,,atoms1 ,,nature1 and ,,man ,man-made ,radioactivity in the ,environment by ,neal ,o4 ,hines ,the ,understanding the ,atom ,series ,nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man1 woman1 and child in the ,united ,states today4 ,in the years ahead it will affect increasingly all the peoples of the earth4 ,it is essential that all ,americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers them4 ,the ,united ,states ,atomic ,energy ,commission provides this booklet to help you achieve such understanding4 ,edward ,j4 ,brunenkant1 ,director ,division of ,technical ,information ,,united ,,states ,,atomic ,,energy ,,commission ,dr4 ,glenn ,t4 ,seaborg1 ,chairman ,james ,t4 ,ramey ,wilfrid ,e4 ,johnson ,dr4 ,theos ,j4 ,thompson ,dr4 ,clarence ,e4 ,larson ,,contents ,,introduction #a ,,some ,,preliminary ,,ideas #b ,a ,,view ,,in ,,perspective1 #aidf-aifc #h ,,the ,,atom ,,in ,,environmental ,,studies #bj ,,environments--,,singular1 ,,yet ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,whole #bi ,,problems ,,and ,,projects #da ,,where ,,are ,,we ,,now8 #eb ,,suggested ,,references #ee ,united ,states ,atomic ,energy ,commission ,division of ,technical ,information ,library of ,congress ,catalog ,card ,number3 #ff-facbb #aiff ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cover ,scientists aboard a seagoing vessel prepare to study contents of a plankton net as part of their research into radioactivity in an oceanic environment4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,author ,,neal ,o4 ,,hines is an established writer and experienced academic administrator with an unusual background in radiobiological surveys of the ,pacific ,ocean atomic test sites4 ,he holds degrees from ,indiana and ,northwestern ,universities4 ,a former journalism teacher at the ,university of ,california and ,assistant to the ,president of the ,university of ,washington1 ,mr4 ,hines also worked for a number of years with the ,laboratory of ,radiation ,biology of the ,university of ,washington1 where he served from #aifa-aifc as administrative assistant and as ,executive ,secretary of the ,advisory ,council on ,nuclear ,energy and ,radiation for the ,state of ,washington4 ,he was a member of the survey teams visiting ,bikini and ,eniwetok in #aidi and #aief and ,christmas ,island in #aifb4 ,his 8,bikini ,report0 7,scientific ,monthly1 ,february #aiea7 was one of the earliest descriptions of radiobiological studies in the ,pacific4 ,he is the author of ,proving ,ground 7,university of ,washington ,press1 #aifb71 a detailed history of radiobiological studies in the ,pacific from #aidf-aifa4 ,,atoms1 ,,nature1 and ,,man ,man-made ,radioactivity in the ,environment ,by ,,neal ,o4 ,,hines ,,introduction ,mankind1 increasingly crowding the earth1 modifies the earthly environment in uncounted subtle and unpredictable ways1 too rarely to the benefit of either earth or man4 ,in this century it has become critically important that we comprehend more precisely than ever before the biological mechanisms and balances of our environment and that we learn to detect changes and to understand what they imply4 ,the release of atomic energy added a new dimension to the possibility of environmental change4 ,in man's first experiments with atomic energy1 he added small but perceptible amounts of radioactivity to the earth's natural total2 as the ,atomic ,age matures1 he inevitably will add more4 ,but1 in the course of his experiments1 man has come to realize that environmental and biological studies1 which now are necessary because of the use of atomic energy1 may help solve not only the problems atomic energy creates but also the larger problem of how to manage wisely the world's limited natural resources4 ,this booklet describes the environmental investigations that have been conducted with the aid of the atom since the first atomic detonation near ,alamogordo1 ,new ,mexico1 in #aide4 ,the earth's mysteries1 however1 are not easily unlocked1 and investigations of our environment with atomic tools have only begun4 ,the story thus is one of beginnings--but of beginnings that point the way1 it is hoped1 to a new understanding of the world in the atomic future4 ,,some ,,preliminary ,,ideas ,biologists are interested in every kind of living thing4 ,when they study organisms in relation to atomic radiations1 they enter the field of radiobiology1 which really is not a science in itself but merely a branch of the larger interest in biology4 ,biologists find that atomic energy has significance both in the study of individual organisms and in studies of organisms in their natural communities and habitats4 ,illustration3 ,skin-diving biologist collecting giant clam from coral bottom of ,bikini ,lagoon in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,radioactivity introduced into any community may be 8taken up0 by the biological system1 becoming subject to cycling in food chains or to accumulation in plant or animal tissues4 ,the presence of radioactivity permits study of the workings of a system as large as an ocean1 perhaps1 or of one no larger than a tree4 ,and in each case it thus may be possible to observe how the cycles of organic renewal are related to the larger systems of life on earth4 ,the ,single ,environment ,the environment in which we live is recognizable as a single complex1 composed of many subenvironments--land1 oceans1 atmosphere1 and the space beyond our envelope of air4 ,the deer in the forest1 the lizard in the desert burrow1 and the peavine in the meadow are different kinds of organisms living in situations that are seemingly unalike4 ,each creature is part of its environment and a contributor to it1 but it also is part of the total biosphere4#a ,all creatures are linked to each other1 however remotely1 in their dependence on limited environments that together form the whole of nature4 ,illustration3 ,gray shark photographed in another ,pacific lagoon4 ,we know much about the life of the earth1 but there is far more that we do not know4 ,understanding of the large cyclical forces has continued to elude us4 ,we do not even yet grasp the small and seemingly random biological relations between individual organisms--relations involving predator and prey1 for instance1 and those among species and families--such as exist together in symbiotic#b harmony and interdependence4 ,through centuries of observation we have gained a store of information4 ,we are left1 however1 with a still unsatisfied curiosity about the reach and strength of the tenuous biological cords that bind together the lives of the deer1 the lizard1 and the peavine4 ,the ,need to ,understand ,life on earth evolved amid constant exposure to ionizing#c radiation1 from the earth itself and from space1 known as background radiation4 ,therefore environmental studies must be conducted in relation to1 and with understanding of1 background radioactivity4 ,illustration3 ,this ,pacific ,ocean coconut crab1 member of a family that usually sticks to tide-covered beaches1 depends on coconut trees for its food4 ,of some #cdj kinds of atoms that have been found in nature1 about #gj are radioactive4 ,three families of radioactive isotopes#d--the uranium1 thorium1 and actinium series--produce a large proportion of the natural radiation4 ,other radionuclides#e occur singly1 rather than in families1 and some of them1 such as potassium-#dj and carbon-#ad1 are major contributors of natural radioactivity4 ,traces of natural radioactivity can be found1 in fact1 in all substances on earth4 ,when man began experimenting with atomic fusion and fission1 he placed in his environment--across vast landscapes1 in the oceans1 and in the atmosphere--measurable additional amounts of radioactivity4 ,these additions were composed of the longer-lived members of some #bjj kinds of atomic radiation4 ,although the additions constituted but a fraction of the background burden1 they represented the first alteration of the radiological balance that had existed since the early ages of the planet4 ,thus it became necessary to determine what the impact of such a change might be4 ,in the process of inquiry1 these ideas emerged3 #a4 ,the addition of man-made radioactivity presents the possibility of delayed or cumulative effects4 ,long-term studies1 geared to the assessment of biological effects from extremely low radioactivity1 are essential4 #b4 ,the addition of radioactivity makes possible broad-gauged studies to trace the movement and concentration of radionuclides in the environment4 ,these studies1 in turn1 can disclose new information on biological complexes and mechanisms4 ,illustration3 ,a flying atmospheric physics laboratory studying concentration of radionuclides over an ,atomic ,energy ,commission laboratory4 ,instrument pod under wing samples air to provide a visual record of radioactivity4 ,illustration3 ,transferring a sample of water taken from the depths of the ,columbia ,river for radiochemical analysis in a laboratory4 ,the quantities of low-level long-lived radioactivity already released into our environment will provide materials for future studies covering decades4 ,further1 because radioisotopes are chemically similar to nonradioactive forms1 observation of their biological fate will provide clues to the transport1 concentration1 dilution1 or elimination of many other kinds of man-made toxic agents and contaminants of the environment4 ,operating ,concepts ,illustration3 ,oceanographers bringing aboard a #ej-;gallon seawater sampler from the ocean depths find it a difficult task1 even in moderate seas4 ,this photo was taken aboard the ,r4 ,v4 ,crawford in the ,atlantic4 ,environmental problems are best approached in the environment itself1 where all the natural variables and unknowns are present4 ,laboratory work is essential1 but no laboratory can carve from nature or reproduce artificially all the complexities of the natural environmental 8laboratory01 the ecosystem4#f ,environmental studies frequently demand the coordinated attentions of ecologists1#g chemists1 physicists1 geologists1 oceanographers1 meteorologists1 botanists1 zoologists1 and others1 all working together to approach the environment as a synchronized mechanism4 ,finally1 environmental studies are conducted with a special consciousness of the need to withhold judgment as to what is meant by 8effect01 particularly 8radiation effect04 ,gross1 immediate effects may be determinable4 ,ultimate effects may be generations in the making1 remote in time and space from their causes4 ,studies thus are focused on biological processes and on isolation and identification of the long-range trends4 ,a ,,view ,,in ,,perspective1 #aidf-aifc ,bikini ,atoll1 in the ,marshall ,islands1 represents1 in miniature1 a world that has experienced all the forces1 immediate and residual1 that can result from nuclear detonation4 ,bikini in #aidf was the scene of the first peacetime tests of atomic weapons4 ,one of these tests involved the detonation of an atomic device under water1 in the heart of the atoll's aquatic circulatory system4 ,bikini also was used for #e years1 from #aied through #aieh1 for the testing of thermonuclear#h devices4 ,its islands and reefs were burned by atomic heat1 and the waters of its lagoon were contaminated by deposits of radioactive fallout4 ,thus1 for almost a score of years1 ,bikini1 a small outcropping of coral in the mid-,pacific1 was identified with the earliest experiments in nuclear explosion4 ,through the years of testing and later1 ,bikini also was the site of repeated biological investigations4 ,teams of scientists examined ,bikini annually from #aidf to #aiej and from #aied to #aieh4 ,then in #aifd1 after an interlude of #f years in which ,bikini was undisturbed either by weapons tests or human visitors1 scientists went there again to make a comprehensive ecological resurvey4 ,the scientists found in the ,bikini ecosystem1 in low but perceptible amounts1 residual traces of radioactivity deposited by the tests4 ,on certain islands1 craters dug by nuclear explosions still gaped in the reefs4 ,the test islands still bore nuclear scars1 and in some areas of the lagoon corals and algae had been killed by silt stirred up by the detonations4 ,but ,bikini's life system clearly was in a process of healing4 ,large islands were covered by regrowths of vegetation2 on some1 the masses of morning glory1 beach magnolia and pandanus were growing so densely that field parties had extreme difficulty cutting paths through them4 ,bikini ,atoll1 scientists believed1 needed only clearing and cultivation to make it once again suitable for human habitation4 ,illustration3 ,autoradiograph of a plankton sample collected from a ,pacific lagoon a week after a #aieb test4 ,what1 then1 may be concluded from the ,bikini case8 ,a final answer still cannot be phrased4 ,it is not a conclusion to say that nature and time have permitted recovery1 reassuring though such knowledge may be4 ,it becomes important to know the processes of recovery4 ,meantime1 it is helpful to examine the ,bikini case in the context of developments during the period from the end of ,world ,war ,,ii to the signing of the ,nuclear ,test ,ban ,treaty of #aifc4 ,the ,bikini ,tests of #aidf ,the early period of nuclear testing in the atmosphere was a time that will not be seen again4 ,it was the beginning of an era of unparalleled scientific activity and of worldwide emotional and intellectual adjustment to the knowledge that power of unimaginable magnitude1 locked in the nucleus of the atom since the creation of the world1 now could be released at will4 ,when ,world ,war ,,ii was ended1 the impulse to test the new power was irresistible4 ,there was profound curiosity about the revolutionary nature of the new force4 ,there was a perplexed and fearful realization that the release of energy would have to be guarded and controlled4 ,there was the knowledge that nuclear fission produced a miscellany of radioactive products presenting unexplored possibilities of hazard4 ,the word 8fallout0 was coined to describe the deposition on the earth of radioactive debris from nuclear explosions4 ,joint ,task ,force ,one ,the first peacetime nuclear tests1 conducted at ,bikini in #aidf in a military-scientific exercise designated ,operation ,crossroads1 were designed to assess the effects of nuclear weapons on naval vessels4 ,the test organization1 ,joint ,task ,force ,one1 an adaptation of the wartime joint task force combat concept1 was a massive waterborne force including #db1jjj members of the armed services1 civilian scientists1 consultants1 and observers4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bikini ,lagoon before testing4 ,bikini ,atoll was selected for the tests because1 among other things1 it was remote from heavily populated areas1 it offered a protected anchorage1 and it had the relatively stable and predictable meteorological and oceanographic conditions considered essential to operations in which the unknowns loomed so large4 ,three test detonations originally were projected2 two ultimately were carried out4 ,the first1 ,test ,able1 was an airdrop of an atomic bomb on ,july #a1 #aidf1 over a test fleet of #gj ships anchored in ,bikini ,lagoon4 ,the second1 ,test ,baker1 was the detonation on ,july #be of an atomic device suspended in the lagoon #ij feet below a small target vessel4 ,scientific ,interests ,although ,crossroads was a military program1 the mobilization of scientific interests was in many ways of historic proportions4 ,for months before the explosions1 oceanographers studied the waters and the structure of the mid-,pacific basin and meteorologists the winds and upper airs4 ,geologists1 zoologists1 botanists1 and other specialists examined the atoll in detail4 ,bikini became1 as it remains to this day1 one of the most thoroughly familiar ocean structures in the world4 ,there was awareness1 even then1 of the significance of radioactivity as an element of nuclear effect4 ,the task force made elaborate preparations to assure the safety of personnel and sent to the atoll thousands of radiation-detection instruments4 ,plans were made to observe the effects of radioactivity on test animals placed on ships of the target fleet4 ,the ,underwater ,detonation ,the first of the ,bikini events1 ,test ,able1 the explosion of a bomb dropped from an aircraft over the target fleet1 sank a number of major vessels1 left others sinking or crippled1 contaminated many with radiation1 and laid a plume of fallout northward over the rim of the atoll into the waters of the ocean4 ,it was ,test ,baker1 however1 the underwater explosion1 that would make ,bikini the subject of radiobiological investigations for many years4 ,the ,baker test was the first occasion in which nuclear debris was mixed with water and ocean sludge and returned to the area of detonation4 ,the explosive device was of what later would be called nominal size1 its force equivalent to #bj1jjj tons of ,,tnt4 ,the test still is regarded as a classic demonstration of the phenomena of shallow-water atomic explosion4 ,illustration3 ,the ,baker ,test4 ,a cauliflower-shaped cloud1 after dumping one million tons of water that had been sucked up by the explosion1 rises over the target warships1 silhouetted in front of the spreading base surge4 ,at the moment of release1 the surface water of the lagoon was first lifted and then penetrated by a lighted bubble that vanished in seconds in a hollow column of water of gigantic dimensions--a column #bjjj feet in diameter 7its walls #cjj feet thick7 rising to a height of #fjjj feet and containing #a1jjj1jjj tons of water4 ,at the base of the column1 foam was churned upward for several hundred feet1 and1 moving out from the base1 as the column sank back into the lagoon1 surged a monstrous wave initially more than #hj feet high4 ,radioactivity in the water was intense4 ,the immediate total was described as equal to 8many hundred tons of radium04 ,decay and dilution of radioactive materials quickly reduced the total radioactivity4 ,after #c days1 by which time water contamination had spread over an area of #ej square miles1 the dose rate from the water was well within safe limits for persons remaining for brief periods4 ,yet it was several more days before inspection and scientific parties could spend useful time among the surviving target vessels4 ,at the bottom of the lagoon1 below the point of detonation1 ,navy divers months later found that the explosion had scooped out thousands of tons of mud and coral sediment1 creating a shallow basin half a mile wide4 ,this basin1 in the slow settling of returning sludge1 became an area from which long-lived radioactivity entered ,bikini's biological system4 ,first ,assessments ,in #c weeks of final work after ,test ,baker1 the ,bikini scientific teams took from the islands and the lagoon many hundreds of samples of plants1 corals1 crabs1 fish1 plankton1 and water4 ,they noted that radioactivity was present in all samples taken from every part of the atoll1 which indicated an early uptake of radionuclides by the biota#i and suggested that there was a continuing circulation of radioactive debris in the water4 ,they took samples of fish in the open ocean outside the atoll and made comparative collections at other atolls4 ,the instruments and techniques for analyzing radioactivity were far from refined1 but all available evidence pointed to the need for more particular efforts to examine radiobiological results4 ,the ,bikini ,resurvey of #aidg ,a resurvey of ,bikini1 the first of many1 was conducted with heavy radioenvironmental emphasis in ,july #aidg1 a year after the ,crossroads tests4 ,the scientific expedition was supported by #b vessels and included #gj scientists and several hundred ,navy personnel4 ,illustration3 ,bikini ,beach as it appeared in the years after ,operation ,crossroads4 ,the resurvey group1 entering an oceanic environment that had been completely undisturbed for nearly a year1 established at once that traces of residual radioactivity still were cycling in ,bikini's ecosystem4 ,for #f weeks the scientists probed every realm of the atoll environment1 sampling biota1 making inventories of plant and animal communities1 and obtaining core samples from the lagoon floor4 ,when the data had been assembled and reviewed and the reports filed1 months later1 there was consensus that ,bikini had produced no evidence that radioactivity1 as a separate and identifiable factor1 was having any immediate effect on the health of the atoll1 and probably no cumulative effect1 either4 ,there were1 of course1 unknowns4 ,so long as radioactivity remained in the biological cycles there were possibilities of future developments4 ,in #aidg no other place on earth offered an opportunity to observe the natural processes by which radiation contamination is eliminated from an environment4 ,it therefore seemed prudent to compile a longer record1 consisting of other1 purely radiobiological surveys at ,bikini4 ,by #aidg the new ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,energy ,commission had taken over from the wartime ,manhattan ,engineering ,district the management of the national effort in the field of atomic energy4 ,a primary responsibility of the ,,aec in that period was to press ahead with nuclear weapons development1 but the agency also had specific obligations and interests in the fields of biology and medicine4 ,meantime1 the testing of nuclear weapons had been started at a new proving ground at ,eniwetok ,atoll1 #aij nautical miles west of ,bikini4 ,illustration3 ,islands on the rim of ,eniwetok ,atoll1 as they appear today4 ,the marks of man1 such as a landing strip1 are visible1 but regrowth of vegetation is apparent4 ,note extent of the reef on both sides of islands4 ,studies at ,nuclear ,test ,sites1 #aidh-aieh ,the first test series at ,eniwetok1 ,operation ,sandstone 7#aidh71 incorporated no formal radiobiological studies1 but radiobiologists visiting ,bikini also made surveys at ,eniwetok in #aidh and #aidi4 ,then1 for a time1 world events intervened4 ,the detonation of an atomic device by the ,u4,s4,s4,r4 in #aidi was followed in #aiej by the outbreak of the ,korean ,war1 and these events produced a national mood oriented toward national defense4 ,by #aiea1 because events in the ,pacific had interrupted tests there1 the ,atomic ,energy ,commission had established a continental test site in ,nevada4 ,in that year1 too1 tests were made at ,eniwetok preliminary to the detonation of the first thermonuclear device4 ,after #aiea each of the test programs had its radiobiological component4 ,in the ,pacific1 radiobiological surveys were associated with ,operation ,ivy 7#aieb71 ,operation ,castle 7#aied71 ,operation ,redwing 7#aief71 and ,operation ,hardtack 7#aieh74 ,a small field station1 the ,eniwetok ,marine ,biology ,laboratory1 was established for use by scientists conducting biological studies4 ,bikini was incorporated into the ,pacific ,proving ,ground in #aiec1 and new biological surveys were performed there in connection with the tests of #aied and later4 ,illustration3 ,the ,eniwetok ,marine ,biology ,laboratory4 ,monument at right commemorates the battle for ,eniwetok in ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,in these years1 #aiea to #aieh1 the ,u4,s4,s4,r4 was testing nuclear weapons1 as was ,great ,britain after #aieb4 ,fallout from these contributed to the total of man-made radioactivity potentially available to the environments of the world4 ,landmarks ,the years between the establishment of the ,pacific ,proving ,ground and the signing of the #aieh nuclear test moratorium were years in which the quest for environmental information could not keep pace with the rapid growth of nuclear capability4 ,but the growth in the field of weapons served to underline the need for information and produced certain landmark developments in environmental research4 ,the detonation of the first thermonuclear device projected the problem of environmental contamination to the stratosphere and1 literally1 to every part of the earth4 ,this explosion1 ,test ,mike1 largest on earth to that time1 was set off on ,elujelab ,island1 on the north rim of ,eniwetok ,atoll1 on ,november #a1 #aieb4 ,in the reef where ,elujelab had been1 the blast left a crater almost a mile in diameter and #bjj feet deep4 ,the towering nuclear cloud rose in #ae minutes to a height of #acj1jjj feet4 ,test ,mike marked a point of change4 ,before1 fallout from nuclear detonation had been principally local1 touching the waters and reefs of an atoll or a desert landscape4 ,after ,test ,mike1 the implications of fallout obviously were global4 ,a mishap in connection with a #aied thermonuclear test at ,bikini contributed in two important ways to the enlargement of environmental investigations4 ,fallout from the test1 swept off its predicted pattern by unexpected winds at high altitudes1 deposited debris on ,rongelap1 an inhabited atoll east of ,bikini1 and on fishermen aboard a ,japanese vessel operating in the ,bikini-,rongelap area4 ,the accident1 unfortunate in its consequences at ,rongelap and in ,japan1 had other results of even wider impact4 ,from it came the first international approaches to the problems of ocean contamination and1 later1 long-term bioenvironmental studies at ,rongelap itself4 ,illustration3 ,school of surgeonfish off ,arji ,island1 ,bikini ,atoll1 ,august #aifd4 ,note coral growth on lagoon bottom4 ,wide-ranging studies of ocean-borne radioactivity were initiated by the ,japanese4 ,the experience of the fishermen produced in ,japan a fear of contamination of fisheries resources as a result of the ,united ,states tests4 ,one result was the organization1 in the summer of #aied1 of a government-sponsored ocean survey expedition that cruised from ,japan into and through the ,bikini-,eniwetok area to determine what amounts of radioactivity were being carried1 by water and by aquatic organisms1 toward the shores of ,japan4 ,the expedition made significant observations of the role of plankton#aj in the biological utilization of ocean fallout4 ,a ,united ,states scientific team1 following up the ,japanese effort1 made a similar but far more extensive cruise through the ,western ,pacific early in #aiee and went on to ,japan to discuss its findings with the ,japanese4 ,during and after the test series in the ,pacific in #aief and #aieh1 ,united ,states surveys of the ocean were made routinely4 ,exchanges of information between scientists of ,japan and the ,united ,states continued4 ,the ,rongelap case produced results of another kind4 ,the ,rongelap people were found to have suffered exposure requiring medical attention and continued observation4 ,evacuated from their atoll because it was not safe1 members of the community were given care at other atolls until they could be repatriated in #aieg1 and received continued medical supervision thereafter4 ,the bioenvironmental condition of ,rongelap was unique4 ,the fallout had made the atoll the only place in the world contaminated on a single occasion by relatively heavy deposition of radioactive debris without also being disturbed by a nuclear explosion4 ,in #aieg-aieh1 after the ,rongelapese had been returned to a new village constructed on their atoll1 ,rongelap was the site of a long and thorough study of the circulation of radionuclides in the terrestrial-aquatic environment4 ,before the #aifc ,test ,ban ,treaty ,the first break in the pattern of nuclear testing came in #aieh1 when the nuclear powers agreed to a #a-year test moratorium4 ,the world's political and emotional climates were changing4 ,for more than #e years1 the ,united ,states1 which had announced its ,atoms-for-,peace ,program in ,december #aiec1 had been endeavoring to place emphasis on the use of atomic energy for constructive purposes4 ,the ,atomic ,energy ,act of #aied1 liberalizing provisions of the #aidf law1 contemplated for the first time private development of nuclear power resources and established authority for international activities4 ,in #aieg the ,atomic ,energy ,commission initiated its ,plowshare ,program for the development of peaceful uses of nuclear explosives4#aa ,illustration3 ,distribution of fallout radioisotopes on ,rongelap ,atoll as determined by a survey in #aifa4 ,note the interrelationships of man1 plants1 animals and the environment4 ,amid such changes there was arising1 too1 a wider apprehension concerning the possible effects of fallout4 ,the ,united ,nations in #aiee appointed a committee of scientific representatives of #ae nations to study the effects of radiation on man4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,national ,academy of ,sciences published in #aief the first of its summary reports on the biological effects of atomic radiation4 ,nuclear testing was not ended by the #aieh agreement1 yet the moratorium--which was renewed annually until #aifa1 when the ,u4,s4,s4,r4 broke the agreement by initiating a new test series--was significant as an experiment in nuclear restraint4 ,after the ,united ,states conducted a final test series near ,christmas ,island in #aifb1 new discussions of ways to halt successive rounds of nuclear test programs were held4 ,finally1 in #aifc1 the ,nuclear ,test ,ban ,treaty was signed by most of the nations of the world4 ,the treaty was1 among other things1 a declaration against worldwide fallout4 ,,the ,,atom ,,in ,,environmental ,,studies ,although his experience with radioactivity has been brief1 man probably already knows more about the effects of radiation than he knows about the effects of many other contaminants that alter his environment4 ,even so1 he knows far less than he needs to know to make certain that atomic energy is wisely managed in the future4 ,there has been neither time nor opportunity1 for example1 to gather radiation-effects data on more than a few hundred of the #a1ejj1jjj kinds of living organisms inhabiting the earth4 ,nor is it possible to predict the extent to which life can adjust itself to environmental changes resulting from scarcely perceptible alterations of natural radiological balances4 ,also undetermined is the relation between environmental changes and the biological exchanges making up the often mentioned1 but insufficiently understood1 8balance of nature04 ,the case of carbon-#ad is an example of a permanent man-made modification of the environment4 ,from the early ages of the earth1 carbon-#ad has been created in the upper atmosphere by the transmutation of nitrogen in cosmic-ray reactions4 ,carbon itself is an almost universal component of living matter1 and the ratio between stable carbon and radioactive carbon is believed to have been unchanged for thousands of years4 ,it is this circumstance that permits the use of carbon-#ad as a tool for 8dating01 or determining the ages of1 fossil remains1 prehistoric artifacts1 and geologic formations4 ,but carbon-#ad also is produced in nuclear fusion1 and the testing of thermonuclear devices after #aieb produced an estimated increase of #d in the amount of carbon-#ad on earth4 ,this is enough to disturb the natural equilibrium4 ,since the half-life#ab of carbon-#ad is some #ehjj years1 the addition will be a factor of environmental consideration for scores of human generations4 ,nuclear tests1 although not the only sources of man-made radioactivity1 have been until now the most significant ones and the only sources touching large areas of the earth4 ,the total product of nuclear testing is small in relation to the natural burden of radioactivity1 raising the level of radiation to which all life is subject by a factor of one-tenth or less4 ,but it is the unknown element1 the degree to which fallout radioactivity may introduce new influences into the environment1 that gives concern4#ac ,illustration3 ,one of the last cows of the herd exposed to fallout by the world's first atomic detonation in ,new ,mexico in ,july #aide1 photographed in #aifd4 ,the calf is her #aeth to be born in #ae years4 ,the cow1 believed about #bj years old1 has been under observation by scientists1 who found she suffered little apparent effect1 although the fallout caused some hair to turn gray 7see light patches on back74 ,other cows in the herd died natural deaths4 ,when a nuclear device is detonated1 the release of energy is due to the fission of uranium or plutonium atoms or to the fusion of hydrogen atoms4 ,at the instant of fission1 some #ge radionuclides1 or fission products1 are created4 ,from these primary fission products1 about #ajj other radionuclides may be formed1 some existing only for microseconds and others for thousands of years4 ,the radionuclides of significance to biologists are those that exist long enough--no matter how brief the time--to have an impact on a biological system4 ,factors of biological transport and concentration of long-lived radionuclides make efforts to assess possible environmental effects particularly difficult4 ,it has been asserted1 for example1 that probably every living cell formed since the early #aiejs contains some of the radionuclides produced by nuclear testing4 ,no one knows the significance of such a condition1 if it indeed exists4 ,it is certain only that some of the long-lived radionuclides already placed in the environment will be detectable there for hundreds of years and hence will continue to provide material for biological studies4 ,examining ,environments ,illustration3 ,seeds produced by plants grown in soil of a radioactive waste disposal area pass 7in aluminum cups7 on moving belt through a radioactivity detector as part of a study of movement of radioisotopes in food chains4 ,when radioactivity is injected randomly into the atmosphere by a nuclear detonation1 biological disposition begins in many ways1 each related to the character of the explosion and the environment in which it occurs4 ,fallout studies thus involve the tracing of mixed fission products in the biosphere and the collection and analysis of thousands of samples of plant and animal tissue1 and usually of water and soils1 at many successive times4 ,the radiobiologist then attempts to interpret the accumulated evidence of uptake of radionuclides4 ,some fallout studies may require sampling over large areas of the earth4 ,other investigations of fallout or of radioisotopes introduced deliberately into controlled field plots may require years of patient observation in small and circumscribed areas4 ,studies of ocean fallout1 for example1 have ranged over hundreds of thousands of square miles of open water4 ,the #aiee ,united ,states survey of the ,western ,pacific was conducted by a scientific team aboard a ,coast ,guard vessel1 the ,roger ,b4 ,taney1 in a program called ,operation ,troll4 ,in #g weeks the team cruised #ag1ejj miles1 making collections of water and marine organisms at #hf ocean stations on a route extending from the ,marshall ,islands through the ,caroline ,islands and the ,mariana ,islands to the ,philippines and finally to ,tokyo4 ,the expedition took samples of plankton at depths down to #bjj meters and water from the surface down to depths of #fjj1 #hjj1 #ajjj1 and #abjj meters4 ,environmental studies at nuclear test sites or in controlled ecosystems involve not only long-term1 periodic sampling of plants and animals but also years of detailed examination of soils1 meteorological conditions1 and other factors4 ,,terrestrial ,,ecology ,,research ,illustration3 ,an ecologist inspects cages placed around bagworm infestations of a red cedar tree that had been injected with radioactive cesium-#acd to determine uptake of radioactivity in the larvae4 ,illustration3 ,checking pine seedlings exposed to ionizing radiation from a radioactive source 7on tripod7 in a controlled ecosystem4 ,seedlings on left were fully exposed1 those in the middle were exposed on their tops only1 and those on the right were exposed on their stems only4 ,illustration3 ,biologist studying the root distribution of plants by injecting radionuclides into the soil and measuring plant uptake4 ,illustration3 ,a thriving ,messerschmidia plant growing on ,rongelap ,atoll is studied for growth-rate and root-systems data after the island was accidentally subjected to radioactive fallout4 ,illustration3 ,aerial view of a 8,gamma ,forest01 where growing trees are exposed to chronic irradiation from a source at the center of the picture4 ,this environmental biology study shows varying sensitivity of various trees4 ,trees in the center were killed by extremely high doses of radiation for #bj hours a day over a #f-month period4 ,illustration3 ,apparatus containing a strong radiation source being installed by biologists in a semitropical rain forest for terrestrial ecology research4 ,in programs of such scope and duration1 the problems of interpretation are great4 ,broadly1 environmental studies give consideration to3 #a4 ,the amounts and kinds of radioactivity released to the environment4 #b4 ,the rates of uptake by the biological system4 #c4 ,the amounts and kinds of radioactivity within the system4 #d4 ,the rates of metabolic transfer or elimination4 #e4 ,the amounts and kinds of radioactivity concentrated in tissue and acting internally4 #f4 ,the time required for biological processes to be completed and for any biological effects to develop4 ,biological ,inventories ,familiarity with the biological components of an ecosystem is essential to meaningful radiobiological assessment4 ,inventories of natural components were not made in the early nuclear test programs because of inadequate realization of the biological potential4 ,later1 they could be made only after radionuclides already had been introduced into the environments4 ,the survey of the mid-,pacific region before ,operation ,crossroads represented the earliest effort to examine an environment in detail before a nuclear detonation1 but was designed so that it had only inferential value for other long-range biological research4 ,the test surveys were useful1 however1 in expanding knowledge of specific environments4 ,in addition1 it was standard practice to make comparative collections of organisms in regions removed from the test sites to establish base lines1 or 8controls01 against which to measure radiobiological developments4 ,the most extensive inventory of an environment--an inventory designed specifically in relation to an anticipated nuclear detonation--was that made between #aiei and #aifb1 as a preliminary phase of ,project ,chariot1 in the ,cape ,thompson area of ,northwest ,alaska4 ,chariot was a part of the ,,aec ,plowshare ,program in which it was proposed to excavate a harbor at the mouth of the ,ogotoruk ,creek1 which empties into the ,chukchi ,sea4 ,although the excavation project actually never was undertaken1 the 8predetonation0 environmental investigations involved #c years of coordinated research into the climatic1 marine1 coastal1 and terrestrial aspects of the region1 and detailed studies of the history and the radiological and ecological situations of the human population4 ,illustration3 ,taking a soil sample for the ,project ,chariot biological inventory to determine kinds and relative abundance of invertebrates and other soil organisms4 ,the program was an effort to make a model environmental inventory4 ,its significance was both in its assessment of the base for determining the 8biological cost0 of the proposed operation and in the thoroughness of its documentation of the environmental features of a part of the world that previously had been virtually unexplored4 ,it was a prototype for future studies4 ,measurements and ,interpretations ,determination of the amounts and kinds of radioactivity in a biological sample is a process wholly dependent on instruments1 since radiation usually cannot be detected by the senses4 ,a biological sample is any material of measurable biological significance4 ,a sample of tissue or similar organic material usually is dried or reduced to ash in a muffle furnace before it is examined with a radiation counting device4 ,improved instruments now permit the counting of radioactivity at levels so low as to have been imperceptible a few years ago4 ,the samples1 placed in lead chambers for maximum shielding from background radiations1 are examined by multichannel analyzers capable of recording radiation emissions continuously over long periods of time4 ,data-processing techniques have been employed in the handling and interpretation of information from long-range biological sampling and analysis programs4 ,analog computers have been used experimentally for theoretical projections of results4 ,illustration3 ,instruments record radiation1 weather1 sunlight1 and other factors transmitted from remote sensors to this data center established for a long-range terrestrial ecology study program4 ,scientists at the ,,aec's ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory1 for example1 have developed experiments in which an analog computer is programmed to keep a running balance of the net changes--simultaneous gains and losses--of radioactivity in the various compartments of a representative ecosystem4 ,the computer becomes an electronic image of the biosphere1 using known or assumed rates of energy transfer and photosynthesis to predict probable radiological results of tracer experiments of environmental contamination4 ,,environments--,,singular1 ,,yet ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,whole ,each environment presents its own sets of conditions and unknowns4 ,it is important to appreciate those that are characteristic of water1 land1 and atmosphere4 ,aquatic ,systems ,the oceans are the basins into which are poured all the nutrients or wastes transported from the land by rivers and winds4 ,the difficulty of determining the fate of radionuclides in aquatic systems is complicated by chemical and biological differences within the system and by the variety and scope of the circulatory mechanisms4 ,in oceans the sheer immensity of the water volume usually makes observation superficial or fragmentary4 ,rivers present great differences in flow1 and lakes vary in internal dynamics4 ,above all1 an ocean1 a river1 or a lake is an area of constant physical and biological motion and change4 ,in the ocean the surface waters form a theater of kaleidoscopic1 and frequently violent1 action4 ,the presence of man-made radioactivity in water has made it possible to follow the disposition of nutrients and wastes in the restless aquatic ecosystem4 ,biological ,uptake ,in a water environment the minerals necessary to life are held in solution or lie in bottom sediments4 ,they become available to animal life after being absorbed by plants1 both large floating or rooted plants and tiny floating ones called phytoplankton2 because the phytoplankton are found everywhere in the sea1 they play a larger role4 ,the phytoplankton concentrate minerals and become food for filter-feeding fish and other creatures1 including the smaller zooplankton1#ad which1 in turn1 are food for other organisms4 ,thus the minerals enter extremely complex food chains4 ,the cycles of nutrition are completed when fish and plants die and decomposition again makes the minerals available to the phytoplankton4 ,,environmental ,,research ,illustration3 ,,rain ,,forest4 ,a giant fan pulls air through a plastic-enclosed portion of a ,puerto ,rico rain forest to study the metabolism rate of trees4 ,illustration3 ,,hardwood ,,forest4 ,technicians preparing to tag ,tennessee trees with a solution containing a radioactive cesium isotope in the start of a #aj-year project4 ,scientists will study movement of the radioactivity into insects and their predators4 ,illustration3 ,,freshwater4 ,aquatic biologists emptying plankton traps to study concentrations of radioactivity in microscopic organisms in the ,columbia ,river downstream from the ,hanford atomic plant in ,washington ,state4 ,illustration3 ,,mountains4 ,weather station in a deer-forage area of the ,rocky ,mountains in ,colorado provides environmental data and fallout samples that are correlated with levels of radionuclides found in the deer4 ,illustration3 ,,tundra4 ,this caribou was examined in detail as part of a study of transfer of fallout nuclides in food chains from plants to animals to man4 ,caribou is the principal meat animal of some ,alaska ,eskimos4 ,illustration3 ,,desert4 ,zoologist examines an animal trap as part of a field ecological study of a ,nevada nuclear test site4 ,some radionuclides that are introduced into an aquatic environment enter the food chains exactly as do the stable minerals essential to life1 because the radionuclides are merely radioactive forms of the nutrients4 ,elements such as copper1 zinc1 and iron are less plentiful in the water environment than hydrogen1 carbon1 or oxygen1 for example1 but are concentrated by phytoplankton because they are necessary for life4 ,such elements are in short supply but in constant demand2 thus1 when their radioactive forms are deposited in water1 they are immediately taken up by aquatic plants and begin to move through the food chains4 ,fission products such as strontium-#ij1 for which there is little or no metabolic demand1 are taken up by aquatic food chains to only a minor extent4 ,the precise paths of radioelements through aquatic ecosystems are almost unknown4 ,in addition to their movement in food chains1 radioelements also may be moved physically from place to place in the tissues of fish or other creatures4 ,some radionuclides for which there is no biological demand may sink into bottom sediments and remain there until they have lost their radioactivity4 ,or radioactivity actually may be transported 8uphill01 from water to land1 as when birds that feed on fish containing radioactivity leave their excretions at nesting areas4 ,the routes and modes of transport seem numberless4 ,illustration3 ,movement of radioactive elements in a forest-lake ecological system4 ,most nutrient-flow is 8downhill01 but birds1 migrating fish1 and the evaporation-rainfall cycle may move them 8uphill04 ,the ,oceans ,the surface waters of the seas1 down to depths of #bjj meters1 are areas of rapid mixing in which temperature1 density1 and salinity are almost uniform4 ,below the surface water is a zone in which temperature decreases and density and salinity increase with depth4 ,this zone1 known as the thermocline1 may reach a depth of #ajjj meters4 ,because density is increasing here1 vertical motion is reduced1 and exchanges between the surface and the deep waters are impeded4 ,knowledge of temperature1 density1 and salinity is important to understanding what happens to radionuclides in the ocean4 ,physical conditions affect the rates of physical movement of radioactivity in the mixed 7surface7 layer1 the degree to which radionuclides are held at the thermocline1 and the processes by which radionuclides pass the thermocline and enter the deep-water cycles and upwellings4 ,illustration3 ,men aboard the research vessel ,shimada pulling in plankton nets during sampling operations at sea4 ,the surface currents of the ocean are largely wind driven and their patterns generally well known4 ,new concepts of the vertical and horizontal diffusion of substances introduced into the ocean were developed1 however1 in studies of ocean-borne fallout during and after nuclear tests in the ,pacific4 ,the first of these surveys was conducted near ,eniwetok and ,bikini4 ,scientists aboard a ,navy vessel sampled water and plankton to depths of #cjj meters at some #ij points spread over an area of #gh1jjj square miles to determine the disposition of early fallout from the nuclear detonations4 ,some weeks later another expedition voyaged from ,eniwetok to ,guam and returned1 covering an area of #cge1jjj square miles to follow 7by sampling7 the mass of water-borne radioactivity resulting from the test and to note the intervening effects of diffusion1 dilution1 biological uptake1 and decay4 ,in #aieh two more surveys were conducted1 the first to ascertain the spread and depth--with samplings below the thermocline--of a radioactively tagged water mass immediately following an underwater detonation1 and the second to follow the westward drift of the tagged water mass4 ,significantly1 it was found that plankton immediately take up large amounts of radioactivity4 ,planktonic forms1 in fact1 proved to be the most sensitive indicators of the presence of radioactivity in the marine environment4 ,further1 the daily vertical migrations of plankton--down in response to sunlight and up at night--seemed a part of the process by which radionuclides move from the upper waters to the deeps4 ,the expedition scientists noted that the masses of low-level radioactivity moved in the ocean significantly slower than the surface currents1 a circumstance attributable in large measure to biological factors4 ,the distribution of residual radioactivity in the sea a month after the close of a nuclear testing program could be determined by counting radioactivity in plankton samples4 ,it was established that strontium-#ij and cesium-#acg1 important in fallout on land1 enter the marine cycles only in minute amounts4 ,practically no fission products are found in fish4 ,since strontium-#ij is not concentrated strongly by marine organisms1 the question of what happens to it in the ocean remains unanswered4 ,studies have suggested1 however1 that strontium moves in solution and thus indicates the movement of water4 ,if this is true1 strontium-#ij may be contained in the deep currents and eventually will be brought again to the surface4 ,some observers believe this process has begun4 ,rivers1 ,lakes1 and ,estuaries ,the freshwater environment differs from the marine in the greater variety of its minerals1 among other things4 ,as sites for radiobiological studies1 rivers and lakes present problems of great complexity1 but conditions at river mouths or estuaries are even more difficult because of the mixing by tidal action of fresh and salt water4 ,rivers vary greatly in character and change radically from season to season because of rainfall and other factors4 ,general understanding of their biological workings is difficult to formulate4 ,but rivers are the routes by which minerals and wastes are transported toward the sea1 and estuaries are significant because of the many forms of life that flourish there4 ,studies of radioactivity in rivers and estuaries usually have been made in relation to the fate of effluents from nuclear plants4 ,among the longest and most intensive studies are those near ,hanford1 ,washington4 ,observations were started in #aidc1 when the federal government was preparing to build plutonium-producing reactors to be cooled by waters of the ,columbia ,river4 ,illustration3 ,fisheries biologists studying hatchery fish reared in water containing radioactivity from the ,hanford plutonium reactors4 ,for more than two decades1 observations have been made of the physical dispersion and biological disposition of low-level effluents in the ,columbia4 ,concentration factors have been established for significant radionuclides in phytoplankton1 algae1 insects1 and fish1 and typical patterns of dilution and dispersion have been plotted4 ,similar programs1 in an entirely different freshwater system1 have been conducted over a similar span of years near the ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory in ,tennessee4 ,one area of interest has been the biological disposition of trace amounts of strontium-#ij released to the ,tennessee ,river via tributary streams4 ,among the few broad estuarial studies yet undertaken is one started in #aifa to plot the dissemination in the lower ,columbia ,river1 and in the ,pacific ,ocean1 of radioisotopes transported by the river from the ,hanford plant4 ,radiobiologists are studying biological distribution4 ,oceanographers are using the trace amounts of effluent radioactivity to verify the patterns of dispersion of river waters in the ocean4 ,land ,illustration3 ,plant ecologists 8tagging0 experimental forest plots with radioactive cesium for long-term studies4 ,natural radionuclides find their way into plants' metabolic processes4 ,man-made radionuclides also are so incorporated--even some1 such as uranium or radium1 that have no known metabolic role4 ,the man-made nuclides1 whether they reach the earth in fallout or by other means1 mix with the stable nuclides to which they are chemically related1 increasing by small fractions the total amount of each element available to participate in plant growth cycles4 ,because artificial radionuclides behave so typically1 they present1 on the one hand1 a possible long-term hazard and1 on the other1 the expectation that their detectability will reveal much about the biological courses of minerals and nutrients4 ,the disposition of man-made radioactivity on land is determined in part by such factors as topography and the presence or absence of water4 ,topography may influence the distribution by setting patterns of drainage and exposure of surface soils to wind and rain4 ,water may affect dilution1 or it may leach radionuclides out of surface soils and thus remove them from the level in which plants are rooted4 ,the leaching may carry radionuclides elsewhere1 however1 possibly causing mild contamination of the water table4 ,illustration3 ,trench dug on ,rongelap ,island to expose soil strata and root systems to determine penetration of radionuclides in coral-sand 8topsoil04 ,plants take up radionuclides through their roots or through their foliage4 ,but the role of soils is significant4 ,some radionuclides are bound as ions to clays and thus are withheld in large measure from entry into the plant system4 ,cesium-#acg1 for example1 is held so tightly by soils that uptake through plant roots is slight1 and thus a more significant mode of entry of cesium-#acg into food chains is by direct deposit on plant leaves4 ,variables are introduced by the physical configuration of the plant itself1 by seasonal differences in plant metabolism1 and by the effects of rain and snow4 ,in the case of iodine-#aca1 a short half-life--#h days--virtually precludes the possibility of extensive uptake through plant roots4 ,but the half-life is not too short to prevent grazing cattle from ingesting radioiodine deposited in fallout and thus allow the appearance of radioiodine in milk4 ,illustration3 ,survey of pasture grasses to determine whether radioactive materials are present4 ,if they are1 they could be passed from the grasses to cows and then from the cows' milk to humans4 ,much attention has been devoted to strontium-#ij and to its availability to man by deposit on plants and soils4 ,because strontium bears a close chemical relation to calcium1 a unit expressing this relation1 the strontium unit 7one picocurie#ae #a #aj-ab curie of strontium-#ij per gram of calcium7 is used in following strontium-#ij through food chains4 ,soils1 however1 present confusing factors4 ,experiments and fallout observations show that strontium-#ij does not penetrate soils deeply4 ,in typical instances it remains in the upper inch or two of the soil surface1 where its availability to root systems is as variable as the conditions of mixing1 leaching1 and plant growth4 ,experiments have shown that plant uptake of strontium from soils can be reduced by introduction of calcium in available form into the soil4 ,radiobiological developments on land result from combinations of environmental influences4 ,studies in the ,rocky ,mountains show that ecological conditions above the timberline1 particularly in areas where snowbanks accumulate1 are efficient in concentrating fallout radionuclides4 ,concentrations thus take place in the snow-packed heights that are the sources of mountain streams flowing to the plains far below4 ,atmosphere ,the environment of the earth is a product of 8weather0--of the transport of moisture1 of the actions between winds and oceans1 of the cycling of energy through biotic systems4 ,understanding of biological potentials of atmospheric factors involves understanding of atmospheric motions affecting transport and mixing of contaminants and the processes of deposition of radionuclides from atmosphere to earth4 ,illustration3 ,network of towers on the ,atomic ,energy ,commission reservation near ,richland1 ,washington1 used by atmospheric physicists in measuring quantity1 concentration1 and dilution of radioactive materials in the atmosphere4 ,at some thousands of feet above the earth's surface--at #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj feet in the middle and polar latitudes and at #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj feet in the tropics--there is a level1 the tropopause1 at which air temperature1 rather than decreasing1 becomes constant or increases with height4 ,below this level is the troposphere1 the turbulent zone of clouds1 rain1 and fog4 ,above it is the stratosphere1 where there is no turbulence and only a slow mixing of dry and cloudless air4 ,the stratosphere continues to a height of about #ajj1jjj feet4 ,investigators have noted the importance of rain or snow in washing fallout particles from the air in the troposphere4 ,there is disagreement on the precise modes of distribution of radioactive materials projected into the stratosphere4 ,in the detonation of low-yield nuclear devices1 fission products are not projected beyond the troposphere1 and fallout is washed down in periods of days or weeks4 ,because winds move principally in east-west directions1 tropospheric fallout appears on the earth in bands centered approximately at the latitude of detonation4 ,but when high-yield explosions propel contaminants into the stratosphere1 the pattern of subsequent developments is less clear4 ,it once was believed that fallout from the stratosphere was distributed more or less evenly--though over long periods of time--over the surface of the earth4 ,the present view is that fallout debris placed in the stratosphere remains in that hemisphere in which the explosion occurs4 ,this concept is based on an atmospheric circulation theory that air enters the stratosphere at the equator and descends again in temperate and polar latitudes each spring4 ,the theory presumes a much shorter 8residence time0 of stratospheric air and thus a quicker return of fallout particles to the turbulent troposphere4#af ,the presence of radionuclides in the atmosphere has provided clues to cyclical movements of biological importance4 ,during the period of nuclear tests in the ,pacific1 observers noted spring 8pulses01 or increases1 of strontium-#ij deposition in the northern hemisphere1 a phenomenon difficult to verify or explain satisfactorily while testing was proceeding4 ,later1 when testing had been suspended1 the spring peaks reappeared4 ,the observation seemed to support the theory that nuclear debris injected into the stratosphere was descending years later through a gap in the tropopause4 ,samplings of nuclear debris by balloon have been under way for several years at altitudes of #ajj1jjj to #aej1jjj feet1 and rocket-borne air samplers and other systems have been developed for taking atmospheric samples up to #bjj1jjj feet4 ,programs for studying airborne contamination from industrial activities--operated at the more accessible but equally difficult levels of the atmosphere--have been sponsored by the ,atomic ,energy ,commission near the ,hanford ,plant1 ,washington1 and at the ,oak ,ridge1 ,argonne1 and ,brookhaven ,national ,laboratories in ,tennessee1 ,illinois1 and ,new ,york4 ,the ,hanford studies were started before plutonium production was begun in #aidc1 and findings on industrial stack-discharge rates established patterns for meteorological programs at other sites4#ag ,,problems ,,and ,,projects ,the range and variety of environmental studies now in progress make it almost impossible to provide any all-encompassing statement of results4 ,almost all places associated with nuclear programs have become focal points of research in environmental biology4 ,fallout1 deposited in patterns determined by the mechanisms of the atmosphere1 has created at certain points on the earth's surface--the ,arctic1 for example--ecological conditions that require investigation4 ,new information of bioenvironmental significance has come in bits and fragments4 ,we can1 however1 attempt to summarize what has been learned and to show1 in broad terms1 how radiobiological experience has extended appreciation of the earth as a single ecosystem--a system comprised of an infinity of interactions of water1 land1 and atmosphere1 and of all living things4 ,the spectrum of environmental investigation--investigations using man-made radioactivity--incorporates research in which3 #a4 ,fallout radioactivity is assessed as a potential specific hazard to human populations4 #b4 ,conditions created by fallout are examined for their potential long-term ecological significance4 #c4 ,radionuclides introduced into the environment by nuclear tests1 reactor operations1 or other means are used as trace materials in basic studies in biological systems4 #d4 ,radioactive forms of minerals and nutrients are deliberately introduced into biosystems--in measured amounts and under conditions of control--for studies of metabolic cycles and rates of flow of energy and nutrition4 ,it will be useful to look in detail at some typical programs and results4 ,,animal ,,research ,illustration3 ,,rat4 ,a lightly anesthetized1 wild trapped rat is weighed and measured prior to marking it1 taking a blood sample1 and releasing it in a controlled ecosystem4 ,illustration3 ,,fish4 ,fisheries biologist with a large jackfish caught off ,engebi ,island1 ,eniwetok ,atoll4 ,illustration3 ,,coconut ,,crab4 ,measuring the radioactivity of the shell of a coconut crab caught on ,bikini ,island4 ,illustration3 ,,geese4 ,banding wild geese to study environmental effects of radionuclides on wildlife and possible entry of radionuclides into the human food chain4 ,illustration3 ,,plankton4 ,an ingenious plankton trap is placed in a river as part of a long-range study of radionuclide uptake by aquatic organisms4 ,illustration3 ,,skate4 ,a clear-nosed skate being monitored by fisheries personnel to gather data on accumulation of radionuclides in its blood and tissues4 ,wasps and ,radioactive ,mud ,at ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory1 ,tennessee1 it was discovered in #aifd that two kinds of mud-dauber wasps were building their mud nests in equipment1 cabinets1 and electronic gear in the vicinity of a field station on the ,oak ,ridge reservation4 ,some nests1 investigation disclosed1 were built of radioactive mud4 ,it seemed obvious that the wasps were obtaining mud from radioactive waste pits or from the ,white ,oak ,lake bed1 which is the site of a former #dj-;acre lake used for #ab years as a detention pool for radioactive wastes4#ah ,the mud daubers were carrying mud as far as #fej feet from the contaminated sources4 ,almost #ij of #aab nests built by the yellow-legged mud-dauber species were radioactive1 and the mud was delivering to the wasp eggs each hour a dose of penetrating radiation equal to that received by a man from all natural sources over a period of many years4 ,the development presented no human health problems1 but further observation revealed a fascinating circumstance4 ,at the same time1 another variety of wasp1 the pipe-organ mud dauber1 was building nests only of nonradioactive mud4 ,of #aej pipe-organ wasp nests examined1 none was radioactive4 ,the nests were found in similar locations1 and it was apparent that the same sources of nest materials were available to both species4 ,,wasp ,,nest ,,research ,mud-dauber wasps1 building nests of radioactive mud in a waste disposal area near an ,oak ,ridge1 ,tennessee1 atomic plant1 are the object of intensive environmental radiation study4 ,a shows radioactivity reading from a nest4 ,b is an enlarged view of the nest with two tiny dosimeters in place to measure radiation4 ,in ,c an ecologist inspects new nests built in a laboratory flight cage from radioactive mud provided in pans at the bottom4 ,in ,d wasps are anesthetized1 marked with tiny plastic disks for future identification1 and released4 ,the question1 then1 was why wasps of one species were using radioactive mud while the other species seemingly discriminated against contaminated mud4 ,the muds appeared to be entirely alike4 ,x-ray-diffraction studies showed no material differences1 nor were there detectable differences in 8feel01 smell1 or plasticity4 ,radioactive isotopes in the mud included cesium-#acg1 cobalt-#fj1 ruthenium-#ajf1 and zinc-#fe4 ,oak ,ridge scientists began to try to find out whether the pipe-organ wasps actually were discriminating against muds containing all or some of these radioisotopes or against the ionizing radiation from them4 ,if so1 how could the wasps detect it8 ,these investigations were continuing in #aife4 ,there is no answer yet4 ,survival of an ,animal ,population ,the case of ,bikini already has been discussed as an example of a predominantly aquatic environment apparently recovering from association with nuclear experiment4 ,eniwetok offers an instance of the toughness of an animal population exposed both to direct and long-range radiological impact4 ,engebi ,island1 on ,eniwetok's northeast reef1 is the home of a wholly self-contained colony of ,pacific rats living in a network of burrows in the shallow coral sands4 ,after #aidh ,engebi was exposed repeatedly to atomic detonations1 and in #aieb the whole island was swept clean of growth and overwashed by waves from the thermonuclear explosion of ,operation ,ivy4 ,on each of these occasions1 exposure of the rat colony to radiation was intense4 ,in #aieb1 by later estimates1 the animals aboveground received radiation doses of #bejj to #fjjj roentgens per hour1 and those in burrows doses of #aab to #aaab roentgens per hour4#ai ,the island environment was so altered by atomic forces and by contaminated water that radiobiologists believed it impossible that any of the rats had survived4 ,because there was no natural route by which the island could be repopulated1 scientists even considered introducing a new rat colony for study of a population growth in a mildly radioactive environment4 ,illustration3 ,engebi ,island1 ,eniwetok ,atoll1 home of a colony of rats living in radioactive surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,close-up shows one burrow in the soil4 ,contrary to all expectations1 however1 the original colony had not been eliminated4 ,biologists visiting ,engebi in #aiec and #aied found the rats apparently flourishing4 ,new generations of rats were being born and were subsisting on grasses and other plants in an environment still slightly radioactive4 ,in #aiee analysis of the bones of rats revealed the presence of strontium-#hi and strontium-#ij in amounts approaching what was assumed to be the maximum amount that would not cause bodily harm4 ,the rats' muscle tissues contained radioactive cesium-#acg4 ,but no physical malformations were found in the rats4 ,all animals appeared in sound physical condition1 despite these body burdens of radioactivity4 ,by #aifd the rat population had so increased that it apparently had reached equilibrium with available food supplies4 ,questions relating to the reestablishment of the colony are intriguing4 ,why are new generations of these warm-blooded animals continuing to thrive after the colony was exposed to devastating nuclear effects8 ,is there a different dose-effect relation for these rats than for other animals8 ,even if it is assumed1 as it must be1 that some members of the colony survived the original nuclear heat and radioactivity because they were shielded by concrete bunkers or other man-made structures1 how is it that there have been no observable effects among rats existing for years in an area that continually exposed them to radiation8 ,illustration3 ,a native rat1 captured alive on ,engebi ,island1 being held by a scientist before having its toenails clipped as a means of identification4 ,note the animal's healthy appearance4 ,fallout and ,populations ,in ,arctic regions lying on opposite sides of the ,north ,pole1 fallout has created conditions that are given continuous scrutiny by scientists of ,scandinavia and the ,united ,states4 ,the two cases1 one involving the ,lapps of northern ,finland and the other the ,eskimos of ,alaska1 are essentially the same4 ,hemispheric fallout introduced quantities of long-lived radionuclides1 particularly cesium-#acg1 into the food chains and consequently into the diets of native peoples4 ,in each instance there had occurred a slow accumulation of radionuclides in the lichens and mosses and in other plants that are the foods of the reindeer and caribou4 ,the meat of these animals forms a substantial part of the human diets1 and as a result the members of the native communities were found to have1 on the average1 body burdens of radioactivity approaching the acceptable limit for human populations4 ,a preliminary study of the ,lapp environment was made in #aieh-aiei1 and a ,lapp dietary study was made in #aifj4 ,the results showed close correlation between the consumption of reindeer meat and the ,lapps' body burdens of cesium-#acg4 ,the ,scandinavian investigators concluded that the levels of concentrated cesium approximated the maximum permissible dose range for large populations4 ,they noted1 however1 that 8the final answer 444 has to be given by the geneticists04 ,illustration3 ,placing equipment to measure fallout in precipitation north of the ,arctic ,circle in ,alaska4 ,in ,alaska1 where studies of the native populations have been proceeding for several years1 adult ,eskimos living in the vicinity of ,anaktuvuk ,pass#bj were found in #aifd to have average body burdens of cesium-#acg more than #bj times as great as the average for adults in the area of the original #dh states4 ,there was an expectation that even without further nuclear testing the levels of cesium-#acg would continue to rise slowly in ,arctic regions until about #aifh4 ,the ,variety of ,approaches ,bioenvironmental studies form a background against which all atomic energy research is conducted4 ,the central objective of the ,atomic ,energy ,commission's environmental radiation studies is 8to determine the fate and effect of radionuclides in the environment04 ,this objective calls for hundreds of concurrent approaches to the interlocking problems of the air1 the sea1 and the land4 ,the ,,aec alone1 through its ,division of ,biology and ,medicine1 is supporting research costing about #ge million a year1 about two-thirds of this amount going to biological and medical programs at ,,aec laboratories and the remainder to some #fej individual contract studies at universities1 nonprofit institutions1 and commercial research organizations4 ,additional programs1 large and small1 are supported by foundations or other agencies4 ,work goes on in other nations4 ,many programs are international4 ,although only a fraction of this total activity is specifically related to environmental problems1 the concern throughout is with the effect1 for good or ill1 of radioactivity on man and his world4 ,it is possible to suggest by example the lines of inquiry4 ,illustration3 ,a ,university of ,georgia ,research ,institute ecologist studying biological specimens in a controlled environment near the ,,aec ,savannah ,river ,plant1 ,aiken1 ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,trinity site in ,new ,mexico1 scene of the first atomic detonation in history1 was studied for a number of years after #aide1 particularly in relation to the distribution and effects of residual radioactivity in the desert environment4 ,in #aifc and #aifd scientists from the ,university of ,missouri undertook to determine the state of revegetation of the original atomic bomb crater4 ,the ,nevada ,test ,site1 where nuclear programs have been conducted for a decade and a half1 has invited investigations of revegetation4 ,project ,sedan1 an underground thermonuclear detonation in #aifb1 established conditions for one such study4 ,the crater produced by this detonation was #cbj feet deep and #abjj feet in diameter4 ,vegetation growing within #bejj feet of ground zero was almost completely destroyed1 and the original soil was covered by radioactive throwout4 ,shrubs as far as #ejjj feet away from ground zero were damaged by air blast1 and1 in the weeks after the detonation1 plants within a two-mile radius were covered by radioactive sand and silt or by deposits of windblown radioactive dust4 ,studies in #aifc by scientists from the ,university of ,california at ,los ,angeles showed that native plants--,russian thistle and various annuals--had become well established in the zone around the ,sedan crater where the earth was thrown out4 ,this area had remained barren for less than a year4 ,some of the shrubs most severely damaged by the blast1 and exposed to cumulative gamma radiation doses of more than #djjj roentgens1 had produced new growth4 ,populations of creosote bush1 evergreen plants that in #aifb appeared to have been killed by heavy doses of radiation1 were producing leafy branches in the summer of #aifc4 ,these developments permitted no conclusions1 of course1 for the possible radiation effects still needed to be identified4 ,studies were conducted1 for example1 of the effect of deliberately depositing nonradioactive dust on healthy creosote plants1 and comparative studies of other phenomena were made4 ,since #aiei1 ecological studies have been carried forward at the ,nevada site by investigators from ,brigham ,young ,university who are interested in the abundance1 seasonal occurrence1 and ecological influences affecting the vertebrate and invertebrate animals in plant communities of the region4 ,surveys have been made in areas where nuclear explosions had obliterated natural ecological relationships and in similar areas undisturbed by nuclear effects4 ,the investigations are concerned primarily with desert ecology--with the identification of biotic communities and of predominant animal species4 ,among research programs in marine environments is that initiated in #aifc and #aifd by the ,university of ,california's ,institute of ,marine ,resources at ,la ,jolla1 where studies of marine food chains are conducted by a team of zoologists1 chemists1 botanists1 and microbiologists4 ,the program studies the interrelations among organisms at the lower levels of the food chains and the dynamics of marine phytoplankton cell division1 photosynthesis1 and excretion of organic matter as related to temperature1 light intensity1 and nutrient conditions4 ,the work is conceived as a basic study of marine ecology4 ,it is focused1 however1 on questions found to be significant in studies of radioactivity in the sea4 ,the ,university of ,california's ,lawrence ,radiation ,laboratory has launched a long-term investigation of the effects of the release of radionuclides on the biosphere1 which encompasses the origins1 transport1 and final localization of radionuclides in all types of organs1 tissues1 cells1 and subcellular constituents4 ,the objective is 8to develop the most complete understanding possible of the potential hazards to man that arise from the release of nuclear radiation and radionuclides into the biosphere and to apply this knowledge to the prevention of damage to living forms44404 ,in programs such as these--multiplied by hundreds--the problems are being attacked4 ,,where ,,are ,,we ,,now8 ,radiobiological studies that are environmental in scope became1 with the release of atomic energy1 a mandate on the twentieth century4 ,environmental studies are not new4 ,they have been implicit in thousands of biological research efforts1 large and small1 for generations4 ,atomic energy1 however1 is a new factor4 ,also new is the intensity of the approach4 ,not until the explosion of inquiry of this century has man brought together the necessary resources--the time1 the funds1 the instruments1 the ingenious technological devices1 the ideas1 and the organizational and management skills--to attack problems that are global in scale4 ,the atom as a tool of the environmental radiobiologist has1 of itself1 solved few problems4 ,its significance is that it has speeded up--to a degree still not fully tested--our ability to study ecosystems and their relations to each other4 ,the ,first ,twenty ,years ,instruments for environmental research4 ,illustration3 ,a radiation analyzer for laboratory examination of field samples4 ,illustration3 ,installing environmental research equipment in the field4 ,the first two decades of the ,atomic ,age have comprised a period of swift maturity4 ,much has been done to gain perspective4 ,atomic energy as a potential force for destruction has not been controlled4 ,but there is a surer knowledge of the hazard inherent in the absence of control and a rational hope that the new power will be directed toward peaceful objectives4 ,we know that3 #a4 ,the uninhibited release of nuclear products into the environment of the earth will create problems--fundamentally biological problems--of long duration and of still-unassessed ultimate effect4 #b4 ,use of atomic weapons in war could have a 8biological cost0 beyond calculation4 ,yet1 in terms of constructive employment of atomic resources1 we also know that3 #a4 ,atomic energy may help solve the very problems that the new age presents4 #b4 ,careful and controlled development of atomic forces will provide the reservoirs of energy that will be needed to sustain the world's populations of the next century and beyond4 ,in whatever case1 the solutions lie in the direction of environmental knowledge4 ,man1 the human animal1 will live in the environment he has the intelligence to understand and to preserve4 ,illustration3 8444 ,all creatures are linked to each other 444 in their dependence on limited environments that together form the whole of nature 4440 7,page #c74 7,white-capped noddy tern nesting colony1 ,engebi ,island1 ,eniwetok ,atoll1 photographed in #aife47 ,,suggested ,,references ,basic ,sourcebook on ,atomic ,energy1 ,samuel ,glasstone1 ,d4 ,van ,nostrand ,company1 ,inc41 ,princeton1 ,new ,jersey1 #aieh1 #fda pp41 #d4dj4 ,what is ,ionizing ,radiation81 ,robert ,l4 ,platzman1 ,scientific ,american1 #bja3 #gd 7,september #aiei74 ,weapons ,testing and ,fallout ,the ,effects of ,nuclear ,weapons1 ,samuel ,glasstone 7,ed471 ,u4 ,s4 ,atomic ,energy ,commission1 #aifb 7revised edition71 #gcj pp41 #c4jj4 ,available from ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdjb4 ,fallout from ,nuclear ,weapons ,tests1 ,hearings ,before the ,special ,subcommittee on ,radiation of the ,joint ,committee on ,atomic ,energy1 #hfth ,congress1 ,first ,session1 ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjdjb1 #aiei4 ,vol4 ,i1 #idh pp41 #b4ge2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aifg pp41 #b4ge2 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #bfah pp41 #a4ge4 8,summary-,analysis of ,hearings01 #db pp41 #j4ae1 is available only from the ,office of the ,joint ,committee on ,atomic ,energy1 ,congress of the ,united ,states1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #bjeaj4 ,bombs at ,bikini1 ,w4 ,a4 ,shurcliff1 ,william ,h4 ,wise ,co41 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 #aidg1 #bab pp41 #c4ej4 ,out of print but available through libraries4 ,biological ,effects of ,radiation ,health ,implications of ,fallout from ,nuclear ,weapons ,testing ,through #aifa 7,report ,no4 #c71 ,federal ,radiation ,council1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #aifb1 #aj pp41 free4 ,estimates and ,evaluation of ,fallout in the ,united ,states from ,nuclear ,weapons ,testing ,conducted ,through #aifb 7,report ,no4 #d71 ,federal ,radiation ,council1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #aifc1 #da pp41 #j4cj4 ,report of the ,united ,nations ,scientific ,committee on the ,effects of ,atomic ,radiation1 ,general ,assembly1 ,seventeenth ,session1 ,supplement ,no4 #af 7,a_/#ebaf71 ,united ,nations1 ,international ,documents ,service1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 ,new ,york1 #aifb1 #adf pp41 #e4jj4 ,radioactivity in the ,environment ,environmental ,radioactivity1 ,merril ,eisenbud1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,company1 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 #aifc1 #dcj pp41 #ab4ej4 ,proving ,ground3 ,an ,account of the ,radiobiological ,studies in the ,pacific1 #aidf-aifa1 ,neal ,o4 ,hines1 ,university of ,washington ,press1 ,seattle1 ,washington1 #aifb1 #cff pp41 #f4ge4 ,radioecology1 ,proceedings of the ,first ,national ,symposium on ,radioecology ,held at ,colorado ,state ,university1 ,fort ,collins1 ,colorado1 ,september #aj-ae1 #aifa1 ,vincent ,schultz and ,alfred ,w4 ,klement1 ,jr4 7,eds471 published jointly by the ,reinhold ,publishing ,corporation1 ,new ,york1 and the ,american ,institute of ,biological ,footnotes #a,the biosphere is the living world1 the sum of all living1 interacting organisms4 #b,symbiosis is a condition in which two organisms or communities of organisms live together in close association1 either on a basis of mutual benefit or of benefit to one only1 with or without harm to the other4 #c;,ionizing radiation is radiation that can cause damage to biological tissues4 #d;,isotopes are variant forms of atoms of the same element4 #e,nuclides is a term used to describe all the forms of all the atoms4 ,radionuclides are radioactive nuclides4 #f;,an ecosystem is a natural community1 taken as a whole1 including all biological and environmental factors4 #g;,ecologists are scientists concerned with the interrelations of organisms and their environments4 #h;,a thermonuclear device is an explosive1 such as a hydrogen bomb1 based on a fusion reaction4 ,in other atomic weapons the energy is derived from nuclear fission4 #i,the living organisms4 #aj,plankton are the floating1 minute plants and animals that live in the sea 7and also in fresh water71 including diatoms1 algae1 protozoans1 and crustaceans4 #aa;,for more on this program1 see ,plowshare1 a companion booklet in this series4 #ab,the half-life of a radioactive element is the time required for half its atoms to lose their radioactivity4 #ac;,atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons through #aifb produced a fission yield equivalent to #aia million tons of ,,tnt and introduced about #aj4ja megacuries of strontium-#ij1 for example1 as fallout entering the environment4 #ad;,floating one-celled animals4 #ae;,a picocurie is one trillionth of a curie2 a curie is the basic unit of intensity of radioactivity1 approximately equal to that in #a gram of radium4 #af;,for more about these studies1 see ,fallout from ,nuclear ,weapons ,tests1 a companion booklet in this series4 #ag;,information on this research is found in ,radioactive ,wastes1 a companion booklet in this series4 #ah,the lake1 drained in #aiee1 makes an interesting natural basin in which residual radionuclides are used in studies of mineral cycling4 #ai;,a roentgen is a unit of exposure to radiation1 measuring the alteration of the atoms 7ionization7 of the radiated tissues4 ,the rat dosages compare with recommended limits of exposure to man-made radiation for average individuals in human populations of an amount that approximates #j4e roentgen per year4 #bj,the area where highest readings were obtained in the survey4 ,these studies are described in more detail in ,whole ,body ,counters1 a companion booklet in this series4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4 --,in the text versions only1 superscript text is preceded by caret4 --,in the ,,ascii version only1 subscripted numbers are preceded by underscore and delimited by brackets4