,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i4 ,london1 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,! ,,microscope2 ,,includ+ ,a ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,prep>+ ,,& ,,m\nt+ ,,objects1 ,,etc4 ,,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,griffi?1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,,etc41 ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,college ,,( ,,physicians2 ,,conjo9t ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,micrographic ,,diction>y1 ,,etc4 ,,) ,,twelve ,,col\r$ ,,plates1 ,,conta9+ #dea ,,figures4 ,illu/ration ,,london3 ,,john ,,van ,,voor/1 ,,pat]no/] ,,r[4 ,,mdccclxiv4 ,! "r ( translation is res]v$4 ,,preface4 ,! object ( ?is little "w is to furni% an elem5t>y c\rse ( in/ruction 9 ! use ( ! ,microscope1 & on its application to ! exam9ation ( ! /ructure ( plants & animals4 ,assum+ t ! read] has _h no previ\s acqua9tance ) ! ,microscope1 or ) ! /udy ( natural hi/ory1 ,i h attempt$ to r5d] ! descriptions ( ! objects z simple z possible4 ,at ! same "t1 ! te*nical t]ms h be5 add$ & expla9$1 9 ord] gradually to r5d] !m famili> to ! read]1 & ?us facilitate ! future /udy ( l>g] & m detail$ works4 ,! objects figur$ & describ$ comprise ! pr9cipal /ructures & m m9ute =ms ( bo? ! vegetable & ! animal k+dom1 ^? hav+ be5 select$ :i* are common & readily procurable4 ,a *apt] has be5 giv5 ^u ! optical pr9ciples on :i* ! action ( ! in/rum5t dep5ds 7:i* w assi/ ! read] to und]/& ! op]ation ( its con/itu5t p>ts71 includ+ a sket* ( ! subject ( pol>iz$ light4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! subjects are treat$ is sci5tific1 & p>ticul> directions h be5 giv5 = ! exam9ation ( ! objects4 ,! small size ( ! "w has necessitat$ ! exclusion ( figurative descriptions1 s t x is adapt$ r = a work] ?an a read]2 at ! same "t1 ! matt] =ms a c\rse1 & mu/ be tak5 z a :ole = ! prop] compreh5sion ( ! subjects4 ,! te*nical t]ms us$ are ref]r$ to 9 ! ,index1 s z to furni% to "s ext5t a gloss>y ( t]ms2 & _! d]ivation is giv51 to facilitate _! recollection4 ,! figures1 ) v few exceptions1 are drawn f nature1 & are col\r$ t ! objects may be m easily recogniz$4 ,! magnify+ p[]s "u :i* !y h be5 drawn are d5ot$ by a small numb] plac$ b5ea? ea* figure3 & ! p>ticul> att5tion ( ! read] is reque/$ to ?is po9t2 o!rwise ! :ole subject w be utt]ly confus$2 s mu* does ! appe>ance ( objects v>y "u diff]5t p[]s4 ,directions are giv5 = prep>+ & m\nt+ objects1 imply+ t ! read] w collect specim5s = himself1 :i* is to be /rongly recomm5d$ z ! be/ me?od ( acquir+ a practical & useful acqua9tance ) ! objects4 ,^! w s]ve to furni% p]man5t l&m>ks 9 ! great ocean ( /ructural =ms1 w probably recall 9 aft]-ye>s pleasant recollections ( e>ly excursions 9 se>* ( ! beauties ( nature1 &1 surely1 deep5 ! conviction ( ! exi/5ce ( _! ,all-wise ,creator4 ,j4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,microscope #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,m\nt+ ,,( ,,objects #aj ,,iii4 ,,vegetable ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,tissues #ai ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,organs #ca ,v4 ,,f]ns #di ,,vi4 ,,mosses #ed ,,vii4 ,,alg #fd ,,viii4 ,,li*5s #ia ,,ix4 ,,fungi #if ,x4 ,,animal ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,tissues #aac ,,xi4 ,,articulata #abg ,,xii4 ,,radiata #aec ,,xiii4 ,,protozoa #aee ,,xiv4 ,,optical ,,pr9ciples #afg ,,plate ,i4 ,,frontispiece4 ,,vegetable ,,tissues1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,leaf ( ,g]anium3 cells1 *lorophyll1 & int]cellul> passages4 #b4 ,cells ( ,apple4 #c4 ,/>*-granules3 a1 ( ,:eat2 b1 ( ,arr[root2 c1 ( ,potato2 d1 ( ,oat2 e1 ( ,l5til2 f1 ( ,rice4 #d4 ,cells ( ,potato1 conta9+ ,/>*4 #e4 ,g>d5 ,rhub>b-/alk3 a1 raphides2 b1 reticulat$ duct2 c1 spiral vessel2 d1 woody fibre2 e1 annul> vessel4 #f4 ,wood-cells f /em ( ,*rysan!mum4 #g4 ,deal1 transv]se section3 a1 gl&ul> tissue2 b1 woody fibre4 #h4 ,deal1 longitud9al 7radial7 section ( gl&ul> tissue4 #i4 ,deal1 longitud9al section ( woody fibre4 #aj4 ,deal1 tang5tial section4 #aa4 ,holly1 wood (3 a1 por\s cells2 b1 d1 e1 wood-cells2 c1 dott$ ducts4 #ab4 ,hairs1 vegetable3 a1 b1 ( ,gr\ndsel2 c1 ( ,london ,pride2 d1 e1 ( ,g]anium2 f1 ( ,*rysan!mum4 #ac4 ,epid]mis ( ,g]anium-leaf4 #ad4 ,/yle ( ,crocus1 ) poll5-granule &-tube4 #ae4 ,poll5-gra9 ( ,crocus1 ) poll5-tube4 #af4 ,poll5 ( ,primrose4 #ag4 ,poll5 ( ,sunfl[]4 #ah4 ,poll5 ( ,convolvulus major4 #ai4 ,c>away-se$4 #bj4 ,ne$le-po9t4 #ba4 ,/+ ( ,nettle4 #bb4 ,hair ( ,spid]wort4 #bc4 ,hair ( ,spid]wort1 s+le cell4 #bd4 ,epid]mis ( ,g]anium-petal4 #be4 ,petal ( ,*ickwe$4 #bf4 ,sepal ( ,*ickwe$4 #bg4 ,se$ ( ,poppy4 #bh4 ,epid]mis ( ,deutzia4 #bi4 ,se$ ( ,mignonette4 #cj4 ,poll5 ( ,*ickwe$1 dry4 #ca4 ,poll5 ( ,*ickwe$1 9 wat]4 #cb4 ,fl[] ( ,*ickwe$4 #cc4 ,epid]mis ( petal ( ,*ickwe$4 #cd4 ,hairs ( calyx ( ,*ickwe$4 #ce4 ,hairs ( se$ ( ,collomia4 #cf4 ,/em ( ,dicotyl$on1 section (4 #cg4 ,/em ( ,monocotyl$on1 section (4 #ch4 ,se$ ( ,%eph]d's ,purse1 transv]se section4 #ci4 ,/am5 ( ,*ickwe$4 #dj4 ,/igma ( ,*ickwe$4 #da4 ,ov>y ( ,*ickwe$4 #db4 ,leaf ( ,*ickwe$4 #dc4 ,se$ ( ,wallfl[]1 section (4 #dd4 ,se$ ( ,wallfl[]1 radicle & cotyl$ons4 #de4 ,embryo-sac ( ,*ickwe$4 #df4 ,embryo-sac ( ,*ickwe$4 #dg4 ,embryo-sac ( ,*ickwe$4 #dh4 ,:eat1 cotyl$on & leaves (1 section4 #di4 ,mu/>d-se$1 cotyl$ons & radicle4 #ej4 ,mu/>d-se$1 transv]se section4 #ea4 ,*ickwe$1 se$ (4 #eb4 ,se$ ( ,eccremoc>pus scab]4 #ec4 ,gra9 ( ,:eat3 a1 cotyl$on2 b1 embryo2 c1 radicle2 d1 album54 #ed4 ,ovule ( ,wallfl[]4 #ee4 ,cotyl$ons ( ,*ickwe$4 #ef4 ,plum-/one1 section (4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,! ,,microscope4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,microscope4 ,! microscope 7f 1 little1 & 1 to see71 s call$ because x enables u to see objects :i* are too small to be se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 consi/s ( sev]al p>ts1 ea* ( :i* has its special use4 ,z ! prop] managem5t ( ^! is ( great importance 9 ! successful application ( ! in/rum5t to m9ute inve/igations1 we %all comm5ce ) ! consid]ation ( _! names & uses1 includ+ ^? ( ! m important pieces ( accessory app>atus4 ,microscope4--,! foot ( ! microscope is t "p :i* supports ! in/rum5t ^u ! table2 x is connect$ above ) ! /&1 ( :i* x is (t5 consid]$ a "p4 ,! /& sometimes consi/s ( a s+le rod or pill>2 b 9 ! be/ microscopes x is compos$ ( two upright plates1 betwe5 :i*1 at ! upp] "p1 ! re/ ( ! microscope sw+s /iffly ^u an axle4 ,aris+ f ?is axle1 indirectly ?r\gh ! m$ium ( p>ts :i* require no special m5tion1 is an arm1 to :i* ! body is fix$4 ,! body is moveable up & d[n by "o or two l>ge mill$ heads1 connect$ ) a groov$ rod or p9ion1 :i* works 9 ! tee? ( a rack fix$ to ! back ( ! body1 or ( ! arm :i* supports ! body4 ,! l>ge mill$ heads =m ! 8co>se movem5t10 z x is call$4 ,on ! top ( ! arm1 or on ! front & l[] "p ( ! body ( ! microscope1 is plac$ ! 8f9e movem5t10 consi/+ ( a small mill$ head1 ) a f9e screw1 = mov+ ! body ?r\gh v small di/ances4 ,next is ! 8/age10 or flat plate1 ^u :i* ! objects to be view$ are plac$4 ,?is is (t5 s arrang$ t1 by turn+ two mill$ heads1 ! object c be mov$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 or f side to side2 x is !n a 8moveable /age40 ,! eye-piece slides into ! upp] end ( ! body2 & ! object-glass screws into its l[] end4 ,b5ea? ! /age is ! mirror1 :i* reflects ! light ?r\gh ! object1 ! object-glass1 & eye-piece to ! eye4 ,object-glasses4--,! object-glasses are ! mo/ valuable p>ts ( ! in/rum5t4 ,!re are g5]ally ?ree or m ( !m2 &1 by means ( an 8adapt]10 any object-glass c be made to fit any microscope4 ,great c>e is requir$ 9 _! use1 especially to avoid scrat*+ ! l[] surface ( ! glass1 :i* is sometimes accid5tally done by press+ ! surface aga9/ any h>d body1 or all[+ su* a body to fall ^u x4 ,:5 n 9 use1 ! object-glasses %\ld ei!r be put away 9 ! brass boxes or cov]$ ) a small bell-glass1 to prev5t _! receiv+ any injury4 ,! object-glasses possess v>i\s magnify+ p[]s1 accord+ to ! di/ance at :i* !y require to be plac$ f ! object = di/9ct vision3 ?is is n1 h[ev]1 absolutely correct1 yet may s]ve z a g5]al expression4 ,?us we h a #a-;in*1 -in*1 -in* object-glass1 c4 ,! object-glasses1 = brevity1 are (t5 call$ p[]s4 ,z a beg9n] may at fir/ h "s difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ a high f a l[ p[]1 x may be rem>k$ t ! size ( ! l[] glass is l>g] ! l[] ! p[]3 b1 9 ! case ( ! bett] object-glasses1 ! focal di/ance is engrav$ on ! box 9 :i* ! object-glass is pack$ :5 put away4 ,z ! co>se movem5t raises or depresses ! body & object-glass ?r\gh comp>atively l>ge di/ances1 x mu/ be us$ only ) ! l[] object-glasses1 i4 e4 ^? ( l[ or little magnify+ p[]1 z ! #b-;in*1 #a-;in*1 or -in*1 or to br+ ! object-glass ne> ! focal di/ance ) ! high] p[]s2 :]eas ! f9e movem5t s]ves to adju/ ! high] p[]s1 z ! -in*1 c4 ,if ! object-glasses %\ld become soil$ on ! l[] face1 ?is %\ld be wip$ v g5tly ) an old silk h&k]*ief or piece ( v s(t wa%-lea!r1 previ\sly %ak5 to displace du/4 ,! same me?od w answ] to cleanse ! upp] surface ( ! eye-piece4 ,great c>e mu/ be tak5 t a slide :i* has be5 w>m$ 9 any exp]im5t be n plac$ ne> ! object-glass until q cold4 ,mirror4--,! mirror has sometimes "o silv]$ face only1 at o!rs two--"o flat1 ! o!r concave4 ,! flat surface is us$ to reflect ! light ^u ! object :5 ! light is too great ) ! concave surface4 ,b5ea? ! /age1 9 mo/ microscopes1 is a circul> moveable 8diaphragm10 p]=at$ ) holes ( v>i\s sizes1 to all[ m or less ( ! light reflect$ by ! mirror to pass ?r\gh1 z may be requir$4 ,:5 opake objects are view$1 ! mirror %\ld be turn$ aside1 s z n to reflect any light ?r\gh ! /age4 ,eye-pieces4--,) all microscopes1 two or m eye-pieces are suppli$4 ,^! possess diff]5t magnify+ p[]s1 & are lett]$ or numb]$ accord+ly2 ! l[e/ p[] ) ! e>lie/ lett]s ( ! alphabet1 or ) ! smalle/ numb]s1 ?us3 ,a1 ,b1 ,c2 or #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,=ceps4--,^! are f9e p9c]s1 = hold+ m9ute bodies to be view$ z opake objects4 ,9 use1 !y are ins]t$ by a /em connect$ ) a jo9t1 9 an ap]ture1 g5]ally 9 ! /age2 & are moveable 9 all directions4 ,live-box4--,?is is a brass slide1 p]=at$ 9 ! middle1 to ! ap]ture 9 :i* is sold]$ a %ort piece ( brass tube1 clos$ at ! top ) a circul> plate ( ?9 glass4 ,a r wid] & long] piece ( brass tube slides ov] ! =m]2 ?is is also clos$ at ! top by a ?9 glass plate1 s z to all[ ( an object be+ conf9$ or compress$ betwe5 ! two glass plates4 ,x is us$ = exam9+ liv+ objects 9 wat]4 ,knife1 c4--,= cutt+ slices or sections ( objects1 a v %>p knife ) a ?9 back w be f\nd useful2 or a razor may be us$ = ! same purpose4 ,& = pick+ m9ute objects to pieces1 or dissection1 f9e ne$les1 cut (f %ort ) pli]s1 ! blunt ends be+ ?ru/ into hair-p5cil /icks1 w be requisite4 ,a pair ( f9e surgical =ceps w also be requir$1 = tak+ up m9ute objects4 ,^! %\ld be )\t tee?1 & ! spr+-action s weak t ! po9ts c be v easily approximat$4 ,dipp+-tubes4--,= remov+ m9ute objects f wat]1 two or ?ree n>r[ glass tubes1 ( diff]5t l5g?s1 are v useful4 ,^! are call$ 8dipp+ tubes10 & are us$ ?us3--! tube be+ held upright betwe5 ! second f+] & ! ?umb1 ! =e f+] is plac$ at ! top ( ! tube to close x2 ! tube is !n put into ! wat] until ! l[] end is close to ! object1 :51 on sudd5ly remov+ ! =e f+]1 ! wat] w rise 9 ! tube1 c>ry+ ! object ) x4 ,! =e f+] is !n aga9 appli$ to ! tube1 &1 z ?us held1 ! wat] w n run out4 ,! tube is !n held ov] a wat*-glass1 or a slide1 ^u :i* ! wat] & object w fall on remov+ ! =e f+]4 ,a small glass _s-lamp w be f\nd v useful4 ,! _s = burn+ %\ld be me?ylat$ alcohol1 or wood-naph?a4 ,z ^! spirits are inflammable1 great c>e %\ld be tak5 to keep ! /ock-bottle away f a c&le or o!r flame1 :5 fill+ ! lamp4 ,a*romatic cond5s]4--,a v important piece ( app>atus1 :5 high p[]s are us$1 is ! a*romatic cond5s]2 x is n1 h[ev]1 usually suppli$ ) ! *eap] microscopes4 ,x consi/s ( a brass fitt+1 plac$ b5ea? ! /age1 into :i* an object-glass is screw$1 9 an inv]t$ position1 i4 e4 ! small end ( ! object-glass be+ plac$ upp]mo/4 ,x s]ves to cond5se ! light to a focus ^u ! object1 s z to illum9ate x m brightly2 & z x c be elevat$ or depress$ by a mill$ head & rack-"w1 ! object c be view$ by ei!r conv]g+ or div]g+ rays4 ,simple microscope4--,= exam9+ ! l>g] k9ds ( objects1 & = dissection1 a simple microscope is v useful4 ,?is consi/s ( a /&1 a /age1 & an arm support+ a simple l5s or comb9ation ( l5ses1 b )\t ! body ( ! comp\nd microscope 7z ! ord9>y microscope is di/9ctively call$74 ,= mo/ purposes1 common plano-convex or d\bly convex l5ses are suffici5t to =m ! object-glasses ( a simple microscope4 ,) ! be/ microscopes1 an 8erector10 or tube conta9+ a pair ( l5ses1 fitt$ )9 ! body1 r5d]s ! comp\nd microscope capable ( answ]+ mo/ ( ! purposes ( a simple microscope4 ,pol>iscope4--,an exp5sive b int]e/+ & useful addition to a microscope is a pol>iz+ app>atus1 or pol>iscope4 ,?is consi/s ( a ,nicol's prism1 or a plate ( t\rmal9e1 plac$ b5ea? ! /age1 & ano!r 9 ! body ( ! microscope or above ! eye-piece2 bo? 9 brass fitt+s4 ,! =m] is call$ ! pol>iz]1 & ! latt] ! analyz]4 ,rotat+ disk4--,ano!r mo/ useful piece ( app>atus1 = mov+ opake objects :il/ "u ! microscope1 9 all directions1 is ,smi? & ,beck's 8rotat+ disk40 ,slides4--,! slides ^u :i* objects1 especially ^? to be view$ z transp>5t objects1 are to be plac$1 %\ld be made ( cr[n or plate glass4 ,!y are usually #c in*es long1 & #a in* wide2 b ,i pref] !m #b in*es long1 & #a in* wide1 simply because !y take up less room 9 a cab9et1 & because !y d n project beyond ! /age on ei!r side4 ,!y %\ld n be m ?an #a_/bj? ( an in* ?ick1 & z col\rless & cle> z possible4 ,! edges %\ld be gr\nd or fil$1 to prev5t _! scrat*+ ! /age4 ,cov]s4--,! cov]s are squ>e pieces ( v ?9 glass1 less 9 bread? ?an ! slides1 s z n to rea* _! m>g9s2 & ( v>i\s ?icknesses1 ! ?ick] & /rong] be+ us$ to cov] l>ge objects = exam9ation "u ! l[] p[]s1 & ! ?9n] s]v+ to cov] v delicate objects requir+ ! high] p[]s4 ,side cond5s]4--,= illum9at+ opake objects1 a l>ge plano-convex or d\bly convex 8bull's-eye0 l5s1 or side cond5s]1 is us$2 ?is is fix$ to an arm1 :i* slides on a /&1 s z to be capable ( be+ rais$ or l[]$ to a suitable height4 ,?is is plac$ betwe5 ! s\rce ( light & ! /age1 & at su* a di/ance f ! latt] t ! light may be br\ght to a focus ^u ! object4 ,sometimes a 8,lieb]kuhn0 or concave silv] reflector is us$ = ?is purpose4 ,^! are ! mo/ important pieces ( app>atus requir$ 9 exam9+ microscopic bodies4 ,b ! beg9n] w d well1 if he h ! a*romatic cond5s] & ! pol>iz+ app>atus1 to lay ^! aside until he has _h consid]able practice 9 exam9+ objects simply ) ! mirror & ! l[] p[]s4 ,g5]al me?od ( obs]vation4--,9 ! ord9>y use ( ! microscope1 ! object to be exam9$ is laid ^u ! middle ( a slide1 :i* is plac$ ^u ! /age4 ,! object is !n br\ght "u ! c5tre ( ! object-glass1 ! mirror incl9$ half t[>ds ! light & half t[>ds ! object1 until ! object is se5 to be illum9at$1 :51 ^u look+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece & adju/+ ! co>se & f9e movem5ts1 ! object z x comes into focus w be se51 z x 71 drawn ^u a :ite disk1 :i* is call$ ! 8field40 ,:5 ! object is wet1 x _c be view$ )\t ! application ( a cov]1 because ! wat] evaporates & cond5ses ^u ! "u surface ( ! object-glass4 ,to avoid ! dang] ( injur+ ! object-glass1 or cru%+ ! object by l[]+ ! body & object-glass too mu* 9 adju/m5t to focus1 ! be/ plan is to l[] ! body by means ( ! co>se movem5t until ! object-glass appe>s ne> ! object to ! eye plac$ on "o side ( ! /age1 & !n to apply ! eye to ! eye-piece1 & turn ! mill$ head s z to raise ! body & object-glass until ! object is br\ght into focus4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( an object1 x is be/ to beg9 ) a l[ p[]1 s z to obta9 a view ( ! g5]al arrangem5t ( its p>ts1 & !n to apply ! high] eye-pieces & p[]s1 s t ! m m9ute /ructural details may be obs]v$4 ,illum9ation4--,! illum9ation or prop] managem5t ( ! light 9 us+ ! microscope is ( v great importance4 ,! be/ light1 especially ) ! l[ p[]s1 is daylight1 p>ticul>ly t reflect$ f :ite cl\ds2 ?is is lea/ injuri\s to ! eyes4 ,b z daylight _c always be us$ = microscopic inve/igations1 & z cl\d-light is insuffici5t ) ! high] p[]s1 "s k9d ( artificial light mu/ be suppli$4 ,t mo/ly us$ is ! light ( a read+ oil lamp or ( a gas-burn]1 a c&le be+ q useless1 on acc\nt ( ! flick]+ ( ! flame ) ! slighte/ draught4 ,a mod]ator lamp has ! defect ( too great height2 o!rwise ?is w\ld be bett] ?an any o!r oil lamp4 ,a p[]ful & excell5t light = ! highe/ p[]s is af=d$ by a %ort p>aff9e-oil lamp4 ,z int5tly look+ at /rongly illum9at$ objects is injuri\s to ! sight1 ! am\nt ( light all[$ to pass ! diaphragm %\ld be no m ?an is agreeable1 & suffici5t to %[ ! object di/9ctly4 ,9 us+ ! high] p[]s1 ! field is mu* less bright ) ! use ( ! same light ?an 9 ! case ( ! l[] p[]s2 & difficulty is (t5 f\nd 9 obta9+ suffici5t light = ! di/9ct vision ( ! object4 ,! a*romatic cond5s] is ( mo/ important s]vice "h2 b x is sometimes requisite1 ev5 :5 ?is is us$1 to cond5se ! light ^u ! mirror by a %all[ bull's-eye2 or a l>ge common metallic reflector may be us$ = ! same purpose4 ,! mo/ conv5i5t mann] ( proce$+ 9 reg>d to ! use ( ! individual eyes is to apply ! left eye to ! eye-piece1 s t ! "r eye may be us$ 9 f9d+ ! /age-movem5ts1 or 9 mov+ ! slide1 )\t remov+ ! eye f ! eye-piece4 ,if ?is arrangem5t be adopt$1 ! light %\ld be plac$ t[>ds ! left-h& side ( ! microscope4 ,b ! be/ way to avoid injur+ ! sight w\ld be to use bo? eyes = view+ ! objects 9 turn1 al?\gh mo/ microscopic obs]v]s make use ( "o eye only = ?is purpose4 ,! /ructure ( _m transp>5t objects c be be/ se5 :5 ! mirror is turn$ m or less obliquely to "o side1 s z to view !m by oblique light1 z x is call$3 we %all ref] to ?is po9t h]eaft]4 ,z a rule1 objects are be/ se5 by transmitt$ light1 or z transp>5t objects1 al?\gh x is well to exam9e objects "u bo? k9ds ( illum9ation1 i4 e4 by transmitt$ & reflect$ light4 ,if dur+ ! use ( ! microscope1 aft] remov+ ! eye f ! in/rum5t1 ! impression ( ! light rema9s p]ceptible to ! sight1 ! light us$ has be5 too /rong1 or its action too long cont9u$2 & ! in/rum5t %\ld be at once laid aside = a "t4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,m\nt+ ,,( ,,objects4 ,! m\nt+ or 8putt+ up0 ( microscopic objects signifies _! prep>ation 9 su* way t !y may be pres]v$ = future ref]5ce & obs]vation4 ,z a g5]al rule1 objects %\ld be m\nt$ 9 t mann] by :i* _! /ructure is be/ & mo/ cle>ly %[n2 b 9 c]ta9 in/ances ! objects are m\nt$ s z to make _! /ructure difficult ( detection1 t !y may =m te/-objects ( ! p[] & quality ( ! microscope4 ,"s objects require to be m\nt$ 9 ! dry /ate1 :ile o!rs are be/ m\nt$ 9 liquid2 "s aga9 z opake1 o!rs z transp>5t objects3 ^! mu/ be consid]$ sep>ately4 ,dry opake objects 7 =m]ly m\nt$ by gumm+ !m ^u small co9-%ap$ pieces or disks ( cork1 black5$ ^u ! surface ) a mixture ( f9e lamp-black & ?9 w>m size1 laid on ) a hair-p5cil4 ,!y 7 kept 9 a draw]1 to ! bottom ( :i* a %eet ( cork 0 glu$1 ! disk be+ transfix$ by ! p91 s t ! free or project+ po9t$ end ( ! p9 c\ld be ?ru/ into ! %eet-cork4 ,?is plan may /ill be adopt$ 9 ! case ( common objects1 z se$s1 c42 b x is objectionable1 on acc\nt ( ! facility ) :i* ! b>e objects are knock$ (f or injur$ by du/4 ,h5ce dry opake objects are usually m\nt$ 9 su* mann] z to be enclos$ 9 a cell1 ! sides be+ =m$ by a r+ ( glass-tube or cork1 or a squ>e piece ( lea!r1 c>dbo>d1 or pap]1 ) a hole cut or pun*$ out ( ! middle4 ,! glass r+s are be/2 b z !y are exp5sive1 "s ( ! o!r sub/ances are g5]ally us$4 ,! size & ?ickness ( ! mat]ial f :i* ! r+s are made mu/ obvi\sly v>y accord+ to ! size & dep? ( ! object4 ,! r+s are cem5t$ to ! middle ( ord9>y slides2 & x is be/ to keep a numb] ( !m ready prep>$4 ,! cem5t+ mat]ial mu/ v>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! r+ us$4 ,if ?is consi/s ( glass1 ,canada-balsam or m>9e glue is be/4 ,9 us+ ! =m]1 ! r+ is g5tly heat$ ov] ! flame ( ! _s-lamp1 & a ?9 lay] ( ! balsam appli$ to its upp] or "u surface1 by means ( an iron wire ) a little balsam on its end2 x is next w>m$ ov] ! _s-lamp1 s t ! surface is entirely & ev5ly coat$4 ,a clean slide is !n slightly heat$1 ! r+ laid ^u x1 & g5tle pressure is us$ to squeeze out ! excess ( balsam2 & ! slide is kept at a g5tle heat1 until on cool+ ! balsam becomes s h>d z n to be ind5t$ ) ! f+]-nail4 ,m>9e glue is appli$ 9 ! same way z ! balsam1 except t prolong$ heat is n requir$ to h>d5 x1 = x becomes h>d on cool+4 ,! balsam may also be replac$ by black japan or asphalte4 ,! pieces ( cork1 lea!r1 or pap] are be/ fa/5$ to ! slides ) solution ( %ellac or seal+-wax 9 me?ylat$ alcohol1 or ) :ite h>d v>ni%4 ,:5 ! r+ or piece has be5 firmly fix$ to ! slide by ei!r ( ! above cem5t+ mat]ials1 s z to =m ! sides ( ! cell1 ! bottom is to be cov]$ ) a piece ( black pap]1 cut to fit x exactly1 & fa/5$ to ! surface ( ! slide ) a little gum1 or ( ei!r ( ! above v>ni%es4 ,z soon z ?is is ?or\ghly dry1 ! upp] surface ( ! cell-wall1 :e!r ( glass or cork1 c41 is ?9ly cov]$ ) v>ni%1 & a clean ?9-glass cov] laid ^u x1 & v lightly press$2 ! object is !n p]man5tly pres]v$4 ,! ma9 po9ts to be obs]v$ are1 t ! object & v>ni% are completely dry1 & t ! cell is ?or\ghly clos$4 ,if ! latt] be n ! case1 m v>ni% mu/ be appli$ to any little op5+s :i* may h be5 left2 & x is bett] to apply ! v>ni% 9 v small quantities at a "t1 ! application be+ r5ew$ z soon z ! previ\s lay] is q dry4 ,dry transp>5t objects are usually small & delicate2 =1 unless !y are s1 _! /ructure _c be well se54 ,9 m\nt+ ^!1 a squ>e piece ( note-pap] or trac+-pap]1 ) ! c5tre cut out1 may be fa/5$ to a clean slide ) a little pa/e1 gum1 or %ellac v>ni%4 ,:5 ?is is ?or\ghly dry1 ! object is plac$ 9 ! vacant space1 a clean dry cov] laid on1 & ! v>ni% appli$ by means ( a hair-p5cil to ! edges 9 v small quantities4 ,?is w run 9 betwe5 ! "u surface ( ! edges ( ! cov] & ! upp] surface ( ! pap]1 & :5 dry w cem5t ! two toge!r4 ,suppos+ t ! object is s delicate t x _c be remov$ f ! surface ( a slide1 if x w n be injur$ by heat1 a good plan is to draw a squ>e or circle ar\nd ! object ) a little black japan1 !n to heat ! slide gradually until ! japan is n ind5t$ ) ! f+]-nail :5 cold4 ,a clean slide is !n laid ^u ! r+ ( japan1 ! :ole aga9 g5tly w>m$1 until ! v>ni% is s(t5$1 & ! cov] lightly press$ s z to be 9 contact all r\nd ) ! v>ni%4 ,! slide mu/ !n be rapidly cool$1 by be+ laid ^u a piece ( metal1 :i* prev5ts ! v>ni% f runn+ 9 s z to spoil ! object4 ,_m dry transp>5t objects c be pres]v$ by m\nt+ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,?is is ! be/ process = m\nt+ objects 9 g5]al2 b only ^? c be s pres]v$ :i* are n injur$ by dry+1 & :i* are n r5d]$ too transp>5t by ! balsam4 ,if ! object to be m\nt$ 9 balsam be small1 x is ?or\ghly dri$1 & !n a drop ( oil ( turp5t9e add$ to x ^u a slide2 ! slide is !n g5tly w>m$1 :i* causes ! turp5t9e to evaporate4 ,:5 ?is has ne>ly all evaporat$1 a drop ( balsam is all[$ to fall ^u ! object f ! end ( a wire held at a di/ance above ! flame ( a _s-lamp4 ,a w>m$ cov] is next laid ^u ! balsam1 & g5tle pressure appli$ until ! cov] is suffici5tly depress$4 ,! slide is !n kept at a g5tle heat until ! balsam is q h>d :5 cold4 ,! sup]flu\s portions may be remov$ ) ! po9t ( a knife1 & any residues clean$ (f ) turp5t9e or a little b5zole on a clo?4 ,ano!r way consi/s 9 lay+ a cov] ^u ! dry object on a slide1 add+ a drop ( turp5t9e1 & w>m+ ! :ole ov] a _s-lamp until all air-bubbles are displac$1 !n cont9u+ ! application ( ! heat until mo/ ( ! turp5t9e has evaporat$4 ,a drop or m ( ! balsam may next be appli$ to ! edge ( ! cov]1 :5 x w run 9 & mix ) ! turp5t9e4 ,! :ole is !n g5tly heat$ until ! balsam is h>d :5 cold1 m balsam be+ add$ if necess>y1 to replace ! turp5t9e :i* has evaporat$4 ,:5 ! objects are l>ge1 !y %\ld be press$ z flat z possible )\t injury betwe5 two slides1 be+ reta9$ until dry by enclosure betwe5 ! prongs ( an ,am]ican clo!s-peg2 or ! slides may be fa/5$ at ! ends by seal+-wax4 ,:5 p]fectly dry1 ! object %\ld be imm]s$ 9 turp5t9e1 kept 9 a common gallipot1 until all ! air-bubbles h be5 entirely displac$1 & ! object appe>s v transp>5t4 ,x is !n remov$ f ! turp5t9e ) =ceps1 dra9$1 laid ^u a slide1 & melt$ balsam dropp$ ^u x until x is q cov]$4 ,a clean dry slide is !n laid ^u its surface1 & ! two slides g5tly press$ toge!r1 ! two slides fix$ at ! ends by seal+-wax1 & ! :ole all[$ to cool & dry4 ,if requisite1 m balsam is add$ to fill up any vacuities4 ,:5 ! balsam has become h>d1 ! excess is clean$ away ) a knife & turp5t9e1 & ! object is p]man5tly m\nt$4 ,if ! object %\ld be spoil$ by ! pres5ce ( air-bubbles1 ! slides & object %\ld be imm]s$ 9 turp5t9e or me?ylat$ alcohol1 until ! :ole ( ! balsam is dissolv$2 ! rem\nt+ may !n be proce$$ ) z at fir/4 ,if ! slides h be5 imm]s$ 9 ! alcohol 7:i* is ! quicke/ me?od71 ! object mu/ be soak$ 9 turp5t9e be=e ! balsam is reappli$4 ,if1 aft] an object has be5 m\nt$ 9 balsam1 on apply+ heat1 bubbles resembl+ air-bubbles %\ld be =m$1 ! object mu/ n be consid]$ z spoil$2 = ^! are m]ely bubbles ( ! vap\r ( turp5t9e1 & w disappe> spontane\sly aft] a little "t4 ,a quick way ( m\nt+ 9 balsam is to drop ! melt$ balsam at once ^u ! dri$ object2 b z air-bubbles are v apt to be produc$ 9 ?is way1 ! beg9n] _h bett] previ\sly apply ! turp5t9e4 ,z balsam is v viscid1 & adh]es firmly to ev]y?+ ) :i* x comes 9 contact1 "s c>e is requir$ 9 its use4 ,"y microscopi/s v g5]ally manage to soil ! microscope1 tables1 *airs1 pap]s1 books1 & ev5 _! clo!s ) x4 ,x may be easily clean$ (f1 h[ev]1 ) turp5t9e or b5zole4 ,moi/ objects are be/ pres]v$1 :5ev] practicable1 9 glyc]9e4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two important objections to its use3 "o is1 t x makes objects v transp>5t2 ! o!r is1 t x (t5 wr9kles & di/orts !m1 by )draw+ _! wat]y cont5ts4 ,h5ce only ^? objects c be pres]v$ 9 glyc]9e1 :i* are n too transp>5t1 & :i* are suffici5tly firm to resi/ ! t5d5cy to collapse4 ,:5 ! objects are tol]ably flat1 & suffici5tly firm to be> ! pressure ( ! cov]1 !y may be m\nt$ by add+ a small quantity ( glyc]9e to !m ly+ on a slide2 ! cov] is !n appli$1 & a little ( ! cem5t m5tion$ bel[ appli$ w>m ) a hair-p5cil ar\nd ! edges ( ! cov] to fa/5 x to ! slide4 ,c>e is requir$ t ! glyc]9e appli$ be no m ?an suffici5t2 = :]ev] x has t\*$ ! cov] or ! slide1 ! cem5t w n adh]e4 ,sup]flu\s portions may be suck$ up ) a piece ( clean moi/ sponge or a corn] ( blott+-pap]4 ,:5 x is requir$ to m\nt a l>ge numb] ( objects 9 a %ort "t1 ! cem5t ne$ only be appli$ to two opposite sides ( ! cov]1 leav+ ! o!r two sides op54 ,:5 ! objects require to be protect$ f ! pressure ( ! cov]1 ! sides ( a cell mu/ be made ) ! cem5t or black japan ^u ! slide be=e ! cov] is appli$1 a fur!r quantity be+ us$ to close ! cell z usual4 ,a v /rong solution ( *loride ( calcium may be us$ = ! same purposes & 9 ! same way z ! glyc]9e4 ,x has ! advantage ( n mak+ ! object s transp>5t2 b x has ! disadvantage ( cry/alliz+ slightly 9 a dry atmosph]e4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ,i pref] x to glyc]9e4 ,a l>ge numb] ( int]e/+ objects _c1 h[ev]1 be pres]v$ 9 ei!r glyc]9e or *loride ( calcium1 )\t _! value be+ impair$ by ! cause m5tion$ above4 ,_m k9ds ( liquid h be5 recomm5d$ = pres]v+ ^!1 all agree+ ma9ly 9 be+ ineffici5t4 ,! objection to !m is1 t !y are evaporable2 & aft] ! object has be5 m\nt$ = "s "t1 ! liquid creeps betwe5 ! cem5t & ! slide or cov]1 at "s spot1 & evaporates2 & if ! cem5t be n q h>d1 ! inn] & m liquid portion ( x runs into ! cell1 & spoils ! object4 ,a solution1 conta9+ a gra9 ( salt & a gra9 ( alum to ! ounce ( di/ill$ wat]1 is z good z any o!r2 or simply di/ill$ wat] 9 :i* a piece ( camphor has be5 kept4 ,9 use1 ! cell is fir/ =m$ by mak+ a circle or outl9e squ>e on ! slide ) black japan1 & heat+ ?is c>efully until x becomes solid :5 cold4 ,! object is !n laid 9 ! cell1 ! liquid add$1 & ! cov] appli$1 any excess be+ remov$ ) blott+-pap]4 ,! cell is to be clos$ ) old black japan or gold-size1 appli$ r\nd ! m>g9s ( ! cov] ) a hair p5cil4 ,a second & a ?ird lay] ( ! v>ni% may be appli$ ^u ! fir/1 :5 x has become h>d outside4 ,al?\gh black japan & gold-size are g5]ally us$ = ! cem5t1 ,i pref] t m5tion$ bel[4 ,:5 l>ge prep>ations are m\nt$ 9 liquid1 ! cell-walls are ei!r =m$ ( glass r+s1 or !y are built up ) f\r oblong pieces ( glass1 cem5t$ to ! slide & to ea* o!r ) m>9e glue4 ,a v good pres]vative liquid = l>ge specim5s is a solution ( *loride ( z9c1 9 ! proportion ( #bj gra9s to ! ounce ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,a mixture ( _s ( w9e & wat]1 9 ! proportion ( #a "p to #b1 or #a to #d1 is (t5 us$ = ! same purpose4 ,:5 prep>ations are m\nt$1 ! cem5t & ! adjac5t p>ts ( ! slide & cov] %\ld be coat$ ) a solution ( seal+-wax 9 _s1 :i* h>d5s ! ext]ior ( ! cem5t4 ,! cem5t above allud$ to is made by melt+ toge!r #e p>ts ( ros91 #b p>ts ( balsam1 #a "p ( bees'-wax1 & #a ( r$ o*re4 ,! cem5t is be/ kept 9 a little metallic cup1 & melt$ ov] a _s-lamp :5 us$4 ,x %\ld be appli$ :ile hot1 ) a hair p5cil2 & cools v quickly4 ,! pres]vative liquids %\ld be kept 9 cork$ bottles1 a hair p5cil be+ fix$ into ! "u "p ( ! cork2 or1 :at is bett]1 9 /opp]$ bottles1 ! /opp] be+ prolong$ to a po9t ne>ly rea*+ ! bottom ( ! bottle4 ,z soon z ! prep>ations are m\nt$1 !y %\ld be labell$1 ! labels be+ kept ready gumm$4 ,! balsam %\ld be kept 9 a capp$ bottle1 su* z is us$ = hold+ solutions ( gum1 ) an iron wire = remov+ portions z requir$4 ,by keep+1 ! balsam becomes ?ick]2 x may be ?9n$ by ! addition ( oil ( turp5t9e1 & ! application ( a g5tle heat4 ,! black japan1 c41 may be procur$ at any oil-%op2 ! glass r+s1 cell-sides1 cov]s1 c41 f ,mr4 ,norman1 #agh ,city ,road1 or ( ! microscope-mak]s4 ,m\nt$ objects %\ld be kept 9 %all[ draw]s1 & be laid flat--n /&+ on edge4 ,magnify+ p[]4--,be=e ent]+ ^u ! consid]ation ( ! objects !mselves1 a ^w or two mu/ be said ^u ! magnify+ p[]s4 ,9 ! plates ( ?is "w1 ! s]ial numb] ( ea* figure is express$ by l>ge num]als plac$ above ! objects1 :ile ! numb] ( times ! object is magnifi$ is indicat$ by small num]als plac$ b5ea?4 ,! latt] mu/ be und]/ood to express ! numb] ( times ! draw+ is l>g] ?an ! object 9 "o dim5sion4 ,?us1 consid]+ fig4 #ac1 ,plate ,i4 to be an in* 9 wid? 7= x is really some:at less71 be+ magnifi$ #aej times 9 ! direction ( ! wid?1 ! object itself is ab\t #a_/aej? ( an in* 9 size2 & x is repres5t$ magnifi$ #aej times l9e>1 or #aej diamet]s1 z x is call$4 ,a k ( ! numb] ( times ! object is magnifi$ is ( ! greate/ importance 9 mak+ use ( ! draw+s2 =1 )\t x1 ! obs]v] w be unable to apply su* a magnify+ p[] ( ! microscope z w enable him to see ! /ructural appe>ances figur$ 9 ! draw+s4 ,! obs]v] mu/ also be acqua9t$ ) ! magnify+ p[]s ( 8 microscope ) ! v>i\s object-glasses & eye-pieces4 ,^! are usually giv5 :5 ! in/rum5t is pur*as$4 ,or !y may be det]m9$ approximatively ?us3--,an ivory scale1 ) #a_/ajj? ( an in* engrav$ ^u x1 is plac$ on ! /age1 & view$ z an opake object1 bo? eyes be+ kept op52 & ! size ( ! image ( "o ( ! gradations is measur$ ) compasses1 ^u ! /age z se5 ) t eye :i* is n appli$ to ! eye-piece4 ,! numb] ( #a_/ajj?s ( an in* conta9$ 9 ! measure obta9$ ) ! compasses repres5ts ! magnify+ p[]4 ,?us1 suppos+ ! image ( ! #a_/ajj? ( an in* on ! scale appe>s magnifi$ to ! l5g? ( #a in* on ! /age2 ! magnify+ p[] is #ajj diamet]s1 or #ajj times l9e>4 ,?is proce$+ is difficult to any "o unaccu/om$ to ! use ( ! microscope1 yet by practice x becomes v easy4 ,o!r me?ods1 :i* require ! use ( ! cam]a lucida1 are giv5 9 ! ,micrographic ,diction>y4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,vegetable ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,tissues4 ,we may n[ ent] ^u ! consid]ation ( ! microscopic /ructure ( objects1 beg9n+ ) ^? :i* are d]iv$ f ! vegetable k+dom1 z !y are m easily procur$ & prep>$ = exam9ation ?an ^? belong+ to ! animal k+dom2 moreov] !y are n s transp>5t1 & h5ce are m readily di/+ui%$ "u ! microscope1 :i* is ( importance 9 ! case ( an unpractis$ obs]v]4 ,cells4--,! elem5ts ( :i* all plants consi/ are cells4 ,cells1 9 _! simple/ condition1 are microscopic1 r\nd$1 col\rless1 clos$ sacs or vesicles1 resembl+ small bladd]s 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #b71 & consi/ ( a ?91 transp>5t1 col\rless1 vegetable sk9 or membrane 7a7 call$ ! cell-wall4 ,! cells are well se5 9 a little ( ! pulp ( an apple 7fig4 #b71 or 9 a section ( almo/ any s(t "p ( a plant4 ,a high p[] is usually requir$ to %[ !m di/9ctly1 on acc\nt ( _! m9ute size4 ,! outl9e ( ! cells is se5 to be d\ble1 "o l9e indicat+ ! inn]1 ! o!r ! out]1 surface ( ! cell-wall1 ! space betwe5 ! two l9es correspond+ to ! ?ickness ( ! cell-wall4 ,9 ! pulp ( ! apple1 ! cells are loosely connect$1 & s reta9 _! r\nd$ =m2 b 9 mo/ p>ts ( plants1 ! cells become cr[d$ & squeez$ toge!r1 f _! ord9>y or normal expansion be+ limit$ 9 c]ta9 directions1 s z mutually to alt] ea* o!r's %apes4 ,! sides !n lose _! orig9ally r\nd$ =m & outl9e1 becom+ m or less /raight 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #a #d71--! cells at ! same "t mo/ly adh]+ to ea* o!r1 s z to be sep>at$ ) difficulty4 ,! =ms ?us produc$ are v>i\s & int]e/+1 & h all receiv$ names by :i* !y are di/+ui%$4 ,!y are describ$ 9 works on botany 9 two ways--accord+ to ! outl9e 7:i* is ! mo/ common1 z ?is expresses ! appe>ance usually pres5t$ 9 sections & on ! surfaces ( vegetable /ructures71 or accord+ to ! entire or solid =m1 :i* x is (t5 a difficult matt] to det]m9e4 ,cellul> tissue4--,cells aggregat$ ?us =m a tissue1 :i* is call$ cellul> tissue or p>5*yma 71 among1 & 1 p\r$ sub/ance71 because x fills up ! int]/ices ( ! o!r tissues ( plants4 ,9 te*nical descriptions1 ! cell-/ructure is (t5 left out ( consid]ation2 & bodies compos$ ( p>5*ymat\s tissue are describ$ z be+ reticulat$ or nett$1 because ! unit$ sides ( ! cell-walls appe> z a network cov]+ ! surface4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t p>5*ymat\s cells are su* only z h ! ?ree dim5sions ( solidity 7viz4 ! l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?7 ne>ly equal4 ,int]cellul> passages4--,! obs]v] w n h exam9$ _m sections ( cellul> tissue1 )\t notic+ c]ta9 irregul> black l9es runn+ betwe5 ! cells1 z 9 a piece ( a ,g]anium-7,pel>gonium-7 leaf 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #a74 ,^! l9es arise f ! exi/5ce ( passages betwe5 ! cells1 conta9+ air2 & !y are call$ int]cellul> passages4 ,by g5tly w>m+ a section conta9+ !m 9 wat] ov] a _s-lamp1 or by moi/5+ ! section ) a drop ( _s1 ! passages w be fill$ up ) ! liquid1 s z to become transp>5t4 ,:5 ! int]vals betwe5 ! cells are l>g] & broad]1 !y are call$ int]cellul> spaces4 ,s f>1 cells h be5 consid]$ simply 9 reg>d to _! =m1 z vesicles1 ei!r r\nd$ or alt]$ 9 %ape by mutual pressure4 ,we h n[ to notice ! matt]s conta9$ )9 ! cells1 or ! cell-cont5ts4 ,cell-cont5ts4--,9 mo/ cells1 especially :5 "y1 a m9ute1 r\nd$1 col\rless body may be se51 ei!r 9 ! middle or on "o side1 call$ ! nucleus2 ?is is v di/9ct 9 a cell ( ! pulp ( an apple 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #b b74 ,& )9 ?is nucleus is (t5 to be se5 ano!r small] body1 frequ5tly appe>+ z a m]e dot1 call$ ! nucleolus4 ,! nucleus is imb$d$ 9 a s(t sub/ance1 :i* fills up ! entire cell 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #b c72 ?is is ! protoplasm 71 fir/1 1 =mative sub/ance74 ,z x is v transp>5t1 x is readily ov]look$2 b x may usually be %[n di/9ctly by add+ a little glyc]9e to ! edge ( ! cov] ) a glass rod1 :5 x contracts & sep>ates f ! cell-walls1 z 9 ! l[] cell ( fig4 #b4 ,! protoplasm 9 "s cells is semisolid & ( uni=m consi/5ce1 :ile 9 o!rs x is liquid 9 ! c5tre1 ! out] portion be+ some:at firm] & imm$iately 9 contact ) ! cell-wall4 ,9 ! latt] case1 x =ms an inn] cell to ! cell-wall1 & is call$ ! primordial utricle4 ,! t]ms 8protoplasm0 & 8primordial utricle0 are1 h[ev]1 us$ by "s au?ors synonym\sly4 ,! protoplasm is ! ess5tial "p ( ! cell1 & x =ms or secretes ! cell-wall ^u its out] surface 9 ! process ( =mation ( ! cell consid]$ z a :ole4 ,x is also ( diff]5t *emical composition f ! cell-wall1 be+ alli$ 9 ?is respect to animal matt]4 ,*lorophyll 71 gre52 1 leaf74--,on exam9+ a section ( any gre5 "p ( a plant1 z ! gre5 sub/ance ( a ,g]anium-7,pel>gonium-7 leaf1 x w be se5 t ! gre5 col\r does n arise f ! :ole sub/ance be+ col\r$1 z appe>s to be ! case to ! nak$ eye1 b f ! pres5ce ( little gra9s or granules ( a gre5 col\r+-matt] 9 ! protoplasm ( ! cells4 ,?is gre5 matt] is call$ *lorophyll4 ,if ! cells be cru%$1 ! granules w escape1 & c be exam9$ 9 ! sep>ate /ate4 ,*lorophyll is mo/ abundant 9 ^? p>ts ( plants :i* are expos$ to ! light4 ,/>*4--,9 _m cells ( plants1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* h atta9$ _! full gr[?1 o!r granules1 l>g] ?an ^? ( *lorophyll1 & col\rless1 are met )2 ^! are ! />*-granules 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #c74 ,!y are usually r\nd$ or oblong1 & exhibit on ! surface a numb] ( r+s1 "o )9 ! o!r1 or conc5tric1 z x is call$4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! inn]mo/ r+ is a black dot or /reak1 aris+ f ! pres5ce ( a little pit or furr[1 & call$ ! hilum4 ,! />*-gra9s may be readily se5 )9 cells 9 a ?9 section ( a potato 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #d72 "h !y are v num]\s1 & l>g] ?an 9 mo/ o!r plants4 ,a sep>ate gra9 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #c4 ,! appe>ance ( r+s 9 ! sep>ate gra9s arises f ! />*-granules be+ compos$ ( num]\s conc5tric coats or lay]s1 l ^? ( an onion4 ,a v simple & /rik+ me?od ( det]m9+ :e!r any granule is compos$ ( />* or n1 consi/s 9 add+ to x1 :5 plac$ 9 wat] on a slide1 a drop ( solution ( iod9e4 ,z soon z ?is t\*es ! granule1 x assumes a beautiful purple col\r1 ! dep? ( t9t dep5d+ ^u ! quantity ( ! iod9e-solution2 if ?is be v consid]able1 ! granule appe>s almo/ black4 ,! section ( potato =ms a v int]e/+ object :5 moi/5$ ) ! iod9e-solution1 ! />*-granules becom+ beautifully col\r$1 :il/ ! cell-wall rema9s col\rless1 & ! protoplasm becomes yell[4 ,! =m ( ! />*-granules diff]s 9 diff]5t plants1 s t ! k9d ( plant f :i* />* has be5 d]iv$ may be di/+ui%$ by att5tion to ! size1 =m1 & /ructure ( its />*-granules4 ,?us1 ! granules repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #c1 :i* x w be notic$ are all drawn "u ! same p[]1 are d]iv$ f diff]5t plants1--a be+ ^? ( :eat-fl\r1 9 :i* ! hilum is obscure1 & ! r+s fa9t2 b is a granule ( ,we/ ,indian arr[root1 9 :i* ! hilum =ms a transv]se crack2 c is a granule ( potato-/>*1 9 :i* ! hilum is a dot1 & ! r+s are v di/9ct2 d repres5ts ! comp\nd granules ( ! oat1 ! sep>ate granules be+ figur$ bel[2 e is a granule ( l5til-/>*1 ) its long d>k hilum & elegant oval conc5tric r+s2 & f repres5ts a comp\nd & sep>ate granule ( rice-/>*4 ,x w be notic$ t ! granules ( oat-& rice-/>* are angul>1 z x is call$4 ,! k ( ! peculi> =ms ( ! />*-granules is important 9 a practical po9t ( view1 = x enables u to recognize !m :5 mix$ z an adult]ation ) o!r sub/ances1 & also to di/+ui% ! diff]5t k9ds ( />* f ea* o!r4 ,?us table-mu/>d1 z x is call$1 is pr9cipally compos$ ( ! *eap] :eat-or pea-fl\r1 :i* is easily recogniz$ by ! /ructure ( ! />*-gra9s4 ,arr[root is consid]ably de>] ?an potato-/>*2 h5ce 9 trade ! latt] is fraudul5tly sold = ! =m]1 ! adult]ation be+ detect$ ) difficulty by ! eye1 b easily "u ! microscope4 ,aga91 rice is l>gely mix$ ) :eat-fl\r1 z x makes inf]ior fl\r into v :ite bread2 & ?is may also be readily detect$ "u ! microscope4 ,! read] c n[ und]/& h[ valuable ! microscope is 9 detect+ adult]ations1 ) a k ( ! v>i\s =ms & /ructures ( sub/ances1 especially ) ! aid ( a few *emical te/s4 ,/>*-gra9s are alt]$ by boil+ 9 wat]1 becom+ swoll5 & (t5 *ang$ into curi\s =ms1 ! r+s becom+ fa9t or disappe>+4 ,if a piece ( boil$ potato be exam9$1 ! />*-granules w seem to h vani%$ f ! cells1 :i* are swoll5 & cov]$ ) an irregul> k9d ( network4 ,! network consi/s ( p>ts ( ! protoplasm situat$ 9 ! int]/ices ( ! />*-granules1 & solidifi$ or coagulat$ by ! heat4 ,on cru%+ ! cells by press+ ^u ! cov]1 ! />*-granules w escape1 swoll5 & p>tly fus$ toge!r2 b !y may easily be recogniz$ z consi/+ ( />* by ! iod9e te/4 ,! granules ( 8t\s les mois0 />* are p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = %[+ ! conc5tric r+s1 ! granules be+ ab\t twice z l>ge z ^? ( ! potato4 ,/>*-granules are be/ exam9$ 9 wat]2 & a small quantity only ( ! />* mu/ be plac$ on ! slide1 if ! /ructure ( ! granules is to be se5 cle>ly4 ,!y may be m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e1 al?\gh ?is makes !m v transp>5t4 ,to ^? :o possess a pol>iscope1 />*-granules are p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 z !y exhibit a black cross1 &1 ) a plate ( sel5ite laid b5ea? ! slide1 a beautiful play ( col\rs4 ,9 addition to ! />* & *lorophyll1 ! cells ( plants conta9 o!r matt]s1 z gum1 sug>1 c42 b z !y are dissolv$ 9 ! cell-liquid1 !y are n visible4 ,9 ! cells ( c]ta9 plants1 h[ev]1 sph]ical globules1 ) light c5tres & black outl9es1 w be met )3 ^! consi/ ( oil4 ,raphides4--,la/ly1 occurr+ 9 ! cells ( plants1 especially su* z are s(t & juicy 7succul5t71 w be f\nd m9ute1 h>d1 col\rless cry/als1 call$ raphides 71 a ne$le74 ,^! are mo/ frequ5tly ne$le-l or acicul> 7acus1 a ne$le71 b sometimes prismatic or rod-l ) flat sides2 !y are also n unfrequ5tly gr\p$ into little tufts4 ,!y may be readily f\nd 9 a piece ( ! /em ( g>d5-rhub>b 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e a71 or ( ! common balsam4 ,por\s & spiral cells4--,! walls ( ! cells ( cellul> tissue are sometimes cov]$ ) little dots 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #aa a71 or slit-l m>k+s2 ! cells are !n call$ por\s cells4 ,a specim5 ( !m may be obta9$ f a section ( ! pi? ( ! eld] 7,sambcus ngra74 ,sometimes cells exhibit ! appe>ance ( a spiral l9e m>k+ _! walls1 z if a little bell-spr+ 7 coil$ up 9 !m 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #b a74 ,^! are call$ spiral cells1 or spiral fibr\s cells1 & ! tissue =m$ by !m is call$ fibro-cellul> tissue4 ,we n[ leave ! cells ( ord9>y cellul> tissue1 to exam9e ^? 9 :i* ! dim5sion ( l5g? pr$om9ates1 s t !y =m tubul> cells2 & fir/ ( ^? requir$ to possess /r5g? & firmness1 comb9$ ) flexibility4 ,^! qualities are met ) 9 ! cells con/itut+ ,woody tissue4--,( ?is !re are two =ms1 call$ respectively wood-cells & woody fibres4 ,! wood-cells are mod]ately long1 m or less tap]+ & ov]lapp+ at ! ends2 & ! cell-walls are ?ick5$1 s z to possess consid]able firmness4 ,^! cells are f\nd 9 ! wood ( /ems1 z 9 ! :ite woody portion ( an a% /ick1 t ( a lime-tree1 ! /em ( a ,*rysan!mum1 c4 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #f74 ,!y are closely pack$1 & ! tissue =m$ by _! union is call$ pros5*yma 71 close1 1 tissue74 ,9 ! o!r k9d ( woody tissue ! cells are v long & sl5d]1 /rong1 yet flexible1 gradually tap]+ at ! ends1 :]e !y ov]lap ea* o!r2 & !y h ?ick walls1 s t1 :5 divid$ transv]sely1 ! cavity appe>s almo/ fill$ up 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #e d1 #i1 #g b74 ,?is tissue is call$ woody fibre or pleur5*yma 71 rib1 71 f its /r5g?4 ,! walls ( ! cells ( woody tissue are (t5 cov]$ ) dots1 ei!r simple or ) an inn] dot 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #f b1 fig4 #aa b71 or ) /reaks 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #f a7 or ) a spiral fibre 7fig4 #aa b1 c71 ei!r alone or ) dots also4 ,?is tissue is ( great importance 9 plants1 f its /r5g? & flexibility2 x =ms a consid]able "p ( ! ve9s ( leaves1 ! inn] b>k 7lib]71 & ( ! wood ( ! /ems ( trees4 ,x is also v useful to man3 = x con/itutes hemp1 ( :i* rope & /r+ are made2 flax1 ( :i* l95 is made2 cocoanut fibre2 ba/1 us$ by g>d5]s = ty+ up plants1 :i* is ! inn] b>k ( ! lime2 & jute1 :i* is ! inn] b>k ( an ,indian lime-tree4 ,9 ! :ite woody "p ( ! /ems ( trees belong+ to ! fir-ord] 7,conifer71 z a piece ( deal or p9e1 :i* is ma9ly compos$ ( wood-7pros5*ymat\s7 cells1 ! cells exhibit r[s ( m9ute circul> m>k+s 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #aj74 ,^! 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be solid bodies or gl&s2 h5ce ! tissue is /ill sometimes call$ gl&ul>4 ,)9 ! out] r+ ( ea* m>k+ is an inn] c5tral dot1 or sometimes an oblique /reak4 ,! side view ( ! cells 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #h a71 :i* is se5 9 a tang5tial section1 %[s t ! m>k+s are m9ute pits1 ea* be+ opposite to "o ( an adjac5t cell1 & sunk inw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! cell1 ! inn] dot or /reak be+ a ?9n] portion ( ! cell-wall4 ,?is gl&ul> tissue ( ! ,conif] is int]e/+ z =m+ a te/-object = ! def9+ p[] ( ! microscope1 :i* %\ld %[ ! two r+s %>ply & free f col\r2 ! section ( ! wood %\ld be exam9$ z a dry transp>5t object4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! woody fibre & ! wood-cells ( conif]\s wood may also be se5 well 9 a piece ( deal1 z cut up = fire-wood4 ,if ! end ( a /ick ( ?is be exam9$ ) ! nak$ eye1 p>ts ( br[n r+s w be se5 trav]s+ ! :it] portion ( ! wood4 ,^! br[n r+s consi/ ( woody fibre2 ! :ite portion ( wood-cells4 ,on mak+ a v ?9 transv]se section1 ! int]ior ( ! woody fibres is se5 to be almo/ entirely fill$ up 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #g b71 :ile ! cavity ( ! wood-cells is mu* m op5 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #g a72 ! =m] also conta9 globules ( turp5t9e4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ "h t "s botanical au?ors include bo? =ms ( woody tissue "u ! t]m pros5*yma4 ,b1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 ! =m ( ! pros5*ymat\s cells be+ sometimes us$ z a "* = di/+ui%+ ! cells ( leaves1 to :i* ! t]m pleur5*ymat\s cells w\ld be inapplicable1 ! above di/9ction w be f\nd important4 ,vessels1 vascul> tissue4--,9 ! next =m ( tubul> cells1 ^! are broad] & s(t] ?an ! cells ( woody tissue1 ?9-wall$1 & ! ends po9t$2 & _! walls exhibit spiral or r+-l m>k+s1 or r[s ( dots 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e c1 e1 b71 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( "o or m spiral fibres or r+s4 ,:5 ! vessels conta9 spiral fibres1 !y are call$ spiral vessels 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e c72 :5 !y conta9 r+-%ap$ portions ( fibre1 !y are call$ annul> 7annulus1 a r+7 vessels 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e e72 & :5 ! spaces betwe5 ! fibres are p>tly fill$ up1 leav+ only dots1 ! deposit =m+ a k9d ( network1 we h a reticulat$ 7rte1 a net7 vessel 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e b74 ,?is tissue c easily be obta9$ f a piece ( cook$ rhub>b1 ! /em ( a balsam1 or f any s(t-/emm$ plant4 ,vessels v frequ5tly conta9 air4 ,ducts4--,! tubul> cells =m+ ducts 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #e b1 #aa c7 are l>ge1 m or less flatt5$ or blunt at ! ends 7truncat$72 & ! cell-membrane at fir/ clos+ ! ends is (t5 remov$ or absorb$1 s t ! ducts communicate ) ea* o!r1 to all[ ( ! free passage ( ! sap ?r\gh !m4 ,_! walls are inv>iably cov]$ ) m>k+s1 consi/+ ( ei!r simple or bord]$ dots1 resembl+ ^? met ) 9 ! prec$+ =ms ( tissue4 ,! ducts are (t5 easily recognizable ) ! nak$ eye1 9 transv]se sections ( /ems1 by ! l>ge pores :i* !y =m 9 ! wood4 ,^! may be well se5 9 a section ( a piece ( cane4 ,! tissue compos$ ( dott$ ducts is call$ bo?r5*yma 71 pit72 b ! t]m is pr9cipally appli$ to ^? ducts 9 :i* ! dots are simple1 i4 e4 h no inn] dot4 ,! /ructure ( ! above =ms ( tissue may be be/ und]/ood 9 relation to _! developm5t4 ,x has be5 /at$ t ! ess5tial "p ( ! cell is ! protoplasm4 ,z cells gr[ old]1 new matt] is deposit$ by ! protoplasm ^u ! inn] surface ( ! cell-wall1 ei!r to a small ext5t1 ev5ly & uni=mly1 z 9 ord9>y p>5*yma1 or unev5ly1 9 ! =m ( spiral lay]s1 =m+ fibres or b&s1 leav+ b>e spaces1 :]e ! orig9al cell-wall exi/s alone4 ,! matt] ?us deposit$ is call$ second>y deposit1 ! orig9al cell-wall be+ ! prim>y deposit4 ,:5 ! second>y deposit cov]s ! int]ior ( ! cells except at c]ta9 slit-l spaces1 we h ! appe>ance figur$ 9 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #f a4 ,:5 ! deposit =ms a spiral fibre1 or a s]ies ( r+s1 we h ! spiral or annul> vessel or duct4 ,& :5 ! int]spaces betwe5 ! coils ( a close spiral fibre are fill$ up except at c]ta9 spots1 we h ! dott$ or reticulat$ vessel or duct4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ^! deposits are pres5t toge!r3 ?us1 sometimes ! out]mo/ deposit leaves r\nd$ pits or dots1 :ile an inn] portion =ms a spiral fibre 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #aa b72 or "o lay] leaves simple r\nd$ pits1 :ile ! o!r leaves small] slits or dots plac$ opposite ! =m] 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #f b74 ,9 "s cells ! cavity is almo/ entirely fill$ up by second>y deposit1 :i* leaves m9ute canals radiat+ f a small cavity 9 ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce1 z se5 9 ! transv]se section ( a plum-/one 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ef72 "h ! canals appe> z d>k l9es4 ,9 o!rs1 aga91 ! second>y deposit =ms sev]al di/9ct lay]s1 leav+ *annels v simil> to ^? ( ! la/2 an example is met ) 9 ! gritty tissue ( ! pulp ( a pe>4 ,! obvi\s use ( ! pits & *annels 9 ! above tissues is to pres]ve ! p]meability ( ! walls ( ! elem5ts1 :i* w\ld be de/roy$ if ! walls 7 equally ?ick5$ all ov]4 ,cell-=mation4--,new cells are =m$ by ! division ( old or p>5t cells4 ,! actual process ( division is difficult to obs]ve1 z x requires prolong$ obs]vation2 b cells are (t5 met ) 9 all /ages ( division1 ( :i* "s in/ances w be po9t$ out h]eaft]4 ,! cell-division takes place 9 two ways1 ei!r accord+ to ! endog5\s 71 )91 1 to produce71 or ! exog5\s 71 outside1 7 me?od4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! division takes place 9 ! =m] is ?is3--,at fir/ a slight ind5tation or con/riction ( ! protoplasm occurs at ! l9e ( division2 ?is deep5s until ! protoplasm is completely divid$4 ,! fre%ly divid$ surfaces !n become coat$ ) a new portion ( cell-wall1 s z to make two or m new cells1 :i* ei!r rema9 9 contact or sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,9 "s cases1 ! divid$ portions ( protoplasm become coat$ all ov] ) new cell-walls4 ,9 ! exog5\s process1 a portion ( ! protoplasm protrudes f ! surface ( ! cell1 c>ry+ ! cell-wall be=e x1 s z to =m a little bud-l body2 ?is is next cut (f at its po9t ( junction ) ! p>5t-cell1 & coat$1 z 9 ! fir/ case1 ) a new cell-wall1 s z to =m a new cell4 ,prep>ation4--,9 exam9+ ! vegetable elem5ts & tissues1 v ?9 sections mu/ be made ) a razor or ?9 %>p knife2 ^! are !n to be plac$ 9 a little wat] on a slide4 ,z ! /ructures are all m9ute1 ! di/9ctness ) :i* !y are se5 w ma9ly dep5d ^u ! prop] ?9ness ( ! sections4 ,:5 sections ( dry /ems are to be exam9$1 ! black m>g9s ( ! air-bubbles conta9$ 9 ! cells (t5 r5d] ! /ructure indi/9ct2 ^! mu/ !re=e be displac$ by fir/ wett+ ! tissue ) me?ylat$ alcohol1 & !n add+ wat] to x 9 a wat*-glass or on a slide2 or ! tissue may be soak$ 9 w>m wat] = "s h\rs3 & ?is is mo/ly requisite 9 prep>+ ?9 sections ( dry tissues4 ,att5tion mu/ also be paid to ! mann] 9 :i* ! section is made1 or ! direction 9 :i* ! portion ( ! plant is cut4 ,!re are ?ree important directions :i* mu/ be di/+ui%$1 produc+ transv]se1 longitud9al1 & tang5tial sections4 ,if ! cuts be made across ! l5g? ( a /em1 = in/ance1 ! section is call$ transv]se4 ,if ! cuts be made 9 ! direction ( ! l5g?1 ?r\gh ! c5tre1 ! section is longitud9al2 & if ! cuts are made 9 a direction p>allel to a l9e runn+ d[n ! c5tre ( ! /em1 b ne>] its m>g91 x is a tang5tial section4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to m5tion t an oblique section is int]m$iate betwe5 a transv]se & a longitud9al section4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,organs4 ,! vegetable elem5ts & tissues :i* h be5 describ$ =m1 ei!r sep>ately or by _! comb9ation 9 v>i\s ways1 ! organs ( plants4 ,to ^! we %all n[ pass1 & consid] ! /ructure ( ! pr9cipal organs ( ! memb]s ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,leaves4--,leaves 9 _! simple/ =m consi/ ( a s+le %eet or lay] ( p>5*ymat\s cells or cellul> tissue1 an example ( :i* may be f\nd 9 almo/ any moss 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #cj74 ,! granules ( *lorophyll w (t5 be v di/9ctly se5 9 ^! cells4 ,! fir/ addition to ?is =m ( leaf is a r[ or two ( pros5*ymat\s cells runn+ longitud9ally d[n ! middle ( ! leaf1 s z to =m a rudim5t>y ve9 or n]ve4 ,9 o!r & m highly develop$ leaves1 ! lay]s ( cells are num]\s1 & trav]s$ by bundles ( wood-cells1 vessels1 & ducts 7fibro-vascul> tissue71 =m+ ! ve9s1--! entire surface be+ cov]$ ) a sk9 or membrane1 call$ ! epid]mis4 ,epid]mis 71 ^u1 1 sk974--,?is membrane is compos$ ( "o or m lay]s ( col\rless1 closely pack$ cells 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #ac #bh71 ! col\r x occasionally exhibits usually aris+ f "s ( ! und]ly+ cells ( ! leaf be+ se5 ?r\gh x1 or rema9+ adh]5t to x :5 /ripp$ f ! leaf4 ,x is easily sep>at$1 by mak+ a cut 9 a s(t leaf1 & peel+ x (f ) a f9e pair ( =ceps1 or by soak+ a leaf = "s "t 9 wat] & !n /ripp+ x (f4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! epid]mis cov]s n only ! leaves1 b e "p ( ! plant4 ,hairs4--,aris+ f ! epid]mis are ! hairs ( plants4 ,^! are ?read-l or filam5t\s prolongations ( ! epid]mis beyond ! surface ( ! leaf 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ab71 consi/+ ( cells arrang$ end to end4 ,!y are (t5 bran*$1 sometimes />-%ap$ 7/ellate7 7fig4 #bh71 & pres5t great v>ieties 9 =m1 z %[n 9 ! figures1 ! plants f :i* ^! 7 drawn be+ m5tion$ 9 ! ,description ( ! ,plates4 ,sometimes hairs t]m9ate 9 a little head 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #ab c1 d1 e71 ! cell or cells compos+ :i* secrete a col\r+ or a viscid sub/ance2 !y are !n t]m$ gl&ul>4 ,! hairs ( plants are p>ticul>ly int]e/+ to ! microscopic obs]v]1 n only on acc\nt ( _! curi\s =ms1 b 9 connexion ) ! rem>kable ph5om5on ( ! circulation ( ! cell-cont5ts1 or rotation1 z x is call$1 obs]vable 9 !m4 ,?is is difficult to be p]ceiv$ by any "o unaccu/om$ to microscopic obs]vation1 because ! p>ticles by :i* ! motion ( ! cell-cont5ts becomes evid5t are exce$+ly m9ute2 b practice 9 ! use ( a high p[] w ov]come ?is difficulty4 ,! hairs :i* exhibit ! ph5om5on be/ are ^? ( ! ,am]ican ,spid]wort 7,tradescantia ,virg9ica71 :i* is to be f\nd 9 e g>d54 ,x may1 p]haps be recogniz$ ?us3--,! plant is ab\t a foot & a half high2 ! leaves are sword-%ap$ & *annell$1 & ! fl[]s are purple1 9 heads1 & #a in* 9 diamet]4 ,! hairs are atta*$ to ! sides ( ! /am5s1 t[>ds ! l[] "p or base4 ,! /am5s %\ld be c>efully pick$ (f ) =ceps1 & plac$ on a slide 9 a drop ( wat]2 ! hairs %\ld !n be sep>at$ ) ! m\nt$ ne$les1 & a cov] appli$4 ,"u a l[ p[]1 ! hairs are se5 to be bead$ or monili=m 7monle1 a necklace71 & ( a f9e purple col\r 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #bb74 ,on apply+ a high p[]1 z ! -in*1 ! individual cells w come di/9ctly into view1 & ! nucleus w be se5 v cle>ly z a r\ndi% granul> mass 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #bc a74 ,on c>efully exam9+ ! cell-cont5ts1 delicate l9es w be obs]v$ radiat+ irregul>ly f ! nucleus1 "s pass+ to ! top ( ! cells1 :ile o!rs run t[>ds its base1 z 9 ! figure2 & on v close inspection1 ! portions ( protoplasm ( :i* ^! l9es consi/1 w be f\nd to move sl[ly & /eadily1 ! motion becom+ p]ceptible by means ( ! m9ute granules ( :i* ! protoplasm consi/s4 ,! curr5ts return at ! ends ( ! cell1 !re be+ no passage ( ! cont5ts ( "o cell into ! cavity ( ei!r ( ^? adjac5t4 ,dur+ ?is exam9ation1 x w be notic$ t ! surface ( ! cell-wall is /riat$ ) f9e wr9kles4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! hairs %\ld be tak5 f fl[]s :i* h only j op5$2 = ?is curi\s & inexplicable rotation is connect$ ) ! gr[? ( ! cell2 & :5 ?is has atta9$ maturity1 x no long] occurs4 ,! ph5om5on may be obs]v$ 9 _m o!r hairs ( plants1 z ^? ( common gr\ndsel 7,s5cio vulgris7 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ab a1 b71 & 9 ! cells ( ! leaves ( "s wat]-plants2 b ,i mu/ ref] to ! article 8,rotation0 9 ! ,diction>y = fur!r in=mation4 ,! mo/ important v>iety ( hair is t d]iv$ f ! ,cotton-plant 7a k9d ( ,mall[71 & =m+ ! cotton ( comm]ce4 ,^! hairs spr+ f ! epid]mis ( ! se$s4 ,! cells compos+ x are v long & s(t1 becom+ flaccid & easily b5t :5 dry 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ac74 ,/+s4--,/++ hairs or /+s may be well illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to ! common l>ge nettle 7,urtca dioca74 ,9 ?is plant !y consi/ ( a ?ick-wall$ cell1 bulb\s at ! base1 :i* is imb$d$ 9 ! epid]mis 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ba71 ! po9t$ end be+ t]m9at$ by a v m9ute dilatation or knob4 ,! /+ conta9s an acrid liquid1 :i* escapes :5 ! little knob is brok5 (f 9 w\nd+ ! sk91 & produces ! well-kn[n irritation4 ,by ! side ( ! figure ( ! /+ is repres5t$ ! po9t ( a f9e ne$le 7fig4 #bj71 %[+ t ! expression 8%>p z a ne$le0 has no =ce :5 microscopic bodies are 9 "q4 ,/omata 71 m\?74--,on view+ a /rip ( epid]mis1 ! obs]v] w be sure to notice c]ta9 oval or r\ndi% bodies 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ac a71 compos$ ( mo/ly two kidney-%ap$ cells 9 apposition b leav+ a *9k betwe5 !m2 ^! are ! /omata4 ,!y communicate b5ea? ) ! int]cellul> passages1 ( :i* !y may be consid]$ ! m\?s2 & by _! ag5cy a direct communication is e/abli%$ betwe5 ^! passages & ! air4 ,! two cells :i* gu>d ! orifice are t]m$ ! 8gu>d cells40 ,/omata are mo/ num]\s on ! "u surface ( leaves2 !y are entirely abs5t 9 plants gr[+ "u wat]1 & 9 mo/ ( ! l[] plants4 ,9 _m ( ! /omata1 view$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 ! air situat$ betwe5 ! gu>d cells is indicat$ by ! black spot or dot pres5t2 b aft] a "t1 or by ! application ( a g5tle heat to ! slide1 ! air becomes displac$ by ! wat]1 & _! /ructure becomes v di/9ct4 ,9 c]ta9 plants1 ! epid]mis is imbu$ ) fl9t or silica2 s t ev5 :5 burnt to an a% ! /omata are /ill q di/9ct4 ,examples ( ?is may be f\nd 9 ! /alk or culm ( grasses1 z 9 /raw1 ! %9+ epid]mis ( :i* is silice\s2 or ! epid]mis ( canes4 ,among ! l[] plants1 ?is peculi>ity is especially curi\s 9 ! species ( ,equistum1 or m>es'-tails4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ve9s ( leaves are arrang$ is wor?y ( special att5tion1 z x =ms "o ( ! *>act]s by :i* ! two lead+ divisions ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom are *>act]iz$4 ,?us 9 "o ( ^! divisions ! ve9s are bran*$1 s z to =m a network ?r\gh\t ! leaf2 ! plants ) ^! nett$ ve9s1 to :i* belong our trees1 %rubs1 & mo/ h]bs1 are ! ,dicotyldons1 or ,exog5s2 :ile 9 ! second division1 ! ve9s run p>allel to ea* o!r1 be+ little or n at all bran*$1 & n =m+ a network4 ,! plants ) p>allel ve9s1 among :i* are our grasses1 lilies1 c41 are ! ,monocotyldons or ,endog5s4 ,/ems4--,9 ! /ems ( plants1 ! tissues are arrang$ r\nd a c5tre2 o!rwise1 9 ! simpl] & l[] plants1 !y agree 9 /ructure ) leaves1 ! c5tre be+ occupi$ by "s elem5t ( fibro-vascul> tissue1 z simple wood-cells1 a few vessels or ducts4 ,9 ! high] or fl[]+ plants1 ! /em exi/s 9 two di/9ct =ms1 correspond+ to ! diff]5ces above notic$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! ve9s ( ! leaves2 ^! mu/ be consid]$ sep>ately4 ,9 ! ,dicotyl$ons or ,exog5s 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #cf71 ! c5tre ( ! /em1 9 a transv]se section1 is se5 to be occupi$ by ! pi? or m$ulla1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! figure by ! inn]mo/ circle4 ,imm$iately outside & ar\nd ?is is a n>r[ r+1 indicat+ ! section ( a %ea? to ! pi?1 & call$ ! m$ull>y %ea?4 ,next comes a broad r+ ( wood ( ! fir/ ye>'s gr[? 7fig4 #cf a71 trav]s$1 f ! pi? to ! b>k1 by w$ge-%ap$ pal] rays1 t]m$ ! m$ull>y rays4 ,outside ! fir/ ye>'s wood is ! new] & pal] wood ( ! second ye> 7b72 & s on1 a new r+ ( wood be+ add$ outside ! prec$+ lay] = ea* ye> ( gr[? ( ! /em4 ,on ! out] side ( ! wood is ! inn] b>k or lib] 7fig4 #cf c72 & outside ?is is ! spongy out] b>k 7d71 cov]$ by its epid]mis4 ,^! /ructures are ( diff]5t composition1 z may be be/ se5 9 longitud9al sections4 ,! pi? & ! m$ull>y rays consi/ ( cellul> tissue1 ! cells be+ mo/ly r\nd$ 9 ! =m]1 & m closely press$ toge!r & squ>i% 9 ! latt]4 ,! m$ull>y %ea? consi/s ( vascul> tissue2 & ! wood1 ( wood-cells trav]s$ longitud9ally by bundles ( vascul> tissue & ducts1 ! latt] be+ l>g] & m di/9ct t[>ds its out] b\nd>y4 ,! lib] is compos$ ( woody fibre1 & ! out] b>k ( cellul> tissue4 ,! new woody matt] be+ deposit$ outside ! old1 betwe5 ! b>k & ! previ\sly =m$ lay]1 gives orig9 to ! t]m exog5 71 outside1 1 to produce74 ,^! /ructures may be exam9$ 9 ! section ( a bran* ( ! lime-tree or lilac4 ,9 ! ,monocotyl$ons or ,endog5s 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #cg71 !re is no di/9ct b>k1 nor pi?1 nor m$ull>y rays--! entire /em consi/+ ( cellul> tissue ) isolat$ bundles ( fibro-vascul> tissue scatt]$ ?r\gh x4 ,moreov] ! new sub/ance is add$ to ! c5tre ( ! /em1 or )9 ! old2 h5ce ! t]m endog5 71 )91 74 ,a section ( a piece ( cane w exhibit ?is /ructure4 ,to exam9e ! /ructure ( /ems1 sections mu/ be made 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! relative position ( ! compon5t p>ts ( a /em are be/ se5 9 a transv]se section2 b ! /ructure ( ! tissues is mo/ evid5t 9 longitud9al sections1 & "u ! high] p[]s4 ,! annual r+s ( ! ,exog5s are be/ obs]v$ 9 transv]sely sawn-(f pieces ( p]fectly dry /ems1 :i* h be5 poli%$ ) s&pap]1 & v>ni%$ ) _s v>ni%4 ,roots4--,! /ructure ( roots is v simil> to t ( /ems2 !re is1 h[ev]1 no di/9ct pi?1 nor are !re /omata on ! epid]mis2 & ! vessels are replac$ by ducts4 ,! v f9e rootlets or radicles ( wat]-plants (t5 %[ ! rotation ( ! protoplasm v di/9ctly4 ,fl[]s4--,! v>i\s p>ts ( fl[]s1 be+ ea* a modifi$ leaf1 pres5t ! same g5]al /ructure z ! latt]4 ,z ! read] may n be acqua9t$ ) ! names ( ^! p>ts or organs 9 ! high] plants1 & z we %all h to comp>e !m ) _! repres5tatives 9 ! l[] =ms ( vegetable life1 x w be well briefly to indicate !m4 ,a common & beautiful yet despis$ fl[] 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #cb7 may s]ve = illu/ration2 ?is is *ickwe$ 7,/ellria mdia71 :i* c be f\nd ev]y:]e4 ,! out]mo/ circle ( fl[]-leaves1 :i* =ms a k9d ( cup to ! re/ ( ! fl[] 7a71 is ! calyx2 ! sep>ate leaves be+ call$ ! sepals4 ,! r[ )9 ?is1 9 mo/ fl[]s consi/+ ( brilliantly col\r$ pieces1 =ms ! corolla 7b72 ! individual pieces be+ ! petals4 ,:5 ! two k9ds are equally col\r$1 or n di/+ui%able1 ! :ole is call$ ! p]ian?1 z 9 a tulip4 ,:5 ! segm5ts ( ! p]ian? are dry & *affy1 z 9 ! fl[]s ( grasses1 ! out]mo/ are said to con/itute ! glumes1 & ! inn]mo/ ! pale4 ,)9 ! r+ ( petals are c]ta9 ?read-l organs call$ /am5s 7c72 & ^! consi/ ( a filam5t 7fig4 #ci a71 surm\nt$ at ! top or apex by ! an!r 7fig4 #ci b71 :i* is usually col\r$1 & consi/s ( two lobes4 ,! an!rs :5 ripe bur/1 & dis*>ge a col\r$ du/2 ?is is ! poll54 ,la/ly1 )9 ! /am5s is ! c5tral organ ( ! fl[]1 ! pi/il1 & sometimes !re are sev]al ( !m4 ,! pi/il consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 viz4 a swoll5 base1 ! ov>y 7fig4 #da b71 surm\nt$ by a column or /yle 7fig4 #da a71 & :i* is cr[n$ by a viscid & (t5 hairy summit1 ! /igma 7fig4 #dj9974 ,9 *ickwe$ !re are #c /yles4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t1 9 ! fl[]s ( "s plants1 /am5s alone are pres5t1 :ile o!rs conta9 pi/ils only1 al?\gh mo/ fl[]s conta9 bo? organs4 ,:5 ! /am5s & pi/ils occur 9 sep>ate fl[]s on ! same plant1 ! plant is said to be monci\s 71 s+le1 1 family72 :5 all ! fl[]s ( di/9ct plants conta9 ei!r /am5s only or pi/ils only1 ! plant is dici\s 71 twice1 72 & :5 ! /am5s & pi/ils occur toge!r 9 all ! fl[]s ( ! same plant1 ! plant is said to be h]maphrodite4 ,^! t]ms _h _! orig9 9 ! idea t ! diff]5ces ( plants 9 respect to ^! organs 7 analog\s to ^? ( ! sexes 9 animals4 ,all ! p>ts ( a fl[] h _! special uses3 ?us ! calyx & corolla protect ! delicate organs enclos$ by !m1 until !y atta9 maturity4 ,! petals also1 by _! brilliant col\rs1 attract insects :i* fe$ ^u or collect ! honey ( ! fl[]s2 ^! at ! same "t convey+ ! poll5 :i* adh]es to _! bodies f "o fl[] to ! /igma ( ano!r4 ,! /am5s & pi/ils are organs ( fructification1 x be+ ess5tial = ! f]tilization ( ! fl[]s t ! poll5 %\ld come into contact ) ! /igma4 ,we w n[ consid] "s int]e/+ po9ts ( /ructure 9 ^! organs4 ,petals4--,! petals (t5 =m mo/ beautiful microscopic objects1 on acc\nt ( ! curi\s %ape & /ructure ( ! cells ( _! epid]mis1 & ! spl5did t9ts ( ! col\r+ matt]s conta9$ 9 !m4 ,z petals are mo/ly too ?ick to all[ ( ! cells be+ di/9ctly se5 9 ! entire /ate1 a little cut %\ld be made 9 !m :ile g5tly /ret*$ on ! f+]1 & ! epid]mis c>efully /ripp$ (f ) =ceps2 ! /rip %\ld !n be laid on ! slide 9 wat] z usual3 9 ?is way ! curi\s patt]ns ( ! epid]mic cells w become v di/9ct4 ,! petals ( a r$ g]anium 7,pel>gnium7 may be us$ to illu/rate !m 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #bd74 ,! /ructure may be be/ und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! epid]mis ( ! leaf ( a g]anium 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ac71 9 :i* ! cells pres5t wavy or undulate walls4 ,9 ! petal 7fig4 #bd71 ! walls are inflex$ at tol]ably regul> di/ances1 s z to give rise to ! appe>ance ( a r[ ( tee? l9+ ! cell4 ,if ! /rip ( petal be fold$1 s z to exhibit ! side view1 x w also be se5 t ! cells project outw>ds f ! surface to =m a blunti% po9t or papilla1 or ! petals are papillose z x is call$2 & ! surface ( ! membrane ar\nd ! papill is f9ely wr9kl$1 s z to pres5t ! appe>ance ( v delicate radiat+ l9es or /ri4 ,int]m$iate degrees ( ?is inflexion may be f\nd 9 v>i\s fl[]s1 betwe5 ! slight condition se5 9 fig4 #ac & ! extreme /ate ( fig4 #bd1 z 9 ! snapdragon 7,antirrhnum mjus74 ,an!rs4--,! cavities ( ! an!rs are l9$ ) fibro-cellul> tissue1 ! fibres ( :i* aid 9 dis*>g+ ! poll52 ?is may be se5 by dissect+ an an!r ( ,london pride 7,saxifraga umbrsa71 or ( a wallfl[] 7,*eiran?us *eri7 9 wat]4 ,x also exi/s 9 *ickwe$4 ,poll54--,! poll5 consi/s ( m9ute gra9s call$ ! poll5-granules4 ,!y may be view$ ei!r 9 ! dry /ate z opake objects1 or :5 imm]s$ 9 wat] z transp>5t objects4 ,z x is (t5 difficult to moi/5 !m1 !y may be t\*$ on ! slide ) a little _s1 & !n a drop ( wat] add$4 ,_! =ms are v v>i$ & curi\s1 b !y are difficult ( obs]vation f _! m9ute size4 ,!y consi/ ( "o or m col\r$ cells1 & ^! cells are rem>kable = _! surfaces exhibit+ sp9es1 networks1 folds1 & m>k+s ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,?us 9 ! primrose ! poll5-granules are cyl9drical1 ! surface be+ furr[$ 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #af72 9 ! sunfl[] ! granules are sph]ical1 & cov]$ ) tub]cles surm\nt$ by sp9es 7fig4 #ag72 9 ! g>d5 convolvulus ! surface ( ! sph]ical granules is cov]$ ) an elegant network1 9 ! me%es ( :i* are also situat$ sp9es 7fig4 #ah72 & 9 ! granules ( *ickwe$ ! surface pres5ts pits1 ) m9ute tub]cles 9 ! c5tre 7figs4 #cj #ca74 ,! poll5-granules are (t5 consid]ably alt]$ by imm]sion 9 wat]2 s t1 9 judg+ ( _! /ructure :5 exam9$ 9 wat]1 ! result+ alt]ation mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,:5 ripe poll5-granules h be5 imm]s$ 9 wat] = a %ort "t1 "o or m m9ute tubes w be se5 protrud+ f _! surface2 ^! are ! poll5-tubes1 & ! granul> protoplasm conta9$ 9 !m is call$ ! fovilla4 ,9 ! process ( f]tilization ( ! fl[]1 ! poll5-granules fall ^u ! viscid /igma2 ! poll5-tubes are !n protrud$1 &1 pass+ d[n ! int]cellul> spaces ( ! /yle 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ad71 ent] an ap]ture 9 ! ovule or "y se$1 :i* is ?us end[$ ) ! p[] ( gr[+ into a new plant4 ,! poll5-tubes are (t5 v long1 & !y d n exi/ fully develop$ 9 ! poll5-granules1 b gr[ d[n ! /yle1 j z ! little rootlet ( a se$ gr[s into ! soil4 ,! /yle ( a crocus w s]ve = dissect+ out ) m\nt$ ne$les ! long & v sl5d] poll5-tube 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ae74 ,ov>y4--,! ov>y by its gr[? & enl>gem5t becomes ! fruit4 ,!re are _m int]e/+ microscopic /ructures to be f\nd 9 fruits & ! se$s !y conta91 a few ( :i* may be notic$ "h4 ,on exam9+ ! surface ( ! r9d or p]ic>p 71 ar\nd1 1 fruit7 ( an orange1 little dots w be se51 pal] ?an ! re/ ( ! surface4 ,^! are receptacles ( secretion1 or gl&s1 conta9+ ! evaporable or volatile oil ^u :i* ! fragrance ( ! orange dep5ds4 ,!y consi/ ( loose cells1 surr\nd+ a c5tral cavity1 & are imb$d$ 9 ! r9d4 ,o!r receptacles ( secretion1 call$ vitt 7vitta1 a b&71 occur 9 ! wall 7p]ic>p7 ( ! fruit ( ! ,umbellif]1 or ,p>sley ,ord] ( plants1 & _! arrangem5t =ms *>act]s = di/+ui%+ ! g5]a4 ,!y may be well se5 9 c>away-se$s2 = ! c>away-plant is "o ( ! ,umbellif]4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t a c>away 8se$0 is n really a se$1 b consi/s ( half ! fruit2 =1 on c>eful exam9ation1 "o side ( x w be f\nd to be flatt5$1 ! flatt5+ result+ f ! mutual pressure ( ! two half-fruits at t "p2 moreov] ! dri$ /yle exi/s at its summit4 ,9 ! figure 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ai71 ! flatt5$ "p ( ! se$ is next ! obs]v]4 ,! se$ has five evid5t longitud9al ridges1 "o at ea* corn] or angle4 ,! vitt are d>k-col\r$ 7fig4 #ai a71 & plac$ "o betwe5 ea* pair ( ^! ridges2 & !y consi/ ( long flatt5$ spaces 9 ! sub/ance ( ! p]ic>p1 ) transv]se m>k+s1 indicat+ int]nal cross p>titions4 ,9 botanical works1 ! pres5ce ( five ridges1 ) s+le vitt 9 ! int]vals1 is giv5 z a "* by :i* ! half-fruits 7c>pels7 ( ! c>away are to be di/+ui%$4 ,b on closely inspect+ ! flatt5$ surface1 ano!r ridge is se5 runn+ d[n its middle2 s t ! se$ really has six ridges1 "o ( :i* is small] ?an ! re/ f ! pressure ( ! o!r half4 ,h5ce ! "* ( five ridges ) s+le vitt is incorrect4 ,! vitt conta9 ! volatile oil to :i* ! fragrance & pung5cy ( ! fruit is ow+1 al?\gh "s ( ! oil exi/s also 9 ! cells ( ! k]nel or albm51 :i* =ms ! :ite & great] "p ( ! se$4 ,! sk9 ( a r$di% apple1 peel$ (f 9 ! mann] describ$ = petals1 exhibits beautifully ! r$ col\r+ matt] ( diff]5t t9ts 9 adjac5t cells1 :ile ! pulp displays ! cell-cont5ts1 z already m5tion$4 ,! latt] may also be easily exam9$1 f _! l>ge size1 9 mo/ ( ! s(t] fruits1 z t ( ! sn[b]ry or ! cucumb]4 ,z ! ov>y or fruit approa*es maturity1 ! petals & /am5s )] & fall (f1 ! calyx (t5 rema9+1 & be+ sometimes adh]5t to ! ov>y1 at o!rs free or unatta*$ to x4 ,se$s4--,dur+ ! rip5+ ( ! fruit1 ! se$s conta9$ )9 x are gradually becom+ fur!r develop$4 ,! se$s !mselves are cov]$ outside by a sk9 or coat call$ ! te/a 7te/a1 a %ell74 ,?is is rem>kable = frequ5tly display+ v>i\s k9ds ( figur$ patt]ns1 consi/+ ( rais$ networks1 ridges1 little knobs or tub]cles1 c4 ,examples ( ^! may be f\nd 9 ! se$s ( ! poppy 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #bg71 mignonette 7fig4 #bi71 & *ickwe$ 7fig4 #ea74 ,"s se$s are w+$1 z x is call$1 i4 e4 furni%$ ) an ext5sion ( ! te/a beyond ! m>g9 ( ! se$4 ,?is n unfrequ5tly consi/s ( aggregat$ fibre-cells1 ! spiral fibre be+ v di/9ct1 z 9 ! se$s ( ,eccremoc>pus scb] 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #eb74 ,9 ! se$s ( ano!r curi\s plant 9 ?is respect1 viz4 ,collmia gr&iflra1 ! fibre-cells are sep>ate1 s z to resemble hairs1 & v mucilag9\s1 & 9 ! dry se$ are closely press$ to its surface4 ,if a portion ( ! te/a ( ^! se$s1 :i* c be procur$ at ! se$-%ops1 be cut (f1 laid on a slide1 a cov] appli$1 & :5 ! object is 9 focus1 a drop ( wat] be add$1 9 a %ort "t wat] s(t5s ! mucilag9\s walls ( ! cells1 ! p[] ( ! spiral fibres comes into play1 & ! cells exp& s z to =m a v int]e/+ object2 ! cells1 9 _! expansion1 app>5tly wri?+ l s _m m9ute worms 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ce74 ,! se$ itself1 :i* is conta9$ )9 ! te/a or se$-coat1 consi/s ess5tially ( ! "y plant or embryo4 ,?is is compos$ ( ?ree p>ts1 viz4 ! plmule 7plumula1 a little fea!r71 or ! "y /em2 ! radicle 7radicula1 a little root71 or ! "y root2 & "o or two1 r>ely m1 imp]fectly develop$ or rudim5t>y leaves1 ! cotyledons 71 a cup74 ,^! /ructures are closely pack$ 9 ! se$1 & are n easily recogniz$ at fir/4 ,by keep+ se$s moi/ = a day or two until !y beg9 to gr[1 or g]m9ate z ! se$-gr[? is call$1 !y are readily detect$1 & may !n be m easily f\nd 9 ! dry se$4 ,:5 some:at advanc$ 9 gr[?1 !y are famili> to e "o1 al?\gh !y may n be recogniz$ by _! names4 ,9 table 8mu/>d & cress10 ! :ole consi/s ( ^! organs ( ! two plants2 ! :ite /alk direct$ d[nw>ds be+ ! radicle1 ! two gre5 leaf-l lobes ! cotyl$ons1 & betwe5 ! latt] direct$ upw>ds is ! v m9ute plumule1 :i* is m easily se5 :5 ! plants h be5 all[$ to gr[ l>g]4 ,?is /ructure ( ! se$ is important to be kn[n1 because ! abs5ce or pres5ce & ! numb] ( cotyl$ons af=d *>act]s1 correspond+ ) ^? already m5tion$ 9 respect to ! ve9s ( ! leaves & ! /ructure ( ! /em1 = di/+ui%+ ! great divisions ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,?us1 ! ,exog5s are ,dicotyl$ons 71 twice71 _! se$s hav+ two cotyl$ons2 :ile ! ,endog5s are ,monocotyl$ons 71 s+le71 hav+ "o only2 & ! ,cryptogamic plants are ,acotyl$ons 71 )\t71 _! se$s 7spores7 hav+ none ( ^! organs4 ,"s se$s consi/ entirely ( ! embryo1 surr\nd$ by ! te/a4 ,b 9 _m o!rs !re is also pres5t a usually :iti%1 firm cellul> sub/ance1 call$ ! albm5 7album51 :ite ( egg74 ,! album5 ( se$s (t5 af=ds good specim5s ( second>y deposit1 ! cells be+ almo/ entirely fill$ ) x4 ,an example may be f\nd 9 a section ( vegetable ivory1 ( :i* ornam5ts are sometimes made2 its /ructure resembles ess5tially t ( ! plum-/one4 ,9 o!r in/ances ! cells conta9 secret$ matt]s1 z />*1 oil1 c42 & sometimes ! cotyl$ons also conta9 />* & oil4 ,an example ( ! =m] exi/s 9 ! album5 ( :eat2 & ( ! latt]1 9 ! horse-*e/nut1 ! filb]t1 & mu/>d-se$4 ,! album5 & cotyl$ons s]ve to supply ! embryo ) nutrim5t until ! roots h gr[n suffici5tly to enable !m to absorb x f ! soil2 ! cotyl$ons also s]ve z tempor>y leaves4 ,! =m & relative position ( ! radicle & cotyl$ons s]ve to di/+ui% c]ta9 gr\ps ( plants4 ,?is may be illu/rat$ by ! natural ord] ,crucif]1 or t conta9+ ! mu/>d1 wall-fl[]1 c4 ,?us1 9 "o gr\p1 :i* may be repres5t$ by ! wall-fl[]1 ! cotyl$ons are flat or plane 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #dc #dd71 ! radicle be+ appli$ to _! edges4 ,?is is be/ se5 9 a transv]se section 7fig4 #dc74 ,!y are !n call$ accumb5t 7accumbo1 to lie aga9/72 & ! botanical sign is ,o4 ,9 ! second gr\p1 ! cotyl$ons are plane 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ch71 ) ! radicle appli$ to ! back ( "o ( !m1 z 9 ! se$ ( ! common %eph]d's purse 7,capsella bursa pa/ris7 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ai74 ,!y are !n t]m$ 9cumb5t 7incumbo1 to lie ^u71 & ! sign is ,o4 ,:ile 9 ! ?ird gr\p ! cotyl$ons are fold$ 9 ! middle1 l ! leaves ( a book 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #di #ej71 & ! radicle is enclos$ betwe5 !m1 z 9 ! :ite mu/>d 7,s9apis alba74 ,! cotyl$ons are !n call$ conduplicate 7conduplico1 to fold72 & _! sign is ,o 4 ,! plants above-m5tion$ are evid5tly all ,dicotyl$on\s1 or _! se$s h two cotyl$ons2 & !y conta9 no album54 ,9 ! ,monocotyl$on\s division1 :i* may be repres5t$ by a gra9 ( :eat 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ec71 ! s+le cotyl$on =ms a m9ute %ea? 7a71 enclos+ ! plumule 7b71 ! radicle 7c7 be+ "h b little develop$ at fir/1 ! great] "p ( ! gra9 consi/+ ( ! album5 7d72 ! gra9 %\ld be s(t5$ 9 wat] be=e exam9ation4 ,9 ! g]m9at$ gra9 ! cotyl$on appe>s z a pale %ea?1 surr\nd+ ! convolute gre5 leaves ( ! plumule2 :i* may be be/ se5 9 a transv]se section 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #dh74 ,f]tilization4--,a few words mu/ n[ be said reg>d+ ! =mation ( se$s1 & ! action ( ! poll5-tubes 9 ! process ( f]tilization4 ,9 ! e>lie/ /ages ( gr[?1 ! "y se$s1 or ovules z !y are call$1 appe> z little buds1 aris+ f ! inn] wall ( ! ov>y2 & ! "p f :i* !y arise is call$ ! plac5ta 7plac5ta1 a cake74 ,9 *ickwe$ 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #da c71 ! plac5ta =ms a c5tral column2 & :5 ! ovules are a little old]1 !y are f\nd to h sep>at$ some:at f ! plac5ta1 b reta9+ a connexion by means ( a little cord or /alk1 t]m$ ! funiculus 7funis1 a cord74 ,! ovules may be readily f\nd 9 ! ov>y or "y pod ( a wall-fl[]1 ! plac5tas =m+ f\r l9es1 runn+ longitud9ally d[n ! int]ior ( ! pod4 ,9 ?is e>ly condition ! ovule consi/s ( a mass ( cellul> tissue2 & z new =mations are soon add$ to x1 x is t]m$ 9 ?is /ate ! ncleus4 ,ar\nd ! nucleus are !n =m$ two coats1 an out]1 call$ ! prm9e1 & an inn]1 t]m$ ! secund9e4 ,^! coats or membranes are op5 at "o end1 s z to leave a passage d[n to ! apex ( ! nucleus2 ! op5+ is call$ ! =m54 ,^! /ructures are well se5 9 ! ovule ( ! wall-fl[] 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ed71 ! =am5 9 ! figure be+ indicat$ by a 992 x w be notic$ also t ! funiculus runs d[n "o side ( ! ovule1 s z to t]m9ate at ! bottom or base ( ! nucleus4 ,9 ripe se$s1 ! spot at :i* ! funiculus has be5 atta*$ is mo/ly p]ceptible 9 ! =m ( a sc>4 ,! slight prom95ce ( ! =am5 c also (t5 be di/+ui%$1 z 9 ! se$ ( *ickwe$ 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ea9972 9 ! ripe se$ ! =am5 is t]m$ ! mcropyle1 & t[>ds x ! radicle ( ! embryo is always direct$4 ,"o ( ! cells ( ! nucleus ne> its apex !n enl>ges1 s z to =m a sac1 call$ ! embryo-sac4 ,?is is excessively ?9 & transp>5t 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #de b #dg72 & 9 x1 also at ! end next ! =am51 "o or m 79 ! *ickwe$ "o7 small] cells are =m$ f ! cell-cont5ts ( ! embryo-sac1 :i* are call$ ! embryonal vesicles 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #de a74 ,?us f> develop$1 ! embryo exi/s prior to ! expansion ( ! fl[] & ! dis*>ge ( ! poll54 ,! embryo-sac is n figur$ 9 ?is e>ly condition1 ! embryonal vesicle be+ !n small] ?an t 9 fig4 #de b1 al?\gh occupy+ ! same position4 ,:5 ! poll5 has escap$ f ! an!rs & fall5 ^u ! /igma1 ! poll5-tubes gr[+ d[n ! int]cellul> passages ( ! /yle1 ent] ! =am5 ( ! ovule1 & s rea* ! apex ( ! nucleus1 at :i* ! embryonal vesicle conta9$ 9 ! embryo-sac is situat$4 ,! end ( ! poll5-tube !n adh]es to ! embryonal vesicle1 & su* int]*ange ( cell-cont5ts takes place betwe5 !m z effects f]tilization4 ,! process ( cell-=mation 9 ! f]tiliz$ embryonal vesicle !n takes place rapidly1 new cells be+ =m$ by ! division ( its cell-cont5ts 7,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #de a72 & x w be notic$ t ! new cells are =m$ at ! end ( ! embryonal vesicle1 opposite to t situat$ at ! apex ( ! embryo-sac4 ,z ! cell-division & =mation proce$ fur!r1 a mass ( new cells is produc$ 7,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #df c #dg71 =m+ ! rudim5t>y embryo2 & f ?is1 by fur!r gr[?1 ! p]fect$ embryo 7fig4 #ee7 results2 or1 to use a fa%ionable te*nical t]m1 ! simply cellul> embryonic mass becomes diff]5tiat$ into ! radicle1 cotyl$ons1 & plumule1 =m+ ! embryo4 ,x w be rem>k$ t ! position ( ! embryo 9 fig4 #ee is ! rev]se ( t 9 figs4 #df #dg1 ! radicle 9 ! =m] be+ direct$ d[nw>ds1 :il/ t ( ! embryo 9 ! figure ( ! embryo-sac 7fig4 #dg7 is direct$ upw>ds4 ,! embryonal /ructures are v difficult ( detection2 b x happ5s t 9 our little *ickwe$ !y are m easily dissect$ out ?an 9 mo/ o!r plants4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! ovules1 plac$ on a slide & ly+ 9 wat]1 %\ld be pick$ to pieces ) ! m\nt$ ne$les1 "u ! simple microscope4 ,!y may be pres]v$ 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,a cle> di/9ction mu/ be drawn betwe5 se$s1 :i* result f ! process ( f]tilization1 & buds1 :i* are =m$ indep5d5tly ( ?is process4 ,bo? consi/ ess5tially ( embryo plants2 b :ile ! =m] orig9ate f a s+le cell1 ! latt] are outgr[?s ( a p>5t /em1 f :i* _! tissues are d]iv$2 & :ile ! =m] propagate ! species1 ! latt] increase ! individual4 ,! obvi\s use ( se$s is ! di/ribution ( ! species by ! =mation ( new individuals4 ,9 ! g5]al outl9e :i* has be5 giv5 ( ! elem5ts1 tissues1 & organs ( plants1 !y h be5 exam9$ pr9cipally z exi/+ 9 ! high] gr\ps1 or ^? ( m complex /ructure2 & to ent] fur!r ^u a description ( ^! plants w\ld involve ! consid]ation ( v>iations 9 ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! organs ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,z ^! c mo/ly be inve/igat$ )\t ! use ( ! microscope1 we mu/ pass to ^? 9 :i* ! entire plant consi/s ( little m ?an simple or p>5*ymat\s cells1 & 9 :i* ! repres5tatives ( ! fl[] are s inconspicu\s1 or are r$uc$ to s elem5t>y a condition1 t ! plants includ$ 9 ! ,division h be5 t]m$ ,cryptogamic 71 conceal$1 1 union--figuratively = reproductive organs7 or ,fl[]less ,plants4 ,! reproductive organs ( ! ,cryptogamia are usually t]m$ ! fructification1 imply+ t !y produce fruit1 b n fl[]s4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,page #di4 ,,f]ns ,,& ,,li*5s4 ,fig4 #a4 ,*lorococcum vulg>e4 #b4 ,p>melia p>iet9a4 #c4 ,p>melia p>iet9a1 section ( a sauc] 7apo!cium74 #d4 ,p>melia p>iet9a1 gonidia & asci4 #e4 ,p>melia p>iet9a1 asci & p>aphyses2 #e a1 spores4 #f4 ,calicium clavellum4 #g4 ,calicium clavellum1 /alk$ apo!cia4 #h4 ,calicium clavellum1 apo!cium4 #i4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 frond4 #aj4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 lobe ( frond4 #aa4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 gr\p ( capsules 7!c74 #ab4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 capsule & spores4 #ac4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 spore g]m9at+4 #ad4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 pro?allium4 #ae4 ,polypodium vulg>e1 portion ( pro?allium1 ) ar*egonia4 #af4 ,aspidium filix mas1 frond4 #ag4 ,aspidium filix mas1 p9nules ) sori4 #ah4 ,aspidium filix mas1 s+le p9nule4 #ai4 ,scolop5drium vulg>e1 frond4 #bj4 ,scolop5drium vulg>e1 portion ( frond4 #ba4 ,cladonia coccif]a4 #bb4 ,cladonia cornuta4 #bc4 ,cladonia pyxidata4 #bd4 ,cladonia rangif]9a4 #be4 ,cladonia rangif]9a1 ends ( podetium4 #bf4 ,graphis scripta4 #bg4 ,graphis scripta1 lirell4 #bh4 ,graphis scripta1 asci & spores4 #bi4 ,graphis scripta1 spore4 #cj4 ,opegrapha betul9a4 #ca4 ,opegrapha betul9a1 lirell4 #cb4 ,opegrapha betul9a1 lirella4 #cc4 ,opegrapha betul9a1 ascus ) spores4 #cd4 ,scal>i=m ducts ( ,brake 7,pt]is74 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,f]ns1 ,,or ,,fil,,ices4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( plants belong+ to ! class ( ,f]ns is s well kn[n t x ne$ sc>cely be describ$1 especially s9ce ! introduction ( ! glass plant-cases1 by means ( :i* ! air c be kept s damp t f]ns are n[ gr[n 9 ! v he>t ( our cities4 ,_! bright gre5 & f9ely cleft leaves 7,,pi4 ,,ii4 figs4 #i #af7 or fronds 7frons1 a leaf7 z ! leaf-l organs ( ! l[] plants are call$1 aris+ 9 tufts f ! /ems1 give !m ! elegant appe>ance we are call$ ^u to admire1 :5ev] !y are met )4 ,! br[ni% spots or /ripes se5 ^u ! back or "u surface ( ! fronds1 & consi/+ ( ! fructification1 =m also a simple "* by :i* !y may g5]ally be di/+ui%$2 al?\gh 9 a few ( !m ! fructification is plac$ ^u a di/9ct /alk4 ,! /em or rhizome 71 a root7 ( a f]n is mo/ly situat$ j b5ea? or at ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & is commonly mi/ak5 = ! real root1 :i* is buri$ 9 ! e>?4 ,x is br[ni% outside1 & cov]$ ) scurfy scales or ram5ta 7ram5tum1 a %av+74 ,^! scales are int]e/+ microscopic objects1 f ! di/9ctness ) :i* !y exhibit ! cellul> network4 ,a section ( ! rhizome exhibits ! fibro-vascul> tissue arrang$ diff]5tly f t 9 ! /ems ( ei!r ,exog5s or ,endog5s4 ,x =ms curi\sly curv$ longitud9al plates1 a v abundant compon5t ( :i* is ! scal>i=m 7scala1 a ladd]7 duct 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #cd74 ,! walls ( ! scal>i=m ducts are angul>1 & ! second>y deposit is arrang$ 9 ! =m ( transv]se b>s1 some:at resembl+ ! /eps ( a ladd]2 :i* /ructure is be/ se5 9 a transv]se or slightly oblique section4 ,! fronds are usually cleft ne>ly d[n to ! ma9 ve9 or midrib 7fig4 #i71 or p9natifd 7p9na1 a fea!r1 f9do1 to cleave72 sometimes ! segm5ts are simil>ly cleft1 s t ! fronds are bip9natifid4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ve9s usually bran* is also peculi>1 ea* bran* sep>at+ f ! po9t ( division at an acute angle ) ! orig9al direction ( ! ve9 7fig4 #bj71 s z to be =k$4 ,x is also wor?y ( notice1 t ! "y frond is roll$ up into a flat spiral1 or is circ9ate 7circ9o1 to g r\nd71 be=e x op5s4 ,we w n[ exam9e "o or two species m m9utely4 ,,polypodiace4 ,polypdium vulgare 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #i1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size71 a memb] ( ?is family1 is v common on old trunks ( trees1 on banks1 c4 ,! frond is deeply p9natifid1 ! segm5ts be+ oblong1 blunt 7obtuse71 scallop$ 7cr5ate7 at ! edges 7,,pi4 ,,ii4 fig4 #aj71 & becom+ gradually %ort] t[>ds ! apex ( ! frond4 ,on ! back ( ! fronds are ! little orange-col\r$ gr\ps ( capsules 7,pl4 ,,ii4 figs4 #i #aj72 ^! are call$ sori 71 a heap74 ,! capsules or ?c 71 a case71 a magnifi$ gr\p ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aa1 consi/ ea* ( an aggregation ( cells1 fix$ to a /alk 7fig4 #ab72 & along ! back ( ! capsule is a close r[ ( ?ick] cells1 =m+ an ela/ic r+1 ! annulus4 ,:5 ! se$-l bodies or spores 71 a se$7 are ripe1 ! annulus becomes /raight5$ f its ela/ic p[]1 & te>s ! capsule op51 s t ! spores are set free & scatt]$4 ,aspidium filix mas 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #af1 r$uc$ to "o ?ird or f\r? ( ! natural size71 is ! mo/ common ,briti% f]n4 ,9 ?is ! fronds are p9nate1 i4 e4 ! segm5ts 7p9n7 correspond+ to ^? ( ,polypodium are cleft entirely to ! ma9 /alk1 ! p9n 7fig4 #ag7 be+ p9natifid2 & ! segm5ts ( ! p9n or ! p9nules 7fig4 #ah7 are oblong1 obtuse1 & saw-edg$ 7s]rate74 ,9 all botanical works ! fronds are incorrectly said to be bip9nate4 ,! sori are br[n1 kidney-%ap$ 7fig4 #ah71 & diff] f ^? ( ,polypodium 9 be+ cov]$ by a ?9 membrane 7indsium71 :i* is fix$ to ! frond at ! not*4 ,scolop5drium vulgre 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #ai71 ! ,h>t's-tongue ,f]n1 is common 9 h$ges & on moi/ banks4 ,its fronds are simple or undivid$1 /rap-%ap$1 he>t-%ap$ at ! base1 & n>r[$ to a po9t at ! apex4 ,! sori 7fig4 #bj7 are br[n1 n>r[1 longi% 7l9e>71 & transv]se or slightly oblique4 ,! indusium is cleft d[n ! middle1 s z to =m a longitud9al fissure or suture4 ,reproduction4--,! spores ( ! f]ns 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #ab a7 resemble 9 appe>ance ! se$s ( fl[]+ plants on a small scale4 ,!y are usually br[n1 cov]$ on ! surface ) little tub]cles or o!r m>k+s1 & :5 kept on a slide 9 a moi/ atmosph]e1 z ov] a sauc] ( wat] cov]$ ) a bell-glass1 !y g]m9ate4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 "o or m %ort1 br[ni%1 hair-l radicles em]ge f "o "p ( ! surface 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #ac71 & a process conta9+ *lorophyll issues f an adjac5t spot4 ,z gr[? proce$s1 ! latt] by cell-division gives rise to a flatt5$ two-lob$ leafy cotyl$on-l body or pro?allium 71 be=e1 1 leaf71 ) num]\s rootlets spr++ f ! base ( ! lobes4 ,! pro?allium is ( a peculi> dull-gre5 col\r1 diff]5t f t ( ! "y frond :i* is subsequ5tly =m$4 ,?is arises f ! abs5ce ( /omata & int]cellul> passages conta9+ air2 = ! air 9 ^! passages ( leaves & petals contributes greatly to ! production ( ! brightness ( _! col\rs4 ,moreov]1 ! cells ( ! pro?allium resemble ^? ( ! p>5*yma ( a leaf1 ! epid]mis ) its wavy-m>g9$ cells be+ abs5t4 ,:5 ! pro?allium has atta9$ its full developm5t1 m9ute scatt]$ protrusions f its cells occur on ! m>g9 or "u surface1 resembl+ %ort & blunt hairs2 & ea* ( ^! becomes p>tition$ (f to =m a new cell1 )9 :i* a numb] ( cr[d$ small] cells are produc$4 ,^! organs are call$ an!ridia 7an!r1 & 1 resemblance72 & )9 ea* ( ! cr[d$ small] cells is conta9$ a v m9ute1 col\rless1 coil$ fibre1 furni%$ ) /ill f9] filam5ts1 call$ cilia 7cilium1 an eyela%72 ! ciliat$ fibres be+ t]m$ sp]matozoa 71 se$1 1 animal74 ,at a lat] p]iod1 o!r organs are f\nd also on ! back ( ! pro?allium4 ,^! are l>g] ?an ! an!ridia1 & are compos$ ( sev]al cells1 arrang$ ar\nd a c5tral canal :i* leads to an embryo-cell situat$ at its base 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #b74 ,^! organs are ! ar*egnia 71 beg9n+1 1 (fspr+74 ,:5 ! an!ridia are ripe1 !y dis*>ge ! sp]matozoa1 :i* are enabl$ to swim ab\t by means ( _! cilia 9 wat] 7ra971 & ent]+ ! canal1 rea* ! embryo-cell1 :i* ?us becomes f]tiliz$4 ,:5 f]tiliz$1 ! embryo-cells produce ! little fronds :i* aft]w>ds gr[ into ! mature plants4 ,h5ce ! spores ( f]ns diff] /rik+ly f ! se$s ( ! high] plants 9 n conta9+ ! embryo radicle & cotyl$ons already =m$1 ^! be+ produc$ dur+ or aft] g]m9ation2 also 9 ! f]tiliz+ organs1 viz4 ! an!ridia or repres5tatives ( ! an!rs1 & ! ar*egonia or ! repres5tatives ( ! pi/ils1 be+ produc$ f ! cells ( ! pro?allium4 ,! m m9ute ( ^! /ructures are too difficult ( obs]vation & prep>ation = any "o unaccu/om$ to microscopic manipulation1 s t !y h n be5 figur$ 9 detail2 ! figures giv5 w1 h[ev]1 s]ve to guide ! obs]v] 9 _! recognition4 ,pres]vation4--,! f]ns may be easily pres]v$ 9 ! entire /ate1 by lay+ !m flat betwe5 %eets ( co>se unsiz$ pap]1 & subject+ !m to mod]ate pressure 9 a screw-press2 ! pap] %\ld be *ang$1 or dri$ be=e a fire e two or ?ree days1 & ! pressure repeat$ until ! specim5s become dry & rigid4 ,!y may !n be m\nt$ on %eets ( pap]1 be+ fa/5$ ei!r ) ?read pass$ r\nd ! /alk or portions ( ! frond ) a ne$le1 & ti$ 9 a knot beh9d1 or ) /rips ( pap] gumm$ at ! ends4 ,! m9ute /ructures may be pres]v$ ei!r 9 ! dry /ate or 9 glyc]9e4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,mosses1 ,,or ,,mus,,ci 7,,muscus1 ,,moss74 ,i ne$ sc>cely ref] to ! figures 9 ,pl4 ,,iii4 to enable ! read] to recognize ! ,mosses2 e "o kn[s !m at once by _! rem>kably uni=m g5]al appe>ance1 _! m9iature-plantlike =m1 _! cr[d$ little leaves1 conceal+ ! sl5d] wiry /ems1 _! gr[? 9 pat*es1 & _! curi\s urn-%ap$ fruits rais$ up on sl5d] bri/le-l /alks4 ,! leaves ( ! mosses are simple1 i4 e4 n cut into segm5ts1 & consi/ ( "o or two lay]s ( cells4 ,! ?9ness ( ! leaves enables ^! cells to be se5 v di/9ctly1 ! closely unit$ cell-walls giv+ ! leaves a nett$ or reticulat$ appe>ance 7fig4 #dh71 & ! gra9s ( *lorophyll be+ g5]ally few & readily di/+ui%$4 ,! ve9s ( ! leaves1 or ! n]ves z !y are usually call$1 sc>cely des]ve ! "n2 = nei!r !y nor ev5 ! /ems conta9 fibro-vascul> tissue1 b consi/ simply ( elongate closely pack$ cells1 & (t5 ! leaves h no n]ves4 ,! fruit ( ! mosses consi/s ( a capsule1 sometimes call$ a sporangium 71 se$1 1 vessel71 usually plac$ at ! end ( a sl5d] /alk1 call$ ! sta 7seta1 a bri/le72 b sometimes ! /alk is abs5t or extremely %ort1 :5 ! capsule is said to be sessile 7sessilis1 sitt+74 ,! "y capsule is cov]$ ) a ?9 ext+ui%]-l cap or calyptra 71 a cov]71 :i* is c>ri$ up z ! capsule & its /alk gr[1 s z to be ei!r entirely ?r[n (f1 or to rema9 cov]+ a great] or less portion ( ! capsule1 :5 ?is atta9s maturity4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,page #ed4 ,,mosses4 ,fig4 #a4 ,sphagnum acutifolium1 exp&$ leaf4 #b4 ,sphagnum acutifolium1 cells ( leaf4 #c4 ,sp]matozoa ( ,polytri*um pilif]um4 #d4 ,sphagnum acutifolium4 #e4 ,sphagnum acutifolium1 capsule4 #f4 ,gymno/omum truncatulum4 #g4 ,gymno/omum truncatulum1 leaf4 #h4 ,gymno/omum truncatulum1 capsule & op]culum4 #i4 ,gymno/omum truncatulum1 spore4 #aj4 ,dicranum het]omallum4 #aa4 ,dicranum het]omallum4 #ab4 ,dicranum het]omallum1 leaf4 #ac4 ,dicranum het]omallum1 op]culum4 #ad4 ,dicranum het]omallum1 calyptra4 #ae4 ,dicranum het]omallum1 capsule2 #ae a1 p]i/ome4 #af4 ,tortula muralis4 #ag4 ,tortula muralis1 leaf4 #ah4 ,tortula muralis1 capsule2 a1 too? ( p]i/ome4 #ai4 ,tortula muralis1 op]culum4 #bj4 ,tortula muralis1 calyptra4 #ba4 ,tortula muralis1 ar*egonia4 #bb4 ,polytri*um pilif]um4 #bc4 ,polytri*um pilif]um1 leaf4 #bd4 ,polytri*um pilif]um1 calyptra4 #be4 ,polytri*um pilif]um1 an!ridial /ems4 #bf4 ,polytri*um pilif]um1 s+le head4 #bg4 ,polytri*um pilif]um1 an!ridia & p>aphyses4 #bh4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica4 #bi4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica4 #cj4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 leaf4 #ca4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 capsule2 a1 op]culum4 #cb4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 /alk-l body4 #cc4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 "y ar*egone4 #cd4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 m advanc$ ar*egone4 #ce4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 section ( "y capsule4 #cf4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 calyptra4 #cg4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 an!ridia4 #ch4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 spores4 #ci4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 annulus4 #dj4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 ar*egonia4 #da4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 an!ridial head4 #db4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 p]i/ome4 #dc4 ,hypnum rutabulum4 #dd4 ,hypnum rutabulum1 leaf4 #de4 ,hypnum rutabulum1 capsule4 #df4 ,hypnum rutabulum1 spores4 #dg4 ,hypnum rutabulum1 p]i/ome4 #dh4 ,hypnum rutabulum1 cells ( leaf4 #di4 ,bryum capill>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iii4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,! calyptra is ei!r simply mitre-%ap$1 or mtri=m 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #bd71 or x is half-cleft1 or dimidiate 7figs4 #ad1 #cf74 ,:5 ! capsule is ripe1 ! upp] "p usually sep>ates at a circul> horizontal l9e 7fig4 #h7 z a k9d ( lid1 :i* is call$ ! op]culum 7op]culum1 a lid71 & ?us ! spores are enabl$ to escape4 ,! rim ( ! capsule1 f :i* ! op]culum has sep>at$1 =ms its m\?1 & ?is (t5 exhibits a fr+e ( tee? 7figs4 #ae1 #ah1 #ca71 arrang$ 9 "o or m r[s2 sometimes ! tee? are replac$ by a membrane1 or1 aga91 bo? tee? & a membrane may be pres5t4 ,?is m\?-fr+e is ! p]i/ome 71 ar\nd1 1 m\?74 ,9 _m mosses1 an ela/ic r[ or r+ ( cells is situat$ betwe5 ! m\? ( ! capsule & its op]culum1 call$ ! annulus 7figs4 #ah #ci72 ?is1 :5 ! capsule is ripe1 aids 9 ?r[+ (f ! op]culum4 ,x is important to become acqua9t$ ) ! /ructure & arrangem5t ( ^! p>ts1 z !y =m *>act]s by :i* ! families & g5]a ( mosses are di/+ui%$4 ,! capsules ( ! mosses =m v beautiful microscopic objects1 especially ^? furni%$ ) a too!d p]i/ome4 ,mo/ ( ! mosses produce _! fructification 9 ! w9t] & spr+4 ,! class ( mosses is divid$ into two ,ord]s1 accord+ to :e!r ! fruit-/alk is t]m9al1 i4 e4 arises f ! end ( ! /em or its bran*es1 or :e!r x is lat]al1 aris+ f ! side ( ! /em4 ,^? ) ! fruit-/alk t]m9al1 or ! end fruit$ 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #bb71 =m ! ,acroc>pi 71 summit1 1 fruit72 :ile ^? ) ! fruit-/alks lat]al1 or ! side-fruit$ mosses 7fig4 #dc71 con/itute ! ,pleuroc>pi 71 side74 ,! new %oots or "y bran*es ( ! /ems ( mosses are t]m$ innovations4 ,we w n[ exam9e a few common mosses m 9 detail1 beg9n+ ) ! ,,acroc>pi4 ,sphagnum acutiflium 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #d7 is f\nd 9 pools or bogs1 gr[+ at ! m>g9s s z to be p>tially imm]s$4 ,9 ?is moss1 ! upp] bran*es are gr\p$ into a head4 ,! leaves are cr[d$1 & ov]lapp+ or imbricate 7imbrex1 a tile7 on ! elongate /ems2 !y are egg-%ap$ 7ovate7 on ! ma9 /ems 7fig4 #a71 & n>r[] or ovate-lanceolate on ! bran*es2 !y are n]veless1 & f9ely too!d at ! apex4 ,! capsule 7fig4 #e7 is r\ndi%-ovate1 )\t a p]i/ome1 & ! op]culum is flatt5$4 ,! gr\p$ arrangem5t ( ! upp] bran*es r5d]s ! species ( ,sphagnum easily recogniz$4 ,! /ructure ( ! leaves is also v peculi> & *>act]i/ic 7fig4 #b74 ,! cells ( :i* !y consi/ are ( two k9ds1 "o 7fig4 #b a7 be+ col\rless1 elongate1 po9t$1 & conta9+ a spiral fibre2 ! o!r consi/+ ( %ort] & n>r[] obtuse cells1 conta9+ *lorophyll1 & situat$ betwe5 ! =m]4 ,9 _m ( ! =m] k9d ( cells1 little r\nd ap]tures exi/ on ! "u surface1 & m9ute animals may sometimes be f\nd imprison$ 9 !m4 ,ano!r species ( ,sphagnum1 ,s4 obtusifolium1 is common1 & greatly resembles ! above1 b has %ort] & ?ick] /ems1 & r\nd$-ovate1 v concave1 & obtuse leaves4 ,gymnostomum truncatulum 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #f7 is a common little moss1 f\nd on banks & 9 fields & g>d5s4 ,9 ?is !re is no p]i/ome1 al?\gh1 9 ! "y condition1 a membrane ext5ds m or less ov] ! int]ior ( ! m\? ( ! capsule4 ,! /em is sl5d]1 rigid1 & simple1 or b little bran*$4 ,! calyptra is dimidiate2 ! op]culum is pres5t 7fig4 #h71 & t]m9ates above 9 an oblique beak1 or x is obliquely ro/rate 7rostrum1 a beak7 z x is call$4 ,! leaves are obovate 7fig4 #g7 or ovate ) ! broad] "p remote f ! /em1 & n>r[$ at ! apex1 :]e ! n]ve protrudes or is excurr5t 7excurro1 to run out74 ,! spores 7fig4 #i7 are r$di% br[n & smoo?4 ,dicrnum het]omallum 7,pl4 ,,iii4 figs4 #aj #aa7 is probably ! fir/ moss ! read] w meet ) on banks & hea?s 9 ! e>ly spr+2 & x w be sure to be notic$ on acc\nt ( ! bright gre5 col\r ( ! pat*es & ! beautiful orange-br[n capsules4 ,9 ?is moss ! capsule is nodd+ 7c]nu\s7 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #ae71 & has a s+le p]i/ome1 consi/+ ( sixte5 equidi/ant tee?1 ea* be+ deeply cut or cleft longitud9ally 7fig4 #ae a71 s t !re are ?irty-two tee? altoge!r2 & ^! are m>k$ ) int]nal cross-b>s1 or transv]se ridges4 ,! calyptra is dimidiate 7fig4 #ad72 & ! lid is furni%$ ) a long oblique beak 7fig4 #ae b74 ,! leaves are cr[d$1 /rongly n]v$ 7fig4 #ab71 lanceolate at ! base1 & v n>r[ t[>ds ! apex1 :i* is too!d2 !y are1 moreov]1 curv$1 & b5t t[>ds "o side1 or scund4 ,tortula murlis 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #af7 may be f\nd on ! top ( almo/ e wall & on wa/e gr\nd4 ,9 ?is moss ! p]i/ome is s+le 7fig4 #ah71 consi/+ ( ?irty-two spirally twi/$ tee?1 arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,!y are n>r[ & sl5d]1 & ea* is compos$ ( two longitud9al portions 7fig4 #ah a71 "o ( :i* is pale yell[1 ! o!r r$di% br[n1 l ! capsule1 & bo? are fr+$ & cov]$ ) v m9ute papill4 ,! capsule 7fig4 #ah7 is oblong1 ! r+ or annulus rema9+ = "s "t4 ,! lid is conical 7fig4 #ai71 ) a longi% some:at oblique beak1 & ! calyptra is dimidiate 7fig4 #bj74 ,! /ems are v %ort2 ! leaves 7fig4 #ag7 are oblong1 obtuse2 ! n]ve /rong1 & project+ z a col\rless spirally /riat$ bri/le4 ,! bri/les (t5 give ! pat*es ( ! moss a ho>y appe>ance on wall-tops4 ,! m>g9s ( ! leaves are fold$ back or recurv$1 giv+ !m a peculi> ?ick5$ appe>ance4 ,! l>ge/ ( our mosses are conta9$ 9 ! next g5us1 viz4 ,polytri*um1 "s ( !m hav+ ! /ems f #b to #d in*es1 or ev5 m1 9 height2 !y are common on hea?s & 9 woods4 ,polytri*um piliferum 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #bb7 is v common on op5 dry hea?s4 ,?is moss has simple /ems1 ) ! leaves cr[d$ on ! l[] "p ( ^? :i* are f]tile or fruit-be>+4 ,! fruit-/alk is t]m9al 7acroc>p\s72 ! capsule ovate1 #d-sid$ or quadrangul>1 ) a knob or /ruma 7/rma1 a swell+7 at ! base1 ! lid hav+ a %ort beak4 ,! calyptra 7fig4 #bd7 is half-cleft 7dimidiate7 & v hairy4 ,! p]i/ome is s+le1 & consi/s ( sixty-f\r tee?4 ,! leaves 7fig4 #bc7 are lanceolate1 ne>ly upright1 ! m>g9s fold$ inw>ds or inflex$2 & !y end abruptly 9 a saw-edg$ or s]rat$ hair-l po9t4 ,polytri*um commne1 :i* is also v common1 is l>g] ?an ! la/ species1 & may easily be di/+ui%$ by ! curv$ & s]rate leaves1 :i* h no bri/le-po9t4 ,9 ! e>ly spr+1 pat*es ( bo? ^! mosses may be f\nd1 9 :i* ! /ems are t]m9at$ by little rosettes 7figs4 #be #bf72 ^! w be ref]r$ to pres5tly4 ,keep+ /ill to ! end-fruit$ or ,acroc>p\s mosses1 we h next to m5tion ,funaria hygrometrica 7,pl4 ,,iii4 figs4 #bh1 #bi71 :i* is readily di/+ui%$ f mo/ o!r mosses by ! pale apple-gre5 col\r :i* x possesses be=e ! capsule rip5s4 ,x is extremely common on walls & wa/e gr\nd4 ,! capsule ( ?is moss 7fig4 #ca7 diff]s f ^? ( ! prec$+ mosses 9 ! p]i/ome be+ d\ble 7fig4 #db71 or compos$ ( an out] & an inn] r[ ( tee?4 ,! out] r[ consi/s ( sixte5 oblique r$di% tee?1 :i* are m>k$ ) transv]se b>s or trabecul 7trabecula1 a little beam71 & _! po9ts are connect$ by a net-l ?9 plate4 ,! inn] r[ conta9s also sixte5 tee?1 aris+ f ! division ( ! membrane l9+ ! capsule2 ^! are yell[i%1 ?91 & plac$ opposite ! out] tee?4 ,! capsule itself is pe>-%ap$ or pyri=m1 orange-r$ :5 ripe1 curv$1 & ) ! m\? oblique4 ,! calyptra 7fig4 #cf7 is half-cleft1 & exp&$ z if bl[n out bel[4 ,! lid 7fig4 #ca a7 is convex & obtuse2 & ! annulus 7fig4 #ci7 is l>ge & easily sep>able4 ,! fruit-/alks are curv$ ne> ! top4 ,! leaves 7fig4 #cj7 are ovate1 concave1 entire1 ) a n]ve rea*+ ! apex1 :i* is acute & prolong$ into a little po9t1 or apiculate4 ,! spores 7fig4 #ch7 are small & r$di% br[n4 ,! specific "n 7hygrometrica7 ( ?is moss expresses its hygrometric prop]ty2 = if ei!r ! rec5t & moi/ moss be dri$ or ! dry moss wett$1 ! fruit-/alk gradually twi/s 9 opposite directions 9 ! two cases4 ,! la/ ( ! ,acroc>p\s mosses :i* we %all notice1 ,bryum capill>e 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #di71 is tol]ably common on trunks ( trees1 on ! gr\nd1 & sometimes on walls4 ,! capsule ( ?is moss has a d\ble p]i/ome or m\?-fr+e2 ! out] consi/+ ( sixte5 r$di%-br[n1 equidi/ant1 transv]sely /rip$ tee?2 ! inn] compos$ ( sixte5 ?9 keel$ tee?1 m or less split d[n ! middle1 & ) two or ?ree int]m$iate cilia4 ,! capsule is nodd+1 smoo?1 oblong1 pe>-%ap$1 slightly n>r[$ bel[ ! m\?2 ! lid be+ some:at convex1 & furni%$ ) a %ort sl5d] beak4 ,! calyptra is dimidiate4 ,! leaves 7fig4 #ej7 are obovate1 ! n]ve ext5d+ beyond ! po9t1 r5d]+ !m bri/le-po9t$4 ,! se$s 7fig4 #di a7 are small & gre54 ,?is moss s]ves to illu/rate a great difficulty1 :i* w (t5 occur to ! /ud5t1 9 det]m9+ :e!r a moss is end-fruit$ or side-fruit$4 ,= 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r end-fruit$ mosses1 a little side-%oot or "y bran* 7innovation7 gr[s f ! ma9 /em imm$iately bel[ ! leaves surr\nd+ ! base ( ! fruit-/alk1 s t ! fruit-/alk appe>s to arise f ! side ( ! /em4 ,! only me?od ( ov]com+ ! difficulty is to exam9e c>efully ! comp>ative size & ?ickness ( ! /em & ! %oot1 & to det]m9e :i* is ! weak] & s ! new]4 ,! leaves surr\nd+ ! base ( ! fruit-/alk1 :i* are mo/ly some:at diff]5t 9 /ructure f ! /em-leaves1 are call$ ! p]i*tial 71 ar\nd1 1 bri/le7 leaves4 ,f among ! side-fruit$ or ,pleuroc>p\s mosses we %all select "o only1 ,hypnum rutabulum 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #dc71 :i* is common on ! trunks ( trees & on banks4 ,9 ?is moss1 ! nodd+ unequal curv$ capsule 7fig4 #de7 has a d\ble p]i/ome1 resembl+ t ( ,bryum 7fig4 #dg74 ,! calyptra is half-cleft1 & ! lid conical & %ortly beak$4 ,! /em is recl9+ or procumb5t1 & ! pale gre5 imbricat$ leaves 7fig4 #da7 are ovate & po9t$1 fa9tly saw-edg$1 ! n]ve becom+ indi/9ct at ab\t ! middle4 ,x w be notic$ t ! cells ( ! leaf 7fig4 #dh7 h ! pros5*ymat\s =m1 or are elongate ) po9t$ ends2 & t ! fruit-/alk 7fig4 #de7 is r\gh ) little gra9s4 ,fructification4--,! fruit-produc+ organs ( ! mosses are ( two k9ds1 comp>able to ^? ( ! fl[]+ plants1 b ) _! names *ang$1 z 9 ! case ( ! f]ns2 ! repres5tatives ( ! an!r be+ call$ an!ridia1 & ^? ( ! pi/il ar*egonia4 ,! an!ridia may be be/ exam9$ 9 ,polytri*um pilif]um or commune1 ! pat*es ( /ems ) r$ rosette-l heads 7figs4 #be1 #bf7 be+ readily f\nd 9 ! spr+ on op5 hea?s4 ,! col\r$ leaves =m+ ^! heads diff] 9 =m f ^? ( ! /em1 be+ broad] & v %>p-po9t$1 & h receiv$ ! di/9ctive "n ( p]ignial 71 ar\nd1 1 (fspr+7 leaves4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ^! leaves1 :i* mu/ be sep>at$ ) m\nt$ ne$les 9 a drop ( wat]1 ! an!ridia 7fig4 #bg71 =m+ oblong cellul> gre5 sacs1 w be se52 & int]m+l$ ) !m w be f\nd "s sl5d] pale filam5ts1 compos$ ( mo/ly two r[s ( cells1 :i* are ! p>aphyses 71 a side gr[?74 ,if ! an!ridia are q ripe1 !y swell some:at 9 ! wat]1 & f ! free or unatta*$ end a v delicate1 col\rless1 cellul> mass gradually escapes4 ,if ! an!ridia are n q ripe1 ! mass mu/ be lib]at$ by dissection4 ,on c>efully exam9+ ?is mass "u a high p[]1 x w be se5 to consi/ ( v delicate r\nd$ cells 7fig4 #c a71 ea* conta9+ a coil$ filam5t1 revolv+ m or less rapidly4 ,aft] a "t1 ^! filam5ts 7fig4 #c b7 escape1 s t !y may be exam9$ m m9utely4 ,!y are excessively delicate1 & are be/ se5 :5 dri$ on ! slide4 ,ea* consi/s ( a v sl5d] curv$ filam5t1 ) a /ill f9] filam5t1 or cilium1 aris+ f x on ea* side4 ,^! are ! sp]matoza or sp]matozids 71 se$1 1 animal1 1 resemblance74 ,9 ,funria ! an!ridia 7fig4 #cg7 may also be f\nd1 by c>eful exam9ation1 9 ! little gre5 heads t]m9at+ "s ( ! /ems 7fig4 #da1 ( ! natural size74 ,9 ?is moss1 ! p>aphyses are inflat$ at ! summit into little knobs1 or !y are capitate 7fig4 #cg74 ,! pi/il-l organs ( mosses1 or ! ar*egnia1 f :i* ! capsule is =m$1 mu/ be look$ = 9 ! w9t] or e>ly spr+4 ,!y occur 9 ! p>ts ( ! /ems f :i* ! fruit-/alk subsequ5tly arises1 & are surr\nd$ by p]i*tial leaves1 s z to resemble 9 g5]al aspect ! an!ridial heads4 ,!y are readily f\nd 9 ,tortula & ,fun>ia1 :i* are always at h&4 ,! ar*egonia 7,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #ba7 diff] 9 =m f ! an!ridia1 be+ flask-%ap$1 ) a neck & a dilat$ base4 ,! neck conta9s a sl5d] canal1 & )9 ! base is a special embryonal cell1 f :i* ! capsule is subsequ5tly =m$4 ,! sp]matozoa ( ! an!ridia pass d[n ! canals ( ! ar*egonia1 & f]tilize ! embryonal cells2 b "o ar*egonium only comes to maturity 9 ea* head1 ! o!rs ceas+ to gr[1 & )]+1 9 :i* condition !y are f\nd at ! base ( ! fruit-/alk :5 ! capsule is fully =m$4 ,! embryonal cell gr[s by subdivision1 s z to =m a /alk-l body1 :i* z x rises ext5ds ! ar*egonium upw>ds until x splits across ne> ! base4 ,?us ! ar*egonium becomes split horizontally into two p>ts1 ! upp] & long] ( :i* =ms ! calyptra1 :il/ ! l[] rema9s z a v %ort tube or %ea? 7vaginula7 surr\nd+ ! base ( ! fruit-/alk4 ,! cellul> /alk-l body !n swells at ! summit1 ! swoll5 portion gradually becom+ develop$ into ! capsule1 by resolv+ itself into an out] wall l9$ inside ) a coat =m+ ! out] r[ ( tee? at ! top1 & )9 ?is a ?9n] membrane or spore-sac1 ! cleft upp] m>g9 ( :i* =ms ! inn] tee?2 & )9 ?is are conta9$ ! spores4 ,! mass ( cells )9 ! spore-sac rema9s1 =m+ a c5tral column1 call$ ! columella4 ,^! /ages ( gr[? may be readily trac$ 9 ,fun>ia4 ,9 ,plate ,,iii41 fig4 #dj repres5ts two f]tiliz$ ar*egonia ( ! natural size1 surr\nd$ by ! p]i*tial leaves2 fig4 #cc is a /ill m advanc$ ar*egone4 ,9 fig4 #cd ! calyptra has sep>at$ f ! vag9ule1 & conta9s ! /alk-l body1 :i* is repres5t$ alone 9 fig4 #cb1 ! d>k summit indicat+ ! comm5c+ =mation ( ! capsule4 ,fig4 #ce repres5ts ! "y capsule1 9 :i* all ! p>ts are m advanc$ 9 gr[?4 ,:5 ! se$s ( mosses g]m9ate1 !y produce at fir/ a gre5 ,conf]va-l filam5t1 :i* bran*es at "o end1 ! cells conta9+ gre5 endo*rome1 :ile br[ni% little roots are giv5 (f f ! o!r end4 ,! "y leafy buds or "y /ems arise f ^! conf]void filam5ts4 ,exam9ation4--,9 ! exam9ation ( ! mosses1 ! capsules %\ld be view$ z opake objects :ile fix$ 9 ! =ceps2 & to discov] ! m9ute /ructure ( ! tee? ( ! p]i/ome1 a capsule %\ld be wett$ ) _s1 !n imm]s$ 9 wat]1 slit up ) f9e scissors1 & spread out ) ! m\nt$ ne$les1 s z to =m a transp>5t object4 ,9 ?is way1 ! curi\s /ructure ( ! tee? becomes v di/9ct4 ,x mu/ be notic$ t1 9 ! mosses1 ! an!ridia & ! ar*egonia usually occur 9 sep>ate fl[]-l heads2 or ! mosses are ei!r monci\s or dici\s 7p4 #ch74 ,pres]vation4--,! mosses may be dri$ "u pressure1 & pres]v$ entire 9 ! same mann] z ! f]ns or ! fl[]+ plants4 ,if simply dri$ )\t pressure1 _! /ructure c be readily made out at any future "t1 by imm]s+ !m 9 wat]1 or by keep+ !m = a few h\rs 9 a moi/ atmosph]e4 ,! m9ute /ructures ( mosses may be m\nt$ 9 solution ( *loride ( calcium1 or 9 glyc]9e2 !y keep extremely well )\t clos+ ! cells4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,alg 7,,alga1 ,,sea-,,we$74 ,! plants belong+ to ! ,class ,alg gr[ 9 wat]1 ei!r 9 t ( ! sea or 9 fre% wat]2 a few ( !m1 h[ev]1 be+ f\nd on damp e>?1 damp walls1 c4 ,! m>9e ,alg are commonly kn[n z sea-we$s2 b ! fre%-wat] ,alg g5]ally receive b little popul> notice1 =m+1 z !y d1 slimy masses or /rata1 ( a gre5 or br[ni%1 sometimes r$1 col\r4 ,alg are ( simple /ructure1 consi/+ entirely ( cells2 9 "s ^! are s+le1 9 o!rs1 unit$ end to end1 to =m ?reads or filam5ts1 or gr\p$ into a leaf-l expansion1 or collect$ few toge!r into a little sph]ical gr\p or a flat plate4 ,!y possess none ( ! fibres1 vessels1 or ducts ( ! high] plants1 al?\gh "s long & sl5d] cells1 exi/+ 9 ! /alks ( ! fronds ( ! l>g] k9ds1 be> consid]able resemblance to woody fibre4 ,!y exhibit no di/9ction ( /em & leaf1 b consi/ ( fronds repres5t+ ! /em & leaf comb9$ & undi/+ui%able4 ,& ! t]m frond mu/ be und]/ood to signify ! sep>ate p>ts aris+ f ! po9t ( atta*m5t :5 !y are fix$2 & 9 ! case ( ^? :i* are unatta*$ or free1 ! entire plant is call$ a frond4 ,! ,alg are divid$ into ?ree ,ord]s1 viz4 ! ,fucoide or olive-col\r$ ,alg1 ! ,floride or r$1 & ! ,conf]voide or gre5 ,alg4 ,,fucoid,e1 ,fucoid ,alg1 or ,melanospore 71 black or d>k74 ,! plants compos+ ?is ord] =m our l>ge/ sea-we$s1 & are f\nd ev]y:]e 9 ! sea & on ! sea-%ore4 ,!y are ( an olive-gre5 or olive-br[n col\r1 & usually become d>k] on dry+4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,page #fd4 ,,m>9e ,,alg4 ,fig4 #a4 ,dasya cocc9ea1 piece (4 #b4 ,dasya cocc9ea1 portion ) capsule 7c]amidium74 #c4 ,dasya cocc9ea1 portion ( ma9 filam5t4 #d4 ,dasya cocc9ea1 section ( filam5t4 #e4 ,melobesia polymorpha4 #f4 ,melobesia polymorpha1 portion ) capsules 7c]amidia74 #g4 ,jania rub5s4 #h4 ,jania rub5s4 #i4 ,li?ocy/is ,allmanni4 #aj4 ,c]amium nodosum4 #aa4 ,c]amium nodosum1 filam5t4 #ab4 ,c]amium rubrum1 filam5t4 #ac4 ,c]amium rubrum1 tetraspore4 #ad4 ,c]amium rubrum1 end ( filam5t4 #ae4 ,c]amium rubrum1 capsule 7favella74 #af4 ,fucus vesiculosus1 receptacles (4 #ag4 ,fucus vesiculosus1 capsules 7conceptacles74 #ah4 ,fucus s]ratus1 an!ridial conceptacles4 #ai4 ,spore ( ,fucus vesiculosus4 #bj4 ,an!ridia ( ,fucus s]ratus4 #ba4 ,plocamium cocc9eum1 sporophyll4 #bb4 ,plocamium cocc9eum1 ) capsule 7coccidium74 #bc4 ,plocamium cocc9eum1 portion ( frond4 #bd4 ,plocamium cocc9eum1 tetraspore f sporophyll4 #be4 ,polysiphonia fa/igiata1 portion (4 #bf4 ,polysiphonia fa/igiata1 filam5t ) capsules 7c]amidia74 #bg4 ,polysiphonia fa/igiata1 portion ( filam5t4 #bh4 ,corall9a (fic9alis4 #bi4 ,corall9a (fic9alis1 portion ( filam5t4 #cj4 ,corall9a (fic9alis1 capsule 7c]amidium74 #ca4 ,ent]omorpha compressa4 #cb4 ,ent]omorpha compressa1 cells ( frond4 #cc4 ,hypnea purpurasc5s1 capsule 7coccidium74 #cd4 ,hypnea purpurasc5s1 spores4 #ce4 ,hypnea purpurasc5s1 filam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,fcus vesiculsus1 ) its p>allel-sid$ or l9e> olive-br[n fronds1 is kn[n to e "o z ! seawe$ :i* is hung up to act z a wea!r-glass4 ,! fronds h a c5tral /\t ve91 or midrib1 & scatt]$ air-bladd]s1 mo/ly 9 pairs4 ,! fructification consi/s ( yell[i% oval enl>gem5ts ( ! ends ( ! fronds1 call$ ! receptacles 7fig4 #af72 b ^! are some:at v>iable 9 =m1 be+ (t5 angul> or truncate4 ,on hold+ "o ( ! receptacles to ! light1 x w appe> to conta9 a numb] ( little gra9s imb$d$ 9 its sub/ance1 slightly project+ above ! surface1 & 9 ! c5tre ( ea* is a m9ute dot or pore4 ,^! gra9s are ! capsules1 or conceptacles1 & conta9 ! spores4 ,! sub/ance ( ! receptacles is compos$ ( a beautiful network ( col\rless1 jo9t$1 cellul> fibres 7figs4 #ag a & #ah a71 ! me%es ( :i* are fill$ ) a transp>5t gelat9\s sub/ance2 b imm$iately ar\nd ! conceptacles ! cells are %ort] & m closely pack$4 ,! spores 7fig4 #ai7 are arrang$ 9 ! conceptacles 9 a radiate mann]2 !y are br[n1 & surr\nd$ by a col\rless sac1 call$ ! p]ispore 71 ar\nd1 1 se$72 & betwe5 !m are num]\s sl5d]1 col\rless1 jo9t$ filam5ts1 ! p>aphyses4 ,! spores are n1 h[ev]1 truly s+le spores1 = !y ultimately divide into eight segm5ts or sporules1 ea* ( :i* is capable ( produc+ a new plant4 ,9 ! conceptacles ( "s fronds ( ,fucus no spores w be f\nd1 ! conceptacles 7fig4 #ah7 be+ fill$ ) elegantly bran*$ col\rless filam5ts 7fig4 #bj71 ! ends ( _m ( !m be+ di/5d$ into little yell[i% sacs2 ^! are ! an!ridia4 ,! an!ridia conta9 l>ge numb]s ( exce$+ly m9ute sp]matozoa1 furni%$ ) two cilia1 & v simil> to ^? exi/+ 9 ! an!ridia ( ! mosses2 ^!1 escap+ ?r\gh ! pore ( ! conceptacle1 f]tilize ! spores4 ,! figure 7#bj7 9 ! plate 0 drawn f a conceptacle ( ,fucus s]rtus1 ano!r common species1 diff]+ f ,f4 vesiculosus 9 hav+ ! m>g9s ( ! frond s]rate2 ! an!ridia ( ! two species d n1 h[ev]1 diff] 9 any important respect4 ,to exam9e ! conceptacles ( ,fucus & _! cont5ts1 ! receptacles %\ld be soak$ 9 wat]1 if n fre%1 & ?9 sections made ) a %>p knife4 ,!y =m v beautiful objects1 & may be pres]v$ 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,,florid,e1 or ,rhodosp]me 71 rose1 1 se$74--,! second ,ord] ( ,alg1 =m+ ! ,floride 7flos1 a fl[]71 comprises ! r$ sea-we$s2 a few ( !m are purple1 or gre5i%-r$2 s t by ! col\r alone !y may be readily di/+ui%$ f ! ,fucoids1 & f ne>ly all ^? ( ! next ,ord]1 ! ,conf]voids4 ,a few ( !m are leaflike1 or possess flat fronds2 b mo/ ( !m consi/ ( f9ely divid$ or fea!ry fronds4 ,!y are (t5 f\nd ^u ! sea-%ore ( a dirty :ite col\r1 ! col\r+ matt] hav+ be5 decompos$ or wa%$ out by ra94 ,we %all consid] a few ( ! g5]a & species "u ! heads ( ! families to :i* !y belong4 ,,corall9a,,ce1 ! ,corall9es1 or calc>e\s ,alg4--,9 ?is family we h ! beautiful ,corallna (fic9lis 7,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #bh71 ! common ,corall9e1 :i* is v abundant on ! sea-%ore1 atta*$ to l>g] sea-we$s1 %ells1 & rocks4 ,x is h>d & *alky1 f ! pres5ce ( a l>ge proportion ( c>bonate ( lime 9 its m9ute cells4 ,! fronds are compos$ ( jo9t$ & bran*$ filam5ts4 ,! fructification 7figs4 #bi & #cj7 consi/s ( ovate cellul> capsules1 or c]amidia 71 e>!n vessel71 plac$ mo/ly at ! ends ( p9nate /alks1 & conta9+ a tuft ( some:at club-%ap$ jo9t$ spores1 spr++ f ! base ( ! capsules 7fig4 #cj74 ,:5 ripe1 ! spores escape f a pore or hole 9 ! end ( ! capsules4 ,! spores are #d-;jo9t$1 & h5ce are call$ tetraspores 71 f\r74 ,to obs]ve ^! spores1 ! capsules mu/ be soak$ 9 /rong v9eg> = "s h\rs1 & !n wa%$ ) wat]1 to dissolve ! calc>e\s matt]4 ,jnia rb5s 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #g & #h7 is ano!r common & v elegant little corall9e1 & is ( a pale r$ col\r4 ,x diff]s f ! la/ 9 ! bran*es be+ di*otom\s 71 9 two1 1 cutt+7 or =k$1 in/ead ( p9nate4 ,! capsules1 or c]amidia1 h also two %ort horn-l bran*lets1 plac$ "o on ea* side1 ne> ! end4 ,! g5us ,melobsia has ! frond cru/ace\s1 i4 e4 =m+ a h>d cru/ or lay]4 ,m4 polymorpha 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #e & #f7 is common on %ells1 /ones1 c4 ,! capsules 7c]amidia7 "h =m little blunt cones1 scatt]$ ov] ! cru/s1 & conta9+ ! tuft$ tetraspores1 z 9 ,corall9a4 ,li?ocystis ,allmanni 7fig4 #i7 is v m9ute1 & n uncommon ^u sea-we$s1 /ones1 c4 ,x consi/s ( a s+le fan-%ap$ cru/ace\s lay] ( cells1 closely inve/+ ! body to :i* x is atta*$2 its fructification is unkn[n4 ,leav+ ! family ( cru/ace\s ,floride1 we %all n[ pass to ^? ( s(t] consi/5ce1 al?\gh all ! m>9e ,alg conta9 a consid]able quantity ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,,rhodomela,,ce4--,9 ?is family we h ! l>ge g5us ,polysiphnia1 9 :i* ! frond 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #be & #bf7 is filam5t\s1 ! filam5ts be+ app>5tly jo9t$ & longitud9ally /riat$4 ,! filam5ts are compos$ ( r+s ( cells 7fig4 #bg71 arrang$ end to end1 & conta9+ d>k endo*rome4 ,! ends ( ! col\rless cell-walls sep>at+ ! endo*romes ( ! cells ( adjac5t r+s produce ! jo9t$ appe>ance2 :ile ! /riat$ appe>ance is caus$ by ! d>k cells be+ elongate & ! cell-walls ?ick1 s z to =m :ite int]spaces4 ,! fructification consi/s ( capsules 7c]amidia71 atta*$ to ! sides ( ! bran*es1 conta9+ pe>-%ap$ spores1 ) tetraspores imb$d$ 9 swoll5 bran*es ( sep>ate plants4 ,polysiphnia fa/igita 7fig4 #be1 a small piece7 is common1 atta*$ to ! fronds ( ,fucus4 ,its filam5ts are rigid1 bri/le-l1 ( ! same bread? ?r\gh\t1 =k$1 & =m+ globul> br[n or yell[i% tufts1 f #b to #d in*es long4 ,! jo9ts are broad] ?an long1 ea* ) #af-ah ( ! d>k cells4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! bran*es ( ?is sea-we$ is a r[ ( curi\s objects 7fig4 #bf a71 consi/+ ( a d>k-col\r$ body surr\nd$ ) irregul> sp9y m>g9al processes1 & ) a col\rless %ort process above & bel[4 ,^! require fur!r inve/igation4 ,p4 nigresc5s is also common among masses ( seawe$s4 ,its filam5ts are br[n1 p9nate1 ! bran*es awl-%ap$1 & ! jo9ts ab\t z long z broad4 ,dsya cocc9ea 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #a & #b1 repres5t+ small portions ( a filam5t7 is a v common filam5t\s r$ sea-we$ ( ! same family4 ,! filam5ts are #f-h in*es long1 & bip9nate1--! l>g] ones some:at resembl+ ^? ( ,polysiphonia1 9 be+ compos$ ( p>allel longitud9al cells1 arrang$ r\nd ! c5tre1 b conta9+ also small] int]m$iate cells2 :ile ! smalle/ bran*es 7fig4 #b71 :i* arise 9 tufts1 consi/ ( a s+le r[ ( cells1 little long] ?an broad4 ,! fruit consi/s ( ovate capsules 7c]amidia71 plac$ at ! base ( ! bran*es1 & conta9+ a r\nd mass ( spores4 ,!re is also ano!r k9d ( fructification1 occurr+ on di/9ct plants2 ?is is =m$ ( "o or two r[s ( tetraspores1 imm]s$ 9 pod-l capsules1 call$ /i*idia 71 r[74 ,,deless]ia,,ce4--,9 ?is family1 ! typical or mo/ highly develop$ g5us ( :i*1 ,delessria1 has beautiful leaf-l rose-r$ fronds1 we %all exam9e ! common ,plocmium cocc9eum 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #bc & #bb74 ,?is is ( a f9e r$ col\r2 ! fronds are f #b to #ab in*es long1 & consi/ ( num]\s bran*$ & bu%y filam5ts4 ,^! are compress$1 ) ! bran*lets arrang$ 9 alt]nate r[s on ! two m>g9s ( ! /em4 ,! end bran*lets are acute & pect9ate 7pect51 a comb71 or arrang$ l ! tee? ( a comb4 ,! cells ( :i* ! filam5ts consi/ are small & angul>1 giv+ ! surface ! appe>ance ( be+ elegantly nett$ "u a high p[]4 ,! fruit 7fig4 #bb7 consi/s ( globul> capsules1 call$ coccidia 71 a b]ry71 plac$ 9 ! axils or =ks at :i* two bran*es sep>ate1 & conta9+ a mass ( angul> spores4 ,!re are also tetraspore-pods 7/i*idia71 z 9 ,dasya2 & tetraspores 7fig4 #bd7 9 little leaf-l alt]$ bran*es 7fig4 #ba71 call$ sporophylles 71 se$1 1 leaf71 & an!ridia are pres5t4 ,,rhodym5ia,,ce4--,9 ?is family we h ,hypnea purpurasc5s 7,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #ce74 ,! filam5t\s pale purple frond ( ?is sea-we$ is f #f in*es to a foot or m 9 l5g?1 ! bran*es be+ alt]nate & spread+4 ,! fructification consi/s ( capsules or coccidia 7fig4 #cb71 imm]s$ 9 ! bran*es1 & conta9+ ! spores 7fig4 #cd74 ,tetraspores also occur 9 ! cells ( ! surface ( ! filam5ts4 ,,c]amia,,ce4--,?is is ! la/ family to be notic$4 ,c]mium nodsum 7,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #aj & #aa71 :i* belongs to x1 is a mo/ delicate & elegant filam5t\s sea-we$1 commonly f\nd atta*$ to o!r sea-we$s4 ,! filam5ts are hair-l or capill>y1 irregul>ly di*otom\s2 !y consi/ ( col\rless cells1 #c or #d times z long z broad1 & ) ?ick walls4 ,! junctions ( ! cells are swoll5 7fig4 #aa71 & cov]$ ) v m9ute d>k r$ cells1 giv+ !m a knotty & jo9t$ appe>ance to ! nak$ eye or "u a l[ p[]4 ,! globul> capsules1 or favel'l 7favus1 a honeycomb71 conta9+ ! num]\s spores1 are situat$ at ! ends ( ! bran*lets1 & ! tetraspores 7fig4 #aa7 9 twos or ?rees on ! out] m>g9s ( !m4 ,9 ,c]mium rbrum1 :i* is also v common1 be+ f\nd atta*$ to /ones1 rocks1 & ! l>g] ,alg1 ! filam5ts 7,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #ab7 are /\t] ?an 9 ,c4 nodosum1 bran*$ s z to =m tufts f #b to #aj in*es long1 & _! ends =k$1 ) ! tips hook$ inw>ds 7fig4 #ad74 ,! c5tral cells ( ! filam5ts are l>ge & r\nd$1 & _! walls are entirely cov]$ ) a lay] ( v small angul> r$ cells4 ,! globul> capsules 7fig4 #ae71 or favell1 are situat$ on ! sut] surface ( ! bran*es1 /alk$1 & support$ by #c or #d %ort bran*lets4 ,! tetraspores 7fig4 #ac7 are imb$d$ 9 ! bran*es1 t[>ds ! ends4 ,! capsules call$ favell diff] f ! coccidia 9 ! walls be+ simply membran\s1 :ile ! walls ( ! coccidia1 l ^? ( ! c]amidia1 are compos$ ( cells4 ,! tetraspores are usually imb$d$1 among ! cells ( ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! filam5ts1 & are n v easily recogniz$ by an unpractis$ eye2 x w be obs]v$ 9 ! figures t !y are sometimes cleft horizontally1 at o!rs obliquely4 ,,conf]void,e4--,?is ,ord] consi/s pr9cipally ( ! gre5 fre%wat] ,alg1 al?\gh "s ( !m are yell[i% br[n1 purple1 or r$1 & "s are m>9e4 ,_! g5]al /ructure may be be/ illu/rat$ by select+ c]ta9 common examples f ! families compos+ ! ord]4 ,! families are #ac 9 numb]4 ,! species :i* are figur$ 9 ! plates are f\nd 9 fre% wat]1 except :5 o!rwise /at$4 ,,plate ,v4 ,,page #gj4 ,,fre%wat] ,,alg4 ,fig4 #a4 ,conf]va floccosa1 s+le filam5t4 #b4 ,lyngbya muralis1 s+le filam5t4 #c4 ,ulo?rix mucosa 7871 filam5t4 #d4 ,syn$ra radians1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #e4 ,syn$ra radians1 tuft ( natural fru/ules4 #f4 ,cladophora crispata1 ) zoospores 7a74 #g4 ,batra*osp]mum monili=me1 portion ( filam5t4 #h4 ,batra*osp]mum monili=me1 filam5t4 #i4 ,clo/]ium ac]osum4 #aj4 ,drap>naldia glom]ata4 #aa4 ,spirogyra qu99a4 #ab4 ,spirogyra nitida1 filam5ts conjugat+4 #ac4 ,zygnema cruciata4 #ad4 ,coleo*te scutata4 #ae4 ,xan?idia 9 fl9t4 #af4 ,micra/]ias rotata4 #ag4 ,gomphonema acum9atum4 #ah4 ,gomphonema acum9atum1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #ai4 ,anki/rodesmus falcatus4 #bj4 ,p$ia/rum ,boryanum4 #ba4 ,hyalo!ca dissili5s4 #bb4 ,p9nul>ia viridis4 #bc4 ,fragil>ia capuc9a4 #bd4 ,fragil>ia capuc9a1 prep>$ fru/ules2 s99 side view ( ,f4 viresc5s4 #be4 ,sc5$esmus quadricauda4 #bf4 ,s*izogonium1 probably a =m ( ,lyngbya4 #bg4 ,campylodiscus co/atus4 #bh4 ,nitzs*ia m9utissima1 front view4 #bi4 ,nitzs*ia m9utissima1 valves4 #cj4 ,epi!mia turgida4 #ca4 ,diatoma elongatum1 natural fru/ules4 #cb4 ,diatoma elongatum1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #cc4 ,cocconeis plac5tula4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,v4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,,conf]va,,ce4--,on remov+ "s ( ! s(t gre5 matt] f\nd adh]+ to ! /ems ( wat]-plants 9 any pool or pond1 "o ( ! species ( ,conf]va1 ,c4 flocculosa1 is almo/ sure to be met )4 ,on close inspection ) ! nak$ eye1 ! gre5 filam5ts ( :i* x consi/s are j visible1 z extremely f9e1 s(t1 silky ?reads2 &1 "u a high p[] ( ! microscope1 ! filam5ts are se5 to be unbran*$1 & compos$ ( a s+le r[ ( cells 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #a71 or jo9ts1 z !y are call$ 9 te*nical works2 ^! are #b or #c times z long z broad4 ,9 "s specim5s ! jo9ts are swoll51 s z to pres5t a r\nd$ outl9e4 ,9 ano!r common species1 ,c4 bombycina1 ! filam5ts are some:at m sl5d]1 & ! jo9ts are f #c to #e times z long z broad4 ,cladophora crispta4--,?is ,conf]void =ms l>ge1 entangl$1 dull-gre5 masses1 compos$ ( bran*$1 tuft$1 some:at rigid & co>se filam5ts4 ,x is (t5 a tr\blesome ov]runn] ( ! fre%-wat] viv>ium4 ,! filam5ts are compos$ ( ?ick-wall$ cells 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #f71 f #d to #f times z long z broad1 & (t5 conta9+ m9ute />*-granules4 ,! ,conf]vace h two modes ( reproduction4 ,! fir/ ( ^! consi/s 9 ! division ( ! endo*rome ( ! jo9ts into a numb] ( di/9ct segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* becomes furni%$ at "o end ) two v sl5d] cilia 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #f a74 ,aft] a "t1 ^! ciliat$ bodies1 :i* are call$ zoospores 71 animal1 1 se$7 or gonidia 71 se$1 1 resemblance71 escape f ! cells ei!r by _! rupture or ?r\gh a papill>y orifice1 & swim ab\t 9 ! wat]1 ultimately los+ _! cilia & gr[+ into cells resembl+ ^? ( ! p>5t plant4 ,9 ! second me?od1 :i* occurs1 = in/ance1 9 ,conf]va bombyc9a1 c]ta9 ( ! jo9ts enl>ge s z to become r\nd$ or inflat$2 _! endo*rome !n becomes coat$ ) a new cell-wall1 & s =ms a spore1 :i* subsequ5tly escapes f ! cell & g]m9ates4 ,,*,,tophora,,ce4--,drap>naldia glom]ta =ms small gre5 jelly-l masses1 adh]+ to /icks & /ones 9 wat]4 ,^! consi/ ( bran*$ filam5ts 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #aj71 prolong$ at ! ends into col\rless hair-l po9ts1 & compos$ ( s+le r[s ( cells1 ! gre5 endo*rome =m+ a b& across ! middle ( ea* cell1 ! ends be+ col\rless4 ,9 ,coleo*te scutta 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ad7 ! cells are closely unit$1 s z to =m a m9ute flat gre5 disk4 ,9 ! natural /ate1 ?is beautiful little object adh]es to ! subm]g$ leaves & /ems ( wat]-plants1 & is !re=e difficult to be f\nd4 ,b if a few heal?y wat]-plants be kept = "s "t 9 a glass j>1 ! little ,coleo*te1 :i* is ab\t z l>ge z a p9's head1 w (t5 be f\nd adh]+ to ! side ( ! glass4 ,,bat,,ra*osp],,me4--,! memb]s ( ?is family resemble to ! nak$ eye ! little masses ( ,drap>naldia1 & !y are f\nd 9 ! same localities4 ,!y are ( v>i\s col\rs1 be+ gre51 br[n1 purple1 or r$4 ,!y consi/1 z 9 ,batra*osp]mum monili=me 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #h71 ( bran*$ filam5ts1 :i* h a knotty appe>ance "u a l[ p[]4 ,! l>g] filam5ts are compos$ ( cells arrang$ end to end1 ! knots consi/+ ( num]\s small] :orl$ filam5ts1 i4 e4 filam5ts aris+ f ar\nd !m at ! same level 7fig4 #g74 ,! cells compos+ ! :orl$ filam5ts are bead$ or monili=m1 & are prolong$ into col\rless hair-l po9ts4 ,! globules se5 among ! bran*es 7fig4 #g7 consi/ ( gr\ps ( spores4 ,,zygnema,,ce4--,! memb]s ( ?is family resemble ! ,conf]vace 9 consi/+ ( simple cellul> filam5ts 7,pl4 ,v4 figs4 #aa1 #ac71 b diff] f !m 9 ! elegant arrangem5t ( ! endo*rome3 ?is =ms beautiful spiral b&s1 z 9 ,spirogyra qu9ina 7fig4 #aa71 or />-%ap$ masses1 z 9 ,zygnema cruciata 7fig4 #ac74 ,a rem>kably curi\s ph5om5on met ) 9 !m is ! mann] 9 :i* ! spores are =m$1 & :i* is kn[n z conjugation4 ,9 ?is process ! opposite cells ( two di/9ct filam5ts1 ly+ ne> toge!r1 pu% out protrusions ( ! cell-walls1 :i* meet & op5 into ea* o!r1 =m+ cross tubes1 z 9 ,spirogyra nitida 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ab74 ,! cont5ts ( ! opposite cells ( ! filam5ts !n unite1 =m+ l>ge spores1 :i* rema9 ei!r 9 ! cells ( "o ( ! filam5ts or 9 ! cross tubes4 ,! ?ree species figur$ are common 9 cle> pools4 ,,desmidia,,ce4--,! ,desmidiace are truly microscopic1 few ( !m be+ ev5 p]ceptible to ! nak$ eye )\t ! v close/ exam9ation4 ,!y are v beautiful1 on acc\nt ( _! bright gre5 col\r & (t5 elegant =ms4 ,_m ( !m are v common1 exi/+ 9 e pond or dit*2 b !y ab\nd mo/ 9 cle> op5 boggy pools on hea?s4 ,on plac+ "s wat] conta9+ !m 9 a glass j> & expos+ x to ! light1 !y w (t5 be f\nd adh]+ to ! glass1 or =m+ a lay] on ! surface ( ! muddy s$im5t4 ,! ,desmidiace consi/ mo/ly ( s+le cells 7,pl4 ,v4 figs4 #i1 #af72 & ^! consi/ ( two equal halves or segm5ts1 z indicat$ ei!r by a pal5ess ( ! endo*rome or a deep con/riction at ! l9e ( junction1 :i* is call$ ! suture4 ,! cells are (t5 elegantly lob$ & cut1 or sp9y2 & 9 _m ! surface exhibits m9ute m>k+s1 consi/+ ( little protrusions ( ! cell-wall outw>ds1 or inflations1 z !y are call$4 ,_! reproduction is effect$ by division & conjugation4 ,9 ! process ( division ! cells gradually sep>ate at ! suture1 & a new half-cell is =m$ ^u ea* old half1 :i* gr[s until x atta9s ! size & =m ( ! orig9al half ( ! p>5t-cell4 ,! conjugation is effect$ by two cells approximat+ s t _! sutures are ne> toge!r1 ! cells !n op5 at ! sutures1 & ! effus$ cont5ts become unit$ to =m a spore or sporange1 f :i* "o or m individuals are =m$4 ,^! spores are (t5 elegantly sp9\s on ! surface4 ,among ! species select$ = illu/ration is ,clo/rium ac]sum 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #i71 9 :i* ! cells are s+le1 elongate1 v slightly curv$ or lunate2 ! endo*rome =ms long b&s1 (t5 conta9+ num]\s globules or transp>5t vesicles4 ,at ea* end ( ! cells is a r\nd transp>5t vesicle1 conta9+ exce$+ly m9ute granules1 :i* exhibit a trembl+ k9d ( motion4 ,betwe5 ! cell-wall & ! cell-cont5ts v f9e curr5ts may also be detect$1 =m+ a circulation resembl+ t 9 ! hairs ( ,tradescantia4 ,9 ,micra/rias rotta 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #af7 ! cells1 :i* are s+le1 are deeply cleft into two segm5ts at ! suture1 ! segm5ts be+ aga9 regul>ly cut into five lobes1 :i* are too!d or d5tate4 ,9 ,hyalo?ca dissili5s 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ba7 ! cells are unit$ into a cyl9drical filam5t1 & are surr\nd$ by a v delicate gelat9\s %ea?4 ,9 ,anki/rodesmus falctus 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ai7 ! cells resemble ^? ( ,clo/]ium 9 %ape1 b are aggregat$ into faggot-l bundles1 & are v mu* small]4 ,9 ! beautiful little ,p$iastrum borynum 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bj7 ! cells are aggregat$ into a disk1 ! m>g9al cells be+ bid5tate or hav+ ea* two po9ts1 s t ! :ole resembles a />4 ,! species ( ,p$ia/rum are reproduc$ by ! cont5ts ( ea* cell subdivid+ into num]\s ciliat$ segm5ts or zoospores1 :i* subsequ5tly escape 9 a mass f ! cell1 ultimately los+ _! cilia1 & reunit+ to =m a new individual4 ,9 ,sc5$esmus quadricauda 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #be7 ! oblong cells are unit$1 side by side1 ! out]mo/ cells be+ furni%$ ) a bri/le at ea* end4 ,! division ( ^! cells takes place obliquely1 s t 9 ! divid$ gr\ps ! cells are situat$ 9 two alt]nate r[s4 ,! spores ( _m ( ! ,desmidiace are sp9\s1 & !y are (t5 f\nd fossil 9 fl9t 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ae74 ,to detect !m 9 ?is sub/ance1 ?9 slips ( fl9t may be exam9$ "u a half-in* p[]2 or ! *ips ( fl9t may be cem5t$ to a slide ) balsam1 & gr\nd d[n on a hone4 ,! ,desmidiace mu/ be m\nt$ 9 ! moi/ /ate3 ! small] ones w keep well 9 *loride ( calcium2 b ! l>g] ones are injur$ bo? by t liquid & by glyc]9e4 ,! rem>ks made ^u m\nt+1 at page #ae1 are especially applicable to ^! delicate organisms4 ,,diatoma,,ce1 or ,silice\s ,alg4--,! memb]s ( ?is family are s+ly v m9ute2 b :5 exi/+ 9 l>ge numb]s1 z !y are (t5 f\nd at ! bottom ( dit*es & ponds1 on ! subm]g$ /ems ( wat]-plants1 or ^u damp gr\nd1 !y =m yell[i%-br[n evid5t masses or /rata4 ,!y occur bo? 9 sea-& 9 fre% wat]4 ,!y usually consi/1 l ! ,desmidiace1 ( s+le cells1 :i* are call$ fru/ules4 ,b !y are especially *>act]iz$ by ! cell-walls be+ imbu$ ) silica or fl9t1 s t if ! fru/ules be heat$ to r$ness ^u ! po9t ( a knife or a slip ( plat9um-foil1 :i* de/roys ! organic "p ( ! cells1 ! coat ( silica rema9s1 exhibit+ ! p]fect =m ( ! orig9al cells or fru/ules4 ,! =m ( ! fru/ules is v diff]5t 9 ! v>i\s g5]a & species1 z repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,v4 figs4 #bb1 #bc1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 & ,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #af1 #ag1 #bc2 & x w be notic$ t1 9 ! figures1 two views are giv5 ( ea* fru/ule1 f indicat+ ! front view1 & s ! side view4 ,9 all ! front views1 z 9 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bb1 "o or m l9es w be obs]v$ runn+ longitud9ally d[n ! middle ( ! fru/ules1 & correspond+ to ! indications ( division exi/+ 9 ! cells ( ! ,desmidiace4 ,ea* half ( a fru/ule is call$ a valve1 & ! l9e at :i* ^! valves meet is call$ ! suture4 ,t side or aspect ( ! fru/ule 9 :i* ! suture lies 7fig4 #bb f7 is ! front view2 & ! o!r aspect ( ! fru/ule 7fig4 #bb s7 is ! side view4 ,! fru/ules are mo/ly f\r-sid$--! ma9 bread?s ( ! two opposite valves =m+ two sides1 & ! b5t m>g9s ( ! valves1 ) ! back & front ( ! hoop1 =m+ ! two o!r sides2 s t ! view pres5t$ by ! side ( a fru/ule is ! same z t ( a s+le valve4 ,! suture is ! l9e at :i* ! division ( ! fru/ules takes place 9 ! =mation ( new individuals4 ,9 ?is process ! cell-cont5ts divide into two p>ts1 z 9 ord9>y endog5\s cell-=mation1--! two new surfaces ?us produc$ becom+ coat$ ) a new portion ( cell-wall or valve1 s t two fru/ules n[ occupy ! place ( ! orig9al "o4 ,at ! same "t a silice\s b&1 encircl+ ! fru/ules at ! l9e ( suture1 is =m$ to fill up ! int]val betwe5 ! edges ( ! p>5t valves2 ?is is ! hoop 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bb f2 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #aj f71 & b5ea? x lie ! two newly =m$ valves4 ,9 _m cases ,i believe t ea* half-fru/ule becomes coat$ ) a new entire cell-wall1 ) its silice\s valves4 ,! fru/ules ( ! ,diatomace are con/antly und]go+ division :5 9 vigor\s gr[?4 ,aft] ! fru/ules h divid$1 ! new ones ei!r sep>ate entirely1 z is p]haps mo/ commonly ! case2 or !y rema9 unit$1 sometimes completely1 s z to con/itute a filam5t 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bc71 :ile at o!rs ! fru/ules coh]e only at ! angles 7,pl ,,vi4 fig4 #bc71 s z to =m a zigzag *a94 ,9 "s species1 ! fru/ules are atta*$ to =eign bodies by means ( a gelat9\s cu%ion 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #e2 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g72 :ile 9 o!rs !y are situat$ ^u a simple or bran*$ gelat9\s /alk 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ag7 or /ipes 7/ipes1 a /em74 ,:5 ! fru/ules are exam9$ 9 ! liv+ /ate1 ! cell-cont5ts resemble ^? ( ord9>y vegetable cells1 except+ 9 reg>d to ! col\r1 & exhibit granules & globules1 & sometimes a nucleus is visible4 ,x w also be notic$ t _m ( ! free fru/ules move sl[ly across ! field ( ! microscope2 b ! cause ( ! motion is unkn[n4 ,:5 ! fru/ules h be5 prop]ly prep>$1 ! surface ( ! valves exhibits a numb] ( co>s] or f9] m>k+s1 consi/+ ( dots1 l9es 7/ri71 flut+s1 or networks1 c41 arrang$ ) great regul>ity & symmetry1 (t5 ( extreme m9ut5ess1 & r5d]+ !m exquisite objects "u ! microscope4 ,! exhibition ( ^! m>k+s requires n only t ! valves %all be prop]ly prep>$ & m\nt$1 b t ! object-glasses be ( good quality1 & t ! managem5t ( ! light be ?or\ghly und]/ood2 s t to a beg9n]1 _! exam9ation is (t5 a matt] ( great difficulty2 = only ! v co>se/ or l>ge/ ( ^! m>k+s c be p]ceiv$ 9 ! natural fru/ules4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! m>k+s1 & ev5 _! app>5t abs5ce or pres5ce1 frequ5tly dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( illum9ation us$3 ?us1 "u "o k9d ( illum9ation ! valves may appe> simply :ite or col\r$1 :ile "u ano!r !y appe> cov]$ ) l9es1 & "u a ?ird ) dots4 ,x w (t5 be obs]v$1 also1 t ! col\r ( ! valves v>ies accord+ to ! illum9ation & ! p[] us$--! same valve appe>+ :ite1 yell[1 br[n1 blue1 c42 & ! wet or dry /ate ( ! fru/ules (t5 cause a decid$ diff]5ce 9 _! appe>ance z reg>ds col\r4 ,to illu/rate ! =ms & m>k+s ( ! fru/ules & valves1 we may select ! foll[+ species tak+ fir/ ^? :i* occur 9 fre% wat]4 ,9 ,epi?mia turgida 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #cj71 ! side-view or valve 7s7 exhibits transv]se or slightly radiat+ l9es1 ) int]m$iate r[s ( dots--^! m>k+s be+ cont9u$ ov] ! m>g9s ( ! valves s z to appe> also 9 ! front view 7fig4 #cj f71 ceas+ at ! hoop4 ,! fru/ules are curv$ or arcuate 7arcus1 a b[7 9 ! side view1 oblong & n>r[$ at ! ends 9 ! front view4 ,9 ,fragilria capucna 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bc71 :i* is extremely common 9 fre%-wat] pools1 c41 ! fru/ules are unit$ side by side into long filam5ts1 :i* are (t5 twi/$4 ,9 ! sep>ate & prep>$ fru/ule1 ! front view 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bd f7 is rectangul>1 ! valves 7s7 be+ n>r[ly lance-%ap$ or lanceolate4 ,! valves "u ord9>y illum9ation appe> col\rless & )\t m>k+s1 b1 by prop] managem5t ( ! light1 v f9e transv]se /ri are se5 ^u !m1 consi/+ ( r[s ( v m9ute dots4 ,fig4 #bd s99 repres5ts ! valve ( ,fragil>ia viresc5s1 a ne>ly alli$ species4 ,diatoma elongtum 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ca7 is (t5 f\nd ) ! above4 ,its fru/ules are coh]5t at ! angles4 ,! front view 7fig4 #cb f7 is rectangul>1 (t5 slightly n>r[$ 9 ! middle2 & ! valves are n>r[ly l9e>1 & capitate at ! ends2 !y are also transv]sely /riat$4 ,9 ,syndra spl5d5s 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #e7 ! fru/ules radiate f a s(t gelat9\s cu%ion4 ,!y are l9e> 9 ! front view 7fig4 #d f71 ! valves 7fig4 #d s7 be+ gradually n>r[$ or att5uat$ f ! middle to ! ends1 & exhibit transv]se /ri int]rupt$ opposite a middle longitud9al l9e4 ,9 ,campylodiscus co/tus 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bg7 ! fru/ules are disk-%ap$ & curv$1 s z some:at to resemble a saddle4 ,! m>k+s consi/ ( c5tral dots1 ) radiat+ co>se flut+s4 ,nitzs*ia m9utissima 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bh7 has oblique valves1 i4 e4 ! front half ( ! suture is n opposite ! back portion2 ! valves 7fig4 #bi7 are con/rict$ 9 ! middle1 & ! ends n>r[$ & prolong$4 ,! m>k+s consi/ ( a r[ ( oblong dots or puncta 7punctum1 a po9t74 ,?is species (t5 =ms yell[i% lay]s ^u damp pa?s1 c4 ,9 ! next gr\p1 ! valves h a longitud9al l9e runn+ d[n ! middle ( ! valves1 ) a little knob or nodule 9 its c5tre 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bb s71 bo? consi/+ ( int]nal ?ick5$ portions ( ! valves4 ,9 ,cocconis plac5tula 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #cc7 ! valves are oval1 & ! m>k+s consi/ ( longitud9al r[s ( m9ute dots1 ) a m>g9al r[ ( puncta2 ^! m>k+s are invisible "u ord9>y illum9ation4 ,9 ,gomphonma acum9tum 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ag7 ! fru/ules are atta*$ to a bran*$ /alk 7/ipes72 !y are w$ge-%ap$ or cneate 7cneus1 a w$ge7 & transv]sely /riate 7fig4 #ah71 ! /ri consi/+ ( dots4 ,9 ,p9nulria viridis 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bb71 :i* is v (t5 se5 sl[ly trav]s+ ! field ( ! microscope :5 a drop ( pond-wat] is exam9$1 ! fru/ules 9 ! front view are l9e>1 ! valves be+ elliptic oblong1 & transv]sely /riat$1 ! /ri consi/+ ( furr[s4 ,9 ,gyrosigma 7,pleurosigma7 att5utum 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #af7 ! valves are sigmoid1 or some:at resemble a ,greek 7sigma7 9 outl9e1 & ! m>k+s consi/ ( rectangul>ly cross$ r[s ( v f9e dots2 9 ! front view1 ! fru/ules are l9e>-oblong ) truncate ends4 ,tabellria flocculsa 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #bc7 has ! fru/ules adh]5t only at ! angles1 z 9 ,ditoma4 ,!y are rectangul>1 & 9 ! front view exhibit a r[ ( longitud9al d>k l9es int]rupt$ 9 ! middle2 ^! h be5 comp>$ to ! vitt ( ! fruit ( ! ,umbellif]1 & h receiv$ ! same "n4 ,among ! m>9e species may be m5tion$ ,melosra nummulodes 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #i71 9 :i* ! fru/ules are unit$ into a *a9 or cyl9drical filam5t4 ,?is is v common among sea-we$s1 c42 & x illu/rates well ! process ( division ( ! fru/ules 7fig4 #aj f74 ,! valves are cov]$ ) f9e dots1 & ne> ea* end ( ! fru/ules is a project+ rim encircl+ x1 & appe>+ z a curv$ l9e ext5d+ beyond ! m>g9 ( ! fru/ule 9 ! front view4 ,9 ,act9ocyclus undultus 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #e7 ! fru/ules are sep>ate1 disk-%ap$1 & ! valves are divid$ into six equal p>ts by six rays1 ea* alt]nate portion ( ! surface ( ! valves be+ situat$ on a l[] level ?an ^? adjac5t1 s t an alt]ation 9 ! focus is requir$ to br+ into view ! dots on any two adjac5t divisions ( ! valve4 ,! surface ( ! valves is cov]$ ) easily recogniz$ dots4 ,! =m ( ! surface is be/ se5 9 ! front view 7fig4 #e f7 :5 ! fru/ule is plac$ on its edge4 ,rhabdonma arcutum 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g71 :i* is v commonly f\nd atta*$ to sea-we$s1 resembles ,tabellria 9 ! fru/ules hav+ ! vitt 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #h f74 ,! fru/ules =m %ort filam5ts1 atta*$ by a little gelat9\s cu%ion4 ,! valves h transv]se /ri1 int]rupt$ 9 ! middle 7fig4 #h s74 ,gyrosigma 7,pleurosigma7 angultum 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ag7 resembles ,g4 att5utum 9 ! sigmoid =m2 b ! m>k+s consi/ ( l9es cross+ ea* o!r obliquely2 & ^! are resolvable into r[s ( dots 7fig4 #ag a7 "u suitable illum9ation4 ,9 ,cosc9odiscus raditus 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c7 ! fru/ules are disk-%ap$1 ! valves be+ elegantly sculptur$ ) easily recogniz$ cell-l m>k+s or dots1 s z to resemble a piece ( vegetable cellul> tissue4 ,b 9 "s o!r species ! dots are v m9ute1 & difficult to be %[n satisfactorily4 ,^! m>k+s consi/ ( depressions or pits 9 ! surface ( ! valves4 ,t ?is is ! case may easily be se5 by exam9+ a fragm5t ( ! valve1 :5 ! %ad+s ( ! brok5 ends ( ! nett$ ?ick] portions1 :i* project l tee?1 /rongly contra/ ) ! difficultly di/+ui%able portions ( ! ?9 int]spaces4 ,! fossil =ms f ! ,b]muda deposit are be/ = ! inve/igation ( ?is /ructure2 _m ( ^! are extremely beautiful microscopic objects1 _! m>k+s resembl+ ^? on ! eng9e-turn$ back ( a wat*4 ,! detection ( ! f9] m>k+s ( ! ,diatomace1 :i*1 accord+ to my view1 consi/ ( depressions l ^? ^u ! valves ( ,cosc9odiscus1 is a matt] ( great difficulty to ^? :o are unaccu/om$ to ! use ( ! microscope1 & :o h n a complete set ( app>atus4 ,! ma9 po9t to be att5d$ to 9 br++ !m into view1 is to use "o-sid$ oblique light1 i4 e4 to turn ! mirror by its /em z mu* z possible to "o side1 & !n to incl9e x s z to ?r[ ! light ^u ! object4 ,9 ?is way ! valves ( ! species ( ,gyrosigma1 = in/ance1 appe> cov]$ ) l9es 7,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #af & #ag72 b ! l9es are spuri\s1 i4 e4 !y are ! optical expression ( r[s ( m9ute dots 7figs4 #af a1 #ag a72 & :5 oblique light is ?r[n ^u ! valves f all sides1 by means ( a special a*romatic cond5s]1 9 :i* ! c5tral rays are exclud$1 ! dots become di/9ct1 & ! m>k+s resemble ^? on ! valves ( ,cosc9odiscus4 ,to %[ ! f9] dots cle>ly1 a valve %\ld be cru%$1 s z to obta9 a fragm5t z flat z possible2 = ! surface ( ! valves is curv$ m or less 9 all ! species4 ,! valves ( ,g4 angulatum are g5]ally us$ to te/ ! quality ( ! object-glasses ( ! microscope1 & also = practice 9 8mak+ out0 ! l9es & dots2 !re are1 h[ev]1 _m ,diatomace m difficult4 ,z ! nature ( ^! m>k+s is a disput$ po9t1 ! discussion ( :i* is n adapt$ = an elem5t>y "w1 ,i mu/ ref] = fur!r details to ! #8,micrographic ,diction>y2' x may be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t "s obs]v]s h reg>d$ !m z cells1 & o!rs z elevations or tub]cles on ! surface ( ! valves4 ,! prep>ation ( ! valves = %[+ ! m>k+s %\ld be effect$ by burn+ ! fru/ules1 or ! mass conta9+ !m1 on a /rip ( plat9um-foil ov] a _s-lamp4 ,! inc9]at$ mass %\ld !n be transf]r$ to a slide1 & ! valves sep>at$ ) ! greate/ c>e by a bri/le m\nt$ 9 a hair-p5cil /ick "u a l[ p[] ( ! microscope4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 a sub/itute = ! prop] me?od1 :i* is dang]\s 9 ! h&s ( "o unpractis$ 9 *emical manipulation4 ,x is ?is3--,! mass ( ,diatomace 7! wat] conta9+ x hav+ be5 c>efully p\r$ (f z f> z possible7 is put into a ,flor5ce oil-flask1 & /rong nitric acid 7aqua=tis7 g5tly add$1 m ?an suffici5t to cov] x4 ,! mixture is !n c>efully boil$ ov] a _s-lamp = "s "t4 ,:5 x is cold1 di/ill$ wat] is add$1 ! :ole %ak51 & all[$ to settle4 ,! wat]y "p is !n g5tly p\r$ (f1 m wat] add$1 & ?is p\r$ (f aft] settl+1 & ! process repeat$ until a drop ( ! wat] evaporat$ to dryness on a slide leaves no residue4 ,! ,diatomace !n =m a :ite s$im5t at ! bottom ( ! wat]1 & c be transf]r$ to a slide ) a dipp+-tube4 ,! drop is !n dri$ ) a g5tle heat1 & ! valves m\nt$ z dry transp>5t objects 7p4 #ab74 ,if ! valves h co>se m>k+s1 !y may be m\nt$ 9 balsam2 b if ! m>k+s are f9e1 balsam makes !m mu* m difficult ( detection4 ,_m ( ! mo/ beautiful ,diatomace are f\nd 9 ! fossil /ate2 & specim5s ( ^! are sold already m\nt$4 ,i w\ld advise ^? unacqua9t$ ) !m to pur*ase a slide ( ! 8,b]muda0 or 8,ri*mond0 e>?1 :i* ab\nds 9 ! species ( ,cosc9odiscus2 & ( ! 8,san ,fiore deposit10 :i* conta9s _m species ( ,epi!mia1 ,navicula1 ,p9nul>ia1 c4 ,^! may be procur$ f ,mr4 ,norman1 #agh ,city ,road1 or f ! microscope-mak]s4 ,,volvoc9,e4--,! ,volvoc9e are inhabitants ( cle> fre%-wat] pools1 on hea?s & bogs4 ,!y are v m9ute1 ( a r\nd$ or plate-l 7tabul>7 =m1 ( a gre5 col\r1 & are pretty readily di/+ui%$ f mo/ ( ! o!r ,alg by _! free motion2 = !y swim ab\t 9 ! wat] l animals1 z :i* !y 7 =m]ly consid]$4 ,!y consi/ usually ( gr\ps ( ?ick-wall$ s(t cells1 ea* be+ furni%$ ) "o or two cilia1 by means ( :i* ! movem5t ( ! comp\nd bodies is produc$4 ,9 ! beautiful ,volvox globtor 7:i* is n uncommon7 ! cells =m a holl[ sph]e 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ah71 /udd$ ) exce$+ly m9ute gre5 spots or zoospore-l bodies1 repres5t+ ! gre5 endo*rome ( ! compon5t cells1 & f ea* ( :i* v f9e radiat+ l9es ext5d1 s z to give ! surface a nett$ appe>ance2 ! l9es consi/+ ( delicate processes ( ! endo*rome1 :i* may be comp>$ ) ^? exi/+ 9 ! cells ( ! hairs ( ,tradescantia4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! p>5t globes are (t5 se5 sev]al "y organisms1 usually eight1 ( a deep gre5 col\r2 ^! escape by ! rupture ( ! p>5t1 s z to =m indep5d5t be+s4 ,sometimes !y are f\nd ( a yell[ col\r1 & furni%$ ) a ?ick transp>5t coat2 ^! are call$ 8re/+ spores10 z !y rema9 = "s "t be=e und]go+ _! full developm5t4 ,! cilia ( ,volvox1 ( :i* !re are two to ea* ( ! compon5t cells1 are difficult to detect2 !y are be/ se5 :5 ! organism is dri$ )\t a cov]1 or aft] moi/5+ !m ) a little solution ( iod9e1 :i* dyes !m br[n4 ,synra volvox 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ac7 is a /ill m m9ute memb] ( ?is family1 & is (t5 f\nd roll+ along among ,conf]v4 ,! gre5i% zoospore-l bodies ( ?is ,alga h "o cilium only1 & arise f a common c5tre by a n>r[+ ( ! base 7fig4 #ad74 ,9 ,gnium pectorle 7fig4 #aa a7 ! gre5 bodies1 :i* are sixte5 9 numb]1 & furni%$ ea* ) two cilia1 are gr\p$ into a flat squ>e plate2 & 9 ! v m9ute ,gonium tranquillum 7fig4 #aa c7 ^! bodies are also sixte5 9 numb]1 & arrang$ 9 a tabul> =m1 b are )\t cilia4 ,,siphona,,ce4--,! /ructure ( ?is family may be illu/rat$ by ! g5us ,vau*ria1 ( :i* two or ?ree species are common on damp gr\nd or 9 fre%wat] pools1 =m+ a gre5 lay]4 ,at fir/ sight1 ! filam5ts ( :i* ! little plants consi/ appe> l ^? ( a /\t ,conf]va2 b on close exam9ation !y are f\nd to be bran*$1 & n jo9t$1 consi/+ ( a s+le cell f end to end 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #bf74 ,! reproduction is effect$ by ! ag5cy ( two k9ds ( organs1 an!ridia & capsules 7sporangia71 situat$ ne> ea* o!r 7fig4 #bf a7 on ! walls ( ! filam5ts1 ( :i* !y are protrusions or outgr[?s--_! cavities be+ sep>at$ f t ( ! filam5t by a p>tition or septum4 ,! an!ridia produce sp]matozoa1 & ! sporangia ea* a spore1 ! "o f]tiliz+ ! o!r 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 ,9 addition to ?is me?od ( fructification1 zoospores are also produc$--! ends ( ! filam5ts becom+ swoll51 ! cont5ts cut (f by a septum1 & =m+ s+le l>ge zoospores cov]$ ) cilia1 ! fur!r developm5t ( :i* resembles t occurr+ 9 ! ,conf]vace4 ,,oscillatoria,,ce4--,! memb]s ( ?is family are commonly f\nd 9 /agnant wat] or on %ad$ damp gr\nd1 especially 9 ! cold seasons ( ! ye>1 =m+ gre5 /rata or masses4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,page #hd4 ,,fre%wat] ,,alg4 ,fig4 #a4 ,oscillatoria autumnalis4 #b4 ,oscillatoria nigra4 #c4 ,cosc9odiscus radiatus4 #d4 ,no/oc m9utissimum4 #e4 ,act9ocyclus undulatus4 #f4 ,bact]ium4 #g4 ,rhabdonema arcuatum4 #h4 ,rhabdonema arcuatum1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #i4 ,melosira nummuloides4 #aj4 ,melosira nummuloides1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #aa4 a1 b1 ,gonium pectorale3 #aa c4 ,gonium tranquillum4 #ab4 ,spirul9a oscill>ioides4 #ac4 ,synura volvox4 #ad4 ,synura volvox4 #ae4 ,gyrosigma att5uatum1 front view4 #af4 ,gyrosigma att5uatum1 side view2 #af a1 portion ( a valve4 #ag4 ,gyrosigma angulatum2 #ag a1 portion ( a valve4 #ah4 ,volvox globator4 #ai4 ,glocapsa4 #bj4 ,*>a vulg>is1 globule4 #ba4 ,*>a vulg>is1 portion ( filam5t4 #bb4 ,*>a vulg>is1 bran* ) nucule & globule4 #bc4 ,tabell>ia flocculosa4 #bd4 ,tabell>ia flocculosa1 prep>$ fru/ules4 #be4 ,palmella cru5ta4 #bf4 ,vau*]ia ,ung]i 7sessilis74 #bg4 ,vau*]ia ,ung]i1 capsule4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vi4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,oscillatoria autumnlis 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #a7 occurs ev]y:]e ^u damp %ad$ banks ( dit*es1 especially :5 newly made1 =m+ a gre5i%-black closely adh]5t /ratum4 ,"u ! microscope x is se5 to consi/ ( innum]able pali%-gre5 filam5ts2 ^! are jo9t$ or transv]sely /riat$1 "s be+ /raight1 o!rs curv$1 ! ends (t5 exhibit+ a wri?+ or worm-l movem5t4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! fibres is peculi>1 seem+ z if !y 7 solid ?r\gh\t1 & s diff]+ f t ( ! ,conf]vace1 9 :i* ! cell-walls are readily di/+ui%able f ! cell-cont5ts4 ,! fibres easily break across at ! jo9ts2 & ! la/ few segm5ts are (t5 n>r[$ & r\nd$1 s z to =m a blunt po9t4 ,:5 !y h be5 left 9 wat]1 !y exhibit col\rless tubul> %ea?s surr\nd+ & ext5d+ beyond !m4 ,^! %ea?s consi/ ( ! consolidat$ out] portions ( ! cell-walls2 = :5 ! cells und]go transv]se division1 & exp& by gr[? 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! filam5t1 ! orig9al septa or inn] walls are brok5 ?r\gh1 & _! rema9s may (t5 be se5 on ! inn] surface ( ! %ea?1 appe>+ z little tee?4 ,oscillatoria nigra 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b7 is ano!r v simil> species1 =m+ blacki%-gre5 masses1 & is common 9 dit*es4 ,x has long] filam5ts ?an ! la/1 ) n>r[$ & slightly curv$ ends2 & ! endo*rome is di/9ctly granul>4 ,9 two o!r g5]a ( ?is family1 ,vibrio & ,spirulna1 ! filam5ts are spiral4 ,vibrio spirillum is excessively m9ute1 col\rless1 & f\nd 9 decompos+ vegetable mixtures4 ,! %ort filam5ts move rapidly ?r\gh ! wat]1 ) a corkscrew-l motion4 ,9 ,spirulna oscill>iodes 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ab71 :i* is m r>ely f\nd 9 cle> pond-wat]s among ,conf]v1 ! filam5ts are gre5i%1 & =m a beautiful simple spiral1 resembl+ t ( a v sl5d] spiral vessel4 ,lyngbya murlis 7,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #b7 is v common on damp walls1 gravel walks1 c4 ,x =ms a bright grass-gre5 lay]1 consi/+ ( some:at rigid curl$ filam5ts4 ,! endo*rome is usually broad] ?an long2 & ! cells ( ! filam5ts are (t5 f\nd empty1 ! endo*rome hav+ escap$ 9 ! =m ( gonidia4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #f repres5ts a species ( ,bactrium :i* is n uncommon 9 decompos+ vegetable liquids2 ! filam5ts are %ort1 curv$1 po9t$ at ! ends1 & h f\r jo9ts4 ,fig4 #bf repres5ts a ,s*izognium1 f\nd ^u damp pa?s4 ,! filam5ts resemble ^? ( ,lyngbya1 b are unit$ 9 pairs4 ,fig4 #c repres5ts a filam5t ( a ,ulo?rix1 :i* is common 9 fre%wat] pools1 %[+ ! curi\s mann] 9 :i* ! endo*rome is arrang$ 9 ! cells1 =m+ b&s p>tially l9+ ! cell-walls4 ,,no/o*a,,ce4--,two species ( ! typical g5us ,nostoc w s]ve to repres5t ?is family4 ,nostoc commne is f\nd on damp gr\nd or 9 ponds1 & =ms to ! nak$ eye firmi%1 olive-gre51 sk9-l1 plait$ masses1 an in* or m 9 diamet]4 ,"u ! microscope x is se5 to consi/ ( num]\s bead$ fibres1 imb$d$ 9 worm-l gelat9\s %ea?s2 ^! are curv$ & int]wov5 to =m ! comp\nd mass4 ,9 ! middle ( _m ( ! filam5ts is an enl>g$ col\rless cell1 call$ ! vesicul> cell1 :i* is relat$ to ! reproduction1 b 9 a mann] n yet det]m9$4 ,no/oc m9utissimum 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #d7 =ms solid gelat9\s blui%-gre5 masses1 v>y+ 9 size f a p9's head to a pea2 x is f\nd ^u unheal?y wat]-plants kept 9 glass vessels4 ,! compon5t filam5ts are v sl5d]1 wavy1 & ! %ea?s (t5 h a br[ni% t+e4 ,,ulvace4--,^! ,alg are mo/ly m>9e--"s1 h[ev]1 be+ f\nd 9 bracki% or fre% wat]1 or on damp gr\nd1 ?at*1 moss1 c4 ,!y are g5]ally ( consid]able size1 =m+ flat or tubul> fronds1 (t5 sev]al in*es long1 a few be+ filam5t\s4 ,!y consi/ ( "o or m %eets or lay]s ( cells1 conta9+ mo/ly gre5 endo*rome4 ,?is at fir/ fills ! cells1 b subsequ5tly becomes conv]t$ into s+le spores1 or subdivid$ into num]\s ciliat$ zoospores4 ,ulva latissima is v common on ! sea-coa/1 be+ f\nd atta*$ to /ones1 %ells1 c4 ,x =ms a broad1 flat1 gre51 r\nd$ or oblong1 ?9 frond1 wavy & crumpl$ at ! m>g9s1 & f #f to #ah in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! m9ute cells =m two lay]s1 adh]5t to ea* o!r4 ,! zoospores =m$ are num]\s 9 ea* cell4 ,ent]omorpha compressa 7,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #ca7 is also common 9 ! sea & 9 bracki% dit*es2 x is (t5 f\nd float+4 ,! frond is gre51 tubul>1 flatt5$ or compress$1 & bran*$1 ! bran*es be+ usually simple & n>r[$ at ! base4 ,! frond consi/s ( two lay]s ( m9ute cells1 sep>at$ by a space r5d]+ x holl[4 ,! zoospores are num]\s 9 ! cells 7fig4 #cb74 ,,palmella,,ce4--,^! ,alg are f\nd 9 fre% or salt wat]1 or on damp e>?1 wood1 c4 ,!y are gre5 or r$1 =m+ r\nd or irregul> masses or /rata4 ,!y consi/ ( loosely connect$ cells1 imb$d$ 9 a gelat9\s mass or matrix1 ?us =m+ a frond4 ,*lorococcum vulgre 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #a7 is v common ^u ! b>k ( elm-trees1 pal+s1 c41 =m+ a gre5 granul> cru/4 ,x consi/s ( m9ute r\nd$ or oval cells1 mo/ly und]go+ division into twos1 f\rs1 or eights4 ,^! cells are atta*$ to ! sides or ends ( v f9e col\rless filam5ts4 ,x is mo/ probable t ?is organism1 :i* is usually plac$ among ! ,alg1 consi/s ( ! gonidia ( a ,li*54 ,*lorococcum murorum =ms a some:at simil> b s(t & ?9 gre5 lay]1 ^u damp walls or o!r por\s bodies4 ,x consi/s ( v m9ute oval gre5 cells1 ) ?ick walls1 & imb$d$ 9 ! ends ( prolongations ( a gelat9\s matrix4 ,palmella cru5ta 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #be7 =ms a portw9e-r$ lay] at ! bottom ( damp walls or on ! gr\nd4 ,x is compos$ ( pale r$ cells1 imb$d$ 9 no def9ite ord] 9 a col\rless gelat9\s matrix4 ,! cells are fill$ ) r$ granules1 & are (t5 f\nd und]go+ division4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ai repres5ts a species ( ,glocapsa1 9 :i* ! cell-envelopes d n s(t5 & unite to =m a gelat9\s matrix1 z 9 ,palmella & o!r memb]s ( ! family1 b are p]si/5t4 ,?is species occurs 9 fre% wat] conta9+ ,conf]v4 ,,*>a,,ce4--,?is family consi/s ( ! s+le g5us ,*ra1 ! sy/ematic position ( :i* is n agre$ ^u by au?ors2 z h[ev] its /ructure w be bett] und]/ood aft] :at has be5 gone ov]1 x may be conv5i5tly consid]$ "h4 ,!re are sev]al species ( ,*>a1 ! "o illu/rat$1 ,*>a vulgris 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #ba71 be+ commonly f\nd 9 dit*es & pools4 ,x consi/s ( long ma9 /ems1 (t5 a foot 9 l5g?1 :i* are bran*$1 & surr\nd$ at tol]ably regul> int]vals by :orls ( bran*lets4 ,9 "s species1 ! /ems & bran*es consi/ simply ( elongat$ cells1 arrang$ end to end2 :ile 9 o!rs1 ( :i* ,*>a vulg>is is "o1 ! c5tral cells are surr\nd$ by a numb] ( n>r[] spirally arrang$ cells1 =m+ an out] coat+4 ,! ,*> h long =m$ int]e/+ microscopic objects1 on acc\nt ( ! circulation ( ! protoplasm be+ visible 9 ! cells1 z 9 ! hairs ( ,tradescantia4 ,?is is be/ se5 9 ^? species 9 :i* ! out] lay] ( cells is abs5t f ! /ems1 & :i* 7 =m]ly arrang$ 9 a sep>ate g5us 7,nitella74 ,b x may also be se5 9 ! /ems & especially ! "y bran*lets ( any ( ! o!r species2 & z ! granules ( ! protoplasm are l>ge1 ! ph5om5on is m easily witness$ ?an 9 ,tradescantia4 ,! fructification consi/s ( two k9ds ( organs1 viz4 r$ globules 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #bb7 repres5t+ ! an!r-organ1 & gre5 capsules 7fig4 #bb71 or nucules1 correspond+ to ! ov>ies4 ,! /ructure ( ! globules is v curi\s4 ,_! transp>5t walls 7fig4 #bj7 consi/ ( eight some:at triangul> plates1 ea* ( :i* is compos$ ( cells radiat+ f a c5tre2 & f ! inside ( ea* ( ^! c5tres arises a tubul> cell ext5d+ to ! middle ( ! globule1 ! unatta*$ ends giv+ orig9 to num]\s col\rless coil$ filam5ts1 consi/+ ( m9ute cells arrang$ end to end1 ea* conta9+ a v m9ute coil$ spiral fibre1 to :i* are atta*$ two exce$+ly sl5d] cilia4 ,^! ciliat$ fibres are ! sp]matozoa4 ,! capsules or nucules 7fig4 #bb71 :i* are situat$ ne> ! globules1 are urn-%ap$1 coat$ ) spiral cells1 & cr[n$ ) five %ort] cells4 ,:5 ! globules are ripe1 !y become ruptur$ by ! sep>ation ( ! valves2 & ! sp]matozoa1 escap+ f ! cells ( ! coil$ filam5ts1 swim ab\t & ent] a canal 9 ! capsules to f]tilize ! ovule conta9$ )94 ,! ,*> gr[ readily 9 a glass j> ( fre% wat]1 ) a few pebbles at ! bottom2 & if ! plants be n ov]gr[n ) ,conf]voids1 ! fructification w cont9ue to be produc$ almo/ ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,! circulation is be/ se5 9 ! :orl$ bran*lets1 a portion ( ! gr[+ ends be+ plac$ 9 a live-box1 or simply laid ^u a slide 9 wat] & cov]$ ) ?9 glass4 ,pres]vation4--,! ,alg are be/ pres]v$ 9 two ways1--! entire fronds be+ dri$ ^u pap] "u pressure1 z direct$ = ! ,f]ns2 & small portions1 %[+ ! m9ut] /ructures & fructification1 be+ m\nt$ 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,if x is requir$ to pres]ve ! m>9e ,alg accord+ to ! fir/ me?od1 !y %\ld fir/ be imm]s$ = a "t 9 fre% wat]1 to dissolve out ! sal9e matt]s d]iv$ f ! sea-wat]1 :i* w\ld keep !m damp & ultimately spoil !m4 ,aft] ^! matt]s h be5 remov$1 ! fre% wat] %\ld be *ang$1 & pieces ( pap] plac$ b5ea? !m :ile susp5d$ 9 ! wat]2 on )draw+ ! pap] c>efully1 keep+ ! ,alg at ! same "t spread out1 !y may be made to reta9 ! requir$ position2 & :5 ! wat] has dra9$ away1 & ! rema9+ moi/ure has mo/ly evaporat$1 !y may be submitt$ to pressure 9 a press4 ,! ,conf]void ,alg may be conv5i5tly spread out ^u pap] & pres]v$ 9 ! same mann]1 z "s ( ! di/+ui%+ *>act]s are f\nd$ ^u _! appe>ance 9 ! dry /ate1 _! adhesion to ! pap]1 c4 ,moreov] !y c !n at any "t be m9utely exam9$1 by ! imm]sion ( a small portion 9 wat]4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,li*5s4 ,! ,li*5s are f\nd gr[+ ^u ! b>k ( trees1 old pal+s1 c4 ,^? mo/ easily se5 ) ! nak$ eye =m grey or col\r$ dryi% pat*es or p5dul\s tufts2 :ile ! small] ones are s+ly easily ov]look$1 f _! m9ute size & close adhesion to ! mtrix or body ^u :i* !y gr[1 =m+1 by _! aggregation1 ! grey or o!rwise-col\r$ dry & brittle coat+s ( almo/ e tree or decay+ bran*4 ,! ,li*5s d]ive _! n\ri%m5t f ! air1 & n f ! matrix--9 ?is respect diff]+ f ! ,fungi1 ) "s ( :i*1 z we %all pres5tly see1 !y agree 9 ! /ructure ( ! fruit4 ,! /ructure ( ! ,li*5s is simple1 no di/9ction ( root1 /em1 & leaves exi/+ 9 !m1 al?\gh c]ta9 dry root-l fibres exi/ 9 _m ( !m1 by :i* ! plant is fix$ to ! matrix4 ,! :ole consi/s ma9ly ( a frond or ?allus 71 a leaf74 ,?is is ei!r rais$ above ! surface ( ! matrix 9 a %rubby =m1 or spread ^u ! surface z a flexible lob$ lay] 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #b71 or x is dry & brittle 7cru/ace\s7 & closely adh]5t 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bf74 ,! fructification consi/s ( little sauc]s1 disks1 or /reak-l furr[s1 (t5 ( a diff]5t col\r f ! ?allus1 ! /ructure ( :i* w be be/ illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to a few common species4 ,,p>melia,,ce4--,p>mlia p>ietna 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #b7 is a v common ,li*51 f\nd on ! b>k ( trees1 on old pal+s1 c4 ,x is ( an orange-yell[ col\r1 ! ?allus be+ flat1 lob$1 & scallop$ 7cr5ate7 at ! m>g9s4 ,! /ructure ( ! ?allus may s]ve to repres5t t ( mo/ ( ! ,li*5s4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree lay]s1--an upp] cortical or epid]mic lay]1 :i* is cont9u$ ov] ! m>g9s to ! "u surface ( ! ?allus1 to =m ! "u lay]2 & betwe5 ^! is ! middle or m$ull>y lay]4 ,! m$ull>y lay] consi/s ( int]wov5 fibres1 :i* are m closely pack$ t[>ds ! upp] & "u surfaces1 s z to give !m a cellul> appe>ance4 ,ne> ! upp] "p ( ! m$ull>y lay]1 a numb] ( m9ute r\nd$ gre5 cells exi/1 ly+ loosely 9 its me%es 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #d a74 ,^! gre5 cells 7gonidia7 appe> to correspond to ! buds ( ! high] plants1 &1 :5 deta*$ f ! plants1 !y are capable ( gr[+ into new individuals4 ,on ! upp] surface ( ! ?allus ( ,p>melia 7fig4 #b7 ! fructification may be obs]v$4 ,?is consi/s ( sauc]s or %ields 7apo?cia1 1 a repository71 =m$ ( a rais$ & exp&$ portion ( ! ?allus 7fig4 #c71 & conta9+ ! spores4 ,! spores are enclos$ 9 closely set upright cells1 or spore-sacs 7figs4 #d b & #e b71 call$ zci 71 a bottle7 or !c2 & int]m+l$ ) ! asci are filam5ts1 enl>g$ & col\r$ at ! ends 7p>aphyses71 :i* are probably abortive asci4 ,9 sy/ematic works ^u ! ,li*5s1 ! sauc]s & _! cont5ts are includ$ 9 ! t]m apo!cia1 ! sauc] alone be+ call$ ! excipulum 7excipulum1 a receiv]72 ! mass ( asci & p>aphyses =m+ ! nucleus or ?almium 71 a b$74 ,! yell[ spores are v m9ute1 ea* ascus conta9+ eight ( !m1 & !y are divid$ by a transv]se p>tition or septum4 ,ne> ! m>g9s ( ! lobes ( ! ?allus are small d>k po9ts4 ,^! are ! p\t+ m\?s ( little capsules 7sp]mogonia7 sunk 9 ! sub/ance ( ! ?allus1 & conta9+ num]\s filam5ts1 t]m9at$ by v m9ute /ick-%ap$ bodies 7sp]matia71 :i* break (f & escape ?r\gh ! orifices ( ! capsules4 ,^! are probably ! repres5tatives ( ! an!rs ( fl[]+ plants & ( ! an!ridia ( ! f]ns4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 s difficult to f9d & exam9e1 t ,i mu/ ref] to ! ,diction>y = a fur!r description & figures ( !m4 ,,lecid9,e4--,?is family conta9s ! g5us ,cladnia1 ?ree or f\r species ( :i* are common on boggy hea?s1 banks1 c41 viz4 ,cladonia coccifera1 ! ,sc>let ,cup-moss 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #ba72 ,c4 pyxidta1 ! ,common ,cup-moss 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bc72 ,c4 v]miculris 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bb72 & ,c4 rangif]na1 ! ,re9de] ,moss 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bd74 ,! ?allus ( ^! ,li*5s =ms little r\nd$ irregul>ly ov]lapp+ scales1 ) scallop$ edges1 ov]gr[+ ! surface ^u :i* ! ,li*5s are f\nd4 ,! fruit-/alks1 or podtia 71 a foot71 are holl[ 7fi/ulose71 & ei!r simple & dilat$ into cups 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bc71 or bran*$ ) ! corn]s or angles betwe5 ! adjac5t bran*es p]=at$4 ,! apo!cia 9 ! "y /ate resemble ^? ( ,p>melia on a small scale2 b z !y approa* maturity1 ! c5tre becomes pu%$ up1 s t ! spore-lay] is ext5d$ ov] ! ends ( ! /alks4 ,9 ,c4 coccif]a & pyxidata ! cups are prolif]\s at ! m>g92 i4 e41 bran*es ^u :i* ! apo!cia are plac$ arise f x4 ,! asci & p>aphyses are v m9ute1 b d n diff] ess5tially 9 /ructure f ^? ( ,p>melia4 ,9 ,c4 v]micul>is ! podetia are po9t$ & m solid ?an 9 ! o!r species1 ! apo!cia =m+ v m9ute spots at _! apices4 ,,graphid,e4--,to ?is family belong ,grphis scripta 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bf7 & ,opegrapha betulna 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #cj74 ,^! little ,li*5s are easily ov]look$1 f ! ?9 & b slightly rais$ ?allus be+ only visible to ! nak$ eye z a discoloration ( ! b>k ( ! trees ^u :i* !y gr[2 :ile ! fructification is v m9ute1 =m+ little black /reaks or lirell 7lira1 a furr[71 irregul>ly arrang$1 & resembl+ some:at ! lett]s ( "s ( ! ,ori5tal alphabets4 ,9 ,graphis scripta 7fig4 #bf7 ! ?allus is ?91 some:at membran\s1 smoo?i%1 %9+1 greyi% :ite1 & fa9tly bord]$ ) black4 ,! lirell 7fig4 #bg7 are p>tly sunk 9 ! b>k1 w9d+ & n>r[1 "s be+ simple1 o!rs bran*$2 & !y are surr\nd$ by a rais$ bord]1 =m$ by ! ?allus4 ,! lirell are l9$ at ! sides ) a black 7c>bonace\s7 lay] or excipulum1 )9 :i* are situat$ ! asci & p>aphyses4 ,! spores 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bi7 are #h-;cleft1 ! segm5ts be+ aga9 divid$ longitud9ally into little spores or sporidia4 ,9 ,opegrapha betul9a 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #cj71 :i* is f\nd on ! b>k ( ! bir*-tree1 ! ?allus is ?91 dirty yell[i% :ite1 bord]$ ) black4 ,! lirell 7figs4 #ca1 #cb7 are mo/ly simple1 )\t a rais$ bord] ( ! ?allus1 & ! excipulum =ms a complete l9+ to !m4 ,! spores 7fig4 #cc a7 are #c-;cleft1 & tap] at ! ends4 ,,calici,e4--,calicium clavellum 7,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #f7 is a pretty little ,li*51 gr[+ ^u old bo>ds & f>m-build+s4 ,! ?allus is granul> & greyi% :ite4 ,! apo!cia 7fig4 #g7 are /alk$ & black1 b ( a light] col\r ?an ! mass ( spores =m+ ! nucleus4 ,! spores are v m9ute1 black1 oblong1 & divid$ by a transv]se septum4 ,! ,li*5s are divid$ into two ,ord]s1 accord+ to :e!r ! apo!cia are op5 be=e ! spores are ripe1 z 9 ! species notic$ above1 or :e!r ! apo!cia only op5 to dis*>ge ! ripe spores4 ,! fir/ ,ord] =ms ! ,gymnoc>pi 71 nak$1 1 fruit72 ! second =ms ! ,angioc>pi 71 vessel1 capsule74 ,pres]vation4--,! ,li*5s are readily pres]v$1 on acc\nt ( _! dry nature2 !y ne$ simply be kept 9 a dry place1 & glu$ to pieces ( c>d4 ,if room is an object1 !y may be dri$ "u pressure1 z 9 ! case ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,:5 re-moi/5$1 ! m9ute /ructures may be easily made out by sections4 ,! small] ones may be m\nt$ dry1 9 cells made ( ! wax cem5t 7p4 #af74 ,! m9ute /ructures keep well 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,fungi4 ,! ,fungi =m ! l[e/ class ( plants3 z examples ( !m1 may be m5tion$ mu%rooms1 toad/ools1 puff-balls1 ! m\ld ( pa/e1 ! blue m\ld ( *eese1 c4 ,! m m9ute ,fungi are v common1 =m+ beautiful microscopic objects1 al?\gh !y are r>ely /udi$ by ! microscopic obs]v]4 ,fungi live usually ^u rott+ or decay+ vegetable sub/ances1 z rott5 wood1 ! dead leaves & /ems ( plants1 c42 b sometimes !y are f\nd ^u liv+ plants1 & "s ( !m exi/ ^u decay+ animal matt]s1 & ev5 9 liv+ animals4 ,fungi exhibit no sep>ation ( root1 /em1 or leaves1 z exi/s 9 ! high] plants2 nor d !y conta9 *lorophyll1 ! pres5ce ( :i* is s g5]ally associat$ ) ! idea ( a plant4 ,b !y consi/ ( aggregations ( mo/ly elongate cells1 =m+ bran*$ & int]lac+ col\rless fibres1 buri$ l roots 9 ! sub/ance 7matrix7 ^u :i* !y gr[1 & f :i* !y d]ive _! n\ri%m5t2 ?is portion ( ! ,fungus is call$ ! myclium 71 a fungus74 ,! portion ( ! ,fungus project+ beyond ! surface ( ! matrix is ! fructification2 & ?is is ! "p usually call$ ! fungus1 ! mycelium be+ ov]look$ by a casual obs]v]4 ,s t "h we h a "* di/+ui%+ ! ,fungi f ! ,li*5s1 :i* d]ive _! n\ri%m5t f ! air1 & n f ! matrix4 ,! abs5ce ( ! gre5 cells1 or gonidia1 =ms ano!r "* by :i* ! ne>ly alli$ memb]s ( ?is class ( plants c be di/+ui%$4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,page #if4 ,,fungi4 ,fig4 #a4 ,ag>icus micaceus3 a1 gills4 #b4 ,ag>icus campe/ris3 a1 spores2 b1 basidia4 #c4 ,phys>um album1 on a piece ( /ick4 #d4 ,phys>um album1 spores4 #e4 ,ur$o segetum1 spores4 #f4 ,ur$o c>ies1 spores4 #g4 ,ur$o c&ida1 on leaf ( ,%eph]d's ,purse 7,capsella73 s1 spores4 #h4 cidium grossul>i1 sorus4 #i4 cidium grossul>i3 p1 spore-capsules 7p]idia72 s1 an!r-capsules 7sp]mogonia74 #aj4 ,nemaspora crocea3 a1 spores4 #aa4 ,torula casei4 #ab4 ,torula h]b>um1 on a piece ( /ick4 #ac4 ,torula h]b>um1 spores4 #ad4 ,phragmidium bulbosum1 on bramble-leaf4 #ae4 ,phragmidium bulbosum1 /ylo-spores & p>aphyses4 #af4 ,pucc9ia gram9is1 on a piece ( /raw4 #ag4 ,pucc9ia gram9is1 spores4 #ah4 ,sporocybe alt]nata1 filam5t & spores4 #ai4 ,botrytis p>asitica1 on ,%eph]d's ,purse4 #bj4 ,botrytis p>asitica1 spores & filam5ts4 #ba4 ,rh9otri*um1 species (4 #bb4 ,rh9otri*um1 heads ( spores4 #bc4 ,rh9otri*um1 spores deta*$4 #bd4 ,rh9otri*um1 spores4 #be4 ,p5icillium glaucum4 #bf4 ,p5icillium glaucum1 head ( spores4 #bg4 ,coremium leucopus4 #bh4 ,tub]cul>ia vulg>is4 #bi4 ,tub]cul>ia vulg>is1 divid$ receptacle4 #cj4 ,tub]cul>ia vulg>is1 filam5ts4 #ca4 ,tub]cul>ia vulg>is1 spores4 #cb4 ,sphria fragi=mis4 #cc4 ,tri*o!cium roseum1 on a piece ( /ick4 #cd4 ,tri*o!cium roseum4 #ce4 ,tri*o!cium roseum1 filam5ts & spores4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,! fructification ( ! ,fungi occurs 9 two di/9ct =ms1 9 "o ( :i* ! se$s or spores are nak$1 & situat$ at ! ends ( sl5d] cells or filam5ts1 :il/ 9 ! o!r ! spores are conta9$ 9 usually flask-l cells1 call$ asci1 simil> to ^? occurr+ 9 ! ,li*5s4 ,9 a few ,fungi1 an!ridial organs1 call$ sp]mogonia1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,li*5s1 h also be5 detect$4 ,! ,fungi are divid$ into six ,ord]s1 f ea* ( :i* a few species may be select$ to illu/rate _! /ructure m 9 detail4 ,,hym5omyce,,tes 71 membrane1 1 fungus74 ,?is is ! highe/ ,ord] ( ,fungi1 conta9+ a l>ge numb] ( g5]a & species2 z examples ( :i* may be m5tion$ ! common ,mu%room1 ,toad/ools1 c4 ,_! g5]al /ructure may be illu/rat$ by ! exam9ation ( ! common ,mu%room 7,ag>icus campestris72 ! species figur$ 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #a71 h[ev]1 be+ ,ag>icus micceus1 :i* is common at ! root ( trees1 ! bottom ( decay+ po/s1 c4 ,! vegetative "p ( ! fungus consi/s ( a cotton-l mycelium1 :i* is compos$ ( sl5d]1 col\rless1 int]wov5 filam5ts1 popul>ly kn[n z ! spawn4 ,! portion commonly call$ ! mu%room corresponds to ! fructification1 & consi/s ( c]ta9 p>ts visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,^! are an exp&$ portion at ! top1 =m+ a hemisph]ical cap1 receptacle1 or pleus 7pileus1 a cap71 & a /alk1 or /pes1 ^u :i* ! cap is support$4 ,on ! "u surface ( ! cap are a numb] ( ne>ly p>allel1 radiat+1 d>k-col\r$ plates or gills1 some:at resembl+ ! gill-plates ( a fi%4 ,! d>k col\r ( ! gills arises f ! pres5ce ( ! spores1 :i* are col\r$1 al?\gh 9 "s species !y are :ite4 ,! surface ( ! gills1 ^u :i* ! spores are situat$1 is call$ ! hymnium 71 membrane74 ,! spores 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #b a7 are microscopic & v m9ute1 & are situat$ at ! ends ( little /alks or po9ts 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #b b71 call$ /]igmata 71 a prop71 :i* are f\r 9 numb]1 & consi/ ( prolongations ( ! col\rless cells ( ! hym5ium2 & ^! cells are ! basidia 71 a little base74 ,! detection ( ! basidia requires great c>e1 z !y are v m9ute & transp>5t2 ! be/ way to obs]ve !m is to cut a v small portion f ! un9jur$ edge ( "o ( ! gills ) a f9e pair ( scissors1 & to exam9e x 9 wat]4 ,if ! gills h be5 bruis$1 ! spores are easily rubb$ (f1 & _! connexion ) ! basidia de/roy$4 ,9 ! "y /ate ( ! ,mu%room1 ! fructification appe>s z little knobs ^u ! spawn or mycelium4 ,^u cutt+ ^! ?r\gh p]p5dicul>ly1 ! cap & /alk are f\nd to be enclos$ 9 a sk9 or wrapp]1 call$ ! volva 7volva1 a wrapp]71 & ! m>g9 ( ! cap is cont9u\s ) ! surface ( ! /alk1 ! connect+ membrane =m+ ! veil1 or vlum 7velum1 a veil74 ,z ! ,fungus gr[s1 ! cap rises & bur/s ! volva1 :i* )]s & disappe>s2 & ! veil is torn ?r\gh1 ! portion rema9+ 9 connexion ) ! /alk encircl+ x z a coll> or r+ 7annulus74 ,m]lius la*rymans1 ! ,dry-rot ,fungus1 :i* belongs to ! same family 7,ag>icni7 z ! ,mu%room1 des]ves notice f its v de/ructive action ^u decay+ timb]4 ,! filam5ts ( ! mycelium may readily be detect$ 9 ! rott+ wood by exam9+ a ?9 section 9 wat]4 ,! receptacle =ms a yell[i%-orange or br[ni% flatt5$ mass1 "s in*es 9 bread?1 ) :ite d[ny m>g9s2 & ! surface exhibits folds arrang$ s z to =m l>ge irregul> pores1 in/ead ( gills z 9 ! ,mu%room4 ,9 o!r families ! cap & /alk appe> fus$ toge!r & undi/+ui%able2 or ! fructification assumes ! =m ( ! cap or ! /alk only1 & ! hym5ium does n =m gills4 ,?us 9 ! family ,polyporei 7! memb]s ( :i* are common on ! trunks ( trees & on rott5 po/s1 & "s ( :i* are v l>ge7 ! basidia are situat$ ^u ! inn] surface ( tubes imm]s$ 9 ! "u "p ( ! mass1 _! orifices =m+ m9ute pores1 yet visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,9 o!r families ! basidia are plac$ ^u ! out] surface ( a club-%ap$ or bran*$ receptacle 7,clav>9i71 or ^u ext]nal prickle-l po9ts 7,hydnei71 c4 ,9 ! family ,tremell9i ! receptacle =ms a gelat9\s mass1 & ! basidia are situat$ ^u its surface1 t]m9at+ ! filam5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,"o species1 ,dacrymyces /illtus1 is v common on fir po/s 9 ! w9t] & spr+1 =m+ little r\ndi%1 yell[i%-orange1 cu%ion-l masses4 ,,ga/]omyce,,tes 71 belly1 holl[1 1 fungus74--,?is ord] ( ,fungi1 :i* conta9s ! ,puff-balls & _m o!rs n readily procur$1 mu/ be v briefly notic$4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 a capsule or p]idium 71 a little bag7 :i* is (t5 ( l>ge size1 & are situat$ ^u a hym5ium =m+ folds1 p>titions 7septa71 or a lattice-"w4 ,a small species1 ,physrum album 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #c71 is (t5 f\nd gr[+ ^u rott5 /ems ( plants & decay+ /icks4 ,! capsules are m9ute1 grey1 brittle1 & black )91 f ! pres5ce ( ! spores 7fig4 #d71 :i* are l5s-%ap$1 & arise f ! ends ( %ort filam5ts4 ,,coniomyce,,tes 71 du/1 1 fungus74--,?is ,ord] conta9s "s beautiful microscopic ,fungi1 sev]al ( :i* are v common4 ,_m ( !m gr[ ^u liv+ plants1 :ile o!rs are f\nd ^u decay+ /ems1 /icks1 c4 ,! mycelium consi/s ( inconspicu\s1 f9e filam5ts1 :i* run b5ea? ! epid]mis & b>k ( leaves & /ems1 or exi/ 9 ! int]cellul> passages1 ! fruit bur/+ ?r\gh ! surface4 ,! spores are %ort-/alk$1 =m+ /ylospores 71 /alk1 1 se$7 or conidia 71 little du/74 ,b !re is great confusion 9 ! descriptions ( ! spores ( ! same ,fungus by diff]5t botanical au?ors1 "s describ+ ! fruit 79 ,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ae1 = in/ance7 z compos$ ( r[s ( spores1 :ile o!rs reg>d x z =m+ a s+le septate 7septum1 a p>tition7 or p>tition$ spore4 ,torula h]brum 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ab7 is v common on ! decay+ /ems ( plants1 especially ^? belong+ to ! ,p>sley ord] 7,umbellif]71 =m+ gre5i%-black /reaks or pat*es4 ,! spores 7fig4 #ac7 are gr\p$ into *a9s or bead$ 7monili=m7 r[s1 ) v %ort /alks1 & ^! are cr[d$ to =m ! black pat*es visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,"u ! microscope ! spores appe> ( a br[n col\r4 ,torula csei 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #aa7 =ms r$di% or :ite pat*es ^u decay+ *eese4 ,x consi/s ( bran*$1 int]wov51 tuft$ filam5ts 7flocci71 ) comp>atively l>ge sph]ical spores arrang$ 9 r[s at _! ends4 ,nemaspora crcea 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #aj7 is a v curi\s memb] ( ?is ,ord]1 & is f\nd ^u decay+ bee*-/icks4 ,x appe>s z an orange-col\r$ t5dril-l gelat9\s mass ( spores1 bur/+ ?r\gh a little pore on ! surface ( ! b>k4 ,! spores 7fig4 #aj a7 are v m9ute1 sl5d]1 & curv$1 & "u a high p[] appe> jo9t$4 cidium grossulri 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #h7 is f\nd v commonly on ! leaves ( ! gooseb]ry-bu%4 ,x =ms to ! nak$ eye oval or r\nd$ spots 7sori71 ( a r$ col\r2 & on close exam9ation1 ! spots appe> dott$ ) yell[ po9ts4 ,ea* po9t is ! orifice ( an op5 capsule 7p]idium71 :i* has bur/ ?r\gh ! epid]mis ( ! leaf 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #i p74 ,! capsules are split or lac]at$ at ! m>g9s1 & =m little cups conta9+ ! spores4 ,! spores are v m9ute1 yell[1 & are arrang$ 9 closely pack$ monili=m r[s4 ,! r$ col\r dep5ds ^u ! alt]$ *lorophyll ( ! leaf4 ,on ! leaves conta9+ ! spore-capsules or p]idia w be f\nd small]1 br[ni%-yell[ capsules 7sp]mogonia7 p>tly imb$d$ 9 _! sub/ance 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #i s74 ,^! conta9 m9ute filam5ts 7/]igmata71 t]m9at$ by %ort r[s ( r\nd$ cells 7sp]matia71 :i* are suppos$ to ex]t an an!ridial function4 ,! species ( cidium are v num]\s1 & _m ( !m are extremely common--z ^? ^u ! nettle1 ! b>b]ry1 ! d&elion1 ! wood-anemone1 ! violet1 & butt]cups4 ,! gr\ps ( capsules =m exquisite opake objects "u a l[ p[] ( ! microscope4 ,phragmidium bulbsum 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ad7 is ano!r v beautiful coniomycet\s ,fungus4 ,x =ms little r$di%1 aft]w>ds sooty dots ^u ! "u surface ( ! leaves ( v>i\s species ( ,bramble 7,rbus74 ,! oblong spores 7fig4 #ae7 are f #b-to #d-septate1 & /alk$1 ! /alks be+ swoll5 or bulb\s at ! base4 ,! spores1 :i* appe> br[n :5 magnifi$1 are cov]$ ) little knobs 7tub]culate7 on ! surface2 & ! upp]mo/ little spore or sporidium is t]m9at$ by a m9ute po9t 7apiculate74 ,among ! spores are num]\s b>r5 filam5ts or p>aphyses4 ,pucc9ia graminis 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #af7 is to be f\nd ev]y:]e ^u damp rott+ /raw1 & ^u grasses4 ,x =ms sooty irregul> /reaks1 consi/+ ( d5sely cr[d$1 "o-p>tition$ 7uniseptate7 spores 7fig4 #ag71 :i* appe> br[n "u ! microscope4 ,?is ,fungus is sometimes call$ 8mildew40 ,!re are num]\s o!r species ( ,pucc9ia :i* occur ^u common plants4 ,urd segetum is ! 8smut0 ( :eat1 b>ley1 & oats--a fungus too well kn[n to ! f>m]4 ,x =ms sooty masses1 bur/+ ?r\gh ! epid]mis ( ! /alk & e>s ( ! corn1 & soil+ ! f+]s :5 h&l$4 ,! spores 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #e7 are exce$+ly m9ute1 & ! /alks are s sl5d] & loosely connect$ ) !m t !y are n readily detect$4 ,"u ! microscope ! spores appe> br[n & fa9tly dott$1 ?is appe>ance aris+ f a reticulat$ /ructure ( ! surface1 simil> to t ( ! poppy-se$ on a v small scale4 ,urd cries is ! 8bunt0 ( corn4 ,x gr[s )9 ! gra91 fill+ x ) a sooty1 ftid mass4 ,! spores 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #f7 are consid]ably l>g] ?an ^? ( ! la/ species1 & _! surface is di/9ctly reticulat$4 ,!y are atta*$ to ! filam5ts ( ! mycelium1 z 9 ,ur$o segetum4 ,! spores ( bo? ^! species ( ,ur$o may be f\nd 9 mo/ k9ds ( fl\r & bread1 especially 9 ^? ( inf]ior quality4 ,urd cdida 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #g7 is ano!r species1 =m+ :ite dots ^u ! leaves ( ! common ,%eph]d's ,purse 7,capsella bursa pa/oris7--:i* is easily recogniz$ by ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! pods 7fig4 #ai74 ,! spores 7s7 are r l>ge & :ite4 ,o!r species ( ,ur$o are v common ^u num]\s species ( we$s or wild fl[]+ plants2 & !y s closely resemble ea* o!r t1 :5 "o is kn[n1 ! o!rs are easily recogniz$4 ,usually ea* species occurs ^u a di/9ct species ( plant1 z is ! case ) p>asites g5]ally4 ,9 _m ( !m ! spots 7sori7 exhibit a ?9 membrane cov]+ ! spores1 :i* bur/s d[n ! middle1 s z to be> "s resemblance to a capsule4 ,b !re is no true capsule1 ! membrane consi/+ ( ! epid]mis ( ! leaf or /alk ( ! plant1 :i* is rais$ & torn by ! expansion ( ! gr[+ fungus2 s t ! p]idium is spuri\s1 z belong+ to ! matrix1 & n to ! fungus4 ,x may be m5tion$ "h t ! s-call$ species ( ,ur$o are n truly di/9ct species1 b are ! =ms ( species ( ,pucc9ia1 ,phragmidium1 c42 s t ! latt] g5]a h two k9ds ( fruit1 "o ( :i* is a ,ur$o1 ! o!r a ,pucc9ia4 ,b ,i mu/ ref] to ! ,diction>y = fur!r details ^u ?is po9t4 ,,hyphomyce,,tes 71 to weave1 1 fungus74 ,9 ?is1 ! #d? ,ord] ( ,fungi1 are conta9$ _m ( ! commone/ m\lds :i* are f\nd gr[+ ^u decay+ sub/ances1 & sometimes ^u liv+ plants4 ,! mycelium creeps among ! p>ticles ( ! sub/ance1 or ! elem5ts ( ! tissues1 ^u :i* ! ,fungus lives1 9 ! =m ( sl5d] ?reads or filam5ts4 ,! spores1 :i* are ei!r simple or p>tition$ 7septate71 & nak$1 occur ei!r s+ly or 9 r[s at ! ends ( f9e int]wov5 cottony ?reads or flocci 7floccus1 a flock ( wool71 :i* are g5]ally v evid5t to ! nak$ eye4 ,! ?reads support+ ! spores =m ! p$icels 7p$icellus1 a little foot74 ,9 te*nical descriptions1 ^! filam5ts1 :i* are usually compos$ ( cells arrang$ end to end1 are said to be septate 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #bf71 & n jo9t$1 z 9 ! case ( ! filam5ts ( ! ,conf]v1 :i* are con/ruct$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,:5 n septate1 ! filam5ts are said to be cont9u\s4 ,,/ilba,,cei4--,to ?is family belongs ,tub]culria vulg>is 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #bh71 :i* is f\nd ^u decay+ /icks & bran*es ( trees1 especially ! lime-tree4 ,x =ms little firm r$ knobs or tub]cles1 ea* ( :i* is a receptacle4 ,on mak+ a section ( a receptacle 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #bi71 ! int]ior is se5 to be pal] ?an ! bright r$ surface1 & a %ort broad /alk comes into view4 ,! receptacle is compos$ ( cr[d$ cell-filam5ts1 s %ort ne> ! base z r to resemble cellul> tissue 7fig4 #cj72 b t[>ds ! surface ! filam5ts become extremely sl5d] & bran*$2 & ea* bran* is t]m9at$ by a m9ute oblong spore1 or a %ort r[ ( !m 7fig4 #ca74 ,if a /ick ) ?is ,fungus ^u x be kept = "s "t 9 a damp place1 %ort :iti% fibres1 bran*$ at ! ends1 & visible to ! nak$ eye1 w be se5 spr\t+ f ar\nd ! base ( ! receptacle 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #a74 ,^!1 :5 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 appe> compos$ ( f9e filam5ts 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #b71 resembl+ ^? ( ,tub]cul>ia1 & hav+ ! m9ute spores at ! ends4 ,aft] a consid]able "t1 ! entire receptacle ( ! ,tub]cul>ia becomes resolv$ into ^! fibres4 ,9 ?is /ate ! ,fungus assumes ! *>act]s ( an ,isria1 a g5us ( a diff]5t family ( ,fungi 7,is>iacei71 s t we h "h an ,is>ia-=m ( ,tub]cul>ia4 ,sometimes ! tub]cles ( ! ,tub]cul>ia become d>k]1 almo/ black1 h>d]1 & granul> on ! surface4 ,on mak+ a section ( !m 9 ?is /ate1 ! :ole ( ! "u portion ( ! surface is f\nd to conta9 little r\ndi% capsules1 conta9+ asci & spores1 & x con/itutes ,sphria fragi=mis 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #cb74 ,z ! ,sphria is ! m complex & highly organiz$ condition ( ?is ,fungus1 ! o!r two conditions mu/ be reg>d$ z =ms1 & n z species ( sep>ate g5]a4 ,,dematie,i4--,9 ?is family ! filam5ts ^u :i* ! spores are plac$ are n compact$ z 9 ,tub]cul>ia1 b sep>ate2 & !y are ( a d>k br[n or black col\r4 ,sporocybe alt]nta 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ah7 is occasionally f\nd ^u decay+ vegetable sub/ances1 =m+ little black velvety spots or pat*es4 ,! mycelial filam5ts are exce$+ly m9ute1 septate1 tap]+ at ! ends1 & t]m9at$ by a little tuft ( pe>-%ap$ cells1 f :i* ! black simple spores arise s+ly4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,page #ajd4 ,,fungi4 ,fig4 #a4 ,is>ia-=m ( ,tub]cul>ia4 #b4 ,is>ia-=m ( ,tub]cul>ia1 filam5ts4 #c4 ,asp]gillus glaucus4 #d4 ,asp]gillus glaucus1 filam5ts & heads ( spores2 a1 sep>ate spores4 #e4 ,asp]gillus glaucus1 head ( spores4 #f4 ,peziza omphalodes4 #g4 ,peziza /]corea4 #h4 ,peziza /]corea1 cup 7receptacle74 #i4 ,peziza /]corea1 asci & p>aphyses4 #aj4 ,peziza /]corea1 divid$ receptacle4 #aa4 ,peziza /]corea1 bri/les4 #ab4 ,do?idea typh9a1 on leaf-/alk (grass4 #ac4 ,do?idea typh9a1 surface ( pat* 7/roma74 #ad4 ,do?idea typh9a1 capsules 7p]i!cia74 #ae4 ,do?idea typh9a1 ascus conta9+ spores4 #af4 ,sphria rubella1 on nettle-/em4 #ag4 ,sphria rubella1 asci4 #ah4 ,sphria rubella1 capsules 7p]i!cia74 #ai4 ,sphria rubella1 ascus & spores4 #bj4 ,sphria bullata1 on piece ( /ick2 #bj a1 section ( tub]cle 7receptacle74 #ba4 ,sphria bullata1 asci & spores4 #bb4 ,sphria complanata1 on piece ( /ick4 #bc4 ,sphria complanata1 tub]cles 7receptacles74 #bd4 ,do?idea ulmi1 on elm-leaf4 #be4 ,do?idea ulmi1 asci4 #bf4 ,do?idea ulmi1 section ( receptacle4 #bg4 ,do?idea ulmi1 spores4 #bh4 ,*tomium elatum2 #bh a1 spores2 #bh b1 filam5ts4 #bi4 ,*tomium elatum1 on piece ( /ick4 #cj4 ,hy/]ium frax9i1 on piece ( /ick4 #ca4 ,hy/]ium frax9i1 receptacle4 #cb4 ,hy/]ium frax9i1 ascus ) spores4 #cc4 ,erysiphe guttata1 on hazel-leaf4 #cd4 ,erysiphe guttata1 capsule4 #ce4 ,erysiphe guttata1 capsule 7conceptacle7 ) fulcra4 #cf4 ,mucor muc$o3 a1 columella2 s1 spores4 #cg4 ,acro/alagmus3 a1 spores4 #ch4 ,gall on oak-leaf4 #ci4 ,gall on oak-leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,viii4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,,muc$,,ines4--,_m ( ! ,fungi belong+ to ?is family are extremely common on decay+ vegetable sub/ances1 & "s are f\nd ^u liv+ plants1 to :i* !y are v injuri\s4 ,to ! nak$ eye !y usually appe> z m\ldy or cottony masses1 ei!r :ite1 black1 or col\r$ blue1 yell[1 c4 ,! spores are atta*$ s+ly or 9 r[s to bran*lets aris+ f ! ends ( ! filam5ts1 s z to =m little heads4 ,botrytis p>asitica 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #ai7 is common ^u ! fl[]-/alks ( ! ,%eph]d's ,purse1 =m+ :ite mealy pat*es4 ,! fruit-/alks are comp>atively l>ge & ?9-wall$1 ! bran*lets be+ sl5d]1 mo/ly curv$1 & t]m9at$ ea* by a l>ge1 sph]ical1 smoo?1 simple1 :ite spore4 ,botrytis vulgris is also common on v>i\s decay+ plants4 ,its filam5ts are grey1 & ! bran*lets lobe-l2 ! spores be+ m9ute1 sph]ical1 ei!r :ite or gre5i%1 & plac$ simply at ! tips4 ,botrytis infestans is ! potato-,fungus4 ,x =ms :ite spots ^u ! "u side ( ! leaves ( ! potato-plant1 & by "s au?ors is consid]$ to be ! cause ( ! potato-disease4 ,! filam5ts are bran*$ at ! ends1 & t]m9at$ by s+le oval spores1 :i* are apiculate at ! free end1 & conta9 m9ute little spores or sporidia4 ,oidium ,tuckeri is ! well-kn[n de/ructive grape-,fungus4 ,x =ms :ite cottony masses ^u ! v9e & its grapes1 ! fruit-/alks be+ %ort & t]m9at$ by "o or two end-to-end oblong spores4 ,x appe>s to be ! ,coniomycet\s =m ( ano!r ,fungus 7,erysiphe74 ,tri*o?cium rseum 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #cc7 is f\nd ^u rott+ /icks2 v frequ5tly ^u will[-baskets kept 9 a damp place4 ,x =ms little r\nd$1 slightly rais$1 p9ki% spots1 less ?an ! size ( a p9's head4 ,! bran*$ & septate foot-/alks 7figs4 #cd1 #ce7 are t]m9at$ ea* by a little gr\p ( obovate spores1 divid$ by a transv]se p>tition 7uniseptate74 ,sometimes ?is little ,fungus is q :ite1 at o!rs gre5i%2 :5 p]fectly ripe1 ! spores become oblong4 ,p5icillium glacum 7,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #be7 is ! common ,blue ,m\ld f\nd ^u decay+ sub/ances1 z *eese1 c41 ! int]wov5 mycelial filam5ts (t5 =m+ l>ge cakes or cru/s ^u ! surface4 ,! septate fruit-/alks 7fig4 #bf7 are =k-bran*$ at ! ends1 ! bran*lets be+ t]m9at$ ea* by a r[ ( v m9ute sph]ical smoo? spores4 ,on "s decay+ sub/ances1 z apples1 gum1 c41 ! fruit-/alks are f\nd aggregat$ into a ?ick /alk1 ! bran*lets & spores =m+ a r\nd$ head1 s t ! :ole resembles a little blue mu%room 7fig4 #bg74 ,9 ?is =m ! ,fungus has be5 plac$ 9 a di/9ct g5us1 & call$ ,cormium lecopus4 ,9 o!r species ! spores are p9k & :ite4 ,?is little ,fungus is ( special int]e/1 on acc\nt ( "o =m ( x con/itut+ ! yea/-plant1 or yea/ z x is commonly call$4 ,?is consi/s ( r\nd$ or oblong cells1 :i* gr[ v rapidly 9 f]m5t+ liquids by budd+--! l>ge quantity ( sug> & glut5 pres5t fav\r+ ! vegetative or simple gr[+ process1 at ! exp5se ( ! fructify+ process4 ,b ?is is only an in/ance ( :at we con/antly f9d 9 fl[]+ plants1 ! use ( v ri* soil r5d]+ fl[]s d\ble1 :i* is really r$uc+ _! organs to ! /ate ( leaves4 ,:5 ! sug> has become exhau/$1 ! cells ( ! yea/ become long] & ?9n]1 z if />v$2 !y !n =m a m recognizable mycelium1 :i* ext5ds to ! surface ( ! liquid1 & produces f9ally ! fruit-/alks & ! ,p5icillium fruit4 ,asp]gillus glacus 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #c7 is an extremely common m\ld ^u *eese1 jams1 c4 ,x resembles ! la/ 9 appe>ance to ! nak$ eye1 except t x has r a gre5 t+e1 ! heads ( fruit be+ mu* m compact & r\nd$4 ,! fruit-/alks 7fig4 #d7 are l>ge1 bulb\s or inflat$ at ! ends 7fig4 #e71 & f ! inflations arise ! cr[d$ r[s ( spores4 ,! spores are r\nd$1 & r\gh 7scabr\s7 on ! surface4 ,on remov+ mo/ ( ! spores f ! head ( fruit1 ea* r[ ( spores is f\nd to arise f a v %ort /alk4 ,plate ,,vii4 fig4 #ba repres5ts a beautiful species ( ,rh9otri*um1 :i* is f\nd ^u decay+ & sickly plants1 & ^u rott+ /icks1 =m+ a m9ute grey m\ld4 ,! fruit-/alks 7fig4 #bb7 are l>ge1 sp>+ly bran*$1 septate or jo9t$1 appe>+ br[ni% "u ! microscope4 ,_! ends are bran*$1 mo/ly bit]nate 7fig4 #bc71 i4 e4 ea* bran* divid+ into ?ree bran*lets1 & ^! aga9 into ?ree /ill f9] ones4 ,! ends ( ! bran*lets are inflat$1 & coat$ ) little po9ts1 ^u ea* ( :i* a smoo? :ite spore 7fig4 #bd7 is plac$4 ,,ascomyc,,tes 71 a bottle1 1 fungus74 ,! ,fungi belong+ to ?is ,ord] are f\nd ^u ! /ems & leaves ( plants1 & ^u decay+ sub/ances1 z dung1 c4 ,!y are usually evid5t to ! nak$ eye1 "s ev5 equall+ ! ,hym5omycet\s ,fungi 9 size2 & _m ( !m are brilliantly col\r$4 ,!y are 9 g5]al di/+ui%able ) facility f ! ,fungi ( o!r ,ord]s1 by ! arrangem5t ( ! spores 9 col\rless sacs or asci 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #i71 resembl+ ^? notic$ 9 ! case ( ! ,li*5s4 ,^! asci are usually enclos$ 9 a capsule or p]i?cium4 ,! mycelium is usually buri$ 9 ! matrix1 s z n to be conspicu\s4 ,helvellcei4--,to ?is family belongs ! l>ge g5us ,pezza1 "s ( ! species ( :i* are beautifully col\r$1 yet sc>cely microscopic4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ,pezza omphaldes 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #f71 :i* =ms little r$ masses ^u damp ceil+s4 ,x does n possess ! ord9>y =m ( a ,peziza1 :i* is t ( a cup fix$ at ! end ( a /alk1 l a mu%room ) ! cup turn$ inside out1 ! asci l9+ its int]ior4 ,peziza cocc9ea is n uncommon 9 woods4 ,x is :iti% outside1 ! int]ior ( ! cup be+ ( a brilliant sc>let col\r4 ,x is f half an in* to an in* 9 height4 ,peziza /]corea 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #g7 is (t5 f\nd ^u dung4 ,! surface ( ! cup ( ?is ,fungus is granul> & cov]$ ) bri/les 7figs4 #h #aa74 ,! cup is concave 7fig4 #aj71 & l9$ ) ! asci 7fig4 #i71 among :i* are simple p>aphyses4 ,! ,peziz are excell5t ,ascomycet\s ,fungi = exhibit+ ! asci1 z !y are m or less s(t1 & ?us sections ( !m may be easily prep>$1 or !y may readily be pick$ to pieces ) ! m\nt$ ne$les4 ,,tub]acei4--,9 ?is family is conta9$ ! ,truffle 7,tb] cibrium74 ,! asci are situat$ ^u ! inn] surfaces ( ! w9d+ canals trav]s+ ! sub/ance ( ! fle%y fruit 7p]idium7 ( :i* ! truffle consi/s4 ,,phacidia,,cei4--,to ?is family belongs ,hy/rium fraxini 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #cj71 :i* is f\nd ^u a%-twigs4 ,! drawn-out capsules or p]i!cia 7fig4 #ca7 are black & elliptical1 ) a longitud9al fissure or orifice1 & conta9 ! asci 7fig4 #cb7 ) ! spores4 ,,sph,,ri,,cei4--,do?idea typhna 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #ab7 is a common ,fungus ^u ! /ems ( liv+ grasses4 ,x =ms an orange-col\r$ pat* or lay] encircl+ ! /em1 & cov]$ ) little dots4 ,on mak+ a section 7fig4 #ad71 x appe>s compos$ ( a r[ ( oblong or obovate closely plac$ capsules 7p]i!cia7 imm]s$ 9 & cont9u\s ) a f9ely fibr\s receptacul> mass 7/rma74 ,! asci 7fig4 #ae7 are v sl5d]1 aris+ 9 a tuft f ! bottom ( ! capsules1 & conta9+ eight /ill m sl5d] spores4 ,except "u a v high p[]1 ! spores appe> z int]rupt$ l9es runn+ d[n ! int]ior ( ! asci4 ,! little dots visible to ! nak$ eye are ! slightly project+ m\?s ( ! capsules1 :i* are m di/9ctly se5 9 ! magnifi$ portion ( ! ,fungus 7fig4 #ac74 ,9 ! "y /ate1 ?is ,fungus is :iti%4 ,?is ,fungus _c be mi/ak5 = a ,ur$o1 two species ( :i* occur ^u grasses--,ur$o l9eris =m+ yell[i%-br[n spots1 & ,ur$o rubg yell[ spots4 ,do?idea ulmi 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #bd7 =ms black1 slightly rais$1 & some:at />-%ap$ spots ^u ! upp] surface ( ! leaves ( ! elm4 ,9 a section 7fig4 #bf7 ! cavities are se51 conta9+ ! v delicate asci 7fig4 #be74 ,! spores 7fig4 #bg7 are oval1 ) a m9ute septum at "o end4 ,sphria rubella 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #af7 is extremely common on ! dead /ems ( ! nettle1 c4 ,9 ?is ,fungus ! black bottle-l p]i!cia 7fig4 #ah71 conta9+ ! asci & p>aphyses 7fig4 #ag71 are at fir/ situat$ b5ea? ! epid]mis1 ?r\gh :i* !y at l5g? bur/4 ,! spores 7fig4 #ai a7 are sp9dle-%ap$1 & f f\r-to sev5-septate4 ,:5 ripe1 !y escape by a hole or pore 9 ! neck4 ,sphria complanta 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #bb7 is ano!r common species1 f\nd 9 h$ges1 on dead /icks ( ! s(t] 7h]bace\s7 plants1 z ! p>sley-ord] 7,umbellif]74 ,"h ! m9ute capsules1 :i* are scatt]$ ov] ! /ems1 are at fir/ r\nd$1 !n flatt5$ on ! top 7depress$71 ! neck be+ v m9ute 7fig4 #bc74 ,! spores 9 ?is species are exce$+ly m9ute1 oblong1 & n conta9$ 9 asci4 ,sphria bullta also belongs to ?is family4 ,x occurs ^u decay+ bir*-/icks1 pres5t+ to ! nak$ eye ! appe>ance repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #bj4 ,! black1 rais$ tub]cles 7receptacles7 9 _! gr[? bur/ ?r\gh ! b>k1 splitt+ ! epid]mis4 ,!y consi/ ( a :ite /roma 7fig4 #bj a71 9 :i* ! bottle-%ap$ capsules 7p]i!cia7 are imm]s$1 ! necks project+ slightly above ! surface z little po9ts 7papill74 ,! tuft$ spore-sacs or asci 7fig4 #ba71 ) ! ?read-l p>aphyses1 are conta9$ )9 ! capsules2 & )9 ! asci are ! d5sely pack$1 v num]\s & m9ute curv$ spores4 ,ano!r species1 ,sphria disci=mis1 is also common on bir*-/icks4 ,x diff]s f ! la/ 9 ! tub]cles be+ p]fectly flat2 ! spores are also long]1 /raight1 & sp9dle-%ap$ 7fusi=m74 ,,p]ispor,,cei4--,erysiphe guttta 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #cc7 is a memb] ( ?is family4 ,x appe>s on ! "u side ( ! leaves ( ! common hazel z a pale spot2 & on closely exam9+ x ) ! nak$ eye1 little black dots are se5 scatt]$ on ! surface4 ,^! are ! capsules 7conceptacles71 :i* are seat$ ^u /raight :ite filam5ts4 ,! filam5ts 7fulcra7 are six or sev5 9 numb]1 & are plac$ "u ! capsule1 l ! legs ( a /ool 7fig4 #cd72 !y are rigid1 & swoll5 or inflat$ at ! base 7fig4 #ce74 ,! asci are broad & %ort1 & conta9 only two spores4 ,erysiphe maculris is ! v de/ructive hop-mildew2 & o!r species are common on v>i\s plants4 ,*tmium eltum 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #bi7 resembles little tufts ( br[n hairs1 occurr+ ^u decay+ h]bace\s /ems4 ,! capsule 7fig4 #bh7 is cru/ace\s1 & cov]$ ) int]lac$1 r\gh1 bran*$ hairs 7fig4 #bh b74 ,! spores 7fig4 #bh a7 are oval1 ) a little po9t at "o end 7apiculate74 ,,physomyc,,tes 71 bladd]1 1 fungus74--,! ,fungi belong+ to ?is ord] include "s ( ! commone/ m\lds gr[+ ^u decay+ vegetable sub/ances2 :ile o!rs are f\nd ^u leaves1 c4 ,! flocci are g5]ally v evid5t2 & ! spores are conta9$ 9 little nak$1 bladd]-l capsules 7p]idola7 at ! ends ( free filam5ts4 ,,mucor9i4--,9 ?is family we h ! common m\ld ( pa/e1 ,mcor mucd 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #cf74 ,x is easily recogniz$ by ! little sph]ical capsules t]m9at+ ! long & tuft$ fruit-/alks 7p$icels71 :i* are p]ceptible to ! nak$ eye4 ,ea* capsule consi/s ( a simple enl>g$ cell1 ! cavity ( :i* is sep>at$ f t ( ! /alk by a septum4 ,!y are :ite at fir/1 subsequ5tly becom+ br[n & black4 ,! m9ute cr[d$ spores 7fig4 #cf s7 are at fir/ oblong1 aft]w>ds sph]ical4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! capsule is a club-%ap$ body1 or columella 7fig4 #cf a71 =m$ by ! elevation & inflation ( ! septum4 ,a beautiful little ,fungus ( ?is family1 app>5tly ref]able to ! g5us ,acro/alagmus 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #cg71 is sometimes f\nd ^u s(t decay+ /ems4 ,! ma9 filam5ts are s(t1 smoo?1 & n septate4 ,! p$icels are v brittle1 :orl$1 di*otom\sly bran*$1 scabr\s1 & t]m9at$ ea* by a little scabr\s sph]ical vesicle 7fig4 #cg a71 conta9+ two or ?ree oblong spores4 ,,ant5n>i,i4--,9 ?is family is ,racdium 7or ,ant5nria7 cellre1 ! ,w9e-cell> ,fungus1 =m+ ! well-kn[n cobweb-l masses hang+ f ! walls1 c4 ,! little black capsules are seat$ ^u sl5d] septate filam5ts1 & conta9 num]\s r\nd spores4 ,9 exam9+ leaves ) ! view ( procur+ ,fungi1 ! read] w mo/ likely meet ) ! two k9ds ( bodies repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,viii4 figs4 #ch #ci4 ,^! are n ,fungi1 b galls4 ,!y arise f an abnormal gr[? ( ! leaf-/ructures1 produc$ by ! deposition ( ! eggs ( insects 7,cynipid74 ,! well-kn[n oak-apple1 & ! r$ hairy-look+ body f\nd ^u h$ge-roses1 are bo? galls produc$ 9 ! same way4 ,exam9ation & ,pres]vation4--,! exam9ation ( ! ,fungi sc>cely requires any special rem>ks4 ,!y %\ld be view$ fir/ z opake objects "u a l[ p[]2 & !n sections %\ld be made1 or ! textures sep>at$ ) ! m\nt$ ne$les4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 moi/5+ ! small] filam5t\s ,fungi ) wat]1 :i* is requisite 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! arrangem5t ( ! spores ^u ! bran*es4 ,h5ce ! be/ plan is to lay ! ,fungus ^u a slide1 apply a cov]1 !n to add a drop ( _s ( w9e & aft]w>ds a little wat] to ! edge ( ! cov]4 ,:5 ?us wett$1 ! spores may be m or less remov$ ) a wet hair-p5cil1 :5 ! ends ( ! bran*es w become p]fectly di/9ct4 ,9 exam9ation ( ! dri$ small] ,fungi z ! ,sphri1 ! capsules %\ld be mac]at$ = a "t 9 wat]4 ,! s(t] ,fungi are v difficult ( pres]vation 9 ! entire /ate2 b ! sections or m9ute /ructures may be m\nt$ 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,! h>d] & dri] ,fungi may be pres]v$ by dry+ & g5tle pressure betwe5 co>se absorb5t pap]4 ,!y may !n be glu$ to pieces ( pap] & labell$1 9 ! same mann] z ! fl[]+ plants4 ,specim5s ( ! capsules1 z ( ! ,sphri1 c41 may also be m\nt$ 9 ! dry /ate1 ! asci be+ pres]v$ 9 ! *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e1 9 :i* liquids mo/ ( ! small] ,fungi w keep extremely well4 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,page #aac4 ,,animal ,,tissues1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,blood-corpuscles1 ,human4 #b4 ,blood-corpuscles ( ,bird 7,f[l74 #c4 ,blood-corpuscles ( ,reptile 7,frog74 #d4 ,blood-corpuscles ( ,fi% 7,/ickleback74 #e4 ,hair ( ,bat4 #f4 ,hair ( ,m\se4 #g4 ,hair ( ,m\se4 #h4 ,hair1 human4 #i4 ,hair1 human4 #aj4 ,wool1 fibre (4 #aa4 ,flax1 fibres (4 #ab4 ,cotton1 fibres (4 #ac4 ,silk1 fibres (4 #ad4 ,fea!r1 portion (3 a1 b>bs2 b1 c1 p9n4 #ae4 ,bone1 section (3 a1 lacun4 #af4 ,c>tilage1 section (4 #ag4 ,fea!r1 d[ny4 #ah4 ,fea!r1 d[ny3 p9na4 #ai4 ,%ell1 pe>ly or nacre\s portion (4 #bj4 ,muscle3 a1 cellul> tissue2 b1 fibrill2 c1 bundle ( fibrill4 #ba4 ,tongue ( ,:elk3 a1 natural size4 #bb4 ,scale ( ,dace4 #bc4 ,scale ( ,p]*4 #bd4 ,scale ( ,cod4 #be4 ,sp]matozoa ( ,*ub4 #bf4 ,flu/ra foliacea3 a1 cells (2 b1 animal1 ) ! t5tacles exp&$4 #bg4 ,flu/ra foliacea4 #bh4 ,%ell ( ,oy/]1 br[n portion (4 #bi4 ,%ell ( ,oy/]1 prisms (4 #cj4 ,cyclops quadricornis4 #ca4 ,daphnia pulex1 female4 #cb4 ,daphnia pulex1 head ( male4 #cc4 ,can?ocamptus m9utus1 an ,entomo/racan4 #cd4 ,cypris tri/riata4 #ce4 ,cypris tri/riata1 eggs (2 #ce a1 b1 c1 ! same hat*+4 #cf4 ,ac>us dome/icus 7,*eese-mite71 female4 #cf994 ,cilia ( gills ( ,oy/]4 #cg4 ,trombidium fulig9osum3 a1 pulp2 b1 m&ible2 c1 foot2 d1 natural size2 e1 hair2 f1 hair ( ,t4 holos]iceum4 #ch4 ,ac>us dome/icus1 male4 #ci4 ,membranipora pilosa4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ix4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,animal ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,tissues4 ,! tissues ( :i* animals consi/1 l ^? ( plants1 are prim>ily d]iv$ f cells2 9 fact ! ess5tial "p ( ! egg or vum1 f :i* all p]fect animals orig9ate consi/s at fir/ only ( a simple cell1 ) its nucleus & nucleolus4 ,! animal cell-wall diff]s f t ( ! vegetable cell 9 its s(tness & delicacy--also 9 its *emical composition1--! =m] consi/+ ( albm9\s 7albm51 :ite ( egg7 matt]1 :ile ! latt] is compos$ ( cellul> or vegetable-cell sub/ance4 ,!re is also a /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 vegetable & animal tissues1 9 ! circum/ance t1 :ile ! =m] reta9 _! cellul> condition to a v great ext5t1 ! cells ( ! latt] are frequ5tly s alt]$ by compression & fusion toge!r1 or are obscur$ by ! great developm5t ( ! cell-cont5ts1 t ! cell-=m is oblit]at$1 or c only be discov]$ by ! application ( *emical reag5ts2 & 9 _m in/ances1 ! relation ( ! tissues to ! cell c only be discov]$ by trac+ ! gr[? or developm5t ( ! latt] f its e>lie/ /ages4 ,h5ce ! exam9ation ( ! elem5ts & tissues ( animals is n well adapt$ = ^? :o are unpractis$ 9 ! use ( ! microscope2 & 9 treat+ ( !m1 we %all simply notice a few :i* are mo/ easily exam9$1 beg9n+ ) ^? f\nd 9 animals belong+ to ! subk+dom ,v]tebrta 7v]tebra1 a sp9e-bone74 ,,mamm,,lia4--,! animals belong+ to ?is class suckle _! "y2 & _! blood-vessels conta9 r$ blood4 ,blood4--,?is blood consi/s ( a yell[i% liquid1 9 :i* v num]\s r$ blood-corpuscles or globules 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #a7 are susp5d$1 & to :i* ! r$ col\r is ow+4 ,! blood-corpuscles are n globul>1 b discoidal1 i4 e4 !y are circul> & flatt5$1 ! sides be+ slightly sunk 94 ,_! =m is be/ se5 z !y roll ov] on a slide1 aft] ! application ( a glass cov]4 ,! col\r$ corpuscles are cells2 !y appe> yell[i% r$ "u ! microscope1 ! deep r$ col\r ( ! blood dep5d+ ^u ! l>ge numb] ( !m se5 at once & cr[d$ toge!r4 ,x ne$ sc>cely be /at$ t a drop ( blood may easily be obta9$1 by punctur+ ! wri/ ) a clean ne$le4 ,! blood is conta9$ 9 ! blood-vessels4 ,^! consi/ ( ! art]ies1 :i* convey ! blood f ! he>t2 ! ve9s1 :i* return x to ! he>t2 & a v f9e set ( int]m$iate vessels1 call$ ! capill>ies4 ,if a little wat] be add$ to a drop ( blood on a slide1 col\rless corpuscles1 r l>g] ?an ! col\r$ disks1 w be se5 scatt]$ among ! latt]4 ,^! are ! col\rless or lymph-corpuscles ( ! blood4 ,!y are truly sph]ical1 & granul> on ! surface4 ,bone4--,9 exam9+ a transv]se section ( a bone1 "o or sev]al v l>ge cavities w be se5 ) ! nak$ eye 9 ! c5tre ( ! section2 ^! conta9 ! m>r[1 or m$ulla4 ,9 ! long bones1 ! m$ull>y cavity is s+le1 & runs longitud9ally d[n ! bone2 :il/ 9 ! flat bones ! cavities are num]\s1 =m+ cancelli4 ,"u ! microscope1 ?9 transv]se sections ( bone exhibit oval or r\nd$ holes1 or =am9a 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ae71 :i* are sections ( canals convey+ blood-vessels ?r\gh ! bone2 ^! are ! ,hav]sian canals4 ,ar\nd ! sections ( ^! canals are se5 num]\s conc5tric r+s1 indicat+ lay]s or lamell ( bony matt]4 ,! sub/ance ( bone pres5ts num]\s black1 some:at elongat$ bodies 7fig4 #ae a71 call$ ! lacn 7lacna1 a little holl[7 or bone-corpuscles1 :i* are h[ev] holl[1 !re=e n truly corpuscles1 z !y 7 =m]ly consid]$4 ,betwe5 ! adjac5t lacun run num]\s f9e1 d>k1 bran*$ l9es1 consi/+ ( v m9ute canals1 or canaliculi4 ,if ! section ( bone be view$ by reflect$ light1 ! lacun & canaliculi w appe> :ite4 ,9 ! dri$ bone !y conta9 air4 ,! /ructure ( bone is be/ se5 :5 view$ z a transp>5t object 9 ! dry /ate2 = :5 ! section is imm]s$ 9 liquid1 ! lacun & canaliculi become fill$ up4 ,! size & =m ( ! bone-corpuscles & canaliculi v>y 9 diff]5t animals1 s mu* s t ! ,class or ,ord] to :i* an animal belongs may be det]m9$ by ref]5ce to ^! p>ticul>s4 ,bone consi/s ( e>?y salts deposit$ 9 a f9ely granul> =m ?r\gh\t ! sub/ance ( c>tilage4 ,by soak+ a piece ( bone 9 v9eg> or o!r dilute acid1 ! e>?y salts w be dissolv$1 ! s(t c>tilage be+ left4 ,b ! /ructure ( c>tilage may be be/ obs]v$ by mak+ ?9 sections ( ! gri/le cov]+ ! ends ( bones4 ,x exhibits a blui%-:ite basis 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #af71 9 :i* are imb$d$ num]\s cells or c>tilage-corpuscles1 (t5 und]go+ cell-division4 ,9 "s k9ds ( c>tilage1 ! basis is compos$ ( fibres4 ,muscle4--,on exam9+ a piece ( ! r$ fle% ( an animal "u a l[ p[]1 ! mass w exhibit a numb] ( co>se1 p>allel1 longitud9al1 d>k l9es 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bj71 ! sub/ance betwe5 ^! l9es be+ m>k$ ) cross or transv]se /ri1 or l9es1 & ) f9e longitud9al l9es4 ,! co>se longitud9al l9es indicate ! int]vals betwe5 bundles ( sl5d] fibres1 or fibrill1 ( :i* muscle consi/s4 ,! fibrill 7fig4 #bj b1 c7 are v difficult to sep>ate2 b :5 p]fectly sep>at$1 !y are se5 to be exce$+ly sl5d]1 & to consi/ ( alt]nately light & d>k portions 9 regul> s]ies4 ,:5 ! fibrill ( ! bundles are 9 close apposition1 z 9 ! natural muscle1 ! d>k portions1 be+ 9 ! same l9es1 by _! co9cid5ce =m ! transv]se /ri4 ,! bundles into :i* !y are comb9$ are surr\nd$ by a delicate sk9 or membrane1 ) a little cellul> tissue4 ,! /ructure ( muscle may be obs]v$ 9 a piece ( ham :i* has be5 soak$ = a day or two 9 _s ( w9e1 ! m\nt$ ne$les be+ us$ to pick x to pieces4 ,! above-m5tion$ transv]sely /riat$ muscul> fibre is t f\nd 9 ! volunt>y muscles1 or ^? "u ! influ5ce ( ! w4 ,b !re are o!r muscles 9 animals :i* are involunt>y1 or n subject to ! w2 9 ^! ! fibrill> /ructure is abs5t1 ! muscul> tissue consi/+ ( simple elongat$ & nucleat$ cells4 ,cellul> tissue4--,?is fills ! int]/ices betwe5 ! o!r tissues & organs ( animals1 9 ! same mann] t ! vegetable p>5*yma does ^? ( plants4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 compos$ ( cells1 b ( v f9e1 s(t1 col\rless1 & wavy fibres 7,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #bj a71 aggregat$ into bundles1 :i* int]lace s z to leave spaces or arol betwe5 !m4 ,! cellul> or areol> tissue may be f\nd 9 a piece ( beef or mutton1 9 ! int]vals ( ! muscul> fibres4 ,sk94--,! sk9 is compos$ ( cellul> tissue1 its out] surface pres5t+ a numb] ( project+ blunt po9ts1 call$ papill4 ,x conta9s a l>ge numb] ( blood-vessels2 & :5 ! capill>ies are well fill$ by injection ) a col\r$ composition1 x =ms a beautiful microscopic object4 ,! sk9 is cov]$ by ! epid]mis or cuticle1 :i* consi/s ( sev]al lay]s ( cells4 ,x is ! epid]mis :i* is rais$ & cov]s ! bladd]s =m$ by ! action ( a bli/] appli$ to ! sk94 ,hair4--,! hair consi/s ( long solid filam5ts 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #i71 & n ( holl[ tubes1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,x pres5ts v>ieties ( /ructure 9 diff]5t animals1 :i* agree g5]ally 9 animals belong+ to ! same ,ord]s4 ,hairs are implant$ 9 pits 9 ! sk92 ea* is swoll5 at ! base to =m ! bulb1 :i* is seat$ ^u a papilla ( ! sk91 by :i* x is =m$ or secret$4 ,! hair is an epid]mic =mation1 consi/+ ( epid]mic cells m or less flatt5$ & alt]$ 9 %ape by mutual pressure4 ,! col\r ( ! hair is usually seat$ 9 ! out] or cortical portion ( ! /em or %aft1 & arises f ! pres5ce ( aggregations ( m9ute granules ( col\r+-matt] or pigm5t1 z ! col\r+-matt] ( animals is call$3 9 ! human hair x =ms %ort longitud9al /ripes 7fig4 #i74 ,9 ! c5tral pi? or m$ull>y portion ( ! hair ! cellul> /ructure is m op5 & di/9ct ?an 9 ! cortical portion1 9 :i* ! cells are s compress$ & consolidat$ z only to exhibit ! cell-/ructure aft] treatm5t ) reag5ts2 & ! m$ull>y cells (t5 conta9 air4 ,9 grey or :ite hairs1 ! :it5ess dep5ds ma9ly ^u ! pres5ce ( air 9 ! cells ( ! pi?4 ,9 ! gnaw+ or rod5t animals1 z ! m\se or ! rabbit1 ! pigm5t is p>tially at lea/ situat$ 9 ! cells ( ! m$ulla4 ,9 ! hairs ( _m animals1 ! cuticul> or surface-cells ( ! %aft are di/9ctly imbricat$ 7fig4 #e71 & =m beautiful microscopic objects4 ,! pr9cipal int]e/ 9 ! /ructure ( ! hair relates to ! ?ree po9ts above m5tion$1 viz4 ! position ( ! pigm5t1 ! arrangem5t ( ! cuticul> cells or scales1 & t ( ! cells ( ! pi?4 ,! pigm5t is be/ exam9$ 9 hairs moi/5$ ) a little _s ( w9e1 :i* displaces ! air f ! cells ( ! pi?1 & r5d]s ! hair transp>5t2 a little wat] %\ld be subsequ5tly add$4 ,! cuticul> scales are also well %[n by ?is proce$+4 ,t[>ds ! root ( ! hairs 9 ! m\se1 !y project beyond ! m>g91 giv+ x a too!d or d5tate appe>ance2 9 ! hair ( ! mole1 ! bat 7fig4 #e71 or ! wolf1 ?is d5tation may also be se54 ,9 ! hairs ( "s ( ! =eign bats1 ! scales are :orl$1 =m+ v beautiful objects4 ,! cells ( ! pi? 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #g7 also pres5t int]e/+ v>ieties1 be+ sometimes arrang$ 9 a s+le r[1 at o!rs 9 two or m r[s 7fig4 #f74 ,^! are be/ se5 9 hairs rec5tly imm]s$ 9 _s or 9 oil ( turp5t9e2 = if ! hair be too long soak$ 9 ^! liquids1 ! air w be entirely displac$ by !m4 ,! cells ( ! pi? appe> black by transmitt$ & :ite by reflect$ light1 9 ! dry hairs1 f ! pres5ce ( air4 ,!y may be well exam9$ 9 ! hair ( ! m\se 7figs4 #f #g71 or 9 t ( ! mole4 ,wool1 :i* is ! hair ( ! %eep1 consi/s ( curl$ fibres 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #aj71 9 :i* ! imbricat$ arrangem5t ( ! surface-scales is v di/9ctly se54 ,9 ,pl4 ,,ix4 figs4 #aj-ac ! fibres ( wool1 flax or woody fibre1 cotton1 & silk are repres5t$ toge!r1 to all[ ( comp>ison2 = ! microscope is ( great assi/ance 9 discrim9at+ ^! sub/ances :5 exi/+ 9 textile fabrics4 ,! fibres ( wool 7fig4 #aj7 are di/+ui%$ by _! solidity1 wavyness1 & ! imbricat$ scales2 ^? ( flax 7fig4 #aa7 by _! ?ick walls1 great l5g?1 acute ends1 & _! knotty appe>ance at int]vals4 ,! fibres ( cotton 7fig4 #ab7 are s(t1 flaccid1 flatt5$1 & (t5 twi/$2 & ^? ( silk 7fig4 #ac7 are solid & v sl5d]4 ,by a little *emical te/+1 ! discrim9ation is made /ill m easy2 b = an acc\nt ( ?is ,i mu/ ref] to ! ,diction>y4 ,,birds4--,9 ! ,class ( ,birds1 ! /ructure ( ! fea!rs des]ves special notice4 ,fea!rs are epid]mic =mations1 or consi/ ( aggregations ( epid]mic cells1 yet s alt]$ by compression & fusion toge!r t ! cell-/ructure is 9 mo/ p>ts difficult to detect4 ,9 a fea!r ?ree p>ts are di/+ui%able1--! transp>5t cyl9drical quill2 its opake cont9uation1 :i* is m or less flatt5$ at ! sides1 =m+ ! %aft2 & ! vanes or be>ds1 :i* arise f ! sides ( ! %aft1 consi/+ ( num]\s closely set1 p>allel1 flatt5$ fibres1 call$ ! b>bs4 ,! /ructure ( ! b>bs =ms ! int]e/+ object to ! microscopi/4 ,on exam9+ a piece ( ! col\r$ vane ( a some:at l>ge fea!r 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ad71 a r[ ( f9e p>allel col\rless filam5ts 7p9n7 w be obs]v$1 aris+ f ! opposite sides1 ! filam5ts ( "o side ly+ obliquely across ^? aris+ f ! o!r2 & :ile ! filam5ts or p9n ( "o side pres5t a r[ ( little tee? 7fig4 #ad c7 ne> _! base1 ^? ( ! opposite side 7fig4 #ad b7 are provid$ ) z _m hooks ne> _! apex1 :i* curve ov] ! tee? to connect ! b>bs toge!r4 ,?is curi\s arrangem5t is adapt$ to keep ! p>ts ( ! fea!r firmly unit$1 & yet to all[ ( _! play & flexibility4 ,to obs]ve ?is /ructure1 a portion ( a vane %\ld be soak$ 9 oil ( turp5t9e1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,9 ! d[ny fea!rs 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ag7 ! b>bs are n furni%$ ) ! p9n1 b pres5t simply :orls ( m9ute sp9es 7fig4 #ah74 ,! bones ( birds pres5t ! same g5]al /ructure z t ( mammals1 ! lacun be+1 h[ev]1 m num]\s & small]4 ,! blood ( birds 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #b7 diff]s entirely f t ( mammals1 9 ! r$ corpuscles be+ oval in/ead ( circul>1 & convex in/ead ( concave2 & ea* conta9s a di/9ct oval & granul> nucleus4 ,,reptiles4--,9 reptiles1 z ! frog1 toad1 or wat]-liz>d 7,trton71 ! bone-corpuscles or lacun are l>g] & m num]\s ?an 9 ei!r ( ! =m] classes2 & ! blood-corpuscles 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #c7 are comp>atively v l>ge1 oval1 r concave1 & conta9 a l>ge granul> nucleus4 ,! smoo? wat]-newt or triton1 prop]ly call$ ,lissotrton puncttus1 is a v int]e/+ animal 9 a microscopic po9t ( view4 ,x may be f\nd 9 mo/ ponds2 & if sev]al are remov$ 9 a net1 & kept 9 a l>ge glass j>1 ) wat]-plants1 !y w live = a long p]iod4 ,9 ! spr+ or e>ly summ] !y w deposit _! eggs ^u ! aquatic plants1 g5]ally on ! "u surface ( a leaf1 :i* !y b5d d[nw>ds1 s z to protect !m4 ,! eggs or ova1 are ab\t half ! size ( a pea1 & consi/ ( a sac conta9+ a transp>5t liquid1 ) a yell[i% globule )94 ,aft] a "t ^! eggs w hat*1 & ! l>v or "y newts mu/ be remov$ f ! wat]1 o!rwise ! p>5ts w dev\r !m4 ,if "o ( ^! l>v1 :i* resemble little fi% 9 appe>ance1 be plac$ ) a little wat] 9 ! 8live-box10 & ! cap be v g5tly press$ d[n1 s z to fix ! body ( ! animal1 ! circulation ( ! blood may be v beautifully se5 9 ei!r ! fr+e-l gills1 :i* are plac$ on ea* side ( ! neck1 or 9 ! tail1 a l[ p[] be+ us$2 at ! same "t ! beautiful /ellate pigm5t-cells ( ! sk9 w be obs]v$4 ,! /ructure ( ! rudim5t>y sp9al column1 :i* runs d[n ! middle ( ! back1 & consi/s ( simple l>ge c>tilage-cells1 may also be made out1 :5 ! animal is dead1 by a little dissection ) ! aid ( ne$les4 ,,fi%es4--,9 ! f\r? class ( v]tebrate animals1 :i* consi/s ( ! fi%es1 we f9d int]e/+ /ructures 9 ! blood1 ! scales1 & ! roe4 ,! corpuscles ( ! blood 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #d7 diff] f ^? ( ! ,mammalia1 b agree ) ^? ( birds & reptiles1 9 be+ oval in/ead ( r\nd4 ,! scales ( fi%es 7,pl4 ,,ix4 figs4 #bb1 #bc7 are usually r\nd$ or oval1 z 9 mo/ ( our fre%wat] fi%es1 :5 !y are call$ cycloid 71 circle72 b sometimes !y are too!d at "o end 7fig4 #bc a71 =m+ ctnoid 71 a comb7 scales1 z 9 ! p]*4 ,mo/ scales exhibit a numb] ( conc5tric r+s1 :i* are ! indications ( lam92 & _m ( !m are lob$ at ! m>g91 sometimes also hav+ radiate furr[s4 ,9 ! c5tre are (t5 se5 little r\nd$ solid bodies1 hav+ some:at ! appe>ance ( cells1 :i* are v well se5 9 ! scales ( ! p]*2 & 9 "s scales ^! bodies are arrang$ 9 conc5tric r[s ?r\gh\t ! sub/ance1 z 9 ^? ( ! eel or ! cod 7fig4 #bd74 ,! sub/ance ( :i* scales consi/ is g5]ally c>tilag9\s2 9 "s ( !m1 h[ev]1 true bony matt] is pres5t4 ,fi%-scales are conta9$ )9 ! sub/ance ( ! sk91 & n m]ely atta*$ to x by "o end1 z appe>s to be ! case 9 _m fi%es4 ,9 mo/ ( our common fi%es1 z ! roa* or p]*1 ! scales project beyond ! level ( ! sk92 b ! project+ portion is cov]$ by a ?9 lay] ( ! sk92 & :5 ! scales are scrap$ (f1 ?is lay]1 ) its elegant /ellate pigm5t-cells1 is usually f\nd adh]5t to x4 ,9 "s o!r fi%es1 z ! cod & eel1 ! scales are entirely sunk bel[ ! surface2 & ^! are commonly suppos$ to h no scales4 ,!y may1 h[ev]1 be easily f\nd by dissection1 or by dry+ a piece ( ! sk9 "u pressure betwe5 two plates ( glass1 & m\nt+ a portion 9 balsam4 ,! beautiful silv]y lu/re ( ! sk9 ( fi%es dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( innum]able v m9ute & ?9 cry/als2 ^! may be well exam9$ 9 ! sk9 ( a sprat4 ,! roe ( fi%es consi/s ( ! ova or eggs1 & ! sp]matozoa1--! ova be+ conta9$ 9 ! h>d1 ! sp]matozoa 9 ! s(t roe4 ,! eggs consi/ ( a cell surr\nd$ by "o or two membranes2 & ! latt] are (t5 trav]s$ by num]\s f9e radial canals1 or pres5t a funnel-%ap$ tube lead+ to ! ovum4 ,! sp]matozoa ( ! s(t roe consi/ ( exce$+ly sl5d] filam5ts 7fig4 #be71 t]m9at$ at "o end by a k9d ( head4 ,! read] w n fail to detect ! analogy betwe5 ! ovum ( ! animal & t ( ! ovule ( ! plant2 & x ne$ sc>cely be /at$ t ! sp]matozoa ( ! animal f]tilize ! ova1 9 ! same mann] t ! poll5-tubes & sp]matozoa ( plants f]tilize ! ovules exi/+ 9 !m4 ,9 ! case ( fi%es1 ! sp]matozoa ( ! s(t roe escap+ into ! wat]1 & mov$ by ! cili>y action ( ! filam5t1 ent] ! micropyle-l canals ( ! ova1 :i* are deposit$ by ! fi% ^u ! bottom ( riv]s4 ,! scales ( fi%es may be prep>$ = exam9ation by scrap+ !m (f & mac]at+ !m 9 wat] until ! adh]5t portion ( ! sk9 is s(t5$ & decompos$1 s t x may be wa%$ away4 ,!y %\ld be dri$ betwe5 glass plates1 & view$ "u a l[ p[]1 z dry transp>5t objects4 ,! /ructure ( muscle c be m easily made out 9 fi%es ?an 9 o!r animals4 ,a portion ( ! fle% %\ld be mac]at$ 9 _s z direct$ above4 ,,mollus,,ca4--,we %all n[ leave ! v]tebrate animals1 & pass to ! subk+dom ,mollusca1 ! m>9e k9ds ( :i* are popul>ly call$ %ellfi%3 ?ree ( _! /ructures =m int]e/+ objects = exam9ation--! %ell1 ! tongue1 & ! gills4 ,%ell4--,! g5]al /ructure ( ! %ell ( ! ,mollusca may be illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to t ( ! oy/]4 ,two k9ds ( %ell-sub/ance are at once di/+ui%able 9 an oy/]-%ell1 an out] br[n1 & an inn] pe>ly or nacre\s4 ,! br[n portion exhibits "u ! microscope ! appe>ance ( a cell-/ructure 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bh71 ! angul> =ms f mutual pressure be+ v di/9ct4 ,! compon5t bodies ( ?is portion are se5 to be m or less elongat$ & flatt5$ 9 ! side view1 =m+ prisms 7fig4 #bi74 ,! /ructure ( ! pe>ly "p ( ! %ell is m difficult ( exam9ation1 & c only be se5 di/9ctly 9 gr\nd & poli%$ sections4 ,9 ^!1 "u a high p[]1 x exhibits num]\s f9e1 some:at p>allel wavy l9es 7fig4 #ai71 :i* are ! indications ( ?9 lay]s1 or lam91 ( :i* x is compos$4 ,%ell consi/s ( a basis ( animal matt] 9 :i* c>bonate ( lime 7*alk7 is deposit$1 ! :ole be+ p\r$ out or secret$ by ! sk9 or mantle ( ! mollusk4 ,pe>ls1 :i* possess ! same /ructure z ! nacre\s "p ( %ell1 consi/ ( ! nacre =m$ ar\nd "s =eign body1 z a gra9 ( s&1 c41 by :i* ! mantle has be5 w\nd$4 ,tongue4--,! /ructure ( ! tongue ( ! ,mollusca is v int]e/+1 on acc\nt ( ! curi\s tee? :i* are f\nd ^u x4 ,x may be illu/rat$ by ! common ,:elk 7,bucc9um undatum71 :i* is sold at ! /reet-/alls4 ,z1 to "o unacqua9t$ ) ! anatomy ( ! ,mollusca1 !re is "s difficulty 9 f9d+ ! tongue1 x may be well to po9t out h[ x is to be f\nd4 ,if ! %ell conta9+ ! animal be plac$ s t its orifice is direct$ upw>ds1 ! po9t or apex ( ! spire be+ t[>ds ! read]1 ! lid 7op]culum7 :i* closes ! %ell w be at once evid5t4 ,on draw+ ! animal f ! %ell by means ( ! lid1 ! foot or portion :i* is appli$ by ! animal to ! surface ^u :i* x creeps w be se54 ,at ! upp] "p ( ?is is ! head1 ) its two horns 7t5tacles74 ,bel[ ! roots or bases ( ! t5tacles1 & betwe5 !m & ! upp] "p ( ! foot1 is ! little r\nd m\?4 ,on slitt+ ?is up ) scissors1 a cavity w be op5$1 & 9 x w be se5 a r$di% tube 7! proboscis71 ab\t z l>ge z a goose-quill1 ) an ap]ture at ! end4 ,?is mu/ be c>efully slit up1 :5 ! tongue1 :i* is ( ab\t ! size ( a cr[-quill1 w come into view4 ,! tongue is moveable 9 ! proboscis1 & c be protrud$ or )drawn by ! animal at w4 ,if ! surface ( ! tongue be view$ "u a h&l5s1 ! r[s ( tee? w be se5 at once4 ,x is bett] n to pull ! tongue out ) =ceps1 z ! tee? are easily displac$ & injur$4 ,! be/ plan is to dissect away ! muscul> /ructures ) =ceps & a pair ( f9e-po9t$ scissors1 !n to cut (f ! tongue at its root1 & to soak x 9 wat] = "s h\rs1 :5 ! sk9 or epid]mis conta9+ ! tee? c be sep>at$ ) ! m\nt$ ne$les "u a simple l5s or microscope4 ,aft] any loose p>ticles h be5 wa%$ away ) a hair p5cil1 ! object may be spread flat on a slide1 & dri$ betwe5 two slides4 ,! upp] slide %\ld !n be remov$1 ! tongue soak$ 9 oil ( turp5t9e1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam ) ! lea/ possible heat4 ,z ?us prep>$1 ! horny tee? 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ba7 are se5 to be arrang$ 9 r[s1 unit$ by a col\rless membrane1 s z to =m a long ribbon4 ,! tee? =m ?ree longitud9al p>allel r[s1 a c5tral & two lat]al4 ,ea* too?1 consid]+ ! sep>ate pieces z con/itut+ di/9ct tee?1 has little tee? or d5ticles at its l[] edge4 ,^! are curv$ inw>ds1 f\r 9 numb]1 & connect$ by a basal plate 9 ! side tee?2 :ile ! middle tee? h six or sev5 /raight d5ticles4 ,^! tee? s]ve to enable ! animal to scrape or rasp ! alg1 & o!r matt]s =m+ _! food1 f ! surfaces ^u :i* !y gr[4 ,& if "s wat]-snails are plac$ 9 a glass j> ! inside ( :i* is cov]$ ) conf]void gr[?s1 ! curi\s patt]ns left aft] ! action ( ! snails' tongues w be f\nd to pres5t a v curi\s appe>ance4 ,gills4--,! gills or 8be>ds0 ( ! oy/] or mussel exhibit v /rik+ly ! ph5om5on ( cili>y motion4 ,! gills 7bran*i7 are respiratory organs1 consi/+ ( folds ( ! sk91 cov]$ ) cilia1 by means ( :i* ! wat] 9 :i* ! animal lives is set 9 motion1 & con/antly *ang$ to arate ! blood )9 !m4 ,! curr5ts ?us induc$ s]ve also to br+ ! food :i* floats 9 ! wat] t[>ds ! m\? ( ! animal4 ,by snipp+ (f a ?9 portion ( "o ( ! br[n be>ds ( a fre% oy/]1 lay+ x ^u a slide1 add+ a drop ( ! 8liquor0 conta9$ )9 ! %ell1 & lightly press+ a cov] ^u ! :ole1 ! rem>kable ph5om5on to "o :o has n be=e view$ x w be se5 "u a some:at high p[]--ab\t -in*4 ,! :ole field w appe> 9 motion1 & ! la%+ or :ip-l action ( ! cilia w be se51 especially t[>ds ! edges ( ! b>s 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cf7 ( ! gills4 ,! rapid motion ( any float+ p>ticles pres5t w also be notic$1 %[+ ! direction ( ! curr5ts ( liquid1 :i*1 z ! liquid is transp>5t1 w\ld n o!rwise be recognizable4 ,,bryoz,a 71 moss1 1 animal74--,! animals includ$ 9 ?is ,class1 :i* belongs to ! ,mollusca1 are mo/ly m>9e4 ,!y are microscopic1 & conta9$ 9 horny or calc>e\s sacs or cells1 aggregat$ toge!r to =m polypidoms 7polype1 & 1 a h\se74 ,!y are sometimes plant-l or leafy 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bg71 at o!rs filam5t\s & bran*$1 or !y =m a lay] or cru/ ^u ! objects to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,! polypidoms1 :i* are (t5 "s in*es 9 l5g?1 are frequ5tly met ) on ! sea%ore1 ! cells 7fig4 #bf a7 hav+ slit-l valvul> orifices4 ,! bodies ( ! animals are s(t & polype-l1 & are furni%$ at "o end ) a circle ( t5tacles1 cov]$ ) r[s ( cilia1 by :i* ! wat] is *ang$ = respiration1 & p>ticles ( food are br\ght to ! m\?4 ,! t5tacles c be protrud$ or )drawn at ! w ( ! animal4 ,! ,bryozoa are :at are call$ comp\nd animals1 ea* individual body hav+ its own set ( organs2 yet ! :ole are connect$ toge!r4 ,! two species figur$ are v common4 ,flustra folicea 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bg7 is f\nd ev]y:]e ^u ! sea-%ore4 ,! polypidom has cells ^u bo? sides2 & !y are n>r[$ at "o end1 & r\nd$ at ! o!r4 ,membranipora pilsa 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ci7 occurs ^u sea-we$s & o!r m>9e bodies1 =m+ a closely adh]5t lay]4 ,! orifices ( ! cells are surr\nd$ ) tee?1 & are usually furni%$ bel[ ) a v long bri/le--! polypidom appe>+ to ! nak$ eye z a :ite hairy cru/4 ,9 ! v>iety figur$1 ! long bri/les are replac$ by a sp9e2 & ?is is n uncommon4 ,! polypidoms ( ! ,bryozoa =m int]e/+ microscopic objects1 ! cells be+ furni%$ ) v>i\sly arrang$ sp9es & punctures or dots4 ,9 "s ! cells are erect & arrang$ 9 r[s ^u ! bran*es ( a plant-l /em1 :ile 9 o!rs !y are scatt]$ irregul>ly ov] a creep+ filam5t4 ,= exam9ation !y %\ld be prep>$ by mac]ation 9 fre% wat]1 & dry+ betwe5 glass plates or %eets ( pap]1 & ei!r view$ z opake objects or1 aft] soak+ 9 turp5t9e & m\nt+ 9 balsam1 z transp>5t objects4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! "n ,bryozoa = ?is class ( ,mollusca1 :i* 0 ?or\ghly e/abli%$1 has rec5tly be5 *ang$ 9 ?is c\ntry to ,polyza 71 _m1 1 animal71 & t ! "n ( polypidom has be5 alt]$ to polyzary4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,articulata 7,,artic,,ulus1 ,a ,,jo9t74 ,! animals belong+ to ?is subk+dom are specially di/+ui%$ by ! body & limbs be+ jo9t$3 z famili> in/ances1 may be m5tion$ ! lob/]1 ! wood-l\se1 spid]s1 insects1 & worms4 ,tak+ ! class ,cru/acea1 to :i* ! two fir/ animals belong1 we f9d int]e/+ microscopic =ms 9 ! subclass ,entomostraca 71 insect2 1 %ell74 ,,entomo/raca4--,! animals conta9$ 9 ?is ,ord] are met ) 9 e pool or pond1 "s ( !m inhabit+ ! sea4 ,!y are mo/ly m9ute1 yet visible to ! nak$ eye1 =m+ specks swimm+ actively or leap+ ?r\gh ! wat]2 h5ce "s ( !m h be5 call$ wat]-fleas4 ,! body ( ! animal is protect$ by a %ell or c>apace1 :i* 9 "s consi/s ( a s+le piece 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cj71 :ile 9 o!rs x consi/s ( two simil> p>ts or valves 7fig4 #ca71 9 ! latt] case ! jo9ts ( ! body be+ indi/9ctly visible4 ,! head is furni%$ ) usually two project+ feel]s or ant5n 7ant5na1 a sail-y>d71 "o ( :i* is upp]mo/ or sup]ior 7,pl4 ,,ix4 figs4 #cj1 #ca1 #cd a71 ! o!r l[]mo/ or inf]ior 7figs4 #cj & #cd b72 & ^! are (t5 us$ = swimm+4 ,! ant5n are jo9t$1 & sometimes beautifully plmose 7pluma1 a fea!r7 or fea!ry1 i4 e4 furni%$ ) r[s ( long & v sl5d] filam5ts4 ,!re are sev]al pairs ( jo9t$ legs1 "s ( :i* s]ve z jaws 7foot-jaws71 :ile o!rs are f9ely filam5t\s to s]ve = swimm+ & z respiratory organs 7bran*ial feet74 ,! f\r species figur$ are v common4 ,cypris tri/rita 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cd7 is f\nd 9 ponds & dit*es4 ,! c>apace is bivalve1 or has two valves1 :i* are convex & oval2 & x is ( a gre5i% col\r1 ) ?ree irregul> d>k /ripes beh9d4 ,! sup]ior ant5n 7a7 are jo9t$ & f9ely fea!ry1 ! inf]ior ant5n 7b7 hav+ a tuft or p5cil ( f9e filam5ts aris+ f _! ant]ior m>g94 ,! eye is s+le4 ,! animal swims /eadily & freely ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! eggs ( ,cypris 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ce7 are (t5 f\nd 9 glasses ( wat] conta9+ ! animals4 ,!y are r\nd$ or oblong1 ( a r$ col\r1 glu$ toge!r by an amorph\s jelly1 & adh]5t to pieces ( /ick or ! sides ( ! glass4 ,!y are enclos$ 9 a ?ick %ell1 :i* exhibits a cellul> appe>ance 9 ! surface view1 & is /riat$ 9 ! side view2 s t ! /ructure ( ! %ell is prismatic1 z 9 t ( ! oy/]4 ,:5 ! eggs escape f ! %ell1 !y pres5t ! appe>ance repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ce a1 ! body ( ! "y animal be+ enclos$ 9 a transp>5t envelope1 "o end ( :i* =ms a blunt protrusion2 !re is also a sep>ate sl5d] process enclos+ ! sup]ior ant5n4 ,aft] a "t1 ! envelope is ca/ (f 7fig4 #ce b71 :5 ! animal beg9s its active /age ( life4 ,! ca/-(f envelopes 7fig4 #ce c71 ) ! protrud$ portions wr9kl$1 are (t5 f\nd 9 ! s$im5t ( wat] conta9+ ! animals4 ,! /ructure ( ^! ova is t ( :at are call$ w9t] ova1 :i* agree ) ! re/+-spores ( ! l[] plants or ! ,alg4 ,cyclops quadricornis 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cj7 is ano!r common species4 ,9 ?is ! body is closely surr\nd$ by ! jo9t$ %ell1 z 9 a lob/]4 ,! sup]ior ant5n 7a7 are v long & _m-jo9t$1 ea* jo9t hav+ %ort bri/les aris+ f x1 :ile ! inf]ior ant5n are %ort & f\r-jo9t$4 ,!re is no sep>ate head1 ?is be+ unit$ to or consolidat$ ) ! fir/ jo9t ( ! ?orax or *e/1 ! head & ?orax toge!r compris+ f\r jo9ts4 ,! rema9+ jo9ts enclose ! belly1 or abdm51 :i* has ! appe>ance ( a tail2 b ! tail is con/itut$ by ! two la/ p>allel pieces1 :i* are furni%$ ) f9e fea!ry filam5ts4 ,! female is mo/ commonly met )1 & is easily kn[n by hav+ ! egg-p\*1 or ov>y 7o7 ext]nal on ea* side1 & fill$ ) eggs or ova4 ,! little ,cyclops is readily recogniz$ by its =m & j]k+ motion ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,daphnia plex 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #ca7 is a v common ,entomo/racan1 & is v well adapt$ to illu/rate ! /ructure1 on acc\nt ( its size & transp>5ce4 ,9 ?is animal ! body is loosely connect$ ) a bivalve %ell1 :i*1 on c>eful exam9ation1 is se5 to be reticulat$ or m>k$ ) net-l l9es4 ,! sup]ior ant5n 7a7 are v small1 plac$ "u a small beak1 & h at ! end a m9ute tuft ( hairs4 ,! inf]ior ant5n 7b7 resemble arms1 be+ l>ge & bran*$2 & by means ( !m ! animal r[s itself ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! /ructure ( ! eye is curi\s1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( r\nd l5ses aggregat$ toge!r1 ! f9e muscul> ?reads by :i* x is mov$ be+ easily di/+ui%$ ) a high p[]4 ,! legs are flatt5$1 & furni%$ ) elegant fea!ry st 7seta1 a bri/le71 s]v+ z gills or bran*i4 ,!y are con/antly 9 motion1 fann+ ! wat] s z to *ange incessantly ! portion ) :i* !y are 9 contact4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! back is plac$ ! little transp>5t he>t1 ) its col\rless blood1 :i* may be di/9ctly se5 beat+1 or contract+ & dilat+1 9 ! liv+ animal2 & betwe5 ! back ( ! animal & ! %ell are se5 ! ova1 :i* rema9 !re until !y are hat*$4 ,! g5]a & species ( ! ,entomo/raca are v num]\s4 ,^? m5tion$ above w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al /ructure ( ! ord]4 ,to di/+ui% ! mandibles 7m&ibula1 a jaw7 or prop] jaws1 ! foot-jaws1 & ! bran*ial legs1 ! animals mu/ be dissect$ 9 wat] ) ! m\nt$ ne$les4 ,! v delicate fea!ry filam5ts ( ! bran*i may be be/ obs]v$ :5 ^! organs are dri$ on a slide4 ,! ,entromo/aca may be kept alive 9 a j> ( wat] ) wat]-plants = a long p]iod4 ,!y may be remov$ f ! wat] = exam9ation by ! dipp+-tube1 & are be/ obs]v$ 9 a live-box4 ,,ara*,,nida 71 spid]7 is ! ,class ( spid]s1 scorpions1 & mites4 ,aranida4--,?is ,ord] conta9s ! m highly develop$ =ms ( ! ,class1 among :i* are ! common spid]s ( h\ses & g>d5s2 & "s ( _! /ructures are v curi\s & int]e/+4 ,! head ( spid]s is unit$ or fus$ ) ! ?orax1 =m+ "o piece1 :i* is call$ ! cephalo?orax 71 head1 1 *e/74 ,! claw-jaws1 or mandibles1 are t]m9at$ by a curv$ & po9t$ claw1 ) :i* ! spid]s hold _! prey4 ,x is trav]s$ by a sl5d] canal1 conta9+ a sl5d] tube or duct lead+ f a poison-gl&1 & op5+ ne> its po9t2 & :5 ! insect prey is transfix$ by ! m&ible1 ! poison is press$ out & ent]s ! w\nd4 ,ne> ! root or base ( ! m&ibles on ea* side is a jo9t$ feel]1 or palpus2 b spid]s h no ant5n4 ,! eyes are simple1 =m+ sep>ate r\nd %9+ dots1 & are call$ ocelli 7ocellus1 a little eye72 !y are usually plac$ on ! top ( ! head1 & are (t5 arrang$ 9 a geometrical =m1 z a triangle1 c4 ,! legs are f\r pairs2 !y are hairy1 & t]m9at$ by two or ?ree claws1 :i* are fr+$ ) m9ute tee?1 or pect9ate4 ,^! claws s]ve to comb ! fibres ( ! web1 j z we comb our hair ) a common comb4 ,! sp9n]ets1 ) :i* spid]s =m _! web1 are v curi\s organs4 ,!y are situat$ at ! "u & h9d "p ( ! body1 & consi/ ( two or ?ree cones1 or papill1 on ea* side4 ,on ! summits ( ^! papill are v num]\s bri/le-l tubes1 ?r\gh :i* ! secretion ( c]ta9 gl&s passes2 ?is secretion1 :5 h>d5$ by exposure to ! air1 =ms ! fibres ( ! web4 ,on c>efully exam9+ a spid]'s web1 ! radial fibres1 or ^? :i* pass f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce1 w be f\nd to be smoo?1 ^! fibres s]ve to fix ! web2 :ile ! cross fibres are cov]$ ) num]\s viscid globules1 :i* s]ve to atta* flies or o!r prey to !m4 ,?is diff]5ce ( ! fibres is be/ obs]v$ ) a h&-l5s4 ,,ac>,,na1 or ! ,ord] ( ,mites4--,"h belongs *eese-mite1 ,acarus domesticus 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cf74 ,its body is some:at milky :ite1 oval1 & furni%$ ) fea!ry hairs4 ,:5 view$ f b5ea?1 !re is se5 a transv]se l9e1 indicat+ ! sep>ation ( ! ?orax f ! abdom52 & ano!r l9e 9 front ( ?is1 ) f\r m9ute tub]cles1 f ea* ( :i* arises a hair4 ,! head is po9t$ & beak-l1 =m+ a rostrum 7ro/rum1 a beak71 consi/+ ( two m&ibles press$ toge!r2 ^! c only be se5 to be sep>ate :5 dissect$ ap>t ) ! m\nt$ ne$les4 ,ea* m&ible is *late 71 =ceps71 or has ! =m ( a lob/]'s claw2 & b5ea? ! two m&ibles is a flat membran\s "u lip or labium1 consolidat$ on ea* side ) a palp4 ,! legs are f\r pairs1 z 9 all ! ,ara*nida2 !y are p9ki%1 #f-;jo9t$1 & t]m9at$ by a leaflike suck] & a m9ute claw4 ,! males 7fig4 #ch7 are small] ?an ! females1 ! =e legs be+ mu* /\t]1 & furni%$ ) a blunt too? 7fig4 #ch a74 ,! eggs c (t5 be di/+ui%$ )9 ! body ( ! female 7fig4 #cf72 !y are oval & granul>4 ,ano!r species ( ,ac>us1 ,a4 sac*>i1 is f\nd abundantly 9 ord9>y moi/ sug>4 ,if a little ( ! sug> be plac$ 9 a w9e-glass1 "s wat] add$1 & ! mixture be /irr$ until ! sug> is dissolv$1 ! ,ac>i w be f\nd bo? 9 ! s$im5t & float+ on ! surface4 ,a some:at l>g] memb] ( ! ord] occurs z a p>asite ^u a species ( ,dung-beetle 7,geotrpes /]corrius7 :i* is vulg>ly kn[n z ! ,l\sy ,wat*man4 ,! beetle is black1 %ad$ ) purple1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long1 & is f\nd "u c[-dung4 ,! mites cl+ p]t9aci\sly to ! "u p>ts ( ! beetle1 & c easily be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,!y are :iti%1 ) ! m&ibles1 ! suck]1 & two claws v di/9ct2 & ! palpi are unatta*$ to ! labium1 or free4 ,^! mites =m ! species ,gamasus coleoptratorum4 ,ano!r species1 ,gamasus telrius1 is ! r$ spid] ( ! gre5h\se4 ,trombidium fulig9sum 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cg d7 is a common r$ spid] ( g>d5s4 ,x is ( a sc>let col\r1 appe>+ velvety f ! pres5ce ( a d5se coat ( fea!ry hairs 7fig4 #cg f74 ,! palpi ( ?is mite are l>ge1 free1 ! la/ jo9t b "o 7,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #cg a7 be+ furni%$ ) a claw1 :ile ! la/ jo9t is obtuse1 & resembles a lat]al app5dage4 ,! m&ibles 7fig4 #cg b7 are furni%$ ) a %>p curv$ claw4 ,! legs are long1 especially ! ant]ior pair1 & t]m9at$ by two claws1 ) a delicate suck]-l app5dage 7fig4 #cg c74 ,ano!r species ( ,trombidium1 ,t4 holos]iceum1 greatly resembl+ ! la/1 is also f\nd 9 g>d5s4 ,x may be easily di/+ui%$ f ! la/ by ! club-%ap$ hairs 7fig4 #cg e7 exi/+ ^u ! body4 ,! h>ve/-bug1 :i* causes su* irritation ( ! legs ( p]sons :o frequ5t corn-fields 9 ! autumn1 is also a species ( ,trombidium--,t4 autumnle4 ,,plate ,x4 page #acc4 ,,insects4 ,fig4 #a4 ,atropos pulsotorius3 99 natural size4 #b4 ,aphis ( ,g]anium3 a1 foot2 b1 anal tube2 c1 ant5na4 #c4 ,scales on w+ ( ,apollo-butt]fly4 #d4 ,li?obius =cipatus4 #e4 ,li?obius =cipatus1 head (3 a1 ant5n2 b1 m&ibles2 c1 labial palpi2 d1 labium4 #f4 ,dytiscus m>g9alis1 head ( l>va4 #g4 ,"y l>va ( ,dytiscus m>g9alis4 #h4 ,pupa ( ,gnat 7,culex pipi5s74 #i4 ,l>va ( ,gnat4 #aj4 ,head ( ,gnat1 male4 #aa4 ,head ( ,gnat1 female4 #ab4 ,cocc9ella #g-punctata 7l>ge ,lady-bird71 labium (4 #ac4 ,cocc9ella #g-punctata1 m&ible (4 #ad4 ,cocc9ella #g-punctata1 labrum (4 #ae4 ,cocc9ella #g-punctata1 ant5na (4 #af4 ,cocc9ella #g-punctata1 maxilla (3 a1 palp2 b1 c1 lobes ( maxilla4 #ag4 ,head ( ,musca dome/ica 7,h\se-fly73 a1 ant5na2 b1 labial palpi2 c1 proboscis4 #ah4 ,head ( ,/omoxys calcitrans3 #ah a1 ant5na4 #ai4 ,scales ( insects3 a1 scale ( ,podura2 b1 ( ,h\se-mo? 7,t9ea ve/ianella72 c1 ( ,podura2 d1 ( ,lepisma2 e1 hair ( ,podura2 f1 scale ( ,cabbage-,butt]fly 7,pontia brassic74 #bj4 ,head ( ,cabbage-,butt]fly3 a1 ant5n brok5 (f2 b1 palp2 c1 tongue 7antlia72 d1 club ( ant5na4 #ba4 ,head ( human ,flea 7,pulex irritans71 female 773 a1 palpi2 b1 maxill4 #bb4 ,flea ( ! ,rat 7,pulex muris71 male 774 #bc4 ,pt]o/i*us 7,/]opus7 madidus2 #bc a1 ant5na4 #bd4 ,"p ( leg ( ,pt]o/i*us madidus3 a1 tibia2 b1 t>sus4 #be4 ,labrum ( ,pt]o/i*us madidus4 #bf4 ,m&ible ( ,pt]o/i*us madidus4 #bg4 ,labium ( ,pt]o/i*us madidus3 a1 m5tum2 b1 labial palp4 #bh4 ,maxilla ( ,pt]o/i*us madidus3 a1 claw2 b1 c1 maxill>y palps4 #bi4 ,proboscis ( ,h\se-fly4 #cj4 ,l>va ( ,flea4 #ca4 ,l>va ( ,*ironomos plumosus4 #cb4 ,foot ( ,h\se-fly4 #cc4 ,eye ( ,h\se-fly4 #cd4 ,leg ( ,ant 7,=mica fusca72 #cd991 pect9ate process4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,x4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,prep>ation4--,! organs ( ! m\?1 c41 ( ! ,spid]s are easily prep>$ = exam9ation1 by c>efully pull+ !m (f ) =ceps or ! m\nt$ ne$les1 !n dry+ !m "u pressure betwe5 two glass slips1 mac]at+ 9 turp5t9e1 & m\nt+ 9 balsam4 ,^? ( ! ,ac>9a %\ld be dissect$ out ) ! ne$les1 aft] ! body has be5 cru%$ 9 a drop ( wat] on a slide1 & ! int]nal sub/ance has be5 g5tly wa%$ away ) a hair p5cil4 ,!y may !n be dri$ on a slide1 ) a cov] laid on1 & turp5t9e appli$ to ! edge ( ! cov]1 balsam be+ add$ :5 mo/ ( ?is has evaporat$4 ,! v>i\s p>ts may also be m\nt$ 9 *loride ( calcium or glyc]9e4 ,,insects4--,! memb]s ( ! class ( ,insects are extremely int]e/+ to ! microscopic obs]v]1 n only on acc\nt ( ! beautiful /ructures :i* !y pres5t1 b also f ^! be+ comp>atively l>ge1 usually col\r$1 & easily di/+ui%$ "u ! l[] p[]s4 ,h5ce !y =m admirable objects = /udy to ^? :o are b little accu/om$ to ! use ( ! microscope4 ,,myriap,,oda 71 myriad1 1 foot74--,?is ,ord] conta9s ^? insects :i* are popul>ly kn[n z ! hundr$-legs & millep$es2 by _m zoologi/s !y h be5 arrang$ 9 a di/9ct class4 ,! mo/ common memb] ( ?is ,ord] is ,li?bius =ciptus 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #d71 :i* is f\nd "u /ones1 9 cell>s1 & among g>d5-rubbi%4 ,x is ( a yell[i%-br[n col\r1 ) long1 _m-jo9t$1 gradually tap]+ or setce\s 7sta1 a bri/le7 ant5n 7figs4 #d a1 #e a71 & two l>ge & p[]ful m&ibles 7fig4 #e b7 resembl+ ^? ( ! spid]s4 ,x has also a broad1 not*$1 & too!d l[] lip1 or labium 7fig4 #e d71 above :i* are two too!d jaws1 or maxill1 & two lip-feel]s1 or labial palpi 7c74 ,! eyes consi/ ( a gr\p ( ocelli on ea* side 7e74 ,! body is protect$ by alt]nately l>g] & small] dorsal plates1 :i* are fifte5 9 numb]2 & !re are fifte5 pairs ( legs1 :i* are t]m9at$ by a s+le claw4 ,on ! sides ( ! body w be f\nd "s oval d>k-look+ bodies1 fr+$ ) hairs2 ^! are ! spiracles 7spiraculum1 a brea?+-hole7 or brea?+-pores4 ,!y =m ! orifices ( c]ta9 bran*$ & transv]sely /riat$ tubes1 :i* are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! body2 ! tubes are call$ tr*e 7tra*ea1 ! w9dpipe71 & _! walls conta9 an ela/ic spiral fibre :i* keeps !m op54 ,^! p>ts ( ! insect c only be di/9ctly se5 :5 ! body has be5 slit up on ! "u side2 &1 aft] wa%+ away ! animal matt] ) wat] by ! aid ( a hair p5cil1 press$ betwe5 two slides ) a clip1 dri$1 soak$ 9 turp5t9e1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,,?ysan,,ra 71 fr+e1 1 tail74--,! insects belong+ to ! g5us ,podra1 ( ?is ,ord]1 are v m9ute & difficult to exam9e2 b !y are specially int]e/+1 on acc\nt ( ! /ructure ( _! scales4 ,!y are common 9 g>d5s & cell>s1 "u fl[]-pots1 c41 & are ab\t "o-t5? ( an in* long4 ,!y are ( a br[ni% or silv]y-lead5 col\r1 w+less1 ) six legs1 & :5 t\*$ !y leap l a flea4 ,! leap+ motion is produc$ by ! action ( ! tail1 :i* is =k$ & b5t "u ! body4 ,! body is usually cov]$ ) m9ute scales 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ai1 a1 c71 & ^! are us$ z te/-objects4 ,! /ructure ( ! scales v>ies 9 ! diff]5t g5]a & species2 ^? usually us$ 7fig4 #ai a7 are /at$ to belong to ,podra plumbea2 x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t ?is is n correct4 ,! scales sold z te/-objects "u ?is "n are cov]$ ) m9ute & %ort rais$ l9es 7fig4 #ai a71 arrang$ 9 irregul> b some:at p>allel wavy r[s4 ,x requires a good microscope & a high p[] to %[ !m di/9ctly1 & !y %\ld appe> p]fectly black & sep>ate4 ,! little l9es are mu* co>s] 9 "s scales ?an 9 o!rs2 s t !re are easy & difficult scales1 z !y are call$4 ,! ,podur may be caught by hold+ a %eet ( pap] ne> _! haunts & di/urb+ !m2 & :5 !y h jump$ ^u ! pap]1 a slide laid ^u !m & g5tly press$ w remove "s ( ! scales = exam9ation4 ,! scales %\ld be m\nt$ z dry transp>5t objects2 = if wett$1 !y become v transp>5t1 & ! m>k+s appe> remov$1 :i* h[ev] is n really ! case4 ,! scales ( ,lepisma sac*>na 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ai d71 a memb] ( ?is ,ord]1 7 =m]ly us$ z te/-objects2 b !y are too easily made out to s]ve = ?is purpose ) mod]n microscopes4 ,! insect is n common4 ,! scales 7fig4 #ai d7 exhibit cont9u\s ne>ly p>allel longitud9al l9es or ribs4 ,,anopl,,ra 71 un>m$1 1 tail74--,?is ?ird ,ord] ( insects consi/s ( ! ,lice ( ! ,mammalia & birds4 ,!y are m9ute1 resembl+ mites to ! nak$ eye1 b may be at once di/+ui%$ f !m by ! di/9ct head & ?orax & ! pres5ce ( six in/ead ( eight legs4 ,"s ( !m are suctorial1 i4 e4 h a %ort & sl5d] tube1 ) :i* !y suck ! blood ( ! animals ( :i* !y are p>asites2 :ile o!rs are m&ibulate1 or h m&ibles1 & also maxill1 _! food consi/+ ( portions ( fea!rs1 hairs1 & scurf4 ,! legs are usually %ort & /\t1 & ! claws l>ge & p[]ful1 to enable !m to hold firmly to ! hairs1 c4 ,! ,anoplura are mo/ abundant on dirty & diseas$ animals4 ,,suctor,,ia4--,! f\r? ,ord] ( insects consi/s ( ! g5us ,plex1--,pulex irrtans be+ ! human flea4 ,o!r species are f\nd ^u diff]5t animals1 z ^u ! dog1 ! rat 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #bb71 ! f[l1 ! pigeon1 c4 ,! head & ! d>k eye 7fig4 #ba1 head ( ! human flea7 are v evid5t4 ,! ant5n or head-feel]s are v m9ute & difficult to f9d1 be+ sunk 9 a little pit or fossa beh9d ! eye2 !y may1 h[ev]1 g5]ally be recogniz$ by ! detection ( ! la/ jo9t1 :i* is pect9ate or cut l a comb4 ,! body1 includ+ ! head1 consi/s ( ?irte5 jo9ts1 "o = ! head1 ?ree = ! *e/ or ?orax1 & n9e = ! belly or abdm51--x be+ und]/ood t by 8jo9t0 is meant a segm5t1 & n ! l9e ( junction ( two segm5ts4 ,! indication ( ^! jo9ts is af=d$ by ! horny integum5t1 :i* consi/s ( a correspond+ numb] ( r+s1 =m+ 9 fact ! skeleton ( ! animal4 ,?is 9 ! flea1 z 9 all insects & o!r ,articulata1 is ext]nal or cutane\s 7ctis1 sk971 & consi/s ( ! h>d5$ sk91 ! peculi> animal sub/ance ( :i* x is compos$ be+ call$ *it9e 71 tunic74 ,^! *it9\s r+s ov]lap1 & are compos$ ( a dorsal or upp]1 & a v5tral or l[] half2 & ne> ! middle ( ea* is a r[ ( hairs direct$ backw>ds4 ,along ! sides ( ! body ( ! insect may be se5 a r[ ( dots2 ^! are ! spiracles or orifices ( ! brea?+-tubes 7tra*e74 ,! legs are _m-jo9t$1 long1 furni%$ ) num]\s sp9es1 & t]m9at$ by two slightly curv$ claws1 ea* ) a little blunt too? at its base4 ,! claws are n p]fectly smoo? on ! inside1 b are cov]$ ) slightly rais$ l9es1 l a file1 s t a bett] hold c be tak5 ( bodies4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ p>ts ( ! flea are ^? ( ! m\?1 ) :i* x punctures ! sk9 & sucks ! blood4 ,!re are n9e ( ^!2 & !y are be/ se5 :5 ! head ( ! flea is pull$ (f ) ! m\nt$ ne$les1 & ! p>ts spread out & m\nt$ 9 balsam1 a high p[] be+ us$ to exam9e !m4 ,"o ( !m =ms a long & sl5d] bri/le 7seta7 or tongue1 furni%$ ) di/ant m9ute tee?4 ,on ea* side ( ?is is a flatt5$ seta1 ) two r[s ( tee? on ! edges2 ^! are ! lancets1 & :5 n 9 use ^! organs are inclos$ 9 two jo9t$ %ea?s4 ,outside ^! are two repres5tatives ( jaws1 or maxill 7b71 ea* hav+ a jo9t$ feel] or palp 7a7 aris+ f x2 ! probable use ( ! palps be+ to feel ! position ( ! sk91 s t ! animal may be able to adju/ ! lancets at a prop] di/ance = puncture4 ,! eggs ( ! flea are (t5 visible )9 ! body ( ! p>5t2 & :5 ?is is cru%$1 !y are m di/9ctly se51 ( v>i\s sizes1 & conta9$ )9 a long tube1 :i* is ! ov>y or egg-bag4 ,! eggs are laid by ! animals ^u c>pets1 wooll5 g>m5ts1 or 9 ! cracks ( dirty floorbo>ds2 !y are j p]ceptible to ! eye z :ite oblong specks1 & !y may always be f\nd on ! rug :5 a cat is kept 9 ! h\se4 ,:5 hat*$1 !y give rise to a m9ute :ite worm-l maggot1 or l>va 7fig4 #cj71 hav+ a #ab-;jo9t$ body1 ) two rudim5t>y ant5n & two slightly curv$ hooks app5d$ to ! la/ jo9t4 ,! m\?-organs ( ! l>va are adapt$ = bit+1 & n = suck+1 z 9 ! p]fect animal1 ! jaws or maxill be+ di/9ctly too!d4 ,:5 !y h acquir$ full gr[?1 :i* takes place 9 ab\t twelve days 9 w>m wea!r1 !y sp9 ar\nd !mselves a little silky cocoon1 & become trans=m$ into a *rysalis or pupa2 & f ?is1 9 ab\t a =tnight1 ! p]fect insect escapes4 ,,dip,,t]a 71 twice1 1 w+74--,?is1 :i* =ms ! fif? ,ord] ( ,insects1 consi/s ( ! two-w+$ insects1 or flies1 z ! h\se-fly1 ! blue-bottle1 ! gnats1 c4 ,,mus,,cid4--,! h\se-fly1 & ! blue-bottle or meat-fly1 are bo? species ( ! g5us ,musca1 belong+ to ?is family1 ! =m] be+ ,musca domestica1 ! latt] ,musca vomitoria4 ,bo? ^! insects are se5 to be wond]fully con/ruct$ :5 m9utely exam9$1 & !y possess consid]able resemblance 9 g5]al /ructure4 ,on exam9+ ! head ( ! h\se-fly 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ag7 "u a l[ p[]1 & z an opake object1 ! obs]v] w be /ruck ) ! rem>kable appe>ance pres5t$ by ! two eyes1 :i* are l>ge1 plac$ "o on ea* side ( ! =e "p ( ! head1 & compos$ ( v num]\s little eyes closely pack$ toge!r1 or !y are comp\nd1 z x is call$4 ,! use ( ?is comp\nd /ructure is evid5tly to enable ! little animal to see 9 all directions )\t mov+ ! head & eyes4 ,ea* little eye has a l5s to br+ ! rays ( light emanat+ f objects to a focus ^u a n]ve4 ,! pack+ ( ! eyes toge!r gives rise to _! angul> =m or _! /raight sides1 ea* ( ! little surfaces or facets be+ hexagonal1 or b\nd$ by six sides 7fig4 #cc74 ,9 front ( & betwe5 ! eyes are se5 ! two small ant5n2 ^! h ?ree jo9ts1 ! ?ird ( :i* is l>g] ?an ! re/ 7fig4 #ag a71 & aris+ f ne> its base is a fea!ry bri/le or seta2 ^! /ructures are be/ se5 :5 ! ant5n are pull$ (f ) a pair ( =ceps & m\nt$ sep>ately4 ,bel[ ! ant5n1 & ext5d+ d[nw>ds & =w>ds is ! proboscis1 or tongue1 z x is call$1 :i* c be entirely retract$ )9 a pit 9 ! =e "p ( ! head1 or protrud$ at ! w ( ! animal4 ,?is is a v beautiful & complicat$ in/rum5t1 & is be/ exam9$ :5 spread out & sep>ately m\nt$ 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #bi74 ,x consi/s ( a fle%y tube1 dilat$ at ! end into two lobes1 :i* are flatt5$ b5ea? to =m a suck+-disk4 ,! end is furni%$ ) two solid horny lat]al bran*es to keep x exp&$1 & ) two longitud9al tubes b5ea?1 runn+ p>allel1 f ! out] sides ( :i* arise num]\s ne>ly p>allel bran*es4 ,^! tubes & _! bran*es are incomplete b5ea?1 & consi/ ( imp]fect r+s1 o!rwise greatly resembl+ tra*e4 ,on ea* side ( ! proboscis is a lip-feel] or labial palpus1 = ! organ repres5ts ! labium ( o!r insects4 ,all ^! p>ts are bett] se5 9 ! proboscis ( ! bl[-fly ?an 9 t ( ! h\se-fly1 on acc\nt ( _! l>g] size4 ,! head1 ! ?orax1 & ! abdom5 are v di/9ct 9 ! fly1 be+ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by well-m>k$ con/rictions4 ,! legs are compos$ ( five p>ts1 ea* hav+ a sep>ate "n4 ,! fir/ piece or jo9t1 :i* is t atta*$ to ! body1 is call$ ! hip1 or coxa2 ! next is a v small1 some:at triangul> piece1 & is ! tro*ant]2 next comes ! long & /\t ?igh1 or fmur2 ?is be+ succe$$ by ! tibia1 :i*1 z 9 mo/ insects1 is furni%$ ) /rong sp9es at ! end2 & la/ly is ! foot1 or t>sus1 consi/+ ( five jo9ts1 ! ?ree la/ ( :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! figure 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #cb74 ,at ! end ( ! fif? or la/ jo9t ( ! t>sus 7fig4 #cb7 7= x mu/ be not$ t ! jo9ts ( ! limbs ( insects are always numb]$ 9 ord] ( di/ance f ! body7 are two s(t little cu%ions1 or pulvilli1 :i* are cov]$ on ! "u surface ) num]\s hair-l bodies dilat$ at ! end1 act+ z suck]s 9 enabl+ ! fly to adh]e to smoo? surfaces4 ,9 addition to ^! organs are two curv$ claws1 & betwe5 !m a %>p /raight sp9e4 ,! eggs ( ! fly are deposit$ ^u heaps ( decay+ animal & vegetable matt]s1 z dungheaps1 c4 ,! bl[-fly deposits its eggs 9 ! same situations1 b especially ^? :]e ! animal matt]s are mo/ abundant3 e "o kn[s ! eggs z deposit$ ^u ta9t$ meats1 :5 !y are call$ flybl[s4 ,:5 ! eggs are hat*$1 ! l>v or maggots make _! appe>ance4 ,! l>v ( ! bl[-fly are well kn[n to ! angl]1 :o uses !m = bait1 & calls !m g5tles4 ,^! l>v exhibit "s int]e/+ po9ts ( /ructure4 ,! jo9t$ or r+$ condition ( ! body is di/9ct to ! nak$ eye4 ,! head is provid$ ) two rudim5t>y palpi1 plac$ ea* ^u a r\nd$ papilla2 also ) two br[n curv$ & horny hooks or jaws4 ,on ! po/]ior end ( ! body are two br[n spots1 :i* consi/ ( spiracles1 & h ?ree sieve-l oblong orifices2 & at ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ea* segm5t ( ! body are v num]\s little %ort sp9es1 ) ! po9ts direct$ backw>ds4 ,^! answ] ! purpose1 to "s ext5t1 ( legs2 = :5 ! l>va is mov+1 & has =c$ itself ?r\gh ! matt] 9 :i* x burr[s1 ! little sp9es prev5t ! body be+ =c$ backw>ds z ! head is pu%$ =w>ds & meets any resi/ance4 ,to exam9e ! /ructure ( ^! l>v1 ! g5tles %\ld be kill$ by imm]sion = a "t 9 w>m wat]1 & !n dri$ by t\*+ !m ) blott+-pap]4 ,! hooks & palpi c be se5 by hold+ ! body 9 ! =ceps z an opake object4 ,to obs]ve ! spiracles1 ! end ( ! body %\ld be cut (f1 & ! animal matt] wa%$ away 9 a wat*-glass ) wat] & a hair p5cil1 !n spread out1 dri$ betwe5 two slides1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,! l>v ( ! h\se-fly & ( ! bl[-fly v closely resemble ea* o!r1 s mu* s t ! =m] are g5]ally ov]look$2 h5ce x is (t5 wond]$ :]e flies come f1 al?\gh !y are s num]\s 9 e h\se4 ,:5 ! l>v ( ^! flies are fully develop$1 !y gradually assume a br[n col\r1 ! organs ( ! head are retract$1 & ! sk9 becomes dry & h>d4 ,?is is ! /ate ( pupa1 or *rysalis2 & :ile rema9+ 9 ?is /ate ( re/1 ! developm5t ( ! w+s1 legs1 c41 takes place2 s t :5 ! insect em]ges f ! %ell ( ! *rysalis1 x has atta9$ its highe/ /ate ( developm5t1 & =ms ! img or p]fect insect4 ,x may be rem>k$ "h1 t :5 insects pass ?r\gh ! ?ree /ates ( l>va1 pupa1 & imago1 !y are said to und]go complete metamorphosis4 ,!re is n a m curi\s object ?an t pres5t$ by ! "y fly conta9$ 9 its case1 z se5 on c>efully cutt+ away portions f "o end ( ! case ( ! *rysalis4 ,! body & head are q :ite1 ) beautiful blood-r$ eyes4 ,mo/ p]sons mu/ h notic$ ano!r k9d ( h\se-fly1 hav+ ! w+s m widely sep>at$ ?an 9 ! common fly1 & mov+ m sl[ly ?r\gh ! air4 ,?is is ,/omoxys calcitrans4 ,! proboscis ( ?is fly 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ah7 diff]s f t ( ! h\se-fly 9 be+ long]1 m b5t1 & b little exp&$ at ! end2 also 9 be+ provid$ ) two long set1 "o =m+ a sl5d] %>p lancet1 ! o!r be+ some:at /\t]1 & =m+ its %ea?4 ,! fly is ?us enabl$ to pi]ce ! fle% & suck ! blood4 ,,culic,,id4--,we w n[ say a few words ab\t ! gnats1 :i* are old fav\rites = microscopic exam9ation4 ,! ?ree /ates ( l>va1 pupa1 & imago mu/ be consid]$ sep>ately4 ,! imago or p]fect =m is well kn[n4 ,! males are easily di/+ui%$ f ! females by ! diff]5ce 9 /ructure ( ! ant5n1 :i* 9 ! males 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #aj1 head7 are v beautifully plumose or fea!ry1 :il/ 9 ! females 7fig4 #aa7 ! hairs are v %ort--! long proboscis1 or ro/rum1 or bundle ( bit+-organs =m+ ! /rik+ feature2 ?is diff]5ce is imm$iately evid5t to ! nak$ eye4 ,! ant5n ( ! males 7fig4 #aj a7 consi/ ( num]\s small jo9ts1 f ea* ( :i* arises a r+ ( long hairs1 giv+ ! appe>ance ( a tuft on ea* side :5 flatt5$ = view z a transp>5t object "u ! microscope2 at ! end are two long] jo9ts1 ! fir/ hav+ a small r+ ( %ort] hairs4 ,! proboscis ( ! female is a v complicat$ organ1 consi/+ ( six sep>ate bri/le-l pieces or set1 all ne>ly ( ! same l5g?4 ,two ( ^! are some:at curv$ ne> ! end1 & provid$ on ! inside ) f9e tee?2 ano!r pair consi/s ( v ?9 lancet-po9t$ in/rum5ts2 !n comes ano!r lancet-po9t$ seta1 v %>p at ! end1 & trav]s$ by a canal2 next1 a /\t] & d>k]-look+ tube1 slit up und]nea?1 :i* s]ves to conta9 ! two too!d set2 & la/ly1 a /\t & broad] %ea?1 also slit up ?r\gh\t its l5g? b5ea?1 9 :i* all are pack$4 ,?is %ea? has two lobes at ! end1 & has "s resemblance to ! proboscis ( ! fly1 ( :i* organ x is ! repres5tative4 ,! gnat lays its eggs 9 wat]4 ,! eggs are longi% oval1 ) a k9d ( neck at ! upp] end2 !y are glu$ toge!r side by side 9 l>ge numb]s1 & =m a boat-l mass1 float+ on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! l>v 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #i7 are v commonly f\nd skipp+ ?r\gh ! wat]1 or hang+1 z x 71 by ! tail f ! surface4 ,! head is v broad2 & aris+ f ea* jo9t ( ! body are tufts ( hairs4 ,ne> ! end ( ! body is a tube :i* communicates ) ! tra*e2 & :5 ! animal is quiet1 ?is tube is br\ght to ! surface2 s t :5 ! animal appe>s hang+ to ! surface1 x is brea?+4 ,9 addition to ?is me?od ( respiration1 !re are o!r respiratory organs atta*$ to ! la/ jo9t ( ! body1 consi/+ ( leaf-l plates2 h5ce ^! l>v h an aquatic z well z an arial respiration3 ! respiratory or bran*ial plates also s]ve z a tail to aid 9 swimm+4 ,runn+ d[n ! back ( ! l>va w be se5 a ?9 delicate vessel1 dilat$ opposite ! ?orax1 & beat+ or contract+ at regul> int]vals4 ,?is is ! dorsal vessel1 ! dilatation repres5t+ ! he>t ( ! high] animals2 & x s]ves to propel ! col\rless blood ?r\gh\t ! body4 ,aft] sev]al m\lt+s or ca/+s ( ! sk91 to all[ ( ! gr[? ( ! insect 7= insects gr[ only 9 ! l>val /ate71 ! l>va becomes trans=m$ into ! pupa 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #h74 ,9 ?is /ate ! animals /ill move ab\t 9 ! wat]1 & are (t5 f\nd susp5d$ f its surface by two respiratory tubes1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are n connect$ ) ! tail1 b arise f ! ?orax2 & ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! p]fect insect may be se5 ?r\gh ! case or sk91 )9 :i* !y are closely pack$4 ,:5 ! pupa has atta9$ its full developm5t1 ! p]fect insect em]ges f x1 leav+ ! wat] to fly ab\t & seek food4 ,,tipu,,lid4--,9 ! wat] ( ponds & pools a "y l>va 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ca7 w (t5 be met )1 :i* is t ( ,*ironomus plumsus1 a l>gi% gnat-l insect1 belong+ to ! daddy-long-legs family 7,tipulid74 ,?is l>va exhibits ! usual ?irte5 segm5ts1 includ+ ! head4 ,9 ! "y /ate ! body is ne>ly col\rless2 b 9 ! mature l>va x is ( a blood-col\r1 & ab\t an in* 9 l5g?4 ,b5ea? ! fir/ jo9t ( ! body are two foot-l processes cov]$ ) hair2 & at ! end ( ! body are also two processes1 surm\nt$ ) hooks4 ,! ?ree la/ jo9ts ( ! body are also furni%$ ea* ) a pair ( fle%y processes1 ^? ( ! fir/ pair be+ v %ort4 ,,hym5op,,t]a 71 membrane1 1 w+74--,?is1 :i* =ms ! six? ,ord] ( insects1 conta9s ! bee1 ! wasp1 ! ant1 c4 ,9 ! ,hym5opt]a !re is a curi\s contrivance = l9k+ ! two w+s on ea* side1 s t !y may =m a s+le piece 9 ! flight ( ! insect4 ,x consi/s ( a r[ ( hooks1 plac$ ^u ! ant]ior n]ve ( ! h9d w+1 :i* play ^u ! fold$-9 correspond+ edge ( ! =e w+2 ! hooks1 slid+ along ?is edge1 all[ ( fre$om ( motion1 al?\gh /ill hold+ ! two w+s toge!r4 ,?is /ructure may be well se5 9 ! w+s ( ! ,humble ,bee :5 m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,! /+ ( ! wasp & bee is also a s+ul> organ4 ,9 bo? insects x is mu* alike1 consi/+ ( a %ea?1 slit up b5ea?1 9 :i* are conta9$ two long set1 or lancets1 ) b5t-back 7recurv$7 tee? ne> ! end4 ,^! set are ins]t$ into ! fle% dur+ ! act ( /++1 & at ! same "t ! poison\s secretion f two gl&s is =c$ into ! w\nd1 :i* causes ! sev]e pa9 result+ f ! /+4 ,9 ! w+less neut]s ( ! common ant1 atta*$ to ! end ( ! tibia 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #cd c7 is a beautiful pect9ate process1 some:at resembl+ a comb 7fig4 #cd a74 ,,lepidop,,t]a 71 scale1 1 w+74--,?is ,ord] conta9s ! butt]flies & ! mo?s1 ! entire bodies ( :i* are cov]$ ) m9ute scales4 ,:5 ! insects are h&l$1 ^! scales adh]e to ! f+]s z a f9e du/2 & on press+ a slide aga9/ ! insects1 !y may be remov$ = exam9ation4 ,!y consi/ ( a v sl5d] & %ort quill1 by :i* !y are atta*$1 & a flatt5$ plate ( v>i\s =ms 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ai1 b1 f72 x is1 h[ev]1 g5]ally n>r[] ne> ! quill1 & exp&$ t[>ds ! free end1 :]e x is (t5 cut into lobes or too?like segm5ts4 ,! scales are usually cov]$ ) cont9u\s longitud9al l9es or ridges1 ) granules ( col\r+-matt] 7pigm5t7 situat$ betwe5 ! two ?9 lay]s ( :i* ! scales consi/4 ,9 "s ( !m ! =m is t ( a filam5t1 ei!r simple or bran*$ at ! end 7fig4 #ai e71 :5 !y resemble m9ute hairs4 ,9 ! males ( ! l>ge :ite ,cabbage ,butt]fly 7,pieris brassic71 c]ta9 ( ! scales ( ! w+s are cov]$ ) longitud9al r[s ( v m9ute dots 7fig4 #ai f71 & h little tassel-l bodies at ! end4 ,! males may be di/+ui%$ f ! females by ! front w+s hav+ no black spots1 :ile ^? ( ! females h two ^u ea* w+4 ,:5 ! scales are exam9$ z !y exi/ ^u ! w+s ( ! ,lepidopt]a1 !y are f\nd to be imbricat$ 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #c7 or ov]lapp+ ea* o!r l ! tiles on ! ro( ( a h\se4 ,! ,lepidopt]a suck ! honey ( fl[]s by means ( a spiral tongue 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #bj c7 or antlia 7antlia1 a suck+-tube72 ?is consi/s ( two halves1 :i* repres5t ! maxill ( o!r insects2 & _! m>g9s are fr+$ ) little tassel-l bodies1 probably organs ( ta/e4 ,! ant5n 7fig4 #bj a7 are _m-jo9t$1 clubb$ at ! ends 7d7 9 ! butt]flies1 & simple 9 ! mo?s4 ,! palpi 7fig4 #bj b7 are %ort & d5sely cov]$ ) scales4 ,9 ! l>ge eyes ! facets are v di/9ct & suitable = exam9ation4 ,! l>v are well kn[n z cat]pill>s4 ,!y h six legs1 z 9 ! p]fect insects1 b rudim5t>y & ) s+le claws2 also "s additional pairs ( pro-legs1 z !y are call$1 ) a cr[n ( hooks1 t[>ds ! h9d "p ( ! body4 ,! spiracles ( cat]pill>s are v fav\rable = obs]vation4 ,,neurop,,t]a 71 n]ve1 1 w+74--,?is ,ord] conta9s ! ,dragon-flies 7,libelllid71 ! ,day-fly 7,ephemera71 c41 9 :i* ! w+s are usually s l>ge & s beautifully nett$4 ,! species figur$ 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #a71 :i* is w+less1 is v common 9 old books & 9 collections ( dri$ plants4 ,x is :iti%1 mite-l1 ) setace\s _m-jo9t$ ant5n1 #c-;jo9t$ t>si1 & v broad ?ighs 7femora74 ,its "n is ,atropos pulsatorius4 ,,hemip,,t]a 71 half1 1 w+74--,?is ,ord] conta9s ! bugs & o!r noxi\s insects4 ,^? :i* we %all notice are ! species ( ,aphis1 commonly kn[n z ,plant-lice & ,gre5-fly1 :i* are f\nd too frequ5tly ^u unheal?y plants4 ,! species figur$ 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #b7 is t ( ! g]anium 7,pel>gonium74 ,! head is small & not*$ or em>g9ate4 ,! body is oval & furni%$ beh9d ) two prolong$ tub]cles1 ^! be+ cov]$ ) scales1 giv+ !m a some:at /riat$ appe>ance 7fig4 #b b74 ,! ant5n are #f-;jo9t$ 7c71 ! second jo9t be+ v small1 ! la/ jo9t long1 excavat$ on "o side1 & r+$3 ^! organs are reflex$ ov] ! body 9 ! natural /ate4 ,!re are two comp\nd eyes1 & ?ree simple eyes or ocelli1 =m+ a triangle on ! top ( ! head4 ,! proboscis or ro/rum is b5t "u ! body1 #d-;jo9t$1 & conta9s ?ree set1 two ( !m =m+ v sl5d] lancets4 ,! legs are long2 ! t>si 7fig4 #b a7 #b-;jo9t$1 ! fir/ or basal jo9t be+ v m9ute1 & ! la/ furni%$ ) two claws4 ,9 a colony ( ^! insects1 "s are w+$ & "s w+less2 ^? )\t w+s be+ usually 9 ! l>va /ate1 ! pup hav+ rudim5t>y w+s1 & ! males & females usually p]fect w+s4 ,aphis brassic is ! de/ructive turnip-fly4 ,,coleop,,t]a 71 %ea?74--,?is1 :i* is ! la/ ,ord] to be notic$1 conta9s ! ,beetles1 s easily recogniz$ by _! h>d & horny =e w+s or w+-cases4 ,! p>ts ( ! m\? 9 ^! insects are exce$+ly well adapt$ = exam9ation2 & z !y are n fus$ or consolidat$ ) ea* o!r1 !y s]ve to illu/rate ! typical con/itution ( ! organs z exi/+ 9 ^! animals4 ,pt]osti*us 7,/]opus7 madidus 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #bc7 is common 9 cell>s & g>d5s among vegetable rubbi%4 ,! body ( ?is beetle is %9+ black1 ! head project+2 ! ant5n 7fig4 #bc a7 are fili=m1 & compress$ t[>ds ! end4 ,! ?orax is some:at r\nd$1 ) a deep r\gh pit & a longitud9al /ria at ea* po/]ior angle4 ,! w+-cases1 or elytra1 are longitud9ally /riat$2 ! w+s1 :i* 9 mo/ beetles are conceal$ b5ea? ! elytra :5 ! insects are at re/1 be+ abs5t4 ,! tibi ( ! =e legs are not*$ on ! inside 7fig4 #bd a71 a fr+e ( hairs be+ situat$ 9 ! not*2 ! t>si are #e-;jo9t$ 7fig4 #bd b71 ! fir/ f\r jo9ts be+ triangul>1 ! la/ elongate & t]m9at$ by two curv$ claws4 ,9 ! male ! ?ree fir/ jo9ts ( ! t>si ( ! ant]ior legs 7fig4 #bd b7 are dilat$ & he>t-%ap$4 ,! p>ts ( ! m\? 7:i* are nam$ aft] an analogy ) ^? ( ! high] animals7 consi/ ( ! foll[+ pieces3--,an upp] lip1 or lbrum 7fig4 #be a71 :i* is squ>i% 7quadrate7 & slightly not*$2 a quadrate l[] lip1 or lbium 7fig4 #bg71 ) a process on ea* side1 & two #d-;jo9t$ lip-feel]s or labial palpi 7b72 & bel[ ! labium is a *91 or m5tum 7fig4 #bg a71 ) a project+ bifid too?3 ^! p>ts =m ! ro( & ! floor ( ! m\?4 ,next come ! mandibles 7fig4 #bf71 "o on ea* side1 :i* are /\t1 curv$1 & po9t$2 b5ea? :i* are ! maxill 7fig4 #bh71 also "o on ea* side1 & provid$ ) a fix$ claw 7a71 ciliat$ on ! inside1 & furni%$ ) two pairs ( jaw-feel]s1 or maxill>y palpi1 ! inn] 7b7 be+ #b-;jo9t$1 :ile ! out] 7c7 are #d-;jo9t$4 ,x w be notic$ t ! jaws "w lat]ally1 or f side to side1 & n p]p5dicul>ly z 9 ! high] animals4 ,^! p>ts may be f\nd 9 mo/ beetles :i* ! obs]v] may submit to exam9ation1 be+ h[ev] some:at modifi$ 9 diff]5t g5]a4 ,we may consid] ^? exi/+ 9 ! ,lady-birds1 or species ( ,cocc9ella1 by way ( comp>ison4 ,! body 9 ^! insects is v convex1 & ! head sunk deeply 9 ! ?orax4 ,! ant5n 7fig4 #ae7 are %ort1 clubb$ 7clvate71 & compress$4 ,! ?orax is %ort & lnate1 or half-moon %ap$4 ,! m&ibles 7fig4 #ac7 are curv$1 bifid at ! apex1 & ) a too? on ! inside ne> ! base4 ,! labrum 7fig4 #ad7 is transv]se1 or broad] ?an long4 ,! labium 7fig4 #ab7 is furni%$ ) two palpi1 :i* are #c-;jo9t$4 ,! maxill 7fig4 #af7 are two-lob$1 ! lobes 7b1 c7 be+ ciliat$1 & ! #d-;jo9t$ palpi 7a7 h ! la/ jo9t l>ge & hat*et-%ap$4 ,coleopt]\s insects und]go complete metamorphosis1 ! l>v be+ commonly kn[n z grubs4 ,! l>v ( ! aquatic beetles w (t5 be met ) 9 ! wat] ( ponds or dit*es1 especially t ( ! common l>ge wat]-beetle 7,dytiscus m>g9lis71 or wat]-boatman z x is call$ 7,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #g71 & 9 v>i\s /ages ( gr[?4 ,! /ructure ( ! m\?-organs 7fig4 #f71 :i* are1 h[ev]1 imp]fect or rudim5t>y 9 "s p>ts1 c be readily made out2 & _! names may easily be f\nd by comp>ison ) :at has be5 /at$ 9 reg>d to ! organs ( ! p]fect beetle4 ,exam9ation1 c4--,! means ( cat*+ insects w readily occur to ! read]4 ,a bag-net made ( a curv$ piece ( cane1 to :i* is fitt$ a bag made ( net1 w s]ve to cat* ^? :i* tru/ to flight = escape f _! enemies1 su* z ! ,lepidopt]a2 & ^! may be kill$ by firm pressure ( ! ?orax betwe5 ! f+] & ! ?umb4 ,! runn+ insects1 z ! beetles1 may be caught 9 a spoon or ) =ceps2 & !y may be kill$ by imm]sion 9 boil+ wat] or 9 camphorat$ _s4 ,9 an excursion1 mo/ insects may be c>ri$ 9 a well-cork$ bottle conta9+ a little wool & a lump ( camphor1 :i* /upifies !m4 ,:5 ! insects are dead1 ! limbs %\ld be ext5d$ into ! natural position by means ( p9s1 ! insect be+ transfix$ by a p9 run ?r\gh ! ?orax or "o ( ! elytra & ext5d+ into a %eet ( cork4 ,to pres]ve !m1 !y may be kept 9 a box1 ! bottom ( :i* is cov]$ ) %eet cork1 into :i* ! p9s are /uck4 ,! small] beetles1 c41 :i* _c be transfix$ ) a p91 may be m\nt$ z opake objects ^u slips ( c>d1 ! legs c41 be+ c>efully spread out1 & gumm$ 9 position ) a /rong solution ( gum-tragacan? 9 boil+ wat]4 ,_m ( ! small] ,curculionid or diamond-beetles1 9 :i* ! labium =ms a ro/rum or beak1 ) elb[$ or half-b5t ant5n1 =m beautiful opake objects :5 ?us m\nt$1 on acc\nt ( ! brilliant scales ) :i* !y are cov]$4 ,!re are two ways ( exam9+ insects--ei!r 9 ! entire /ate z opake objects or ! sep>ate p>ts m\nt$ z transp>5t objects4 ,9 ! =m] case ! p9 ) :i* ! insect is transfix$ %\ld be /uck into a slide made ( cork1 & ?is laid ^u ! /age1 or ! p9 may be held by ! =ceps4 ,9 ?is way1 ) ! use ( ! side cond5s] & a l[ p[]1 ! g5]al =m & arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! insect c be made out4 ,! m m9ute details mu/ be se>*$ = 9 ! individual organs :i* h be5 pick$ (f ) =ceps1 & m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,if x be requir$ to submit ! p>ts ( a dri$ insect to exam9ation1 ?is mu/ be previ\sly soak$ 9 w>m wat] = a "t1 z ! legs1 c41 become v brittle :5 dry1 & are ?us easily injur$4 ,,rotator,,ia 7rta1 a :eel7 or ,,rotif,,era 7rota & f]o1 to be>74--,! animals conta9$ 9 ?is class are m9ute1 be+ j di/+ui%able to ! nak$ eye z :ite specks4 ,!y are common 9 long-kept infusions & among ,conf]v 9 ! wat] ( pools & dit*es4 ,_! body is usually long] ?an broad1 (t5 pres5t+ indications ( r+s2 & at or ne> ! po/]ior end is frequ5tly f\nd a prolongation resembl+ a tail1 b t]m9at$ by two %ort moveable ?umb-l processes1 r>ely a suck]1 :i* enable ! animals to cl+ to objects4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic organ1 h[ev]1 is a k9d ( r\nd$ or oval disk1 plac$ at ! ant]ior end ( ! body1 & furni%$ ) cilia4 ,:5 ^! are 9 active motion1 ! organ appe>s z a revolv+ :eel1 :5ce ! "n ( ,:eel-animalcules1 by :i* !y are sometimes designat$4 ,! :eel-organ enables ! animals to swim ?r\gh ! wat]1 & also br+s _! food to ! m\? by ! curr5ts :i* x produces4 ,x is usually cleft into two or m lobes1 & c be retract$1 z is commonly ! case :5 ! animals are di/urb$4 ,9 _m ( ^! animals ! body is m or less cov]$ by a horny %ell or c>apace2 & 9 "s x is fix$ at ! bottom ( a tube1 )9 :i* x c be )drawn4 ,on ! ant]ior "p ( ! body are frequ5tly se5 two or m r$ spots1 :i* repres5t eyes4 ,! alim5t>y canal is mo/ly di/9ct1 be+ indicat$ by ! col\r ( its cont5ts1 & x is l9$ ) cilia4 ,t[>ds its front portion is a gizz>d 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #b a7 conta9+ tee?1 :i* are sometimes atta*$ to a jo9t$ jaw-l framework2 ^! are usually 9 active motion4 ,no he>t or blood-vessels h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! ,rotatoria2 b on ea* side ( ! body 9 _m ( !m is a long wavy tube1 conta9+ at int]vals m9ute ciliat$ bodies1 ! cilia propell+ ! wat] ?r\gh ! tubes1 & s ex]t+ an arat+ or respiratory function4 ,! reproduction ( ! ,rotatoria takes place by ! =mation ( ova1 :i* may (t5 be di/+ui%$ )9 ! body ( ! p>5t4 ,rotif] vulgris 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #b7 is a common species4 ,x has a sp9dle-%ap$ body1 :i* is capable ( contraction almo/ into a ball4 ,! front or head end is sometimes protrud$ 7fig4 #b71 at o!rs retract$ & obscur$ by ! exs]t$ disk 7fig4 #b9972 & b5ea? x is a t5tacle-l organ1 suppos$ to repres5t an ant5na 7fig4 #b b74 ,! position ( ! jaws is indicat$ at a4 ,! alim5t>y canal is se5 runn+ d[n ! body2 & two ova exi/1 "o on ea* side ( x1 ^! be+ (t5 recognizable by ! exi/5ce ( ! eyes & jaws4 ,at ! end ( ! body are two lat]al processes1 & a tail-l piece1 :i* c be )drawn or protrud$ & is furni%$ ) two moveable portions or toes4 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,page #aej4 ,,rotatoria1 ,,infusoria1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,anguillula 7,dorylaimus71 species (4 #b4 ,rotif] vulg>is3 a1 jaws & tee?2 b1 ant5na2 #b991 :eel-organ exp&$4 #c4 ,pt]od9a pat9a4 #d4 ,floscul>ia ornata4 #e4 ,hydra viridis4 #f4 ,arcella vulg>is4 #g4 ,arcella aculeata4 #h4 ,arcella aculeata1 %ell ) animal4 #i4 ,arcella d5tata4 #aj4 ,amba difflu5s4 #ab4 ,act9ophrys sol4 #ac4 ,sponge1 fibres (2 #ac a1 b1 c1 spicules ( ,sponge4 #ad4 ,s]tul>ia pumila1 polypidom4 #ae4 ,s]tul>ia pumila1 polypidom ) polypes4 #af4 ,monas l5s4 #ag4 ,c]comonas globulus4 #ah4 ,c]comonas crassicauda4 #ai4 ,het]omita ovata4 #bj4 ,an?ophysa ,mll]i4 #ba4 ,d9obryon s]tul>ia4 #bb4 ,tra*elomonas volvoc9a4 #bc4 ,*togl5a volvoc9a4 #bd4 ,eugl5a viridis4 #be4 ,a/asia hmatodes4 #bf4 ,en*elys nodulosa2 a1 und]go+ transv]se division4 #bg4 ,oxytri*a gibba2 #bg a1 side view4 #bh4 ,p>amecium aurelia3 a1 contractile vesicle2 b1 a ga/ric sacculus4 #bi4 ,amphileptus fasciola4 #cj4 ,colpoda cucullus3 a1 contractile vesicle4 #ca4 ,nassula elegans3 a1 vesicle2 #ca b1 ency/$ =m4 #cb4 ,coleps hirtus4 #cc4 ,vag9icola cry/all9a4 #cd4 ,vorticella convall>ia3 a1 /alk spirally contract$2 b1 body und]go+ longitud9al division4 #ce4 ,vorticella convall>ia ency/$ & dis*>g+ ! "y brood4 #cf4 ,vorticella convall>ia1 body ) nucleus 7a74 #cg4 ,*ilodon cucullulus4 #ch4 ,/5tor polymorphus3 a1 body ext5d$2 b1 body contract$2 c1 bodies aggregat$ ar\nd a globule ( jelly2 d1 bodies adh]5t to ! side ( a glass4 #ci4 ,alyscum saltans4 #dj4 ,podophrya fixa1 or ! ,podophrya-=m ( ,vorticella4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,pt]odna patina 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #c74--,?is species has a %ell or c>apace on ! back1 a two-lob$ rotatory organ1 two eyes1 & a sl5d] wr9kl$ tail ciliat$ at ! extremity4 ,! curv$ alim5t>y canal1 & ! two /rong muscles incl9$ at an angle1 are easily di/+ui%able4 ,flosculria ornta 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #d7 is a v beautiful memb] ( ! ,rotatoria1 & is f\nd adh]+ to ,conf]v & o!r wat]-plants4 ,! body is club-%ap$1 & conta9$ 9 a transp>5t tube1 ! r+$ n>r[] portion be+ fix$ to its base4 ,! rotatory organ is divid$ into five or six lobes1 furni%$ ) long1 sl5d]1 radiat+ t5tacul> filam5ts2 ^! are n vibratile l ord9>y cilia1 b c be sl[ly mov$4 ,9 ! contract$ /ate1 ! filam5ts =m a p5cil-l bundle4 ,exam9ation1 c4--,! ,rotatoria are be/ exam9$ 9 ! liv+ /ate1 ! drop ( wat] 9 :i* !y are view$ be+ v small1 s t _! movem5ts may be imp$$2 & :ile !y are /ruggl+ to escape1 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body w come into view4 ,_! pres]vation has be5 attempt$ by dry+ on a slide2 b :5 dead !y become s contract$ & alt]$1 t x is difficult to make out _! /ructure4 ,%\ld ! obs]v] wi% to record any obs]vations on _! reproduction or habits1 x w be well to pres]ve a specim5 ( ! jaws & tee?1 z ! species might be ) c]ta9ty id5tifi$ by c>eful exam9ation ( _! m9ute /ructure4 ,,entoz,a 71 )91 1 animal74--,?is class consi/s ( ! p>asitic worms1 z ! ,tape-worm 7,tnia71 ! ,?read-worm & ,r\nd-worm 7,zc>is71 :i* live )9 ! bodies ( man & animals4 ,x also includes ! microscopic eel-l animalcules 7species ( ,anguillula7 :i* are f\nd 9 s\r pa/e 7,a4 glt9is71 9 v9eg> 7,a4 acti71 & 9 blight$ :eat 7,a4 tritici74 ,"s ( ! species ( alli$ g5]a are met ) 9 damp moss & 9 ! dbris or fragm5ts ( vegetable sub/ances decay+ 9 wat]4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! microscopic species is t ( a m9ute col\rless eel1 wri?+ 9 ! wat] 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #a74 ,_! int]nal organs are difficult to di/+ui%4 ,! alim5t>y canal is usually evid5t1 & dilat$ into a k9d ( /oma*1 conta9+ ne> its comm5cem5t "s rod-l or o!rwise-=m$ tee?4 ,9 ! species figur$ !re are two app>5tly tubul> lancets1 :i* are capable ( protrusion1 & evid5tly s]ve to w\nd ! prey4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,radiata4 ,desc5d+ 9 ! scale ( animal organization1 we come next to ! subk+dom ,,radi,,ta1 or t 9 :i* ! p>ts are arrang$ 9 a radiate mann] ar\nd a c5tre4 ,( ?is !re are ?ree classes1--! ,,e*9od],,mata 71 h$gehog1 1 sk971 conta9+ ! ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*nus71 ,/>fi%es1 c41 9 :i* ! sk9 is furni%$ ) h>d calc>e\s project+ sp9es or curi\sly =m$ imb$d$ calc>e\s corpuscles1 =m+ a rudim5t>y skeleton2 ! ,,acal,,ph 71 a nettle71 or ,sea-nettles2 & ! ,,pol,,ypi 71 _m1 1 foot71 to :i* we %all conf9e our notice4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! la/ two classes h rec5tly be5 unit$ to =m ! s+le class ,c,,l5t],,ta 71 holl[1 1 inte/9e74 ,,polypi4--,^! animals are mo/ly m>9e4 ,!y are ei!r s+le 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #e71 or comp\nd 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ae71 i4 e4 ! bodies are unit$2 9 ! latt] case ! bodies be+ usually situat$ 9 horny cells ^u a bran*$ polypidom4 ,b 9 _m ( !m1 :i* d n occur 9 ?is c\ntry1 !re is an int]nal solid calc>e\s skeleton1 ( :i* coral is an example4 ,! animal bodies are s(t1 & furni%$ at ! front end ) a cr[n ( t5tacles 7fig4 #ae a72 ^! are contractile1 & s]ve to enable ! animals to cat* _! prey4 ,! horny1 bran*$1 & plant-l polypidoms are (t5 f\nd on ! sea%ore1 & are popul>ly conf\nd$ ) sea-we$s4 ,hydra vulgris 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #e7 is a fre%-wat] species1 :i* is commonly met ) among collections ( wat]-plants1 & may g5]ally be obta9$ by collect+ "s ( ^! & plac+ !m 9 a glass j> ( fre% wat]4 ,:5 ! wat] has /ood = "s h\rs1 ! ,polypes w be se51 on c>eful exam9ation1 adh]+ to ! sides ( ! glass4 ,! body ( ! animals is cyl9drical1 holl[1 & furni%$ ) f six to t5 t5tacles1 arrang$ 9 a circle1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is ! m\?4 ,! t5tacles are holl[1 & communicate ) ! cavity ( ! body4 ,on exam9ation ) a high p[]1 ! t5tacles w be f\nd to exhibit m9ute oval sacs1 conta9+ a long fibre coil$ up )9 !m2 & :5 ! t5tacles are t\*$ by any =eign body1 ! fibres are sudd5ly dis*>g$4 ,^! are ! /++ or urticat+ organs4 ,! ,hydr move v sl[ly2 b ! body is v contractile1 & is (t5 se5 ( v>i\s =ms4 ,:5 a m9ute animal1 z an ,entomo/racan1 happ5s to come into contact ) ! t5tacles1 ^! curve ar\nd x1 hold+ x firmly1 & f9ally br++ x to ! m\?4 ,x is !n =c$ into ! cavity ( ! body ( ! animal1 :]e x is dige/$1 ! rema9s be+ dis*>g$ at ! m\?4 ,! movem5ts ( ! ,hydra1 :5 dev\r+ its prey1 =m a v curi\s & int]e/+ spectacle4 ,! ,hydr are propagat$ by budd+ or gemmation1 also by ! =mation ( capsules 9 ! walls ( ! body1 conta9+ ova & sp]matozoa4 ,! "y ,polypes =m$ by budd+ are repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 adh]+ to ! base ( ! p>5t4 ,s]tulria pmila 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ae7 is a m>9e species1 ! polypidom be+ frequ5tly f\nd adh]+ to ,fuci & o!r sea-we$s2 x is ab\t half an in* long4 ,! cells are opposite1 po9t$ at ! ends1 & ) an oblique orifice4 ,! t5tacles are f\rte5 9 ?is species4 ,9 ! summ] l>ge ovate cells are f\nd1 aris+ f ! polypidom2 ^! conta9 ! eggs1 & are call$ ovisacs or oviger\s vesicles4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,protoz,a 71 ,,fir/1 1 ,,animal74 ,! memb]s ( ?is subk+dom are ! l[e/ 9 ! scale ( animal organization1 _! bodies consi/+ ( a s(t gelat9\s & /ructureless mass1 :i* has a rem>kable t5d5cy to =m little cavities or vacuoles 9 its sub/ance1 & is call$ s>code 71 fle%74 ,!y exhibit no organs1 unless ! cilia & c]ta9 v>iable processes =m$ ( ! common sub/ance ( ! body1 & :i* =m _! ag5ts ( locomotion1 be consid]$ z su*1--?is sub/ance ex]cis+ ! comb9$ functions ( motion1 s5sation1 & secretion1 = :i* sep>ate organs exi/ 9 ! high] animals4 ,,rhizop,,oda 71 root1 1 foot74--,! animals belong+ to ?is class consi/ ( ! /ructureless col\rless sub/ance to :i* ref]5ce has be5 made z s>code1 & !y exhibit no organs4 ,! s>codic body is sl[ly contractile1 & portions ( x c be protrud$ at w 9 ! =m ( irregul> root-l processes1 act+ bo? z legs = locomotion & z t5tacles by :i* ! animal grasps its prey1 :i* is !n =c$ into ! sub/ance ( ! body1 :]e x becomes surr\nd$ by ! surface1 & a cavity is =m$1 )9 :i* x is dige/$4 ,amba difflu5s 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #aj7 is common 9 wat] 9 :i* portions ( plants h be5 kept = "s "t4 ,:5 fir/ plac$ on ! slide1 ! body appe>s z a m9ute1 transp>5t1 r\nd$ mass ( jelly2 b if obs]v$ = "s "t1 x w be se5 sl[ly to protrude its root-l processes2 & =eign bodies1 z ,diatomace or o!r m9ute ,alg1 w (t5 be f\nd imb$d$ 9 its sub/ance4 ,arcella vulgris 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #f7 is f\nd among ,conf]v 9 ponds & dit*-wat]4 ,x is conta9$ 9 a hemisph]ical %ell or c>apace1 f ! r\nd orifice ( :i* ! lob$ processes are protrud$4 ,! %ell is cov]$ ) m9ute pits4 ,arcella aculeta 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #g7 has ! convex %ell furni%$ ) sp9es2 fig4 #h repres5ts ! animal ) its processes ext5d$2 :ile ,arcella d5tta 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #i7 exhibits an angul> or some:at too!d membran\s %ell4 ,bo? ! latt] species are met ) 9 ! same localities z ! fir/4 ,actnophrys sol 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ab7 is a v beautiful & excessively delicate ,rhizopod4 ,! body is sph]ical1 & cov]$ ) v delicate & sl5d] cilia-l processes4 ,its movem5ts are exce$+ly sl[1 & c only be obs]v$ by prolong$ wat*+4 ,! body appe>s to be reticulat$1 f ! pres5ce ( num]\s vacuoles4 ,two l>ge gr\ps ( g5]a & species ( ,rhizopoda1 ! animal bodies possess+ ! above g5]al *>act]s1 mo/ly ) v sl5d] processes1 exi/1 9 "o ( :i* 7! ,,=am9if]a7 !y are conta9$ 9 calc>e\s %ells1 (t5 ( elegant =ms2 :ile 9 ! o!r 7! ,,polycy/9a7 ! %ells are silice\s or compos$ ( fl9t1 bo? k9ds ( %ells be+ p]=at$ ) holes4 ,^! %ells1 :i* occur 9 ! fossil /ate 9 enorm\s numb]s1 sometimes =m+ m\nta9-masses1 are extremely beautiful objects = ! microscope4 ,,spon,,gi4--,?is class conta9s ! ,sponges1 almo/ all ( :i* are m>9e & =eign1 & !re=e n likely to come "u obs]vation 9 ! p]fect /ate4 ,! sub/ance commonly call$ sponge is ! horny skeleton ( ! animal1 consi/+ usually ( r\nd$ fibres 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ac71 irregul>ly nett$ & int]lac+4 ,! surface ( a sponge exhibits m9ute pores & l>g] p\t+ orifices2 ! =m] ( :i* admit curr5ts ( wat]1 to be dis*>g$ at ! latt]1 bo? be+ ! m\?s ( cont9u\s *annels4 ,! surfaces ( ! *annels are l9$ ) s>codic matt]1 :i* takes ! =m ( ciliat$ ambi=m bodies1 by :i* ! curr5ts ( liquid are produc$4 ,! horny fibres ( sponges are /r5g!n$ by little silice\s or fl9ty bodies ( v>i\s =ms 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ac a1 b1 c71 :i* are imb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! fibres or atta*$ to _! surface1 & =m v curi\s microscopic objects4 ,!y are call$ spicula 7spiculum1 a d>t71 be+ (t5 ( a po9t$ =m4 ,9 "s sponges !y are calc>e\s4 ,,infusor,,ia4--,! animals conta9$ 9 ?is class are usually v m9ute1 be+ r>ely ev5 p]ceptible to ! nak$ eye1 except :5 exi/+ 9 v l>ge numb]s1 s z to r5d] ! wat] milky1 gre51 or r$4 ,!y are f\nd 9 all k9ds ( wat]1 b especially 9 /agnant pools & 9 decompos+ solutions or infusions ( vegetable matt]s4 ,! true /ructure ( _! bodies is a matt] ( d\bt1 "s au?ors hav+ consid]$ !m z be+ highly organiz$1 :ile o!rs h reg>d$ !m z consi/+ ( simple cells2 & :e!r !y are correctly ref]r$ to ! ,protozoa mu/ rema9 at pres5t a matt] ( d\bt4 ,! body is ( v>i\s =ms1 z repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,xi4 figs4 #af-dj4 ,9 "s ( !m x consi/s ( a simple s>codic mass1 evid5tly )\t any out] sk91 z %[n by its ready adhesion & lac]ation on accid5tal contact ) =eign bodies2 :ile 9 o!rs ! surface is regul>ly dott$ ) little depressions1 or ) nodules1 s z to resemble a def9itely organiz$ /ructure4 ,! mo/ /rik+ "* ( ! ,infusoria is ! pres5ce ( vibratile cilia1 :i* are v>i\sly arrang$2 9 "s entirely cov]+ ! body1 irregul>ly or 9 regul> r[s1 9 o!rs be+ situat$ at def9ite p>ts only4 ,by ! action ( ! cilia !y are enabl$ to swim freely 9 ! wat]1 also to obta9 _! food1 :i* consi/s ( m9ute ,alg or fragm5ts ( animal matt]4 ,9 _m ( !m !re is a special r[ or set ( cilia1 :i*1 by ! curr5ts x produces1 urges ! p>ticles ( food susp5d$ 9 ! wat] t[>ds ! m\?4 ,! cilia also act z respiratory organs1 by *ang+ ! wat] ) :i* _! bodies are 9 contact4 ,9 "s ( ! species !re are /\t bri/les or set1 by :i* !y are enabl$ to crawl ^u wat]-plants4 ,on c>efully exam9+ ! bodies ( ! ,infusoria1 r\nd$ granul> spots w be se51 frequ5tly conta9+ m9ute ,alg1 c4 7fig4 #bh b74 ,^! spots are ! dige/ive cavities1 & h be5 call$ ga/ric sacculi2 b :e!r !y are def9ite sacs or m]e excavations1 =m$ by ! p>ticles ( food hav+ be5 =c$ into ! s(t] int]nal sub/ance ( ! body1 has n be5 positively det]m9$4 ,! sacculi may be fill$ artificially by mix+ v f9e indigo1 or c>m9e1 on a slide ) ! wat] 9 :i* ! ,infusoria are conta9$4 ,a def9ite food-tube or alim5t>y canal has be5 detect$ 9 a few ( ! ,infusoria2 b x _c be %[n to exi/ 9 ! majority ( !m4 ,a m\? exi/s 9 mo/ ( !m1 & is sometimes indicat$ by a r[ or set ( cilia some:at l>g] ?an ^? exi/+ ^u o!r p>ts ( ! body1 & lead+ to or plac$ ne> x4 ,! p>ticles ( food :i* h ent]$ ! body are (t5 se5 to pass r\nd x1 z if circulat+1 desc5d+ on "o side & asc5d+ on ! o!r4 ,9 addition to ! ga/ric sacculi1 c]ta9 cle> transp>5t spots may also be se5 )9 ! body1 appe>+ light or d>k accord+ to ! adju/m5t ( ! focus4 ,if ^! are att5tively wat*$1 !y w be se5 to contract & f9ally disappe>1 becom+ aga9 di/5d$ & vani%+ at tol]ably regul> int]vals4 ,^! are ! contractile vesicles 7figs4 #bg a1 #bh a1 #cg a71 & !y conta9 a cle> liquid1 ! nature ( :i* is unc]ta94 ,9 _m ( ! ,infusoria is a r\nd or elongate granul> body 7figs4 #ca a1 #cf a71 :i* is call$ ! nucleus1 ! t]m hav+ be5 appli$ to x f a notion t ! ,infusoria consi/$ ( simple cells4 ,a m9ute r$ spot is also (t5 se5 at ! ant]ior end ( ! body1 :i* is suppos$ to repres5t an eye1 & is call$ an eye-spot4 ,! ,infusoria are propagat$ 9 sev]al ways3--by budd+ or gemmation1 new be+s spr\t+ out 9 a bud-l =m1 usually f ! base ( ! p>5t2 by division1 ei!r transv]se 7fig4 #bf a7 or longitud9al 7fig4 #cd b71 ( ! body gradually into two p>ts1 ea* ( :i* subsequ5tly becomes a p]fect animal2 by ency/+1 ! body contract+ into a globul> =m1 & =m+ a firm coat ar\nd x1 ! cont5ts becom+ resolv$ into a num]\s prog5y ( "y2 & by conjugation & ! ag5cy ( sp]matozoa & ova4 ,we w n[ proce$ to ! exam9ation ( a few species1 arrang+ !m 9 ! ord] ( ! families to :i* !y belong4 ,,monad,,ina4--,9 ?is family ! bodies ( ! ,infusoria are v s(t1 & )\t a sk9 or integum5t2 !y are also exce$+ly m9ute1 & w n admit ! p>ticles ( indigo4 ,monz l5s 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #af7 is v m9ute1 & commonly f\nd 9 old infusions4 ,its body is r\nd$ & flatt5$1 & granul> on ! surface4 ,at ! front end ( ! body is a :ip-l or flagelli=m 7flagellum1 a :ip7 filam5t1 diff]+ f a cilium 9 be+ rigid at ! base & moveable at ! end only1 by :i* x is enabl$ to r[ itself ?r\gh ! wat] ) a wriggl+ motion4 ,c]comonas globulus 7fig4 #ag7 has a sph]ical body1 ) two flagelli=m filam5ts1 "o aris+ f ! front1 ! o!r f ! end ( ! body4 ,9 ,c]comonas crassicauda 7fig4 #ah7 ! po/]ior filam5t is replac$ by a tail-l n>r[+ ( ! body4 ,het]omita ovta 7fig4 #ai7 has ! body ovate1 ) two long ant]ior flagelli=m filam5ts1 "o ( :i* is direct$ =w>ds1 :ile ! o!r trails beh9d4 ,an?ophysa mll]i 7fig4 #bj7 has ! monad bodies arrang$ 9 little heads at ! ends ( an irregul>ly bran*$ br[n /alk4 ,aft] a "t !y become deta*$ & revolve freely 9 ! wat]4 ,,d9obry,,ina4--,d9obryon s]tulria 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #ba7 =ms a m9ute ,s]tul>ia-l polypidom1 consi/+ ( r[s ( cells1 ea* conta9+ an oval monad ) a s+le ant]ior filam5t4 ,! two la/ species are common 9 bog-wat]4 ,,!camonad,,ina4--,9 ^! ,infusoria ! body is inclos$ 9 a firm & sometimes brittle %ell or c>apace4 ,tra*elomonas volvocina 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #bb7 has a sph]ical r$ %ell1 ! body be+ furni%$ ) a s+le filam5t & a m9ute r$ eye-spot2 :ile ,*toglna volvocina 7fig4 #bc7 has an oblong %ell1 cov]$ ) little sp9es4 ,,eugl,,nia4--,9 ?is family ! =m ( ! body is con/antly *ang+1 be+ at "o "t sph]ical1 at ano!r fusi=m or ovate4 ,x is cov]$ ) a contractile sk9 or firm] ext]nal portion1 & has "o or m flagelli=m filam5ts = locomotion4 ,! species are common 9 /agnant pools1 (t5 col\r+ ! wat] gre5 or r$4 ,euglna viridis 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #bd7 has a sp9dle-%ap$ body :5 fully exp&$1 ! ends be+ pale2 & at ! front end is a r$ eye-spot4 ,a/sia hmatdes 7fig4 #be71 :i* is probably a =m ( ! ,eugl5a1 is f\nd 9 /agnant pools1 :i* x r5d]s r$4 ,x has no eye-spot4 ,,en*,,lia4--,^! ,infusoria are f\nd 9 /agnant wat] & 9 decompos+ infusions4 ,! body is cov]$ ) cilia v>i\sly arrang$1 b !re is no integum5t nor m\?4 ,en*elys nodulsa 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #bf7 has a col\rless1 oblong1 irregul>ly nodul> body1 coat$ ) v sl5d] radiat+ cilia1 & (t5 exhibits num]\s vacuoles4 ,x is frequ5tly f\nd und]go+ transv]se division 7fig4 #bf a71 ! body becom+ gradually con/rict$ until x sep>ates into two p>ts1 :i* become p]fect animals4 ,alyscum saltans 7fig4 #ci7 has an ovoid-oblong1 slightly furr[$ body1 surr\nd$ ) radiat+ cilia1 & has a side bundle ( long retractile cilia1 by means ( :i* x leaps f place to place 9 ! wat]4 ,,k],,nia4--,9 ?is family ! body is s(t1 irregul>ly ciliat$1 )\t a special integum5t1 b has an oblique r[ ( vibratile cilia lead+ to ! m\?1 & /\t] cilia or bri/les 7set7 on c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body4 ,! sacculi (t5 conta9 ,diatomace1 c4 ,oxytri*a gibba 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #bg7 has a col\rless1 oblong body1 some:at exp&$ 9 ! middle1 ) set at ! two ends4 ,9 ! side view 7fig4 #bg a71 ! body is se5 to be convex above & flatt5$ b5ea?4 ,,p>amec,,ina4--,! species belong+ to ?is family h a s(t1 flexible body1 :i* is usually oblong & flatt5$ b5ea?1 ) an integum5t cov]$ regul>ly ) pits & r[s ( cilia4 ,colpoda cucullus 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #cj7 has a slightly compress$ body1 ciliat$ all ov]1 & kidney-%ap$ or r\nd$ on "o side & not*$ on ! o!r1 ! surface exhibit+ r[s ( nodules4 ,! m\? is situat$ at ! bottom ( ! not*4 ,p>amcium aurlia 7fig4 #bh7 has ! body oblong or oblong-ovate1 ! m\? be+ plac$ ne> ! ant]ior ?ird ( its "u "p4 ,?is infusorium is ( comp>atively l>ge size1 & is (t5 f\nd 9 imm5se numb]s 9 infusions1 :i* x r5d]s milky4 ,x is admirably adapt$ = %[+ ! sacculi1 :i* are easily fill$ ) indigo4 ,! body exhibits two rem>kable /ellate organs1 consi/+ ( a c5tral contractile vesicle1 surr\nd$ by sev]al radiately plac$ oval vesicles1 :i* may be se5 to contract & dilate ) great regul>ity4 ,! body is coat$ ) v f9e cilia4 ,amphileptus fascola 7fig4 #bi7 is furni%$ ) an elongate fusi=m or lanceolate flatt5$ body1 ) a lat]al oblique m\?4 ,*ilodon cucullulus 7fig4 #cg7 has an oblong ?9 body1 irregul>ly wavy on ! sides2 ! m\? be+ situat$ obliquely 9 front ( ! middle1 & furni%$ ) a cyl9d] ( p>allel rod-l tee?4 ,nassula elegans 7fig4 #ca7 has ! body ovoid or oblong1 becom+ globul> :5 contract$1 ! m\? be+ furni%$ ) tee? z 9 ,*ilodon4 ,x is (t5 f\nd among ,oscillatori4 ,,urceol>,,na4--,vorticella convallria 7,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #cd7 is v commonly met ) 9 decompos+ infusions4 ,! bell-%ap$ body is fix$ at ! end ( a sl5d] /alk1 :i* is (t5 se5 to be ext5d$ & !n sudd5ly contract$ into a spiral 7fig4 #cd a74 ,! cilia are arrang$ ar\nd a rais$ rim at ! front ( ! body1 & ext5d d[n a fissure lead+ to ! m\?4 ,! sacculi ( ?is infusorium may be readily fill$ ) indigo4 ,! process ( longitud9al division may also (t5 be obs]v$1 tak+ ab\t an h\r = its completion2 & :5 ! new individual is ab\t to sep>ate f ! p>5t1 a r+ ( cilia may be notic$ to h sprung up ar\nd ! base 7fig4 #cf74 ,! ency/+ process is also (t5 visible1 ! cilia disappe>+1 & ! body becom+ globul> & secret+ a cy/ ar\nd x2 aft] a "t ! cont5ts become resolv$ into a numb] ( embryos1 :i* escape by ! bur/+ ( ! cy/ 7fig4 #ce74 ,9 "s cases ! ,vorticella assumes ! =m ( a ,podophrya 7fig4 #dj71 ! surface becom+ cov]$ ) t5tacle-l processes4 ,?is ,podophrya 0 =m]ly consid]$ a di/9ct species4 ,vag9icola cry/all9a 7fig4 #cc7 is conta9$ 9 a cry/all9e tube1 f :i* ! body c be protrud$4 ,! body is ( v>iable =m1 pres5t+ :5 fully ext5d$ a trumpet %ape4 ,! cilia exi/ at ! ant]ior end1 & ext5d d[n a lat]al fissure z 9 ,vorticella4 ,x is f\nd atta*$ to ,conf]v 9 ! wat] ( ponds & bog-pools4 ,/5tor polymorphus 7fig4 #ch7 is a v beautiful trumpet-%ap$ infusorium1 ! body be+ cov]$ ) spiral r[s ( cilia4 ,! rim is furni%$ ) /\t] cilia1 its m>g9s at ! not* be+ spirally turn$ inw>ds4 ,?is infusorium is (t5 f\nd 9 little gr\ps atta*$ to a gelat9\s mass 7fig4 #ch c72 & x is met ) also 9 a free or unatta*$ /ate4 ,,colep,,ina4--,cleps hirtus 7fig4 #cb7 has a b>rel-%ap$ c>apace1 transv]sely & longitud9ally furr[$1 ! furr[s be+ occupi$ by cilia4 ,x has two or ?ree sp9es beh9d1 & t5 or twelve at ! front end ( ! c>apace4 ,x is common among ,conf]v1 & is v voraci\s1 fe$+ ^u dead ,entomo/raca1 c42 & if di/urb$1 at its meal by mov+ ! cov]1 x w soon return & resume fe$+ z be=e4 ,exam9ation4--,! ,infusoria mu/ be exam9$ dur+ life2 = !y are s alt]$ by pres]vative liquids t !y _c be well pres]v$4 ,! %ells ( ^? t are provid$ ) !m may be kept simply dri$ ^u a slide1 & 9 ?is way a few w reta9 _! =m1 & ! cilia ( all may be m easily di/+ui%$2 ! vacuoles may also !n be se5 v di/9ctly4 ,:5 !y are conf9$ 9 a small quantity ( wat] & are ab\t to die1 a curi\s ph5om5on may be obs]v$ 9 !m1 a numb] ( oil-l s>codic globules exud+ f ! body1 & )9 ^!1 vacuoles may (t5 be se5 to =m spontane\sly4 ,! ,infusoria may be collect$ 9 small phials2 b x is difficult to keep !m1 z !y =m ! food ( ! ,entomo/raca1 ! ,rotatoria1 & ! l>v ( insects2 s t _! enemies are v num]\s1 & !y soon disappe>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,classification4--,be=e leav+ ! subject ( liv+ bodies1 x may be well to make a few rem>ks ^u _! sy/ematic relation z def9$ by classification4 ,all natural bodies are ref]able to "o ( ?ree great k+doms1 viz4 ! ,animal1 ! ,vegetable1 or ! ,m9]al ,k+dom4 ,! bodies belong+ to ! latt] seldom come "u ! notice ( ! microscopic obs]v]1 z !y are mo/ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 & _! m9ute /ructure is ! same z t ( ! l>g] masses4 ,! g5]al /ructure ( ! memb]s ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms has be5 illu/rat$ 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,^! bodies are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! m9]al k+dom by _! vital p[] ( appropriat+ surr\nd+ matt]s to _! own nutrition & gr[?--?is p[] be+ ex]cis$ by _! organs1 or1 9 ! l[e/ =ms1 by any portion ( _! sub/ance4 ,h5ce animals & vegetables or plants are t]m$ organic bodies1 :ile m9]als are t]m$ inorganic bodies1 z hav+ no organs2 & ! mat]ial ( :i* organic bodies consi/ is t]m$ organic matt]1 t ( m9]als be+ inorganic matt]4 ,b 9 bo? animals & plants inorganic matt] is mix$ ) ! organic matt]1 hav+ be5 tak5 up or absorb$ f ! inorganic k+dom1 al?\gh x does n usually exi/ 9 its *>act]i/ic condition1 :i* is t ( cry/als1 i4 e4 angul> solids1 z cry/als ( ,epsom salts1 c4 ,! individual memb]s ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms are sy/ematically divid$ into c]ta9 gr\ps1 & ^! into successively small] gr\ps until we arrive at ! species4 ,^! gr\ps are f\nd$ ^u ! possession ( c]ta9 po9ts ( resemblance by _! memb]s1 =m+ ! di/+ui%+ *>act]s1 & _! names are significant & def9ite4 ,!y usually run z foll[s1 ! l>g] & high] gr\ps /&+ fir/ 9 ord]3--,k+doms1 ,subk+doms1 ,classes1 ,ord]s1 ,families1 ,tribes1 ,g5]a1 & ,species4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! t]m species has a diff]5t value f t ( ! o!r t]ms2 = ! individuals ( :i* ! species consi/ are n only relat$ by resemblance ( /ructure1 b also by _! orig9--be+ suppos$ to h d]iv$ _! orig9 f a p>5t ( orig9al creation2 :ile ! o!r gr\ps h1 z f> z we "k1 no o!r relation ?an t ( simil>ity ( /ructure4 ,x is obvi\s t ! *>act]s ( ! v>i\s gr\ps might be f\nd$ ^u peculi>ities ( any k9d4 ,b on ?is po9t two me?ods mu/ be specially di/+ui%$1 9 "o ( :i* ! gr\ps are f\nd$ ^u ! sum ( all ! peculi>ities1 :ile 9 ! o!r !y are bas$ ^u ! /ructure ( s+le p>ts or organs4 ,9 ! =m] case ! sy/em is call$ natural1 9 ! latt] artificial4 ,& :ile ! latt] (t5 br+s toge!r be+s :i* h p]haps b "o or two po9ts ( resemblance1 & sep>ates o!rs :i* are closely relat$1 ! =m] associates ^? :i* are really & naturally simil>4 ,all ! gr\ps h special names1 s t !y may be ref]r$ to & spok5 ( z 9 ! case ( common ?+s2 ! names be+ compos$ ( ,greek or ,lat9 words1 s t !y may be intelligible to all nations2 & z ^! are dead languages1 !y w rema9 good = all "t4 ,9 m5tion+ ! "n ( an animal or plant1 ! "n ( ! g5us is always us$ ) t ( ! species2 ?us1 ! "n ( ,*ickwe$ is ,/ell>ia m$ia4 ,because !re are mo/ly sev]al species 9 a g5us2 s t if ! "n ( ! g5us only 7 us$1 ! species meant w\ld be unc]ta92 & z !re are (t5 species ( ! same "n 9 diff]5t g5]a1 if ! "n ( ! species only 7 us$1 ! g5us meant w\ld be d\btful4 ,! classification ( animals & plants s]ves two important purposes3 "o is t ! /ructural peculi>ities & aff9ities ( ! gr\ps may be contra/$ & a k ( _! absolute & _! diff]5tial *>act]s acquir$1 & = ?is a natural sy/em is em95tly s]viceable2 ! second is t ( enabl+ any animal or plant to be simply di/+ui%$ f any o!r1 = :i* an artificial or analytical sy/em is extremely useful4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,optical ,,pr9ciples4 ,we %all n[ devote a few pages to ! consid]ation ( ! nature ( light1 & ! optical pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! con/ruction & use ( ! microscope4 ,two !ories ( light h be5 prop\nd$4 ,accord+ to "o1 light consi/s ( m9ute p>ticles emanat+ f self-lum9\s bodies1 z ! sun1 a c&le1 or a r$-hot piece ( iron2 ?is is call$ ! corpuscul> !ory4 ,accord+ to ! o!r1 light consi/s ( waves or undulations l ^? ( wat] or ! e>s ( corn set 9 motion by ! w9d1 ( ! molecules ( an extremely subtle & r>ifi$ ela/ic matt]1 call$ e!r1 exi/+ ev]y:]e1 & set 9 motion by ! causes :i* produce light2 ?is is call$ ! undulatory !ory4 ,! consid]ation ( ! m]its ( ^! two !ories w\ld be =eign to our purpose3 suffice x to say t ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! undulatory !ory prepond]ates1 s t ! corpuscul> !ory is n[ laid aside4 ,x w (t5 be requisite to make use ( ! t]m ray ( light1 by :i* mu/ be und]/ood ! smalle/ bundle ( lum9\s undulations :i* c be sep>at$ f a mass ( light--z by pass+ light ?r\gh a small hole 9 an opake body1 or by any equival5t me?od4 ,! mo/ casual obs]v] mu/ h notic$ t ! rays ( light move 9 /raight l9es2 z :5 ! sun's rays are se5 ent]+ a d>k room ?r\gh a small w9d[ or o!r ap]ture1 _! direction be+ !n di/9ctly visible2 ! mann] 9 :i* ord9>y %ad[s are =m$ also illu/rates ! same fact4 ,refraction4--,b :5 ! rays 9 _! passage imp+e or are incid5t ^u & ent] a transp>5t m$ium or mat]ial1 ( a diff]5t d5sity f t :i* !y 7 at fir/ trav]s+1 _! c\rse becomes alt]$1 & ! l9e ( _! direction brok51 :5ce !y are said to be refract$4 ,if ! m$ium ^u :i* ! rays imp+e be d5s] ?an t ?r\gh :i* !y 7 at fir/ pass+1 !y w be refract$ t[>ds a l9e p]p5dicul> to ! surface1 or !y w be refract$ t[>ds ! p]p5dicul>1 z x is express$4 ,?us1 z %[n 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #a1 ! incid5t ray i1 ent]+ ! plate ( glass1 w be refract$ at its surface 9 ! direction a r1 t[>ds ! l9e p1 :i* is p]p5dicul> to ! surface4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! rays und]go refraction dep5ds ^u ! degree ( d5sity ( ! m$ium1 & v>ies 9 ! case ( ea* individual sub/ance2 b x foll[s a def9ite law4 ,if1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #b1 a circle be drawn ar\nd ! po9t b1 at :i* ! ray a is incid5t1 b r repres5t+ ! refract$ ray1 ! l9es s i & t r1 drawn at "r angles to ! p]p5dicul> p1 w =m respectively ! s9es1 z !y are call$1 ( ! angles s b i & t b r2 s i be+ ! s9e ( ! angle ( incid5ce s b i1 or ! angle =m$ by ! incid5t ray ) ! p]p5dicul>1 & t r ! s9e ( ! angle ( refraction t b r1 or ( t =m$ by ! refract$ ray ) ! p]p5dicul>4 ,^! s9es1 = brevity1 are call$ ! s9es ( incid5ce & ( refraction2 & !y be> a con/ant ratio or proportion to ea* o!r4 ,tak+ ! s9e ( refraction z ! unit1 or z #a1 ! value ( ! s9e ( incid5ce repres5ts ! refractive index or ! refractive p[] ( ! m$ium = a ray ent]+ ! m$ium f a vacuum2 or1 ! refractive p[] ( air be+ extremely small1 ! value ( ! s9e ( incid5ce may be consid]$ z repres5t+ ! refractive p[] f air into ! m$ium4 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,page #afh4 ,,optical ,,pr9ciples4 ,fig4 #a4 ,refraction ?r\gh a glass plate4 #b4 ,law ( refraction4 #c4 ,reflexion f a plane surface4 #d4 ,reflexion f a concave mirror4 #e4 ,refraction at a curv$ surface4 #f4 ,a d\bly convex l5s4 #g4 ,a plano-convex l5s4 #h4 ,a d\bly concave l5s4 #i4 ,a plano-concave l5s4 #aj4 ,a concavo-convex l5s1 or m5iscus4 #aa4 ,refraction ?r\gh a convex l5s4 #ab4 ,relation ( a convex l5s to prisms4 #ac4 ,relation ( a concave l5s to prisms4 #ad4 ,refraction ( p>allel rays ?r\gh a convex l5s4 #ae4 ,refraction ( conv]g+ rays ?r\gh a convex l5s4 #af4 ,refraction ( div]g+ rays ?r\gh a convex l5s4 #ag4 ,refraction ( p>allel rays ?r\gh a concave l5s4 #ah4 ,sph]ical ab]ration4 #ai4 ,disp]sion & =mation ( a spectrum4 #bj4 ,*romatic ab]ration4 #ba4 ,=mation ( images 9 ! eye4 #bb4 ,angle ( vision4 #bc4 ,objects too ne> ! eye4 #bd4 ,action ( convex l5s 9 vision4 #be4 ,aplanatism4 #bf4 ,ab]ration produc$ by cov]4 #bg4 ,c\rse ( rays ?r\gh ! microscope4 #bh4 ,a*romatism4 #bi4 ,waves ( light conspir+ 7a1 b71 & int]f]+ 7b1 c74 #cj4 ,pol>ization3 t1 t\rmal9e2 d1 cry/al2 s1 cry/al ( calc>e\s sp>4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii4 ,w ,bagg sculp ,london3 ,john ,van ,voor/4 ,al?\gh ! ratio ( ! s9es is con/ant1 ! refractive index v>ies 9 diff]5t m$ia4 ,?us t ( air is #ajjjc2 ( wat]1 #accf2 ( ,canada balsam1 #aedi2 ( cr[n glass1 f :i* w9d[-panes are made1 #aece2 ( fl9t glass1 f :i* bottles are made1 #af2 ( ,f>aday's heavy glass1 compos$ ( silicat$ borate ( lead1 #ah2 & ( t consi/+ ( borate ( lead1 #bj4 ,a k ( ?is 8law ( ! s9es0 is ( practical importance 9 det]m9+ ! direction :i* ! rays w pursue :5 transmitt$ ?r\gh glass l5ses1 c4 ! refractive index ( :i* is kn[n2 or 9 asc]ta9+ ! curve :i* %\ld be giv5 to _! surfaces = produc+ a p>ticul> refraction & focal l5g?4 ,?us1 suppos+ ! plate ( glass 9 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #b to consi/ ( cr[n glass1 ! refractive index ( :i* is #ae1 ! l5g? ( ! s9e ( refraction1 t r1 w be equal to "o "p or dim5sion1 :ile ! s9e ( incid5ce1 s i1 is equal to "o "p & a half4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t :5 light is incid5t at a "r angle to ! surface ( ! m$ium1 no refraction takes place1 ! transmitt$ ray pursu+ its orig9al c\rse4 ,:5 a ray ( light leaves a d5s] m$ium1 su* z glass1 to ent] a r>] m$ium1 su* z air1 x becomes refract$ f ! p]p5dicul>4 ,9 su* case1 ! angle ( refraction be+ great] ?an ! angle ( incid5ce1 its s9e w also be great] ?an t ( ! latt]2 b ! ratio is /ill pres]v$4 ,reflexion4--,:5 rays ( light fall ^u a plane surface1 z ! flat surface ( ! mirror1 a great] or less numb] ( !m are reflect$1 & ?is accord+ to a def9ite law1 by :i* ! angle ( incid5ce1 or t =m$ by ! incid5t ray ) ! p]p5dicul>1 is equal to ! angle ( reflexion1 or t =m$ by ! reflect$ ray ) ! same4 ,?us1 z %[n 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #c1 ! angle i b p1 =m$ by ! incid5t ray i b ) ! p]p5dicul> p1 is equal to ! angle p b r1 =m$ by ! reflect$ ray b r ) ! p]p5dicul> p b4 ,if ! body ^u ! surface ( :i* ! rays are incid5t be transp>5t1 "s ( ! rays w be refract$ & w pass ?r\gh x1 :il/ o!rs w be reflect$4 ,! proportion ( ^? reflect$ is smalle/ :5 ! rays are incid5t p]p5dicul>ly to ! surface2 b ?is increases z ! incid5t rays become m oblique1 i4 e4 z ! angle ( incid5ce becomes great]1 al?\gh at no degree ( obliquity are ! :ole ( ! rays reflect$4 ,! case is diff]5t1 h[ev]1 ) ^? rays :i* ent] ! sub/ance & imp+e ^u its inn] or second surface2 = ^! at a p>ticul> angle ( incid5ce und]go total reflexion1 s t none ( ! rays are transmitt$ at ! second surface4 ,! angle ( total reflexion is con/ant = ! same m$ium1 b diff]5t = diff]5t m$ia3 ?us 9 cr[n glass x is equal to ab\t #dj1 9 fl9t-glass #ch1 c42 & ?is int]nal reflexion f ! second surface ( transp>5t m$ia is m p]fect ?an t occurr+ at ! surface ( opake reflect+ surfaces or mirrors4 ,if ! reflect+ surface be concave1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #d1 p>allel rays w be reflect$ to a focus a1 ne>] ! mirror ?an ! c5tre ( its curvature b1 & ?is focus is call$ ! pr9cipal focus2 :ile div]g+ rays are br\ght to a focus ne>] ! c5tre ( curvature2 & conv]g+ rays =m a focus fur!r f ! c5tre ( curvature4 ,l5ses4--,9 mo/ in/ances1 z f> z ! microscope is conc]n$1 ! surfaces ( ! glass ?r\gh :i* ! rays ( light are transmitt$ are n plane or flat1 b curv$-be+ ei!r convex or concave1 & belong+ to convex or concave l5ses4 ,9 consid]+ ! c\rse ( rays ?r\gh curv$ surfaces1 ! refraction may be view$ z tak+ place at a plane surface =m+ a tang5t at ! po9t ( incid5ce ( ea* ray2 or ea* curv$ surface may be reg>d$ z consi/+ ( a numb] ( m9ute plane surfaces plac$ at "r angles to ! p]p5dicul>4 ,?us1 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #e1 ! ray a1 incid5t at ! po9t b ( ! curv$ surface1 is refract$ t[>ds ! p]p5dicul> p1 z if x _h fall5 ^u ! plane surface repres5t$ by ! tang5t t4 ,! =ms ( ! mo/ common l5ses are repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 figs4 #f-aj2--;fig4 #f be+ d\bly convex1 or bo? surfaces be+ convex2 fig4 #g1 plano-convex1 or "o surface plane1 ! o!r convex2 fig4 #h1 d\bly concave1 or bo? surfaces be+ concave2 fig4 #i1 plano-concave1 "o surface be+ plane1 ! o!r concave2 & fig4 #aj is a m5iscus1 9 :i* "o surface is convex & ! o!r concave4 ,! curv$ surfaces ( l5ses are usually portions ( sph]es4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! c\rse ( a ray may be trac$ ?r\gh a l5s is illu/rat$ by ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #aa1 :i* requires no explanation aft] :at has be5 already /at$4 ,to facilitate ! compreh5sion ( ! g5]al action ( l5ses1 !y may be reg>d$ z compos$ ( two triangul> prisms1 ) _! bases 9 contact 9 a convex l5s1 z 9 fig4 #ab2 _! apices be+ oppos$ 9 a concave l5s1 z 9 fig4 #ac4 ,! po9t to :i* ! rays conv]ge aft] pass+ ?r\gh a convex l5s is call$ ! focus 7,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ad f71 ! di/ance ( :i* f ! c5tre ( ! l5s1 call$ ! focal l5g?1 obvi\sly dep5ds ^u ! direction ( ! incid5t rays4 ,:5 ^! are p>allel1 :i* ^? com+ f di/ant objects may be consid]$ to be1 ! focus at :i* !y meet is call$ ! pr9cipal focus1 or ! focus = p>allel rays3 ?us1 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ad1 ! p>allel rays meet at f1 :i* is ! pr9cipal focus4 ,if ! incid5t rays are conv]g5t1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ae1 ! focus o w be situat$ ne>] ! l5s ?an ! pr9cipal focus1 f4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are div]g5t1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #af1 ! focus f w be situat$ fur!r f ! l5s ?an ! pr9cipal focus o4 ,by concave l5ses ! incid5t rays are r5d]$ div]g5t1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ag1 z if !y emanat$ f a po9t f1 situat$ on ! same side ( ! l5s z t ^u :i* ! rays are incid5t1 & call$ ! virtual focus4 ,sph]ical ab]ration4--,al?\gh1 z a g5]al expression1 we h /at$ t ! rays ( light meet at a focus on pass+ ?r\gh a convex l5s1 ?is is n /rictly correct4 ,=1 9 ord9>y convex l5ses1 ! m>g9al rays are m refract$ ?an ! c5tral ones1 & meet at focal po9ts ne>] ! l5s ?an ! latt]1 z %[n 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ah4 ,?is important defect is call$ sph]ical ab]ration1 & arises f ! lat]al rays be+ incid5t ^u m oblique portions ( ! curv$ surface ( ! l5s ?an ! c5tral rays4 ,h5ce objects se5 ?r\gh su* l5ses appe> mi/y & confus$1 ! c5tral & lat]al p>ts ( a flat object n be+ visible at ! same "t2 & ev5 :5 ! m>g9al p>ts are visible1 !y appe> di/ort$ or de=m$4 ,sph]ical ab]ration is greate/ 9 ! mo/ convex l5ses2 &1 9 a plano-convex l5s1 x is lea/ :5 p>allel rays ent] at or em]ge f its convex surface4 ,9 c]ta9 l5ses1 ! convex surface ( :i* has ! =m ( a p>abola1 a hyp]bola1 or an ellipse1 ! sph]ical ab]ration is abs5t2 b x is impossible to gr9d microscopic l5ses ( ^! =ms ) absolute accuracy1 s t ! fact is ( no practical value4 ,! =m ( simple convex l5s mo/ free f ab]ration is t 9 :i* ! curves ( ! two surfaces =m p>ts ( a sph]e1 ! radii ( ! curves be+ z #a to #f2 ! focal l5g? be+ r less ?an twice ! l5g? ( ! radius ( ! mo/ convex surface4 ,?is =m ( l5s comes v ne> to a plano-convex l5s1 :i* is consequ5tly ! be/ =m = a simple l5s4 ,disp]sion1 or ,*romatic ,ab]ration4--,! rays ( light h s f> be5 consid]$ z simple4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 9 reality comp\nd1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( prim>y-col\r$ rays1 ( :i* sev5 k9ds are easily di/+ui%able1 viz4 r$1 orange1 yell[1 gre51 blue1 indigo1 & violet4 ,! col\r$ rays ( ! sun are1 z is well kn[n1 (t5 se5 sep>at$ by ! action ( ! triangul> glass b>s or prisms =m+ ! lu/res ( a *&eli]2 ! sep>ation aris+ f ! diff]5t refrangibility ( ! col\r$ rays1 by :i* ea* is refract$ to a diff]5t degree f t ( ! o!rs4 ,?is is %[n 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ai1 repres5t+ a ray ( :ite light ent]+ a triangul> prism1 at ! surface ( :i* ! pa?s ( ! rays become diff]5t accord+ to ! degree ( _! refrangibility1 :5ce !y em]ge sep>ately1 =m+ a spectrum at v r2 ! mo/ refrangible violet rays 7v7 be+ mo/ refract$1 ! less refrangible r$ 7r7 lea/ s1 ! int]m$iate rays be+ refract$ to int]m$iate degrees accord+ to _! respective refrangibilities4 ,?is sep>ation ( ! col\r$ rays is call$ disp]sion2 & z diff]5t sub/ances or m$ia disp]se ! col\r$ rays ov] a l>g] or small] space1 s z to produce spectra ( diff]5t l5g?s1 !y are said to possess diff]5t disp]sive p[]s4 ,?us ! disp]sive p[] ( fl9t glass & balsam are ab\t equal1 :ile t ( cr[n glass is consid]ably less4 ,! ext5t to :i* disp]sion is produc$ by ! same m$ium also dep5ds ^u ! angle ( ! prism1 be+ great] z ! angle is l>g]2 increas$ obliquity ( ! incid5t light also increases ! disp]sion1 s t ! spectrum produc$ by a small prism may be equal to t produc$ by a l>g] "o ^u :i* ! light is less obliquely incid5t4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! disp]sion ( light1 rays pass+ ?r\gh a convex l5s d n meet at a s+le po9t or focus 7,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #bj71 b =m z _m foci z !re are col\r$ rays4 ,:5 ! spectrum is receiv$ ^u a convex l5s1 ! col\r$ rays are br\ght to a focus1 & ! light appe>s aga9 :ite2 = x is only :5 ! prim>y-col\r$ rays are p>allel1 & se5 close toge!r1 t !y produce ! impression ( :ite or col\rless light4 ,! spectra produc$ by diff]5t disp]sive m$ia n only diff] 9 l5g?1 b also 9 ! bread? ( ! col\r$ spaces n be+ 9 ! same ratio to ea* o!r2 h5ce ! spectra are said to be irrational1 or ! disp]sion is said to be irrational4 ,vision4--,! visibility ( an object dep5ds ^u ! rays ( light :i* emanate f ea* po9t ( its surface pres5t$ to ! eye be+ br\ght to a focus ^u ! retina or expansion ( ! n]ve ( sight l9+ ! inside ( ! back ( ! eye2 s t1 an image ( ea* po9t be+ impress$ ^u ! ret9a1 ! sum ( ! images =ms ! comp\nd image ( ! entire object4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! image is =m$ is %[n 9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #ba1 9 :i*1 to prev5t confusion1 ! rays com+ f ?ree po9ts ( ! arr[ only h be5 repres5t$4 ,! rays div]g+ f ^! ?ree po9ts1 a b c1 =m cones 9 contact by _! bases2 ! apex ( ea* cone outside ! eye be+ situat$ at ! po9ts a b c1 ! common base ( ea* be+ situat$ at ! cry/all9e l5s x1 imm$iately beh9d ! pupil or r\nd$ ap]ture 9 ! col\r$ curta9 ( ! eye1 call$ ! iris1 i i1 & :i* limits ! base ( ! cones4 ,! apices ( ! cones )9 ! eye1 abc1 are =m$ by ! rays br\ght to foci ^u ! ret9a by ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,! m>g9al cones ( rays com+ f ! object cross )9 ! eye1 s t ! upp]mo/ rays f ! object become l[]mo/ ^u ! ret9a1 & ?us an inv]t$ image ( ! object is =m$4 ,?is appe>s to ! eye to be erect1 because ! eye or r ! m9d judges ! p>ts ( an object to be situat$ 9 t direction 9 :i* ! rays com+ f !m are impress$ ^u x4 ,h5ce1 z 9 fig4 #ba1 ! rays impress$ ^u ! ret9a at ! l[] "p a1 appe> to come f ! upp] "p ( ! cross1 al?\gh !y are l[]mo/ 9 ! image1 & s on = ! o!r rays4 ,= di/9ct vision ! rays ( ea* cone mu/ be p>allel1 or ne>ly s4 ,angle ( ,vision4--,! m>g9al rays com+ f ! object cross at a po9t correspond+ to ! c5tre ( ! pupil1 & ?us =m an angle1 z se5 9 fig4 #bb1 :]e ! cones are omitt$1 to avoid confusion2 ?is angle is ! angle ( vision4 ,n[ ! size :i* objects appe> to possess is measur$ by ?is angle1 or by ! l9e> magnitude ( _! images 7i4 e4 _! size e/imat$ 9 "o direction1 z ( l5g? or bread?7 ^u ! ret9a4 ,:5 ! object is di/ant1 ! angle & its l9e> magnitude are small1 & x appe>s small & di/ant2 :il/ if x be l>ge1 or if small & br\ght ne> ! eye1 ! rev]se w be ! case4 ,magnification4--,h5ce an object may be made to appe> l>g]1 or may be magnifi$1 by increas+ ! l9e> magnitude ( its image ^u ! ret9a1 :i* c be done by br++ x ne>] ! eye1 z %[n 9 fig4 #bb1 :]e ! image ( b =m$ at b is l>g] ?an ! image ( a =m$ at a4 ,b :5 an object is br\ght ne>] ! eye ?an ab\t #h or #aj in*es 7= ! di/ance v>ies ) diff]5t p]sons71 its image becomes indi/9ct & mi/y2 & ?is because ! rays compos+ ! cones are too div]g5t to meet at a focus ^u ! ret9a1 z %[n 9 fig4 #bc4 ,by int]pos+ a convex l5s1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! eye & ! object1 ! too div]g5t rays may be made to meet at a focus ^u ! ret9a1 z 9 fig4 #bd1 ! object at ! same "t be+ r5d]$ app>5tly l>g] or magnifi$1 f ! refract+ action ( ! l5s ^u ! cones4 ,aplanatism 7a1 n1 1 to w&]74--,! effect ( sph]ical ab]ration 9 r5d]+ ! image ( an object se5 ?r\gh a l5s indi/9ct & mi/y may n[ be intelligible4 ,9 ord] t su* image may be di/9ct1 ! rays emanat+ f ea* po9t ( ! object mu/ conv]ge at "o spot ^u ! ret9a4 ,b s9ce1 :5 sph]ical ab]ration exi/s1 ! m>g9al rays are m refract$ ?an ! c5tral ones1 !y w meet at foci be=e ^? =m$ by ! latt]2 & :5 ! foci ( "o set are co9cid5t ) ! ret9a1 s t ! image w\ld o!rwise be di/9ct1 ! latt] is r5d]$ confus$ & indi/9ct by ! rays ( ! o!r set4 ,9 ?is consid]ation1 we imply t !re are only two sets ( rays1 ! c5tral & ! m>g9al2 b ! c5tral & m>g9al rays are n sep>ate1 = ! rays possess e int]m$iate degree ( obliquity1 h5ce ! foci & images are really innum]able4 ,n[ !re are evid5tly two me?ods ( de/roy+ or correct+ sph]ical ab]ration1 viz4 by exclud+ ! m>g9al rays1 or by alt]+ _! direction4 ,! exclusion ( ! m>g9al rays is (t5 adopt$2 & is effect$ by means ( a diaphragm1 or /op z x is call$4 ,?is consi/s ( a plate ( metal1 ) a r\nd ap]ture 9 ! middle1 & x is plac$ beh9d ! l5s2 b x has ! s]i\s defect ( dim9i%+ consid]ably ! am\nt ( light transmitt$4 ,! alt]ation ( ! direction ( ! m>g9al rays is produc$ by refraction1 a ?9 plano-concave l5s be+ plac$ 9 front ( ! convex "o 7,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #be74 ,! d\bly convex l5s is compos$ ( cr[n glass1 & ! concave l5s ( fl9t glass1 :i* has a high] refractive & disp]sive p[] ?an cr[n glass4 ,9 ?is way we get a comp\nd l5s1 :i*1 if ! two l5ses _h ! same refractive p[]1 w\ld simply am\nt to a plano-concave l5s ) ! m>g9al portions remov$4 ,b z ! concave l5s consi/s ( m highly refract+ mat]ial ?an ! convex1 if ! curve & ?ickness ( ! two l5ses be prop]ly adapt$1 ! m>g9al portions ( ! concave correct ! too great conv]g5ce ( ! m>g9al rays produc$ by ! convex l5s1 & s ! rays are br\ght to ne>ly ! same focus4 ,an idea ( ?is action may be obta9$ f fig4 #be1 ! dott$ l9es indicat+ ! direction :i* ! rays w\ld take1 if pass+ ?r\gh ! convex l5s only4 ,a l5s 9 :i* ! sph]ical ab]ration is correct$ is said to be aplanatic4 ,a*rmatism4--,suppos+ ! sph]ical ab]ration ( a l5s to be correct$1 !re /ill rema9s ! *romatic ab]ration 7p4 #agc72 = al?\gh ! c5tral or mean col\r$ rays may meet at a focus1 ! o!r col\r$ rays belong+ to ! same comp\nd or ord9>y ray w meet at diff]5t foci1 s t a s]ies ( col\r$ images ( ! object w be =m$ at diff]5t di/ances f ! l5s2 h5ce1 at :i*ev] focus ! object is view$1 x w appe> col\r$4 ,n[ ! col\r$ prim>y rays c only be made to co9cide 9 direction1 s t ! light p>ts ( an object may appe> :ite1 by refraction4 ,& ! correction is produc$ by ! same plano-concave l5s z t :i* corrects ! sph]ical ab]ration4 ,b 9 ?is case ! relative disp]sive p[]s ( ! m$ia compos+ ! convex & ! concave l5ses =m ! po9t to be consid]$4 ,if ! disp]sive p[] ( ! m$ia ( :i* ! convex & concave l5ses are compos$ 7 ! same1 ! disp]sive p[] ( ! convex l5s w\ld be 9 excess1 & ! col\r$ rays 9 ea* comp\nd ray c\ld n become p>allel4 ,b by =m+ ! concave l5s ( a m highly disp]sive m$ium1 ) a less proportional mean refraction ?an ! convex1 :5 ! curves ( ! surfaces & ! relative ?ickness ( ! l5ses are prop]ly adju/$1 ! disp]sive action ( ! concave l5s may be made equal to t ( ! convex2 & be+ ex]t$ 9 ! opposite direction1 ! col\r$ rays w become p>allel & meet at a s+le focus4 ,?is may be elucidat$ by consid]+ ! l5ses z compos$ ( prisms4 ,?us1 let fig4 #bh repres5t ! comp\nd l5s1 ! two halves ( ! d\bly convex l5s act+ z two triangul> prisms 7fig4 #ai7 ) _! bases oppos$1 conv]g+ ! comp\nd :ite rays w w1 & disp]s+ ! col\r$ elem5t>y rays1 :i* w\ld =m spectra at s s4 ,9 ! plano-concave l5s ! triangul> prisms may be consid]$ z plac$ ) _! apices t[>ds ea* o!r1 & s w\ld t5d to disp]se ! col\r$ rays 9 ! opposite direction1 to =m spectra at t t4 ,!n1 suppos+ ! disp]sions to be equal & 9 opposite directions1 ! col\r$ rays w\ld become p>allel & meet at a def9ite focus1 ! col\r be+ de/roy$4 ,at ! same "t1 ! sph]ical action ( ! concave l5s be+ opposite to t ( ! convex1 ! conv]g+ action ( ! latt] w be dim9i%$1 s t ! focus ( ! comp\nd l5s w be long] ?an t ( ! convex alone2 b z ! disp]sive p[] ( ! concave is great] relatively ?an t ( ! convex1 ! mean refraction is less alt]$ ?an ! refraction or disp]sion ( ! sep>ate col\r$ rays2 s t ! concave :olly opposes or corrects ! disp]sion produc$ by ! convex1 :ile x only p>tially corrects its mean refraction4 ,a l5s 9 :i* ! *romatic & sph]ical ab]rations are correct$ or de/roy$ is commonly call$ a*romatic2 al?\gh ! t]m prop]ly applies to ! correction ( ! col\r only4 ,if 9 a comp\nd l5s ! *romatic ab]ration is only p>tially correct$1 s t ! r$ rays /ill meet at a focus beyond ! violet1 z 9 a simple uncorrect$ l5s 7fig4 #bj71 ! l5s is said to be "u-correct$1 or ! ab]ration to be positive2 :ile if ! correct+ action ( ! plano-concave l5s be too great1 s t ! violet rays meet be=e ! r$1 z 9 a simple concave l5s1 ! l5s is said to be ov]-correct$1 & ! ab]ration is call$ negative4 ,al?\gh ! positive *romatic ab]ration ( ! extreme rays pass+ ?r\gh a convex l5s may be correct$ by ! negative ab]ration ( a concave l5s1 !re /ill rema9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( uncorrect$ col\r1 aris+ f ! irrationality ( ! spectra ( ! two refract+ m$ia4 ,?is evil _c be ov]come1 & ! rema9+ col\r is said to arise f ! second>y spectrum4 ,! object-glasses ( ! microscope1 consi/+ ( ! comp\nd l5ses1 h _! ab]rations balanc$ to a consid]able ext5t on ! above pr9ciples--! l[e/ comb9ation be+ "u-correct$1 :ile ! upp] comb9ations are ov]-correct$2 &1 by suitable adaptation ( _! di/ance f ea* o!r1 fur!r correction may be obta9$1 ! ab]ration ( ! object-glass altoge!r be+1 h[ev]1 ov]-correct$ or negative4 ,! eye-piece consi/s ( two simple plano-convex l5ses1 ! upp] or eye-glass 7fig4 #bg e7 hav+ a %ort] focus ?an ! l[] 7f7 or field-glass1 & ! two plac$ at ! di/ance ( half ! sum ( _! focal l5g?s4 ,! object-glass alone w\ld =m an enl>g$ & rev]s$ image ( ! object )9 ! body ( ! microscope1 ! cones ( rays f ea* po9t ( ! object t]m9at+ at ! l>g] arr[s 9 ! figure 7fig4 #bg74 ,b ! rays meet+ ! field-glass are br\ght by x to a focus at ! position ( ! small] arr[s1 :]e !y =m a r$uc$ image2 &1 subsequ5tly pass+ ?r\gh ! eye-glass1 !y are s alt]$ 9 direction z to ent] ! eye at a great] angle1 & to pres5t a magnifi$ image ( ! object4 ,! eye-piece produces sev]al important effects4 ,! refraction be+ produc$ by two less convex l5ses in/ead ( "o ( great] convexity1 ! sph]ical ab]ration is consid]ably r$uc$2 & ! convexities ( ! l5ses 9 ! eye-piece be+ situat$ 9 an opposite direction to t ( ^? 9 ! object-glass1 ! sph]ical ab]ration ( ! =m] rev]ses & s neutralizes t ( ! latt]4 ,also ! "u-correction ( ! field-glass comp5sates ! ov]-correction ( ! object-glass--! blue rays :i* are refract$ m ?an ! r$ by ! field-glass1 be+ ?r[n ^u ! eye-glass ne>] its c5tre1 :]e ! refraction is less1 & ?us ! col\r$ rays become p>allel or ne>ly s on rea*+ ! eye4 ,moreov] ! field-glass collects a l>g] numb] ( rays ?an ! eye-glass c\ld d alone1 s t x enl>ges ! field & increases its brightness4 ,9 ! be/ object-glasses ! ab]rations are s well balanc$ t ! m]e cov]+ an object ) ?9 glass is suffici5t to di/urb ! balance & r5d] v delicate m>k+s ei!r mi/y & col\r$ or :olly invisible4 ,! effect produc$ by a plate ( glass may be und]/ood by ref]5ce to fig4 #bf1 ! rays be+ suppos$ to emanate f ! object at a2 & x is evid5t t ! refraction ( ! glass s alt]s ! direction ( ! rays t !y w fall ^u ! l[] comb9ation ne>] ! c5tre ?an if ! cov] 7 abs5t1 & ?us negative ab]ration is produc$4 ,9 ! be/ object-glasses1 h[ev]1 ?is ab]ration may almo/ entirely be remov$1 ! l[] comb9ation be+ susceptible ( approximation by a screw movem5t to ! second or next above x1 s t ! asc5d+ rays1 be+ able to cont9ue _! oblique c\rse ?r\gh ! increas$ di/ance betwe5 ! object & ! l[] comb9ation1 may fall ^u ! same portions ( ! latt] t !y did be=e ! cov] 0 appli$4 ,,pol>ization ,,( ,,light4--,9 attempt+ to give a sket* ( ?is curi\s & difficult subject1 we mu/ suppose ! read] to be 9 possession ( a natural cry/al ( calc>e\s sp>1 & ei!r two ,nicol's prisms 7=m+ ! ord9>y pol>iscope7 or two plates ( ! m9]al call$ t\rmal9e cut 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? or axis ( ! cry/al4 ,hi!rto we h consid]$ rays ( light fall+ ^u transp>5t sub/ances z simply refract$ or reflect$ accord+ to ! ord9>y laws ( refraction or reflexion4 ,we h n[ to notice "s curi\s exceptions1 =m+ ! basis ( _m int]e/+ ph5om5a1 especially 9 connexion ) ! microscope1 9 :i* ^! laws are m or less deviat$ f4 ,if we place a plate ( t\rmal9e1 cut z above direct$1 ^u or b5ea? ! /age ( ! microscope1 ! light w pass ?r\gh x1 appe>+ t+$ ) ! gre5 or br[n col\r natural to ! t\rmal9e2 b on lay+ ano!r slice ^u ! eye-piece1 & turn+ ! latt] r\nd or rotat+ x1 ! light w be transmitt$ 9 c]ta9 positions only1 be+ p>tially or entirely arre/$ 9 o!rs1 s t ! field appe>s black4 ,&1 on c>eful exam9ation1 x w be notic$ t ! *ange f black to :ite occurs at ea* qu>t] ( a rotation1 be+ twice black & twice :ite 9 an entire rotation1 ! *anges occurr+ alt]nately4 ,! same ph5om5a may also be exhibit$ by sub/itut+ two ,nicol's prisms = ! t\rmal9es4 ,aga91 if we take a natural cry/al ( calc>e\s sp>1 & pa/e ^u "o side ( x a piece ( black pap] ) a small hole 9 ! middle1 on hold+ ! cry/al to ! light or ov] a piece ( :ite pap]1 ) ! cov]$ side next ! light1 two holes or two images ( ! hole w be se52 & if ! cry/al )\t ! pap] be plac$ ov] "s pr9t1 ! pr9t w appe> d\ble4 ,h5ce ! light pass+ ?r\gh ! hole is twice or d\bly refract$1 "o ray foll[+ ! ord9>y law ( refraction1 :ile ! o!r foll[s a diff]5t law1 be+ ret>d$ & pursu+ a long] c\rse2 & s ! two rays are call$ respectively ! ord9>y & extraord9>y ray4 ,& on view+ ^! ?r\gh a t\rmal9e or a ,nicol's prism1 z 9 ! exp]im5t ) ! two t\rmal9es1 ! images w become alt]nately visible & invisible1 j z 0 !n ! case ) ! entire mass ( light4 ,! light :i* has und]gone ?is s+ul> *ange is said to be pol>iz$1 because ! rays appe> to h acquir$ poles or sides4 ,9 ! above exp]im5ts ! l[] prism or t\rmal9e is call$ ! pol>iz]1 because x pol>izes ! light1 & ! upp] is call$ ! analyz]1 because x analyzes or te/s ! light alt]$ by ! =m]4 ,an idea ( ! cause ( ?is *ange may be obta9$ by ref]5ce to ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,ord9>y light consi/s ( waves or undulations tak+ place 9 planes at "r angles to ea* o!r1 or 9 all planes2 :ile 9 pol>iz$ light ! undulations are all 9 "o plane or 9 p>allel planes4 ,?is may p]haps be und]/ood by consid]+ t books 9 a book-case are situat$ 9 p>allel planes1 ! %elves be+ 9 planes at "r angles to ! =m]4 ,& by imag9+ 9 pol>iz+ sub/ances ! exi/5ce ( "s /ructure act+ l a grat+1 a notion c be obta9$ h[ ! rays 9 ! diff]5t planes may be transmitt$ or int]cept$4 ,if ! grat+ be s plac$ t ! b>s 7repres5t+ ! planes ( pol>ization7 are p]p5dicul>1 ! books c pass betwe5 !m2 :ile if ! grat+ be turn$ r\nd a qu>t] ( a circle1 !y w become transv]se1 & ! books _c pass1 :ile ! %elves c\ld d s4 ,c>ry+ on ?is analogy1 ! t\rmal9e or ,nicol's prism pol>izes ! light by transmitt+ only ^? rays ^: undulations are 9 planes p>allel to ! b>s2 :ile ! analyz] all[s ^! undulations to pass ?r\gh x :5 ! direction ( ! planes co9cides ) t ( ! b>s1 b int]rupts !m :5 _! direction is at "r angles to ! b>s4 ,& x is evid5t t ! planes ( pol>ization ( ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays are opposite1 f ! opposite action ( ! analyz] ^u !m4 ,! p[] ( d\bly refract+ & pol>iz+ is n possess$ by all cry/all9e bodies1 b only ^? belong+ to o!r ?an ! cubic sy/em2 cry/als belong+ to ?is sy/em nei!r d\bly refract nor pol>ize light4 ,9 all d\bly refract+ cry/als !re are "o or m l9es or directions 9 :i* ! light is n d\bly refract$4 ,^! are call$ ! optic axes1 & sometimes !y co9cide ) ! geometric axis ( ! cry/als1 at o!rs !y d n2 & !y may be reg>d$ z positions or directions ( equilibrium ( c]ta9 molecul> =ces exi/+ )9 ! cry/al1 :i*1 act+ 9 opposition1 neutralize ea* o!r4 ,if light1 pol>iz$ by ! pol>iz]1 be transmitt$ ?r\gh ?9 d\bly refract+ cry/als1 & analyz$ by ! analyz]1 spl5did col\rs w become visible2 & on rotat+ sep>ately ei!r ! pol>iz] or ! analyz]1 at ea* qu>t] rotation ! col\rs w *ange1 be+ complem5t>y to ^? at fir/ visible1 or su* z are requisite ) ! fir/ to make :ite light4 ,we h se5 7fig4 #ai7 t :ite light consi/s ( sev5 col\r$ rays1 or ( ?ree prim>y col\rs--r$1 yell[1 & blue1 :i*1 by sup]position1 =m ! o!rs2 & ?us r$ is complem5t>y to gre51 :i* consi/s ( blue & yell[1 ! two sets ( complem5t>y col\rs appe>+ & vani%+ z ! light & d>kness did :5 ! cry/als 7 n us$4 ,^! col\rs are produc$ by int]f]5ce4 ,! comp\nd rays ( :ite light 7fig4 #cj l7 pass+ ?r\gh ! pol>iz] 7t7 are all pol>iz$ 9 "o plane2 ! cry/al 7d7 depol>izes ?is light1 i4 e4 d\bly refracts & resolves x into two sets ( rays pol>iz$ 9 planes at "r angles to ea* o!r1 =m+ ! ord9>y1 ,o1 & ! extraord9>y ray1 ,e4 ,ea* ( ^! two sets ( rays is resolv$ by ! analyz] 7s7 into two o!r sets1 pol>iz$ 9 planes at "r angles to ea* o!r2 s t 9 all !re are f\r sets1 two 9 "o plane & two 9 ! o!r2 &1 ! prim>y rays ( ! two sets 9 ea* plane be+ 9 diff]5t /ages or phases ( undulation1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ret>dation ( ! extraord9>y rays1 ! undulations ( c]ta9 col\r$ rays *eck & annihilate ea* o!r1 :ile ! rema9d] or complem5t>y conspire & pursue _! c\rse1 produc+ ! appe>ance ( col\r1 ?is effect be+ rev]s$ at ea* qu>t]-revolution ( ! analyz]4 ,an idea ( :at is meant by phases ( undulation may be obta9$ by ref]5ce to fig4 #bi1 9 :i* ! undulations1 a1 b1 are 9 simil> /ates or phases1 & s conspire 9 action1 :ile ! wave c is 9 a diff]5t phase & half an undulation beh9d ! o!rs2 h5ce x w\ld *eck or int]f]e ) ei!r ( ! o!r waves 7a1 b71 ! e!rial molecules ( ! two1 :i* vibrate p]p5dicul>ly or at "r angles to ! direction ( ! wave1 act+ to ! same ext5t & 9 opposite directions4 ,9 fig4 #cj ! analyz] is repres5t$ z compos$ ( a natural cry/al 7rhomb7 ( calc>e\s sp>1 :i* transmits bo? sets ( rays2 b 9 ! ord9>y analyz] or ,nicol's prism--:i* is made by divid+ a rhomb ?r\gh ! obtuse angles into two w$ge-%ap$ pieces & cem5t+ !m toge!r aga9 ) balsam1 only "o set ( rays is transmitt$ at ea* qu>t]-revolution1 ! o!r be+ refract$ out ( ! field4 ,9 ! case ( ! t\rmal9e1 "o ( ! sets ( rays is absorb$2 s t ! t\rmal9e1 l ! ,nicol's prism1 is s+le-imag$4 ,?us ! col\rs produc$ by pol>ization are ! same z ^? ( ! spectrum1 b sep>at$ 9 a diff]5t way1 bo? aris+ f ! elem5t>y col\r$ rays ( ! comp\nd :ite light4 ,= :ile ! spectral rays are sep>at$ by disp]sive refraction1 ! pol>iz$ col\r$ rays are sep>at$ by ! int]f]5ce & annihilation ( "s rays1 ! rema9d] pass+ on to produce ! col\rs4 ,:5 ! position ( ! depol>iz+ cry/al is su* t ! plane ( ! pol>iz$ light co9cides ) ! direction ( ! optic axis or axes1 ! light is n d\bly refract$ nor pol>iz$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts2 h5ce ^! p>ts appe> :ite if ! plane ( ! pol>iz] & analyz] co9cide1 & black if !y be cross$4 ,a cry/al cut at "r angles to its optic axis1 ) its l5g? direct$ t[>ds ! pol>iz] & analyz]1 is 9 ?is position1 & x exhibits alt]nately a black & :ite cross1 ) "o or two sets ( conc5tric r+s ( complem5t>y col\rs at ea* qu>t] ( a rotation4 ,to prep>e cry/als = exam9ation by pol>iz$ light1 a little ,epsom salt1 nitre1 or borax %\ld be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 a drop plac$ ^u a slide1 & dri$ at a g5tle heat4 ,! cry/als %\ld !n be m\nt$ 9 balsam1 & view$ z transp>5t objects4 ,to see ! cross & r+s1 ! cry/als %\ld be sawn or cut across transv]sely1 ! ends be+ poli%$ on a /ra9$ piece ( silk moi/5$ ) wat]1 & ! sections m\nt$ 9 balsam4 ,! prop]ty ( d\bly refract+ & pol>iz+ light is n conf9$ to cry/all9e sub/ances1 be+ also possess$ by _m organic bodies1 = ! details ( :i* ,i mu/ ref] to ! article ,pol>ization 9 ! #8,micrographic ,diction>y4' ,,index4 ,abdom51 #abi4 ,ab]ration1 *romatic1 #agc4 ,ab]ration1 sph]ical1 #agb4 ,acaleph1 #aec4 ,ac>us1 #aca4 ,accumb5t1 #dd4 ,a*romatic1 #agh4 ,a*romatic cond5s]1 #e4 ,a*romatism1 #agg4 ,acicul>1 #bd4 ,acotyl$ons1 #dc4 ,acroc>pi1 #ee4 ,acro/alagmus1 #aaa4 ,act9ocyclus1 #hj4 ,act9ophrys1 #aef4 ,adapt]1 #b4 ,adult]ation1 #bc4 cidium1 #ajj4 ,ag>icus1 #ig4 ,album51 ( se$s1 #dc4 ----1 ( eggs1 #aac4 ,alg1 #fd4 ,alyscum1 #afa4 ,amba1 #aee4 ,amphileptus1 #afb4 ,angioc>pi1 #id4 ,angle ( vision1 #age4 ,anguillula1 #aeb4 ,angul>1 #bc4 ,animal tissues1 #aac4 ,anki/rodesmus1 #gd4 ,annul> vessels1 #bg4 ,annulus1 ( ,f]ns1 #ej4 ----1 ( ,fungi1 #ih4 ----1 ( ,mosses1 #ee4 ,anoplura1 #ace4 ,ant1 #adc4 ,ant5n1 ( ,entomo/raca1 #abg4 ,ant5n>ia1 #aaa4 ,an!rs1 #cg1 #ci4 ,an!ridia1 ( ,alg1 #fe4 ----1 ( ,f]ns1 #eb4 ,an!ridia1 ( ,mosses1 #fa4 ,an?ophysa1 #afj4 ,antlia1 #ade4 ,apex1 #cg4 ,aphis1 #adf4 ,apiculate1 #aja4 ,aplanatic1 #agg4 ,aplanatism1 #agf4 ,apo!cia1 #ib4 ,apple-pulp1 #ai4 ,apple1 sk9 (1 #da4 ,ara*nida1 #acj4 ,arcella1 #aef4 ,ar*egonia1 ( ,f]ns1 #eb4 ----1 ( ,mosses1 #fb4 ,arcuate1 #gh4 ,areol1 #aaf4 ,areol> tissue1 #aaf4 ,arr[-root1 #bc4 ,art]ies1 #aad4 ,articulata1 #abg4 ,asci1 ( ,fungi1 #ig4 ----1 ( ,li*5s1 #ib4 ,ascomycetes1 #ajg4 ,a%1 #be4 ,asp]gillus1 #ajf4 ,aspidium1 #ej4 ,a/asia1 #afj4 ,atropos1 #ade4 ,bact]ium1 #hf4 ,balsam1 g>d5-1 #be4 ----1 ,canada1 #ab4 ,b>k1 #cf4 ,basidia1 #ih4 ,ba/1 #bf4 ,batra*osp]me1 #gb4 ,batra*osp]mum1 #gb4 ,be>ds ( ,oy/]1 #abe4 ,bee1 #adc4 ,beetles1 #adf4 ,b]muda deposit1 #ha4 ,bip9natifid1 #ej4 ,bivalve1 #abh4 ,blood1 #aad4 ----1 ( ,birds1 #aai4 ----1 ( ,fi%es1 #aba4 ----1 ( ,reptiles1 #abj4 ,blood-corpuscles1 #aaa4 ,blood-worm 7,*ironomus71 #adc4 ,blue-bottle1 #acg4 ,blue m\ld1 #ajf4 ,bone1 ( ,birds1 #aai4 ----1 ( ,reptiles1 #abj4 ----1 ( ,mammals1 #aad4 ,bord]$ dots1 #bh4 ,bo?r5*yma1 #bh4 ,botrytis1 #aje4 ,bran*i1 #abe4 ,bread1 #bc4 ,bryozoa1 #abe4 ,bryum1 #ei4 ,buds1 #dg4 ,bug1 #ade4 ,bull's-eye1 #f4 ,bunt1 #ajb4 ,butt]flies1 #add4 ,cabbage-butt]fly1 #ade4 ,calicium1 #id4 ,calyptra1 #ee4 ,calyx1 #cg4 ,calc>e\s1 #ff4 ,cam]a lucida1 #ah4 ,campylodiscus1 #gh4 ,canaliculi1 #aae4 ,cancelli1 #aad4 ,capill>ies1 #aad4 ,capill>y1 #fi4 ,c>apace1 #abg4 ,c>away1 #da4 ,c>pels1 #da4 ,c>tilage1 #aae4 ,cat]pill>s1 #ade4 ,cell-cont5ts1 #ba4 ,cell-=mation1 #bi4 ,cells1 #ai4 ,cell-wall1 #ai4 ,cellul> tissue1 animal1 #aaf4 ---- tissue ( plants1 #bj4 ,cem5t1 #af4 ,cephalo?orax1 #acj4 ,c]amiace1 #fi4 ,c]amidia1 #ff4 ,c]amium nodosum1 #fi4 ---- rubrum1 #gj4 ,c]comonas1 #aei4 ,*tomium1 #aaj4 ,*tophorace1 #ga4 ,*>a1 #hh4 ,*eese-mite1 #aca4 ,*elate1 #aca4 ,*ickwe$1 #cg4 ----1 se$s (1 #db4 ,*ilodon1 #afb4 ,*9 ( ,insects1 #adg4 ,*ironomus1 #adc4 ,*it9e1 #acf4 ,*loride ( calcium1 #ae4 ,*lorococcum1 #hg4 ,*lorophyll1 #ba4 ,*rysalis1 #ada4 ,*rysan!mum1 #be4 ,cilia1 #eb1 #aeg4 ,circulation 9 ,plants1 #ca4 ,cladonia1 #ic4 ,cladophora1 #ga4 ,classification1 #afd4 ,clav>9i1 #ii4 ,clavate1 #adg4 ,clo/]ium1 #gd4 ,co>se movem5t1 #b4 ,coccidia1 #fi4 ,cocc9ella1 #adg4 ,cocconeis1 #gi4 ,cocoa-nut fibre1 #bf4 ,cl5t]ata1 #aec4 ,coleo*te1 #gb4 ,coleopt]a1 #adf4 ,coleps1 #afc4 ,collomia1 se$s (1 #db4 ,colpoda1 #afa4 ,columella1 ( ,mosses1 #fb4 ----1 ( ,mucor1 #aaa4 ,complem5t>y col\rs1 #ahc4 ,comp\nd animals1 #abf4 ,conc5tric1 #aad4 ,conceptacles1 ( ,alg1 #fe4 ,conduplicate1 #dd4 ,conf]va bombyc9a1 #ga4 ---- floccosa1 #ga4 ,conf]vace1 #gj4 ,conf]voide1 #gj4 ,conidia1 #ajj4 ,conif]1 #bf4 ,coniomycetes1 #ii4 ,conjugation1 #gc4 ,cont9u\s1 #ajc4 ,convolvulus1 poll5 (1 #ci4 ,coral1 #aec4 ,corall9a1 #ff4 ,corall9ace1 #ff4 ,corall9es1 #ff4 ,coremium1 #ajf4 ,corolla1 #cg4 ,cosc9odiscus1 #ha4 ,cotton1 #aah4 ,cotton-plant1 #cc4 ,cotyl$ons1 #dc1 #dd4 ,cov]s1 #f4 ,coxa1 #aci4 ,cr5ate1 #ej4 ,crocus1 poll5-tubes (1 #dj4 ,crucif]1 #dd4 ,cru/acea1 #abg4 ,cru/ace\s1 #ia4 ,cryptogamic plants1 #dh4 ---- ----1 se$s (1 #dc4 ,ct5oid1 #aba4 ,cucumb]1 #db4 ,culex1 #ada4 ,culm1 #cd4 ,cuneate1 #gi4 ,cup-moss1 #ic4 ,curculionid1 #adi4 ,cycloid1 #aba4 ,cyclops1 #abh4 ,cypris1 #abh4 ,dacrymyces1 #ii4 ,daphnia1 #abi4 ,dasya1 #fh4 ,day-flies1 #ade4 ,deal1 #bf4 ,deless]ia1 #fi4 ,dematiei1 #ajd4 ,desmidiace1 #gc4 ,diamond-beetles1 #adi4 ,diaphragm1 #c4 ,diatoma1 #gh4 ,diatomace1 #ge4 ----1 fossil1 #hb4 ----1 m>k+s on1 #ha4 ----1 prep>ation (1 #hb4 ,di*otom\s1 #fg4 ,dicotyl$ons1 leaves (1 #ce4 ----1 se$s (1 #dc4 ----1 /ems (1 #ce4 ,dicranum1 #eg4 ,diff]5tiation1 #dg4 ,dimidiate1 #ee4 ,d9obry9a1 #afj4 ,d9obryon1 #afj4 ,dici\s1 #ch4 ,dipp+-tubes1 #d4 ,dipt]a1 #acg4 ,disp]sion1 #agh4 ,division1 spontane\s1 #aei4 ,do?idea1 #ajh4 ,dragon-flies1 #ade4 ,drap>naldia1 #ga4 ,dry rot1 #ih4 ,ducts1 #bg4 ,dung-beetle1 #acb4 ,dytiscus1 #adh4 ,eccremoc>pus1 se$s (1 #db4 ,e*9od]mata1 #aec4 ,e*9us1 #aec4 ,elb[$1 #adi4 ,eld]1 #be4 ,elem5ts1 vegetable1 #ai4 ,elytra1 #adg4 ,em>g9ate1 #adf4 ,embryo1 #db4 ,embryo-sac1 #df4 ,embryonal vesicles1 #df4 ,en*elys1 #afa4 ,ency/+1 #aei4 ,endog5\s1 #bi4 ,endog5s1 leaves (1 #ce4 ----1 se$s (1 #dd4 ----1 /ems (1 #dd4 ,ent]omorpha1 #hg4 ,entomo/raca1 #abg4 ,entozoa1 #aea4 ,ephem]a1 #ade4 ,epid]mis1 animal1 #aag4 ----1 vegetable1 #ca4 ,epi!mia1 #gg4 ,equisetum1 #cd4 ,erector1 #e4 ,erysiphe1 #aaj4 ,eugl5a1 #afj4 ,excipulum1 #ib4 ,excurr5t1 #eg4 ,exog5\s1 #bi4 ,exog5s1 leaves (1 #ce4 ----1 se$s (1 #dc4 ----1 /ems (1 #ce4 ,eye-pieces1 #d1 #agi4 ,eyes1 comp\nd1 #ach4 ,facets1 #ach4 ,favell1 #gj4 ,fea!rs1 #aai4 ,fea!ry1 #abg4 ,femur1 #aci4 ,f]ns1 #di4 ----1 reproduction (1 #ea4 ,f]tilization1 #de4 ,fibro-cellul> tissue1 #be4 ,fibro-vascul> tissue1 #ca4 ,field1 #g4 ,filam5t1 #cg4 ----1 flagelli=m1 #aei4 ,f9e movem5t1 #b4 ,fi%-cry/als1 #abb4 ,flagelli=m1 #aei4 ,flax1 #bf1 #aah4 ,flea1 #acf4 ,flocci1 #ajc4 ,floride1 #ff4 ,floscul>ia1 #aea4 ,fl[]s1 #cg4 ,flu/ra1 #abf4 ,fly1 #ach4 ,fly-bl[s1 #aci4 ,focus1 #aga4 ,foot-jaws1 #abg4 ,=am51 #de4 ,=am9a1 #aad4 ,=am9if]a1 #aef4 ,=ceps1 #d4 ,=k$ ve9s1 #ej4 ,fovilla1 #afj4 ,fragil>ia1 #gh4 ,fronds1 #di4 ,fruit1 #dj4 ,fru/ules1 #ge4 ,fucoide1 #fd4 ,fucus1 #fe4 ,fulcra1 #aaj4 ,fun>ia1 #eh4 ,fungi1 #if4 ,funiculus1 #de4 ,fusi=m1 #aaj4 ,galls1 #aaa4 ,gamasus1 #acb4 ,ga/]omycetes1 #ii4 ,gemmation1 #aei4 ,g5tles1 #adj4 ,g]anium1 leaf (1 #ba4 ----1 petals (1 #bj1 #ch4 ,g]m9ate1 #dc4 ,gills1 ( ,fungi1 #ig4 ----1 ( ,mollusca1 #abe4 ,gl&s1 #dj4 ,gl&ul>1 #ca4 ---- tissue1 #bf4 ,glocapsa1 #hh4 ,glumes1 #cg4 ,glyc]9e1 #ad4 ,gnats1 #ada4 ,gomphonema1 #gi4 ,gonidia1 ( ,alg1 #ga4 ----1 ( ,li*5s1 #ib4 ,gonium pectorale1 #hc4 ---- tranquillum1 #hd4 ,grape-,fungus1 #aje4 ,graphis1 #id4 ,gre5 fly1 #adf4 ,gri/le1 #aae4 ,gr\ndsel1 #cc4 ,gu>d-cells1 #cd4 ,gymnoc>pi1 #id4 ,gymno/omum1 #ef4 ,gyrosigma angulatum1 #hj4 ---- att5uatum1 #gi4 ,hairs1 #ca4 ----1 animal1 #aag4 ,h>t's-tongue ,f]n1 #ea4 ,h>ve/-bug1 #acb4 ,hav]sian canals1 #aad4 ,helvellacei1 #ajg4 ,hemipt]a1 #ade4 ,hemp1 #bf4 ,h]maphrodite1 #ch4 ,het]omita1 #afj4 ,hilum1 #bb4 ,hoop1 #gf4 ,humble ,bee1 #add4 ,hundr$-legs1 #acc4 ,hyalo!ca1 #gd4 ,hydnei1 #ii4 ,hydra1 #aec4 ,hym5ium1 #ih4 ,hym5omycetes1 #ig4 ,hym5opt]a1 #adc4 ,hyphomycetes1 #ajc4 ,hypnea1 #fi4 ,hypnum1 #fj4 ,hy/]ium1 #ajh4 ,illum9ation1 #h4 ,imago1 #ada4 ,imbricate1 #ef4 ,incumb5t1 #dd4 ,indusium1 #ea4 ,inflat$1 #aaj4 ,infusoria1 #aeg4 ,injection1 #aaf4 ,innovations1 #ee4 ,insects1 #acc4 ,int]cellul> passages1 #bj4 ,int]cellul> spaces1 #bj4 ,iod9e1 #bb4 ,is>ia1 #ajd4 ,jania1 #fg4 ,jaws1 ( ,insects1 #adg4 ,jo9ts1 ( ,insects1 #acf4 ,jute1 #bf4 ,knife1 #d4 ,labels1 #ag4 ,labial palpi1 #acd4 ,labium1 #adg4 ,labrum1 #adg4 ,lacun1 #aae4 ,lady-bird1 #adg4 ,lanceolate1 #gh4 ,leaves1 #ca4 ,legs1 ( insects1 #aci4 ,l5ses1 #agj4 ,l5til1 #bc4 ,lepidopt]a1 #add4 ,lepisma1 #acd4 ,lib]1 #bf1 #ce4 ,lice1 #ace4 ,li*5s1 #ia4 ,lieb]kuhn1 #g4 ,light1 #afg4 ,lime1 #be4 ,lips1 ( insects1 #adg4 ,lirell1 #id4 ,li?obius1 #acc4 ,li?ocy/is1 #fg4 ,live-box1 #d4 ,london pride1 an!rs (1 #ci4 ,longitud9al1 #cj4 ,lunate1 #adg4 ,lyngbya1 #he4 ,magnification1 #age4 ,magnify+ p[]1 #ag4 ,mammalia1 #aac4 ,m&ibles1 ( insects1 #adg4 ----1 ( ,spid]s1 #acj4 ,mantle1 #abc4 ,m>r[1 #aad4 ,matrix1 #ia1 #if4 ,maxill1 #adg4 ,m$ium1 #afh4 ,m$ulla1 #ce4 ,m$ull>y %ea?1 #ce4 ,melanospore1 #fd4 ,melobesia1 #fg4 ,melosira1 #gi4 ,membrane1 #ca4 ,membranipora1 #abf4 ,m5tum1 #adg4 ,m]ulius1 #ih4 ,micra/]ias1 #gd4 ,micropyle1 ( se$s1 #df4 ,microscope1 #a4 ----1 simple1 #e4 ,midrib1 #ej4 ,mignonette1 se$s (1 #db4 ,mildew1 #aja4 ,mirror1 #b1 #c4 ,mitri=m1 #ee4 ,mollusca1 #abb4 ,monad9a1 #aei4 ,monas1 #aei4 ,monili=m1 #ca4 ,monocotyl$ons1 leaves (1 #ce4 ----1 se$s (1 #dc4 ----1 /ems (1 #cf4 ,monci\s1 #ch4 ,mosses1 #ed4 ,mo?s1 #add4 ,m\ld ( pa/e1 #aaa4 ,m\lds1 #if4 ,m\nt+1 #aj4 ,m\? ( insects1 #adg4 ,muc$9es1 #aje4 ,mucor1 #aaa4 ,muscles1 #aae4 ,mu%room1 #ig4 ,mu/>d & cress1 #dc4 ----1 cotyl$ons (1 #dd4 ,mycelium1 #if4 ,myriapoda1 #acc4 ,nacre1 #abc4 ,nassula1 #afb4 ,ne$les1 m\nt$1 #d4 ,nemaspora1 #ajj4 ,n]ves1 ( leaves1 #ca4 ,neuropt]a1 #ade4 ,newt1 #abj4 ,nicol's prism1 #f1 #ahd4 ,nitella1 #hh4 ,nitzs*ia1 #gh4 ,nodd+1 #ei4 ,nodule1 #gi4 ,no/oc1 #hf4 ,nucleolus1 #ba4 ,nucleus1 #ba4 ----1 ( ,infusoria1 #aei4 ----1 ( ovule1 #de4 ,oak-apple1 #aaa4 ,oat1 #bc4 ,object-glasses1 #b4 ,oblique1 #cj4 ---- light1 #i4 ,obovate1 #eg4 ,obtuse1 #ej4 ,ocelli1 ( ,spid]s1 #acj4 ,oidium1 #aje4 ,opegrapha1 #id4 ,op]culum1 #ee4 ,optic axes1 #ahc4 ,orange1 r9d (1 #dj4 ,organs1 vegetable1 #ca4 ,oscillatoria autumnalis1 #hd4 ---- nigra1 #he4 ,oscillatoriace4 #hd4 ,ov>y1 ( animals1 #acg4 ---- ( plants1 #cg1 #dj4 ,ovate1 #ef4 ,ovig]\s vesicles1 #aed4 ,ovisacs1 #aed4 ,ovules1 #de4 ,ovum1 #aac4 ,oxytri*a1 #afa4 ,oy/]-%ell1 #abc4 ,pale1 #cg4 ,palmella1 #hh4 ,palmellace1 #hg4 ,palpi1 ( insects1 #adg4 ,papilla1 #ci4 ,papill1 ( sk91 #aaf4 ,papillose1 #ci4 ,p>amecium1 #afa4 ,p>aphyses1 #fa4 ,p>5*yma1 #bj4 ,p>melia1 #ia4 ,pe>1 #bi4 ,pe>ls1 #abc4 ,pect9ate1 #fi4 ,p$ia/rum1 #gd4 ,p$icels1 #ajc4 ,p5cil1 #abh4 ,p5icillium1 #ajf4 ,p]ian?1 #cg4 ,p]ic>p1 #dj4 ,p]i*tial1 #fj4 ,p]idiola1 #aaj4 ,p]idium1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,p]igonial1 #fa4 ,p]ispore1 #fe4 ,p]i/ome1 #ee4 ,p]i!cium1 #ajg4 ,petals1 #cg1 #ch4 ,peziza1 #ajg4 ,phases1 #ahd4 ,phragmidium1 #aja4 ,phys>um1 #ii4 ,physomycetes1 #aaj4 ,pigm5t1 #aag4 ,pileus1 #ig4 ,p9n1 #ea4 ,p9nate1 #ea4 ,p9natifid1 #ej4 ,p9nul>ia1 #gi4 ,p9nules1 #ea4 ,pi/il1 #cg4 ,plac5ta1 #de4 ,pleur5*yma1 #bf4 ,pleuroc>pi1 #ee4 ,pleurosigma1 #gi4 ,plocamium1 #fi4 ,plumose1 #abg4 ,plum-/one1 #bi4 ,plumule1 #dc4 ,podetia1 #ic4 ,podophrya1 #afb4 ,podura1 #acd4 ,pol>iscope1 #f4 ,pol>ization ( light1 #ahj4 ,poll51 #cg4 ,poll5-granules1 #ci4 ,poll5-tubes1 #dj4 ,polycy/9a1 #aef4 ,polypi1 #aec4 ,polypidom1 #abe4 ,polypodiace1 #ej4 ,polypodium1 #ej4 ,polyporei1 #ii4 ,polysiphonia1 #fh4 ,polytri*um1 #eh4 ,polyzoa1 #abf4 ,polyzo>y1 #abf4 ,poppy1 se$s (1 #db4 ,pore1 #aji4 ,pores1 9 wood1 #bh4 ,por\s cells1 #be4 ,potato1 #bb4 ,potato-fungus1 #aje4 ,prim9e1 #de4 ,primordial utricle1 #ba4 ,primrose1 poll5 (1 #ci4 ,prismatic1 #bd4 ,proboscis1 #adf4 ,prolegs1 #ade4 ,pros5*yma1 #be4 ,pro?allium1 #ea4 ,protoplasm1 #ba4 ,protozoa1 #aee4 ,pt]od9a1 #aea4 ,pucc9ia1 #aja4 ,puff-balls1 #ii4 ,pulex1 #ace4 ,pulvilli1 #aci4 ,puncta1 #gi4 ,pupa1 #ada4 ,quadrate1 #adg4 ,racodium1 #aaa4 ,radiata1 #aec4 ,radicle1 #dc4 ,ram5ta1 #di4 ,raphides1 #bd4 ,receptacles1 ( ,alg1 #fe4 ----1 ( secretion1 #dj4 ,r$ ,spid]1 #acb4 ,reflexion1 #afi4 ,refraction1 #afh4 ,re9de] moss1 #ic4 ,reproductive organs1 #dh4 ,reptiles1 #abj4 ,re/+ spores1 #hc4 ,reticulat$1 #ed1 #abi4 ---- vessel1 #bg4 ,rhabdonema1 #hj4 ,rh9otri*um1 #ajg4 ,rhizome1 #di4 ,rhizopoda1 #aee4 ,rhodomelace1 #fg4 ,rhodosp]me1 #ff4 ,rhodym5iace1 #fi4 ,rhub>b1 #be4 ,rice1 #bc4 ,ri*mond e>?1 #hb4 ,r+s1 annual1 #cf4 ,roe ( fi%es1 #abb4 ,rootlets1 #cf4 ,roots1 #cf4 ,ro/rate1 #ef4 ,ro/rum1 #aca4 ,rotat+ disk1 #f4 ,rotation1 #ca4 ,rotatoria1 #adi4 ,rotif]1 #aej4 ,rotif]a1 #adi4 ,sacculi1 ga/ric1 #aeh4 ,san ,fiori deposit1 #hb4 ,s>code1 #aee4 ,scal>i=m ducts1 #di4 ,scales1 ( fi%es1 #aba4 ----1 ( ,podura1 #acd4 ----1 ( insects1 #add4 ,sc> ( se$s1 #df4 ,sc5$esmus1 #gd4 ,s*izogonium1 #hf4 ,scolop5drium1 #ea4 ,sea-we$s1 #fd4 ,sections1 #cj4 ,secund9e1 #de4 ,se$s1 #db4 ,sel5ite1 #bd4 ,sepals1 #cg4 ,septa1 #ii4 ,septate1 #ajj4 ,s]rate1 #ea4 ,s]tul>ia1 #aed4 ,sessile1 #ed4 ,setace\s1 #acc4 ,set1 #abi4 ---- ( ,infusoria1 #aeh4 ,%ell1 #abb4 ,side cond5s]1 #f4 ,silk1 #aah4 ,simple microscope1 #e4 ,s9es1 #afh4 ,siphonace1 #hd4 ,sk91 #aaf4 ,slides1 #f4 ,smut1 #ajb4 ,snapdragon1 petals (1 #ci4 ,sn[b]ry1 #db4 ,sori1 ( ,f]ns1 #ej4 ,spawn1 ( ,fungi1 #ig4 ,spectrum1 #agc4 ,sp]matia1 #ic4 ,sp]matozoa1 ( ,alg1 #fe4 ----1 ( ,f]ns1 #eb4 ----1 ( ,fi%es1 #abb4 ----1 ( ,mosses1 #fa4 ,sp]mogonia1 ( ,fungi1 #aja4 ----1 ( ,li*5s1 #ib4 ,sphria1 #aji4 ---- fragi=mis1 #ajd4 ,sphagnum1 #ef4 ,spicula1 #aeg4 ,spid]s1 #acj4 ,spid]wort1 #ca4 ,sp9n]ets1 #aca4 ,spiracles1 #acd4 ,spiral cells1 #be4 ,spiral vessels1 #bg4 ,_s-lamp1 #e4 ,spirogyra1 #gb4 ,spirul9a1 #he4 ,sponges1 #aef4 ,spongid1 #aef4 ,sporangium1 ( ,f]ns1 #ed4 ,spores1 #ej4 ,sporocybe1 #ajd4 ,sporophylles1 #fi4 ,/age1 #b4 ,/am5s1 #cg4 ,/>*1 #bb4 ,/>fi%es1 #aec4 ,/ellate1 #ca4 ,/ems1 #ce4 ,/5tor1 #afc4 ,/]igmata1 #ih4 ,/]opus1 #adf4 ,/i*idia1 #fh4 ,/igma1 #cg4 ,/ilbacei1 #ajc4 ,/+1 ( ,wasp1 #add4 ,/++-organs1 #aed4 ,/+s1 #cc4 ,/ipes1 #gf1 #ig4 ,/omata1 #cd4 ,/omoxys1 #ada4 ,/riat$1 #cc4 ,/roma1 #ajh4 ,/ruma1 #eh4 ,/yle ( plants1 #cg4 ,/ylospores1 #ajj4 ,suctorial1 #ace4 ,suture1 #gc1 #gf4 ,syn$ra1 #gh4 ,synura1 #hc4 ,tabell>ia1 #gi4 ,tabul>1 #hc4 ,tang5tial1 #cj4 ,tape-worm1 #aeb4 ,t>sus1 #aci4 ,t5tacles1 #abd1 #aec4 ,te/a1 #db4 ,tetraspores1 #afg4 ,?alamium1 #ib4 ,?allus1 #ia4 ,!c1 #ej4 ,?orax1 #abi4 ,?read-worm1 #aeb4 ,tibia1 #aci4 ,tissues1 vegetable1 #ai4 ,toad-/ools1 #if4 ,tongue1 ( ,mollusca1 #abc4 ,tortula1 #eg4 ,torula1 #ajj4 ,t\rmal9e1 #aha4 ,t\s les mois1 #bd4 ,trabecul1 #ei4 ,tra*e1 #acd4 ,tra*elomonas1 #afj4 ,tradescantia1 #ca4 ,transv]se1 #adh4 ---- section1 #cj4 ,tremell9i1 #ii4 ,tri*o!cium1 #aje4 ,triton1 #abj4 ,tro*ant]1 #aci4 ,trombidium1 #acb4 ,truffle1 #ajh4 ,truncat$1 #bg4 ,tub]acei1 #ajh4 ,tub]cul>ia1 #ajc4 ,tub]culate1 #aja4 ,tubul> cells1 #be4 ,tufts1 #be4 ,turnip-fly1 #adf4 ,turp5t9e1 #bg4 ,ulo?rix1 #hf4 ,ulva1 #hg4 ,ulvace1 #hf4 ,umbellif]1 #da4 ,uncorrect$ l5s1 #agh4 ,uniseptate1 #aja4 ,ur$o1 #ajb4 ---- c&ida1 #ajb4 ---- c>ies1 #ajb4 ---- l9e>is1 #aji4 ---- rubigo1 #aji4 ---- segetum1 #ajb4 ,vag9icola1 #afc4 ,vag9ule1 #fb4 ,valve1 #gf4 ,vascul> tissue1 #bg4 ,vau*]ia1 #hd4 ,vegetable elem5ts1 #ai4 ---- organs1 #ca4 ,veil1 #ih4 ,ve9s1 ( animals1 #aad4 ----1 ( leaves1 #ca1 #ce4 ,velum1 #ih4 ,v]tebra1 #aac4 ,v]tebrata1 #aac4 ,vesicles1 contractile1 #aei4 ----1 embryonal1 #df4 ,vessels1 #bg4 ,vibrio spirillum1 #he4 ,vision1 #agd4 ,vitt1 ( se$s1 #dj4 ,volva1 #ih4 ,volvoc9e1 #hc4 ,volvox1 #hc4 ,vorticella1 #afb4 ,wallfl[]1 an!rs (1 #ci4 ,wasp1 #adc4 ,wat]-beetle1 #adh4 ,web1 spid]'s1 #aca4 ,:eat1 cotyl$on (1 #de4 ,:eat-fl\r1 #bc4 ,:eel-animalcules1 #aej4 ,:elk1 #abc4 ,w9e-cell> ,fungus1 #aaa4 ,w+$ se$s1 #db4 ,w9t] ova1 #abh4 ,wood-cells1 #be4 ,wood-l\se1 #abg4 ,woody fibre1 #be4 ---- tissue1 #be4 ,wool1 #aah4 ,xan?idia1 #ge4 ,yea/1 #ajf4 ,zygnema1 #gb4 ,zygnemace1 #b4 ,zoospores1 #ga4 ,,taylor ,,& ,,francis1 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,r$ ,,lion ,,c\rt1 ,,fleet ,,/reet4