,,touring ,,afoot ,,touring ,,afoot ,,by ,,dr4 ,c4 ,p4 ,,fordyce ,illustration3 ,,outing ,,handbooks ,,number #eb ,illustration3 colphon ,,new ,,york ,,outing ,,publishing ,,company ,,mcmxvi ,copyright1 #aiaf1 by ,,outing ,,publishing ,,company ,all rights reserved ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,hitting ,,the ,,trail #i ,,ii ,,going ,,in 8,,light0 #ai ,,iii ,,woods ,,walking ,,with ,a ,,pack #bf ,,iv ,,map ,,reading #cf ,v ,,packs ,,and ,,packing #dg ,,vi ,,footwear #fc ,,vii ,,efficient ,,cruising ,,shelters #gf ,,viii ,,camp ,,making #ib ,,ix ,,the ,,outdoor ,,bed ,,question #ajj ,x ,,choosing ,,the ,,light ,,weight ,,mess ,,kit #aaf ,,xi ,,the ,,ration ,,list #abc ,,xii ,,health ,,hints ,,for ,,hikers #aci ,,xiii ,,winter ,,travel ,,afoot #aee ,,appendix #afg ,,touring ,,afoot ,,chapter ,i ,,hitting ,,the ,,trail ,walking tours are popularly supposed to be feasible chiefly for those to whom this method of travel is incidental to their occupation--timber cruisers1 landlookers1 prospectors1 game wardens and trappers of the ,north--men who daily match themselves against the forces of ,nature4 ,to the average city man rarely does it occur that by substituting walking1 our most natural means of locomotion--even if carried no farther than the daily to and from business trip--for the rapid transportation perfected in our modern industrial life he can attain better business efficiency and an increased physical and mental well being4 ,the average sportsman of today is in most cases a plain1 unpretentious business man of sedentary habits and with a consequent physical condition a little below the normal1 but fortunately he retains a primitive unsatiated love of the outdoors4 ,this same business man needs1 as few others do1 exercise to regain and retain health and efficiency4 ,without this exercise his occupation which keeps him indoors results in physical inactivity reducing his usefulness and happiness and markedly affecting his tenure of life4 ,the average span of life is between #de and #fj years4 ,the age limit should extend from #hj to #ajj years and this can be made the rule if we but go about it rightly4 ,a large percentage of ,american business men have functional heart disease because of lack of exercise4 ,they could well afford to walk daily until tired out in order to rid themselves of drawn faces1 sallow cheeks1 and weak hesitating steps4 ,to them pedestrianism affords not only profit but real pleasure in getting away from the routine of city and office irk and hieing to the glorious out of doors4 ,years ago man was a savage1 and in spite of the restraining influences of civilization which have acted for centuries the spirit of this primitive life is still strong within4 ,there is after all but one class of men who live in the world and they inhabit the wild places--the rest of us only exist4 ,we do not thrive in cities but simply adjust ourselves to their unnatural and perplexing conditions4 ,in the out of doors sheer physical existence may afford the richest pleasure4 ,it is commonly conceded as a well established hygienic fact that unexercised muscles become useless and inefficient1 a condition which only properly directed physical exertion will restore to assist in meeting the exigencies of our modern top-speed life4 ,this exercise must be varied to escape tediousness4 ,indoor gymnastics is not enough3 outdoor games provide proper lung aeration but these are not feasible for all3 pedestrianism is the simplest1 safest1 most spontaneous1 and hygienic means of exercise4 ,for most people no other sport is such an untasted experience1 yet none is so productive of healthful results or so well adapted to the means1 physique1 and temperament of the masses4 ,indeed in this age of mechanical transportation we have almost forgotten that we were endowed with a pair of legs1 given us for the sole purpose of walking--an essential exercise in the building up of healthy bodies and minds4 ,a three mile walk daily in the fresh air is an exercise par excellence and is within the reach of all4 ,it may be tedious at first but when later it becomes a habit it affords real joy4 ,the first cost is in the adjustment of business cares and in selecting time3 the next involves physical exertion itself4 ,anyone who has spent the greater part of his past life in a sedentary occupation can safely enjoy such trips if he uses common sense at the outset and starts1 say1 on a mile a day and gradually increases the length of the walk4 ,systematically followed pedestrianism accomplishes a number of things--there is better sleep1 an increased circulation and new nerve force3 all the muscles are brought into play as is proven by the general stiffness of the beginner 7which however disappears on hardening72 extra fat and flesh are eliminated and minor ailments are overcome4 ,there is a real joy in living for with health everything is a pleasure4 ,every one ought to walk and nearly every one who walks ought to do more of it than he does4 ,should pedestrianism become universal the present generation would be far healthier and happier and their children would be sturdier and more beautiful4 ,the old ,english habit of taking a constitutional walk every day speaks in no small measure for much of the strength and stability of the ,british character4 ,there is a general trend of interest in ,america today toward pedestrianism and many persons are eager for information as to where to go1 what to take and how to take care of oneself so as to derive the greatest benefit--queries for which we should now find answer4 ,being mindful of the unlimited possibilities which walking affords for renewing youth the first task is found in the revolution of habits of living and the adjustment of the daily routine to include say two hours a day in road tramping4 ,if persisted in a remarkable change will result--a notable clearness of mental power1 keenness of appetite and a zest for life's work4 ,it won't be long until one automatically increases the range and endurance4 ,tramping may be arbitrarily divided into 7,a7 ,road ,tramping and 7,b7 ,forest ,cruising4 ,,road ,,tramping or real pedestrianism comprehends short walks as a training for physical well being which1 as one becomes experienced1 may be lengthened to include an occasional all day country tour as a wise utilization of holidays1 or1 one who becomes an adept may even plan to spend his annual two weeks' vacation period in a lengthy walking trip upon some of the better known highways in any civilized section of our country or in our ,national ,parks or as a tourist in foreign lands4 ,road tramping is for those to whom walking appeals yet who do not care to bother with the details incidental to camping4 ,the trip should be so planned that the day's journey assures a comfortable bed and warm meals at hotels1 inns or at ranch homes4 ,this broadens one's walking opportunities up to the point where civilization and wild nature touch4 ,such a trip is good recreation and a splendid sport and in no other way can one better familiarize himself with the country's topography and the characteristics of its people4 ,on the longer trips a very simple kit suffices his needs--he wears suitable walking clothes1 and carries a notebook1 some few toilet articles1 a change of underwear and hose and a rain-proof over garment--all packed in a rucksack of some sort4 ,the daily local walks taken by the pedestrian to secure health with the longer weekly jaunt1 indulged in perhaps as a member of some walking club1 afford an admirable preliminary preparation for more arduous outings such as a week's ,,forest ,,cruise1 carrying in a back pack the shelter1 bed and food and thus equipped one may break entirely away from civilization and eat and sleep independent of hotels or ranches4 ,those who feel the vim of outdoor life1 those interested in any phase of ,nature study1 those wanting to get away from the city's humdrum existence1 in short1 all who want to recreate can plan no more repaying or zestful days than those spent with a back pack outfit touring the unknown wilderness near home4 ,it may be for any one of a variety of purposes--camping1 hunting1 fishing or trapping1 it matters not what1 the main thing is that one gets near to ,nature in her primitive state4 ,amateur exploration has the interesting element of mystery which leads one into all sorts of country right around home and which one never dreamed to be in existence4 ,there are still greater opportunities if one gets off the beaten tracks and steers his course far into the back country4 ,one returns from such a trip with renewed and abundant vital reserve and with a veritable storehouse of happy memories4 ,he has tasted the woodsman's life in all its elemental qualities--its seclusion and originality2 he has learned the good there is in simple1 hearty things and the exhilaration of spending nights in the mountain land or forest aisles under snapping stars in a moonlit solitude4 ,he knows no greater pleasure than that afforded by experiencing the charm of wilderness adventure which enslaves him for life4 ,a walking trip then becomes a real hike when one leaves the highways1 beds and meals of civilization and hits the woods trails which lead him far into the wilderness4 ,on a recreation trip good companionship cannot be overestimated4 ,firstly1 on a light pack trip most items of outfit can be used as well by two as by one4 ,again if one walks alone the trail is apt to become monotonous and doubly so after a half of a day's trip has been completed4 ,good companionship stimulates a pleasant mental attitude and gets one away from the monotonous physical features of the walk itself4 ,there may be also a pride in rivalry to spur one on to more worthy effort2 otherwise he is apt to think only of his arrival at destination4 ,furthermore in the solitude of the great forests the establishment of the little bivouac home and the fathoming of the many secrets of the trail calls forth man's gregarious nature4 ,look well to the choice of your bunkie for nowhere else do weak and strong characteristics come to the surface so forcibly as when men are thrown together in camp4 ,as a matter of fact a wilderness pal of proper qualifications is really hard to find4 ,he may be a jolly comrade in town but that does not qualify him as a first rate camp mate4 ,he must do an equal share on the trail and in camp1 he should be physically fit1 generous1 fair minded and big enough to overlook the petty griefs incidental to rough trail life every where4 ,he who adventures into the big timber must look also with exactitude to the choice of an outfit1 for the wilderness tramper matches himself against the forces of nature1 and he must have equipment as well as the personal qualifications to surmount the difficulties successfully4 ,the weight of outfit must be nominal since the packer must bear it alone from day to day1 often through almost impassable country where the effort necessary in going forward alone is quite sufficient a strain without that of having to carry a single unnecessary ounce on his shoulders4 ,a mistake in outfit may mean discomfort at least and possibly a spoiled trip4 ,life outdoors calls for a knowledge of equipment and methods which a large number of persons1 because of their environment1 cannot gain except from trial1 or such as is imparted by some one more fortunately experienced4 ,hence we do not speak to the seasoned campaigner or to him who on the short vacation can travel with full equipment and with guides and who has abundant transportation facilities4 ,the beginner however needs practical suggestions for going light into the wilderness alone and he welcomes simple hints for hitting the trail right4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,going ,,in 8,,light0 ,the attractiveness of the outdoor life1 its health giving attributes and its satisfying of the primitive in civilized man yearly draws hosts of enthusiastic adventurers into the wilderness4 ,if he is experienced the woodsman sets about in a prosaic way to get pure enjoyment out of each day's routine and he is able to do this because he knows how4 ,the novice however is apt to be influenced by poetic dreams and his ideas of kits and methods of woodcraft likewise theoretical and idealistic and sooner or later he is to be rudely awakened to his lack of the elemental1 essential creature comforts which are so necessary to his welfare and enjoyment4 ,the wilderness dweller1 if he chooses to be a true disciple of the ,red ,gods must #8go light'4 ,in travelling light of course one must necessarily deny himself many things that under ordinary circumstances are deemed essentials1 yet it in no way needs to be a deprivation4 ,on a back pack trip he must put his outfit selection through a rigid exclusion test4 ,the equipment must be restricted to actual necessities such as food1 requisites for cooking1 shelter for the night and a good bed--all suited to the method of transportation4 ,in camp and on the trail one will astonish himself at the makeshifts which he will invent to overcome camping discomforts as they arise4 ,the selection of any outfit lends itself to dispute because the choosing of its component parts is not an exact science but is more a question of temperament4 ,the novice will suit himself as to what he will take1 for he naturally follows the dictates of personal desires rather than absolute needs and usually he accumulates about twice as much equipment as conditions demand4 ,sooner or later his experience will guide him into the safe course3 he will learn the science of smoothing it--of being comfortable--when he goes out to #8rough it4' ,it goes unquestioned that the less you carry on your back the less will be your fatigue at the day's end3 the smaller the burden you carry in your pack the more must be your knowledge of how to employ the artifices of woodcraft in utilizing nature's primitive stores4 ,the weight and bulk must be accommodated to the means of transportation at hand4 ,thus for a hike in the wilderness with full outfit carried on the back you must boil the necessaries down to that irreducible minimum consistent with comfort whereas were you travelling by wagon or canoe you could be more indulgent4 ,you will have 8boiled0 it down to the essentials when you carry the outfit from season to season without adding to or subtracting from it4 ,this then is your ideal kit for it has withstood the 8acid test0 of experience4 ,what one man calls a necessity another calls a luxury1 yet this same luxury if the second man wants it bad enough becomes forthwith a necessity4 ,having a proper equipment and enough courage for the undertaking it is astonishing to see with what confidence and independence two healthy men can cut loose from their civilized surroundings and with what comfort and happiness they can live out of doors during a considerable vacation trip4 ,,personal ,,equipment ,in choosing clothing for a wilderness hike1 style plays no important part3 comfort and service are the main requirements4 ,in general it is a safe rule to adopt that kind usually worn in the locality where you go4 ,the coat is to be at once eliminated4 ,one never needs it3 it is cumbersome1 it impedes the swing of the arms and is no protection in inclement weather4 ,it readily soaks up water or if made of waterproof stuff moisture is condensed inside4 ,a good wool sweater is far preferable and should be included in every individual pack3 you won't use it much more than for a warmer at the evening camp4 ,the best headgear is an old felt hat of medium brim so the brush won't forever be snatching it off4 ,it will stay on the head better if you get the hat a size too small and rip out the lining so that the felt can cling to the hair4 ,wear a coat style shirt always of wool or flannel and of a gray or tan color which won't show dirt so badly as the popular blue does nor is it so conspicuous4 ,to allow for shrinkage get it a size too large in the beginning and of medium light weight because if too heavy it becomes cumbersome in your work3 two military bellows pockets with buttons are convenient for small stowaways4 ,it is quite advisable to waterproof all woolen items in the outfit after the following methods3 secure three ounces of anhydrous wool fat and dissolve in chloroform4 ,this is added to one gallon of benzine and the garments soaked therein for three minutes and then hung up to dry in a draft4 ,the volatile benzine evaporates leaving the fibers of the wool encased in the natural oil4 ,this is of particular advantage to the outdoor man since the woolen fibers thus treated do not soak up water and swell but only allow water to fill up the air interspaces of the fabric from which it can be readily expelled4 ,the trousers will be subject to great wear and should be chosen for service rather than for looks or warmth1 which latter will be taken care of by the wool undersuit4 ,khaki is light and cool but it notoriously displays dirt4 ,moleskin or whipcord withstands the hardest usage and is windproof and warm4 ,it is the choice of the ,hudson's ,bay men whose discrimination in matters regarding outfit is to be respected4 ,the fit of the trousers is a most important thing if one is to walk in comfort4 ,they must not draw at the knees which would mean speedy fatigue on the march and they should be of abundant length with plenty of width from the knee to the hip4 ,the knickerbocker style formerly evolved a smile of ridicule from some lookers-on but after trying all sorts and kinds one must concede the 8stagged0 style the best for woods walking4 ,if you have long trousers cut them off half way up to the knee1 slit them the rest of the way up and fold over to a snug fit about the calf and secure with lacing or buttons4 ,the heavy wool socks should be brought up over the pant legs and with this arrangement one is able to travel with more comfort than with the long trousers4 ,suspend the pants from the hips by a good leather belt4 ,the selection of the undersuit requires more care than the outer garments4 ,preferably it should be a loosely fitting union suit of pure soft wool regardless of season4 ,wool absorbs perspiration and prevents chill4 ,cotton on the other hand retains perspiration and is a clammy chill producer when the body begins to cool off4 ,never use thick underwear even in winter3 better have an extra undersuit1 a size larger than the one ordinarily worn1 for doubling up in cold weather4 ,two thin suits worn together are warmer than a thick one weighing as much as both3 this is due to the dead air interspace between the two4 ,in a pocket carry a good jack-knife with two blades of first class steel3 never take one of the many-tool kinds4 ,except on an extended trip you will not need a sheath knife4 ,one with a five-inch blade and housed in a leather sheath with belt loop is best4 ,a good butcher knife makes an admirable implement for the purpose4 ,the waterproof match box of metal or rubber should always be carried on the person and see to it that it is kept well filled4 ,the supply for this pocket safe is to be drawn from the moisture tight match can carried in the pack sack4 ,the usual blue bandanna handkerchief will occupy its place in the hip pocket and the compass should be worn in a shirtpocket and secured to a button hole by a rawhide thong4 ,or one may use a compass which pins on the shirt front thus being always in view and giving the hands freedom for use in other ways4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,woods ,,walking ,,with ,a ,,pack ,there is a certain trick in learning the technique of walking outdoors4 ,unless one takes up pedestrianism to make the most of it he is not apt to perfect himself in an art universally practised in a slip shod fashion and yet which is one of the simplest functions of the human body4 ,just this careful attention to details is what distinguishes the pedestrian from the mere stroller4 ,indeed one must walk with the head as well as with the feet1 studying to eliminate the faults of gait4 ,the secret is to find how to walk with the least effort to relieve body rigidity and thus conserve vital force4 ,the gait of the average townsman is that of a stroller--a distinct up and down action with rather rigid hips1 the toes very likely pointing outward and the heels striking first and disturbing the balance4 ,the carriage may be erect enough and the movements springy and graceful over firm level footing but it is an ill poised gait and exhausting should one endeavor to lengthen the step or cover the ground in good time4 ,essentially the difference between the above gait of the stroller and that of the pedestrian is one of hip action1 joint looseness and manner of foot implantation4 ,the novice will in all likelihood begin his practical walking on country roads and to him is now addressed the main features of the proper gait in pedestrianism4 ,he will probably be unencumbered with a pack and will have a firm1 level surface for walking with consequent freedom to develop a gait of definite 8form40 ,in the best regulation gait--the long swinging stride--the knee gives a little as the weight of the body is placed on that leg but not so much as to bend the knees4 ,it is midway between the bent knee stride of the ,french ,army and the extreme conventional stiff kneed 8goose step0 of the ,german ,army4 ,the foot is kicked well forward and by this the rate of speed is regulated rather than by pressing the foot against the ground as it leaves it1 which is fatiguing4 ,the body is held erect1 chest up and shoulders back but not strained nor lifted4 ,the movements are graceful and springy as no joint is held in rigidity4 ,the eyes are fixed about #ce feet ahead4 ,there is considerable of a swing at the hips1 in fact a distinct roll--the hips swaying an inch or more to the stepping side with a corresponding long pace4 ,the leg is swung back and forth from the hip1 the knee joint aiding this motion by adapting the leg to the irregularities of the ground surface4 ,as employed by professional long-distance walkers the hip action is somewhat exaggerated4 ,the hip roll is regulated to some extent by the swing of the arms which should alternate with the leg action4 ,this is a means of instilling a lot of energy into the gait4 ,the tendency is to overdo--to swing too vigorously and by overswaying disturb the body balance with a resultant fatigue4 ,as an aid to this1 some professional walkers use a two foot light walking stick or riding crop held in the hands4 ,the arms may be held any way desirable but it is advisable to carry them well up4 ,woods walking with a pack differs greatly from common road touring4 ,in his primitive forest habitat the woodsman can outwalk the experienced pedestrian for he has the knack of negotiating a steady gait over uneven and slippery ground1 edging through thickets and worming his way amid fallen timber1 rocks1 brush1 etc41 with less fret and exertion than one who is accustomed to smooth1 unobstructed paths4 ,the woodsman besides having the handicap of traveling over an uneven surface is more or less encumbered by a pack which even if made as light as possible gives the hiker a taste of real work4 ,the long swinging gait of the bushman is less tiring than the straight ahead stiffer stride of one who walks on smooth ground as on city pavements4 ,this woods walking is acquired with experience as a result of physical adaptation to repeated emergency footing exigencies4 ,the poise of an ,indian in the act of stepping would be found to be a perfect body balance on each foot4 ,this allows great control over movements3 the characteristic silent stealth of the redman displays the greatest economy of vital force4 ,he conserves his strength and makes every step count1 often going around many places which otherwise he could make with a hop1 skip and jump--a desideratum in preventing fatigue in woods walking where the steps must be of unequal length and the footing so different4 ,there is no doubt that walking is unexcelled as a short cut exercise to the attainment of physical fitness4 ,one should never try to accomplish too much at one time1 for overdoing disgusts one with the pastime4 ,start in easy1 walk deliberately1 adopt an easy1 natural gait and maintain it4 ,short rests are permissible but if overdone they result in stiff muscles and chill4 ,the question of the number of miles to attempt on a day's tramp is tempered by the several conditions of roads1 trails1 altitudes1 hills1 size of pack1 if on such a trip1 and physical capabilities4 ,one records then variations in tours from the accomplishment of but two miles a day with a back pack on a woods tramp over seemingly impassable swamp to the professional achievement of the famous ,weston who between his seventy-first and seventy-second birthday walked from ,new ,york to ,california and back at the rate of #df miles a day4 ,for the average business man a one to five mile tramp each afternoon is an admirable and perfectly feasible exercise3 in fact this distance is covered by many in their daily activities4 ,take the first mile or two slowly to limber up4 ,daily one can increase the distance as the perfecting of the stride and endurance permits until he can cover twenty to twenty-five miles a day in road walking without injury--a feat not difficult to attempt if one is in good health4 ,taken as a once a week culmination to the daily several mile walk the twenty-five mile walk is as much as the inexperienced walker should take and not feel inconvenienced4 ,for the experienced a trip of this length would be merely incidental4 ,three miles an hour is comfortable for a day's trip4 ,the infantry gait is three miles and is sufficient for the amateur who is out for his health4 ,it is not easy to walk four miles an hour and keep it up and it is certainly too much for the novice to attempt4 ,in estimating the rate of travel measure your pace1 the average is two feet in length1 and time yourself for the approximately #bejj paces per measured mile1 counting the #abej right foot implantations1 and then use time for estimating distance rather than the linear measure of mileage which latter is impossible in the unmapped wilderness4 ,if you care to be more exact the pedometer can be used4 ,don't try to break the record--it is endurance not speed that counts4 ,be free to choose your course1 and never hurry lest self reprehension come upon you4 ,it is the traveler on foot who has the time to receive and reflect upon his impressions and at the same time pleasantly rejuvenate his body and mind4 ,for one contemplating a long twenty-five mile or so hike it is well to choose a route where it is never necessary to march very far in a day for lack of intervening accommodations4 ,in most of our country this is easily accomplished4 ,the annual vacation hike can be well spent in one of our ,national ,parks1 the walkers' paradise4 ,here the pedestrian can start from one of the many noted tourist centers and be certain of accommodations before the next night's resting place3 he can obtain vistas of famous scenery and gain a storehouse of pleasant memories which fully discount any hardship he may have experienced on the trail4 ,to accomplish a hike in the most approved form the arrangement of meals and travel should be varied somewhat from the conventional customs4 ,a fairly early morning start should be made with but two meals in view--a ten a4 m4 breakfast and a five p4 m4 supper with perhaps a brief midday pause and a prepared lunch4 ,this gives the man who cooks his own meals a long stretch of time for getting over the ground without the worry and time of cooking a noonday repast4 ,a nine to ten hour sleep is none too little for anyone enjoying the healthful outdoor life1 in fact the increased amount of sleep that one seems to require is one of the upbuilding features of such a trip and is not to be cut short for any reason4 ,the amount of sleep needed is of course subject to individual peculiarities4 ,in real hot weather start at daybreak and you can get in a half day's journey by the time the sun is hot4 ,slow down at the heat of day and hunt a shady retreat4 ,on such days drink but little water and have it pure4 ,one will perspire freely1 which is good1 for this is ,nature's way of cooling the body by evaporation3 if one stops sweating there is real danger of heat stroke4 ,in wilderness travel the most dependable guides are the compass1 combining with the ,north ,star by night or the sun by day4 ,night travel is based on the ,north or ,polar ,star as the infallible guide4 ,it is located by means of the big dipper which should be known to everyone4 ,the two stars farthest from the handle and lowest are nearly in line and are called the 8pointers40 ,of course1 if the sun is shining you will have a reliable guide to direction1 depending on the time of day4 ,the seasoned woods traveler goes principally by direction and he has developed to a higher or lesser degree the 8bump0 of locality or instinct of direction developed by his trained close observation4 ,he gets the lay of the land1 noting little things which are unusual1 such as rocks1 trees1 sounds1 course of stream flow1 flora and fauna of the country and then he travels north1 east1 south and west of some special landmark1 as a river1 mountain1 lake1 etc4 ,the use of the compass1 ,north ,star1 etc41 is much preferable to travel by landmarks1 for north is always north whereas two landmarks may look alike and hence bewildering4 ,if you expect to retrace your steps you should look frequently backward and impress the salient features of the landscape on your memory such as a cliff here1 a distorted tree there1 and the like4 ,in such a region1 too1 one should blaze the trail by chipping the bark off trees at intervals along the way and on both sides of the tree if one is to retrace the route4 ,in a country covered by bushes blaze the trail by bending over a green bush in the direction in which you are going1 snapping the stem or chopping it with an axe3 the top pointing away from the trail4 ,the underside of the leaves being of lighter shade than the upper marks such a sign conspicuously in the wilderness4 ,if you intend to hunt in unfamiliar territory where you must depend on your compass to get you out1 a map showing the topography of the land is of great benefit4 ,these quadrangles can be secured at the ,state ,land ,office1 county seat or at the ,united ,states ,land ,office1 the ,post ,office ,department or of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,washington4 ,they are compiled from the field notes of surveyors and they indicate the location of streams1 lakes1 roads1 mountain ranges1 swamps1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,map ,,reading ,a knowledge of the rudiments of map reading is essential to the camper who has occasion to travel into wilderness haunts4 ,he should have a clear mental conception of the ground to be covered and the map furnishes this--the corresponding distances1 the net work of streams1 roads and trails1 and the elevations and slopes4 ,the starting points for all surveys are the five principal meridians which run north and south4 ,the range of the townships are numbered on this line east and west and all reliable maps have the base lines and meridians indicated4 ,the townships are further divided into thirty-six sections of six hundred and forty acres each and each section measures one mile square making a total section measurement of six miles square4 ,the corners of all sections are marked in the field as follows3--,in the open country mounds are placed by the government surveyors and surrounded by four pits--one pit on each section of land4 ,within this mound will be found a stone with as many notches cut on the east and west side as it is miles to the township line4 ,in timbered regions instead of a stone marker the intersections of the section lines are marked by a stake and the four sides facing the sections are blazed and the data of sections1 township and range marked and notched the same as on the stone markers4 ,midway between the half section intersections the markers will have but two pits--one on either side and representing the quarter sections and marked #a-d-,s-4 ,the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey topographic atlas sheets are the standard and are designated by the name of the principal town or of some prominent natural feature within its boundary4 ,the names of the adjoining published sheets are printed on the margins4 ,they are the base maps on which the geology and mineral resources of a quadrangle are represented4 ,of these the hiker is likely not interested but the map to him is invaluable because of the following3 it represents to him3-- #a4 ,the distances which are shown by a scale based on a fractional proportion between the land area and the map area4 ,the scale most used for thickly settled or industrially important parts of the country is one linear mile to one linear inch1 the proportion of which is #a3fc1cfj and the map represents a ground area of #ae of latitude by #a of longitude4 ,the map used for the greater part of the country covers an area of #cj of latitude by #cj of longitude with a scale of two miles to the inch or a proportion of #a3abe1jjj4 ,in the desert regions of the far west the map covers more territory hence the proportion is greater1 #a3bej1jjj4 ,it covers an area of #a of latitude by #a of longitude with a scale of four miles to an inch4 #b4 ,on the map will be found brown contour lines which are arbitrary lines passing through points of like altitude1 thus each represents but one level1 such as the shore line at the sea side1 and the map presents all the eccentric meanderings of the latter4 ,every few feet in elevation above sea level or depression below sea level is represented by a contour line and the contour interval or vertical distance between lines is stated at the bottom of the map4 ,this varies from five feet on comparatively level country to #bjj feet in the mountains4 ,usually on about every fifth line appears the exact elevation of that point above sea level4 ,contour lines close together indicate sudden rise or fall of ground and when these lines are far apart a more gentle slope4 ,where they bend abruptly inward they represent a valley4 ,from the contour lines we get the relative height of the hills and depth of valleys1 and whether they are concave or convex and thus they give the data of the relief or profile of the land--the mountains1 hills and valleys4 #c4 ,aside from presenting to us the distances of a region and the relief data represented by the contours which are printed in brown the topographic map pictures the water 7sea1 lakes1 rivers and streams7 printed in blue and the cultural works of man printed in black4 ,the features are all indicated by conventional signs1 a key to which usually is printed on the back of the map4 ,in reading a map you first direct the upper edge to the north by the aid of the compass or1 if the sun shines1 by the aid of a watch4 ,next you locate the camp in relation to prominent landmarks1 trails1 roads1 streams and contours4 ,then as you travel you note the configuration of the ground1 the general direction1 and the landmarks4 ,if the general course of the trail is south and west and you are to detour north of it you will only have to run south to get back to your base line or camp4 ,if your course varies to the east or north it will be necessary to make the same distance west or south to get back to your starting point4 ,after a little practice in map reading one becomes proficient and he will be able if in unsurveyed territory to make his own map4 ,get the compass directions from the camp of every prominent landmark with particular attention to streams and the ridges separating them4 ,if one is out exploring it is a good idea to climb to the summit of some bare faced promontory and there study the topography of the country3--the location of the lakes1 swamps1 whither the streams run1 the number and direction of the ridges1 etc4 ,the mental map thus made will be vastly useful later on4 ,in traveling over hilly or mountainous country follow the courses at the heights of land4 ,it shortens the way for if the streams are followed one may have to cross many tributaries and make long detours4 ,,the ,,compass ,,and ,,its ,,uses ,for the average woods hiker a compass is a necessity in laying out the course of travel4 ,men whose business keeps them in the wilderness seldom carry the instruments but in them is developed to a high degree the bump of locality--that instinct that points the way--coupled with trained observation of land signs along the trail4 ,consult the compass often1 otherwise you may swing so far from your course in going only a short distance that you will be inclined to doubt its accuracy4 ,in choosing a compass one need not go beyond the price of two dollars for a serviceable and accurate instrument4 ,the size is not so important1 a to #a inch dial is large enough for sportsmen4 ,the needle or pointer should have an agate bearing or jewel firmly set in the brass cap and to be accurately balanced on the fine tempered or pointed pivot4 ,it is very important to have the box water-proofed else the needle will stick4 ,the principle in use comprehends the presence of a theoretical magnetic ,north ,pole located northwest of ,hudson's ,bay which attracts the blue end of the compass needle from all parts of the northern hemisphere causing it to point in that direction4 ,should one wish to lay a fairly accurate course1 have both hands at liberty1 hold the compass in both hands at half arm's length from body with elbows resting against your sides so as to bring the compass in direct line with the center of your body4 ,to settle the needle quickly tip the compass until the end of the needle touches the glass to check the vibrations4 ,repeat this quickly two or three times as needle passes the center of the arc it is making4 ,then carefully level the box to stop the needle from vibrating4 ,when the needle swings free and finally stops the compass can be easily turned until the letter ,n is under the blue end of the needle and then one has all parts of direction4 ,it is well to remember that the needle is affected by proximity to iron and steel4 ,remember1 when reading your map that the meridian marked thereon is the true north4 ,your compass1 as just explained1 points to the magnetic north4 ,therefore1 you will have to apply a correction to your compass reading1 the amount necessary varying as you go east or west of a line which passes1 approximately1 from ,mackinac ,island1 in ,lake ,michigan1 to ,savannah1 ,georgia4 ,the further east you are of this line the more the north end of your needle will point west of north2 the further west you are of this line the more your needle will point east of north1 the amount of the deviation amounting to one minute west for each mile east of this line 7or #a for each #fj miles7 and one minute east for each mile west of this line4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,when ,,lost ,the catastrophe of getting lost besets almost every lone woods traveler sooner or later and frequently results in a panic as deadly as that which drowns good swimmers4 ,even trained woodsmen sometimes get 8turned around0 but they usually find their bearings soon because of the general knowledge of the country and the main landmarks1 shapes and heights of mountains1 the trend of the ridges1 the prevailing winds1 the general direction and ultimate outlet of the streams1 etc4 ,the danger of getting lost is further offset by a proper knowledge of taking one's bearings1 by range finding1 by the knack of traveling by direction and by correct compass reading4 ,perhaps the greatest cause of one's being lost after separation from party is that during ensemble travel the leader is the only one who sees the landmarks4 ,upon leaving the camp place or headquarter's point one should note the landscape and know absolutely the direction he is taking1 otherwise his compass will be of little value even though he can see the sun and knows that if1 he points the hour hand of his watch to it1 half way between that point and twelve o'clock he is directed south4 ,a lost man has a tendency to travel in a circle which is explained by some as being due to the fact that most men step farther with one foot than with the other4 ,it can be avoided by selecting some distant object1 walking straight to it1 picking out another in the same line of travel and continuing to do this until one has arrived somewhere4 ,one has the satisfaction of knowing that he will not find himself at the place he started from a short time previously4 ,the compass then is invaluable and its directions must under no circumstances be questioned4 ,to further prevent the possibility of losing one's self he should blaze the trail as he tries to travel out and keep straight with the compass if there is no sun1 moon or stars to act as guides4 ,one cannot depend much on ,nature's signs such as the preponderance of tree limbs on the south side1 moss on the north side1 etc4 ,in a country that has been lumbered over old trails and woods roads should be followed down hill as the lowlands and water courses are the invariable destination of logs and these old trails and tote roads usually guide the traveler to some lumber camp or clearing from which a well defined road is apt to lead4 ,as a last resort strike running water and follow it tenaciously4 ,in it and along its shore the wanderer may perchance find food1 he may possibly launch a raft upon it and he certainly will not die of thirst4 ,if you find yourself hopelessly lost the first thing to do is to keep cool and avoid panic for the greatest danger is fear which robs one of his judgment4 ,if you are near a party and have a gun shoot twice in succession repeating after long waits4#a ,smoke distress signals are made by starting two green stuff fires about fifty feet apart4 ,get on a high point for a lookout4 #a ,the signal varies with the locality4 ,in some sections it is one shot1 then a pause1 and then two shots in quick succession2 in other localities it is two shots in quick succession1 then a pause1 and then a single shot4 ,ascertain what the distress signal in any locality is before venturing into the wilderness4 ,the back pack man is in no immediate danger so long as his outfit is with him but let it be separated from him by mishap in a strange country and his woodcraft ingenuity will be taxed4 ,if night draws close build a little bivouac fire and camp before dark1 make yourself comfortable1 get in plenty of fresh wood to keep up the fire all night1 build a wind screen on three sides of fallen logs1 brush and browse1 and if possible lay something on the bare ground to keep you off the dirt4 ,one should make it a rule never to leave the camp without taking a small emergency bag along which would greatly assist in case of getting lost4 ,it should contain a compass1 maps1 ,first ,aid packet1 match box1 fish line and hooks1 emergency ration and a knife4 ,,chapter ,v ,,packs ,,and ,,packing ,back packing of the wilderness adventurer's outfit is one of the necessary evils to be endured for the privilege of enjoying the freedom of travel and the peace and quietude of cheerful camps in the untracked solitudes of the great outdoors4 ,truly its trials and tribulations are many1 yet when fully mastered and one becomes an adept in cruising methods it spells absolute independence of everything except food supplies4 ,packing at best is a hard plod but it is to be remembered that there is a certain pleasure in even the roughest experience and that in after years only the pleasant things remain in reminiscence4 ,much may be spared in the way of trouble and discomfort in woods travel by the selection of a correctly designed and properly hung pack carrier4 ,next to being properly shod the possession of a suitable rig for carrying the outfit from place to place is the most indispensable requisite for the hiker4 ,the most common and satisfactory article for this use is to be found among the array of tump lines1 pack sacks or baskets1 and pack harnesses1 each designed for a purpose good for use in its particular field and very little elsewhere4 ,this choice in turn depends largely upon the weight of outfit to be carried which of course should be kept down to absolutely essential limits and within the personal physical capabilities of endurance4 ,tasks within one's strength are pleasing or at least tolerable3 those beyond that strength are punishment4 ,the tramper's pack1 inclusive of a ten days supply of provisions1 need not weigh over thirty-five pounds4 7,the seasoned woods traveler will start with eighty pounds47 ,any additional weight of grub will be directly proportional to the time one is to be out4 ,it is always advisable for two persons to go together on such a trip for they can share the shelter1 use the same cooking utensils and certain other nonconsumable items4 ,it is a fact unbelievable to the tenderfoot1 yet readily attested by the experienced1 that at the beginning the carrying of a thirty-five pound pack is entirely feasible for the average man and at the end of several weeks one can carry many more pounds with some ease4 ,on a short portage trip with canoe relief ahead a pack of one hundred pounds is conveniently transported on one's back4 ,the footman1 however1 must be carrying all the time and the beginner will find a thirty-five pound pack a sufficiently heavy burden4 ,this must include shelter1 mess kit1 bed and a week's supply of provisions4 ,it is well to keep in mind that the pack lightens some each day as the provisions are used up4 ,the various pack carriers are so arranged that the weight is suspended either from the head of the woodsman1 from his shoulder or by a combination of the two methods4 ,it is to many a surprising statement that a much heavier load can be carried suspended by straps over the head than from the shoulders4 ,this is due to the fact that one is thus enabled to utilize the powerful muscles of the neck4 ,these muscles are generally poorly developed in the novice and this1 together with the much better known method of shoulder suspension packing1 is doubtless the excuse for the latter's popularity among other than experienced woods travelers4 ,the ,indian-tump line or head strap is the pack carrier par excellence for the transportation of heavy loads4 ,such a load hangs entirely from the head of the carrier and not from the shoulders4 ,it consists of a head band of rather stiff leather about two and a half inches in width by two feet in length4 ,to each end of this is attached a strap or thong of similar kind of leather eight to ten feet long but only an inch in width tapering to a still lesser width at the ends and fixed to the head band by buckles4 ,to make up the tump line pack proceed as follows3--the blanket or shelter cloth is spread out and the thongs laid lengthwise about a foot from either edge--the blanket is then folded inward and across the thongs4 ,the items to be carried are then laid on the end of the blanket well up toward the head piece4 ,the other end of the blanket1 from the folds of which the thong ends are protruding1 is pulled taut1 tied together and passed around the middle of the pack4 ,the knack of comfortable tump line carrying1 once the neck muscles are developed and hardened1 is in properly balancing the pack4 ,the load is lifted to the back1 the strap passing across the head high up on the forehead and not on top of the head as might be supposed4 ,the load must properly fall in position on the back or discomfort will certainly result with a corresponding decrease of carrying ability4 ,it should fit well in the small of the back1 just above the hips4 ,the method is very tiresome to the uninitiated because of the strain on the neck and head but one soon becomes accustomed to it4 ,the tump line or head strap is the one to use if the pack amounts to much above thirty pounds4 ,indians are thus able to carry loads of several hundred pounds on short portages but when the outfit can be arranged into several seventy pound packs the woodsman prefers to thus break it up and make several trips4 ,with the tump line one can carry goods of most any bulk and shape4 ,the strap has many other uses about camp4 ,the pack carriers which are suspended from the shoulders are fitted with loops through which the arms are thrust and which are connected behind to the load with either a set of harness intended to be buckled around any sort of camp duffle or riveted and sewn to a sack or basket4 ,fifty pounds is about the limit of the pack which one with experience can comfortably carry suspended from the shoulders4 ,breast straps are required for use with all types of shoulder harness to fasten the arm loops together in front or they promptly slip off4 ,in case of accident in the water they are disengaged with difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,pack ,,harness ,one caution is necessary in selecting this type of packing apparatus4 ,the shoulder straps must lead from a common center near the front and top of the pack and they may then attach as usual to each lower corner4 ,the advantage in this single point suspension is this--if the straps hug close to the neck of the packer there is not the down drag or tire which would be the case were the straps nearer the points of the shoulders4 ,the pack harness is good for transporting an outfit provided one does not have to open the pack on the trail much--a procedure taking up too much time4 ,in making up such a pack the blanket and shelter are made into a compact elongated bundle4 ,the loose articles of camp duffle1 mess kit1 food bags1 and extras are shoved into a specially made sack of light waterproof stuff of say twelve by thirty-six inch dimensions and with a tight-fitting top4 ,the two bundles are placed side by side and the pack straps secured about them4 ,the pack harness with the tump line combination is the best style to use if one prefers not to use one of the pack sacks4 ,the pack basket of wicker can be at once eliminated as it is too clumsy and bulky for our purpose and further it is not waterproof4 ,it however fits very nicely into lithographs of supposedly ideal camp scenes4 ,being nonexpandable it limits the bulk of outfit4 ,it is nevertheless popular with a certain class of ,new ,england outdoor men4 ,,the ,,belmore ,,browne ,,pack ,,strap ,an ingenious packing apparatus has been perfected by ,belmore ,browne of the ,parker-,browne ,mt4 ,mc,kinley ,expedition of #aiaj4 ,it consists of a padded canvas yoke which fits over the breast and shoulders of the wearer and the yoke ends connect by small stout ropes to the pack much the same as with a regulation tump line4 ,the size of the pack regulates the length of the lash rope4 ,this pack strap is made very simply after ,illustration3 ,,belmore ,,browne ,,pack ,,strap ,method of using pack strap and tump line ,diagram of strap the accompanying diagram4 ,the length of the breast strap depends upon the breadth of the chest of the wearer4 ,it is composed of a piece of ten ounce canvas of say twelve inch length and eight inches wide which is folded lengthwise making it twelve by four inches and is padded by felt or cotton4 ,to either end of this is attached the shoulder straps consisting of double thicknesses of ten ounce canvas thirty-six by six inches and folded lengthwise and cut to taper from the yoke end4 ,to its smaller end is attached a small stout rope of the length desired for the pack you will carry4 ,the first twelve inches of the shoulder straps only are padded4 ,the rope is lashed about the pack and the loose ends ,b and ,d are secured in the holes ,a and ,c near the arm pits4 ,to enable one to use the neck muscles also in addition to the shoulder straps a head strap is used4 ,this is simply a double piece of ten ounce canvas two inches by twelve inches at whose ends are tied ropes which are attached to the pack4 ,browne has carried with this rig #ajj pounds all day for several days at a time4 ,various styles of pack sacks are extant4 ,the foreign sportsman has what he calls a rucksack which means a 8back sack0 and which is a triangular shaped affair usually of waterproofed materials which he hangs over his back by two straps passing up across the shoulders4 ,the top is the puckered end of the sack and reaches up close to the neck1 the flared out bottom hangs down to about the small of the back4 ,it is sometimes fitted with pockets4 ,it is very good for country road tours or for foreign sight-seeing trips where the items carried cover some such list as a noon day lunch1 a raincoat1 a change of underwear1 photo films1 notebook and guide book1 but it is unsuitable for heavy weight work on the wilderness cruise4 ,the haversack or knapsack slung by a strap from one shoulder is out of date and never measured up to the requirements for use in heavy packing4 ,it is handy for lunches or as a ditty or emergency kit bag4 ,the best pack sack was originated and put out by one ,poirier of ,duluth some twenty-five years ago and was originally really the whiteman's improvement of the ,indian tump line and pack cloth1 ingeniously folded and tied so as to serve as a sack with suspension harness4 ,as listed today by most outfitting firms it consists of a sack with shoulder straps and head suspension4 ,it is a very desirable article from the point of view of the wilderness voyageur as he is enabled to ease up different sets of muscles while on the hike and ,illustration3 ,,duluth ,,packsack ,illustrating head-band and single point suspension for shoulder straps4 ,illustration3 ,diagram for making packsack at home4 ,fold along the lines4 in handling a heavy pack the combined use of the neck and shoulder muscles are brought into play4 ,this pack goes under the name of the ,duluth1 ,poirier1 ,woodsman or ,northwestern ,pack and with slight modifications is listed under other names by various dealers in camp supplies4 ,the genuine1 however1 consists of a simple flat bag of dimensions twenty-eight by thirty inches with adjustable shoulder and head straps4 ,it has a large top flap with three long straps to hold it down thus enabling one to adjust it to a large or small pack4 ,the following features are to be insisted upon--get the straps broad and soft and see to it that the connections are both sewed and riveted4 ,the ,poirier pack is much used on the ,canadian border and is easily procurable or it can be made at home4 ,all things considered and especially in view of the ignorance of the average man as to how to adjust his pack straps properly the ,woodsmans or ,poirier is the best4 ,in its position on the back the pack should be carried low so the bulge fits the hollow of the back4 ,if too high there is too much backward strain on the head and shoulders3 if it is too low it interferes with the gait4 ,one can ease up the impact of a pack by letting the knees give a little with each step4 ,in the case of heavy loads or a weak neck the strain can occasionally be relieved by clasping the hands behind the head or by slipping the straps from the forehead to the top of the head and grasping it with both hands about 8ear high0 so as to get a straight pull downward instead of backward4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,pack ,with a properly chosen pack a man can comfortably carry on his back all that is needed for a two weeks' stay in the wilderness1 inclusive of shelter1 bed1 cook kit1 simple first aid requisites and the necessary provisions4 ,besides these the pack must carry miscellaneous items of duffle as follows3 ,extra clothing may be very meager indeed4 ,a gray all wool sweater for protection against cold1 mainly at night or to be worn when washing the shirt1 and two pairs of heavy all wool socks are all that one needs4 ,in the way of toilet articles include a tooth brush and a tube of paste and two brown crash towels for the daily rub down4 ,a bar of wool soap suffices for toilet and laundry purposes4 ,the map mounted on cloth should be encased in a waterproof envelope4 ,provide a repair kit consisting of a few items for simple mending--a spool of stout linen thread ,no4 #ab1 with suitable needles1 a few rivets1 safety pins1 some waxed harness thread1 needles and a light awl4 ,a good axe is almost indispensable4 ,although an experienced camper may learn to get along well no matter what is lacking1 without an axe he is seriously handicapped for food1 warmth and camp making and often protection from beasts and insects depend on the axe and the fire it makes possible4 ,a gun may be dispensed with but never the axe4 ,don't try to economize too much in its weight4 ,for average trips and moderately cold nights a light belt axe of say one and one-fourth pound head is about right4 ,it should have a long helve and it will then give greater power than a heavy one with a short helve4 ,pocket axes are not advisable4 ,if the nights are cold and you have to keep up an all night fire in front of the leanto1 an hour's work will enable you to spend the night fairly comfortable4 ,you will need a large amount of good dry wood4 ,to secure this the axe had better be a well tempered1 light regulation chopping axe of say a two pound head and a thirty inch handle4 ,never take a poor axe into the wilderness where comfort and ofttimes life depend on it4 ,soft tempered edges bend where thin and if tempered too hard they will break in frozen wood or knots4 ,a small whetstone for sharpening must be with you4 ,the combination coarse and fine carborundum sportsman stone is handy4 ,a leather sheath will help to protect the axe edge from becoming dulled and the outfit from being cut4 ,in use keep the axe clear of overhead limbs or brush which might turn it4 ,hold it rigid and learn to hit the spot aimed at4 ,the inclusion of fishing tackle depends on the nature of the locality you are to visit4 ,fish make an agreeable change from a bacon1 biscuit and tea diet4 ,take a few hooks1 a stout line1 flies and spoon hooks and you can depend on improvising the pole where used4 ,for bait you may be driven to bacon fat1 frogs1 grasshoppers or grubs from an old rotten log4 ,if the prime object of the trip is for fishing purposes of course a more elaborate equipment is permissible4 ,you really won't much notice the extra weight of a fish rod4 ,when every ounce and square inch of duffel have to be debated over in view of the all important question of food supply and transportation facilities the addition of a small film camera bears few objectionable features4 ,in no other way can a truthful record of vacation scenes be preserved4 ,it truthfully portrays wild life in native habitat and is a great stimulus to personal observation4 ,almost any one can push the button and run a good chance of getting a clean cut picture1 the clever thing is to amplify the camera's working with one's good sense in composing the picture4 ,in woodland views when the sun is low expose to get the long shadows4 ,in wild animal work get leeward to the trails4 ,the lighting of your subjects should always come from behind the camera4 ,film must be protected from moisture and you can insure this in no way better than by getting the kind which is hermetically sealed as sold for tropical use and obtainable from the makers on special order4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,footwear ,the most important requisite for the pedestrian is mobility4 ,this in turn depends upon properly conditioned feet and a covering permitting the greatest ease in action and freedom from injury4 ,so important is this physical item in the case of any one who walks that it may be taken as a criterion of one's ability to cover ground4 ,granting other things equal1 the successful army is the one which marches best2 hence one of the greatest military problems of the day is a study of the proper care and housing of man's pedal extremities4 ,the measure of efficiency of the draft horse on icy pavements1 of northern ,indian packers over unbroken woods portages1 and of the amateur pedestrian's initial hike over interurban roads depends essentially upon being properly shod4 ,in a study of the foot we find it composed mostly of bones and that their movements are managed by a complex arrangement of muscles1 in nearly every case by several sets working in unison4 ,any mechanical displacement of one bone throws not only all bones out of harmonious working order but also disarranges their accompanying muscles and the nerves attached to them1 resulting in inefficient action and in radiating pains4 ,the fleshy parts of the foot are at the sole1 ball1 on the bottom of the heel and along the outer border and they play the part of protection where it is most needed4 ,the bottom flesh forms pads in walking and supporting the body1 insuring springiness and lessening the jar which is incidental to locomotion4 ,shoes that do not fit the fleshy parts of the foot properly cause friction when walking and concomitant aches and pains4 ,illustration3 ,x-,,ray ,,of ,,foot ,properly housed in form fitting shoes ,nature intended man to walk with bare feet but following the dictates of necessity as his environment demanded foot protection and later of an all too dominant dictate of fashion he took to wearing foot covering4 ,since the feet do an immense amount of work ,nature has so constructed them that they will adapt themselves to many conditions4 ,it is our duty to adjust the foot covering to assist ,nature in protecting the foot4 ,commonly the fitting of shoes is influenced by a consideration of fashion and style and not comfort1 with a resulting condition which most people cheerfully accept1 thinking that by so doing their feet will appear small and neat but really causing a cramping and narrowing of the ball and toes1 with possible chafing1 blistering1 callus or corns--conditions incompatible with walking efficiency4 ,the physical effects of ill fitting shoes are unfortunately evident with most people today4 ,in addition if one is not properly outfitted on a walking trip the psychological effect is also bad1 resulting in discomfort1 reduction of buoyancy of spirit1 mental irritability and diminished traveling capacity4 ,he becomes an object of pity1 his enjoyment is turned to grief and his value as a pedestrian is in a certain measure destroyed4 ,an entire reversion of shoe fitting ideas should be made and the shoes made to fit the feet instead of the feet to fit the shoes4 ,the feet are not to be carelessly jammed into any sort of a container4 ,a good shoe cover must protect the foot1 it must give security and be comfortable and durable without changing the foot shape in any way4 ,to secure these things the fitting should have precedence over all other conditions4 ,properly fitted the shoe allows the foot to take practically the shape it would if it were not encased in a shoe4 ,the last should be straight and from the outset do not regard the sole as too broad4 ,there should be sufficient width at the end to allow the toes to lay on the inner sole of the shoe in a normal position1 for when the weight of the body is placed on the foot the toes spread apart a little4 ,nature thus demands toe room4 ,with the full weight of the body on the foot the toes should be able to wriggle about freely in a shoe4 ,walking causes the feet to lengthen one-half inch and broaden at the toe one-half inch4 ,provide for this swelling caused by the flattening of the arch and congestion of blood in the exercised region4 ,the shoe should be long enough to extend well forward of the toes--two-thirds of an inch longer than the longest measurement of the naked foot2 the inner sole border should be straight1 broad across the ball and for average work on the roads need not be heavy but above all things it should conform to the foot4 ,have the heel fit snugly but across the ball or front of the foot arch no compression at all4 ,the tendency is to overdo foot covering1 getting the shoes too heavy4 ,there is no need of lugging around extra weight4 ,aim for the minimum in leg weariness4 ,thick soles interfere with the leverage action of the big toe4 ,the tramper covers territory and must look for ease1 flexibility and lightness if at a sacrifice of the durability of the heavier goods4 ,the proper shoe should conform to the following specifications3--it should have a soft upper1 making the total shoe height five inches1 there should be no lining or box toe cap1 the heels should be broad and welted and only three lifts high1 the sole of one thickness4 ,the shoe should be loose enough for free wriggling of the toes within and permit of the insertion of a cork innersole which serves as a kind of cushion for the tread and can be removed at night to dry out4 ,the shoe is the product of civilization and properly chosen is preferable for pedestrianism in the city and on country roads4 ,also in mountain work where wear is excessive and one must use calks or hob nails for security the heavy soled light uppered ankle-high shoe is advisable4 ,hobs of the small coneheaded ,hungarian variety are good on rough rocky country or where there is smooth short grass and add immensely to ease and comfort and safety in walking over mountain trails4 ,use these hobs sparingly4 ,they give better foot hold and greatly save the sole and heel from wear4 ,they should not extend through the sole4 ,for wilderness tramping in general the adoption of an entirely different sort of footwear is advisable4 ,the real hikers--the men who make it a business of going on long trips with back packs do not use shoes4 ,they wear the lightest1 easiest wearing and most flexible foot covering they can get--the moccasin4 ,the moosehide moccasin is the footwear of the ,northwestern ,indian who is the most tireless pedestrian in the world4 ,next to him is the ,canadian voyageur with his oil tan shoe packs4 ,were the heavy soled shoe or boot the more satisfactory they would use it in preference4 ,the moccasin is a better foot covering than one would think4 ,if you walk a few hundred miles in moccasins1 on your return1 you will be surprised at your carriage4 ,you will stand easier and not sag on your heels in the clumsy attitude of the city man4 ,in walking with moccasins you walk with all your feet1 you don't have a great foot weight to lift around and no binding heel or sole stiffness4 ,one can walk noiselessly and is not likely to slip on rocks or logs4 ,some contend that the average city man has no license to tackle moccasins at least on the first week of the hike4 ,they are hard on soft footed people for a time at least but the feet soon become accustomed to the change4 ,by the use of thick wool socks the foot comfort is still further assured4 ,if one desires he can get soled moccasins or those with double bottom to prevent seam leaks1 the outer sewed to the welt and the welt sewed to the sole4 ,the moccasin is absolutely unequalled for warmth1 it is light and perfectly noiseless and has stood the test of ages by that race of hunters1 the ,american ,indians1 who originated also the camp1 trail1 snow-shoe and canoe4 ,one is1 when equipped with them1 more certain in carrying a pack1 he is not so apt to turn the ankle1 and the whole musculature of the foot is brought into play which is a great desideratum in precarious climbing4 ,of materials moosehide is popularly associated with moccasins4 ,it does not pretend to be waterproof but it is very durable and provides the softest1 lightest1 and most comfortable footwear made4 ,a pair weighs but a few ounces and rolls up in a small compass1 so an extra pair can be nicely tucked away in a corner of the pack4 ,even if a man wears shoes during the day a pair of moccasins should be taken along for a restful change of wear about the evening camp fire4 ,moosehide and elkskin are at present hard to procure hence the names are mainly trade terms4 ,discriminating sportsmen can get the genuine moosehide cruising packs from the ,putnam ,company1 ,minneapolis4 ,for our purpose the oil tanned pack of cowhide is more easily procurable and superior for general use to the moosehide article4 ,it can be kept pliable and a semblance to being waterproof by the application of animal oils4 ,the shoe-pack is a boot shaped like a moccasin but with a higher top4 ,either is preferable to a shoe for tramping because of their lightness and softness to the feet4 ,the upper should be high enough to make the total pack height about ten inches4 ,no matter what footwear you choose you should provide for the wearing of one or two pairs of heavy wool socks into whose tops are tucked the pants leg1 thus doing away with leggings4 ,this may sound paradoxical to the tenderfoot4 ,the idea of housing the feet in summertime in heavy wool socks6 ,the notion nevertheless is based on experience4 ,the thick are no hotter on the feet than the thin4 ,it is the leather that keeps the heat in4 ,wool equalizes the moisture evaporation4 ,if your work forces you into wet places the temperature is modified4 ,one can fish standing in very cold water and not suffer4 ,a sportsman can spend several weeks in an almost normal condition of wet feet without suffering1 even in mild fall weather1 since his wool socks keep his feet warm in spite of the wet and cold4 ,where one perspires freely on dry tramping the perspiration is taken up from the skin and transmitted by the wool fibers to the outside of the sock where it is more easily evaporated4 ,in the coldest weather the feet are always warm when covered with heavy wool socks and moccasins and it is the only successful combination for use in snowshoes4 ,for common tramping they are ideal1 for the constant exposure of the feet to the wet is to be anticipated and the thickness of the wool softens the shock and pressure of foot work on rough trails1 diminishing the danger of friction and impact4 ,in fitting shoes or moccasins over your heavy wool socks allow a half size larger in length and two letters in width over your street shoe4 ,even then your foot covering will be about three times the bulk of your tight fashion-plate town footwear4 ,the life of a good fitting1 light weight wool sock worn with a good fitting shoe is about #ge to #ajj road miles or about a week's wear in constant marching under ordinary conditions4 ,whenever the softness of wool is lost because of frequent washings discard them4 ,weston wears a natural gray wool sock undyed4 ,never start on a long hike with unbroken shoes4 ,a quick way to break them in rather than subject the tender feet to the trying ordeal is to follow the plan of the ,united ,states ,army as follows3 ,wearing the shoes over wool socks stand in three inches of warm water for five minutes until the leather is soft and pliable1 then walk on a level surface for an hour or until the shoes dry on the feet1 to the shape of which the pressure of the body weight and muscular action have forced the leather1 in drying1 to conform4 ,they will then be as comfortable as old shoes4 ,the one feature of shoe selection which seems to appeal to the average sportsman is waterproofing4 ,he will allow his sane ideas of size1 shape1 weight and durability to run riot if only the salesman can prove his assertions of the waterproof qualities of the item at hand4 ,it happens to be well nigh impossible to make leather really waterproof4 ,if one succeeds in impregnating the tanned skin with some water repelling application the seams are apt to leak in worn shoes and the leather treatment goes for naught4 ,in fact waterproof footwear is just the condition the tramper does not want4 ,in the first place it is a sin to encase a perspiring foot in a shoe which retains all the effete matter of perspiration which will soften and weaken the skin4 ,there may be conditions of wet snow where absolute dryness of the feet is paramount but then one had best get the regular rubber overshoe4 ,all that we should expect of leather is that it will be impervious to water sufficiently so as not to soak it up like a sponge4 ,wet feet won't hurt you but hot and sore feet always do2 an occasional wet foot is far better than a continual sweaty damp foot4 ,moosehide at best is not water repellent and is good for dry trails and dry snow work because of its porosity4 ,oil tanned calfskin shoes and moccasins are the best4 ,they should be kept soft and supple by the use of one of the various dressings on the market or one compounded at home4 ,perhaps nothing beats pure neatsfoot oil for leather dressing4 ,it is a natural animal oil free from acids and other substances deleterious to leather life4 ,it is the chief ingredient of many of the shoe greases and waxes of commerce and is cheap and universally procurable4 ,it should be applied with the finger tips on the dried warm leather1 rubbing it carefully into seams1 stitch holes1 and threads to prevent their rotting4 ,the ,french ,army dressing is composed of neatsfoot oil #g parts1 and mutton tallow #c parts4 ,these heavier dressings interfere with the evaporation of the perspiration causing the feet to sweat in warm weather4 ,in drying wet shoes never place near a fire for this will result in a hardening of the leather4 ,it is better to heat oats or gravel and fill the shoes to absorb the dampness4 ,moccasins can be stuffed with dry browse of any kind or inverted over stakes driven in the ground not too near the camp fire4 ,the pack should contain a ditty bag with a simple footwear repair outfit4 ,for leather working take along a light weight awl1 sail-maker's needles and waxed thread with perhaps a repair patch of leather or rawhide4 ,customarily after long use of shoes or moccasins the threads break or wear away leaving seam leaks and one must be prepared to remedy them4 ,they will be found especially around the vamp at the toe and the 8,t0 heel joint4 ,clean out the old stitch holes back to where the twine is sound and start your repair seam a couple of stitches back of this4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,efficient ,,cruising ,,shelters ,at night the novice wants to be housed in and the mysteries of darkness shut out1 and as is becoming with precedent in outdoor living he must spread his blanket beneath cloth4 ,this shelter can be very simple indeed and yet protect one from the elements4 ,a tent's sufficiency to turn water is not all that is necessary4 ,upon means of transportation and permanency of the camp depend the portability and lightness of the forest home4 ,what will do in a permanent camp with plenty of transportation is a far cry from the tent just sufficing the absolute needs of the one-nighter who expects little more than mere shelter and warmth4 ,the shelter must be waterproof and on a hike trip be the extreme in lightness and compactness for the sake of easy carrying4 ,light weight tents of clever design can now be secured from any outfitter2 or tent making at home is feasible and offers so much opportunity for the expression of individual ideas that sooner or later the outdoor man will try a hand at fashioning the ideal shelter4 ,exclusively for the use of the hiker the simplest of tent forms will answer4 ,,the ,,shelter ,,cloth ,a rectangular piece of sheeting of fine texture1 size #g by #i feet and waterproofed by the paraffine process will serve very well as a roof1 pitched leanto style or stretched over rope ridge or poles as a wedge or 8,a0 tent4 ,its ends may be closed by thatching with browse and a cozy fire built in front4 ,it makes the simplest cloth shelter known and the cloth has a variety of uses such as a poncho1 pack cloth1 floor cloth or sleeping bag cover4 ,going a step farther in construction one can make the ends also of cloth and then one has a regular leanto whose principles of construction are as old as the hills whence it originated4 ,there is no more efficient cloth shelter for all kinds of weather no matter how elaborately it may be constructed4 ,one must not regard the shelter feature of the leanto as its chief recommendation for its adaptability to perfect heating puts it above any other tent4 ,the old fashioned reflecting bread baker of our forefathers which was set up near the open flames of the fire place was an efficient appliance and one which is again coming into popularity to replace the ,dutch oven and ash cake methods of baking4 ,the work is done by the reflecting surfaces--the angles of the top and bottom throwing the heat to the middle4 ,this same principle is employed in the shelter tent however with only one reflecting surface 7the slanting roof7 throwing the heat from the front fire directly onto the bed4 ,other advantages of the tent are3--its lightness and its availability for use as a general pack cloth about camp or on the trail4 ,it is the best tent for snow work and wintering if one is driven to a cloth contrivance at all at this time of the year without a stove4 ,the shelter cloth may be slung at any angle and best by means of a rope ridge thus saving pole cutting4 ,the corners are staked out1 using two-foot pegs which are pointed with a sharp axe4 ,with the open side pitched to leeward one gets perfect ventilation and warmth4 ,a rousing fire is required and one for all night means hard labor since many large logs are necessary for use on a chilly night4 ,since so much wood is necessary naturally this type is best adapted to wooded districts4 ,in the woods dampness is nearly always present even in summer days4 ,this probably does not always lower the temperature so much as it increases the humidity of the air4 ,build the fire with the back log reflector1 placing it about four to six feet from the tent opening4 ,heat intensity lessens1 the greater the distance between the fire and the tent4 ,in mosquito infested districts a loose cheesecloth front can be attached to the open side and again removed in cold weather to allow heat to be better reflected within and affording a cheerful view of the leaping flames4 ,two leanto shelters may be at any time joined ridge to ridge and thus used as a wedge tent4 ,to close the ridge of such a combination one must have an eight inch drop cloth extending along one ridge to cover the opposite ridge section4 ,they can thus be at any time separated and used as leantos4 ,in making the leanto at home the lightest material should be used4 ,the advent of so-called balloon silk has revolutionized tent making and using it has made possible a better outdoor home where weight is the main consideration4 ,it may be dyed an emerald or the popular khaki color either of which is restful to the eye and is inconspicuous alike to human and insect visitors4 ,after being made into the desired tent form it can then be waterproofed by ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,diagram for ,ends ,,closed ,,leanto ,,or ,,baker ,,tent either the alum and lead or the paraffin process4 ,the lines of stress in a tent lead from the points of suspension and these should be strengthened by tapes sewed on4 ,,making ,,the ,,closed ,,leanto ,,or ,,baker ,,tent ,by attaching a flap along the ridge of the leanto the shelter may be made into a closed tent or extended out in front at the height of the ridge furnishing an admirable awning4 ,further by reversing the pitching so that the ridge extends from ,a to ,d the flap serves as a floor4 ,waterproof balloon silk may be purchased in thirty-eight inch widths and of it one will need twelve yards to form the closed leanto whose length will be seven and one-fourth feet1 height four and one-fourth feet1 and depth four and one-fourth feet4 ,it will weigh around three and one-fourth pounds4 ,first you sew a rectangle seven feet six inches by ten feet seven inches4 ,see ,fig4 #a4 ,we have here given oversize measurements to allow for an overlap of one-half inch or so at the seams4 ,at the ridge ,e-,b reinforce with tape or cloth and use two inches of the rectangle to sew over a rope ridge from ,b to ,e4 ,the ends1 ,fig4 #b1 are made from a square four feet six inches by four feet six inches and then cut from the corner ,a to corner ,b4 ,thus ,a-,b1 ,fig4 #b1 is sewn to ,a-,b1 ,fig4 #a and ,d-,e1 ,fig4 #b to ,d-,e1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the edges of the whole tent are turned under and reinforced by a one-half inch white tape4 ,at suitable intervals tie tapes are sewn around the tent edges to facilitate an attachment to ground pegs and in the adjustment of the flap4 ,,the ,,tarpaulin ,,tent ,a piece of cloth eight by twelve feet will furnish a remarkable variety of tent forms and shelter devices from a leanto to the closed style4 ,it is the best bivouac for rain and mosquitoes4 ,aside from its simplicity in shape and handiness in construction1 it has1 if made from the proper materials1 an added advantage of lightness and is ideal for use as a general utility camp cloth4 ,no other style of tent will furnish so much head and sleeping room for the same weight and area of cloth4 ,in making one at home procure four yards of unbleached muslin of ninety inch width 7or twelve yards of the thirty inch width71 dye it the shade of color desired1 and use it to make the tent and then waterproof it4 ,cut and sew the pieces into the #h by #ab sheet and make ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,tarpaulin ,,tent ,illustration3 ,,tarpaulin ,,tent ,,erected around the edge a inch hem4 ,lay it flat and with chalk or a pencil mark the lines as diagrammed4 ,for reinforcement sew on light tape from the points a1 b1 h1 c and f as indicated and converging all at ,g where a semicircle of the tent material is sewed in and a strong cord loop is attached to the grommet in the peak4 ,this suspension point will receive the greatest stress when the tent is pitched4 ,upon this tape reinforcement depends the strength more than the kind of cloth used4 ,make peg loops at e1 d1 f1 a1 h1 b1 and c4 ,the back of the tent will extend from a to b1 the sides f to a and b1 to c and the front e to d with the apex at ,g4 ,the holes are protected with grommets procured from the tent shop or hardware store and the cloth reinforced by #c by #c inch squares sewed in4 ,the tarpaulin used as a flat front tent1 as a leanto or as an open shelter tent can be erected in a few minutes4 ,to set up--the corners are first pegged down at ,a and ,b stretching the rear line snugly3 carry the sides ,b and ,c and ,f and ,a to the point ,s at right angles to the rear line and peg down4 ,throw the suspension rope 7#e yards of braided window sash cord7 attached to the loop at ,g over a projecting limb or pole and pull taut4 ,this rope should continue the angle of the roof from ,h to ,g and the front e1 f1 g and c1 d1 g1 is perpendicular4 ,a sod cloth may be sewed around the floor or a permanent floor cloth fitted in4 ,in mosquito season a loose cheese cloth door may be attached4 ,the dimensions of this useful tent when pitched are height #f feet1 depth #e feet1 and width #g feet and when constructed of balloon silk need not exceed a weight of six pounds4 ,the tarpaulin tent inherits various salient features of worthy forebears--the teepee's peak1 the roof angle of the ,a tent1 also the pyramid or miner's1 its front is a suggestion of the wall tent1 while the open camp feature reminds us of the leanto with its broad sloping back wall which reflects heat on cold nights4 ,the tarpaulin used as an open faced tent is a compromise between a wedge and a cone tent4 ,it lessens the height but gives more floor space4 ,peg down a and b as usual1 then f and c somewhat at a distance and at an obtuse angle to the back and the front flaps out from the center4 ,the tarpaulin used as a leanto tent is easily erected by pegging down the corners ,e and ,d and suspending the opposite edge at an angle of #de degrees as a ridge4 ,build your fire in front4 ,for additional protection put poles1 brush1 etc41 at the ends of the shelter4 ,of materials preferable for use in light weight tent-making waterproofed balloon silk stands in a class by itself4 ,superseding the antiquated duck or flimsy drill tents it is one of the items which has done much to make tramping trips feasible and worth while4 ,it is in reality not a silk at all but a closely woven cotton cloth with a weight of but #c ounces per square yard 7#ab ounce duck waterproofed tips the scales at about #af ounces74 ,it is waterproof1 rot proof1 mildew proof and exceedingly durable4 ,a leanto for the bivouacker can then be kept down to three pounds4 ,other colors than white are recommended for tents4 ,khaki is popular because it blends with the color scheme of the woods and plains and is restful to the eyes in the sun and cool on a hot day4 ,a khaki colored waterproof silk is marketed as ,tantalite4 ,should one prefer a cloth of green color he should get the so-called ,emeralite4 ,neither one is so conducive to the collection of flies and other insects nor so noticeable in the woods as white4 ,none of these cloths soak up water1 hence if packed away after a rainy spell they do not appreciably burden the pack4 ,tents of most any desired shape can be secured ready made from any of the above materials4 ,should one want to attempt tent making at home he should get the so-called ,egyptian sail cloth or ,number ,,xxx muslin and after making it up into the desired tent form waterproof it by one of the methods hereafter described4 ,,waterproofing ,,methods ,upon touching a tent roof during a rain it will in most cases begin to leak4 ,processing to make it waterproof will avail little if the right cloth is not used in the first place4 ,say you are making a so-called silk tent using muslin4 ,there are several grades and weaves on the market some being loosely woven and they soak up water like cheesecloth4 ,so get it of the tightest weave and by impregnating the fibers with a waterproofing solution they are enveloped by the water repellent mixture and the interstices are not large enough to let the water through4 ,the proper closely woven muslin cannot be secured in the average town store but by perseverance can be purchased from the city department stores4 ,waterproofing by paraffin is a most satisfactory process and the one most used by tent manufacturers4 ,true the cloth is thereby stiffened in cold weather but it is absolutely waterproof and the method of application is easy4 ,simply put into a tin vessel #c pounds of paraffin shavings 7ordinary paraffin of the stores7 and two gallons of gasolene or turpentine4 ,the receptacle1 best with a closed top1 is set in the sun or in a tub of boiling water and never near a flame4 ,when a solution is effected outdoors spread it on the stretched cloth by means of a brush1 sponge or piece of cheesecloth4 ,the gasolene evaporates leaving a thin coating of paraffin in the fibers of the cloth4 ,such coloring as you may desire to apply to the cloth must be done before the waterproofing process for thereafter the fibers will not take up a dye solution4 ,to make it fire proof and rot proof as well as water repellent ,i would treat the cloth first to an alum and sugar of lead solution and then paraffin well as above4 ,fireproof cloth is nearly as desirable as waterproofing4 ,many camps have been burned by sparks falling on the tent roof which was rendered very dry by the heat of the nearby camp fire4 ,a spark falling on a properly treated tent roof burns only a little round hole at the worst4 ,the alum and sugar of lead solution is made thus3--#d ounces of alum and #aj ounces of lime are added to #aj quarts of water and the tent immersed overnight4 ,in the morning it is rinsed in lukewarm rainwater and dried in the sun4 ,the fibers of the cloth are filled with an insoluble solution of lead acetate and alum and is rendered efficiently fire and water proof4 ,,the ,,emergency ,,bivouac ,no man knows what he can do outdoors until he has tried it personally4 ,the shifty man caught homeless in the woods will make some sort of shelter for himself out of anything at hand as slats1 boards1 bark1 boughs1 sod1 poles1 dirt or whatever is available4 ,at no stage of the camper's game can one display his ability to utilize woodcraft as he can in building the emergency bivouac4 ,wherever one goes matches1 knife1 and axe should always accompany him4 ,with these he is ready for preparing a windproof and as far as possible a weather proof shelter to secure necessary warmth no matter where he may be caught out4 ,a simple tree shelter is provided by selecting a small evergreen1 cutting partially through the trunk at a point #d to #e feet from the ground so that in falling the butt remains attached to the stump4 ,on the ground side cut away all limbs and branches for this is to be your roof4 ,the upstanding limbs on the outside may also be partly cut and so bent over as to further enhance the value of the roof4 ,the browse laying about is then collected and thatched on the ground for a bed4 ,the ends may be enclosed by the addition of other trees--poles1 browse1 etc41 roughly thatched to serve as a wind break4 ,a leanto of poles1 covered with bark or browse1 makes a handy shelter for a little emergency camp4 ,select a big boulder and lay against it four poles sticking the pointed butt ends firmly in the ground4 ,if no boulder is available fasten horizontally a pole between two trees to lean the slanting roof poles upon or support it by two upright poles with forks4 ,lean against the cross pole enough other poles to form a rough roof with proper pitch which must be steep if the weather is bad4 ,thatch with browse like shingles or simply lay on pine or hemlock branches4 ,these fans always grow close to the ground on young hemlocks and with an axe a big pile may be secured in a few minutes4 ,a shelter cloth of course comes in handy here4 ,cover the floor with boughs4 ,the ends may be closed similarly4 ,a good log is laid on the outer edge of the bed4 ,in winter such a thatching ,if covered with snow supplies a warm shelter4 ,before the open front build a reflector and a fire1 and you can enjoy a cozy camp4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,camp ,,making ,witness the conduct of the seasoned woods traveler4 ,his camp comfort is ever uppermost in his mind and although with meager outfit he so employs the artifices of woodcraft that his nights are spent in pleasant surroundings and refreshing sleep4 ,after the day's tramp he must get a warm meal and into comfortable repose as soon as possible4 ,hence toward evening he chooses a suitable camp site near good drinking water4 ,the latter is often of questionable quality and yet of considerable importance from the point of view of health4 ,if in doubt about its purity boil the drinking water for half an hour1 cool and strain through cotton or cloth4 ,most mountain streams are pure4 ,caution is especially necessary in regions where stagnation and germ life are prevalent1 in valleys where camping parties or inhabitants have contaminated the watershed or where the water has flowed over poisonous mineral deposits4 ,if on a fishing trip the nearer the camper is to the trout stream the better1 if on a shooting foray his field for selecting a site is greatly broadened4 ,he must look out to be near plenty of firewood and leanto material4 ,the exact spot where one's bed is to rest and shelter erected should be on a slight elevation where the ground is dry and which falls away from the tent on all sides1 providing perfect drainage in possible wet weather4 ,a windbreak of heavy tree growth is desirable but never get near trees that may blow down in a storm4 ,now go about pitching the tent1 placing it so the entrance will be to leeward of the prevailing winds2 avoid these by keeping away from the high hills4 ,select two trees ten feet apart with a flat place between and proceed to level the tent floor by removing browse and rocks1 smoothing dirt mounds1 etc4 ,now proceed to make your shelter which may of necessity be the ,indian emergency bivouac or the shelter cloth camp4 7,see chapter #g 8,efficient ,cruising ,shelters407 ,next clear a living space in front of the tent providing room for the fire4 ,in no way does the camping tyro proclaim his greenness more than when he attempts to make a fire4 ,the white man nearly always builds a fire of a size that is out of all proportion to his needs while an ,indian usually builds a very small fire--a habit acquired possibly from his former necessity of concealing his whereabouts from possible enemies but probably because of his good sense in woodcraft in doing only those things which are really necessary4 ,a good knowledge of fire building is always essential for the preparation of meals and for night heating purposes4 ,we must master1 in keeping with the above needs1 the making of the small cooking fire and the larger 8friendship0 or night fire for warmth4 ,,the ,,cooking ,,fire ,the cooking fire should be made quite systematically and quite apart from the heater4 ,if one simply wishes to boil a pot of water or toast a piece of bacon the fire may be made of small material such as dry short twigs picked from a standing tree4 ,for the regulation cooking fire it should be kept so small that one can approach without having his eyebrows singed4 ,there is no need to have a lot of flames but replenish often and keep it going steadily1 thus forming a good bed of coals to send heat in all directions4 ,several methods are used for supporting the cooking utensils over the fire3--7a7 dig an earthen trench #f inches deep and slightly narrower than the fry pan bottom4 ,along either side lay a #c foot small green pole and build the fire between4 ,the pan and kettle may rest on these poles or may be suspended by hooks attached to a dingle stick whose other sharpened end is thrust in the ground at a slight distance and pressed to slant over the fire4 ,again they may be attached by crotched sticks from a cross pole which rests in notched stakes driven in the ground at either end and at a proper height from the fire1 7b7 ,a couple of small green logs1 hewn flat on top1 laid five inches apart and pegged into place to prevent rolling1 are also serviceable4 ,at one end the distance between logs may be widened to accommodate the different sized utensils4 ,flat stones may be used to build the little fireplace4 ,if your fire does not draw well you can raise one end of a log a little off the ground by putting a small stick thereunder4 ,wait until the fire of clear wood has burned down to coals and then cut off your draft and cook over the coals1 using the log supports as though they were a range4 ,your cooking fire is little larger than your hat and throws off very little if any smoke4 ,,the ,,friendship ,,fire ,,for ,,warmth ,this is the heater for comfort as you while away the evening in cheerful reminiscence of the day's happenings1 as you watch the lurking mysteries of night approach1 and which will warm you before you roll in fluffy blankets for the night's repose4 ,the fire for heat must needs be larger than the cooking1 yet too big a roaring fire is what you don't want4 ,something moderate which will be safe in a change of wind and which will throw heat into the tent will be found adequate4 ,to enhance its value one should build the night fire before a reflector which borrows the principles of the old fashioned fireplace for throwing heat forward4 ,it is located about six feet in front of the tent's entrance and may be composed simply of a big boulder1 a small flat faced cliff or a regularly made wall of green logs4 ,in making the log reflector cut two stout stakes long enough to project three feet above the ground after they have been driven down sufficiently to hold well1 placing them one yard apart with their protruding ends slanting away from the tent4 ,now take a four foot green log1 say a foot thick1 and place on the ground against the stakes4 ,pile upon this three logs of lesser diameter1 the difference in size will hold them in place4 ,then cut two short green logs to act as fire dogs and place them on the ground end on against the back log reflector4 ,across these lay several dry logs for burning1 put your small starting twigs or trash stuff beneath and ignite4 ,in building a fire secure1 if possible1 for kindling the bark of the birch which is easily accessible if one goes to the ,north woods where most camping is done4 ,it is torn in strips and rubbed dry to a fray4 ,in other regions you will be driven to the use of dry grass or other highly inflammable material4 ,over this put twigs or the choppings from the cores of dead trees1 laying them in pyramidal shape with open air spaces within4 ,now touch off the pile with one of the matches which you have been careful to pack in a waterproof matchbox4 ,when well aflame put on carefully the branches of successively larger sized sticks allowing plenty of air supply to the flames4 ,in wet weather the task of the inexperienced fire maker is more difficult unless he is well supplied with birch bark which has plenty of oil in it4 ,without the bark one must get enough fine shavings of the dry insides of decaying logs and pile them up and carefully add small fuel as needed4 ,for larger fires purely for heating purposes start a small fire and add larger wood until you get the big blaze which will then likely consume even wet wood4 ,it is important to know what kind of wood to choose for fuel4 ,in general standing dead timber is always drier than down timber4 ,you may be surprised at the good wood one can garner from dead stumps which are decayed on the outside but have a sound core which splits easily and burns to perfection4 ,always use these woods in preference to a growing tree4 ,one unfailing sign of the good camper is his use of just as little wood as is possible4 ,it should be gathered before night and placed near the shelter4 ,in the woods always be careful about spreading fire1 a forest fire may result and destroy not only the camp but your hunting and camping grounds and deprive others of their rightful enjoyments and heritage4 ,such carelessness is considered a crime among woodsmen and in some states is a direct violation of the law4 ,bear in mind several simple rules for fire prevention3--never throw a match in dry leaves3 never leave a fire burning when there is no one to watch it1 for a gust of wind may start a bad fire from a bed of half dead embers4 ,in locating camp always build the camp fire in the open if possible or on sand or soil but never on forest loam4 ,note the direction of the wind and try to build the fire just to windward of a brook1 road or green grassy plat which would act as natural barriers to a spreading conflagration4 ,in fighting fire1 pour water on the flames themselves1 soak it1 drown it or cover with earth4 ,if the ground is of loam or peaty nature souse it also4 ,if it is spreading use boughs dipped in water to beat flames with or use a wet blanket or even a shirt if necessary rather than let the fire leap from your control4 ,having properly started your cooking fire you are now ready to unpack the grub bags4 ,the cook kit is to be rinsed out well1 the kettle filled with water and put over the fire2 fill the fry pan with meat ration and start your batter for cakes4 ,at the conclusion of the meal clean up the dishes at once so that the hours of relaxation before sleep may be unharassed by the drugery of undone scullion's work4 ,the dishes are wiped with tufts of grass1 washed in clear water and thoroughly dried before the fire4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,outdoor ,,bed ,,question ,to one who has never done any camping the choice of a bed is one that nettles him and he will have doubts about being comfortable with the outfits recommended by those of experience4 ,upon no article of wilderness equipment is there so much diversity of opinion expressed nor upon which more experimentation is lavished by the average enthusiast than the camp bed4 ,from the cumbersome bedstead of civilization to the necessarily extremely portable bed of the movable camp is a far cry4 ,in spite of all experiences the latter is found to be best patterned after principles of the former4 ,just the method of adaptation is the problem that confronts us4 ,the tenderfoot styles himself a woodsman by displaying willingness to sleep on a poorly prepared bed1 even boasting of the smallness and lightness of this part of his outfit4 ,he is out to 8rough it10 you know4 ,the seasoned campaigner on the other hand prides himself on the comfort of his nightly abode4 ,the native ,indian can and often does sleep on a hard bed and you can simulate him when you are accustomed to it but probably you will not have the time to get used to this on the short vacation you will have4 ,a man may abuse his physical powers by day in the most exhausting work4 ,he can go into the wilderness expecting to pay small attention to a comfortable and rejuvenating night's rest but he can not stand up under it4 ,one can make out for a few hours on most any kind of makeshift for a bed if his sleep is from exhaustion but sooner or later he will be disturbed by the inequalities of the earth's surface1 rocks1 sticks and mounds1 and when awake his muscles will be stiff and sore1 his powers unrefreshed and he will soon go to pieces4 ,a good bed is no disgrace4 ,the men who are obliged to live out of doors all the time1 on the range or forest trails are likely to be the very ones most particular about their beds and to see some of them at work on browse bunk and rude shelter one would believe they were preparing to spend the rest of their days in that particular spot4 ,so no matter how light you travel provide for a suitable night's rest4 ,should your fastidiousness lead you to add any foible to the already completed pack let it be on this essential item of wilderness equipment4 ,by careful choice the bed need not be cumbersome to pack and yet be ample to satisfy all needs4 ,it should protect the sleeper from the cold which is greatest near the tent's floor and from the winds whose greatest force is spent when it contends against the properly pitched shelter overhead4 ,provision must be made for keeping the bedding off the ground and for allowing an egress of moisture in the summer and a retention of heat in winter4 ,one has a variety of styles to choose from1 ranging from sleeping on the warmed bare ground to luxuriating on the latest invention for creature comfort when camping--the combined pneumatic mattress and blanket bag4 ,in all likelihood you will depend for warmth upon blankets4 ,their use is so universal that we need no discussion other than in regard to their quality and shape4 ,as commonly used a blanket bed throws open easily2 there is no condensation of moisture and the sleeper is able to wrap up snugly1 retaining all of the generated animal heat4 ,lambs' wool fibers are peculiar in that they have a natural repulsion for water4 ,they have the attribute of holding air in the interstices between the fibers1 thus creating a dead air space which is a nonconductor of heat4 ,on account of these things wool becomes ideal for body covering4 ,damp wool will not chill1 which condition the outer is often up against many times a day4 ,in summer the evaporation of surplus moisture and in winter the retention of animal heat is obtained4 ,the thicker and looser the texture of woolen goods the greater will be the warmth4 ,cotton is objectionable because it is not warm and is in danger of being 8fired0 from stray camp fire sparks4 ,the wool of the ,south ,american llama is a new material used for outing purposes and besides having all the good attributes of lamb's wool has an additional one of being very much lighter in weight4 ,a llama blanket weighs about six pounds and equals in warmth about fifteen pounds of ordinary blanket4 ,the secret of its warmth is in the great number of air cells between the loose texture of its fibers which retain body heat4 ,at the same time it gets rid of the moisture which the sleeper throws off in great quantities as natural body emanations4 ,its prohibitive cost will prevent its general adoption4 ,eiderdown in no way equalizes temperatures4 ,it simply retains moisture and heat and is too warm except on the coldest nights4 ,usually in the form of a quilt whose outer cloth covering tears easily the fluffy down is hard to control4 ,it is of little use beneath the sleeper because the pressure squeezes out the confined air4 ,the blanket as well as the union suit then had best be all wool of the domestic lamb variety4 ,in buying blankets beware that many of those offered you may be humbug4 ,see to it that you get an article made up of curly wool fibers and not 8adulterated0 by the straight cotton kind--a differentiation easily determined by the aid of a small magnifying glass4 ,also see to it that the weight is in the thickness and not in the size4 ,in this country the regulation ,army blanket is to be depended upon4 ,however1 if they can be secured1 a person will certainly make no mistake in getting a genuine ,hudson ,bay or ,mackinaw4 ,the proper weight is about five pounds per blanket and size seventy-two by seventy-eight is about right4 ,if you get it too narrow you cannot then roll it up so snugly for packing nor wrap it so closely about the body at night4 ,the number of blankets needed depends somewhat upon the time of year and the locality of use and whether or not the all night fire is to be used4 ,in ordinary summer weather one blanket is enough especially if combined with the proper browse bag and wind break and is enough even for frosty autumn temperatures up to stream freezing time1 excepting in the higher altitudes4 ,with the temperature under thirty-two degrees two ,army blankets will be needed4 ,many mountaineers to whom strenuous pedestrianism and cold nights of the higher altitudes necessitate the lightest form of bedding prefer wool quilts which are folded and sewed on one end and half up one side in the form of a sleeping bag which is protected from the damp ground by a waterproof balloon silk cover4 ,where the transportation is inadequate as on a hike trip1 the wearing of an extra suit of underwear is as warm as an extra blanket4 ,one then gets the dead air space between the wool and the warmth is thereby intensified because the number of layers of covering retains the heat longer than one thick layer of the same weight4 ,in ,arctic work the clothing and bed cover must be chosen with one particular fact in mind--that moisture condensation from the body perspiration or from accidental immersion in water must be eliminated1 otherwise ice will form to the detriment of the individual4 ,any woven fabric will hold condensation while fur will not4 ,fur then is the clothing and bed cover of choice where one is exposed to extremes in cold4 ,the fur should be worn with the hair outside the same way that the animals wear it1 otherwise it is too hot4 ,the best fur is caribou skin and it is warmer and lighter than a blanket of wool4 ,llama wool is next best4 ,very satisfactory fur robes may be made of the rabbit or cat skin and if made after the following method you will have the warmest bed fabric known to man4 ,the skins are tanned by soaking the 8green0 hides in running water for one to four hours4 ,then the flesh and fat is peeled off with a dull knife and the skin soaked for two days in a tan liquor of sulphuric acid 7poison7 one ounce1 salt one quart and water one gallon contained in an earthen jar4 ,rinse the skin in clear water1 dry and when partly dried work well in the hands thus breaking up the fibers to keep it soft4 ,the tanned and softened skin is now cut into long strips one-fourth of an inch wide1 which are tied or sewed together1 each strip being twisted so that the fur stands out all around the hide thong4 ,these strips are then interbraided into a loose web in a frame the size your blanket is to be4 ,the chief objection to this article is that it is heavy and the fur sheds a good deal so it is best to cover the blanket with light cloth which of course adds some weight without giving any additional warmth4 ,a full sized rabbit robe weighs ten pounds and is warmer than many blankets of wool4 ,the secret of its warmth is the dead air interspaces between the fibers4 ,there is considerable difference of opinion among woodsmen regarding the choice between the sleeping bag and blanket bed4 ,there are good arguments for and against4 ,as usually made a sleeping bag consists of two parts3--7#a7 a cover for protection from rain1 dampness1 and wind1 and 7#b7 a warm lining to retain body heat4 ,to its credit may be enumerated these facts3 ,being sack-like the sleeping bag retains the heat within and keeps the cold out4 ,it is easy to unroll1 keeps out dirt and wind and the contents may remain dry and one has full protection in any kind of weather4 ,the objectionable feature is that the bag cannot be drawn up closely to the body and the resulting air space is difficult to warm up4 ,it is hard to adjust the top to keep the air from the sleeper's shoulders and the inevitable twisting and turning of the sleeper bunches the blanket up around the limbs4 ,a sleeping bag really is no substitute for a roof overhead on a rainy night as alluring advertisements would lead you to believe4 ,its waterproof cover retains inside moisture from the air and the body exudations of the sleeper thereby adding appreciably to the blanket's weight4 ,thus a waterproof cover is no more wholesome to sleep in than a rubber boot is wholesome for one's foot4 ,in ordinary weather the sleeping bag is too hot and in chilly weather it is not as warm as it is supposed to be4 ,its narrow shape makes it difficult to crawl into the head end and it is very inconvenient should one need to get up several times a night to fix a night fire4 ,it is an unpleasant trap to be in when a squall springs up suddenly at night or the tent catches fire4 ,no less famous an explorer than ,peary discarded the sleeping bag for the reason that1 aside from its being a weighty extra item of outfit1 when sleeping in snow igloos he was in constant danger of a break in the icy floor from the formation of pressure ridges and if encumbered in the bag he would have extricated himself with difficulty4 ,quoting ,mr4 ,harry ,whitney--8,on my winter ox hunt ,i started into the ,barren ,grounds with a bag of caribou and lined with rabbit skin--the very warmest robe possible1 but ,i ripped it open before ,i had been on the road three days40 ,the choice between a loose blanket bed and the sleeping bag is a matter of individual preference4 ,if the latter is chosen it should be made to air easily and be easy of adjustment to varying temperatures4 ,the permanently closed bag is out of the question as it retains the accumulated condensed body moisture4 ,the only kind worth considering is one which can be easily opened and spread wide apart in the sunlight or before a fire every morning4 ,the bag should be closed on all sides as far up as the breast of the sleeper and the continuation of the bag in the shape of a flap which can be nicely tucked about the shoulders4 ,probably the best low temperature sleeping bag is of caribou skin with the hair inside4 ,one lined with llama wool duffle is next best4 ,the so-called ,arctic or ,fiala sleeping bag is the lightest one available from outfitters in the ,united ,states4 ,if one prefers this kind of a bed the tramper can find nothing so excellent where the greatest amount of warmth with the lightest possible weight is imperative4 ,made of the soft body wool of the ,south ,american llama it is about twice as light as any other wool of equal thickness4 ,as sold by many outfitters the cloth cover is waterproof but this should not be4 ,to get the greatest warmth it is necessary to have not only the blanket porous but the covering as well so as to throw off the moisture which otherwise condenses and chills the occupant of the bag4 ,but the sleeper must be insulated from the ground's cold1 moisture1 and wet and hence the waterproof browse bag or thatched balsam bed used under the sleeping bag is recommended4 ,any blanket combination can be made into a serviceable sleeping bag by folding lengthwise and securing one end and three-fourths of one side by blanket pins or by sewing4 ,you will of course not carry a mattress with you on the hike yet it is really necessary that you have some sort of browse thatching1 waterproof sheet or pad to insulate you from the bare ground4 ,the bed springs par excellence of the woods are of thatched evergreen boughs or balsam4 ,this1 the trapper's bough bed1 is largely poetical with campers in sections of the country where balsam1 hemlock or spruce are not available4 ,it is difficult to make but when properly constructed furnishes a mighty comfortable place to lay tired muscles at night4 ,collect a heap of boughs 8about the size of a small house10 according to ,moody1 stripping off the fans with the hands1 using only the lighter tips4 ,build on the ground a quadrangle of poles somewhat larger than the intended bed and retain this in place by ground stakes4 ,beginning at the head lay your larger fans convex side up and butts toward the foot much as you would shingle a house with the bushy stems overlapping4 ,over these lay a similar cover of the smaller fans with the butt ends beneath the layer already placed1 leaving the fan ends curving up and down toward the foot of the bed4 ,when done place over all the floorcloth and blankets4 ,as the boughs get pressed down and the bed becomes hard they must be replenished4 ,the ground cloth is to a tent what a floor is to a house4 ,it keeps out dirt1 vermin1 dampness and wind and in cold or wet weather1 besides being an absolute health necessity1 it will add greatly to one's comfort4 ,the ground beneath besides being wet and cold is hard as a board for sleeping purposes1 hence some sort of pad is needed4 ,nothing meets this requirement so well as the so-called browse bag or tick4 ,it is preferably made of waterproof balloon silk or paraffined muslin 7a rubber blanket or poncho is too heavy7 size #b by #f feet and weight #a pound4 ,it is open at the foot end and at each camp is stuffed with hay1 grass1 leaves or other browse dry or wet4 ,the bag weighs but little1 takes up small compass when rolled for the pack and is useful in packing4 ,it is quickly made into an acceptable bed mattress each night and emptied each morning4 ,with the filled browse bag beneath you the under side is always dry and warm and the upper side is attended to by rolling yourself up in the blanket4 ,for traveling through a rough swampy country and for mountain work this is absolutely necessary for a restful sleep4 ,the bag may be composed of a #g by #h foot sheet with grommets #c inches apart on one end and the sides and when not serving day duty as a pack cloth or in the emergency bivouac as a tarpaulin leanto shelter tent may be worn like a ,mexican serape or rain blanket over the shoulders4 ,it can be made into a browse bag by folding the sides together and lacing the ends and side with a string of number #cf tarpon line4 ,or the tarp or shelter cloth may be laid over a collected layer of browse next to the ground4 ,with a browse bag one can rig up a good bed pad in much less time than it takes to shingle browse4 ,to sleep warm outdoors the ground should be as dry and warm as possible4 ,this can be accomplished if need be by a fire built over the intended bed area1 the embers raked away and the bed made thereon4 ,the browse bag is then filled and flattened over the heated spot4 ,there is some knack in arranging your covers about you to fit snugly and keep out the night cold4 ,it can be done by a simple trick so as to entirely eliminate the necessity of a sleeping bag4 ,lying flat on your back on the browse bag cover yourself with the blanket1 kick up your feet rigid from the hips so as to bring the blanket foot end draping over and under the feet1 returning the feet to the tick roll the body to the left side and tuck the blanket edge under your right side1 reverse the turn and do the same under your left side4 ,lower the feet1 wrap up the shoulders and go to sleep4 ,the blanket is now drawn about you snugly above and below and there is no exposed side to let in the cold air and in rolling over the blanket will tighten about you4 ,in an emergency one can sleep in most any kind of weather by following a certain ,indian method4 ,he carries but one blanket but does not use it to wrap around his body4 ,if the night is not too cold he lights a rather large fire and warms the earth1 then he rakes away the coals and lies upon the bare warmed ground pulling the blanket over him4 ,in extreme cold in addition to the above ground warming he heats a large stone before bedtime1 rolls it on the ground1 curls himself around the mound1 and pulls the cover over him1 lying with his feet to the fire4 ,he neither wraps the blanket about him nor lies upon it relying on the warmed earth for warmth below4 ,on chilly nights in addition to the heated ground beneath the bed you can build a big camp fire six feet or so in front of your leanto shelter and the heat will be reflected down upon the sleeper4 ,you must have a windbreak of cloth leanto1 boughs1 or rocks4 ,the fire should be kept going all night and for this one needs a lot of wood1 so carry a larger chopping axe if you are to encounter very low temperatures4 ,even with this fire it is hard for one man to keep warm and get a good night's sleep4 ,two men1 however1 can change off1 watching the fire and sleeping4 ,the warmest and most portable bed then is in reality patterned after the one of civilization4 ,essentially it will keep the sleeper high and dry by means of the waterproofed cloth over browse or the filled browse bag and it will keep the body warm by the woolen blanket rolled snugly about you4 ,,chapter ,x ,,choosing ,,the ,,light ,,weight ,,mess ,,kit ,the light weight mess kit combines the fewest utensils with which a person can prepare his own meals from the raw materials4 ,it must nest compactly1 have as few component parts as possible1 be comfortably carried on the person while en route1 contain space for a lunch or emergency ration and possibly have provision for carrying water4 ,to meet these demands one may well include the following articles3--a fry pan 7possibly rigged up as a baker also71 a stew kettle1 a cup1 a light fork1 spoon and knife and a canteen4 ,most of the so-called light weight individual outfits center around the above as the essentials with variations in shape to best suit the particular outfit for easy nesting4 ,the preparation of food by frying is not the best thing for the stomach1 for the average bit of fried stuff is enveloped in tough greasy coating4 ,however most cooks use this method to some extent1 so provision for frying must be made4 ,the frying pan is preferably made of steel and in use is to be rested on a bed of coals raked to one side of the cooking fire4 ,if one prefers to utilize the big open fire the fry pan handle should have a square socket into which one may fit a stick to extend the handle1 the same to be newly fashioned at each camp4 ,for the lightest kits use a small ,no4 #j pan with a socket4 ,the component parts of any outfit will vary according to the condition and temperament of the user and the nature and locality of experience4 ,he has to choose from a multitudinous and confusing array of impedimenta offered by well meaning and alluring advertisements4 ,the camper who is choosing his light individual mess kit has the privilege of gathering together those utensils selected along lines above suggested and easily procurable at any store or of getting through the regular sporting goods dealers some specially made kit whose greatest recommendation is compactness with lightness and utility4 ,it must have a pot and a fry pan and these with a pocket or hunting knife and a pointed or flat stick answer all purposes4 ,one must compromise between weight and comfort4 ,many cook outfits offered by sporting goods houses are too complete for a place in the hiker's kit1 in fact their very completeness renders them impractical because of weight1 bulk and the number of utensils to be kept track of4 ,they are made more in answer to the call of city sportsmen with fastidious trend of mind who as a rule favor more elaborate equipage throughout4 ,in choosing a cooking outfit weight is the first consideration4 ,one does not wish to carry heavy stove utensils nor are such needed4 ,they must be strong enough1 however1 for hard service4 ,in the second place compactness is a desideratum1 for here we must reduce bulk4 ,the common utensils of the shop will not nest well for they are all spouts1 bail ears1 handles and cover knobs4 ,one can reduce the bulk by getting such articles as nest into one another4 ,in making up the light weight mess kit the nesting idea should certainly be carried out but never at the cost of utility4 ,of materials tin and iron are the cheapest and they may be light enough4 ,here their merits end4 ,iron will rust and neither iron nor tin will stand rough handling4 ,utensils of such material are hard to clean when greasy and if the joints be soldered one is kept in mortal fear of their early destruction4 ,the so-called armorsteel which is strong stamped steel with heavy tinning is quite good if one can get nothing better4 ,enamel ware is the easiest to keep clean and its poor heat conducting properties makes it for some things preferable4 ,it has a tendency to chip and flake under rough handling or in cold weather4 ,this latter fault can be remedied to some extent by gradual warming of the article before exposing to fierce heat4 ,enamel ware is not much heavier than other ware that is sufficiently strong for outdoor service4 ,aluminum alloy is a boon to the camper1 it being the ideal material for certain outdoor utensils4 ,it stands up in all climates--tropical1 frigid north1 in use on horseback trips1 in canoe work1 sledging or on the hike4 ,it is much the lightest material we have4 ,any sporting goods dealer can supply you4 ,the unalloyed aluminum is too soft and easily bends out of shape with hard usage and dry heat1 hence a stiffener is added yet without appreciable change of weight4 ,aluminum alloy has few merits beyond lightness3 it is a quick heat conductor1 hence the cup had better be of some other material such as enamel ware so as to save the lips from blistering4 ,also under the application of dry heat to an aluminum fry pan the food sticks and burns so the fry pan is preferably of light stamped steel4 ,however1 where lightness is the great desideratum all parts of the cooking kit should be made of aluminum alloy4 ,the most commonly used outfit is the one mentioned1 consisting of fry pan1 kettle1 cup1 knife1 fork and spoon with perhaps a canteen4 ,the first three articles represent the essential components of an ideal individual mess kit and provision for these in some shape or form is made in most every mess kit combination you will come across4 ,the above outfit ,i have used for years1 gotten together in the first place because the parts were easy to get hold of and then they were retained because they did the work expected of them--they withstood the 8acid test40 ,the large tin cup1 ,army pattern1 ,i carried at my belt where it is easy to reach and thus escaped the trouble to nest4 ,in it ,i steeped tea thus doing away with a special teapot4 ,the kettle of tin was used for boiling water1 making stews1 etc4 ,its wire bail ,i luckily lost and therewith attached a chain bail which stays put when suspending the pot over the fire and it is not cumbersome when packing away4 ,the fry pan is a small ,number #j size with socket for extension handle4 ,it is covered with a tight fitting lid and thus does duty as a baker4 ,by heaping coals upon it one gets the envelope of hot air4 ,the ,united ,states ,army ,meat ,can combines a frying pan and baker3 the deep bottom also serves as a soup plate and the lid as a serving plate4 ,when the lid locks in place over the pan by the hinged handle it becomes a roomy receptacle for lunch carrying on the march1 the metal ring on one end allows of its attachment to the soldier's belt or the whole thing can be stored in the pack sack4 ,it is an ingenious contrivance and ideal for the tramper's use4 ,a large aluminum alloy tablespoon1 a small steel fork and the sheath or pocket knife or flat stick which displaces the table knife completes the kit4 ,on certain trips where water is scarce ,i add a second hand1 felt covered ,army canteen4 ,regarding inspirators1 broilers1 fire irons and other clap-traps1 let it be known that though seemingly insignificant they furnish more details to look after1 but as a rule they do not possess sufficient advantage to pay for the care and labor of transporting on a light trip4 ,on a hiking trip the combined fry pan and baker will be used4 ,with this very acceptable breadstuffs can be coaxed out of camp fire heat1 dough and the frying pan4 ,indeed in emergency the frying pan itself may be discarded and in such a contingency one can make very good bread by winding the dough around a cleaned stick and slanting it up by the side of the fire4 ,canteens are nearly always a necessity in mountainous regions where your work carries you on the ridges high above the valleys where the streams are4 ,in the desert a special water supply must be planned for4 ,in ordinary hunting or tramping trips the smaller ,army canteen supplies the more urgent needs4 ,where the water supply is contaminated it is necessary to boil and filter the water for drinking4 ,this can be done at mealtimes and then cooled and carried in the canteen for use on the march4 ,the purpose of the felt covering of the canteen is to keep the contents cool by the evaporation from the wetted felt4 ,as a rule one will1 on a light trip1 carry no folding grate or fire irons as supports for utensils4 ,rocks1 logs or earthen trenches will take their places and one does not have to tote them around4 ,in choosing the hiker's light weight mess kit take only those component parts that are really needed and have these as strong1 light and compact as is possible4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,ration ,,list ,supposedly the greatest privation which will confront the amateur woodsman who breaks away from home ties for a few weeks' jaunt into the wilderness is a gastronomic one4 ,yet with a properly balanced ration list composed of goods procurable of any grocer with perhaps the addition of some of the newer evaporated foods available on special order or made at home1 the hiker may hit the trail confident that he will be well fed4 ,the hackneyed slogan of outfitting1 viz43--to secure the maximum in efficiency from supplies which represent a minimum in carrying weight and bulk--must be reiterated in choosing the tramper's food supply4 ,for those demanding the extreme in portable equipage the evaporated foods--vegetables 7as dried potatoes1 ,julienne1 etc417 soups 7,erbswurst71 eggs1 milk1 etc41 are invaluable4 ,in their preparation by dessication the fresh vegetables are deprived of their water content so that all one needs to do in preparing them for table use is to add water and cook in the usual way4 ,they are thus restored to their former value as palatable foods although of course their form and shape may be altered4 ,their chief value for our purpose is that they represent a tremendous reduction 7of approximately #ae per cent7 in their natural weight and a corresponding lessening of bulk4 ,for example a pound of evaporated potatoes will represent seven pounds of the fresh product4 ,or again one pound of granulated dried egg represents four dozen of the fresh eggs4 ,dehydrated goods are equal to fresh goods and are far superior to the canned kind4 ,they are palatable and nutritious as foods1 they never spoil and permit a welcome variety in the bill of fare4 ,concentration of bulk alone is not the criterion in choosing camp foods--digestibility is really paramount4 ,thus cheese1 nuts1 beans1 rice and the various evaporated foods are highly concentrated but differ greatly in their ease of digestion4 ,food for the hiker1 as we have said1 must with the least weight and bulk furnish appetizing and digestible nourishment to an active man4 ,it should be composed of the proper proportions of fat1 protein 7which comprises the elements of lean meat7 and cereal4 ,it should pack easily under all conditions of heat1 moisture and rough handling and must cook simply4 ,the following items are looked upon as the essentials in diet lists for campers3--flour1 bacon1 beans1 tea1 sugar4 ,they represent the three classes of foods necessary to health4 ,for increasing the palatability and variety of the bill of fare other items creep in and they are admissible if they represent in food value and concentration of bulk the same as a given amount of the essential food for which they were substituted4 ,bush life develops a great appetite1 therefore figure well on the necessary amounts to be packed4 ,too much means discomfort and fatigue in packing and too little means hunger and perhaps privation4 ,little dependence should be placed upon securing game or fish en route unless one is certain that he is in a country where such are present in reasonable abundance and that there is nothing to interfere with procuring them4 ,in general it may be said that for each week about twenty pounds of food stuff are needed per man4 ,the following proportions of the various items will be found about right3-- ,,food ,,for ,,one ,,man ,,one ,,week ,wheat flour #e pounds ,corn meal #d pounds ,bacon #e pounds ,beans #a pounds ,sugar #a pounds ,dried fruit #a pound ,rice #a pound ,baking powder pound ,tea pound ,salt pound ,pepper small amount4 ,dried ,egg substituting a portion of the meat ration4 ,dried soup and vegetables substituting a portion of the bean or flour ration4 ,on the trail count on cooking but two meals a day1 morning and night with a noon-day stop with lunch and hot drink4 ,this allows time for a day's work4 ,foods will keep well if care is taken to exclude moisture by packing in provision bags of closely woven muslin1 size #f by #aj inches with tie strings for closing the open end4 ,they are made waterproof by painting with paraffin1 which has been liquefied in gasoline4 ,mark each bag well4 ,they stow away nicely in odd corners of the pack sack4 ,bacon is the great standby in the meat line4 ,only the leanest should be chosen3 trim off the rind before starting on the hike and wrap it in a piece of waterproof muslin to protect it from other items of the outfit4 ,do not seal it too tight as it will mold4 ,as bacon grease will be used instead of lard the latter can be omitted entirely4 ,the flour ration should be made up of whole wheat or graham flour and yellow corn meal4 ,for a stimulating beverage coffee is generally preferred in the ,united ,states and tea in ,canada4 ,the latter is much easier to transport and more sustaining to the body4 ,if properly chosen you can eliminate the tea or coffee pot from the camp outfit4 ,george ,washington coffee and ,instant ,postum are powdered preparations and all that is needed is to put a teaspoonful in a cup of hot water1 stir up1 sweeten and drink4 ,if you use tea get the tea tabloids which are a great convenience because of their extreme compactness4 ,sufficient for #ajj cups of good tea occupies only about as much space as one or two ounces of loose tea leaves4 ,for use throw one tabloid into a cup of hot water1 wait a minute and a satisfying infusion is the result4 ,tea in general is to be preferred1 for an ounce of it will go as far as many ounces of coffee4 ,dried fruits such as raisins1 figs1 etc41 should always be included in the ration list4 ,they make fine emergency rations to be carried in the knapsack 7with a cake of sweet chocolate added47 ,chocolate beats whisky for putting new energy into a fellow who is all in4 ,when raisins are cooked up alone or with rice one gets an agreeable change in the bill of fare4 ,rice is one of the most concentrated foods we have1 it is easy to pack and cook and has great sustaining powers as an article of diet4 ,it has food elements of such a kind that it can be taken in place of potatoes or bulky breakfast foods4 ,to cook rice1 add gradually the washed kernels to furiously boiling salted water and keep this over the fire for #bj minutes4 ,powdered milk is on the market and is more satisfactorily purchased than made at home4 ,it is the milk of choice when you have to cut down weight as on a hike4 ,baking powder should be pure1 and it should be kept in air and water tight containers and sunk in the middle of the flour sack4 ,i keep it in an aluminum flask with a cork lined metal screw top4 ,when moisture reaches baking powder a chemical change takes place destroying its leavening powers and it is useless for cooking purposes4 ,keep this in mind in considering self rising flours which have the baking powder mixed with the flour in proper proportions for use and simply requiring the addition of water before cooking4 ,one has a remarkable craving for sweets when on the trail which only sugar will satisfy4 ,sugar is the most concentrated food we have for it supplies so much heat and energy to the body4 ,in cold weather ,nature calls for more heat in the body and one's appetite for sweets usually increases in proportion4 ,much is written in camp outfitting concerning a preparation called saccharine or crystallose which is a chemical of remarkable sweetness--a small portion of it equalling in sweetening power several hundred times its bulk of sugar4 ,do not depend on it1 for its chemical action delays digestion and it does not furnish the food value which sugar does4 ,,dehydrated ,,navy ,,beans ,in preparing dried bean meal one uses ordinary navy beans which are cooked in the usual way and then baked in an oven4 ,by spreading this product out in a broad flat bottomed pan and continuing the baking or drying out process in the oven the moisture is all driven out and only a crumbling crust remains4 ,this is pulverized and packed in tight fitting tins or in waterproof sacks4 ,it is used as a soup or gruel4 ,common baked beans which come in tins from the corner grocer may be put into the broad bake tins and thoroughly dried and packed away4 ,as beans are hard to boil in high altitudes you can prepare them at home by parboiling without salt in the water1 drying well and later using by cooking as usual in salted water4 ,,jerked ,,meats ,in the palmy days of the 8late lamented wild west0 the ,indian hunters preserved meats by a method called 8jerking40 ,the flesh would be cut into strips and laid on light wooden racks in the sun or in the smoke of a camp fire until dry and hard4 ,this would be packed away and used in the winter time much the same as we use the dried beef of the butcher shops of today4 ,you can preserve meats--steaks1 game1 or fish--this way or after the improved method of ,dr4 ,hornaday of the ,new ,york ,zoological ,garden4 ,he takes meat cut into strips and works well into the flesh a mixture of salt #a pound1 allspice #a tablespoonsful and black pepper #a tablespoonsful4 ,then he hangs it up by a string in the sun if the air is dry as in the mountains or1 if not1 in a camp fire smoke protected from the wet4 ,it can be eaten uncooked and tastes fine after a month or so has passed4 ,,erbswurst ,one of the best concentrated foods for campers and one admirably suited for use as an emergency ration is ,erbswurst--a meal preparation used by various ,european armies4 ,as it is hard to get except from grocers of the larger cities or sporting goods dealers one can well make it at home as follows3--,procure common dried peas and navy beans and dessicate them after cooking as suggested above 7see paragraph on ,dehydrated ,navy ,beans74 ,of the pea meal use one pound2 of the bean meal #a pounds2 bacon chopped fine and dried1 and onions pulverized1 of each pound4 ,mix all together and run through the grinder again1 dry and pack away4 ,it is used to make a thick soup and is very nutritious4 ,,evaporated ,,egg ,,powder ,probably the most remarkable dried food of all is the evaporated egg4 ,take dozen eggs and beat them up hard with an egg beater4 ,take two flat bottomed baking pans from the kitchen and spread a very thin layer of egg thereon4 ,now in drying should you put this in the oven it will cook whereas if simply set in the sun during the day the moisture is evaporated and a crust of the essential elements retaining all the nourishment and flavor of the egg remains4 ,true the product is shapeless as far as the ordinary conception of an egg is concerned but it is very effective for cooking where weight and fragility in packing are concerned4 ,after the eggs have been in the sun all day remove indoors and if dry run through a cleaned coffee mill4 ,this pulverizes the mass4 ,it should next be completely dried out in the sun and packed away in empty molasses tins with pry up lids4 ,a pound of evaporated egg equals four dozen fresh eggs and one tablespoonful of egg powder with two tablespoonsful of water represents an egg4 ,it is useful in omelets1 scrambled or in combination cooking4 ,besides being a great saving in weight since one does not have to carry around the water1 the evaporated preparation enables us to utilize eggs on the hardest kind of a hike where if we were forced to use fresh eggs their place in the knapsack would be positively prohibited because of their fragility4 ,,pemmican ,when much fat is required for the body as in colder regions no food has been found to surpass ,pemmican4 ,peary says3--8,pemmican is the most concentrated and satisfactory of all meat foods and is absolutely indispensable on long ,arctic sledge journeys40 ,for a ten pound lot take of lean meat1 #e pounds2 fat 7suet7 #d pounds2 dried fruit 7raisins7 pound and of sugar pound4 ,cut the meat in thin slices1 dry several days as directed under 8,jerked ,meats40 ,pulverize between two stones or otherwise grind and mix well with the suet1 melted1 to a paste1 add the ground currants or raisins and sugar1 allow to cool and pack away4 ,eat raw1 boiled with flour or fry4 ,,lemonade ,,powder ,this makes an agreeable lunch drink and is really necessary to keep the system in good order4 ,take the clear juice of three lemons and #ae teaspoonfuls of sugar and put into a broad1 flat baking pan4 ,since so much water is to be evaporated it is best to dry this out in an oven1 but prolonged exposure to a hot sun will do the trick4 ,the lemon powder should be perfectly dry and then pulverized and stored in pry up tins4 ,for use put the powder in water to the desired strength4 ,the addition of citric acid crystals in small amounts is a help1 but when relied upon alone to make lemonade1 as recommended by some writers1 will not make a drink which takes the place of the concentrated lemon except as to taste4 ,,breads ,bread is the staff of life4 ,just as good bread can be baked in the woods as in the best hotel of the boulevards4 ,the baking of camp bread can be taken as a criterion of the amateur cook's ability4 ,have a good baker1 a good fire and follow the recipe if you would have success4 ,on back pack trips it is advisable to retain the frying pan as the baker and by using a tin cover you can heap coals upon it and get the envelope of hot air4 ,lay two green chunks or two square edged stones about #f to #h inches apart near the camp fire4 ,rake a few coals between and place the pan over them4 ,put the dough in the pan after sprinkling with flour and cover with the tin4 ,place live coals on this tin--about twice as many as underneath--and watch the baking closely so that it won't burn4 ,you can fry bread on the top of stone3 when one side is baked stand the pan on edge by the side of the stone and allow baking to proceed in that way4 ,remember that small cakes and biscuits must be baked quickly before a hot fire whereas large loaves1 such as johnny cake1 must have a slow even heat so as to get done through4 ,the secret of the camp oven is the envelope of hot air which must not be too hot and must be kept even4 ,below are given the recipes which are most successfully used with the frying pan baker4 ,whole wheat flour makes easier than white and has more taste4 ,use yellow corn meal4 ,in the recipes follow exactly to obtain the best results4 ,,self-,,rising ,,flour ,to save packing several ingredients separately it is often recommended to mix the johnny cake and pan cake flour at home and carry it in one sack on the trail4 ,then merely mixing with water to a given consistency will be sufficient to supply a good dough4 ,if dampness is kept from it while packing it is very good and the following recipe will be found satisfactory3--take of granulated yellow corn meal #a quart1 of white wheat flour #a pint1 sugar cup1 salt #a teaspoonful and baking powder #d teaspoonsful4 ,for flapjacks in camp take a portion of the above flour mixture and add sufficient water to make a stiff batter and allow it to stand for a few minutes before dropping it in spoonfuls on the hot greased fry pan3 when bubbles begin to show on top turn4 ,to make a johnny cake or corn bread use less water than above so as to make a doughy mass1 turn into the fry pan1 set up before the fire and leave until the top sets1 then turn over4 ,a method for corn pone in which the ingredients are mixed at each baking3--#a pint of water in a pail is brought to a boil1 add a teaspoonful of salt1 corn meal is slowly added and stirred to a mush1 cooking it for a few minutes4 ,grease the fry pan1 put in the mush1 cover with tin1 bury in the ashes and coals1 and bake #cj to #dj minutes4 ,this makes the finest kind of breadstuff4 ,,army ,,bread ,this is easy to mix1 is made without grease1 keeps fresh for a long period and will not dry up or mold4 ,it is good to eat when cold and is just the thing when laying in a supply4 ,for routine diet it is much better than biscuit4 ,take of flour #a quart1 salt #a teaspoonful1 sugar #a tablespoonful1 and baking powder #b heaping teaspoonfuls4 ,mix in #a pints of cold water to make a thick batter and pour out level into a pan4 ,bake #de minutes or until a sliver will not stick into the dough4 ,,fish ,one of the delights of camp life is in estranging one's self from the fastidious customs of civilization and living off the country where you camp4 ,a fine pastime and diet change is the catching and eating of fish4 ,the lakes and streams of the outdoors abound with fish which when caught in the icy water and cooked over a camp fire in the open makes a welcome addition to the hiker's bill of fare4 ,trout are easily cooked4 ,black bass are good if the water where you catch them is cold4 ,pike is the best ,american food fish4 ,they should be left uncleaned never longer than one-half day after catching1 never leave in water and don't wash until just before cooking4 ,roll in cornmeal1 have plenty of bacon fat in the fry pan and cook slowly4 ,try with the tine of fork to see if done4 ,for digestible frying use a shallow pan and little grease1 heat the pan and grease just enough to keep the meat from sticking4 ,the meat must be dry or it will absorb the grease4 ,cook quick at first to seal in the juices and turn frequently2 do not jab too much with fork for that would let the juice escape4 ,the seasoned hiker is little apt to be separated from his outfit1 but it can and sometimes is done and then one must be able to cope with a real emergency4 ,every individual outfit should contain emergency food4 ,it is a safe plan never to become separated from your party without an emergency ration with you and materials for securing game and fish if such abound in the region4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,health ,,hints ,,for ,,hikers ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,feet ,the conditioning of the feet will be done while as a pedestrian you are preparing for some long hike4 ,curative measures for foot maladies then are to be undertaken at home4 ,in caring for the feet a definite toilet routine should be established and adhered to in order to keep these worthy members in a shape fit to do the work expected of them4 ,in the morning before starting dust talcum1 equal parts of talcum and zinc stearate1 or the ,united ,states ,army foot powder inside the stocking or smear over the foot a medicated ointment1 oil or vaseline4 ,on a long tramp should the feet become tender one may well at the noon rest change socks and substitute dry ones or at least beat the worn socks with a stick to straighten out any wrinkles that may have formed1 then dry them as well as you can4 ,in the evening attend to washing the feet and legs as soon as possible after the march4 ,cool water seems best to allay the sensation of heat and irritability resulting from their forcible impact on the road4 ,use very little soap if any and dry the feet well with a soft towel and apply friction gently until the skin is red4 ,if there is any tendency toward rawness of the skin add common salt to the bathing water4 ,weston1 the famous pedestrian1 when asked what special preparation of the feet he made before his long record-breaking walks said that he 8pickled his feet in a strong solution of common rock salt--the kind used for ice cream making--at the temperature of the body4 ,souse and soak the feet at bedtime4 ,then dry and if available souse them with extract of witch hazel which is allowed to dry on40 ,a tendency toward sweaty feet is natural with certain individuals4 ,the sweat glands are simply over-active and the secretion easily decomposes and is highly offensive4 ,the resulting softening of the skin permits of its rubbing off easily1 and abrasions and blisters are apt to form4 ,the treatment should be applied as soon as there is any sign of the trouble and is as follows3 ,bathe the feet in cool water and carefully dry them4 ,then paint with commercial formalin #a part and water #i parts and if this causes a burning of any portion of the raw skin wash it off with water4 ,if formalin is not at hand a strong tea infusion or tannic acid solution will work as well4 ,the object is to harden and practically tan the superficial layers of the skin and alter the secretions of the sweat glands4 ,repeat the above every other day for six days4 ,then dust with the ,army ,foot ,powder4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,army ,,foot ,,powder ,salicylic acid #c parts ,powdered starch #aj parts ,talcum powder #hg parts ,this is antiseptic1 astringent and soothing4 ,under a combination of dampness and heat the skin becomes soft and tender and is apt to become blistered and abraded4 ,unaccustomed exercise and ill fitting shoes are responsible for most of the blisters which develop on the foot1 usually on the heels and toes4 ,they constitute the most serious troubles with which the amateur pedestrian will have to contend1 especially those with a soft skin and sweaty feet4 ,on a long hike the condition should have been averted by the toughening treatment at home as outlined above4 ,in blistering the skin is raised and filled with a collection of watery serum4 ,the fluid must be evacuated and the skin left intact as a protective cover during the healing process4 ,remove the fluid by passing a needle1 which has been heated until red1 obliquely through the sound skin at the edge of the blister1 withdraw and allow the fluid to escape4 ,in the case of very large blisters use a needle and thread and sterilize by boiling4 ,pass through the blister and snip off the ends of the thread to within inch of the blister and leave it to act as a drain4 ,cover all with a soft clean cloth until the serum is all out then cover with adhesive plaster4 ,one can thus continue walking without pain and rely upon complete recovery in a couple of days4 ,abrasions are blisters with skin removed1 due to rubbing of the shoes in walking and they are very painful because of the access of air upon the exposed nerves of the true skin4 ,small abrasions may be washed clean and dried1 covered with an adhesive strip1 and dismissed4 ,larger ones may need to be cleaned and treated with some antiseptic ointment and covered with absorbent cotton and adhesive4 ,the secret is to prevent them in the first place by proper foot care1 and if started to examine and treat them from time to time to prevent their enlargement4 ,a corn is a circumscribed thickness of skin at a point1 usually on a toe1 where there is pressure and friction between a bony prominence and the shoe4 ,it is similar to a callus but differs from the latter in having a central peg or core projection inward toward the bone and by pressing on fine nerves producing pain4 ,the pain stops when the outside pressure is removed4 ,if the corn is between two toes where it becomes macerated by heat and moisture it is called a 8soft corn40 ,in treating a corn the cause must be remedied and this usually consists in getting footwear with plenty of 8toe room10 thus relieving the pressure4 ,for cure the callosity must be softened and removed4 ,if the corn is not severe simply softening by soaking in hot soapy water and paring with a razor-sharp knife blade will often suffice4 ,to remove corns3 7#a7 ,wash the foot well at bedtime4 ,soak for ten minutes in hot soapy water which will soften a corn so it will appear white4 7#b7 ,wipe dry4 7#c7 ,apply corn medicine4 ,the chief ingredient of most of the advertised corn cures is salicylic acid and a convenient preparation is made by your druggist as follows3 ,,corn ,,collodion ,salicylic acid #aa parts ,extract ,cannibis ,indica #b parts ,alcohol #aj parts ,flexible collodion #gg parts ,apply with a wisp of cotton twisted on a match or toothpick1 dip in solution and paint on the corn and allow to dry4 ,repeat the above nightly for four times4 7#d7 ,on the fourth night the corn should be dead and whitish in color4 ,after washing pare around the edge of the corn with a knife blade and lift the core out in one piece1 including all of the thickened tissue down to the quick4 ,the result is a complete cure if the attachments of the corn are taken out all at once4 ,soft corns must be treated the same as hard ones3 soften the corn tissue so it will come away without pain4 ,preferably here one should use an ointment instead of collodion2 salicylic acid #dj parts1 vaseline #cj parts and lanolin #cj parts4 ,smear this over the corns and keep the toes apart with absorbent cotton4 ,remove the cause4 ,because they are so common foot injuries must not be resigned to as inevitable4 ,prevention is simple and the rewards to the tramper adequate4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,camp ,,life ,as pertains to normal life anywhere the hiker must observe the accepted precepts of hygiene in order to derive the greatest benefit from his health giving pastime4 ,the feet must be kept sound as emphasized in the foregoing1 the stomach and bowels normal and temperance in all things strictly observed4 ,our aim is not to train and diet for record breaking feats1 but to develop a reasonable endurance and become healthy4 ,as soon as is possible after a walk rub down with a wet towel and friction to a glow with a dry towel3 this is very refreshing and quickly dispels stiffness4 ,while walking produces a good appetite1 eating and drinking must be moderately indulged in after a long walk1 just satisfying the pangs of hunger else you will lack energy instead of gaining it4 ,be careful not to become overheated3 in cold weather ease up near the end of the journey to cool off gradually and thus prevent chill4 ,,medical ,,and ,,surgical ,,kit ,no wilderness adventurer should hit the trail without a knowledge of a few principles in the treatment of medical and surgical ills and he should always be equipped with a simple compact first aid kit4 ,this should contain an emergency wound packet such as is issued our ,army and consisting of the following--a pad of sterile gauze and a triangular bandage so arranged as to be suitable for use as a wound dressing on any part of the body3 an ounce of absorbent cotton is useful 7a7 to filter bad water--boil the latter and pour through cotton held in the cleansed hands2 7b7 as a dressing for wounds2 7c7 a small tuft may be wrapped about a toothpick and used to swab foreign particles from the eye4 ,z ,o ,adhesive ,plaster 7one inch by five yards7 is used on the feet to prevent and treat abrasions and blisters1 over finger cuts1 to mend fish rods1 etc4 ,take a collapsible tube of vaseline or boric acid ointment for chapped lips2 compound cathartic pills for bowel regulation2 aspirin tablets1 #e grains each to be used one every four hours for grippe1 colds and rheumatism2 sun cholera tablets for pain and cramps in the stomach and bowels--one every hour for four doses and in diarrha one after each bowel movement2 and mosquito dope4 ,,insect ,,pests ,throughout the early season until near ,august first mosquitoes1 gnats1 deer and black flies are to be reckoned with4 ,the vicious black fly keeps one awake until late in the afternoon1 the midges appear about sunset1 the deer fly most all the time1 and the mosquito mainly at bedtime4 ,mosquitoes are worse the further ,south 7in the tropics insects form the worst impediment to travel7 or ,north 7even to the bleak mountain tops above timber line7 you go4 ,the querulous sing song1 poisoned sting and thirst for blood makes of them a real obstacle to the successful enjoyment of a trip4 ,even one can keep you awake for hours4 ,the amount of annoyance depends somewhat on the person's makeup1 some being very susceptible while others are not4 ,you can miss the pest by the choice of a good season4 ,august finds them greatly lessened in numbers hence this is the best month in which to go camping4 ,for preventing their vicious assaults a headnet fitting down over the shoulders with strings under the arms is often useful when you are about camp but as you look through the cloth when walking in the woods the landscape assumes prismatic aspects4 ,mosquito bar is too fragile and bobbinet too expensive while cheesecloth net with a mica or celluloid window is quite satisfactory4 ,wear gauntlet gloves for hands4 ,nine out of ten persons sleep in open camps and as the average tent is not insect proof we must employ certain measures to protect us4 ,to drive the pests away a smudge of green grass and twigs on a well started fire is a specific but requires attention to keep it up4 ,a tent may be made fly proof by having a cheesecloth interior which is an exact replica in shape of the tent1 the body very loose and voluminous and no openings except when the sides are raised4 ,it is suspended by cords and tapes and is absolutely protective4 ,the insect repellents used as body applications consist usually of some essential oil incorporated in a lasting base of thick oil or salve which establishes a durable glaze over the skin1 preventing too rapid evaporation of the oil by the body heat4 ,these 8dopes0 do not injure the skin a bit and the slight discomfort they may cause is compensated for by the immunity established4 ,in mildly infested districts oil of citronella applied to the skin will suffice1 but where they come at you in swarms a glaze on the skin is needed to hold the essential oil for more continued use4 ,the following formul are successful3 ,,nessmuks ,,dope ,no4 #a4 ,pine ,tar #c oz4 ,castor ,oil #b oz4 ,oil ,pennyroyal #a oz4 ,no4 #b4 ,pine ,tar #a oz4 ,oil ,pennyroyal #a oz4 ,vaseline #c oz4 ,phenol #c oz4 ,no4 #c4 ,oil ,citronella #a oz4 ,spirits camphor #a oz4 ,oil ,cedar oz4 ,,wound ,,treatment ,the first thing is to stop the bleeding by simple pressure with the cleaned finger over the bleeding part or applications of hot water cloths4 ,once a clean clot is formed don't destroy it4 ,never use the homely cobwebs to stop bleeding as they reek with germs of blood poison4 ,the second important step is to exclude pus germs4 ,they are fewer in the woods than in the city1 but we must be exceedingly careful4 ,wash the injured part well in hot1 soapy water then rinse with water that has been boiled and cooled4 ,apply the ,first ,aid wound dressing4 ,if the wound is inflamed and discharging pus clean as well as possible and keep the dressing wet with cooled boiled water1 reapplying every three hours or sufficiently to keep the dressings wet4 ,on a non-inflamed wound simply apply the ,first ,aid dressing which is sterile and devoid of germs4 ,in a sprain the ligaments become bruised or torn1 there is loss of function and pain with inflammation4 ,pour hot water on the injured joint for an hour at a time1 repeating every two or three hours for a day4 7,if no receptacle is at hand to heat water in fill a hollow rock1 log1 or waterproof cloth pocket with water1 heat a stone in camp fire and put in water for heating47 ,bandage the joint and keep applying hot water4 ,keep the limb elevated4 ,when the swelling goes down rub the skin with oil or grease1 gently massaging the injured parts4 ,don't over exercise so as to reinjure the torn ligaments4 ,walking off a sprain won't cure it1 in fact only prolongs recovery4 ,in a dislocation besides the ligaments being torn the bone is out of place at a joint causing the affected limb to be shorter or longer than its mate4 ,study how the bone slipped from its socket1 for you must reverse the movements occurring at the time of accident in order to reduce the dislocation4 ,a fracture is a severe malady because a condition of shock is usually present4 ,the affected part is painful1 the contour of limb is changed1 a grating 7crepitation7 is felt and heard when the broken ends are rubbed together4 ,the ends are often1 by muscular action1 drawn out of position so that they overlap4 ,overcome this muscle tension by steady pulling of the two broken parts in opposite directions until the ends meet in proper relation to one another 7this is imperative74 ,hold them in place by laying splints of bark or sticks entirely around the break 7interposing padding of soft material next the skin7 and bandage all in place4 ,if the parts are swelled apply cold water4 ,healing requires weeks for a good result4 ,a rather heroic measure was resorted to by ,chas4 ,f4 ,loomis on his long hike from ,ohio to ,california4 ,having fractured his right arm so badly that the bone protruded 7a 8compound0 fracture7 and being alone in a desert he gave his canteen strap two flat turns about the wrist1 buckled it around a cedar tree1 mounted a nearby rock1 set his heels on the edge and threw himself backward4 ,he fainted but the bone was set4 ,then he rigged up splints and walked #eb miles before tasting food1 then finished the #gjj mile tramp to ,los ,angeles with his broken arm in a bandanna4 ,those few hardy pedestrians who may venture to indulge in winter walks are subject to having the extremities freeze although if they understand the essentials of keeping warm in winter they may avert such troubles4 ,the effects of heat and cold are about the same2 they both cause a loss of blood to the tissues which when thus deprived of heat and nourishment are on the way to mortification4 ,the object of treatment is to restore circulation1 gradually4 ,use cold baths in a cold room then gradually warming same up to the temperature of the body4 ,wrap the frozen limb up well with wet cloths for the first few days4 ,drowning4 ,a strenuous effort should be made to restore breathing in the apparently drowned and so do not consider your attempt as futile until you have thoroughly employed the method suggested below for two hours4 ,you first 7a7 ,get the water out of the patient's lungs by loosening all his clothes1 laying him on his stomach and turn his face to one side4 ,now standing astride of his hips grasp him about the waist and raise the hips so that the head and feet touch the ground in order that the water may gravitate out of the lungs4 7b7 ,again laying the patient on his stomach1 head turned aside and with his arms extended above his head he is given artificial respiration after the so-called ,schaefer or prone method as follows3 7c7 ,lung ,compression4 ,you kneel on the ground straddling the patient's hips and facing his head4 ,place your hands so that the little finger closes over the end of the lowest rib and the heel of your hands so placed on the sides as to allow you to exert all your strength downward from your shoulders until the patient's lower chest region is compressed4 ,you hold this compression for three seconds and then remove the hands and allow the patient's chest to refill4 ,repeat the compression and lung refilling fifteen times a minute for two hours if necessary4 7d7 ,after breathing is established keep the patient in a recumbent position until breathing is regular and put him in a warm place and surround his body with heat in some form such as heated stones wrapped in cloths1 hot blankets1 etc4 ,if available for use aromatic spirits of ammonia on a handkerchief held to the nose is stimulating4 ,colds4 ,take a hot bath and a heroic dose of physic4 ,for the aches and pains take aspirin tablets 7grains #e each7 one every hour for #d doses then one every #d hours4 ,if the throat is sore gargle with salt water4 ,diarrha and stomach cramps may be due to bad water or improper food4 ,the results are bowel pain and too frequent movements and general weakness4 ,stop all food and rest the patient in bed entirely4 ,take a purge and after three good movements take a ,sun ,cholera tablet each hour until three are taken then one every three hours4 ,if without medicine use flour mixed with water4 ,in ,sunstroke the skin stops perspiring1 the skin over the ribs is hot and dry1 the face red and the head feels great pressure of too much blood4 ,get to a cool place1 lie down1 loosen the clothing and bathe the face1 chest and wrists in cold water and drink as much water as wanted4 ,in ,heat ,exhaustion the conditions are opposite--the face is pale and the skin sweaty4 ,you need stimulants such as tea or coffee and are not to bathe the skin4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,winter ,,travel ,,afoot ,from the standpoint of pure pedestrianism winter travel usually has but little appeal yet it represents to the uninitiated marvelous revelations in scenic display1 for the sedentarian1 who is housed in the vitiated air of stuffy steam heated offices1 a stimulation to the highest degree of physical well being1 and1 being feasible1 projects one's vacation opportunities to include the year around4 ,once experienced the exhilaration of winter travel will enslave you whether your indulgence is for the annual hunt in which you are responding to the issue of the ,red ,gods calling for snowshoe or ski trips across the waste places1 or1 again you may follow the trail of the ,far ,north trapper in which case your frequently moved camps necessitate mushing behind a trail sled drawn by huskies or breaking a trail ahead of a bush toboggan propelled by your own power4 ,again perchance some get rich quick frenzy pushes you into the frozen regions in exploratory reconnaissance for precious metals4 ,just what causes most people to refrain from outdoor life in winter is the fear of cold4 ,yet properly regarded the winter is the healthiest time of the year4 ,physically greater exertion is necessary in winter to enable the body to generate heat sufficient for protection against cold and this is compensated for in the usually increased difficulties in travel over road or forest snows4 ,pure tramping methods and kits for summer must be modified to suit new conditions for doubtless you will not have ground to walk upon hence you must take to snowshoes or to ski for the snow work1 the body covering must be adequate for additional protection against the elements1 and the shelter and bed must be especially adapted to your needs4 ,snow-shoeing is becoming more and more popular among lovers of outdoor life4 ,without them northern bush travel in winter would be impossible because in dense forested areas the brush grows close and the ground is filled with fallen trees and rocks and the snow lies loose and powdery4 ,snow-shoeing is really at its best after the middle of ,january when the early snows have packed down and the weather is pretty constantly freezing4 ,so much has been written of the great tournaments of ski jumping by the ,scandinavian experts that one may lose sight of the fact that ski running for the amateur is an unparalleled winter sport in any snow covered section and is a necessary part of the equipment of mountaineers whose journeyings take them far into the wilderness probably with a pack outfit on their backs4 ,in this country the winters are as a rule mild and pleasant yet the average ,american does not appreciate the benefits to be acquired from the use of the ski or the exhilarating and exciting sport to be had with them4 ,the ski 7pronounced 8skee07 is used for walking 7really toboganning or skating7 over the deep snow1 protecting the walker from breaking through and becoming immersed in a fleecy bath4 ,in regions where the snow gets to the depth of #e to #g feet the ski is intensely utilitarian1 being a real necessity for travel as otherwise travelers would become hopelessly buried in the drifts and perhaps perish4 ,in this country it is becoming more popular each year and in many sections it is replacing the snowshoe for winter travel4 ,with ski one may slide down hills of snow or ice1 he can walk over drifts without fathoming their depths and if sportively inclined and trained he can speed downhill so fast that the sense of motion is lost and the scenery is verily 8snatched0 past in rapid panorama4 ,where the country is reasonably open and not too rough the snow becomes fairly solid4 ,ski are superior to snowshoes and travel is far faster than with the web shoe4 ,in our mountainous regions there is good snow-shoeing and skiing at elevations of from #bjj to #cjjj feet from ,december to ,april4 ,the climate here is commonly mild with days of continual melting--a temperature of #bj degrees or below being a rarity4 ,the mountain snows are deep1 forcing our summer cruising methods to a matter of reminiscence1 and this depth increases very quickly as altitude is gained4 ,at #ejjj feet elevation the ,frost ,king's mantle may be found to be #bj or #cj feet deep but at this altitude few cabins for camp use can be depended upon4 ,special cold weather clothing requirements are imperative for keeping warm in camp and on the trail4 ,body warmth depends on several things4 ,first1 the body's ability to make heat1 hence our attention to heat forming foods4 ,that this heat may reach all parts of the body and especially the extremities which are so susceptible to cold1 the circulation of blood must be absolutely unimpeded by such things as tight shoes1 constricting waist bands or tight clothing anywhere4 ,secondly1 the surface of the skin must be insulated by a loosely woven fabric covering 7best of animal origin7 which retains the heat in its meshes yet allows an egress of moisture which is constantly imperceptibly emanated by the pores of the skin and to a superlative degree during exercise4 ,successive thin layers are found to be more efficacious than one thick layer owing to the dead air interspaces4 ,the skin and its covering must be kept dry else freezing will ensue4 ,aside from what moisture may come from the body1 wet may come from accidental immersion in streams or the air itself may be very humid--the reason for our greater sensitiveness to wet cold than to dry cold4 ,a large factor of success in ,arctic exploration has been the choice of proper clothing4 ,these explorers have followed down to the last detail the natural clothing of the ,eskimo modeled after the protective covering of ,arctic animals consisting of the impervious integument itself next the body or with silk intervening4 ,this fits loosely at the knee1 waist1 and wrist1 enabling the evaporation of constant perspiration to the open air1 especially during exercise of any kind4 ,the body is thus kept dry and no energy is lost in heat making4 ,the usual idea of the amount of clothing necessary to keep the body warm and to prevent freezing in extreme cold is erroneous4 ,it is not so much a question of cold as the degree of dampness on the body surface which is affected by the cold4 ,nearly every death from freezing is caused by either getting too warm and then wet through perspiration or accidental immersion in water4 ,the former can be avoided by having the clothing sufficiently loose to allow good circulation of air and by thus keeping uncomfortably cool the tendency toward perspiration is overcome4 ,while quiet or physically inactive one may wear much clothing as there is little danger of freezing1 there being no dampness present1 but if one is active and perspiring and is then quiet there is great danger4 ,when any kind of moisture gets on the body there is only one way to get rid of it--by the body heat4 ,clothing does not warm one1 it only retains heat made by the body4 ,the drawing away of heat reduces one's vitality as well as affecting the temperature of the body4 ,where one is physically active it is advisable to wear ordinary weight warm winter clothing of the temperate zone4 ,of materials wool is best next the body1 except in ,arctic work where a suit of silk is worn under the fur garments to prevent chafing4 ,two wool union suits1 loosely fitting1 will be found enough4 ,the pants should be of ,mackinaw which is warm1 wearable1 and to a certain extent water repellent4 ,a flannel shirt or ,pontiac shirt comes next and for use when one is inactive and apt to become chilled a heavy sweater coat with convertible collar is indispensable4 ,to break the wind a parka can be pulled over head and trunk4 ,the parka is a garment made like a large hooded shirt coming to the knee4 ,the edge of the face opening in the hood has a ruff of wolverine1 wolf1 or bear to protect the face4 ,wolverine is by all odds best as it is the only fur upon which the breath will not congeal4 ,the garment is the most practical yet devised for very cold work4 ,for use in the ,arctics it is made of squirrel or deer skin worn with the fur outside and it is lined with the fur of some animal which will allow it to slip on and off easily4 ,the drill parka which is used to break the wind and which is of particular interest to us is made on the same model only larger as it is at times worn as the outermost garment of all4 ,the fur garments are seldom used by those who are experienced when working on the trail1 they are held in reserve until camp is reached4 ,if in actual exercise the parka would be too hot and would cause perspiration to start4 ,particular attention should be paid to the protection of the hands1 ears1 face1 and feet--the body will take care of itself4 ,for the hands ,scotch wool mitts will be ample--mitts rather than gloves for the reason that there is but one space in each to be kept warm whereas in gloves there is a separate place in each finger where heat must be maintained4 ,a larger pair of leather mitts worn over all will be found to retain heat besides resisting wear much better than wool4 ,the ears and face are protected by a wool cap or llama combination cap and sleeping hood4 ,the hood of the parka with its fur edged face opening cannot be excelled for head and neck protection4 ,the face is to some extent exposed necessarily for breathing and the nose may be expected to suffer some4 ,the intense light reflected from the snow will necessitate the use of smoked goggles1 those with rubber frames being best as no metal will then touch the sensitive flesh4 ,since much of your comfort in outdoor winter work or pastime depends upon the feet a few words concerning their proper care is not amiss here4 ,above all the feet must be kept dry4 ,they are pretty apt to perspire and this moisture can be absorbed by filling the bottom of the shoe packs with straw which acts also as a cushion4 ,at the day's end you will find the socks dry and the straw wet--the desirable condition as wet socks will freeze and the feet become chilled4 ,the best foot covering in dry snow is the oiled moccasin or shoe pac4 ,no tight shoes are permissible in snow work at all for they will restrict the circulation by which the warmth of the body is carried to the extremities4 ,for wet snow the outer foot covering should be of rubber1 since leather when wet freezes and becomes stiff and for this the lumberman's rubber over which has a laced leather top with rubber foot cover is unexcelled4 ,next the foot wear two pairs of heavy wool lumberman's socks reaching nearly to the knee4 ,if one is lost in the winter woods a bivouac constructed somewhat along the following lines will be found adequate for the needs of comfort and health4 ,for cold weather shelter select for the site a hollow deep in the woods well surrounded by trees where all will be sheltered from the biting winds4 ,such a place for the summer camp would not be best because a night's rain might flood the hollow4 ,first find a wind break of cliff1 rocks or fallen tree or build one of rocks or down timber4 ,if it is rainy make a slant roof of poles and shingle with browse or bark and with a top cover of more poles to hold all in place4 ,on the prairie where a windbreak is impossible build two fires at right angles to the wind and get between them4 ,the smoke will blow away in columns parallel with your body4 ,if the snow is deep shovel to the ground1 using the toe of the snow shoe or a flattened stick1 clear a triangular space about #g by #h feet at whose small end1 placed downhill1 is put the fire1 and at whose small side lays the bed4 ,walls of snow all around make an excellent wind break4 ,on deep snow the fire may rest on a platform of green sappy logs such as balsam4 ,where the shelter is pitched the snow is tramped solid4 ,in such a camp with a rabbit skin blanket and an all night fire one may sleep comfortably on the coldest of nights4 ,in sleeping out even if the days are mild the nights are pretty sure to be cold4 ,a goodly supply of birch bark kindling and a surplus of dry wood should be laid up4 ,it is no fun to awake chilled to the bone from the icy air and have to fumble about with wet half burnt fagots4 ,build the fire to leeward and within four feet of the bed4 ,if it is very cold build it above the level of your sleeping place for you thus get more heat and less smoke4 ,stake two back logs behind the fire4 ,in very cold weather build the fire against the windbreak and when it is burned down rake the embers forward1 rebuild the fire in front1 spread boughs where the fire was and lie there on the warm ground4 ,this can be repeated several times during the night4 ,if done thus there need be no danger of freezing4 ,in cold weather in the ,north1 with probably the means of transportation reduced to a dog team or a back pack1 the ration list must be cut down to absolute necessities4 ,to facilitate expediency in the handling of the outfit in the cold the range of variety had best be limited4 ,the ideal cold weather ration meeting this requirement is pemmican4 ,at this time of the year the fats should predominate as it does in pemmican4 ,this food keeps well1 is very compact and can be mixed in a variety of ways palatable to a hungry man on the trail4 ,pemmican may be made at home by the method suggested in chapter on 8,ration ,lists40 ,on such trips do not rely on baking bread en route because of lack of cooking conveniences and time4 ,also the moisture in common bread will freeze so use unleavened bread or that ready made hardtack or ship's biscuit as the staple4 ,one pound of pemmican and pilot bread per day will sustain a man at hard work4 ,vary the bread ration with dessicated vegetables4 ,now if you will add to the ,arctic ration the above mentioned pemmican varied with jerked meat and the hardtack varied with dessicated vegetables1 tea1 and dried milk you will have a well balanced1 dry1 compact1 palatable1 and energy yielding diet4 ,,appendix ,tramping ,kit ,check ,list ,wear4 ,flannel shirt4 ,whipcord pants4 ,belt4 ,wool unionsuit4 ,wool socks4 ,felt hat4 ,shoes or moccasins4 ,pockets4 ,map4 ,jack knife4 ,kerchief4 ,waterproof match box4 ,compass4 ,pack4 ,pack sack4 ,wool sweater4 ,extra socks4 ,axe4 ,small whetstone4 ,goggles4 ,shelter4 ,leanto tent4 ,blanket4 ,browse bag4 ,fishing outfit4 ,camera and ,film4 ,medical supplies4 ,emergency wound dressing4 ,z ,o ,adhesive plaster4 ,tube vaseline4 ,cathartic pills4 ,aspirin tablets1 #e grains4 ,sun ,cholera ,tablets4 ,mosquito dope4 ,toilet4 ,tooth brush and soap4 ,two crash towels4 ,repair kit4 ,thread and needles4 ,safety pins4 ,waxed linen thread and awl4 ,mess kit4 ,fry pan and cover4 ,aluminum quart pot4 ,aluminum quart cup4 ,aluminum spoon4 ,fork4 ,small butcher knife in sheath4 ,ration ,list4 ,for one man one week4 ,wheat flour #e ,lbs4 ,corn meal #d ,lbs4 ,bacon #e ,lbs4 ,beans #a ,lbs4 ,sugar #a ,lbs4 ,dried fruit #a ,lb4 ,rice #a ,lb4 ,baking powder ,lb4 ,tea ,lb4 ,salt ,lb4 ,pepper ,small amount4 ,dried ,egg substituting a portion of meat ration4 ,dried soup and vegetables for a portion of bean and flour ration4 ,wool soap1 #a bar4 ,matches1 can of #ejj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 to the unitiated to the uninitiated pg #ea ten tounce canvas ten ounce canvas ,pg #ee lines as diagramed lines as diagrammed ,pg #hd