,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equal signs4 ,,the ,,old ,,furniture ,,book ,illustration3 ,,hall ,,in ,,king ,,hooper ,,house4 ,danvers ,mass4 ,,the ,,old ,,furniture ,,book ,,with ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,past ,,days ,,and ,,ways ,,by ,n4 ,,hudson ,,moore ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,china ,,book ,with one hundred and twelve illustrations ,second ,edition ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,publishers ,copyright1 #aijc1 ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,all ,rights ,reserved ,published in ,october1 #aijc ,,to ,a ,,lady ,,who ,,shall ,,be ,,named ,,later4 ,,illustrations ,frontispiece--,hall in ,king ,hooper ,house1 ,danvers1 ,mass4 ,,chapter ,i ,,figure #a4 ,old ,oak ,bedstead #b4 ,olive-,wood ,chest #c4 ,old ,oak ,chest #d4 ,chest with ,one ,drawer #e4 ,oak ,chest on ,frame 7,english7 #f4 ,spanish ,leather ,chair #g4 ,turned ,chair with ,leather ,cover #h4 ,english ,chair 7#afhj7 ,italian ,chair 7,same ,period7 #i4 ,cane ,chair1 ,flemish ,style #aj4 ,turned and ,carved ,arm-,chair ,,chapter ,,ii #aa4 ,dutch ,furniture1 called ,queen ,anne #ab4 ,carved ,kas #ac4 ,marquetry ,chairs #ad4 ,screen1 ,cradle1 and ,church ,stool #ae4 ,ebony ,cabinet #af4 ,bed ,chair #ag4 ,marquetry ,desk ,,chapter ,,iii #ah4 ,kitchen1 ,wayside ,inn1 ,sudbury1 ,mass4 #ai4 ,chippendale ,chairs #bj4 ,chippendale ,chair #ba4 ,carved ,cedar ,table #bb4 ,chippendale ,chairs #bc4 ,chippendale ,candle1 ,tea and ,music ,stands #bd4 ,chippendale ,card-,table #be4 ,chippendale ,marble-,topped ,table #bf4 ,chippendale ,chair-,backs and ,mirror-,frame ,,chapter ,,iv #bg4 ,room in ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 ,mass4 #bh4 ,chippendale1 ,sheraton1 and ,hepplewhite ,chairs #bi4 ,adam ,chairs #cj4 ,hepplewhite ,chairs #ca4 ,hepplewhite ,card-,table #cb4 ,hepplewhite ,settees #cc4 ,sheraton ,chairs #cd4 ,sheraton ,desk #ce4 ,sideboard #cf4 ,sofa1 ,sheraton ,style #cg4 ,sheraton ,sideboard #ch4 ,sheraton ,sideboard #ci4 ,empire ,sofa #dj4 ,empire ,sofa #da4 ,pier-,table #db4 ,empire ,sideboard #dc4 ,empire ,work-,table ,,chapter ,v #dd4 ,kitchen at ,deerfield1 ,mass4 #de4 ,william ,penn's ,table #df4 ,rush-,bottomed ,chairs #dg4 ,connecticut ,chest #dh4 ,mahogany ,desk #di4 ,corner ,cupboard #ej4 ,banquet-,room1 ,independence ,hall1 ,philadelphia #ea4 ,windsor ,chairs #eb4 ,wall-,paper #ec4 ,bed at ,concord1 ,mass4 #ed4 ,bed at ,mount ,vernon #ee4 ,bed at ,somerville1 ,n4 ,j4 #ef4 ,carved ,oak ,bedstead ,,chapter ,,vi #eg4 ,room in ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 ,mass4 #eh4 ,carved and ,gilded and ,mahogany ,mirror-,frames #ei4 ,mahogany ,desk and ,chest of ,drawers #fj4 ,combined ,bookcase and ,desk #fa4 ,field ,bed #fb4 ,low ,four-,post ,bed #fc4 ,french ,bed #fd4 ,highboy #fe4 ,corner ,cupboard #ff4 ,inlaid and ,lacquered ,table and ,chair #fg4 ,lacquered ,table #fh4 ,mahogany ,bureau #fi4 ,american-,made ,chairs #gj4 ,american-,made ,rosewood ,card ,table ,,chapter ,,vii #ga4 ,bedroom of ,anne of ,austria at ,fontainebleau #gb4 ,bed of ,louis ,,xiv at ,versailles #gc4 ,chairs of the ,period of ,louis ,,xiv #gd4 ,tapestry ,furniture #ge4 ,commodes of the ,time of ,louis ,,xv #gf4 ,garderobe ,period of ,louis ,,xv #gg4 ,bedroom of ,marie ,antoinette at the ,little ,trianon #gh4 ,chairs and ,table of ,louis ,,xvi ,style #gi4 ,encoignure1 ,period of ,louis ,,xvi #hj4 ,bed of ,josephine at ,fontainebleau #ha4 ,bed of ,napoleon at ,grand ,trianon #hb4 ,room at ,fontainebleau with ,historic ,table #hc4 ,empire ,reading and ,writing ,desk ,,chapter ,,viii #hd4 ,organ in ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c4 #he4 ,spinet #hf4 ,harpsichord #hg4 ,cristofori ,piano #hh4 ,harp #hi4 ,bass ,viol #ij4 ,glass ,harmonica #ia4 ,geib ,piano #ib4 ,nuns ,piano #ic4 ,upright ,piano ,,chapter ,,ix #id4 ,tall-,case ,clocks1 ,english #ie4 ,three ,centuries of ,clocks4--,lantern1 ,portable1 and ,willard or ,banjo ,clocks #if4 ,tall-,case ,clocks1 ,english and ,american #ig4 ,mantel ,clocks ,,chapter ,x #ih4 ,kitchen of ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 ,mass4 #ii4 ,handles1 ,escutcheons1 etc4 #ajj4 ,feet ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,old ,,oak1 ,,old ,,leather1 ,,turkey ,,work1 ,,etc4 #a ,,ii4 ,,dutch ,,furniture #bh ,,iii4 ,,chippendale #dh ,,iv4 ,,adam1 ,,sheraton1 ,,empire #gc ,v4 ,,colonial ,,and ,,later ,,periods #ie ,,vi4 ,,colonial ,,and ,,later ,,periods--,continued #abh ,,vii4 ,,french ,,furniture #adh ,,viii4 ,,musical ,,instruments #agc ,,ix4 ,,clocks #aig ,x4 ,,handles1 ,,feet1 ,,stuffs1 ,,etc4 #bbb ,,index #bcg ,,the ,,old ,,furniture ,,book4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,old ,,oak1 ,,old ,,leather1 ,,turkey ,,work1 ,,etc4 ,with the revival of interest in all antiques1 which is so widely spread at this time1 any of us who chance to own an old piece of furniture feel an added degree of affection for it if we can give it an approximate date and assign it to a maker or a country4 ,there is much good old furniture in the ,united ,states1 chiefly of ,spanish1 ,dutch and ,english make1 though there are constant importations of other makes1 notably ,french1 since it is recognized on all sides that ,americans are becoming the collectors of the world4 ,our public museums are gradually filling with works of art presented by broad-minded citizens1 while the private galleries are rich and increasing every day4 ,to keep pace with these possessions1 furniture from old palaces and manor-houses is being hauled forth and set up again in our ,new ,world homes4 ,indeed1 whole interiors have been removed from ancient dwellings1 and the superb carvings of other days become the ornaments of modern houses1 like the gilded oak panels from the ,hotel ,montmorency which were built into the ,deacon ,house in ,boston1 or like ,mrs4 ,gardiner's ,venetian carved wood which decorates her palace in the ,boston ,fens4 ,oak panelling1 like everything else1 passed through various periods and styles4 ,in ,queen ,elizabeth's time the panels were carried to within about two feet of the cornice2 then1 after some years1 there came a division into lower and upper panelling1 the upper beginning at about the height of the back of a chair from the floor4 ,pictures became more common1 and they were frequently let into the upper panelling1 and then it was discarded altogether1 only the lower half or dado being retained4 ,this1 too1 after some years1 became old-fashioned1 and the board known as skirting1 or base-board1 was all that was left of the handsome sheathing which extended from the floor almost to the ceiling4 ,this old oak panelling was entirely without polish or varnish of any kind1 and grew with years and dust almost black in colour4 ,sometimes it was inlaid with other woods1 and often it was made for the rooms where it was placed4 ,where the panels are carved1 they are generally bought in that state and set in plain framework by the household joiner4 ,if1 however1 the frame is carved and the panels plain1 they were made to suit the taste and purse of the owner of the mansion4 ,oak panelling took the place of the arras1 tapestry hangings1 and crude woodwork of earlier times4 ,of course it was adopted by the rich and luxurious1 for it rendered more air-tight the draughty buildings4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4 ,,old ,,oak ,,bedstead4 ,the oldest furniture was made of oak1 more or less carved1 whether of ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,dutch1 or ,english make4 ,the multiplication of objects which we consider necessary as furnishings were pleasingly absent1 and chests used as receptacles for clothes or linens1 for seats by day and beds by night1 with a few beds also of carved oak1 and tables1 made up the chief articles of domestic use4 ,even the very word furniture itself is of obscure origin and was used formerly1 as now1 to describe the fittings of houses1 churches1 and other buildings4 ,there are a few terms applied to furniture referring either to its decoration or process of manufacture with which it is well to become acquainted4 ,they are given here in the order of their importance4 ,veneering is the process of coating common wood with slices of rare and costly woods fastened down with glue by screw presses made to fit the surface to be covered4 ,it was first used in the reign of ,william and ,mary1 in the last decade of the seventeenth century4 ,until that time furniture had been made of solid wood4 ,veneer of this early period1 particularly burr-walnut veneer1 was about one sixteenth of an inch thick1 and was sometimes applied to oak4 ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton used mahogany and satin-wood both solid and for veneers4 ,when used as veneers they were all hand-cut1 as they are in all high-class furniture to-day4 ,it was not till the late ,georgian period that machinery for cutting veneer was first used1 and slices were produced one thirty-second of an inch in thickness4 ,most of the cheaper kinds of modern furniture are veneered4 ,marquetry is veneer of different woods1 forming a mosaic of ornamental designs4 ,in the early days of the art1 figure subjects1 architectural designs1 and interiors were often represented in this manner4 ,rococo1 made up from two ,french words meaning rock and shells1 roequaille et coquaille1 is a florid style of ornamentation which was in vogue in the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,buhl1 or ,boulle1 is inlaid work with tortoise-shell or metals in arabesques or cartouches4 ,it derived its name from ,boule1 a ,french wood-carver who brought it to its highest perfection4 ,ormolu refers to designs in brass mounted upon the surface of the wood4 ,this metal was given an exceedingly brilliant colour by the use of less zinc and more copper than is commonly used in the composition of brass1 and was sometimes still further made bright by the use of varnish and lacquer4 ,baroque4 ,this word1 which was derived from the ,portuguese baroco1 meant originally a large irregular pearl4 ,at first the term was used only by jewellers1 but it gradually became technically applied to describe a kind of ornament which became popular on furniture early in the nineteenth century1 after the rage for the classic had passed4 ,it consisted of a wealth of ornament lavished in an unmeaning manner merely for display2 and scrolls1 curves1 and designs from leaves were used to cover pieces1 making them lack beauty and that grace which comes from pure and simple lines4 ,lacquer is coloured or opaque varnish applied to metallic objects as well as wood4 ,the name is obtained from resin lac1 the material which is used as the base of all lacquers4 ,in the ,east ,indies the whole surface of wooden objects1 large and small1 is covered with bright-coloured lacquers4 ,the ,japanese lacquers are the finest that are made4 ,they excel in the variety and exquisite perfection of this style of work1 and under their skilful manipulation it becomes one of the choicest forms of decorative art4 ,the most highly prized lacquer is on a gold ground1 some specimens of which reached ,europe in the time of ,louis ,,xv4 ,japanning4 ,this style of treating wood and metal derives its name from the fact of its being an imitation of the famous lacquering of ,japan1 although the latter is prepared with entirely different materials and processes1 and is in every way much more durable1 brilliant1 and beautiful than any ,european ,japan work4 ,this latter process is done in clear transparent varnishes1 or in black or colours1 but the black japan is the most common4 ,by japanning a very brilliant polished surface may be secured1 which is more durable than ordinary painted or varnished work4 ,it is usually applied to small articles of wood1 to clock-faces1 papier-mach1 etc4 ,joined furniture4 ,all the parts are joined by mortise and tenon1 no nails or glue being used4 ,this method prevents the parts from warping or springing1 as so much of the modern machine-made furniture does4 ,figure #a shows an ancient carved-oak bed of the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 with grotesque carvings on the headboard in ,renaissance style1 which is said to have been introduced into ,england by ,holbein4 ,this bed has an interesting history4 ,it belongs to the ,herricks of ,beaumanor ,park1 and came to them from ,professor ,babington1 of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,he inherited it from his father1 whose ancestors kept the ,blue ,boar inn at ,leicester1 where ,richard ,,iii slept the night before the battle of ,bosworth ,field1 in ,august1 #adhe4 ,this has always been called ,king ,richard's ,bed1 and many learned antiquaries have waxed eloquent for and against this assumption4 ,mr4 ,henry ,shaw1 author of ,specimens of ,early ,furniture1 published in #ahcf1 says it is a good specimen of the modern four-poster of ,elizabeth's time1 the more ancient beds being without foot-posts4 ,in fact the earlier beds were mere couches4 ,as more luxury was demanded they grew larger1 counterpanes were made of the richest materials1 gorgeously embroidered with the arms and badges of their owners1 and from their great cost and imperishable character descended from one generation to another4 ,they provided employment1 too1 for the lady of the castle and her bower maidens1 who had no end of leisure which had to be filled in some way1 and which dragged along for many a long year1 broken only by the chance visit of a wandering hawker or my lord's return from the wars4 ,hollingbourne ,manor1 in ,kent1 is one of the old mansions still standing which was built in ,queen ,elizabeth's time4 ,the manor was originally owned by ,sir ,thomas ,culpeper1 and his initials appear in many places about the house4 ,in the great hall the fireplace has an iron back with the initials ,t4 ,c4 and the date #afhc wrought in it4 ,the present owner1 ,mr4 ,gerald ,arbuthnot1 has preserved the old-time atmosphere as much as possible1 and in connection with home-made tapestry the needle-room is especially interesting4 ,in that room the four ,ladies ,culpeper1 daughters of that ,john1 ,lord ,culpeper1 who was exiled for his devotion to ,king ,charles1 spent so much of their time making tapestry that one of the sisters became blind from the effects of her close application4 ,among the pieces of the handiwork of the four sisters preserved is a magnificent altar-cloth which they presented to the parish church4 ,for two centuries and a half a needle left by the fingers of the worker remained sticking in the corner of the cloth1 but it was stolen about two years ago by some one of a party of antiquarians visiting the ,manor4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4 ,,olive-,,wood ,,chest4 ,in ,mr4 ,shaw's book already quoted are many items concerning these great and handsome beds1 which were often the finest pieces of furniture in the castle or manor1 and from the safe seclusion of which the king or great lord received the homage of his vassals4 ,the bed and bedstead were sometimes classed separately1 but in many inventories the former word covers the bedstead and all its furnishings4 ,the fittings of the bed were well in keeping with the fine carved woodwork1 and were of softest feathers or down4 ,sheets of linen1 and rugs or blankets of fine wool1 were covered by a cloth woven of samite1 damask1 or heavy with gold threads4 ,richard1 ,earl of ,arundel1 in #acib1 left to ,philippa1 his second wife1-- --a blue bed marked with my arms and the arms of my late wife1 also the hangings of the hall1 which were lately made in ,london1 of blue tapestry with red roses1 with the arms of my sons1 the ,earl ,marshall1 ,lord ,charlton1 and ,mons4 ,willm4 ,beauchamp2 to my son ,richard1 a standing bed called ,clove2 also a bed of silk embroidered with the arms of ,arundel and ,warren quarterly2 to my dear son ,thomas1 my blue bed of silk embroidered with greffins2 to my daughter ,margaret my blue bed4 ,not many earls had so great a store of worldly goods4 ,in #adcd ,joanne1 ,lady ,bergavenny1 devises-- --a bed of gold swans1 with tapettar of green tapestry1 with bunches and flowers of diverse colours2 and two pair of sheets of ,raynes2 a pair of fustian1 six pairs of other sheets2 six pairs of blankets2 six mattrasses2 six pillows2 and with cushions and bancoves that longen with the bed aforesaid4 ,this was only one bed of six specified by this lady1 several being of velvet1 silk1 and one of bande kyn1 a rich and splendid stuff of gold thread and silk1 still farther enriched with embroidery4 ,before the cloth spread or counterpane the covering was of fur4 ,it was also the fashion in these primitive times to name the beds1 like that specified ,clove in the ,earl of ,arundel's inventory1 sometimes with the names of flowers1 sometimes with those of the planets or of birds4 ,the beds were surmounted with testers or canopies of rich silk edged with fringes1 and suspended from the rafters of the room by silk cords4 ,there were side-curtains also1 and much carving on the headboard1 while the foot-posts1 as we have said1 are wanting in the earliest beds1 prior to the year #aejj4 ,mr4 ,shaw goes on to say that there are very few beds still extant which date before ,elizabethan times1 and that the most ancient he met with was of the time of ,henry ,,viii41 and belonged to a clergyman of ,blackheath who bought it out of an old manor-house4 ,the posts and back are elaborately carved in ,gothic style1 but the cornice is missing4 ,of ,elizabethan times there are several noted beds extant1 the finest of them being known as the ,great ,bed of ,ware mentioned by ,shakespeare in ,twelfth ,night4 ,it is seven feet high and ten feet square4 ,there is one in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 more richly carved than the one we show1 and having in addition a carved foot-board4 ,this bed is dated #aeic4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4 ,,old ,,oak ,,chest4 ,the curtains and hangings which have in our day become mere ornaments were during the ,elizabethan period most necessary4 ,windows unglazed1 and rude walls unplastered1 or at best hung with tapestry1 permitted drafts to wander through the sleeping-rooms1 so that the curtains were closely drawn at night for actual protection4 ,at best in many a castle or dwelling of the wealthy but one bed would be found1 and that belonged to the lord and lady1 the rest of the family taking their rest on rugs or cushions bestowed on the floor1 or on chests or settees1 or even on tables4 ,there are also found1 though rarely1 oak tables of this period1 or perhaps a little later1 heavily carved along the sides1 and with ponderous turned legs and plain stout braces4 ,these tables1 perhaps the earliest approach to a sideboard1 are so long that they have six legs1 the top seldom being less than twelve feet in length4 ,one we refer to was found recently in an old barn in ,england1 where it had lain since the neighbouring manor-house had been pulled down in #agfj4 ,while its condition was good1--that is1 needing no restoring1--it had become nearly black and almost fossilized from exposure4 ,it is now used as a sideboard by the vicar of the parish who found it in its lowly estate1 and on it stand pewter and plate1 also antiques from the neighbourhood4 ,such treasures can seldom be found here1 certainly not any that have lain concealed since #agfj4 ,after the ,elizabethan period the next one of importance may be called ,jacobean4 ,james ,i4 encouraged his people to use chairs instead of stools4 ,it was not long before settles1 lounges1 and scrowled chairs1 the latter inlaid with coloured woods1 crowded out the stools of former days1 and the idea of enriching the useful became the interest of the skilled workman1 and utility was no longer the measure of value4 ,stools1 to be sure1 were still used1 but they had heavy cushions of brocade1 or worked stuff1 or velvet1 and were hung around with a rich fringe and with gimp1 fastened with fancy nails4 ,the arm-chairs of this period1 a fashion introduced from ,venice1 had the legs in a curved ,x shape across the front1 and chairs are still extant which were used by ,james ,i4 himself4 ,these chairs1 which are all somewhat similar in design1 were rendered still more comfortable by a loose cushion which could be adapted to the inclination of the sitter4 ,the bedsteads of the period were also smothered in draperies1 the tester trimmed with rows upon rows of fringe1 the head-boards1 carved and gilded1 being about the only woodwork allowed to show4 ,as we have said1 the earliest wood used1 at least in northern ,england1 seems to have been oak4 ,at the close of the sixteenth century there was furniture decorated with inlays of different coloured woods1 marbles1 agate1 or lapis lazuli4 ,ivory carved and inlaid1 carved and gilded wood1 metals and tortoise-shell1 were used also in making the sumptuous furniture of the ,renaissance4 ,the greatest elegance of form and detail was observed during this century1 and it declined noticeably all over ,europe1 during the seventeenth century4 ,the framework became heavy and bulky and the details coarse4 ,silver furniture made in ,spain and ,italy was used in the courts of the ,french and ,english kings4 ,then came the carved and gilded furniture which received its greatest perfection in ,italy1 though it was made throughout ,europe till late in the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d4 ,,chest ,,with ,,one ,,drawer4 ,second only to the bed in importance as an item of household furnishing was the chest1 a seat by day1 a bed by night1 and a storehouse of valuables always4 ,it usually stood at the foot of the bed1 possibly so that it could not be pilfered at night without the owner's knowledge4 ,some chests1 heavily made1 provided with locks and bound with iron1 held all the worldly wealth of the owner1 as well as his papers and deeds4 ,before the time of ,james ,i4 bills of exchange were not used1 and the actual coin passed in all transactions4 ,italy was the first country to establish banks1 the money-dealers of ,florence practising banking as early as the thirteenth century4 ,holland followed their example1 and in #afji the ,bank of ,amsterdam was founded1 but kept in its coffers the actual coin paid in1 being merely a repository for safe keeping4 ,england had no bank until the seventeenth century1 when this business was undertaken by the goldsmiths of ,london4 ,the ,bank of ,england was not founded until #afid4 ,it can be easily seen how necessary a part of the household goods a stout chest for valuables was1 especially in remote parts of the country1 where access to the cities was not easy4 ,not alone in houses was the chest a necessary article2 one or more were a part of every church's furniture1 and in them were kept the vestments1 church linen1 the plate1 and other valuables4 ,there is a lawsuit mentioned in the ,court ,records of ,new ,amsterdam1 where one of two sisters living at ,jericho1 ,long ,island1 about #afdg1 sues a neighbour for coming into their house and breaking into her chest1 which was in her bedroom1 and stealing from it several measures of wheat which were stored therein1 as well as some coins which were in the till4 ,the wearing-apparel of the family also was kept in these chests1 and for years before her marriage the daughter of the house was employed in filling one up with linen spun and woven through all the different processes from the flax1 the size and fullness of the chest often proving quite a factor in the marriage negotiations4 ,the chests of the ,jacobean time1 enriched with mouldings1 panellings1 and drop ornaments1 are by no means unknown in ,america4 ,they are furnished with drawers1 cupboards1 and then drawers above1 making them massive and useful pieces of furniture4 ,they stand upon large round legs1 and the handles to drawers and cupboards are drops4 ,in ,italy marriage chests were beautifully painted1 often by famous masters1 and sometimes gilded as well4 ,in ,holland the chests were carved or inlaid2 and many of these1 owing to the commercial relations between ,england and ,holland1 found their way into the former country and thence to ,america1 in addition to those brought directly from the ,low ,countries4 ,chests were used as trunks by travelers long before ,shakespeare's time1 and he makes a chest play an important part in ,cymbeline4 ,in the early days of the ,american colonies1 when the settlers sent back to ,england for comforts not procurable in ,america1 these were generally despatched in chests for safe keeping and to preserve their contents4 ,the following letter shows a lady's desire to get hold of her property which had been unduly detained4 ,lady ,moody was a member in #afdc of the ,colony of ,massachusetts1 but1 being taken with the error of denying baptism to infants1 was dealt with by many of the elders1 ,as she persisted in her error she was persuaded by friends1 in order to avoid further trouble1 to move to the ,new ,netherlands4 ,this she did1 and it is noted by the ,rev4 ,thomas ,cobbett1 of ,lynn1 that ,lady ,moody is to sitt down on ,long ,island1 from under civil and church watch1 among the ,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e4 ,,oak ,,chest ,,on ,,frame4 ,english4 ,later she became a warm friend of the younger ,winthrop1 and many letters passed between them4 ,the following was written in #afdi3 ,wurthi ,sur3 ,my respective love to you1 remembering and acknowledging your many kindnesses and respect to me4 ,i have written divers lines to you1 but ,i doubt you have not received it4 ,at present being in haste ,i can not unlay myselfe1 but my request is yt you will be pleased by this note1 if in your wisdom you see not a convenienter opertunity to send me those things yt ,mr ,throgmorton bought for me1 and ,i understand are with you1 for ,i am in great need of ye1 together with ,mark ,lucas's chest and other things4 ,so1 with my respective love to you and your wife and ,mrs ,locke remembered1 hoping you and they with your children are in helth1 ,i rest2 committing you to ye protection of ye ,almighty4 ,pray remember my necessity in this thing4 ,,deborah ,,moody4 ,chests are to be found in the well-settled as well as in out-of-the-way corners1 and of ,dutch1 ,english1 and ,american make4 ,the ,dutch1 broadly speaking1 are more common in the neighbourhood of ,new ,york1 ,albany1 and other places settled by these pioneers from ,holland1 while the ,english-made ones1 many of them1 are to be found in ,new ,england1 and scattered over the ,eastern ,states as well1 since in the past year ,i have seen two fine ones1 both found in the western part of ,new ,york ,state4 ,the very earliest chests which were among the effects of our first settlers are very plain affairs1 hardly more than boxes mounted on simple sawed legs4 ,they were all furnished with locks1 and generally with rude handles1 and we can well conceive the motley array of household and personal stuff which came over in them4 ,elder ,brewster's chest is in the ,memorial ,hall at ,plymouth1 and is just such a plain box on legs as has been described4 ,though there were many oak chests undoubtedly brought over during these early years1 there were also many of pine1 and1 being plain and cheap receptacles1 more easily damaged than if of harder wood1 they gave way to better and more ornate pieces as soon as the family fortunes warranted it4 ,in ,flanders were made many fronts of chests only1 quite elaborately carved1 and sent to ,england1 there to be fitted with the other parts4 ,among the guilds the chest-makers bore an important part1 as chests1 particularly of churches1 were sometimes fastened with two locks1 and the lock plates were often very highly and handsomely wrought4 ,of later years chests of every degree of elegance and beauty have found their way to ,america2 some covered with carving of the florid style of the ,renaissance1 some still showing traces of the fine gilding with which they were covered4 ,even some of historic interest are owned here1 such as the carved chest of olive-wood said to have belonged to the ,stuarts1 and brought to this country by a member of the family who fled to ,virginia after the beheading of ,charles ,i4 ,it remained in the possession of a family named ,stuart till recently1 and was bought by its present owner1 ,miss ,c4 ,f4 ,marsh1 of ,clermont-on-the-,james4 ,this chest1 though restored as to its feet1 is remarkable on account of the decorations on the inside of its lid1 which are unusual in that place1 and from the fact that they are done in burnt work as well as carving4 ,a portrait of ,james ,i4 occupies the centre1 and there are carved panels on either side depicting the ,judgment of ,solomon4 ,on the top of the lid the arms of the ,stuarts are burnt in1 while the front is decorated with panels of castles and warriors1 and above the middle panel are the ,british lions supporting the royal arms4 ,this chest is about six feet in length1 twenty-four inches high1 and twenty-two inches wide4 ,the plantation on which it was found belonged to ,captain ,john ,smith in #afaj4 ,its real value was quite unknown to those who possessed it4 ,it was sold at auction1 and was bought by a ,german farmer for a feed-box1 on account of its strength4 ,he carted it home1 and was so satisfied with his bargain that he was quite unwilling to sell4 ,it is made of eight-inch planks of olive-wood1 cut several centuries ago in ,palestine4 ,nor is this the only chest of this description in the country4 ,in ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia1 is one very similar to it 7,figure #b71 but in a perfect state of preservation1 with the original ball feet and more ornate twisted wrought-iron handles4 ,the style of decoration on the two chests is quite similar1 they are both made of olive-wood1 but the wrought-iron handles are much handsomer on the ,philadelphia chest than on the ,stuart one4 ,it has1 however1 no carving on the inside of the lid2 the four panels of carving are enclosed with a moulding2 but the lions rampant are very well done1 and there are figures in cavalier costume on the panels4 ,while1 of course1 elegant chests like these are most uncommon1 it is the less ornate specimens which prove the most interesting1 because there is more likelihood of our becoming possessed of them4 ,figure #c represents a good specimen of one of these early chests4 ,it is of ,english make1 entirely of oak1 the boards of the bottom being as heavy and solid as lead4 ,the top is a heavy plank of oak with a fine grain4 ,the chest is panelled within and has one till4 ,the lock is modern1 and some nails have been driven to hold the chest together1 for the back legs as well as the sides are worm-eaten4 ,this chest is three feet nine inches long1 twenty-eight inches high1 and twenty inches wide1 and is in good condition save for the nails4 ,its date is about the last quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,it was found in ,new ,york ,state and belongs to ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,hoyt of ,rochester4 ,while oak and pine were the most common materials for these chests1 olive-wood was sometimes used1 as we have seen1 and sometimes the panels were of cedar1 and the ornaments of some of the softer woods1 like pine or maple1 coloured and stained to imitate ebony4 ,american walnut came into use late in the seventeenth century1 but1 although used in furniture and popular as a veneer1 it was not used for chests4 ,cypress wood was also in demand as a material for chests1 the aromatic smell keeping off the pest of housekeepers1 the moth4 ,in summer time the heavy woollen tapestries and woollen clothes of the family were stowed away1 and the former1 at least1 from their cost and the labour expended upon them1 had to be carefully protected4 ,illustration3 ,figure #f4 ,,spanish ,,leather ,,chair4 ,the roughest sort of a chest was called a standard1 and in it were packed the more perishable movables and furniture2 and in moving from one residence to another these standards were carried by pack-horses or on rude carts4 ,chinese chests of teak-wood1 lacquer1 or cedar are very rarely met with1 though you will sometimes see them in old homes in ,england1 where some ancestor of the family followed the sea4 ,the inventory of the estate of ,colonel ,francis ,epes1 of ,henrico ,county1 ,virginia1 dated ,october #a1 #afgh1 is a long and varied one4 ,the first article recorded is ,one foure foot chest of drawers seder ,sprinkled new1 but damnified #a-aj4j4 ,further along are mentioned-- --one middle size calve skin truncke with drawers4 ,one old leather truncke with lock and key 444 one old middle size chest with lock and key4 ,one small old chest with lock and key4 ,two other old chests without keys and one without hinges4 ,quite a number of chests and trunks for one family when it is noted that they had chests of drawers also4 ,when the ,rev4 ,samuel ,sewall1 so well-known from his voluminous diary1 returned from a trip to ,england in #afhi1 he brought with him on the ship ,america a trunk for each of his three children1 with their names and the dates of their births carved thereon4 ,presumably these trunks did not come over empty4 ,he brought also a sea-chest1 a barrel of books1 a large trunk marked ,h4 ,s4 with nails1 two smaller trunks1 a deal box of linen1 a small case of liquors1 and a great case of bottles4 ,he slept on a feather bed laid above a straw bed on the voyage1 and was comfortably covered with a bedquilt4 ,american oak was used1 however1 in many ,american-made chests4 ,some of the early chests1 particularly those found in the ,united ,states1 stand flat on the ground4 ,others have legs1 sometimes formed by the continuation of the stiles1 as those parts of the chests are called which hold the panels on the sides4 ,the two boards which occupy the top and bottom of the sides and back and front are called the rails4 ,the upper rails in some of the chests of early make have a row of carving on them which adds still further to the beauty of the chest1 and in some instances the stiles are also carved4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the stiles are plain or with but a slight moulding1 and the rails are quite plain4 ,geometric patterns in arched1 diamond1 or square form were early employed1 each maker copying industriously the patterns used by other makers and only occasionally having the originality to design for himself4 ,after the legs formed by the continuation of the stiles came legs made in the shape of great balls such as were used on much ,dutch furniture and were copied by the ,english makers4 ,the great ,dutch kas1 or chest1 was a very large and ornamental piece of furniture1 carved1 painted1 or decorated in marquetry4 ,such pieces are unusual now1 most of them having been gathered in by collectors or museums1 the ,dutch towns along the ,hudson1 as well as ,albany and ,schenectady1 having been pretty well picked over4 ,the evolution of the bureau from the chest is an interesting study1 and shows plainly the different periods through which the useful and homely kist passed before it emerged into such an ornamental thing as the carved and decorated highboy4 ,the first step in its upward career was taken when a drawer was added below the chest proper4 ,this came as early as the last half of the seventeenth century1 those chests belonging to the first half being without drawers4 ,sometimes this single drawer was divided1 and the very earliest specimens had the runners on which the drawers moved on the sides1 and not on the bottom1 as came later4 ,the sides of the drawer were hollowed out in a groove1 and a stout runner was affixed to the side of the chest4 ,such a chest is shown in ,figure #d4 ,with the appearance of drawers came a difference in ornamentation1 and mouldings in great variety were used1 beading and turned drops also coming in for use4 ,these patterns were merely the familiar mouldings used in wainscots and panellings put to the purpose of adorning the chests4 ,the early chests without drawers ran in the neighbourhood of five feet long and twenty-four inches high4 ,as the drawers were added1 the chests naturally rose in height1 and to prevent their becoming too bulky they decreased in length4 ,a nice example of one of these early oak chests1 mounted on turned legs and with curved strainers1 is shown in ,figure #e4 ,it is in a fine state of preservation and has the original brass escutcheons4 ,it was evidently intended as a receptacle for valuables1 as both drawer and chest are made to lock4 ,it belongs to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,two drawers followed one1 the chest portion still retaining its prominence1 and in this simple way the chest of drawers grew from the box-like affair of #afjj and later4 ,by #agaj chests were looked upon as old1 and so advertised for sale1 although they continued to be made until the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,they were too useful to be abandoned by a people who were obliged to be often on the move1 and who needed some stout receptacle in which to carry their household and personal goods4 ,there are chests which are peculiar to certain localities1 notably in ,new ,england1 which were doubtless made by a single cabinet-maker1 his workmen and apprentices4 ,they are almost entirely confined to these localities1 and are therefore of less interest to the collector in general than such pieces as are more widely distributed4 ,under this head comes that style of receptacle known as the ,hadley ,chest1 and the ,connecticut chest shown in ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,dutch chests were often of pine1 painted1 only the choicest ones being of walnut4 ,one inventory records a chest brought from ,havanna1--probably ,spanish4 ,after matters became a little less anxious for the early settlers1 personal comfort began to be thought of more1 and such colonists as had brought no chairs began to send for them to ,england or have them made in ,america4 ,every ship from ,england took out fresh comforts1 and the dignitaries of the colonies had substantial household gear4 ,tables1 chairs1 beds1 and carpets1--these latter not for floors1 but for use as table-covers1--are mentioned with great frequency in the inventories1 and the settlers' house1 albeit many of them boasted of but four rooms1 had more than a modest degree of luxury4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4 ,,turned ,,chair ,,with ,,leather ,,cover4 ,the ,new ,haven ,colony--as indeed did all the ,colonies--had1 as her chief officers1 men used to the best that ,england afforded1 and the following inventory speaks for itself4 ,john ,haynes1 governor of ,connecticut1 in #afec left an estate at ,hartford valued at #a1djj4 ,in his hall1 one of the most esteemed parts of the house at this period1 were1-- #e leather and #d flag-bottomed chairs #a table and #c joined stools #a tin hanging candlestick #g cushions #a firelock musket #a matchlock do4 #a carbine #a rapier #a pr4 cob-irons #a iron back #a gilded looking-glass #a smoothing-iron --the whole valued at #h #acs4 #aj;d4 ,the parlor had velvet chairs and stools1 also ,turkey-wrought chairs1 and a green cloth carpet valued at #a #ajs4 ,there were also curtains of say1 curtain rods and vallants1 many napkins1 as these were necessary from lack of forks1 and much ,holland bed and table linen4 ,there were many chests and lean-to or livery cupboards4 ,the men's chamber1 had a bedstead with two flock beds2 one feather boulster1 one flock do42 one blanket2 one coverlet4 ,his best rooms had feather beds4 ,in the cellar were many brewing-vessels and wooden-ware1 while the kitchen had a complete garnish of pewter1 but not a single piece of crockery4 ,brass candlesticks1 iron possnets and porringers1 and the useful brass warming-pan were here also4 ,theophilus ,eaton1 also governor of ,connecticut1 left in #afeg an inventory of goods of even greater value4 ,even earlier than this1 rich furniture was imported by those who could afford it1 and in #afde a ,mistress ,lake1 sister-in-law of ,governor ,winthrop the younger1 sent to ,england for the furnishings for her daughter's new house4 ,there were many items in the list1 and among them were only one-- --bedsteede of carven oak2 #b armed cheares with fine rushe bottums2 three large three small silvern spoons1 #f of horne4 ,as late as #agee armed cheares were highly esteemed1 and ,joseph ,allison1 of ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 bequeathed two to his second son1 a walking-cane to his firstborn1 and to his youngest son some clothes4 ,chairs1 stools1 and cushions are mentioned in many inventories as being covered with set work2 this was heavy woolen tapestry much after the fashion of ,oriental rugs1 and most durable4 ,it is rather unusual to find no mention of leather chairs in inventories1 for they were used in ,america late in #afjj1 and chairs covered with redd lether1 as well as with ,spanish leather1 are of frequent occurrence4 ,lion ,gardiner was one of the chief proprietors of ,easthampton1 ,l4 ,i41 in #afec1 where he passed the last ten years of his life rummaging old papers and in other peaceful pursuits4 ,the inventory of his estate is set out fully and seems scant enough4 #b ,great ,bookes several bookes #d ,great cheirs #ae peeces of pewter #ac peeces of hollow pewter #d porringers #d saucers #e pewter spoons ,a stubing how ,a broad how ,a little how ,horses ,cattle ,swine ,clothing ,bedding #b pastry boards ,cooking utensils ,a cickell ,a cheese press ,a churn ,it was this same ,lion ,gardiner who1 after the ,pequot ,war1 bought from the ,indians the island ,monchonock1 embracing thirty-five acres of hill and dale4 ,the price paid was a large black dog1 a gun1 some powder and shot1 a few ,dutch blankets4 ,this is the place which we know to-day as ,gardiner's ,island4 ,the great cheirs mentioned in the inventory were1 no doubt1 either ,turkey-work or leather1 and seem to be the only articles of this kind of furniture possessed by him4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h4 ,,english ,,chair4 ,c4 #afhj ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,chair4 ,same ,period4 ,in #afch1 in ,london1 a man named ,christopher took out a patent for decorating leather1 which somewhat reduced its cost4 ,up to this time all leather was imported from ,spain or ,holland4 ,figure #f is a fine example of a ,portuguese or ,spanish leather chair1 as they were variously called1 and shows well the splendid and ornamental leather as well as the rich carving seen particularly on the front brace4 ,the leather is fastened to the frame with large brass nails1 and that part of the oak frame which is exposed is turned work4 ,on many of these chairs there are three little metal ornaments on the curved top4 ,in this example two are lost4 ,besides the carving on the front brace1 a pattern which was often adopted and copied by ,english and ,dutch cabinet-makers1 this chair shows well that form of foot which came to be known as the ,spanish foot4 ,it is seen on all makes of furniture1 and with some variations of form1 but always turns out at the base1 and has the grooved work so conspicuous in ,figure #f4 ,there is no doubt that this was an exceedingly popular style of chair1 for there are many examples almost exactly like this in many collections4 ,this particular one is in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts4 ,another style of leather chair is shown in ,figure #g1 and its solidity is a great contrast to the ,spanish chair previously shown4 ,the woodwork is turned1 and the heavy underbracing shaped1 while the second bracing is a feature peculiar to this chair itself4 ,the date of this piece is probably about #afej1 or a little later1--about the same date as similar turned pieces which are covered with ,turkey work4 ,the leather on the seat is so old and worn that it seems as if it had never been renewed1 while the back is much fresher and looks comparatively new4 ,the seat of this chair is so high from the floor that a footstool was a necessity1 and in the old inventories the item of low stools1 or foot-banks appears with some frequency4 ,this chair is of about the same period as the ,spanish leather chairs4 ,many leather chairs are found in the ,united ,states1 both ,north and ,south1 and are probably of ,english make4 ,some inventories mention them as old1 as early as #affg1 and many were in use in different parts of the country4 ,but while most of our early ,new ,england colonists were grappling with the serious business of life1 almost content if they could scrape together enough to eat and to wear1 and a substantial roof to cover them1 in ,england life was taking a more ornamental aspect4 ,charles ,,ii41 indolent and fond of luxury1 came to the throne in #affj4 ,two years later he married ,catherine of ,braganza1 a ,portuguese princess1 and both of them introduced a more elegant style of living2 his ,french and her ,spanish training leading them to require more comforts than had hitherto been known in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i4 ,,cane ,,chair1 ,,flemish ,,style4 ,among other things which were exported from ,holland was cane furniture of a superior quality4 ,it became very much the fashion1 and was in ,spanish or ,flemish styles1 both of which were copied or adapted by ,english cabinet-makers4 ,some of this furniture found its way to ,america1 and there are pieces to be found showing all three styles1 ,flemish1 ,spanish1 and ,english adaptation4 ,in ,figure #h is shown an example of the ,english treatment of the ,spanish style1 at least as to foot2 while the flat underbrace is ,english1 the curved back and bandy leg are quite ,dutch4 ,the carving on the top is very beautiful1 and the knees of the front legs carved1 not with the usual shell1 but with heads1 and below these an oval with moulding4 ,this chair is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 and dates from about #afhj4 ,the wood is walnut1 and the scrolls and foliage on the back stand out in high relief2 the seat1 originally as now1 is covered with a rich brocade1 with fine brass nails and a fringe4 ,the second chair is one of about the same period1 of very beautifully carved oak1 and not restored4 ,the arms are missing1 but show the places where they originally were4 ,it has lost its feet1 but the exquisite carving on the underbrace and top is still quite intact and quite ,italian in style4 ,this chair is at the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,a very splendid example of the ,flemish treatment of the same style is shown in ,figure #i1 the oak woodwork being carved and turned1 and the foot turning out in true ,flemish style4 ,the date of the chairs shown in both ,figures #h and #i is prior to #agjj4 ,the wealthy people of ,charles ,,ii4's time all indulged in these chairs4 ,before that period stools had been in general use1 and only the master1 mistress1 or guest of honour occupied the few chairs possessed in a household4 ,in ,new ,england centres like ,salem1 ,boston1 or ,new ,haven1 even before the time of ,charles ,,ii41 there was in some of the houses comfort as we understand it4 ,mr4 ,george ,lamberton1 of the ,new ,haven ,colony1 sailed in #afdf to ,england upon business in the ,great ,ship4 ,she was never heard from again1 and her loss crippled the little colony almost beyond belief4 ,mr4 ,lamberton's inventory shows a variety of items4 ,he had as many as eighty napkins2 bedding and table1 chimney and board cloths in proportion2 feather and down beds with their accompanying hangings4 ,these with more than a dozen cushions to make soft the stiff chairs and settles1 silver plate1 four chests1 ten boxes and trunks1 eleven chairs1 five stools1 and three tables1 both round and square1 made up comfortable furnishings for a house with probably not more than four rooms4 ,the colonists were not only plain people1 but there were those who came1 shortly after the first settlement1 who brought with them the household goods and clothes to which they had been accustomed4 ,the ,journal of the ,pilgrims at ,plymouth tells not only of the stress of living and the struggle with ,indians and forest creatures4 ,there was time to reprehend the frivolities of women's wear1 and the pastor's wife was the chief offender in the matter of over-gay apparel4 ,she was a young widow when ,mr4 ,johnson married her1 and brought goodly estate and personal belongings to her second husband4 ,she continued to wear the clothes she had brought with her1 and the chief exceptions were taken to the cork-soled shoes she wore1 and the whalebone in the bodice and sleeves of her gown4 ,both the pastor and his wife seem to have been more than reasonable1 since they were willing to reform the cut of their garments as far as they could without spoiling of them4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4 ,,turned ,,and ,,carved ,,arm ,,chair ,while the general habit of the ,puritans was to keep their houses and apparel extremely plain1 yet here and there among them bits of comfort and elegance would crop out4 ,among the stiff and straight-backed chairs1 one with stuffing would be found1 while in the more luxurious and easy-going ,south they were not so rare4 ,the covering probably was sett work or ,turkey work2 but then1 too1 brocade ones were found1 and such a chair as is shown in ,figure #aj would be an ornament in any home4 ,it is a fine example of walnut-wood1 turned and carved with bannister back and stuffed seat4 ,the covering has been restored1 but is of a pattern which was of the period4 ,the out-turned ,flemish foot is more ball-like in shape than is often seen1 but it has the bowed knees which are so familiar4 ,yet1 if the chairs were none too comfortable1 there were few families in any of the settlements that did not own at least one feather bed4 ,if not feathers1 then flock beds were used1 that is chopped rags1 or feathers and flock mixed1 or1 as a last resort1 the down from the brown soft1 cat-tails which grew plentifully in every marsh was utilized instead of more costly material4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,dutch ,,furniture4 ,miss ,singleton1 in her exhaustive book ,furniture of ,our ,forefathers1 says that probably the first pieces of furniture that were landed on the shores of the ,hudson came in the ship ,fortune1 and were brought by ,hendrich ,christiansen1 of ,cleep1 who founded a little settlement of four houses and thirty persons in #afae4 ,a little later came the ,tiger1 ,the ,little ,fox1 and the ,nightingale1 all bringing colonists and their household furniture4 ,the early ,dutch settlers were better fitted to start an infant colony than their ,new ,england brothers4 ,the ,dutch were ever colonizers and knew just how to plan and prepare a settlement4 ,the trouble with the ,indians was not so constant as it was with the ,new ,england colonies1 although on one occasion ,new ,amsterdam was almost wiped out4 ,on the whole1 the ,dutch seem to have treated the ,indians more wisely1 buying the lands of them and having the purchase further confirmed by grants4 ,in ,new ,amsterdam the settlers were comfortably fixed1 comparatively speaking1 long before the ,new ,england colonists were1 for they had a sawmill in operation as early as #afbg1 the machinery for which had been sent from ,holland1 and which was worked by wind-power4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aa4 ,,dutch ,,furniture1 ,,called ,,queen ,,anne4 ,the ,dutch settled at ,albany and its neighbourhood and around ,schenectady1 as well as those at ,new ,amsterdam1 had many creature comforts4 ,in #afdc ,albany was a colony of about one hundred persons living in about thirty rough board houses4 ,by #afhi the number of inhabitants had increased to #gjj and the houses to #aej4 ,during the next ten years the improvements were rapid and wonderful2 gardens grew1 filled with flowers and fruit2 the class of houses improved2 wealthy merchants came to such a rich market 7of furs chiefly72 and the ,dutch city grew apace1 and the fine beaver-skins which were so plenty bought luxuries for the pioneers4 ,that luxury is not too strong a word to use is shown by the splendid carved kas shown in ,figure #ab1 which now belongs to the ,albany ,historical ,society1 and is a piece of furniture which may date back as far as the last quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,it is made of walnut1 and stands over eight feet high1 with cupboard and shelves4 ,while this chest was of unusual beauty1 there was a certain solidity and ponderous character observable in most of the ,dutch furniture4 ,it is characteristic of the people themselves and is noted in everything belonging to them4 ,their very ships had long1 high-sounding names1 ,the ,angel ,gabriel1 ,the ,van ,rensselaer ,arms1 ,king ,david1 ,queen ,esther1 ,king ,solomon1 ,the ,great ,christopher1 ,the ,crowned ,sea-,bears1 and brought in their flat hulks fine goods from all quarters4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab4 ,,carved ,,kas4 ,the dress of the portly ,dutch vrouw was in unison with her cleanliness and love of thrift1 for her gown--whether of cloth1 or her very bettermost one of silk--was cut short enough to well clear the ground1 and showed her shoes with shining buckles1 and her bright-coloured stockings1 often clocked with her favorite flower1 the tulip4 ,the hair was drawn back from the brow1 smoothed and flattened and covered with a cap which1 among the wealthy1 was bordered with ,flanders lace1 and in any case was fluted1 plaited1 and snowy white4 ,the practical education which the ,dutch women always obtained in their own country sharpened their judgment1 and the laws which permitted her to hold real estate and carry on business in her own name1 even if a married woman1 gave her an added independence4 ,it was no unusual thing for women to engage in business on their own account and to carry it on without the aid or interference of the men of the family4 ,at home in the ,low ,countries1 the women had sold at the market1 beside the produce of the gardens and poultry yards1 the products of their own industry as well1--laces1 linen1 cloth of wool1 etc41 and as early as #afef they sought and obtained permission to hold their market in the new country as they had in the old4 ,curaao provided for them many luxuries1 such as lemons1 parrots1 and paroquettes1 besides a variety of liquors4 ,the women grew flax in their own door-yards for the finest linen1 and every house had its spinning-wheel4 ,hospitality was dispensed at these homes1 supper being a favorite meal1 and as early to bed and early to rise was a national motto the guests were expected to come early and to leave early also1--nine o'clock verging on riotous dissipation4 ,madam ,steenwych was noted for her suppers1 which were more substantial than the waffles and tea which was the usual menu4 ,in #affd1 after her husband's death1 she married ,dominie ,selyns4 ,at this time she had in her living-room twelve ,russia leather chairs1 two easy-chairs with silver lace1 one cupboard of fine ,french nut-wood1 one round and one square table1 one cabinet1 thirteen pictures1 one dressing-box1 cushions1 and curtains4 ,her chairs with silver lace may have well been like the handsome pair of marquetry ones shown in ,figure #ac4 ,the seat of the side chair is entirely gone1 but the arm-chair yet retains a portion of its cover of wool plush1 no doubt the original one1 since some of the stuffing protrudes1 and it is dried sea-kale instead of hair4 ,the wood is maple with an inlay of satin-wood4 ,these chairs belong to the ,museum connected with ,cooper ,institute1 ,new ,york1 which is being carefully gathered by the ,misses ,hewitt4 ,property had become valuable1 and loss had been sustained by fire1 so in ,august1 #afeh1 #bej leather fire-buckets for public use were ordered from ,holland1 together with hooks and ladders4 ,in addition each household was required to have a certain number of buckets of their own1 which were to be kept hanging under the back stoop4 ,in #afhf a rich ,dutch burgher in ,new ,amsterdam owned a house of eight rooms over cellars filled1 no doubt1 with choice liquors and schnapps1 and the rooms above set out with chairs and tables1 cabinets1 cupboards and a great looking-glass4 ,ornaments were there1 too1--alabaster images and nineteen gaily decorated porcelain dishes4 ,nor was the house suffered to want for thorough cleansing1 as there were thirteen scrubbing and thirty-one rubbing brushes1 twenty-four pounds of ,spanish soap1 and seven other brushes4 ,with an increase of prosperity our ,dutch housewives lost no whit of their notions of cleanliness1 for here is a housecleaning described1 presumably by a victim1 a hundred years later4 ,the husband gone1 the ceremony begins4 ,the walls are stripped of their furniture2 paintings1 prints1 and looking-glasses lie in huddled heaps about the floors2 the curtains are torn from their testers1 the beds crammed into windows2 chairs and tables1 bedsteads and cradles crowd the yard2 and the garden fence bends beneath the weight of carpets1 blankets1 cloth cloaks1 old coats1 under-petticoats1 and ragged breeches4 ,this ceremony completed1 and the house thoroughly evacuated1 the next operation is to smear the walls and ceilings with brushes dipped into a solution of lime called whitewash2 to pour buckets of water over the floor and scratch all the partitions and wainscots with hard brushes charged with soft soap and stone-cutter's sand4 ,even these thrifty pioneers did not all accrue many goods1 for #agjg1 when ,hellegonda ,de ,kay1 of ,new ,york1 came to make her will1 she was obliged to leave her entire worldly estate to one daughter4 ,it consisted of one ,indian slave4 ,the ,dutch wife had an equal interest with her husband in disposing of household goods and furniture4 ,she was always consulted1 and sometimes she even signed the will with her husband4 ,the wives of the ,english settlers1 whether ,quaker or ,puritan1 did not have the rights of their ,dutch sisters in the ownership of household goods4 ,the wife's dowry passed into her husband's hands at marriage1 and remained there until his death1 as the inventory of the estate of ,alexander ,allyn of ,hartford1 ,conn41 who died in #agjh1 testifies4 ,estate that deceased had with his wife ,elizabeth in marriage 7now left to her74 ,one round table2 bed with furnishings2 chest of drawers2 two trunks2 a box2 books2 earthenware2 glasses2 pewter platters2 plates2 bason2 porringers2 cups2 spoons2 tinware2 a fork2 trenchers2 four chairs2 nine pounds in silver money2 table-cloths2 napkins2 towels2 a looking-glass2 a chest2 a silver salt2 porringer2 wine-cup and spoon2 a brass pot2 an iron pot2 two brass skillets and hooks4 ,the following extract from a will drawn in #agei by a man eighty years old shows the ,friend's point of view as to whom the household stuff belonged4 ,he wills to his wife as long as she liveth1 unless she marries again 7she was seventy years old at the time71 two good feather beds and full furniture1 and all my negro bedding2 and all my grain1 either growing or cut1 or in store at the time of my decease2 and all my flax and wool1 and yarn and new cloth and cattle hides1 leather1 and soap1 and meat1 and all other provisions which ,i have in store in my house1 either meat or drink1 and all my negro men and one of my negro women1 such of them as she shall choose1 and my negro girl named ,priss2 and if ,i should chance to dye when ,i have cattle a-fatting my wife shall have them for the provision of herself and family1 at my wife's disposal4 ,no doubt the feather beds and negro bedding1 as well as the new cloth1 had been made by the patient fingers of this wife of fifty years' standing2 but she must forfeit all this fruit of her labour should she marry again4 ,the ,dutch system seems preferable4 ,in another inventory1 that of ,charles ,mott1 also a ,long ,island ,quaker1 dated #agdj1 the eldest son has the house and homestead1 together with the negro boy ,jack and one feather bed4 ,the sole provision for his wife was four pounds a year to be paid to her by the eldest son so long as she remains my widow4 ,he seems to have put a premium on her filling his place1 and that quickly4 ,possibly our ,dutch settlers were more notable house wives than their sisters in ,new ,england or the ,south4 ,in the latter region the mistress did not contribute with her own hands to the cleanliness of her home1 but she had onerous duties in overlooking the work of sometimes over a hundred negroes1 seeing to their food1 clothes1 and shelter4 ,our ,new ,england wives were still suffering from ,indian depredations1 and the young housewives whose doors were driven thick with nails to repel the deadly tomahawk1 as ,mistress ,david ,chapin's was at ,chicopee in #agje1 would probably not have risked her goods out of doors1 as did the ,dutch housewives at ,albany4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ac4 ,,marquetry ,,chairs4 ,the ,dutch kitchen utensils seem numerous and varied4 ,possets1 pans1 jack-spits1 strainers and skillets were seen in inventories as well as the more familiar pots and kettles4 ,the prosperous ,dutch at home had sent out and brought back many a rich argosy1 and silks and tissues1 porcelains and lacquers1 carved ivory and fantastic carved wood1 spices and plants had been brought to ,holland and found their way to ,america4 ,there were many ships unloaded at ,new ,york filled with spoils from the ,east1 which were eagerly bought up4 ,there was a variety of moneys current1--beaver-skins2 wampum2 ,spanish pistoles1 worth #ags4 #f;d42 ,arabian chequins at #ajs42 pieces of eight 7as the ,spanish reals were called71 which1 if they weighed #af pennyweight 7except those of ,peru7 passed for #es42 and ,french crowns worth #es4 ,peruvian pieces of eight and ,dutch dollars were valued at #ds41 and all ,english coin passed as it goes in ,england4 ,these were the values in #agje1 but they varied somewhat1 the currency being inflated by one governor1 though his act created such a disturbance that he was obliged to withdraw it4 ,the ,long ,island ,dutch seem to have had less rich belongings than those up the ,hudson and about ,albany4 ,around ,jamaica and ,hempstead were stout clapboard and shingle houses1 but the inventories are not lavish4 ,daniel ,denton1 writing in #afgj ,a ,brief ,description of ,new ,york1 says this about his dearly loved ,hempstead4 ,may you should see the woods and ,fields so curiously bedeckt with ,roses and an innumerable multitude of delightful ,flowers not only pleasing to the eye but smell4 ,that you may behold ,nature contending with ,art and striving to equal if not excel many gardens in ,england4 ,but he has little to say about the way of living1 except that it is godly4 ,the records of ,new ,amsterdam1 which are so wonderfully complete1 show what a valuable assistant to these first settlers was the powerful ,west ,india ,company4 ,by #afcc there were five stone houses containing the ,company's workshops2 and as the land near at hand was poor1--scrubby the ,dutch farmers called it1--they spread out to the neighbouring ,new ,jersey1 ,long ,island1 ,gowanus1 and ,east ,river shores and from #afcf to #afdj were busy with their settlements4 ,by #afea ,new ,amsterdam was prosperous enough to have a brick house so good and well built as to be worth #e1aie florins 7about #b1ajj of our money74 ,in #afdi ,adam ,roelantsen1 a general factotum of the ,west ,india ,company1 whose name constantly appears in the town records1 7as he was unfortunately addicted to strong waters1 and under these conditions was very quarrelsome and aggressive17 owned the following house4 ,it was a clapboard structure covered with a reed roof1 and eighteen by thirty feet in size4 ,it stood gable end toward the street1 and at the front door was the usual portal with its wooden seats4 ,outside of the frame the chimney of squared timber was carried up1 while within the fireplace had a mantelpiece and the living room had fifty-one leaves of wainscot4 ,there was a bedstead or state-bed built in1 but of the movables no record is left4 ,in reading these old records it is noticed that matters moved quickly2 not much time was spent in grief and repining2 and to illustrate we give the experience of one woman whose career does not seem to have excited any comment among her contemporaries4 ,in #afhe ,william ,cox married a young woman named ,sarah ,bradley1 who had come from ,england with her father and brothers to settle in ,new ,amsterdam4 ,she was said to have been handsome and dashing1 and certainly she needed spirit to carry her through her subsequent career4 ,four years after her marriage her husband met with the following accident1 thus described by a political opponent4 ,mr4 ,cox1 to show his fine clothes1 undertook to goe to ,amboy to proclaime the ,king1 who1 coming whome againe1 was fairely drowned1 which accident startled our commanders here very much2 there is a good rich widdow left4 ,the manner of his being drowned was comeing on board a cannow from ,capt ,cornelis' ,point at ,staten ,islands1 goeing into the boate1 slipt down betwixt the cannow and the boate1 the water not being above his chin1 but very muddy1 stuck fast in1 and1 striving to get out1 bobbing his head under1 receaved to much water in4 ,they brought him ashore with life in him1 but all would not fetch him againe4 ,the good rich widdow whom he left soon changed her loneliness for the pleasures of married life1 this time with ,mr4 ,john ,oort4 ,he1 too1 made a brief stay1 for by ,may #af1 #afia1 the widow ,sarah ,oort had the necessary license under colonial law for her marriage to no less a person than ,captain ,william ,kidd4 ,they lived comfortably in a house left by ,sarah's first husband1 ,mr4 ,cox 7who left her with an estate of several thousand pounds7 till ,captain ,kidd set out on his notable voyage in the ,adventure4 ,the goods which ,mrs4 ,oort had at the time of her marriage to ,captain ,kidd were the following3 fifty-four chairs1 of ,turkey work and double and single nailed2 five tables with their carpets 7covers72 four curtained beds with their outfits2 three chests of drawers2 two dressing-boxes2 a desk2 four looking-glasses2 two stands2 a screen2 a clock2 andirons2 fire-irons2 fenders2 chafing-dishes2 7#c7 candlesticks of silver1 brass1 pewter1 and tin2 leather fire-buckets2 over one hundred ounces of silver plate2 and a dozen glasses4 ,the screen1 no doubt1 was such a one as is shown in the same figure1 ,no4 #ad1 as the ,dutch cradle1 which was used for many years in the ,pruyn family1 of ,albany4 ,the third object in the picture is what is known as a church stool1 and was useful in keeping the good vrouw's feet off the cold floors4 ,this stool is painted black and is dated #agjb4 ,there is a lurid picture of the ,last ,judgment painted on it1 and also a verse in ,dutch1 which reads as follows3 ,the judgment of ,god is now at hand4 ,there is still time2 let us separate the pious from the wicked and entreat ,god for the joy of heaven4 ,all these articles are now at the rooms of the ,historical ,society1 ,albany4 ,william ,kidd was executed in ,may1 #agja1 and1 nothing daunted by her matrimonial ventures1 ,sarah took as her fourth husband1 in #agjc1 ,christopher ,rousby1 a man of considerable influence in the colony4 ,she lived until #agde1 and left surviving her four children4 ,while the houses were rough1 some with but two rooms1 yet articles even of luxury were there and offered for sale4 ,as early as #afed a casket inlaid with ebony was sold and brought thirty beavers and nineteen guilders4 ,cornelis ,barentsen sued ,cristina ,capoens in #afef for payment for a bed he sold her1 payment to be made in fourteen days4 ,the price was six beavers 7about #eg4jj71 which ,cristina seemed unable to pay1 but which payment was ordered by the court4 ,in ,june1 #afff1 the administrators of the estate of the late ,jan ,ryerson sold some beasts 7horses1 calves1 and hogs71 as well as furniture at public sale4 ,the payment for the beasts1 also the bed1 bolsters1 and pillows1 was to be made in whole merchantable beavers1 or otherwise in good strung seewant1 beavers' price1 at twenty-four guilders the beaver4 ,here is the inventory of a bride who was married at ,new ,amsterdam in #afia1 and although her husband was a man of consideration and some wealth it was deemed of sufficient importance to record4 ,a half-worn bed2 one pillow2 two cushions of ticking1 with feathers2 one rug2 four sheets2 four cushion-covers2 two iron pots2 three pewter dishes2 one pewter basin2 one iron roster2 one schuryn spoon2 two cowes about five years old2 one case or cupboard1 one table4 ,august #ca1 #afid1 ,jan ,becker's inventory entered at ,albany1 ,new ,york1 showed a long list4 ,besides abundant household goods he had-- ,a silver spoon2 #c pr4 gold buttons2 #e doz4 #aj silver buttons for shirts2 #b silver scnuffies4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad4 ,,dutch ,,screen1 ,,cradle ,,and ,,church ,,stool4 ,it is not difficult to picture in the mind how these old ,dutch houses looked when the living-room was made snug and warm of a winter's evening4 ,at various places along the ,hudson and on ,long ,island there are still standing some of these old1 low-ceiled1 wooden houses1 with sloping roof and great chimney4 ,the furniture was generally of oak 7particularly if it had been brought from home7 and carved4 ,the most important objects in the room are the mantelpiece and the bed1 the former of carved wood1 its ornate character significant of the wealth of the owner1 and its size seldom less than the height of the room4 ,the bed was frequently built in the room1 a sort of bunk1 hung with curtains often of bright chintz1 though1 judging from the inventories1 purple calico curtains were immensely popular1 just as this same fabric is beloved to-day by the pretty maid-servants one sees tripping through the quaint old streets of ,holland4 ,there were stools2 not many chairs2 tables1 one or two2 each with its bright carpet or cover2 racks on the wall for what delft the mistress had2 and below it the treasured spoons4 ,in the great kas1 which took up a large portion of the room1 was the linen1 covers for tables1 side-tables1 shelves1 etc41 and all the napkins and choice belongings of the housewife4 ,if this kas was carved oak it sometimes stood on a frame2 sometimes it had ponderous locks4 ,if it was painted or inlaid wood it might reach nearly to the floor1 and then stand upon large ball feet4 ,some of these kas were so large and heavy that it was almost impossible to move them1 and there is the record of one vrouw who upon moving from ,flatbush was obliged to abandon hers1 leaving it behind her and selling it for #be3 ,in the ,van ,rensselaer family is a marriage kas which goes back to the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,it was imported from ,holland by the parents of ,katherine ,van ,brugh1 who wished their only daughter to have everything that money could buy1 and during her early years it was being filled with linen and household goods woven under her father's roof4 ,it was no light task to fill this great chest1 for it stood seven feet high and proportionally wide4 ,it is of carved oak1 has many drawers and receptacles1 and will hold the silver and finery of the mistress1 while there are secret drawers for duccatoons and jacobuses4 ,the keyhole is concealed under a movable cover of carved wood1 which looks like a part of the carving when dropped in place4 ,the ponderous key is of iron and has many wards4 ,if the family was quite well to do and owned a good stock of clothes1 there would be one or more smaller cases1 or chests1 in which these were stored away4 ,much furniture was made here by ,dutch workmen1 who followed the fashions of their native land4 ,they found abundant material1 and more was brought into the country1--in devious ways sometimes1 but still it came4 ,the court records for ,new ,amsterdam for #afdd report a bark1 ,croisie1 of ,biscay1 which was brought into the harbour as a prize by the ship ,la ,garce1 being laden with sugar1 tobacco1 and ebony4 ,the claim of the master of the ,la ,garce was granted1 and the goods sold4 ,nearly always there was a little silver1--spoons1 mugs1 and a salt-cellar2 and1 as years passed on1 much coin was beaten by some member of the family 7for there were many ,dutch silversmiths7 into tankards1--splendid heavy vessels1 capable of holding a quart1 with cover and thumb-piece1 and showing the marks of the mallet on the bottom and inside1 for all of these pieces of plate were hand-made4 ,waiters and massive bowls were seen in nearly every family of easy circumstances1 and they scarcely ever went out of the family1 as it was a matter of pride to retain them4 ,much of this fine old plate is treasured to-day by descendants of its former owners4 ,it has survived better than the furniture1 indestructible as that seemed4 ,in #agci ,lowrens ,claesen1 of ,schenectady1 had1 among other property1 a gold seal ring and a silver cup marked ,l4 ,v4 ,v4 ,myndert ,fredricksen of ,albany ,county1 ,new ,york1 blacksmith1 left in #agjc a great silver tankard1 a church book with silver clasps and chains1 and a silver tumbler marked ,m4 ,f4 ,a blacksmith in those days meant a worker in iron1 and this one must have been prosperous1 for he owned his house and land1 and furniture as well as silver4 ,but even if silver were lacking there were brass skillets and warming-pans1 and pewter was the ordinary table furniture1 which was scoured to a polish little short of silver4 ,one or two pieces of brightly decorated ,delft ware was the crowning glory of the housewife's treasures1 and far too precious for every-day use4 ,so holes were drilled in the edge1 and a stout cord passed through1 so that it could be hung upon the wall4 ,there was1 of course1 a clock also1 and leather chairs4 ,nicholas ,van ,rensselaer1 of ,albany1 who died in #afgi1 was a wealthy and important member of the colony of ,albany4 ,his house had two beds1 two looking-glasses1 two chests of drawers1 two tables1 one of oak and one of nut-wood2 also a table of pine1 as well as six stools of the same2 a sleeping-bunk or built-in bed1 over twenty pictures1 a desk1 and1 of course1 brushes and kitchen utensils4 ,these goods were disposed of through four rooms4 ,not only were all the necessaries abundant1 but some very elegant furniture came in with almost every ship1 and even before #agjj1 ebony chairs1 boxes and cabinets are mentioned in the inventories2 but such splendid pieces as the cabinet shown in ,figure #ae1 with carved panels in the doors1 and carved twisted legs1 were only occasionally to be met with4 ,the doors conceal shelves1 and above are two drawers with drop handles4 ,there are pieces similar to this to be found in the ,united ,states in private houses as well as in museums4 ,this cabinet belongs to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,children slept in trundle beds1 which during the day were pushed under the large bed1 often a four-post bedstead when not the sleeping-bunk4 ,one thing was found in every house1 rich or poor1 and this was some means for striking fire4 ,tinder and steel1 with scorched linen1 were an indispensable part of every household4 ,sometimes it was necessary to borrow coals from a neighbour1 and there were stringent town laws ordering that fire shall always be covered when carried from house to house4 ,in the ,court ,records of ,new ,amsterdam one of the earliest laws regulated the carrying about of hot coals1 and several ,dutch vrouws were hauled to court for breaking them4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae4 ,,ebony ,,cabinet4 ,the furniture in these houses was by no means all of ,dutch or domestic make4 ,they had what they were able to get1 and among painted kas and inlaid chests would be ,spanish chairs or stools1 and ,english walnut beds with serge hangings1 folding tables and ,turkey-work chairs4 ,before the close of the seventeenth century there came direct to ,new ,york ,dutch ships from the ,orient1 or from the ,low ,countries themselves1 loaded with rich goods1 among which was much furniture4 ,styles had begun to change a little2 the ,dutch were absorbing ideas from the ,chinese and copying and adapting forms and decorations4 ,beautiful lacquer work was coming in1 and splendid inlaid or marquetry work2 not any more in two colours1 as was the earliest style1 but in a variety of colours and in divers patterns1 and standing upon bandy legs with ball and claw1 or what is known as the ,dutch foot1 instead of the straight or turned leg4 ,the inventories show how far ,east ,indian goods were coming in1 and there is frequent mention of ,east ,india baskets1 boxes1 trunks1 and even cabinets4 ,the most usual woods were black walnut1 white oak and nut-wood1 which was hickory4 ,occasionally pieces were made of olive-wood1 or of pine-wood painted black4 ,ebony was used for inlay and for adornment for frames4 ,looking-glasses were mentioned in nearly every list1 the earliest coming from ,venice4 ,by #afgj looking-glass was manufactured at ,lambeth1 ,england1 in the ,duke of ,buckingham's works1 and was not now so costly as to be seen only among the wealthy4 ,the cupboards were no longer uniformly made with solid doors1 but glass was introduced1 so that the family wealth of silver and china could be easily seen4 ,by #agbg mahogany is mentioned occasionally in the inventories1 and it could be bought by those who were wealthy enough to afford it4 ,probably the ,spaniards were the earliest users of mahogany1 followed by the ,dutch and ,english4 ,furniture made of this wood is known to have existed in ,new ,york prior to #agjj1 and in ,philadelphia a little later4 ,the old ,spanish mahogany was a rich1 dark1 heavy wood1 susceptible of a high polish4 ,it darkened with age and was not stained4 ,the new mahogany1 at least that which comes from ,mexico1 is of a light1 more yellow colour1 and requires staining1 as age does not darken it4 ,it is light in weight4 ,the mere lifting of a piece enables one to judge whether it is made from ,spanish wood4 ,the carpets referred to in nearly every inventory were not floor-coverings1 but table-covers1--small rugs1 no doubt1 but far too precious to be worn out by rough-shod feet walking over them4 ,the floors were scoured white1 and were strewn with sand which showed the artistic capacity of mistress or maid in the way it had patterns drawn in it by broom-handle or pointed stick4 ,it was not until the middle of the century that carpets became at all common1 and even then they are mentioned in the inventories as very choice possessions4 ,there were flowered carpets1 ,scotch ditto1 rich and beautiful ,turkey carpets1 and ,persian carpets also4 ,the colonists traded with ,hamburg and ,holland for duck1 checquered linen1 oznaburgs1 cordage1 and tea1--goods appreciated by the housewife1 and which she could not make4 ,illustration3 ,figure #af4 ,,bed ,,chair4 ,the festivities indulged in by the ,dutch settlers were generally connected with the table2 they played backgammon1 or bowls when the weather was fine and they could go out of doors4 ,the cards they used numbered seventy-three to the pack1 and there was no queen1 her place being supplied by a cavalier who was attended by a hired man1 and they both supported the king4 ,cards were not popular1 however1 except among the ,english settlers1 and they followed the home fashions4 ,after ,english rule had been dominant in the little city of ,new ,amsterdam for nearly fifty years the larger number of the families was still ,dutch1 as a collection of wills made at that period testifies4 ,what would be now domains worthy a prince--farms lying in ,nassau ,island1 as ,long ,island was then called1 vast tracts in ,new ,jersey1 and thousands of acres between ,new ,york and ,albany--were divided by these wills4 ,such names as ,killian ,van ,rensselaer1 second lord of the manor2 ,harmanus ,rutgers1 ,philip ,schuyler1 ,van ,cortlandt1 ,provoost1 etc41 are signed to these documents but it is in the minor wills that we find the records of the lives of the main body of the people4 ,a feather bed1 one or more slaves1 and the family ,bible are the bequests usually first specified1 the ,bibles in some cases being very massive and ponderous affairs4 ,jarminaye ,sieurs1 widow1 #agji1 bequeaths to her daughter her ,bible with silver clasps1 in addition to her gold rings and one half of her clothes4 ,a grand-daughter1 ,hilley ,veghten1 gets a silver cup with two ears1 and other grandchildren1 bearing such interesting names as ,reynier1 ,simesse1 and ,gretie ,veghten1 get a silver spoon each4 ,in #agaa a fond mother leaves to her daughter the red and white worsted and linen stockings1 besides two pillows1 two coverlids1 a bed and furniture4 ,a ,hempstead yeoman is very careful to stipulate that his daughter shall have-- one feather bed1 an iron pot1 six plates1 three platters1 two basins1 one drinking pot and one cupboard worth #c1 and six chairs1 six sheep1 and one table4 ,the price of the cupboard being specified shows that it was held in great estimation1 and it must have been a handsome piece of furniture4 ,only very occasionally do we find a record in the inventories of a bed chair1 yet such were sometimes found here early in the eighteenth century4 ,one is shown in ,figure #af4 ,it is carved on the top and inlaid1 and covered with woollen plush1--not the original covering1 which no doubt was ,turkey work4 ,two hinges are shown on the front rail2 the back lets down1 and a leg unfolds to support it2 while the legs and arms coming together make the centre firm4 ,this unusual piece is at the ,museum connected with the ,cooper ,institute1 is of nut-wood or maple inlaid with tulip-wood1 with bandy legs and the well-known ,dutch feet4 ,the ,dutch settlers had other elegances which are more rarely met with1 such as walnut kas or chests1 inlaid with plaques1 or rather small saucers and plates of ,oriental china4 ,these were tall1 with doors opening their whole length1 and stood on the great ball feet which are so familiar4 ,one such cabinet is in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york1 and another is owned by ,mrs4 ,pruyn of ,albany4 ,in the former example the plaques display flowers and birds in various colours2 in the latter are plain blue and white4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag4 ,,marquetry ,,desk4 ,of later manufacture were pieces of rich marquetry in vari-coloured exotic woods upon mahogany4 ,the heavy foot was replaced by others1 still turning out1 to be sure1 in the ,flemish fashion1 but very ornate and beautiful1 and still further embellished with ornaments in gilt4 ,such a piece1 massive in shape1 but enriched with much ornament1 is shown in the desk depicted in ,figure #ag4 ,it was never made for any of the humbler houses of the ,dutch settlers1 but such a piece was worthy to stand in the study of a wealthy patroon or to belong to some lord of the manor4 ,this particular desk1 a very perfect example of its class1 belongs to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chippendale4 ,in studying the various periods into which different makes of furniture may be divided1 the accentuating of one point1 say of ornaments or the structural peculiarities1 is noted1 not as being sharply defined1 but as being a gradual growth4 ,chippendale did not originate at first4 ,indeed1 he hardly adapted1 for the ,east ,india trade had brought to market ,chinese designs which he used1 and ,french furniture was so popular that he copied bodily in his book such designs as pleased him1 although the term ,french chairs1 as employed at this time1 referred to their being upholstered and not to the style or decoration4 ,thomas ,johnson published a book about the middle of the eighteenth century1 in which was a medley of ,french1 ,gothic and ,chinese designs1 many of which have a strong family likeness to ,chippendale's4 ,there was also ,matthias ,lock1 who began to publish his books as early as #agdj1 dedicated to such nobility as would stand for him4 ,these books included one on ,pier ,frames1 ,girandoles1 ,tables1 etc41 also1 one on ,ornaments and ,sconces1 all of which were characteristic of what was considered desirable at this time1 and which style ,chippendale followed too4 ,ince ,mayhew published what they called a ,universal ,system of ,household ,furnishing4 ,they made many designs1 over three hundred1 and not only set forth the fine taste in which they were conceived1 but gave the workmen directions for executing them4 ,they positively ran wild on ,chinese taste1 their fretwork and combination of ,chinese and ,gothic being perfectly extravagant4 ,like ,chippendale they designed terms1 or as we should call them pedestals1 for busts1 toilet-tables1 bookcases1 many mirror-frames1 and chairs most intricate in their carved backs1 with ribbon-work1 scrolls1 and elaborate patterns in brass nails4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah4 ,,kitchen1 ,,wayside ,,inn1 ,,sudbury1 ,,mass4 ,what were known as overdoors were very carefully designed by ,chippendale1 ,ince ,mayhew1 ,robert ,manwaring1 and later by the ,adam ,brothers4 ,these overdoors were the wood or leadwork into which glass was set1 to go above front doors4 ,william ,halfpenny1 carpenter and architect1 as he called himself1 published many works on ,furniture1 ,temples1 ,garden ,seats1 ,windows1 ,doors1 ,obelisks1 etc41 beginning in #agai4 ,among the many books are these two1 ,twenty ,new ,designs of ,chinese ,lattice and ,other ,works for ,staircases1 ,gates1 ,failings1 etc41 and also1 ,chinese and ,gothic ,architecture4 ,so fond were the ,halfpennys 7for the son was later associated with the father7 of ,chinese work that they seldom missed an opportunity of putting in a ,chinese figure4 ,on their ceilings1 above the chimney-pieces--everywhere that decoration could be crowded in1--one is apt to find a ,chinese mandarin with pigtail and umbrella4 ,the originality of ,chippendale soon spoke for itself4 ,he worked in so many styles1 and has so grown in estimation1 that his name is made to cover the greatest variety of designs4 ,when he first came before the public his work met with much adverse criticism4 ,isaac ,ware1 a contemporary1 writes of him thus3 ,it is our misfortune at this time to see an unmeaning scrawl of ,c's inverted and looped together1 taking the place of ,greek and ,roman elegance even in our most expensive decorations4 ,but the early extravagances of his designs were soon modified1 and even they were touched with a grace which made them pleasing to the eye while wholly extravagant4 ,his better and more familiar work is to-day the model upon which cabinet-workers rely1 no one having arisen who can improve on his designs4 ,thousands of pieces of furniture are called by his name1 both in this country and ,england1 which were not even contemporary with this maker and bear no resemblance either to his designs or to work known to be his4 ,about the time that ,chippendale came on the field 7#agej7 it had become the custom for architects and designers to publish catalogues of their designs4 ,thomas ,chippendale1 a progressive business man1 was not behind his contemporaries1 so in #aged he published his catalogue1 which he called ,the ,gentleman's and ,cabinet-,maker's ,director4 ,it was a very successful publication1 passed through several editions1 and brought him added name and fame4 ,it sold for #c #acs4 #f;d41 and had fine copper-plate engravings4 ,the title page of ,chippendale's ,director1 specifies designs for the following pieces of furniture3 ,chairs1 ,sofas1 ,beds and ,couches1 ,china-,tables1 ,bason-,tables and ,tea-,kettle ,stands1 ,frames for ,marble ,slabs1 ,bureau-,dressing-,tables1 and ,library-,tables1 ,library ,bookcases1 ,organ ,cases for ,private ,rooms or ,churches1 ,desks and ,bookcases1 ,dressing and ,writing-,tables with ,bookcases1 ,toilets1 ,cabinets1 and ,clothes-,presses4 ,china-,cases1 ,china-,shelves1 and ,book-,shelves1 ,candle-,stands and ,terms for ,busts1 ,stands for ,china ,jars and ,pedestals1 ,cisterns for ,water1 ,lanthorns1 and ,chandeliers1 ,fire-,screens1 ,brackets and ,clock-,cases1 ,pier-,glasses and ,table-,frames1 ,girandoles ,chimney-,pieces and ,picture-,frames1 ,stove-,grates1 ,boarders1 ,frets1 ,chinese-,railing and ,brass-,work for ,furniture4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai4 ,,chippendale ,,chairs ,at this period the best room or saloon was wainscotted chair high1 and the remainder prepared for wall-paper1 or battened for hangings of silk or tapestry4 ,chippendale drew many beautiful designs1 which he calls borders for paper-hangings1 and which were used as finishings at the top of the paper4 ,some of them were also employed as patterns for carving1 or work in stucco painted and gilded4 ,it must be remembered that ,chippendale was par excellence a carver of wood1 and so we find him working almost exclusively in solid mahogany1 as we have come to call it1 which wood had been introduced into ,england about the time of ,raleigh 7#aeie71 though it was not used to any extent as a material for furniture until about twenty-five years before ,chippendale published his book4 ,indeed it seems to have been used in ,america for this purpose quite as soon as in ,england1 although there are in that country a few detached pieces of mahogany furniture made late in #afjj1 showing that some wood had been imported before ,raleigh caused it to be brought in more freely1 along with tabac and the potato1 which latter vegetable was first grown at ,sir ,walter's estate called ,youghal1 near ,cork1 ,ireland4 ,sir ,walter did not use the new wood in his own beautiful house1 but had splendidly carved oak chimney-pieces and furniture made by men whom he brought from ,flanders for that purpose4 ,at the time ,chippendale published his book he was about forty years old1 as it is generally supposed that he was born about #agaj4 ,worcester is given as the place of his birth1 and authorities state that other members of his family practiced the art of wood-carving before him1 but the information about his early history is very scant4 ,his shop was in ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 ,london1 and he employed as many as a hundred men1 so it is rather strange that more authentic specimens of his handiwork have not survived4 ,while mahogany was the wood which he used chiefly for his furniture1 he employed a close-set pine for carving many of the beautiful floriated mirror-frames for which he was so justly celebrated4 ,scrolls1 flower and leaves1 falling water1 and a particular bird of his own fancy1 with a long and prominent beak1 were employed in the decoration of these mirrors1 which were richly gilded1 the ornament being entirely of wood without the addition of porcelain plaques or metal work1 which was such a feature of the ,french furniture of this period1 the influence of which is noticeable in many of ,chippendale's designs4 ,it is true that he did not carry out some of his designs1 notably such pieces as the state beds1 etc41 after the style of ,louis ,,xv4 ,one glance at the ,director will show how impossible these beds were4 ,the top1 supported on posts1 rises like ,ossa upon ,pelion piled1 with layers or terraces of carved figures of children1 rock-work1 and everything else1 the whole crowned by groups consisting of several figures and animals4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bj4 ,,chippendale ,,chair4 ,his designs for bedposts show the ,french influence1 being fluted and wreathed with flowers4 ,many stand flat on the ground without ornamental feet1 and are plain on top to support a canopy or tester4 ,most successful of all the furniture designed by this maker are the chairs1 many of them decorated with graceful scroll-work and delicate garlands of flowers1 though the styles with which we are most familiar are massive1 heavy pieces with carving upon them1 and either with or without solid underbraces4 ,a unique piece is shown in ,figure #bj4 ,this chair is thought to have been imported into this country about #agfj1 but ,i should suppose it to be a very much earlier example of ,chippendale's work1 while he was still content to copy1 for the front legs show the bear's paw while the rear ones are the familiar ,dutch foot4 ,it belongs to the ,south ,carolina ,college1 at ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c4 and was given to it by ,general ,preston about #ahej4 ,in his letter of presentation he calls it the quasi throne of the ,colonial ,governors of ,south ,carolina1 but beyond this its history is unknown4 ,this chair is of solid mahogany as most of these chairs were1 and shows about the edges of the carving traces of the chisel-marks1 a not at all unusual feature in these old hand-carved pieces4 ,the splat 7i4 e4 the central part of the back7 is plainly pierced4 ,the term cabriole1 which we apply now to the leg1 in ,chippendale's time referred to a chair having a stuffed back4 ,it has generally been supposed that ,chippendale was the originator of the ball-and-claw foot1 which is of two varieties1 but he copied this style of decoration directly from the ,dutch4 ,the foot in this chair is what is known as the bear's paw1 so called from the fur which is rudely carved above the foot4 ,the other style being the bird's claw4 ,the chairs with cabriole legs were called bandy or bow-legged when they first came into use1 about #agjj1 which is also about the time that easy-chairs were first used in bedrooms4 ,up to that date chairs had been rather severe and of the nature of stools and settles4 ,as writing became better learned there was a demand for dainty and ornamental desks for ladies' use1 as well as library desks for men1 and bookcases were also needed4 ,in ,chippendale's book1 ,the ,gentleman's and ,cabinet-,maker's ,director1 while there are designs given for every imaginable piece of furniture1 there is not a single illustration of the ball-and-claw or hoof foot2 yet it is known by authentic pieces1 coming down as late as #aghj1 and preserved in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 that such work was done by him4 ,further than this1 we are used to consider mahogany as pre-eminently the wood he worked in1 yet in this same guide this wood is mentioned by him but once4 ,six designs of chairs for ,halls1 ,passages1 or ,summer-houses4 ,they may be made either of mahogany or any other wood1 and painted1 and have commonly wooden seats4 ,all this fine solid mahogany furniture made by ,chippendale1 and by which his name is so firmly perpetuated1 was regarded by him as merely commercial work4 ,what he really took a pride in was very fussy1 covered with upholstery1 with an abundance of carving and gilding1 and even metal work on the exposed parts4 ,rosewood was used by him also1 with elaborate carving which was sometimes embellished with gilt1 or1 in cases where great elegance was demanded1 by brass1 copper1 or silver mounts richly chased4 ,he turned out many pieces of soft wood japanned or painted1 and decorated also with gilt and colours4 ,little of this furniture ever came to ,america4 ,it was made to order for the nobility and gentry1 and its immense cost rendered it possible only for the very wealthy4 ,among the two hundred copper-plate designs given in ,chippendale's book1 quite a large portion of them are in what is known as ,chinese taste1 which had taken the world of fashion by storm4 ,sir ,william ,chambers1 who had travelled in ,china1 is given the credit for having introduced this style into furniture and decoration1 which was further adapted by ,chippendale and other makers1 but it was already known before ,chambers's day4 ,both ,chambers and ,robert ,adam1 the best architects of their day1 were ,scotchmen4 ,chambers was born in #agbf1 and from his earliest years had a love for the sea4 ,this induced him to make a voyage to ,canton1 where he made innumerable notes and sketches of furniture1 buildings1 and gardens1 which he made full use of later4 ,in #agei he published his book ,the ,decorative ,part of ,civil ,architecture1 which was most successful4 ,he was appointed drawing-master to the ,prince of ,wales1 afterward ,george ,,iii41 and managed to retain the royal favor for the rest of his life4 ,he not only designed many houses for wealthy patrons and altered many others1 but he was afterward appointed landscape gardener at ,kew1 and knighted4 ,the older ,chinese furniture which one sees in ,europe dates from the eighteenth century1 and was made for and imported by the ,dutch2 hence the medley of styles4 ,elaborate bedsteads1 tables1 and cabinets were decorated with ivory figures in relief4 ,there is furniture of this description in the ,united ,states1 splendidly carved out of cedar and decorated with hundreds of tiny figures of men and women carved from ivory and set on4 ,such a piece is shown in ,figure #ba1 the original of which is at ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,not only was ,chinese furniture in wood and wicker brought from the ,orient1 but the ,dutch1 whom we have come to look upon as ready imitators1 followed ,oriental styles not only in furniture but in pottery as well4 ,chippendale specifies nine of his designs for chairs in ,chinese style as proper for a lady's dressing-room1 especially if it were hung with an ,india paper4 ,they were likewise recommended for ,chinese temples4 ,these chairs commonly have cane bottoms with loose cushions1 but if required may be stuffed and have brass nails4 ,as early as #agaa ,addison comments on the motley confusion heaped up in a lady's library1 where there were few books but ,munkies1 ,mandarins1 and ,scaramouches without end2 and to keep these ornaments in countenance was also furniture made after ,chinese designs4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba4 ,,carved ,,cedar ,,table4 ,besides these styles ,chippendale also used a modification of the ,gothic1 notably in such places as the doors of cabinets1 or the doors and the tops of bookcases4 ,horace ,walpole1 in his little ,gothic villa at ,strawberry ,hill1 had awakened a still further taste for a revival of ,gothic designs2 and everybody1 to be in the mode1 had their cabinet doors and bookcases with embattled tops and ,gothic tracery4 ,of all the styles ,chippendale adopted and adapted1 this one left the least enduring trace4 ,more successful were his bookcases based on ,louis ,,xv4 style4 ,they are of mahogany and have the rococo ornaments peculiar to this style4 ,this work shows off gilding admirably4 ,these bookcases with drawers and desk1 as well as the bureaus1 were used in bedrooms which were often boudoirs and studies as well4 ,so a receptacle which could be quickly locked was quite necessary4 ,in ,chippendale's catalogue are directions given for many small articles which were much in demand and highly fashionable when the book was written1 but for which the present day and generation has no use4 ,such were the charming little tea-caddies with brass handles and locks1 stands for candles1 or china jars or animals with which the drawing-rooms of those days were crowded4 ,there were also carved brackets1 decorated with the bird we have spoken of before1 and exquisite foliated designs making graceful adornments for any room1 and often neglected in sales where other and better-known examples of this period bring fabulous prices4 ,when carved in pine these brackets are always gilded1 but occasionally they may be obtained in walnut and mahogany4 ,the designs for such pieces are largely original with ,chippendale1 for their use had just become needed1 and we must remember besides that it was ,chippendale's misfortune to live in a transition period1 and that the rococo which preceded him1 and by which his first work was influenced1 died very hard4 ,indeed his first style might be called rococo1 and the designs swelled and bulged1 were covered with meaningless and fantastic ornament1 and ran riot through all styles and countries4 ,it had for its chief merit the fact that it was executed with great delicacy and beauty and had a grace about it which was always pleasing4 ,the two sides of a design are seldom alike1 and the merit of such pieces is due purely to the skill of the carver4 ,yet it was under his skilful hand that later the beauty of simplicity was once more proved1 and he sought classic models for his inspiration4 ,speaking himself of designs for ,french chairs he says1 for greater variety the feet and elbows are different4 ,the moulding around the bottom of the edge of the rails also comes under his consideration1 and he mentions ,spanish leather or damask as good material for covering chairs4 ,he it was who exemplified the principle that each part of a piece of furniture should be adapted to its use1 and that overloading an article with ornament did not necessarily add to its beauty4 ,after his rococo period came the rage for ,chinese designs1 and lastly the plain and solid style with which we are familiar4 ,two very handsome chairs are shown in ,figure #bb1 the side chair showing an abundance of exquisite carving on the knees and in the splat4 ,it is wonderful what variety he encompassed working in the small space and confined shape of this part of a chair4 ,it will be observed that in all the chairs shown no two splats are alike4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bb4 ,,chippendale ,,chairs4 ,all the construction of the ,chippendale furniture of the last period is remarkably solid and of the first order1 and the wood is of a dark and rich mahogany4 ,the best pieces of this period are those in which the originality of the designer had full play1 and when he was not influenced by either the ,french or ,oriental taste4 ,the furniture of this period1 fine and free in design1 was well adapted to the fashions and mode of life of the people for whom it was made4 ,he retained the roomy character of the ,dutch furniture1 which was needed for the style of dress affected by both sexes4 ,the ,spanish furniture of oak1 with cane work or leather1 introduced by ,catherine of ,braganza1 was not the only innovation brought to ,england by that lady1 for ,evelyn says in his ,diary for ,may #cj1 #affb1 ,the ,queene ariv'd with a traine of ,portuguese ladies in their monstrous fardingals or guard-infantas 444 ,her ,majesty in the same habit1 her foretop long and curiously turn'd aside4 ,in the next forty years fashions changed1--they changed slowly in those days1--and among other things laid at the door of ,good ,queen ,anne may be added the hoop-skirt4 ,flowered and damask gowns were worn over it1 and in the ,spectator of #agab a number of gowns are advertised for sale1 all the property of ,mr4 ,peter ,paggen1 of ,love ,lane1 near ,eastcheap1 ,london4 ,among them is an ,isabella-coloured kincob gown1 flowered with green and gold2 a purple and gold ,atlas gown with a scarlet and gold ,atlas petticoat edged with silver4 ,a little later in the century a lady's gown was all ruffles and flounces1 in fact every part of the garment was in curl1 and caused a lady of fashion to look like one of those animals which in the country we call a ,friesland hen4 ,the reigns of the first two ,georges had ,hogarth for their illustrator1 and in the set of drawings called ,marriage la ,mode we see the hoods1 skirts without trains1 unruffled and often accompanied by a sack1 or something between a cloak and a gown1 and called a mantua4 ,during the reign of ,george ,i4 there was no queen to set the fashion1 so it changed little4 ,in #agce ,caroline1 queen of ,george ,,ii4 on the king's birthday appeared in a beautiful suit made of silk of the produce of ,georgia1 and the same was acknowledged to excel that of any other country4 ,the ladies who accompanied her wore flowered silks of various colours1 of a large pattern1 but mostly with a white ground1 with wide short sleeves and short petticoats4 ,these gowns were often pinned up behind in fantastic fashion1 and generally quite narrow4 ,it was also la mode to wear gold or silver nets on the petticoats1 and to face and guard the robes with them and even to wear them on sleeves4 ,lady ,harcourt1 a famous beauty of ,caroline's court1 wore on one occasion a white ground rich silk1 embossed with gold and silver1 and fine coloured flowers of a large pattern4 ,what we know as a morning-gown they called1 in the middle of the eighteenth century a nightgown1 and we read of a garnet-coloured lustring nightgown with a tobine stripe of green and white1 trimmed with floss of the same colour and lined with straw-coloured lutestring4 ,a gay garment truly4 ,these were the styles in vogue when ,chippendale began to design and make furniture for his patrons1 whom he desired to see among the most fashionable4 ,while the ladies were so gay1 the gentlemen were quite as elegant1 with three-cornered hats1 wigs and patches1 embroidered waistcoats1 with stiffened skirts to their coats1 knee-breeches1 silk stockings1 and snuff-boxes4 ,such modish people could not bestow themselves comfortably in chairs with arms1 so chairs without arms1 and tabourets1 as they were called1 were quite necessary for comfort4 ,the fashionable ailment of the day1 for men at least was gout1 and we find designs for gouty stools1 in which the top could be raised or lowered as best suited the needs of the patient4 ,his designs for sofas made these articles of great size2 they ran from six feet nine inches to ten feet long4 ,his ideas as to decoration seem amusing1 for he mentions that the carvings on the sofa should be emblematic of ,watchfulness1 ,assiduity1 and ,rest4 ,wine-coolers for which ,chippendale made many designs1 sometimes had brass bands around them which had the effect of making them look very heavy and clumsy4 ,coolers of this style were round or oval1 but some of better design were oblong or square4 ,numbers of beautiful little tea-tables1 or tea-poys1 as they were often called1 were also made by ,chippendale1 and what he called in his book of designs candle stands were no doubt sometimes put to this use1 though their height--he says they should run from three feet six inches to four feet six inches1 rendered the taller ones awkward4 ,figure #bc shows a very beautiful example of one of these stands richly carved4 ,the post is three feet seven and a half inches high1 and the hexagonal top has a standing rim of very delicate carving4 ,the little tea-stand next to it has also a slight rim1 and some carving on the pedestal and feet4 ,the music-stand is not a usual piece1 and has a cupboard and drawer to contain the sheets4 ,all three pieces are of mahogany and belong to the collection at ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,many of these tables or stands made their way to ,america1 for tea-drinking was a great resource for the ladies4 ,as early as #agbj ,bohea tea was selling at ,philadelphia for thirty shillings a pound4 ,its great cost prohibited its common use1 and it was not until much later that it became common1 so the greatest treat that could be offered to a neighbour was a drink of tea1 particularly if the proud housewife could serve it out of a tiny porcelain cup without a handle1 such cups being almost as great a rarity as the tea4 ,the little rim which set up above the edge of the table was intended to prevent the tea furniture from falling off4 ,these tables are occasionally seen in ,america in their simpler forms4 ,there are special ones made to order for customers by ,chippendale1 which are seldom allowed to leave the families for which they were originally made4 ,there are two such tea-tables made in ,chinese taste with fretwork legs1 sides to the table1 and the little standing rim to protect the china4 ,one of these tables was made for the great-grandmother of the present owner1 by ,chippendale1 and has come down in a state of perfect preservation4 ,it is held in ,england1 is thirty-nine and three-eighths inches high1 the top is thirty-two by twenty-one and five-eighths inches4 ,chippendale1 in his book1 gives very elaborate directions for preparing the wood from which this fretwork carving was to be made4 ,in order to have it as strong as possible he advises the use of three thin sheets of wood glued together1 the grain to run in opposite directions1 and the fret carving to be made in this4 ,he particularly recommends this use of glued wood for such pieces as ,china-,cases1 which were largely fretwork with pagodas on top and hanging ornaments at the sides4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bc4 ,,chippendale ,,candle1 ,,tea ,,and ,,music ,,stands4 ,card-tables were also made in great varieties and numbers by this same maker1 and his graceful designs were copied by other and less well-known makers1 so that these tables1 at least in ,chippendale style1 are not uncommon4 ,his card-tables were of two styles1 with leaves which folded together on top when not in use1 and a plain oblong table without leaves4 ,as card-playing was one of the most fashionable pursuits of the day in ,england1 which fashion was followed with becoming promptitude by us4 ,it is seen that many of these tables were needed to accommodate the gay world4 ,those most esteemed were the kind with leaves1 which could seat a larger party than the oblong ones1 and which1 when not in use1 could be folded together and set against the wall4 ,both styles1 when made by ,chippendale1 were decorated only with carving4 ,during the last half of the eighteenth century there were probably few families who did not own at least one card-table4 ,gambling at cards had always been an amusement at courts1 and there were many games in vogue4 ,ombre had been introduced in the previous century by ,catherine of ,braganza1 and quadrille was another favorite game of hers4 ,pepys under date of ,february #ag1 #afff-g1 alludes to the fact that ,catherine played not only on week days but on ,sundays as well4 ,this evening1 going to the ,queene's side to see the ladies1 ,i did find the ,queene1 the ,duchesse of ,york1 and another or two at cards1 with the room full of great ladies and men1 which ,i was amazed at to see of a ,sunday1 having not believed it1 but contrarily1 flatly denied the same a little while since to my cosen ,roger ,pepys4 ,the next reign1 that of ,james ,,ii41 saw basset introduced1 and it retained its popularity through several reigns and was still the mode when ,queen ,anne occupied the throne4 ,it broke into her hours by day as well as by night1 and the drain on the privy purse was excessive1 for the queen was a good loser4 ,the ,cocoa-,tree ,club1 at ,no4 #fd ,st4 ,james ,street1 ,london1 was1 during ,queen ,anne's reign1 a regular gambling-den4 ,walpole says3 ,within this week there has been a cast at hazard at the ,cocoa-,tree1 the difference of which amounted to #ahj1jjj4 ,by ,george ,,ii4's reign cards were universal4 ,the preface to the ,court ,gamster says3 ,gaming has become so much the fashion that he who in company should be ignorant of the games in vogue would be reckoned low-bred and hardly fit for conversation4 ,the ,princess ,amelia ,sophia1 daughter of ,george ,,ii41 was an inveterate snuff-taker as well as gambler4 ,horace ,walpole1 who was often invited to make one at her card parties1 has left many graphic pictures of her4 ,at ,bath the card-tables were one of the chief attractions1 and the sums of money staked during a single night seem prodigious4 ,but of all the ,georges1 ,george ,,iv4 had the most reckless propensities4 ,before he was twenty-one years old he had lost #hjj1jjj1 one of his boon companions being that confirmed gamester1 ,charles ,james ,fox4 ,almack's was a famous gambling-club1 opened in #agfd4 ,the gamesters began by pulling off their velvet and embroidered coats1 putting on frieze garments1 and pulling leather sleeves over their lace ruffles4 ,high-crowned1 broad-brimmed straw hats were worn to shade their eyes from the light1 to keep their hair from being tumbled1 and perhaps to conceal their emotions4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bd4 ,,chippendale ,,card-,,table4 ,george ,,ii4 was still on the throne when ,chippendale published his ,director1 and in such a gambling age it is no wonder that he made many card-tables in order to please his patrons4 ,not alone at court were they in demand1 but one has only to read such transcripts of the times as ,jane ,austen's or ,miss ,burney's novels to find that nearly every country family sat down of an evening to a quiet hand at cards4 ,following at a distance1 but as well as they were able1 the fashions set at court1 ,americans too played cards1 and ,chippendale's tables were sent across the ocean and were copied by colonial cabinet-makers1 who by this time had become very successful workers themselves4 ,contemporary letters1 which describe the propensity of the ladies to play loo all day as well as all night were1 no doubt1 too extravagant4 ,on the great plantations at the ,south1 gambling was said to be a favorite diversion1 and piquet1 cart1 faro1 hazard1 and basset were played1 as well as less exciting games4 ,besides the tables with plain polished surfaces1 some were covered with a green cloth4 ,others had pockets to hold the counters1 which were old silver ,spanish pieces or were made of mother-of-pearl4 ,these tables were valued highly1 the early ones being walnut1 the later mahogany4 ,in some of the inventories already quoted mention is made of various styles of playing-cards which were imported by the gross1 as well as pearl fish1 which were the fashionable counters4 ,in ,figure #bd a very beautiful ,chippendale card-table is shown4 ,it is of mahogany1 richly carved on the knees1 and with a heavy carved moulding4 ,it is unusual in having five legs1 one of which moves out to support the second half of the top4 ,the feet are ball-and-claw1 and within the lid is lined with cloth1 has depressions for counters1 and also four flat panels1 one at each corner1 where the candlesticks stood4 ,it belongs to ,miss ,sarah ,frost1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 and has been in her family over #ajj years4 ,most of ,chippendale's furniture presents certain characteristics that are easily mastered4 ,first may be mentioned the ball-and-claw foot1 and the cabriole leg which he adopted from the ,dutch1 and which he used so freely before he introduced the straight leg4 ,then the backs of his chairs are quite distinctive1 whether the splats run up and down1 or become cross-braces1 or are elaborated into very ornamental ribbon-work4 ,the top bar is generally extended on each end into what1 for a better name1 we will call ears4 ,chippendale never used inlay on any of his pieces1 preferring to produce the decoration by carving4 ,in his very ornate carvings we have mentioned the long-billed bird1 the falling-water effect1 and the familiar ribbon-work which is often introduced into backs with such good effect4 ,there are a number of patterns for carving shown in the designs in his book1 and used by him over and over again1 with which we have become well acquainted4 ,little carved bands were quite universally employed to decorate the rims of his card-tables1 and in his fine chairs the front bar of the seat often had a shell or other ornament carved upon it4 ,the very finest chairs by this maker are seldom found in ,america1 though furniture was imported freely4 ,in ,smith's ,history of ,new ,york for the year #agef1 two years after ,chippendale published his work1 there is the following statement3 ,illustration3 ,figure #be4 ,,chippendale ,,marble-,,topped ,,table4 ,in the ,city of ,new ,york1 through our intercourse with ,europeans1 we follow the ,london fashions1 though by the time we adopt them they become disused in ,england4 ,our affluence during the late ,french war introduced a degree of luxury in tables1 dress1 and furniture with which we were before unacquainted4 ,but still we are not so gay a people as our neighbours at ,boston1 and several ,southern colonies4 ,this is the first time possibly that the descendants of the ,pilgrims have gone on record as a gay people4 ,when the seats of ,chippendale's pieces are stuffed1 it will be noticed that the material is usually drawn over the rails1 and sometimes adorned with gilt-headed nails set in a pattern or straight4 ,see ,figure #ai4 ,he says in his catalogue that he considers this the handsomer fashion2 but in some cases1 where the seats were covered with set work or crewel work1 they were set in the wooden frame4 ,there are two such chairs made by ,chippendale and given by the fourth ,duke of ,marlborough in #agij to an ancestor of the present owner4 ,the seats of these ribbon-backed chairs were worked by the famous ,sarah1 ,duchess of ,marlborough1 and are still in a fresh and blooming state of preservation4 ,these arm-chairs are very handsomely carved1 and rest on large ball-and-claw feet4 ,the carving is not confined to the knee alone1 but runs down the leg to the end of the claw4 ,these are owned in ,england4 ,that quantities of this furniture are changing hands all the time is evident from reading the records of sales which go on at all the large auction rooms in ,europe4 ,it is safe to say that fully half of it comes to ,america1 and that it is possible to buy here choice specimens of the works of all the famous cabinet-makers4 ,even the well-known ,battle ,abbey has been despoiled1 and while much of the furniture was ,flemish and ,german1 and not of particularly good quality1 there were also some pieces of both ,chippendale and ,adam ,bros41 the latter being represented by several mirrors4 ,chippendale chairs of undoubted authenticity bring easily at these sales #bjj each1 while one of distinctly inferior quality sold for #cce1 owing to the authenticity of its history4 ,at a sale of furniture held within the year at ,christie's1 in ,london1 a genuine surprise was furnished when a set of mahogany ,chippendale chairs brought #e1bbe4 ,a few weeks later two chairs1 apparently out of the same set1 appeared at another sale1 also at ,christie's and about an hour before the sale they were withdrawn4 ,these chairs1 says the catalogue1 were given by a lady to the vicar and church wardens of a parish church in ,lincolnshire4 ,the lady died1 and her executors held that they were lent1 not given1 and the sale was stopped until the rightful ownership should be established by law4 ,but there was also in the catalogue still another chair which was said to belong to the same set1 yet which was of a different wood and more boldly carved4 ,this chair brought but a little more than #ajj4 ,the removal of the two previously mentioned chairs from the sale1 and the whole mystery which surrounds them1 has given rise to wild rumours1 and all kinds of reports are circulated which makes one very cautious about buying at auctions4 ,in fact catalogues at auctions are little to be relied on1 as one will often find pieces heavy with inlay1 or of undoubted ,american make1 boldly marked ,chippendale1 while ,sheraton is made to shoulder the baldest imitations of his style and design4 ,it must always be a matter of regret that furniture-makers so rarely signed their work4 ,if they had realized that individual specimens would bring as much as fine paintings1 they would not have left their work clouded with an uncertain pedigree4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bf4 ,,chippendale ,,chair-,,backs ,,and ,,mirror-,,frame ,chippendale did not make sideboards4 ,he made side or serving-tables but the sideboard was a later growth1 due largely to three cabinet-makers who succeeded ,chippendale1--,shearer1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton1 all of whom1 like ,chippendale1 published catalogues of their designs4 ,the nearest approach which ,chippendale made to a sideboard was a table with a shallow drawer for linen4 ,he did not make any of those pieces of furniture with drawers and cupboards which are so often called by his name4 ,it may be seen that on ,chippendale's title-page he refers to frames for marble slabs4 ,these were generally tables1--side or serving tables we should call them1--and they were elaborately carved on legs and edges4 ,nor were they unknown in this country1 for inventories as early as the middle of the eighteenth century refer to sideboard tables with marble tops1 as well as marble-topped parlor tables4 ,in ,figure #be is shown an unusually elegant marble-topped parlor table4 ,the profuse carving is in ,chippendale's very best style1 not flamboyant1 but elegant and graceful4 ,on each of the long sides is a grotesque mask1 and the legs1 carved over the knees with shells and flowers in low relief1 end in a ball-and-paw1 the hair on the foot being most delicately carved4 ,the wood is dark1 rich mahogany2 the marble top is of brown tint with light veinings4 ,this fine piece is at ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,to sum up1 then1 briefly1 ,chippendale's peculiarities may be expressed as follows3 ,he used the ball-and-claw foot with the cabriole leg3 this was succeeded by the straight leg4 ,the tops of his chairs are almost invariably prolonged into little ear-like ornaments4 ,he never used inlay on his furniture4 ,he used carving as ornament1 generally worked in solid mahogany for his larger pieces1 and in a close-set pine which was gilded for his smaller and ornamental pieces4 ,many of the gold-frame looking-glasses have the glass pane divided by delicate ornament or pilasters4 ,this was to save expense1 as in this way several small panes of glass could be used instead of one large and more costly one4 ,the glass made in ,england was in very thin plates1 and the bevel was ground by hand1 so that it followed every twist and turn in the convolutions of the frame which rested on it4 ,strength1 beauty1 and adaptability to the use for which the piece was made1 were the watchwords for ,chippendale's most characteristic furniture4 ,it is true that during the early years of his work there was a large demand for everything ,french1 to which he catered1 yet he in time reversed this and caused the attention of the world to be drawn to ,england as the centre from which could be obtained the best designs in furniture4 ,while ,chippendale sought for his effects largely in his use of carving and gilding1 although we find little of this latter work in the pieces seen in ,america1 he also took the greatest pains to select brilliant and elegant brocades1 wrought stuffs1 and hand-worked material for the upholstered parts of his furniture4 ,nor did he neglect brass nails as a means of brightening up a piece1 though both ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton used them more than he did4 ,none of the furniture which we so fondly ascribed to his name is from the designs figured in his book1 his use of brilliant metal mounts is practically unknown among us4 ,he himself admired the beautiful ,louis ,,xiv ribbon ornament which he lavished on so many chair backs1 and he says ,if ,i may speak without vanity1 they are the best ,i have ever seen1 or perhaps have ever been made4 ,like his fellow-craftsmen1 ,chippendale made cases for tall clocks1 and some of them are odd and not in the least graceful or beautiful4 ,one will have for ornament on the extreme top a crowing cock1 life size1 and rampant1 the base on which he stands being a mass of ugly carving4 ,another has what might be called a sunburst1 with a star in its midst2 others have allegorical figures4 ,his designs for mantel clocks were much prettier and in better taste everyway4 ,he used walnut as well as mahogany for the cases1 and sometimes ,chinese panels1 or panels painted with nymphs and goddesses1 called in ,french taste1 were inserted4 ,these decorations served1 besides1 to ornament the fire-screens which were popular pieces of furniture4 ,he made designs for chimney-pieces or over-mantels4 ,these were filled in with glass4 ,chippendale says3 ,chimney-pieces require great care in the execution4 ,the embossments must be very bold1 the foliage neatly laid down1 and the whole properly relieved4 ,the top may be gilt1 as likewise some other ornamental parts4 ,knowing the sturdy1 plain characteristics of ,chippendale's furniture as we see it1 this constant reference to gilt and the mass of over-decoration seems quite out of place4 ,his beds were called ,canopy beds1 ,chinese beds1 ,dome beds1 ,gothic beds with flat testers1 ,field beds1 ,tent beds1 ,sofa beds with canopies1 and the usual high four-posters4 ,many beautiful clothes-presses were made by ,chippendale1 either chest like affairs on four legs1 or having drawers below and wardrobe above1 some of these latter bearing a strong resemblance to the ,french pieces from which they were copied4 ,scant mention is made of ,chippendale1 in contemporary literature1 but he has the distinction accorded to but few of having a large class of furniture design called by his name1 instead of being designated by the period in which it was made4 ,mr4 ,clouston1 in his book on ,chippendale ,furniture says that there were two ,chippendales1 father and son1 and alludes to the author of the ,director as the elder ,mr4 ,chippendale4 ,the son1 like many sons of great men1 seems to have lost his identity in the reputation which has been gradually gathering about his father's name4 ,he seems to have produced nothing of moment1 and the family has sunk again into the obscurity from which one man had the genius to raise it4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,adam1 ,,sheraton1 ,,empire4 ,the increased market offered to ,english merchants in the colonies1 now more prosperous1 produced in quick succession several cabinet-makers who worked in a different style from ,chippendale1 and made much very handsome furniture4 ,robert and ,james ,adam1 by training and profession architects1 turned their attention to furniture which would be appropriate in rooms of ,greek or ,roman style4 ,their designs were all on classic lines1 and were beautifully painted besides by the popular artists of the day1 like ,angelica ,kauffmann and ,pergolese1 who1 like ,alma ,tadema in our day1 did not hesitate to expend their art upon fine pieces of furniture4 ,the ,adam brothers introduced the use of composition ornaments coloured and gilded1 which were really a revival of the ,italian process of gesso1 and which they had learned during their years of study in ,italy4 ,they designed many mantelpieces1 also decorated in classic style1 and had a decided influence in moulding the taste of their contemporaries and successors4 ,satin-wood was introduced by them1 or at least at this period1 and was used for inlaying as well as for the manufacture of whole pieces of furniture4 ,most of it1 when used as the wood of the entire piece1 is decorated with medallions of marquetry of some darker wood1 as tulip1 rosewood1 or mahogany4 ,the ,adam brothers did not make any furniture themselves1 but had it made by popular makers under their personal direction4 ,in ,figure #bi are shown three chairs of ,adam design4 ,the side chair retains its original covering of a heavy wool plush1 with classic figures stamped in it of wreaths and maces4 ,its covering was also designed by ,adam4 ,this chair and the arm-chair like it are very delicately carved in low relief with a small leaf pattern4 ,the legs are fluted and end in a form of spade-foot4 ,the arm-chair on the top is very richly carved1 and the entire woodwork is gilded4 ,the covering has been restored4 ,these three chairs are in the ,museum connected with ,cooper ,institute4 ,in #agfd ,robert ,adam published his book dedicated to ,george ,,iii41 and illustrated with most elaborate engravings by ,bartolozzi and other fashionable engravers4 ,for this graceful act ,robert ,adam was appointed architect to the king1 and his rise was rapid and brilliant4 ,james ,adam had now completed his studies and was taken into partnership by his brother4 ,in #aggc they began to publish engravings of their architectural works in serial parts4 ,they continued to issue these until #aggh1 when the entire work was published under the title of ,works in ,architecture by ,robert and ,james ,adam ,esquires4 ,it contains quite as many designs for furniture as some of the so-called furniture catalogues4 ,while the outlines of the furniture are very graceful and delicate1 their beauty is much increased by the skilful and artistic paintings of ,angelica ,kauffmann and ,zucchi by which they are embellished4 ,pergolese was brought from ,italy to add still further to the beauty of their work4 ,john ,flaxman1 at this time creating lovely classic designs in various kinds of wares for ,wedgwood1 also contributed to their success1 and many of his plaques and panels were set in their furniture to its further adornment4 ,they were used not only in satin-wood1 but in other furniture as well which was painted in the same colours as the ,wedgwood ware4 ,whole rooms1 walls1 ceiling1 and furniture were coloured to match1 even the harpsichord and candle-stands being painted and decorated with ,wedgwood plaques4 ,of the second book1 furniture designs fill one volume1 mirrors another1 and girandoles a third4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bg4 ,,room ,,in ,,whipple ,,house1 ,,ipswich1 ,,mass4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bh4 ,,chippendale1 ,,sheraton1 ,,and ,,hepplewhite ,,chairs4 ,robert ,adam showed wonderful skill and aptitude in adapting classic forms to modern taste1 and his pieces are never overloaded with ornament1 but retain simple1 graceful lines4 ,he never considered any detail too small for his minute attention4 ,besides designing the woodwork of his furniture he also drew the patterns for the stuffs to cover them2 even the little silk cushions on the arms of the chairs had the same care bestowed on them as the backs and seat4 ,when he designed a bed1 the counterpane to go on it was also made under his direction or designed by him4 ,a little bag to hang on a lady's arm was not too slight an object to be made beautiful by his artistic hand4 ,he paid the greatest attention to having the covering for upholstered furniture appropriate to the style of chair it went on1 but he allowed himself great latitude in gilding1 and1 as we have already said1 in painting his furniture in colours4 ,he also gave variety to his tables by the use of coloured marble tops4 ,the ,adam brothers designed some of the interior fittings for ,strawberry ,hill4 ,they also built ,colzean ,castle1 designed ,alnwick ,castle1 and many other splendid homes4 ,thomas ,shearer is a name not often heard in ,america1 yet the book1 ,the ,london ,cabinet-,maker's ,book of ,prices1 published in #aghh1 contained many beautiful designs by him4 ,this work provided more for the cabinet-maker himself than for the gentleman1 to whom most of the previous works of this nature had been dedicated4 ,there were many members of the ,london ,cabinet-,maker's ,society1 but only three made the illustrations to the book1--,thomas ,shearer1 ,hepplewhite1 and a man named ,casement1 who furnished but two4 ,now1 when there are so many banks and safe-deposit companies1 we do not feel the need of secret drawers and repositories for storing our valuables4 ,they were quite necessary a hundred years or more ago and much ingenuity was expended in concealing them from curious or prying eyes4 ,we are also wont to consider recent times and conditions responsible for such shams and mockeries as folding beds1 and articles of furniture that are not what they seem4 ,in these early books of designs are not only folding beds1 press-beds1 and library bedsteads1 but folding washstands and toilet-tables1 as well as tables1 toilets1 and bureaus which concealed the mattress and bed furniture by day4 ,some of these pieces were most elaborate and had intricate machinery to work them4 ,a graceful1 classical urn of wood1 touched on the right spot1 would open and disclose a basin and ewer1 while a writing-table could be unfolded into a lady's dressing-table with folding glasses1 and boxes for the necessary powder1 pomatum1 brushes and pins4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bi4 ,,adam ,,chairs4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cj4 ,,hepplewhite ,,chairs4 ,to ,thomas ,shearer we are indebted for that useful article1 the sideboard1 which has assumed such a variety of forms1 and among his designs were dressing1 card1 and tea-tables1 of many styles1 and various desks1 but he designed no chairs4 ,many of his pieces bear a close resemblance to those of ,sheraton4 ,between the severity of the latest period of ,chippendale and the dainty designs of ,sheraton1 ,shearer and ,hepplewhite find their place1 though neither of them ever approached in beauty of design1 or in popularity1 ,chippendale who preceded them or ,sheraton who succeeded them4 ,a4 ,hepplewhite's book1 ,the ,cabinet-,maker and ,upholsterer's ,guide1 or ,repository of ,designs for ,every ,article of ,household ,furniture in the ,newest and ,most ,approved ,taste1 was published in #aghi and contained three hundred designs for pieces of furniture which have been so often copied that they have grown familiar to us4 ,his chairs are extremely pretty1 but1 unlike those of ,chippendale1 who sought solidity and careful construction1 ,hepplewhite's chairs were so faulty and fragile in construction that they broke easily4 ,up to this time the splat had joined the back of the chair and served to make it much stronger1 but ,hepplewhite never brought it down to the seat1 usually having it curved and joining the side rails three or four inches above the seat4 ,there are more pieces of ,hepplewhite furniture in ,america than one is aware of4 ,his chairs are by no means uncommon1 and are very easily recognized by their peculiar backs4 ,his tables1 with the delicate inlay and slender tapering legs1 as also his sideboards1 are frequently called by the name of his great successor1 ,sheraton1 and even in ,england the two makers are frequently confused4 ,he had a specialty of his own1--that of japanned or lacquered furniture1 and the patterns he most frequently employed were fruit and flowers on a black ground4 ,paintings such as these were taught to young ladies as an accomplishment at school1 and no doubt many of them tried their prentice hands on some nice old mahogany piece as soon as they got home4 ,hepplewhite had another peculiarity in his preference for using a circle or some portion of it in his designs4 ,on looking over his ,guide one will notice that a half circle was often used as the design for a sideboard1 or table to be set against the wall4 ,his small tables are nearly always round or a broad oval1 and his chair-backs follow the same shape1 so did his girandoles and tea-trays4 ,for a central ornament to his chair backs he frequently carved three ,prince's feathers1 or drooping ears of wheat1 neither of which design is particularly pleasing4 ,besides the circular he used also the shield-shaped back4 ,in ,figure #cj are shown three of his characteristic chairs4 ,the one on the left has the ,prince's feathers1 and all of them show the slender leg which in two of them ends in the spade-foot4 ,the dining-tables of this period1 before the days of the extension table1 had round1 square1 or octagonal tops1 supported on a column which rested on a plinth having several carved feet4 ,there were a number of variations of the arrangement of feet4 ,in order to accommodate a large party several of these tables could be placed together1 and when not in use could be placed against the wall to serve as side-tables4 ,his easy chairs--and he made many of these1 large and comfortable--he covered entirely with upholstery1 no woodwork showing but the legs4 7,see ,figure #ef74 ,illustration3 ,figure #ca4 ,,hepplewhite ,,card-,,table4 ,in the ,hepplewhite and ,shearer pieces the noticeable feature of decoration is the inlay1 often of two or three coloured woods and in a variety of designs4 ,many kinds of wood were employed at this time in inlay or marquetry work1 besides all the familiar ones ,shearer mentions1--tulip1 rose1 snake1 panella1 etc41 and later lilac-wood also was used4 ,the husk pattern was very popular at this period for an inlay pattern1 and ,wedgwood also used it frequently in his splendid jasper pottery4 ,it resembles the husks of oats when ripe1 the spreading of the two halves allowing the pattern to be used over and over again4 ,in ,shearer's work1 as well as ,hepplewhite's1 a slender tapering leg is much in use1 inlaid down about half its length1 often with satin-wood or holly1 and sometimes with ebony as well4 ,many of the sideboards made in ,america were on ,english models1 and they are veneered on pine1 the back and drawers being made of this same wood4 ,there are many variations of shape1--what are known as serpentine and swell fronts being quite usual1 the handles being the oval ones which are so common on all varieties of pieces with drawers1 and there is also a fan-shaped piece of inlay which will frequently be seen4 ,the position of this is not always the same1 it may be found in the corners of closets1 and long bottle-drawers1 or it may be inserted as a sort of brace between the bottom of the sideboard and the legs4 ,hepplewhite was very fond of inlaying a band of holly or satin-wood around the legs of his pieces1 three or four inches from the ground4 ,it will be found on his sideboards1 card-tables and desks1 and is generally about an inch wide4 ,his book was one of the most valuable ever given to ,english cabinet-makers4 ,his individuality of shape is always pleasing1 even if he did not concern himself about making his furniture structurally correct4 ,he claims1 and indeed with absolute correctness1 to unite elegance with utility and blend the useful with the agreeable4 ,in ,figure #ca is shown one of a pair of card-tables1 ,hepplewhite design1 made of mahogany and inlaid with ebony and satin-wood4 ,they belong to ,mr4 ,william ,m4 ,hoyt of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,like ,adam1 ,hepplewhite made great use of satin-wood for whole pieces of furniture4 ,he used his well-known and characteristic shapes in chair-backs and little sofas1 cabinets and workstands1 table stands1 harpsichord cases1 and commodes4 ,satin-wood had been but recently introduced from the ,east ,indies and was instantly popular4 ,even mantelpieces were made of it1 to match the furniture1 and there was a fancy to have the drawing-rooms and boudoirs very light and elegant4 ,clothes had shrunk in dimensions1 no more hoops and farthingales embarrassed their wearers1 the stiffness was banished from coat-tails1 and consequently the furniture had shrunk too4 ,chairs were small and narrow1 and window-seats1 made in abundance by ,hepplewhite1 were deservedly popular1 and the coverings were in accord with the gaiety of the woodwork4 ,figure #cb shows two ,hepplewhite settees with shield-shaped backs4 ,the upper one is of mahogany with low relief carvings on the tops1 and the lower of satin-wood1 with cane seat and the woodwork beautifully painted4 ,the elegance of this painted satin-wood has long been admired4 ,unfortunately it has caught the popular taste1 and it is now reproduced in such large quantities that it is freely offered for sale by dealers in our large cities4 ,the pieces shown in our illustration are both fine specimens of the original maker and are owned by the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cb4 ,,hepplewhite ,,settees4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cc4 ,,sheraton ,,chairs4 ,it was no longer necessary to make the legs of chairs of such stout proportions1 and as the bodies of the chairs were lighter so the legs dwindled exceedingly and were given only a semblance of solidity by the use of the spade-foot so much affected by ,hepplewhite4 ,their appearance of fragility was farther enhanced by groovings and flutings1 but they are always pretty4 ,although his characteristic chairs have shield-shaped or oval backs1 he gives in his book eighteen designs of bannister-backed chairs1 to be carried out in mahogany4 ,the general dimensions given by ,hepplewhite for his chairs are as follows3 ,width in front1 #bj inches2 depth of seat1 #ag inches2 height of seat frame1 #ag inches2 total height1 about #cg inches4 ,he gives most definite directions about coverings4 ,mahogany chairs should have the seats of horsehair1 plain1 striped1 checkered1 etc41 according to taste2 or cane bottoms with cushions which should be covered with the same material as the bed and window curtains4 ,he was fond of the ,duchess1 which consisted of two ,barjeer or arm-chairs with a stool between them1 all three pieces fitting together at pleasure and making a lounge from six to eight feet long4 ,his press-beds vary little in appearance from wardrobes1 but it was in smaller and daintier pieces that his particular talent found play4 ,his knife-boxes are extremely elegant1 particularly when in urn shape with a rod in the centre to prevent the top of the urn from being removed4 ,all the handles and knobs on his larger pieces of furniture are round1 but on sideboards frequently oval1 his double chests of drawers have either ,french or block feet4 ,tripod reading-desks1 urn-stands1 beautiful tea-trays1 caddies and tea-chests are richly inlaid or painted4 ,we find him not only making very ornate and richly inlaid card-tables1 but ,pembroke tables as well1 with either round or square tops4 ,such tables have leaves1 but1 instead of the legs moving out to support the leaves1 small arms come out from the table-frame4 ,his writing-tables and desks have tambour tops1 that is strips of wood pasted on cloth1 so that they roll back into receptacles provided for them1 and are filled with secret drawers and flat cupboards for deeds or papers4 ,among his other small pieces which are distinguished by their grace are dressing-glasses1 shaving-tables with glasses and without1 bason stands1 designs for brackets1 fire-screens1 wash-hand-stands1 cornices1 lamps1 girandoles1 and looking-glasses4 ,his larger designs show dressing-tables and bureaus with curved and swell fronts1 beds1 four-posters1 and field-beds with very graceful sweeps and much variety of design4 ,his stuffed furniture is comfortable in the extreme1 and the tall easy chairs with cheek pieces must have been well calculated to protect from searching draughts4 ,many of these easy chairs found their way to ,america1 and as their cost was not extortionate moderate homes enjoyed them as well as wealthy ones4 ,after the ,revolution1 in all the seaboard towns and the more settled places near cities1 there was a still greater call for all styles and luxuries popular in ,england4 ,indeed the former ,colonies presented very curious and marked contrasts1 being1 as it is tersely put1 rolling in wealth or dirt poor4 ,in ,philadelphia there had been much style and gentility for many years4 ,the ,english officers had1 no doubt1 brought some comforts with them1 and they found others awaiting them4 ,major ,andrs letter describing supper at the ,mischianza1 ,may #ah1 #aggh1 gives a vivid picture of the festivities of the times4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cd4 ,,sheraton ,,desk4 --,at twelve1 supper was announced1 and the large folding-doors being suddenly thrown open discovered a magnificent salon of #baj feet long by #dj feet wide1 and #bb in height1 with three alcoves on each side which served for sideboards4 ,fifty-six large pier-glasses ornamented with green silk artificial flowers and ribbands2 one hundred branches with three lights in each trimmed in the same manner as the mirrors2 eighteen lustres each with twenty-four lights suspended from the ceiling and ornamented as the branches4 ,three hundred wax tapers disposed along the supper-tables1 four hundred and thirty covers1 twelve hundred dishes1 twenty-four black slaves in ,oriental dresses with silver-collars and bracelets ranged in two lines1 and bending to the ground as the ,general ,howe and the ,admiral appeared together4 ,all the lustres1 mirrors1 etc41 with which the room was adorned1 were borrowed1 says ,watson1 from the townsfolk1 and all were returned uninjured4 ,eighty-four families kept carriages in #aggb1 and writing as late as #ahjb1 ,dr4 ,michaud calls ,philadelphia-- --,at present the largest1 the handsomest1 and the most populous city of the ,united ,states4 ,the streets are paved1 and are provided with broad bricked footways4 ,pumps1 placed on each side of them at about one hundred yards from each other1 supply an abundance of water4 ,dolly ,madison1 writing in #agia of the fashions of the day in ,philadelphia1 says3 ,very long trains are worn1 and they are festooned up with loops and bobbin and small covered buttons1 the same as the dress4 ,the hats are quite a different shape from what they used to be4 ,the bonnets are all open on the top1 through which the hair is passed1 either up or down as you fancy1 though latterly they wear it more up than down2 it is quite out of fashion to frizz or curl the hair4 ,salem1 in ,massachusetts1 with her vessels touching at every port1 was already becoming known for her luxury1 her teak-wood as well as her mahogany furniture1 her china and plate4 ,enough of these still remain to show her importance and the elegance of her homes4 ,but there was another side to this picture4 ,here is the description of the home of a settler away from any of the large centres1 ,charles ,rich1 of ,vermont1 member of ,congress1 began housekeeping as late as #agia4 ,all his household possessions were valued at #ff4jj4 ,he writes3 ,i constructed at the mill a number of household articles of furniture which have been in daily use from that time to the present4 ,the newest styles were of small importance in such surroundings as these1 and luxuries passed slowly along pioneer roads2 yet every ship coming to ,american ports brought furniture1 stuffs1 plate1 and china to tempt the wealth of those who could afford them1 and among such were pieces made by ,sheraton1 the fashionable cabinet-maker who came on the scene late enough to profit by the designs of his predecessors4 ,indeed he is most frankly pleased with his own skill and artistic taste1 and in his long preface sets forth the merits of his own book and discredits all those before him4 ,he considers his book much superior because he gives drawings in perspective4 ,much of the book is a very dry dissertation on geometry4 ,its second half gives descriptions of furniture1 of the various styles1 and the uses of the pieces4 ,he says in his ,introduction3 ,illustration3 ,figure #ce4 ,,sideboard4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf4 ,,sofa1 ,,sheraton ,,style4 ,the design of this part of the ,book is intended to exhibit the present taste of furniture1 and at the same time give the workman some assistance in the manufacturing part of it4 ,sheraton's early furniture is distinguished by great elegance of design1 fine construction1 and graceful ornament4 7,see ,figure #cc47 ,the legs of his pieces are slender and straight1 as distinguished from the cabriole leg1 but are generally enriched with flutings1 and they taper pleasingly to the foot4 ,while he uses carving1 it is generally applied in low relief and does not interfere with the lines of construction4 ,his preference is1 like ,hepplewhite's1 for ornamenting with inlay of woods of different colours and decorating with brass4 ,the fine proportions of his early furniture1 the simple shapes clearly defined1 and its structural beauty where each part is doing its work1 render it admirable in every way4 ,a simple desk of ,sheraton pattern is given in ,figure #cd4 ,it is of mahogany1 and the doors of the upper part open1 revealing pigeon-holes and drawers4 ,the flat top over the drawers opens out on rests1 making a broad1 flat desk top4 ,the brasses and key-scutcheons are original1 and the moulding of the drawers overlaps4 ,after #agic ,sheraton made little furniture1 but gave his time chiefly to writing his furniture books4 ,for the patterns used in his inlay he had recourse to classic models for his inspiration1 like the ,adam brothers1 who had done much to popularize this simplicity of design4 ,sheraton used urns1 rosettes1 festoons1 scrolls1 and pendant flowers as his favorite decorations4 ,the simple curves of which many of these are composed lent themselves admirably to inlay1 and the harmony of the colours of the woods gave a grace to this form of ornament and suits it exactly to the furniture on which it finds a place4 ,sheraton wrote several works on furniture and upholstery4 ,the first one published in #agia1 was ,the ,cabinet-,maker and ,upholsterer's ,drawing ,book4 ,this was followed by ,designs for ,household ,furniture in #ahjd1 and he had not completed his ,cabinet-,maker1 ,upholsterer1 and ,general ,artist's ,encyclopedia in #ahjg4 ,he gave directions for making1 among other things1 folding-beds1 washstands1 card-tables1 sideboards1 and many other pieces4 ,he frequently employed the lyre as a design for his chair-backs1 as well as supports for tables4 ,in chairs it often has strings of brass2 on the tables it takes heavier and more substantial form4 ,sheraton's beds seem almost as impossible as ,chippendale's4 ,he1 too1 made alcove1 sofa1 or couch beds4 ,he also gave designs for summer beds made in two compartments 7we should call them twin beds17 but both are included under a frame or canopy1 and the whole affair is very cumbersome and heavy4 ,his chairs1 tables1 and sideboards are the pieces by which we know him best and in which he is most admirable4 ,he says himself1 in regard to drawing-room chairs1 that many are finished in white and gold1 or that the ornaments may be japanned1 but that the ,french finish them in mahogany with gilt mouldings4 ,sheraton made very dainty designs for tripod stands1 fire-screens and ladies' desks1 with tambour doors4 ,also bason-stands with tambour doors and writing-desks with curved cylinder tops1 which tops fell into the space behind the pigeon-holes and drawers4 ,wash-hand tables had also these curved cylinder tops1 and all furniture which was put to toilet purposes was so arranged that it would look like something else1 and transform a bedroom into a boudoir4 ,these cylinder-topped pieces were designed as early as #agib4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cg4 ,,sheraton ,,sideboard4 ,in furniture1 as in art1 there are no absolutely abrupt changes1 but one style is overshadowed by another as ,chippendale gradually overcame the rococo and stood for an individual style4 ,hepplewhite influenced ,sheraton very much1 although the latter declares in one of his books1 published two years later than ,hepplewhite's1 that the latter's designs have become quite antiquated4 ,such a piece of furniture is seen in the sideboard-table or sideboard given in ,figure #ce4 ,it was undoubtedly made by one of these two men1 and it is difficult to decide which4 ,the form of foot is more common to ,hepplewhite than to ,sheraton1 and the inlaid border of satin-wood is wider than he was wont to use4 ,the brass rail at the back was used to support silver or porcelain dishes4 ,the handles are original and the wood mahogany4 ,this handsome piece belongs to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,horsehair was used for covering by both makers1 and in both cases gilt-headed nails put in a festoon were used to fasten it down4 ,sheraton's first style was much the most pleasing4 ,it was distinguished by a delicacy and an elegance which were entirely lost in his later designs1 which were so strongly influenced by the ,empire style4 ,the first illustration in his ,cabinet ,maker's and ,upholsterer's ,book is what he calls a ,universal table1 to be made of mahogany1 and which at will may be converted into a dining-table1 or1 by pulling out a drawer1 discover all the compartments necessary for storing kitchen condiments1 such as sugar and spices1 etc4 ,the sofa depicted in ,figure #cf shows this merging into ,empire style1 for the legs are heavier than those we are accustomed to1 and the carved pineapple appears on the arm instead of the more delicate carving seen on earlier chairs and sofas4 ,the covering is hair-cloth fastened down with brass nails4 ,this sofa stood for many years in the ,old ,manse at ,concord1 ,mass4 ,it belonged to the ,rev4 ,ezra ,ripley1 who came to ,concord as pastor in #aggh4 ,times were unsettled and currency was depreciated1 so that when his salary of five hundred and fifty pounds was paid it was found to be worth just forty pounds4 ,to make up this deficiency ,dr4 ,ripley did a man's work in the fields4 ,for years he laboured at tilling the ground at least three days in a week and sometimes even more4 ,he was an ardent man1 and from his moral worth was often known as ,holy ,ripley4 ,this sofa1 uneasy as it looks to modern eyes1 perhaps seemed luxurious to him after a day at the plough4 ,the cover which it wears is said to be the original one1 and if this is true its condition is so good that ,i fear the sofa was kept permanently in the south parlor or the north parlor1 as the best room was called in those days1 and the good man was given nothing easier to rest on than a wooden ,windsor chair1 or a straight-backed rush-bottomed one1 or perhaps the kitchen settle4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ch4 ,,sheraton ,,sideboard4 ,with the introduction and extended use of the sideboard came several articles to be used in connection with it1 to which ,sheraton turned his attention4 ,among these may be mentioned knife and spoon-boxes1 which were of several different designs4 ,sheraton apparently did not make these knife-boxes himself1 but only designed them1 for he says1 ,as these cases are not made in regular cabinet shops it may be of service to mention where they may be executed in the best taste by one who makes it his main business1 i4 e4 ,john ,lane1 ,no4 #dd1 ,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand1 ,london4 ,two pretty ones1 as well as two wine-coolers1 are shown on the sideboard in ,figure #cg4 ,this sideboard has two little closets with tambour doors at the bottom1 and deep wine-drawers on the sides4 ,there is the brass rail similar to the one in ,figure #ce4 ,this piece belongs to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,one of the handsomest knife-boxes is an urn-shaped one which has been noted as made also by ,hepplewhite4 ,it is wrought in mahogany1 the veneer made in pie-shaped pieces1 each bit being outlined with a delicate line of hollywood4 ,the knives were held in a perforated rack inside1 with the handles up1 and a pair of these boxes on either end of the sideboard made a very ornamental finish4 ,another shape also in vogue was more box-like in shape1 the cover sloping toward the front4 ,not only knives1 but spoons also1 were held in the racks with which the interior was fitted2 and as these latter were put in bowls up1 the cases1 when open1 showed to excellent advantage the worldly wealth of the household1 and were ornamental besides4 ,sometimes the covers of these boxes set back flat against a portion of the top1 and made a tray on which could be placed silver cups1 mugs1 posset-pots1 ewers1 or any pieces of table silver of moderate size4 ,then there were the wine-boxes1 or wine-coolers as they were often called1 handsome massive boxes of wood1 generally mahogany1 or whatever wood the sideboard was made of4 ,they stood beneath it1 or1 if the sideboard was low1 at one side4 ,the usual number of bottles they contained was from four to a dozen4 ,general ,washington's wine-box has room for eighteen bottles4 ,there are still a dozen of the original bottles in it1 holding a gallon each4 ,we should call them decanters1 for they are of handsome cut glass4 ,there is a letter from ,general ,washington to ,colonel ,hamilton in the possession of ,major ,church of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 presenting him with a wine-cooler1 holding six bottles 444 one of four which ,i imported during my term of governmental administration4 ,a more usual style of sideboard1 ,sheraton pattern1 is that given in ,figure #ch4 ,this handsome and useful piece of furniture had its counterparts in many of the stately old houses from the ,carolinas up4 ,it is of the swell-front type and has five deep drawers and a closet4 ,the wood is mahogany and without inlay4 ,this sideboard is at the ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 ,mass4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ci4 ,,empire ,,sofa4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dj4 ,,empire ,,sofa4 ,after the ,french ,revolution of #agij furniture became markedly different4 ,greek models were chosen once more2 the tripod became a favorite support4 ,mahogany was freely used1 but so were coarse woods1 in which case they were carved and profusely gilded4 ,the most valuable book1 for cabinet-makers1 on ,empire furniture1 was published by the architects ,percier and ,fontaine in #ahji4 ,it was not filled with fanciful designs merely1 as we have seen was the case with some of the catalogues of ,english makers1 but every design shown in it had been carried out before it was published4 ,many of the drawings were adapted from classic models preserved in the ,vatican4 ,in many ways this style has not much to recommend it4 ,it is apt to be heavy and stiff1 particularly when made by ,english makers4 ,the ,french decorated it with exquisite forms in metal 7treated in another chapter71 but the ,english contented themselves with cast brass4 ,it was far preferable under the manipulation of ,american cabinet-makers1 who restricted the use of brass and allowed the handsome woods to show themselves to the best advantage4 ,the ,dutch1 who also were not behind hand in the adoption of this and ,napoleonic style1 made tables1 secretaries1 chairs1 etc41 severe and regular in form1 but enriched with their admirable marquetry1 and with heads and feet of animals sparingly used4 ,sheraton and ,shearer were swept along by the tide of fashion and drew ,empire designs4 ,gillow1 the inventor of the extension-table1 whose firm was established as early as #ahjj1 made many fine designs and had orders from the best patrons4 ,his firm is still carried on under the same name4 ,in #ahjh ,george ,smith was made ,upholder ,extraordinary to ,h4 ,r4 ,h41 the ,prince of ,wales4 ,he published a book1 of course1 having a hundred and fifty-eight designs4 ,they included bedsteads1 tables1 chairs1 bookcases and commodes1 and other articles of furniture copied from the ,french1 like escritoires1 jardinires1 chiffonirs1 showing how the fancy for ,french things was increasing4 ,he gives very definite rules as to how and when to use various woods4 --,mahogany1 when used in houses of consequence1 should be confined to the parlour and bed-chamber floors4 ,in furniture for these apartments the less inlay of other woods1 the more chaste will be the style of work4 ,if the wood be of a fine compact and bright quality1 the ornaments may be carved clean in the mahogany4 ,where it may be requisite to make out panelling by inlay of lines1 let these be of brass or ebony4 ,in drawing-rooms1 boudoirs1 ante-rooms1 ,east and ,west ,india satin-wood1 rosewood1 tulip-wood1 and the other varieties of woods brought from the ,east1 may be used4 ,with satin and light-coloured woods the decorations may be of ebony or rosewood2 with rosewood let the decorations be ormolu and the inlay of brass4 ,figure #ci shows a handsome sofa of carved mahogany1 ,empire style1 before it had arrived at its heaviest stage4 ,the carving is extremely handsome1 both rails of seat and back being decorated with dolphins4 ,the foot is of the bear shape1 and the arms are graceful in curve4 ,this piece is of ,english make4 ,while we miss in the late ,empire styles--say from #ahaj to #ahbe--much of the lightness and grace which had been contributed by the carving and inlay which were so freely used in the preceding period1 yet there was a solidity and massive dignity which was not without a certain charm4 ,then1 too1 these pieces were generally veneered1 and in them the beautiful grain of the mahogany1 which was the favorite wood1 showed to greatest advantage4 ,the sofa in ,figure #dj is such a piece4 ,it is of unusual length1 the top of the arm is stuffed1 thus doing away with squabs1 as the cushions which were used on sofas1 long and narrow1 were called4 ,the wood1 which is largely shown1 is of that dark rich hue inclined to red1 with veining many shades darker1 and it is in a fine state of preservation4 ,this piece belongs to ,anthony ,killgore1 ,esq41 ,flemington1 ,n4 ,j4 ,illustration3 ,figure #da4 ,,pier-,,table4 ,illustration3 ,figure #db4 ,,empire ,,sideboard4 ,to about the same period does the pier-table belong 7,figure #da71 which is not usual in design1 because of the third pier which starts from a circular shelf in the middle of the base4 ,the swan piers at each end are very graceful1 and the handsome grain of the mahogany is shown to great advantage4 ,this piece belongs to the ,misses ,killgore1 of ,flemington1 ,n4 ,j41 as does the sideboard shown in ,figure #db4 ,the doors of the lower part1 with the fan1 are solid mahogany1 the carving on the legs and ornamental scrolls is fine4 ,the middle of the top is raised to permit the insertion of a looking-glass1 and the capitals at the tops of the pillars are of fine brass-work4 ,above the middle drawer1 a shelf draws out for use in serving meals4 ,the whole sideboard sets back on a little shelf above the bear's feet1 a feature not unusual in the finer boards of this period4 ,the surroundings of this fine old piece of furniture are in keeping with its importance1 the china showing above it on the wall being the ,staffordshire blue made during the first quarter of the nineteenth century1 while the mirror directly above it is of equal age4 ,environment has a great deal to do with bringing out the true beauties of this stately old furniture4 ,it must be surrounded with objects of approximate age and of equal dignity1 otherwise it looks as unseemly as an ancient dame with a pink rose in her hair4 ,the work-table shown in ,figure #dc belongs to the same period1 but of a little earlier date than the last pieces shown4 ,the legs are richly carved1 as is the central pillar4 ,this also belongs to the ,misses ,killgore4 ,not many pieces of such solidity were required in a room1 and in those days overloading did not stand for elegance4 ,in #ahjj1 when the spacious ,tayloe house in ,washington was built1 the furniture of the great drawing-room was a set of ash1 sixteen pieces4 ,there were twelve chairs with chintz cushions1 and two card-tables2 there were also a centre table and one upholstered couch1 and a settee1 but not one so-called easy-chair4 ,much furniture like that shown in ,figures #dj-dc1 is to be found in the old houses of such places as ,cherry ,valley1 ,n4 ,y41 where there is little changing about1 and furniture has descended from one generation to another and still stands in its old familiar home4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dc4 ,,empire ,,work-,,table4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,colonial ,,and ,,later ,,periods4 ,under the broad head of ,colonial ,furniture may really be classed all the movables and chattels which belonged to the early settlers1 while to be entirely correct1 this characterization belongs only to such furniture as was brought in or made before #aggf4 ,as the pioneers came from many lands1 so many different kinds of furniture will be included in the list4 ,we must begin at the ,south1 with the melancholy little plantation at ,jamestown4 ,through evil times the feeble colony struggled1 harassed by poverty1 disease1 savage foes1 and internal dissensions4 ,there in #afjg were planted the first beginnings of the settlements which were in three hundred years to cover a continent4 ,traces of the little colony have almost disappeared now by the action of the ,james ,river1 high tide covering the brick foundations of the ancient buildings4 ,walking along the shore one may find little red and white clay pipes1 in smoking which1 filled with the fragrant weed1 the pioneers forgot their woes4 ,glass beads striped like gooseberries1 to take the eyes of the ,indians in barter1 pieces of water-soaked brick from these toil-built houses1 and even traces of the days of ,smith1 sword-hilts1 bits of armour1 balls1 etc41 and--more pathetic mementos of ,jamestown's trials--human bones and coffin-handles4 ,yet in #afci1 thirty-two years after the foundation of the colony1 there were in ,maryland some planters called rich1 who measured their worldly goods by their value in tobacco1 the raising of which weed had proved their only salvation4 ,the laws regarding its cultivation1 particularly in ,massachusetts1 were very stringent4 ,it was only to be grown as medicine and used privately4 ,it was considered a more harmful indulgence than liquor1 and the ,creature called ,tobacko was hemmed and hedged about with rules and restrictions4 ,it circumvented them all1 was planted and grown1 and finally became a commodity of much value and a medium of exchange4 ,about ninety years later we find an item which shows how universal had become its use4 ,the will of ,may ,bickley1 attorney general of the province of ,new ,york1 filed ,april #bg1 #agbd1 directs that he wishes to be buried without pipes and tobacco as is usual4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dd4 ,,kitchen ,,at ,,deerfield1 ,,mass4 ,to ,maryland and ,virginia were transplanted almost bodily rich homes from the mother country1 filled with the luxuries to which their occupants had been accustomed4 ,it has been said that many of the grand old homes in the ,south were built of ,english brick4 ,while this is true in the letter1 it is entirely misleading to the reader in general4 ,the bricks were not brought from ,england1 because at that time there were few ships afloat capable of bearing any such quantity as would have been necessary for a house of any considerable size4 ,mr4 ,mc,crady1 in his ,history of ,south ,carolina1 has taken considerable pains to explain how this error arose4 ,the historic ,miles ,brewton house1 now called the ,pringle house built about #aggj in the city of ,charleston1 is one of the best known houses in the ,state4 ,it was used as military headquarters during both the ,revolutionary and the ,civil wars4 ,it has been computed1 by actual measurement1 that the house contains #a1bgh1gbj bricks4 ,each of these weighs eight pounds1 the whole amounting to #d1eff tons4 ,no vessels then afloat could carry more than #ejj tons1 so it would have taken nine of such vessels to bring over the bricks for this house alone4 ,josiah ,quincy says in his ,journal that this house cost about #ej1jjj1 which sum would hardly have covered the expense of so many vessels from ,london4 ,mr4 ,mc,crady's solution is that there were two styles of brick made1 one1 large and heavy1 known as ,english the other called ,dutch which were very small4 ,there were1 however1 bricks brought from ,england1 for the prices of brick1 both of ,british and ,new ,england make1 were fixed by statute4 ,as early as #affb brickmakers and bricklayers were paid by each thousand bricks made and laid by them4 ,the first material brought into ,virginia for building purposes was in #afjg1 for the use of ,george ,percy4 ,brickmakers were twice advertised for in #afaj1 and joiners were at work on the furniture needed for the new homes4 ,the houses late in the seventeenth century were by no means so large as one would expect4 ,six or eight rooms was the usual size1 and many had even fewer4 ,the house of ,cornelius ,lloyd1 whose estate was valued at #aca1jdd pounds of tobacco1 contained a chamber and hall and a kitchen with loft and dairy4 ,the windows were often but sliding panels1 but in houses of any pretensions glass was used4 ,in #afhd ,colonel ,byrd sent to ,london for #djj feet of glass1 with drawn lead and solder in proportion4 ,robert ,beverly1 ,sr41 one of the richest men in the ,virginia colony prior to the opening of the eighteenth century1 had in his dining-hall one oval and one folding table1 a leather couch1 two chests1 a chest of drawers and fifteen ,russia-leather chairs1 value #i #is4 ,his supply of table linen was abundant1 and the table-ware was pewter1 with wooden trenchers and some earthenware4 ,richard ,hobbs1 of ,rappahannock1 who died in #affg1 owned1 among much household stuff1 but a single fork1 ,john ,frison1 of ,henrico ,county had one of tortoise-shell4 ,robert ,dudley1 of ,middlesex ,county who died in #agjj1 had several forks made of horn4 ,to show some of the luxuries for sale in ,virginia prior to #afgj the inventory of the store of ,john ,frison1 mentioned above1 is given4 ,holland night-caps2 muslin neck-cloths2 silk-fringed gloves2 silver shoe-buckles2 embroidered ,holland waistcoats2 #b doz4 pr4 white gloves2 #a lace cap2 #g lace shirts2 #i lace ruffles2 holster-caps of scarlet embroidered with silver and gold2 gold and silver hat-bands2 a parcel of silver lace2 and a feathered velvet cap4 ,there were also many valuable furs4 ,mrs4 ,diggs1 widow of the governor of ,virginia1 died in #afii4 ,she was a person of much consequence in the colony1 and her inventory is interesting on that account4 ,in her hall parlour were-- --#e ,spanish tables2 #b green and two ,turkey-worked carpets2 #i ,turkey-worked chairs1 and #aa with arrows woven on the seats2 #a embroidered and #a ,turkey-worked couch2 #e pictures 7valued at five shillings72 #b pairs of brass andirons2 #c pr4 old tongs2 and #a clock4 ,illustration3 ,figure #de4 ,,william ,,penn',s ,,table4 ,not only did ,english ships bring on every voyage the best that ,england afforded1 but ,dutch traders1 too1 crowded in with their own goods1 and others besides from the ,east4 ,the inventories mention ,dutch cases1 and ,dutch turned chairs1 before #afhj2 and as these rich planters had tobacco to trade1 they obtained all the luxuries to be had4 ,it is seen that ,new ,england had her rich and prosperous men also1 and some fine homes were built as early as #afci4 ,figure #bg1 shows a room in the famous old ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 ,mass41 built about #afdb4 ,the solidity of these houses is exemplified by the beams1 with their finely moulded edges4 ,the furniture is both interesting and beautiful1 one of the most attractive pieces being the desk made on ,sheraton lines which stands on the right-hand side4 ,a handsome bookcase and desk fill the corner1 and a little ,pembroke table holds much glass4 ,the picture 7,figure #dd7 shows a typical ,new ,england kitchen in ,colonial times4 ,it has been arranged in the ,deerfield ,memorial ,hall1 and all the furniture and utensils shown herein were gathered in the neighbourhood4 ,these primitive homes did not have mantelpieces as a rule1 but the heavy wooden beam fashioned with an axe was called the mantel-tree4 ,the one shown here did duty for a hundred and sixty-eight years4 ,the wide chimney-piece could easily accomodate the small children of the family sitting on billets of wood1 while the elders were comfortable on the settle with its high backboard4 ,it has a convenient candle-bracket which could be adjusted to suit the reader1 and if more light were needed the candle-stand was convenient4 ,the back of this settle is sixty inches high1 more than is usual4 ,it was owned by ,jacob ,rich1 who settled in the neighbourhood of ,deerfield1 ,mass41 in #aggg4 ,a famous house was known as the ,old ,stone ,house at ,guilford1 ,conn41 while at ,boston1 ,salem1 ,danvers1 ,dedham1 and ,dorchester was built many a sturdy dwelling still standing to show with what solidity these pioneers did their work4 ,in the earliest days of the ,colony's struggles too much luxury was not deemed good for those battling with the wilderness4 ,governor ,winthrop writes with some gratification in #afcj of the burning up of some fine table linen1 brought by a godly woman of the ,church of ,boston from ,london1 and of which she was very proud4 ,but it pleased ,god that the loss of this linen did her much good1 both in taking off her heart from worldly comforts1 and in preparing her for a far greater affliction by the untimely death of her husband1 who was slain not long after at ,isle of ,providence4 ,yet in #afdg1 when he married the widow ,coytemore1 he seems to have had no hesitation in accepting with her a rich dowry1 her share of the estate of her former husband1 and valued at #fdj #as #h;d4 ,among the items were such frivolities as a silver girdle and a silk iacket4 ,there must have been also other choice garments in the many chests and trunks enumerated4 ,one of these chests is specified as spruce4 ,the widow had a brave stock of pewter1 worth #ace1 and among other goods unusual at this period were1 #a chest of drawers #a a copp4 furnace #a #ajs4 ,a parcel of cheney platters and soucers #a #b flaskets ,a bedstead1 trundle bed with ropes and mats4 ,illustration3 ,figure #df4 ,,rush-,,bottomed ,,chairs4 ,it is a matter of wonder how the governor reconciled his conscience to the silver girdle and iacket1 for in #afcd the ,massachusetts ,general ,court had particularly prohibited the wearing of either gold or silver girdles1 hattbands1 belts1 ruffs1 and beaver hatts4 ,also they forbade the purchase of any appell1 either wollen1 silke1 or lynnen with any lace on it1 silver golde1 silke or threed4 ,they were only allowed one slash on each sleeve and one on the back4 ,these rules were operative for many years1 for in ,salem1 in #afec1 a man is haled before the court for excess in bootes1 rebonds1 gould1 and silver lace4 ,in ,newbury1 ,mass41 in #afec1 two women were brought before the court for wearing a silk hood and scarfe1 but both were discharged for proving their husbands were worth over #ajj4 ,john ,hutchin's wife was also discharged upon testimony of her being brought up above the ordinary ranke4 ,these items show that both rank and property were saving grace even among the ,puritans1 and no doubt ,mrs4 ,winthrop escaped censure under this rule4 ,boston1 about #afej1 had houses partly of brick and partly of stone1 as well as plainer wooden ones4 ,in #afdj ,john ,davys built for ,william ,rix1 a weaver1 a house #af feet long and #ad feet wide1 with a chamber floare finished with summer and ioysts4 ,there was also a cellar1 the walls were covered with clapboards1 and the chimney was made of hewn timber1 daubed4 ,the whole house cost #ba4 ,this was a typical house of a workingman1 and must have required little furniture besides the loom to fill it4 ,the fine houses with ample halls and large rooms were but the forerunners of that comfortable style we call by the name ,colonial4 ,but they were precious things when once built1 and it is by no means uncommon to find them parcelled out to different relatives4 ,in #afeh ,john ,greene of ,warwick1 ,r4 ,i41 gives to his beloved wife-- --a large hall and chimni with a little chamber adjoining to the hall1 as also a large chamber with a little chamber within yt1 with a large garret and with a little dary room which buttes against ye oule house during her life2 also half ye orchard4 ,it seems as if this bequest might have been open to different interpretations among the heirs4 ,he does not specify if he left the goods which were in the hall and rooms1--quite important items4 ,the widow ,francis ,killburn's house at ,hartford1 whose estate in #afej was valued at #cdi1 had in her hall tables1 formes1 chaires1 stools1 and benches1 all valued at #a4 ,mr4 ,palfrey says in his ,history of ,new ,england that ,whitfield's house at ,guilford1 ,mass41 built in #afci1 is the oldest house standing now in ,new ,england4 ,there were three stone houses built at ,guilford this same year1 and it is now asserted that there are quite a number of houses still standing which were built before that of ,whitfield4 ,the ,barker house at ,pembroke1 ,mass41 built in #afbh1 is said to be the most ancient4 ,the walls of the ,whitfield house are of stone2 it is two stories high with garret1 and the timber is oak4 ,there are two secret closets which were found by removing a board in the attic4 ,this house was ample and commodious1 and the household furnishings were of corresponding value4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dg4 ,,connecticut ,,chest4 ,in the colonies during the seventeenth century the doublet was worn by women as well as by men4 ,men wore it over a sleeved waistcoat4 ,the sleeves were elaborately slashed and embroidered4 ,there were falling bands at the neck for those who wished1 while the sedately inclined wore white linen collars4 ,trunk hose were used1 and shoes plainly tied or with rosettes4 ,a beaver or felt hat was a necessary adjunct1 and all those who could afford it wore gloves1 embroidered if possible4 ,these gloves had gauntlets1 worked or fringed1 and such an important item of dress were the gloves that in #afde the glovers petitioned the ,council to prevent the export of undressed goat-skins4 ,in many inventories the item of leather breeches appears1 and in connection with them the comment half wore out4 ,henry ,webb1 of ,boston1 who died in #affj1 left an estate much of which descended to ,harvard ,college4 ,his wearing-apparel was unusually limited for a man of means4 ,in women's inventories the most important item is always linen or plate1 a ring with a diamond valued at eight shillings being an unusual piece of luxury belonging to ,mistress ,anne ,hibbins in #afef4 ,the best articles which ,new ,england exported1 and for which ,england was most greedy1 were masts1 thirty-three to thirty-five inches in diameter1 selling for from #ie to #aae each4 ,these and salt fish proved of more value to the colonies than any other commodity possessed at that time4 ,much of the furniture of the old homes has disappeared4 ,some is still retained by the descendants of its original owners1 and there are other pieces now gathered in museums1 nearly every city endeavouring to retain the mementos of her early history4 ,by #agjj ,philadelphia was quite a flourishing town4 ,the life of the country magnates was elegant and dignified4 ,many rich men had both town and country houses complete in every detail4 ,before the ,pennsylvania ,colony was five years old1 7the grant was given ,march #bd1 #afha7 ,william ,penn had set the example of having a town and country house1 the latter being completed in #afhe4 ,he owned a coach and a calash1 and had1 besides1 a fine barge with oars-men who rowed him between his house and ,philadelphia4 ,fairfield1 the home of the ,norris family1 was finished in #agag1 and was at that time the most beautiful home in ,philadelphia4 ,the sashes for the windows and most of the interior woodwork was imported from ,england1 as was the furniture4 ,the hall was considered wonderfully elegant1 being paved with marble4 ,there were substantial houses of brick1 the latter of which were home-made1 and many artizans of all trades1 ,dutch as well as ,english1 were coming over4 ,william ,penn wrote to his agent of such a one1 and said that he was to be set to work making wainscot and tables and chairs1 as ,penn himself was to bring much furniture with him4 ,his house in ,bucks ,county was of brick1 two stories and a half high1 and was comfortably filled with furniture1 some1 as we see1 made before he arrived1 but most of which he brought with him4 ,there was much silver plate1 pewter dishes1 cisterns1 etc41 beds1 tables1 stands and chairs4 ,in the best parlour were two tables1 one great cane chair1 four small cane chairs1 one couch1 and many cushions of divers materials4 ,the great hall where they dined had one long table1 two forms1 and six chairs4 ,the dining-room was a later development1 and not until the eighteenth century was well advanced do we find rooms so called in even the better class of houses4 ,figure #de shows an oak table1 of what is called the thousand-legged pattern4 ,it belongs to ,mrs4 ,b4 ,h4 ,oliver1 of ,chester1 ,pa41 and has an interesting history4 ,it is circular in shape1 five feet in diameter1 and is in good order4 ,it is said to be part of the furniture brought to ,america by ,william ,penn1 from whom it descended to the ,bradfords1 a well-known ,philadelphia family of printers4 ,it was given by them to a young clerk in their office1 named ,mc,gowan4 ,in #ahdi it came into the possession of ,mrs4 ,oliver's father1 and when he died he bequeathed it to his son1 ,dr4 ,john ,hepburn1 of ,warren1 ,pa41 who gave it to his sister1 ,mrs4 ,oliver4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dh4 ,,mahogany ,,desk4 ,this style of table dates to the first half of the seventeenth century1 as may be seen by the drawer which all these early tables had4 ,the brass handle is a late addition1 and the drawer has about it the overlapping edge1 this style immediately succeeding the drawers with mouldings like those shown in the chest on frame in ,figure #e4 ,the legs fold together1 fitting into the lower braces1 and the leaves drop4 ,this make of table was always considered of value1 so we find them selling at ,philadelphia in #agje at #b2 at ,boston1 #afii1 at #b2 in #afij at ,salem1 a round1 black walnut table1 #b #es4 ,such a table as this was used by ,sir ,william ,johnson1 so potent a factor in the settlement of the ,mohawk ,valley4 ,his table is of mahogany1 the leaves drop on hinges1 and it has one more leg on each side than our example4 ,it is oval in shape instead of round1 six feet six inches long1 and five feet eleven inches in its shortest diameter4 ,in #aggf this table was confiscated1 and was bought by the ,hon4 ,john ,taylor4 ,his descendents have lent it to the ,albany ,historical ,society4 ,the social life in ,philadelphia in ,revolutionary times was easy and agreeable1 consisting of the original ,quaker families and another class connected with the government1 and these two gave the tone to society4 ,the pleasures of the table were the only luxuries which the sedate ,quakers allowed themselves1 and the city was famous for the quality of its ,madeira and ,french wines1 and the wonderful cooking of ,west ,india turtle4 ,in #aggh differences in rank were strongly marked4 ,the labourer wore his leather breeches1 checkered shirt1 and neat's-hide shoes4 ,the queue or club was still worn by men of fashion2 so were rich broadcloth coats of every colour except scarlet1 which was seen only on the backs of soldiers1 ,carolinians1 and dancing-masters4 ,winthrop ,sargent1 a ,philadelphian himself1 writing of this time1 says3 ,silver tankards and china punch-bowls were evidences of prosperity1 as were the small mirrors in wooden frames1 and the mahogany tea-boards that are still sometimes met with in the lumber-rooms of old-time houses4 ,glass tumblers were rarely seen1 a dipper for the punch-bowl1 or gourd or cup for the water-pail supplied those who did not have recourse to the vessel itself4 ,this latter statement seems hardly compatible with elegance1 but there were certainly great extremes to be met with even in the ,capitol ,city1 as ,philadelphia was at that time4 ,illustration3 ,figure #di4 ,,corner ,,cupboard4 ,when it became fashionable to have tables round or oval1 it was no longer possible to use forms or settles at them4 ,so chairs took their place1 and we notice with greater frequency in the inventories sets of chairs1 six1 twelve1 and occasionally twenty-four4 ,these early chairs1 straight-backed 7,figure #df71 with rush or bass bottoms1 or of carved wood or leather1 were hard to sit upon1 so cushions were provided in large numbers and of varying degrees of elegance4 ,these rush-bottomed chairs with turned wood frames remained in use for many years4 ,they were made with different degrees of elaboration1 one of the two in ,figure #df showing a more ornamental banister back 7i4 e41 the vertical slats7 than the other4 ,these two chairs have seen much service1 but are uncommonly well preserved1 and belong to ,mr4 ,william ,m4 ,hoyt1 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,they were frequently painted dark green1 a fashion said to have come to us from ,holland4 ,as chairs grew more comfortable the decrease in the number of cushions is very marked4 ,with the increase in comfort in household belongings a corresponding increase in the elegance of dress was visible4 ,there was a court circle in ,america as well as in ,england4 ,broadway1 as early as #agjj1 presented a brilliant sight at church time4 ,lord ,bellomont was governor1 and ,colonel ,bayard and his wife were citizens of wealth and importance4 ,on such an occasion as church-going1 on a fine spring morning1 ,mrs4 ,bayard wore no bonnet1 but a frontage1 a sort of head-dress of rows of muslin stiffened with wire4 ,she also wore a steenkirk1 or voluminous necktie1 which fell over her bodice4 ,the skirt of her purple and gold atlas gown was cut away to show her black velvet petticoat edged with two silver orrices1 and short enough to show her green silk stockings and fine embroidered shoes4 ,her hair was powdered and her kerchief scented with rosewater4 ,the furniture in use at this time has been already shown in ,chapter ,i4 ,oak chairs1 leather chairs1 and those of cane are all mentioned4 ,we find entries of #ab cane chairs with black frames 7#agab72 #f ,spanish leather chairs 7#agjc72 one fine chest of drawers1 of maple 7#agjc72 a fine chest of drawers of olive and walnut wood 7#agje7 and other similar items4 ,furniture was now being made in the ,colonies in quite large quantities1 and ,new ,england was actively engaged in the furniture business1 which employed many cabinet-makers4 ,salem had ,james ,symond as early as #agad1 and others1 with each succeeding year4 ,lynn had ,john ,davis by #agjc1 and ,marblehead1 which was expected to become a great commercial centre1 had at least a dozen more or less celebrated between #agbi and #aghj4 ,figure #dg is an example of home-made furniture4 ,it is known to collectors as the ,connecticut chest1 because this design is found only in that vicinity4 ,quite a number of such chests are in existance1 all bearing the same pattern carved on the panels4 ,they are of oak1 often with pine tops1 backs1 and bottoms4 ,the one shown has the top of oak2 the turned drops and ornaments are of pine stained black2 its height is #dj inches1 width #dh inches1 and breadth #bb inches4 ,it is at ,deerfield1 ,mass4 ,in the eighteenth century ministers were often glad to turn their hands to some work which would eke out their slender stipends4 ,we have seen how ,mr4 ,ripley of ,concord increased his4 ,the ,rev4 ,theophilus ,pickering1 of ,salem1 in #agbd1 made furniture4 ,pieces are still in existance which he made1 sturdy and in good order1 showing that he put his best work and best wood into this business1 as he put his best thought into his pulpit labour4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ej4 ,,banquet-,,room1 ,,independence ,,hall1 ,,philadelphia4 ,the woods used by these cabinet-makers embrace all kinds1 walnut1 maple1 cherry1 nut-wood 7hickory71 poplar1 ash1 and pine4 ,american dealers imported mahogany also in quantities1 and it was for sale in planks as well as made up into furniture4 ,new ,york ,gazette and ,weekly ,mercury for #aggd published the following advertisements4 ,to be sold by ,leonard ,kip1 ,a quantity of ,new ,beef by the barrel1 ,honey by the barrel or half barrel1 ,albany boards and planks1 ,highland butter in firkins and ,european ,goods4 ,which he will sell very low for cash or short credit1 at his store in ,dock ,street opposite ,mr4 ,gerardus ,duyckinck's4 ,the following also appeared in many issues of the paper4 ,mahogany ,furniture1 #c elegant desks book cases1 #a chest upon chest of drawers1 #a lady's dressing-chest bookcase1 #c desks #a pr4 card tables1 #b setts of chairs1 #c dining-tables #e breakfast tables1 #a clock-case furnished with a good plain #h day clock1 ,sundry stands1 etc4 ,the above articles are well made and most of them are of wood of the first quality and will be sold as low as any furniture of equal value in the city by ,willett ,pearsey1 cabinet chair-makers1 at the sign of the clothes-press nearly opposite the ,oswego ,market1 at the end of ,maiden ,lane4 ,in ,philadelphia1 renowned for its manufacture of household goods1 the trade was so large and important that the ,journeyman's ,cabinet ,chair-maker's ,philadelphia ,book of ,prices was issued4 ,in a second edition 7#agie7 are given the prices of many local furniture-makers1 such as3 ,a plain mahogany high-post bedstead #a4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,a plain sofa #f ft4 long1 with #f legs1 fast back no low rails4 #a4 #hs4 #j;d4 ,the desk shown in ,figure #dh is a piece found at ,bedford ,springs1 ,pa41 a place which was known as a resort as early as #aggh1 and had houses with plastered walls1 quite an unusual luxury in country regions1 though as these ,springs were frequented by the fashionable society of ,philadelphia and ,new ,york1 who went for the waters1 special effort was used to make the place attractive4 ,the desk is mahogany and solid1 not veneered4 ,it has a roll-top of the style made by ,sheraton1 which falls back behind the drawers and cupboards4 ,the brasses are new1 and the lid has been restored2 otherwise the desk is as it was made4 ,it stood for many years in one of the little outside houses near the main hotel1 and when1 a number of years ago1 a visitor asked to buy it1 the proprietor told him the piece was known as ,jimmy ,buchanan's desk4 ,mr4 ,buchanan was in the habit of spending his summers at ,bedford ,springs and always occupied the room where this desk was4 ,in #aheg1 when as ,president ,buchanan he arrived at ,bedford1 the proprietors in his honour had refurnished his room4 ,they were congratulating themselves that the ,president would be gratified at what they had done for him1 when he suddenly came into the room and demanded in a rage what had become of the desk4 ,if it was not forthcoming he would go elsewhere4 ,he could use it1 he said1 to write on1 and then the drawers were roomy and just suited him for his clean shirts4 ,it is needless to say that the desk was brought down from the garret1 and was never removed from the room when ,president ,buchanan visited there4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ea4 ,,windsor ,,chairs4 ,the desk is in company suited to its age1 the larger powder-horn hanging above it being a veteran also4 ,it is seventeen inches long and ten inches broad at the largest end4 ,it bears the following inscription cut in quaint old letters on lines drawn so that they should go straight3 ,this is ,william ,norton's ,horn made at ,qubeck ye #aj day of ,aprill #aggf4 ,i powder with my ,brother ,ball we wound them all that in ,our way may chance to fall4 ,the smaller horn bears the date #ahaj1 and the two swords were used in the ,general ,training days of the first quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,all these relics belong to ,anthony ,killgore1 ,esq41 of ,flemington1 ,n4 ,j4 ,during the first quarter of the eighteenth century1 and even a little earlier1 houses were built with wainscoting and panelling1 and it was the fashion to build into walls cupboards for the display of china and plate4 ,frequently they were placed in the corner of the room1 and were either with or without doors4 ,such a cupboard was called a beaufait1 which was sometimes shortened to bofet1 or buffet1 according to the taste of the owner4 ,figure #di shows a specimen4 ,the house from which this beaufait came was built in #afif in ,vernon ,place1 ,boston1 ,mass41 by ,william ,clough4 ,two years later he sold it1 and it passed through several hands by inheritance and sale till in #ageh it was bought by ,captain ,vernon1 who with various members of his family held it for seventy-five years4 ,the cherub's heads which ornament the cupboard are somewhat unusual on a piece of furniture of this kind1 and it has also a very handsome shell at the top4 ,it is now at the ,old ,state ,house1 ,boston4 ,mention is also made in many inventories of ,court cupboards1 and livery cupboards4 ,the former were light movable shelves1 making a kind of sideboard1 and used to display plate and porcelain4 ,a livery cupboard was somewhat similar4 ,it had usually but three shelves and stood upon four legs4 ,it sometimes had a drawer for linen1 but no doors4 ,mugs and cups were hung from the bottom of the shelves1 and a ewer stood below4 ,these were put in what was called the dining-parlour1 a stately room on the second floor never used to dine in4 7,see ,figure #ej showing the banquet room at ,independence ,hall1 ,philadelphia1 with the beautiful moulding1 wainscot1 and over-mantel which were seen in handsome houses in the middle of the eighteenth century47 ,it was many years before the dining-room was set apart for meals4 ,at first only a screen gave privacy1 but gradually the dining-room grew in favour4 ,the early dining-rooms held beds1 as well as the parlours1 they being given to guests on account of the warmth4 ,joint stools were there1 and ,flanders chests1 in which the mistress often rummaged1 so that the guest should see the goodly store of clothes and linen owned by the family4 ,as was the custom in ,england1 many wealthy men had their furniture made to order1 often in their own houses1 where the cabinet-makers came and worked4 ,sometimes they imported their own woods1 as in the case of ,mr4 ,champlin1 a merchant of ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 who brought home with him in #agfb1 from a voyage in the ,west ,indies1 some logs of mahogany1 from which he had several pieces of furniture made4 ,watson1 in his ,annals of ,new ,york1 says that the use of what was foreign and modish was noted earlier in ,new ,york before the ,revolution than elsewhere4 ,they earlier used carpets1 wall-papers1 foreign milliners1 dress-makers1 ,windsor chairs1 glass utensils1 jewelry1 dentistry1 watches1 umbrellas1 stage-playbills1 etc4 ,windsor chairs were advertised in #agfh as made and sold by ,william ,gautier in ,new ,york4 ,he also had high-backed1 low-backed1 sack-backed chairs and settees1 and dining and low chairs4 ,a pair of ,windsor chairs are shown in ,figure #ea4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eb4 ,,wall-,,paper4 ,carriages were imported in #agff from ,dublin1 as also men to keep them in repair4 ,they were landaus1 curricles1 sedans1 and even sleighs with gildings1 carvings1 and japan to suit4 ,in #aggd there was advertised for sale ,a handsome ,riding ,chair with full set of harness1 and an announcement was made that there was ,to be sold a ,genteel ,post-chaise4 ,the carpets referred to above were imported ones1 ,turkey and ,scotch4 ,persian and plat carpeting was offered for sale in #agfa by ,h4 ,van ,vleck4 ,a later advertisement announced3 ,there will be sold at ,public ,auction1 ,april #g1 #aggg1 ,two very handsome ,turkey carpets4 ,rag carpets were used as early as #affj1 and private families who could afford it owned their own looms4 ,sometimes those who wished extra elegance bought the yarn and paid for the weaving4 ,in #agfa1 ,pennsylvania ,stoves newly invented1 both round and square1 to be sold by ,peter ,clopper were advertised in the ,new ,york ,gazette4 ,these were1 no doubt1 what became known as ,franklin stoves4 ,this same year were also advertised wall-papers by quite a number of firms in various cities3 ,a variety of paper-hangings imported from ,london4 ,flowered papers1 printed papers1 and printed papers for hanging rooms1 were imported as early as #ageb4 ,figure #eb shows the fashionable wall-paper of about this period4 ,it is in the ,cowles ,house1 ,deerfield1 ,mass41 and is in an excellent state of preservation4 ,the sofa below is of the late ,sheraton or early ,empire1 similar to the one belonging to ,rev4 ,mr4 ,ripley and shown in ,figure #cf4 ,some wall-paper of equal elaboration is shown in the ,frontispiece1 which gives the hallway of the famous ,king ,hooper ,house1 built at ,danvers1 ,mass41 now occupied by ,francis ,peabody1 ,esq4 ,wall-paper1 however1 was not very generally used1--just why one cannot tell1 but some of the gaily flowered papers were used for window-shades4 ,curtains for windows and beds were at this time very popular1 and it was the fashion of the time to have the window- and bed-curtains alike4 ,the materials were very numerous and their names have a most unfamiliar sound4 ,there was perpetuana1 ,kitterminster1 serge1 darnick 7a coarse damask17 silke darnick1 camlet1 mohair1 fustian1 seersucker1 camac or camoca1 bancour1 red and green paly-7vertical stripes of equal size17 printed calico1 checked and striped linen1 ,india and ,patma chintzes1 corded dimities1 harrateen1 lutestring1 moreens of all colours1 fine ,french chintzes1 ,pompadour chintzes1 fine laylock and fancy callicoes1 and muzlins4 ,there were bed-cords1 and fringes to edge and trim all these materials1 and the bed in full dress was a very ornamental affair4 ,beds varied in size and height in quite a remarkable degree4 ,the one shown in ,figure #ec has a very wide reputation1 and is now to be seen at the rooms of the ,antiquarian ,society1 ,concord1 ,mass4 ,it is of mahogany1 with bandy legs and ball-and-claw feet4 ,the curtains are the original ones that came with the bed and are worn in many places4 ,they are very curious showing agricultural scenes and domestic animals in large numbers4 ,these curtains were not intended to be drawn1 but to hang permanently in place1 and there were to be inner curtains of muzlin or callico to draw and keep out drafts4 ,one peculiarity of this bed is its extreme narrowness2 it is intended for a double bed and yet its width is only four feet1 it was included in the wedding outfit of ,miss ,martha ,tufts1 who was married at ,concord in #aggd4 ,the cabriole leg and style of curtain lead to the supposition that the piece is ,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ec4 ,,bed ,,at ,,concord1 ,,mass4 ,in ,february1 #agfh1 ,miss ,harriott ,pinckney was married to ,daniel ,horry in ,charles ,town1 ,south ,carolina4 ,this was one of twelve weddings that took place that year1 all the bridegrooms being wealthy rice-planters4 ,the furniture to fill the houses of these rich couples was all brought from ,england1 and the beds were lofty mahogany ones1 four-posters with tester1 canopy1 curtains1 and valances complete4 ,the large heavy posts for all twelve beds were said to be alike1 and were carved with rice-stalks1 the heavy clustering heads forming the capitals4 ,so tall were these beds that steps were necessary to climb into them1 and the ones belonging to ,mrs4 ,horry were in existence a few years ago4 ,in the ,history and ,present ,state of ,virginia1 #agje1 is the following paragraph relating to the homes3 --,the private buildings are of late very much improved2 several ,gentlemen having built themselves large ,brick ,houses of many ,rooms on a floor and several stories high1 as also some ,stone-,houses2 but they don't covet to make them lofty having extent enough of ,ground to build upon4 ,they always contrive to have large rooms that they may be cool in ,summer4 ,of late they have made their ,stories much higher than formerly1 and their windows large and sasht with ,cristal ,glass1 and within they adorn their apartments with rich furniture4 ,the eighteenth century was rightly called the ,golden ,age of ,virginia4 ,the planter in his manor-house1 surrounded by his family1 served by a vast army of retainers1 was like a feudal patriarch1 though his rule was milder4 ,on the plantation itself were produced all the necessaries of life2 it was a little community in itself4 ,wool was woven into clothing1 flax was spun1 shoes were made1 and blacksmithing done4 ,luxuries such as books1 wines1 silks1 laces1 and the more elegant household plenishings were brought to the very wharf from ,london in the planters' own ships in return for tobacco4 ,the writer previously quoted goes on to say1 about the people themselves3 --,they are such abominable ill husbands that1 though their country be overrun with wood1 yet they have all their wooden ware from ,england1 their cabinets1 chairs1 tables1 stools1 chests1 boxes1 cart-wheels1 and all other things1 even so much as their bowls and birchen brooms1 to the eternal reproach of their laziness4 ,although ,beverly calls himself an ,inhabitant of ,virginia1 it is curious that he was not aware that the southern colonies were interdicted by special act of legislature from trading with the ,dutch or ,english colonies4 ,wooden ware is especially mentioned as being subject to imposicon4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ed4 ,,bed ,,at ,,mount ,,vernon4 ,a typical bed of the last quarter of the eighteenth century is shown in ,figure #ed4 ,this bed belonged to ,george ,washington1 and is in his bedroom at ,mount ,vernon4 ,it is said to be the one he used in his last illness4 ,unlike the bed shown in ,figure #ec1 this bed is of unusual proportions1 being nearly as wide as it is long4 ,the small table between the doors shows an excellent example of the ,dutch foot4 ,upon it stands a small dressing-glass1 so much in use at this period1 of very handsome black and gold lacquer4 ,whenever ,general ,washington had the opportunity he added to the furniture and appointments of ,mount ,vernon4 ,belvoir1 the home of the ,fairfax family1 was one of the most splendid of the mansions on the ,potomac4 ,in #aggd its contents were sold at auction1 and ,colonel ,george ,washington bought goods to the value of #bjj sterling4 ,among the most important lots were the following3 #a mahogany shaving desk1 #a settee bed and furniture 7#ac71 #d mahogany chairs1 #a chamber carpet1 #a oval glass with gilt frame1 #a mahogany chest and drawers in ,mrs4 ,fairfax's chamber1 7#ab4 #ajs7 #a mahogany sideboard1 7#ab4 #es47 #a mahogany cistern and stand1 #a mahogany voider1 #a desk and #a knife tray1 #ab chairs #c window curtains from dining room 7#ca71 #a mahogany wash desk1 7#a4 #bs4 #f;d474 ,among the smaller articles were several pairs of andirons1 tongs and shovels1 bellows1 brushes1 toasting-forks1 and #a hot rache in cellar1 with many blankets1 #ai coverlids1 pillows1 bolsters1 bottles and pickle-pots1 wine-glasses and pewter water-plates4 ,there were also two tables1 one a mahogany spider-make tea-table1 #a #aas4 and #a mahogany table #aa1 showing that articles of this wood obtained good values even then4 ,the list of the goods in all of the rooms of ,belvoir is far too long to be given here1 but in the dressing-room connected with ,colonel ,fairfax's bedroom were #a oval glass in burnished gold1 7#e #ajs471 #a mahogany shaving-table1 #a mahogany desk 7#af #afs471 #d chairs and covers1 #a mahogany settee bedstead1 ,saxon green1 covers for same1 #a mahogany ,pembroke table1 dogs1 shovel1 tongs and fender4 ,it is also a matter of interest to see of what books a library consisted among people who were considered to have a literary bent and to be extensive readers4 ,there is nothing light about it1 and would to-day be accounted very dull reading4 ,batavia ,illustrated ,london ,magazine1 #g vols4 ,parkinson's ,herbal ,knoll's ,history of the ,turkish ,empire ,coke's ,institutes of the ,laws of ,england1 #c vol4 ,england's ,recovery ,laws of the ,colony of ,massachusetts ,bay ,laws of ,merchants ,laws of ,virginia ,complete ,clerk and ,conveyancer ,hawkin's ,pleas of the ,crown ,gunnel's ,offences of the ,realm of ,england ,ainsworth's ,english and ,latin ,dictionary ,haine's ,dictionary of ,arts and ,sciences ,blackmore's ,prince ,arthur ,history of the ,twelve ,csars by ,suetonius ,john ,calvin's ,institution of ,religion ,fuller's ,church ,history from its ,rise ,locke on the ,human ,understanding ,hughes's ,natural ,history of ,barbadoes ,a ,new ,body of ,geography ,croope's ,law ,reports ,heylin's ,cosmography1 in #d vols4 ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels ,political ,discourses by ,henry1 ,earl of ,monmouth ,wooten's ,state of ,christendom ,hobart's ,law ,reports ,johnson's ,excellency or ,monarchical ,government ,latin and ,french ,dictionary ,langley's ,pomona1 or ,gardening ,a ,political ,piece ,strada's ,history of the ,low ,country ,wars ,spanish and ,english ,dictionary ,latin ,bible ,a ,poem on ,death ,judgement ,hell ,knox's ,martyrology ,jacob's ,law ,dictionary ,chamberlayne's ,great ,britain ,laws of ,his ,majesty's ,plantations4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ee4 ,,bed ,,at ,,somerville1 ,n4 ,j4 ,a bed showing better the handsome solid posts is given in ,figure #ee4 ,this is also associated with the ,father of his ,country1 for it is in the house at ,somerville1 ,n4 ,j41 occupied by him as headquarters during one of his campaigns in the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,in ,chapter ,i a bedsteade of carven oak was referred to as having been sent for to ,england by ,mrs4 ,lake1 as a wedding-present for her daughter4 ,it could hardly have been such a very splendid piece of furniture as that shown in ,figure #ef1 with its coat of arms on the headboard1 and the two beautiful foot-posts4 ,the draperies were intended to cover the two head-posts1 so that they were left plain4 ,the old easy-chair standing beside the bed has unfortunately lost its feet1 but they were the well-known ball-and-claw pattern generally seen on this style of chair1 which was well calculated to keep off swirling draughts from the head and back of the occupant4 ,these chairs were popular for a century or more1 and were made not only by ,english cabinet-makers like ,chippendale and ,hepplewhite1 but by the ,dutch and ,flemish makers as well4 ,they all have the bandy leg1 but the ,dutch foot is sometimes used instead of the ball-and-claw4 ,but all the luxury and elegance were not absorbed by the ,south and ,new ,york4 ,boston kept well to the front4 ,in #agjj ,andrew ,faneuil1 ,huguenot1 came to ,boston and engaged in business4 ,his brother was in this country1 too1 and1 he dying not long after1 ,andrew assumed the care of1 and took into business with himself1 first one and then a second nephew4 ,they were merchants and the following entries of consignments1 taken from their old ledgers1 which are still in existence1 show the nature of their business4 ,besides crapes1 poplins1 lawns1 and silks1 they had for sale durants and duroys1 osnaburgs1 camblets1 narrow1 double and cherry1 with ingrains1 silk druggets and calamancoes4 ,they also imported dishes1 pans1 and kettles1 wooden lanthorns and tin ditto 7#agbe74 ,nor did they neglect to provide amusement for their fellow townsmen1 for they imported one-half gross man-in-the-moon cards4 ,among other goods in this same invoice were #a chest muskets and one large pair looking-glasses4 ,andrew ,faneuil died in #agch1 and his favourite nephew and chief heir1 ,peter ,faneuil1 did not hesitate1 on account of the cost1 to have an elaborate and seemly funeral4 ,three thousand pairs of gloves were distributed1 and later two hundred mourning-rings were given to intimate friends4 ,peter ,faneuil1 now a wealthy young man by inheritance as well as by his own exertions1 lived in the old house with his maiden sister4 ,this same year1 #agch1 he sends to ,london for a handsome chariot with two setts of harness1 and a coachman warranted to remain sober4 ,a few months later he writes for china and glass from ,england1 for table-cloths and napkins from ,france1 and he sends for silver spoons1 forks with three prongs1 all to have upon them the ,faneuil crest4 ,let them be very neat and handsome1 says he4 ,the next order is for silver candlesticks and a punch-bowl of silver holding two gallons1 also to be decorated with the family crest4 ,his clothes were also a matter of concern1 and he sends to ,london a pattern of a piece of ,duncy1 orders buttons of the newest fashion to match it1 of mohair silk1 and knee-straps4 ,nor is he less scrupulous about his sister's affairs1 and sent all the way back to ,london six pairs of stockings which had been sent of worsted instead of #c pairs thread hose1 and #a pair ,galous hose1 and #b pair of thread ditto4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ef4 ,,carved ,,oak ,,bedstead4 ,boston at this time 7#agch7 seems to have had some luxuries demanded by ,new ,york1 for an order comes to ,peter ,faneuil to send there a dozen red ,turkey or ,morocker leather chairs4 ,one of these easy-chairs cost #ad #ads4 ,in #agdb ,peter ,faneuil gave to the city of ,boston the hall called by his name4 ,it was built of home-made brick 7,salem had a brick-kiln as early as #afbi71 but the glass in the windows was brought from ,england in ,mr4 ,faneuil's own ships4 ,the first furnishings bought by the selectmen for ,faneuil ,hall were two pairs of brass candlesticks with steel snuffers1 and a poker1 for the town's use4 ,peter ,faneuil's inventory1 filed in #agdb1 contains items under #aeh heads1 and makes quite a volume of manuscript4 ,it includes not only his and his uncle's gatherings in the way of household goods1 but the contents of warehouses1 cellar1 coach-house1 and stables4 ,the house was handsomely furnished4 ,in the best room were1 #ab carved vineered chairs couch1 #aje2 #a pier glass1 #ajj4 ,other costly articles were1 #a buffet with parcel of china delph glass1 #aii4 ,there were1 besides1-- --#a chimney glass and arms2 #a marble table2 #a large ,turkey carpet2 #a compleat brass sett1 hearth-dogs1 tongs1 shovel1 and bellows2 #a copper tea-table2 cups1 saucers1 tea-pot1 stand1 bowl and sugar-dish2 #c alabaster bowls and stands2 #a large oval mahogany table1 #ab plain walnut-frame leather-bottom chairs2 #a prospect of ,boston1 #b landskips on copper1 and the ,temple of ,solomon4 ,the ,great ,centre ,hall must have made a quaint appearance1 since here hung the fire apparatus2 #a large entry lantern2 #ab baggs and buckets1 and books #ej4 ,the sleeping-rooms were handsomely equipped1 and each was furnished with its appropriate colour4 ,the list includes3 #a harrateen bed1 bedstead and window curtains1 matrass and two green silk quilts and feather-bed1 #fe #c scones with arms #a bureau1 #a table1 #a pr4 brass-faced dogs1 #a fire-shovel1 tongs bellows1 and one ,turkey carpet1 #ajg ,peter ,faneuil's own room was not lacking in comforts1 as is shown by the enumeration of3 --#a silver-hilted sword1 #a pair of pistols and #a powder-flask1 #ae2 #a case #f razors1 bone penknife1 strap1 #b bottles1 looking-glass tipt with silver2 yellow mohair bed-counterpane1 feather-bed1 bolster1 #b false pillows1 false curtains1 #f chairs1 #a great chair1 #b stools1 window curtains1 etc4 ,the furnishings of this room1 exclusive of the small-arms1 was valued at #bde4 ,he had #f lignum-vit chocolate-cups lined with silver1 which were probably ,dutch1 for among the goods of ,sara ,van der ,vulgen1 of ,schenectady1 at about this same period1 was a great saler or salt-cellar1 made of lignum-vit1 bound with silver and standing on three little silver feet4 ,in ,mr4 ,faneuil's kitchen were many utensils of copper1 pots1 pans1 and kettles1 together with an engine and cistern4 ,he had many jewels1 #a1djj ounces of plate1 including a shaving-basin worth #dj4 ,there were silver snuff-boxes1 seven gold rings1 and chrystall buttons set in gold4 ,just before he died he sent to ,london for six gross of the very best ,london ,king ,henry's cards1 for his store no doubt1 for cards were becoming more popular among the descendants of the ,puritans than they had been4 ,in #agbi ,governor ,burnet1 of ,new ,york and ,massachusetts1 died1 leaving behind him a long list of valuable personal goods4 ,he owned as many as seventy chairs and twelve tables4 ,the chairs were of mahogany and walnut1 with leather or bass bottoms1 and one easy-chair was covered with silk4 ,twenty-four chairs had seats of red leather1 a noble set1 and there are two chairs now in the ,yale ,university ,library which belonged to ,governor ,burnet1 and which are of the exact style of what we call ,chippendale4 ,they were made more than twenty-five years before the ,director was published1 but are made of mahogany with richly carved knees1 ball-and-claw feet1 with carved and ornamentally pierced splats1 handsome upper rail curved and ending in the little ears before mentioned4 ,in all the inventories of wealthy and poor alike there is mention of candlesticks1 sconces1 girandoles1 etc4 ,the entry lanthorns1 as well as the perforated tin ones1 were made to hold bits of candles and lamps are few and far between4 ,it was not till #aghc that the flat-wick lamp was invented1 the lamps before that time being pewter and glass1 with small1 round1 string wicks1 burning whale oil4 ,when the question of lighting was so difficult1 it is no wonder that the pioneers were in the habit of going to bed at dark and rising with the sun4 ,the bayberry or candleberry was of recognized value1 and the laws of ,brookhaven1 as early as #afhg1 forbade the gathering of the berries before ,september #ae1 under a penalty of a fine of fifteen shillings4 ,candlewood1 as pine knots were called1 was burned in the fireplace on long winter evenings4 ,the manufacture of home-made candles was one of the tests by which the careful housewife was distinguished1 dozens of candles being made and laid away in the candle-box4 ,in #agec1 in the ,new ,york ,gazette1 were advertised ,green mould candles for sale1 at the ,old ,slip ,market4 ,the old moulds1 generally of tin1 were passed around among neighbours in country districts and villages4 ,dipping candles was a trying business1 and required skill and experience on the part of the dipper4 ,lustres holding many candles were used on festive occasions1 and four or six lights were often set in branches on either side of mirrors4 ,many candlesticks with cut-glass prisms are still to be found1 and betty-lamps1 crude little metal lamps1 were often used for bedrooms or in sick-rooms4 ,glass lamps and chamber lamps were advertised as early as #agei1 and fine large lamps at #bj shilling each in #ageb4 ,candle-screens1 red1 green1 gilt and black japanned candlesticks with snuffers and extinguishers1 were on sale in #aggc1 and no card-table was complete without at least a pair of tall massive candlesticks of ,sheffield plate4 ,by #agfj the newspapers contain advertisements of what are really luxuries4 ,james ,gilliland1 dealer in earthen1 delf1 and glass in ,wall street1 ,new ,york1 has the following named articles3 ,enamelled and cabbage teapots ,wedgwood1 no doubt1 cut and ground glass decanters1 tumblers1 punch and wine glasses4 ,the fair sex is by no means forgotten1 and even during the stress of the great struggle for freedom her appearance is considered4 ,many times the following announcement appears3 ,the ,venetian ,paste so well-known to the ladies for enameling the ,hands1 neck and face of a lovely white is for sale by ,hugh ,gaine1 printer4 ,nesbit ,deane offers hats to exceed in fineness1 cut1 colour1 and cock4 ,he also has ,ladies' white riding hats4 ,goods for the approaching season are duly set forth in the spring advertisements1 and ,sagothies1 ,hairbine1 white silk embroidered and tambour with gold shades are recommended for waistcoats4 ,there was also to be bought gold and silver vellum lace1 gold and silver bullion fringe1 silk sashes and hat feathers for the gentlemen of the militia and army4 ,spittlefield corded tabbey1 peneaffcoes and peling sattens were to be had in all colours for ladies' use1 while ,prunells and ,oxford crape were provided for the ,rev'd clergy4 ,the servant question was a burning issue even at that time1 and there are quantities of rewards offered for runaway slaves and apprentices4 ,some desperate householder advertised in ,march1 #aggg3 ,,wanted4 ,a cook1 black or white1 male or female4 ,such a person will meet with good encouragement by applying to ,hugh ,gaine1 printer4 ,those who did not wish to be annoyed by the labour of housekeeping could be accommodated with ,diet and ,lodging1 also1 by applying to ,hugh ,gaine1 printer4 ,other advertisements read3 #agfa ,morrison1 peruke maker from ,london1 dresses ladies and gentlemen's hair in the politest taste4 ,he has a choice parcel of human1 horse1 and goat's hairs to dispose of4 #agfh ,james ,daniel1 wig-maker and hairdresser also operates on the teeth1 a business so necessary in this city4 ,wigs were an important feature in the costume of the men4 ,they were subject to tax and were a good source of revenue4 ,the ,treasurer of the ,colony of ,new ,york1 as early as #agcb1 reported that he had received from the tax on wigs the sum of #i #ags4 #f;d4 ,this tax was called-- --a wise and prudent measure1 because it was the fashion for even young boys to conceal their own hair under large and spacious wigs4 ,to repress a custom so absurd1 or to make a source of revenue has been the object of the legislature4 ,so we paid1 and gladly1 for our wigs1 even though visiting ,englishmen spoke of us thus3 ,the people1 both in town and country1 are sober1 industrious1 and hospitable1 though intent upon gain4 ,all travellers mention our hospitality4 ,prince de ,broglie writes in #aghb3 ,m4 de la ,luzerne took me to tea at ,mrs4 ,morris1 wife of the ,secretary of the ,treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,her house is small1 but well ordered and neat1 the doors and tables of superb well-polished mahogany1 the locks and andirons of polished brass1 the cups arranged symetrically1 the mistress of the house good-looking and very grey4 ,mrs4 ,morris was considered to have one of the handsomest houses in ,philadelphia1 and it was not at all the mode to display one's own hair if it had turned grey1 so the fact of ,mrs4 ,morris doing so seems to have impressed the volatile ,frenchman4 ,another traveller1 ,captain ,laurence ,butler1 writes from ,westmoreland1 ,virginia1 in #aghd1 to ,mrs4 ,craddock1 an ,englishwoman1 as follows3 ,when balls are given1 which is very frequent1 the company stay all night 7not as in your country71 for every gentleman has ten or fifteen beds1 which is sufficient for the ladies1 and the men shift for themselves4 ,these beds were the high four-posters1 carved and draped1 and ten or fifteen seems a liberal allowance for every household4 ,one ,alexander ,mackraby1 visiting ,philadelphia in #agfh1 before the ,revolution1 writes home3 ,i could hardly find myself out this morning in a most elegant crimson silk damask bed4 ,poor indeed was the householder who did not manage to have one feder bed1 or one of flock1 or something soft1 and there were always pillows1 bolster1 coverlids1 and blankets1 though sometimes1 judging from the inventories1 the owners did not care particularly about sheets4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,colonial ,,and ,,later ,,periods--,continued4 ,we have seen by the middle of the century1 #agej1 how many comforts were obtainable at the large centres1 and how many cabinet-makers were at work in the ,colonies4 ,about #agef the ways and people are described thus3 ,new ,york is one of the most social places on the continent4 ,the men collect themselves into weekly evening clubs4 ,the ladies in winter are frequently entertained either at concerts of musick or assemblies1 and make a very good appearance4 ,they are comely and dress well1 and scarce any of them have distorted shapes4 ,tinctured with a ,dutch education they manage their families with becoming parsimony1 good providence1 and singular neatness4 ,twenty-five years later the ,british officers quartered in ,new ,york made life there very gay4 ,fox-hunting was practiced till #agha1 and was advertised in the ,royal ,gazette as taking place on ,ascot ,heath1 in ,brooklyn4 ,horse-racing took place on ,hempstead ,plains1 ,long ,island1 for life in general was a full copy of what was going on in ,england4 ,the ,new ,york ,gazette of ,june #d1 #aggj1 tells us that-- --a ,great ,horse-,race was run off on ,hempstead ,plains for a considerable wager1 which engaged the attention of so many in the city that upward of seventy chairs and chaises were carried over the ferry from hence1 and a far greater number of horses1 so that it was thought that the number of ,horses on the ,plains at the ,races far exceeded a thousand4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eg4 ,,room ,,in ,,whipple ,,house1 ,,ipswich1 ,,mass4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eh4 ,,carved ,,and ,,gilded ,,mirror ,,frame4 ,illustration3 ,,mahogany ,,mirror ,,frame ,,with ,,brass ,,ornaments4 ,the comparatively peaceful sport of horse-racing was not the only one indulged in4 ,bull-baiting was not at all unusual4 ,the posters for this amusement were headed ,pro ,bono ,publico1 and in the ,new ,york ,mercury for ,august1 #aggd1 ,john ,cornell announces that there will be a ,bull ,baited on ,town ,hill at #c o'clock every ,thursday during the season4 ,town ,hill was ,columbia ,street1 near ,cranberry ,street1 ,brooklyn ,heights4 ,on ,march #bd1 #aggg1 in the ,new ,york ,mercury was the following advertisement3 ,on ,thursday ,at the ,theatre in ,john ,st4 ,on next ,thursday evening will be performed a ,tragedy called ,venice ,preserved4 ,with an ,occasional ,prologue4 ,to which will be added a ,farce called ',the ,lying ,valet4' ,the ,characters by the ,gentlemen of the ,army and ,navy4 ,as for clothes1 of course the people followed the ,english styles1 and copies of such magazines as ,the ,maccaroni ,magazine or ,monthly ,intelligence of the ,fashions ,diversions1 found their way to ,america4 ,here is an extract from the issue ,october1 #aggb3 ,hats are rising behind and falling before4 ,the blazing gold loop and full-moon button is now totally exploded1 and succeeded by a single narrow looping1 broad hatband1 and pin's-head button4 ,in full dress the three buttons zigzag with the foretop la ,grecque4 ,roses are entirely confined to ,cheapside1 and bags are increasing daily4 ,the late stunting of coats having promoted the growth of skirts1 the pockets are capable of holding conveniently a tolerable-sized muslin handkerchief and smelling bottle4 ,shoes are decreased in heels two inches1 and cut like a butter-boat to show the clocks of the stockings4 ,the ,magazine a la ,mode1 or ,fashionable ,miscellany1 particularly adapted to the ,people of both ,sexes1 and calculated to convey early and useful information to those who are in any way concerned in furnishing articles of ,dress1 either in ,town or ,country1 appeared in #aggg4 ,from one of these useful repositories we learn under date of #aghf that grass-green was the fashionable colour for gentlemen's suits1 that the hair was dressed la ,taureau1 and that watch-keys were remarkable for size and weight4 ,in #agfj1 pattern-books published in ,london were to be found in ,america for the benefit of native cabinet-makers1 as the following advertisement duly sets forth3 ,john ,rivington of ,hanover ,square has for sale many books for cabinet makers1 joiners1 etc41 and calls particular attention to a new work called ,household ,furniture for the year #agfj1 by a society of ,upholsterers1 ,cabinet-makers1 etc41 containing upwards of #ahj ,designs consisting of ,tea-,tables1 ,dressing1 ,card1 ,writing1 ,library and ,slab tables1 ,chairs1 ,stools1 ,couches1 ,trays1 ,chests1 ,tea-,kettles1 ,bureaus1 ,beds1 ,ornamental ,bed ,posts1 ,cornishes1 ,brackets1 ,fire-,screens1 ,desk and ,book ,cases1 ,sconces1 ,chimney-,pieces1 ,girandoles1 ,lanthorns1 etc41 with scales4 ,not a paper but had advertisements of furniture offered for sale4 ,thus in #aggd we find3 ,to be sold at private sale a large black walnut cupboard with a set of ,delft1 a large pier looking-glass1 one pair of sconces1 #c large gilt frame pictures1 and sundry other articles4 ,in the same number of the ,weekly ,mercury1 and in many succeeding issues appears the following notice3 ,a scheme for the disposal of a large quantity of silver-plated furniture by lottery4 ,the owner is a ,philadelphian4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ei4 ,,mahogany ,,desk ,,and ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,in ,figure #eh are shown two looking-glasses of styles that were fashionable about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,one of them is dated #agdi1 of mahogany handsomely carved1 and further embellished with ornaments of chiselled brass1 a beading of it being next to the glass4 ,it rests upon two mirror-knobs1 which were screwed into the walls to support looking-glasses1 and the collection of which is such a pleasing hobby to-day4 ,the central ornament on the top is missing4 ,the other glass is of carved wood gilded1 and is now in ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,it hung for many years in the fine old house ,belmont1 and is of the very finest style4 ,the broken-arch cornice is finished with rosettes1 and the central ornament is not the usual urn1 but something more ornate4 ,there are constant notices of mahogany for sale1 such as3 ,a cargo of fine mahogany for sale by ,anthony ,van ,dam1 ,jan'y #ag1 #aggd4 ,in ,may of the same year ,john ,morton advertises-- --the largest and most elegant assortment of mahogany or gilt oval looking-glass frames ever imported in this city4 ,william ,melbourn advertises also1 in #aggd1 over a hundred items1 among them are the following1 showing that small wares were easily to be obtained3 ,white and green ivory table and desert knives and forks4 ,ditto with silver caps and ferrils4 ,ditto black ebony with caps and ferrils4 ,also ,black horn1 camwood1 centre-bone split buck1 sham stag table knives and forks4 ,carving and oyster knives4 ,neat mahogany and fish skin knife boxes4 ,mahogany and fish skin razor cases4 ,plated coffee pots and spoons4 ,mahogany tea chests4 ,merry ,andrew1 ,harry1 and ,mogul's playing cards1 ,pearl and ivory fish and counters1 ,mustard and ,marrow spoons4 ,in ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia1 is a set of table knives with green ivory handles1 like those advertised in the first item1 and looking at the end of the blades we can no longer doubt that the use of two-pronged forks was supplemented by a dexterous manipulation of the knife-blades4 ,writing-desks or scrutoirs1 or desks and bookcases1 or even desks fitted into the drawers of a bureau1 had become pieces of furniture that were found in every well-to-do home4 ,in ,figure #ei is shown one of the early styles of make1 about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,this particular desk was brought from ,england1 is of mahogany1 and is in good condition except that the front feet have been restored4 ,it still has the original brasses and the overlapping drawers4 ,it has several secret drawers where during the ,revolution the private documents of the owner were concealed4 ,during the ,civil ,war its secret drawers were again in use1 and effectually concealed papers of value4 ,it has never passed out of the possession of the family whose ancestors brought it over1 and it belongs to ,miss ,hite1 of ,waynesboro1 ,va4 ,the two-drawer chest beside it is of a much earlier period4 ,the mouldings make the chest part resemble two drawers1 but the top opens as is usual4 ,the handles on the desk are of the shape used so much by ,hepplewhite on his bureaus and sideboards1 while those on the chest are an earlier form of the well-known willow pattern of brasses and are fastened in by wires4 ,the earliest patterns of handles were the knob and drop1 which were used on furniture before #agjj4 ,these were succeeded by others which were fastened in by wire1 and these again were replaced by handles which were affixed with nut and screw4 ,on page #bbd are shown the different styles of handles1 and their approximate dates4 ,the chest is of mahogany1 with bracket foot4 ,this is a most unusual and interesting piece4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fj4 ,,combined ,,book ,,case ,,and ,,desk4 ,at the time of the ,revolution there was comfort generally in most of the large cities at least4 ,in #aggf there were sent to ,cold ,spring1 for the use of the army1 the following3 #b ,mah'y tables1 #f ,rush ,bottom chairs1 #d ,mah'y ,rush ,bottoms1 and #b small bedsteads1 a kitchen table1 a new case of bottles1 a ,coffee ,mill1 ,brass ,scales and ,waights1 #b ,kitchen ,tramels1 #b pickel ,tubs and #b ,wash ,tubs1 an ,iron hooped ,pail and a soap barrel mostly full of soap and the ,ticke of a ,stra bed4 ,value #bj4 ,the works at ,cold ,spring were destroyed1 and the goods were never used1 but the ,government's strong-box paid for them4 ,cornelis ,van ,santvoordt1 who lived at ,esopus1 near ,kingston1 ,n4 ,y41 when it was burned by the ,british ,october #af1 #aggg1 put in a claim for damages for #ed #ags4 #c;d4 a large variety of goods1 as may be seen from the following list3 #a ,fether bed ,holl'd ,tick1 #a ,boulster1 #a ,pillow1 #a ,coverlin to bed #ad #j #j #a ,bedsted #bjs4--#a ,green ,rug #ees4 #c #ae #j #b large ,rose ,blanckets #a #h #j #a large lookinglass #f #j #j #b chaina ,teapots #af #j #h ,burnt ,china ,chocolate ,cups #aj #j ,doz ,teacups and ,saucers #ad #j #d tea plates #d #j #b large ,cream ,couler sauce cups #d #j doz blew chaina plates #f #j cream couler #b #f #a dining-table black cherry wood #a #d #j #a ,teble larg #a #j #j #a large ,copper ,kittle #c #ac #i #a ,brass ,kittle #a #ab #j #f ,flat back chairs #a #af #j #a ,holland cubberd neatly adorned with ,waxwork #aj #j #j #a ,barrel soap #a #ab #j #c ,wine ,canters #f #j #d glasses #f #j #a chest wt4 ,clothing and linen #a #aj #j #a ,sundry books #a large ,dutch ,bible #c #j #j #a large ,kibbe1 #a ,sermon book some of the others ,divinity some ,history #a #ab #j #a ,new ,spinning ,weale #a #ab #j #ab pictures w't ,glass over #ah #j #a larg ,knot ,bowl ,cost #a #d #b #b #j #b beds with ,straw #b #aj #b fine worked ,baskets #af #j #a ,tapend ,water ,crane #f #j -------- #ed #ag #c ,this inventory is somewhat unusual from the number of ,chaina articles enumerated1 and among all the items there are but six chairs and not a stool4 ,this claim1 with many others1 is recorded in the ,new ,york ,records of the ,revolution1 and it was paid out of the strong-box4 ,this box was not a mythical object at all1 but a veritable chest4 ,gerard ,bancker was ,state ,treasurer for twenty years4 ,during the ,revolution the iron chest moved about from one place to another like the ,continental ,congress1 and the ,treasurer went with it4 ,according to a custom of the times ,mr4 ,bancker took the chest with him when he retired from office4 ,his family kept it for a hundred years1 but with many other relics it was sold in ,philadelphia1 in #ahih1 by one of his descendants4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fa4 ,,field ,,bed4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fb4 ,,low ,,four-,,post ,,bed4 ,there were various patterns of combinations of desks and bookcases1 and of desks and bureaus4 ,there were the high1 wide ones of ,chippendale or ,sheraton1 that would almost fill one side of a room4 ,there were small ones with desk below and shelves above1 and occasionally there were such great ones as that shown in ,figure #fj4 ,this piece of furniture is so tall and massive that it could not have been accommodated in any save a large house4 ,it is over eight feet tall and five feet three inches wide4 ,it is of a light mahogany1 with pillars of ,empire style and very handsome brasses4 ,the lid of the desk folds back on itself and below it is a drawer and cupboard4 ,the handsomest things about the bookcase are the glass doors with ,gothic tracery4 ,the date of this piece is about the first decade of the nineteenth century4 ,the four legs on the front are of unusual elegance4 ,it belongs to the ,historical ,society at ,albany4 ,quite as interesting as the inventories of property left by will are some old records in the ,state ,library1 ,new ,jersey1 called a ,record of the ,damages done by the ,british and their adherents to the ,inhabitants of ,middlesex ,co41 ,new ,jersey4 ,this contains the inventories made by six hundred and fifty persons who suffered from the depredations of the plundering ,hessians and the ,english soldiery4 ,the lists extend over the years from #aggf to #aghb inclusive1 but the worst mischief was done in the time from ,december1 #aggf1 to ,june1 #aggg4 ,there were eighteen hundred horses taken1 and these form a single item4 ,that the settlers were good livers the following inventory of one patriot shows4 ,he lost-- --#d hogsheads of cider1 pipe of madeira1 #aj gallons brandy1 #g gallons ,jamaica brandy1 barrel cherry ,rum1 barrel ,porter4 ,the inventory does not state his business1 but we trust from appearances that he kept a public4 ,another list reads3 ,three cupboards of ,dutch make as good as new1 also three large ,bibles #a ,dutch and #b ,english4 ,david ,harriott1 of ,middlesex ,county1 was completely stripped by the enemy4 ,among many items were-- a set of ,homespun curtains wove with damask flowers1 one ditto of white in large damask flowers1 and one ditto of double dimons4 ,napkins1 quilts1 bedspreads1 and sheets1 as well as large-flowered damask table-cloths and linen covers testify to the industry of the women of the family4 ,the good wife lost her long gowns and short gowns1 her shifts of #ejj linen1 handkerchiefs of gauze1 lawn1 and linen1 aprons of new flowered lawn1 fine linen and homespun1 #c caps of cambric and lawn1 all new1 and even two bibs for a child4 ,they took all of ,david's clothes and his silver teaspoons and buckles1 smashed his windows and doors1 broke down his partitions1 drove off his cattle1 and did not leave him so much as a bed1 a piggin1 a trammel1 or a gridiron4 ,jacob ,hyer was another sufferer4 ,his house must have been one of considerable size and well furnished4 ,there are many items1 among them-- --#e fluted brass candlesticks1 #b pr4 common ditto1 #a doz4 iron ditto1 #aj pr4 snuffers2 #aa feather beds with bolsters and pillows1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fc4 ,,french ,,bed4 ,the enemy left him nothing1 even taking his ,iron chain for ,smoke ,jack4 ,much of the furniture listed in these inventories was evidently of ,american make1 for the woods mentioned are bilstead1 gum pine1 walnut1 cherry1 or red cedar4 ,the last was the favorite4 ,bilstead was maple4 ,the beds were chiefly of three styles1 field beds1 high four-posters with testers and valance1 and low four-posters1 with an occasional ,english or ,french bed4 ,there were beds much plainer than the carved ones we so much admire1 but in any case the bed was the most valuable household possession1 as it had always been4 ,in #afdj ,william ,southmead's house in ,gloucester1 ,mass41 is valued at #h1 and his feather-bed1 bedstead1 and appurtenances at the same sum4 ,in #afbh a pair of sheets was furnished to each ,massachusetts ,bay ,colonist4 ,linen and flannel sheets were the ones in use4 ,after spinning became universal and flax abundant1 homespun sheets abounded1--#bj and #a pr4 is not an unusual number2 and where there were several daughters whose chests had to be filled1 the number was many times greater4 ,table linen also was of domestic manufacture4 ,one of the fashionable patterns of beds shown in the ,english books imported into the ,colonies1 and made by ,american cabinet-makers1 was known as the field bed4 ,the one shown in ,figure #fa is in the ,whipple ,house1 ,ipswich1 and is draped with the netting curtains1 heavily dotted and fringed1 which were customary in its day4 ,early in #agjj there was an auction sale of ,governor ,cornbury's effects in ,new ,york1 and the following advertisement concerning them3 ,a fine yellow ,camblet bed lined with silk and trimmed with fine lace1 which came from ,london4 ,one fine field bedstead and curtains4 ,some blue cloth lately come from ,london for liveries and some broad gold lace4 ,a very fine medecine chest with a great variety of valuable medecines4 ,a parcel of sweetmeats and jelly glasses4 ,a case of #ab knives and #ab forks with silver handles4 ,a large iron fireplace and iron bars all to be seen at the ,fort4 ,it seemed as if the field bed had been made here1 as it is specified that several of the other articles came from ,london4 ,the ,journeyman's ,cabinet ,chair-makers ,philadelphia ,book of ,prices gives in #agie the price of a mahogany field bed1 with sloped roof1 at #a #gs41 while one of poplar1 with the roof sloped each way1 cost but one pound4 ,the carving of the posts was of course extra and was to be paid for according to time4 ,each inch that the bed was longer than six feet and wider than four feet was to be charged for at the rate of two pence per inch4 ,this may be the reason why many of the beds were so narrow4 ,it is often stated that the field bed was in use for a few years only1 about the middle of the #ahth ,century1 while in fact it was here1 imported and of domestic make for fully one hundred years1 and ,i am by no means sure that ,governor ,cornbury's was among the earliest4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fd4 ,,highboy4 ,great attention was paid to the draping and arranging of the curtains1 valances1 and testers of the high four-posters4 ,heavy materials of silk and woollen were used1 as well as cotton stuffs4 ,men paid great attention to the colourings of their bed furniture1 as we have seen in several inventories1 and ,horace ,walpole chose for his own bed at ,strawberry ,hill purple cloth lined with white satin1 and bunches of feathers on the tester4 ,hepplewhite spent much pains on the details of his beds1 and recommended that the valance be made very full1 in which case it was called the petticoat valance4 ,there were also elaborate details for tying back the curtains and trimming them with gimp and fringe4 ,the bed-drapings1 even in early days1 were often very valuable4 ,col4 ,francis ,epes1 of ,henrico ,co41 ,va41 has in his inventory dated ,october #a1 #afgh3 ,one large new feather bed with camlett curtains and double vallins lind with yellow silke1 bolster1 pillow1 counterpane1 ,rodds and hooks tops and stands1 #a curtaine and some ,fringe damnified #bd #es4 #j;d4 ,the low-post bed was also a very handsome piece of furniture1 and in many cases the post was surmounted by a pineapple1 like the example shown in ,figure #fb4 ,this bed has passed through a career of violent contrasts1 and it is only within a year that the four posts were rescued from a barn1 where they afforded convenient roosts for poultry4 ,the side and head and foot boards had passed entirely out of sight1 no doubt in some moment of stress they had fed the family cooking-stove4 ,the missing parts have been restored in solid mahogany1 and it makes a very handsome piece of furniture4 ,it belongs to ,mr4 ,william ,m4 ,hoyt1 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the acanthus leaves on the lower parts of the legs are unusually handsome4 ,the posts are #fc inches high1 and the brass drops which conceal the screw-holes have been restored from a bed of the same period4 ,an unusually elegant example of the ,french bed is the one given in ,figure #fc4 ,this bed is of rosewood1 with legs of splendidly carved dolphins1 and on the side rails and rolling ends are very rich ormolu decorations cut from solid brass4 ,the medallions directly over the legs show ,fame blowing her trumpet1 and the rams' heads terminating the head and foot boards where they rest upon the wood above the stars are solid brass also4 ,this bed has been many years in this country1 and stood in the bridal chamber or guest-room of the old ,van ,rensselaer ,manor ,house at ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,this room was situated on the ground floor to the right of the front door4 ,a most necessary piece of furniture which every housekeeper endeavoured to own was some form of highboy1 as it has come to be called1 or a chest-on chest of drawers4 ,figure #fd depicts a fair example of the highest style of perfection to which these articles reached4 ,few are found more ornate than this4 ,the wood is mahogany1 and is richly carved on the knees1 with the upper and lower drawers ornamented with shell and scrolls4 ,the escutcheons and handles are original1 and the only defect is the loss of the two ornaments which decorated either side of the top4 ,the date of this chest of drawers is anywhere from #agej to about #aghj1 the overlapping drawers making it more likely to approximate the earlier date4 ,belonging to about the same period is the corner cupboard shown in ,figure #fe4 ,this is of cherry1 with the broken arch-cornice and ,gothic door4 ,it has turned posts with rosettes which ,sheraton often used1 and the cupboard doors overlap and are panelled4 ,the back of the cupboard is of pine1 as are the shelves4 ,the wood is a rich dark colour and unpolished4 ,similar pieces1 though not exactly in this form1 are to be met with in ,virginia and are doubtless of native manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fe4 ,,corner ,,cupboard4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ff4 ,,inlaid ,,and ,,lacquered ,,table ,,and ,,chair4 ,american makers used not only mahogany1 cedar1 ash1 elm1 pine1 maple1 cherry1 poplar1 and walnut1 but could inlay with ,king1 tulip1 rose1 purple1 snake1 zebra1 ,alexandria1 panella1 yew1 and maple4 ,there were cabinet-makers in every town1 and many of them put out as handsome work as their contemporaries in ,london4 ,in ,chapter ,v mention has been made of the cabinet-makers of the eighteenth century1 but furniture was made in the ,colonies even before that4 ,the native joiners began to work as early as #afbb1 for ,phineas ,pratt1 of ,weymouth1 ,mass41 was what we now call a cabinet-maker1 and before #agjj ,boston had at least #be cabinet-makers whose names appear in various records4 ,we have also spoken of ,connecticut chests1 and their manufacture somewhere in that ,state4 ,there is also another style known as the ,hadley chest4 ,mr4 ,lockwood1 in his fine work on furniture1 places the date of these chests as ranging from #afij to #agbj4 ,they come in one-1 two-1 and three-drawer patterns1 varying in height from #cb inches in one-drawer size to #df inches for the three-drawer style4 ,the peculiarity of these chests is their decoration1 their shape being similar to other chests of the same period4 ,in addition to being carved they are stained as well1--red1 mulberry1 and black being the colours chosen4 ,on the central panel of the front the initials of the owner were usually roughly carved2 the decoration of the chest1 confined to the front1 being a rude vine1 while the sides are panelled4 ,the top1 body of drawers1 and back of chest are always pine1 the thrifty ,new ,england craftsman saving his hardwood for places where it would show4 ,there is a very fine specimen of these ,hadley chests in the ,museum at ,deerfield1 ,mass4 ,several more are in collections gathered in ,massachusetts or adjoining ,states4 ,the black-stained pine ornaments do not always mark a piece as of domestic manufacture1 for pear-wood was used by the ,dutch1 and even occasionally by the ,english1 stained black to imitate ebony1 which was always more or less costly4 ,after #agbe there was considerable travel by merchants1 and to a small extent by others bent on pleasure4 ,inns became of importance1 and brought in good incomes to their owners4 ,abel ,chapin kept a tavern at ,chicopee1 ,mass41 in #agcj1 and some few leaves of his account-book still remain4 ,the records of the bar are the most numerous entries1 and he sold there ,rhum ,cyder1 bowls of punch and mugs of flip1 and sometimes ,shugar1 seed-corne1 salt1 and molasses4 ,when this prosperous innkeeper died he left personal property valued at #djj1 and his real estate was worth #a1cjj4 ,there were six hundred items mentioned in his inventory among the household furnishings1 including iron1 pewter1 and brass ware with some china and glass4 ,there is also special mention of #cf linen sheets1 sixteen blankets1 eleven woolen sheets1 #f table cloths and #ba towels4 ,the inventory of his wardrobe shows richness for those days1 and justifies his mother's statement that she had one son who was too rich4 ,the inventory begins with3 #b ,great ,cotes1 #a srait ,body ,cote1 #a pare lether ,britches1 #a pare shues1 #d pare pumps1 #a hat1 a black ,velvet ,vest1 #a pare ,velvet ,britches1 #i pare hose1 #d fine shirts1 #f common shirts1 shoe ,buckles4 ,his brother1 a bachelor1 died in #agdg1 and also had much worldly geer4 ,he had cotes and jackets of ,camlet1 serge and ,broadcloth1 and some shirts1 some more shirts1 and some fine shirts4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fg4 ,,lacquered ,,table4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fh4 ,,mahogany ,,bureau4 ,there was no longer such great stress for the necessaries of life1 in the ,connecticut ,valley at least1 though there was still hardship and danger a plenty4 ,game and wild fowl abounded in the woods1 and the rivers were full of fish4 ,there is on record a single catch in one night of #f1jjj shad and #ij salmon1 six men being at work4 ,each householder was required to keep at least three sheep1 and these1 with the fields of flax1 supplied bedding and clothing4 ,the ,wayside ,inn1 ,south ,sudbury1 ,mass41 is still standing to show what a handsome and hospitable dwelling one of these old-fashioned inns was4 ,in ,figure #ah1 is shown the old dining-room1 looking to-day pretty much as it did a century ago4 ,on the left is a handsome lowboy with carving1 and from the little alcove on the right many a steaming glass of flip or negus was served to cold and weary travellers4 ,the dining-room was the centre of hospitality in the later ,colonial days1 as the kitchen had been in the earlier period4 ,there was no handsomer or more hospitable entertainer than ,john ,hancock1 of ,boston4 ,in ,september1 #aggh1 he gave a dinner to ,count ,d',estaing1 the ,french ,admiral1 and his officers and other dignitaries4 ,there was such a large company that the spacious ball-room at the ,hancock ,house was not large enough1 so ,faneuil ,hall was engaged for the occasion4 ,all contemporary accounts agree that it was a very splendid affair and went off with great clat4 ,the following amusing glimpse behind the scenes shows ,mr4 ,hancock's anxiety about the provisions for this same dinner4 ,,monday ,,noon1 #cj ,aug4 #aggh4 ,,dear ,,sir--,the ,phillistines are coming upon me on ,wednesday next at ,dinner4 ,to be ,serious1 the ,ambassador1 etc41 etc41 are to dine with me on ,wednesday1 and ,i have nothing to give them1 nor from the present prospect of our ,market do ,i see that ,i shall be able to get anything in ,town4 ,i must beg the favr of you to ,recommend to my man ,harry where he can get some chickens1 ,ducks1 ,geese1 ,hams1 ,partridges1 ,mutton or anything that will save my reputation in a dinner1 and by all means some ,butter4 ,be so good as to help me and you will much oblige me4 ,is there any good ,mellons or ,peaches or any good fruit near you8 ,your advice to ,harry will much oblige me4 ,excuse me1 ,i am very troublesome4 ,can ,i get a good ,turkey8 ,i walked in ,town to-day4 ,i dine on board the ,french ,frigate to-morrow1 so you see how ,i have ,recovered4 ,god bless you4 ,if you see anything good at ,providence1 do ,buy it for me4 ,i am ,your ,real ,friend ,,john ,,hancock4 ,apparently the friend came to his assistance4 ,the appearance of the company must have been very gay1 for bright apparel was not confined to ladies alone4 ,seven years later ,james ,bowdoin1 the ,governor of ,massachusetts 7#aghe7 on a review day at ,cambridge1 wore a grey wig1 cocked hat1 white broadcloth coat and vest1 red small-clothes1 and black-silk stockings4 ,thomas ,jefferson wore a white coat and red breeches4 ,the ladies were looked out for also1 and-- a neat assortment of women's and children's stays1 also hoops and quilted coats1 also men's and women's shoes from ,england were advertised in the ,new ,york ,mercury4 ,as early as #agfa ,mr4 ,h4 ,levy offered for sale ,hyson tea1 coffee and chocolate1 and ,english-made shoes4 ,the ,new ,york ,gazette of ,may #ae1 #aghi1 describes a gown of the prevailing mode as follows3 ,a plain but celestial blue satin gown over a white satin petticoat4 ,over the neck was worn a large ,italian gauze handkerchief4 ,head-dress a pouf of gauze in form of a globe1 the head-piece of which was made of white satin having a double wing which was trimmed with a wreath of roses4 ,the hair was dressed in detached curls and a floating chignon4 ,at this same period in winter weather the gentlemen wore muffs of bearskin with knots of scarlet ribbon1 while the hats of the ladies were so immense that it was suggested that a larger style of umbrella be invented so as to protect them4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fi4 ,,american-,,made ,,chairs4 ,from #agej the decoration of the fireplace became of importance1 and marble chimney-fronts1 blue and white tiles1 and beautifully variegated marble hearths in different colours are freely advertised4 ,carved and open-work mahogany mantelpieces could be had by #agfe1 and elegant grates and ,bath ,stoves are imported from ,england4 ,fire-dogs or andirons of many patterns are advertised for sale4 ,in ,figure #eg1 there will be seen in the fireplace a pair representing marching soldiers4 ,we have seen in many inventories how the elegances of the ,east crept in among stouter and more practical goods4 ,in ,figure #ff are shown two fine examples of ,oriental lacquer-work ornamented with gold and inlaid with mother-of-pearl flowers4 ,the chair is lacquered on some exceedingly light and porous wood1 and has a cane seat4 ,the table1 which is of a very ornate design1 has a heavy base to prevent its tipping over4 ,both belong to the ,erastus ,corning ,estate1 and are now at the ,albany ,historical ,society ,rooms4 ,music-stands were also made of lacquered wood and decorated with gilt patterns and mother-of-pearl4 ,another very beautiful example of lacquer-work is shown in ,figure #fg4 ,this is gold lacquer on black and special attention should be given to the ,oriental rendering of the pillar and claw feet of the table4 ,the carving is very fine1 the dragon's head in which each foot terminates being quite a work of art4 ,the vase which stands on the table is ,svres1 made under ,napoleon's direction as a gift to the ,emperor of ,russia4 ,it never reached its destination2 for ,napoleon himself went to ,russia1 and his mission was not to give1 but to take4 ,the vase was secured in ,paris by ,mr4 ,william ,bayard1 and presented by him to his brother-in-law1 ,general ,stephen ,van ,rensselaer1 the eighth patroon of ,rensselaerwick4 ,bureaus with flat tops1 upon which stood either lacquered or wooden dressing-glasses1 were in use during the latter part of the eighteenth and in the early part of the nineteenth centuries4 ,sometimes the glasses were attached to the bureau itself1 which then had an extra set of small drawers above the larger ones1 set back so as to leave a shelf in front of them4 ,such a piece of a very ornate character is shown in ,figure #fh4 ,it is of mahogany with gilt mountings of very beautiful design on the pillars of the front4 ,the drawer which swells out has on it a splendid ,empire gilt ornament4 ,above this the rail across the front is painted black and has a pattern in gold upon it4 ,the curved supports to the mirror are carved and then painted with gold1 as is the mirror-frame itself4 ,the handles are glass1 with bosses of gilt1 completing an unusually handsome piece of furniture4 ,the glass handles place the date of this bureau as not earlier than #ahbj4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gj4 ,,american-,,made ,,rosewood ,,card-,,table4 ,the work of domestic furniture-makers has often been referred to in this work1 and in ,figure #fi are given examples of three chairs1 all of them mahogany1 the two on the left being in ,sheraton style1 and the one on the right rather later1 and coming under the head of ,empire4 ,the latter has the curved back and legs which were very popular1 and a very distinctively ,american touch in the finely carved eagle which ornaments the cross-bar of the back4 ,all three chairs are well carved1 and the panelled back of the middle one has a thread of brass moulding4 ,the carved design is adapted from some well-known patterns by ,sheraton4 ,the one on the extreme left has some very delicate carving above the three arrows4 ,in the little open panel are a bow and quiver quite out of proportion1 in their size1 to the large1 heavy arrows below it4 ,all three chairs had the covering nailed down with brass nails in the popular style1 and the middle one still has the original stuff4 ,american cabinet-makers also excelled in making and carving very beautiful rosewood furniture which was held in high estimation down to the middle of the century4 ,a piece of such work is shown in the handsomely carved card-table represented in ,figure #gj4 ,the legs are gracefully curved and embellished with fine carving4 ,the top turns1 and then opens1 a circular portion of the center being covered with cloth4 ,within the frame the table is finished with handsome curled maple1 and has numerous little compartments for holding cards and counters4 ,this specimen belongs to ,miss ,sarah ,frost1 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,french ,,furniture4 ,the glory of the ,french ,renaissance had begun to wane when ,louis ,,xiii4 came to the throne in #afad1 and by the time of his death in #afdc it had become hardly more than a tradition4 ,its strongest period had been during that century which embraced the reigns of five sovereigns1 ,francis ,i41 and ,,ii41 and ,henry ,,ii41 ,,iii41 and ,,iv4 ,this was from #aeae to #afaj1 and1 of all monarchs who held the throne of ,france1 ,francis ,i41 who sat upon it thirty-two years1 did more for it in raising the standard of art than had been done by his predecessors in a century1 though ,henry ,,ii4 and ,henry ,,iv4 had made their reigns notable4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ga4 ,,bedroom ,,of ,,anne ,,of ,,austria ,,at ,,fontainebleau4 ,rich1 ambitious to have ,france as great in art as ,italy1 ,francis was a liberal patron1 and invited to ,paris1 the centre of all literature and art in ,france1 painters1 sculptors1 and architects4 ,italy had difficulties to contend with from the fact that she was divided into many small principalities and dominated by many schools4 ,florence1 ,milan1 ,sienna1 ,naples1--each had their distinctive styles2 but in ,france the court of ,francis was the pivot upon which all the arts turned4 ,he built that series of chateaus which remain among the wonders of the world1--,chambord1 ,chenonceau1 and ,fontainebleau4 ,he left traces of his taste on medival ,amboise1 remodelled the ,louvre1 and finished the restoration of ,blois which had been begun by ,louis ,,xii4 ,the throes through which ,france has passed has swept away some of her choicest historic monuments1 but ,fontainebleau remains a true example of ,french ,renaissance4 ,with this fine old palace are connected some of the most critical moments of ,french history4 ,in one of its rooms was signed the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes2 ,cond was murdered here in the library1 or ,gallery of ,diana4 ,on the great curved staircase ,napoleon bade adieu to what remained of the ,old ,guard before he went to ,elba1 and on a little table in one of the six rooms which might be called the suite of the ,first ,empire1 extending back of the gallery of ,francis ,i4 he signed his act of abdication4 ,the decorations of this palace are superb1 the very flower of the ,french ,renaissance4 ,oak1 carved and gilded1 wainscots the walls in many of the rooms1 but in the chamber of ,anne of ,austria1 shown in ,figure #ga1 the wainscoting consists of carved panels framed in marbles1 and above them carved figures stand out from the painted walls1 which are divided by oak mouldings into sections1 while a beautiful carved cornice of scallop-shells on a gold ground surrounds the room4 ,the ,french1 as no other nation has ever done1 set in a fitting shrine the beautiful furniture which they made2 the decoration of walls1 doors1 ceilings1 and fireplace always playing an important part in the whole scheme4 ,the ,french style1 a word on which ,lady ,dilke strongly insists in her great work on ,french ,furniture of the ,,xviii ,century1 was unmistakably impressed on all they attempted4 ,the woodwork was lighter and more openly carved than ,italian work of the same period4 ,even when made by ,italian workmen who swarmed to the ,french court under promise of abundant employment and rich emolument1 the work was imbued with the ,french spirit and an elegance with which even ,italy could not vie4 ,the noble appreciation which had grown up in ,france was fostered by ,louis ,,xiv4 when he came to the throne1 not so much for art's sake as for his own aggrandizement1 and to make his court the most elegant in the world4 ,louis contemned the style of elegance and luxury begun in an earlier reign1 and artists of even superior merit were set to work to make beautiful the homes of those uncrowned queens on whom the ,grand ,monarch lavished such immense sums of money4 ,versailles was enriched1 the lovely gardens planned by ,le ,notre1 with their superb flower beds and fountains1 the green carpet of turf down which the monarch loved to walk1 were all made with enormous outlay of money4 ,the hotels and buildings at ,versailles set apart for the service of the king and his attendants were numbered by hundreds4 ,there were the royal stables1 the new hotel of the ,governor of ,versailles1 the green rooms of the actors who performed at the palace1 the hotel of the keeper of the wardrobe1 the hotel of the guardsmen1 the ,english garden1 the riding-school1 the king's icehouses1 the houses of the body-guard1 and so on4 ,street after street was filled with these buildings1 besides those devoted to falconry1 boar-hunting1 the kennels1 the little stables1 and those filled with shops1 vegetable gardens1 etc41 and in addition that great habitation occupied by more than two thousand persons1 with other buildings called ,louises where the king assigned temporary or permanent lodgings4 ,the great stables built in #afhb and costing #c1jjj1jjj francs are some of the few buildings left to show the magnificence of old ,versailles4 ,they were so ample and beautiful that under the direction of the great ,louis himself they served sometimes as a ball-room1 sometimes as a theatre1 and more often as a circus for the princes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gb4 ,,bed ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv ,,at ,,versailles4 ,there is a bound volume extant1 bearing the name of ,mansart1 in which the cost of the palace is given at #aec1jjj1jjj francs4 ,this was but the casket itself without any of its furnishings4 ,louis preferred to live in the open air1 and the gardens were merely outdoor drawing-rooms1 where people conversed and exchanged the compliments of the day4 ,round his person the king loved to group his retinue1 and down the broad staircases of the gardens sixty ladies with hoopskirts measuring twenty-four feet in circumference could move easily4 ,on the outskirts were a swarm of courtiers and servants in uniforms1 costumes1 and liveries as brilliant as the rainbow4 ,consider the life of one of these courtiers under the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,here is the routine of the ,duc de ,la ,rochefoucauld1 ,master of the ,hounds3 --,he never missed the king's rising or retiring1 both changes of dress every day1 the hunts and promenades likewise every day1 for ten years in succession4 ,never sleeping away from the place where the king rested1 not able to stay away all night1 and yet obliged to dine away from court4 ,even after the court etiquette became more stiff and precise1 and the formal manners arranged by ,louis and ,madame de ,maintenon were in daily practice1 the smaller details of life remained as elegant as possible4 ,hoopskirts of such size as has been mentioned were too enormous for chairs1 so a sort of stool without arms or back became a necessary article of furniture4 ,one sofa1 two arm-chairs1 and nine stools were a proper proportion for a set to furnish a room1 and these were stiffly set about the walls1 leaving the middle of the room quite bare4 ,in ,figure #gb is shown part of the bedroom of ,louis ,,xiv4 at ,versailles1 with the elaborate decorations which were lavished on that palace1 and the furniture which accompanied it4 ,tapestry-covered chairs and hangings of the richest embroidery were all in harmony with the splendid walls4 ,the tall bronze girandoles were ,cupids supporting branches of flowers in ormolu to hold candles4 ,over the doors were portraits or mirrors surmounted by carved and gilt figures with garlands of flowers4 ,the decorated ,boulle cabinet on the right is very different in its lines from those articles as seen in the succeeding reign1 when everything assumed a lighter air4 ,the curtains to the bed could completely enfold it1 and to their sheltering depths the great ,louis is said to have retired before removing his wig4 ,the chairs shown in ,figure #gc are of this period1 the one upon the right retaining its original covering1 the woodwork being carved and gilt4 ,the cane chair on the left is of walnut1 and the one in the centre1 carved and gilt1 is a ,french adaptation of a ,flemish design4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gc4 ,,chairs ,,of ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,it is difficult to re-people one of these splendid rooms and consider a period when1 as ,m4 ,taine says1 life was wholly operatic4 ,the grandee lived in a state of luxury and grandeur4 ,his trappings were as magnificent as he could make them1 and his household was filled with military as well as civil appointments1 approaching as nearly to that of the king as possible4 ,the king must have a stable1 so at ,versailles were #a1hge horses1 #bag vehicles1 and #a1deh men who were clothed in liveries costing #edj1jjj francs a year4 ,this is but a single item in the great total considered under fifty or sixty heads4 ,to wait on the king himself1 #aih persons were required2 some fetched his mall and balls2 some combed his hair2 others watched his dogs2 and there were those who tied his necktie after it had been properly folded4 ,some there were whose sole business it was to stand in a corner which was not to be left empty4 ,the policy which prescribed the custom at court was all for ostentatious display4 ,st4 ,simon says3 ,he 7,louis ,,xiv47 was pleased to see a display of dress1 table1 equipages1 buildings1 and play2 these afforded him opportunities for entering into conversation with people4 ,the contagion had spread from the court into the provinces and to the armies1 where people of any position were esteemed only according to their table and magnificence4 ,louis had so dominated the whole court life that he had brought his courtiers to believe that the main thing in life for layman and churchman1 and for women and men alike1 was to be at all hours and in every place under the king's eye and within reach of his voice4 ,with all this army of personal attendants to feed1 clothe1 and shelter1 the repairs to houses and furniture represented immense sums yearly1 and many establishments were taken under royal patronage in order to command their products and to reduce the expenditures4 ,the history of ,french furniture is quite closely connected with the history of tapestry1 for after a time it was used as a covering4 ,francis ,i41 who appreciated the value of this textile as an ornament as well as a covering for his walls1 and unwilling to buy all his pieces from the skilful looms of ,flanders1 started a factory in #aeca at ,fontainebleau4 ,in #afjc a new factory was started at ,paris1 under royal patronage1 in the workshop of a family of dyers named ,gobelin4 ,the first workers were ,flemish weavers who were brought over to teach the craft to ,frenchmen4 ,louis ,,xiv4 protected the factory through the mediumship of that great financier1 ,colbert1 who appointed ,le ,brun1 the artist1 director of the works4 ,in #affg the factory became the property of the ,crown1 and most artistic and elegant productions were made4 ,not only in ,france did the ,gobelins find patronage1 but in ,england as well their work was in great demand4 ,evelyn writes in the last years of the reign of ,charles ,,ii43 --,here ,i saw the new fabriq of ,french tapisstry2 for designe1 tendernesse of worke1 and incomparable imitationn of the best paintings beyond anything ,i ever beheld4 ,some pieces had ,versailles1 ,st4 ,germain's1 and other palaces of the ,french ,king1 with huntings1 figures1 and landskips1 exotiq fowls1 and all to the life rarely don4 ,the golden age of ,louis ,,xiv4 saw also the golden age of tapestry1 for it was during his reign that the proud and royal factory at ,aubusson was at its highest estate4 ,the tapestries sent out from this factory were not mere imitations as close as possible of painted pictures4 ,the limitations of the process were ever considered1 and the number of gradations in every tint was limited so that the dangers of unequal fading reached their lowest point4 ,the beautiful borders which surrounded the central picture were designed and executed with the same care that was bestowed on the centre1 and formed a part of the whole that could ill be spared4 ,illustration3 ,,beauvais1 ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,,gobelin1 ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,,aubusson1 ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gd4 ,,tapestry ,,furniture4 ,the tapestries worked late in the seventeenth century and early in the eighteenth1 before the spirit of commercialism had been suffered to encroach on what up to that time had been carefully fostered art work1 were all examples of great beauty and merit4 ,in #afid1 ,louis having lost interest in the manufactory1 and ,colbert and ,le ,brun being dead1 the works at the ,gobelins' factories declined1 and they became financially embarrassed4 ,still the great name was in high esteem1 and its more than national reputation was retained4 ,the splendid works which had been sent out from the loom1 ,the ,triumph of ,alexander1 ,the ,history of the ,king1 ,the ,elements1 and ,the ,seasons1 were no longer in demand4 ,fontaine's fables and ,the ,adventures of ,don ,quixote took the place of the more dignified designs1 and at last sets of chair-backs and sofa covers were woven where previously historic subjects of heroic size had been demanded4 ,every year there were ,chancelleries made1--series of hangings adorned with the royal arms1 which the king gave to his chancellors4 ,the ,adventures of ,don ,quixote consisted of a set of from twenty to twenty-eight pieces1 and so pleased the public taste that sets were being continually woven from #agbc till the times of the ,revolution4 ,they were varied by the different colours of the background1 and also by having different borders1 some of them designed by artists like ,lemaire the younger1 and of great beauty4 ,by #agcf the manufactory once more received assistance and patronage from the ,crown1 and famous old models were renewed1 and two new sets1 from ,the ,story of ,esther1 and ,the ,story of ,medea and ,jason1 were designed4 ,about the middle of the century came the fatal desire to copy paintings as they came from the hand of the artist1 and the traditions which had governed the labor of the tapestry-worker for centuries were thrown aside4 ,in vain the workmen protested3 good taste and the principles of decoration were sacrificed1 and the artist triumphed4 ,the only check to the artist's exactions was the immense cost of production1 for the painter was totally ignorant of the practical difficulties which had to be overcome in carrying out his designs2 and as the tapestry-workers were paid by the piece they could no longer calculate or limit the cost of execution4 ,the ,beauvais tapestries were long granted superior excellence in flower forms1 trees1 etc41 and for figures also1 and they held to the styles in which they excelled4 ,but the ,gobelins after #agdj no longer did work which was not fashionable and profitable4 ,in #agee ,boucher1 the well-known artist1 was appointed director of the ,gobelins1 and1 like his predecessors1 believed in simulating1 as far as possible the painter's art4 ,there is tragedy in the history of the devoted band of workers who1 ill-paid1 and not sufficiently recognized1 laboured at the looms and in the dye-house to carry out the artist's ideas4 ,one of them ,quimiset1 a chemist of undoubted ability1 committed suicide4 ,neilson and ,audran were both ruined financially2 and yet these servants of the crown were not allowed to leave ,paris to better their fortunes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ge4 ,,commodes ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,the ,gobelins began to produce tapestry for furniture only during the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,this work was undertaken in hopes of financial profit1 for the competition of woven and embroidered stuffs from ,england1 as well as the novelty of ,english paper-hangings1 had crippled them excessively4 ,the very first pieces made were for four chairs and a sofa1 in #agdh4 ,these furniture tapestries became immediately popular4 ,screens1 seat1 sofa and chair backs1 showing scenes1 figures1 ribbon-work1 and garlands brought up the failing fortune of ,gobelin and made ,beauvais wealthy4 ,from this latter factory came those coverings1 with designs after ,boucher1 set in wooden frames of the richest carving and gilt4 ,the cost of these works was as great as brocade and velvet1 and crowded out the embroiderers1 who in turn aimed1 with the means at their command1 to rival the efforts of the tapestry-workers4 ,then came that most sumptuous combination of painting with embroidery1 and in #agdc the ,duc de ,luynes describes a new set of furniture for the queen's bedroom4 ,it is of white gros de ,tours1 embroidered and painted1 and is quite complete1 consisting of the bed1 its hangings1 the fauteuils1 and curtains4 ,during the ,revolution1 in #agic1 a bonfire was made in the courtyard of the ,gobelin factory1 and a set of hangings with designs of ,the ,visit of ,louis ,,xiv4 to the ,gobelins1 several portieres1 and a set of ,chancelleries were burned4 ,on another visit the cartoons of ,raphael were destroyed1 those of ,esther and ,medea thrown out1 and everything with a tendency toward aristocracy discarded4 ,the terms ,beauvais1 ,aubusson1 etc41 do not give their names to any particular style of tapestry4 ,the various factories wove according to their requirements1 and used silk1 woolen1 silver and gold thread as the design called for it4 ,in ,figure #gd are given examples of work from these famous establishments4 ,the ,louis ,,xiv4 screen is a silk panel1 the pattern being ,flora1 surrounded by ,cupids and wreaths and garlands of flowers4 ,the design is by ,berain1 and was made at the ,gobelins2 the frame is richly carved and gilt4 ,the ,louis ,,xvi4 chair is covered with ,beauvais tapestry--baskets of flowers and scrolls4 ,the lovely tints are hardly faded1 or they have so faded in harmony that it resembles the changing hues of mother-of-pearl4 ,the wooden frame is carved and gilded1 a fit setting for the beautiful tapestry4 ,the sofa and chair are but two of a set1 the other pieces being nine more chairs4 ,these are of the ,louis ,,xiv4 period and are covered with ,aubusson tapestry1--crimson peonies on a pale-green ground4 ,the bow leg and carved knees are similar to those shown in ,figure #gc1 and1 like the one on the right in that illustration are gilded4 ,at a recent sale held in ,paris1 when the great collection of ,madame ,lelong was dispersed1 the prices obtained for these old tapestries1 whether wall-coverings or on furniture1 were absolutely astonishing4 ,a screen with four panels of ,beauvais tapestry illustrating ,la ,fontaine's fables brought #c1gjj4 ,one seat1 of carved and gilded wood1 covered with a piece of ,beauvais1 brought #b1jjj1 and four chairs in carved and gilded wood with ,beauvais tapestry coverings brought #da1jjj4 ,these prices1 while sensational1 give some idea of the esteem in which these antiques are held4 ,the tapestry covered pieces shown belong to the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gf4 ,,garderobe1 ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,the best-known name of any one man who worked in furniture during the splendid reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 was of ,andr-,charles ,boulle1 b4 #afdb1 d4 #agcb4 ,the superb marquetry work he made1 composed of brass1 ivory1 tortoise-shell1 gold1 and a choice selection of woods from ,india1 ,brazil1 and other tropical countries1 took the fancy of the king by reason of its sumptuous nature4 ,boulle was given an apartment in the ,louvre and for his great master the celebrated bniste composed his choicest work4 ,a cabinet of this work can be seen in ,figure #gb to the right of the bed4 ,in #afgb ,louis ,,xiv4 had made ,boulle engraver-in-ordinary of the royal seals4 ,the patent conferring this appointment calls ,boulle architect1 painter1 carver in mosaic1 artist in cabinet work1 chaser1 inlayer1 and designer of figures4 ,the most important works of ,boulle which records show were at ,versailles1 like those he executed for foreign princes1 have disappeared4 ,his workshops and studios were of vast extent2 he employed many workmen1 and consulted for his models a priceless collections of drawings1 medals1 and gems1 comprising drawings by ,raphael1 and that manuscript journal kept by ,rubens during his travels in ,italy and elsewhere1 which contained his notes and studies in painting and sculpture1 copiously illustrated by pen-and-ink sketches4 ,in ,french ,furniture of the ,,xviii ,century1 by ,lady ,dilke1 this priceless collection belonging to ,boulle is described at length1 and also the immense loss to which this worker was subjected when1 in #agbj1 his entire warehouses and shops were burned down4 ,boulle was an old man at this time1 and for the rest of his life ill-fortune followed him1 and he died wretchedly poor1 leaving nothing but debts which for years he had been forced to put off by every variety of makeshift4 ,his four sons1 one of whom bore his father's name1 never accomplished works of such elegance and solidity as those of their father4 ,they1 too1 had endless misfortune1 were ejected from the apartment in the ,louvre which had descended to them from their father1 and died1 as he did1 in poverty and misery4 ,yet the splendid and showy style of furniture to which ,boulle gave his name remained in fashion and was made during the whole of the eighteenth century4 ,after the death of the younger ,boulles1 pupils who had studied with their father and themselves carried on the work1 and of course there were imitators as well4 ,boulle did not invent this style of decoration1 for ebony cabinets ornamented with tortoise-shell and copper were known in ,france long before ,boulle was born4 ,he simply perfected the method of making it4 ,nor did he confine himself to this particular style of marquetry1 for he made works1 mentioned in his catalogue1 of wood inlaid with other woods of various colours and ornamented with bronze mounts4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gg4 ,,bedroom ,,of ,,marie ,,antoinette ,,at ,,the ,,little ,,trianon4 ,under the ,regency1 fashions changed1 not only in manners and clothes1 but even in furniture and belongings as well1 though this latter change came slowly4 ,the ,duc d',orleans and his daughter1 the ,duchesse de ,berri1 conducted entertainments of so scandalous a nature that even the ,french public was horrified2 and gaming1 which under ,louis ,,xiv4 had risen to prodigious extremes1 became more furious still1 and1 possessing all classes of society1 spread ruin everywhere4 ,the use of looking-glasses for ornaments had become very much the vogue during the period of ,louis ,,xiv4's reign4 ,they were introduced into walls opposite windows1 and in places where reflection would carry out the idea of windows4 ,the court beauties1 both male and female1 had the walls of their bathrooms lined with them1 and the frames in which they were set were lavishly carved and gilded4 ,while ,boulle's is associated with the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 with the ,regency the name of ,charles ,cressent rose to eminence4 ,his work was much like that of ,boulle in character1 but he gradually gave more importance to the mounts of metal as a means of ornament1 and used less marquetry4 ,he not only used floral forms for these metal decorations1 but modelled beautiful little groups of ,cupids or ,loves with garlands and roses1 and these ornaments were applied directly to the rosewood frames of wardrobe or cabinet1 whichever was chosen for such embellishment4 ,nor was he content with such charming subjects only1 for he modelled children swinging a monkey1 or monkeys swinging themselves1 or dancing a tight rope1 and invested even these grotesques with style and charm4 ,with the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 even more sumptuous surroundings were desired4 ,at ,fontainebleau the luxury was unparalleled1 and when the king held a reception1 at which there were both cards and dancing1 the spectacle1 according to records left in the copious memoirs of the times1 was one of sumptuous elegance4 ,four or five hundred guests surrounded the tables where cards and cavagnole were played4 ,hanging from the ceiling painted with ,cupids garlanded with flowers1 were many blazing chandeliers1 their brilliancy reflected a thousand times in the tall mirrors4 ,everything was flooded with light1--the painted walls1 the rich gilding1 the diamonds sparkling on white necks and in the hair of the women1 whose dresses gleamed with gold1 silver1 pearls1 and artificial flowers and fruits1 all in the most gorgeous hues4 ,the men were almost as gay4 ,their hair was powdered1 curled1 and dressed4 ,their coats of sky-blue1 rose1 peach1 pearl or puce-colored satin1 velvet1 or brocade1 were embroidered with silks and gold1 and ornamented with ruffles and cravats of lace4 ,the dress of a man1 with his jewelled sword1 shoulder-knots with diamond tags1 and buckles of brilliants on shoe and knee1 might have cost a small fortune4 ,gold and silver thread made stiff and costly1 stuffs already rich in themselves1 while the money lavished on lace had no limit4 ,when a princess of ,france married it was no uncommon thing for the laces on her bedspreads and linens to reach the sum of #ajj1jjj4 ,the frills on her personal linen added #be1jjj more4 ,the ruffle on a handkerchief was cheap at #ej1 and a laced nightcap might easily double that4 ,all this elaboration of elegance had fitting surroundings1 and the case was worthy of its contents4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gh4 ,,chairs ,,and ,,table ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi ,,style4 ,like his predecessor1 ,louis ,,xv4 lavished vast sums on buildings1 and ,madame de ,pompadour1 an uncrowned queen1 spent millions more4 ,the ,hotel d',evreux1 begun in #agah1 was many years later finished under her personal direction4 ,she had the virtue of being a liberal patron of the arts and an encourager of artistic merit wherever she found it4 ,her taste1 her sincere love for art1 enabled her at least to secure works of absolute perfection1 and during the twenty years of her reign it was mainly her fostering guidance which developed so many of the applied arts4 ,she not only assumed the direction of work at her chateaus and hotels1 but she encouraged the manufactory of the beautiful porcelain of ,svres2 she assisted engravers1 and essayed to learn the art herself2 and by taste1 natural and acquired1 she was looked upon by the group of artists of her time as a final court of appeal in all critical matters4 ,her successors were no less extravagant1 but they lacked her exquisite and artistic judgment1 which amounted almost to genius4 ,it was during this period of ,louis ,,xv4 that the evolution of chests of drawers1 writing-tables1 and cabinets--that is chests upon trestle-work--was accomplished4 ,the ornament changed constantly1 but the form of the articles remained much the same4 ,the changes wrought in ,paris affected the country slowly1 and provincial artists working at the period of ,louis ,,xv4 might have been using the models that had been popular in a previous reign4 ,in ,figure #ge are depicted rosewood commodes with curved fronts and ends1 handsomely decorated with ormulu work in leaves and scrolls4 ,a ,french clock of the period1 with ormolu mounts1 stands on the marble top of one1 and on the other is one of black and gold lacquer1 with very choice water-gilt mounts4 ,in this period the names of the ,caffieri1 father and two sons1 who were workers in metal1 became famous4 ,they executed bronze mounts for furniture like those on the commodes shown in ,figure #ge1 a style which they may be said to have created and by their genius rendered popular4 ,the mounting on these pieces is very simple1 and takes the subservient place that ornament always should4 ,but in some of the work executed by the ,caffieri the wood became merely the vehicle on which a wealth of ornament was hung4 ,they made not only mounts for furniture1 but girandoles1 branch-lights1 mounts for vases and clocks1 and chandeliers--working in bronze and silver as well as in brass4 ,this taste for metal mounts was carried to an extreme1 even pieces of richly carved furniture being further ornamented with chiselled brass4 ,it is an item of interest that the monument to ,general ,montgomery which is placed on that side of ,st4 ,paul's ,chapel1 ,new ,york city1 which faces ,broadway1 should have been designed and executed by ,caffier in ,paris in #aggg4 ,the ,general was buried first in ,quebec1 and afterward removed to ,new ,york by act of ,congress4 ,in ,figure #gf is given what is called a garderobe1 that is wardrobe1 with a basket of flowers at the top1 this and the two bunches of flowers at the tops of the doors being in ormolu4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gi4 ,,encoignure1 ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,even as early as the middle of the previous century there had been imitators of the splendid lacquer-work of the ,orient4 ,by #agbc the three ,martin ,brothers1 ,julien1 ,robert1 and ,simon-,etienne1 had become quite famous for their use of a transparent varnish1 which1 as master painters and varnishers1 they had perfected in their business4 ,they pushed their trade1 and by #agdh were under national protection1 so popular had their wares become4 ,in #agdb they perfected a certain green varnish which was immensely popular1 and for which they had many orders1 some of them from the king himself4 ,they never excelled as painters1 but the beauty of this famous green ground1 powdered with gold1 is very charming4 ,very little of this famous work remains1 a few fire-screens and some splendid coaches1 with some small boxes for snuff or patches1 are all that exist4 ,but in these small pieces like the boxes1 which were considered worthy of gold and jewelled mounts1 we can see this famous work to the best advantage4 ,there were ribbings1 stripings1 waves1 and flecks which gleam wonderfully through the varnish4 ,sometimes there are a few flowers or a ,cupid scattered on the surface1 but usually1 when the green ground was employed1 no decoration was considered necessary4 ,with the death of ,robert ,martin in #agfe the skill necessary to continue this work was lost1 and this charming style of decoration dropped back merely to a trade1 and ,vernis-,martin became hardly more than a name4 ,among the other great workers of this period were ,oeben1 whose marquetry in coloured woods was of extreme elegance1 and ,riesener1 who began to execute his beautiful pieces of furniture under ,louis ,,xv4 in what is known as his earlier style1 but who finally created the straight-legged types of ,louis ,,xvi4 style with which his name became associated4 ,in the work which he did for ,marie ,antoinette at the ,little ,trianon in #aggg1 the pure ,louis ,,xvi4 style is carried out4 ,the earlier pieces1 delivered as early as #agga1 still betray the influence of a previous period4 ,in ,figure #gg is shown the bedroom of ,marie ,antoinette at the ,little ,trianon4 ,here we see the later style set by ,riesener1 with the straight carved legs1 the woodwork being painted and gilded4 ,the silk factories at ,lyons were no longer as well patronized as they had been1 and to revive interest in them new furniture was ordered for the queen1 to be upholstered in brocade1 and with curtains and hangings to match4 ,everything in these rooms breathes of dainty elegance1--the carvings of the mantelpiece1 the walls decorated with garlands of flowers and ,cupids1 even the metal mounts1 chiselled wreaths and rosettes1 were wrought with the beauty and finish of goldsmith's work4 ,in the small chair by the bedside is seen a style with gilt framework and embroidered cushions1 a kind of covering which was always in demand4 ,in #aggj two coaches were sent to ,vienna for ,marie ,antoinette4 ,the work of the embroiderer was selected to embellish their interiors1 and the description of them is given by ,bachaumont3 ,they were two berlins1 much larger than usual1 but yet not so large as those of the king4 ,one is lined with rose velvet and the ,four ,seasons are embroidered on the largest cushions1 with all the attributes of a festival4 ,the other is lined with blue velvet1 and on the cushions of this are worked the ,four ,elements4 ,there is not a touch of painting about them1 but the work of the artist is so perfect and finished that each one is a complete work of art4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hj4 ,,bed ,,of ,,josephine ,,at ,,fontainebleau4 ,the name of the embroider was ,treaumau1 and so celebrated did the beauty of these royal cushions make him that he received large orders1 the most important being one from ,madam de ,berri for a vis--vis4 ,the two berlins for ,marie ,antoinette were placed on exhibition before they were sent to her1 and constituted an event of the day4 ,the three pieces shown in ,figure #gh are pure types of ,louis ,,xvi4 style4 ,they are at the ,cooper ,institute1 ,new ,york4 ,the chair on the right has its original embroidered cover1 and the straight carved leg so much in evidence4 ,all three pieces are entirely gilt wherever the woodwork shows4 ,the top of the table is marble4 ,the chair to the left is very prettily carved with a torch and bow and arrows1 according to the conceit of the times1 when everything was to be joyous and gay1 all suffering and sorrow being resolutely thrust out of sight4 ,rose1 blue1 and gold were the colours affected1 nothing sombre being allowed4 ,the whole life was careless and without responsibility4 ,the letters of the day1 ,saint-,beuve1 ,comte de ,tilly1 ,duc de ,lauzun1 and ,madam d',oberkirk1 draw graphic pictures of the life of pleasure4 ,the ,duc de ,lauzun says that one of his mother's lackeys1 who could read and write tolerably well1 was made his tutor4 ,they gave me the most fashionable teachers besides1 but ,m4 ,roche 7the tutor7 was not qualified to arrange their lessons1 nor to qualify me to benefit by them4 ,i was1 moreover1 like all the children of my age and station1 dressed in the handsomest clothes to go out1 and naked and dying with hunger in the house4 ,this was not through unkindness1 but because of dissipation and carelessness1 all the time and attention being given elsewhere4 ,even in the last days of the ancien rgime little boys had their hair powdered and dressed in ringlets and curls4 ,they wore a sword1 carried a chapeau under the arm1 wore laces and frills1 and coats with cuffs heavy with gold lace4 ,the small girls were their mothers in miniature4 ,at six one of them would present her hand for a little dandy to kiss1 her little figure would be squeezed into a stiff corset1 her huge hoop-skirt supported a skirt of brocade enwreathed with garlands of flowers4 ,on her head was a structure of false curls1 puffs1 knots1 and ribbons1 held on by pins and topped with plumes2 and if she was pale they would put rouge on her face4 ,by force of habit and instruction she bore herself like a mature woman4 ,her most important instructor was the dancing-master1 her never-ending study deportment4 ,in the eighteenth century drawing-room women were queens4 ,they prescribed the law and fashion in all things4 ,there was no situation1 however delicate1 that they did not save through tact and politeness4 ,this was the time when first ,watteau1 and later ,lancret and ,fragonard1 painted the ,ftes galantes1 when pretty picnics and dancing in a woody dell were great diversions4 ,it was an idealized life of the brilliant world of ,france which early in the eighteenth century ,watteau painted4 ,scattered all through the land were sumptuous dwellings of the rich1 upon which fortunes were lavished4 ,beaus and belles alike dressed themselves la ,watteau4 ,he became the lover's poet1 a painter of an ideal pastoral which hardly existed1 but to which his hand gave beauty and value4 ,this was one side4 ,on the other1 besides heavy taxation1 poor crops1 flood1 famine1 and the devastation of war1 there was always the pest4 ,this terrible contagious fever1 with the smallpox1 was a scourge to the people4 ,hundreds fell victims to these twin plagues1 for the usual treatment was copious bleeding4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ha4 ,,bed ,,of ,,napoleon ,,at ,,grand ,,trianon4 ,but the court1 while it might suffer at times from sickness and death1 never allowed itself to think of such things4 ,it amused itself with balls and masques1 plays1 and even with blindman's-buff4 ,the gardens at ,versailles were always in gala dress1 and at night musicians played among the trees1 and thousands of lights sparkled among the flowers4 ,fifty years later they played at simplicity too1 these great ladies and elegant cavaliers1 laying aside the silks and brocades of which a surfeit had wearied them1 and wearing picturesque gowns of simple material and cut4 ,marie ,antoinette herself set the example in her retreat at ,little ,trianon1 with the muslin gown and fichu crowned with a straw hat1 in which she ran across the gardens4 ,beneath all this elegance1 amiability1 and extravagance the ,revolution seethed and boiled and finally overran and destroyed4 ,till almost the very end extravagance increased1 and in ,figure #gi is shown an encoignure1 or corner cupboard with commode below1 and cabinet above1 of the most elaborate inlaid work1 with very rich ormolu mounts4 ,this work is by ,david de ,luneville1 and is a marvel of the intricacy of inlaying1 many different woods being used in that jumble of ornament which forms the decoration of the door in the cabinet4 ,at each intersection of the lattice work inlay is a little rosette4 ,the divisions of the lower part have an edging of satin-wood1 which in the centre panel is made more ornate with an inlay of ebony4 ,this piece is at the ,waring ,galleries1 ,london4 ,the new conditions in ,france wrought changes in every detail of life4 ,simplicity1 so called1 was becoming the watchword1 and once more antique models were sought for forms and decorations4 ,under the ,empire the style was much less graceful1 the lines coarser1 and the elaboration of ornament heavy4 ,could anything be less pleasing than ,josephine's bed at ,fontainebleau1 shown in ,figure #hj8 ,it is one of the few unsightly things in that beautiful palace1 where are now gathered so many works of art4 ,the bedstead is covered with heavy chiselled ornaments in brass1 and surmounted by a canopy held on pillars4 ,this canopy is partly of carved wood and partly of embroidered satin4 ,there are strings of gold beads hanging from this satin1 and in addition heavy satin curtains very richly embroidered4 ,these are edged with a long and clumsy fringe4 ,the whole room is in keeping with the bed1 for the floor is covered with a carpet bearing the imperial insignia all over it1 and the hangings on the walls have countless spots in lieu of a pattern4 ,it was at ,fontainebleau that the sentence of divorce was passed on ,josephine1 and it seems possible that the sleepless nights which the poor lady endured must have been rendered more miserable by the unlovely character of her surroundings4 ,it is with pleasure that one turns to ,figure #ha1 showing the bed of the great ,emperor himself1 at ,grand ,trianon1 ,versailles4 ,it is a good example of the best ,empire work1 and is mahogany ornamented with ormolu mounts in classic style4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hb4 ,,room ,,at ,,fontainebleau1 ,,with ,,historic ,,table4 ,it was now the fashion to decry the furniture or costumes which had prevailed during the latter half of the eighteenth century1 and to seek the ,athenian models for gowns and furniture4 ,nor were these models used in their simple shapes1 but transformed into quite other guise by the touch of ,french hands4 ,marquetry was no longer considered good taste1 and ,david the painter was largely responsible for much of the theatrical effect which was noted both in costume and household belongings4 ,after the fall of the monarchy1 sales had been held1 and what had not been destroyed had been sold4 ,it was now necessary to fill again the palaces that had been denuded1 and ,percier1 the architect1 and ,joseph ,desmalter1 the cabinet-maker1 were the men chosen to do it4 ,desmalter is responsible for the use of mahogany commodes embellished with bronze and gilt like those which flank the bed in ,figure #ha4 ,after the expedition to ,egypt1 ,sphynx figures were introduced in bronze or brass to uphold tables and as arms for chairs4 ,these1 however1 did not become popular1 and soon were replaced by classic heads4 ,in ,figure #hb is shown a room in ,fontainebleau furnished in ,empire style4 ,the imperial ,n may be seen on the corners of the console tables and on the commode4 ,the walls are covered with damask woven in geometric forms1 and the rooms once so light and brilliant with their dainty arabesques and flowers1 ,cupids and birds on the ceilings1 are now dark and severe4 ,the splendid chandelier of ,venetian glass is the sole reminder of a previous reign4 ,the only piece of furniture in the room which is absolutely plain is the small mahogany table in the foreground4 ,upon this ,napoleon signed his abdication4 ,in one of the rooms adjoining the leave-taking between ,josephine and ,napoleon occurred1 after which he went to ,st4 ,cloud and she to ,malmaison4 ,the commode shows as well as anything the marked change which took place in the styles under the ,empire4 ,the graceful curves of front and sides are gone2 the feet are stumpy1 and so short that the pleasing proportion between the parts is quite lost4 ,the constant repetition of the laurel-wreath on chairs1 walls1 mantelpieces and furniture is very monotonous1 and we miss the graceful curves of the acanthus and celery leaves4 ,in ,figure #hc is a mahogany reading and writing desk combined4 ,the brass ornaments are beautifully chiselled1 and1 though some are lost1 enough remain to show what a splendid piece of furniture it once was4 ,they partake1 in their delicacy1 of the metal work of the previous century1 particularly the escutcheons and the groups of flowers and musical instruments which are on the tops of the side pillars4 ,the desk top lifts up1 and inside there are pigeon-holes and drawers finished in satin-wood4 ,the hole in the rail above the doors is not a keyhole1 but in it fits a handle by which the whole upper part of the desk is raised on an iron rod so as to suit the height of who-ever uses it4 ,this piece is at the ,museum of the ,cooper ,institute4 ,the rage for furniture in ,empire style was not confined to ,france alone1 but crossed the channel to ,england1 where it became even less attractive1 and was also used by our own cabinet-makers1 as has been shown in previous chapters4 ,the changes in the styles of ,french furniture1 like those which took place in ,england in the same century 7the eighteenth71 were not any more definitely marked4 ,one period overlapped another1 certain characteristics were retained and put to new uses1 so that a perfect style was arrived at only after years of growth4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hc4 ,,empire ,,reading ,,and ,,writing ,,desk4 ,with the name of ,louis ,,xiv4 is associated the furniture of ,boulle1 with its wealth of wonderful inlay4 ,the metal mount in its most correct and elegant form marks the period of ,louis ,,xv4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xvi4 and ,marie ,antoinette shows the change from the graceful curves of leg and construction lines to straight lines and less generous proportions1 while the use of the metal mount is brought to the greatest extreme4 ,the beauty of form taken from leaf and shell1 wrought in metal and placed on the lines of fine construction which had marked the epoch of ,louis ,,xv41 ran wild under the workers in the next era1 and the fancy for overlaying with costly ornament blinded the eyes to the poor shapes employed1 which were inspired by a search among classic forms4 ,even the severest form may become vulgar when overloaded with ornament1 and with the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 passed the production of some of the finest furniture ever made4 ,what was poor under ,louis ,,xvi4 became poorer yet under the ,napoleonic era1 and the men employed1 instead of drawing from the choice models which still remained1 still farther debased what in previous times had risen to the dignity of high art4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,musical ,,instruments4 ,the evolution of the piano from the clavichord occupied the attention of musicians for over three hundred years1 or from #adjd1 when the earliest record occurs1 to #agbj1 when ,cristofori's piano was completed in ,florence4 ,the next instrument in the upward development after the clavichord was the virginal1 a parallelogram in shape1 with a projecting keyboard4 ,then came the spinet4 ,the earliest of these now in existence is in ,paris1 and was made at ,verona in #aebc4 ,by #agjc two ,englishmen1 ,thomas and ,john ,hitchcock1 father and son1 had made a great advance in the construction of spinets1 giving them a wide compass of five octavos from ,g to ,g4 ,it was not until about #affj1 after the restoration of the ,stuarts1 that the name harpsichord was given to the long wing-shaped instrument1 similar to our grand piano1 which had hitherto been called clavecembalo in ,italy1 flgel in ,germany1 and clavecin in ,france4 ,early in the sixteenth century the progressive ,dutch had put into use double keyboards and stops4 ,these were imported into ,england1 and to ,john ,haward is due the credit for the idea of pedals for the harpsichord4 ,this was in #afgf4 ,this ,haward was a fashionable instrument-maker in the days of the lively ,pepys1 who mentions him several times4 ,thus in ,april1 #affh1 he records3 --,took ,aldgate ,street in my way1 and then did call upon one ,haward1 who makes virginals1 and there did like of a little espinette1 and will have him finish it for me2 for ,i had a mind to a small harpsicon1 but this takes up less room4 ,the little espinette took some time to finish2 for in ,july he says3 --while ,i to buy my espinette1 which ,i did now agree for1 and did at ,haward's meet with ,mr4 ,thacker1 and heard him play on the harpsicon so as ,i never heard man before1 ,i think4 ,on the #aeth of ,july the bargain is concluded2 for he states1 under that date3 ,at noon is brought home the espinette ,i bought the other day of ,haward2 cost me #e4 ,a few days later he combines business with pleasure1 for he notes3 ,to buy a rest for my espinette at the ironmonger's by ,holborn ,conduit1 where the fair pretty woman is1 that ,i have lately observed there4 ,figure #he shows a very beautiful spinet made by ,domenico di ,pesaro1 in ,italy1 in #affa4 ,the instrument can be taken from its outer case1 is of cedar wood1 has a projecting keyboard1 and is decorated with ivory studs4 ,the outer case is very handsome1 decorated with gesso work1 7which was so much copied by ,robert ,adam after his return from ,italy7 this work being gold on a pale-green ground4 ,the decoration on the inside of the cover is a boating scene1 the keys are of light wood1 the sharps being black4 ,the instrument1 triangular in shape1 rests on three richly carved and gilt legs1 and is four feet eight inches long1 by nineteen inches wide4 ,it looks very tiny1 even beside a baby grand4 ,the beauty and enrichment of the cases in which these instruments were placed shows with what care and reverence they were regarded4 ,harpsichords varied much in having one1 two1 or occasionally three banks of keys1 and being placed in upright cases1 the covers of which opened like a bookcase1 or in a horizontal case1 as in the one shown in ,figure #hf4 ,each of the three banks of keys has a compass of five octaves1 from ,f to ,f4 ,the entire case is gilt ,louis ,,xv4 style1 decorated with elaborate carvings and with paintings of flowers and figures in medallions and borders4 ,on the outside of the cover is the coat of arms of the ,strozzi family4 ,the name of the maker is engraved on an ivory plate above the keyboards1 and reads-- ,,vicentius ,,sodi ,,florentius ,,fecit4 ,,anno ,,domini #aggi4 ,the length of the case is seven feet2 it is three feet wide1 and nearly ten inches deep4 ,the harpsichord held its own for fifty years after the invention of the pianoforte1 for ,bartolommeo ,cristofori published his invention as early as #agaa1 although he did not perfect his piano till #agbj4 ,his action has the escapement1 without which there can be no vibrating note1 and the check1 which was an all-important step toward repeating notes4 ,there are preserved at ,potsdam1 ,germany1 three pianos which belonged to ,frederick the ,great1 and which were made by ,silberman1 who exactly copied the action as well as the structure of ,cristofori's invention4 ,in ,figure #hg is shown the first piano made by ,cristofori4 ,above the front board is the following inscription3 ,,bartholom,,us ,,de ,,christophoris ,,patavinus ,,inventor ,,facierat ,,florenti ,,mdccxx ,this instrument1 as well as the two previously shown1 belong to the collection of musical instruments given by ,mrs4 ,crosby ,brown to the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hd4 ,,organ ,,in ,,st4 ,,michael',s ,,church1 ,,charleston1 ,s4 ,c4 ,this crude instrument bears testimony to years of patient endeavour4 ,like so many old and valuable treasures this one was harboured many years for sentimental reasons only1 and because it had been given to an only daughter by her father4 ,the story of the discovery of its value came about as follows1 as told in a letter by ,signor ,martelli1 to whose mother the piano belonged4 ,for the sake of economy during the time that ,florence was the capital of ,italy1 we rented the first floor of our house1 ,no4 #c1 ,via del ,melarancio1 and occupied the second floor4 ,in #ahgb ,signora ,martelli 7my mother7 again changed her apartments from the second to the first floor1 and at the moment the transfer of our furniture was taking place from one floor to the other1 ,prof4 ,cosimo ,conti1 a scholar and intimate friend of ours1 came to visit us4 ,the professor1 who was in close correspondence with ,cavaliere ,l4 ,puliti1 who was spending a great deal of his time in trying to discover the origin of the piano1 discovered on it to his great surprise an inscription which attested that it had been made by ,bartolomeo ,christofori4 ,he immediately informed ,cavaliere ,l4 ,puliti of this fact1 and he came at once to examine it4 ,then it was ascertained that it was one of the rarest and most valuable pianos in existence4 ,we sent at once for a tuner and had it put into good condition4 ,the piano was bought by ,signora ,martelli's father1 about #ahai1 from the ,grand ,ducal ,palace at ,siena1 at an auction sale1 held by order of the ,minister of the ,household1 of all such things as he considered worthless and of no use4 ,the piano was shuffled out of the ,ducal ,palace1 much as some of our interesting relics have been shuffled out of the ,white ,house1 and offered at auction4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the writer has seen a very beautiful carved and gilt round mirror1 once the property of ,dolly ,madison1 which was bought at a sale of ,white ,house furniture for twenty-five dollars4 ,the ,christofori piano has a case of cedar1 which is painted black on the outside4 ,it stands on three clumsy turned legs4 ,the keys are light-wood naturals and black sharps4 ,the ivory knobs on the side blocks may be withdrawn1 and the action removed from the case4 ,there are two strings to each note1 and the length of the instrument is seven feet seven and a half inches4 ,it is three feet three inches wide at the front and nine and a half inches deep4 ,keyed instruments at first found little favor in the ears of the ,italians1 who much preferred the violin with its singing voice and its superior capacity for expression4 ,yet they contributed much to the early history of this branch of the art1 though the ,germans cultivated more highly these instruments1 which were1 in their first state1 very defective in producing melody4 ,it was ,domenico ,scarlatti who laid the foundation of modern music for keyed instruments1 and his music for the harpsichord was not confined to fugues and fantasias1 as was most of the harpsichord music of early times4 ,the real centre1 however1 in the line of progress for music for this instrument proved to be ,germany1 and ,graun1 ,hasse1 and ,john ,christian ,bach all wrote for the harpsichord4 ,in ,america some of the first instruments to come into use were small organs4 ,they are mentioned as early as #agaa4 ,although large church organs1 with three rows of keys and pedals1 were in use in ,europe by the opening of the sixteenth century1 it was long before they were found here4 ,illustration3 ,figure #he4 ,,spinet4 ,the rivalry which church music seems to inspire in the breasts of those who render it has long existed1 and extends even to those who make the instruments4 ,the following story from ,hawkin's ,history of ,music bears out this statement4 ,bernard ,smith1 or more properly ,schmidt1 a native of ,germany1 came to ,england with his nephews ,gerard and ,bernard1 and to distinguish him from them obtained the name of ',father ,smith4' ,he was the rival of ,harris from ,france and built an organ at ,whitehall too precipitately1 to gain the start of them1 as they had arrived nearly at the same time in ,england4 ,emulation was powerfully exerted4 ,dallans joined ,smith1 but died in #afgb1 and ,renatus ,harris1 son of the elder ,harris1 made great improvements4 ,the contest became still warmer4 ,the citizens of ,london1 profiting by the rivalship of these excellent artists1 erected organs in their churches2 and the city1 the court1 and even the lawyers were divided in judgment as to the superiority4 ,in order to decide the matter1 the famous contest took place in the ,temple ,church upon their respective organs1 played by eminent performers1 before eminent judges1 one of whom was the too celebrated ,jeffreys4 ,blow ,purcell played for ,smith1 and ,lully1 organist to ,queen ,catharine1 for ,harris4 ,in the course of the contest ,harris challenged ,father ,smith to make1 by a given time1 the additional stops of the vox humana1 the cremona or viol stop1 the double courtel or bass flute1 etc41 which was accepted1 and each exerted his abilities to the utmost4 ,jeffreys at length decided in favor of ,smith1 and ,harris's organ was withdrawn4 ,father ,smith maintained his reputation and was appointed organ-builder to ,queen ,anne4 ,harris went to ,bristol4 ,in the first half of the eighteenth century the salaries paid to organists were small indeed1 and it was customary for them to add to their modest stipend in various ways4 ,in ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 in #agci1 the organist taught the art of psalmody4 ,a dozen years before this the organist at ,king's ,chapel1 ,boston1 ,mass41 taught dancing4 ,mr4 ,drake1 in his ,history of ,boston1 says that ,king's ,chapel was enlarged and rebuilt in #agac1 and an organ was presented by ,mr4 ,thomas ,brattle4 ,in #agef the ,king's ,chapel ,society imported a new organ from ,london1 and the old one was sold to ,st4 ,paul's ,church1 ,newburyport4 ,it was used there for eighty years1 and then sold to ,st4 ,john's ,church1 ,portsmouth1 ,n4 ,h4 ,the original pipes and wind-chest remain to-day in perfect condition4 ,the second church organ in ,new ,england was one in a case of ,english oak1 presented by ,bishop ,berkeley to ,trinity ,church1 ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 in #agcc4 ,it had twenty-three gilded pipes and was fourteen and a half feet high1 eight feet front1 and eight feet deep4 ,it was made by ,richard ,bridge1 ,london4 ,this organ was used for a hundred and eleven years by ,trinity ,church1 till #ahdd1 and after a sojourn of a few years in ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 it was bought for a church in ,portsmouth1 ,r4 ,i41 where it still is1 in excellent condition4 ,south ,carolina1 with her riches and her close communication with ,england1 had abundant masters to teach not only the more elementary branches1 but accomplishments as well4 ,by #aggd there were two hundred persons in the colony engaged in teaching1 and according to advertisements a knowledge of ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek could be obtained at any time after #agab4 ,french and music were constantly taught after #agcc4 ,lessons on the harpsichord1 spinet1 violin1 violoncello1 guitar1 and flute were all to be had after #agcc1 and the boys could be perfected in fencing and the girls in needlework before the middle of the century4 ,by #agcd a dancing-school was opened at ,charleston1 and in #agfj ,nicholas ,valois gives notice that he still receives pupils in dancing1 and that he has received #dj of the newest country dances1 jiggs1 rigadoons1 etc41 from ,london1 which he proposes to teach4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hf4 ,,harpsichord4 ,in #ageb the vestry of ,st4 ,phillip's ,church1 ,charleston1 sent to ,london for an organist4 ,the parish guaranteed him #ej sterling4 ,he was to have the privilege of teaching the harpsichord or spinet1 which would add #aej guineas more per annum1 and also to have benefits of concerts which his obliging behaviour to the gentlemen and ladies of the place may amount to #cjj or #djj guineas more4 ,the years between #agbh and #agfc were a time of unprecedented prosperity in ,south ,carolina4 ,the luxuries of the day were within reach of modest fortunes1 and ,british modes and manners were eagerly followed4 ,josiah ,quincy1 in describing his visit to ,charles ,town in #aggd1 speaks of the famous ,st4 ,cecilia ,society1 which began as a musical club1 all the performers being amateurs4 ,he writes3 ,the music was good1 the two bass viols and ,french horns were grand4 ,there were upwards of two hundred and fifty ladies present and it was called no great number4 ,in loftiness of head-dress these ladies stoop to the daughters of the ,north2 in richness of dress surpass them4 ,the gentlemen1 many of them dressed with richness and elegance--uncommon with us2 many with swords on4 ,the ,carolinians travelled often to ,england4 ,they were lively and expensive in their dress1 and an ,englishman visiting ,charleston in #aghb writes home that it was the pleasantest and politest as it is one of the richest cities in all ,america4 ,the charming old city still retains its two first recommendations1 though1 alas1 the riches have flown4 ,in #agfh the organ seen in ,figure #hd1 was imported from ,england for ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,charleston4 ,within a little frame on one side of the organ is an inscription as follows4 ,,jno ,,snetzler ,,fecit1 ,,londoni1 #agfg4 ,this inscription was found on one of the pipes of the organ when it was taken down during the bombardment of ,charleston in the ,civil ,war4 ,at this time the organ was stored away in the ,sunday-school room of ,st4 ,paul's ,church1 ,radcliffeboro1 for safe keeping4 ,this is said to be the largest old church organ in the country1 and this church probably had the first surpliced choir of boys4 ,they are mentioned in the vestry books as early as #agid4 ,the photograph of this organ was procured through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,charles ,n4 ,beesley1 of ,charleston4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hg4 ,,cristofori ,,piano4 ,in the homes in various parts of the country1 besides the virginal1 were found the hand lyre1 large and small fiddle1 the recorder1 flute1 and hautboy4 ,some of these were imported1 some were home-made4 ,the first church organ built in ,new ,england was made for ,christ ,church1 ,boston1 by ,thomas ,johnson1 in #ageb1 and indeed by this time music in churches was pretty general all over the country4 ,the puritans1 with their hatred of anything secular1 or1 as it seems now1 of anything that could ornament or beautify this none too joyous stay on earth1 condemned music4 ,in his ,history of ,music in ,new ,england1 ,mr4 ,hood says that before #afij music was mostly written in psalm-books1 the number of tunes rarely exceeding five or six4 ,at the beginning of the eighteenth century ,new ,england congregations were rarely able to sing more than three or four tunes1 and even these were sung by the doleful process of lining out4 ,the deacon would read one line of a psalm1 and the congregation would sing it4 ,then he would read the next1 and so on4 ,about #agbj an effort was made to improve this method of singing1 but it met with violent opposition4 ,some of the objections advanced were that it grieved good men and caused them to behave disorderly2 that it was ,quakerish and ,popish2 that the names of the notes were blasphemous2 etc4 ,yet after a while the congregations were soothed by the publication of several ,letters of ,pacification1 written by ministers1 and some books were published like that of the ,rev4 ,thomas ,walter of ,roxbury1 ,mass41 entitled3 ,the ,grounds and ,rules of ,musick ,explained4 ,or1 ,an ,introduction to the ,art of ,singing by ,note ,fitted to the ,meanest ,capacity ,by ,thomas ,walter1 ,a4,m4 ,recommended by ,several ,ministers1 ',let everything that hath truth praise the ,lord4' ,ps4 #aej4 #f4 ,boston4 ,singing-,schools for the instruction of the young were opened1 and music1 the only science allowed1 crept into the church4 ,the ,newport ,mercury for ,january #h1 #aggj1 contains the following3 ,the ,public are hereby informed ,that a ,singing-,school will be opened at ,mr4 ,bradford's ,schoolhouse next ,thursday evening by a ,person who has taught the various ,branches of ,psalmody in the ,provinces of ,new ,york1 ,massachusetts ,bay and ,connecticut and those ,gentlemen and ,ladies who have an inclination to improve in this ,excellent ,art may expect all that ,care and ,dilligence which is necessary to their being rightly instructed in the same4 ,william ,tuckey of ,new ,york was a schoolmaster in that city about #agec1 and taught singing to children4 ,in #agff the trustees of ,trinity ,church paid him #ae for performing the music for the opening of ,st4 ,paul's ,chapel in ,new ,york4 ,by #agge choir singing had become more general1 and the old system of lining out was dying1 but dying hard4 ,in several parishes the singers1 male and female1 were requested to sit in the gallery and carry on the singing in public worship4 ,many anecdotes are given in ,dr4 ,ritter's ,music in ,america1 showing how the choir1 once called into being1 soon became a thorn in the ministers flesh1 sometimes being rebuked from the pulpit1 and in retaliation refusing to sing4 ,that the music was bad goes without saying1 for the singers were ill-trained under incompetent teachers1 and the music was often incorrect4 ,dr4 ,ritter gives the proportion of women voices to men as about twenty to one hundred and thirteen4 ,the proposition to let women sing the air was not to be considered for a moment1 since men had a prescriptive right to lead1 and women were forbidden to take the first part in song or any other religious service4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hh4 ,,harp4 ,s4 ,howe published in #ahjd the ,farmer's ,evening ,entertainment1 and in it gives directions for beating time3 ,to beat crotchets in common ,time1 let the fingers fall on the table six inches1 then bring the heel of the hand down gently1 then raising it a little higher1 throw open the fingers to begin the next bar4 ,for triple ,time1 let the fingers fall on the table1 then the heel of the hand1 then raise the whole hand six inches1 keeping the fingers straight1 which fills the bar4 ,but while religious music was undergoing violent changes1 secular music was having a more peaceful time1 and instrument-builders were becoming more numerous and successful4 ,in #aggd1 in the ,new ,york ,gazette is this advertisement4 ,john ,shybli1 ,organ-builder at ,mr4 ,samuel ,princes' ,cabinet- makers in ,horse-and-,cart ,st4 ,new ,york4 ,makes1 repairs and tunes all sorts of organs1 harpsichords and ,fortepianos1 on the most reasonable terms4 ,n4 ,b4 ,he has now ready for sale one neat chamber organ1 one hammer spinet1 one common spinet4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,blyth of ,salem1 ,mass41 made spinnetts 7they spelled them with two n's in those days7 and then gave instruction upon them4 ,he did not require cash payment either1 as witness the following bill1 now in the possession of ,mr4 ,henry ,brooks1 author of ,olden-,time ,music4 ,mrs4 ,margaret ,barton to ,sam ,blyth ,dr4 ,to making a spinnett for her daughter ,supra ,cr4 #ah #j #j ,by #cd oz #a dwt of ,old silver a4 #f4 pr4 oz4 #aj #d #aa ,by cash to ,ballance #g #ae #a -------- #ah #j #j4 ,salem #gth ,feb'y #aghf ,rec'd payment ,saml ,blyth ,at ,mount ,vernon is still to be seen the harpsichord bought for ,nellie ,custis by ,general ,washington4 ,in #agih1 writing to a young friend at ,philadelphia1 she says3 ,i am not very industrious1 but ,i work a little1 read a little1 play on the harpsichord1 and find my time fully taken up with daily employments4 ,there is an old song given in ,historic ,landmarks of ,maryland and ,virginia as being one which ,nellie ,custis used to sing1 accompanying herself on the harpsichord4 ,we wonder who selected for her4 ,,the ,,traveler ,,at ,,the ,,widow',s ,,gate4 ,a traveler stop't at a widow's ,gate1 ,she kept an ,inn and he wanted to bait2 ,she kept an ,inn and he wanted to bait2 ,but the widow she slighted her guest1 ,but the widow she slighted her guest1 ,for when nature was forming an ugly race1 ,she certainly moulded the traveler's face ,as a sample for all the rest1 as a sample for all the rest4 ,the chambermaid's sides they were ready to crack ,when she saw his queer nose and the hump on his back2 ,a hump isn't handsome1 no doubt2 ,and though t'is confessed the prejudice goes ,very strongly in favor of wearing a nose1 ,a nose shouldn't look like a snout4 ,a bag full of gold on the table he laid1 ',t had a wondrous effect on the widow and maid1 ,and they quickly grew marvelous civil2 ,the money immediately altered the case1 ,they were charmed with his hump and his snout and his face1 ,though he still might have frightened the devil4 ,he paid like a prince1 gave the widow a smack1 ,and flop'd on his horse at the door like a sack1 ,while the landlady1 touching his chin1 ,said1 ',sir1 should you travel this country again1 ,i heartily hope that the sweetest of men ,will stop at the widow's to drink4' ,the names of some other popular songs of this period were ,the ,white ,cockade1 ,irish ,howl1 ,hessian ,camp1 ,nancy of the ,mill1 ,every ,inch a ,soldier1 ,when ,nichola ,first to ,court ,began1 ,baron ,steuben's ,march1 ,sweet ,village of the ,valley1 ,king of ,sweden's ,march1 etc4 ,the ,revolutionary echoes seemed to be still reverberating4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hi4 ,,bass ,,viol4 ,in the ,domestic ,life of ,thomas ,jefferson there is a description given of ,monticello1 which he built in #aggj-aggb1 and a diagram of the lower rooms showing where each piece of furniture stood4 ,it seems very sparsely fitted out1 yet it had a great reputation for elegance4 ,the house was but a story and a half high1 and on the ground floor was a great hall1 drawing-room1 dining-room1 tea-room1 sitting-room1 and two bedrooms besides the one occupied by ,jefferson himself4 ,in this latter room was a couch upon which ,jefferson rested when studying1 a dressing-table and mirror1 a chair near the wall1 and beside it a small bookcase4 ,there was no closet1 so in one corner was a rack upon which his clothes where hung4 ,the chief ornament to the drawing-room was his daughter's1 ,mrs4 ,randolph's1 harpsichord4 ,standing about were many busts1 of ,alexander of ,russia1 ,hamilton1 ,voltaire1 ,turgot1 and ,napoleon1 and portraits of ,washington1 ,adams1 ,franklin1 ,madison1 etc4 ,the house was at least abundantly furnished with chairs1 for ,jefferson himself leaves an inventory which states that there were #cf of mahogany and #dd of gold leaf4 ,of small tea and card tables there were #ac4 ,in the dining-room1 well toward its centre1 stood ,jefferson's chair and a candle-stand4 ,his particular hobby was blooded horses1 and he used only the finest ,virginia stock4 ,this same harpsichord was1 as early as #aghe1 in ,jefferson's thoughts1 and he writes to his daughter1 ,polly1 from ,france1 that she shall be taught to play on it1 as well as to draw and dance1 to read and talk ,french1 and such other things as will make you more worthy of the love of your friends4 ,even in remote places like ,monticello1 where everything had to be transported by cart1 or at ,johnson ,hall1 ,sir ,john ,johnson's home in the ,mohawk valley1 harpsichords1 as well as other expensive luxuries1 were to be found4 ,sir ,john's harpsichord was confiscated by the government in ,december1 #aggg1 at the same time with the table which is now at the ,historical ,rooms in ,albany4 ,while musical instruments are only rarely mentioned in the inventories of the great body of the people1 yet we have seen that they were here both of domestic manufacture and imported4 ,thomas ,harrison1 organist of ,trinity ,church1 advertises in the ,new ,york ,mercury for #agfa that he has harpsichords and spinets imported and for sale4 ,the harp was not so often seen as other instruments1 on account both of the great cost of the instrument and of the difficulty of tuning it4 ,it was not until #agbj that the pedal harp was invented by a ,bavarian named ,hochbrcker4 ,by means of the pedal working a small plate set with projecting pins1 the performer was able to raise the pitch of each string a semitone4 ,the mechanism was concealed in the front pillar1 and each note was affected in all its octaves4 ,erard made farther improvements4 ,the harp shown in ,figure #hh is in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york4 ,it is a very handsome one1 painted blue1 and resting on four claw feet4 ,the pillar is fluted1 and the ornaments1 three medallions of dancing girls1 with wreaths below1 are executed in brass4 ,it has forty-two strings of gut and seven pedals4 ,it was made by ,naderman1 ,paris1 ,france1 late in the eighteenth century4 ,naderman perfected the action of the first pedal harp invented by ,hochbrcker4 ,in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 ,england1 is a harp which belonged to the ill-fated ,marie ,antoinette2 it also was made by ,naderman in #aghj4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ij4 ,,glass ,,harmonica4 ,the harp in its various forms is an instrument of great antiquity4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 ever alive to the possibilities of everything that tended to grace and beauty1 admired this instrument not only for its sweet sound but for its pleasing form4 ,we must look to ,egypt for the origin of the harp1 as there are representations in their picture writings of stringed instruments of a bow-form that support the idea that the first conception of a harp was drawn from the tense string of a warrior's bow4 ,this very primitive instrument was borne on the performer's shoulder and played horizontally4 ,between this crude instrument and the splendid vertical harps shown in the frescoes of the time of ,rameses ,,iii41 painted more than three thousand years ago1 there is a chain of pictures showing so many varieties of forms that the growth from the bow-form into the triangular harp is explained4 ,the ,assyrians1 like the ,egyptians1 had harps without a front pillar1 but differing from them in using sound-holes1 and having the sound body uppermost4 ,we assign to ,king ,david the harp1 but medival artists more frequently depicted him with the psaltery1 a horizontal stringed instrument1 the parent of the piano4 ,the harp has always been the instrument of the ,celtic race1 and harpists were held in peculiar veneration4 ,for many a long year harpists traveled from one castle to another1 sure always of a welcome and seat in a warm corner4 ,in return they not only amused the company with their songs1 but brought the news1 and isolated and remote families often heard from the outer world by such uncertain means as these4 ,for centuries the ,english harpers were protected in many ways1 and no one has taken advantage of such a picturesque class with the skill of ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,the most renowned one he introduced as a character was ,blondel de ,nesle1 in the ,talisman1 that wonderful picture of the days of the ,crusades4 ,the first greeting to the youth when he appeared at ,richard's camp shows the estimation in which these knights of the harp were held4 ,blondel de ,nesle6 ,richard exclaimed joyfully welcome from ,cyprus1 my king of minstrels6 ,welcome to the ,king of ,england1 who rates not his own dignity more highly than he does thine4444 ,and what news1 my gentle master1 from the land of the lyre8 ,anything fresh from the trouveurs of ,provence8 ,anything from the minstrels of merry ,normandy8 ,above all1 hast thou thyself been busy8 ,it is also said that ,richard ,coeur de ,lion's place of confinement in ,germany on his return from the ,holy ,land was discovered when ,blondel sung beneath the ,tower ,tenebreuse a tenson which they had jointly composed1 and to which the king replied4 ,edward ,i4 and his ,queen were fond of music and encouraged musicians1 as the following entries in their accounts of the household expenditures show3 ,to ,melioro1 the harper of ,sir ,john ,mantravers1 for playing on the harp when the king was bled1 twenty shillings2 likewise to ,walter ,luvel1 the harper of ,chichester1 whom the ,king found playing on his harp before the tomb of ,st4 ,richard at ,chichester ,cathedral1 six shillings and eight pence4 ,henry ,v4 was a performer on the harp at an early age1 and his wife1 ,catherine of ,valois1 shared his taste1 as an entry in the ,issue ,rolls reads3 ,by the hands of ,william ,menston was paid #h #acs #d;d1 for two new harps purchased for ,king ,henry and ,queen ,catherine4 ,these harps were tuned with a key like the more modern instruments1 and the player improvised his words to suit the taste of the company in which he found himself4 ,harpists were employed much at courts1 and in #afff ,pepys says that for want of pay to the household-- --many of the musique are ready to starve1 they being five years behind hand for wages2 nay1 ,evens1 the famous man upon the ,harp1 having not his equal in the world1 did the other day die for mere want1 and was fain to be buried at the almes of the parish1 and carried to his grave in the dark at night without one linke1 but that ,mr4 ,hingston met it by chance1 and did give #ab;d4 to buy two or three links4 ,at the present day1 though at no instrument does a graceful woman look more graceful1 solo performers are very rare2 but in the orchestra the harp has an important place on account of its tone1 such composers as ,gounod1 ,berlioz1 ,liszt1 and ,wagner using it freely in their scores4 ,in this country there are only occasional references in the old papers to it1 and an advertisement by ,signor ,pucci in #ahae that he gives concerts on the ,fashionable and much admired ,king ,david's ,pedal ,harp1 seems to be an effort to introduce it to the notice of music-lovers of the day4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ia4 ,,geib ,,piano4 ,madame ,malibran1 who achieved such a success in opera in ,new ,york about #ahbe1 used to accompany herself on the harp when she sang in response to an encore4 ,but it can never be considered a popular instrument4 ,in ,dwight's ,history of ,music in ,boston1 he says that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the population of ,boston numbered about six thousand families1 and that not fifty pianos could be found4 ,only a few of ,boston's churches had organs1 while those in country parishes were1 almost without exception1 without them4 ,the use of instruments had crept slowly into the choir1 and if they had a flute and a bass viol they considered they did well4 ,very often a clarinet usurped the place of the flute4 ,the bass viol was1 however1 the most popular instrument1 and when1 some years later1 concerts began to be given1 and musical societies formed1 the bass viol was lugged about1 notwithstanding its ponderous size1 and duly performed its part in the accompaniment4 ,the bass viol shown in ,figure #hi is an interesting one4 ,it was made by ,deacon ,justin ,hitchcock1 and used by him in the choir of the ,congregational ,church1 ,deerfield1 ,mass41 in #aggh4 ,both it and the pitch-pipe used by him as leader of the choir are now resting silent in ,memorial ,hall4 ,deacon ,justin did not confine his musical performances to psalmody and the accompanying of hymns4 ,like all the ,deerfield men of that day he was a fighter1 as who should not be who was brought up among those silent hills which had seen so much of ye barbarous enemy and knew the tales of ,french invasion8 ,the stories of warfare and captivity were still fresh in the minds of the people of ,deerfield when ,deacon ,justin responded to the ,lexington alarm4 ,his fife it was that inspired the weary ,deerfield minute-men to press on to ,boston to meet the ,british4 ,nor was this the only campaign in which he played a part1 for he never wearied of displaying the trophies captured after the disastrous experience of ,burgoyne1 when1 harrassed and in flight1 he abandoned his baggage4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ib4 ,,nuns ,,piano4 ,a very similar bass-viol1 but of ,german manufacture1 was played during the latter part of the eighteenth century in a church in ,stonington1 ,connecticut4 ,the sisters of the ,hospital ,general in ,montreal1 before the conquest of ,canada1 imported several of these instruments from ,france for use in the convent choir4 ,so they must have been played upon by women sometimes4 ,an instrument that is interesting rather than handsome is the glass harmonica shown in ,figure #ij4 ,it has thirty-five bowls or glasses arranged on a central rod4 ,some of the glasses are now missing1 but originally it had a compass of three octaves4 ,the case is three feet nine and a half inches long1 and one foot four and three quarters inches wide4 ,the interest in this class of instruments arises from the fact that it was invented by ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,it has about as much capacity for producing music as the musical glasses4 ,one of these latter instruments consists of twenty-four glasses closely resembling finger-bowls and standing in a wooden table-like case4 ,they are partially filled with water1 and the performer produces notes by rubbing on the rim with the finger4 ,they were occasionally to be met with1 and date about the first decade1 possibly a little later1 of the nineteenth century4 ,there is one in a perfect condition in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the case is of handsome mahogany1 and the instrument belongs to ,mrs4 ,james ,mc,kown4 ,up to #agfj pianos were made in the wing shape1 like the harpsichords1 but at that date a man named ,zumpe made a square one4 ,by #ahjj there were a number of makers in ,new ,york1 and they turned out many very handsome instruments4 ,astor1 ,broadwood1 and ,clementi were three great makers in ,london1 and sent many pianos over here4 ,there is a slender-legged1 fragile1 ,clementi piano in ,memorial ,hall1 ,deerfield1 which was given by a father to his daughter4 ,the story still clings to it that he sold a house in order to buy it for her4 ,john ,geib1 and his sons1 ,john ,h41 ,adam1 and ,william1 were among the best-known early makers of pianofortes4 ,they opened a shop in ,maiden ,lane as early as #ahjg1 and advertised not only pianos of their own manufacture1 built on a new plan1 but those of ,london makers as well4 ,they held this shop in ,maiden ,lane1 with a brief interruption of one year1 till #ahbh1 when ,w4 ,geib moved up to the corner of #aath ,street and ,third ,avenue4 ,it was from this establishment that he sold the handsome piano shown in ,figure #ia1 which is now at the ,historical ,rooms1 ,albany4 ,the name-plate over the keyboard has the following inscription4 ,w4 ,,geib1 ,,third ,,avenue1 ,,corner #aa,,th ,,st4 ,,new ,,york4 ,,manufacturer ,,of ,,cabinet1 ,,grand1 ,,harmonic1 ,,and ,,square ,,piano ,,fortes1 ,,church ,,and ,,chamber ,,organs4 ,this piano is mahogany inlaid1 and has a handsome brass moulding and brass ornamental bands at the tops of the legs4 ,it has six legs and a pedal1 and the top of the lid has a small rest for the music4 ,the stool1 very richly carved with pillar and claw feet1 belongs to an earlier period than the piano1 this shape dating from about #ahaj-bj4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ic4 ,,upright ,,piano4 ,indeed1 from its ornamentation1 the stool would seem to go more fittingly with the very elegant piano shown in ,figure #ib4 ,this is of rosewood1 and was made by ,robert and ,william ,nuns1 and sold by ,du ,bois and ,stodard1 ,new ,york4 ,it was probably made about #ahbc-be1 for in pattern of carving1 moulding1 drawers for music1 etc41 it is very similar to the pianos made at this time by the ,geib ,brothers4 ,at the top of each leg is a richly engraved band of brass1 and rosette1 to conceal the place where the pin held the leg to the instrument4 ,the drawer knobs were doubtless brass also1 for these are not the original ones4 ,the panel above the keyboard is beautifully painted in metallic lustre1 and has two carved panels besides1 over velvet4 ,the legs are boldly carved with the acanthus leaf1 and everything about the piano is as elegant as possible4 ,by the time these last two instruments were made music had taken a decided advance4 ,musical societies were organized in all the large cities2 there were the ,handel and ,haydn ,society2 the ,new ,york ,philharmonic ,society2 the ,new ,york ,choral ,society2 ,beethoven ,society of ,portland1 ,maine2 ,philadelphia ,musical ,fund2 ,harmonic ,society of ,baltimore1 and equally flourishing musical organizations in several cities of the ,south1 notably ,new ,orleans and ,charleston4 ,music-dealers all over the country advertised their wares2 there were instruction-books and sheet music to be had3-- --,overtures1 battles1 sonatas1 duets for four hands1 airs with variations1 rondos1 songs1 glees1 catches1 sacred songs1 original ,scotch airs1 little ballads1 marches1 waltzes1 dances1 and ,mozart's songs4 ,in view of the selection of good music that could be obtained1 it is amusing to know how popular were such ditties as ,mary's ,tears1 ,apollo1 thy ,treasure1 and ,sweet ,little ,ann1 written by ,shaw1 the blind singer of ,providence4 ,they seem hardly an advance upon ,bid ,me1 ,when ,forty ,winters1 ,little ,sally's ,wooden ,ware1 and the ,comic ,irish song ',boston ,news' which were used as concert selections a quarter of a century earlier4 ,in ,figure #ic is shown an upright piano made by ,julius ,fiot1 ,philadelphia1 in #ahbg4 ,the heavy veneered ,empire curved posts are noticeable1 and an extra old-fashioned appearance is given to it by the movable candle-brackets fastened to either side4 ,in the upper part were little silk curtains to cover the mechanism1 and their arrangement does not seem to have been particularly neat4 ,this was a very early example of the upright shape1 and is now in ,memorial ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,clocks4 ,contrivances for the measurement of time are of such antiquity that the first such implement is wrapped in the mysteries of a forgotten past4 ,before any mechanical form had been invented by which the rate of motion of a staff or pointer was made to indicate the lapse of time1 the shadow of the sun in his apparent daily progress was used to mark the passing hours4 ,a gnomon or pin erected so as to throw its traveling shadow across a graduated arc constitutes a dial4 ,this was the earliest form4 ,the subject of sun-dials has been most exhaustively treated by ,mrs4 ,gatty in her ,book of ,sun-,dials1 and later in our own country by ,mrs4 ,earle4 ,in ,england and ,scotland many dials may still be found standing in old-fashioned gardens where they have marked the flight of time for hundreds of years4 ,many more dials1 vertical ones1 are to be found on the walls of public buildings1 sometimes on churches1 and on country houses as well4 ,not only stationary dials1 but portable ones also1 of silver and gold1 were made and were long in use4 ,some of these are to be seen in various museums over the country1 but most of them seem to have disappeared4 ,george ,washington owned a portable dial1 and had a stationary one placed near his front door at ,mt4 ,vernon4 ,in some of the famous old gardens of the ,south that still survive1 echoes of their former glory1 the sun-dial yet holds its accustomed place4 ,in the very heart of ,new ,york city there is to-day a sun-dial2 not one person in a hundred that passes knows that it is there1 nor would scarcely one person in fifty know what it was4 ,it stands on the lawn of ,grace ,church rectory1 on ,broadway1 near ,tenth ,street4 ,this spot of green in a wilderness of brick and stone refreshes the eye of many a hurrying pedestrian1 and the dial marks the flight of the hours as sharply as if it stood in a country wilderness1 amid birds and flowers4 ,the sun-dial was an important part of every great garden in early times4 ,one was set up at ,whitehall1 ,england1 in the sixteenth century4 ,in a garden joining to this palace there is a ,jet d'eau1 with a sun-dial1 which1 while strangers looking at1 a quantity of water forced by a wheel1 which the gardiner turns at a distance1 through a number of little pipes1 plentifully sprinkles those that are standing around4 ,william ,lawson1 writing in #afah a book on ,a ,new ,orchard and ,garden1 gives the directions about laying it out4 ,and in some corner 7or more7 a true ,dyall or clock1 and some ,anticke works1 and especially silver sounding ,musique1 mixt instruments and voyces1 gracing all the rest2 ,how will you be rapt with delight8 ,in #ahba ,william ,cobbett wrote his ,rural ,rides4 ,in one of them he discourses of a visit to ,moor ,park1 once the seat of ,sir ,william ,temple1 whose heart1 enclosed in a silver box1 was said to have been buried in #afih beneath his sun-dial4 ,but ,cobbett casts a doubt upon this time-honored legend by declaring that it was beneath a garden seat that the silver box was buried4 ,charles ,lamb1 in his essay ,the ,old ,benchers of the ,inner ,temple1 discourses lovingly of the sun-dial4 ,it spoke of moderate labours1 of pleasures not protracted after sunset1 of temperance1 and good hours4 ,the dials made out of herbs and flowers come in for a special share of his commendation4 ,how much more the dial induces meditation than the clock1 but how very much lost we should be1 these bustling times1 if we had to depend upon one of these delightful but irresponsible antiques which say to you quite distinctly1 ,i mark only sunny hours4 ,illustration3 ,figure #id4 ,,tall-,,case ,,clocks4 ,english4 ,,daniel ,,quare1 maker4 #afij4 ,j4 ,,harrison1 maker4 #agae4 ,in an inventory of the property of ,william ,bennett1 ,east ,greenwich1 ,rhode ,island1 who died in #agec1 among other articles were mentioned warming-pan1 pewter1 sun-dial1 book1 debts1 #aj4 ,after the dial came the clepsydra1 a sort of clock1 which measured time by the graduated flow of some liquid1 like water1 through a small aperture4 ,while the hour-glass was not known in ,england till #hhf1 it had been used in ,rome long before2 but inventions traveled slowly in those days4 ,the hour-glass remained long in use1 even after the invention of clocks1 and while we know it chiefly as marking the period of agony of some unwilling victim at the piano1 it was used even later than the noon mark on the window-ledge1 which may be seen to-day on some of the old houses still standing4 ,a writer in the ,gentlemen's ,magazine for #agdf says that he was present on an occasion when a grave-digger was at work in ,clerkenwell ,fields4 ,he had dug pretty deep1 and was come to a coffin which had lain so long that it was quite rotten1 and the plate so eaten with rust that he could not read anything of the inscription4 ,in clearing away the old wood the grave-digger found an hour-glass close to the left side of the skull1 with sand still in it4 ,being a lover of antiquity1 ,i bought it of him1 and have since learned from some antiquarians that it was an ancient custom to put an hour-glass in the coffin to show that the sands of life were run4 ,the origin of clockwork is involved in great obscurity1 though there are statements by many writers that clocks were in use as early as the ninth century4 ,by #abhh a clock was placed in the ,old ,palace ,yard1 ,london1 and remained there till the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,in #abib a clock was placed on ,canterbury ,cathedral1 and in #acfh a striking clock was erected at ,westminster4 ,by #aejj1 clocks were used in private houses1 and watches were introduced4 ,in #acfh three ,dutch clockmakers were invited to come to ,england to teach the business to native workers1 though ,dutch clocks and their makers were held in contempt some years later4 ,there was a clock put into the tower of ,hampton ,court ,palace in #aedj by a maker whose initials were ,n4 ,o41 all that posterity knows of him4 ,it was the oldest clock in ,england that kept fairly good time4 ,in #aege ,george ,gaver1 serjeant painter as his title runs1 had a sum of money allowed him for painting the great dial at ,hampton ,court ,palace1 containing hours of day and night1 and the course of sun and moon4 ,in #afdi a striking part was added4 ,by #agaa it was found that the clock had not been running as correctly as it should1 owing to the fact that some careless or ignorant workman had removed some important parts of the works4 ,after this discovery it was left neglected for many years1 and finally lost its hands4 ,it was in this condition in the first quarter of the nineteenth century1 when ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james wrote a poem entitled ,old ,clock ,without ,hands at ,hampton ,court4 ,in #ahce the old works were removed1 and a set of works put in which had been made in #afij by ,villiamy1 for a clock in the ,queen's ,palace1 ,st4 ,james' ,park4 ,as this clock was not powerful enough to drive the astronomical works1 these were put away4 ,in #ahhj this old clock was also removed1 sold for old brass1 and a brand-new clock substituted4 ,it seems a pity that one of the earliest clocks known should have been destroyed4 ,it was not till #afci that ,galileo published his discovery of the isochronous property of the pendulum1 which was eight years after the incorporation of the ,london ,clockmakers ,company4 ,not only did this company train workers for clockmaking1 but they also inspected clocks brought into ,england1 and rejected those which they deemed unworthy4 ,richard ,harris is said to have been the man who first connected the pendulum with clockwork movement1 about #afda1 and ,harris's method was improved by ,huyghens1 so that by #afeh very trustworthy time-keepers were in use4 ,mr4 ,lockwood in his book on ,colonial ,furniture1 says that the first clock mentioned in the ,massachusetts ,colony was found in ,boston in #afch1 but in ,lechford's note-book it is said that ,joseph ,stratton had of his brother in #afbh a clock and a watch4 ,in #afdj ,henry ,parks1 of ,hartford1 left a clock by will to the church4 ,the first clock in ,new ,haven belonged to ,john ,davenport1 who died in #afgj4 ,e4 ,needham1 of ,lynn1 ,mass41 died in #afgg4 ,she left an estate valued at #a1aag4 ,the barn1 land1 out-houses and dwelling house were valued at #djj4 ,this included a range of ston wall fensing4 ,her silver watch1 spoons1 and other plate were worth #e4 ,she had a striking clock1 another watch1 and a larum that does not strike4 ,these early clocks were probably like the ones shown in ,figure #ie4 ,they were called lantern1 chamber1 or birdcage clocks4 ,the lantern clock shown is of the pattern known as the dolphin fret1 on account of the ornamentation above the dial1 which is made by two dolphins with crossed tails4 ,this clock was made by ,thomas ,tompion1 of ,london1 a famous maker1 who lived in the last half of the seventeenth century and died in #agac4 ,he was clockmaker to ,charles ,,ii41 and was held in high esteem1 as may be gathered from the fact that he was buried in ,westminster ,abbey1 where his tomb may still be seen4 ,tompion was called the ,father of ,english ,clockmaking1 and has left a more enduring fame than any of his contemporaries4 ,he had been a blacksmith1 and before his time watches as well as clocks had been of rude construction1 and the watch of ,charles ,i41 which is still preserved1 has a catgut string instead of a chain4 ,indeed watches of that construction were in use for a long time after the chain was invented4 ,very curiously1 through some of the strange chances which govern inanimate as well as animate things1 this very watch has found at least a temporary home in this country4 ,illustration3 ,lantern ,clock4 #afjj-afej ,illustration3 ,portable ,clocks4 #agjj-agbe ,illustration3 ,willard or ,banjo ,clock4 #ahjj-ahbe ,illustration3 ,figure #ie4 ,,three ,,centuries ,,of ,,clocks4 ,when ,oliver ,cromwell obtained his great victory over ,charles ,,ii41 and drove the enemy from hedge to hedge till they finally took refuge in the city of ,worcester1 there were seven thousand prisoners and great spoils1 among the latter the royal carriage in which the king had been carried4 ,in the carriage was this watch1 which was used by ,charles ,,ii4 as it had been by his father ,charles ,i4 ,it had been made for the latter in #afdj1 and after more than two centuries of vicissitudes still ticks bravely on4 ,it is of the earliest pattern of watches1 made entirely by hand and of great size1 as it measures four and a half inches in diameter1 and is an inch and a half thick4 ,the case is very handsome1 of pierced silver in a pattern of flowers and leaves1 and has three winding-holes on the back1--one for winding the works1 one for the alarm1 and one for the striking attachment1 which consists of a small silver bell within the perforated case4 ,it has but one hand to mark the time and goes thirty-six hours4 ,there is an outer case into which the watch may be slipped1 made of copper with a leather cover studded with silver4 ,the watch was kept by ,cromwell himself for many years1 but after the ,restoration it fell into the hands of ,joseph ,kipling1 of ,overstone ,house1 ,north ,hants1 ,england1 a relative of ,rudyard ,kipling4 ,joseph ,kipling was also an ancestor of ,mr4 ,wilfred ,powell1 ,british consul at the port of ,philadelphia1 and present owner of the watch4 ,robert ,hooker invented the double balance in #afeh1 and ,tompion completed it in #afge1 and made a watch which he presented to ,charles ,,ii4 ,two others were made and sent to the ,dauphin of ,france1 where ,huyghens had obtained a patent for spiral-spring watches4 ,this idea was not original with him1 but was obtained from a man named ,oldenburg4 ,it is allowed1 however1 that it is ,huyghens who first made those watches which went without strings or chains4 ,barlow1 in the reign of ,james ,,ii4 is said to have discovered the method of making striking watches1 but1 ,quare's being judged superior by the ,privy ,council1 ,barlow did not get a patent4 ,tompion's watches were in great demand for a long time1 owing to their being large and well made1 the wheels being of well-hammered brass4 ,three most eminent watchmakers of this time were ,tompion1 who died in #agac2 ,daniel ,quare1 who succeeded him and died in #agbe2 and ,george ,graham1 who followed ,quare and died in #agge4 ,they all belonged to the ,society of ,friends4 ,watches cannot claim the antiquity of clocks1 but they can be traced as far back as the fourteenth century4 ,in shape they were like an egg1 and ,nuremburg claims their earliest manufacture4 ,although it is said that they were introduced into ,england in #aegg1 yet it is certain that ,henry ,,viii4 had a watch1 and in #aegb the ,earl of ,leicester presented to ,queen ,elizabeth-- --one amlet or shakell of golde1 all over fairly garnished with small diamandes1 and fower and one smaller pieces1 fully garnished with like diamandes and hanging thereat a round clocke fullie garnished with diamandes and an appendant hanging thereat4 ,they were so unusual that they were worn ostentatiously round the neck hanging to a chain4 ,in an old play called ,a ,mad ,world1 ,my ,masters61 one of the characters says ,ah1 by my troth1 sir1 besides a jewel and a jewel's fellow1 a good fair watch that hung about my neck4 ,when ,malvolio was telling over the agreeable ways in which he would occupy himself after his marriage with ,olivia1 he says1 ,i frown the while1 and perchance wind up my watch or play with some rich jewel4 ,watches called strikers were known in ,ben ,jonson's time1 for he says in his ,staple of ,news ',t strikes6 ,one1 two1 ,three1 four1 five1 six4 ,enough1 enough1 dear watch4 ,thy pulse hath beat enough4 ,now stop and rest4 ,watches were in use so rarely in the early times of ,james ,i4 that it was deemed a cause of suspicion when in #afje one was found upon the person of ,guy ,vaux4 ,by #afch they were more common1 and in a comedy of that year called ,the ,antipodes it is complained that-- --every clerk can carry ,the time of day in his pocket4 ,the prices of these first time-keepers must have been high1 but there are no records of them left4 ,in #afdc the sum of #d was paid to redeem a watch taken from a nobleman in battle4 ,in #affa there was advertised as lost-- --a round watch of reasonable size1 showing the day of the month1 age of the moon1 and tides1 upon the upper plate4 ,thomas ,alcock fecit4 ,the redoubtable ,pepys's curiosity extended to watches1 and he writes in his diary1 ,december #bb1 #affe3 ,i to my ,lord ,brouncker's1 and there spent the evening by my desire in seeing his ,lordship open to pieces and make up again his watch1 thereby being taught what ,i never knew before2 and it is a thing very well worth my having seen1 and am mightily pleased and satisfied with it4 ,the ,english became such famous watchmakers that in #afih an act was passed to compel makers to place their names upon those they made1 in order that discreditable ones might not be passed for ,english4 ,among the possessions of the ,english ,crown is a watch which was found about #aggj in ,bruce ,castle1 ,scotland4 ,on the dial plate is written ,robertus ,b4 ,rex ,scotorum1 and over the face is a shield of convex horn instead of glass4 ,robert ,bruce began his reign in #acje and died in #acbh1 long before watches were supposed to be known in ,england4 ,the case of this watch is of silver in a raised pattern on a ground of blue enamel4 ,striking watches were highly esteemed4 ,when ,sarah1 ,duchess of ,marlborough died in #agdd she left a will covering six skins of parchment1 and she designated the disposal of manors1 parsonages1 rectories1 advowsons1 messuages1 lands1 tenements1 tithes1 and hereditaments1 in half a dozen counties4 ,she also specified many of her jewels1 and among them is her striking watch which formerly belonged to ,lady ,sutherland4 ,the lantern style of clock before mentioned was not original with ,tompion1 but had been used in ,england from the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,they ran by weights1 and the clock had to be affixed to a bracket or shelf in order to give room for the weights to hang4 ,in the clock in ,figure #ie the cords and weights have been removed4 ,the faces of these clocks always stood out beyond the frame1 and were of beautifully engraved or etched brass1 as may be seen in the figure4 ,the single hand showed only the fifths of the hour and the hours4 ,the small dial in the centre was to set the alarm1 which struck the bell1 but in some of them the hours were struck also4 ,the portable or table clock came into use early in #afjj1 and one of them shown in ,figure #ie has the oval top to the dial which was not in use till the last part of the seventeenth century4 ,these were the common house clocks of the period and were easily carried about4 ,some found their way to ,america1 and as they were well made1 with brass works1 they are still able to give correct time4 ,this style of clock was made for many years1 and was manufactured in substantially the same way1 late in the eighteenth century1 by such famous makers as ,isaac ,fox and ,joseph ,rose4 ,samuel ,pepys1 who recorded everything that was going on in ,london1 in ,july #bhth1 #affj1 has this entry4 ,to ,westminster1 and there met ,mr4 ,henson1 who had formerly had the brave clock that went with bullets1 7which is now taken away from him by the ,king1 it being his goods74 ,in the ,gentlemen's ,magazine for #aghe is the following comment on this statement of ,pepys4 ,some clocks are still made with a small ball1 or bullet on an inclined plane1 which turns every minute4 ,the ,king's clocks probably dropped bullets4 ,gainsborough1 the painter1 had a brother who was a dissenting minister at ,henley-on-,thames and possessed a strong genius for mechanics4 ,he invented a clock of very peculiar construction1 which after his death was deposited in the ,british ,museum4 ,it told the hour by a little bell1 and was kept in motion by a leaden bullet which dropped1 from a spiral reservoir at the top of the clock1 into a little ivory bucket4 ,this was so contrived as to discharge it at the bottom1 and by means of a counterweight was carried up to the top of the clock1 where it received another bullet1 which was discharged as the former4 ,this seems to have been an attempt at perpetual motion4 ,catherine of ,braganza was responsible for introducing many luxuries to the ,english world4 ,pepys makes this mention of her clock in #affd4 ,mr4 ,pierce showed me the ,queen's the ,portuguese ,princess1 wife of ,charles ,,ii bed-chamber 444 and her holy water at her head as she sleeps1 with a clock by her bedside1 wherein a lamp burns that tells her the time of the night at any time4 ,pepys speaks again in #affg of going to see-- --a piece of clocke-worke made by an ,englishman--indeed very good1 wherein all the several states of man's age to one hundred years old1 is shown very pretty and solemne4 ,besides the dolphin fret shown on the ,tompion clock in ,figure #ie there were other patterns1 perhaps the earliest being what is called the heraldic fret1 which was a coat-of-arms with scroll-work on either side4 ,this was not used after #afej1 so any clocks bearing this pattern belong to the first half of the seventeenth century4 ,it was early seen that to be accurate a clock must have some contrivance to keep it going while it is being wound4 ,in the old-fashioned house clocks which were wound by merely pulling a string1 and in which one such winding served both for the going and striking parts1 this was done by using what was called the endless chain of ,huyghens1 which consists of a chain or string with ends joined together1 passing over two pulleys which are placed on the arbors of the great wheels1 and which have both spikes and deep grooves in them to prevent the chain from slipping off4 ,to the best clocks in ,england it was usual to apply the gridiron pendulum of ,harrison or the mercurial pendulum of ,graham4 ,the length of the pendulum of most clocks made before #ahjj was #ci inches2 that is1 after the long pendulum came into use at all4 ,the earliest were called bob pendulums1 which swung so far at the sides that it was often necessary to cut slits in the sides of the case1 if it was hung inside1 for it was as frequently hung outside4 ,many clocks which started with bob pendulums were changed to those having long ones1 which about #afhj came very much into fashion4 ,in ,mr4 ,charles ,britten's various books on clocks and clockmaking he has gathered together all the minute particulars which are obtainable on this subject1 and which are of chief interest to collectors of clocks4 ,most people are content with one clock1 particularly if it be of the grandfather variety4 ,the term clock was only applied to the bell upon which the hour was rung till well into the fourteenth century1 and as late as the time of ,james ,i4 clocks were known as horologes4 ,even at the present day the old term has clung to the church-tower time-piece in some of the least-traveled parts of ,england1 and in the quaint and lovely little town of ,wells the ,cathedral clock is called the horologe4 ,there are long-case clocks made by ,tompion to be found in this country2 for of course all the first clocks were of ,english make4 ,the earliest long-case clocks were made by ,william ,clement about #afhj1 and within the same year ,tompion was making them too4 ,the peculiarities of these first clocks are quite marked and easily distinguished1 for the dials were square1 and the top of the case lifted off to permit of winding4 ,an early and handsome specimen of such a clock is seen in ,figure #id4 ,this clock was made in the latter part of the seventeenth century by ,daniel ,quare1 the successor of ,thomas ,tompion4 ,it is a one-year clock and is at ,hampton ,court ,palace4 ,the dial face is square1 and the top lifts off4 ,the case is very handsomely carved and has some very handsome figures on the top4 ,the second clock shown in ,figure #id is in a black and gold lacquered case1 and was made by ,j4 ,harrison in #agae4 ,it is at the ,guildhall ,museum1 ,london4 ,this shows the carved top of the dial face which became universally adopted4 ,the most important part of one of these clocks is the pendulum1 for the long case was brought into use solely for the pendulum1 as mechanism had not been invented to permit it to swing in a confined space4 ,the first long-case clocks were comparatively small in size1 and during the reign of ,william ,,iii41 when everything ,dutch was in fashion1 the cases were ornamented with marquetry in beautiful patterns and variously coloured woods4 ,sometimes this was made even richer by inlay of mother-of-pearl1 and there were cases also of splendid lacquer-work1 gold on black grounds1 like that in ,figure #id1 some of which found their way to ,america and are either museum specimens or treasured in private collections4 ,there are many clocks with ,english works housed in ,dutch cases1 but this is understandable from the fact that so many ,dutch cabinet-makers were settled in ,london4 ,besides the square face to the dial of these early clocks there were peculiarities of the case as well4 ,on either side of the upper part of the case there were carved spiral pillars1 like those we find in old chairs of the same period4 ,these were occasionally finished off by carved or gilt pilasters1 and on some choice specimens1 notably of ,tompion's clocks1 there are pillars at the back also4 ,this style of pillar was used also in ,queen ,anne's time4 ,the clocks might stand flat on the floor or be raised an inch or two on a short foot4 ,the long doors had mouldings1 corresponding to the period of their manufacture1 and many had a piece of glass or a bull's-eye let into the wood1 so that the motion of the pendulum could be seen4 ,some of the most distinguishing marks on these clocks are the hour circles4 ,before the minute hand came into use the double circles seen in the mantle clocks were in use4 ,between them the hour is divided into quarters1 the half hour being shown by a longer stroke1 or an ornament like a fleur-de-lys4 ,when the minute hand came into use1 besides the double circle containing the numerals denoting the hours1 and the smaller figures showing the minutes1 there were on the outer edge marks or divisions to denote the quarter hours1 the device being a cross or a dagger4 ,the dial faces were beautifully embellished with engraving1 those of the ,william ,,iii4 and ,queen ,anne periods being very rich4 ,not only were the faces brass1 but there were to be found silvered faces also1 ornamented with ormolu mounts of figures and scrolls in brass4 ,all the space on the dial was utilized2 on the extreme edge a border of leaves1 or herring-bone pattern was placed1 and the whole interior of the hour-ring was engraved or etched with flowers1 scrolls1 or set patterns1 and even the winding-holes had their set of circles around each4 ,of the seventeenth-century clocks the earliest had their makers' names put into ,latin and engraved straight across the bottom of the dial1 and quite concealed when the wooden hood of the case was in place4 ,later it was engraved on the lower half of the circle between the figures seven and five4 ,these two styles were only in use very early1 for about #agej name-plates were first used1 and then makers used their own taste in the matter1 sometimes omitting the name entirely and substituting some motto like ,tempus ,fugit ,tempus edax rerum1 and even such lengthy mottoes as the following2 ,slow comes the hour2 its passing speed how great2 ,waiting to seize it1--vigilantly wait6 ,edward ,east was another well-known early ,english maker1 and some clocks in splendid cases came from his hand by #afij and earlier4 ,joseph ,knibb and ,james ,clowes were other popular makers about #agjj4 ,james ,lownes made handsome clocks by #agje and usually inserted glass in their doors4 ,the corners of the dials bear devices which also point to the age of the clock4 ,on the dials which came from the best makers till just before the close of the seventeenth century1 the ornaments were cherubs' heads4 ,then the patterns of the spandrels1 as these ornaments were called1 altered1 and a head set in more or less elaborate scroll-work1 generally of brass1 handsomely chased and often gilded1 was used4 ,after this1 in the early eighteenth century1 came two ,cupids holding up a crown with a surrounding of scroll-work4 ,the clock on the left in ,figure #if has this fret1 two cherubs holding a crown1 at the four corners of the brass face4 ,they do not show very plainly in the illustration1 which also does not do justice to the splendid marquetry with which the mahogany case is inlaid4 ,across the dial face is ,monks1 ,prescot and the clock is in perfect order4 ,the second clock is quite as interesting4 ,it has a fine mahogany inlaid case1 the face is painted on wood1 the works are wooden also1 and it is wound by pulling up the weights by hand4 ,the ornaments which originally decorated the top are missing1 but otherwise it is perfect and is in admirable condition4 ,its period is about #ahjj4 ,this clock belongs to ,dr4 ,george ,w4 ,goler1 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 and the one previously described to ,mr4 ,william ,m4 ,hoyt1 also of ,rochester4 ,illustration3 ,american ,clock4 #agij-ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,english ,clock4 #agbj-agdj4 ,illustration3 ,figure #if4 ,,tall-,,case ,,clocks4 ,a crown with crossed sceptres and foliage were also used in the spandrels4 ,later in the century the passion for rococo ornament seized the clockmakers too1 and during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 these ornaments degenerated very greatly1 and were cast brass1 often not even touched with a graver's tool4 ,christopher ,gould was making clocks in #agae1 and by #agde ,richard ,vick's works were put into so-called ,chippendale cases4 ,there is such a clock now at ,windsor ,castle4 ,all clocks before the eighteenth century had straight tops4 ,an arched top was added1 in which could be placed a register for the equation of time4 ,on some of the latest clocks by ,tompion1 dated about #agji1 four years before his death1 such an arch is found4 ,it is considered greatly to improve the appearance of the face of the clock1 and it was utilized for decoration if not for a time register4 ,name-plates were put there1 and a handsome dolphin was engraved or mounted on the dial on either side of the name-plate4 ,a fine specimen of such a clock made by ,john ,carmichael1 ,greenock1 ,scotland1 and put in a mahogany case1 has been owned by a family now living in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 for over one hundred and fifty years4 ,the clock is in good order1 with the original brass works1 and has a small plate on the dial to indicate the day of the month4 ,the face is silvered and etched handsomely4 ,during the last half of the eighteenth century there was a great demand for moving figures to be placed in this arched top4 ,ships in motion1 ,father ,time1 etc41 were always popular subjects1 as well as painted disks showing the moon in her various phases4 ,the moving figures were preferred by ,dutch makers1 who excelled at this species of work4 ,the ,english makers1 however1 used the painted moon-disks the most4 ,the ,french1 with their taste for the ornamental and elegant1 never liked the square-faced clocks4 ,they preferred the small clocks in ebony or alabaster casings with ormolu mounts4 ,julien ,le ,roy was a very famous ,french clockmaker1 whose works were mounted in florid style1 sometimes in cases of kingwood1 with inlay of lighter woods1 or in ebony4 ,lepante made clocks dating from about #agej1 and these were always in the best style and elegant taste4 ,few of such clocks found their way to ,america on account of their great cost4 ,by the last quarter of the eighteenth century watches and clocks were quite common in the colonies1 where they were also made4 ,in the ,mercury for ,may #b1 #aggd1 not only were clocks offered for sale1 but watches neat and plain1 gold1 silver1 shagreen1 and metal4 ,some engraved and enamelled with devices new and elegant2 also the first in this country of the small new-fashioned watches the circumference of a ,british shilling4 ,john ,sinnet removed to the ,main ,st4 called the ,fly1 next house to the corner of ,beekman's slip1 the sign of the dial against the wall4 ,in this same year ,basil ,francis offers2 #a reward for any information of a man who did in a fraudulent manner obtain one pinchbeck watch with a single case1 winds up in the face1 the hole where the key goes a little flowered4 ,there were even higher rewards offered at this time for the return of lost watches1 probably not pinchbeck1 for a military gentleman offers #e for the return of his watch and no questions asked4 ,the ,english officers made the winter of #aggh-i very gay in ,new ,york1 quite rivaling ,philadelphia1 and set the fashion1 which was esteemed very polite1 of wearing two watches4 ,the ,quaker ,city considered this custom ridiculous4 ,eli ,terry1 of ,windsor1 ,conn41 was one of the first clockmakers in the ,united ,states1 though ,james ,harrison began to manufacture at ,waterbury1 ,conn41 as early as #agij4 ,the first clock he made was entered in his books1 ,january #a1 #agia1 at #c #abs4 #h;d4 ,yet clocks were made even earlier than this1 for in #aghc the ,assembly of ,connecticut awarded a patent for fourteen years to ,benjamin ,hanks1 of ,litchfield1 ,conn41 for a self-winding clock4 ,it was to wind itself by the help of air4 ,in ,east ,windsor1 ,conn41 ,daniel ,burnap carried on the manufacture of brass clocks4 ,william ,tenny was one of the earliest makers of brass work clocks in the ,united ,states1 and worked at ,nine ,corners1 ,dutchess ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,eli ,terry made wooden works for his clocks1 although he had been instructed in his business by ,daniel ,burnap1 who used brass as well as wooden works1 and made tall-case clocks with long pendulums4 ,these clocks were by no means cheap1 ranging from #ah to #dh1 the more expensive ones having a brass dial1 a dial for seconds1 the moon's phases1 and a better case4 ,terry's wooden-work clocks were well made and were good time keepers1 and were distributed all over ,new ,england by peddlers4 ,in #ahjg ,terry undertook to make five hundred clocks2 this overstocked the market1 and he was forced to reduce the price from #be to #ae1 and then to #aj4 ,before #ahjj the best-known clockmakers in the ,united ,states were ,daniel ,burnap1 ,silas ,merriam1 ,thomas ,harland1 ,timothy ,peck1 and ,james ,harrison1 all of ,connecticut4 ,from #ahjf to #ahae the number of clockmakers largely increased1 and ,seth ,thomas1 ,silas ,hoadley1 ,herman ,clark1 and ,asa ,hopkins were some of the best-known men engaged in the making4 ,in #ahad ,terry invented what was called the short-shelf clock1 in which1 by a change of arrangement and smaller weights1 the pendulum being brought forward and greatly shortened and the weights being carried and run on each side1 the whole was reduced to a more compact form4 ,clock and case were sold for a moderate sum4 ,these clocks1 like the tall-case ones1 were made with wooden wheels1 but after the introduction of rolled brass1 machinery was invented by which blank wheels could be struck out with a die1 the teeth afterward cut by machinery1 and the brass-wheel clocks made cheaper than the wooden4 ,this was about #ahcg4 ,the next improvement was substituting springs for weights4 ,this had been done in ,europe for two hundred years1 but only with the most costly parlour clocks1 and the springs were equal to the best watch-springs4 ,many kinds of cheaper springs had been tried without success1 till a superior steel spring was invented in the ,united ,states1 and the springs thus produced have for many years been sold at a price compatible with cheap clocks4 ,the wooden pendulum covered with gold leaf1 which is one of the characteristics of a regulator clock1 was invented by ,silas ,b4 ,terry1 a son of ,eli4 ,america has long taken a leading place in the making of clocks1 and that desire to have the biggest and best which is characteristic of the youngest nation has influenced clockmaking4 ,for many years ,england prided herself on having the largest clock in the world4 ,it is on the ,houses of ,parliament1 ,london1 and is known as the ,westminster clock4 ,its dial faces measure #bb feet #f inches in diameter4 ,a larger one1 however1 has been erected during the past few years in ,minneapolis1 ,minn41 by an ,american clockmaker4 ,these dial faces measure #bb feet #h inches in diameter1 and the ,westminster clock has receded to second place4 ,among extraordinary clocks which have from time to time been invented1 none is more curious than that made in #agfg by ,david ,rittenhouse1 of ,philadelphia4 ,it has six dials2 on the main one there are four hands which indicate seconds1 minutes1 hours1 and days1 giving one day more to ,february in leap year4 ,phases of the moon are also shown4 ,the second dial shows the movements of planets about the sun2 the third1 the moon revolving about the earth2 the fourth1 the movements of ,saturn2 the fifth whether sun time is fast or slow with meridian time2 while the sixth gives the combination of chimes which sound quarter hours1 a choice of any one of ten tunes being played by pressing a knob on the dial4 ,it is not often in the ,united ,states that there is a record of any piece of furniture staying in the same place for twenty-five1 much less one hundred years4 ,yet in ,westernville1 ,oneida ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 there is an old grandfather's clock ticking away1 which with the new year of #aijc is said to have stood in its present position a hundred years4 ,the home which holds this venerable time-piece was built by ,general ,william ,floyd1 one of the signers of the ,declaration of ,independence1 and the old house has weathered the storms as well as the clock4 ,built in the centre of a ten-thousand-acre tract of land acquired from the ,indians in #aghh1 the lands have gradually been sold1 but four hundred acres still remain surrounding the old homestead4 ,the old mansion is well preserved1 and there have been no changes beyond necessary repairs4 ,it is of ,colonial architecture1 and its interior furnishings form a feast for the lovers of the antique4 ,there are some rare pieces of furniture imported from ,england over a century ago4 ,the house belongs to the widow of ,admiral ,sicard1 and was left her by her father1 the grandson of ,general ,floyd4 ,of the tall-case clocks there were many to be found all over the ,south1 in some instances case and all being brought from ,england1 while in others1 as was often done1 the case was made by the local cabinet-maker4 ,many such clocks have1 within recent years1 found their way into ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 which is quite a paradise for the antiquarian4 ,the history of these old clocks is strange4 ,during the ,civil ,war the negroes appropriated many articles from the manor houses which had been deserted1 or partially sacked or burned1 and carried them to their cabins4 ,among such loot were many clocks1 but they were too tall to get into the cabin doors or to stand upright afterward4 ,so they were cut down1 generally at the base1 for the ornamental tops1 particularly if there were brass ornaments on the top1 appealed to their new owners4 ,a dealer from ,newport heard of them1 and went to ,virginia1 buying all of these sawed off clocks he could find4 ,he took them home1 had the cases restored1 and sold them all for good prices4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ig4 ,,mantel ,,clocks4 ,one of the most famous names in the history of clockmaking in ,america is that of ,willard1 and to a certain style of clock this name has been applied4 ,there were at least four clockmakers by this name1 ,simon1 ,aaron1 ,benjamin1 and ,simon ,jr4 ,it is supposed to be the latter who made the style of clock also known as banjo1 although ,mr4 ,lockwood considers there is great doubt on the subject4 ,one of these clocks is shown in ,figure #ie4 ,they had no striking machinery1 and often varied as to the lower part1 occasionally being furnished with a brass ornament4 ,this one has a view of ,mt4 ,vernon1 and belonged to the late ,mr4 ,alfred ,hosmer1 of ,concord1 ,mass4 ,these clocks were made during the first twenty years of the nineteenth century4 ,the works are of brass and generally of excellent make4 ,in #ahjb ,willard of ,boston1 who was1 no doubt1 ,benjamin1 who had workshops at ,roxbury and ,grafton as well as in ,boston1 took out a patent for his timepieces4 ,at this same period ,terry began business on a larger scale and by water-power4 ,in #ahad he introduced the shelf or mantel-clock1 which he patented in #ahaf4 ,three of this style of clock are shown in ,figure #ig4 ,all are in good condition and are still running4 ,they belong to ,mr4 ,william ,m4 ,hoyt1 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the central clock is a very handsome one of mahogany1 with a carved case4 ,the ornament on the top is an eagle1 and the posts are leaves bound with a rope4 ,the face of ,washington painted on the glass is much better than those portraits usually are1 and loses much in the reproduction4 ,this clock was made by ,ephraim ,downs1 of ,bristol1 ,conn4 ,the clock on the left1 made by ,chauncey ,ives1 is also a ,bristol one1 for ,connecticut early obtained and has always retained an eminence in the clock business4 ,it has an ornamental case with handsomely carved pineapples on top1 and a swan-necked cornice4 ,the one on the right1 with claw feet1 has a very handsome decoration of painted patterns on a black ground4 ,on the inner part of the case is pasted a paper which reads as follows3 ,,patent ,,clocks ,,patented ,,by ,,eli ,,terry ,,and ,,made ,,and ,,sold ,,by ,,seth ,,thomas ,,plymouth ,,mass4 ,,warranted ,,if ,,well ,,used4 ,the faces of all three are painted on tin1 the two ,bristol clocks having ornamentation of gold in the corners4 ,these clocks all date from #ahae-bj1 but the one by ,seth ,thomas may be a trifle earlier4 ,a more modern clock than any of the foregoing1 yet one of interest1 nevertheless1 is one in the commandant's office in the ,navy ,yard1 ,brooklyn4 ,this old clock1 which1 although fifty-four years old1 is not only in good running order1 but practically furnishes the official time for the yard1 occupies a prominent position in the outer office of ,rear-,admiral ,barker's suite4 ,its dial is about the same size as those seen in the clocks of to-day that keep the official time1 but it is operated by a spring instead of weights4 ,its mahogany case is handsomely carved1 and its brass hands shine in a way that shows the care that it receives4 ,the following inscription1 revealing the age of the clock1 appears on the case3 ,,presented ,,to ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,frigate ,,brandywine1 ,,by ,,the ,,crew1 #ahdi4 ,no one in the yard knows how the old clock got there1--it probably drifted there1 as have so many other waifs and strays4 ,at noon every day it is set by official time received from the ,naval ,observatory in ,washington1 and most of the other clocks in the yard depend upon this reliable time-piece which has come down from the frigate ,brandywine4 ,the collecting of clocks is a fad which few people indulge in4 ,yet there are those who own ten or a dozen timepieces1 and who like to have them in running order4 ,the old ,dutch clocks1 while looking very well1 are notoriously ill-regulated time-keepers4 ,a collector took a prize lately acquired to an old ,german clock-repairer who seemed more learned in the ways of ancient clocks than many a more pretentious maker4 ,the clock did not come home when it was promised1 and the owner went to see what was the matter4 ,she found her old clockmaker diligently studying a little ,german volume with a title which read something like this1 ,thirteen ,hundred ,reasons why a ,clock in ,perfect ,order ,won't ,run4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,handles1 ,,feet1 ,,stuffs1 ,,etc4 ,in the manufacture of furniture at one time or another nearly every variety of wood has been used1 if not for the body of the frame1 then for its enrichment1 and every quarter of the globe has been laid under contribution4 ,the island of ,borneo yielded ,amboyna wood1 with its beautiful mottlings and curlings1 and a very splendid cabinet was made of it for the ill-fated ,marie ,antoinette by the famous cabinet-maker of her day1 ,riesener4 ,ceylon1 held by the ,dutch as a colony from the middle of the seventeenth century until nearly the nineteenth1 produced splendid ebony which was used for whole pieces of furniture as well as for decoration4 ,the ,french term bniste1 or worker in ebony1 was given to the ,french makers of fine work4 ,to what abundant usage oak1 walnut1 and mahogany was put we know4 ,rosewood1 too1 was another of the choicer materials4 ,satin-wood1 with its brilliant colour2 tulip-wood1 more showy still2 kingwood1 dark and rich2 zebra wood1 with its black and white effect1 as well as leopard and partridge woods1--were all in use before #ahjj4 ,there were1 besides1 cherry1 yew1 pear1 walnut1 cedar1 fir1 olive1 beech1 sycamore1 cypress1 chestnut for timber work1 poplar1 acacia1 with limewood and boxwood for carving4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ih4 ,,kitchen ,,of ,,whipple ,,house1 ,,ipswich1 ,,mass4 ,for furniture which was to be painted and gilded common deal was used4 ,in ,america hickory 7nut-wood1 as it was called71 was very popular among the native workers1 and all the other woods were gradually imported1 except those used for inlaying1 an art never much practiced by ,american cabinet makers4 ,after the first leather coverings of cured bull-hide there followed ,spanish or ,cordova leather1 ,turkey-work1 cane1 rush1 tapestry1 brocade1 woollen plush1 etc41 as styles altered from time to time and luxury increased4 ,in an earlier chapter mention has been made of stuffs that were in use in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for bed and window curtains1 draperies and upholstery4 ,besides all the varieties of ,english goods1 large importations came from ,east ,india of such unfamiliar materials1 as bejurapants bafts1 gorgorans1 mulmuls1 jainwars1 sallampores1 and many others4 ,miss ,singleton in her ,furniture of ,our ,forefathers1 gives a list of eighty different stuffs1 seersuckers being the only familiar name among them4 ,presumably some of these were imported here1 and ,boston merchants before #agbe advertised linceys and flowered serges1 bangalls1 shalloons1 ,persians and fustian1 kersey1 silk crpes1 cherry derry and grass4 ,worsted1 or hair plush1 plain or striped hair-cloth1 damask1 furniture dimities1 moreen1 harrateen and tammy were all to be bought in the larger cities4 ,nor were these goods by any means cheap4 ,harrateen cost about four dollars a yard in the middle of the eighteenth century1 and a set of curtains of this same material was valued at #baj4 ,other goods were in proportion2 some bedsteads without beds coming as high as #ajj4 ,but1 once acquired1 these household goods were valuable assets and passed from one generation to another1 often mentioned with great particularity by will4 ,there are various small details which are of assistance in determining the approximate period of a piece of furniture1 and none of greater value than the handles4 ,the different styles of these1 particularly of brass1 are quite definite4 ,the earliest of them is the drop handle1 shown in ,figure #ii1 and also on the old oak chest depicted in ,figure #e4 ,the escutcheons were similar1 and the material of the drops on some chests of drawers was iron1 but brass was more commonly seen1 and was either hollow or solid4 ,after the drop handles followed bail handles of a primitive type1 the handles being fastened in with wires4 ,these handles also were of brass and were sometimes engraved4 ,the shape of these handles and escutcheons is known as willow1 and appears later in a much more ornate form4 ,see ,figures #ef1 #eg and #ei4 ,by this time the handles were fastened by screw and nut4 ,by the latter half of the eighteenth century there were in addition to the elaborate willow brasses 7see ,figure #fd71 oval ones of various styles4 ,this shape was much affected by ,hepplewhite on his sideboards1 and by ,sheraton in his earlier style 7see ,figures #ce and #ch74 ,there was a handle starting from two small plates1 either round or oval1 frequently seen on swell-front bureaus and desks of #aghj and thereabouts4 ,one is shown in ,figure #ii4 ,beginning at the top of the page the various handles in use in the eighteenth century are shown in the order of their appearance4 ,illustration3 ,drop ,handle4 #afge-agbj ,illustration3 ,early ,willow ,pattern4 #agbj-agfj ,illustration3 ,bail ,handle4 #agfj-aghe ,illustration3 ,pressed ,brass oval4 #aghj-ahaj ,illustration3 ,rosette and ,ring4 #agij-ahbj ,illustration3 ,inset ,ring4 ,rosette4 #ahjj-ahbj ,illustration3 ,figure #ii4 ,,handles1 ,,escutcheons1 etc4 ,there was also a round handle with a ring lying close within it 7,figure #cg72 and when the ,empire style was in favour a rosette with a ring was used on sideboards1 bureaus1 writing-tables1 etc4 ,see ,figures #db and #fj4 ,the rosette with a ring was not the only ,empire style1 but there were round knob handles of brass 7,figure #cg71 glass 7,figure #ch71 and brass with medallions of china or enamel4 ,the glass ones1 either transparent or opalescent1 were held in great esteem1 though they are extremely ugly on pieces of dark furniture on which they were usually mounted4 ,in many cases they have been removed1 and wooden knobs substituted2 yet if one desires an ,empire piece to look as it did when made1 it will be necessary to hunt out1 if possible1 a set of these knobs to put on it4 ,this is not so difficult a matter as might be imagined2 for even if the handles come from divers places they will generally match1 as there was small variety in the patterns used4 ,there was a great demand for these opal glass rosettes4 ,very large ones held back the window curtains1 smaller ones were used to support the mirrors1 besides those on the furniture4 ,about this same time 7#ahbj7 those fine handles which are so eagerly sought for to-day made their appearance4 ,they were china or enamel set in brass1 and the patterns on the china were often portraits of famous men like ,washington1 ,franklin1 ,clinton1 and ,jefferson4 ,when mounted on a piece of furniture like a small work-table1 which had only two drawers1 the four patriots named would make a set4 ,there were also fancy heads1 and sometimes tiny figures1 but these were not so popular4 ,brass was put to many other uses1 ornamental as well as useful1 and wine-coolers of heavy mahogany were set off with bands of it1 and smaller articles1 like pipkins1 were either made or bound with it4 ,narrow thread-like bands of brass were used for purposes of inlay and in the lyre-back chairs the strings were brass1 as well as the accompanying ornaments4 ,brass has always been a valuable commodity in ,english manufactures1 and in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,parliament passed an act prohibiting1 under severe penalties1 the export of brass1 which prohibition was not withdrawn till as recently as #agii4 ,in #agba over thirty thousand persons were employed in brass-founding in ,birmingham1 ,england1 and the business has grown until it has become the industrial feature of that city4 ,the handles of both ,french and ,dutch furniture were extremely ornate1 consisting of scrolls and leaves1 many of them of great beauty and delicacy1 particularly when made of water-gilt or of etched brass4 ,for the benefit of local cabinet-makers brass handles1 escutcheons1 and false keyholes were imported and on sale in ,america4 ,by #aggj many cabinet-makers were manufacturing very handsome furniture of mahogany1 cedar1 or cherry1 requiring handsome brasses to go with them4 ,a cabinet-maker of ,newburyport1 ,r4 ,i41 had in his shop at the time of his death in #aggc much furniture completed and some still unfinished4 ,he also had several thousand feet of costly timber1 sixty brass handles valued at more than one pound1 desk brasses1 fifty-four escutcheons1 and old brasses1 locks1 and screws as well4 ,for bookcase and cabinet doors he had panes of glass1 most of it in sheets measuring #e #g inches1 which was the size commonly used in windows at that time4 ,although glass had been made in this country for a long time we find ,bristol crown window-glass advertised for sale in #agga in sizes as large as #i #ab inches4 ,besides these brasses of ,english manufacture1 we find another merchant advertising three dozen ,dutch rings and escutcheons at three shillings a dozen4 ,handles came at various prices1 fifteen1 twelve1 and eight shillings a dozen1 according to pattern and finish4 ,the escutcheons were at proportionate prices1 eleven and eight shillings a dozen1 but locks came high1 a fine-ward desk-lock bringing a guinea4 ,on much furniture1 particularly that enriched with inlay1 ivory escutcheons were used1 and sometimes those of holly or other wood used in the inlay were set in4 ,these were in use during the last years of the eighteenth century1 and can be found in connection with various styles of handles4 ,at the ,smith's ,fly were many metal-workers who sold ironware and goods for cabinet-makers4 ,at the sign of the ,cross ,daggers1 ,thomas ,brown1 as early as #agde1 had many metal furnishings on hand4 ,there were latches and bolts for doors and locks for chests1 drawers1 and cabinets4 ,he had polished brass handles1 locks1 escutcheons1 and handsome brass locks for parlours4 ,ring-drops1 tea-chest furniture1 knobs and knockers for street doors1 curtain-rings and chafing-dishes were advertised in #agej1 and casters and handles and escutcheons of the newest fashion were to be found in #agea1 with brass chair nails4 ,a few years later double and single spring chest-locks could be bought1 and these were sold by the same merchant who imported-- --choice ,india and ,japan gilded ,tea ,tables1 square ,dressing ditto1 of which sort none were ever seen in ,america before4 ,the rate to be charged for putting on these brasses was set down in ,the ,journeymen's ,cabinet and ,chair-makers ,philadelphia ,book of ,prices1 #agie1 mentioned before4 ,common castors cost #b;d each1 and #a;d extra for letting in the plate2 a set of sockets when the legs are tapered1 to fit in1 per set1 #as #b;d4 ,iron or brass rollers were #h;d per pair4 ,fitting on a box lock was #as #d;d1 while a patent lock came extra and cost #bs4 ,lifting handles could be put on for #as #d;d per pair4 ,letting in an escutcheon was #b;d for each one1 and letting in plates for rods in the tops of sideboards were #h;d for each plate4 ,ivory escutcheons cost #aj;d each1 and those of holly just half that4 ,if a person chose to have his furniture made on the premises it was an easy matter1 for many cabinet-makers worked in this way1 and the furniture could be built to suit exactly the prospective owner's taste and the place it was to occupy4 ,none of the furniture made in ,america and little that was imported here1 had the superb handles and escutcheons which were put on ,french and ,dutch pieces4 ,these mounts were executed and designed by artists1 and made a decidedly beautiful addition to the furniture4 ,another distinctive feature of old furniture is the foot1 which in many cases points to period and country as well as if the piece was dated4 ,after the turned chairs with their heavy lines and clumsy construction1 the furniture which was gradually finding its way from ,spain and ,holland seemed very beautiful4 ,the ,flemish foot1 so called1 turns outward1 and is found on very early chairs enriched with carving and having cane1 rush1 or turkey-work seats4 ,this style belongs to the last quarter of the seventeenth century4 7,for illustrations see ,figure #ajj47 ,chairs of this same period also came from ,spain and ,portugal1 being covered with the splendid leather of ,cordova1 which has now a world-wide reputation4 ,the woodwork of the frames was handsome enough to correspond with the leather4 ,these frames were carved1 and the foot turned out like the ,flemish1 but it was of quite a different shape and fluted 7see ,figure #ajj74 ,this ,spanish foot retained its popularity a long time1 appearing on many varieties of chairs almost as late as #agej4 ,it was associated with cane1 rush1 leather1 and stuff bottoms1 was seen on arm and side chairs with slatted backs1 and backs of cane and leather4 ,sometimes on the roundabout chairs1 as those having a square seat set with one angle pointed forward were called 7see ,figure #eg71 only the front foot was in ,spanish style1 the others being turned knobs which accorded with the turned legs and rails4 ,even on some of the so-called ,queen ,anne chairs with spoon backs1 a modified form of ,spanish foot was to be found1 but this eventually gave way to the familiar ball-and-claw cabriole leg1 or the regular ,dutch foot 7see ,figure #aa74 ,it is curious that the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot was seen on pieces of furniture like both the high and low chests of drawers before it was used on chairs 7see ,figure #eg71 and the earliest of these ,queen ,anne chairs had the bandy leg with the plain ,dutch foot4 ,this foot is used with the solid splat and the spoon-shaped back with rounded ends to the top4 ,chippendale1 in his earliest work1 began to use the models then in vogue1 and1 with the bandy leg which was found only on the two front legs of chairs1 used also a modified ,dutch foot4 ,very soon he used instead the ball-and-claw foot1 with or without the underbrace1 and with the more ornamental foot the splat became pierced and carved and very ornate and rich4 ,the later straight legged ,chippendale chair 7see ,chapter ,,iii7 came into favour1 with or without underbraces1 and late in the eighteenth century the other great cabinet-makers came along1 each with his distinctive styles and characteristics4 ,the first of these is ,hepplewhite1 who never achieved the success of ,chippendale1 who preceded him1 nor of ,sheraton1 who succeeded him1 yet whose work is often very beautiful4 ,he did not1 of course confine himself to any one style of foot or leg1 yet on many of his chairs1 tables1 and sideboards he used what is called the spade foot4 ,this was varied in many ways1 but the most common form is shown in ,figure #ajj4 ,both ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton1 as well as the other makers of the eighteenth century1 used a variety of shapes of feet1 for bureaus1 desks1 bookcases1 and other pieces which were in no way distinctive4 ,each maker used the bracket foot as suited him best1 adding curves to suit his fancy or the exigencies of the case1 or inlay or even carving4 ,a plain bracket foot is shown in ,figure #ajj4 ,the ,french foot 7,fig4 #ajj7 is more ornate and slender1 and comes on chests of drawers1 bureaus1 etc4 ,inlay is very often used for its decoration1 and it adds a graceful line to the piece it is used on1 which is always of choice wood inlaid or painted4 ,illustration3 ,flemish4 ,illustration3 ,spanish4 ,illustration3 ,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,chippendale4 ,illustration3 ,bracket4 ,illustration3 ,french ,foot4 ,illustration3 ,hepplewhite1 or ,spade4 ,illustration3 ,sheraton4 ,illustration3 ,english ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,pillar and ,claw4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajj4 ,,feet4 ,the tapering fluted foot which we associate with ,sheraton is also shown in ,figure #ajj4 ,under his treatment it was nearly always decorated1 either inlaid or carved1 or sometimes both4 ,although we are most familiar with ,sheraton style furniture in mahogany1 he made much other furniture besides1 as the following description of drawing-room chairs shows3 ,these drawing-room chairs are finished in white and gold1 or the ornaments may be japanned1 but the ,french finish them in mahogany with gilt mouldings4 ,the figures in the tablets above the front rails are on ,french printed silk or satin1 sewed onto the stuffing with borders round them4 ,the seat and back are of the same kind1 as is the ornamented tablet at the top of the chair4 ,the top rail is pannelled1 a small gold bead mitred round1 and the printed silk pasted on4 ,chairs of this kind have an effect which far exceeds any conception we can have of them from an uncoloured engraving1 or even a coloured one4 ,this does not seem like the furniture we know as ,sheraton1 yet in his books are many similar descriptions4 ,after ,sheraton gave up manufacturing furniture1 and wrote only books of descriptions and patterns1 ,france had passed through the throes of the ,revolution1 when the old rgime was swept away4 ,napoleon had been proclaimed ,first ,consul1 and then1 in #ahjb1 confirmed for life1 and took under his charge even such minor details as furniture and dress4 ,the styles arranged to suit his whim found an echo in ,england4 ,the ,english ,empire1 both at its best and worse estate1 could boast of nothing better than a feeble imitation of the antique1 while the ,french ,empire was at least an expression of the conquests and successes of one man4 ,thomas ,hope was perhaps the best exponent of this style in ,england1 and he industriously mingled emblems of the gods and goddesses1 ,phrygian caps and ,roman fasces1 ,greek amphor1 and fabulous animals on the furniture which he designed4 ,in ,figure #ajj is shown one side of a chair designed by him1 as also an ,empire pillar-and-claw leg1 as rendered by ,american cabinet-makers4 ,less ornate and ambitious1 the ,american treatment of this period is preferable1 for the chief use to which they put brass and bronze1 the too-abundant use of which was so characteristic of this style1 was to tip columns or pillars1 and1 to some extent1 the feet of tables4 ,the best old furniture which is to be found in the ,united ,states is of this period1 which was succeeded by what may be denominated the black-walnut age1 the chief characteristic of which was abundant coarse carving4 ,our cabinet-makers were very successful in their treatment of mahogany1 both solid and veneered4 ,the latter work has never been excelled1 and shows its perfection by the good condition in which much of this furniture1 seventy and eighty years old1 is found to-day4 ,the smaller affairs of life which go to make up the sum of necessaries were woefully wanting in the households of pioneers who battled with the ,american wilderness4 ,the importance of the iron pot1 weighing thirty or forty pounds1 which descended by will through three or four generations1 has already been pointed out4 ,pewter and brass ware were equally esteemed1 and pewter1 while by no means expensive1 was not so plentiful but that many people managed with a small supply4 ,pewter spoons bent and broke1 and a substitute1 at least in the ,connecticut ,valley1 was a small clam-shell set in a cleft stick4 ,however much pewter was owned1 whenever the ,revolutionary heroes called for bullets1 what there was was cheerfully run into those missiles of war1 and there were many bees held all through the ,colonies where bullets were run1 and wooden trenchers were whittled out by the young lads to take the place of the sacrificed pewter4 ,this wooden ware later was smoothed down by the women of the household with broken glass1 and polished with sand made of powdered limestone4 ,some of these wooden articles1 made of maple1 poplar or apple-wood1 have descended to show with what simple appliances our ancestors were content4 ,how simple were their pleasures the records of the time show4 ,in fact1 anything so enlivening as a hanging was looked upon as sport for a holiday4 ,the first ,state's prison was opened in #agig at the foot of ,tenth ,street1 ,new ,york city4 ,it was in use for thirty years1 till the structure at ,sing ,sing superseded it4 ,grant ,thorburn1 referring to a man who was reprieved through the efforts of the ,society of ,friends1 writes as follows3 ,one day ,i went up to the park to see a man hung4 ,after gazing two hours at the gallows1 the sheriff announced a reprieve4 ,i must own ,i was disappointed4 ,though amusements and pleasures were few1 even such as came along could not well be enjoyed if the weather were stormy1 and in ,washington's diary the entry for ,november #bi1 #aghi1 is1 ,being very snowy1 not a single person appeared at the ,levee4 ,clothes could not be risked2 they were too valuable to be subjected to bad weather4 ,romalls1 amens1 casserillias1 and ribdilures were high-sounding but perishable4 ,even while luxury was considered1 health was neglected in many ways1 such valuable adjuncts as tooth-brushes not being in use until about #aghb4 ,many advertisements appear in the papers of men who combined several vocations1 dentistry being one of them1 and in #aghi ,general ,washington1 after much pain during the summer1 went into the hands of ,john ,greenwood1 dentist1 of #ef ,william ,street1 ,new ,york1 who made him a set of sea-horse teeth4 ,this had been a very trying summer1 and one newspaper has it that raw rum has been found exceeding pernicious in this extreme1 and something lighter1 like a ,bishop or ,lawn sleeves was recommended1 and study of a book published in ,england called ,oxford ,night-caps was suggested as furnishing recipes for various healthful beverages though it was added that the rum had better be omitted1 as it is very intoxicating1 and therefore pernicious4 ,the ,president's guests could choose from among ,madeira1 claret1 champagne1 sherry1 arrack1 spirits1 brandy1 cordials1 porter1 beer1 and cider1 yet1 with it all1 unseemly intoxication seems to have been the exception4 ,domestic discipline in ,new ,york was enforced on servants1 whether bound or free1 by means of an official who was stationed at the calaboose on the common1 and who1 for a fee of one shilling1 gave a thorough whipping4 ,education was fostered and colleges throve4 ,by #agfj the records state that the ,king's ,college 7,columbia7 buildings were so far completed that the officers and students began to lodge and mess therein4 ,this was in accordance with the terms of the charter1 which further provided that the students were to wear caps and gowns and to be within the gates at a certain hour4 ,the plan of education1 like our belongings1 was copied from ,england1 and our college was1 in the most material parts1 to be like ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,the tuition fee when ,general ,washington entered his step-son1 ,john ,parke ,custis1 there1 was five pounds per annum1 with room-rent four pounds1 and board at the rate of eleven shillings weekly4 ,the late ,andrew ,p4 ,peabody1 writing of college life at ,harvard in #ahbj1 says3 ,coal1 just then coming into use1 had hardly found its way into college4 ,the student's rooms1 several of the recitation-rooms as well were heated by open fires4 ,friction matches1 which according to ,faraday were the most useful invention in our age1 were not yet4 ,he says that the feather-bed was a valuable asset 7this article had held its own for centuries71 but that ten dollars would have covered the other contents of a student's room4 ,it had no carpet1 and a pine bedstead1 a washstand1 table and desk1 and three or four chairs were all it contained1 besides a cannon-ball to be heated on extra-cold nights1 and rolled down stairs on warm ones1 at such time as might most nearly bisect a proctor's night's sleep4 ,our maternal great-great-grandmothers must have had little leisure to spare from the duties that occupied their time4 ,yet many of them had still-rooms where they not only compounded the medicaments whereby many a family was raised from infancy1 but where they made extracts and essences as well4 ,they made1 too1 from the flowers and herbs that grew in their gardens1 pomander-balls1 which were used instead of vinaigrettes1 the outer case being of silver or gold1 and often as large as an orange4 ,those whose stock of trinkets did not boast one of these metal cases used the rind of an orange1 the inside being carefully extracted1 and a sponge with vinegar and spices being inserted in its place4 ,rose-balls made of leaves beaten to pulp1 mixed with sweet spices1 and rolled into a ball1 soon became hard1 resembling the rosaries made in the south of ,france4 ,when held in the hand they became very fragrant from its warmth4 ,simpler than any of these was a rosy apple stuck full of cloves and giving out a fragrance years after the apple had lost all appearance or consistency of being a fruit1 and awakening in the mind an image of her who made it in some quiet garden long ago4 ,like an antique spice-ball1 all this old furniture that we have passed in review has an aroma of its own compounded by the hand that built it1 the person that owned it1 and the scenes that it has lived through4 ,many a sober old chair could discourse of experiences ranging from grave to gay1 from lively to severe1 and every one of these antiques1 whether a treasured heirloom or a reclaimed derelict1 has a charm that is not easily excelled4 ,,index4 ,a ,brief ,description of ,new ,york1 #ce ,adam ,brothers1 #di1 #fh1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #hj1 #he ,adam1 ,robert1 #ee1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #age1 ,james #gc1 #gd ,addison1 #ef ,advertisements1 #abd1 #abe1 #abi1 #acg1 #ach1 #add1 #bje1 #bad1 #bae1 #bbh ,albany1 ,city of1 #bb1 #bh1 #bi1 #de ,albany ,historical ,society1 #bi1 #cg1 #aje1 #ace1 #ade1 #aid ,allyn1 ,alexander1 #cb ,almacks1 #fd ,amboise1 #adh ,amboyna wood1 #bbb ,amelia ,sophia1 ,princess1 #fd ,andr1 ,major1 #hc ,annals of ,new ,york1 ,watson1 #aab ,anne of ,austria1 #adi ,antiquarian ,society1 ,concord1 ,mass41 #aad ,aubusson1 #aed1 #aeh ,auction ,sales1 #fg1 #fh ,ball-and-,claw1 #ec1 #ff1 #gj1 #aai1 #abc1 #bbi1 #bcj ,bancker1 ,gerard1 #acd ,bank of ,england1 #aa ,barjeer1 #ha ,baroque1 #d ,bartolozzi1 #gd ,bass viol1 #aib1 #aic ,battle ,abbey1 #fh ,bayard1 ,colonel and ,mrs41 #ajg ,bear's ,paw1 #ec1 #ed ,beaufait1 #aaa ,beaumanor ,park1 #e ,beauvais1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei ,beaver skins1 #ch ,beds3 #g1 #ch1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #abf1 #abg1 #acc1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #afi1 #agj1 #bbc1 #bbd ,canopy1 #gb ,chinese1 #gb ,dome1 #gb ,elizabethan1 #h ,english1 #acg ,field1 #gb1 #acg1 #ach ,french1 #acg1 #aci ,flock1 #bg ,folding1 #gf ,gothic1 #gb ,high four post1 #gb1 #acg ,low four post1 #acg1 #aci ,press1 #ha ,sofa1 #gb1 #hf ,summer1 #hf ,tent1 #gb ,bed-curtains1 #i1 #aad1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #bbc ,bedsteads1 #g1 #ef1 #agj ,bedford springs1 #aji1 #aaj ,bellomont1 ,lord1 #ajg ,belvoir1 #aag ,bergavenny1 ,lady ,joanne1 #g ,beverly1 ,robert1 #ih1 #aaf ,bibles1 #de ,bills of exchange1 #aa ,bird's claw1 #ed ,block foot1 #hb ,blois1 #adi ,blondel de ,nesle1 #aij ,blue ,boar ,inn1 #e ,bookcases1 #eg ,book of ,sun-,dials1 #aig ,boston1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aai1 #aba1 #ada ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 #bc ,boucher1 #aef1 #aeg ,boulle1 #d ,boulle1 ,andr1 ,charles1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 ,sons #afj ,bowdoin1 ,james1 #add ,bracket foot1 #acb1 #bcj ,bradley1 ,sarah1 #cf ,brass1 #bbf ,brasses1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh ,bricks ,english1 #if1 #ig ,dutch1 #ig ,new ,england1 #ig1 #aba ,brickmakers1 #ig ,britten1 ,charles1 #bji ,british ,museum1 #bjg ,broglie1 ,prince de1 #abf ,buchanan1 ,president1 #aaj ,bull-baiting1 #abi ,bureau1 #ai 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