,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,kim ,ku ,ha1 ,president of ,buddhist ,committee for #aiag ,page #ce ,,korean ,,buddhism ,,history--,,condition--,,art ,three ,lectures ,,by ,,frederick ,,starr ,,boston ,,marshall ,,jones ,,company #aiah ,,copyright1 #aiah ,,by ,,marshall ,,jones ,,company ,all rights reserved ,,printed ,,by ,,the ,,university ,,press1 ,,cambridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,this ,,book ,,on ,,korean ,,buddhism ,,is ,dedicated ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,and ,,fellow-,,student 8,,kugen0--,,oguri ,,san ,,of ,,tokyo ,,introduction ,the author does not over-estimate the importance of this little book3 it is nothing more than its title claims4 ,it consists of three lectures given to popular audiences1 with the accompaniment of many illustrations4 ,it represents1 however1 a considerable amount of work in an almost virgin field4 ,it has involved hard journeys to remote mountain monasteries1 and days and nights of conversation and inquiry with many monks and priests4 ,it is not1 however1 a profound study nor an exhaustive presentation4 ,it barely touches many a subject1 which would alone furnish more material than could be treated in three such lectures4 ,it but scratches the surface4 ,the material which it presents is however new4 ,outside of ,mrs4 ,bishop's account of her visit to the ,diamond ,mountain monasteries and scattered references in her book to a few local temples1 there is almost nothing on the subject of ,korean ,buddhism accessible to ,english readers4 ,a glance at our bibliography will show that not one of the books or articles there listed appeared in the ,west4 ,all were printed at ,seoul1 ,shanghai and ,tokyo and publications appearing at those centers are little known outside4 ,to aid serious readers1 who may care to secure them1 the publishers' names are given in our list4 ,the author has carefully read all the items listed and acknowledges indebtedness to all the authors4 ,the actual amount of material for the full study of ,korean ,buddhism is enormous4 ,there are many voluminous works in ,chinese and ,korean dealing with ,korean history2 when carefully sifted1 these will yield many important facts4 ,many1 perhaps all1 of the monasteries have records of their history somewhat after the nature of annals2 most of these are in manuscript1 but a few have been printed1 presumably from wood-blocks cut at the establishment by the monks4 ,there is a third source of information1 as vast in bulk as either of the other two2 it is the inscriptions on monuments1 which are scattered in thousands over the peninsula4 ,the gleaning of information from these three sources--for the work must absolutely be of the nature of gleaning--will require many years1 but the work is worth the doing4 ,it is urgent also4 ,every one of these three sources is subject to destruction and even now is threatened4 ,old books in ,korea are being constantly lost and destroyed2 new editions of them are often carelessly and inaccurately reproduced2 in some cases1 the new editions are intentionally mutilated1 important passages being suppressed4 ,the monastery records are less secure than ever before2 with the new life and energy in these old establishments1 renovation and clearing out of nooks and corners and overhauling of accumulations of papers1 places documents1 the value of which is unknown or unappreciated1 in serious jeopardy4 ,as for the monuments many are disappearing and others are becoming undecipherable through weathering4 ,there is pressing need then of promptly securing these materials and making them available for study4 ,the ,japanese are doing much good work4 ,they are gathering old books and records4 ,up to #aiae more than one hundred and fifty thousand books1 manuscript and printed1 had been gathered by the ,government-,general4 ,among these were the 8,annals of ,yi0 numbering sixteen hundred and thirty-three volumes and the 8,royal ,diaries10 aggregating thirty-one hundred and ninety-nine volumes1 8all hand-written with the brush40 ,of the 8,annals0 there were four sets made under the ,korean government for the four old royal libraries4 ,the 8,royal ,diaries0 were compiled at the king's orders2 they dated from ,yi ,tajo himself1 but those up to near the end of the sixteenth century were burned by the ,koreans at the time of the ,hideyoshi invasion2 those now existing cover the period from #afbc to #aijg4 ,japanese scholars have organized a society for reprinting old and rare ,korean books and have gotten out many volumes4 ,they are piling up direct observations also4 ,from #aiji to #aiae1 they conducted a peninsula-wide survey of ancient monuments and have printed the results in four fine volumes1 with splendid illustrations1 under the title ,chosen ko seki gafu4 ,they have taken steps toward the preservation and1 where necessary1 the reconstruction of important monuments and notable buildings4 ,they are copying the monastery records and ultimately will have a complete set of all that remain4 ,the originals ought to be left in possession of the monasteries themselves1 with the obligation to guard and keep them safely4 ,as to monumental inscriptions1 the ,government-,general has been equally industrious4 ,up to ,march1 #aiae1 there had been made thirteen hundred and seventy-seven direct rubbings from inscribed stones1 of which forty-four represented ,sylla1 forty-three the period of the ,koryu ,dynasty and thirteen hundred and three the ,yi ,dynasty4 ,it is fortunate that this preservation of material is being undertaken4 ,the world will profit by it1 though it may still be long locked up in ,chinese characters4 ,in this book the work of ,yi ,nung ,hwa is mentioned4 ,his ,buddhist magazine should yield some data of value4 ,if his ,history of ,korean ,buddhism is printed it ought to be of high importance1 as he naturally has a much easier task in consulting the original sources than any foreigner4 ,if his work is done with care and critical judgment it should be the necessary foundation for all future study4 ,all depends upon how he performs his task4 ,readers who become interested in our lectures are advised to read ,bishop ,trollope's admirable ,introduction4 ,it clears the ground and indicates the direction of further studies4 ,the author has hundreds of negatives illustrating ,korean ,buddhism4 ,one hundred and fifty pictures were used in the original lectures4 ,when cutting down to what seemed the absolute limit1 in selecting pictures for the book1 he found that he had more than double the number permitted by the necessary conditions4 ,further reduction was difficult and many pictures have been rejected1 which are more beautiful or interesting than some of those that are included4 ,the final choice was based upon the desire to give as clear an idea as possible of actual conditions and to represent all the important phases presented in the lectures4 ,one or two of the pictures were made by ,manuel ,gonzales in #aiaa2 all the others are the work of ,maebashi ,hambei1 who accompanied me1 in my last three expeditions to ,korea1 as photographer4 ,chicago1 ,july #ab1 #aiah4 ,,contents ,korean ,buddhism3 ,,page ,history #a ,condition #cb ,art #ff ,bibliography #ig ,notes #ii ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plate ,,facing ,,page ,i ,kim ,ku ,ha4 ,president of ,buddhist ,committee for #aiag ,frontispiece ,,ii ,general view3 ,pomo-sa #b ,,iii ,general view3 ,yuchom-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains #d ,,iv ,sari monuments3 ,yuchom-sa #f ,v ,main ,temple3 ,kumsan-sa #aj ,,vi ,sari monument pyramid1 ,kumsan-sa4 7,a relic of ,buddha is supposed to be enshrined here7 #af ,,vii ,geomantic ,mast3 ,chung-ju #ah ,,viii ,the ,buddha3 cave temple1 ,sukkul-am #bb ,,ix ,bodhisattva figure1 ,sukkul-am #bd ,x ,great ,miriok3 ,eunjin4 ,general view #bf ,,xi ,group at ,fukoan1 branch of ,sinkei-sa2 ,diamond ,mountains #bh ,,xii ,hain-sa3 ,building for the ,wood-blocks #cd ,,xiii ,hain-sa3 ,building for the ,wood-blocks1 interior #ch ,,xiv ,great ,buddha relief on rock face3 ,inner ,kongo #dd ,,xv ,sari monument to ,muhak3 ,hoiam-sa #dh ,,xvi ,head-priest and ,pagoda3 ,sinkei-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains #ej ,,xvii ,main ,temple3 ,yuchom-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains #eb ,,xviii ,carved ,door1 ,yuchom-sa #ed ,,xix ,brahmanic ,guardian of ,buddhism3 ,songkwang-sa #ef ,,xx1 ,a1 ,b4 ,two ,deva ,kings1 ,guardians of ,world ,quarters3 ,sukwang-sa #eh ,,xxi ,gigantic ,deva ,king4 ,guardian of ,world ,quarter3 ,pawpchu-sa4 ,the ,korean standing by is a married man of normal stature #fj ,,xxii ,wall painting3 ,the ,white ,tortoise ,scene of the ,sei-yeu-ki3 ,pongeum-sa #ff ,,xxiii ,wall paintings on plaster3 ,sukwang-sa #fh ,,xxiv ,great figures of ,buddhist ,trinity1 seated3 ,pawpchu-sa4 ,sakya1 ,monju1 ,fugen #gj ,,xxv ,great figures of ,buddhist ,trinity1 standing3 ,kumsan-sa4 ,amida1 ,kwannon1 ,daiseishi4 7,thirty feet or so in height7 #gb ,,xxvi ,figures--a ,trio of ,trinities3 ,sukwang-sa4 7,the figures are said to be ,kwannon1 ,amida1 ,daiseishi1 ,monju1 ,vairoshana1 ,fugen1 ,jihi1 ,sakyamuni ,teikakara7 #gd ,,xxvii ,figure and painting of ,kwannon3 ,pomo-sa #gf ,,xxviii ,hall of the ,ten ,kings of ,hell3 ,yongju-sa4 7,notice combination of figures and painting2 the god of hell with two helpers1 five kings with small servants1 two other officers1 and one of the two ,brahmanic guardians7 #gh ,,xxix ,hall of ,five ,hundred ,rakan3 ,sukwang-sa #hj ,,xxx ,extraordinary combinations of ,rakan figures3 ,hall of ,five ,hundred ,rakan3 ,songkwang-sa #hb ,,xxxi ,painting of the ,seven ,stars3 ,sukwang-sa #hd ,,xxxii ,group painting3 ,sukwang-sa #hf ,,xxxiii ,one of the ,eight ,scenes in the ,life of ,buddha3 ,sakya gains ,enlightenment3 ,pomo-sa #hh ,,xxxiv ,the ,god of the ,mountain3 ,fuko-an1 branch of ,sinkei-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains #ij ,,xxxv ,portrait of one of the chiefs of the ,sixteen ,kakan3 ,chikchi-sa #ib ,,xxxvi ,great painting3 ,pawpchu-sa #id ,,xxxvii ,great painting displayed at ,buddha's ,birthday ,ceremony3 ,tongdo-sa #id ,,korean ,,buddhism ,,korean ,,buddhism3 ,,history ,since #aiaa it has been my privilege to make four journeys into ,korea1 so long known as 8,the ,hermit ,kingdom40 ,to-day ,korea has ceased to be an independent nation2 she has been completely absorbed by ,japan and forms part of the ,japanese ,empire4 ,i found much of interest in the country4 ,i studied the people and their daily life2 ,i visited many of the famous points of interest and beauty2 ,i have studied somewhat into ,korean history4 ,nothing1 however1 has more interested me than the study of ,korean religions1 particularly ,buddhism4 ,when asked to give some public lectures this summer1 ,i consented gladly to speak for three evenings on the subject of ,korean ,buddhism4 ,my three lectures will deal with ,history--,condition--,art4 ,the history of ,korea falls into three sharply marked periods4 ,the first is known as the era of the ,three ,kingdoms--it ended with the year #iah1 a year easy to remember because exactly one thousand years ago4 ,the second is the period of the ,koryu ,dynasty2 it began with the year #iah and ended in #acib1 a date easy for us to remember because precisely a century before the discovery of ,america by ,columbus4 ,the third period1 known as the period of the ,yi ,dynasty1 began with #acib and continued until #aiaj1 when the independent history of ,korea ended with its absorption by ,japan4 ,the history of ,buddhism in ,korea is divided into the same three periods1 as the things which caused breaks in the national history were related to the religion4 ,we shall then speak of the ,buddhism of the ,three ,kingdoms1 of the ,koryu ,dynasty and of the ,yi ,dynasty4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,general view3 ,pomo-sa ,page #ca ,the early period is called the era of the ,three ,kingdoms because at that time the peninsula was occupied by three different nations4 ,the largest1 in the north1 was called ,koguryu4 ,japanese pronounce the name as ,koma4 ,it occupied more than half of the peninsula4 ,its capital city was ,p'yeng-,yang1 still a city of importance4 ,the second kingdom was smaller2 in the southwest of the peninsula1 it was known by the name of ,pakche1 which is pronounced by the ,japanese ,kudara4 ,the third kingdom occupied the southeastern section of the peninsula4 ,it was larger than ,pakche1 but smaller than ,koguryu1 and was called ,silla1 ,japanese1 ,shiragi4 ,such then1 were the three kingdoms which existed through a period of hundreds of years4 ,unfortunately all names in ,korea have several pronunciations4 ,they are usually spelled with ,chinese characters4 ,if a ,chinese pronounces the name1 he will pronounce it in a certain way1 dependent upon what part of ,china he comes from2 a ,korean will pronounce the same characters quite differently2 a ,japanese has still a different pronunciation4 ,it is for this reason that the ,korean and ,japanese names of these kingdoms differ2 the same characters are pronounced ,koguryu by the ,koreans and ,koma by the ,japanese2 ,pakche on the ,korean tongue becomes ,kudara with the ,japanese2 and where the ,korean says ,silla1 the ,japanese says ,shiragi4 ,such then was the condition of the peninsula preceding #iah4 ,it was divided into three kingdoms1 each with its own ruler4 ,buddhism1 a religion which began in ,india1 came to ,korea by way of ,china4 ,it naturally first reached the northern kingdom4 ,it was introduced in #cfi ,a4,d4 and its introduction was the result of foreign missionary effort4 ,in those days there was an ,empire of ,china1 but there were also various small ,chinese kingdoms along the northern border of the ,korean peninsula4 ,buddhism came to ,koguryu from one of these little ,chinese kingdoms1 the king of which sent its message by the hands of a priest named ,sundo1 who brought idols and sacred texts4 ,he was well received on his appearance in ,p'yeng-,yang4 ,the king of the country placed the crown prince in his care for education4 ,in a few years the new religion had made great headway4 ,it had brought with it art and education1 and the kingdom of ,koguryu became a center of culture and advancement4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,general view3 ,yuchom-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains ,page #ce ,five years later1 in #cgd1 another priest named ,ado was sent from the same ,chinese kingdom4 ,his coming added impetus to the religion and two great monasteries were founded near ,p'yeng-,yang1 over one of which ,ado was placed1 while ,sundo had charge of the other4 ,these two monasteries were not only centers of religion1 they were full-fledged universities according to the ideas of the universities in those days4 ,after they were founded ,buddhism continued to spread rapidly so that in #cib it became the official religion of the kingdom4 ,we are told that in the year #cgh1 as the result of the coming of these foreign priests1 the city of ,p'yeng-,yang was laid out as a great ship4 ,to us this sounds strange4 ,it is not easy for us to realize that a city was really regarded as a great ship and that a mast was erected in its midst1 apparently in order that the sails of prosperity might waft the ship to good fortune and success4 ,outside the city were stone posts to which the ship was to be tied up1 and for many years it was forbidden to dig wells in the city because it was feared that if a well were dug1 the boat would spring a leak and the whole place would be foundered4 ,such was science in the fourth century4 ,it seems strange to us now1 but ideas of that kind were rife in those days2 in fact they have not yet disappeared from popular thought in ,korea4 ,i am not sure whether such ideas are connected with ,buddhism1 or whether they only form a part of that old geomantic philosophy which has so greatly influenced ,china1 ,korea and ,japan through centuries4 ,we find geomantic survivals of many kinds in many places4 ,old masts are scattered all over ,korea1 here and there1 sometimes in quite inaccessible places2 built of wood1 they rise to a great height1 and are sheathed with metal1 which may bear an inscription and date4 ,many other places than ,p'yeng-,yang were thought of as great ships--temples1 cities1 entire valleys4 7,plate ,,vii47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,sari monuments3 ,yuchom-sa ,page #ee ,at ,tongdo-sa1 a great monastery in the south of ,korea1 my attention was called to an iron ring fastened to a rock near the trail4 ,they told me that it was for the tethering of a great ox1 that all the mound of earth and rock near there is considered to be a great ox lying down2 a hole about a foot in diameter in the rock1 close by the trail1 is said to be the nostril of the creature1 and a knoll of earth near by formed its head1 while the great body stretched out far beyond4 ,at ,riri my attention was called to a mountain ridge and ,i was told that it was a running horse2 two stone pillars stood on the level ground near by--they were intended to prevent the horse from damaging the fields4 ,it seems that many years ago it was realized that a running horse was likely to do damage to growing crops2 the wise men of the district were called together and consulted2 they determined that they would destroy the danger by erecting these pillars of stone1 beyond which the horse cannot go4 ,perhaps ideas like these were taught in those old universities in #cge ,a4,d4 ,perhaps they were then1 as now1 individual and professional knowledge1 not to be learned in schools4 ,the new religion next entered the little kingdom of ,pakche4 ,this was in the year #chd4 ,this time it was not sent unsolicited by some little ,chinese kingdom1 but came by request from ,china proper4 ,the people of ,pakche knew what ,buddhism had done for ,koguryu and they asked the ,emperor of ,china to send them a famous priest named ,marananda4 ,it seems that he was a ,hindu1 who had a great reputation for learning4 ,he brought with him images and texts and all the paraphernalia necessary for the gorgeous ceremonials of his religion4 ,he was received with great respect by the king and was lodged in the palace4 ,soon after ten other priests came from ,china and the religion made rapid headway through ,pakche4 ,it was from ,pakche in the year #eeb that ,buddhism was sent for the first time into ,japan4 ,the king of ,pakche sent images and texts and a letter to the ,emperor1 ,kimmei1 saying that it was a good religion1 and that he hoped the ,japanese would accept it4 ,last of the three kingdoms to receive ,buddhism was ,silla1 to which it came about #dbd4 ,it is reported to have come from the capital city of ,koguryu1 ,p'yeng-,yang1 and the priest who brought it was named ,mukocha4 ,he appears to have gone down the ,taidong ,river to the sea and then around the peninsula and up the east coast in order to reach ,silla4 ,he is always spoken of as a black man1 or negro2 perhaps he was actually an ,african4 ,there seems to have been some mystery about his arrival2 it may be that the people did not like his color1 or were afraid of his strange appearance4 ,he hired himself out as a plowman to a farmer named ,morei4 ,his employer concealed him in a cave4 ,it is said that when he was hidden in this cave it frequently shone with glory4 ,outside the cave there was a peach tree1 which burst into bloom with flowers of five different colors1 and in the winter1 when there was snow on the mountains outside1 irises and other flowers of wondrous fragrance are said to have broken their way up through the snow4 ,the black monk is said to have worn a red cap and a crimson kesa4 ,it would seem that the whole neighborhood must have known about these wonders4 ,about this time it is said that an ambassador from ,china came to the king of ,silla at his capital city of ,kyong ,ju4 ,the messenger brought various gifts1 among them a substance which no one knew2 it had never been seen before in ,silla4 ,it seems strange that the ambassador should not have known what he brought1 but it is asserted that he was ignorant in the matter1 and so the king sent to the cave--only ten miles away--and ordered the black monk to come to ,kyong ,ju to identify the gift4 ,he had no trouble in recognizing it1 because it was incense1 common enough in ,chinese ,buddhism1 but before unseen in ,silla4 ,he told them that when burned before an idol with prayers of faith1 the god was sure to answer petitions4 ,it happened at the moment that the king's daughter was ill1 and he begged the black monk to try the efficacy of incense and prayer4 ,seven days he spent in prayer before the idol and a cure was wrought4 ,soon afterwards ,mukocha begged the king to send to ,china and the ,west for artists to come and cut figures in the rock walls of his cave1 as he desired to make a chapel to the gods4 ,the request was sent1 the artists came1 and it is said that they spent forty years in carving the wonderful figures which to this day adorn the walls of the little circular chapel in the mountain cave4 ,it would require a separate lecture for me to tell you of my visit to that remarkable shrine1 with its genuine treasures of art4 7,plates ,,viii1 ,,ix47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v ,main ,temple3 ,kumsan-sa ,page #gb ,i must1 however1 say something about the old capital city of ,kyong ,ju4 ,it had its period of glory1 and its ruins are still impressive4 ,almost fifteen hundred years have passed since the black monk brought in the new religion4 ,to-day there remains only a little town1 but all the country around is sprinkled with the relics of the past4 ,here is the splendid grave of ,general ,kim1 twelve hundred years old4 ,it is faced around with stone slabs1 set firmly in place1 twelve of them being carved with the animals of the ,eastern ,zodiac4 ,here are the ruins of an ice-house1 perhaps nine hundred years old2 cunningly built of stone1 under a mound of earth1 with true arch-vaulting1 it sheltered ice for the chilling of food and the cooling of drink a thousand years ago4 ,there remains here a portion of a beautiful pagoda2 much of it was destroyed in the sixteenth century1 when ,hideyoshi's army of invasion came from ,japan and wrought havoc and destruction in ,korea2 built in the seventh century1 it was a beautiful structure of splendid1 thoroughly-baked black bricks and stone2 stone doors below1 moving on stone pivots set in stone sockets were decorated with carved work4 ,to-day only the three lower stories remain1 but they serve to show that the people were true artists4 ,here1 too1 one sees an astronomical observatory1 built of stone1 a sort of tower of circular form1 seventeen feet through2 it was intended for the observation of heavenly bodies2 nearly thirteen hundred years of age1 it is perhaps the oldest existing building constructed for such purposes in the world4 ,in those fine days1 ,kyong ,ju was a center of trade and industry4 ,chinese1 ,koreans and ,japanese were there2 we are certain that ,tibetans1 ,indians and ,persians came thither1 and it is claimed that merchants from ,arabia used to stand in its market place4 ,of course we all know of the antiquity of culture around the ,mediterranean ,sea2 we appreciate its achievements1 and love to think of its glories2 but we are apt to think of the ,far ,east as being eternally stagnant and it surprises us to learn of a busy mart of trade in ,kyong ,ju1 ,silla4 ,and it had its scholars also4 ,there was ,ch'oe ,chuen4 ,he was a poet and essayist2 he was a skilled calligrapher1 writing the beautiful ,chinese characters famously2 he was reckoned as one of the great sages and learned men of his day in ,china proper1 than which there was no higher honor4 ,during the period of the ,three ,kingdoms1 ,buddhism thus penetrated to every part of the peninsula4 ,it prospered4 ,splendid temples were built1 great monasteries constructed1 magnificent bells cast1 beautiful pagodas erected1 figures carved by thousands4 ,religions that prosper too greatly become corrupt4 ,state religions tend to become curses4 ,religious endowments tie up money which the people need4 ,the dead hand may hold under restraint property which should be at work1 helping the world4 ,all this happened with ,buddhism in ,korea4 ,in the last days of the ,three ,kingdoms ,korean ,buddhism was refined and artistic1 impressive and beautiful1 but was corrupt and harmful rather than helpful4 ,we may1 perhaps1 take the date #fhe ,a4,d4 as marking the greatest glory of ,silla4 ,at that time she was gaining power over the neighboring kingdoms and before her glory ended she ruled the whole peninsula4 ,in #hgf the king of ,silla was named ,chung--also called ,hongang4 ,during his rule the country was rapidly declining4 ,he was followed by his brother1 who in turn was succeeded by his sister1 who became queen of ,silla in #hhh4 ,her name was ,man4 ,the only reason why we mention these three rulers is that we wish to introduce the man who led up to the second period of ,korean history4 ,his name was ,kun-ye4 ,he was the son of king ,chung1 by a concubine1 but never became king of ,silla4 ,when his aunt1 queen ,man1 was ruling1 he became a disturbing element1 heading an insurrection4 ,the glory of ,silla was really past and the old kingdom was rapidly declining4 ,kun-ye was fortunate in having an excellent general1 named ,wang-on1 and made headway with his rebellion2 founding a new kingdom in central ,korea1 he gradually extended his rule1 through the skilful leadership of ,wang-on1 until much of the middle part of the peninsula was under his control4 ,but the man was mad1 religiously mad4 ,he was not only a ,buddhist2 he called himself a ,buddha4 ,under the cloak of religion he did all kinds of wild and wicked things1 and indulged in the most absurd extravagances4 ,finally the burden of his tyranny and his religious claims became so heavy that his officials plotted against him and begged his general1 ,wang-on1 to dethrone him and seize the power4 ,ultimately that very thing happened1 and in the year #iah1 one thousand years ago1 ,wang-on became the first king of a new dynasty1 that of ,koryu4 ,before we leave the period of the ,three ,kingdoms1 however1 let us notice two interesting matters4 ,you remember that ,buddhism was brought to the ,three ,kingdoms by three priests--,sundo1 ,marananda1 ,mukocha4 ,sundo was a man from ,tibet2 ,i suppose he represented the great ,mongolian race1 that he was a yellow man2 ,marananda1 who brought religion to ,pakche was a ,hindu2 presumably he represented the ,caucasic peoples2 he may have been dark1 but our courts would probably have to call him a white man2 ,mukocha was called a black man1 a negro1 and probably really represented the ,ethiopian race4 ,is it not interesting that the peninsula of ,korea should have received its first generally spread religion through representatives of the three great races of the world1 the yellow1 white and black8 ,buddhism1 the first universal religion that the world ever saw1 early made an appeal to all men1 regardless of color and of race4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,sari monument pyramid1 ,kumsan-sa 7,a relic of ,buddha is supposed to be enshrined here7 ,page #gb ,two famous men1 ,chinese1 lived during this period4 ,their names were ,fa-hien and ,hiouen-,tsiang4 ,in #cii ,a4,d4 ,fa-hien started on foot from ,china1 to visit ,india1 to learn of ,buddhism and ,buddha in the old home4 ,he travelled many thousands of miles of weary pilgrimage in order to bring back with him fresh idols and correct texts and new inspiration from the cradle of the great religion4 ,it was more than two hundred years later1 in #fbi1 that ,hiouen-,tsiang made the same journey4 ,think of the danger these men passed through6 ,they crossed deserts1 which even to-day are almost impassable2 they climbed difficult mountains and crossed broad rivers2 they journeyed through countries of hostile peoples2 they had to travel without artificial means of transportation through districts of foreign speech2 they did all just to visit the old home of the ,great ,teacher1 and to get his religion at first hand4 ,we have the record of their travels4 ,their simple diaries have been translated into various languages of ,asia and into ,english1 ,french and other ,european tongues4 ,fa-hien was fifteen years upon his pilgrimage1 ,hiouen-,tsiang sixteen years4 ,both lived to come back to their homes to the great advantage of their co-religionists4 ,we have no diaries written by old ,korean pilgrims1 but we know that during the glow of early convertship many from the peninsula made the same journey to the ,west4#a ,between #fch ,a4,d4 and #fej seven at least went from ,korea to ,india to study the new religion in its old home4 ,most of them died there1 never returning to their native land4 ,we now come to the second division of ,korean history and its ,buddhism1 that of the ,koryu ,dynasty4 ,you remember that ,general ,wang-on1 when his royal master went crazy and the officials revolted1 seized the kingly power4 ,he removed the capital to ,songdo4 ,silla quickly went to its final fall and the new kingdom controlled the whole peninsula4 ,wang-on realized perfectly that the abuse of ,buddhism had been the chief trouble with ,kung-ye4 ,his coming into power was largely due to an anti-,buddhistic movement4 ,still1 he himself was ,buddhist and while he did much to check the abuses of the religion he continued to practise it on a more modest scale4 ,at his new capital he ended the first year of his rule1 #iah1 with a famous festival of which we have a description4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,geomantic ,mast3 ,chung-ju ,page #f ,there was an enormous lantern1 hung about with hundreds of others under a tent made of a network of silken cords4 ,music was an important element4 ,there were also representations of dragons1 birds1 elephants1 horses1 carts and boats4 ,dancing was prominent and there were in all a hundred forms of entertainment4 ,each official wore the long1 flowing sleeves1 and each carried the ivory memorandum tablets4 ,the king sat on a high platform and watched the entertainment4 7,hulbert47 ,you see he was very far from cutting loose from ,buddhism4 ,in reality1 the religion flourished over the whole peninsula4 ,when ,wang-on died in #idb1 he left a written message for his son and successor4 ,it contained ten rules of conduct for his guidance as king1 which were numbered from one to ten4 ,three had to do with religion1 and1 of course1 that religion was ,buddhism4 ,in the first rule he advised his son to continue to recognize ,buddhism as the state religion4 ,the second rule was that he should build no more monasteries4 ,while it was a good thing to continue ,buddhism1 it was a bad thing to build more monasteries1 as too much money had already been expended upon them4 ,the sixth of the rules was for the establishment of an annual ,buddhist festival of the same nature as the one he had celebrated at the end of his first year4 ,so ,wang-on did not destroy ,buddhism but continued it4 ,in course of time the old religion regained much of its harmful and destructive influence4 ,from history we may cull a few events that illustrate its power4 ,about the beginning of the eleventh century there came from ,china a fuller development of ,confucianism than had before existed4 ,about #ajbf this influence became very strong2 the official class1 as was natural1 was ,confucianist2 it organized and directed governmental action2 between the officials1 ,confucianists1 and the priests1 ,buddhists1 there grew up a deadly conflict which lasted on through all the centuries4 ,in #ajcf the king was devoutly ,buddhistic4 ,he 8decreed that if a man had four sons one of them must become a monk2 because of the ,buddhist canon against the spilling of blood1 the death penalty was changed to banishment2 another great annual festival was instituted4 ,the king also encouraged the custom of having boys go about the streets with ,buddhistic books on their backs from which the monks read aloud as they went along1 to secure blessings for the people40 7,hulbert47 ,in #ajdf it is said the king fed and lodged ten thousand monks in his palace4 ,in #ajef or thereabouts one son out of three was compelled to become a monk4 ,in #aacf it is said that thirty thousand monks were present at a single ceremony4 ,under such circumstances1 what would happen8 ,when a religion had such a hold on the community--building splendid monasteries1 erecting great temples1 making idols into whose construction gilt of pure gold entered in quantity1 making bells of metal that might have been better used for practical ends1 draining the people of wealth by giving enormous properties eternally into the possession of religious establishments--a crash was bound to come4 ,it came in ,korea4 ,the country had been drained2 the people had been heavily burdened2 the men who as monks and priests should have led in instruction and good living were notorious examples of profligacy and corruption4 ,at last1 in #acib1 a man arose who fought against the king4 ,the excuse for his fighting was the fact that the government was given over to a corrupt religion4 ,just as before it was the successful general who became the founder of a new dynasty2 in this case also he had been loyal at first to the deposed king4 ,the man's name was ,yi1 and his title ,tajo1 and he is commonly known in ,korea as ,yi-,tajo4 ,he is revered as the founder of the dynasty which has just ended4 ,in #acib the old kingdom of ,korai disappeared and with it the dynasty of ,koryu1 and in their place came the modern ,chosen and the ,yi ,dynasty4 ,seoul became the new capital4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii ,the ,buddha3 cave temple1 ,sukkul-am ,page #aa ,before we leave this period let me say something about miriok and printing-blocks4 ,the word miriok has given me considerable trouble2 ,i cannot learn whether it is a ,korean or a ,japanese word1 or what was its first meaning1 or whether it has anything to do with the word ,miroku1 the name of 8the coming ,buddha40 ,anyway the name miriok is applied in ,korea to a stone that is worshipped2 it is sometimes a natural stone and sometimes artificially shaped to more or less of the form of a ,buddha4 ,there are thousands of them in ,korea4 ,there are big miriok and little4 ,my belief is that they were at first simple1 natural stones1 with something about their shape which was suggestive4 ,they might be natural pinnacles1 or rounded forms4 ,probably the old ,koreans1 long before the days of ,buddhism1 worshipped such stones and chiefly in order that the family might be increased4 ,it was probably barren women and childless men who went to miriok and prayed for children4 ,then came ,buddhism and took over the stone-worship of the olden time4 ,later those miriok which were artificially shaped to human form--,buddha-like--came into being4 ,were there time1 we would speak of various of the larger miriok in ,korea1 like the great pair at ,paju and the couple at ,ansung4 ,of the largest1 however1 that at ,eunjin1#b we will say something4 ,there are many strange stories connected with it4 ,it is apparently a natural pinnacle of rock1 which has been carved into the shape of a ,buddha2 it is more than fifty feet high and can be seen from a great distance2 it is more than nine hundred years old2 in its present form it is even to-day worshipped by thousands of people2 in the past there have been times when tens of thousands gathered at once to worship it4 7,plate ,x47 ,it is said that the stone suddenly appeared1 pushing up from the ground and that it cried out with the voice of a boy2 it was seen by a woman who was gathering ferns for eating2 when she reported the miracle it was confirmed by an official inspection after which orders were given that it should be carved to its present form4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix ,bodhisattva figure1 ,sukkul-am ,page #aa ,no land surpasses ,korea in its abundance of local tales4 ,every hill1 valley1 conspicuous rock1 stream and pool of water has its story4 ,every miriok of prominence in the country has traditions associated with it4 ,the one most commonly told of this great miriok runs as follows3 ,a country man who had been to the capital1 returning to his home passed this great stone figure4 ,he noticed a pear tree growing from the head1 which bore several fine pears4 ,the thought occurred to him to carry one of these to his village as a present for the magistrate4 ,with infinite difficulty he climbed up the smooth surface of the figure1--the magnitude of the achievement will be evident from an inspection of the picture4 ,when he reached the face and climbed over the lips he hesitated as to whether to pass up through the nostril1--a foolish procedure as it was a blind passage1--or climb around the nose4 ,he decided upon the former method and proceeded to worm his way into the opening4 ,he experienced a mighty shock and1 when he came to himself1 found that he was lying on the ground4 ,his presence in the nostril had irritated the figure which had sneezed1 thus throwing him to the earth4 ,ruefully rubbing his bruises1 he looked upward at the figure regretful for his lost effort4 ,but he had after all been fortunate and the same sneeze which had dislodged him had shaken one of the pears from the tree and it had fallen on the grass near by4 ,picking it up he hastened on his way rejoicing4 ,the second item connected with this period to which ,i wish to refer is the cutting of wood-blocks for printing the entire ,buddhist scriptures4 ,the set of blocks is still preserved in the ancient monastery of ,hain-sa4 ,they were made during the reign of ,king ,kojong and are seven hundred years old4 ,there are eighty-one thousand of these blocks and each of them prints an entire page of a ,buddhist text4 ,altogether they print six thousand eight hundred and five volumes1 one thousand five hundred and eleven different works4 ,a special building is devoted to their preservation and they have been taken over by the ,japanese government as ,national ,treasure4 7,plates ,,xii1 ,,xiii47 ,the blocks are said to represent the work of monks through fifteen years and the set is reputed the best in the world4 ,several years ago ,count ,general ,terauchi ordered several copies of the ,tripitaka printed from these blocks4 ,one of these copies was presented to the ,emperor and a second is preserved in the temple1 ,senyu-ji1 ,kyoto4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x ,great ,miriok3 ,eunjin4 ,general view ,page #bd ,yi-,tajo came to power through an anti-,buddhist movement4 ,yet on the whole he dealt leniently with the religion4 ,he crippled it but did not destroy it4 ,through the greater part of the ,yi ,dynasty1 however1 ,buddhism was at serious disadvantage4 ,only for a short time under the king ,seijo did it have a momentary revival4 ,he ruled from #adef to #adfh4 ,during his reign a splendid temple was built in ,seoul of which we have an interesting contemporary description2#c no sign of it remains to-day1 but the beautiful pagoda erected at the same time1 and the turtle-borne monumental stone recording the occasion of its construction are in existence in ,pagoda ,park at the center of the city4#d ,this pious king was succeeded in #adfi by his young son1 ,chasan4 ,his mother1 the late king's widow1 was at first his regent but in #adgb he took the actual reins of power and almost his first act was to drive ,buddhism out of ,seoul4 ,he not only abolished all the monasteries and temples in the capital city1 but in every city and town throughout the kingdom4 ,the priests took refuge in the mountains and from that time down until these latter days there have been no ,buddhist temples in ,korean cities4 ,there have only been monasteries in the mountains1 often in inaccessible places4 ,those were drastic measures and under them ,korean ,buddhism suffered and sank to lowest ebb4 ,it passed through hard times during four hundred years and more of exile4 ,still the religion was not dead1 and during this period of test it even showed some signs of worth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi ,group at ,fukoan1 branch of ,sinkei-sa2 ,diamond ,mountains ,page #dg ,in #aeib1 ,hideyoshi sent his great army from ,japan to conquer ,korea4 ,it was under two generals1 one a ,christian and the other a ,buddhist4 ,the invaders wrought great destruction in the unfortunate peninsula4 ,many of the temples and monasteries in the mountains were destroyed1 altars were stripped of treasures1 monks and priests driven from their sanctuaries4 ,during this invasion some of the priests showed themselves loyal1 thus ,hulbert tells us3 ,hyu-,chung1 known throughout the ,eight ,provinces as the great teacher of ,sosan1 was a man of great natural ability as well as of great learning4 ,his pupils were numbered by thousands and were found in every province4 ,he called together two thousand of them and appeared before the king at ,euiju and said3 8,we are of the common people1 but we are all the king's servants and two thousand of us have come to die for ,your ,majesty40 ,the king was much pleased by this demonstration of loyalty and made ,hyu-,chung a ,priest-,general and told him to go into camp at ,pop-,heung ,monastery4 ,he did so1 and from that point sent out a call to all the monasteries in the land4 ,in ,chulla province was a warrior-monk1 ,ch'oe-,yung and at ,diamond ,mountain another named ,yu-,chung4 ,these came with over a thousand followers and went into camp a few miles to the ,east of ,p'yeng-,yang4 ,they had no intention of engaging in actual battle1 but they acted as spies1 took charge of the commissariat and made themselves generally useful4 ,during battle they stood behind the troops and shouted encouragement4 ,yu-,chung1 trusting to his priestly garb1 went into ,p'yeng-,yang to see the ,japanese generals4 ,thus we see1 that notwithstanding the condition of poverty1 ignorance and unimportance to which the ,buddhist monks had sunk there were still among them teachers of great learning with crowds of students1 who were ready to serve their king in his hour of trial4 ,in #affj a curious condition had arisen4 ,with these mountain monasteries open to all who came1 they had become a refuge for the disaffected4 ,suppose a man had trouble with his family1 he would become religious and retire to a monastery as a monk2 if a man failed in business1 he might find refuge there2 for one reason or another it was easy for a man who was vicious or a failure or unhappy to seek escape in the mountain monasteries4 ,thousands flocked to them until the government became disturbed and about #affj the king issued an edict 8that no more men with family ties should desert them in this way and that all monks who had families living should doff their religious garb and come back to the world and support their families like honest men40 ,notwithstanding neglect1 poverty1 and limitations the monasteries showed remarkable recuperative power after the destruction wrought by ,hideyoshi's armies4 ,thus1 ,pawpchu-sa was practically destroyed and the great mass of fine buildings now there has been constructed since4 ,some of the great monasteries farther south also suffered severely2 yet the damage has been fully repaired4 7,plate ,,ii47 ,nor did scholarship completely disappear in these later years4 ,when ,dr4 ,legge translated ,fa-hien's diary into ,english1 he had four editions of the work at hand--two ,chinese1 one ,japanese and one ,korean2 the latter1 which bears the date #agbf1 was the most satisfactory and was superior as a piece of book-making4 ,,korean ,,buddhism3 ,,condition ,with the exile of ,buddhism to the mountains several results ensued4 ,in the first place each monastery became a thing by itself2 there was no unity1 no combination1 no force in the movement of ,buddhism as such1 over the kingdom4 ,in the second place1 not being permitted to enter the cities1 the ,buddhist priests came to be looked upon with contempt by the people2 they were1 of course1 beggars1 vowed to poverty--they had always been that1 but they had had respect2 with their seclusion in the mountain monasteries they lost what honor had been attributed to them2 they became ignorant1 vicious and depraved4 ,in his ,history of ,korea ,dr4 ,hulbert says3 8,in #aijb1 a very determined attempt to revive the ,buddhist cult was made4 ,the ,emperor consented to the establishment of a great central monastery for the whole country in the vicinity of ,seoul1 and in it a ,buddhist high priest who was to control the whole church in the land4 ,it was a ludicrous attempt1 because ,buddhism in ,korea is dead40 ,remember at just what point in the history of the nation this effort to restore ,buddhism took place4 ,japan's war against ,china was declared in #ahid2 it ended in #ahie1 with the treaty of ,shimonoseki2 it was one of the most important wars of recent times2 it was fought over ,korea--in order to see whether ,korea owed allegiance to ,china or was an independent nation4 ,from #ahie on1 ,korea was a hot-bed of world intrigue4 ,china1 ,russia1 ,japan1 all were struggling on the peninsula for a continued foothold4 ,each was trying to gain advantage4 ,from this condition1 in #aijd came the great war between ,japan and ,russia1 which was ended by the treaty of ,portsmouth4 ,it too1 was a war on account of ,korea4 ,it decided the question as to whether ,russian1 or ,chinese1 or ,japanese influence should preponderate4 ,the year #aijb came right between those two great wars1 which were fought on account of ,korea4 ,in #aijb the man who had been ,king--the last real representative of the ,yi ,dynasty had become ,emperor4 ,one of the results of the war of #ahid was to make ,korea an empire1 and her king an emperor4 ,the effort to re-establish and revive ,buddhism was made then during this period of the empire4 ,the passage quoted from ,hulbert was printed in #aije4 ,it referred to an attempt made in #aijb1 which he says failed1 since ,buddhism was dead4 ,to-day is #aiah4 ,i have been visiting ,korea since #aiaa and have seen what seems to be definite growth and revival of the old religion4 ,buddhism appears to-day to be very far from dead in ,korea4 ,it shows signs of active life and there may be prospects of its future growth and large development4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,hain-sa3 ,building for the ,wood-blocks ,page #bg ,the monasteries of ,korea are under control of thirty head monasteries4#e ,some of these have only two or three unimportant subordinate monasteries1 but others are the heads of really great groups4 ,for instance1 ,yuchom-sa1 in the heart of the ,diamond ,mountains1 is the head of forty monasteries in that remarkable mass of peaks 7,plates ,,iii1 ,,xvii72 ,pongeum-sa1 which is near ,seoul1 is said to be the head of eighty-six monasteries4 ,these head monasteries in #aijb had become greatly reduced in property1 membership1 influence and splendor4 ,they were estranged from each other4 ,there was no feeling of unity among them4 ,each monastery was a thing by itself and decay and corruption were everywhere evident4 ,but about six years ago the priests of these thirty head monasteries came together2 they held a great meeting and discussed their common interests2 they decided that union was necessary and a forward movement1 a thing such as was tried in #aijb and which failed then4 ,it was tried again and has not failed4 ,they elected a president of their commission1 with a term of office of one year4 ,his whole time is devoted to the interests of united ,korean ,buddhism for that year4 7,plate ,i47 ,they bought property in the city of ,seoul and erected a central building1 partly temple and partly office building4 ,the expenses of this head office are borne by the thirty temples in proportion to their importance and wealth4 ,the monasteries are graded into five groups and each contributes annually a set sum for the advancement of ,buddhism in the peninsula4 ,while in ,seoul last year1 ,i visited a theological seminary of ,buddhism4 ,it has a good location in a desirable part of the city2 it occupies a fine old ,korean building2 it has a corps of teachers of some ability2 ,i found sixty-five students in attendance4 ,the institution had been running for about three years4 ,most of the students were already connected with some of the mountain monasteries2 they had come in for information1 for improvement1 for further study2 they were looking forward to return to their temples with new strength and vigor for their work4 ,the young men with whom ,i talked seemed to be earnestly interested and anxious for improvement4 ,a definite course of three years instruction is offered to them4 ,the number of students has grown steadily and no doubt the time will come when there will be hundreds of students in this institution4 ,there is to-day a magazine conducted in the interests of ,korean ,buddhism4 ,it has been published for something like six years4 ,the history of the editor1 ,yi ,nung ,hwa1 is rather interesting4#f ,his father is a pillar of the ,presbyterian ,church in ,seoul1 one of the most successful of the mission churches4 ,the young man himself was educated in ,catholic schools in ,seoul2 his education came from foreigners1 and he is now official interpreter for the ,belgian ,consul2 but he finds his pleasure and outside interest in this magazine for the advancement of ,korean ,buddhism4 ,son of a ,presbyterian ,elder1 trained in ,catholic schools1 speaking ,french1 ,korean1 ,chinese and ,japanese1 professionally engaged in service at a foreign consulate1 he is the editor of a magazine for ,buddhist propaganda6 ,mr4 ,yi is also the author of a history of ,korean ,buddhism1 which had not yet been printed when ,i saw him4 ,it is1 ,i think1 the only history that has been written covering the entire field of ,korean ,buddhism4 ,everything that is printed in ,korea must pass under the eye of the ,japanese government1 and can be printed only with its permission4 ,it makes no difference whether the material is secular or religious1 social1 economic1 literary or political4 ,at the time when we were speaking about his book it had been sent in to the government for examination4 ,it is to be hoped that it was approved and that permission was given for its publication4 ,a book of that kind would have importance and no such book exists1 in any modern form certainly1 for popular reading4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii ,hain-sa3 ,building for the ,wood-blocks1 interior ,page #bg ,one of the most interesting things in connection with this modern movement of ,korean ,buddhism1 and one which seems to show that it has real vitality1 is the fact that ,buddhist books for common reading are being printed4 ,most ,korean books are printed in ,chinese characters and are thus sealed to the common people2 they can be read only by scholars or people of considerable education4 ,yet ,korea is said to have invented one of the most perfect systems of writing that the world has seen4 ,it is known as the on-mun and is competent to write the language perfectly and easily4 ,but scholars in ,korea have never used the on-mun2 it has been considered suitable only for the ignorant1 for women and children4 ,if a book is to reach the common people1 however1 and be widely read1 it should be printed in on-mun4 ,the books issued by the foreign missionaries in their propaganda have been printed in on-mun1 or in a mixed script of ,chinese character and on-mun4 ,the fact that several ,buddhist books have recently appeared printed in on-mun shows that ,korean ,buddhism is reaching out after the common people4 ,two of these books deserve special mention4 ,one is called the 8,eight ,scenes from the ,life of ,buddha40 ,it follows quite closely the story of ,buddha's life as told in other countries4 ,the book is widely offered at book stores and street stalls and is said to have considerable sale4 ,more interesting than it1 however1 is the allegory called ,sei-yeu-ki4 ,you remember that in the seventh century a ,chinese pilgrim1 ,hiouen ,tsiang1 went on foot from ,china to ,india1 and that he came back loaded with books and images for use in religious worship4 ,that pilgrim was really a historic character1 and he wrote an account of his journey1 a simple and charming diary of travel4 ,his book was called ,sei-yeu-ki1 which in its ,english translation appears under the title of 8,a ,report of ,buddhist ,kingdoms40 ,in it he described the countries through which he had passed1 the monasteries and temples which he had seen1 and the adventures he had undergone4 ,now in the thirteenth century a ,chinese monk wrote a book with almost the same name4 ,as pronounced there is scarcely any difference2 when the names are written they are easily distinguished4 ,the writer intended to imitate the name of the diary of the old pilgrim4 ,in his story1 he says that a certain man named ,hiouen-,tsiang--he uses the actual name of the old pilgrim--goes on a journey to the ,west for books1 idols and information1 just as the real pilgrim did2 but instead of telling a true and simple story this man writes an allegory something of the nature of 8,pilgrim's ,progress40 ,it is full of astonishing adventures4 ,it seems that the ,emperor of ,china died and came to life again4 ,he determined to send ,hiouen-,tsiang1 8the ,master10 to the ,west for books1 idols and pictures4 ,the ,master started upon his errand and as he travelled picked up a strange group of comrades4 ,the ,emperor had given him a white horse1 and of course he had to have a boy to take care of it2 in addition he had for companions and helpers a monkey and a pig4 ,the master and his three human companions were gone1 like the real pilgrim1 about fifteen years2 they travelled1 of course1 through the same countries1 but had startling adventures4 ,the master was very pious1 but unpractical2 in fact he was a weak subject for the hero of a story4 ,but the monkey was fine1 and when they got into trouble it was always the monkey who rescued them4 ,when the master1 through his lack of knowledge1 and practical experience1 was caught by the most palpable traps and tricks only the monkey could rescue him4 ,yet they all abused the poor creature4 ,all were jealous of him and on the slightest occasion pig or boy or horse urged the master to make the magic hat equipped with thorns and pins squeeze and hurt the monkey's head in order 8that he shall not become proud40 ,it is really an interesting and beautiful allegory4 ,it has recently been translated into ,english by a missionary in ,china and anyone who wishes may read it4 ,for hundreds of years it has been read in the original ,chinese by ,chinese1 ,koreans and ,japanese4 ,to-day ,koreans may read it in their own language1 printed in on-mun4 ,all these signs of life seem to show that ,korean ,buddhism is far from dead4 ,it is coming forth from its mountain exile and bids fair to make itself felt in the future4 ,let us examine for a moment the organization of an ordinary monastery4 ,the monasteries are scattered through the mountains4 ,many of them are in remote places and it is difficult to reach them4 ,some are so far back that it would be impossible for them to go farther4 ,i have no fears that ordinary tourists will spoil my delight in ,pawpchu-sa1 or ,hain-sa1 or ,yu-chom-sa4 ,if one desires to see them he must pay the price4 ,take ,pawpchu-sa for instance4 ,to see it we dismounted from the railroad train and took a ,ford car across country ten miles to a little district capital2 the next day1 by government automobile1 we went out over a road which had just been put in good order--there was only one break in it that was serious2 for forty miles we travelled over this mountain road1 deeper and deeper among the hills1 up and up into the narrowing valley1 until with mountains on all sides of us we reached the village of ,poun4 ,there we abandoned the automobile4 ,the party went by horses1 but a chair had been provided for my benefit4 ,i hate chairs1 and would have much preferred a horse1 though ,korean horses are little creatures and disagreeable4 ,their gait is as bad as anything one can imagine2 there is nothing like a saddle1 but only a broad cushion1 without stirrups1 and the traveller's legs hang down over the front of the cushion1 one foot on each side of the horse's neck and the rider has no control whatever over the horse2 nor has anyone else1 although the mapu1 or 8boy10 runs along beside and hangs on to the halter or strikes the beast with stick or whip4 ,i hate a ,korean horse1 but ,i hate a chair worse4 ,however1 we started1 the rest on horses4 ,when we had gone about half a mile the chair carriers1 though professionals1 declared they could go no farther2 this1 of course1 was a mere question of weight2 it was1 however1 a great relief to me4 ,promptly an exchange was made with my little ,japanese photographer and interpreter1 who took the chair1 while ,i mounted his horse--the smallest and weakest of the outfit4 ,we travelled on and on for miles2 we passed one ridge behind another and another and another1 until at last we reached ,pawpchu-sa4 ,anyone who really journeys to ,pawpchu-sa has my regard and blessing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv ,great ,buddha relief on rock face3 ,inner ,kongo ,page #gj ,the trip to ,hain-sa1 where the woodblocks are preserved1 is a trying one4 ,we went by basha4 ,japanese bashas are bad2 the ,japanese themselves think them far superior to ,korean1 but ,i prefer the latter4 ,a basha is made for six passengers1 but usually carries eight4 ,the ,japanese basha has two benches running lengthwise at the sides2 three persons fill a bench1 four overfill one4 ,the driver sits in front and a single horse moves the conveyance4 ,such is the ,japanese basha4 ,the ,korean vehicle has no benches at the sides like the ,japanese affair2 the passengers sit upon the floor with thin1 rush mats under them1 probably to keep the floor of the vehicle clean2 there are no springs and the roads are rough4 ,after travelling sitting on the springless floor for thirty-two miles1 we abandoned the basha1 as there was no longer a cart-road1 and rode about seventeen miles on horses2 it was like travelling over ,mexican trails4 ,thus we reached ,hain-sa4 ,i do not begrudge a visit to ,hain-sa to any person2 those who make the journey deserve to be treated as friends and brothers4 ,each monastery has its official corps4 ,first comes the head priest4 ,he has a hard time of it4 ,he has to deal with the outside world and to oversee everything2 he is business manager2 he has little to do with spiritual direction1 but has to settle all the quarrels and deal with all the problems that present themselves to the monastery2 he gets all the hard work and shoulders all the blame4 ,he receives1 however1 some extra rice and is entitled to an extraordinary exhibition of respect4 ,he has a councillor to help him in problems of a serious nature4 ,next comes the religious head1 who leads the services and sees that they are properly observed4 ,the first religious service of the day comes at three o'clock ,a4,m4 ,at that hour the visitor hears the bells and gongs and the droning of songs and prayers4 ,the people of the monastery all turn out to early service4 ,there may be other services throughout the day2 there are also times of meditation1 and in special halls1 where no disturbance is permitted1 persons spend hours or entire days in silence and pious thought4 ,there is always a steward whose business it is to attend to the food supply of the entire monastery4 ,in a monastery of a hundred and fifty or two hundred persons in a remote mountain district1 the steward's work is important and exacting4 ,at every monastery there are1 of course1 one or two cooks1 whose business it is to prepare the food4 ,there is regularly also1 a group of little fellows1 boys from ten to fifteen years of age1 whose business it is to help these others on every occasion when help is needed4 ,these boys have little in the way of religious duties1 but sweeping and cleaning1 errands1 burden carrying and hard work in general falls on them4 7,plate ,,xi47 ,the balance of the population in a monastery is devoted to religious living4 ,these include three different kinds of persons--priests1 acolytes and orphans4 ,the monasteries have always been orphan asylums4 ,when a child in the country around is left without parents or other proper guardians he is usually sent to the mountain monastery2 unless the unexpected happens he will grow up in the way of religion and become a priest or monk when the time arrives4 ,many young men come in from the outside world for purposes of instruction4 ,they look forward to becoming monks1 but during their period of study they let their hair grow long1 dress as outsiders and are regarded as still belonging to the world4 ,most of them1 however1 carry out their intention and remain permanently in the monastery4 ,thirdly1 there are the regular monks and priests4 ,they are dressed1 of course1 in characteristic style1 and their heads are shaved4 ,they live on vegetarian food and are vowed to celibacy4 ,at some of the more important monasteries there is a resident teacher1 but most of them depend upon a teacher sent from the head temple4 ,the greeting given him when he arrives is beautiful to see4 ,all know when he is expected1 and at the hour they go in procession1 dressed in their best robes1 out to the farthest gate to meet him4 ,when he arrives all but the head priest prostrate themselves so that they actually grovel in the dust4 ,then1 accompanying him1 with the head priest walking before1 the whole company goes back to the monastery and the teaching almost immediately begins4 ,he barely takes a little refreshment and rests a bit before he undertakes his duties4 ,during the period of his stay the teaching continues throughout the day4 ,one class or group comes in after another2 the teaching is sometimes from books1 sometimes from the teacher's own experience and knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv ,sari monument to ,muhak3 ,hoiam-sa ,page #gc ,are the monasteries really places of great learning2 are they centers of deep piety8 ,it is hard to tell and much depends on one's definition4 ,we must remember that there are two vastly different kinds of ,buddhism4 ,they are almost opposite2 the one is certainly the negation of the other4 ,the first is the ,buddhism which the actual ,buddha taught4 ,you remember that he was an historic character1 who lived at about five hundred years before ,christ4 ,an ,indian prince1 he is known under various names as ,sakyamuni1 ,siddartha and ,gautama4 ,he pondered much over the problems of life and devoted himself to the solution of mysteries2 he tried asceticism and listened to one teacher after another2 he wandered1 meditated1 fasted2 he finally reached enlightenment4 ,he decided that life was an illusion and a snare which one would gladly be rid of2 he discovered that the chain that bound one to this existence could be broken4 ,release comes from careful conduct2 it comes through right living1 and right thinking2 it comes in course of time1 after many many existences2 through right living in one life man gathers karma which carries him to higher and higher stages until at last he becomes a great scholar2 finally he becomes a ,bodhisattva1 which is but one step from ,buddha-hood2 and finally1 from a ,bodhisattva1 through enlightenment1 he becomes a true ,buddha and when his earthly life ends1 passes out into oblivion1 blissful1 calm nothingness4 ,buddha was one of the greatest of world teachers4 ,his teaching was simple2 we may work out release gradually from the thraldom into which we are born2 through careful thought and right living we may pass from stage to stage until at last we merge into infinity and lose our individuality4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi ,head-priest and ,pagoda3 ,sinkei-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains ,page #gd ,buddha taught that we end in ,nirvana2 his doctrine was a revolt against the idea of an individual soul that lives forever2 in his religion there were no figures1 no idols1 nothing for worship4 ,buddhism proper taught nothing about gods4 ,it simply taught men to strive for enlightenment1 to become ,buddhas and to pass out into ,nirvana4 ,but this is not the ,buddhism of ,china1 ,korea or ,japan4 ,the ,buddhism of these three countries recognizes an individual soul that continues4 ,it has scores of gods and represents them by images or idols2 the man who lives to-day does not try to work out salvation for himself through stage after stage of higher living4 ,on the contrary he seeks salvation through another and that other is ,amida ,buddha4 ,the ,koreans call him ,amida ,pul4 ,you may see them any day standing outside the temples repeating over and over again the formula1 8,namu ,amida ,pul1 ,namu ,amida ,pul1 ,namu ,amida ,pul40 ,they are thereby gaining salvation2 through faith in ,amida they will reach the ,western ,paradise4 ,there was no ,western ,paradise in ,buddha's teaching2 there was no continued existence of the human soul2 there was no one through whom men might be saved2 one must work out his own salvation4 ,but in this second ,buddhism1 any person in a single moment may gain salvation4 ,it makes no difference whether a man has led a good or evil life1 death-bed repentance may save him4 ,a man does nothing for himself2 faith only through the merit of another wins salvation--it sounds like good ,presbyterian doctrine4 ,it is evident that these two forms of ,buddhism could not diverge more widely than they do4 ,the early ,buddhism taught by ,sakyamuni is called ,hinayana or the 8,little ,vehicle40 ,the other form is known as ,mahayana the 8,great ,vehicle40 ,korean ,buddhism is and for the most part always has been ,mahayana1 yet in the ,buddhist temples of the ,korean monasteries one finds many a figure of ,sakyamuni and the worshippers seem totally unconscious of their inconsistency and of the fact that their worship of ,sakya is a contradiction in terms4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii ,main ,temple3 ,yuchom-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains ,page #ce ,this leads us to inquire regarding sects4 ,japanese ,buddhism is divided into many4 ,thus we may speak of ,shingon1 ,jodo1 ,zen1 or ,nichiren ,buddhism there4 ,each of these names stands for a definite system of doctrinal belief4 ,every student of ,buddhism in ,japan knows the fundamental differences upon which the dozen or more ,japanese ,buddhist sects are based4 ,knowing something of these divisions in ,japan it was natural to ask on coming into contact with ,korean ,buddhism what sects they have4 ,the answer was always immediate and glibly given4 8,we have two sects--,syen and ,kyo40 ,this was said everywhere1 but ,i cannot see that there is anything in ,korean ,buddhism like the sects of ,japan4 ,in ,shingon there is a whole series of doctrines and beliefs and practices2 so in ,zen1 so in every other sect4 ,every person belonging to a given sect holds those dogmas and practises those ceremonials characteristic of his sect4 ,no man is at once ,shingon and ,zen4 ,but in a ,korean monastery we find ,syen people meditating and ,kyo people reading and to-morrow the situation will be reversed1 and it seems as if the terms apply merely to two modes of discipline1 not to actually different sects4 ,at all events in the same monastery we regularly find ,syen and ,kyo4 ,the texts of ,mahayana ,buddhism were originally in ,sanskrit4 ,they have been translated into ,chinese and it is in their ,chinese form that they are generally studied in ,china1 ,korea and ,japan4#g ,in ,korean monasteries we not infrequently find books that are printed1 at least in part1 in ,sanskrit characters4 ,do the ,korean monks know the ,sanskrit language8 ,far from it4 ,i doubt whether there are a half-dozen priests in all ,korea who know anything whatever of the language4 ,at every temple one may secure tarani4 ,a tarani is a sheet of paper with something printed on it in red from a wood-block4 ,the wood-blocks at the different temples vary and while most of the characters in the printing are ,chinese1 there is a sprinkling of ,sanskrit4 ,a tarani is a sort of passport to the ,western ,paradise and it is supplied for burial with the dead4 ,when a man is burned or buried a tarani is placed with his body4 ,we secured them from almost every monastery visited4 ,perhaps no priest in ,korea can read them4 ,we saw1 however1 at one monastery1 an old book concerning tarani1 and it seems probable that these texts have been copied from such books4 ,about sixty years ago there seems to have been a special fancy for cutting these wood-blocks for printing tarani and most of those we saw date from that time4 ,interesting are sari monuments4 ,as we neared ,yuchom-sa we passed ten or twelve stone monuments with a square base1 a swelling body and decorated tip4 ,we were told that these were sari stones and that in them a sari or 8jewel0 was buried4 ,these sari are curious things4 ,it is said that when the body of a monk of special piety is burned a little pebble will be found among the ashes4 ,it is irregular in form1 clearly shows fusion1 and looks a little like a gem or crystal4 ,it is believed that it has been formed from the elements of the dead body1 and they say that only about one man out of four hundred gives rise to one of these sari4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii ,carved ,door3 ,yuchom-sa ,page #hb ,i had always had my doubts about them4 ,one day at ,songkwang-sa1 where the monks are exceptionally depraved1 a policeman was with us to see that nothing happened4 ,coming to some sari stones we asked a monk about them4 ,he told us the same story that we had heard before and we asked him if he really believed that it was true4 ,he answered1 8,o yes1 surely it is true40 ,the policeman1 however1 expressed vigorous doubt4 ,the monk replied1 8,you don't believe it1 ,i will show you40 ,so we proceeded to tear a sari monument to pieces6 ,it seemed a shocking thing to do4 ,we took off the top stone1 and laid it by1 and then turned the main stone upside down4 ,at the center was a little cavity which was neatly covered with a thin sheet or disk of earthenware2 removing this we found inside a hole filled with packing1 in which was a small tin capsule bearing an inscription4 ,this was said to be the name of the man who had honored the dead priest by erecting the monument to him4 ,opening the capsule it was found to contain some packing in the midst of which was the little gem--all that remained to represent the worthy dead man4 ,we put it back with care1 replaced the packing1 closed the capsule1 repacked it and reconstructed the monument as it had been originally4 ,no doubt all these sari stones really contain some such relic4 ,that policeman had his doubts--,i still have doubts as to just what sari are1 but it seems certain that all sari stones really have sari in them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix ,brahmanic ,guardian of ,buddhism3 ,songkwang-sa ,page #gi ,there is no question that there is much ignorance and even vice among the monks4 ,in this monastery where we examined the matter of sari stones there were only five men1 poor1 ignorant fellows4 ,we early noticed that the head priest there lacked a tooth1 but only found after we had left the place that the most devout of the five monks had knocked it out the day before1 having had a fight with his superior4 ,the neighbors told us that that monastery was a place of constant disorder and bad conduct4 ,at one monastery we were even moved to give a lesson in behavior4 ,here we were accompanied by a ,japanese policeman2 he was with us to protect and give such aid as possible1 but was absolutely of no use4 ,the monks received us coldly1 answered a few questions and then disappeared4 ,unaccustomed to such treatment1 ,i complained to the policeman who replied1 8,this monastery has a very bad name in all this district2 the monks are avaricious2 they are thieves2 they always treat visitors badly2 they do nothing unless they are well paid4 ,that is why ,i came with you40 ,i replied1 8,why don't you do something1 then8 ,tell them to come out and do their duty40 ,he shook his head sadly and said1 8,you do not know the reputation of this temple hereabouts2 it has a very bad name indeed40 ,so turning to my interpreter ,i said1 8,we must deal with this problem right here40 ,calling a priest ,i said to him1 8,i understand that in this monastery you have a bad name2 there is no time to waste2 we want no delays2 call every monk and priest here at once40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x,xa ,deva ,king1 ,guardian of ,world ,quarter3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #gi ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x,xb ,deva ,king1 ,guardian of ,world ,quarter3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #gi ,he did so1 and when they had come ,i placed them in a semicircle before me and spoke to them4 8,you are ,buddhists2 you bear the name of ,buddha1 a great teacher2 he was kind and good and cared nothing for money2 he desired to help people and make them better1 and people who are ,buddhists should be like him2 ,i am told that you are avaricious and when visitors come here you treat them with unkindness and discourtesy unless they pay you well2 ,i shall pay you nothing1 but ,i want you to think of the disgrace you bring upon your name by such conduct2 ,i am visiting the monasteries because ,i wish to see whether ,buddhism is a living force in this land2 ,i wish to see how you monks live and what your conduct is1 and what the people say about you2 go back to your rooms and think over what ,i have said2 as ,i go from place to place1 looking at things here1 ,i expect to have them open1 and ,i wish you to treat me as a brother and a friend2 remember that others who may come after me deserve equally good treatment2 it is a shame to bring disgrace upon a cause40 ,well1 there was an instant conversion4 ,poor1 ignorant fellows1 living in their remote mountain monastery1 how should they know better8 ,they gave me honey water and popped rice2 they showed me their buildings and their treasure2 they begged that ,i would come again and some accompanied me1 when ,i was leaving1 down to the outer gate4 ,as for ignorance1 it is probable that very few of them could pass examination on any kind of ,buddhism1 whether ,hinayana or ,mahayana4 ,what more could be expected8 ,surely we can scarcely throw stones4 ,what do most of us know about ,christian doctrine8 ,how wise religiously are the common people in our churches8 ,in a recent newspaper it was stated that a man among us asked five professional men about the ,holy ,ghost4 ,do you suppose he got much in the way of a satisfactory answer8 ,in reality he got nothing4 ,all these educated men had other business than to know about the ,holy ,ghost4 ,they were not well informed in regard to the religion in which they had been reared2 and yet we expect ,buddhists1 who have been exiled in mountain monasteries for four hundred years to know so much6 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi ,gigantic ,deva ,king1 ,guardian of ,world ,quarter3 ,pawpchu-sa 7,the ,korean standing by is a man of normal stature7 ,page #hj ,how is the population of the monasteries maintained8 ,whence do new members come to-day8 ,there is1 of course1 always a supply of orphan children1 few of whom ever go back into the world after they have been brought up in monastery surroundings4 ,other people drift in for many reasons4 ,men who have lost their friends and relatives by death often go to the monasteries4 ,so do those who fail in business1 or who have been disappointed in life enterprises4 ,the head-priest of one small1 but very famous1 ancient monastery1 only recently became religious2 he had been employed as a janitor or helper in a ,buddhist temple of ,japanese in a ,korean city and became interested and attracted4 ,the head-priest of one of my favorite monasteries was in the world until he had reached the age of fifty years or more2 he had been in military service and ,i believe1 had risen to the rank of ,colonel2 getting on in years1 however1 he began to think seriously of religious matters and retreated to the monastery4 ,with one young priest at ,yuchom-sa in the ,diamond ,mountains we talked for hours1 until midnight4 ,he was genuine2 he had the spirit of true religion2 he was a thinker and was in the monastery from principle4 ,there are no doubt many like him4 ,we were at ,tongdo-sa on ,buddha's birthday4 ,it is one of the great monasteries of the ,south4 ,they knew we were coming and therefore we found a place to sleep4 ,when we were within three or four miles of it we found ourselves in a crowd of persons going up to the celebration4 ,the nearest railway station is about ten miles away4 ,most of the people1 however1 had walked from their homes4 ,it is a mountain district1 sparsely settled2 there are surely only two or three towns of any size within fifteen miles of the place4 ,when we reached the monastery we found one of the liveliest scenes we ever witnessed in ,korea4 ,the head-priest told us that ten thousand people slept on the grounds of the temple that night4 ,the majority of them were women4 ,of course1 that would have been true if it had been a ,presbyterian gathering4 ,we were two nights there4 ,on the full day that we spent with them a wonderful crowd of people was present2 there were a few ,japanese--a teacher and one or two officials--but apart from these the multitude was ,korean4 ,probably fifteen thousand people were there that day4 ,we found that one of the events of that evening was a moving-picture show in one of the monastery buildings4 ,the life of ,buddha was to be represented in moving pictures4 ,all this does not look much like death6 ,it is said that at the other head monasteries there were proportionately equal crowds4 ,we often asked what efforts were being made at monasteries for general improvement and helping the outside world4 ,the purpose of a monastery1 of course1 is not related to such undertakings4 ,in all religions1 at all times1 monasteries have been only for persons who were seeking individual improvement or salvation4 ,in their very essence they are not philanthropic or reform movements4 ,still1 with the lack of temples in the cities and definite teaching of the people through them1 it might seem as if something would be undertaken by the monasteries4 ,in reality there is much more in this direction than could be expected4 ,at several of the monasteries there is a school for outside children2 some have undertaken a definite work of teaching and some others realize that they have a genuine opportunity to aid in the elevation of the country4 ,more and more the monasteries seem to awake to the existence of these possibilities4 ,korean ,buddhism has1 perhaps1 a political part to play4 ,when the ,japanese took over ,korea1 ,buddhists came into the country in great numbers4 ,japanese priests and temples came with these settlers4 ,these priests and temples are in the cities and larger towns4 ,they do not1 however1 fit with the ,koreans4 ,there might be thousands of them and they would still not make ,korean converts--not because the ,japanese are not ready to do mission work1 but because the ,koreans are not ready to accept it4 ,the ,korean ,buddhism of to-day is actually ,korean1 not ,japanese4 ,i can imagine nothing that would be more dangerous to ,japanese control than a strong and vital ,korean ,buddhism that was hostile to ,japan4 ,on the other hand1 ,i can think of nothing that would be a greater help to ,japan than a ,korean ,buddhism developed among those people by their own priests and friendly to ,japan4 ,what ,korean ,buddhism is to be in the future depends upon its relation to the government now there4 ,if ,korean ,buddhism accepts and coperates with the ,japanese control1 it will become the mightiest factor that can be devised to make ,japan's hold on the peninsula secure4 ,if hostile to ,japan1 when the crisis comes1 as it surely will come1 when ,japan will be tried out again and once for all on ,korean soil1 ,korean ,buddhism may be the decisive element in that moment of test4 ,,korean ,,buddhism3 ,,art ,to-night we are to consider art in ,korean ,buddhism4 ,we shall examine it under six different forms--scenery1 sculpture in stone1 wood carving1 architecture1 images or idols and painting4 ,perhaps it scarcely seems to you as if scenery--real landscape1 not landscape painting--were art4 ,in the ,orient1 however1 it is surely such4 ,eastern peoples have for hundreds of years been passionately fond of the beautiful in nature4 ,chinese1 ,koreans1 ,japanese will travel on foot or by any possible conveyance many miles to see a famous view4 ,they locate their houses in pretty places2 they build temples and shrines upon commanding points4 ,when the ,korean monks1 in the fifteenth century1 were compelled to take refuge in the mountains1 they located their buildings in surroundings harmonious to the religion4 ,their locations have been chosen with great care4 ,and there is much more in scenery than the careless spectator thinks2 for the ,oriental scenery always contains something of the esoteric4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii ,wall ,painting3 the ,white ,tortoise ,scene of the ,sei-yeu-ki3 ,pongeum-sa ,page #hc ,for example1 think of the ,diamond ,mountains4 ,they are a remarkable tangle of peaks and ridges2 measuring only thirty or forty miles across1 the area is more or less elliptical in form2 it is called 8the twelve thousand peaks0 or summits4 ,the ,diamond ,mountains have been famous for two thousand years1 and famous not only in ,korea1 but in ,china and ,japan4 ,they have been the theme of hundreds of poems and have furnished material for scores of books1 some of them hundreds of years old4 ,artists have delighted in depicting their beauties4 ,the ,diamond ,mountains with their twelve thousand peaks are divided into two portions4 ,the name ,diamond ,mountains in itself is most suggestive2 the diamond is one of the most precious symbols in ,buddhism--indicating purity1 clearness1 brightness--and ,korean ,buddhism was a religion of light and illumination4 ,the two divisions of the ,diamond ,mountains are known as the ,inner and the ,outer ,kongo4 ,the traveller may visit the outer region and realize but little of the true significance of ,kongo-,san4 ,in the ,inner ,kongo every outstanding rock is significant4 ,every building has been placed with reference to some hidden meaning of the landscape1 and with every step the visitor goes deeper and deeper into mystery4 ,let us approach a mountain monastery4 ,the trail is well marked long before we see the buildings4 ,once upon the grounds we come to some of those carved posts or pillars1 devil posts1 changson1 which were illustrated in the preceding lecture1 and were no doubt taken over from the old-time paganism4 ,we pass through the outer gate4 ,all the gates bear names significant to the thoughtful worshipper4 ,we pass through gate after gate like 8the gateway of ,life10 8the gate of ,all-powerful ,truth10 8the gate of ,illumination40 ,many of these gates are pavilions1 resting-places1 whence one may view the scenery1 or visit with companions1 or meditate in preparation for worship4 ,as we approach the buildings we may find ourselves in a narrowing valley1 or passing some cascade4 ,all the rock cliffs have been seized and utilized and bear inscriptions1 beautifully cut into the stone material4 ,we see the formula1 constantly on the tongue of ,korean ,buddhists1 ,namu ,amida ,pul1 not once or dozens of times1 but everywhere1 repeated hundreds of times over4 ,the ,daimon1 or great gateway1 is the last2 it signifies the gate of death through which we reach the heavenly life4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii ,wall ,paintings on ,plaster3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #he ,at last we come to the mass of monastery buildings4 ,every temple has its name marked clearly on it1 sometimes the names themselves are suggestive1 helping the worshipper to clearer thought and serious meditation4 ,the second form of art is sculpture in stone4 ,we have already mentioned the formul and other inscriptions cut upon the cliffs4 ,to the ,oriental eye they are as beautiful and represent as much artistic skill as figures would4 ,there are1 however1 also on the natural rock faces1 designs and figures cut in low relief1 which we find in the most unexpected places4 ,in the ,inner ,kongo there are many great representations of the ,buddhas cut upon the vertical rock face4 ,here1 for instance1 are three figures1 twenty feet in height1 one of the great ,buddhist trinities4 ,again1 there is a representation of ,monju1 of even greater size4 7,plate ,,xiv47 ,on another face of rocks are the figures of the famous fifty-three ,buddhas who came so long ago to live and die among the ,diamond ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv ,great figures of ,buddhist ,trinity1 seated3 ,pawpchu-sa4 ,sakya1 ,monju1 ,fugen ,page #hh ,in a former lecture we referred to the cave chapel of ,sukkul-am4 ,it is full of beauty4 ,excavated in the slope near a great ridge summit1 it looks out upon the ,eastern ,sea4 ,in the old days it was approached by a fine flight of steps4 ,from its summit a passageway led to the subterranean chamber4 ,it was bordered on both sides by slabs carved with figures in high relief4 ,here are the two guardian demons1 the four kings of the cardinal points1 the six generals4 ,passing between them we reach the little circular chapel1 about thirty feet across1 subterraneously situated in the hillside4 ,its low1 vaulted roof is an ingenious and wonderful construction4 ,the surrounding walls are filled with slabs bearing fine carvings4 ,here are three splendid figures of ,bodhisattvas1 with boat-shaped haloes1 three other figures of ,bodhisattvas with round haloes1 and distributed between them the ten first disciples of the ,great ,teacher4 ,these ten figures present marvellous detail of feature2 not only personal differences1 but race differences are sharply brought out2 more than that the figures were originally colored1 and no doubt1 different races are indicated by the different tints4 ,there is no question that individuals of different races were among the first disciples of the ,buddha4 ,and in the center of all this beauty1 this flowering of ancient art1 sits the stone ,buddha1 on his lotus pedestal4 ,it is a monolith1 cut from a block of stone about eleven feet in height4 ,it is beautiful in pose1 in feature1 and in expression4 ,for almost fifteen hundred years it has sat there calmly looking out upon the ,eastern ,sea4 ,every morning it is greeted by the rising sun4 ,besides figures cut in high relief1 the old artists made full sculptures in the round4 ,such1 of course1 was the ,buddha figure1 just described4 ,such are the great miriok1 sculptured from natural rock pinnacles1 like the one at ,eunjin4 ,you may remember the picture of a giant lotus pedestal1 lying in the courtyard of ,kumsan-sa 7,plates ,v1 ,,vi71 which we showed you in the first lecture2 it is at least a thousand years of age4 ,in the same courtyard1 you remember that we saw a little tower or pagoda of stone1 thirteen stories high1 but in reality no taller than a man4 ,at ,pawpchu-sa there is that splendid bowl of stone1 more than twelve hundred years of age1 which in its time1 no doubt1 was filled with pure water for the cleansing of the hands and mouth of worshippers4 ,sometimes we find stone lanterns and occasionally these are supported by animal figures in caryatid forms4 ,then there are the sari stones and altars and turtle-borne monuments4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv ,great figures of ,buddhist ,trinity1 standing3 ,kumsan-sa4 ,amida1 ,kwannon1 ,daiseishi 7,thirty feet or so in height7 ,page #hi ,look at this series of pictures from ,hoiam-sa1 one of the first temples we visited in #aiag4 7,plate ,,xv47 ,to-day it is a place of no significance1 but it was once a great religious center and has been associated with three famous men4 ,it chanced the day we visited it that the three monks who live there were about to celebrate the day sacred to the memory of these noted teachers2 gifts and offerings and all the paraphernalia for worship were laid out1 ready4 ,these three men were ,muhak1 ,chikong and ,nanong4 ,chikong was a native of ,india1 who spent his last days in ,korea4 ,nanong was chaplain and preceptor of ,king ,kong-,min-,oang1 the last king of the ,koryu dynasty4 ,muhak was the chaplain and preceptor of ,yi-tajo1 founder of the ,yi ,dynasty4 ,behind the monastery building there rises a remarkable narrow-backed and sloping ridge4 ,it bears a line of monuments reared to the memory of these three men4 ,the stones commemorating ,chikong and ,nanong were erected by ,muhak in the year #acic2 the stones in memory of him were reared in #adja4 ,the monument to each of these worthies consists of four stone objects--a lantern1 an altar1 a sari stone--which ,i suppose contains the jewel that was left after the burning of the man in whose honor it was reared--and a stone turtle figure from whose back rises a slab bearing a long inscription4 ,these turtle-stones with inscribed slabs are found everywhere in ,korea2 the turtle is the symbol of longevity and its use in this connection breathes the wish that the memory of the thing recorded may endure ten thousand years4 ,these monuments are typical and good examples of their class4 ,the carving on ,muhak's sari stone is particularly beautiful4 ,in connection with stone work we must remind you again of the towers or pagodas of which you have seen repeated illustrations4 ,here we show but one to refresh your memory4 7,plate ,,xvi47 ,such towers or pagodas rise in stories1 numbering from three to thirteen1 but always odd--three1 five1 seven1 thirteen4 ,there are hundreds of them scattered over the peninsula and at all the old monasteries you will find them4 ,some of those in the monasteries of the ,diamond ,mountains claim to be fifteen hundred years of age or more4 ,they are symbolical1 variously2 they may denote the life of the individual1 pointing heavenward1 developing from one stage of perfection to another2 they may mean the body of the faithful1 or the church2 the simple three-story towers symbolize earth1 sky and heaven4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi ,figures--a ,trio of ,trinities3 ,sukwang-sa 7,the figures are said to be ,kwannon1 ,amida1 ,daiseishi1 ,monju1 ,vairoshana1 ,fugen1 ,jihi1 ,sakyamuni1 ,teikakara7 ,page #hi ,thirdly1 are the wooden figures and other carvings in wood4 ,and before we study these in detail let us remember that all religions are accustomed to borrow from those that have preceded them4 ,in ,christianity we have quantities of superstition lingering on from our days of paganism4 ,every religion that attempts a propaganda is compelled to take over much from the faiths which it displaces4 ,india is a veritable mother of religions4 ,one after another great religious systems have developed there4 ,in very ancient days there was the simple nature worship of the old ,aryans1 as shown us in their sacred hymns1 the ,vedas4 ,among their gods two of the greatest were ,brahma and ,indra4 ,brahma was the creator1 ,indra was a god of heaven1 an atmospheric deity who wielded thunderbolts1 who hurled lightning strokes against the foe4 ,in course of time the old ,aryans advanced in culture1 and their ancient worship gave way to a systematized religion1 ,brahmanism1 with many gods1 having definite names and qualities and attributes4 ,but old ,brahma and ,indra lived on from the early days into ,brahmanism4 ,in that system ,brahma was the king of all the gods1 ,indra was the king of heaven--having a special heaven of great beauty4 ,it is said that his heaven was situated between the four peaks of ,meru and consisted of thirty-two cities of ,devas1 eight on each of the four corners of the mountain4 ,indra's capital was at the center where he sat enthroned1 with a thousand eyes and four arms grasping the thunderbolt1 in company with his wife and eleven thousand and nine hundred concubines4 ,there he received monthly reports regarding the progress of good and evil in the world from his four ,maharajas1 heavenly kings of the cardinal points4 ,the word ,deva in ,brahmanism is applied to the gods in general2 if a god is not specifically named he is called a ,deva4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii ,figure and ,painting of ,kwannon3 ,pomo-sa ,page #hi ,brahmanism was the religion of ,india when ,buddha came4 ,he devoted his life to its overthrow1 and his teaching was hostile to its assumptions4 ,curiously1 however1 in the popular traditional life of ,buddha many incidents are mentioned in which the friendliest of relations were established between ,buddha and the ,devas of the old faith4 ,thus it is said that ,brahma himself appeared to ,buddha and begged him to begin his teaching4 ,indra in these stories repeatedly shows his friendship4 ,there is one splendid occasion mentioned in which ,buddha had been to ,indra's heaven2 when he was ready to descend1 stairs appeared for him made of the choicest and most beautiful materials1 and as he came down this stairway1 ,brahma descended by a side stairway of silver and ,indra upon a stairway of purple gold upon the other side1 while with them came thousands of ,devas1 singing ,buddha's praises4 ,the four ,maharajas1 heavenly kings of the cardinal points1 who reported to ,indra every month1 showed themselves equally friendly4 ,on one occasion ,buddha was without a begging bowl2 the ,deva kings came to him and each one offered a begging bowl of emerald2 the ,buddha refused to take them1 as they were of too precious material2 so they offered bowls less fine and each was strenuous that he should accept his gift2 so ,buddha took the four bowls and placing them together1 lo1 they became a single bowl1 but with a rim showing how four had merged1 so that none of the kind ,devas was neglected or hurt in feeling1 and the offering of all was accepted by the ,great ,teacher2 it is said that this begging bowl was in existence hundreds of years after ,buddha's time1 kept as a precious treasure in a temple4 ,we need not then1 be surprised1 to find that a number of the old ,brahmanic gods were taken bodily over into ,buddhism4 ,brahma and ,indra are in fact to-day considered in ,mahayana to be the chief patrons and protectors of ,buddhism4 ,the four ,maharajas have also been taken over completely4 ,and ,yama1 the very ancient god of hell1 to-day finds himself as comfortable in ,buddhism as he ever could have been in ,brahmanism1 or in the earlier ,aryan worship of the ,vedas4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii ,hall of the ,ten ,kings of ,hell3 ,yongju-sa 7,notice combination of figures and painting2 the god of hell with two helpers1 five kings with small servants1 two other officers1 and one of the two ,brahmanic guardians7 ,page #ia ,approaching any ,buddhist temple in ,japan or ,korea you are almost sure to find two gigantic figures standing at the outer gate4 ,they are the old gods ,brahma and ,indra4 ,they are represented as full-muscled men of gigantic size1 wrestling against the powers of evil4 7,plate ,,xix47 ,at another gate1 farther up the trail1 one is almost sure to find the ,maharajas1 heavenly kings of the cardinal points1 under shelter1 each in a niche or alcove2 usually there are two on either side as one passes through the gate4#h ,being related to the cardinal points1 they are always arranged in the same order1 and are distinguished from each other by having different colored faces1 each having the color proper to the district over which he has control4 7,plate ,x,xa1 b47 ,each carries a characteristic object1 thus one bears a pagoda or tower on his hand1 another carries a blazing jewel1 the third varies what he carries1 but frequently he plays upon a lute1 the fourth one has a sword2 these four great ,brahman deities are found to-day in ,korea at every ,buddhist monastery1 at the gate commonly called 8the gate of the four kings02 there they watch1 guarding the monastery against all harm4 ,these are almost always figures of wood1 but rarely one may find paintings on the wooden walls instead of the figures4 ,while these guardian kings are always represented in heroic size the series at ,pawpchu-sa are of extraordinary dimensions1 probably the largest in ,korea4 7,plate ,,xxi47 ,yama1 too1 was taken over from the older faith4 ,the god of hell1 he was assisted by ten helpers2 each of these served as his representative in a separate hell1 or division of that place of torment4 ,yama judges souls and inflicts penalties1 assigns duties1 and directs all the details of his realm4 ,in most ,korean monasteries there will be a hall of the ten kings in which we see figures of ,yama with his assistants4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix ,hall of ,five ,hundred ,rakan3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #ij ,next we may consider architecture4 ,we place it fourth because we have pursued a logical order of approach4 ,coming through the beautiful scenery1 we have passed over the trail1 noticing the inscriptions on the cliffs1 passing by the guardians of the outer gate1 walking between the four kings on their ceaseless guard1 but at last have come to the monastery buildings proper and see them in their age and beauty before us4 ,we have already seen representations of many of these temples in the preceding lectures4 ,you have noticed that all were built of wood2 you have observed the curious mode of timbering2 you have studied the tangle of projecting timber ends under the roof--the decorative features applied to them1 the carving and painting2 red1 green1 black1 white and blue1 the gaudiest of colors are used upon them in a fashion which we could not conceive1 and from which we would expect disharmony1 though the real effect is charming4 ,you have examined in detail the carved decoration of the doors1 sometimes foliage1 again floral1 or with figures mingled with the other designs4 7,plate ,,xviii47 ,while the buildings themselves are always of wood there is a curious use made of stone at times in the way of supports4 ,you remember in a picture from ,sukwang-sa this was illustrated4 ,the building was in the nature of a pavilion where tablets bearing names were left by visitors2 the pavilion was borne upon upright columns of stone1 highly characteristic of ,korea1 but not common elsewhere4 ,another feature of the architecture is wall-painting and here we find two different kinds4 ,pictures may be painted directly upon the woodwork of the wall4 ,it is more common1 however1 to panel the timbered walls with plastering and then to paint upon the plaster4 ,let us examine examples of both kinds4 ,you remember that among the ,buddhist books recently printed in on-mun was an allegory by a ,chinese monk4 ,the writer's name was ,chiu-,chang-,chun2 he was born in #abjh and died in #abhh4 ,his book was named ,sei-yeu-ki2 at ,pongeum-sa1 a scene taken from his book is painted on the wooden wall4 ,we present it as an example of this kind of decoration4 ,it represents a scene from the closing part of the old story4 7,plate ,,xxii47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx ,extraordinary combinations of ,rakan figures3 ,hall of ,five ,hundred ,rakan3 ,songkwang-sa ,page #ij ,the pilgrims had almost finished their journey and were returning in state1 on cherubim1 with a great collection of idols and sacred texts4 ,it was found1 however1 that they had suffered only eighty trials1 and it seems that to be perfect they should pass through eighty-one--nine times nine--so angels were sent to overtake the eight cherubim1 and tell them privately that they must let the monks suffer one trial more4 ,this the angels did4 ,as a sample of the story1 and in explanation of the picture we quote from ,dr4 ,richard's translation4 8,it was a strange sensation to be on the ground again4 ,they had come down near some water4 ,the master asked1 #8,can anyone tell me where we are8' ,the monkey said1 #8,master1 this is the mouth of the ,milky ,way ,river4' ,the river was wide4 ,it was also a lonely place1 without houses or boats1 and they were on the western side4 ,how could they get across8 ,two of them suggested that since the master had left his mortal body behind they could cross the river by magic1 but the monkey said1 #8,no1 it cannot be done4' ,he knew that there was one trial more to undergo1 and it was for this they had stopped on the way4 ,then they heard a cry1 #8,chinese priest1 come this way4' ,they went and found that it was the white tortoise1 who had ferried them over as they went ,west1 at the time when they had saved the family at ,chen ,kia ,chwang4 ,the tortoise said he had been waiting for their return for a long time and was glad to see them4 ,the practical monkey said1 #8,formerly we had to trouble you4 ,now we meet again4' ,at this the four pilgrims were very rejoiced to see the tortoise4 ,he took them and the horse all on his back and swam across to the other side4 ,as they neared the ,eastern shore and it was getting dark1 the tortoise said1 #8,master1 when you went ,west ,i asked you to inquire of ,buddha for me how ,i might return to my former state1 and when ,i might get a human body4 ,did you remember to ask8' ,but the master had been so absorbed in his own affairs that he had completely forgotten the tortoise and his request and so he had nothing to say4 ,the tortoise1 finding that he had been forgotten1 turned a somersault1 and threw all and everything into the river4 ,happily the mortal body of the master had been exchanged for an immortal one1 and therefore he was safe in the water4 ,the pig and the monkey1 the boy and the horse1 were also at home in the water1 but the books were all soaked40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi ,painting of the ,seven ,stars3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #ib ,the old allegory took a strong hold upon ,eastern ,asia and there must have been hundreds of pictures painted in the course of time representing its incidents4 ,as an example of the wall-paintings on plaster we may study a group of paintings1 each representing an individual being1 from one of the main temples at ,sukwang-sa4 ,none of these figures is haphazard1 or without significance4 ,each would be recognized by the well-informed ,buddhist4 7,plate ,,xxiii47 ,fifth are the idols or images4 ,in the ,buddhism taught by ,sakya there was no room for them4 ,the ,great ,teacher recognized no gods1 and his followers should have no representations of deities4 ,in ,amida ,buddhism1 however1 there are many gods1 and a multitude of figures4 ,the ,buddhas1 themselves are all represented among them including ,sakya4 ,when we examine the figures worshipped in ,buddhist temples we find three groups1 7a7 ,buddhas1 7b7 ,bodhisattvas1 7c7 ,arhats or ,rakan4 ,sakya was not the first ,buddha2 in fact he was the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth in the line of those who attained enlightenment and gained ,nirvana4 ,the ,indians reckoned time in long periods or kalpas2 most of the ,buddhas were in former kalpas1 but even in the present kalpa1 in which we live1 ,buddha had three predecessors2 and before our kalpa ends a successor will appear1 ,maitreya1 or ,miroku1 the coming ,buddha4#i ,the two ,buddhas most commonly represented by figures in ,korean ,buddhism are ,sakya and ,amida4 ,miroku1 too1 is frequently to be seen1 but ,miroku is not yet a ,buddha but only ,bodhisattva4 ,bodhisattvas were human beings who had piled up karma and passed from stage to stage until they stood within a single step of ,buddha-hood2 during their next existence they could hope for illumination1 enlightenment1 ,nirvana4 ,there are many ,bodhisattvas1 but the ones most commonly represented by ,korean figures are six in number4 ,their ,korean names are ,miryek ,posal1 ,titsang ,posal1 ,kwandyeieun ,posal1 ,taiseichi ,posal1 ,mounsou ,posal1 and ,pohien ,posal4 ,these ,bodhisattvas are much better known to the outside world by their ,japanese names1 and having introduced them in ,korean terminology we shall refer to them as we have opportunity under the ,japanese forms4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii ,group ,painting3 ,sukwang-sa ,page #ie ,they become1 then1 ,maitreya or ,miroku1 ,jizo1 ,kwannon1 ,daiseishi1 ,monju1 ,fugen4 ,curiously enough in ,korean iconography ,jizo1 a most mild and gentle god1 fond of and loved by children1 replaces ,yama often as the king of hell4 ,kwannon1 god of mercy1 usually considered female in ,japan1 though not invariably1 is usually male in ,korean representation4 ,the third type of images of figures worshipped in ,korean monasteries are the ,arhats or ,rakan4 ,these are men who have made progress2 they have meditated1 studied1 listened and thought2 some of them are the original students of ,sakya2 all have gained a store of helpful karma1 and many of them are worshipped4 ,when made in figures there are two groups of ,rakan4 ,one known as the sixteen ,rakan1 the other as the five hundred4 ,the sixteen ,rakan are all absolutely historical personages of early date1 friends1 relatives1 and hearers1 of ,sakya4 ,in figures and in paintings they are represented with characteristic attributes1 readily recognized4 ,these three kinds of figures are usually made of wood1 painted and gilded2 sometimes the gold leaf on them represents absolutely considerable value4 ,the figures of the ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas are frequently of large size1 and often beautiful4 ,they may be standing or seated1 but in both cases the position of the hands and fingers is important and significant4 7,plate ,,xxiv47 ,buddhism everywhere recognizes a series of finger symbols carrying a message4 ,it is interesting to notice that the ,buddha is usually included in a trinity4 ,this fact is among many which have led some writers like ,professor ,lloyd1 ,doctor ,richard1 and ,madame ,gordon to think that ,mahayana ,buddhism is actually ,christianity worked over and given the name of ,buddhism4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii ,one of the ,eight ,scenes in the ,life of ,buddha3 ,sakya gains ,enlightenment3 ,pomo-sa ,page #ia ,trinities are conspicuous everywhere4 ,often we find the central figure of the three to be ,sakya1 while to his right and left are the ,bodhisattvas ,monju and ,fugen4 ,the former sometimes sits upon a dog or lion1 and the latter upon a white elephant4 ,then they are easily recognized by their mount4 ,when not mounted they are not so easy of recognition4 ,even more common in ,korea is the ,amida trinity4 ,amida is usually accompanied by ,kwannon on one side and ,daiseishi on the other4 7,plate ,,xxv47 ,there are other trinities to be seen in ,korean temples but these two are common4 7,plate ,,xxvi47 ,these figures are generally in curious relation with paintings4 ,in most temples where there are figures on the altar there are paintings hung up on the wall behind which usually represent the same beings as the figures1 but accompanied by many more attendants4 ,this association of pictures and figures representing the same being is rare1 if it occurs1 in ,japanese ,buddhism4 7,plate ,,xxvii47 ,lastly1 we come to paintings4 ,while many are related to figures as just mentioned1 many more stand by themselves and are displayed upon the walls of halls and temples without figures4 ,if we desire to make a study of the paintings of a monastery we must pass from hall to hall4 ,many monasteries are absolute masses of great buildings4 ,in the main temple there are usually figures of a trinity of ,buddhas or sometimes even three trinities with paintings hung behind4 ,in the ,rakan hall we may find the sixteen ,rakan in figures1 in paintings1 or in combinations4 ,in halls of the five hundred ,rakan1 we usually find five hundred little figures set on shelves thickly around all three sides2 no two are just alike1 and it is probable that you will be told with glee that if you look long enough you will find your own father represented among them4 7,plates ,,xxix1 ,,xxx47 ,in the hall of the ,ten ,kings of ,hell we sometimes find the figures of ,yama or of ,jizo with the ten helpers2 if so1 behind the figures are frightful paintings of the ten hells1 a picture of each one behind its proper king4 ,sometimes1 however1 there are only paintings in this hall4 7,plate ,,xxviii47 ,at some temples there is the hall of the ,eight ,scenes of the ,life of ,buddha4#aj ,these scenes are definite and fixed in every detail1 are traditional1 and have been passed down for centuries4 ,the whole building is occupied by the eight great paintings hung upon the wall4 ,each contains a mass of detail1 and there may be hundreds of individuals represented in a single scene4 7,plate ,,xxxiii47 ,occasionally there is a hall of portraits at a monastery2 such a one we saw at the monastery where we rebuked the priests for avarice and impoliteness2 the building is devoted to the portraits which are said to be reliable representations of the head priests of this monastery for a period of almost fifteen hundred years4 ,one might1 however1 visit many monasteries without finding such a hall4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv ,the ,god of the ,mountain3 ,fuko-an1 branch of ,sinkei-sa1 ,diamond ,mountains ,page #ic ,probably every monastery of any consequence has its hall of ,seven ,stars4 ,it is always a little building and on the outskirts of the group of temples4 ,korea must have worshipped the constellation of the ,great ,bear1 the ,big ,dipper or the ,seven ,stars1 long before ,buddhism came4 ,many ,koreans still pay worship to the stars themselves4 ,the father of a young man who was once my ,korean interpreter1 never fails to pray to the seven stars on any night when the sky is clear enough for them to be seen2 the worship is interesting and deserves attention4 ,it was probably taken over early by ,buddhism4 ,the picture always shown in this little hall is very curious4 ,there is always a ,buddha figure of some kind in it1 but above are ,buddha-like figures of the ,seven ,stars1 heavenly beings1 with pale faces2 below there are the representations of seven earthly ministers corresponding to them2 the idea that heavenly conditions are reproduced upon the earth is one common to many religions4 7,plate ,,xxxi47 ,one other building is certain to be found at every monastery4 ,it is a wee structure1 sacred to the ,god of the ,mountain4 ,he is a mysterious being4 ,he is usually represented with a beard and a beard quite different from those regularly seen in ,china1 ,korea or ,japan4 ,he is always accompanied by a tiger1 particularly noticeable for head and tail2 the god of the mountain varies more than any other representation in ,korean art4 ,the features mentioned1 however1 are always emphasized4 ,all agree that the god of the mountain is individual2 he is not the god of mountains generally1 nor a god overseeing mountains everywhere1 but ever specifically the god of the mountain on which his shrine is located4 7,plate ,,xxxiv47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv ,portrait of one of the chiefs of the ,sixteen ,rakan3 ,chikchi-sa ,page #ie ,sometimes there is another very little hall known as the hall of the ,lonely ,saint4 ,when it occurs it usually stands at the side of the hall of the god of the mountain and is of its size4 ,within there is a hanging picture of the ,lonely ,saint4 ,unfortunately we cannot show a copy of it4 ,we have planned repeatedly to take it but something has always happened to prevent4 ,trollope tells us that the lonely saint was a historic personage1 ,chikai1 who lived in ,china in the sixth century1 and was the founder of the very ancient ,tendai sect4 ,these paintings in ,korean temples are rarely beautiful1 but they surely deserve careful study by competent art students4 ,the colors used are bright and light4 ,faces of ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas are usually yellow or white4 ,these high beings are regularly represented with aureoles1 the boat-shaped aureole occurring commonly with ,kwannon and ,miroku4 ,gods and human beings occur in crowds in these paintings1 but no matter how crowded the composition the individuals are usually definite and known4 ,the artists are priests and it is common for the few who have famous skill to travel from temple to temple1 touching up old pictures and painting new ones4 ,they stay for weeks or months and then pass on to new fields4 ,the designs are certainly traditional and very old1 but the paintings themselves1 as we see them in the temple1 are many of them the work of very recent years4 ,most of the monks and acolytes know very little of the meaning of the pictures1 but those who paint them1 and those who are serious students can identify the actors in the scenes depicted4 ,we reproduce a picture from ,sukwang-sa which illustrates the crowding of persons and the attention given to detail4 ,upon it there are represented one ,pul or ,buddha1 with three faces1 four ,posal or ,bodhisattvas1 the twenty-eight heavenly kings 7each corresponding to one of the ancient constellations71 and ten times ten gods 7they are actually grouped by tens and there are ten each of earth1 fire1 water1 small water bodies1 air1 the human body1 movement1 field work and mountain fortresses74 ,this design is really a common one1 and we have a photograph of it also from ,pawpchu-sa4 ,comparison of the two pictures shows absolute identity in the number and placing of the individuals4 7,plate ,,xxxii47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi ,great painting1 ,pawpchu-sa ,page #if ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii ,great painting displayed at ,buddha's ,birthday ,ceremony3 ,tongdo-sa ,page #if ,we have already stated that there is considerable variation in the picture of the god of the mountain1 though he is always recognizable by certain features4 ,pictures of individual ,rakan are common in temples and these pictures are always precise and definite1 giving in every instance the characteristic features or attributes4 7,plate ,,xxxv47 ,occasionally--perhaps more commonly than we know--the monasteries possess an enormous rolled painting of a single ,buddha4 ,we have seen one at ,pawpchu-sa and another at ,tongdo-sa4 ,at ,pawpchu-sa they brought it out from the great temple and unrolled it for us1 in the open1 that we might see its size4 ,at ,tongdo-sa it was already elevated for the occasion of the celebration of ,buddha's birthday4 ,it towered above the highest building1 and was worshipped by the crowding thousands4 7,plates ,,xxxvi1 ,,xxxvii47 ,in this brief study of ,korean ,buddhism we have but sketched a subject which presents a vast material1 which as yet is almost unknown and practically untouched by students4 ,,bibliography ,gale4 ,the ,pagoda of ,seoul4 ,transactions of the ,korea ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,vol4 ,,vi1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 pp4 #a-bb4 ,seoul3 #aiae4 ,gordon4 ,some ,recent ,discoveries in ,korean ,temples and their ,relationship to ,early ,eastern ,christianity4 ,trans4 ,k4 ,b4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,vol4 ,v1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 ,,pp4 #a-ci4 ,seoul3 #aiad4 ,gordon4 ,symbols of 8the ,way0--,far ,east and ,west4 ,tokyo3 #aiaf4 ,maruzen ,co4 ,hulbert4 ,history of ,korea4 ,seoul3 #aije4 #b vols4 ,methodist ,publishing ,house4 ,jones4 ,colossal ,buddha at ,eunjin4 ,trans4 ,k4 ,b4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ea-gj4 ,seoul3 #aija4 ,richard4 ,a ,mission to ,heaven 4 4 4 by ,ch'iu ,ch'ang ,ch'un4 ,shanghai3 #aiac4 ,the ,christian ,literature ,society's ,depot4 ,trollope4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,buddhism in ,corea4 ,trans4 ,k4 ,b4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #a-da4 ,seoul3 #aiag4 ,,notes #a;,aryavarman1 a man of ,sinlo 7,corea71 left ,chang'an ,a4,d4 #fch4 ,he set out with a view to recover the true teaching and to adore the sacred relics4 ,he dwelt in the ,nalanda ,temple1 copying out many ,sutras4 ,he had left the eastern borders of ,corea and now bathed in the ,dragon pool of ,nalanda4 ,here he died1 aged seventy odd years4 ,hwui-nieh1 a ,corean1 set out for ,india #fch ,a4,d41 arrived at the ,nalanda ,temple and there studied the sacred books and reverenced the holy traces4 ,i-tsing found some writing he had left in the temple1 where also he had left his ,sanskrit ,,mss4 ,the priests said he died the same year1 about sixty years of age4 ,hiuen ,ta'i1 a doctor of the law1 a ,corean1 called by the ,sanskrit name of ,sarvajanadeva4 ,in the year ,yung-hwei 7#fej ,a4,d47 he went by the ,tibetan road through ,nepal to ,mid-,india2 he there worshipped the relics at the ,bodhi ,tree4 ,afterwards going to the ,tukhara country1 he met ,taou-hi1 with whom he returned to the ,tahsio ,temple 7,mahabodhi74 ,afterwards he returned to ,china1 and was not heard of again4 ,hiuen-hau1 a doctor of the law1 a ,corean1 went with ,hiuen-chiu1 in the middle of the ,chengkwan period1 to ,india1 and reaching the ,tahsio ,temple1 he died there4 ,two priests of ,corea1 names unknown1 started from ,chang'an by the southern sea-route and came to ,sribhoja4 ,they died in the country of ,po-lu-sse1 to the westward 7the western portion of ,sumatra74 ,hwui ,lun1 a ,corean1 otherwise called ,prajavarma1 came by sea from his own country to ,fuchau1 and proceeded thence to ,chang'an4 ,following after the priest ,hiuen-chiu1 he reached the ,west1 and during ten years dwelt in the ,amravat country and in the ,sin-ch ,temple 7north of the ,ganges74 ,passing through the eastern frontiers1 and thence proceeding northward he came to the ,tu-ho-lo 7,tukhra7 ,temple4 ,beal3 ,life of ,hiouen-,tsiang1 pp4 xxix-xxx1 xxxvi4 #b;,jones in his admirable discussion of the ,eunjin miriok makes an interesting suggestion regarding its location3 ,but the special interest these facts have for us in connection with the great ,buddha lies in the fact that it may have been here that ,buddhism itself first entered ,pakche4 ,buddhism was a foreign importation1 being sent to the peninsular kingdoms by the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty of ,china 7,a4,d4 #cag-ai7 and effecting an entrance almost simultaneously at two points--in the north into ,koguryu and in the south into ,pakche4 ,of this latter event the native historians tell us3--8,in the year ,a4,d4 #chd the barbarian monk ,maranant'a came from ,tsin4 ,king ,chip-yu accorded him a most courteous and ceremonious reception and ,buddhism was established as the national religion40 ,we do not know at what point the monk-missionary landed1 but it is not so unlikely that he may have come to this well-known port1 and that one day among the ships making up that inextricable mass of masts and rudders at ,si-jin there may have come the imperial junk of ,tsin bearing 8the barbarian monk ,maranant'a0 with his images1 incense1 bells1 books and vestments to plant in ,korea that cult which was to dominate the people for a thousand years1 thus landing close to the place where in later years the greatest monument that ,buddhism possesses was to stand4 ,and two hundred years later 7,a4,d4 #eeb7 there probably embarked from this port that band of ,pakche priests sent by their king to carry to the mikado of ,japan the golden images of ,buddha and the triad of precious ones1 the sutras and sacred books1 and to give the faith of ,buddhism to the ,sun-rise ,empire4 ,and it is said that these relics exist to this day and are preserved in the city of ,nagano in ,japan4 ,colossal ,buddha3 p4 #fb4 #c;,it occurs in the inscription regarding the ,seoul pagoda and is particularly interesting as a contemporary description of a temple of remarkable splendor4 ,reckoning up the number of pillars supporting the building they were found to exceed #cjj4 ,the ,hall of the ,buddha stood up high in the center1 and the inscription board above was written ,taikwang myung jun1 8,great light glorious palace40 ,to the left was the ,sun ,tang or study hall1 while to the right was the ,oon-chip or assembly hall4 ,the gate was marked ,chak-kwang ,moon1 ,hidden ,light and the outer gate was called ,panya or ,likeness gate4 ,beyond this again was the ,hai-tal ,moon4 ,there was a bell-pavilion also which was called the ,pup-noi-kak1 ,kiosk of ,buddha's ,thunder4 ,the kitchen was named ,hyang-juk1 ,kitchen ,house4 ,there was a pond on the east side1 where lotus flowers were planted2 and on the west was a garden-park where flowers and trees grew4 ,behind the ,cheung-jun palace the sacred books were in keeping1 and this house was called ,hai-,jang ,chun or ,sea ,covering ,hall4 ,also a pagoda was built of thirteen stories called sul-to-pa1 ,buddhist pagoda4 ,within it were placed the accumulated sari and the newly translated ,wun-gak sutra4 ,the palaces1 halls1 studies1 guest-rooms1 stores1 kitchens1 outhouses1 had each their particular place4 ,the whole was magnificent and well constructed1 and the ornaments were lavish1 imposing1 beautiful1 all in keeping and fair to see4 ,its equal was nowhere to be found4 ,also the drums1 gongs1 etc41 necessary for the service1 and other useful implements were abundantly provided for4 ,gale3 ,pagoda1 p4 #aj4 #d;,gale finds that the history of the erection of the ,seoul pagoda was originally inscribed upon the turtle-borne slab that accompanies it4 ,of the pagoda itself1 he says3 #a4 ,the ,pagoda was therefore built in #adfd-adff ,a4,d4 #b4 ,the builder was ,king ,se-jo1 who reigned from #adef-adfh and all the workmen were ,koreans4 #c4 ,the form of it was modelled after the ,pagoda in ,pung ,tuk ,county1 which had already been standing nearly a hundred years1 and had been built by ,chinese workmen4 ,there is no evidence that this pagoda had ever been brought from ,peking though it finds its final resting place now in ,tokyo4 #d4 ,it was built to commemorate the excellence of the ,wungak ,sutra from which it takes its name4 #e4 ,it is by far the most interesting ,buddhist monument in ,korea4 p4 #bb4 #e,the list of the thirty head-temples follows3 ,yongju-sa ,pongeum-sa ,chntung-sa ,pongsm-sa ,makok-sa ,pawpchu-sa ,songkwang-sa ,snam-sa ,thung-sa ,pkyang-sa ,uipong-sa ,posawk-sa ,tongdo-sa ,pomo-sa ,hin-sa ,tonghwa-sa ,chuim-sa ,unh-sa ,koun-sa ,kumyong-sa ,peyak-sa ,sawngpul-sa ,yungmyung-sa ,pawphung-sa ,pohyun-sa ,knpong-sa ,yuchom-sa ,ualchung-sa ,sawkwang-sa ,kuichu-sa #f,the magazine conducted by ,yi ,nung ,hwa has had several breaks in publication and after each the name has been changed4 ,as here given the names are ,english translations of the original3 ,monthly ,magazine of ,chosen ,buddhism4 ,nineteen issues1 from ,january #be1 #aiaa to ,august #be1 #aiac4 ,buddhist ,magazine of the ,eastern ,sea4 ,eight issues from ,november #bj1 #aiac to ,june #bj1 #aiad4 ,monthly ,magazine of the ,association of ,rising ,buddhism4 ,nine issues from ,march #ae1 #aiae to ,december #ae1 #aiae4 ,kingdom of ,chosen ,buddhism4 ,three issues from ,april #e1 #aiaf to ,june #e1 #aiaf4 ,general ,magazine of ,chosen ,buddhism1 from ,march #bj1 #aiag4 ,three numbers had appeared when ,i received this note in ,may #aiag4 #g,the texts most commonly read in ,korean monasteries are the ,hokkekyo1 ,kegon1 ,kishinlon1 ,fumonbon and ,amidakyo1 according to ,madame ,gordon4 ,these are ,japanese pronunciation4 #h,the ,japanese names of the four guardians are3 ,bishamon3 east2 blue2 tower4 ,komoku3 south2 red2 jewel4 ,jikoku3 west2 green2 lute4 ,zocho3 north2 flesh2 sword4 #i,three ,buddhas have preceded ,sakyamuni in the present kalpa and one is still to come before the kalpa ends4 ,the entire list is3 ,krakuchanda 7,pali1 ,kakusanda71 8who solves doubt40 ,kanakamuni 7,p4 ,konagamana7 8body radiant as gold40 ,kasyapa 7,p4 ,kassapa7 8swallower of light40 ,sakyamuni4 ,maitreya4 ,legge3 ,fa-hien1 p4 #ea4 #aj,the eight scenes in the ,life of ,buddha are3 7a7 ,incarnation4 7b7 ,birth4 7c7 ,encounter with age1 sickness1 death4 7d7 ,escape--with aid of the four heavenly kings4 7e7 ,asceticism4 7f7 ,enlightenment4 7g7 ,preaching--8turning the wheel40 7h7 ,nirvana4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained the copyright notice from the printed edition 7although this book is in the public domain47 --,silently corrected a few palpable typos4 --,in the text versions only1 delimited italicized text in underscores4