never be cheap here1 where no man continues long a labourer for others1 but gets a plantation of his own2 no man continues long a journeyman to a trade1 but goes among those new settlers1 and sets up for himself1 c4 ,hence labour is no cheaper now1 in ,pensylvania1 than it was thirty years ago1 though so many thousand labouring people have been imported from ,germany and ,ireland4 #i4 ,the danger1 therefore1 of these colonies interfering with their mother country in trades1 that depend on labour1 manufactures1 c4 is too remote to require the attention of ,great ,britain4 #aj4 ,but1 in proportion to the increase of the colonies1 a vast demand is growing for ,british manufactures2 a glorious market1 wholly in the power of ,britain1 in which foreigners cannot interfere1 which will increase1 in a short time1 even beyond her power of supplying1 though her whole trade should be to her colonies4 99 99 99 99 99 #ab4 ,it is an ill-grounded opinion1 that1 by the labour of slaves1 ,america may possibly vie in cheapness of manufactures with ,britain4 ,the labour of slaves can never be so cheap here1 as the labour of working men is in ,britain4 ,any one may compute it4 ,interest of money is in the colonies from #f to #aj per cent4 ,slaves1 one with another1 cost #cjl4 sterling per head4 ,reckon then the interest of the first purchase of a slave1 the insurance or risque on his life1 his clothing and diet1 expences in his sickness1 and loss of time1 loss by his neglect of business1 7neglect is natural to the man1 who is not to be benefited by his own care or diligence7 expence of a driver to keep him at work1 and his pilfering from time to time1 almost every slave being1 from the nature of slavery1 a thief1 and compare the whole amount with the wages of a manufacturer of iron or wool in ,england1 you will see1 that labour is much cheaper there1 than it ever can be by negroes here4 ,why then will ,americans purchase slaves8 ,because slaves may be kept as long as a man pleases1 or has occasion for their labour1 while hired men are continually leaving their master 7often in the midst of his business7 and setting up for themselves4 #h4 #ac4 ,as the increase of people depends on the encouragement of marriages1 the following things must diminish a nation1 viz4 #a4 ,the being conquered2 for the conquerors will engross as many offices1 and exact as much tribute or profit on the labour of the conquered1 as will maintain them in their new establishment2 and this diminishing the subsistence of the natives discourages their marriages1 and so gradually diminishes them1 while the foreigners increase4 #b4 ,loss of territory4 ,thus the ,britons1 being driven into ,wales1 and crouded together in a barren country1 insufficient to support such great numbers1 diminished1 till the people bore a proportion to the produce2 while the ,saxons increased on then abandoned lands1 till the island became full of ,english4 ,and1 were the ,english now driven into ,wales by some foreign nation1 there would1 in a few years1 be no more ,englishmen in ,britain1 than there are now people in ,wales4 #c4 ,loss of trade4 ,manufactures1 exported1 draw subsistence from foreign countries for numbers1 who are thereby enabled to marry and raise families4 ,if the nation be deprived of any branch of trade1 and no new employment is found for the people occupied in that branch1 it will soon be deprived of so many people4 #d4 ,loss of food4 ,suppose a nation has a fishery1 which not only employs great numbers1 but makes the food and subsistence of the people cheaper3 if another nation becomes master of the seas1 and prevents the fishery1 the people will diminish in proportion as the loss of employ and dearness of provision makes it more difficult to subsist a family4 #e4 ,bad government and insecure property4 ,people not only leave such a country1 and1 settling abroad1 incorporate with other nations1 lose their native language1 and become foreigners2 but the industry of those that remain being discouraged1 the quantity of subsistence in the country is lessened1 and the support of a family becomes more difficult4 ,so heavy taxes tend to diminish a people4 #f4 ,the introduction of slaves4 ,the negroes1 brought into the ,english sugar islands1 have greatly diminished the whites there2 the poor are by this means deprived of employment1 while a few families acquire vast estates1 which they spend on foreign luxuries2 and1 educating their children in the habit of those luxuries1 the same income is needed for the support of one1 that might have maintained one hundred4 ,the whites1 who have slaves1 not labouring2 are enfeebled1 and therefore not so generally prolific2 the slaves being worked too hard1 and ill fed1 their constitutions are broken1 and the deaths among them are more than the births2 so that a continual supply is needed from ,africa4 ,the northern colonies1 having few slaves1 increase in whites4 ,slaves also pejorate the families that use them2 the white children become proud1 disgusted with labour1 and1 being educated in idleness1 are rendered unfit to get a living by industry4 #ad4 ,hence the prince1 that acquires new territory1 if he finds it vacant1 or removes the natives to give his own people room2--the legislator1 that makes effectual laws for promoting of trade1 increasing employment1 improving land by more or better tillage1 providing more food by fisheries1 securing property1 c4--and the man that invents new trades1 arts or manufactures1 or new improvements in husbandry1 may be properly called fathers of their nation1 as they are the cause of the generation of multitudes1 by the encouragement they afford to marriage4 #ae4 ,as to privileges granted to the married1 7such as the jus trium liberorum among the ,romans7 they may hasten the filling of a country1 that has been thinned by war or pestilence1 or that has otherwise vacant territory1 but cannot increase a people beyond the means provided for their subsistence4 #af4 ,foreign luxuries1 and needless manufactures1 imported and used in a nation1 do1 by the same reasoning1 increase the people of the nation1 that furnishes them1 and diminish the people of the nation1 that uses them4 ,laws1 therefore1 that prevent such importations1 and1 on the contrary1 promote the exportation of manufactures to be consumed in foreign countries1 may be called 7with respect to the people that make them7 generative laws1 as1 by increasing subsistence1 they encourage marriage4 ,such laws likewise strengthen a country doubly1 by increasing its own people1 and diminishing its neighbours4 #ag4 ,some ,european nations prudently refuse to consume the manufactures of ,east ,india3--they should likewise forbid them to their colonies2 for the gain to the merchant is not to be compared with the loss1 by this means1 of people to the nation4 #ah4 ,home luxury in the great increases the nation's manufacturers employed by it1 who are many1 and only tends to diminish the families that indulge in it1 who are few4 ,the greater the common fashionable expence of any rank of people1 the more cautious they are of marriage4 ,therefore luxury should never be suffered to become common4 #ai4 ,the great increase of offspring in particular families is not always owing to greater fecundity of nature1 but sometimes to examples of industry in the heads1 and industrious education1 by which the children are enabled to provide better for themselves1 and their marrying early is encouraged from the prospect of good subsistence4 #bj4 ,if there be a sect1 therefore1 in our nation1 that regard frugality and industry as religious duties1 and educate their children therein1 more than others commonly do1 such sect must consequently increase more by natural generation than any other sect in ,britain4 #ba4 ,the importation of foreigners into a country1 that has as many inhabitants as the present employments and provisions for subsistence will bear1 will be in the end no increase of people1 unless the new-comers have more industry and frugality than the natives1 and then they will provide more subsistence1 and increase in the country2 but they will gradually eat the natives out4--,nor is it necessary to bring in foreigners to fill up any occasional vacancy in a country2 for such vacancy 7if the laws are good1 #ad1 #af7 will soon be filled by natural generation4 ,who can now find the vacancy made in ,sweden1 ,france1 or other warlike nations1 by the plague of heroism #dj years ago2 in ,france1 by the expulsion of the protestants2 in ,england1 by the settlement of her colonies2 or in ,guinea by a hundred years exportation of slaves1 that has blackened half ,america8 ,the thinness of the inhabitants in ,spain is owing to national pride1 and idleness1 and other causes1 rather than to the expulsion1 of the ,moors1 or to the making of new settlements4 #bb4 ,there is1 in short1 no bound to the prolific nature of plants or animals1 but what is made by their crowding and interfering with each other's means of subsistence4 ,was the face of the earth vacant of other plants1 it might be gradually sowed and the overspread with one kind only1 as for instance1 with fennel2 and were it empty of other inhabitants1 it might1 in a few ages1 be replenished from one nation only1 as for instance1 with ,englishmen4 ,thus there are supposed to be now upwards of one million of ,english souls in ,north ,america 7though it is thought scarce #hj1jjj have been brought over sea7 and yet perhaps there is not one the fewer in ,britain1 but rather many more1 on account of the employment the colonies afford to manufacturers at home4 ,this million doubling1 suppose but once in #be years1 will1 in another century1 be more than the people of ,england1 and the greatest number of ,englishmen will be on this side the water4 ,what an accession of power to the ,british empire by sea as well as land6 ,what increase of trade and navigation6 ,what numbers of ships and seamen6 ,we have been here but little more than a hundred years1 and yet the force of our privateers in the late war1 united1 was greater1 both in men and guns1 than that of the whole ,british navy in queen ,elizabeth's time4 ,how important an affair then to ,britain is the present treaty#gh for settling the bounds between her colonies and the ,french6 and how careful should she be to secure1 room enough1 since on the room depends so much the increase of her people8 #bc4 ,in fine1 a nation well regulated is like a polypus#gi1 take away a limb1 its place is soon supplied2 cut it in two1 and each deficient part shall speedily grow out of the part remaining4 ,thus1 if you have room and subsistence enough1 as you may1 by dividing1 make ten polypuses out of one1 you may1 of one1 make ten nations1 equally populous and powerful2 or1 rather1 increase a nation tenfold in numbers and strength4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 #gg ,this paper and the answer to it are the last we have to extract from ,mr4 ,collinson's collection4 ,the papers that follow1 having notes with the signature ,b4 ,v41 are from the collection referred to before1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cii4 ,editor4 #gh ,in #agea4 #gi ,a water insect1 well-known to naturalists4 ,r4 ,j4#hj ,,esq4 ,,of ,,london1 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 ,,esq4 ,,at ,,philadelphia4 ,remarks on some of the foregoing ,observations1 showing particularly the ,effect which manners have on ,population4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,it is now near three years since ,i received your excellent ,observations on the ,increase of ,mankind1 c4 in which you have with so much sagacity and accuracy shown in what manner1 and by what causes1 that principal means of political grandeur is best promoted2 and have so well supported those just inferences you have occasionally drawn1 concerning the general state of our ,american colonies1 and the views and conduct of some of the inhabitants of ,great ,britain4 ,you have abundantly proved1 that natural fecundity is hardly to be considered1 because the vis generandi1 as far as we know1 is unlimited1 and because experience shows1 that the numbers of nations is altogether governed by collateral causes1 and among these none of so much force as quantity of subsistence1 whether arising from climate1 soil1 improvement of tillage1 trade1 fisheries1 secure property1 conquest of new countries1 or other favourable circumstances4 ,as ,i perfectly concurred with you in your sentiments on these heads1 ,i have been very desirous of building somewhat on the foundation you have there laid2 and was induced1 by your hints in the twenty-first section1 to trouble you with some thoughts on the influence manners have always had1 and are always likely to have1 on the numbers of a people1 and their political prosperity in general4 ,the end of every individual is its own private good4 ,the rules it observes in the pursuit of this good are a system of propositions1 almost every one founded in authority1 that is1 derive their weight from the credit given to one or more persons1 and not from demonstration4 ,and this1 in the most important as well as the other affairs of life1 is the case even of the wisest and philosophical part of the human species2 and that it should be so is the less strange1 when we consider1 that it is perhaps impossible to prove1 that being1 or life itself1 has any other value than what is set on it by authority4 ,a confirmation of this may be derived from the observation1 that1 in every country in the universe1 happiness is sought upon a different plan2 and1 even in the same country1 we see it placed by different ages1 professions1 and ranks of men1 in the attainment of enjoyments utterly unlike4 ,these propositions1 as well as others framed upon them1 become habitual by degrees1 and1 as they govern the determination of the will1 ,i call them moral habits4 ,there are another set of habits1 that have the direction of the members of the body1 that ,i call therefore mechanical habits4 ,these compose what we commonly call the arts1 which are more or less liberal or mechanical1 as they more or less partake of assistance from the operations of the mind4 ,the cumulus of the moral habits of each individual is the manners of that individual2 the cumulus of the manners of individuals makes up the manners of a nation4 ,the happiness of individuals is evidently the end of political society2 and political welfare1 or the strength1 splendour1 and opulence of the state1 have been always admitted1 both by political writers1 and the valuable part of mankind in general1 to conduce to this end1 and are therefore desirable4 ,the causes1 that advance or obstruct any one of these three objects1 are external or internal4 ,the latter may be divided into physical1 civil1 and personal1 under which last head ,i comprehend the moral and mechanical habits of mankind4 ,the physical causes are principally climate1 soil1 and number of subjects2 the civil1 are government and laws2 and political welfare is always in a ratio composed of the force of these particular causes2 a multitude of external causes1 and all these internal ones1 not only control and qualify1 but are constantly acting on1 and thereby insensibly1 as well as sensibly1 altering one another1 both for the better and the worse1 and this not excepting the climate itself4 ,the powerful efficacy of manners in encreasing a people is manifest from the instance you mention1 the ,quakers2 among them industry and frugality multiply and extend the use of the necessaries of life2 to manners of a like kind are owing the populousness of ,holland1 ,switzerland1 ,china1 ,japan1 and most parts of ,indostan1 c4 in every one of which1 the force of extent of territory and fertility of soil is multiplied1 or their want compensated by industry and frugality4 ,neither nature nor art have contributed much to the production of subsistence in ,switzerland1 yet we see frugality preserves and even increases families1 that live on their fortunes1 and which1 in ,england1 we call the gentry2 and the observation we cannot but make in the southern part of this kingdom1 that those families1 including all superior ones1 are gradually becoming extinct1 affords the clearest proof1 that luxury 7that is1 a greater expence of subsistence than in prudence a man ought to consume7 is as destructive as a proportionable want of it2 but in ,scotland1 as in ,switzerland1 the gentry1 though one with another they have not one-fourth of the income1 increase in number4 ,and here ,i cannot help remarking1 by the by1 how well founded your distinction is between the increase of mankind in old and new settled countries in general1 and more particularly in the case of families of condition4 ,in ,america1 where the expences are more confined1 to necessaries1 and those necessaries are cheap1 it is common to see above one hundred persons descended from one living old man4 ,in ,england1 it frequently happens1 where a man has seven1 eight1 or more children1 there has not been a descendant in the next generation1 occasioned by the difficulties the number of children has brought on the family1 in a luxurious dear country1 and which have prevented their marrying4 ,that this is more owing to luxury than mere want appears from what ,i have said of ,scotland1 and more plainly from parts of ,england remote from ,london1 in most of which the necessaries of life are nearly as dear1 in some dearer than ,london1 yet the people of all ranks marry and breed up children4 ,again2 among the lower ranks of life1 none produce so few children as servants4 ,this is1 in some measure1 to be attributed to their situation1 which hinders marriage1 but is also to be attributed to their luxury and corruption of manners1 which are greater than among any other set of people in ,england1 and is the consequence of a nearer view of the lives and persons of a superior rank1 than any inferior rank1 without a proper education1 ought to have4 ,the quantity of subsistence in ,england has unquestionably become greater for many ages2 and yet if the inhabitants are more numerous1 they certainly are not so in proportion to our improvement of the means of support4 ,i am apt to think there are few parts of this kingdom1 that have not been at some former time more populous than at present4 ,i have several cogent reasons for thinking so of great part of the counties ,i am most intimately acquainted with2 but as they were probably not all most populous at the same time1 and as some of our towns are visibly and vastly grown in bulk1 ,i dare not suppose1 as judicious men have done1 that ,england is less peopled than heretofore4 ,this growth of our towns is the effect of a change of manners1 and improvement of arts1 common to all ,europe2 and though it is not imagined1 that it has lessened the country growth of necessaries1 it has evidently1 by introducing a greater consumption of them1 7an infallible consequence of a nation's dwelling in towns7 counteracted the effects of our prodigious advances in the arts4 ,but however frugality may supply the place1 or prodigality counteract the effects1 of the natural or acquired subsistence of a country1 industry is1 beyond doubt1 a more efficacious cause of plenty than any natural advantage of extent or fertility4 ,i have mentioned instances of frugality and industry united with extent and fertility4 ,in ,spain and ,asia ,minor1 we see frugality joined to extent and fertility1 without industry2 in ,ireland1 we once saw the same2 ,scotland had then none of them but frugality4 ,the change in these two countries is obvious to every one1 and it is owing to industry not yet very widely diffused in either4 ,the effects of industry and frugality in ,england are surprising2 both the rent and the value of the inheritance of land depend on them greatly more than on nature1 and this1 though there is no considerable difference in the prices of our markets4 ,land of equal goodness lets for double the rent of other land lying in the same county1 and there are many years purchase difference between different counties1 where rents are equally well paid and secure4 ,thus manners operate upon the number of inhabitants1 but of their silent effects upon a civil constitution1 history1 and even our own experience1 yields us abundance of proofs1 though they are not uncommonly attributed to external causes3 their support of a government against external force is so great1 that it is a common maxim among the advocates of liberty1 that no free government was ever dissolved1 or overcome1 before the manners of its subjects were corrupted4 ,the superiority of ,greece over ,persia was singly owing to their difference of manners2 and that1 though all natural advantages were on the side of the latter1 to which ,i might add the civil ones2 for though the greatest of all civil advantages1 liberty1 was on the side of ,greece1 yet that added no political strength to her1 than as it operated on her manners1 and1 when they were corrupted1 the restoration of their liberty by the ,romans1 overturned the remains of their power4 ,whether the manners of ancient ,rome were at any period calculated to promote the happiness of individuals1 it is not my design to examine2 but that their manners1 and the effects of those manners on their government and public conduct1 founded1 enlarged1 and supported1 and afterwards overthrew their empire1 is beyond all doubt4 ,one of the effects of their conquest furnishes us with a strong proof1 how prevalent manners are even beyond quantity of subsistence2 for1 when the custom of bestowing on the citizens of ,rome corn enough to support themselves and families was become established1 and ,egypt and ,sicily produced the grain1 that fed the inhabitants of ,italy1 this became less populous every day1 and the jus trium liberorum was but an expedient1 that could not balance the want of industry and frugality4 ,but corruption of manners did not only thin the inhabitants of the ,roman empire1 it rendered the remainder incapable of defence1 long before its fall1 perhaps before the dissolution of the republic2 so that without standing disciplined armies1 composed of men1 whose moral habits principally1 and mechanical habits secondarily1 made them different from the body of the people1 the ,roman empire had been a prey to the barbarians many ages before it was4 ,by the mechanical habits of the soldiery1 ,i mean their discipline1 and the art of war2 and that this is but a secondary quality appears from the inequality that has in all ages been between raw1 though well disciplined armies1 and veterans1 and more from the irresistible force a single moral habit1 religion1 has conferred on troops1 frequently neither disciplined nor experienced4 ,the military manners of the noblesse in ,france1 compose the chief force of that kingdom1 and the enterprising manners and restless dispositions of the inhabitants of ,canada have enabled a handful of men to harass our populous1 and1 generally1 less martial colonies2 yet neither are of the value they seem at first sight1 because overbalanced by the defect they occasion of other habits1 that would produce more eligible political good3 and military manners in a people are not necessary in an age and country where such manners may be occasionally formed and preserved among men enough to defend the state2 and such a country is ,great ,britain1 where1 though the lower class of people are by no means of a military cast1 yet they make better soldiers than even the noblesse of ,france4 ,the inhabitants of this country1 a few ages back1 were to the populous and rich provinces of ,france1 what ,canada is now to the ,british colonies4 ,it is true1 there was less disproportion between their natural strength2 but ,i mean1 that the riches of ,france were a real weakness1 opposed to the military manners founded upon poverty and a rugged disposition1 then the character of the ,english2 ,but it must be remembered1 that at this time the manners of a people were not distinct from that of their soldiery1 for the use of standing armies has deprived a military people of the advantages they before had over others2 and though it has been often said1 that civil wars give power1 because they render all men soldiers1 ,i believe this has only been found true in internal wars following civil wars1 and not in external ones2 for now1 in foreign wars1 a small army1 with ample means to support it1 is of greater force than one more numerous1 with less4 ,this last fact has often happened between ,france and ,germany4 ,the means of supporting armies1 and consequently the power of exerting external strength1 are best found in the industry and frugality of the body of a people living under a government and laws1 that encourage commerce3 for commerce is at this day almost the only stimulus1 that forces every one to contribute a share of labour for the public benefit4 ,but such is the human frame1 and the world is so constituted1 that it is a hard matter to possess ones self of a benefit1 without laying ones self open to a loss on some other side2 the improvements of manners of one sort often deprave those of another3 thus we see industry and frugality under the influence of commerce1 which ,i call a commercial spirit1 tend to destroy1 as well as support1 the government it flourishes under4 ,commerce perfects the arts1 but more the mechanical than the liberal1 and this for an obvious reason2 it softens and enervates the manners4 ,steady virtue and unbending integrity are seldom to be found where a spirit of commerce pervades every thing2 yet the perfection of commerce is1 that every thing should have its price4 ,we every day see its progress1 both to our benefit and detriment here4 ,things1 that boni mores forbid to be set to sale1 are become its objects1 and there are few things indeed extra commercium4 ,the legislative power itself has been in commercio1 and church livings are seldom given without consideration1 even by sincere ,christians1 and1 for consideration1 not seldom to very unworthy persons4 ,the rudeness of ancient military times and the fury of more modern enthusiastic ones are worn off2 even the spirit of forensic contention is astonishingly diminished1 all marks of manners softening2 but luxury and corruption have taken their places1 and seem the inseparable companions of commerce and the arts4 ,i cannot help observing1 however1 that this is much more the case in extensive countries1 especially at their metropolis1 than in other places4 ,it is an old observation of politicians1 and frequently made by historians1 that small states always best preserve their manners4 ,whether this happens from the greater room there is for attention in the legislature1 or from the less room there is for ambition and avarice1 it is a strong argument1 among others1 against an incorporating union of the colonies in ,america1 or even a federal one1 that may tend to the future reducing them under one government4 ,their power1 while disunited1 is less1 but their liberty2 as well as manners1 is more secure2 and1 considering the little danger of any conquest to be made upon them1 ,i had rather they should suffer something through disunion1 than see them under a general administration less equitable than that concerted at ,albany#ha4 ,i take it1 the inhabitants of ,pensylvania are both frugal and industrious beyond those of any province in ,america4 ,if luxury should spread1 it cannot be extirpated by laws4 ,we are told by ,plutarch1 that ,plato used to say1 ,it was a hard thing to make laws for the ,cyrenians1 a people abounding in plenty and opulence4 ,but from what ,i set out with1 it is evident1 if ,i be not mistaken1 that education only can stem the torrent1 and1 without checking either true industry or frugality1 prevent the sordid frugality and laziness of the old ,irish1 and many of the modern ,scotch1 7,i mean the inhabitants of that country1 those who leave it for another being generally industrious7 or the industry1 mixed with luxury1 of this capital1 from getting ground1 and1 by rendering ancient manners familiar1 produce a reconciliation between disinterestedness and commerce2 a thing we often see1 but almost always in men of a liberal education4 ,to conclude3 when we would form a people1 soil and climate may be found at least sufficiently good2 inhabitants may be encouraged to settle1 and even supported for a while2 a good government and laws may be framed1 and even arts may be established1 or their produce imported3 but many necessary moral habits are hardly ever found among those who voluntary offer themselves in times of quiet at home1 to people new colonies2 besides that the moral1 as well as mechanical habits adapted to a mother country are frequently not so to the new settled one1 and to external events1 many of which are always unforeseen4 ,hence it is we have seen such fruitless attempts to settle colonies1 at an immense public and private expence1 by several of the powers of ,europe3 and it is particularly observable1 that none of the ,english colonies became any way considerable1 till the necessary manners were born and grew up in the country1 excepting those to which singular circumstances at home forced manners fit for the forming a new state4 ,i am1 sir1 c4 ,r4,j4 ,,footnotes3 #hj ,richard ,jackson1 an ,english barrister4 ,editor4 #ha ,the reader will see an account of this plan in the subsequent volume4 ,editor4 ,plan1 by ,messieurs ,franklin and ,dalrymple1 for benefitting distant unprovided ,countries#hb4 ,aug4 #bi1 #agga4 ,the country called in the maps ,new ,zealand has been discovered by the ,endeavour1 to be two islands1 together as large as ,great ,britain3 these islands1 named ,acpy-nomawe and ,tovy-poennammoo1 are inhabited by a brave and generous race1 who are destitute of corn1 fowls1 and all quadrupeds1 except dogs4 ,these circumstances being mentioned lately in a company of men of liberal sentiments1 it was observed1 that it seemed incumbent on such a country as this1 to communicate to all others the conveniences of life1 which we enjoy4 ,dr4 ,franklin1 whose life has ever been directed to promote the true interest of society1 said1 he would with all his heart subscribe to a voyage intended to communicate in general those benefits1 which we enjoy1 to countries destitute of them in the remote parts of the globe4 ,this proposition being warmly adopted by the rest of the company1 ,mr4 ,dalrymple1 then present1 was induced to offer to undertake the command on such an expedition4 ,on mature reflection1 this scheme appears the more honourable to the national character of any which can be conceived1 as it is grounded on the noblest principle of benevolence4 ,good intentions are often frustrated by letting them remain indigested2 on this consideration ,mr4 ,dalrymple was induced to put the outlines on paper1 which are now published1 that by an early communication there1 may be a better opportunity of collecting all the hints1 which can conduce to execute effectually the benevolent purpose of the expedition1 in case it should meet with general approbation4 ,on this scheme being shown to ,dr4 ,franklin1 he communicated his sentiments1 by way of introduction1 to the following effect3 ,britain is said to have produced originally nothing but sloes4 ,what vast advantages have been communicated to her by the fruits1 seeds1 roots1 herbage1 animals1 and arts of other countries6 ,we are by their means become a wealthy and a mighty nation1 abounding in all good things4 ,does not some duty hence arise from us towards other countries1 still remaining in our former state8 ,britain is now the first maritime power in the world4 ,her ships are innumerable1 capable by their form1 size1 and strength1 of sailing all seas4 ,our seamen are equally bold1 skilful1 and hardy2 dexterous in exploring the remotest regions1 and ready to engage in voyages to unknown countries1 though attended with the greatest dangers4 ,the inhabitants of those countries1 our fellow men1 have canoes only2 not knowing iron1 they cannot build ships2 they have little astronomy1 and no knowledge of the compass to guide them2 they cannot therefore come to us1 or obtain any of our advantages4 ,from these circumstances1 does not some duty seem to arise from us to them8 ,does not ,providence1 by these distinguishing favours1 seem to call on us1 to do something ourselves for the common interest of humanity6 ,those who think it their duty1 to ask bread and other blessings daily from heaven1 would they not think it equally a duty1 to communicate of those blessings when they have received them1 and show their gratitude to their great ,benefactor by the only means in their power1 promoting the happiness of his other children8 ,ceres is said to have made a journey through many countries to teach the use of corn1 and the art of raising it4 ,for this single benefit the grateful nations deified her4 ,how much more may ,englishmen deserve such honour1 by communicating the knowledge and use not of corn only1 but of all the other enjoyments earth can produce1 and which they are now in possession of4 ,communiter bona profundere1 ,deum est4 ,many voyages have been undertaken with views of profit or of plunder1 or to gratify resentment2 to procure some advantage to ourselves1 or do some mischief to others3 but a voyage is now proposed1 to visit a distant people on the other side the globe2 not to cheat them1 not to rob them1 not to seize their lands1 or enslave their persons2 but merely to do them good1 and make them1 as far as in our power lies1 to live as comfortably as ourselves4 ,it seems a laudable wish1 that all the nations of the earth were connected by a knowledge of each other1 and a mutual exchange of benefits3 but a commercial nation particularly should wish for a general civilization of mankind1 since trade is always carried on to much greater extent with people who have the arts and conveniences of life1 than it can be with naked savages4 ,we may therefore hope1 in this undertaking1 to be of1 some service to our country1 as well as to those poor people1 who1 however distant from us1 are in truth related to us1 and whose interests do1 in some degree1 concern every one who can say1 ,homo sum1 c4 ,scheme of a voyage1 by subscription1 to convey the conveniences of life1 as fowls1 hogs1 goats1 cattle1 corn1 iron1 c41 to those remote regions1 which are destitute of them1 and to bring from thence such productions1 as can be cultivated in this kingdom to the advantage of society1 in a ship under the command of ,alexander ,dalrymple4 ,catt or bark1 from the coal trade1 of #cej tons1 estimated at about #bjjj ,extra expences1 stores1 boats1 c4 #cjjj ---- ,to be manned with #fj men at #d per man per month ---- #bdj #ab ---- #bhhj per annum #c ---- ,wages and #hfdj for three years #hfdj provisions ----- #acfdj ----- ,cargo included1 supposed #aejjj ,the expences of this expedition are calculated for three years3 but the greatest part of the amount of wages will not be wanted till the ship returns1 and a great part of the expence of provisions will be saved by what is obtained in the course of the voyage1 by barter1 or otherwise1 though it is proper to make provision for contingencies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnote3 #hb ,these proposals were printed upon a sheet of paper some two or three years ago1 and distributed4 ,the parts written by ,dr4 ,franklin and ,mr4 ,dalrymple are easily distinguished4 ,b4 ,v4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,,percival4 ,concerning the ,provision made in ,china against ,famine4 ,i have somewhere read1 that in ,china an account is yearly taken of the number of people1 and the quantities of provision produced4 ,this account is transmitted to the emperor1 whose ministers can thence foresee a scarcity1 likely to happen in any province1 and from what province it can best be supplied in good time4 ,to facilitate the collecting of this account1 and prevent the necessity of entering houses and spending time in asking and answering questions1 each house is furnished with a little board1 to be hung without the door during a certain time each year2 on which board are marked certain words1 against which the inhabitant is to mark number and quantity1 somewhat in this manner3 ----------------- ,men1 ,women1 ,children1 ,rice1 or ,wheat1 ,flesh1 c4 ----------------- ,all under sixteen are accounted children1 and all above1 men and women4 ,any other particulars1 which the government desires information of1 are occasionally marked on the same boards4 ,thus the officers1 appointed to collect the accounts in each district1 have only to pass before the doors1 and enter into their book what they find marked on the board1 without giving the least trouble to the family4 ,there is a penalty on marking falsely1 and as neighbours must know nearly the truth of each others account1 they dare not expose themselves1 by a false one1 to each others accusation4 ,perhaps such a regulation is scarcely practicable with us#hc4 ,,footnote3 #hc ,the above passage is taken from ,dr4 ,percival's ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #be1 being an extract from a letter written to him1 by ,dr4 ,franklin1 on the subject of his observations on the state of population in ,manchester and other adjacent places4 ,b4 ,v4 ,positions to be examined1 concerning national ,wealth#hd4 #a4 ,all food or subsistence for mankind arise from the earth or waters4 #b4 ,necessaries of life1 that are not foods1 and all other conveniences1 have their values estimated by the proportion of food consumed while we are employed in procuring them4 #c4 ,a small people1 with a large territory1 may subsist on the productions of nature1 with no other labour than that of gathering the vegetables and catching the animals4 #d4 ,a large people1 with a small territory1 finds these insufficient1 and1 to subsist1 must labour the earth1 to make it produce greater quantities of vegetable food1 suitable for the nourishment of men1 and of the animals they intend to eat4 #e4 ,from this labour arises a great increase of vegetable and animal food1 and of materials for clothing1 as flax1 wool1 silk1 c4 ,the superfluity of these is wealth4 ,with this wealth we pay for the labour employed in building our houses1 cities1 c4 which are therefore only subsistence thus metamorphosed4 #f4 ,manufactures are only another shape into which so much provisions and subsistence are turned1 as were equal in value to the manufactures produced4 ,this appears from hence1 that the manufacturer does not1 in fact1 obtain from the employer1 for his labour1 more than a mere subsistence1 including raiment1 fuel1 and shelter3 all which derive their value from the provisions consumed in procuring them4 #g4 ,the produce of the earth1 thus converted into manufactures1 may be more easily carried to distant markets than before such conversion4 #h4 ,fair commerce is1 where equal values are exchanged for equal1 the expence of transport included4 ,thus1 if it costs ,a in ,england as much labour and charge to raise a bushel of wheat1 as it costs ,b in ,france to produce four gallons of wine1 then are four gallons of wine the fair exchange for a bushel of wheat1 ,a and ,b meeting at half distance with their commodities to make the exchange4 ,the advantage of this fair commerce is1 that each party increases the number of his enjoyments1 having1 instead of wheat alone1 or wine alone1 the use of both wheat and wine4 #i4 ,where the labour and expence of producing both commodities are known to both parties1 bargains will generally be fair and equal4 ,where they are known to one party only1 bargains will often be unequal1 knowledge taking its advantage of ignorance4 #aj4 ,thus he1 that carries one thousand bushels of wheat abroad to sell1 may not probably obtain so great a profit thereon1 as if he had first turned the wheat into manufactures1 by subsisting therewith the workmen while producing those manufactures3 since there are many expediting and facilitating methods of working1 not generally known2 and strangers to the manufactures1 though they know pretty well the expence of raising wheat1 are unacquainted with those short methods of working1 and thence1 being apt to suppose more labour employed in the manufactures than there really is1 are more easily imposed on in their value1 and induced to allow more for them than they are honestly worth4 #aa4 ,thus the advantage of having manufactures in a country does not consist1 as is commonly supposed1 in their highly advancing the value of rough materials1 of which they are formed2 since1 though six-pennyworth of flax may be worth twenty shillings when worked into lace1 yet the very cause of its being worth twenty shillings1 is1 that1 besides the flax1 it has cost nineteen shillings and sixpence in subsistence to the manufacturer4 ,but the advantage of manufactures is1 that under their shape provisions may be more easily carried to a foreign market2 and by their means our traders may more easily cheat strangers4 ,few1 where it is not made1 are judges of the value of lace4 ,the importer may demand forty1 and perhaps get thirty shillings for that1 which cost him but twenty4 #ab4 ,finally1 there seem to be but three ways for a nation to acquire wealth4 ,the first is by war1 as the ,romans did1 in plundering their conquered neighbours4 ,this is robbery4--,the second by commerce1 which is generally cheating4--,the third by agriculture1 the only honest way1 wherein man receives a real increase of the seed thrown into the ground1 in a kind of continual miracle wrought by the hand of ,god in his favour1 as a reward for his innocent life1 and his virtuous industry4 ,b4 ,,franklin4 ,april #d1 #agfi4 ,,footnote3 #hd ,this article has been inserted in ,the ,repository for select ,papers on ,agriculture1 ,arts1 and ,manufactures4 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cej4 ,b4 ,v4 ,political ,fragments1 supposed either to be written by ,dr4 ,franklin1 or to contain ,sentiments nearly allied to his own#he4 #a4 ,of the ,employment of ,time1 and of ,indolence3 particularly as respecting the ,state4 ,all that live must be subsisted4 ,subsistence costs something4 ,he1 that is industrious1 produces1 by his industry1 something that is an equivalent1 and pays for his subsistence3 he is therefore no charge or burden to society4 ,the indolent are an expence uncompensated4 ,there can be no doubt but all kinds of employment1 that can be followed without prejudice from interruptions2 work1 that can be taken up1 and laid down1 often in a day1 without damage2 7such as spinning1 knitting1 weaving1 c47 are highly advantageous to a community2 because in them may be collected all the produce of those fragments of time1 that occur in family-business1 between the constant and necessary parts of it1 that usually occupy females2 as the time between rising and preparing for breakfast1 between breakfast and preparing for dinner1 c4 c4 ,the amount of all these fragments is1 in the course of a year1 very considerable to a single family2 to a state proportionably4 ,highly profitable therefore it is1 in this case also1 to follow that divine direction1 gather up the fragments that nothing be lost4 ,lost time is lost subsistence2 it is therefore lost treasure4 ,hereby1 in several families1 many yards of linen have been produced1 from the employment of those fragments only1 in one year1 though such families were just the same in number as when not so employed4 ,it was an excellent saying of a certain ,chinese emperor1 ,i will1 if possible1 have no idleness in my dominions2 for if there be one man idle1 some man must suffer cold or hunger4 ,we take this emperor's meaning to be1 that the labour due to the public by each individual1 not being performed by the indolent1 must naturally fall to the share of others1 who must thereby suffer4 #b4 ,of ,embargoes upon ,corn1 and of the ,poor4 ,in inland high countries1 remote from the sea1 and whose rivers are small1 running from the country1 and not to it1 as is the case of ,switzerland1 great distress may arise from a course of bad harvests1 if public granaries are not provided1 and kept well stored4 ,anciently too1 before navigation was so general1 ships so plenty1 and commercial connections so well established1 even maritime countries might be occasionally distressed by bad crops4 ,but such is now the facility of communication between those countries1 that an unrestrained commerce can scarce ever fail of procuring a sufficiency for any of them4 ,if indeed any government is so imprudent1 as to lay its hands on imported corn1 forbid its exportation1 or compel its sale at limited prices1 there the people may suffer some famine from merchants avoiding their ports4 ,but wherever commerce is known to be always free1 and the merchant absolute master of his commodity1 as in ,holland1 there will always be a reasonable supply4 ,when an exportation of corn takes place1 occasioned by a higher price in some foreign countries1 it is common to raise a clamour1 on the supposition1 that we shall thereby produce a domestic famine4 ,then follows a prohibition1 founded on the imaginary distress of the poor4 ,the poor1 to be sure1 if in distress1 should be relieved2 but if the farmer could have a high price for his corn from the foreign demand1 must he1 by a prohibition of exportation1 be compelled to take a low price1 not of the poor only1 but of every one that eats bread1 even the richest8 the duty of relieving the poor is incumbent on the rich2 but by this operation the whole burden of it is laid on the farmer1 who is to relieve the rich at the same time4 ,of the poor too1 those1 who are maintained by the parishes1 have no right to claim this sacrifice of the farmer2 as1 while they have their allowance1 it makes no difference to them1 whether bread be cheap or dear4 ,those working poor1 who now mind business only five or four days in the week1 if bread should be so dear1 as to oblige them to work the whole six required by the commandment1 do not seem to be aggrieved1 so as to have a right to public redress4 ,there will then remain1 comparatively1 only a few families in every district1 who1 from sickness1 or a great number of children1 will be so distressed by a high price of corn1 as to need relief2 and these should be taken care of by particular benefactions1 without restraining the farmer's profit4 ,those1 who fear1 that exportation may so far drain the country of corn1 as to starve ourselves1 fear what never did1 nor ever can happen4 ,they may as well1 when they view the tide ebbing towards the sea1 fear1 that all the water will leave the river4 ,the price of corn1 like water1 will find its own level4 ,the more we export1 the dearer it becomes at home2 the more is received abroad1 the cheaper it becomes there2 and as soon as these prices are equal1 the exportation stops of course4 ,as the seasons vary in different countries1 the calamity of a bad harvest is never universal4 ,if then1 all ports were always open1 and all commerce free1 every maritime country would generally eat bread at the medium price1 or average of all the harvests2 which would probably be more equal than we can make it by out artificial regulations1 and therefore a more steady encouragement to agriculture4 ,the nation would all have bread at this middle price2 and that nation1 which at any time inhumanely refuses to relieve the distresses of another nation1 deserves no compassion when in distress itself4 #c4 ,of the ,effect of ,dearness of ,provisions upon ,working1 and upon ,manufactures4 ,the common people do not work for pleasure generally1 but from necessity4 ,cheapness of provisions makes them more idle2 less work is then done1 it is then more in demand proportionally1 and of course the price rises4 ,dearness of provisions obliges the manufacturer to work more days and more hours2 thus more work is done than equals the usual demand2 of course it becomes cheaper1 and the manufactures in consequence4 #d4 ,of an open ,trade4 ,perhaps1 in general1 it would be better if government meddled no farther with trade1 than to protect it1 and let it take its course4 ,most of the statutes or acts1 edicts1 arrets1 and placarts of parliaments1 princes1 and states1 for regulating1 directing1 or restraining of trade1 have1 we think1 been either political blunders1 or jobs obtained by artful men1 for private advantage1 under pretence of public good4 ,when ,colbert assembled some wise old merchants of ,france1 and desired their advice and opinion1 how he could serve and promote commerce3 their answer1 after consultation1 was in three words only1 ,laissez nous faire2 ,let us alone4--,it is said1 by a very solid writer of the same nation1 that he is well advanced in the science of politics1 who knows the full force of that maxim1 ,pas trop gouverner1 ,not to govern too much2 which1 perhaps1 would be of more use when applied to trade1 than in any other public concern4 ,it were therefore to be wished1 that commerce were as free between all the nations of the world1 as it is between the several counties of ,england2 so would all1 by mutual communication1 obtain more enjoyments4 ,those counties do not ruin each other by trade1 neither would the nations4 ,no nation was ever ruined by trade1 even1 seemingly1 the most disadvantageous4 ,wherever desirable superfluities are imported1 industry is excited1 and thereby plenty is produced4 ,were only necessaries permitted to be purchased1 men would work no more than was necessary for that purpose4 #e4 ,of ,prohibitions1 with ,respect to the ,exportation of ,gold and ,silver4 ,could ,spain and ,portugal have succeeded in executing their foolish laws for hedging in the cuckoo1 as ,locke calls it1 and have kept at home all their gold and silver1 those metals would by this time have been of little more value than so much lead or iron4 ,their plenty would have lessened their value4 ,we see the folly of these edicts3 but are not our own prohibitory and restrictive laws1 that are professedly made with intention to bring a balance in our favour from our trade with foreign nations to be paid in money1 and laws to prevent the necessity of exporting that money1 which if they could be thoroughly executed1 would make money as plenty1 and of as little value2 ,i say1 are not such laws a kin to those ,spanish edicts1 follies of the same family8 #f4 ,of the ,returns for foreign ,articles4 ,in fact1 the produce of other countries can hardly be obtained1 unless by fraud and rapine1 without giving the produce of our land or our industry in exchange for them4 ,if we have mines of gold and silver1 gold and silver may then be called the produce of our land3 if we have not1 we can only fairly obtain those metals by giving for them the produce of our land or industry4 ,when we have them1 they are then only that produce or industry in another shape2 which we may give1 if the trade requires it1 and our other produce will not suit1 in exchange for the produce of some other country1 that furnishes what we have more occasion for1 or more desire4 ,when we have1 to an inconvenient degree1 parted with our gold and silver1 our industry is stimulated afresh to procure more2 that1 by its means1 we may contrive to procure the same advantage4 #g4 ,of ,restraints upon ,commerce in ,time of ,war4 ,when princes make war by prohibiting commerce1 each may hurt himself as much as his enemy4 ,traders1 who by their business are promoting the common good of mankind1 as well as farmers and fishermen1 who labour for the subsistence of all1 should never be interrupted1 or molested in their business1 but enjoy the protection of all in the time of war1 as well as in time of peace4 ,this policy1 those1 whom we are pleased to call ,barbarians1 have in a great measure adopted2 for the trading subjects of any power with whom the emperor of ,morocco may be at war1 are not liable to capture1 when within sight of his land1 going or coming2 and have otherwise free liberty to trade and reside in his dominions4 ,as a maritime power1 we presume it is not thought right1 that ,great ,britain should grant such freedom1 except partially2 as in the case of war with ,france1 when tobacco is allowed to be sent thither under the sanction of passports4 #h4 ,exchanges in ,trade may be gainful to each ,party4 ,in transactions of trade1 it is not to be supposed1 that1 like gaming1 what one party gains the other must necessarily lose4 ,the gain to each may be equal4 ,if ,a has more corn than he can consume1 but wants cattle2 and ,b has more cattle1 but wants corn1 exchange is gain to each3 hereby the common stock of comforts in life is increased4 #i4 ,of ,paper ,credit4 ,it is impossible for government to circumscribe1 or fix the extent of paper credit1 which must of course fluctuate4 ,government may as well pretend to lay down rules for the operations1 or the confidence of every individual in the course of his trade4 ,any seeming temporary evil arising1 must naturally work its own cure4 ,,footnote3 #he ,the political fragments1 which are here presented to the reader1 were gathered up from the notes1 annexed to a pamphlet called ,the ,principles of ,trade1 printed for ,brotherton and ,sewel1 ,london1 #aggd1 second edition4--,the writer of this work speaks of assistance lent to him1 in the following passage in his preface3 ,some very respectable friends have indulged me with their ideas and opinions4 ,it is with the greatest pleasure we1 in this second edition1 most gratefully acknowledge the favour2 and must add1 that should the public hold this performance in any estimation1 no small share belongs to those friends4 ,our author is one of the respectable friends here alluded to4 ,b4 ,v4 ,on the ,price of ,corn1 and ,management of the ,poor#hf4 ,,to ,,messieurs ,,the ,,public4 ,i am one of that class of people1 that feeds you all1 and at present is abused by you all2--in short1 ,i am a farmer4 ,by your news-papers we are told1 that ,god had sent a very short harvest to some other countries of ,europe4 ,i thought this might be in favour of ,old ,england2 and that now we should get a good price for our grain1 which would bring millions among us1 and make us flow in money3 that to be sure is scarce enough4 ,but the wisdom of government forbad the exportation#hg4 ,well1 says ,i1 then we must be content with the market-price at home4 ,no1 say my lords the mob1 you sha'n't have that4 ,bring your corn to market if your dare2--we'll sell it for you1 for less money1 or take it for nothing4 ,being thus attacked by both ends of the constitution1 the head and tail of government1 what am ,i to do8 ,must ,i keep my corn in the barn1 to feed and increase the breed of rats8--be it so2--they cannot be less thankful than those ,i have been used to feed4 ,are we farmers the only people to be grudged the profits of our honest labour8--,and why8 ,one of the late scribblers against us gives a bill of fare of the provisions at my daughter's wedding1 and proclaims to all the world1 that we had the insolence to eat beef and pudding6--,has he not read the precept in the good book1 ,thou shalt not muzzle the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn2 or does he think us less worthy of good living than our oxen8 ,o1 but the manufacturers6 the manufacturers6 they are to be favoured1 and they must have bread at a cheap rate6 ,hark ye1 ,mr4 ,oaf3--,the farmers live splendidly1 you say4 ,and pray1 would you have them hoard the money they get8 ,their fine clothes and furniture1 do they make them themselves or for one another1 and so keep the money among them8 ,or1 do they employ these your darling manufacturers1 and so scatter it again all over the nation8 ,the wool would produce me a better price1 if it were suffered to go to foreign markets2 but that1 ,messieurs the ,public1 your laws will not permit4 ,it must be kept all at home1 that our dear manufacturers may have it the cheaper4 ,and then1 having yourselves thus lessened our encouragement for raising sheep1 you curse us for the scarcity of mutton6 ,i have heard my grandfather say1 that the farmers submitted to the prohibition on the exportation of wool1 being made to expect and believe1 that when the manufacturer bought his wool cheaper1 they should also have their cloth cheaper4 ,but the deuce a bit4 ,it has been growing dearer and dearer from that day to this4 ,how so8 ,why1 truly1 the cloth is exported2 and that keeps up the price4 ,now if it be a good principle1 that the exportation of a commodity is to be restrained1 that so our people at home may have it the cheaper2 stick to that principle1 and go thorough stitch with it4 ,prohibit the exportation of your cloth1 your leather1 and shoes1 your ironware1 and your manufactures of all sorts1 to make them1 all cheaper at home4 ,and cheap enough they will be1 ,i will warrant you--till people leave off making them4 ,some folks seem to think they ought never to be easy till ,england becomes another ,lubberland1 where it is fancied the streets are paved with penny-rolls1 the houses tiled with pancakes1 and chickens1 ready roasted1 cry1 ,come eat me4 ,i say1 when you are sure you have got a good principle1 stick to it1 and carry it thorough4--,i hear it is said1 that though it was necessary and right for the m----y to advise a prohibition of the exportation of corn1 yet it was contrary to law2 and also1 that though it was contrary to law for the mob to obstruct waggons1 yet it was necessary and right4--,just the same thing to a tittle4 ,now they tell me1 an act of indemnity ought to pass in favour of the m----y1 to secure them from the consequences of having acted illegally4--,if so1 pass another in favour of the mob4 ,others say1 some of the mob ought to be hanged1 by way of example4---,if so1--but ,i say no more than ,i have said before1 when you are sure that you have got a good principle1 go through with it4 ,you say1 poor labourers cannot afford to buy bread at a high price1 unless they had higher wages4--,possibly4--,but how shall we farmers be able to afford our labourers higher wages1 if you will not allow us to get1 when we might have it1 a higher price for our corn8 ,by all that ,i can learn1 we should at least have had a guinea a quarter more1 if the exportation had been allowed4 ,and this money ,england would have got from foreigners4 ,but1 it seems1 we farmers must take so much less1 that the poor may have it so much cheaper4 ,this operates then as a tax for the maintenance of the poor4 ,a very good thing1 you will say4 ,but ,i ask1 why a partial tax8 why laid on us farmers only8 ,if it be a good thing1 pray1 ,messieurs the ,public1 take your share of it1 by indemnifying us a little out of your public treasury4 ,in doing a good thing1 there is both honour and pleasure--you are welcome to your share of both4 ,for my own part1 ,i am not so well satisfied of the goodness of this thing4 ,i am for doing good to the poor1 but ,i differ in opinion about the means4 ,i think the best way of doing good to the poor1 is1 not making them easy in poverty1 but leading or driving them out of it4 ,in my youth ,i travelled much1 and ,i observed in different countries1 that the more public provisions were made for the poor1 the less they provided for themselves1 and of course became poorer4 ,and1 on the contrary1 the less was done for them1 the more they did for themselves1 and became richer4 ,there is no country in the world where so many provisions are established for them2 so many hospitals to receive them when they are sick or lame1 founded and maintained by voluntary charities2 so many alms houses for the aged of both sexes1 together with a solemn general law made by the rich to subject their estates to a heavy tax for the support of the poor4 ,under all these obligations1 are our poor modest1 humble1 and thankful8 ,and do they use their best endeavours to maintain themselves1 and lighten our shoulders of this burthen8 ,on the contrary1 ,i affirm1 that there is no country in the world in which the poor are more idle1 dissolute1 drunken1 and insolent4 ,the day you passed that act1 you took away from before their eyes the greatest of all inducements to industry1 frugality1 and sobriety1 by giving them a dependence on somewhat else than a careful accumulation during youth and health1 for support in age or sickness4 ,in short1 you offered a premium for the encouragement of idleness1 and you should not now wonder1 that it has had its effect in the increase of poverty4 ,repeal that law1 and you will soon see a change in their manners1 ,saint ,monday1 and ,saint ,tuesday1 will soon cease to be holidays4 ,six days shalt thou labour1 though one of the old commandments long treated as out of date1 will again be looked upon as a respectable precept2 industry will increase1 and with it plenty among the lower people2 their circumstances will mend1 and more will be done for their happiness by inuring them to provide for themselves1 than could be done by dividing all your estates among them4 ,excuse me1 ,messieurs the ,public1 if upon this interesting subject1 ,i put you to the trouble of reading a little of my nonsense2 ,i am sure ,i have lately read a great deal of yours1 and therefore from you 7at least from those of you who are writers7 ,i deserve a little indulgence4 ,i am yours1 c4 ,,arator#hh4 ,,footnotes3 #hf ,the following extracts of a letter signed ,columella1 and addressed to the editors of the ,repository for select ,papers on ,agriculture1 ,arts1 and ,manufactures 7,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ceb47 will again serve the purpose of preparing those who read it1 for entering upon this paper4 ,,gentlemen1 ,there is now publishing in ,france a periodical work1 called ,ephemeridis du ,citoyen1 in which several points1 interesting to those concerned in agriculture1 are from time to time discussed by some able hands4 ,in looking over one of the volumes of this work a few days ago1 ,i found a little piece written by one of our countrymen1 and which our vigilant neighbours had taken from the ,london ,chronicle in #agff4 ,the author is a gentleman well known to every man of letters in ,europe1 and perhaps there is none1 in this age1 to whom mankind in general are more indebted4 ,that this piece may not be lost to our own country1 ,i beg you will give it a place in your ,repository3 it was written in favour of the farmers1 when they suffered so much abuse in our public papers1 and were also plundered by the mob in many places4 ,the principles on which this piece is grounded are given more at large in the ,political ,fragments1 art4 #b4 ,b4 ,v4 #hg ,it is not necessary to repeat in what degree ,dr4 ,franklin respected the ministers1 to whom he alludes4--,the embargo upon corn was but a single measure1 which1 it is enough to say1 an host of politicians thought well advised1 but ill defended4 ,of the great and honourable services of the earl of ,chatham to his country1 ,dr4 ,franklin has borne the amplest testimony4 ,b4 ,v4 #hh ,the late ,mr4 ,owen ,ruffhead1 being some time ago employed in preparing a digest of our poor laws1 communicated a copy of it to ,dr4 ,franklin for his advice4 ,dr4 ,franklin recommended1 that provision should be made therein1 for the printing on a sheet of paper and dispersing1 in each parish in the kingdom1 annual accounts of every disbursement and receipt of its officers4 ,it is obvious to remark1 how greatly this must tend to check both the officers and the poor1 and to inform and interest the parishioners with respect to parish concerns4--,some of the ,american colonies actually practise this measure with a success which might justify its adoption here4 ,b4 ,v4 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,vaughan1 ,,esq#hi4 ,on ,luxury1 ,idleness1 and ,industry4 ,written in #aghd4 ,it is wonderful how preposterously the affairs of this world are managed4 ,naturally one would imagine1 that the interest of a few individuals should give way to general interest2 but individuals manage their affairs with so much more application1 industry1 and address1 than the public do theirs1 that1 general interest most commonly gives way to particular4 ,we assemble parliaments and councils1 to have the benefit of their collected wisdom2 but we necessarily have1 at the same time1 the inconvenience of their collected passions1 prejudices1 and private interests4 ,by the help of these1 artful men overpower their wisdom1 and dupe its possessors3 and if we may judge1 by the acts1 arrets1 and edicts1 all the world over1 for regulating commerce1 an assembly of great men is the greatest fool upon earth4 ,i have not yet1 indeed1 thought of a remedy for luxury4 ,i am not sure that in a great state it is capable of a remedy1 nor that the evil is in itself always so great as it is represented4 ,suppose we include in the definition of luxury all unnecessary expence1 and then let us consider1 whether laws to prevent such expence are possible to be executed in a great country1 and whether1 if they could be executed1 our people generally would be happier1 or even richer4 ,is not the hope of being one day able to purchase and enjoy luxuries1 a great spur to labour and industry8 ,may not luxury therefore produce more than it consumes1 if1 without such a spur1 people would be1 as they are naturally enough inclined to be1 lazy and indolent8 ,to this purpose ,i remember a circumstance4 ,the skipper of a shallop1 employed between ,cape-,may and ,philadelphia1 had done us some small service1 for which he refused to be paid4 ,my wife1 understanding that he had a daughter1 sent her a present of a new-fashioned cap4 ,three years after1 this skipper being at my house with an old farmer of ,cape-,may1 his passenger1 he mentioned the cap1 and how much his daughter had been pleased with it4 ,but 7said he7 it proved a dear cap to our congregation4 ,how so8 ,when my daughter appeared with it at meeting1 it was so much admired1 that all the girls resolved to get such caps from ,philadelphia2 and my wife and ,i computed1 that the whole could not have cost less than a hundred pounds4 ,true 7said the farmer71 but you do not tell all the story4 ,i think the cap was nevertheless an advantage to us1 for it was the first thing that put our girls upon knitting worsted mittens for sale at ,philadelphia1 that they might have wherewithal to buy caps and ribbons there1 and you know that that industry has continued1 and is likely to continue and increase to a much greater value1 and answer better purposes4--,upon the whole1 ,i was more reconciled to this little piece of luxury1 since not only the girls were made happier by having fine caps1 but the ,philadelphians by the supply of warm mittens4 ,in our commercial towns upon the sea-coast1 fortunes will occasionally be made4 ,some of those who grow rich will be prudent1 live within bounds1 and preserve what they have gained for their posterity3 others1 fond of showing their wealth1 will be extravagant1 and ruin themselves4 ,laws cannot prevent this3 and perhaps it is not always an evil to the public4 ,a shilling spent idly by a fool1 may be picked up by a wiser person1 who knows better what to do with it4 ,it is therefore not lost4 ,a vain silly fellow builds a fine house1 furnishes it richly1 lives in it expensively1 and in a few years ruins himself3 but the masons1 carpenters1 smiths1 and other honest tradesmen1 have been by his employ assisted in maintaining and raising their families2 the farmer has been paid for his labour1 and encouraged1 and the estate is now in better hands4 ,in some cases1 indeed1 certain modes of luxury may be a public evil1 in the same manner as it is a private one4 ,if there be a nation1 for instance1 that exports its beef and linen1 to pay for the importation of claret and porter1 while a great part of its people live upon potatoes1 and wear no shirts1 wherein does it differ from the sot1 who lets his family starve1 and sells his clothes to buy drink8 ,our ,american commerce is1 ,i confess1 a little in this way4 ,we sell our victuals to the islands for rum and sugar2 the substantial necessaries of life for superfluities4 ,but we have plenty1 and live well nevertheless1 though1 by being soberer1 we might be richer4 ,the vast quantity of forest land we have yet to clear1 and put in order for cultivation1 will for a long time keep the body of our nation laborious and frugal4 ,forming an opinion of our people and their manners1 by what is seen among the inhabitants of the sea-ports1 is judging from an improper sample4 ,the people of the trading towns may be rich and luxurious1 while the country possesses all the virtues1 that tend to promote happiness and public prosperity4 ,those towns are not much regarded by the country2 they are hardly considered as an essential part of the states1 and the experience of the last war has shown1 that their being in the possession of the enemy did not necessarily draw on the subjection of the country1 which bravely continued to maintain its freedom and independence notwithstanding4 ,it has been computed by some political arithmetician1 that if every man and woman would work for four hours each day on something useful1 that labour would produce sufficient to procure all the necessaries and comforts of life1 want and misery would be banished out of the world1 and the rest of the twenty-four hours might be leisure and pleasure4 ,what occasions then so much want and misery8 ,it is the employment of men and women in works1 that produce neither the necessaries nor conveniences of life1 who1 with those who do nothing1 consume necessaries raised by the laborious4 ,to explain this4 ,the first elements of wealth are obtained by labour1 from the earth and waters4 ,i have land1 and raise corn4 ,with this1 if ,i feed a family that does nothing1 my corn will be consumed1 and at the end of the year ,i shall be no richer than ,i was at the beginning4 ,but if1 while ,i feed them1 ,i employ them1 some in spinning1 others in making bricks1 c4 for building1 the value of my corn will be arrested and remain with me1 and at the end of the year we may all be better clothed and better lodged4 ,and if1 instead of employing a man ,i feed in making bricks1 ,i employ him in fiddling for me1 the corn he eats is gone1 and no part of his manufacture remains to augment the wealth and convenience of the family3 ,i shall therefore be the poorer for this fiddling man1 unless the rest of my family work more1 or eat less1 to make up the deficiency he occasions4 ,look round the world1 and see the millions employed in doing nothing1 or in something that amounts to nothing1 when the necessaries and conveniences of life are in question4 ,what is the bulk of commerce1 for which we fight and destroy each other1 but the toil of millions for superfluities1 to the great hazard and loss of many lives1 by the constant dangers of the sea8 ,how much labour is spent in building and fitting great ships1 to go to ,china and ,arabia for tea and coffee1 to the ,west ,indies for sugar1 to ,america for tobacco8 ,these things cannot be called the necessaries of life1 for our ancestors lived very comfortably without them4 ,a question may be asked3 could all these people now employed in raising1 making1 or carrying superfluities1 be subsisted by raising necessaries8 ,i think they might4 ,the world is large1 and a great part of it still uncultivated4 ,many hundred millions of acres in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 are still in a forest1 and a great deal even in ,europe4 ,on a hundred acres of this forest a man might become a substantial farmer1 and a hundred thousand men1 employed in clearing each his hundred acres1 would hardly brighten a spot big enough to be visible from the moon1 unless with ,herschel's telescope2 so vast are the regions still in wood4 ,it is1 however1 some comfort to reflect1 that1 upon the whole1 the quantity of industry and prudence among mankind exceeds the quantity of idleness and folly4 ,hence the increase of good buildings1 farms cultivated1 and populous cities filled with wealth1 all over ,europe1 which a few ages since were only to be found on the coasts of the ,mediterranean2 and this notwithstanding the mad wars continually raging1 by which are often destroyed in one year the works of many years peace4 ,so that we may hope the luxury of a few merchants on the coast will not be the ruin of ,america4 ,one reflection more1 and ,i will end this long rambling letter4 ,almost all the parts of our bodies require some expence4 ,the feet demand shoes2 the legs stockings2 the rest of the body clothing2 and the belly a good deal of victuals4 ,our eyes1 though exceedingly useful1 ask1 when reasonable1 only the cheap assistance of spectacles1 which could not much impair our finances4 ,but the eyes of other people are the eyes that ruin us4 ,if all but myself were blind1 ,i should want neither fine clothes1 fine houses1 nor fine furniture4 ,,footnote3 #hi ,this letter is taken from a periodical publication1 that existed only for a short period1 entitled1 ,the ,repository1 to which it was communicated by the person to whom it is addressed4 ,editor4 ,on ,smuggling1 and its various ,species#ij4 ,,sir1 ,there are many people that would be thought1 and even think themselves1 honest men1 who fail nevertheless in particular points of honesty2 deviating from that character sometimes by the prevalence of mode or custom1 and sometimes through mere inattention2 so that their honesty is partial only1 and not general or universal4 ,thus one1 who would scorn to over-reach you in a bargain1 shall make no scruple of tricking you a little now and then at cards2 another1 that plays with the utmost fairness1 shall with great freedom cheat you in the sale of a horse4 ,but there is no kind of dishonesty1 into which otherwise good people more easily and frequently fall1 than that of defrauding government of its revenues by smuggling1 when they have an opportunity1 or encouraging smugglers by buying their goods4 ,i fell into these reflections the other day1 on hearing two gentlemen of reputation discoursing about a small estate1 which one of them was inclined to sell1 and the other to buy2 when the seller1 in recommending the place1 remarked1 that its situation was very advantageous on this account1 that1 being on the sea-coast in a smuggling country1 one had frequent opportunities of buying many of the expensive articles used in a family 7such as tea1 coffee1 chocolate1 brandy1 wines1 cambrics1 ,brussels laces1 ,french silks1 and all kinds of ,india goods71 #bj1 #cj1 and in some articles #ej per cent cheaper1 than they could be had in the more interior parts1 of traders that paid duty4--,the other honest gentlemen allowed this to be an advantage1 but insisted1 that the seller1 in the advanced price he demanded on that account1 rated the advantage much above its value4 ,and neither of them seemed to think dealing with smugglers a practice1 that an honest man 7provided he got his goods cheap7 had the least reason to be ashamed of4 ,at a time when the load of our1 public debt1 and the heavy expence of maintaining our fleets and armies to be ready for our defence on occasion1 makes it necessary1 not only to continue old taxes1 but often to look out for new ones1 perhaps it may not be unuseful to state this matter in a light1 that few seem to have considered it in4 ,the people of ,great ,britain1 under the happy constitution of this country1 have a privilege few other countries enjoy1 that of choosing the third branch of the legislature1 which branch has alone the power of regulating their taxes4 ,now whenever the government finds it necessary for the common benefit1 advantage1 and safety of the nation1 for the security of our liberties1 property1 religion1 and every thing that is dear to us1 that certain sums shall be yearly raised by taxes1 duties1 c4 and paid into the public treasury1 thence to be dispensed by government for those purposes2 ought not every honest man freely and willingly to pay his just proportion of this necessary expence8 ,can he possibly preserve a right to that character1 if1 by any fraud1 stratagem1 or contrivance1 he avoids that payment in whole or in part4 ,what should we think of a companion1 who1 having supped with his friends at a tavern1 and partaken equally of the joys of the evening with the rest of us1 would nevertheless contrive by some artifice to shift his share of the reckoning upon others1 in order to go off scot-free8 ,if a man who practised this would1 when detected1 be deemed and called a scoundrel1 what ought he to be called1 who can enjoy all the inestimable benefits of public society1 and yet by smuggling1 or dealing with smugglers1 contrive to evade paying his just share of the expence1 as settled by his own representatives in parliament2 and wrongfully throw it upon his honester and perhaps much poorer neighbours8 ,he will perhaps be ready to tell me1 that he does not wrong his neighbours2 he scorns the imputation1 he only cheats the king a little1 who is very able to bear it4 ,this however is a mistake4 ,the public treasure is the treasure of the nation1 to be applied to national purposes4 ,and when a duty is laid for a particular public and necessary purpose1 if1 through smuggling1 that duty falls short of raising the sum required1 and other duties must therefore be laid to make up the deficiency1 all the additional sum laid by the new duties and paid by other people1 though it should amount to no more than a halfpenny or a farthing per head1 is so much actually picked out of the pockets of those other people by the smugglers and their abettors and encouragers4 ,are they then any better or other than pickpockets8 and what mean1 low1 rascally pickpockets must those be1 that can pick pockets for halfpence and for farthings8 ,i would not however be supposed to allow in what ,i have just said1 that cheating the king is a less offence against honesty1 than cheating the public4 ,the king and the public in this case are different names for the same thing2 but if we consider the king distinctly it will not lessen the crime3 it is no justification of a robbery1 that the person robbed was rich and able to bear it4 ,the king has as much right to justice as the meanest of his subjects2 and as he is truly the common father of his people1 those that rob him fall under the scripture woe1 pronounced against the son that robbeth his father1 and saith it is no sin4 ,mean as this practice is1 do we not daily see people of character and fortune engaged in it for trifling advantages to themselves8--,is any lady ashamed to request of a gentleman of her acquaintance1 that when he returns from abroad1 he would smuggle her home a piece of silk or lace from ,france or ,flanders8 ,is any gentleman ashamed to undertake and execute the commission8--,not in the least4 ,they will talk of it freely1 even before others whose pockets they are thus contriving to pick by this piece of knavery4 ,among other branches of the revenue1 that of the post-office is1 by a late law1 appropriated to the discharge of our public debt1 to defray the expences of the state4 ,none but members of parliament1 and a few public officers have now a right to avoid1 by a frank1 the payment of postage4 ,when any letter1 not written by them or on their business1 is franked by any of them1 it is a hurt to the revenue1 an injury which they must now take the pains to conceal by writing the whole superscription themselves4 ,and yet such is our insensibility to justice in this particular1 that nothing is more common than to see1 even in a reputable company1 a very honest gentleman or lady declare his or her intention to cheat the nation of three-pence by a frank1 and without blushing apply to one of the very legislators themselves1 with a modest request1 that he would be pleased to become an accomplice in the crime1 and assist in the perpetration4 ,there are those who by these practices take a great deal in a year out of the public purse1 and put the money into their own private pockets4 ,if1 passing through a room where public treasure is deposited1 a man takes the opportunity of clandestinely pocketing and carrying off a guinea1 is he not truly and properly a thief8 ,and if another evades paying into the treasury a guinea he ought to pay in1 and applies it to his own use1 when he knows it belongs to the public as much as that which has been paid in1 what difference is there in the nature of the crime1 or the baseness of committing it8 ,some laws make the receiving of stolen goods equally penal with stealing1 and upon this principle1 that if there were no receivers there would be few thieves4 ,our proverb too says truly1 that the receiver is as bad as the thief4 ,by the same reasoning1 as there would be few smugglers1 if there were none who knowingly encouraged them by buying their goods1 we may say1 that the encouragers of smuggling are as bad as the smugglers2 and that1 as smugglers are a kind of thieves1 both equally deserve the punishments of thievery4 ,in this view of wronging the revenue1 what must we think of those who can evade paying for their wheels and their plate1 in defiance of law and justice1 and yet declaim against corruption and peculation1 as if their own hands and hearts were pure and unsullied8 ,the ,americans offend us grievously1 when1 contrary to our laws1 they smuggle goods into their own country3 and yet they had no hand in making those laws4 ,i do not however pretend from thence to justify them4 ,but ,i think the offence much greater in those who either directly or indirectly have been concerned in making the very laws they break4 ,and when ,i hear them exclaiming against the ,americans1 and for every little infringement of the acts of trade1 or obstruction given by a petty mob to an officer of our customs in that country1 calling for vengeance against the whole people as ,,rebels and traitors1 ,i cannot help thinking there are still those in the world who can see a mote in their brother's eye1 while they do not discern a beam in their own2 and that the old saying is as true now as ever it was1 one man may better steal a horse1 than another look over the hedge4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,footnote3 #ij ,this letter is extracted from the ,london ,chronicle1 for ,november #bd1 #agfg1 and is addressed to the printer of that newspaper4 ,b4 ,v4 ,observations on ,war#ia4 ,by the original law of nations1 war and extirpation were the punishment of injury4 ,humanizing by degrees1 it admitted slavery instead of death3 a farther step was the exchange of prisoners instead of slavery3 another1 to respect more the property of private persons under conquest1 and be content with acquired dominion4 ,why should not this law of nations go on improving8 ,ages have intervened between its several steps3 but as knowledge of late increases rapidly1 why should not those steps be quickened8 ,why should it not be agreed to1 as the future law of nations1 that in any war hereafter the following description of men should be undisturbed1 have the protection of both sides1 and be permitted to follow their employments in security8 viz4 #a4 ,cultivators of the earth1 because they labour for the subsistence of mankind4 #b4 ,fishermen1 for the same reason4 #c4 ,merchants and traders in unarmed ships1 who accommodate different nations by communicating and exchanging the necessaries and conveniences of life4 #d4 ,artists and mechanics1 inhabiting and working in open towns4 ,it is hardly necessary to add1 that the hospitals of enemies should be unmolested--they ought to be assisted4 ,it is for the interest of humanity in general1 that the occasions of war1 and the inducements to it1 should be diminished4 ,if rapine be abolished1 one of the encouragements to war is taken away2 and peace therefore more likely to continue and be lasting4 ,the practice of robbing merchants on the high seas--a remnant of the antient piracy--though it may be accidentally beneficial to particular persons1 is far from being profitable to all engaged in it1 or to the nation that authorises it4 ,in the beginning of a war1 some rich ships are surprized and taken4 ,this encourages the first adventurers to fit out more armed vessels1 and many others to do the same4 ,but the enemy at the same time become more careful1 arm their merchant ships better1 and render them not so easy to be taken3 they go also more under the protection of convoys4 ,thus1 while the privateers to take them are multiplied1 the vessels subject to be taken1 and the chances of profit1 are diminished2 so that many cruises are made wherein the expences overgo the gains1 and1 as is the case in other lotteries1 though particulars have got prizes1 the mass of adventurers are losers1 the whole expence of fitting out all the privateers during a war being much greater than the whole amount of goods taken4 ,then there is the national loss of all the labour of so many men during the time they have been employed in robbing1 who besides spend what they get in riot1 drunkenness1 and debauchery1 lose their habits of industry1 are rarely fit for any sober business after a peace1 and serve only to increase the number of highwaymen and housebreakers4 ,even the undertakers1 who have been fortunate1 are by sudden wealth led into expensive living1 the habit of which continues when the means of supporting it cease1 and finally ruins them3 a just punishment for their having wantonly and unfeelingly ruined many honest1 innocent traders and their families1 whose substance was employed in serving the common interest of mankind4 ,,footnote3 #ia ,from the ,american ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #aja4 ,editor4 ,notes copied from ,dr4 ,franklin's writing in pencil in the margin of ,judge ,foster's celebrated argument in favour of the ,impressing of ,seamen 7published in the folio edition of his works7#ib4 ,judge ,foster1 p4 #aeh4 ,every man4--,the conclusion here1 from the whole to a part1 does not seem to be good logic4 ,if the alphabet should say1 ,let us all fight for the defence of the whole1 that is equal1 and may therefore be just4 ,but if they should say1 ,let ,a ,b ,c and ,d go out and fight for us1 while we stay at home and sleep in whole skins1 that is not equal1 and therefore cannot be just4 ,ib4 ,employ4--,if you please4 ,the word signifies engaging a man to work for me1 by offering him such wages as are sufficient to induce him to prefer my service4 ,this is very different from compelling him to work on such terms as ,i think proper4 ,ib4 ,this service and employment1 c4--,these are false facts4 ,his employments and service are not the same4--,under the merchant he goes in an unarmed vessel1 not obliged to fight1 but to transport merchandise4 ,in the king's service he is obliged to fight1 and to hazard all the dangers of battle4 ,sickness on board of king's ships is also more common and more mortal4 ,the merchant's service too he can quit at the end of the voyage1 not the king's4 ,also1 the merchant's wages are much higher4 ,ib4 ,i am very sensible1 c4--,here are two things put in comparison that are not comparable3 viz4 injury to seamen1 and inconvenience to trade4 ,inconvenience to the whole trade of a nation will not justify injustice to a single seaman4 ,if the trade would suffer without his service1 it is able and ought to be willing to offer him such wages1 as may induce him to afford his service voluntarily4 ,page #aei4 ,private mischief must be borne with patience1 for preventing a national calamity4--,where is this maxim in law and good policy to be found8 ,and how can that be a maxim1 which is not consistent with common sense8 ,if the maxim had been1 that private mischiefs1 which prevent a national calamity1 ought to be generously compensated by the nation1 one might understand it3 but that such private mischiefs are only to be borne with patience1 is absurd6 ,ib4 ,the expedient1 c4 ,and1 c4 7,paragraphs #b and #c74--,twenty ineffectual or inconvenient schemes will not justify one that is unjust4 ,ib4 ,upon the foot of1 c4--,your reasoning1 indeed1 like a lie1 stands but upon one foot1 truth upon two4 ,page #afj4 ,full wages4--,probably the same they had in the merchant's service4 ,page #agd4 ,i hardly admit1 c4 7,paragraph #e74--,when this author speaks of impressing1 page #aeh1 he diminishes the horror of the practice as much as possible1 by presenting to the mind one sailor only suffering a hardship 7as he tenderly calls it7 in some particular cases only1 and he places against this private mischief the inconvenience to the trade of the kingdom4--,but if1 as he supposes is often the case1 the sailor who is pressed1 and obliged to serve for the defence of trade1 at the rate of twenty-five shillings a month1 could get three pounds fifteen shillings in the merchant's service1 you take from him fifty shillings a month2 and if you have a #ajj1jjj in your service1 you rob this honest industrious part of society and their poor families of #bej1jjjl4 per month1 or three millions a year1 and at the same time oblige them to hazard their lives in fighting for the defence of your trade1 to the defence of which all ought indeed to contribute 7and sailors among the rest7 in proportion to their profits by it3 but this three millions is more than their share1 if they did not pay with their persons2 but when you force that1 methinks you should excuse the other4 ,but it may be said1 to give the king's seamen merchant's wages would cost the nation too much1 and call for more taxes4 ,the question then will amount to this3 whether it be just in a community1 that the richer part should compel the poorer to fight in defence of them and their properties1 for such wages as they think fit to allow1 and punish them if they refuse8 ,our author tells us that it is legal4 ,i have not law enough to dispute his authorities1 but ,i cannot persuade myself that it is equitable4 ,i will1 however1 own for the present1 that it may be lawful when necessary2 but then ,i contend1 that it may be used so as to produce the same good effects1 the public security1 without doing so much intolerable injustice as attends the impressing common seamen4--,in order to be better understood ,i would premise two things3 first1 that voluntary seamen may be had for the service1 if they were sufficiently paid4 ,the proof is1 that to serve in the same ship1 and incur the same dangers1 you have no occasion to impress captains1 lieutenants1 second lieutenants1 midshipmen1 pursers1 nor many other officers4 ,why1 but that the profits of their places1 or the emoluments expected1 are sufficient inducements8 ,the business then is1 to find money1 by impressing1 sufficient to make the sailors all volunteers1 as well as their officers1 and this without any fresh burthen upon trade4--,the second of my premises is1 that twenty-five shillings a month1 with his share of the salt beef1 pork1 and peas-pudding1 being found sufficient for the subsistence of a hard-working seaman1 it will certainly be so for a sedentary scholar or gentleman4 ,i would then propose to form a treasury1 out of which encouragements to seamen should be paid4 ,to fill this treasury1 ,i would impress a number of civil officers1 who at present have great salaries1 oblige them to serve in their respective offices for twenty-five shillings a month1 with their shares of mess provisions1 and throw the rest of their salaries into the seamen's treasury4 ,if such a press-warrant were given me to execute1 the first ,i would press should be a recorder of ,bristol1 or a ,mr4 ,justice ,foster1 because ,i might have need of his edifying example1 to show how much impressing ought to be borne with2 for he would certainly find1 that though to be reduced to twenty-five shillings a month might be a private mischief1 yet that1 agreeably to his maxim of law and good policy1 it ought to be borne with patience1 for preventing a national calamity4 ,then ,i would press the rest of the judges2 and1 opening the red book1 ,i would press every civil officer of government from #ejl4 a year salary1 up to #ej1jjjl4 which would throw an immense sum into our treasury3 and these gentlemen could not complain1 since they would receive twenty-five shillings a month1 and their rations2 and this without being obliged to fight4 ,lastly1 ,i think ,i would impress 99999999 ,,footnote3 #ib ,these notes are taken from the periodical publication mentioned in p4 #dbd of the present ,vol4 ,editor4 ,,to ,,benjamin ,,vaughan1 ,,esq#ic4 ,on the criminal ,laws1 and the ,practice of ,privateering4 ,march #ad1 #aghe4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend1 ,among the pamphlets you lately sent me1 was one1 entitled1 ,thoughts on ,executive ,justice4 ,in return for that1 ,i send you a ,french one on the same subject1 ,observations concernant l',excution de l',article ,,ii1 de la ,dclaration sur le ,vol4 ,they are both addressed to the judges1 but written1 as you will see1 in a very different spirit4 ,the ,english author is for hanging all thieves4 ,the ,frenchman is for proportioning punishments to offences4 ,if we really believe1 as we profess to believe1 that the law of ,moses was the law of ,god1 the dictate of divine wisdom1 infinitely superior to human2 on what principles do we ordain death as the punishment of an offence1 which1 according to that law1 was only to be punished by a restitution of fourfold8 ,to put a man to death for an offence1 which does not deserve death1 is it not a murder8 ,and1 as the ,french writer says1 ,doit on punir un dlit contre la societ1 par un crime contre la nature8 ,superfluous property is the creature of society4 ,simple and mild laws were sufficient to guard the property that was merely necessary4 ,the savage's bow1 his hatchet1 and his coat of skins1 were sufficiently secured1 without law1 by the fear of personal resentment and retaliation4 ,when1 by virtue of the first laws1 part of the society accumulated wealth and grew powerful1 they enacted others more severe1 and would protect their property at the expence of humanity4 ,this was abusing their power1 and commencing a tyranny4 ,if a savage1 before he entered into society1 had been told1--,your neighbour1 by this means1 may become owner of an hundred deer2 but if your brother1 or your son1 or yourself1 having no deer of your own1 and being hungry1 should kill one1 an infamous death must be the consequence3 he would probably have preferred his liberty1 and his common right of killing any deer1 to all the advantages of society that might be proposed to him4 ,that it is better a hundred guilty persons should escape1 than that one innocent person should suffer1 is a maxim that has been long and generally approved2 never1 that ,i know of1 controverted4 ,even the sanguinary author of the ,thoughts agrees to it1 adding well1 that the very thought of injured innocence1 and much more that of suffering innocence1 must awaken all our tenderest and most compassionate feelings1 and at the same time raise our highest indignation against the instruments of it4 ,but1 he adds1 there is no danger of either1 from a strict adherence to the laws4--,really6 ,is it then impossible to make an unjust law8 and if the law itself be unjust1 may it not be the very instrument which ought to raise the author's1 and every body's highest indignation8 ,i see1 in the last newspapers from ,london1 that a woman is capitally convicted at the ,old ,bailey1 for privately stealing out of a shop some gauze1 value fourteen shillings and three-pence3 is there any proportion between the injury done by a theft1 value fourteen shillings and three-pence1 and the punishment of a human creature1 by death1 on a gibbet8 ,might not that woman1 by her labour1 have made the reparation ordained by ,god1 in paying fourfold8 ,is not all punishment1 inflicted beyond the merit of the offence1 so much punishment of innocence8 ,in this light1 how vast is the annual quantity1 of not only injured but suffering innocence1 in almost all the civilized states of ,europe6 ,but it seems to have been thought1 that this kind of innocence may be punished by way of preventing crimes4 ,i have read1 indeed1 of a cruel ,turk in ,barbary1 who1 whenever he bought a new ,christian slave1 ordered him immediately to be hung up by the legs1 and to receive a hundred blows of a cudgel on the soles of his feet1 that the severe sense of the punishment1 and fear of incurring it thereafter1 might prevent the faults1 that should merit it4 ,our author himself would hardly approve entirely of this ,turk's conduct in the government of slaves2 and yet he appears to recommend something like it for the government of ,english subjects1 when he applauds the reply of judge ,burnet to the convict horse-stealer2 who1 being asked what he had to say why judgment of death should not pass against him1 and answering1 that it was hard to hang a man for only stealing a horse1 was told by the judge1 ,man1 thou art not to be hanged only for stealing a horse1 but that horses may not be stolen4 ,the man's answer1 if candidly examined1 will1 ,i imagine1 appear reasonable1 as being founded on the eternal principle of justice and equity1 that punishments should be proportioned to offences2 and the judge's reply brutal and unreasonable1 though the writer wishes all judges to carry it with them whenever they go the circuit1 and to bear it in their minds1 as containing a wise reason for all the penal statutes1 which they are called upon to put in execution4 ,it at once illustrates1 says he1 the true grounds and reasons of all capital punishments whatsoever1 namely1 that every man's property1 as well as his life1 may be held sacred and inviolate4 ,is there then no difference in value between property and life8 ,if ,i think it right1 that the crime of murder should be punished with death1 not only as an equal punishment of the crime1 but to prevent other murders1 does it follow1 that ,i must approve of inflicting the same punishment for a little invasion on my property by theft8 ,if ,i am not myself so barbarous1 so bloody-minded1 and revengeful1 as to kill a fellow-creature for stealing from me fourteen shillings and three-pence1 how can ,i approve of a law that does it8 ,montesquieu1 who was himself a judge1 endeavours to impress other maxims4 ,he must have known what humane judges feel on such occasions1 and what the effects of those feelings2 and1 so far from thinking that severe and excessive punishments prevent crimes1 he asserts1 as quoted by our ,french writer1 that ,l'atrocit des loix en empche l'excution4 ,l'orsque la peine est sans mesure1 on est souvent oblig de lui prfrer l'impunit4 ,la cause de tous les relchemens vient de l'impunit des crimes1 et non de la modration des peines4 ,it is said by those who know ,europe generally1 that there are more thefts committed and punished annually in ,england1 than in all the other nations put together4 ,if this be so1 there must be a cause or causes for such depravity in our common people4 ,may not one be the deficiency of justice and morality in our national government1 manifested in our oppressive conduct to subjects1 and unjust wars on our neighbours8 ,view the long-persisted in1 unjust1 monopolizing treatment of ,ireland1 at length acknowledged6 ,view the plundering government exercised by our merchants in the ,indies2 the confiscating war made upon the ,american colonies2 and1 to say nothing of those upon ,france and ,spain1 view the late war upon ,holland1 which was seen by impartial ,europe in no other light than that of a war of rapine and pillage2 the hopes of an immense and easy prey being its only apparent1 and probably its true and real motive and encouragement4 ,justice is as strictly due between neighbour nations1 as between neighbour citizens4 ,a highwayman is as much a robber when he plunders in a gang1 as when single2 and a nation1 that makes an unjust war1 is only a great gang4 ,after employing your people in robbing the ,dutch1 strange is it1 that1 being put out of that employ by peace1 they still continue robbing1 and rob one another8 ,piraterie1 as the ,french call it1 or privateering1 is the universal bent of the ,english nation1 at home and abroad1 wherever settled4 ,no less than seven hundred privateers were1 it is said1 commissioned in the last war6 ,these were fitted out by merchants1 to prey upon other merchants1 who had never done them any injury4 ,is there probably any one of those privateering merchants of ,london1 who were so ready to rob the merchants of ,amsterdam1 that would not as readily plunder another ,london merchant of the next street1 if he could do it with the same impunity6 ,the avidity1 the alieni appetens1 is the same2 it is the fear alone of the gallows that makes the difference4 ,how then can a nation1 which1 among the honestest of its people1 has so many thieves by inclination1 and whose government encouraged and commissioned no less than seven hundred gangs of robbers2 how can such a nation have the face to condemn the crime in individuals1 and hang up twenty of them in a morning6 ,it naturally puts one in mind of a ,newgate anecdote4 ,one of the prisoners complained1 that in the night somebody had taken his buckles out of his shoes4 ,what1 the devil6 says another1 have we then thieves amongst us8 ,it must not be suffered4 ,let us search out the rogue1 and pump him to death4 ,there is1 however1 one late instance of an ,english merchant1 who will not profit by such ill-gotten gain4 ,he was1 it seems1 part-owner of a ship1 which the other owners thought fit to employ as a letter of marque1 and which took a number of ,french prizes4 ,the booty being shared1 he has now an agent here enquiring1 by an advertisement in the ,gazette1 for those who suffered the loss1 in order to make them1 as far as in him lies1 restitution4 ,this conscientious man is a ,quaker4 ,the ,scotch presbyterians were formerly as tender2 for there is still extant an ordinance of the town-council of ,edinburgh1 made soon after the reformation1 forbidding the purchase of prize goods1 under pain of losing the freedom of the burgh for ever1 with other punishment at the will of the magistrate2 the practice of making prizes being contrary to good conscience1 and the rule of treating ,christian brethren as we would wish to be treated2 and such goods are not to be sold by any godly men within this burgh4 ,the race of these godly men in ,scotland is probably extinct1 or their principles abandoned1 since1 as far as that nation had a hand in promoting the war against the colonies1 prizes and confiscations are believed to have been a considerable motive4 ,it has been for some time a generally received opinion1 that a military man is not to inquire whether a war be just or unjust2 he is to execute his orders4 ,all princes who are disposed to become tyrants must probably approve of this opinion1 and be willing to establish it2 but is it not a dangerous one8 since1 on that principle1 if the tyrant commands his army to attack and destroy1 not only an unoffending neighbour nation1 but even his own subjects1 the army is bound to obey4 ,a negro slave1 in our colonies1 being commanded by his master to rob or murder a neighbour1 or do any other immoral act1 may refuse1 and the magistrate will protect him in his refusal4 ,the slavery then of a soldier is worse than that of a negro6 ,a conscientious officer1 if not restrained by the apprehension of its being imputed to another cause1 may indeed resign1 rather than be employed in an unjust war2 but the private men are slaves for life2 and they are perhaps incapable of judging for themselves4 ,we can only lament their fate1 and still more that of a sailor1 who is often dragged by force from his honest occupation1 and compelled to imbrue his hands in1 perhaps1 innocent blood4 ,but methinks it well behoves merchants 7men more enlightened by their education1 and perfectly free from any such force or obligation7 to consider well of the justice of a war1 before they voluntarily engage a gang of ruffians to attack their fellow-merchants of a neighbouring nation1 to plunder them of their property1 and perhaps ruin them and their families1 if they yield it2 or to wound1 maim1 or murder them1 if they endeavour to defend it4 ,yet these things are done by ,christian merchants1 whether a war be just or unjust2 and it can hardly be just on both sides4 ,they are done by ,english and ,american merchants1 who1 nevertheless1 complain of private theft1 and hang by dozens the thieves they have taught by their own example4 ,it is high time1 for the sake of humanity1 that a stop were put to this enormity4 ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 though better situated than any ,european nation to make profit by privateering 7most of the trade of ,europe1 with the ,west ,indies1 passing before their doors7 are1 as far as in them lies1 endeavouring to abolish the practice1 by offering1 in all their treaties with other powers1 an article1 engaging solemnly1 that1 in case of future war1 no privateer shall be commissioned on either side2 and that unarmed merchant-ships1 on both sides1 shall pursue their voyages unmolested#id4 ,this will be a happy improvement of the law of nations4 ,the humane and the just cannot but wish general success to the proposition4 ,with unchangeable esteem and affection1 ,i am1 my dear friend1 ,ever yours4 ,,footnotes3 #ic ,from a small collection of ,dr4 ,franklin's papers1 printed for ,dilly4 ,editor4 #id ,this offer having been accepted by the late king of ,prussia1 a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded between that monarch and the ,united ,states1 containing the following humane1 philanthropic article2 in the formation of which ,dr4 ,franklin1 as one of the ,american plenipotentiaries1 was principally concerned1 viz4 ,,art4 ,,xxiii4 ,if war should arise between the two contracting parties1 the merchants of either country1 then residing in the other1 shall be allowed to remain nine months to collect their debts and settle their affairs1 and may depart freely1 carrying off all their effects without molestation or hindrance2 and all women and children1 scholars of every faculty1 cultivators of the earth1 artisans1 manufacturers1 and fishermen1 unarmed and inhabiting unfortified towns1 villages1 or places1 and in general all others1 whose occupations are for the common subsistence and benefit of mankind1 shall be allowed to continue their respective employments1 and shall not be molested in their persons1 nor shall their houses and goods be burnt1 or otherwise destroyed1 nor their fields wasted1 by the armed force of the enemy into whose power1 by the events of war1 they may happen to fall2 but if any thing is necessary to be taken from them for the use of such armed force1 the same shall be paid for at a reasonable price4 ,and all merchant and trading vessels employed in exchanging the products of different places1 and thereby rendering the necessaries1 conveniences1 and comforts of human life more easy to be obtained1 and more general1 shall be allowed to pass free and unmolested2 and neither of the contracting powers shall grant or issue any commission to any private armed vessels1 empowering them to take or destroy such trading vessels1 or interrupt such commerce4 ,a ,parable against ,persecution1 in ,imitation of ,scripture ,language#ie4 #a4 ,and it came to pass after these things1 that ,abraham sat in the door of his tent1 about the going down of the sun4 #b4 ,and behold a man bent with age1 coming from the way of the wilderness leaning on a staff4 #c4 ,and ,abraham arose1 and met him1 and said unto him1 ,turn in1 ,i pray thee1 and wash thy feet1 and tarry all night2 and thou shalt arise early in the morning1 and go on thy way4 #d4 ,and the man said1 ,nay2 for ,i will abide under this tree4 #e4 ,but ,abraham pressed him greatly3 so he turned and they went into the tent3 and ,abraham baked unleaven bread1 and they did eat4 #f4 ,and when ,abraham saw that the man blessed not ,god1 he said unto him1 ,wherefore dost thou not worship the most high ,god1 creator of heaven and earth8 #g4 ,and the man answered and said1 ,i do not worship thy ,god1 neither do ,i call upon his name1 for ,i have made to myself a god1 which abideth always in my house1 and provideth me with all things4 #h4 ,and ,abraham's zeal was kindled against the man1 and he arose1 and fell upon him1 and drove him forth with blows into the wilderness4 #i4 ,and ,god called unto ,abraham1 saying1 ,abraham1 where is the stranger8 #aj4 ,and ,abraham answered and said1 ,lord1 he would not worship thee1 neither would he call upon thy name1 therefore have ,i driven him out from before my face into the wilderness4 #aa4 ,and ,god said1 ,have ,i borne with him these hundred and ninety and eight years1 and nourished him1 and clothed him1 notwithstanding his rebellion against me1 and couldst not thou1 who art thyself a sinner1 bear with him one night8 #ab4 ,and ,abraham said1 ,let not the anger of my ,lord wax hot against his servant2 lo1 ,i have sinned1 forgive me ,i pray thee4 #ac4 ,and ,abraham arose1 and went forth into the wilderness and diligently sought for the man and found him1 and returned with him to the tent1 and when he had entreated him kindly1 he sent him away on the morrow with gifts4 #ad4 ,and ,god spake again unto ,abraham saying1 ,for this thy sin shall thy seed be afflicted four hundred years in a strange land4 #ae4 ,but for thy repentance will ,i deliver them1 and they shall come forth with power1 and with gladness of heart1 and with much substance4#if ,,footnotes3 #ie ,i have taken this piece from ,sketches of the ,history of ,man1 written by lord ,kaims1 and shall preface it with his lordship's own words4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dgb1 #dgc4 ,the following ,parable against ,persecution was communicated to me by ,dr4 ,franklin of ,philadelphia1 a man who makes a great figure in the learned world3 and who would still make a greater figure for benevolence and candour1 were virtue as much regarded in this declining age as knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the historical style of the ,old ,testament is here finely imitated2 and the moral must strike every one who is not sunk in stupidity and superstition4 ,were it really a chapter of ,genesis1 one is apt to think1 that persecution could never have shown a bare face among ,jews or ,christians4 ,but alas6 that is a vain thought4 ,such a passage in the ,old ,testament would avail as little against the rancorous passions of men1 as the following passages in the ,new ,testament1 though persecution cannot be condemned in terms more explicit4 ,him that is weak in the faith1 receive you1 but not to doubtful disputations4 ,for1 c4 ,b4 ,v4 #if ,dr4 ,franklin1 as ,i have been told1 has often imposed this parable upon his friends and acquaintance1 as part of a chapter of ,genesis4 ,b4 ,v4 ,a ,letter concerning ,persecution in former ,ages1 the ,maintenance of the ,clergy1 ,american ,bishops1 and the ,state of ,toleration in ,old ,england and ,new ,england compared#ig4 ,,sir1 ,i understand from the public papers1 that in the debates on the bill for relieving the dissenters in the point of subscription to the church articles1 sundry reflections were thrown out against the people1 importing1 that they themselves are of a persecuting intolerant spirit1 for that when they had the superiority1 they persecuted the church1 and still persecute it in ,america1 where they compel its members to pay taxes for maintaining the presbyterian or independent worship1 and at the same time refuse them a toleration in the full exercise of their religion1 by the administrations of a bishop4 ,if we look back into history for the character of the present sects in ,christianity1 we shall find few that have not1 in their turns1 been persecutors and complainers of persecution4 ,the primitive christians thought persecution extremely wrong in the pagans1 but practised it on one another4 ,the first protestants of the church of ,england blamed persecution in the ,romish church1 but practised it against the puritans3 these found it wrong in the bishops1 but fell into the same practice both here and in ,new ,england4--,to account for this1 we should remember1 that the doctrine of toleration was not then known1 or had not prevailed in the world4 ,persecution was therefore not so much the fault of the sect as of the times4 ,it was not in those days deemed wrong in itself4 ,the general opinion was only1 that those who are in error ought not to persecute the truth3 but the possessors of truth were in the right to persecute error1 in order to destroy it4 ,thus every sect believing itself possessed of all truth1 and that every tenet differing from theirs was error1 conceived1 that when the power was in their hands1 persecution was a duty required of them by that ,god whom they supposed to be offended with heresy4--,by degrees1 more moderate and more modest sentiments have taken place in the christian world2 and among protestants particularly1 all disclaim persecution1 none vindicate it1 and few practise it4--,we should then cease to reproach each other with what was done by our ancestors1 but judge of the present character of sects or churches by their present conduct only#ih4 ,now to determine on the justice of this charge against the present dissenters1 particularly those in ,america1 let us consider the following facts4 ,they went from ,england to establish a new country for themselves1 at their own expence1 where they might enjoy the free exercise of religion in their own way4 ,when they had purchased the territory of the natives1 they granted the lands out in townships1 requiring for it neither purchase-money nor quit-rent1 but this condition only to be complied with1 that the freeholders should support a gospel-minister 7meaning probably one of the then governing sects7 and a free-school1 within the township4 ,thus1 what is commonly called presbyterianism became the established religion of that country4 ,all went on well in this way1 while the same religious opinions were general1 the support of minister and school being raised by a proportionate tax on the lands4 ,but1 in process of time1 some becoming quakers#ii1 some baptists1 and of late years1 some returning to the church of ,england 7through the laudable endeavours and a proper application#ajj of their funds by the society for propagating the gospel71 objections were made to the payment of a tax appropriated to the support of a church they disapproved and had forsaken4 ,the civil magistrates1 however1 continued for a time to collect and apply the tax according to the original laws1 which remained in force2 and they did it the more freely as thinking it just and equitable1 that the holders of lands should pay what was contracted to be paid when they were granted1 as the only consideration for the grant1 and what had been considered by all subsequent purchasers as a perpetual incumbrance on the estate1 bought therefore at a proportionally cheaper rate2 a payment which1 it was thought1 no honest man ought to avoid1 under pretence of his having changed his religious persuasion3 and this1 ,i suppose1 is one of the best grounds of demanding tythes of dissenters now in ,england4 ,but the practice being clamoured against by the episcopalians as persecution1 the legislature of the province of ,massachusets ,bay1 near thirty years since1 passed an act for their relief1 requiring1 indeed1 the tax to be paid as usual1 but directing that the several sums1 levied from members of the church of ,england1 should be paid over to the minister of that church with whom such members usually attended divine worship2 which minister had power given him to receive1 and1 on occasion1 to recover the same by law4 ,it seems that legislature considered1 that the end of the tax was to secure and improve the morals of the people1 and promote their happiness1 by supporting among them the public worship of ,god and the preaching of the gospel2 that where particular people fancied a particular mode1 that mode might probably1 therefore1 be of most use to those people1 and that if the good was done1 it was not so material in what mode or by whom it was done4 ,the consideration1 that their brethren1 the dissenters in ,england1 were still compelled to pay tythes to the clergy of the church1 had not weight enough with the legislature to prevent this moderate act1 which still continues in full force2 and ,i hope no uncharitable conduct of the church toward the dissenters will ever provoke them to repeal it4---- ,with regard to a bishop1 ,i know not upon what ground the dissenters1 either here or in ,america1 are charged with refusing the benefit of such an officer to the church in that country4 ,here they seem to have naturally no concern in the affair4 ,there they have no power to prevent it1 if government should think fit to send one4 ,they would probably dislike1 indeed1 to see an order of men established among them1 from whose persecutions their fathers fled into that wilderness1 and whose future domination they might possibly fear1 not knowing that their natures are changed4--,but the non-appointment of bishops for ,america seems to arise from another quarter4 ,the same wisdom of government1 probably1 that prevents the sitting of convocations1 and forbids1 by noli prosequi's1 the persecution of dissenters for non-subscription1 avoids establishing bishops1 where the minds of people are not yet prepared to receive them cordially1 lest the public peace should be endangered4 ,and now let us see how this persecution-account stands between the parties4 ,in ,new ,england1 where the legislative bodies are almost to a man dissenters from the church of ,england3 #a4 ,there is no test to prevent churchmen holding offices4 #b4 ,the sons of churchmen have the full benefit of the universities4 #c4 ,the taxes for support of public worship1 when paid by churchmen1 are given to the episcopal minister4 ,in ,old ,england3 #a4 ,dissenters are excluded from all offices of profit and honour4 #b4 ,the benefits of education in the universities are appropriated to the sons of churchmen4 #c4 ,the clergy of the dissenters receive none of the tythes paid by their people1 who must be at the additional charge of maintaining their own separate worship4-- ,but it is said1 that the dissenters of ,america oppose the introduction of a bishop4 ,in fact1 it is not alone the dissenters there that give the opposition 7if not encouraging must be termed opposing7 but the laity in general dislike the project1 and some even of the clergy4 ,the inhabitants of ,virginia are almost all episcopalians1 the church is fully established there1 and the council and general assembly are1 perhaps to a man1 its members3 yet1 when lately at a meeting of the clergy1 a resolution was taken to apply for a bishop1 against which several however protested2 assembly of the province1 at the next meeting1 expressed their disapprobation of the thing in the strongest manner1 by unanimously ordering the thanks of the house to the protesters2 for many of the ,american laity of the church think it some advantage--whether their own young men come to ,england for ordination1 and improve themselves at the same time by conversation with the learned here--or the congregations are supplied by ,englishmen1 who have had the benefit of education in ,english universities1 and are ordained before they came abroad4 ,they do not1 therefore1 see the necessity of a bishop merely for ordination2 and confirmation is among them deemed a ceremony of no very great importance1 since few seek it in ,england1 where bishops are in plenty4--,these sentiments prevail with many churchmen there1 not to promote a design which they think must sooner or later saddle them with great expences to support it4--,as to the dissenters1 their minds might probably be more conciliated to the measure1 if the bishops here should1 in their wisdom and goodness1 think fit to set their sacred character in a more friendly light1 by dropping their opposition to the dissenters' application for relief in subscription1 and declaring their willingness that dissenters should be capable of offices1 enjoy the benefit of education in the universities1 and the privilege of appropriating their tythes to the support of their own clergy4 ,in all these points of toleration1 they appear far behind the present dissenters of ,new ,england1 and it may seem to some a step below the dignity of bishops1 to follow the example of such inferiors4 ,i do not1 however1 despair of their doing it some time or other1 since nothing of the kind is too hard for true christian humility4 ,i am1 sir1 yours1 c4 ,a ,,new-,,england-,,man4 ,,footnotes3 #ig ,the above letter first appeared in one of the public papers on ,june #c1 #aggb1 and seems to have been addressed to the printer4 ,the spirited writer of the ,two letters to the prelates republished it in an appendix to that pamphlet1 without1 however1 naming ,dr4 ,franklin as the author1 but expressing it to be the production of a gentleman highly respected in the literary world4 ,b4 ,v4 #ih ,toleration in religion1 though obvious to common understanding1 was not however the production of reason1 but of commerce4 ,the advantage of toleration for promoting commerce was discovered long before by the ,portuguese4 ,they were too zealous ,catholics to venture so bold a measure in ,portugal2 but it was permitted in ,goa1 and the inquisition in that town was confined to ,roman ,catholics4 ,lord ,kaim's ,sketches of the ,history of ,man1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dgd4 ,b4 ,v4 #ii ,no person appeared in ,new ,england who professed the opinion of the ,quakers1 until #afef1 7i4 e4 about #cf years after the first settling of the colony71 when ,mary ,fisher and ,ann ,austin came from ,barbadoes2 and soon after1 nine others arrived in the ship ,speedwell from ,london4 ,they were successful in their preaching1 and the provincial government1 wishing to keep the colony free from them1 attempted to send away such as they discovered1 and prevent the arrival of others4 ,securities1 fines1 banishment1 imprisonment1 and corporal punishments were instituted for this purpose1 but with so little effect1 that at last a law was made for punishing with death1 all such as should return into the jurisdiction after banishment4 ,a few were hanged6 ,see the history of the ,british dominions1 #dto1 #aggc1 p4 #aah1 #abj4 ,b4 ,v4 #ajj ,they were to spread the gospel1 and maintain a learned and orthodox clergy1 where ministers were wanted or ill-provided1 administering ,god's word and sacraments1 and preventing atheism1 infidelity1 popery1 and idolatry4 ,b4 ,v4 ,on the ,slave ,trade#aja4 ,reading in the newspapers the speech of ,mr4 ,jackson in congress1 against meddling with the affair of slavery1 or attempting to mend the condition of slaves1 it put me in mind of a similar speech1 made about one hundred years since1 by ,sidi ,mehemet ,ibrahim1 a member of the divan of ,algiers1 which may be seen in ,martin's account of his consulship1 #afhg4 ,it was against granting the petition of the sect called erika1 or purists1 who prayed for the abolition of piracy and slavery1 as being unjust4--,mr4 ,jackson does not quote it2 perhaps he has not seen it4 ,if therefore1 some of its reasonings are to be found in his eloquent speech1 it may only show1 that men's interests operate1 and are operated on1 with surprising similarity1 in all countries and climates1 whenever they are under similar circumstances4 ,the ,african speech1 as translated1 is as follows3 ,alla ,bismillah1 c4 ,god is great1 and ,mahomet is his prophet4 ,have these erika considered the consequences of granting their petition8 ,if we cease our cruises against the christians1 how shall we be furnished with the commodities their countries produce1 and which are so necessary for us8 ,if we forbear to make slaves of their people1 who1 in this hot climate1 are to cultivate our lands8 ,who are to perform the common labours of our city1 and of our families8 ,must we not then be our own slaves8 ,and is there not more compassion and more favour due to us mussulmen1 than to those christian dogs8--,we have now above fifty thousand slaves in and near ,algiers4 ,this number1 if not kept up by fresh supplies1 will soon diminish1 and be gradually annihilated4 ,if1 then1 we cease taking and plundering the infidel ships1 and making slaves of the seamen and passengers1 our lands will become of no value1 for want of cultivation2 the rents of houses in the city will sink one half2 and the revenues of government1 arising from the share of prizes1 must be totally destroyed4--,and for what8 ,to gratify the whim of a whimsical sect1 who would have us not only forbear making more slaves1 but even manumit those we have4 ,but who is to indemnify their masters for the loss8 ,will the state do it8 ,is our treasury sufficient8 ,will the erika do it8 ,can they do it8 ,or would they1 to do what they think justice to the slaves1 do a greater injustice to the owners8 ,and if we set our slaves free1 what is to be done with them8 ,few of them will return to their native countries2 they know too well the greater hardships they must there be subject to4 ,they will not embrace our holy religion3 they will not adopt our manners3 our people will not pollute themselves by intermarrying with them4 ,must we maintain them as beggars in our streets2 or suffer our properties to be the prey of their pillage8 for men1 accustomed to slavery1 will not work for a livelihood1 when not compelled4--,and what is there so pitiable in their present condition8 ,were they not slaves in their own countries8 ,are not ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,france1 and the ,italian states1 governed by despots1 who hold all their subjects in slavery1 without exception8 ,even ,england treats her sailors as slaves1 for they are1 whenever the government pleases1 seized and confined in ships of war1 condemned not only to work1 but to fight for small wages1 or a mere subsistence1 not better than our slaves are allowed by us4 ,is their condition then made worse by their falling into our hands8 no2 they have only exchanged one slavery for another2 and ,i may say a better3 for here they are brought into a land1 where the sun of islamism gives forth its light1 and shines in full splendor1 and they have an opportunity of making themselves acquainted with the true doctrine1 and thereby saving their immortal souls4 ,those who remain at home have not that happiness4 ,sending the slaves home then1 would be sending them out of light into darkness4 ,i repeat the question1 what is to be done with them8 ,i have heard it suggested1 that they may be planted in the wilderness1 where there is plenty of land for them to subsist on1 and where they may flourish as a free state4--,but they are1 ,i doubt1 too little disposed to labour without compulsion1 as well as too ignorant to establish good government3 and the wild ,arabs would soon molest and destroy1 or again enslave them4 ,while serving us1 we take care to provide them with every thing2 and they are treated with humanity4 ,the labourers in their own countries are1 as ,i am informed1 worse fed1 lodged1 and clothed4 ,the condition of most of them is therefore already mended1 and requires no farther improvement4 ,here their lives are in safety4 ,they are not liable to be impressed for soldiers1 and forced to cut one another's christian throats1 as in the wars of their own countries4 ,if some of the religious mad bigots1 who now tease us with their silly petitions1 have1 in a fit of blind zeal1 freed their slaves1 it was not generosity1 it was not humanity1 that moved them to the action2 it was from the conscious burthen of a load of sins1 and hope1 from the supposed merits of so good a work1 to be excused from damnation4--,how grossly are they mistaken1 in imagining slavery to be disavowed by the ,alcoran6 ,are not the two precepts1 to quote no more1 ,masters1 treat your slaves with kindness--,slaves1 serve your masters with cheerfulness and fidelity1 clear proofs to the contrary8 ,nor can the plundering of infidels be in that sacred book forbidden2 since it is well known from it1 that ,god has given the world1 and all that it contains1 to his faithful mussulmen1 who are to enjoy it1 of right1 as fast as they can conquer it4 ,let us then hear no more of this detestable proposition1 the manumission of christian slaves1 the adoption of which would1 by depreciating our lands and houses1 and thereby depriving so many good citizens of their properties1 create universal discontent1 and provoke insurrections1 to the endangering of government and producing general confusion4 ,i have1 therefore1 no doubt that this wise council will prefer the comfort and happiness of a whole nation of true believers1 to the whim of a few erika1 and dismiss their petition4 ,the result was1 as ,martin tells us1 that the divan came to this resolution3 ,that the doctrine1 that the plundering and enslaving the christians is unjust1 is at best problematical2 but that it is the interest of this state to continue the practice is clear2 therefore1 let the petition be rejected4----,and it was rejected accordingly4 ,and since like motives are apt to produce1 in the minds of men1 like opinions and resolutions1 may we not venture to predict1 from this account1 that the petitions to the parliament of ,england for abolishing the slave-trade1 to say nothing of other legislatures and the debates upon them1 will have a similar conclusion4 ,,historicus4 ,march #bc1 #agij4 ,,footnote3 #aja ,american ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #ccf4 ,editor4 ,account of the highest ,court of ,judicature in ,pensylvania1 viz4 ,the ,court of the ,press#ajb4 ,power of this ,court4 ,it may receive and promulgate accusations of all kinds1 against all persons and characters among the citizens of the state1 and even against all inferior courts2 and may judge1 sentence1 and condemn to infamy1 not only private individuals1 but public bodies1 c4 with or without enquiry or hearing1 at the court's discretion4 ,whose ,favour1 or for whose ,emolument this ,court is established4 ,in favour of about one citizen in five hundred1 who1 by education1 or practice in scribbling1 has acquired a tolerable style as to grammar and construction1 so as to bear printing2 or who is possessed of a press and a few types4 ,this five hundredth part of the citizens have the privilege of accusing and abusing the other four hundred and ninety-nine parts1 at their pleasure2 or they may hire out their pens and press to others1 for that purpose4 ,practice of this ,court4 ,it is not governed by any of the rules of the common courts of law4 ,the accused is allowed no grand jury to judge of the truth of the accusation before it is publicly made2 nor is the name of the accuser made known to him2 nor has he an opportunity of confronting the witnesses against him1 for they are kept in the dark1 as in the ,spanish court of inquisition4 ,nor is there any petty jury of his peers sworn to try the truth of the charges4 ,the proceedings are also sometimes so rapid1 that an honest good citizen may find himself suddenly and unexpectedly accused1 and in the same morning judged and condemned1 and sentence pronounced against him1 that he is a rogue and a villain4 ,yet if an officer of this court receives the slightest check for misconduct in this his office1 he claims immediately the rights of a free citizen by the constitution1 and demands to know his accuser1 to confront the witnesses1 and to have a fair trial by a jury of his peers4 ,foundation of its ,authority4 ,it is said to be founded on an article in the state constitution1 which establishes the liberty of the press--a liberty which every ,pennsylvanian would fight and die for1 though few of us1 ,i believe1 have distinct ideas of its nature and extent4 ,it seems1 indeed1 somewhat like the liberty of the press1 that felons have1 by the common law of ,england1 before conviction2 that is1 to be either pressed to death or hanged4 ,if1 by the liberty of the press1 were understood merely the liberty of discussing the propriety of public measures and political opinions1 let us have as much of it as you please2 but if it means the liberty of affronting1 calumniating1 and defaming one another1 ,i1 for my part1 own myself willing to part with my share of it1 whenever our legislators shall please so to alter the law2 and shall cheerfully consent to exchange my liberty of abusing others1 for the privilege of not being abused myself4 ,by whom this ,court is commissioned or constituted4 ,it is not by any commission from the supreme executive council1 who might previously judge of the abilities1 integrity1 knowledge1 c4 of the persons to be appointed to this great trust1 of deciding upon the characters and good fame of the citizens3 for this court is above that council1 and may accuse1 judge1 and condemn it at pleasure4 ,nor is it hereditary1 as is the court of dernier resort in the peerage of ,england4 ,but any man who can procure pen1 ink1 and paper1 with a press1 a few types1 and a huge pair of blacking balls1 may commissionate himself1 and his court is immediately established in the plenary possession and exercise of its rights4 ,for if you make the least complaint of the judge's conduct1 he daubs his blacking balls in your face wherever he meets you2 and1 besides tearing your private character to splinters1 marks you out for the odium of the public1 as an enemy to the liberty of the press4 ,of the natural ,support of this ,court4 ,its support is founded in the depravity of such minds1 as have not been mended by religion1 nor improved by good education4 ,there is a lust in man no charm can tame1 ,of loudly publishing his neighbour's shame4 ,hence1 ,on eagles' wings1 immortal scandals fly1 ,while virtuous actions are but born and die4----,,dryden4 ,whoever feels pain in hearing a good character of his neighbour1 will feel a pleasure in the reverse4 ,and of those who1 despairing to rise to distinction by their virtues1 are happy if others can be depressed to a level with themselves1 there are a number sufficient in every great town to maintain one of these courts by their subscription4 ,a shrewd observer once said1 that in walking the streets of a slippery morning1 one might see where the good-natured people lived1 by the ashes thrown on the ice before the doors3 probably he would have formed a different conjecture of the temper of those whom he might find engaged in such subscriptions4 ,of the ,checks proper to be established against the ,abuses of ,power in those ,courts4 ,hitherto there are none4 ,but since so much has been written and published on the federal constitution2 and the necessity of checks1 in all other parts of good government1 has been so clearly and learnedly explained1 ,i find myself so far enlightened as to suspect some check may be proper in this part also3 but ,i have been at a loss to imagine any1 that may not be construed an infringement of the sacred liberty of the press4 ,at length1 however1 ,i think ,i have found one1 that1 instead of diminishing general liberty1 shall augment it2 which is1 by restoring to the people a species of liberty of which they have been deprived by our laws1 ,i mean the liberty of the cudgel6 ,in the rude state of society1 prior to the existence of laws1 if one man gave another ill-language1 the affronted person might return it by a box on the ear2 and if repeated1 by a good drubbing2 and this without offending against any law3 but now the right of making such returns is denied1 and they are punished as breaches of the peace1 while the right of abusing seems to remain in full force2 the laws made against it being rendered ineffectual by the liberty of the press4 ,my proposal then is1 to leave the liberty of the press untouched1 to be exercised in its full extent1 force1 and vigour1 but to permit the liberty of the cudgel to go with it1 pari passu4 ,thus1 my fellow citizens1 if an impudent writer attacks your reputation--dearer perhaps to you than your life1 and puts his name to the charge1 you may go to him as openly1 and break his head4 ,if he conceals himself behind the printer1 and you can nevertheless discover who he is1 you may1 in like manner1 way-lay him in the night1 attack him behind1 and give him a good drubbing4 ,if your adversary hires better writers than himself to abuse you more effectually1 you may hire brawny porters1 stronger than yourself1 to assist you in giving him a more effectual drubbing4 ,thus far goes my project1 as to private resentment and retribution4 ,but if the public should ever happen to be affronted1 as it ought to be1 with the conduct of such writers1 ,i would not advise proceeding immediately to these extremities1 but that we should in moderation content ourselves with tarring and feathering1 and tossing them in a blanket4 ,if1 however1 it should be thought1 that this proposal of mine may disturb the public peace1 ,i would then humbly recommend to our legislators to take up the consideration of both liberties1 that of the press1 and that of the cudgel2 and by an explicit law mark their extent and limits3 and at the same time that they secure the person of a citizen from assaults1 they would likewise provide for the security of his reputation4 ,,footnote3 #ajb ,ut supra1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #bie4 ,editor4 ,,end ,,of ,,volume ,,the ,,second4 ,,james ,,cundee1 ,,printer1 ,ivy-,lane1 ,paternoster-,row4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,accent1 or emphasis1 wrong placing of1 a fault in modern tunes1 ii4 #cde4 ,accidents at sea1 how to guard against1 ii4 #agb4 ,adams1 ,mr4 ,matthew1 offers the use of his library to ,franklin1 i4 #af4 ,addison1 ,franklin an assiduous imitator of1 in his youth1 i4 #ac4 ,advice to youth in reading1 ii4 #cgh4 to emigrants to ,america1 iii4 #cih4 to a crafty statesman1 #dcj4 to a young tradesman1 #dfc4 to a young married man1 #dgg4 to players at chess1 #dij4 pinus1 his hypothesis of magnetism1 i4 #dab4 ,agriculture takes place of manufactures till a country is fully settled1 iii4 #ajg4 the great business of ,america1 #cic4 ,air1 some of the properties of1 ii4 #bbf4 its properties with respect to electricity1 i4 #bjd4 properties of its particles1 #bje4 ii4 #a4 its currents over the globe1 i4 #bjg4 resists the electric fluid and confines it to bodies1 #bda4 its effects in electrical experiments1 #bec4 its elasticity not affected by electricity1 #bed4 its friction against trees1 #bgj1 #cbc4 has its share of electricity1 #ccc4 its electricity denser above than below1 #cce4 in rooms1 electrified positively and negatively1 #cec4 attracts water1 ii4 #a4 when saturated with water precipitates it1 #b4 dissolves water1 and1 when dry1 oil1 #d4 why suffocating1 when impregnated with oil or grease1 ibid4 supports water1 #e1 #df1 #di4 why less heated in the higher regions than near the earth's surface1 #f4 how it creates hurricanes1 ibid4 winds1 #h4 whirlwinds1 #aj4 effects of heat upon1 #ej4 its effects on the barometer1 #ib4 condensed1 supposed to form the centre of the earth1 #aai1 #abg4 noxious1 corrected by vegetation1 #abi4 observations on the free use of1 #bac4 rare1 no bad conductor of sound1 #ccg4 fresh1 beneficial effects of1 in bed-rooms1 iii4 #die4 ,air-thermometer1 electrical1 experiments with1 i4 #ccf4 ,albany plan of union1 short account of1 i4 #abg4 its singular fate1 #abi4 papers relating to1 iii4 #c4 motives on which formed1 #d4 rejects partial unions1 #f4 its president and grand council1 #i4 election of members1 #ab4 place of first meeting1 #ac4 new election1 ibid4 proportion of members after three years1 #ae4 meetings of the grand council and call1 #af4 allowance to members1 #ag4 power of president and his duty1 #ah4 treaties of peace and war1 ibid4 ,indian trade and purchases1 #ai4 new settlements1 #ba4 military establishments1 #bc4 laws and taxes1 #bd1 #bf4 issuing of money1 #be4 appointment of officers1 #bg4 rejected in ,england1 #bi4 ,almanack4 ,see ,poor ,richard4 ,alphabet1 a new one proposed1 ii4 #ceg4 examples of writing in it1 #cfj4 correspondence on its merits1 #cfa4 ,amber1 electrical experiments on1 i4 #djc4 ,america1 ,north1 air of1 drier than that of ,england and ,france1 ii4 #adj4 why marriages are more frequent there than in ,europe1 #che4 why labour will long continue dear there1 ibid4 argument against the union of the colonies of1 under one government1 #dja4 state of toleration there1 #deg4 reflections on the scheme of imposing taxes on1 without its consent1 iii4 #cj4 thoughts on the representation of1 in the ,british parliament1 #cg4 interest of ,great ,britain with regard to1 #ci4 forts in the back settlements of1 no security against ,france1 #ii4 wars carried on there against the ,french1 not merely in the cause of the colonies1 #aje4 preference of the colonies of1 to the ,west ,indian colonies1 #aac4 great navigable rivers of1 favourable to inland trade1 #aah4 what commodities the inland parts of1 are fitted to produce1 #aai4 the productions of1 do not interfere with those of ,britain1 #abc4 union of the colonies of1 in a revolt against ,britain1 impossible but from grievous oppression1 #acb4 reasons given for restraining paper-bills of credit there1 #add4 intended scheme of a bank there1 described1 #aee4 attempts of ,franklin for conciliation of ,britain with1 #bhf4 feeling of1 as to ,britain1 in ,may #agge1 #cdf4 conciliation of ,britain with1 hopeless1 #cee4 account of the first campaign of the ,british forces against1 #ceg4 application of1 to foreign courts1 for aid in its independence1 #cfj4 credit of1 with that of ,britain1 in #aggg1 compared1 #cgb4 true description of the interest and policy of1 #cia4 information to those emigrating thither1 #cih4 terms on which land may be obtained for new settlements there1 #dji4 ,americans1 their prejudices for whatever is ,english1 i4 #add4 ,anchor1 a swimming one proposed1 ii4 #aha1 #ahe4 ,ancients1 their experimental learning too often slighted1 ii4 #adf4 ,anecdote of ,franklin's early spirit of enterprise1 i4 #aa4 of a ,swedish clergyman among the ,indians1 iii4 #chf4 of an ,indian who went to church1 #chi4 ,animal food1 ,franklin's abstinence from1 i4 #bj4 return to1 #dg4 humorous instance of abstinence from1 #di4 heat1 whence it arises1 ii4 #gi1 #abe4 magnetism1 detected and exposed1 i4 #aej4 ,animalcules1 supposed to cause the luminous appearance of sea-water1 ii4 #hi4 ,animals1 how to kill them by electricity1 i4 #dae4 ,antifederalists of ,america1 comparison of1 to the ancient ,jews1 iii4 #daj4 ,apprentices easier placed out in ,america than in ,europe1 iii4 #djg4 indentures of1 how made in ,america1 #djh4 ,argumentation1 bad effects of1 as a habit1 i4 #ag4 best method of1 #bb4 ,armies1 best means of supporting them1 ii4 #djj4 ,armonica1 musical instrument so called1 described1 ii4 #ccj4 manner of playing on it1 #ccd4 ,asbestos1 specimen of1 sold by ,franklin to ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 i4 #fj4 letter relating to it1 iii4 #eac4 ,astrology1 letter to the ,busy-body on1 iii4 #ddh4 ,atmosphere sometimes denser above than below1 ii4 #f4 electrical1 its properties1 i4 #bid4 ,aurora borealis explained1 i4 #bab4 conjectures respecting1 #beg1 ii4 #fi4 query concerning1 i4 #bic4 ,b4 ,badoin1 ,mr4 letters from1 i4 #cad1 #cbd4 ,ballads1 two1 written by ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #af4 ,balls of fire in the air1 remark concerning1 ii4 #ccg4 ,barometer1 how acted on by air1 ii4 #ib4 ,barrels for gunpowder1 new sort proposed1 i4 #cgf4 ,bass1 unnecessary in some tunes1 ii4 #cdc4 ,bathing relieves thirst1 ii4 #ajd4 observations on1 #baa4 ,battery1 electrical1 its construction1 i4 #aic4 ,baxter1 ,mr4 observations on his enquiry into the nature of the soul1 ii4 #aaj4 ,beccaria1 character of his book on electricity1 i4 #caj4 ,beer1 not conducive to bodily strength1 i4 #fb4 ,bells1 form in consecrating them at ,paris1 i4 #chd4 ,belly-ache1 dry1 lead a cause of1 ii4 #bbj4 ,bermuda1 little thunder there1 i4 #baf4 ,bermudian sloops1 advantages of their construction1 ii4 #agc4 ,bernoulli1 ,mr4 his plan for moving boats1 ii4 #agi4 ,bevis1 ,dr4 draws electricity from the clouds1 i4 #dbi4 ,bible1 anecdote of its concealment in the reign of ,mary1 i4 #g4 travestied by ,dr4 ,brown1 #ca4 ,bills of mortality1 reasonings1 formed on those for capital cities1 not applicable to the country1 ii4 #chc4 ,birth1 noble1 no qualification in ,america1 iii4 #djj4 ,bishops1 none in ,america1 and why1 ii4 #def1 #deh4 ,black clothes heat more and dry sooner than white1 ii4 #ajh4 not fit for hot climates1 #aji4 ,blacksmith1 trade of1 hereditary in ,franklin's family1 i4 #d4 ,blindness occasioned both by lightning and electricity1 i4 #bbh4 ,boats1 difference of their sailing in shoal and deep water1 ii4 #afj4 management of1 best understood by savages1 #agf4 how rowed by the ,chinese1 #agg4 methods of moving them by machinery1 ibid4 improvement of ,mr4 ,bernoulli's plan for moving them1 #agi4 proposal for a new mode of moving them1 ibid4 double1 advantage of1 #agc1 #agd4 one built by ,sir ,w4 ,petty1 ibid4 ,bodies1 electrified negatively1 repel each other1 ii4 #bid4 effect of blunt1 compared with pointed ones1 i4 #agb1 #bbc4 ,body1 human1 specifically lighter than water1 ii4 #bjh4 political and human1 compared1 iii4 #aae4 ,boerhaave1 his opinion of the propagation of heat1 ii4 #eh4 of steam from fermenting liquors1 #ei4 ,boiling water1 experiments with1 i4 #ccb1 #cdd1 #cde4 pot1 bottom of1 why cold1 #chg4 ,bolton1 ,mr4 experiment by1 i4 #cdf4 ,books read by ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #ae1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba4 ,boston1 the birth-place of ,franklin1 i4 #h4 why quitted by him in his youth1 #bg1 its inhabitants decrease1 ii4 #baj4 preface to proceedings of the town meeting of1 iii4 #cag4 ,boyle's lectures1 effect of1 on ,franklin1 i4 #gi4 ,braddock1 general1 defeat of1 i4 #aca4 ,bradford1 printer at ,philadelphia1 i4 #cd1 #ajb4 ,brass1 hot1 yields unwholesome steams1 ii4 #bdi ,brientnal1 ,joseph1 a member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hc4 ,brimstone1 when fluid1 will conduct electricity1 i4 #bef4 ,bristol waters1 an alledged fact concerning1 ii4 #ie4 ,britain1 incapacity of1 to supply the colonies with manufactures1 ii4 #chf4 ,british empire1 an union of several states1 iii4 #caj4 ,brown1 ,dr4 acquaintance of ,franklin's1 i4 #cj4 travestied the bible1 #ca4 ,bubbles on the surface of water1 hypothesis respecting1 ii4 #dh4 ,buchan1 earl of1 letter to1 on the price of land for new settlements in ,america1 iii4 #dji4 ,buildings1 what kind safest from lightning1 i4 #cgi4 ,bullion1 causes of its variation in price1 iii4 #aec4 ,bunyan's ,voyages1 a book early read by ,franklin1 i4 #ae1 #bh4 ,bur1 cause of1 round a hole struck through pasteboard1 i4 #bhj4 ,burnet1 governor1 his attention to ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #dd4 ,busy-body1 essays under the title of1 i4 #hf4 iii4 #dbb4 ,c4 ,cabinet-work1 veneered in ,england1 shrinks and flies in ,america1 ii4 #adj4 ,cables1 why apt to part when weighing anchor in a swell1 ii4 #afg4 this defect of1 remedied1 #afh4 ,cabot1 ,sebastian1 his commission from ,henry ,,vii41 iii4 #cdh4 ,calvinism1 ,franklin educated in the principles of1 i4 #gi4 ,campaign in ,america1 account of the first1 iii4 #ceg4 ,canals1 observations on their depth1 ii4 #aei4 ,canada1 importance of1 to ,england1 i4 #acf4 visited by ,franklin1 #adg4 its extent1 iii4 #bj4 pamphlet on the importance of1 #hi4 easily peopled without draining ,britain1 #aci4 ,cancers1 specific for1 i4 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,candles lighted by electricity1 i4 #agf4 distance at which the flame of1 may be seen1 ii4 #ij4 ,cann1 silver1 a singular experiment on1 i4 #cjg4 ,canoes of the ,american ,indians1 their advantages1 ii4 #agf4 ,canton1 ,mr4 ,john1 experiments by1 i4 #bhf1 #cdf4 draws electricity from the clouds1 #dbh4 ,capitals1 their use in printing1 ii4 #ceb4 ,caribbees1 possession of1 only a temporary benefit1 iii4 #adb4 ,carolina1 ,south1 see ,lightning4 ,cavendish1 lord ,charles1 his electrical experiments1 i4 #cdh4 ,cayenne would be a great acquisition to ,britain1 iii4 #adj4 ,centre of the earth1 hypothesis concerning1 ii4 #aai1 #abg4 ,cessions from an enemy1 on what grounds may be demanded1 iii4 #ic4 ,chapel1 nickname for a printing house1 i4 #fc4 ,character1 remarks on the delineation of1 iii4 #dde4 ,charcoal-fires1 hurtful1 ii4 #bce4 ,charging and discharging1 in electricity1 explained1 i4 #aij4 a number of bottles at once1 how done1 ibid4 ,charters of the colonies could not be altered by parliament1 iii4 #ccb4 ,chess1 morals of1 iii4 #dhh4 not an idle amusement1 ibid4 teaches various virtues1 #dhi4 advice to those who play1 #dij4 too intense an application to1 injurious1 #ejj4 ,chimnies1 different kinds of1 enumerated1 ii4 #bbh4 inconvenience of the old-fashioned ones1 #bbi4 defect of more modern ones1 #bcj4 have not long been in use in ,england1 #bgg4 ,staffordshire1 described1 #bhe4 have a draft of air up and down1 #bhi4 may be used for keeping provisions in summer1 #bij4 may be of use to miners1 #bia4 funnels to1 what the best1 #bib1 #bie4 method of contracting them1 #cag4 smoky4 ,see ,smoky4 ,china1 provision made there against famine1 ii4 #djg4 ,chinese wisely divide the holds of their vessels by partitions1 ii4 #aga4 how they row their boats1 #agg4 their method of warming ground floors1 #bib4 improvement in this method suggested1 #bic4 their method of making large paper1 #cdi4 ,circle1 magical1 account of1 ii4 #cbg1 #cbh4 ,cities1 spring water gradually deteriorates in1 i4 #afc4 do not supply themselves with inhabitants1 ii4 #chd4 ,clark1 ,dr4 of ,boston1 quoted1 on the instigation of the ,american ,indians against the ,english1 iii4 #ie1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,clothes1 wet1 may preserve from lightning1 i4 #bac4 will relieve thirst1 ii4 #ajd4 do not give colds1 ibid4 imbibe heat according to their colour1 #ajh4 white1 most suitable for hot climates1 ibid4 ,clothing does not give1 but preserves1 warmth1 ii4 #ha4 ,clouds1 at land and at sea1 difference between1 i4 #bjg4 formed at sea1 how brought to rain on land1 #bjh4 driven against mountains1 form springs and rivers1 #bji4 passing different ways1 accounted for1 #baa4 electrical1 attracted by trees1 spires1 c4 #bac4 manner in which they become electrised1 #beg1 #cje4 are electrised sometimes negatively and sometimes positively1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bhd1 #bib4 electricity drawn from them1 at ,marly1 #dbj4 by ,mr4 ,cauton1 #dbh4 by ,dr4 ,bevis1 #dbi1 by ,mr4 ,wilson1 ibid4 how supported in air1 ii4 #e4 how formed1 #g4 whether winds are generated or can be confined in them1 #eg4 have little more solidity than fogs1 ibid4 ,club1 called the ,junto1 instituted by ,franklin1 i4 #hb4 rules of1 ii4 #cff1 #cfi4 questions discussed in1 #cfi4 ,coal1 sea1 letter on the nature of1 ii4 #abh4 ,cold1 why seemingly greater in metals than in wood1 ii4 #ef1 #gg4 sensation of1 how produced1 #eg4 only the absence of heat1 #ha4 produced by chemical mixtures1 ibid4 evaporation4 ,see ,evaporation4 ,colden1 ,mr4 his remarks on ,abb ,nollet's letters1 i4 #dcj4 meteorological observations1 ii4 #ea4 observations on water-spouts1 #ec4 ,colds1 causes of1 ii4 #bad1 #bcj4 ,coleman1 ,william1 a member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hd1 #hi4 ,colica pictorum1 caused by lead1 ii4 #bai4 ,collins1 ,john1 an early friend of ,franklin's1 i4 #ag1 #bg1 #da1 #dc1 #dd4 ,collinson1 ,mr4 some account of1 iii4 #ead4 ,colonial governments in ,america of three kinds1 iii4 #ej4 ,colonies1 the settlement of1 does not diminish national numbers1 ii4 #cia4 their prosperity beneficial to the mother country1 iii4 #aac4 are intitled to distinct governments1 #cjc4 ,american1 preferable to the ,west ,indies1 ibid4 not dangerous to ,britain1 #acb4 aids to government1 how given by1 #bbe1 #bbf4 originally governed by the crown1 independent of ,parliament1 #bia4 not settled at the expence of ,britain1 #cdh4 ,colonists in ,america1 double their number in #be years1 iii4 #aac4 from ,britain1 their rights1 #bii4 ,colours4 ,see ,clothes4 ,comazants1 or corposants1 are electrical appearances1 i4 #bdh4 ,commerce1 influence of1 on the manners of a people1 ii4 #djj4 is best encouraged by being left free1 #dae4 should not be prohibited in time of war1 #dag4 by inland carriage1 how supported1 iii4 #aaf4 ,common-sense1 by ,paine1 ,franklin supposed to have contributed to1 i4 #adh4 ,compass1 instances of its losing its virtue by lightning1 i4 #bdh4 how to remedy the want of1 at sea1 ii4 #aia4 ,conductors of lightning1 very common in ,america1 i4 #aac4 first suggestion of the utility of1 #bbg4 construction of1 #ceh4 particulars relating to1 #cgg4 of electricity1 difference in the action of1 #bjj1 #cjc4 which the most perfect1 #bec1 #bef4 and non-conductors1 other terms substituted for1 ibid4 of common fire1 their properties and differences1 ii4 #gf1 #gg4 experiments on1 ii4 #gg4 ,congress1 ,franklin appointed a delegate to1 i4 #adf4 proposed overture from1 in #agge1 iii4 #cdg4 ,consecration of bells in ,france1 form of1 i4 #chd4 ,conspirators1 electrical1 meaning of the term1 i4 #aif4 ,controversy1 benefit of1 iii4 #ib4 ,conversation1 advantage of useful topics of1 at dinner1 i4 #ab4 ,cook1 captain1 circular letter concerning1 iii4 #eae4 copy of the voyages of1 presented to ,franklin1 by the ,admiralty1 #eag4 ,cookery1 at sea1 generally bad1 ii4 #aid4 ,copper1 manner of covering houses with1 ii4 #cah1 #cbj1 #cbb4 ,copper plate printing-press1 the first in ,america1 constructed by ,franklin1 i4 #gg4 ,corn1 ill policy of laying restraints on the exportation of1 ii4 #dac1 #dah4 ,countries1 distant and unprovided1 a plan for benefiting1 ii4 #djc4 ,creation1 conjectures as to1 ii4 #aah4 ,credit1 that of ,america and ,britain in #aggg1 compared1 iii4 #cgb4 depends on payment of loans1 #cgc4 industry and frugality1 #cgd4 public spirit1 #cge4 income and security1 #cgf4 prospects of future ability1 ibid4 prudence1 #cgg4 character for honesty1 #cgh4 is money to a tradesman1 #dfd4 ,criminal laws1 reflections on1 ii4 #dci4 ,crooked direction of lightning explained1 i4 #caf4 ,cutler1 circumstance that prevented ,franklin's being apprenticed to one1 i4 #ad4 ,currents at sea1 often not perceivable1 ii4 #ahe4 ,cyder1 the best quencher of thirst1 ii4 #aie4 ,d4 ,dalrymple1 ,mr4 scheme of a voyage under his command to benefit remote regions1 ii4 #djc4 ,damp air1 why more chilling than dry air that is colder1 ii4 #ef1 #gg4 ,dampier1 account of a water-spout by1 ii4 #cc4 references to his voyage1 on the subject of water-spouts1 #eh4 ,dampness on walls1 cause of1 ii4 #ej4 ,day-light1 proposal to use it instead of candle-light1 iii4 #dgj4 ,deacon1 ,isaac1 from an underling to a surveyor1 becomes inspector- general of ,america1 i4 #gh4 prognosticates the future eminence in life of ,franklin1 ib4 ,death of ,franklin1 i4 #aec4 letter from ,dr4 ,price on1 iii4 #eda4 of relatives1 reflections on1 #ejg4 ,deism1 effects on ,franklin of books written against1 i4 #gi4 ,deluge1 accounted for1 ii4 #abg4 ,denham1 a quaker1 a friend of ,franklin's1 i4 #ed4 extraordinary trait of honesty of1 to his creditors1 #fg4 ,franklin's engagement with1 as a clerk1 #fh1 #gj4 ,denmark1 the people of1 not subject to colds1 ii4 #bdd4 ,denny1 governor1 remarks on his official conduct in ,pensylvania1 iii4 #agj4 ,desaquiliers1 his experiment on the vapour of hot iron1 ii4 #bdi4 ,dew1 how produced1 i4 #bjg4 ,dialogue1 between ,franklin and the gout1 iii4 #dii4 ,dickenson1 ,mr4 his remarks on the views of ,england in framing laws over the colonies1 iii4 #bcd4 remarks on his conduct1 #aib4 on his protest1 #bjb4 ,discontented dispositions satirized1 iii4 #dhe4 ,discontents in ,america before #agfh1 causes of1 iii4 #bbe4 ,dissentions between ,england and ,america1 letter on1 iii4 #caj4 ,dissertation1 early one of ,franklin's1 that he repented having written1 i4 #eh4 ,disputation1 modesty in1 recommended1 i4 #ba4 ii4 #cag4 ,disputes between ,franklin and his brother1 to whom he was apprenticed1 i4 #bd4 ,domien1 a traveller1 short account of1 i4 #cjb4 ,drawling1 a defect in modern tunes1 ii4 #cde4 ,dreams1 art of procuring pleasant ones1 iii4 #dic4 ,dumas1 ,monsieur1 letter to1 on the aid wanted by ,america in her struggle for independence1 iii4 #cfj4 ,duna river1 not to be confounded with the ,dwina1 iii4 #aai1 note4 ,dust1 how raised and carried up into the air1 ii4 #c4 ,duties1 moral1 the knowledge of1 more important than the knowledge of nature1 ii4 #ie4 ,dutch iron stove1 advantages and defects of1 ii4 #bcc4 ,e4 ,early impressions1 lasting effect of1 on the mind1 iii4 #dgh4 ,earth will dissolve in air1 ii4 #b4 dry1 will not conduct electricity1 i4 #bjf4 the1 sometimes strikes lightning into the clouds1 #bgd4 grows no hotter under the summer sun1 why1 ii4 #hf4 different strata of1 #aaf4 theory of1 #aag4 ,earthquakes1 general good arising from1 ii4 #aaf4 how occasioned1 #abj1 #abh4 ,eaton1 in ,northamptonshire1 residence of ,franklin's family1 i4 #c4 ,ebb and flood1 explanation of the terms1 ii4 #ajj4 ,economical project1 iii4 #dfi4 ,edinburgh1 an ordinance there against the purchase of prize-goods1 ii4 #ddg4 ,education of women1 controversy respecting1 i4 #ag4 ,eel1 electrical1 of ,surinam1 i4 #djh1 #dji4 ,effluvia of drugs1 c4 will not pass through glass1 i4 #bdc4 ,electrical air-thermometer described1 i4 #ccf1 et seq4 atmosphere1 how produced1 #bba4 how drawn off1 #bbb4 atmospheres repel each other1 #bid4 repel electric matter in other bodies1 ib4 battery1 its construction1 #aic4 clouds1 experiment regarding1 #bbi4 death1 the easiest1 #cjg4 experiments1 ,franklin's eager pursuit of1 #ajd4 made in ,france1 #aji4 various1 #ahb1 #bbi1 #bed1 #bee1 #bfa1 #bga1 #bgh1 #bhf1 #bid1 #cjg1 #cbg1 #ccg1 #cdh1 #cga1 #dcd4 fire1 not created by friction1 but collected1 #agc4 passes through water1 #bjb4 loves water and subsists in it1 #bjc4 diffused through all matter1 #bje visible on the surface of the sea1 ibid4 its properties and uses1 #bad1 et seq4 produces common fire1 #bad1 #bch1 #cef4 has the same crooked direction as lightning1 #cae4 fluid1 its beneficial uses1 #bai4 is strongly attracted by glass1 #bcf4 manner of its acting through glass hermetically sealed1 #bda4 a certain quantity of1 in all kinds of matter1 #bge4 nature of its explosion1 #bhj4 chooses the best conductor1 #bha1 #cgh4 force1 may be unboundedly increased1 #bea4 horse-race1 #ccd4 jack for roasting1 #aig4 kiss1 its force increased1 #agg4 kite1 described1 #bfh4 machine2 simple and portable one1 described1 #agh4 matter1 its properties1 #bag1 #bid4 party of pleasure1 #bjb4 phial1 or ,leyden bottle1 its phenomena explained1 #agi4 shock1 observations on1 #ahb4 effects of a strong one on the human body1 #big1 #cjf4 spark1 perforates a quire of paper1 #aie4 wheel1 its construction1 #aif4 self-moving one1 #aih4 ,electricity1 summary of its progress1 i4 #ajd4 positive and negative1 discovered1 #ajf4 distinguished1 #age4 in a tourmalin1 #cgj4 does not affect the elasticity of the air1 #bed4 its similarity to lightning1 #bhh4 its effects on paralysis1 #dja4 of fogs in ,ireland1 #dje4 supposed affinity between1 and magnetism1 #daj4 ,electrics per se and non-electrics1 difference between1 i4 #bdb1 #beh4 ,electrified bumpers described1 i4 #bjc4 ,electrisation1 what constitutes the state of1 i4 #bah4 various appearances of1 #age4 variety of1 #agf4 ,electrising one's self1 manner of1 i4 #agd4 ,elocution1 how best taught1 ii4 #cgd4 ,embassador from the ,united ,states to ,france1 ,franklin appointed to the office of1 i4 #adh4 ,emblematical design illustrative of the ,american troubles1 iii4 #cga4 ,emigrants to ,america1 advice to1 iii4 #cih4 ,empire1 rules for reducing a great one1 iii4 #ccd4 ,england1 ,franklin's first arrival in1 i4 #ee4 second arrival in1 as agent for the province of ,pensylvania1 #acd4 third arrival in1 as agent for the same province1 #ada4 its air moister than that of ,america1 ii4 #adj4 decrease of population in1 doubtful1 #bif4 ,english1 effect of the ancient manners of1 ii4 #cii4 language1 innovations in1 #cea4 ,enterprises1 public1 ,franklin's early disposition for1 i4 #aj4 ,ephemera1 an emblem of human life1 iii4 #ejh4 ,epitaph on ,franklin's parents1 i4 #ac4 on himself1 #aee4 ,episcopalians1 conduct of the ,american legislature towards1 ii4 #dee4 ,errors of ,franklin's early life1 i4 #de1 #eh1 #fa1 #hj1 #ig4 ,ether1 what1 ii4 #ei4 ,evaporation1 cold produced by1 i4 #cdd1 ii4 #gf1 #hc1 #he4 of rivers1 effects of1 #ajf4 ,examination of ,franklin before the house of commons1 i4 #adb1 iii4 #bde4 before the privy council1 #cbh4 further particulars of1 #eea4 ,exchange1 rate of1 between ,philadelphia and ,britain1 iii4 #beb4 ,exercise1 should precede meals1 iii4 #dic4 ,experiments1 to show the electrical effect of points1 i4 #aga1 #agb4 to prove the electrical state of the ,leyden phial1 #ahb4 of firing spirits by a spark sent through a river1 #bjb4 to show how thunder-storms produce rain1 #bji4 on the clouds1 proposed1 #bbh4 on drugs electrified1 #bdc4 on the elasticity of the air1 #bed4 on the electric fluid1 #bee4 by ,mr4 ,kennersley1 #bfa4 on the electricity of the clouds1 #bga4 for increasing electricity1 #bgh4 by ,mr4 ,canton1 #bhf4 in pursuance of those of ,mr4 ,canton1 #bid4 on a silver cann1 #cjg4 on the velocity of the electric fluid1 #cbg1 #cbi1 #ccj4 for producing cold by evaporation1 #cdd4 on the different effects of electricity1 #ceg4 by lord ,charles ,cavendish1 #cdh4 on the tourmalin1 #cga4 to show the utility of long pointed rods to houses1 #chi4 on amber1 #djc et seq4 on the ,leyden phial1 #dcd4 on different coloured cloths1 ii4 #ajh1 #aji4 on the sailing of boats1 #afj4 ,exportation of gold and silver1 observations on1 ii4 #daf4 ,exports to ,north ,america and the ,west ,indies1 iii4 #abg1 #abh4 to ,pensylvania1 #abi1 #bej4 from ditto1 #bej4 ,eye1 retains the images of luminous objects1 ii4 #cdj4 ,f4 ,facts1 should be ascertained before we attempt to account for them1 ii4 #if4 ,family of ,franklin1 account of1 i4 #e4 et seq4 ,famine1 how provided against in ,china1 ii4 #djg4 ,fanning1 how it cools1 ii4 #hg4 ,farmers1 remonstrance in behalf of1 ii4 #dbj4 ,federal constitution1 speech on1 iii4 #daf4 ,felons1 transportation of1 to ,america1 highly disagreeable to the inhabitants1 iii4 #bce4 ,fermenting liquors1 their steam deleterious1 ii4 #ei4 ,fire1 not destroyed by water1 but dispersed1 i4 #agb4 makes air specifically lighter1 #bjf4 exists in all bodies1 #bad4 common and electrical1 exist together1 ibid4 a region of1 above our atmosphere1 #beg1 ii4 #abd4 many ways of kindling it1 i4 #cef4 exists in a solid or quiescent state in substances1 ibid4 ii4 #hj1 #abb4 recovers its fluidity by combustion1 ibid4 is a fluid permeating all bodies1 #gf4 conductors of1 are also best conductors of the electric fluid1 ibid4 difference between1 and electrical conductors1 #gg4 how diffused through substances1 #gh4 how generated in animated bodies1 #gi4 theory of1 #abb4 a fixed and permanent quantity of1 in the universe1 #abc4 its properties1 #bbg4 electrical1 see ,electrical4 ,fire-companies1 numerous at ,philadelphia1 i4 #ajc4 ,fire-places1 ,pensylvanian1 account of1 ii4 #bbe4 large and open1 inconvenient1 #bbh4 hollow backed1 by ,gauger1 #bcb4 ,staffordshire1 #bhe4 an ingenious one for serving two rooms1 #bif4 ,fires1 at sea1 how often produced1 ii4 #agd4 great and bright1 damage the eyes and skin1 #bcj4 ,fisheries1 value of those of ,newfoundland1 iii4 #deb4 ,flame1 preserves bodies from being consumed while surrounding them1 ii4 #caj1 #caa4 ,flaxseed1 amount of the exportation of from ,america to ,ireland1 iii4 #bgj4 ,flesh1 of animals1 made tender by lightning and by electricity1 i4 #cei1 #dad4 ,flies1 drowned in ,america1 brought to life in ,england1 ii4 #bbc4 ,flood and ebb1 explanation of the terms1 ii4 #ajj4 ,florence flask1 when filled with boiling water1 not chargeable with electricity1 i4 #ccb1 #cde4 ,fog1 great1 in #aghc1 ii4 #fh4 conjectures as to its cause1 ibid4 ,fogs1 how supported in air1 ii4 #e4 electricity of1 in ,ireland1 i4 #dje4 ,folger1 family-name of ,franklin's mother1 i4 #h4 ,foreigners1 the importation of1 not necessary to fill up occasional vacancies in population1 ii4 #cij4 ,forts in the back settlements1 not approved of1 iii4 #ii4 ,foster1 judge1 notes on his argument for the impress of seamen1 ii4 #dcg4 ,foundering at sea1 accidents that occasion it1 ii4 #afi1 #agj4 ,fountain1 when electrified1 its stream separates1 i4 #bjf4 ,fowls1 improperly treated at sea1 ii4 #aic4 ,fragments1 political1 ii4 #daa4 ,france1 its air moister than that of ,america1 ii4 #adj4 effects of its military manners1 #cii4 ,franklin1 derivation of the name1 i4 #d4 genealogy of the family of1 #e4 ,franks1 the improper use of1 reprobated1 ii4 #dce4 ,freezing to death in summer1 possibility of1 ii4 #hd4 ,french language1 its general use1 ii4 #cec4 ,frontiers1 in ,america1 the attack of1 the common cause of the state1 iii4 #aji4 ,frugality1 advantages of1 ii4 #cig4 observance of1 in ,america1 iii4 #cgd ,fruit-walls1 blacking them recommended1 ii4 #aaj4 ,fuel1 scarce in ,philadelphia1 ii4 #bbe4 ,fulling-mills in ,america1 iii4 #bgj4 ,fusion1 cold1 of metals1 supposed1 i4 #bae4 proves a mistake1 #cci4 error respecting it acknowledged1 #cee4 ,g4 ,galloway1 ,mr1 preface to his speech1 iii4 #afc4 ,garnish-money1 practice among printers of demanding it1 i4 #fc4 ,gauger1 ,m4 his invention for fire-places1 ii4 #bcb4 ,genealogy of the ,franklin family1 i4 #e4 ,german stoves1 advantages and disadvantages of1 ii4 #bcd4 ,germany1 why the several states of1 encourage foreign manufactures in preference to those of each other1 iii4 #aah4 note4 ,gilding1 its properties as a conductor1 i4 #bja4 the effects of lightning and of electricity on1 #bbi4 fails as a conductor after a few shocks1 #bca4 ,glass1 has always the same quantity of electrical fire1 i4 #aia4 possesses the whole power of giving a shock1 #aib1 #bdg4 in panes1 when first used in an electrical experiment1 #aic1 #aid4 great force in small portions of1 #aii4 impermeable to the electric fluid1 #bcd1 #caj4 strongly attracts the electric fluid1 #bcf4 cannot be electrified negatively1 ibid4 its opposite surfaces1 how affected1 ibid4 its component parts and pores extremely fine1 #bcg4 manner of its operation in producing electricity1 ibid4 its elasticity1 to what owing1 #bci4 thick1 resists a change of the quantity of electricity of its different sides1 #bdb4 rod of1 will not conduct a shock1 ibid4 when fluid1 or red hot1 will conduct electricity1 #bef4 difference in its qualities1 #cja4 error as to its pores1 #cjb4 will admit the electric fluid1 when moderately heated1 #cde1 #cdg4 when cold retains the electric fluid1 #cdf4 experiments on warm and cold1 #cdh4 singular tube and ball of1 #chf4 ,glasses1 musical1 described1 ii4 #ccj1 et seq4 ,god1 saying in ,america respecting1 iii4 #dja4 ,godfrey1 ,thomas1 a lodger with ,franklin1 i4 #ha4 a member of the ,junto1 #hc4 inventor of ,hadley's quadrant1 ibid4 wishes ,franklin to marry a relation of his1 #ie4 ,gold and silver1 remarks on exportation of1 ii4 #daf4 ,golden fish1 an electrical device1 i4 #bcc4 ,government1 free1 only destroyed by corruption of manners1 ii4 #cig4 ,gout1 dialogue with that disease1 iii4 #dii4 ,grace1 ,robert1 member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hd1 #hi4 ,gratitude of ,america1 letter on1 iii4 #bci4 ,greasing the bottoms of ships1 gives them more swiftness1 ii4 #ahj4 ,greece1 causes of its superiority over ,persia1 ii4 #cig4 ,greek empire1 the destruction of1 dispersed manufacturers over ,europe1 iii4 #abb4 ,green and red1 relation between the colours of1 ii4 #cda4 ,greenlanders1 their boats best for rowing1 ii4 #agf4 ,guadaloupe1 its value to ,britain over-rated1 iii4 #aci4 ,gulph-stream1 observations on1 ii4 #ahf4 whalers frequent its edges1 ibid4 long unknown to any but the ,american fishermen1 ibid4 how generated1 #ahg4 its properties1 ibid4 tornadoes and water-spouts attending it1 accounted for1 #ahh4 how to avoid it1 #aig4 ,nantucket whalers best acquainted with it1 #aih4 thermometrical observations on1 #aii4 journal of a voyage across1 ibid4 ,gunpowder1 fired by electricity1 i4 #bej4 magazines of1 how to secure them from lightning1 #cge4 proposal for keeping it dry1 #cgf4 ,h4 ,habits1 effects of1 on population1 ii4 #cic4 #cid4 ,hadley's quadrant1 by whom invented1 i4 #hc1 #ie4 ,hail1 brings down electrical fire1 i4 #bib4 how formed1 ii4 #ff4 ,hamilton1 ,mr4 a friend of ,franklin's1 i4 #ed1 #hh4 ,handel1 criticism on one of his compositions1 ii4 #cde4 ,harmony1 in music1 what1 ii4 #cci4 ,harp1 effect of1 on the ancient ,scotch tunes1 ii4 #cdj4 ,harry1 ,david1 companion of ,franklin's1 i4 #gb1 #ic4 ,hats1 summer1 should be white1 ii4 #aji4 the manufacture of1 in ,new ,england1 in #agfj1 iii4 #aca4 ,health of seamen1 ,captain ,cook's method of preserving it recommended1 ii4 #aij4 ,heat1 produced by electricity and by lightning1 i4 #cch1 #cci4 better conducted by some substances than others1 ii4 #ef1 #eh4 how propagated1 #eh4 the pain it occasions1 how produced1 #gh4 in animals1 how generated1 #gi1 #abe4 in fermentation1 the same as that of the human body1 #hj4 great1 at ,philadelphia1 in #agej1 #he4 general theory of1 #abb4 ,herrings1 shoals of1 perceived by the smoothness of the sea1 ii4 #aej4 ,hints to those that would be rich1 iii4 #dff4 ,holmes1 ,robert1 brother-in-law to ,franklin1 i4 #cg1 #ga4 ,honesty1 often a very partial principle of conduct1 ii4 #dcj4 ,honours1 all descending ones absurd1 iii4 #eej4 ,hopkins1 governor1 his report of the number of inhabitants in ,rhode ,island1 iii4 #abi4 ,horse-race1 electrical1 i4 #cce4 ,hospital1 one founded by the exertions of ,franklin1 i4 #abf4 ,hospitals1 foundling1 state of in ,england and ,france1 iii4 #edd991 #edh994 ,hospitality1 a virtue of barbarians1 iii4 #cia4 ,houses1 remarks on covering them with copper1 ii4 #cah1 #cbj4 many in ,russia covered with iron plates1 #cai4 their construction in ,paris renders them little liable to fires1 #cba4 ,howe1 lord1 letter from1 to ,franklin1 iii4 #cfe4 ,franklin's answer to1 #cfg4 ,hudson's river1 winds there1 ii4 #eb1 #ei4 ,hunters1 require much land to subsist on1 ii4 #chd4 ,hurricanes1 how produced1 ii4 #g4 why cold in hot climates1 ibid4 ,hutchinson1 governor1 cause of the application for his removal1 iii4 #cbc4 account of the letters of1 #cca1 #eea4 ,hygrometer1 best substances for forming one1 ii4 #acf4 mahogany recommended for forming one1 #ada4 ,i4 ,j4 ,jackson1 ,mr4 remarks on population by1 ii4 #cib4 ,jamaica1 its vacant lands not easily made sugar lands1 iii4 #adj4 ,javelle1 his machinery for moving boats1 ii4 #agg4 ,ice will not conduct an electric shock1 i4 #bja4 ,ice-islands1 dangerous to shipping1 ii4 #agf4 ,idleness1 the heaviest tax on mankind1 ii4 #daa1 iii4 #ded4 encouraged by charity1 ii4 #dbb4 reflections on1 iii4 #dbh4 ,jefferson1 ,mr4 letter from1 on the character of ,franklin1 iii4 #ede4 ,jesuits1 hostility of the ,indians in ,america excited by1 iii4 #ie4 ,ignorance1 a frank acknowledgment of1 commendable1 i4 #cjh4 ,imports into ,pensylvania from ,britain before #agff1 iii4 #bej4 ,impress of seamen1 notes on ,judge ,foster's argument in favour of1 ii4 #dcg4 ,inarticulation in modern singing1 censured1 ii4 #cdh4 ,increase of mankind1 observations on1 ii4 #chc1 and seq4 what prevented by1 #chf1 #chg4 how promoted1 #chh1 #chi4 further observations on1 #cic4 ,indemnification1 just ground for requiring cessions from an enemy1 iii4 #ic4 ,independence1 soon acquired in ,america1 iii4 #djb4 ,indian trade and affairs1 remarks on a plan for the future management of1 iii4 #baf4 spirituous liquors the great encouragement of1 #bai4 the debts from1 must be left to honour1 #bbj4 not an ,american but a ,british interest1 #bge4 ,indians1 of ,north ,america1 a number of1 murdered1 i4 #aci4 often excited by the ,french against the ,english1 iii4 #ie4 list of fighting men in the different nations of1 #bba4 difference of their warfare from that of ,europeans1 #ajj4 remarks concerning1 #chc4 their mode of life1 #chd4 public councils1 #che4 politeness in conversation1 #chf4 rules in visiting1 #chh4 ,industry1 effects of ,franklin's1 i4 #he4 the cause of plenty1 ii4 #cif4 essential to the welfare of a people1 #daa4 relaxed by cheapness of provisions1 #dae4 a greater portion of1 in every nation1 than of idleness1 #cif1 #dbi1 iii4 #cif4 its prevalence in ,america1 iii4 #cgc4 ,inflammability of the surface of rivers1 ii4 #acj4 ,inland commerce1 instances of1 iii4 #abj4 ,innovations in language and printing1 ii4 #cea4 ,inoculation1 letter on the deaths occasioned by1 ii4 #bae4 success of1 in ,philadelphia1 #baf1 #bag4 ,insects1 utility of the study of1 ii4 #ic4 ,interrogation1 the mark of1 how to be placed1 ii4 #cef4 ,invention1 the faculty of1 its inconveniences1 i4 #cjh4 ,inventions1 new1 generally scouted1 ibid4 ,journal of a voyage1 crossing the gulph-stream1 ii4 #aii4 from ,philadelphia to ,france1 #bjj1 #bja4 from the channel to ,america1 #bjb1 et seq4 ,iron contained in the globe1 renders it a great magnet1 ii4 #aai4 query whether it existed at the creation1 #abf4 hot1 gives no bad smell1 #bdg4 yields no bad vapours1 #bdh4 rods1 erected for experiments on the clouds1 i4 #bgj4 conduct more lightning in proportion to their thickness1 #bhb4 ,islands far from a continent have little thunder1 i4 #baf4 ,italic types1 use of1 in printing1 ii4 #cee4 ,judges1 mode of their appointment in ,america1 in #agfh1 iii4 #bc4 ,junto4 ,see ,club4 ,k4 ,keimer1 a connection of ,franklin's1 some account of1 i4 #ce1 #gj1 #ic4 ,keith1 sir ,william1 ,franklin patronized by1 i4 #ci4 deceived by1 #ed4 character of1 #eg4 ,kinnersley1 ,mr4 electrical experiments by1 i4 #bfa1 et seq41 #cca4 ,kiss1 electrical1 i4 #agg4 ,kite used to draw electricity from the clouds1 i4 #ajh4 electrical1 described1 i4 #bfh4 ,knobs1 not so proper as points1 for conducting lightning1 i4 #cei4 ,l4 ,labour1 why it will long continue dear in ,america1 ii4 #che4 its advantages1 #dbg1 #dbh4 ,land1 terms on which it may be obtained in ,america1 by settlers1 iii4 #dji4 ,landing in a surf1 supposed practicable1 how1 ii4 #aed4 tried without success1 #aee4 ,language1 remarks on innovations in1 ii4 #cea1 et seq4 ,laughers1 satyrized1 iii4 #dbe4 ,law1 the old courts of1 in the colonies1 as ample in their powers1 as those in ,england1 iii4 #cjd4 ,law-expenses1 no discouragement to law-suits1 iii4 #bgj4 ,law-stamps1 a tax on the poor1 iii4 #bfi4 ,lead1 effects of1 on the human constitution1 ii4 #bai4 ,leaks in ships1 why water enters by them most rapidly at first1 ii4 #aji4 means to prevent their being fatal1 #agj4 ,leather globe1 proposed1 instead of glass1 for electrical experiments1 i4 #bfg4 ,left hand1 a petition from1 iii4 #dhc4 ,leg1 handsome and deformed1 humourous anecdote of1 iii4 #dcg4 ,legal tender of paper-money1 its advantages1 iii4 #aej4 further remarks on1 #aea4 ,lending money1 new mode of1 iii4 #dfc4 ,letter-founding effected by ,franklin in ,america1 i4 #gd4 ,leutmann1 ,j4 ,g4 extract from his vulcanus famulans1 ii4 #bih4 ,leyden bottle1 its phenomena explained1 i4 #agi4 analysed1 #aib4 experiment to prove its qualities1 #bde4 when sealed hermetically1 retains long its electricity1 #cde4 ,liberty of the press1 observations on1 ii4 #dfc4 abused1 #dfe4 of the cudgel1 should be allowed in return1 #dfg4 ,libraries1 public1 the first in ,america set on foot by ,franklin1 i4 #ii4 are now numerous in ,america1 #ajj4 advantages of1 to liberty1 #aja4 ,life and death1 observations on the doctrines of1 ii4 #bbb4 ,light1 difference between that from the sun and that from a fire in electrical experiments1 i4 #agc4 difficulties in the doctrines of1 i4 #bec4 queries concerning1 ibid4 visibility of its infinitely small particles computed1 ii4 #ij4 new theory of1 #abb4 ,lighthouse-tragedy1 an early poem of ,franklin's1 i4 #af4 ,lightning1 represented by electricity1 i4 #agf4 drawn from the clouds1 by a kite1 #bfh4 by an iron rod1 ibid4 reasons for proposing the experiment on1 #cjd4 its effects at ,newbury1 #caj4 will leave other substances1 to pass through metals1 #cab4 communicates magnetism to iron1 #cad4 objections to the hypothesis of its being collected from the sea1 #cah1 #cbc4 effects of1 on a wire at ,new ,york1 #cbf4 on ,mr4 ,west's pointed rod1 #cdj1 et seq4 how it shivers trees1 #cei4 effects of1 on conductors in ,carolina1 #cfa1 #cfb1 #cfd4 does not enter through openings1 #cfh4 should be distinguished from its light1 #cfi4 an explosion always accompanies it1 ibid4 observations on its effects on ,st4 ,bride's church1 #cgd1 #chb4 how to preserve buildings from1 #cgg4 personal danger from1 how best avoided1 #cha4 brought down by a pointed rod1 in a large quantity1 #chi4 how to prevent a stroke of1 at sea1 ii4 #age4 ,linnus1 instance of public benefit arising from his knowledge of insects1 ii4 #id4 ,london1 atmosphere of1 moister than that of the country1 ii4 #aci4 ,loyalty of ,america before the troubles1 iii4 #bcg4 ,luxury1 beneficial when not too common1 ii4 #chi4 definition of1 #cie1 #dbe4 extinguishes families1 #cie4 not to be extirpated by laws1 #dja4 further observations on1 #dbe4 ,lying-to1 the only mode yet used for stopping a vessel at sea1 ii4 #aha4 ,m4 ,maddeson1 ,mr4 death of1 lamented1 iii4 #edd994 ,magazine of powder1 how to secure it from lightning1 i4 #cge4 ,magical circle of circles1 ii4 #cbg4 picture1 i4 #aie4 square of squares1 ii4 #cbd4 ,magnetism1 animal1 detected and exposed1 i4 #aej4 given by electricity1 #bdh1 #cad4 and electricity1 affinity between1 #daj4 supposed to exist in all space1 ii4 #aai1 #abf4 conjectures as to its effects on the globe1 #abj4 enquiry how it first came to exist1 #abf4 ,mahogany1 expands and shrinks1 according to climate1 ii4 #ach4 recommended for an hygrometer1 #ada4 ,mandeville1 ,franklin's acquaintance with1 i4 #ci4 ,manners1 effects of1 on population1 ii4 #cic1 et seq4 letter to the ,busy-body on the want of1 iii4 #dcb4 ,manufactures1 produce greater proportionate returns than raw materials1 ii4 #daj4 founded in the want of land for the poor1 iii4 #ajg4 are with difficulty transplanted from one country to another1 #aba4 hardly ever lost but by foreign conquest1 #abb4 probability of their establishment in ,america1 #bfj4 want no encouragement from the government1 if a country be ripe for them1 #dje4 ,maritime observations1 ii4 #afb4 ,marly1 experiments made at1 for drawing lightning from the clouds1 i4 #dba4 ,marriage of ,franklin1 i4 #ig4 ,marriages1 where the greatest number take place1 ii4 #chc4 why frequent and early in ,america1 #che4 iii4 #aac1 #djc4 early1 letter on1 iii4 #dge4 ,maryland1 account of a whirlwind there1 ii4 #fa4 of paper bills formerly issued there1 iii4 #aee4 its conduct in a ,french war1 previous to the ,american troubles1 defended1 #bfb4 ,massachusets bay1 petition of the inhabitants of1 to the king1 iii4 #cbe4 ,matter1 enquiry into the supposed vis inerti of1 ii4 #aaj4 man can neither create nor annihilate it1 #abc4 ,mawgridge1 ,william1 member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hd4 ,maxims1 prudential1 from poor ,richard's almanack1 iii4 #dec4 ,mazeas1 abbe1 letter from1 i4 #dbj4 ,meal1 grain1 c4 manner of preserving them good for ages1 i4 #cgf4 ii4 #aij4 ,mechanics1 advantages of an early attention to1 i4 #ad4 ,mediocrity1 prevalence of1 in ,america1 iii4 #cii4 ,melody in music1 what1 ii4 #cdj4 ,men1 six1 struck down by an electric shock1 i4 #cjf4 ,mercer1 ,dr4 letter from1 on a water-spout1 ii4 #cd4 ,merchants and shopkeepers in ,america1 iii4 #cid4 ,meredith1 ,hugh1 companion of ,franklin1 short account of1 i4 #gb1 #gf1 #hi4 ,metalline rods1 secure buildings from lightning1 i4 #bha4 either prevent or conduct a stroke1 #caj4 ,metals1 melted by electricity and by lightning1 i4 #bae1 #bbi4 when melted by electricity1 stain glass1 #bcb4 polished1 spotted by electrical sparks1 #bec4 feel colder than wood1 why1 ii4 #ef4 ,meteorological observations1 ii4 #a1 #de1 #ff4 ,methusalem slept always in the open air1 iii4 #die4 ,mickle1 ,samuel1 a prognosticator of evil1 i4 #ha4 ,military manners1 effects of1 ii4 #cih1 #cii4 power of the king1 remarks on1 iii4 #cjg4 ,militia bill1 ,franklin the author of one1 i4 #acb4 particular one1 rejected by the governor of ,pensylvania1 #ajj4 iii4 #aeg4 ,mines1 method of changing air in them1 ii4 #bia4 of rock salt1 conjectures as to their formation1 #ib4 ,mists1 how supported in air1 ii4 #e4 ,modesty in disputation recommended1 ii4 #cag4 ,money1 how to make it plenty1 iii4 #dfg4 new mode of lending1 #dfh4 ,moral principles1 state of ,franklin's mind respecting1 on his entering into business1 i4 #gi4 ,morals of chess1 iii4 #dhh4 ,motion1 the communication and effects of1 ii4 #g1 #h4 of vessels at sea1 how to be stopped1 #aha4 ,mountains1 use of1 in producing rain and rivers1 i4 #bjh4 why the summits of1 are cold1 ii4 #f4 conjecture how they became so high1 #ia4 ,music1 harmony and melody of the old ,scotish1 ii4 #cch4 modern1 defects of1 #cdc4 ,musical glasses described1 ii4 #ccj4 ,n4 ,nantucket whalers best acquainted with the gulph-stream1 ii4 #aih4 ,national wealth1 data for reasoning on1 ii4 #djh4 three ways of acquiring1 #daj4 ,navigation1 difference of1 in shoal and deep water1 ii4 #aeh4 observations on1 #aie1 #aif4 from ,newfoundland to ,new ,york1 #aig4 inland1 in ,america1 iii4 #aah4 ,needle of a compass1 its polarity reversed by lightning1 i4 #bdh1 #cbe4 of wood1 circular motion of1 by electricity1 #ccb1 #cea4 ,needles1 magnetised by electricity1 i4 #adh4 and pins1 melted by electricity1 #bdi4 ,negatively electrised bodies repel each other1 i4 #bid4 ,negroes bear heat better1 and cold worse1 than whites1 ii4 #hf4 ,newbury1 effects of a stroke of lightning there1 i4 #caj4 ,new-,england1 former flourishing state of1 from the issue of paper money1 iii4 #ade4 circumstances which rendered the restriction of paper money there not injurious1 #adh4 abolition of paper currency there1 #bfc4 ,newfoundland fisheries1 more valuable than the mines of ,peru1 iii4 #deb4 ,newspaper1 one sufficient for all ,america1 in #agba1 i4 #bc4 instance of one set up by ,franklin at ,philadelphia1 #hf4 ,new-,york1 effects of lightning there1 i4 #cbf4 former flourishing state of1 from the issue of paper-money1 iii4 #adf4 sentiments of the colonists on the act for abolishing the legislature of1 #bcb4 obtained in exchange for ,surinam1 #cdi4 ,nollet1 ,abb1 ,franklin's theory of electricity opposed by1 i4 #aac4 remarks on his letters1 #dcj4 ,non-conductors of electricity1 i4 #cgh4 ,non-electric1 its property in receiving or giving electrical fire1 i4 #aic4 ,north-east storms in ,america1 account of1 ii4 #fh4 ,nurses1 office at ,paris for examining the health of1 iii4 #edi994 ,o4 ,oak best for flooring and stair-cases1 ii4 #cba4 ,ohio1 distance of its fort from the sea1 iii4 #aai1 note4 ,oil1 effect of heat on1 ii4 #d4 evaporates only in dry air1 ibid4 renders air unfit to take up water1 ibid4 curious instance of its effects on water in a lamp1 #adb4 stilling of waves by means of1 #add1 #ade1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #aed4 ,old man's wish1 song so called quoted1 iii4 #edf994 ,onslow1 ,arthur1 dedication of a work to1 by ,franklin1 iii4 #ei4 ,opinions1 vulgar ones too much slighted1 ii4 #adf4 regard to established ones1 thought wisdom in a government1 iii4 #bbf4 ,orthography1 a new mode of1 ii4 #cei4 ,osborne1 a friend of ,franklin's1 i4 #ej1 #ec ,oversetting at sea1 how it occurs1 ii4 #agb4 how to be prevented1 ibid41 #agc4 ,outriggers to boats1 advantages of1 ii4 #agc4 ,p4 ,packthread1 though wet1 not a good conductor1 i4 #bjj4 ,paine's ,common ,sense1 ,franklin supposed to have contributed to1 i4 #adh4 ,paper1 how to make large sheets1 in the ,chinese way1 ii4 #cdi4 a poem1 iii4 #ebb4 ,paper-credit1 cannot be circumscribed by law1 ii4 #dah4 ,paper-money1 pamphlet written by ,franklin on1 i4 #ia4 ,american1 remarks and facts relative to1 iii4 #add4 advantages of1 over gold and silver1 iii4 #aeb4 ,papers on philosophical subjects1 i4 #afi1 et seq4 ii4 #a1 et seq4 on general politics1 ii4 #chc1 et seq4 on ,american subjects1 before the revolution1 iii4 #c1 et seq4 during the revolution1 iii4 #bbe1 et seq4 subsequent to the revolution1 iii4 #chc1 et seq4 on moral subjects1 iii4 #dba1 et seq4 ,parable against persecution1 ii4 #dej4 ,paradoxes inferred from some experiments1 i4 #bfb4 ,paralysis1 effects of electricity on1 i4 #dja4 ,parliament of ,england1 opinions in ,america1 in #agff1 concerning1 iii4 #bed4 ,parsons1 ,william1 member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hc4 ,parties1 their use in republics1 iii4 #cif4 ,party of pleasure1 electrical1 i4 #bjb4 ,passages to and from ,america1 how to be shortened1 ii4 #ach4 why shorter from1 than to1 ,america1 #ahi4 ,passengers by sea1 instructions to1 ii4 #aib4 ,patriotism1 spirit of1 catching1 iii4 #ij4 ,peace1 the victorious party may insist on adequate securities in the terms of1 iii4 #if4 ,penn1 governor1 remarks on his administration1 iii4 #ahc4 sold his legislative right in ,pensylvania1 but did not complete the bargain1 #ahi4 ,pensylvania1 ,franklin appointed clerk to the general assembly of1 i4 #ajb4 forms a plan of association for the defence of1 #ajd4 becomes a member of the general assembly of1 #aad4 aggrievances of1 iii4 #ej4 infraction of its charter1 #eb4 review of the constitution of1 #ei4 former flourishing state of1 from the issue of paper-money1 #adf4 rate of exchange there1 #aed4 letter on the militia bill of1 #aeg4 settled by ,english and ,germans1 #afb4 ,english and ,german1 its provincial languages1 ib4 pecuniary bargains between the governors and assembly of1 #afe4 taxes there1 #bdf1 #bea4 number of its inhabitants1 #bdi4 proportion of quakers1 and of ,germans1 ibid4 exports and imports1 #bej4 assembly of1 in #agff1 how composed1 #beb4 ,pensylvanian fire-places1 account of1 ii4 #bbc4 particularly described1 #bce4 effects of1 #bci4 manner of using them1 #bda4 advantages of1 #bdc4 objections to1 answered1 #bdg4 directions to bricklayers respecting1 #bea4 ,peopling of countries1 observations on1 ii4 #chc1 et seq4 ,perkins1 ,dr4 letter from1 on water-spouts1 ii4 #aa4 on shooting stars1 #cf4 ,persecution1 parable against1 ii4 #dej4 of dissenters1 letter on1 #deb4 of quakers in ,new ,england1 #ded4 ,perspirable matter1 pernicious1 if retained1 ii4 #ej4 ,perspiration1 necessary to be kept up1 in hot climates1 ii4 #hf4 difference of1 in persons when naked and clothed1 #bad4 ,petition from the colonists of ,massachusets bay1 iii4 #cbe4 of the left hand1 #dhc4 ,petty1 sir ,william1 a double vessel built by1 ii4 #agd4 ,philadelphia1 ,franklin's first arrival at1 i4 #cb4 account of a seminary there1 instituted by ,franklin1 #aaf to #abg4 state of the public bank at1 iii4 #eea994 ,phytolacca1 or poke weed1 a specific for cancers1 i4 #bfa4 ,picture1 magical1 described1 i4 #aie4 ,plain truth1 ,franklin's first political pamphlet1 iii4 #ebd4 ,plan for benefiting distant countries1 ii4 #djc4 for settling two western colonies1 iii4 #da4 for the management of ,indian affairs1 remarks on1 #baf4 for improving the condition of the free blacks1 #eai4 ,planking of ships1 improvement in1 ii4 #ahi4 ,pleurisy1 ,franklin attacked by1 i4 #ga1 #aed4 ,plus and minus electricity1 in the ,leyden bottle1 i4 #aha4 in other bodies1 #ahe4 ,pointed rods1 secure buildings from lightning1 i4 #bhc1 #cha4 experiments and observations on1 #chh4 objections to1 answered1 #cie1 #cif4 ,points1 their effects1 i4 #agj4 property of1 explained1 #bbc4 experiment showing the effect of1 on the clouds1 #bhc4 mistake respecting1 #caj4 ,poke-weed1 a cure for cancers1 i4 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,polarity given to needles by electricity1 i4 #bdh4 ,poles of the earth1 if changed1 would produce a deluge1 ii4 #abg4 ,political fragments1 ii4 #daa4 ,polypus1 a nation compared to1 ii4 #cia4 ,poor1 remarks on the management of1 ii4 #dah4 the better provided for1 the more idle1 #dbb4 ,poor ,richard1 maxims of1 iii4 #dec4 ,pope1 criticism on two of his lines1 i4 #bc4 ,population1 observations on1 ii4 #chc4 causes which diminish it1 #chf4 occasional vacancies in1 soon filled by natural generation1 #cij4 rate of its increase in ,america1 #che4 iii4 #aac1 #bej1 #bed4 why it increases faster there1 than in ,england1 iii4 #bee4 ,positions concerning national wealth1 ii4 #djh4 ,positiveness1 impropriety of1 ii4 #cah4 ,postage1 not a tax1 but payment for a service1 iii4 #bfe4 state of1 in ,america1 in #agff1 #bgi4 ,post-master1 and deputy post-master general1 ,franklin appointed to the offices of1 i4 #ajb1 #abg4 ,potts1 ,stephen1 a companion of ,franklin's1 i4 #gb1 #hd4 ,poultry1 not good at sea1 ii4 #aic4 ,powder-magazines1 how secured from lightning1 i4 #cge4 ,power to move a heavy body1 how to be augmented1 ii4 #aia4 ,pownall1 governor1 memorial of1 to the ,duke of ,cumberland1 iii4 #da4 letter from1 on an equal communication of rights to ,america1 #bdc4 constitution of the colonies by1 #bii4 ,preface to ,mr4 ,galloway's speech1 iii4 #afc4 to proceedings of the inhabitants of ,boston1 #cag4 ,presbyterianism1 established religion in ,new ,england1 ii4 #ded4 ,press1 account of the court of1 ii4 #dfc4 liberty of1 abused1 #dfe4 ,pressing of seamen1 animadversions on1 ii4 #dcg4 ,price1 ,dr4 letter from1 on ,franklin's death1 iii4 #eda4 ,priestley1 ,dr4 letter from1 on ,franklin's character1 iii4 #edg4 ,printers at ,philadelphia before ,franklin1 i4 #cf4 ,printing1 ,franklin apprenticed to the business of1 i4 #ae4 works at it as a journeymen in ,england1 #eh1 #fb4 in ,america1 #ce1 #ga4 enters on the business of1 as master1 #gh4 observations on fashions in1 ii4 #cee4 ,prison1 society for relieving the misery of1 i4 #aea4 not known among the ,indians of ,america1 iii4 #bbj4 ,privateering1 reprobated1 ii4 #dcf4 further observations on1 #ddf4 article to prevent it1 recommended in national treaties1 #ddh4 inserted in a treaty between ,america and ,prussia1 #ddi4 ,proas1 of the pacific ocean1 safety of1 ii4 #agc4 flying1 superior to any of our sailing boats1 #agf4 ,produce of the inland parts of ,america1 iii4 #aai4 ,products of ,america1 do not interfere with those of ,britain1 iii4 #abd4 ,prose-writing1 method of acquiring excellence in1 i4 #ah4 ,protest against ,franklin's appointment as colonial agent1 remarks on1 iii4 #bjc4 ,provisions1 cheapness of1 encourages idleness1 ii4 #dae4 ,prussian edict1 assuming claims over ,britain1 iii4 #caa4 ,public services and functions of ,franklin1 i4 #abe4 spirit1 manifest in ,england1 iii4 #ia4 different opinion respecting it expressed1 #cge4 ,punctuality of ,america in the payment of public debts1 iii4 #cgc4 ,puckridge1 ,mr4 inventor of musical glasses1 i4 #acf4 ,q4 ,quaker-lady1 good advice of one to ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #db4 ,quakers1 persecution of1 in ,new ,england1 ii4 #ded4 proportion of1 in ,pensylvania1 iii4 #bdi4 ,quebec1 remarks on the enlargement of the province of1 iii4 #bj1 note4 ,queries concerning light1 i4 #beh4 proposed at the ,junto club1 ii4 #cff4 from ,mr4 ,strahan1 on the ,american disputes1 iii4 #bhg4 ,questions discussed by the ,junto club1 ii4 #cfi4 ,r4 ,rain1 how produced1 i4 #bjg4 generally brings down electricity1 #bib4 why never salt1 ii4 #cb4 different quantities of1 falling at different heights1 #acc4 ,ralph1 ,james1 a friend of ,franklin's1 i4 #ej1 #ec1 #ed1 #eg1 #fj4 ,rarefaction of the air1 why greater in the upper regions1 ii4 #f4 ,read1 maiden name of ,franklin's wife1 i4 #cc1 #cg1 #di1 #ed1 #ei1 #gj1 #if4 ,reading1 ,franklin's early passion for1 i4 #ae1 #af4 how best taught1 ii4 #cgb4 advice to youth respecting1 #cgh4 ,recluse1 a ,roman ,catholic one1 in ,london1 i4 #fe4 ,red and green1 relation between the colours of1 ii4 #cda4 ,regimen1 sudden alterations of1 not prejudicial1 i4 #di4 ,religious sect1 new one1 intended establishment of1 i4 #dh4 ,repellency1 electrical1 how destroyed1 i4 #agb4 ,representation1 ,american1 in the ,british parliament1 thoughts on1 iii4 #cg1 #bdc4 ,repulsion1 electrical1 the doctrine of1 doubted1 i4 #ccc4 considerations in support of1 #cdi4 ,revelation1 doubted by ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #gi4 ,rhode-,island1 purchased for a pair of spectacles1 iii4 #ba4 its population at three periods1 iii4 #abi4 ,rich1 hints to those that would be1 iii4 #dff4 ,ridicule1 delight of the prince of ,cond in1 iii4 #dbd4 ,rivers1 from the ,andes1 how formed1 i4 #bji4 motion of the tides in1 explained1 ii4 #if1 #ajb4 do not run into the sea1 #aje4 evaporate before they reach the sea1 #ajf4 inflammability of the surface of1 #acj4 ,rods1 utility of long pointed ones1 to secure buildings from lightning1 i4 #chh4 ,see farther4 ,iron4 ,lightning4 ,metalline4 ,rome1 causes of its decline enquired into1 ii4 #cih4 political government of its provinces1 iii4 #acf4 ,rooms1 warm1 advantages of1 ii4 #bdi4 do not give colds1 ibid4 ,roots1 edible1 might be dried and preserved for sea-store1 ii4 #aij4 ,rosin1 when fluid1 will conduct electricity1 i4 #bef4 ,rousseau1 his opinion of tunes in parts1 ii4 #cdb4 ,rowing of boats1 ,chinese method of1 ii4 #agg4 ,rowley1 ,dr4 ,franklin's obligations to1 iii4 #eee994 ,s4 ,sailing1 observations on1 ii4 #afc4 ,sails1 proposed improvements in1 ii4 #afd1 #aff4 ,saint ,bride's church1 stroke of lightning on1 i4 #cgd4 ,salt1 dry1 will not conduct electricity1 i4 #beh4 rock1 conjectures as to its origin1 ii4 #ia4 ,saltness of the sea-water considered1 ib4 ,savage1 ,john1 a companion of ,franklin's1 i4 #gb4 ,savages of ,north ,america1 remarks on1 iii4 #chc1 et seq4 ,school1 sketch of one1 for ,philadelphia1 ii4 #cgj4 ,scotch tunes1 harmony of1 and melody1 ii4 #cch4 ,screaming1 a defect in modern tunes1 ii4 #cde4 ,scull1 ,nicholas1 member of the ,junto club1 i4 #hc4 ,sea1 electrical qualities of its component parts1 i4 #bje4 opinion1 that it is the source of lightning1 considered1 #bfi1 #cba1 #cbb4 supposed cause of its luminous appearance1 ii4 #hh4 from what cause1 salt1 #ia4 has formerly covered the mountains1 ib4 ,sea-coal1 has a vegetable origin1 ii4 #abh4 prejudices against the use of1 at ,paris1 #bgh4 ,sea-water1 soon loses its luminous quality1 i4 #bfi4 considerations on the distillation of1 ii4 #ajc4 how to quench thirst with1 #ajd4 thermometrical observation on1 #aii1 et seq4 ,security1 a just ground to demand cessions from an enemy1 iii4 #ic4 ,separation of the colonies from ,britain1 probability of1 in #agge1 iii4 #cef4 ,servants in ,england1 the most barren parts of the people1 ii4 #cie4 ,settlements1 new1 in ,america1 letter concerning1 iii4 #dji4 ,settlers of ,british colonies1 their rights1 iii4 #bii4 ,sheep1 a whole flock killed by lightning1 i4 #dae4 ,ships1 abandoned at sea1 often saved1 ii4 #afi4 may be nicely balanced1 #agj4 accidents to1 at sea1 how guarded against1 #agb4 ,shirley1 governor1 letters to1 on the taxation of the colonies1 iii4 #cj4 on ,american representation in the ,british parliament1 #cg4 ,shooting-stars1 letter on1 ii4 #cf4 ,shop-keepers in ,america1 iii4 #cid4 ,sides of vessels1 the best construction of1 ii4 #agb4 ,silver cann1 experiment with1 i4 #cjg4 vessels1 not so easily handled as glass1 when filled with hot liquors1 ii4 #eg4 ,slavery1 society for the abolition of1 i4 #aea4 address to the public on the abolition of1 iii4 #eag4 ,slaves1 not profitable labourers1 ii4 #chf4 diminish population1 ii4 #chg4 ,slave-trade1 sentiment of a ,french moralist respecting1 ii4 #aie4 parody on the arguments in favour of1 #dej4 ,sliding-plates for smoky chimnies described1 ii4 #bhg4 ,slitting-mills in ,america1 iii4 #bgj4 ,small1 ,mr4 ,alexander1 letter from1 i4 #cgd4 ,smell of electricity1 how produced1 i4 #bdd4 ,smoke1 principle by which it ascends1 ii4 #beg4 stove that consumes it1 #bif4 the burning of1 useful in hot-houses1 #caf4 ,smoky chimnies1 observation on the causes and cure of1 ii4 #bef4 remedy for1 if by want of air1 #bfa1 #bfb4 if by too large openings in the room1 #bff1 #bfh4 if by too short a funnel1 #bfi4 if by overpowering each other1 #bgj1 #bga4 if by being overtopped1 #bga1 #bgb4 if by improper situation of a door1 #bgc4 if by smoke drawn down their funnels1 #bgd1 #bge4 if by strong winds1 #bge1 #bgf4 difficult sometimes to discover the cause of1 #bhb4 ,smuggling1 reflections on1 ii4 #dcj4 encouragement of1 not honest1 #dcb4 ,snow1 singular instance of its giving electricity1 i4 #cgc4 ,soap-boiler1 part of ,franklin's early life devoted to the business of1 i4 #aj1 #ad4 ,societies1 of which ,franklin was president1 i4 #aea4 learned1 of which he was a member1 #ace4 ,socrates1 his mode of disputation1 i4 #ba4 ,songs1 ancient1 give more pleasure than modern1 ii4 #cdb4 modern1 composed of all the defects of speech1 #cdd4 ,soul1 argument against the annihilation of1 iii4 #edh994 ,sound1 best mediums for conveying1 ii4 #cce4 observations on1 #ccf4 queries concerning1 #ccg4 ,sounds just past1 we have a perfect idea of their pitch1 ii4 #cdj4 ,soup-dishes at sea1 how to be made more convenient1 ii4 #aie4 ,spain1 what has thinned its population1 ii4 #cij4 ,specific weight1 what1 ii4 #bbf4 ,spectacles1 double1 advantages of1 iii4 #edd991 #eea994 ,speech1 at ,algiers1 on slavery and piracy1 ii4 #dej4 of ,mr4 ,galloway1 preface to1 iii4 #afc4 last of ,franklin1 on the federal constitution1 #daf4 ,spelling1 a new mode of1 recommended1 ii4 #cei4 ,spheres1 electric1 commodious ones1 i4 #agh4 ,spider1 artificial1 described1 i4 #agg4 ,spirits1 fired without heating1 i4 #bad1 #bde4 linen wetted with1 cooling in inflammations1 ii4 #hg4 should always be taken to sea in bottles1 #age4 ,spots in the sun1 how formed1 i4 #bfj4 ,squares1 magical square of1 ii4 #cbd4 ,staffordshire chimney1 description of1 ii4 #bhe4 ,stamp-act in ,america stigmatized1 iii4 #bbh4 letter on the repeal of1 iii4 #bci4 examination of ,franklin on1 #bde4 ,stars4 ,see ,shooting4 ,state1 internal1 of ,america1 iii4 #bia4 ,storms1 causes of1 ii4 #fe4 ,stove1 ,dutch1 its advantages and defects1 ii4 #bcc4 ,german1 ditto1 #bcd4 to draw downwards1 by ,j4 ,g4 ,leutmann1 #bih4 for burning pit-coal and consuming its smoke1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cjh4 ,strata of the earth1 letter on1 ii4 #aaf4 ,strahan1 ,mr4 queries by1 on ,american politics1 iii4 #bhg4 answer to the queries1 #bij4 letter to1 disclaiming his friendship1 iii4 #ced4 ,stuber1 ,dr4 continuator of ,franklin's life1 i4 #ih4 ,studies of trifles1 should be moderate1 ii4 #ie4 ,stuttering1 one of the affected beauties of modern tunes1 ii4 #bde4 ,sugar1 cruelties exercised in producing it1 ii4 #aif4 ,sulphur globe1 its electricity different from that of the glass globe1 i4 #bfe4 ,sun1 supplies vapour with fire1 i4 #bjg4 why not wasted by expense of light1 #bei4 effect of its rays on different coloured clothes1 ii4 #ajh4 light of1 proposed to be used instead of candlelight1 iii4 #dgj1 #dgc4 discovered to give light as soon as it rises1 #dga4 ,surfaces of glass1 different state of its opposite ones1 when electrised1 i4 #aia1 #bch4 ,swimming1 skill of ,franklin in1 i4 #ff4 art of1 how to be acquired1 ii4 #bjf how a person unacquainted with it may avoid sinking1 #bjh4 a delightful and wholesome exercise1 ii4 #bji1 #baa4 advantage of1 to soldiers1 #baj4 inventions to improve it1 ibid4 #bab4 medical effects of1 ibid4 ,t4 ,tariffs1 not easily settled in ,indian trade1 iii4 #bah4 ,tautology1 an affected beauty of modern songs1 ii4 #cde4 ,taxation1 ,american1 letters to governor ,shirley on1 iii4 #cj4 ,american1 ,dr4 ,franklin's examination on1 iii4 #bdf1 #bef4 internal and external1 distinguished1 #bei4 on importation of goods and consumption1 difference between1 #bff4 ,tea-act1 the duty on1 in ,america1 how considered there1 iii4 #bfa1 #cag1 #cai4 characterized by ,mr4 ,burke1 #cai1 note4 ,teach1 or ,blackbeard1 name of a ballad written by ,franklin in his youth1 i4 #af4 ,thanks of the assembly of ,pensylvania to ,franklin1 iii4 #bad4 ,thanksgiving-days appointed in ,new ,england instead of fasts1 iii4 #cib4 ,theory of the earth1 ii4 #aag4 of light and heat1 #abb4 ,thermometer1 not cooled by blowing on1 when dry1 ii4 #hg4 electrical1 described1 and experiments with1 ii4 #ccf4 ,thermometrical observations on the gulph-stream1 ii4 #aii4 on the warmth of sea-water1 #bjj4 ,thirst1 may be relieved by sea-water1 how1 ii4 #aje4 ,thunder and lightning1 how caused1 i4 #bji4 seldom heard far from land1 #baf4 comparatively little at ,bermuda1 ibid4 defined1 #cgh4 ,thunder-gusts1 what1 i4 #bjc4 hypothesis to explain them1 #bjc1 et seq4 ,tides in rivers1 motion of1 explained1 ii4 #if1 #ajb4 ,time1 occasional fragments of1 how to be collected1 ii4 #dab4 is money to a tradesman1 iii4 #dfc4 ,toads live long without nourishment1 ii4 #bbc4 ,toleration in ,old and ,new ,england compared1 ii4 #deg4 ,torpedo1 how to determine its electricity1 i4 #djh1 #dji4 ,tourmalin1 its singular electrical properties1 i4 #cgj4 experiments on it1 #cga1 #cgb4 ,trade1 pleasure attending the first earnings in1 i4 #ha4 should be under no restrictions1 ii4 #dae4 exchanges in1 may be advantageous to each party1 #dah4 inland carriage no obstruction1 to1 iii4 #aaf4 great rivers in ,america1 favourable to1 #aah4 bills of credit1 in lieu of money1 the best medium of1 #aef4 will find and make its own rates1 #bai4 ,tradesman1 advice to a young one1 iii4 #dfc4 ,transportation of felons to ,america1 highly disagreeable to the inhabitants there1 iii4 #bce4 ,treaty between ,america and ,prussia1 humane article of1 ii4 #ddi4 ,treasures1 hidden1 search after1 ridiculed1 iii4 #dej4 ,trees1 dangerous to be under1 in thunder-storms1 i4 #bac4 the shivering of1 by lightning1 explained1 #cei4 why cool in the sun1 ii4 #hg4 ,tubes of glass1 electrical1 manner of rubbing1 i4 #agh4 lined with a non-electric1 experiment with1 #bdj4 exhausted1 electric fire moves freely in1 #bda4 ,tunes1 ancient ,scotch1 why give general pleasure1 ii4 #cch4 composed to the wire-harp1 #cda4 in parts1 ,rousseau's opinion of1 #cdb4 modern1 absurdities of1 #cdd1 et seq4 ,turkey killed by electricity1 i4 #bii4 ,turks1 ceremony observed by1 in visiting1 iii4 #dcf4 ,v4 ,u4 ,vacuum1 ,torricellian1 experiment with1 i4 #bia4 electrical experiment in1 #cag4 ,vapour1 electrical experiment on1 i4 #cdc4 ,vapours from moist hay1 c4 easily fired by lightning1 i4 #bae4 cause of their rising considered1 ii4 #df1 #di4 ,vanity1 observation on1 i4 #b4 ,varnish1 dry1 burnt by electric sparks1 i4 #aii4 ,vattel's ,law of ,nations1 greatly consulted by the ,american congress1 iii4 #cfj4 ,vegetable diet1 observed by ,franklin1 i4 #bj4 abandoned by ,franklin1 why1 #dg4 ,vegetation1 effects of1 on noxious air1 ii4 #abi4 ,velocity of the electric fire1 i4 #cai4 ,virtue in private life exemplified1 iii4 #dbg4 ,vernon1 ,mr4 reposes a trust in ,franklin1 which he violates1 i4 #dd4 ,vis inerti of matter1 observations on1 ii4 #aaj4 ,visits1 unseasonable and importunate1 letter on1 iii4 #dcb4 ,unintelligibleness1 a fault of modern singing1 ii4 #cde4 ,union1 ,albany plan of4 ,see ,albany4 ,union of ,america with ,britain1 letter on1 iii4 #bci4 ,united states of ,america1 nature of the congress of1 iii4 #eej994 ,voyage1 from ,boston to ,new ,york1 i4 #bg4 from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia1 #bh4 from ,newfoundland to ,new ,york1 remarks on1 ii4 #aig4 crossing the gulph stream1 journal of1 #aii4 from ,philadelphia to ,france1 #bjj1 #bja4 from the channel to ,america1 #bjb4 to benefit distant countries1 proposed1 #djc4 ,vulgar opinions1 too much slighted1 ii4 #adf4 ,w4 ,waggons1 number of1 supplied by ,franklin1 on a military emergency1 i4 #aca4 ,war1 civil1 whether it strengthens a country considered1 ii4 #cii4 observations on1 #dce4 laws of1 gradually humanized1 ib4 humane article respecting1 in a treaty between ,prussia and ,america1 ii4 #ddi4 ,french1 of #ageg1 its origin1 iii4 #bgd4 ,warm rooms do not make people tender1 or give colds1 ii4 #bdi4 ,washington1 early military talents of1 i4 #acj4 ,franklin's bequest to1 #afd4 ,water1 a perfect conductor of electricity1 i4 #bja4 strongly electrified1 rises in vapour1 #bjd4 particles of1 in rising1 are attached to particles of air1 #bje4 and air1 attract each other1 #bjf4 exploded like gunpowder1 by electricity1 #ceh4 expansion of1 when reduced to vapour1 ib4 saturated with salt1 precipitates the overplus1 ii4 #b4 will dissolve in air1 ib4 expands when boiling1 ib4 how supported in air1 #de4 bubbles on the surface of1 hypothesis respecting1 #dh4 agitated1 does not produce heat1 #di1 #if4 supposed originally all salt1 #ia4 fresh1 produce of distillation only1 ib4 curious effects of oil on1 #adb4 ,water-casks1 how to dispose of1 in leaky vessels1 ii4 #agj4 ,water-spouts1 observations on1 ii4 #aa4 whether they descend or ascend1 #ad1 #bc1 #ch4 various appearances of1 #af4 winds blow from all points towards them1 #ba4 are whirlwinds at sea1 ib4 effect of one on the coast of ,guinea1 #cc4 account of one at ,antigua1 #cd4 various instances of1 #ch4 ,mr4 ,colden's observations on1 #ec4 ,watson1 ,mr4 ,william1 letter by1 on thunder-clouds1 i4 #dbg4 ,waves1 stilled by oil1 ii4 #add1 #ade1 #adh4 greasy water1 #adf4 ,wax1 when fluid will conduct electricity1 i4 #bef4 may be electrised positively and negatively1 #bia4 ,wealth1 way to1 iii4 #dec4 national1 positions to be examined concerning1 ii4 #djh4 but three ways of acquiring it1 #daj4 ,webb1 ,george1 a companion of ,franklin's1 i4 #gb1 #hd1 #hf4 ,wedderburn1 ,mr4 remarks on his treatment of ,franklin before the privy council1 iii4 #ccj1 #ccb1 notes2 #eej4 ,west1 ,mr4 his conductor struck by lightning1 i4 #cdj4 ,western colonies1 plan for settling them1 iii4 #da4 ,whatley1 ,mr4 four letters to1 iii4 #edc994 ,wheels1 electrical1 described1 i4 #aif4 ,whirlwinds1 how formed1 ii4 #aj4 observations on1 #bj4 a remarkable one at ,rome1 #bd4 account of one in ,maryland1 #fa4 ,whistle1 a story1 iii4 #dhj4 ,white1 fittest colour for clothes in hot climates1 ii4 #aji4 ,will1 extracts from ,franklin's1 i4 #aee4 ,wilson1 ,mr4 draws electricity from the clouds1 i4 #dbi4 ,wind generated by fermentation1 ii4 #ei4 ,winds explained1 ii4 #h1 #i1 #dh4 the explanation objected to1 #ej1 #ea4 observations on1 by ,mr4 ,colden1 #eb4 whether confined to1 or generated in1 clouds1 #eg4 raise the surface of the sea above its level1 #ahh4 effect of1 on sound1 #ccg4 ,winters1 hard1 causes of1 ii4 #fh4 ,winthrop1 professor1 letters from1 i4 #cgc1 #chb4 ,wire conducts a great stroke of lightning1 though destroyed itself1 i4 #bhb4 ,wolfe1 general1 i4 #acf4 ,women of ,paris1 singular saying respecting1 as mothers1 iii4 #edh994 ,wood1 dry1 will not conduct electricity1 i4 #agb4 why does not feel so cold as metals1 ii4 #ef4 ,woods1 not unhealthy to inhabit1 ii4 #acj4 ,woollen1 why warmer than linen1 ii4 #eg1 #ha4 ,words1 to modern songs1 only a pretence for singing1 ii4 #cdh4 ,wygate1 an acquaintance of ,franklin's1 i4 #ff4 ,wyndham1 sir ,william1 applies to ,franklin to teach his sons swimming1 i4 #fi4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,several pages of the book contain a description and examples of a modified alphabet proposed by ,b4,f4 ,there are six new characters1 which are denoted by the ,unicode characters below 7these are similar to1 but not a precise rendering of the original printed characters74 for the 'o' sound as in 7,john1 folly1 ball7 #jx#c;d#f for the 'u' sound as in 7umbrage1 unto1 er7 #jx#agc for the 'sh' sound as in 7ship1 wish7 #jx#ec;b for the 'ng' sound as in 7ing1 repeating1 among7 #jx#ad;b for the 'th' sound as in 7think1 width7 #jx#bfg for the 'th' sound as in 7thy1 weather7 #jx#aie ,for consistency and clarity1 the pound abbreviation 'l4' has been italicized1 so for example '#abc1cbal4' has been replaced by '#abc1cbal4' in the etext4 ,for consistency1 the date and salutation at the beginning of each letter1 and the closing and name at the end of each letter1 have been put on separate lines 7they were sometimes placed on the same line in the original printed text74 ,a ',list of the ,plates' has been created and added in front of the ,errata4 ,asterisks were used by the editor to indicate omitted text4 ,for consistency1 '99999999' is used when at the beginning or end of a letter1 otherwise a line of #e spaced asterisks is used4 ,a deliberate blank space in the text is indicated by 4 ,all the changes noted in the ,errata 7pg vi7 have been applied to the text4 ,many ,footnotes have the signature ',b4 ,v4' rather than ',editor'4 ,this is explained in ,vol #a p #cii ,footnote #ij1 and is copied below for the reader's convenience3-- ,wherever this signature occurs1 the note is taken from a volume of ,dr4 ,franklin's writings1 entitled ,political1 ,miscellaneous1 and ,philosophical ,pieces1 printed for ,johnson1 #aggi4 ,the editor of that volume1 though a young man at the time1 had already evinced extraordinary talents1 and was the friend and correspondent of our author4 ,as he has chosen to withhold his name1 we conceive ourselves not entitled to disclose it3 but we shall take the freedom of an acquaintance to use the notes occasionally1 deeming them in many instances valuable historical records4 ,editor4 ,except for those changes noted below1 misspelling in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,for example1 compleat2 cieling2 inclose2 watry2 smoak2 spunge2 ,pensylvania2 ,massachussets2 newspaper1 news-paper2 midnight1 mid-night4 ,in addition3 ,pg iv4 ',mr4 ,tengugel' replaced by ',mr4 ,tengnagel'4 ,pg vi4 ,errata3 '#bed #dg3' replaced by '#bed #ag3'4 ,pg #ae4 'decending' replaced by 'descending'4 ,pg #bh4 'cirle' replaced by 'circle'4 ,pg #di4 'immerged' replaced by 'immersed'4 ,pg #ed4 'canon-ball' replaced by 'cannon-ball'4 ,pg #ee ,,fn #aj4 ',cadwalader' replaced by ',cadwallader'4 ,pg #ha4 'sik-worm' replaced by 'silk-worm'4 ,pg #hd4 'desarts' replaced by 'deserts'4 ,pg #hh ,,fn #af4 ',j4 ,b4' is probably ,james ,bowdoin1 not ',i4 ,badoin'4 ,pg #aja4 'circumsance' replaced by 'circumstance'4 ,pg #aab4 'substracted' replaced by 'subtracted'4 ,pg #abf4 'larg ecomet' replaced by 'large comet'4 ,pg #aca4 'frome making' replaced by 'from making'4 ,pg #acg4 'ran acros' replaced by 'ran across'4 ,pg #aej4 'betwween water' replaced by 'between water'4 ,pg #aea4 'smoth surface' replaced by 'smooth surface'4 ,pg #aif4 'throughly' replaced by 'thoroughly'4 ,pg #bjd4 '#cc4 ,much' replaced by '#cj4 ,much'4 ,pg #bbg4 'he separated' replaced by 'be separated'4 ,pg #bdj4 'kept closes hut' replaced by 'kept close shut'4 ,pg #bdg4 'bginning of this' replaced by 'beginning of this'4 ,pg #bgb4 'for pasages' replaced by 'for passages'4 ,pg #cjb4 'partions' replaced by 'partitions'4 ,pg #cbb4 'unluckly' replaced by 'unlucky'4 ,pg #cbh4 'mnke #ahj' replaced by 'make #ahj'4 ,pg #cca4 'on atable' replaced by 'on a table'4 ,pg #ccg4 'substracting' replaced by 'subtracting'4 ,pg #cci4 'betwen two' replaced by 'between two'4 ,pg #cdg4 'srceaming' replaced by 'screaming'4 ,pg #cei4 'place of z' replaced by 'place of q'4 ,pg #cge4 'sir ,willam ,temple' replaced by 'sir ,william ,temple'4 ,pg #che4 '#f4 ,the danger' replaced by '#i4 ,the danger'4 ,pg #daa ,,fn #he4 'presentedt ot he' replaced by 'presented to the'4 ,pg #dba4 'when yon' replaced by 'when you'4 ,pg #dbd4 'of yonrs' replaced by 'of yours'4 ,pg #ddh4 'not restained' replaced by 'not restrained'4 ,pg #ddh4 ',englist and' replaced by ',english and'4 ,pg #dfa4 'islanism' replaced by 'islamism'4 ,index ,pg #d;i4 ',animalcnles' replaced by ',animalcules'4 ,index ,pg #bi;i4 'relation batween' replaced by 'relation between'4 ,the ,index covers all three volumes and was originally printed at the end of ,volume #a only4 ,it has been copied to the end of ,volume #b and #c as a convenience for the reader4 ,the ,index had no page numbers in the original text2 page numbers from #a;i to #cf;i have been added for completeness4 ,for clarity1 some volume identifiers 7i4 or ii4 or iii47 have been added1 or removed1 in the index4 ,only references within this volume have been hyperlinked4 ,the ,index has some references to page numbers with a 991 eg #eea994 ,these are valid references2 the book printer inserted pages #edc99-eef99 between pages #edb and #edc in ,vol iii4