,,atoms1 ,,nature1 & ,,man ,man-made ,radioactivity 9 ! ,environm5t by ,neal ,o4 ,h9es ,! ,und]/&+ ! ,atom ,s]ies ,nucle> en]gy is play+ a vital role 9 ! life ( e man1 woman1 & *ild 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates today4 ,9 ! ye>s ahead x w affect increas+ly all ! peoples ( ! e>?4 ,x is ess5tial t all ,am]icans ga9 an und]/&+ ( ?is vital =ce if !y are to dis*>ge ?\ghtfully _! responsibilities z citiz5s & if !y are to realize fully ! myriad b5efits t nucle> en]gy (f]s !m4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission provides ?is booklet to help y a*ieve su* und]/&+4 ,edw>d ,j4 ,brun5kant1 ,director ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,atomic ,,en]gy ,,commission ,dr4 ,gl5n ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,*airman ,james ,t4 ,ramey ,wilfrid ,e4 ,johnson ,dr4 ,!os ,j4 ,?ompson ,dr4 ,cl>5ce ,e4 ,l>son ,,cont5ts ,,introduction #a ,,"s ,,prelim9>y ,,ideas #b ,a ,,view ,,9 ,,p]spective1 #aidf-aifc #h ,,! ,,atom ,,9 ,,environm5tal ,,/udies #bj ,,environm5ts--,,s+ul>1 ,,yet ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,:ole #bi ,,problems ,,& ,,projects #da ,,:]e ,,are ,,we ,,n[8 #eb ,,sugge/$ ,,ref]5ces #ee ,unit$ ,/ates ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission ,division ( ,te*nical ,in=mation ,libr>y ( ,congress ,catalog ,c>d ,numb]3 #ff-facbb #aiff ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,cov] ,sci5ti/s abo>d a seago+ vessel prep>e to /udy cont5ts ( a plankton net z "p ( _! rese>* into radioactivity 9 an oceanic environm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,au?or ,,neal ,o4 ,,h9es is an e/abli%$ writ] & exp]i5c$ academic adm9i/rator ) an unusual backgr\nd 9 radiobiological surveys ( ! ,pacific ,ocean atomic te/ sites4 ,he holds degrees f ,indiana & ,nor?we/]n ,univ]sities4 ,a =m] j\rnalism tea*] at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia & ,assi/ant to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton1 ,mr4 ,h9es also work$ = a numb] ( ye>s ) ! ,laboratory ( ,radiation ,biology ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton1 :]e he s]v$ f #aifa-aifc z adm9i/rative assi/ant & z ,executive ,secret>y ( ! ,advisory ,c\ncil on ,nucle> ,en]gy & ,radiation = ! ,/ate ( ,wa%+ton4 ,he 0 a memb] ( ! survey teams visit+ ,bik9i & ,eniwetok 9 #aidi & #aief & ,*ri/mas ,isl& 9 #aifb4 ,8 8,bik9i ,report0 7,sci5tific ,mon?ly1 ,febru>y #aiea7 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ descriptions ( radiobiological /udies 9 ! ,pacific4 ,he is ! au?or ( ,prov+ ,gr\nd 7,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton ,press1 #aifb71 a detail$ hi/ory ( radiobiological /udies 9 ! ,pacific f #aidf-aifa4 ,,atoms1 ,,nature1 & ,,man ,man-made ,radioactivity 9 ! ,environm5t ,by ,,neal ,o4 ,,h9es ,,introduction ,mank9d1 increas+ly cr[d+ ! e>?1 modifies ! e>?ly environm5t 9 unc\nt$ subtle & unpr$ictable ways1 too r>ely to ! b5efit ( ei!r e>? or man4 ,9 ?is c5tury x has become critically important t we compreh5d m precisely ?an ev] be=e ! biological me*anisms & balances ( our environm5t & t we le>n to detect *anges & to und]/& :at !y imply4 ,! release ( atomic en]gy add$ a new dim5sion to ! possibility ( environm5tal *ange4 ,9 man's fir/ exp]im5ts ) atomic en]gy1 he add$ small b p]ceptible am\nts ( radioactivity to ! e>?'s natural total2 z ! ,atomic ,age matures1 he inevitably w add m4 ,b1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts1 man has come to realize t environm5tal & biological /udies1 :i* n[ are necess>y because ( ! use ( atomic en]gy1 may help solve n only ! problems atomic en]gy creates b also ! l>g] problem ( h[ to manage wisely ! _w's limit$ natural res\rces4 ,?is booklet describes ! environm5tal inve/igations t h be5 conduct$ ) ! aid ( ! atom s9ce ! fir/ atomic detonation ne> ,alamogordo1 ,new ,mexico1 9 #aide4 ,! e>?'s my/]ies1 h[ev]1 are n easily unlock$1 & inve/igations ( our environm5t ) atomic tools h only begun4 ,! /ory ?us is "o ( beg9n+s--b ( beg9n+s t po9t ! way1 x is hop$1 to a new und]/&+ ( ! _w 9 ! atomic future4 ,,"s ,,prelim9>y ,,ideas ,biologi/s are int]e/$ 9 e k9d ( liv+ ?+4 ,:5 !y /udy organisms 9 relation to atomic radiations1 !y ent] ! field ( radiobiology1 :i* really is n a sci5ce 9 itself b m]ely a bran* ( ! l>g] int]e/ 9 biology4 ,biologi/s f9d t atomic en]gy has significance bo? 9 ! /udy ( individual organisms & 9 /udies ( organisms 9 _! natural communities & habitats4 ,illu/ration3 ,sk9-div+ biologi/ collect+ giant clam f coral bottom ( ,bik9i ,lagoon 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,radioactivity introduc$ into any community may be 8tak5 up0 by ! biological sy/em1 becom+ subject to cycl+ 9 food *a9s or to accumulation 9 plant or animal tissues4 ,! pres5ce ( radioactivity p]mits /udy ( ! work+s ( a sy/em z l>ge z an ocean1 p]haps1 or ( "o no l>g] ?an a tree4 ,& 9 ea* case x ?us may be possible to obs]ve h[ ! cycles ( organic r5ewal are relat$ to ! l>g] sy/ems ( life on e>?4 ,! ,s+le ,environm5t ,! environm5t 9 :i* we live is recognizable z a s+le complex1 compos$ ( _m sub5vironm5ts--l&1 oceans1 atmosph]e1 & ! space beyond our envelope ( air4 ,! de] 9 ! =e/1 ! liz>d 9 ! des]t burr[1 & ! peav9e 9 ! mead[ are diff]5t k9ds ( organisms liv+ 9 situations t are seem+ly unalike4 ,ea* creature is "p ( its environm5t & a contributor to x1 b x also is "p ( ! total biosph]e4#a ,all creatures are l9k$ to ea* o!r1 h[ev] remotely1 9 _! dep5d5ce on limit$ environm5ts t toge!r =m ! :ole ( nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,gray %>k photograph$ 9 ano!r ,pacific lagoon4 ,we "k mu* ab\t ! life ( ! e>?1 b !re is f> m t we d n "k4 ,und]/&+ ( ! l>ge cyclical =ces has cont9u$ to elude u4 ,we d n ev5 yet grasp ! small & seem+ly r&om biological relations betwe5 individual organisms--relations involv+ pr$ator & prey1 = in/ance1 & ^? among species & families--su* z exi/ toge!r 9 symbiotic#b h>mony & int]dep5d5ce4 ,?r\gh c5turies ( obs]vation we h ga9$ a /ore ( in=mation4 ,we are left1 h[ev]1 ) a /ill unsatisfi$ curiosity ab\t ! rea* & /r5g? ( ! t5u\s biological cords t b9d toge!r ! lives ( ! de]1 ! liz>d1 & ! peav9e4 ,! ,ne$ to ,und]/& ,life on e>? evolv$ amid con/ant exposure to ioniz+#c radiation1 f ! e>? itself & f space1 kn[n z backgr\nd radiation4 ,!re=e environm5tal /udies mu/ be conduct$ 9 relation to1 & ) und]/&+ (1 backgr\nd radioactivity4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is ,pacific ,ocean coconut crab1 memb] ( a family t usually /icks to tide-cov]$ bea*es1 dep5ds on coconut trees = its food4 ,( "s #cdj k9ds ( atoms t h be5 f\nd 9 nature1 ab\t #gj are radioactive4 ,?ree families ( radioactive isotopes#d--! uranium1 ?orium1 & act9ium s]ies--produce a l>ge proportion ( ! natural radiation4 ,o!r radionuclides#e occur s+ly1 r ?an 9 families1 & "s ( !m1 su* z potassium-#dj & c>bon-#ad1 are major contributors ( natural radioactivity4 ,traces ( natural radioactivity c be f\nd1 9 fact1 9 all sub/ances on e>?4 ,:5 man began exp]im5t+ ) atomic fusion & fission1 he plac$ 9 8 environm5t--across va/ l&scapes1 9 ! oceans1 & 9 ! atmosph]e--measurable additional am\nts ( radioactivity4 ,^! additions 7 compos$ ( ! long]-liv$ memb]s ( "s #bjj k9ds ( atomic radiation4 ,al?\gh ! additions con/itut$ b a fraction ( ! backgr\nd burd51 !y repres5t$ ! fir/ alt]ation ( ! radiological balance t _h exi/$ s9ce ! e>ly ages ( ! planet4 ,?us x became necess>y to det]m9e :at ! impact ( su* a *ange might be4 ,9 ! process ( inquiry1 ^! ideas em]g$3 #a4 ,! addition ( man-made radioactivity pres5ts ! possibility ( delay$ or cumulative effects4 ,long-t]m /udies1 ge>$ to ! assessm5t ( biological effects f extremely l[ radioactivity1 are ess5tial4 #b4 ,! addition ( radioactivity makes possible broad-gaug$ /udies to trace ! movem5t & conc5tration ( radionuclides 9 ! environm5t4 ,^! /udies1 9 turn1 c disclose new in=mation on biological complexes & me*anisms4 ,illu/ration3 ,a fly+ atmosph]ic physics laboratory /udy+ conc5tration ( radionuclides ov] an ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission laboratory4 ,in/rum5t pod "u w+ samples air to provide a visual record ( radioactivity4 ,illu/ration3 ,transf]r+ a sample ( wat] tak5 f ! dep?s ( ! ,columbia ,riv] = radio*emical analysis 9 a laboratory4 ,! quantities ( l[-level long-liv$ radioactivity already releas$ into our environm5t w provide mat]ials = future /udies cov]+ decades4 ,fur!r1 because radioisotopes are *emically simil> to nonradioactive =ms1 obs]vation ( _! biological fate w provide clues to ! transport1 conc5tration1 dilution1 or elim9ation ( _m o!r k9ds ( man-made toxic ag5ts & contam9ants ( ! environm5t4 ,op]at+ ,concepts ,illu/ration3 ,oceanograph]s br++ abo>d a #ej-;gallon seawat] sampl] f ! ocean dep?s f9d x a difficult task1 ev5 9 mod]ate seas4 ,?is photo 0 tak5 abo>d ! ,r4 ,v4 ,craw=d 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,environm5tal problems are be/ approa*$ 9 ! environm5t itself1 :]e all ! natural v>iables & unkn[ns are pres5t4 ,laboratory "w is ess5tial1 b no laboratory c c>ve f nature or reproduce artificially all ! complexities ( ! natural environm5tal 8laboratory01 ! ecosy/em4#f ,environm5tal /udies frequ5tly dem& ! coord9at$ att5tions ( ecologi/s1#g *emi/s1 physici/s1 geologi/s1 oceanograph]s1 meteorologi/s1 botani/s1 zoologi/s1 & o!rs1 all work+ toge!r to approa* ! environm5t z a syn*roniz$ me*anism4 ,f9ally1 environm5tal /udies are conduct$ ) a special consci\sness ( ! ne$ to )hold judgm5t z to :at is meant by 8effect01 p>ticul>ly 8radiation effect04 ,gross1 imm$iate effects may be det]m9able4 ,ultimate effects may be g5]ations 9 ! mak+1 remote 9 "t & space f _! causes4 ,/udies ?us are focus$ on biological processes & on isolation & id5tification ( ! long-range tr5ds4 ,a ,,view ,,9 ,,p]spective1 #aidf-aifc ,bik9i ,atoll1 9 ! ,m>%all ,isl&s1 repres5ts1 9 m9iature1 a _w t has exp]i5c$ all ! =ces1 imm$iate & residual1 t c result f nucle> detonation4 ,bik9i 9 #aidf 0 ! sc5e ( ! fir/ peacetime te/s ( atomic weapons4 ,"o ( ^! te/s involv$ ! detonation ( an atomic device "u wat]1 9 ! he>t ( ! atoll's aquatic circulatory sy/em4 ,bik9i also 0 us$ = #e ye>s1 f #aied ?r\gh #aieh1 = ! te/+ ( !rmonucle>#h devices4 ,its isl&s & reefs 7 burn$ by atomic heat1 & ! wat]s ( its lagoon 7 contam9at$ by deposits ( radioactive fall\t4 ,?us1 = almo/ a score ( ye>s1 ,bik9i1 a small outcropp+ ( coral 9 ! mid-,pacific1 0 id5tifi$ ) ! e>lie/ exp]im5ts 9 nucle> explosion4 ,?r\gh ! ye>s ( te/+ & lat]1 ,bik9i also 0 ! site ( repeat$ biological inve/igations4 ,teams ( sci5ti/s exam9$ ,bik9i annually f #aidf to #aiej & f #aied to #aieh4 ,!n 9 #aifd1 aft] an int]lude ( #f ye>s 9 :i* ,bik9i 0 undi/urb$ ei!r by weapons te/s or human visitors1 sci5ti/s w5t !re aga9 to make a compreh5sive ecological resurvey4 ,! sci5ti/s f\nd 9 ! ,bik9i ecosy/em1 9 l[ b p]ceptible am\nts1 residual traces ( radioactivity deposit$ by ! te/s4 ,on c]ta9 isl&s1 crat]s dug by nucle> explosions /ill gap$ 9 ! reefs4 ,! te/ isl&s /ill bore nucle> sc>s1 & 9 "s areas ( ! lagoon corals & algae _h be5 kill$ by silt /irr$ up by ! detonations4 ,b ,bik9i's life sy/em cle>ly 0 9 a process ( heal+4 ,l>ge isl&s 7 cov]$ by regr[?s ( vegetation2 on "s1 ! masses ( morn+ glory1 bea* magnolia & p&anus 7 gr[+ s d5sely t field p>ties _h extreme difficulty cutt+ pa?s ?r\gh !m4 ,bik9i ,atoll1 sci5ti/s believ$1 ne$$ only cle>+ & cultivation to make x once aga9 suitable = human habitation4 ,illu/ration3 ,autoradiograph ( a plankton sample collect$ f a ,pacific lagoon a week aft] a #aieb te/4 ,:at1 !n1 may be conclud$ f ! ,bik9i case8 ,a f9al answ] /ill _c be phras$4 ,x is n a conclusion to say t nature & "t h p]mitt$ recov]y1 reassur+ ?\gh su* k may be4 ,x becomes important to "k ! processes ( recov]y4 ,meantime1 x is helpful to exam9e ! ,bik9i case 9 ! context ( developm5ts dur+ ! p]iod f ! end ( ,_w ,w> ,,ii to ! sign+ ( ! ,nucle> ,te/ ,ban ,treaty ( #aifc4 ,! ,bik9i ,te/s ( #aidf ,! e>ly p]iod ( nucle> te/+ 9 ! atmosph]e 0 a "t t w n be se5 aga94 ,x 0 ! beg9n+ ( an era ( unp>allel$ sci5tific activity & ( worldwide emotional & intellectual adju/m5t to ! k t p[] ( unimag9able magnitude1 lock$ 9 ! nucleus ( ! atom s9ce ! creation ( ! _w1 n[ c\ld be releas$ at w4 ,:5 ,_w ,w> ,,ii 0 end$1 ! impulse to te/ ! new p[] 0 irresi/ible4 ,!re 0 pr(\nd curiosity ab\t ! revolution>y nature ( ! new =ce4 ,!re 0 a p]plex$ & fe>ful realization t ! release ( en]gy w\ld h to be gu>d$ & controll$4 ,!re 0 ! k t nucle> fission produc$ a miscellany ( radioactive products pres5t+ unexplor$ possibilities ( haz>d4 ,! ^w 8fall\t0 0 co9$ to describe ! deposition on ! e>? ( radioactive debris f nucle> explosions4 ,jo9t ,task ,=ce ,"o ,! fir/ peacetime nucle> te/s1 conduct$ at ,bik9i 9 #aidf 9 a milit>y-sci5tific ex]cise designat$ ,op]ation ,crossroads1 7 design$ to assess ! effects ( nucle> weapons on naval vessels4 ,! te/ organization1 ,jo9t ,task ,=ce ,"o1 an adaptation ( ! w>time jo9t task =ce combat concept1 0 a massive wat]borne =ce includ+ #db1jjj memb]s ( ! arm$ s]vices1 civilian sci5ti/s1 consultants1 & obs]v]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,bik9i ,lagoon be=e te/+4 ,bik9i ,atoll 0 select$ = ! te/s because1 among o!r ?+s1 x 0 remote f heavily populat$ areas1 x (f]$ a protect$ an*orage1 & x _h ! relatively /able & pr$ictable meteorological & oceanographic conditions consid]$ ess5tial to op]ations 9 :i* ! unkn[ns loom$ s l>ge4 ,?ree te/ detonations orig9ally 7 project$2 two ultimately 7 c>ri$ out4 ,! fir/1 ,te/ ,able1 0 an airdrop ( an atomic bomb on ,july #a1 #aidf1 ov] a te/ fleet ( #gj %ips an*or$ 9 ,bik9i ,lagoon4 ,! second1 ,te/ ,bak]1 0 ! detonation on ,july #be ( an atomic device susp5d$ 9 ! lagoon #ij feet bel[ a small t>get vessel4 ,sci5tific ,int]e/s ,al?\gh ,crossroads 0 a milit>y program1 ! mobilization ( sci5tific int]e/s 0 9 _m ways ( hi/oric proportions4 ,= mon?s be=e ! explosions1 oceanograph]s /udi$ ! wat]s & ! /ructure ( ! mid-,pacific bas9 & meteorologi/s ! w9ds & upp] airs4 ,geologi/s1 zoologi/s1 botani/s1 & o!r speciali/s exam9$ ! atoll 9 detail4 ,bik9i became1 z x rema9s to ?is day1 "o ( ! mo/ ?or\ghly famili> ocean /ructures 9 ! _w4 ,!re 0 aw>5ess1 ev5 !n1 ( ! significance ( radioactivity z an elem5t ( nucle> effect4 ,! task =ce made elaborate prep>ations to assure ! safety ( p]sonnel & s5t to ! atoll ?\s&s ( radiation-detection in/rum5ts4 ,plans 7 made to obs]ve ! effects ( radioactivity on te/ animals plac$ on %ips ( ! t>get fleet4 ,! ,und]wat] ,detonation ,! fir/ ( ! ,bik9i ev5ts1 ,te/ ,able1 ! explosion ( a bomb dropp$ f an aircraft ov] ! t>get fleet1 sank a numb] ( major vessels1 left o!rs s9k+ or crippl$1 contam9at$ _m ) radiation1 & laid a plume ( fall\t nor?w>d ov] ! rim ( ! atoll into ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,x 0 ,te/ ,bak]1 h[ev]1 ! und]wat] explosion1 t w\ld make ,bik9i ! subject ( radiobiological inve/igations = _m ye>s4 ,! ,bak] te/ 0 ! fir/ occasion 9 :i* nucle> debris 0 mix$ ) wat] & ocean sludge & return$ to ! area ( detonation4 ,! explosive device 0 ( :at lat] w\ld be call$ nom9al size1 its =ce equival5t to #bj1jjj tons ( ,,tnt4 ,! te/ /ill is reg>d$ z a classic demon/ration ( ! ph5om5a ( %all[-wat] atomic explosion4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,bak] ,te/4 ,a caulifl[]-%ap$ cl\d1 aft] dump+ "o million tons ( wat] t _h be5 suck$ up by ! explosion1 rises ov] ! t>get w>%ips1 silh\ett$ 9 front ( ! spread+ base surge4 ,at ! mom5t ( release1 ! surface wat] ( ! lagoon 0 fir/ lift$ & !n p5etrat$ by a light$ bubble t vani%$ 9 seconds 9 a holl[ column ( wat] ( gigantic dim5sions--a column #bjjj feet 9 diamet] 7its walls #cjj feet ?ick7 ris+ to a height ( #fjjj feet & conta9+ #a1jjj1jjj tons ( wat]4 ,at ! base ( ! column1 foam 0 *urn$ upw>d = sev]al hundr$ feet1 &1 mov+ out f ! base1 z ! column sank back into ! lagoon1 surg$ a mon/r\s wave initially m ?an #hj feet high4 ,radioactivity 9 ! wat] 0 int5se4 ,! imm$iate total 0 describ$ z equal to 8_m hundr$ tons ( radium04 ,decay & dilution ( radioactive mat]ials quickly r$uc$ ! total radioactivity4 ,aft] #c days1 by :i* "t wat] contam9ation _h spread ov] an area ( #ej squ>e miles1 ! dose rate f ! wat] 0 well )9 safe limits = p]sons rema9+ = brief p]iods4 ,yet x 0 sev]al m days be=e inspection & sci5tific p>ties c\ld sp5d useful "t among ! surviv+ t>get vessels4 ,at ! bottom ( ! lagoon1 bel[ ! po9t ( detonation1 ,navy div]s mon?s lat] f\nd t ! explosion _h scoop$ out ?\s&s ( tons ( mud & coral s$im5t1 creat+ a %all[ bas9 half a mile wide4 ,?is bas91 9 ! sl[ settl+ ( return+ sludge1 became an area f :i* long-liv$ radioactivity ent]$ ,bik9i's biological sy/em4 ,fir/ ,assessm5ts ,9 #c weeks ( f9al "w aft] ,te/ ,bak]1 ! ,bik9i sci5tific teams took f ! isl&s & ! lagoon _m hundr$s ( samples ( plants1 corals1 crabs1 fi%1 plankton1 & wat]4 ,!y not$ t radioactivity 0 pres5t 9 all samples tak5 f e "p ( ! atoll1 :i* indicat$ an e>ly uptake ( radionuclides by ! biota#i & sugge/$ t !re 0 a cont9u+ circulation ( radioactive debris 9 ! wat]4 ,!y took samples ( fi% 9 ! op5 ocean outside ! atoll & made comp>ative collections at o!r atolls4 ,! in/rum5ts & te*niques = analyz+ radioactivity 7 f> f ref9$1 b all available evid5ce po9t$ to ! ne$ = m p>ticul> ef=ts to exam9e radiobiological results4 ,! ,bik9i ,resurvey ( #aidg ,a resurvey ( ,bik9i1 ! fir/ ( _m1 0 conduct$ ) heavy radio5vironm5tal emphasis 9 ,july #aidg1 a ye> aft] ! ,crossroads te/s4 ,! sci5tific exp$ition 0 support$ by #b vessels & includ$ #gj sci5ti/s & sev]al hundr$ ,navy p]sonnel4 ,illu/ration3 ,bik9i ,bea* z x appe>$ 9 ! ye>s aft] ,op]ation ,crossroads4 ,! resurvey gr\p1 ent]+ an oceanic environm5t t _h be5 completely undi/urb$ = ne>ly a ye>1 e/abli%$ at once t traces ( residual radioactivity /ill 7 cycl+ 9 ,bik9i's ecosy/em4 ,= #f weeks ! sci5ti/s prob$ e realm ( ! atoll environm5t1 sampl+ biota1 mak+ inv5tories ( plant & animal communities1 & obta9+ core samples f ! lagoon floor4 ,:5 ! data _h be5 assembl$ & review$ & ! reports fil$1 mon?s lat]1 !re 0 cons5sus t ,bik9i _h produc$ no evid5ce t radioactivity1 z a sep>ate & id5tifiable factor1 0 hav+ any imm$iate effect on ! heal? ( ! atoll1 & probably no cumulative effect1 ei!r4 ,!re 71 ( c\rse1 unkn[ns4 ,s long z radioactivity rema9$ 9 ! biological cycles !re 7 possibilities ( future developm5ts4 ,9 #aidg no o!r place on e>? (f]$ an opportunity to obs]ve ! natural processes by :i* radiation contam9ation is elim9at$ f an environm5t4 ,x !re=e seem$ prud5t to compile a long] record1 consi/+ ( o!r1 purely radiobiological surveys at ,bik9i4 ,by #aidg ! new ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission _h tak5 ov] f ! w>time ,manhattan ,eng9e]+ ,di/rict ! managem5t ( ! national ef=t 9 ! field ( atomic en]gy4 ,a prim>y responsibility ( ! ,,aec 9 t p]iod 0 to press ahead ) nucle> weapons developm5t1 b ! ag5cy also _h specific obligations & int]e/s 9 ! fields ( biology & m$ic9e4 ,meantime1 ! te/+ ( nucle> weapons _h be5 />t$ at a new prov+ gr\nd at ,eniwetok ,atoll1 #aij nautical miles we/ ( ,bik9i4 ,illu/ration3 ,isl&s on ! rim ( ,eniwetok ,atoll1 z !y appe> today4 ,! m>ks ( man1 su* z a l&+ /rip1 are visible1 b regr[? ( vegetation is app>5t4 ,note ext5t ( ! reef on bo? sides ( isl&s4 ,/udies at ,nucle> ,te/ ,sites1 #aidh-aieh ,! fir/ te/ s]ies at ,eniwetok1 ,op]ation ,s&/one 7#aidh71 incorporat$ no =mal radiobiological /udies1 b radiobiologi/s visit+ ,bik9i also made surveys at ,eniwetok 9 #aidh & #aidi4 ,!n1 = a "t1 _w ev5ts int]v5$4 ,! detonation ( an atomic device by ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 9 #aidi 0 foll[$ 9 #aiej by ! outbreak ( ! ,korean ,w>1 & ^! ev5ts produc$ a national mood ori5t$ t[>d national def5se4 ,by #aiea1 because ev5ts 9 ! ,pacific _h int]rupt$ te/s !re1 ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission _h e/abli%$ a cont95tal te/ site 9 ,nevada4 ,9 t ye>1 too1 te/s 7 made at ,eniwetok prelim9>y to ! detonation ( ! fir/ !rmonucle> device4 ,aft] #aiea ea* ( ! te/ programs _h its radiobiological compon5t4 ,9 ! ,pacific1 radiobiological surveys 7 associat$ ) ,op]ation ,ivy 7#aieb71 ,op]ation ,ca/le 7#aied71 ,op]ation ,r$w+ 7#aief71 & ,op]ation ,h>dtack 7#aieh74 ,a small field /ation1 ! ,eniwetok ,m>9e ,biology ,laboratory1 0 e/abli%$ = use by sci5ti/s conduct+ biological /udies4 ,bik9i 0 incorporat$ into ! ,pacific ,prov+ ,gr\nd 9 #aiec1 & new biological surveys 7 p]=m$ !re 9 connection ) ! te/s ( #aied & lat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,eniwetok ,m>9e ,biology ,laboratory4 ,monum5t at "r commemorates ! battle = ,eniwetok 9 ,_w ,w> ,,ii4 ,9 ^! ye>s1 #aiea to #aieh1 ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 0 te/+ nucle> weapons1 z 0 ,great ,brita9 aft] #aieb4 ,fall\t f ^! contribut$ to ! total ( man-made radioactivity pot5tially available to ! environm5ts ( ! _w4 ,l&m>ks ,! ye>s betwe5 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,pacific ,prov+ ,gr\nd & ! sign+ ( ! #aieh nucle> te/ moratorium 7 ye>s 9 :i* ! que/ = environm5tal in=mation c\ld n keep pace ) ! rapid gr[? ( nucle> capability4 ,b ! gr[? 9 ! field ( weapons s]v$ to und]l9e ! ne$ = in=mation & produc$ c]ta9 l&m>k developm5ts 9 environm5tal rese>*4 ,! detonation ( ! fir/ !rmonucle> device project$ ! problem ( environm5tal contam9ation to ! /ratosph]e &1 lit]ally1 to e "p ( ! e>?4 ,?is explosion1 ,te/ ,mike1 l>ge/ on e>? to t "t1 0 set (f on ,elujelab ,isl&1 on ! nor? rim ( ,eniwetok ,atoll1 on ,novemb] #a1 #aieb4 ,9 ! reef :]e ,elujelab _h be51 ! bla/ left a crat] almo/ a mile 9 diamet] & #bjj feet deep4 ,! t[]+ nucle> cl\d rose 9 #ae m9utes to a height ( #acj1jjj feet4 ,te/ ,mike m>k$ a po9t ( *ange4 ,be=e1 fall\t f nucle> detonation _h be5 pr9cipally local1 t\*+ ! wat]s & reefs ( an atoll or a des]t l&scape4 ,aft] ,te/ ,mike1 ! implications ( fall\t obvi\sly 7 global4 ,a mi%ap 9 connection ) a #aied !rmonucle> te/ at ,bik9i contribut$ 9 two important ways to ! enl>gem5t ( environm5tal inve/igations4 ,fall\t f ! te/1 swept (f its pr$ict$ patt]n by unexpect$ w9ds at high altitudes1 deposit$ debris on ,rongelap1 an inhabit$ atoll ea/ ( ,bik9i1 & on fi%]m5 abo>d a ,japanese vessel op]at+ 9 ! ,bik9i-,rongelap area4 ,! accid5t1 un=tunate 9 its consequ5ces at ,rongelap & 9 ,japan1 _h o!r results ( ev5 wid] impact4 ,f x came ! fir/ int]national approa*es to ! problems ( ocean contam9ation &1 lat]1 long-t]m bio5vironm5tal /udies at ,rongelap itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,s*ool ( surgeonfi% (f ,arji ,isl&1 ,bik9i ,atoll1 ,augu/ #aifd4 ,note coral gr[? on lagoon bottom4 ,wide-rang+ /udies ( ocean-borne radioactivity 7 initiat$ by ! ,japanese4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! fi%]m5 produc$ 9 ,japan a fe> ( contam9ation ( fi%]ies res\rces z a result ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates te/s4 ,"o result 0 ! organization1 9 ! summ] ( #aied1 ( a gov]nm5t-sponsor$ ocean survey exp$ition t cruis$ f ,japan into & ?r\gh ! ,bik9i-,eniwetok area to det]m9e :at am\nts ( radioactivity 7 be+ c>ri$1 by wat] & by aquatic organisms1 t[>d ! %ores ( ,japan4 ,! exp$ition made significant obs]vations ( ! role ( plankton#aj 9 ! biological utilization ( ocean fall\t4 ,a ,unit$ ,/ates sci5tific team1 foll[+ up ! ,japanese ef=t1 made a simil> b f> m ext5sive cruise ?r\gh ! ,we/]n ,pacific e>ly 9 #aiee & w5t on to ,japan to discuss its f9d+s ) ! ,japanese4 ,dur+ & aft] ! te/ s]ies 9 ! ,pacific 9 #aief & #aieh1 ,unit$ ,/ates surveys ( ! ocean 7 made r\t9ely4 ,ex*anges ( in=mation betwe5 sci5ti/s ( ,japan & ! ,unit$ ,/ates cont9u$4 ,! ,rongelap case produc$ results ( ano!r k9d4 ,! ,rongelap p 7 f\nd to h suff]$ exposure requir+ m$ical att5tion & cont9u$ obs]vation4 ,evacuat$ f _! atoll because x 0 n safe1 memb]s ( ! community 7 giv5 c>e at o!r atolls until !y c\ld be repatriat$ 9 #aieg1 & receiv$ cont9u$ m$ical sup]vision !reaft]4 ,! bio5vironm5tal condition ( ,rongelap 0 unique4 ,! fall\t _h made ! atoll ! only place 9 ! _w contam9at$ on a s+le occasion by relatively heavy deposition ( radioactive debris )\t also be+ di/urb$ by a nucle> explosion4 ,9 #aieg-aieh1 aft] ! ,rongelapese _h be5 return$ to a new village con/ruct$ on _! atoll1 ,rongelap 0 ! site ( a long & ?or\gh /udy ( ! circulation ( radionuclides 9 ! t]re/rial-aquatic environm5t4 ,be=e ! #aifc ,te/ ,ban ,treaty ,! fir/ break 9 ! patt]n ( nucle> te/+ came 9 #aieh1 :5 ! nucle> p[]s agre$ to a #a-ye> te/ moratorium4 ,! _w's political & emotional climates 7 *ang+4 ,= m ?an #e ye>s1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* _h ann\nc$ its ,atoms-=-,peace ,program 9 ,decemb] #aiec1 _h be5 endeavor+ to place emphasis on ! use ( atomic en]gy = con/ructive purposes4 ,! ,atomic ,en]gy ,act ( #aied1 lib]aliz+ provisions ( ! #aidf law1 contemplat$ = ! fir/ "t private developm5t ( nucle> p[] res\rces & e/abli%$ au?ority = int]national activities4 ,9 #aieg ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission initiat$ its ,pl[%>e ,program = ! developm5t ( peaceful uses ( nucle> explosives4#aa ,illu/ration3 ,di/ribution ( fall\t radioisotopes on ,rongelap ,atoll z det]m9$ by a survey 9 #aifa4 ,note ! int]relation%ips ( man1 plants1 animals & ! environm5t4 ,amid su* *anges !re 0 aris+1 too1 a wid] appreh5sion conc]n+ ! possible effects ( fall\t4 ,! ,unit$ ,nations 9 #aiee appo9t$ a committee ( sci5tific repres5tatives ( #ae nations to /udy ! effects ( radiation on man4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces publi%$ 9 #aief ! fir/ ( its summ>y reports on ! biological effects ( atomic radiation4 ,nucle> te/+ 0 n end$ by ! #aieh agreem5t1 yet ! moratorium--:i* 0 r5ew$ annually until #aifa1 :5 ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 broke ! agreem5t by initiat+ a new te/ s]ies--0 significant z an exp]im5t 9 nucle> re/ra9t4 ,aft] ! ,unit$ ,/ates conduct$ a f9al te/ s]ies ne> ,*ri/mas ,isl& 9 #aifb1 new discussions ( ways to halt successive r\nds ( nucle> te/ programs 7 held4 ,f9ally1 9 #aifc1 ! ,nucle> ,te/ ,ban ,treaty 0 sign$ by mo/ ( ! nations ( ! _w4 ,! treaty 01 among o!r ?+s1 a decl>ation aga9/ worldwide fall\t4 ,,! ,,atom ,,9 ,,environm5tal ,,/udies ,al?\gh 8 exp]i5ce ) radioactivity has be5 brief1 man probably already kn[s m ab\t ! effects ( radiation ?an he kn[s ab\t ! effects ( _m o!r contam9ants t alt] 8 environm5t4 ,ev5 s1 he kn[s f> less ?an he ne$s to "k to make c]ta9 t atomic en]gy is wisely manag$ 9 ! future4 ,!re has be5 nei!r "t nor opportunity1 = example1 to ga!r radiation-effects data on m ?an a few hundr$ ( ! #a1ejj1jjj k9ds ( liv+ organisms inhabit+ ! e>?4 ,nor is x possible to pr$ict ! ext5t to :i* life c adju/ itself to environm5tal *anges result+ f sc>cely p]ceptible alt]ations ( natural radiological balances4 ,also undet]m9$ is ! relation betwe5 environm5tal *anges & ! biological ex*anges mak+ up ! (t5 m5tion$1 b insuffici5tly und]/ood1 8balance ( nature04 ,! case ( c>bon-#ad is an example ( a p]man5t man-made modification ( ! environm5t4 ,f ! e>ly ages ( ! e>?1 c>bon-#ad has be5 creat$ 9 ! upp] atmosph]e by ! transmutation ( nitrog5 9 cosmic-ray reactions4 ,c>bon itself is an almo/ univ]sal compon5t ( liv+ matt]1 & ! ratio betwe5 /able c>bon & radioactive c>bon is believ$ to h be5 un*ang$ = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,x is ?is circum/ance t p]mits ! use ( c>bon-#ad z a tool = 8dat+01 or det]m9+ ! ages (1 fossil rema9s1 prehi/oric artifacts1 & geologic =mations4 ,b c>bon-#ad also is produc$ 9 nucle> fusion1 & ! te/+ ( !rmonucle> devices aft] #aieb produc$ an e/imat$ increase ( #d 9 ! am\nt ( c>bon-#ad on e>?4 ,?is is en\gh to di/urb ! natural equilibrium4 ,s9ce ! half-life#ab ( c>bon-#ad is "s #ehjj ye>s1 ! addition w be a factor ( environm5tal consid]ation = scores ( human g5]ations4 ,nucle> te/s1 al?\gh n ! only s\rces ( man-made radioactivity1 h be5 until n[ ! mo/ significant ones & ! only s\rces t\*+ l>ge areas ( ! e>?4 ,! total product ( nucle> te/+ is small 9 relation to ! natural burd5 ( radioactivity1 rais+ ! level ( radiation to :i* all life is subject by a factor ( "o-t5? or less4 ,b x is ! unkn[n elem5t1 ! degree to :i* fall\t radioactivity may introduce new influ5ces into ! environm5t1 t gives conc]n4#ac ,illu/ration3 ,"o ( ! la/ c[s ( ! h]d expos$ to fall\t by ! _w's fir/ atomic detonation 9 ,new ,mexico 9 ,july #aide1 photograph$ 9 #aifd4 ,! calf is h] #ae? to be born 9 #ae ye>s4 ,! c[1 believ$ ab\t #bj ye>s old1 has be5 "u obs]vation by sci5ti/s1 :o f\nd %e suff]$ little app>5t effect1 al?\gh ! fall\t caus$ "s hair to turn gray 7see light pat*es on back74 ,o!r c[s 9 ! h]d di$ natural dea?s4 ,:5 a nucle> device is detonat$1 ! release ( en]gy is due to ! fission ( uranium or plutonium atoms or to ! fusion ( hydrog5 atoms4 ,at ! in/ant ( fission1 "s #ge radionuclides1 or fission products1 are creat$4 ,f ^! prim>y fission products1 ab\t #ajj o!r radionuclides may be =m$1 "s exi/+ only = microseconds & o!rs = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! radionuclides ( significance to biologi/s are ^? t exi/ long en\gh--no matt] h[ brief ! "t--to h an impact on a biological sy/em4 ,factors ( biological transport & conc5tration ( long-liv$ radionuclides make ef=ts to assess possible environm5tal effects p>ticul>ly difficult4 ,x has be5 ass]t$1 = example1 t probably e liv+ cell =m$ s9ce ! e>ly #aiejs conta9s "s ( ! radionuclides produc$ by nucle> te/+4 ,no "o kn[s ! significance ( su* a condition1 if x inde$ exi/s4 ,x is c]ta9 only t "s ( ! long-liv$ radionuclides already plac$ 9 ! environm5t w be detectable !re = hundr$s ( ye>s & h5ce w cont9ue to provide mat]ial = biological /udies4 ,exam9+ ,environm5ts ,illu/ration3 ,se$s produc$ by plants gr[n 9 soil ( a radioactive wa/e disposal area pass 79 alum9um cups7 on mov+ belt ?r\gh a radioactivity detector z "p ( a /udy ( movem5t ( radioisotopes 9 food *a9s4 ,:5 radioactivity is inject$ r&omly into ! atmosph]e by a nucle> detonation1 biological disposition beg9s 9 _m ways1 ea* relat$ to ! "* ( ! explosion & ! environm5t 9 :i* x occurs4 ,fall\t /udies ?us involve ! trac+ ( mix$ fission products 9 ! biosph]e & ! collection & analysis ( ?\s&s ( samples ( plant & animal tissue1 & usually ( wat] & soils1 at _m successive times4 ,! radiobiologi/ !n attempts to int]pret ! accumulat$ evid5ce ( uptake ( radionuclides4 ,"s fall\t /udies may require sampl+ ov] l>ge areas ( ! e>?4 ,o!r inve/igations ( fall\t or ( radioisotopes introduc$ delib]ately into controll$ field plots may require ye>s ( pati5t obs]vation 9 small & circumscrib$ areas4 ,/udies ( ocean fall\t1 = example1 h rang$ ov] hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles ( op5 wat]4 ,! #aiee ,unit$ ,/ates survey ( ! ,we/]n ,pacific 0 conduct$ by a sci5tific team abo>d a ,coa/ ,gu>d vessel1 ! ,rog] ,b4 ,taney1 9 a program call$ ,op]ation ,troll4 ,9 #g weeks ! team cruis$ #ag1ejj miles1 mak+ collections ( wat] & m>9e organisms at #hf ocean /ations on a r\te ext5d+ f ! ,m>%all ,isl&s ?r\gh ! ,c>ol9e ,isl&s & ! ,m>iana ,isl&s to ! ,philipp9es & f9ally to ,tokyo4 ,! exp$ition took samples ( plankton at dep?s d[n to #bjj met]s & wat] f ! surface d[n to dep?s ( #fjj1 #hjj1 #ajjj1 & #abjj met]s4 ,environm5tal /udies at nucle> te/ sites or 9 controll$ ecosy/ems involve n only long-t]m1 p]iodic sampl+ ( plants & animals b also ye>s ( detail$ exam9ation ( soils1 meteorological conditions1 & o!r factors4 ,,t]re/rial ,,ecology ,,rese>* ,illu/ration3 ,an ecologi/ inspects cages plac$ ar\nd bagworm infe/ations ( a r$ c$> tree t _h be5 inject$ ) radioactive cesium-#acd to det]m9e uptake ( radioactivity 9 ! l>vae4 ,illu/ration3 ,*eck+ p9e se$l+s expos$ to ioniz+ radiation f a radioactive s\rce 7on tripod7 9 a controll$ ecosy/em4 ,se$l+s on left 7 fully expos$1 ^? 9 ! middle 7 expos$ on _! tops only1 & ^? on ! "r 7 expos$ on _! /ems only4 ,illu/ration3 ,biologi/ /udy+ ! root di/ribution ( plants by inject+ radionuclides into ! soil & measur+ plant uptake4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ?riv+ ,mess]s*midia plant gr[+ on ,rongelap ,atoll is /udi$ = gr[?-rate & root-sy/ems data aft] ! isl& 0 accid5tally subject$ to radioactive fall\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,a]ial view ( a 8,gamma ,=e/01 :]e gr[+ trees are expos$ to *ronic irradiation f a s\rce at ! c5t] ( ! picture4 ,?is environm5tal biology /udy %[s v>y+ s5sitivity ( v>i\s trees4 ,trees 9 ! c5t] 7 kill$ by extremely high doses ( radiation = #bj h\rs a day ov] a #f-mon? p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,app>atus conta9+ a /rong radiation s\rce be+ in/all$ by biologi/s 9 a semitropical ra9 =e/ = t]re/rial ecology rese>*4 ,9 programs ( su* scope & duration1 ! problems ( int]pretation are great4 ,broadly1 environm5tal /udies give consid]ation to3 #a4 ,! am\nts & k9ds ( radioactivity releas$ to ! environm5t4 #b4 ,! rates ( uptake by ! biological sy/em4 #c4 ,! am\nts & k9ds ( radioactivity )9 ! sy/em4 #d4 ,! rates ( metabolic transf] or elim9ation4 #e4 ,! am\nts & k9ds ( radioactivity conc5trat$ 9 tissue & act+ int]nally4 #f4 ,! "t requir$ = biological processes to be complet$ & = any biological effects to develop4 ,biological ,inv5tories ,famili>ity ) ! biological compon5ts ( an ecosy/em is ess5tial to mean+ful radiobiological assessm5t4 ,inv5tories ( natural compon5ts 7 n made 9 ! e>ly nucle> te/ programs because ( inadequate realization ( ! biological pot5tial4 ,lat]1 !y c\ld be made only aft] radionuclides already _h be5 introduc$ into ! environm5ts4 ,! survey ( ! mid-,pacific region be=e ,op]ation ,crossroads repres5t$ ! e>lie/ ef=t to exam9e an environm5t 9 detail be=e a nucle> detonation1 b 0 design$ s t x _h only inf]5tial value = o!r long-range biological rese>*4 ,! te/ surveys 7 useful1 h[ev]1 9 exp&+ k ( specific environm5ts4 ,9 addition1 x 0 /&>d practice to make comp>ative collections ( organisms 9 regions remov$ f ! te/ sites to e/abli% base l9es1 or 8controls01 aga9/ :i* to measure radiobiological developm5ts4 ,! mo/ ext5sive inv5tory ( an environm5t--an inv5tory design$ specifically 9 relation to an anticipat$ nucle> detonation--0 t made betwe5 #aiei & #aifb1 z a prelim9>y phase ( ,project ,*>iot1 9 ! ,cape ,?ompson area ( ,nor?we/ ,alaska4 ,*>iot 0 a "p ( ! ,,aec ,pl[%>e ,program 9 :i* x 0 propos$ to excavate a h>bor at ! m\? ( ! ,ogotoruk ,creek1 :i* empties into ! ,*uk*i ,sea4 ,al?\gh ! excavation project actually nev] 0 und]tak51 ! 8pr$etonation0 environm5tal inve/igations involv$ #c ye>s ( coord9at$ rese>* into ! climatic1 m>9e1 coa/al1 & t]re/rial aspects ( ! region1 & detail$ /udies ( ! hi/ory & ! radiological & ecological situations ( ! human population4 ,illu/ration3 ,tak+ a soil sample = ! ,project ,*>iot biological inv5tory to det]m9e k9ds & relative abundance ( inv]tebrates & o!r soil organisms4 ,! program 0 an ef=t to make a model environm5tal inv5tory4 ,its significance 0 bo? 9 its assessm5t ( ! base = det]m9+ ! 8biological co/0 ( ! propos$ op]ation & 9 ! ?or\ghness ( its docum5tation ( ! environm5tal features ( a "p ( ! _w t previ\sly _h be5 virtually unexplor$4 ,x 0 a prototype = future /udies4 ,measurem5ts & ,int]pretations ,det]m9ation ( ! am\nts & k9ds ( radioactivity 9 a biological sample is a process :olly dep5d5t on in/rum5ts1 s9ce radiation usually _c be detect$ by ! s5ses4 ,a biological sample is any mat]ial ( measurable biological significance4 ,a sample ( tissue or simil> organic mat]ial usually is dri$ or r$uc$ to a% 9 a muffle furnace be=e x is exam9$ ) a radiation c\nt+ device4 ,improv$ in/rum5ts n[ p]mit ! c\nt+ ( radioactivity at levels s l[ z to h be5 imp]ceptible a few ye>s ago4 ,! samples1 plac$ 9 lead *amb]s = maximum %ield+ f backgr\nd radiations1 are exam9$ by multi*annel analyz]s capable ( record+ radiation emissions cont9u\sly ov] long p]iods ( "t4 ,data-process+ te*niques h be5 employ$ 9 ! h&l+ & int]pretation ( in=mation f long-range biological sampl+ & analysis programs4 ,analog comput]s h be5 us$ exp]im5tally = !oretical projections ( results4 ,illu/ration3 ,in/rum5ts record radiation1 wea!r1 sunlight1 & o!r factors transmitt$ f remote s5sors to ?is data c5t] e/abli%$ = a long-range t]re/rial ecology /udy program4 ,sci5ti/s at ! ,,aec's ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory1 = example1 h develop$ exp]im5ts 9 :i* an analog comput] is programm$ to keep a runn+ balance ( ! net *anges--simultane\s ga9s & losses--( radioactivity 9 ! v>i\s comp>tm5ts ( a repres5tative ecosy/em4 ,! comput] becomes an electronic image ( ! biosph]e1 us+ kn[n or assum$ rates ( en]gy transf] & photosyn!sis to pr$ict probable radiological results ( trac] exp]im5ts ( environm5tal contam9ation4 ,,environm5ts--,,s+ul>1 ,,yet ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,:ole ,ea* environm5t pres5ts its own sets ( conditions & unkn[ns4 ,x is important to appreciate ^? t are *>act]i/ic ( wat]1 l&1 & atmosph]e4 ,aquatic ,sy/ems ,! oceans are ! bas9s into :i* are p\r$ all ! nutri5ts or wa/es transport$ f ! l& by riv]s & w9ds4 ,! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! fate ( radionuclides 9 aquatic sy/ems is complicat$ by *emical & biological diff]5ces )9 ! sy/em & by ! v>iety & scope ( ! circulatory me*anisms4 ,9 oceans ! %e] imm5sity ( ! wat] volume usually makes obs]vation sup]ficial or fragm5t>y4 ,riv]s pres5t great diff]5ces 9 fl[1 & lakes v>y 9 int]nal dynamics4 ,above all1 an ocean1 a riv]1 or a lake is an area ( con/ant physical & biological motion & *ange4 ,9 ! ocean ! surface wat]s =m a !at] ( kaleidoscopic1 & frequ5tly viol5t1 action4 ,! pres5ce ( man-made radioactivity 9 wat] has made x possible to foll[ ! disposition ( nutri5ts & wa/es 9 ! re/less aquatic ecosy/em4 ,biological ,uptake ,9 a wat] environm5t ! m9]als necess>y to life are held 9 solution or lie 9 bottom s$im5ts4 ,!y become available to animal life aft] be+ absorb$ by plants1 bo? l>ge float+ or root$ plants & t9y float+ ones call$ phytoplankton2 because ! phytoplankton are f\nd ev]y:]e 9 ! sea1 !y play a l>g] role4 ,! phytoplankton conc5trate m9]als & become food = filt]-fe$+ fi% & o!r creatures1 includ+ ! small] zooplankton1#ad :i*1 9 turn1 are food = o!r organisms4 ,?us ! m9]als ent] extremely complex food *a9s4 ,! cycles ( nutrition are complet$ :5 fi% & plants die & decomposition aga9 makes ! m9]als available to ! phytoplankton4 ,,environm5tal ,,rese>* ,illu/ration3 ,,ra9 ,,=e/4 ,a giant fan pulls air ?r\gh a pla/ic-enclos$ portion ( a ,pu]to ,rico ra9 =e/ to /udy ! metabolism rate ( trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h>dwood ,,=e/4 ,te*nicians prep>+ to tag ,t5nessee trees ) a solution conta9+ a radioactive cesium isotope 9 ! />t ( a #aj-ye> project4 ,sci5ti/s w /udy movem5t ( ! radioactivity into insects & _! pr$ators4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fre%wat]4 ,aquatic biologi/s empty+ plankton traps to /udy conc5trations ( radioactivity 9 microscopic organisms 9 ! ,columbia ,riv] d[n/ream f ! ,han=d atomic plant 9 ,wa%+ton ,/ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m\nta9s4 ,wea!r /ation 9 a de]-=age area ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 9 ,colorado provides environm5tal data & fall\t samples t are correlat$ ) levels ( radionuclides f\nd 9 ! de]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tundra4 ,?is c>ib\ 0 exam9$ 9 detail z "p ( a /udy ( transf] ( fall\t nuclides 9 food *a9s f plants to animals to man4 ,c>ib\ is ! pr9cipal meat animal ( "s ,alaska ,eskimos4 ,illu/ration3 ,,des]t4 ,zoologi/ exam9es an animal trap z "p ( a field ecological /udy ( a ,nevada nucle> te/ site4 ,"s radionuclides t are introduc$ into an aquatic environm5t ent] ! food *a9s exactly z d ! /able m9]als ess5tial to life1 because ! radionuclides are m]ely radioactive =ms ( ! nutri5ts4 ,elem5ts su* z copp]1 z9c1 & iron are less pl5tiful 9 ! wat] environm5t ?an hydrog51 c>bon1 or oxyg51 = example1 b are conc5trat$ by phytoplankton because !y are necess>y = life4 ,su* elem5ts are 9 %ort supply b 9 con/ant dem&2 ?us1 :5 _! radioactive =ms are deposit$ 9 wat]1 !y are imm$iately tak5 up by aquatic plants & beg9 to move ?r\gh ! food *a9s4 ,fission products su* z /rontium-#ij1 = :i* !re is little or no metabolic dem&1 are tak5 up by aquatic food *a9s to only a m9or ext5t4 ,! precise pa?s ( radioelem5ts ?r\gh aquatic ecosy/ems are almo/ unkn[n4 ,9 addition to _! movem5t 9 food *a9s1 radioelem5ts also may be mov$ physically f place to place 9 ! tissues ( fi% or o!r creatures4 ,"s radionuclides = :i* !re is no biological dem& may s9k into bottom s$im5ts & rema9 !re until !y h lo/ _! radioactivity4 ,or radioactivity actually may be transport$ 8uphill01 f wat] to l&1 z :5 birds t fe$ on fi% conta9+ radioactivity leave _! excretions at ne/+ areas4 ,! r\tes & modes ( transport seem numb]less4 ,illu/ration3 ,movem5t ( radioactive elem5ts 9 a =e/-lake ecological sy/em4 ,mo/ nutri5t-fl[ is 8d[nhill01 b birds1 migrat+ fi%1 & ! evaporation-ra9fall cycle may move !m 8uphill04 ,! ,oceans ,! surface wat]s ( ! seas1 d[n to dep?s ( #bjj met]s1 are areas ( rapid mix+ 9 :i* temp]ature1 d5sity1 & sal9ity are almo/ uni=m4 ,bel[ ! surface wat] is a zone 9 :i* temp]ature decreases & d5sity & sal9ity increase ) dep?4 ,?is zone1 kn[n z ! !rmocl9e1 may rea* a dep? ( #ajjj met]s4 ,because d5sity is increas+ "h1 v]tical motion is r$uc$1 & ex*anges betwe5 ! surface & ! deep wat]s are imp$$4 ,k ( temp]ature1 d5sity1 & sal9ity is important to und]/&+ :at happ5s to radionuclides 9 ! ocean4 ,physical conditions affect ! rates ( physical movem5t ( radioactivity 9 ! mix$ 7surface7 lay]1 ! degree to :i* radionuclides are held at ! !rmocl9e1 & ! processes by :i* radionuclides pass ! !rmocl9e & ent] ! deep-wat] cycles & upwell+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,m5 abo>d ! rese>* vessel ,%imada pull+ 9 plankton nets dur+ sampl+ op]ations at sea4 ,! surface curr5ts ( ! ocean are l>gely w9d driv5 & _! patt]ns g5]ally well kn[n4 ,new concepts ( ! v]tical & horizontal diffusion ( sub/ances introduc$ into ! ocean 7 develop$1 h[ev]1 9 /udies ( ocean-borne fall\t dur+ & aft] nucle> te/s 9 ! ,pacific4 ,! fir/ ( ^! surveys 0 conduct$ ne> ,eniwetok & ,bik9i4 ,sci5ti/s abo>d a ,navy vessel sampl$ wat] & plankton to dep?s ( #cjj met]s at "s #ij po9ts spread ov] an area ( #gh1jjj squ>e miles to det]m9e ! disposition ( e>ly fall\t f ! nucle> detonations4 ,"s weeks lat] ano!r exp$ition voyag$ f ,eniwetok to ,guam & return$1 cov]+ an area ( #cge1jjj squ>e miles to foll[ 7by sampl+7 ! mass ( wat]-borne radioactivity result+ f ! te/ & to note ! int]v5+ effects ( diffusion1 dilution1 biological uptake1 & decay4 ,9 #aieh two m surveys 7 conduct$1 ! fir/ to asc]ta9 ! spread & dep?--) sampl+s bel[ ! !rmocl9e--( a radioactively tagg$ wat] mass imm$iately foll[+ an und]wat] detonation1 & ! second to foll[ ! we/w>d drift ( ! tagg$ wat] mass4 ,significantly1 x 0 f\nd t plankton imm$iately take up l>ge am\nts ( radioactivity4 ,planktonic =ms1 9 fact1 prov$ to be ! mo/ s5sitive indicators ( ! pres5ce ( radioactivity 9 ! m>9e environm5t4 ,fur!r1 ! daily v]tical migrations ( plankton--d[n 9 response to sunlight & up at night--seem$ a "p ( ! process by :i* radionuclides move f ! upp] wat]s to ! deeps4 ,! exp$ition sci5ti/s not$ t ! masses ( l[-level radioactivity mov$ 9 ! ocean significantly sl[] ?an ! surface curr5ts1 a circum/ance attributable 9 l>ge measure to biological factors4 ,! di/ribution ( residual radioactivity 9 ! sea a mon? aft] ! close ( a nucle> te/+ program c\ld be det]m9$ by c\nt+ radioactivity 9 plankton samples4 ,x 0 e/abli%$ t /rontium-#ij & cesium-#acg1 important 9 fall\t on l&1 ent] ! m>9e cycles only 9 m9ute am\nts4 ,practically no fission products are f\nd 9 fi%4 ,s9ce /rontium-#ij is n conc5trat$ /rongly by m>9e organisms1 ! "q ( :at happ5s to x 9 ! ocean rema9s unansw]$4 ,/udies h sugge/$1 h[ev]1 t /rontium moves 9 solution & ?us indicates ! movem5t ( wat]4 ,if ?is is true1 /rontium-#ij may be conta9$ 9 ! deep curr5ts & ev5tually w be br\ght aga9 to ! surface4 ,"s obs]v]s believe ?is process has begun4 ,riv]s1 ,lakes1 & ,e/u>ies ,! fre%wat] environm5t diff]s f ! m>9e 9 ! great] v>iety ( its m9]als1 among o!r ?+s4 ,z sites = radiobiological /udies1 riv]s & lakes pres5t problems ( great complexity1 b conditions at riv] m\?s or e/u>ies are ev5 m difficult because ( ! mix+ by tidal action ( fre% & salt wat]4 ,riv]s v>y greatly 9 "* & *ange radically f season to season because ( ra9fall & o!r factors4 ,g5]al und]/&+ ( _! biological work+s is difficult to =mulate4 ,b riv]s are ! r\tes by :i* m9]als & wa/es are transport$ t[>d ! sea1 & e/u>ies are significant because ( ! _m =ms ( life t fl\ri% !re4 ,/udies ( radioactivity 9 riv]s & e/u>ies usually h be5 made 9 relation to ! fate ( efflu5ts f nucle> plants4 ,among ! longe/ & mo/ int5sive /udies are ^? ne> ,han=d1 ,wa%+ton4 ,obs]vations 7 />t$ 9 #aidc1 :5 ! f$]al gov]nm5t 0 prep>+ to build plutonium-produc+ reactors to be cool$ by wat]s ( ! ,columbia ,riv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fi%]ies biologi/s /udy+ hat*]y fi% re>$ 9 wat] conta9+ radioactivity f ! ,han=d plutonium reactors4 ,= m ?an two decades1 obs]vations h be5 made ( ! physical disp]sion & biological disposition ( l[-level efflu5ts 9 ! ,columbia4 ,conc5tration factors h be5 e/abli%$ = significant radionuclides 9 phytoplankton1 algae1 insects1 & fi%1 & typical patt]ns ( dilution & disp]sion h be5 plott$4 ,simil> programs1 9 an entirely diff]5t fre%wat] sy/em1 h be5 conduct$ ov] a simil> span ( ye>s ne> ! ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory 9 ,t5nessee4 ,"o area ( int]e/ has be5 ! biological disposition ( trace am\nts ( /rontium-#ij releas$ to ! ,t5nessee ,riv] via tribut>y /reams4 ,among ! few broad e/u>ial /udies yet und]tak5 is "o />t$ 9 #aifa to plot ! dissem9ation 9 ! l[] ,columbia ,riv]1 & 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 ( radioisotopes transport$ by ! riv] f ! ,han=d plant4 ,radiobiologi/s are /udy+ biological di/ribution4 ,oceanograph]s are us+ ! trace am\nts ( efflu5t radioactivity to v]ify ! patt]ns ( disp]sion ( riv] wat]s 9 ! ocean4 ,l& ,illu/ration3 ,plant ecologi/s 8tagg+0 exp]im5tal =e/ plots ) radioactive cesium = long-t]m /udies4 ,natural radionuclides f9d _! way into plants' metabolic processes4 ,man-made radionuclides also are s incorporat$--ev5 "s1 su* z uranium or radium1 t h no kn[n metabolic role4 ,! man-made nuclides1 :e!r !y rea* ! e>? 9 fall\t or by o!r means1 mix ) ! /able nuclides to :i* !y are *emically relat$1 increas+ by small fractions ! total am\nt ( ea* elem5t available to p>ticipate 9 plant gr[? cycles4 ,because artificial radionuclides behave s typically1 !y pres5t1 on ! "o h&1 a possible long-t]m haz>d &1 on ! o!r1 ! expectation t _! detectability w reveal mu* ab\t ! biological c\rses ( m9]als & nutri5ts4 ,! disposition ( man-made radioactivity on l& is det]m9$ 9 "p by su* factors z topography & ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( wat]4 ,topography may influ5ce ! di/ribution by sett+ patt]ns ( dra9age & exposure ( surface soils to w9d & ra94 ,wat] may affect dilution1 or x may lea* radionuclides out ( surface soils & ?us remove !m f ! level 9 :i* plants are root$4 ,! lea*+ may c>ry radionuclides else:]e1 h[ev]1 possibly caus+ mild contam9ation ( ! wat] table4 ,illu/ration3 ,tr5* dug on ,rongelap ,isl& to expose soil /rata & root sy/ems to det]m9e p5etration ( radionuclides 9 coral-s& 8topsoil04 ,plants take up radionuclides ?r\gh _! roots or ?r\gh _! foliage4 ,b ! role ( soils is significant4 ,"s radionuclides are b\nd z ions to clays & ?us are )held 9 l>ge measure f entry into ! plant sy/em4 ,cesium-#acg1 = example1 is held s tightly by soils t uptake ?r\gh plant roots is slight1 & ?us a m significant mode ( entry ( cesium-#acg into food *a9s is by direct deposit on plant leaves4 ,v>iables are introduc$ by ! physical configuration ( ! plant itself1 by seasonal diff]5ces 9 plant metabolism1 & by ! effects ( ra9 & sn[4 ,9 ! case ( iod9e-#aca1 a %ort half-life--#h days--virtually precludes ! possibility ( ext5sive uptake ?r\gh plant roots4 ,b ! half-life is n too %ort to prev5t graz+ cattle f +e/+ radioiod9e deposit$ 9 fall\t & ?us all[ ! appe>ance ( radioiod9e 9 milk4 ,illu/ration3 ,survey ( pa/ure grasses to det]m9e :e!r radioactive mat]ials are pres5t4 ,if !y are1 !y c\ld be pass$ f ! grasses to c[s & !n f ! c[s' milk to humans4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 devot$ to /rontium-#ij & to its availability to man by deposit on plants & soils4 ,because /rontium be>s a close *emical relation to calcium1 a unit express+ ?is relation1 ! /rontium unit 7"o picocurie#ae #a #aj-ab curie ( /rontium-#ij p] gram ( calcium7 is us$ 9 foll[+ /rontium-#ij ?r\gh food *a9s4 ,soils1 h[ev]1 pres5t confus+ factors4 ,exp]im5ts & fall\t obs]vations %[ t /rontium-#ij does n p5etrate soils deeply4 ,9 typical in/ances x rema9s 9 ! upp] in* or two ( ! soil surface1 :]e its availability to root sy/ems is z v>iable z ! conditions ( mix+1 lea*+1 & plant gr[?4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t plant uptake ( /rontium f soils c be r$uc$ by introduction ( calcium 9 available =m into ! soil4 ,radiobiological developm5ts on l& result f comb9ations ( environm5tal influ5ces4 ,/udies 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s %[ t ecological conditions above ! timb]l9e1 p>ticul>ly 9 areas :]e sn[banks accumulate1 are effici5t 9 conc5trat+ fall\t radionuclides4 ,conc5trations ?us take place 9 ! sn[-pack$ heights t are ! s\rces ( m\nta9 /reams fl[+ to ! pla9s f> bel[4 ,atmosph]e ,! environm5t ( ! e>? is a product ( 8wea!r0--( ! transport ( moi/ure1 ( ! actions betwe5 w9ds & oceans1 ( ! cycl+ ( en]gy ?r\gh biotic sy/ems4 ,und]/&+ ( biological pot5tials ( atmosph]ic factors involves und]/&+ ( atmosph]ic motions affect+ transport & mix+ ( contam9ants & ! processes ( deposition ( radionuclides f atmosph]e to e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,network ( t[]s on ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission res]vation ne> ,ri*l&1 ,wa%+ton1 us$ by atmosph]ic physici/s 9 measur+ quantity1 conc5tration1 & dilution ( radioactive mat]ials 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,at "s ?\s&s ( feet above ! e>?'s surface--at #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj feet 9 ! middle & pol> latitudes & at #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj feet 9 ! tropics--!re is a level1 ! tropopause1 at :i* air temp]ature1 r ?an decreas+1 becomes con/ant or increases ) height4 ,bel[ ?is level is ! troposph]e1 ! turbul5t zone ( cl\ds1 ra91 & fog4 ,above x is ! /ratosph]e1 :]e !re is no turbul5ce & only a sl[ mix+ ( dry & cl\dless air4 ,! /ratosph]e cont9ues to a height ( ab\t #ajj1jjj feet4 ,inve/igators h not$ ! importance ( ra9 or sn[ 9 wa%+ fall\t p>ticles f ! air 9 ! troposph]e4 ,!re is disagreem5t on ! precise modes ( di/ribution ( radioactive mat]ials project$ into ! /ratosph]e4 ,9 ! detonation ( l[-yield nucle> devices1 fission products are n project$ beyond ! troposph]e1 & fall\t is wa%$ d[n 9 p]iods ( days or weeks4 ,because w9ds move pr9cipally 9 ea/-we/ directions1 troposph]ic fall\t appe>s on ! e>? 9 b&s c5t]$ approximately at ! latitude ( detonation4 ,b :5 high-yield explosions propel contam9ants into ! /ratosph]e1 ! patt]n ( subsequ5t developm5ts is less cle>4 ,x once 0 believ$ t fall\t f ! /ratosph]e 0 di/ribut$ m or less ev5ly--?\gh ov] long p]iods ( "t--ov] ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! pres5t view is t fall\t debris plac$ 9 ! /ratosph]e rema9s 9 t hemisph]e 9 :i* ! explosion occurs4 ,?is concept is bas$ on an atmosph]ic circulation !ory t air ent]s ! /ratosph]e at ! equator & desc5ds aga9 9 temp]ate & pol> latitudes ea* spr+4 ,! !ory presumes a mu* %ort] 8resid5ce "t0 ( /ratosph]ic air & ?us a quick] return ( fall\t p>ticles to ! turbul5t troposph]e4#af ,! pres5ce ( radionuclides 9 ! atmosph]e has provid$ clues to cyclical movem5ts ( biological importance4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( nucle> te/s 9 ! ,pacific1 obs]v]s not$ spr+ 8pulses01 or increases1 ( /rontium-#ij deposition 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 a ph5om5on difficult to v]ify or expla9 satisfactorily :ile te/+ 0 proce$+4 ,lat]1 :5 te/+ _h be5 susp5d$1 ! spr+ peaks reappe>$4 ,! obs]vation seem$ to support ! !ory t nucle> debris inject$ into ! /ratosph]e 0 desc5d+ ye>s lat] ?r\gh a gap 9 ! tropopause4 ,sampl+s ( nucle> debris by balloon h be5 "u way = sev]al ye>s at altitudes ( #ajj1jjj to #aej1jjj feet1 & rocket-borne air sampl]s & o!r sy/ems h be5 develop$ = tak+ atmosph]ic samples up to #bjj1jjj feet4 ,programs = /udy+ airborne contam9ation f indu/rial activities--op]at$ at ! m accessible b equally difficult levels ( ! atmosph]e--h be5 sponsor$ by ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission ne> ! ,han=d ,plant1 ,wa%+ton1 & at ! ,oak ,ridge1 ,argonne1 & ,brookhav5 ,national ,laboratories 9 ,t5nessee1 ,ill9ois1 & ,new ,york4 ,! ,han=d /udies 7 />t$ be=e plutonium production 0 begun 9 #aidc1 & f9d+s on indu/rial /ack-dis*>ge rates e/abli%$ patt]ns = meteorological programs at o!r sites4#ag ,,problems ,,& ,,projects ,! range & v>iety ( environm5tal /udies n[ 9 progress make x almo/ impossible to provide any all-encompass+ /atem5t ( results4 ,almo/ all places associat$ ) nucle> programs h become focal po9ts ( rese>* 9 environm5tal biology4 ,fall\t1 deposit$ 9 patt]ns det]m9$ by ! me*anisms ( ! atmosph]e1 has creat$ at c]ta9 po9ts on ! e>?'s surface--! ,arctic1 = example--ecological conditions t require inve/igation4 ,new in=mation ( bio5vironm5tal significance has come 9 bits & fragm5ts4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 attempt to summ>ize :at has be5 le>n$ & to %[1 9 broad t]ms1 h[ radiobiological exp]i5ce has ext5d$ appreciation ( ! e>? z a s+le ecosy/em--a sy/em compris$ ( an inf9ity ( int]actions ( wat]1 l&1 & atmosph]e1 & ( all liv+ ?+s4 ,! spectrum ( environm5tal inve/igation--inve/igations us+ man-made radioactivity--incorporates rese>* 9 :i*3 #a4 ,fall\t radioactivity is assess$ z a pot5tial specific haz>d to human populations4 #b4 ,conditions creat$ by fall\t are exam9$ = _! pot5tial long-t]m ecological significance4 #c4 ,radionuclides introduc$ into ! environm5t by nucle> te/s1 reactor op]ations1 or o!r means are us$ z trace mat]ials 9 basic /udies 9 biological sy/ems4 #d4 ,radioactive =ms ( m9]als & nutri5ts are delib]ately introduc$ into biosy/ems--9 measur$ am\nts & "u conditions ( control--= /udies ( metabolic cycles & rates ( fl[ ( en]gy & nutrition4 ,x w be useful to look 9 detail at "s typical programs & results4 ,,animal ,,rese>* ,illu/ration3 ,,rat4 ,a lightly ane/hetiz$1 wild trapp$ rat is weigh$ & measur$ prior to m>k+ x1 tak+ a blood sample1 & releas+ x 9 a controll$ ecosy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fi%4 ,fi%]ies biologi/ ) a l>ge jackfi% caught (f ,engebi ,isl&1 ,eniwetok ,atoll4 ,illu/ration3 ,,coconut ,,crab4 ,measur+ ! radioactivity ( ! %ell ( a coconut crab caught on ,bik9i ,isl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,geese4 ,b&+ wild geese to /udy environm5tal effects ( radionuclides on wildlife & possible entry ( radionuclides into ! human food *a94 ,illu/ration3 ,,plankton4 ,an +5i\s plankton trap is plac$ 9 a riv] z "p ( a long-range /udy ( radionuclide uptake by aquatic organisms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,skate4 ,a cle>-nos$ skate be+ monitor$ by fi%]ies p]sonnel to ga!r data on accumulation ( radionuclides 9 its blood & tissues4 ,wasps & ,radioactive ,mud ,at ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory1 ,t5nessee1 x 0 discov]$ 9 #aifd t two k9ds ( mud-daub] wasps 7 build+ _! mud ne/s 9 equipm5t1 cab9ets1 & electronic ge> 9 ! vic9ity ( a field /ation on ! ,oak ,ridge res]vation4 ,"s ne/s1 inve/igation disclos$1 7 built ( radioactive mud4 ,x seem$ obvi\s t ! wasps 7 obta9+ mud f radioactive wa/e pits or f ! ,:ite ,oak ,lake b$1 :i* is ! site ( a =m] #dj-;acre lake us$ = #ab ye>s z a det5tion pool = radioactive wa/es4#ah ,! mud daub]s 7 c>ry+ mud z f> z #fej feet f ! contam9at$ s\rces4 ,almo/ #ij ( #aab ne/s built by ! yell[-legg$ mud-daub] species 7 radioactive1 & ! mud 0 deliv]+ to ! wasp eggs ea* h\r a dose ( p5etrat+ radiation equal to t receiv$ by a man f all natural s\rces ov] a p]iod ( _m ye>s4 ,! developm5t pres5t$ no human heal? problems1 b fur!r obs]vation reveal$ a fasc9at+ circum/ance4 ,at ! same "t1 ano!r v>iety ( wasp1 ! pipe-organ mud daub]1 0 build+ ne/s only ( nonradioactive mud4 ,( #aej pipe-organ wasp ne/s exam9$1 none 0 radioactive4 ,! ne/s 7 f\nd 9 simil> locations1 & x 0 app>5t t ! same s\rces ( ne/ mat]ials 7 available to bo? species4 ,,wasp ,,ne/ ,,rese>* ,mud-daub] wasps1 build+ ne/s ( radioactive mud 9 a wa/e disposal area ne> an ,oak ,ridge1 ,t5nessee1 atomic plant1 are ! object ( int5sive environm5tal radiation /udy4 ,a %[s radioactivity read+ f a ne/4 ,b is an enl>g$ view ( ! ne/ ) two t9y dosimet]s 9 place to measure radiation4 ,9 ,c an ecologi/ inspects new ne/s built 9 a laboratory flight cage f radioactive mud provid$ 9 pans at ! bottom4 ,9 ,d wasps are ane/hetiz$1 m>k$ ) t9y pla/ic disks = future id5tification1 & releas$4 ,! "q1 !n1 0 :y wasps ( "o species 7 us+ radioactive mud :ile ! o!r species seem+ly discrim9at$ aga9/ contam9at$ mud4 ,! muds appe>$ to be entirely alike4 ,x-ray-diffraction /udies %[$ no mat]ial diff]5ces1 nor 7 !re detectable diff]5ces 9 8feel01 smell1 or pla/icity4 ,radioactive isotopes 9 ! mud includ$ cesium-#acg1 cobalt-#fj1 ru!nium-#ajf1 & z9c-#fe4 ,oak ,ridge sci5ti/s began to try to f9d out :e!r ! pipe-organ wasps actually 7 discrim9at+ aga9/ muds conta9+ all or "s ( ^! radioisotopes or aga9/ ! ioniz+ radiation f !m4 ,if s1 h[ c\ld ! wasps detect x8 ,^! inve/igations 7 cont9u+ 9 #aife4 ,!re is no answ] yet4 ,survival ( an ,animal ,population ,! case ( ,bik9i already has be5 discuss$ z an example ( a pr$om9antly aquatic environm5t app>5tly recov]+ f association ) nucle> exp]im5t4 ,eniwetok (f]s an in/ance ( ! t\ghness ( an animal population expos$ bo? to direct & long-range radiological impact4 ,engebi ,isl&1 on ,eniwetok's nor!a/ reef1 is ! home ( a :olly self-conta9$ colony ( ,pacific rats liv+ 9 a network ( burr[s 9 ! %all[ coral s&s4 ,aft] #aidh ,engebi 0 expos$ repeat$ly to atomic detonations1 & 9 #aieb ! :ole isl& 0 swept clean ( gr[? & ov]wa%$ by waves f ! !rmonucle> explosion ( ,op]ation ,ivy4 ,on ea* ( ^! occasions1 exposure ( ! rat colony to radiation 0 int5se4 ,9 #aieb1 by lat] e/imates1 ! animals abovegr\nd receiv$ radiation doses ( #bejj to #fjjj ro5tg5s p] h\r1 & ^? 9 burr[s doses ( #aab to #aaab ro5tg5s p] h\r4#ai ,! isl& environm5t 0 s alt]$ by atomic =ces & by contam9at$ wat] t radiobiologi/s believ$ x impossible t any ( ! rats _h surviv$4 ,because !re 0 no natural r\te by :i* ! isl& c\ld be repopulat$1 sci5ti/s ev5 consid]$ introduc+ a new rat colony = /udy ( a population gr[? 9 a mildly radioactive environm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,engebi ,isl&1 ,eniwetok ,atoll1 home ( a colony ( rats liv+ 9 radioactive surr\nd+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,close-up %[s "o burr[ 9 ! soil4 ,contr>y to all expectations1 h[ev]1 ! orig9al colony _h n be5 elim9at$4 ,biologi/s visit+ ,engebi 9 #aiec & #aied f\nd ! rats app>5tly fl\ri%+4 ,new g5]ations ( rats 7 be+ born & 7 subsi/+ on grasses & o!r plants 9 an environm5t /ill slightly radioactive4 ,9 #aiee analysis ( ! bones ( rats reveal$ ! pres5ce ( /rontium-#hi & /rontium-#ij 9 am\nts approa*+ :at 0 assum$ to be ! maximum am\nt t w\ld n cause bodily h>m4 ,! rats' muscle tissues conta9$ radioactive cesium-#acg4 ,b no physical mal=mations 7 f\nd 9 ! rats4 ,all animals appe>$ 9 s\nd physical condition1 despite ^! body burd5s ( radioactivity4 ,by #aifd ! rat population _h s increas$ t x app>5tly _h rea*$ equilibrium ) available food supplies4 ,que/ions relat+ to ! ree/abli%m5t ( ! colony are intrigu+4 ,:y are new g5]ations ( ^! w>m-blood$ animals cont9u+ to ?rive aft] ! colony 0 expos$ to deva/at+ nucle> effects8 ,is !re a diff]5t dose-effect relation = ^! rats ?an = o!r animals8 ,ev5 if x is assum$1 z x mu/ be1 t "s memb]s ( ! colony surviv$ ! orig9al nucle> heat & radioactivity because !y 7 %ield$ by concrete bunk]s or o!r man-made /ructures1 h[ is x t !re h be5 no obs]vable effects among rats exi/+ = ye>s 9 an area t cont9ually expos$ !m to radiation8 ,illu/ration3 ,a native rat1 captur$ alive on ,engebi ,isl&1 be+ held by a sci5ti/ be=e hav+ its to5ails clipp$ z a means ( id5tification4 ,note ! animal's heal?y appe>ance4 ,fall\t & ,populations ,9 ,arctic regions ly+ on opposite sides ( ! ,nor? ,pole1 fall\t has creat$ conditions t are giv5 cont9u\s scrut9y by sci5ti/s ( ,sc&9avia & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! two cases1 "o involv+ ! ,lapps ( nor!rn ,f9l& & ! o!r ! ,eskimos ( ,alaska1 are ess5tially ! same4 ,hemisph]ic fall\t introduc$ quantities ( long-liv$ radionuclides1 p>ticul>ly cesium-#acg1 into ! food *a9s & consequ5tly into ! diets ( native peoples4 ,9 ea* in/ance !re _h occurr$ a sl[ accumulation ( radionuclides 9 ! li*5s & mosses & 9 o!r plants t are ! foods ( ! re9de] & c>ib\4 ,! meat ( ^! animals =ms a sub/antial "p ( ! human diets1 & z a result ! memb]s ( ! native communities 7 f\nd to h1 on ! av]age1 body burd5s ( radioactivity approa*+ ! acceptable limit = human populations4 ,a prelim9>y /udy ( ! ,lapp environm5t 0 made 9 #aieh-aiei1 & a ,lapp diet>y /udy 0 made 9 #aifj4 ,! results %[$ close correlation betwe5 ! consumption ( re9de] meat & ! ,lapps' body burd5s ( cesium-#acg4 ,! ,sc&9avian inve/igators conclud$ t ! levels ( conc5trat$ cesium approximat$ ! maximum p]missible dose range = l>ge populations4 ,!y not$1 h[ev]1 t 8! f9al answ] 444 has to be giv5 by ! g5etici/s04 ,illu/ration3 ,plac+ equipm5t to measure fall\t 9 precipitation nor? ( ! ,arctic ,circle 9 ,alaska4 ,9 ,alaska1 :]e /udies ( ! native populations h be5 proce$+ = sev]al ye>s1 adult ,eskimos liv+ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,anaktuvuk ,pass#bj 7 f\nd 9 #aifd to h av]age body burd5s ( cesium-#acg m ?an #bj times z great z ! av]age = adults 9 ! area ( ! orig9al #dh /ates4 ,!re 0 an expectation t ev5 )\t fur!r nucle> te/+ ! levels ( cesium-#acg w\ld cont9ue to rise sl[ly 9 ,arctic regions until ab\t #aifh4 ,! ,v>iety ( ,approa*es ,bio5vironm5tal /udies =m a backgr\nd aga9/ :i* all atomic en]gy rese>* is conduct$4 ,! c5tral objective ( ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission's environm5tal radiation /udies is 8to det]m9e ! fate & effect ( radionuclides 9 ! environm5t04 ,?is objective calls = hundr$s ( concurr5t approa*es to ! int]lock+ problems ( ! air1 ! sea1 & ! l&4 ,! ,,aec alone1 ?r\gh its ,division ( ,biology & ,m$ic9e1 is support+ rese>* co/+ ab\t #ge million a ye>1 ab\t two-?irds ( ?is am\nt go+ to biological & m$ical programs at ,,aec laboratories & ! rema9d] to "s #fej individual contract /udies at univ]sities1 nonpr(it in/itutions1 & comm]cial rese>* organizations4 ,additional programs1 l>ge & small1 are support$ by f\ndations or o!r ag5cies4 ,"w goes on 9 o!r nations4 ,_m programs are int]national4 ,al?\gh only a fraction ( ?is total activity is specifically relat$ to environm5tal problems1 ! conc]n ?r\gh\t is ) ! effect1 = good or ill1 ( radioactivity on man & 8 _w4 ,x is possible to sugge/ by example ! l9es ( inquiry4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,univ]sity ( ,georgia ,rese>* ,in/itute ecologi/ /udy+ biological specim5s 9 a controll$ environm5t ne> ! ,,aec ,savannah ,riv] ,plant1 ,aik51 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,! ,tr9ity site 9 ,new ,mexico1 sc5e ( ! fir/ atomic detonation 9 hi/ory1 0 /udi$ = a numb] ( ye>s aft] #aide1 p>ticul>ly 9 relation to ! di/ribution & effects ( residual radioactivity 9 ! des]t environm5t4 ,9 #aifc & #aifd sci5ti/s f ! ,univ]sity ( ,miss\ri und]took to det]m9e ! /ate ( revegetation ( ! orig9al atomic bomb crat]4 ,! ,nevada ,te/ ,site1 :]e nucle> programs h be5 conduct$ = a decade & a half1 has invit$ inve/igations ( revegetation4 ,project ,s$an1 an und]gr\nd !rmonucle> detonation 9 #aifb1 e/abli%$ conditions = "o su* /udy4 ,! crat] produc$ by ?is detonation 0 #cbj feet deep & #abjj feet 9 diamet]4 ,vegetation gr[+ )9 #bejj feet ( gr\nd z]o 0 almo/ completely de/roy$1 & ! orig9al soil 0 cov]$ by radioactive ?r[\t4 ,%rubs z f> z #ejjj feet away f gr\nd z]o 7 damag$ by air bla/1 &1 9 ! weeks aft] ! detonation1 plants )9 a two-mile radius 7 cov]$ by radioactive s& & silt or by deposits ( w9dbl[n radioactive du/4 ,/udies 9 #aifc by sci5ti/s f ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,los ,angeles %[$ t native plants--,russian ?i/le & v>i\s annuals--_h become well e/abli%$ 9 ! zone ar\nd ! ,s$an crat] :]e ! e>? 0 ?r[n out4 ,?is area _h rema9$ b>r5 = less ?an a ye>4 ,"s ( ! %rubs mo/ sev]ely damag$ by ! bla/1 & expos$ to cumulative gamma radiation doses ( m ?an #djjj ro5tg5s1 _h produc$ new gr[?4 ,populations ( creosote bu%1 ev]gre5 plants t 9 #aifb appe>$ to h be5 kill$ by heavy doses ( radiation1 7 produc+ leafy bran*es 9 ! summ] ( #aifc4 ,^! developm5ts p]mitt$ no conclusions1 ( c\rse1 = ! possible radiation effects /ill ne$$ to be id5tifi$4 ,/udies 7 conduct$1 = example1 ( ! effect ( delib]ately deposit+ nonradioactive du/ on heal?y creosote plants1 & comp>ative /udies ( o!r ph5om5a 7 made4 ,s9ce #aiei1 ecological /udies h be5 c>ri$ =w>d at ! ,nevada site by inve/igators f ,brigham ,"y ,univ]sity :o are int]e/$ 9 ! abundance1 seasonal occurr5ce1 & ecological influ5ces affect+ ! v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals 9 plant communities ( ! region4 ,surveys h be5 made 9 areas :]e nucle> explosions _h oblit]at$ natural ecological relation%ips & 9 simil> areas undi/urb$ by nucle> effects4 ,! inve/igations are conc]n$ prim>ily ) des]t ecology--) ! id5tification ( biotic communities & ( pr$om9ant animal species4 ,among rese>* programs 9 m>9e environm5ts is t initiat$ 9 #aifc & #aifd by ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia's ,in/itute ( ,m>9e ,res\rces at ,la ,jolla1 :]e /udies ( m>9e food *a9s are conduct$ by a team ( zoologi/s1 *emi/s1 botani/s1 & microbiologi/s4 ,! program /udies ! int]relations among organisms at ! l[] levels ( ! food *a9s & ! dynamics ( m>9e phytoplankton cell division1 photosyn!sis1 & excretion ( organic matt] z relat$ to temp]ature1 light int5sity1 & nutri5t conditions4 ,! "w is conceiv$ z a basic /udy ( m>9e ecology4 ,x is focus$1 h[ev]1 on que/ions f\nd to be significant 9 /udies ( radioactivity 9 ! sea4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia's ,lawr5ce ,radiation ,laboratory has laun*$ a long-t]m inve/igation ( ! effects ( ! release ( radionuclides on ! biosph]e1 :i* encompasses ! orig9s1 transport1 & f9al localization ( radionuclides 9 all types ( organs1 tissues1 cells1 & subcellul> con/itu5ts4 ,! objective is 8to develop ! mo/ complete und]/&+ possible ( ! pot5tial haz>ds to man t arise f ! release ( nucle> radiation & radionuclides into ! biosph]e & to apply ?is k to ! prev5tion ( damage to liv+ =ms44404 ,9 programs su* z ^!--multipli$ by hundr$s--! problems are be+ attack$4 ,,:]e ,,are ,,we ,,n[8 ,radiobiological /udies t are environm5tal 9 scope became1 ) ! release ( atomic en]gy1 a m&ate on ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,environm5tal /udies are n new4 ,!y h be5 implicit 9 ?\s&s ( biological rese>* ef=ts1 l>ge & small1 = g5]ations4 ,atomic en]gy1 h[ev]1 is a new factor4 ,also new is ! int5sity ( ! approa*4 ,n until ! explosion ( inquiry ( ?is c5tury has man br\ght toge!r ! necess>y res\rces--! "t1 ! funds1 ! in/rum5ts1 ! +5i\s te*nological devices1 ! ideas1 & ! organizational & managem5t skills--to attack problems t are global 9 scale4 ,! atom z a tool ( ! environm5tal radiobiologi/ has1 ( itself1 solv$ few problems4 ,its significance is t x has spe$$ up--to a degree /ill n fully te/$--our ability to /udy ecosy/ems & _! relations to ea* o!r4 ,! ,fir/ ,tw5ty ,ye>s ,in/rum5ts = environm5tal rese>*4 ,illu/ration3 ,a radiation analyz] = laboratory exam9ation ( field samples4 ,illu/ration3 ,in/all+ environm5tal rese>* equipm5t 9 ! field4 ,! fir/ two decades ( ! ,atomic ,age h compris$ a p]iod ( swift maturity4 ,mu* has be5 done to ga9 p]spective4 ,atomic en]gy z a pot5tial =ce = de/ruction has n be5 controll$4 ,b !re is a sur] k ( ! haz>d inh]5t 9 ! abs5ce ( control & a rational hope t ! new p[] w be direct$ t[>d peaceful objectives4 ,we "k t3 #a4 ,! un9hibit$ release ( nucle> products into ! environm5t ( ! e>? w create problems--fundam5tally biological problems--( long duration & ( /ill-unassess$ ultimate effect4 #b4 ,use ( atomic weapons 9 w> c\ld h a 8biological co/0 beyond calculation4 ,yet1 9 t]ms ( con/ructive employm5t ( atomic res\rces1 we also "k t3 #a4 ,atomic en]gy may help solve ! v problems t ! new age pres5ts4 #b4 ,c>eful & controll$ developm5t ( atomic =ces w provide ! res]voirs ( en]gy t w be ne$$ to su/a9 ! _w's populations ( ! next c5tury & beyond4 ,9 :atev] case1 ! solutions lie 9 ! direction ( environm5tal k4 ,man1 ! human animal1 w live 9 ! environm5t he has ! intellig5ce to und]/& & to pres]ve4 ,illu/ration3 8444 ,all creatures are l9k$ to ea* o!r 444 9 _! dep5d5ce on limit$ environm5ts t toge!r =m ! :ole ( nature 4440 7,page #c74 7,:ite-capp$ noddy t]n ne/+ colony1 ,engebi ,isl&1 ,eniwetok ,atoll1 photograph$ 9 #aife47 ,,sugge/$ ,,ref]5ces ,basic ,s\rcebook on ,atomic ,en]gy1 ,samuel ,glas/one1 ,d4 ,van ,no/r& ,company1 ,inc41 ,pr9ceton1 ,new ,j]sey1 #aieh1 #fda pp41 #d4dj4 ,:at is ,ioniz+ ,radiation81 ,rob]t ,l4 ,platzman1 ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 #bja3 #gd 7,septemb] #aiei74 ,weapons ,te/+ & ,fall\t ,! ,effects ( ,nucle> ,weapons1 ,samuel ,glas/one 7,ed471 ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission1 #aifb 7revis$ edition71 #gcj pp41 #c4jj4 ,available f ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,u4 ,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdjb4 ,fall\t f ,nucle> ,weapons ,te/s1 ,he>+s ,be=e ! ,special ,subcommittee on ,radiation ( ! ,jo9t ,committee on ,atomic ,en]gy1 #hf? ,congress1 ,fir/ ,session1 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,u4 ,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdjb1 #aiei4 ,vol4 ,i1 #idh pp41 #b4ge2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aifg pp41 #b4ge2 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #bfah pp41 #a4ge4 8,summ>y-,analysis ( ,he>+s01 #db pp41 #j4ae1 is available only f ! ,(fice ( ! ,jo9t ,committee on ,atomic ,en]gy1 ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjeaj4 ,bombs at ,bik9i1 ,w4 ,a4 ,%urcliff1 ,william ,h4 ,wise ,co41 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 #aidg1 #bab pp41 #c4ej4 ,out ( pr9t b available ?r\gh libr>ies4 ,biological ,effects ( ,radiation ,heal? ,implications ( ,fall\t f ,nucle> ,weapons ,te/+ ,?r\gh #aifa 7,report ,no4 #c71 ,f$]al ,radiation ,c\ncil1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #aifb1 #aj pp41 free4 ,e/imates & ,evaluation ( ,fall\t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,nucle> ,weapons ,te/+ ,conduct$ ,?r\gh #aifb 7,report ,no4 #d71 ,f$]al ,radiation ,c\ncil1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #aifc1 #da pp41 #j4cj4 ,report ( ! ,unit$ ,nations ,sci5tific ,committee on ! ,effects ( ,atomic ,radiation1 ,g5]al ,assembly1 ,sev5te5? ,session1 ,supplem5t ,no4 #af 7,a_/#ebaf71 ,unit$ ,nations1 ,int]national ,docum5ts ,s]vice1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press1 ,new ,york1 #aifb1 #adf pp41 #e4jj4 ,radioactivity 9 ! ,environm5t ,environm5tal ,radioactivity1 ,m]ril ,eis5bud1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,company1 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 #aifc1 #dcj pp41 #ab4ej4 ,prov+ ,gr\nd3 ,an ,acc\nt ( ! ,radiobiological ,/udies 9 ! ,pacific1 #aidf-aifa1 ,neal ,o4 ,h9es1 ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton ,press1 ,seattle1 ,wa%+ton1 #aifb1 #cff pp41 #f4ge4 ,radioecology1 ,proce$+s ( ! ,fir/ ,national ,symposium on ,radioecology ,held at ,colorado ,/ate ,univ]sity1 ,=t ,coll9s1 ,colorado1 ,septemb] #aj-ae1 #aifa1 ,v9c5t ,s*ultz & ,alfr$ ,w4 ,klem5t1 ,jr4 7,eds471 publi%$ jo9tly by ! ,re9hold ,publi%+ ,corporation1 ,new ,york1 & ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,biological ,footnotes #a,! biosph]e is ! liv+ _w1 ! sum ( all liv+1 int]act+ organisms4 #b,symbiosis is a condition 9 :i* two organisms or communities ( organisms live toge!r 9 close association1 ei!r on a basis ( mutual b5efit or ( b5efit to "o only1 ) or )\t h>m to ! o!r4 #c;,ioniz+ radiation is radiation t c cause damage to biological tissues4 #d;,isotopes are v>iant =ms ( atoms ( ! same elem5t4 #e,nuclides is a t]m us$ to describe all ! =ms ( all ! atoms4 ,radionuclides are radioactive nuclides4 #f;,an ecosy/em is a natural community1 tak5 z a :ole1 includ+ all biological & environm5tal factors4 #g;,ecologi/s are sci5ti/s conc]n$ ) ! int]relations ( organisms & _! environm5ts4 #h;,a !rmonucle> device is an explosive1 su* z a hydrog5 bomb1 bas$ on a fusion reaction4 ,9 o!r atomic weapons ! en]gy is d]iv$ f nucle> fission4 #i,! liv+ organisms4 #aj,plankton are ! float+1 m9ute plants & animals t live 9 ! sea 7& also 9 fre% wat]71 includ+ diatoms1 algae1 protozoans1 & cru/aceans4 #aa;,= m on ?is program1 see ,pl[%>e1 a companion booklet 9 ?is s]ies4 #ab,! half-life ( a radioactive elem5t is ! "t requir$ = half its atoms to lose _! radioactivity4 #ac;,atmosph]ic te/s ( nucle> weapons ?r\gh #aifb produc$ a fission yield equival5t to #aia million tons ( ,,tnt & introduc$ ab\t #aj4ja megacuries ( /rontium-#ij1 = example1 z fall\t ent]+ ! environm5t4 #ad;,float+ "o-cell$ animals4 #ae;,a picocurie is "o trillion? ( a curie2 a curie is ! basic unit ( int5sity ( radioactivity1 approximately equal to t 9 #a gram ( radium4 #af;,= m ab\t ^! /udies1 see ,fall\t f ,nucle> ,weapons ,te/s1 a companion booklet 9 ?is s]ies4 #ag;,in=mation on ?is rese>* is f\nd 9 ,radioactive ,wa/es1 a companion booklet 9 ?is s]ies4 #ah,! lake1 dra9$ 9 #aiee1 makes an int]e/+ natural bas9 9 :i* residual radionuclides are us$ 9 /udies ( m9]al cycl+4 #ai;,a ro5tg5 is a unit ( exposure to radiation1 measur+ ! alt]ation ( ! atoms 7ionization7 ( ! radiat$ tissues4 ,! rat dosages comp>e ) recomm5d$ limits ( exposure to man-made radiation = av]age individuals 9 human populations ( an am\nt t approximates #j4e ro5tg5 p] ye>4 #bj,! area :]e highe/ read+s 7 obta9$ 9 ! survey4 ,^! /udies are describ$ 9 m detail 9 ,:ole ,body ,c\nt]s1 a companion booklet 9 ?is s]ies4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,reta9$ publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 sup]script text is prec$$ by c>et4 --,9 ! ,,ascii v]sion only1 subscript$ numb]s are prec$$ by und]score & delimit$ by brackets4