,with the compliments of the ,,geo4 ,w4 ,,wheelwright ,,paper ,,co41 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 ,,from ,,paper-,,mill ,,to ,,pressroom ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,paper-,,making ,the tools of the primitive paper-maker consisted of a pulp vat for the fiber-laden water1 a frame1 or mold across which was stretched a mesh of closely-spaced wires1 and a removable frame known as the deckle2 hence the term 8deckle edged40 ,the beating was done by iron shod hammers which were raised and released by cams on a shaft turned by water power3 this machine called a stamper is shown in the foreground of this picture4 ,,from ,,paper-,,mill ,,to ,,pressroom ,by ,,william ,,bond ,,wheelwright ,author of 8,how ,paper is ,made10 etc4 ,the ,collegiate ,press ,,george ,,banta ,,publishing ,,company ,,menasha1 ,,wisconsin #aibj ,,copyrighted #aibj ,,by ,,william ,,bond ,,wheelwright ,,printed ,,and ,,bound ,,by ,,george ,,banta ,,publishing ,,co4 ,,manufacturing ,,publishers ,,menasha1 ,,wisconsin ,,to ,,my ,,father ,,george ,,william ,,wheelwright ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,his ,,father ,,who ,,entered ,,the ,,paper ,,business ,,in #ahcd ,,these ,,pages ,,are ,,respectfully ,,inscribed ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,chapter ,,introduction ix ,i4 ,tradition and ,history of ,paper-,making #a ,,ii4 ,raw ,materials #aj ,,iii4 ,future ,fiber ,possibilities #ah ,,iv4 ,the ,constituents of ,paper #bd ,v4 ,the ,constituents of ,paper #cb ,,vi4 ,paper-,making #da ,,vii4 ,paper-,making #ea ,,viii4 ,the ,physical and ,chemical ,aspects of ,paper #fj ,,ix4 ,appraising and ,testing ,paper #fg ,x4 ,pressroom ,difficulties #gf ,,xi4 ,the ,paper ,trade #hi ,,xii4 ,importance of a ,knowledge of ,printing #ig ,,index #aja ,,note--,this book is printed on ,wheelwright's 8,b4,p4,f40 paper #bex#ch-gj4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,ancient ,,paper-,,making ,frontispiece ,,ragroom1 ,,pioneer ,,mill1 ,,crane ,,co4 #bc ,,rag ,,boiler ,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 #be ,,wood ,,grinder #cj ,,wet ,,machines1 ,,the ,,brown ,,co4 #cc ,,cylinder ,,machine ,,for ,,drying ,,pulp1 ,,the ,,brown ,,co4 #ce ,,the ,,beater-,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 #cg ,,fourdrinier ,,machines1 ,,crane ,,co4 #de ,,fourdrinier ,,machine1 ,s4 ,d4 ,,warren ,,co4 #ej ,,cylinder ,,vats1 ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,pusey ,,jones ,,co4 #ec ,,coating ,,room1 ,,appleton ,,coated ,,paper ,,co4 #eg ,,finishing-,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 #eh ,,supercalender ,,stacks1 ,,appleton ,,coated ,,paper ,,co4 #ff ,,introduction ,in the following pages ,i have endeavored to present a treatise on paper free from confusing technicalities1 yet sufficiently intimate to be of service alike to the manufacturer1 the salesman1 and the consumer of paper viewing the subject in a broad way from the paper mill to the pressroom4 ,the manufacturer and the consumer may notice the omission of some details1 as ,i have aimed to touch mainly on such points as are essential to a good understanding of the work-a-day problems of paper after it reaches the printer4 ,i am convinced that in many cases the problems of the pressroom are too slightly understood by the 8paperman10 while the technicalities of paper-making are only too vaguely comprehended by the printer4 ,i also feel that both should have at least an acquaintance with the history and progress of paper-making4 ,,william ,,bond ,,wheelwright4 ,appleton1 ,wisconsin1 ,january1 #aibj4 ,,chapter ,,one ,,the ,,tradition ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,paper-,,making ,it would be difficult to single out among the diversified objects of human investigation10 wrote ,john ,murray in his remarks on 8,modern ,paper0 7published in #ahbi71 8a question more curious or interesting than the medium which bears the symbols that register the circumstances and events of past ages4444 ,it is through such wonderful media that we are introduced into the multitudinous throng of a world's tenantry1 and from their inscription learn what they thought1 and said and did4444 ,in deciphering these transcriptions of ideas and memorials of humanity we virtually converse with minds long since numbered with those who people the world of spirits2 and even the mummy from his cerements in his sycamore coffin1 recovered from the vaults of eternal pyramids1 talks with us by virtue of the roll of papyrus which he holds in his hand40 ,from this substance of ,egyptian origin is derived the name of its modern successor--paper4 ,paper1 which in convenience and varied utility is as much in advance of its forerunner as papyrus was in advance of brick1 stone1 lead1 copper1 brass1 leaves1 bark1 wood and skins1 the successive media for the transcription of human thought4 ,the exact date of the origin of paper-making has probably yet to be discovered1 though the researches of ,dr4 ,aurel ,stein and others have traced its antiquity back into the second century1 ,b4 ,c4 7see ,encyclopdia ,britannica74 ,according to ,r4 ,w4 ,sindall 78,the ,manufacture of ,paper10 #aijh71 the earliest reference to the manufacture of paper is to be found in the ,chinese ,encyclopdia1 wherein it is stated that ,ts'ai-,lun1 a native of ,kuei-yang1 entered the service of the ,emperor ,ho-,ti in ,a4 ,d4 #ge1 and1 devoting his leisure hours to study1 suggested the use of silk and ink as a substitute for the bamboo tablet and stylus4 ,subsequently he succeeded in making paper from bark1 tow1 old linen and fish-nets 7,a4 ,d4 #aje74 ,the art thus originated and nurtured by the ,chinese remained to be transmitted to ,europe by the ,arabs after their conquest of ,samarkand in ,a4 ,d4 #gea4 ,the first centers of the industry founded in the eleventh century were in ,spain1 at ,toledo1 ,valencia and ,xativa4 ,from ,spain the craftsmen migrated to ,sicily1 ,italy1 ,france and the ,netherlands4 ,a mill was established at ,hainault1 ,france1 as early as #aaij4 ,the oldest-known document on cotton paper is a deed of ,king ,roger of ,sicily1 dated #aajb4 ,it is probable that the famous mills of ,fabriano sprang from ,sicilian sources2 their establishment was followed in #acfj by a mill in ,padua1 and later in ,treviso1 ,bologna1 ,palma1 ,milan and ,venice1 while the first paper-mill of ,germany was that of ,ulman ,stromer at ,mainz in #acbj4 ,a most interesting account of this period of paper-making is given as follows by ,harold ,bayley in his volume1 8,a ,new ,light on the ,renaissance30 8,in the ,dark ,ages there existed in the south of ,france a premature civilization far in advance of that of the rest of ,europe4 ,among the arts and industries that flourished in ,provene and the surrounding districts1 paper-making was one of the foremost4 ,not only was this district the cradle of ,european paper-making1 but for many centuries it remained the center of this industry4 8,the freedom and prosperity of ,provene attracted large numbers of persecuted ,jews and heretics1 who took refuge there1 and by their industry and intellect augmented the power and influence of the country4 ,so deeply1 indeed1 did heresy enter into the politics of ,provene1 that in #abji the ,church of ,rome considered it necessary to launch a crusade against the infected district4 8,during a period of twenty years the heretical inhabitants were either extirpated or driven into perpetual exile4 ,those who escaped carried with them a passionate affection for their destroyed fatherland1 and an undying hatred against the tyranny of the ,church of ,rome4 8,it will be shown that from the appearance of the first water-mark in #abhb these mysterious marks are1 speaking broadly1 the traditional emblems of ,provene4 8,from the fact that fundamentally the same designs were employed all over ,europe1 we can deduce the inference that ,provenal refugees carried their art throughout ,europe1 just in the same way as at a later period and under somewhat similar circumstances ,huguenots carried new industries into strange countries4 ,it will also be shown that the same code which unlocks many of the obscurities of paper-marks elucidates the problems of printers' marks1 and evidence will be brought forward that paper-makers and printers were originally in close touch with each other1 held similar views1 and were associated in identical aims40 ,gradually the secrets of the craft pursued their northward trail into the ,netherlands4 ,saardam1 in the ,duchy of ,holland1 became in the eighteenth century an important center1 employing1 it is said1 one thousand persons4 ,in ,england1 which for many years imported all its paper1 the first mill was erected about #adih1 as is attested by an entry for that year in the privy-purse expenses of ,king ,henry ,,vii4 ,further corroboration is also to be found in the following quaint verse from ,wynken de ,worde's edition of 8,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum03 ,and ,john ,tate the younger ,joye mote he broke1 ,which late hathe in ,england doo make this paper thynne ,that now in our ,englyshe this book is written inne4 ,england1 however1 achieved no reputation for fine papers until the establishment of the famous ,james ,whatman1 in #agfj4 ,in the meantime1 the trade had taken root in our own country when1 in #afij1 ,william ,rittenhouse started the first ,american mill on the ,wissahickon river at ,roxborough1 near ,philadelphia1 and thirty years later ,new ,england's first mill was established by ,david ,hinchman at ,milton1 ,massachusetts4 ,the migratory characteristics of the trade were made possible by the simplicity of the machinery which was required in these times4 ,pictures of early mills depict a mortar and pestle in which to macerate the rags to pulp1 a small vat for the paper stuff1 a mold on which the paper was formed1 and a screw press with which to squeeze out the water from the new-formed sheets4 ,mechanical improvements came with painful slowness1 and no doubt each small advance was a jealously guarded secret4 ,the mortar and pestle were succeeded by a machine mechanically imitating the handwork of beating the rags to pulp4 ,this was called a stamper4 ,the old mortar remained1 but the beating was done by iron-shod hammers1 which were raised and released by cams on a shaft turned by water-power4 ,note the stamper in the foreground of the picture of ,ancient ,paper-making on page ,,ii4 ,the ,dutch improved upon this device by the invention of the ,holland beating engine about #aggj1 which in its essentials is practically the same thing to-day on a much larger scale4 ,until the year #agih there had been no further advance in mechanical inventions for paper-making1 but let us pause a moment for a consideration of the paper itself4 ,the early raw material consisted solely of cotton and linen rags1 and there was very little variety of output4 ,until #agej all the paper was made on molds1 the seats of which were made by fine parallel wires supported by heavier wires1 which ran at right angles to them4 ,consequently all the paper was what is called 8laid40 ,in #agej1 at the instance of the famous ,printer ,baskerville1 a mold was made with a woven-wire seat1 and the first 8wove0 paper was used in his famous ,edition of ,virgil4 ,the characteristics of the earlier paper are well summed up by ,mr4 ,de ,vinne in an article on woodcut printing which appeared in ,volume ,,xix1 ,no4 #f1 of ,scribner's ,magazine1 a reading of which impresses one with the limitations of ancient paper-making as contrasted with the complexity of modern paper-making1 and all the study which its variations impose upon the modern printer who seeks proficiency4 8,much of the paper made in the sixteenth century10 he says1 8was unsuitable for woodcuts4 ,by far the larger portion was made of linen stock1 hard and rough as to surface1 laid1 or showing the marks of the wires upon which the pulp had been crushed1 or ragged edges1 unsized and very sensitive to dampness1 uneven in thickness1 usually thin in the center and thick at the edges4444 8,the paper selected was1 in most cases1 too rough and hard to be forcibly impressed against the delicate lines of fine woodcuts4 ,it was the usage everywhere to soften the paper by a careful dampening4 8,when the paper was sized it was more weakened by this dampening1 which really lightened the labor of the pressman4 ,but unsized paper was only about half the price of sized1 and the inducement to use it was great4 ,the unsized paper was dampened with difficulty1 it greedily sucked up water1 and when fully wet became flabby and unmanageable4 ,under searching pressure of the woolen blanket which was always put between the paper to be printed and the printing surface1 this flabby paper was forced around the finer lines of the cut1 making them much thicker than was intended40 ,let those whose shallowness leads them to regard modern paper-making as an abortion of a once noble art take thought6 ,the transition from the old ways of paper-making to modern processes was sudden4 ,the century which gave them to us stands out in radiance against the dark ages of heavy toil at the vat and press4 ,first came the mechanic whose genius caused tons to be produced in the time that pounds were made of yore4 ,next came the chemist who developed unthought-of raw materials to supply the ever-growing demands of 8papivorous0 civilization1 until it has been said with so much truth that ours is the paper age4 ,in #agih an obscure ,french workman1 ,louis ,robert1 of ,essonne1 announced that he 8had discovered a way to make1 with one man1 and without fire1 by means of machines1 sheets of paper of a very large size1 even twelve feet wide and fifty feet long40 ,times were hard on the continent1 yet the ,government of ,france1 recognizing the importance of the invention1 awarded ,robert eight thousand francs and a patent for fifteen years4 ,furthermore1 permission was given to carry over the small working model to ,england1 with the hope of interesting ,british capital4 ,a successful attempt to make paper on ,robert's machine having been made in the mill of ,franois ,didot1 in ,france1 ,leger ,didot purchased the patent and1 accompanied by an ,englishman of the appropriate name of ,john ,gamble1 proceeded to ,england and employed ,mr4 ,bryan ,donkin to construct a machine4 ,being in need of funds1 they interested two wealthy ,london stationers1 ,messrs4 ,henry and ,sealy ,fourdrinier1 in their proposition1 and in #ahjd the first successful machine was started at ,frogmore4 ,much credit is due ,mr4 ,donkin1 by whose ingenuity the mechanical difficulties were mastered1 but the ,fourdriniers1 for whom the machine was named1 are no less entitled to the honor1 as their persistent faith in the machine finally led them into bankruptcy4 ,after having expended sixty thousand pounds and being reduced to penury1 they finally petitioned ,parliament for compensation for their losses4 ,their labors were fortunately appreciated1 and a sum of seven thousand pounds was voted them4 ,surely all these early pioneers deserve a place in the hall of fame beside that of ,gutenberg4 ,in #ahab the type of machine known as 8cylinder0 was invented by ,john ,dickinson1 whose name is still associated with paper-making1 and so different is the machine in principle that ,dickinson's name should also be placed alongside of ,robert's as a benefactor to mankind4 ,neither of these machines had any means for drying paper1 consequently their production was decidedly limited4 ,this lack was supplied by the invention of driers by ,t4 ,b4 ,crompton in #ahba1 who later took out a patent for slitter-knives4 ,suction boxes were contributed by the ingenuity of ,m4 ,canson1 a ,frenchman1 in #ahbf4 ,john ,wilks1 an ,englishman1 produced the first dandy roll in #ahcj1 while ,thomas ,barratt conceived the idea of making water-marks by means of this roll4 ,and so1 one after another1 various useful additions came into existence1 until we have the modern paper-machine1 which differs mainly in width1 length and productive power from the machines of the thirties4 ,in the meantime1 researches for new paper-making materials had been in progress4 ,as early as #agai1 ,reamur1 observing how wasps made their nests from wood1 threw out the hint to paper-makers1 but for over a century there was no important result4 ,in #agbg1 ,dr4 ,brueckmann1 a ,german naturalist1 published a work on stones1 four copies of which are said to have been printed on paper made with asbestos4 ,in #agea ,m4 ,guettard in ,france published his experiments and showed samples of paper made from bark1 leaves and wood2 while in #agfe ,jacob ,christian ,schaffers1 of ,ratisbon1 published a volume1 a copy of which exists in the ,smithsonian ,library1 upon the different sorts of paper he could make without rags4,a ,a ,a copy of the second edition of this work is in the ,library of the ,university of ,michigan at ,ann ,arbor4 ,matthias ,koops in #ahja printed some account of his patents for utilizing waste papers1 straw and wood4 ,this volume1 printed on straw paper1 with one signature on paper claimed to be made of wood1 is well worth reading1 and is to be found both in the ,boston ,public ,library and in the ,harvard ,college ,library1 and quite likely elsewhere4 ,these experiments are only interesting as forerunners4 ,in their own time they came to naught4 ,not until #ahdj was ground wood-pulp invented by ,keller4 ,the production of cellulose from straw and esparto by the soda process was discovered by ,routledge1 an ,englishman1 in #ahfj1 while the first patents for making wood soda pulp were those of ,watt and ,burgess in #ahed4 ,to an ,american belongs the credit for the important invention of the sulphite process1 ,benjamin ,c4 ,tilghmann1 of ,manayunk1 ,pennsylvania1 having taken out the first patents in #ahff4 ,although excellent fiber was obtained1 the engineering difficulties proved so serious that experiments were temporarily abandoned in the ,united ,states4 ,but the process was afterward put upon a successful commercial basis by ,fry and ,ekman1 at ,berzwik1 ,sweden1 in #ahgj4 ,americans soon took up the problem with renewed energy1 and the late ,charles ,s4 ,wheelwright1 of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 after a visit to ,sweden in #ahhb on which he obtained the rights to the ,ekman patents1 introduced the process at the plant of the ,richmond ,paper ,company1 in ,providence1 and while a commercial success was not realized1 it was an important step in the development of the industry1 and not many years passed before the ,united ,states gained a leading position in the production of wood-pulps4,b ,b ,see ,little ,griffin1 8,the ,chemistry of ,paper-making40 ,thus in less than ninety years1 from ,robert's invention of #agih to the early eighties1 the world witnessed a complete revolution of the paper industry1 which had struggled along in the same old rut for some two thousand years4 ,to-day the ,united ,states leads the world in the production of paper4 ,according to the census of #aiji1 we produced #d1baf1gjh tons1 valued at #bcb1gda1jdi1 an amount which exceeds in tonnage the combined production of ,england1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,austria and ,italy4 ,well may we be proud of this great industry1 which after all is largely the reflection of a nation's intelligence and culture1 and commercial activity4 ,,chapter ,,two ,,raw ,,materials ,paper has been defined as 8an aqueous deposit of cellulose10 and while this is incomplete as a catalogue of the materials composing a sheet of modern paper1 it is an excellent epitome of the foundation of paper-making4 ,minute cellulose fibers1 derivatives of various raw materials1 are deposited upon a wire cloth by the passage of a volume of water in which they have been suspended4 ,the pulpy film thus formed becomes a sheet of paper1 after the expulsion and evaporation of the water which served as a medium for their deposit4 ,the minute fibers composing this hypothetical sheet of paper may have been isolated from one of several sources of raw materials in present commercial use1 or the sheet may be composed of a mixture of different fibers1 all more or less pure cellulose1 in accordance with the preliminary treatment each has undergone4 ,the principal sources from which ,american paper fibers are derived are cotton and linen rags1 hemp1 jute1 wood1 straw2 and waste papers4 ,previous to the year #ahdj1 the sources were limited to rags4 ,these are almost wholly composed of pure cellulose fibers1 which give up their non-cellulose concomitants with slight resistance4 ,the more severe chemical treatments necessary for the isolation of cellulose fibers1 from wood1 for example1 half of which is non-cellulose in structure1 were unknown to early paper-makers1 and only became possible after the discovery of bleaching-powder by ,tennant1 and the manufacture of soda by ,le ,blanc4 ,although experiments in search of suitable substitutes for rags began to be made in the eighteenth century1 it was ,keller's invention of ground wood in #ahdj1 ,routledge's work on esparto grass and wood with a soda process in #ahed1 and our own fellow countryman ,tilghmann's patent of the sulphite process in #ahff1 from which we may date the beginnings of the now extensive use of materials other than cotton and linen wastes4 ,the accompanying table1 taken from the ,united ,states ,statistics of ,manufacture for #aiji1 gives an illuminating indication of the rapid growth of our paper industry1 and also shows the remarkable increase in the use of wood celluloses4 ,note4--,statistics are taken from ,u4,s4 ,reports for #aiji4 ,subsequent reports are obtainable from the ,director of the ,census1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,it may be observed that the percentage of increase in the use of wood-pulp of all kinds for the decade #ahii-aiji was #aaa4f1 and of rags1 #ej4 ,approximately four and one-quarter millions tons of paper were produced in #aiji1 for which the fibers used figured in the following proportions3 ,per ,cent4 ,wood-pulp #fa4f ,old and waste papers #ba4d ,rags #g4h ,straw #f4f ,manila 7rope7 #b4f ,of the total amount of wood fibers1 the various proportions were approximately as follows3 ,per ,cent4 ,ground wood #dg ,sulphite pulp #db ,soda pulp #aa ,a further investigation as to the species of woods used shows that1 while spruce is still the most important1 contributing nearly #fj per cent1 other woods are being increasingly used4 ,another noteworthy fact is the mighty increase in imports of wood-pulps1 which jumped from #cc1cai tons in #ahii to #cjg1abb tons in #aiji1 an amount equal to #ab per cent of all that is used in the ,united ,states4 #aiji #aijd #ahii ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,materials ,total cost #afe1ddb1cda #aaa1bea1dgh #gj1ecj1bcf ,pulpwood1 cost #cc1ggb1dge #bj1hjj1hga #i1hcg1eaf ,wood pulp1 purchased3 ,tons #a1bda1iad #hgg1gjb #fdd1jjf ,cost #dc1hfa1ceg #bg1fcc1afd #ah1cfi1dfd ,ground-- ,tons #deb1hdi #cag1bhf #bfa1ifb ,cost #i1dhg1ejh #e1ged1bei #d1cfa1baa ,soda fiber-- ,tons #aed1fbf #abj1igh #id1jdb ,cost #f1hfb1hfd #e1jdg1aje #c1dcj1hji ,sulphite fiber-- ,tons #fbf1jbi #dcc1afj #bgc1aid ,cost #bg1ahd1gbf #af1efg1abb #aj1aab1ahi ,other chemical fiber-- ,tons #h1daj #f1bgh #ad1hjh ,cost #cbf1bei #bfd1fgh #dfe1bee ,rags1 including cotton1 flax waste and sweepings3 ,tons #ceg1dgj #bid1eeb #bcd1ead ,cost #aj1gba1eei #h1hfd1fjg #f1eie1dbg ,old and waste paper3 ,tons #ihc1hhb #ehh1edc #cef1aic ,cost #ac1fia1abj #g1dcj1cce #d1hfi1dji ,manila stock1 including jute bagging1 rope1 waste1 threads1 etc43 ,tons #aag1jhj #ajg1jbi #ii1cja ,cost #c1efj1jcc #b1ejb1ccb #b1dcg1bef ,straw3 ,tons #cjc1acg #cjd1ehe #cfg1cje ,cost #a1dfj1bhb #a1ejb1hhf #a1cie1fei ,all other materials cost #eh1cge1eae #db1eag1bhc #bg1jbe1eje ,,products ,total value #bfg1fef1ifd #ahh1gae1ahi #abg1cbf1afb ,newspaper3 ,in rolls for printing-- ,tons #a1jia1jag #hdj1hjb #ded1egb ,value #db1hjg1jfd #cb1ghc1cjh #ae1ged1iib ,in sheets for printing-- ,tons #hd1ecg #gb1jbj #aad1fdj ,value #d1jdh1dif #c1adc1aeb #d1ccf1hhb ,book paper3 ,book-- ,tons #ege1faf #dcd1ejj #bhb1jic ,value #db1hdf1fgd #ca1aef1gbh #ai1dff1hjd ,coated-- ,tons #ie1bac #b #b ,value #i1dac1ifa #b #b ,plate1 lithograph1 map1 woodcut1 etc4-- ,tons #f1dih #ai1hcg #bb1cff ,value #eee1ceb #a1deh1cdc #b1jah1ieh ,cover-- ,tons #ag1egh #bb1aej #ah1gdi ,value #a1ihb1hec #b1jbc1ihf #a1ffe1cgf ,cardboard1 bristol board1 card middles1 tickets1 etc4-- ,tons #ea1ddi #ci1jfj #bh1did ,value #c1ceb1aea #b1gfd1ddd #a1gai1hac ,fine paper3 ,writing-- ,tons #afi1abe #aca1icd #ij1bjd ,value #bd1iff1ajb #ai1cba1jde #ab1bbb1hgj ,all other-- ,tons #bi1jhh #ad1hih #bb1ejc ,value #d1aaj1ecf #b1ibh1abe #c1fgc1ajd ,wrapping paper3 ,manila 7rope1 jute1 tag1 etc47-- ,tons #gc1gca #hf1hbf #hi1dai ,value #f1ihi1dcf #f1acf1jhj #e1ibi1gfd ,heavy 7mill wrappers1 etc47-- ,tons #ajh1efa #if1iib #hb1hge ,value #d1chj1gid #d1jce1ehh #d1adc1bdj ,straw-- ,tons #cb1ihh #ed1bcb #ia1gid ,value #hgj1dai #a1chi1cdh #b1jbg1eah ,bogus or wood manila1 all grades-- ,tons #cfg1icb #bbh1cga #bjc1hbf ,value #ai1ggg1gjg #aj1jii1ggb #i1adh1fgg ,all other-- ,tons #agi1hee #agg1hgj #fg1cch ,value #aj1bjb1jce #h1ggd1hjd #c1bic1agd ,boards3 ,wood pulp-- ,tons #ga1jcf #fj1hfc #dd1ahg ,value #b1fci1dif #b1cdg1bej #a1djf1acj ,straw-- ,tons #aga1ghi #afg1bgh #aeg1ecd ,value #c1gej1hea #d1cfg1efj #c1ahg1cdb ,news-- ,tons #gd1fjf #ch1efj #cb1aai ,value #b1bae1dfi #a1agd1baf #icj1eca ,all other-- ,tons #ead1bjh #bec1iej #aca1ggg ,value #ag1eci1gfh #i1jgj1eca #d1hbi1caf ,other paper products3 ,tissues-- ,tons #gg1gde #dc1ibe #bh1djf ,value #h1eec1fed #e1jef1dch #c1dhf1feb ,blotting-- ,tons #i1egg #h1gjb #d1cea ,value #a1ahf1ahj #a1jdf1gij #ehj1gej ,building roofing1 asbestos1 and sheathing-- ,tons #bbe1hbd #ade1jbd #if1iae ,value #i1bea1cfh #d1hde1fbh #c1jbe1ifg ,hanging-- ,tons #ib1aeh #fb1fjf #ed1ccj ,value #d1dca1ead #c1jac1dfd #b1bfe1cde ,miscellaneous-- ,tons #if1egg #ajf1bif #di1aja ,value #f1hfi1afi #f1gbi1hbj #b1gie1hda ,wood pulp made for sale or for consumption in mills other than where produced3 ,ground-- ,tons #caj1gdg #bgc1djj #bhj1jeb ,value #e1fdi1dff #d1cbc1die #d1dcc1fii ,soda fiber-- ,tons #aee1hdd #acj1cff #ii1jad ,value #f1egb1aeb #e1aei1fae #c1fab1fjb ,sulphite fiber-- ,tons #ddd1bee #cgf1idj #bga1ehe ,value #ag1iee1gdh #ac1ffa1dfd #aj1dea1djj ,all other products1 value #d1gch1edi #a1ibd1aie #iai1dae ,,wood ,,pulp ,quantity produced 7including that used in mills where manufactured71 total tons #b1die1ebc #a1iba1gfh #agi1ece ,ground1 tons #a1agi1bff #ifh1igf #ehf1cgd ,soda fiber1 tons #bih1fbf #aif1ggj #agg1abd ,sulphite fiber1 tons #a1jag1fca #gef1jbb #daf1jcg ,,equipment ,paper machines3 ,total number #a1dhj #a1cfi #a1bcb ,capacity1 yearly1 tons #e1bic1cig #c1heg1ijc #b1ghb1bai ,fourdrinier-- ,number #hjd #geb #ffc ,capacity per #bd hours1 tons #aj1ejh #h1efi #c ,cylinder-- ,number #fgf #fag #efi ,capacity per #bd hours1 tons #f1caf #d1gdj #c ,pulp3 ,grinders1 number #a1dce #a1cfb #a1afh ,digesters1 total number #edb #eag #dbf ,sulphite fiber1 number #cdh #cji #b ,soda fiber1 number #aid #bjh #b ,capacity1 yearly1 tons of pulp #c1dje1fba #b1fdd1gec #a1ecf1dca ,ground1 tons #a1hji1fhe #a1eae1jhh #b ,sulphite1 tons #a1bej1ihc #hhe1jib #b ,soda1 tons #cdd1iec #bdd1egc #b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,table from ,united ,states ,statistics of ,manufacture for #aiji1 ,showing ,rapid ,growth of ,paper ,industry4 ,the comparative statement follows3 ,,quantity1 ,,in ,,cords1 ,,of ,,pulpwood ,,consumed ,,kind ,,of ,,wood4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #aiaa #aiaj #aiji #aijh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #d1cbh1jeb #d1jid1cjf #d1jja1fjg #c1cdf1iec ---------------------------------------- ----- ,spruce1 domestic #a1fab1cee #a1dgc1edb #a1fec1bdi #a1dhg1cef ,spruce1 imported #ijc1cge #ijb1djg #gfh1ccb #fgb1dhc ,hemlock #faf1ffc #faj1dgh #eei1feg #efi1agc ,poplar1 domestic #ccc1ibi #cae1gag #cjb1hgf #bgi1efd ,poplar1 imported #cd1bie #de1cei #be1fbb #bb1fec ,balsam fir #aia1ggi #acb1cfb #a #ie1cff #a #de1cji ,pine #abd1jai #aje1hhb #ij1hhe #hd1ahi ,beech #dd1cbj #dd1bfe #ca1cij #b ,maple #cf1igi #db1fba #b #b ,white fir #cf1dic #cj1hde #cg1agf #b ,cottonwood #be1jdc #ca1jii #cf1hih #de1fgi ,all other #hh1bfh #ig1jib #aea1agi #adj1edg ,slabwood1 etc1 #bhj1ecd #bfb1fcg #bdh1igg #c ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a ,balsam4 #b ,included in 8,all other40 #c ,included with other wood by species4 ,the high point of importation of chemical wood-pulp was reached in #aiad1 when approximately #c1fjj1jjj tons came in from ,europe and #ib1jjj from ,canada4 ,in ,january #aiaf owing to the war1 imports for the month from ,europe dropped from an average of #cj1fid tons to #ab1ihe tons1 while ,canadian pulp increased from an average of #g1fed to an actual importation for the month of #bh1hcc tons4 ,although the use of wood now so heavily overshadows that of rags that it almost seems as though the latter were being slowly abandoned1 this is of course only relatively true1 their consumption being actually greater than ever4 ,the mere cost of the rags in #aiji was slightly in excess of the total value of all paper products recorded in the ,united ,states ,census for #ahej1 a circumstance which leads us to wonder at the timely discoveries which made wood cellulose available4 ,it is evident1 however1 that to some extent paper history is already beginning to repeat itself4 ,the visible supplies of wood are markedly less1 as evidenced by their increasing costs1 and we are forced to a much more active attitude than one of mere speculation as to what new sources may become available to supply our demand for paper1 which has lately been increasing in the value of the annual products by almost #aa per cent4 ,in the decade from #ahii to #aiji shown by government statistics1 book-paper advanced #ajd per cent in quantity1 but #abj per cent in value2 writing-paper1 #hh per cent in quantity1 but #ajd per cent in value2 wrapping-paper1 #dc per cent in quantity and #gb per cent in value4 ,it is true that rising wages account in part for these changes in value1 but above and behind all this stands the inexorable law of supply and demand4 ,the discrepancies between the percentages of increase in production and value serve to emphasize the increasing difficulties in obtaining raw material4 ,that sprucewood is being consumed in this country faster than it is grown1 is indicated by the recourse to less-favored species1 as well as by the steadily increasing imports1 both of pulpwood and wood-pulp4 ,this situation emphasises the great importance of conserving waste papers1 in spite of the fact that #ba4d per cent of the fiber used in #aiji in the ,united ,states were derived from waste papers4 ,vast quantities may readily be saved which now go to waste1 as was definitely proved by ,england's experience during the war1 when the imports of pulp were shut off and immediate substitutes had to be found4 ,this is a matter demanding the attention not only of printers1 but of municipalities and nations4 ,it offers an immediate source of relief from the drain on our forests and is hence a most practical form of conservation4 ,furthermore as demonstrated by the city of ,cleveland the revenue from collecting waste papers assists substantially in offsetting the cost of the collection of municipal wastes4 ,,chapter ,,three ,,future ,,fiber ,,possibilities ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 in ,august1 #aiaa1 issued a treatise on 8,crop ,plants for ,paper-,making10 in which the author1 ,charles ,j4 ,brand1 concluded3 8,there is some skepticism as to the failure of pulpwood supplies1 but this is certainly poorly grounded4 8,during #aiji the quantity of spruce used was less by #dj1jjj cords than in #aijg1 but the cost was #b1jjj1jjj greater4 ,present efforts in connection with reforestation of spruce and poplar are not extensive enough to produce any noteworthy effect upon the available supply within a generation4 8,at the present rate of increase in consumption1 it will require between #ae1jjj1jjj and #bj1jjj1jjj cords of wood for pulp and paper fiber in #aiej4 ,it will certainly be impossible to furnish this from the forests4 ,if every acre cut over each year were reforested1 it would be twenty-five or thirty years1 or possibly even longer1 before the trees could obtain sufficient size to warrant cutting4 ,the forests can not recover from overdrafts continually being made on them4 ,hence it is only a question of a limited number of years until paper fiber must be grown as a crop1 as are practically all other plants materials entering into the economy of man4 ,while the conservation of only a few of the by-products of the farms yielding paper fiber can be accomplished profitably in the near future1 and only a few of the plants promise to be money-makers immediately if grown solely for paper production1 it seems very probable that raw products1 now scarcely considered1 may in a few years play an important part in the paper and pulp industry40 ,two lines of research are now being followed by the ,united ,states ,government4 ,the ,forest ,products ,laboratory of the ,forest ,service is investigating a large number of coniferous and broad-leaved trees1 which have not hitherto been used in paper-making4 ,these sources are likely to be the first which manufactures will turn to1 as the processes involved are such as they are already familiar with1 and the apparatus with which they are supplied is suitable4 ,the second line of research is being followed by the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 assisted by the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 and is concerned with plants other than trees4 ,private investigations are also being carried on4 ,the following five requirements are given by the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,circular ,no4 #hb1 as to the availability of crop plants3 #a4 ,they must exist in large quantities4 #b4 ,they must be available throughout the year4 #c4 ,they must yield a relatively high percentage of cellulose4 #d4 ,the fiber cells or cellulose1 must be of a highly resistant character1 and must have length1 strength and good felting qualities4 #e4 ,and must be of such a nature that the cost of obtaining the fiber will not be prohibitive4 ,fibers complying with these conditions will come into commercial use whenever the increasing costs of wood-pulp reach a figure approximately equal to cost of producing cellulose from any other available source4 ,up to the present time this has not been brought about1 but the steady increase in the cost of wood-pulp is approaching a level with which crop pulps may soon compete4 ,a synopsis of the fibers described in the circular referred to is given below4 ,,corn ,,stalks4--,on account of the enormous supply1 corn stalks were first taken up by the ,bureau4 ,the yield of stalks per acre is conservatively estimated at one ton1 and the annual product is placed as at least #ajj1jjj1jjj tons1 of which not over one-third is believed to be utilized by the farmers4 ,three products have been derived from the stalks3 #a4 ,long fiber suitable for paper-making1 composing #ab to #ah per cent of the bone-dry weight4 #b4 ,pith pulp1 suitable for paper specialties1 equal to #ae to #cj per cent bone-dry weight4 #c4 ,corn-stalk extract1 obtained by lixivaition1 and of value as a cattle food1 a ton of stalks yielding #bjj to #cjj pounds of soluble solids4 ,it would require an immense area to supply a mill of moderate capacity1 and the question of whether the derivatives of corn stalks could be sufficiently valuable to overcome the costs of harvesting and hauling1 has never been answered by any experiment on a commercial scale4 ,,broom ,,corn4--,broom corn contains a higher percentage of fibers than corn stalks4 ,in laboratory and semi-commercial tests1 fiber yields of #cb to #dj per cent have been obtained with a comparatively low consumption of chemicals4 ,the ,bureau claims that results 8indicate that this material is suitable for immediate use in paper-making on the basis of quality of fiber produced and yield of fiber secured40 ,it is estimated that #dej1jjj tons is the approximate annual crop4 ,food extracts may also be obtained as well as the fiber4 ,,rice ,,straw4--,the ,chinese and ,japanese have for years used rice straw in paper-making1 and it is regarded by the ,government investigators as one of the most promising crop materials1 the annual crop approximating #a1ejj1jjj tons4 ,,cotton-,,hull ,,fiber4--,the lint adhering to the cotton hulls1 after the long fiber has been removed1 may be conserved as a by-product of the cotton-seed oil industry1 and this fiber may be reckoned among the possibilities4 ,cotton stalks also have been the subject of experiment4 ,the yield per acre1 however1 is not estimated at above #a1jjj pounds1 so that immense tracts would have to be covered in accumulating any considerable supply1 and after the cotton crop has all been picked1 negro help is very difficult to obtain4 ,,bagasse4--,bagasse1 or the refuse sugar-cane1 is given rather scant consideration in the ,government report4 ,its individual fibers are short1 and the percentage of pith is large4 ,several small plants have had discouraging experiences in attempting to put this material to commercial use4 ,nevertheless1 recent experiments carried on in the interests of the ,united ,fruit ,company1 under the ,simmons patents1 point to a promising result4 ,under this process the cane is not treated in the usual manner of crushing for the extraction of sugar4 ,instead1 it is shredded1 dried1 and the pith separated from the fiber4 ,the product is then shipped in bales to refineries1 where the sugar is extracted4 ,this method is said to achieve an almost complete extraction of the sugar1 whereas the old method of crushing loses about twenty per cent of the sugar and injures the fibers4 ,the ,simmons process does no damage to the fibers1 which though short1 possess excellent felting properties4 ,the pith1 being cellulose of a non-fibrous structure1 has a value for other industries than paper-making4 ,,flax ,,straw4--,there is an abundant annual crop of flax straw4 ,the average yield per acre is about one ton1 and the total annual production about #c1jjj1jjj tons4 ,in the opinion of the ,government investigators1 it is a 8most promising0 material4 ,there are practical pulp men who deprecate the findings of the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry4 ,martin ,l4 ,griffin1 chemist to the ,oxford ,paper ,company1 of ,rumford1 ,maine1 in an article appearing in ,volume ,,xi1 ,no4 #b1 of ,paper for ,march1 #aiac1 makes the following statement3 8,there is a popular view1 which has been erroneously fostered by the ,government1 that there are exhaustless resources of waste fiber in our country1 suitable for paper1 and a substitute for wood4 ,i once thought so myself4 ,it is very natural to think that the discarded stalks of sugar-cane1 corn1 cotton1 rice1 flax1 and other plants1 which mature annually1 would prove an abundant substitute for wood4 8,these have all been exploited for twenty-five years to my personal knowledge1 with no visible results4 ,a plant has one function to perform--it is to flower1 fruit or make stalk4 ,its other functions are subordinate and produce only by-products4 ,the stalk is the main product of the forest tree4 ,no other fibrous material is so rich in cellulose2 no other which lends itself so easily to paper-mill processing4 ,it has no seasons of harvest2 does not require curing2 does not easily decay2 requires no packing1 and may be stored best in the rivers4 ,all these waste stalks are pithy1 bulky and perishable1 and would require much labor to gather1 pack and ship4 ,these are but a few reasons why we may expect no practical results from this source4 ,wood fills a place no other material can4 ,there is no substitute for it40 ,in this argument ,mr4 ,griffin ignores the fact that esparto grass is a crop which gives a yield of cellulose practically equal to wood1 and of equal1 if not superior1 quality4 ,although it is not available for ,american mills1 it is worth citing in contradiction to the flat statement that 8there is no substitute for wood40 ,furthermore1 there is no evidence that the ,american crops furnish an inferior fiber1 though the cellulose yield is less4 ,it is quite possible that the low cellulose yield may be compensated for through the production of by-products along with the paper-making material4 ,hitherto1 however1 this low yield and other considerations1 as expense of harvesting and packing1 have been the factors which have retarded their development1 but the increasing scarcity of wood1 and its consequent advance in cost1 is hastening the day when crop plants will become not only valuable1 but necessary adjuncts to the paper industry4 ,illustration3 ,,ragroom1 ,,pioneer ,,mill1 ,,crane ,,co4 ,the two girls in the foreground are sorting shirt cuttings4 ,those beyond are cutting them into suitable sizes preparatory to boiling4 ,,chapter ,,four ,,the ,,constituents ,,of ,,paper ,the technique of paper-making varies greatly in accordance with each particular product4 ,in fact1 so wide is the range of paper products1 that the different branches of paper-making severally require knowledge so special that an artisan in one branch might be as useless in another as if it were an entirely different industry4 ,the coating of paper1 for example1 is an absolutely different trade from that of paper-making4 ,this remarkable diversification is entirely the development of a century1 and principally the evolution of the past forty years consequent to the discovery of wood cellulose4 ,to-day the products of the paper-mill are no longer confined to the use of pen or press4 ,we ride on car wheels made in part of paper2 sit in paper-seated chairs2 drink from paper cups2 eat from paper plates2 use paper napkins2 wrap our food in parchment paper2 sheath our buildings with paper without1 and wall paper or wall board within2 keep out the rain with roofing paper if we please4 ,our shoes1 even1 contain a paper part1 said to be more durable than leather4 ,millions of packages1 mailing-tubes and boxes are made of paper4 ,it is even spun into a kind of yarn and woven into imitation cloth1 while a surprising imitation silk necktie is produced from wood-pulp4 ,in electrical engineering1 paper as an insulator is almost indispensable4 ,all these paper commodities1 and more1 too numerous to mention1 require special machinery and treatment4 ,to give an exhaustive treatment of the subject would require volumes1 but for the purpose of this book we are principally concerned with printing and writing papers4 ,illustration3 ,,boiler ,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 ,the contents of the rotary boiler have been emptied upon the floor4 ,the next step is to wash and bleach4 ,broadly speaking1 there are five steps in the manufacture of paper3 #a4 ,the isolation of the paper-making fiber from the raw material4 #b4 ,the conversion of the fiber into pulp4 #c4 ,the beating and refining of the fiber1 and the admixture of non-fibrous components4 #d4 ,the manufacture of the mixture into paper4 #e4 ,the finishing of the paper and its preparation for the market4 ,cotton and linen rags1 hemp1 woods and plants each require their peculiar treatments4 ,cotton and linen1 being the original paper-making fibers1 will be considered first4 ,,rag ,,stock4 ,rag papers may be made from all sorts and conditions of rags1 so the fineness of the finished product depends upon the newness and quality of the rags4 ,new white cuttings from textile factories are the best1 as their strength is unimpaired by previous use1 and they may be prepared for manufacture with a minimum use of chemicals4 ,from this high standard1 rags are graded down in accordance with their color1 cleanliness and condition4 ,the first sortings are made by stock-dealers1 and the paper-maker orders whatever grades are suitable to his purpose4 ,after their receipt at the mill1 the bales of rags are opened1 dusted by machine and distributed to girls1 who sort them1 open up the seams so as to release hidden dirt1 remove buttons and other foreign material4 ,in the making of the highest grades1 the new white rags are cut by hand into small pieces of uniform size1 but ordinarily they are fed into a mechanical rag cutter4 ,after this they are passed through a dusting machine to rid them as far as possible from dirt and foreign matter1 which might otherwise appear as specks in the paper4 ,,boiling4--,dyes and greasy matters are associated with the fibers1 and in order to obtain the pure cellulose fiber the rags are cooked1 under steam pressure1 in rotary boilers with alkali4 ,this saponifies and dissolves the non-cellulose compounds1 and the soda in combination with these soluble materials is subsequently washed out4 ,the amount of steam pressure1 the quantity of chemicals1 and the duration of the cooking1 are subject to variation under different conditions4 ,at the conclusion of the process the manholes in the boilers are opened1 and the contents are deposited on the floor1 later to be transferred to the washer room4 ,,washing4--,a washing engine consists of an oval tub about four feet high4 ,it is divided longitudinally by a partition or 8mid-feather10 with a passage left at either end for the circulation of the stock4 ,on one side is located a large roll1 having a continuous parallel series of knives horizontally inserted in its surface4 ,the floor of the engine slopes gently to a point under the roll1 where a bed plate is set4 ,behind the roll is a raised partition or dam1 over which the stock is thrown as it passes between the beater roll and the bed plate4 ,this is known as the 8back-fall10 and assists in the circulation4 ,the roll may be raised or lowered over the bed plate1 and by this means the breaking of the stock is regulated4 ,affixed to the tub are one or more washing cylinders1 so arranged that they may be lowered into the stock4 ,these are constructed in such a way that during the process of washing the water passes through their wire-covered surfaces and is drained into the hollow axle of the roll by an interior arrangement1 called buckets4 ,the axle1 being open at one end1 permits the wash water to escape4 ,at first the engine is partly filled with water1 then the rags are gradually thrown in until the tub is full4 ,the revolving roll keeps the mass in circulation1 while the rags are broken and shredded as they pass beneath it4 ,a continuous stream of fresh water runs into the tub1 and in running out through the revolving washer drums carries off the dirt1 but the fibers themselves can not pass through the wire coverings1 so remain until cleansed4 ,necessarily the water used must be free from sediment or mineral impurities1 such as iron1 otherwise it would fill the stock with specks4 ,therefore1 a filter plant is usually maintained4 ,,bleaching4--,after the washing has been completed the drums are raised clear of the stock and bleaching liquor is introduced4 ,this is an important step1 and if not carefully managed may impair the stock4 ,for instance1 if bleaching is carried on at too high a temperature1 the white color obtained will not be permanent1 and discoloration will occur after the paper is made4 ,much of the paper1 which at first displays a brilliant white color1 will afterward take on a yellowish tinge1 especially if it is exposed to light4 ,a comparison between the century-old hand-made papers and modern 8fine writings10 makes the old papers appear a 8natural0 shade1 but place both for a few hours in the sunlight and often the modern paper will fade1 whereas the old sun-bleached papers remain unaltered4 ,the high artificial bleaching does not insure permanent results4 ,after the bleach liquor has been thoroughly mixed in1 the stock is discharged into drainers and allowed to stand for a week or more1 until no traces of chlorine remain4 ,in this state the pulp is known as 8half-stock40 ,the treatment of hemp is so similar to that of rags that a description here of the process is superfluous4 ,,wood-,,pulps4 ,wood-pulps are of two classes1 mechanical and chemical4 ,in the lay mind there often appears to be some confusion between the two1 leading to an unreasonable prejudice against papers made from either class4 ,the fact is so generally known that news-print1 one of the cheapest grades of paper1 is made from wood1 that the partially informed person is prone to think that all wood papers are of low quality1 whereas paper of permanence and excellent quality may be made from the high grades of wood cellulose chemically prepared4 ,,ground ,,wood4--,the mechanical1 or ground wood1 as its name implies1 is made by grinding logs from which the bark has been removed4 ,the logs are shipped1 or floated from the lumber camps to the mills1 where they are cut to convenient length and the bark is removed4 ,next they are taken to the grinders4 ,one type of grinder consists of a vertical grindstone encased in an iron jacket4 ,there are three pockets over its circumference into which the logs are placed4 ,they are held by hydraulic pressure against the revolving stone1 over which flows a stream of water1 and are rapidly reduced to fibers4 ,these fibers are carried by the flowing water into a chamber below the grinders1 passing through a screen which catches the coarser bits1 the fibers of suitable size thus being separated from the rest4 ,this pulp is still not sufficiently fine or uniform1 so it is pumped into screens and forced through the finely perforated plates4 ,the fibers are carried through with a large quantity of water1 and are formed into thick sheets by means of a so-called 8wet machine40 ,,wet ,,machine4--,the wet machine consists of a vat1 in which a partially submerged hollow drum rotates4 ,the surface is covered by a wire cloth1 and the hollow axle of the drum acts as a drain for the fiber-laden water1 which1 in passing through the drum1 deposits a film of fibers upon the revolving surface4 ,this soft pulp film1 continuously forming1 is removed from the top of the drum by an endless felt running tangent to it1 and held in close contact with it by a couch roll1 the pressure of which causes the web of pulp to adhere to the felt4 ,the felt passes between two squeeze rolls1 and the pulp adhering to the upper roll is wound up until a certain number of layers have accumulated1 when it is cut across by a knife and removed as a thick sheet4 ,illustration3 ,,wood ,,grinder ,the sheets1 folded to a convenient size1 separated by alternate pieces of sacking1 are put in a hydraulic press and squeezed to remove the water4 ,the pulp is taken from the press about fifty per cent moist2 the sheets are separated from the sacking and are now ready for use or for shipment4 ,it is also quite customary to ship the pulp without having pressed it4 ,in this case it contains about #gj water1 due allowance for which is made in billing4 ,this pulp contains practically all the constituents of the original wood1 has little strength1 inferior felting properties1 and is not of permanent character4 ,its utility results largely from its cheapness4 ,when made into paper with a suitable admixture of sulphite pulp1 for strength's sake1 it proves to be admirably adapted for the fast-running newspaper presses1 as ink dries upon it almost instantly4 ,it is also used in the making of boxboards1 cheap cardboards1 pie plates1 wall papers1 etc4 ,it should1 however1 be strictly excluded from all papers of more than ephemeral purposes1 because of its lack of permanence4 ,the appearance of a paper containing much ground wood is inferior1 as the color is poor and small shives of wood may be discerned on the surface4 ,an easy and reliable way to ascertain the presence of ground wood is to moisten the paper with a drop of strong nitric acid1 which develops a dark-brown stain if ground wood is present4 ,another good test is phloroglucine1 which turns ground wood to a bright carmine shade4 ,the quantity of ground wood is roughly indicated by the intensity of the stain4 ,,bleached ,,ground ,,wood ,a quality of pulp intermediate between chemically produced wood cellulose and ground wood is obtained by bleaching an especially finely ground quality of pulp wood4 ,this product is excellent as a filler for medium grades of paper1 as it is opaque--fine1 and of fair color4 ,nevertheless1 it is open to the same criticism as other ground wood as to permanence1 though in a less degree4 ,,chapter ,,five ,,the ,,constituents ,,of ,,paper--,continued ,,chemical ,,wood-,,pulps4--,chemical wood-pulps are obtained by a variety of processes1 all of which have as their object the isolation of the pure cellulose fiber by the dissolution of non-cellulose components4 ,the same principles are applied to the treatment of esparto straw or other plants4 ,the character of the pulp depends not only upon the nature of the wood1 but also upon the solvents used and the duration and severity of the cooking4 ,the preparatory steps to any process by which chemical wood-pulp is made are identical with the preparation of trees for ground wood1 only after the logs have been 8barked10 they are reduced to chips by a mechanical 8chipper40 ,the ordinary practice in ,america is to sort out any knotty or imperfect logs as they pass on a conveyor from the 8barker10 and if the log it too faulty it is discarded4 ,as it is desirable to have a uniform size of chips1 the chips are passed through a screen for this purpose4 ,the chips are stored in bins convenient to the digesters4 ,the digesters are of two types1 rotary and stationary4 ,the rotary type is horizontal and the stationary is vertical4 ,after the digester has been loaded with chips1 the chemicals are introduced and the 8cook0 is carried on by means of high steam pressure4 ,the strength of the chemicals1 pressure of steam1 and duration of cooking1 are the principal factors in determining the result from any particular wood4 ,slow cooking at low temperatures yields the best results4 ,illustration3 ,,wet ,,machines ,,where ,,the ,,pulp ,,is ,,cut ,,off ,,in ,,sheets1 ,,the ,,brown ,,co4 ,to the right are the hydraulic presses for removing moisture from the pulp4 ,the pulp is shipped about seventy per cent moist4 ,,soda ,,pulp4--,soda pulp takes its name from the caustic soda which is used as a solvent4 ,rotary digesters are employed in its manufacture4 ,the principal wood used for making soda pulp is poplar1 though chestnut and aspen are also used4 ,soda pulp is soft in texture and of no great strength1 but in combination with harder stocks it lends mellowness to the sheet4 ,it is almost one-third cheaper than bleached sulphite pulp1 quotations for ,february1 #aiae1 being #b4bj to #b4ce per hundredweight1 whereas bleached sulphite was quoted at #b4hj to #b4ie per hundredweight4 ,the prices since the war have risen over #ajj and were quoted in ,september #aiai at #d4ge to #e4jj and #e4ge to #f4be1 respectively4 ,one reason for the difference in price between soda and sulphite pulps1 is that the soda is recovered from the spent liquor1 whereas in the sulphite process the liquors go to waste4 ,,sulphate ,,pulp4--,the solvent used in making sulphate pulp is a mixture of caustic soda1 sulphide of soda and sulphate of soda4 ,sprucewood1 largely1 is used and the pulp produced is exceedingly strong4 ,unbleached sulphate pulp is used1 notably1 in the making of ,kraft wrapping-paper4 ,the soda is recovered from the spent liquors4 ,,sulphite ,,pulp4--,sulphite pulp is produced by the use of bisulphite of lime2 this1 being acid1 necessitates a special brick lining in the digesters1 which are of the vertical type4 ,sprucewood is the best raw material and yields a strong1 fairly long fiber1 capable of being bleached to a good white color4 ,,mitscherlich ,,pulp4--,a special method for making sulphite pulp was invented in ,germany by ,professor ,mitscherlich4 ,it varies from the ordinary process in that the cook is continued over four times as long under lower steam pressure1 and yields a fiber of greater strength4 ,the steps subsequent to cooking chemical pulps of all kinds are similar4 ,after emptying the digesters1 the soft1 discolored mass of fibers is washed and bleached4 ,the yield of cellulose fiber is close to fifty per cent of the air-dry weight of the wood4 ,the shives and undigested particles are removed by screening1 and the pulp is either run out like ground wood on wet machines1 or made up into rolls1 or sheets1 on a paper-machine4 ,the soda pulp is shipped in rolls and the sulphite in sheets1 as this is the most favorable form in which to handle them at the paper-mill4 ,if the pulp is to be used on the premises1 it is made up into laps on the wet machine and is not artificially dried4 ,the so-called 8air dry0 pulp contains about #aj moisture1 and pulp containing not over this amount of moisture is billed at its actual weight4 ,illustration3 ,,cylinder ,,machine ,,for ,,drying ,,pulp1 ,,the ,,brown ,,co4 ,the web of pulp is shown as it passes from the cylinder mold over the couch roll toward the driers4 ,,esparto ,,and ,,straw4--,esparto pulp is made by the soda process from a grass obtained in the circum-,mediterranean countries1 and is used most extensively in ,england and somewhat on the ,continent1 but freights have been prohibitive for ,american manufacturers4 ,straw pulp is similarly made1 and while occasionally used on medium grades of writing-papers1 its principal use in this country is for strawboard and cheap wrappings4 ,it is expensive to reduce to a clean1 bleached pulp on account of its knots1 and the large quantities of silicious matter it contains4 ,,waste ,,papers4--,the next largest source of paper-making fibers to wood is the waste paper1 such as old books1 magazines1 newspapers1 binders' waste1 paper shavings and miscellaneous waste4 ,this stock is collected by regular packers1 sorted1 and sold by grade to the mills4 ,the poorest grade consists of a mixture of miscellaneous papers of all colors and description4 ,it is only used in the production of boxboards1 sheathing paper1 and other coarse varieties1 and without undergoing any preliminary treatment it is shoveled right into the beaters4 ,a higher grade consists only of mixed papers1 printed or unprinted4 ,next is a grade containing no ground wood or colored papers1 and above this are graded old ledger and writing papers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,beater-,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 ,the beater at the far end of the room is equipped with a washing drum4 ,this drum is lowered into the tub during the process of washing4 ,paper trimmings are divided into four classes1 white and mixed1 soft and hard 8shavings10 and are especially available1 as they may be used after sorting and dusting without undergoing further treatment1 but it is customary to macerate them in some sort of a pulper before placing with other stock in the beaters4 ,the printed waste must be boiled in a solution of soda ash4 ,this makes the ink removable4 ,after about six hours' boiling1 the stock is transferred to washers and treated like rags4 ,the ink and dirt having first been removed1 bleaching solution is introduced1 and finally the stock is let down into drainers4 ,in some mills the draining is omitted1 the excess bleach is washed out and an antichlor added2 then the stock is pumped over to a beating engine to be mixed with the other ingredients preparatory to manufacture4 ,this process is less thorough1 and there is more danger of getting residues of bleach into the paper1 as it is rather a nice matter to exactly neutralize the bleach in the washer1 and the maintenance of a uniform color is endangered4 ,printers1 or others1 who accumulate large quantities of waste papers1 will find that it pays to keep the various grades in separate receptacles1 as a better price may be obtained for it in this way4 ,furthermore1 by means of a baling press1 the papers may be set aside in compact bales1 which occupy less room and are not so great a fire risk as loose accumulations4 ,the fact that #ba4d per cent of the paper-making fibers1 according to ,united ,states ,census ,report1 #aiji1 are derived from waste papers1 indicates their importance as raw materials1 while their use lessens the drain upon our forests4 ,,the ,,non-,,fibrous ,,constituents ,,of ,,paper4 ,the non-fibrous constituents of paper are the mineral fillers1 the ingredients for sizing1 and the coloring pigments and dyes4 ,mineral fillers should not be regarded as adulterants4 ,they are used1 not as a means for adding weight1 but for the sake of certain effects which are requisite in many papers4 ,no filler is used on good writings or ledgers1 as the printing requirements do not call for a closely filled surface or a mellow texture4 ,in book papers a varying percentage of clay is used1 as it improves the printing quality by filling up the interstices between the fibers and increases opacity4 ,papers for half-tone printing require more filling1 in order to have smooth1 level surfaces4 ,there are several kinds of filler in common use4 ,the most common is ,china clay1 of which the cleanest and finest grades are obtained principally in ,england4 ,no equally good deposit has yet been successfully developed in this country4 ,clay is a product of the natural disintegration of feldspar4 ,it is soft1 plastic1 and non-crystalline4 ,agalite and talc1 which are silicates of magnesia1 are also used4 ,they are cheaper and less desirable1 both on account of color and their crystalline nature1 which is more or less damaging to cutter knives and printing-plates4 ,these fillers are used widely in the cheaper book-papers1 and can often be detected by holding a sheet against the light1 as the little1 translucent crystalline particles then appear like pinholes4 ,sulphate of lime1 commercially known under such names as gypsum1 pearl hardening1 satinite1 etc41 is a white1 crystalline substance4 ,this is used to some extent in paper-making1 but principally as a coating4 ,barium sulphate1 prepared chemically1 and known as blanc fixe1 is used largely for coating papers because of its brilliancy and purity of color4 ,,sizing ,,materials4--,starch was one of the earliest materials used for sizing paper1 and is used considerably in addition to other materials1 as it adds a hard1 tinny character desired by the trade on certain grades4 ,silicate of soda is also used to impart similar characteristics4 ,gelatine1 or animal size1 is obtained by boiling down suitable animal tissues4 ,as a sizing agent1 it is applied after the paper is made by passing the web of paper through a vat containing the hot liquid size4 ,casein1 which is sometimes used as sizing1 is more important in its functions as an adhesive for the making of coated paper4 ,it is prepared by treating skim milk with weak acid4 ,rosin size1 the most widely used size1 is produced from rosin by cooking with soda ash1 which produces a soft soap4 ,the soap when mixed with water by agitation assumes a milky appearance4 ,in this condition it is poured into the beater after all other ingredients have entered1 and is precipitated by the addition of alum as a resinate of alumina4 ,,impurities ,,in ,,paper4--,impurities1 either chemical or physical1 are sometimes found in paper1 owing to lax methods or inferior materials4 ,free acid occasionally occurs1 and in some cases would be very deleterious4 ,in papers that are to be bronzed1 for example1 this acid would tarnish the bronze4 ,needle papers1 and paper for wrapping steelware1 must be acid-free1 otherwise they will cause rusting4 ,the presence of free acid may only be determined by an analyst4 ,sulphur1 which may give rise to the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen1 exists sometimes as an impurity in paper4 ,it causes a brownish halo to appear around printed letters1 because of its action on printing-ink4 ,it would also cause oxidization of jewelry1 mounted upon cardboard containing sulphur residues4 ,free chlorine1 or chlorine compounds1 the result of inadequate draining of the stock1 may cause final disintegration in the paper4 ,it is the duty of manufacturers to guard against this and the other deficiencies noted4 ,mineral impurities in paper are not uncommon4 ,minute particles of iron worn off the machinery1 or getting into the stock in the shape of wire stitching1 can often be discovered by the use of a magnet test4 ,in photographic papers this must positively be excluded1 but in most papers1 if the particles do not show as specks1 and are not large enough to make trouble for the printer1 they are not a serious menace4 ,,chapter ,,six ,,paper-,,making ,we have now reviewed the various steps preparatory to the process of beating1 and this process is perhaps the most important of all4 ,the output of a mill depends1 first1 upon the quality of stock which is furnished to the beaters1 and secondly1 on the way the stock is handled in the beaters4 ,a formula1 better known as a 8furnish10 is prepared by the superintendent and given to the beater engineer4 ,this tells him exactly how to blend his raw materials4 ,very few papers are made from one kind of material alone1 most papers being a mixture of different fibers1 with the addition of mineral filler1 sizing and coloring4 ,all the ingredients are put together into the beating engine with a large volume of water similar to a washer1 minus the washing drums4 ,,beating4 ,the process is called beating because it has displaced the original method of maceration by mallets and later by the machine described in ,chapter ,i as a 8stamper40 ,the ultimate characteristics of the paper are dependent upon the handling of the beater roll and the character of the knives4 ,for example1 a blotting-paper is made by a quick beating with sharp knives4 ,this cuts the fibers clean and short and leaves them in a most absorptive condition4 ,the very same fibers1 treated with dull knives and slowly beaten1 would have an entirely different character4 ,their ends would be teased out and ragged1 and in the process of manufacture they would part very slowly from the water absorbed4 ,the paper produced would have the characteristics of a writing-paper1 hard and strong4 ,this instance will afford some idea of the wide variation in results which may be brought about by varying the treatment in the beaters4 ,so important is this step in manufacturing that it has been said with a good deal of truth that 8the paper is made in the beaters40 ,after the process has been continued a sufficient length of time1 the stuff is emptied into a chest called the 8,jordan chest10 because it acts as a reservoir for another type of refining engine known as the 8,jordan40 ,this engine is conical in shape and the inside is lined with knives4 ,a cone-shaped plug1 also shod with knives1 fits into this shell1 and by the turn of a screw may either be moved in or out1 thus varying the space between the two sets of knives4 ,by this adjustment the refining of the pulp which flows through the engine is regulated4 ,the stock passes through one or more of these 8,jordans0 into the machine chest4 ,thence it is pumped to a level higher than the machine1 and flows through 8sand settlers0 to a screen4 ,the 8sand settler0 is a long1 open trough containing a series of baffle boards which collect any sediment1 preventing it from getting into the paper4 ,screens are of various types1 the main feature consisting of bronze plates pierced with fine slots through which the fibers are forced4 ,the object is to give uniformity to the stock which reaches the machine1 and to exclude any knots of stock1 strings or foreign substances4 ,the width of the slots is varied to suit different stocks--some slots being as fine as #aj_/ajjj of an inch4 ,we have now described the process of paper-making up to the point where the stuff is formed into paper1 and must pause for a description of the paper-machine itself4 ,,paper-,,machine4 ,the paper-machine may be considered in three parts3 ,the wet end where the paper is formed and pressed1 the middle1 where it is dried1 and the dry end1 where it is calendered1 slit and wound4 ,there are two distinct types of wet ends--the ,fourdrinier and the cylinder4 ,both are mechanical reproductions in continuous process of the steps taken in the ancient hand methods1 a brief consideration of which impresses clearly on one's mind the rationale of the machine4 ,,hand ,,process4 ,the tools of the primitive paper-maker consisted of a pulp vat for the fiber-laden water1 a frame1 or mold1 across which was stretched a mesh of closely woven wire1 and a removable frame1 known as the deckle1 which fitted around the edge of the mold to keep the moist pulp from overflowing and to help regulate the thickness of the paper4 ,grasping the mold by two opposite sides1 the vatman submerged the mold in the water2 then raised it out1 holding it level4 ,by this means a film of pulp was caught up1 being deposited on the bottom of the mold by the passage of the water in which the fibers had been suspended4 ,a lateral shaking motion served to knit the fibers together1 and to deposit them as evenly formed as possible all over the mold4 ,as the water drained through1 the film of pulp solidified4 ,then the deckle frame was removed1 and there1 on the top of the mold1 was a sheet of moist pulp4 ,the edges of this sheet would be thin and feather-like as a result of the pulp leaking under the deckle4 ,hence the term deckle edge4 ,it required a great deal of skill to remove this film1 while preserving it intact4 ,this was accomplished by inverting the mold and pressing the sheet upon a moist felt cloth4 ,if the act was skilfully performed1 the mold could be lifted away from the sheet1 leaving it unbroken upon the felt4 ,then it was covered by a second piece of felt and the process was repeated until a small pile had accumulated4 ,the pile was removed to a screw press1 wherein as much water as possible was squeezed out of the paper4 ,cellulose fibers have a strong affinity for water1 however1 and it is said that under any pressure which such a pile could withstand1 without becoming crushed and gruelly1 the paper would retain water equal to one-half its weight4 ,hence1 the last vestiges of moisture1 excepting of course that amount normally retained by air-dried paper1 had to be removed by evaporation4 ,in the old days1 this was accomplished by hanging the sheets over poles to dry4 ,after that1 if the paper required sizing1 the sheets were dipped one by one into a pot of animal size1 then dried once more4 ,lastly they were finished to the desired surface by being placed between smooth plates and pressed4 ,,fiber ,,characteristics4 ,a few moments' consideration of the changes which the fibers undergo from their condition of isolation as they exist mixed in the vat1 to their status as components of a sheet of paper1 will help to make clear much that seems obscure about the behavior of a sheet of finished paper1 as well as to explain the reason for the different processes executed on the paper-machine4 ,the fiber is a hollow1 collapsed tube1 the ends bruised and frayed by the treatment in the beating and refining engines4 ,absorptive in nature to a marked degree1 it swells with the water it takes up and is limp and flaccid4 ,as the mold is raised horizontally out of the vat in the process of forming sheets1 all the fibers which had been suspended in the water which passed through the meshes of the mold are caught like so many fish in a net1 and lie spread in a limp1 impressionable mass over the surface of the mold until they are transferred by the 8coucher man0 to the felt4 ,little alteration can take place in the general position of the fibers after they have been 8couched10 consequently the formation of the sheet is the most important stage of the process4 ,as the water is pressed out1 each fiber contracts to some extent1 and1 from a consistency like gruel1 the formed sheet passes to a more stable state1 wherein it can be gently handled without disintegrating4 ,illustration3 ,,fourdrinier ,,machines1 ,,crane ,,co4 ,a good view of the surface-sizing vat is obtained in the machine on the right hand4 ,the paper is being slit just before its introduction into the vat4 ,as the drying proceeds there is a marked shrinkage in the dimensions of the sheet1 caused by the shrinking of each individual fiber1 until the fibers are thoroughly set1 enmeshed one with the other4 ,the addition of size glazes over each fiber and makes it less susceptible to moisture4 ,the addition of clay permeates the structure1 filling up the interstices4 ,up to a certain point the clay does not materially weaken the structure1 as a certain percentage of empty air space would exist without it4 ,beyond that point the clay will fill places that conceivably would be filled by fibers1 and having no adhesive strength1 the structure of a sheet overloaded with clay is weakened in proportion to its overload4 ,while the fibers are more or less moist1 they are susceptible to alteration in structure1 and may in this state be flattened by calendering to a smooth surface1 and the presence of clay helps to fill in the microscopic valleys between the fibers so that the surface becomes level to human vision4 ,,the ,,fourdrinier ,now to return to a sketch of the wet ends of paper-machines4 ,the ,fourdrinier part consists of a head box1 which resembles the case of an upright piano4 ,where the keyboard might be1 is a broad portal for the passage of a stream of pulp1 the width of the machine1 onto a horizontal1 endless wire belt4 ,this wire belt is suspended in a frame some thirty feet long and held taut by being stretched over a number of rolls4 ,the large roll near the head box is known as the breast roll4 ,the still larger roll at the other extreme of the frame is called the lower couch roll1 on top of which is a felt-jacketed couch roll4 ,the wire is kept level by a transverse series of 8table rolls0 closely set1 and the under part of the wire is held down by stretch rolls4 ,directly under the top part1 and continuing from the breast roll for about two-thirds the length of the frame1 is a shallow tray called a 8save-all10 as it catches all the drippings which contain filler1 and some fine fibers which are returned to the screens by stuff-pumps1 maintaining a continuous circulation so that nothing goes to waste4 ,into this save-all water may be admitted to regulate the consistency of the stuff4 ,near the couch roll the wire passes over two or three suction boxes1 and on top of the wire1 between the suction boxes1 turns a wire-covered roll called a 8dandy40 ,on either side of the machine is a frame which may be contracted or expanded4 ,it carries a series of pulleys over which run rubber deckle straps1 the under parts of which rest on the wire and keep the wet pulp within bounds4 ,by this means the width of the web of paper is regulated4 ,as a little pulp leaks under these straps machine-made paper has deckle edges on both sides of the web4 ,artificial deckle edges may also be produced by squirting a fine stream of water upon the web near the couch roll1 but it is not possible to produce this effect across the web4 ,except on special papers the deckle edges are trimmed off by slitters at the end of the machine4 ,near the flow box1 running at right angles across the machine1 are two so-called 8slices0 about eight inches apart4 ,these may be adjusted at various heights from the wire1 in order to regulate the thickness of the paper4 ,their most important function is to make the thickness uniform from one side to the other of the sheet1 and to create a pond which assists in forming the paper4 ,the frame of the ,fourdrinier has a joint near the first suction box1 and a mechanical arrangement called a 8shake0 is located near the head box to impart a lateral shaking motion to the frame while the wire runs straight ahead1 thus imitating the shaking of the hand mold4 ,beyond the couch roll is a series of press rolls1 between which run endless felts to carry the soft1 moist paper4 ,then follows a large series of steam-heated cylinders4 ,next a stack of iron calender rolls1 and a set of reels4 ,as soon as one reel is full a new reel is started and the paper from the first reel is slit by rotary slitters and made up into rolls of the desired widths on the winder4 ,,paper ,,in ,,process ,it is an almost dramatic moment when the machine is ready to start4 ,the machine tender opens the valves which admit the stuff from the flow box and a stream spreads out onto the wire4 ,at a given signal the back tender starts the wire1 and the endless white stream moves smartly forward4 ,then ensues the mechanical imitation of making paper by hand1 only instead of forming sheet by sheet1 the formation is a continuous process in the web4 ,the shake of the machine mixes the position of the fibers in the 8pond0 behind the slices2 the water runs like a downpour of rain through the moving wire into the save-all1 leaving behind its burden of fiber1 or 8stuff10 as the mixture is at that stage called1 in a white film4 ,the suction boxes accelerate the expulsion of water1 and the dandy roll closes the fibers together as the film passes beneath it4 ,then the web is carried between the couch rolls1 when the water fairly pours out in the squeeze4 ,as the top roll is felt-jacketed1 the film sometimes sticks to it1 as a slight suction is created in the pores of the felt4 ,the back tender stands by with a hose to wash down the paper if it starts to adhere to the jacket4 ,the paper is prevented from completely going around this top roll by a guard board which is fixed across the top4 ,many machines are now equipped with a 8suction couch roll10 which does away with the need for a top roll1 as the water is sucked1 instead of pressed1 out of the paper4 ,at a given signal the back tender starts one edge of the film forward1 by a skilful slap of the hand1 which picks up the edge of the film and transfers it to the felt carrier between the press rolls4 ,the remainder of the web is made to follow the lead of the first section1 till finally the full width is transferred to the first felt1 which carries it through the first series of press rolls4 ,an arrangement similar to the guard board1 called a 8doctor10 runs across the top press roll1 so that the paper may be allowed to roll up if desired1 while the machine tender regulates the flow of water until the consistency of the stuff is right4 ,the doctor also keeps the press roll clean4 ,quite often the long end of paper first started at the couch roll is passed right along from the first felt to the second1 carried through the second set of press rolls1 and the third1 if three there be1 to the steam driers1 and thence over the entire battery of driers1 through the calenders onto the reel4 ,from the press rolls it is led by the back tender1 assisted by a third hand1 and if all goes well the paper may be winding up on the reel inside of ten minutes4 ,but there is many a chance for mishaps before the wet end of the machine is adjusted and the heat in the driers is regulated to a nicety4 ,the weight of the paper depends upon the quantity of stuff let onto the machine1 the dilution of the stock1 and the speed at which the machine is run4 ,given a certain volume1 the faster the wire runs the thinner the stuff is spread1 and vice versa4 ,before things are settled down1 considerable worthless paper may be turned off4 ,the width of the web is controlled by the distance between the deckle straps4 ,these are adjustable1 but an allowance of ten inches or so must be made for the shrinkage of the web in drying4 ,the preliminaries to a run of paper may be likened to the make-ready on a printing-press1 though they do not1 as a rule1 last nearly so long4 ,yet this is the reason why small odd sizes and odd shades of paper are not popular with the manufacturer1 unless he can get a sufficient extra price to compensate for the 8make-ready0 costs4 ,,water-,,marks4,c--,the water-mark in paper is effected by raised lines on the dandy roll4 ,the design1 being impressed in the moist web1 displaces the fibers and leaves thin areas in the paper1 which consequently show when the sheet is held against the light1 as they are more translucent than the adjoining areas4 ,c ,the study of ancient water-marks is quite fascinating in connection with early ,printers' marks4 ,see 8,a ,new ,light on the ,renaissance10 by ,harold ,bailey4 ,illustration3 ,,fourdrinier ,,machine1 ,s4 ,d4 ,,warren ,,co4 ,view showing the 8,fourdrinier0 part of a modern book paper-machine4 ,,chapter ,,seven ,,paper-,,making--,continued ,,technique4--,the importance of the formation of the sheet on the machine wire is the same as on the hand mold1 as subsequent pressing and calendering can only modify faulty formation4 ,the stuff should be uniform and even in texture4 ,the press rolls must be ground with absolute accuracy1 and slightly crowned to allow for their sagging4 ,otherwise water would be unevenly expelled from the web1 possibly causing a damp streak throughout the entire run of paper1 which would show in the finished product4 ,if a portion were pressed too hard it would contain less moisture as it reached the driers and become dry before adjacent sections4 ,if the paper were calendered1 the moister parts would take on a smoother surface than the drier parts4 ,another feature to be closely watched on particular papers is to eliminate1 as far as possible1 the impress of the weave of the wire cloth1 which is left in the under side of the web4 ,this can be accomplished to so fine a degree1 by a skilful man1 that the difference between the two sides of the paper is scarcely discernible4 ,the fineness of weave of the one cloth also is an important bearing in securing an even sided sheet4 ,thus we see that it is well-nigh impossible to reduce the making of paper to an exact science1 and a reasonable variation must be expected1 both in weight and finish4 ,the successful management of a paper-machine depends1 from start to finish1 on careful1 experienced judgment and alert attention4 ,if the beater-man dilutes one batch of stuff more than another1 the variation will show the minute the altered stuff appears on the machine1 and only an immediate readjustment at the wet end can avoid considerable variation in the product4 ,then1 from end to end1 the long machine must be watched carefully1 so that the pressing1 drying and calendering may all be kept uniform4 ,a bungler should find no place in the machine-room1 but it is desirable that consumers have sufficient appreciation of human limitations1 as applied to paper-making1 to admit proper allowances for normal variations4 ,,cylinder ,,machine4--,the cylinder machine1 invented by ,john ,dickinson about ten years after the ,fourdrinier1 is much the same as the wet machine described in ,chapter ,,ii1 with the addition of press rolls1 driers and calenders4 ,the single-cylinder machine is used for making light-weight tissues and other thin papers4 ,cylinder vats can also be arranged in series1 as on board machines1 so that the webs formed on each cylinder can be combined4 ,this is accomplished by an arrangement of felts which run tangent to the cylinders1 picking off the formed paper automatically from each successive mold4 ,the felt runs between squeeze rolls1 so that the various plies of paper are pressed together1 forming a single thickness4 ,machines of this type can make very thick sheets1 and are used for making bristol boards1 blanks1 boxboard1 strawboard1 etc4 ,the number and arrangement of driers on any machine depends on the product to be derived4 ,fast-running machines1 such as the large news mills are equipped with1 have necessarily a large number of driers1 as they turn off fifty tons or so a day and require a great drying capacity4 ,slow running machines1 such as are used in fine writing-paper mills1 need a much smaller number1 as the average fine writing-paper machine produces little over three or four tons a day4 ,illustration3 ,,cylinder ,,vats1 ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,pusey ,,jones ,,co4 ,the felts which convey the paper are omitted so as to get a clearer view of the molds4 ,,harper ,,machine4--,there is a type of ,fourdrinier called the ,harper which differs from it in that it is turned end for end4 ,a long felt carries the paper from the couch rolls back over the ,fourdrinier part1 delivering it to the first press4 ,this is considered advantageous in making very light papers which otherwise are with difficulty led from the couch to the press rolls and are apt to break down in the passage4 ,,yankee ,,machine4--,there is even one type of machine known as the 8,yankee0 which has but one drier of very large diameter4 ,this is used in making machine-glazed wrapping papers1 which are very smooth on the side of the sheet which comes in contact with the drier and rough on the other side4 ,the 8wet0 end of this machine is a ,fourdrinier type4 ,the arrangement and number of smoothing and calender rolls is also dependent on the class of paper to be made4 ,most writing-paper machines have no calenders at all as the surface is obtained on special machinery such as platers and sheet calenders after the paper comes from the drying loft4 ,one can easily appreciate that1 while the general principles of all paper-making are identical1 there is a call for a wide variety of arrangements1 such as those cited1 to meet the varying requirements of different classes of paper4 ,,surface ,,sizing4--,surface sizing1 or animal sizing1 necessitates a vat with squeeze rolls4 ,the paper is first run over enough driers to dry it2 then introduced into the vat of hot size4 ,on the cheaper grades the size is dried on the machine by a special skeleton drying apparatus1 but the better grades are cut off and piled up by the 8lay-boy0 at the end of the machine1 then transferred to drying lofts and hung up over poles to dry4 ,hence the term 8loft-dried40 ,any special finish has then to be applied sheet by sheet4 ,,finishing ,,paper4--,finishing paper is accomplished either on the paper-machine itself1 or after the paper is turned off on the machine it may be treated by special apparatus4 ,,wove ,,and ,,laid ,,papers4--,a so-called wove paper is made with a plain dandy1 covered with fine wire cloth the same texture all over4 ,laid paper is really a water-marked paper1 in which the whole surface is marked by a specially constructed dandy which imprints a mark in imitation of the early hand molds4 ,there are heavy lines running with the grain of the paper and lighter lines running across4 ,,antique4--,an 8antique0 surface is obtained by skipping the calender rolls and leaving the paper rough as it comes off the felt to the driers4 ,a medium finish is obtained by a slight calendering1 while the highest machine finish1 and the so-called ,english finish1 is obtained by a heavy calendering4 ,,water ,,finish4--,a common method of obtaining a high finish on heavy papers is by the use of 8water doctors10 which keeps two or more of the calender rolls moist1 dampening the paper while it is being calendered4 ,the surface thus imparted is called a 8water finish40 ,,sheet ,,calenders ,fine writing-papers may be finished in a variety of ways4 ,a plain1 smoothed surface is obtained by passing the sheets1 which are automatically fed1 by a system of tapes1 through calender stacks1 called sheet calenders4 ,,plating4--,plating was first resorted to as a means of smoothing paper in the sheet1 but when a linen1 or pebbled1 or any other special finish is desired1 it is also accomplished in a plating machine4 ,this consists of two heavy rolls4 ,the sheets of paper1 with a metal plate top and bottom1 are passed through the rolls under heavy pressure4 ,if a linen finish is desired1 pieces of linen are placed between the plates on both sides of the sheets so that the linen texture is embossed into the paper4 ,similarly any other substance may be used for other effects4 ,,embossing4--,embossed papers are usually finished from the roll by running between iron rolls with embossing patterns engraved upon them4 ,an extra strength is required of paper for this purpose1 otherwise the pattern will cut through the sheet4 ,,supercalendering4--,supercalenders are machines1 apart from the paper-machine itself1 for making high-finished paper4 ,the rolls vary in number4 ,each alternate roll is made of hard paper4 ,in treating uncoated stock there are also one or two steam boxes to moisten the paper before it is calendered4 ,this softens the surface fibers1 and they can then be rolled flatter and hence take a shinier surface4 ,the alternate rolls in a stack for calendering coated papers are made of cotton1 and no steam boxes can be used1 because the moisture would injure the coating4 ,the paper is run through the calenders in the web4 ,all smooth1 or special1 finishes are gained only at added cost4 ,where the process takes place on the machine1 more breakage is occasioned and more paper has to be sorted out1 as the hard-finishing accentuates spots in the paper1 and little lumps of fibers1 which would pass unnoticed in an uncalendered or antique paper1 are squashed down and blackened by calendering4 ,hence the higher cost of such papers4 ,supercalendering and plating bring into play different workman1 so that the labor cost is increased1 and any finishing1 sheet by sheet1 is necessarily slow and more costly than that accomplished in a continuous process from the roll4 ,,combining4--,many kinds of papers1 as photo-mounts1 double-thick covers and cardboards1 are made by pasting two or more thicknesses together4 ,this was formerly done in the sheet1 but most of the pasting is now effected in the web4 ,the papers are run over a paste roll1 combined1 and passed either through a drying chamber or over a battery of driers like those of the paper machine4 ,the pasted paper is lastly made into rolls and taken to the finishing room to be sheeted4 ,,coated ,,papers4--,coated papers are made by covering the surface of ordinary paper with a veneer of clay1 mixed with some adhesive1 as casein or glue1 and suitably colored4 ,the process is done from the roll2 the paper first goes through the machine where the liquid coating is brushed onto the surface1 passing directly in automatically formed festoons through a long1 heated room to dry1 and finally is rewound4 ,the rolls are then taken to the supercalender room and the paper is given the desired finish4 ,dull-finish coated papers require a special kind of coating and receive very light calendering after being coated4 ,high-finished coated papers of the best grades are double-coated and run several times through the calenders4 ,another method of producing a high finish is known as 8flinting40 ,in this process the paper is mechanically polished by smooth flint stones and gains a very high luster4 ,such papers are most widely used as box covering4 ,a similar effect is obtained by friction calenders1 which consist of two chilled iron rolls with an intermediate roll of hard paper4 ,the top roll rotates at a higher speed than the others4 ,illustration3 ,,coating ,,room1 ,,appleton ,,coated ,,paper ,,co4 ,this view of the 8wet end0 of the coating machines shows the rolls going through the coating process1 the web of paper traveling along the drying racks appears in the background4 ,the coating may be dyed to any color desired1 so that coated and glazed papers are obtainable in a wide variety of shades4 ,illustration3 ,,finishing-,,room1 ,,crane ,,co4 ,the machine on the right is a plater4 ,,gummed ,,papers4--,gummed papers are made by passing the web through a machine1 which coats it with glue1 after which it passes over drying apparatus and is wound into rolls ready for finishing4 ,gummed paper for labels is usually finished in sheets1 while for sealing tape and box stays it is ordinarily made up into rolls4 ,,waxed ,,papers4--,waxed papers are made by applying a coating of parrafin4 ,this renders the stock water proof1 and it is used largely as a wrapper for food products4 ,,glassine ,,paper4--,by a special treatment in the beaters and jordans cellulose fiber is so treated as to become hydrated4 ,this hydration makes the paper produced grease proof1 and by heavy supercalendering the character of the sheet is again greatly altered1 it becoming almost perfectly transparent4 ,in this state it makes a most attractive and hygiene wrapper4 ,,chapter ,,eight ,,the ,,physical ,,and ,,chemical ,,aspects ,,of ,,paper ,the size and weight of a sheet of paper of any given quality and finish are its most obvious features1 and when we speak of the weight of a sheet of paper we refer not to the one sheet1 but to the weight of one ream of similar sheets4 ,most papers are ordered on a basis of ream weight for a specified size1 as1 for example1 #be by #ch1 #ej-pound4 ,blanks1 cardboards and cover-papers1 especially the first two1 are more frequently ordered on a basis of bulk1 as two-ply1 three-ply1 etc41 and thick or double thick in the case of covers4 ,the thinner covers are usually designated by their ream weight1 though frequently quoted1 as are the heavy-weight covers1 the blanks and cardboards1 in price by the hundred sheets4 ,the reason for this difference is probably that such stocks are sold in comparatively small lots1 so that it is simpler to bill them in accordance with the number of sheets than to figure the weight of a small number of sheets and multiply by the pound price4 ,another thing which facilitates the system is that these kinds of paper are carried in standard stock sizes1 as the majority of orders are too small to be made in special sizes4 ,the relation between thickness and weight of a given paper is approximately a direct ratio4 ,for example1 given a sheet of machine finish #be by #ch1 #ej-pound1 four sheets of which bulk 4#jaa of an inch1 the bulk of the same finish and quality1 in #be by #ch1 #fj-pound1 can be approximately ascertained by the equation #ej 3 4#jaa 33 #fj 3 x1 the answer of which is 4#jacb4 ,the difference in bulk between two papers of the same weight depends on3 #a4 ,the finish4 #b4 ,the percentage of mineral filler4 #c4 ,the nature and treatment of the fiber4 ,for example1 on a bulk of 4#jae of an inch to four sheets a supercalendered paper would weigh about #fe pounds1 a high machine finish about #fj pounds1 a text or medium finish about #ej pounds1 an antique about #dj pounds4 ,in other words1 the density of any given piece of paper is proportionate to the amount of calendering it receives4 ,naturally1 the antique paper1 lightly pressed and uncalendered1 is loose for texture and full of minute air pockets1 so that it is light for bulk1 while the supercalendered paper is squeezed to a hard1 dense sheet containing little air space4 ,if the proportion of mineral filler is great1 the weight will be still greater in proportion to the bulk1 as the specific gravity of the mineral is greater than that of the fiber1 and the fine particles tend to fill completely the small interstices between the fibers1 so that the air space is reduced to a minimum4 ,if1 in addition1 a surface coating is added1 we get a paper with the highest possible percentage of filler1 and consequently a glazed coated paper has less bulk in proportion to its weight than any other kind4 ,such paper contains from #cj to #dj percent of mineral4 ,the nature of the fiber brings about a difference1 in that some fibers have thicker walls and smaller canals than others4 ,the treatment causes a variation1 in that a quick beating with sharp knives leaves the fibers more nearly in their original shape than a prolonged beating with dull knives1 which breaks down the structure of the fibers and draws them out into minute fabrill4 ,the strength of a paper of given quality will also to a certain extent be proportionate to the duration of beating1 as well as the amount of pressing and calendering received4 ,the amount of sizing and the drying also affect its strength4 ,an antique paper1 having large air spaces and loosely knit as it is1 has not the tensile strength it would possess if pressed and calendered to a greater density4 ,the addition of loading adds to the weight without increasing the strength1 as it has no binding properties4 ,moreover1 the bulk1 in proportion to the weight1 is lessened by the introduction of filler4 ,consequently it is axiomatic1 that of two given papers of equal weight1 finish and quality of fiber1 the one containing the less filler will be the stronger1 as well as bulkier4 ,the addition of filler1 however1 increases the opacity1 gives mellowness1 and improves the printing quality by equalizing the texture of the surface4 ,the addition of sizing tends to increase the strength of paper1 owing to its adhesive properties1 but if liberally used it detracts from the mellowness and gives the sheet a tinny 8character40 ,the length of the fiber also affects the strength1 as long fibers give greater strength and better folding quality than short4 ,it is not possible to get as close formation with long as with short fibers4 ,hence occasions frequently arise wherein customers ask for characteristics which are somewhat contradictory4 ,a desires a light1 bulky paper with a high finish1 but a bulky paper with high finish must1 in the nature of things1 be heavy4 ,b desires a very strong1 thin1 but opaque paper4 ,it is obvious that the strength of a thin1 opaque paper can be but a relative factor1 while thinness and opacity are irreconcilable features4 ,c inquires for a closely formed sheet1 with good folding qualities1 but the first characteristic is only to be gained at the expense of the latter4 ,d wishes to print half-tones on an antique paper4 ,in this case modern printing inventions have bridged over some of the obstacles of the past1 and the offset press and extra-deep engravings have brought this last requirement within the realms of possibility1 but unless resort is had to these new methods1 the requirements again are irreconcilable to each other4 ,it is evident1 however1 that only through technical paper information can one solve such problems as necessitate a compromise capable of giving the maximum possible satisfaction4 ,the structure of paper1 machine made1 results in the greater proportion of the fibers in the formed sheet lying in the direction of the flow of the stuff4 ,this determines what is called the 8grain0 of the paper4 ,when paper is in the roll the grain of course is lengthwise of the web1 but in the sheet the cutting and slitting may be arranged so as to leave the grain either lengthwise or crosswise of the sheet4 ,this is an important consideration for a number of reasons4 ,in the first place1 it is easier to tear the paper with the grain than across1 as the fibers are parted rather than fractured in this way4 ,this is a point which might be utilized by printers when printing detachable coupons4 ,perhaps the most important consideration is the great difference in folding qualities4 ,many a paper will fold very nicely with the grain and crack badly if folded the other way4 ,again1 a great difference is noticeable in the flexibility of books1 dependent largely on whether the grain runs parallel or at right angles to the binding4 ,if flexibility is desired1 the grain should run parallel to the back of the binding4 ,occasionally a wide-paged pamphlet1 especially of light-weight paper1 is improved by the rigidity to be gained from having the fibers run at right angles to the binding4 ,it is also true that this increases the strength of the binding1 as the sewing or wire stitching passes around more fibers than if the grain ran up and down the page4 ,not infrequently does the middle signature of a pamphlet pull loose from the binding4 ,usually in such cases the paper is not strong anyway1 but it could have had more resistance had the grain run at right angles to the binding4 ,the tensile strength of a strip of paper is greater with the grain1 but its elasticity is greater across the grain4 ,a convenient way to ascertain the direction of the grain in papers that do not show it clearly by folding is to cut two narrow strips a few inches long1 hold them by one end so that they coincide4 ,when held horizontally1 if the loose ends do not part1 it indicates that the lower paper has its grain in the long dimension4 ,if the lower paper has its grain crosswise1 the loose end will sag away from the top strip1 because1 as above remarked1 a paper is more flexible across the grain4 ,this test may be applied either to sized or unsized papers4 ,another test is to cut a small square and moisten one side2 the paper will curl into a little cylinder and the grain runs parallel to the length of the cylinder4 ,this test cannot be applied to an unsized paper4 ,this leads us to a consideration of the effects of moisture and humidity on paper4 ,it will be recalled from the chapter on ,paper-,making 7,no4 ,,vi7 how plastic paper is in its moist stage1 and how tenacious of water are the cellulose fibers4 ,it will also be recalled that there is considerable shrinkage across the web of the paper from the time it leaves the wire to the moment it is reeled4 ,in fact1 the very thing which makes paper-making a possibility is the shrinking of each individual fiber1 occasioned by the expulsion and evaporation of the water1 which has served as a carrier from the machine chest to the wet end of the machine4 ,this propensity of each individual fiber does not cease when the paper is made1 but persists forever4 ,a cellulose fiber will absorb moisture from the air in proportion to the relative humidity1 just as the hair in a barometer is continually shrinking or expanding as the weather changes4 ,a definite percentage of moisture is normal to a cellulose fiber in proportion to the moisture in the air4 ,the fiber swells as it absorbs1 and shrinks as it gives off water4 ,herzberg gives as the results of investigation with a good writing-paper made of rags1 sized with rosin1 the following report of the percentage of moisture retained under various degrees of relative humidity3 ,relative humidity ,moisture contained of the air1 in the paper1 percentage percentage #ajj #ba4e #ij #ac4e #hj #h4i #gj #h4d #fj #f4e #ej #e4f #dj #c4d #cj #b4c ,in a sheet of paper1 where thousands of fibers lie side by side1 the combined expansion is distinctly noticeable in the changing dimensions of the sheet4 ,this gives rise to difficulties in securing accurate register in color-printing1 owing to atmospheric changes4 ,the manufacturer may minimize this difficulty by a careful formation of the paper and the regulation of the drying1 so as to turn out the paper as nearly as possible containing an average normal percentage of moisture4 ,the same conditions are responsible for wavy edges1 which occur principally along the cross-grain dimension of the sheets4 ,the ends of the fibers1 being exposed1 easily absorb moisture as paper lies in a pile1 but the moisture seldom permeates more than a few inches into the pile4 ,therefore1 the larger part of each sheet is unaffected1 but the fibers exposed to the air expand when absorbing moisture increasing the area of the exposed end and1 consequently1 causing it to assume a wavy formation which is suggestive of a ruffle4 ,when feeding such sheets to a cylinder press1 much trouble may arise if the waves occur along the 8gripper edge10 which is usually on the longer dimension of the sheet4 ,in some instances the difficulty may be avoided by ordering paper with the grain running the long way of the sheet1 which also offers another advantage in relation to securing close register1 namely this3 the area of the sheet in square inches will increase least through atmospheric expansion which occurs across the grain if the cross-grain dimension is the lesser4 ,illustration3 ,,supercalender ,,stacks1 ,,appleton ,,coated ,,paper ,,co4 ,for a description of the ,supercalendering process1 see pages #ee and #ef4 ,,chapter ,,nine ,,appraising ,,and ,,testing ,,paper ,the appraisal of a specimen of paper differs from testing in that an appraisal comprehends the value of an object in relation to its usefulness and marketability1 whereas testing is merely an arbitrary method of expressing the chemical or physical properties of the object4 ,the knack of appraising can be acquired only through practical experience2 and the ability to make tests is gained only by careful technical training4 ,in the majority of cases a satisfactory appraisal may be given without chemical or physical tests1 but these are cases when the superficial characteristics1 such as color1 finish1 feel1 etc41 are the prime qualifications1 and such considerations as fiber contents1 freedom from impurities1 exact tensile strength etc41 are of negligible importance4 ,although experience1 only1 leads to the knack of appraising paper1 certain points might be suggested with benefit to the beginner which would assist him to an earlier acquirement of the art4 ,,color4--,color being a purely relative term as applied to the variations in so-called 8white0 papers1 it is necessary to make comparisons with accepted standards of the various grades in order to arrive at conclusions4 ,in common parlance1 white papers may be described as natural1 light natural1 white1 blue-white1 pink-white4 ,natural papers are those in which a minimum of artificial coloring has been added1 and the brilliancy of shade depends entirely upon the quality of the stock4 ,almost all paper is colored to some degree while the stock is in the beater1 and the minimum quantity of order of paper1 which any mill will make on a special run is usually limited by the contents of one beater1 and1 on account of the time required to wash up1 the cost of special colors is increased4 ,rose-pink and blue are the colors used in modifying the natural color of any beater of pulp to produce a white paper4 ,the so-called 8white color0 of the cheaper grades of papers is ordinarily gained by a comparatively heavy use of blue1 and by comparison with a white paper of good quality the blueness is decidedly noticeable4 ,in judging color1 it is well not only to look at the surface1 but also to examine the paper when held up against the light1 making comparison with some acceptable standard1 also noting the clearness of the stock1 as indicated by the sharpness of definition of the shadows of the fingers which hold the sheet4 ,this comparison is affected1 of course1 by the bulk of the paper1 but two papers of about equal bulk may be fairly compared in this way4 ,any judgment as to shade is1 in part1 only a question of taste4 ,permanency of color may easily be determined by exposing a portion of a sheet to sunlight for a few hours and noting any alteration in color4 ,,formation4--,while examining a paper for color and clearness1 the formation of the sheet should also be observed4 ,in general1 a close1 even formation is to be desired4 ,fibers of the same approximate length may be loosely or evenly formed1 according to the skill of the machine-tender4 ,the longer the fiber1 the harder it is to get a close1 even formation1 and it should be remembered that these two qualifications are to a greater or less extent contradictory4 ,,finish4--,whatever the finish of paper1 the two sides of an ideal sheet would look exactly the same4 ,in most papers made on a ,fourdrinier machine the impress of the wire is discernible1 and there is a perceptible difference in texture between the 8wire10 or bottom1 side and the 8felt10 or top1 side1 the one tending to reproduce the texture of the wire cloth1 and the other the weave of the felts4 ,some manufacturers have perfected their processes to a degree that renders these differences imperceptible4 ,papers made on cylinder machines of more than one vat are apt to be more even-sided1 as the contact with the wire of the molds is less protracted and there is considerable pressing of the web between two felts as it is carried along4 ,the evenness of the finish1 and the fineness of texture over all parts of a sheet1 may best be judged by holding it aslant to the light4 ,this also discloses whether the paper is 8fuzzy0 or free from lint4 ,fuzz1 or hairiness1 usually occurs on the wire side of the sheet4 ,this is due partially to the stock1 soda pulp being especially likely to fuzz4 ,it is also due to overdrying1 and sometimes to the action of the suction boxes1 which if worked too hard cause the surface fibers to stand on end4 8,hairiness10 or fuzz is more apt to occur on antique and other light finishes1 but calendering will not entirely overcome it1 and such papers as would be fuzzy uncalendered1 become fuzzy with handling4 ,in fact1 the durability of the surface may well be tested by rubbing the paper between the fingers4 ,in this way1 too1 one judges the 8feel10 which of all qualities of paper is perhaps the most difficult to express1 but usually described as hard1 soft1 mellow1 harsh1 rough1 smooth4 ,in highly calendered papers1 well closed and evenly finished1 the light will be reflected uniformly1 as from a well-polished table-top2 but if the formation is 8wild10 there will be a blotchy look as the small knots of unevenly distributed fibers cause thick and thin areas1 and the thick ones get harder squeezing through the calender rolls and1 consequently1 a higher finish4 ,another cause for unevenness in finish is a variation in the thickness of the paper as it is made on the machine4 ,this unevenness runs lengthwise in streaks1 and may originate on the wet end of the machine if the pulp is not deposited uniformly4 ,again1 the pressing may be faulty at the press rolls1 causing a thin streak4 ,naturally1 the thin part of the paper dries more readily than the thick1 and as even surfacing depends partly upon even dissemination of moisture in the sheet1 a poorly pressed sheet would have a faulty finish4 ,dirty felts also cause uneven drying1 as water can not be evenly squeezed through a felt the pores of which are partially choked4 ,lastly the unevenness may be caused by the calender rolls themselves being in poor condition4 ,it is easy to detect thin areas by examining paper in a pile1 as a pile of papers of uniform thickness will be practically level on top4 ,papers for half-tone printing1 whether coated or uncoated1 should be even in formation1 thickness and surface1 otherwise the printer's 8make-ready10 which is designed to offset inequalities in the plates1 will be discounted by inequalities in the paper4 ,there are some special papers in which unevenness in formation and finish are intentional1 on account of the unusual effects thus gained2 and other papers1 such as wrappings1 where such niceties of the paper-makers' art are of little importance4 ,,opacity4--,opacity may easily be judged1 although it is difficult to express it in any accurate terms1 by placing the papers to be compared side by side over a printed page1 the relative merits in this respect may be immediately perceived4 ,,sizing4--,sizing may be approximately judged by moistening the stock and noting the rapidity of the absorption1 or tested by drawing lines with ink and watching to see if they spread afterward4 ,absorbency in blotting-papers may be measured by submerging two strips equally and noting how high the ink is drawn up into the strips4 ,such papers as are made without any sizing and are ordinarily called 8water-leaf40 ,the sizing of coated papers should be neutral1 but is frequently alkaline or acid1 since alkali is used to neutralize the lactic acid of the casein4 ,this may be detected by taste4 ,the retention of a piece of coated paper in the mouth for a few minutes will reveal through the taste any tendency of the coating to sour4 ,,weight ,,and ,,bulk4--,weight and bulk may be closely approximated by a practiced hand1 but they must also be considered in relation to finish1 as pointed out in the preceding chapter4 ,there are many convenient forms of micrometer gauges for measuring the thickness of paper and any one who has much to do with paper should be provided with one1 as it is unsafe to depend entirely upon judgment when a thousandth part of an inch may account for ten pounds difference in the weight of a ream of paper or cause serious variations in the bulk of a book4 ,,quality ,,and ,,strength4--,quality and strength may be approximately judged by tearing the paper in both directions of the grain and observing the fractured fibers1 but these matters are to be more accurately estimated by mechanical and chemical tests4 ,it will be observed that cleanliness in paper1 and most of the foregoing characteristics of paper1 do not lend themselves to mechanical tests1 but are properties which require the judgment of an expert4 ,,cardboards4--,in judging thick papers1 such as bristol boards1 it is customary to see if they are snappy4 ,an idea of their fibrous strength may be had by folding in various directions4 ,pasted cardboards may be distinguished from unpasted by burning1 for if paste has been used the layers of paper will split apart as the paper burns4 ,this burning will also give a slight idea of the amount of filler in the stock1 as the ash will be greater as the filler is increased4 ,,paper-,,testing4--,tests applicable to paper may be divided into three classes--microscopical1 physical and chemical4 ,the purpose of microscopical tests is to determine the kind and character of the fibers1 and the proportion of each kind1 also to assist in determining the nature of mineral filler and of impurities4 ,it is also used in estimating the percentages of the various kinds of fiber4 ,chemists are able to estimate this within five per cent4 ,a minute sample of paper is prepared by boiling in a one per cent solution of sodium hydroxid1 in order to remove everything from the fibers themselves4 ,the resulting mite of pulp is placed on a slide with a dissecting needle1 the excess moisture is removed and a stain is added4 ,this stain gives different characteristic hues to the different kinds of fibers4 ,the color and form of the fibers as observed through the microscope disclose their character to the trained eye4 ,by counting the different kinds of fibers under observation1 the analyst estimates the proportions in which they existed in the sample of paper4 ,the physical tests are more familiar to most persons1 and include 7#a7 weight per ream1 7#b7 thickness1 7#c7 bursting strength1 7#d7 tensile strength1 7#e7 folding endurance1 7#f7 absorption1 7#g7 expansion4 #a4--,there are two kinds of paper-scales4 ,the most common kind gives1 directly1 the ream weight from weighing a single sheet1 and is of such convenience that almost all paper-users could well afford to have one4 ,sensitive paper-scales for small samples1 #d by #d inches in size1 are of great assistance also1 and should form part of the equipment of every paper-dealer4 #b4--,the thickness is determined by a micrometer gauge measuring to one-thousandth of an inch4 ,in gauging thin papers it will prove more accurate to take four thicknesses1 as the error in reading is thus quartered4 ,the following table of bulks1 which shows the number of pages per inch from a gauge of four sheets1 will be found convenient3 ,thickness of four ,number of sheets in thousandths pages to one inch4 -------------------------------- #h #a1jjj #h #ida #i #hhi #i #hdb #aj #hjj #aj #gfb #aa #gbg #aa #fif #ab #ffg #ab #fdj #ac #fae #ac #eic #ad #ega #ad #eeb #ae #ecc #ae #eaf #af #ejj #af #dhe #ag #dga #ag #deg #ah #ddd #ah #dcb #ai #dba #ai #daj #bj #djj #bj #cij #ba #cha #ba #cgb #bb #cfd #bb #cef #bc #cdh #bc #cdj #bd #ccc #bd #cbf #be #cbj #be #cad #bf #cjh #bf #cjb #bg #bif #bg #bia #bh #bhf #bh #bha #bi #bgf #bi #bga #cj #bfg #cj #bfb -------------------------------- #c4--;,bursting strength is determined by a variety of testing-machines1 constructed so as to record the pressure per square inch which may be exerted before rupturing the paper4 ,in a government bulletin1 ,report ,no4 #hi1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 the following criticisms of this test are made3 8,this pressure is generally believed to represent the mean strength of the paper--that is1 an average of the strength across and with the sheet4 ,this is not true however1 experience indicating that strength as thus determined more nearly agrees with the strength of the paper in the cross direction1 with the minimum strength rather than with the average strength of the paper4 8,among other objections to testers of this type1 is that to a certain extent the operator can influence the results at will1 and even with the greatest care there is quite a wide difference between different tests of the same paper40 #d4--,tensile strength is determined by clamping a strip of paper of standard dimensions in a machine which exerts a uniform tension until the strip breaks4 ,the breaking strength is shown on the recorder1 and the amount of stretch before breaking is also registered1 thus indicating the elasticity of the paper4 ,the best known instrument of this sort is the 8,schpper10 but the machine is very costly1 hence is rarely found except in well-equipped laboratories4 #e4--;,folding endurance is determined on a machine which folds a strip of paper back and forth in a slot1 the strip being clamped at either end to a spring device which maintains a uniform tension4 ,the number of double folds which the strip withstands is automatically registered4 ,this test is favorably regarded as an indicator of durability1 but the apparatus is expensive and not easily available1 hence this test fails of frequent use4 #f4--,the absorption tests are applied principally to blotting-paper1 and consist in suspending equal widths of paper so their ends are submerged in a beaker of colored water4 ,the height the water rises in a given time demonstrates the capillary attraction4 #g4--;,expansion is estimated by taking strips of uniform dimension1 dipping in water and measuring the expansion4 ,chemical tests are for the determination of 7#a7 the percentage of mineral filler2 7#b7 the percentage and nature of sizing materials2 7#c7 qualitative test for starch1 acid1 sulphur1 chlorine1 glue1 filler material1 dyes1 ground wood4 ,the amount of filler may be determined by incinerating a piece of paper of known weight4 ,as the filler is non-combustible1 the weight of the ash determines the percentage of filler1 although allowance must be made for the amount of water of crystallization driven off from the mineral4 ,tests for acids are important in papers used for mounting tarnishable substances1 such as jewelry4 ,tests for sulphur or chlorine are important in determining the chemical purity of the paper1 since such residues militate against the permanency of color and strength of paper4 ,the presence of ground wood is easily determined by a drop of either strong nitric acid1 which turns the paper brown1 or a drop of phloroglucine1 which gives a reddish-brown tint from contact with ground wood4 ,aniline sulphate produces a yellow tinge4 ,the presence of starch may be ascertained by using a dilute solution of ,iodine which leaves a black stain in contact with starch4 ,note4--,for more technical information see 8,paper ,technology0 by ,r4 ,w4 ,sindall4 ,,chapter ,,ten ,,pressroom ,,difficulties ,technical difficulties with paper in the pressroom arise from many sources4 ,they may be conveniently classified into three groups3 ,difficulties for which the manufacturer is responsible2 difficulties for which the printer is responsible1 and difficulties due to atmospheric and other natural conditions not entirely within human control4 ,let us consider some of the first group4 ,,uniformity4--,probably the most frequent source of trouble is lack of uniformity1 either in weight1 thickness or finish4 ,this is chargeable to carelessness on the part of the paper-machine tender4 ,a run of paper which varies in weight will naturally vary in thickness1 and1 obviously1 this could account for uneven color in presswork4 ,these variations would not necessarily be accompanied by a variation in finish4 ,to make paper uniform in all three respects necessitates1 firstly1 uniform consistency of the pulp--or 8stuff10 as it is technically called--at the point where it flows onto the machine4 ,a uniform volume of stuff and uniform speed of the machine are also demanded4 ,the speed of the machine and the volume of stuff are quite readily controlled1 but as the amount of water used by the beater-man in preparing the stuff is usually judged by the appearance of the pulp in the beater1 there are always such variations as are peculiar to this human factor4 ,the difficulties of the machine-tender may often be traced to the beater-man1 not only on account of the amount of water in the mixture1 but also because of the irregularity in the length of fiber from one beaterful to another4 ,assuming that the stuff is right and the formation on the machine is good1 the pressing of the paper next demands close attention4 ,it is obvious that any unevenness of pressure will result in the water being expelled unevenly from the web of paper1 with a consequent variation in thickness4 ,in this case there would also be a damp streak in that part of the web where the pressing was too light4 ,the result is that such paper can not be dried evenly all the way across the machine because this damp streak will still have an excess of moisture after the adjacent areas of the web have become properly dried4 ,,finish4--,in running through the calenders the damper portion will take a higher finish4 ,it may even be so damp as to cause a blackening or crushing of the paper2 whereas1 if the moisture is sufficiently evaporated from this streak1 the rest of the paper may be so dry that it will not finish smoothly enough4 ,on the other hand1 there are cases where the pressing and drying may be perfectly uniform1 but the whole web vacillates from being too dry to being too moist1 while between times the manipulation is exactly right4 ,the result1 obviously1 will be a variation in finish over the whole width of the paper instead of over a portion4 ,moreover1 too much drying makes the paper fuzzy and likely to become wavy1 besides weakening the fibers4 ,another result of uneven pressing is to make the paper thinner where the pressing is hardest4 ,such a defect is quite obvious in a pile of paper1 as the top will not be as level as it would be in paper that is uniform in thickness throughout4 ,assuming that the paper is perfect as it leaves the driers there is still a chance that one or more of the calender rolls may get out of true1 especially when starting a run after they have been idle long enough to get cold4 ,under such conditions they often heat up and expand unevenly so that the pressure is harder in some sections than in others4 ,the result is a thin streak in the paper4 ,whether the thinness be caused by poor pressing or calendering1 it can easily be detected in a roll of paper1 as the thin streak makes a soft spot in the roll which can quickly be located by tapping the roll all the way across4 ,a muffled rather than a ringing sound discloses soft places4 ,this defect1 if bad1 may cause considerable trouble on a web press1 as no amount of manipulation will make the paper draw evenly as it runs into the press if the edge of the roll is slack4 ,occasionally1 segregated areas in paper are found to vary in finish1 and when these do not run in continuous streaks they may often be caused by the felts which carry the paper through the press rolls having become clogged up in spots so that the water can not pass out evenly from the paper through the felt4 ,this must be guarded against by occasionally stopping the machine and washing the felts1 or changing them1 as the occasion dictates4 ,such damp spots in the paper crush in the calendering and make blackened areas in the paper4 ,uneven drying may also have been occasioned by slackness of the drier felt which holds the paper against the driers4 ,in sheeting the cheaper grades of book paper it is customary to cut off from a number of rolls simultaneously1 which often accounts for a variation in finish or bulk in sheets from the same case4 ,of course1 when any of these symptoms appear it is the duty of the men on the machines to correct them1 and in the continuous course of paper-making it is inevitable that felts become filled up and require washing or changing1 or that the variations of consistency in the stuff should call for some form of regulation4 ,stuff which runs too moist on the wire will often 8crush0 under the couch roll1 producing a curdled appearance4 ,stuff run with insufficient water will not form evenly4 ,the skilful machine-tender avoids these extremes4 ,,trade ,,customs4--,in recognition of the many variable elements in paper-making1 trade customs have been established1 such as allowances for a normal variation in the weight of paper above or below the nominal ream-weight1 and reasonable allowance should be made for normal variations in other characteristics4 ,eternal vigilance and alert judgment are certainly required for setting high standards in the manufacture of paper4 ,it is a matter of common observation that mills using practically the same raw materials vary widely in their reputation for uniformity and excellence of product4 ,the reason for this is to be found in the human element4 ,,calender ,,defects4--,a number of difficulties may arise from much less excusable causes than those mentioned4 ,for example1 the paper sometimes may run slack through the calenders1 with the result that it wrinkles and cuts in diagonal jags called 8calender cuts40 ,sheets containing such defects sometimes elude the finishers1 and on the printing-press such a sheet may crack and go around one of the ink rollers4 ,on a web press the trouble from such a defect would be even worse1 causing breaks and necessitating delays on the press4 ,it is more difficult to exclude calender cuts from roll paper1 as it is not always easy to see them in the fast-running paper1 so that an occasional cut is not an unforgivable sin4 ,among other defects arising on the calenders are little scarlike depressions in the paper1 made by small scraps of paper which have become lodged on a calender roll and are embossed into the web at each revolution of the roll4 ,,holes1 ,,dirt1 ,,etc4--,in very light papers1 holes are sometimes found1 the most likely cause of which may be picking under the dandy roll or grease spots on the wire cloth4 ,of less frequent difficulty are the so-called pinholes1 caused by sand or grit1 while slime spots1 or spots caused by slight bundles of fibers1 are also occasionally noticed4 ,dirt and specks originate from careless handling of rags or paper stock1 and are also derived from shives of undigested wood in the wood-pulp4 ,streaks in the paper may originate from a crease in the wire1 and mottled effects denote some fault in the handling of the paper in the wet stages of making4 ,again there are times when sheets are not cut quite square1 which is1 of course1 inexcusably careless4 ,likewise1 the packing of paper may be done in a careless manner1 and cases too loosely packed1 if set on end1 often cause a wave in the paper1 which sags in the case instead of remaining tight and flat4 ,it is desirable that cases of paper be kept flat in storage and not set on end4 ,cases should be made from well-dried boards1 and waterproof lining-paper should be used to exclude all dampness4 ,when paper is finished in rolls it is fair to demand that the rolls should be wound evenly and hard1 and all breaks should be carefully spliced and flagged4 ,,color4--,the foregoing troubles are mechanical4 ,other difficulties may exist1 even when the paper is handled well on the machine1 owing to errors in composition4 ,the color may vary1 and the term 8color0 includes the various shades called white1 as well as tints4 ,color is affected by water conditions4 ,in the case of mills which depends upon river water1 the water sometimes becomes so dirty that it severely handicaps the paper-maker1 in spite of his filtering apparatus1 and at such times it becomes difficult to get as bright and lively shades as under favorable conditions4 ,dyestuffs do not always work uniformly1 and1 therefore1 absolute matches of color from run to run are not to be expected4 ,shortcomings of this nature should be regarded with some lenience4 ,in this class of difficulties1 discrepancies in sizing are the less pardonable and are more apt to be noticed when hard sizing is requisite1 as in writing-paper or index bristol4 ,in such cases a lack of sufficient sizing is an incurable fault1 for which the manufacturer is responsible4 ,there are occasions when excess of sizing would be troublesome--for example1 in a smooth-finished book-paper it would be likely to cause offsetting1 but this trouble may be alleviated by using less ink1 or1 if necessary1 by slip-sheeting4 ,it would be difficult to catalogue all possible sources of trouble1 but we have at least covered the principal defects of uncoated papers4 ,,packing4--,occasionally troubles may be charged to faulty packing--cases too loosely packed when stood on end permit the paper to sag1 thus causing a curling tendency at one end of the sheets4 ,the use of unseasoned case lumber or cases and inferior case lining give access to moisture1 the effect of which is discussed herein at length4 ,the susceptibility of coating to picking may be determined by applying hot sealing wax4 ,if the wax after cooling is pulled off with only the coating adhering it may be assumed that a 8tacky0 ink would work the same1 whereas if the paper tears out with the wax--it proves conclusively that the coating is well sized4 ,,coated-,,paper ,,troubles4--,coated papers have their characteristic shortcomings4 ,the picking of small particles of the coating is perhaps the most common fault1 and is caused by insufficient adhesive elements in the coating mixture4 ,other troubles are traceable to some of the defects of the body stock4 ,irregularity of the finish is sure to come from faulty application of the coating or careless calendering4 ,grit or bubbles in the coating is likely to result in a porous surface4 ,the sour odor of some coated papers is due to decomposing casein or glue4 ,casein used as an adhesive in most coated papers is a product from skim milk4 ,it contains lactic acid which must be neutralized in preparing the coating mixture4 ,for this purpose an alkali such as soda or ammonia is used1 and when properly handled the coating should be neutral4 ,an alkaline coating will cause re-etching on lithographic plates or stones4 ,starch coatings or combinations of starch and casein are cheaper than full casein and do not yield as high a finish and when improperly used have often been the cause of picking4 ,,the ,,printer',s ,,responsibility4--,the second group of difficulties1 or those for which the printer is to blame1 may originate with the improper storage of the paper4 ,as pointed out1 the standing of cases on end is conducive to wavy paper4 ,dampness is a prime cause of trouble1 as will be sufficiently shown later on1 but it is elementary to say that paper should never be exposed to moisture4 ,,engravings4--,the troubles of ignorant or inefficient pressmen and foremen are often laid to the paper1 especially where half-tone printing is involved4 ,in the first place1 too little attention is given to securing proper originals for the half-tones4 ,retouching is omitted in a fit of false economy1 for at this very stage of the game it was never truer that 8,an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure40 ,too much care can hardly be given to securing good engravings4 ,secondly1 the selection of a proper half-tone screen is frequently overlooked4 ,while no hard-and-fast rules may be set1 the best one1 when in doubt1 is to include with the engraver's order a sample of the paper on which the cuts will be printed4 ,he can judge1 taking into consideration the subject and the stock1 which screen is advisable4 ,in general1 it may be affirmed that #abj or #acc line screens are best for uncoated smoothly finished papers1 and #aej or #age line screens are most satisfactory for coated stock4 ,,inks4--,next comes the suitability of the ink1 and there again the ink manufacturer's advice1 always available1 is often neglected2 but experience proves that certain papers yield best results with certain inks4 ,such matters can only be determined by actual experience1 but when in doubt consult the ink-man4 ,,make-,,ready4--,finally1 the make-ready should be intelligently varied according to the subject and the paper4 ,the best printers agree that different papers to some extent require individual treatment4 ,a make-ready suitable for a coated paper is not necessarily equally satisfactory for an uncoated half-tone paper or even a dull-finished coated stock4 ,but it is not within my province to go further than to emphasize these warnings4 ,,grain4--,the question of the grain in paper is certainly1 in many cases1 within the control of the printer when ordering his paper1 but its importance is very frequently overlooked4 ,in machine-made papers there is a distinct grain that is caused because a majority of the fibers point in the direction that the stuff flows on the machine1 just like logs floating in a river4 ,this grain direction is noticeable in folding1 the crease being smoothest with the grain1 because folding across the grain encounters the most resistance and breaks many of the fibers4 ,this is especially noticeable in fairly heavy book-papers1 in bristol boards and cover-stock1 all of which should be scored for folding4 ,cut cards1 to have the maximum stiffness1 should be so trimmed out of the sheet as to have the grain run in the long direction of the card4 ,even in book-papers1 where flexibility is desirable1 it is necessary to have the grain run up and down the page4 ,there are occasional cases when the grain is deliberately arranged to run across the page to acquire more rigidity4 ,a wide page of light-weight paper might otherwise be too limp4 ,moreover1 this arrangement makes for stronger bindings1 as the stitches or wires pass around the bundles of fibers instead of cutting between them4 ,the ,english books are mostly made up in this way1 but they do not open so easily as when the grain runs parallel to the binding4 ,paper is materially weaker across the grain and can withstand only about half the tensile strain that it could bear with the grain1 although crosswise it is more elastic4 ,there is one very serious objection to making books or catalogues 8cross-grained40 ,this is on account of the way fibers are affected by moisture4 ,the cellulose fiber expands in diameter on absorbing moisture1 for which it has a great affinity4 ,indeed1 a cellulose fiber is only stable under uniform atmospheric conditions4 ,the expansion of each fiber in diameter makes paper expand much more across than with the grain4 ,obviously1 the total expansion of a sheet equals the amount each fiber expands times the number of fibers that side by side go to make up the sheet4 ,when the glue is applied to a book in process of binding1 it causes an expansion of all the moistened fibers4 ,if the grain runs parallel to the shelf-back no harm results1 as the paper is free to expand toward the side margin1 but if the grain is at right angles it usually makes a cockle in the binding because the moistened edges of the leaves expand while the dry portion beyond where the moisture penetrates retains its shape and resists the elongation of the wet edges4 ,consequently the expansion of the fibers expresses itself by cockling4 ,,register4--,in all printing1 when close register is necessary1 the danger of poor register from the expansion of paper is minimized when the dimension across the grain is the shorter4 ,lithographers invariably prefer to have the grain run the long way of the sheet on this account4 ,moreover1 they rack the paper before printing in order to get it thoroughly seasoned4 ,to protect it from atmospheric changes that may occur during the printing process1 they use slip-sheets of considerably larger dimensions1 so that there is a generous margin of slip-sheet around each printed sheet1 which helps to exclude the air from the edges of the printed paper4 ,,moisture ,,in ,,paper4--,it is true that some papers are more prone to expand than others1 especially if they have been run too dry on the machine4 ,paper is not naturally bone-dry4 ,under average weather conditions1 it contains six or seven per cent of moisture4,d ,when in the making it is turned off far below its normal moistness1 it seeks to obtain this moisture from the air at the first opportunity1 and in acquiring it expansion takes place4 ,unless the expansion pervades the entire sheet1 wavy edges will result4 ,similarly when the air becomes dry exposed edges of paper give off some moisture and shrink accordingly leaving a boggy center to the sheets4 ,d ,see ,herzberg table1 page #fd4 ,,seasoning4--,this process of acquiring normal moisture is usually called 8seasoning40 ,as paper is probably never turned off at its full normal moisture1 it is most desirable that it should be allowed time to season4 ,it is not unusual to have people speak of new paper being too 8green40 ,this may not have been an uncommon condition of hand-made papers which were dried entirely naturally1 but1 so far as machine-dried paper is concerned1 ,i doubt if it is ever too green1 though it is frequently made too dry4 ,,conditions ,,beyond ,,absolute ,,control4--,believing it to be impracticable to leave the precise normal moisture in machine-made paper1 ,i have deliberately refrained from classifying this difficulty with faults chargeable to manufacture1 and the general recognition of this circumstance indicates the wisdom of ordering paper long enough in advance to permit of a period of seasoning4 ,in fact1 this phenomenon of expansion or contraction of cellulose fibers places difficulties originating from this source in the class of conditions beyond absolute human control1 but a study and understanding of the subject will enable one to prevent1 or at least to minimize1 such troubles4 ,it consequently becomes the business of the printer to inform himself as thoroughly as possible on the subject4 ,static electricity is an element beyond absolute control and the source of much trouble4 ,both phenomena could be controlled by proper atmospheric conditions in storage and press rooms1 but it is an expensive matter to equip rooms and install the necessary apparatus4 ,the amount of trouble arising from these elements is often sufficiently costly in time and material to warrant investigation as to the expense involved4 ,the least a printer can do is to maintain hygrometers in his pressroom so as to keep track of atmospheric variations1 and be guided accordingly4 ,,static ,,electricity ,,in ,,paper ,among the 8paper troubles0 due to conditions for which neither the paper-maker nor the printer is responsible1 none is more bothersome than the presence of static electricity in paper4 ,these static charges1 which are created by friction either in the making or handling of paper1 develop magnetic propensities in the sheets1 causing them to behave in ways which seem nothing but freakish until their nature is understood4 ,some sheets stick together as if they were glued1 while others appear repellent to one another4 ,likewise1 they may act in the same manner toward the fly-bars of the press4 ,it is next to impossible to 8feed0 sheets so charged1 and there is every likelihood of the ink from one sheet offsetting to another4 ,every one familiar with the magnet knows that there are in magnetism two poles1 the positive and the negative2 that two substances of opposite polarity attract one another1 but that substances of the same polarity repel each other4 ,static electricity--or frictional electricity1 as it is also called--exists both in positive and negative charges1 and sheets of paper containing static charges are governed accordingly4 ,paper1 when dry1 is an insulator to electricity1 but when moist it becomes an excellent conductor4 ,consequently1 too much drying in manufacture increases the likelihood of electrical troubles1 because it makes the paper more retentive of electricity with which it may become charged4 ,pure air is also an insulator of electricity1 which finds its paths through the air by means of the dust particles in suspension4 ,moisture in the air forms a connection between the dust particles through which the electricity easily passes into the ground1 but when the air is dry this medium is lacking1 so that substances containing static charges are deprived of these channels of conductivity4 ,cold air can not hold so much moisture as warm air1 so that its insulating properties are increased4 ,it is1 consequently1 in cold weather when this sort of paper trouble is at its worst4 ,these facts suggest the first steps of prevention to take against static electricity4 ,first keep the air in the pressroom warm1 and1 if necessary1 increase its humidity4 ,it is also advisable to keep the paper in a warm room1 for it has often been noticed that paper coming cold into a pressroom gives much trouble4 ,the entire virtue of the so-called electric annihilators for moistening the tympan of a press comes from the moisture they contain4 ,ordinary glycerin1 which is cheaper1 will answer as well4 ,these applications are undesirable because they cause the packing to swell1 and1 in consequence1 detract from the adjustment of the overlays4 ,there is a simple and not very expensive device on the market called the ,thompson electrical neutralizer that has been found helpful4 ,it is provided with a tinsel cord such as is used in decorating ,christmas trees4 ,the cord is stretched across the press so that the sheets are brushed by it as they pass to the delivery board1 and are thus offered a connection whereby the static charges may escape into the ground4 ,a second device of merit consists in a gas pipe with flames at frequent intervals over which the printed sheets pass in close proximity on their way to the delivery board4 ,the most successful neutralizer with which the writer is personally familiar is the ,chapman4 ,by means of an alternating current of electricity1 it supplies through a special apparatus alternating discharges of positive and negative electric currents against the sheets of paper as they are carried along the press4 ,in the presence of such a current the charges on the paper become their own destroyers1 as they draw out of the alternating current only the kind and quantity of electricity which is sufficient for their complete neutralization4 ,there have been quite a number of other inventions1 an account of which the writer published in ,the ,printing ,art1 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,no4 #a1 ,march1 #aiab4 ,all are based on one of the following principles3 #a4--,making paper a conductor by moistening4 #b4--,making the air a conductor by humidifying4 #c4--;,inducing static charges out of the paper by means of grounded wires or gas flames4 #d4--,neutralizing the static charges in the sheet with charges of opposite polarity4 ,another solution of this problem1 as well as of the problem of expansion of paper and consequent poor register1 could be reached by the construction of an insulated pressroom4 ,the air for this room should be supplied through an apparatus in which it could be brought to any required degree of temperature and humidity4 ,the paper would naturally have to undergo sufficient airing in such a room as to become acclimated4 ,after that1 if the conditions remained constant1 there could be no difficulty in getting register1 so far as the paper was concerned1 and a proper amount of warmth and moisture would also dissipate all static electricity4 ,it is difficult to anticipate or to completely cover all conceivable paper troubles1 and when some one which may not be diagnosed on the basis of the general principles enumerated1 consultation with some paper expert should clearly be sought4 ,the author will be glad to communicate on such subjects4 ,,chapter ,,eleven ,,the ,,paper ,,trade ,the distribution of paper is cared for in part by direct sales from the mills to consumers1 such as large publishers of newspapers1 magazines1 and books1 and manufacturers of paper commodities1 such as tags1 boxes1 stationery1 toilet accessories etc4 ,the sale is also conducted to some extent by brokers1 who operate principally in a few of the larger cities1 especially those located within easy shipping distance from the mills1 where the handicap of not carrying a large warehouse stock is at a minimum4 ,the broker carries no stock as a rule1 with the exception of a supply for regular contracts4 ,occasionally the mills will carry a stock for the broker4 ,a few firms specializing on contract business have made distinct successes in this branch of the paper business1 but the broker is not an important figure in the paper trade1 taking the country as a whole4 ,the most important distributing factor to the printing trade1 is the paper merchant1 who with his large purchasing power1 accumulates ample and varied stocks1 at minimum cost 7having the advantage of carload prices and freight rates71 and stands ready to distribute in large or small quantities1 whatever is required4 ,he also helps in a considerable measure to finance his trade by extending credit4 ,there is a distinct tendency toward 8chain stores0 one of the more prominent of which now comprises eight warehouses and seventeen branch offices1 covering practically the entire country4 ,these large factors frequently control the entire output of several mills1 and sell to the smaller jobbers1 as well as to the printers and consumers4 ,statistics on distribution are apparently lacking1 since the ,government has never regularly compiled them1 and the ,national ,paper ,trade ,association1 composed of paper merchants was unable to furnish any4 ,the only estimate the author has obtained1 comes through the ,president of the ,american ,paper ,pulp ,association1 7,the ,manufacturers' ,association71 who wrote on ,jan4 #bbnd1 #aiad-- ,,the ,,paper ,,trade 8,in writing paper ,i should estimate that #ie per cent is sold through the jobbers4 ,in book paper ,i should say not over #cc per cent is sold through jobbers4 ,in news paper probably not over #aj per cent is sold through jobbers4 ,in wrapping paper ,i should say about #ie per cent is sold through jobbers4 ,in box boards probably not over #be per cent is sold by jobbers4 ,tissue paper1 perhaps #be per cent is sold through jobbers4 7,the balance is sold direct to manufacturers who re-manufacture it1 like toilet paper manufacturers740 ,the indications therefore are1 that the very large consumers of printing papers buy direct from the mills1 as do many of the large manufacturers of commodities composed largely of paper4 ,the printers who in the aggregate consume large quantities of writing1 catalog1 and miscellaneous printing paper1 but whose orders are composed principally of many small items1 buy almost wholly from the paper jobbers4 ,in localities far removed from the ,mills1 the jobber very naturally occupies a more conspicuous position than elsewhere1 and his superior facilities for handling the business make him a stronger factor than in the markets adjacent to the mills1 and enable him to handle much of the largest business to advantage4 ,in the ,new ,england ,letter issued in ,january1 #aiac1 by the ,first ,national ,bank of ,boston1 the following interesting statement was made in regard to paper4 8,the ,paper trade is essentially a hand-to-mouth trade in all branches except the news print department4 ,in general1 purchases are made only as required1 and fluctuations in price effect but slightly the demand4 ,in short1 an analysis of the production of the ,paper ,mills of the country1 taking into consideration stocks on hand1 is specially significant as an index of current trade conditions4 ,the situation is shown by the following table which gives an idea of the paper output1 the stocks on hand1 and the number of days' supply available for ,november1 #aiab4 ,output and ,stocks for ,november1 #aiab1 of ,american ,paper 7in tons7 ,normal ,output ,actual ,stk4 on ,no4 days supply per ,output hand on hand ,output month ,nov41 ,nov4 #cj1 ---------------- ,nov41 #aiab #aiab ,normal ,actual #aiab ,basis ,basis ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,all ,grades #cfg1aed #cdh1fdj #afc1eeg #ac #ac ,newsprint #aac1eaf #ajf1gae #dc1ejd #aa #ab ,board ,paper #hc1agd #gh1bdc #aa1bdi #d #d ,book ,paper #fc1dgd #fb1acd #ca1bjj #ae #ae ,wrapping ,paper #ej1fgd #di1afh #bg1jfe #af #af ,writing ,paper #af1aih #ad1jbd #bc1acg #dh #di ,coated ,book ,paper #aj1hfh #i1ibb #aj1gej #cj #cb ,tissue ,paper #e1fdb #e1dee #b1ahg #aa #ab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,it is noticeable from this table what the merchants' service means to the ,printer1 for in the lines that are sold very largely1 direct on making orders from the mill to the consumer1 the number of days' supply on hand is small1 whereas among the items most often used in the average print shop1 anywhere from two to seven weeks' supply is carried in stock4 ,the ,jobber unquestionably occupies a permanent and important position as the distributor of paper1 not only because he affords a centralization of information and stocks1 which is more economical than if every manufacturer had to maintain separate channels of distribution1 but also because he relieves the ,printer of the necessity of tieing up a large amount of money in paper4 ,in earlier times1 when there were but few kinds and a small consumption of paper1 the situation was very different1 and there was no need for the middle man4 ,today the elimination of the merchant would mean the elimination of the majority of ,printers1 for it is inconceivable that the printing industry1 in which according to ,government ,statistics1 #hf of the establishments do a yearly business of less than #bj1jjj1 and #eb less than #ejjj1 could finance itself without the aid of well organized ,jobbing ,houses4 ,certainly the ,printers are in the total1 large and important from the merchants' viewpoint1 but there exists a strong inter-dependence1 which both should realize and recognize1 as a most natural basis for coperation1 in the expansion and increase of the demand for printing4 ,,merchandising ,having considered the channels of trade we come to the methods of merchandising4 ,mills that sell their products direct to consumers necessarily maintain a sales organization at their main offices1 and as circumstances may require local representatives1 in the larger markets1 such as ,new ,york and ,chicago1 these men keep in personal touch with the customers1 furnishing samples1 making contracts1 following up shipments and adjusting claims4 ,knowing the possible customers1 this direct method suffices without any accessory effort1 such as advertising4 ,their business is as a rule1 strictly a wholesale proposition4 ,it happens in some instances that the same mills which sell some classes of paper direct1 manufacture other grades for distribution through the dealer4 ,while other mills rely entirely upon the merchant for their distribution4 ,formerly the paper re-sold by the merchant1 was with few exceptions handled under the private brand of the merchant4 ,a grade of paper so handled would be called by as many different names as there were merchants selling it4 ,frequently the manufacturer conceded the exclusive sale in given territory to one merchant1 but in other cases the same paper has been handled by two or more merchants in the same ,city1 sold under different names1 but not invariably at the same price4 ,such a condition is not unusual1 even today1 but it obviously works to perpetuate the 8,caveat emptor0 theory1 which standard advertised brands in all branches of merchandising is steadily eliminating4 ,paper sold in this way is usually advertised at the entire expense of the jobber4 ,if the grade is a stock article it is listed in the price book and shown in the sample set4 ,the competition between merchants has extended to their methods of sampling1 and no important dealer today is without a well arranged ,catalog and price list1 giving complete data as to the standard sizes1 weights1 and grades1 etc41 and also substantial sample cabinets1 which are distributed to paper buyers4 ,a comparatively recent development in the paper business1 is the exploitation of 8mill brands40 ,that is to say1 a mill manufactures and stocks in the most merchantable sizes1 a grade of paper4 ,this is marked with the mill brand4 ,agencies are established as far as possible with a desirable chain of paper merchants1 usually restricted to one for each ,city4 ,the mill prepares sample books at its own expense1 which are either mailed direct or divided among the appointed agents for distribution4 ,the agent lists the paper in his price lists1 and gives his salesmen the necessary information about it4 ,this represents the simplest form of merchandising mill brands4 ,it has been elaborated however1 until most mills with connections of this sort1 do more or less advertising to assist in creating a demand for their brands4 ,they can afford to do this on a scale which would not be warrantable for the individual dealer with a more restricted market4 ,hence it has come about that many handsome specimen books1 far more elaborate than any the merchants had usually issued1 have been put out by the mills4 ,it is generally admitted that the influence on printing has been good1 and an appreciation and demand for better printing1 especially on the part of advertisers1 has resulted4 ,a few mills have carried their campaigns beyond the field of direct advertising1 which includes the mailing of samples and printed circulars1 and the dissemination of printed samples in trade journals1 such as ,the ,printing ,art ,suggestion ,book1 ,the ,pacific ,printer ,publisher1 or the direct mailing of folders or specimen books4 ,they also take advertising space in the ,printing ,art1 ,inland ,printer1 ,the ,american ,printer and other printing trade journals4 ,outside of these has come the use of such class magazines as ,system1 ,printers' ,ink and ,advertising ,selling1 and some have even extended their appropriations to include national magazines1 notably ,the ,saturday ,evening ,post4 ,in one campaign a ,chicago newspaper was among the media selected2 but the use of newspapers for paper publicity is practically nil4 ,general ,magazine advertising of paper has been principally devoted to writing paper4 ,this is natural1 since of all paper products this commodity has the largest number of buyers1 and the matter of taste is not so over-shadowed by technical considerations1 as in the case of printing papers4 ,the specifications for general printing1 involve more knowledge of printing processes than most people possess1 hence the final decision rests in a majority of cases on the printer's judgment1 so that logically the printer is the most necessary individual to convert4 ,although there has been a marked increase of late in the exploitation of mill brands1 there is no indication of the disappearance of jobbers' brands4 ,a consumer today may fill nearly every requirement at will from either class1 and this condition will probably continue indefinitely1 although the tide seems to be setting for the moment toward the mill brands4 ,this condition is not confined to the paper trade1 and is probably due largely to the aggressive advertising of manufacturers4 ,such promotion work is still in its infancy1 and a continuation of a growing demand for mill brands may safely be predicted for sometime to come4 ,,trade ,,associations ,there are two principal trade associations in the paper business1 one composed of manufacturers and the other of jobbers4 ,the ,american ,paper ,pulp ,association1 composed entirely of manufacturers was organized in #ahgg4 ,its purposes were described by its ,president at the ,annual ,meeting of #aiad1 as 8entirely educational40 ,it collects and distributes statistics of production1 and consumption1 among its members1 aims to develop cost systems1 agrees upon trades customs1 and seeks to bring about uniformity in these respects4 ,technical education has been the subject of much study by the ,association1 and it is hoped will lead to the establishment of trade schools4 ,a labor bureau is maintained1 which helps manufacturers to find help1 and laborers to secure work4 ,the ,association is separated into divisions2 ,news1 ,wrapping1 ,boards1 ,tissue1 and ,writing4 ,a ,book division was formerly included1 but the manufacturers of book paper recently formed a separate organization solely concerned with their special branch of the industry4 ,the ,association has also played a prominent part in representing the industry in tariff matters4 ,the membership represented in #aiae--bdf mills4 ,the ,national ,paper ,trade ,association was organized in #aijc4 ,membership consists of jobbers and includes the following subsidiary associations2 ,baltimore ,southern ,association1 ,central ,states ,paper ,dealers' ,association1 ,empire ,state ,association1 ,new ,england ,paper ,jobbers' ,association1 ,northwestern ,paper ,dealers' ,association1 ,pacific ,coast ,paper ,association1 ,paper ,association of ,philadelphia1 ,paper ,association of ,new ,york ,city1 ,western ,paper ,dealers' ,association4 ,the total membership in #aiaf was #bcf4 ,the work of the ,association has included credit organization for the exchange of information as to credits2 the study and installation of cost systems2 consideration of the relations between jobbers and manufacturers4 ,there are a number of standing committees which have special details assigned to them4 ,they make regular reports at the annual meeting4 ,the existence of both associations is of distinct benefit to their members1 and to the trade in general4 ,the establishment of standard trade customs throughout the country facilitates the conduct of business upon an equitable basis4 ,copies of these rules are to be found in the price list of most paper jobbers1 and as they are subject to occasional changes it seems inadvisable to reprint them here4 ,a third organization known as the ,paper ,makers ,advertising ,club1 consisting of #ae ,mills1 was organized in #aiad4 ,its purpose is to develop the growth of printing by disseminating information about the purpose and uses and planning of 8direct-by-mail0 advertising4 ,its membership is open to any paper mill which sells its product in whole or in part under its own brands4 ,,chapter ,,twelve ,,importance ,,of ,a ,,knowledge ,,of ,,printing ,the study of printing should be more general in all our schools--but not as it is taught so often--by teachers incompetent to glimpse and grasp its widest possibilities--to make it live and thrill with all its latent power4 ,if its mechanical aspects are over emphasized it must fail to appeal to intellectual scholars1 since it cannot sufficiently stir their imaginations to command interest4 ,the printing and publishing industry stands among the six largest from the point of view of annual value in dollars--in this country--and has1 of course1 boundless possibilities for good and evil4 ,nothing is more essential to civilization intellectually or commercially1 than printing4 ,the allied industries are also relatively important4 ,the ,united ,states produces more paper than any other five nations combined and hence offers countless opportunities for a good livlihood in this line4 ,six hundred million dollars and more are annually expended for advertising in the ,united ,states and advertising invariably involves printing of some sort4 ,aside from the positions that require a knowledge of printing more or less complete1 such as proofreading1 publishing1 librarians' work1 etc41 there are jobs connected with the paper industry where this knowledge1 which as a matter of fact is rarely found1 would prove of great advantage4 ,it is evident1 moreover1 that some practical knowledge of printing may prove useful if not essential for practically all men who engage in commerce or manufacturing4 ,they are all buyers of printing1 and it is a difficult commodity to purchase intelligently4 ,for authors or editors a knowledge of typesetting is very valuable4 ,they should know the mechanics of it1 for 8author's corrections0 are the bugaboo of most printers and the cause of much unnecessary expense and misunderstanding about the cost of printing1 because the inexperienced author seldom realizes that the change of a word may involve the resetting of an entire paragraph4 ,when we have agreed that a grounding in printing is desirable for prospective authors and business men1 we have included a high proportion of our population4 ,even professional men will find it beneficial1 though possibly not in proportion to the time required for its mastery4 ,from a purely educational point of view1 ,i can emphatically state from personal experience1 that nothing ever helped me more in acquiring concentration of mind than typesetting4 ,there is a wholesome discipline in the performances involved in products of the press4 ,nor should the aesthetic aspect be ignored4 ,it seems a pity that cultured persons should be so generally ignorant of what constitutes good printing4 ,the same people who would not wish to admit that they could not recognize a ,sheraton chair1 or a ,rubens painting1 have no sense of omission from their educations because of their inability intelligently to appreciate a beautiful example of printing1 as mere printing4 ,a collection of well-printed books is an indulgence within the reach of modest incomes and the source of much satisfaction4 ,considering that ,printing is the 8,art preservative of all arts0 does it not seem like a subject which should be generally touched upon1 at least collaterally1 in every institution of higher education8 ,to sum up a bit3 ,printing is an industry of basic importance to civilization4 ,it means1 therefore1 the livlihood directly or indirectly of many persons4 ,the opportunities open to young men well equipped with a knowledge of printing are numerous1 and the young man so prepared has an advantage over his competitors4 ,so much for the commercial aspect4 ,aesthetically1 printing has risen in the past1 and does still1 occasionally rise to high levels4 ,its encouragement as an art should come from the better educated people1 as well as from the hard headed business men1 who1 by producing beautiful catalogs1 have actually done much to encourage and bring in an age of better printing4 ,educationally1 ,i would like my own children to undergo this training which possesses so much that is fascinating1 but is at once exacting and disciplinary to the mind1 the eye and the hand4 ,there is no escape from the consequences of one's work4 ,it remains proved in black and white1 or even in many colors1 as a credit or otherwise to one's imagination1 conception and workmanship4 ,it is my conviction that there are large educational advantages in the study of ,printing if it be taught by trained enthusiasts in a way to make it live and vibrate with all its far-reaching and inexhaustible power4 ,,index ,advertising1 #ic ,agalite1 #ci ,american ,paper ,pulp ,assn41 #ie ,antique1 #ee ,atmospheric ,effects1 #fd ,bogasse1 #ba ,barium ,sulphate1 #ci ,barratt1 ,thomas1 ,water ,marking1 #g ,baskerville--first wove paper1 #d ,blanks1 #eb ,bleaching1 #bh ,bleaching ,powder1 discovery of1 #aj ,blotting1 #da ,boxboard1 #eb ,breast-roll1 #df ,bristol boards1 #eb ,broom corn1 #bj ,brueckmann1 ,dr41 #g ,bureau of ,chemistry1 #ai ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 #ai ,burgess and ,watt1 #h ,bursting strength1 #gc ,calender defects1 #gh ,calenders1 sheet1 #ee1 #ef ,calenders1 super1 #ee1 #ef ,canson1 ,m4 inventor of suction boxes1 #g ,cardboard1 #e1 #f1 #ga ,casein1 #ha ,chapman neutralizer1 #hg ,chemical ,texts1 #gc1 #gd ,china ,clay1 #ci ,coated ,papers1 #ef1 #eh1 #ha ,color1 of ,paper1 #fg1 #fh ,color1 #gi ,combining1 #ef ,corn ,stalks1 #ai ,cotton-hull fiber1 #bj ,coucher-man1 #dd ,couch roll1 #df1 #dg ,cover papers1 #fj ,crompton1 ,t4 ,b41 inventor1 #g ,crop plants1 #ah ,cylinder ,machine1 #g1 #dg1 #eb ,dandy ,roll1 #g1 #dg ,deckle ,straps1 #dg ,deckle ,edges1 #dg ,de ,vinne1 #e ,dickinson1 ,co41 #eb ,dickinson1 ,john1 #g ,didot1 ,franois1 #f ,distribution of ,paper1 #hi ,doctor1 #di ,donken1 ,bryan1 #f ,dryers1 invention of1 #f ,electricity1 ,static1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh ,ekman1 #h ,embossing1 #ee ,esparto1 #cf ,fiber ,characteristics1 #dd ,fillers1 #ci ,finish1 #fh1 #gf1 #gg ,finishing1 #ed ,flax ,straw1 #ba ,flow ,box1 #dg ,folding ,endurance1 #gd ,forest ,products ,laboratory1 #ah ,formation1 #fh ,fourdrinier1 ,henry and ,sealy1 #f ,fourdrinier ,machine1 #dc1 #df ,fry1 #h ,griffin1 ,martin ,l41 #ba1 #bb ,ground ,wood1 #bi1 #ca ,guard-board1 #di ,gummed ,papers1 #ei ,glassine ,paper1 #ei ,grain of ,paper1 #fc1 #fd1 #hc1 #hd ,hand ,process1 #dc ,harper ,machine1 #eb ,head ,box1 #df ,hertzberg's ,table1 #fe ,hinchman1 ,david1 #d ,holland ,beating ,engine1 #d ,impurities in ,paper1 #dj ,inks1 #hb ,jordan ,engine1 #db ,keller1 #h ,koops1 ,matthias1 #h ,laid ,paper1 #ed ,make-,ready1 #hb ,merchandising1 #ib1 #id ,mill ,brands1 #ic ,mitscherlich1 #cd ,moisture in ,paper1 #hd1 #he ,murray1 ,john1 #a ,national ,paper ,trade ,assn41 #hi1 #ie ,opacity1 #gj ,packing1 #hj ,paper-,making1 ,origin of1 #a ,paper ,maker's ,advertising ,club1 #if ,paper ,trade ,associations1 #if ,papyrus1 #a ,platers1 #ee ,press ,rolls1 #dg ,printers' ,responsibility1 #hb ,rag ,stock1 ,preparation of1 #bf1 #bg ,reamur1 #g ,reels1 #dg ,register1 #hd ,richmond ,paper ,co41 #h ,rittenhouse1 ,william1 #d ,robert1 ,louis1 #f ,routledge1 #h ,samarkand1 ,conquest of1 #b ,sand ,settler1 #db ,save-all1 #df1 #dg ,schaeffers1 ,jacob ,christian1 #g ,screens1 #db ,seasoning1 #he ,sizing ,materials1 #ci1 #gj ,slices1 #dg ,slitters1 #dh ,soda ,pulp1 #cb1 #cd ,stamper1 #d ,statistics of ,manufacture1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,suction ,boxes1 #h ,strawboard1 #eb ,straw ,pulp1 #cf ,sulphate ,pulp1 #cd ,sulphite ,pulp1 #cd ,sulphate of ,lime1 #ci ,supercalendering1 #ee1 #ef ,surface ,sizing1 #ed ,starch1 #ci1 #ha ,talc1 #ci ,tate1 ,john1 #c ,tennant1 #aj ,tensile ,strength1 #gc1 #gd ,testing1 ,paper1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd ,tilghman1 ,benjamin ,c41 #h1 #aa ,trade ,customs1 #gh ,vatman1 #dc ,waste ,papers1 #af1 #ag1 #cf ,watermarks1 #di ,water ,finish1 #ee ,watt and ,burgess1 #h ,waxed ,papers1 #ei ,wet ,machine1 #bi ,whatman1 ,james1 #c ,wheelwright1 ,charles ,s41 #h ,wilks1 ,john1 #g ,wire1 #df ,wood ,pulps1 #bh1 #cb ,wood ,pulp ,importations1 #ae ,wove ,paper1 #ed ,yankee ,machine1 #ed ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book4 ,discovered typographical errors were corrected4 ,the non-trivial ones are noted below4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 8livelihood0 was consistently spelled as 8livlihood02 not changed here4 ,copyright page3 ,the spelling of the author's name has been changed from 8,wheelright0 to 8,wheelwright0 to match the spelling used throughout the rest of the book and the cover4 ,page #aa3 ,the 8,note0 originally was at the bottom of the first page of the chapter4 ,page #ae3 ,the attribution at the end of the long table originally was printed at the bottom of each of the pages containing that table4 ,page #ei3 8parrafin0 was printed that way4 ,page #ha3 8may be charged to0 was misprinted as 8changed04 ,page #ha3 8case lining give access to moisture0 was misprinted as 8case linning five access to moisture04 ,page #he3 8when the air becomes dry exposed edges0 was misprinted as 8when the air becomes due exposed edges04 ,page #ia3 ,no closing quotation mark for the paragraph beginning1 8,the ,paper trade is essentially04 ,page #ig3 8,,chapter ,,twelve0 was misprinted as 8,,chapter ,,thirteen04