,illu/ration3 ,ari/otle 99,,ari/otle99 ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,litt41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack #fg ,,long ,,acre1 ,w4,c41 ,,& ,,ed9burgh ,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge ,,publi%+ ,,co4 99,,cont5ts99 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,life ,,& ,,works ,,ii4 ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces3 ,,sci5tific ,,me?od ,,iii4 ,,fir/ ,,philosophy ,,iv4 ,,physics ,v4 ,,practical ,,philosophy ,,bibliography 99,,ari/otle99 99,,*apt] ,i99 99,,life ,,& ,,works99 ,x has n commonly be5 ! lot ( philosoph]s1 z x is ( great poets1 t _! names %\ld become h\sehold words4 ,we %\ld h>dly call an ,engli%man well read if he _h n he>d ! "n ( ,sophocles or ,moli]e4 ,an educat$ man is expect$ to "k at lea/ :o ^! great writ]s 71 & to und]/& an allusion to ! ,antigone or ,le ,misan?rope4 ,b we call a man well read if 8 m9d is /or$ ) ! v]se ( poets & ! prose ( hi/orians1 ev5 ?\gh he 7 ignorant ( ! "n ( ,desc>tes or ,kant4 ,yet !re are a few philosoph]s ^: influ5ce on ?\ght & language has be5 s ext5sive t no "o :o reads c be ignorant ( _! names1 & t e man :o speaks ! language ( educat$ ,europeans is con/antly us+ _! vocabul>y4 ,among ?is few ,ari/otle holds n ! l[e/ place4 ,we h all he>d ( him1 z we h all he>d ( ,hom]4 ,he has left 8 impress s firmly on !ology t _m ( ! =mulae ( ! ,*ur*es are un9telligible )\t acqua9tance ) 8 conception ( ! univ]se4 ,if we are int]e/$ 9 ! gr[? ( mod]n sci5ce we %all readily discov] = ourselves t "s k ( ,ari/otelianism is necess>y = ! und]/&+ ( ,bacon & ,galileo & ! o!r great anti-,ari/otelians :o creat$ ! mod]n sci5tific view ( ,nature4 ,if we turn to ! imag9ative lit]ature ( ! mod]n languages1 ,dante is a seal$ book1 & _m a passage ( ,*auc] & ,%akespe>e & ,milton is half unmean+ to u unless we are at home 9 ! outl9es ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,& if we turn to ord9>y language1 we f9d t _m ( ! famili> turns ( mod]n spee* _c be fully und]/ood )\t a k ( ! doctr9es !y 7 fir/ =g$ to express4 ,an ,engli%man :o speaks ( ! gold5 mean or ( lib]al education1 or contra/s ! matt] ( a "w ( lit]ature ) its =m1 or ! ess5tial features ( a situation or a s*eme ( policy ) its accid5ts1 or !ory ) practice1 is us+ words :i* d]ive _! significance f ! "p !y play 9 ! vocabul>y ( ,ari/otle4 ,! unambiti\s object ( ?is little book is1 !n1 to help ! ,engli% read] to a bett] und]/&+ ( su* famili> language & a full] compreh5sion ( mu* t he w f9d 9 ,dante & ,%akespe>e & ,bacon4 99,life ( ,ari/otle499--,! ma9 facts ( ,ari/otle's life may be briefly told4 ,he 0 born 9 #che-d ,b4,c4 at ,/agirus1 a little city ( ! ,*alcidic p59sula1 /ill call$1 almo/ by its anci5t "n1 ,*alcis1 & di$ at ! age ( sixty-two at ,*alcis 9 ,euboea4 ,?us he is a contempor>y ( ,demo/h5es1 8 manhood witness$ ! /ruggle :i* end$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,mac$onian mon>*y z ! dom9ant p[] 9 ,hellas1 & 8 lat] ye>s ! campaigns 9 :i* 8 pupil ,alex&] ! ,great ov]?rew ! ,p]sian ,empire & c>ri$ ,greek civilisation to ! banks ( ! ,jumna4 ,9 /udy+ ! con/itutional !ories ( ,ari/otle1 x is necess>y to be> ^! facts 9 m9d4 ,!y help to expla9 c]ta9 limitations ( outlook :i* might o!rwise appe> /range 9 s great a man4 ,x ?r[s a great deal ( light on ! philosoph]'s int5se conviction ( ! natural inf]iority ( ! b>b>ian intellect & "* to rememb] t he grew up 9 an outly+ region :]e ! b>b>ian 0 se5 to disadvantage 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( life4 ,h5ce ! di/9ction betwe5 ,greek & b>b>ian came to mean = him mu* :at ! col\r-l9e does to an ,am]ican br\ght up 9 a ,s\!rn ,/ate4 ,s1 aga91 :5 we are /ruck by 8 prov9cialism1 8 app>5t satisfaction ) ! ideal ( a small self-conta9$ city-/ate ) a dec5tly olig>*ical gov]nm5t1 a good sy/em ( public education1 & no social problems1 b devoid alike ( great traditions & f>-rea*+ ambitions1 we mu/ rememb] t ! philosoph] himself belong$ to j su* a t9y community )\t a pa/ & )\t a future4 ,! ,*alcidic cities _h be5 fir/ f\nd$1 z ! "n ( ! p59sula implies1 z colonies f ! t[n ( ,*alcis 9 ,euboea2 ,cor9? _h also be5 prom95t 9 e/abli%+ settlem5ts 9 ! same region4 ,at ! height ( ,a!nian ,imp]ial prosp]ity 9 ! age ( ,p]icles ! di/rict _h fall5 politically "u ,a!nian control1 b _h be5 deta*$ aga9 f ,a!ns1 9 ! la/ ye>s ( ! ,ar*idamian w>1 by ! g5ius ( ! great ,sp>tan soldi] & diplomat ,brasidas4 ,e>ly 9 ! f\r? c5tury ! ,*alcidic cities _h attempt$ to =m !mselves into an indep5d5t f$]ation1 b ! movem5t _h be5 put d[n by ,sp>ta1 & ! cities _h fall5 "u ! control ( ! ris+ ,mac$onian mon>*y1 :5 ,ari/otle 0 a baby4 ,a g5]ation lat]1 a d\ble intrigue ( ! cities ) ,philip ( ,mac$on & ,a!ns fail$ ( its effect1 & ! p59sula 0 f9ally incorporat$ ) ! ,mac$onian k+dom4 ,x is also important to note t ! philosoph] belong$ by bir? to a guild1 ! ,asclepiadae1 9 :i* ! m$ical pr(ession 0 h]$it>y4 ,8 fa!r ,nicoma*us 0 c\rt physician to ,amyntas ,,ii41 ! k+ = ^: b5efit ! ,sp>tans _h put d[n ! ,*alcidic league4 ,?is e>ly connection ) m$ic9e & ) ! ,mac$onian c\rt expla9s l>gely bo? ! pr$om9antly biological ca/ ( ,ari/otle's philosophical ?\ght & ! int5se dislike ( pr9ces & c\rts to :i* he m ?an once gives expression4 ,at ! age ( eighte51 9 #cfg-f1 ,ari/otle 0 s5t to ,a!ns = high] education 9 philosophy & sci5ce1 & ent]$ ! fam\s ,platonic ,academy1 :]e he rema9$ z a memb] ( ! sci5tific gr\p ga!r$ r\nd ! ma/] = tw5ty ye>s1 until ,plato's dea? 9 #cdg-f4 ,= ! ?ree ye>s imm$iately foll[+ ,ari/otle 0 9 ,asia ,m9or ) 8 fri5d & fell[-/ud5t ,h]meias1 :o _h become by =ce ( %e] capacity mon>* ( ! city ( ,at>neus 9 ! ,troad1 & 0 ma9ta9+ himself ) mu* en]gy aga9/ ! ,p]sian k+4 ,py?ias1 ! niece ( ,h]meias1 became ! philosoph]'s wife1 & x seems t ! m>riage 0 happy4 ,exam9ation ( ,ari/otle's contributions to m>9e biology has %[n t 8 k ( ! subject is specially good = ! ,aeolic coa/ & ! %ores ( ! adjac5t isl&s4 ,?is ?r[s light on 8 occupations dur+ 8 resid5ce ) ,h]meias1 & sugge/s t ,plato _h disc]n$ ! b5t ( 8 di/+ui%$ pupil's m9d1 & t 8 special %>e 9 ! rese>*es ( ! ,academy _h1 l t ( ,speusippus1 ,plato's nephew & successor 9 ! head%ip ( ! s*ool1 be5 l>gely ( a biological k9d4 ,we also "k t1 presumably %ortly aft] ,plato's dea?1 ,ari/otle _h be5 "o ( ! gr\p ( disciples :o edit$ _! tea*]'s unpubli%$ lectures4 ,9 #cdc ,h]meias 0 assass9at$ at ! in/igation ( ,p]sia2 ,ari/otle hon\r$ 8 memory by a hymn sett+ =? ! godlik5ess ( virtue z illu/rat$ by ! life ( 8 fri5d4 ,ari/otle n[ remov$ to ! ,mac$onian c\rt1 :]e he receiv$ ! position ( tutor to ! ,cr[n ,pr9ce1 aft]w>ds ,alex&] ! ,great1 at ?is "t 7#cdc ,b4,c47 a boy ( ?irte54 ,! association ( ! great philosoph] & ! great k+ z tutor & pupil has naturally /ruck ! imag9ation ( lat] ages2 ev5 9 ,plut>*'s ,life ( ,alex&] we meet already ) ! full-bl[n leg5d ( ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle's philosophical speculations on ,alex&]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 improbable t ,ari/otle's influ5ce c\nt$ = mu* 9 =m+ ! "* ( ,alex&]4 ,ari/otle's dislike ( mon>*ies & _! accessories is writt5 l>ge on _m a page ( 8 ,e?ics & ,politics2 ! small self-conta9$ city-/ate ) no political ambitions = :i* he res]ves 8 admiration w\ld h seem$ a m]e relic ( antiquity to ,philip & ,alex&]4 ,! only piece ( contempor>y evid5ce z to ! relations betwe5 ! ma/] & ! pupil is a s5t5ce 9 a lett] to ! "y ,alex&] f ! ,a!nian publici/ ,isocrates :o malici\sly congratulates ! pr9ce on 8 pref]5ce = rhetoric1 ! art ( effici5t public spee*1 & 8 indiff]5ce to logic-*opp]s4 ,h[ little sympa?y ,ari/otle c h _h ) 8 pupil's ambitions is %[n by ! fact t ?\gh 8 political !ories mu/ h be5 work$ out dur+ ! v ye>s 9 :i* ,alex&] 0 revolutionis+ ,hell5ism by ! f\ndation ( 8 _w-empire1 !y conta9 no allusion to s mom5t\s a *ange 9 ! social ord]4 ,= all t ,ari/otle tells u1 ,alex&] might nev] h exi/$1 & ! small city-/ate might h be5 ! la/ ^w ( ,hell5ic political developm5t4 ,h5ce x is probable t ! selection ( ,ari/otle1 :o _h n yet appe>$ be=e ! _w z an indep5d5t ?9k]1 to take "p 9 ! education ( ! ,cr[n ,pr9ce 0 due less to p]sonal reputation ?an to ! connection ( 8 family ) ! c\rt1 tak5 toge!r ) 8 own position z a pupil ( ,plato1 ^: int]v5tion 9 ! public affairs ( ,sicily _h caus$ ! ,academy to be reg>d$ z ! special home ( sci5tific int]e/ 9 politics & jurisprud5ce4 ,x may be true t ,alex&] f\nd "t 9 ! mid/ ( 8 conque/s to supply 8 old tutor ) zoological specim5s2 x is z c]ta9 z su* a ?+ c be t ! ideals & *>act]s ( ! two m5 7 too diff]5t to all[ ( any intimate influ5ce ( ei!r on ! o!r4 ,:5 ,alex&] 0 sudd5ly call$ to ! ,mac$onian ?rone by ! murd] ( 8 fa!r 9 #ccf ,b4,c41 ,ari/otle's s]vices 7 no long] ne$$2 he return$ to ,a!ns & gave himself to purely sci5tific "w4 ,j at ?is juncture ! presid5cy ( ! ,academy 0 vacant by ! dea? ( ,speusippus1 ,ari/otle's old associate 9 biological rese>*4 ,possibly ,ari/otle ?\ght himself injur$ :5 ! s*ool pass$ him ov] & elect$ ,x5ocrates ( ,*alc$on z its new presid5t4 ,at any rate1 ?\gh he appe>s nev] to h :olly sev]$ 8 connection ) ! ,academy1 9 #cce he op5$ a rival in/itution 9 ! ,lyceum1 or gymnasium atta*$ to ! temple ( ,apollo ,lyceus1 to :i* he 0 foll[$ by "s ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ memb]s ( ! ,academy4 ,f ! fact t 8 in/ruction 0 giv5 9 ! p]ipatos or cov]$ portico ( ! gymnasium ! s*ool has d]iv$ its "n ( ,p]ipatetic4 ,= ! next twelve ye>s he 0 occupi$ 9 ! organisation ( ! s*ool z an abode = ! prosecution ( speculation & rese>* 9 e dep>tm5t ( inquiry1 & 9 ! composition ( num]\s c\rses ( lectures on sci5tific & philosophical que/ions4 ,! *ief diff]5ce 9 g5]al "* betwe5 ! new s*ool & ! ,academy is t :ile ! sci5tific int]e/s ( ! ,platoni/s c5tr$ 9 ma!matics1 ! ma9 contributions ( ! ,lyceum to sci5ce lay 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( biology & hi/ory4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ,alex&]'s life 8 att5tion 0 unfav\rably direct$ on 8 old tea*]4 ,a relative ( ,ari/otle nam$ ,calli/h5es _h att5d$ ,alex&] 9 8 campaigns z hi/oriograph]1 & _h provok$ disfav\r by 8 c5sure ( ! ,k+'s attempts to inve/ 8 semi-con/itutional position t[>ds 8 ,hell5ic subjects ) ! pomp ( an ,ori5tal despotism4 ,! hi/orian's indep5d5ce prov$ fatal4 ,he 0 accus$ ( in/igat+ an assass9ation plot among ,alex&]'s pages1 & hang$1 or1 z "s said1 ?r[n into a prison :]e he di$ be=e trial4 ,alex&] is report$ to h held ,ari/otle responsible = 8 relative's treason1 & to h m$itat$ rev5ge4 ,if ?is is s1 he 0 =tunately div]t$ f ! commission ( a crime by preoccupation ) ! invasion ( ,india4 ,on ! dea? ( ,alex&] 9 #cbc a brief b vigor\s anti-,mac$onian agitation broke out at ,a!ns4 ,ari/otle1 f 8 ,mac$onian connections1 naturally fell a victim1 9 spite ( 8 want ( sympa?y ) ! ideals ( ,philip & ,alex&]4 ,l ,socrates1 he 0 indict$ on ! capital *>ge ( impiety1 ! pretext be+ t 8 poem on ! dea? ( ,h]meias1 writt5 tw5ty ye>s be=e1 0 a virtual deification ( 8 fri5d4 ,?is 01 h[ev]1 only a pretext2 ! real (f5ce 0 political1 & lay 9 8 connection ) ! ,mac$onian lead] ,antipat]4 ,z condemnation 0 c]ta91 ! philosoph] anticipat$ x by )draw+ ) 8 disciples to ,*alcis1 ! "m city ( 8 native ,/agirus4 ,"h he di$ 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 at ! age ( sixty-two or sixty-?ree4 ,! features ( ,ari/otle1 famili> to u f bu/s & intaglios1 are h&some1 b indicate ref9em5t & acut5ess r ?an orig9ality1 an impression 9 keep+ ) :at we %\ld expect f a /udy ( 8 writ+s4 ,! anecdotes relat$ ( him reveal a k9dly1 affectionate "*1 & %[ little trace ( ! self-importance :i* appe>s 9 8 "w4 ,8 w1 :i* has be5 pres]v$1 exhibits ! same traits 9 its ref]5ces to 8 happy family life & its solicit\s c>e = ! future ( 8 *ildr5 & s]vants4 ,he 0 twice m>ri$1 fir/ to ,py?ias1 & secondly to a c]ta9 ,h]pyllis1 by :om he left a son ,nicoma*us & a daught]4 ,! goodness ( ,h]pyllis to h] husb& is specially m5tion$ 9 ! clauses ( ! w :i* make provision = h]1 :ile ! w>m? ( ! writ]'s feel+s = ,py?ias is %[n by ! direction t h] rema9s are to be plac$ 9 ! same tomb ) 8 own4 ,! li/ ( s]vants rememb]$ & ! beque/s enum]at$ %[ ! philosoph] to h be5 9 easi] circum/ances ?an ,plato4 99,! ,works ( ,ari/otle994--,! s-call$ works ( ,ari/otle pres5t u ) a curi\s problem4 ,:5 we turn f ,plato to 8 pupil we seem to h pass$ into a diff]5t atmosph]e4 ,! ,disc\rses ( ,socrates exhibit a prose /yle :i* is p]haps ! mo/ m>vell\s ( all lit]>y a*ievem5ts4 ,n[h]e else d we meet ) q ! same comb9ation ( eloqu5ce1 imag9ative spl5d\r1 incisive logic1 & irresi/ible wit & hum\r4 ,! mann] ( ,ari/otle is dry & =mal4 ,8 language bri/les ) te*nicalities1 makes little appeal to ! emotions1 disda9s graces ( /yle1 & frequ5tly defies ! simple/ rules ( composition4 ,our surprise is all ! great] t we f9d lat] writ]s ( antiquity1 su* z ,cic]o1 comm5d+ ,ari/otle = 8 copi\s & gold5 eloqu5ce1 a *>act]i/ic :i* is conspicu\sly want+ 9 ! ,ari/otelian writ+s we possess4 ,! explanation ( ! puzzle is1 h[ev]1 simple4 ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 at once :at we %\ld call pr(essors & m5 ( lett]s2 bo? wrote works = g5]al circulation1 & bo? deliv]$ c\rses ( lectures to special /ud5ts4 ,b :ile ,plato's lectures h p]i%$1 8 books h come d[n to u4 ,ari/otle's books h almo/ :olly be5 lo/1 b we possess _m ( 8 lectures4 ,! works ( ,ari/otle prais$ by ,cic]o = _! eloqu5ce 7 philosophical dialogues1 & =m$ ! model = ,cic]o's own compositions 9 ?is k9d4 ,none ( !m h surviv$1 ?\gh "s passages h be5 pres]v$ 9 quotations by lat] writ]s4 ,t ! works are actually ! ,,mss4 ( a lectur] po/hum\sly edit$ by 8 pupils seems cle> f ext]nal z well z f int]nal evid5ce4 ,9 "o in/ance we h ! advantage ( a d\ble rec5sion4 ,ari/otle's ,e?ics or ,disc\rses on ,conduct h come d[n to u 9 two =ms--! s-call$ ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 a r$action by ! philosoph]'s son1 ,nicoma*us1 pres]v+ all ! *>act]i/ics ( an oral c\rse ( lectures2 & a fre] & m readable reca/ by a pupil1 ! ma!matician ,eudemus1 kn[n z ! ,eudemian ,e?ics4 ,9 rec5t ye>s we h also recov]$ f ! s&s ( ,egypt :at appe>s to be our "o specim5 ( a "w ( ,ari/otle1 int5d$ to be read by ! public at l>ge1 ! essay on ! ,con/itution ( ,a!ns4 ,! /yle ( ?is essay is easy1 fl[+1 & popul>1 & %[s t ,ari/otle c\ld write well & gracefully :5 he ?\ght fit4 99,,*apt] ,,ii99 99,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces3 ,,sci5tific ,,me?od99 ,philosophy1 z und]/ood by ,ari/otle1 may be said to be ! organis$ :ole ( dis9t]e/$ k1 t is1 k :i* we seek = ! satisfaction :i* x c>ries ) itself1 & n z a m]e means to utilit>ian ends4 ,! impulse :i* receives ?is satisfaction is curiosity or wond]1 :i* ,ari/otle reg>ds z innate 9 man1 ?\gh x does n get full play until civilisation has advanc$ f> en\gh to make secure provision = ! imm$iate mat]ial ne$s ( life4 ,human curiosity 0 naturally direct$ fir/ to ! out/&+ m>vell\s works ( ! physical _w1 ! planets1 ! p]iodicity ( _! movem5ts1 ! return ( ! seasons1 w9ds1 ?und] & lightn+1 & ! l4 ,h5ce ! e>lie/ ,greek speculation 0 conc]n$ ) problems ( a/ronomy & meteorology4 ,!n1 z reflection develop$1 m5 speculat$ ab\t geometrical figure1 & numb]1 ! possibility ( hav+ assur$ k at all1 ! "* ( ! common pr9ciples assum$ 9 all bran*es ( /udy or ( ! special pr9ciples assum$ 9 "s "o bran*1 & ?us philosophy has f9ally become ! dis9t]e/$ /udy ( e dep>tm5t ( ,be+ or ,reality4 ,s9ce ,ari/otle1 l ,hegel1 ?\ght t 8 own doctr9e 01 9 ess5tials1 ! la/ ^w ( speculation1 ! complete expression ( ! pr9ciples by :i* 8 pr$ecessors _h be5 unconsci\sly guid$1 he believes himself 9 a position to make a f9al classification ( ! bran*es ( sci5ce1 %[+ h[ !y are relat$ & h[ !y are discrim9at$ f "o ano!r4 ,?is classification we h n[ to consid]4 99,classification ( ! ,sci5ces994--,to beg9 )1 we h to discrim9ate ,philosophy f two rivals ) :i* x might be conf\nd$ on a sup]ficial view1 ,dialectic & ,sophi/ry4 ,dialectic is ! art ( reason+ accurately f giv5 premisses1 true or false4 ,?is art has its prop] uses1 & ( "o ( ^! we %all h to speak4 ,b 9 itself x is indiff]5t to ! tru? ( its premisses4 ,y may reason dialectically f premisses :i* y believe to be false1 = ! express purpose ( %[+ ! absurd conclusions to :i* !y lead4 ,or y may reason f premisses :i* y assume t5tatively to see :at conclusions y are committ$ to if y adopt !m4 ,9 ei!r case y\r object is n directly to secure tru?1 b only to secure consi/5cy4 ,sci5ce or ,philosophy aims directly at tru?1 & h5ce requires to />t ) true & c]ta9 premisses4 ,?us ! di/9ction betwe5 ,sci5ce & ,dialectic is t ,sci5ce reasons f true premisses1 ,dialectic only f probable or plausible premisses4 ,sophi/ry diff]s f ,sci5ce 9 virtue ( its moral "*4 ,x is ! pr(ession ( mak+ a liv+ by ! abuse ( reason+1 ! trick ( employ+ logical skill = ! app>5t demon/ration ( sci5tific or e?ical falsehoods4 ,! sophi/ is "o :o e>ns a liv+ f an app>5t b unreal wisdom4 7,! emphasis ?us falls on ! notion ( mak+ an unreal wisdom into a trade4 ,! sophi/'s real conc]n is to get 8 fee47 ,sci5ce or ,philosophy is ?us ! dis9t]e/$ employm5t ( ! und]/&+ 9 ! discov]y ( tru?4 ,we may n[ di/+ui% ! diff]5t bran*es ( sci5ce z def9$4 ,! fir/ & mo/ important division to be made is t betwe5 ,speculative or ,!oretical ,sci5ce & ,practical ,sci5ce4 ,! broad di/9ction is t :i* we %\ld n[ draw betwe5 ! ,sci5ces & ! ,arts 7i4e4 ! indu/rial & te*nical1 n ! f9e arts74 ,speculative or ,!oretical ,philosophy diff]s f ,practical ,philosophy 9 its purpose1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 9 its subject-matt]1 & its =mal logical "*4 ,! purpose ( ! =m] is ! dis9t]e/$ contemplation ( tru?s :i* are :at !y are indep5d5tly ( our own volition2 its end is to "k & only to "k4 ,! object ( practical ,sci5ce is to "k1 b n only to "k b also to turn our k to acc\nt 9 devis+ ways ( successful int]f]5ce ) ! c\rse ( ev5ts4 7,! real importance ( ! di/9ction comes out 9 ,ari/otle's treatm5t ( ! problems ( moral & social sci5ce4 ,s9ce we require k ( ! moral & social nature ( m5 n m]ely to satisfy an intellectual int]e/1 b z a basis = a s\nd sy/em ( education & gov]nm5t1 ,politics1 ! !ory ( gov]nm5t1 & ,e?ics1 ! !ory ( goodness ( conduct1 :i* = ,ari/otle is only a subord9ate bran* ( ,politics1 belong to ,practical1 n to ,!oretical ,philosophy1 a view :i* is att5d$ by important consequ5ces47 ,x foll[s t !re is a correspond+ diff]5ce 9 ! objects inve/igat$ by ! two bran*es ( ,philosophy4 ,speculative or ,!oretical ,philosophy is conc]n$ ) t :i* _c possibly be o!r ?an x is1 tru?s & relations indep5d5t ( human volition = _! subsi/5ce1 & call+ simply = recognition on our "p4 ,practical ,philosophy has to d ) relations :i* human volition c modify1 ?+s :i* may be o!r ?an !y are1 ! cont+5t4 7,?us e4g4 n only politics1 b m$ic9e & economics w belong to ,practical ,sci5ce47 ,h5ce aga9 arises a logical diff]5ce betwe5 ! conclusions ( ,!oretical & ^? ( ,practical ,philosophy4 ,^? ( ! =m] are univ]sal tru?s d$ucible ) logical necessity f self-evid5t pr9ciples4 ,^? ( ! latt]1 because !y relate to :at c be o!rwise1 are nev] rigidly univ]sal2 !y are g5]al rules :i* hold good 9 ! majority ( cases1 b are liable to occasional exceptions ow+ to ! cont+5t "* ( ! facts ) :i* !y deal4 ,x is a pro( ( a philosoph]'s lack ( gr\nd+ 9 logic t he looks to ! results ( a practical sci5ce 7e4g4 to ! detail$ precepts ( m$ic9e or e?ics7 = a high] degree ( c]ta9ty & validity ?an ! nature ( ! subject-matt] all[s4 ,?us = ,ari/otle ! di/9ction betwe5 ! necess>y & ! cont+5t is real & n m]ely app>5t1 & probability is ! guide 9 /udies :i* h to d ) ! direction ( life4 ,self-evid5t1 t is1 9 a purely logical s5se4 ,:5 y appreh5d ! pr9ciples 9 "q1 y see at once t !y are true1 & d n require to h !m prov$4 ,x is n meant t any & e man does1 9 po9t ( fact1 always appreh5d ! pr9ciples1 or t !y c be appreh5d$ )\t prelim9>y m5tal discipl9e4 ,we proce$ to ! "q h[ _m subdivisions !re are )9 !oretical ,philosophy itself4 ,plato _h held t !re are none4 ,all ! sci5ces are d$uctions f a s+le set ( ultimate pr9ciples :i* x is ! bus9ess ( t supreme sci5ce to :i* ,plato _h giv5 ! "n ( ,dialectic to e/abli%4 ,?is is n ,ari/otle's view4 ,accord+ to him1 !oretical ,philosophy falls into a numb] ( di/9ct ?\gh n co-ord9ate bran*es1 ea* ) its own special subjects ( inve/igation & its own special axiomatic pr9ciples4 ,( ^! bran*es !re are ?ree1 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ,ma!matics1 & ,physics4 ,fir/ ,philosophy--aft]w>ds to be kn[n to ! ,middle ,ages z ,metaphysics--treats1 to use ,ari/otle's own expression1 ( ,be+ qua ,be+4 ,?is means t x is conc]n$ ) ! univ]sal *>act]i/ics :i* belong to ! sy/em ( kn[able reality z su*1 & ! pr9ciples ( its organisation 9 _! full univ]sality4 ,fir/ ,philosophy alone inve/igates ! "* ( ^? causative factors 9 ! sy/em :i* are )\t body or %ape & exempt f all mutability4 ,s9ce 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em ,god is ! supreme ,cause ( ?is k9d1 ,fir/ ,philosophy culm9ates 9 ! k ( ,god1 & is h5ce frequ5tly call$ ,!ology4 ,x ?us includes an elem5t :i* w\ld to-day be assign$ to ! !ory ( k1 z well z "o :i* we %\ld ascribe to metaphysics1 s9ce x deals at once ) ! ultimate po/ulates ( k & ! ultimate causes ( ! ord] ( real exi/5ce4 ,! orig9 ( ?is "n seems to be t ,ari/otle's lectures on ,fir/ ,philosophy came to be /udi$ z a cont9uation ( 8 c\rse on ,physics4 ,h5ce ! lectures got ! "n ,metaphysica because !y came aft] 7meta7 ^? on ,physics4 ,f9ally ! "n 0 transf]r$ 7z 9 ! case ( ,e?ics7 f ! lectures to ! subject ( :i* !y treat4 ,ma!matics is ( n>r[] scope4 ,:at x /udies is no long] real be+ z su*1 b only real be+ 9 s f> z x exhibits numb] & geometrical =m4 ,s9ce ,ari/otle holds ! view t numb] & figure only exi/ z det]m9ations ( objects giv5 9 p]ception 7?\gh by a conv5i5t fiction ! ma!matician treats ( !m 9 ab/raction f ! p]ceiv$ objects :i* !y qualify71 he m>ks ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,ma!matics & ,fir/ ,philosophy by say+ t :]eas ! objects ( ,fir/ ,philosophy are sep>ate f matt] & devoid ( motion1 ^? ( ,ma!matics1 ?\gh incapable ( motion1 h no sep>able exi/5ce b are inh]5t 9 matt]4 ,physics is conc]n$ ) ! /udy ( objects :i* are bo? mat]ial & capable ( motion4 ,?us ! pr9ciple ( ! di/9ction is ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( initial re/rictions ( ! range ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( ,sci5ce4 ,fir/ ,philosophy has ! wide/ range1 s9ce its contemplation cov]s ! :ole gr\nd ( ! real & kn[able2 ,physics ! n>r[e/1 because x is conf9$ to a univ]se ( disc\rse re/rict$ by ! d\ble qualification t its memb]s are all mat]ial & capable ( displacem5t4 ,ma!matics holds an int]m$iate position1 s9ce 9 x1 "o ( ^! qualifications is remov$1 b ! o!r /ill rema9s1 = ! geomet]'s figures are b\nd>ies & limits ( s5sible bodies1 & ! ari?metician's numb]s prop]ties ( collections ( concrete objects4 ,x foll[s also t ! initial axioms or po/ulates ( ,ma!matics =m a less simple sy/em ?an ^? ( ,fir/ ,philosophy1 & ^? ( ,physics ?an ^? ( ,ma!matics4 ,ma!matics requires z initial assumptions n only ^? :i* hold good = all ?\ght1 b c]ta9 o!r special axioms :i* are only valid & significant = ! realm ( figure & numb]2 ,physics requires yet fur!r axioms :i* are only applicable to :at is 9 motion4 ,?is is :y1 ?\gh ! ?ree discipl9es are treat$ z di/9ct1 !y are n /rictly co-ord9ate1 & ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ?\gh fir/1 is only prima int] p>es4 ,we ?us get ! foll[+ diagrammatic s*eme ( ! classification ( sci5ces3-- ,sci5ce ----------------------- ,!oretical ,practical ----------------------- ,fir/ ,philosophy ,ma!- ,physics or matics ,!ology ,practical ,philosophy is n subject$ by ,ari/otle to any simil> subdivision4 ,lat] /ud5ts 7 accu/om$ to recognise a ?reefold division into ,e?ics 7! !ory ( individual conduct71 ,economics 7! !ory ( ! managem5t ( ! h\sehold71 ,politics 7! !ory ( ! managem5t ( ! ,/ate74 ,ari/otle himself does n make ^! di/9ctions4 ,8 g5]al "n = ! !ory ( conduct is ,politics1 ! doctr9e ( individual conduct be+ = him insep>able f t ( ! "r ord]+ ( society4 ,?\gh he compos$ a sep>ate c\rse ( lectures on individual conduct 7! ,e?ics71 he takes c>e to op5 ! c\rse by /at+ t ! sci5ce ( :i* x treats is ,politics1 & (f]s an apology = deal+ ) ! education ( individual "* ap>t f ! m g5]al doctr9e ( ! organisation ( society4 ,no special recognition is giv5 9 ,ari/otle's own classification to ! ,philosophy ( ,art4 ,mod]n /ud5ts ( ,ari/otle h tri$ to fill 9 ! omission by add+ arti/ic creation to contemplation & practice z a ?ird fundam5tal =m ( m5tal activity1 & ?us mak+ a ?reefold division ( ,philosophy into ,!oretical1 ,practical1 & ,productive4 ,! object ( ?is is to f9d a place 9 ! classification = ,ari/otle's fam\s ,poetics & 8 "w on ,rhetoric1 ! art ( effective spee* & writ+4 ,b ! admission ( ! ?ird division ( ,sci5ce has no w>rant 9 ! text ( ,ari/otle1 nor are ! ,rhetoric & ,poetics1 prop]ly speak+1 a contribution to ,philosophy4 ,!y are int5d$ z collections ( practical rules = ! composition ( a pamphlet or a trag$y1 n z a critical exam9ation ( ! canons ( lit]>y ta/e4 ,?is 0 correctly se5 by ! dramatic !ori/s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,!y exagg]at$ ! value ( ,ari/otle's directions & entirely misund]/ood ! mean+ ( "s ( !m1 b !y 7 "r 9 _! view t ! ,poetics 0 meant to be a collection ( rules by obey+ :i* ! craftsman might make sure ( turn+ out a successful play4 ,s f> z ,ari/otle has a ,philosophy ( ,f9e ,art at all1 x =ms "p ( 8 m g5]al !ory ( education & mu/ be look$ = 9 ! g5]al discussion ( ! aims ( education conta9$ 9 8 ,politics4 99,! ,me?ods ( ,sci5ce994--,no place has be5 assign$ 9 ! s*eme to :at we call logic & ,ari/otle call$ ,analytics1 ! !ory ( sci5tific me?od1 or ( pro( & ! e/imation ( evid5ce4 ,! reason is t s9ce ! fundam5tal "* ( pro( is ! same 9 all sci5ce1 ,ari/otle looks ^u logic z a /udy ( ! me?ods common to all sci5ce4 ,at a lat] date x became a hotly debat$ "q :e!r logic %\ld be reg>d$ 9 ?is way z a /udy ( ! me?ods in/rum5tal to pro( 9 all sci5ces1 or z itself a special con/itu5t division ( philosophy4 ,! ,ari/otelian view 0 concisely indicat$ by ! "n :i* became atta*$ to ! collection ( ,ari/otle's logical works4 ,!y 7 call$ ! ,organon1 t is1 ! in/rum5t1 or ! body ( rules ( me?od employ$ by ,sci5ce4 ,! ?\ght impli$ is ?us t logic furni%es ! tools ) :i* e sci5ce has to "w 9 e/abli%+ its results4 ,our space w only p]mit ( a brief /atem5t z to ! po9ts 9 :i* ! ,ari/otelian =mal logic appe>s to be really orig9al1 & ! ma9 peculi>ities ( ,ari/otle's !ory ( k4 7a7 99,=mal ,logic994--,9 compass ! ,ari/otelian logic corresponds r\ghly ) ! cont5ts ( mod]n elem5t>y treatises on ! same subject1 ) ! omission ( ! sections :i* deal ) ! s-call$ ,conditional ,syllogism4 ,! inclusion ( argum5ts ( ?is type 9 m$iaeval & mod]n expositions ( =mal logic is pr9cipally due to ! ,/oics1 :o pref]r$ to ?r[ _! reason+ into ^! =ms & subject$ !m to m9ute scrut9y4 ,9 8 treatm5t ( ! doctr9e ( ,t]ms1 ,ari/otle avoids ! mi/ake ( treat+ ! isolat$ "n z ?\gh x _h significance ap>t f ! enunciations 9 :i* x occurs4 ,he is q cle> on ! all-important po9t t ! unit ( ?\ght is ! proposition 9 :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$1 ! "o ?\ght-=m :i* c be prop]ly call$ true or false4 ,su* an ass]tion he analyses into two factors1 t ab\t :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ 7! ,subject71 & t :i* is affirm$ or d5i$ ( x 7! ,pr$icate74 ,consequ5tly 8 doctr9e ( ! classification ( ,t]ms is bas$ on a classification ( ,pr$icates1 or ( ,propositions accord+ to ! special k9d ( connection betwe5 ! ,subject & ,pr$icate :i* !y affirm or d5y4 ,two su* classifications1 :i* _c be made to fit into "o ano!r1 meet u 9 ,ari/otle's logical writ+s1 ! s*eme ( ! t5 ,categories1 & t :i* 0 aft]w>ds kn[n 9 ! ,middle ,ages z ! li/ ( ,pr$icam5ts or ,heads ( ,pr$icates1 or aga9 z ! ,five ,words4 ,! li/ ( ,categories reveals itself z an attempt to answ] ! "q 9 h[ _m diff]5t s5ses ! words is a or are are employ$ :5 we ass]t t x is y or x is a y or xs are ys4 ,su* a /atem5t may tell u 7#a7 :at x is1 z if ,i say x is a lion2 ! pr$icate is !n said to fall "u ! category ( ,sub/ance2 7#b7 :at x is l1 z :5 ,i say x is :ite1 or x is wise1--! category ( ,quality2 7#c7 h[ mu* or h[ _m x is1 z :5 ,i say x is tall or x is five feet long1--! category ( ,quantity2 7#d7 h[ x is relat$ to some?+ else1 z :5 ,i say x is to ! "r ( y1 x is ! fa!r ( y1--! category ( ,relation4 ,^! are ! f\r *ief categories discuss$ by ,ari/otle4 ,! rema9d] are 7#e7 ,place1 7#f7 ,"t1 7#g7 & 7#h7 ,condition or ,/ate1 z :5 ,i say x is sitt+ d[n or x has 8 arm\r on1--7! only di/9ction betwe5 ! two cases seems to be t 7#g7 d5otes a m p]man5t /ate ( x ?an 7#h772 7#i7 ,action or ,activity1 z :5 ,i say x is cutt+1 or g5]ally x is do+ some?+ to y2 7#aj7 ,passivity1 z :5 ,i say x is be+ cut1 or m g5]ally1 s-&-s is be+ done to x4 ,no attempt is made to %[ t ?is li/ ( figures ( pr$ication is complete1 or to po9t out any pr9ciple :i* has be5 foll[$ 9 its con/ruction4 ,x also happ5s t mu* ! same enum]ation is incid5tally made 9 "o or two passages ( ,plato4 ,h5ce x is n unlikely t ! li/ 0 tak5 ov] by ,ari/otle z "o :i* w\ld be famili> to pupils :o _h read _! ,plato1 & !re=e conv5i5t = practical purposes4 ,! fivefold classification does dep5d on a pr9ciple po9t$ out by ,ari/otle :i* gu>antees its complet5ess1 & is !re=e likely to h be5 ?\ght out by him = himself1 & to be ! g5u9e ,ari/otelian s*eme4 ,consid] an ord9>y univ]sal affirmative proposition ( ! =m all xs are ys4 ,n[ if ?is /atem5t is true x may also be true t all ys are xs1 or x may n4 ,on ! fir/ supposition we h two possible cases1 7#a7 ! pr$icate may /ate precisely :at ! subject def9$ is2 !n y is ! ,def9ition ( x1 z :5 ,i say t m5 are mortal animals1 capable ( disc\rse4 ,"h x is also true to say t mortal animals capable ( disc\rse are m51 & ,ari/otle reg>ds ! pr$icate mortal animal capable ( disc\rse z express+ ! inmo/ nature ( man4 7#b7 ,! pr$icate may n express ! inmo/ nature ( ! subject1 & yet may belong only to ! class d5ot$ by ! subject & to e memb] ( t class4 ,! pr$icate is !n call$ a ,proprium or prop]ty1 an exclusive attribute ( ! class 9 "q4 ,?us x 0 held t all m5 are capable ( laught] & all be+s capable ( laught] are m51 b t ! capacity = laught] is no "p ( ! inmo/ nature or real ess5ce ( humanity4 ,x is !re=e reckon$ z a ,proprium4 ,aga9 9 ! case :]e x is true t all xs are ys1 b n true t all ys are xs1 y may be "p ( ! def9ition ( x or x may n4 ,if x is "p ( ! def9ition ( x x w be ei!r 7#c7 a g5us or wid] class ( :i* x =ms a subdivision1 z :5 ,i say1 ,all m5 are animals1 or 7#d7 a diff]5ce1 t is1 "o ( ! di/9ctive m>ks by :i* ! xs are di/+ui%$ f o!r sub-classes or species ( ! same g5us1 z :5 ,i say1 ,all m5 are capable ( disc\rse4 ,or f9ally 7#e7 y may be no "p ( ! def9ition ( x1 b a *>act]i/ic :i* belongs bo? to ! xs & "s ?+s o!r ?an xs4 ,! pr$icate is !n call$ an ,accid5t4 ,we h n[ exhau/$ all ! possible cases1 & may say t ! pr$icate ( a univ]sal affirmative proposition is always ei!r a def9ition1 a proprium1 a g5us1 a diff]5ce1 or an accid5t4 ,?is classification rea*$ ! ,middle ,ages n 9 ! precise =m 9 :i* x is giv5 by ,ari/otle1 b ) modifications ma9ly due to ! ,neo-,platonic philosoph] ,porphyry4 ,9 its modifi$ =m x is reg>d$ z a classification ( t]ms g5]ally4 ,def9ition disappe>s f ! li/1 z ! def9ition is reg>d$ z a complex made up ( ! g5us1 or next highe/ class to :i* ! class to be def9$ belongs1 & ! diff]5ces :i* m>k (f ?is p>ticul> species or sub-class4 ,! species itself :i* figures z ! subject-t]m 9 a def9ition is add$1 & ?us ! ,five ,words ( m$iaeval logic are enum]at$ z g5us1 species1 diff]5ce1 proprium1 accid5t4 ,! "o po9t ( philosophical int]e/ ab\t ?is doctr9e appe>s alike 9 ! s*eme ( ! ,categories 9 ! pres5ce ( a category ( sub/ance1 & 9 ! li/ ( ,pr$icam5ts 9 ! %>p di/9ction drawn betwe5 def9ition & proprium4 ,f a logical po9t ( view x does n appe> :y any proprium1 any "* belong+ to all ! memb]s ( a class & to !m alone1 %\ld n be tak5 z def9+ ! class4 ,:y %\ld x be assum$ t !re is only "o pr$icate1 viz4 man1 :i* precisely answ]s ! "q1 ,:at is ,socrates8 ,:y %\ld x n be equally correct to answ]1 a ,greek1 or a philosoph]8 ,! explanation is t ,ari/otle takes x = grant$ t n all ! di/9ctions we c make betwe5 k9ds ( ?+s are arbitr>y & subjective4 ,nature h]self has made c]ta9 h>d & fa/ divisions betwe5 k9ds :i* x is ! bus9ess ( our ?\ght to recognise & foll[4 ,?us accord+ to ,ari/otle !re is a real gulf1 a g5u9e diff]5ce 9 k9d1 betwe5 ! horse & ! ass1 & ?is is illu/rat$ by ! fact t ! mule1 ! (fspr+ ( a horse & an ass1 is n capable ( reproduction4 ,x is ?us a sort ( imp]fect be+1 a k9d ( mon/] exi/+ contra naturam4 ,su* diff]5ces z we f9d :5 we comp>e e4g4 ,egyptians ) ,greeks d n am\nt to a diff]5ce 9 k9d4 ,to say t ,socrates is a man tells me :at ,socrates is1 because ! /atem5t places ,socrates 9 ! real k9d to :i* he actually belongs2 to say t he is wise1 or old1 or a philosoph] m]ely tells me "s ( 8 attributes4 ,x foll[s f ?is belief 9 real or natural k9ds t ! problem ( def9ition acquires an enorm\s importance = sci5ce4 ,we1 :o are accu/om$ to reg>d ! :ole bus9ess ( classification z a matt] ( mak+ a gr\p+ ( our mat]ials su* z is mo/ p]t95t to ! special "q we h 9 h&1 t5d to look ^u any pr$icate :i* belongs univ]sally & exclusively to ! memb]s ( a gr\p1 z a suffici5t basis = a possible def9ition ( ! gr\p4 ,h5ce we are prone to take ! nom9ali/ view ( def9ition1 i4e4 to look ^u a def9ition z no m ?an a decl>ation ( ! s5se :i* we int5d h5ce=w>d to put on a ^w or o!r symbol4 ,& consequ5tly we readily admit t !re may be z _m def9itions ( a class z x has diff]5t propria4 ,b 9 a philosophy l t ( ,ari/otle1 9 :i* x is held t a true classification mu/ n only be =mally satisfactory1 b mu/ also con=m to ! actual l9es ( cleavage :i* ,nature has e/abli%$ betwe5 k9d & k9d1 ! task ( classificatory sci5ce becomes mu* m difficult4 ,sci5ce is call$ on to supply n m]ely a def9ition b ! def9ition ( ! classes x consid]s1 ! def9ition :i* fai?fully reflects ! l9es ( cleavage 9 ,nature4 ,?is is :y ! ,ari/otelian view is t a true def9ition %\ld always be p] g5us et diff]5tias4 ,x %\ld place a giv5 class by m5tion+ ! wid] class next above x 9 ! objective hi]>*y1 & !n enum]at+ ! mo/ deep-seat$ di/9ctions by :i* ,nature h]self m>ks (f ?is class f o!rs belong+ to ! same wid] class4 ,mod]n evolution>y ?\ght may possibly br+ u back to ?is ,ari/otelian /&po9t4 ,mod]n evolution>y sci5ce diff]s f ,ari/otelianism on "o po9t ( ! fir/ importance4 ,x reg>ds ! diff]5ce betwe5 k9ds1 n z a prim>y fact ( ,nature1 b z produc$ by a long process ( accumulation ( slight diff]5ces4 ,b a _w 9 :i* ! process has progress$ f> en\gh w exhibit mu* ! same "* z ! ,nature ( ,ari/otle4 ,z ! int]m$iate l9ks betwe5 species drop out because !y are less ?or\ghly adapt$ to ma9ta9 !mselves ?an ! extremes betwe5 :i* !y =m l9ks1 ! _w produc$ approximates m & m to a sy/em ( species betwe5 :i* !re are unbridgeable *asms2 evolution t5ds m & m to ! f9al e/abli%m5t ( real k9ds1 m>k$ by ! fact t !re is no p]man5t possibility ( cross-bre$+ betwe5 !m4 ,?is makes x once m possible to di/+ui% betwe5 a nom9al def9ition & a real def9ition4 ,f an evolution>y po9t ( view1 a real def9ition w\ld be "o :i* specifies n m]ely en\gh *>act]s to m>k (f ! gr\p def9$ f o!rs1 b selects also = ! purpose ^? *>act]s :i* indicate ! l9e ( hi/orical developm5t by :i* ! gr\p has successively sep>at$ itself f o!r gr\ps desc5d$ f ! same ance/ors4 ,we %all le>n yet m ( ! significance ( ?is conception ( a real k9d z we g on to make acqua9tance ) ! outl9es ( ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,ov] ! re/ ( ! =mal logic ( ,ari/otle we mu/ be cont5t to pass m rapidly4 ,9 connection ) ! doctr9e ( ,propositions1 ,ari/otle lays d[n ! famili> di/9ction betwe5 ! f\r types ( proposition accord+ to _! quantity 7z univ]sal or p>ticul>7 & quality 7z affirmative or negative71 & treats ( _! contr>y & contradictory opposition 9 a way :i* /ill =ms ! basis ( ! h&l+ ( ! subject 9 elem5t>y works on =mal logic4 ,he also consid]s at great l5g? a subject n[adays commonly exclud$ f ! elem5t>y books1 ! modal di/9ction betwe5 ! ,problematic proposition 7x may be y71 ! ,ass]tory 7x is y71 & ! ,necess>y 7x mu/ be y71 & ! way 9 :i* all ^! =ms may be contradict$4 ,= him1 modality is a =mal di/9ction l quantity or quality1 because he believes t cont+5cy & necessity are n m]ely relative to ! /ate ( our k1 b repres5t real & objective features ( ! ord] ( ,nature4 ,9 connection ) ! doctr9e ( ,inf]5ce1 x is wor? :ile to give 8 def9ition ( ,syllogism or ,inf]5ce 7lit]ally computation7 9 8 own words4 ,syllogism is a disc\rse :]e9 c]ta9 ?+s 7viz4 ! premisses7 be+ admitt$1 some?+ else1 diff]5t f :at has be5 admitt$1 foll[s ( necessity because ! admissions are :at !y are4 ,! la/ clause %[s t ,ari/otle is aw>e t ! all-important ?+ 9 an inf]5ce is n t ! conclusion %\ld be novel b t x %\ld be prov$4 ,we may h kn[n ! conclusion z a fact be=e2 :at ! inf]5ce does = u is to connect x ) ! re/ ( our k1 & ?us to %[ :y x is true4 ,he also =mulates ! axiom ^u :i* syllogi/ic inf]5ce re/s1 t if ,a is pr$icat$ univ]sally ( ,b & ,b ( ,c1 ,a is necess>ily pr$icat$ univ]sally ( ,c4 ,/at$ 9 ! language ( class-inclusion1 & adapt$ to include ! case :]e ,b is d5i$ ( ,c ?is becomes ! =mula1 :atev] is ass]t$ univ]sally1 :e!r positively or negatively1 ( a class ,b is ass]t$ 9 l mann] ( any class ,c :i* is :olly conta9$ 9 ,b1 ! axiom de omni et nullo ( m$iaeval logic4 ,! syllogism ( ! fir/ figure1 to :i* ?is pr9ciple imm$iately applies1 is accord+ly reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z ! natural & p]fect =m ( inf]5ce4 ,syllogisms ( ! second & ?ird figures c only be %[n to fall "u ! dictum by a process ( r$uction or trans=mation into correspond+ argum5ts 9 ! fir/ figure1 & are !re=e call$ imp]fect or incomplete1 because !y d n exhibit ! conclusive =ce ( ! reason+ ) equal cle>ness1 & also because no univ]sal affirmative conclusion c be prov$ 9 !m1 & ! aim ( sci5ce is always to e/abli% su* affirmatives4 ,! li/ ( moods ( ! ?ree figures1 & ! doctr9e ( ! me?ods by :i* ea* mood ( ! imp]fect figures c be replac$ by an equival5t mood ( ! fir/ is work$ out sub/antially z 9 our curr5t text-books4 ,! s-call$ f\r? figure is n recognis$1 its moods be+ reg>d$ m]ely z unnatural & di/ort$ /atem5ts ( ^? ( ! fir/ figure4 99,induction994--,( ! use ( induction 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy we %all speak "u ! head ( ,!ory ( ,k4 ,=mally x is call$ ! way ( proce$+ f p>ticul> facts to univ]sals1 & ,ari/otle insi/s t ! conclusion is only prov$ if all ! p>ticul>s h be5 exam9$4 ,?us he gives z an example ! foll[+ argum5t1 x1 y1 z are long-liv$ species ( animals2 x1 y1 z are ! only species :i* h no gall2 ergo all animals :i* h no gall are long-liv$4 ,?is is ! induction by simple enum]ation d5\nc$ by ,francis ,bacon on ! gr\nd t x may always be discr$it$ by ! production ( a s+le contr>y in/ance1 e4g4 a s+le in/ance ( an animal :i* has no gall & yet is n long-liv$4 ,ari/otle is q aw>e t 8 induction does n e/abli% its conclusion unless all ! cases h be5 includ$ 9 ! exam9ation4 ,9 fact1 z 8 own example %[s1 an induction :i* gives c]ta9ty does n />t ) p>ticul> facts at all4 ,x is a me?od ( argu+ t :at has be5 prov$ true ( ea* sub-class ( a wid] class w be true ( ! wid] class z a :ole4 ,! premisses are /rictly univ]sal ?r\gh\t4 ,9 g5]al1 ,ari/otle does n reg>d induction z pro( at all4 ,hi/orically induction is held by ,ari/otle to h be5 fir/ made prom95t 9 philosophy by ,socrates1 :o con/antly employ$ ! me?od 9 8 attempts to e/abli% univ]sal results 9 moral sci5ce4 ,?us he gives1 z a *>act]i/ic argum5t = ! fam\s ,socratic doctr9e t k is ! "o ?+ ne$ful1 ! induction1 he :o und]/&s ! !ory ( navigation is ! be/ navigator1 he :o und]/&s ! !ory ( *>iot-driv+ ! be/ driv]2 f ^! examples we see t univ]sally he :o und]/&s ! !ory ( a ?+ is ! be/ practition]1 :]e x is evid5t t all ! relevant cases h n be5 exam9$1 & consequ5tly t ! reason+ does n am\nt to pro(4 ,mill's s-call$ reason+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s f9ds a place 9 ,ari/otle's !ory "u ! "n ( argu+ f an example4 ,he gives z an illu/ration1 ,a w> betwe5 ,a!ns & ,!bes w be a bad ?+1 = we see t ! w> betwe5 ,!bes & ,phocis 0 s4 ,he is c>eful to po9t out t ! :ole =ce ( ! argum5t dep5ds on ! impli$ assumption ( a univ]sal proposition :i* cov]s bo? cases1 su* z w>s betwe5 neighb\rs are bad ?+s4 ,h5ce he calls su* appeals to example rhetorical reason+1 because ! politician is accu/om$ to leave 8 he>]s to supply ! relevant univ]sal consid]ation = !mselves4 99,!ory ( ,k994--,"h1 z ev]y:]e 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 we are confront$ by an initial & insup]able difficulty4 ,ari/otle is always anxi\s to insi/ on ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 own doctr9es & ^? ( ,plato1 & 8 bias 9 ?is direction regul>ly leads him to speak z ?\gh he held a ?or\gh-go+ naturali/ic & empirical !ory ) no transc5d5tal moon%9e ab\t x4 ,yet 8 f9al conclusions on all po9ts ( importance are h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( ,plato except by ! fact t1 z !y are s mu* at v>iance ) ! naturali/ic side ( 8 philosophy1 !y h ! appe>ance ( be+ sudd5 lapses into an alogical my/icism4 ,we %all f9d ! pres5ce ( ?is fault m pron\nc$ly 9 8 metaphysics1 psy*ology1 & e?ics ?an 9 8 !ory ( k1 b x is n abs5t f any "p ( 8 philosophy4 ,he is ev]y:]e a ,platoni/ malgre lui1 & x is j ! ,platonic elem5t 9 8 ?\ght to :i* x owes its hold ov] m5's m9ds4 ,plato's doctr9e on ! subject may be /at$ ) en\gh accuracy = our purpose z foll[s4 ,!re is a radical di/9ction betwe5 s5se-p]ception & sci5tific k4 ,a sci5tific tru? is exact & def9ite1 x is also true once & = all1 & nev] becomes tru] or fals] ) ! lapse ( "t4 ,?is is ! "* ( ! propositions ( ! sci5ce :i* ,plato reg>d$ z ! type ( :at true sci5ce ought to be1 pure ma!matics4 ,x is v diff]5t ) ! judgm5ts :i* we try to base on our s5se-p]ceptions ( ! visible & tangible _w4 ,! col\rs1 ta/es1 %apes ( s5sible ?+s seem diff]5t to diff]5t p]cipi5ts1 & moreov] !y are con/antly *ang+ 9 incalculable ways4 ,we c nev] be c]ta9 t two l9es :i* seem to our s5ses to be equal are really s2 x may be t ! inequality is m]ely too slight to be p]ceptible to our s5ses4 ,no figure :i* we c draw & see actually has ! exact prop]ties ascrib$ by ! ma!matician to a circle or a squ>e4 ,h5ce ,plato concludes t if ! ^w sci5ce be tak5 9 its fulle/ s5se1 !re c be no sci5ce ab\t ! _w :i* our s5ses reveal4 ,we c h only an approximate k1 a k :i* is aft] all1 at be/1 probable op9ion4 ,! objects ( :i* ! ma!matician has c]ta91 exact1 & f9al k _c be any?+ :i* ! s5ses reveal4 ,!y are objects ( ?\ght1 & ! function ( visible models & diagrams 9 ma!matics is n to pres5t examples ( !m to u1 b only to %[ u imp]fect approximations to !m & s to rem9d ! s\l ( objects & relations betwe5 !m :i* %e has nev] cognis$ ) ! bodily s5ses4 ,?us ma!matical /raightness is nev] actually beheld1 b :5 we see l9es ( less & m approximate /raightness we are put 9 m9d ( t absolute /raightness to :i* s5se-p]ception only approximates4 ,s 9 ! moral sci5ces1 ! v>i\s virtues are n pres5t$ 9 _! p]fection by ! c\rse ( daily life4 ,we d n meet ) m5 :o are p]fectly brave or j1 b ! exp]i5ce t "o man is brav] or ju/] ?an ano!r calls into our m9d ! ?\ght ( ! absolute /&>d ( c\rage or ju/ice impli$ 9 ! conviction t "o man comes ne>] to x ?an ano!r1 & x is ^! absolute /&>ds :i* are ! real objects ( our att5tion :5 we try to def9e ! t]ms by :i* we describe ! moral life4 ,?is is ! epi/emological side ( ! fam\s doctr9e ( ! ,ideas4 ,! ma9 po9ts are two1 7#a7 t /rict sci5ce deals ?r\gh\t ) objects & relations betwe5 objects :i* are ( a purely intellectual or conceptual ord]1 no s5se-data ent]+ into _! con/itution2 7#b7 s9ce ! objects ( sci5ce are ( ?is "*1 x foll[s t ! ,idea or concept or univ]sal is n arriv$ at by any process ( ab/ract+ f our exp]i5ce ( s5sible ?+s ! features common to !m all4 ,z ! p>ticul> fact nev] actually exhibits ! univ]sal except approximately1 ! univ]sal _c be simply dis5tangl$ f p>ticul>s by ab/raction4 ,z ,plato puts x1 x is ap>t f p>ticul>s1 or1 z we might reword 8 ?\ght1 ! pure concepts ( sci5ce repres5t upp] limits to :i* ! comp>ative s]ies :i* we c =m out ( s5sible data cont9ually approximate b d n rea* !m4 ,9 8 !ory ( k ,ari/otle beg9s by bru%+ aside ! ,platonic view4 ,sci5ce requires no su* ,ideas1 transc5d+ s5se-exp]i5ce1 z ,plato _h spok5 (2 !y are1 9 fact1 no m ?an poetic metaphors4 ,:at is requir$ = sci5ce is n t !re %\ld be a "o ov] & above ! _m 7t is1 su* pure concepts1 unrealis$ 9 ! _w ( actual p]ception1 z ,plato _h spok5 (71 b only t x %\ld be possible to pr$icate "o t]m univ]sally ( _m o!rs4 ,?is1 by itself1 means t ! univ]sal is look$ on z a m]e residue ( ! *>act]i/ics f\nd 9 ea* memb] ( a gr\p1 got by ab/raction1 i4e4 by leav+ out ( view ! *>act]i/ics :i* are peculi> to "s ( ! gr\p & reta9+ only ^? :i* are common to all4 ,if ,ari/otle _h held consi/5tly to ?is po9t ( view1 8 !ory ( k w\ld h be5 a purely empirical "o4 ,he w\ld h _h to say t1 s9ce all ! objects ( k are p>ticul> facts giv5 9 s5se-p]ception1 ! univ]sal laws ( sci5ce are a m]e conv5i5t way ( describ+ ! obs]v$ uni=mities 9 ! behavi\r ( s5sible ?+s4 ,b1 s9ce x is obvi\s t 9 pure ma!matics we are n conc]n$ ) ! actual relations betwe5 s5sible data or ! actual ways 9 :i* !y behave1 b ) s-call$ pure cases or ideals to :i* ! p]ceiv$ _w only approximately con=ms1 he w\ld also h _h to say t ! propositions ( ma!matics are n /rictly true4 ,9 mod]n times consi/5t empirici/s h said ?is1 b x is n a position possible to "o :o _h pass$ tw5ty ye>s 9 association ) ! ma!maticians ( ! ,academy1 & ,ari/otle's !ory only beg9s 9 naturalism to end 9 ,platonism4 ,we may cond5se its mo/ /rik+ positions into ! foll[+ /atem5t4 ,by sci5ce we mean prov$ k4 ,& prov$ k is always m$iat$2 x is ! k ( conclusions f premisses4 ,a tru? t is sci5tifically kn[n does n /& alone4 ,! pro( is simply ! po9t+ out ( ! connection betwe5 ! tru? we call ! conclusion1 & o!r tru?s :i* we call ! premisses ( our demon/ration4 ,sci5ce po9ts out ! reason :y ( ?+s1 & ?is is :at is meant by ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciple t to h sci5ce is to "k ?+s ?r\gh _! causes or reasons :y4 ,9 an ord]$ dige/ ( sci5tific tru?s1 ! prop] arrangem5t is to beg9 ) ! simple/ & mo/ widely ext5d$ pr9ciples & to reason d[n1 ?r\gh successive inf]5ces1 to ! mo/ complex propositions1 ! reason :y ( :i* c only be exhibit$ by long *a9s ( d$uctions4 ,?is is ! ord] ( logical dep5d5ce1 & is describ$ by ,ari/otle z reason+ f :at is m kn[able 9 its own nature1 ! simple1 to :at is usually m famili> to u1 because less remov$ f ! inf9ite weal? ( s5se-p]ception1 ! complex4 ,9 discov]y we h usually to rev]se ! process & argue f ! famili> to u1 highly complex facts1 to ! m kn[able 9 its own nature1 ! simpl] pr9ciples impli$ 9 ! facts4 ,?is simple expression acquires a my/]i\s appe>ance 9 m$iaeval philosophy f ! /&+ mi/ranslation notiora naturae1 bett] kn[n to nature4 ,x foll[s t ,ari/otle1 aft] all1 admits ! disp>at5ess ( s5se-p]ception & sci5tific k4 ,s5se-p]ception ( itself nev] gives u sci5tific tru?1 because x c only assure u t a fact is s2 x _c expla9 ! fact by %[+ its connection ) ! re/ ( ! sy/em ( facts1 x does n give ! reason = ! fact4 ,k ( p]ception is always imm$iate1 & = t v reason is nev] sci5tific4 ,if we /ood on ! moon & saw ! e>?1 int]pos+ betwe5 u & ! sun1 we %\ld /ill n h sci5tific k ab\t ! eclipse1 because we %\ld /ill h to ask = ! reason :y4 7,9 fact1 we %\ld n "k ! reason :y )\t a !ory ( light includ+ ! proposition t light-waves are propagat$ 9 /raight l9es & sev]al o!rs47 ,simil>ly ,ari/otle insi/s t ,induction does n yield sci5tific tru?4 ,he :o makes an induction po9ts out some?+1 b does n demon/rate any?+4 ,= in/ance1 if we "k t ea* species ( animal :i* is )\t a gall is long-liv$1 we may make ! induction t all animals )\t a gall are long-liv$1 b 9 do+ s we h got no ne>] to see+ :y or h[ ! abs5ce ( a gall makes = longevity4 ,! "q :i* we may raise 9 sci5ce may all be r$uc$ to f\r heads1 7#a7 ,does ?is ?+ exi/8 7#b7 ,does ?is ev5t occur8 7#c7 ,if ! ?+ exi/s1 precisely :at is x8 & 7#d7 ,if ! ev5t occurs1 :y does x occur8 & sci5ce has n complet$ its task unless x c advance f ! solution ( ! fir/ two que/ions to t ( ! latt] two4 ,sci5ce is no m]e catalogue ( ?+s & ev5ts1 x consi/s ( inquiries into ! real ess5ces & *>act]i/ics ( ?+s & ! laws ( connection betwe5 ev5ts4 ,look+ at sci5tific reason+1 !n1 f ! po9t ( view ( its =mal "*1 we may say t all sci5ce consi/s 9 ! se>* = middle t]ms ( syllogisms1 by :i* to connect ! tru? :i* appe>s z a conclusion ) ! less complex tru?s :i* appe> z ! premisses f :i* x is drawn4 ,:5 we ask1 does su* a ?+ exi/8 or does su* an ev5t happ58 we are ask+1 is !re a middle t]m :i* c connect ! ?+ or ev5t 9 "q ) ! re/ ( kn[n reality8 ,s9ce x is a rule ( ! syllogism t ! middle t]m mu/ be tak5 univ]sally1 at lea/ once 9 ! premisses1 ! se>* = middle t]ms may also be describ$ z ! se>* = univ]sals1 & we may speak ( sci5ce z k ( ! univ]sal int]connections betwe5 facts & ev5ts4 ,a sci5ce1 !n1 may be analys$ into ?ree con/itu5ts4 ,^! are3 7#a7 a det]m9ate class ( objects :i* =m ! subject-matt] ( its inquiries4 ,9 an ord]ly exhibition ( ! cont5ts ( ! sci5ce1 ^! appe>1 z 9 ,euclid1 z ! initial data ab\t :i* ! sci5ce reasons2 7#b7 a numb] ( pr9ciples1 po/ulates1 & axioms1 f :i* our demon/rations mu/ />t4 ,"s ( ^! w be pr9ciples employ$ 9 all sci5tific reason+4 ,o!rs w be specific to ! subject-matt] ) :i* a p>ticul> sci5ce is conc]n$2 7#c7 c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( ! objects "u /udy :i* c be %[n by means ( our axioms & po/ulates to foll[ f our initial def9itions1 ! accid5tia p] se ( ! objects def9$4 ,x is ^! la/ :i* are express$ by ! conclusions ( sci5tific demon/ration4 ,we are said to "k sci5tifically t ,b is true ( ,a :5 we %[ t ?is foll[s1 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciples ( "s sci5ce1 f ! initial def9ition ( ,a4 ,?us if we conv9c$ ourselves t ! sum ( ! angles ( a plane triangle is equal to two "r angles by measurem5t1 we c\ld n be said to h sci5tific k ( ! proposition4 ,b if we %[ t ! same proposition foll[s f ! def9ition ( a plane triangle by repeat$ applications ( admitt$ axioms or po/ulates ( geometry1 our k is g5u9ely sci5tific4 ,we n[ "k t x is s1 & we see :y x is s2 we see ! connection ( ?is tru? ) ! simple initial tru?s ( geometry4 ,?is leads u to ! consid]ation ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic po9t ( ,ari/otle's :ole !ory4 ,sci5ce is demon/rat$ k1 t is1 x is ! k t c]ta9 tru?s foll[ f /ill simpl] tru?s4 ,h5ce ! simple/ ( all ! tru?s ( any sci5ce _c !mselves be capable ( be+ kn[n by inf]5ce4 ,y _c inf] t ! axioms ( geometry are true because its conclusions are true1 s9ce ! tru? ( ! conclusions is itself a consequ5ce ( ! tru? ( ! axioms4 ,nor yet mu/ y ask = demon/ration ( ! axioms z consequ5ces ( /ill simpl] premisses1 because if all tru?s c be prov$1 !y ought to be prov$1 & y w\ld !re=e require an inf9ity ( successive demon/rations to prove any?+ :atev]4 ,b "u su* conditions all k ( demon/rat$ tru? w\ld be impossible4 ,! fir/ pr9ciples ( any sci5ce mu/ !re=e be indemon/rable4 ,!y mu/ be kn[n1 z facts ( s5se-p]ception are kn[n1 imm$iately & n m$iately4 ,h[ !n d we come by our k ( !m8 ,ari/otle's answ] to ?is "q appe>s at fir/ sight curi\sly contradictory4 ,he seems to say t ^! simple/ tru?s are appreh5d$ intuitively1 or on inspection1 z self-evid5t by ,intellig5ce or ,m9d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he also says t !y are kn[n to u z a result ( induction f s5se-exp]i5ce4 ,?us he seems to be ei!r a ,platoni/ or an empirici/1 accord+ z y *oose to rememb] "o set ( 8 utt]ances or ano!r1 & ?is app>5t inconsi/5cy has l$ to 8 au?ority be+ claim$ 9 _! fav\r by ?9k]s ( ! mo/ widely diff]5t types4 ,b m c>eful /udy w %[ t ! seem+ confusion is due to ! fact t he tries to comb9e 9 "o /atem5t 8 answ]s to two q diff]5t que/ions1 7#a7 h[ we come to reflect on ! axioms1 7#b7 :at evid5ce !re is = _! tru?4 ,to ! fir/ "q he replies1 by induction f exp]i5ce1 & s f> he might seem to be a precursor ( ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,successive repetitions ( ! same s5se-p]ceptions give rise to a s+le exp]i5ce1 & x is by reflection on exp]i5ce t we become aw>e ( ! mo/ ultimate simple & univ]sal pr9ciples4 ,we might illu/rate 8 po9t by consid]+ h[ ! ?\ght t two & two are f\r may be br\ght be=e a *ild's m9d4 ,we might fir/ take two apples1 & two o!r apples & set ! *ild to c\nt !m4 ,by repeat+ ! process ) diff]5t apples we may tea* ! *ild to dissociate ! result ( ! c\nt+ f ! p>ticul> apples employ$1 & to advance to ! ?\ght1 any two apples & any two o!r apples make f\r apples4 ,!n we might sub/itute pe>s or *]ries = ! apples1 s z to sugge/ ! ?\ght1 two fruits & two fruits make f\r fruits4 ,& by simil> me?ods we %\ld 9 ! end evoke ! ?\ght1 any two objects :atev] & any o!r two objects :atev] make f\r objects4 ,?is exactly illu/rates ,ari/otle's conception ( ! function ( induction1 or comp>ison ( in/ances1 9 fix+ att5tion on a univ]sal pr9ciple ( :i* "o _h n be5 consci\s be=e ! comp>ison 0 made4 ,n[ comes 9 ! po9t :]e ,ari/otle diff]s :olly f all empirici/s1 lat] & e>li]4 ,mill reg>ds ! in/ances produc$ 9 ! induction z hav+ a d\ble function2 !y n m]ely fix ! att5tion on ! pr9ciple1 !y also are ! evid5ce ( its tru?4 ,?is gives rise to ! greate/ difficulty 9 8 :ole logical !ory4 ,induction by imp]fect enum]ation is pron\nc$ to be 7z x cle>ly is7 fallaci\s1 yet ! pr9ciple ( ! uni=mity ( ,nature :i* ,mill reg>ds z ! ultimate premiss ( all sci5ce1 is itself suppos$ to be prov$ by ?is radically fallaci\s me?od4 ,ari/otle avoids a simil> inconsi/5cy by hold+ t ! sole function ( ! induction is to fix our att5tion on a pr9ciple :i* x does n prove4 ,he holds t ultimate pr9ciples nei!r p]mit ( nor require pro(4 ,:5 ! induction has done its "w 9 call+ att5tion to ! pr9ciple1 y h to see = y\rself t ! pr9ciple is true4 ,y see t x is true by imm$iate inspection j z 9 s5se-p]ception y h to see t ! col\r be=e y\r eyes is r$ or blue4 ,?is is :y ,ari/otle holds t ! k ( ! pr9ciples ( sci5ce is n itself sci5ce 7demon/rat$ k71 b :at he calls intellig5ce1 & we may call intellectual intuition4 ,?us 8 doctr9e is %>ply di/+ui%$ n only f empiricism 7! doctr9e t univ]sal pr9ciples are prov$ by p>ticul> facts71 b also f all !ories ( ! ,hegelian type :i* reg>d ! pr9ciples & ! facts z someh[ reciprocally prov+ ea* o!r1 & f ! doctr9e ( "s em95t mod]n logicians :o hold t self-evid5ce is n requir$ 9 ! ultimate pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 z we are only conc]n$ 9 logic ) ! "q :at consequ5ces foll[ f our initial assumptions1 & n ) ! tru? or falsehood ( ! assumptions !mselves4 ,! result is t ,ari/otle does little m ?an repeat ! ,platonic view ( ! nature ( sci5ce4 ,sci5ce consi/s ( d$uctions f univ]sal pr9ciples :i* s5sible exp]i5ce sugge/s1 b into :i*1 z !y are appreh5d$ by a purely intellectual inspection1 no s5se-data ent] z con/itu5ts4 ,! app>5t rejection ( transc5d5tal moon%9e has1 aft] all1 l$ to no?+4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 ,plato & 8 s*ol> lies 9 ! cle>ness ( intellectual vision :i* ,plato %[s :5 he expressly ma9ta9s 9 pla9 words t ! univ]sals ( exact sci5ce are n 9 our s5se-p]ceptions & !re=e to be extract$ f !m by a process ( ab/raction1 b are ap>t f or ov] !m1 & =m an ideal sy/em ( int]connect$ concepts :i* ! exp]i5ces ( s5se m]ely imitate or make approximation to4 ,"o m po9t rema9s to be consid]$ to complete our outl9e ( ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( k4 ,! sci5ces h pr9ciples :i* are disc]n$ to be true by imm$iate inspection4 ,b :at if "o man pr(esses to see ! self-evid5t tru? ( su* an alleg$ pr9ciple1 :ile ano!r is d\btful ( its tru?1 or ev5 d5ies x8 ,!re c be no "q ( sil5c+ ! objector by a demon/ration1 s9ce no g5u9e simple pr9ciple admits ( demon/ration4 ,all t c be done1 e4g4 if a man d\bts :e!r ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 or :e!r ! law ( contradiction is true1 is to exam9e ! consequ5ces ( a d5ial ( ! axiom & to %[ t !y include "s :i* are false1 or :i* y\r antagoni/ at lea/ consid]s false4 ,9 ?is way1 by %[+ ! falsity ( consequ5ces :i* foll[ f ! d5ial ( a giv5 pr9ciple1 y indirectly e/abli% its tru?4 ,n[ reason+ ( ?is k9d diff]s f sci5ce precisely 9 ! po9t t y take z y\r major premiss1 n :at y reg>d z true1 b ! opposite !sis ( y\r antagoni/1 :i* y reg>d z false4 ,y\r object is n to prove a true conclusion b to %[ y\r oppon5t t 8 premisses lead to false conclusions4 ,?is is dialectical reason+ 9 ,ari/otle's s5se ( ! ^w1 i4e4 reason+ n f y\r own b f "s "o else's premisses4 ,h5ce ! *ief philosophical importance :i* ,ari/otle ascribes to dialectic is t x provides a me?od ( def5d+ ! undemon/rable axioms aga9/ objections4 ,dialectic ( ?is k9d became highly important 9 ! m$iaeval ,ari/otelianism ( ! s*oolm51 ) :om x became a regul> me?od1 z may be se5 e4g4 9 ! ,summa ( ,/4 ,?omas1 to beg9 _! consid]ation ( a doctr9e by a prelim9>y rehe>sal ( all ! argum5ts !y c\ld f9d or devise aga9/ ! conclusion !y meant to adopt4 ,?us ! fir/ division ( any article 9 ! ,summa ,!ologiae ( ,?omas is regul>ly con/itut$ by argum5ts bas$ on ! premisses ( actual or possible antagoni/s1 & is /rictly dialectical4 7,to be q accurate ,ari/otle %\ld1 ( c\rse1 h obs]v$ t ?is dialectical me?od ( def5d+ a pr9ciple becomes useless 9 ! case ( a logical axiom :i* is presuppos$ by all d$uction4 ,= ?is reason ,ari/otle falls into fallacy :5 he tries to def5d ! law ( contradiction by dialectic4 ,x is true t if ! law be d5i$1 !n any & e pr$icate may be indiff]5tly ascrib$ to any subject4 ,b until ! law ( contradiction has be5 admitt$1 y h no "r to reg>d x z absurd to ascribe all pr$icates indiscrim9ately to all subjects4 ,?us1 x is only assum$ laws :i* are n ultimate laws ( logic t admit ( dialectical ju/ification4 ,if a tru? is s ultimate t x has ei!r to be recognis$ by direct inspection or n at all1 !re c be no argu+ at all ) "o :o _c or w n see x47 99,,*apt] ,,iii99 99,,fir/ ,,philosophy99 ,fir/ ,philosophy is def9$ by ,ari/otle z a sci5ce :i* consid]s ,:at ,is simply 9 its "* ( ,be+1 & ! prop]ties :i* x has z su*4 ,t !re is1 or ought to be1 su* a sci5ce is urg$ on ! gr\nd t e special sci5ce deals only ) "s re/rict$ dep>tm5t ( :at is1 & ?us consid]s its subject-matt] n univ]sally 9 its "* ( be+1 or be+ real1 b z det]m9$ by "s m special condition4 ,?us1 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ! sci5ce :i* attempts to discov] ! mo/ ultimate reasons (1 or gr\nds =1 ! "* ( ?+s 9 g5]al _c be id5tifi$ ) any ( ! dep>tm5tal sci5ces4 ,! same consid]ation expla9s :y x is ,fir/ ,philosophy :i* has to dis5tangle ! pr9ciples ( ! v>i\s sci5ces1 & def5d !m by dialectic aga9/ ^? :o impugn !m4 ,x is no "p ( ! duty ( a geomet] or a physici/ to deal ) objections to su* univ]sal pr9ciples ( reason+ z ! law ( contradiction4 ,!y may safely assume su* pr9ciples2 if !y are attack$1 x is n by specifically geometrical or physical consid]ations t !y c be def5d$4 ,ev5 ! pr9ciples ( ! special sci5ces h n to be exam9$ & def5d$ by ! special sci5ces4 ,!y are ! />t+-po9ts ( ! sci5ces :i* employ !m2 ^! sci5ces are !re=e ju/ifi$ 9 requir+ t !y %all be admitt$ z a condition ( geometrical1 or physical1 or biological demon/rations4 ,if !y are call$ 9 "q1 ! def5ce ( !m is ! bus9ess ( logic4 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 !n1 is ! /udy ( ,:at ,is simply z su*1 ! univ]sal pr9ciples ( /ructure )\t :i* !re c\ld be no ord]$ sy/em ( kn[able objects4 ,b ! ^w is has m ?an "o s5se4 ,!re are z _m modes ( be+ z !re are types ( pr$ication4 ,sub/ances1 m51 horses1 & ! l1 h _! own specific mode ( be+--!y are ?+s2 qualities1 su* z gre5 or sweet1 h a diff]5t mode ( be+--!y are n ?+s1 b affections or attributes ( ?+s4 ,actions1 aga91 su* z build+1 kill+1 are nei!r ?+s nor yet affections ( ?+s2 _! mode ( be+ is t !y are processes :i* produce or de/roy ?+s4 ,fir/ ,philosophy is conc]n$ ) ! g5]al "* ( all ^! modes ( be+1 b x is specially conc]n$ ) t mode ( be+ :i* belongs to sub/ances4 ,= ?is is ! mo/ prim>y ( all modes ( be+4 ,we _h to introduce a ref]5ce to x 9 our attempt to say :at ! mode ( be+ ( qualities & actions is1 & x w\ld h be5 ! same _h our illu/rations be5 drawn f any o!r categories4 ,h5ce ! c5tral & special problem ( ,fir/ ,philosophy is to analyse ! notion ( sub/ance & to %[ ! causes ( ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances4 ,next1 we h to note t ! ^w sub/ance itself has two s5ses4 ,:5 we spoke ( sub/ance z "o ( ! categories we 7 us+ x 9 a second>y s5se4 ,we meant by sub/ances horse1 man1 & ! re/ ( ! real k9ds :i* we f9d 9 ,nature1 & try to reproduce 9 a sci5tific classification4 ,9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w sub/ances are a special class ( pr$icates1 z :5 we affirm ( ,plato t he is a man1 or ( ,bucephalus t he is a horse4 ,b 9 ! prim>y s5se a sub/ance means an absolutely individual ?+1 ?is man1 or ?is horse4 ,we may !re=e def9e prim>y sub/ances f ! logician's po9t ( view by say+ t !y c be only subjects ( pr$ication1 nev] pr$icates4 ,or aga91 x is peculi> to sub/ances1 t :ile rema9+ num]ically "o a sub/ance admits ( incompatible det]m9ations1 z ,socrates1 rema9+ "o & ! same ,socrates1 is successively "y & old4 ,?is is n true ( qualities1 actions1 & ! re/4 ,! same col\r _c be fir/ :ite & !n black2 ! same act _c be fir/ bad & !n good4 ,?us we may say t individual sub/ances are ! fix$ & p]man5t factors 9 ! _w ( mutability1 ! inv>iants ( exi/5ce4 ,processes g on 9 !m1 !y run ! gamut ( *anges f bir? to decay1 processes take place among !m1 !y act on & are act$ on by "o ano!r1 !y fluctuate 9 _! qualities & _! magnitude1 b s long z a sub/ance exi/s x rema9s num]ically "o & ! same ?r\gh\t all ^! *anges4 ,_! exi/5ce is ! fir/ & mo/ fundam5tal condition ( ! exi/5ce ( ! univ]se1 s9ce !y are ! be>]s ( all qualities1 ! t]ms ( all relations1 & ! ag5ts & pati5ts 9 all int]action4 ,! po9t to note is t ,ari/otle beg9s 8 inve/igation into ! /ructure ( ,:at ,is & ! causes by :i* x is produc$ by />t+ f ! exi/5ce ( individual ?+s belong+ to ! physical ord] & p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,ab\t any su* ?+ we may ask two que/ions1 7#a7 into :at con/itu5t factors c x be logically analys$8 7#b7 & h[ has x come to exhibit ! "* :i* our analysis %[s x to h8 ,! answ] to ^! que/ions w appe> f a consid]ation ( two /&+ anti!ses :i* run ?r\gh ,ari/otle's philosophy1 ! contra/ betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m1 & t betwe5 ,pot5tial & ,actual1 foll[$ by a recapitulation ( 8 doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,causes1 or f\r s5ses ( ! ^w ,cause4 99,matt] & ,=m994--,consid] any completely develop$ individual ?+1 :e!r x is ! product ( human manufacture1 z a copp] b[l1 or ( natural reproduction1 z an oak-tree or a horse4 ,we %all see at once t ! b[l is l o!r articles made ( ! same metal1 c&le/icks1 coal-vases1 9 be+ made ( ! same /uff1 & unlike !m 9 hav+ ! special %ape or /ructure :i* r5d]s x fit = be+ us$ z a b[l & n = hold+ a c&le or conta9+ coals4 ,s a botani/ or a *emi/ w tell y t ! con/itu5t tissues ( an oak or horse1 or ! *emical elem5ts out ( :i* ^! tissues are built up are ( ! same k9d z ^? ( an a% or an ox1 b ! oak diff]s f ! a% or ! horse f ! ox 9 *>act]i/ic /ructure4 ,we see ?us t 9 any individual ?+ we c di/+ui% two compon5ts1 ! /uff ( :i* x consi/s--:i* may be id5tical 9 k9d ) ! /uff ( :i* ?+s ( a v diff]5t k9d consi/--& ! /ructural law ( =mation or arrangem5t :i* is peculi> to ! special k9d ( ?+ "u consid]ation4 ,9 ! actual individual ?+ ^! two are insep>ably unit$2 !y d n exi/ side by side1 z *emi/s say ! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 d 9 a drop ( wat]2 ! law ( organisation or /ructure is manife/$ 9 & ?r\gh ! copp]1 or ! v>i\s tissues ( ! liv+ body4 ,ari/otle expresses ?is by say+ t y c di/+ui% two aspects 9 an individual1 its ,matt]1 7hyle1 mat]ia7 & its ,=m 7eidos1 =ma74 ,! individual is ! matt] z organis$ 9 accord ) a det]m9ate pr9ciple ( /ructure1 ! =m4 ,( ^! t]ms1 ! =m]1 hyle 7mat]ia1 matt]7 means lit]ally timb]1 & m specifically %ip's timb]s1 & 8 selection ( x to mean :at is mo/ exactly r5d]$ by our own ^w /uff may p]haps be due to a rem9isc5ce ( an old ,py?agorean fancy :i* look$ on ! univ]se z a %ip4 ,! ^w = =m is ! same z ,plato's1 & its philosophical uses are closely connect$ ) its ma!matical s5se1 regul> figure1 also a ,py?agorean te*nicality :i* /ill survives 9 c]ta9 /]eotyp$ phrases 9 ,euclid4 ,ari/otle ext5ds ! analysis into ,matt] & ,=m by analogy beyond ! range ( individual sub/ances to ev]y?+ 9 :i* we c di/+ui% a relatively indet]m9ate some:at & a law or type ( ord] & arrangem5t giv+ x det]m9ation4 ,?us if y consid] ! relatively fix$ or =m$ "* ( a man 9 adult life1 we may look ^u ?is "* z produc$ out ( ! raw mat]ial ( t5d5cies & dispositions1 :i* h receiv$ a specific developm5t along def9ite l9es1 accord+ to ! k9d ( tra9+ to :i* ! m9d has be5 subject$ 9 ! =mative p]iod ( its gr[?4 ,we may !re=e speak ( native disposition z ! matt] or /uff ( :i* "* is made1 & ! practical problem ( education is to devise a sy/em ( tra9+ :i* %all impress on ?is matt] precisely ! =m requir$ if ! gr[n man is to be a good citiz5 ( a good /ate4 ,s9ce a man's "* itself is n a sub/ance b a complex ( habits or fix$ ways ( react+ ^u sugge/ions com+ f ! _w ar\nd him1 ?is is a good in/ance ( ! ext5sion ( ! anti!sis ( ,matt] & ,=m beyond ! category ( sub/ance4 ,we see !n t ,matt] 9 ! ,ari/otelian s5se mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) body2 ! relatively undet]m9$ factor :i* receives complet] det]m9ation by ! /ructural law or ,=m is ,matt]1 :e!r x is corporeal or n4 ,?is comes out ) p>ticul> cle>ness 9 ! metaphysical int]pretation put on ! logical process ( def9ition by g5us & diff]5ce4 ,:5 ,i def9e any real k9d by specify+ a high] & wid] class ( :i* x is a sub-k9d1 & add+ ! peculi> *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% ! sub-k9d "u consid]ation f ! o!r sub-k9ds ( ! same g5us1 ! g5us may be said to /& to ! diff]5ces z ,matt]1 ! relatively indet]m9ate1 to ! ,=m :i* gives x its /ructure4 ,we fur!r obs]ve t ,matt] & ,=m are /rictly correlative4 ,! matt] is call$ s relatively to ! =m :i* gives x fur!r det]m9ation4 ,:5 ! words are us$ 9 _! /ricte/ s5se1 ) ref]5ce to an individual ?+1 ! ,=m is tak5 to mean ! la/ det]m9ation by :i* ! ?+ acquires its complete "*1 & ! ,matt] is t :i* has yet to receive ?is la/ det]m9ation4 ,?us 9 ! case ( a copp] globe1 ! sph]ical figure is said to be its ,=m1 ! copp] its mat]ial4 ,9 ! case ( ! human body1 ! ,matt] is ! v>i\s tissues1 muscles1 bones1 sk91 c4 ,b ea* ( ^! ?+s :i* are c\nt$ z belong+ to ! ,matt] ( ! globe or ! human body has1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 a developm5t beh9d x4 ,copp] is n an elem5t b a specific comb9ation ( elem5ts1 & ! same ?+ is ev5 m true ( ! highly elaborate tissues ( ! liv+ body4 ,?us :at is ,matt] relatively to ! globe or liv+ body is ,matt] already det]m9$ by ,=m if we consid] x relatively to its own con/itu5ts4 ,! s-call$ elem5ts ( ,emp$ocles1 e>?1 wat]1 air1 fire1 are ! matt] ( all *emical comp\nds1 ! ,=m ( ea* comp\nd be+ its specific law ( composition2 ! imm$iate or proximate ,matt] ( ! tissues ( ! animal body is1 accord+ to ,ari/otle's biology1 ! sup]flu\s blood ( ! female p>5t1 out ( :i* ! v>i\s tissues 9 ! (fspr+ are develop$1 & ! ,matt] ( ?is blood is 9 turn ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* are tak5 into ! body ( ! p>5t z food & conv]t$ by assimilation into blood4 ,_! ,matt]1 once m1 is ! e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat] ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,?us at e /age ( a process ( manufacture or gr[? a fre% ,=m is sup]9duc$ on1 or develop$ )91 a ,matt] :i* is already itself a comb9ation ( ,matt] & ,=m relatively to ! process by :i* x has itself be5 orig9at$4 ,fully ?\ght out1 su* a view w\ld lead to ! conclusion t 9 ! end ! simple ultimate matt] ( all individual ?+s is "o & ! same ?r\gh\t ! univ]se1 & has absolutely no def9ite /ructure at all4 ,! introduction ( ,=m or det]m9ate /ructure ( any k9d w\ld !n h to be ?\ght ( z com+ f an outside s\rce1 s9ce /ructureless ,matt] _c be suppos$ to give itself all sorts ( specific det]m9ations1 z has be5 demon/rat$ 9 our own times by ! collapse ( ! ,syn!tic ,philosophy4 ,ari/otle avoids ! difficulty by hold+ t pure ,matt] is a creation ( our ?\ght4 ,9 actual fact ! crude/ =m 9 :i* matt] is f\nd is t ( ! elem5ts4 ,s9ce ! transmutability ( ! elem5ts is an indisp5sable t5et 9 ,ari/otle's ,physics1 we _c avoid reg>d+ e>?1 wat]1 fire air z !mselves det]m9ations by specific ,=m ( a /ill simpl] ,matt]1 ?\gh ?is prime ,matt] all alone1 be=e a rag ( ,=m is on1 is nev] to be f\nd exi/+ 9 its simplicity4 ,hudibras1 ,pt4 #a1 ,canto #a1 #efj4 ,he _h ,fir/ ,matt] se5 undress$2 ,he took h] nak$ all alone1 ,be=e "o rag ( ,=m 0 on4 99,! ,pot5tial & ! ,actual994--,s f> we h be5 look+ at ! analysis ( ! individual ?+1 z ! curr5t j>gon puts x1 /atically2 we h arriv$ at ! anti!sis ( ,matt] & ,=m by contra/+ an unf9i%$ condition ( any?+ ) its f9i%$ condition4 ,b we may /udy ! same contra/ dynamically1 ) special ref]5ce to ! process ( mak+ or gr[? by :i* ! relatively undet]m9$ or unf9i%$ becomes det]m9$ or f9i%$4 ,! contra/ ( ,matt] ) ,=m !n passes into ! contra/ betwe5 ,pot5tiality & ,actuality4 ,:at ?is anti!sis means we c be/ see f ! case ( ! gr[? ( a liv+ organism4 ,consid] ! embryos ( two animals1 or ! se$s ( two plants4 ,ev5 a botani/ or a physiologi/ may be unable to pron\nce ) c]ta9ty on ! species to :i* ! g]m submitt$ to him belongs1 & *emical analysis may be equally at a loss4 ,ev5 at a lat] /age ( developm5t1 ! embryo ( "o v]tebrate animal may be indi/+ui%able f t ( ano!r4 ,yet x is c]ta9 t "o ( two orig9ally indi/+ui%able g]ms w gr[ into an oak & ! o!r into an elm1 or "o into a *impanzee & ! o!r into a man4 ,h[ev] indi/+ui%able1 !y !re=e may be said to h diff]5t lat5t t5d5cies or possibilities ( developm5t )9 !m4 ,h5ce we may say ( a giv5 g]m1 ?\gh ?is is n yet actually an oak1 x is pot5tially an oak1 mean+ n m]ely t1 if un9t]f]$ )1 x w 9 "t be an oak1 b also t by no int]f]5ce c x be made to gr[ into an elm or a bee*4 ,s we may look ^u all processes ( production or developm5t z processes by :i* :at at fir/ possess$ only ! t5d5cy to gr[ along c]ta9 l9es or to be work$ up into a c]ta9 =m1 has become actually end[$ ) ! "* to :i* x possess$ ! t5d5cy4 ,! acorn becomes 9 process ( "t an actual oak1 ! baby an actual man1 ! copp] is made into an actual vase1 "r education br+s out into active ex]cise ! special capacities ( ! le>n]4 ,h5ce ! di/9ction betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m may also be express$ by say+ t ! ,matt] is ! p]si/5t und]ly+ sub/ratum 9 :i* ! developm5t ( ! ,=m takes place1 or t ! individual :5 f9ally det]m9$ by ! ,=m is ! ,actuality ( :i* ! undevelop$ ,matt] 0 ! ,pot5tiality4 ,! process ( conception1 bir?1 & gr[? to maturity 9 ,nature1 or ( ! production ( a f9i%$ article by ! arts ^: bus9ess x is to imitate ,nature1 may be said to be "o ( cont9u\s advance t[>ds ! actual embodim5t ( a ,=m1 or law ( organisation1 9 a ,matt] hav+ ! lat5t pot5tiality ( develop+ along ^? special l9es4 ,:5 ,ari/otle is speak+ mo/ /rictly he di/+ui%es ! process by :i* a ,=m is realis$1 :i* he calls ,en]geia1 f ! manife/ation ( ! realis$ ,=m1 call+ ! latt] ,entele*y 7lit]ally f9i%$ or complet$ condition74 ,(t51 h[ev]1 he uses ! ^w ,en]geia m loosely = ! actual manife/ation ( ! ,=m itself1 & 9 ?is he is foll[$ by ! s*ola/ic writ]s1 :o r5d] ,en]geia by actus or actus purus4 ,"o presupposition ( ?is process mu/ be specially not$4 ,x is n an un5d+ process ( developm5t ( unrealis$ capacities1 b always has an ,end 9 ! p]fectly simple s5se ( a la/ /age4 ,we see ?is be/ 9 ! case ( gr[?4 ,! acorn gr[s into ! sapl+ & ! sapl+ into ! oak1 b !re is no?+ relat$ to ! oak z ! oak is to ! sapl+4 ,! oak does n gr[ into some?+ else4 ,! process ( developm5t f pot5tial to actual 9 ?is special case comes to an end ) ! em]g5ce ( ! mature oak4 ,9 ! organic _w ! end or la/ /ate is recognis$ by ! fact t ! organism c n[ ex]cise ! p[] ( reproduc+ its l4 ,?is t5d5cy ( organic process to culm9ate 9 a la/ /age ( complete maturity is ! key to ! treatm5t ( ! problem ( ! true end ( life 9 ,ari/otle's ,e?ics4 99,! ,f\r ,causes994--,! conception ( ! _w involv$ 9 ^! anti!ses ( ,=m & ,matt]1 ,pot5tial & ,actual1 f9ds its fulle/ expression 9 ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,causes or conditions ( ! production ( ?+s4 ,?is doctr9e is look$ on by ,ari/otle z ! f9al solution ( ! problem :i* _h always be5 ! c5tral "o = ,greek philosophy1 ,:at are ! causes ( ! _w-ord]8 ,all ! previ\s philosophies he reg>ds z inadequate attempts to =mulate ! answ] to ?is "q :i* is only giv5 completely by 8 own sy/em4 ,h5ce ! doctr9e requires to be /at$ ) "s fullness4 ,we may be/ approa* x by />t+ f ! lit]al mean+ ( ! ,greek t]ms aitia1 aition1 :i* ,ari/otle uses to convey ! notion ( cause4 ,aition is prop]ly an adjective us$ sub/antially1 & means t on :i* ! legal responsibility = a giv5 /ate ( affairs c be laid4 ,simil>ly aitia1 ! sub/antive1 means ! cr$it = good or bad1 ! legal responsibility1 = an act4 ,n[ :5 we ask1 :at is responsible = ! fact t su* & su* a /ate ( ?+s n[ exi/s8 !re are f\r p>tial answ]s :i* may be giv51 & ea* ( ^! corresponds to "o ( ! causes4 ,a complete answ] requires ! enum]ation ( !m all4 ,we may m5tion 7#a7 ! matt] or mat]ial cause ( ! ?+1 7#b7 ! law accord+ to :i* x has gr[n or develop$1 ! =m or =mal cause1 7#c7 ! ag5t ) ^: initial impulse ! developm5t began--! />t+-po9t ( ! process1 or1 z ! lat] ,ari/otelians call x1 ! effici5t cause1 7#d7 ! complet$ result ( ! :ole process1 :i* is pres5t 9 ! case ( human manufacture z a preconceiv$ idea det]m9+ ! mak]'s :ole me?od ( h&l+ 8 mat]ial1 & 9 organic developm5t 9 ,nature z impli$ 9 & det]m9+ ! successive /ages ( gr[?--! end or f9al cause4 ,if any "o ( ^! _h be5 diff]5t1 ! resultant /ate ( ?+s w\ld also h be5 diff]5t4 ,h5ce all f\r mu/ be specifi$ 9 completely acc\nt+ = x4 ,obvi\s illu/rations c be giv5 f artificial products ( human skill1 b x seems cle> t x 0 r reflection on ! biological process ( reproduction & gr[? :i* orig9ally sugge/$ ! analysis4 ,suppose we ask :at 0 requisite 9 ord] t !re %\ld be n[ an oak on a giv5 spot4 ,!re mu/ h be5 7#a7 a g]m f :i* ! oak has gr[n1 & ?is g]m mu/ h _h ! lat5t t5d5cies t[>ds developm5t :i* are *>act]i/ic ( oaks4 ,?is is ! mat]ial cause ( ! oak4 7#b7 ,?is g]m mu/ h foll[$ a def9ite law ( gr[?2 x mu/ h _h a t5d5cy to gr[ 9 ! way *>act]i/ic ( oaks & to develop ! /ructure ( an oak1 n t ( a plane or an a%4 ,?is is =m or =mal cause4 7#c7 ,also ! g]m ( ! oak did n come f n[h]e2 x grew on a p>5t oak4 ,! p>5t oak & its acorn-be>+ activity ?us con/itute ! effici5t cause ( ! pres5t oak4 7#d7 ,& !re mu/ be a f9al /age to :i* ! :ole process ( gr[? is relative1 9 :i* ! g]m or sapl+ is no long] becom+ b is an adult oak be>+ fre% acorns4 ,?is is ! end ( ! process4 ,"o w\ld n be go+ f> wrong 9 say+ t ,ari/otle's biological ca/ ( ?\ght leads him to conceive ( ?is end 9 ! case ( reproduction z a sub-consci\s purpose1 j z ! workman's ?\ght ( ! result to be atta9$ by 8 action =ms a consci\s direct+ purpose 9 ! case ( manufacture4 ,bo? 9 ,nature & 9 art ! =m1 ! effici5t cause1 & ! end t5d to coalesce4 ,?us 9 ,nature a man begets a man1 organic be+s give bir? to o!r organic be+s ( ! same k9d1 or1 9 ! te*nical language ( ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( ,causation1 ! effici5t cause produces1 z ! end ( its action1 a second be+ hav+ ! same =m z itself1 ?\gh realis$ 9 diff]5t matt]1 & num]ically di/9ct f itself4 ,?us ! effici5t cause 7i4e4 ! p>5t7 is a =m realis$ 9 matt]1 & ! end is ! same =m realis$ 9 o!r matt]4 ,s 9 products ( art ! true s\rce ( ! process is ! =m ! realisation ( :i* is ! end or f9al cause1 only ) ?is diff]5ce1 t z effici5t cause ! =m exi/s n 9 ! mat]ial b by way ( idea or repres5tation 9 ! m9d ( ! craftsman4 ,a h\se does n produce ano!r h\se1 b ! h\se z exi/+ 9 idea 9 ! build]'s m9d sets him at "w build+1 & s produces a correspond+ h\se 9 brick or /one4 ,?us ! ultimate opposition is betwe5 ! cause z matt]1 a passive & in]t sub/ratum ( *ange & developm5t & ! =mal cause :i*1 9 ! s5se j expla9$1 is "o ) bo? ! effici5t or />t+-po9t1 & ! end or goal ( developm5t4 ,x w1 ( c\rse1 be se5 t individual be>]s ( =ms are indisp5sable 9 ! !ory2 h5ce ! notion ( activity is ess5tial to ! causal relation4 ,x is a relation betwe5 ?+s1 n betwe5 ev5ts4 ,ari/otle has no s5se ( ! ^w cause correspond+ to ,mill's conception ( a cause z an ev5t :i* is ! uni=m precursor ( ano!r ev5t4 ,two m rem>ks may be made 9 ?is connection4 7#a7 ,! prom95ce ( ! notion ( end gives ,ari/otle's philosophy a ?or\gh-go+ ideological "*4 ,god & ,nature1 he tells u1 d no?+ aimlessly4 ,we %\ld probably be mi/ak5 if we took ?is to mean t ,god & ,nature act ev]y:]e ) consci\s design4 ,! mean+ is r t e natural process has a la/ /age 9 :i* ! =m :i* 0 to beg9 ) pres5t 9 ! ag5t or s\rce ( *ange is fully realis$ 9 ! matt] 9 :i* ! ag5t has set up ! process ( *ange4 ,! normal ?+ is e4g4 = animals to reproduce _! k9d2 if ! reproduction is imp]fect or di/ort$1 z 9 mon/r\s bir?s1 ?is is an exception due to ! occasional pres5ce 9 matt] ( imp]fections :i* h9d] ! c\rse ( developm5t1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z contr>y to ! normal c\rse ( ,nature4 ,s hybrid reproduction is exceptional & aga9/ ,nature1 & ?is is %[n by ! /]ility ( hybrids1 a sort ( less] mon/rosity4 ,ev5 females1 be+ arre/$ developm5ts1 are a sort ( /ill m9or deviation f pr9ciple4 7#b7 ,x may j be m5tion$ t ,ari/otle has a classification ( effici5t causes "u ! ?ree heads ( ,nature1 ,intellig5ce 7or ,man71 & ,*ance4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ,nature & ,man or ,intellig5ce z effici5t causes has already be5 illu/rat$4 ,x is t 9 causation by ,nature1 su* z sexual reproduction1 or ! assimilation ( nutrim5t1 or ! conv]sion ( "o elem5t into ano!r 9 :i* ,ari/otle believ$1 ! =m :i* is sup]9duc$ on ! matt] by ! ag5t already exi/s 9 ! ag5t itself z its =m4 ,! oak spr+s f a p>5t oak1 ! conv]sion ( nutrim5t into organic tissue is due to ! ag5cy ( already exi/+ organic tissue4 ,9 ! case ( human intellig5ce or art1 ! =m to be sup]9duc$ exi/s 9 ! ag5t n z 8 *>act]i/ic =m1 b by way ( repres5tation1 z a contemplat$ design4 ,! man :o builds a h\se is n himself a h\se2 ! =m *>act]i/ic ( a h\se is v diff]5t f t *>act]i/ic ( a man1 b x is pres5t 9 contemplation to ! build] be=e x is embodi$ 9 ! actual h\se4 ,a ^w may be add$ ab\t ! ?ird sort ( effici5t causality1 causation by *ance4 ,?is is conf9$ to cases :i* are exceptions f ! g5]al c\rse ( ,nature1 rem>kable co9cid5ces4 ,x is :at we may call simulat$ purposiv5ess4 ,:5 some?+ 9 human affairs happ5s 9 a way :i* subs]ves ! a*ievem5t ( a result b 0 n really br\ght ab\t by any int5tion to secure ! result1 we speak ( x z a rem>kable co9cid5ce4 ,?us x w\ld be a co9cid5ce if a man %\ld be held to ransom by brig&s & 8 be/ fri5d %\ld1 )\t kn[+ any?+ ( ! matt]1 turn up on ! spot ) ! means ( ransom+ him4 ,! ev5ts c\ld n h happ5$ m opportunely if !y _h be5 plann$1 & yet !y 7 n plann$ b m]ely fell out s3 & s9ce su* a comb9ation ( circum/ances simulat+ design is unusual1 x is n prop] to say t ! ev5ts happ5$ 9 ! c\rse ( ,nature4 ,we !re=e say x happ5$ by *ance4 ,?is doctr9e ( *ance has its significance = m$iaeval ,e?ics4 ,9 an age :5 ! ,prote/ant sup]/ition t worldly success is pro( ( ne>ness to ,god _h n yet be5 inv5t$1 ! want ( correspond5ce betwe5 m5's des]ts & _! prosp]ity 0 acc\nt$ = by ! view t ! di/ribution ( worldly goods is1 z a rule1 ! "w ( ,=tune or ,*ance 9 ! ,ari/otelian s5se2 t is1 x is due to special co9cid5ces :i* may look l delib]ate design b are n really s4 7,see ! elaborate exposition ( ?is 9 ,dante1 ,inf]no1 vii4 #fg-ig47 99,motion994--,we h se5 t causation1 natural or artificial1 requires ! production 9 a c]ta9 matt] ( a c]ta9 =m "u ! influ5ce ( a c]ta9 ag5t4 ,:at is ! "* ( ! process set up by ! ag5t 9 ! matt] & culm9at+ 9 ! appe>ance ( ! =m8 ,ari/otle answ]s t x is ,motion 7k9esis74 ,! effect ( ! ag5t on ! matt] is to set up 9 x a motion :i* ends 9 its assum+ a def9ite =m4 ,! important po9t to be not$ "h is t ,ari/otle reg>ds ?is motion z fall+ :olly )9 ! matt] :i* is to assume ! =m4 ,x is n necess>y t ! ag5t %\ld itself be 9 motion1 b only t x %\ld induce motion 9 some?+ else4 ,?us 9 all cases ( int5tional action ! ultimate effici5t cause is ! idea ( ! result to be atta9$1 b ?is idea does n move ab\t4 ,by its pres5ce to ! m9d x sets some?+ else 7! memb]s ( ! body7 mov+4 ,?is conception ( an effici5t cause :i*1 n mov+ itself1 by its m]e pres5ce induces movem5t 9 t to :i* x is pres5t1 is ( ! highe/ importance 9 ,ari/otle's !ology4 ,( c\rse x foll[s t s9ce ! motion by :i* ! transition f pot5tiality to actuality is a*iev$ falls :olly )9 ! matt] act$ ^u1 ,ari/otle is n tr\bl$ ) any ( ! que/ions z to ! way 9 :i* motion c be transf]r$ f "o body to ano!r :i* 7 s mu* agitat$ 9 ! e>ly days ( ! mod]n me*anical int]pretation ( natural processes4 ,ari/otle's way ( conceiv+ ,nature is ?or\ghly non-me*anical1 & approximates to :at w\ld n[ be call$ ! ascription ( vital or quasi-vital *>act]i/ics to ! inorganic4 ,z1 9 ! causality ( art ! m]e pres5ce ( ! =m to be embodi$ 9 a giv5 mat]ial to ! m9d ( ! craftsman br+s ab\t & directs ! process ( manufacture1 s 9 "s analog\s fa%ion ! pres5ce ( an effici5t cause 9 ,nature to t on :i* x works is ?\ght ( z itself con/itut+ ! effici5cy ( ! cause4 ,z ,lotze phrases x1 ?+s take note ( "o ano!r's compres5ce 9 ! univ]se1 or we might say ! effici5t cause & t on :i* x ex]cises its effici5cy are en rapport4 ,matt] is s5sitive to ! pres5ce ( ! effici5t cause1 & 9 response to ?is s5sitivity1 puts =? successive det]m9ations1 exp&s its lat5t t5d5cies on def9ite l9es4 ,! "n motion has a wid] s5se = ,ari/otle ?an x has = ourselves4 ,he includes "u ! "o common "n all ! processes by :i* ?+s come to be :at !y are or cease to be :at !y h be54 ,?us he di/+ui%es ! foll[+ v>ieties ( motion3 g5]ation 7! com+ ( an individual ?+ into be+71 ) its opposite decay or corruption 7! pass+ ( a ?+ out ( be+71 alt]ation 7*ange ( quality 9 a ?+71 augm5tation & dim9ution 7*ange 9 ! magnitude ( a ?+71 motion ?r\gh space 7( :i* latt] he recognises two sub-species1 rectil9e> transf]5ce & rotation 9 a circul> orbit ab\t an axis74 ,x is ?is la/ v>iety1 motion ?r\gh space1 :i* is ! mo/ fundam5tal ( all1 s9ce its occurr5ce is involv$ 9 t ( any ( ! o!r types ( process m5tion$1 ?\gh ,ari/otle does n hold ! ?or\gh-go+ me*anical view t ! o!r processes are only app>5t1 & t1 z we %\ld put x1 qualitative *ange is a m]e disguise :i* me*anical motion we>s = our s5ses4 99,! ,et]nity ( ,motion994--,c]ta9 v important consequ5ces foll[ f ! conception ( effici5t causation :i* we h be5 describ+4 ,ari/otle has no sympa?y ) ! evolutioni/ views :i* _h be5 fav\r$ by "s ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,accord+ to 8 !ory ( organic g5]ation1 x takes a man to beget a man 2 :]e !re is a baby1 !re mu/ h be5 a fa!r4 ,biological k9ds repres5t+ real clefts 9 ,nature1 ! process ( ! production ( a "y g5]ation by an already adult g5]ation mu/ be ?\ght ( z )\t beg9n+ & )\t end4 ,!re c be no natural evolution ( animals ( "o species f individuals ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,nor does x occur to ,ari/otle to take into acc\nt ! possibility ( ,creationism1 ! sudd5 com+ into be+ ( a fully fl$g$ fir/ g5]ation at a /roke4 ,?is possibility is exclud$ by ! doctr9e t ! matt] ( a ?+ mu/ exi/ be=eh& z an indisp5sable condition ( ! production ( t ?+4 ,e baby1 z we said1 mu/ h _h a fa!r1 b t fa!r mu/ also h be5 a baby be=e he 0 a full-gr[n man4 ,h5ce ! p]petuation ( un*ang+ species mu/ be )\t beg9n+ & )\t end4 ,& x is impli$ t all ! v>i\s processes1 )9 & )\t ! organism1 ap>t f :i* its life c\ld n be kept up1 mu/ be equally )\t beg9n+ & )\t end4 ,! cosmos1 or ord]ly _w ( natural processes1 is /rictly et]nal2 motion is ev]la/+ & cont9u\s1 or unbrok54 ,ev5 ! great ,*ri/ian !ologians :o built ^u ,ari/otle c\ld n absolutely break ) him on ?is po9t4 ,/4 ,?omas1 ?\gh oblig$ to admit t ! _w 0 actually creat$ a few ?\s& ye>s be=e 8 own "t1 ma9ta9s t ?is c only be kn[n to be true f revelation1 philosophically x is equably t5able t ! _w %\ld h be5 creat$ f all et]nity4 ,& x is ! g5]al doctr9e ( s*ola/icism t ! expression creation only d5otes ! absolute dep5d5ce ( ! _w on ,god = its be+4 ,:5 we say ,god creat$ ! _w out ( no?+1 we mean t ,he did n make x out ( pre-exi/+ matt]1 t x dep5ds = its be+ on ,him only2 ! expression is purely negative 9 its import4 99,god994--,) ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! _w & ! processes :i* make up its life we come close to ! culm9at+ !ory ( ,ari/otelian ,fir/ ,philosophy1 its doctr9e ( ,god1 z ! et]nal1 un*ang+ s\rce ( all *ange1 movem5t1 & process4 ,all motion is a process )9 matt] by :i* ! =ms lat5t 9 x are br\ght into actual manife/ation4 ,& ! process only takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( an adequate effici5t cause or s\rce ( motion4 ,h5ce ! et]nity ( natural processes involves ! exi/5ce ( "o or m et]nal s\rces ( motion4 ,=1 if we d n admit ! exi/5ce ( an unorig9at$ & ev]-pres5t s\rce or s\rces ( motion1 our only alt]native is to hold t ! _w-process is due to a s]ies ( s\rces ( motion exi/+ successively4 ,b su* a view w\ld leave ! unity & unbrok5 cont9uity ( ! _w-process unacc\nt$ =4 ,x w\ld give u a succession ( processes1 temporally contigu\s1 n "o unbrok5 process4 ,h5ce we argue f ! cont9uity ( motion to its dep5d5ce on a s\rce or s\rces :i* are p]man5t & pres5t ?r\gh\t ! :ole ev]la/+ _w-process4 ,& :5 we come to ! "q :e!r !re is only "o su* ultimate s\rce ( movem5t = ! :ole univ]se1 or sev]al1 ,ari/otle's answ] is t ! supreme ,unmov$ ,mov] is "o4 ,"o is en\gh = ! purpose1 & ! law ( p>cimony =bids u to assume ! sup]flu\s4 ,?is !n is ! ,ari/otelian conception ( ,god & ,god's relation to ! _w4 ,god is ! "o supreme un*ang+ be+ to ^: pres5ce ! _w responds ) ! :ole process ( cosmic developm5t1 ! ultimate educ] ( ! s]ies ( =ms lat5t 9 ! matt] ( ! _w into actual manife/ation4 ,/&+1 z ,he does1 outside ! :ole process :i* by ,8 m]e pres5ce ,he initiates 9 ,nature1 ,he is n himself a composite ( =m & matt]1 z ! products ( developm5t are4 ,he is a pure individual =m or actuality1 ) no hi/ory ( gradual developm5t beh9d x4 ,?us ,he is a purely immat]ial be+1 indisp5sable to ! _w's exi/5ce b transc5d+ x & /&+ outside x4 ,h[ ,8 pres5ce inspires ! _w to move ,ari/otle tries to expla9 by ! metaphor ( appetition4 ,j z ! good ,i desire & conceive1 )\t itself mov+ moves my appetition1 s ,god moves ! univ]se by be+ its good4 ,?is directly br+s ab\t a uni=m unbrok5 rotation ( ! :ole univ]se r\nd its axis 79 fact1 ! alt]nation ( day & night74 ,& s9ce ?is rotation is communicat$ f ! out]mo/ sph]e ( heav5 to all ! less] sph]es betwe5 x & ! immovable c5tre1 ! effects ( ,god's pres5ce are felt univ]sally4 ,at ! same "t1 we mu/ note t ?\gh ,god is ! supreme ,mov] ( ! ,univ]se1 ,he is n reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z its ,creator1 ev5 9 ! s5se 9 :i* creation c be reconcil$ ) ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,= ! effect ( ,god's pres5ce is simply to lead to ! developm5t ( =m 9 an already exi/+ matt]4 ,)\t ,god !re c\ld be no =m or ord] 9 ?+s1 n ev5 z mu* z is impli$ 9 ! diff]5tiation ( matt] into ! f\r elem5ts1 yet prim>y matt] is no less ?an ,god a precondition ( all t happ5s4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,ari/otle t 8 ,god is z f> f dis*>g+ ! functions ( a ,provid5ce z ,he is f be+ a ,creator4 ,8 activity is n1 z ,plato _h made x1 t ( ! great ,%eph]d ( ! %eep4 ,z f> z ! _w is conc]n$1 ,god's only function is to be !re to move its appetition4 ,= ! re/1 ! unbrok5 activity ( ?is life is direct$ :olly inw>d4 ,ari/otle expressly calls x an activity ( immobility4 ,m precisely1 he tells u1 x is activity ( ?\ght1 ex]cis$ unbrok5ly & ev]la/+ly ^u ! only object adequate to ex]cise ,god's contemplation1 ,himself4 ,8 life is "o ( ev]la/+ self-contemplation or ?9k+ ( ?\ght itself4 ,l all unimp$$ ex]cise ( activity1 x is att5d$ by pleasure1 & z ! activity is cont9u\s1 s ! pleasure ( x is cont9u\s too4 ,at our be/1 :5 we give ourselves up to ! pure contemplative activity ( sci5tific ?\ght or ae/hetic appreciation1 we ent] = a :ile into ?is div9e life & %>e ! happ9ess ( ,god4 ,b t is a !me = our *apt] on ! ,e?ics4 ,x is a f> cry f ?is conception ( a ,god untr\bl$ by c>e = a _w to :i* ,he is only relat$ z ! object ( its aspiration to ! ,god :o c>es ev5 = ! fall ( ! sp>r[ & ( :om x is writt51 ,sic ,deus dilexit mundum1 b x 0 ! /&+ task ( ! philosophical !ologians ( ! ,middle ,ages to fuse ! two conceptions4 ,plato's ,god1 :o1 if n q ! ,creator1 is ! ,fa!r & ,fa%ion] ( u all1 & keeps provid5tial wat* ov] ! _w ,he has fa%ion$1 w\ld h l5t ,himself bett] to _! purposes1 b ,plato 0 held by ! m$iaeval *ur* to h d5i$ ! resurrection ( ! body4 ,! comb9ation ( ,ari/otle's ,!ism ) ! ,!ism ( e>ly ,*ri/ianity 0 effect$ by exquisitely subtle logical devices1 b ev5 9 ,/4 ,?omas "o _c help see+ ! seams4 ,nor c "o help see+ 9 ,ari/otle's own doctr9e ! usual want ( coh]5ce betwe5 an initial anti-,platonic bias & a f9al rev]sion to ! v ,platonic positions ,ari/otle is fond ( impugn+4 ,we are told at ! outset t ! ,platonic sep>ate =ms are empty names1 & t ! real individual ?+ is always a composite ( matt] & a =m :i* only exi/s 9 matt]4 ,we f9d 9 ! end t ! s\rce ( ! :ole process by :i* matt] becomes imbu$ ) =m is a be+ :i* is pure =m & /&s outside ! :ole developm5t :i* its pres5ce sets up4 ,& ! issue ( ,ari/otle's w>n+ aga9/ poetic metaphors is ! doctr9e t ,god moves ! _w by be+ ! object ( ! _w's desire4 99,,*apt] ,,iv99 99,,physics99 ,!re is no "p ( ,ari/otle's sy/em :i* has be5 m c>efully ?\ght out ?an 8 ,physics2 at ! same "t x is almo/ :olly on acc\nt ( 8 physical doctr9es t 8 long asc5dancy ov] ?\ght is s mu* to be regrett$4 ,ari/otle's qualifications z a man ( sci5ce h be5 mu* ov]rat$4 ,9 "o dep>tm5t1 t ( descriptive natural hi/ory1 he %[s himself a ma/] ( m9ute & c>eful obs]vation :o c\ld obta9 unqualifi$ praise f s great a naturali/ z ,d>w94 ,b 9 ,a/ronomy & ,physics prop] 8 inf]iority 9 ma!matical ?9k+ & 8 dislike = me*anical ways ( expla9+ facts put him at a great disadvantage1 z comp>$ ) ,plato & ,plato's ,py?agorean fri5ds4 ,?us 8 au?ority 0 = c5turies "o ( ! *ief influ5ces :i* prev5t$ ! developm5t ( ,a/ronomy on "r l9es4 ,plato _h himself bo? taught ! mobility ( ! e>? & d5i$ correctly t ! e>? is at ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 & ! ,cop]nican hypo!sis 9 ,a/ronomy probably orig9at$ 9 ! ,academy4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 insi/s on ! c5tral position ( ! e>?1 & viol5tly attacks ,plato = believ+ 9 its motion4 ,x is equally s]i\s t he insi/s on treat+ ! s-call$ f\r elem5ts z ultimately unanalysable =ms ( matt]1 ?\gh ,plato _h n only obs]v$ t s f> f be+ ! ,,abc 7/oi*eia or elem5ta1 lit]ally1 lett]s ( ! alphabet7 ( ,nature !y d n des]ve to be call$ ev5 syllables1 b _h also def9itely put =w>d ! view t x is ! geometrical /ructure ( ! corpuscles ( body ^u :i* s5sible qualities dep5d4 ,x is on ?is doctr9e1 ( c\rse1 t all ma!matical physics re/s4 ,ari/otle rev]ts to ! old] !ory t ! diff]5ces betwe5 "o elem5t & ano!r are qualitative diff]5ces ( a s5sible k9d4 ,ev5 9 ! biological sci5ces ,ari/otle %[s an un=tunate pron5ess to disreg>d e/abli%$ fact :5 x conflicts ) ! !ories = :i* he has a p]sonal lik+4 ,?us1 ?\gh ! importance ( ! bra9 z ! c5tral organ ( ! s5sori-motor sy/em _h be5 discov]$ 9 ! late six? or e>ly fif? c5tury by ! physician ,alemacon ( ,crotona1 & taught by ! great ,hippocrates 9 ! fif? & by ,plato 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 ,ari/otle's prejudices 9 fav\r ( ! doctr9es ( a diff]5t s*ool ( biologi/s l$ him to rev]t to ! view t x is ! he>t :i* is ! c5tre ( :at we n[ call ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x is ma9ly on acc\nt ( ^! reaction>y sci5tific views t he 0 attack$ 9 ! e>ly sev5te5? c5tury by writ]s l our own ,francis ,bacon1 :o f\nd 9 v5]ation = ,ari/otle "o ( ! *ief h9drances to ! free developm5t ( natural sci5ce4 ,! same compla9ts _h be5 made long be=e by critics belong+ to ! ,platonic ,academy4 ,x is a ,platoni/ ( ! "t ( ,m>cus ,aurelius :o sums up a vigor\s attack on ! ,ari/otelian a/ronomy by ! rem>k t ,ari/otle nev] und]/ood t ! true task ( ! physici/ is n to prescribe laws to ,nature1 b to le>n f obs]vation ( ! facts :at ! laws foll[$ by ,nature are4 ,9 det]m9+ ! scope ( ,physics1 we h to beg9 by consid]+ :at is ! special *>act]i/ic ( ?+s produc$ by ,nature z contra/$ ) ^? produc$ by art4 ,! obvi\s di/9ction1 intimat$ by ! v etymology ( ! ^w ,nature 7physis1 connect$ ) phye/hai1 to gr[1 to be born1 z natura is ) nasci71 is t :at is by ,nature is born & gr[s1 :]eas :at is z a result ( artifice is made4 ,! natural may ?us be said to consi/ ( liv+ bodies & ( _! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,h5ce inorganic matt] also is includ$ 9 ,nature1 on ! gr\nd t liv+ tissue c be analys$ back into comp\nds ( ! elem5ts4 ,n[ ?+s :i* are alive & gr[ are di/+ui%$ f ?+s :i* are made by a s\rce ( motion & quiesc5ce )9 !mselves2 all ( !m exhibit motions1 *anges ( quality1 processes ( gr[? & decl9e :i* are initiat$ f )94 ,h5ce ,nature may be def9$ z ! totality ( ?+s :i* h a s\rce ( motion int]nal to !mselves & ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( su* ?+s4 ,nature !n comprises all be+s capable ( spontane\s *ange4 ,:atev] ei!r does n *ange at all1 or only *anges 9 consequ5ce ( ext]nal influ5ces1 is exclud$ f ,nature4 ,?us ! fundam5tal fact ev]y:]e pres5t 9 ,nature is *ange1 process1 motion4 ,s9ce motion 9 ! lit]al s5se ( *ange ( position is involv$ z a condition ( e su* process1 & su* motion requires space ?r\gh :i* to move & "t to move 91 ! doctr9e ( space & "t w also =m "p ( ,physics4 ,h5ce a great "p ( ,ari/otle's special lectures on ,physics is occupi$ ) discussion ( ! nature ( space & "t1 & ( ! cont9uity :i* we mu/ ascribe to !m if ! cont9u\s motion on :i* ! unbrok5 life ( ! univ]se dep5ds is to be real ,ari/otle kn[s no?+ ( ! mod]n que/ions :e!r space & "t are real or only ph5om5al1 :e!r !y are objective or subjective4 ,j z he simply assumes t bodies are ?+s t really exi/1 :e!r we happ5 to p]ceive !m or n1 s he assumes t ! space & "t 9 :i* !y move are real features ( a _w t does n dep5d = its exi/5ce on our p]ceiv+ x4 ,8 treatm5t ( space is s+ul>ly naif4 ,he conceives x z a sort ( vessel1 into :i* y c p\r diff]5t liquids4 ,j z ! same pot may hold fir/ w9e & !n wat]1 s1 if y c say1 !re 0 wat] "h1 b n[ !re is air "h1 ?is implies ! exi/5ce ( a receptacle :i* once held ! wat]1 b n[ holds ! air4 ,h5ce a jug or pot may be call$ a place t c be c>ri$ ab\t1 & space or place may be call$ an immovable vessel4 ,h5ce ! place ( a ?+ may be def9$ z ! b\nd>y1 or inn] surface1 ( ! body :i* imm$iately surr\nds ! ?+4 ,x foll[s f ?is t !re c be no empty space4 ,9 ! la/ resort1 absolute space is ! actual surface ( ! out]mo/ heav5 :i* conta9s ev]y?+ else 9 itself b is n conta9$ 9 any remot] body4 ,?us all ?+s :atev] are 9 ?is heav54 ,b x is n itself 9 any?+ else4 ,9 accord ) ! /&+ ,greek id5tification ( det]m9ate "* ) limitation1 ,ari/otle holds t ?is out]mo/ heav5 mu/ be at a limit$ di/ance f u4 ,actual space is ?us f9ite 9 ! s5se t ! volume ( ! univ]se c\ld be express$ z a f9ite numb] ( cubic miles or y>ds1 ?\gh1 s9ce x mu/ be cont9u\s1 x is inf9itely divisible4 ,h[ev] (t5 y subdivide a l5g?1 an area1 or a volume1 y w always be divid+ x into less] l5g?s1 c41 :i* c once m be divid$4 ,y w nev] by division come to po9ts1 i4e4 m]e positions )\t magnitude ( divisibility4 ,! treatm5t ( "t is m ?\ghtful4 ,"t is insep>ably connect$ ) movem5t or *ange4 ,we only p]ceive t "t has elaps$ :5 we p]ceive t *ange has occurr$4 ,b "t is n ! same z *ange4 ,= *ange is ( diff]5t & incomm5surate k9ds1 *ange ( place1 *ange ( col\r1 c42 b to take up "t is common to all ^! =ms ( process4 ,& "t is n ! same z motion4 ,= !re are diff]5t rates ( spe$1 b ! v fact t we c comp>e ^! diff]5t velocities implies t !re are n diff]5t velocities ( "t4 ,"t !n is t 9 t]ms ( :i* we measure motion1 ! numb] ( motion 9 respect ( be=e & aft]1 i4e4 x is t by :i* we e/imate ! duration ( processes4 ,?us e4g4 :5 we speak ( two m9utes1 two days1 two mon?s z requir$ = a c]ta9 process to be complet$1 we are c\nt+ some?+4 ,?is some?+ is "t4 ,x does n seem to occur to ,ari/otle t ?is def9ition implies t !re are indivisible bits ( "t1 ?\gh he q correctly /ates ! incompatible proposition t "t is made up ( successive n[s1 i4e4 mom5ts :i* h no duration at all1 & c no m be c\nt$ ?an ! po9ts on a /raight l9e4 ,he recognises ( c\rse t ! cont9uity ( motion implies t ( "t z well z ( space4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 cont9uity 9 8 language means ! same ?+ z indef9ite divisibility1 x ought n to be possible = him to reg>d "t z made up ( n[s2 "t1 l l9e> ext5sion1 ought = him to be a l5g? ( some?+4 99,! ,cont9u\s ,motion & ! ,sph]es499--,! cont9u\s _w-process dep5ds ^u a cont9u\s movem5t set up 9 ! univ]se z a :ole by ! pres5ce ( an ev]la/+ & un*angeable ,fir/ ,mov]1 ,god4 ,f ! self-sam5ess ( ,god1 x foll[s t ?is mo/ univ]sal ( movem5ts mu/ be absolutely uni=m4 ,( :at precise k9d c su* a movem5t be8 ,z ! s\rce ( ! movem5t is "o1 & ! object mov$ is also "o--viz4 ! compass ( ! heav51 ! movem5t ( ! primum mobile or fir/ mov$--! object imm$iately /imulat$ to motion by ,god's pres5ce to x1 mu/ be me*anically simple4 ,n[ ,ari/otle1 mi/ak5ly1 held t !re are two =ms ( movem5t :i* are simple & unanalysable1 motion ( translation along a /raight l9e1 & motion ( rotation r\nd an axis4 ,he is at pa9s to argue t rectil9e> motion1 :i* we easily discov] to be t *>act]i/ic ( bodies ne> ! e>?'s surface :5 left to !mselves1 _c be ! k9d ( movem5t :i* belongs to ! heav5 z a :ole4 ,= cont9u\s rectil9e> movem5t 9 ! same direction c\ld n g on = ev] on 8 assumption t !re is no space outside ! heav51 :i* is itself at a f9ite di/ance f u4 ,& motion to & fro w\ld n be unbrok51 s9ce ,ari/otle argues t e "t a mov+ body rea*$ ! end ( its pa?1 & ! s5se ( its movem5t 0 rev]s$1 x w\ld be = two consecutive mom5ts 9 ! same place1 & !re=e at re/4 ,rev]sal ( s5se w\ld imply a discont9uity4 ,h5ce he decides t ! prim>y unbrok5 movem5t mu/ be ! rotation ( ! fir/ mov$--t is1 ! heav5 conta9+ ! fix$ />s--r\nd its axis4 ,?is is ! only movem5t :i* c\ld g on = ev] at a uni=m rate & 9 ! same s5se4 ,/>t+ ) ! conviction t ! e>? is at re/ 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 he inevitably acc\nts = ! alt]nation ( day & night z ! effect ( su* a revolution ( ! :ole univ]se r\nd an axis pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,! univ]se is ?us ?\ght ( z b\nd$ by a sph]ical surface1 on ! concave side ( :i* are ! fix$ />s1 :i* are !re=e "o & all at ! same di/ance f u4 ,?is sph]e1 "u ! imm$iate influ5ce ( ,god1 revolves on its axis once 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ?is p]iod ( revolution is absolutely uni=m4 ,next ! app>5tly irregul> pa?s ( ! planets kn[n to ,ari/otle 7i4e4 ! moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ! sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn7 are resolv$ into comb9ations ( simil> uni=m rotations1 ea* planet hav+ z _m sph]es assign$ to x z are requisite = ! analysis ( its app>5t pa? into p]fectly circul> elem5t>y motions4 ,altoge!r ,ari/otle holds t fifty-f\r su* rotat+ sph]es are requir$ ov] & above ! fir/ mov$ itself1 ^: rotation is1 ( c\rse1 communicat$ to all ! less] sph]es includ$ )9 x4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! fir/ mov$1 ! uni=m unceas+ rotation ( ea* sph]e is expla9$ by ! influ5ce on x ( an un*ang+ immat]ial =m1 :i* is to its own sph]e :at ,god is to ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelianism ( ! m$iaeval *ur* ^! pure =ms or intellig5ces :i* orig9ate ! movem5ts ( ! v>i\s planet>y sph]es are naturally id5tifi$ ) angels4 ,x is e4g4 to ! angelic intellig5ces :i* move ! heav5 ( ,v5us1 :i* comes ?ird 9 ord] c\nt+ outw>d f ! e>?1 t ,dante addresses 8 fam\s ,canzone1 ,voi *' int5d5do il t]zo del movete4 ,! m$iaeval a/ronomy1 h[ev]1 diff]s 9 two important respects f t ( ,ari/otle himself4 7#a7 ,! numb] ( sph]es is diff]5t4 ,increas+ k ( ! complexity ( ! pa?s ( ! planets %[$ t if _! pa?s are to be analys$ into comb9ations ( circul> motions1 fifty-f\r su* rotations mu/ be an altoge!r inadequate numb]4 ,ari/otle's me?od ( analysis ( ! heav5ly movem5ts 0 !re=e comb9$ ) ei!r or bo? ( two o!rs orig9at$ by pure a/ronom]s :o sat loose to metaphysics4 ,"o ( ^! me?ods 0 to acc\nt = a planet's pa? by ! introduction ( epicycles4 ,! planet 0 ?\ght ( n z fix$ at a giv5 po9t on its pr9cipal sph]e1 b z situat$ on ! circumf]5ce ( a less] sph]e :i* has its c5tre at a fix$ po9t ( ! pr9cipal sph]e & rotates ar\nd an axis pass+ ?r\gh ?is c5tre4 ,if ne$ 71 ?is type ( hypo!sis c\ld be fur!r complicat$ by imag9+ any numb] ( su* epicycles )9 epicycles4 ,! o!r me?od 0 ! employm5t ( ecc5trics1 i4e4 circul> movem5ts :i* are describ$ n ab\t ! common c5tre ( ! e>? & ! univ]se1 b ab\t "s po9t 9 its neighb\rhood4 ,by comb9ations ( epicycles & ecc5trics ! m$iaeval a/ronom]s contriv$ to r$uce ! numb] ( pr9cipal sph]es to "o = ea* planet1 ! arrangem5t we f9d 9 ,dante4 7#b7 ,also real or suppos$ a/ronomical p]turbations unkn[n to ,ari/otle l$ "s m$iaeval !ori/s to foll[ ! s*eme devis$ by ,alphonso ! ,wise ( ,ca/ille1 9 :i* fur!r sph]es are ins]t$ betwe5 t ( ,saturn1 ! out]mo/ planet1 & ! fir/ mov$4 ,9 ,dante1 we h1 exclud+ ! empyrean or immovable heav5 :]e ,god & ! bless$ are1 n9e sph]es1 "o = ea* ( ! planets1 "o = ! fix$ />s1 & "o = ! fir/ mov$1 :i* is n[ di/+ui%$ f ! heav5 ( ! />s4 ,9 ,milton1 :o adopts ! ,alphons9e s*eme1 we h fur!r a sph]e call$ ! second movable or cry/all9e introduc$ betwe5 ! heav5 ( ! fix$ />s & ! fir/ mov$1 to acc\nt = ! imag9>y ph5om5on ( trepidation4 ,9 read+ ,dante1 ,%akespe>e1 & ,milton1 we h always to rememb] t none ( ^! reproduces ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! sph]es accurately2 _! a/ronomy is an amalgam ( ,ari/otle1 ,ptolemy1 & ,hipp>*us4 ,p>adise ,lo/1 iii4 #dha4 ,!y pass ! planets sev51 & pass ! fix$1 ,& t cry/all9e sph]e ^: balance weighs ,! trepidation talk$1 & t fir/ mov$4 ,s f>1 ! doctr9e ( ! fifty-five sph]es might be no m ?an a legitimate ma!matical fiction1 a conv5i5t device = analys+ ! complicat$ app>5t movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies into circul> compon5ts4 ,?is 0 orig9ally ! "p play$ by sph]es 9 anci5t a/ronomical !ory1 & x is wor? :ile to be q cle> ab\t ! fact1 z !re is a mi/ak5 impression widely curr5t to-day t ,ari/otle's a/ronomy is typical ( ,greek views 9 g5]al4 ,! tru? is t x is peculi> to himself4 ,! orig9 ( ! !ory 0 ,academic4 ,plato propos$ to ! ,academy z a subject ( inquiry1 to devise su* a ma!matical analysis ( a/ronomical motions z w be/ save ! appe>ances1 i4e4 w mo/ simply acc\nt = ! app>5t pa?s ( ! planets4 ,! analysis ( ^! pa?s into resultants ( sev]al rotations 0 (f]$ z a solution by ! a/ronom] ,eudoxus ( ,cnidus4 ,s f>1 ! sph]es1 !n1 7 a m]e ma!matical hypo!sis4 ,:at ,ari/otle did1 & x is p]haps ! mo/ retrograde /ep ev] tak5 9 ! hi/ory ( a sci5ce1 0 to conv]t ! ma!matical hypo!sis into physical fact4 ,! sph]es become ) him real bodies1 & z none ( ! bodies we are famili> ) exhibit any t5d5cy to rotate 9 circles :5 left to !mselves1 ,ari/otle 0 =c$ to introduce into ,physics ! disa/r\s !ory1 :i* x 0 a great "p ( ,galileo's life-"w to de/roy1 t ! /uff ( :i* ! sph]es are made is a fif? body1 diff]5t f ! elem5ts ( :i* ! bodies among :i* we live are made4 ,h5ce he makes an absolute di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( matt]1 cele/ial matt]1 ! fif? body1 & t]re/rial or elem5t>y matt]4 ,! fundam5tal diff]5ce is t t]re/rial or elem5t>y matt]1 left to itself1 foll[s a rectil9e> pa?1 cele/ial matt] rotates1 b x is fur!r inf]r$ f ! suppos$ absolute uni=mity ( ! cele/ial movem5ts t cele/ial matt] is simple1 uncomp\nd$1 incapable ( *ange1 & consequ5tly t no new /ate ( ?+s c ev] arise 9 ! heav5s4 ,! sph]es & planets h always be5 & w always be exactly z !y are at ! pres5t mom5t4 ,mutability is conf9$ to ! region ( t]re/rial or elem5t>y matt]1 :i* only ext5ds z f> z ! orbit ( ! moon1 ! l[e/ ( ! cele/ial bodies1 because x is only t]re/rial ?+s :i* are1 z we %\ld say1 *emical comp\nds4 ,?is is ! doctr9e :i* ,galileo has 9 m9d :5 he dwells on su* newly-discov]$ a/ronomical facts z ! exi/5ce ( sun-spots & v>iable />s1 & ! signs ( irregul>ity pres5t$ by ! moon's surface4 ,! di/9ction is peculi> to ,ari/otle4 ,no "o be=e him _h ev] ?\ght ( suppos+ ! heav5ly bodies to be made ( any mat]ials o!r ?an ^? ( :i* bodies t]re/rial are made4 ,9 ! ,academic attack on ,ari/otle's sci5ce ( :i* we h already spok5 ! two po9ts s+l$ out = reprobation are 7#a7 8 rejection ( ! pr9ciple t all mov+ bodies1 left to !mselves1 foll[ a rectil9e> pa?1 & 7#b7 8 d5ial t ! heav5ly bodies are made ( ! same elem5ts z ev]y?+ else4 7,x may j be m5tion$ 9 pass+ t our ^w qu9tess5ce gets its s5se f ! suppos$ special nobility ( ! incorruptible fif? body47 99,t]re/rial ,bodies994--,z we h se5 already1 ,ari/otle 0 out ( sympa?y ) ! t5d5cy to reg>d ! s5sible diff]5ces betwe5 bodies z consequ5ces ( m ultimate diff]5ces 9 ! geometrical /ructure ( _! p>ticles4 ,h5ce 8 :ole attitude t[>ds ! problems ( t bran* ( natural sci5ce :i* we call physics is q unlike any view to :i* we are accu/om$4 ,he rev]ts f ! ma!matical l9es ( ?\ght curr5t 9 ,plato's ,academy to ! type ( view m natural to ! pla9 man1 &1 l ! e>lie/ six?-c5tury m5 ( sci5ce1 reg>ds ! qualitative diff]5ces :i* our s5ses appreh5d z fundam5tal4 ,among ^!1 p>ticul> /ress is laid on ! diff]5ce 9 s5sible temp]ature 7! hot--! cold71 9 saturation 7! dry--! moi/71 & 9 d5sity 7! d5se--! r>e74 ,if we consid] ! fir/ two ( ^! oppositions1 we c make f\r b9>y comb9ations ( ! elem5t>y opposite *>act]s1 viz4 hot & dry1 hot & moi/1 cold & moi/1 cold & dry4 ,^! comb9ations are reg>d$ z correspond+ respectively to ! s5sible *>act]i/ics ( ! f\r bodies :i* ,emp$ocles1 ! fa!r ( ,greek *emi/ry1 _h treat$ z ! ultimate compon5ts ( ev]y?+4 ,fire is hot & dry1 air hot & moi/1 wat] moi/ & cold1 e>? cold & dry4 ,?is reflection %[s u :y ,ari/otle held t ! mo/ rudim5t>y =m 9 :i* matt] ev] actually exi/s is t ( "o ( ^! elem5ts4 ,ea* ( !m has "o quality 9 common ) ano!r1 & x is 9 virtue ( ?is t a portion ( "o elem5t c be assimilat$ by & transmut$ into ano!r1 a process :i* seems to ! untutor$ eye to be con/antly recurr+ 9 ,nature4 ,we also obs]ve t ! ord] 9 :i* ! elem5ts appe>1 :5 s arrang$ z to =m a s]ies 9 :i* ea* t]m has "o quality 9 common ) ea* ( its neighb\rs1 is also t ( _! increas+ d5sity4 ,?is w\ld help to make ! conception ( _! transmutability all ! m natural1 z x sugge/s t ! process may be effect$ by /eady cond5sation4 ,we mu/ rememb] c>efully t = ,ari/otle1 :o d5ies ! possibility ( a vacuum1 z = ! m$iaeval al*emi/s1 cond5sation does n mean a m]e dim9ution ( ! di/ances betwe5 corpuscles :i* rema9 un*ang$ 9 "*1 b is a process ( real qualitative *ange 9 ! body :i* und]goes x4 ,incid5tally we may rem>k t all *anges ( quality are reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z /ages 9 a cont9u\s movem5t f "o extreme ( a scale to ano!r4 ,= example1 col\rs1 ) him z ) ,goe!1 =m a s]ies ( :i* ! opposites :ite & black are ! end-po9ts4 ,e o!r col\r is a comb9ation ( :ite & black accord+ to a def9ite proportion4 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( weight 0 "o ( ! *ief ob/acles :i* sev5te5?-c5tury sci5ce _h to cont5d ) 9 e/abli%+ correct notions 9 dynamics4 ,x is a curi\s feature ( ,greek sci5ce be=e ,ari/otle t1 ?\gh ! facts connect$ ) gravity 7 well kn[n1 no "o introduc$ ! notion ( weight to acc\nt = !m4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 heavy bodies & light bodies _h be5 previ\sly treat$ z second>y = sci5ce4 ,plato's treatm5t ( ! matt] is typical ( ! be/ f\r?-c5tury sci5ce4 ,we mu/ n try to expla9 :y ! heavi] bodies t5d to move t[>ds ! e>?'s surface by say+ t !y h a d[nw>d motion2 _! motion is n d[nw>d b t[>ds ! c5tre 7! e>?1 ?\gh n fix$ at ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 be+ ne>] to x ?an ! re/ ( ! sol> & sid]eal sy/em74 ,plato !n expla9s ! t5d5cy 9 virtue ( :i* ! heavi] bodies move t[>ds ! c5tre z an attraction ( l = l4 ,! univ]sal t5d5cy is = small] masses ( e>?1 wat]1 air1 fire to be attract$ t[>ds ! great aggregations ( ! same mat]ials4 ,?is is f> f be+ a satisfactory !ory 9 ! light ( facts :i* 7 n yet kn[n to ,plato1 b x is on ! "r l9es4 ,x />ts f ! conception ( ! facts ( gravity z due to an attractive =ce ( "s k9d1 & x has ! great m]it ( br++ ! s9k+ ( /ones & ! ris+ ( vap\rs "u ! same explanation4 ,ari/otle1 ?\gh reta9+ ! c5tral idea t a body t5ds to move t[>ds ! region :]e ! great cosmic mass ( ! same k9d is congregat$1 introduc$ ! entirely incompatible notion ( an absolute di/9ction ( up & d[n4 ,he id5tifi$ ! c5tre ( ! univ]se ) t ( ! e>?1 & look$ on motion to ?is c5tre z d[nw>d4 ,?is l$ him to make a di/9ction betwe5 heavy bodies1 :i* naturally t5d to move d[n1 & light bodies1 :i* t5d to move up away f ! c5tre4 ,! doctr9e works out ?us4 ,! heavie/ elem5ts t5d to be mass$ toge!r ne>e/ ! c5tre1 ! lighte/ to be fur!/ f x4 ,ea* elem5t ?us has its prop] place1 t ( wat] be+ imm$iately above e>?1 t ( air next1 & t ( fire fur!/ f ! c5tre1 & ne>e/ to ! regions occupi$ by cele/ial matt]4 7,read]s ( ,dante w recollect ! asc5t f ! ,e>?ly ,p>adise ?r\gh ! sph]e ( fire ) :i* ! ,p>adiso op5s47 ,9 its own prop] region no body is heavy or light2 z we %\ld say any fluid loses its weight :5 imm]s$ 9 itself4 ,:5 a portion ( an elem5t is out ( its own region & surr\nd$ by ! great cosmic aggregate ( ano!r elem5t1 ei!r ( two cases may occur4 ,! body :i* is out ( its elem5t may be bel[ its prop] place1 9 :i* case x is light & t5ds to move p]p5dicul>ly upw>ds to its place1 or x may be above its prop] place1 & !n x is heavy & t5ds to move p]p5dicul>ly d[n until x rea*es its place4 ,x 0 ?is suppos$ real di/9ction betwe5 motion up & motion d[n :i* made x s h>d = ! contempor>ies ( ,galileo to und]/& t an inflat$ bladd] rises = ! same reason t a /one s9ks4 99,biology994--,( ,ari/otle's biology reasons ( space =bid u to say mu* "h4 ,b a rem>k or two may be made ab\t 8 !ory ( reproduction1 s9ce x is con/antly ref]r$ to 9 mu* mod]n lit]ature & has also play$ its "p 9 !ology4 ,an int]e/+ po9t is ! di/9ction betwe5 p]fect & imp]fect animals4 ,p]fect animals are ^? :i* c only be reproduc$ sexually4 ,ari/otle held1 h[ev]1 t !re are "s creatures1 ev5 among v]tebrates1 :i* may be produc$ by ! vivify+ effect ( sol> heat on decompos+ matt]1 )\t any p>5ts at all4 ,?us malobs]vation ( ! facts ( putrefaction l$ to ! belief t flies & worms are eng5d]$ by heat f decay+ bodies1 & x 0 ev5 ?\ght t frogs & mice are produc$ 9 ! same way f riv]-slime4 ,9 ?is process1 ! s-call$ aequivocal g5]ation1 sol> heat 0 conceiv$ z ! op]ative effici5t cause :i* leads to ! realisation ( an organic =m 9 ! decay+ matt]4 ,9 sexual reproduction ,ari/otle reg>ds ! male p>5t z ! ag5t or effici5t cause :i* contributes ! elem5t ( =m & organisation to ! (fspr+4 ,! female p>5t supplies only ! raw mat]ial ( ! new creature1 b %e supplies ! :ole ( ?is4 ,no mat]ial is suppli$ by ! male p>5t to ! body ( ! (fspr+1 a !ory :i* ,/4 ,?omas f\nd useful 9 def5d+ ! dogma ( ! ,virg9 ,bir?4 99,psy*ology994--,s9ce ! m9d gr[s & develops1 x comes "u ! class ( ?+s :i* h a s\rce ( motion int]nal to !mselves1 & psy*ology is !re=e1 = ,ari/otle1 a bran* ( ,physics4 ,to und]/& 8 treatm5t ( psy*ological que/ions we ne$ be> two ?+s 9 m9d4 7#a7 ,psy*e or s\l means 9 ,greek m ?an consci\sness does to u4 ,consci\sness is a relatively late & highly develop$ manife/ation ( ! pr9ciple :i* ! ,greeks call s\l4 ,t pr9ciple %[s itself n m]ely 9 consci\sness b 9 ! :ole process ( nutrition & gr[? & ! adaptation ( motor response to an ext]nal situation4 ,?us consci\sness is a m second>y feature ( ! s\l 9 ,greek philosophy ?an 9 mo/ mod]n ?\ght1 :i* has nev] ceas$ to be affect$ by ,desc>tes' selection ( ?\ght z ! special *>act]i/ic ( psy*ical life4 ,9 common language ! ^w psy*e is con/antly us$ :]e we %\ld say life r ?an s\l1 & 9 ,greek philosophy a "w on ! ,psy*e means :at we %\ld call "o on ! pr9ciple ( life4 7#b7 ,x is a consequ5ce ( ?is way ( ?9k+ ( ! s\l t ! process ( bodily & m5tal developm5t is reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z "o s+le cont9u\s process4 ,! gr[? ( a man's intellect & "* by :i* he becomes a ?9k] & a citiz5 is a cont9uation ( ! process by :i* 8 body is conceiv$ & born & passes into physical manhood4 ,?is comes out 9 ! words ( ! def9ition ( ! s\l4 ,! s\l is ! fir/ entele*y 7or actual realisation7 ( a natural organic body4 ,:at ?is means is t ! s\l /&s to ! liv+ body z all =m realis$ 9 matt] does to ! matt] ( :i* x is ! =m1 or t ! s\l is ! =m ( ! body4 ,:at ! organic body is to ! embryo out ( :i* x has gr[n1 t s\l is to ! body itself4 ,z ! embryo gr[s into ! actual liv+ body1 s ! liv+ body gr[s into a body exhibit+ ! actual direct+ pres5ce ( m9d4 ,ari/otle illu/rates ! relation by ! rem>k t if ! :ole body 0 "o va/ eye1 see+ w\ld be its s\l4 ,z ! eye is a tool = see+ )1 b a liv+ tool :i* is "p ( ourselves1 s ! body is a l tool or in/rum5t = liv+ )4 ,h5ce we may say ( ! s\l t x is ! end ( ! body1 ! activity to :i* ! body is in/rum5tal1 z see+ is ! end to :i* ! eye is in/rum5tal4 ,b we mu/ note t ! s\l is call$ only ! fir/ or initial entele*y ( ! body4 ,! reason is t ! m]e pres5ce ( ! s\l does n gu>antee ! full liv+ ( ! life to :i* our body is b ! in/rum5t4 ,if we are to live 9 ! fulle/ s5se ( ! ^w1 we mu/ n m]ely h a s\l2 we h x ev5 9 sleep1 9 ignorance1 9 folly4 ,! s\l itself ne$s fur!r to be educat$ & tra9$ 9 intellig5ce & "*1 & to ex]cise its intellig5ce & "* effici5tly on ! problems ( ?\ght & life4 ,! m]e pres5ce ( s\l is only a fir/ /ep 9 ! progress t[>ds fullness ( life4 ,?is is :y ,ari/otle calls ! s\l ! fir/ entele*y ( ! liv+ body4 ,! full & f9al entele*y is ! life ( intellig5ce & "* actively function+4 ,f ?is conception ( ! s\l's relation to ! body we see t ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( body & m9d does n readily fall into l9e ) any ( ! typical !ories ( our "t4 ,he nei!r ?9ks ( ! s\l z a ?+ act+ on ! body & act$ on by x1 nor yet z a s]ies ( /ates ( m9d concomitant ) c]ta9 /ates ( body4 ,f 8 po9t ( view to ask :e!r s\l & body int]act1 or :e!r !y exhibit p>allelism1 w\ld be mu* ! same ?+ z to ask :e!r life int]acts ) ! body1 or :e!r !re is a p>allelism betwe5 vital processes & bodily processes4 ,we mu/ n ask at all h[ ! body & s\l are unit$4 ,!y are "o ?+1 z ! matt] & ! =m ( a copp] globe are "o4 ,?us !y are 9 actual fact insep>able4 ,! s\l is ! s\l ( its body & ! body ! body ( its s\l4 ,we c only di/+ui% !m by logical analysis1 z we c di/+ui% ! copp] f ! sph]icity 9 ! copp] globe4 99,grades ( ,psy*ical ,life994--,if we consid] ! ord] ( developm5t1 we f9d t "s vital activities make _! appe>ance e>li] ?an o!rs1 & t x is a univ]sal law t ! m highly develop$ activities always h ! less highly develop$ z _! basis & precondition1 ?\gh ! less highly develop$ may exi/ ap>t f ! m highly develop$4 ,s we may arrange vital activities 9 g5]al 9 an ontog5etic ord]1 ! ord] 9 :i* !y make _! appe>ance 9 ! individual's developm5t4 ,ari/otle reckons ?ree su* /ages1 ! nutritive1 ! s5sitive1 & ! intellig5t4 ,! l[e/ =m 9 :i* life %[s itself at all1 ! level ( m9imum di/9ction betwe5 ! liv+ & ! lifeless1 is ! p[] to take 9 nutrim5t1 assimilate x1 & gr[4 ,9 vegetables ! developm5t is arre/$ at ?is po9t4 ,) ! animals we rea* ! next highe/ level1 t ( s5sitive life4 ,= all animals h at lea/ ! s5se ( t\*4 ,?us !y all %[ s5se-p]ception1 & x is a consequ5ce ( ?is t !y exhibit appetition1 ! simple/ =m ( conation1 & ! rudim5ts ( feel+ & temp]4 ,= :at has s5sations c also feel pleasure & pa91 & :at c feel pleasure & pa9 c desire1 s9ce desire is only appetition ( :at is pleasant4 ,?us 9 ! animals we h ! beg9n+s ( cognition1 conation1 & affective & emotional life 9 g5]al4 ,& ,ari/otle adds t locomotion makes its appe>ance at ?is level2 animals d n1 l plants1 h to tru/ to _! supply ( nutrim5t com+ to !m2 !y c g to x4 ,! ?ird level1 t ( intellig5ce1 i4e4 ! p[] to comp>e1 calculate1 & reflect1 & to ord] "o's life by consci\s rule1 is exhibit$ by man4 ,:at di/+ui%es life at ?is level f m]e s5sitive life is1 on ! intellectual side1 ! ability to cognise univ]sal tru?s1 on ! conative1 ! p[] to live by rule in/ead ( be+ sway$ by mom5t>y appetition4 ,! =m] gives u ! possibility ( sci5ce1 ! latt] ( moral excell5ce4 ,cf4 ,dante's ,fatti non fo/e a viv] como bruti1 ,ma p] seguir virtute e conoso5za4 99,s5sation994--,life manife/s itself at ! animal level on ! cognitive side z s5se-p]ception1 on ! conative z appetition or desire1 on ! affective z feel+ ( pleasure or pa91 & 9 su* simple emotional moods z temp]1 res5tm5t1 long+4 ,ari/otle gives s5sation a logical priority ov] ! conative & emotional expression ( animal life4 ,to exp]i5ce appetition or ang] or desire y mu/ h an object :i* y crave = or desire or are angry )1 & x is only :5 y h rea*$ ! level ( pres5tations ?r\gh ! s5ses t y c be said to h an object4 ,appetition or temp] is z real a fact z p]ception1 b y _c crave = or feel angry ) a ?+ y d n appreh5d4 ,ari/otle's def9ition ( s5se p]ception is t x is a capacity = disc]n+ or di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! s5sible qualities ( ?+s4 ,8 conception ( ! process by :i* ! disc]nm5t or di/+ui%+ is effect$ is n altoge!r happy4 ,9 s5se-p]ception ! s\l takes into itself ! =m ( ! ?+ p]ceiv$ )\t its matt]1 z seal+-wax receives ! %ape ( an iron seal-r+ )\t ! iron4 ,to und]/& ?is1 we h to rememb] t = ,ari/otle ! s5sible qualities ( ! ext]nal _w1 col\r1 tones1 ta/es1 & ! re/1 are n effects ( me*anical /imulation ( our s5se-organs1 b real qualities ( bodies4 ,! h>dness ( iron1 ! r$ness ( a piece ( r$ wax are all prim>ily 9 ! iron or ! wax4 ,!y are =ms1 or det]m9ations by def9ite law1 ( ! matt] ( ! iron or ! wax4 ,?is w become cle>] if we consid] a def9ite example1 ! r$ col\r ( ! wax4 ,9 ! wax ! r$ col\r is a def9ite comb9ation ( ! col\r-opposites :ite & black accord+ to a fix$ ratio4 ,n[ ,ari/otle's view ( ! process ( s5se-p]ception is t :5 ,i become aw>e ( ! r$ col\r ! same proportion ( :ite to black :i* makes ! wax r$ is reproduc$ 9 my organ ( vision2 my eye1 :ile ,i am see+ ! r$1 assimilat$ to ! wax1 is itself = ! "t actually r$d5$4 ,b x does n become wax because ! r$ ?+ ,i am look+ at is a piece ( r$ wax4 ,! eye rema9s a ?+ compos$ ( liv+ tissues4 ,?is is :at is meant by say+ t 9 see+ ! col\rs ( ?+s ! eye receives =ms )\t ! matt] ( ! ?+s 9 :i* ^? =ms are exhibit$4 ,?us ! process ( s5se-p]ception is "o 9 :i* ! organ ( s5se is tempor>ily assimilat$ to ! ?+ appreh5d$ 9 respect ( ! p>ticul> quality cognis$ by t organ1 b 9 respect ( no o!r4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle ?is process ( assimilation always requires ! pres5ce ( a m$ium4 ,if an object is 9 imm$iate contact ) ! eye we _c see its col\r2 if x is too ne> ! e>1 we d n disc]n ! note x gives out4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( t\* & ta/e !re is no imm$iate contact betwe5 ! object p]ceiv$ & ! true organ ( p]ception4 ,= 9 t\* ! fle% is n ! organ ( appreh5sion b an integum5t surr\nd+ x & capable ( act+ z an int]m$i>y betwe5 x & ?+s4 ,?us p]ception is always accompli%$ by a motion set up 9 ! m$ium by ! ext]nal object1 & by ! m$ium 9 our s5se-organs4 ,ari/otle ?us contrives to br+ correct appreh5sion by s5se ( ! qualities ( ?+s "u ! =mula ( ! "r mean or "r proportion1 :i* is bett] kn[n f ! use made ( x 9 ! philosoph]'s !ory ( conduct4 ,! col\r ( a surface1 ! pit* ( ! note giv5 out by a vibrat+ /r+1 c41 dep5d on1 & v>y )1 c]ta9 =ms or ratios 9 ! surface or ! vibrat+ /r+2 our correct appreh5sion ( ! qualities dep5ds on ! reproduction ( ! same ratios 9 our s5se-organs1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! "r proportion 9 u4 ,t ?is "r proportion may be reproduc$ 9 our own s5se-organs x is necess>y 7#a7 t ! m$ium %\ld h none ( ! s5sible qualities = ! appreh5sion :]e( x s]ves z m$ium1 e4g4 ! m$ium 9 col\r-p]ception mu/ be col\rless4 ,if x _h a col\r ( its own1 ! motion set up by ! col\r$ bodies we appreh5d w\ld n be transmitt$ undi/ort$ to our organs2 we %\ld see ev]y?+ ?r\gh a col\r$ haze4 ,x is necess>y = ! same reason 7#b7 t ! p]cipi5t organ itself1 :5 9 a /ate ( quiesc5ce1 %\ld possess none ( ! qualities :i* c be induc$ 9 x by /imulation4 ,! up%ot ( ! :ole !ory is t ! s5se-organ is pot5tially :at ! s5se-quality x appreh5ds is actually4 ,actual p]ceiv+ is j t special transition f ! pot5tial to ! actual :i* results 9 mak+ ! organ = ! "t be+ actually ( ! same quality z ! object4 99,! ,common ,s5sibles & ! ,common ,s5se-organ994--,e s5se has a range ( qualities connect$ ) x z its special objects4 ,col\rs c only be p]ceiv$ by ! eye1 s\nds by ! e>1 & s =?4 ,b !re are c]ta9 *>act]s ( p]ceiv$ ?+s :i* we appe> to appreh5d by m ?an "o s5se4 ,?us we seem to p]ceive size & %ape ei!r by t\* or by sight1 & numb] by he>+ z well1 s9ce we c c\nt e4g4 ! /rokes ( an unse5 bell4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle di/+ui%es betwe5 ! special s5sible qualities su* z col\r & pit*1 & :at he calls ! common s5sibles1 ! "* ( ?+s :i* c be p]ceiv$ by m ?an "o organ4 ,^! are enum]at$ z size1 =m or %ape1 numb]1 motion 7& its opposite re/71 be+4 7,! addition ( ?is la/ is1 ( c\rse1 meant to acc\nt = our conviction t any p]ceiv$ col\r1 ta/e1 or o!r quality is a reality & n a delusion47 ,! li/ corresponds v closely ) "o giv5 by ,plato ( ! ?+s :i* ! m9d p]ceives by h]self )\t ! help ( any organ1 i4e4 ( ! lead+ det]m9ations ( s5sible ?+s :i* are due n to s5se b to und]/&+4 ,x 0 an un=tunate innovation to reg>d ! disc]nm5t ( numb] or movem5t1 :i* obvi\sly dem& intellectual processes su* z c\nt+ & comp>ison1 z p]=m$ imm$iately by s5se1 & to assign ! appreh5sion ( numb]1 movem5t1 figure to a c5tral organ4 ,?is organ he f9ds 9 ! he>t4 ,! !ory is t :5 ! special organs ( ! s5ses are /imulat$1 !y 9 turn communicate movem5ts to ! blood & animal spirits 7i4e4 ! vap\rs suppos$ to be produc$ f ! blood by animal heat74 ,^! movem5ts are propagat$ inw>ds to ! he>t1 :]e !y all meet4 ,?is is suppos$ to acc\nt = ! important fact t1 ?\gh our s5sations are s _m & div]se1 we are consci\s ( our own unity z ! subjects appreh5d+ all ?is v>iety4 ,! unity ( ! p]ceiv+ subject is ?us made to dep5d on ! unity ( ! ultimate organ ( s5sation1 ! he>t4 ,fur!r1 :5 once a type ( motion has be5 set up 9 any s5se-organ at ! p]iph]y ( ! body x w be propagat$ inw>d to ! common s5sorium 9 ! he>t4 ,! motions set up by /imulation1 e4g4 ( ! eye & ( ! sk91 are p>tly diff]5t1 p>tly ! same 7viz4 9 s f> z !y are det]m9$ by ! numb]1 %ape1 size1 movem5t ( ! ext]nal /imuli74 ,h5ce 9 ! he>t itself ! /imulation on :i* p]ception ( numb] or size dep5ds is "o & ! same :e!r x has be5 transmitt$ f ! eye or f ! sk96 ,aw>5ess ( lapse ( "t is also reg>d$ z a function ( ! common s5se-organ1 s9ce x is ! common s5sory :i* p]ceives motion1 & lapse ( "t is appreh5d$ only 9 ! appreh5sion ( motion4 ,?us1 9 respect ( ! inclusion ( geometrical =m & lapse ( "t among ! common s5sibles1 !re is a c]ta9 resemblance betwe5 ,ari/otle's doctr9e & ,kant's !ory t recognition ( spatial & temporal ord] is a function n ( und]/&+ b ( pure s5se4 ,x is fur!r held t to be aw>e t "o is p]ceiv+ 7self-consci\sness7 & to discrim9ate betwe5 ! diff]5t classes ( special s5se-p]ception mu/ also be functions ( ! common s5se-organ4 ,?us ,ari/otle makes ! mi/ake ( treat+ ! mo/ fundam5tal acts ( intellig5t reflection z precisely on a p>1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! !ory ( k1 ) aw>5ess ( col\r or s\nd4 ,a m legitimate function assign$ to ! common s5sorium 9 ! he>t is t fantasy1 ! =mation ( m5tal imag]y1 dep5ds on its activity4 ,! simple/ k9d ( image1 ! pure memory-image left beh9d aft] ! object directly ar\s+ p]ception has ceas$ to /imulate1 is due to ! p]si/5ce ( ! movem5ts set up 9 ! he>t aft] ! s5sory process 9 ! p]iph]al organ is ov]4 ,s9ce ,ari/otle d5ies ! possibility ( ?9k+ )\t ! aid ( memory-images1 ?is function ( ! common s5sorium is ! indisp5sable basis ( m5tal recall1 anticipation1 & ?\ght4 ,nei!r exp]i5ce1 i4e4 a g5]al conviction :i* results f ! frequ5t repetition ( simil> p]ceptions1 nor ?\ght c arise 9 any animal 9 :i* s5se-/imulation does n leave su* traces beh9d x4 ,simil>ly free imag]y1 ! exi/5ce ( tra9s ( imag9ation n ti$ d[n to ! reproduction ( an actual ord] ( s5sations1 is acc\nt$ = by ! consid]ation t *ance co9cid5ce may lead to ! /imulation ( ! he>t 9 ! same way 9 :i* x might h be5 /imulat$ by actual s5sation-processes4 ,sleep+ & wak+ & ! exp]i5ces ( dream-life are likewise due to *anges 9 ! function+ ( ! common s5se-organ1 br\ght ab\t p>tly by fatigue 9 ! sup]ficial s5se-organs1 p>tly by qualitative *anges 9 ! blood & animal spirits caus$ by ! processes ( nutrition & dige/ion4 ,probably ,ari/otle's be/ sci5tific "w 9 psy*ology is conta9$ 9 ! s]ies ( small essays 9 :i* ?is !ory ( memory & its imag]y is work$ out4 7,ari/otle's language ab\t ! common s5sibles is1 ( c\rse1 ! s\rce ( our expression common s5se1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has an entirely diff]5t mean+4 ,! %ift+ ( s5se has app>5tly be5 effect$ ?r\gh ,cic]o's employm5t ( ! phrase s5sus communis to mean tactful sympa?y1 ! feel+ ( fell[%ip ) our k9d on :i* ! ,/oic philosoph]s laid s mu* /ress47 99,?\ght994--,?\gh ?9k+ is impossible except by ! use ( imag]y1 to ?9k is n m]ely to possess tra9s ( imag]y1 or ev5 to be aw>e ( possess+ !m4 ,?9k+ means und]/&+ ! mean+ ( su* m5tal imag]y & arriv+ ?r\gh ! und]/&+ at k ( ! /ructure ( ! real _w4 ,h[ ?is process ( int]pret+ m5tal imag]y & rea*+ valid tru? is a*iev$ ) great] & great] success until x culm9ates 9 ! appreh5sion ( ! supreme pr9ciples ( philosophy we h se5 9 deal+ ) ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( k4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! physici/ :o is conc]n$ ) ?9k+ simply z a type ( natural process1 ! relation ( und]/&+ to ! m5tal imag]y j describ$ is analog\s to t ( s5sation to s5sible qualities4 ,! objects :i* ?9k+ appreh5ds are ! univ]sal types ( relation by :i* ! _w ( ?+s is p]vad$4 ,! process ( ?9k+ is "o 9 :i* ?is sy/em ( univ]sal relations is reproduc$ by way ( idea 9 ! m9d ( ! ?9k]4 ,! und]/&+ ?us /&s to its objects z matt] to =m4 ,! process ( gett+ actually to und]/& ! _w is "o 9 :i* our ?\ght or und]/&+ /eadily receives complet] det]m9ation & =m f its contemplation ( reality4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ! process is "o 9 :i* ! und]/&+ may be said to be passive 9 k4 ,x is passive because x is ! subject :i*1 at e fre% /age 9 ! progress to k1 is be+ q lit]ally in=m$ by ! action ( ! real _w ?r\gh ! s5sation & imag]y4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle says t1 9 ord] t ! und]/&+ may be correctly in=m$ by its contact ) its objects1 x mu/1 be=e ! process beg9s1 h no det]m9ate "* ( its own4 ,x mu/ be simply a capacity = appreh5d+ ! types ( int]connection4 ,:at is call$ ! intellig5ce--,i mean t ) :i* ! s\l ?9ks & und]/&s--is n an actual ?+ until x ?9ks4 7,?is is meant to exclude any doctr9e :i* cr$its ! und]/&+ ) ei!r furniture ( its own su* z innate ideas1 or a specific /ructure ( its own4 ,if ! results ( our ?9k+ arose p>tly f ! /ructure ( ! _w ( objects & p>tly f inh]5t laws ( ! /ructure ( m9d1 our ?\ght at its be/ w\ld n reproduce ! univ]sal =ms or types ( int]connection z !y really are1 b w\ld di/ort !m1 z ! %apes ( ?+s are di/ort$ :5 we see !m ?r\gh a l5s ( high refractive index47 ,?us1 ?\gh ,ari/otle diff]s f ! mod]n empirici/s 9 hold+ t univ]sals realty exi/ 9 ?+s1 & are ! l9ks ( connection betwe5 !m1 he agrees ) ! empirici/ t k is n ! resultant ( a comb9ation ( facts on ! "o side & fundam5tal laws ( ! m9d's work+ on ! o!r4 ,at ! outset ! und]/&+ has no /ructure2 x develops a /ructure = itself 9 ! same process1 & to ! same degree1 9 :i* x appreh5ds ! facts4 ,h5ce ! und]/&+ only is real 9 ! actual process ( und]/&+ its objects1 & aga9 9 a s5se ! und]/&+ & ! ?+s x und]/&s are "o4 ,only we mu/ qualify ?is la/ /atem5t by say+ t x is only pot5tially t ! und]/&+ is ! =ms :i* x appreh5ds4 ,ari/otle does n mean by ?is t su* ?+s z horses & ox5 are ?\ghts or ideas4 ,by ! ?+s ) :i* und]/&+ is said to be "o he means ! =ms :i* we appreh5d :5 we actually und]/& ! _w or any "p ( x1 ! tru?s ( sci5ce4 ,8 po9t !n is t ! actual ?9k+ ( ^! tru?s & ! tru?s !mselves d n exi/ ap>t f "o ano!r4 ,sci5ce does n mean c]ta9 ?+s writt5 d[n 9 a book2 x means a m9d engag$ 9 ?9k+ & kn[+ ?+s1 & ( ! m9d itself1 consid]$ out ( its relation to ! actual life ( ?9k+ ! tru?s ( sci5ce1 we c say no m ?an t x is a "n = ! fact t we are capable ( a*iev+ su* ?\ght4 99,! ,active ,intellig5ce994--,s f> ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( ?\ght has be5 pla9 sail+4 ,?\ght has be5 consid]$ z ! f9al & highe/ developm5t ( ! vital functions ( ! organism1 & h5ce z some?+ insep>able f ! l[] functions ( nutrition & s5sitive life4 ,! exi/5ce ( a ?\ght :i* is n a function ( a liv+ body1 & :i* is n passive1 has be5 absolutely exclud$4 ,b at ?is po9t we are sudd5ly met by ! mo/ />tl+ ( all ! inconsi/5cies betwe5 ! naturali/ic & ! spirituali/ /ra9s 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,9 a few brok5 l9es he tells u t !re is ano!r s5se ( ! ^w ?\ght 9 :i* ?\ght actually creates ! tru?s x und]/&s1 j z light may be said to make ! col\rs :i* we see by its aid4 ,& ?is intellig5ce1 he adds1 is sep>able f matt]1 & impassive & unmix$1 be+ 9 its ess5tial nature an activity4444 ,x has no int]mission 9 its ?9k+4 ,x is only 9 sep>ation f matt] t x is fully itself1 & x alone is immortal & ev]la/+ 444 :ile ! passive intellig5ce is p]i%able & does n ?9k at all1 ap>t f ?is4 ,! mean+ ( ?is is n made cle> by ,ari/otle himself1 & ! int]pretation 0 disput$ ev5 among ! philosoph]'s p]sonal disciples4 ,"o important attempt to cle> up ! difficulty is t made by ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ! greate/ ( ! comm5tators on ,ari/otle1 9 ! second c5tury ,a4,d4 ,alex&] said1 z ,ari/otle has n done1 t ! active intellig5ce is num]ically ! same 9 all m51 & is id5tical ) ,god4 ,?us1 all t is specifically human 9 ea* ( u is ! passive intellig5ce or capacity = be+ enlight5$ by ,god's activity ^u u4 ,! advantage ( ! view is1 t x removes ! active intellig5ce altoge!r f ! purview ( psy*ology1 :i* !n becomes a purely naturali/ic sci5ce4 ,! great ,arabian ,ari/otelian1 ,av]roes 7,ibn ,ros*d7 ( ,cordova1 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 w5t /ill fur!r 9 ! direction ( naturalism4 ,s9ce ! active & passive intellig5ce c only be sep>at$ by a logical ab/raction1 he inf]r$ t m51 speak+ /rictly1 d n ?9k at all2 !re is only "o & ! same individual intellig5ce 9 ! univ]se1 & all t we call our ?9k+ is really n ours b ,god's4 ,! great ,*ri/ian s*ola/ics ( ! foll[+ c5tury 9 g5]al read ,ari/otle ?r\gh ! eyes ( ,av]roes1 ! ,comm5tator1 z ,/4 ,?omas calls him1 ,av]rois *e il gran comm5to feo1 z ,dante says4 ,b _! !ology compell$ !m to disav[ 8 doctr9e ( ! active intellig5ce1 aga9/ :i* !y c\ld also br+1 z ,/4 ,?omas does1 ! tell+ argum5t t ,ari/otle c\ld nev] h meant to say t !re really is no su* ?+ z human intellig5ce4 ,h5ce arose a ?ird int]pretation1 ! ,?omi/1 accord+ to :i* ! active intellig5ce is nei!r ,god nor ! same = all m51 b is ! highe/ & mo/ rational "p ( ! individual human s\l1 :i* has no bodily organ4 99,,*apt] ,v99 99,,practical ,,philosophy99 ,hi!rto we h be5 conc]n$ ) ! speculative bran*es ( k1 we h n[ to turn to practice4 ,practice1 too1 is an activity ( ?\ght1 b an activity :i* is nev] satisfi$ by ! process ( ?9k+ itself4 ,9 practice our ?9k+ is always direct$ t[>ds ! production ( "s result o!r ?an true ?\ght itself4 ,z 9 eng9e]+ x is n en\gh to f9d a solution ( ! problem h[ to build a bridge ov] a giv5 riv] capable ( su/a9+ a giv5 /ra91 s 9 direct+ our ?\ght on ! problems ( human conduct & ! organisation ( society we aim at some?+ m ?an ! und]/&+ ( human life4 ,9 ! "o case :at we aim at is ! con/ruction ( ! bridge2 9 ! o!r x is ! production ( goodness 9 ourselves & our fell[-m51 & ! e/abli%m5t ( "r social relations 9 ! /ate4 ,ari/otle is c>eful to insi/ on ?is po9t ?r\gh\t 8 :ole treatm5t ( moral & social problems4 ,! pr9cipal object ( 8 lectures on conduct is n to tell 8 he>]s :at goodness is1 b to make !m good1 & simil>ly x is q pla9 t ,politics 0 int5d$ z a text-book = legislators4 ,9 close connection ) ?is practical object /&s 8 !ory ( ! k9d ( tru? :i* mu/ be look$ = 9 e?ics & politics4 ,he w>ns u aga9/ expect+ precepts :i* h ! exact & univ]sal rigidity ( ! tru?s ( speculative sci5ce4 ,practical sci5ce has to d ) ! affairs ( m5's lives1 matt]s :i* are highly complex & v>iable1 9 a ^w1 ) :at may be o!rwise4 ,h5ce we mu/ be cont5t if we c lay d[n precepts :i* hold good 9 ! ma91 j z 9 m$ic9e we d n expect to f9d directions :i* w effect a cure 9 all cases1 b are cont5t ) g5]al directions :i* require to be adapt$ to special cases by ! exp]i5ce & judgm5t ( ! practition]4 ,! object ( practical sci5ce !n is to =mulate rules :i* w guide u 9 obta9+ our v>i\s ends4 ,n[ :5 we consid] ^! ends we see at once t "s are subord9ate to o!rs4 ,! manufacture ( small-arms may be ! end at :i* _! mak] aims1 b x is to ! milit>y man a m]e means to 8 end1 :i* is ! effective use ( !m4 ,successful use ( arms is aga9 ! end ( ! pr(essional soldi]1 b x is a m]e means among o!rs to ! /atesman4 ,fur!r1 x is ! milit>y m5 :o use ! arms f :om ! manufactur] has to take 8 directions z to ! k9d ( arms t are want$1 & aga9 x is ! /atesman to :om ! pr(essional soldi]s h to look = directions z to :5 & ) :at g5]al objects 9 view !y %all fight4 ,s ! art :i* uses ! ?+s produc$ by ano!r art is ! sup]ior & direct+ art2 ! art :i* makes ! ?+s1 ! inf]ior & subord9ate art4 ,h5ce ! supreme practical art is politics1 s9ce x is ! art :i* uses ! products turn$ out by all o!r arts z means to its ends4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( politics1 ! art ( ! /atesman1 to prescribe to ! practition]s ( all o!r arts & pr(essions ! l9es on :i* & ! conditions "u :i* !y %all ex]cise _! vocation ) a view to secur+ ! supreme practical end1 ! well-be+ ( ! community4 ,among ! o!r pr(essions & arts :i* make ! mat]ials ! /atesman employs1 ! pr(ession ( ! educator /&s =emo/4 ,! /atesman is b\nd to dem& c]ta9 qualities ( m9d & "* 9 ! individual citiz5s4 ,! production ( ^! m5tal & moral qualities mu/ !re=e be ! "w ( ! educator4 ,x ?us becomes an important bran* ( politics to specify ! k9d ( m5tal & moral qualities :i* a /atesman %\ld require ! educator to produce 9 8 pupils4 ,x is ?is bran* ( politics :i* ,ari/otle discusses 9 8 ,e?ics4 ,he nev] contemplates a /udy ( ! individual's good ap>t f politics1 ! /udy ( ! good ( ! society4 ,:at !n is ! good or ! be/ k9d ( life = an individual memb] ( society8 ,ari/otle answ]s t z f> z ! m]e "n is conc]n$1 !re is a g5]al agreem5t to call ! be/ life1 ,eudaimonia1 ,happ9ess4 ,b ! real problem is "o ( fact4 ,:at k9d ( life des]ves to be call$ happ9ess8 ,plato _h laid x d[n t ! happy life mu/ satisfy ?ree conditions4 ,x mu/ be desirable = its own sake1 x mu/ be suffici5t ( itself to satisfy u1 & x mu/ be ! life a wise man w\ld pref] to any o!r4 ,! "q is1 ,:at g5]al =mula c we f9d :i* w def9e ! life :i* satisfies ^! conditions8 ,to f9d ! answ] we h to consid] :at ,plato & ,ari/otle call ! "w or function ( man4 ,by ! "w ( any?+ we mean :at c only be done by x1 or by x bett] ?an by any?+ else4 ,?us ! "w ( ! eye is to see4 ,y _c see ) any o!r organ1 & :5 ! eye does ?is "w ( see+ well y say x is a good eye4 ,s we may say ( any liv+ be+ t its "w is to live1 & t x is a good be+ :5 x does ?is "w ( liv+ effici5tly4 ,to d its own "w effici5tly is ! excell5ce or virtue ( ! ?+4 ,! excell5ce or virtue ( a man w ?us be to live effici5tly1 b s9ce life c be manife/$ at diff]5t levels1 if we w\ld "k :at man's "w is we mu/ ask :e!r !re is n "s =m ( life :i* c only be liv$ by man4 ,n[ ! life :i* consi/s 9 m]ely fe$+ & gr[+ belongs to all organisms & c be liv$ ) equal vig\r by !m all4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a k9d ( life :i* c only be liv$ by man1 ! life :i* consi/s 9 consci\s direction ( "o's actions by a rule4 ,x is ! "w ( man to live ?is k9d ( life1 & 8 happ9ess consi/s 9 liv+ x effici5tly & well4 ,s we may give z ! def9ition ( human well-be+ t x is an active life 9 accord ) excell5ce1 or if !re are m =ms ( excell5ce ?an "o1 9 accord ) ! be/ & complete/ ( !m2 & we mu/ add 9 a complete life to %[ t m]e promise n cr[n$ by p]=mance does n suffice to entitle man's life to be call$ happy4 ,we c see t ?is def9ition satisfies ,plato's ?ree conditions4 ,a vigor\s & active liv+ 9 a way :i* calls into play ! specifically human capacities ( man is desirable = its own sake1 & pref]able to any o!r life :i* c\ld be propos$ to u4 ,x too is ! only life :i* c p]man5tly satisfy m51 b we mu/ add t if su* a life is to be liv$ adequately c]ta9 advantages ( =tune mu/ be presuppos$4 ,we _c fully live a life ( ?is k9d if we are prev5t$ f ex]cis+ our capacities by lack ( means or heal? or fri5ds & associates1 & ev5 ! calamities :i* arise 9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts may be s cru%+ z to h9d] a man1 = a "t1 f putt+ =? 8 full p[]s4 ,^! ext]nal good ?+s are n con/itu5ts ( happ9ess1 b m]ely necess>y conditions ( t ex]cise ( our own capacities :i* is ! happy life4 ,9 our def9ition ( ! happy life we said t x 0 "o ( activity 9 accord ) goodness or excell5ce1 & we left x an op5 "q :e!r !re are m k9ds ( su* goodness ?an "o4 ,on consid]ation we see t two k9ds ( goodness or excell5ce are requir$ 9 liv+ ! happy life4 ,! happy life = man is a life ( consci\s foll[+ ( a rule4 ,to live x well1 !n1 y ne$ to "k :at ! "r rule to foll[ is1 & y ne$ also to foll[ x4 ,!re are p]sons :o delib]ately foll[ a wrong rule ( life--! wick$4 ,!re are o!rs :o "k :at ! "r rule is b fail to foll[ x because _! temp]s & appetites are unruly--! morally weak4 ,to live ! happy life1 !n1 two sorts ( goodness are requir$4 ,y mu/ h a good judgm5t z to :at ! "r rule is 7or if y _c f9d x out = y\rself1 y mu/ at lea/ be able to recognise x :5 x is laid d[n by "s "o else1 ! tea*] or lawgiv]71 & y mu/ h y\r appetites1 feel+s1 & emotions g5]ally s tra9$ t !y obey ! rule4 ,h5ce excell5ce1 goodness1 or virtue is divid$ into goodness ( intellect & goodness ( "* 7moral goodness71 ! ^w "* be+ us$ = ! complex ( temp]s1 feel+s1 & ! affective side ( human nature g5]ally4 ,9 education goodness ( "* has to be produc$ by tra9+ & discipl9e be=e goodness ( intellect c be imp>t$4 ,! "y g5]ally h to be tra9$ to obey ! "r rule be=e !y c see = !mselves t x is ! "r rule1 & if a man's temp]s & passions are n fir/ s*ool$ into actual ob$i5ce to ! rule he w 9 mo/ cases nev] see t x is ! "r rule at all4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle next goes on to discuss ! g5]al "* ( ! k9d ( goodness he calls goodness ( "*1 ! "r /ate ( ! feel+s & passions4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds und]/&+ :at goodness ( "* is is to consid] ! way 9 :i* x is actually produc$4 ,we are n born ) ?is goodness ( temp]s & feel+s ready made1 nor yet d we obta9 x by !oretical in/ruction2 x is a result ( a tra9+ & discipl9e ( ! feel+s & impulses4 ,! possibility ( su* a tra9+ is due to ! fact t feel+s & impulses are rational capacities1 & a rational capacity c be develop$ into ei!r ( two contra/$ activities accord+ to ! tra9+ x receives4 ,y _c tra9 /ones to fall upw>ds1 b y c tra9 a hot temp] to display itself ei!r 9 ! =m ( righte\s res5tm5t ( wrong-do+ or 9 t ( viol5t defiance ( all au?ority4 ,our natural emotions & impulses are 9 !mselves nei!r good nor bad2 !y are ! raw mat]ial out ( :i* tra9+ makes good or bad "* accord+ to ! direction x gives to !m4 ,! effect ( tra9+ is to conv]t ! indet]m9ate t5d5cy into a fix$ habit4 ,we may say1 !n1 t moral goodness is a fix$ /ate ( ! s\l produc$ by habituation4 ,by be+ tra9$ 9 habits ( endurance1 self-ma/]y1 & fair deal+1 we acquire ! k9d ( "* to :i* x is pleas+ to act bravely1 cont95tly1 & fairly1 & disagreeable to act unfairly1 pr(ligately1 or l a c[>d4 ,:5 habituation has br\ght ab\t ?is result ! moral excell5ces 9 "q h become "p ( our inmo/ self & we are 9 full possession ( goodness ( "*4 ,9 a ^w1 x is by repeat$ do+ ( "r acts t we acquire ! "r k9d ( "*4 ,b :at g5]al *>act]i/ics di/+ui% "r acts & "r habits f wrong ones8 ,ari/otle is guid$ 9 answ]+ ! "q by an analogy :i* is really at ! bottom ( all ,greek ?9k+ on morality4 ,! ?\ght is t goodness is 9 ! s\l :at heal? & fitness are 9 ! body1 & t ! preceptor is = ! s\l :at ! physician or ! tra9] is = ! body4 ,n[ x 0 a well-kn[n m$ical !ory1 fav\r$ by bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle1 t heal? 9 ! body means a condition ( balance or equilibration among ! elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,:5 ! hot & ! cold1 ! moi/ & ! dry 9 ! composition ( ! human frame exactly balance "o ano!r1 ! body is 9 p]fect heal?4 ,h5ce ! object ( ! regim5 ( ! physician or ! tra9] is to produce & ma9ta9 a prop] balance or proportion betwe5 ! +r$i5ts ( ! body4 ,any c\rse :i* di/urbs ?is balance is injuri\s to heal? & /r5g?4 ,y damage y\r heal? if y take too mu* food or ex]cise1 & also if y take too little4 ,! same ?+ is true ( heal? 9 ! s\l4 ,our s\l's heal? may be injur$ by all[+ too mu* or too little play to any ( our natural impulses or feel+s4 ,we may lay x d[n1 !n1 t ! k9d ( tra9+ :i* gives rise to a good habit is tra9+ 9 ! avoidance ( ! opposite errors ( ! too mu* & ! too little4 ,& s9ce ! effect ( tra9+ is to produce habits :i* issue 9 ! spontane\s p]=mance ( ! same k9d ( acts by :i* ! habits 7 acquir$1 we may say n m]ely t goodness ( "* is produc$ by acts :i* exhibit a prop] balance or mean1 b t x is a settl$ habit ( act+ s z to exhibit ! same balance or proportion4 ,h5ce ! =mal def9ition ( goodness ( "* is t x is a settl$ condition ( ! s\l :i* wills or *ooses ! mean relatively to ourselves1 ?is mean be+ det]m9$ by a rule or :atev] we l to call t by :i* ! wise man det]m9es x4 ,!re are sev]al po9ts 9 ?is def9ition ( ! mean ^u :i* moral virtue dep5ds ( :i* we mu/ take note unless we are to misund]/& ,ari/otle s]i\sly4 ,to beg9 )1 ! def9ition expressly says t moral goodness is a /ate ( w or *oice4 ,?us x is n en\gh t "o %\ld foll[ ! rule ( ! mean outw>dly 9 "o's actions2 "o's p]sonal w mu/ be regulat$ by x4 ,goodness ( "* is inw>d2 x is n m]ely outw>d4 ,next we mu/ n suppose t ,ari/otle means t ! j en\gh is ! same = all our feel+s1 t e impulse has a moral "r to ! same au?ority 9 %ap+ our conduct z any o!r4 ,h[ mu* or h[ little is ! j en\gh 9 connection ) a giv5 spr+ ( action is "o ( ! ?+s :i* ! wise man's rule has to det]m9e1 j z ! wise physician's rule may det]m9e t a v little quantity is ! j en\gh 9 ! case ( "s articles ( diet or curative drugs1 :ile 9 ! case ( o!rs ! j en\gh may be a consid]able am\nt4 ,also ! "r mean is n ! same = e "o4 ,:at we h to atta9 is ! mean relatively to ourselves1 & ?is w be diff]5t = p]sons ( diff]5t con/itutions & 9 diff]5t conditions4 ,x is ?is relativity ( ! j en\gh to ! individual's p]sonality & circum/ances :i* makes x impossible to lay d[n precise rules ( conduct applicable alike to ev]ybody1 & r5d]s ! practical atta9m5t ( goodness s h>d4 ,x is my duty to sp5d "s "p ( my income 9 buy+ books on philosophy1 b no g5]al rule w tell me :at p]c5tage ( my income is ! "r am\nt = me to sp5d 9 ?is way4 ,t dep5ds on a ho/ ( consid]ations1 su* z ! excess ( my income above my necess>y exp5ses & ! l4 ,or aga91 ! j en\gh may v>y ) ! same man accord+ to ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case4 ,no rule ( ?umb application ( a =mula w decide su* problems4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle insi/s t ! "r mean 9 ! individual case has always to be det]m9$ by imm$iate insight4 ,?is is precisely :y goodness ( intellect ne$s to be add$ to goodness ( "*4 ,8 mean+ is well br\ght out by an illu/ration :i* ,i borr[ f ,pr(essor ,burnet4 ,on a giv5 occasion !re w be a temp]ature :i* is j "r = my morn+ ba?4 ,if ! ba? is hott] ?an ?is1 x w be too hot2 if x is cold]1 x w be too cold4 ,b z ?is j "r temp]ature v>ies ) ! condition ( my body1 x _c be asc]ta9$ by simply us+ a !rmomet]4 ,if ,i am 9 good g5]al heal? ,i %all1 h[ev]1 "k by ! feel ( ! wat] :5 ! temp]ature is "r4 ,s if ,i am 9 good moral heal? ,i %all "k1 )\t appeal+ to a =mal code ( maxims1 :at is ! "r degree1 e4g4 ( indignation to %[ 9 a giv5 case1 h[ x %\ld be %[n & t[>ds :om4 ,?us we see :y ,ari/otle dem&s goodness ( "* z a prelim9>y condition ( goodness ( intellect or judgm5t 9 moral matt]s4 ,f9ally1 if we ask by :at rule ! mean is det]m9$1 ! answ] w be t ! rule is ! judgm5t ( ! legislator :o det]m9es :at is ! "r mean by 8 k ( ! conditions on :i* ! well-be+ ( ! community dep5ds4 ,he !n embodies 8 insight 9 ! laws :i* he makes & ! regulations he imposes on ! educators ( y\?4 ,! f9al aim ( education 9 goodness is to make our imm$iate judgm5t z to :at is "r co9cide ) ! _s ( a wise legislation4 ,! introduction ( ! ref]5ce to w or *oice into ! def9ition ( goodness ( "* leads ,ari/otle to consid] ! relation ( w to conduct4 ,8 ma9 object is to escape ! p>adoxical doctr9e :i* sup]ficial /ud5ts might d]ive f ! works ( ,plato1 t wrong-do+ is always well-mean+ ignorance4 ,ari/otle's po9t is t x is ! condition ( w reveal$ by m5's acts :i* is ! real object ( our approval or blame4 ,?is is because 9 volunt>y action ! man himself is ! effici5t cause ( 8 act4 ,h5ce ! law recognises only two gr\nds on :i* a man may plead1 t he is n answ]able = :at he does4 7#a7 ,actual physical compulsion by =ce majeure4 7#b7 ,ignorance1 n due to ! man's own previ\s neglig5ce1 ( "s circum/ances mat]ial to ! issue4 ,:5 ei!r ( ^! pleas c be made ) tru? ! man does n really contribute by 8 *oice to ! result+ act1 & !re=e is n really its cause4 ,b a plea ( ignorance ( ! g5]al laws ( morality does n excuse4 ,i _c escape responsibility = a murd] by plead+ t ,i did n "k t murd] is wrong4 ,su* a plea does n exempt me f hav+ be5 ! cause ( ! murd]2 x only %[s t my moral pr9ciples are deprav$4 ,m precisely w is a process :i* has bo? an intellectual & an appetitive elem5t4 ,! appetitive elem5t is our wi% = "s result4 ,! intellectual factor is ! calculation ( ! /eps by :i* t result may be obta9$4 ,:5 we wi% = ! result we beg9 to consid] h[ x might be br\ght ab\t1 & we cont9ue our analysis until we f9d t ! *a9 ( conditions requisite may be />t$ by ! p]=mance ( "s act n[ 9 our p[] to d4 ,w may ?us be def9$ z ! delib]ate appetition ( some?+ )9 our p[]1 & ! v def9ition %[s t our *oice is an effici5t cause ( ! acts we *oose to d4 ,?is is :y we rightly reg>d m5 z responsible or answ]able = _! acts ( *oice1 good & bad alike4 ,f ! analysis ( goodness ( "*1 we proce$ to t ( goodness ( intellect4 ,! important po9t is to decide :i* ( all ! =ms ( goodness ( intellect is t :i* mu/ be comb9$ ) goodness ( "* to make a man fit to be a citiz5 ( ! /ate4 ,x mu/ be a k9d ( intellectual excell5ce :i* makes a man see :at ! "r rule by :i* ! mean is det]m9$ is4 ,n[ :5 we come to consid] ! diff]5t excell5ces ( intellect we f9d t !y all fall "u "o ( two heads1 !oretical or speculative wisdom & practical wisdom4 ,!oretical wisdom is conta9$ 9 ! sci5ces :i* give u univ]sal tru?s ab\t ! fix$ & unalt]able relations ( ! ?+s 9 ! univ]se1 or1 z we %\ld say1 :i* tea* u ! laws ( ,nature4 ,its me?od is syllogism1 ! function ( :i* is to make u see h[ ! m complex tru?s are impli$ 9 simpl] pr9ciples4 ,practical wisdom is intellig5ce z employ$ 9 controll+ & direct+ human life to ! production ( ! happy life = a community1 & x is ?is =m ( intellectual excell5ce :i* we require ( ! /atesman4 ,x is requir$ ( him n only t he %\ld "k 9 g5]al :at ?+s are good = man1 b also t he %\ld be able to judge correctly t 9 giv5 circum/ances su* & su* an act is ! "o :i* w secure ! good4 ,he mu/ n only "k ! "r rule itself1 :i* corresponds to ! major premiss ( syllogism 9 !oretical sci5ce1 b he mu/ und]/& ! "* ( p>ticul> acts s z to see t !y fall "u ! "r rule4 ,?us ! me?od ( practical wisdom w be analog\s to t ( !oretical wisdom4 ,9 bo? cases :at we h to d is to see t c]ta9 special facts are cases ( a g5]al law or rule4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle calls ! me?od ( practical wisdom ! practical syllogism or syllogism ( action1 s9ce its peculi>ity is t :at issues f ! putt+ toge!r ( ! premisses is n an ass]tion b ! p]=mance ( an act4 ,9 ! syllogism ( action1 ! conclusion1 t is to say1 ! p]=mance ( a giv5 act1 j z 9 ! syllogism ( !ory1 is connect$ ) ! rule giv5 9 ! major premiss by a /atem5t ( fact2 ?us e4g4 ! p]=mance ( a specific act su* z ! writ+ ( ?is book is connect$ ) ! g5]al rule :at helps to spread k ought to be done by ! conviction t ! writ+ ( ?is book helps to spread k4 ,our p]ception ( su* a fact is l a s5se-p]ception 9 its directness & imm$iacy4 ,we see !re=e t ! k9d ( intellectual excell5ce :i* ! /atesman mu/ possess embraces at once a "r conception ( ! g5]al "* ( ! life :i* is be/ = man1 because x calls into play 8 specific capacities z a human be+1 & also a s\nd judgm5t 9 virtue ( :i* he sees correctly t p>ticul> acts are expressions ( ?is good = man4 ,?is1 !n1 is :at we mean by practical wisdom4 ,s f>1 !n1 x w\ld seem t ! be/ life = man is j ! life ( co-op]ation 9 ! life ( ! /ate1 :i* man1 be+ ! only political animal or animal capable ( life 9 a /ate1 has z 8 peculi> "w1 & z if ! end ( all moral education %\ld be to make u good & effici5t citiz5s4 ,b 9 ! ,e?ics1 z else:]e1 ! end ( ,ari/otle's argum5t has a way ( =gett+ ! beg9n+4 ,we f9d t !re is aft] all a /ill high] life op5 to man ?an t ( public affairs4 ,affairs & bus9ess ( all k9ds are only und]tak5 z means to gett+ leisure1 j z civilis$ m5 g to w>1 n = ! love ( w> itself1 b to secure peace4 ,! highe/ aim ( life1 !n1 is n ! c>ry+ on ( political bus9ess = its own sake1 b ! wor?y & noble employm5t ( leisure1 ! p]iods 9 :i* we are our own ma/]s4 ,x has ! advantage t x dep5ds m purely on ourselves & our own int]nal res\rces ?an any o!r life ( :i* we "k1 = x ne$s v little equipm5t ) ext]nal goods z comp>$ ) any =m ( ! life ( action4 ,x calls into play ! v highe/ ( our own capacities z intellig5t be+s1 & = t v reason ! active liv+ ( x is att5d$ ) ! pure/ ( all pleasures4 ,9 x1 moreov]1 we ent] at int]vals & = a little :ile1 s f> z ! conditions ( our mundane exi/5ce all[1 into ! life :i* ,god enjoys ?r\gh an unbrok5 et]nity4 ,?us we rea* ! curi\s p>adox t :ile ! life ( contemplation is said to be t ( our true/ self1 x is also ma9ta9$ t ?is highe/ & happie/ life is "o :i* we live1 n 9 respect ( be+ human1 b 9 respect ( hav+ a div9e some?+ 9 u4 ,:5 we ask :at ?is life ( contemplation includes1 we see f ref]5ces 9 ! ,politics t x includes ! g5u9ely ae/hetic appreciation ( good lit]ature & music & pictorial & pla/ic art1 b !re c be no d\bt t :at bulks mo/ l>gely 9 ,ari/otle's m9d is ! active pursuit ( sci5ce = its own sake1 p>ticul>ly ( su* /udies z ,fir/ ,philosophy & ,physics1 :i* deal ) ! fundam5tal /ructure ( ! univ]se4 ,ari/otle ?us def9itely ends by plac+ ! life ( ! s*ol> & ! /ud5t on ! v summit ( felicity4 ,x is f ?is doctr9e t m$iaeval ,*ri/ianity d]ives its opposition betwe5 ! vita contemplativa & vita activa & its pref]5ce = ! =m]1 ?\gh 9 ! m$iaeval m9d ! contemplative life has come to mean g5]ally a k9d ( brood+ ov] !ological speculations & ( absorption 9 my/ical ec/asy v =eign to ! _s ( ,ari/otle4 ,! types by :i* ! contra/ ( ! two lives is illu/rat$1 ,ra*ael & ,leah1 ,m>y & ,m>?a1 are famili> to all read]s ( ,*ri/ian lit]ature4 ,! ,!ory ( ! ,/ate4--,man is by nature a political animal1 a be+ :o c only develop 8 capacities by %>+ 9 ! life ( a community4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle def9itely rejects ! view t ! /ate or society is a m]e creature ( conv5tion or agreem5t1 an in/itution made by compact betwe5 individuals = c]ta9 special ends1 n gr[+ naturally out ( ! univ]sal dem&s & aspirations ( humanity4 ,mank9d1 he urges1 h nev] exi/$ at all z isolat$ individuals4 ,"s rudim5t>y =m ( social organisation is to be f\nd :]ev] m5 are to be f\nd4 ,! actual /ages 9 ! developm5t ( social organisation h be5 ?ree--! family1 ! village community1 ! city /ate4 ,9 ! v rude/ =ms ( social life kn[n to u1 ! patri>*al family1 n ! individual1 is ! social unit4 ,m5 liv$ at fir/ 9 sep>ate families "u ! control ( ! head ( ! family4 ,n[ a family is made up 9 its simple/ =m ( at lea/ ?ree p]sons1 a man1 8 wife1 & a s]vant or slave to d ! h>d "w1 ?\gh v poor m5 (t5 h to replace ! s]vant by an ox z ! drudge ( all "w4 ,*ildr5 :5 !y come swell ! numb]1 & ?us we see ! beg9n+s ( complex social relations ( subord9ation 9 ! family itself4 ,x involves ?ree su* di/9ct relations1 t ( husb& & wife1 t ( p>5t & *ild1 t ( ma/] & man4 ,! family passes into ! village community1 p>tly by ! t5d5cy ( sev]al families ( common desc5t to rema9 toge!r "u ! direction ( ! olde/ male memb] ( ! gr\p1 p>tly by ! association ( a numb] ( di/9ct families = purposes ( mutual help & protection aga9/ common dang]s4 ,nei!r ( ^! =ms ( association1 h[ev]1 makes adequate provision = ! mo/ p]man5t ne$s ( human nature4 ,complete security = a p]man5t supply ( mat]ial necess>ies & adequate protection only come :5 a numb] ( su* scatt]$ communities pool _! res\rces1 & surr\nd !mselves ) a city wall4 ,! city /ate1 :i* has come into be+ 9 ?is way1 proves adequate to provide f its own int]nal res\rces = all ! spiritual z well z ! mat]ial ne$s ( its memb]s4 ,h5ce ! indep5d5t city /ate does n gr[ z civilisation advances into any high] =m ( organisation1 z ! family & village grew into x4 ,x is ! end1 ! la/ ^w ( social progress4 ,x is amaz+ to u t ?is piece ( *eap cons]vatism %\ld h be5 utt]$ at ! v "t :5 ! sy/em ( indep5d5t city /ates _h visibly brok5 d[n1 & a =m] pupil ( ,ari/otle himself 0 f\nd+ a gigantic empire to take _! place z ! vehicle ( civilisation4 ,! end = :i* ! /ate exi/s is n m]ely its own self-p]petuation4 ,z we h se51 ,ari/otle assigns a high] value to ! life ( ! /ud5t ?an to ! life ( practical affairs4 ,s9ce x is only 9 ! civilis$ /ate t ! /ud5t c pursue 8 vocation1 ! ultimate reason = :i* ! /ate exi/s is to educate its citiz5s 9 su* a way z %all fit !m to make ! noble use ( leisure4 ,9 ! end ! /ate itself is a means to ! spiritual cultivation ( its individual memb]s4 ,?is implies t ! *os5 few1 :o h a vocation to make full use ( ! opportunities provid$ = lead+ ?is life ( noble leisure1 are ! real end = ! sake ( :i* society exi/s4 ,! o!r citiz5s :o h no qualification = any life high] ?an t ( bus9ess & affairs are mak+ ! mo/ ( !mselves 9 devot+ _! lives to ! conduct & ma9t5ance ( ! organisation ^: full advantages !y are unequal to %>e 94 ,x is f ?is po9t ( view also t ,ari/otle treats ! social problem ( ! exi/5ce ( a class ^: :ole life is sp5t 9 do+ ! h>d "w ( society1 & ?us sett+ ! citiz5 body free to make ! be/ use x c ( leisure4 ,9 ! conditions ( life 9 ! ,greek _w ?is class consi/$ ma9ly ( slaves1 & ?us ! problem ,ari/otle has to face is ! moral ju/ifiability ( slav]y4 ,we mu/ rememb] t he knew slav]y only 9 its comp>atively humane ,hell5ic =m4 ,! slaves ( :om he speaks 7 h\sehold s]vants & assi/ants 9 small bus9esses4 ,he _h n be=e 8 eyes ! sy/em ( enorm\s indu/ries c>ri$ on by huge gangs ( slaves "u conditions ( revolt+ degradation :i* disgrac$ ! lat] ,roman ,republic & ! e>ly ,roman ,empire1 or ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,8 problems are 9 all ess5tials mu* ! same z ^? :i* conc]n u to-day 9 connection ) ! social position ( ! classes :o d ! h>d bodily "w ( ! community4 ,mu* consid]ation is giv5 9 ! ,politics to ! classification ( ! diff]5t types ( con/itution possible = ! city-/ate4 ,! curr5t view 0 t !re are ?ree ma9 types di/+ui%$ by ! numb] ( p]sons :o =m ! sov]eign political au?ority1 mon>*y1 9 :i* sov]eign p[] belongs to a s+le p]son2 olig>*y1 9 :i* x is 9 ! h&s ( a select few2 democracy1 9 :i* x is enjoy$ by ! :ole body ( ! citiz5s4 ,ari/otle obs]ves1 correctly1 t ! really fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 a ,greek olig>*y & a ,greek democracy 0 t ! =m] 0 gov]nm5t by ! prop]ti$ classes1 ! latt] gov]nm5t by ! masses4 ,h5ce ! wat*word ( democracy 0 always t all political rights %\ld belong equally to all citiz5s1 t ( olig>*y t a man's political /atus %\ld be grad$ accord+ to 8 /ake 9 ! c\ntry4 ,bo? ideals are1 accord+ to him1 equally mi/ak51 s9ce ! real end ( gov]nm5t1 :i* bo? ov]look1 is ! promotion ( ! good life4 ,9 a /ate :i* recognises ?is ideal1 an ari/ocracy or gov]nm5t by ! be/1 only ! be/ m5 w possess ! full rights ( citiz5%ip1 :e!r !y are _m or few4 ,!re might ev5 be a mon>* at ! head ( su* a /ate1 if x happ5$ to conta9 "s "o man ( out/&+ intellectual & moral wor?4 ,su* a /ate %\ld be ! v opposite ( a great imp]ial p[]4 ,x %\ld1 t its cultivation may be ! m int5sive1 be z small z is compatible ) complete indep5d5ce ( outside communities = its mat]ial & spiritual su/5ance1 & its t]ritory %\ld only be l>ge en\gh to provide its memb]s ) ! p]man5t possibility ( ample leisure1 s long z !y are cont5t ) pla9 & frugal liv+4 ,?\gh x ought n1 = milit>y & o!r reasons1 to be cut (f f communication ) ! sea1 ! great milit>y & comm]cial high road ( ! ,greek _w1 x ought n to be ne> en\gh to ! coa/ to run any risk ( imp]ill+ its moral cultivation by becom+ a great emporium1 l ! ,a!ns ( ,p]icles4 ,9 ! organisation ( ! society c>e %\ld be tak5 to exclude ! agricultural & indu/rial population f full citiz5%ip1 :i* c>ries ) x ! "r to appo9t & to be appo9t$ z adm9i/rative magi/rates4 ,?is is because ^! classes1 hav+ no opportunity = ! wor?y employm5t ( leisure1 _c be tru/$ to adm9i/] ! /ate = ! high ends :i* x is its true function to fur!r4 ,?us ,ari/otle's political ideal is t ( a small b leisur$ & highly cultivat$ ari/ocracy1 )\t l>ge =tunes or any rem>kable diff]5ces 9 mat]ial weal?1 free f ! _s ( adv5ture & ent]prise1 pursu+ ! arts & sci5ces quietly :ile its mat]ial ne$s are suppli$ by ! lab\r ( a class exclud$ f citiz5%ip1 k9dly treat$ b )\t prospects4 ,weim>1 9 ! days :5 ,?ack]ay knew x z a lad1 w\ld app>5tly reproduce ! ideal bett] ?an any o!r mod]n /ate "o c ?9k (4 ,! object ( ! ,politics is1 h[ev]1 n m]ely to discuss ! ideal /ate b to give practical advice to m5 :o might be look+ =w>d to actual political life1 & w\ld !re=e l>gely h to be cont5t ) mak+ ! be/ ( exi/+ in/itutions4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! ideal ari/ocracy1 ,ari/otle's pref]5ce is = :at he calls ,polity or con/itutional gov]nm5t1 a sort ( compromise betwe5 olig>*y & democracy4 ,( c\rse a practical /atesman may h to "w ) a !oretically undesirable con/itution1 su* z an olig>*y or an unqualifi$ democracy4 ,b x is only 9 an ideal con/itution t ! education :i* makes its subject a good man1 9 ! philosoph]'s s5se ( ! ^w1 w also make him a good citiz54 ,if ! con/itution is bad1 !n ! education be/ fitt$ to make a man loyal to x may h to be v diff]5t f t :i* y w\ld *oose to make him a good man4 ,! discussion ( ! k9d ( education desirable = ! be/ k9d ( /ate1 9 :i* to be a loyal citiz5 & to be a good man are ! same ?+1 is p]haps ! mo/ p]man5tly valuable "p ( ! ,politics4 ,?\gh ,ari/otle's writ+s on practical philosophy h be5 m read 9 mod]n times ?an any o!r "p ( 8 works1 !y are f> f be+ 8 be/ & mo/ ?or\gh p]=mances4 ,9 no dep>tm5t ( 8 ?\ght is he q s slavi%ly dep5d5t on 8 ma/] ,plato z 9 ! !ory ( ! good = man & ! "* ( moral excell5ce4 ,no ,ari/otelian "w is q s commonplace 9 its h&l+ ( a va/ subject z ! ,politics4 ,9 tru? 8 int]e/ 9 ^! social que/ions is n ( ! deepe/4 ,he is1 9 accordance ) 8 view ( ! sup]iority ( !oretical sci5ce1 entirely devoid ( ! _s ( ! social re=m]4 ,:at he really c>es ab\t is !ology & physics1 & ! fact t ! objects ( ! educational regulations ( ! ,politics are all design$ to enc\rage ! /udy ( ^! !oretical sci5ces1 makes ?is section ( ! ,politics /ill "o ( ! mo/ valuable expositions ( ! aims & requirem5ts ( a lib]al education4 ,all education mu/ be "u public control1 & education mu/ be univ]sal & compulsory4 ,public control is necess>y1 n m]ely to avoid educational an>*y1 b because x is a matt] ( importance to ! community t its future citiz5s %\ld be tra9$ 9 ! way :i* w make !m mo/ loyal to ! con/itution & ! ends x is design$ to subs]ve4 ,ev5 9 "o ( ! bad types ( /ate1 :]e ! life :i* ! con/itution t5ds to fo/] is n ! highe/1 ! legislator's bus9ess is to see t education is direct$ t[>ds fo/]+ ! _s ( ! con/itution4 ,!re is to be an atmosph]e :i* impregnates ! :ole ( ! tea*+1 & x is to be an atmosph]e ( public _s4 ,! only advantage :i* ,ari/otle sees 9 private education is t x all[s ( m modification ( programme to meet ! special ne$s ( ! individual pupil ?an a rigid /ate education :i* is to be ! same = all4 ,! actual regulations :i* ,ari/otle lays d[n are n v diff]5t f ^? ( ,plato4 ,bo? philosoph]s hold t prim>y education1 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( life1 %\ld aim p>tly at promot+ bodily heal? & gr[? by a prop] sy/em ( physical ex]cises1 p>tly at influ5c+ "* & giv+ a ref9$ & elevat$ tone to ! m9d by ! /udy ( lett]s1 art1 & music4 ,bo? agree t ?is %\ld be foll[$ 9 ! lat] te5s by two or ?ree ye>s ( specially rigor\s sy/ematic milit>y tra9+ comb9$ ) a ta/e ( actual s]vice 9 ! less exhau/+ & less dang]\s p>ts ( a soldi]'s duty4 ,x is only aft] ?is1 at ab\t ! age at :i* "y m5 n[ take a univ]sity c\rse1 t ,plato & ,ari/otle w\ld h ! s]i\s sci5tific tra9+ ( ! intellect begun4 ,! ,politics leaves ! subject j at ! po9t :]e ! "y m5 are ready to und]go _! special milit>y tra9+4 ,?us we d n "k ) c]ta9ty :at sci5tific curriculum ,ari/otle w\ld h recomm5d$1 ?\gh we may safely guess t x w\ld h conta9$ comp>atively little pure ma!matics1 b a great deal ( a/ronomy1 cosmology1 & biology4 ,) respect to ! prim>y education ,ari/otle has a good deal to say4 ,z =c+ is always injuri\s1 x %\ld n be begun too soon4 ,= ! fir/ five ye>s a *ild's life %\ld be giv5 up to heal?y play4 ,great c>e mu/ be tak5 t *ildr5 are n all[$ to be too mu* ) s]vants1 f :om !y may imbibe l[ ta/es1 & t !y are protect$ aga9/ any famili>ity ) indec5cy4 ,f five to sev5 a *ild may beg9 to make a fir/ easy acqua9tance ) ! life ( ! s*ool by look+ on at ! lessons ( its eld]s4 ,! real "w ( s*ool education is to beg9 at sev5 & n be=e4 ,we next h to consid] :at %\ld be ! /aple subjects ( an education meant n = ^? :o are to foll[ "s p>ticul> call+1 b = all ! full citiz5s ( a /ate4 ,ari/otle's view is t "s useful subjects mu/1 ( c\rse1 be taught4 ,read+ & writ+1 = in/ance1 are useful = ! dis*>ge ( ! bus9ess ( life1 ?\gh _! comm]cial utility is n ! highe/ value :i* !y h = u4 ,b c>e mu/ be tak5 t only ^? useful /udies :i* are also lib]al %\ld be taught2 illib]al or me*anical subjects mu/ n h any place 9 ! curriculum4 ,a lib]al education means1 z ! "n %[s1 "o :i* w t5d to make its recipi5t a free man1 & n a slave 9 body & s\l4 ,! me*anical crafts 7 felt by ,ari/otle to be illib]al because !y leave a man no leisure to make ! be/ ( body & m9d2 practice ( !m sets a /amp on ! body & n>r[s ! m9d's outlook4 ,9 pr9ciple !n1 no /udy %\ld =m a subject ( ! univ]sal curriculum if its only value is t x prep>es a man = a pr(ession foll[$ z a means ( mak+ a liv+4 ,g5]al education1 all-r\nd tra9+ :i* aims at ! developm5t ( body & m9d = its own sake1 mu/ be kept free f ! intrusion ( ev]y?+ :i* has a m]ely comm]cial value & t5ds to contract ! m5tal vision4 ,x is ! same pr9ciple :i* we rightly employ ourselves :5 we ma9ta9 t a univ]sity education ought n to include specialisation on m]ely te*nical or pr(essional /udies4 ,! useful subjects :i* h at ! same "t a high] value z contribut+ to ! =mation ( ta/e & "* & s]v+ to elevate & ref9e ! m9d include1 besides read+ & writ+1 :i* r5d] great lit]ature accessible to u1 bodily culture 7! true object ( :i* is n m]ely to make ! body /rong & h>dy1 b to develop ! moral qualities ( grace & c\rage71 music1 & draw+4 ,ari/otle holds t ! real reason = mak+ *ildr5 le>n music is 7#a7 t ! arti/ic appreciation ( really great music is "o ( ! ways 9 :i* leisure may be wor?ily employ$1 & to appreciate music rightly we mu/ h "s p]sonal tra9+ 9 musical execution2 7#b7 t all art1 & music 9 p>ticul>1 has a direct influ5ce on "*4 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ?\gh !y diff] on c]ta9 po9ts ( detail1 are agre$ t ! influ5ce ( music on "*1 = good or bad1 is enorm\s4 ,music1 !y say1 is ! mo/ imitative ( all ! arts4 ,! v>i\s rhy?ms1 times1 & scales imitate diff]5t temp]s & emotional moods1 & x is a fundam5tal law ( our nature t we gr[ l :at we take pleasure 9 see+ or hav+ imitat$ or repres5t$ = u4 ,h5ce if we are e>ly accu/om$ to take pleasure 9 ! imitation ( ! manly1 resolute1 & ord]ly1 ^! qualities w 9 "t become "p ( our own nature4 ,?is is :y "r musical education is s important t ,plato decl>$ t ! revolution>y _s always makes its fir/ appe>ance 9 innovations on e/abli%$ musical =m4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o important diff]5ce betwe5 ! two philosoph]s :i* mu/ be not$1 because x conc]ns ,ari/otle's *ief contribution to ! philosophy ( f9e art4 ,plato _h 9 ! ,republic propos$ to expel florid1 langui%+1 or unduly excit+ =ms ( music n only f ! s*oolroom1 b f life altoge!r1 on ! gr\nd ( _! un:olesome t5d5cy to fo/] an un/able & morbid "* 9 ^? :o enjoy !m4 ,= ! same reason he _h propos$ ! entire suppression ( tragic drama4 ,ari/otle has a !ory :i* is directly aim$ aga9/ ?is ov]/ra9$ ,puritanism4 ,he holds t ! excit+ & s5sational art :i* w\ld be v bad z daily food may be v useful z an occasional m$ic9e = ! s\l4 ,he w\ld reta9 ev5 ! mo/ s5sational =ms ( music on acc\nt ( :at he calls _! purgative value4 ,9 ! same _s he ass]ts t ! function ( trag$y1 ) its s5sational repres5tations ( ! calamities ( its h]oes1 is by ! vehicle ( fe> & pity to purge our m9ds ( ^? & simil> emotions4 ,! explanation ( ! !ory is to be s\ght 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! m$ical t]m purgative4 ,accord+ to ! m$ical view :i* we h already f\nd influ5c+ 8 e?ical doctr9e1 heal? consi/s 9 ! ma9t5ance ( an equality betwe5 ! v>i\s +r$i5ts ( ! body4 ,e n[ & aga9 x happ5s t !re arise sup]flu\s accretions ( "s "o +r$i5t1 :i* are n c>ri$ away 9 ! normal r\t9e ( bodily life4 ,^! give rise to s]i\s d]angem5t ( function & may p]man5tly injure ! work+ ( ! organism1 unless !y are remov$ 9 "t by a m$ic9e :i* acts z a purge1 & cle>s ! body ( a sup]flu\s accumulation4 ,! same ?+ also happ5s 9 ! life ( ! s\l4 ,s long z we are 9 good spiritual heal? our v>i\s feel+s & emotional moods w be readily dis*>g$ 9 action1 9 ! c\rse ( our daily life4 ,b !re is always ! possibility ( an excessive accumulation ( emotional moods = :i* ! r\t9e ( daily life does n provide an adequate dis*>ge 9 action4 ,unless ?is t5d5cy is *eck$ we may contract dang]\sly morbid habits ( s\l4 ,?us we ne$ "s m$ic9e = ! s\l aga9/ ?is dang]1 :i* may be to x :at a purgative is to ! body4 ,n[ x 0 a well-kn[n fact1 obs]v$ 9 connection ) "s ( ! m extravagant religi\s cults1 t p]sons suff]+ f an excess ( religi\s fr5zy might be cur$ homoeopa?ically1 s to say1 by artificially ar\s+ ! v emotion 9 "q by ! use ( excit+ music4 ,ari/otle ext5ds ! pr9ciple by sugge/+ t 9 ! artificial excitem5t ar\s$ by viol5tly /imulat+ music or 9 ! transports ( sympa!tic appreh5sion & pity ) :i* we foll[ ! disa/]s ( ! /age-h]o1 we h a safe & ready means ( ridd+ ourselves ( morbid emotional /ra9 :i* might o!rwise h work$ havoc ) ! effici5t conduct ( real life4 ,! great value ( ?is def5ce ( ! occasional employm5t ( s5sation z a m$ic9e = ! s\l is obvi\s4 ,unhappily x w\ld seem to h s dom9at$ ,ari/otle's ?\ght on ! functions ( dramatic art z to bl9d him to :at we are accu/om$ to ?9k ! nobl] functions ( trag$y4 ,no book has _h a m curi\s fate ?an ! little manual = int5d+ compos]s ( trag$ies :i* is all t rema9s to u ( ,ari/otle's lectures on ,poetry4 ,?is is n ! place to tell ! /ory ( ! way 9 :i* ! great classical ,fr5* playwrights1 :o hopelessly misund]/ood ! mean+ ( ,ari/otle's *ief special directions1 b q correctly div9$ t 8 lectures 7 meant to be an actual ,vade ,mecum = ! dramati/1 delib]ately con/ruct$ _! ma/]pieces 9 absolute submission to regulations = :i* !y _h no bett] reasons ?an t !y _h once be5 giv5 magi/]ially by an anci5t ,greek philosoph]4 ,b x may be wor? :ile to rem>k t ! wor? ( ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( trag$y z art-criticism has probably be5 va/ly ov]rat$4 ,f fir/ to la/ ! /&po9t he assumes1 9 8 v]dicts on ! great tragic poets1 is t ( ! gall]y4 ,:at he insi/s on all ?r\gh1 probably because he has ! purgative effect ( ! play always 9 8 m9d1 is a well-wov5 plot ) pl5ty ( melodramatic surprise 9 ! incid5ts & a ?or\ghly s5sational culm9ation 9 a s5se ( unreliev$ cata/rophe ov] :i* ! spectator c h a good cry1 & s get well purg$ ( 8 sup]flu\s emotion4 ,x is cle> f 8 repeat$ allusions t ! play he admir$ above all o!rs 0 ! ,k+ ,o$ipus ( ,sophocles1 b x is equally cle> t he admir$ x n = ! pr(\nd insight into human life & de/9y or ! deep s5se ( ! my/]y ( ?+s :i* "s mod]n critics h f\nd 9 x1 b because its plot is ! be/ & mo/ />tl+ detective /ory ev] devis$1 & its f9ale a triumph ( melodramatic horror4 99,,bibliography99 ,! ,engli% read] :o wi%es = fur!r in=mation ab\t ,ari/otle & 8 philosophy may be ref]r$ to any or all ( ! foll[+ works3-- ,e4 ,zell]4--,ari/otle & ! ,e>li] ,p]ipatetics4 ,engli% translation 9 #b vols4 by ,b4 ,f4 ,c4 ,co/elloe & ,j4 ,h4 ,muirhead4 ,london4 ,longmans ,co4 99,e4 ,wallace4--,outl9es ( ! ,philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press4 ,g4 ,grote4--,ari/otle4 ,london4 ,john ,murray4 99,w4 ,d4 ,ross4--,! ,works ( ,ari/otle translat$ into ,engli%1 vol4 viii41 ,metaphysics4 ,ox=d4 ,cl>5don ,press4 99,a4 ,e4 ,taylor4--,ari/otle on 8 ,pr$ecessor4 7,metaphysics1 ,bk4 ,i41 translat$ ) notes1 c47 ,*icago4 ,op5 ,c\rt ,publi%+ ,co4 ,g4 ,d4 ,hicks4--,ari/otle de ,anima 7,greek text1 ,engli% translation1 ,comm5t>y74 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press4 99,d4 ,p4 ,*ase4--,! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle4 ,walt] ,scott ,co4 99,j4 ,burnet4--,ari/otle on ,education4 7,engli% translation ( ,e?ics1 ,bks4 ,i4-,,iii4 #e1 ,x4 #f to end2 ,politics1 ,,viii4 #ag1 ,,viii47 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press4 99,b4 ,j[ett4--,! ,politics ( ,ari/otle4 ,ox=d4 ,cl>5don ,press4 99,i4 ,bywat]4--,ari/otle on ! ,art ( ,poetry4 7,greek ,text1 ,engli% ,translation1 ,comm5t>y47 ,ox=d4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,j4 ,i4 ,be>e & ,w4 ,d4 ,ross4--,! ,works ( ,ari/otle translat$ into ,engli%1 ,pt4 ,i4 7,p>vu ,naturalia1 ! m9or psy*ological works47 ,ox=d4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,j4 ,i4 ,be>e4--,greek ,!ories ( ,elem5t>y ,cognition f ,alemacon to ,ari/otle4 ,ox=d4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,! works m>k$ by an a/]isk w probably be f\nd mo/ useful = ! beg9n]4 ,no works 9 =eign languages & no editions n accompani$ by an ,engli% translation h be5 m5tion$4 ,!re is at pres5t no satisfactory complete translation ( ,ari/otle into ,engli%4 ,"o1 ( :i* two volumes h be5 m5tion$ above1 is 9 c\rse ( production at ! ,cl>5don ,press1 ,ox=d1 "u ! editor%ip ( ,j4 ,a4 ,smi? & ,w4 ,d4 ,ross4 ,pr9t$ by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,co4 ,ed9burgh ,london 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h no?+ b ! highe/ praise = ^! little books1 & no "o :o exam9es !m w h any?+ else4--,we/m9/] ,gazette1 #bbnd ,june #aiab4 99,,! ,,p',s ,,books99 99,,! ,,fir/ ,,n9ety ,,volumes99 ,! volumes issu$ are m>k$ ) an a/]isk 99,,sci5ce99 #a4 ,! ,f\ndations ( ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,:e?am1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b4 ,embryology--,! ,beg9n+s ( ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,g]ald ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #c4 ,biology 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,w4 ,d4 ,h5d]son1 ,m4,a4 #d4 ,zoology3 ,! ,/udy ( ,animal ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,w4 ,mac,bride1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #e4 ,botany2 ,! ,mod]n ,/udy ( ,plants 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,/opes1 ,d4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s4 #g4 ,! ,/ructure ( ! ,e>? 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney1 ,f4,r4,s4 #h4 ,evolution 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,s4 ,goodri*1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #aj4 ,h]$ity 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,b4,sc4 #aa4 ,inorganic ,*emi/ry 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,c4 ,c4 ,baly1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ab4 ,organic ,*emi/ry 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,b4 ,coh51 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ac4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,electricity 4 4 4 ,by ,norman ,k4 ,campbell1 ,m4,a4 #ad4 ,radiation 4 4 4 ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4,sc4 #ae4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ! ,/>s 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,maund]1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #af4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,light 4 4 4 ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4,sc4 #ag4 ,wea!r ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,k4 ,lempf]t1 ,m4,a4 #ah4 ,hypnotism & ,self-,education 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,hut*ison1 ,m4,d4 #ai4 ,! ,baby3 ,a ,"m's ,book 4 4 4 ,by a ,univ]sity ,woman4 #bj4 ,y\? & ,sex--,dang]s & ,safegu>ds = ,boys & ,girls 4 4 4 ,by ,m>y ,s*>lieb1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,s41 & ,f4 ,ar?ur ,sibly1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #ba4 ,m>riage & ,mo!rhood 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,davidson1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4,e4 #bb4 ,"l ,kelv9 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 #bc4 ,huxley 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #bd4 ,sir ,william ,hugg9s & ,spectroscopic ,a/ronomy 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,maund]1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ( ! ,royal ,obs]vatory1 ,gre5wi*4 #fb4 ,practical ,a/ronomy 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,macph]son1 ,jr41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #fc4 ,aviation 4 4 4 ,by ,sydney ,f4 ,walk]1 ,r4,n4 #fd4 ,navigation 4 4 4 ,by ,william ,hall1 ,r4,n41 ,b4,a4 #fe4 ,pond ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,a%1 ,m4,r4,a4,c4 #ff4 ,dietetics 4 4 4 ,by ,alex4 ,bryce1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,p4,h4 99,,philosophy ,,& ,,religion99 #be4 ,! ,mean+ ( ,philosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #bf4 ,h5ri ,b]gson 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,c>r1 ,litt4,d4 #bg4 ,psy*ology 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,watt1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,phil4 #bh4 ,e?ics 4 4 4 ,by ,canon ,ra%dall1 ,d4,litt41 ,f4,b4,a4 #bi4 ,kant's ,philosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,l9dsay1 ,m4,a4 #cj4 ,! ,tea*+ ( ,plato 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,l9dsay1 ,m4,a4 #fg4 ,ari/otle 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #fh4 ,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,a4 ,muegge4 #fi4 ,euck53 ,a ,philosophy ( ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,jones1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d4 #gj4 ,! ,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology ( ,beauty 4 4 4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,val5t9e1 ,b4,a41 ,d4,phil4 #ga4 ,! ,problem ( ,tru? 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,c>r1 ,litt4,d4 #ca4 ,buddhism 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #cb4 ,roman ,ca?olicism 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,coxon4 ,preface1 ,mgr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,b5son4 #cc4 ,! ,ox=d ,movem5t 4 4 4 ,by ,wilfrid ,w>d4 #cd4 ,! ,bible & ,criticism 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,b5nett1 ,d4,d41 ,litt4,p41 & ,w4 ,f4 ,ad5ey1 ,d4,d4 #ce4 ,c>d9al ,newman 4 4 4 ,by ,wilfrid ,meynell4 #gb4 ,! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,canon ,ma/]man4 #gc4 ,anglo-,ca?olicism 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,mann+ ,fo/]4 #gd4 ,! ,free ,*ur*es 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,edw>d ,%illito1 ,m4,a4 #ge4 ,judaism 4 4 4 ,by ,ephraim ,lev9e1 ,m4,a4 #gf4 ,!osophy 4 4 4 ,by ,annie ,besant4 99,,hi/ory99 #cf4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,fre$om 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,nev9son4 #cg4 ,bism>ck & ! ,orig9 ( ! ,g]man ,empire 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,m4 ,p[icke4 #ch4 ,oliv] ,cromwell 4 4 4 ,by ,hilda ,john/one1 ,m4,a4 #ci4 ,m>y ,que5 ( ,scots 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 #dj4 ,cecil ,john ,rhodes1 #ahec-aijb 4 4 4 ,by ,ian ,d4 ,colv94 #da4 ,julius ,caes> 4 4 4 ,by ,hil>y ,h>d+e4 #db4 ,engl& 9 ! ,mak+ 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,he>n%aw1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #dc4 ,engl& 9 ! ,middle ,ages 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 #dd4 ,! ,mon>*y & ! ,p 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,waugh1 ,m4,a4 #de4 ,! ,indu/rial ,revolution 4 4 4 ,by ,ar?ur ,jones1 ,m4,a4 #df4 ,empire & ,democracy 4 4 4 ,by ,g4 ,s4 ,veit*1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d4 #fa4 ,home ,rule 4 4 4 ,by ,l4 ,g4 ,r$mond ,h[>d4 ,preface by ,rob]t ,h>c\rt1 ,m4,p4 #gg4 ,nelson 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,wilson4 #gh4 ,well+ton & ,wat]loo 4 4 4 ,by ,major ,g4 ,w4 ,r$way4 99,,social ,,& ,,economic99 #dg4 ,wom5's ,suffrage 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,g4 ,fawcett1 ,,ll4,d4 #dh4 ,! ,work+ ( ! ,briti% ,sy/em ( ,gov]nm5t to-day 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,ramsay ,muir1 ,m4,a4 #di4 ,an ,introduction to ,economic ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,pr( ,h4 ,o4 ,m]$i?4 ,m4,a4 #ej4 ,socialism 4 4 4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 #gi4 ,m$iaeval ,socialism 4 4 4 ,by ,b$e ,j>rett1 ,o4,p41 ,m4,a4 #hj4 ,syndicalism 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,h>ley1 ,m4,a4 #ha4 ,lab\r & ,wages 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,hallswor?1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 #hb4 ,co-op]ation 4 4 4 ,by ,joseph ,clayton4 #hc4 ,insurance z a ,means ( ,inve/m5t 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,rob]tson1 ,f4,f4,a4 99,,lett]s99 #ea4 ,%akespe>e 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h]=d1 ,litt4,d4 #eb4 ,wordswor? 4 4 4 ,by ,rosal9e ,masson4 #ec4 ,pure ,gold--,a ,*oice ( ,lyrics & ,sonnets 4 4 4 by ,h4 ,c4 ,o',neill #ed4 ,francis ,bacon 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #ee4 ,! ,brontes 4 4 4 ,by ,flora ,masson4 #ef4 ,c>lyle 4 4 4 ,by ,l4 ,mac,lean ,watt4 #eg4 ,dante 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,f]r]s ,h[ell4 #eh4 ,rusk9 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,bly? ,web/]1 ,m4,a4 #ei4 ,common ,faults 9 ,writ+ ,engli% 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #fj4 ,a ,diction>y ( ,synonyms 4 4 4 ,by ,au/9 ,k4 ,gray1 ,b4,a4 #hd4 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,lit]ature 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,compton-,rickett4 #he4 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,lit]ature 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,compton-,rickett1 ,,ll4,d4 #hf4 ,br[n+ 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #hg4 ,*>les ,lamb 4 4 4 ,by ,flora ,masson4 #hh4 ,goe! 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h]=d1 ,litt4,d4 #ij4 ,r\sseau 4 4 4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 #ia4 ,ibs5 4 4 4 ,by ,hil>y ,h>d+e4 ,,london ,,& ,,ed9burgh3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack ,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge ,,publi%+ ,,co4