,,the ,,bases ,,of ,,design ,,the ,,bases ,,of ,,design ,,by ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration ,,london ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons #aijb ,first ,edition1 ,medium #hvo1 #ahih4 ,second ,edition1 ,crown #hvo1 #aijb4 ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london4 ,,to ,,charles ,,rowley1 ,j4,p4 ,,chairman ,,of ,,the ,,manchester ,,municipal ,,school ,,of ,,art1 ,,to ,,whose ,,energy1 ,,sympathy1 ,,and ,,enthusiasm ,,the ,,school1 ,,in ,,its ,,newer ,,development1 ,,owes ,,so ,,much1 ,,and ,,to ,,my ,,former ,,colleagues ,,of ,,the ,,teaching ,,staff1 ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,to ,,all ,,students1 ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,book4 ,,preface ,,the substance of the following chapters originally formed a series of lectures addressed to the students of the ,manchester ,municipal ,school of ,art during my tenure of the directorship of ,design at that institution4 ,the field covered is an extensive one1 and ,i am conscious that many branches of my subject are only touched1 whilst others are treated in a very elementary manner4 ,every chapter1 indeed1 might be expanded into a volume1 under such far-reaching headings1 to give to each section anything like adequate treatment4 ,my main object1 however1 has been to trace the vital veins and nerves of relationship in the arts of design1 which1 like the sap from the central stem1 springing from connected and collective roots1 out of a common ground1 sustain and unite in one organic whole the living tree4 ,in an age when1 owing to the action of certain economic causes--the chiefest being commercial competition--the tendency is to specialize each branch of design1 which thus becomes isolated from the rest1 ,i feel it is most important to keep in mind the real fundamental connection and essential unity of art3 and though we may1 as students and artists1 in practice be intent upon gathering the fruit from the particular branch we desire to make our own1 we should never be insensible to its relation to other branches1 its dependence upon the main stem and the source of its life at the root4 ,otherwise we are1 ,i think1 in danger of becoming mechanical in our work1 or too narrowly technical1 while1 as a collective result of such narrowness of view1 the art of the age1 to which each individual contributes1 shows a want of both imaginative harmony and technical relation with itself1 when unity of effect and purpose is particularly essential1 as in the design and decoration of both public and private buildings1 not to speak of the larger significance of art as the most permanent record of the life and ideals of a people4 ,my illustrations are drawn from many sources1 and consist of a large proportion of those originally used for the lectures1 only that instead of the rough charcoal sketches done at the time1 careful pen drawings have been made of many of the subjects in addition to the photographs and other authorities4 ,it may be noted that ,i have freely used both line and tone blocks in the text and throughout the book1 although ,i advocate the use of line drawings only with type in books wherein completeness of organic ornamental character is the object4 ,such a book as this1 however1 being rather in the nature of a tool or auxiliary to a designer's workshop1 can hardly be regarded from that point of view4 ,the scheme of the work1 which necessitates the gathering together of so many and varied illustrations as diverse in scale1 subject1 and treatment as the historic periods which they represent1 would itself preclude a consistent decorative treatment1 and it has been found necessary to reproduce many of the illustrations from their original form in large scale drawings on brown paper touched with white1 as well as from photographs which necessarily print as tone-blocks4 ,i have to thank ,mr4 ,gleeson ,white for his valuable help in many ways1 as well as in obtaining permission from various owners of copyright to use photographs and other illustrations1 and also the publishers1 who have allowed me the use of blocks in some instances--,mr4 ,george ,allen for a page from ,the ,faerie ,queene2 ,messrs4 ,bradbury1 ,agnew and ,co4 for the use of the ,punch drawings2 and ,messrs4 ,j4 ,s4 ,virtue and ,co4 for the use of photographs of carpet weaving and glass blowing1 which were specially taken for ,the ,art ,journal4 ,my thanks are also due to ,mr4 ,metford ,warner 7,messrs4 ,jeffrey and ,co47 for the use of his photo-lithographs of my wall-paper designs issued by his firm2 to ,mr4 ,r4 ,phen ,spiers for the use of his sketch of the iron balustrade from ,rothenburg2 to ,mr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,cobden-,sanderson for photographs of two of his recent bookbindings2 to the executors of the late ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,creeny for permission to reproduce two of the illustrations from his ,monumental ,brasses on the ,continent of ,europe 7now published by ,mr4 ,b4 ,t4 ,batsford72 also to ,mr4 ,harold ,rathbone1 who kindly allows me to reproduce the cartoons by ,ford ,madox ,brown in his possession2 to ,mr4 ,j4 ,sylvester ,sparrow for the practical notes on painting glass2 and to ,mr4 ,emery ,walker for help in several ways in the preparation of the book4 ,,walter ,,crane4 ,,kensington1 ,november1 #ahig4 ,,author',s ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,present ,,edition ,,this reprint of ,the ,bases of ,design gives me an opportunity to correct a few errors which had inadvertently crept in on its first appearance1 and also to add a word here and there4 ,i venture to hope that the book may prove more useful and accessible to students in its present form4 ,,walter ,,crane4 ,,kensington1 ,november1 #aija4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i ,,of ,,the ,,architectural ,,basis #a ,,ii ,,of ,,the ,,utility ,,basis ,,and ,,influence #dh ,,iii ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,material ,,and ,,method #ia ,,iv ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,conditions ,,in ,,design #abc ,v ,,of ,,the ,,climatic ,,influence ,,in ,,design--,,chiefly ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,colour ,,and ,,pattern #afj ,,vi ,,of ,,the ,,racial ,,influence ,,in ,,design #aia ,,vii ,,of ,,the ,,symbolic ,,influence1 ,,or ,,emblematic ,,element ,,in ,,design #bbb ,,viii ,,of ,,the ,,graphic ,,influence1 ,,or ,,naturalism ,,in ,,design #bei ,,ix ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,influence ,,in ,,design #cjb ,x ,,of ,,the ,,collective ,,influence ,,in ,,design #cej ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,three typical ,constructive ,forms in ,architecture--,lintel1 ,round ,arch1 ,pointed ,arch4 #e ,gate of ,mycen4 #f ,imitation of ,wooden ,construction in ,stone ,tomb in ,lycia4 #g ,ornamental lines in the ,frieze of the ,parthenon #h ,metope of the ,parthenon1 showing relation and proportions of the masses in relief to the ground4 #i ,the ,parthenon4 #aa ,the ,parthenon--,eastern ,pediment1 sketches showing relation of lines of sculpture to angle of ,pediment4 #ab ,the ,parthenon--,elevation showing portion of ,pediment1 ,frieze and ,columns4 #ac ,architectural influence in design of small accessories 7,greek74 #ae ,section of the ,colosseum4 #ag ,hanging the ,festal ,garland--,visit of ,bacchus to ,icarius4 #ah ,arch of ,constantine4 #ai ,mosaic1 ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 ,ravenna4 #ba ,part of ,interior of ,dome of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice4 #bc ,mosaic of the ,empress ,theodora1 ,st4 ,vitale1 ,ravenna4 #bd ,anselm's ,tower1 ,canterbury4 #bg ,transitional ,arcade1 ,south ,transept1 ,canterbury4 #bi ,typical ,forms of ,arches4 #cj ,typical ,forms of ,gothic ,geometric ,foliation4 #cj ,westminster ,abbey1 the ,nave1 looking east4 #ca ,wells ,cathedral1 ,west ,front4 #cc ,westminster ,abbey1 ,fan ,tracery in ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel4 #ce ,the ,five ,sisters of ,york4 #cg ,details of ,tomb1 ,winchelsea ,church 7#acjc74 #ch ,fourteenth ,century ,canopied ,tomb1 ,winchelsea ,church4 #ci ,wrought-iron ,railing1 ,wells ,cathedral4 #dj ,canopied ,seat and ,sideboard1 ,french ,fifteenth ,century4 #da ,carved ,bench-ends1 ,dennington ,church1 ,suffolk4 #db ,brocade ,hanging1 from the ,annunciation1 by ,memling4 #dc ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral4 #dd ,structural lines of different periods in harmonious combination1 ,canterbury ,cathedral4 #de ,matting4 #di ,primitive ,rush ,mat4 #ej ,assyrian ,border4 #ej ,assyrian enamelled ,tile4 #ea ,greek ,anthemion ,ornament4 #eb ,wattled ,fence4 #eb ,ancient ,volute ,ornament4 #ec ,types of ,decoration derived from ,thonging4 #ed ,frieze of the ,temple of the ,sybil at ,tivoli4 #ee ,yoke of ,oxen1 ,carrara4 #ee ,barge-board1 ,ightham ,mote ,house4 #eg ,types of ,gables4 #eg ,hazelford ,hall1 ,derbyshire4 #ei ,the ,principle of the ,dripstone4 #fj ,towers of ,san ,gimignano4 #fa ,tower of the ,palazzo ,vecchio1 ,florence4 #fc ,tower with corner ,turret1 ,axmouth ,church1 ,devon4 #fd ,cut ,brick ,chimneys1 ,leigh's ,priory1 ,essex4 #fe ,brick ,chimney1 ,framlingham ,castle4 #ff ,cast-iron ,fire-dog1 ,st4 ,nicholas's ,hospital1 ,canterbury4 #fg ,cast-iron ,grate ,back1 ,bruges4 #fh ,fireplace with wrought-iron ,crane1 ,church ,farm1 ,hempstead1 ,essex4 #fi ,candlesticks4 #ga ,brass ,chandelier1 ,german ,seventeenth ,century4 #gd ,details of above4 #ge ,lamps1 ,candlestick1 and ,snuffers4 #gg ,drinking ,vessels1 etc4 #ha ,german ,beer ,mugs4 #hb ,italian ,flasks and ,bottle4 #hc ,pitcher from ,rothenburg4 #hg ,plate and ,dish ,decoration4 #hg ,typical ,border ,systems4 #hi ,persistent ,pattern ,plans1 ,rectangular ,basis4 #hi ,corbel1 ,fourteenth ,century1 ,dennington ,church1 ,suffolk4 #ib ,misereres1 ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral4 #ic1 #id ,scandinavian ,clay ,vessel4 #ie ,modern ,egyptian ,clay ,vessel4 #ig ,bronze ,statue of ,louis ,,xv4 by ,bouchardon1 showing internal ,iron-work and ,core4 #ii ,the same1 showing distribution of ,ducts and ,vents4 #aja ,wrought-iron ,gates1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,nuremberg4 #ajc ,wrought-iron ,fender1 ,tongs1 ,fire-dog and ,shovel1 ,bruges4 #ajc ,wrought-iron ,altar ,screen1 ,st4 ,thomas's1 ,salisbury4 #ajd ,wrought-iron ,balustrade1 ,rothenburg1 from a sketch by ,r4 ,phen ,spiers4 #aje ,lady at a ,hand ,loom1 from ,erasmus's ,praise of ,folly 7#afgf74 #ajg ,diagrams showing the principle of the ,loom4 #ajg ,persian ,carpet1 ,south ,kensington ,museum4 #aji ,embroidery4 #aad ,facsimile of a page from the ,buch von den ,sieben ,todsnden 7,augsburg1 #adgd74 #aag ,hans ,baldung ,grn1 facsimile of a page from ,hortulus ,anim 7,strassburg1 #aeaa74 #aah ,william ,blake1 ,a ,cradle ,song4 #abj ,ceiling ,papers4 ,designed by ,walter ,crane4 #abd1 #abe1 #abf ,repeating ,pattern ,wall-paper4 ,designed by ,walter ,crane4 #abg ,pattern ,plans and ,motives controlled by conditions of ,position and ,purpose4 #abi ,floor ,motive4 ,sketch design for inlaid wood1 by ,walter ,crane4 #acj ,drop ,repeat ,wall-papers4 ,designed by ,walter ,crane4 #acb1 #acd ,page ,plans1 showing various arrangements of ,text and ,decorations4 #acg ,page from ,the ,glittering ,plain 7,kelmscott ,press74 #aci ,page from ,spenser's ,faerie ,queene 7,walter ,crane74 #adj ,thirteenth ,century ,glass from the ,sainte ,chapelle1 ,paris 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 #adb1 #adc1 #ade ,sixteenth ,century ,glass from ,winchester ,college ,chapel 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 #adg ,thirteenth ,century ,glass ,grisaille1 ,salisbury ,cathedral4 #aea ,cartoons for ,glass1 showing lead design1 by ,ford ,madox ,brown4 #aeb1 #aec ,modern ,glass1 designed and executed by ,j4 ,s4 ,sparrow4 #aeg ,porch of ,cathedral of ,s4 ,jacopo1 ,pistoia4 #afe ,primitive ,egyptian ,house1 after ,viollet le ,duc4 #afh ,column from ,temple of ,luxor4 #afi ,persian ,capital1 influenced by ,primitive ,timber ,construction4 #agj ,lotus ,capital1 ,phil4 #aga ,frieze in coloured and glazed ,bricks1 ,palace of ,susa 7from the ,reproduction in the ,south ,kensington ,museum71 drawn by ,w4 ,cleobury4 #agc ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque at ,ardebil 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 #agg ,arab ,casement from ,cairo 7,south ,kensington ,museum71 drawn by ,w4 ,cleobury4 #aha ,carved stone lattice ,window from the ,mosque of the ,palace of ,ahmedabad4 #ahc ,portion of the ,alhambra1 drawn by ,gustave ,dor4 #ahg ,old ,house in ,turnov1 dated #ahaf4 #ahh ,street in ,eger4 #ahi ,egyptian ,hieroglyphics1 ,tomb of ,beni ,hasan 7,x,i,xth ,dynasty74 #aie ,altar with ,offerings1 ,egyptian ,mural ,painting1 ,thebes4 #aif ,egyptian ,wall-painting 7,british ,museum74 #aig ,assyrian ,tree of ,life4 #aih ,assyrian ,bas-reliefs 7,british ,museum74 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja ,assur ,beni ,pal1 ,assyrian ,lions from the ,british ,museum4 #bjc ,lion modelled by ,alfred ,stevens and cast in iron4 #bje ,greek ,stele or ,head-stone4 #bjf ,indian ,flame ,halo or ,nimbus4 #bjg ,persian ,pomegranate forms1 from a goat-hair ,carpet 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 #bjh ,celtic design1 from a ,cross at ,campbeltown1 ,argyllshire4 #bji ,typical ornamental ,forms in ,persian1 ,indian1 and ,chinese designs4 #baa ,arabian ,fourteenth ,century carved and inlaid ,pulpit1 ,cairo 7,south ,kensington ,museum71 drawn by ,w4 ,cleobury4 #bac1 #bae ,panel in carved and inlaid ,wood1 from the ,mosque of ,tooloon in ,cairo1 ,fourteenth or ,fifteenth ,century ,saracenic4 #bag ,the ,fylfot or ,sauvastika1 and its incorporation in ornament4 #bbd ,primitive ,symbols1 ,sun1 ,fire1 ,water4 #bbd ,polynesian ,carved ,ornament1 from ,hervey ,island ,paddle4 #bbe ,polynesian ,ornament--,evolution of the ,zigzag4 #bbg ,hindu ,symbol of the ,universe4 #bbi ,examples of ,egyptian ,symbolism4 #bca ,il ,nilo 7,vatican1 ,rome74 #bce ,venus and ,paris--the ,apples of the ,hesperides 7from a relief at ,wilton ,house74 #bcg ,christian ,emblem3 ,stags ,drinking 7,mausoleo di ,galla ,placidia1 ,ravenna74 #bdj ,christian ,emblem3 ,peacocks and ,vine 7,sarcophagus1 ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 ,ravenna74 #bda ,fra ,angelico1 ,angel 7,uffizi1 ,florence74 #bdb1 #bdc ,orcagna1 ,fiends from ,the ,triumph of ,death1 ,fresco 7,campo ,santo1 ,pisa74 #bde ,combat of ,king with ,griffin 7,ancient ,persian ,sculpture1 ,persepolis74 #bdg ,typical ,forms of ,shields and of ,heraldic ,treatment4 #bdi ,sicilian ,silk ,tissue1 ,twelfth century 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 #bea ,alciati's ,emblems1 designed by ,solomon ,bernard1 ,ex ,bello ,pax1 ,fortune1 ,ambition1 ,avarice4 #bec1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef ,prehistoric ,graphic ,art of the ,cave ,men4 #bfj1 #bfa ,egyptian ,treatment of ,birds 7from painted ,mummy ,cases1 ,british ,museum74 #bfd ,a ,fowler1 ,wall-painting1 ,x,i,xth ,dynasty 7,british ,museum74 #bfe ,japanese ,graphic ,art 7from ,the ,hundred ,birds of ,bari74 #bff1 #bfg ,egyptian ,scribe1 ,portrait ,statuette1 ,vth or ,v,ith ,dynasty 7,louvre74 #bfi ,sculptured ,frieze discovered in the ,forum1 #ahgb4 #bga ,auxerre ,cathedral1 ,thirteenth ,century ,sculpture4 #bgb ,amiens ,cathedral1 ,fourteenth ,century ,sculpture4 #bgc ,statue of ,st4 ,martha 7,st4 ,urbain1 ,troyes74 #bge ,memling1 ,deliverance of ,st4 ,peter 7,grimani ,breviary74 #bgf ,memling1 ,david placing the ,ark in the ,tabernacle 7,grimani ,breviary74 #bgg ,albert ,drer1 ,the ,apocalypse4 #bgi ,albert ,drer1 ,portrait of ,erasmus 7#aebf74 #bhj ,albert ,drer1 ,the ,cannon 7#aeac74 #bha ,albert ,drer1 ,the taking down from the ,cross 7,little ,passion74 #bhc ,hans ,burgmair1 ,group of ,knights from ,the ,triumphs of ,maximilian4 #bhd ,horned ,poppy1 from ,fuchsius' ,de ,historia ,stirpium 7#aedb74 #bhg ,japanese ,plant ,drawing4 #bhh1 #bhi ,brass of ,joris de ,munter and ,wife 7,bruges1 #adci74 #bia ,brass of ,king ,eric ,menved and ,queen ,ingeborg of ,denmark 7,ringstead1 #acai74 #bic ,charles ,keene1 ,drawing from ,punch4 #bie ,linley ,sambourne1 ,drawing from ,punch4 #big ,phil ,may1 ,drawing from ,punch4 #bii ,simone ,memmi1 ,fresco containing portrait of ,cimabue and ,contemporaries 7,s4 ,m4 ,novella1 ,florence74 #cjg ,giotto1 ,portrait of ,dante 7,pretorian ,palace1 ,florence74 #cji ,giotto1 ,frescoes 7,arena ,chapel1 ,padua74 #caj1 #caa ,giotto1 ,frescoes 7,assisi74 #cab1 #cac ,niccolo ,pisano1 ,pulpit 7,baptistery1 ,pisa74 #cae ,orcagna1 ,triumph of ,death1 ,fresco 7,campo ,santo1 ,pisa74 #cag ,benozzo ,gozzoli1 ,frescoes 7,riccardi ,chapel1 ,florence74 #cah1 #cai1 #cbj1 #cba ,botticelli1 ,detail from ,the ,adoration of the ,magi 7,uffizi1 ,florence74 #cbc ,botticelli1 ,la ,prima ,vera 7,academy1 ,florence74 #cbe ,mantegna1 ,bronze ,monument 7,s4 ,andrea1 ,mantua74 #cbg ,mantegna1 ,the ,triumph of ,julius ,csar1 from ,andrea ,andreani's woodcut4 #cca ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,the ,last ,supper 7,milan74 #cce ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,study for the ,head of ,christ4 #ccg ,bust of ,michael ,angelo 7,s4 ,croce1 ,florence74 #cci ,michael ,angelo1 ,ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel 7,the ,creation of ,man74 #cda ,michael ,angelo1 ,ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel4 #cdc ,michael ,angelo1 ,the ,delphic ,sibyl 7,sistine ,chapel74 #cde ,michael ,angelo1 ,tomb of ,giuliano de ,medici 7,florence74 #cdf ,michael ,angelo1 ,tomb of ,lorenzo de ,medici 7,florence74 #cdg ,natural variation in ,repetition of ,ornamental ,forms--,primary ,school ,children drawing on the blackboard1 ,philadelphia4 #cef1 #ceg ,axminster ,carpet ,weaving4 #cfa ,tapestry ,carpet ,weaving4 #cfb ,interior of the ,atelier of ,etienne ,delaune1 ,paris1 #aegf4 #cfd ,glass ,blowing4 #cff ,interior of a ,printing ,office1 ,sixteenth ,century1 from ,jost ,amman4 #cfg ,gold-,tooled ,bindings1 by ,t4 ,j4 ,cobden-,sanderson4 #cgj1 #cga ,,of ,,the ,,bases ,,of ,,design ,,chapter ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,architectural ,,basis ,,when we approach the study of ,design1 from whatever point of view1 and whatsoever our ultimate aim and purpose1 we can hardly fail to be impressed with the vast variety and endless complexity of the forms which the term 7,design7 covers1 understanding it in its widest and fullest sense4 ,from the simplest linear pattern1 or bone scratchings of primitive man1 to the most splendid achievements in mural decoration of the ,italian ,renascence--or1 shall we say1 from the grass mat of the first plaiter to the finest ,persian carpet3 or from ,stonehenge to ,salisbury ,cathedral--the range is enormous1 and were we to attempt to trace1 step by step1 the true relation between the diverse and multitudinous characteristics which such contrasts suggest1 we should be tracing the course of the development of human thought and history themselves4 ,when we stand amazed in this labyrinth--this enchanted and beautiful wood of human invention which the history of art displays1 we might be content to gaze at the loveliness of particular forms there1 and simply enjoy1 like children1 the beauty of the trees and flowers2 gathering here and there at random1 and casting them aside again when we were tired1 without a thought as to their true significance4 ,if1 however1 we desire to find some clue to the labyrinth--something which will explain it in part1 at least1 something which will give us a key to the relation of these manifold forms1 and enable us to place them in harmonious order and coherence1 we shall presently ask3 7#a7 ,how and whence they derived their leading characteristics8 7#b7 ,upon what basis have they been built up8 and 7#c7 ,what have been the chief influences which have determined1 and still determine1 their varieties8 ,let us try to address ourselves to these questions1 since1 ,i believe1 even if we only end as we begin1 by inquiry1 that1 in the course of that inquiry1 by study1 by comparison1 and careful observation1 we shall be able greatly to clear our path1 and find much to help us as individual students and practical workers in art4 7#a7 ,the first arts are1 of course1 those of pure utility1 which spring from the primal physical necessities of man3 which are concerned in the maintenance of life itself--the art or craft of the hunter and the fisherman1 the tiller of the soil1 the hewer of wood and the drawer of water3 but seeing that next to securing sufficiency of food1 the efforts of man are directed towards providing himself with shelter1 both of roof and raiment1 and since most of the arts of the creative sort must be practised under shelter of some kind1 and that all of them contribute in some way towards the building or adornment of such shelter1 ,i think we shall find the true basis and controlling influences1 which have been paramount in the development of decorative design1 in the form and character of the dwellings of man and their accessories2 from the temples he has raised to enshrine his highest ideals--these temples themselves being but larger and more monumental dwellings--to the tomb1 his last dwelling-place4 ,we shall find1 in short1 the original and controlling bases of design in architecture1 the queen and mother of all the arts4 ,in asserting this one does not lose sight of the view that all art is1 primarily1 the projection or precipitation in material form of man's emotional and intellectual nature2 but1 being projected and taking definite shape1 it becomes subject to certain controlling forces of nature1 of material1 of condition1 which re-act upon the mind2 and it is with these controlling forces and conditions1 and the distinctions which arise out of them1 that we are now concerned4 ,such distinctions as exist1 for instance1 in the feeling1 the plan and construction of those patterns intended to be laid upon the floors 7as in carpets or tiles71 and such as are intended to cover ceilings and walls 7as in plaster-work1 textile hangings or wall papers71 obviously arise from the relative positions of floor1 walls1 and ceilings1 and the differences between horizontal and vertical positions2 and these conditions are necessarily part and parcel of the constructional conditions of the dwelling itself4 ,the first shelter may be said to have been the shelter of nature without art--the ,,tree and the ,,cave1 the first homes of man2 although he was probably not by any means the first animal to hide among the woods and the rocks1 since he had many and formidable foes to dispute with or disturb him in possession4 ,it is noticeable that such art as is associated with this strange and remote chapter of man's existence on the earth--the art-instinct which impelled the primitive hunter to incise the bone and stone implements he used with the images of the animals he hunted--is purely graphic1 and does not show any feeling of that adaptive ornamental quality characteristic of what we call decorative design1 which would seem to belong to a more highly organized condition of society4 ,among the primitive ,greeks1 remarks ,messrs4 ,guhl and ,kner in their ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans1 fountains and trees1 caves and mountains1 were considered as seats of the gods1 and revered accordingly1 even without being changed into divine habitations by the art of man4 ,but1 as proving literally that art springs out of nature1 the cave itself led to a development of architecture1 as in some early ,greek tombs where the cave1 or cleft in the rocks1 is utilized and added to by masonry2 or where the rock itself was carved and hollowed1 as in the rock-cut temples of ,egypt and ,india4 ,to which some trace the origin of columnar architecture4 ,the ,,tent of the ,asiatic wandering tribes1 and the wattled and wooden ,,hut of the western and northern1 come next in the order of human dwellings1 and not only may we trace certain types of pattern design to both sources1 but it would seem as if both the tent and the hut1 and perhaps the wagon of the ,aryans1 had had their influence upon the more substantial stone structures which succeeded them4 ,when tribes became communities1 townships were founded1 and more fixed and settled habits of life prevailed4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,three ,,typical ,,forms ,,of ,,architecture3 ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,lintel4 ,,round ,,arch4 ,,pointed ,,arch4 ,now we may broadly group the principal types of architectural form and construction in three principal divisions1 following ,professor ,ruskin1 namely3 #a4 ,the architecture of the ,lintel 7or column and pediment74 #b4 ,the architecture of the ,round ,arch 7or vault and dome74 #c4 ,the architecture of the ,pointed ,arch#a 7or vault1 gable1 and buttress74 #a ,although such a classification may not be quite satisfactory from the point of view of the constructive and historical architect1 it sufficiently serves the present purpose as regards the influence of these main types in determining the form and character and controlling spaces and lines of the decoration1 both surface and sculptural design1 which accompanies them in ancient1 classical1 and medival work which it is my object to trace4 ,of the first we may find the simplest type in ,stonehenge2 we may find it in equally massive1 and almost as primitive form at ,mycen1 in the famous ,gate of the ,lions1 remarkable as being the earliest known example of ,greek sculpture3 we may find it more developed in the ,greek temples of ancient ,egypt1 at ,karnac1 ,thebes and ,phil1 and we may see it in its purest form in the ,parthenon at ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,of ,,mycen4 ,the derivation and development of the ,greek ,doric temple from its prototype of wooden construction has frequently been demonstrated1 and the tombs in ,lycia furnish striking illustrations of this close imitation and perpetuation in stone of a system and details belonging to wood2 and it is instructive to compare its features with corresponding parts in the ,parthenon1 and to observe how closely they agree4 ,it is a curious instance of that love for and clinging to ancient and traditional forms1 that with the art and all the resources of ,athenian civilization1 the form and construction of its temples remained much the same1 and may be considered as only glorified enlargements in marble of their wooden predecessors1 retaining all the characteristic details of those primitive structures4 ,illustration3 ,,imitation ,,of ,,wooden ,,construction ,,in ,,stone ,,tomb ,,in ,,lykia1 ,from ,,guhl ,,koner4 ,by these means1 however1 qualities of grandeur1 joined with extreme simplicity1 subtle proportions1 and sparing1 severe1 but delicately chiselled ornament were gained2 which1 when heightened with colour in the broad and strong sunshine of ,greece1 seemed all sufficient1 especially so when they formed the framework1 or setting1 of the most beautiful and noble sculpture the world has ever seen1 as in the ,parthenon4 ,to this sculpture1 indeed1 all the lines and proportions of the building seem to lead the eye1 while it remains1 whether in pediment1 metope1 or frieze1 an essential part of the architectural effect1 and is strictly slab sculpture1 or what may be considered as architectural ornament1 for1 as ,i have elsewhere said1 we may fairly consider figure-sculpture to have been the ornament of the ,greeks3 just as one might say that picture writing and hieroglyphic were the mural decorations of the ,egyptians4 ,illustration3 ,,ornamental ,,lines ,,in ,,the ,,frieze ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon4 ,,wave ,,movement ,,spiral ,,curves ,,in ,,the ,,frieze4 ,these sculptures were evidently designed under the influence of the strongest architectural and decorative feeling1 and were constructed upon a basis of ornamental lines4 ,there is a certain rhythm and recurrence of mass1 and line1 and form in them throughout1 and they have all been carefully considered in relation to the places they occupy4 ,illustration3 ,,metope ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon1 ,,showing ,,relation ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,masses ,,in ,,relief ,,to ,,the ,,ground4 ,it is to be noted1 too1 that the sculptures are placed in the interstices of the construction2 that is to say1 not on the actual bearing parts4 ,on this point it is interesting to compare with the earlier forms of pure stone construction at ,mycen4 ,the lions over the ,mycen ,gate are carved upon a slab of stone placed in the triangular hollow left above the lintel to prevent it breaking under the great pressure of the heavy stones used4 ,the triangular hollow may be seen without the slab in the doorway of ,clytemnestra's house at ,mycen4 ,here we have an early instance of the interstice left by the necessities of the construction being utilized as a decorative feature1 significant in its design1 showing the protecting image of the ,castle of ,mycen1 much in the same way as we see the family arms sculptured over the gateways of our ,english medival castles4 ,returning to the ,parthenon1 we see that the same principle is observable in the pediment and metope sculptures1 the frieze of the cella being really a mural decoration consisting of facing slabs of marble4 ,the building would doubtless stand without any of them1 as a timber-framed house would stand without its boarding1 or filling of brick or plaster2 but it would be like a skeleton1 or a head without its eyes--much1 indeed1 as time1 bombardment1 ravage1 and the ,british ,museum have left it now4 ,before we leave the ,parthenon1 let me call attention to one prevailing principle1 characteristic of its design in every part2 for though following throughout the principles or traditions of wooden construction1 no doubt its proportions and lines were consciously and carefully considered by the architect with a view to sthetic effect4 ,it is the principle of recurring or re-echoing lines1 a leading principle1 indeed1 throughout the whole province of ,design1 and one on the importance and value of which it is impossible to lay too much stress4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,parthenon ,after ,,menge4 ,illustration3 ,,parthenon ,,eastern ,,pediment--,,sketch ,,to ,,show ,,relation ,,of ,,lines ,,of ,,sculpture ,,to ,,angle ,,of ,,pediment4 ,illustration3 ,,parthenon ,,eastern ,,pediment--,,sketch ,,to ,,show ,,relation ,,of ,,lines ,,of ,,sculpture ,,to ,,angle ,,of ,,pediment4 ,to begin with the pediment4 ,the main outline is delicately emphasized by the mouldings of the edge1 which also serve as a dripstone--the practical origin1 probably1 of all mouldings4 ,the groups of sculptured figures within the recess 7which further serve to express the pitch of the roof7 re-echo1 informally1 in the lines controlling their composition1 as well as in the lines of limbs and draperies1 variations of the angle of the pediment4 ,thus1 the groups of figures1 full of action and variety as they are1 are united and harmonized with the whole building2 while1 to avoid undue appearance of heaviness on the crest of the pediment and on the angles were placed anthemion bronze ornaments4 ,illustration3 ,,parthenon ,,elevation ,,showing ,,portion ,,of ,,pediment1 ,,frieze ,,and ,,columns4 ,the cornice1 again1 is emphasized by mouldings marking the important horizontal lines of the building1 re-echoed by the lines of the frieze1 and counteracted and braced by the emphatic vertical lines of the triglyphs1 and enriched by the little dentils below4 ,then we come to the cap of the ,doric column4 ,it is simplicity itself4 ,a thin square block of marble forms the abacus4 ,the capital is a flattened circular cushion of marble1 rounded at the sides in a diminishing curve to the head of the column1 which terminates in a horizontal reeding4 ,the column itself is delicately channelled with a series of lines which follow its outline1 and give vertical expression to the idea of the support of the horizontal mass above1 the column gradually diminishing from base to cap1 entasized or slightly swelled in the middle to avoid the visual effect of running out of the perpendicular4 ,the ,doric columns spring boldly from the steps without base mouldings1 the steps repeating the horizontal lines of the building again1 and giving it height and dignity4 ,the other variants of the ,greek style will illustrate much the same principles in different degrees1 and we may trace the value of proportions1 and recurring lines1 and different degrees of enrichment through the other four orders4 ,as designers1 then1 we can at least learn some very important lessons from lintel architecture generally1 and from the ,parthenon in particular1 and chiefest amongst these are3 ,illustration3 ,,marble ,,chairs1 ,,theatre ,,of ,,dionysus1 ,,athens4 #a4 ,the value of simplicity of line4 #b4 ,the value of recurring and re-echoing lines4 #c4 ,the value of ornamental design and treatment of figures in low or high relief as parts of architectural expression4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,chair4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,table ,,with ,,votive ,,offerings4 ,illustration3 ,,end ,,of ,,greek ,,couch4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,low-,,backed ,,throne4 #d4 ,the value of largeness of style in the design and treatment of the groups and figures themselves1 both as sculpture pure and simple and as architectural ornament4 ,when we come to examine the accessories of ,greek life1 furniture1 pottery1 dress1 we find them all characterized by the same qualities in design as we have just been noting in the architecture2 the fundamental architectural feeling seems to pervade them4 ,a simplicity of line1 balance1 and reserve of ornament distinguishes alike their seats and chairs and tables1 caskets1 vases and vessels1 and the expressive lines of their dresses and draperies falling into the lines of the figure give life and variety1 while they contrast with the severity of the architectural lines and planes4 ,now1 so far we have been considering the architecture of the lintel1 and its bearing upon design1 and the qualities and principles we may learn from it generally4 ,with the use of the round arch--invented1 it is said1 by the ,greeks1 but always associated with the ,romans1 who used it--quite different effects come in1 with different motives and ideas in design4 ,the ,roman architecture1 the round arch1 fulfils the functions of both construction and ornament1 on the same principle of recurrence1 or repetition1 we have noticed before2 as1 for instance1 in the ,colosseum1 where the tiers of round arches which support the outer wall of the building serve both the constructive and decorative functions4 ,with the use of the arch the arcade becomes a constructive feature of great decorative value1 and takes the place in ,roman and ,romanesque buildings1 with a lighter and more varied effect1 of the columned ,greek cella4 ,sunshine1 no doubt1 had much to do with its use1 since a covered arcaded loggia1 or porch in front of a building1 so frequent in ,italy1 gave both shelter and coolness4 ,the use of the arch led to vaulting1 and to the use of arch mouldings1 enrichments1 and to the covering the vaults with mosaic and painting1 and the vaulting led to the dome1 which1 again1 offered a splendid field for the mosaicist and the painter4 ,illustration3 ,,constructive ,,decorative ,,use ,,of ,,round ,,arch ,,pilaster ,,flavian ,,amphitheatre 7,,colosseum7 ,,rome4 7,,ferguson74 ,the ,romans borrowed all their architectural details from the ,greeks1 and varied and enriched them1 adding many more members to the cornice mouldings1 and carving stone garlands upon their friezes1 to take the place of the primitive festal ones of leaves which were hung there1 as in the relief of the visit of ,bacchus to ,icarius1 a ,romano-,greek sculpture in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,,the ,,festal ,,garland1 ,,from ,a ,,gr,,co ,,roman ,,relief ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 ,they 7the ,romans7 fully realized the ornamental value of colonnades and porticoes1 and they used the column1 varying the orders1 and translating them into pilasters freely as decorations on the faades and walls of their buildings1 slicing up the peristyles of temples1 as it were1 for the sake of their ornamental effect1 cutting down the columns into pilasters1 and placing them1 with intervening friezes1 one on the top of the other1 masking the construction of the real building1 a favourite device with the ,renascence architects4 ,illustration3 ,,use ,,of ,,decorative ,,sculpture ,,in ,,roman ,,architecture3 ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,constantine4 ,roman architecture may be considered really as a transitional style4 ,while its true constructive characteristic is the round arch1 every detail of the ,greek or ,lintel architecture is used both without and with the arch1 and in the latter case the column frequently becomes a wall decoration in the shape of a pilaster1 as well as the cornice1 and is no longer made use of1 as in true lintel construction1 to support the weight of the roof4 ,in their viaducts and bridges and baths they were great builders with the arch1 but1 like some modern engineers1 when they wanted to beautify they borrowed architectural ornament from the ,greeks4 ,nothing very fresh was gained for design in these adaptations except a certain heavy richness of detail in the sculptured cornices and friezes1 and coffered ceilings4 ,the use of the flat pilaster1 however1 led to the panelled pilaster with its elegant arabesque1 which was afterwards revived and developed with such extraordinary grace and variety by the artists of the ,renascence and carried from ,italy westward4 ,with the round arch1 too1 several important decorative spaces were given to the designer1 the spandrel1 the panel1 the medallion1 all of which1 with the frieze1 may be seen utilized for the decorative sculpture on the arch of ,constantine4 ,the decorative use of inscriptions is also a feature in ,roman architecture1 and the dignity of the form of their capital letters was well adapted to ornamental effect in square masses upon their triumphal arches and along the entablature of their temples4 ,the ,romans1 too1 brought the domed roof and the mosaic floor into use1 and were great in the use of coloured marbles2 also stucco and plaster work in interiors1 the free and beautiful plaster work found in the tombs on the ,latin ,way being well known2 so that on the whole we owe to them the illustration of the effective use of many beautiful arts1 which the ,italians have inherited to this day1 though it must be said often with more skill than taste4 ,one might say1 generally and ultimately1 ,roman art exemplified that love of show1 and the external signs of power1 pomp1 splendour1 and luxury which became dear as well as fatal to them1 as they appear to do to every conquering people1 until they are finally enervated and overcome as if by the ,nemesis of their own supremacy4 ,illustration3 ,,mosaic1 ,,st4 ,,apollinare ,,in ,,classe1 ,,ravenna4 ,the art of ,greece1 one may say1 on the other hand1 at her zenith represented that love of beauty as distinct from ornament1 and clearness and severity of thought which will always cling to the country from whence the modern world derives the germ of nearly all its ideas4 ,but when the seat of the empire was transferred to ,constantinople1 and ,roman art1 influenced by ,asiatic feeling1 and stimulated and elevated by the new faith of ,christianity1 became transfigured into the solemn splendour of ,byzantine art1 the architecture of the round arch and the dome and cupola rose to its fullest beauty1 and such buildings as ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1 and ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 with the churches of ,ravenna1 mark another great and noble epoch in the arts of design4 ,byzantine design1 whether in building1 in carving1 in mosaic1 or goldsmiths' work1 impresses one with a certain restraint in the midst of its splendour2 a certain controlling dignity and reserve appears to be exercised even in the use of the most beautiful materials1 as well as in design and the treatment of form4 ,the mosaics of the ,ravenna churches alone are sufficient to exemplify this4 ,the artists seemed fully to realize that the curved surfaces of the dome1 the half dome of the apse1 or the long flat frieze above the arch columns of the nave of the basilicas1 like ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 afforded splendid fields for a splendid material1 the cross light from the deep-set windows enriching the effect1 and that everything might well be secondary to it4 ,the same principle or feeling is seen in ,st4 ,mark's where the architecture is quite simple1 the arches and vaulting without mouldings1 nothing to interfere with the quiet splendour of the gold or blue fields of mosaic varied with simple typical figures1 bold in silhouette1 placed frankly upon them1 emblems1 boldly curving scroll-work1 and inscriptions4 ,the execution1 too1 is as direct and simple as the design4 ,such design and decoration as this becomes an essential and integral part of the architectural structure and effect4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,interior ,,of ,,dome1 ,s4 ,,mark',s1 ,,venice4 ,illustration3 ,,mosaic ,,of ,,the ,,empress ,,theodora1 ,t4 ,,vitale1 ,,ravenna1 ,,sixth ,,century4 ,note the way in which the tesser are laid 7in the head of the ,empress ,theodora from ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 for instance74 ,the cube is used as much as possible1 but the cubes vary much in size1 and are set often with very open joints1 the cement lines of the bedding showing quite clearly1 and the surface of the work uneven1 the tesser being worked1 of course1 from the front and in situ1 presenting a varied surface of different facets which1 catching the light at different angles1 give an extraordinary sparkle and richness to the effect as a whole4 ,in the head of ,theodora the effect is enhanced by the discs of mother-of-pearl used for the head-dress4 ,in the laying of the tesser1 too1 note that the system is followed of defining the outlines with rows of cubes1 and building up the masses 7as in the nimbus7 with concentric rows1 as a rule1 making the lines of the filling tesser follow as far as possible the line of the boundary tesser4 ,this1 of course1 would naturally result as the simplest and most convenient1 as well as most expressive1 method of laying tesser1 in defining form by means of small cubes1 and is one of the conditions of the work1 and when1 as in these mosaics1 so far from being refined away1 or concealed1 or any attempt being made 7as in later times7 to imitate painting1 these conditions are boldly and frankly acknowledged1 we see how its peculiar beauty1 character1 and the quality of its ornamental effect depends upon these very conditions4 ,this principle will be found to hold good and true throughout all art4 ,directly1 from a false idea of refinement1 or with the object of displaying mechanical skill1 the craftsman is induced to try to conceal the fundamental conditions of his craft1 and to make it ape the qualities of some totally different sort of work1 he ceases to be an artist1 at all events4 ,the true artist in any material is he who in acknowledging its conditions and limitations finds in them sources and opportunities of new beauty1 and in being faithful to those conditions makes them subserve his invention4 ,after the decorative splendour of the ,byzantine architecture1 the ,norman work left in our own land seems comparatively simple and plain as time has left it1 but its remains show its ,roman descent in the doorway and porch of many a quiet village church1 as well as on a greater scale in so many of our cathedrals1 which often illustrate1 in a remarkable way1 the transition or growth of one style out of another1 the new evolved from the old4 ,at ,canterbury1 for instance1 one reads the signs which mark the transformation of the ,norman building into the ,gothic4 ,the first church founded by ,st4 ,augustine was ,saxon4 ,this was enlarged by ,otho 7#ich7 as a basilica4 ,this again was ruined by the ,danes 7#ajac74 ,the ,norman part of the present building was constructed by ,bishop ,lanfranc 7#ajgj71 on to which was grafted1 as it were1 the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth century ,gothic which distinguish it4 ,there is a tower on the south side of the transept known as ,anselm's ,tower 7from ,bishop ,anselm1 one of the ,norman builders71 and on the lower part runs an arcading of interlacing round arches1 the tower itself being richly arcaded in several stories in round arches4 ,but this lower band shows the period of transition1 from the use of the round arch1 to the pointed--the pointed lancet arches being formed by the interlacing of the round1 so that we have here the actual birth of the pointed arch 7at least1 as a decorative feature71 which leads us to our next typical division and characteristic epoch of architectural style4 ,illustration3 ,,anselm',s ,,tower1 ,,canterbury4 ,we need not go out of our own country to find abundant illustrations of typical forms of pointed architecture4 ,almost any village church will give us the main features--the characteristic plan of nave and chancel1 curiously following the plan of the ancient ,roman basilica--the public hall and law court in one1 and perpetuating for us the type of ancient dwelling or hall which may be said to have prevailed from the time of ,homer to the end of the ,middle ,ages1 varying chiefly in external features and architectural detail4 ,the severe lancet arch is characteristic of the first phase of the ,gothic1 which gradually grew out of the severer ,norman4 ,the gable took a higher pitch1 and to support the weight and thrust of towers and spires1 buttresses were used1 and these became1 also1 a striking and characteristic feature of the pointed arch1 which completed in the thirteenth century the period of its first development4 ,lancet arch1 high-pitched gable1 buttress 7plain and pinnacled71 spired and pinnacled tower--these are the leading constructive exterior characteristics1 the carved work1 somewhat restrained1 and chiefly manifested in peculiar foliation of the capitals and corbels1 and in the hollows of arch mouldings in rows of sharp cut dog teeth4 ,in the interior clustered shafts took the place of the solid round ,norman piers1 rising1 as we see in our cathedral naves1 to support lofty vaulted roofs1 the ribs moulded and covered at their intersections by carved bosses4 ,again we may note the principle of recurring lines which repeat and emphasize the form of the arched openings and the structural lines of the vaulting in the mouldings4 ,this recurrence gives that effect of extraordinary grace and lightness combined with structural strength which is so striking a characteristic of thirteenth century ,gothic work1 and of which there is no finer example than the nave of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,illustration3 ,,transitional ,,arcade1 ,,south ,,transept1 ,,canterbury4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,forms ,,of ,,arches3 ,,semicircular4 ,,transition4 ,,pointed 7,,equilateral74 ,,pointed 7,,lancet74 ,,cusped4 ,,ogee4 ,,typical ,,forms ,,of ,,gothic ,,geometric ,,foliation4 ,ruskin4 ,illustration3 ,,westminster ,,abbey3 ,,the ,,nave1 ,,looking ,,east4 ,we noted that the ,greeks used the interstices of their construction for their chief decoration1 their figure sculpture1 and to some extent the same plan is followed in ,gothic architecture1 where we find the tympanums of doors1 the spandrels of arcades 7as in the ,chapter ,house at ,salisbury or the angel choir at ,lincoln71 and canopied niches 7as at ,wells71 used for figure sculpture2 but1 at the same time1 the structural features themselves are emphasized by ornament to a far greater extent1 as in caps1 arch mouldings1 the junctions of the vaulting1 and the like2 and increasingly so in the succeeding ,decorated and ,perpendicular periods1 until we get vaulted roofs of fan tracery like those of ,king's ,college ,chapel at ,cambridge1 or ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster4 ,but if we may say that the chief decorative glory of ,greek architecture was its figure sculpture1 as mosaic was of the ,byzantine churches1 so we may say that the traceried window1 filled with stained and leaded glass1 became the chief decorative glory of ,gothic architecture4 ,unhappily great quantities of glass have disappeared from our cathedrals and churches1 from one cause or another1 but from the relics that remain we may form some idea of the splendour and quality of the old glass4 ,the famous windows of the south transept at ,york ,minster1 called ,the ,five ,sisters1 are good examples of the severer earlier style of pattern and colour1 consisting of fine scroll-work and geometric forms1 in which hatched grisaille patterns are heightened by bright points and lines of colour4 ,illustration3 ,,west ,,front ,,of ,,wells ,,cathedral4 ,thirteenth century glass1 where figures are used1 is characterized by the smallness of their scale in proportion to the window1 and traces of ,byzantine tradition in their drawing1 intricate design1 and deep and vivid colouring1 the work being composed of small pieces of glass leaded together2 the effect of the jewel-like depth and quality of the colour--deep crimsons1 blues1 and greens being much used--being increased by the close network of leading4 ,as windows1 in the course of the evolution of the ,gothic style1 were made broader1 or rather1 the window opening proper from wall to wall being greatly increased in width and height1 they were supported and divided into panels or lights by elaborate stone tracery1 a tracery which becomes almost as distinct a province of design as the design of the glass itself--distinct from1 yet in close relationship to the architecture of the building4 ,the comparative slight divisions of the tracery1 however1 gave more scope to the stained glass designer1 who shows very emphatic architectural influence in the elaborate canopies which surmount the figures occupying the separate lights of the windows from the thirteenth to the end of the fifteenth centuries1 as well as in the general vertical arrangement of the lines of their composition4 ,he gradually increased the scale of his figures and gave more breadth to his design1 and brought it more into relation with the art of the painter and the sculptor1 at the same time acknowledging with them1 in the disposition of his figures in the space1 and the disposition of the draperies and accessories1 that architectural influence under which the artist and craftsman of the ,middle ,ages worked with extraordinary freedom and fertility of invention1 and yet in perfect harmony#b--;a sign of that fraternal co-operation and the effect of the formation of men into brotherhoods and guilds1 which1 coming in with the adoption of ,christianity and the organization of the ,church1 remained through all the turbulence and strife of the time the great social force of the ,middle ,ages4 #b ,as ,i recur to the subject of glass design in ,chapter ,,iv4 illustrations are given there4 ,illustration3 ,,westminster ,,abbey1 ,,fan ,,tracery ,,in ,,henry ,,vii4',s ,,chapel1 ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,it seems to me if we wish to realize the ideal of a great and harmonious art1 which shall be capable of expressing the best that is in us3 if we desire again to raise great architectural monuments1 religious1 municipal1 or commemorative1 we shall have to learn the great lesson of unity through fraternal co-operation and sympathy1 the particular work of each1 however individual and free in artistic expression1 falling naturally into its due place in a harmonious scheme4 ,let us cultivate our technical skill and knowledge to the utmost1 but let us not neglect our imagination1 sense of beauty1 and sympathy1 or else we shall have nothing to express4 ,through the thirteenth century onwards to the fifteenth ,gothic architecture continued to develop1 to pass through new phases1 to take new forms1 a living and growing style moving with the wants and ideals of men4 ,after the ,early ,english comes the ,decorated period1 in which the mouldings and foliation become fuller1 broader1 and more ornate4 ,to contrast decorated foliation and ornament with the earlier work1 is like comparing the opening flower with the bud4 ,the ogee arch was invented1 the crockets of the pinnacles and canopies grew and increased and became finer in form1 the finials larger and more varied4 ,the carved canopies and tabernacle work grew richer and more intricate4 ,the foliage followed nature more closely4 ,the figure subjects of the carver were more freely treated1 and dealt oftener with common life1 with phantasy1 or humour4 ,the effigies of knight and lady1 or priest1 became more and more like portraits in stone or alabaster1 the details of their dresses more rich1 delicate1 and beautiful4 ,the maker of brasses showed a freer and more masterly hand1 and greater sense of ornamental effect in the spacing and treatment of his figures4 ,the work of the miniaturist and the scribe grew more and more delicate and exquisite in form1 colour1 and invention4 ,the stained glass worker increased the scale of his figures1 and varied the quality and treatment of his colours4 ,the glazier invented new lead patterns2 the wood carver revelled in stall work1 screens1 and misereres4 ,the recessed and canopied tomb enriched the chantries of churches and cathedrals4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,five ,,sisters ,,of ,,york1 ,,thirteenth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,details ,,of ,,tomb ,,winchelsea ,,ch4 #acjc4 ,finial4 ,pinnacle4 ,crocket4 ,termination of ,cusp4 ,illustration3 ,,fourteenth ,,century ,,canopied ,,tomb1 ,,winchelsea ,,church4 ,illustration3 ,wells ,cathedral ,architectural feeling detail in iron work4 ,wrought-,iron ,railing4 ,tomb of ,bishop ,thomas ,de ,bekynton #adfd-e4 ,beauty and invention of extraordinary fertility and richness characterized every form of art and handicraft associated with ,gothic architecture4 ,we can trace in each variety the architectural influence in every department of work4 ,in some instances reproduction of actual architectural details and characteristics1 as1 for instance1 when the wrought-iron railing of a bishop's tomb 7at ,wells ,cathedral1 #adfd-e7 reproduced the battlement1 buttress and pinnacle as motives1 giving them1 however1 a free and fanciful rendering suited to the material4 ,illustration3 ,,dressoir ,,or ,,side ,,board #aeth ,,cent4 ,,french 7from ,l4 ,roger ,mils74 ,illustration3 ,,canopied ,,seat ,,french #aeth ,,cent4 ,abundant instances may be found of the fanciful treatment of architectural forms in furniture1 textiles1 in painting and carving1 and metal work--the canopies over the heads of figures in stained glass1 and inclosing figures upon brasses1 are instances--shrines and caskets in the form of arcaded1 and buttressed and pinnacled buildings1 seats and chairs with canopied or arched backs1 carved bench ends with poppy head finials and arched and foliated panels1 censers in the form of shrines4 ,the large gold brocaded stuffs used as hangings or coverings1 and represented in miniatures and pictures of the period4 ,very beautiful specimens are to be seen in the pictures of ,van ,eyck and ,memling for instance4 ,illustration3 ,,carved ,,bench-,,ends1 ,,dennington ,,church1 ,,suffolk4 ,in all these things we find a re-echo1 as it were1 of the prevailing foliated forms of ,gothic architecture1 repeated through endless variations1 the controlling and harmonizing element throughout the design work of the ,gothic periods1 the form by which all seem to be harmonized and related1 as the branches are related to the main stem1 and as the plan of the tree may be found in the veining of the leaf4 ,the fourteenth century saw the development of a new phase of ,gothic called ,perpendicular4 ,it is found united with the ,early ,english and ,decorated1 as well as ,norman1 in nearly all our cathedrals4 ,illustration3 ,,brocade ,,hanging1 ,,from ,,the ,,annunciation1 ,,by ,,memling4 ,at ,st4 ,david's1 for instance1 there is a remarkable instance of a late ,perpendicular timber roof1 richly moulded and carved1 with pendants1 covering a ,norman nave of #aahj4 ,yet the effect is fine1 and one feels glad that the restoring architect could find no authority for a ,norman stone vaulting1 otherwise we might have lost the rich timber roof for a modern idea of a supposititious ,norman vault4 ,the sketch 7from the south side of the choir at ,canterbury1 p4 #de71 too1 shows how harmoniously structural lines of different periods compose4 ,the chief characteristics of the late period of ,gothic 7,perpendicular7 are a lower pitched arch1 an elongated shaft1 many clustered2 caps and bases angular2 ribs of vaulting richly moulded1 or the vault covered with fan-like foliation in late examples1 as in ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel4 ,pinnacles begin to take the cupular form1 details become smaller1 windows grow larger and are transversely divided by transoms or horizontal bars of stone1 connecting and solidifying the many vertical mullions4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,david',s ,,cathedral4 ,a certain refinement of detail and line with a feeling for emphatic horizontals and verticals comes in2 and this feeling may be the indication of a reaction1 as if the constructive and imaginative faculties of man were beginning to prepare for the next great change that was soon to sweep over the art of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,structural ,,lines ,,of ,,different ,,periods ,,in ,,harmonious ,,combination1 ,,canterbury ,,cathedral4 ,it might be said that gradually from that time architecture1 as the supreme organic and controlling influence in the arts of design1 gave up her prerogative of leadership1 and since has rather been on the whole displaced in artistic interest by the other arts2 or rather1 with the change of the principle of organic growth out of use and constructive necessity in architecture for those of classical authority1 archology1 or learned eclecticism1 the different arts1 more especially painting1 began an independent existence1 and1 with the other arts of design1 may be said to have been more individualized and less and less related both to them and to architecture ever since1 reaching the extremest points of divergence perhaps in our own days4 ,it seems to me that1 on the whole1 there can be little doubt that architecture and the arts of design generally have suffered in consequence2 and to bring them back to healthy and harmonious activity we must try to re-unite them all again upon the old basis4 ,i will terminate here my short sketch of architectural style and its influence1 not attempting now to follow it in its later changes and adaptations to the increased complexities of human existence4 ,my purpose has been rather to dwell upon the organic and typical forms of architecture1 in my endeavour to trace the relationship between it and the art of design generally4 ,that relationship appears to me to consist chiefly in the control of constructive line and form1 which all design1 surface or otherwise1 in association with any form of architecture is bound of necessity to acknowledge as a fundamental condition of fitness and harmony4 ,those essential properties of the expression of line1 as they now seem1 which give meaning and purpose to all design1 appear to be derived straight from constructive necessities and the inseparable association of ideas with which they are connected2 as1 for instance1 the idea of secure rest and repose conveyed by horizontal lines1 or the sense of support and rigidity suggested by vertical ones may be directly traced to association with the fundamental principles of architectural structure1 to the lintel and its support1 to the laying of stone upon stone1 and with this clue we might trace the expression of line through its many variations4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,utility ,,basis ,,and ,,influence ,,next to the architectural basis influence in design1 and1 indeed1 hardly separable from it1 being another side of the constructive1 adaptive art1 we may fitly take the ,utility ,basis and influence4 ,this may be considered in two ways3 7#a7 ,in its effect upon pattern design and architectural ornament through primitive structural necessities4 7#b7 ,in its effect upon structural form and ornamental treatment arising out of1 or suggested by1 functional use4 7#a7 ,it is a curious thing that we should find the primitive ornamental motives bound up with the primitive structures and fabrics of pure utility and necessity1 but such would appear to be the case4 ,the plaiting of rushes to make a mat was probably one of the earliest industrial occupations1 and the chequer one of the most primitive and universal of patterns4 ,if we look at the surface effect of the necessity of the construction1 the crossing of one equal set of fibres by another set at right angles1 with the interlacement1 a series of squares are produced1 which alternate in tint if the colour of one set is darker than the sets which cross it 7see illustration74 ,emphasize this contrast and we get our chequer1 or chessboard pattern1 which1 either as a pattern complete in itself1 as in plaids and tartans1 or as a plan1 or effect motive in designing is1 as ,i have said1 perhaps the most universal and imperishable of all patterns1 being found in association with the design of all periods1 and still surviving in constant use among designers4 ,illustration3 ,,matting4 ,let us follow the primitive rush mat a little further1 however4 ,as it lay on the primitive tent or hut floor its edges would take the sort of form shown on the following page4 ,in ancient ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 ,persian1 and ,greek architecture we constantly find carved patterns used as borderings and figures1 of the type given in the ,assyrian example4 ,now1 comparing this with the primitive matting1 the suggestion is very strong of the probability of derivation of motive of patterns of this type from the same constructive source originally4 ,in some instances1 as on the enamelled tile from ,assyria1 the border reverses itself1 but with the ,greeks it finally took the upright direction1 as in the ,anthemion or honeysuckle border forms2 but1 however afterwards varied and enriched by floral form1 its structural origin in plaited work is always to be traced1 and it seems to gain from it a certain strength and adaptability4 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,rush ,,mat ,,and ,,assyrian ,,border4 ,,assyrian ,,incised ,,border4 ,another type of ornament may be traced to the constructive necessities of wattle and wicker work1 so much used by primitive man in the structure of his dwellings1 and in primitive objects of use and service4 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,enamelled ,,tile4 ,the various forms of volute1 or spiral1 and guilloche ornament1 so much used by the ancients--,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 and ,greek--may be compared1 in their structure and arrangement of line1 with the form taken by the withy1 or cord twisted around the upright canes or staves of a wattled fence1 as seen in horizontal section4 ,the primitive wattled structure gives the plans of these patterns4 ,it certainly appears to account for their origin in a remarkably complete way4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,anthemion ,,ornament4 ,illustration3 ,,wattled ,,fence4 ,it is possible that another source which may have contributed to the evolution of the ,greek spiral or volute was metal in the form of the thin beaten plates with which the primitive ,greeks covered parts of their interior walls2 but these were later times1 and it is also possible that the primitive metal worker took his motive from the wattling too4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,volute ,,ornament4 ,,patterns ,,from ,,bronze ,,shields ,,cyprus4 ,,greek ,,volute ,,or ,,meander ,,pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,decoration ,,derived ,,from ,,thonging4 ,,stone ,,axe ,,of ,,montezuma ,,ii4 ,,bronze ,,vessel1 ,,lake ,,of ,,bourget4 ,,ebony ,,comb1 ,,assyria4 ,,sculptured ,,stone ,,cornice ,,egypt4 ,,norman ,,cap1 ,,peterborough ,,cathedral4 ,,back ,,of ,,bronze ,,knife ,,estavayer4 ,before metal was used1 or nails or joinery were known1 the method of fastening two things together1 such as the blade of a stone axe or hammer and its handle1 was by thonging or tying them firmly together by strips of leather or thongs1 and to this source again we might trace other types of pattern motives of very wide prevalence4 ,in the first instances the thonging was imitated in metal-work when no longer used in the construction by way of ornament1 as in various bronze implements existing2 but later1 starting from the tying and thonging motive1 we get all sorts of variations1 as in the zigzag of ,norman arch mouldings1 and in the earlier ,celtic knotted work1 which seemed partly a re-echo of some types of ,eastern and classic ornament1 unless we regard it as independently derived1 like them1 from primitive structure4 ,it seems to make itself felt again in a new variety in the strap-work of our ,elizabethan period1 in which the ornament apparently was a new blend of ,gothic with classical details1 with an infusion of oriental or ,moorish feeling1 filtered through ,italy and ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,frieze 7,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,sibyl ,,tivoli74 ,illustration3 ,,yoke ,,of ,,oxen1 ,,carrara4 ,as an instance of architectural ornament1 the motive of which seems taken from a piece of common every-day usage1 we may note the frieze of the ,roman circular ,temple of the ,sibyl at ,tivoli1 which is composed of the heads of oxen1 alternating with1 and connected by1 the curves of pendent floral garlands4 ,to this day in ,italy almost anywhere one may see this motive suggested by the appearance of the country ox wagon as it approaches along the road--the front view of the two oxen heads1 with the level yoke across their necks1 and the pendent connecting ropes hanging between4 ,it is probable1 however1 that whatever its origin1 its suggestion was sacrificial1 since the ox decked with garlands constantly figures in classical sculpture led before the altar to be slain1 and this circumstance may equally have given rise to the sculptor's motive1 just as we saw that the custom of decking the cornice of the ,greek house with garlands suggested its perpetuation in stone carving by the classical architects4 ,it will be noted that those primitive sources to which we may trace motives in ornamental design1 however1 afterwards developed on purely ornamental lines1 and because of their ornamental value1 all of them have their beginnings in actual use and service1 in physical and constructive necessity1 and that they are closely associated with the form and character of the dwellings and temples of man4 7#b7 ,turning now to the second division of our subject to consider the effects upon form and treatment of surface arising out of1 or suggested by1 functional use1 we shall still have to keep close to the dwelling1 and constantly to remember the ever present architectural influence with the consideration of which we set out4 ,illustration3 ,,barge-,,board1 ,,ightham ,,mote ,,house4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,of ,,gables3 ,,northern4 ,,southern4 ,the angle of the pitch of the roof in buildings1 for instance1 which is so marked a characteristic in the different types of architecture1 was originally determined by the necessities of climate4 ,one might say broadly that the acute1 high-pitched ,gothic roof means snow or bad weather1 while the low-pitched classic roof means sunshine for the most part2 or we might say that the one typified winter and the other summer4 ,a house must still be built mainly for one or the other1 though by ingenuity and careful consideration of the points of the compass in choosing the site and planning1 in the rare instances where free choice is still possible1 something may be1 and has been attempted1 to fit all seasons2 and it is this careful consideration of such points in our ancient buildings--say the old ,english manor houses1 built to dwell in and to last--which gives that sense of homelike comfort and pleasure to the eye1 perhaps1 quite as much as the interest of their ornamental detail4 ,a sunny garden terrace or arcaded front to the south to catch the winter sun--cool and shady rooms to the north for the summer--a sheltered porch to protect the guest against the weather4 ,such contrivances as these show that thought has been spent and care taken in the planning and building2 that the builder or designer has been influenced by considerations of true utility--not in the bald and more modern sense of mere money or time saving appliance1 but the truer economy of making a house livable4 ,here is a sketch of one of those old stone halls or manor houses of ,derbyshire of the seventeenth century 7,hazelford ,hall71 charmingly placed upon a hillside1 so as to fit into or become part of the landscape1 while it is really planned to live comfortably in1 with due regard to the variation of the seasons and the winds4 ,the living rooms face south and west4 ,houses nowadays seem more built to sell than to live in 7at least permanently71 since ,i notice that often even when people build a house for themselves they constantly want to let it to somebody else4 ,i should think that the gipsy van would suit modern habits exceedingly well4 ,it would be more picturesque than a brick box with a slate lid1 to which most of us are committed1 and probably much less expensive in the long run4 ,the only thing required to make it practicable on any scale is a trifling alteration in the land laws4 ,the origin of mouldings in architecture1 as their use in the capacity of dripstones declares1 was to serve a purely useful purpose--the alternating concavity and convexity of the members which generally characterize them affording escapement for the rain water1 and keeping it away from the windows and doors4 ,illustration3 ,,hazelford ,,hall1 ,,derbyshire4 ,to give a simple illustration of the principle4 ,if the sill of a window1 for instance1 be left rectangular and perfectly level1 the water would be likely to run inward through the window1 or perhaps into the wall1 but if sloped on the upper surface and hollowed beneath1 the water would tend to drop from the under outer edge clear of both window and wall4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,to ,,show ,,action ,,of ,,rain ,,on ,,window ,,sills3 7#a7,,plain ,,moulded7#b74 ,,section4 ,,square-,,headed ,,dripstone4 ,this necessity led to motives in design and ornamental effect1 and mouldings became valuable parts of sthetic expression in architecture1 affording means of emphasis1 of giving the effect of receding planes1 and of using the important principle of recurring lines to which ,i called attention in the first chapter4 ,the barge-board1 too1 so picturesque a feature in old timbered houses1 had the same useful purpose to subserve in keeping the weather from injuring roof and wall4 ,staircases with the necessary handrail1 again1 have led to beautiful form in design1 not only in the planning of the staircase itself1 which is so important a feature in every house1 but in the interesting and varied design in the balusters supporting the handrail1 and in newel heads1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,towers ,,of ,,san ,,gimignano4 ,towers and church steeples1 which form such important and picturesque features in architectural 7and1 one might add1 landscape7 design1 owed their existence1 in the first place1 to the necessities of watch1 guard1 and defence1 and probably also means of communication by signals4 ,to the medival city1 which1 as it is now being realized1 was a highly organized arrangement for mutual aid and defence1 towers were of great importance both for watch and defence4 ,they served as strong buttresses and vantage posts placed at intervals along the inclosing city wall1 and flanking the gateways4 ,the boldness and grace of design in some medival towers is very notable4 ,those of ,siena1 for instance1 and that town of towers1 ,san ,gimignano1 of which ,i give a rough sketch to show the effect from a distance of the clustering towers1 like a crown upon the hill top2 above all1 perhaps1 is the famous tower of the ,signoria or ,palazzo ,vecchio1 the old city hall of ,florence 7thirteenth century74 ,the ,belfry of ,bruges 7thirteenth century71 too1 is another fine instance of boldness and grace of design4 ,it had formerly a spire1 which is shown in a sixteenth century picture1 the background of a portrait by ,pourbus1 a ,flemish painter1 but the spire was twice destroyed by fire1 and was not renewed a third time4 ,but even as it stands the belfry is very striking1 and1 while it commands a vast prospect of the country round1 it is also conspicuous all over the town1 and a landmark to the flat country round about4 ,the towers of our own ancient village churches are generally battlemented1 and the square ones often have a corner turret to give a more commanding view2 and this again gives variety1 and is a very picturesque feature4 ,the battlements themselves 7though intended for use in defence7 are extremely ornamental features1 and give relief and lightness to the parapet4 ,in later ,gothic times they were frequently fancifully pieced and filled with ornament1 as on ,magdalen ,tower at ,oxford4 ,their decorative value was perceived by the wood carver of the ,gothic times1 and they are constantly introduced in tabernacle work1 screens1 and furniture1 where their use is purely decorative4 ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,of ,,palazzo ,,vecchio1 ,,florence4 ,chimneys1 again1 afford an instance of a purely useful and serviceable object lending itself to ornamental treatment and becoming important as parts of the design of a building4 ,the first chimney in ,england is said to be the one existing in the ,norman house at ,christchurch1 ,hampshire4 ,the common practice was to have the fireplace in the centre of the hall and let the smoke escape by a louvre in the roof1 as may still be seen in the hall at ,penshurst ,place in ,kent 7fourteenth century72 but in later times1 especially in the ,tudor period1 the chimneys of brick are often found full of invention and variety in design1 and extremely rich in effect4 ,i give sketches of some characteristic examples at ,framlingham ,castle and ,leigh's ,priory4 ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,with ,,corner ,,turret1 ,,axmouth ,,church1 ,,devon4 ,the fine old brick chimney stacks one finds among the old farmsteads of ,essex it is supposed were built first and then the half-timbered house built around the brick stack4 ,illustration3 ,,cut ,,brick ,,chimneys1 ,,leigh',s ,,priory1 ,,essex4 ,illustration3 ,,brick ,,chimney1 ,,framlingham ,,castle4 ,other useful things connected with the fireside and the chimney corner1 which are remarkable for their adaptability in ornamental design1 are the iron fire-dogs used to support the burning logs4 ,we find them in great variety of shape and treatment1 while their main or necessary lines remain the same4 ,it is the standard or upright front part which affords a field for the inventive craftsman and designer4 ,the fire-irons1 too1 are again purely useful in their object1 but have become highly graceful and elegant in some of their forms4 ,the iron grate back 7notably those of old ,sussex71 placed at the back of the fire against the chimney to protect the brick-work and radiate the heat1 had again a purely useful function1 but it has been the object of a great deal of fine and rich decorative design1 chiefly of a heraldic or emblematic character1 and many old examples exist4 ,cast iron has in modern times acquired a bad name 7artistically speaking71 but this is owing to its misapplication1 as in railings or grills1 where it endeavours to usurp the place of wrought iron4 ,in a flat panel or plain surface1 such as a grate back affords1 however1 cast iron has a singularly good effect1 and renders bold designs well4 ,there are some fine heraldic grate backs in cast iron to be seen at ,cheetham's ,hospital1 perhaps the most interesting building in the ,city of ,manchester4 ,illustration3 ,,cast-,,iron ,,fire-,,dog1 ,,st4 ,,nicholas ,,hospital1 ,,canterbury4 ,i give a sketch of a quaint cast-iron chimney back of ,gothic design from ,bruges4 ,at the ,museum at the old ,rath ,haus there is a very good collection of examples4 ,somehow1 with the modern1 or rather mid-,victorian iron register fireplace all beauty and interest of design is lost4 ,though it should be remembered that a really fine artist and designer like ,alfred ,stevens spent his talent upon such things4 ,the conception of the thing1 however1 seems joyless and ugly1 and in most surviving examples the ornament in endeavouring to be elegant becomes frittered and mean2 and as to sheet-iron stoves they seem to be under a ban of hideousness1 which seems sad when one recalls the charming and cheerful earthenware stoves of ,germany of ,gothic and ,renascence times1 full of colour and invention4 ,the revived use of tiled chimney1 and recessed and basket grates1 has done much to restore cheerfulness to our hearths4 ,illustration3 ,,cast-,,iron ,,grate ,,back4 ,before we leave the chimney corner ,i might mention another bit of metal1 important before the days of kitchen ranges as the chief cooking apparatus1 ,i mean the iron crane that is sometimes found still suspended in the wide chimneys of old farmhouses1 made of wrought iron1 twisted and curled1 and with bright bosses of steel upon it1 and great in hooks and hinges4 ,here is a sketch of a typical example in an ,essex farmhouse4 ,illustration3 ,,fireplace ,,with ,,wrought ,,iron ,,crane1 ,,church ,,farm1 ,,hempstead1 ,,essex4 ,considerations of use1 again1 very evidently control design in lamps and candlesticks4 ,a lamp necessitates3 7#a7 a reservoir for the oil1 and 7#b7 a neck and mouth to hold the wick1 and 7#c7 a firm and steady stand4 ,all these requisites are combined1 with addition of handle1 in the oldest and simplest form of lamp--the portable antique lamp to be carried in the hand4 ,the reservoir is there1 though small1 and needing re-filling from a larger vessel 7as was the case in the parable of the ten virgins74 ,these lamps were often placed upon the top of slender fluted tripod stands1 to give light in the house1 or hung in clusters by chains from a branched stand like a tree4 ,a combination of many of the characteristics of the antique lamp is found in the comparatively modern brass ,roman lamp 7now called antique1 but till within a few years1 and ,i believe still1 commonly used by the people73 we have the small reservoir1 with four necks for the wicks1 closely resembling in form the antique hand lamps4 ,this is pierced by the shaft of the stand1 which finishes in a ring handle at the top and terminates in a broad moulded stand1 so that the lamp can be used for carrying or standing with equal facility4 ,the little implements for trimming1 snuffing1 and extinguishing are suspended by small chains from the neck of the standard and add to the ornamental effect4 ,each part is made separately and screws together4 ,with the modern powerful lamps of mineral oil and circular wicks1 much larger reservoirs are required1 and modern lamps have tended to take the urn shape owing to this necessity1 and they lose in beauty of line generally as they gain in body 7much like people74 ,a satisfactory type has been introduced by ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,s4 ,benson1 of copper1 with a copper fan-like shade1 which is generally a difficulty with a modern lamp2 and the glasses also1 while necessary1 complicate the design and cannot be said to add to the beauty1 as a rule4 7,see ,illustration1 p4 #gg47 ,however1 a lamp design can never get away from the primitive triple conditions of lamp structure with which we saw in its earliest form reservoir1 neck for the wick1 and stand--possibly handle--but within these demands of utility there is scope for very great variations1 and unlimited taste and invention4 ,illustration3 ,,candlesticks4 ,the candlestick1 with which the hand lamp has something in common1 is1 however1 quite distinct in character1 seeing that it is formed to hold the combustible part in a solid1 instead of a liquid form4 ,its requirements1 therefore1 are a firm stand 7like the lamp71 a reasonable height1 on which to raise the light1 another to hold the candle1 and something to catch the melting grease4 ,these conditions are satisfied in the form of the antique brass candlestick1 but still better in the older ,gothic form1 or the church candlestick1 which has a spike on which to hold the candle1 instead of a hollow4 ,a candlestick1 therefore1 should be true to its name and remain a stick1 or moulded tubular column1 though capable of development into the candelabrum1 throwing out branches for extra lights from the central stem2 a suggestive form1 if sufficiently restrained1 designed with taste4 ,the ancient hanging brass candelabra of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries1 or earlier1 are very good in form as well as practical4 ,there is a fine ,gothic one in ,van ,eyck's picture in the ,national ,gallery1 ,jan ,arnolfini and his ,wife4 ,i have a good example of the later type--a ,german one4 ,the stem is surrounded by the double eagle1 and there are several tiers of mouldings1 the larger ones being flat1 and cut into notches at the edge to serve as sockets to receive the corresponding part of the branch1 which fits on to them and supports the candles4 ,these are arranged in two tiers of six lights each1 and between each light occurs a little ornamental branch or finial1 the whole being detachable from the hanging stem terminating in a brass sphere which keeps it straight and steady4 ,it is a fine example of good1 simple1 and practicable design1 which should always unite necessity and utility with beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,chandelier ,,of ,,brass1 ,,german #agth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,details ,,of ,,chandelier3 ,,plan ,,of ,,lights4 ,,method ,,of ,,fixing ,,branch4 ,,candle ,,socket4 ,,section ,,of ,,stem1 ,,branches ,,ornaments4 ,for carrying about1 a candlestick needs the addition of a broad dish-like stand and handle1 while the stick itself is kept low2 hardly so attractive a form as the stationary columnar table candlestick1 and yet having decided character and purpose of its own4 ,those old-fashioned and most picturesque companions of candlesticks1 the snuffers1 are often very beautiful in design1 and it seems to me that1 however improved1 the wicks of modern candles still require some attention from them4 ,the necessity of protecting light affords in lanterns opportunities for the inventive adaptability of the designer in glass and metal4 ,i met with a very pretty and original motive in a ,german museum 7at ,lindau7 which was hexagonal in form1 pieces of glass fitted together by leads forming a globe-like body to hold the light1 and terminating above in a neck1 from which it hung to a bracket by a ring4 ,it was furnished with a tripod stand in iron1 so that it could be taken down and made to stand if needed4 ,there is plenty of room for invention in lanterns1 and it seems a pity that our street lamp1 which is practically a standard lantern1 should remain so extremely prosaic1 when it is a design so constantly repeated4 ,it is not so much the plainness1 since one needs no extraneous ornament if the purpose is well served by a structure of good lines4 ,the necessity of cleaning the glass is probably a hindrance to much variety of form in the present state of things1 and then1 too1 the electric light is coming into general use1 bringing with it an entirely fresh set of conditions1 so that before we get our ideal gas-lamp the necessity for it will probably have disappeared altogether1 so to speak4 ,illustration3 ,,lamps1 ,,candlestick1 ,,and ,,snuffers4 ,,modern 7,,benson7 ,,lamp4 ,,german ,,lantern 7,,lindau74 ,,roman ,,lamp4 ,,antique ,,candelabrum ,,lamp 7,,herculaneum74 ,,primitive ,,brass ,,lamp 7,,holland74 ,,brass ,,snuffers 7,,venice74 ,,brass ,,candlestick 7,,bruges74 ,the idea of suspension and absence of rigidity or weight associated with electric lighting ought1 one would think1 to be suggestive to designers1 but we don't seem yet to have quite shaken off the conditions of gas tubing on the one hand1 or to have got much beyond the somewhat well-worn idea of bell-flowers bursting into incandescence on the other4 ,one almost prefers the naked simplicity of the little pear-shaped glasses1 with their incandescent twist of thread suspended at the end of the covered wires1 to the flamboyant excesses in brass and copper electric fitting sometimes seen4 ,one might go on through the whole range of objects of domestic use1 and multiply instances of beauty and designing invention applied to the humblest utensil1 implement1 or accessory1 and suggested by the characteristic features stamped upon its form by the necessities and demands of daily use1 which must never be lost sight of by the artist4 ,not a single thing that we touch or use but has had an enormous amount of human thought and ingenuity brought to bear upon it1 which has determined its form as we see it1 and which is constantly modifying form and material and character4 ,the present modifying influences1 the direction in which human ingenuity mostly seems to work is in the time-saving1 cost-saving1 labour-saving direction1 or would-be so1 and under this influence designs of articles or objects of pure utility have a tendency to become very prosaic--or1 perhaps1 vulgarly assertive4 ,it is the commercial instinct1 no doubt1 which is satisfied if a knife is a knife and will cut1 or at any rate will sell1 and puts no romance into either blade or handle4 ,the old curved blades have disappeared1 and only the silver knife receives any ornament1 and that generally of a very uninteresting type4 ,this prosaic tendency represents the mechanical side of the utility influence1 which only reaches beauty1 if beauty of line merely1 by necessity of use2 though under what ,i should term the short-cut inspiration beauty is generally entirely out of the question4 ,this is to be deplored1 since the simplest thing of use may be just as well made pleasing and good in form and line1 though that may be the only kind of beauty possible to it4 ,when we come to pottery the utility and adaptation to service influence is very obvious4 ,look at the form of a water-vessel1 a pitcher we will say1 as a typical form4 ,it must have a large hollow body to hold as much water as can be conveniently carried by a single person1 but not more than its handle or handles will lift4 ,it must have a neck for pouring out4 ,a rounded form is found to be more convenient for carrying than a square1 and is easier to balance in the hand or on the head4 ,the soft clay1 too1 readily takes the circular form on the wheel when the pitcher is formed under the hands of the potter2 and the rounded form may be diminished towards the base1 which saves weight1 and at the same time gives opportunity for grace of line4 ,its form at once expresses its purpose of carrying and pouring4 ,a nobler form is seen in the ,greek hydria--a large three-handed water-vessel1 adapted for carrying and pouring4 ,it was carried on the head or the shoulders1 the two side horizontal handles enabled it to be lifted up and down1 while its vertical handle served the function of pouring4 ,we may note the similarity in contour and proportion of the ,greek amphora or wine-vessel1 to the lines of a woman's figure4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most graceful of the antique forms of vessels1 and it seems dimly reflected even in the purely prosaic form of the modern bottle4 ,we might trace through all the various forms of vessels the clue of utility1 and note how it determines their typical form as they are adapted1 like the hydria or pitcher1 for carrying and pouring3 the amphora or ancient wine-bottle for keeping wine cool in the earth in portable quantities3 the bucket type for dipping and carrying3 the funnel type for filling4 ,the copper water-vessel of the ,roman people seems to combine the functions of bucket and pitcher in a highly picturesque way1 and its form enables a quantity to be carried on the head4 ,the drinking vessel again shows quite a different type of form1 and in all its varieties declares its function--the cup1 the glass1 the tumbler1 the mug1 and the tankard4 ,in the bottle we approach again the type of the pitcher1 the holding and pouring functions being again emphatic1 throughout all its many shapes4 ,the illustration shows a selection of the typical forms ,i have mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,drinking ,,vessels1 ,,etc4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,lines ,,of ,a ,,female ,,figure amp2 ,,those ,,of ,,an ,,amphora4 ,,cylix4 ,,ancient ,,greek ,,drinking ,,vessel4 ,,hydria ,,ancient ,,greek ,,water ,,vessel4 ,,mode ,,of ,,carrying ,,the ,,hydria ,,parthenon ,,frieze4 ,,amphora ,,approaching ,,pitcher ,,form4 ,,pitcher4 ,,english ,,brown ,,jug4 ,,german ,,beer ,,mugs4 ,,glass ,,pitcher4 ,,bottles4 ,,drinking ,,glasses4 ,,romano ,,british ,,thumber4 ,,distillers ,,copper ,,filler4 ,,can4 ,,roman ,,peasant ,,woman ,,with ,,copper ,,water ,,vessel4 ,,bucket4 ,,basin4 ,,watering ,,can4 ,the subject of the typical forms of vessels is very clearly illustrated in ,meyer's ,handbook of ,ornament1 to which ,i may refer the student who wishes to pursue the subject further4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,beer ,,mugs4 ,on the subject of bottles1 however1 ,i will just refer to a curious correspondence in design motive in two different materials4 ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,flasks ,,bottle4 ,the ordinary ,italian oil or wine flask is one of the most charming of modern useful vessels4 ,it is simply a piece of blown glass of the form first assumed by the molten glass when blown at the end of the glass-worker's tube4 ,to make this primitive but elegant bottle portable and enable it to stand1 it is bound around by a twist of rushes1 or cane leaves twisted into a circular stand1 and braced by vertical broader bands of the untwisted leaf at intervals1 and a loop of the twist is twined around the neck1 and left free to hang up or carry the vessel in4 ,the whole is both highly practical and picturesque4 ,this is a type of ,venetian glass bottle or decanter highly ornamented1 in which the fundamental motive or idea of the protecting binding of rushes seems to be followed in glass4 ,the melon-like divisions are defined by strings of raised glass laid on the surface1 while the panels between are engraved in arabesques of leaves and birds1 and the whole forms a very pretty piece of ornate glass design4 7,see illustration1 p4 #hc47 ,here we have another instance of decorative motive derived from useful function1 and of the adaptation in one material of a suggestion derived from another1 though applied to the same type of form4 ,i have not mentioned the plate or dish type of vessel1 which has on the whole1 perhaps1 received the most attention from the decorator of surfaces1 perhaps on account of the more pictorial conditions its functional form presents4 ,there is a circular flat or concave surface in the centre of the dish1 plate1 or plaque to hold the food2 and there is a circular space or rim for the hand1 a border which will serve both as a frame to the central subject1 and also to emphasize the edge4 ,the ,greek cylix1 though really a shallow drinking cup1 presents similar conditions to the designer1 though more of the shallow boat or saucer type1 and in the filling of these spaces the ,greek vase-painter1 as far as regards composition of line1 dramatic action of figure1 simplicity1 and the necessary flatness and reserve1 sets us the best models in this kind of design4 ,the ,italian ,renascence majolica and lustre ware give more sumptuous effect and more pictorial treatment1 but are not nearly so safe a guide in taste as the ,greek4 ,in pure ornament we cannot do better than study oriental models for the treatment of border and centre1 and in the blue and white ware of ,china and ,persia we shall find as satisfactory examples of decorative fitness as need be4 ,the ,chinese influence is freely and often very happily rendered in the blue and white ware of ,delft1 and in some of the works of the old ,english potteries1 as ,worcester and ,derby for instance4 ,in textile design the functions of border1 of field or filling1 of wearing apparel1 or furniture hangings and materials and their necessary adaptation to vertical or horizontal positions1 differentiates the various types and classes of design in woven or printed stuffs4 ,here use again influences and decides decorative motive4 ,we recognize at once the essential differences of expression in different pattern plans and systems of line in horizontal extension1 which mark them off as suitable for borders demanding linear1 or meandering1 or running patterns to fulfil their function of defining the edge1 as in a garment or hanging1 or in pottery1 or forming a setting for the centre1 as in a carpet4 ,illustration3 ,,pitcher ,,from ,,rothenburg4 7,,see ,,chap4 ,,iii7 ,,the ,,handle ,,of ,,the ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,dish ,,decoration4 ,,delft ,,dish4 ,,chinese ,,plate ,,patterns4 ,for these reasons1 bearing in mind the constructive suggestion of their origin1 the typical examples given of border systems have held their own from the earliest times as fundamentally adaptable to horizontal extension1 while they also adapt themselves to endless variation in design and treatment4 ,just as1 for the same reasons1 the systems of pattern adapted for indefinite extension over a surface 7both vertically and horizontally71 and represented by the plans ,i have termed persistent1 have held1 and still hold1 their place in the world of design4 ,these latter1 too1 it will be noticed1 are all constructed upon1 or controlled by1 the same basis--the rectangular diaper4 ,there seems something fixed and fundamental about these linear constructive bases of pattern design from the point of view of what might be termed decorative or linear logic1 and apart from their origin in actual constructive necessity before spoken of1 and1 as far as soundness of principle can guide us in designing1 we cannot go wrong in obeying them1 however various the superstructure of floral fancy we may build upon them4 ,the acknowledgment of the principle alone1 of course1 will not make us successful designers1 any more than the skeleton makes a living figure4 ,we cannot do without thought1 fancy1 and vivifying imagination1 guided by the sense of beauty1 as well as of use1 to produce design worth having in any direction4 ,to trace out this clue of utility fully and adequately through all the varieties of the vast province of artistic design would need1 not a single chapter1 but a large and amply illustrated volume4 ,i have only attempted to call your attention to certain typical forms and instances where the bearings of the necessities of use and service have decided those forms1 and must always influence the decorative designer1 who should never forget them for a moment4 ,illustration3 ,i4 ,,typical ,,border ,,systems4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,persistent ,,pattern ,,plans1 ,,rectangular ,,basis4 ,nothing has degraded the form of common things so much as a mistaken love of ornament4 ,the production of things of beauty for ordinary use has declined with the gradual separation of artist and craftsman4 ,decoration1 or ornament1 we have been too much accustomed to consider as accidental and unrelated addition to an object1 not as an essential expression and organic part of it2 not as a beauty which may satisfy us in simple line1 form1 or proportion1 combined with fitness to purpose1 even without any surface ornament at all4 ,the more we are able to keep before our minds the place and purpose of any design we have to make1 the more we realize the conditions of use and service of which it must be a part1 as well as the capacities of the material of which it is to be made2 and the more we understand its constructive necessities1 the more successful our design is likely to be1 and the nearer we shall approach to bridging the unfortunate gulf which too often exists between the designer and the craftsman4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,material ,,and ,,method ,,we have seen 7#a7 that architectural considerations lie at the basis of design and control its general character1 its scale1 and relationships2 and 7#b7 that utility determines and specializes its particular forms and functions2 now1 as our third proposition1 we may say that1 in addition to these in limitation of material and methods of workmanship1 we shall find the influences which determine primarily the purely artistic question of treatment in design1 and which differentiate its classes and varieties4 ,if we look at a piece of stone-carving and compare it with a piece of wood-carving1 for instance1--or1 still better1 take mallet and chisel in hand and experiment upon a piece of stone or marble1 and try to evolve or to express a form by these means1 and with a chisel1 or knife1 work upon wood--we shall soon find that the differences of the quality of the two substances upon which we work--the differences of density1 toughness1 resistance to the tool--at once demand different methods of handling each4 ,short1 quick following strokes in the case of chiselling stone1 and a longer1 steady sort of pushing or driving movement1 the chisel being held in both hands1 in the case of wood-carving4 ,from such necessary and fundamental differences the artist would soon develop a distinct style in the treatment of each kind of work4 ,he would not attempt to make the stone look like wood1 or persuade the wood to look like stone2 but he would rather rejoice in their fundamental differences of quality1 and make his work in each emphasize their essential and distinctive characteristics4 ,these different characteristics are shown in the design and treatment of the carved stone corbel given1 as compared with the misereres in wood2 the stone-work being also controlled by the necessity of the jointing in the masonry4 ,illustration3 ,,corbel1 #adth ,cent1 ,,dennington ,,church1 ,,suffolk4 ,illustration3 ,,wood ,,carving4 ,,miserere1 ,,st4 ,,david',s ,,cathedral4 ,in handling soft materials1 like modelling clay1 for instance1 we encounter quite a different set of conditions4 ,there is much less restriction of material and method1 although the plasticity of the clay brings its own difficulties of manipulation with it4 ,modelling1 indeed1 it is soon perceived1 is the reverse of carving1 since in carving form is produced by cutting away1 in modelling form is produced by building up 7or adding to72 surface being gained in the first case by delicate chiselling of sharp tools upon a close-grained1 tough material1 and in modelling by a delicate pressure of the fingers1 or tools1 upon a soft and sensitive clay4 ,clay modelling1 again1 not being a final form1 but rather a preparatory stage in design1 bears to bronze1 or plaster1 much the same relationship as a design or drawing on paper for reproduction by a particular process bears to its finished form in the material for which it is intended4 ,clay has1 it is true1 after firing1 a permanent form in terra-cotta1 which of course thoroughly illustrates the freedom and naturalism of treatment of which it is capable2 on the one hand associating itself with domestic use and adornment1 kindred with the work of the painter1 and on the other uniting itself with architecture1 and being adaptable to all kinds of enrichment upon brick buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,wood ,,carving4 ,,miserere1 ,,st4 ,,david',s ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,scandinavian ,,clay ,,vessel4 ,the adaptability and plasticity of clay1 again1 is shown in what might be called its fundamental capacity as thrown upon the potter's wheel4 ,here1 under the steady revolution of the horizontal circular disk1 or wheel1 controlled and held in its place by the left hand of the potter1 while he manipulates and varies the form with the right1 we see how readily the clay obeys the law of the circular pressure and movement1 and how1 in obedience to it1 every variety of form which the history of pottery displays becomes possible to it in the hands of a skilful and tasteful craftsman4 ,manual skill of a very accomplished kind is demanded in throwing1 as anyone may see for himself by trying to form a vessel upon the wheel1 simple as the operation looks1 controlled by a purely mechanical movement4 ,then1 in addition to dexterity in manipulating the clay and skill in forming the vessel truly1 and of an even thickness1 there is room for any amount of artistic judgment and taste in deciding the final form1 or section1 which the vessel shall take2 and again1 in the design and use of such ornament as shall express its form and office1 or give it an additional decorative surface beauty4 ,with the use of ornament1 indented while our clay is soft1 or with raised moulding and edges1 or low relief work1 we are still carrying out the fundamental suggestiveness of the material and what may be called its natural method2 and we find that ornamentation upon pottery in its earliest development took the form of indented zigzag borders and patterns1 and to this day in some kinds of ,german pottery1 and that known as ,grs de ,flandres1 we find the patterns indented in outline and filled afterwards with the blue colour and glazed2 the modern ,egyptian red clay pots are ornamented with indented1 cut1 and raised patterns2 while in the homely brown jug of our ,english potteries1 we see the application of the principle of relief work in the quaint figures stamped upon the surface1 pleasing enough1 though without any reference to classic dignity or proportion4 ,there is a good instance of the pleasant use of stamping the pattern upon a clay vessel in this ,german pitcher from ,rothenburg 7see p4 #hg71 bought from the workshop of the potter himself1 who made the pots of the local clay1 fired them1 and glazed them himself1 and finally was his own salesman--an instructive combination of functions not often found in our own country4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,egyptian ,,pottery4 ,with wax1 modelling can be carried to a greater degree of fineness and sharpness of detail1 especially upon a small scale4 ,it is a material1 therefore1 which lends itself to modelling for bronze and other fine metal castings1 to metals and coinage1 as well as to small figures1 lamps1 various vessels and ornaments2 and also to large scale1 highly finished statues1 especially when intended to be cast by the cera perduta or lost wax method1 by which the molten metal from the furnace is made to flow into the mould1 to take the place of the wax of the model1 the wax of course melting and flowing out through the vents contrived for the purpose4 ,the figure is modelled in the usual way in clay first4 ,then a plaster piece-mould is taken1 and into the inside of this1 when taken off1 the wax is pressed1 so as to line it completely4 ,a framework or skeleton of iron bars having been constructed to support the weight1 the hollow mould inside the wax lining or skin1 which represents the thickness of the bronze statue1 is then filled up with a core composed of brick-dust and plaster1 mixed in a paste and poured in4 ,the ducts to enable the molten bronze to flow properly into the mould are then arranged1 with vents for the escape of the melted wax and air4 ,the plaster piece-mould is then carefully taken off1 and the statue is disclosed in wax4 ,this wax surface can then be finally finished by the modeller before the whole statue is covered in with another mould made of a fine paste of bone ash and ,tripoli powder and other ingredients4 ,it is then bedded in earth or sand1 and the bronze1 being mixed and melted in the furnace is run out into the ducts of the mould2 when cool the mould is broken off1 and1 the bronze taking the place of the wax which is melted and escapes1 the statue is complete4 ,illustration3 ,,bronze ,,statue ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,,by ,,bouchardon1 ,,showing ,,internal ,,iron-,,work ,,and ,,core4#c #c ,from ,mr4 ,george ,simond's article on ,casting in ,bronze4 ,english ,illustrated ,magazine1 #ahhe4 ,thus a complete and perfect casting is obtained of the work1 it being only necessary to stop the places where the ducts and vents were fixed1 which by ingenuity could be arranged to occur in the less important parts4 ,cera perduta1 as its name indicates1 is an old ,italian method1 and was used by ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,it has been revived by ,mr4 ,george ,simonds1 who has given an account of it1 and by our younger school of sculptors1 ,messrs4 ,alfred ,gilbert1 ,onslow ,ford1 ,harry ,bates1 and others1 in place of the method of casting without the use of the wax1 which entailed a great deal of surface work and chasing upon the hard bronze1 so that the delicate modelled surface--the touch of the artist1 in short--was lost1 but it is just this which is preserved by the lost wax process1 so that it is a method which favours artistic modelling1 since it perpetuates it in bronze with greater precision than by the ordinary method1 and does not require after touching in the hard4 ,in iron-work we have another strictly conditioned kind1 in which design owes its character and peculiar beauty to the necessities and limitations of the material and mode of working4 ,i am speaking of wrought iron1 and of the forms in which it is usually found--in grills of all kinds1 in gates1 and railings4 ,now we may consider that the designer in iron has a material to deal with which is capable1 under heat and the hammer1 of obeying much invention and lines of grace and fancy4 ,we start with a bar of iron2 we plan our main framework2 we may use rigid verticals and horizontals in forming our grill4 ,a simple square trellis is the fundamental grill1 but we seek more play and fancy4 ,our iron bar is capable of being twisted at its ends into spiral curves under heat1 with the pincers 7or even without1 if thin74 ,it is also capable of being beaten out with the hammer into flattened leaf forms1 which again1 by heating1 can be worked and elaborated1 and parts joined by welding in great variety of form4 ,but we may consider primarily that the designer in iron starts with the bar1 the spiral curve1 and the flat leaf1 or even only the first two4 ,these are his units out of which he constructs his pattern2 his pencils are the hammer and pincers1 his easel is the vice1 his medium is the forge4 ,his business is to make a harmony in iron1 and these are his notes1 his treble and bass4 ,his success will depend1 firstly1 upon the effectiveness with which he contrives to meet the fundamental purpose of the grill or gate1 that it shall be a sensible and practical grill or gate to begin with2 secondly1 his lines and curves1 however simple1 must be harmoniously arranged1 so that the eye is satisfied at the same time as the constructive sense2 and thirdly1 any invention or play of fancy which he can super-add without injuring the first two considerations will be so much to the good1 and to his credit1 and the common pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,,bronze ,,statue ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,,by ,,bouchardon1 ,,showing ,,distribution ,,of ,,ducts ,,and ,,vents4#d #d ,from ,mr4 ,george ,simond's article on ,casting in ,bronze4 ,english ,illustrated ,magazine1 #ahhe4 ,it is well1 however1 to test our powers by simple problems at first4 ,if we cannot combine a great variety of attractive forms harmoniously1 and fit them to useful purpose1 let us try what we can do with few and simple forms4 ,if we fail at constructing gates of ,paradise let us see if we cannot make a good railing4 ,if we cannot invent a romantic knocker1 let us try our hands at an effective scraper4 ,it is much better to do a simple thing well1 than a complex or ambitious thing badly2 and there is far more need in the world for well-designed and beautiful common things than for elaborate exceptional things4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,gates1 ,,st4 ,,lawrence1 ,,nuremberg4 ,,the ,,iron ,,workers ,,units4 ,,wrought ,,iron ,,work ,,porch ,,gates ,,cathedral ,,of ,s4 ,,lawrence ,,nuremberg4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,fender1 ,,tongs1 ,,fire-,,dog ,,and ,,shovel1 ,,bruges4 ,,fender ,,with ,,tongs ,,bruges4 ,,fire ,,dog4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,altar ,,screen1 ,,st4 ,,thomas',s1 ,,salisbury4 ,,part ,,of ,,altar ,,screen ,,in ,,wrought ,,iron1 ,,ch4 ,,of ,s ,,thomas1 ,,salisbury4 ,a study of iron-work should be useful to all students in design1 as showing what ornamental effects can be gained by economy of means1 the effectiveness of simply repeating well-chosen curves1 spirals1 and lines2 as well as the amount of fantasy and feeling which an inventive designer and craftsman can put into such work in its more complex and elaborate forms1 and1 above all1 how perfectly it may be made to unite serviceableness and beauty2 while1 perhaps more conspicuously than most kinds of artistic work1 it illustrates the essential unity of material and method with their results in design4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought-,,iron ,,balustrade1 ,,rothenburg1 from a sketch by ,r4 ,,phen ,,spiers4 ,the illustrations given exemplify different varieties of treatment1 and also show how design in iron-work1 in addition to the influence of the material1 is controlled by the spirit and period of the architecture of which it becomes part4 ,we see this in comparing the free ,gothic and rather fantastic forms of the gates of the south porch of ,s4 ,laurence at ,nuremberg with the symmetric and formal screen from ,s4 ,thomas's1 ,salisbury 7seventeenth or eighteenth century71 or both with the flowing ,renascence scroll balustrade from ,rothenburg4 ,a most important branch of design is that of textiles1 whether we regard it in its close association with daily life and the wants of humanity1 with domestic comfort1 personal adornment1 or ecclesiastical splendour4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most intimate of the arts of design1 and here again we shall find the control of material and method always asserting themselves4 ,textile designing may be broadly divided into two main kinds3 7#a7 that which is an incorporated part of the textile itself1 as in woven patterns1 carpets1 and tapestry2 and 7#b7 that which is designed as a surface decoration to be printed or worked on the textile1 as in cotton1 cloth1 cretonne1 silk1 velvet1 and embroidery4 ,into the many technicalities and complexities of the modern power-loom it is not now necessary to enter2 but the main essential conditions it is always necessary for the textile designer to have in mind are that his design has to be produced by the crossing of threads in the loom1 by warp and weft1 as the sets of threads are called--the warp being the vertical threads1 forming the web and foundation of the fabric2 the woof or weft being the horizontal thread woven through it at right angles4 ,illustration3 ,,lady ,,at ,a ,,hand ,,loom1 from ,erasmus's ,praise of ,folly 7#afgf74 ,,diagrams ,,showing ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,loom4 ,,rectangular ,,basic ,,conditions ,,governing ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,all ,,textile ,,pattern4 ,,elementary ,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,pattern ,,in ,,weaving4 ,,the ,,reed ,,or ,,comb ,,used ,,to ,,drive ,,home ,,the ,,threads4 ,,diagrams ,,to ,,show ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,heddles ,,which ,,lift ,,the ,,horizontal ,,sets ,,of ,,threads ,,alternately ,,to ,,allow ,,the ,,shuttle ,,to ,,pass ,,to ,,fro ,,with ,,the ,,weft4 ,in the simple low warp hand-loom1 the warp being in two sets1 the alternate threads are lifted by the heddles alternately4 ,these heddles are connected with treadles worked by the feet of the weaver1 who1 with his hand1 passes his shuttle with the woof backwards and forwards through the interstices thus left1 and weaves the plain cloth4 ,to make patterns1 various wefts in different colours are added4 ,this is the fundamental simple principle of weaving1 which in a still simpler form may be seen in the making of tapestry and carpets in the high warp loom1 where the threads of the warp are stretched vertically upon rollers in a framework1 at which the worker sits and works in by his hands the different colours of the pattern horizontally1 twisting and knotting the threads in through the warps on which the pattern has been marked1 and pressing it together by a sort of comb to make it firm and solid2 as the fabric is completed it is rolled up upon the roller4 ,penelope is seen working at such a loom in a ,greek vase painting4 ,the simple hand-loom1 as it was in the seventeenth century1 is seen in the figure taken from ,erasmus's ,praise of ,folly4 ,what chiefly concerns the designer in woven textiles1 therefore1 is that he must be prepared for the necessity that his design must adapt itself to working out upon a square trellis of horizontal and vertical lines1 which will represent his outlines1 or the edges of his masses1 in stepped outlines and edges1 where the design crosses the warp diagonally at any angle1 and in straight lines where it runs with the warp2 since it may be said that pattern on woven cloth is produced by leaving out1 or stopping out1 certain threads in the wefts1 disclosing one set in one place and another in another2 such threads corresponding with the holes cut in the cards placed in the loom to regulate the pattern1 which are prepared from the design1 after it has been worked out on squared paper to calculated intervals and numbers of threads or points to each line and mass of the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,persian ,,carpet1 ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ,now1 so far from wishing to conceal the characteristic flatness and squareness of outline and mass1 which the nature of the conditions of weaving normally produce1 the artist values these characteristics as essential to the work1 and would make his design adaptable to them4 ,the most beautiful and decorative effects are produced in woven textiles by the contrast1 harmony1 and blending of coloured threads1 wool1 or silk1 and the relief of one flat colour upon another1 or one flat tint upon another shade of the same tint1 so that anything like attempts at naturalistic drawing1 and the representation of planes of light and shade and relief can only be clumsy1 owing to the nature of the conditions1 besides being mistaken1 from the point of view of good pattern-work4 ,there are no better masters in the selection and treatment of natural forms in textile design than the ,persians1 who1 in their magnificent carpets1 show both the extreme of graceful conventional pattern1 and also a happy mean in the treatment of flowers1 trees1 and animals1 exhibiting in their drawing and colour definite characterization rather than naturalism2 translating nature1 as it were1 and allying it with invention in a distinct region of their own4 ,to do this is really what all designers should aim at1 in whatsoever material they may work4 ,when we come to the second division of textile design1 that in which pattern is applied to the surface of the cloth after it has been woven1 by means of printing1 the designer is chiefly controlled by considerations of scale and beauty of effect1 as he has to adapt his design to various purposes1 such as hangings and furniture coverings1 or small dress patterns1 kerchiefs1 and so forth4 ,beyond the necessary limit of size of repeat and its satisfactory construction1 he is freer than in designing for woven textiles2 and1 in fact1 has about as much range as any other surface designer in colours4 ,it is considered a practical and economic advantage that a design should adapt itself to printing in many different schemes of colour1 and be capable of treatment on a light or dark ground4 ,in larger scale patterns1 such as furniture cretonnes1 patterns or parts of patterns are produced by a mordant or resist2 that is to say1 the light parts are printed in a mordant or chemical preparation which takes out the dye1 and so discloses in those parts the natural colour of the cotton cloth4 ,similar effects can be produced by the reverse method of printing the cloth first with a resist and dyeing or printing the whole afterwards4 ,the methods and machinery of printing cotton have been carried to great perfection1 and the necessary limitations as to what effects can or cannot be obtained are very few1 what is done being largely regulated by considerations of cost4 ,these apparent advantages1 however1 from the artistic point of view1 expose us to new dangers4 ,we may easily lose sight of the end in the very perfection of the means2 the very facility of those means may lead the designer to forget that1 after all1 he is designing for a textile--something which will be hung in folds1 variously draped1 or worn4 ,the desire to show the capacity of the method of printing a pattern in colours may not always be on all fours with the wish for tasteful design and reposeful effect4 ,the fierce competition of trade1 and the violent demands of the salesman1 do not harmonize with the judgment of the artist4 ,if you were in a company where all were talking at once at the top of their voices you would have to shout very loudly if you wanted to be heard1 but no one would contend that these were the best conditions for the human voice4 ,it is1 however1 a tolerably just simile of the present conditions of trade and their effect upon design4 ,so long as things are made primarily to sell1 rather than to last and live with1 there will always be this difficulty and disparity between art and commerce2 but a school of art can only concern itself with what are the best methods1 and endeavour always to set up the best types of design1 the best standards of taste4 ,if we want to represent flowers1 for instance1 in their natural superficial aspects of light and shade and relief1 the natural form for such renderings is the still life study2 the natural means1 the canvas1 palette1 and brushes1 or ,whatman and water-colour2 the natural equipment1 power of graphic drawing and knowledge of pictorial effect4 ,but1 whatever value1 pictorial interest1 and charm such studies may have1 as such1 with the charm of treatment1 with the freedom of handling open to the pictorial artist1 and with the direct personal touch1 the value1 pictorial interest1 and charm and beauty would be entirely lost if they were done by the yard1 and spread over acres of cotton4 ,the particular conditions which give value to the individual pictorial study become utterly lost when the attempt is made to produce a pattern on the same principles4 ,it is neither good pattern nor good painting2 and the very best machine-painting can only give a more or less coarse rendering of hand-painting1 and it is therefore a mistaken application of it to try4 ,it requires no special artistic feeling or training to recognize a bunch of roses or poppies thrown in exaggerated relief on a flat surface2 but it does require both to appreciate a design made of the same flowers1 composed and coloured harmoniously in an ingenious repeat1 and drawn firmly and delicately with an understanding of the character and construction of the plants1 yet treated with fancy and invention1 and1 at the same time1 meeting perfectly the nature of the material and the method of manufacture4 ,these qualities ,i should enumerate as the real necessities in designing for printed fabrics1 whether it is cotton cloth printed from the pattern engraved on copper rollers1 or furniture cretonne printed from flat blocks4 ,in either case1 in providing the design1 firmness and sharpness of line would be good1 and precision of touch in laying in the colour4 ,the embroiderer1 again1 is comparatively free as to range of choice in treatment of surface design1 which will be necessarily governed by purpose1 position1 and nature of material and method employed4 ,the bold design and large scale detail which would be suitable for bed hangings and curtains in crewel work1 such as we find in the ,queen ,anne period1 would be obviously out of place in small panels of delicate fine silk-work4 ,a greater approach to the colours and surfaces of nature1 too1 in silk-work may be attempted1 as in the plumage of birds and the petals of flowers1 as we see in ,chinese and ,japanese silk embroideries1 though the decorative principle of shading one colour with other tints of the same should be followed when shading is used1 keeping the colour pure and brilliant1 and never using black or brown for shadows on colours4 ,illustration3 ,,embroidery4 ,,natural ,,direction ,,of ,,stitches ,,in ,,working ,,leaves1 ,,stems1 ,,flowers1 ,,fruit4 ,,silk ,,embroidery ,,heightened ,,with ,,silver ,,thread ,,italian #af,,th ,,century4 ,,japanese ,,kimono ,,printed ,,pattern ,,heightened ,,with ,,gold ,,silk ,,embroidery ,,in ,,parts4 ,,persian ,,embroidery ,,silk ,,on ,,linen ,,bokhara4 ,a certain natural convention1 we might say1 belongs to the conditions of material and method in embroidery1 and is inseparable from the art of the expression of form by stitches4 ,following the same principle of such acknowledgment of necessary limitations which we find hold good in other decorative arts1 the essential stitch method of the embroiderer should be rather emphasized than concealed1 although it does not follow that in preparing designs to be embroidered the stitches need be all represented1 so long as the design is clear and plain1 and the outlines distinct2 while in the choice of the direction of the stitches1 as well as in their form and character1 must be found the particular means of expressing varieties of surface and characteristics of form4 ,in making leaves1 for instance1 one would naturally make the stitches radiate from the centre towards the point1 while the character of tree stems is well expressed by carrying the stitches crossways over others laid vertically first1 as1 in addition to the suggestion of lines of bark1 the double row of stitches has the effect of suggesting the projection of a rounded stem4 ,for filling in large masses1 or for meandering types of patterns and scroll-work1 or bold outline1 chain-stitch is very useful1 and has a compact1 solid effect4 ,it is much used in ,indian embroideries4 ,the introduction of gold thread1 so much found in all oriental embroidery1 enriches and heightens the effects of the colours very much1 and on the unbleached linens and muslins1 where the pattern is quite light1 it has a charming effect4 ,the ,japanese make very effective use of gold thread embroidery1 in some cases carrying the whole of the work out in gold upon a dark ground1 or using it as a partial enrichment on printed textiles such as kimonos or robes2 in other kinds1 notably in dark1 rich1 full-coloured embroidered hangings1 by introducing disks of gold thread1 formed by stitching the thread down upon the ground in closely twisted spiral forms1 which catch the light very effectively when hung upon the wall4 ,there is1 indeed1 in the embroiderer's art immense range of both treatment and subject4 ,it may be light and delicate1 and restricted to one or two colours1 or vie in fulness1 richness1 and depth of colour and splendour of effect with tapestry itself4 ,it may adorn a child's quilt1 or decorate an altar2 it may touch the hem of a garment1 or inform the cover of a book2 nothing seems to be above or below it2 and throughout its manifold adaptations it offers an attractive field to the designer and the worker who is not afraid of patient but not unrewarding labour4 ,as further exemplifying the influence of material and method1 ,i may just touch upon another art1 in our days the most popular and far-reaching1 perhaps1 of all--the art of design in black and white for the book and the newspaper4 ,illustration3 ,,buch ,,von ,,den ,,sieben ,,tods,,nden 7,,augsburg1 #adgd74 ,illustration3 ,,hans ,,baldung ,,gr,n1 ,,hortulus ,,animae 7,,strassburg1 #aeaa74 ,now1 the early woodcut as we find it in the printed books of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries owed its forms and qualities to the necessities of surface printing with types in a hand-press4 ,the vigorous1 bold drawing with the pen on the wood-block was cut by the engraver with a knife and on the plank1 not as now1 upon the cross section of the box tree3 softer wood1 too1 was at first probably used4 ,the engraver's knife left the artist's line firmer1 perhaps1 than it was drawn1 and the design in vigorous open line was exactly adapted to print under the same pressure as the type had to undergo4 ,the two were in true mechanical relation1 and also in true artistic relation4 ,the decorative effect of the early printers' pages is remarkably fine1 and is obtained by very simple means4 ,with the decline of the severe and vigorous drawing of the great designers of the late ,gothic and early ,renascence period1 and probably also with the invention of copper-plate engraving and printing1 and the more rapid production of books1 the art of the book printer declined1 and the art of the book decorator with it2 and although the woodcut still held its place1 and was largely used for the next two centuries1 and1 indeed1 down to our own time1 in book ornaments1 initial letters1 and illustrations1 it had fallen into inferior hands4 ,at the end of last century a sort of revival took place under ,thomas ,bewick and his school1 which led1 not to a revival of the firm and open linear drawing of the designers of the early printers1 but rather to a search after extra fineness and qualities of tone and colour1 hitherto associated with steel or copper-plate4 ,this tendency or aim of the engravers1 however1 only served to put the woodcut out of relation with the type1 and the type itself grew uglier1 and was hardly considered as part of the artistic character of the book4 ,william ,blake seems to have been the only artist who made any attempt to consider the necessary relation of illustration and type1 but he did it by means of copper-plate1 and writing his own lettering4 ,it is only recently that a serious effort has been made to re-establish the old relationship between design and text in surface printing and as applied to books4 ,our newspapers and illustrated journals still print heavy black blocks1 reproduced from wash drawings1 along with thin pale type2 and the tendency of the recent new photographic processes of reproducing the designs of artists has rather been to dislocate the decorative feeling and the relationship of type and picture aforesaid1 by imposing no restrictions of material or method in preparing drawings for the press4 ,we have now1 however1 a school of printers and designers in black and white who do consider decorative effect in printing and in the design of the printed page4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cradle ,,song ,sweet dreams form a shade1 ,o'er my lovely infants head4 ,sweet dreams of pleasant streams1 ,by happy silent moony beams4 ,sweet sleep with soft down4 ,weave thy brows an infant crown4 ,sweet sleep ,angel mild1 ,hover o'er my happy child4 ,sweet smiles in the night1 ,hover over my delight4 ,sweet smiles ,mothers smiles1 ,all the livelong night beguiles4 ,sweet moans1 dovelike sighs1 ,chase not slumber from thy eyes1 ,sweet moans1 sweeter smiles1 ,all the dovelike moans beguiles4 ,sleep sleep happy child1 ,all creation slept and smil'd4 ,sleep sleep1 happy sleep4 ,while o'er thee thy mother weep4 ,sweet babe in thy face1 ,holy image ,i can trace4 ,sweet babe once like thee4 ,thy maker lay and wept for me4 ,wept ,,william ,,blake4 ,mr4 ,william ,morris1 by his personal experiment and practice of printing1 approaching it from the designer's point of view1 has again placed the printing of books in the position of an art4 ,by practical demonstration in the beautiful results of his work--in the beautiful books he issued from the ,kelmscott ,press--he has shown us what very fine decorative effects can be got by careful consideration of the form of the letters1 by the placing of the type upon the page1 by the use of good handmade paper1 by the use of ornaments and initial letters of rich and bold design1 harmonizing with the strength and richness of the type 7which makes the ordinary types look pale and thin74 ,his work1 too1 is obviously influencing printers and publishers generally1 so that something like a renascence in printing and in design and decoration in black and white has been going on during the last few years4 ,certainly a return to the practice of drawing in line is good1 not only as a test of design and draughtsmanship1 and absolutely necessary to all designers1 but also as essential to designs or illustrations intended to contribute to the decorative character of the printed page4 ,in the various instances1 therefore1 to which ,i have drawn attention1 we have seen that design in its many forms and applications must be reconciled to certain limitations of material and method2 but that1 so far from these limitations being a hindrance to harmonious expression or to beauty of result1 they themselves1 by their very nature1 if properly understood and frankly acknowledged1 lead to those very results of beauty and harmonious expression which come of that perfect unity of design1 material1 and method it is the object of all decorative art to attain4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,on ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,conditions ,,in ,,design ,,in the previous three chapters we have been considering ,design under various conditions of use and material4 ,the present may be considered as a continuation of the same line of thought in somewhat different directions4 ,we may consider conditions in the general sense as those general sthetic laws governing the place and purpose of designs1 and their position in relation to the eye and hand1 such as height1 plane of extension1 and scale2 or in the more particular sense which includes all these1 as well as more strict technical conditions which1 being accepted by the artistic faculty1 influence the form and character of all design1 the object being1 of course1 the attainment of the greatest beauty consistent with such conditions4 ,all design is necessarily conditioned1 from the purely graphic and pictorial to the most abstract forms of decoration4 ,we cannot set pencil to paper even without committing ourselves to a kind of compact with conditions4 ,here is a white expanse--a plain surface2 here is something to make black marks with4 ,the artistic realization of or presentment of our thought1 or our rendering of a piece of nature or of art will depend upon our frank acceptance of the natural limits of the capacity of pencil and paper--of plane1 surface1 line1 and tint as conditions of representation1 and on our faithfulness to them1 by means of which we shall attain the most truth and beauty in drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,ceiling ,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,illustration3 ,,ceiling ,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,it is the recognition of this which gives distinction to all drawing1 according to the individuality1 invention1 and character of the artist4 ,we recognize his style and personality by his manner of dealing with the conditions of the work1 and nowhere does this come out more emphatically than when those conditions are reduced to the simplest4 ,so that in a line drawing in pen or pencil1 in the economy of the means1 and in the skill and mastery by which facts of nature1 character1 life1 action1 or beauty of line and ornamental effect are rendered by the simple use of outline1 or tint1 or solid black1 we can recognise the artist of power just as clearly as we recognize a friend's handwriting4 ,illustration3 ,,ceiling ,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,the suavity and grace of ,raphael1 the energy of ,michael ,angelo1 the learning and finish of ,leonardo1 the sculptor-like definition of ,mantegna1 the firmness and care of ,drer1 the breadth and richness of ,holbein2 all these qualities come out clearly enough in the studies and drawings of these masters in pen1 pencil1 and chalk4 ,for beauty of style1 treatment1 and decorative feeling in pencil and chalk1 perhaps few come near the studies of our modern master1 ,burne-,jones4 ,illustration3 ,,repeating ,,pattern ,,wall-,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,in making studies1 too1 another condition comes in1 important enough in its effects--that of time4 ,in general practice no means to ends are more useful than rapid sketches and notes of passing actions and transient effects4 ,in order to seize the essential facts quickly great economy of means is necessary1 and practice and experience alone can teach us facility in selecting the leading points and most expressive lines4 ,given a limited time in which to note facts1 the problem is how to set down the most truth in the simplest and most forcible way4 ,the conditions which govern the making of a sketch or study upon paper are sufficient as tests of artistic capacity1 of draughtsmanship1 of taste1 and the other fine qualities which go to the making of a work of art1 having what may be termed an independent or individual interest and value2 but in adapting any kind of design to a definite ornamental purpose other conditions immediately come into play over and above those belonging to the conditions of draughtsmanship alone1 conditions which at once influence the style of draughtsmanship and determine the treatment4 ,again1 everyone who attempts designs for different kinds of decorative purpose1 for different materials1 for different planes of extension1 for different positions and uses1 must perceive that such considerations are important factors in determining the plan1 construction1 and spirit of the design4 ,the ornamental conditions1 for instance1 which govern the design of wall-papers and hangings1 demand patterns which climb upwards and spread laterally without any apparent effect or flaw in the repeat4 ,frieze designs1 again1 demand horizontal extension and definite rhythm1 which latter is an important element in all border design4 ,illustration3 ,,pattern ,,plans ,,motives ,,controlled ,,by ,,conditions ,,of ,,position ,,and ,,purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,an ,,ordinary ,,wall-,,paper ,,pattern ,,repeat4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,drop ,,repeat4 ,illustration3 ,,mural ,,motive-,,field ,,frieze4 ,illustration3 ,,textile ,,motive--,,broken ,,by ,,folds4 ,illustration3 ,,ceiling ,,motive4 ,illustration3 ,,floor ,,motive ,,with ,,border4 ,illustration3 ,,floor ,,motive4 ,,sketch ,,design ,,for ,,inlaid ,,wood1 ,,south ,,london ,,fine ,,art ,,gallery4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,designs for extension upon floors and pavements1 where the effect of perspective distorts forms as they recede from the eye1 require their own special planning and treatment1 square1 circular1 diamond1 and fish-scale plans being generally the safest1 as bases1 since they preserve their form in perspective better than irregular non-geometric or more complex plans4 ,much the same kind of considerations control ceiling decoration1 where1 in addition1 suggestions may be taken from constructive conditions1 as1 in flat ceilings1 the design following parallel beams and joists and their interstices2 the panelled arrangement of a coffered ceiling2 or radiating spring of lines from constructive centres1 as in vaulted ceilings4 ,where a pattern will be broken by deep folds1 as in textiles1 in hangings1 and curtains1 the conditions favour the recurrence of bold masses1 richer points1 and more strongly defined forms1 at intervals1 than would be agreeable in a pattern for extension on a plane surface1 unless we except carpets1 where boldness of form and richness of colour are desirable4 ,such conditions as these influence every department of decorative design1 and in proportion to the completeness with which they are satisfied will depend the success of designs2 and a design which may have less actual beauty1 perhaps1 than another1 but which completely fulfils the conditions of its existence1 is likely to have a longer life4 ,illustration3 ,,drop ,,repeat ,,wall-,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,the persistence of certain well-known types of pattern is probably due to this--such as the continual reappearance of the ,greek fret in various forms as a border design in all sorts of work4 ,questions of scale in design are less absolute1 perhaps1 since1 though one may say as a rule that large types of design and detail belong to large rooms and large scale buildings1 there may be interesting exceptions1 when large patterns might suit even in a small room1 if a particular artistic effect were sought4 ,the main condition in the matter of scale appears to be that we cannot afford to ignore the average human standard4 ,as we may say that the human frame itself contains the elements and principles of all ornamental design1 so its proportions and scale control the proportions and scale of all design4 ,objects intended for human use and service are bound to be of certain fixed or average sizes--seats and couches about eighteen inches from the ground1 for instance2 ordinary domestic doors not much over six feet high1 and three feet six inches or four feet wide4 ,the size of casements1 again1 is strictly related to the power of the hand to open them2 while the sizes of all movable objects of use are in like manner strictly governed by the average size1 height1 and strength of mankind4 ,pursuing the influence of such conditions1 we find that there are in every direction natural limitations in every department of design3 in the first place of scale and position in relation to eye and hand1 in the second place of method and material4 ,take the page of a printed book1 for instance4 ,the body of type impressed upon the paper1 gives the proportions and dimensions of the page4 ,the double page1 when the book is opened to show the right and left hand pages 7or recto and verso1 as they are termed71 is the true unit1 not the single page4 ,illustration3 ,,drop ,,repeat ,,wall-,,paper4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,the type should be placed so as to leave the narrowest margin at the top and the inside1 the broader on the outside1 and the broadest of all at the foot4 ,and this for obvious reasons1 since in holding a book in our hand we naturally want the type brought well under the eye1 the pages being set as close together as the necessities of joining down the middle will allow conveniently1 so that the eye need not have to jump across a large brook of margin in travelling from one to the other1 while the deep margin below enables the book to be held in the hand well set up before the eye1 without touching the type4 ,in taking up a book with the intention of decorating or illustrating it1 we must accept frankly these conditions1 which indeed are1 properly considered1 a substantial help to the artist1 just as the necessities of the ground plan give suggestions for the elevation in architectural design4 ,these conditions1 we may take it1 are the architectural conditions of book-page construction4 ,the size1 then1 of our page-panel being fixed1 as well as the page of type necessary to the book 7sizes of books are1 of course1 determined by folding of the paper--folio1 quarto1 octavo1 duodecimo1 and so on71 we are free to deal with it decoratively in a variety of ways1 subject only to the acknowledgment of the essential condition that it is a book-page1 and not a random sheet of paper to make blots of ink upon--or a stereoscope1 or a card-basket1 for instance1 as some modern treatments of illustration in books suggest4 ,we may use the whole page for the design1 surrounding it with a line or border4 ,or for the sake of richer and more ornate effect1 while confining our picture or illustration to the limits of the type-page1 we may use our margin for a decorative framework or border4 ,as also in using ornamental initial letters the side borders can be utilized for ornaments branching up and down from the letter to emphasize the chapter or paragraph1 in the manner of medival illuminated ,,mss41 and in the way adopted by ,william ,morris in his ,kelmscott ,press books4 ,or1 again1 limiting our decoration to the actual type-page1 we may divide the page at the opening of a chapter by a frieze-shaped panel or heading across the top1 placing the initial letter below2 or insert a picture in the text1 occupying a half-page or quarter-page2 or at the ending of a chapter design a tailpiece to fill the page where the type ends1 treating any space within the limits of the type-page1 which the type does not occupy1 as a field for design1 or placing one's pictures and ornaments in the midst or in place of the type4 ,the title-page1 again1 is capable of an immense variety of treatment1 and great ornamental use can always be made of the lettering1 whether accompanied by design or not4 ,i think1 too1 that it is obvious that the conditions of surface printing point to line-drawing as the most harmonious in effect for book illustration and decoration1 as well as most practical mechanically1 since type and blocks which decorate a page must be subjected to the same pressure4 ,the form of letters1 too1 in movable type1 being linear1 whether ,gothic or ,roman letters1 line-drawing is in direct decorative relation with the type4 ,illustration3 ,,open ,,folio ,,book ,,to ,,show ,,proportions ,,of ,,type ,,page ,,margin1 ,,kelmscott ,,press1 ,,william ,,morris4 ,illustration3 ,,title ,,page ,,faerie ,,queene ,,walter ,,crane ,w4,c4 ,illustration3 ,w4,c4 ,w4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,page ,,plans ,,showing ,,various ,,arrangements ,,of ,,text ,,decoration4 ,in proportion to the solidity or heaviness of the letters1 too1 as a general principle1 stronger effects of black and white may be ventured on1 while if the type is light and elegant1 finer and more open-like work would be the most harmonious treatment4 ,with the use of handmade paper1 again1 upon which a printed book always looks best1 openness of line is a necessary condition in design work to be reproduced as surface printing blocks with the type1 since the quality of the paper requires considerable pressure to bring up bright impressions1 and under such pressure 7with the grain and rough surface of the paper1 which gives the richness to the lines and blocks of type or woodcut7 fine and broken lines would print up too strong1 and not look well4 ,pen or brush drawing1 therefore1 in firm and unbroken lines is the most adapted to the conditions in this case because they work and look the best1 and lead to a distinct character and style4 ,nothing looks worse1 to my mind1 than heavy toned and realistically treated wash drawings used with a thin and light type1 such as we constantly see in newspapers and magazines4 ,the facility of the photographic processes for reproducing drawings of all kinds 7as well as the decline of printing as an art before that1 and the decline of good facsimile engraving71 have no doubt tended to destroy the sense of style and harmony in combining text and illustration1 since the two have come to be considered so entirely apart2 but of late years there have been many indications of a return to sounder taste1 which is sure to influence the printer's and illustrator's art more and more widely4 ,illustration3 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,evil tidings come to hand at ,cleveland ,,not long had he worked ere he heard the sound of horse-hoofs once more1 and he looked not up1 but said to himself1 ,it is but the lads bringing back the teams from the acres1 and riding fast and driving hard for joy of heart and in wantonness of youth ,but the sound grew nearer and he looked up and saw over the turf wall of the garth the ,,from ,,the ,,glittering ,,plain1 ,,kelmscott ,,press4 ,,designed ,,by ,,william ,,morris ,,and ,,walter ,,crane4 ,illustration3 ,o ,,sacred hunger of ambitious mindes1 ,and impotent desire of men to raine6 ,whom neither dread of ,god1 that devils bindes1 ,nor lawes of men1 that common-weales containe1 ,nor bands of nature1 that wilde beastes restraine1 ,can keepe from outrage and from doing wrong1 ,where they may hope a kingdome to obtaine3 ,no faithe so firme1 no trust can be so strong1 ,no love so lasting then1 that may enduren long4 ,witness may ,burbon be2 whom all the bands ,which may a ,knight assure had surely bound1 ,untill the love of ,lordship and of lands ,made him become most faithless and unsound3 ,and witness be ,gerioneo found1 ,who for like cause faire ,belg did oppresse1 ,and right and wrong most cruelly confound3 ,and so be now ,grantorto1 who no lesse ,then all the rest burst out to all outragiousnesse4 ,,from ,,spenser',s ,,faerie ,,queene4 ,,designed ,,by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,from books let us turn for further illustration to another source of illumination1 namely1 windows2 where1 in the design of leaded and stained glass1 we shall find examples of another strictly conditioned and very beautiful province of design4 ,in the course of its historical development stained glass seems to show much the same or corresponding general characteristics at different periods as to style1 as may be traced in other branches of art4 ,the windows of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were characterized by geometric pattern1 and made up of small pieces of glass1 the figure subjects small1 set in geometric inclosures or quatrefoil panels and showing ,byzantine influence in their treatment4#e ,it may be1 too1 that the windows of the early ,gothic period were influenced by the rich mosaic work of the ,byzantine artists1 but in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 as windows became larger and more important features in architecture1 and stone tracery enabled very large openings to be filled with coloured and leaded glass1 both the figures and the pieces of glass became larger1 the general design more pictorial1 till in the early sixteenth century we get perspectives and heavily-shaded figures1 and large masses of light and dark1 until the art perished in eighteenth century transparencies4 #e ,i give some reproductions from photographs of the beautiful fragments from the ,sainte ,chapelle1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 as types of the earlier glass1 and from ,winchester ,college for the later1 and two cartoons of ,ford ,madox ,brown's as examples of good modern design1 showing leading4 ,illustration3 ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,glass ,,from ,,the ,,sainte ,,chapelle1 ,,paris 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,illustration3 ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,glass ,,from ,,the ,,sainte ,,chapelle1 ,,paris 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,it perished because the essential fundamental conditions were ignored or not made important decorative use of4 ,leading1 instead of being regarded as the backbone of the design1 its fundamental anatomy1 and essential decorative as well as mechanical characteristic1 was rather looked upon as an awkward if necessary interruption in the picture1 and the glass-painter1 in endeavouring to follow the painter on canvas in his effects of relief and chiaroscuro1 lost all the peculiar beauty and character of his own art without gaining the distinction of the one he would fain have rivalled4#f #f ,winston1 in his well-known work on glass-painting1 a very good and particular account both of the characteristic historic periods and the methods and materials of glass-painting1 says3 ,in the eighteenth century glass was painted with enamels1 very much as canvas is with oil colours1 that is to say1 in little patches1 and the shadows were not produced merely with enamel brown1 but with deeper tints of various local colours4 ,in this way the shadows are almost imperceptibly blended with the lights1 scarcely any part of the glass being left perfectly free of colour1 or the marks of the brush4 ,it has only been by artists going back to the fundamental conditions1 and keeping faith with them1 that a revival of glass-painting has taken place in our time4 ,now we might divide design in glass into two parts3 #a4 ,design in lead line4 #b4 ,design in coloured light4 ,illustration3 ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,glass ,,from ,,the ,,sainte ,,chapelle1 ,,paris 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,both demand the full light of the sky to do them justice1 but especially the colour work1 and therefore can only effectively be used for windows placed high1 or above the level of the eye1 in the wall like church windows1 for it is only the full strength of light which brings out the full beauty and depth which the best work in glass always possesses2 and in some qualities of glass1 indeed1 only full sunlight will discover their inner heart of jewel-like colour4 ,very beautiful effects in window glazing are produced by patterns formed of plain leads1 and their value has of late been perceived by architects1 who largely use them in domestic work4 ,either seen from within or without the effect is pleasant1 and suggests a sense both of comfort and romance which refuse to be associated with large blank squares of plate glass and heavy sash windows1 which require a ,samson or a ,sandow to lift4 ,inside1 the effect of large panes of plate glass is cold4 ,outside1 it forms great holes in the architecture1 but1 with the use of leads1 if the opening is large1 there need be scarcely any diminution of light inside1 while the network of lead forms a pleasant relief to the window surface and unites it by pattern with the architecture of the building4 ,the pliant grooved strip of lead1 then1 is the glass designer's outline4 ,with it he weaves his plain pattern1 which he can enrich with spots of colour or by jewels of light in escutcheons and roundels2 and when he comes to planning an elaborate figure panel he is bound to contrive a well-constructed basis of leading to hold his colour and form together1 and by means of its bold black bounding lines to define the masses of his pattern1 each different tint of glass being inclosed by a lead line1 and shading1 faces1 hands1 and small details being added with brush drawing in brown upon the coloured glass4 ,illustration3 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,glass4 ,,from ,,winchester ,,college ,,chapel 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,apart from good design1 well-planned leading and colour scheme1 nearly everything depends upon the careful choice of tint in the glass itself1 and immense pains and trouble are well spent in this way1 since beauty of total effect1 as well as particular harmonies1 depend upon choice of the degree1 depth1 and quality of the coloured glass4 ,now glass for colour work1 called antique1 is made in small sheets about #bb in4 #ag in4 ,the sheets of one maker do not exceed #h in4 #e in4 ,they may be classified as tints and whites4 ,these form the palette of the stained glass artist1 and furnish him with an immense range of tint and tone from which to select4 ,but these1 again1 are divisible into two sorts3 7#a7 what is called pot-metal self-colours1 or sheets that are of the same metal throughout2 and 7#b7 that known as flashed1 that is1 when a thin skin of ruby1 gold1 pink1 or blue is flashed upon a sheet of blue1 white1 pink1 or amber4 ,this flash may be lightened or removed at pleasure by fluoric acid4 ,the object of the maker of these small sheets of glass is to get as much variety as possible1 not only in light and dark1 which in the pot-metals is due to the varying thickness of the sheet1 and in the flashed colours to the varying thickness of the flash1 but in some cases a mixture of two or more colours in the same sheet1 by which it will be seen that no two sheets even out of the same pot of metal are alike4 ,it is the use of this variety and unexpectedness that are amongst the charms of stained glass4 ,we speak of stained glass1 but in reality there is only one stain1 properly speaking2 other colours used on glass are enamels1 the real colour being incorporated in the glass when made 7pot-metal or flashed71 and not painted on4 ,this stain is a preparation of silver1 and is mixed with a vegetable colour1 yellow lake1 to weaken it4 ,it is principally used upon the whites to stain diapers1 hair1 etc41 and when fixed in the kiln the yellow lake is burnt away1 leaving a slight residue which is easily removed1 and the silver is vitrified into the glass1 the depth of yellow being varied according to the strength of the stain and the susceptibility of the glass4 ,in setting to work to design a stained glass window1 it is usual first to make a coloured design to scale--#a inch to the foot is the best4 ,a window may be composed of one light or of many1 each separate panel inclosed by the masonry or mullions being termed a light4 ,the question of treatment of subject as a single design extending across several lights1 or as separate panels1 must depend first upon the particular subject1 or subjects1 to be treated1 then the scale of the window1 and the general character of the architectural setting4 ,supposing it is a subject like the ,nativity1 with the ,adoration of the ,magi1 it would lend itself to treatment as a single subject extending across several lights1 and to great richness and splendour of colour4 ,the colour design in such a case would be the most important1 but1 as ,i have before said1 it must be perfectly combined with1 and built upon1 a well-designed network of lead lines1 those lines forming themselves essential elements in the design1 defining the forms in bold outline1 and uniting and giving value to the masses of colour4 ,for while we may separate the problem into two parts1 the design of lead lines and colour design1 the window must be conceived as a whole1 not merely as composition in line to be tinted4 ,having made our scale sketch1 the next step is to work out the full-sized cartoons1 which1 of course1 demand more attention to drawing and detail4 ,many artists make as many elaborate studies for figures1 drapery1 and details as they would for a highly-wrought picture in oil1 or mural painting4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 though any amount of good drawing and invention may be put into glass design1 it should not be forgotten that beauty of pattern and effect and symbolic suggestion are the objects and not pictorial naturalism4 ,for main definition in the design the essential lead line is all important4 ,it would not do to sketch in a figure in a casual way1 and then surmount it with lead lines2 it should be carefully considered as a piece of bold and massive outline design4 ,in leading we may use a bolder line for bounding and defining the main masses1 and a thinner sort for subsidiary fittings2 in this much will depend upon the scale of the work4 ,the lead1 which has a double groove1 may be said to serve several functions4 ,its primary office is to hold the pieces of glass together3 it forms the linework of the design1 surrounding the figures and forms1 separating them from each other and the background1 as well as defining the secondary forms1 as of drapery and other detail4 ,then1 too1 the lead joints ease the cutting of awkward shapes in the glass1 which however should be avoided in planning the cartoon4 ,again1 it may be used to obtain greater variety into large masses1 as a piece of drapery1 for instance4 ,illustration3 ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,glass ,,grisaille1 ,,salisbury ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,cartoon ,,for ,,glass1 ,,showing ,,lead ,,design1 ,,by ,,ford ,,madox ,,brown4 ,illustration3 ,,cartoon ,,for ,,glass1 ,,showing ,,lead ,,design1 ,,by ,,ford ,,madox ,,brown4 ,the cartoon being made1 the next thing is to make the working drawing4 ,this is done by laying a semi-transparent piece of paper over the cartoon1 and tracing merely the lead lines and thus obtaining the skeleton of the window4 ,the glass is cut from this drawing1 the cutter cutting the glass just within the lines1 thus allowing for the heart of lead4 ,the same drawing serves also for the leadworker to glaze the finished work upon4 ,the shapes of the whites and light colours are seen when the sheets are laid on the drawing2 but the shapes of the dark colours1 through which it is impossible to see the lead lines1 must be obtained in another way4 ,the best way is to cut the shape in thin sheet glass1 which is then placed on the dark sheet of antique glass held up to the light1 and moved about until the most suitable part of the sheet is found4 ,they are then laid on the bench together1 and the piece of sheet glass is pounced with a small bag of fine whitening1 which1 when removed1 leaves its shape on the dark sheet to be followed by the cutter's diamond4 ,we now come to the all-important task of selecting the glass4 ,the ordinary trade way of doing this is to number the outline1 which indicates to the cutter certain racks correspondingly numbered containing the different colours4 ,but if it is to be really careful artistic work the designer ought himself to select each piece for his work4 ,the principle and idea of colour in glass design1 dealing as the artist does with pure translucent colour1 is necessarily distinct from those obtaining in other kinds of painting1 such as mural1 when opaque colours and a variety of half-tones are used4 ,the glass designer does not attempt to shade his figures and draperies by the light and dark parts of a sheet of coloured glass4 ,he desires to express the jewel-like quality--the quintessence of colour in every piece of glass--by the force of contrast1 not in the juxtaposition of dark and light pieces of one colour merely1 but by the bold arrangement of various colours1 having the effect of one1 but with a richness and sonorousness that the single tint does not possess4 ,for example1 in a yellow drapery we should take a rich decided yellow as keynote4 ,obviously if the adjoining pieces were of the same colour1 the effect would be flat and tame2 but if we take a low toned yellow or neutral colour1 the keynote will be screwed up to concert pitch1 as it were1 and if the neutral colour is followed by a reddish tone of yellow and that by another variation of yellow1 that again by a decided green1 and so on1 we shall achieve that desideratum in stained glass--variety in unity4 ,the general effect will be warmer or colder as reddish or greenish tones predominate in the scheme4 ,care1 of course1 must be taken to bring these contrasted--even discordant--component parts into a harmonious whole3 indeed every piece should be selected1 not only to agree with and help its neighbour1 but with reference to the harmony of the whole4 ,any undue abruptness of contrast may be brought into sufficient relation by the after painting4 ,the white must be treated in the same way1 a mixture of warm and cold tints as a rule1 the general effect of each mass being made warmer or colder as found necessary4 ,great care must be taken with the masses of white to prevent them looking like holes in the window3 for instance1 a white coming next to a dark colour would have to be a tint 7or very low in tone1 as we should say in painting7 to hold its proper place4 ,only by actual experience1 however1 can the artist learn how one colour affects another1 and how certain combinations will look in their place4 ,we have now reached the painting stage4 ,all the glass has been cut and laid out on the outline4 ,it is now looked over to see if there are any pieces that will not stand the fire--that is1 that would change colour or lose brilliance4 ,the gold pinks1 brown rubies1 and some sorts of pure ruby are liable to do this4 ,pieces of plain sheet glass may therefore be cut to the same shape to paint on1 to be afterwards glazed behind the coloured pieces1 so that the full brilliance is preserved4 ,the wings of the angel in the panel by ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,sparrow 7to whom ,i am indebted for this detailed account7 have been treated in this way4 ,the outline was made in colours ground in turpentine1 fattened and made workable with japanner's gold-size1 in order to stand the matte of water-colour to be added afterwards4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,glass1 ,,designed ,,and ,,executed ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,sparrow4 ,when the figure is drawn in this way all the pieces are stuck upon an easel glass 7a large stout piece of sheet7 with a composition of bees-wax and resin4 ,as this is the first time all the pieces have been seen together the panel is carefully looked over1 as a whole1 to see that each piece is of a right colour and value4 ,some pieces may have to be cut over again2 others strengthened or modified by the addition of another piece of glass4 ,this last method is called plating1 by which rich and beautiful deep toned effects can be produced4 ,a strong flat matte of water-colour is now laid all over the figure4 ,this forms the half-tones1 and the lights are taken out 7when dry7 with hog-hair brushes1 the colour being first loosened by modelling the broad lights with the finger1 which indeed is the best implement1 and as much of the modelling should be done by it as possible4 ,a quill may be used to take out sharp lights4 ,the work should now be ready for the kiln1 but before firing it should be again stuck up1 and looked over1 and any strengthening or definition added in shadows on details by oil-colour with the addition of fat turpentine to keep it open2 the dry surface of the glass being first treated with a wash of oil of tar to make the colour flow easily4 ,then the diapers and hair are stained on the back of the glass1 and it is ready for the kiln4 ,after being leaded up1 the leads soldered together at the junctions1 the panel is again placed on the easel1 and further alterations or improvements may be made1 as the leaded panel looks very different from the glass by itself4 ,the panel is next cemented1 the leads filled up with putty or cement to make it firm and water-tight4 ,the cement is like a very thick paint1 a mixture of white lead1 whitening1 red lead1 lamp-black1 dryers and raw and boiled oil4 ,the window may require to be supported by horizontal iron bars1 if it extends over two feet4 ,they are usually placed about fifteen inches apart1 as the leaded glass might bend under the pressure of wind without extra support4 ,from this account we may realize what care and taste are necessary to carry out really artistic work in stained glass4 ,the whole subject affords us a good illustration of one of the highest and most beautiful of the arts of design1 severely controlled by well-defined conditions--conditions which1 if followed faithfully1 give it all its peculiar character1 strength1 and beauty4 ,the necessities of leading and cutting the glass demand a certain severity and simplicity of design--from which a new beauty is evolved1 capable in its turn of influencing other forms of art for good1 as in easel painting--which harmonizes with its symbolic and religious intention as well as with the architectural and monumental character of its surroundings in its noblest forms in public and college halls and churches2 while its glow and colour1 suggestive symbolism1 or heraldic adornment1 may cheer and vivify domestic interiors with a touch of poetry and romance4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,of ,,the ,,climatic ,,influence ,,in ,,design--,,chiefly ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,colour ,,and ,,pattern ,,we have seen how largely ,design in its manifold forms has been influenced by various physical conditions and necessities1 and in pursuing the subject we can hardly fail to note that1 outside those more strictly defined technical conditions we have been considering1 there are certain broad controlling influences which have determined1 and still determine1 essential differences of character as between the products of one country and another2 differences which1 despite the complex network of international commerce and exchange1 tending ever to obscure and confuse those native and natural differences by mixture and fusion1 still persist4 ,indeed1 as ,manchester manufacturers and merchants well know1 in the matter of pattern and colour they have to be taken into serious account1 since we have unfortunately taken upon ourselves the responsibility of supplying ,eastern markets1 substituting our own ideas of pattern and colour in fabrics for the original native ones--or rather1 sending back to the native ,chinese and ,indian second-hand notions of their own colours and patterns4 ,now to what principal cause may we trace these broad differences in the choice and treatment of colour and design in different countries--those variations which enable us to assign each to its native home1 north1 south1 east1 or west1 upon this parti-coloured globe of ours8 ,if we were to endeavour to mark upon a chart in some bright colour1 say red or yellow1 all those countries where1 given a certain organized social life of civilization of some kind1 bright sunshine was the rule1 and indicate proportionally its lesser degrees in others1 we should get a vivid notion of the general distribution of the colour sense3 we should naturally come to the conclusion that it is to the source of all our life1 light1 and heat--to the sun--that we must also trace our colour sense1 which is a part of the sense of sight itself4 ,it is to the influence of sunlight1 direct or indirect1 and to its prevalence in a greater or lesser degree in different countries1 then1 that we may attribute the differences of taste and feeling for colour and pattern which mark the different quarters of the inhabited earth4 ,we know how we are affected by the absence or presence of sunlight in our own country1 and by a heavy or light atmosphere1 and are sensitive to the changes of the weather1 which no doubt have their influence upon our work1 and we know how different colours look in different degrees and qualities of light4 ,we have only to follow the pattern book of ,nature herself1 indeed1 and see how distinctly she paints upon the globe the different zones of climate in different coloured flowers1 birds1 and animals corresponding with those differences2 or follow her system of coloration in the ordinary procession of the seasons1 without going out of our own country4 ,with the return of the sun and lengthening days and the new awakening of life in the spring1 a delicate bloom overspreads the landscape1 the dark wintry woodlands burst into blossoms and clouds of foliage1 taking every tint1 from the palest green to delicate amber and red2 while the meadows show the rich moist green of new springing grass1 embroidered with flowers1 yellow1 white1 and blue2 and the blue sky seems to repeat itself in the copses where the hyacinths grow4 ,gradually1 as spring turns to summer1 the colours deepen1 the greens of trees and grass grow fuller1 the flowers grow brighter and more varied in hue1 crimsons and reds and purples are seen1 and gardens become feasts of colour2 and as the cornfields ripen scarlet poppies mingle with the gold1 and the leaves of the trees1 having reached their darkest tint1 as autumn nears1 become tinged with yellow and brown1 and1 before they fall1 turn into wonderful harmonies of russet and gold1 in part recalling1 though in lower tones1 some of the colours of spring4 ,the ripe fruit in the orchards gives a deeper note of richer and brighter colour1 when the procession of flowers has reached the threshold of winter1 bare and cold1 though not colourless--its colours being more metallic--the silver of frost and mists1 and the ruddy gold of the winter sun gilding the black trees1 whereon mosses and lichens take the place of leaves and flowers1 and sombre yews and hollies and firs1 instead of the bright greens of spring1 until the whole is veiled in ice and snow4 ,this drama of expressive colour is enacted before our eyes every year--those of us1 at least1 who are fortunate enough to live in the country1 and are observers2 and even to town dwellers the tale of colour to a certain extent is told by the importation of flowers1 or even by the textiles in drapers' windows1 or costumes in the street1 as humanity responds to the approach of the sun by wearing lighter and fairer colours in the spring and summer1 and getting darker and more sombre again in the autumn and winter4 ,we have only to glance at the various manifestations of our home arts to note these changes with the characteristic colours of our varied landscape reflected1 not only in the works of our painters1 but in the half-tones of our textiles and wall-papers1 and throughout our decorative design1 which for form1 too1 owes so much to the flora of our native land4 ,it does not seem to follow that with the greatest amount of sunlight we get the most colour2 on the contrary1 the zenith of light is the absorption of colour1 just as darkness represents its extinction4 ,light and darkness are the black and white on the palette of nature1 necessary to give value to her colours4 ,the sense of colour1 too1 is no doubt greatly affected by other climatic influences1 such as humidity1 haziness1 clearness1 heat and cold1 as well as their accompaniments in varieties of scenery and locality1 such as plains or mountains1 woodland1 sea-board1 lake1 river1 agricultural land1 or wild nature4 ,we associate brilliant colours and bold designs with eastern and southern countries1 but1 apart from the greater stimulus of light which might encourage the use of vivid colour1 there is1 ,i think1 another reason which accounts for the bolder and franker use of colour and ornament in the south and east4 ,broad and full sunlight has a curiously flattening effect upon colour and pattern1 and therefore colours and patterns which under a gray sky would look staring1 or very strong and striking1 under the full sunlight fall into plane1 and become subordinated to the dominant pitch of light4 ,we may take as an instance the porch of the ,cathedral at ,pistoia4 ,the bold black and white bands of marble which face the front of this building--as of so many medival ,lombardic ,italian cathedrals1 as at ,florence1 ,genoa1 and ,siena 7an idea borrowed from the ,saracens7--look striking enough under a gray sky1 but when the sunlight falls upon the building and raises the whole pitch of light the whole mass with its projections falls into planes of broad light and shade4 ,the black bands become gray and flat in the light1 and all fall into their places in the architectural scheme1 and therefore1 though borrowed from the east1 are quite appropriate in a climate like ,italy1 which can count on persistent sunshine for the most part1 summer and winter4 ,inside the porch1 in the spandril and vault1 is faced with ,della ,robbia ware1 in blue1 white1 and yellow1 and a very beautiful piece of decoration it is4 ,this1 again1 however1 in a dull atmosphere might look cold and strange1 but illuminated by the rich reflected light cast up from the sunlit pavement it takes all sorts of accidental lights and falls into its place admirably4 ,otherwise the porch is interesting from the curious blend of ,byzantine1 ,saracenic1 and classical motives and influences in decoration4 ,illustration3 ,,porch of ,,cathedral ,,of ,s4 ,,jacopo ,,pistoia ,seen in the cold and dull light of an ,english museum1 away from their proper architectural surroundings1 panels of ,della ,robbia ware are apt to look somewhat strong1 bold1 or rank in colour1 which only shows they were designed in a sunny bright climate1 and to be seen in a full external or warm reflected light as a rule4 ,the very qualities that make the ware trying in one place make it right in another4 ,the various historic types of design in architecture and decoration are1 in fact1 mostly the result of the blending or uniting of elements derived from different sources4 ,while we may in the leading types prevalent in different countries detect the fundamental prevailing influence of life1 custom and habit1 the result of climatic and racial conditions2 we may also see1 owing to social and political changes and the results of conquest or of commercial relations1 other elements coming in various details of construction1 form1 and colour4 ,our present purpose1 however1 is rather to seek the fundamental characteristic types and predilections traceable to the fundamental or natural conditions of locality and climate1 as far as they can be followed in historic decoration4 ,it seems to have been in the power of certain ancient peoples to impress and to preserve the character of their life and the conditions of their habitat very strongly upon their art1 so that1 though their political power has long ago been swept away1 their records remain practically imperishable in their monuments of art4 ,of such the ancient ,egyptians must always be typical4 ,if we look at the structure of the primitive ,egyptian dwelling we shall find that it illustrates those influences of climate and locality in a very emphatic way4 ,in the first place1 as we know1 ,egypt depends upon her great river1 the ,nile1 which may be said to have made her existence possible1 since its waters fertilize the whole country4 ,it is interesting1 then1 to note that the primitive ,egyptian dwelling was essentially suggestive of the riverside and of a country of sunshine4 ,its materials were those of the waterside1 consisting of clay and canes and lotus reeds2 the canes being used for the framing and support of the clay walls1 which are built in layers between them4 ,the plans and diagrams of construction 7from ,viollet le ,duc7 will give a clear idea of the form and character of the primitive ,egyptian dwelling4 ,in the course of an interesting account of its construction he says3 that it is a dwelling for a country where brilliant sunshine is the rule is shown by the smallness of the windows1 which are furnished with lattices4 ,the walls were frequently plastered with clay1 covered with a composition made of the same clay and fine sand or white stone dust1 and this furnished a ground for the painters who decorated the reeds and plastered walls with brilliant colours2 the walls and ceilings of the interior were also decorated in the same way2 rush mats furnished the floor and covered the lower part of the walls4 ,sometimes1 also1 we find a portico supported on bundles of reeds1 the covering of which is made of wood and byblos1 with a terrace of clay before the door1 affording shade and coolness in front of the dwelling4 ,like most dwellings in eastern countries1 there is a flat roof or terrace on the top of the house1 approached by steps2 and here awnings are spread on poles to give shade1 when they can be used for sitting upon or for sleeping or enjoying the cool of the day4 ,illustration3 ,primitive ,egyptian ,house1 after ,viollet le ,duc ,illustration3 ,,column ,,from ,,temple ,,of ,,luxor4 ,when the ,egyptians learned the art of building and carving in stone from the rock dwellers above the ,delta1 and built their great temples1 they still perpetuated in stone1 in the reeded and filleted columns with lotus capitals1 the ornamental traditions of the reed-built primitive dwelling1 and the painter still adorned them in bright primitive colours2 so that we are perpetually reminded of the great riverside1 from which sprung the flower of that ancient art and civilization4 ,another effect of climate upon art may be noted in the representation of figures4 ,the ,egyptian climate being extremely warm but equable1 most out-door occupations precluded the wearing of much apparel1 so that the figure nude and lightly clad plays an important part in ,egyptian design1 as in ,greek4 ,at a time like the present1 when the world of design suffers rather from what might be called too generous or too mixed a diet2 when the tendency is to over-elaborate1 to combine too many elements2 to be lost either in an overdone flamboyance of curvature1 or in a straining after a forced and inappropriate naturalism1 a study of ,egyptian art may be recommended as a wholesome corrective4 ,the simplicity1 severity1 and restraint1 abstract and yet vivid characterization of form1 frank and primitive coloration1 purposeful intention1 and mural motives and methods are full of suggestiveness and value to the student and decorative designer4 ,illustration3 ,,design ,,of ,,persian ,,capital ,,influenced ,,by ,,primitive ,,timber ,,construction ,illustration3 ,,lotus ,,capital1 ,,phil4 ,another instance of the influence of primitive timber construction over stone may be seen in comparing the ancient ,persian column with its timber prototype still in use4 ,persia1 indeed1 is another eastern country which has preserved almost unbroken traditions in design from a very remote past1 and may be said to be the source of the most beautiful types of ornamental art the world has ever seen1 and especially in three leading forms--coloured and glazed tiles and bricks1 pottery1 and textiles4 ,to judge from the wonderful decoration of glazed bricks discovered a few years ago at ,susa1 forming part of the ancient forum and palace of ,darius1 destroyed in the reign of ,xerxes1 ,b4,c4 #dhe-dfe1 excavated by ,m4 and ,mme4 ,dieulafoy1#g the artistic skill of the ,persians in this kind of work1 and their sense of its value1 and the treatment of colour and ornament1 dates back to a very early period4 #g ,see ,acropole de ,suse1 ,hachette et ,cie41 #gi1 ,boulevard ,st4 ,germaine1 ,paris4 ,in the famous frieze of archers1 which formed part of the wall decoration of this palace1 the figures are frankly repeated in design though alternating in the patterns and colours of their dress1 boldly relieved upon a field of turquoise blue1 formed by the glazed bricks by which the frieze is constructed4 ,the figures and ornament must have been moulded or stamped in relief upon the clay while soft1 and cut up into bricks1 and afterwards fired and glazed in the method of ,robbia ware2 the whole scheme is severely simple but very effective in its proper position upon the walls of one of the large courts of the palace1 mostly in reflected light under projecting porticoes1 and would be very impressive and at the same time truly mural and reposeful in feeling and colour4 ,such a scheme of frank colour and fine detail could hardly have been conceived except in a country of brilliant light4 ,some doubt exists as to the exact position of the frieze upon the wall4 ,figures of similar scale in ,assyrian work and also at ,persepolis were placed not far1 if at all1 above the eye level4 ,upon the dress of one set of the archers is figured1 it is supposed1 the fortress of ,susa itself1 which was built upon a mount4 ,there is much interesting ornamental detail in the dresses1 which afford excellent authorities for the costume of ,persian warriors of that period4 ,we see also the palm-leaf border1 a primitive form1 type and forerunner of a whole tribe of border design4 ,the rosette is said to resemble the full-blown ,star of ,bethlehem1 conspicuous among all other flowers1 among the herbage clothing the stretches of ,susiana and the tablelands of ,iran 7,persia7 after the first rains in early spring4 7,perrot and ,chipiez1 p4 #acg47 ,we may note1 too1 what seems obviously the prototype of the ,moorish battlement1 defined in blue bricks above the figures1 suggesting they are guarding the citadel4 ,illustration3 ,,frieze ,,in ,,coloured ,,and ,,glazed ,,bricks1 ,,palace ,,of ,,susa4 ,,from ,,the ,,reproduction ,,at ,,south ,,kensington4 ,the ,moorish or ,arabian form constantly occurs as an ornamental cresting in carved woodwork1 and also appears to have suggested an ornamental form largely used with variations in eastern carpets1 notably those of ,turkistan4 ,the treatment of the design has the severity and simplicity of early ,asiatic monumental art1 and is allied in treatment to the ,assyrian relief work1 but is more subtle and refined1 and shows a finer decorative and colour sense4 ,in the treatment of blue the ,persians always seem to have been particularly successful1 and their later tile work in the ,mohammedan period is well known1 and continues down to our own time4 ,the love of blue and its use in tile work and pottery seems to have been general all over the east2 it may be because of the adaptability of the metallic oxide colour to firing1 but also it may be due to the pleasant relief and sense of coolness such decoration would afford to the eye in courts and interiors screened from the sun4 ,the old ,nankin blue1 so famous in ,chinese porcelain1 in the so-called hawthorn pattern1 was described by one of the emperors as the blue of the sky showing through the white clouds after the south rain4 ,in carpets ,persia about our sixteenth century reached a pitch of perfection in design1 colouring1 and material which1 it would seem1 has never been reached before or since4 ,in these works we1 of course1 pass to a very different and much later period of ,persian history1 after the ,arabian invasion in the seventh century1 and the conversion of its people to the ,mohammedan religion1 under which ,persian art developed in such delicate1 rich1 and beautiful forms4 ,there are very magnificent specimens of the finest types of ,persian carpets now in the national collection at ,south ,kensington1 the ,persian collection having been recently rearranged in the new galleries in ,imperial ,institute ,road to very great advantage as regards lighting and opportunities of study4 ,the famous ,holy ,carpet of the mosque at ,ardebil is perhaps the finest example1 though there are others more inventive in pattern1 if not more delicate in design or harmonious in colour4 ,a curious feature in the pattern of this carpet is a hanging lamp1 such a lamp as is used for lighting mosques1 with a painted glass body1 probably suspended by chains from the roof4 ,the lamp is repeated at the end of the main ornament of the field of the carpet1 facing opposite ways4 ,the inscription worked in ,arabic characters into the carpet at one end is given in translation thus3 ,i have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold4 ,my head has no protection other than this porchway1 the work of the slave of this holy place1 ,maksond of ,kashan in the year #idf 7corresponding to our ,a4,d4 #aedj74 ,we thus see that it is a carpet destined for an entrance1 or porchway1 of a mosque1 and the woven images of the lamps probably indicated the real lamps suspended overhead to light the entrance to the mosque4 ,so that1 though they seem strange objects in the pattern of a carpet1 they have a certain appropriateness and significance in this particular one4 ,fire1 too1 was a sacred emblem of the ancient ,persians4 ,persia might be said to be a country of gardens1 of deserts1 and of abundant sunshine4 ,it is for the most part a high table-land1 and is described as a climate of extremes4 ,nowhere in the habitable world is there so sharp a contrast between the heat of noon and the cold of night1 between the brown bare rock and the verdant meadow1 between the gorgeous hues of natural plains and the absolute bareness of arid wastes4 7,perrot and ,chipiez47 ,such a description is very suggestive4 ,we seem to see natural reasons for the interest and beauty of ,persian art in the varied physical conditions of their country and climate4 ,the love of the sheltered1 walled-in1 and natural garden is very evident in their literature2 and the influence of their flora upon their design of all kinds is evident enough4 ,the idea of the eastern paradise is a garden4 ,we have it in the ,bible in the ,garden of ,eden--an inclosed pleasance or park full of choice trees and rare flowers1 animals of the chase1 and birds4 ,this idea recurs constantly in ,persian design4 ,the very scheme of the typical carpet seems derived from it--a rich vari-coloured field hedged about with its borders4 ,the field is frequently obviously intended for a field of flowers1 and sometimes suggests a wood or an orchard of fruit trees4 ,the idea of the green oasis to the traveller in the desert2 the grateful relief of the colour and shade of green trees and fresh flowers2 the sound of waters2 the delight of the horseman and the hunter2 the dark forest full of dangerous animals--are not these things irresistibly suggested in ,persian design8 ,illustration3 ,,holy ,,carpet ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,at ,,ardebil 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,the same sensitiveness to natural beauty and the influence of climate is shown in their poets4 ,the astronomer-poet of ,persia1 ,omar ,khayym1 sings of the awakening spring4 ,it is a period1 too1 associated with the termination of a religious fast1 ,ramazan1 which is analogous to our ,lent1 perhaps4 ,omar invites his reader to come forth1 like a true poet1 seeking inspiration in the wilderness4 ,with me along the strip of herbage strown1 ,that just divides the desert from the sown1 ,where name of slave and sultan is forgot1 ,and peace to ,mahmud on his golden throne4 ,spring in ,persia must be a much more sudden burst of life and efflorescence than we can realize from our own timid and coy climate4 ,even in ,italy the spring generally comes all at once with a burst of bloom and a profusion of blossoms and flowers1 and in its strength the sun straightway leads on into summer before one is aware4 ,this gives one an idea what it must be in a country like ,persia--the country of the rose and the nightingale as well as of the vine1 of which ,omar the poet is eloquent4 ,then1 too1 it is an agricultural country4 ,he who guides a plough does a pious deed is one of the precepts of the early ,parsee religion1 which also1 as its main conception1 presents the constant strife of good against evil1 light against darkness1 personified by the contest of ,ormuzd and ,ahriman4 ,the sturdy and honest peasant was the backbone of the country in ancient times1 and furnished those sturdy warriors who built the power of the ancient kings4 ,and in the political changes or conquests to which ,persia has been subject in the course of her history1 her people would always appear to have had a recuperative power1 or a power of absorbing their conquerors1 or perhaps a certain tenacity of purpose1 or a conservation of the vital part in old beliefs and traditions which have been favourable to art4 ,how far that art was original1 in the time of ,persia's ancient greatness as a conquering power1 in the time of ,darius1 when the palace at ,susa was built--how far it was influenced from other sources1 or contributed to by artists of other nations1 must always be more or less a matter of conjecture2 but in the ,susa work we are reminded of ,assyrian decoration1 and even of ,greek and ,egyptian influence4 ,the ,persian art1 however1 which has had the most influence upon the neighbouring ,asiatic countries1 and upon ,europe1 has been produced since the ,arabian conquest in the seventh century1 and the conversion of the country to the ,mohammedan faith4 ,even then1 however1 although in ,mohammedan art the representation of animals is forbidden1 the ,persians were neutral and independent2 in ,persian design animals have been freely introduced1 and with charming decorative effect4 ,it is supposed1 indeed1 that ,persian art is really the source of invention of many forms commonly called ,arabian and ,indian1 and these forms have travelled both east and west1 and have been modified in the countries of their adoption4 ,the ,persians seem to have been in ,asia much what the ,greeks were in ,europe--both great adaptors and great originators in design4 ,one might trace elements and influences and types of form and treatment from other countries and races in ,persian art1 but one traces ,persian influence to a far greater extent in the art of other countries4 ,in ,india1 which was also invaded by ,islam1 and was colonized by ,persians1 the ,arabic type of art also became naturalized in architecture and decoration4 ,here again we have a country of the sun4 ,here again we find tile decoration in great beauty1 and the use of bright colours and intricate design4 ,intricacy both of colour and pattern is perhaps the chief characteristic of ,indian design4 ,one feature in ,indian1 as in ,arabic dwellings1 may be noticed as a direct result of the persistent sunshine turned to decorative account--one common to eastern countries--the pierced screen or lattice window1 which tempers the fierce light of the sun and breaks it into small stars of light4 ,the rich carved timber overhanging windows1 with its lattice screen so characteristic of old ,cairo and ,arabian life1 is repeated with variations in ,india1 and not only in wood but in stone and faence4 ,we find small ogee-pointed windows with perforated lattices cut in sandstone of intricate design and delightful ornamental effect4 ,there are some in the ,india ,museum from ,agra4 ,but the loveliest of all are those in the mosque of the ,palace at ,ahmedabad1 consisting of most delicate and intricate designs of trees cut in stone1 which fill the arched openings4 ,one of these windows is here illustrated4 ,there is nothing more delicate or beautiful in the whole range of architectural ornament4 ,illustration3 ,,arab ,,casement ,,from ,,cairo 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,cleobury74 ,in the tomb of ,yusuf ,shah ,cadez1 at ,multan1 occur large perforated screens in tile work4 ,this tomb1 an excellent reproduction of which is to be seen in the ,india ,museum1 is a fine example of ,mohammedan tile work and decoration in two blues--turquoise and ultramarine--on a warm white ground4 ,in the luminous atmosphere of ,india1 beneath the deep blue vault of the sky1 such colour on such surface must be very beautiful4 ,perhaps the love of intricate ornament in ,indian carved and pierced work in the doors1 window casements1 and lattices may be due in part to the certainty of obtaining a bright1 crisp1 rich1 sparkling effect in the broad and strong sunlight1 where every touch would tell1 and the fret or lattice work over a pierced opening would have all the richness and delicacy of lace4 ,then in the solemn and dimly-lighted splendour of the interior of the mosques1 the ,mohammedan1 alike in ,arabia1 ,turkey1 ,persia1 or ,india1 found a grateful contrast and relief to the eye1 while his religious imagination and emotion were stimulated4 ,much the same feeling intensified which comes over one who passes from the brilliant ,venetian sunlight on the piazza1 the glittering quays and dancing light and colour of ,venice1 into the subdued1 cool1 and golden shade of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,illustration3 ,,india4 ,,carved ,,stone ,,lattice ,,window ,,from ,,the ,,mosque ,,of ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,ahmedabad4 ,this wonderful contrast of bright and dark1 of glitter and solemnity1 the splendour of sunlight and the solemnity of shade1 can only be fully appreciated in southern or eastern countries4 ,the pitch of light being higher the shade seems deeper1 and yet it is a shade full of colour always4 ,when the sun sinks1 in the short afterglow everything seems fused in an atmosphere of luminous colour and half-tone1 which transfigures and glorifies everything4 ,we get an approach to it on the finest summer evenings in ,england1 but with a different and generally less romantic background4 ,it would appear1 though1 that climates which are characterized by constant sunlight and heat favour rather traditional than individual forms of art4 ,the sun1 the giver of life and light1 becomes overpowering1 always present1 and in its searching beams leaves no hiding-place for the romantic imagination1 except in temples and mosques at sunrise or sunset1 or under the moon4 ,we may have an equable and warm climate like ,egypt1 where all is sharply defined in the light of a clear and serene atmosphere1 with a regulated1 ordered life1 as in her ancient days1 under a long succession of dynasties1 and we see the outcome in art--measured1 calculated according to strict method and authority and convention1 with but little room for individual feeling4 ,in ,persia we find a climate of sharp contrasts1 hot sun by day and sharp cold at night1 verdure and desert1 bare rock and flowery meadow side by side1 and we get a wonderfully varied art1 rich in colour and fantasy4 ,in ,india the invention1 though kindred1 perhaps even largely borrowed1 seems tamer1 the intricacy more calculated1 the richness more mechanical2 and we find this with a dependent people in a land of fiercer and more permanent sunshine1 pursuing mostly an agricultural life1 like the ancient ,egyptians1 under conditions practically unchanged for centuries4 ,in ,greece1 which fused and absorbed ,asiatic elements in her art1 we see another country of the sun1 yet subject to winds and variations and marked transition of the seasons--a mountainous1 rocky country1 beautiful in form and embracing the sea4 ,in art she has given us the perfection of figure sculpture4 ,in ,italy1 with hardly less sun1 yet by no means beyond the reach of wintry cold1 severe winds1 great rains and sometimes snow1 yet with a burning summer for the most part1 which has decidedly fixed the types in her architecture1 we find a union of many elements1 a halfway house between east and west1 where ,asiatic feeling unites with ,greek and ,roman1 ,saracen and ,norman1 ,gothic with ,renascence1 in an unexampled wealth and profusion of inventive design in architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and all the family of artistic handicrafts1 which makes her a happy hunting ground for the artist1 an inexhaustible treasure-house of beauty and suggestion4 ,we might follow the chariot of the sun1 from the land of its rising1 ,japan1 a climate more near to our own1 and note her wonderful display of manipulation and imitative skill1 in all ways of handicrafts dominating by a certain grotesqueness as well as naturalistic impressionism2 or1 passing to her great foe ,china1 see something of the same tendencies and stages in the rising of her art1 breaking off1 as it were1 at a stage of restrained conventionalism--or westward1 along the southern shores of the blue ,mediterranean1 following in the footsteps of the ,moors1 and note the wonderfully ornate but somewhat heartless splendour of their art in ,spain3 the gilded magnificence of the ,alhambra1 with its glittering pendentive ceilings1 borrowed1 as some think1 in the first place from ,persia1 and the wonderful jewel-like sparkle and intricate fancy of its ornament with its ever-recurring star-forms and scimitar-like scrolls4 ,and then turning northwards into ,france1 with one hand touching the sunny south and the other dipped in the gray ,english ,channel1 we should find some of the same elements1 but very differently mixed1 with a very distinct character of art4 ,cold in colour1 correct in form1 brilliant in workmanship1 quick-witted1 dramatic2 ever experimenting and inquiring1 and desiring1 like the ancient ,greeks1 some new thing4 ,pursuing our journey northwards1 we might pause in ,flanders and ,holland and mark how closely associated with local conditions of life and climate are their forms of art1 more especially as illustrated in the art of their past days--the pictures of rich ,flemish burgher life of the ,middle ,ages1 the knights and ladies with a certain sternness and stiffness of demeanour1 as of an energetic and yet patient people accustomed to contend with difficulties1 proud1 yet devotional1 and fond of comfort1 kneeling1 well-clad in velvets and rich furs against a northern climate4 ,illustration3 ,,spain4 ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,alhambra4 ,,drawn ,,by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,germany would tell a similar tale in her arts1 though with a more dominant military and religious note1 more fantasy and more melancholy1 and with a wild grotesque element corresponding with her more varied conditions of climate and scenery4 ,the latter quality is still more marked among the old towns of ,bohemia4 ,the two sketches here give some of the architectural characteristics of both town and country dwellings4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,house ,,in ,,turnov1 ,,bohemia1 ,,dated #ahaf4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,in ,,eger1 ,,bohemia4 ,after such a journey we should doubtless be glad to get home again to our own varying and changeable climate1 and when seated comfortably at the fireside think how much the characteristics of our native art may also owe to the influence of the constant and varied procession of sunshine and cloud1 storm and calm1 heat and cold1 fickle spring1 short summer1 long uncertain winter1 our mist and rain 7which gives us our green woodlands and meadows71 to our wild and dangerous coasts4 ,or we may well think whether these influences are not traceable in our art3 love of domesticity and indoor comfort1 characterized by warm and blended though subdued colour1 small patterns1 trimness and neatness2 love of animals and flowers1 of natural scenery and the sea4 ,may it not be said these are characteristics which our pictorial art certainly displays8 ,while our architecture 7in spite of foreign importations7 is obliged to consider the necessities of a varying climate1 so that our houses are built as a rule more to live in than to look at2 and the colours of our interiors1 while they often re-echo the greens1 browns1 and russets of our landscape--as our patterns and fabrics recall the flower gardens and meadows--are chosen perhaps more to live with quietly than to excite controversy1 or compel a reference to the grammar of ornament4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,of ,,the ,,racial ,,influence ,,in ,,design ,,those personal predilections and idiosyncrasies which we each possess1 those differences of temper and qualities of perception which affect our sense of colour and form1 which account for those variations of treatment in the rendering1 in design or drawing1 of the same objects by different persons--what are these and whence do they come8 ,they belong to the very constitution of our minds and bodies2 they are beyond our own control1 and beyond almost our own consciousness1 oftentimes4 ,they belong to our progenitors and ancestors perhaps as much as to ourselves1 and are lost in the broken records of past family histories2 we can only say that certain forms and colours appear so and so to our eyes1 that we delight in some more than others--because we are made that way4 ,such indications of character and preferences are generally traceable1 where clues and records exist1 to the race1 or mixture of races from which we have sprung4 ,we attribute1 for instance1 certain imaginative faculties to our ,celtic origin2 certain calculating and analytical capacities to ,teutonic sources2 while as a mixed race we call ourselves ,anglo-,saxon1 and as such are supposed to be especially distinguished by practicality1 the racial type gradually1 in the process of time1 being formed by the collective action of such small individual characteristics--somewhat as great geological deposits1 such as our chalk hills1 have been formed by the gradual accumulation and aggregation of the minute shells of minuter marine creatures4 ,these typical racial characteristics in art--these preferences in colour1 form1 pattern1 treatment1 sentiment1 and idea1 have left their marks upon the history of art1 which indeed becomes1 finally1 the only history of races--the only record left of peoples to tell us of their intimate life1 their hopes and fears1 their struggles and their aspirations1 so that a scrap of wall-painting1 a fragment of an incised slab1 a piece of broken pottery1 a weapon of bronze1 or a jewel1 become in course of time full of significance--eloquent books of the life of peoples and powers long ago covered by the drifting sands of time4 ,the desire to record and to perpetuate seems to have stimulated the primitive artistic instinct in all races2 and1 indeed1 it may still be said to be a living factor and motive in art production4 ,each race seeks an image of itself 7as every individual desires a portrait71 and strives to put in imperishable form the character of its own life1 and the ideas or ideals dearest to it4 ,thus1 the prehistoric hunter left images of the animals he hunted1 and his hunting reminiscences1 scratched upon bones and smooth slates and stones2 much as the ,assyrian kings1 in a more elaborate way1 having the resources of a powerful civilization at command1 loved to have recorded on sculptured slabs1 lining their palaces1 their prowess in arms and the chase2 more especially as hunters and slayers of lions1 though in their case the lion hunting was done in a more luxurious modern way1 the animals being driven into special inclosures1 and let loose on purpose to be slain by the king and his men--a system of a piece with the generally tyrannical and cruel methods of despotic persons4 ,still1 no doubt1 there was considerably more risk and danger involved than in a modern battue in a pheasant cover--barring the chance of being shot by your neighbour's gun4 ,certainly the general tenor of the story told in ancient ,asiatic art is that of the conqueror's triumphs1 of the strong overcoming the weak1 the glorification of kings and warriors in battle1 of beleaguered cities1 and the carrying away of captives and spoils4 ,no doubt1 if this conquering spirit had been absent1 if each branch of the great human family had remained within its primitive borders1 their art would have presented sharper and more distinct contrasts1 while remaining simple in character4 ,it is the restless1 exploring1 conquering1 acquisitive spirit which mixes and blends elements originally distinct--well1 it may be it also acts as the stormy wind that scatters the winged seeds of design and1 bearing them to new soils1 produces new varieties4 ,it is difficult1 of course1 to disentangle the strictly racial characteristics in art entirely from those other strong influences which1 in fact1 may be said to have helped in their formation--the influence of climate1 habit1 and local materials1 which we have previously touched upon4 ,yet the purely human element appears to come in1 and the final form which art takes among a people must bear the stamp of individual choice as well as of collective sentiment and climatic influence4 ,in primitive communities1 however1 the individual is less apparent than the collective racial influence4 ,the forms of art are typical and symbolical rather than imitative or graphic4 ,the great ,asiatic races of antiquity1 to judge from the remains of their monuments1 the palaces of their kings1 and their temples and tombs1 adopted certain typical methods of representation which1 in the case of the ancient ,egyptians1 became1 in association with a strictly ordered and carefully organized social existence under an elaborate religious system and ritual1 actual forms of language and record in the hieroglyphic4 ,these consisted of certain abstract representations of familiar forms and figures inclosed in a kind of cartouche1 incised upon stone walls1 or stamped upon plaster and filled with colour4 ,the lotus flower served as a symbol of the annual overflow of the ,nile 7at the summer solstice7 so important to the ,egyptians2 the ram and the sun symbolized ,amru-,ra1 the king of all gods2 other animals1 with and without wings1 the cat1 the dog1 the sparrow-hawk for the soul1 the beetle 7scarabus7 for creative energy1 generation and perpetuation of life1 the snake for continuity of time1 etc42 and even differently arranged lines1 the zigzag for water1 the circle1 square1 waved line1 spiral1 labyrinth1 etc41 betokened the divine and secretly-working powers of nature4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,hieroglyphics4 ,,tomb ,,of ,,beni ,,hasan4 ,,nineteenth ,,dynasty4 ,such forms inclosed in cartouches massed together1 sometimes in horizontal lines1 sometimes in vertical1 formed a striking wall decoration in themselves4 ,a wonderful pitch of abstract yet exact characterization of natural form was reached by very simple means in this picture-writing4 ,the birds especially are remarkable for their truth4 ,every object had to be clearly defined so as to be recognized at once and easily deciphered4 ,the profile view of an object is always the most characteristic and typical1 and lends itself best to a system of representation where all objects are on the same plane4 ,so the glyphic artist kept strictly to profile4 ,love of typical form1 definite outline and mass1 flat and vivid coloration--these are always characteristic of ancient ,egyptian art1 even when1 as during the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties1 a freer style and greater naturalism is apparent in their portrait sculpture and wall-paintings4 ,illustration3 ,,altar ,,with ,,offerings4 ,,egyptian ,,mural ,,painting1 ,,thebes4 ,the love of clearness of statement and their conception of art1 as in the nature of a decorative record1 seems to be emphatically expressed in their ways of representation4 ,for instance1 in painting an altar piled with offerings they give the altar front in elevation1 but the offerings1 in order that each and all should be seen drawn in profile1 are arranged in ground plan4 ,thus we may say that their statements were pictures1 their pictures were statements4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,wall-,,painting 7,,british ,,museum74 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,tree ,,of ,,life4 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,bas-,,relief4 ,,pavement ,,slab 7,,british ,,museum74 ,there is a wall-painting in the ,british ,museum showing a fish pond or tank in a garden1 surrounded by trees4 ,the inclosed water is rendered by a flat tint of pale blue1 with horizontal zigzag lines in a second tint across it4 ,lotus flowers and buds spring vertically from it1 and on its surface ducks and fish are painted in profile4 ,the trees are painted on the upper side and ends with their stems springing from the edge of the pond2 but the row of trees on the near side grows with the tops towards the water2 while the row at each end sprouts outward4 ,the whole forms a very pretty piece of ornament1 and would embroider well for a table-cloth centre1 or lend itself to a treatment for a mosaic floor4 ,note the way in which the trees alternate 7apple trees and date palms71 and the grouping of the ducks and the fish alternating with the lotus flower4 ,it is freely painted with direct brush touches on the white plaster4 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,treatment ,,of ,,natural ,,form ,,slab #gf ,,brit4 ,,mus4 ,in the ornamental treatment of tree forms all the eastern races seem to have excelled4 ,trees have always been associated with religious belief1 and have had mystical and symbolical significance--as the tree of the garden of ,genesis1 the tree of life1 and the fatal tree of the knowledge of good and evil4 ,trees1 too1 were man's first shelter and dwelling2 no wonder a race descended from arboreal ancestors should revere them and hold them sacred4 ,illustration3 ,,vine ,,fig ,,trees ,,from ,,assyrian ,,slabs ,,british ,,museum ,n4#be4 ,it is interesting to compare this ,egyptian rendering of the date palm tree with an ,assyrian rendering of the same tree1 though the latter is sculptured2 or1 again1 with the ,grco-,roman version at the house of ,icarius4 ,the typical and sacred tree with the ,assyrians1 however1 was the tree of life1 which became with them a formal piece of ornament4 ,in it we seem to see1 too1 the original form of a type of ornament constantly recurring in the art of all the ,asiatic races1 and which was apparently carried by them1 or from them1 into ,europe2 reappearing in ,persian1 ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,renascence work in all manner of variations1 remaining a typical horizontal border motive to our own day4 ,the lotus appears in sculptured ,assyrian pavements on the outer border1 the open flowers alternating with the buds1 as in ,egyptian work4 ,then we have another typical and constantly recurring border motive in the rosette1 which has a rich and sumptuous effect1 closely filled in this way4 ,then comes in the palmette1 or tree of life1 while the centre filling1 a network formed of a six-petalled flower form1 again recalls the suggested textile origin of the ornamental motive of the whole1 to which ,i have before alluded4 ,other interesting and characteristic renderings of flowers and trees may be found in bas-relief upon the ,assyrian alabaster slabs used as wall decorations1 such as those showing the vine1 the fig1 the lily1 and the daisy here given1 the sculpture of which1 in general1 is remarkable not only for the combination of great power of expression and energy of action with a very dominant formalizing and ornamental and typical treatment of form1 but also for great delicacy of chiselling2 in one slab there is a small figure of a king in his chariot1 inclosed within larger work1 as finely cut almost as a gem or seal4 ,note1 as illustrating the ornamental treatment of animal forms1 so characteristic of these ,assyrian or ,semitic sculptures1 the way the lions are carved1 the masses of the hair of the manes carefully marked and ornamentally designed1 the muscular lines of the face emphasized in the same ornamental manner4 ,the result is a typical lion1 stately1 monumental1 sculptural1 and decorative1 yet in no way wanting in energy of action1 character1 and vigour4 ,illustration3 ,,assur ,,beni ,,pal4 ,,assyrian ,,lion ,,from ,,british ,,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,assur ,,beni ,,pal4 ,,assyrian ,,lion ,,from ,,british ,,museum4 ,nothing could be more different in spirit and style from the ordinary modern ,european sculptor's treatment4 ,the ,assyrian grasped the essential leonine character1 but expressed it in typical and ornamental terms4 ,the modern ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 or ,italian generally seeks a naturalism which struggles to escape from the conditions of the material2 he seeks accidents rather than essentials1 and1 in his horror of formalism1 tries to treat the masses of hair and mane as if he wielded the painter's brush rather than the sculptor's chisel--though it is generally modelled in clay first before it is carved4 ,the result is loss of dignity1 typical character1 and monumental feeling4 ,alfred ,stevens saw the importance of a certain formalism1 and his little lion on the uprights of the outer railing of the ,british ,museum remains unequalled1 so far as ,i know1 in modern work4#h #h ,for some unexplained reason these lions have been removed and the ,london people deprived of perhaps their finest bit of monumental work4 ,the ,hellenic race1 the ,greeks1 whose art has had1 and still possesses1 such an influence over that of the modern world1 while in their archaic period differing little in method of treatment and in use of ornament from the ,asiatic races1 the ,assyrian and ,egyptian and ,persian1 the elements of each of which they seemed to fuse and adapt1 gradually developed a freer style1 and1 while never losing their monumental sense in sculpture1 carried the human figure in sculpture to the greatest pitch of perfection4 ,their invention in purely ornamental forms was not conspicuous1 nor was it needed1 since they treated the human figure as their chief element in decoration4 ,their leading ornamental types may be traced to ,asiatic prototypes--the palmette and the rosette1 for instance4 ,the scroll1 perhaps1 they may particularly claim to have developed1 and the anthemion1 from their primitive types4 ,this latter type of ornament1 so generally used by the ,greeks as a crest or crown upon their upright obelisk-like tombstones or steles1 or to crest the angles of the pediments of their temples1 is suggestive in its general form of a flame1 or pair of wings4 ,illustration3 ,,lion1 ,,formerly ,,cresting ,,the ,,outer ,,railing ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 ,,modelled ,,by ,,alfred ,,stevens1 ,,and ,,cast ,,in ,,iron4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,stele ,,or ,,head-,,stone4 ,illustration3 ,,indian 7,,brahman7 ,,flame ,,halo ,,in ,,bronze ,,surrounding ,,image ,,of ,,the ,,god ,,siva ,,destroying ,,the ,,demon ,,tripurasura4 7,,zinc7 ,,flame ,,halo ,,enclosing ,,image ,,of ,,surya ,,the ,,sun ,,god4 ,it is noteworthy that a similar form occurs1 treated in detail in a variety of ways1 as a glory or halo placed behind ,buddhist images made in ancient ,india1 ,japan1 and ,burmah1 often in carved wood and gilt metal or bronze1 pierced and ornamented in a variety of ways--sometimes suggesting leafy trees1 but generally radiating in their principal lines from a centre1 like the anthemion4 ,the flame was a sacred symbol with many ancient peoples1 and it remains with us as the fitting emblem of inspiration4 ,illustration3 ,,persian ,,pomegranate ,,forms 7,,from ,a ,,goat-,,hair ,,carpet1 ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,illustration3 ,,celtic ,,ornament ,,from ,a ,,cross ,,at ,,campbeltown1 ,,argyllshire4 ,the gilded1 almond-shaped glory inclosing the figure of the ,virgin and of ,christ in ,gothic painting and sculpture seems to be another form of the same emblem1 and a similar form is common in all ,persian and ,eastern ornament design4 ,it generally appears as a kind of fruit or many-petaled flower1 or flower and fruit combined4 ,i am inclined to think that it may have originally had a religious significance associated with fire or life1#i while its beauty of contour and adaptability in decoration of all kinds were sufficient to perpetuate it even if the original meaning were lost4 ,if the ,persians invented it1 it might have had some reference to their own primitive fire-worship1 while with the ,arabs1 and wherever the faith of ,mohammed spread1 it would still be significant of the prophetic fire1 and it is certainly universally found in the ornament of ,mohammedan countries4 ,we might trace it back to its primitive form in the ,assyrian tree of life1 and this on the face of it seems its most likely source2 and we find it in ,persian work definitely taking the pomegranate form within the rayed leaves4 ,the rayed flower or leaf form curiously reappears in a late ,celtic cross in ,argyllshire1 in association with the characteristic knotted work1 a kind of tree form1 and filling of pattern carved in the stone and culminating in the cross4 #i ,prof4 ,fischbach1 indeed1 traces the relationship of a whole series of patterns to the influence of fire worship and its symbolism4 ,whatever race may really claim its invention or first effective use1 it appeals now universally to the ornamental sense1 and has become the common property of designers1 who do not usually disturb themselves with the question whether they have stolen a fruit from the tree of life1 or sacred fire from an unknown hearth1 so long as they can fill a space effectively or make an attractive and adaptable design4 ,another form1 now no less universal1 is probably ,persian in origin1 although it has found a settled home in ,india--,i mean what is known as the ,indian palmette1 so familiar to designers for ,manchester calico prints4 ,i am told by ,mr4 ,purdon ,clarke that this palm shape denotes benison or blessing1 or a message of goodwill of some kind4 ,this answers to the symbolical meaning of the palm in the ,bible1 as carried by benign and holy persons and angels4 ,here would be a symbolical reason for its longevity in ornament1 as it would naturally commend itself to an eastern race in a sun-burnt land1 to whom the suggestion of shady palms would always be grateful4 ,but here1 again1 the beauty of its contour appeals to the ornamentist on independent grounds4 ,he values it for its graceful mass in a pattern1 for its bold and sweeping curves1 for its value as an inclosing form for small floral fittings4 ,to the ,persian and ,hindu designers1 with their exquisite and subtle sense of ornament1 with their passion for elaborate intricacy1 such a form as this is utilized to its utmost capacity1 both in counter-balancing and superimposed masses upon flowery fields1 and as inclosures for smaller fields of pattern2 while the abundant flora of their spring-time blossoms in a new and translated existence in their richly patterned printed and woven textiles1 and in the carved ornament of their buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,ornamental ,,forms ,,in ,,persian1 ,,indian1 ,,and ,,chinese ,,designs4 ,the influence in ,arabic ornament of the ,mohammedan faith1 too1 in forbidding the representation of living forms1 turned the ingenuity and invention of the ,arabic and ,eastern designer in a purely ornamental direction1 and as a result we get extremely elaborate patterns1 either purely geometric1 or filling the interstices of a geometric framework in inlays and carved and pierced work4 ,these patterns from the pulpit of a mosque at ,cairo1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 work of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 show how fine and delicate ,arabic ornament became4 ,we may note the star-shape formed by the intersection of the lines4 ,the star is an emblem of the ,deity 7,allah74 ,the plateaus and slopes of the ,himalayas1 which are the northern mountainous boundary of ,india1 were supposed to be the cradle of that great wandering1 colonizing1 adaptive1 speculative1 and organizing race1 the ,aryans1 from which we ,western people1 according to one theory1 have sprung1 dispersing over the world1 and settling in different countries and climates4 ,the race has greatly differentiated in speech1 customs1 and forms of art2 and yet through them all it is rather differences in similarities1 or similarities in differences1 that we trace4 ,latin1 ,teutonic1 ,celtic1 suggest great divergences both in spirit and form1 yet perhaps the correspondences are more frequent than the divergences4 ,when we see how greatly members of the same family differ from one another in tastes and habits1 can we wonder that members of the greater human family should be so different in tastes and habits1 under different skies and conditions of life8 ,illustration3 ,,arabian ,,fourteenth ,,century ,,carved ,,and ,,inlaid ,,pulpit1 ,,cairo 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,cleobury74 ,when we turn further east the difference seems greater1 the gaps larger4 ,the ,mongolian race seems further apart and suggests a remoter antiquity4 ,their geographical remoteness and their persistent adhesion to their ancient customs seem to have fixed more or less of a gulf between them and the western peoples1 and there is a corresponding contrast in the forms of their art4 ,it is familiar1 and yet remains strange2 it has been constantly imported amongst us1 and has more than once influenced ,european fashions in decorative design1 as in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries through the ,dutch1 and in the last century in ,england in ,chippendale furniture and porcelain1 while ,china has given its name to the finer ware of the modern potter1 of which it taught him the secret4 ,to this day the willow pattern in blue upon plates and dishes1 with its ,chinese legend1 scenery1 and personages1 remains a popular pattern1 wonderfully little changed by its ,english translator4 ,all the typical characteristics are found in its details1 the typical ,chinese house raised upon its first story of stone--with its bamboo trellises and quaintly curved tiled roof4 ,the ,chinese dragon remains a distinct breed1 influencing here and there the form of the mythical beasts in design of other races1 such as the ,persian and ,indian1 but remaining as characteristically ,chinese itself as the ,pagoda4 ,illustration3 ,,arabian ,,fourteenth ,,century ,,carved ,,and ,,inlaid ,,pulpit1 ,,cairo 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,cleobury74 ,the love of trellis-like backgrounds and diagonal diapers for floral designs is a very marked feature with the ,chinese designer1 and it suggests the native fantastic and ingenious bamboo constructions used in the framing and panelling of their dwellings and temples1 dominated by that distinct love of quaintness and queerness which seems a part of the artistic sense in the yellow race1 and is as marked as their love of bright colour and emphatic pattern4 ,their formidable neighbours1 relations1 and rivals1 the ,japanese1 exhibit in the art up to a certain stage much the same qualities and influences1 their art indicating a gradual transformation in style from the primitive mythical and religious and symbolical towards the more domestic1 familiar1 and naturalistic4 ,but before coming into contact with ,european forms of art they began to develop a naturalistic feeling in their art which in the present century has become the dominant note1 and1 joined with a certain inventive quaintness and ornamental reserve1 has had so tremendous an influence upon the art of ,europe1 more especially modern ,french art4 ,only about forty or fifty years ago ,japan was practically in a medival condition1 its arts and handicrafts in a most fertile and flourishing condition of living traditions2 but that very quickness and alertness1 that receptivity and artistic impressionableness which has enabled them to produce such a mass of wonderful work in so many branches of cunning craftsmanship1 have exposed them to the modern ,european influences1 which1 however they may have1 in the process of rapid assimilation1 contributed to their material power as a nation in the modern capitalistic and industrial sense1 have had most disastrous commercializing and deteriorating effects upon ,japanese art and handicraft1 leading to hasty work and cheap and gaudy production--merely to catch the demand4 ,illustration3 ,,panel ,,in ,,carved ,,and ,,inlaid ,,wood ,,from ,,the ,,mosque ,,of ,,tooloon ,,in ,,cairo4 ,,fourteenth ,,or ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,saracenic4 ,artistic and racial traditions1 however1 die hard4 ,even in ,western ,europe1 in constant intercourse and intercommunication as we now are1 and while international influence tends to soften and blend racial differences1 and social relations to mix them1 elements which differentiate the ,teuton from the ,latin1 the ,celt from the ,saxon1 still survive4 ,in the process of the adoption of even the same ideas each race1 each nation1 gives a different interpretation to them1 just as different individuals will give a different interpretation in drawing from the same model4 ,the character is not changed by the new dress1 and the dress becomes influenced by the wearer4 ,thus1 in adopting ideas and forms of art1 a new direction or character is developed owing to the racial instincts of the people adopting them4 ,german ,renascence work1 for instance1 may be full of details1 the forms of which come from ,italy or ,greece1 but the combination and treatment1 the application of them1 become characteristically ,german--characteristically full of detail1 and fantastic1 with a tendency to be overloaded and restless1 like their ,gothic work4 ,such variations of the same type among different peoples may be likened to the variations of language in the same country1 where the same language is spoken1 but with a different accent4 ,it is this difference of accent now1 under our complex modern life1 which makes the chief difference in forms of art1 and which betrays racial influence4 ,the actual systems of building pattern1 of pattern forms1 methods of drawing and modelling figures1 and the various handicrafts have all been discovered long ago1 but it is in their recombination and adaptation--our interpretation and use of them1 and in the power of variation and expression1 that modern invention and predilection tell4 ,it would be interesting to endeavour to symbolize the fundamental racial characteristics and preferences by certain typical forms and colours in procession4 ,the races inhabiting the warm countries1 southern and eastern1 would be distinguished by emphatic contrasting colours and patterns4 ,just as the tiger owes his barred coat to his habit of hiding in coverts and jungles1 where the bright sunlight falls through the tall grasses and palms in stripes2 so where the contrast of light and shade is so sharp as in ,africa1 there appears to be a deeply-rooted preference for barred colours and striped patterns among the dark race1 which they have carried with them to ,america1 and which curiously reappears as a necessary part of the equipment of the sham ,ethiopian serenader in our streets4 ,the black and white or red and white barred courses characteristic of ,arabian and ,moorish architecture have been alluded to before1 and1 though they have been used in other countries1 they always suggest the country which seems to have given them birth4 ,supposing1 then1 we wanted to express in a typical symbolical way the racial preferences and characteristics in ornamental art1 a black and white barred shield and a palm might be appropriate pattern emblems for the ,african or the ,moor2 while the ,egyptian would naturally bear a lotus and a scarabus1 with a winged globe for a standard2 the ,assyrian a tree of life2 the ,persian would bear the flame-shaped flower1 and the device of ,ormuzd and ,ahrimanes contending for the mastery2 the ,indian would carry the palmette and a peacock1 and would share with the ,arab the geometric star-form and richly floriated robes2 the ,chinese would show the dragon blazon1 and carry the peony2 the ,japanese the red disk of the rising sun1 and a bough of plum blossom2 the ,turanian the crescent and the star2 the ,greek the anthemion1 and the figure of ,pallas ,athene2 the ,roman an eagle standard1 and an image of ,mars2 the ,scandinavian a raven1 and a runic knot4 ,these might represent the ancient world of art4 ,the modern and western races it would be more difficult to symbolize in so primitive and typical a manner1 since all of them have borrowed so largely from the ancient sources1 and are themselves composed of such mixed and complex elements4 ,italian art could only be represented by a fusion of most of the foregoing elements and types1 and would require a crowd of distinguished retainers in architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and all the arts of design2 but perhaps she might bear a typical classical scroll for a standard1 as the typical designer of that form of ornament in so many varieties1 from ,roman times downwards1 that ,italy may be said to have made the scroll form essentially her own4 ,germany might follow1 great in bold and brave heraldry1 or with a ,gothic accent in richly-scrolled mantling1 and a redundant display of ,renascence ornament4 ,france1 as a more volatile ,pallas ,athene1 might1 perhaps1 bear the wavering lamp of executive and imitative skill1 and dramatic instinct in design4 ,spain would look coquettishly under a fan1 wrapped in faded embroidery1 bearing the ,alhambra1 like a pendent jewel3 while for ,england1 what artistic emblems are left8 ,well1 we have been described as inveterate colonists1 even in art4 ,we can only make up in a fancy costume of historic patchwork1 beginning with fragments of ,roman mosaic pavement1 by way of sandals1 ,saxon and ,norman hose1 ,gothic surcoat and body armour1 a classical cloak1 and a ,victorian ,queen ,anne gable by way of headgear1 and perhaps a banner of eclectic wall-paper or printed cotton4 ,for all that1 and perhaps because of it in some measure--did we take art seriously as a nation1 and make it really a natural and essential part of our life1 as it is its final expression2 should we determine to set our house in order1 and make ,england again merrie1 strong in her own borders1 self-supporting1 and self-reliant1 not suffering the natural beauty of our land or our historic monuments to be ruthlessly defaced1 in the supposed interests of trade2 putting our trust in the capacity of the people1 rather than in the multiplication of machines2 uniting hand and brain in our work1 thinking more of the ends of life and less of the means1 when the means of an ample1 simple life shall be within the reach of every citizen1 then1 well--then we might fairly expect to win the palm of life1 as of art1 without despoiling the ,african4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,symbolic ,,influence1 ,,or ,,emblematic ,,element ,,in ,,design ,,the desire to express and to communicate ideas seems to have impelled man from the earliest1 and lies at the root of all art4 ,while much early ornament1 as we have seen1 is traceable to a constructive origin1 another kind1 or another branch of the tree of design is traceable to a symbolic origin1 and springs from the endeavour to express thought--to find a succinct language in which to express some sense of the great powers of nature1 and their influence upon the daily life of man--to embody even in a pictorial emblem1 symbol1 or allegory his primitive conceptions of the order of the universe itself4 ,the mystery and wonders of nature absorbed the thoughts and touched the imagination of early as of later man1 and primitive symbolic forms1 or signs1 constantly bear upon such ideas4 ,there is a symbolic sign 7known to archologists as the fylfot or sauvastika7 of very simple form1 which is found very widely scattered among the relics of many different races and early peoples4 ,it is found1 says ,dr4 ,march 7of the ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,archological ,society1 who has written very suggestively and learnedly on the subject71 on archaic ,greek pottery1 on the stamped clay of ,swiss lake dwellings1 adorning ,latin inscriptions on ,roman altars2 is common in ,india and ,asia2 is met with in ,scandinavia1 ,iceland1 ,shetland1 and ,scotland2 in ,celtic ,ireland1 in ,saxon ,england1 as well as in ,germany4 ,the sign was adopted by ,christians1 is found in the catacombs of ,rome1 in the cathedrals of ,winchester and ,exeter1 on a shield in the ,bayeux tapestry1 and on ,english medival brasses4 ,it also occurs on a bell at ,hathersage ,church in ,derbyshire1 dated #afag4 ,this sign appears to have originally signified the supreme god of the ,aryans1 and became the emblem of the divinity from whom emanates the one movement of the universe2 later1 it may have merely indicated the axial rotation of the heavens round the ,pole ,star1 and still later it was used simply as a benedictory sign or mark of good luck4 ,when the feet were turned to the left the nocturnal movement of the stars was suggested1 and when the feet turned to the right the diurnal movement of the sun was supposed to be indicated4 ,the sign is frequently placed in a circle4 ,a very few of its stages will suffice to show its transformation into ornament4 ,we may thus see how a sign purely symbolical1 used as we should use writing1 becomes in course of time a decorative unit1 and is incorporated into ornament4 ,a kindred form is composed of three crescents1 which has its heraldic descendant in the three armoured legs of the bearings of the ,isle of ,man4 ,here we seem to see the idea of rotation very emphatically conveyed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the primitive symbols for fire and water found 7as on the ,danish bracteate7 in association with the fylfot sign shown above1 form linear patterns in themselves1 and frequently recur in constructive and surface ornament2 the former suggesting the method of setting the ,roman bricks1 called herring bone1 which constantly occurs in modern work in brick paving and wood parquet1 forming one of the simplest and most satisfactory plans for floors and pavings in such materials4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,polynesian ,,ornament ,,from ,,hervey ,,island ,,paddle4 ,the zigzag1 as an ornament incised on clay vessels painted in patterns1 or carved in masonry1 has been a very favourite form from the ancient ,egyptian decorators 7to whom it possessed its original significance as water7 onwards1 becoming in later times more particularly characteristic of ,scandinavian ornament and ,romanesque architecture4 ,the zigzag1 however1 appears to have an independent source and meaning in the evolution of ,polynesian ornament4 ,in the so-called ,paddles1 decorated with carved patterns which are now considered to be really tables of descent1 we may see rows of human figures arranged formally1 the legs and arms bent4 ,the angles thus formed1 in the course of repetition and abbreviation1 become simple lines of zigzag pattern4 ,the circle1 a universal and important element in ornamental design of all times and kinds1 appears early as a symbol for the sun4 ,we might trace it from its primitive cross and disk and rayed ornament common to all primitive art to the splendid ,greek conception of ,phbus ,apollo in his chariot drawn by fiery horses1 which figures so constantly in ,greek design1 the circular flaming disk being represented in the wheel1 though in an early relief discovered by ,dr4 ,schliemann the head of ,apollo is surrounded by rays1 which gives the type generally used by ,gothic and modern designers in symbolic representations of the sun--simply a face in the circle surrounded by rays4 ,another means of symbolical expression by the use of the circle is to be found in a type of ,scandinavian ornament composed of three circles1 one within the other1 which with the rayed sun frequently occurs either singly1 as in the form of a metal shield boss or a fibula1 or as the unit of a repeating textile pattern1 or as a border4 ,an ,anglo-,saxon lady in a ,benedictional executed for ,st4 ,ethelwold at ,winchester in the tenth century 7#ifc-ihd7 wears a dress so decorated4 ,the original symbolic meaning of this ornament is supposed to bear upon the ,norsemen's conception of the universe1 the inner circle1 representing the midgard1 or the earth2 the second1 the osgard1 or asgard1 the abode of the gods2 and the utgard1 the world beyond1 inhabited by giants and spirits of evil4 ,beyond the outer circle is a circle of dots signifying stars4 7,see fig4 on p4 #bbd47 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,polynesian ,,ornament4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,zigzag4 ,the old ,norse sagas and the songs of ,edda give the whole ,norse scheme of the universe4 ,igdrasil1 the great ash tree of the universe of time and of life4 ,the boughs stretched out into heaven1 its highest point1 and overshadowed ,walhalla1 the hall of the heroes4 ,its three roots reached down to dark ,hel1 to ,jtunheim1 the land of the ,hrimthurses1 and to ,midgard1 the dwelling-place of the children of men4 ,the world-tree was ever green1 for the fateful ,norns sprinkled it daily with the water of life from the fountain of ,urd1 which flowed in ,midgard4 ,but the goat ,heidrun1 from whom was obtained the mead that nourished the heroes1 and the stag ,eikthyrnir browsed upon the leaf-buds1 and upon the bark of the tree1 while the roots down below are gnawed by the dragon ,nidhgg and innumerable worms3 still the ash could not wither until the last battle should be fought1 where life1 time and the world were all to pass away4 ,so the eagle sang its song of creation and destruction on the highest branch of the tree4#aj #aj ,asgard and the ,gods4--,,dr4 ,,wagner4 ,it is interesting to compare such a conception with the ancient ,hindu idea of the world1 which indeed may have been its original form as the earlier ,aryan conception4 ,there is no tree1 but the great snake of time compasses all2 the serpent with its tail in its mouth1 an emblem of continuous time which still survives4 ,upon this rests the tortoise1 which seems to correspond with the ,norsemen's dragon1 though here it may serve as the solid basis of the world4 ,the world appears as a sort of dome in three tiers1 reminding us of the ,norsemen's three circles4 ,this is supported upon the backs of three elephants1 which seem here to fill the position of the ,norns or the ,fates4 ,the ash tree ,igdrasil1 the sustainer of the ,norse universe1 reminds one of the eastern tree of life--the tree of life of the garden of ,eden1 and the fountain of the rivers of the ,asiatic paradise which1 with the figures of ,adam and ,eve1 the typical father and mother of the whole human race1 have so constantly figured in art of all kinds1 both eastern and western1 and continue to stand in the midst of the garden in endless designs and pictures1 surrounded by the birds and beasts1 as the type and emblem of the origin of the world in the ,christian cosmos4 ,illustration3 ,,hindu ,,symbol ,,of ,,the ,,universe4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 whose art was almost entirely in the nature of a symbolic language1 when they wished to express the divine creative power which sustains the universe1 designed a winged globe encircled or upborne by two serpents--here we get1 perhaps1 the snake of time again4 ,sometimes the scarabus1 or sacred beetle1 emblem of transformation and immortality1 is represented covering an egg and supporting the sun1 and they are the wings of the scarabus which are given to the globe4 ,this emblem is frequently carved over the gateways to their temples4 ,then the ,egyptians had an elaborate symbolism connected with death and the passage of the soul4 ,the coffins and mummy cases are painted all over with symbolic devices1 figures1 birds1 and animals having a sacred significance4 ,the soul is commonly represented as being borne in a boat1 or barge1 with curved stem and stern1 terminating in lotus flowers4 7,the lotus symbolized new birth and resurrection47 ,the food for the journey is shown in the urns placed underneath the couch4 ,two mourners or watchers accompany it4 ,there is a copy of a large painting from ,thebes in the ,british ,museum showing the judgment of the soul2 the ,devourer1 a monster part crocodile part hippopotamus1 standing ready to devour the soul if the verdict is unfavourable4 ,further on the accepted soul appears before ,osiris4 ,the goddess ,nut 7the heavens7 is frequently painted upon the sarcophagi and mummy cases in the form of a seated or kneeling figure of a woman with very large wings outspread and curving upwards2 she holds in her hands the feather--the symbol of power or domination4 7,we still speak of the feather in the cap47 ,she bears the disk of the sun upon her head4 ,to the ,egyptians1 indeed1 we owe the very embodiment of the mystery of existence itself--the sphinx who continues to propound her riddle afresh to every age4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,egyptian ,,symbolism4 ,greek mythology again1 as exemplified in ,greek art1 expresses itself symbolically1 and shows a gradual development from the primitive1 ruder1 and often savage personification of the powers of nature1 more allied to the conceptions of the ,northmen1 to the idealized1 refined1 poetic and beautiful personifications of their later vase painting and ,phidian sculpture4 ,the symbolic intention and the personifying method was carried on and embodied in free and natural forms1 though always governed by the ornamental feeling and necessities of harmonious relation to architectural and decorative conditions4 ,the first observers of the heavens1 the primitive herdsman1 hunter1 the fisherman and the shepherd1 have left their symbolic heraldry in the very stars above our heads2 and ,charles's or ceorls' wain and the signs of the zodiac still remind us of the primitive life of a pastoral and agricultural people4 ,the pediments of the ,parthenon1 for instance1 are great pieces of symbolical art1 and at the same time most beautiful as figure design and sculpture4 ,it is distressing to think that so late as #afhg the ,parthenon was practically complete as far as its sculpture and architecture4 ,it was first used as a ,greek ,christian ,church during the ,middle ,ages1 and then1 falling into the hands of the ,turks1 became a mosque2 when the ,venetians bombarded ,athens in #afhg a shell dropped into the ,parthenon1 where the ,turks had stored their powder1 and blew out the whole centre of the building4 ,even in the broken and imperfect state in which we are now only able to see them1 from the more or less complete figures and groups which compose its parts1 we can gather an idea of the harmony and unity of the whole1 and the complete union of the symbolism with the artistic treatment4 ,the whole conception strongly appealed to the sentiment of the ,athenian citizen1 since the two pediments represented the contest of ,athene and ,poseidon for the patronage of ,athens1 arts and laws1 or the rule of the sea4 ,we all know that the arts and laws won1 and that ,athens is immortal by reason of her art and poetry and philosophy1 not by her command of the sea4 ,we modern ,english1 perhaps1 might do well to apply the lesson1 and consider that after all it is not in mere appropriation of riches1 extension of empire1 material prosperity1 or in our volume of trade1 that the true greatness of a country consists1 but in the capacity and heroism of her people4 ,in the eastern pediment the centre group expressed the birth of ,athene herself1 or rather her first appearance amongst the ,olympians--the divine virgin deity and protectress of the city which bore her name1 and whose colossal statue in ivory and gold stood on the ,acropolis in front of the ,parthenon4 ,the other deities are grouped around1 and on one side we have the ,parc1 the three fates controlling the life of man 7which the ,northmen embodied in the ,norns72 then1 reclining at one side where the pediment narrows1 the figure of the great ,athenian hero1 ,theseus2 and in the extreme angle the sun-god1 ,helios1 with outstretched arms is seen guiding his horses1 which emerge from the sea--being balanced at the corresponding angle by ,selene1 the moon1 descending with her horses into the sea4 ,thus1 we have a series of ideas expressed symbolically in heroic figures of deep import to the ,athenians1 and having also in the suggestion of the fateful control of human life1 and the continuous order of nature in the rising sun and setting moon1 a wide and lasting significance apart from the beautiful form and consummate art by which they are embodied4 ,the ,parthenon stands high upon a rocky eminence1 and from its western door you can see the blue gean ,sea1 the island of ,salamis1 and the harbour of ,athens1 the ,pirus4 ,accordingly the sea-god ,poseidon is sculptured upon the western pediment1 with ,cecrops1 the first king and founder of ,athens1 with the queen4 ,another conspicuous figure there is the reclining figure of ,ilissus1 who represents the stream that flows around the western side of the ,acropolis4 ,the ,greeks1 and the ,romans who borrowed from them1 always symbolized a stream or a fountain by a reclining figure1 half turned upon its side1 and very frequently leaning upon an urn placed horizontally1 from the mouth of which flows the wavy lines of water4 ,there is in the ,vatican a ,roman representation of the ,river ,nile as a colossal reclining figure with long flowing hair and beard1 like ,zeus or ,poseidon1 holding a paddle4 ,his tributaries being represented by a number of small ,cupid-like boys1 who clamber and play about him1 or nestle at his side4 ,the land of ,egypt is typified by the sphinx upon which the figure leans4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,il ,,nilo 7,,vatican1 ,,rome74 ,father ,thames has often figured in ,punch depicted by ,john ,tenniel as an old man with long hair and beard1 not unlike his prototype1 but somewhat degraded and worse for wear4 ,the ,greek gods1 too1 and their ,roman representatives were each distinguished by their proper and appropriate emblems1 as well as by marked differences of character and physical type4 ,chronos1 or ,time1 afterwards ,saturn1 is always known by his scythe2 ,zeus or ,jupiter1 the ,thunderer1 by his thunderbolt2 ,poseidon or ,neptune by his trident2 ,helios by his horses1 and ,apollo by his bow2 ,aphrodite or ,venus by the golden apple won by the most beautiful2 ,pallas ,athene1 or the ,roman ,minerva1 as goddess of the arts1 by her serpent1 her lamp1 and her owl of wisdom2 ,artemis or ,diana by the crescent moon2 ,hermes or ,mercury by his caduceus--the serpent-twined staff1 which has in modern times become an emblem of commerce--since ,mercury was the messenger1 the fetcher and carrier of the ancients1 quick-witted and keen1 and1 according to some legends1 not over scrupulous4 ,his rod and serpents have reference to the story of his parting two snakes in combat1 in which might be read a modern meaning of the individual gaining fortune through commercial competition1 though that is not its usual signification4 ,i only offer it as an example of reading a new meaning into an ancient symbol4 ,then1 of course1 ,heracles or ,hercules bears the apples of the ,hesperides1 or the ,nemean lion's skin and his club4 ,in the ,hesperides story of the dragon-guarded tree of golden apples1 and its three guardian sisters1 we seem to have another form of the tree of life and the fates4 ,an interesting ,greek relievo in marble1 enriched with mosaic in parts1 at ,wilton ,house1 shows the ,hesperidean tree with the apples1 and twined with the guardian serpent1 with ,paris seated and ,aphrodite approaching as if asking for the apple--the prize of the most fair4 ,illustration3 ,,venus ,,and ,,paris4 ,,the ,,apples ,,of ,,the ,,hesperides4 ,,from ,a ,,relief ,,at ,,wilton ,,house4 ,in the ancient ,greek story of ,pandora and her box--so suggestive a subject to artists1 and fruitful in art--we have the classical version of the fall of man and origin of evil4 ,in the no less picturesque and poetical story of ,persephone 7or ,proserpina71 the daughter of ,ceres1 carried away by ,pluto1 the king of the underworld1 darkness1 and death1 we have a beautiful allegory of the spring and the winter1 since ,persephone was allowed to return every year to the earth for a season1 after she had eaten of the fatal pomegranate tree which grew in ,pluto's garden4 ,one might multiply instances of the symbolic character of classical story and its symbolic embodiment in ,greek and ,roman art1 but we must pass on to touch upon other sources and aspects of symbolism and emblem in art4 ,we know that many of our old fairy tales have a symbolical origin in ancient mythology1 and have taken new and varied forms and local colours as they have travelled from their southern and eastern homes1 and become naturalized in the art and literatures of different countries4 ,in such tales as ,jack and the ,beanstalk and ,the ,sleeping ,beauty in the ,wood1 the climbing hero ascending the heavens to destroy the giant of darkness1 in the first1 the hero penetrating the darkness and awakening his destined bride from her enchanted sleep1 in the second1 for instance1 the old solar mythology has been traced1 and if we could trace the old folk tales back to their sources we might find them all related to primitive mythology or hero and ancestor worship4 ,thus do the spirits of the remote past sit at our firesides still1 and kindle the imagination of our little folks3 and in the rich tapestry of story and picture which each age weaves around it1 elements from many different sources are continually and almost inextricably interwoven1 as if the warp of human wonder and imagination was crossed with many coloured threads of mythological lore1 history and allegory1 symbolism and romance4 ,the early ,christians1 no less than the pagans1 felt the necessity for symbols of their faith2 and while at first borrowing considerably1 and incorporating in their art forms belonging to the other faith they were supplanting1 gradually1 with the rise of power and influence1 emblems more peculiarly belonging to an expression of the ,christian ideal were adopted1 or underwent considerable transformation4 ,the design met with in the mosaics of the sixth century at ,ravenna1 the mausoleum of ,galla ,placidia1 of the two stags drinking from a fountain1 embodying the ,psalmist's verse beginning1 ,as the hart panteth for the water brooks1 although from the imagery of the older ,scriptures1 became an emblem of ,christianity4 ,the peacock appears1 too1 in ,byzantine art1 carved upon stone sarcophagi as an emblem of immortal life1 either from the many eyes its feathers always open1 or more probably because the eye feathers are shed and renew themselves every year4 ,the vine1 too1 appears constantly as a ,christian emblem1 although with the ,greeks it was sacred to ,dionysos1 and represented to them the divine1 life-giving earth-spirit continually renewing itself1 and bringing joy to men4 ,although the symbolic use no less than the decorative beauty of winged figures had long ago been recognized1 as ,asiatic1 ,egyptian1 and ,greek art show1 yet the ,christian angel1 both in its refined1 half-classical form1 as developed by the early ,italian painters and sculptors from the thirteenth century onwards1 and in northern ,gothic work1 became a distinct and beautiful type in art4 ,in the work of ,fra ,angelico and ,benozzo ,gozzoli the angel figures are especially lovely4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,christian ,,emblem4 ,,stags ,,drinking 7,,mausoleo ,,di ,,galla ,,placidia1 ,,ravenna74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,christian ,,emblem4 ,,peacocks ,,and ,,vine4 ,,sarcophagus 7,,st4 ,,apollinare ,,in ,,classe1 ,,ravenna74 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,fra ,,angelico4 ,,angel 7,,uffizi1 ,,florence74 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,fra ,,angelico4 ,,angel 7,,uffizi1 ,,florence74 ,no less distinct in its grotesqueness was the medival devil1 although its origin was very probably the satyr of ancient classical art4 ,the ,roman satyr1 with goat-legs and hoofs1 bearded head1 horns1 and tail1 furnishes1 in fact1 a very close prototype2 and1 being banned long ago as pagan when ,christianity was in hand-to-hand conflict with paganism1 would be sufficient to associate such a form with evil4 ,there are some fiends represented in ,orcagna's fresco1 ,the ,triumph of ,death1 which are quite satyr-like1 despite talons and bats' wings4 ,although with the ,greeks the great god ,pan is a mild and gentle deity enough1 and though of the earth earthy1 in a sense1 yet as symbolical of spontaneous nature1 and simple animal existence1 piping on his reeds by the riverside1 he always remains a favourite with the poet and the artist4 ,signorelli1 for instance1 in a beautiful picture 7which our ,national ,gallery somehow missed the opportunity of acquiring71 gives a fine presentment of him4 ,it is interesting to compare the medival embodiments of evil with the ancient ,persian symbolical representation of a combat of a king with a griffin1 which may represent the conflict of ,ormuzd and ,ahrimanes as the typical principles or embodied powers of good and of evil4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,orcagna4 ,,fiends ,,from ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,death 7,,fresco4 ,,campo ,,santo1 ,,pisa74 ,the creature 7representing evil7 is winged1 and has birds' claws for its hind feet 7like ,orcagna's fiends71 and lions' paws for its fore feet1 the body of an ox or horse1 the beak of an eagle or griffin1 in some instances1 in others it appears with a bull's head1 and is certainly suggestive of power and terror4 ,the favourite ,greek conception of the centaur1 too1 is an expressive symbolic embodiment of animal force1 and the mythical sculptural combat in the metopes of the ,parthenon is again suggestive of the conflict between the higher and the lower elements of human nature4 ,returning again to ,christian art1 we find the image of the lamb1 with the banner of the cross1 was the badge of the ,templar2 and we find abundant symbolism in the various emblems and attributes of the apostles1 saints1 and martyrs1 distinguished by the various emblems of their evangel1 conversion1 or martyrdom4 ,the mystic symbols of the four evangelists are well known to every ecclesiastical designer--the angel of ,st4 ,matthew1 the lion of ,st4 ,mark1 the bull of ,st4 ,luke1 the eagle of ,st4 ,john4 ,the winged lion of ,st4 ,mark has become the distinguishing badge of the city of ,venice1 since the evangelist was supposed to be buried in the great church dedicated to his name4 ,its image in bronze upon the column in the ,piazza impresses itself upon the eye and imagination of every visitor1 while upon the companion columns we see the patron saint of the ancient republic--,st4 ,isidore1 with the crocodile4 ,placed there in #acbi1 the statue recalls the early days of ,venice1 and suggests its connection with the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,,combat ,,of ,,king ,,with ,,griffin ,,ancient ,,persian ,,sculpture ,,persepolis4 ,from ,perrot ,chipiez ,hist of ,ancient ,art in ,persia after ,flandrin ,coste4 ,now national heraldry is often derived from the bearings of families or chiefs4 ,of such is our royal standard with its ,plantagenet leopards and red lion of the ,scottish kings4 ,though in the ,irish harp we seem to get a purely national emblem1 strictly speaking it is the heraldic bearing of one of the four provinces--,leinster4 ,these heraldic bearings and badges had their origin in very remote times1 and take us back to earliest forms of human society1 to the gens1 and the tribe1 who named themselves after some animal or plant1 and adopted it as the distinguishing mark and ensign of the family to which they belonged1 or to such primitive times as we read of in ,mr4 ,william ,morris's ,roots of the ,mountains and ,house of the ,wolfings1 where he speaks of ,the ,house of the ,steer and ,the ,house of the ,raven4 ,the distinguishing badges would be carved or painted over the porch1 and borne upon the shield of the chief and the banner in battle4 ,in feudal times the practice was continued until family heraldry1 owing to intermarriage1 became very complicated1 and family shields much quartered4 ,distinctness and definite characterization of form were highly necessary1 since in battle it was important to distinguish your enemies from your friends1 and the banner of the chieftain1 the knight1 or king1 would be the rallying point for their followers and retainers4 ,heraldry became regulated by strict rules1 and is now called a science1 though its vitality and meaning have departed1 except in an antiquarian and archological sense4 ,it has1 however1 a certain decorative value to the designer1 as illustrating the principle of counterchange of colours1 and from the heraldry of the medival period much may be learned in point of decorative treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,forms ,,of ,,shields3 ,norman ,shield4 ,from a ,,ms4 of the #abth ,century in the ,national ,library1 ,paris4 ,ancient ,roman ,shield 7,scutum7 ,trajan's ,column4 ,ancient ,greek ,shield1 ,cylix ,pinacotheca4 ,munich4 ,gothic4 ,shield of ,john de ,heere1 #accb1 from a brass at ,brussels4 ,shield of ,edward the ,black ,prince1 #acgf4 ,duke of ,saxony1 #aejj4 ,,sidonia of ,saxony1 #aeaj4 ,,brass1 ,de ,rivis1 #aefg1 ,brussels4 ,renascence ,shield1 with helmet mantling ,painted glass4 ,lichfield ,cathedral4 ,the shield itself varies considerably in form4 ,there is the round shield of the ancients used both by ,greeks and ,norsemen4 ,this with the ,greeks had pieces cut out at the sides sometimes4 ,there was also a moon-shaped shield1 similar in form to the shield used by our old invaders the ,danes4 ,then we get the parallelogram1 kite-shaped and oval shields of the ,romans2 the kite-shaped shield of the ,normans2 the lancet pointed shield1 cut square at the top1 of the first crusades4 ,the ,gothic shield becomes more variously hollowed and shaped with the development of plate armour1 and in the fifteenth century frequently has a space cut out on the outer edge to allow of the tilting lance of the knight passing through without interfering with the guard4 ,in ,renascence times there was a revival of classical and fanciful forms in shields1 and a return to its original form in the escutcheon1 the term being derived from the ,latin 7cutis7 word for skin or hide1 which covered the ancient shields3 but with the use of fire-arms shields declined1 until the small steel buckler for the short-sword became its last working representative4 ,the character and the art of heraldic devices varies very much according to these changes in methods of warfare1 and was also affected by the state of the arts generally4 ,we have only to compare the bold and frank heraldry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with the coach-painter's heraldry of the present to realize the great change in feeling4 ,compare a ,plantagenet lion with a ,victorian one1 a medival griffin with a nineteenth century specimen4 ,illustration3 ,,sicilian ,,silk ,,tissue4 ,,twelfth ,,century 7,,south ,,kensington ,,museum74 ,the ,gothic heraldic designer felt he must be simple and bold for the sake both of distinctness and ornamental effect4 ,he emphasized certain features of his animals3 he insisted very much1 for instance1 upon the claws of the lion1 its mane and tail1 its open mouth and tongue2 in short1 he felt it was his first business to make a bold and striking pattern1 and whatever the forms of his heraldry1 they were controlled by this feeling4 ,heraldic devices formed a large part of the ornamental design of the ,middle ,ages in all kinds of materials4 ,they were abundantly used in dress patterns and in hangings and textiles of all kinds4 ,in the beautiful ,sicilian silk stuffs1 for instance1 a leading feature of the repeat often consists of an emblematic or heraldic device of animals or birds1 which give character and agreeable massiveness to the pattern4 ,medival brasses afford many beautiful examples of heraldic treatment4 ,indeed1 for ornamental feeling1 expressed by very simple means and under very limited conditions1 those of the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries afford beautiful instances1 which may be most profitably studied by designers of all kinds4 ,mr4 ,creeny's book on the ,continental brasses may be recommended as containing many very beautiful examples from his own rubbings1 notably from ,belgium4 ,two specimens are given in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,illustration3 ,,ex ,,bello ,,pax4 7,from ,alciati's ,emblems1 #aebb47 ,but the love of symbol and emblem did not expire with the vigour of heraldic design4 ,indeed1 a certain impetus was given to it by the invention of printing1 which1 diverting it into another channel1 seemed to give it fresh life in association with literature4 ,the sixteenth century was remarkable for its love of allegory and emblem1 which was no doubt stimulated by the opening up of the stores of classical lore at the ,renascence1 and by the general stir and activity of thought of a time of transition1 when new and old ideas were in conflict or in process of fusion4 ,life was full of variety1 contrast1 hope1 fear1 strife1 love1 art1 romance and poetry1 learning and the beginnings of scientific discovery4 ,out of the seethings of such elements1 joined with the relics of medival navet and quaintness1 came into existence the emblem book1 which offered compact pictorial epigrams1 by means of the woodcut and the printing press1 to fit every phase of human life1 thought1 and vicissitude4 ,holbein's ,dance of ,death was really a book of emblems1 and the subject was a favourite one with the ,german sixteenth century designers4 ,very ancient ideas reappeared in these books1 unearthed by scholars1 from all sorts of sources1 from the ancient ,egyptians onwards4 ,such designs as those of the pelican feeding its young from its own breast1 and the stork carrying its parent on its back1 constantly reappear2 and also the bees making their hive in a helmet1 with the motto ,ex bello pax1 which reminds one of ,samson's riddle of sweetness and strength4 ,illustration3 ,,fortune1 7,from ,alciati's ,emblems1 #aebb47 ,the device of the crab1 too1 with a butterfly between its claws1 and the motto ,festina lente--hasten slowly--is a favourite4 ,the phnix1 also1 borrowed from ancient ,egypt1 but nowadays generally associated with life insurance4 ,fortune1 with the sail of a ship standing on a globe1 and sometimes a wheel1 floating in a tempestuous sea1 to express her fickleness and uncertainty1 often appears4 ,the fate of ,ambition1 in the fable of ,phaeton falling from ,apollo's car2 the snake in the grass--,latet anguis in herba2 labour in vain1 a man pouring water into a sieve1 the sieve held by blindfold ,love1 also figures2 the ass loaded with dainties and rich food1 but stooping to eat the thistle by the wayside1 appears as a symbol of ,avarice4 sop's fables were utilized1 and classical mythology1 in fact all was fish to the moral net of the emblem designer1 and the multiplication of such collections in printed books is evidence of the moralizing1 philosophizing tendency of the times1 and the love of personifying and imaging ideas4 ,illustration3 ,,ambition1 7,from ,alciati's ,emblems1 #aebb47 ,illustration3 ,,avarice1 7,from ,alciati's ,emblems1 #aebb47 ,elaborate designs1 such as one of ,romeyn de ,hooghe 7#afgj7--;following the tablet of ,cebes1 ,b4,c4 #cij1 or the ,latin version of #aejg--;allegorizing human life as a whole1 from birth to death1 under the device of a labyrinth or maze1 with figures wandering about in its walks1 under different influences1 down to simple devices like the moth and the candle1 are comprehended in these emblem books2 but it is only reducing to small compass and to compact1 portable1 and popular form the same spirit of quaint invention which covered the walls and ceilings of great houses and public halls and tapestries with personifications1 like the splendid series of the ,triumphs of ,petrarch1 ,love1 ,time1 ,death1 and ,chastity in our ,national ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 as well as endless embodiments of the seasons1 the senses1 the virtues1 and the vices4 ,emblematic art1 however1 like heraldry1 became overlaid with pedantry1 and its artistic interest died when its form became prescribed1 and precedent and rule took the place of original invention4 ,the chief scope for symbol and emblem in our time lies in the province of decorative design1 which in its highest forms may be regarded as the metre or poetry of art4 ,the designer1 like the poet1 rejoices in certain limitations1 which1 while they fix and control his form and treatment1 leave him extraordinary freedom in dealing suggestively with themes difficult or impossible to be approached in purely naturalistic form4 ,it is true we find emblematic art in very stiff and degraded forms1 and applied to quite humdrum purposes4 ,it is largely used in commerce1 for instance1 and one may find classical fable and symbolism reduced to a trade mark or a poster4 ,still trade marks1 after all1 fill the place1 in our modern commercial war1 of the old knightly heraldry--shorn of its splendour and romance1 certainly--and given trade marks and posters they might as well be designed1 and would serve their purpose more effectively if they were treated more according to the principles of medival heraldry1 since they would gain at once character1 distinctness1 and decorative effect4 ,allegorical art has1 too1 a modern popular form in the region of political satire and caricature1 often potent to stir or to concentrate political feeling4 ,this is almost a distinct province1 to which many able and vigorous artists devote their lives and show their invention in the effective way in which the political situation is put into some piece of familiar symbolism which all can recognize and remember4 ,in the region of poetic design symbolism must always hold its place4 ,when the artist desires to soar a little above the passing moment to suggest the past1 to peer into the future2 when he looks at human life as a complete whole1 and the life of the race as an unbroken chain2 when he would deal with thoughts of mans origin and destiny1 of the powers and passions that sway him1 of love1 of hope and fear1 of the mystery of life and nature1 the drama of the seasons1 he must use figurative language1 and seek the beautiful and permanent images of emblematic design4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,of ,,the ,,graphic ,,influence1 ,,or ,,naturalism ,,in ,,design ,,the graphic influence6 my readers may exclaim1 what existence has design apart from this1 since the depicting power with whatever pencil1 brush1 modelling tool1 chisel1 pen is by its very nature bound up with it8 ,that is quite true1 yet for all that there is discernible a very distinct line of cleavage in art1 a distinction of spirit and aim which seems to have divided or characterized artists and epochs from the very earliest4 ,i have often alluded to the drawings of the prehistoric cave men4 ,these graphic outlines of animals1 although generally incised upon the handles of weapons1 always appear to me to indicate the purely naturalistic aim as distinct from the ornamental sense1 as if the first object of the primitive artist had been to get as exact a profile as possible of the animals he knew2 just as a modern artist1 with superior facilities of pencil and paper1 might make sketches at the ,zoological ,gardens without any idea of making them parts of a decorative design4 ,the main difference seems to be that in purely graphic or naturalistic drawing individual characteristics or differences are sought for1 while in ornamental or decorative drawing typical forms or correspondences are sought for4 ,illustration3 ,,prehistoric ,,graphic ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,cave ,,men4 ,illustration3 ,,prehistoric ,,graphic ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,cave ,,men4 ,in the course of the development of historic art in different countries and among different peoples1 under different social and political systems1 we may yet discern a kind of strife for ascendency between these two principles1 which still divide the world of art2 and though in the most perfect art the two are found reconciled and harmonized1 as being really two sides of the same question1 the general feeling for art seems to swing from one side to the other1 like the tides in ebb and flow4 ,at one time human feeling in art seeks to perpetuate types1 symbols1 and emblems of the wonder of life and the mysteries of the universe1 as in the art of ancient ,egypt4 ,at another its interest is absorbed in the representation of individual characteristics and varieties1 striving to follow nature through her endless subtleties and transformations1 as in our own day2 when the different aims inspiring our artists might be set down as-- 7#a7 ,the desire to realize1 or to represent things as they are4 7#b7 ,the desire to realize1 or to represent things as they appear to be4 ,under whatever differences of method or material1 ,i believe it will be found that this real difference of mental attitude behind them accounts for the varieties we see1 that is to say1 in any genuine and thoughtful work4 ,every sincere artist naturally desires to realize his conception to the best of his ability1 in the most harmonious and forceful way2 but in the course of the development of a work of art of any kind there are problems to be solved at every turn4 ,is it a piece of repeating surface ornament we are designing8 ,we feel we must subordinate parts to the whole1 we must see that our leading structural lines are harmonious1 we cannot emphasize a bit of detail without reference to the total effect4 ,we may find the design wants simplifying1 and have to strike out even some element of beauty4 ,such sacrifices are frequently necessary4 ,our love of naturalism may induce us to work up our details1 our leaves and flowers1 to vie with natural appearance in full light and relief1 until we find we are losing the repose and sense of quiet planes essential to pattern work1 and getting beyond the capacities of our material1 so that we may realize that even skill and graphic power may be inartistic if wrongly applied or wasted in inappropriate places4 ,is it a landscape we desire to transcribe or express upon paper or canvas8 ,sun and shadow flit across it1 changing every moment dark to light and light to dark1 so that the general emphasis and expression of the scene constantly vary1 like the expression of a human face1 as we watch it4 ,which shall we choose8 ,which seems the most expressive1 the most beautiful8 ,again1 shall we content ourselves with a general superficial impression1 leaving details vague8 ,shall we aim at truth of tone1 or truth of local colour8 ,shall we dwell on the lines of the composition8 ,shall we spend all our care upon getting the planes right1 or rely for our main interest upon light and shade and delicate definition of detail8 ,all these different problems belong to graphic representation of nature1 to graphic methods of drawing and design1 and the work of different artists is distinguished usually by the way in which they seem to feel--the particular aspect or truth on which they mostly dwell in their work4 ,even the most abstract symbolic or ornamental drawing in pure outline must have some graphic quality1 though intentionally limited to the expression of few facts4 ,the method by which an ancient ,egyptian painter or hieroglyphic carver blocked out a vulture or a hawk1 relying either solely on truth of mass or silhouette1 or on outline and emphatic marking of the masses of the plumage1 or the salient characteristics1 such as claws and beak1 although extremely abstract1 was full of natural truth and fact as far as it went1 and left no doubt as to the birds depicted4 ,illustration3 ,egyptian ,treatment of ,birds 7from painted ,mummy ,cases1 ,british ,museum7 ,something of the same kind of quality is found in ,japanese drawings of birds1 with less severity and monumental feeling4 ,the graphic or naturalistic feeling is strongest and the individual accidents are dwelt upon4 ,in modern ,european natural history drawings of birds and animals1 we often lose this bold graphic sense of character in the general aspect1 while small superficial details of plumage and textures are carefully attended to4 ,there is often less life though actually more likeness4 ,the general tendency in the development of the art of a people seems to have been from the formal1 monumental1 and symbolic type of representation and design in strict relation to architectural structure and decoration1 towards freer naturalism1 individual portraiture1 and a looser graphic style4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fowler4 ,,wall ,,painting4 ,,nineteenth ,,dynasty 7,,british ,,museum74 ,we may trace this tendency even in the strictly monumental and stereotyped art of ancient ,egypt1 which notably in the portrait sculpture even of the ancient empire is remarkable for extraordinary realism2 and in the wall paintings of the later period of the ,theban empire 7as in the tomb of ,beni ,hasan71 which show considerable freedom and vitality4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,graphic ,,art4 ,,from ,,the ,,hundred ,,birds ,,of ,,bari4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,graphic ,,art4 ,,from ,,the ,,hundred ,,birds ,,of ,,bari4 ,a most notable example of realism is the famous ,scribe in the ,louvre1 a coloured statuette1 believed to date from the fifth or sixth dynasty1 of extraordinary vitality4 ,the eyes consist of an iris of rock crystal1 surmounting a metal pupil1 and set in an eyeball of opaque white quartz4 ,greek sculpture1 again1 shows a gradual development from the archaic period1 in which it resembles early ,asiatic art1 up to the refinement1 freedom1 and beauty of design of the ,phidian period1 when the balance between naturalistic feeling and monumental feeling appears to have been perfect4 ,then later1 as the result of a desire for more obvious naturalism and dramatic expression1 we get quite a different feeling in the sculptures of the frieze of the great altar at ,pergamos1 which represents the strife of the gods and the ,titans--a tremendous subject1 worked out with extraordinary power1 skill1 and learning in alto relievo2 but despite the energy and dramatic movement1 after the delicacy and reposeful beauty of the ,parthenon sculptures1 we feel that these qualities have been gained at a considerable cost and loss2 but it is interesting as representing the more realistic and dramatic side of ,greek art4#aa #aa ,the original slabs are in the ,berlin ,museum1 but casts of some may be seen at ,south ,kensington4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,scribe4 ,,portrait ,,statuette4 ,,fifth ,,of ,,sixth ,,dynasty 7,,louvre74 ,but the grace and charm of ,greek art never seemed really to die out4 ,all the best ,roman art was inspired by it1 if not actually carried out by ,greek artists2 and1 owing to ,greek colonies1 ,greek traditions had long been naturalized in ,italy1 where they found a congenial soil4 ,fine portrait sculpture was done in the imperial period--as the ,augustus and the head of ,julius ,csar and many other well-known busts testify4 ,also the truth and beauty of some of their animal sculpture we may see in the fine style of the frieze of sacrificial animals discovered in #ahgb in the ,forum4 ,we seem to see the ,greek spirit in the decorative splendour of the ,byzantine period1 and again1 in ,italian dress1 inspiring the painters and sculptors of the early ,renascence1 in the work of ,giotto1 ,ghiberti1 and ,donatello for instance4 ,with the development of ,gothic architecture in the thirteenth century a new and distinct feeling for naturalism arose1 which influenced through architecture all the arts of design4 ,in fact1 all through the ,gothic period design seems to have had more the character of a vital organic growth1 controlled by a certain tradition and the influence of architectural style1 yet within these limits and those of the material of its expression developing an extraordinary freedom both of invention and graphic power1 which culminated at the end of the fifteenth century1 or was perhaps absorbed by the classicism of the ,renascence4 ,thirteenth century ,gothic sculpture at its best1 as we find it in ,france1 has almost the simplicity1 grace1 and natural feeling of ,greek work4 ,this may be seen in the figures from the west front of ,auxerre ,cathedral1 and also in the porch of ,amiens2 and in the portrait effigies of this period and onwards through the three centuries in those of our own cathedrals and churches we find abundant evidence of graphic power in careful and characteristic portraiture1 united with beauty of design in detail and decorative effect4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,frieze ,,discovered ,,in ,,the ,,forum1 #ahgb4 ,illustration3 ,,sculpture ,,from ,,auxerre ,,cathedral4 ,,thirteenth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,sculpture ,,from ,,amiens ,,cathedral4 ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,what we should call realism comes out wonderfully in the treatment of the statue of ,st4 ,martha at ,st4 ,urbain1 ,troyes1 a work of the fifteenth century4 ,gothic art1 too1 was a familiar art1 intimate and sympathetic with human life in all its varieties4 ,in the beautiful illuminated ,psalters1 ,missals1 ,books of ,hours1 and chronicles of the ,middle ,ages1 the life of those days is presented in bright and vivid colours4 ,we see the labourers at work in the fields1 ploughing1 sowing1 reaping1 threshing1 treading the wine-press4 ,we see the huntsman1 the fisherman1 and the shepherd2 the scribe at his work1 the saint at his prayers1 the knight at arms4 ,the splendour and pomp of jousts and tournaments1 with all their bright colour and quaint heraldry2 we see the king in his ermine1 and the beggar in his rags1 the monk in his cell1 the gallant with his lute--delicate miniatures often set in burnished gold1 and adorned with open fret-work or borders of flowers and leaves4 ,these borders in course of time from a purely fanciful ornamental character become real leaves1 flowers or fruit1 as in the ,grimani ,breviary1 attributed to ,memling1 the famous ,flemish painter1 where the borders are in some pages naturalistic paintings of leaves and berries1 birds and butterflies1 on gold grounds with cast shadows4 ,here we get the naturalistic feeling dominating again and the pictorial skill of the miniaturist triumphing1 but the effect is still rich and ornamental4 ,when the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century began to rival the scribe with his manuscript1 it offered in the woodcut a new method to the artist1 which led to a new development of graphic power and design by means of line and black and white1 though at first intended merely as a method of furnishing the illuminator with outlined designs as book illustrations and ornaments to be filled in with colour and gold4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,martha 7,,st4 ,,urbain1 ,,troyes74 ,illustration3 ,,memling4 ,,deliverance ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter 7,,grimani ,,breviary74 ,illustration3 ,,memling4 ,,david ,,placing ,,the ,,ark ,,in ,,the ,,tabernacle 7,,grimani ,,breviary74 ,the black and white effect1 however1 grew to be liked for its own sake3 not only was it found to afford a considerable range of decorative effect by different treatment of line and solid black1 but the graphic designer found in the rich vigorous woodcut line a suggestive and emphatic means of expression4 ,the best artists of the time gave themselves to the work1 and notably in ,germany1 the home of the invention of printing itself4 ,cologne1 ,mainz1 ,augsburg1 ,ulm1 ,nuremberg were all famous centres of activity in the printer's art1 as well as ,venice and ,florence1 ,basle and ,paris4 ,up to the end of the fifteenth century the ,gothic and ornamental feeling is still dominant in the treatment of the design of woodcuts in books1 and most instructive and suggestive they are in simplicity of method and line1 and directness of expression4 ,characteristic ,german work of ,gothic feeling and considerable graphic force is seen in the woodcuts of the ,nuremberg ,chronicle 7#adic7 designed by ,michael ,wolgemuth1 the master of ,albert ,drer4 ,in these vigorous cuts we may plainly see the tradition of that ,gothic feeling and style of graphic design afterwards developed in the work of the great ,german designer4 ,the splendid woodcuts of ,drer's ,apocalypse1 and of the ,little ,passion1 and the design called ,the ,cannon 7#aeah71 give us further insight into his method of drawing and his graphic power2 and one can hardly go to stronger or better examples for the study of expression by means of bold line work1 a command of which is most valuable to designers in all materials1 though1 of course1 especially so to those who desire to make black and white drawing their principal pursuit4 ,for ,drer's finer line treatment on copper there is no better example than the portrait of ,erasmus4 ,illustration3 ,,albert ,d,,rer4 ,,the ,,apocalypse4 ,illustration3 ,,albert ,d,,rer4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,erasmus1 #aebf4 ,illustration3 ,,albert ,d,,rer4 ,,the ,,cannon1 #aeac4 ,the style of drawing shown in these woodcuts was no doubt to a great extent determined by the nature of the method of cutting the block4 ,the drawing on the smooth plank--not on the cross section of the tree1 as in modern wood-engraving--was actually cut with a knife1 not a graver4 ,each line had to be excavated1 as it were1 from the surface1 the ground or white part sunk each side1 so as to make it take the ink and print the impression of its surface sharply upon the paper in the press4 ,these conditions would necessarily lead to a certain economy of line both as to quantity and direction1 and would favour the use of bold outline and lines expressive of relief surfaces or shadow arranged in a comparatively simple way1 and often running into solid black1 as in small folds of drapery and details4 ,the drawing was probably done with a reed or quill pen1 which latter still remains perhaps the best tool for emphatic1 graphic drawing on the scale of book designs1 since it offers the maximum possibility of effect with the minimum of simplicity and economy of means4 ,its only rival 7though it may also be regarded as a useful auxiliary to the pen7 is the narrow flexible brush point1 and this has the advantage of spreading more easily into solid blacks1 though more likely to lead one into looseness of style owing to its very facility4 ,fine and firm graphic draughtsmanship and rich design1 with a fine sense of the decorative value of armorial bearings and processional grouping1 may be seen in the famous series of woodcuts called ,the ,triumphs of ,maximilian1 in which ,albert ,drer and ,hans ,burgmair co-operated4 ,that is to say each did a large proportion of the designs4 ,it was a very vast work for wood-engraving4 ,the scheme was in two parts1 one consisting of a design of a triumphal arch1 in general idea in emulation of the old ,roman imperial triumphal arches4 ,this part of the work consisted of ninety-two blocks which1 when put together1 form one woodcut #aj feet high by #i feet wide4 ,this part was all designed and drawn upon the blocks by ,albert ,drer1 and engraved by ,hieronymus ,andre4 ,illustration3 ,,albert ,d,,rer4 ,,little ,,passion4 ,,the ,,taking ,,down ,,from ,,the ,,cross4 ,illustration3 ,,hans ,,burgmair4 ,,group ,,of ,,knights ,,from ,,the ,,triumphs ,,of ,,maximilian4 ,the second part consisted of the triumphal procession and the triumphal car of ,maximilian and his ,queens1 designed by ,drer1 as well as other allegorical and heraldic cars and warlike machines1 and cars with officers of the court1 groups of knights in armour1 men-at-arms of all kinds1 country people1 and even groups of ,african savages4 ,sixty-six of the designs of the procession are due to ,hans ,burgmair4 ,it is noteworthy that the general scheme for this triumph was first painted on large sheets of parchment1 which still exist in the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna2 and the woodcuts followed this more or less in design1 ,drer's drawings being a freer rendering1 while ,burgmair's are supposed to keep more closely to the painted scheme of the miniaturists1 though it is quite possible they may both have furnished sketches for the miniaturists' version also4 ,this great undertaking1 however1 was never finished1 and its progress came to an end with the death of the emperor in ,january1 #aeai4 ,the work was supposed to have been commenced in #aeab4 ,for more purely ornamental effect in black and white the rich1 bold1 yet sensitive outline of the ,venetian and ,florentine woodcuts should be studied1 and their use of solid black4 ,the amount of graphic expression and even of statement of natural fact which can be put into pure outline alone is1 of course1 enormous4 ,the value of the graphic illustrative capacity of the woodcut was soon discovered and utilized by the writers of natural histories and compilers of ,herbals of the early days of printing onwards4 ,there is a beautiful ,herbal written by ,dr4 ,fuschius 7whose name we seem to have perpetuated in the ,fuchsia74 ,it was printed at ,basle in #aedb1 and the drawings are fine examples of what outline can do1 and remarkable for a combination of beautiful style united with natural truth and decorative feeling4 ,one of the horned poppy is here given4 ,the book is also interesting in the portraits of the draughtsmen and wood-engraver1 or formschneider1 given at the end4 ,the woodcuts of the plants given in the ,herbal of ,matthiolus1 where more lines of surface and shadow are introduced1 are vigorous and good1 full of style and character1 and expressive of the salient facts of growth4 ,the same may be said of those in our own ,gerard's ,herbal1 though the impressions are not generally so bright or good2 but then it was produced during the decline of the printer's art1 in the later years of the sixteenth century4 ,though used for purely illustrative purposes1 much as the cuts put into modern dictionaries to make certain facts clear to the mind1 these woodcuts have always1 over and above fidelity to the main facts of growth and character1 a sense of design4 ,they are not merely drawings of plants1 but they are well put together as panels or spaces of design1 and effectively though unobtrusively ornament the page4 ,for expressive and sensitive line and touch in the rendering of flowers1 the ,japanese artists are remarkable1 and their books1 printed from wood-blocks cut on the plank in the old ,european way1 are full of spirit and suggestiveness4 ,drawn on the wood with a pointed brush1 which is occasionally spread to yield solid black1 or turned sideways1 or dragged1 to vary the quality of the line1 they show that extreme ease and facility in the expression of form by simple means which only long practice1 direct work1 and intimate knowledge and close observation of nature could produce4 ,the added flat and delicate tints of colour enhance the effect and give them a decorative beauty entirely their own1 though planned in the spaces they occupy in a totally different spirit from the old ,herbal woodcuts we have been considering4 ,they belong in the main rather to the second point of view or artistic impulse in art1 which ,i characterized at the beginning as the desire to represent without prepossession the appearances of things2 which delights in accidents1 in unexpectedness1 and sometimes1 it must be confessed1 in downright ugliness and awkwardness1 it seems to me--what in short is sometimes called impressionism1 which has been largely influenced by ,japanese art4 ,illustration3 ,,horned ,,poppy4 ,,from ,,fuchsius' ,,de ,,historia ,,stirpium1 #aedb4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,plant ,,drawing4 ,,woodcut ,,printed ,,in ,,colour4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,plant ,,drawing4 ,,woodcut ,,from ,a ,,botanical ,,work4 ,medival brasses are often very fine in the quality and use of outline1 and show a wonderful amount of exact characterization in portraiture1 as well as beauty of ornamental effect in the use of plain surfaces relieved upon rich pattern work1 and good disposition of draperies4 ,those of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 more especially the ,belgian examples1 are very useful to study for these things1 as well as for the fine taste1 the simplicity1 and the broad artistic feeling shown under the strict limitation of the material1 while they are remarkable for extraordinary delineation of character by very simple means--the lines and sunk parts being incised in the smooth brass plate and filled in with black encaustic substance1 while the colours of the heraldry are frequently enamelled4 ,note the beautiful lines of the drapery in the example given from ,bruges1 and the fine relief of the figures upon the rich diapered ground4 ,in ,england the figures and borders were cut out in the brass and inserted in the stone slab1 which formed the background2 but the ,flemish brasses show a different treatment1 the figures being relieved upon a rich diapered ground1 also incised upon the brass1 which takes the form of a complete panel or plate covering the stone slab4 ,illustration3 ,,brass ,,of ,,joris ,,de ,,munter ,,and ,,wife 7,,bruges1 #adci74 ,,from ,,creeny',s ,,monumental ,,brasses4 ,one may trace in the later brasses the efforts of the designer to gain more relief and graphic emphasis in his figures by introducing lines of shading and cross lines and greater complexity generally1 as well as a tendency to escape the limits of the panel1 no doubt under the influence of the rising power of pictorial art1 which from the ,renascence onwards seems to have dominated by its influence all the other arts4 ,but in the case of brasses the beauty of design1 the charm and simplicity of the earlier treatment1 as well as the rich decorative effect1 disappear with the attempt to render complexities of effect and qualities of drawing for which the material and purpose were unsuited4 ,the same change of feeling left its mark upon the sculptor's work in sepulchral monuments and effigies1 which1 in the ,gothic period up to the end of the fifteenth century1 are frequently refined and beautiful pieces of delicate portraiture1 wrought with extreme care and elaboration1 with a strong yet restrained sense of the ornamental value of the detail2 but which1 under the pictorial influence and the search for more obvious and superficial naturalism1 became more or less forced in effect and vulgarized in sentiment as well as execution1 and finally lost in classical artificiality and theatric pomp4 ,illustration3 ,,king ,,eric ,,menved ,,and ,,queen ,,ingeborg ,,of ,,denmark 7,,ringstead1 #acai74 ,,from ,,creeny',s ,,monumental ,,brasses4 ,in simple draughtsmanship and purely graphic design1 too1 it is noticeable that1 with the introduction of the copper-plate and the attempt to get in book illustrations something like pictorial values and chiaroscuro1 how1 by degrees1 vigour of design and feeling for good line work was lost4 ,the revival of the woodcut even under ,bewick did little to help line design--its former close companion4 ,bewick and his school developed the woodcut from the pictorial point of view1 and with the object of demonstrating the capacity of the wood for rendering certain fine textures and tones as against steel and copper4 ,their great principle was the use of white line1 not unheard of even in the early printing days1 as a frontispiece to a ,german book 7,pomerium de ,tempore1 ,augsburg1 #aejb7 of the early sixteenth century testifies4 ,bewick's birds1 which are remarkable for the delicate1 truthful way in which the plumage is rendered1 are as much the work of a naturalist as of an artist1 and they show but little design or feeling apart from this4 ,although ,william ,blake and ,edward ,calvert made notable use of the woodcut1 it was not really until about the middle of the century that any serious attempt was made in the direction of the revival of line and pen drawing for the sake of its expressive vigour1 ornamental possibilities1 and autographic value4 ,probably it really began with ,german artists like ,schnorr 7who did a series of ,bible pictures more or less after the manner of ,holbein71 ,alfred ,rethel1 and ,moritz ,schwind4 ,rethel's two large woodcuts1 ,death the ,friend and ,death the ,enemy1 are tolerably well known and show strong draughtsmanship and tragic force1 recalling in their intensity and vigour the work of ,drer and the old ,german masters4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,keene4 ,,reduced ,,from ,a ,,half-,,page ,,design ,,in ,,punch4 ,in ,england the revival of line design arose out of the ,pre-,raphaelite movement 7a movement certainly influenced by the study of early ,italian as well as ,german and ,flemish art71 and was illustrated by the work of some of the leaders of that movement themselves4 ,the drawings 7engraved on wood by the brothers ,dalziel7 by ,d4 ,g4 ,rossetti1 ,holman ,hunt1 and ,millais1 which illustrate the edition of ,tennyson's poems published in #aheg1 show perhaps the first definite experiments in this direction4 ,the pages of the journal ,once a ,week1 started in #ahei1 were the means of the introduction of new and powerful designers in line1 such as ,frederick ,sandys1 ,charles ,keene1 ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1 and ,frederick ,walker4 ,the first three showed unmistakable evidence of a study of the manner of ,german ,renascence woodcuts1 but it was allied to the matter of modern thought and naturalism4 ,with a freer graphic naturalism of a different order1 ,walker united a certain grace and sentiment derived from classic sculpture1 curiously mixed with a ,dutch-like domestic feeling4 ,in his black and white drawing he shows1 too1 ,i think1 to some degree the influences of the photograph1 which since those days has had so obvious an effect upon art and artists4 ,illustration3 ,,linley ,,sambourne4 ,,reduced ,,from ,a ,,full-,,page ,,design ,,in ,,punch4 ,once a ,week1 which introduced these with other artists to the public1 was started by the proprietors of ,punch1 which had long maintained and still maintains an effective and legitimate field for graphic drawing in line rendered by the facsimile wood-block4 ,the work of ,john ,leech and ,richard ,doyle is well known1 the former1 with a light and somewhat loose touch registering the fashions and foibles of ,english life from week to week1 with extraordinary spirit1 humour1 and character1 often conveyed by very slight means4 ,sir ,john ,tenniel1 with his more serious and heavier style1 continued until recently to give his familiar allegories of the political situation2 this style again has1 ,i think1 been influenced by ,german work4 ,then ,charles ,keene brought in a kind of impressionistic naturalism1 expressed by a method of his own1 having a look of great freshness and directness1 like crisp sketches from nature4 ,du ,maurier developed a different style1 less vigorous but more graceful in drawing1 and with certain leanings at one time to the romantic ,pre-,raphaelitism he used his pencil occasionally to caricature4 ,in ,mr4 ,linley ,sambourne we see a designer and draughtsman of considerable power4 ,his pen-line is vigorous and his drawing solid and graphic1 with considerable feeling for style1 but showing1 ,i think1 the influence of the photograph in the rendering of light and shade4 ,in quality of line there is a certain kinship with the work of ,mr4 ,phil ,may1 a later addition to the staff1 though his treatment is very different4 ,he represents1 indeed1 rather the modern impressionist feeling in line drawing influenced by the ,japanese2 his outlines are often extraordinarily graphic1 and convey a great amount of character with very slight variation1 and very little detail2 but there is rather a noticeable tendency towards awkward composition and ugly or repulsive types4 ,illustration3 ,,phil ,,may4 ,,from ,,punch4 ,as a work giving some of the more serious and carefully studied designs in line and black and white of modern artists1 engraved on wood1 might be mentioned the ,bible projected by the brothers ,dalziel1 a portion only of which was completed1 consisting of a series of fine drawings by ,holman ,hunt1 ,madox ,brown1 ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1 ,frederic ,leighton1 and others4 ,they are more perhaps in the nature of isolated pictures than book illustrations1 but they are full of good and careful work4 ,the earlier etchings of ,mr4 ,whistler are full of delicate drawing of the picturesque detail of old waterside houses1 as in the famous ,wapping1 which even survived translation into a process block in the ,daily ,chronicle4 ,we have now a vast public apparently interested in1 and accustomed to1 graphic representation in black and white1 through the continual multiplication of cheap illustrated newspapers1 magazines1 and books1 and the continual invention and adaptation to the press of cheap photographic and automatic means of reproduction1 which have almost entirely displaced the woodcut as a popular medium for the interpretation of graphic art4 ,in these cheap forms of pictorial art the photograph continues to gain ascendency not only as a medium for reproduction1 but as a substitute for original artistic invention and design4 ,now while in the former province it is of enormous practical value1 in the latter1 ,i think1 it bids fair to be extremely seductive and injurious to the growth of healthy artistic taste and capacity4 ,modern painting and draughtsmanship have for a long time shown the influence of the photograph 7which for certain illusory qualities of lighting and relief cannot be approached71 and so1 no doubt1 artists themselves have prepared the way for its popularity1 and perhaps even usurpation of the dominion of popular art4 ,so far1 however1 as photographic effect is preferred1 and the mechanical tone-block is preferred to the pen-drawing and woodcut1 it means the loss of character1 of the personal element1 of distinctive artistic style4 ,it means1 in short1 the substitution of scientific invention and mechanical method for artistic imagination1 observation1 and variety--surely this would be a most unfortunate exchange4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,influence ,,in ,,design ,,we commonly speak of ancient art1 but of modern artists4 ,straws indicate which way the wind blows1 and superficial habits may indicate changes of thought and feeling which lie far deeper4 ,interest has now become centred in the development of individual varieties rather than typical forms1 whereas1 as we have seen1 it is the latter character that distinguishes the art of the ancients4 ,in the great monumental works of the ,asiatic nations of antiquity names of individual artists are lost1 and in the art of ,egypt and ,assyria and ,persia they are of little consequence1 since certain prevailing types and methods were adhered to2 and most of their work1 as in their mural sculptures1 while distinct in racial character1 might almost have been executed by the same hand--,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 or ,persian1 as the case may be4 ,tennyson's lines regarding nature might be here applied to art2 ,so careful of the type she seems1 ,so careless of the single life4 ,with the intellectual activity of ,greece and the development of her power as a state1 the archaic and purely typical period in her arts1 while possessing wonderful harmony and unity1 led to individual development of artists1 and1 assisted no doubt by the increase of writing and record1 famous names are handed down3 such as ,ictinus1 the architect of the ,parthenon1 and ,phidias1 its sculptor1 whose name characterizes the finest period of ,greek art4 ,the ancient myth of ,ddalus seems to show that art was always a power among the ancient ,greeks1 and ,ddalus1 who seems to occupy an analogous position in southern mythology to that of ,wayland ,smith in the north1 may have represented1 or his name and fame covered1 whole generations of artists and cunning craftsmen2 following the tendency1 still noticeable1 by which great reputations absorb smaller ones1 and in the course of time have attributed to them works not really belonging to them at all4 ,the name becomes a convenient symbol for a whole period1 school1 or group of workmen4 ,one can understand in primitive times how important the artist-craftsmen must have been3 the fashioner of weapons1 the one learned in the mysteries of smelting metal1 of working iron1 bronze1 brass and copper1 gold and silver1 and having the power of making things of beauty out of these1 which became the revered or coveted treasures of temples and kings' houses4 ,the old stories of the early ,greek painters ,apelles and ,protogenes show1 too1 at once the tendency towards myth-making1 and the old love of talk about art1 as well as the old and dearly-clung-to popular theory that the beauty of painting is measured by its illusive power2 so that the realistic grapes of ,apelles1 which only deceived the birds1 were supposed to be outdone by the naturalistic curtain of ,protogenes1 which took in the critics4 ,this tradition seems still to linger in the minds of our scene-painters when they present us with those wonderful 7and sometimes fearful7 drop curtains of satin1 festooned with tassels and cords of undreamed-of sumptuousness and mysterious mechanism4 ,the names and works of ,praxiteles and of ,myron are well known to students of antique sculpture1 and these are but stars of greater magnitude among a host of others less distinguished1 or less centralized in universal fame4 ,yet we only know the ,venus of ,melos from the island where she was discovered4 ,we know that the ,greek vase painters frequently signed their designs1 and this has considerably helped the historic criticism and classification of that interesting and beautiful province of ,greek design1 such as has been so ably done in the works of ,miss ,jane ,e4 ,harrison4 ,in the ,byzantine and early medival period we again see a great development of typical symbolical and profoundly impressive art in architecture and decoration1 but again names and individual artists are largely lost4 ,we do not know1 for instance1 who were the designers of the splendid mosaics at ,ravenna4 ,with the dawn of painting in ,italy1 however1 in the thirteenth century arose a personal and individualized type of art in which names became of immense interest4 ,this was no doubt fostered by the rivalry of the cities1 each independent1 under its own government2 each municipality proud and anxious to vie in the splendour and beauty of art with its neighbouring municipality4 ,this led to a wholesome emulation among artists and very fine results1 since there were abundant opportunities in the great public monuments1 council chambers1 and churches for the highest exercise of the architect1 the painter1 and craftsman's art4 ,the ancient system of the master craftsman working with his pupils in his shop or studio prevailed4 ,a man might learn the craft of painting from the beginning1 the grinding of colours1 the laying of grounds1 the mixing of tints1 drawing out cartoons1 enlarging designs for wall-painting1 the painting of ornamental framework1 and decorative detail1 and gesso work enrichment1 and gilding1 miniature painting and the decoration of books1 altar-pieces1 signs and shrines2 perhaps embroidery and textile patterns1 banners1 the furniture of shows and pageants--all these might be carried on1 perhaps under one master4 ,the term painter was not then specialized to mean either house-painter or easel-picture painter4 ,an apprentice might thoroughly and practically learn his trade in the ordinary sense of the word1 but it would depend upon his personal capacity and quality whether he would become a master1 whether his name would be inscribed on the scroll of fame to be a landmark for future historians of art4 ,the romantic tales and episodes in the lives of painters which have come down to us are always interesting1 and in ,italy1 being the centre of artistic life from the fourteenth to the end of the sixteenth centuries1 we find abundant lore of this sort4 ,that picturesque legend of ,cimabue of ,florence1 first told by ,lorenzo ,ghiberti 7who was born in #acgh71 for instance1 finding the youthful ,giotto as a shepherd boy1 while riding in the valley of ,vespignano1 about fourteen miles from ,florence1 sketching the image of one of his flock upon a smooth fragment of slate with a pointed stone1 and taking him to ,florence as his pupil4 ,cimabue is commonly supposed to have been the first to show a new departure in the direction of greater freedom and naturalness of treatment1 the first whose work shows much individuality1 and emerges from the somewhat set and prescribed traditions of the ,byzantine school which characterizes the earliest ,italian painting of the ,christian period really influenced by the ,greek church mosaic design1 which may be considered almost as the swathing clothes of medival painting in ,italy4 ,his altar-piece for the church of ,sta4 ,maria ,novella was carried in procession through ,florence to the church--a subject which has furnished a theme for ,lord ,leighton's well-known and fine decorative early work1 too seldom seen4 ,cimabue's portrait in the white embroidered costume with a hood1 appears in a group with ,giotto and other famous contemporaries1 including ,petrarch and ,laura1 in a fresco by ,simone ,memmi1 a contemporary painter1 on the wall of the chapel of the ,cappella degli ,spagnoli at ,sta4 ,maria ,novella4 ,but ,giotto marks the real point of departure4 ,coming straight from outdoor life1 from the simple country pursuits of a shepherd boy1 it was significant that he should be the first to introduce a new spirit into art4 ,natural simplicity and directness1 power of dramatic narrative painting1 dignity and simplicity of style1 and decorative beauty--these were some of the qualities with which ,giotto enriched the field of early ,italian art4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,simone ,,memmi4 ,,fresco ,,containing ,,portraits ,,of ,,cimabue1 ,,giotto1 ,,and ,,contemporaries4 7,,florence4 ,,cloisters ,,of ,s4 ,m4 ,,novella47 ,he became the friend of ,dante1 who pays him a tribute in the well-known lines in his poem ,il ,purgatorio1 ---- ,cimabue thought ,to lord it over painting's field2 and now ,the cry is ,giotto1 and his name's eclips'd4 ,,cary',s ,dante4 ,and ,giotto has left us an interesting portrait of the poet1 on the wall of the ,podesta1 or council chamber of ,florence1 his first recorded work4 ,giotto was1 in fact1 a fellow pupil with ,dante under the same master1 ,brunetto ,latini1 since ,cimabue gave him all the cultivation of his time in books as well as art4 ,the fame of ,giotto as a painter spread all over ,italy1 and his services were required by the ,church1 and by rich and great persons4 ,there is a well-known story1 which throws light upon his skill and certainty of hand1 that once1 when an emissary from ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 came to him for a specimen of his handiwork to show to his master1 ,giotto took a piece of paper and drew a circle in one stroke1 without compasses4 ,the pope's emissary was disappointed at not getting a prettier picture1 but it proved convincing1 and the legend passed into a proverb which runs3 ,rounder than the ,o of ,giotto--,pi tondo che l' ,o di ,giotto4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,giotto4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,dante4 7,,florence1 ,,pretorian ,,palace47 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,naya ,photo4 ,,giotto4 ,,fresco 7,,arena ,,chapel1 ,,padua74 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,naya ,photo4 ,,giotto4 ,,fresco 7,,arena ,,chapel1 ,,padua74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,giotto4 ,,chastity 7,,assisi74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,giotto4 ,,obedience 7,,assisi74 ,the frescoes of the ,arena ,chapel at ,padua1 representing the history of ,christ and the ,virgin in fifty square compartments1 remain among ,giotto's most famous works4 ,the frescoes of the vaulted roof of the lower church at ,assisi are also very fine4 ,here1 says ,mrs4 ,jameson1 in ,early ,italian ,painters1 over the tomb of ,s4 ,francis1 the painter represented the three vows of the order--,poverty1 ,chastity1 and ,obedience3 and in the fourth compartment1 the saint enthroned and glorified amidst the host of ,heaven4 ,the invention of the allegories under which ,giotto has represented the vows of the saint--his marriage with ,poverty--,chastity seated in her rocky fortress--and ,obedience with the curb and yoke--is ascribed by tradition to ,dante4 ,he was architect and sculptor as well as painter1 and the design of the beautiful ,campanile of the ,duomo at ,florence is due to him4 ,cimabue and ,giotto's contemporary1 the sculptor ,niccolo ,pisano1 was another distinguished artist of the early ,italian revival4 ,he is said to have been inspired by the study of antique sculpture4 ,a certain sarcophagus 7,phdra and ,hippolytus7 by its life and movement is supposed to have suggested the character which he sought in his work4 ,the dramatic vitality which he infused into his figures was certainly extraordinary1 as his famous pulpit at ,pisa demonstrates4 ,there was some danger of losing monumental dignity and repose1 but it meant a return to nature and life after a long period of restraint and convention which had become dead4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,niccolo ,,pisano4 ,,pulpit 7,,pisa ,,baptistery74 ,the revival1 therefore1 was both salutary and necessary1 though it is not unnatural that painters should have profited most by its effects1 and that painting should have become the leading and popular art1 because most immediate and familiar in its appeal and the width of its sympathy and range4 ,for vivid dramatic intensity of conception and earnestness of purpose the work of ,orcagna stands out among the early painters of ,florence4 ,andrea ,orcagna was the son of a goldsmith of ,florence4 ,the goldsmiths of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were in general excellent designers1 and not unfrequently became painters1 as in the instances of ,francia1 ,ghirlandajo1 ,verrocchio1 ,andrea del ,sarto4 ,it was in his father's workshop that ,andrea ,orcagna first learned his art4 ,he was born before #acaj1 and he painted at the ,campo ,santo in #accb4 ,his famous work was the fresco still to be seen on the wall of the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa--,the ,triumph of ,death4 ,it presents us with certain contrasts of life and death1 of pleasure and pain1 of pomp and pride and poverty1 the severe life of the holy man1 the gay life of the pleasure seeker4 ,there is a striking group of huntsmen reining in their horses at the sight of certain grim coffins containing great and pompous personages in various stages of decay4 ,grotesque fiends1 too1 are seen hustling wicked ones into a fiery pit4 ,thus does the early painter enforce the old moral4 ,thus does he paint the sharp contrasts of life and death1 the short life and the merry one2 the careless worldling and the rich and powerful finally levelled by death2 while the higher spiritual life and the virtues of self-denial and sacrifice are suggested by the pious and primitive life of the monks4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,orcagna4 ,,triumph ,,of ,,death4 ,,fresco 7,,campo ,,santo1 ,,pisa74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,benozzo ,,gozzoli4 ,,detail ,,from ,,fresco 7,,riccardi ,,chapel1 ,,florence74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,benozzo ,,gozzoli4 ,,journey ,,of ,,the ,,magi4 ,,fresco 7,,riccardi ,,chapel1 ,,florence74 ,such subjects were favourites all through the ,middle ,ages1 and it may be remembered that ,petrarch about this time wrote his ,triumphs1 one of which is named ,the ,triumph of ,death4 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,benozzo ,,gozzoli4 ,,detail ,,of ,,fresco 7,,riccardi ,,chapel1 ,,florence74 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,benozzo ,,gozzoli4 ,,detail ,,of ,,fresco 7,,riccardi ,,chapel1 ,,florence74 ,a gentler spirit is seen in the art of ,benozzo ,gozzoli 7born circa #adbd71 a pupil of ,fra ,angelico1 full of a love for nature1 of trees and flowers and animals1 and of decorative beauty1 a delight in beautiful walled cities1 in ornate dresses1 in fair fresh faces of youths and maidens4 ,it is the joy of life without the shadow of death1 as of the visions of a serene spirit that joins the hands of the old pagan life and the new ,christian ideals and reconciles them in a world of beauty4 ,in the frescoes of the ,riccardi ,chapel at ,florence1 ,benozzo pictures1 with loving faithfulness1 the ,medici princes riding out to the hunt in splendid equipment1 in a high upland and wooded country such as one may find around ,florence4 ,the subject was ,the ,adoration of the ,magi1 represented upon the side walls1 ,the ,nativity being painted over the altar4 ,the procession of the kings with gifts is seen winding over the hills of the rich and varied landscape1 interspersed with groups like the princes1 in which ,lorenzo the ,magnificent appears1 and portraits of the painter1 his friends1 and contemporaries4 ,the fresh youthful faces are full of the zest and pleasure of life4 ,the horses curvet and prance in their proud trappings1 and the hounds pursue the flying deer1 as if for pleasant pastime4 ,he gives us those charming groups of kneeling angels also in the same chapel4 ,or he tells the story of the building of the tower of ,babel1 or of ,noah1 at ,pisa1 or of ,st4 ,augustine1 at ,san ,gimignano1 with the same serenity and delight in subsidiary incident and ornament4 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,sandro ,,botticelli4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi 7,,florence1 ,,uffizi ,,gallery74 ,another very distinct individuality in painting1 reflecting the spirit of his time halfway between medival feeling and the revived paganism and humanism of the classical ,renascence1 was ,botticelli4 ,he was a pupil of the painter-monk ,fra ,filippo ,lippi1 and worked at ,florence about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,he was one of the painters summoned to ,rome in #adga by ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 to paint the walls of the ,sistine ,chapel4 ,he is spoken of as our friend ,botticelli in ,leonardo da ,vinci's treatise on painting2 but until comparatively recently1 as compared with more often sounded names in the trumpet of fame1 the beauty of his work has been singularly neglected4 ,that now generally admired and most poetic and beautiful work1 ,an ,allegory of ,spring1 in the ,accademia at ,florence1 was1 about five and twenty years ago1 hung in an obscure position2 but of late1 and probably largely owing to ,english taste and criticism1 it is now brought prominently forward and is constantly copied4 ,the lady who is supposed to witness the masque stands in the centre in a grove of orange trees1 the ground covered with flowers1 among which is seen the fleur-de-luce of ,florence2 ,zephyrus is clasping the earth1 and from her mouth fall flowers2 next to her ,flora1 or ,spring1 with a beautiful robe embroidered with flowers1 bears roses in her lap and scatters them4 ,then there is a group of the ,three ,graces dancing1 while ,hermes1 as the herald of ,spring1 leads the procession4 ,the picture is supposed to have formed one of a set of four4 ,the second panel called ,summer1 and showing ,venus rising in her shell from the sea1 with a draped figure about to throw a robe over her as she reaches the grassy shore1 is in the ,uffizi ,gallery4 ,there is also a remarkable allegory1 ,calumny1 in the same gallery1 while our own ,national ,gallery contains a characteristic ,madonna and ,child with angels4 ,botticelli's ,madonnas are always distinguished by a peculiar expression of wistful pathos and a feeling unlike those of any other painter4 ,there is also a charming small ,nativity with a ring of angels1 besides the very splendid vision of heaven4 ,botticelli also made illustrations to ,dante4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,botticelli4 ,,la ,,prima ,,vera4 ,,an ,,allegory ,,of ,,spring 7,,florence ,,academy74 ,a severer and more distinctly classically inspired genius1 yet with a certain northern hardness1 we find in ,mantegna1 who was born near ,padua1 in #adca4 ,he came1 it is said1 of very poor and obscure parents1 and1 like his great predecessor ,giotto1 ,mantegna was employed in keeping sheep4 ,little is known of his early life1 but he is found later as one of the pupils of ,francesco ,squarcione1 a painter of ,padua1 but more famous for his teaching1 his school being at that time the most renowned in all ,italy1 his pupils numbering one hundred and thirty-seven4 ,he was a great student of the antique1 and travelled over ,italy and ,greece in search of remains of ancient art1 obtaining casts or copies of such sculptures he could not purchase or remove1 so that ,mantegna had no doubt exceptional facilities for the study of classical sculpture1 which had so marked an influence upon his design4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,naya ,photo4 ,,mantegna4 ,,from ,,the ,,bronze ,,monument ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,of ,s4 ,,andrea ,,at ,,mantua4 ,he seems1 too1 to have been an indefatigable worker1 and drew with great diligence from the statues1 busts1 bas-reliefs1 and architectural ornaments he found in the school of ,squarcione4 ,at the age of seventeen ,andrea painted his first great picture for the church of ,santa ,sofia in ,padua 7now lost71 and at the age of nineteen assisted in painting the chapel of ,st4 ,christopher in the ,eremitani--representing on the vault the four evangelists4 ,he is said to have given to these sacred personages the air and attitude of ,greek or ,roman philosophers1 the type in fact confirmed by ,raphael and afterwards generally adopted by ,renascence artists4 ,a curious change or blending of other elements and a different feeling in ,mantegna's work1 softening the somewhat cold and rigid classicism1 seems to have been brought about by his association with the ,venetian painter ,jacopo ,bellini1 the father of the two greater ,bellinis 7,giovanni and ,gentile71 whose daughter ,nicolosia he married about this time 7#adej74 ,this marriage with the daughter of ,squarcione's rival1 as ,bellini was considered1 and ,mantegna's friendship with him1 seems to have offended ,squarcione and caused an estrangement1 and even the active enmity of his first master1 and eventually led to his quitting ,padua4 ,he painted some frescoes at ,verona1 and was invited to ,mantua by ,ludovico ,gonzaga1 and finally he entered the service of that prince4 ,he was invited to ,rome by ,pope ,innocent ,,viii4 to paint a chapel in the ,belvedere of the ,vatican1 which was actually destroyed in the last century by ,pius ,,vi4 to make room for his new museum4 ,this was after the ruthless way of the popes1 prodigal of painted walls1 as when the beautiful early ,renascence frescoes of ,melozzo da ,forli were removed to make room for ,raphael's and ,giulio ,romano's frescoes in the ,stanzi4 ,there is a story of the discretion of ,mantegna1 which1 with a natural courtesy1 seems to have distinguished him personally4 ,while working for ,pope ,innocent ,,viii4 it happened that the payments for the work were not made with desirable regularity2 the pope1 visiting the artist at his work one day1 asked him the meaning of a certain female figure which he had introduced4 ,andrea replied that he was trying to represent ,ingratitude4 ,the pope1 understanding him at once1 replied3 ,if you would place ,ingratitude in fitting company1 you should place ,patience at her side4 ,andrea took the hint and said no more4 ,it is satisfactory to know that in the end the pope not only paid up1 but was munificent besides4 ,finally1 ,mantegna returned to ,mantua1 where he built himself a magnificent house painted inside and out by his own hand1 and in which he lived in great esteem and honour until his death in #aejf4 ,he was buried in the church of his patron ,st4 ,andrew1 where his monument in bronze and several of his pictures are still to be seen4 ,the famous frieze of ,the ,triumph of ,julius ,csar--which is now in ,hampton ,court ,palace1 having been bought by ,king ,charles ,i4 from the ,duke of ,mantua--was first designed by ,mantegna for the hall of the palace of ,san ,sebastiano at ,mantua1 and commenced in #adhh1 before he went to ,rome1 he finishing it after his return in #adib4 ,there are nine panels or compartments in this frieze3 ,they are painted in distemper on twilled linen1 which has been stretched on frames1 and originally placed against the wall with arabesque pilasters dividing the compartments4 ,mr4 ,alfred ,marks issued a set of photographs some years ago1 but they are not very clear1 ,there is a good set of ,italian woodcuts in chiaroscuro of the designs1 by ,andrea ,andreani1 done while the frieze was in the palace at ,mantua1 which have been engraved in various ways at different times with very various results4 ,the whole design is extremely rich and sumptuous1 and full of the extraordinary designing power and command of inventive detail so characteristic of ,mantegna4 ,in the first compartment we have the opening of the procession3 trumpets1 incense burning1 standards borne aloft by the victorious soldiers4 ,in the second1 the statues of the gods carried off from the temples of the enemy2 battering rams1 implements of war1 heaps of glittering armour carried on men's shoulders1 or borne aloft in chariots4 ,in the third compartment1 more splendid trophies of a similar kind2 huge vases filled with gold coin1 tripods1 etc4 ,in the fourth1 more such trophies1 with the oxen crowned with garlands for the sacrifice4 ,in the fifth are four elephants adorned with rich garlands of fruits and flowers1 bearing on their backs magnificent candelabra1 and attended by beautiful youths4 ,in the sixth are figures bearing vases1 and others displaying the arms of the vanquished4 ,the seventh shows us the unhappy captives1 who1 according to the barbarous ,roman custom1 were exhibited on these occasions to the scoffing and exulting populace4 ,there is here a group of female captives of all ages1 among them a dejected bride-like figure1 a woman carrying her infant children1 and a mother her little boy1 who lifts up his foot as if he had hurt it4 ,in the eighth we have a group of singers and musicians4 ,illustration3 ,,andrea ,,mantegna4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,julius ,c,,sar 7,,from ,,the ,,woodcut ,,by ,,andrea ,,andreani74 ,in the ninth1 and last1 appears the ,conqueror1 ,julius ,csar1 in a sumptuous chariot richly adorned with sculptures2 he is surrounded by a crowd of figures1 and among them is seen a youth bearing aloft a standard on which is inscribed the boastful words3 ',veni1 vidi1 vici'--',i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered4'#ab #ab ,early ,italian ,painters4--,,mrs4 ,,jameson4 ,the care and science of the draughtsmanship is as noticeable as the richness of the design4 ,the perspective being carefully given as of figures actually seen above the eye-line1 and with all the sumptuousness and the mixed elements of the design there is a certain restraint and monumental severity which preserves its dignity4 ,rubens1 when at ,mantua in #afjf1 was struck by the splendour of the work1 and gave a ,rubensesque rendering of one of the compartments1 which is in the ,national ,gallery2 but it loses the peculiar dignity1 serenity1 and decorative character of ,mantegna's work in the somewhat florid and bumptious style of the late ,flemish master2 but there is no doubt that ,rubens entertained a real admiration for the work1 and was instrumental in getting ,charles ,i4 to purchase it4 ,among ,mantegna's chief works may be named ,la ,madonna della ,vittoria1 now in the ,louvre1 painted as an altar-piece for the church built by the ,marquis of ,mantua1 to commemorate his victory on the retreat of ,charles ,,viii4 from ,italy2 the ,crucifixion1 also in the ,louvre1 containing the artist's own portrait in the half-length figure of the soldier seen in front2 the fine allegory of the ,vices flying before ,wisdom1 ,chastity1 and ,philosophy2 and the beautiful ,parnassus1 which were painted for ,isabella d',este1 and filled panels in a room in her palace at ,mantua1 as has recently been discovered4 ,mr4 ,armstrong has had a fine large scale model of one side of this room set up in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 to show the effect of the decorations complete of ,mantegna's allegories 7represented by copies74 ,one must not forget either the wonderful ,circumcision1 at ,florence1 or1 in our own ,national ,gallery1 the ,virgin and ,child enthroned4 ,besides his paintings there exists a multitude of drawings1 designs1 and plates of his own engraving 7an art which he took up when he was sixty years old74 ,these include the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh compartments of his own ,triumph of ,julius ,csar4 ,perhaps the greatest individual mind of the ,italian ,renascence was ,leonardo da ,vinci1 who was so distinguished in so many different departments of thought and art2 and while he summed up and passed beyond the philosophical and scientific knowledge of his age1 and experimented in nearly all directions1 and was at once architect1 chemist1 engineer1 musician1 poet1 his fame still rests upon his achievements in painting1 which are distinguished by a peculiar refinement1 extreme finish1 and intellectual and poetic quality4 ,he was born at ,vinci1 from which he takes his name1 near ,florence--that ,athens of the ,middle ,ages--in the lower ,val d',arno1 on the borders of the territory of ,pistoia4 ,his father was an advocate1 not rich1 but able to give his son the advantage of the best instructors in the science and art of that period4 ,he studied under ,andrea ,verrocchio 7famous for his superb bronze equestrian statue of the ,coleoni at ,venice71 himself uniting the arts of sculptor1 chaser in metal1 and painter4 ,there is a story that ,leonardo as a youth was set to paint an angel in a picture of ,verrocchio1 and so outdid his master that the latter never touched painting again4 ,a weird fantastic vein which appears in ,leonardo's work1 especially in his love for inventing grotesques1 comes out in the tale of the fig tree4 ,a peasant on his father's estate cut down an old fig tree and brought a section of the trunk to have something painted upon it for his cottage4 ,leonardo determined to do something terrible and striking--a beautiful horror which should rival the mythical ,medusa's head 7which he afterwards painted71 and1 aided by his natural history studies and the reptiles he collected1 he produced a sort of monster or chimera which frightened his father into fits and was therefore considered too good for the peasant's cottage1 and afterwards sold for much4 ,the peasant was persuaded to give up his fig tree and put off with a wooden shield painted with a device of a hart transfixed with an arrow4 ,in a letter to the ,duke of ,milan1 who had invited him to his court1 he thus recites his qualifications as an artist3 ,i understand the different modes of sculpture in marble1 bronze1 and terra-cotta4 ,in painting1 also1 ,i may esteem myself equal to anyone1 let him be who he may4 ,of his paintings the widest-known1 through engravings1 is ,the ,last ,supper1 which was painted on the wall of the refectory of the ,dominican ,convent of the ,madonna delle ,grazie at ,milan1 occupying two years1 from #adif to #adih--;but the fresco has suffered by time and restoration1 and but little of it is now left4 ,there is a fine study of the head of ,christ4 ,illustration3 ,brogi ,photo4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4 ,,fresco ,,of ,,the ,,last ,,supper4 ,the picture of the ,virgin of the ,rocks and the portrait1 ,madonna ,lisa del ,gioconde1 in the ,louvre1 show the quality of his painting--the characteristic subtlety of expression1 mysteriousness1 and very elaborate finish4 ,after his return to ,florence began his rivalry with another gigantic artistic personality of that time of wonders--,michael ,angelo1 who was then1 in the early years of the sixteenth century1 about twenty-two years younger4 ,the strong but jealous individuality of both1 in spite of admiration for each other's genius1 unfortunately stood in the way of friendship and co-operation4 ,they remained rivals and competitors4 ,they contended for the painting of the great ,council ,hall in the ,palazzo ,vecchio at ,florence1 and both prepared cartoons4 ,leonardo chose for his subject the defeat of the ,milanese by the ,florentine army in #addj2 ,michael ,angelo a party of ,florentine soldiers surprised while bathing in the ,arno4 ,leonardo's design was chosen1 but he spent so much time in experimenting and in preparing the wall to receive oil-painting1 which he preferred to fresco1 that1 changes of government happening1 the scheme was finally abandoned1 and both cartoons1 though shown for several years1 were finally lost1 only a copy of ,michael ,angelo's remaining1 and an engraving from it4 ,the experimental nature of ,leonardo seems to have prevented his completing many works1 while he was full of projects of all kinds1 too many of which were never realized4 ,the fine cartoon of the ,virgin and ,st4 ,anna was never painted4 ,this cartoon1 or a good copy1 is now in the possession of the ,royal ,academy4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4 ,,study ,,for ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,christ4 ,in #aead ,leonardo was1 like so many great ,italian artists1 invited to ,rome by the pope 7then ,leo ,x471 but more in his character of philosopher1 mechanic1 and alchemist than as a painter4 ,there he met ,raphael1 then at the height of his fame1 engaged in painting the ,stanzi of the ,vatican4 ,but ,leonardo was ill-pleased on the whole with his ,roman visit4 ,the pope was said to have become dissatisfied with his speculative and dilatory habits4 ,his old rival1 ,michael ,angelo1 was there1 and finally he left and set out for ,pavia1 where ,francis ,i4 of ,france then held his ,court4 ,by him ,leonardo was received with honour and favour1 and went with him to ,france as principal ,court painter1 only1 however1 as it proved1 to die there on ,may #bnd1 #aeaf4 ,in the work of ,leonardo's great rival1 ,michael ,angelo1 the art of the ,italian ,renascence may be said to have reached its culminating point1 and after him decline sets in4 ,it is as if the wonderful structure of inventive artistic genius had been piled by the life labours of generations to an ambitious and dangerous height1 and at last had given way under the strain1 or perhaps1 like the sun-flower1 the same force which raises the splendid rayed head and enables it to outface the sun1 at last forces it earthwards again4 ,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti was born at ,settignano1 near ,florence1 in the year #adgd4 ,his ambition1 personal pride1 and masterfulness of temper possibly may be traced to his progenitors--a once noble family4 ,it was1 too1 against the prejudice of his father that he finally decided his career1 becoming the apprentice of ,ghirlandajo1 ,it was in the days when ,lorenzo the ,magnificent ruled over ,florence1 and the young ,michael ,angelo became a student in the ,academy1 founded upon the strength of a collection of antique marbles1 busts1 statues1 fragments in the palace and gardens of that prince4 ,this alone would be sufficient to give a strong classical bias to his style4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,bust ,,of ,,michael ,,angelo ,,buonarotti 7,s4 ,,croce1 ,,florence74 ,there is a story of ,michael ,angelo's first attempt in marble when he was about fifteen--a copy of an antique mask of an old laughing faun3 he treated this with a spirit and vivacity of his own1 and ,lorenzo de ,medici was struck by its cleverness2 but he said1 ,thou shouldst have remembered that old folks do not retain all their teeth3 some of them are always wanting4 ,the young sculptor at once struck one or two out1 giving the mask a more grotesque expression4 ,on this evidence of cleverness ,lorenzo took entire charge of ,michael ,angelo4 ,with the marks of princely favour1 however1 he was destined to carry another mark1 not so agreeable1 ever after1 owing to1 as some say1 the jealousy of ,torregiano1 a fellow pupil1 who in a quarrel struck him1 some accounts say with his fist1 some with a mallet1 and so gave him the broken nose which is characteristic of the portraits of ,michael ,angelo4 ,torregiano in consequence suffered banishment from ,florence4 ,in his own account of the affray to ,benvenuto ,cellini he declares the provocation came from ,michael ,angelo4 ,the favour and protection of ,lorenzo did not last long1 as in his eighteenth year ,michael ,angelo lost his patron by death4 ,it was ,lorenzo's son ,piero who set him one wintry day to make a statue out of the snow--rather a wasteful proceeding for a ,michael ,angelo1 though1 as the late ,mr4 ,walter ,pater has said1 there is a certain reminiscence of the feeling of the snow statue in the suggestive and half-finished figures of the tombs of the ,medici4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,braun ,co4 ,photo4 ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,man 7,,ceiling1 ,,sistine ,,chapel74 ,with the fall of the ,medici family and their exile from ,florence1 ,michael ,angelo1 as one of their retainers1 had to fly also1 and took refuge in ,bologna1 where he pursued his work as a sculptor4 ,at the age of twenty-two he produced the ,piet in marble1 now in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,in #aejb he was again recalled to ,florence4 ,in #aejd took place the competition with ,leonardo of the cartoons for the ,palazzo ,vecchio1 already spoken of4 ,in #aejf ,michael ,angelo was called to ,rome by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 ,the pope employed him to design the sumptuous sculptural monument destined for his own tomb1 for which the famous colossal ,moses was executed1 and the slaves or prisoners1 but these1 like the tomb1 never were finished4 ,but his great work in ,rome1 the great work of his life1 was the decoration of the ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel1 the walls of which had been painted by earlier artists of the ,florentine school3 ,signorelli1 ,cosimo ,rosselli1 ,perugino1 ,ghirlandajo1 ,botticelli4 ,the ceiling remained unadorned1 and now ,michael ,angelo was called upon to design his great sacred epic of painting1 having to deal with a space #aej feet in length by #ej feet in breadth1 upon the concave surface of a round vault1 without any architectural or structural enrichment or division save the windows4 ,the theme was the fall and redemption of mankind according to the ,bible history4 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,ceiling ,,of ,,the ,,sistine ,,chapel4 ,at first it appears that ,michael ,angelo1 as it is said1 doubtful of his own skill in fresco1 called in the aid of painters from ,florence to aid him in carrying out his design1 but was so disappointed with their work that he effaced it and dismissed them4 ,he then shut himself up and proceeded to devote himself to the gigantic work alone1 preparing the colours with his own hands1 showing how thorough an individualist he must have been1 contrary to the practice of his own time1 which was to work with pupils and assistants4 ,he began with the end towards the door1 and in two compartments first painted ,the ,deluge and ,the ,vineyard of ,noah2 the figures are on a smaller scale1 which he afterwards abandoned for a larger1 bolder treatment4 ,he spent twenty-two months in painting the ceiling1 exclusive of the time spent in preparing the cartoons4 ,the work was uncovered to the public view on ,all ,saints' ,day1 #aeab4 ,the sculpturesque and architectural feeling which1 really stronger in ,michael ,angelo's work than that of the painter1 is very decidedly manifested both in the general plan of the design and in individual figures and details4 ,in order to bring so great a scheme into comprehensive form it was necessary to divide and subdivide the blank ceiling with painted architectural mouldings and ribs into spaces and panels4 ,the titanic youthful figures placed between1 upon the ledges and brackets of the framework of the subjects1 are very fine and characteristic in style1 and essentially sculptors' designs2 each would work out as a separate statue1 though for all that each single figure1 as each figure of every group1 bears a certain relation to the rest and fills a harmonious and necessary place in the scheme4 ,the colour is subdued and quiet4 ,it has a gray1 cool effect in the chapel1 gray blues1 pale greens and whites being much used in the draperies1 and the chief decorative effect being gained by the opposition of brown flesh tones to the broad1 light marble-like framework1 or the landscape and sky backgrounds of the subject panels4 ,this great work was completed by ,michael ,angelo in his thirty-ninth year4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,the ,,delphic ,,sibyl 7,,sistine ,,chapel74 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,tomb ,,of ,,giuliano ,,de ,,medici4 ,,florence4 ,illustration3 ,alinari ,photo4 ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,,tomb ,,of ,,lorenzo ,,de ,,medici4 ,,florence4 ,another great monumental work in which his architectural and sculptural genius come out are the tombs of the ,medici in the ,church of ,san ,lorenzo4 ,the seated figures of ,lorenzo and ,giuliano de ,medici are placed in the recesses of a ,renascence arcade1 in front of which are marble sarcophagi1 and upon the lids recline figures of ,night and ,morning1 and of ,dawn and ,twilight respectively4 ,they are very bold and powerful in design1 and extremely characteristic in style and treatment1 having a certain titanic energy and tragic unrest1 as well as pensive mystery1 about them1 which belong to the strong personality of their designer4 ,poet1 as well as painter1 architect1 and sculptor1 we see him moving amid the political troubles and vicissitudes of his time1 a proud and stormy spirit1 a man of extraordinary energy1 which impresses itself upon all his works4 ,the designer of ,st4 ,peter's1 the painter of the ,sistine1 and anon as engineer called to fortify ,florence2 austere and abstemious of habit1 proud and imperious1 and yet tenderly solicitous for his aged father1 and devoted to his old servant ,urbino1 whom he tenderly nursed in his last illness4 ,the great artist lived till eighty-nine1 and died in ,rome1 the scene of his monumental labours1 on ,february #ahth1 #aefd4 ,as showing the alertness and activity of his mind in old age1 he is said to have made a drawing of himself as an aged man in a go-cart1 with the motto1 ,ancora impara 7still learning71 a true emblem for a great man who1 in spite of his knowledge1 feels that in view of the unknown he knows nothing4 ,these are a few1 a very few1 individualities out of the drama of ,italian art1 briefly sketched1 but distinct as they are1 they are not detached like isolated statues upon pedestals from the characteristics of their age4 ,they are great because they embody those characteristics2 they are like rich jewels strung upon a golden chain--the golden chain of inventive tradition which unites them--which1 while leaving each artist free in his own sphere1 brings his work into relation and harmony with that of his contemporaries1 his predecessors1 and his successors4 ,some may prefer to take the jewels separately and admire them without reference to the chain2 but1 ,i think1 to fully understand and appreciate the genius of individual artists one must never leave out of account their relation to their time1 and its influences1 the relation of their particular art to the state of the arts generally2 for among these are the factors which have contributed to make them what we find them in their works2 just as the colour and relief of a figure or a head depends largely upon its background4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,of ,,the ,,collective ,,influence ,,in my last chapter ,i compared tradition in art to a golden chain1 and the striking individualities which arise from time to time as the jewels upon such a chain4 ,the history of art and the evolution of design may be regarded either from the point of view of the jewels or from the point of view of the ordinary links2 and if we wish to take a just and comprehensive view ,i think we must not only consider the luminous points1 but the system--the links--by which they are connected and related4 ,looking out into the clear night we see a vast mass of brilliant stars of all degrees of magnitude apparently flung into space without order or relation1 but the studies of astronomers have revealed that they are the central suns of systems around which revolve planets invisible to us2 but these star-suns themselves become lost1 and merged in the countless myriads that form the silvery cloud we call the milky way4 ,so it is in the history of art and the evolution of design4 ,at first we are attracted by the brilliant personalities1 surrounded by satellites1 that seem to sum up in their work whole epochs1 and remain typical and central points in the wide spaces of time2 but further research reveals their relation to other personalities not so distinct1 on whom the full light of popular favour has not flashed1 and presently we get beyond personalities altogether1 and in the work of remote antiquity see only the results of the labours of generations1 purely typical forms of art1 the monumental record of races1 of nations1 of dynasties1 the work1 not of individual men1 but of collective man4 ,of such we may find examples in the art of ancient ,egypt1 of ,assyria1 of ,persia1 and in the archaic and primitive art of all kinds1 from the fragments of pottery from the plain of ,troy to the carved paddles of the ,polynesian islanders4 ,the art and craft of building--architecture1 the fundamental art1 can only be traced back to its primitive forms in different countries as practised among different races and peoples4 ,the origin of its distinctive styles1 and its principal constructive features1 were determined long ago under the influence of climate and local materials1 by the collective thought and co-operative labour of mankind schooled by necessity and experience4 ,yes1 it is a history of constant adaptation to conditions and united labour and invention from our primitive ancestor1 who improved upon the natural shelter of the tree by interlacing its pendent branches with other branches and stakes fixed in the ground2 who burned the ends of their timbers1 so that as piles they could be driven more easily into the mud to support the platforms of the wattled lake dwellings1 when there were no steel axes4 ,from the early colonists of our race1 the ,aryan wagoners1 who perhaps took the idea of the primitive gable and roof timbers from the tilt of the wagon1 or the supports of the tent-coverings2 from the ingenuity of the ,mongolian settlers by the riverside1 making the framing of their houses and supporting their roofs by the bamboo1 utilizing the hollow canes for the jointing and bracketing of the supports1 and terminating the ends ornamentally by inserting grotesquely carved heads4 ,the chain of invention is unbroken up to modern scientific engineering and calculated principles of building construction1 which but sums up and systematizes the collective experience of ages4 ,we see1 too1 the collective hand of tradition and the adherence to accustomed forms in the adoption or imitation of features of timber construction in stone construction and ornament by the ancients2 as1 for instance1 in the form of the ,persian capital from ,persepolis1 and in the dentil ornament of classical architecture mentioned in the preceding chapters4 ,out of necessity springs construction2 out of construction springs ornament4 ,we cannot find the individual in either1 both being the result of slow and gradual evolution1 requiring long periods of time and continuity of custom1 life1 and habit1 and the continuous associated labour of communities1 wherein the individual is of less importance than the maintenance of the social organism4 ,at first the preservation of the gens1 the tribe1 the protection and service of the village community1 the handing on of tradition and folk-lore1 until1 with conquest and extension and consolidation into a nation1 settled industries1 and religious faith and ritual1 the desire arises to clothe the mythical and spiritual ideas of a people in permanent monumental form and colour4 ,a cathedral represents the collective art1 work1 and thought of centuries4 ,the names of its builders1 its masons1 its carvers1 its glaziers1 are lost2 the heads and hands that carried out the work1 whose invention and feeling1 whose very life have been wrought into the stone and the wood and the glass1 have left no other record4 ,an abbot's or a bishop's name may be given as having planned or raised the money for this choir or that porch at different times1 but the artists and craftsmen who did the work generally remain unknown4 ,they worked in their craft in harmony with the workers in kindred crafts1 and as brother members of their guild1 and instead of building up merely personal reputations really evolved collectively the distinctive architectural style and decorative types of their age4 ,this is one reason why a ,gothic cathedral is so impressive4 ,we see the growth of an organic style1 starting1 perhaps1 with the round arch and massive ,norman pier1 and passing through the transition to the lancet arch of the early pointed to the moulded arch and the clustered shaft and foliated capital1 with the ribbed1 vaulted roof covering the long nave with a network of recurring constructive lines1 and meeting overhead in carved bosses1 or spreading into ,tudor fans4 ,or we may mark the gradual evolution of the window from the round headed1 deep-set loop-hole of the ,byzantine and ,norman period into the long lancet-pointed panel of geometric glass2 and see then how by degrees the light1 first divided into two by a shaft1 suggested the clustering of many lights together1 as in great western or eastern windows1 dividing them by mullions breaking into geometric tracery in the pointed heads2 and thus raising a beautiful pierced screen of stone to hold the coloured glass and reveal its splendour against the full light of the sky4 ,can we name the inventors of these changes1 the evolvers of these beauties of our constructive art8 ,do we not feel that by their very nature they could not have been claimed by any individual mind alone or have reached perfection in a single lifetime8 ,they are the natural result of a free and vital condition in art1 moved by the unity of faith and feeling1 wherein men work together as brothers in unity1 each free in his own sphere1 but never isolated1 and never losing his sense of relation to the rest4 ,thus we get the harmonious effect of a great orchestra1 where1 though every variety of instrument may be played1 all are subordinated1 or co-ordinated1 to the musical scheme1 and produce that impression of power and sweetness by cadences that may be now soft as the whispers of the summer winds over a field of wheat1 and anon sweep like a tempest with the fury of thundering waves upon the utmost shores of sound4 ,the emotions produced by such forms of collective art lift the mind out of the personal region altogether2 they are akin1 indeed1 to the feelings awakened in the presence of wild nature4 ,we seem to hear the voice of ,time himself out of the caverns of the past1 the song of life1 like that of a child in the sunlight1 and the half-articulate1 pathetic murmur of the voices of birds and beasts2 the hush of the wood at noon-tide1 the transfiguration of the afterglow1 and the mystery of night4 ,in the primitive ornament of all peoples we find the same or similar typical forms constantly recurring1 the germs of pattern design afterwards developed1 complicated1 and refined upon3 the chequer1 the zigzag1 the fret1 the circle1 the spiral volute1 the twisting scroll--can we ascribe their invention to any individual mind or hand8 ,can the mechanician tell us who were the inventors of the wheel1 the lever1 the mode of producing fire1 the canoe1 the paddle1 the spade1 the plough1 the vessel of clay1 the axe1 the hammer1 the needle1 or even spinning and weaving8 ,yet they are inventions of incalculable importance to human life1 which without them could not maintain itself1 much less build upon them1 as it were1 the vast and complex structure of modern invention1 of science1 and of art4 ,a form in ornament once found1 however1 is repeated4 ,the eye grows accustomed to it1 takes delight in it1 and expects its recurrence4 ,it becomes established by use and wont1 and is often associated with fundamental ideas of life and the universe itself4 ,thus we get traditional ornament1 handed on from generation to generation1 its origin and meaning perhaps lost--like the pictorial significance of the individual letters of our alphabet1 which everybody uses1 but which require a special kind of study and research to explain their real meaning and original forms4 ,side by side with this liking for the accustomed1 this demand for the expected1 appears to have grown up another feeling1 a love of change and variety equally natural and human4 ,illustration3 ,,natural ,,variation ,,in ,,repetition ,,of ,,ornamental ,,forms4 ,,primary ,,school ,,children ,,drawing ,,on ,,the ,,blackboard1 ,,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,,natural ,,variation ,,in ,,repetition ,,of ,,ornamental ,,forms4 ,,primary ,,school ,,children ,,drawing ,,on ,,the ,,blackboard1 ,,philadelphia4 ,in ornament variation may at first be unconscious1 and might have arisen from the natural tendency of the hand to vary a form in repeating it 7as our own experience will tell us71 while it requires an effort to reproduce its exact counterpart4 ,this tendency to vary the same form1 in repeating it1 by different individuals is illustrated by the little ,american children cultivating their facility of hand by drawing on the blackboard4 ,this natural variation1 having a rich and pleasant effect1 is encouraged until conscious and studied invention and ingenuity of individual artists in the varying of designs take its place4 ,tradition in design may no doubt be largely attributed to the influence of the workshop1 or what we should now call technical necessities1 the use of certain tools and materials giving a certain character of their own in the rendering of form1 as one may see even in the case of such a matter as quality of outline 7important enough in all design7 if we compare the differences between a form drawn with the pencil1 the pen1 with the brush1 or with charcoal4 ,a certain typical treatment becomes naturally evolved in the course of practice which seems proper to each method1 while the treatment is sure to be slightly varied in the hands of every individual4 ,of course a strong artistic personality may greatly modify tradition in any art1 though such an one is seldom entirely free from its influence2 and the greatest artists in past times have generally built upon it1 and have become what they are rather because of an existing vital tradition admitting of individual variation4 ,this was largely the case1 ,i think1 with the great masters of the ,italian ,renascence1 some of whom ,i spoke of in the previous chapter4 ,the general standard of excellence was maintained by their contemporaries4 ,a great individual artist arises and only by degrees distinguishes himself by his personal choice and treatment1 his variation of practice or method1 grafting on to the stem perhaps some new rare flower4 ,he raises the standard higher1 he imports new elements1 he influences tradition1 and the lamp is handed on4 ,giotto's art would not have been what it was but for the ,byzantine influence under which he was trained4 ,without losing certain fine qualities of the dignity and serenity of the earlier art1 he infused fresh life and prepared the way for the greater freedom and naturalism of his successors4 ,the various schools of painting are closely linked1 and if the links were complete we should perhaps be more struck with the resemblances1 the similarities1 than the differences4 ,the great structure of style is raised stone by stone3 the labour of generations of artists gradually advances the standard of excellence4 ,now and then a greater mind appears1 and by some new thought or method1 fresh sentiment or point of view1 raises the standard higher1 and so an epoch is marked in art4 ,great cleavages from time to time occur which disturb the orderly progression and connection1 like cataclysms in nature--earthquakes and upheavals which break the continuity of the geologic beds and throw them upon different levels2 but the strong social and collective tendency in man is always to repair and reform1 to re-unite scattered fragments and to form new traditions both in life and art4 ,in an age which has seen the development of an organized industrial system of extraordinary and minute division of labour under the factory system1 and has now entered an epoch of further specialization of labour with the invention and use of complicated machinery driven by steam and electric power1 in association with which labour becomes not only specialized but almost automatic1 we perhaps hardly need reminding of the collective influence1 since for the effective supply of the big world-market all products are the result of collective human labour4 ,such an organization of machine production as every effective factory displays1 of collective labour1 though not organized for the collective benefit1 but rather wastefully contending with other factories for private profit-making in a fierce and unscrupulous warfare of commercial competition--such organizations can hardly be favourable to the production of fine and beautiful art4 ,the art1 the wonder1 the invention1 if anywhere1 must really be sought in the means rather than the ends4 ,the machines which produce our wares are marvels of ingenuity1 of mechanical adaptation1 of economy of force1 but the finished product is often most depressing4 ,one may see in print works1 for instance1 those wonderful colour printing machines capable of printing seven1 and even twelve1 colours from the rollers in succession upon the cloth as it passes through1 often turning out extremely tame and commonplace patterns on cheap material1 which look much more interesting as engraved upon the polished copper roller than they ever do on the cloth4 ,well1 it may be said1 the remedy is with us--with the designers4 ,we have only to use our invention in producing good and attractive designs1 adapted to the process and material1 and the factory and the machine will do the rest4 ,illustration3 ,,axminster ,,carpet ,,weaving4 ,it is conceivable1 certainly1 that where the object is solely to produce something at once beautiful and serviceable1 by a chain of associated and intelligent labour1 with the most ingenious machines at the command of the designers1 wonderful things might be done2 but it is a question whether1 if a design be ever so good1 we should not grow tired of it if we saw it produced in enormous quantities4 ,yet that1 after all1 is the object of our factories1 of our improved machinery1 to produce in enormous quantities--not primarily to supply the world's needs either1 but in order to sell at a profit4 ,art1 however1 is only concerned with quality--to make everything as good of its kind as possible1 to seek variety1 beauty1 appropriateness4 ,illustration3 ,,tapestry ,,carpet ,,weaving4 ,we have yet to see whether industrial production1 organized on the modern system1 is equal to the old handicraftsman with his simple methods1 as far as artistic results are concerned4 ,so far the ,indian1 with his hand-block printing his pattern on his strip of muslin or cotton1 or dipping his tied cloth into the dye1 produces more artistic results than all our wonderful machinery4 ,mechanical perfection is one thing1 and artistic feeling quite another1 and the more as an end a people seeks after the first the less it is likely to care for or understand the other4 ,the chain of production1 too1 may be mechanically complete1 as in our best factories it may be said to be as far as organization goes1 yet we may be still far from the finer sympathetic chain of artistic association by means of which the best work is produced4 ,in this we must include the stimulus of external beauty and harmonious surroundings1 as well as individual freedom4 ,such a condition of things might have been found in any craft's-guild1 and seen in full working order in any workshop of the ,middle ,ages4 ,such an interior as is pictured by ,etienne ,delaune1 a celebrated goldsmith of ,paris1 as late as the sixteenth century1 of his own atelier1 engraved by himself1 shows us a group of artist craftsmen working together with all the tools and implements of their art around them4 ,of the three seated at the bench one is engraving or chasing2 another at work upon a watch1 drilling apparently2 while the third is doing some fine repouss work4 ,the young man at the furnace is probably enamelling1 and a boy at the wheel appears to be wire-drawing4 ,a great variety of tools are placed in exemplary order upon the walls--pincers1 pliers1 files1 shears1 hammers1 punches1 a small anvil1 crucibles1 and a pair of bellows for the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,atelier ,,of ,,etienne ,,delaune1 ,,paris1 #aegf4 ,there are still some crafts which are worked in this simple artistic co-operative way1 and have undergone but little changes of method since the ,middle ,ages4 ,indeed1 one might say all the finer artistic handicrafts2 and it is noteworthy that the tools used are of the same type--the sculptor's mallet and chisel1 the painter's palette and brushes1 for instance1 have remained practically unchanged in form from time immemorial4 ,those who have seen glass blowing and the formation of glass vessels must have been struck by the skill and celerity displayed by the craftsmen at the furnace mouth1 under very trying conditions1 and also by the necessity of effective help at certain movements1 when the molten glass is made to revolve upon the bar by one man1 while the shape is given to it by another4 ,the master craftsman generally seems to have two assistants1 but the amount of co-operation necessary in forming the vessels depends much upon their size1 small pieces being completed by one alone4 ,there are glass works still working1 such as those at ,whitefriars1 which have been there since the sixteenth century4 ,the circle of furnace mouths1 the ruddy glow falling upon the faces and figures of the workers1 form a striking scene4 ,by a skill of manipulation that might well appear magical seen for the first time1 the craftsmen produce vessels of any variety of shape1 constantly returning the work as it progresses to the fire4 ,though the work seems to lend itself to the varying invention of the designer1 they can reproduce the section sketched in chalk on a black panel at the side of the furnace in a completed form to exact measurement4 ,illustration3 ,,glass ,,blowing4 ,the art of the printer of books1 to which so much interest has of late been drawn1 and which has been revived as an art by ,mr4 ,william ,morris at his ,kelmscott ,press1 affords another instance of the necessity of intelligent and artistic co-operation4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,printing ,,office ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century 7,,from ,,jost ,,amman74 ,to begin with1 there is the paper2 a good tough handmade paper1 like drawing paper1 is wanted for rich and bright impressions of type or woodcuts4 ,this must be made from the best linen rags1 and each sheet is manipulated by the hands1 by means of a wired frame of wood dipped into the pulp and cunningly shaken so that it 7the pulp7 shall spread over the wires evenly to form1 when dry1 the sheet of paper4 ,then the type-founding must be looked after4 ,lettering of good form must be designed1 and so designed that each letter must be separate and yet capable of forming words without undue gaps1 and also legible pages of agreeable type1 good in the mass and good in the single letters and words4 ,the type-founder and designer must therefore be a man of taste and cultivation1 he must have a knowledge of alphabets1 of early printing and of historic ,,mss4 and calligraphy1 and he must be a capable designer1 able to appreciate the niceties of line1 the value of a curve1 of balance and mass1 proportion and appropriate scale4 ,mr4 ,morris had several typical ancient types photographed upon a large scale so as to more easily compare their design and structure1 and founded his own designs for his ,kelmscott founts more or less upon them1 giving them1 whether ,roman or ,gothic1 a distinctive character of their own4 ,this is about as near as one can get in our conscious1 selective way to old methods1 in which individuals from time to time introduced small variations1 while adhering to the general style and form1 so that the collective traditional influence and historic continuity is preserved with the cumulative advantages of individual invention4 ,of the placing of the type-page upon the paper1 regarding the double page of the open book as the true unit1 ,i have before spoken1 and a great deal of art comes into the setting of the type1 so as to disperse it without leaving rivers or gaps--much as a designer of a repeating pattern would seek to avoid running into awkward accidental lines4 ,constructive principle would here come in1 and should be serviceable to the printer in enabling him to preserve a pleasant and harmonious ornamental effect in his page4 ,the designer of printers' ornaments and book illustrations1 too1 if he wishes to make his work an essential and harmonious part of the book is1 while free in his own sphere1 bound to remember the conditions under which his work will be produced and seen2 and1 so far from regarding these conditions as restraints1 should rather regard them as sources of suggestion in the treatment of his designs1 making his initial letters and decorative borders and headings natural links to unite the formal ornamental element of the type-page with the informal inclosed panel of figure design which1 in its treatment of line or black and white mass1 may be but an extension of the same principles found in any individual letter of the type-mass4 ,the mechanical reason for this is1 of course1 that it simplifies the process of printing1 type and woodcut being subject to the same pressure4 ,with good paper and ink1 with good1 well-cut type and woodcut ornaments and illustrations1 the success of the book now depends upon the actual printer1 as defective printing1 poor impressions1 the blocks not up to full strength1 the impressions blurred1 would spoil the effect of the best work4 ,bright1 clean impressions are wanted1 and much care and skill are required to secure such1 as well as time to allow the sheets to dry well before being made up into book form4 ,illustration3 ,,gold-,,tooled ,,book ,,cover4 ,,designed ,,by ,t4 ,j4 ,,cobden-,,sanderson4 ,finally the binder takes up the tale of collective skill necessary to the production of that one of the most beautiful of beautiful things--a beautiful book4 ,illustration3 ,,gold-,,tooled ,,book ,,cover4 ,,designed ,,by ,t4 ,j4 ,,cobden-,,sanderson4 ,here1 of course1 an immense amount of art may be called in over and above neat and careful craftsmanship in the preliminary but most necessary stages of forwarding1 as ,mr4 ,cobden-,sanderson has told us4 ,beautiful binding1 indeed1 may display some of the most refined qualities of decorative art in disposition of line and pattern1 while it affords in gold tooling another instance of strict limitation of method lending itself to free invention and fancy4 ,the artist is under the necessity of building up his lines and constructing his forms by the repetition of the impress of certain tools1 the most resourceful designer being shown by the decorative use he is able to make of few and simple forms4 ,an examination of the designs by ,mr4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 given here1 will show that they are built up of very few units4 ,a flower1 a leaf1 a stem1 and straight lines of borders with the lettering1 which is also an important ornamental unit4 ,everything depends upon the taste and skill with which they are used4 ,from the single example of the chain of associated labour necessary to the production of a book1 we may see then how much depends upon intelligent and harmonious co-operation in collective work4 ,where each process is so important1 where the skill and taste of each worker is so necessary to the complete result1 one can hardly say that one is more important than another--certainly not less essential4 ,we see1 too1 how inter-dependent the work of each is4 ,each stone in the structure must be well and truly laid1 or sound progress and satisfactory completion are impossible4 ,art in all its manifold developments always teaches us this4 ,fault or failure at one stage may ruin the whole work4 ,are the foundations less important than the wall2 is the wall less important than the window2 is the roof less essential to the house than the carving of its porch1 or the painting of its interior8 ,if we realize the close and necessary links that unite all workers1 that are essential to the production of things useful or beautiful1 or both1 should not we do well to strive to make the association closer and more complete than it is1 and thus hand on the lamp of good tradition in design and workmanship1 however far we must look forward to the enlargement of our horizon and the harmonizing of human life1 and its freedom from the sinister powers and false ideals that now oppress and deceive it8 ,and if we accept the truth that art is unity1 and that what the unit is the mass may become1 should we not strive1 each in his sphere1 whatever our main work may be1 to do it worthily and well8 remembering that it is better to do a small thing well than a big thing badly1 and that it is the spirit in which our work is done1 not the place it may accidentally occupy1 or the class to which it may belong1 or the reward it may receive in the ordinary estimation1 that makes it great or little4 ,,index ,ahmedabad1 carved stone lattice window at1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,alciati's ,emblems1 #bec-bef4 ,alhambra1 the1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,amiens1 sculpture at1 #bgj1 #bgc4 ,amman1 ,jost1 #cfg4 ,amphora1 ,greek1 #hj1 #ha4 ,angels1 ,christian1 #bdd4 ,andre1 ,hieronymus1 #bhd4 ,andreani1 ,andrea1 #ccj1 #cca4 ,anthemion ornament1 ,greek1 #di1 #eb4 ,apelles1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,arabian invasion of ,persia1 #age1 #agi2 casement1 #ahj2 carved pulpit1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae4 ,arch1 round1 #e1 #af2 pointed1 #e1 #bf4 ,arches1 typical forms of1 #cj4 ,architecture1 the original basis of design1 #c2 typical constructive forms in1 #e2 ,greek1 #f-af2 ,roman1 #af-bj2 ,byzantine1 #bj-be2 ,norman1 #bf-bh2 ,gothic1 #bh-df2 relationship between1 and the art of design generally1 #df1 #dg4 ,ardebil1 ,holy ,carpet of the mosque at1 #age-agg4 ,assyrian border1 #di1 #ej2 enamelled tile1 #di1 #ea2 sculpture1 #aib1 #bjc1 #bjd2 treatment of natural forms1 #aih-bjb4 ,auxerre1 sculpture at1 #bgj1 #bgb4 ,axmouth ,church1 tower of1 #fd4 ,bacchus1 visit of1 to ,icarius1 #ah1 #bja4 ,barge-board1 use of the1 #fa4 ,bates1 ,harry1 #ajj4 ,bellini1 ,jacopo1 #cbh4 ,beni ,hasan1 tomb of1 #aie1 #bfe4 ,benson1 ,w4 ,a4 ,s41 #gj4 ,bewick1 ,thomas1 revival of the woodcut under1 #aai1 #bid4 ,birds1 ,egyptian treatment of1 #bfd2 ,japanese treatment of1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfg2 ,bewick's treatment of1 #bid4 ,blake1 ,william1 #aai1 #abj1 #bid4 ,bohemia1 old towns of1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,book-binding1 #cgj-cgb4 ,books1 decoration of1 #aag-aba1 #acc-ada4 ,botticelli1 ,sandro1 #cbc-cbf4 ,bouchardon1 statue of ,louis ,,xv4 by1 #ii1 #aja4 ,brasses1 heraldry in1 #beb2 characteristics of design in1 #bij-bic4 ,bronze casting1 #ih-aja4 ,brown1 ,ford ,madox1 cartoons for glass by1 #aeb1 #aec2 drawings by1 #cjj4 ,bruges1 the ,belfry of1 #fb2 grate back from1 #fg1 #fh2 iron-work at1 #ajc2 brass at1 #bia1 #bib4 ,buch von den ,sieben ,todsnden1 #aag4 ,burgmair1 ,hans1 #bhd4 ,burne-,jones1 ,sir ,edward1 studies by1 #abf4 ,byzantine art1 #bj-be1 #ada1 #bci4 ,cairo1 casement from1 #aha2 pulpit from1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae2 carved and inlaid panel from1 #bag4 ,calvert1 ,edward1 #bid4 ,cambridge1 ,king's ,college ,chapel1 #cb4 ,candelabra1 brass1 #gc-ge4 ,candlesticks1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #gf1 #gg4 ,canopied tombs1 #ch1 #ci2 seat and sideboard1 #da4 ,canterbury1 ,anselm's ,tower1 #bf1 #bg2 transitional arcade1 #bi2 south side of choir1 #dc1 #de2 fire-dog from ,st4 ,nicholas's ,hospital1 #fg4 ,cave men1 art of the1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,ceiling decoration1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #aca4 ,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 #ajj4 ,celtic cross1 #bji4 ,cera perduta1 #ih1 #ii4 ,chequer pattern1 the1 #dh1 #di4 ,chimneys1 importance of1 in design1 #fc-fe4 ,chinese porcelain1 #hf1 #agd1 #bad2 embroidery1 #aae1 #baa2 design1 features of1 #bad1 #baf1 #bbj4 ,christchurch1 ,norman house at1 #fc4 ,christian symbols1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,cimabue1 #cjf4 ,circle1 the1 #bbf4 ,clarke1 ,purdon1 #baj4 ,clay1 modelling in1 #ic-if4 ,cobden-,sanderson1 ,t4 ,j41 #cgj-cgb4 ,colosseum1 the1 #af1 #ag4 ,constantine1 arch of1 #ai4 ,copper-plate engraving1 #aai1 #bid4 ,cotton printing1 #aaa4 ,crane1 ,walter1 book decoration1 #aci1 #adj2 wall-paper designs1 #abd-acd2 floor motive1 #acj4 ,crane1 wrought iron1 #fi4 ,creeny's ,monumental ,brasses1 #beb1 #bia1 #bic4 ,dalziel1 the brothers1 #bih1 #cjj4 ,dante1 #cjh2 portrait of1 by ,giotto1 #cji4 ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo1 #ccc-cch4 ,de ,hooghe1 ,romeyn1 #bef4 ,delaune1 ,etienne1 #cfc4 ,delft ware1 #hf4 ,delia ,robbia ware1 #afd4 ,dennington ,church1 carving in1 #db1 #ib4 ,derby pottery1 #hf4 ,devils1 medival1 #bdd4 ,diaper1 rectangular1 #hh2 ,chinese1 #baf4 ,dish decoration1 #he-hg4 ,dor1 ,gustave1 #ahg4 ,doyle1 ,richard1 #bih4 ,drinking vessels1 #gi-he4 ,dripstone1 principal of the1 #ei1 #fj4 ,du ,maurier1 ,george1 #bih4 ,drer1 ,albert1 #bgh-bhe4 ,eger1 #ahi4 ,egyptian pottery1 #if1 #ig2 primitive dwellings1 #afg1 #afh2 stone columns1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga2 hieroglyphics1 #aid1 #aie2 mural paintings1 #aif1 #aig2 types of design1 #bai2 symbolism1 #bbi-bcb2 treatment of birds1 #bfd2 realism in art1 #bfe4 ,electric light fittings1 #gh4 ,emblem book1 the1 #bec1 #bed4 ,embroidery1 #aac-aaf1 #baa4 ,erasmus's ,praise of ,folly1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,evangelists1 symbols of the1 #bdf4 ,fire-dogs1 #ff1 #fg1 #ajc4 ,fire-irons1 #ff1 #ajc4 ,florence1 tower of the ,palazzo ,vecchio1 #fb1 #fc4 ,ford1 ,onslow1 #ajj4 ,forum1 frieze discovered in the1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,fra ,angelico1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,framlingham ,castle1 chimney at1 #fd1 #ff4 ,fuchsius1 ,de ,historia ,stirpium1 #bhf1 #bhg4 ,fylfot1 the1 #bbb1 #bbd4 ,gerard's ,herbal1 #bhf4 ,german chandelier1 #gc-ge2 lantern1 #gf1 #gg2 beer mugs1 #hb2 pitcher1 #hg1 #if2 early woodcuts1 #aag1 #aah1 #bgh4 ,giotto1 #bgj1 #cjf-cad1 #cei4 ,ghiberti1 ,lorenzo1 #bgj1 #cjf4 ,gilbert1 ,alfred1 #ajj4 ,glass1 stained1 ,gothic1 #cb1 #ada2 designing for1 #ada-aei4 ,glass bottles 7,italian71 #hb1 #hc1 #hd4 ,glass-blowing1 #cfe1 #cff4 ,gothic architecture1 development of1 #bh-df4 ,gozzoli1 ,benozzo1 #bdd1 #cah-cbb4 ,grate backs1 cast-iron1 #ff-fh4 ,greek sculpture and architecture1 #f-ae2 furniture1 etc41 #ae-af2 water vessels1 #hj1 #ha2 cylix1 #he2 ornament1 #bjd2 stele1 #bjf2 symbolism1 #bcb2 gods1 #bcf2 sculpture1 #bfh2 vases1 #cjd4 ,grimani ,breviary1 the1 #bgd1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,grn1 ,hans ,baldung1 #aah4 ,harrison1 ,miss ,jane ,e41 #cjd4 ,hathersage ,church1 #bbc4 ,hazelford ,hall1 #ei4 ,hempstead1 fireplace at1 #fi4 ,heraldry1 national1 #bdh2 origin and development of1 #bdh-beb4 ,herbals1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,hercules1 #bcf4 ,herring bone1 #bbe4 ,hesperides1 the1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,hieroglyphic1 ,egyptian1 #aid1 #aie4 ,hindu symbol 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