,,how ,,to ,,judge ,,architecture ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,church1 ,,rome1 ,,from ,,the ,,hills ,,northwest ,,of ,,the ,,church4 ,how to ,judge ,architecture ,a ,,popular ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,appreciation ,,of ,,buildings ,by ,,russell ,,sturgis1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d4 ,fellow of the ,american ,institute of ,architects1 ,member of ,the ,architectural ,league of ,new ,york1 ,the ,national ,sculpture ,society1 ,the ,national ,society of ,mural ,painters1 etc41 etc4 ,author of 8,dictionary of ,architecture and ,building10 8,european ,architecture10 etc41 etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,baker ,,taylor ,,co4 #cc-cg ,,east ,,seventeenth ,,st41 ,,union ,,sq41 ,,north ,copyright1 #aijc1 ,by ,,the ,,baker ,,taylor ,,co4 ,published1 ,september1 #aijc ,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,early ,,greek ,,design #aa ,,ii4 ,,later ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,design #ce ,,iii4 ,,early ,,medi,,val ,,design #ff ,,iv4 ,,central ,,medi,,val ,,design #ic ,v4 ,,late ,,medi,,val ,,design #aad ,,vi4 ,,revived ,,classic ,,design #aca ,,vii4 ,,later ,,revived ,,classic ,,design #adc ,,viii4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,design #aei ,,ix4 ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,,imitative ,,design #agf ,x4 ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,,original ,,design #aib ,illustrations ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,church1 ,,rome ,frontispiece ,,plate ,,page ,i4 ,hexastyle ,doric ,temple1 ,pstum1 ,southern ,italy ,facing #ad ,,ii4 ,parthenon1 ,athens 8 #ae ,parthenon1 ,athens 8 #ae ,,iii4 ,theseum 7,theseion71 ,athens 8 #bd ,curvature of ,stylobate of ,parthenon 8 #bd ,,iv4 ,restored ,model of the ,parthenon 8 #be ,v4 ,erechtheum 7,erechtheion7 ,athens 8 #cf ,erechtheum1 ,athens 8 #cf ,,vi4 ,erechtheum1 ,portico of ,caryatides 8 #cg ,,vii4 ,erechtheum 8 #ch ,details of ,entablature1 ,acropolis1 ,athens 8 #ch ,corner ,capital1 ,acropolis1 ,athens 8 #ch ,,viii4 ,temple of ,athene ,polias1 ,priene 8 #ci ,,ix4 ,restored ,model of ,pantheon 8 #dh ,the ,pantheon1 ,rome 8 #dh ,x4 ,ruins of ,temple of ,castor and ,pollux1 ,rome 8 #di ,ruins of ,temple of ,mars ,ultor1 ,rome 8 #di ,,xi4 ,basilica of ,maxentius and ,constantine1 ,rome 8 #ed ,,xii4 ,sculptured ,details of ,temple of ,vespasian1 ,rome 8 #ee ,arch of ,trajan1 at ,benevento1 ,southern ,italy 8 #ee ,,xiii4 ,jerash1 ,syria 7,ruins of ,gerasa7 8 #fj ,ancient ,city ,gates of ,gerasa 8 #fj ,,xiv4 ,part of the ,bounding ,wall of the ,forum of ,nerva1 ,rome 8 #fa ,,xv4 ,basilica ,santa ,maria ,maggiore1 ,rome #gb ,,xvi4 ,interior of the ,church of ,san ,miniato1 near ,florence1 ,tuscany 8 #gc ,,xvii4 ,church of ,sant' ,ambrogio1 ,milan 8 #gf ,,xviii4 ,interior of ,cathedral ,tournai1 ,belgium 8 #gg ,church of ,st4 ,martin 7der ,gross ,s4 ,martin7 at ,cologne1 ,rhenish ,prussia 8 #gg ,,xix4 ,church of the ,holy ,apostles1 ,cologne1 ,rhenish ,prussia 8 #hj ,,xx4 ,cathedral of ,st4 ,martin1 ,mainz 7,mayence7 ,hesse1 ,germany 8 #ha ,,xxi4 ,tower of ,church of ,st4 ,radegonde1 ,poitiers1 7,vienne7 ,france 8 #hd ,,xxii4 ,church of ,notre ,dame la ,grande1 at ,poitiers 8 #he ,,xxiii4 ,interior of ,church ,hagia ,sophia1 ,constantinople 8 #hh ,,xxiv4 ,exterior of ,church ,hagia ,sophia1 ,constantinople 8 #hi ,church of ,s4 ,theodore1 ,athens 8 #hi ,,xxv4 ,monastery of ,gelati near ,kutais in the ,caucasus 8 #ij ,,xxvi4 ,chapel of ,nancy1 ,france 8 #ia ,,xxvii4 ,interior of ,amiens ,cathedral 8 #ih ,,xxviii4 ,cathedral at ,reims 7,marne7 ,france1 ,choir ,aisle 8 #ii ,cathedral at ,reims 7,marne7 ,france1 ,choir ,aisle1 ,different ,view 8 #ii ,,xxix4 ,cathedral at ,amiens 7,somme71 ,france4 ,exterior 8 #ajb ,,xxx4 ,cathedral at ,chartres 7,eure et ,loir7 8 #ajc ,,xxxi4 ,cathedral at ,salisbury1 ,wilts1 ,england 8 #ajh ,,xxxii4 ,bell ,tower of ,cathedral1 ,florence1 ,tuscany 8 #aji ,,xxxiii4 ,cathedral at ,gloucester1 ,gloucestershire1 ,england 8 #abj ,,xxxiv4 ,cathedral at ,peterboro'1 ,northants1 ,england 8 #aba ,,xxxv4 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,london 8 #abb ,,xxxvi4 ,chapel of ,henry ,,vii4 7,willis drawing7 8 #abc ,,xxxvii4 ,church of ,brou1 at ,bourg-en-,bresse 7,ain71 ,france 8 #abd ,,xxxviii4 ,church of ,saint ,wulfran1 ,abbeville 7,somme71 ,france 8 #abe ,,xxxix4 ,townhall of ,audenarde1 ,belgium 8 #abf ,,xl4 ,outer ,porch1 ,albi 7,tarn71 ,france 8 #abg ,,xli4 ,south ,porch1 ,albi 7,tarn71 ,france 8 #abh ,,xlii4 ,the ,loggia dei ,lanzi at ,florence 8 #abi ,,xliii4 ,chapel of the ,pazzi1 ,church of ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 ,tuscany 8 #acd ,,xliv4 ,palazzo ,rucellai1 ,florence 8 #ace ,,xlv4 ,palazzo ,strozzi1 ,florence1 ,tuscany 8 #ach ,palazzo ,riccardi1 ,florence 8 #ach ,,xlvi4 ,courtyard of the ,palazzo della ,cancellaria1 ,rome 8 #aci ,,xlvii4 ,cloister1 ,santa ,maria della ,pace1 ,rome 8 #adj ,,xlviii4 ,courtyard of ,palazzo di ,venezia1 ,rome 8 #ada ,,xlix4 ,courtyard of ,palazzo ,borghese1 ,rome 8 #adb ,l4 ,chteau at ,blois 7,loir et ,cher71 ,france 8 #adh ,,li4 ,royal ,chteau at ,blois 7,loir et ,cher71 ,france 8 #adh ,,lii4 ,chteau of couen 7,seine et ,oise71 ,france 8 #adi ,wollaton ,hall1 ,notts1 ,england 8 #adi ,,liii4 ,hall of ,middle ,temple1 ,london 8 #aeb ,,liv4 ,church of the ,theatiner ,monks at ,munich1 ,bavaria 8 #aec ,ducal ,palace1 ,genoa1 ,italy 8 #aec ,,lv4 ,palazzo ,carignano1 ,turin1 ,piedmont1 ,italy 8 #agb ,palazzo ,madama1 ,turin1 ,italy 8 #agb ,,lvi4 ,exhibitions ,building 7,kunstausstellungs-,gebude17 ,munich1 ,bavaria 8 #agc ,gateway ,building 7,propyla71 ,munich 8 #agc ,,lvii4 ,interior of ,st4 ,george's ,church1 ,doncaster1 ,yorks1 ,england 8 #aij ,exterior of ,church of ,st4 ,george1 ,doncaster 8 #aij ,,lviii4 ,trinity ,church1 ,boston1 ,mass 8 #aia ,,lix4 ,cathedral at ,truro1 ,cornwall1 ,england 8 #aif ,,lx4 ,apartment ,house1 8,st4 ,alban's ,mansions10 ,london 8 #aig ,,lxi4 ,west ,ham ,institute1 ,sussex1 ,england 8 #bjd ,,lxii4 ,house and ,beer-shop 7zum ,spaten7 ,berlin1 ,prussia 8 #bje ,,lxiii4 ,club-,house1 ,cercle de la ,librairie1 ,paris 8 #bjh ,,lxiv4 ,building of ,n4 ,y4 ,life ,insurance ,co41 ,st4 ,paul1 ,minn4 8 #bji ,how to ,judge ,architecture ,,chapter ,i ,,early ,,greek ,,design ,in trying to train the mind to judge of works of architecture1 one can never be too patient4 ,it is very easy to hinder one's growth in knowledge by being too ready to decide4 ,the student of art who is much under the influence of one teacher1 one writer1 or one body of fellow-students1 is hampered by that influence just so far as it is exclusive4 ,and most teachers1 most writers1 most groups or classes of students are exclusive1 admiring one set of principles or the practice of one epoch1 to the partial exclusion of others4 ,the reader must feel assured that there are no authorities at all in the matter of architectural appreciation3 and that the only opinions1 or impressions1 or comparative appreciations that are worth anything to him are those which he will form gradually for himself4 ,he will form them slowly1 if he be wise3 indeed1 if he have the gift of artistic appreciation at all1 he will soon learn to form them slowly4 ,he will1 moreover1 hold them lightly even when formed2 remembering that in a subject on which opinions differ so very widely at any one time1 and have differed so much more widely if one epoch be compared with another1 there can be no such thing as a final judgment4 ,the object of this book is to help the reader to acquire1 little by little1 such an independent knowledge of the essential characteristics of good buildings1 and also such a sense of the possible differences of opinion concerning inessentials1 that he will always enjoy the sight1 the memory1 or the study of a noble structure without undue anxiety as to whether he is right or wrong4 ,rightness is relative3 to have a trained observation1 knowledge of principles1 and a sound judgment as to proprieties of construction and design is to be able to form your opinions for yourself2 and to understand that you come nearer1 month by month1 to a really complete knowledge of the subject1 seeing clearly what is good and the causes of its goodness1 and also the not-so-good which is there1 inevitably there1 as a part of the goodness itself4 ,it will be well1 therefore1 to take for our first study some buildings of that class about which there is the smallest difference of opinion among modern lovers of art1 namely1 the early ,greek temples4 ,there is no serious dispute as to the standing of the ,greek architecture previous to the year #cjj ,b4 ,c41 as the most perfect thing that decorative art#a has produced4 ,it is extremely simple3 a fact which makes it the more fit for our present purpose3 but this simplicity is to be taken as not having led to bareness1 lack of incident1 lack of charm3 it has merely served to give the ,greek artist such an easy control over the different details and their organization into a complete whole1 that the admiration of all subsequent ages has been given to his productions4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that nothing of this complete beauty is now to be seen above ground4 ,plate ,i shows the famous temple at ,pstum on the west coast of ,campania1 southeast of ,naples3 the temple called that of ,poseidon1 to which god 7called by the ,romans1 ,neptune7 the ancient town which stood on this site was dedicated4 ,this is the most nearly well preserved of the ,doric#b temples1 with the single exception of the small building in ,athens called the ,theseion1 or ,theseum1 see ,plate ,,iii1 and it is larger and more interesting than that4 ,plate ,,ii gives the ,parthenon at ,athens from the northwest ,illustration3 ,,hexastyle ,,doric ,,temple1 ,,paestum1 ,,southern ,,italy1 ,,called 8,,temple ,,of ,,neptune40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,parthenon1 ,,athens1 ,,from ,,the ,,northwest4 ,illustration3 ,,parthenon1 ,,athens1 ,,from ,,the ,,northeast4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 and from the northeast4 ,this building by common agreement of modern students was the most perfect in design and the most highly elaborated in detail of all the ,doric temples of early time4 ,the ,parthenon as we see it now in its decay1 dominating the town of ,athens from the top of its rock or looked at close at hand1 lighted by the ,grecian sun or by the moon for those who are romantically inclined1 is unquestionably a most picturesque and charming ruin2 it is imposing in its mass1 interesting still in its details1 and invested1 of course1 with an immeasurably great tradition1 historical and poetic4 ,that fact must not be forgotten for a moment3 but1 on the other hand1 it must not be forgotten that this admiration1 this enthusiasm1 is not given to the work of art4 ,it is not at all to produce such a ruin as we now see that the ,grecian artist thought and toiled4 ,admire the ruin to your heart's content3 but be careful that you do not allow too much of this romantic association to enter into your love of the artistic entity1 of the lost ,parthenon1 which we have to create out of the air1 as it were4 ,and beware of the admiration of ruins as you would of the 8tone0 given to a picture by time3 it is not that which the artist proposed to himself or even thought of1 and it is the artist's purpose that you must ask for1 always4 ,that is the first thing4 ,until you are sure you know that purpose1 fully1 it will not do to find fault with the work of art1 or even to praise it too unreservedly4 ,on the other hand1 it is extremely important to consider the probable ancient surroundings of the building in question4 ,the upper figure of ,plate ,,iii may show1 not only the interesting building itself from a good point of view and with its peculiarities strongly accentuated 7as is pointed out below71 but also as showing how1 except for its coloring1 the temple must have been seen by the ,athenians in the days of ,conon4 ,the modern houses are very like what the ancient houses must have been1 for1 although the ancient houses had even less door and window-opening upon the street and more upon a court or yard1 yet we may imagine ourselves in such a yard of antiquity1 and the red-tiled roofs1 the homemade chimney1 the humble and unkempt aspect of the whole may be assumed to stand very well for the humbler quarters of ,athens in antiquity4 ,this temple also is a ruin3 but the fact that1 as seen in ,plate ,,iii1 there are still visible the sculptures of the metopes1#c and the fact that the roof of the pteroma#d is still in place1 so that there is no sunshine coming down behind the columns where sunshine was never meant to be--these conditions go far to give us a peep at the building as it stood in those great days4 ,no other photograph can give a better idea of how the columns are set closer near the corner2 nor a better idea of the reasons for this peculiarity2 for the sky is seen between the columns at the right hand2 and the dark wall of the naos#e in the same relative position on the left hand1 and the chief cause for the smaller intercolumniation at the corners is obvious enough1 as shown below in connection with the model ,plate ,,iv4 ,look back at ,plate ,i1 and ,plate ,,iii1 upper figure1 and note that these buildings have six columns on the front instead of eight and1 therefore1 according to the general proportions of ,greek temples1 should have a greater height relatively to width than the ,parthenon1 ,plate ,,ii4 ,note1 farther1 that the columns are very much higher and more slender in the octastyle#f ,parthenon than in the ,italian hexastyle#g building1 and the relative height of the entablature#h greater1 or as one to two and a half in ,pstum1 one to three in ,athens4 ,the ,doric ,order#i is capable of just about as much diversity in relative heights and other dimensions as is shown here4 ,the comparatively short and thick columns of the ,italian temple are characteristic of an earlier and less developed style than that denoted by the higher and more slender columns of the ,parthenon4 ,in like manner the comparatively great thickness of the superstructure in the ,pstum temple1 giving a very broad architrave1#aj and a still broader frieze#aa is also suggestive of an earlier date4 ,now it is agreed that the more lofty and slender proportions of the ,order of the ,parthenon must have given to the original building a charm beyond that given by the stumpy proportions of the ,pstum temple3 but it is also undeniable that many lovers of architecture1 of this as of other epochs and styles1 love especially the early work1 that which is commonly known as archaic4 ,it is exactly like the great enthusiasm excited in many students of ,italian art by the earliest paintings1 those of the primitifs3 in each case the very single-minded and diligent work of the early men has a charm peculiarly its own4 ,although the ,parthenon is1 as mentioned above1 a ruin and nothing else1 there are still to be found in the shattered stones of that ruin a certain part of that theoretical beauty1 that imagined glory of the destroyed work of art1 which we are gradually building up in our thoughts4 ,thus it is in the existing ruins that there have been discovered those curious curves where straight lines had been supposed to exist4 ,if you stand at one end of the stylobate#ab and look along it towards the other end1 you will see that it curves upward in the middle with a decided convex sweep4 7,see ,plate ,,iii47 ,if you raise yourself on a scaffolding and look along the underside of the architrave you will find that that also rises in a curve1 not exactly parallel or concentric to that of the stylobate1 but nearly so4 ,furthermore you will notice1 if you walk about the temple and examine it closely1 that the two outer-most columns of the front are much nearer together than the others1 as noted above in ,plate ,,iii3 or that1 in other words1 the three columns which form the corner are grouped much more closely than are the others4 ,furthermore1 it has been discovered by minute measurements that these columns slope inward a very little4 ,of course1 it has always been known that the very visible diminution of the shaft in thickness from the bottom to the top is not according to straight lines 7that is to say1 that the shafts are not conical7 but is according to a very slow and hardly perceptible curve which we call the entasis4 ,great folios of carefully drawn plates have been devoted to the exact curvature of the entasis and to the more recently discovered irregularities3 and a minute series of measurements have been made1 by which the whole amount of the irregularity in any one case is now easily ascertainable4 ,this is one of the many elements out of which we have to make up our general appreciation of the building1 our appreciation of the existence and the character of these slopes1 curves1 risings1 sinkings1 slopings3 all of them1 it is clear1 planned in the most careful and elaborate way1 and as the result of many previous experiments4 ,their object is1 of course1 to add to the charm of the building1 to give it in one case the effect of being very broad in the base and therefore very secure and permanent--in another case1 to prevent any possible appearance of sagging or depression in the middle of the long horizontal lines2 in another case still1 to substitute the subtile grace of a slight and almost imperceptible curve for the harshness of a straight line4 ,still another thing is traceable in these ruins3 the unceasing care with which the work was done1 the way in which the separate drums or solid blocks1 of which the shafts of the columns are made up1 were ground together1 one upon another1 until they fitted with but the slightest visible or tangible separation4 ,the channeling or grooving of the shafts was evidently done after the drums had been put into place1 and it is highly probable that the bells#ac of the capitals were also finished1 or received their final very delicate curvature1 after the blocks out of which they had been cut had been set1 and indeed after the superincumbent block1 the abacus1 had been lowered upon each one of them4 ,another feature in this remarkable design is to be traced in the ruins1 and was much more plainly discoverable at an earlier1 though still recorded and well-known1 date3 namely1 the original painted adornment of the building1 in strong primary colors4 ,in the temples built of soft and rough stone1 like that in ,plate ,i1 there is known to have been a thin coat of fine plastering spread over the whole surface1 and the final delicacy of curve and sharpness of edge must have been wrought in that plaster even more accurately than in the stone beneath4 ,but in the ,parthenon1 built entirely of fine-grained and hard marble1 no such coating was necessary1 and the paint was applied directly to the crystalline surface itself4 ,this painting covered very large parts of the exterior1 nor is it probable that any single foot of the ,illustration3 ,,theseum 7,,theseion7 ,,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,curvature ,,of ,,stylobate ,,of ,,parthenon4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,restored ,,model ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon1 ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 marble was left in its original whiteness4 ,where the solid coating of red or blue paint was not applied1 the marble seems to have been tinted a dull yellow1 as by the application of wax to the surface1 which wax1 if melted on with hot irons1 would act as a preservative for the marble4 ,it appears then that all modern dreams about the whiteness and purity and abstract loveliness of the ,grecian temples are mistaken4 ,browning's ,artemis says that1 always excepting ,hera1 she is the equal of any goddess of them all-- 8 444 surpassed ,by none whose temples whiten this the world40 ,the ,artemis of any ,greek poet would have used a different phrase3 to her1 the temples erected to the gods of ,olympus would not have seemed white objects--they would have been to her the properly sacrificial and devotional embodiment of all that was splendid and gorgeous in the arts of men at that time3 sculptured marble and wrought metal indeed1 but also color and gold freely and even lavishly applied4 ,plate ,,iv is a photograph of the restored model of the ,parthenon which belongs to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in ,new ,york1 the restoration of which1 and the whole work1 is due to ,charles ,chipiez1 a well-known and very competent archologist in the direction of classical architecture4 ,but this restoration is extremely reserved and quiet2 it assumes almost nothing2 it is restrained quite beyond what is to be expected of a modern enthusiast in ,greek art4 ,if1 instead of this1 we were to study the careful and conscientious drawings published by that ,french student who has made a special study of the buildings in ,epidauros 7,alphonse de ,frasse7 or in ,olympia 7,victor ,laloux7 we should find the decoration by means of painting and by the application of golden shields or other members in gilt metal1 assumed as very much more elaborate and rich4 ,thus the restored faade of the temple of ,asclepios at ,epidauros and that of the temple of ,zeus at ,olympia are shown as having been painted in the most elaborate way1 with figure subjects of conventionalized form and distribution on all the larger flat surfaces1 and patterns of leafage and scroll-work on the small ones4 ,it is known that very rich mosaic floors existed in many of these cases and known also that the ceilings1 such as those above the open galleries 7pteroma7 behind the great colonnades1 were adorned very richly1 sometimes with painted and gilded terra cotta4 ,there is still to be considered the sculptured ornament1 painted1 indeed1 in vivid colors1 but also planned with care1 and executed with vast knowledge1 minute skill1 and what seems to us faultless good taste4 ,in the ,doric temples there was no leaf-sculpture1 no scroll-work1 no carved ornaments of any sort3 we shall find a different condition of things in the ,ionic style1 but even in the elaborate and very costly ,parthenon there were only the human and animal forms1 expressed in statues and reliefs made as perfect as was possible to the artist of the time4 ,some temples had none of this3 others had the metopes of the frieze 7see footnote1 ,entablature7 carved with high reliefs3 others had reliefs in the great triangular panel of the pediment3#ad others again had this panel filled with statues1 standing and seated1 forming a group1 and expressing some legend of ,greek historical and religious life4 ,finally1 there are instances of long unbroken bands of sculpture in very low relief4 ,the ,parthenon had all of these3 a horizontal band along the top of each wall of the naos filled with bas-reliefs2 high reliefs in the metopes1 statues in both pediments4 ,if1 then1 our opinion of ancient ,greek architecture is to be formed1 and a relative judgment of any two fine specimens of it is to be reached1 we have to study with some care what is known about their appearance and character when intact4 ,what statues did they have8 ,what high reliefs in square panels1 or bas-reliefs in long and narrow strips8 ,of what value were these sculptures to the general effect of the structure8 ,what seem to have been the proportions of the building8 ,if we can call up an image of it before the mind1 is this an image of perfect proportion1 or is it clear that greater height or other change in dimension would have been an advantage8 ,it is true that we generally accept ,greek buildings of the best time as faultless3 but it is also true that there were great differences among them4 ,the hexastyle temple is necessarily more high and more narrow than the octastyle building4 ,if we consider that the temple with six columns at each end has only thirteen on each side 7that is1 eleven without counting the corner columns which form part of the two fronts7 while the wider ,parthenon has seventeen columns on each side1 we find that the comparative height of the temple of ,poseidon at ,pstum1 or of ,zeus at ,olympia1 or of ,athena at ,sunion1 is very much greater when seen from one corner1 in perspective1 than that of the ,athens temple4 ,suppose that we trace from ,plate ,,iv so much of the colonnade as will leave out two of the end columns and four of those on the flank1 and then put a corresponding pediment and entablature1 which proportion shall we prefer8 ,which building is nearer to perfection8 ,the ,parthenon1 as the very flower and glory of ,greece8 ,if so1 why was the hexastyle form so very much more common8 ,there are no other octastyle ,doric temples known to us3 and1 if it be said as an explanation1 that of course the heights of column and entablature would be varied for the change from the #h #ag peristyle to the #f #ac type1 the question still remains for us--was it practicable to make an octastyle temple as perfect in proportion as were numerous hexastyle examples1 large and small1 scattered over ,greece1 ,southern ,italy and ,sicily8 ,these doubts are suggested in order that the reader may see in this commencement of his studies what kind of unsettled and never to be settled questions will come before him at every step of his inquiry4 ,he will be equally uncertain whether he is to prefer the east end of ,reims cathedral or that of ,bourges1 or that of ,paris4 ,as with the important ,greek temples1 so the ,gothic cathedrals just named are the very flower of their epoch and represent in the highest perfection known to us their respective styles4 ,so much the student will be able to discover without too great a mental effort3 and once sure of this he will understand that no further mental effort in this direction is even desirable1 and that comparison among works of very high excellence can never cease--can never be brought to an end by any authority or any outside decision whatsoever1 and that here the student's own preferences must be perforce his only guide4 ,there is still one point of view from which the ,greek temples must be regarded4 ,it is to many persons the most important consideration of all4 ,those who are realists in architecture are always inclined to favor the utilitarian plan and the logical structure and to hold these as of even greater value than the abstract proportion or the beauty of detail4 ,on the other hand1 writers like ,ruskin never suggest the importance of the destination of the edifice1 nor its merit as a piece of intelligent building3 nor do the students of proportion1 as in ,neo-classic#ae buildings1 think much of this matter4 ,in the case of the ,greek temples this practical consideration can be stated in a very few words4 ,no large roofed hall was ever desired2 no interior effect1 as of a great vaulted room1 was thought of2 no room for a congregation or an audience within the solid walls was ever proposed4 ,the naos of the temple served only to house the great image of the ,divinity with other minor statues of the same or of kindred significance together with the gifts presented to the shrine4 ,the people gathered in front of the great portico2 public sacrifices were performed there2 the temple itself1 like the choir#af of a ,christian church long afterwards1 was for the priests alone4 ,moreover1 the buildings of different character left us by the ,greeks1 even in ruins1 are so very few that we are unable to establish with certainty their character2 and those which1 like the famous ,meeting-hall 7,telesterion7 at ,eleusis1 must have accommodated a number of persons seated to listen to the words of speakers1 were obviously of extreme simplicity--involving no new principles of plan or of design4 ,next1 as to the construction3 that as the photographs show1 was of the simplest possible character4 ,uprights of stone carried horizontal beams of stone1 and these again cross-beams to span the width of the portico1 which cross-beams might be of stone1 or of wood encased perhaps with terra cotta slabs4 ,as for the interior of the naos1 in the larger temples it was divided into a wider middle hall and two narrower ones1 like the nave and aisles of ,christian churches3 and all roofed with timber1 in simple framing1 which carried a roofing of tile3 but whether the roof was always complete and solid1 or whether1 as some persons think1 a part of this was often omitted so as to allow the light of day to enter from above1 is uncertain4 ,it appears then that1 as suggested in the first page of this chapter1 the requirements and the structure of the ,grecian religious building were so very simple that no long examination into the matter is needed to show the connection between the plan and the exterior effect1 or between the structure and the exterior effect4 ,we have no ,greek interiors to study and the exteriors at once tell us how the whole structure was brought into being1 and also that it could not fail to serve its daily uses in a very perfect manner4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,later ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,design ,in chapter one there was discussion of the simplest ,greek architecture--that which we call ,doric--which reached its culminating point about #dej ,b4 ,c4 ,considering now1 very briefly1 the later and more elaborate ,greek buildings we find that they were more generally of the ,ionic#ag style1 that the most important of them were built along the ,asiatic coast by the ,greek colonists there1 and finally1 that not one of the larger monuments remains in any such condition that it can be seen even as an attractive ruin4 ,the only important ,ionic building which we can find impressive1 as it stands1 is the ,erectheion at ,athens1 and this1 though a very small building1 is admitted to contain the most exquisite details of the ,ionic style which are known to us4 ,plate ,v gives two views of the ,erectheion in its present condition1 and ,plate ,,vi gives the small portico of caryatides on the south flank of the same building4 ,the views given here shows the curious and entirely unexampled relation of these different parts to one another4 ,the full significance of this combination of small apartments is not understood4 ,as a general thing the ,ionic temples were not different in purpose from the ,doric temples2 they have therefore the same plan and the same simple structure2 but they have a much more elaborate decorative treatment4 ,thus1 we find here architectural sculpture1 properly so called1 introduced into the building4 ,plate ,,vii gives a number of separate details of ,ionic buildings1 and it will be readily seen that here an influence was at work far different from that which ordained the absolutely unmodified square-edged and formal ,doric building depending upon proportion and upon brilliant color2 and that here ,illustration3 ,,erechtheum 7,,erechtheion7 ,,athens1 ,,from ,,the ,,east4 ,illustration3 ,,erechtheum1 ,,athens1 ,,from ,,the ,,north1 ,,showing ,,north ,,portico4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,erechtheum2 ,,portico ,,of ,,caryatides4 ,,from ,s4 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 conventionalized leafage1 independently designed curvatures and broken lines1 and the play of surface given by slight reliefs alternating continually with smooth flat planes1 are all introduced4 ,if1 farther1 we look back to ,plate ,,vi and note the treatment of that splendid 8,portico of the ,maidens10 we shall see what ,greek thought was capable of in the way of architectural sculpture4 ,now there is no difference of opinion about the beauty of the simple patterns1 the anthemions1#ah the egg-and-dart#ai mouldings1 and the like2 but the very greatest difference of opinion exists with regard to the essential propriety of human figures used as architectural members of such great importance as these1 and especially when used as supports for a superincumbent weight4 ,the author of this volume admires this portico as1 on the whole1 the finest thing left us by ,greek architectural art1 combining as it does the exquisite design and faultless modelling of each separate figure1 the successful combining into a group of the four maidens of the front1 or of the whole six1 with their superincumbent weight of marble1 and the exquisite management of the whole structure so that it shall seem light and yet solid1 fanciful and yet dignified1 graceful and yet enduringly noble4 ,viollet-le-,duc has pointed out 78,entretiens10 vol4 ,i41 p4 #bic7 how successfully the figures are posed and grouped to express their constructional function4 ,there are excellent judges who think differently and who would fain ignore the ,pandrosion1#bj as it is sometimes called1 or relegate it to the position of a mistake made by that race of artists who were of all races the least likely to make mistakes4 ,in this ,illustration3 ,,erechtheum1 ,,head ,,of ,,doorway ,,under ,,north ,,portico4 ,illustration3 ,,details ,,of ,,entablature1 ,,ionic ,,style1 ,,acropolis1 ,,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,corner ,,capital1 ,,ionic ,,style1 ,,found ,,on ,,acropolis1 ,,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,of ,,athene ,,polias1 ,,priene1 ,,in ,,asia ,,minor1 ,,south ,,of ,,ephesus4 7,from 8,antiquities of ,ionia10 published by the ,dilettanti ,society47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 connection it may be noted that the buildings of the ,ionic style offer other and very curious exceptions to the more usual treatment of sculpture when applied to buildings4 ,thus in the ,erectheion itself1 the principal frieze was of dark gray marble in smooth slabs1 upon which were fixed figures in white marble in vigorous action1 the scale small1 and the whole composition much more nearly pictorial than anything in the ,parthenon4 ,again1 in the balustrade built about the little temple of ,victory on the edge of the cliff at the west of the ,acropolis1 reliefs of moderate projection are treated with singular vivacity3 draped goddesses in active and easily understood movement4 ,there is also in ,greek architecture the beginning of the ,corinthian#ba style1 of which the best example known to moderns is the totally ruined ,tholos#bb near ,epidauros in the ,morea1 and the most familiar1 that little monument in ,athens1 called the ,choragic#bc ,monument of ,lysicrates3 but for this style we must refer to the ,roman buildings in which it reached its highest development4 ,when we come to consider more especially the traditional repute of ,grecian architecture1 and the influence which it has had in shaping the opinions of what we call the taste of sixty generations throughout all the ,european lands1 we are brought at once to the work of the ,roman imperial times4 ,all the nationalities--all the peoples--which take their recent and existing social form and opinions in art and literature from the same common source1 the all-embracing empire of ,rome1 have taken up ,greek art as they have taken up ,greek literature1 as their chief and original guide to thought4 ,indeed it has been shown1 and is accepted as true1 that the chief mission of the great ,roman empire was in preserving ,hellenic thought in art and literature for the future4 ,it is because of this1 as has been truly said1 that the works of ,homer and schylus and of the ,greek sculptors are plants growing in our own garden4 ,they might have been1 and but for the ,roman empire they would be1 as foreign to the modern world as are the thought and literature of ,persia and ,india4 ,it is therefore necessary to consider what ,greek architecture was to the five or six centuries which followed its greatest epoch1 and again what it was to the five or six centuries which followed the ,middle ,ages1 in ,europe4 ,from #dej ,b4 ,c4 to #djj ,a4 ,d41 and again from #adjj ,a4 ,d4 to recent times1 ,greek thought in these matters of fine art was the central thing1 the spring of life4 ,to the peoples of antiquity ,greek architecture was a guide and inspiration1 even under the much altered conditions of a foreign and irresistible rule3 it was constantly and uniformly the model4 ,to the peoples who have built and designed since the fourteenth century1 ,greek art has been of weight generally as acting through the ,roman styles of design1 for it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that the actual buildings of the ,greek peoples in ,greece1 in ,asia ,minor1 in ,italy1 and in ,sicily1 came to be known at all3 but it was the ,greek part in ,roman imperial art that interested those ,moderns4 ,at the time of the first explorations and discoveries of ,stuart1 ,revett1 ,penrose1 ,cockerell1 ,pennethorne1 ,texier1 ,renan1 and the other explorers of the years from #agfj to #ahej1 the ,greek buildings were in ruins4 ,not one single roof remained in place4 ,not one single building was so far preserved that the question could be definitely answered whether the temples had openings in the roofs for light in all or in any cases3 so that the hypthral#bd theory remains a theory only1 and is apparently incapable of verification4 ,on the other hand1 the details1 not only the mouldings and flutings and channelings1 but also the carving in conventionalized leafage1 were plainly to be seen and were capable of exciting the most enthusiastic interest4 ,thus ,plate ,,viii shows the order and some other details of the ,temple of ,athena ,polias at ,priene in ,asia ,minor3 the drawings having been made about #agff under the direction of ,dr4 ,richard ,chandler and the architect ,nicolas ,revett4 ,the general plan remained doubtful1 but as it was evident that the buildings had received the most careful thought1 with a view to their artistic character1 and as1 in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries1 proportion in the larger distributions of the building was esteemed the most important element of architectural greatness1 it was taken for granted that the ,greek buildings would be found to have also such excellence of proportion2 and it was believed that this particular beauty could be enjoyed and judged by those who were patient and shrewd enough to combine the shattered ruins and deduce from them the original form of the buildings which they represent4 ,what one temple would not give1 another supplied4 ,what one temple had lost1 another had preserved4 ,the height of the columns could be ascertained and the diameters of their shafts at top and at bottom3 the distance apart of these columns could be ascertained3 the shapes of the capitals were there to be noted3 the entablature could be restored by a mental process and drawn out with almost perfect certainty4 ,in this way the ,greek temples were put into shape for the modern student4 ,no such student had ever seen one except in the state of apparently hopeless ruin3 but no such student could fail to grasp the evident significance of the original building when presented to him as a work of pure form1 white and colorless1 simple in construction1 refined in detail beyond anything that later times had ever achieved1 presumably faultless in proportion1 and invested with minute and delicate decoration in conventionalized leaf form and the like4 ,we have then to keep in mind two different ways of judging of the ,greek buildings2 first1 the truly historical and also truly critical way1 in which we take them as buildings once very real and really put to use1 made rich by splendid color and abounding variety of detail1 much of this detail being in paint or in gilding alone without form to represent it2 and the other way1 the modern traditional way1 by means of which a small body of writers and lecturers swayed architectural opinion for a century and a half1 and until the accurate examination and close study1 given to the subject in the second half of the nineteenth century1 had produced its effect4 ,in the later chapters of this little book there will be found frequent reference to this professional or technical view of pure ,greek architecture4 ,still1 what has been thought about it since its discovery in the eighteenth century1 is of less importance to our inquiry than the similar assumptions with regard to the architecture of ,imperial ,rome2 for that architecture influenced the peoples of ,europe at all times during the ,middle ,ages1 and more especially at the important periods of revival or of change in the fifth1 the eleventh1 and the fifteenth centuries4 ,the early architecture of ,rome1 that is of the city and its neighborhood1 is not under consideration2 it is very little known even to modern archologists1 and it was not known at all to the people of the ,risorgimento#be or their successors1 upon whose work the modern traditions and feeling about architecture have been based4 ,the buildings which directly influenced the world of the ,middle ,ages1 and then that later world of the fifteenth century1 the time of ,italian imitation of antiquity1 were those of the early ,emperors4 ,there was1 as has been discovered within the last quarter of a century1 a special art introduced in the reign of ,augustus1 a beautiful art made up of sculpture not exclusively ,greek in character2 and1 in its architectural form1 of an enlarged and more decorative handling of the ,greek system of design4 ,in both of these innovations some loss in refinement comes with the gain in splendor and in utility3 but we can see this ,augustan architecture to have been a splendid decorative art4 ,it is also true that somewhat more of it than we now see remained in place1 and nearly complete1 in the fifteenth century4 ,the great buildings which partly remain to us from the ,imperial epoch are generally later than the time of ,augustus4 ,the famous ,pantheon 7see ,plate ,,ix71 as we now have it1 with its huge rotunda1 dates from the time of ,hadrian 7#aag-ach ,a4 ,d473 the magnificent ,forum of ,trajan with its accessories1 a group of buildings inconceivably vast and splendid1 was completed during the same administration of ,hadrian4 ,the best preserved ,roman memorial arch1 which is also fortunately very rich in sculpture1 that of ,benevento in ,south ,italy1 was also built after ,trajan's death and in the time of ,hadrian3 the best preserved buildings of ,palmyra and of the ,north-,african cities are of the time of the ,antonines1 those of ,heliopolis 7,baalbec7 of the same epoch and later4 ,the temples on the old ,forum--the ,forum ,romanum as distinguished from the later or imperial ,fora--were restored and altered many times before the final collapse of the imperial power in ,rome3 the temple of ,castor1 apparently under ,tiberius 7#ad-cg ,a4 ,d471 the temple of ,saturn1 with the ,state treasury in its basement1 perhaps not later than the time of ,augustus 7#cj ,b4 ,c4 to #ad ,a4 ,d471 the temple of ,vespasian1 much rebuilt1 under ,severus and ,caracalla1 at the beginning of the third century1 ,a4 ,d4 ,the buildings named as being in ,rome itself1 together with the ,temple of ,antoninus ,pius1 that of ,mars the ,avenger in the ,forum of ,illustration3 ,,restored ,,model ,,of ,,pantheon1 ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,rome1 ,,as ,,now ,,existing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,temple ,,of ,,castor ,,and ,,pollux1 ,,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,temple ,,of ,,mars ,,ultor1 ,,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,augustus1 the enclosing wall of the ,forum of ,nerva1 and other fragments now wholly destroyed1 were the pieces of architectural art which most especially influenced the studies of the men of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,plate ,x gives what now remains of the ,temple of ,castor1 and also what remains of the ,temple of ,mars2 but as late as the sixteenth century there was much more to be seen and studied about these ruins4 ,the building behind the ,temple of ,castor in the ,forum1 now entirely stripped of its architectural decorations1 retained its interior order of marble columns until the sixteenth century1 and this building also was of great importance to the earlier restorers of antique art3 it is thought by modern archologists to have been the ,temple of ,augustus1 which is known to have existed in this neighborhood4 ,the buildings named above were generally columnar in character4 ,the memorial arch and the ,pantheon are the only two of them which were certainly vaulted structures4 ,now1 the memorial arch required only one or three simple barrel vaults1 and the example of the ,etruscans must have made such work as that familiar to the people of ,rome1 but the ,pantheon is a very different thing4 ,this1 as rebuilt under ,hadrian1 with the rotunda which we know1 must have been one of the earliest ,roman buildings in solid mortar-masonry4 ,its walls are very thick1 faced on both sides with brick1 but built actually of small stones laid in strong mortar1 and it is roofed with extremely massive vaulting of the same materials4 ,other such buildings of which large parts exist are1 in the city of ,rome itself1 the great ,halls of the ,therm of ,caracalla 7probably built about #bje-aj ,a4 ,d472 those of the ,therm of ,diocletian1 built a century later1 and that of the basilica of ,maxentius and ,constantine on the north side of the ,forum ,romanum1 built between #cab and about #ccj ,a4 ,d4 ,in these buildings a vaulting as massive as that of the ,pantheon but of wholly different shape was used4 ,the ,pantheon1 a circular building1 is roofed by a circular cupola#bf which is kept in place by a ponderous superstructure carried up from the haunches of the vault1 so that the thrust of the cupola could not1 however great it might be1 affect the stability of the structure4 ,in the great halls of the ,therm and the basilica above named1 the conditions are very different1 for the groined-vaulting#bg of these halls would1 if built under ordinary conditions1 exert a formidable pressure outward upon all its points of support4 ,in these ,roman examples1 however1 there were two influences at work to save the buildings from possible injury3 the skillful disposition of walls and piers to take up or absorb the thrust from each point of support1 and the fact that these vaults were built in such a fashion1 with horizontal beds of stone laid in strong cement mortar1 that there could not be much thrust when once the mortar was dry and the vault consolidated4 ,the vault could not thrust outward without breaking3 and it was too homogeneous to break4 ,buildings whose actual construction was carried out in this fashion exist throughout those ,mediterranean lands which once were included in the great empire4 ,this system of building gave the world those great permanent interiors which were the first in the world's history to be of architectural importance4 ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,greeks1 both those of ,greece and those of the ,colonies--none of these great building nations had ever conceived of interiors prepared and designed for their own sake1 and as the chief part of the building4 ,the ,assyrian kings in their palaces came nearer to understanding the possible effectiveness of the interior3 but even they were satisfied with long and narrow halls shaped like what we call corridors4 ,it was left for the ,romans at once to develop their system of vaulting and at the same time to improve the construction of their roofs of wood and metal1 so that halls fifty feet1 sixty feet1 even eighty feet wide1 could be built with roofs of effective and beautiful form high above the floor4 ,under these conditions the most splendid possible interior effects were producible4 ,such vast columned interiors as that of the ,ulpian basilica and that of the ,septa ,julia must have given an effect of stately grace absolutely unknown to the modern world2 the true evolution of ,greek art in one direction was assuredly to be found there4 ,on the other hand the imperial dwellings on the ,palatine ,hill in ,rome with their numerous vaulted halls1 the temples of pure ,roman design1 like that of ,venus and that of the ,city of ,rome1 built back to back1 near the ,colosseum1 and the great halls of the basilicas and baths1 as above suggested1 were capable of being adorned in a permanent and strictly architectural way as none of the buildings of earlier races had been4 ,the basilica of ,maxentius had its middle division1 its nave1#bh about eighty-three feet wide and roofed with a groined vault1 although the span of that vault is less than this1 about seventy-eight feet1 because carried by immense columns which stand free of the wall on either side4 ,this great hall was one hundred and twenty-five feet high to the top of the vault3 and it was flanked on either side by an aisle#bi made up of three rooms1 each about fifty-three feet square1 opening into the central hall2 and the barrel-vaults#cj even of these six minor divisions rose eighty feet from the pavement4 7,see ,plate ,,xi47 ,this building dates from the declining days of the ,empire and of classical civilization1 when sculpture had already become a feeble and barbarous thing1 without character1 and when what we consider the ,byzantine feeling in matters of decoration had already obtained the mastery throughout the greater part of the ,roman world4 ,the strong hold which the system of building had upon the engineers of the empire can be judged from this fact4 ,illustration3 ,,basilica ,,of ,,maxentius ,,and ,,constantine1 ,,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,details ,,of ,,temple ,,of ,,vespasian1 ,,rome2 ,,restored ,,model ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 ,,arch ,,of ,,trajan1 ,,at ,,benevento1 ,,southern ,,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,that which we are undertaking here is not a history of architecture1 but in a sense a history of the modern way of judging of architecture4 ,what then is the origin of those traditions and accepted doctrines upon which are based all our ways of criticising a building8 ,this and the previous chapter are a partial answer to that question4 ,the contribution of the ,roman ,imperial world to this tradition has been1 by much1 the greatest of all4 ,it is upon the ,roman practice that all subsequent ,european systems of decorative building have been founded1 except the lightest and slightest--the wooden-framed houses of medival ,europe and those of modern ,america1 and their like4 ,apart from fortification1 and from structures built by engineers without artistic intention1 there is not a single form of building in masonry since the fifth century which has not been developed from the practice of the ,imperial builders4 ,now it appears that those builders not only built in two different ways1 but that they undertook the curious twofold task of constructing their buildings with massive walls and vaults of mortar-masonry 7thereby abandoning wholly the example of the ,greeks who never used mortar at all in the buildings we admire1 and who had no arches nor windows nor interior designing of any sort in our modern sense71 and of decorating these buildings within and without1 by means of a borrowed ,greek system of the ,orders1 which had nothing whatever to do with the actual structure4 ,they allowed themselves to take certain liberties with the ,greek ,orders4 ,they raised the column on a pedestal1 they made the shaft of costly and beautiful material1 of porphyry or granite or pavonazzetto marble or cipollino2 and consequently1 because the material was precious and also hard1 they did not try to adorn the shaft with channels or flutes4 ,they made the capital of bronze1 cast hollow and gilded richly1 and put such capitals around the top of the shaft as a mere ornamental jacket1 concealing the actual supporting member4 ,they built the horizontal architrave of wedge-shaped stones1 making of each span between two columns a flat arch instead of a simple lintel of one block1 and they protected this built-up lintel by a second arch above1 a discharging arch to throw the weight upon the columns and relieve the centre of the lintel4 ,finally1 they increased the amount of carved ornament upon all parts which seemed capable of receiving it4 ,this they did1 not only by making the sculpture of any one moulding very elaborate and rich1 but also by increasing the number of sculptured mouldings4 ,thus in ,plate ,,xii1 there is given1 that it may be compared with the carved work of ,athens 7see ,plate ,,vii7 a part of the entablature of the ,temple of ,vespasian in the ,roman ,forum4 ,and the differences between ,greek and ,roman practice in this respect are not limited to the amount of sculpture in a given moulding or a given monument3 they affect also the very nature of the ornament itself4 ,plate ,,xii gives one side of the imperial arch at ,benevento2 a monument intended primarily as a pedestal for a great group of bronze figures2 the reliefs on the arch showing ,trajan in war and in peace1 sacrificing1 conquering ,dacians and ,armenians4 ,it is evident that no such use of human subject in sculpture had ever suggested itself to the ,greek builders of the temples4 ,it is historical3 and it is also strictly decorative1 and subordinate to the architectural design4 ,for any similar conception arising among ,greek peoples we moderns must go to buildings which were utterly unknown to the ,european artists who built up the neo-classic system1 the men of the fifteenth and subsequent centuries4 ,such a building as the famous tomb of ,mausolus at ,halicarnassos1 now ,budroun1 on the coast of ,asia ,minor1 may indeed have influenced greatly the ,roman architects of the time of ,hadrian4 ,that ,emperor1 who was a great traveller1 may have seen the ,mausoleum2 his favorite architect may have been a student of it from childhood2 but any ideas which the men who brought classic art back to modern ,europe drew from that famous structure came to them through the ,roman designers4 ,however much they might abandon the ,greek use1 that is to say1 the rational and inevitable use of the ,orders1 the ,roman architects still employed those ,orders constantly1 and in a way more splendid than anything the ,greeks had attempted4 ,the ,eastern notion of adorning a town by a broad central avenue lined with colonnades two or three deep1 an idea developing itself rapidly in the cities of ,syria1 obtained throughout the empire during its peaceful days4 ,it appears that in the fourth century it was feasible to go afoot from almost any point in the central regions of ,rome1 north1 south1 east or west1 for a mile or two1 while keeping always under cover2 except indeed as one crossed a street or avenue1 though even at such crossings there was often the ,tetrapylon1 the four-fronted gateway1 to carry the shelter on from portico to portico4 ,this system of colonnaded porticoes1 roofed always and enclosed very often with a solid wall on one side at least1 was developed in many forms4 ,a temple would stand in a great court surrounded by just such colonnades4 ,a forum of a ,roman town like an agora of a ,greek town would be faced by colonnades on every side4 ,for the purpose of display1 great squares were opened up essentially for the purpose of surrounding them by just such porticoes4 ,plate ,,xiii gives views of the ruins at ,jerash in ,syria1 east of the ,jordan1 the remains of the city of ,gerasa1 whose glory seems to have been of the time of the ,antonine emperors4 ,the lower figure gives the great triple archway south of the ancient walls of ,gerasa3 the upper figure a view of the great oval or semi-oval space1 whose shape is not determined1 and which we may hardly call either a forum or an agora4 ,plate ,,xiv gives a detail of the ,forum ,transitorium of ,nerva1 ,emperor from ,a4 ,d4 #if to #ih4 ,the whole enclosure was a massive wall about ninety feet high and built of huge blocks of limestone1 the decorative treatment and the sculptures being on the inside and facing upon the ,temple of ,minerva4 ,the figure ,illustration3 ,,jerash1 ,,syria2 ,,the ,,ancient ,,gerasa1 ,,general ,,view4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,city ,,gate ,,of ,,gerasa4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,bounding ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,forum ,,of ,,nerva 7,,forum ,,transitorium7 ,,rome3 ,,the ,,modern ,,level ,,at ,,least ,,twenty ,,feet ,,above ,,ancient ,,pavement4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,plan of that part of ,rome which contains the ,imperial ,fora4 ,shaded parts are those covered by modern buildings4 gives a trustworthy plan of the buildings called by the name of ,trajan and built during his reign and that of his successor1 ,hadrian4 ,the modern buildings and streets are shown1 and it is seen from these how the actual plan can only be inferred by that which has been discovered by digging here and there1 or by investigations in cellars of modern structures4 ,still the general type of the old design can be seized3 a great open square1 #bgj by #cgj feet and this surrounded on three sides by a covered portico fifty feet wide with two rows of great columns in addition to the wall outside1 which itself was pierced by many openings filled with columns in antis4#ca ,across one end of this great square1 stretched the ,ulpian basilica1 as long as the whole square was wide1 including its portico1 and half as wide as that3 in other words1 the open interior of the basilica was about #ahj by nearly #djj feet and the roof of all this was carried by two rows of columns on every side in addition to the outer wall which again was in parts opened up into a colonnade4 ,the basilica may or may not have been covered in the central part3 various conjectural restorations have been made1 but nothing is absolutely certain4 ,it is evident that it was very open to persons coming and going--that they were allowed to cross it almost as freely as one crosses through a great cathedral in ,france or in ,italy1 going in at the north door and out at the south door1 almost at pleasure4 ,beyond it1 was a court where stood the ,column of ,trajan1 still erect1 though without its accompanying minor buildings1 and beyond that again and across what may have been an entirely open street was the temple erected to the deified ,trajan1 after his death1 by the ,senate1 which temple was surrounded by another portico and covered nearly as much ground as the great forum itself4 ,in this way a continuous space of nearly a thousand feet in length by a width of from three hundred to four hundred feet was either covered by the roofs of porticoes or open to the sky within belts of these same porticoes4 ,to walk once around the whole1 following the outside ambulatory of the porticoes would be to walk the best half of a mile1 and this one could do without ever passing out under the open sky1 except perhaps in crossing to the temple enclosure4 ,nor does this account of the whole composition include in the least the great semicircular buildings projecting from the forum and from the basilica on the northeast and southwest4 ,now as all of this vast congeries of splendid buildings must be assumed to have been entirely of trabeated#cb structure1 a mere series of columns and horizontal lintels resting upon them with superstructure1 it is evident that the ,greek spirit and the ,greek taste controlled all parts of this vast composition4 ,mile upon mile of colonnades1 as ,greek in taste as the later age would allow1 enclosed and led up to superb interiors of a dignity and magnificence immeasurably beyond anything conceived by the ,greeks4 ,this is the ,roman signet1 as it were1 the stamp which the great ,empire put upon the world4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,early ,,medi,,val ,,design ,the unequalled grandeur of the ,empire as it endured from #ej ,b4 ,c4 to about #cej ,a4 ,d4 is most strongly felt when we think of the ,pax ,romana--that ,roman peace which forbade armed conflicts in the ,mediterranean lands in which war had been the rule4 ,to this ,peace an altar was erected in ,rome by the orders of ,augustus4 ,from the ,caspian ,sea to the ,atlantic1 and from the shores of the ,baltic to the ,atlas ,mountains a consecutive and orderly government was maintained1 fully as beneficent as has ever prevailed in any single nation of the earth1 except in very recent years in ,western ,europe1 and immeasurably superior to what has existed in those same regions1 taken together during the past dozen centuries4 ,one curiously complete difference existed1 however1 between the west and east halves of the ,empire4 ,in the ,west1 ,roman domination brought with it a civilization so superior to that known in those lands before the conquest that ,gaul and ,iberian must have looked upon the ,italian domination as synonymous with all that makes for enlightenment and intellectual advance as well as good order4 ,on the other hand1 the peoples of the ,balkan ,peninsula1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,syria1 must have felt that in yielding to the ,italian power they were yielding to a force1 which1 however beneficial politically1 represented a lower intellectual civilization than their own4 ,the business of the ,empire was1 as we now see it1 to develop and hand on to the future1 ,hellenic civilization4 ,the first dawn of this extended ,hellenism must have been to the ,west a clear intellectual gain3 but in the ,east it was not noticeable4 ,the holders of ,greek traditions may have enjoyed the apparent willingness of the conquerors to defer to the mental and moral superiority of the conquered3 but they could not have bowed to ,rome as the one civilizer known1 as did the people of the west of ,europe4 ,and so it was that the people of the ,east took one view of the architectural problem when the ,imperial system had fallen1 while the ,gallo-,romans1 ,britons and ,spaniards took quite another view1 which they impressed at once upon their ,frankish1 ,visigothic and ,saxon conquerors4 ,the ,roman builders left two great traditions1 the adornment of the building1 the open square1 the city with combinations of ,greek-seeming colonnades2 and the huge interior1 arranged for interior effect1 vaulted when practicable1 flat roofed with massive trabeated construction when the light and open character of the building1 as of a huge portico1 invited a pure ,greek manner of design4 ,the first-named of these traditions was destined not to be very boldly or very generally followed until after the ,middle ,ages4 7,see ,chapters ,,vi1 ,,vii1 ,,viii47 ,the other prevailed at once3 the needs of the ,christian church were served by it2 and the ,westerners followed it in one way1 the ,easterners in a very different way4 ,the people of ,italy1 ,gaul1 ,spain1 ,germany and ,britain developed ,romanesque#cc architecture1 the people of the ,eastern ,empire--which held together for centuries the ,greeks1 ,albanians1 ,macedonians1 ,syrians1 ,phrygians--created ,byzantine#cd architecture4 ,the ,romanesque is not ill-named3 it is indeed quasi-,roman1 ,roman as near as the poor and scattered communities could make it4 ,the ,byzantine is a mixture of ,persian and ,roman habits and rules1 and is the very finest thing that ever came out of such an almost conscious mixing of diverse element4 ,it could not have been created but for the ,roman ,peace1 which still held sway over the ,eastern seas and lands after ,italy and the ,west had gone back to pristine barbarism3 but under that domination it spread all over the ,balkan ,peninsula with ,greece1 over southern and western ,italy and ,sicily1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 and the coast regions of ,asia ,minor4 ,now it so happens that both of these great styles were superseded in their turn by other and very vigorous styles3 by the ,gothic in ,europe and the ,saracen or ,mohammedan in ,asia3 and therefore it is that we have only churches1 and not many of them1 from which to judge ,romanesque and ,byzantine architecture4 ,at least1 however1 these are erect and complete1 not too much altered1 roofed and floored as of old1 with window-openings and doorways1 porches and apses in working order4 ,it is with the present chapter1 then1 that we begin to study buildings which we can see complete4 ,and1 after all1 the church was much the most important structure of the time4 ,here and there a ruined palace1 like ,barbarossa's at ,gelnhausen and the ,hebdomon at ,constantinople1 makes us regret what we have lost3 but these also prove the truth of our assumption that it was the ,church ,building in which was determined the growth of architecture4 ,indeed that was to be the march of events until the fifteenth century3 only then did the residence and the house of state come to the front4 ,the earliest western churches are the ,basilicas1 buildings of a form and style derived partly from the ,roman civic basilica#ce1 and partly from the well known peristyle or garden-like court of the large ,roman house1 with its pillars supporting the roofs of open galleries on three or four sides4 ,the buildings of this character built or adapted for ,christian uses were themselves basilicas--,christian basilicas or post-classic basilicas4 ,they were flat roofed1 without vaulting1 imitating in this the majority of the older1 classical basilicas4 ,a good example of these buildings is seen in the still existing church in ,rome1 the ,liberian basilica called commonly ,st4 ,mary the ,greater 7,s4 ,maria ,maggiore74 ,plate ,,xv gives the interior of this building as drawn by ,gutensohn for the great work of ,bunsen3 the late alteration which spoils the uniformity of the colonnade on either side being ignored4 ,the columns of this colonnade are entirely antique1 excepting repairs and slight alterations4 ,it is probable that in this as well as in many similar structures the ancient pillars of a great outdoor portico1 such as are described in ,chapter ,,ii1 were taken bodily for the interior of the church4 ,the clergy of the fifth century cared much less for the beauty and completeness of the city outside than for1 each1 his own special dominion--the church which he controlled2 and there was no municipality to prevent such spoliation4 ,the plan of the church is easy to understand from the plate itself2 apart from the numerous ,illustration3 ,,basilica ,,of ,,santa ,,maria ,,maggiore1 ,,rome4 7,from ,gutensohn1 ,die ,basiliken des ,christlichen ,roms47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,san ,,miniato1 ,,near ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 outside chapels and sacristies of later time1 a simple parallelogram about two hundred and fifty feet long and fifty feet wide1 which width is divided into a broad nave and two much narrower aisles4 ,and therefore a single glance reveals the whole structural character and the whole architectural design of the church4 ,three parallel halls divided by two rows of columns2 the central hall 7the nave7 rising much higher than the roofs on either side1 and showing1 therefore1 a broad space of wall towards the interior2 and1 towards the exterior1 a wall less high by the vertical height of the aisle-roof4 ,this great wall surface will be certain to have windows in it1 because that is the obvious way of lighting the nave3 then the roofs either finished within by a flat ceiling1 as in the present instance1 or showing the timbers of the roof1 with only such decoration as color and a little very simple carving may supply4 ,this type of building endured through the whole epoch of what we call the ,middle ,ages1 and has never been wholly abandoned since4 ,our larger churches are close studies of it4 ,substitute a series of equal arches for the straight horizontal lintels which stretch from column to column and carry the clearstory#cf wall1 and you have the very root of the ,western ,romanesque1 and of its higher development in the ,gothic style4 7,see ,chapter ,,iv47 ,basilicas contemporaneous1 or nearly so1 with ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore are often so built1 with round arches sprung from column to column2 and if we take a church of a much later period of central ,italy we find often the basilica type in its simplicity--developed and made more complex only in detail4 ,plate ,,xvi gives the interior of the church of ,san ,miniato al ,monte outside the walls of ,florence4 ,the noticeable peculiarity in this is the change of the arcade1 supporting the clearstory wall1 from a single uniform line of equal columns supporting equal arches1 to a more organized structure of two great piers with two responds#cg and in each of the three spaces so left1 two columns with three round arches4 ,this system is found in churches as early as ,santa ,agnese outside the walls of ,rome1 and was never abandoned4 ,to satisfy in some way the instinctive desire of the builders for a more complex plan than the perfectly unbroken nave and aisles1 there was introduced the wall supported on a great round arch1 which1 as seen in ,plate ,,xvi1 spans the nave at two points in its length and may be thought to stiffen the otherwise long and unbuttressed clearstory wall4 ,the painted decoration of the timbers of this roof of ,san ,miniato is very attractive1 the color effect is more elaborate than the photograph can show3 it is really a very beautiful thing3 and it is rare in ,europe to find an open timber roof treated so frankly as a thing susceptible of adornment4 ,in other ways it is curious to see the way in which the poverty and lack of skill of the tenth century men alter the style of design from the huge ,roman way of doing things4 ,lightness has to be substituted for ponderous masses2 the walls are as thin as would stand alone and fairly steady3 only the columns1 taken from antique structures1 can be thought capable of bearing more weight than is laid upon them2 the decoration is by means of a marble inlay of large and bold design on the walls and of minute pattern in the pulpit1 the altar rail and the like1 and1 in the half dome over the apse1#ch a mosaic picture of sacred significance--,christ with the emblems of the four evangelists and with the ,virgin and ,san ,miniato the patron of the church4 ,in these mosaics and inlays there is to be noted a great interest in abstract patterns2 a characteristic of ,asiatic art1 but unfrequent in ,greek or in ,roman art as we know it4 ,basilicas of the fifth century and of the sixth century at ,ravenna 7,s4 ,apollinare ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,sant' ,,ambrogio1 ,,milan4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,tournai1 ,,belgium1 ,,interior ,,looking ,,northward ,,along ,,the ,,transept4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,martin 7,,der ,,gross ,s4 ,,martin7 ,,at ,,cologne1 ,,rhenish ,,prussia4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 in ,classe and ,s4 ,apollinare ,nuovo71 of those and later centuries in ,rome1 of the eighth century at ,parenzo in ,istria1 of the tenth century at ,lucca 7,san ,frediano7 of the twelfth century in ,palermo and ,monreale in ,sicily1 and others1 still exist with their main characteristics unchanged4 ,they retain the simpler plan of rows of columns of uniform size and placed uniformly4 ,another whole family of churches are of the ,san ,miniato type3 the length of the nave divided into three or four greater bays1#ci subdivided into minor bays4 ,such are the famous churches of ,san ,zeno at ,verona1 and of ,san ,michele at ,pavia and ,sant' ,ambrogio in ,milan 7see ,plate ,,xvii73 but these two last named churches have vaulted roofs of stone4 ,plate ,,xviii gives the exterior of ,gross ,st4 ,martin at ,cologne and the interior of the cathedral of ,tournai in ,belgium1 interesting in the highest degree as showing plainly how the ,northern builders were not content with the simple programme of the ,italians--an interior upon which all pains were lavished while the exterior was left to come as it might1 a mere brick box with the round-headed windows cut plainly through the wall4 ,these builders of ,french ,flanders in the eleventh century made the exterior of their church effective by the process of building four square towers of very simple design1 involving no sort of complexity in their construction1 and grouping these towers at the four corners of a larger and lower central mass also of tower-like aspect1 while to the westward stretched the long nave pierced with a series of precisely similar round arches1 above and below1 with long roofs of uniform section1 and all this brought sharply up against the great rising mass of the towers from which again three semicircular apses went off to the east1 the north and the south4 ,in this way an external architectural effect was produced far more elaborate than anything that the ,italians of that time had imagined4 ,as the church of ,tournai now stands1 a late ,gothic chancel has replaced the old eastern apse3 it is easy1 however1 to restore mentally the original exterior of the church1 and1 if it were more difficult1 the contemplation of other ,romanesque churches1 especially in ,germany1 would provide us with the material necessary4 ,plate ,,xix shows from the east end the church of the ,holy ,apostles at ,cologne1 and it is easy to imagine the three apses of somewhat different design grouped about the central and dominating mass of the ,flemish church4 ,this church at ,cologne has two nearly round towers connecting the apses and seems to have had four such towers originally1 or in the first design1 with one square tower in the middle of the west front4 ,the church of ,st4 ,martin in the same place 7p4 #gg2 ,plate ,,xviii7 differs from these and from most ,romanesque churches in having a very noble central tower1 one of the finest productions of the ,northern ,romanesque4 ,it is evident that the admiration which we give to even the most important of these churches is a different thing from that which the great monuments of antiquity compel4 ,the construction of the medival churches is as complex as that of the greatest ,roman monuments2 this coming from a necessity of providing interiors relatively larger than those of the ,roman imperial epoch4 ,the builders even of the twelfth century1 and even in the most nearly well governed countries of ,europe1 had but limited resources4 ,no king1 no great noble controlling a province1 no bishop1 no convent1 however rich1 could dispose of resources for one instant comparable to those of a ,roman pro-consul in even a small town of the empire4 ,the medival men had to get as much building as they could for their money4 ,if they built their walls thick1 as they seem to the modern traveller1 this was because they were unable to get good masons4 ,a stone wall may be carried up forty feet high with a thickness of only three feet1 even when pierced with windows1 if you have good workmen in your employ and fairly good ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,apostles1 ,,cologne1 ,,rhenish ,,prussia4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,saint ,,martin1 ,,mainz1 7,,mayence7 ,,hesse1 ,,germany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4 flat-bedded stone with tolerable mortar2 but as your material is the worse and as your masons are the more unskilled1 you have to build the thicker4 ,indeed the history of ,romanesque architecture is that of a long-continued fight between the problem and the would-be solvers thereof4 ,it was desirable to roof with masonry1 partly as a safeguard when1 as often happened1 the wooden structure of the high roof above the walls caught fire and was destroyed1 and also because of the comparative stateliness of effect1 and because each bishop thought of building not for his own brief time only1 but for his successors4 ,and this very requirement1 that each part of the building should be closed at the top with masonry1 kept the builders of ,western ,europe busy from the time of ,clovis on4 ,the history of any one great church is a record of continual failure of walls1 foundations or abutments2 some part of the vaulting is forever crumbling and threatening to fall so that it has to be rebuilt2 and now and then there's a crash and a catastrophe4 ,the buttresses#dj have to be enlarged2 iron ties have to be inserted2 even the plan of the vaulting has to be changed every now and then and a new experiment tried with a view to its greater permanence in another style of work4 ,hence it is that the modern student of such buildings has at once that delight in them which comes from their very archaism mingled with a kind of deprecatory pity3 we sympathize with their builders' aims and regret their feeble resources and their small knowledge3 we love their buildings as we love the stammering speech of childhood4 ,there is something else1 no doubt3 such a splendid tower-group as that at ,tournai1 such a noble interior as that of ,mayence 7,mainz7 cathedral 7see ,plate ,,xx71 are individually1 and as works of art1 powerful enough to command our sincere admiration3 but these are the exceptions4 ,exceptions in another way are found in northern and central ,france4 ,the buildings there are not so remarkable for their superiority in general design as they are for their unparalleled richness in sculptural adornment4 ,they have at the same time many larger features which are of peculiar interest4 ,thus the tower of ,st4 ,radegonde at ,poitiers 7see ,plate ,,xxi71 square below and coming to an octagon for the belfry1 is a wonderfully spirited composition3 and close to it is that famous church of ,notre ,dame la ,grande1 of which the west front is shown in the next plate4 ,the builders of this latter church were lovers of sculpture and knew how to handle it in order to produce a great result1 so they composed boldly in groups of statuary1 floral sculpture1 or sculpture as rich made up of wholly conventional forms4 ,plate ,,xxii gives the wall above the three great portals of the west front of this extraordinary church2 and while inferior in tasteful harmony to the cathedral at ,angoulme near by1 or indeed to many a noble church of the centre of ,france1 the richness of conception1 and the easy way in which the constructional parts of the building are loaded with carved adornment without injury to its massiveness and its dignity are surprising enough4 ,the sculpture is barbaric in its lack of knowledge1 but to be barbaric is not to be weak or insignificant4 ,the nineteenth century workmen of ,europe had no such power of effective design4 ,in this1 as in building1 the eleventh century men were surpassed by those of the years to follow3 and but for that still greater ,gothic art 7see ,chapter ,,iv7 we should have to go to ,romanesque architecture for constant stimulus4 ,the architecture of the ,eastern half of the ,empire was much less nearly ,roman in its plan4 ,basilicas there were2 but at a very early epoch the type of what the ,germans call the ,centralbau prevailed4 ,the centred building2 so we might designate the plan and structure which presuppose a supremely important central feature1 a hall1 however opened up on three sides or four ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,of ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,radegonde1 ,,poitiers1 7,,vienne7 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,west ,,front1 ,,church ,,of ,,notre ,,dame ,,la ,,grande1 ,,at ,,poitiers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4 sides to minor divisions1 aisles1 porches1 and apses4 ,see page #hf4 ,this great hall might be covered by a cupola1 or1 as often is found in the smaller churches1 its vertical walls are carried up into a drum or round tower roofed in any one of several ways4 ,the essence of the distinction between this plan and the ,western plan is the absence of the 8long drawn aisle02 and the arrangement of the whole around a central point from which the structures of the church may be said to radiate4 ,there were1 as has been said1 straight-lined churches in the ,east3 and in like manner there were radiating buildings in the ,west1 notably1 the round churches of ,san ,stefano in ,rome and the cathedral at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,st4 ,gereon at ,cologne1 and the rather numerous baptisteries1 as at ,florence1 ,parma1 ,ravenna and ,pisa1 which in their original state of being1 were not baptisteries only1 but became so after the basilica churches with nave and aisle had been built in the same towns for the cathedrals proper4 ,still1 in connection with our immediate question1 that of ,illustration3 ,plan of ,church of ,s4 ,sophia at ,constantinople4 ,scale about #ajj feet to one inch4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,church of ,s4 ,theodore1 ,athens4 ,scale about #be feet to one inch4 the artistic appreciation of a building of any epoch1 it is better to study round or radiating buildings in their own home of the ,eastern provinces1 as we study the basilica-shaped buildings in ,western ,europe4 ,now the peculiarity of the ,eastern church-building1 that of the central hall1 is generally the absence of any very impressive exterior4 ,this was not necessarily the result of the plan adopted4 ,one does not see readily any sufficient cause for the general neglect among ,eastern designers of the appearance from outside2 unless it be this--that the cities of the ,levant were then as they are now made up1 so far as the stranger who walks their streets can discern1 of blind whitewashed walls upon which open only the doorways of the dwellings1 and here and there1 in the ground story1 a small unarchitectural and carefully grated window4 ,the street effects1 common to the cities of the north of ,europe1 even as early as the eleventh century1 and well known to us for their picturesque and varied character1 are1 in the ,levant1 simply non-existent1 except in those few cities which show strong external marks of commercial intercourse with ,europe4 ,the interior is indeed the chief thing in church building1 anywhere1 but in the ,byzantine art it is everything1 or so the student thinks4 ,plate ,,xxiii shows the interior of the great church of ,santa ,sophia1 at ,constantinople1 which seems to many the noblest architectural conception of the ,christian world in any of its parts4 ,plate ,,xxiv gives the exterior of the same building3 and it will be seen at once how much there needs to be taken from it that its true ,byzantine character may be judged4 ,the tall round minarets are modern ,turkish additions1 put there for the muezzin who calls to prayer1 the enormous buttresses1 looking like lofty houses without windows1 which rise one on either side of the great arch in the flank of the church1 are additions resulting partly from the fall of the original cupola in the sixth century and partly from much later reparations2 and all the small cupolas near1 with the buildings which they cover1 are wholly modern1 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,hagia ,,sophia1 ,,constantinople4 ,,interior4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,hagia ,,sophia1 ,,constantinople4 ,,exterior4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,s4 ,,theodore1 ,,athens1 ,,greece4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv4 at least in their present form1 whatever foundations of fifth century work there may be enclosed within them4 ,it appears then that the only striking external feature of the original building would be the slow rise and swell of the central cupola1 led up to by the similar curves of the two half cupolas covering the semicircular apses at the northeast and southwest1 and contrasting boldly with the huge flat wall beneath the arch1 on the northwest and southeast4 ,the magnificent conception of this interior is well known to be unique among the ,byzantine churches2 that is to say1 no one of them has this same remarkable system of construction with four very open arches 7one hundred foot span7 supporting this low-pitched cupola which is then buttressed in a way by the half cupolas on two sides producing the striking interior form quite visible in the ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,in other respects1 however1 this great church is rather the typical ,byzantine church than a building apart4 ,the other churches are like it in construction2 they are like it in having the central mass nearly circular1 and the minor parts ranged around it on every side2 they are like it in having drawn their constructional character from the vaulted buildings of ,persia and the neighboring lands4 ,thus the church of ,st4 ,theodore at ,athens1 of which the plan is given on page #hf1 though it has three apses turned towards the east and a narthex at the west end1 is still a building with a dominant central feature around which other parts are grouped4 ,plate ,,xxiv shows this plainly1 for nothing can be more remote from the basilica type than the group here shown4 ,the cupola is evidently not complete--not a fully organized design--it has been roofed as cheaply as possible and at as low a level as the windows would allow3 for these windows replace the great light-openings of the western clearstory4 ,in ,moldavia and in the southern provinces of ,russia these cupolas are found by hundreds with their design fairly well worked out4 ,plate ,,xxv shows a monastery in the region of the ,caucasus1 in which the principal church ,illustration3 ,,monastery ,,of ,,gelati ,,near ,,kutais ,,in ,,the ,,caucasus4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv4 ,illustration3 ,,chapel1 ,,now ,a ,,museum1 ,,at ,,nancy1 7,,meurthe ,,et ,,moselle7 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi4 and three smaller chapels are all completed by the carrying up of just such cupolas above these central divisions4 ,now these buildings are all very small4 ,the cupolas are twenty-five feet1 eighteen feet1 sixteen feet wide1 within3 ,st4 ,theodore's little shrine would not hold a hundred worshippers4 ,it is easy to see that the exterior design with the high cupola was worked out for these small buildings2 but it is easy to see also that the general plan is capable of nobler exterior treatment4 ,if1 therefore1 there should ever be an attempt made to build in modern ,europe in the ,byzantine style1 it will be modified1 inevitably1 by this possibility1 and by the obvious necessity of satisfying the general demand for a splendid outside4 ,the recently built cathedral in ,london1 spoken of below in ,chapter ,x1 is an instance of this4 ,still1 the glory of the ,byzantine style must be found in its interior decoration4 ,the ,greek half of the ,empire took from the ,roman masters of the world the taste for splendid material2 and1 wherever some money could be had1 the alabaster and the rosy and gray marbles of ,greek and ,asiatic quarries were brought to the spot4 ,mosaic gave a more vivid color2 and this gave also the opportunity for the telling of the ,gospel story and the legends of saints in permanent pictures4 ,st4 ,mark's church at ,venice is the type for ,europeans to study4 ,the sense of pure delight in glowing and harmonious color1 combined with soft and flowing line1 is nowhere so strongly felt3 no building1 until ,santa ,sophia can be cleansed of ,turkish whitewash1 will affect the lover of splendid decoration so powerfully4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,central ,,medi,,val ,,design ,gothic architecture is a natural development of the ,romanesque architecture of northern ,france4 ,it took its origin in the second half of the twelfth century1 that origin being wholly constructional4 ,the ,romanesque builders were extremely harassed by their problems of masonry roofing1 as mentioned in ,chapter ,,iii1 and there was taken up as a device to facilitate this vaulting the plan of an arched rib of carefully-worked hard stone1 carried diagonally across the open space which required the stone roof3 then another similar rib crossing the first one1 leaving only triangles1 each about one-fourth of the full size of the open space1 which triangles could be vaulted with great ease4 ,instead of a square or parallelogram containing a thousand square feet horizontal and needing to be covered by a somewhat complicated vault1 all that was required was the careful adjusting of two narrow arches in cut stone1 and then the very simple vaulting of each one of the four triangles1 about two hundred square feet each1 horizontal4 ,this was a simple and rather obvious device1 one would think3 but it took thirty years to develop1 and once complete1 the whole great system of ,gothic building and the whole ,gothic style1 including everything from the cathedral of ,reims to the smallest chapel1 came from it as a matter of course4 ,if the student desire a clear notion of the nature and the appearance of ,gothic rib-vaulting he may study ,plate ,,xxvi1 in which the structure can be seen better than in the high vaults of a cathedral4 ,each rib is a part of an independent arch of stone1 perhaps a foot wide and twenty inches or two feet deep4 ,the arch-solids 7voussoirs7 are very carefully cut1 and the arch built with all its company of corresponding arches to meet at top1 midway1 in a boss of cut stone4 ,this done1 the triangular spaces are easy enough to build with smaller and rougher stones1 and the haunches are loaded outside and above with still ruder masonry4 ,the style was developed in that tract of country which lies between the ,loire on the south1 the ,somme on the north1 the ,meuse on the east1 and1 on the west1 a line drawn north and south through the cities of ,caen and ,angers--a district about one hundred and thirty by two hundred and fifty miles1 equal to ,england and ,wales south of the ,trent and the ,mersey1 or1 say1 the ,state of ,pennsylvania4 ,the style was never quite at its best except in what is now ,france1 though the boundaries of the district above named were soon overpassed by the perfected ,gothic4 ,the most nearly ,french1 and therefore most normal and faultless1 examples out of ,france are those of the ,rhine and of northern ,spain where ,french master-masons seem to have worked4 ,the ,gothic1 beginning as early as #abij in ,england1 is of extreme beauty in a simple1 quasi-domestic1 less grand and less perfectly developed way than the ,french4 ,the ,gothic of ,germany and the ,austrian dominions differed from the normal type in being somewhat fantastical and irregular1 but still more in a lack of a thoroughly intelligent proportion of the parts4 ,the so-called ,gothic of ,italy is never admirable as a style except in a few ,cistercian monastic churches3 and the magnificent cathedrals such as ,orvieto1 ,siena1 ,monreale1 and ,florence are rightly beloved indeed for their magnificent combination of the decorative arts of form and color--their mosaics1 their delicate sculptures in marble1 their wrought and highly developed porches1 their superb wall-tombs--but are of minor architectural importance from the very fact of their complete lack of constructional significance4 ,let us consider the cathedral of ,amiens in the department of the ,somme1 about sixty miles north of ,paris4 ,this we may take as being the accepted representative of ,french ,gothic churches1 lacking indeed some features which others of its own time have retained1 but completely typical in its plan and structure4 ,plate ,,xxvii gives the interior looking westward from the choir and shows the nave in steep perspective so that its seven bays are much foreshortened1 and with this a part of the north aisle and a part of the choir in which we stand4 ,the great height of the nave is shown without that sometimes disagreeable appearance of a narrowness disproportionate to the height such as is sometimes seen in photographs taken directly on the axis of so lofty a church4 ,the members which go to make up this great height are also visible2 the first row of nave arches repeated in the choir and in the transept1 the second story of arched openings which gives us the triforium1#da and the third story which is called the clearstory1 and which contains the great windows as well as the vaulting which constitutes the inner roof of the church4 ,the round window in the distance forms an important part of the west front4 ,close to the spectator the lofty wall broken up into canopies and arches and crowned with a forest of pinnacles is entirely of carved oak1 and includes an incredible number of most exquisite carvings1 which decorate all parts of the partition itself as well as the stalls or the seats for choristers which are dimly seen below4 ,the iron gates1 seen as closed1 give access to this enclosure which is the liturgical choir1 that is to say1 the enclosure made within the architectural choir1 and intended to serve for the clergy and their assistants4 ,as to epochs1 the whole structure of the church is of the thirteenth century3 its vaulting1 its arches and piers and windows and its delicate sculpture2 and its original plan1 though conceived during the last years of the twelfth century1 cannot be thought to have been perfected until the structure rose upon it4 ,the carved work of the choir is very much later1 representing the last development of ,gothic art and belonging more properly to our ,chapter ,v3 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,amiens 7,,somme71 ,,france1 ,,the ,,choir ,,and ,,nave1 ,,looking ,,westward4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,reims 7,,marne71 ,,france1 ,,view ,,in ,,choir ,,aisle1 ,,looking ,n4 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,reims 7,,marne71 ,,france1 ,,view ,,in ,,choir ,,aisle1 ,,looking ,,west4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii4 it is known to have been executed between #aejh and #aebj4 ,a very few years later were wrought the splendid sculptures in stone of the outer choir screen--the massive wall which encloses this graceful work in carved oak3 but these must be referred to ,chapter ,v4 ,the great iron gates1 beautiful of their kind1 belong to the eighteenth century3 they replace a noble jub or rood screen which once separated the choir from the crossing1 where nave and transepts meet4 ,now it is clear enough what we have to admire and enjoy when we stand within such a church as this4 ,the least attentive beholder is struck by the great height of the church2 and the roof1 one hundred and forty feet above the head1 is not invisible nor lost in darkness1 but shows its elaborate structure of elastic ribs carrying thin vaults which bear upon the ribs and thrust in every direction1 so that the general character of the construction is readily grasped4 ,the height is made manifest--it is in a manner explained--by its division into three stories1 each of which again seems to be subdivided by the sculptured capitals which mark the springing of the arches4 ,the cruciform plan leading the eye away into halls and passages1 not perceived at first1 adds to the ultimate effect of grandeur dependent upon space1 however much it may delay the fullness of that impression4 ,the abundant detail in mouldings and in floral sculpture as well as in constructional elements probably increases the effect of size by means of the constant repetition of its similar groups3 and it is in itself capable of giving the greatest pleasure to the student who finds in it1 as it were1 a museum of decorative sculpture arranged not in meaningless succession as when fragments are arranged upon a shelf1 but in highly significant order and in sequences both horizontal and vertical4 ,there is still for the student of such matters the constantly growing respect for the logical acumen of the builders1 who insert nothing for mere ornamentation but who make their constructional members tell as decorative features4 ,here are no slabs of precious marble nor any bas-reliefs delicately wrought in stucco1 as in the buildings of imperial ,rome1 nor1 at present1 any chromatic effects whatever1 except those of the great windows2 for whatever traces of painting were left from the ,middle ,ages have been destroyed long ago4 ,the building can never have affected surface decoration1 in the ,roman sense3 a decoration covering all parts of its interior and concealing or ignoring the structure2 the effective paintings that there were we know to have been local in their character1 near the eye1 and having a definite message of ecclesiastical import4 ,the decorative instinct of the ,gothic builders was not there but in the treatment of the actual building4 ,let us consider another great cathedral1 that of ,reims in the department of the ,marne4 ,plate ,,xxviii gives two views in the interior1 both near the east end4 ,in the one1 you look westward far down the north aisle1 about four hundred and twenty feet from where we stand1 to the open door seen in the west front4 ,in the other1 we look across the choir proper1 that is the liturgical enclosure1 from southwest to northeast1 seeing the beginnings of the curve of the chevet or rounded apse4 ,in these interior views are seen in a more intimate way the characteristics of a great ,gothic church4 ,the vastness1 the height1 the soaring grandeur of the interior are for the moment ignored1 and we see the lower vaults and the clustered pillars which support them and the higher vaults of the nave1 as well as the delicate sculpture of the capitals4 ,the interior1 however1 though certainly the thing of primary importance1 is not all that we have to study4 ,the outside of the ,gothic ,church is as closely related to the structure as is the inside and forms one with it4 ,plate ,,xxix gives the exterior of ,amiens cathedral4 ,the highest windows are those of the clearstory1 which is the upper part of the central nave1 in this case the nave of the choir4 ,below these is the roof of the inner aisle hidden here by the pyramidal roofs of the ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,amiens 7,,somme7 ,,france1 ,,choir ,,and ,,south ,,transept ,,from ,,the ,s4 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,chartres 7,,eure ,,et ,,loire71 ,,france1 ,,from ,,the ,s4 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4 chapels1 built much later4 ,now as to the forest of flying buttresses1 those sloping bars of stone carried on stone arches1 which surround the clearstory1 the only purpose of these is to receive and neutralize the thrust of the vaults within4 ,the high vault above the clearstory pushes against the uppermost flying buttresses4 ,the vault of the inner aisle has its much less formidable thrust taken up by the vaults of the outer aisle as far as the lines of the plan are straight1 east and west1 and by those of the chapels as soon as the curve of the chevet#db begins4 ,by means of the double set of flying buttresses1 those within and higher and the outer and lower ones1 the thrust of the high vaults is carried across the whole space occupied by the two aisles1 and finally turned over to the upright piers which themselves serve also as buttresses for the outer aisle4 ,or1 to approach the same set of counteracting forces from without1 we have as we walk along either flank of the church1 or around the curve of the chevet1 a row of heavy and solidly built stone piers with much their greatest horizontal dimension in a direction across the axis of the church2 that is to say1 each one of them is perhaps twenty feet in and out by three feet or three and a half or four feet in width1 measured east and west4 ,each one of these piers is built in with the low wall outside the outer aisle1 or of the chapel1 as seen in ,plate ,,xxix1 and the lower part of this wall helps to resist the thrust of the roof-vaulting of that same aisle or chapel4 ,as the pier goes up1 it is soon left clear of all walls and roofs1 and the flying buttresses from the vaults butt against it4 ,the ,gothic builders had other thoughts over and above their logical desire to show everywhere the true structure4 ,they had also the taste for upward-pointing lines3 a taste which seems to have grown with the development of the style4 ,it was not this taste which in the first place made their buildings high as compared with their width3 that was a mere matter of convenience and of obtaining very large windows above the aisle roofs4 ,but the pointed arch itself1 and the steep roof needed to protect the stone vaults from rain in a rainy climate1 led these builders constantly towards the steeper pitch1 the sharper point1 the more lofty and soaring design4 ,plate ,,xxx shows the cathedral of ,chartres seen over the houses of the town1 from the southeast4 ,the two great towers on the left of the picture are those which flank the west front3 one of them1 the simpler one1 seen on the extreme left and flanking the west front on the south is the most famous tower in ,france and the most important single piece of work in the history of ,gothic tower-building1 because it shows in a faultless way the transition from ,romanesque to ,gothic in those forms which are immediately caused by the necessity of vaulting the interiors4 ,these secondary parts 7for the vaulted interior alone can be called a primary and essential part of the ,gothic church7 sympathize with that vaulted interior in the soaring character of the design1 as has been said above4 ,the other tower was rebuilt at a much later period and typifies perfectly the florid ,gothic of the fifteenth century4 ,we are to imagine1 then1 two towers at the west end1 each very like the earlier one3 and1 as the picture shows1 two others flanked the south transept4 ,in the ,plate1 one of them is covered by scaffolding1 some repairs being in progress4 ,two similar towers were intended to flank the north transept3 and a tower1 undoubtedly planned for a larger and higher mass than any one of the flanking towers just described1 was to have risen from that part of the church where the transept crosses the great nave--the 8crossing0 as it is commonly called4 ,looking at this view of ,chartres cathedral1 we are to imagine it then as not having that high-shouldered look caused by the level line of the ridge of the church1 because that roof would not be seen except in small patches1 the seven great spires rising high above it and the seven square towers which support them concealing the roof except here and there as the spectator moves about the church4 ,now it is an unquestioned reproach to the ,gothic style that no one of these great churches was ever completed4 ,certain towers there were which have been so shattered by the burning of the roofs that they have been taken down4 ,spires have existed which have now disappeared1 but the greater part of the magnificent towers conceived by the builders of the early years of the thirteenth century have remained incomplete1 and the churches which were to have had them are only to be judged by an effort of the mind akin to that effort we have to make in considering the buildings of classical antiquity4 ,we are better off with ,gothic art than with ,greek art1 because we have the details3 and also because we have that which no ,greek building can be said to have had1 the splendid and impressive interiors3 but nowhere is there a great ,gothic church complete in its intended exterior effect4 ,the nearest approach to completion is undoubtedly to be found in ,england1 and1 for a choice1 in the lovely cathedral of ,salisbury4 ,the architecture is not nearly as splendid as on the ,continent2 it is more tranquil1 more unpretending2 it is less extraordinary in scale1 surpassing in a less formidable fashion the buildings of residence and of government3 and partly as a result of this it has been easier to build and easier to maintain these buildings in their intended completion4 ,plate ,,xxxi shows this cathedral amid the trees of its close and well explains that peculiarity of position in which some ,english cathedrals are so much differentiated from those of the ,continent4 ,in spite of the trees1 however1 the great peculiarity is seen of two transepts--one crossing the nave at the point where the tower rises1 as was the intention in the ,chartres cathedral1 ,plate ,,xxx3 the other1 to the eastward of that1 and flanking the choir in a curious way1 without example on the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,salisbury1 ,,wilts1 ,,england1 ,,from ,,the ,s4 ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4 ,illustration3 ,,bell ,,tower ,,of ,,cathedral1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 ,now in judging such building1 and such artistic intention as this1 it is evident that we cannot use the maxims which are convenient to observe in the case of a ,greek or a ,greco-,roman monument4 ,lightness takes the place of evident stability3 that is the first thing to notice4 ,it is not so much that the walls are thin1 as that they have disappeared3 there are no walls--only a series of piers dividing windows1 the opening filled with glass being much greater1 if measured along a horizontal line running through the windows1 than is the extent of the solid masonry4 ,you see at once wherein there is an excuse for the saying 8a wall of glass with a roof of stone40 ,but there is more than this3 the primary object of the designer has been to treat his construction as the main inspiration of his design4 ,inside and out everything is shown as it really is1 the exact duty done by every stone in the structure is clearly visible to even an uncareful observer4 ,this may be thought true of early ,greek work as well3 but then the structure of the ,greek temple is the simplest conceivable1 a mere carrying of stone beams upon stone posts--no arches to thrust1 no windows to open in the wall1 most of all1 no attempt to roof anything with masonry except in so far as a stone beam is strong enough to span a small open space between two strong pillars4 ,moreover1 the ,greek temple was so covered up with painting1 and where the paint did not conceal the whole surface that surface was already so carefully smoothed and unified1 that it was hard to distinguish stone from stone even in the marble-built temples of ,athens--whereas those of the soft stone regions1 coated with stucco1 were in architectural effect absolutely monoliths4 ,as for the ,roman structure1 built with unexampled massiveness1 and wonderfully imposing in its mass and in the great size and noble proportions of its interiors1 it was concealed from view by the entirely contradictory pretense at trabeated construction in the modified ,greek orders of columns and pilasters3 and where these were not in use the walls were very commonly concealed by marble in great sheets1 by tiling of glass1 or by moulded stucco4 ,the ,gothic building also was painted3 nor was there any hesitation on any one's part in putting up surfaces of stucco to paint upon where an elaborate picture was wanted3 but this concealed nothing except the joints of a few courses of stone4 ,the essential facts of the structure remained visible outdoors and in1 and it was by a judicious proportioning of the parts of these structures1 each to all the others1 that the chief architectural effect was obtained4 ,another class of fourteenth century buildings must be named1 the ,italian ,gothic churches4 ,plate ,,xxxii gives the most perfect piece of work among them1 the tower known as ,giotto's ,campanile4 ,its exterior face is entirely sheathed in marble1 thin slabs for the most part1 white which has grown yellow1 red which has grown a warm brown1 and black or nearly black2 and to the larger members of the elaborate composition is added the minute mosaic of one band after another all the way up1 and the still more delicate play of light and shade caused by slight and well modelled reliefs of ornamental character4 ,down below1 unseen in the photograph1 is a row of statues in niches1 and two horizontal bands of bas-reliefs of sacred and legendary subject4 ,the tower is exceptional in its perfect building3 but there is nothing in the scheme of construction3 it is almost as simple as a ,greek temple4 ,and this is where the great cathedral by its side is similar in character4 ,not ,gothic in proportion1 nor in any system of buttresses1 nor in the disappearing of walls in constructional piers1 nor in the disposition of the sculpture2 it is ,gothic only in its having pointed arches1 and ribbed vaults1 though these are so stayed up by massive masonry that the thing is no more elastic than the halls of ,roman therm4#dc ,but it is beautiful in detail1 encrusted and embossed1 and most imposing in mass without1 however ill-proportioned in the nave1 within2 and even within it is a grandiose nave up which you walk towards the culmination of the whole in the sanctuary under the great cupola4 ,,chapter ,v ,,late ,,medi,,val ,,design ,in ,chapter ,,iv we have seen how strongly the artistic effect of the ,gothic churches depends upon their structure4 ,everything in the structure depends upon and leads up to the vaulting2 everything in decorative treatment depends upon the structure4 ,that is true except in so far as the universally felt need of ornament founded on the study of nature and of abstract form modifies design4 ,thus the carving in conventionalized leafage of a band1 straight or seemingly bent around a pier1 and the choice of colors in a decorative window or a painted panel of wall beneath a window1 are indeed independent of the structure4 ,moreover1 the ,gothic sculptors were as exceptionally energetic and forcible as the ,gothic builders1 and worked with them in the production of great schemes of associated sculpture which were in harmony with the work of these very bold and skillful builders4 ,now1 when1 after the final expulsion of the ,english king and his armies from ,france1 the suppression of the domestic feuds between hostile parties1 and the pacification of the country under ,charles ,,vii1 there was a sudden recrudescence of building and of decorative art1 the half ruined churches were repaired1 those destroyed were replaced4 ,between #adee and #aeae there was a revival of architectural art comparable to that of the close of the twelfth century4 ,there were not as many great churches undertaken1 because nearly every diocese had its cathedral1 and because the exclusively ecclesiastical point of view was no longer held by the people of the towns or by the nobility3 but this was made good by the great increase in the number and splendor of civic and private buildings4 ,there is1 then1 a new and very magnificent ,gothic art beginning about the time of the conquest of ,bordeaux and ,gascony1 when the ,english armies were finally driven out of ,france1 and ending only with the complete establishment of the classical revival under ,francis ,i4 ,contemporaneous with this1 or nearly so1 was the very splendid art of ,spain1 that curious and fantastic earliest ,renaissance marked for us by such monuments as the ,casa ,lonja of ,valencia1 the portal of the ,university at ,salamanca and that of the church of ,st4 ,paul at ,valladolid3 and in ,belgium1 the epoch of the great town halls1 that of ,louvain being of about #adfj3 that of ,audenarde at the close of the epoch now under consideration4 ,in ,germany1 too1 there was the beginning of a most attractive civic architecture3 and in ,england1 although the civil war of the ,yorkists and ,lancastrians postponed anything like peaceful growth in art until near the close of the fifteenth century1 there was established1 beginning with the accession of ,henry ,,vii1 in #adhe1 the so-called ,tudor architecture which was really a continuation and development of the curious ,perpendicular ,gothic art with the added feature of fan-vaulting--the most original and perhaps also the most splendid artistic achievement of the ,british ,isles4 ,now in all this highly organized and florid art there was a general abandonment of the constructional principle which had been the root of the earlier ,gothic1 and there was no new constructional device or system invented to take its place4 ,the new art is an art of convenience and splendor1 but it has no especial root in the necessities of building4 ,the new ,gothic builders were very skillful and learned1 they knew rib-vaulting by heart1 and also they understood vaulting in the solid shell3 they could do anything1--but there was no special task to which they had set themselves and therefore they played with their buildings4 ,nor was there to be introduced1 during the centuries that were to follow1 any new principle of building4 ,in ,greek building1 in ,roman building1 in ,romanesque building1 and especially in its culmination in the ,gothic system1 we are to look to the way in which the buildings have been carried out4 ,plan1 that is to say the arrangement of parts for utility or internal effect1 has much to do with our appreciation of a building3 but the structure1 the actual putting together of materials1 is of still greater importance4 ,you do not pretend to judge of a ,greek temple without being able almost to count the stones of which it is composed or without appreciating fully the relative part which they play4 ,in ,gothic architecture1 assuredly no person would dream of finding any enjoyment in a church without having first secured a good working knowledge of how it came to be what it is--how the stone roof is kept in place in the wonderful way that we see it and what part is played by pier and flying buttress4 ,but this interest in the life of the structure becomes faint as we consider the buildings of the four centuries beginning with the year #adjj4 ,we have to consider some splendid works of art produced between that year and the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution1 but in none of them is there any special call for studying the theory or practice of the builders4 ,they may build well or they may build carelessly3 that is comparatively indifferent under the new rgime1 for designs are made and carried out for their own sake2 nor is the master of construction any longer the master of design4 ,the reader will understand that in such general statements as these in matters of fine art there are always many drawbacks and qualifications4 ,the fifteenth century had still a deal of ,gothic vigor1 in all the north of ,europe4 ,there were great builders after1 as before1 the pivotal year #adjj4 ,this discussion will even include the names of men especially praised as being great constructors3 the point is that their system of construction had little to do with their design4 ,jacopo ,sansovino and ,sir ,christopher ,wren were great builders1 but their designs were not in any special way the better for that4 ,their work is marked everywhere with the modern characteristic of being designed abstractly1 and as if intended to be carved out of a single block1 and afterwards put into terms of mortar-masonry and cut stone1 because that was the only way in which the builders of the time could proceed4 ,let us consider the fan-vaulting of ,england4 ,its earliest appearance is in the cloisters of ,gloucester cathedral1 built after #acge4 ,plate ,,xxxiii shows the eastern ambulatory of these cloisters4 ,at the first glance this vault seems to be built with ribs like that of ,amiens or that of ,reims1 as shown in the plates of ,chapter ,,iv2 but the network of projecting ribs in the ,gloucester vault is a simulacrum only4 ,the vault is a solid stone shell1 homogeneous1 and built of large pieces4 ,plate ,,xxxiv shows the vault of the choir-aisle of ,peterborough cathedral seen as looked at from below4 ,the joints of the stones can be made out3 they have no relation to the system of mouldings and panels4 ,in ,england1 however1 where the ,gothic vaulting system had never been as important a factor in art as it was on the ,continent1 this new and unique system of vaulting was introduced as soon as the ,wars of the ,roses were over4 ,the three great monuments ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,gloucester1 ,,gloucestershire1 ,,england1 ,,view ,,in ,,cloister4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,peterboro'1 ,,northants1 ,,england1 ,,fan ,,vaulting ,,of ,,choir ,,aisle4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv4 of this 8fan-vaulting0 are ,st4 ,george's ,chapel at ,windsor ,castle1 the ,chapel of ,henry ,,vii1 attached to ,westminster ,abbey in ,london1 and chief and noblest of all1 ,kings ,college ,chapel at ,cambridge4 ,this last may well be thought the finest interior in ,england2 and the other examples mentioned are inferior in charm3 and yet1 since the ,cambridge ,chapel has been shown in photography very often1 it has seemed better to consider here less-known examples4 ,the vault is a perfectly safe building1 especially on a small scale1 but it is not rib-vaulting4 ,when1 however1 the great vault of ,henry the ,seventh's ,chapel at ,westminster ,abbey was undertaken1 about #aeae1 a different system had to be followed4 ,the span or clear width of the nave is not very great and yet the task of supporting the astonishing stone roof1 seen in ,plate ,,xxxv1 was one worthy of the shrewdest and most daring builder of the time4 ,the stone ribs which spring directly from the uprights with but the slightest pretense at vaulting shafts in little round mouldings with slightly marked capitals1 are really the arches which carry the whole stone structure of the roof4 ,the great pendants into which these ribs disappear1 and which themselves form the basis of the fan-vaulting system1 are of course without constructional value4 ,the roof is to be taken as an elaborate piece of geometrical carving1 ingeniously arranged in the semblance of a constructional work2 its real construction 7sound enough1 intelligent enough1 or the roof would not stand7 masked by the extraordinary composition in radiating lines1 as if the cloister of ,gloucester ,cathedral had lent its roof to be raised high into the air1 and completed on the side towards the windows by the continuing of each circular cone in that direction4 ,plate ,,xxxvi gives the admirable drawing made by ,robert ,willis of the construction of this vault and it is easy to see that while the mechanical skill shown in the work is great and peculiar1 there is nothing whatever left of the system of ,gothic vaulting1 nor any dependence placed ,illustration3 ,,westminster ,,abbey1 ,,london1 ,,chapel ,,of ,,henry ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv4 ,illustration3 ,,construction ,,of ,,roof1 ,,chapel ,,of ,,henry ,,vii4 7,from ,drawing by ,robert ,willis47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi4 upon the numerous radiating ribs which seem to be the very framework of the structure4 ,they are decorative mouldings worked upon the surface of a solid stone vault1 built in a single shell which extends from one to another of the great transverse arches which span the nave4 ,this design marks the culmination in ,england of that florid ,gothic in which early principles have a subordinate part1 while newly required elaboration and tricks of deceptive brilliancy of workmanship come to the front and absorb the interest of the beholder4 ,no one can remain indifferent to the fantastic and yet enduring charm of such a roof4 ,the roof of ,kings ,college ,chapel has already been mentioned as of extraordinary beauty and as forming with the vertical members which support it and the windows between them a ,gothic interior as splendid as anything out of ,france3 but its beauty is of a style which had already lost its reason for being1 and its appearance of constructional dignity is in a way deceptive4 ,the admiration we bring to such a monument is then very different from that which we give to the interiors of the great ,gothic churches shown in the plates of ,chapter ,,iv1 or to the many other beautiful naves and choirs of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in ,england1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,germany4 ,at ,ely and ,salisbury1 ,bourges and ,laon1 ,burgos and ,gerona1 ,cologne and ,vienna1 the student enters a great church1 whose vault was completed at any time between #abjj and #adjj1 with perfect certainty that the structure is as sincere and obvious as it is impressive2 nor does any doubt enter his mind as to the utility of the members of the structure around him4 ,it is only with the beginning of the florid ,gothic that this wholesome frame of mind can no longer be retained4 ,let us consider the church of ,brou1 standing close to the town of ,bourg-en-,bresse1 in southern ,burgundy4 ,it was not begun until about #aeaj3 that is to say1 its construction is contemporaneous with the earlier years of ,henry ,,viii in ,england1 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,brou1 ,,at ,,bourg-,,en-,,bresse 7,,ain7 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,saint ,,wulfran1 ,,abbeville 7,,nord74 ,,france4 ,,detail ,,of ,,west ,,front4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii4 and the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella in ,spain2 and1 in architectural history1 it is contemporaneous with so much of the building of the present ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome as fixed the architectural style of that great church4 ,plate ,,xxxvii is a view of the church of ,brou1 looking westward to the great front whose large windows fill the nave with dazzling daylight and make that west wall itself invisible4 ,the ,gothic structure here is complete--as logical and exact as in the palmy days of the thirteenth century2 but the decorative treatment is different indeed6 ,on the right is the tomb of the ,duchess ,margaret of ,austria1 who completed the church and set up her own and her husband's tomb with those of earlier princes of the line4 ,this tomb is a structure wholly in keeping with the church1 as it was really the cause of its being4 ,there is nothing more interesting in such work than the completely realized naturalistic character of the statuary4 ,nowhere has the art of the sculptor been left so free as in these flamboyant ,gothic buildings--so free to develop itself while still it remains in strict accordance with the requirements of the architectural design4 ,the splendid church of ,s4 ,wulfran at ,abbeville1 in the far north of ,france1 helps us to see still more plainly1 this extraordinary development of architectural sculpture because the scale is larger and the artistic power manifested immeasurably more fit to cope with great undertakings4 ,plate ,,xxxviii giving part of the west portals of that surprising church will show how completely the sculptor's art has changed since the portals of ,reims and of ,chartres were undertaken4 ,as for the architectural treatment it is still like that of the church of ,brou1 ,gothic with modifications4 ,the hold which the ,gothic system of vaulting1 and of building to support the vaults1 had over the ,french builders is visible in this return to earlier principles as soon as the dissensions of the country allowed4 ,the famous ,town ,halls of the ,netherlands have preserved for us the most perfect1 because the most unmingled1 traces ,illustration3 ,,townhall ,,of ,,audenarde1 ,,belgium4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxix4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,albi 7,,tarn71 ,,france1 ,,outer ,,gate ,,leading ,,to ,,south ,,porch4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl4 of flamboyant ,gothic in civic buildings4 ,the latest of all and the smallest one of importance is that at ,audenarde in ,belgium1 built between #aebe-cj4 ,it is represented in ,plate ,,xxxix1 lending itself well to pictorial reproduction on a small scale because it depends but little on the sculptured details4 ,a single ,madonna with the ,child1 above the loggia from which the town authorities would speak to the people in the days of municipal independence1 is the only representative sculpture of importance in all this front1 below the cornice4 ,the fantastic ,gothic tracery with conventional carving covers the blank wall spaces with a continuous veil of slight and not unpleasant roughening2 and the wall spaces are so small that this formal kind of ornament is not disagreeable4 ,small statues should have been placed in the niches2 but the building does not seem to suffer much from their absence4 ,we can judge of it as being what it is1 a most simple and practical ,city ,hall1 built with pointed arches1 with a steep roof adorned by tower1 dormer window and pinnacle1 and the whole structure covered by this thin veil of moulded1 cusped and traceried ornament1 chiefly because the church architecture of previous years had led up to that kind of design by natural evolution1 and because the spirit of the time knew of but one architectural treatment4 ,therefore1 without vaulting1 with five stories of rooms replacing the great hall of the church1 with windows made to open and shut for the convenience of the inhabitants of small rooms1 the building is yet closely in agreement with the church building of the time1 and is to be judged as a part of the great and long supreme style out of which it has grown4 ,in the famous south porch of the cathedral at ,albi1 this florid ,gothic has reached its culmination4 ,plate ,,xl shows the outer porch2 that which1 when the cathedral was really a fortress of some importance1 guarded the first approach to the long flight of stairs1 the outer perron4 ,nothing is more attractive among the minor charms ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,albi 7,,tarn71 ,,france1 ,,south ,,porch4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli4 ,illustration3 ,,loggia ,,dei ,,lanzi1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlii4 of spirited old architecture than these mixtures of florid and even fantastical design with the grave solemnity of fortress towers and the harsh line of battlements intended for the service of war4 ,passing through this gateway which is pierced in a fortress-wall merely and leads directly to no covered apartment of any sort1 the visitor mounts some twenty-five stone steps and reaches the porch shown in ,plate ,,xli1 but he does not enter it by the larger archway2 that is the south archway to which there is meant to be access on the level of its own sill4 ,on the right and partly hidden by the huge buttress-pier is the narrower eastern doorway1 to which access by the steps is had1 from the outer porch1 ,plate ,,xl4 ,the great inner porch 7,plate ,,xli7 dates from the earliest years of the sixteenth century1 and is one of the greatest triumphs as it is one of the very latest productions of that strange art which has abandoned the essential character and basis of ,gothic architecture without losing its derived and secondary charm1 which may be defined as the charm of picturesque variety and sharp contrast--the very reverse1 or so it seems1 of the calm harmony of ,greek design4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,revived ,,classic ,,design ,about the year #adbj ,a4 ,d4 there was a great change in the architectural outlook in central ,italy4 ,the ,risorgimento#dd was already in full vigor1 and this had to do especially with the study of the literature of classical antiquity which had been going on for nearly a century4 ,latin authors were studied afresh1 and1 for the first time in ,europe ,greek authors were inquired for and discussed1 though the time had not yet come for the serious study of the language4 ,there was also a very marked change in the feelings1 the aspirations1 and the power of painters and sculptors4 ,giotto had done his work and had been dead nearly a century1 and ,simone ,martini as long3 ,niccol ,pisano had been dead so long that his influence was felt chiefly in the work of his son ,giovanni who also had died a century before our present enquiry begins3 ,orcagna1 architect as well as painter and sculptor1 had opposed in the spirit of ,italian tradition the influence of the ,northern school of ,gothic art1 and had left behind him when he died1 about #achj1 the admirable portico in ,florence known as that of the ,lancers4 7,see ,plate ,,xlii47 ,each of these men had done what he could to lead the direction of artists' thought away from the non-national ,gothic style4 ,as sculptor and as painter1 each of these artists had much to aid him in the ruins of antiquity4 ,had there been only the sarcophagi and other portable relief-sculptures they would have had material enough to begin their work in the direction of a higher realism1 a more perfect study of the human body1 a more refined casting of drapery1 a more severe style of composition1 than previous centuries had allowed4 ,the classical feeling had taken possession of the painters and the sculptors3 ,paolo ,ucelli1 ,castagno1 ,gentile1 ,masolino1 and most of all the great ,masaccio1 were at work3 and as for sculpture1 ,lorenzo ,ghiberti was forty years old and ,donatello thirty-four1 and the modern arts of form had taken shape4 ,the sculptors and the painters had been encouraged in their ambitions by the works of ,greco-,roman art about them3 but monuments of ancient architecture were so much defaced1 even in the fifteenth century1 that it required a very different lesson before their significance could be learned1 and this lesson1 this strong teaching1 was to be given through scholarship rather than through the observation of the artist4 ,it was not until ancient literature had been well studied for half a century that an enthusiastic young builder1 ,fillipo ,brunellesco1 undertook to study the ,roman ways of vaulting and went for that purpose to ,rome as the place where the greater number of important classical buildings remained1 or perhaps as the place where stood the always famous ,pantheon4 7,see ,chapter ,,ii47 ,it was #adcj before the first building was begun in which an attempt was made to use the classical orders in wholly new work4 ,this was the ,chapel of the ,pazzi1 attached to the church of ,santa ,croce1 in ,florence1 and the exterior of this is shown in ,plate ,,xliii as far as it is possible to obtain an intelligible photograph of its more important parts4 ,it is a small thing2 but assuredly it is marvellous to see1 because of the boldness required on the part of its designer4 ,if we try to imagine the habit of mind of a man who had never seen anything built in ,greco-,roman orders in any form1 or designed in the ,greco-,roman spirit1 who knew buildings of classical design only as fragmentary ruins and who himself had carried out many designs of his own in a spirit1 not ,gothic indeed1 but assuredly not classic1 and who then1 at the age of fifty-five1 in a time when life was shorter and began earlier than now1 undertook and carried out such a composition as this1 there will indeed seem cause for surprised admiration4 ,there is a modern ,italian feeling in the little rondels which ,illustration3 ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,pazzi1 ,,church ,,of ,,santa ,,croce1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,rucellai1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliv4 adorn the frieze above the columns3 but these rondels are filled with cherubs and the whole composition may be set down to the ,christian ecclesiastic feeling4 ,again the fifteenth century spirit is seen in the sculpture of the central arch1 both on the archivolt#de and the intrados3#df but he had no antique example of a decorated arch and as an artist he felt the need of one4 ,there is a mistaken use of ancient forms in the carved flutings of the uppermost frieze1 the strigil ornament taken from some sarcophagus2 but this also may be condoned in view of the fact that sculptor as he was he dared not undertake architectural carving of would-be classical intent4 ,the coupled pilasters of the upper story are hardly classic2 in fact the pilaster in any form is a rarity in external architecture1 so far as we know the buildings of ,imperial ,rome2 and this feature was destined to be altogether characteristic of the ,neo-classic architecture3 but in first introducing it here1 ,fillipo must have seemed to himself to be doing only what a ,roman designer of the second century would have done had he undertaken so small and so refined a design4 ,we are not to forget that it was huge monuments1 the ,pantheon and the ,colosseum and the basilica of ,constantine1 which the ,italian masters had to study when there was question of general dispositions4 ,they had indeed something which we have not in the as yet unspoiled interiors of certain structures on the ,palatine ,hill and near the ,forum3 but they can hardly have had many examples of design on a small scale--of the best architectural treatment applied to buildings of very small size4 ,this portico cannot exceed thirty-five feet in total height and its length is not much greater3 there cannot have been many jewels of refinement like that left among the ancient ruins of ,italy1 even in the first quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,so far1 the revival in architecture was conducted along lines of common sense1 and when the scholar and humanist1 ,leo ,battista ,alberti1 came to the front as an independent designer of architectural compositions and created the front of the ,rucellai ,palace1 7,plate ,,xliv7 which was begun in #adea1 he added the flat pilaster of slight relief to a well-known type of house front4 ,the curious thing about this introduction of the pilasters is that no sooner was it seen than it was disliked1 at least in the front of the palazzo1 with its round-arched window-heads4 ,the ,palazzo ,pitti had been begun by ,brunellesco himself and without any pilasters at all2 then came his rival's ,rucellai front1 and thirty years later we are back again at the old standpoint1 and the ,strozzi ,palace 7see ,plate ,,xlv7 and the ,medici ,palace 7afterwards ,riccardi7 are buildings without these seemingly inappropriate additions4 ,it is surprising to see how much common sense there was among these early lovers of the antique grandeur4 ,the use of the northern style1 the pointed ,gothic1 with its ribbed vault and its picturesque treatment1 ceased altogether in ,italy with the first examples of revived classical architecture3 but not on that account did the ancient ,roman way of building come into favor1 nor did the ,roman methods of design succeed without a struggle4 ,plate ,,xlvi shows the courtyard of the ,cancellaria in ,rome1 which can hardly have been built before #adge2 and contemporaneous with this are many exquisite porticoes of similar design1 porticoes in which the vaulting springs from the capitals of the columns2 and the outer ordonnance--the seemly ordering of parts which had become to the ,italians of the fifteenth century as important1 relatively1 as it had been to their ancestors eleven centuries before1 very unlike the ordonnance of those ancestors4 ,only on the rarest occasions did the ,roman architects of the classic period build in this way1 with the arches springing from the capitals directly4 ,the complete ,roman ,order is indeed seen side by side with this modern type4 ,plate ,,xlviii shows the interior court of the ,palazzo di ,venezia in ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,strozzi1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,riccardi1 ,,florence1 ,,tuscany4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,della ,,cancellaria1 ,,rome ,,courtyard4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvi4 ,rome1 the date of which is always given as #adfj1 and here is the ,roman ,order indeed6 ,here is the complete reproduction of that most singular system of design according to which the engaged column1 known to be a mere ornament or with a constructional utility limited to this slight thickening of the pier at that point1 is made to look like the chief supporting member2 while the arch which really does the work is treated as a subordinate filling of the panel between4 ,this curious device1 invented when the ,romans of the ,empire wished to build freely and yet to design as the ,greeks designed1 brought up again by their imitators in the fifteenth century and never abandoned since1 has so passed into our modern life that we neither know nor see its inconsistency4 ,a designer who might have a strong sense for the constructional in his work would find it impossible to reproduce this motive3 on the other hand1 those many designers who are sincerely enamored of the traditions of the schools accept it as one of the necessary features of great and dignified classical architecture4 ,it is curious to compare with the examples just given that shown in ,plate ,,xlvii1 in which the ground story arcade is classical ,roman1 except that a very shallow pilaster is substituted for the engaged column and in this way becomes a confessed ornament1 while there is no definite archivolt furnished the arches between1 so that the pilaster remains the single decoration of this story2 while above1 the most realistic method possible has been followed4 ,except for that odd little doubling of the consoles above the larger piers1 this upper story is as logical and obvious as if it had been built in ,france in the thirteenth century4 ,the lintel-course1 resting alternately upon these larger piers with their pilaster-like treatment1 and upon the small and slender columns of completely ,renaissance design1 carries in its turn the roof timbers and the gutter in front of them1 and that is all4 ,there is absolutely no pretense about it2 no affectation of being that which it is not2 and the combination of the two stories has ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,santa ,,maria ,,della ,,pace1 ,,rome4 ,,cloister4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvii4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,di ,,venezia1 ,,rome4 ,,courtyard4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii4 resulted in one of the loveliest pieces of composition in ,italy4 ,the date of this charming design1 the cloister of ,s4 ,maria della ,pace1 may be set as the first decade of the sixteenth century4 ,fashions change even in neo-classic architecture1 and when the ,palazzo ,borghese was under consideration in the last years of that same great century1 the coupled column was in use as a favorite device4 ,long afterwards it appeared in ,paris1 adorning the famous eastern front of the ,louvre2 but here1 as early as the days when ,queen ,elizabeth and her nobles were resisting the ,spanish ,armada1 the coupling of the columns1 almost unknown in antiquity1 and never a device of the ,rinascimento1 finds itself in complete favor in that which we call the ,classicismo4#dg ,indeed this portico and loggia1 ,plate ,,xlix1 has little real classical feeling about it1 except the care with which the simpler ,order1 ,tuscan or modified ,doric1 is kept in the ground story1 and the ,ionic ,order above--the proportions of those columns being also carefully observed4 ,the reader will hardly ignore the coldness of the design1 the absence of flavor and freshness which marks it3 the designer is so very sure of his methods and so fixed in advance as to his intentions that there is no longer any trace of the ,rebirth left4 ,if we cross the ,alps1 we shall find in buildings of this time the ,renaissance in its full glory1 but the ,renaissance in ,france is nearly a century behind the ,rinascimento in ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,borghese1 ,,rome4 ,,courtyard4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix4 ,illustration3 ,,chateau ,,at ,,blois 7,,loir ,,et ,,cher71 ,,france1 ,,wing ,,of ,,louis ,,xii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,l4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,later ,,revived ,,classic ,,design ,in this chapter we must consider an epoch of transition for northern ,europe4 ,chapter ,,vi dealt with the time of change in ,italy2 but there was only a brief era of transition there1 so rapid and direct was the change4 ,the ,italians were ready to accept an imitation of classical architecture1 in the hope that the real classical architecture would follow4 ,no matter how poor the imitation1 how inadequate the study had been1 to the ,italians it was so natural that architects should study that which they1 the ,italians1 had always considered the best architecture1 that they were willing to forgive mistakes4 ,in the ,north things were as different as possible4 ,the mighty ,gothic school was as vigorous and full of energy as it had been at any time since the middle of the thirteenth century1 that is to say1 since the day of its first brilliant culmination3 and every one1 every mason1 every carpenter1 every bishop or abbot1 every noble or great officer1 knew what a building or a detail ought to be without asking the opinion of any student of the ,roman past4 ,the ,north1 generally1 was as reluctant to admit the importance of any such studies as the ,south was ready to insist upon them4 ,so it was that only the bodily transportation of the court for many months from ,france to central ,italy1 and this at a time when the ,risorgimento in architecture was at its most glorious height1 could suffice to turn the nobles of the court to care for the stately methods of design introduced by the modern students of antiquity4 ,it was in #adid that ,charles ,,viii started for ,rome3 for five years from that time the nobles of his court saw much more of ,italy than they did of their own country4 ,they came back little by little1 after the accession of ,louis ,,xii1 full of the glories that they had seen4 ,to them it was evident that the ,italian palace with its grandiose staircase1 its stately ordonnance of windows on the front1 its dignity1 its rather cold reserve1 was more worthy of a prince than the more homely and natural buildings they had left behind them in ,france--buildings which were of the same style and spirit as the village churches1 and of the houses even of the less wealthy citizens4 ,and yet there is a living proof of the difficulty which even at this late date the classical styles had to establish themselves in ,france4 ,plate ,l shows that wing of the chteau at ,blois which was built about #aejj and which is called the wing of ,louis ,,xii4 ,plate ,,li shows the adjoining stretch of building1 that which was built about #aebe and which is known by the name of ,franois ,i4 ,in the earlier wing shown in ,plate ,l1 although the ,italian war had been going on for years before a stone of it was laid or cut1 there are no signs of any study whatever of classical details4 ,the building is what it would have been had there been no invasion of ,italy by the preceding king--had no ,french nobleman dreamed of bringing home ,italian workmen and ,italian ideas4 ,the pointed arch is pushed to one side and replaced by the three-centred arch and by the lintel1 but altogether from reasons of convenience1 and without the slightest thought of pleasing thereby the students of antiquity4 ,the high and steeply pitched roof remains1 the simple and obvious fenestration with openings put where they are needed1 and only a secondary reference to delicacies of proportion2 the uneven lengths of the quoins and chanes#dh of the window jambs1 the traceried parapet and sunken panels1 and even the foliated sculpture1 all is of the middle ages2 nor is there anywhere a pilaster1 a classical column1 or the suggestion of an entablature4 ,so in the building of the next reign1 that of ,francis ,i1 shown in part in ,plate ,,li1 the progress of study towards antiquity is visible4 ,here there are pilasters but such as a ,roman of the empire would have thought very odd ones1 and1 in a way1 there is an entablature between the second and third row of windows2 and so the capitals have a little touch of the ,ionic style1 at least in the flat wall to the right of the great staircase4 ,but in every respect1 in the high roof1 the huge and richly ornamented chimneys1 the free treatment of the fenestration1 the still more free and easy handling of the staircase1 with its ramps and openings treated with an obvious eye to spirited effect1 and with but little care for classical gravity of proportion1 all is still medival4 ,the reader will understand that the arches on the left of the staircase1 with ,roman engaged columns between them and the entablature which they carry1 were an addition of the time of ,gaston of ,orleans1 about #afdj3 all this has been swept away by the restoration under ,duban3 for the object of that restoration was mainly the putting of these two great divisions of the palace into the state they were in in the reign of ,henry ,,iii1 for instance1 when the ,states ,general were held in one of its great halls1 namely1 the one of which a small part is seen on the left in ,plate ,l4 ,the student1 as he approaches either of these interesting buildings1 has to remember that the style of the earlier one1 ,plate ,l1 was compelled to make room for the newer style1 as that in its turn was soon out of fashion and was replaced by the more severely classical buildings which are mentioned below4 ,the evolution was not perfect1 the growth was not merely natural and inevitable1 the style did not ripen1 growing slowly from point to point of development1 from simpler to richer1 from less to greater pitch of complication4 ,it was the constant influx of fresh appeals from ,italy and from ,italianized travellers1 sometimes nobles of the great court1 like the ,constable of ,montmorency1 sometimes princes of the church1 like the two cardinals of ,amboise1 and sometimes scholars only1 humble students of ,greek and ,latin1 ,illustration3 ,,chateau ,,at ,,blois 7,,loir ,,et ,,cher71 ,,france1 ,,wing ,,of ,,francois ,i4 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,li4 ,illustration3 ,,chateau ,,of ,,ecouen 7,,seine ,,et ,,oise71 ,,france1 ,,courtyard4 ,illustration3 ,,wollaton ,,hall1 ,,notts1 ,,england4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lii4 like ,rabelais and ,la ,botie4 ,the next step was taken by that very ,constable of ,montmorency1 who1 being then at the height of his wealth and influence in the ,state1 began the new chteau of couen1 after #aedj--;an early date1 but the work was put into the hands of an uncompromising classicist1 ,jean ,bullant4 ,plate ,,lii shows a part of this chteau1 the flank on the right hand as one enters the great court by the chief gateway4 ,here the classical orders are more at home1 and although the high roof1 the monumental chimneys1 and the huge and towering dormers are still of the ,french ,renaissance proper1 with but little direct ,italianate influence1 it is easy to see how everywhere in the mouldings1 in the larger details1 the classical feeling of the architect has had its way4 ,even his dormer windows1 picturesque1 and1 in a way1 medival as they are in design1 have pilasters and a ,doric frieze1 all approximated in their proportion to the classical standard4 ,as for the main wall1 it only needs a glance at the portico of columns in the middle of it1 to see how the proportions of those two orders have swayed the design from end to end4 ,this front1 except the two dormers in the middle1 which are later1 is very nearly of the same date as that building which is shown in ,plate ,,li4 ,but the transition to neo-classic art is much farther advanced4 ,the student will see in these disciplined details1 this systematic spacing and shaping1 the beginning of that tranquil and rather slow evolution which is seen again in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the generally chronological view which we are taking of all these changing styles1 is a good help to memory1 and through this1 to swift and almost instinctive comparison4 ,it helps the student also in his search for causes4 ,in this way it becomes curious to note what the ,english were doing at the time that the classical ,renaissance was thus safely begun in ,france2 with ,spain in the lead1 ,flanders 7influenced by ,spain7 alongside1 ,germany only a little behind4 ,the ,english were building the ,tudor and ,elizabethan country houses4 ,those built of timber with filling of masonry between the timbers belong to an old system of construction once as common in the northwestern parts of the ,continent as in ,england3 but those of more pretension have generally some slight invasion of forms derived from ,italy mingled with the ,tudor or semi-,gothic design4 ,thus ,wollaton ,hall1 of which the principal front is shown in ,plate ,,lii1 dates from a time later than couen1 but it is a long way from the classic feeling shown in that stately edifice4 ,we are not to compare it with any classical standard2 we have to consider it abstractly1 to note its merits as an exterior1 expressing the use of the building and its character as a residence1 and a certain abstract charm1 as of propriety1 which invests it4 ,the huge windows are a mark of the time2 they express the joy which all the more intelligent classes were feeling at the new cheapness and accessibility of glass3 and it is noticeable how well the difficulty is met1 how much more useful are the pilasters here than when we found them in ,florence4 7,see ,chapter ,,vi47 ,the great building is not left a mere lantern3 the opening up of the walls is almost as successful as we found it in the ,gothic churches4 7,see ,chapter ,,iv47 ,as noted above1 the ,english cared less for vaulted roofs than did the people of the ,continent4 ,they developed a splendid system of decorative timbered construction1 of which the finest medival example is the roof of ,westminster ,hall4 ,nearly two hundred years later than that splendid roof is the almost equally fine piece of timber work which covers ,middle-,temple ,hall1 ,plate ,,liii4 ,this ,hall shows us also the finest possible screen of ,jacobean architecture4 ,these screens were used when the plans of buildings were simple1 when the great ,hall of a country-house or a college or the building of a company of merchants filled the whole of the pavilion devoted to it1 occupying all the space under its roof and within its four walls4 ,to make a vestibule of entrance for protection against the cold and against undue publicity1 the screens were built athwart one end of the interior space3 and their ,illustration3 ,,hall ,,of ,,middle ,,temple1 ,,london4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,liii4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,theatiner ,,monks ,,at ,,munich1 ,,bavaria4 ,,ducal ,,palace1 ,,genoa1 ,,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,liv4 upper stories formed galleries of communication between the smaller buildings to left and right4 ,we are to consider this room then as the meeting-room and dining-room of a great number of companions and associates whose semi-privacy would not be invaded too seriously by the coming and going behind the screen4 ,so much for the fitness of the building for its purposes3 as to other considerations1 the vigor of design1 both in constructive and purely decorative members1 hardly needs demonstration4 ,in ,italy1 the changes between #aeej and the close of the seventeenth century are to be found generally in the way of increasing formality and a declining sense of the beautiful and the fit4 ,and yet throughout this decline1 there is seen the ,italian feeling for composition4 ,the ,italians1 though never a great building people--never originators in building--have always1 since antiquity1 known how to make fine designs--how to work with but little detail1 how to handle that little with good effect1 how to avoid solecism4 ,in this connection it will be well to study the ,frontispiece4 ,the great church of ,san ,pietro in ,vaticano was begun very early in the sixteenth century1 to replace a very early basilica4 ,bramante 7,donato d',agnolo3 called also ,donato ,lazzari2 d4 #aead7 one of the most renowned of architects1 made designs for it4 ,he worked out the plan again and again in many forms2 and achieved so much actual success that the great piers intended to carry the cupola and the pendentives above them were nearly completed1 and the principal apse--that of the western end 7for in this church the orientation is reversed7--was vaulted during his lifetime4 ,after that time there were seemingly endless delays1 unceasing controversy1 never-ending changes2 but the model of the cupola was completed by ,michelangelo ,buonarroti1 and the cupola itself carried up as far as the top of the great drum below the rounded shell before the death of that great artist in #aefd4 ,michelangelo1 then1 must have seen the church1 in his imagination1 almost exactly as it is shown in the ,frontispiece4 ,to any one who approaches the church from the city1 crossing the bridge of ,sant' ,angelo and walking up the ,borgo to the ,piazza ,san ,pietro1 the aspect of the building is altogether different2 for the late additions1 the unfortunate entrance-front1 and the still more unfortunate long nave1 mar the effect2 the first by its absolute inferiority as a design1 the second by its concealment of the cupola which1 on that side1 can only be seen when you are at least a mile and a half distant and halfway up the slopes of the ,pincian ,hill4 ,it has seemed worth while to insert this little bit of history1 because such considerations of chance and change or such balancing of the qualities of different succeeding designs and their makers are inevitably part of every great and costly building2 such a building as strains the resources of a nation or a church--such as takes1 and must take1 years in its completion4 ,st4 ,peter's cannot be judged in a morning nor qualified in a paragraph4 ,there is in it the work of the masters of the ,risorgimento in its very highest flight1 and there is1 more visible1 the work of the artists of the ,decadenza--of the better and the worse men1 of the greater and the more ignoble epochs4 ,a building so vast and of such prodigious variety can only be judged as a landscape might be judged2 its details taking shape only after hours of patient looking1 and that with a practiced eye4 ,it will generally be admitted that the church as seen in the ,frontispiece is far more attractive than it is when seen from the ,east2 also that the great ,order of pilasters1 #aab feet high1 resting upon a basement of eighteen feet1 is too colossal even for the 8colossal ,order0--the separate pilasters showing too much like towers of masonry and requiring a different architectural treatment from that which they received as mere subordinate details2 that the design suffers from the absence of the complete group of minor cupolas1 of which only two out of the four have been erected2 that the great attic is too heavy even for the lower architectural story made up of the colossal order1 and this very largely because of the dwarfing of that lower architectural story by the windows of the actual stories within giving the lie to the chief ordonnance1 and cutting up that vast and mountainous exterior4 ,all this will be granted generally by most students of ,european architecture as a whole rather than of one school or one epoch2 and those students will also be of one mind as to the dignity of the whole group and as to the beauty of the cupola1 drum and shell together1 effective without and extremely beautiful when seen from within4 ,those who regard with an especial love the delicate architectural sculpture of the fifteenth century will find the huge church hard and cold4 ,those who care for reason and for intelligent growth of design out of building will care for it1 while admitting its lack of charm1 for it is of thoroughgoing masonry throughout1 and what it appears outwardly to be that it really is4 ,as we get to know it we find that the colossal order and the rest of the clumsy adornment within and without are mere excrescences1 hardly affecting the massive pile4 ,the cupola is one of the very few in ,europe which have no wooden building-out to a metal outer shell3 like the ,pantheon and ,florence cathedral and the smaller dome at ,constantinople1 it is of solid masonry within and without4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,design ,in rather less than a century from the beginning of the ,risorgimento all play of fancy or vivacity had gone out of the designs of the ,italians4 ,as early as #aeaj there is little left except reserve and a dignified rejection of all exterior ornament which could be spared4 ,a very similar result is seen in the ,north as well2 and here also it comes within less than a century of the complete establishment of the classical ,renaissance in ,france1 ,germany or the ,low ,countries4 ,it began in the ,north1 this classical renascence1 about #aeaj1 and was well established by #aebe4 ,accordingly1 as early as #afjj1 the independent and vigorous life has gone out and it becomes an architecture of the decadence4 ,now1 it is not to be assumed that decadence is the same thing as decay4 ,decadence in fine art is a term applied to the slow1 and often very interesting1 decline from the highest pitch of enthusiastic work and of combined energy and good taste4 ,defined in this way1 there was a decadence of ,roman imperial art from the reign of ,trajan2 or1 as some would have it1 from the reign of ,vespasian4 ,and yet what noble things were built even more than two hundred years after the later of those two dates6 ,so there was a decadence in ,gothic art dating from the middle of the thirteenth century2 for everywhere there was a replacing of the energy of the new style by formality1 by regularity1 by the constant repetition of closely similar parts3 and the pride of the skillful builder carried it over the refined taste of the artist4 ,and still we have to remember with admiration and amazement such wonderful conceptions as the church of ,saint ,urbain at ,troyes 7begun after #abfe71 such masterly combinations as those of ,saint ,ouen at ,rouen 7begun #acbj71 and all the finer buildings of the florid ,gothic in ,france--of the perpendicular architecture with fan vaulting in ,england4 ,all these are works of the decadence1 and what is needed is the substitution for the term we are using of another term which shall not sound so much like our ,english word1 8decay40 ,in like manner1 there is decadence in the ,south from #aeaj1 or thereabout1--in the ,north from a point of time eighty-five years later1 and this decadence continued until the whole ancient world of traditional art was destroyed in the stormy time of the ,french ,revolution4 ,since then1 there has been neither decadence nor growth1 but a bewildering series of experiments1 none of which have as yet brought the world into a state of wholesome and natural progress in the arts of decorative design1 that is to say1 of design based upon structure and utility4 ,decadence in the ,south1 then1 lasted for two centuries and three quarters3 in the ,north it lasted nearly two centuries4 ,it stands to reason that during such long spaces of time there were ups and downs1 periods of more rapid decline1 periods of attempted restoration1 of almost a new birth4 ,thus1 there are fantastical and baroque designs as early as #afbj in the ,north1 and much earlier in the ,south3 whereas1 in either case1 fine1 pure1 stately buildings were erected at a much later period2 still1 the general tendency is from the more simple and more reasonable to the more extravagant2 and this from the natural desire of the designers to try something new and not to be fettered too closely by the traditions of neo-classic design4 ,there was1 of course1 a reaction from that greater freedom1 and the boldness of the men of #agbj and thereabout was offensive to their successors who established the latest neo-classic with its ,roman colonnades and a general absence of other details of interest4 ,some part of this twofold tendency--of this revolution and counter-revolution--this drag towards an unseemly lack of dignity and quietness1 with the inevitable pull backward to a more tranquil method of design--is to be seen in the church of the ,theatiner monks1 at ,munich4 ,the local authorities1 which seem to be trustworthy1 say that this church1 which is dedicated to ,saint ,cajetan1 was built in #afge1 except the front and the towers1 which are later--the date usually given being a century after the completion of the church1 though this can only apply to the upper stories4 ,as long as the low buildings1 the three-story houses with not very lofty roofs1 remained unaltered1 the view of this church from the ,ludwigstrasse 7as in ,plate ,,liv7 or from the ,square in front of the theatre1 looking over the houses between1 is one of the most impressive to be had anywhere when a single building is under consideration4 ,the proportion between the dome and the two towers1 and secondarily1 between the towers and the front of the clearstory raised high between them1 and between this1 with its long nave roof1 and the cupola1 again1 is uniformly beautiful4 ,in our ,american cities we can only secure such a result by building at great1 and generally impossible1 cost1 on a free open plot of ground3 but for a town or a neighborhood in which the height of the houses could be guaranteed for a term of years1 no better type of metropolitan church can be imagined4 ,you cannot get away from its towering masses2 from far and from near they are alike impressive4 ,whatever reluctance there has been to admit and insist upon the beauty of this church is caused by the inferiority of its details4 ,let us1 therefore1 consider those details4 ,in the first place1 for the cupola itself and the drum which supports it there would be a general acceptance of it as sufficiently of the graver style to which it belongs1 that which the ,germans call the ,hoch-,renaissance1 except for some part of the copper lantern at the top which smacks of a less pure style4 ,but when the towers are considered1 then there would be a general rejection of that treatment of the pilasters which causes them to appear as members1 only1 of a continuous group of vertical mouldings1 emphasizing the corners1 but also out of keeping as parts of a recognized neo-classic style4 ,such pilasters as these do not come into any ,order which you can reproduce from the pages of ,vignola2 nor would the curious entablatures forming three horizontal string-courses on each tower1 and two on the church front1 proper1 be accepted as forming part of any systematized and intelligible order of architecture4 ,the liking and disliking of such details is very largely a matter of fashion2 and the difficulty is with all such questions concerning the mere adornment of architecture without regard to its structural essence--that when a style1 a detail1 a method of adornment1 is out of fashion1 it often seems offensive to those who are working in the fashion2 even as the most elegant coat or the most elegant ball-dress of #ahdj is a monster of ugliness to-day and would be thought to disfigure the elegant man or woman who might endue it4 ,there is a large building in ,new ,york1 the butt of endless ridicule1 which is nevertheless extremely sensible in its dispositions1 well arranged1 well lighted1 well imagined for its purposes4 ,but the unlucky adoption of a style of design not unlike this of the ,theatiner towers has prevented it from receiving even a moment's serious consideration4 ,by #aibj it may be respected1 and even admired as the premature attempt to introduce a style then popular4 ,the view to take of such a design is1 then1 that which we would take of a work of art whose epoch we did not pretend to know4 ,it is a good rule for collectors of expensive works of art of the portable kind1 objts de la haute curiosit1 not to worry about dates or makers unless the things belong to a well-known and much studied class4 ,if it concerns prints from engravings by ,aldegrever and ,paul ,potter1 or signed enamels by the sixteenth century masters1 or by ,petitot1 it may be worth while to be sure of your authenticity2 but it is also delightful to decide to buy the ,chinese porcelain1 the unsigned fifteenth century drawing1 the ,italian peasant pottery of the eighteenth century1 and before1 without other voucher than the beauty of the piece4 ,he is the safest in his collecting who holds firmly to his own sense of what is lovely and intelligent in decorative art1 recognizing this mark of authenticity as at least equal to signatures and perfectly ascertained dates of fabrication4 ,so to a certain extent with works of architecture4 ,it will never do to dismiss an attractive1 and perhaps even an impressive1 building with the judgment easy to be gathered from the guidebooks1 that this is of a late date1 or a corrupt style1 or was designed by a master of the baroque in art4 ,that very word baroque means originally an irregular pearl1 a pearl so remote in shape from the perfect sphere that no respectable jeweller would set it in an earring or pierce it for the necklace of a millionaire's wife2 but the artistic jewellers of the old times would take those irregular pearls and put heads and tails of gold with touches of enamel to them1 producing abnormal birds or indescribable monsters1 most admirable for decorative jewelry4 ,if there were an opportunity in this brief inquiry to consider interior decoration1 we should find that the domestic buildings going up in ,france1 even while these towers were in the way of completion in southern ,germany1 were admirably designed within4 ,the beginnings of the ,rocaille#di are of this time2 and the ,rocaille system of design is as attractive in its best examples1 in the delicate goldsmith's work1 ivory work1 and varnish painting1 of #agej1 as any courtly and magnificent system of adornment ever used among peoples of ,european descent4 ,of course the ,european designer has a heavy touch if you compare him to a ,japanese artist of an equivalent rank3 of course an uninterrupted development in a certain line of decoration at last leads to bad taste and violence4 ,the point is the simple one that even those styles which are considered fair game for ridicule and are hardly treated with grave consideration are charming in their more perfect monuments4 ,it is only the rational styles based on structure1 which in architecture have any uniform greatness4 ,it is only a real style like the ,egyptian of #cjjj ,b4 ,c41 or the ,grecian-,doric1 or1 so far as we can judge1 the ,roman of ,augustus1 or the ,gothic of ,central ,france1 or any derived and self-conscious styles of the neo-classic ,renaissance1 such as are based upon a new system of planning like that of the sixteenth century chateaux1 or a new system of roof building like the fan vaulted interiors of ,england 7three or four of them only72 it is these alone which are always fine and great2 all other styles have not only their ups and downs1 their rise and fall1 they have also their normal and1 therefore1 respectable1 but moreover their abnormal and fantastic compositions4 ,plate ,,lv shows the front of a well-known building in ,turin1 and here architectural detail has been so handled that it is indeed a disfigurement4 ,if the reader will look past the astonishing window casings and the really hideous filling of panels like those in the pilasters of the basement1 he will see a well understood front4 ,there is a high architectural basement1 containing the basement story proper and a mezzanine2 a grand story with the order1 containing three stories of the interior1 the pilasters well proportioned and well placed2 and above this1 a high entablature planned for the whole front with a story of rooms in it1 and another story of rooms showing in little dormer windows above the cornice4 ,here are six 8flats0 of rooms1 all abundantly lighted1 and yet the front has been laid out in such a way that it has all the elements of a very imposing and stately structure4 ,even the singular soft rounding1 with a plan made up of several curves1 of the projecting central mass which includes the porch of entrance1 is capable of perfectly dignified1 and even stately1 treatment4 ,the appearance above of the great rotunda which holds the staircase1 completes the composition of this central mass1 and leaves one regretting that it might not be given to some modern designer of good taste1 and a hard hand on the vagaries of his assistants1 to work out the problem of this curious central mass1 so manifold and so capable of unity4 ,but1 now1 if one leaves for a moment that abstract way of regarding the whole front and allows those window casings to secure his attention1 why then all is lost1 of course3 one cannot be expected to stand very long in front of such a building2 it is a monster1 but it is that merely because of the exceptionally ugly and wholly unreasonable gimcracks that are stuck all over it4 ,if you should take the ,hermes of ,olympia and dress him like those 8fantasticals0 at an old-fashioned ,paris masked ball1 you would no doubt produce a very unsightly object and it would take the eye of an expert in human form1 a sculptor1 namely1 to discover the beauty of the figure within4 ,that ,turin building is of about #afij2 see now what the reaction brought forth and what gravity of design was possible to the artists of thirty years later in the same city6 ,there seems no doubt that this front of the ,palazzo ,madama 7see ,plate ,,lv7 was built by ,filippo ,juvara about #agae4 ,to look at it is a rest indeed after the enormities of the ,palazzo ,carignano3 and yet even here one finds himself wishing that the wretched device of carved trophies of arms1 as the single motive of the exterior sculpture1 were absent here4 ,sculptured ornament was beyond the strength of the eighteenth century3 when they tried to introduce it1 then the result was a failure4 ,it is with relief that one looks at the front1 ,plate ,,liv1 of the ,ducal ,palace at ,genoa1 which front seems to have been built by ,cantoni1 a well-known reformer in architectural style4 ,the tendency has been through the whole century away from variety1 away from the unexpected and the surprising1 away from all external ornamentation1 whether in color or in sculpture3 the wheel has come full circle and there is nothing now entertaining or attractive in the details of the front1 except only the neo-classic column with its accompanying entablature4 ,the columns may be arranged in a continuous row or they may be coupled1 as in the case before us1 or they ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,carignano1 ,,turin1 ,,piedmont1 ,,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,palazzo ,,madama1 ,,turin1 ,,piedmont1 ,,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lv4 ,illustration3 ,,exhibitions ,,building 7,,kunstausstellungs-,,geb,,ude71 ,,munich1 ,,bavaria4 ,illustration3 ,,gateway ,,building 7,,propylaea71 ,,munich4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lvi4 may be grouped in other ways with a nearer and a more distant placing1 especially when they are 8engaged0 or partly built into the solid wall behind them4 ,but however placed and however grouped1 they1 the columns1 are the one decorative feature1 the entablature acting in reality as their restraining limit1 the needed link between them and the necessary structure4 ,this building is of #aggg4 ,ten years later the clock of the centuries marked that moment of time when architectural out-of-door growth was to stop and architectural transplanting and forcing were to begin4 ,by that time in ,paris1 the centre of the architectural world for the eighteenth century1 they had accumulated a number of very worthy buildings4 ,the famous cole ,militaire1 south of the ,champs de ,mars1 was built about #agfj1 and the most accessible front of its principal mass has no artistic charm except that obtainable from the even succession of large windows1 the well drilled1 the exact1 the highly organized lay out of a large front4 ,the two admirable buildings on the north side of the ,place de la ,concorde were built in #agfe-gj and these contain the whole style1 for they have the great free colonnades of the centre1 the engaged columns of the wings1 the high basement without any adornment beyond that feeble breaking-up of the surface which we call ,rustication1 and they have for all external sculpture the feeblest and most insufficient little carved frames of what look like round mirrors hung here and there4 ,these are the two typical buildings of the time and they are typical too of the whole tendency of neo-classic architecture throughout the decadence1 a tendency away from variety1 away from movement and charm1 towards gravity and dignity1 but also towards cold uniformity1 with nothing to break it except the semi-,roman ,order1 more or less well understood1 more or less graceful in itself but having no real mission to fulfill and therefore not forming part of the organized and perfect whole which we call style in architecture4 ,it has one fitness1 however1 for a hurried headlong modern civilization1 a civilization too busy with its physical development to spend much thought or much energy on the working of pure intelligence4 ,this advantage is that it is so easy to manage4 ,it is very easy to handle for those who can handle it at all4 ,there is needed to make it sightly that good taste which controls the fancy and the memory1 and prevents the designer from even recalling those well-known details and architectural effects which will not suit his purpose4 ,given such good taste1 and a certain moderate acquaintance with the books1 and designs as good as the best can be made with great speed and with perfect satisfaction to all concerned3 nor does the designer need to go beyond the walls of his draughting-room to decide upon all things which are of first-rate importance to his conception4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,,imitative ,,design ,so far as architectural history is known to us there has never been since the beginning of civilization a condition of art at all resembling that which surrounded the people of the nineteenth century4 ,there have been epochs of deliberate revival1 not only the famous one of the fifteenth century in ,italy1 and the sixteenth century in the ,north1 which we call especially the ,new ,birth 7see definitions1 ,risorgimento1 etc471 but also some as important as that one1 to the people concerned4 ,there will be always such attempts in every epoch of self-conscious civilization4 ,under ,hadrian1 in the second century1 ,a4 ,d41 there was a deliberate attempt at reviving the ,grecian purity of style4 ,egyptologists know that traces are plainly to be seen of similar movements #bjjj and #cjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,in ,byzantine art there has been much conscious restoring of archaic forms and methods4 ,in ,france1 in the reign of ,louis ,,xvi1 there was a deliberate recall of the world of art back from the too loose and irregular1 too fantastical and violent style of the mid-eighteenth century1 to a graver and1 as it were1 purified taste4 ,one peculiarity1 however1 marks all of these reasoned-out and deliberate1 rather than spontaneous1 movements3 they succeeded1 and the ideas embodied in them soon dominated the situation4 ,there have been some abortive attempts at reform3 but those which we cite as rebirths succeeded altogether4 ,all the tendencies of the day1 good1 and not so good1 went out towards the revival1 and the change was accepted by the whole world of designers4 ,nor is it hard to see sufficient reasons for this uniform tendency1 for this simple development of a new style1 however introduced3 the designers of the time and their more instructed critics1 the connoisseurs or dilettanti of the day1 knew nothing very positive nor had even any special idea of any style of the past4 ,there were no photographs and scarcely any books of historical record--no such books at all1 indeed1 if by historical record is meant an accurate account of the architecture of earlier times4 ,wealthy and influential men of the later years of ,louis ,,xv might have been divided into those who rather liked the fantastical style of the rococo and those who contemned it and would fain have had something more refined4 ,the purists saw in the seventeenth century reproductions of ,roman orders a finer taste than their own4 ,that much help from the past they may have got1 but the work they did in the course of their reformatory movements shows that they were pursuing a perfectly natural evolution of art with no more conscious guidance from their theories than that which led them towards more and more severe lines--more and more slender parts--more and more constructional methods of design4 ,and as this movement was so natural and easy we never think of it as a rebirth3 by that term we mean something much more radical4 ,when1 after the close of the ,napoleonic wars1 men began to breathe free again in ,europe1 it became evident to those who observed the tendencies of their own time that there was no restraint of tradition left--at least no restraint which was recognized by more than a small group of men1 while another group of men equally intelligent1 perhaps1 rejected those traditions and set up their own standard4 ,king ,ludwig of ,bavaria 7reigned #ahbe-dh7 had studied and travelled before his accession to the crown2 he had purchased and brought to ,munich the ,greek sculptures from the temple at gina2 he had seen the buildings of the ,italian ,renaissance and admired them2 he was a comparatively unprejudiced dilettante with a liking for many styles1 a sympathy for many forms of artistic thought4 ,he and his architects started in his capital1 ,munich1 the ,ludwigskirche 7,church of ,st4 ,louis7 only a dozen years after ,napoleon's final dethronement1 and the royal ,library a few years later--each of these being in a kind of ,southern ,romanesque style without columned porticoes or other attempts at classicism4 ,the ,allerheiligenhofkirche 7,court ,church of ,all ,saints7 is of the same character of design with a somewhat more frank observance of ,italian models4 ,the ,old ,pinakothek was begun in #ahbf1 contemporaneously with the ,ludwigskirche1 or nearly so1 but this building is a careful study of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,the southern front of the ,royal ,palace1 the ,knigsbau1 is again of the same year as to its commencement1 and this also is studied from ,florentine fifteenth century palazzi4 ,the north front of the ,post ,office1 directly opposite the ,knigsbau1 has a ,florentine loggia of thirteen arches--fifteenth century style1 not badly carried out4 ,the ,glyptothek is the earliest of all3 it was begun before ,ludwig's accession1 and almost immediately after the restoration of peace to ,europe1 and the outside of this was meant to be as ,greek as it was possible for a modern designer to make a building4 ,within1 it had indeed to resort to the non-,greek device of vaulting1 to cover its large halls3 but it was still of ,grecian taste in its details4 ,the ,valhalla1 by which term the ,king designated a ,temple of ,honor built on a noble hill by the ,danube1 above ,ratisbon1 is of the same epoch and of the same deliberately ,hellenic character of design2 a really fine exterior1 studied closely from a ,doric ,temple of the best period4 ,another such temple of honor stands at the southeastern edge of the new town of ,munich1 the ,ruhmeshalle 7,hall of ,fame71 begun in #ahdc1 and as completely ,greek as the two others4 ,the basilica of ,st4 ,boniface was begun in #ahce and is a most faithful study of the later basilicas of the pure ,latin style1 that is to say1 a basilica of the sixth or the seventh century4 ,to complete the circle of the styles from the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 to the sixteenth century ,a4 ,d41 and to cover all the important styles which mark the circuit of those two thousand years1 there was built in the ,au suburb a ,gothic church as completely in the fourteenth century spirit as the intelligence of the builder would enable him to make it4 ,roman imperial art was not represented1 for the scholars had hardly begun to differentiate it from the pure ,greek3 and for some such reason1 probably because the ,germans have always been inclined to use the term 8,byzantine0 for all round-arched medival work1 the ,king's advisers made no attempt at a piece of rugged northern ,romanesque3 but all the other epoch-making styles of ,europe were included in the enlarged capital city4 ,all of these imitations are as careful as possible4 ,if in any detail the style imitated has been abandoned1 even for a moment1 it has been with a feeling of 8needs must02 no pains have been spared to keep close to the ancient spirit4 ,the interior is what is fine in the basilica of ,st4 ,boniface and it is a favorable way of regarding this epoch of copying to take this building as our example1 because the construction and the system of design are so very simple1 so easy to grasp and to imitate1 that nothing more than a delicate care for details and the power of reproducing them is needed4 ,the mosaics and the paintings of the interior are indeed not equal to those of a great ,roman basilica1 either in its original state or as it has come down to us2 the painters and designers of the time were not competent to reproduce those2 a critical judge would say that the carving of the marble capitals lacked something of initiative--something of energy2 the general effect of color of the interior1 though far from unpleasing1 though even agreeable to the visitor1 may be thought much less noble than that of a fine ,italian church4 ,and yet this is one of the most attractive interiors in ,europe1 and one may visit it many times during a season and like it better all the time4 ,it is to be heartily enjoyed1 and yet when there is a question of its artistic merit as a design1 the favorable comment is much less unreserved4 ,for what have we to admire8 ,only sympathy in observing1 and fidelity in reproducing1 monuments of the past4 ,do we feel as we speak the word 8only0 that such sympathy and such fidelity are so rare that they deserve very hearty recognition8 ,that may be1 and yet the praise given to the architectural effort may be not great4 ,it is not by sympathy and fidelity alone that great designs are made4 ,let it be admitted that if the architects of all ,europe had been so delighted by this1 or by some similar undertaking1 as to begin to work1 altogether1 in the ,latin style--to build all their churches in that style and to study the problem of designing civic buildings1 and dwellings also1 to correspond--a new style and a worthy one might have originated4 ,let that be admitted3 the failure of the nineteenth century has been in the absence of any such unanimity4 ,no great body of architects has ever agreed on what was to be done4 ,there has always been a competing school1 a rival school1 sometimes several of them1 armed with reasoning and enthusiasm as strong as that of the school in question and prepared to beat down its feeble growth4 ,or let us take the ,glyptothek1 a composition as completely ,greek as the feeling and the perception of the day enabled the architect to make it2 are we to take the shafts without flutings1 which seem to be called for1 as so many violations of ,greek verity8 ,in all ,grecian art1 moreover1 there are no round-headed niches1 that is to say1 niches covered by semi-domes1 because there are no arches therein4 ,there are no frontispieces made up of an entablature1 a pediment and two pilasters1 used for mere ornament and surrounding a round-topped opening4 ,there are no entablatures constructed with flat arches which replace1 or1 as in this case1 relieve a flat lintel composing the epistyle4 ,none of those things are ,greek3 and yet it is clear that ,klenze meant to be as ,greek as ,ictinos4 ,let us compare with that front the faade which immediately confronts it from the south side of the broad ,knigsplatz1 the ,exhibition building1 finished about #ahdj4 7,see ,plate ,,lvi47 ,here is a building which is more purely classic than the ,glyptothek in almost every respect1 ,roman rather than ,greek in its proportions1 in the free use of the ,corinthian column1 very elaborately worked1 in the free use of pilasters with sculptured capitals1 in the employment of carved modillions3 and yet it is more truly ,greek in its mouldings1 which are studied with extreme care1 and in the absence from it of such violations of archological accuracy as those already mentioned with regard to the ,glyptothek4 ,it would be thought by many to be a finer design1 attracting less attention merely because not the home of a very important collection of classical sculpture1 and a mere shelter for temporary exhibitions of modern art4 ,the ,propyla 7see ,plate ,,lvi71 also at ,munich1 is the most nearly ,greek of all1 for even its use of details not known to us in ancient work1 is very careful and marked by perfect feeling for the style4 ,it is1 however1 only a gateway of honor3 and in that capacity it has been easy to treat4 ,the designer1 ,klenze1 deserves credit for not having copied some one of the ancient gateways more closely1 so as to avoid responsibility4 ,it is impossible to escape from this method of criticism4 ,you cannot judge of these nineteenth century buildings without asking whether they are or are not faithful copies of some structure of the sixth century1 ,a4 ,d41 or the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 or of whatever epoch of the past4 ,those who deprecate the unfavorable character of the general criticism which is based upon regret for this ceaseless copying1 tell us constantly that the artists of the great times copied also1 that they were always studying the buildings already erected and trying to improve upon them4 ,that is true2 but the buildings they copied1 with alterations1 with improvements1 with enlargements1 with refinements1 with natural striving for growth1 were the buildings of their own time1 called forth by the same necessity which controlled them1 fitted for the same community1 based upon the same well understood method of construction4 ,the familiar comparison and lesson drawn from the modern art of the shipbuilder 7for instance7 illustrates this4 ,the skilled shipbuilder whittles out his model with an eye on the past and on the present1 and he proposes to modify the lines of his own latest partial success or of his rival's endeavor in such a way as to give his new hull more speed1 more carrying capacity1 more stiffness--whatever may be his immediate object4 ,he never goes back to the ships of the time of ,queen ,elizabeth with a deliberate intention of building an ,elizabethan hull and sparring it and rigging it in an ,elizabethan way4 ,no matter now about the causes of this difference2 the fact remains1 and we are face to face with this curious condition of things1 that whereas every important change in building1 in the past1 has been accompanied by a change in the methods of design1 so that even in the times of avowed revival there was seen no attempt to stick to the old way of designing while the new method of construction was adopted2 now in the nineteenth century and in what we have seen of the twentieth century our great new systems of building have flourished and developed themselves without effect as yet upon our methods of design4 ,we still put a simulacrum of a stone wall with stone window casings and pediments and cornices and great springing arches outside of a structure of thin1 light1 scientifically combined1 carefully calculated metal--the appearance of a solid tower supported by a reality of slender props and bars4 ,the medival styles1 that is to say1 ,romanesque in all its forms and ,gothic of all epochs1 have been copied in the nineteenth century with an accuracy even greater than that used for the classical and neo-classic styles4 ,in all such reproductions the standard of criticism must be the same4 ,plate ,,lvii shows the great church at ,doncaster in ,yorkshire1 a building erected with singular care and forethought and at great expense1 with the deliberate purpose of imitating what is often called the 8decorated0 style of ,english ,gothic4 ,the architect1 and his principal adviser1 a gentlemen who had given much thought and pains to the study of ,english ,gothic1 agreed that the perpendicular style1 of the years from #acej on1 had been allowed too great an influence in the ,gothic revival of the time 7about #ahfj7 and chose the work of the first half of the fourteenth century as their prototype4 ,to this style they were faithful4 ,it is nearly true to say that an imitation so close as to be deceptive would have been the greatest success1 in the opinion of the designer and his employers4 ,the main exception to this statement--the main difference avowedly preserved between the modern and an accurate transfer or cast of an ancient building is to be found in the sculpture of the capitals in which a modern realistic study of natural plant forms is evident2 and in like manner the design of the font in the near foreground which is not like any old ,english font1 but is an abstract design showing much study of old ,english metal work1 silver altar vessels and the like4 ,plate ,,lvii also shows the exterior of this interesting building which is very large for an ,english parish church1 the tower being one hundred and seventy ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,george1 ,,doncaster1 ,,yorks1 ,,england1 ,,interior4 ,illustration3 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,george1 ,,doncaster1 ,,yorks1 ,,england1 ,,exterior4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lvii4 ,illustration3 ,,trinity ,,church1 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lviii4 feet high and almost exactly equal to the total length4 ,as there is no architectural style peculiar to the nineteenth century in any of the lands occupied by ,europeans1 it is inevitable that the greater number of modern buildings should be more or less completely suggested by the fine art of the time when there was a style of interest and of individual character4 ,very few are the nineteenth century buildings which are absolutely without such suggestion4 ,at the same time there are a certain number in which only a general study of ancient art is visible1 and it is of these that our tenth chapter treats4 ,,chapter ,x ,,nineteenth ,,century3 ,,original ,,design ,the work of ,henry ,hobson ,richardson may be named as a noticeably intelligent attempt to regain the lost excellence of an ancient style without copying it closely4 ,this appreciation has to do only with his buildings of the years from #ahge to a short time before his early death in #ahhf4 ,he studied deliberately the ,romanesque architecture of the middle and south of ,france1 and as the elaborate sculpture of human subject1 so common in the churches of that style1 would not have been practicable in ,america in the nineteenth century1 he developed1 with the assistance of certain ,american sculptors1 a semi-,byzantine system of foliated design which adapted itself well to his arched porticoes and his elaborate interior compositions of woodwork4 ,other lands than ,france were visited and their treasures put to use3 thus1 the central tower and the general grouping of the masses in his celebrated design1 ,trinity ,church in ,boston1 ,massachusetts 7see ,plate ,,lviii71 are evidently studied from a ,spanish original4 ,this is well shown in the illustration named1 which shows the church as ,richardson left it4 ,the tower on the extreme left has been replaced by the accessories of the new west porch4 ,now in such a design as this we have to separate that which is frankly copied and that which is of independent design4 ,thus1 the inlay of different colored stones1 so marked in the apse1 and in a simpler way in the transept1 on the left of the picture1 is taken directly from churches of ,auvergne4 ,the question1 then1 would be whether1 the idea of a mosaic on a large scale being once adopted1 the design furnished is a good one for the place4 ,such designs are almost common property3 they float around the world and every designer has his mind stored with them3 the question is not of originality in combining a star with some zigzags1 but rather of providing a pattern of just the right size and character to fill the given spot1 as well as to have an independent beauty of its own4 ,the great central tower1 studied probably from the cathedral of ,salamanca in ,spain1 is evidently open to question as to whether it is sufficiently massive in appearance4 ,there is to many persons an appearance as if the stone work were composed of too many and too slight colonnettes1 lintels1 arches1 and the rest1 involving the use of a great number of small stones1 laid up not in a massive wall but in a slighter and more exposed fashion1 not a skeleton1 but suggesting the idea of something very open to the weather4 ,the ,spanish originals have somewhat the same effect but it is less marked in the old buildings and with them it is not combined with that mosaic of different colored stones which1 although the practiced builder knows it to be superficial merely1 yet gives to most spectators a feeling as if the wall were not solidly laid up4 ,the building is certainly faulty in lacking the appearance of ponderosity4 ,seen through a haze or by dim light it is a noble composition1 the forms exquisitely balanced1 the central tower perfectly well marking its place and its structure4 ,it is not until the building is seen in a brilliant light and its detailed effect begins to tell upon its general masses that any exception can be taken to its merit as a general central tower4 ,that the lack of solidity in appearance may be the more clearly understood1 it is well to compare with the church itself the porch which was built long after ,richardson's death1 though avowedly according to his general design4 ,this porch1 though a small structure1 has a massiveness in all its parts1 which the church has been said to lack4 ,the sculpture is also especially noteworthy as being full of that medival feeling which forced even the carefully modelled human figure1 with elaborate drapery1 into the service of the architectural design2 while still the modelling has that anatomical truth which modern school-taught generations require4 ,the conclusion is1 with regard to this church1 that we are free to judge of it as an independent design once we have cleared away some few doubts of archological accuracy3 once it is established that the designer has felt at liberty to take a general form of his central tower from impressions received in ,spain1 while many of the details are taken almost bodily from the heart of ,france1 the rest is to be accepted1 as also the adaptation and working-in of the borrowed details1 as a design well adapted to the requirements of the building1 to its place in an open and uncrowded site where the building stands free on every side1 and to its material1 a sandstone1 not very fine nor very hard4 ,it is one of the best designs in the picturesque fashion which modern times have seen4 ,a similar piece of bold adaptation to an ancient style is seen in ,truro ,cathedral 7,plate ,,lix7 in ,cornwall1 begun about #ahhj4 ,no person who has lived among ,english cathedrals could ever mistake this building for a design of the ,middle ,ages2 and yet ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,truro1 ,,cornwall1 ,,england4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lix4 ,illustration3 ,,apartment ,,house1 8,,st4 ,,alban',s ,,mansions10 ,,london4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lx4 its character as a ,gothic structure is perfectly maintained4 ,it is to be judged1 then1 as an ancient ,gothic building is to be judged4 ,one asks whether the system of vaulting with ribs1 and a filling or shell of light stone work between the ribs1 is supported and resisted in the best and most economical way by the system of buttressing1 and whether this system of buttressing without1 and the system of vaulting within1 are equally expressed in the artistic design4 ,the fact that the modern building cannot be allowed the cost of much architectural sculpture in its exterior1 though unfortunate1 cannot be urged as a serious defect1 in view of the fact that the ,english medival churches have but little sculpture as compared with those of the ,continent1 their adornment being concentrated more generally upon the ,west front1 or parts of the interior4 ,if now we try to call to mind some building inspired1 on the whole1 by classical taste and the classical spirit of design1 but showing also independence and a strictly modern conception1 we shall find that the search is not a rewarding one4 ,there are few modern buildings in which the classic orders are used at all1 or in which classic details have been carefully studied1 without what seems to be a strict adherence to recognized types of classic or neo-classic general design4 ,the ,greek who was building oblong temples1 very strictly limited to a given number of columns and a given slope of roof1 might still group small shrines as they are grouped in the ,erectheum2 and he1 the ,greek designer1 generally careful of his ,orders1 may substitute for his columns a row of draped statues with perfect success4 ,the designers of imperial ,rome1 dealing with dwelling houses1 all on one floor1 with columned courtyards and covered porticoes surrounding gardens open to the sky1 were still capable of building on the side of a cliff and in the ,imperial ,city1 too1 and producing a house three stories high on one side and one story on the other--handling their semi-,greek and semi-,italian details with perfect ease and nearly perfect grace1 and investing the whole with a consistent scheme of ornament4 ,the modern designer in the classical styles will not do that very often4 ,in the first place1 he will have studied only the grandiose buildings of antiquity1 the great temples and porticoes with their minutely accurate symmetry of plan3 and in the second place1 he will have conceived of the modern use of classic forms as being1 on the whole1 a simple thing1 easy to the naturally gifted designer4 ,the one thing which the modern workman in classic styles expects to get from his building is refinement of proportion1 reaching on the one side towards dignity and on the other side towards grace4 ,now1 to one who is naturally strong in such things1 the obtaining of these beauties of proportion is an easy thing3 it is achieved or it is not achieved in the course of a very few hours of preparation and study of the problem4 ,it is hardly conceivable that a modern adept in the classical system of design should think much of detail except as to the accurate copying of sculpture and of the curvature of mouldings from ancient examples4 ,in medival styles1 we moderns study the small town house1 the humble parish church1 with its squat tower and plain windows without tracery1 as well as the great cathedral1 typical of the style and embodying its full character4 ,of classical antiquity there were no such things to study1 during the years when the modern feeling for classical art took shape2 nor have there been until the present day many opportunities for judging of the smaller and simpler designs4 ,and therefore we take from classical art mainly its colonnades1 its stately use of the three great ,orders of ,greco-,roman antiquity1 with a very few of their slighter modifications4 ,those buildings of the great days of the empire in which no columnar adornment existed1 we have hardly learned to respect--we still look upon them as exceptions hardly worthy of the attention of one who would study the great arts of antiquity4 ,now it appears to one who will study the past closely and fearlessly1 that the ,romans themselves were a little overawed by their system of columnar architecture1 and were slow to abandon or even modify it during the long centuries of its constant application to the diverse needs of the old ,mediterranean world4 ,still more are we moderns overawed by the columns and entablatures1 so that we dare not play with them3 and yet1 how can you hope to design if you are afraid to play with the members of your composition8 ,the taste of the ,american communities1 our great cities within the borders of the ,united ,states1 is markedly for that kind of gravity which we associate with the classical styles--with the few large openings1 the horizontal cornices1 the low-pitched or invisible roofs1 the smooth white1 or light colored1 surfaces of unbroken simplicity1 the carefully studied classical colonnade4 ,the taste of similar communities in ,england is as evidently based upon a long familiarity with the picturesque forms of the ,middle ,ages and of the ,elizabethan and earlier ,jacobean styles1 that is to say1 of so much of the ,renaissance as reached ,england before the foundation1 by ,inigo ,jones1 of the ,italian semi-classical style in that country4 ,similar to this is the feeling in ,germany3 for it is most surprising to ,americans living1 as they have done since #ahhj1 in a time of almost complete agreement among the architects as to the unique and solitary importance of ,italian neo-classic methods of design1 to see the numerous ,german publications teem with studies of sixteenth century half timbered fronts1 of seventeenth century stepped gables and turrets crowned with 8extinguishers10 and of eighteenth century florid modifications of the rococo style4 ,in ,france there is an orthodox style1 a recognized style3 and yet it is in ,france that the most seriously considered departures from that style have been made4 ,the difficulty of expressing in words this complication of architectural thought is very great4 ,the ,english designers are in one sense the most original of all1 for they follow less closely in the general arrangements of the mass1 or of the street front1 the example set by former ages4 ,in ,germany1 such indifference to what the past has taught is more seldom seen1 and when seen1 it takes1 most generally1 an ugly form of unrestrained fancy1 guided neither by tradition nor by strong over-ruling good taste4 ,in ,france1 good taste is rather the rule4 ,as in literature1 so in all departments of fine art1 the fault of the ,french work is in the desire not to be rash in the way of innovation1 and good taste is always ready to instruct its votaries to follow the path marked out by the men who have just passed by in the human procession and who had needs to supply quite like those of the present day4 ,it will be well to rehearse these conclusions in the immediate presence of special examples4 ,plate ,,lx is an apartment house in that region of ,west ,london which is just northwest of ,kensington ,gardens4 ,it is not a costly building in proportion to its size2 it is not adorned by sculpture except for an unimportant piece above the large arches of the entrance front and slight adornment of the frontons2 it is built of brick with stone moderately used for the purpose of color-contrast1 and its architectural ordonnance is limited to the marshalling of a certain number of pilasters supporting the simulacra of entablatures and the reality of very obvious pediments--these1 and a tower well enough shaped and placed at the angle4 ,and the point that the student should make at once in looking upon such a building is that it is so decidedly removed from the world of obvious copying4 ,nothing is copied except a detail here and there4 ,one has the pleasant conviction that not a square yard of space has been sacrificed nor a square foot of possible or desirable window space abandoned for the purpose of archological verity or the repute of having built something beautiful in a recognized style4 ,so in the case of the building shown in ,plate ,,lxi1 that planned for the ,west ,ham ,institute and built about #ahie in that suburban village which lies just north of 8,woolwich ,reach0 on the ,thames4 ,the design is as independent of ,illustration3 ,,west ,,ham ,,institute--,,sussex1 ,,england4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxi4 ,illustration3 ,,house ,,and ,,beer-,,shop 7,,zum ,,spaten7 ,,berlin1 ,,prussia4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxii4 any past style as in the simpler and more commercial building4 ,there is much sculpture1 rather carefully designed and cut with great brilliancy4 ,there is a rather free use of pseudo-classic columns and colonnettes2 there is a daring combination of larger architectural details1 such as gables of cut stone with rounded outline1 capped with bold drip moulds1 pinnacle-towers wrought into niches with statuary1 a porch of entrance with a very boldly projecting hood1 well handled1 with caryatid figures1 a staircase tower with a cut stone attic of great merit1 and ventilation towers combined with the roof structure and differentiated finely from the masonry-built forms near them4 ,it is a costly building1 a refined and thought-out design2 and yet one cannot say that there is anything of the past in it more than this--that it is based upon the spirit and taste of the ,renaissance rather than upon that of the classic epoch1 or of the medival epoch1 early or late1 or of the ,post-,renaissance epoch1 beginning in the ,north about #afej4 ,this relative independence is what the foreigner sees most strongly in modern ,english architectural practice4 ,now1 in ,german lands1 there is a little less freshness of artistic thought2 the artist is always in the presence of the great past1 in such a way that even his deviations from its spirit are self-conscious in a way2 and this feeling it is which drives the daring designer--the man who would be original and who asks us to sympathize with his manly desire to build for the nineteenth century what the nineteenth century needs1 not what a former century made for itself--to very strange vagaries4 ,plate ,,lxii is one of the best of these dashing attempts at novelty4 ,every part of the wall-surface is occupied with painting in neutral colors1 which painting is in some cases reinforced by reliefs in plaster4 ,it is not a polychromatic design1 but a design in light and shade wrought into emblematic1 armorial1 purely decorative1 and even representative forms4 ,it is noticeable that the realized painting of human figures and accessories1 so marked a feature of the ground story1 with its splendid ,king ,gambrinus at the left1 and the ,lady ,hopfen at the right1 stops with the sill-course1 and that the rest of the painting is much more abstract and conventional4 ,apart from the painting1 the design is somewhat commonplace in its main masses2 though that statement is unfair as it stands1 because it was not intended to be seen without the painting1 while the details1 as of the window jambs and mullions1 are very carefully wrought and very interesting4 ,it is only above the eaves that the design becomes commonplace1 and even there it is redeemed by the very bold fire wall on each side broken into gable-steps of unusual design4 ,in this inquiry we are taking smaller buildings as more likely to express the general thought of the community than are those exceptional monuments which form landmarks in history4 ,we are compelled1 of course1 to select the designs of men who are famous1 however unknown they may have been when the buildings we select were put into shape3 but even the work of such renowned architects as ,charles ,garnier shows and explains the general trend of thought1 especially when seen in their earlier tasks4 ,thus1 the building shown in ,plate ,,lxiii1 the ,club-house of the ,cercle de la ,librairie1 which was completed about #ahhj1 shows the exceptional merit 7exceptional in modern cities7 of the ,paris fronts1 together with their comparative lack of significance1 at least in detail4 ,the entrance on the corner and the round tower forming a vestibule below and an admirable card-room above1 are characteristic of ,paris streets4 ,straight from this doorway1 and1 therefore1 diagonally to both the fronts1 goes a passageway into a staircase which forms another round tower-like structure4 ,in the upper story1 the large room at the left is a billiard room1 that on the right1 a salon of reception and entertainment1 the 8conversation room0 of the club4 ,all this is perfectly well expressed in the external design3 and that credit--the credit of that sort of realism always restrained and always ,illustration3 ,,club ,,house1 ,,cercle ,,de ,,la ,,librairie1 ,,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxiii4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,life ,,insurance ,,company1 ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,minnesota4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxiv4 guided by good taste1 is to be given without reserve to the ,french designers of the long years beginning with #ahfj4 ,good taste is visible everywhere1 not in an exceptional measure in this building2 on the contrary1 it is to be thought by a careful student of the street fronts of ,paris that there is a relative clumsiness which other and less noticeable buildings have escaped3 but there is everywhere the visible presence of thought--of matured study of the problem1 and that is a thing so rare in the modern architecture of other lands that we are never brought face to face with the ,french instances of its active presence without a new thrill of admiration4 ,in the ,united ,states1 some of the most thoughtful buildings have been those inspired by the semi-,spanish style of the provinces torn from ,mexico in #ahdh2 the missions of ,california and ,new ,mexico4 ,inspired by those blessings of a temperate region1 a steady warmth1 a brilliant sun1 they are most assuredly3 and yet there is originality1 so much as to cause the student almost to forget the origin of their design in such work of the not very famous past4 ,such buildings are the hotels built in ,saint ,augustine about #ahhe--the ,ponce de ,leon1 in which the architecture of old ,spain has been studied more carefully1 the ,alcazar1 where the simpler appliances of ,western ,america are more in evidence4 ,one of the best things in modern original design is the building shown in plate ,,lxiv4 ,its treatment is picturesque rather than severe2 and a sufficient reason for that treatment is the recognized difficulty of applying the classically simple method of design to one of the modern high and narrow buildings of many stories and of many1 similar1 window-openings4 ,the walls of the side1 on the by-street and on the court1 are diminished by the adoption of a roof of abnormally steep pitch with two stories in it4 ,the two gable-walls are broken1 as a result of the same device1 by the beginning of the slope or step inward of the gable itself4 ,in this way the use of a great many windows all of the same size is made practicable2 the slight differences in design1 as where one story has a row of round arches1 and the like1 are perhaps even more marked than was essential2 the monotonous repetition of these openings is prevented from hurting the design by the very picturesqueness of that design1 which overcomes their monotony4 ,the treatment of the two gables themselves is a remarkable achievement1 securing1 as it does1 a vivacity which we associate with the ,renaissance of the ,north3 while it is still restrained in such a way as not to clash with the extreme refinement of the porch of entrance1 which in its general design1 as in its sculptured details1 has the delicate and subtile quality of the art of ,italy a hundred years before4 ,this is1 it appears1 the way in which modern men might design2 and this is the way in which they might succeed if they were able1 more often1 to give personal thought to the matter of design4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that this giving of personal thought is exactly the most difficult thing which can be proposed to a twentieth century architect4 ,he must do everything else first4 ,he must see that the heating apparatus1 the ventilating apparatus1 the electrical lighting1 the ventilating system1 the cooking appliances1 which will come in somewhere1 the plumbing1 which will come in everywhere1 and the endless modifications of drainage--he must see that all that is faultless4 ,the owner1 or owners1 really care about those things--they do not care about the design4 ,then he must see to it that no time is lost4 ,from the moment when the previous tenants move out and tearing down of the old structure has begun there must not elapse too many weeks before the new tenants may move in4 ,ten months may be allowed2 when every consideration demands two years and a half1 or thirty months4 ,and throughout the few weeks before and after the beginning of that ten-months' space1 the architect employed will have so very little opportunity to 8retire into himself0--to retire at least into his study and lock the door and think out that design1 taken in its artistic sense1 that the hours so given are hardly to be reckoned with1 at all4 ,uninterrupted thought is not for the busy architect4 ,the altogether likely sequence of things will be this--that the design is sketched in a drawing-room car and turned over next day to a high-paid subordinate to work out according to the well-known office scheme4 ,such traditional ways of doing have proved good in the great days of art3 but the nineteenth century was not1 and the twentieth century is not as yet certain to be a great day of art in the decorative or artistic sense4 ,it becomes the writer on architecture to treat those two adjectives as synonymous1 for in architecture they are synonymous2 and the decorative1 or in other words1 the architectural treatment of a building has grown to be so foreign to our habits1 and1 from the nature of the case1 so difficult 7as urged in the last paragraph71 that nothing but long-continued and enthusiastic thinking over the scheme will conduce to fine designing4 ,it is for these reasons that the building of the ,new ,york ,life ,insurance ,company at ,st4 ,paul has been shown in our final plate4 ,there seems to be evidence there of much and of well applied artistic thought4 ,if a similar instance be sought in the older homes of art1 and among more costly structures1 the ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral of ,london1 now approaching completion in the district south of ,buckingham ,palace1 may be chosen as such an instance4 ,a few such buildings there are2 a few works of art which show that the power of thoughtfully working out a complex design is not wholly lost to the world4 ,index4 ,a4 ,abbeville3 ,church of ,s4 ,wulfrau1 #abf ,aisle 7def471 7note7 #ed gina3 ,sculptures from ,greek ,temple1 at1 #agi ,aix-la-,chapelle3 ,cathedral1 #he ,albi3 ,cathedral1 #abh ,amiens3 ,cathedral1 ,exterior1 #ajb ,amiens3 ,cathedral1 ,interior1 #if ,angoulme3 ,cathedral1 #hc ,anthemion 7def471 7note7 #cg ,apse 7def471 7note7 #gf ,arch1 discharging1 #eg ,arch1 flat1 replacing lintel1 #eg ,architrave 7def471 7note7 #bj ,archivolt 7def471 7note7 #ace ,artists of the classical revival1 7ff7 #aca ,athens3 ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates1 #dj ,athens3 ,church of ,st4 ,theodore1 #hf1 #ij ,athens3 ,erectheum1 #ce1 #ci1 #aih ,athens3 ,parthenon1 #ad ,athens3 ,restored model of ,parthenon1 #bf ,athens3 ,sculptures of ,parthenon1 #bh ,athens3 8,portico of the ,maidens01 #cg ,athens3 ,temple of ,victory1 #ci ,athens3 ,theseion1 #ad ,audenarde3 ,town ,hall1 #abg ,augustan ,roman ,art1 #dg ,b4 ,barbaric art not unintelligent1 #hd ,baroque1 #afg ,barrel-vault 7def471 7note7 #ed ,basilica 7def471 7note71 #ga1 #gd1 #gf ,bay 7def471 7note7 #gg ,bell 7def471 7note7 #bc ,benevento3 ,arch of ,trajan1 #dh1 #eg ,berlin 7,prussia7 decorative house front1 #bjf ,blois3 ,chteau1 ,wing of ,louis ,,xii1 #ade ,blois3 ,chteau 7,wing of ,franois ,i471 #ade ,boston 7,mass473 ,trinity ,church1 #aic ,porch of that ,church1 #aie ,bourg-en-,bresse3 ,ch4 of ,brou1 #abd ,bourges3 ,cathedral1 #ca ,budroun 7,halicarnassos73 ,tomb of ,mausolus1 #eh ,buttress 7def471 7note7 #hb ,byzantine 7def471 7note7 #fi ,byzantine ,architecture1 #fi1 #hg ,c4 ,cambridge3 ,king's ,college ,chapel1 #aba ,centralbau 7centred building71 7ff7 #hd ,chane 7def471 7note7 #adf ,chartres3 ,cathedral1 #aje ,chevet 7def471 7note7 #ajc ,choir 7def471 7note7 #cb ,choragic 7def471 7note7 #dj ,church ,architecture predominant1 7ff7 #gj ,classical ,architecture1 only the more stately buildings studied in modern times1 #aig-aii ,classical ,revival in ,italy1 #aca the same affecting ,architecture1 7ff7 #acc1 7ff7 #adc ,classicismo 7def471 7note7 #ada ,clearstory 7def471 7note7 #gd ,cologne3 ,ch4 ,gross ,st4 ,martin1 #gg1 #gi ,cologne3 ,church of ,the ,holy ,apostles1 #gi ,cologne3 ,church of ,st4 ,gereon1 #he ,color1 external decoration in1 7ff7 #aic ,columnar architecture in ,roman interiors1 #ec overawes designer1 #bjj ,constantinople3 ,church of ,santa ,sophia1 ,exterior1 #hh ,constantinople3 ,church of ,santa ,sophia1 ,interior1 #hh ,constantinople3 ,the ,hebdomon palace1 #gj ,constructional origin of design less marked after #adjj ,a4,d41 #aah ,corinthian 7def471 7note7 #ci ,coupled columns1 #ada1 #agb ,cupola 7def471 7note7 #ea ,curvature in ,greek horizontal lines1 #ba ,d4 ,decadence in ,art2 its true nature1 7ff7 #aei ,decorative ,art 7def471 7note7 #ac ,design as suggested by structure and purpose1 #ca1 #cd1 #ahg-ahh ,detail1 inferior1 injuring a good mass1 #afd1 #afi1 #aga ,doncaster 7,yorkshire71 ,church of1 #ahi ,doric 7def471 7note7 #ad ,doric ,order 7def471 7note7 #ai ,e4 couen3 ,chteau1 #adi ,egg ,dart 7def471 7note7 #cg ,eleusis3 ,the ,telesterion1 #cc ,english building in the #afth century1 #aej ,entablature 7def471 7note7 #ah ,entasis1 #bb ,epidaurus3 ,temple of ,asclepios 7restored faade71 #bf ,epidaurus3 ,the ,tholos1 #ci ,european ,art founded upon ,roman1 #ee ,f4 ,fan vaulting1 #aaf1 #abj ,fashion governs architecture except in the great original styles1 #afe1 7ff7 #afh ,florence3 ,baptistery1 #he ,florence3 ,campanile1 #aaa ,florence3 ,cathedral1 #if ,florence3 ,church of ,san ,miniato al ,monte1 #gd ,florence3 ,chapel of the ,pazzi 7,ch4 of ,santa ,croce71 #acd ,florence3 ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 #acb ,florence3 ,palazzo dei ,medici1 #acg ,florence3 ,palazzo ,pitti1 #acg ,florence3 ,palazzo ,rucellai1 #acg ,florence3 ,palazzo ,strozzi1 #acg ,florid ,gothic a new style1 #aae its nature and epoch1 7ff7 #aaf its origin not constructional1 #aag in civic buildings1 #abg-ade ,flying ,buttress 7def471 7note7 #hb ,frieze 7def471 7note7 #bj ,g4 ,gelnhausen3 ,palace of ,barbarossa1 #gj ,genoa3 ,ducal ,palace1 #agb ,gerasa 7,jerash71 ,syria1 #fj ,gloucester3 ,cloisters of ,cathedral1 #abj ,gothic ,architecture1 #gj ,gothic ,architecture analysis and dates as in ,amiens ,cathedral1 7ff7 #ih ,gothic ,architecture constructional in origin1 #ic1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aag1 #aah1 #abd ,gothic ,architecture ,details as in ,reims ,cathedral1 7ff7 #aja ,gothic ,architecture3 ,english contrasted with ,french1 #ajh ,gothic ,architecture3 ,exterior design as exemplified in ,chartres1 #aje ,gothic ,architecture3 ,geographical limitations of1 #ie-if ,gothic ,architecture not strong in ,italy1 #if ,gothic large churches generally incomplete1 #ajg ,gothic ,vaulting1 #ic1 #id ,greek buildings3 ,their simple plan1 #cb1 #ef ,greek buildings3 ,their simple structure1 #cc1 #ef ,greek buildings3 ,modern opinion of1 when first discovered and later1 #dd-de ,groin-vaulting 7def471 7note7 #ea ,h4 ,hall1 the1 of a ,country ,house1 or ,college1 #aeb ,hellenic civilization preserved by the ,roman ,empire1 #fg-fh ,hexastyle 7def471 7note7 #ah ,hypthral 7def471 7note7 #db ,i4 ,imitative #aith century work--accurate1 7ff7 #ahb --inaccurate1 7ff7 #ahb ,in antis 7def471 7note7 #fb ,independent judgment of art1 how formed1 #aa-ab ,inlay of ,marble1 #gf ,intercolumniation1 why varied1 #ag-ah1 #ba ,interior1 architecture of the1 originates with the ,romans1 #eb ,intrados 7def471 7note7 #ace ,ionic 7def471 7note7 #ce ,l4 ,london3 ,middle-,temple ,hall1 #aeb ,london3 ,recent ,apartment ,house1 #bjc ,london3 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,chapel of ,henry ,,vii1 #aba ,london3 ,westminster ,hall 7roof71 #aeb ,louvain3 ,town ,hall1 #aaf ,lucca3 ,church of ,san ,frediano1 #gg ,m4 ,masonry1 ,roman1 #ej ,masonry with dry joints1 ch4 ,i1 ,,ii1 #ef ,masonry with mortar1 #ej ,mayence 7,mainz73 ,cathedral1 #hb ,metope 7def471 7note7 #ag ,milan3 ,church of ,sant' ,ambrogio1 #gg ,modern ,design3 ,english the freest1 #bjb ,french the most tasteful1 #bjc1 #bjh ,german marked by innovations1 #bjf ,how marked by thought in ,u4 ,s41 #bji1 #baj ,how marked by thought in ,england1 #bad why made difficult1 #bab ,modern ,taste in the ,u4 ,s4--in ,england1 #bja in ,germany1 in ,france1 #bjb ,mohammedan ,architecture1 #gj ,monreale3 ,cathedral1 #gg1 #if ,mosaic1 #gf ,munich3 ,allerheiligenhofkirche1 #ahj ,munich3 ,auer-,kirche 7,mariahilf-,kirche71 #aha ,munich3 ,basilica of ,st4 ,boniface1 #aha ,munich3 ,church of ,all ,saints 7see ,ch4 of ,allerheiligenhofkirche74 ,munich3 ,church of ,st4 ,boniface 7,basilica71 #aha ,munich3 ,church of ,st4 ,louis1 7see ,ludwigskirche74 ,munich3 ,church of ,the ,theatiner ,monks1 #afb ,munich3 ,exhibition ,building1 #ahe ,munich3 ,glyptothek1 #ahj-ahe ,munich3 ,knigsbau1 southern front1 #ahj ,munich3 ,ludwigskirche1 #agi ,munich3 ,pinakothek1 the old1 #ahj ,munich3 ,post ,office1 north front1 #ahj ,munich3 ,propyla1 #ahf ,munich3 ,royal ,library1 #ahj ,munich3 ,royal ,palace 7see ,knigsbau74 ,munich3 ,ruhmeshalle1 #aha ,n4 ,naos 7def471 7note7 #ah ,nave 7def471 7note7 #ec ,neo-classic 7def471 7note7 #cb ,neo-classic architecture begins to decline in less than a century1 #aei ,o4 ,octastyle 7def471 7note7 #ah ,olympia3 ,temple of ,zeus1 #bf1 #bi ,orders of columnar architecture1 the ,roman use of them1 #ef ,orvieto3 ,cathedral1 #id ,p4 ,pstum3 ,temple1 #ad1 #bd1 #bi ,painting of ,greek buildings1 #bd ,palazzo1 the1 in ,florence1 #acg ,palazzo1 the1 in ,rome1 #ach ,palermo3 ,cathedral1 #gg ,pandrosion 7def471 7note7 #ch ,parenzo 7in ,istria73 ,basilica 7#hth century71 #gg ,paris3 ,buildings on ,place de la ,concorde1 #agd ,paris3 ,cathedral1 #ca ,paris3 ,cercle de la ,librairie1 #bjh ,paris2 cole ,militaire1 #agc ,paris3 ,louvre 7east front71 #ada ,parma3 ,baptistery1 #he ,parthenon 7,athens71 #ad1 #bf1 #bh ,pavia3 ,church of ,san ,michaele1 #gg ,pediment 7def471 7note7 #bh ,peterborough3 ,vault of ,choir-aisle of ,cathedral1 #abj ,pilaster in ancient and modern works1 #ace1 #acg ,pisa3 ,baptistery1 #he ,poitiers3 ,tower of ,st4 ,radegonde1 #hc ,poitiers3 ,church of ,notre ,dame la ,grande1 #hc ,portico of the ,maidens 7,caryatides71 #cf-cg ,priene 7in ,asia ,minor73 ,temple of ,athena ,polias1 #dc ,proportion varied in ,greek art1 #ai-bj1 #bi-cj ,cathedral1 7ff7 #ajb1 #aje ,pteroma 7def471 7note7 #ag1 #bg ,purpose of the artist1 the important thing1 #af ,r4 ,ravenna3 ,baptistery1 #hd ,ravenna3 ,basilica of ,st4 ,apollinare ,nuovo1 #gg ,ravenna3 ,basilica of ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 #gg ,refinements of ,design 7see ,curvature1 ,intercolumniation1 ,slope74 ,reims3 ,cathedral1 #ca1 #aja ,renaissance in ,italy2 7see ,classical ,revival1 ,risorgimento74 ,renaissance in the ,north1 cause and dates1 #add ,renaissance in art at first not classic1 7ff7 #ade ,renaissance introduced gradually1 #adh ,renaissance classical at couen1 #adi ,respond 7def471 7note7 #ge ,revivals in architecture numerous1 #agf ,revivals1 those only which succeed are notable1 #agg ,revivals1 those of the #aith century did not succeed1 #agi1 #ahd ,risorgimento 7def471 7note7 #df ,rocaille 7def471 7note7 #afh ,roman ,art of the ,empire1 #dg ,roman changes in ,greek design1 #ef ,roman ,empire1 intellectual influence1 #ff-fg ,roman ,empire1 its divergent influence ,east and ,west1 #ff-fh ,romanesque 7def471 7note7 #fi ,romanesque ,architecture1 7ff7 #fi1 #gd1 #gg ,roman ,order1 the1 #aci ,rome3 ,altar of ,peace 7,arar ,pacis71 #ff ,rome3 ,basilica of ,maxentius1 #ec ,rome3 ,basilica of ,septa ,julia1 #ec ,rome3 ,church of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore1 #gb ,rome3 ,church of ,s4 ,maria della ,pace ,cloister1 #ada ,rome3 ,church of ,san ,pietro in ,vaticano1 #aed ,rome3 ,church 7round7 ,san ,stefano1 #he ,rome3 ,column of ,trajan1 #fc ,rome3 ,courtyard of the ,cancellaria1 #ach ,rome3 ,double ,temple of ,venus and ,rome1 #ec ,rome3 ,forum of ,nerva1 ,enclosing ,wall1 #fj ,rome3 ,forum of ,trajan1 #dg ,rome3 ,forum ,transitorium of ,nerva1 #fj ,rome3 ,liberian ,basilica1 7see ,st4 ,maria ,maggiore74 ,rome3 ,palatine ,hill1 ,dwellings on1 #ec ,rome3 ,palazzo ,borghese1 #ada ,rome3 ,palazzo di ,venezia1 interior court1 #ach ,rome3 ,temple of ,antoninus ,pius1 #dh ,rome3 ,temple of ,augustus 7,ruined71 #di ,rome3 ,temple of ,castor1 #dh1 #di ,rome3 ,temple of ,mars1 #di ,rome3 ,temple of ,mars the ,avenger 7in the ,forum of ,augustus71 #dh ,rome3 ,temple of ,minerva1 #fj ,rome3 ,temple of ,saturn1 #dh ,rome3 ,temple of ,trajan1 #fb ,rome3 ,temple of ,vespasian1 #dh ,rome3 ,temple of ,vespasian1 part of ,entablature1 #eg ,rome3 ,pantheon1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #acc ,rome3 ,ulpian ,basilica1 #ec1 #fb ,ruins not to be judged as works of art1 #ad1 #ae ,russia3 7,caucasus7 ,monastery of ,gelati near ,kutais1 #ij ,s4 ,saint ,augustine 7,florida7 ,hotel ,alcazar1 #baj ,saint ,augustine 7,florida7 ,hotel ,ponce de ,leon1 #baj ,st4 ,paul 7,minnesota71 ,building of ,new ,york ,life ,insurance ,co41 #bad ,salamanca3 ,university portal1 #aaf ,salisbury3 ,cathedral1 #ajh ,saracen3 7see ,mohammedan74 ,screen1 the1 of a hall1 #aeb-c ,sculpture1 architectural1 in ,doric buildings1 #cf ,sculpture1 architectural1 in ,ionic buildings1 #cf ,sculpture1 architectural1 in ,roman buildings1 #eg ,sculpture1 architectural1 feeble in #ahth century1 7see ,romanesque ,gothic71 #agb ,sculpture1 architectural1 foliated1 #aith century1 #aib ,sculpture1 architectural1 of the figure1 #aith century1 #aie ,siena3 ,cathedral1 #if ,slope of ,grecian columns1 #bb ,standard of ,excellence hard to fix1 #cj-ca ,stylobate 7def471 7note7 #ba ,sunion3 ,temple of ,athena1 #bi ,t4 ,tetrapylon 7four fronted gateway71 #ei ,therm 7def471 7note7 #aab ,tholos 7def471 7note7 #ci ,tournai3 ,cathedral1 #gh ,tournai3 ,tower-group1 #hb ,trabeated 7def47 7note71 #fd ,triforium 7def47 7note71 #ig ,troyes3 ,church of ,saint ,urbain1 #afj ,truro1 7,cornwall1 ,england7 ,cathedral1 #aif ,turin3 ,palazzo ,carignano1 #afi ,turin3 ,palazzo ,madama1 #aga ,v4 ,valencia3 ,casa ,lonja1 #aaf ,valhalla1 ,the1 7near ,ratisbon1 ,bavaria71 #aha ,valladolid3 ,portal of ,church of ,st4 ,paul1 #aaf ,vaulting1 #ej-ea ,vaulting1 ,roman1 #ej ,venice3 ,church of ,san ,marco1 #ib ,verona3 ,church of ,san ,zeno1 #gg ,w4 ,west ,ham 7,essex71 ,england1 ,west ,ham ,institute1 #bjd ,windsor ,castle1 ,st4 ,george's ,chapel1 #aba ,wollaton ,hall1 ,england1 #aea ,workmanship of ,greek buildings1 #bd 99 99 99 99 99 ,pictorial ,composition and the ,critical ,judgment of ,pictures ,,by ,,henry ,r4 ,,poore1 ,a4,n4,a4 ,a ,companion ,volume to 8,how to ,judge ,architecture40 ,quarto1 ,handsomely ,illustrated with #hj ,reproductions4 ,net #a4ej4 ,postage #ad ,cents4 ,the book develops the processes of pictorial construction1 setting forth the principles which1 as a necessary foundation1 underlie the work of the artist4 ,r4 ,,swain ,,gifford1 ,n4,a41 ,director of the ,cooper ,union ,art ,school1 ,new ,york 8nbsp2#8,fills the bill' admirably and must be of great use not only to beginners1 but to professional artists4 ,i shall use it and refer to it40 ,,irving ,r4 ,,wiles1 ,n4,a4 8,not only charmingly written1 but remarkably able and instructive4 ,i have read nothing on the subject that compares with it in clear explanations of qualities in painting that are always most mysterious to the layman and frequently so to the professional artist40 ,,the ,,baker ,,taylor ,,company ,publishers #cc-cg ,e4 #ag,,th ,,street1 ,,union ,,sq4 ,,north1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,sturgis is acknowledged the leading critic of art and architecture in the country4 ,in this book he has sketched the history of modern opinion of architecture4 ,aided by plentiful illustrations from the early ,grecian temples1 and passing through the great ,cathedrals to the modern business blocks1 he has shown the influences which have brought about the various styles and deduced simple rules for the architectural judgment of these buildings4 ,no attempt is made to set up absolute standards1 but the reader is enabled to form bases for his own opinion1 and to learn the fundamentals of good and bad in buildings4 ,a reading of the book will give even the common buildings which are passed every day a new interest and a new meaning4 ,this book is a companion to 8,pictorial ,composition and the ,critical ,judgment of ,pictures10 by ,h4 ,r4 ,poore4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,errata4 7,corrected in etext7 ,page #ad1 for 8,campagna10 read ,campania4 ,plate ,,ii1 for 8,southeast10 read ,northeast4 ,page #cf1 line #f1 for 8plan given here shows10 read views given here show4 ,page #gj1 last line1 for 8make10 read makes4 ,page #hi1 middle1 for 8,north1 west10 read ,northwest4 ,page #ie1 middle1 for 8,mercy10 read ,mersey4 ,page #ajb1 middle1 delete comma after 8them02 insert comma after 8nave40 ,page #abj1 the plate opposite this page should be lettered ,,xxxiii4 ,page #ade1 middle1 for 8was called10 read is called4 ,page #agb1 middle1 for 8,,lv10 read ,,liv4 ,plate ,,lv1 upper figure1 for 8,madama10 read ,carignano4 ,plate ,,lvi1 for 8,gebaude10 read ,gebude4 ,page #agc1 #eth line from bottom1 delete comma4 ,page #aic1 middle1 for 8left of the church10 read left of the picture4 ,page #bjf1 middle1 for 8--what10 read not what4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,decorative ,art3 ,fine art which is applied to the beautifying of that which has primarily a useful purpose4 ,architecture is the most complex of the decorative arts1 and for this reason1 and because it is also carried out on a large scale with great possibilities of noble effects1 the most important of the decorative arts4 #b ,doric3 ,belonging to the ,dorians1 a ,greek people4 ,the term1 ,doric style1 was first applied to the very few ,roman buildings and parts of buildings of which the basement story of the ,theatre of ,marcellus and that of the ,colosseum at ,rome1 are good instances4 ,when the ,grecian buildings of ,athens1 ,girgenti and ,pstum were studied1 the term was extended to them2 and these give us what we call ,grecian-,doric4 #c ,metope3 ,the word means originally the space between two triglyphs 7see definition of entablature72 but is generally applied in ,english writing to the slab or block of stone which fills this space in the ,doric temples known to us4 ,it is evident that the outer surface of this block was sometimes painted1 and it is known that it was sometimes carved in low relief1 as at ,selinuntum1 of which temple sculptured slabs are preserved in the museum at ,palermo2 while those of the ,theseion and the ,parthenon were in very high relief4 #d ,pteroma3 ,the side or flank1 hence1 in modern usage1 the space covered by the roof of a portico1 and therefore including the columns and intercolumniations1 although in general usage it applies only to the passage between the columns and the wall behind4 #e ,naos3 ,called also cella3 the enclosed part of a ,greek temple1 that which has solid walls and may be divided into two or three rooms3 also sometimes the larger of these subdivisions as distinguished from the ,opisthodomos1 or ,treasury4 #f ,octastyle3 ,having eight columns1 when said of a portico2 having eight columns in front1 when said of a temple or similar building4 #g ,hexastyle3 ,having six columns2 as in the case of octastyle for eight4 #h ,entablature3 ,in a piece of classic architecture1 the three horizontal members above the columns when these three are taken together as forming one part of the order4 ,the entablature consists of architrave or epistyle1 immediately above the columns1 the frieze1 and the cornice1 each of which may have several decorative subdivisions4 ,thus in the ,ionic ,order the epistyle may be divided horizontally into three surfaces projecting slightly more and more from the bottom upward4 ,the frieze in the ,doric style 7,roman or ,greek7 is divided by triglyphs into metopes2 and in the other orders has often sculptured ornament4 ,the varieties of form in the cornice are very considerable4 ,a triglyph is one of those blocks cut with vertical channels1 which seem to rest upon the epistyle and to support the cornice4 ,the metopes are the spaces between2 and also the non-structural slabs or blocks which fill those spaces4 ,in a very few instances the entablature is irregular in some respect2 thus the portico of ,caryatides1 ,pl4 ,,vi1 may be said to have no frieze1 but epistyle and cornice only4 ,in ,roman work the whole entablature is occasionally arched up1 bent to a curve1 as in a temple at ,baalbec1 and as in a palace at ,spalato4 #i ,doric ,order3 ,in ,greek and ,roman architecture1 and in those neo-classic styles founded upon antiquity1 the ,order is the unit of design and consists of one complete column 7shaft and capital1 with base1 if any1 and pedestal1 if any7 and so much of the entablature as may be sufficient to show its whole character4 ,the ,grecian ,doric ,order alluded to in the text1 is peculiar in the shape and number of the channels of the shaft1 in the echinos-shaped bell of the capital1 in the square and unadorned abacus1 in having no base1 in having the frieze broken up into short lengths by the triglyphs1 and in the minor details depending upon the above4 #aj ,architrave3 #aa ,frieze3 for these terms see footnote ,entablature above4 #ab ,stylobate3 ,the flat1 continuous surface upon which the columns stand1 as in a colonnade4 ,when the whole flat surface forming the floor of the passageway 7see ,pteroma7 is considered1 the word stereobate is employed4 #ac ,bell3 ,that part of the capital of a column which is between the necking below and the abacus above4 ,the term is applied also to the imagined general form of the same member apart from the ornamentation2 thus the bell of a ,corinthian capital is to be traced beneath the acanthus leaves4 #ad ,pediment3 ,the triangular wall at the end of the low pitched roof1 in a ,greek or ,roman building4 ,the sunken panel alone1 above the horizontal cornice and beneath the raking cornice1 is called the ,tympanum1 or1 in ,greek temples1 often the ,aetos 77 or ,eagle4 #ae ,neo-classic3 ,studied from ,greco-,roman monuments2 said of a work of art or of a style4 ,the neo-classic architecture of ,europe begins about #adbj in ,italy4 7,see ,risorgimento and ,renaissance47 #af ,choir3 ,properly1 the space in a church reserved for the clergy and their assistants1 especially the singers3 hence1 by extension ,i--,the enclosure itself which is sometimes very massive and elaborate1 a high stone wall sculptured or otherwise richly adorned1 and ,,ii--,that part of a cruciform church which contains this enclosure1 namely1 the fourth arm of the cross1 that one which extends generally towards the east from the meeting of the nave and transept4 #ag ,ionic3 ,belonging to the ,ionian ,greeks2 ,ionic style1 that characterized by capitals adorned with volutes1 shafts much more slender than in the ,doric style and decorated by flutes instead of channels2 these flutes having a nearly semicircular section and being separated by narrow fillets or flat bands instead of meeting at the sharp arris4 #ah ,anthemion3 ,any floral ornament arranged like a bouquet2 an abstract decoration of sprigs or branches rising from a common point and separating into a broader head4 ,the ,greek anthemion1 often called palmette1 or honeysuckle ornament1 seems to be composed of slender leaves2 whereas the anthemion in ,persian and other ,asiatic art is often a group of flowers1 perhaps alternating with leaves4 #ai ,egg-and-,dart3 ,an ornament consisting of an alternation of flattened balls or bosses with sharp pointed members like arrow heads4 ,the minor details vary much2 but it is usual for the flattened eggs to be surrounded by a deep cutting or a raised rim1 and for the arrow points to be alternated with these4 #bj ,pandrosion3 ,the shrine temple or enclosure of the nymph ,pandrosos1 a daughter of ,cecrops4 ,it is known that this was situated close to the temple of ,erectheus1 and therefore the portico of ,caryatides on the south flank of the ,erectheion has been called by that name4 #ba ,corinthian3 ,derived from ,corinth2 ,corinthian ,order1 the latest to be introduced of the three ,grecian ,orders and the one taken over most readily by the ,romans4 ,the details are very like those of the ,ionic ,order except the capital which is the first instance in antiquity of a generally concave bell invested thickly with leafage4 #bb ,tholos3 ,a circular building2 used in archological writing to describe one whose purpose is not certainly known1 as the ,tholos of ,atreus at ,mykenai1 generally thought to be a tomb2 that near ,epidauros thought by some to be the spring-house1 or the sacred well of ,asklepios4 #bc ,choragic3 ,having to do with the ,choragos1 the manager of the sacred chorus in ,athens4 ,this was an honorary post involving much expense and labor to the occupant4 #bd ,hypthral3 ,open to the sky2 ,hypthral opening1 a space uncovered1 part of a ,greek temple1 perhaps entirely unroofed1 perhaps only having a roof partly opened in sky-lights4 ,hypthral ,theory3 any one of several opinions as to the possible lighting of the interior of a temple from above1 either through the roof1 or by the partial omission of a roof so as to form a central open court4 #be ,risorgimento3 ,in ,italian1 a new arising2 this is the common term for the revival of classical learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 coupled with the advance in expressional painting and sculpture of the same epoch1 and developing later in the revival of classical design in architecture4 ,the term ,rinascimento 7rebirth7 is used in the same sense1 but is apparently rather a reflection of the prevailing ,french word ,renaissance4 ,it would be well if ,english writers would employ the term ,risorgimento for the ,italian movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 and ,renaissance for the ,french movement of the sixteenth century with its equivalents in northern ,europe4 ,as for ,spain1 in which the classical revival followed very closely upon that of ,italy1 the term ,renacimiento seems to correspond very closely to the ,italian ,risorgimento and the ,french ,renaissance4 #bf ,cupola3 ,a cup-shaped roof1 either built of solid masonry and so really a vault1 or a mere decorative shell4 #bg ,groin-vaulting3 ,vaulting in which one barrel vault meets and intersects another1 so that the projecting solid angles1 called groins1 are formed by the meeting of the hollow rounded surfaces4 #bh ,nave3 ,in a building with three or more parallel subdivisions1 forming together one great hall1 like a large ,gothic church1 that part which rises highest1 and has generally windows above the roofs of the lower aisles4 #bi ,aisle3 ,see the definition of nave4 #cj ,barrel-vault3 ,a vault whose cross-section is everywhere the same as if part of a tube4 #ca ,in antis3 ,latin1 between the ant4 ,the anta is the end of a wall treated so as to be an almost independent member1 like a square pillar in which the wall ends4 ,the portico made by two of these set opposite one another and with columns between1 is said to have two columns or four columns in antis4 #cb ,trabeated3 ,built with beams or lintels 7said of a building1 or part of a building7 or characterized by the use of beams and lintels to the exclusion of arches 7said of a building or a style74 ,thus the ,pantheon at ,rome though entirely vaulted in its main structure has a trabeated portico1 and the screens in front of the great niches within 7see ,pl4 ,,ix7 are of trabeated construction as far as they go--that is they consist of an entablature supported on columns4 ,the term 8arcuated0 is used in direct contradistinction from trabeated and denotes that which is constructed on the principle of the arch or that which is characterized by the use4 #cc ,romanesque3 ,literally1 semi-,roman1 or would-be ,roman2 applied to any or all styles of art1 especially architecture1 which were developed directly from the ,roman imperial art of the years before #dej4 ,in ordinary usage1 the basilica style of ,italy and even the similar art in the northwest of ,europe are called ,latin1 and the style built up in eastern ,europe with ,constantinople for its centre1 is called ,byzantine2 but ,romanesque may be considered a term covering all these1 and as including1 too1 all ,european art until the complete establishment of the ,gothic art in the northwest1 and in the ,east until the establishment of ,saracenic or ,mohammedan art about the ninth century1 ,a4 ,d4 #cd ,byzantine3 ,the art of the ,eastern ,empire centred in ,byzantium or ,constantinople4 ,modern developments of this art1 without radical changes1 exist in ,moldavia and the ,caucasian regions1 and its influence is seen in the native architecture of ,russia4 #ce ,basilica3 ,originally1 under the ,roman imperial system1 a building for varied business1 public and private1 having often a courtroom connected with the open hall3 hence1 under the earlier ,christian control1 a church built like most of the earlier basilicas1 that is to say1 with a nave and two or more aisles4 ,a special feature of the ,christian basilicas was the transept1 a high and open hall built across the upper end of the nave and aisles3 and beyond this 7that is1 farther from the entrance doorways7 was often the apse1 a generally semicircular projection4 #cf ,clearstory3 ,that part of the nave which rises above the aisle roofs1 and has windows to light the interior4 #cg ,respond3 ,the pilaster1 or engaged column1 or pier of any shape1 which forms the end of an arcade or colonnade marking the place of meeting with the enclosing wall4 #ch ,apse3 ,a projecting member of a building1 usually forming an enlargement or addition to a large hall1 as a ,roman basilica1 or especially1 a ,church4 ,the plan is usually a semicircle1 or a semicircle with an added parallelogram to lengthen it1 or a polygon approaching a half circle4 #ci ,bay3 ,one division of a long building whose successive parts are alike1 or very similar4 #dj ,buttress3 ,a mass of material1 usually masonry1 intended to resist1 by its dead weight1 the thrust of an arch1 or vault1 or1 more rarely1 the spread of a framed roof or the like4 ,flying buttress3 ,a sloping bar of stone1 supported on an arched structure which serves to carry the thrust of an arch or vault across a space to the buttress beyond4 #da ,triforium3 ,properly1 a gallery more or less open1 built in the wall opposite the aisle roof1 and therefore above the great arches of the nave and choir and below the clearstory windows4 ,often1 a gallery in the wall below the clearstory but less accurately placed4 #db ,chevet3 ,in medival and especially ,gothic architecture the rounded end of the choir including the aisles which pass around the sanctuary and the chapels outside of the aisles4 ,the shape may be curvilinear or polygonal4 ,the original term in ,french is applied to square east ends also2 but this is hardly accepted in the ,english usage4 #dc ,therm3 ,in ,latin an establishment for warm baths3 a plural noun used for a single building or group of buildings4 ,the ,therm of ,caracalla mentioned in this chapter1 occupied all the space within a bounding wall which formed a square of #a1ajj feet 7about twenty-eight acres7 and within this were gardens1 running grounds and the like1 and among these the massive central building itself1 #djj #gej feet1 twice the space occupied by the capitol at ,washington1 which is also immeasurably less massive and permanent in structure4 #dd ,risorgimento3 ,see note1 p4 #df4 #de ,archivolt3 the outer vertical face of an arch2 and1 where there are several concentric arches1 the general outer face of the whole group2 that face which seems to form part of the wall in which the arch is built4 #df ,intrados3 ,the under or concave face of the solid structure of an arch4 #dg ,classicismo3 ,the epoch of close study of antiquity1 #aebj to #aegj4 #dh ,chane3 ,in ,french1 a system usually vertical of larger and more perfectly dressed stones in a wall of lighter or rougher material4 ,thus the quoins at the corner of a building and the alternately long and short stones at a window opening or door opening are chanes1 but the same device may be used to stiffen a long and unbroken wall4 #di ,rocaille ,decoration3 ,that which had originally a rough imitation of natural rock forms mingled with shells2 a fashion passing rapidly into scroll-work in relief1 giving very peculiar shapes to panels1 doors1 window-casements and even to details of masonry4 ,the rococo style is partly based upon rocaille decoration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 the cloister of ,s4 ,maria delle ,pace the cloister of ,s4 ,maria della ,pace pg #ada 7see ,ch4 of ,allerheiligenkirche 7see ,ch4 of ,allerheiligenhofkirche pg #bag