,,cambridge ,,biological ,,s]ies4 ,,g5]al ,,editor3--,,ar?ur ,e4 ,,%ipley1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,fell[ ,,& ,,tutor ,,( ,,*ri/'s ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,grasses4 ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,w>eh\se1 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manag]4 ,london3 ,,fett] ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,ed9burgh3 #ajj1 ,,pr9ces ,,/reet4 ,illu/ration ,,also ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,g[] ,,/reet1 ,w4,c4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons4 ,bombay & ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,all ,rights res]v$4 ,,grasses ,a ,,h&book ,,= ,,use ,,9 ,,! ,,field ,,& ,,laboratory4 ,,by ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,late ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,botany ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cambridge4 ,,cambridge3 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 #aijh ,fir/ ,edition #aija ,repr9t$ #aijh ,,preface4 ,! foll[+ pages h be5 writt5 9 ! hope t !y may be us$ 9 ! field & 9 ! laboratory ) specim5s ( our ord9>y grasses 9 ! h&4 ,mo/ ( ! ex]cises involv$ dem& exact /udy by means ( a good h&-l5s1 a mode ( inve/igation f> too mu* neglect$ 9 mod]n tea*+4 ,! book is n int5d$ to be a complete manual ( grasses1 b to be an acc\nt ( our common native species1 s arrang$ t ! /ud5t may le>n h[ to closely obs]ve & deal ) ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ^! rem>kable plants :5 su* problems z ! botanical analysis ( a mead[ or pa/ure1 ( hay1 ( we$s1 or ( 8se$0 grasses are pres5t$1 z well z :5 inve/igat+ que/ions ( m ab/ract sci5tific nature4 ,i h n hesitat$1 h[ev]1 to introduce g5]al /atem5ts on ! biology & physiological peculi>ities ( grasses :]e su* may s]ve ! purpose ( int]e/+ ! read] 9 ! wid] botanical be>+s ( ! subject1 ?\gh sev]al reasons may be urg$ aga9/ ext5d+ ?is "p ( ! !me 9 a book int5d$ to be portable1 & ( direct practical use to /ud5ts 9 ! field4 ,i h pleasure 9 express+ my ?anks to ,mr ,r4 ,h4 ,biff5 = c>efully te/+ ! classification ( 8se$s0 on pp4 #ace-agd1 & to him & to ,mr ,%ipley = k9dly look+ ov] ! pro(s2 also to ,mr ,lewton-,bra91 :o has te/$ ! classification ( leaf-sections put =w>d on pp4 #gb-hb1 & prep>$ ! draw+s = ,figs4 #ba-bh4 ,t errors are entirely abs5t f su* a "w z ?is is p]haps too mu* to expect3 ,i hope !y are few1 & t read]s w oblige me ) any corrections !y may f9d necess>y or advantage\s = ! bett] work+ ( ! tables4 ,! li/ ( ! *ief au?orities ref]r$ to1 :i* /ud5ts :o desire to proce$ fur!r ) ! /udy ( grasses %\ld consult1 is giv5 at ! end4 ,i h pleasure 9 ackn[l$g+ my indebt$ness to ! foll[+ works = illu/rations :i* are ins]t$ by p]mission ( ! sev]al publi%]s3--,/ebl]'s ,=age ,plants 7publi%$ by ,nutt ,co471 ,nobbe's ,h&bu* d] ,sam5kunde 7,wieg&t1 ,hempel & ,p>ey1 ,b]l971 ,h>z's ,l&wir?s*aftli*e ,sam5kunde 7,paul ,p>ey1 ,b]l971 ,/rasburg] & ,noll's ,text-,book ( ,botany 7,macmillan ,co471 ,figui]'s ,vegetable ,_w 7,cassell ,co471 ,lubbock's ,fl[]s1 ,fruits & ,se$s 7,macmillan ,co471 ,k]n]'s ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants 7,blackie ,son71 & ,oliv]'s ,fir/ ,book ( ,indian ,botany 7,macmillan ,co474 ,x is impossible to avoid ! "q ( v>iation 9 "w ( ?is k9d1 & /ud5ts w )\t d\bt come across in/ances--especially 9 su* g5]a z ,agropyrum1 ,fe/uca1 ,agro/is & ,bromus--( small v>iations :i* %[ h[ impossible x is to fit ! facts ( liv+ organisms into ! rigid frames ( classification4 ,x may possibly be urg$ t ?is invalidates all attempts at su* classifications3 ! same argum5t applies to all our sy/ems1 ?\gh x is p]haps less disa/r\s to ! be/ ,natural ,sy/ems :i* attempt to take 9 l>ge gr\ps ( facts1 ?an to artificial sy/ems select$ = special purposes4 ,p]haps some?+ useful may be le>n$ by %[+ m cle>ly :]e & h[ grasses v>y1 & ,i hope t ! application to !m ( ^! prelim9>y te/s may elucidate m facts z we proce$4 ,h4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,cambridge1 ,april1 #aija4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,,! ,,vegetative ,,organs #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,vegetative ,,organs 7cont9u$7 #ag ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,grasses ,,classifi$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,_! ,,vegetative ,,*>act]s #ci ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,hi/ology #fb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,grasses ,,classifi$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,anatomical ,,*>act]s ,,( ,,! ,,leaf #gb ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,grasses ,,9 ,,fl[] #hc ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,grasses ,,gr\p$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,_! ,,fl[]s ,,& ,,infloresc5ces #ii ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,fruit ,,& ,,se$ #aai ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,classification ,,( ,,grasses ,,by ,,! 8,,se$s0 7,,gra9s7 #ace ,,bibliography #age ,,index1 ,,gloss>y ,,& ,,li/ ,,( ,,synonyms #agg ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,vegetative ,,organs4 ,t grasses are int]e/+ & important plants is a fact recognis$ by botani/s all ! _w ov]1 yet x w\ld appe> t p 9 g5]al c h>dly h appreciat$ ei!r _! int]e/ or _! importance see+ h[ few popul> works h be5 publi%$ conc]n+ _! /ructure & prop]ties4 ,ap>t f _! almo/ univ]sal di/ribution1 & q ap>t f ! fasc9at+ int]e/ atta*+ to ^? extraord9>y tropical giants1 ! ,bamboos1 ,we/ ,indian ,sug>-cane1 ! huge ,re$-grasses ( ,africa1 ! ,pampas-grasses ( ,s\? ,am]ica2 & f ! utilit>ian value ( ! c]eals--,maize1 ,rice1 ,:eat & o!r corn1 c4--ev]yone mu/ be /ruck by ! significance ( ! enorm\s tracts ( l& cov]$ by grasses 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 ! ,prairies ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,savannahs ( ! ,s\?1 ! ,/eppes ( ,russia & ,sib]ia1 & ! ext5sive tracts ( mead[ & pa/ure-l& 9 ,europe be+ b a few examples4 ,al?\gh 9 ! actual numb] ( species ! ,grass family is by no means ! l>ge/ 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 = !re are f> m ,composites or ,or*ids1 ! curi\s sign ( success 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce comes out 9 grasses 9 t ! numb] ( individuals f> transc5ds ^? ( any o!r gr\p1 & t !y h tak5 possession ( all p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,"s species are cosmopolitan--e4g4 our common ,re$1 ,arundo ,phragmites2 :ile o!rs--e4g4 sev]al ( our native species ( ,fe/uca & ,poa--are equally common 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,on ! :ole ! ,tropics af=d mo/ species & fewe/ individuals1 & ! temp]ate regions mo/ individuals4 ,consid]+ _! multif>i\s uses z fodd] & food1 = brew+1 weav+1 build+ & a ?\s& o!r purposes1 x is p]haps n too mu* to say t if e o!r species ( plant 7 displac$ by grasses ( all k9ds--z _m inde$ gradually are--man w\ld /ill be able to supply 8 *ief ne$s f !m4 ,! pr(\nd significance ( ! grass-c>pet ( ! e>?1 h[ev]1 comes out mo/ cle>ly :5 we realise ! enorm\s am\nts ( en]gy daily /or$ up 9 ! c\ntless myriads ( gre5 blades z !y fix _! c>bon4 ,by decompos+ ! c>bon-dioxide ( ! air 9 _! *lorophyll app>atus by ! action ( ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun1 !y build up />*es & sug>s & o!r plant-sub/ances1 :i* are !n consum$ & turn$ into fle% by our cattle & %eep & o!r h]bivor\s animals1 & s furni% u ) food4 ,! :ole !ory ( agriculture turns on ?is pivot1 & ! by no means small modicum ( tru? 9 su* say+s z 8,all fle% is grass10 & t ! man :o c make two blades ( grass gr[ :]e "o grew be=e des]ves well ( 8 c\ntry1 obta9s a l>g] significance :5 x is realis$ t ! only real ga9 ( weal? is t repres5t$ by ! /orage ( en]gy f )\t :i* comes to u by ! action ( gre5 leaves wav+ 9 ! sun%9e4 ,! true ,grasses1 compris+ ! ,natural ,ord] ,gram9ace--also writt5 ,gram9e--are (t5 popul>ly conf\nd$ ) o!r h]bs :i* possess n>r[ gre5 ribbon-l leaves1 or ev5 ) plants ( v diff]5t aspects--e4g4 ,cotton-grass 7,eriophorum7 & o!r ,s$ges1 & ! names ,rib-grass 7,plantago71 ,knot-grass 7,polygonum71 ,scorpion-grass 7,myosotis7 & ,sea-grass 7,zo/]a71 z well z ! g5]al usage ( ! ^w grass to signify all k9ds ( legum9\s & o!r hay-plants 9 agriculture1 po9t to ! wid] use ( ! ^w 9 =m] times4 ,?is has be5 expla9$ by ! use ( ! words ga]s1 gres1 gyrs1 & grass 9 ! old h]bals to indicate any k9d ( small h]bage4 ,9 view ( ! importance ( our ,briti% grasses 9 agriculture1 ,i h "h put toge!r "s results ( obs]vation & read+ 9 ! hope t !y may aid /ud5ts 9 recognis+ easily our ord9>y agricultural & wild grasses4 ,dur+ sev]al ye>s ( "w 9 ! fields1 pr9cipally direct$ at fir/ to ! /udy ( ! p>asitic fungi on grasses1 & subsequ5tly to t ( ! importance ( grasses 9 =e/ry & agriculture1 & to ! v>iations !y exhibit1 ! ne$ ( "s guide to ! id5tification ( a grass at any "t ( ! ye>1 :e!r 9 fl[] or n1 =c$ itself on ! att5tion1 & al?\gh a botani/ naturally turns to a good ,flora :5 he has ! grass 9 fl[]1 z ! be/ & quicke/ way ( asc]ta9+ ! species1 x soon became evid5t t mu* may be done by ! /udy ( ! leaves & vegetative p>ts ( mo/ grasses4 ,inde$ "s are recognisable at a glance by c]ta9 *>act]s well kn[n to cont95tal obs]v]s3 9 ! case ( o!rs ! matt] is m difficult1 & p]haps ) a few x is impossible to be c]ta9 ( ! species f su* *>act]s only4 ,nev]!less1 :ile ! be/ means = ! det]m9ation ( species are always 9 ! floral *>act]s s well work$ up 9 ! ,floras ( ,hook]1 ,b5?am & o!rs1 !re is unque/ionably mu* value 9 ! *>act]s ( ! vegetative organs also1 z ! works ( ,jess51 ,lund1 ,/ebl]1 ,vesque & o!rs abroad1 & ,s9clair1 ,p>nell1 ,s[]by & o!rs 9 ?is c\ntry atte/4 ,almo/ ! only plants conf\nd$ ) true grasses by ! ord9>y obs]v] are ! s$ges & a few ru%es4 ,ap>t f ! v diff]5t floral /ructures1 !re are two or ?ree easily discov]able m>ks = di/+ui%+ all our grasses f o!r plants 7,fig4 #a74 ,! fir/ is _! leaves are arrang$ 9 two r[s1 alt]nately1 up ! /ems2 & ! second t _! /ems are circul> or flatt5$ 9 section1 or if ( "s o!r %ape !y are nev] triangul> & solid#a 7,figs4 #f & #g74 ,moreov] ! leaves are always ( "s elongat$ %ape1 & )\t leaf-/alks#b1 b pass bel[ into a %ea?1 :i* runs "s way d[n ! /em & is ne>ly always p]ceptibly split 7,figs4 #h-ac74 ,fur!r1 ! /ems !mselves are usually t]ete1 & di/9ctly holl[ except at ! swoll5 nodes1 & only bran* l[ d[n at ! surface ( ! gr\nd or bel[ x#c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a plant ( ,oat 7,av5a71 an example ( a typical grass1 %[+ tuft$ habit & loose paniculate infloresc5ce 7r$uc$74 ,figui]4 ,all our native grasses are h]bace\s1 & none ( !m atta9 v l>ge dim5sions4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/s ,i t]m ^? small :i* av]age ab\t #f-ah in*es 9 ! height ( ! tufts1 :]eas ^? ov] #c feet high may be t]m$ l>ge1 ! tufts be+ reg>d$ z 9 fl[]4 ,! sizes _c be giv5 v accurately1 & />v$ specim5s are frequ5tly f\nd dw>f$1 b 9 mo/ cases ^! av]ages are n f> wrong = ! species freely gr[+ z ord9>ily met )1 & 9 "s cases are useful4 ,i h omitt$ ! r>e species ?r\gh\t1 & 9 ! annex$ li/s h add$ ! popul> names4 ,,l>ge ,,grasses4 7,ov] #c feet47 ,milium effusum 7,millet-grass74 ,digraphis arund9acea 7,re$-grass74 ,aira cspitosa 7,tuft$ ,hair-grass74 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum 7,false ,oat74 ,elymus ar5>ius 7,lyme-grass74 ,bromus asp] 7,hairy ,brome74 ,b4 giganteus 7,tall ,brome74 ,fe/uca elatior 7,mead[ ,fescue74 ,f4 sylvatica 7,re$ ,fescue74 ,glyc]ia aquatica 7,re$ ,sweet-grass74 ,g4 fluitans 7,float+ ,sweet-grass74 ,arundo ,phragmites 7,common ,re$74 ,,m$ium ,,grasses4 7#a-c feet47 ,phleum prat5se 7,timo?y74 ,av5a prat5sis 7,p]5nial ,oat-grass74 ,an?oxan?um odoratum 7,sweet ,v]nal74 ,alopecurus agre/is 7,sl5d] ,foxtail74 ,a4 prat5sis 7,mead[ ,foxtail74 ,agro/is alba 7,fior974 ,psamma ar5>ia 7,sea ,mat-grass74 ,av5a flavesc5s 7,yell[ ,oat-grass74 ,holcus lanatus 7,york%ire ,fog74 ,hordeum sylvaticum 7,wood ,b>ley74 ,h4 prat5se 7,mead[ ,b>ley74 ,agropyrum rep5s 7,c\*-grass74 ,a4 can9um 7,fibr\s ,twit*74 ,lolium italicum 7,italian ,rye-grass74 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum 7,wood ,false-,brome74 ,b4 p9natum 7,hea? ,false-,brome74 ,bromus erectus 7,upright ,brome74 ,b4 /]ilis 7,b>r5 ,brome74 ,b4 arv5sis 7,field ,brome74 ,fe/uca ov9a 7v>4 rubra1 c474 7,%eep's ,fescue74 ,f4 elatior 7v>4 prat5sis74 7,mead[ ,fescue47 ,dactylis glom]ata 7,cock's-foot74 ,cynosurus cri/atus 7,cre/$ ,dog's-tail74 ,poa prat5sis 7,mead[-grass74 ,p4 trivialis 7,r\gh /alk$ ,mead[-grass74 ,p4 nemoralis 7,wood ,poa74 ,mol9ia crulea 7,fly+ ,b5t74 ,melica nutans 7,m\nta9 ,melick74 ,m4 uniflora 7,wood ,melick74 ,,small ,,grasses4 7#f-ah in*es47 ,phleum ar5>ium 7,s& ,cat's-tail74 ,alopecurus g5iculatus 7,m>% ,foxtail74 ,agro/is can9a 7,br[n ,b5t74 ,aira flexuosa 7,wavy ,hair-grass74 ,aira canesc5s 7,grey ,hair-grass74 ,a4 prcox 7,e>ly ,hair-grass74 ,a4 c>yophyllea 7,silv]y ,hair-grass74 ,n>dus /ricta 7,moor ,mat-grass74 ,hordeum mur9um 7,wall ,b>ley74 ,h4 m>itimum 7,sea ,b>ley74 ,lolium p]5ne 7,rye-grass74 ,l4 temul5tum 7,d>nel74 ,bromus arv5sis 7v>4 mollis74 7,field ,brome74 ,fe/uca ov9a 7,%eep's ,fescue74 ,f4 ,myuros 7,rat's-tail ,fescue74 ,briza m$ia 7,quak+-grass74 ,poa m>itima 7,sea ,poa74 ,p4 annua 7,annual ,mead[-grass74 ,p4 compressa 7,flatt5$ ,mead[-grass74 ,p4 alp9a 7,alp9e ,poa74 ,p4 bulbosa 7,bulb\s ,poa74 ,triodia decumb5s 7,hea?-grass74 ,kl]ia cri/ata 7,cre/$ ,kl]ia74 ,! roots ( our grasses are almo/ always ?9 & fibr\s & are adv5titi\s f ! nodes1 frequ5tly =m+ radiat+ cr[ns r\nd ! base & easily pull$ up1 & usually brok5 9 ! process2 b 9 ! case ( a few moor grasses--especially ,n>dus 7,fig4 #b7 & ,mol9ia--! roots are s t\gh & ?ick 7/r+y7 z to resi/ breakage v effici5tly4 ,9 /olonif]\s grasses a simil> difficulty ( removal may be caus$ 9 a slight] degree by ! und]gr\nd /ems4 ,9 a few cases1 e4g4 ,alopecurus bulbosus 7,fig4 #c71 ,poa bulbosa1 ,phleum prat5se & ,p4 ,bhm]i1 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum1 & to a slight] ext5t 9 ,poa alp9a & "o or two o!rs1 ! l[]mo/ int]nodes & %ea?s ( ! /ems may be swoll5 & /or$ ) food-mat]ials1 & a sort ( tub] or bulb results2 ?is is especially apt to occur 9 dry s&y soils4 ,9 old lawns1 pa/ures1 c41 ! roots ( ,poa annua & o!rs may h nodules on !m due to ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 small ,nematode worms1 ,het]od]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,n>dus /ricta4 ,plant %[+ tuft$ habit1 & simple spikate infloresc5ce1 ) po9t$ spikelets all turn$ t[>ds "o side 7secund7 on ! ra*is 7r$uc$74 ,note also ! bri/le-l 7setace\s7 leaves at l5g? reflex$4 ,p>nell4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus1 v>4 bulbosus4 ,plant 7r$uc$7 %[+ habit1 bulb\s %oots & cyl9drical spike-l infloresc5ces 7,foxtail type74 ,notice ! inflat$ %ea?s1 & ! 8kne$0 l[] p>ts ( ! asc5d+ /ems4 ,p>nell4 ,grasses are annual1 bi5nial1 or p]5nial1 & x is (t5 ( importance to "k :i*4 ,! po9t may usually be det]m9$ by exam9+ ! %oots4 ,if all ! %oots h fl[]+ /ems 9 !m1 & are evid5tly ( ! curr5t ye>1 ! grass is an annual2 b if any %oots h leaves only1 x is ei!r bi5nial or p]5nial3 to det]m9e :i* is n always easy1 b 9 p]5nial grasses !re w g5]ally be evid5t rema9s ( old] leaf-bases & %oots1 & if !re are di/9ct und]gr\nd /olons or creep+ rhizomes z well ! po9t may be consid]$ decid$1 & ! grass is p]5nial1 z is ! case ) mo/ ( our important species4 ,if all ! %oots are b>r51 ! grass is a bi5nial 9 its fir/ ye> ( gr[?3 if all h fl[]+ /ems 9 !m1 b %[ traces ( old leaf-bases ( ! previ\s ye>1 !n ! grass is a bi5nial 9 its second ye>4 ,! pro( ( bi5nial "* is n always easy1 h[ev]1 & a few grasses may be ei!r annual or bi5nial1 or bi5nial or p]5nial1 accord+ to conditions--e4g4 species ( ,hordeum1 ,bromus1 c4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/s ,i h giv5 ! duration ( ! pr9cipal grasses1 :]e ! "* is especially important4 ,,annuals4 ,phleum ar5>ium4 ,aira prcox4 ,a4 c>yophyllea4 ,hordeum mur9um4 ,h4 m>itimum4 ,lolium temul5tum4 ,fe/uca ,myurus4 ,briza m9or4 ,poa rigida4 ,p4 annua4 ,,annuals :i* may become bi5nial or p]5nial4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus4 ,hordeum prat5se4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,l4 italicum 7may be p]5nial74 ,bromus asp] 7may be p]5nial74 ,b4 /]ilis4 ,b4 arv5sis 7may be p]5nial74 ,,p]5nials4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,h4 mollis4 ,n>dus4 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,agropyrum4 ,bra*ypodium4 ,bromus erectus4 ,b4 giganteus4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 ,f4 elatior4 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 ,briza m$ia4 ,milium4 ,an?oxan?um4 ,digraphis4 ,phleum prat5se4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,agro/is alba4 ,a4 can9a4 ,psamma4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,a4 flexuosa4 ,a4 canesc5s4 ,av5a prat5sis4 ,a4 flavesc5s4 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,glyc]ia aquatica4 ,g4 fluitans4 ,poa m>itima4 ,p4 compressa4 ,p4 prat5sis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,p4 alp9a4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,mol9ia4 ,melica4 ,triodia4 ,kl]ia4 ,arundo4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,catabrosa aquatica4 ,plant %[+ ! creep+ habit1 root+ nodes1 & paniculate infloresc5ce 7r$uc$74 ,p>nell4 ,! rhizome ( a p]5nial grass is cont9u$ sympodially by means ( buds bran*+ f ! l[]mo/ jo9ts ( ! fl[]+ %oots1 & "s importance is atta*$ to ! mode ( spread+ ( ^! lat]al spr\t+ %oots4 ,! buds always arise 9 ! axils ( ! l[] leaf-%ea?s--i4e4 !y are intra-vag9al4 ,if !y rema9 intra-vag9al dur+ fur!r gr[?1 ! %oots are =c$ upw>ds & only tufts 7,fig4 #b7 are =m$1 except 9 s f> z su* %oots may fall pro/rate on ! surface ( ! gr\nd lat]1 & ?r[ out roots f _! nodes1 & s act z runn]s or (fsets1 or put out a few roots c4 z !y asc5d ?r\gh ! soil4 ,b 9 _m cases ! buds soon bur/ ?r\gh ! leaf-%ea?s1 & develope z extra-vag9al %oots1 & may !n run horizontally z und]gr\nd /olons4 ,only creep+ grasses ( ^! latt] k9ds c rapidly cov] l>ge areas#d3 ! grasses ) intra-vag9al %oots only c only make tufts or 8tussocks40 ,sev]al peculi>ities 9 ! habits ( grasses dep5d on ^! facts4 ,! foll[+ are ! mo/ important creep+1 or /olonif]\s species1 contra/$ ) ! mu* m common tuft$ & ! f> r>] grasses ) runn]s above gr\nd 7,fig4 #d74 ,"s ( ^! 7,elymus1 ,psamma1 c47 are ( great importance z s&-b9d]s4-- ,) intra-vag9al bran*es only4 ,lolium--slightly /olonif]\s4 ,fe/uca elatior--slightly /olonif]\s4 ,av5a flavesc5s--slightly /olonif]\s4 ,phleum prat5se--no /olons1 b may be bulb\s4 ,dactylis--no /olons4 ,fe/uca ov9a--no /olons4 ,poa alp9a--no /olons4 ,cynosurus--no /olons4 ,) extra-vag9al %oots4 ,arrh5a!rum--%ort /olons1 sometimes bulb\s4 ,holcus lanatus--creep+4 ,alopecurus prat5sis--long /olons4 ,an?oxan?um--slightly /olonif]\s4 ,agro/is alba 7v>4 /olonif]a7--long /olons & runn]s4 ,digraphis--long /olons4 ,poa prat5sis--long /olons4 ,p4 trivialis--runn]s only4 ,fe/uca het]ophylla1 ,lam4--a v>iety ( ,f4 ov9a ) slight /olons4 ,f4 rubra 7,l9n47--a v>iety ( ,f4 ov9a ) long /olons4 ,bromus erectus--no /olons4 ,b4 in]mis--long /olons4 ,creep+ bel[ gr\nd & truly /olonif]\s4 ,agropyrum4 ,elymus4 ,psamma4 ,poa prat5sis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,agro/is alba 7v>4 /olonif]a74 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,bra*ypodium 7slightly74 ,bromus erectus 7slightly74 ,fe/uca ov9a 7v>4 rubra1 ,l9n474 ,f4 elatior 7slightly74 ,briza 7slightly74 ,glyc]ia4 ,poa m>itima4 ,melica4 ,arundo4 ,tuft$ ,grasses4 ,milium4 ,agro/is alba 7on d[ns1 c474 ,aira cspitosa4 ,a4 flexuosa4 ,a4 canesc5s4 ,a4 prcox4 ,a4 c>yophyllea4 ,av5a prat5sis 7slightly creep+74 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,n>dus 7,fig4 #b74 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,lolium4 ,bromus4 ,fe/uca ov9a 7except "s v>ieties74 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,f4 ,myurus4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus4 ,poa rigida4 ,p4 annua4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,p4 alp9a4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,mol9ia4 ,triodia4 ,kl]ia4 ,creep+ above gr\nd 7) runn]s74 ,holcus lanatus4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus4 ,agro/is alba 7v>4 /olonif]a74 ,hordeum prat5se 7slightly74 ,h4 mur9um 7slightly74 ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d74 ,cynodon 7,fig4 #e74 ,hackel has po9t$ out t a di/9ction mu/ be drawn betwe5 ! true nodes ( ! culm1 & ! swell+s (t5 f\nd at ! base ( ! %ea?s !mselves ov] ^!3 ! latt] are (t5 conspicu\s :5 ! =m] are inconspicu\s--e4g4 mo/ species ( ,agro/is1 ,av5a1 ,fe/uca1 c4 ,! nodes are ( importance 9 ! description ( a few species only--e4g4 !y are usually d>k col\r$ 9 c]ta9 ,poas su* z ,p4 compressa & ,p4 nemoralis2 !y are %>ply b5t 9 ,alopecurus g5iculatus1 & may be s 9 o!r species if 8lay$0 by w9d1 rank gr[?1 c4 ,a po9t ( consid]able classificatory value is ! %ape ( ! transv]se section ( ! %oot1 :i* is correlat$ ) ! mode ( fold+ up ( ! "y leaf-blades4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,cynodon ,dactylon4 ,plant 7r$uc$7 %[+ creep+ & /olonif]\s habit1 & peculi> infloresc5ce ( digitate spikes4 ,p>nell4 ,9 mo/ grasses ! blades are convolute--i4e4 roll$ up l ! pap] ( a cig>ette1 "o edge ov] ! o!r--& ! section ( ! %oot is r\nd 7,fig4 #g74 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! leaves are conduplicate--i4e4 ea* half ( ! lam9a is fold$ flat on ! o!r1 ! upp] sides be+ turn$ face to face inw>ds1 ) ! mid-rib z ! h+e--& 9 ?is case ! %oots are m or less compress$ 7,fig4 #f74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,transv]se section ( a leaf-%oot 7 #e74 ,a1 conduplicate leaf-blade4 ,b1 %ea?4 ,/ebl]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,digraphis arund9acea4 ,transv]se section ( a leaf-%oot 7 #e74 ,a1 %ea?4 ,b1 convolute leaves4 ,comp>e ,fig4 #ad4 ,/ebl]4 ,9 ^! latt] cases ! transv]se section may be elliptical--e4g4 ,poa prat5sis & ,p4 alp9a1 ,briza1 c41 or m flatt5$ & l9e>-oblong--e4g4 ,glyc]ia fluitans--) ! flatt5$ sides /raight1 or ! section is oval b po9t$ m or less at ea* end ow+ to project+ keels & leaf-edges1 & ! =m is naviculate--e4g4 ,glyc]ia aquatica1 ,dactylis 7,fig4 #f7--or1 ! sides be+ less flatt5$1 m or less rhomboidal z 9 ,poa trivialis4 ,9 ,melica ! leaves are convolute & ! %oot-section quadrangul>4 ,flat1 & usually %>p-edg$ %oots4 ,dactylis glom]ata 7,fig4 #f74 ,poa trivialis1 ,p4 annua1 ,p4 prat5sis1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 m>itima1 & ,p4 alp9a4 ,glyc]ia aquatica & ,g4 fluitans4 ,av5a pubesc5s4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,vegetative ,,organs 7cont9u$74 ,! leaves ( all our grasses consi/ ( ! blade1 :i* passes directly into ! %ea?1 )\t any petiole or leaf-/alk 7,fig4 #a74 ,! %ea? is usually obvi\sly split1 & s roll$ r\nd ! int]node t "o edge ov]laps ! o!r1 b 9 ! foll[+ grasses ! %ea? is ei!r q entire1 or only slit a %ort way d[n1 ! two edges be+ fus$ z x 7 = ! great] "p ( its l5g?4 ,%ea? m or less entire4 ,glyc]ia aquatica & ,g4 fluitans4 ,melica uniflora & ,m4 nutans4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,poa trivialis 7,fig4 #h71 ,p4 prat5sis1 ,p4 alp9a4 ,sesl]ia crulea4 ,bromus 7all ! species74 ,briza m$ia & ,b4 m9or4 ,9 "s cases--e4g4 ,arrh5a!rum1 ,bromus asp]1 & ,holcus lanatus--! %ea? is m>k$ ) a m or less prom95t ridge d[n its back1 due to ! cont9uation ( ! keel ( ! leaf4 ,! %ea? may also be glabr\s or hairy1 & groov$ or n4 ,a few grasses are s apt to develope *>act]i/ic col\rs 9 _! %ea?s1 especially bel[1 t !y may (t5 be recognis$ 9 w9t] by ?is peculi>ity4 ,%ea?s col\r$4 ,lolium--all r$4 ,holcus--r$ ) purple ve9s4 ,fe/uca elatior--r$4 ,cynosurus--yell[4 ,alopecurus prat5sis1 & ,a4 agre/is--violet-br[n1 c4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 v>4 rubra--r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,poa trivialis4 ,a1 base ( blade4 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 %ea?4 ,d1 culm 7 ab\t #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,a1 base ( blade4 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 %ea?4 ,slightly magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,av5a flavesc5s4 ,lett]+ z be=e 7 #b74 ,note ! split %ea?1 ! hairs & ridges4 ,/ebl]4 ,at ! junction ( ! blade ) ! %ea? !re is 9 mo/ cases a delicate membran\s upgr[? ( ! =m]1 m or less appress$ to ! /em1 & call$ ! ,ligule 7,figs4 #h-ac74 ,its use is probably to facilitate ! %$d+ ( wat] :i* has run d[n ! leaf2 & s less5 ! dang] ( rott+ betwe5 ! %ea? & /em3 possibly ! %elves & e>s commonly met ) at ! base ( ! lam9a 7,fig4 #ab7 aid 9 ! same process4 ,?is ligule may be long or %ort1 acute or obtuse1 too!d or entire1 or x may be r$uc$ to a m]e l9e1 or tuft ( hairs1 or ev5 be obsolete1 & is ( consid]able value 9 classification--e4g4 ! ligule is obsolete or want+ 9 ,melica1 ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,f4 ,myurus1 ,f4 elatior1 ,kl]ia & ,panicum4 ,x is repres5t$ by a tuft ( hairs 9 ,mol9ia1 ,triodia & ,arundo4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,a1 base ( lam9a1 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 %ea? 7 #c74 ,note ! l[ ribs1 & abs5ce ( hairs 7glabr\s74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis4 ,a1 base ( lam9a4 ,b1 ! extremely %ort ligule1 ) po9t$ e>s4 ,c1 %ea? 7 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 ,a1 base ( lam9a4 ,b1 ligul> e>s4 ,c1 %ea? 7 ab\t #d74 ,/ebl]4 ,our o!r ord9>y grasses h a m or less well-develop$ membran\s ligule 7,fig4 #h74 ,! leaf-blade is long or %ort1 broad or n>r[1 b always ( "s elongat$ =m su* z l9e>1 l9e>-lanceolate or l9e>-acum9ate1 or subulate1 setace\s1 c41 v>y+ z to ! degree ( acut5ess ( ! apex1 & ! tap]+ ( ! base4 ,9 ! foll[+ native grasses ! =m ( ! lam9a af=ds a useful "*4 ,! base tap]s to ! %ea? bel[--i4e4 ! leaf is m or less l9e>-lanceolate--9 ,mol9ia1 ,bra*ypodium1 ,melica1 ,milium1 ,kl]ia1 & ! v r>e ,hi]o*loe2 less di/9ctly s 9 ,bromus asp] & species ( ,hordeum4 ,! base is r\nd$ 9 ,arundo4 ,9 ! foll[+ cases ! leaves are setace\s1 due to ! v n>r[ blade rema9+ p]man5tly fold$ or inroll$ at its edges1 & usually be+ ?ick5$ & h>d5$ also 7,figs4 #ac & #ah74 ,! habitat ( ^! moor-& hea?-grasses sugge/s t ^! are no d\bt adaptations to prev5t excessive evaporation by ! exposure ( too l>ge a surface--e4g4 v>i\s species ( ,aira1 ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,f4 ,myurus & allies1 ,n>dus1 & sev]al o!r species2 :]eas1 conv]sely1 ! ?9 flat leaves ( %ade-grasses facilitate exposure to light & transpiration4 ,9 ,av5a prat5sis & ,agro/is can9a "s ( ! leaves are involute & subulate1 & ! ?ick5$ leaves ( ,poa m>itima also are turn$ up at ! edges1 & are ,u-%ap$ 9 cross-section4 ,z we %all see lat] ! degree ( inroll+ ( _m grass leaves v>ies ) circum/ances4 ,9 mo/ o!rs ! blades are ei!r flat 7,figs4 #h-ab71 or m or less conduplicate on ! mid-rib4 ,! latt] case occurs1 = example1 9 grasses ) flatt5$ %oots1 especially at ! l[] "p ( ! blade--e4g4 ,lolium p]5ne1 ,dactylis1 ,glyc]ia1 & "s species ( ,poa1 & ! cross-section ( ! leaf bel[1 j be=e x ent]s ! %ea?1 is ,v-%ap$4 ,9 ,glyc]ia ! leaf-bases may %[ yell[ or br[ni% triangles4 ,fur!r *>act]s ( ! leaves are d]iv$ f _! texture1 apex1 m>g9s1 mid-ribs & v5ation1 hair9ess1 & especially ! pres5ce & *>act]s ( ! longitud9al ridges :i* run along ! upp] or l[] surface 9 _m cases4 ,! v5ation is p>allel f base to apex 9 ne>ly all our grasses1 b su* is n always ! case--e4g4 9 ! exotic ,panicum plicatum ! mid-rib1 :i* ent]s ! leaf ) sev]al vascul> bundles1 gives (f /rong & weak ve9s bel[1 :i* fir/ div]ge & !n run 9 ar*es :i* conv]ge upw>ds3 ?is leaf is also rem>kable 9 be+ plait$ 7plicate7 9 v]nation4 ,9 ,arundo ,donax also ! ve9s1 ?\gh approximately p>allel1 d n all run to ! apex ( ! tap]+ leaf2 ! out] ones end above 9 ! m>g9s & are %ort] ?an ! mid-rib4 ,z reg>ds texture1 ! leaves ( mo/ grasses are ?9 & h]bace\s2 b 9 "s !y are dry & h>% to ! t\*4 ,!y are ?9 & dry 9 ,agropyrum can9um1 ,hordeum prat5se1 ,h4 mur9um1 ,av5a prat5sis1 c41 v h>d & lea!ry 7coriace\s7 9 ,psamma1 ,n>dus1 species ( ,fe/uca1 ,aira1 ,agropyrum junceum1 ,elymus1 c4 ,9 aquatic grasses l ,glyc]ia1 ! leaf is almo/ spongy ow+ to ! l>ge air-*amb]s develop$ 9 ! tissues4 ,^! are easily visible ) a l5s4 ,! apex is 9 mo/ cases sl5d] & tap]+--acum9ate2 b 9 "s x is m]ely br\ght to a po9t 7acute7 z 9 ,catabrosa1 ,glyc]ia & sev]al species ( ,poa & ,av5a1 c41 usually flat1 b some:at hood$ or curv$ up 9 "s ,poas4 ,9 cases :]e ! leaves are setace\s or subulate1 ! apex is l a ?9 tap]+ bri/le1 & ev5 flatt] leaves may be s inroll$ at ! tips z to h ! apex prolong$ into a %>p ne$le-l pung5t or sp9esc5t po9t--e4g4 ,hordeum prat5se1 ,av5a prat5sis to a slight ext5t1 & pron\nc$ 9 ,elymus1 c4 ,9 ,sesl]ia ! apex is r\nd$ ) a %ort1 %>p1 prickle-l m$ian projection 7mucronate74 ,! passage ( blade into %ea? has already be5 describ$1 b ! base ( ! blade may h its m>g9s project+ z horizontal %elves1 l a ,byron coll>1 r\nd ! sides ( ! ?roat ( ! %ea?1 sometimes t+$ ) yell[ or p9k--e4g4 ,lolium1 ,holcus1 ,bromus in]mis1 ,hordeum2 ! ends ( ^! may project z auricles or e>s--e4g4 ,fe/uca elatior1 ,elymus1 ,agropyrum1 ,an?oxan?um1 ,bromus asp]1 ,hordeum1 c4 ,9 ,fe/uca ov9a ! e>s are %ort1 /iff1 & erect 7,fig4 #ac74 ,! m>g9 may be p]fectly ev51 z 9 mo/ grasses1 or x is m or less scabrid or scab]ul\s1 z 9 ,aira cspitosa1 ,poa m>itima1 ,fe/uca elatior1 ,av5a prat5sis1 ,agro/is1 ,milium1 ,phleum1 ,briza1 ! m9ute tee? 7s]rul7 po9t+ up or d[n4 ,! surface may be bright gre51 or glauc\s1 h>%1 hairy or glabr\s1 & is n uncommonly also scabrid1 l a file or em]y-pap]1 & sometimes only :5 rubb$ 9 "o direction up or d[n1 ow+ to ! m9ute tee? be+ direct$ all "o way4 ,^! tee? are develop$ on ! ridges4 ,all our ord9>y grass leaves are p>allel-ve9$1 & ! vascul> /r&s 7! ve9s7 c usually be se5 on hold+ ! leaf up to ! light4 ,9 mo/ cases ! tissue is rais$ ov] ! ve9s1 z ridges or 8ribs10 & accord+ to ! height ( ^! ridges ! ?9n] p>ts betwe5 look l deep or %all[ furr[s 7cf4 ,figs4 #h-af & ,*apt] ,,iv474 ,if ! leaf is held up to ! light ! ridges appe> d>k 9 proportion to _! opacity--i4e4 height or ?ickness--& ! furr[s light 9 proportion to ! ?9ness ( ! tissues !re4 ,if ! contra/ is v great1 z 9 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 ! furr[s seem l transp>5t %>p l9es1 & :51 z 9 ,poa1 :i* is practically devoid ( ridges1 ! diff]5ce ( ?ickness is small !y appe> m]ely z f9e /ri4 ,^! *>act]s mu/ be det]m9$ on ! fre% leaves1 h[ev]1 because ! contraction 9 dry+ draws ! ridges clos] toge!r & t5ds to oblit]ate ! l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,digraphis arund9acea4 ,transv]se section ( mid-rib & half ! leaf 7 ab\t #f74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,transv]se section ( leaf-blade 7 #aj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 ,transv]se section ( ! leaf-blade 7 #bj74 ,/ebl]4 ,! ridges are almo/ always evid5t--,catabrosa1 ,poa1 & ,av5a furni%+ ! *ief exceptions--& are ne>ly inv>iably on ! upp] surface3 !y are bel[ 9 ,melica1 h[ev]2 & _! relative numb]s1 heights & bread?s1 section--acute1 r\nd$1 or flatt5$--furni% valuable *>act]s2 z also does ! coexi/5ce or abs5ce ( hairs1 asp]ities1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,transv]se section ( ! leaf ( ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis 7 #ab74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,ditto ( ! leaf ( ,f4 ov9a 7 #ae74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,ditto ( ! leaf ( ,f4 ov9a1 v>4 rubra 7 #ce74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 v>4 rubra4 ,transv]se section ( ! blade ( an upp] leaf 7 #ce74 ,/ebl]4 ,a v int]e/+ anatomical adaptation is met ) 9 ! leaves ( _m grasses :i* gr[ 9 dry situations 7x]ophytes7 su* z on s&y sea-%ores1 expos$ m\nta9s & s =?4 ,:5 ! air is moi/1 9 wet wea!r or 9 ! dews1 & ! sun's rays n too p[]ful1 ! leaf is spread out ) its upp] surface flat or ne>ly s1 b :5 ! scor*+ sun & dry air or w9ds prevail1 ! leaves fold or roll up1 ) ! upp] sides appos$ or ov]lapp+ inside ! holl[ cyl9d] ?us made4 ,9 su* leaves "s ( ! upp] epid]mal cells1 ei!r next ! mid-rib 7,sesl]ia c47 or betwe5 ! o!r ribs 7,fe/uca c47 are l>ge & v ?9-wall$1 full ( sap :5 di/5d$1 & s plac$ t z !y lose wat] by evaporation !y contract1 & s draw toge!r ! two halves ( ! lam9a 7,sesl]ia7 or ea* ribb$ segm5t 7,fe/uca71 ?us caus+ ! infold+ or inroll+ 7see ,*apt] ,,iv74 ,n only f ! /ructure & actions ( ^! motor-cells1 b also f ! fact t ! /omata are on ! upp] surfaces & ?us protect$1 & t ! l[] surfaces :i* alone are expos$ to ! dr\ght are def5d$ by h>d & imp5etrable tissues1 we mu/ look ^u ^! z adaptations to ! x]ophytic conditions4 ,leaves prom95tly ridg$4 ,elymus4 ,psamma4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,lolium4 ,cynosurus 7,fig4 #af74 ,agro/is4 ,alopecurus4 ,glyc]ia fluitans4 ,kl]ia4 ,fe/uca elatior4 ,fe/uca ,myurus 7v>4 sciuroides74 ,melica has ridges on ! l[] surface4 ,ridges are less prom95t 9 ,phleum prat5se1 ,briza1 ,agropyrum1 ,triodia1 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum4 ,leaves practically devoid ( ridges4 ,poa--all common species4 ,glyc]ia aquatica4 ,catabrosa aquatica4 ,av5a prat5sis4 ,9 "s grasses ! tissue ov] ! mid-rib is consid]ably rais$ & /r5g!n$ on ! dorsal side ( ! blade z a 8keel40 ,keel m or less prom95t4 ,arrh5a!rum 7%ea? keel$74 ,poa 7all except ,p4 m>itima74 ,dactylis4 ,bromus4 ,bromus asp] 7%ea? keel$1 (t5 a :ite l9e74 ,holcus lanatus 7slight & decurr5t7 7,fig4 #ae74 ,digraphis 7,fig4 #ad74 ,glyc]ia4 ,mo/ grasses are glabr\s1 b !re are a numb] 9 :i* hairs are ne>ly always a prom95t feature4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ) grasses1 z ) o!r plants1 ! "* ( pubesc5ce is apt to v>y ) ! situation4 ,9 g5]al x may be /at$ t a hairy grass t5ds to become m glabr\s 9 a moi/ situation1 & m pubesc5t 9 a dry "o1 b ! rule is by no means absolute4 ,9 "s cases1--e4g4 ,av5a pubesc5s1 ,a4 flavesc5s1 ,agropyrum1 ! hairs are almo/ entirely conf9$ to ! cre/s ( ! ridges 7,figs4 #aj1 #ae74 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( hairy grasses4 ,,hairy ,,grasses4 ,holcus 7,fig4 #ae74 ,mol9ia crulea4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum4 ,agropyrum 7v>iable74 ,bromus asp]4 ,b4 mollis4 ,hordeum4 ,an?oxan?um4 ,av5a flavesc5s 7,fig4 #aj74 ,a4 pubesc5s4 ,triodia4 ,kl]ia4 ,to a less ext5t4 ,fe/uca sciuroides 7on ribs74 ,melica4 ,grasses z a rule are devoid ( /rong sc5ts#e or ta/es1 b ,an?oxan?um has a fa9t b di/9ct sweet od\r1 especially z x dries--x is "o ( ! grasses :i* give ! sc5t to new-m[n hay--& a bitt] flav\r1 & ,milium1 ,hi]o*loe & ,holcus are also m or less bitt]4 ,sp>t9a /ricta emits a /rong unpleasant od\r4 ,! habitat ( grasses is ( great importance z an aid to det]m9ation4 ,no "o w\ld expect to f9d a sea-%ore grass gr[+ 9 a bee*-=e/1 or an aquatic grass on a dry *alk-d[n2 b !y are ev5 m true to _! habitats ?an ?is1 & ,i app5d ! foll[+ li/s ( habitats ( ,briti% grasses z ( use 9 det]m9+ !m1 ?\gh x is n pret5d$ t ! limits are absolute4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/ 8pa/ure-grass0 7,p7 means useful = graz+1 & 8mead[-grass0 7,m7 "o t is especially valuable = m[+--i4e4 = hay4 ,a 8we$0 7,w7 is us$ 9 its agricultural s5se = a grass n useful & n want$ on cultivat$ l&1 ?\gh (t5 f\nd !re4 ,,mead[-,,& ,,pa/ure-,,grasses4 7,p & ,m7 ,dactylis glom]ata 7fields1 c474 7,p & ,m7 ,poa trivialis 7mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,bromus arv5sis 7cultivat$ & wa/e places1 mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,b4 /]ilis 7rud]al74 7,p & ,m7 ,poa prat5sis 7mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,briza m$ia 7mead[ & pa/ure74 7,p7 ,av5a prat5sis 7mead[ & pa/ure1 especially hilly74 7,p7 ,a4 pubesc5s 7v>47--dry4 7,p & ,m7 ,lolium p]5ne 7mead[1 pa/ure & wa/e places74 7,p & ,m7 ,l4 italicum 7valuable culture grass74 7,p7 ,cynosurus cri/atus 7d[ns74 7,m & ,p7 ,fe/uca elatior 7mead[ & moi/ pa/ure1 banks & riv]-sides74 7,w7 ,agro/is alba & ,a4 can9a 7pa/ure & wa/e places1 wet or dry74 7,p & ,m7 ,alopecurus prat5sis 7mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,a4 g5iculatus 7moi/ mead[s & m>%es74 7,p & ,m7 ,phleum prat5se 7mead[ & pa/ure74 7,p7 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum 7mead[1 h$ges & copse74 7,p & ,m7 ,an?oxan?um odoratum 7fields g5]ally74 7,w7 ,hordeum prat5se 7moi/ mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,holcus lanatus & ,h4 mollis 7mead[1 pa/ure & wa/e74 7,p & ,m7 ,av5a flavesc5s 7dry mead[ & pa/ure74 7,w7 ,av5a fatua 7corn-we$74 7,p7 ,fe/uca ov9a 7light lime/one pa/ures & *alk d[ns74 ,,%ade-,,grasses4 ,f\nd 9 woods1 copses1 c41 "u %ade4 ,melica uniflora 7woods1 c474 ,bromus asp] 7h$ges1 ?ickets1 & edges ( woods74 ,b4 giganteus 7h$ges & woods74 ,aira cspitosa 7moi/ %ade & damp h$ges74 ,poa nemoralis 7woods1 %ady places & damp m\nta9 rocks74 ,milium effusum 7moi/ woods1 c474 ,agropyrum can9um 7woods & %ady places74 ,hordeum sylvaticum 7woods & copse74 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum 7woods1 h$ges & ?ickets74 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum 7mead[s1 h$ges & copse74 ,fe/uca sylvatica 7m\nta9 woods74 ,,aquatic ,,& ,,semi-,,aquatic ,,grasses4 ,f\nd 9 wet dit*es1 ponds1 & on m>%es1 riv]-banks1 c4 ,glyc]ia fluitans 7wet dit*es & sl[ wat]s74 ,g4 aquatica 7wet dit*es & %all[ wat]s74 ,alopecurus g5iculatus 7moi/ mead[ & m>% l&s74 ,digraphis arund9acea 7riv]-banks1 m>%es74 ,arundo ,phragmites 7wet dit*es1 m>%es & %all[ wat]s74 ,mol9ia crulea 7wet hea?s & moors1 woods & wa/e places74 ,triodia decumb5s1 ,agro/is alba1 ,catabrosa & ,calamagro/is4 ,,moor-,,& ,,hea?-,,grasses4 ,d[ns & dry hill-pa/ures4 ,n>dus /ricta 7moors1 hea?s & hilly pa/ures74 ,aira flexuosa 7hea?s & hill pa/ures74 ,mol9ia crulea 7wet hea?y moors1 woods & wa/e places74 ,kl]ia cri/ata 7dry pa/ure74 ,triodia decumb5s 7dry hea?y & hilly pa/ures74 ,fe/uca ov9a 7hilly pa/ures--especially dry & op5--r>] 9 moi/ situations74 ,agro/is vulg>is & ,a4 can9a4 ,,m>itime ,,or ,,seaside ,,grasses4 ,poa m>itima 7m>itime74 ,p4 di/ans 7s&y pa/ures & wa/es ne> sea74 ,elymus ar5>ius 7coa/s74 ,psamma ar5>ia 7coa/s74 ,poa bulbosa 7wa/e places 9 ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&74 ,agropyrum junceum 7coa/s74 ,hordeum m>itimum 7,s4 & ,e4 coa/74 ,phleum ar5>ium 7coa/s74 ,,rud]al ,,or ,,vagabond ,,grasses4 ,wa/e places1 walls1 road-sides & dry s&y situations4 ,mol9ia crulea 7wet1 hea?y moors1 woods & wa/e places74 ,fe/uca ,myurus 7wa/e places1 walls1 road-sides74 ,f4 ov9a 7hilly pa/ures & especially dry1 r>ely moi/ situations74 ,aira c>yophyllea 7s&y & hilly pa/ures74 ,aira prcox 7s&y & hilly pa/ures74 ,poa di/ans 7s&y wa/es ne> ! sea74 ,p4 compressa 7dry1 b>r51 wa/e gr\nd74 ,p4 annua 7cultivat$ & wa/e l&s & fields74 ,agropyrum rep5s 7fields & wa/e places74 ,hordeum mur9um 7wa/e places & road-sides74 ,holcus lanatus 7mead[1 pa/ure1 & wa/e l&s74 ,h4 mollis 7same--r>]74 ,alopecurus agre/is 7wa/e l&s & roads 9 ,s4 ( ,engl&74 ,lolium p]5ne 7mead[s1 pa/ures & wa/e places74 ,l4 temul5tum 7fields & wa/e places1 n common74 ,bromus /]ilis 7on way-sides1 c474 ,b4 arv5sis 7cultivat$ & wa/e mead[s & pa/ures74 ,poa rigida 7dry1 rocky places74 ,x is also (t5 useful to "k :e!r a grass is r>e or local1 especially = ! purpose we h 9 view1 & ,i h !re=e drawn up ! foll[+ li/ ( r>e1 local or introduc$ =eign grasses ei!r n notic$ at all1 or only ref]r$ to incid5tally 9 ?is "w4 ,9 _m cases ^! introduc$ =eign grasses h sprung up f se$s br\ght ov] 9 c>goes ( hay1 wool1 & o!r products & pack+ mat]ials1 :i* 9 "p acc\nts = _! occurr5ce only ne> c]ta9 sea-ports1 manufactur+ t[ns & s =?4 ,su* plants are frequ5tly t]m$ balla/ plants4 ,=eign plants are also introduc$ 9 se$1 z mixtures or impurities1 & frequ5tly escape f corn-fields c4 ,le]sia oryzoides 7dit*es ( ,hants41 ,sussex & ,surrey74 ,panicum sangu9ale 7,s4 ,engl&74 ,p4 v]ticillatum 7fields 9 ,s4 & ,e474 ,p4 glaucum 7r>ely introduc$74 ,hi]o*loe borealis 7,?urso only74 ,phleum alp9um 7,highl&s only74 ,p4 ,bhm]i 7,ea/]n c\nties1 r>e74 ,p4 asp]um 0 0 0 ,phal>is can>i5sis 7r>e we$74 ,alopecurus alp9us 7,highl&s74 ,mibora v]na 7,anglesea & ,*annel ,isl&s74 ,lagurus ovatus 7,suffolk coa/s74 ,polypogon monspeli5sis 7r>e1 9 ,s4 ,engl& ne> sea74 ,p4 littoralis 7salt m>%es ,s4 ,engl&74 ,agro/is setacea 7dry hea?s ( ,s4 ,wales74 ,a4 ,spica-v5ti 7s&y fields ( ,e4 c\nties74 ,ga/ridium l5dig]um 7fields & wa/e places 9 ,s4 ,wales & ,norfolk74 ,calamagro/is ,epigeios 7moi/ glades c4 9 ,scotl&74 ,c4 lanceolata 7moi/ %ades1 scatt]$ 9 ,engl&74 ,c4 /ricta 7bogs1 c41 v r>e74 ,cynodon ,dactylon 7wa/e & cultivat$ l&s ne> sea 9 ,scotl&74 ,sp>t9a /ricta 7salt m>%es ,s4 & ,e4 coa/74 ,lepturus incurvatus 7scatt]$ on %ores74 ,bromus maximus 7,j]sey74 ,b4 madrit5sis 7roads & wa/e1 ,scotl& & ,tipp]>y74 ,b4 in]mis 7introduc$ f ,hung>y74 ,lolium italicum 7introduc$ f ,lomb>dy74 ,fe/uca uniglumis 7,iri% & ,s4,e4 coa/74 ,poa procumb5s 7wa/e gr\nd ne> sea74 ,p4 loliacea 7s&y sea-%ores74 ,p4 laxa 7,b5 ,nevis1 c474 ,p4 alp9a 7,highl&s & ,n474 ,catabrosa aquatica 7%all[ pools & dit*es1 scatt]$74 ,f9ally1 a few words may be said on a subject /ill 9 its infancy--t ( ,indicator-plants4 ,9 _m cases c]ta9 plants are f\nd s conf9$ to c]ta9 classes ( soil1 t =e/]s & agriculturi/s h claim$ to be able to inf] f _! pres5ce ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( c]ta9 *emical or o!r con/itu5ts ( soils3 on ! contr>y we f9d o!r plants s univ]sally di/ribut$ )\t ref]5ce to ! quality ( ! soil1 t !y are n indicative4 ,! latt] are (t5 t]m$ rud]al or vagabonds 7see p4 #bi74 ,)\t attempt+ too rigid a classification ( ,grasses 9 ?is connection--:i* w\ld be premature 9 ?is e>ly /ate ( our k--! foll[+ rem>ks are at lea/ g5]ally true4 ,a few grasses are ,indicators ( *alk & lime/one--e4g4 ,briza m$ia1 ,kl]ia cri/ata1 & ! exotic species ,/ipa p5nata & ,melica ciliata4 ,! foll[+ are said to indicate a suffici5cy ( potassium salts1 ,9 moi/] soils4 ,digraphis arund9acea4 ,phleum prat5se4 ,av5a pubesc5s4 ,arundo ,phragmites4 ,mol9ia crulea4 ,glyc]ia fluitans4 ,9 dri] soils4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,agro/is alba4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,kl]ia cri/ata4 ,briza m$ia4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 ,poa prat5sis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,fe/uca elatior4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,grasses l ,bromus arv5sis indicate ! exi/5ce ( clay 9 ! soil4 ,:ile ! foll[+ are indicative ( s&1 ,aira c>yophyllea4 ,a4 prcox4 ,a4 canesc5s4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 ,bromus /]ilis4 ,& only if ! s&y soil is moi/ & ( bett] quality1 ow+ to a c]ta9 proportion ( humus1 ! foll[+1 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 ,agro/is alba4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum4 ,av5a pubesc5s4 ,poa prat5sis4 ,t ! soil conta9s consid]able quantities ( common salt--sodium *loride--may be inf]r$ if ! foll[+ grasses occur1 ,psamma ar5>ia4 ,elymus ar5>ius4 ,hordeum m>itimum4 ,agropyrum junceum1 c4 ,! exi/5ce ( mu* humus is indicat$ by su* %ade grasses z ,melica uniflora4 ,m4 nutans4 ,milium effusum4 ,bromus giganteus4 ,b4 asp]4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum4 ,:]eas soils kn[n z 8s\r10 ?\gh conta9+ mu* vegetable rema9s1 may be suspect$ if ! foll[+ grasses ab\nd on !m1 ,aira cspitosa4 ,n>dus /ricta4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus4 ,mol9ia crulea2 especially if s$ges & ru%es coexi/ ) !m4 ,:5 cutt+s are made 9 =e/s1 su* grasses z ! foll[+ are v apt to appe>1 & may d h>m to "y plants1 ,fe/uca ov9a & v>ieties4 ,agro/is alba4 ,holcus mollis4 ,aira flexuosa1 c4 ,! grasses m especially indicative ( p>ticul> classes ( =e/-soils are *iefly ! wood-species 7see p4 #bh71 & ne$ n be fur!r specifi$4 ,9 gaps1 bord]s1 & copses--half-%ade--we f9d sev]al common grasses--e4g4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 ,agro/is alba4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum4 ,triodia decumb5s4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,fe/uca rubra4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum4 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,:]eas ,poa nemoralis1 ,fe/uca sylvatica1 ,agropyrum can9um1 ,melica1 ,milium1 ,bromus asp]1 ,b4 giganteus1 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum1 are m likely to be met ) 9 ! deep %ade inside ! =e/4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are vagabond grasses :i* seem to %[ no signs ( pref]5ce = "o soil ov] ano!r--e4g4 ,poa annua--?\gh 9 "s cases ^! rud]al plants indicate ! pres5ce ( rott+ sub/ances1 on a%-heaps & rubbi% ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,) ref]5ce to ! above1 h[ev]1 ! /ud5t mu/ n =get t v complex relations are conc]n$ 9 *anges ( soil1 %ade1 moi/ure1 elevation1 c4 & t al?\gh exp]i5c$ obs]v]s c draw conclusions ( "s value f ! pres5ce ( num]\s species & individuals on a giv5 soil1 no "o mu/ conclude too readily t a soil is s & s1 f obs]v+ solely t a p>ticul> k9d ( grass w gr[ !re4 ,an excell5t example ( :at may be done by apply+ su* k z exi/s ( ! habits ( grasses1 is af=d$ by ! hi/oric case ( ! plant+ up ( %ift+ s&-dunes ) species l ,psamma ar5>ia1 ,elymus ar5>ius1 ,agropyrum junceum1 c4 7toge!r ) s&-b9d+ species ( s$ges7 & s n only fix+ ! s&1 b prep>+ x = gradual af=e/ation ) bu%es & ev5tually trees1 & s sav+ enorm\s tracts ( l& & sums ( money1 z has be5 done on ! ,we/ coa/s ( ,france4 ,moreov]1 ! action ( rud]al plants--includ+ grasses--is to completely alt] ! nature ( ! poor soil & gradually fit x = o!r plants4 ,cov]+s ( grass greatly affect ! actions ( heat & sun%9e on ! surface soil1 & modify ! effects ( radiation & evaporation1 to say no?+ ( ! p5etrat+ & o!r effects ( ! roots4 ,rhizomes & /olons break up /iff soils2 & e eng9e] & =e/] kn[s h[ useful c]ta9 grasses are 9 keep+ ! surface-soil f be+ wa%$ d[n by heavy ra9s on /eep hill-sides or embankm5ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 luxuriant gr[?s ( tall grasses may d h>m to "y plants1 by _! action z we$s & especially z %ade-plants2 ?\gh =e/]s c employ !m 9 ! latt] capacity1 "u re/rictions1 to %elt] "y trees f ! sun4 ,aga91 too mu* dry grass ne> a =e/ (f]s dang]s f fire2 & x is a well kn[n fact t c]ta9 injuri\s animals1 e4g4 mice & o!r v]m91 are fav\r$ by a cov]+ ( grass4 ,gram9ace are = ! mo/ "p *alk-flee+ plants1 9 spite ( ! fact t c]ta9 species c gr[ 9 v ?9 lay]s ( soil on *alk d[ns4 ,!y mu/ be reg>d$ z requir+ mod]ate supplies ( humus z a rule1 & ev5 s&-lov+ grasses are n real exceptions4 ,! physiognomy ( ! grasses has always be5 reg>d$ z a /rik+ "o1 & ,humboldt class$ x z "o ( 8 #ai types ( vegetation4 ,z is well kn[n !y are sociable plants1 (t5 cov]+ enorm\s areas--prairies1 alps1 /eppes1 c4--) a few species1 alone or d5sely scatt]$ ?r\gh\t a mix$ h]bage4 ,!y also repres5t *>act]i/ically ! sun-plants1 ! erect leaves expos+ _! surfaces obliquely to ! sol> rays1 & be+ (t5 fold$ & ne>ly always n>r[4 ,! dead rema9s ( ^! sociable grasses are an important factor 9 protect+ ! soil aga9/ dr\ght & 9 facilitat+ humification1 z well z 9 cov]+ up plants dur+ long w9t]s or dry seasons1 keep+ ! gr\nd w>m] & moi/]1 & g5]ally less5+ ! effect ( extremes4 ,_m ,gram9ace are pron\nc$ x]ophytes1 ! epid]mis (t5 be+ develop$ z a wat]-/or+ tissue1 :ile ! erect leaves roll !mselves 9 int5se light1 ! /omata be+ situat$ accord+ly4 ,! halophytic /r&-plants ,psamma ar5>ia1 ,elymus ar5>ius1 ,agropyrum junceum1 & o!r ,dune-species1 z well z species ( ,aira1 ,fe/uca1 ,an?oxan?um1 ,/ipa1 ,lygeum1 ,ari/ida1 c4 are examples4 ,! hea?-grasses--e4g4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,n>dus /ricta1 ,mol9ia crulea--also come "u ?is category4 ,_m ( ! /r&-plants 7halophytes7 ,agropyrum1 ,psamma1 ,elymus1 are cov]$ ) waxy bloom1 & h long rhizomes :i* b9d ! s& & =m new soil1 a prop]ty l>gely tak5 advantage ( 9 c]ta9 =e/ op]ations4 ,o!r grasses1 p>ticul>ly annual species1 %[ _! adaptation to x]ophytic habits by =m+ bulb\s /ore-h\ses at ! base ( ! culms--e4g4 ,phleum ar5>ium4 ,"s ,gram9ace are hydrophytes1 su* z ,arundo1 ,glyc]ia1 c41 ) l>ge int]cellul> spaces 9 _! tissues2 :ile _m species--e4g4 ,aira cspitosa1 ,agro/is can9a1 ,mol9ia crulea--gr[ on wet moor-l&s1 =m+ p]5nial tufts1 ) or )\t creep+ rhizomes4 ,! mesophyte grasses are especially *>act]i/ic ( :at may be t]m$ c>pets--a lawn is a good example on a small scale1 ?\gh ( c\rse we mu/ rememb] t "h ! /ruggle = exi/5ce has be5 artificially int]f]$ ) m or less4 ,su* c>pets consi/ ( ! d5sely int]wov5 rootlets & rhizomes =m+ sod1 & conta9 mu* humus f ! accumulat$ dbris ( =m] ye>s4 ,^! grass-c>pets may be compos$ ( ne>ly pure gr[?s ( a few species1 or ( v _m diff]5t grasses & o!r h]bage4 ,!y are common 9 ,arctic regions1 on ,alps1 & 9 temp]ate climates g5]ally1 :]e we "k !m z mead[s1 hay-fields1 pa/ure & lawns4 ,! ,bamboos 9 ! wid] s5se h a physiognomy ( _! own1 e4g4 9 ,india1 & may drive out mo/ o!r plants & =m d5se und]gr[?s or jungle ( int]lac$ /ems & leaves & ?orny %oots4 ,simil> gr[?s occur on ! ,&es & else:]e 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,india & tropical ,asia ! tall] bamboos =m aggregates comp>able to d5se =e/s1 & su* =e/s are common on ! banks ( sev]al l>ge tropical riv]s4 ,mo/ ( ^! ,bamboos are x]ophytes4 ,bamboos are nei!r conf9$ to ! tropics1 nor to w>m] regions1 h[ev]1 = species are kn[n f di/9ctly cool regions--e4g4 ,s\? ,am]ica--or ev5 f ne> ! sn[ l9e--e4g4 ,*ili1 ! ,himalayas1 ,japan1 c41 & ! numb] ( species kn[n z h>dy is increas+ annually1 z is evid5t on exam9+ our l>g] ,engli% g>d5s4 ,! p]man5ce & "* ( ext5sive grassl&s1 especially prairies1 savannahs1 & /eppes1 are mu* affect$ by ! p]iodical fir+ !y are expos$ to 9 ! dry season1 & l>ge tracts ( c\ntry 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w w\ld d\btless be> =e/s or o!r vegetation if n ?us fir$1 :ile 9 o!r cases ! h]bage w\ld be diff]5tly con/itut$ 7 fir+ discont9u$4 ,! foll[+ *apt] embodies an attempt to classify our ,briti% grasses solely = purposes ( id5tification :5 n 9 fl[]4 ,x is n claim$ t ! arrangem5t is ! be/ possible1 nor t x is complete1 & ,i ne$ h>dly say t corrections w be gratefully receiv$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,grasses ,,classifi$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,_! ,,vegetative ,,*>act]s4 ,i4 ,,%ea?s ,,entire ,,except ,,:]e ,,^? ,,( ,,l[] ,,leaves ,,are ,,bur/ ,,by ,,bran*es1 ,c4 ,a4 ,aquatics ) ! %ea?s reticulat$1 ow+ to l>ge air-cavities4 ,leaves equitant1 l9e> acute1 (t5 float+4 ,glyc]ia fluitans 7,br474 ,float+ sweet grass4 ,some:at co>se1 b useful pa/ure 9 wat]-mead[s & f5s4 ,sweet-ta/+4 ,section ( %ea!d leaves l9e> oblong2 %ea? /riate or furr[$1 keel$2 leaf ribb$2 ligule broad acute4 ,leaf-base ) a yell[ triangle4 ,smoo?4 ,glyc]ia aquatica 7,sm474 ,re$ sweet grass4 ,especially giv5 to gr[+ 9 ! wat]-c\rses & on banks in/ead ( spread+ 9 ! wat]-mead[s1 c4 ,sweet-ta/+4 ,section ( %ea!d leaves broadly naviculate2 %ea? smoo?1 no keel2 leaf n ribb$1 ?ick & inflat$ ) l>ge air-cavities2 ligule %ort4 ,leaf-base ) a br[n triangle4 ,m>g9s & keel r r\gh4 ,^! two species ( ,glyc]ia are di/+ui%$ by _! %oot-sections & ! ridges ( ! leaves ( ,g4 fluitans3 !y (t5 occur 9 ! same dit*4 ,!y _c readily be confus$ ) o!rs on acc\nt ( _! aquatic habit1 & ! *>act]s giv54 ,! only o!r aquatic or semi-aquatic species are =ms ( ,catabrosa1 ,digraphis1 ,arundo1 ,alopecurus g5iculatus1 ,mol9ia crulea & ! r>e ,calamagro/is4 ,! ligule & flat %oots ) clos$ %ea?s alone suffice to di/+ui% x f ! r\nd & split %ea!d ,arundo ,phragmites2 & ! r\nd %oots ( ,digraphis1 its split %ea? & firm leaves1 suffice to di/+ui% x4 ,mol9ia also has a tuft ( hairs in/ead ( a ligule1 & a split %ea?1 & its habit is diff]5t4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus1 ) its 8kne$0 %oots1 has a totally diff]5t habit f ,glyc]ia1 & its v high ridges & want ( visible air-*amb]s complete ! diagnosis4 ,catabrosa is a small creep+ aquatic ) v flaccid leaves1 q glabr\s & s(t4 ,also sweet-ta/+4 ,b4 ,n aquatic1 & devoid ( visible air-*amb]s 9 leaf or %ea?4 ,(t5 p]5nial1 i4e4 hav+ /olons or o!r bran*es ) no rudim5ts ( fl[]s 9 !m1 & ) relics ( old leaf-bases4 77 ,sections ( %ea!d leaves acute3 ei!r two-edg$ or f\r-edg$4 7#a7 ,section ( %ea!d leaves quadrangul>4 ,blades ( leaf ?9 & dry1 sp>sely hairy4 ,%ea? q entire4 ,woods & %ady places4 ,melica uniflora1 ,l4 7,wood ,melick74 ,lam9a slightly tap]$ bel[1 convolute4 ,ligule obsolete1 ) a /iff subulate process on ! %ea? opposite ! blade-ins]tion4 ,ridges bel[1 b n above4 ,melica nutans1 ,l4 7,m\nta9 ,melick74 ,ligule long]1 & )\t ! awl-%ap$ peg4 ,only 9 ,scotl& & ,w4 ( ,engl&4 ,bo? are %ade grasses ( no agricultural value4 ,m4 uniflora1 ) its quadrangul> %oots & anti-ligul> peg1 _c be conf\nd$ ) any o!r grass4 7#b7 ,sections ( %ea!d leaves m or less acutely two-edg$1 ow+ to ! keels ( ! compress$ equitant leaves4 7i7 ,%oots broad & fan-l1 mu* compress$1 ) old br[n leaf-%ea?s bel[1 sometimes bur/ by ! intra-vag9al bran*es3 leaf ridgeless1 ) prom95t keel4 ,no und]gr\nd /olons4 ,dactylis glom]ata1 ,l4 7,cock's-foot74 ,an e>ly & quick-gr[+ pa/ure-grass1 :i* =ms mu* aft]ma?4 ,gr[s on all soils4 ,(t5 co>se4 ,co>se tussocks1 & h>%1 ) broad ?ick succul5t blui%-gre5 leaves4 ,section ( %ea!d leaves acutely naviculate4 ,prom95t obtuse ligule1 torn above4 ,lam9a long1 r\gh1 acute1 ) :ite l9es if held up1 & s]rulate edges4 ,no flank+ l9es#f4 ,no /olons 7,fig4 #f74 ,!re is a cultivat$ v>iety ( ,dactylis ) broad opaque :ite /ripes d[n ! leaves3 ^! are totally diff]5t f ! transluc5t :ite /ripes se5 on hold+ ! wild =m1 or ,aira cspitosa1 up to ! light4 ,ano!r cultivat$ 8ribbon-grass0--,digraphis--has r\nd %oots1 split %ea?s1 & a diff]5t habit1 & ! same applies to its wild =m4 ,probably ! only s]i\s *ances ( confusion ) ,dactylis are betwe5 x & ,poa prat5sis1 :i* also has flatt5$ %oots & clos$ %ea?2 b 9 ! latt] ! section ( ! %oot is elliptical--n naviculate1--! keel is f> less prom95t1 & ! ligule %ort]4 ,moreov] ,p4 prat5sis is a creep+ /olonif]\s grass1 less h>%1 & ) less po9t$ leaves4 ,! di/ance to :i* ! %ea? is torn may be f #a_/h to #a_/b d[n4 ,leaves t5d to rema9 conduplicate4 ,m>g9s s]rulate ) tee? extremely %ort & direct$ =w>ds4 7ii7 ,%oots compress$ b n>r[3 ! section almo/ rhomboid ) r\nd$ edges4 ,poa trivialis1 ,l4 7,r\gh-/alk$ ,mead[-grass74 ,conspicu\s 9 deep ri* pa/ures & or*>ds1 pref]r+ slight %ade & ri* soil4 ,valuable pa/ure & hay grass4 ,root/ock %ortly creep+1 bran*es extra-vag9al & above gr\nd1 %oots r\gh4 ,blade n>r[1 h>%1 ) an acute po9t1 ?91 %9+ bel[1 ridgeless1 ) flank+ l9es & keel4 ,ligule acute1 & %ort or long 7,fig4 #h74 ,sesl]ia crulea1 ,ard4 7,blue ,moor-grass71 ( our nor!rn lime/one hills1 has n>r[1 flat1 glauc\s blue1 /iff1 mucronate leaves1 ) scabrid apex4 ,ligule ciliate4 ,poa trivialis is mo/ likely to be conf\nd$ ) o!r ,poas1 especially ,p4 annua & ,p4 prat5sis1 s9ce !y bo? h ?9 leaves & flat %oots2 b ,p4 annua has a split %ea?1 less acute & dull] leaves1 is annual1 & less h>%1 & ! %oot-section is flatt] at ! sides & r\nd] at ! ends4 ,poa prat5sis1 ,l4 is l>g] & m /olonif]\s1 ) bo? extra- & intra-vag9al bran*es1 culms erect & smoo?1 %ea?s smoo?1 & ! %oot-sections elliptical--n corn]$ or rhomboidal--& ) d>k] gre5 & l>g]1 ?ick]1 #g-ve9$1 m glossy1 & less h>% leaves1 ) %ort]1 blunt] ligule4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 also pres5ts difficulties1 b ! %ea? is split1 & ! ligule is %ort] ?an 9 ,p4 trivialis1 ! leaves ?ick]1 & ! %oot-sections m l9e>-oblong or elliptical4 77 ,sections ( %ea!d leaves r\nd$1 circul> or oval1 !re be+ no prom95t keels4 7#a7 ,section ( %ea!d leaves circul> or ne>ly s1 ! %oots be+ only slightly compress$4 99 ,p]5nial4 ,bromus in]mis 7,awnless ,brome74 ,sections circul>1 ! leaves be+ convolute1 base %elv+4 ,glabr\s %ea?s & leaves4 ,/olonif]\s4 ,ligule %ort1 truncate1 & f9ely too!d4 ,a =age grass ( ! ,hung>ian /eppes4 ,n[ be+ gr[n 9 ?is c\ntry1 b ( d\btful value "h4 ,bromus erectus1 ,huds4 7,upright ,brome74 ,a we$4 ,sections oval & r\nd$1 b leaves equitant4 ,radical leaves rema9 fold$ & almo/ subulate1 hairy edges4 ,no /olons4 ,fields1 c4 ,x is a we$ on dry l&s1 & ( little or no value4 ,bromus asp]1 ,murr4 7,hairy ,brome74 ,9 ?ickets1 c43 a we$1 & useless4 ,leaves gre51 long1 flat1 hang+1 & e>$4 ,%ea? ) scatt]$ deflex$ hairs4 ,lam9a tap]+ at ! base4 ,keel a :ite l9e1 ridges inconspicu\s3 di/ance betwe5 ve9s #b-c times bread? ( latt]4 ,ligule v %ort1 too!d4 ,b4 giganteus1 ,l4 7,tall ,brome71 also comes "h4 ,x is less common & glabr\s4 ,woods1 c41 a useless we$4 9999 ,annual or bi5nial4 ,bromus mollis 7,b4 arv5sis1 v>4 mollis1 ,l471 ,field ,brome4 ,a too abundant & useless we$ 9 wat]-mead[s & hay-fields4 ,s(tly d[ny4 ,blades v ?9 & n e>$3 dry4 ,bromus /]ilis1 ,l4 7,b>r5 ,brome74 ,a useless we$4 ,r\gh & d[ny1 b less s ?an ! la/4 ,moi/ waysides1 c4 ,! ,bromes are extremely v>iable & difficult to det]m9e by ! leaves4 ,! annual species are apt to be bi5nial or 7,b4 /]ilis7 p]5nial2 & "s v>y mu* z reg>ds hair9ess--e4g4 ,b4 mollis is connect$ by a s]ies ( semi-glabr\s =ms to v>ieties q smoo?1 all gr\p$ by ,b5?am "u ,b4 arv5sis4 ,bromus asp]1 be+ auriculate & a %ade-species1 runs "s risk ( confusion ) ,hordeum sylvaticum1 b ,hordeum has a split %ea? & 9 ,b4 asp] ! transluc5t int]space betwe5 ! ridges is #b-c times z broad z 9 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,! o!r species ( ,bromus are n e>$1 & _! entire %ea?s at once di/+ui% !m f ,hordeum4 ,bromus giganteus has leaves glabr\s & v l ,fe/uca elatior4 ,! r$ split %ea?s ( ! latt]1 its %>p e>s & prom95t ridges af=d ! be/ di/9ctions2 & ,b4 giganteus has broad] leaves & m evid5t s]rulation or desc5d+ bri/les at ! basal m>g9s4 7#b7 ,section ( %ea!d leaves elliptical1 ow+ to ! %oots be+ compress$4 ,%ea?s (t5 only slightly split above4 ,no hair on surface ( leaves or %ea?s4 ,m>g9s ( leaves smoo? & ev54 ,blades )\t ridges1 a keel & flank+ l9es1 acute1 base r\nd$4 ,ligule ( l[] leaves v %ort4 ,poa prat5sis1 ,l4 7,smoo?-/alk$ ,mead[-grass74 ,an e>ly & valuable dry pa/ure-grass1 b ?\gh deep-root$1 x yields ?9 hay3 its *ief value is = 8bottom grass0 & 9 lawn mixtures1 c4 ,leaves /iff & po9t$4 ,extra-vag9al root+ und]gr\nd /olons1 & intra-vag9al bran*es4 ,%oots smoo?4 ,keel slight3 sev5 pr9cipal ve9s & small] ones betwe54 ,leaves blunt] & broad] ?an 9 ,p4 trivialis4 ,poa alp9a1 ,l4 7,alp9e ,poa74 ,on m\nta9s 9 ! nor?4 ,no /olons4 #d-e ve9s on ea* side ( ! m$ian "o4 ,poa prat5sis pres5ts simil> difficulties to ,p4 trivialis3 = diagnoses see p4 #db4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f ,p4 nemoralis by its clos$ %ea?1 ?ick]1 blunt] & h>d] leaves1 l9e>-elliptical %oot-sections1 & light col\r$ nodes1 z well z by its habit4 ,all o!r ,poas h %all[ & poorly develop$ roots4 ,p4 f]tilis is a =m v l ,p4 nemoralis1 ) r\gh] leaves & long] ligule1 introduc$ into cultivation4 ,m>g9s ( leaves scab]ul\s ) desc5d+ hairs4 ,v l[ flat ridges4 ,%ea? smoo?4 ,briza m$ia1 ,l4 7,quak+ ,grass74 ,a we$ 9 mead[s1 indicat+ poor soil--e4g4 moor-l&s & *alk--b eat5 by %eep4 ,tuft$ & slightly creep+ p]5nial4 ,ligules v %ort1 entire4 ,briza m9or1 ,l4 7,less] ,quak+-grass74 ,annual4 ,leaves broad] & %ort]1 & ligules long]4 ,9 ! s\? & r>]4 ,,ii4 ,,%ea?s ,,split1 ,,at ,,lea/ ,,"s ,,di/ance ,,d[n4 ,a4 ,glabr\s--i4e4 ) no obvi\s hairs#g4 7a7 ,grasses ) setace\s or bri/le-l leaves2--i4e4 ! lam9a ( ! l[] leaves rema9s p]man5tly fold$ in/ead ( op5+ out flat4 7#a7 ,ligule obsolete1 auricl$ at ! junction ( blade & %ea?4 ,fe/uca ov9a 7,%eep's ,fescue74 ,d5sely tuft$ p]5nial4 ,leaves h>d1 glabr\s & (t5 glauc\s1 ) #e-g ridges if =cibly unroll$1 e>s %ort1 /iff & erect4 ,bran*es 9 p]man5t %ea?s4 ,*iefly useful z pa/ures on d[ns & dry *alk-soils4 ,sev]al v>ieties are recognis$ by agriculturi/s1 z h>d1 r$1 v>i\s-leaf$1 f9e-leaf$ ,fescue1 c4 7see ,figs4 #ac & #ah74 ,fe/uca ,myurus1 ,l4 7,rat's-tail ,fescue74 ,annual1 long] auricles1 & hair on ! ribb$ inroll$ surface4 ,a road-side we$4 ,fe/uca ov9a pres5ts difficulties ) its v>ieties & ) ,f4 ,myurus1 ,l4 7v>4 sciuroides1 ,ro?474 ,! *ief v>ieties ( ,f4 ov9a are ,h>d ,fescue 7,f4 duriuscula1 ,l471 tall] & ) "s ( ! upp] leaves flat1 & f\nd 9 moi/] & ri* soils3 ,r$ ,fescue 7,f4 sabulicola1 ,duf4 or ,f4 rubra1 ,l47 m or less creep+ & ) r$ %ea?s to ! l[] leaves1 on poor /ony l&--,f4 het]ophylla is a =m ( ?is on *alky soils1 ) flat leaves above3 & ,f4 t5uifolia a v wiry =m on %eep-l&s4 ,!y all pass into "o ano!r1 h[ev]1 & _c be di/+ui%$ by ! leaves 7see ,figs4 #ah-bj74 ,f4 ,myurus 7v>4 sciuroides7 is rud]al & annual1 & has long] hairs on ! ridges ( ! fold$ leaves4 ,x has no agricultural value4 7#b7 ,ligule membran\s1 n auricl$4 77 ,bri/le-l 7setace\s7 leaves1 v h>d & /iff1 & m or less solid4 ,n>dus /ricta1 ,l4 7,moor ,mat-grass74 ,roots v t\gh & /r+y3 ligule small1 b ?ick & blunt4 ,leaves *annell$3 upp] erect1 l[] horizontal4 ,%ea? smoo?4 ,moors & s&y hea?s3 useless 7,figs4 #b & #bf74 ,aira flexuosa1 ,l4 7,wavy ,hair-grass74 ,roots fibr\s4 ,leaves %ort1 fili=m1 t]ete1 solid--! *annel h>dly disc]nible4 ,ligule %ort1 obtuse4 ,hea?s1 c4 ,( little use1 ev5 = %eep 7,fig4 #bh74 77 ,leaves bri/le-l1 b di/9ctly due to inroll+ ( edges4 ,aira c>yophyllea1 ,l4 7,silv]y ,hair-grass71 is scabrid4 ,a we$1 ) v slight foliage4 ,a4 prcox1 ,l4 7,e>ly ,hair-grass74 ,gre5] & m glabr\s4 ,habit m rigid4 ,a4 canesc5s1 ,l4 7,grey ,hair-grass74 ,glauc\s or purpli%2 r>e1 on ,s4,e4 coa/s4 77 ,leaves n>r[ & m or less involute1 & subulate upw>ds1 b easily unroll$1 & apt to become flatt] z !y age4 ,av5a prat5sis1 ,l4 7,p]5nial ,oat74 ,leaves r ?91 dry1 h>%1 ridgeless1 ) flank+ l9es & a keel#h2 glauc\s1 glabr\s1 b edges scabr\s4 ,usually involute1 b may op5 out4 ,ligule long ovate-acute4 ,dry pa/ures1 especially on calc>e\s soil1 & ( little value4 ,poa m>itima1 ,huds4 7,sea-grass74 ,leaves n>r[1 r %ort1 & ,u-%ap$ 9 section4 ,involute3 ridgeless1 ) flank+ l9es1 b no keel2 s(t & r ?ick4 ,ligule r long1 obtuse & decurr5t4 ,useless agriculturally4 ,= difficulties ) o!r species ( ,av5a & ,poa see pp4 #dd1 #ed & #fj4 7b7 ,grasses ) ! leaves exp&$1 m or less flat4 7#a7 ,blades conspicu\sly ridg$--i4e4 ! surface is rais$ 9 prom95t longitud9al ridges ) furr[s betwe54 7i7 ,leaves rigid & h>d1 %>p po9t$4 ,%ea? & out] leaf-surface usually glabr\s4 ,aira cspitosa1 ,l4 7,tuft$ ,hair-grass74 ,=ms l>ge tufts4 ,a co>se we$ =m+ bad tussocks 9 wet mead[s & pa/ures3 useless = fodd]4 ,leaves flat4 ,ligule long1 acute4 ,ridges equal1 high & %>p1 & scabrid1 ) #e-f :ite l9es betwe51 if view$ by transmitt$ light4 ,wet mead[s4 ,a4 cspitosa _c easily be mi/ak5 = any o!r species4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus is also a moi/ure-lov+ grass ) /rongly ridg$ leaves1 b ! int]spaces are f> less transluc5t & ! :ole habit is diff]5t4 ,all ! o!r species ( ,aira h involute & setace\s leaves1 & ev5 ,a4 cspitosa is apt to roll 9 its leaves 9 m\nta9 v>ieties1 b !y are easily flatt5$ out1 & %[ ! ridges4 ,psamma ar5>ia1 ,beauv4 7,sea ,mat-grass74 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ valuable 8s&-b9d]s10 its long matt$ rhizomes hold+ loose s& toge!r4 ,x is a sea-%ore grass1 ( no use = fodd]4 ,x 0 =m]ly mu* us$ = mats & ?at*+4 ,leaves concave1 long1 n>r[1 erect1 scabrid & glauc\s above1 & poli%$ bel[3 pung5t4 ,ridges r\nd$1 alt]nately high & l[4 ,%ea? long4 ,ligule v long & bifid4 ,elymus ar5>ius1 ,l4 7,s& ,lyme-grass74 ,l ,psamma1 ?is is a 8s&-b9d]0 & ( no use = fodd]4 ,leaves concave1 & e>$ at ! base ( ! blade3 e>s po9t$ & t5d to cross 9 front4 ,ligule v %ort & obtuse4 ,ridges flatt5$ above1 n scabrid4 ,apex ( blade roll$1 =m+ a h>d sp9e4 ,psamma _c easily be mi/ak5 = ! mu* less common ,elymus1 z x is n e>$1 & ! ridges & ligule are v diff]5t4 7ii7 ,leaves n specially rigid & h>d1 & (t5 ?92 glabr\s1 or %9+ bel[4 ,ridges less evid5t4 99 ,ligule v %ort or obsolete2 blade firm b n h>d1 glabr\s or ne>ly s1 & %9+ bel[4 ,%ea? (t5 col\r$ r$ or yell[ at ! base4 ,sections ( %ea!d leaves n>r[1 oblong1 ow+ to compression ( %oots4 ,%ea? ne>ly entire4 ,lolium p]5ne1 ,l4 7,p]5nial ,rye-grass74 ,v valuable pa/ure-grass1 especially on clay4 ,less successful z hay4 ,deep root$ tufts4 ,glossy d>k gre54 ,ligule %ort 7,fig4 #aa74 ,%ea? r$ or purpli% bel[4 ,blade conduplicate & keel$1 (t5 r\nd$1 coll>$ or e>$ at ! base2 ) r\nd$ ridges & r\gh above1 %9+ bel[4 ,:5 ! e>s are well develop$ _! po9ts (t5 cross "o ov] ! o!r 9 front ( ! %ea?4 ,l4 italicum1 ,braun4 7,italian ,rye-grass71 is an e>li] & bett] v>iety = hay & sewage f>ms4 ,%oot m r\nd$ 9 section1 & has less m>k$ ve9s on ! m roll$ leaf4 ,l4 temul5tum1 ,l4 7,common ,d>nel71 is annual & a we$ ( corn-fields4 ,foliage usually r\gh]4 ,lolium p]5ne pres5ts "s difficulties 9 relation to su* =ms z ,l4 italicum1 species ( ,agro/is & ,fe/uca1 ,alopecurus prat5sis1 ,cynosurus & ,agropyrum4 ,ow+ to ! leaves n be+ always /rictly conduplicate 9 ! fir/ ye>1 ! flat %oots may n %>ply m>k x (f f ,l4 italicum4 ,its some:at loos]1 almo/ /olonif]\s tufts1 & d>k] gre5 foliage1 less poli%$ bel[ & usually n>r[] & h>d]1 h !n to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! ridges ( ,lolium are (t5 l ^? ( ,fe/uca prat5sis2 & ! %9+ l[] surface & r firm leaves & r$ %ea?s1 pres5t o!r po9ts ( confusion4 ,! smoo? basal m>g9s ( ,lolium1 abs5ce ( :ite transluc5t l9es :5 held up1 & ! diff]5t ligule & e>s af=d di/9ctions--! ligule ( ,fe/uca be+ a m]e l9e1 & ! e>s po9t$ & project+1 :]eas !y may be m]e lat]al l$ges 9 ,lolium4 ,cynosurus has ! ligule & e>s v l ^? ( ,lolium1 ! e>s be+ m]e l$ges2 b ! =m] has yell[ %ea?s1 firm] & ?ick] leaves ) m evid5t ridges1 & ! old plants usually h ! *>act]i/ic cre/$ spikes rema9+4 ,cynosurus1 moreov]1 has ! %ea? split only a %ort way d[n4 ,) reg>d to ,agro/is1 !re is no col\r 9 ! %ea?1 ! ligule is long] & po9t$1 & ! leaves dri] & ?9n] ?an 9 ,lolium1 & h>%] on bo? surfaces4 ,agro/is has also no e>s4 ,alopecurus prat5sis has mu* broad] & flatt] ridges ?an ,lolium & a long] ligule1 & its %ea?s are d>k-br[n or black--n r$2 b ,a4 agre/is has v simil> ridges to ,lolium & may easily be conf\nd$ at fir/4 ,agropyrum is sometimes ne>ly glabr\s1 & may !n be confus$ ) ,lolium by beg9n]s3 its l[ ridges1 curl$ & po9t$ e>s1 obsolete ligule1 & ?9n]1 dri]1 h>%] blade1 z well z ! /olons1 di/+ui% x4 ,lolium temul5tum & ,hordeum mur9um occasionally cause difficulty1 b ! latt] is always m or less hairy1 its blades ?9n] & dri]1 & ! ridges less rais$4 ,sections r\nd$--elliptical or ne>ly circul>4 ,%ea? di/9ctly split1 at lea/ above4 ,cynosurus cri/atus1 ,l4 7,cre/$ ,dog's-tail74 ,useful z pa/ure on dry soils1 b only mod]ately s z hay4 ,blade n>r[1 slightly e>$ or coll>$ bel[1 tap]$ above2 firm] ?an ,lolium4 ,%ea? only split a %ort way d[n4 ,yell[ or yell[i%-:ite at ! base4 ,leaves conduplicate or convolute1 %ort & n>r[1 ! ligule %ort3 m9ute e>s at base4 ,usually easily recognis$ by ! )]$ culms & p]si/5t pect9ate spikes 7,fig4 #af74 ,fe/uca elatior1 ,l4 7,mead[ ,fescue74 ,a valuable mead[ & pa/ure grass1 ?\gh some:at co>se4 ,sev]al v>ieties are kn[n4 ,be/ on heavy soils4 ,deep root$4 ,blade flat & broad1 conduplicate1 %>p-e>$ at ! base1 & !re r\gh at ! m>g93 l[] surface poli%$4 ,ri* gre54 ,mid-rib flat above1 num]\s ribs ) :ite l9es betwe5 if held up & exam9$ ) a l5s4 ,ligule obsolete 7,figs4 #ab & #ag74 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,l4 7,common ,re$74 ,a l>ge aquatic1 re$-l creep+ grass1 ) broad leaves 7#c_/d to #a 9471 flat1 r rigid1 acum9ate1 glauc\s bel[1 hispid at edges4 ,%ea? smoo?1 /riate1 be>d$ at m\?4 ,ligule a m]e fr+e ( hair4 7,cf4 ,digraphis1 p4 #ed47 ,cynosurus is n v liable to confusion2 b x has resemblances to ,lolium 7see p4 #di7 & to species ( ,agro/is4 ,! leaves ( ,cynosurus are firm]1 ?ick]1 less dry1 & ) a %9+ und]surface1 & ! %ea? is only split above1 & yell[ bel[2 :]eas ,agro/is has relatively ?9 & dry leaves1 r\gh surfaces & m>g91 di/9ct ridges1 & conv]g+ m>g9s z ! blade ne>s ! %ea?4 ,fe/uca elatior is easily confus$ ) ! glabr\s ,bromes4 ,= ,b4 giganteus see p4 #dc4 ,bromus erectus is di/+ui%$ by ! entire %ea?1 usually hairy1 ! want ( auricles1 & ! conduplicate--n convolute--leaves4 ,agro/is has ?9n]1 dull]1 & dri] leaves1 & no r$ %ea?4 ,alopecurus prat5sis has m depress$1 flatt] & broad] ridges ?an ,fe/uca1 & a long] ligule1 & lacks ! po9t$ e>s4 9999 ,ligule :iti%1 membran\s1 long1 or at lea/ well develop$4 ,%ea?s n col\r$ or br[n4 ,leaves ?9 & r\gh1 at lea/ at ! base4 ,ridges n v prom95t1 b num]\s & di/9ct4 ,agro/is /olonif]a1 ,l4 7,fior974 ,/olons1 ) num]\s %ort (fsets bur/+ ?r\gh ! leaf-%ea?s4 ,blade flat1 r\gh1 tap]+1 ) r\nd$ ridges1 & convolute 9 bud3 !re are no auricles1 b ! blade may n>r[1 & =m l$ges1 z x runs into ! %ea?4 ,%ea?s ne>ly smoo?4 ,ligule long & po9t$1 & (t5 too!d at ! m>g9s4 ,! leaves v>y 9 bread?4 ,?is & ,a4 vulg>is1 ,)4 ) %ort] ligules1 &1 possibly1 ,a4 can9a1 ,l4 ) f9] leaves1 are v>ieties ( ,a4 alba1 ,l4 ,only ! v>iety ,a4 /olonif]a is ( mod]ate value = pa/ure1 especially on poor soils1 z x la/s late into autumn3 ! o!rs are we$s1 l c\*-grass4 ,agro/is is full ( difficulties = ! beg9n]4 ,! we$-=ms (t5 spr+ up aft] :eat has be5 cut1 & c\nt z 8twit*10 l ,agropyrum4 ,all ! ord9>y =ms--,a4 /olonif]a1 ,a4 vulg>is1 & ,a4 can9a--may be includ$ 9 ,a4 alba 7,l9n474 ,on dry hills a close tuft$ grass1 ) setace\s leaves1 & 9 ri* soils creep+ & luxuriant ) broad leaves4 ,x is "o ( ! few grasses t ?rive 9 wet soils4 ,! *ief po9ts 9 ! flat-leaf$ =ms are ! ?91 dry leaves1 r\gh on bo? sides & on ! m>g9s1 ) di/9ct rais$ ridges1 & ! base ( ! leaf n>r[+ sudd5ly into its ins]tion ) ! %ea?1 ) no auricle1 b ) a long membran\s ligule4 ,! %ea? n col\r$1 & ! blade convolute4 ,aga91 ,a4 /olonif]a has a long1 s]rat$1 acute ligule1 :ile ,a4 vulg>is has a mu* %ort]1 entire & truncate "o1 & n>r[] leaves4 ,agropyrum is ! grass mo/ likely to lead to confusion4 ,its e>s1 l[] ridges1 v %ort or obsolete ligule1 & pubesc5ce 7sometimes glabr\s7 di/+ui% x4 ,cynosurus sometimes gives tr\ble 7see p4 #ej7 ) ,alopecurus prat5sis3 ! %ea?s1 ligule & flatt5$ ridges %\ld suffice = di/9ction4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus is ev5 m l ,agro/is1 b its ridges are m prom95t & %>p1 & its aquatic habit & b5t 8knees0 di/+ui% x4 ,alopecurus agre/is1 9 dry corn-fields1 has a ?ick5$ ligule1 sometimes col\r$1 & is annual or bi5nial1 b o!rwise v l ,agro/is4 ,alopecurus prat5sis1 ,l4 7,mead[ ,foxtail74 ,l>ge grass ) /olons2 v e>ly1 & mu* priz$ z pa/ure & hay1 b soon dies out on light poor soils4 ,especially good = /iff soils4 ,%ea?s long1 ridg$1 br[n or ne>ly black at ! base z !y age4 ,ligule di/9ct & obtuse1 entire4 ,leaves num]\s4 ,blades long1 d>k gre51 succul5t & scabr\s3 ridges num]\s & flat above1 b di/9ct 7,fig4 #i74 ,a4 agre/is1 ,l4 9 ,s4 ,engl& has %ort] leaves1 & ridges n flatt5$2 x is a tr\blesome pe/ ( arable l&1 b does n usually invade pa/ure4 ,a4 g5iculatus1 ,l4 is semi-aquatic1 & l ! la/4 ,x is easily recognis$ by its %>ply b5t 8knees10 & is ( little value 7,fig4 #c74 ,alopecurus %[s resemblances to ,lolium 7see p4 #di71 ,fe/uca 7see p4 #ej71 & ,agro/is 7see p4 #eb74 ,if well gr[n its ridg$ %ea? & leaves1 ! =m] br[n or black at ! base1 aid 9 di/+ui%+ x4 7#b7 ,blades ei!r devoid ( ridges or ) v inconspicu\s ones4 99 ,no trace ( ridges1 & ! mid-ribs n prom95t1 b ! leaves %[ m$ian l9es flank$ by f9] ones :5 held up4 ,blades ?9 & n>r[4 ,some:at keel$4 7i7 ,%oots compress$4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 7,flat-/emm$ ,mead[-grass74 ,leaves r %ort1 m or less glabr\s or glauc\s1 & ,v-%ap$ at ! base2 %oots compress$1 & naviculate 9 section4 ,ligule %ort & ?94 ,%ea? t5ds to be clos$ bel[4 ,a creep+ p]5nial on commons & wa/e l&s1 & ( little or no value4 ,poa annua1 ,l4 7,annual ,mead[-grass74 ,small annual4 ,compress$ %oots1 limp4 ,leaves l9e>1 pale1 sub-acute1 ?91 (t5 wavy1 flat1 flaccid1 bright gre52 dull or slightly %9+ & ,v-%ap$ 9 section bel[4 ,ligule long1 po9t$1 :iti% & clasp+ ! %oot4 ,x is a h>mless we$1 & s9ce x puts out %oots all ! ye> r\nd1 furni%es a c]ta9 am\nt ( pa/urage4 7ii7 ,%oots t]ete or ne>ly s4 ,poa nemoralis1 ,l4 7,wood ,poa74 ,leaves & %ea?s smoo?4 ,blade bright gre51 ?91 (t5 glauc\s1 l9e>-n>r[1 flaccid1 acute4 ,ligule almo/ obsolete4 ,section ( %oots r\nd4 ,( little value4 ,poa bulbosa1 ,l4 7,bulb\s ,mead[-grass74 ,/ems bulb\s at ! base4 ,ligule long & acute4 ,leaves v n>r[ & tap]+4 ,sections ( %oot r\nd4 ,coa/s ( ,s4 & ,e4 ,all ! ,poas1 except ! aquatic ones 7,glyc]ia7 & ,p4 m>itima1 h glabr\s ribless blades ) ! m$ian l9es1 & slight keel4 ,p4 prat5sis1 ,p4 alp9a & ,p4 trivialis 7,fig4 #h7 h entire %ea?s 7z h ,glyc]ia fluitans1 ,g4 aquatica & ,p4 m>itima71 b ! o!rs h !m split "s way d[n4 ,! leaves ( ,p4 prat5sis & ,p4 compressa are firm] ?an ! ?9 leaves ( ,p4 annua1 ,p4 trivialis & ,p4 nemoralis4 ,%ea?s flatt5$ 9 ,p4 prat5sis1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 annua1 & ,p4 trivialis2 b r\nd$ 9 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,glyc]ia aquatica & ,g4 fluitans h nett$ %ea?s4 ,poa annua is annual1 & ,p4 bulbosa has ! bulb\s base4 ,p4 m>itima has involute leaves & no keel1 & ! r>e ,p4 alp9a has %ort rigid keel$ mucronate leaves1 ) tip (t5 inflex$ & ?ick5$ scabrid edges4 ,! leaves ( ,av5a are apt to appe> simil> to ^? ( ! ,poas at fir/ sight1 b ! =m] are hairy1 & ridg$1 dry z well z ?91 & ! peculi> m$ian l9es ( ,poa are want+4 ,poa bulbosa has dri] leaves ?an usual1 b its leaves are devoid ( ridges4 9999 ,ridges c be detect$1 b are slight & n di/9ct4 ,m>g9s scabrid1 at lea/ at ! base4 ,leaves firm1 flat1 l9e>1 acum9ate1 n n>r[$ bel[4 ,glabr\s4 ,ligule membran\s4 ,digraphis arund9acea1 ,tr94 7,re$-grass74 ,%ea!d leaves r\nd 9 section2 blades convolute1 tap]+ above1 flat1 firm1 long & broad 7#a 947 bel[4 ,mid-rib & ve9s num]\s1 & prom95t bel[4 ,/olonif]\s3 bran*es extra-vag9al1 (t5 ) deep r$ basal scales4 ,%ea?s ) mu* ov]lapp+ membran\s m>g9s1 ) a coll>-l l$ge above4 ,ligule long & some:at acute4 ,wet dit*es1 c41 ( no value 7,figs4 #g1 #ad74 ,= di/9ction betwe5 ,digraphis & ,dactylis see p4 #da4 ,poa prat5sis is at once di/+ui%$ by its flatt5$ %oots1 m r\nd$ leaf apex & %ort] ligule4 ,arundo ,phragmites is easily di/+ui%$ by ! ligule 7see p4 #ea71 & ! o!r aquatic grasses are q diff]5t 7see p4 #ci74 ,phleum prat5se1 ,l4 7,timo?y-grass74 ,no /olons1 b bulb\s on dry gr\nd4 ,e>ly1 & a heavy cropp+ hay grass3 also excell5t pa/ure2 bran*es intra-vag9al1 b bur/ ! glabr\s %ea?s4 ,old %ea?s fibr\s4 ,leaves %ort1 convolute1 ) scabrid m>g9s ow+ to deflex$ tee?3 ridges obsolete above1 no keel2 broad] & grey] gre5 ?an ,alopecurus4 ,ligule %ort on radical leaves1 ?94 ,pa/ures4 ,p]5nial4 ,! smoo? ligule1 deflex$ m>g9al tee?1 & no keel di/+ui% x f ,arrh5a!rum4 ,phleum ar5>ium1 ,l4 7,s& ,phleum74 ,%oot annual1 ) no bulbs4 ,leaves broad1 flat & glabr\s1 b r\gh at ! edges1 ) desc5d+ tee?4 ,ridges l[ & flat4 ,%ea?s smoo?3 leaves conduplicate4 ,ligule long4 ,s&y coa/s1 c4 ,a we$4 ,phleum asp]um1 ,jacq4 & ,p4 ,bhm]i1 ,s*rad4 are r>e rud]al plants1 & ,p4 alp9um1 ,l4 is conf9$ to ! ,scot* ,highl&s4 ,p4 ar5>ium is %>ply di/9ct by its conduplicate leaves & habitat4 ,alopecurus prat5sis has n>r[] & less grey-gre5 leaves ?an ,phleum prat5se1 its ligule is %ort] & blunt]1 its %ea? m groov$ & d>k bel[1 & ! ridges m di/9ct & flat4 ,x is relatively well root$ & is /olonif]\s4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum1 ,beauv4 7,false ,oat-grass74 ,loose tufts ) %ort /olons1 or bulb\s bel[4 ,leaves few1 n>r[1 ?91 dry1 r\gh1 ) v l[ flat ribs1 convolute 9 bud1 & practically glabr\s4 ,%ea? smoo?4 ,ligule truncate1 hairy on its out] surface4 ,bitt]1 & commonly und]valu$ by agriculturi/s1 b useful 9 mix$ pa/ure1 & yields bulky1 co>se hay4 ,!re are (t5 a few sp>se isolat$ hairs on ! l[ ribs4 ,! base ent]s ! %ea? ) slight & sometimes p9ki% l$ges4 ,ridges h>dly obs]vable4 ,traces ( r\ghness if rubb$ d[nw>ds4 ,:ite l9es1 ab\t #e ea* side on hold+ up to ! light4 ,! n v long leaves tap] slightly bel[4 ,arrh5a!rum is liable to confusion ) ,holcus1 ,an?oxan?um1 ,mol9ia & ,av5a1 b x is typically glabr\s1 :]eas ! o!rs are hairy4 ,f ,holcus x is easily di/+ui%$ by ! %ea?s1 ligule & s(t hairs ( t g5us4 ,an?oxan?um diff]s 9 its habit1 e>s1 sc5t1 %ea? & ligule4 ,mol9ia diff]s 9 habit1 ligule1 %ea?1 & t\gh /r+y roots1 & ! %ape ( ! leaves4 ,av5a prat5sis diff]s 9 its n>r[ leaves1 less prom95t ridges1 & ligule2 ,a4 flavesc5s 9 its mu* broad] & co>s] hairy leaves1 & ! ligule2 & ,a4 pubesc5s 9 pubesc5ce & flat-%oots & ligule4 ,leaves v ?91 blade tap]+ bel[4 ,keel prom95t1 b no ridges above4 ,ligule long & torn4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 7,spread+ ,millet-grass74 ,tuft$ p]5nial4 ,leaves l9e>-lanceolate1 scabrid above4 ,%ea? smoo?4 ,bitt] ta/+4 ,may be slightly hairy4 ,woods4 ,x is mu* lik$ by birds1 b is ( no value 9 agriculture4 ,b4 ,leaves or %ea?s1 or bo?1 di/9ctly hairy4 77 ,leaf-blades e>$ at ! base4 7a7 ,e>s %>ply po9t$4 ,leaves convolute1 & sections ( %oots r\nd4 ,ligule %ort & inconspicu\s4 ,agropyrum rep5s1 ,beauv4 7,c\*-grass74 ,a tr\blesome we$ ( arable l& & g>d5s1 c41 ow+ to ! extraord9>y vitality ( its und]gr\nd /olons4 ,! "y %oots are readily eat5 by /ock4 ,p]5nial1 & ext5sively /olonif]\s2 bright or glauc\s gre54 ,blade ?91 dry1 r\gh edg$1 hairy & r\gh above1 glabr\s or hairy bel[4 ,! %ort ligule fr+$4 ,e>s long1 or sometimes %ort1 po9t$2 (t5 obliquely cross+ 9 front ( ! %ea?4 ,ridges inconspicu\s4 ,hairs may be abs5t f ! %ea?1 & ne>ly s f ! blade4 ,! sea-%ore v>ieties are /iff] & m glauc\s1 ! leaves m ribb$1 involute & po9t$--e4g4 ,a4 junceum1 ,beauv4 ,agropyrum can9um1 ,beauv4 7,be>d$ ,:eat-grass74 ,tuft$ we$1 n creep+1 9 woods1 c4 ,blade ?9n] & r\gh] b5ea?1 b v v>iable4 ,prop]ties simil> to ^? ( ,a4 rep5s4 ,agropyrum may be confus$ ) ,lolium 7see p4 #di7 & ,agro/is 7see p4 #ea71 b h>dly ) any o!r grass1 & ) ^! only because x is liable to be glabr\s or ne>ly s on poor soil4 ,elymus has mu* m pron\nc$ ridges ?an ! sea-%ore v>ieties ( ,agropyrum4 7b7 ,base ( blade ) inconspicu\s r\nd$ e>s4 ,leaves convolute4 ,ligule conspicu\s4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum1 ,l4 7,sweet ,v]nal-grass74 ,compact tuft4 ,common 9 pa/ures & hay1 b x only =ms a small proportion ( ! crop4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ grasses1 & ! pr9cipal "o1 :i* gives ! sc5t to new-m[n hay3 a p]fume has be5 extract$ f x4 ,its value z fodd] is probably ov]rat$4 ,bitt] ta/$4 ,leaves m or less hairy at m>g9s1 especially at ?roat ( %ea?1 flat1 & slightly ridg$4 ,%ea? furr[$1 (t5 pubesc5t4 ,ligule long & blunt1 ) ciliate m>g9s4 ,sweet sc5t$ :5 dri$4 ,! mo/ %all[ root$ ( all mead[-grasses4 ,leaves (t5 %ort & few4 ,an?oxan?um is sometimes confus$ ) ,arrh5a!rum 7see p4 #ef7 & ,mol9ia2 ! latt] diff]s 9 its ligule--a tuft ( hair--its /r+y roots1 tap]+ leaf-base1 less obvi\s ridges1 & smoo? %ea?s1 c4 ,an?oxan?um is deep gre5 & (t5 v luxuri\s 9 ri* wet soils--e4g4 9 ,devon%ire4 7c7 ,e>s z m]e coll>-l l$ges :]e ! blade jo9s ! %ea?4 ,%ea? usually pubesc5t or hispid ) reflex$ hairs4 ,ridges inconspicu\s4 ,ligule v %ort4 ,p]5nial1 ) firm] leaves4 ,hordeum sylvaticum1 ,huds4 7,wood ,b>ley74 ,leaves flat1 ?9 b firm1 r broad1 scab]ul\s4 ,%ea? hispid1 ) reflex$ hairs4 ,blade n tap]+ bel[4 ,transluc5t spaces betwe5 ! ve9s z broad z ! latt]4 ,ligule %ort & blunt4 ,%ady places4 ,useless4 ,hordeum prat5se1 ,huds4 7,mead[ ,b>ley74 ,tuft$1 or bulb\s bel[4 ,leaves n>r[]1 flat1 t5d+ to roll up1 scabrid above & hairy b5ea?4 ,%ea? n>r[1 hairy4 ,moi/ mead[s1 & ( "s use z pa/ure 9 ! "y /ate4 ,annual1 ) ?9 dry leaves4 ,hordeum mur9um1 ,l4 7,wall ,b>ley74 ,co>se tufts2 leaves small1 n>r[1 hairy or scabrid4 ,%ea?s sp>sely hispid1 or v d[ny1 inflat$4 ,roads1 c4 ,a useless we$4 ,h4 m>itimum1 ,)4 is a sea-side =m1 small] & m glauc\s4 ,%ea?s hairy4 77 ,leaf-blades n e>$ at ! base4 99 ,%ea?s ( radical leaves ve9$ ) r$-purple4 ,holcus lanatus1 ,l4 7,york%ire ,fog74 ,a useless we$1 b v common 9 pa/ure & hay2 =m+ tussocks1 greyi%-gre51 s(tly hairy 7tom5tose74 ,blades ) r\ndi% ridges4 ,ligule %ort & obtuse4 ,%ea? some:at keel$1 ) trace ( coll> l$ge4 ,x is said to h a bitt] ta/e 7,fig4 #ae74 ,ligule pilose4 ,tuft$ hairs along ! broad r\nd$ ridges1 & on ! l[] surface & prom95t keel4 ,! mu* r>] ,h4 mollis1 ,l4 is n s long-hair$1 except on ! nodes1 & is m creep+ & sl5d] 9 habit4 ,x is a 8twit*40 ,! ,hordeums pres5t sev]al po9ts ( difficulty to beg9n]s4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! species are giv5 above4 ,h4 m>itimum has n>r[] & ?ick] leaves ?an ! re/4 ,bromes are mo/ likely to be conf\nd$ ) ,hordeums1 b !y h entire %ea?s & no e>s 7see p4 #dc74 ,= di/9ctions betwe5 ,h4 mur9um & ,lolium see p4 #di4 ,h4 sylvaticum & ,bromus asp] 7p4 #dd74 9999 ,no conspicu\sly r$-ve9$ %ea?s4 ,ligule abs5t1 or a tuft ( hairs4 ,mol9ia crulea1 ,mn*4 7,purple ,mol9ia74 ,tussocks1 ) t\gh /r+y roots4 ,leaves n>r[$ bel[1 & tap]+ above to a long po9t1 ridges obsolete2 v ?9 & dry b fairly /iff1 & hairy above1 especially at ! base4 ,ligule abs5t1 or a tuft ( hairs4 ,%ea?s smoo?4 ,moors4 ,useless z =age1 b us$ locally = brooms4 ,mol9ia is n easily conf\nd$ ) any o!rs b ,an?oxan?um 7see p4 #eg71 ,arrh5a!rum 7see p4 #ef7 or ,bra*ypodium4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum is di/+ui%$ by habitat1 its broad leaves1 membran\s ligule1 fibr\s roots1 c4 ,kl]ia cri/ata1 ,p]s4 7,cre/$ ,kl]ia74 ,v %ort1 p]5nial 9 dry pa/ures1 pubesc5t1 pale gre54 ,leaves n>r[1 tap]+ bel[1 soon involute1 ciliat$4 ,ridges prom95t1 alt]nately high & l[4 ,ligule obsolete1 or a m]e jagg$ yell[i% l9e4 ,useless4 ,triodia decumb5s1 ,beauv4 7,decumb5t ,hea?-grass74 ,l[ p]5nial4 ,leaves n>r[1 obtuse1 slightly ridg$1 t\gh1 at l5g? involute1 ) long1 s(t hairs1 especially bel[ & on ! edges4 ,%ea? groov$1 hairy1 especially at ! ?roat4 ,ligule a tuft ( hairs4 ,section ( %oot flat2 leaves conduplicate4 ,( no kn[n use z fodd]4 ,! r>e grasses ,panicum glabrum1 ,gaud41 ,p4 viride1 ,l4 & ,p4 ,crus-galli1 ,l4 introduc$ 9 ! ,s4,e4 c\nties also come "h4 ,ligule membran\s4 ,av5a flavesc5s1 ,l4 7,yell[ ,oat-grass74 ,loose tuft$ p]5nial1 pale gre51 ) r\nd$ %oots bur/+ ! %ea?s4 ,leaves flat1 sl5d]1 s(t1 f9e-ribb$ & hairy1 especially on ! l[ ridges above4 ,%ea? hairy1 especially bel[1 n keel$4 ,ligule %ort1 obtuse1 (t5 truncate1 ciliate4 ,a valuable pa/ure & mead[-grass1 also 9 wat]-mead[s4 ,its roots are abundant1 & x w gr[ well 9 calc>e\s soils 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,av5a pubesc5s1 ,huds4 7,d[ny ,oat-grass74 ,a v>iety ( ,a4 prat5sis 7see p4 #dg71 b less d5sely tuft$1 & ! leaves flat & pubesc5t1 & especially ! %ea?s v pubesc5t4 ,ligule ovate-acute4 ,%oots flat4 ,dry di/ricts1 & a we$4 ,av5a flavesc5s is n easily conf\nd$ ) any o!r grass if well gr[n4 ,all ! ,poas o!rwise l x are glabr\s1 & )\t ! ridges4 ,! same applies to ,a4 pubesc5s4 ,arrh5a!rum is also glabr\s1 its leaves n>r[]1 its ridges mu* flatt] & broad]1 & its ligule is hairy outside 7see p4 #ef74 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 7,wood ,false-brome74 ,r sl5d]1 p]5nial4 ,leaves flat & devoid ( ridges2 long1 v ?9 & dry1 limp1 slightly tap]+ bel[1 hirsute4 ,%ea? r\nd1 hairy4 ,ligule fairly long1 obtuse1 too!d4 ,copses1 c4 ,useless4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum1 ,l4 7,hea? ,false-brome71 is a species gr[+ 9 ! op51 ) n>r[1 firm1 rigid1 erect leaves1 h>dly hairy2 ) di/9ct ridges1 & t5d+ to roll up4 ,ligule fr+$ ) hair4 ,op5 hea?s4 ,useless4 ,! only grasses likely to be conf\nd$ "h are ! ,bromes1 & !y h entire %ea?s4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,hi/ology4 ,! pr9cipal anatomical features obs]v$ 9 ! leaves ( grasses--ap>t f f9] hi/ological details into :i* x is n my purpose to ent]--conc]n ! *>act]s ( ! epid]mis & di/ribution ( ! /omata & hairs1 ! arrangem5t ( ! *lorophyll-tissue1 t ( ! me*anical tissue 7scl]5*yma7 & ! vascul> bundles to :i* ! v5ation & ribb+ ( ! leaves are due1 & ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ^? peculi> ?9-wall$ cells 7motor-cells7 :i* br+ ab\t ! infold+ or inroll+ ( ! lam9a 7see p4 #be7 z !y lose wat]1 &1 f9ally1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( conspicu\s lacun or air-spaces s *>act]i/ic ( aquatic species4 ,sev]al obs]v]s h occupi$ !mselves ) ^! matt]s1 & ! rese>*es ( ,s*w5d5]1 ,duval ,j\ve1 ,pfitz]1 ,pe-,laby1 & o!rs h r5d]$ x possible to gr\p mo/ ( our grasses accord+ to ! microscopic *>act]s ( ! leaves1 some:at z ,i h done 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,ref]5ce has be5 made to ! roll+ & fold+ ( leaves1 due to ! ?9-wall$ cells on ! upp] surfaces capable ( v>y+ 9 turgesc5ce 7motor-cells74 ,^! are specially adapt$ epid]mal cells f\nd on ! upp] surfaces only4 ,9 ! leaves ( ,poa compressa1 ,p4 annua 7,fig4 #ba71 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,p4 alp9a1 ,catabrosa1 ,sesl]ia1 c41 a r[ ( ^! motor-cells1 easily di/+ui%$ by _! l>ge size1 ?9 walls & cle> cont5ts1 is f\nd on ea* side ( ! mid-rib2 z !y dry ! leaf folds its two halves toge!r 7conduplicate71 & on ! re-absorption ( wat] !y flatt5 ! two halves out aga94 ,9 ,dactylis ^! flank+ r[s coalesce into "o ov] ! mid-rib4 ,9 o!r leaves1 e4g4 ,av5a prat5sis1 ,fe/uca elatior 7,figs4 #ag1 #bb71 ,melica1 ,elymus 7,fig4 #be71 c41 !re are 9 addition to ^! two flank+ r[s1 o!r sets ( motor-cells betwe5 ! o!r ribs1 & _! comb9$ action causes ! halves ( ! lam9a to inroll1 usually "o-half inside ! o!r--convolute4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,transv]se section ( left-half ( leaf ( ,poa annua 7 ab\t #ej7 %[+ keel bel[1 & two flank+ l9es ( motor-cells 7slightly %ad$7 above ! m$ian vascul> bundle ( ! mid-rib4 ,h5ce ! leaf folds4 ,! half lam9a has six small] vascul> bundles1 only ! /rong] "o gird]$4 ,ridges practically obsolete & subt5d+ b&s ( scl]5*yma slight3 h5ce ! leaf-surfaces are p>allel4 ,x is easy to obs]ve leaves ( su* grasses z ,fe/uca prat5sis 7,fig4 #bb71 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 c41 :i* are wide op5 9 ! dewy morn+s 9 summ]1 close up z ! air gets dry & hot2 & any su* leaf may be se5 to roll up aft] pluck+ & c be reop5$ by moi/5+ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,transv]se section ( left-half ( leaf ( ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis 7 ab\t #ej74 ,! ridges are well m>k$ & flatt5$ above4 ,! vascul> bundles ( two ord]s are gird]$ bel[1 b only slightly above4 ,!re is no keel4 ,!re are well m>k$ motor-cells--n %[n 9 ! figure--9 ea* groove4 ,! epid]mis ( grasses has be5 closely inve/igat$ by ,grob1 b un=tunately 8 results conc]n v few ( our native species4 ,! pr9cipal elem5ts are ord9>y elongat$ cells1 ) plane or s9u\s walls1 v>i\s k9ds ( %ort cells int]calat$ betwe5 ! ends ( ^!1 sev]al =ms ( papill1 hairs1 c4 & /omata4 ,! epid]mis ov] ! p>5*yma ( ,digraphis arund9acea consi/s ( rectangul> cells ) plane walls4 ,s]ies or b&s ( long cells only may alt]nate ) o!r s]ies :]e %ort cells int]v5e betwe5 ! long ones--e4g4 ,n>dus4 ,n>dus has "s ( ! b&s devoid ( /omata1 b ab\nd+ 9 %ort cells1 :]eas o!rs 7above7 h /omata ?r\gh\t4 ,9 ,n>dus /ricta1 ,glyc]ia fluitans1 ,sesl]ia1 c41 !re are two k9ds ( %ort cells1 "s silice\s1 o!rs cut9iz$ only4 ,n>dus has closely appress$ small #b-;cell$ hairs b5t at "r-angles1 & "s epid]mal & p>5*yma cells--especially bel[ ! /omata--h solid masses ( silica fill+ ! lum9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,"p ( transv]se section ( leaf ( ,aira cspitosa 7 ab\t #cj74 ,ridges v high & acute1 ea* tipp$ ) scl]5*yma1 & conta9+ an isolat$ vascul> bundle--sometimes "o or m small ones also4 ,motor-cells well develop$ at ! base ( ea* groove4 ,! bundles are n gird]$1 b num]\s b&s ( scl]5*yma almo/ jo9 into a cont9u\s b& bel[4 ,! leaf rolls inw>ds4 ,%ort cells occur 9 ,holcus lanatus1 ,hi]o*loe borealis & ,dactylis glom]ata int]sp]s$ betwe5 plane-wall$ cells4 ,!y may be silicifi$ & v>y 9 %ape--squ>e1 saddle-%ap$1 elliptical1 irregul>1 c42 or !y may be replac$ "h & !re by asp]ities--e4g4 ,elymus--or 9 r>] cases by /omata4 ,grob has attempt$ ! classification ( _! di/ribution 9 diff]5t grasses1 b ! subject is too complex = treatm5t "h4 ,! epid]mis ( _m grasses is /udd$ ) %ort two-cell$ hairs b5t %>ply at "r-angles2 s t ! po9t$ or blunt1 holl[ or solid1 apical portion is appress$ to ! surface4 ,grob says t ^! are abs5t f ! ,horde1 :]eas #ij ( ! ,panicoide & _m species ( all o!r gr\ps h !m4 ,examples ( ! %>ply po9t$ =m occur 9 ,n>dus1 ( blunt ones 9 ,cynodon c4 ,9 ,n>dus !y occur on ! leaf surface bo? betwe5 & above ! ve9s1 b 9 ,hi]o*loe c4 !y are conf9$ to ! m>g9s4 ,! foll[+ grasses h no hairs ( ei!r type3 ,agro/is vulg>is1 ,calamagro/is lanceolata1 ,av5a prat5sis1 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum1 ,dactylis glom]ata1 ,briza m$ia1 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,glyc]ia fluitans4 ,! %>p1 h>d prickle-hairs :i* give ! pron\nc$ r\ghness to _m leaves ( grasses are long] ?an ! =ego+1 & /& (f m f ! leaf4 ,!y occur bo? on ! surface & at ! m>g9s1 & may be isolat$--e4g4 ,av5a prat5sis1--or mix$ ) ! %ort cells--,aira canesc5s1 ,elymus ar5>ius4 ,!y are v abundant on ,kl]ia cri/ata4 ,le]sia oryzoides has asp]ities at ! m>g9 ( ! leaf ) _! po9ts direct$ upw>ds on ! upp] "p ( ! leaf1 d[nw>ds on ! basal p>ts1 & ! direction ( su* m9ute m>g9al asp]ities (t5 af=ds a useful di/9ctive "*--e4g4 ,phleum1 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,! m>g9al asp]ities 9 ,n>dus are silice\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,transv]se section ( "p ( leaf ( ,agropyrum junceum 7 ab\t #dj7 p>tly inroll$2 %[+ unequal ridges4 ,! pr9cipal vascul> bundles are gird]$ bel[1 ! scl]5*yma jo9+ into a /rong cont9u\s %ea?4 ,ea* ridge is tipp$ ) scl]5*yma1 & ea* groove has motor-cells--n %[n 9 ! figure--bel[4 ,bri/les--i4e4 long1 %>p1 /iff hairs--are n v common4 ,!y occur on ,n>dus1 ,an?oxan?um ,puelii1 ,panicum1 ,cynodon4 ,papill occur on ! leaves ( ,glyc]ia1 ,n>dus1 ,le]sia1 c4 ,poa prat5sis has s(t hairs on ! upp] epid]mis4 ,! /omata ( ,sesl]ia crulea are depress$ & six-cell$1 two gu>d-cells be+ ov]gr[n by f\r accessory cells1 b 9 mo/ grasses !y are ( ! ord9>y type ) two elongat$ gu>d-cells only4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,transv]se section ( "p ( leaf ( ,elymus ar5>ius1 p>tly inroll$ 7 ab\t #cj71 %[+ ridges ( unequal height1 ( :i* ! high] are flat above4 ,vascul> bundles gird]$1 ! /rong] above & bel[4 ,motor-cells 9 ea* groove cause ! inroll+ ( ! lam9a by _! contraction4 ,z reg>ds ! vascul> bundles con/itut+ ! v5ation1 !y are z is well kn[n p>allel f base to apex 9 our common grasses1 ) l9e> leaves1 & are usually ( f\r ord]s z reg>ds /r5g?4 ,^? ( ! fir/ 7e4g4 mid-rib7 & second ord]s h conspicu\s vessels1 b ^? ( ! ?ird & f\r? ord]s may be practically devoid ( vessels1 ?\gh xylem & phloem elem5ts are always pres5t4 ,contr>y to ! g5]al assumption1 !re are frequ5t ?\gh m9ute transv]se bundles jo9+ ! p>allel ve9s4 ,! rule is t "o vascul> bundle runs up ea* mid-rib or ridge1 b exceptions occur--e4g4 9 ,arundo sev]al bundles run up ! mid-rib1 & 9 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc7 & o!rs ev5 ! /rong ribs may h two or ?ree bundles4 ,ea* vascul> bundle has its own scl]5*yma %ea?1 & v (t5 ! /rong] ve9s are acc5tuat$ ow+ to ! vascul> bundle hav+ a gird]-l b& ( scl]5*yma runn+ conjo9tly ) its %ea? & jo9+ ! latt] above & bel[--or bel[ only--to ! epid]mis 7,figs4 #bd & #be74 ,9 _m cases ^! l[] gird]s spread out lat]ally bel[--fan-%ap$ 9 section--& ne>ly jo9 ! neighb\r+ gird]s4 ,9 o!r cases ! /r&s ( scl]5*ymat\s support+ tissue d n jo9 ! bundles1 b run p>allel to !m1 above or bel[1 z sep>ate /r&s j b5ea? ! epid]mis4 ,f9ally1 ^! /r&s may sep>ate f ! bundles1 & fuse bel[ into a cont9u\s lay] "u ! epid]mis2 ?is occurs especially 9 leaves ( x]ophytes :]e ! cuticle is well develop$--e4g4 9 v>ieties ( ,fe/uca ov9a 7,fig4 #ah71 ,aira flexuosa 7,fig4 #bh74 ,! di/ribution ( ! /r&s ( isolat$ scl]5*yma af=ds good *>act]s4 ,:ile !re are none 9 ,mibora1 we f9d "o l>ge /r& at ! ridge ( ! keel & "o at ea* m>g91 9 addition to small] ones subt5d+ ea* vascul> bundle1 9 ,av5a pubesc5s1 ,sesl]ia1 ,poa annua 7,fig4 #ba71 ,p4 bulbosa1 ,p4 compressa & ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,9 ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,f4 rubra1 ,f4 het]ophylla 7,figs4 #ah1 #bg7 !re are gr\ps m or less pron\nc$ at ! keel & m>g9s1 or ev5 a cont9u\s b& bel[1 b none above ! bundles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,transv]se section ( leaf ( ,n>dus /ricta 7 ab\t #ej74 ,! upp] surface is repres5t$ by ! f\r grooves & five ridges1 ea* ( ! =m] ) traces ( motor-cells at its base4 ,! deep %ad$ portions are scl]5*yma1 /rong gird]s ( :i* jo9 ! vascul> bundle ( ea* ridge to ! l[] surface4 ,?is type is obvi\sly d]iv$ f t 9 ,fig4 #ai1 & may be reg>d$ z a p]man5tly roll$ leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,transv]se section ( leaf ( ,fe/uca ov9a1 v>4 duriuscula 7 ab\t #ej71 ! type ( a p]man5tly fold$ leaf4 ,sev5 ridges & six int]v5+ grooves are se53 ea* ( ! latt] ) traces ( motor-cells bel[4 ,9 ea* ridge is an isolat$ vascul> bundle1 & a n>r[ scl]5*yma b& bel[4 ,_m grasses h an isolat$ b& above & bel[ ea* prim>y bundle only--e4g4 ,panicum1 ,cynodon--or above & bel[ ea* ( ! o!r bundles z well--e4g4 ,sp>t9a1 ,arundo1 ,polypogon1 ,agro/is alba1 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 ,holcus lanatus1 ,glyc]ia aquatica1 ,g4 fluitans1 ,digraphis1 ,elymus 7,fig4 #be71 ,agropyrum 7,fig4 #bd71 ,bra*ypodium1 ,n>dus 7,fig4 #bf74 ,9 ,psamma ar5>ia ! l[] b&s jo9 into a cont9u\s lay]4 ,9 ! foll[+ !re is a b& l a gird] above & bel[ ea* bundle1 & contigu\s ) x1 jo9+ x to ! epid]mis above & bel[--,le]sia1 ,phleum prat5se1 ,calamagro/is ,epigeios1 ,bromus erectus1 c4 ,gntz po9ts out t x]ophil\s grasses are apt to h upright1 n>r[ 7,figs4 #bf-bh71 groov$ or fold$ leaves1 ) /rong cuticle1 & m>k$ motor-cells :5 ! leaves op54 ,x is 9 grasses ( ?is k9d1 especially su* z inhabit dry s&y di/ricts1 t ! subulate1 solid or groov$ leaves %[n 9 ,figures #ah1 #ai occur--e4g4 ,fe/uca ov9a & its v>ieties1 ,aira flexuosa1 ,n>dus /ricta1 c4 ,! epid]mal cell-walls are s9u\s1 ! /omata protect$--e4g4 on ! flanks ( ribs & 9 grooves--& waxy or hairy cov]+s occur4 ,col\rless wat]-/or+ cells are apt to occur betwe5 or ar\nd ! vascul> bundles1 & ! *lorophyll-tissues t5d to be d5se & well protect$ inside ! leaf3 /rongly develop$ ba/-scl]5*yma is also frequ5t 7,fig4 #ah74 ,9 %ade-grasses1 on ! o!r h&1 & 9 hygrophil\s species1 ! leaves are z a rule flat1 ) ?9 epid]mal cell-walls1 :i* h plane sides1 free /omata1 & no wax c4 ,wat]-/or+ tissue 7ap>t f tropical species7 is sp>se or abs5t1 & ! *lorophyll-tissues h well a]at$ lacun> spaces4 ,ba/-scl]5*yma is 9 ^! cases feebly develop$4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] ,i h br\ght toge!r "s ( ! pr9cipal anatomical features1 9 su* =m t ! *>act]s c be employ$ 9 *eck+ o!r det]m9ations ( grass leaves4 ,! results1 :i* are bas$ on ! elaborate inve/igations ( ,duval ,j\ve1 ,s*roet]1 ,pe-,laby & ,grob1 z well z on my own obs]vations1 are n complete 9 all respects1 & mu* m %\ld be done to ext5d ! !me1 b ! acc\nt giv5 w s]ve to %[ ! /ud5t h[ su* results may be employ$4 ,x is z yet impossible to decide h[ f> ^! *>act]s are con/ant--!y are kn[n to be fairly s 9 _m cases--b sev]al grasses _c yet be di/+ui%$ by !m alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,transv]se section ( subulate leaf ( ,aira flexuosa 7 ab\t #ej71 ! upp] surface repres5t$ by a m]e ridge ) two flank+ grooves ea* ) b traces ( motor-cells bel[4 ,"o l>ge vascul> bundle & f\r mu* small] ones are se54 ,!re are no gird]s1 b sl5d] b&s ( scl]5*yma at ! l[] surface ne>ly jo9 into a cont9u\s sub-epid]mal %ea?4 ,?is type is ! extreme =m ( t 9 ,fig4 #bf4 ,x %\ld also be add$ t "s grasses develope two types ( leaves 7het]ophylly71 solid or subulate bel[1 flat or slightly inroll$ above--e4g4 ,fe/uca het]ophylla--& ! foll[+ arrangem5t is int5d$ to apply to ! vegetative l[] leaves & n to ^? on ! upp] p>ts ( ! fl[]+ specim54 ,moreov] ! sections %\ld be cut f ! basal ?ird ( ! lam9a1 & n f ! tip ( ! leaf4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,grasses ,,classifi$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,anatomical ,,*>act]s ,,( ,,! ,,leaf4 ,i4 ,,! ,,*lorophyll-,,tissue1 ,,on ,,transv]se ,,sections1 ,,is ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,r+s ,,r\nd ,,! ,,vascul> ,,bundles4 ,,!re ,,are ,,motor-,,cells ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,ribs1 ,,& ,,! ,,/omata ,,are ,,sunk ,,& ,,occur ,,on ,,bo? ,,faces4 ,cynodon ,dactylon4 ,! l>g] lat]al n]ves h z a rule ?ree small] ones betwe5 ea* pair1 h>dly project+ z ribs4 ,*lorophyll *iefly 9 a r+ r\nd ! vascul> bundle4 ,long hairs on l[] surface1 a few papill above4 ,motor-cells 9 ea* %all[ furr[4 ,%ort cells occur betwe5 ! long epid]mal cells ov] ! ba/-region4 ,! ,panicums also come "h1 & diff] accord+ to ! disposition ( ! scl]5*yma %ea?s ar\nd ! bundles4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,*lorophyll-,,tissue ,,is ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,vascul> ,,bundles1 ,,& ,,n ,,conf9$ ,,to ,,r+s ,,surr\nd+ ,,!m4 ,a4 ,conspicu\s lacun betwe5 ! vascul> bundles4 ,/omata on bo? faces4 ,motor-cells occur4 ,lacun l>ge & rectangul>4 ,motor-cells conf9$ to a flank+ l9e on ea* side ( ! mid-rib4 ,glyc]ia aquatica4 ,leaves fold$ & 9 section ,v-%ap$1 h>dly keel$1 ) scl]5*yma at apex4 ,motor-cells ea* side ( ! mid-rib only4 ,! l>ge squ>e or rectangul> lacun b\nd$ by /ellate cells4 ,papill on epid]mal cells4 ,vascul> bundles midway betwe5 upp] & l[] surfaces4 ,glyc]ia fluitans4 ,section ,v-%ap$ & keel$1 ! ro( ( ea* polygonal lacuna ar*$1 h5ce ! 8ribs0 on ! upp] surface are betwe5 ! vascul> bundles4 ,! latt] lie ne>] ! l[] epid]mis4 ,! epid]mis has papill4 ,catabrosa aquatica & ,hi]o*loe also come "h1 ! =m] ) small lacun1 ! latt] ) l>g] ones *iefly t[>ds ! upp] surface ( ! leaf4 ,digraphis is also apt to h a few air cavities ne> ! mid-rib4 ,b4 ,lacun none1 or inconspicu\s1 ! *lorophyll-tissue fill+ up betwe5 ! ribs4 7a7 ,upp] & l[] leaf-surfaces p>allel1 or ne>ly s1 & mu* alike1 ! ridges be+ v l[ or obsolete4 ,/omata equal or ne>ly s on bo? surfaces4 7#a7 ,motor-cells abs5t2 vascul> bundles feeble & v few4 ,mibora v]na4 ,! small leaves are flat1 or ne>ly s1 & h ?ree isolat$ & v feebly develop$ bundles1 devoid ( gird]s or scl]5*yma b&s4 7#b7 ,motor-cells pres5t1 vascul> bundles ( v>i\s ord]s1 ) scl]5*yma b&s or gird]s4 99 ,leaf keel$1 & fold$--n inroll$4 ,motor-cells conf9$ to ! neighb\rhood ( ! mid-rib4 ,no hairs4 ,motor-cells conspicu\s & conjo9$ into a b& above ! mid-rib4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,keel pron\nc$1 ) "o l>ge vascul> bundle & a scl]5*yma b& occupy+ its cre/4 ,motor-cells =m+ "o conjo9t b& along ! upp] c\rse ( ! mid-rib only4 ,/omata on bo? faces1 b no hairs or ?ick cuticle4 ,ribs l[1 & all bundles h feeble gird]s4 ,a little scl]5*yma at ! m>g9s4 ,a few pale cells 9 ! *lorophyll-tissue4 ,motor-cells inconspicu\s & 9 two flank+ l9es1 "o on ea* side ( ! mid-rib4 ,poa trivialis4 ,keel ) scl]5*yma at its apex1 & a small b& ( ! same at ! m>g9s4 ,vascul> bundles ( ?ree ord]s1 isolat$1 )\t gird]s1 b ) a small b& ( scl]5*yma above & bel[4 ,ridges obsolete4 ,%ort hook-asp]ities above4 ,no ?ick5$ cuticle4 ,o!r species ( ,poa also come "h3 ,i _c di/+ui% !m by ! leaf anatomy2 b ,p4 annua1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 nemoralis & ,p4 prat5sis are devoid ( ! hook$ asp]ities2 ,p4 nemoralis has a ?ick] lam9a ?an ! re/1 & gird]s to ! second>y bundles4 ,p4 annua agrees 9 ! latt] po9t4 9999 ,leaf n keel$3 roll+ up4 ,motor-cells di/ribut$ betwe5 ! ridges4 ,hairs none or r>e1 or at mo/ a few asp]ities4 ,ve9s num]\s1 #cj-dj on ea* half lam9a4 ,motor-cells v l>ge4 ,all vascul> bundles ) gird]s above & bel[4 ,digraphis arund9acea4 ,no keel4 ,m>g9al scl]5*yma conspicu\s4 ,a few asp]ities bel[4 ,leaf ?91 & all ! bundles jo9$ to ! epid]mis above & bel[ by gird]s 7,fig4 #ad74 ,/omata on bo? surfaces1 fairly l>ge3 epid]mal cells ) plane walls4 ,!re may be a few irregul> air cavities1 especially ne> ! mid-rib4 ,only ! pr9cipal bundles gird]$4 ,arundo ,phragmites4 ,ridges v num]\s & l[4 ,no keel4 ,m>g9al scl]5*yma /rong4 ,vascul> bundles ) %ea?s ( l>ge col\rless cells1 a few ( ! /ronge/ gird]$ bel[1 b mo/ h only scl]5*yma b&s above & bel[4 ,motor-cells p>ticul>ly l>ge1 betwe5 all ! bundles4 ,!re are no conspicu\s lacun4 ,hairs v r>e4 ,epid]mal cells small1 ) s9u\s walls3 all ! cell-walls conta9 silica4 ,/omata on bo? faces1 sunk1 small & m difficult to see ?an 9 ,digraphis1 :]e ! epid]mal cells are plane wall$1 or ne>ly s4 ,arundo ,donax is v l ,a4 ,phragmites1 b has l>g] bundles ea* ) a horse-%oe %ap$ scl]5*ymat\s mass bel[1 & l>g] lacun4 ,ve9s n m ?an #aj-bj 9 ea* half lam9a4 ,m or less conspicu\sly hairy4 ,! small] bundles isolat$ & devoid ( gird]s4 ,bromus /]ilis4 ,gird]s to ! /rong] bundles only4 ,/iff hairs above & bel[4 ,motor-cells poorly develop$ betwe5 ea* pair ( l[ ridges4 ,no pron\nc$ cuticle4 ,a fa9t scl]5*yma-b& at m>g91 & at apex ( l[ r\nd$ keel4 ,/omata on bo? faces4 ,bromus arv5sis4 ,simil> to ,b4 /]ilis1 ) /iff hairs common] bel[4 ,h>% 9 cutt+4 ,b4 giganteus %[s no hairs1 b ,i _c di/+ui% ! ,bromes g5]ally by ! leaf anatomy4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 ,no keel1 ridges obsolete1 ! /rong] bundles only ) gird]s4 ,motor-cells conspicu\s betwe5 all ! ribs4 ,m>g9al scl]5*yma1 & t above & bel[ ! bundles1 poorly develop$4 ,a few co>se hairs bo? above & bel[1 & /omata on bo? faces4 ,leaf ?9 & n>r[4 ,hordeum mur9um4 ,few gird]$ bundles1 & scl]5*yma at m>g9s poor4 ,hairs sp>se & co>se4 ,bromus asp]1 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum & ,lagurus also come "h4 ,9 all ^! grasses ! epid]mal cells are *iefly long1 rectangul> or slightly hexagonal1 ) ?9 & plane walls4 ,hairs none or v r>e on ! sections4 ,phleum prat5se4 ,l[ r\nd$ ribs ) motor-cells betwe54 ,! l>g] vascul> bundles gird]$4 ,/omata ab\t equal on bo? faces4 ,no hairs4 ,no keel4 ,m>g9al scl]5*yma scanty4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum4 ,v r>e hairs above3 a few blunt asp]ities "h & !re4 ,no keel4 ,ridges l[4 ,gird]s to ! prim>y bundles1 b n v /rong3 m>g9al & o!r scl]5*yma fa9t1 z is also ! cuticle4 ,/omata on bo? faces4 ,motor-cells fairly develop$ betwe5 ! ridges4 ,briza m$ia4 ,no keel1 & m]e traces ( m>g9al scl]5*yma4 ,ribs practically obsolete1 b well develop$ motor-cells 9 furr[s4 ,pr9cipal bundles gird]$4 ,/omata on bo? sides4 ,no hairs or ?ick5$ cuticle4 ,av5a fatua1 ,mol9ia & ,le]sia also come "h4 7b7 ,upp] & l[] leaf-surfaces dissimil>1 or at lea/ n p>allel1 ow+ to ! conspicu\s ridges & grooves above4 7#a7 ,no /omata bel[4 99 ,leaves flat or ne>ly s1 or at lea/ exhibit a conspicu\s concave upp] surface4 ,motor-cells betwe5 ea* pair ( ribs3 scl]5*yma n =m+ a cont9u\s lay] bel[4 ,ridges at lea/ #e-f times z high z ! leaf-?ickness betwe54 ,aira cspitosa4 ,ridges high1 #g-aj times z high z ! bread? ( leaf betwe51 triangul>1 ea* ) #a-c vascul> bundles devoid ( gird]s1 ) an upp] isolat$ b& ( scl]5*yma at ! acute tip1 & ano!r bel[ ! pr9cipal bundle4 ,also small b&s bel[ ea* gr\p ( motor-cells4 ,small conical asp]ities on ! ridges & bel[4 ,no mid-rib4 ,/omata on flanks ( ridges only1 & few motor-cells betwe5 7,fig4 #bc74 ,ea* vascul> bundle has a %ea?1 b is isolat$4 ,scl]5*yma at tips ( ! ridges d5se3 small] b&s bel[3 /rong at m>g9s4 ,l[] cuticle /rong4 ,leaf rolls up4 ,! flat upp] leaves ( ,fe/uca rubra 7,fig4 #bj7 & ,f4 het]ophylla are some:at simil> 9 type4 ,!y h /iff hairs on ! ridges4 ,ridges n m ?an #b-c times z high z ! tissue betwe52 ea* furr[ ) motor-cells1 & ea* vascul> bundle jo9$ to epid]mis above & bel[ by a scl]5*yma gird]4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum4 ,smoo?4 ,ridges r\nd$4 ,hairs r>e4 ,! /rong scl]5*yma gird]s bel[ almo/ cont9u\s lat]ally4 ,epid]mal cells ) s9u\s ?ick walls1 & a few too?-hairs4 ,note ! diff]5ces f ,b4 sylvaticum1 p4 #gf4 ,melica nutans1 ,m4 uniflora1 & ,calamagro/is ,epigeios also come "h4 ,motor-cells conf9$ to ! inn]mo/ #b-d furr[s4 ,scl]5*yma 9 a cont9u\s b& j inside ! ?ick cuticle bel[4 ,fe/uca duriuscula4 ,! ridges are only ab\t half to "o-?ird z high aga9 z ! ?ickness betwe51 & ! motor-cells 9 f\r s]ies at ! base ( ! ?ree inn]mo/ ridges4 ,ea* ridge has only "o isolat$ %ea!d bundle1 )\t gird]s4 ,/omata on ! flanks ( ! ridges1 & few 9 numb]4 ,! scl]5*yma =ms a ?ick b& j inside ! /rong cuticle bel[4 ,! leaf is conduplicate1 n convolute4 ,?is applies p>ticul>ly to ! m op5 leaves3 ! subulate leaves belong to ! next type 7see ,fig4 #bg74 ,aira canesc5s & ,sp>t9a /ricta also come "h4 ,psamma ar5>ia4 ,inroll$4 ,smoo? bel[ & devoid ( keel1 ) sub-epid]mal b& ( scl]5*yma1 & simil> tissue at ! m>g94 ,ridges ( ?ree sizes1 ! l>ge/ twice or ?ree times z high z ! leaf-tissue betwe5 is ?ick1 all r\nd$ above1 & v hairy4 ,/omata above only4 ,motor-cells 9 ea* s9us n l>ge4 ,vascul> bundles isolat$1 )\t gird]s or b&s ( scl]5*yma4 ,elymus is v l ,psamma1 b has a few /omata bel[ & ! sub-epid]mal scl]5*yma is n cont9u\s 7see ,fig4 #be74 9999 ,leaves 7subulate7 n op5+ out1 ! upp] surface repres5t$ by a groove or a few ridges above ! angul> or ovate solid section4 ,section p5tagonal or angul>-ovate3 scl]5*yma bel[ 9 a cont9u\s b&4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,upp] surface a depression1 ) "o ridge flank$ by two grooves at its base1 ! depression ext5d+ ab\t "o-fif? ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! ne>ly solid leaf4 ,vascul> bundles ab\t #c-e1 isolat$1 %ea!d4 ,scl]5*yma b& ext5d+ all r\nd ! l[] surface j inside ! ?ick cuticle4 ,/omata v few1 flank+ ! ridge2 motor-cells 9 ! furr[s1 poorly develop$ 7,fig4 #bh74 ,section elliptical or angul>-ovate2 scl]5*yma n always 9 a cont9u\s b& bel[4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 ,upp] surface a deep fold1 ) ?ree ridges & #b-d grooves at its base4 ,vascul> bundles sev]al1 ) gird]s4 ,motor-cells 9 f\r s]ies1 9 ! grooves4 ,! l[] gird]s may n fuse lat]ally into a cont9u\s b& ( scl]5*yma bel[ 7,fig4 #ah74 ,! fold$ l[] leaves ( ,f4 rubra & ,f4 het]ophylla come "h also4 ,= ! flatt] leaves ( ,f4 duriuscula see p4 #gh & comp>e ,fig4 #bg4 ,! epid]mal cells 9 ?is s]ies h s9u\s ?ick5$ walls1 & "h & !re small too?-l hairs4 ,n>dus also comes "h 7see ,fig4 #bf74 7#b7 ,!re are /omata bel[1 b few] ?an on ! upp] surface4 ,motor-cells usually conspicu\s betwe5 ! ridges4 99 ,/rong] bundles ) gird]s ( scl]5*yma jo9+ !m to ! epid]mis1 at lea/ bel[4 ,hairs sp>se or none4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 ,mid-rib obsolete1 except ! /rong vascul> bundle4 ,ridges l[ & r\nd$1 ) #b-d flank+ /omata1 & well develop$ motor-cells 9 furr[s4 ,second>y vascul> bundles ) /rong gird]s bel[1 ! small] bundles %ea!d only & isolat$4 ,ea* ridge ) slight scl]5*yma above4 ,a few /iff %ort hairs above1 & ! leaves are convolute4 ,ridges ab\t twice ! height ( ! leaf-?ickness betwe5 7,fig4 #af74 ,agropyrum rep5s4 ,mid-rib & m>g9 ) /rong scl]5*yma-gr\ps3 ridges unequal1 l[ & r\nd$ & ea* vascul> bundle gird]$4 ,a few po9t$ hairs above1 & motor-cells 9 all ! grooves4 ,a slight keel1 /omata on bo? surfaces4 ,agropyrum can9um4 ,all ! bundles h gird]s4 ,slight keel4 ,m>g9al scl]5*yma4 ,few1 v %ort1 h>d1 hook$ asp]ities above & bel[4 ,ridges l[1 & motor-cells poorly develop$ betwe54 ,few /omata on l[] surface4 ,v l ,a4 rep5s1 b ! pr9cipal ridges are m prom95t bel[ & ^? ne>] ! mid-rib h asp]ities4 ,a4 junceum resembles ,psamma1 b ! ridges are mu* l[]1 & !re are a few /omata on ! "u surface 7,fig4 #bd74 ,leaf obvi\sly hairy4 ,hairs m especially above4 ,av5a flavesc5s is v simil> to ,cynosurus1 b is evid5tly hairy1 & ,a4 prat5sis also comes "h4 ,hairs abundant on bo? surfaces4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,v hairy above & bel[1 & at ! m>g9s4 ,slight keel ) scl]5*yma b&3 scl]5*yma at m>g9 slight4 ,ridges r\nd$1 ab\t twice z high z ?ickness betwe54 ,/omata m abundant above4 ,cuticle v ?9 & leaf s(t4 ,all bundles except ! mid-rib ) gird]s4 ,motor-cells fairly well develop$ betwe5 ! ridges 7,fig4 #ae74 ,kl]ia cri/ata4 ,v hairy on bo? surfaces4 ,ridges irregul>1 ! l>ge/ flat & high1 ! o!rs r\nd$ or triangul>4 ,vascul> bundles isolat$1 & ! scl]5*yma r$uc$ to a few cells 9 a s+le lay] b5ea? ! epid]mis at ! apex ( ea* ridge & bel[ ! bundle4 ,motor-cells well develop$ 9 ea* furr[4 ,/omata m num]\s above4 9999 ,no gird]s to ! vascul> bundles4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,ridges num]\s & unequal4 ,vascul> bundles %ea!d & isolat$--i4e4 devoid ( gird]s3 small pat*es ( scl]5*yma at ! apex ( ea* /rong] ridge1 & on ! opposite side bel[ only4 ,no hairs4 ,lolium temul5tum is simil> b is m apt to be convolute1 :]eas ,l4 p]5ne is m fold$4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,leaf ?9 & some:at l ,phleum1 b ! ridges some:at high] & m r\nd$1 & only ! pr9cipal bundles gird]$ bel[4 ,/omata on bo? faces4 ,fe/uca elatior1 ,bromus giganteus & mo/ species ( ,agro/is come ne> ,lolium4 ,see ,figs4 #ag1 #bb4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,grasses ,,9 ,,fl[]4 ,:5 ! fl[]+ %oot ( a grass pu%es up into ! light & air f ! envelop+ leaves1 x =ms a m or less bran*$ collection ( fl[]s kn[n z ! ,infloresc5ce1 & 9 all our grasses ?is infloresc5ce consi/s ( a pr9cipal /alk1 haulm or culm1 on :i* %ort] /alks--bran*$ or n--are arrang$4 ,! mode ( bran*+ is usually su* t ! y\nge/ bran*es are ne>e/ ! top1 & ! olde/ ne>e/ ! bottom4 ,x is evid5t at once1 on comp>+ ! ,moor ,mat-grass 7,n>dus71 ,v]nal-grass 7,an?oxan?um71 ,cock's-foot 7,dactylis71 ,mead[-grass 7,poa7 t consid]able diff]5ces exi/ z to ! ext5t ( ?is prim>y bran*+ ( ! infloresc5ce4 ,9 ,n>dus 7,fig4 #b7 we f9d a numb] ( long cyl9drical-tap]+ bud-l /ructures ea* seat$ on "o side ( ! pr9cipal /em1 & "o ov] ! o!r3 9 ! ,v]nal-grass & ,cock's-foot we f9d tufts ( su* bud-l /ructures closely cr[d$ r\nd ! upp] end ( ! pr9cipal /alk1 ! :ole =m+ an elongat$ tuft ( tufts3 9 ! ,poa we f9d a numb] ( radiat+1 sl5d]1 long bran*es spr++ f ! pr9cipal /alk1 & ea* ( ^! ramifies aga91 & yet aga91 until ea* ( ! ultimate hair-l bran*es be>s "o ( ! bud-l /ructures4 ,see also ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,a spikelet ( ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis1 f :i* ! glumes & "o palea 7! out]7 h be5 remov$ to %[ ! fl[] 9 situ 7 #ab74 ,! two lodicules are 9 front3 ! inn] palea beh9d4 ,/rasburg]4 ,! fir/ ?+ = ! /ud5t to appreh5d is ! nature ( ! bud-l /ructures ref]r$ to4 ,ea* ( ^! is 9 itself a small tuft or bud ( leaflike organs or scales arrang$ on a %ort twig 7,ra*is1 ,ra*illa71 z x 71 & is call$ a ,spikelet1 & ! true fl[]s ( ! grass are conta9$ 9 ! angles betwe5 ! scales--! scales be+ popul>ly kn[n z 8*aff03 te*nically z ,glumes & ,pale4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! /ructure ( a spikelet ! /ud5t %\ld c>efully dissect a l>ge "o1 su* z t ( an ,oat 7,fig4 #a74 ,proce$+ f outside1 he w f9d two l>ge scales1 l two boats1 fix$ bel[ to ! /alk 7ra*is7 "o j bel[ ! o!r1 & %utt+ toge!r z if h+$4 ,^! are call$ ! glumes--! inn] & out] glume respectively--& !y enclose ! re/ ( ! spikelet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,diagram ( a spikelet ( a grass z x w\ld appe> if ! int]nodes betwe5 ea* set ( organs 7 elongat$4 g#a l[] & g#b upp] glume4 ,p l[] & p upp] palea ( ! second olde/ fl[] ,f#b4 f a b>r5 fl[] repres5t$ only by ! axis & pale4 ,above x a s+le palea & ! t]m9ation ( ! axis 7a7 ( ! spikelet4 ,inside !m ! axis or /alk 7ra*is7 is cont9u$ = a %ort di/ance only & on its sides are h+$ two o!r pairs ( m or less boat-%ap$ scales1 small] & m delicate ?an ! glumes1 & kn[n z ! pales 7pale71 :ile a ?ird pair ( /ill small] pales is fix$ to ! end ( ! axis4 ,9 ea* case "o small] & m delicate inn] palea is h+$ j inside its m obvi\s out] palea4 ,9 ! clos$ condition ( ! spikelet ea* ( ! ?ree pairs ( pales is %ut toge!r1 & press$ close to ! axis1 & ! pair ( glumes %ut 9 ! :ole4 ,on op5+ ea* ( ! l[] pairs ( pales we f9d a fl[] inside2 b ! t]m9al pair usually conta9 only ! b>r5 end ( ! axis4 ,h5ce ! latt] is b>r5 & ! =m] are f]tile4 ,ea* f]tile fl[] is f\nd on c>eful dissection to consi/ ( a small swoll5 ,ov>y1 or "y gra91 cov]$ ) silky hairs & ) a c\ple ( delicate plumes 7! ,/igma7 at its apex1 & ?ree long & sl5d] ,/am5s2 :ile ! magnify+ glass w %[ two t9y scales at ! base--! ,lodicules4 ,all our ord9>y grasses h _! fl[]s ?us con/ruct$--a pair ( lodicules1 ?ree dangl+ /am5s & an ov>y ) a fea!ry two-plum$ /igma3 ea* su* fl[] is also enclos$ 9 its pair ( pales1 & ! sev]al pairs ( pales ( ea* spikelet1 ) _! cont5ts1 are enclos$ 9 ! pair ( glumes 7,figs4 #bi-cb74 ,return+ n[ to ! infloresc5ce4 ,x is cle> t we h to di/+ui% betwe5 ! entire bran*$ total ,infloresc5ce1 & ! ,spikelets or p>tial infloresc5ces ( :i* x is compos$4 ,9 ,botany x is agre$ to call any infloresc5ce consi/+ ( a /alk or axis on :i* ! fl[]s are arrang$ )\t /alks--i4e4 sitt+ directly on x--& s t ! y\nge/ are above & ! old] bel[1 a ,spike1 & ea* spikelet is a little spike4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,diagram ( a spikelet ( ,:eat dissect$ 7 ab\t #e7 %[+--f bel[ upw>ds--! two glumes1 two pale1 two lodicules1 ?ree /am5s1 & ! ov>y ( ! typical grass4 ,oliv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,diagram ( a spikelet ( ,an?oxan?um dissect$ 7 ab\t #h71 & %[+--f bel[ upw>ds--two out] & two 7awn$7 inn] glumes1 two pale1 two /am5s1 & ! ov>y4 ,!re are no lodicules4 ,oliv]4 ,on look+ at ! total infloresc5ce ( ! ,n>dus we see t we h a numb] ( spikelets seat$ on ! sides ( an axis3 ?is is !n a spike ( spikelets1 or1 %ortly1 a ,spike#i 7,fig4 #e74 ,mibora & ,lepturus af=d o!r examples4 ,9 ,panicum1 ,cynodon 7,fig4 #b7 & ,sp>t9a we h gr\ps ( su* spikes4 ,! ,poa infloresc5ce is1 h[ev]1 diff]5t4 ,x consi/s ( a loose bran*$ sy/em ( spikelets4 ,botani/s t]m su* a loosely bran*+ sy/em1 :]e ea* bran* ends 9 a fl[]1 a panicle3 "h !n we h a panicle ( spikelets1 or1 %ortly1 a ,panicle4 ,aira1 ,agro/is1 ,calamagro/is1 ,av5a1 ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d7 & _m o!rs af=d fur!r examples4 ,9 ,dactylis we h a condition ( affairs betwe5 ! two extremes giv53 ! infloresc5ce is n s close a spike z ,n>dus1 & n s op5 a panicle z ,poa--x is r a spike-l panicle1 p>tak+ ( ! nature ( bo?4 ,a special type ( ?is 7,foxtail7 occurr+ 9 c]ta9 grasses--e4g4 ,phleum1 ,alopecurus1 ,phal>is & ,lagurus1--is s *>act]i/ic z to be wor? not+ 7,fig4 #c74 ,!re is also ano!r aspect ( ^! infloresc5ces :i* is n )\t int]e/ z %[+ h[ diagno/ic *>act]s may be obta9$ f purely ext]nal features1 easily obs]v$ 9 ! field4 ,we h se5 t 9 ,n>dus ! spikelets are arrang$ on "o side only ( ! ra*is1 or ma9 axis1 s t ab\t ?ree qu>t]s ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! latt] is b>e2 :]eas 9 ,lolium--) :i* ,agropyrum & ,bra*ypodium agree 9 ?is respect--! spikelets are on opposite sides1 leav+ ! int]v5+ two qu>t]s1 i4e4 half its surface1 ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! axis nak$4 ,9 ,cynosurus & ! simpl] =ms ( ,dactylis1 we f9d ! spikelets cr[d$ r\nd ab\t ?ree qu>t]s ( ! surface ( ! ra*is1 leav+ ! f\r? qu>t] nak$2 &1 f9ally1 9 ,phleum1 ,alopecurus1 ,hordeum1 & ,an?oxan?um ! spikelets cov] ! entire surface4 ,9 ! fir/ 7,n>dus7 & ?ird examples 7,cynosurus1 ,dactylis7 :]e ! spikelets are turn$ to "o side1 ! infloresc5ce is said to be secund4 ,! next po9t to notice is t n e grass has s _m z two f]tile fl[]s & "o b>r5 "o 9 its spikelet1 z ! ,oat has4 ,a spikelet may h "o 7,phleum71 two 7,aira7 or ?ree 7,av5a7 or m 7,poa7 f]tile fl[]s1 & no b>r5 ones or sev]al1 ! numb] ( fl[]s be+ c\nt$ by ! numb] ( pairs ( pales f\nd inside ! pair ( glumes4 ,moreov] e fl[] is n necess>ily f]tile 7e4g4 ,arrh5a!rum1 ,holcus7 & sev]al grasses h "o or m fl[]s 9 ea* spikelet conta9+ /am5s only--male fl[]s--:ile o!rs may h ov>ies only--female fl[]s4 ,9 "s exotics ! male & female fl[]s are on diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant 7,maize7 or ev5 on diff]5t plants 7,gyn]ium71 an arrangem5t n met ) 9 our grasses4 ,accord+ly1 x is ( importance 9 det]m9+ a grass to discov] h[ _m fl[]s ! spikelet conta9s1 & :e!r any are male only1 or b>r51 c41 z well z to make out ! "* ( its infloresc5ce4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/s ,i h br\ght toge!r "s ( ! *ief po9ts ) illu/rative examples4 ,,spikelets ) only "o p]fect fl[] 7)\t rudim5t>y ones74 ,psamma4 ,milium4 ,n>dus4 ,alopecurus4 ,phleum4 ,hordeum4 ,agro/is4 ,& species ( ! r>e grasses ,calamagro/is1 ,mibora1 ,lepturus1 ,sp>t9a1 ,cynodon1 ,ga/ridium1 ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,le]sia4 ,,spikelets ) "o p]fect fl[] & "o or m male or rudim5t>y ones4 ,digraphis4 ,an?oxan?um4 ,holcus4 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,& ! r>e g5]a ,hi]o*loe & ,panicum4 ,,spikelets ) at lea/ two p]fect fl[]s4 ,mol9ia4 ,arundo4 ,av5a4 ,aira 7"s species74 ,bromus4 ,cynosurus4 ,dactylis4 ,triodia4 ,sesl]ia4 ,kl]ia4 ,melica 7"o species74 ,briza4 ,poa trivialis4 ,catabrosa4 ,,spikelets ) at lea/ ?ree p]fect fl[]s & usually m4 ,elymus4 ,agropyrum4 ,bra*ypodium4 ,lolium4 ,fe/uca4 ,poa4 ,glyc]ia4 ,,infloresc5ce1 a spike ( s+le spikelets4 ,agropyrum4 ,bra*ypodium4 ,lolium4 ,n>dus4 ,& v>ieties ( ,fe/uca ,myurus & ,f4 loliacea1 c4 ,,infloresc5ce1 a spike ( pairs or tufts ( ?ree or m spikelets4 ,elymus 7pairs74 ,hordeum 7?rees74 ,cynosurus 7clu/]s74 ,,infloresc5ce1 a cyl9drical closely tuft$ spike-l panicle4 ,phleum4 ,alopecurus4 ,psamma4 ,an?oxan?um4 ,,infloresc5ce1 a compact m or less tuft$ panicle4 ,mol9ia4 ,kl]ia4 ,triodia4 ,dactylis4 ,aira prcox4 ,a4 canesc5s4 ,sesl]ia4 ,& r>e grasses l ,polypogon1 ,ga/ridium1 c4 ,,infloresc5ce1 a loose plume-l or bran*$ panicle4 ,av5a4 ,bromus4 ,arrh5a!rum4 ,catabrosa4 ,aira 7except ,a4 prcox & ,a4 canesc5s74 ,arundo4 ,digraphis4 ,milium4 ,agro/is4 ,melica4 ,holcus4 ,poa 7mo/ ( ! species74 ,glyc]ia4 ,briza4 ,fe/uca 7except ,f4 ,myurus74 ,& ! r>e ,hi]o*loe4 ,! ,glumes are always pres5t 9 our grasses1 & rudim5t>y only 9 ! r>e grass ,le]sia2 b ,lolium & ,n>dus h only "o glume to ! spikelet1 & ,hi]o*loe1 ,digraphis & ,an?oxan?um 7,fig4 #cb7 h f\r or six4 ,our o!r grasses h two1 b (t5 unequal 9 size4 ,9 %ape !y are usually boat-l1 po9t$ or obtuse 7,briza7 & frequ5tly ) a di/9ct keel 7,an?oxan?um1 ,digraphis1 ,phleum1 c47 or ) ridges1 gre5 l9es 7ve9s7 & o!r *>act]i/ic m>k+s 7e4g4 ,digraphis74 ,! tip may be ext5d$ into a /iff long po9t or awn 7,agropyrum1 ,phleum1 ,n>dus7 & ! keel1 ribs1 & awn may h hairs or s]rul on !m4 ,! rule is1 h[ev]1 t ! glumes are n awn$4 ,9 texture ! glumes may be h]bace\s & gre5-br[n or purple 7e4g4 ,melica7 or membran\s or /iff1 or sc>i\s 7i4e4 br[n$1 z if scor*$7 at ! edges4 ,9 ,hordeum "s ( ! glumes are s n>r[ & po9t$ z to resemble /iff awns4 ,9 ,catabrosa ! glumes are truncate1 z if bitt5 (f at ! top4 ,! ,pale are also (t5 m or less boat-%ap$1 or flat ovate or oblong scales1 usually m delicate ?an ! glumes & frequ5tly po9t$1 or 7especially ! out] pale7 awn$ at ! tip3 9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! awn spr+s f ! middle or base ( ! back ( ! pale1 & ! latt] may be bifid at its apex4 ,! pale has usually a di/9ct middle n]ve4 ,! inn] pale is commonly ! small] & m delicate ( ! two1 & is sometimes difficult to see4 ,,conspicu\sly ,,awn$ ,,grasses4 ,av5a4 ,arrh5a!rum 7,fig4 #cc74 ,hordeum4 ,bromus4 ,agropyrum can9um4 ,lolium temul5tum4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum4 ,fe/uca ,myurus4 ,& a few r>e grasses l ,panicum1 ,polypogon1 ,lagurus4 ,,grasses ,,) ,,no ,,true ,,awns4 ,kl]ia4 ,milium4 ,digraphis4 ,elymus4 ,fe/uca 7except ,f4 ,myurus & ,f4 uniglumis74 ,briza4 ,poa4 ,glyc]ia4 ,catabrosa4 ,mol9ia4 ,melica4 ,psamma4 ,agro/is alba4 ,& a few r>e =ms l ,le]sia1 ,hi]o*loe1 c4 ,,grasses ,,) ,,inconspicu\s ,,awns1 ,,or ,,m]e ,,po9ts1 ,,to ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,glumes ,,or ,,pales4 ,arundo4 ,phleum4 ,alopecurus4 ,holcus4 ,n>dus4 ,agropyrum rep5s4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus4 ,sesl]ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,arrh5a!rum4 #a unop5$ & #b op5 an!r 7 #ab74 #c1 spikelets op5 & expos+ ! /am5s & /igmas2 #d1 ! poll5 escap+ & be+ du/$ on to ! /igmas 7 ab\t #e74 ,k]n]4 ,z reg>ds ! fl[] prop]1 all our ,briti% grasses except ,an?oxan?um 7:i* has two only7 h ?ree /am5s2 b _m exotic grasses h six /am5s1 & a few h a l>ge numb]--ev5 #dj4 ,! /am5s h sl5d] filam5ts & l>ge v]satile an!rs1 :i* dangle f betwe5 ! pale :5 ! fl[]s are mature1 scatt]+ _! cl\ds ( f9e poll5 9 ! w9d 7,fig4 #cc74 ,all our ord9>y grasses except ,n>dus--:]e !re is a simple /raight hairy /yle--h two spread+ fea!ry /igmatic plumes1 :i* /& out "r & left f betwe5 ! pale :5 ! poll5 is fly+ ab\t on ! w9d4 7,fig4 #cc47 ,mu* int]e/+ speculation has be5 exp5d$ 9 attempt+ to expla9 ! morphological or !oretical significance ( ! p>ts ( ! spikelet ( a grass4 ,if we project ! v>i\s organs on a flat surface 9 ! =m ( a plan1 keep+ _! relative positions intact1 we obta9 a diagram su* z t %[n 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,diagram ( a spikelet ( a grass4 ,! two glumes--g#a out]1 g#b inn]--embrace f\r fl[]s1 ( :i* #a is ! l[]mo/ & #d ! upp]mo/4 ,! comp>ison ( num]\s cases1 & ! /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! p>ts on ! microscopic gr[+ po9t dissect$ out f "y buds1 h sugge/$ t ! inn] & out] glumes are bracts1 or cov]+ leaves1 at ! base ( ! true spikelet4 ,9 l mann] ! two pale are bracteoles :i* subt5d ! fl[] prop]4 ,on ?is assumption !y c be comp>$ ) ! correspond+ /ructures 9 o!r plants2 :]eas any attempt to comp>e ! pale or glumes ) ! sepals & petals ( ord9>y fl[]s breaks d[n4 ,a curi\s int]e/ atta*es to ! awns s (t5 f\nd on ! backs ( pale1 & especially to ^? :]e ! 7sub-t]m9al7 awn spr+s f j bel[ ! bifid apex 7e4g4 ,av5a1 c474 ,hackel %[$ by comp>ison ) a roll$ leaf atta*$ to its %ea? & ligule 7e4g4 ,psamma7 t su* an awn z t ( ,bromus ,alopecurus atta*$ to its palea /&s 9 ! relation ( a leaf to its %ea?1 ! "p ( ! palea above ! ins]tion correspond+ to ! ligule1 ! awn itself to ! lam9a1 & ! palea bel[ its ins]tion to ! %ea?4 ,?is view is r5d]$ ! m probable by ! anatomy ( ! awn & by ! obs]vations ( ,s*mid1 :o has %[n t ! awns ( c]eals conta9 *lorophyll-tissue & a vascul> bundle1 & h /omata1 & 8 exp]im5ts l$ him to conclude t 9 ! "y condition !y transpire & assimilate1 & probably ev5 contribute to ! nutrition ( ! rip5+ gra94 ,:5 dry & mature ! awns subs]ve biological functions ( q ano!r k9d1 & z we %all see are ( importance 9 ! di/ribution & s[+ ( ! gra9s4 7,fig4 #db47 ,return+ to ! floral diagram1 we see t ! two lodicules1 ! ?ree /am5s & ! ov>y /ill rema9 to be expla9$4 ,mu* discussion has be5 held reg>d+ ! lodicules4 ,functionally !y are said to aid 9 ! div>ication ( ! pale :5 ! p]iod ( an!sis arrives1 & ! /am5s & /igmatic lobes are to be expos$1 by swell+ & driv+ ! valve-l pale ap>t4 ,morphologically !y h be5 expla9$ z repres5t+ ! rudim5t>y p]ian?1 "h r$uc$ to two m9ute scales1 b 9 "s exotic grasses 7,bambusa1 ,/ipa1 c47 ?ree lodicules1 or ev5 m1 are pres5t4 7,figs4 #ce1 #cf47 ,on ! o!r h& !y may be1 & probably are1 scales ( ! nature ( m9ute bracteoles & ( no significance to ! fl[] itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,floral diagram ( ord9>y grass4 ,ea* pair ( pale--i4p4 inn] & o4p4 out] palea--encloses ?ree /am5s 7s71 two lodicules 7l7 & ! ov>y4 /1 /igmatic plumes4 a1 axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,floral diagram ( a ,bamboo1 %[+ six /am5s1 ?ree inn] 7i4s47 & ?ree out] 7a4s471 & ?ree lodicules 7l7 9 addition to ! ov>y4 i4p4 inn] & o4p4 out] palea4 a1 axis4 ,if ?is is s ! fl[] ( ! grass is p]fectly nak$1 & consi/s 9 ! typical case ( ?ree /am5s & "o c>pel4 ,! developm5t ( ! ov>y l5ds no support to ! view t !re are two c>pels3 ! /igmatic plumes are n sep>ate /yles4 ,nor does ! fact t "s grasses h six /am5s l5d support to ! idea t ! fl[] is d]iv$ f ! trim]\s type s common 9 ,monocotyl$ons3 o!r numb]s may occur--e4g4 z few z two 7,an?oxan?um1 ,fig4 #cb7 or ev5 "o only 7,uniola1 ,c9na1 c47 or z _m z #bj or #dj 9 c]ta9 o!r exotic grasses4 ,ev5 :5 ?ree /igmatic plumes are develop$1 z 9 "s ,bamboos1 close inve/igation does n confirm ! view t ! ov>y consi/s ( m ?an "o c>pel4 ,we mu/ !re=e reg>d ! fl[] ( ! grass z typically compos$ ( "o c>pel & ?ree /am5s1 ) no p]ian? :atev]4 ,x is subt5d$ by "o or m bracteoles 7! lodicules71 & enclos$ 9 a pair ( bracteoles "o high] ?an ! o!r 7! pale74 ,! glumes are bracts ( ! p>tial infloresc5ce--! spikelet4 ,t !re are "s dep>tures f ?is type 9 detail does n invalidate ! importance ( ! fact t mo/ grasses con=m to x4 ,i n[ pass to ! consid]ation ( a gr\p+ ( our ord9>y grasses accord+ to _! floral arrangem5ts4 ,! /ud5t %\ld di/9ctly und]/& t ! foll[+ notes are int5d$ to s]ve z an introduction to ! floral *>act]s ( our grasses1 & n to replace ! /udy ( ! ,flora4 ,i h dealt ) ?is section ( ! subject less 9 detail1 because our be/ ,floras give s mu* in=mation t x seem$ undesirable to d m ?an attempt to guide ! read] 9 ! recognition ( ! g5]a & pr9cipal species by means ( ext]nal features easily obs]v$ by anyone ) a little c>e4 ,! detail$ & critical exam9ation ( species1 v>ieties & r>e =ms %\ld always be done ) ref]5ce to a complete ,flora4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,grasses ,,gr\p$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,_! ,,fl[]s ,,& ,,infloresc5ces4 ,i4 ,,grasses ,,) ,,only ,,"o ,,p]fect ,,fl[] ,,9 ,,! ,,spikelet4 7#a7 ,infloresc5ce spikate#aj4 ,a4 ,infloresc5ce a spike ( simple spikelets4 ,n>dus /ricta1 ,l4 ,a t\gh wiry tuft$ moor-grass1 ) setace\s leaves1 secund spikelets ) a s+le rudim5t>y glume1 & a /iff simple hairy /yle4 7,fig4 #b47 ,! mu* r>] ,mibora v]na ab\t ?ree in*es or s high1 & ,lepturus1 bo? ) flat leaves1 also come "h4 ,c]ta9 sup]ficial resemblances 9 ! habit or infloresc5ce 9 ,fe/uca ,myurus & r>e =ms l ,sp>t9a1 may occasionally cause hesitation until ! spikelets are exam9$4 ,b4 ,spike ) sessile or sub-sessile tufts ( ?ree or m spikelets4 7a7 ,a spike ( tuft$ awn$ spikelets1 9 triplets at ea* not* ( ! ra*is1 & "o or two ( ea* triplet b>r54 ,hordeum4 ,no o!r g5us ( our grasses is l ,hordeum4 ,! purely sup]ficial resemblances 9 ! infloresc5ces ( ,polypogon1 ,lagurus1 & ,cynosurus e*9atus--all extremely r>e species--disappe> at once on exam9ation4 ,9 ,bromus erectus ! equally sup]ficial resemblance is due to ! /iff awns3 ! spikelet has six to twelve fl[]s & is /alk$4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t ,hordeum sylvaticum occasionally has a rudim5t>y second fl[] 9 ! lat]al spikelets 7see note p4 #aje74 77 ,a %ade-grass ) ! c5tral spikelet only imp]fect2 /am9ate1 or rudim5t>y1 or entirely want+4 ,h4 sylvaticum1 ,huds4 77 ,! c5tral spikelet is ! p]fect "o1 ! two lat]al b>r54 ,gr[+ 9 op5 l&4 7i7 ,a p]5nial mead[-grass4 ,all ! glumes scabrid & bri/le-l4 ,h4 prat5se1 ,huds4 7ii7 ,annuals ) "s ( ! glumes at lea/1 lanceolate or broad bel[4 99 ,rud]al plant1 ) cyl9drical spikes1 long awns2 glumes ( ! c5tral fl[] dilat$ bel[4 ,h4 mur9um1 ,)4 9999 ,m>itime plant1 m or less glauc\s1 ) %ort ovoid spikes3 glumes ( ! c5tral fl[] bri/le-l4 ,h4 m>itimum1 ,)4 7b7 ,spike cyl9drical1 ( sessile or ne>ly sessile awn$ spikelets1 d5sely cr[d$ r\nd ! axis1 ! :ole resembl+ a fox's bru% or cat's tail4 ,species ( ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,phal>is 7n truly awn$71 ,panicum 7) bri/les betwe5 ! spikelets71 & ,ga/ridium are o!r ,briti% grasses approa*+ ?is type ( infloresc5ce3 !y are all r>e or v local4 ,sesl]ia has an ovoid spike1 b ! spikelets are two-fl[]$ & n truly awn$4 ,kl]ia may pres5t resemblances1 b ! spikelets are v diff]5t 9 detail 7see p4 #aji74 7i7 ,awns ins]t$ into ! back ( ! s+le palea1 & hair-l4 ,glumes connate bel[1 keel$4 ,only "o palea4 ,alopecurus4 99 ,annual corn-we$1 ) a long & sl5d] spike1 po9t$ above4 ,glumes almo/ glabr\s1 & connate to ! middle4 ,a4 agre/is1 ,l4 9999 ,p]5nials1 ) %ort] & /\t] spikes1 r\nd$ above4 ,glumes connate at ! base only1 & obvi\sly hairy on ! keel4 ,procumb5t & kne$ at ! nodes bel[4 ,spike #a-b in*es long4 ,9 m>%y places4 ,a4 g5iculatus1 ,l4 ,a mead[-grass1 ) erect /ems1 & spikes #b-c in*es or m & /\t]4 ,a4 prat5sis1 ,l4 ,! r>e ,a4 alp9us1 ,sm4 ) %ort ovoid spikes1 ab\t "o in* long1 only occurs 9 ! ,highl&s4 7ii7 ,awns1 :5 pres5t1 m]ely ! /iff1 po9t$ t]m9ation ( ! keel4 ,glumes free bel[4 ,pale two4 99 ,a glauc\s %ore plant ) long creep+ /olons 7s&-b9d]74 ,infloresc5ce h>%1 #e--f in*es long4 ,glumes tap]+1 simply acute4 ,psamma ar5>ia1 ,beauv4 ,elymus1 a mu* r>] s&-b9d] ( simil> habit1 may lead to confusion until ! #c--d fl[]$ spikelets & diff]5t arrangem5t are obs]v$4 7,see p4 #ajh47 ,agropyrum rep5s 7v>4 junceum7 is simil> 9 habit & /ation1 b its spikes & spikelets are v diff]5t 7see p4 #ajg74 ,phleum ar5>ium is mu* small] 7see bel[74 9999 ,erect4 ,infloresc5ce r>ely long] ?an ?ree in*es4 ,spikelets flat3 glumes keel$1 ! keel sudd5ly produc$ into a %>p /iff awn or mucronate po9t4 ,pale two4 ,phleum4 ,tall p]5nial mead[-grass4 ,awn bri/le-l1 almo/ z long z ! ne>ly glabr\s glume3 spike long1 cyl9drical4 ,p4 prat5se1 ,l4 ,small1 compact annual %ore plant1 ) ! glumes acute only & ! keel ciliate above4 ,infloresc5ce n m ?an #a--a-a_/d in* long4 ,p4 ar5>ium1 ,l4 ,! r>e ,p4 ,bhm]i1 ,s*rad4 has ! glumes m]ely tap]+ to a %>p po9t2 & ! r>e ,p4 alp9um1 ,l4 has a mu* %ort] spike & glumes ciliate on ! keels4 ,! r>e ,p4 asp]um1 ,jacq4 has broad1 %ortly mucronate glumes & a long] & m sl5d] spike4 7#b7 ,infloresc5ce a panicle--i4e4 tufts or spread+ /alk$ gr\ps ( spikelets are arrang$ on ! ma9 axis4 ,a4 ,infloresc5ce compact & irregul>2 a spike ( tufts 7spike-l panicle74 ,glumes f\r1 ! inn] pair awn$3 pale m9ute4 ,/am5s two only4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum1 ,l4 ,! f\r glumes & two /am5s di/+ui% ?is grass at once4 ,o!r grasses ) occasionally tuft-l infloresc5ces--e4g4 species ( ,agro/is1 ,ga/ridium1 ,aira1 ,dactylis1 ,cynosurus1 ,poa1 ,triodia1 ,kl]ia--are di/+ui%$ at once by hav+ ?ree /am5s 7,bromus occasionally has b two71 only two glumes1 sev]al fl[]$ spikelets1 c4 ,b4 ,infloresc5ce a di/9ctly bran*$ panicle1 m or less loose & spread+4 7a7 ,tall re$-l p]5nials1 gr[+ 9 wat] or 9 m>%es1 ) plume-l infloresc5ces1 & silky hairs at ! base ( ! pale4 ,glumes ) a keel & po9t1 b n awn$4 7i7 ,spikelets purpli%3 out] palea ) a sl5d] dorsal awn3 basal hairs long] ?an ! pale4 ,leaves n>r[4 ,n common4 ,calamagro/is ,epigeios1 ,ro?4 7ii7 ,spikelets gre5i%4 ,no awns3 basal hairs mu* %ort] ?an ! pale4 ,leaves broad4 ,common4 ,digraphis arund9acea1 ,tr94 ,a v>iety ( ,digraphis ) :ite /ripes 9 ! leaves is gr[n 9 g>d5s4 ,o!r aquatic re$-l grasses are ,arundo & ,glyc]ia aquatica3 bo? h sev]al fl[]s 9 ! spikelet4 ,! r>e ,calamagro/is lanceolata1 ,ro?41 ,c4 /ricta1 ,nutt4 & ,c4 /rigosa1 ,h>tm4 also come "h4 7b7 ,sl5d] grasses1 n re$-l1 ) delicate loosely spread+ panicles ( small spikelets4 7i7 ,a tall1 sl5d] %ade-grass1 9 woods4 ,pale v smoo? & gli/5+4 ,spikelets few1 di/ant & turgid1 awnless4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 ,melica uniflora1 also a wood-grass1 has ! spikelets two-fl[]$1 ?\gh ! upp] "o may be a m]e rudim5t1 & mu* few]1 on a flexu\s nodd+ axis4 ,! mu* r>] ,m4 nutans has two p]fect fl[]s 9 ! spikelet 7see p4 #aje74 7ii7 ,grasses ( op5 situations1 ) num]\s small po9t$ spikelets4 ,inn] palea m9ute or abs5t4 ,agro/is4 ,! g5us mo/ likely to give tr\ble "h is ,aira1 :i* ?\gh normally ) two fl[]s 9 ! spikelet1 occasionally has b "o4 ,z reg>ds ! common species ( simil> habit1 c41 ,aira has bri/le-l leaves & ,agro/is flat ones4 ,aga91 ,agro/is alba has no protrud+ awn1 z 9 ! spikelets ( ,aira4 ,= ,aira cspitosa & o!r details1 see p4 #aag4 99 ,awnless1 or at mo/ a %ort bri/le n equall+ ! palea4 ,leaves flat & %ort4 ,a4 alba1 ,l4 ,an exce$+ly v>iable plant4 ,! v>iety ,a4 /olonif]a has a less spread+ panicle1 & broad] leaves ) a long s]rat$ & po9t$ ligule3 ! v>iety ,a4 vulg>is has a spread+ loose panicle1 n>r[] leaves1 & a %ort truncat$ ligule4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 mu* difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ ! int]m$iate =ms on m\nta9-pa/ures1 c4 9999 ,di/9ctly awn$4 ,leaves n>r[]1 ! l[] ones inroll$ & almo/ setace\s4 ,a4 can9a1 ,l4 ,! r>] ,a4 setacea1 ,curt4 ) subulate leaves & ,a4 ,spica5ti1 ,l4 ) long awns also come "h4 ,! lax spread+ type ( panicle *>act]i/ic ( ,aira & ,agro/is1 c41 describ$ above1 occurs 9 species ( ,av5a1 ,bromus1 ,briza1 ,poa & ,catabrosa1 b ! basal silky hairs & twi/$ awns 7,av5a71 long sub-t]m9al bri/le-awns 7,bromus71 habit 7,catabrosa71 & ! pres5ce ( two1 ?ree1 or m fl[]s 9 ! consid]ably l>g] spikelets ( all1 easily di/+ui% !m4 ,! r>e grasses ,le]sia1 ) two glumes & no pale1 & ,ga/ridium1 ) curi\sly bullate bases to ! glumes1 also come into ?is gr\p ) "o-fl[]$ spikelets1 b _! *>act]s mu/ be /udi$ ) ! flora4 ,! same rem>k applies to species ( ,panicum1 ,cynodon1 ,sp>t9a & o!r ali5s1 occasionally met )4 ,,ii4 ,,grasses ,,) ,,at ,,lea/ ,,two ,,fl[]s--,,( ,,:i* ,,"o ,,may ,,be ,,imp]fect--,,9 ,,! ,,spikelet4 ,a4 ,only "o p]fect fl[]1 ! o!r /am9ate only or altoge!r rudim5t>y4 ,infloresc5ce a loose or racem\s panicle4 ,9 ,hordeum sylvaticum ! two lat]al spikelets occasionally con=m to ?is head+ 7see p4 #ajj71 & ! same is said to be ! case sometimes 9 ,aira 7see p4 #ajd74 ,! rudim5ts are extremely m9ute1 h[ev]1 & h>dly suffice to ju/ify ! removal ( ^! grasses to ?is gr\p4 ,9 "o or two species ( ,aira ! panicle may be some:at contract$ & tuft-l4 ,! v r>e ,hi]o*loe has "o p]fect fl[]1 & two l[] /am9ate ones 9 ea* spikelet4 7a7 ,a %ade-grass f\nd 9 woods4 ,awnless4 ,"o fl[] p]fect1 ! o!r 7upp]7 r$uc$ to a small /alk$ knob4 ,infloresc5ce racem\s4 ,melica uniflora1 ,l4 ,! mu* r>] ,m4 nutans has two p]fect fl[]s & a simil> rudim5t 7see note1 p4 #ajd74 7b7 ,grasses ( op5 situations1 spikelets ) awns4 ,! r$uc$ fl[] /am9ate4 99 ,upp] fl[] p]fect1 l[] /am9ate only4 ,tall oat-l mead[-grass1 ) a b5t & twi/$ dorsal awn to ! out] palea ( ! l[] fl[]3 silky hairs at ! base ( pale4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum1 ,beauv4 ,! grasses mo/ l ?is are species ( ,av5a & ,aira4 ,! =m] h two or m p]fect fl[]s1 & ! only broad-leaf$ ,aira--,a4 cspitosa1 see p4 #aag--;is easily di/+ui%$ by its leaves & its v small spikelets & %ort simple awns4 9999 ,upp] fl[] /am9ate3 l[] p]fect4 ,small hairy grasses1 ) r$-ve9$ basal leaf-%ea?s & %ort simple awns4 ,holcus4 ,erect1 ev5ly hairy1 glumes blunt1 awn n protrud+4 ,common4 ,h4 lanatus1 ,l4 1 ,m or less procumb5t1 hairs *iefly at ! nodes4 ,glumes po9t$4 ,awns simple & exs]t$4 ,r>]4 ,h4 mollis1 ,l4 ,b4 ,ea* spikelet ) at lea/ two p]fect fl[]s1 (t5 m4 7#a7 ,infloresc5ce spikate1 ! ma9 axis be>+ sessile or sub-sessile spikelets1 ea* conta9+ ?ree or m fl[]s4 7a7 ,spike simple#aa1 axis /\t & not*$1 ea* not* hav+ "o spikelet closely sessile 9 x4 7i7 ,spikelets di/i*\s1 ! flat side ( ea*--i4e4 ! edges ( ! glumes--be+ next ! axis 7ra*is74 ,agropyrum4 99 ,a we$ ) creep+ /olons1 & no awns or m]e po9ts to ! glumes4 ,a4 rep5s1 ,beauv4 ,! v>iety ,a4 junceum f\nd z a s&-b9d] on sea-coa/s is glauc\s1 /iff]1 ) %>ply po9t$ leaves1 & blunt glumes4 ,= o!r s&-b9d]s see note1 p4 #ajb4 9999 ,n creep+4 ,awns long & prom95t4 ,a4 can9um1 ,beauv4 7ii7 ,! r\nd$ backs ( ! glumes are next ! ra*is4 99 ,spikelets flat & closely sessile 9 ! not*es ( ! ra*is4 ,lolium4 ,awnless or ne>ly s4 ,p]5nial4 ,l4 p]5ne1 ,l4 ,) conspicu\s awns4 ,annual1 n common4 ,l4 temul5tum1 ,l4 ,!re are sev]al cultivat$ v>ieties ( ,l4 p]5ne3 ,l4 temul5tum is notori\sly poison\s 7see note1 p4 #afh74 ,! l[]mo/ glume ( ea* spikelet is (t5 alone develop$ or conspicu\s1 & looks l a bract 9 ! axis ( :i* ! spikelet sits4 9999 ,spikelets elongat$ & h>dly flatt5$1 & n q sessile1 especially ! l[]3 ra*is sc>cely not*$1 ! spikelets ) _! sides 7edges ( glumes7 next ! axis4 ,bra*ypodium4 ,a %ade-grass ) long1 conspicu\s awns to ! m or less droop+ spikelets4 ,common4 ,b4 sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 ,gr[+ 9 ! op54 ,spikelets /\t]1 /iff] & m erect1 ) %ort awns4 ,n common4 ,b4 p9natum1 ,l4 ,bra*ypodium may easily be conf\nd$ ) ,bromus1 b ! spikelets are ne>ly sessile3 _! %ape & ! abs5ce ( conspicu\s not*es di/+ui% ?is g5us f ,agropyrum4 ,lolium has a conspicu\sly not*$ ra*is & ! spikelets arrang$ 9 ! o!r plane4 ,poa loliacea1 ,huds41 an uncommon sea-%ore we$1 may also be plac$ "h2 z also ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 loliacea1 ,curt4 & "s =ms ( ,bromus arv5sis1 v>4 mollis1 ,l4 ,no o!r ,briti% grasses resemble ,bra*ypodium3 any sup]ficial lik5ess rem>k$ 9 species ( ,hordeum1 ,fe/uca1 c4 disappe>s at once on exam9ation4 7b7 ,spike comp\nd--i4e4 ) clu/]s ( two or m sessile or sub-sessile spikelets arrang$ along ! ra*is4 7i7 ,spike elongat$1 f]tile spikelets ) #c-e fl[]s4 99 ,pa/ure-grass ) wiry ra*is1 on :i* ! spikelets are secund & sessile 9 clu/]s3 9 ea* clu/] a comb-l gr\p ( b>r5 glumes subt5ds "o ( f]tile spikelets4 ,cynosurus cri/atus1 ,l4 ,! r>e ,c4 e*9atus has ! pect9ate gr\ps ( b>r5 glumes ev5 m prom95t4 9999 ,/\t glauc\s s&-b9d] ) pairs ( spikelets sessile 9 ! not*es ( ! ra*is1 & all f]tile4 ,spike cyl9drical4 ,n common4 ,elymus ar5>ius1 ,l4 ,= o!r s&-b9d]s see p4 #ajb4 ,! only grass likely to be conf\nd$ is ,agropyrum1 9 :i* ! spikelets are n pair$4 ,lolium1 ,bra*ypodium1 c4 are easily di/+ui%$4 7ii7 ,spike %ort & ovoid3 spikelets sub-sessile & imbricate1 9 clu/]s4 ,blui%4 ,sesl]ia crulea1 ,ard4 ,n easily mi/ak5 = any o!r grass4 ,z "s ( ! spikelets are %ortly /alk$1 ! infloresc5ce is /rictly paniculate1 b ! fact is n obvi\s4 ,! glume-l bract at ! base ( ! spike1 & ! g5]al appe>ance sugge/ resemblances to c]ta9 moor-s$ges at fir/ sight4 ,! only o!r grasses ) simil>ly %ap$ spikes are species ( ,alopecurus1 ,phleum1 & ! r>e ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,phal>is1 ,panicum1 all ) v diff]5t spikelets & easily di/+ui%$4 7#b7 ,infloresc5ce a panicle or raceme--i4e4 ! spikelets on evid5t /alks1 simple or bran*$1 f ! ma9 axis4 ,x does n foll[ t e spikelet is di/9ctly /alk$1 & cases occur :]e ! /alks are v %ort & /iff3 :5 ?is happ5s to ! /alks aris+ f ! ma9 axis1 & ! latt] is elongat$1 ! type ( ! spike is closely approa*$1 & ! infloresc5ce resembles t ( ,bra*ypodium1 ,lolium1 c4 ,9 "s depaup]at$ v>ieties ( ,poa1 ,fe/uca1 c41 an actual spike results 7see note1 p4 #aaa73 ! numb] ( fl[]s 9 ! spikelet is important4 a7 ,panicle %ort1 contract$ & tuft-l1 ow+ to ! %ortness & /iffness ( mo/ ( ! /alks & _! t5d5cy to rema9 erect1 at lea/ until an!sis4 ,glumes keel$ & end+ 9 a po9t4 7i7 ,panicle ) a few bran*es1 at fir/ erect1 end+ 9 tuft-l secund clu/]s4 ,spikelets h>%1 ) #c-e fl[]s4 ,co>se mead[-grass4 ,dactylis glom]ata1 ,l4 ,n easily conf\nd$ ) any o!r grass if att5tion is paid to ! fold$ co>se leaves1 ! tuft$ p]5nial habit1 & ! h>% infloresc5ce1 ! glumes on ! spikelets be+ /iffly hairy on ! keel4 7ii7 ,panicle contract$1 m or less ovoid or cyl9droid1 b mo/ ( ! spikelets /alk$1 & n aggregat$ into d5se clu/]s1 spikelets silv]y1 conta9+ #b-c fl[]s4 ,kl]ia cri/ata1 ,p]s4 ,any resemblances to =ms ( ,aira are at once nullifi$ by ! abs5ce ( true awns 9 ,kl]ia4 ,fe/uca & ,poa h m num]\s fl[]s 9 ! spikelet4 ,an?oxan?um has only "o fl[]1 ) two /am5s1 9 ! spikelets4 ,phleum & ,alopecurus pres5t resemblances1 b see pp4 #aja & #ajb4 7b7 ,panicle elongat$ & lax--i4e4 all or mo/ ( ! spikelets on di/9ct sl5d] /alks1 long] ?an !mselves4 7i7 ,panicle close3 ! spikelets on di/9ct & ev5 long /alks1 b ! latt] erect & keep+ ! spikelets ne> ! ma9 axis4 ,9 "s cases ! /alks f ! ma9 axis be> only "o spikelet ea* & ! type ( infloresc5ce is t ( a raceme2 usually1 h[ev]1 "o or m ( ! l[]mo/ /alks bran* & disclose ! panicle4 99 ,panicle ) few simple bran*es1 racem\s1 ea* spikelet l>ge & conta9+ ab\t f\r fl[]s1 palea ?ree-too!d at ! apex4 ,a small hea?-grass1 ) hairs at ! ligule4 ,triodia decumb5s1 ,beauv4 ,! infloresc5ce may h "s resemblance to ,melica 7see p4 #aje71 b ! f\r-fl[]$ spikelet1 ligule1 habitat & /ature di/+ui% x at once4 9999 ,panicle ) divid$ bran*es1 :i* are m or less erect4 ,spikelets awnless4 ,spikelets small1 purpli%1 ) two or at mo/ ?ree florets2 ! upp] on a /alk4 ,co>se moor-grass4 ,mol9ia crulea1 ,mn*4 ,spikelets ) six or m florets4 ,tall aquatic grass ) long1 lax1 n>r[ panicle & spikelets1 some:at nodd+1 & ) #h-bj fl[]s 9 ea*4 ,glyc]ia fluitans1 ,br4 ,! only simil> grass is ,glyc]ia aquatica1 ,sm4 :i* diff]s 9 its m re$-l habit1 op5 panicle1 & few] fl[]s4 ,small l&-plants n m ?an a foot high1 ) %ort1 /iff1 some:at cr[d$ panicles1 & spikelets conta9+ #f-h fl[]s4 ,m>itime p]5nial ) creep+ /olons1 & ab\t a foot high3 panicle some:at op5 bel[4 ,poa m>itima1 ,huds4 ,inl& plant ) secund panicle1 ab\t six in*es high4 ,p4 rigida1 ,l4 ,! r>e ,p4 procumb5s1 ,curt4 & ,p4 bulbosa1 ,l4 also come "h1 z well z />v$ =ms ( ,p4 compressa1 ,l4 ,"s =ms ( ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis1 ,huds4 gr[+ 9 dry situations may give tr\ble1 & w h to be exam9$ ) ! flora4 ,see also note1 p4 #aji4 ,spikelets awn$4 ,awns bri/le-l & t]m9al on ! pale3 fl[]s ab\t six 9 ea* spikelet4 ,leaves setace\s4 ,panicle secund4 ,awns long & bri/le-l4 ,an annual we$4 ,fe/uca ,myurus1 ,l4 ,awns v %ort1 or m]ely ! drawn out po9ts ( ! pale4 ,p]5nial4 ,f4 ov9a4 ,! r>e ,f4 uniglumis1 ,sol&41 & "s o!r v>ieties may also come "h4 ,"s =ms ( ,f4 ov9a are vivip>\s 7see p4 #acd71 & sev]al v>ieties h to be di/+ui%$4 ,awns hair-l & dorsal on ! pale4 ,fl[]s two 9 ea* spikelet4 ,annual1 six in*es or less 9 height4 ,aira prcox1 ,l4 ,! r>e ,a4 canesc5s1 ,l4 also comes "h3 its awn is jo9t$ & ) a m9ute tuft ( hairs ab\t ! middle4 7ii7 ,panicle lax & op51 ! f9e hair-l bran*es spread+ widely dur+ floresc5ce1 or ev5 p5d5t or droop+4 99 ,spikelets awnless4 ,a small aquatic grass ) pro/rate habit & two-fl[]$ spikelets ) broad truncate glumes & pale4 ,catabrosa aquatica1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #d74 ,! two-fl[]$ spikelets di/+ui% x at once f ,glyc]ia aquatica1 to say no?+ ( its s(t] & smoo!r texture & small /ature4 ,poa trivialis may h two fl[]s1 b x is an erect mead[-grass1 ) keel$ & po9t$ glumes & pale4 ,aira & ,agro/is are awn$1 or diff] entirely 9 habit4 ,spikelets ) at lea/ ?ree or f\r1 b usually m fl[]s4 ,a p]5nial field-grass ) few l>ge1 compress$1 bluntly triangul> or ovate spikelets1 dangl+ at ! end ( capill>y bran*lets2 ) membran\s1 loosely imbricat$1 concave & inflat$ pale & glumes1 & #f-h fl[]s4 ,briza m$ia1 ,l4 ,! mu* r>] ,b4 m9or1 ,l4 is an annual & small]4 ,spikelets small & num]\s1 m or less elongat$ & po9t$1 n dangl+3 glumes & pale n inflat$4 ,poa & ,fe/uca 7see p4 #aaf7 are difficult g5]a = ! beg9n]2 sev]al ( ! species v>y consid]ably 9 detail4 ,g5]ally speak+ ! spikelets ( ,fe/uca are h>d1 h>% & %>ply po9t$1 or ) %ort or evid5t awns2 9 ,poa !y are s(t]1 & ) blunt] po9ts1 & nev] awn$4 ,! mo/ obvi\sly awn$ species ( ,fe/uca h m or less setace\s leaves & contract$ infloresc5ces 7see p4 #aaa74 ,"s ( ! m\nta9 species ( ,poa are extremely v>iable 9 small *>act]s4 ,re$-l aquatic1 ) obtuse glumes r\nd$ dorsally2 ! l>ge ri*ly bran*$ panicle be>+ num]\s #e-aj fl[]$ spikelets4 ,%ea? entire or ne>ly s4 ,no we to ! pale4 ,glyc]ia aquatica1 ,sm4 ,= o!r re$-grasses1 see note1 p4 #ajc4 ,glyc]ia fluitans has a m contract$ panicle & usually m fl[]s 9 ! spikelet c4 7see p4 #aaa74 ,mead[ & pa/ure grasses c41 usually small4 ,glumes m or less keel$ & acute4 ,%ea?s split4 ,poa4 ,spikelets v small & conta9+ #b-c fl[]s only4 ,/em sl5d]1 t]ete & r\gh2 ligule long & acute1 palea ) prom95t lat]al n]ves4 ,p4 trivialis1 ,l4 ,! fl[]s are few] ?an 9 any o!r ,poa1 & may be only two4 ,p4 nemoralis1 ) #c-e fl[]s1 may also occasionally be f\nd ) two only3 x diff]s f o!rs 9 its m acute glumes1 smoo? /em & %ort ligule4 ,p4 prat5sis diff]s 9 its creep+ /olons1 %ort ligule & m num]\s #d-e fl[]s1 & 9 ! indi/9ct n]ves ( ! palea4 ,spikelets #d-f fl[]$4 ,annuals1 ab\t six in*es high1 ) relatively l>ge & num]\s spikelets = s small a panicle4 ,no 8web0 at ! base ( ! pale4 ,p4 annua1 ,l4 ,?is is ! small grass s common z a we$ on road-sides & on lawns1 fl[]+ ev5 9 w9t]4 ,= o!r annual species ( ,poa--,p4 rigida1 ,p4 loliacea & ,p4 procumb5s--see note p4 #ajh & p4 #aaa4 ,p]5nials4 ,) creep+ /olons4 x ,/ems & leaf-%ea?s flatt5$4 ,panicle some:at close & secund1 "s spikelets be+ ne>ly sessile4 ,p4 compressa1 ,l4 xx ,/ems & leaf-%ea?s t]ete4 ,panicle spread+ widely4 ,p4 prat5sis1 ,l4 ,)\t creep+ /olons4 ,/ems & panicle sl5d]1 r\nd4 ,a %ade-plant4 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,l4 ,! r>] species ( ,poa are ,p4 bulbosa ) ! /ems swoll5 bel[2 ,p4 alp9a1 also slightly bulb\s & (t5 vivip>\s2 ,p4 laxa an alli$ ,highl& species2 & ,p4 di/ans a m>itime =m alli$ to ,p4 m>itima 7see p4 #aaa74 9999 ,spikelets ) awns or ) %>p t]m9al po9ts 7awn-po9ts7 to ! glumes or pale4 ,9 "s species & v>ieties ( ,fe/uca awns are n evid5t 7see p4 #aaf73 ! h>d pale simply end 9 acute or acum9ate po9ts1 b ^! are %>p & 9 mo/ cases mu* m s ?an 9 any ,poa4 ,:5 n s evid5t1 ! /ud5t w probably ?9k ! specim5 is a ,poa & ! flora mu/ be consult$4 ,! difficulty is mo/ likely to occur ) v>ieties ( ,f4 ov9a & ,f4 elatior3 9 ! =m] ! leaves are n>r[]1 setace\s & /iff] ?an 9 any ,poa4 ,! ribb+ ( ! leaf1 ! ligule1 & o!r *>act]s ( ! vegetative organs 7see pp4 #de & #ej7 w help 9 ^! d\btful cases4 ,awns t]m9al1 or sub-t]m9al2 (t5 v %ort or ne>ly obsolete & ! pale m]ely drawn out at ! tips to a h>d %>p awn-po9t4 ,awns long & sub-t]m9al1 ins]t$ betwe5 ! tee? ( ! cleft apex ( ! pale4 ,%ea?s entire4 ,panicle usually nodd+4 ,bromus4 ,) ! exception ( ,fe/uca ,myurus & "o or two o!r r>e ,fescues ) setace\s leaves1 ,hordeum & ,bra*ypodium are ! only o!r g5]a ) awns mu* resembl+ ! ,bromes4 ,! =m] has a totally diff]5t infloresc5ce1 & 9 ! latt] ! spikelets are practically sessile 7see p4 #ajg74 ,spikelets %ort & fat1 & relatively heavy4 ,pale broad & di/9ctly n]v$4 ,awns f9e1 ab\t z long z ! pale4 ,b4 arv5sis1 ,l4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties1 ( :i* ,b4 secal9us ) a loos] panicle1 & ,b4 mollis ) a m compact panicle & v d[ny1 are ! *ief4 ,spikelets lanceolate & ) conspicu\s awns4 ,n]ves on ! pale obsolete4 x ,panicle conspicu\sly loose & droop+ & awns long1 pale n>r[ & elongat$4 z ,%ea?s ) long (t5 reflex$ hairs4 ,a %ade-grass ov] ?ree feet high4 ,b4 asp]1 ,mull4 zz ,%ea?s d[ny4 ,a we$ ( op5 l&s & h$ges1 two feet or less4 ,b4 /]ilis1 ,l4 ,b4 giganteus is r>] ?an ,b4 asp] & has small] spikelets & m sl5d] awns4 ,b4 maximus & ,b4 madrit5sis are r>e4 ,awns1 if pres5t1 m]ely ! po9ts ( ! pale1 v %ort or obsolete4 ,%ea?s split3 ligule %ort4 ,fe/uca4 ,leaves flatt5$4 ,panicle some:at close4 ,(t5 tall grasses4 z ,mead[-grass1 ) #e-f to a doz5 or m fl[]s 9 ! spikelet4 ,f4 elatior1 ,l4 zz ,%ade-grass1 ) #d-e fl[]s only 9 ! spikelet4 ,f4 sylvatica1 ,vill4 ,leaves subulate or setace\s1 at lea/ bel[4 ,m\nta9 pa/ure grass1 usually small4 ,f4 ov9a4 ,conc]n+ difficulties betwe5 ,poa & ! awnless =ms ( ,fe/uca1 see p4 #aad4 ,f4 elatior & ,f4 sylvatica are practically awnless1 ! awn-po9ts be+ m]ely ! acum9ate tips ( ! pale4 ,! long-awn$ species ( ,fe/uca h compact /iff panicles & n>r[ or setace\s leaves 7see p4 #aaa74 ,reg>d+ v>ieties ( ,f4 ov9a1 see p4 #aab4 ,awns1 twi/$ bel[ & b5t above1 ins]t$ into ! middle ( ! back ( ! bifid palea or bel[ x4 ,awns long & conspicu\sly project+ f ! spikelet1 :i* is gap+ & conta9s #c-e fl[]s4 ,leaves flat4 ,av5a4 ,tall annual corn-we$1 ) l>ge 7#ah-bj mm47 heavy1 p5d5t1 hairy spikelets on ! long sl5d] /alks ( ! lax op5 panicle4 ,leaves glabr\s4 ,a4 fatua1 ,l4 ,?is is ! s-call$ ,wild ,oat1 & ! type ( ?is gr\p4 ,tuft$ p]5nials ) spikelets m or less erect on /iff] /alks1 ! panicle !re=e less op54 z ,panicle ne>ly simple2 spikelets silv]y or r$di%1 #ab-ae mm4 long4 ,a4 prat5sis1 ,l4 zz ,panicle bran*$ b n v op52 spikelets gli/5+ yell[ & only #e-f mm4 long4 ,a4 flavesc5s1 ,l4 ,!re is no o!r g5us closely resembl+ ,av5a4 ,! sup]ficial lik5ess ( "s ,bromes disappe>s at once on exam9ation4 ,! spikelets ( ,aira are mu* small]1 & ! leaves q diff]5t 7see bel[ & p4 #dg74 ,awns f9e & hair-l & n conspicu\sly protrud+ f ! spikelets2 ! latt] small1 #b-e mm4 ,fl[]s two 9 ea* spikelet4 ,aira4 ,co>se & tall tuft$ grass ) flatt5$1 h>%1 & conspicu\sly ribb$ leaves3 ! v %ort awns h>dly protrud+4 ,a4 cspitosa1 ,l4 ,no o!r grass c be confus$ ) ?is if ! v high ridges ( ! leaves are obs]v$ 7see p4 #dg74 ,small grasses ) setace\s or v n>r[ inroll$ leaves4 ,awns slightly protrud+4 x ,palea di/9ctly bifid at ! apex3 awn ne>ly twice its l5g?4 ,a v small grass ab\t six in*es high3 leaves subulate1 f9e & %ort4 ,a4 c>yophyllea1 ,l4 xx ,pale almo/ imp]ceptibly bid5tate3 awn n mu* long] ?an palea4 ,ab\t #ab-ah in*es high3 leaves inroll$4 ,a4 flexuosa1 ,l4 ,o!r species ( ,aira1 ) m cond5s$ infloresc5ces1 are dealt ) on p4 #aab4 ,agro/is is di/+ui%$ by ! leaves & "o-fl[]$ spikelets 7see p4 #ajd74 ,poa & ,catabrosa h no awns4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,fruit ,,& ,,se$4 ,! /igma ( an ord9>y grass consi/s ( two div>icat+ plume-l /ructures compos$ ( ?9-wall$ cells4 ,:5 ! pale op5 ^! /igmatic plumes protrude1 "o on ei!r side1 & readily cat* poll5 %$ f ! dangl+ /am5s & c>ri$ by ! w9d1 & s9ce ! poll5 ( ! same fl[] is usually %$ at a "t :5 ! /igmas ( _m neighb\r+ plants are mature1 !re is e opportunity = cross-f]tilisation4 7,fig4 #cc47 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 e4g4 ,an?oxan?um1 ,alopecurus1 ! fl[]s are prot]ogyn\s1 ! /igmatic plumes be+ ready = poll9ation "s "t be=e ! poll5 is %$ f ! an!rs ( ! same fl[]2 :]eas 9 mo/ ( our grasses ! poll5 beg9s to scatt] be=e ! /igmas are ready 7prot&r\s74 ,among exotic grasses1 _m are dici\s or monci\s--i4e4 ! fl[]s conta9 /am5s only or ov>y only1 on ea* plant1 or on diff]5t infloresc5ces ( ! same plant respectively--& ev5 9 our own ,holcus & ,arrh5a!rum ?is /ate ( affairs is p>tially repres5t$1 s9ce "o fl[] ( ! spikelet is male only4 ,9 "s grasses1 e4g4 ,rye1 h[ev]1 x appe>s improbable t cross-f]tilisation ev] occurs1 s9ce ! pale d n op51 & ! poll5 falls on to ! /igma direct2 & 9 ,le]sia & ! =eign ,amphic>pum ! spikelets are completely clei/ogam\s1 ^? ( ! latt] be+ on /alks close to ! gr\nd :i* pu% ! fl[]s into ! soil1 :]e poll9ation & fructification are accompli%$4 ,hybrid grasses are by no means uncommon4 ,to say no?+ ( ! num]\s cross-br$ ,:eats & ,b>leys1 artificial hybrids h be5 rais$ betwe5 ,:eat & ,rye4 ,9 ! ,maize an a/oni%+ numb] ( select$ cross-bre$s h be5 obta9$1 &1 among o!rs1 c]ta9 =ms 9 :i* ! se$s h a violet out] lay] & a sug>y endosp]m1 are f\nd to transmit ^! *>act]s to ! result+ se$ ( a v>iety :i* w\ld normally h produc$ se$ ) :ite out] lay]s & />*y endosp]m1 if ! poll5 ( ! =m] is us$ on ! /igma ( ! latt]4 ,su* direct influ5ces ( ! poll5 are t]m$ ,x5ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,poll5-gra9s adh]5t to ! papill ( ! /igma1 on :i* !y g]m9ate1 s5d+ ! poll5-tubes d[n betwe5 ! cells4 ,k]n]4 ab\t #ajj4 ,:5 ! poll5-gra91 hav+ adh]$ to ! hairy /igma1 has begun to g]m9ate1 ! result+ poll5-tube creeps d[n betwe5 ! cells ( ! /igma1 & h&s ov] its enclos$ nuclei to ! embryo-sac1 :]e f]tilisation ( ! egg-cell is accompli%$1 by ! fusion ( "o ( ! poll5 nuclei ) ! nucleus ( ! egg-cell4 ,z ! result+ embryo developes1 ! sac becomes fill$ ) endosp]m-cells *>g$ ) />*-gra9s or sug>1 & 9 ! ripe se$ ! embryo is always f\nd affix$ lat]ally & bel[ to ?is endosp]m--a po9t ( di/9ction f ,s$ges1 :]e ! embryo is buri$ 9 ! endosp]m4 ,! ripe se$ fills ! ov>y1 & its out] walls usually fuse ) ^? ( ! c>pel1 =m+ ! well-kn[n ,c>yopsis or 8gra940 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,longitud9al m$ian section ( ! c>yopsis ( a grass--e4g4 ,lolium 7 ab\t #ce74 p1 p]ic>p2 t1 atta*m5t to axis2 m1 position ( micropyle2 ,e1 endosp]m2 ,a1 its aleurone lay]2 l1 fold$ leaves ( plumule2 r1 radicle2 r1 second>y roots2 ,,rc1 root-cap2 s1 scutellum4 ,! d>k l9e e repres5ts ! surface :]e ! face ( ! scutellum is appli$ to ! endosp]m & :]e absorption ( ! latt] takes place4 ,if su* a 8gra90 is c>efully exam9$1 ?ree *ief p>ts are visible 9 addition to ! embryo4 7,fig4 #ch47 ,fir/ly1 we f9d on ! outside ! fus$ se$- & fruitcoats1 diff]+ 9 ! numb] ( lay]s & 9 ! microscopic *>act]s ( ! cells1 "s ( :i* *>act]s c be employ$ 9 diagnoses4 7,fig4 #ci47 ,secondly1 ! great mass ( ! 8gra90 int]nally is compos$ ( delicate cells fill$ 9 mo/ cases ) />*-gra9s1 ! sizes1 %apes & arrangem5t ( :i* c also be employ$ = diagnoses--e4g4 ! comp\nd gra9s ( ! ,av5e & ,fe/uce are diff]5t f ! simple polyh$ral or r\nd$ gra9s ( ! ,&ropogone & ,mayde1 & "s races ( ,maize h sug> & soluble />* in/ead ( gra9s ( ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,transv]se section 7highly magnifi$7 ?r\gh a gra9 ( ,bra*ypodium p9natum tak5 ab\t half-way up4 #a1 epid]mis2 #b1 p]ic>p2 #c1 rema9s ( ! true se$-coat2 #d1 vascul> bundle2 #e1 rema9s ( nucellus2 ,p1 epid]mis ( nucellus2 ,g1 aleurone lay]3 rem>kable 9 be+ sev]al cells ?ick2 ,e1 endosp]m4 ,h>z4 ,?irdly1 ! out]mo/ lay] or lay]s ( cells ( ! endosp]m are fill$ ) proteids1 & are kn[n z ! ,aleurone lay]4 7,fig4 #ch1 ,a47 ,! embryo consi/s ( ! fold$ embryonic leaves 9 bud 7plumule7 above1 :i* w gr[ up on g]m9ation z ! %oot or 8spe>10 ! %ort prim>y root 7radicle7 bel[1 ) 9 _m cases two or m second>y rootlets already %[+ 9 its tissues1 & f ! common 8coll>0 unit+ ^! a m or less prom95t %ield-%ap$ organ 7scutellum7 /&+ out lat]ally 9 contact ) ! endosp]m1 ! dissolv$ cont5ts ( :i* x absorbs on g]m9ation4 7,fig4 #ch1 s47 ,al?\gh typical grasses =m a c>yopsis z describ$1 exceptions occur4 ,9 ! exotic ,sporobolus1 ,eleus9e1 ,crypsis & ,heleo*loa ! fruit becomes truly dehisc5t1 ! se$ be+ loose 9 ! fruit1 & ! latt] op5s & all[s x to fall out2 & 9 _m ,bamboos ! se$ is loose 9 ! a*5e1 :ile 9 a few cases--e4g4 ,melocanna--! fruit is fle%y & may be z big z a walnut4 ,return+ to ! typical grasses4 ,:5 ! fruit rip5s 9 ! spikelet1 sev]al ev5ts may happ54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,triodia decumb5s4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 #f4 ,note ! basal hair-tuft & ra*illa1 & ! ciliate1 too!d out] palea ) a %ort awn-po9t1 enclos+ ! inn] m delicate palea4 ,betwe5 ! two lies ! c>yopsis4 ,nobbe4 ,9 mo/ ( our grasses ! c>yopsis comes away trapp$ betwe5 its two pale1 & ! latt] br+ away ) !m ! small piece ( ! axis ( ! spikelet on :i* !y /&3 ?is bit ( axis--! ra*illa--(t5 af=ds valuable *>act]s 9 diagnosis4 7,fig4 #da47 ,x is ! pair ( pale enclos+ _! c>yopsis :i* goes by ! "n ( 8se$0 9 mo/ ( our grasses4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,9 a few cases1 h[ev]1 e4g4 ,panicum1 ! spikelet comes away z a :ole1 s t "h ! 8se$0 consi/s ( ! glumes1 enclos+ "o1 two or m pairs ( pale ) _! conta9$ c>yopses4 ,ev5 among our native grasses1 h[ev]1 cases occur :]e ! sep>ation takes place bel[ "s ( ! glumes1 & s ! 8se$10 z met ) 9 samples1 consi/s ( glumes z well z enclos$ pale & c>yopsis--e4g4 ,an?oxan?um1 ,alopecurus1 c4--& "s c>e is necess>y 9 exam9+ grass 8se$0 9 ^! circum/ances 7see p4 #acd74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,diagram ( a spikelet ( a grass--e4g4 ,fe/uca--compris+ six matur$ fl[]s & _! pale1 embrac$ by ! two glumes 7g#a;g#b7 at ! mom5t ( dis>ticulation z ! fruits rip54 ,! small piece ( axis 7a7 left atta*$ to ea* segm5t is ! ra*illa ,r4 ,at p#b ! tip ( ! inn] palea is visible protrud+ f ! out] "o p#a3 9 ! re/ x is /ill enclos$ 9 ! latt]4 ,int]e/+ biological adaptations are met ) 9 ! di/ribution ( grass 8se$s40 ,! v small & light fruits ( ,agro/is easily fall & are scatt]$ by ! w9d1 b 9 _m cases ! glumes 7,holcus7 or pale 7,briza7 are exp&$ & s]ve z 8w+s0 (f]+ ext5sive surfaces to ! w9d4 ,9 ,arundo1 ,calamagro/is1 ,aira1 c41 f9e silky hairs atta*$ to ! ra*illa s]ve a simil> function1 rem9d+ u ( ! coma ( true se$s & ! pappus ( ,composites4 ,9 ,hordeum jubatum ( ! prairies1 ! axis breaks up & ! dis>ticulat$ portions ) _! atta*$ tufts ( fruits are bl[n away by ! w9d1 & some?+ simil> occurs 9 our own ,h4 mur9um to a less ext5t4 ,9 ! exotic ,sp9ifex :ole heads ( fruits are ?us deta*$ & bl[n ov] ! s&s z 8tumble we$s40 ,9 ,/ipa p5nata we h an example ( p]haps ! mo/ complex ( all su* adaptations3 ! exce$+ly long awn t]m9at+ ! palea is plumose at ! upp] end & twi/$ bel[1 & ! h>d %>p ra*illa at ! base ( ! fruit is furni%$ ) %ort1 /iff hairs direct$ upw>ds4 ,! plum$ awn s]ves z a w9d surface1 ! :ole fruit fly+ l an arr[ ?r\gh ! air4 ,! /iff hairs bel[ s]ve to fix ! l[] end betwe5 p>ticles ( soil1 & by _! alt]nate dry+ & wett+1 ! w>p+ ( ^! & ( ! twi/+ & untwi/+ awn drives ! %>p base into ! soil4 7,fig4 #db47 ,simil> me*anisms exi/ 9 ,av5a & o!rs4 ,^! bri/les & awns also subs]ve dissem9ation 9 o!r ways1 especially by cl++ to ! wool & fur ( %eep & o!r animals1 & cases occur :]e ! twi/+ awns & reflex$ hairs on ! h>d po9t$ fruit-base drive ! latt] into ! bodies ( %eep ) fatal effects--e4g4 ,/ipa capillata 9 ,russia1 ,s4 sp>tea 9 ,am]ica1 ,ari/ida hygrometrica 9 ,new ,zeal&1 ,het]opogon contortus 9 ,new ,cal$onia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,awn$ fruit ( ,/ipa4 ,! reflex$ /iff hairs & h>d po9t fav\r p5etration into ! soil4 ,! long twi/$ awn p]=ms hygroscopic movem5ts1 & its t]m9al plume (f]s surface to ! w9d4 ,lubbock4 ,! driv+ action ( ev5 small reflex$ asp]ities on awns is well illu/rat$ by ! fruits ( ,hordeum1 :i* are (t5 made by *ildr5 to creep up ! sleeve4 ,:5 we come to exam9e ! ext]nal features ( ! 8se$s0 ( grasses--usually ! c>yopsis enclos$ 9 "o or m pale1 b sometimes 9 glumes z well--! foll[+ diagno/ic *>act]s are ( importance4 ,! size v>ies f l5g?s ( #b mm4 or less 7,poa1 ,aira7 7,figs4 #dc1 #dd7 to #ae-bj mm4 or m 7,arrh5a!rum7 7,fig4 #dg7 & di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 ! v>i\s *>act]s ( ! c>yopsis devoid ( its cov]+s 7pale1 glumes7 & su* z really belong to ! latt]4 ,! c>yopsis prop] may be %ort & /\t & devoid ( a groove--8,millet-se$0 type 7,fig4 #de7--;b is (t5] elongat$1 l a gra9 ( ,:eat1 & !n has ! *>act]i/ic longitud9al groove on ! face opposite t :]e ! embryo is situat$ 7,fig4 #df74 ,details ( %ape--e4g4 cyl9droid1 fusi=m1 flatt5$1 c4--are also ( diagno/ic value4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,poa annua4 d1 ! 8se$10 nat4 size2 a & b1 ditto1 ab\t #g2 c1 c>yopsis1 natural size 7above7 & ab\t #g4 ,note ! ribs & silky keel4 ,no 8web40 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #ed-ef4 ,9 _m cases ! 8se$10 consi/+ ( ! c>yopsis closely compress$ betwe5 ! pale1 is boat-%ap$1 e4g4 ,lolium p]5ne1 ,fe/uca elatior4 ,if ?is 8boat0 is long & n>r[ x may be t]m$ b>ge-%ap$1 e4g4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum1 c4 7,figs4 #ga1 #gb73 if %ort1 broad1 & op5 or %all[1 ! t]m coracle-%ap$ seems to apply1 e4g4 ,bromus arv5sis 7,fig4 #gc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,! m9ute 8se$0 7nat4 size7 is se5 to ! "r1 & ! c>yopsis 7nat4 size7 to ! left ( c1 ! c>yopsis1 #h4 a & b1 ! 8se$10 #aj4 ,! basal awn is ab\t z long z ! palea1 & ! ra*illa is v hairy4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,phleum prat5se4 ,millet-se$ type4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 ab\t #g2 d1 c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 c1 ditto1 #g4 ,! r\nd$ c>yopsis 9 b is only loosely cov]$ by "o palea4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,boat-%ap$ 8se$0 ( ,glyc]ia fluitans4 a1 nat4 size2 b & c1 ab\t #f4 d1 c>yopsis1 ab\t #aj4 ,note ! #e-g /rong n]ves1 & ! sl5d] cyl9drical ra*illa4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #eg & #eh4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum4 ,! 8d\ble se$0 7a & b7 consi/s ( two pairs ( pale ) _! enclosures4 ,! l[] pair 77 are devoid ( fruit1 & ! out] palea has a long twi/$ & kne$ basal awn3 ! upp] pair 77 enclose ! fruit1 & ! palea has a %ort /raight awn4 ,note ! /iff basal hairs4 a1 nat4 size2 b1 ab\t #f2 c1 c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 d1 ditto1 #f4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,lolium temul5tum4 ,type ( boat-%ap$ 8se$0 ) sub-t]m9al awn aris+ f betwe5 two tee?4 c1 8se$10 nat4 size2 a & b1 ditto1 #f4 ,note ! l>ge smoo? ra*illa4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,fur!r important di/9ctive *>act]s are obta9$ f ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( awns1 & ! peculi>ities--l5g?1 /iffness1 c4--( ! latt]4 ,! awns may be /raight1 hook$1 or kne$ 7i4e4 %>ply b5t72 twi/$ or n2 smoo? or s]rulate4 ,!y may be ins]t$ at ! base or ne> ! middle ( ! back ( ! inve/+ palea1 or glume1 or ne> its apex1 z indicat$ by ! t]ms basal1 dorsal1 sub-t]m9al 7see ,figs4 #dg-ej74 ,"s difficulty arises 9 connection ) t]m9al awns4 ,9 "s cases !re is a true awn--i4e4 a di/9ct bri/le or hair--at ! apex ( ! palea1 & app>5tly cont9u+ its sub/ance )\t int]ruption2 b 9 mo/ in/ances close exam9ation %[s t ?is awn arises f betwe5 two m9ute tee?1 & is really ins]t$ at ! back ( ! slight depression betwe5 !m--e4g4 ,lolium temul5tum 7,fig4 #dh71 ,bra*ypodium p9natum 7,fig4 #gg71 c4 ,9 ano!r class ( cases ! awn appe>s to be really ! prolongation ( ! palea--e4g4 ,n>dus 7,fig4 #ha71 ,fe/uca ,myurus 7,fig4 #hj71 c4--& :5 x runs out into a di/9ct bri/le we may speak ( a t]m9al awn )\t /ay+ to discuss :e!r or no x is really t]m9al 9 developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,agro/is ,spicav5ti4 c1 8se$10 nat4 size2 a & b1 ditto1 ab\t #i4 ,! long sl5d] awn is ins]t$ bel[ ! bifid tip ( ! palea4 ,nobbe4 ,9 ,arundo1 ,cynosurus & "s ,fescues1 :]e ! palea tap]s (f into a /iff long po9t1 ,i h n spok5 ( x z an awn1 b h describ$ ! palea z tap]+ into a %>p po9t 7awn-po9t74 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! di/9ction is some:at artificial1 b x has its advantages 9 practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,bromus /]ilis4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 ab\t #b4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #hj & #ha4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,fe/uca sylvatica4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 #h4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,! ra*illa 7,fig4 #da71 :5 pres5t1 (t5 af=ds good *>act]s1 & 9 a few cases is reli$ on = ! di/9ction ( 8se$s0 o!rwise mu* alike--e4g4 ,lolium p]5ne & ,fe/uca elatior2 & simil>ly ) ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( hairs 7,digraphis1 ,arundo1 c47 or 8web0 7,poa7 at ! base ( ! 8se$40 7,figs4 #ee1 #fi47 ,on g]m9ation ! prim>y root ( ! embryo usually em]ges & at once plunges into ! soil1 b soon ceases to gr[1 & ! second>y roots 7& subsequ5tly adv5titi\s rootlets f ! l[] int]nodes7 soon give ! peculi> fibr\s "* s well kn[n 9 grass-roots4 ,! plumule ei!r pu%es out f ! same end ( ! c>yopsis z ! root 7e4g4 ,:eat1 ,rye7 or drives its way betwe5 ! coats to ! opposite end 7e4g4 ,b>ley7 & appe>s z a po9t$ cyl9d] ( roll$ leaves 7! 8spe>07 ! out]mo/ ( :i* is %ea? only1 no lam9a be+ develop$4 ,z ,d>w9 %[$1 ! po9t$ apex ( su* a plumule is h>d5$1 facilitat+ ! pi]c+ ( ! soil above1 & :5 ! blade atta9s ! op5 air x p]=ms spiral movem5ts dur+ gr[?1 indicat+ t simil> attempts to rock f side to side h aid$ ! plumule 9 =c+ its way ?r\gh ! soil4 ,x has also be5 %[n t ! apices ( roots & plumules are s5sitive to diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 ( light-int5sity1 moi/ure & contact1 all ( :i* aid ! se$l+ 9 e/abli%+ its position 9 ! soil & 9 lib]at+ ! 8spe>40 ,= p>ticul>s ! /ud5t %\ld read ,d>w9's ,p[] ( ,movem5t 9 ,plants4 ,) reg>d to ! e/abli%$ se$l+s ( grasses1 _m int]e/+ details ( /ructure are to be f\nd 9 !m4 ,i h n suffici5t mat]ial to draw up a diagno/ic arrangem5t ( grass-se$l+s1 b x is evid5t t su* c\ld be done4 ,x may be useful to illu/rate ?is by ! foll[+ tabul> view ( ! *>act]s ( ! l>g] se$l+s ( our common c]eals1 9 "p adapt$ f ,vesque & ,p]cival2 ?\gh ,i f9d t "s v>iations may occur1 especially 9 ! developm5t ( ! auricles4 ,,se$l+s4 ,i4 ,fir/ exp&$ a]ial leaves broad1 bright gre51 ) #ah-bd ribs4 ,b>ley4 ,! blade t5ds to twi/ to ! left3 auricles1 :5 well develop$1 long1 po9t$1 & claw-l1 embrac+ ! glabr\s %ea? 9 front4 ,ligule long1 membran\s1 po9t$ & irregul>ly too!d4 ,! plumule em]ges at ! upp] end ( ! gra91 & ! embryo has #e-f second>y roots4 ,,ii4 ,fir/ a]ial leaves n>r[]1 ) n m ?an #aa-ac ribs4 ,a4 ,ligule long1 r\nd$ & too!d4 ,:eat4 ,! blade t5ds to twi/ to ! left3 auricles fili=m & embrace ! d5sely pubesc5t %ea?4 ,leaves gre54 ,embryo ) ?ree roots4 ,b4 ,ligule %ort & too!d4 ,leaves ) a r$di% ca/4 7a7 ,blade & %ea? s(tly hairy1 ! latt] ) scatt]$ long hairs1 ! =m] t5d+ to twi/ to ! left4 ,rye4 ,! fir/ leaf-%ea? purple4 ,auricle-claws m triangul> & small] ?an ^? ( :eat1 & ! accompany+ bri/les are few] & %ort]4 ,embryonic roots f\r4 7b7 ,blade & %ea? glabr\s or m]ely ciliate or silky1 ! =m] t5d+ to twi/ to ! "r4 ,oat4 ,auricles fili=m4 ,! plumule em]ges above4 ,! embryo has ?ree roots4 ,a curi\s ph5om5on is obs]v$ 9 "s grasses gr[+ 9 high latitudes1 or m\nta9\s regions1 or 9 moi/ situations4 ,! fl[]s1 or ev5 entire spikelets1 gr[ out into m9ute leafy buds1 ) rudim5t>y roots at ! base1 & fall (f l ! bulbils ( o!r monocotyl$ons1 tak+ root directly 9 ! damp soil4 ,! ph5om5on mu/ be look$ ^u z a case ( apogamy1 s9ce ! developm5t ( sexual organs is entirely pass$ ov]2 ! p>ts :i* w\ld normally h become ov>y & /am5s be+ trans=m$ into leaves4 ,9 "s species or v>ieties--e4g4 ,poa alp9a1 ,fe/uca ov9a--?is vivip>\s condition may coexi/ ) normal fl[]s & spikelets2 9 o!rs--e4g4 ,poa laxa1 v>4 /ricta--only ! vivip>\s /ate occurs4 ,9 ! foll[+ arrangem5t ! /ud5t %\ld note t ! t]ms 8,se$0 & 8,fruit0 are us$ 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! f>m] & se$sman3 by ! =m] is meant ! 8se$0 z x comes 9 samples into ! m>ket1 :5 ! true fruit or gra9 7,c>yopsis7 is almo/ inv>iably inve/$ by adh]5t 8*aff0--i4e4 pale or glumes or bo?4 ,:5 ! ^w ,c>yopsis is employ$1 ,i mean x /rictly 9 ! botanical s5se expla9$ above4 ,9 ,hordeum1 = example1 we nev] see ! true fruit1 ! gra9 consi/+ ( ! c>yopsis ) pale s closely adh]5t to x1 t we are apt to take !m z "p ( ! gra9 itself4 ,! true se$1 9 ! /rict botanical s5se1 is nev] se5 z a naturally sep>ate organ 9 our native grasses2 &1 z already expla9$1 only v few exotic grasses ev] %$ x--e4g4 ,sporobolus4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,classification ,,( ,,grasses ,,by ,,! 8,,se$s0 7,,gra9s74 ,i4 8,se$0 r\nd$ 7,millet-se$#ab type74 ,c>yopsis ovoid or sub-globose1 devoid ( di/9ct groove1 & di/5d+ ! awnless pale1 or fall+ out free4 ,a4 ,glumes cuspidate1 8fruit0 yell[i%4 ,phleum prat5se4 ,! /ud5t %\ld famili>ise himself ) ! 8se$0 ( ,phleum prat5se1 z a type1 & an important grass easily obta9$ pure1 b sometimes ) m9ute r\nd se$s ( we$s int]mix$4 ,phleum prat5se1 ,l4 7,fig4 #de74 ,palea #bc mm4 long1 five-ribb$1 ) a %ort po9t1 delicate b h>d1 smoo?1 ) a silv]y lu/re4 ,inn] pale two-n]v$4 ,closely inve/+ ! yell[-br[n c>yopsis1 :i* easily falls out & is ovoid-acute1 ab\t #b mm4 long by #a broad1 & f9ely punctate4 ,! mu* r>] ,p4 ar5>ium & ! v r>e ,p4 ,bhm]i & ,p4 asp]um also come "h4 ,phleum is n easily conf\nd$ ) any o!r ( our grasses1 & ,briza & ,glyc]ia are almo/ ! only o!r common grasses ( ab\t ! same size ( :i* ! c>yopsis (t5 falls free f ! palea 78nak$ fruits074 ,glyc]ia is long] & corn-%ap$1 & ,briza usually l>g]4 ,an?oxan?um & ,phal>is are easily di/+ui%$4 ,agro/is is small] & 8corn-%ap$40 ,c]ta9 species ( ,panicum pres5t resemblances1 b ! envelop+ pale1 c4 are v diff]5t4 ,melica also occurs z 8nak$ fruits10 b is r>ely se51 & its col\r & brilliant lu/re di/+ui% x4 ,b4 ,glumes n cuspidate4 8,fruit0 n yell[4 7a7 8,fruit0 :ite1 ow+ to ! closely inve/+ palea4 ,milium effusum4 ,a common grass1 b n (t5 met ) 9 8se$0 grasses4 ,x is eag]ly eat5 by birds4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #eb74 ,palea ab\t #c mm4 long1 ) few n]ves1 closely inve/+ ! c>yopsis3 ! se$ is ellipsoid-acute1 slightly compress$1 & #bb-bg mm4 long4 ,! inn] pale becomes h>d & %9es l porcela94 7b7 8,fruit0 d>k-br[n %9+2 slightly flatt5$ & groov$4 ,melica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,milium effusum4 8,se$10 a1 nat4 size2 b & c1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,melica is r>ely met ) z 8se$40 ,:5 x is1 x has to be di/+ui%$ f ! o!r 8,millet-se$0 types :i* readily fall z nak$ fruits--see ,phleum1 ,milium1 c4 ,agro/is1 ,glyc]ia & o!r corn-%ap$ 8se$s0 are easily di/+ui%$4 ,melica nutans1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ec74 8,se$0 coracle-%ap$4 ,palea broad1 p>*m5t-l1 elliptic convex1 #e-f mm4 long1 #e-g n]v$ & keel$1 awnless1 loose1 purpli%4 ,c>yopsis ellipsoid-acute1 #b-c mm4 long1 & easily sep>at+1 wr9kl$1 d>k %9+ br[n z if lacqu]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,coracle-%ap$ 8se$0 ( ,melica nutans1 %[+ ! broad1 ribb$ & keel$ palea 7c71 & small ra*illa 7d74 a1 ! 8se$10 nat4 size2 c & d1 ditto1 #h2 b1 ! c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 e & f1 ditto1 #aj4 ,nobbe4 ,m4 uniflora1 ,retz4 is common] & v simil>1 b nei!r is (t5 met ) 9 8se$0 grass1 except z impurities among ,fescues4 ,! r>e ,panicum ,crus-galli & allies1 & ! rice-l ,le]sia oryzoides z well z ,cynodon ,dactylon1 come "h4 ,panicums may occur 9 grass 8se$0 f ,am]ica3 ,bur*>d describes !m 9 detail4 ,,ii4 8,se$0 long 7,corn & ,b>ley type74 ,c>yopsis oblong or flatt5$1 usually trapp$ betwe5 ! boat-%ap$ pale3 if o!rwise1 ) an awn4 ,a4 8,se$0 awnless4 ,!re may be a %ort %>p po9t to ! palea 7mucronate71 b no prom95t hair-or bri/le-awn exce$+ half ! l5g? ( ! palea4 7a7 ,a 8web0 or tuft ( hairs at ! base or on ! ra*illa4 7#a7 ,hairs ( basal tuft silky & erect4 99 ,p5cil ( hairs z long z palea or long]4 ,calamagro/is lanceolata1 ,ro?4 ,palea #c mm4 long1 ?91 two-too!d & ) a %ort bri/le at ! apex4 ,o!r species ( ,calamagro/is are awn$4 ,none occurs z an ord9>y impurity 9 8se$40 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,l4 ,palea n>r[ & long1 #aj-aa mm41 delicate1 entire1 tap]+ to an acum9ate po9t1 violet1 ?ree-n]v$1 smoo?4 ,c>yopsis ab\t #b mm4 ,a p5cil ( long silky hairs on ! ra*illa4 ,! long acum9ate po9t is almo/ an awn4 ,calamagro/is also has long basal hairs3 bo? are useless grasses agriculturally4 ,= ,glyc]ia see note1 p4 #adf4 ,av5a1 ,aira & ,psamma are easily di/+ui%$4 9999 ,p5cil ( hairs %ort4 ,palea mucronate1 #aa-ab mm4 long3 c>yopsis #de mm4 ,psamma ar5>ia4 ,digraphis diff]s 9 ! /\t c>yopsis1 small] size1 d\ble hair-tuft4 ,arundo has a long po9t$ palea & long silky basal hairs & is l>g]4 ,psamma ar5>ia1 ,beauv4 ,palea #aae mm4 ovate-lanceolate1 pap]y1 #d-e n]v$1 z roll$ r\nd ! fruit ab\t #ac mm4 diamet]1 yell[1 & ) a small tuft ( /iff f9e hairs at ! base4 ,m]e trace ( awn1 sub-t]m9al4 ,fruit #d-e mm4 long1 obovate1 pale-br[n4 ,a %ore-grass1 n (t5 se5 z 8se$03 m valuable z a s&-b9d] ?an z fodd]1 ?\gh ! "y %oots are graz$4 ,palea acum9ate1 & only ab\t #d mm4 long3 c>yopsis #ad mm4 ,digraphis arund9acea4 ,a ,f5-grass1 b co>se & n 9 use except ! "y gr[?1 & = ?at*+4 ,digraphis arund9acea1 ,tr94 ,pale ovate-lanceolate1 n]veless & awnless1 b silky ) d\ble basal hair-tuft1 & poli%$ at ! base2 smoo?1 h>d & %9+1 & closely inve/+ ! c>yopsis :i* has no groove4 ,d>k grey 9 col\r4 ,! glumes are )\t awns or w+s1 & are left beh9d4 ,! alli$ ,phal>is can>i5sis has w+-l keels to ! glumes4 ,triodia also comes into ?is gr\p1 ) %ort basal hairs2 b its broad ciliate palea1 #f mm4 long1 has a %ort mucronate po9t betwe5 two tee? 7,fig4 #dj74 7#b7 ,hairs at ! base =m+ a fluffy 8web40 ,pale ?91 #b-c mm4 long4 ,poa prat5sis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,! 8se$s0 ( ,poa prop] are ne>ly all small--n m ?an #c-d mm41 m or less lanceolate1 ) t\gh1 keel$ glumes1 & :5 8webb$0 t5d to adh]e toge!r z if /uck ) cobweb4 ,! keel$ glumes give !m an angul> appe>ance--triangul> 9 section--& make !m t5d to lie on ! side4 ,ra*illa evid5t4 ,n]ves ( pale di/9ct4 ,poa prat5sis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ee74 8,se$0 #b-c mm4 long1 br[ni%3 c>yopsis ab\t #a-ae mm4 ,out] palea acute1 indi/9ctly #c-e n]v$1 edges & keel1 silky2 m>g9s ov]lapp+ ! hyal9e inn] palea4 ,! 8web0 looks l hyph ( a m\ld4 ,c>yopsis ellipsoid-acute1 ) traces ( ! /igma4 ,x falls easily4 ,no di/9ct groove1 section some:at triangul>4 ,ra*illa truncate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,poa nemoralis4 c1 ! m9ute 8se$0 7to ! "r7 & c>yopsis 7to ! left7 nat4 size4 a1 ! 8se$10 #h2 b1 ! c>yopsis1 #h4 ,traces ( a basal 8web10 n %[n "h1 occasionally occur4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,poa prat5sis4 ,type ( a 8webb$ se$40 a1 8se$10 ab\t #g2 b1 c>yopsis 7inv]t$71 #g4 ,betwe5 are ! same1 nat4 size4 ,note ! n]ves on ! palea & ! conspicu\s 8web0 at ! base a4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,poa trivialis4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size & #h2 b1 c>yopsis1 nat4 size & #g4 ,note ! conspicu\s 8web40 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 ,palea obtuse1 ne>ly glabr\s & n]veless1 or fa9tly #c-e n]v$ & ) a fa9t web4 ,x is close to ,p4 prat5sis4 ,poa trivialis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ef74 8,se$0 #b-be mm41 & ) a blui% or bronz$ ca/4 ,c>yopsis #a-ae mm4 ,palea acute1 di/9ctly five-ribb$1 glabr\s1 ! m>g9 sc>cely ov]lapp+4 ,c>yopsis groov$1 blunt & m tightly held 9 ! palea4 ,p4 trivialis diff]s f ,p4 prat5sis *iefly 9 ! di/9ct ribs & smoo!r palea1 groov$ c>yopsis1 & blu] hue4 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,l41 h>dly diff]s f ,p4 trivialis1 b ! pale are sub-acute1 n]ves obsolete1 & sc>cely hyal9e at ! m>g9s4 ,! 8se$0 is %ort] & m acute1 & ! col\r less pron\nc$1 & ) h>dly a trace ( hairs 7,fig4 #ed74 ,:5 ! basal hairs are abs5t ?is %\ld g ) ,p4 annua1 c4 7see p4 #adf74 ,x is practically impossible to di/+ui% ^! species by ! 8se$40 ,c>e is necess>y to di/+ui% ,kl]ia1 :i* is some:at l>g] 9 size1 keel$1 compress$ & n]v$ simil>ly1 b is m po9t$ & curv$ & pal] yell[i% :ite 9 col\r4 ,h>d & devoid ( web or hairs4 ,aira is di/+ui%$ by ! awn3 ,agro/is by ! v diff]5t pale & c>yopsis4 ,! o!r ,poas are devoid ( web1 ?\gh !y may h hairs bel[1 & require v c>eful exam9ation4 ,! :ole gr\p is excessively difficult to deal ) 9 8se$10 & a special /udy ( x is ne$$1 s9ce sev]al species are important1 & x =ms a type4 b ,no web or p5cil ( hairs bel[ ! 8se$40 7#a7 ,apex ( palea r\nd$1 blunt1 not*$1 or at mo/ bluntly po9t$1 b ) no trace ( awn-or bri/le-tip4 99 ,palea inflat$1 r\nd-back$ & some:at w+$1 membran\s4 ,briza m$ia4 ,b4 m9or4 ,briza m$ia1 ,l4 ,pale blunt1 #be-c mm41 )\t lat]al projections1 m>k$ly convex--almo/ conduplicate2 n]ves sev]al4 ,c>yopsis ovoid1 #ae-be mm41 d>k br[n4 ,sometimes call$ a good grass1 b meagre & only f\nd 9 poor mead[s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x %\ld p]haps g ) ! 8,millet-se$0 type & %\ld be comp>$ ) ,phleum1 ,melica1 ,panicum1 c4 8,se$0 seldom met )4 ,b4 m9or is small]4 9999 ,pale n inflat$ or w+$4 ,pale broad1 flat & truncate1 prom95tly ?ree-ribb$4 ,c>yopsis #b mm4 long4 ,catabrosa aquatica1 ,beauv4 ,cattle l x1 b x only gr[s 9 dit*es c4 9 wat]-mead[s3 di/9ction f ,glyc]ia aquatica easy if ! pale are exam9$4 ,pale acute or sub-acute1 boat-%ap$4 ,pale & 8se$0 at lea/ #f-h mm4 long4 ,ra*illa flatt5$ or angul>1 & tap]+ bel[4 ,lolium p]5ne4 ,occasionally awn$1 & !n less easily di/+ui%$ f ,l4 temul5tum4 ,"o ( our mo/ valuable grasses4 ,x =ms a di/9ct type ( boat-%ap$ 8se$s40 ,lolium p]5ne1 ,l4 7,fig4 #eg74 ,palea di/9ctly five-ribb$1 glabr\s1 oblong-lanceolate1 obtuse or sub-acute1 awnless1 ab\t #g mm4 long4 ,m>g9s membran\s4 ,inn] palea ne>ly z long1 delicate1 ciliate4 ,ra*illa %ort1 flatt5$ & angul>1 tap]+ bel[ 7see ,fe/uca elatior74 ,c>yopsis ab\t #ce mm4 long1 obovate1 yell[i% br[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,lolium p]5ne ) typical boat-%ap$ 8se$40 a1 natural size2 b & c1 ab\t #h4 d1 c>yopsis1 #h4 ,! ra*illa1 9 c1 is broad] upw>ds & flatt] ?an 9 ,fig4 #eh4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,fe/uca elatior1 v>4 prat5sis4 ,lett]+ & sizes z 9 ,fig4 #eg3 comp>e ! m cyl9drical & sl5d] ra*illa4 ,nobbe4 ,al?\gh ,bromus mollis1 ,holcus lanatus1 c4 occur z impurities1 !y are easily di/+ui%$3 ! real difficulties are ) ,fe/uca elatior & ,f4 prat5sis4 ,ra*illa cyl9drical4 ,fe/uca elatior4 ,?is is an important grass1 & %\ld be ?or\ghly ma/]$ z a type ( ! boat-%ap$ 8se$40 ,?is1 ) ,lolium1 ,agropyrum1 o!r ,fescues1 & ev5 "s ,bromes & ,poas1 w give tr\ble until ! /ud5t ?or\ghly ma/]s ! importance ( ! m9ute *>act]s ( size1 n]vature1 ( ! ra*illa1 awn1 palea1 c4 ,fe/uca elatior1 ,l4 7v>4 prat5sis7 7,fig4 #eh74 ,palea ovate-lanceolate1 five-n]v$1 slightly scabrid1 ) a slight membran\s m>g9 & cilia1 r\nd$ back1 & no awn4 #f-ge mm4 long4 ,c>yopsis oblong-obovate1 some:at flatt5$1 h>dly groov$ & adh]+ to ! pale1 ab\t #c-ce mm4 long4 ,ra*illa cyl9drical1 smoo?4 ,! o!r v>ieties ( ,f4 elatior _c be di/+ui%$ by ! 8se$0 alone3 9 my samples ,f4 elatior prop] is long] ?an ,f4 prat5sis1 & bo? h occasionally a trace ( awn4 ,v>4 arund9acea has a m acum9ate1 /iff po9t4 ,fe/uca prat5sis has its palea z a rule some:at m acute ?an ,lolium p]5ne1 & ! flatt] tap]+ ra*illa ( ! latt] is m closely appress$ to ! palea4 ,! c>yopsis ( ,fe/uca also t5ds to adh]e to ! pale4 ,pale & 8se$0 at mo/ #c-ce mm4 long4 ,palea devoid ( hairs or keel1 not*$ or blunt1 & ) no trace ( awn4 ,palea hyal9e1 n]ves indi/9ct4 ,tips not*$ or blunt4 ,agro/is alba4 ,!re is occasionally a v %ort basal hair 7awn74 ,agro/is & ,aira w pres5t difficulties to ! beg9n]1 n only on acc\nt ( _! small sizes1 b also f ! v>iability z reg>ds awns1 basal hair-tuft1 c4 ,none are ( value1 & mo/ ( !m are we$s4 ,agro/is alba1 ,l4 7v>4 /olonif]a74 ,palea enclos+ ! fruit #ah-b mm4 long1 :ite1 delicate1 membran\s1 ) a blunt not*$ apex & ?ree 7or five7 n]ves3 occasionally !re is a f9e kne$ basal awn1 n project+4 ,! glumes may rema9 atta*$3 ! out] has a s]rulate keel1 & (t5 a violet hue4 ,no awn4 ,ab\t #b-c mm4 ,c>yopsis ab\t #aa mm4 long1 oblong1 yell[1 corn-%ap$1 furr[$1 %9+ ?r\gh4 ,a4 vulg>is1 ,l41 is a v>iety ) slightly small] fruits1 no awn1 & usually ?ree n]ves to ! palea1 b !y _c be di/+ui%$ ) c]ta9ty by ! 8se$40 ,ra*illa obsolete4 ,! col\r ( ! glumes may v>y consid]ably & is sometimes yell[4 ,! abs5ce ( awn1 ra*illa1 & basal hairs di/+ui%es ,agro/is f ,aira4 ,palea membran\s1 ribb$1 tips sc>i\s4 ,glyc]ia aquatica4 ,g4 fluitans4 ,glyc]ia aquatica1 ,sm4 ,palea /rongly #e-g ribb$1 obtuse & sc>i\s1 ab\t #d mm4 long4 ,gre5 ) a purple ca/4 ,c>yopsis d>k-br[n1 ab\t #b mm4 long4 ,inn] palea punctate4 ,ra*illa sl5d] & cyl9drical4 ,glyc]ia fluitans1 ,br41 is v simil>1 b long] 7#f mm47 & m sl5d]2 ! palea scabrid ) truncate or ragg$ tips1 & ! inn] palea n punctate4 ,yell[4 7,fig4 #df47 ,glyc]ia aquatica & ,g4 fluitans are sweet grasses ( value 9 wat]-mead[s only4 ,! 8se$0 is n (t5 met )4 ,n only ) ! ,poas1 b also ) ,catabrosa are !re difficulties 9 det]m9ation4 ,mol9ia & ,kl]ia also pres5t difficulties ) ,glyc]ia3 ! =m] has few] & feebl] n]ves4 ,digraphis & ,arundo are easily di/+ui%$ by ! basal hairs4 ,palea acute & some:at compress$ & keel$1 & ) hairs on ! ribs4 ,tips n]v$4 ,poa annua4 ,p4 m>itima4 ,p4 di/ans4 ,p4 rigida4 ,p4 loliacea4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,p4 alp9a4 ,_! 8se$s0 are all small1 ab\t #b-ce mm4 only1 & angul>1 br[n1 & pres5t _m difficulties 7see note1 p4 #ada74 ,poa annua1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dc74 ,palea #ce & c>yopsis #b mm4 long1 s t ! 8se$0 is mu* l>g] ?an ,p4 trivialis1 & !re is no web4 ,m9utely silky-hairy on ! keel1 & ! ribs are /rong = a ,poa4 ,poa alp9a1 ,l41 has ! palea five-ribb$ ) /iffi% hairs bel[1 b no web4 ,bronzy gre5-violet4 8,se$0 #c-ce mm4 long4 ,c>yopsis #ae-b mm41 & slightly groov$4 ,x is r>e 9 ,engl&1 & is int]e/+ z x becomes vivip>\s 9 ,alp9e situations4 7#b7 ,apex ( palea di/9ctly po9t$1 acum9ate or mucronate1 b n giv+ rise to a true1 long1 bri/le-l awn4 99 ,palea acum9ate--i4e4 tap] po9t$4 ,n compress$ or obvi\sly keel$4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ^! %\ld n be reg>d$ z awn$3 if s !y come ne> ,n>dus--see p4 #acj4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ei74 ,palea r\nd$ on ! back1 n>r[1 t]ete-lanceolate & five-n]v$1 tip scab]ul\s & drawn out to a /iff scabrid po9t half z long z ! palea1 or less4 ,ab\t #c-d mm4 long )\t ! tip-po9t1 #d-ee mm4 ) x4 ,ra*illa obliquely truncate & concave at its apex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,fe/uca ov9a4 a1 spikelet1 ab\t #c-a_/b4 b1 8se$10 nat4 size & ab\t #g4 c1 c>yopsis1 nat4 size & #g4 ,c>yopsis oblong1 some:at flatt5$1 d>k-br[n4 ,! num]\s v>ieties ( ,f4 ov9a _c be di/+ui%$ by ! 8se$03 ! alli$ v>ieties ,f4 rubra1 ,f4 duriuscula1 & ,f4 het]ophylla1 c4 are sometimes m di/9ctly awn$ 7see p4 #agb74 ,b difficulties w be f\nd ) ! :ole gr\p1 :i* ne$s revision4 ,?is gr\p comprises ! grasses s valu$ on d[ns & dry hill-pa/ures = %eep-fe$+4 ,fe/uca sylvatica1 ,vill41 n a common plant1 is also ) difficulty sep>able 7,fig4 #ea74 ,cynosurus cri/atus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fj74 ,palea can>y yell[ to light-br[n1 lanceolate ) r\nd$ back & ! mid-rib prom95t z a slight keel & m>g9s infold$1 ab\t #d mm4 long 7v>ies f #c-de #je to #a mm4 broad71 scabrid above1 dott$ bel[ & acute to acum9ate ) a scabrid awn-po9t1 (t5 curv$4 ,c>yopsis #b-bc mm41 some:at flatt5$4 ,ra*illa %ort & smoo?1 dilat$ above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,cynosurus cri/atus4 a1 8se$0 & c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 b & c1 8se$0 ab\t #h4 ,note ! scabrid & slightly curv$ awn-po9t4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,a valuable & easily recognis$ grass4 ,mol9ia1 ,holcus & simil> impurities are easily detect$3 "s ,fescues are mu* m l x2 e4g4 ,f4 t5uifolia 7see p4 #df7 9 :i* ! apex tap]s sudd5ly to a po9t4 ,dactylis %\ld also be comp>$4 ,pale compress$ or di/9ctly keel$4 ,mol9ia crulea4 ,kl]ia cri/ata4 ,unimportant1 except z impurities among o!r grass 8se$s40 ,mol9ia is said to occur z su* 9 samples ( ,cynosurus1 ,dactylis1 ,poa trivialis1 ,fescues1 c41 b x %\ld give little difficulty except 9 comp>ison ) ,glyc]ia 7see p4 #adf74 ,mol9ia crulea 7,mn*47 7,fig4 #fa74 8,se$0 #c-d mm4 or m1 lea!r col\r$ or ) a blui% t+e4 ,pale div>icat+1 ! l[] keel$ & compress$1 & tap]+ to a %>p po9t4 ,ra*illa long1 oblique & prom95t4 ,smoo? tap]+1 palea #ee1 fruit #b mm4 long4 ,kl]ia cri/ata1 ,p]s4 7,fig4 #fb74 ,palea #f mm41 keel$1 entire1 no awn b /iffly tap]+1 ribb$1 no hairs4 ,ra*illa l>ge4 ,fruit #de mm4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,mol9ia crulea4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 ab\t #h2 d1 ! c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 e1 ditto1 ab\t #g4 ,note ! compress$1 keel$ & glabr\s palea1 & ! long sl5d] bone-%ap$ ra*illa4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,kl]ia cri/ata4 a1 ! 8se$0 7to ! left7 & c>yopsis 7to ! "r71 nat4 size2 b1 8se$10 ab\t #g4 ,! palea is compress$ & keel$1 &1 l ! l>ge ra*illa1 glabr\s4 ,nobbe4 9999 ,palea n tap] po9t$1 b mucronate1 or two-too!d1 ) a sub-t]m9al po9t or sp9e4 ,elymus ar5>ius4 ,agropyrum rep5s4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 ,sesl]ia crulea4 ,elymus ar5>ius1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fc74 ,fruit+ palea lanceolate1 #ac-ae #c mm41 t\gh & /iffly hairy or velvety3 #e-g ribs4 ,ra*illa /\t1 hairy4 ,fruit hairy above1 #e-aa mm4 #be #ab1 some:at groov$4 ,no keel4 ,apex ( inn] palea bifid1 out] mucronate4 ,fruit %ell$4 ,easily di/+ui%$ f ,digraphis arund9acea1 :i* has a basal hair-tuft & v diff]5t c>yopsis2 less easily f ,agropyrum & ,lolium1 except 9 ! velvety surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,elymus ar5>ius4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ! same1 #c4 ,note ! /iff1 velvety1 bifid & mucronate out] palea1 & ! l>ge hairy ra*illa4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,dactylis glom]ata4 a1 spikelet ) glumes remov$1 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 ab\t #f2 c & d1 8se$10 nat4 size 7bel[7 & ab\t #f4 ,! /iff & slightly curv$ awn-po9t is sub-t]m9al & arises f betwe5 two tee?4 ,ra*illa dilat$ above4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,agropyrum rep5s may h a mucronate awn-po9t or n4 ,! small palea #aj-ab1 ! c>yopsis #e-f mm4 7see p4 #afi = description74 ,?is tr\blesome we$ 7,c\*-grass7 pres5ts simil> difficulties ) ,lolium p]5ne t ,agropyrum can9um does ) ,lolium temul5tum--see p4 #afh4 ,x is moreov] extremely v>iable4 ,dactylis glom]ata1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fd74 ,/iff awn-po9t j bel[ ! two tee? ( apex ( pale4 ,ra*illa dilat$ above4 ,pale #e-f mm4 long exclusive ( po9t1 compress$ & inflat$1 ribb$ & ciliate-bri/ly on keel1 ! tip incurv$4 ,c>yopsis yell[-br[n1 ellipsoid1 #b mm4 ,an important grass1 said to be adult]at$ ) ,lolium1 ,fescues1 ,holcus1 ,mol9ia1 ,bromus1 c41 mo/ ( :i* %\ld be readily detect$4 ,! curv$ tip is an important di/9ctive "*4 ,cynosurus & ,fe/uca arund9acea1 ,f4 ov9a & ,f4 rubra pres5t resemblances4 ,! se$ is l>g] ?an t ( ,poa4 ,f4 ov9a & ,f4 rubra are small]1 r\nd$ dorsally1 & h no keel or cilia3 ! n]ves are less prom95t & ! ra*illa small]4 ,sesl]ia crulea1 ,ard4 ,palea di/9ctly too!d at ! apex1 mak+ x almo/ ?ree-lob$ & v *>act]i/ic2 ) awn-po9t2 five ribs1 s]rulate4 ,fruit grey-yell[1 obovate4 ,x is a m\nta9-& moor-grass ( little value4 ,b4 8,se$0 awn$--i4e4 ! inve/+ palea be>s1 or tap]s into1 a di/9ct bri/le or hair at lea/ z long z itself or ne>ly s4 7a7 ,awn n t]m9al4 7#a7 ,awn /\t1 ei!r obvi\sly twi/$ & b5t or 8kne$40 7i7 8,se$0 consi/+ ( ! glumes z well z pale inve/+ ! c>yopsis#ac4 ,awn b5t b n twi/$2 glumes free bel[1 ribb$1 & ) /iff %ort hairs on ! keel4 ,awn sub-t]m9al1 %ort] ?an ! palea1 hook$4 ,holcus lanatus4 8,york%ire ,fog10 ( little use or importance1 except t x is frequ5tly f\nd z an impurity ( o!r hairy grasses--e4g4 ,alopecurus4 ,x _c easily be conf\nd$ ) any o!r grass3 ,an?oxan?um & ,alopecurus1 ,arrh5a!rum1 c4 pres5t sup]ficial resemblances only4 ,^! glum$ hairy 8se$s0 are uncommon & =m an easily recognis$ type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,holcus lanatus4 a1 8se$0--i4e4 complete spikelet--& ditto devoid ( glumes1 nat4 size2 b1 spikelet1 & c ! same devoid ( glumes1 #g4 ,! 8se$0 is "h compos$ ( ! keel$ glumes enclos+ two pairs ( pale & _! fl[]s 7c73 ! upp] ( ^! is b>r5 & has a hook$ sub-t]m9al awn to its out] palea4 ,! l[] awnless "o is f]tile4 ,nobbe4 ,holcus lanatus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fe74 ,! 8se$0 consi/s ( ! complete spikelet1 sep>at$ bel[ ! compress$ & acute1 keel$ glumes2 ^! h hairs on ! keel1 & completely enclose ! two fl[]s & _! pale4 ,palea ribless1 :ite to grey1 %9+1 obtuse1 t ( ! upp] 7male7 fl[] ) a sub-t]m9al %ort hook-l awn4 ,total l5g? ab\t #d-e mm4 ,c>yopsis oblong-ovate1 groov$4 ,9 its palea ab\t #b-c mm4 long & ) a few hairs at ! base4 ,awn dorsal1 kne$1 long] ?an ! palea4 ,holcus mollis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ff74 ,palea #be mm41 fruit #ca mm4 long2 glumes ) /iff hairs or s]rul on keel4 ,! se$s ( ,holcus (t5 fall f ! glumes1 b may br+ !m away4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,holcus mollis4 ,type ( 8d\ble se$10 :i* really consi/s ( ! entire spikelet 7a1 nat4 size2 c & d1 #h7 compris$ ( ! two glumes enclos+ two pairs ( pale & _! enclosures 7b1 nat4 size2 e1 ab\t #h74 ,! l[] pair ( pale are devoid ( awns & enclose ! c>yopsis3 ! upp] pair h /am5s only1 & ! out] palea has a dorsal kne$ awn1 n twi/$ or hook$4 ,nobbe4 ,holcus is ( little use4 ,! two-fl[]$ spikelets & peculi> awns suffici5tly di/+ui% x among ! small] =ms4 ,x is said to occur z an adult]ant 9 8se$0 ( ,alopecurus4 ,awn b5t & twi/$1 basal or ne>ly s2 glumes v hairy4 ,glumes gold5 br[n3 "o awn /raight1 "o 8kne$40 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 ,! grass :i* gives ! sc5t to new-m[n hay4 ,! 8se$0 is (t5 impure1 conta9+ a cont95tal species ,a4 ,puelii & o!r hairy =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum4 a1 8se$0 & c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 b1 ! 8se$10 & c1 c>yopsis1 ab\t #g4 ,! 8se$0 consi/s ( ! inn] hairy glumes1 ea* ) a dorsal awn--"o kne$--enclos+ ! pale & c>yopsis4 ,! out] pair ( unawn$ glumes has be5 remov$4 ,nobbe4 ,an?oxan?um odoratum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fg74 ,! "o-fl[]$ spikelet has f\r hairy glumes1 ! out] pair ( :i* are unequal & awnless3 ! 8se$0 consi/s ( ! inn] pair ( gold5-br[n hairy & dorsally awn$ glumes1 cov]+ ! ?91 membran\s1 %9+1 smoo?1 blunt pale & ! c>yopsis1 to :i* ! inn] palea adh]es4 ,total l5g?1 )\t awns1 ab\t #c-d mm4 ,palea #af mm4 ,c>yopsis #ae mm41 br[n1 %9y1 & easily sep>at+4 ,"o awn is %ort1 /iff & /raight & ins]t$ above ! middle ( its glume2 ! o!r long] & %>ply b5t1 ins]t$ ab\t ! middle4 ,hi]o*loe1 a r>e nor!rn grass1 also comes "h4 ,glumes connate bel[1 hairy on ! keels4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 ,a4 g5iculatus4 ,a4 agre/is4 ,alopecurus is v *>act]i/ic1 & %\ld be c>efully exam9$ z a type4 ,a4 prat5sis is a valuable grass & said to be (t5 adult]at$ ) ! undesirable ,a4 agre/is1 ,holcus1 c4 ,arrh5a!rum & ,av5a are easily di/+ui%$ by ! basal hairs1 ra*illa1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,alopecurus prat5sis4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size1 & b1 c1 ditto1 #h2 d1 c>yopsis1 #g4 ,! 8se$0 "h consi/s ( ! two glumes1 connate bel[ & hairy on ! keel & ribs1 includ+ ! c>yopsis envelop$ 9 a s+le palea ) a dorsal awn4 ,note rema9s ( /igma 9 d4 ,nobbe4 ,alopecurus prat5sis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fh74 ,inn] palea abs5t4 ,out] palea #e mm41 c>yopsis #c mm4 long1 (t5 ) rema9s ( ! /igma4 ,! greyi%-br[n spikelet ( ,alopecurus easily falls z a :ole1 includ$ 9 ! glumes2 ! palea is loose & delicate4 ,glumes connate bel[1 silky-hairy on keel & ribs all ! way up4 ,! palea has a b5t dorsal awn1 ab\t #e mm4 long4 ,alopecurus g5iculatus1 ,l4 ,palea #b mm41 fruit #ac mm4 long4 ,! glumes hairy on ribs & keel z 9 ,a4 prat5sis3 glumes m obtuse4 ,alopecurus agre/is1 ,l4 ,palea #f mm41 fruit #c mm4 long4 ,glumes only ciliate1 on ribs & keel1 except at ! base :]e ! hairs are long]4 ,keel slightly w+$4 ,be/ di/+ui%$ f ,a4 prat5sis by ! glumes1 :i* are smoo!r1 broad] above ! middle1 h>d] & ) a few basal hairs4 ,! species ,a4 fulvus1 ,a4 bulbosus1 & ,a4 alp9us are r>e4 7ii7 8,se$0 consi/+ ( ! pale inve/+ ! c>yopsis1 fre$ f ! glumes4 99 ,palea at lea/ #ad or #ae mm4 long3 c>yopsis #e-g mm4 ,oat type4 ,av5a fatua4 ,a4 prat5sis4 ,av5a fatua1 ,l4 ,palea p>*m5t-l1 lanceolate-t]ete1 acum9ate & bifid at ! apex1 r\nd$ on ! back & ) yell[ hairs on ! l[] "p4 #ae #c mm4 ,awn br[n1 twi/$ & b5t1 aris+ f ! middle1 ab\t #cj mm4 long4 ,c>yopsis #g mm4 long1 hairy at ! top & di/9ctly groov$4 ,ra*illa ) f9e bri/les4 ,av5a prat5sis1 ,l4 ,palea v simil> to ,a4 fatua1 apex #b--d-too!d or bifid1 ra*illa ) /iff] hairs4 ,c>yopsis ab\t #e mm4 long4 ,av5a pubesc5s1 ,huds4 is a v>iety ( ,a4 prat5sis f\nd on dry calc>e\s soils4 ,! c>yopsis is v n>r[1 & ! ra*illa long & fea!r$ ) hairs4 8,se$0 %ort] ?an ,a4 prat5sis1 #aj-ac mm41 & d>k] 9 col\r4 ,a4 fatua is an excell5t type ( ! grasses ) dorsal twi/$ & b5t awns1 & easily exam9$ on acc\nt ( its size4 ,! /ud5t w f9d difficulties ) o!r species ( ,av5a & ,arrh5a!rum4 ,h>z says ! /iff hairs ( ,av5a br+ ab\t ! =mation ( inte/9al concretions 7phytobezo>s7 & are !re=e dang]\s to dome/ic animals4 9999 ,palea n m ?an #g-aj mm4 long4 ,c>yopsis #d-e mm4 long4 ,arrh5a!rum av5aceum1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #dg74 ,pale pap]y1 ribb$4 ,awn #ac-ae mm41 twi/$ bel[2 pale1 ) a tuft ( hairs bel[ & a ciliate keel1 inve/+ ! fruit3 ! :ole be+ cyl9drical1 #h-aj mm4 #ae4 ,c>yopsis #d-e mm4 #ab1 fusi=m1 pubesc5t4 ,ra*illa hairy4 ,! di/9ctive diff]5ce betwe5 ,av5a & ,arrh5a!rum is 9 ! spikelets z a :ole4 ,! latt] has ! l[] fl[] ( ea* spikelet male only4 ,samples conta9 ! 8d\ble se$s10 & ! awn ( ! upp] f]tile portion is %ort 7see ,fig4 #fi74 ,c>yopsis n m ?an #c mm4 long4 ,a tuft ( hairs on ra*illa & base4 ,av5a flavesc5s4 ,aira flexuosa1 di/+ui%$ by its ne>ly basal awn1 h>d] texture & d>k] col\r ( pale1 & ,dactylis--awnless & ) curv$ long drawn-out apex--are f\nd z impurities 9 =eign 8se$40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,av5a flavesc5s4 c1 8se$10 nat4 size2 a & b1 ditto1 ab\t #g4 ,! dorsal twi/$ & kne$ awn is v *>act]i/ic4 ,note also ! hairy ra*illa4 ,! palea is bifid above--n visible 9 ! lat]al view4 ,nobbe4 ,av5a flavesc5s1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fi74 ,yell[4 ,palea ab\t #e mm4 long1 five-ribb$1 bifid at ! apex into two long sl5d] tee?1 closely inve/+ ! br[ni% c>yopsis1 & ) a sub-dorsal awn #aj mm4 long ) little or no twi/1 & hairy at ! base4 ,ra*illa flatt5$ & ) :ite hairs4 ,c>yopsis n mu* groov$1 fusi=m1 #b-c mm4 long1 glumes unequal1 some:at keel$ & r\gh4 7#b7 ,awn dorsal or basal1 f9e & hair-l1 & little or n at all twi/$ or kne$4 8,se$0 small4 99 ,a p5cil ( silky hairs on base or ra*illa4 ,palea bifid at ! tip4 ,basal hairs long] ?an palea1 & obscur+ ! awn4 ,calamagro/is ,epigeios4 ,( little importance4 ,digraphis has no awn4 ,calamagro/is ,epigeios1 ,ro?4 ,palea ab\t #c mm4 long ) too!d apex & v ?9 c>yopsis #a mm4 ,a conspicu\s tuft ( f9e silky hairs1 long] ?an ! palea at ! base & on ! ra*illa4 ,awn sl5d]1 dorsal1 ab\t z long z ! palea4 ,c4 /ricta1 ,nutt4 & ,c4 /rigosa1 ,h>tm4 are r>e4 ,basal hairs %ort] ?an palea4 ,awn br[n1 be>d$ 9 ! middle1 ?ick5$ & :ite above4 ,aira canesc5s4 ,! /ud5t w f9d consid]able difficulties 9 ! v>i\s species ( ,aira & ,agro/is1 ow+ to _! small size & v>iability z reg>ds awn & basal hair-tufts4 ,all ^! are we$s1 b "s occur z adult]ants4 ,aira canesc5s1 ,l4 8,se$0 7ap>t f ! awn1 x is v l ,agro/is7 #ae-b mm41 ) a v ?91 smoo?1 keel$1 two-n]v$ palea1 bifid at its apex1 ?r\gh :i* ! yell[ c>yopsis %9es4 ,awn sl5d]1 basal1 d>k-br[n1 ) oblique col\rless hairs above ! middle & ) a slight swell+ above4 ,! palea has a few hairs on its mid-rib bel[4 ,c>yopsis ab\t #a mm4 long4 ,?is grass is some:at r>e 9 ,engl&4 ,! jo9t$ basal awn1 ) a m9ute hair-tuft above ! middle1 is unique1 & readily di/+ui%es x :5 mix$ ) ,agro/is4 ,awn n be>d$ or ?ick5$4 ,palea bifid at apex4 ,aira c>yophyllea4 ,a4 prcox4 ,aira c>yophyllea1 ,l4 8,se$0 #ad-af mm41 comma-%ap$ & d>k-br[n4 ,palea acute1 n]veless1 inroll$ at edges & ) a dorsal1 kne$1 v f9e1 d>k twi/$ awn twice z long z ! palea3 ! latt] ) two-too!d apex & a basal hair-tuft4 ,a common impurity 9 comm]cial se$4 ,aira prcox1 ,l4 is v simil>1 & _c be di/+ui%$ ) c]ta9ty by ! 8se$10 b has a %ort] awn & no basal hairs4 ,apex ( palea two-too!d4 ,palea jagg$ or too!d1 b n bifid4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,a4 cspitosa4 ,aira flexuosa1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gj74 ,palea #e mm4 long1 f\r-too!d at ! apex1 & c>yopsis #bf mm4 ,! f9e basal awn wav$ or kne$1 ab\t twice z long z ! palea4 ,fruit ) a groove4 ,ra*illa hairy4 ,:ole 8se$0 br[n] ?an ,av5a flavesc5s 7see p4 #aeh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,aira flexuosa4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 c & d1 ! same1 ab\t #g2 b1 portion ( fruit+ panicle1 %[+ ! flexu\s ra*is2 e1 ! c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 f1 ditto1 ab\t #g4 ,note ! basal hairs & twi/$ awn4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,an almo/ wor?less grass1 on s&y soils1 b important z an impurity 9 ,av5a flavesc5s 7see note1 p4 #aeh74 ,aira cspitosa1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dd74 ,! palea1 ab\t #be mm4 long1 too!d above1 has a f9e /raight hair-l basal awn n long] ?an itself4 ,c>yopsis #ac mm41 groov$4 ,ra*illa di/9ctly hairy4 ,easily di/+ui%$ :5 mix$ ) ,poa nemoralis1 c4--e4g4 by ! awn1 hairs on ra*illa1 c4 ,x requires scrut9y 9 reg>d to ,agro/is1 :i* also has no awn or basal hairs4 9999 ,no basal tuft1 or m]ely a few %ort microscopic hairs bel[4 ,pale n bifid above4 ,agro/is can9a4 ,a4 ,spica-v5ti4 ,a4 setacea4 ,agro/is can9a1 ,l41 is some:at l>g] ?an ,a4 alba4 ,palea 7only "o pres5t1 sometimes m9ute7 punctate1 #b mm41 ) a f9e dorsal awn a little long] ?an ! palea4 ,c>yopsis #ab mm4 ,ra*illa obsolete4 ,! awn is usually abs5t f ,a4 alba & its v>ieties2 & :5 pres5t is s small z to be almo/ negligible4 ,a4 can9a is easily di/+ui%$ f ,poa by ! ra*illa 9 ! latt]1 & abs5ce ( awn4 ,aira has basal hairs1 c4 ,agro/is setacea1 ,curt41 has ! awn basal & j project+ beyond ! po9t$ glumes1 & ! palea v m9ute1 ) a few silky hairs bel[4 ,agro/is ,spica-v5ti1 ,l4 7,fig4 #di74 ,palea #bd mm4 long1 ) infold$ edges & punctate2 a m9ute ra*illa at its base1 & a sl5d] awn1 #h-i mm4 or m long1 ins]t$ bel[ ! bifid tip4 ,c>yopsis #ae mm4 ,a few silky hairs at ! base ( ! palea4 7b7 ,awn t]m9al or slightly sub-t]m9al1 & /raight1 or at lea/ n twi/$ or 8kne$40 7#a7 ,pale s closely adh]5t to ! fruit t ! t]m9al awn appe>s to come f ! latt] ,b>ley type4 ,! ?ree florets g5]ally coh]5t4 ,awn at lea/ twice ! l5g? ( ! gra94 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,h4 mur9um4 ,hordeum sylvaticum1 ,huds4 ,palea scabrid1 ribb$ above1 awn at lea/ twice z long z ! v n>r[ gra94 ,hordeum mur9um1 ,l4 ,l[] palea #i-aj mm4 long1 five-ribb$1 lanceolate & wrapp$ r\nd & adh]+ to ! fruit 7gra971 upp] palea also ribb$4 ,! gra9 ab\t #g-h mm4 #b #ab1 h>dly groov$4 ,awn ab\t #cj mm4 long1 s]rulate4 ,ra*illa slightly s]rulate4 9999 ,awn n twice ! l5g? ( ! gra94 ,hordeum prat5se4 ,h4 m>itimum4 ,hordeum prat5se1 ,huds4 ,spikelet ) a r$di% t+e2 awn almo/ smoo?1 less ?an #bj mm4 long3 n twice ! l5g? ( ! smoo? & obscurely n]v$ gra94 ,hordeum m>itimum1 ,)41 simil> to ,h4 prat5se1 b s(t] & ! awn some:at long]4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! ,hordeum-gra9 are ! closely adh]5t pale & angul> fruit1 ! /iff awn appe>+ to come (f f x z 9 ,b>ley4 ,! ra*illa rema9s4 ,!y are all we$s ( no use 9 agriculture1 ?\gh ,h4 prat5se is n uncommon 9 good pa/ures4 7#b7 ,palea inve/+ ! c>yopsis1 (t5 closely1 b n fus$ ) x1 & its tip & awn q free4 99 ,awn n /rictly t]m9al b sub-t]m9al1 or aris+ f betwe5 two tee? or 9 a s9us at ! apex ( ! palea4 ,c>yopsis ?91 flatt5$ & usually #f-aj mm4 long1 & ! pale hairy4 ,palea inroll$1 t]ete-lanceolate-acum9ate1 or l9e>-lanceolate 7b>ge-%ap$74 ,apical tee? m9ute & po9t$4 ,palea scab]ul\s or hairy1 awn f half to ab\t its own l5g?4 ,bromus erectus4 ,b4 asp]4 ,bromus erectus1 ,huds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,bromus asp]1 a b>ge-%ap$ 8se$0 ) t]m9al awn1 nat4 size & ab\t #e4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,/ebl]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum1 a b>ge-%ap$ 8se$0 ) t]m9al awn1 natural size & ab\t #e4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,/ebl]4 ,palea ) #e-g scab]ul\s ribs1 b n hairy1 flat above1 incurv$ bel[1 s t ! inn] palea is cle>ly visible4 ,ab\t #aj-ad mm4 long & n>r[+ some:at sudd5ly into ! smoo? /iff awn1 %ort] ?an itself4 ,indications ( a too? at ea* side ( ! base ( ! awn4 ,c>yopsis some:at flatt5$1 ?9 & long1 b>ge-%ap$1 #h-aj #ae-b mm41 po9t$ at bo? ends1 br[n1 hairy at ! tip ) ! rema9s ( ! /igma4 8,se$0 (t5 purpli%4 ,ra*illa long & sl5d]4 ,mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ,bra*ypodium1 :i* has ! palea less inroll$ & a /\t] ra*illa4 ,bromus giganteus has a %ort] & flatt] 8se$0 & long] awn4 ,bromus asp]1 ,murr4 7,fig4 #ga74 ,palea (t5 r$di%1 #e-g ribb$ & usually r\ghly hairy1 mid-rib scab]ul\s1 ab\t #ae mm4 long1 l9e>-lanceolate 7b>ge-%ap$71 ! tip m di/9ctly two-too!d & tap]+ m gradually into ! smoo? awn1 ab\t its own l5g?4 ,ra*illa di/9ct4 ,o!rwise resembl+ ,b4 erectus4 ,b4 giganteus has a %ort] 8se$0 & long] awn4 ,palea sc>cely hairy3 awn up to twice its l5g?4 ,bromus /]ilis4 ,b4 giganteus4 ,bromus /]ilis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ej74 ,palea ne>ly smoo?1 some:at inroll$1 t]ete-lanceolate-acum9ate1 t\gh1 r$-br[n1 #ab-ae mm4 long1 sev5-ribb$1 ) a long s]rulate awn 7#bj-cj mm4 or m7 practically t]m9al4 ,ribs s]rate4 ,c>yopsis #i-aj mm4 long1 flatt5$1 ?94 ,ra*illa di/9ct1 smoo?1 mu* wrapp$ 91 wid5s upw>ds & is some:at flatt5$4 ,! v sl5d] & long 8se$0 & c>yopsis di/+ui% ?is f all b ,b4 erectus1 :i* has a %ort] awn4 ,p]haps ! awn is truly t]m9al3 if s x %\ld g ) ,fe/uca ,myurus1 c4 7see p4 #aga74 ,! l5g? v>ies greatly4 ,bromus giganteus1 ,l4 ,palea #g mm4 long & inroll$1 ! base & ra*illa bri/ly1 indi/9ctly #e-g n]v$1 ! tip bifid3 sub-t]m9al awn s]rulate1 #ab-ae mm4 long4 ,c>yopsis #de mm4 long1 flatt5$1 ?91 glabr\s4 ,! c>yopsis is %ort] & m ovoid ?an 9 o!r ,bromes4 ,palea exp&$ above 7coracle-%ap$71 awn f s9us betwe5 two blunt or triangul> tee?4 ,bromus arv5sis4 ,bromus arv5sis1 v>4 mollis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gc74 ,palea oblong or obovate1 some:at flatt5$ above 7coracle-%ap$71 di/9ctly #e-g ribb$1 #h-i mm4 long1 n hairy1 ?\gh ! ribs may be ciliate4 ,awn smoo?1 aris+ f ! depression betwe5 two tee? or r\nd$ projections4 ,c>yopsis flatt5$ & ?91 #f #ae mm42 apt to fall loose f ! pale4 ,9 ! v>iety ,b4 secal9us ! awn is usually %ort] ?an ! elliptical palea1 & orig9ates 9 ! s9us ( a not* 7,fig4 #gd73 9 ,b4 mollis f betwe5 two tee?1 & is z long z ! obovate palea4 ,bromus maximus & ,b4 madrit5sis are bo? r>e4 ,! broad] n]v$ pale ( ,b4 mollis & %ort]1 fatt] c>yopsis1 z well z ! long] awn di/+ui% x f ,b4 secal9us & ,b4 arv5sis4 ,9 ! o!r ,bromes ! palea is m inroll$ & ! 8se$0 m sl5d] z a rule4 ,! ra*illa is usually b5t above into a slight k9k4 ,! ,bromes are an extremely difficult gr\p4 ,! awn is ins]t$ betwe5 ! two tee? ( ! palea or j bel[4 ,! palea smoo? or ciliate on ! n]ves or r\ghly hairy4 ,! fruit is flatt5$ 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior plane1 & usually %9es ?r\gh ! closely inve/+ palea4 ,a ra*illa is visible4 ,9 ,bra*ypodium ! c>yopsis is less flatt5$1 & ! apex tap]s into ! awn )\t tee?4 ,9 ,lolium & ,agropyrum ! c>yopsis is /ill m :eat-l & groov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,bromus arv5sis1 v>4 mollis4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ! same1 #c4 d1 c>yopsis1 ab\t #c4 ,! awn orig9ates betwe5 two tee? ( ! /rongly ribb$ palea4 ,coracle-%ap$ type4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,bromus arv5sis1 v>4 secal9us4 a1 spikelet1 b & c1 8se$10 nat4 size2 d & e1 ! same1 #f4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,all our ,bromes are we$s1 b "s ( !m are important adult]ants1 requir+ c>eful exam9ation4 ,b4 in]mis is cultivat$1 & is a valuable grass4 ,awn %ort or want+4 ,pale /rongly #e-g ribb$1 inn] ) a m>k$ c5tral rib1 closely adh]+ to c>yopsis4 ,b4 ,s*rad]i is also said to be valuable4 ,c>yopsis n ?9 & flatt5$1 corn-l1 #ce-e mm4 ,palea smoo?1 inflat$1 boat-l4 ,lolium temul5tum4 ,a we$ ( cultivation1 said to be poison\s to cattle1 a possible explanation ( :i* may be f\nd 9 a fungus rec5tly discov]$ z a v con/ant inhabitant ( ! tissues "u ! se$ coats4 ,lolium temul5tum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dh74 ,palea ovate1 #f-ge #be mm41 papyrace\s1 inflat$1 smoo?1 ! tip dry & em>g9ate ) a sl5d] sub-t]m9al awn its own l5g? or long]4 ,x t5ds to adh]e to ! fruit4 ,fruit #ce-e mm4 #be #ae1 some:at depress$4 ,ra*illa l>ge1 cyl9drical & smoo?4 ,l4 p]5ne has no awn1 or ! m]e/ trace ( "o4 8,se$0 #aj-ab mm4 long4 ,boat-%ap$4 ,palea yell[1 ?ree-n]v$1 m>g9s pap]y4 ,ra*illa flat1 see p4 #adc4 9999 ,awn t]m9al1 & ) no evid5t tee? at its base4 ,palea n mu* inroll$1 ovate-lanceolate to l9e>-lanceolate1 & !re=e boat-or b>ge-%ap$4 ,v hairy4 ,bra*ypodium sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #gb74 ,palea ribb$ & hirsute mu* l t ( ,bromus asp]1 b /raw-col\r$1 %ort] 7#aj-ab mm471 l9e>-lanceolate1 m boat-%ap$1 & tap]+ )\t tee? into ! long] 7#aj-ac mm47 hairy awn4 ,c>yopsis #g-h mm41 less flatt5$ ?an 9 ,bromus1 ) a %all[ groove4 ,ra*illa smoo?4 ,b4 p9natum 7p4 #aga7 has a mu* %ort] awn1 & is ne>ly glabr\s4 ,^! grasses are we$s1 b are said to occur frequ5tly z adult]ants4 ,glabr\s or ne>ly s4 ,palea five-n]v$1 pubesc5t4 ,agropyrum can9um4 ,agropyrum rep5s is also (t5 awn$ & may be describ$ "h 7see also p4 #aej74 ,agropyrum rep5s1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #gf74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,agropyrum can9um4 ,type ( boat-%ap$ 8se$0 ) sub-t]m9al awn4 a1 nat4 size2 b1 ab\t #i1 b ) awn cut %ort4 ,ra*illa ?ick] above & hairy2 palea n too!d4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,agropyrum rep5s4 ,awn$ v>iety4 ,! awn is v %ort & sub-t]m9al3 ! ra*illa smoo?4 a1 ! 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 ab\t #d-a_/b4 ,boat-%ap$ 8se$0 ) r\nd$ back4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,palea t\gh1 #aj-ab mm4 long1 ovate-lanceolate1 #c-e ribb$ & smoo?2 ) a %ort 7#b-c mm47 or long 7#h mm47 t]m9al awn or a m]e too?4 ,r\nd$ back4 ,fruit grey-br[n1 ciliate above1 #e-f #ad #jg-ji mm41 depress$1 h>dly groov$1 adh]+ to ! palea4 ,ra*illa smoo? or n1 & n>r[$ bel[4 ,a noxi\s we$ 7see p4 #aej7 & h5ce %\ld be c>efully exclud$ f 8se$s40 ,a4 can9um1 ,beauv41 has a long] 7#aj mm4 or m7 & r\gh] awn1 & is small] 7ab\t #h mm471 b o!rwise v simil>4 ,palea smoo? except at ! five-n]v$ apex4 ,ra*illa ?ick5$ above1 & hairy 7,fig4 #ge74 ,elymus diff]s f ,agropyrum 9 its h>d] velvety palea1 no awn1 & its club-l velvety ra*illa4 ,x is also l>g] altoge!r1 z a rule4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum4 ,type ( boat-%ap$ 8se$0 ) awn4 a1 nat4 size2 b & c1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,palea sev5-ribb$1 smoo?4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum4 ,bra*ypodium p9natum1 ,l41 is simil>1 b ! palea m op5 & boat-l & n>r[s m sudd5ly above into ! smoo? awn :i* is %ort] ?an itself 7,fig4 #gg74 ,l5g? #h-i mm4 ,! c>yopsis is1 h[ev]1 mu* m sl5d] ?an 9 ,agropyrum4 ,= di/9ction f ,b4 sylvaticum1 see above4 ,! inn] palea is ciliate & m delicate ?an 9 ,agropyrum4 ,pale roll$ r\nd ! 8se$0 :i* is t]ete & tap]+ gradually into a /iff awn4 ,awn long] ?an ! palea4 ,fe/uca ,myurus4 ,see also ,fe/uca ov9a1 ,cynosurus1 c41 p4 #adg1 & ,arundo4 ,fe/uca ,myurus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #hj74 8,se$0 #e-g mm4 )\t ! long 7#aj mm47 awn1 tap]+ & sl5d] 7l ,n>dus71 grey or br[n4 ,f9ely mamillate upw>ds4 ,ra*illa small4 ,awn %ort] ?an palea4 ,fe/uca ov9a 7v>4 rubra74 ,n>dus /ricta4 ,aira flexuosa1 ,mol9ia & o!r moor-grasses occur ) ^! n>r[-leaf$ ,fescues1 b are easily di/+ui%$3 ,mol9ia by hav+ no awn & be+ %ort] & /\t]1 & ,aira flexuosa by ! dorsal awn & basal hairs4 ,fe/uca rubra1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gh74 8,se$0 pale br[n ) rosy t+e1 #c-e mm4 long )\t ! awn1 smoo?1 or slightly hairy upw>ds4 ,c>yopsis #b-ce mm41 compress$1 ) a %all[ broad flat furr[ on ! v5tral face & a m$ian long 8hilum40 ,ra*illa cyl9drical1 smoo?1 dilat$ above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 v>4 rubra4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 ab\t #g4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,fe/uca ov9a1 v>4 het]ophylla4 a1 spikelet1 ab\t #c-a_/b2 b1 8se$10 & c1 c>yopsis1 nat4 size2 d & e1 8se$10 & f1 c>yopsis1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,! v>iety ,f4 het]ophylla has n>r[] & long] 8se$s10 & a hispid ra*illa4 ,palea #e-f mm43 c>yopsis #ce-de mm4 7,fig4 #gi74 ,p]haps ,bromus /]ilis %\ld also come "h 7see p4 #afe74 ,) reg>d to ^! ,fescues ! /ud5t may note t ,f4 ov9a1 v>4 t5uifolia1 has ! smalle/ 7#d-e mm47 & mo/ ovoid 8se$s10 usually gold5 br[n 9 col\r4 ,f4 rubra is d>k] & l>g] 7#e-f mm471 z is also ,f4 duriuscula 7#f-g mm473 ! latt] is also n>r[]1 ) too!d palea1 tap]+ sudd5ly at ! base & m awn$4 ,f4 het]ophylla is mu* l ,f4 duriuscula1 b ! palea less too!d1 & x tap]s gradually at ! base4 ,! :ole gr\p is v difficult1 & ne$s att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,fe/uca ,myurus4 a1 8se$10 nat4 size2 b & c1 ditto1 ab\t #f4 ,comp>e ,fig4 #ej4 ,nobbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,n>dus /ricta4 ,type ( cyl9drical 8se$0 ) a t]m9al /iff awn1 "h s]rulate2 c1 8se$10 nat4 size2 a & b1 ditto1 #h4 ,comp>e ,fig4 #ej4 ,nobbe4 ,n>dus /ricta1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ha74 ,out] palea t\gh & fus$1 #aj-ab mm4 long1 n>r[1 lanceolate & tap]+ gradually into ! /iff1 s]rulate1 t]m9al awn %ort] ?an itself4 ,inn] palea m9utely too!d at ! apex & )\t awn1 loosely enclos+ ! r$-br[ni% yell[ to blui% grey fruit :i* has no groove4 8,se$0 #d-f mm4 #jf #je 7)\t ! awn71 m or less triangul> 9 section & s]rulate on angles above4 ,,bibliography4 ,,b5?am ,,& ,,hook]1 ,briti% ,flora1 ,london1 #ahif4 ,,bonni] & ,,lay5s1 ,n\velle ,flore de ,france1 ,p>is1 #ahhg4 ,,bruns1 ,d] ,grasembryo 9 ,flora1 #ahib1 vol4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,bur*>d1 ,die ,unkrautsam5 d] ,klee-und ,gras>t51 ,b]l91 #aijj4 ,,d>w91 ,p[] ( ,movem5t 9 ,plants1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,,duval ,,j\ve1 9 ,mmoires de l',acad4 des ,sci5ces de ,montpelli]1 #ahga1 vol4 ,,vii4 ,,fream1 ,elem5ts ( ,agriculture1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,,grob1 9 ,biblio!ca ,botanica1 ,h4 #cf1 #ahif4 ,,gu,,r91 ,re*]*es sur le dveloppem5t du ,tgum5t c4 des ,gram9es 9 ,ann4 d4 ,sc4 ,nat4 #ahii4 ,g,,ntz1 ,unt]s4 4 d4 anatomis*e ,/ructur d4 ,grasbltt]1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,,hackel1 9 ,engl]'s ,natrli*e ,pflanz5famili51 ,,ii4 ,?4 #b ,ab?4 #ahhg4 ,,h>z1 ,l&wir?s*aftli*e ,sam5kunde1 ,b]l91 #ahhe4 ,,holzn]1 ,beitr4 zur ,k5ntn4 d4 ,g]/e1 ,muni*1 #ahhh4 ,index ,kew5sis1 ,london1 #ahic-ie4 ,,jackson1 ,a ,gloss>y ( ,botanic ,t]ms1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,ki5itz-,,g]l(f1 ,botanik fr ,l&wirte1 ,b]l91 #ahhf4 ,,nobbe1 ,h&bu* d] ,sam5kunde1 ,b]l91 #ahgf4 ,,p>nell1 ,briti% ,grasses1 ,london1 #ahde4 ,p,e-,,laby1 9 ,annales des ,sc4 ,naturelles1 #ahih1 vol4 ,,viii4 ,,p]cival1 ,agricultural ,botany1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,pfitz]1 9 ,pr+%4 ,jahrb4 f4 wiss4 ,bot4 ,b4 ,,vii4 ,,s*mid1 9 ,bot4 ,c5tralbl4 #ahih1 ,b4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,s*w>z1 ,=/li*e ,botanik1 ,b]l91 #ahib4 ,,s*w5d5]1 9 ,sitzungsb]4 d4 ,akad4 ,b]l91 #ahhi & #ahij4 ,,settega/1 ,die l&wir?s*aftl4 ,sm]ei5 u4 d4 ,sam5bau1 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,,s9clair1 ,hortus gram9eus ,woburn5sis1 ,london1 #ahbd4 ,,s[]by1 ,! ,grasses ( ,great ,brita91 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,,/ebl] & ,,s*roet]1 ,! ,be/ ,=age ,plants1 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,,sutton1 ,p]man5t & ,tempor>y ,pa/ures1 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,,trim51 ,article ,grasses1 9 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #i? ed4 ,,van ,,tieghem1 ,morphol4 de l'embryon c4 *ez les ,gram9es 9 ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 #ahig4 ,,vesque1 ,trait de ,botanique ,agricole c4 #ahhe4 ,,w>m+1 ,lehrb4 d4 ,oekologis*5 ,pflanz5geogr4 ,b]l91 #ahif4 ,,wittmack1 ,gras- und ,kleesam51 ,b]l91 #ahgc4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,"s =eign grasses 7,&ropogon1 ,panicum1 c47 h solid /ems1 & 9 ,psamma & "s o!rs ! l[] p>ts may be solid4 ,footnote #b3 ,leaf-/alks occur 9 tropical ,bamboos4 ,footnote #c3 ,tropical ,bamboos bran* 9 ! upp] p>ts & are woody4 ,d9o*loa & ,olyra are climb+ grasses4 ,footnote #d3 ,except1 ( c\rse1 9 cases ( virg9 gr\nd rapidly occupi$ by ! se$l+s4 ,footnote #e3 ,! mo/ m>k$ exceptions are ! lemon-sc5t$ grasses 7especially ,&ropogon7 ( ,india & ,ceylon4 ,footnote #f3 ,! pale flank+ l9es se5 9 _m grasses on ea* side ( ! mid-rib are ! s]ies ( motor-cells ref]r$ to on p4 #be4 ,footnote #g3 ,!y may h %ort microscopic asp]ities1 b !re are no di/9ct long hairs4 ,footnote #h3 ,v l a ,poa :5 op5$ out1 b ! leaves are scabrid at ! %ea?s4 ,footnote #i3 ,/rictly speak+ a spike is an axis be>+ sessile fl[]s--n sessile spikelets3 9 ,grasses1 h[ev]1 ! conv5tional abbreviat$ t]m is sanction$ by long usage4 ,! same applies to ! panicle1 c4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see note1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see note1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #ab3 ,?is t]m does n necess>ily imply any botanical relation%ip ) ! true ,millets 7,panicum71 b m]ely t ! c>yopsis is %ort & broad z 9 ^! grasses4 ,footnote #ac3 ,9 cases :]e ! 8se$0 has fall5 f ! glumes ! sample w usually %[ "s ( ! latt] ly+ loose4 ,,index1 ,,gloss>y ,,& ,,li/ ,,( ,,synonyms4 ,figures 9 bold type 7#be7 ref] to pages :]eon ! species or subject is m p>ticul>ly dealt )2 figures 9 italics 7#be7 ref] to pages conta9+ illu/rations4 ,a*5e1 #abc ,acicul>--bri/le-l ,acum9ate--tap]+ to a long po9t1 #ba1 #aci1 #adf1 #adg ,acute--simply po9t$1 #ai1 #ba ,adaptations1 #bj1 #bd1 #cf1 #cg1 #gj1 #abd1 #abe1 #acb ,adv5titi\s roots1 #h1 #aca ,agriculture1 #b1 #c ,agropyrum--,:eat-grass1 #aa1 #ad1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #cf1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eg1 #fi1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #add1 #aej1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga2 ,a4 can9um1 #g1 #ba1 #bh1 #cd1 #eg1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajg1 #aej1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj2 ,a4 junceum--v>4 ( ,a4 rep5s1 #ba1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #eg1 #ff1 #ha1 #ajb1 #ajg2 ,a4 rep5s1 #g1 #cj1 #eg1 #hj1 #ha1 #ic1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #adi1 #aej1 #afi1 #agj ,agro/is--,b5t-grass1 #g1 #ae1 #bb1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #eg1 #hb1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aab1 #aah1 #abe1 #acf1 #acg1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa2 ,a4 alba1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #bh1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ea1 #eb1 #fi1 #ib1 #ajd1 #add1 #ade1 #afb2 ,a4 can9a1 #g1 #aa1 #bj1 #bh1 #bi1 #cg1 #ea1 #eb1 #ajd1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 setacea1 #ca1 #ajd1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 ,spica-v5ti1 #ca1 #ajd1 #acj1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 /olonif]a--v>4 ( ,a4 alba1 #ad1 #ea1 #eb1 #ajd1 #ade2 ,a4 vulg>is--v>4 ( ,a4 alba1 #bi1 #ea1 #eb1 #ff1 #ajd1 #ade ,aira--,hair-grass1 #f1 #bj1 #ba1 #cf1 #dh1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #abe1 #abg1 #ach1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aei1 #afb2 ,a4 alp9a--v>4 ( ,a4 cspitosa2 ,a4 canesc5s1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #cb1 #dg1 #ff1 #gh1 #ia1 #aab1 #aei2 ,a4 c>yophyllea1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #bi1 #cb1 #df1 #aah1 #afj2 ,a4 cspitosa1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #bh1 #cc1 #cg1 #da1 #dg1 #dh1 #fc1 #fe1 #fh1 #fi1 #gg1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aag1 #abh1 #afj1 #afa2 ,a4 flexuosa1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1 #df1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi1 #aah1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #aga2 ,a4 montana--v>4 ( ,a4 flexuosa2 ,a4 setacea--v>4 ( ,a4 flexuosa2 ,a4 prcox1 #h1 #aj1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #dg1 #ia1 #aab1 #afj ,air-spaces1 #ba1 #ci1 #dj1 #fb ,aleurone lay]1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc ,alopecurus1 #be1 #ec1 #ee1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #aja1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aai1 #abd1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee2 ,a4 alp9us1 #ca1 #aja1 #aef2 ,a4 agre/is1 #g1 #ah1 #cj1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef2 ,a4 bulbosus--v>4 ( ,a4 g5iculatus1 #h1 #i1 #aef2 ,a4 fulvus--v>4 ( ,a4 g5iculatus1 #aef2 ,a4 g5iculatus1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #bh1 #bi1 #cc1 #dj1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef2 ,a4 prat5sis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bh1 #cb1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ee1 #hb1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef ,alp9e ,foxtail--,alopecurus alp9us ,alp9e ,mead[-grass--,poa alp9a ,alp9e ,poa--,poa alp9a ,alps1 #cf1 #cg ,ammophila--,psamma2 ,a4 arund9acea--,psamma ar5>ia ,amphic>pum1 #abj ,anatomy1 #fb-ga1 #ie ,&ropogon1 #d1 #bg ,&ropogone1 #abb ,animal-di/ribution ( se$s1 #abe ,animals kill$ by grasses1 #abg ,annual ,be>d-grass--,polypogon monspeli5sis ,annual grasses1 #aj1 #aa1 #cg1 #dc1 #ei1 #aad ,annual ,mead[-grass--,poa annua ,an!r1 #ic1 #id1 #aai ,an!sis--! p]iod ( op5+ ( ! fl[]1 #if ,an?oxan?um--,v]nal grass1 #aa1 #ac1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #cf1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #hc1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #id1 #ig1 #aaj1 #aai1 #abd1 #acf1 #aeb1 #aed2 ,a4 odoratum1 #g1 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #eg1 #gf1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aed2 ,a4 ,puelii1 #fg1 #aed ,anti-ligul> peg1 #da ,ap]a--,agro/is2 ,a4 ,spica-v5ti--,agro/is ,spica-v5ti ,apex ( leaf1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb ,apogamy1 #acd ,appress$ hairs1 #fe ,aquatic grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #ci1 #fb1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac ,arctic species1 #cg ,ari/ida1 #cf2 ,a4 hygrometrica1 #abg ,arrh5a!rum--,false ,oat1 #f1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #bf1 #cb1 #ee1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa1 #ff1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aai1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aeg2 ,a4 av5aceum1 #f1 #h1 #be1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #ef1 #ff1 #gg1 #ic1 #ajf1 #abi1 #aeg ,arundo--,re$1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #cg1 #dj1 #fh1 #fi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #aci1 #adf1 #aga2 ,a4 ,donax1 #ba1 #ge2 ,a4 ,phragmites1 #b1 #f1 #bi1 #cb1 #dj1 #ea1 #ee1 #ff1 #ge1 #ach ,asp]ities--m9ute /iff hairs giv+ r\ghness to ! t\*1 #bd1 #de1 #fe1 #ff1 #ge1 #gg1 #abg ,auricles--e>-l projections at base ( leaf-blade1 #bb1 #acc ,av5a1 #e1 #ae1 #ba1 #bc1 #dg1 #ed1 #ef1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abe1 #abg1 #ach1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aeh2 ,a4 alp9a--v>4 ( ,a4 prat5sis2 ,a4 elatior--,arrh5a!rum av5aceum2 ,a4 fatua1 #bh1 #gg1 #aag1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,a4 flavesc5s1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ah1 #bf1 #bh1 #ef1 #fj1 #fa1 #ha1 #aag1 #aeh1 #afa2 ,a4 prat5sis1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #be1 #bg1 #dg1 #ef1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff1 #ha1 #aag1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,a4 pubesc5s--v>4 ( ,a4 prat5sis1 #af1 #bf1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #ef1 #fa1 #fh1 #aeg2 ,a4 /rigosa--v>4 ( ,a4 fatua ,av5e1 #abb ,awn1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ii-aah1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #adb1 #add1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 #agc ,awn$ grasses1 #ib1 #ii-aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aea-agd ,awn$ ,nit-grass--,ga/ridium l5dig]um ,awnless ,brome--,bromus in]mis ,awnless grasses1 #ic1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #ach-aea ,awn-po9t1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abc1 #aca1 #aej ,balla/ plants1 #cj ,bamboos1 #a1 #e1 #f1 #cg1 #ch1 #if1 #ig1 #abc ,bambusa1 #if ,b>ge-%ap$ 8se$s10 #abh1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh ,b>ley--,hordeum1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc1 #afc ,b>ley-type ( 8se$10 #ach1 #afb ,b>r5 ,brome--,bromus /]ilis ,b>r5 fl[]s1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj ,basal-awn1 #ib1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aei ,basal hair-tufts1 #ach1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa ,base ( leaf1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb ,ba/-scl]5*yma1 #gj ,be>d$ ,d>nel--,lolium temul5tum ,be>d$ ,:eat-grass--,agropyrum can9um ,be>d-grass--,polypogon ,b5t-grass--,agro/is ,b5t-grass--,agro/is can9a ,b]muda grass--,cynodon ,dactylon ,bi5nial grasses1 #aj1 #dc ,bifid--cleft into two tee?1 #ie ,bitt]-ta/+ grasses1 #eh1 #ei ,blade ( leaf1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf ,blue ,moor-grass--,sesl]ia crulea ,boat-%ap$ 8se$s10 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj ,bhm]'s ,phleum--,phleum ,bhm]i ,bra*ypodium--,false ,brome1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #fj1 #gj1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #afe1 #afg2 ,b4 p9natum1 #g1 #cd1 #fa1 #gh1 #ic1 #ajg1 #acj1 #afh1 #agj1 #aga2 ,b4 sylvaticum1 #g1 #bf1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #fj1 #fa1 #gf1 #gh1 #ib1 #ajg1 #abh1 #afd1 #afh1 #aga ,bracteoles1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,bracts1 #id1 #ig ,bran*+1 #f1 #aa ,bran*+ ( infloresc5ce1 #hc ,bri/le-grass--,set>ia ,bri/le-leaf$ ,b5t-grass--,agro/is setacea ,bri/le-l leaves1 #af1 #ba1 #bd1 #de ,bri/le ,oat--,av5a /rigosa ,bri/les1 #fg1 #abe1 #acj ,briza--,quak+-grass1 #ad1 #af1 #bb1 #be1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajd1 #acf2 ,b4 m$ia1 #h1 #aa1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #de1 #ff1 #gg1 #aab1 #adb2 ,b4 m9or1 #aj1 #ag1 #de1 #aab1 #adb ,brome--,bromus1 #aff1 #afg ,bromus--,brome-grass1 #f1 #aj1 #ad1 #ag1 #bf1 #dd1 #ea1 #ei1 #fa1 #gf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aag1 #add1 #aea1 #afh2 ,b4 ,alopecurus1 #ie2 ,b4 arv5sis1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #gf1 #ajh1 #aae1 #abh1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 asp]1 #f1 #aa1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #dc1 #dd1 #ei1 #gf1 #aae1 #aaf1 #afd1 #afe1 #afh2 ,b4 commutatus--,b4 racemosus2 ,b4 di&rus--,b4 madrit5sis2 ,b4 erectus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #dc1 #ea1 #gj1 #ajj1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff2 ,b4 giganteus1 #f1 #aa1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #dc1 #dd1 #ea1 #gf1 #hb1 #aae1 #aaf1 #afe1 #aff2 ,b4 in]mis1 #ac1 #bb1 #ca1 #dc1 #afg2 ,b4 madrit5sis1 #ca1 #aaf1 #aff2 ,b4 maximus1 #ca1 #aaf1 #aff2 ,b4 mollis--v>4 ( ,b4 arv5sis1 #h1 #bf1 #dc1 #dd1 #ajh1 #aae1 #adc1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 multiflorus--v>4 ( ,b4 arv5sis2 ,b4 racemosus--v>4 ( ,b4 arv5sis2 ,b4 ,s*rad]i1 #afg2 ,b4 secal9us--v>4 ( ,b4 arv5sis1 #aae1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 /]ilis1 #g1 #aa1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #gf1 #aaf1 #aca1 #afe1 #agb ,br[n ,b5t--,agro/is can9a ,buds1 #ab ,bulb\s ,mead[-grass--,poa bulbosa ,bulb\s ,poa--,poa bulbosa ,bulbs1 #h1 #cg1 #aad ,calamagro/is--,small re$1 #bi1 #dj1 #hh1 #hi1 #abe1 #ach2 ,c4 ,epigeios1 #ca1 #gj1 #gh1 #ajc1 #aei2 ,c4 lanceolata1 #ca1 #ff1 #ajc1 #ach2 ,c4 /rigosa1 #ajc1 #aei2 ,c4 /ricta1 #ca1 #ajc1 #aei ,can>y grass--,phal>is can>i5sis ,c>pel1 #ig1 #aba ,c>yopsis--! true fruit ( ! grass1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abg1 #abh1 #acb1 #acd1 #ace ,catabrosa--,:orl-grass1 #ad1 #ba1 #bc1 #bi1 #dj1 #fc1 #hd1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aah1 #adf2 ,c4 aquatica1 #ab1 #be1 #ca1 #gc1 #aab1 #adb ,cat's-tail grass--,phleum ,cat's-tail type ( infloresc5ce1 #ajj ,cells1 #fe ,c]eals1 #a ,*aff1 #he1 #acd ,*alk-flee+1 #ce ,*alk species1 #bg1 #cb1 #ce ,*amagro/is--,mibora ,*lorophyll1 #b1 #fb1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #ie ,c9na1 #ig ,circul> %oot sections1 #af1 #dc ,classification accord+ to anatomical *>act]s ( leaf1 #gb-hb ,classification accord+ to floral *>act]s1 #ig1 #ii-aah ,classification accord+ to *>act]s ( se$1 #ace-agd ,classification accord+ to vegetative *>act]s1 #ci-fa ,classification ( se$l+s1 #acc ,clay species1 #cb ,clei/ogam\s--:5 poll9ation & f]tilisation are complet$ 9 fl[]s :i* d n op51 #abj ,climb+ grasses1 #f ,close panicle--an infloresc5ce 9 :i* ! prim>y bran*es d n div]ge widely f ! ra*is1 #aaj ,cock's-foot--,dactylis glom]ata1 #hc ,cockspur ,panicum--,panicum ,crus-galli ,coll>1 #eh1 #abc ,col\r$ nodes1 #ae ,col\r$ %ea?1 #ah ,coma1 #abe ,common ,cat's-tail--,phleum prat5se ,common ,dog's-tail--,cynosurus cri/atus ,common ,foxtail--,alopecurus prat5sis ,common ,mat-grass--,n>dus /ricta ,common ,quak+-grass--,briza m$ia ,common ,re$--,arundo ,phragmites ,compact ,brome--,bromus madrit5sis ,composites1 #b1 #abe ,compress$ %oots1 #ae1 #af1 #dj1 #da1 #dh1 #ec ,conduplicate--fold$1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #fc ,convolute--inroll$1 #ae1 #af1 #fc ,copses1 grasses (1 #bh1 #cd ,coracle-%ap$ 8se$s10 #abh1 #acg1 #aff1 #afg ,cord-grass--,sp>t9a /ricta ,coriace\s--lea!ry1 #ba ,corn1 #a ,corn-field species1 #bh ,corn-type ( fruit1 #acf1 #ach1 #afg ,corynephorus canesc5s--,aira canesc5s ,cotton-grass--,eriophorum ,c\*-grass--,agropyrum rep5s4 ,see also ,twit*1 #aej ,creep+ ,fescue--,fe/uca rubra ,creep+ grasses1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,creep+ grass-se$s1 #abg ,creep+ ,s(t-grass--,holcus lanatus--,holcus mollis ,creep+ /em1 #ab ,cre/$ ,dog's-tail--,cynosurus cri/atus ,cre/$ ,kl]ia--,kl]ia cri/ata ,cross-bre$s1 #abj ,cross-f]tilisation1 #aai1 #abj ,crypsis1 #abc ,culms1 #ad1 #cg1 #hc ,curv$ ,lepturus--,lepturus incurvatus ,cuspidate--end+ sudd5ly 9 a %ort po9t1 #ace ,cut-grass--,le]sia ,cuticle1 #fh1 #gj ,cut9iz$1 cuticul>iz$--impregnat$ ) corky sub/ance1 #fd ,cyl9drical infloresc5ce1 #ij ,cyl9drical 8se$10 #agc ,cynodon--,dog's-too? grass1 #ad1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #hg1 #ij1 #aje2 ,c4 ,dactylon1 #ae1 #ca1 #gb1 #acg ,cynosurus--,dog's-tail1 #ad1 #ah1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ha1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #ajc1 #acj1 #adh1 #aea1 #aga2 ,c4 cri/atus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #bc1 #bh1 #cb1 #ej1 #hj1 #ajh1 #adg1 #adh2 ,c4 e*9atus1 #ajj1 #ajh ,dactylis--,cock's-foot1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #bf1 #da1 #fc1 #hc1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc1 #adh1 #aeh2 ,d4 glom]ata1 #g1 #af1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #da1 #fe1 #ff1 #fi1 #gd1 #aji1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea ,d>nel--,lolium p]5ne--,lolium temul5tum ,decumb5t ,hea?-grass--,triodia decumb5s ,dehisc5t fruits1 #abc ,depaup]at$--/>v$ & consequ5tly dw>f$1 #aji ,des*ampsia cspitosa--,aira cspitosa ,des*ampsia flexuosa--,aira flexuosa ,digit>ia--,panicum ,digitate--spread out l f+]s1 #ae ,digraphis--,re$-grass1 #f1 #aa1 #ac1 #bf1 #dj1 #da1 #ea1 #ee1 #fi1 #gc1 #ge1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajc1 #aca1 #aci1 #adf1 #aei2 ,d4 arund9acea1 #f1 #af1 #bc1 #bi1 #cb1 #ed1 #fd1 #ge1 #ajc1 #aci1 #aej ,dim5sions ( grasses1 #f ,d9o*loa1 #f ,dici\s1 unisexual1 ! male & female fl[]s be+ on sep>ate plants1 #aai ,dis>ticulation ( fruits1 #abd ,dissem9ation1 #abe1 #abg ,di/i*\s--9 two ranks on ! axis1 #ajf ,di/ribution ( grasses1 #b1 #cg1 #ch ,di/ribution ( se$s1 #abd-abg ,di/ribution ( sexes1 #aai ,dit*es1 grasses (1 #bh1 #bi ,dog's-too? grass--,cynodon ,dactylon ,dorsal awn1 #ib1 #aab1 #aaf1 #acj1 #aei ,d\ble se$--grass 8se$0 :]e ! rema9s ( a second fl[] come away ) ! fir/1 #aeb1 #aec ,d[ns1 grasses (1 #bi ,d[ny ,oat--,av5a pubesc5s ,dry leaves1 #ba ,dry situations1 #bd1 #bf1 #bi ,dry soils1 #bi1 #cb ,duration1 #aj ,dw>f$ species1 #f ,e>ly ,hair-grass--,aira prcox ,e>s1 #ai1 #bb1 #eg1 #ei ,e*9o*loa--,panicum ,effects ( grasses on soil1 #ce1 #cf ,egg-cell1 #aba ,eleus9e1 #abc ,elliptical %oot-section1 #af1 #dd ,elymus--,lyme-grass1 #f1 #ac1 #ad1 #ba1 #bb1 #be1 #cf1 #dh1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #fi1 #gi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajb1 #agj2 ,e4 ar5>ius1 #f1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #ff1 #fg1 #ajh1 #adi1 #aej ,embryo1 #aba1 #aca1 #acc ,embryo-sac1 #aba ,embryonic bud--plumule1 #abc ,embryonic roots1 #abc1 #acc ,endosp]m1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc ,en]gy /or$ 9 leaves1 #b1 #c ,entire--n cut3 ) unbrok5 outl9e1 #ai ,entire %ea?1 #ag ,entire-%ea!d grasses1 #ag1 #ci1 #aac1 #aae ,epid]mis1 #be1 #cf1 #fb-fg1 #gj1 #gf1 #abb ,equitant--"o fold$ leaf /raddl+ ov] ano!r1 #ci1 #da ,eriophorum1 #c ,extra-vag9al %oots1 #ab ,false ,oat--,arrh5a!rum av5aceum ,female fl[]s1 #hi ,f]tile fl[]s1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij ,f]tilisation--! fusion ( ! nucleus ( ! poll5-tube ) t ( ! egg-cell1 #aba ,fescue--,fe/uca1 #aae1 #acj1 #acg1 #add1 #adh1 #aea1 #agb ,fe/uca--,fescue1 #b1 #f1 #g1 #ae1 #ba1 #be1 #cf1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abd1 #add1 #adg2 ,f4 arund9acea--v>4 ( ,f4 elatior1 #add1 #aea2 ,f4 calam>ia--,f4 sylvatica2 ,f4 duriuscula--v>4 ( ,f4 ov9a1 #df1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #agb1 #agc2 ,f4 elatior1 #f1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #dd1 #ej1 #ea1 #fc1 #fd1 #hb1 #hd1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abh1 #aca1 #adc1 #add2 ,f4 gigantea--,bromus giganteus2 ,f4 het]ophylla--v>4 ( ,f4 ov9a1 #ac1 #df1 #fi1 #ga1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #agb1 #agc2 ,f4 uniglumis1 #ca1 #ib1 #aaa2 ,f4 loliacea--v>4 ( ,f4 elatior1 #ij1 #ajh2 ,f4 ,myurus1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #bh1 #df1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ii1 #aaa1 #aae1 #acj1 #aff1 #aga1 #agc2 ,f4 ov9a1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #de1 #df1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #gi1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #aaf1 #acd1 #adg1 #aea1 #aga1 #agb2 ,f4 prat5sis--v>4 ( ,f4 elatior1 #g1 #ai1 #bd1 #di1 #fc1 #fd1 #hd1 #aaa1 #adc1 #add2 ,f4 procumb5s--,poa procumb5s2 ,f4 rigida--,poa rigida2 ,f4 rubra1 v>4 ( ,f4 ov9a1 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bd1 #cc1 #df1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #aea1 #aga1 #agb2 ,f4 sabulicola--,f4 rubra1 #df2 ,f4 sciuroides--v>4 ( ,f4 ,myurus1 #be1 #bf1 #df2 ,f4 sylvatica1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bh1 #cd1 #aaf1 #aca1 #adg2 ,f4 t5uifolia--v>4 ( ,f4 ov9a1 #df1 #adh1 #agb2 ,f4 vivip>a--v>4 ( ,f4 ov9a ,fe/uce1 #abb ,fibi*ia umbellata--,cynodon ,dactylon ,fibr\s roots1 #h ,fibr\s ,twit*--,agropyrum can9um ,field ,brome--,bromus arv5sis ,filam5t1 #id ,f9e ,b5t--,agro/is vulg>is ,f+]-grass--,panicum glabrum ,fior9--,agro/is alba ,fir+1 #ce1 #ch ,flank+ l9es1 #da1 #ec1 #fc1 #gc1 #gd ,flat leaves1 #bj1 #dg1 #gg ,flat %oots1 #ae1 #af1 #bj ,flatt5$ ,mead[-grass--,poa compressa ,flav\r1 #bg ,fle%y fruits1 #abc ,float+ leaves1 #ci ,float+ ,foxtail--,alopecurus g5iculatus ,float+ ,mead[-grass--,glyc]ia fluitans ,float+ ,sweet-grass--,glyc]ia fluitans ,floral diagram1 #id1 #ie1 #if ,fl[]1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ii1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aab ,fl[]+ glume--! out] palea ,fl[]+ /em1 #hc1 #hd ,fly+ ,b5t--,mol9ia crulea ,fold$ leaves1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #bd1 #be1 #fc1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd ,=eign grasses1 #cj ,=e/ry1 #c ,=e/ species1 #bg1 #bh1 #cc ,=m ( lam9a1 #ai1 #bj ,foxtail grass--,alopecurus ,foxtail type ( infloresc5ce1 #i1 #hh1 #ajj ,fructification--fruit+1 #abj ,fruit1 #aai1 #abc1 #abe1 #abf1 #abi1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,fruit-coats1 #aba1 #abb ,functions ( awns1 #ie1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg ,functions ( e>s1 #ai ,functions ( leaves1 #b ,functions ( ligule1 #ah1 #ai ,functions ( lodicules1 #if ,functions ( spe>1 #acb ,furr[s1 #bc1 #gh ,ga/ridium--,nit-grass1 #ij1 #ia1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aje2 ,g4 l5dig]um1 #ca ,g]m9ation1 #abc1 #aca-acc ,g]m9ation ( poll5-gra91 #abj1 #aba ,giant ,fescue--,fe/uca gigantea ,gird]s--support+ b&s ( scl]5*yma runn+ 9 ! pr9cipal ribs & ridges1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd-hj ,glabr\s--devoid ( hairs1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #de1 #dh1 #hj1 #afh ,glauc\s--pale sea-gre51 usually due to a waxy bloom1 #bb ,glume1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ii-aah1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #acj1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef ,glyc]ia--,sweet-grass1 #f1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #cg1 #dj1 #ed1 #fg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adf1 #adh2 ,g4 aquatica1 #f1 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #be1 #bf1 #bh1 #ci #ed1 #fi1 #gc1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #adb1 #ade2 ,g4 di/ans--,poa di/ans2 ,g4 fluitans1 #f1 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #ci1 #dj1 #ed1 #fd1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #aaa1 #aac1 #abh1 #ade2 ,g4 m>itima--,poa m>itima2 ,g4 procumb5s--,poa procumb5s2 ,g4 rigida--,poa rigida ,gra91 #hf1 #ie1 #aba1 #abb1 #abg1 #ace ,gram9ace1 *>act]s1 #c1 #cf1 #cg ,gram9e1 see ,gram9ace ,grass1 orig9 ( ! ^w1 #c ,grass c>pets1 #b1 #cg ,grasses1 id5tification (1 #c1 #d ,graz+1 #bg ,grey ,hair-grass--,aira canesc5s ,groov$ leaf1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi ,groov$ %ea?1 #ah ,gyn]ium1 #hi ,habit1 #ac1 #cd ,habitats1 #bg-ca ,hair-grass--,aira ,hairs1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bd1 #bf1 #fb1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #ia1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #ach1 #aci1 #add ,hair-tufts1 #ei1 #abc1 #abe1 #abi1 #aeh ,hairy grasses1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf1 #eg1 #gf1 #ha ,hairy ,brome--,bromus asp] ,hairy 8se$s10 #afh ,half-%ade species1 #cd ,halophytes1 #cf ,h>d ,fescue--,fe/uca duriuscula ,h>d-grass--,lepturus ,h>d leaves1 #ba1 #dg ,h>d ,mead[-grass--,poa rigida ,h>dy ,bamboos1 #ch ,h>e's-tail--,lagurus ,h>% leaves1 #ba ,haulm1 #hc ,hav]s--,av5a fatua ,hay1 #bg1 #cg ,hea? ,false-,brome--,bra*ypodium p9natum ,hea?-grass--,triodia decumb5s ,hea?-grasses1 #bj1 #bi1 #cf ,height1 #f ,heleo*loa1 #abc ,h]bace\s--( ! ord9>y s(t texture ( h]bs1 #f1 #ba1 #ia ,het]od]a1 #aj ,het]ophylly1 #ga ,het]opogon contortus1 #abg ,hi]o*loe--,holy-grass1 #bj1 #bg1 #ff1 #gc1 #ia1 #ib1 #aje1 #aee2 ,h4 borealis1 #cj1 #fe ,hill-pa/ures1 #bi ,hispid--cov]$ ) /iff & r long hairs1 #eh ,hi/ology1 #fb-ga1 #abb ,holcus--,s(t grass1 #h1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #ef1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajf1 #aai1 #abe1 #adh1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee2 ,h4 lanatus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ei1 #fe1 #fi1 #ha1 #ajf1 #adc1 #aea1 #aeb2 ,h4 mollis1 #aa1 #bh1 #cj1 #cc1 #ei1 #ajf1 #aec ,holy-grass--,hi]o*loe ,hood$ leaf-apex1 #ba ,hook-hairs1 #fe ,hordeum--,b>ley1 #aj1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #dd1 #ei1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajh1 #abg1 #acd1 #afc2 ,h4 jubatum1 #abe2 ,h4 m>itimum1 #h1 #aj1 #bi1 #cc1 #ei1 #ajj1 #afc2 ,h4 mur9um1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ba1 #cj1 #ej1 #ei1 #gf1 #ajj1 #abe1 #afb1 #afc2 ,h4 prat5se1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #ba1 #bb1 #bh1 #eh1 #ajj1 #afc2 ,h4 sylvaticum1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bh1 #cd1 #dd1 #eh1 #ei1 #ajj1 #aje1 #afb ,humus species1 #cc1 #ce ,hybrids1 #abj ,hydrophytes--plants requir+ mu* wat]1 & !re=e aquatic or semi-aquatic1 #cg ,hygrophil\s species--hydrophytes1 #gj ,imp]fect--rudim5t>y or /am9ate1 #aje ,inconspicu\sly awn$ grasses1 #ic ,indicator-plants1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd ,infloresc5ce1 #e1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #hc1 #hf-ia1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aji-aah1 #aai ,infold+ ( leaves1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd ,inroll+ ( leaves1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #df1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #ge1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,int]cellul> spaces1 #cg ,int]node1 #h1 #ag ,intra-vag9al %oots1 #ab1 #ac ,introduc$ grasses1 #cj ,involute--roll$ inw>ds1 #bj1 #dg ,irritability ( se$l+s1 #acb ,italian ,rye-grass--,lolium italicum ,keel1 #ah1 #bc1 #bf1 #fc1 #fh1 #fi1 #ia1 #aac1 #abg1 #adj1 #add1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea ,keel$ grasses1 #bf1 #gd ,knappia--,mibora ,kne$ awns1 #abi1 #acj1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh ,kne$ /em1 #i ,knot-grass--,polygonum ,kl]ia1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #be1 #bf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adi2 ,k4 cri/ata1 #h1 #bi1 #cb1 #ff1 #ha1 #aji1 #adh1 #adi ,lacun--air-spaces1 #gj1 #gc ,lagurus--,h>e's-tail1 #gf1 #hh1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aji2 ,l4 ovatus1 #ca ,lam9a--! blade ( ! leaf1 #fc-ga1 #ie ,lanceolate--n>r[ & tap]+ at bo? ends1 #afc ,lanceolate-acum9ate--lanceolate1 b ! upp] end drawn out to a long po9t1 #afc ,l>ge grasses1 #f ,lawns1 #aj1 #cg ,lax--loose1 ! spikelets on sl5d] bran*es "s di/ance ap>t1 #aaj1 #aag ,lay$ %oots1 #ae ,leaf1 #ag-bg1 #ci-fa1 #ie1 #acc ,leaf anatomy1 #fb-ga1 #gb-hb ,leaf-apex1 #ba ,leaf-base1 #aj1 #bb1 #dj ,leaf-blade--,lam9a ,leaf *>act]s1 #d1 #bj-bg ,leaf-m>g91 #bb1 #dd1 #ff ,leaf-section1 #af1 #bj1 #fb-gb ,leaf-/alk--,petiole ,leaf-surface1 #bb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg ,lea/ ,quak+-grass--,briza m9or ,lea!ry leaves1 #ba ,le]sia--,cut-grass1 #fg1 #gj1 #gg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aje1 #abj2 ,l4 oryzoides1 #cj1 #ff1 #acg ,legum9os1 #c ,lepturus1 #hg1 #ij1 #ii2 ,l4 fili=mis--,l4 incurvatus2 ,l4 incurvatus1 #ca ,ligule1 #ah1 #ai1 #de1 #df1 #ea1 #ie1 #aac1 #acc ,lime/one species1 #cb ,l9e>--at lea/ five times z long z broad1 ) p>allel /raight sides1 #ai ,l9e>-acum9ate--l9e>1 b tap]+ to a long po9t at ! apex1 #ai ,l9e>-acute--l9e>1 b po9t$ at ! apex1 #ci ,l9e>-lanceolate--l9e>1 b tap]+ at bo? ends1 #ai1 #bj1 #afc1 #afh ,l9e>-oblong--oblong1 b drawn out s t ! sides are p>allel = "s di/ance1 #af ,local grasses1 #cj1 #ca ,lodicules1 #hf1 #hg1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,lolium--,rye-grass1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bb1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #ec1 #eg1 #ei1 #hb1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #add1 #aea1 #afg2 ,l4 italicum1 #g1 #aa1 #bh1 #ca1 #di2 ,l4 p]5ne1 #h1 #aa1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #di1 #ha1 #hb1 #ic1 #ajg1 #abh1 #aca1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #aej1 #afh2 ,l4 temul5tum1 #h1 #aj1 #cj1 #di1 #ej1 #hb1 #ib1 #ajg1 #abi1 #acj1 #adb1 #aej1 #afg1 #afh ,loose ,panic-grass--,panicum ,crus-galli ,lygeum1 #cf ,lyme-grass--,elymus ,maize1 #a1 #hi1 #abj ,male fl[]s1 #hi1 #ij1 #aai ,manna-cr\p--,glyc]ia fluitans ,_m-fl[]$ spikelets1 #ij ,m>g9 ( leaf1 #ba1 #bb1 #ff ,m>g9al asp]ities1 #bb ,m>itime grasses1 #bi ,m>ram--,psamma ,m>% ,b5t--,agro/is alba ,m>% ,foxtail--,alopecurus g5iculatus ,m>% grasses1 #bh1 #bi ,mat-grass--,psamma ar5>ia ,mayde1 #abb ,mead[s1 #a ,mead[ ,b>ley--,hordeum prat5se ,mead[ ,fescue--,fe/uca elatior--,fe/uca prat5sis ,mead[ ,foxtail--,alopecurus prat5sis ,mead[-grass--,poa prat5sis1 #hc ,mead[ grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #cg1 #aac ,mead[ ,s(t-grass--,holcus lanatus ,me*anical tissues--tissues compos$ ( h>d-wall$ cells 7scl]5*yma7 s]v+ = support1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh ,m$ium grasses1 #g ,melica--,melick1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cd1 #fc1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aaj1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,m4 ciliata1 #cb2 ,m4 nutans1 #g1 #ag1 #cc1 #da1 #gh1 #ajd1 #aje1 #acg2 ,m4 uniflora1 #g1 #ag1 #bh1 #cc1 #dj1 #da1 #gh1 #ajd1 #aje1 #acg ,melocanna1 #abc ,membran\s ligule1 #ai ,mesophytes--plants adapt$ to ord9>y conditions ( moi/ure1 #cg ,mibora1 #fh1 #hg1 #hi2 ,m4 v]na1 #ca1 #gd1 #ii ,micropyle1 #aba ,microscopic *>act]s1 #fb1 #abb ,mid-rib1 #ae1 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 #fc1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd ,milium--,millet-grass1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #bb1 #bg1 #cd1 #hi1 #ia1 #ib1 #acg2 ,m4 effusum1 #f1 #bh1 #cc1 #ajc1 #acf ,millet--,panicum1 #ace ,millet-grass--,milium ,millet-se$ type1 #abg1 #ace ,moi/ soils1 #bf1 #cb ,mol9ia1 #h1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #dj1 #fj1 #gg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea1 #aga2 ,m4 crulea1 #g1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #ei1 #aaj1 #adh1 #adi ,monocotyl$ons1 #ig1 #acd ,monci\s--male & female fl[]s on ! same plant1 #aai ,moor-grass--,sesl]ia ,moor-grasses1 #h1 #bj1 #bi1 #cg ,moor ,mat-grass--,n>dus /ricta1 #hc ,morphology ( fl[]1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,morphology ( spikelet1 #id ,motor-cells1 #be1 #da1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,m\nta9 ,melick--,melica nutans ,movem5ts ( awns1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg ,movem5ts ( se$l+s1 #acb ,mucronate--) a %ort po9t sudd5ly spr++ f a r\nd$ apex1 #bb1 #ach1 #aci1 #adf1 #adi1 #aej ,myosotis1 #c ,nak$ fruits1 #acf ,n>dus1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #hj1 #hc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #id1 #acj1 #adf1 #aga2 ,n4 /ricta1 #h1 #i1 #bi1 #cc1 #cf1 #df1 #fd1 #fi1 #gj1 #ii1 #aga1 #agc1 #agd ,n>r[-leaf$ ,oat--,av5a prat5sis ,n>r[ ,small-re$--,calamagro/is /ricta ,naviculate--,boat-%ap$1 b po9t$ at bo? ends1 #af ,nematode worms1 #aj ,n]ves--m9ute ve9s on pale1 #aac1 #aae1 #abh1 #adj1 #add1 #afh ,nodes1 #f1 #h1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae ,nodules1 #aj ,nor!rn ,holy-grass--,hi]o*loe borealis ,nucellus--! body ( ! ovule or "y se$1 #abb ,nuclei1 #aba ,numb]s ( grasses1 #b ,oat--,av5a1 #he1 #hi1 #acc ,oat-type ( 8se$10 #aef ,obsolete--s mu* r$uc$ z to be practically abs5t1 #ai1 #de1 #dh1 #aae1 #aaf ,obtuse--r\nd$ (f & blunt at ! apex1 #ai1 #ia ,od\rs1 #bg ,(fsets1 #ab ,olyra1 #f ,"o-fl[]$ spikelets1 #hi ,"o-glum$ ,fescue--,fe/uca uniglumis ,op5 panicle--"o :]e ! prim>y bran*es /& (f at "r angles f ! ra*is1 #aab ,orange spik$ ,foxtail--,alopecurus fulvus ,or*ids1 #b ,ov>y1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #aai1 #aba ,ovate-acute--egg-%ap$ 9 outl9e1 b ! free n>r[ end po9t$1 #fa ,ovate-lanceolate--ovate1 b tap]+ above1 #afh ,pale--,palea1 #hf1 #hi ,palea1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ib1 #ic1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ii-aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,pampas-grass1 #a ,panic-grass--,panicum ,panicle1 #e1 #ab1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aji-aah ,panicum1 #d1 #ai1 #fg1 #fi1 #gb1 #hg1 #ij1 #ib1 #aja1 #aje1 #aji1 #abd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,p4 ,crus-galli1 #acg2 ,p4 glaucum1 #cj2 ,p4 plicatum1 #ba2 ,p4 sangu9ale1 #cj2 ,p4 v]ticillatum1 #cj ,papill--protrud+ cells n long en\gh to be t]m$ hairs1 #fd1 #fg ,pappus1 #abe ,p>allel v5ation1 #ba1 #bb ,p>5*yma--ord9>y s(t cellul> tissue ( h]bace\s p>ts1 #fd1 #fe ,p>tial infloresc5ce1 #hf ,pa/ure1 #a1 #aj ,pa/ure-grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #cg ,p]5nial ,be>d-grass--,polypogon littoralis ,p]5nial grasses1 #aj1 #aa1 #dj1 #dc1 #eh1 #aad ,p]5nial ,oat--,av5a prat5sis ,p]5nial ,oat-grass--,av5a prat5sis ,p]fect fl[]s1 #hi1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajf ,p]ian?--! floral cov]+s1 #if ,p]ic>p--! coats ( ! true fruit1 #aba1 #abb ,petiole1 #e1 #ag ,phal>is--,can>y grass1 #hh1 #aja1 #aji1 #acf2 ,p4 arund9acea--,digraphis arund9acea2 ,p4 can>i5sis1 #ca1 #aci ,phleum1 #ff1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,p4 alp9um1 #cj1 #ajb2 ,p4 ar5>ium1 #g1 #aj1 #bi1 #cg1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 asp]um1 #ca1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 ,bhm]i1 #h1 #ca1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 nodosum--v>4 ( ,p4 prat5se2 ,p4 phal>oides--,p4 ,bhm]i2 ,p4 prat5se1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #ee1 #gj1 #gf1 #ajb1 #abh1 #ace ,phloem1 #fg ,phragmites communis--,arundo ,phragmites ,physiognomy1 #cf1 #cg ,pi]c+ ( soil1 #acb ,pilose--) scatt]$1 r long s(t hairs1 #ei ,plait$ v]nation1 #ba ,plantago1 #c ,plicate--plait$ ,plume-l infloresc5ce1 #ia1 #ajc ,plumule1 #aba1 #abc1 #acb1 #acc ,poa1 #b1 #ae1 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #dg1 #ed1 #fa1 #gd1 #hc1 #hd1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abg1 #aca1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #adf1 #aea1 #afb2 ,p4 alp9a1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ca1 #dd1 #ed1 #fc1 #aad1 #acd1 #adf2 ,p4 annua1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #af1 #cj1 #cd1 #db1 #ec1 #ed1 #fc1 #fh1 #gd1 #ge1 #aad1 #abg1 #ada1 #adf2 ,p4 aquatica--,glyc]ia aquatica2 ,p4 bulbosa1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #bi1 #ed1 #fi1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 compressa1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #cj1 #cb1 #db1 #ec1 #ed1 #fc1 #fi1 #gd1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj2 ,p4 di/ans1 #bi1 #cj1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 f]tilis--,p4 s]ot9a1 #de2 ,p4 fluitans--,glyc]ia fluitans2 ,p4 laxa1 #ca1 #acd2 ,p4 loliacea1 #ca1 #ajh1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 m>itima1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #bi1 #dg1 #ed1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 nemoralis1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #bh1 #cd1 #de1 #ed1 #fc1 #gd1 #ge1 #aac1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #afa2 ,p4 prat5sis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #ed1 #ee1 #fg1 #ge1 #aac1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada2 ,p4 procumb5s1 #ca1 #aaa1 #aad2 ,p4 rigida1 #aj1 #ad1 #cj1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 /ricta--v>4( ,p4 alp9a1 #acd2 ,p4 trivialis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bg1 #cb1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #ed1 #gd1 #ij1 #aab1 #aac1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adh ,poll51 #ic1 #id1 #aai ,poll5-gra91 #abj1 #aba ,poll5-tube1 #abj1 #aba ,poll9ation1 #ic1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba ,polygonum1 #c ,polypogon--,be>d-grass1 #fi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aji2 ,p4 littoralis1 #ca2 ,p4 monspeli5sis1 #ca ,ponds1 grasses (1 #bh1 #bi ,popul> names1 #f ,potassium salts1 #cb ,prairies1 #a1 #cf1 #ch ,prickle-hairs1 #ff ,prim>y root1 #abc1 #aca ,procumb5t ,mead[-grass--,poa procumb5s ,prot&r\s--:5 ! poll5 is mature & %$ be=e ! /igma ( ! same fl[] is ready = poll9ation1 #aai ,prot]ogyn\s--:5 ! /igma is receptive be=e ! poll5 ( ! same fl[] is mature1 #aai ,psamma1 #d1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ba1 #be1 #cf1 #dh1 #gi1 #ha1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ie1 #ach2 ,p4 ar5>ia1 #g1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #gj1 #gi1 #ajb1 #ach1 #aci ,pubesc5ce--hair9ess1 #bf ,pung5t--sp9e-l1 #bb ,purple-fl[]$ ,small-re$--,calamagro/is lanceolata ,purple-/alk$ ,cat's-tail--,phleum ,bhm]i ,purple-ve9$ %ea?s1 #ah ,quadrangul> %oot-section1 #af1 #dj ,quake-grass--,briza ,quak+-grass--,briza m$ia ,racem\s--l a raceme1 #aje ,ra*illa1 #he1 #abc1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acg1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #adi1 #aej1 #afd1 #afg1 #afi1 #agj1 #agb ,ra*is1 #i1 #he1 #hh1 #ajf1 #ajg ,radicle1 #aba1 #abc ,r>e grasses1 #f1 #cj1 #ca1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib ,rat's-tail ,fescue--,fe/uca ,myurus ,r$-%ea!d grasses1 #ah1 #di1 #ei ,re$1 #b ,re$ ,can>y grass--,digraphis arund9acea ,re$ ,fescue--,fe/uca sylvatica ,re$-grass1 #a1 #f ,re$ ,mead[-grass--,glyc]ia aquatica ,re$ ,sweet-grass--,glyc]ia aquatica ,reflex$ leaves1 #af ,reflex$ ,mead[-grass--,poa di/ans ,rhizomes1 #aj1 #aa1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg ,rhomboidal %oot-section1 #af1 #db ,rib-grass--,plantago ,ribbon-grass--,digraphis arund9acea ,ribs--! m opaque ve9s due to ! l>g] vascul>-bundles1 #bb1 #be1 #fb1 #ia1 #abg ,rice1 #a ,ridgeless grasses1 #be ,ridges1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #dg1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj1 #ia ,riv]-banks1 #bh1 #bi ,road-sides1 #bi ,roll$ leaves1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #bd1 #be1 #fc ,roll+ ( leaves1 #bd1 #be1 #cf ,root-cap1 #aba ,roots1 #h1 #ab1 #ce1 #aba1 #abc1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc ,r\gh ,cock's-foot--,dactylis glom]ata ,r\gh ,mead[-grass--,poa trivialis ,r\gh ,phleum--,phleum asp]um ,r\gh-/alk$ ,mead[-grass--,poa trivialis ,r\nd %oots1 #ae1 #af1 #db1 #ej1 #eg ,rud]al grasses1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce ,rudim5t>y fl[]s1 #hi1 #ij1 #aje ,runn]s1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad ,ru%es1 #d1 #cc ,ru%y ,:eat-grass--,agropyrum junceum ,rye--,secale1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc ,rye ,brome--,bromus secal9us ,rye-grass--,lolium p]5ne ,salt species1 #cc ,s&-b9d]s1 #ac1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #ajh ,s& ,cat's-tail--,phleum ar5>ium ,s& dunes1 #ce1 #cf ,s& species1 #bi1 #cb1 #cf ,s&y situations1 #h1 #bi1 #cc ,savannahs1 #a1 #ch ,scab]ul\s--slightly r\gh to ! t\*1 #bb1 #de1 #afd ,scabrid--r\gh to ! t\*1 #bb1 #dg1 #ed ,sc>i\s--z if scor*$ by fire1 #ib1 #ade ,sc5ts1 #bg ,scl]5*yma--me*anical tissue1 #fb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj ,scl]o*loa--,poa ,scl]o*loa m>itima--,poa m>itima2 ,s4 procumb5s--,poa procumb5s2 ,s4 rigida--,poa rigida ,scorpion-grass--,myosotis ,scutellum1 #aba1 #abc ,sea ,b>ley--,hordeum m>itimum ,sea ,cat's-tail--,phleum ar5>ium ,sea-grass--,zo/]a ,sea ,h>d-grass--,lepturus incurvatus ,sea ,lyme-grass--,elymus ar5>ius ,sea ,mat-grass--,psamma ar5>ia ,sea ,mat-we$--,psamma ar5>ia ,sea ,mead[-grass--,poa m>itima ,sea ,poa--,poa m>itima ,sea ,re$--,psamma ar5>ia ,sea-side grasses1 #bg1 #bi ,second>y roots1 #aba1 #abc1 #aca1 #acc ,secund--turn$ to "o side1 #i1 #hi1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aad ,s$ges1 #c1 #d1 #cc1 #ce1 #aba ,se$--/rictly ! cont5ts ( ! c>yopsis 7fruit71 b 9 practice ! fruit & its adh]5t pale etc4 7*aff7 are t]m$ 8se$10 #aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,se$-coats1 #aba1 #abb ,se$l+s1 #acb1 #acc ,semi-aquatic species1 #bh1 #bi ,sep>ation ( fruits1 #abd ,s]rul--m9ute too?-l asp]ities1 #bb1 #ia1 #agc ,sesl]ia--,moor-grass1 #bb1 #be1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #aja2 ,s4 crulea1 #ag1 #db1 #fg1 #ajh1 #adi1 #aea ,sessile--sitt+ directly on an axis )\t an int]v5+ /alk1 #hg1 #ii1 #ajg ,setace\s--bri/le-l1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #de1 #aaa1 #aac ,set>ia--,panicum ,sexual organs1 #acd ,%ade action ( grasses1 #ce ,%ade-grasses1 #bj1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #gj ,%apes ( c>yopsis1 #abg ,%apes ( leaves1 #d1 #ai1 #bj ,%apes ( %oot1 #af ,%>p-edg$ %oots1 #af ,%ea?1 #e1 #h1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #ea1 #ie1 #acc ,%eep's ,fescue--,fe/uca ov9a ,%elv+ %ea?-m>g91 #bb ,%oot1 #aj1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #abc ,siegl+ia decumb5s--,triodia decumb5s ,silice\s--impregnat$ ) fl9t--silex1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,silky ,b5t-grass--,agro/is ,spicav5ti ,silv]y ,hair-grass--,aira c>yophyllea ,s+le-husk$ ,fescue--,fe/uca uniglumis ,sl5d] ,foxtail--,alopecurus agre/is ,small grasses1 #g ,small ,re$--,calamagro/is ,smoo? ,brome--,bromus racemosus ,sociable plants1 #cf ,sod1 #cg ,sodium *loride1 #cc ,s(t ,brome--,bromus mollis ,s(t-grass--,holcus ,s(t ,holcus--,holcus mollis ,soil =mation1 #cf ,soil protection1 #cf ,solid leaves1 #df ,solid /ems1 #d ,s\r soils1 #cc ,sp>t9a--,cord-grass1 #fi1 #hg1 #ij1 #ii1 #aje2 ,s4 /ricta1 #bg1 #ca1 #gh ,spe>1 #abc1 #acb ,spikate infloresc5ce1 #ii1 #ajf ,spike1 #i1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh ,spik$ ,fescue--,fe/uca loliacea ,spikelet1 #i1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii-aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abc1 #abd ,spike-l panicle1 #i1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajb ,sp9esc5t leaf1 #bb ,sp9ifex1 #abe ,split %ea?1 #e1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai ,split-%ea!d grasses1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #de1 #ej ,sporobolus1 #abc1 #acd ,squirrel-tail grass--,hordeum m>itimum ,/am51 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aai ,/am9ate--a fl[] ) /am5s & no ov>y1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajf ,/>*1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb ,/em1 #d1 #f1 #h ,/eppes1 #a1 #cf1 #ch ,/igma--/igmatic plumes1 #hf1 #hg1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #ig1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba ,/ipa1 #cf1 #if1 #abf2 ,s4 capillata1 #abe2 ,s4 p5nata1 #cb1 #abe2 ,s4 sp>tea1 #abe ,/olon1 #aj1 #ab1 #ce1 #aad ,/olonif]\s grasses1 #h1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,/omata1 #be1 #cf1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gj1 #gc1 #gg1 #hj1 #ie ,/r&-plants1 #cf ,/r+y roots1 #h ,/rip$ grass--,digraphis arund9acea ,/ruggle = exi/5ce1 #b1 #cg1 #ch ,/yle1 #id1 #ig1 #ii ,sub-acute--h>dly po9t$1 #adb ,sub-sessile--v %ortly /alk$1 s z to be all b sessile1 #ii1 #ajf ,sub-t]m9al awn1 #ie1 #aae1 #abi1 #acj1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afb1 #afc-afh1 #afi ,subulate--awl-%ap$3 /\t] ?an setace\s1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi ,sug>1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb ,sug>-cane1 #a ,sun-plants1 #cf ,sweet-ta/+ grasses1 #ci ,sweet ,v]nal grass--,an?oxan?um odoratum ,sympodium1 #aa ,tall ,brome--,bromus giganteus ,tall ,fescue--,fe/uca elatior ,tap]+ leaves1 #ba ,ta/es1 #bg ,temp]ate species1 #b ,t]ete--cyl9drical & gradually tap]+1 #f1 #ed1 #afc1 #aga ,t]m9al awn1 #ib1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abf1 #acj1 #afb1 #afh-agd1 #agc ,texture ( leaf1 #ba ,?ree-fl[]$ spikelets1 #ij ,timo?y--,phleum prat5se ,tom5tose--s(tly hairy1 #ei ,transpiration1 #bj ,transv]se sections ( leaves1 #af1 #bc1 #bd1 #fc1 #fd ,transv]se section ( %oot1 #ae1 #af ,triodia--,hea?-grass1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #be1 #bf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #aci2 ,t4 decumb5s1 #h1 #bi1 #cd1 #aaj1 #abc ,trisetum flavesc5s--,av5a flavesc5s ,triticum--,:eat2 ,t4 acutum--,t4 laxum2 ,t4 junceum--,agropyrum junceum2 ,t4 laxum--,agropyrum laxum2 ,t4 pung5s--,t4 laxum2 ,t4 rep5s--,agropyrum rep5s ,tropical species1 #a1 #b ,truncate1 #ib1 #adb ,tub]1 #h ,tuft$ grasses1 #ac1 #ad ,tuft$ ,hair-grass--,aira cspitosa ,tuft$ infloresc5ces1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aji ,tufts1 #e1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #cg ,tumble-we$s1 #abe ,turgesc5ce--! di/5sion ( cells ) wat] :i* !y h absorb$1 #fc ,tussocks1 #ac ,twi/$ awns1 #aaf1 #abe1 #abf1 #abi1 #acj1 #aea1 #aed1 #aeh ,twi/+ ( se$l+ leaves1 #acc ,twit*--c]ta9 p]si/5t we$s belong+ to ! g5]a ,agropyrum1 ,agro/is1 ,holcus1 etc43 see ,c\*-grass1 #eb1 #eg1 #ei ,two-fl[]$ spikelets1 #ij ,u-%ap$ leaf-sections1 #bj ,uniola1 #ig ,upright ,brome--,bromus erectus4 ,also ,b4 madrit5sis ,uses ( grasses1 #a1 #b ,v-%ap$ leaf-sections1 #bj1 #ec1 #gc ,vagabond grasses1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd ,v>iability1 #bf ,vascul> bundles1 #ba1 #bb1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha ,vascul>-bundle %ea?1 #fh1 #ie1 #abb ,vegetative organs1 #d ,ve9s1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #fh1 #gf1 #ia ,v5ation1 #ba1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh ,v]m91 #ce ,v]nal grass--,an?oxan?um1 #hc ,v]nation--fold+ ( ! leaves 9 bud1 #ba ,v]satile--hung loosely s z to turn freely1 #id ,vessels1 #fg ,violet-br[n %ea?1 #ah ,vivip>\s grasses1 #aab1 #aad1 #acd ,vulpia ,myurus--,fe/uca ,myurus2 ,v4 uniglumis--,fe/uca uniglumis ,wall ,b>ley--,hordeum mur9um ,wall ,fescue--,fe/uca ,myurus ,walls1 grasses (1 #bi ,wa/e-places1 #bi ,wat]-/or+ tissues1 #cf1 #gj ,wat] ,:orl-grass--,catabrosa aquatica ,wavy ,hair-grass--,aira flexuosa ,wavy ,mead[-grass--,poa laxa ,wax1 #cf1 #gj ,web--m9ute tuft$ s(t hairs at ! base ( ! c>yopsis1 #aac1 #aad1 #abg1 #aca1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada ,we$s1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #ce ,:eat--,triticum1 #a1 #abj1 #abg1 #acb1 #acc ,:eat-grass--,agropyrum ,:orl-grass--,catabrosa ,wild ,oat--,av5a fatua1 #aag ,w9d-borne se$s1 #abe1 #abf ,w+s1 #abe1 #adb ,wood ,b>ley--,hordeum sylvaticum ,wood ,false-,brome--,bra*ypodium sylvaticum ,wood ,mead[-grass--,poa nemoralis ,wood ,melick--,melica uniflora ,wood ,poa--,poa nemoralis ,wood-species1 #bh1 #cc ,woolly ,holcus--,holcus lanatus ,x5ia--cases :]e ! direct influ5ce ( ! poll5 is evid5t on ! se$ result+ f its action1 #abj ,x]ophil\s--( ! nature ( a x]ophyte1 #gj ,x]ophytes--plants adapt$ to dry situations1 #bd1 #be1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #fh1 #gj ,xylem1 #fg ,yell[ ,oat-grass--,av5a flavesc5s ,yell[-%ea!d grasses1 #ah ,york%ire ,fog--,holcus lanatus1 #aeb ,zo/]a1 #c ,,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,,cambridge ,,biological ,,s]ies ,! ,elem5ts ( ,botany4 ,by ,,francis ,,d>w91 ,sc4,d41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ ( ,*ri/'s ,college4 ,second edition4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) #id illu/rations4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,j\rnal ( ,education4 ,a notewor?y addition to our botanical lit]ature4 ,practical ,physiology ( ,plants4 ,by ,,francis ,,d>w91 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,e4 ,,hamilton ,,acton1 ,m4,a4 ,?ird edition4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) #de illu/rations4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,nature4 ,! au?ors are mu* to be congratulat$ on _! "w1 :i* fills a s]i\s gap 9 ! botanical lit]ature ( ?is c\ntry4 ,morphology & ,an?ropology4 ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,duckwor?1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,fell[ & ,lectur] ( ,jesus ,college1 ,univ]sity ,lectur] 9 ,physical ,an?ropology4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #ccc illu/rations4 #aes4 net4 ,a!num4 ,mr ,duckwor? has manag$ to produce 9 8 8,morphology & ,an?ropology0 j su* a text-book z /ud5ts h long be5 ask+ =4444 ,x is no easy task to h und]tak5 su* a "w & ! au?or is to be congratulat$ on ! success :i* has att5d$ 8 ef=ts4 ,! volume c be confid5tly recomm5d$ to all ^: /udies lead !m 9 ?is direction4 ,lectures on ! ,hi/ory ( ,physiology dur+ ! ,sixte5?1 ,sev5te5? & ,eighte5? ,c5turies4 ,by ,sir ,m4 ,,fo/]1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,m4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) a frontispiece4 #is4 ,nature4 ,!re is no m fasc9at+ *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce ?an t :i* deals ) physiology1 b a concise & at ! same "t comp5di\s acc\nt ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! subject has nev] be=e be5 pres5t$ to ! ,engli% read]4 ,physiologi/s !re=e owe a debt ( gratitude to ,sir ,mi*ael ,fo/] = supply+ a want :i* 0 widely felt4444 ,no high] praise c be giv5 to ! book ?an to say t x is wor?y ( ! reputation ( its au?or4 ,! ,soluble ,f]m5ts & ,f]m5tation4 ,by ,j4 ,,reynolds ,,gre51 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,botany to ! ,ph>maceutical ,society ( ,great ,brita94 ,second edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 ,nature4 ,x is n necess>y to recomm5d ! p]usal ( ! book to all int]e/$ 9 ! subject s9ce x is indisp5sable to !m1 & we w m]ely conclude by congratulat+ ! ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press on hav+ add$ to _! admirable s]ies ( ,natural ,sci5ce ,manuals an em95tly successful "w on s important & difficult a !me1 & ! au?or on hav+ writt5 a treatise clev]ly conceiv$1 indu/ri\sly & ably work$ out1 & on ! :ole1 well writt54 ,conditions ( ,life 9 ! ,sea4 ,a %ort acc\nt ( ,quantitative ,m>9e ,biological ,rese>*4 ,by ,,james ,,john/one1 ,fi%]ies ,laboratory1 ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) a *>t & #ca illu/rations4 #is4 net4 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( "s ,common ,animals4 ,by ,,oswald ,h4 ,,latt]1 ,m4,a41 ,s5ior ,sci5ce ,ma/] at ,*>t]h\se4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) #ed illu/rations4 #es4 net4 ,nature4 ,an excell5t book1 writt5 by a man :o is equally 9 8 elem5t :e!r he writes z an outdoor naturali/ or z a laboratory /ud5t4 ,?is comb9ation is by no means a common "o1 & x is j ! comb9ation t is want$ = a book ( ?is k9d4444 ,altoge!r ! book is an admirable "o4 ,a!num4 ,a book t may be judici\sly plac$ 9 ! h&s ( any boy :o ev9ces a reasonable int]e/ 9 ! animal life ar\nd him4 ,! ,classification ( ,fl[]+ ,plants4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,,b>ton ,,r5dle1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab471 ,d4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,l4,s41 ,keep] ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,botany1 ,briti% ,museum4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,gymnosp]ms & ,monocotyl$ons4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #ahg illu/rations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,g>d5]'s ,*ronicle4 ,num]\s illu/rations & an excell5t index add to ! value ( ! "w4 ,we he>tily congratulate ! au?or on ! p>tial accompli%m5t ( a difficult & labori\s task4 ,! "p be=e u does b :et our appetite = :at is to foll[4 ,a!num4 ,! fir/ in/alm5t ( a text book :i* w well repres5t ! /ate ( our k 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! c5tury4 ,9 ! pres5t volume ! ,gymnosp]ms & ! ,monocotyl$ons alone are dealt )2 b !y are treat$ ) su* excell5t co-ord9ation ( detail & su* cle>-head$ s5se ( proportion1 t we eag]ly await ! publication ( ! next in/alm5t4 ,! ,orig9 & ,influ5ce ( ! ,?or\gh-br$ ,horse4 ,by ,w4 ,,ridgeway1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,disney ,pr(essor ( ,ar*ology & ,fell[ ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #adc illu/rations4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,we/m9/] ,gazette4 ,!re has nev] be5 a m le>n$ contribution to equ9e lit]ature ?an ,pr(essor ,ridgeway's compreh5sive & exhau/ive book4 ,spectator4 ,x w\ld be difficult = ,pr(essor ,ridgeway to write a book :i* did n conta9 at lea/ "o :olly novel !sis1 & ! pres5t "w is no exception to 8 practice4 ,x is also an encyclopa$ia ( in=mation on ! hi/ory ( ! ,equidae1 collect$ f e s\rce1 f po/-,pleioc5e deposits to mod]n sport+ newspap]s4 ,no detail escapes ! au?or's indu/ry1 & 444 ! result is a monum5t ( s\nd le>n+1 unique ( its k9d4 ,manual ( ,practical ,morbid ,anatomy1 be+ a ,h&book = ! ,po/-mortem ,room4 ,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,rolle/on1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 & ,a4 ,a4 ,,kan?ack1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,r4,c4,p4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #fs4 ,fossil ,plants3 a text-book = /ud5ts ( ,botany & ,geology4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 ,9 #c vols4 ,demy #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i4 ) a frontispiece & #aaa illu/rations1 #ajs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ) a frontispiece & #bfe illu/rations4 #aes4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii 9 ! ,press4 ,revue ,sci5tifique4 ,n\s ne p\vons entr] dans le dtail2 mais il e/ vid5t que ,m4 ,sew>d1 pratici5 di/+u lui-mme1 e/ trs au c\rant des travaux des autres1 il les cite et utilise abondamm5t2 et ceci e/ fait p\r inspir] confiance4 ,au total1 son uvre e/ appuye sur des bases solides1 et elle re/]a sans d\te longtemps le brviaire1 le manuel de ceux qui veul5t1 non pas seulem5t s'initi] la palobotanique1 mais retr\v] les r5seignem5ts qui sont p>s dans des c5ta9es de monographies qu'on a s\v5t pe9e se procur]4 ,le livre de ,m4 ,sew>d fait p>tie des ,cambridge ,natural ,sci5ce ,manuals1 et il e/ digne de cette collection1 qui e/ elle-mme digne du foy] sci5tifique univ]sellem5t rput1 o il a vu le j\r4 ,zoology4 ,an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,%ipley1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,e4 ,w4 ,,macbride1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab471 ,d4,sc4 7,london74 ,second edition4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #cdi illu/rations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,precisely ! sort ( book :i*1 if x came into a ?\ghtful boy's h&s1 w\ld turn him f a smatt]] into a /ud5t4444 ,"o ( ! mo/ in/ructive & attractive books t c\ld be put into ! h&s ( a "y naturali/4 ,trees3 ,a ,h&book ( ,=e/ ,botany = ! ,woodl&s & ! ,laboratory4 ,by ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,buds & ,twigs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,leaves4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,fl[]s & ,infloresc5ces4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,fruits4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,=m & ,habit1 ) an ,app5dix on ,se$l+s4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 #ds4 #f;d4 net ea*4 ,price = ! set ( five volumes1 #bjs4 net4 ,nature4 ,! cle> & simple way 9 :i* ! au?or treats ! subject is sure to inspire _m ) int]e/ & en?usiasm = ! /udy ( =e/ botany4444 ,! "w w be f\nd indisp5sable to ^? /ud5ts :o wi% to make an exp]t /udy ( =e/ botany4 ,at ! same "t x is express$ 9 language s cle> & devoid ( te*nicalities t ! amateur :o wi%es to "k some?+ ab\t our trees & %rubs w f9d ?is "o ( ! mo/ useful guides to :i* he c turn4444 ,! "w is a _m sid$ "o1 act+ n only z a guide to ! naturali/ 9 ! field1 b also z a laboratory h&book1 :]e ! use ( ! l5s & microscope may be employ$ to amplify ! /udy ( objects already obs]v$ 9 _! natural habitats4 ,botani/s g5]ally1 & especially =e/ botani/s w welcome ! appe>ance ( ?is book z supply+ a decid$ want1 & fill+ a di/9ct gap 9 our lit]ature ( =e/ botany4 ,grasses3 a ,h&book = use 9 ! ,field & ,laboratory4 ,by ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) #ha figures4 #fs4 ,field4 ,! "w is ess5tially suit$ to ! requirem5ts ( ^? desir\s ( /udy+ ! grasses commonly gr[n 9 ?is c\ntry1 & x c fairly be said t x furni%es an am\nt ( in=mation seldom obta9$ 9 m pret5ti\s volumes4 ,p4 ,t4 ,o4 ,a ,treatise on ! ,briti% ,fre%wat] ,alg4 ,by ,g4 ,s4 ,,we/1 ,m4,a41 ,a4,r4,c4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,lectur] 9 ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,birm+ham4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) a frontispiece & #aff illu/rations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,nature4 ,its aim is /at$ z 8to give ! /ud5t a concise acc\nt ( ! /ructure1 habits & life-hi/ories ( ,fre%wat] ,alg1 & also to enable him to place )9 ! prescrib$ limits ( a g5us any ,alg he may f9d 9 ! fre%wat] ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s40 ,to d ?is )9 ! limits ( an octavo volume ( less ?an #djj pages1 9 :i* are num]\s illu/rations1 is a task possible ( accompli%m5t only by "o v famili> ) ! subject & skill$ 9 concise expression2 b t x has be5 successfully done w1 we ?9k1 be ! v]dict aft] te/+ ! book ?or\ghly4444 ,pr(4 ,we/'s treatm5t ( 8 subject is in/ructive & /imulat+4 ,a ,manual & ,diction>y ( ! ,fl[]+ ,plants & ,f]ns4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,willis1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d41 ,director ( ! ,royal ,botanic ,g>d5s1 ,ceylon4 ,?ird edition4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,field4 ,tak+ ?is h&y volume & a local flora1 ! travell] or /ud5t may d an enorm\s am\nt ( practical field "w )\t any o!r botanical lit]ature :atev]4444 ,! result is a "w t ought to be includ$ 9 e libr>y ( botany & horticulture or agriculture1 & x is c]ta9ly "o t ! nomadic botani/ _c af=d to leave at home4444 ,we h us$ ! orig9al edition ( ?is "w s9ce its publication1 & h f\nd x to be "o ( ! mo/ useful & compreh5sive works on plants ev] produc$4 ,a!num4 ,! :ole is well abrea/ ( mod]n rese>*1 & a ?or\ghly bus9ess-l volume1 lucid ?\gh compact4 ,agriculture 9 ! ,tropics4 ,an elem5t>y ,treatise4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,willis1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #be plates4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,palontology--,inv]tebrate4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,woods1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,univ]sity ,lectur] 9 ,palozoology4 ,f\r? edition4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,) #aea illu/rations4 #fs4 ,outl9es ( ,v]tebrate ,palontology = /ud5ts ( ,zoology4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,smi? ,,woodw>d1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,keep] ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,geology 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,demy #hvo4 ,) #bbh illu/rations4 #ads4 ,a!num4 ,! au?or is to be congratulat$ on hav+ produc$ a "w ( exceptional value1 deal+ ) a difficult subject 9 a ?or\ghly s\nd mann]4 ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,london3 ,,fett] ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manag] ,ed9burgh3 #ajj1 ,pr9ces ,/reet ,,also ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,lewis1 #acf1 ,g[] ,/reet1 ,w4,c4