,,cambridge ,,biological ,,series4 ,,general ,,editor3--,,arthur ,e4 ,,shipley1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,fellow ,,and ,,tutor ,,of ,,christ's ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,grasses4 ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,,warehouse1 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager4 ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street4 ,illustration ,,also ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,gower ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons4 ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,all ,rights reserved4 ,,grasses ,a ,,handbook ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,the ,,field ,,and ,,laboratory4 ,,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward1 ,,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,botany ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,cambridge4 ,,cambridge3 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 #aijh ,first ,edition #aija ,reprinted #aijh ,,preface4 ,the following pages have been written in the hope that they may be used in the field and in the laboratory with specimens of our ordinary grasses in the hand4 ,most of the exercises involved demand exact study by means of a good hand-lens1 a mode of investigation far too much neglected in modern teaching4 ,the book is not intended to be a complete manual of grasses1 but to be an account of our common native species1 so arranged that the student may learn how to closely observe and deal with the distinctive characters of these remarkable plants when such problems as the botanical analysis of a meadow or pasture1 of hay1 of weeds1 or of 8seed0 grasses are presented1 as well as when investigating questions of more abstract scientific nature4 ,i have not hesitated1 however1 to introduce general statements on the biology and physiological peculiarities of grasses where such may serve the purpose of interesting the reader in the wider botanical bearings of the subject1 though several reasons may be urged against extending this part of the theme in a book intended to be portable1 and of direct practical use to students in the field4 ,i have pleasure in expressing my thanks to ,mr ,r4 ,h4 ,biffen for carefully testing the classification of 8seeds0 on pp4 #ace-agd1 and to him and to ,mr ,shipley for kindly looking over the proofs2 also to ,mr ,lewton-,brain1 who has tested the classification of leaf-sections put forward on pp4 #gb-hb1 and prepared the drawings for ,figs4 #ba-bh4 ,that errors are entirely absent from such a work as this is perhaps too much to expect3 ,i hope they are few1 and that readers will oblige me with any corrections they may find necessary or advantageous for the better working of the tables4 ,the list of the chief authorities referred to1 which students who desire to proceed further with the study of grasses should consult1 is given at the end4 ,i have pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to the following works for illustrations which are inserted by permission of the several publishers3--,stebler's ,forage ,plants 7published by ,nutt ,co471 ,nobbe's ,handbuch der ,samenkunde 7,wiegandt1 ,hempel and ,parey1 ,berlin71 ,harz's ,landwirthschaftliche ,samenkunde 7,paul ,parey1 ,berlin71 ,strasburger and ,noll's ,text-,book of ,botany 7,macmillan ,co471 ,figuier's ,vegetable ,world 7,cassell ,co471 ,lubbock's ,flowers1 ,fruits and ,seeds 7,macmillan ,co471 ,kerner's ,natural ,history of ,plants 7,blackie ,son71 and ,oliver's ,first ,book of ,indian ,botany 7,macmillan ,co474 ,it is impossible to avoid the question of variation in work of this kind1 and students will without doubt come across instances--especially in such genera as ,agropyrum1 ,festuca1 ,agrostis and ,bromus--of small variations which show how impossible it is to fit the facts of living organisms into the rigid frames of classification4 ,it may possibly be urged that this invalidates all attempts at such classifications3 the same argument applies to all our systems1 though it is perhaps less disastrous to the best ,natural ,systems which attempt to take in large groups of facts1 than to artificial systems selected for special purposes4 ,perhaps something useful may be learned by showing more clearly where and how grasses vary1 and ,i hope that the application to them of these preliminary tests may elucidate more facts as we proceed4 ,h4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,cambridge1 ,april1 #aija4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,the ,,vegetative ,,organs #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,vegetative ,,organs 7continued7 #ag ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,grasses ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,vegetative ,,characters #ci ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,and ,,histology #fb ,,chapter ,v4 ,,grasses ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,anatomical ,,characters ,,of ,,the ,,leaf #gb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,grasses ,,in ,,flower #hc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,grasses ,,grouped ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,flowers ,,and ,,inflorescences #ii ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,fruit ,,and ,,seed #aai ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,classification ,,of ,,grasses ,,by ,,the 8,,seeds0 7,,grains7 #ace ,,bibliography #age ,,index1 ,,glossary ,,and ,,list ,,of ,,synonyms #agg ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,vegetative ,,organs4 ,that grasses are interesting and important plants is a fact recognised by botanists all the world over1 yet it would appear that people in general can hardly have appreciated either their interest or their importance seeing how few popular works have been published concerning their structure and properties4 ,apart from their almost universal distribution1 and quite apart from the fascinating interest attaching to those extraordinary tropical giants1 the ,bamboos1 ,west ,indian ,sugar-cane1 the huge ,reed-grasses of ,africa1 the ,pampas-grasses of ,south ,america2 and from the utilitarian value of the cereals--,maize1 ,rice1 ,wheat and other corn1 c4--everyone must be struck by the significance of the enormous tracts of land covered by grasses in all parts of the world1 the ,prairies of ,north ,america and the ,savannahs of the ,south1 the ,steppes of ,russia and ,siberia1 and the extensive tracts of meadow and pasture-land in ,europe being but a few examples4 ,although in the actual number of species the ,grass family is by no means the largest in the vegetable kingdom1 for there are far more ,composites or ,orchids1 the curious sign of success in the struggle for existence comes out in grasses in that the number of individuals far transcends those of any other group1 and that they have taken possession of all parts of the earth's surface4 ,some species are cosmopolitan--e4g4 our common ,reed1 ,arundo ,phragmites2 while others--e4g4 several of our native species of ,festuca and ,poa--are equally common in both hemispheres4 ,on the whole the ,tropics afford most species and fewest individuals1 and the temperate regions most individuals4 ,considering their multifarious uses as fodder and food1 for brewing1 weaving1 building and a thousand other purposes1 it is perhaps not too much to say that if every other species of plant were displaced by grasses of all kinds--as many indeed gradually are--man would still be able to supply his chief needs from them4 ,the profound significance of the grass-carpet of the earth1 however1 comes out most clearly when we realise the enormous amounts of energy daily stored up in the countless myriads of green blades as they fix their carbon4 ,by decomposing the carbon-dioxide of the air in their chlorophyll apparatus by the action of the radiant energy of the sun1 they build up starches and sugars and other plant-substances1 which are then consumed and turned into flesh by our cattle and sheep and other herbivorous animals1 and so furnish us with food4 ,the whole theory of agriculture turns on this pivot1 and the by no means small modicum of truth in such sayings as 8,all flesh is grass10 and that the man who can make two blades of grass grow where one grew before deserves well of his country1 obtains a larger significance when it is realised that the only real gain of wealth is that represented by the storage of energy from without which comes to us by the action of green leaves waving in the sunshine4 ,the true ,grasses1 comprising the ,natural ,order ,graminace--also written ,gramine--are often popularly confounded with other herbs which possess narrow green ribbon-like leaves1 or even with plants of very different aspects--e4g4 ,cotton-grass 7,eriophorum7 and other ,sedges1 and the names ,rib-grass 7,plantago71 ,knot-grass 7,polygonum71 ,scorpion-grass 7,myosotis7 and ,sea-grass 7,zostera71 as well as the general usage of the word grass to signify all kinds of leguminous and other hay-plants in agriculture1 point to the wider use of the word in former times4 ,this has been explained by the use of the words gaers1 gres1 gyrs1 and grass in the old herbals to indicate any kind of small herbage4 ,in view of the importance of our ,british grasses in agriculture1 ,i have here put together some results of observation and reading in the hope that they may aid students in recognising easily our ordinary agricultural and wild grasses4 ,during several years of work in the fields1 principally directed at first to the study of the parasitic fungi on grasses1 and subsequently to that of the importance of grasses in forestry and agriculture1 and to the variations they exhibit1 the need of some guide to the identification of a grass at any time of the year1 whether in flower or not1 forced itself on the attention1 and although a botanist naturally turns to a good ,flora when he has the grass in flower1 as the best and quickest way of ascertaining the species1 it soon became evident that much may be done by the study of the leaves and vegetative parts of most grasses4 ,indeed some are recognisable at a glance by certain characters well known to continental observers3 in the case of others the matter is more difficult1 and perhaps with a few it is impossible to be certain of the species from such characters only4 ,nevertheless1 while the best means for the determination of species are always in the floral characters so well worked up in the ,floras of ,hooker1 ,bentham and others1 there is unquestionably much value in the characters of the vegetative organs also1 as the works of ,jessen1 ,lund1 ,stebler1 ,vesque and others abroad1 and ,sinclair1 ,parnell1 ,sowerby and others in this country attest4 ,almost the only plants confounded with true grasses by the ordinary observer are the sedges and a few rushes4 ,apart from the very different floral structures1 there are two or three easily discoverable marks for distinguishing all our grasses from other plants 7,fig4 #a74 ,the first is their leaves are arranged in two rows1 alternately1 up the stems2 and the second that their stems are circular or flattened in section1 or if of some other shape they are never triangular and solid#a 7,figs4 #f and #g74 ,moreover the leaves are always of some elongated shape1 and without leaf-stalks#b1 but pass below into a sheath1 which runs some way down the stem and is nearly always perceptibly split 7,figs4 #h-ac74 ,further1 the stems themselves are usually terete1 and distinctly hollow except at the swollen nodes1 and only branch low down at the surface of the ground or below it#c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a plant of ,oat 7,avena71 an example of a typical grass1 showing tufted habit and loose paniculate inflorescence 7reduced74 ,figuier4 ,all our native grasses are herbaceous1 and none of them attain very large dimensions4 ,in the following lists ,i term those small which average about #f-ah inches in the height of the tufts1 whereas those over #c feet high may be termed large1 the tufts being regarded as in flower4 ,the sizes cannot be given very accurately1 and starved specimens are frequently found dwarfed1 but in most cases these averages are not far wrong for the species freely growing as ordinarily met with1 and in some cases are useful4 ,i have omitted the rare species throughout1 and in the annexed lists have added the popular names4 ,,large ,,grasses4 7,over #c feet47 ,milium effusum 7,millet-grass74 ,digraphis arundinacea 7,reed-grass74 ,aira cspitosa 7,tufted ,hair-grass74 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum 7,false ,oat74 ,elymus arenarius 7,lyme-grass74 ,bromus asper 7,hairy ,brome74 ,b4 giganteus 7,tall ,brome74 ,festuca elatior 7,meadow ,fescue74 ,f4 sylvatica 7,reed ,fescue74 ,glyceria aquatica 7,reed ,sweet-grass74 ,g4 fluitans 7,floating ,sweet-grass74 ,arundo ,phragmites 7,common ,reed74 ,,medium ,,grasses4 7#a-c feet47 ,phleum pratense 7,timothy74 ,avena pratensis 7,perennial ,oat-grass74 ,anthoxanthum odoratum 7,sweet ,vernal74 ,alopecurus agrestis 7,slender ,foxtail74 ,a4 pratensis 7,meadow ,foxtail74 ,agrostis alba 7,fiorin74 ,psamma arenaria 7,sea ,mat-grass74 ,avena flavescens 7,yellow ,oat-grass74 ,holcus lanatus 7,yorkshire ,fog74 ,hordeum sylvaticum 7,wood ,barley74 ,h4 pratense 7,meadow ,barley74 ,agropyrum repens 7,couch-grass74 ,a4 caninum 7,fibrous ,twitch74 ,lolium italicum 7,italian ,rye-grass74 ,brachypodium sylvaticum 7,wood ,false-,brome74 ,b4 pinnatum 7,heath ,false-,brome74 ,bromus erectus 7,upright ,brome74 ,b4 sterilis 7,barren ,brome74 ,b4 arvensis 7,field ,brome74 ,festuca ovina 7var4 rubra1 c474 7,sheep's ,fescue74 ,f4 elatior 7var4 pratensis74 7,meadow ,fescue47 ,dactylis glomerata 7,cock's-foot74 ,cynosurus cristatus 7,crested ,dog's-tail74 ,poa pratensis 7,meadow-grass74 ,p4 trivialis 7,rough stalked ,meadow-grass74 ,p4 nemoralis 7,wood ,poa74 ,molinia crulea 7,flying ,bent74 ,melica nutans 7,mountain ,melick74 ,m4 uniflora 7,wood ,melick74 ,,small ,,grasses4 7#f-ah inches47 ,phleum arenarium 7,sand ,cat's-tail74 ,alopecurus geniculatus 7,marsh ,foxtail74 ,agrostis canina 7,brown ,bent74 ,aira flexuosa 7,wavy ,hair-grass74 ,aira canescens 7,grey ,hair-grass74 ,a4 prcox 7,early ,hair-grass74 ,a4 caryophyllea 7,silvery ,hair-grass74 ,nardus stricta 7,moor ,mat-grass74 ,hordeum murinum 7,wall ,barley74 ,h4 maritimum 7,sea ,barley74 ,lolium perenne 7,rye-grass74 ,l4 temulentum 7,darnel74 ,bromus arvensis 7var4 mollis74 7,field ,brome74 ,festuca ovina 7,sheep's ,fescue74 ,f4 ,myuros 7,rat's-tail ,fescue74 ,briza media 7,quaking-grass74 ,poa maritima 7,sea ,poa74 ,p4 annua 7,annual ,meadow-grass74 ,p4 compressa 7,flattened ,meadow-grass74 ,p4 alpina 7,alpine ,poa74 ,p4 bulbosa 7,bulbous ,poa74 ,triodia decumbens 7,heath-grass74 ,kleria cristata 7,crested ,kleria74 ,the roots of our grasses are almost always thin and fibrous and are adventitious from the nodes1 frequently forming radiating crowns round the base and easily pulled up1 and usually broken in the process2 but in the case of a few moor grasses--especially ,nardus 7,fig4 #b7 and ,molinia--the roots are so tough and thick 7stringy7 as to resist breakage very efficiently4 ,in stoloniferous grasses a similar difficulty of removal may be caused in a slighter degree by the underground stems4 ,in a few cases1 e4g4 ,alopecurus bulbosus 7,fig4 #c71 ,poa bulbosa1 ,phleum pratense and ,p4 ,bhmeri1 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 and to a slighter extent in ,poa alpina and one or two others1 the lowermost internodes and sheaths of the stems may be swollen and stored with food-materials1 and a sort of tuber or bulb results2 this is especially apt to occur in dry sandy soils4 ,in old lawns1 pastures1 c41 the roots of ,poa annua and others may have nodules on them due to the presence of certain small ,nematode worms1 ,heterodera4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,nardus stricta4 ,plant showing tufted habit1 and simple spikate inflorescence1 with pointed spikelets all turned towards one side 7secund7 on the rachis 7reduced74 ,note also the bristle-like 7setaceous7 leaves at length reflexed4 ,parnell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,alopecurus geniculatus1 var4 bulbosus4 ,plant 7reduced7 showing habit1 bulbous shoots and cylindrical spike-like inflorescences 7,foxtail type74 ,notice the inflated sheaths1 and the 8kneed0 lower parts of the ascending stems4 ,parnell4 ,grasses are annual1 biennial1 or perennial1 and it is often of importance to know which4 ,the point may usually be determined by examining the shoots4 ,if all the shoots have flowering stems in them1 and are evidently of the current year1 the grass is an annual2 but if any shoots have leaves only1 it is either biennial or perennial3 to determine which is not always easy1 but in perennial grasses there will generally be evident remains of older leaf-bases and shoots1 and if there are distinct underground stolons or creeping rhizomes as well the point may be considered decided1 and the grass is perennial1 as is the case with most of our important species4 ,if all the shoots are barren1 the grass is a biennial in its first year of growth3 if all have flowering stems in them1 but show traces of old leaf-bases of the previous year1 then the grass is a biennial in its second year4 ,the proof of biennial character is not always easy1 however1 and a few grasses may be either annual or biennial1 or biennial or perennial1 according to conditions--e4g4 species of ,hordeum1 ,bromus1 c4 ,in the following lists ,i have given the duration of the principal grasses1 where the character is especially important4 ,,annuals4 ,phleum arenarium4 ,aira prcox4 ,a4 caryophyllea4 ,hordeum murinum4 ,h4 maritimum4 ,lolium temulentum4 ,festuca ,myurus4 ,briza minor4 ,poa rigida4 ,p4 annua4 ,,annuals which may become biennial or perennial4 ,alopecurus geniculatus4 ,hordeum pratense4 ,lolium perenne4 ,l4 italicum 7may be perennial74 ,bromus asper 7may be perennial74 ,b4 sterilis4 ,b4 arvensis 7may be perennial74 ,,perennials4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,h4 mollis4 ,nardus4 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,agropyrum4 ,brachypodium4 ,bromus erectus4 ,b4 giganteus4 ,festuca ovina4 ,f4 elatior4 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 ,briza media4 ,milium4 ,anthoxanthum4 ,digraphis4 ,phleum pratense4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,agrostis alba4 ,a4 canina4 ,psamma4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,a4 flexuosa4 ,a4 canescens4 ,avena pratensis4 ,a4 flavescens4 ,arrhenatherum4 ,glyceria aquatica4 ,g4 fluitans4 ,poa maritima4 ,p4 compressa4 ,p4 pratensis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,p4 alpina4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,molinia4 ,melica4 ,triodia4 ,kleria4 ,arundo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,catabrosa aquatica4 ,plant showing the creeping habit1 rooting nodes1 and paniculate inflorescence 7reduced74 ,parnell4 ,the rhizome of a perennial grass is continued sympodially by means of buds branching from the lowermost joints of the flowering shoots1 and some importance is attached to the mode of spreading of these lateral sprouting shoots4 ,the buds always arise in the axils of the lower leaf-sheaths--i4e4 they are intra-vaginal4 ,if they remain intra-vaginal during further growth1 the shoots are forced upwards and only tufts 7,fig4 #b7 are formed1 except in so far as such shoots may fall prostrate on the surface of the ground later1 and throw out roots from their nodes1 and so act as runners or offsets1 or put out a few roots c4 as they ascend through the soil4 ,but in many cases the buds soon burst through the leaf-sheaths1 and develope as extra-vaginal shoots1 and may then run horizontally as underground stolons4 ,only creeping grasses of these latter kinds can rapidly cover large areas#d3 the grasses with intra-vaginal shoots only can only make tufts or 8tussocks40 ,several peculiarities in the habits of grasses depend on these facts4 ,the following are the most important creeping1 or stoloniferous species1 contrasted with the much more common tufted and the far rarer grasses with runners above ground 7,fig4 #d74 ,some of these 7,elymus1 ,psamma1 c47 are of great importance as sand-binders4-- ,with intra-vaginal branches only4 ,lolium--slightly stoloniferous4 ,festuca elatior--slightly stoloniferous4 ,avena flavescens--slightly stoloniferous4 ,phleum pratense--no stolons1 but may be bulbous4 ,dactylis--no stolons4 ,festuca ovina--no stolons4 ,poa alpina--no stolons4 ,cynosurus--no stolons4 ,with extra-vaginal shoots4 ,arrhenatherum--short stolons1 sometimes bulbous4 ,holcus lanatus--creeping4 ,alopecurus pratensis--long stolons4 ,anthoxanthum--slightly stoloniferous4 ,agrostis alba 7var4 stolonifera7--long stolons and runners4 ,digraphis--long stolons4 ,poa pratensis--long stolons4 ,p4 trivialis--runners only4 ,festuca heterophylla1 ,lam4--a variety of ,f4 ovina with slight stolons4 ,f4 rubra 7,linn47--a variety of ,f4 ovina with long stolons4 ,bromus erectus--no stolons4 ,b4 inermis--long stolons4 ,creeping below ground and truly stoloniferous4 ,agropyrum4 ,elymus4 ,psamma4 ,poa pratensis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,agrostis alba 7var4 stolonifera74 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,brachypodium 7slightly74 ,bromus erectus 7slightly74 ,festuca ovina 7var4 rubra1 ,linn474 ,f4 elatior 7slightly74 ,briza 7slightly74 ,glyceria4 ,poa maritima4 ,melica4 ,arundo4 ,tufted ,grasses4 ,milium4 ,agrostis alba 7on downs1 c474 ,aira cspitosa4 ,a4 flexuosa4 ,a4 canescens4 ,a4 prcox4 ,a4 caryophyllea4 ,avena pratensis 7slightly creeping74 ,arrhenatherum4 ,nardus 7,fig4 #b74 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,lolium4 ,bromus4 ,festuca ovina 7except some varieties74 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,f4 ,myurus4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus4 ,poa rigida4 ,p4 annua4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,p4 alpina4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,molinia4 ,triodia4 ,kleria4 ,creeping above ground 7with runners74 ,holcus lanatus4 ,alopecurus geniculatus4 ,agrostis alba 7var4 stolonifera74 ,hordeum pratense 7slightly74 ,h4 murinum 7slightly74 ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d74 ,cynodon 7,fig4 #e74 ,hackel has pointed out that a distinction must be drawn between the true nodes of the culm1 and the swellings often found at the base of the sheaths themselves over these3 the latter are often conspicuous when the former are inconspicuous--e4g4 most species of ,agrostis1 ,avena1 ,festuca1 c4 ,the nodes are of importance in the description of a few species only--e4g4 they are usually dark coloured in certain ,poas such as ,p4 compressa and ,p4 nemoralis2 they are sharply bent in ,alopecurus geniculatus1 and may be so in other species if 8layed0 by wind1 rank growth1 c4 ,a point of considerable classificatory value is the shape of the transverse section of the shoot1 which is correlated with the mode of folding up of the young leaf-blades4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,cynodon ,dactylon4 ,plant 7reduced7 showing creeping and stoloniferous habit1 and peculiar inflorescence of digitate spikes4 ,parnell4 ,in most grasses the blades are convolute--i4e4 rolled up like the paper of a cigarette1 one edge over the other--and the section of the shoot is round 7,fig4 #g74 ,in some cases1 however1 the leaves are conduplicate--i4e4 each half of the lamina is folded flat on the other1 the upper sides being turned face to face inwards1 with the mid-rib as the hinge--and in this case the shoots are more or less compressed 7,fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,transverse section of a leaf-shoot 7 #e74 ,a1 conduplicate leaf-blade4 ,b1 sheath4 ,stebler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,digraphis arundinacea4 ,transverse section of a leaf-shoot 7 #e74 ,a1 sheath4 ,b1 convolute leaves4 ,compare ,fig4 #ad4 ,stebler4 ,in these latter cases the transverse section may be elliptical--e4g4 ,poa pratensis and ,p4 alpina1 ,briza1 c41 or more flattened and linear-oblong--e4g4 ,glyceria fluitans--with the flattened sides straight1 or the section is oval but pointed more or less at each end owing to projecting keels and leaf-edges1 and the form is naviculate--e4g4 ,glyceria aquatica1 ,dactylis 7,fig4 #f7--or1 the sides being less flattened1 more or less rhomboidal as in ,poa trivialis4 ,in ,melica the leaves are convolute and the shoot-section quadrangular4 ,flat1 and usually sharp-edged shoots4 ,dactylis glomerata 7,fig4 #f74 ,poa trivialis1 ,p4 annua1 ,p4 pratensis1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 maritima1 and ,p4 alpina4 ,glyceria aquatica and ,g4 fluitans4 ,avena pubescens4 ,lolium perenne4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,vegetative ,,organs 7continued74 ,the leaves of all our grasses consist of the blade1 which passes directly into the sheath1 without any petiole or leaf-stalk 7,fig4 #a74 ,the sheath is usually obviously split1 and so rolled round the internode that one edge overlaps the other1 but in the following grasses the sheath is either quite entire1 or only slit a short way down1 the two edges being fused as it were for the greater part of its length4 ,sheath more or less entire4 ,glyceria aquatica and ,g4 fluitans4 ,melica uniflora and ,m4 nutans4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,poa trivialis 7,fig4 #h71 ,p4 pratensis1 ,p4 alpina4 ,sesleria crulea4 ,bromus 7all the species74 ,briza media and ,b4 minor4 ,in some cases--e4g4 ,arrhenatherum1 ,bromus asper1 and ,holcus lanatus--the sheath is marked with a more or less prominent ridge down its back1 due to the continuation of the keel of the leaf4 ,the sheath may also be glabrous or hairy1 and grooved or not4 ,a few grasses are so apt to develope characteristic colours in their sheaths1 especially below1 that they may often be recognised in winter by this peculiarity4 ,sheaths coloured4 ,lolium--all red4 ,holcus--red with purple veins4 ,festuca elatior--red4 ,cynosurus--yellow4 ,alopecurus pratensis1 and ,a4 agrestis--violet-brown1 c4 ,festuca ovina1 var4 rubra--red4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,poa trivialis4 ,a1 base of blade4 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 sheath4 ,d1 culm 7 about #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,a1 base of blade4 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 sheath4 ,slightly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,avena flavescens4 ,lettering as before 7 #b74 ,note the split sheath1 the hairs and ridges4 ,stebler4 ,at the junction of the blade with the sheath there is in most cases a delicate membranous upgrowth of the former1 more or less appressed to the stem1 and called the ,ligule 7,figs4 #h-ac74 ,its use is probably to facilitate the shedding of water which has run down the leaf2 and so lessen the danger of rotting between the sheath and stem3 possibly the shelves and ears commonly met with at the base of the lamina 7,fig4 #ab7 aid in the same process4 ,this ligule may be long or short1 acute or obtuse1 toothed or entire1 or it may be reduced to a mere line1 or tuft of hairs1 or even be obsolete1 and is of considerable value in classification--e4g4 the ligule is obsolete or wanting in ,melica1 ,festuca ovina1 ,f4 ,myurus1 ,f4 elatior1 ,kleria and ,panicum4 ,it is represented by a tuft of hairs in ,molinia1 ,triodia and ,arundo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,lolium perenne4 ,a1 base of lamina1 ,b1 ligule4 ,c1 sheath 7 #c74 ,note the low ribs1 and absence of hairs 7glabrous74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis4 ,a1 base of lamina4 ,b1 the extremely short ligule1 with pointed ears4 ,c1 sheath 7 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,festuca ovina4 ,a1 base of lamina4 ,b1 ligular ears4 ,c1 sheath 7 about #d74 ,stebler4 ,our other ordinary grasses have a more or less well-developed membranous ligule 7,fig4 #h74 ,the leaf-blade is long or short1 broad or narrow1 but always of some elongated form such as linear1 linear-lanceolate or linear-acuminate1 or subulate1 setaceous1 c41 varying as to the degree of acuteness of the apex1 and the tapering of the base4 ,in the following native grasses the form of the lamina affords a useful character4 ,the base tapers to the sheath below--i4e4 the leaf is more or less linear-lanceolate--in ,molinia1 ,brachypodium1 ,melica1 ,milium1 ,kleria1 and the very rare ,hierochloe2 less distinctly so in ,bromus asper and species of ,hordeum4 ,the base is rounded in ,arundo4 ,in the following cases the leaves are setaceous1 due to the very narrow blade remaining permanently folded or inrolled at its edges1 and usually being thickened and hardened also 7,figs4 #ac and #ah74 ,the habitat of these moor-and heath-grasses suggests that these are no doubt adaptations to prevent excessive evaporation by the exposure of too large a surface--e4g4 various species of ,aira1 ,festuca ovina1 ,f4 ,myurus and allies1 ,nardus1 and several other species2 whereas1 conversely1 the thin flat leaves of shade-grasses facilitate exposure to light and transpiration4 ,in ,avena pratensis and ,agrostis canina some of the leaves are involute and subulate1 and the thickened leaves of ,poa maritima also are turned up at the edges1 and are ,u-shaped in cross-section4 ,as we shall see later the degree of inrolling of many grass leaves varies with circumstances4 ,in most others the blades are either flat 7,figs4 #h-ab71 or more or less conduplicate on the mid-rib4 ,the latter case occurs1 for example1 in grasses with flattened shoots1 especially at the lower part of the blade--e4g4 ,lolium perenne1 ,dactylis1 ,glyceria1 and some species of ,poa1 and the cross-section of the leaf below1 just before it enters the sheath1 is ,v-shaped4 ,in ,glyceria the leaf-bases may show yellow or brownish triangles4 ,further characters of the leaves are derived from their texture1 apex1 margins1 mid-ribs and venation1 hairiness1 and especially the presence and characters of the longitudinal ridges which run along the upper or lower surface in many cases4 ,the venation is parallel from base to apex in nearly all our grasses1 but such is not always the case--e4g4 in the exotic ,panicum plicatum the mid-rib1 which enters the leaf with several vascular bundles1 gives off strong and weak veins below1 which first diverge and then run in arches which converge upwards3 this leaf is also remarkable in being plaited 7plicate7 in vernation4 ,in ,arundo ,donax also the veins1 though approximately parallel1 do not all run to the apex of the tapering leaf2 the outer ones end above in the margins and are shorter than the mid-rib4 ,as regards texture1 the leaves of most grasses are thin and herbaceous2 but in some they are dry and harsh to the touch4 ,they are thin and dry in ,agropyrum caninum1 ,hordeum pratense1 ,h4 murinum1 ,avena pratensis1 c41 very hard and leathery 7coriaceous7 in ,psamma1 ,nardus1 species of ,festuca1 ,aira1 ,agropyrum junceum1 ,elymus1 c4 ,in aquatic grasses like ,glyceria1 the leaf is almost spongy owing to the large air-chambers developed in the tissues4 ,these are easily visible with a lens4 ,the apex is in most cases slender and tapering--acuminate2 but in some it is merely brought to a point 7acute7 as in ,catabrosa1 ,glyceria and several species of ,poa and ,avena1 c41 usually flat1 but somewhat hooded or curved up in some ,poas4 ,in cases where the leaves are setaceous or subulate1 the apex is like a thin tapering bristle1 and even flatter leaves may be so inrolled at the tips as to have the apex prolonged into a sharp needle-like pungent or spinescent point--e4g4 ,hordeum pratense1 ,avena pratensis to a slight extent1 and pronounced in ,elymus1 c4 ,in ,sesleria the apex is rounded with a short1 sharp1 prickle-like median projection 7mucronate74 ,the passage of blade into sheath has already been described1 but the base of the blade may have its margins projecting as horizontal shelves1 like a ,byron collar1 round the sides of the throat of the sheath1 sometimes tinged with yellow or pink--e4g4 ,lolium1 ,holcus1 ,bromus inermis1 ,hordeum2 the ends of these may project as auricles or ears--e4g4 ,festuca elatior1 ,elymus1 ,agropyrum1 ,anthoxanthum1 ,bromus asper1 ,hordeum1 c4 ,in ,festuca ovina the ears are short1 stiff1 and erect 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the margin may be perfectly even1 as in most grasses1 or it is more or less scabrid or scaberulous1 as in ,aira cspitosa1 ,poa maritima1 ,festuca elatior1 ,avena pratensis1 ,agrostis1 ,milium1 ,phleum1 ,briza1 the minute teeth 7serrul7 pointing up or down4 ,the surface may be bright green1 or glaucous1 harsh1 hairy or glabrous1 and is not uncommonly also scabrid1 like a file or emery-paper1 and sometimes only when rubbed in one direction up or down1 owing to the minute teeth being directed all one way4 ,these teeth are developed on the ridges4 ,all our ordinary grass leaves are parallel-veined1 and the vascular strands 7the veins7 can usually be seen on holding the leaf up to the light4 ,in most cases the tissue is raised over the veins1 as ridges or 8ribs10 and according to the height of these ridges the thinner parts between look like deep or shallow furrows 7cf4 ,figs4 #h-af and ,chapter ,,iv474 ,if the leaf is held up to the light the ridges appear dark in proportion to their opacity--i4e4 height or thickness--and the furrows light in proportion to the thinness of the tissues there4 ,if the contrast is very great1 as in ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 the furrows seem like transparent sharp lines1 and when1 as in ,poa1 which is practically devoid of ridges1 the difference of thickness is small they appear merely as fine stri4 ,these characters must be determined on the fresh leaves1 however1 because the contraction in drying draws the ridges closer together and tends to obliterate the lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,digraphis arundinacea4 ,transverse section of mid-rib and half the leaf 7 about #f74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,transverse section of leaf-blade 7 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 ,transverse section of the leaf-blade 7 #bj74 ,stebler4 ,the ridges are almost always evident--,catabrosa1 ,poa1 and ,avena furnishing the chief exceptions--and are nearly invariably on the upper surface3 they are below in ,melica1 however2 and their relative numbers1 heights and breadths1 section--acute1 rounded1 or flattened--furnish valuable characters2 as also does the coexistence or absence of hairs1 asperities1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,transverse section of the leaf of ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis 7 #ab74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,ditto of the leaf of ,f4 ovina 7 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,ditto of the leaf of ,f4 ovina1 var4 rubra 7 #ce74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,festuca ovina1 var4 rubra4 ,transverse section of the blade of an upper leaf 7 #ce74 ,stebler4 ,a very interesting anatomical adaptation is met with in the leaves of many grasses which grow in dry situations 7xerophytes7 such as on sandy sea-shores1 exposed mountains and so forth4 ,when the air is moist1 in wet weather or in the dews1 and the sun's rays not too powerful1 the leaf is spread out with its upper surface flat or nearly so1 but when the scorching sun and dry air or winds prevail1 the leaves fold or roll up1 with the upper sides apposed or overlapping inside the hollow cylinder thus made4 ,in such leaves some of the upper epidermal cells1 either next the mid-rib 7,sesleria c47 or between the other ribs 7,festuca c47 are large and very thin-walled1 full of sap when distended1 and so placed that as they lose water by evaporation they contract1 and so draw together the two halves of the lamina 7,sesleria7 or each ribbed segment 7,festuca71 thus causing the infolding or inrolling 7see ,chapter ,,iv74 ,not only from the structure and actions of these motor-cells1 but also from the fact that the stomata are on the upper surfaces and thus protected1 and that the lower surfaces which alone are exposed to the drought are defended by hard and impenetrable tissues1 we must look upon these as adaptations to the xerophytic conditions4 ,leaves prominently ridged4 ,elymus4 ,psamma4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,lolium4 ,cynosurus 7,fig4 #af74 ,agrostis4 ,alopecurus4 ,glyceria fluitans4 ,kleria4 ,festuca elatior4 ,festuca ,myurus 7var4 sciuroides74 ,melica has ridges on the lower surface4 ,ridges are less prominent in ,phleum pratense1 ,briza1 ,agropyrum1 ,triodia1 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum4 ,leaves practically devoid of ridges4 ,poa--all common species4 ,glyceria aquatica4 ,catabrosa aquatica4 ,avena pratensis4 ,in some grasses the tissue over the mid-rib is considerably raised and strengthened on the dorsal side of the blade as a 8keel40 ,keel more or less prominent4 ,arrhenatherum 7sheath keeled74 ,poa 7all except ,p4 maritima74 ,dactylis4 ,bromus4 ,bromus asper 7sheath keeled1 often a white line74 ,holcus lanatus 7slight and decurrent7 7,fig4 #ae74 ,digraphis 7,fig4 #ad74 ,glyceria4 ,most grasses are glabrous1 but there are a number in which hairs are nearly always a prominent feature4 ,it must be remarked1 however1 that with grasses1 as with other plants1 the character of pubescence is apt to vary with the situation4 ,in general it may be stated that a hairy grass tends to become more glabrous in a moist situation1 and more pubescent in a dry one1 but the rule is by no means absolute4 ,in some cases1--e4g4 ,avena pubescens1 ,a4 flavescens1 ,agropyrum1 the hairs are almost entirely confined to the crests of the ridges 7,figs4 #aj1 #ae74 ,the following is a list of hairy grasses4 ,,hairy ,,grasses4 ,holcus 7,fig4 #ae74 ,molinia crulea4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum4 ,agropyrum 7variable74 ,bromus asper4 ,b4 mollis4 ,hordeum4 ,anthoxanthum4 ,avena flavescens 7,fig4 #aj74 ,a4 pubescens4 ,triodia4 ,kleria4 ,to a less extent4 ,festuca sciuroides 7on ribs74 ,melica4 ,grasses as a rule are devoid of strong scents#e or tastes1 but ,anthoxanthum has a faint but distinct sweet odour1 especially as it dries--it is one of the grasses which give the scent to new-mown hay--and a bitter flavour1 and ,milium1 ,hierochloe and ,holcus are also more or less bitter4 ,spartina stricta emits a strong unpleasant odour4 ,the habitat of grasses is of great importance as an aid to determination4 ,no one would expect to find a sea-shore grass growing in a beech-forest1 or an aquatic grass on a dry chalk-down2 but they are even more true to their habitats than this1 and ,i append the following lists of habitats of ,british grasses as of use in determining them1 though it is not pretended that the limits are absolute4 ,in the following list 8pasture-grass0 7,p7 means useful for grazing1 and 8meadow-grass0 7,m7 one that is especially valuable for mowing--i4e4 for hay4 ,a 8weed0 7,w7 is used in its agricultural sense for a grass not useful and not wanted on cultivated land1 though often found there4 ,,meadow-,,and ,,pasture-,,grasses4 7,p and ,m7 ,dactylis glomerata 7fields1 c474 7,p and ,m7 ,poa trivialis 7meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,bromus arvensis 7cultivated and waste places1 meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,b4 sterilis 7ruderal74 7,p and ,m7 ,poa pratensis 7meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,briza media 7meadow and pasture74 7,p7 ,avena pratensis 7meadow and pasture1 especially hilly74 7,p7 ,a4 pubescens 7var47--dry4 7,p and ,m7 ,lolium perenne 7meadow1 pasture and waste places74 7,p and ,m7 ,l4 italicum 7valuable culture grass74 7,p7 ,cynosurus cristatus 7downs74 7,m and ,p7 ,festuca elatior 7meadow and moist pasture1 banks and river-sides74 7,w7 ,agrostis alba and ,a4 canina 7pasture and waste places1 wet or dry74 7,p and ,m7 ,alopecurus pratensis 7meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,a4 geniculatus 7moist meadows and marshes74 7,p and ,m7 ,phleum pratense 7meadow and pasture74 7,p7 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum 7meadow1 hedges and copse74 7,p and ,m7 ,anthoxanthum odoratum 7fields generally74 7,w7 ,hordeum pratense 7moist meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,holcus lanatus and ,h4 mollis 7meadow1 pasture and waste74 7,p and ,m7 ,avena flavescens 7dry meadow and pasture74 7,w7 ,avena fatua 7corn-weed74 7,p7 ,festuca ovina 7light limestone pastures and chalk downs74 ,,shade-,,grasses4 ,found in woods1 copses1 c41 under shade4 ,melica uniflora 7woods1 c474 ,bromus asper 7hedges1 thickets1 and edges of woods74 ,b4 giganteus 7hedges and woods74 ,aira cspitosa 7moist shade and damp hedges74 ,poa nemoralis 7woods1 shady places and damp mountain rocks74 ,milium effusum 7moist woods1 c474 ,agropyrum caninum 7woods and shady places74 ,hordeum sylvaticum 7woods and copse74 ,brachypodium sylvaticum 7woods1 hedges and thickets74 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum 7meadows1 hedges and copse74 ,festuca sylvatica 7mountain woods74 ,,aquatic ,,and ,,semi-,,aquatic ,,grasses4 ,found in wet ditches1 ponds1 and on marshes1 river-banks1 c4 ,glyceria fluitans 7wet ditches and slow waters74 ,g4 aquatica 7wet ditches and shallow waters74 ,alopecurus geniculatus 7moist meadow and marsh lands74 ,digraphis arundinacea 7river-banks1 marshes74 ,arundo ,phragmites 7wet ditches1 marshes and shallow waters74 ,molinia crulea 7wet heaths and moors1 woods and waste places74 ,triodia decumbens1 ,agrostis alba1 ,catabrosa and ,calamagrostis4 ,,moor-,,and ,,heath-,,grasses4 ,downs and dry hill-pastures4 ,nardus stricta 7moors1 heaths and hilly pastures74 ,aira flexuosa 7heaths and hill pastures74 ,molinia crulea 7wet heathy moors1 woods and waste places74 ,kleria cristata 7dry pasture74 ,triodia decumbens 7dry heathy and hilly pastures74 ,festuca ovina 7hilly pastures--especially dry and open--rarer in moist situations74 ,agrostis vulgaris and ,a4 canina4 ,,maritime ,,or ,,seaside ,,grasses4 ,poa maritima 7maritime74 ,p4 distans 7sandy pastures and wastes near sea74 ,elymus arenarius 7coasts74 ,psamma arenaria 7coasts74 ,poa bulbosa 7waste places in ,s4,e4 of ,england74 ,agropyrum junceum 7coasts74 ,hordeum maritimum 7,s4 and ,e4 coast74 ,phleum arenarium 7coasts74 ,,ruderal ,,or ,,vagabond ,,grasses4 ,waste places1 walls1 road-sides and dry sandy situations4 ,molinia crulea 7wet1 heathy moors1 woods and waste places74 ,festuca ,myurus 7waste places1 walls1 road-sides74 ,f4 ovina 7hilly pastures and especially dry1 rarely moist situations74 ,aira caryophyllea 7sandy and hilly pastures74 ,aira prcox 7sandy and hilly pastures74 ,poa distans 7sandy wastes near the sea74 ,p4 compressa 7dry1 barren1 waste ground74 ,p4 annua 7cultivated and waste lands and fields74 ,agropyrum repens 7fields and waste places74 ,hordeum murinum 7waste places and road-sides74 ,holcus lanatus 7meadow1 pasture1 and waste lands74 ,h4 mollis 7same--rarer74 ,alopecurus agrestis 7waste lands and roads in ,s4 of ,england74 ,lolium perenne 7meadows1 pastures and waste places74 ,l4 temulentum 7fields and waste places1 not common74 ,bromus sterilis 7on way-sides1 c474 ,b4 arvensis 7cultivated and waste meadows and pastures74 ,poa rigida 7dry1 rocky places74 ,it is also often useful to know whether a grass is rare or local1 especially for the purpose we have in view1 and ,i have therefore drawn up the following list of rare1 local or introduced foreign grasses either not noticed at all1 or only referred to incidentally in this work4 ,in many cases these introduced foreign grasses have sprung up from seeds brought over in cargoes of hay1 wool1 and other products and packing materials1 which in part accounts for their occurrence only near certain sea-ports1 manufacturing towns and so forth4 ,such plants are frequently termed ballast plants4 ,foreign plants are also introduced in seed1 as mixtures or impurities1 and frequently escape from corn-fields c4 ,leersia oryzoides 7ditches of ,hants41 ,sussex and ,surrey74 ,panicum sanguinale 7,s4 ,england74 ,p4 verticillatum 7fields in ,s4 and ,e474 ,p4 glaucum 7rarely introduced74 ,hierochloe borealis 7,thurso only74 ,phleum alpinum 7,highlands only74 ,p4 ,bhmeri 7,eastern counties1 rare74 ,p4 asperum 0 0 0 ,phalaris canariensis 7rare weed74 ,alopecurus alpinus 7,highlands74 ,mibora verna 7,anglesea and ,channel ,islands74 ,lagurus ovatus 7,suffolk coasts74 ,polypogon monspeliensis 7rare1 in ,s4 ,england near sea74 ,p4 littoralis 7salt marshes ,s4 ,england74 ,agrostis setacea 7dry heaths of ,s4 ,wales74 ,a4 ,spica-venti 7sandy fields of ,e4 counties74 ,gastridium lendigerum 7fields and waste places in ,s4 ,wales and ,norfolk74 ,calamagrostis ,epigeios 7moist glades c4 in ,scotland74 ,c4 lanceolata 7moist shades1 scattered in ,england74 ,c4 stricta 7bogs1 c41 very rare74 ,cynodon ,dactylon 7waste and cultivated lands near sea in ,scotland74 ,spartina stricta 7salt marshes ,s4 and ,e4 coast74 ,lepturus incurvatus 7scattered on shores74 ,bromus maximus 7,jersey74 ,b4 madritensis 7roads and waste1 ,scotland and ,tipperary74 ,b4 inermis 7introduced from ,hungary74 ,lolium italicum 7introduced from ,lombardy74 ,festuca uniglumis 7,irish and ,s4,e4 coast74 ,poa procumbens 7waste ground near sea74 ,p4 loliacea 7sandy sea-shores74 ,p4 laxa 7,ben ,nevis1 c474 ,p4 alpina 7,highlands and ,n474 ,catabrosa aquatica 7shallow pools and ditches1 scattered74 ,finally1 a few words may be said on a subject still in its infancy--that of ,indicator-plants4 ,in many cases certain plants are found so confined to certain classes of soil1 that foresters and agriculturists have claimed to be able to infer from their presence the presence or absence of certain chemical or other constituents of soils3 on the contrary we find other plants so universally distributed without reference to the quality of the soil1 that they are not indicative4 ,the latter are often termed ruderal or vagabonds 7see p4 #bi74 ,without attempting too rigid a classification of ,grasses in this connection--which would be premature in this early state of our knowledge--the following remarks are at least generally true4 ,a few grasses are ,indicators of chalk and limestone--e4g4 ,briza media1 ,kleria cristata1 and the exotic species ,stipa pennata and ,melica ciliata4 ,the following are said to indicate a sufficiency of potassium salts1 ,in moister soils4 ,digraphis arundinacea4 ,phleum pratense4 ,avena pubescens4 ,arundo ,phragmites4 ,molinia crulea4 ,glyceria fluitans4 ,in drier soils4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,agrostis alba4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,arrhenatherum4 ,kleria cristata4 ,briza media4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 ,poa pratensis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,festuca elatior4 ,lolium perenne4 ,grasses like ,bromus arvensis indicate the existence of clay in the soil4 ,while the following are indicative of sand1 ,aira caryophyllea4 ,a4 prcox4 ,a4 canescens4 ,festuca ovina4 ,bromus sterilis4 ,and only if the sandy soil is moist and of better quality1 owing to a certain proportion of humus1 the following1 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,agrostis alba4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum4 ,avena pubescens4 ,poa pratensis4 ,that the soil contains considerable quantities of common salt--sodium chloride--may be inferred if the following grasses occur1 ,psamma arenaria4 ,elymus arenarius4 ,hordeum maritimum4 ,agropyrum junceum1 c4 ,the existence of much humus is indicated by such shade grasses as ,melica uniflora4 ,m4 nutans4 ,milium effusum4 ,bromus giganteus4 ,b4 asper4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum4 ,whereas soils known as 8sour10 though containing much vegetable remains1 may be suspected if the following grasses abound on them1 ,aira cspitosa4 ,nardus stricta4 ,alopecurus geniculatus4 ,molinia crulea2 especially if sedges and rushes coexist with them4 ,when cuttings are made in forests1 such grasses as the following are very apt to appear1 and may do harm to young plants1 ,festuca ovina and varieties4 ,agrostis alba4 ,holcus mollis4 ,aira flexuosa1 c4 ,the grasses more especially indicative of particular classes of forest-soils are chiefly the wood-species 7see p4 #bh71 and need not be further specified4 ,in gaps1 borders1 and copses--half-shade--we find several common grasses--e4g4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,agrostis alba4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum4 ,triodia decumbens4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,festuca rubra4 ,brachypodium pinnatum4 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,whereas ,poa nemoralis1 ,festuca sylvatica1 ,agropyrum caninum1 ,melica1 ,milium1 ,bromus asper1 ,b4 giganteus1 ,brachypodium sylvaticum1 are more likely to be met with in the deep shade inside the forest4 ,on the other hand there are vagabond grasses which seem to show no signs of preference for one soil over another--e4g4 ,poa annua--though in some cases these ruderal plants indicate the presence of rotting substances1 on ash-heaps and rubbish of various kinds4 ,with reference to the above1 however1 the student must not forget that very complex relations are concerned in changes of soil1 shade1 moisture1 elevation1 c4 and that although experienced observers can draw conclusions of some value from the presence of numerous species and individuals on a given soil1 no one must conclude too readily that a soil is so and so1 from observing solely that a particular kind of grass will grow there4 ,an excellent example of what may be done by applying such knowledge as exists of the habits of grasses1 is afforded by the historic case of the planting up of shifting sand-dunes with species like ,psamma arenaria1 ,elymus arenarius1 ,agropyrum junceum1 c4 7together with sand-binding species of sedges7 and so not only fixing the sand1 but preparing it for gradual afforestation with bushes and eventually trees1 and so saving enormous tracts of land and sums of money1 as has been done on the ,west coasts of ,france4 ,moreover1 the action of ruderal plants--including grasses--is to completely alter the nature of the poor soil and gradually fit it for other plants4 ,coverings of grass greatly affect the actions of heat and sunshine on the surface soil1 and modify the effects of radiation and evaporation1 to say nothing of the penetrating and other effects of the roots4 ,rhizomes and stolons break up stiff soils2 and every engineer and forester knows how useful certain grasses are in keeping the surface-soil from being washed down by heavy rains on steep hill-sides or embankments4 ,on the other hand1 luxuriant growths of tall grasses may do harm to young plants1 by their action as weeds and especially as shade-plants2 though foresters can employ them in the latter capacity1 under restrictions1 to shelter young trees from the sun4 ,again1 too much dry grass near a forest offers dangers from fire2 and it is a well known fact that certain injurious animals1 e4g4 mice and other vermin1 are favoured by a covering of grass4 ,graminace are for the most part chalk-fleeing plants1 in spite of the fact that certain species can grow in very thin layers of soil on chalk downs4 ,they must be regarded as requiring moderate supplies of humus as a rule1 and even sand-loving grasses are not real exceptions4 ,the physiognomy of the grasses has always been regarded as a striking one1 and ,humboldt classed it as one of his #ai types of vegetation4 ,as is well known they are sociable plants1 often covering enormous areas--prairies1 alps1 steppes1 c4--with a few species1 alone or densely scattered throughout a mixed herbage4 ,they also represent characteristically the sun-plants1 the erect leaves exposing their surfaces obliquely to the solar rays1 and being often folded and nearly always narrow4 ,the dead remains of these sociable grasses are an important factor in protecting the soil against drought and in facilitating humification1 as well as in covering up plants during long winters or dry seasons1 keeping the ground warmer and moister1 and generally lessening the effect of extremes4 ,many ,graminace are pronounced xerophytes1 the epidermis often being developed as a water-storing tissue1 while the erect leaves roll themselves in intense light1 the stomata being situated accordingly4 ,the halophytic strand-plants ,psamma arenaria1 ,elymus arenarius1 ,agropyrum junceum1 and other ,dune-species1 as well as species of ,aira1 ,festuca1 ,anthoxanthum1 ,stipa1 ,lygeum1 ,aristida1 c4 are examples4 ,the heath-grasses--e4g4 ,festuca ovina1 ,nardus stricta1 ,molinia crulea--also come under this category4 ,many of the strand-plants 7halophytes7 ,agropyrum1 ,psamma1 ,elymus1 are covered with waxy bloom1 and have long rhizomes which bind the sand and form new soil1 a property largely taken advantage of in certain forest operations4 ,other grasses1 particularly annual species1 show their adaptation to xerophytic habits by forming bulbous store-houses at the base of the culms--e4g4 ,phleum arenarium4 ,some ,graminace are hydrophytes1 such as ,arundo1 ,glyceria1 c41 with large intercellular spaces in their tissues2 while many species--e4g4 ,aira cspitosa1 ,agrostis canina1 ,molinia crulea--grow on wet moor-lands1 forming perennial tufts1 with or without creeping rhizomes4 ,the mesophyte grasses are especially characteristic of what may be termed carpets--a lawn is a good example on a small scale1 though of course we must remember that here the struggle for existence has been artificially interfered with more or less4 ,such carpets consist of the densely interwoven rootlets and rhizomes forming sod1 and contain much humus from the accumulated dbris of former years4 ,these grass-carpets may be composed of nearly pure growths of a few species1 or of very many different grasses and other herbage4 ,they are common in ,arctic regions1 on ,alps1 and in temperate climates generally1 where we know them as meadows1 hay-fields1 pasture and lawns4 ,the ,bamboos in the wider sense have a physiognomy of their own1 e4g4 in ,india1 and may drive out most other plants and form dense undergrowths or jungle of interlaced stems and leaves and thorny shoots4 ,similar growths occur on the ,andes and elsewhere in ,south ,america4 ,in some parts of ,india and tropical ,asia the taller bamboos form aggregates comparable to dense forests1 and such forests are common on the banks of several large tropical rivers4 ,most of these ,bamboos are xerophytes4 ,bamboos are neither confined to the tropics1 nor to warmer regions1 however1 for species are known from distinctly cool regions--e4g4 ,south ,america--or even from near the snow line--e4g4 ,chili1 the ,himalayas1 ,japan1 c41 and the number of species known as hardy is increasing annually1 as is evident on examining our larger ,english gardens4 ,the permanence and character of extensive grasslands1 especially prairies1 savannahs1 and steppes1 are much affected by the periodical firing they are exposed to in the dry season1 and large tracts of country in various parts of the world would doubtless bear forests or other vegetation if not thus fired1 while in other cases the herbage would be differently constituted were firing discontinued4 ,the following chapter embodies an attempt to classify our ,british grasses solely for purposes of identification when not in flower4 ,it is not claimed that the arrangement is the best possible1 nor that it is complete1 and ,i need hardly say that corrections will be gratefully received4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,grasses ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,vegetative ,,characters4 ,i4 ,,sheaths ,,entire ,,except ,,where ,,those ,,of ,,lower ,,leaves ,,are ,,burst ,,by ,,branches1 ,c4 ,a4 ,aquatics with the sheaths reticulated1 owing to large air-cavities4 ,leaves equitant1 linear acute1 often floating4 ,glyceria fluitans 7,br474 ,floating sweet grass4 ,somewhat coarse1 but useful pasture in water-meadows and fens4 ,sweet-tasting4 ,section of sheathed leaves linear oblong2 sheath striate or furrowed1 keeled2 leaf ribbed2 ligule broad acute4 ,leaf-base with a yellow triangle4 ,smooth4 ,glyceria aquatica 7,sm474 ,reed sweet grass4 ,especially given to growing in the water-courses and on banks instead of spreading in the water-meadows1 c4 ,sweet-tasting4 ,section of sheathed leaves broadly naviculate2 sheath smooth1 no keel2 leaf not ribbed1 thick and inflated with large air-cavities2 ligule short4 ,leaf-base with a brown triangle4 ,margins and keel rather rough4 ,these two species of ,glyceria are distinguished by their shoot-sections and the ridges of the leaves of ,g4 fluitans3 they often occur in the same ditch4 ,they cannot readily be confused with others on account of their aquatic habit1 and the characters given4 ,the only other aquatic or semi-aquatic species are forms of ,catabrosa1 ,digraphis1 ,arundo1 ,alopecurus geniculatus1 ,molinia crulea and the rare ,calamagrostis4 ,the ligule and flat shoots with closed sheaths alone suffice to distinguish it from the round and split sheathed ,arundo ,phragmites2 and the round shoots of ,digraphis1 its split sheath and firm leaves1 suffice to distinguish it4 ,molinia also has a tuft of hairs instead of a ligule1 and a split sheath1 and its habit is different4 ,alopecurus geniculatus1 with its 8kneed0 shoots1 has a totally different habit from ,glyceria1 and its very high ridges and want of visible air-chambers complete the diagnosis4 ,catabrosa is a small creeping aquatic with very flaccid leaves1 quite glabrous and soft4 ,also sweet-tasting4 ,b4 ,not aquatic1 and devoid of visible air-chambers in leaf or sheath4 ,often perennial1 i4e4 having stolons or other branches with no rudiments of flowers in them1 and with relics of old leaf-bases4 77 ,sections of sheathed leaves acute3 either two-edged or four-edged4 7#a7 ,section of sheathed leaves quadrangular4 ,blades of leaf thin and dry1 sparsely hairy4 ,sheath quite entire4 ,woods and shady places4 ,melica uniflora1 ,l4 7,wood ,melick74 ,lamina slightly tapered below1 convolute4 ,ligule obsolete1 with a stiff subulate process on the sheath opposite the blade-insertion4 ,ridges below1 but not above4 ,melica nutans1 ,l4 7,mountain ,melick74 ,ligule longer1 and without the awl-shaped peg4 ,only in ,scotland and ,w4 of ,england4 ,both are shade grasses of no agricultural value4 ,m4 uniflora1 with its quadrangular shoots and anti-ligular peg1 cannot be confounded with any other grass4 7#b7 ,sections of sheathed leaves more or less acutely two-edged1 owing to the keels of the compressed equitant leaves4 7i7 ,shoots broad and fan-like1 much compressed1 with old brown leaf-sheaths below1 sometimes burst by the intra-vaginal branches3 leaf ridgeless1 with prominent keel4 ,no underground stolons4 ,dactylis glomerata1 ,l4 7,cock's-foot74 ,an early and quick-growing pasture-grass1 which forms much aftermath4 ,grows on all soils4 ,often coarse4 ,coarse tussocks1 and harsh1 with broad thick succulent bluish-green leaves4 ,section of sheathed leaves acutely naviculate4 ,prominent obtuse ligule1 torn above4 ,lamina long1 rough1 acute1 with white lines if held up1 and serrulate edges4 ,no flanking lines#f4 ,no stolons 7,fig4 #f74 ,there is a cultivated variety of ,dactylis with broad opaque white stripes down the leaves3 these are totally different from the translucent white stripes seen on holding the wild form1 or ,aira cspitosa1 up to the light4 ,another cultivated 8ribbon-grass0--,digraphis--has round shoots1 split sheaths1 and a different habit1 and the same applies to its wild form4 ,probably the only serious chances of confusion with ,dactylis are between it and ,poa pratensis1 which also has flattened shoots and closed sheath2 but in the latter the section of the shoot is elliptical--not naviculate1--the keel is far less prominent1 and the ligule shorter4 ,moreover ,p4 pratensis is a creeping stoloniferous grass1 less harsh1 and with less pointed leaves4 ,the distance to which the sheath is torn may be from #a_/h to #a_/b down4 ,leaves tend to remain conduplicate4 ,margins serrulate with teeth extremely short and directed forwards4 7ii7 ,shoots compressed but narrow3 the section almost rhomboid with rounded edges4 ,poa trivialis1 ,l4 7,rough-stalked ,meadow-grass74 ,conspicuous in deep rich pastures and orchards1 preferring slight shade and rich soil4 ,valuable pasture and hay grass4 ,rootstock shortly creeping1 branches extra-vaginal and above ground1 shoots rough4 ,blade narrow1 harsh1 with an acute point1 thin1 shining below1 ridgeless1 with flanking lines and keel4 ,ligule acute1 and short or long 7,fig4 #h74 ,sesleria crulea1 ,ard4 7,blue ,moor-grass71 of our northern limestone hills1 has narrow1 flat1 glaucous blue1 stiff1 mucronate leaves1 with scabrid apex4 ,ligule ciliate4 ,poa trivialis is most likely to be confounded with other ,poas1 especially ,p4 annua and ,p4 pratensis1 since they both have thin leaves and flat shoots2 but ,p4 annua has a split sheath1 less acute and duller leaves1 is annual1 and less harsh1 and the shoot-section is flatter at the sides and rounder at the ends4 ,poa pratensis1 ,l4 is larger and more stoloniferous1 with both extra- and intra-vaginal branches1 culms erect and smooth1 sheaths smooth1 and the shoot-sections elliptical--not cornered or rhomboidal--and with darker green and larger1 thicker1 #g-veined1 more glossy1 and less harsh leaves1 with shorter1 blunter ligule4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 also presents difficulties1 but the sheath is split1 and the ligule is shorter than in ,p4 trivialis1 the leaves thicker1 and the shoot-sections more linear-oblong or elliptical4 77 ,sections of sheathed leaves rounded1 circular or oval1 there being no prominent keels4 7#a7 ,section of sheathed leaves circular or nearly so1 the shoots being only slightly compressed4 99 ,perennial4 ,bromus inermis 7,awnless ,brome74 ,sections circular1 the leaves being convolute1 base shelving4 ,glabrous sheaths and leaves4 ,stoloniferous4 ,ligule short1 truncate1 and finely toothed4 ,a forage grass of the ,hungarian steppes4 ,now being grown in this country1 but of doubtful value here4 ,bromus erectus1 ,huds4 7,upright ,brome74 ,a weed4 ,sections oval and rounded1 but leaves equitant4 ,radical leaves remain folded and almost subulate1 hairy edges4 ,no stolons4 ,fields1 c4 ,it is a weed on dry lands1 and of little or no value4 ,bromus asper1 ,murr4 7,hairy ,brome74 ,in thickets1 c43 a weed1 and useless4 ,leaves green1 long1 flat1 hanging1 and eared4 ,sheath with scattered deflexed hairs4 ,lamina tapering at the base4 ,keel a white line1 ridges inconspicuous3 distance between veins #b-c times breadth of latter4 ,ligule very short1 toothed4 ,b4 giganteus1 ,l4 7,tall ,brome71 also comes here4 ,it is less common and glabrous4 ,woods1 c41 a useless weed4 9999 ,annual or biennial4 ,bromus mollis 7,b4 arvensis1 var4 mollis1 ,l471 ,field ,brome4 ,a too abundant and useless weed in water-meadows and hay-fields4 ,softly downy4 ,blades very thin and not eared3 dry4 ,bromus sterilis1 ,l4 7,barren ,brome74 ,a useless weed4 ,rough and downy1 but less so than the last4 ,moist waysides1 c4 ,the ,bromes are extremely variable and difficult to determine by the leaves4 ,the annual species are apt to be biennial or 7,b4 sterilis7 perennial2 and some vary much as regards hairiness--e4g4 ,b4 mollis is connected by a series of semi-glabrous forms to varieties quite smooth1 all grouped by ,bentham under ,b4 arvensis4 ,bromus asper1 being auriculate and a shade-species1 runs some risk of confusion with ,hordeum sylvaticum1 but ,hordeum has a split sheath and in ,b4 asper the translucent interspace between the ridges is #b-c times as broad as in ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,the other species of ,bromus are not eared1 and their entire sheaths at once distinguish them from ,hordeum4 ,bromus giganteus has leaves glabrous and very like ,festuca elatior4 ,the red split sheaths of the latter1 its sharp ears and prominent ridges afford the best distinctions2 and ,b4 giganteus has broader leaves and more evident serrulation or descending bristles at the basal margins4 7#b7 ,section of sheathed leaves elliptical1 owing to the shoots being compressed4 ,sheaths often only slightly split above4 ,no hair on surface of leaves or sheaths4 ,margins of leaves smooth and even4 ,blades without ridges1 a keel and flanking lines1 acute1 base rounded4 ,ligule of lower leaves very short4 ,poa pratensis1 ,l4 7,smooth-stalked ,meadow-grass74 ,an early and valuable dry pasture-grass1 but though deep-rooted1 it yields thin hay3 its chief value is for 8bottom grass0 and in lawn mixtures1 c4 ,leaves stiff and pointed4 ,extra-vaginal rooting underground stolons1 and intra-vaginal branches4 ,shoots smooth4 ,keel slight3 seven principal veins and smaller ones between4 ,leaves blunter and broader than in ,p4 trivialis4 ,poa alpina1 ,l4 7,alpine ,poa74 ,on mountains in the north4 ,no stolons4 #d-e veins on each side of the median one4 ,poa pratensis presents similar difficulties to ,p4 trivialis3 for diagnoses see p4 #db4 ,it is distinguished from ,p4 nemoralis by its closed sheath1 thicker1 blunter and harder leaves1 linear-elliptical shoot-sections1 and light coloured nodes1 as well as by its habit4 ,all other ,poas have shallow and poorly developed roots4 ,p4 fertilis is a form very like ,p4 nemoralis1 with rougher leaves and longer ligule1 introduced into cultivation4 ,margins of leaves scaberulous with descending hairs4 ,very low flat ridges4 ,sheath smooth4 ,briza media1 ,l4 7,quaking ,grass74 ,a weed in meadows1 indicating poor soil--e4g4 moor-lands and chalk--but eaten by sheep4 ,tufted and slightly creeping perennial4 ,ligules very short1 entire4 ,briza minor1 ,l4 7,lesser ,quaking-grass74 ,annual4 ,leaves broader and shorter1 and ligules longer4 ,in the south and rarer4 ,,ii4 ,,sheaths ,,split1 ,,at ,,least ,,some ,,distance ,,down4 ,a4 ,glabrous--i4e4 with no obvious hairs#g4 7a7 ,grasses with setaceous or bristle-like leaves2--i4e4 the lamina of the lower leaves remains permanently folded instead of opening out flat4 7#a7 ,ligule obsolete1 auricled at the junction of blade and sheath4 ,festuca ovina 7,sheep's ,fescue74 ,densely tufted perennial4 ,leaves hard1 glabrous and often glaucous1 with #e-g ridges if forcibly unrolled1 ears short1 stiff and erect4 ,branches in permanent sheaths4 ,chiefly useful as pastures on downs and dry chalk-soils4 ,several varieties are recognised by agriculturists1 as hard1 red1 various-leafed1 fine-leafed ,fescue1 c4 7see ,figs4 #ac and #ah74 ,festuca ,myurus1 ,l4 7,rat's-tail ,fescue74 ,annual1 longer auricles1 and hair on the ribbed inrolled surface4 ,a road-side weed4 ,festuca ovina presents difficulties with its varieties and with ,f4 ,myurus1 ,l4 7var4 sciuroides1 ,roth474 ,the chief varieties of ,f4 ovina are ,hard ,fescue 7,f4 duriuscula1 ,l471 taller and with some of the upper leaves flat1 and found in moister and rich soils3 ,red ,fescue 7,f4 sabulicola1 ,duf4 or ,f4 rubra1 ,l47 more or less creeping and with red sheaths to the lower leaves1 on poor stony land--,f4 heterophylla is a form of this on chalky soils1 with flat leaves above3 and ,f4 tenuifolia a very wiry form on sheep-lands4 ,they all pass into one another1 however1 and cannot be distinguished by the leaves 7see ,figs4 #ah-bj74 ,f4 ,myurus 7var4 sciuroides7 is ruderal and annual1 and has longer hairs on the ridges of the folded leaves4 ,it has no agricultural value4 7#b7 ,ligule membranous1 not auricled4 77 ,bristle-like 7setaceous7 leaves1 very hard and stiff1 and more or less solid4 ,nardus stricta1 ,l4 7,moor ,mat-grass74 ,roots very tough and stringy3 ligule small1 but thick and blunt4 ,leaves channelled3 upper erect1 lower horizontal4 ,sheath smooth4 ,moors and sandy heaths3 useless 7,figs4 #b and #bf74 ,aira flexuosa1 ,l4 7,wavy ,hair-grass74 ,roots fibrous4 ,leaves short1 filiform1 terete1 solid--the channel hardly discernible4 ,ligule short1 obtuse4 ,heaths1 c4 ,of little use1 even for sheep 7,fig4 #bh74 77 ,leaves bristle-like1 but distinctly due to inrolling of edges4 ,aira caryophyllea1 ,l4 7,silvery ,hair-grass71 is scabrid4 ,a weed1 with very slight foliage4 ,a4 prcox1 ,l4 7,early ,hair-grass74 ,greener and more glabrous4 ,habit more rigid4 ,a4 canescens1 ,l4 7,grey ,hair-grass74 ,glaucous or purplish2 rare1 on ,s4,e4 coasts4 77 ,leaves narrow and more or less involute1 and subulate upwards1 but easily unrolled1 and apt to become flatter as they age4 ,avena pratensis1 ,l4 7,perennial ,oat74 ,leaves rather thin1 dry1 harsh1 ridgeless1 with flanking lines and a keel#h2 glaucous1 glabrous1 but edges scabrous4 ,usually involute1 but may open out4 ,ligule long ovate-acute4 ,dry pastures1 especially on calcareous soil1 and of little value4 ,poa maritima1 ,huds4 7,sea-grass74 ,leaves narrow1 rather short1 and ,u-shaped in section4 ,involute3 ridgeless1 with flanking lines1 but no keel2 soft and rather thick4 ,ligule rather long1 obtuse and decurrent4 ,useless agriculturally4 ,for difficulties with other species of ,avena and ,poa see pp4 #dd1 #ed and #fj4 7b7 ,grasses with the leaves expanded1 more or less flat4 7#a7 ,blades conspicuously ridged--i4e4 the surface is raised in prominent longitudinal ridges with furrows between4 7i7 ,leaves rigid and hard1 sharp pointed4 ,sheath and outer leaf-surface usually glabrous4 ,aira cspitosa1 ,l4 7,tufted ,hair-grass74 ,forms large tufts4 ,a coarse weed forming bad tussocks in wet meadows and pastures3 useless for fodder4 ,leaves flat4 ,ligule long1 acute4 ,ridges equal1 high and sharp1 and scabrid1 with #e-f white lines between1 if viewed by transmitted light4 ,wet meadows4 ,a4 cspitosa cannot easily be mistaken for any other species4 ,alopecurus geniculatus is also a moisture-loving grass with strongly ridged leaves1 but the interspaces are far less translucent and the whole habit is different4 ,all the other species of ,aira have involute and setaceous leaves1 and even ,a4 cspitosa is apt to roll in its leaves in mountain varieties1 but they are easily flattened out1 and show the ridges4 ,psamma arenaria1 ,beauv4 7,sea ,mat-grass74 ,this is one of the most valuable 8sand-binders10 its long matted rhizomes holding loose sand together4 ,it is a sea-shore grass1 of no use for fodder4 ,it was formerly much used for mats and thatching4 ,leaves concave1 long1 narrow1 erect1 scabrid and glaucous above1 and polished below3 pungent4 ,ridges rounded1 alternately high and low4 ,sheath long4 ,ligule very long and bifid4 ,elymus arenarius1 ,l4 7,sand ,lyme-grass74 ,like ,psamma1 this is a 8sand-binder0 and of no use for fodder4 ,leaves concave1 and eared at the base of the blade3 ears pointed and tend to cross in front4 ,ligule very short and obtuse4 ,ridges flattened above1 not scabrid4 ,apex of blade rolled1 forming a hard spine4 ,psamma cannot easily be mistaken for the much less common ,elymus1 as it is not eared1 and the ridges and ligule are very different4 7ii7 ,leaves not specially rigid and hard1 and often thin2 glabrous1 or shining below4 ,ridges less evident4 99 ,ligule very short or obsolete2 blade firm but not hard1 glabrous or nearly so1 and shining below4 ,sheath often coloured red or yellow at the base4 ,sections of sheathed leaves narrow1 oblong1 owing to compression of shoots4 ,sheath nearly entire4 ,lolium perenne1 ,l4 7,perennial ,rye-grass74 ,very valuable pasture-grass1 especially on clay4 ,less successful as hay4 ,deep rooted tufts4 ,glossy dark green4 ,ligule short 7,fig4 #aa74 ,sheath red or purplish below4 ,blade conduplicate and keeled1 often rounded1 collared or eared at the base2 with rounded ridges and rough above1 shining below4 ,when the ears are well developed their points often cross one over the other in front of the sheath4 ,l4 italicum1 ,braun4 7,italian ,rye-grass71 is an earlier and better variety for hay and sewage farms4 ,shoot more rounded in section1 and has less marked veins on the more rolled leaf4 ,l4 temulentum1 ,l4 7,common ,darnel71 is annual and a weed of corn-fields4 ,foliage usually rougher4 ,lolium perenne presents some difficulties in relation to such forms as ,l4 italicum1 species of ,agrostis and ,festuca1 ,alopecurus pratensis1 ,cynosurus and ,agropyrum4 ,owing to the leaves not being always strictly conduplicate in the first year1 the flat shoots may not sharply mark it off from ,l4 italicum4 ,its somewhat looser1 almost stoloniferous tufts1 and darker green foliage1 less polished below and usually narrower and harder1 have then to be taken into account4 ,the ridges of ,lolium are often like those of ,festuca pratensis2 and the shining lower surface and rather firm leaves and red sheaths1 present other points of confusion4 ,the smooth basal margins of ,lolium1 absence of white translucent lines when held up1 and the different ligule and ears afford distinctions--the ligule of ,festuca being a mere line1 and the ears pointed and projecting1 whereas they may be mere lateral ledges in ,lolium4 ,cynosurus has the ligule and ears very like those of ,lolium1 the ears being mere ledges2 but the former has yellow sheaths1 firmer and thicker leaves with more evident ridges1 and the old plants usually have the characteristic crested spikes remaining4 ,cynosurus1 moreover1 has the sheath split only a short way down4 ,with regard to ,agrostis1 there is no colour in the sheath1 the ligule is longer and pointed1 and the leaves drier and thinner than in ,lolium1 and harsher on both surfaces4 ,agrostis has also no ears4 ,alopecurus pratensis has much broader and flatter ridges than ,lolium and a longer ligule1 and its sheaths are dark-brown or black--not red2 but ,a4 agrestis has very similar ridges to ,lolium and may easily be confounded at first4 ,agropyrum is sometimes nearly glabrous1 and may then be confused with ,lolium by beginners3 its low ridges1 curled and pointed ears1 obsolete ligule1 and thinner1 drier1 harsher blade1 as well as the stolons1 distinguish it4 ,lolium temulentum and ,hordeum murinum occasionally cause difficulty1 but the latter is always more or less hairy1 its blades thinner and drier1 and the ridges less raised4 ,sections rounded--elliptical or nearly circular4 ,sheath distinctly split1 at least above4 ,cynosurus cristatus1 ,l4 7,crested ,dog's-tail74 ,useful as pasture on dry soils1 but only moderately so as hay4 ,blade narrow1 slightly eared or collared below1 tapered above2 firmer than ,lolium4 ,sheath only split a short way down4 ,yellow or yellowish-white at the base4 ,leaves conduplicate or convolute1 short and narrow1 the ligule short3 minute ears at base4 ,usually easily recognised by the withered culms and persistent pectinate spikes 7,fig4 #af74 ,festuca elatior1 ,l4 7,meadow ,fescue74 ,a valuable meadow and pasture grass1 though somewhat coarse4 ,several varieties are known4 ,best on heavy soils4 ,deep rooted4 ,blade flat and broad1 conduplicate1 sharp-eared at the base1 and there rough at the margin3 lower surface polished4 ,rich green4 ,mid-rib flat above1 numerous ribs with white lines between if held up and examined with a lens4 ,ligule obsolete 7,figs4 #ab and #ag74 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,l4 7,common ,reed74 ,a large aquatic1 reed-like creeping grass1 with broad leaves 7#c_/d to #a in471 flat1 rather rigid1 acuminate1 glaucous below1 hispid at edges4 ,sheath smooth1 striate1 bearded at mouth4 ,ligule a mere fringe of hair4 7,cf4 ,digraphis1 p4 #ed47 ,cynosurus is not very liable to confusion2 but it has resemblances to ,lolium 7see p4 #di7 and to species of ,agrostis4 ,the leaves of ,cynosurus are firmer1 thicker1 less dry1 and with a shining undersurface1 and the sheath is only split above1 and yellow below2 whereas ,agrostis has relatively thin and dry leaves1 rough surfaces and margin1 distinct ridges1 and converging margins as the blade nears the sheath4 ,festuca elatior is easily confused with the glabrous ,bromes4 ,for ,b4 giganteus see p4 #dc4 ,bromus erectus is distinguished by the entire sheath1 usually hairy1 the want of auricles1 and the conduplicate--not convolute--leaves4 ,agrostis has thinner1 duller1 and drier leaves1 and no red sheath4 ,alopecurus pratensis has more depressed1 flatter and broader ridges than ,festuca1 and a longer ligule1 and lacks the pointed ears4 9999 ,ligule whitish1 membranous1 long1 or at least well developed4 ,sheaths not coloured or brown4 ,leaves thin and rough1 at least at the base4 ,ridges not very prominent1 but numerous and distinct4 ,agrostis stolonifera1 ,l4 7,fiorin74 ,stolons1 with numerous short offsets bursting through the leaf-sheaths4 ,blade flat1 rough1 tapering1 with rounded ridges1 and convolute in bud3 there are no auricles1 but the blade may narrow1 and form ledges1 as it runs into the sheath4 ,sheaths nearly smooth4 ,ligule long and pointed1 and often toothed at the margins4 ,the leaves vary in breadth4 ,this and ,a4 vulgaris1 ,with4 with shorter ligules1 and1 possibly1 ,a4 canina1 ,l4 with finer leaves1 are varieties of ,a4 alba1 ,l4 ,only the variety ,a4 stolonifera is of moderate value for pasture1 especially on poor soils1 as it lasts late into autumn3 the others are weeds1 like couch-grass4 ,agrostis is full of difficulties for the beginner4 ,the weed-forms often spring up after wheat has been cut1 and count as 8twitch10 like ,agropyrum4 ,all the ordinary forms--,a4 stolonifera1 ,a4 vulgaris1 and ,a4 canina--may be included in ,a4 alba 7,linn474 ,on dry hills a close tufted grass1 with setaceous leaves1 and in rich soils creeping and luxuriant with broad leaves4 ,it is one of the few grasses that thrive in wet soils4 ,the chief points in the flat-leafed forms are the thin1 dry leaves1 rough on both sides and on the margins1 with distinct raised ridges1 and the base of the leaf narrowing suddenly into its insertion with the sheath1 with no auricle1 but with a long membranous ligule4 ,the sheath not coloured1 and the blade convolute4 ,again1 ,a4 stolonifera has a long1 serrated1 acute ligule1 while ,a4 vulgaris has a much shorter1 entire and truncate one1 and narrower leaves4 ,agropyrum is the grass most likely to lead to confusion4 ,its ears1 lower ridges1 very short or obsolete ligule1 and pubescence 7sometimes glabrous7 distinguish it4 ,cynosurus sometimes gives trouble 7see p4 #ej7 with ,alopecurus pratensis3 the sheaths1 ligule and flattened ridges should suffice for distinction4 ,alopecurus geniculatus is even more like ,agrostis1 but its ridges are more prominent and sharp1 and its aquatic habit and bent 8knees0 distinguish it4 ,alopecurus agrestis1 in dry corn-fields1 has a thickened ligule1 sometimes coloured1 and is annual or biennial1 but otherwise very like ,agrostis4 ,alopecurus pratensis1 ,l4 7,meadow ,foxtail74 ,large grass with stolons2 very early1 and much prized as pasture and hay1 but soon dies out on light poor soils4 ,especially good for stiff soils4 ,sheaths long1 ridged1 brown or nearly black at the base as they age4 ,ligule distinct and obtuse1 entire4 ,leaves numerous4 ,blades long1 dark green1 succulent and scabrous3 ridges numerous and flat above1 but distinct 7,fig4 #i74 ,a4 agrestis1 ,l4 in ,s4 ,england has shorter leaves1 and ridges not flattened2 it is a troublesome pest of arable land1 but does not usually invade pasture4 ,a4 geniculatus1 ,l4 is semi-aquatic1 and like the last4 ,it is easily recognised by its sharply bent 8knees10 and is of little value 7,fig4 #c74 ,alopecurus shows resemblances to ,lolium 7see p4 #di71 ,festuca 7see p4 #ej71 and ,agrostis 7see p4 #eb74 ,if well grown its ridged sheath and leaves1 the former brown or black at the base1 aid in distinguishing it4 7#b7 ,blades either devoid of ridges or with very inconspicuous ones4 99 ,no trace of ridges1 and the mid-ribs not prominent1 but the leaves show median lines flanked by finer ones when held up4 ,blades thin and narrow4 ,somewhat keeled4 7i7 ,shoots compressed4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 7,flat-stemmed ,meadow-grass74 ,leaves rather short1 more or less glabrous or glaucous1 and ,v-shaped at the base2 shoots compressed1 and naviculate in section4 ,ligule short and thin4 ,sheath tends to be closed below4 ,a creeping perennial on commons and waste lands1 and of little or no value4 ,poa annua1 ,l4 7,annual ,meadow-grass74 ,small annual4 ,compressed shoots1 limp4 ,leaves linear1 pale1 sub-acute1 thin1 often wavy1 flat1 flaccid1 bright green2 dull or slightly shining and ,v-shaped in section below4 ,ligule long1 pointed1 whitish and clasping the shoot4 ,it is a harmless weed1 and since it puts out shoots all the year round1 furnishes a certain amount of pasturage4 7ii7 ,shoots terete or nearly so4 ,poa nemoralis1 ,l4 7,wood ,poa74 ,leaves and sheaths smooth4 ,blade bright green1 thin1 often glaucous1 linear-narrow1 flaccid1 acute4 ,ligule almost obsolete4 ,section of shoots round4 ,of little value4 ,poa bulbosa1 ,l4 7,bulbous ,meadow-grass74 ,stems bulbous at the base4 ,ligule long and acute4 ,leaves very narrow and tapering4 ,sections of shoot round4 ,coasts of ,s4 and ,e4 ,all the ,poas1 except the aquatic ones 7,glyceria7 and ,p4 maritima1 have glabrous ribless blades with the median lines1 and slight keel4 ,p4 pratensis1 ,p4 alpina and ,p4 trivialis 7,fig4 #h7 have entire sheaths 7as have ,glyceria fluitans1 ,g4 aquatica and ,p4 maritima71 but the others have them split some way down4 ,the leaves of ,p4 pratensis and ,p4 compressa are firmer than the thin leaves of ,p4 annua1 ,p4 trivialis and ,p4 nemoralis4 ,sheaths flattened in ,p4 pratensis1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 annua1 and ,p4 trivialis2 but rounded in ,p4 nemoralis4 ,glyceria aquatica and ,g4 fluitans have netted sheaths4 ,poa annua is annual1 and ,p4 bulbosa has the bulbous base4 ,p4 maritima has involute leaves and no keel1 and the rare ,p4 alpina has short rigid keeled mucronate leaves1 with tip often inflexed and thickened scabrid edges4 ,the leaves of ,avena are apt to appear similar to those of the ,poas at first sight1 but the former are hairy1 and ridged1 dry as well as thin1 and the peculiar median lines of ,poa are wanting4 ,poa bulbosa has drier leaves than usual1 but its leaves are devoid of ridges4 9999 ,ridges can be detected1 but are slight and not distinct4 ,margins scabrid1 at least at the base4 ,leaves firm1 flat1 linear1 acuminate1 not narrowed below4 ,glabrous4 ,ligule membranous4 ,digraphis arundinacea1 ,trin4 7,reed-grass74 ,sheathed leaves round in section2 blades convolute1 tapering above1 flat1 firm1 long and broad 7#a in47 below4 ,mid-rib and veins numerous1 and prominent below4 ,stoloniferous3 branches extra-vaginal1 often with deep red basal scales4 ,sheaths with much overlapping membranous margins1 with a collar-like ledge above4 ,ligule long and somewhat acute4 ,wet ditches1 c41 of no value 7,figs4 #g1 #ad74 ,for distinction between ,digraphis and ,dactylis see p4 #da4 ,poa pratensis is at once distinguished by its flattened shoots1 more rounded leaf apex and shorter ligule4 ,arundo ,phragmites is easily distinguished by the ligule 7see p4 #ea71 and the other aquatic grasses are quite different 7see p4 #ci74 ,phleum pratense1 ,l4 7,timothy-grass74 ,no stolons1 but bulbous on dry ground4 ,early1 and a heavy cropping hay grass3 also excellent pasture2 branches intra-vaginal1 but burst the glabrous sheaths4 ,old sheaths fibrous4 ,leaves short1 convolute1 with scabrid margins owing to deflexed teeth3 ridges obsolete above1 no keel2 broader and greyer green than ,alopecurus4 ,ligule short on radical leaves1 thin4 ,pastures4 ,perennial4 ,the smooth ligule1 deflexed marginal teeth1 and no keel distinguish it from ,arrhenatherum4 ,phleum arenarium1 ,l4 7,sand ,phleum74 ,shoot annual1 with no bulbs4 ,leaves broad1 flat and glabrous1 but rough at the edges1 with descending teeth4 ,ridges low and flat4 ,sheaths smooth3 leaves conduplicate4 ,ligule long4 ,sandy coasts1 c4 ,a weed4 ,phleum asperum1 ,jacq4 and ,p4 ,bhmeri1 ,schrad4 are rare ruderal plants1 and ,p4 alpinum1 ,l4 is confined to the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,p4 arenarium is sharply distinct by its conduplicate leaves and habitat4 ,alopecurus pratensis has narrower and less grey-green leaves than ,phleum pratense1 its ligule is shorter and blunter1 its sheath more grooved and dark below1 and the ridges more distinct and flat4 ,it is relatively well rooted and is stoloniferous4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 ,beauv4 7,false ,oat-grass74 ,loose tufts with short stolons1 or bulbous below4 ,leaves few1 narrow1 thin1 dry1 rough1 with very low flat ribs1 convolute in bud1 and practically glabrous4 ,sheath smooth4 ,ligule truncate1 hairy on its outer surface4 ,bitter1 and commonly undervalued by agriculturists1 but useful in mixed pasture1 and yields bulky1 coarse hay4 ,there are often a few sparse isolated hairs on the low ribs4 ,the base enters the sheath with slight and sometimes pinkish ledges4 ,ridges hardly observable4 ,traces of roughness if rubbed downwards4 ,white lines1 about #e each side on holding up to the light4 ,the not very long leaves taper slightly below4 ,arrhenatherum is liable to confusion with ,holcus1 ,anthoxanthum1 ,molinia and ,avena1 but it is typically glabrous1 whereas the others are hairy4 ,from ,holcus it is easily distinguished by the sheaths1 ligule and soft hairs of that genus4 ,anthoxanthum differs in its habit1 ears1 scent1 sheath and ligule4 ,molinia differs in habit1 ligule1 sheath1 and tough stringy roots1 and the shape of the leaves4 ,avena pratensis differs in its narrow leaves1 less prominent ridges1 and ligule2 ,a4 flavescens in its much broader and coarser hairy leaves1 and the ligule2 and ,a4 pubescens in pubescence and flat-shoots and ligule4 ,leaves very thin1 blade tapering below4 ,keel prominent1 but no ridges above4 ,ligule long and torn4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 7,spreading ,millet-grass74 ,tufted perennial4 ,leaves linear-lanceolate1 scabrid above4 ,sheath smooth4 ,bitter tasting4 ,may be slightly hairy4 ,woods4 ,it is much liked by birds1 but is of no value in agriculture4 ,b4 ,leaves or sheaths1 or both1 distinctly hairy4 77 ,leaf-blades eared at the base4 7a7 ,ears sharply pointed4 ,leaves convolute1 and sections of shoots round4 ,ligule short and inconspicuous4 ,agropyrum repens1 ,beauv4 7,couch-grass74 ,a troublesome weed of arable land and gardens1 c41 owing to the extraordinary vitality of its underground stolons4 ,the young shoots are readily eaten by stock4 ,perennial1 and extensively stoloniferous2 bright or glaucous green4 ,blade thin1 dry1 rough edged1 hairy and rough above1 glabrous or hairy below4 ,the short ligule fringed4 ,ears long1 or sometimes short1 pointed2 often obliquely crossing in front of the sheath4 ,ridges inconspicuous4 ,hairs may be absent from the sheath1 and nearly so from the blade4 ,the sea-shore varieties are stiffer and more glaucous1 the leaves more ribbed1 involute and pointed--e4g4 ,a4 junceum1 ,beauv4 ,agropyrum caninum1 ,beauv4 7,bearded ,wheat-grass74 ,tufted weed1 not creeping1 in woods1 c4 ,blade thinner and rougher beneath1 but very variable4 ,properties similar to those of ,a4 repens4 ,agropyrum may be confused with ,lolium 7see p4 #di7 and ,agrostis 7see p4 #ea71 but hardly with any other grass1 and with these only because it is liable to be glabrous or nearly so on poor soil4 ,elymus has much more pronounced ridges than the sea-shore varieties of ,agropyrum4 7b7 ,base of blade with inconspicuous rounded ears4 ,leaves convolute4 ,ligule conspicuous4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum1 ,l4 7,sweet ,vernal-grass74 ,compact tuft4 ,common in pastures and hay1 but it only forms a small proportion of the crop4 ,one of the earliest grasses1 and the principal one1 which gives the scent to new-mown hay3 a perfume has been extracted from it4 ,its value as fodder is probably overrated4 ,bitter tasted4 ,leaves more or less hairy at margins1 especially at throat of sheath1 flat1 and slightly ridged4 ,sheath furrowed1 often pubescent4 ,ligule long and blunt1 with ciliate margins4 ,sweet scented when dried4 ,the most shallow rooted of all meadow-grasses4 ,leaves often short and few4 ,anthoxanthum is sometimes confused with ,arrhenatherum 7see p4 #ef7 and ,molinia2 the latter differs in its ligule--a tuft of hair--its stringy roots1 tapering leaf-base1 less obvious ridges1 and smooth sheaths1 c4 ,anthoxanthum is deep green and often very luxurious in rich wet soils--e4g4 in ,devonshire4 7c7 ,ears as mere collar-like ledges where the blade joins the sheath4 ,sheath usually pubescent or hispid with reflexed hairs4 ,ridges inconspicuous4 ,ligule very short4 ,perennial1 with firmer leaves4 ,hordeum sylvaticum1 ,huds4 7,wood ,barley74 ,leaves flat1 thin but firm1 rather broad1 scaberulous4 ,sheath hispid1 with reflexed hairs4 ,blade not tapering below4 ,translucent spaces between the veins as broad as the latter4 ,ligule short and blunt4 ,shady places4 ,useless4 ,hordeum pratense1 ,huds4 7,meadow ,barley74 ,tufted1 or bulbous below4 ,leaves narrower1 flat1 tending to roll up1 scabrid above and hairy beneath4 ,sheath narrow1 hairy4 ,moist meadows1 and of some use as pasture in the young state4 ,annual1 with thin dry leaves4 ,hordeum murinum1 ,l4 7,wall ,barley74 ,coarse tufts2 leaves small1 narrow1 hairy or scabrid4 ,sheaths sparsely hispid1 or very downy1 inflated4 ,roads1 c4 ,a useless weed4 ,h4 maritimum1 ,with4 is a sea-side form1 smaller and more glaucous4 ,sheaths hairy4 77 ,leaf-blades not eared at the base4 99 ,sheaths of radical leaves veined with red-purple4 ,holcus lanatus1 ,l4 7,yorkshire ,fog74 ,a useless weed1 but very common in pasture and hay2 forming tussocks1 greyish-green1 softly hairy 7tomentose74 ,blades with roundish ridges4 ,ligule short and obtuse4 ,sheath somewhat keeled1 with trace of collar ledge4 ,it is said to have a bitter taste 7,fig4 #ae74 ,ligule pilose4 ,tufted hairs along the broad rounded ridges1 and on the lower surface and prominent keel4 ,the much rarer ,h4 mollis1 ,l4 is not so long-haired1 except on the nodes1 and is more creeping and slender in habit4 ,it is a 8twitch40 ,the ,hordeums present several points of difficulty to beginners4 ,the differences between the species are given above4 ,h4 maritimum has narrower and thicker leaves than the rest4 ,bromes are most likely to be confounded with ,hordeums1 but they have entire sheaths and no ears 7see p4 #dc74 ,for distinctions between ,h4 murinum and ,lolium see p4 #di4 ,h4 sylvaticum and ,bromus asper 7p4 #dd74 9999 ,no conspicuously red-veined sheaths4 ,ligule absent1 or a tuft of hairs4 ,molinia crulea1 ,mnch4 7,purple ,molinia74 ,tussocks1 with tough stringy roots4 ,leaves narrowed below1 and tapering above to a long point1 ridges obsolete2 very thin and dry but fairly stiff1 and hairy above1 especially at the base4 ,ligule absent1 or a tuft of hairs4 ,sheaths smooth4 ,moors4 ,useless as forage1 but used locally for brooms4 ,molinia is not easily confounded with any others but ,anthoxanthum 7see p4 #eg71 ,arrhenatherum 7see p4 #ef7 or ,brachypodium4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum is distinguished by habitat1 its broad leaves1 membranous ligule1 fibrous roots1 c4 ,kleria cristata1 ,pers4 7,crested ,kleria74 ,very short1 perennial in dry pastures1 pubescent1 pale green4 ,leaves narrow1 tapering below1 soon involute1 ciliated4 ,ridges prominent1 alternately high and low4 ,ligule obsolete1 or a mere jagged yellowish line4 ,useless4 ,triodia decumbens1 ,beauv4 7,decumbent ,heath-grass74 ,low perennial4 ,leaves narrow1 obtuse1 slightly ridged1 tough1 at length involute1 with long1 soft hairs1 especially below and on the edges4 ,sheath grooved1 hairy1 especially at the throat4 ,ligule a tuft of hairs4 ,section of shoot flat2 leaves conduplicate4 ,of no known use as fodder4 ,the rare grasses ,panicum glabrum1 ,gaud41 ,p4 viride1 ,l4 and ,p4 ,crus-galli1 ,l4 introduced in the ,s4,e4 counties also come here4 ,ligule membranous4 ,avena flavescens1 ,l4 7,yellow ,oat-grass74 ,loose tufted perennial1 pale green1 with rounded shoots bursting the sheaths4 ,leaves flat1 slender1 soft1 fine-ribbed and hairy1 especially on the low ridges above4 ,sheath hairy1 especially below1 not keeled4 ,ligule short1 obtuse1 often truncate1 ciliate4 ,a valuable pasture and meadow-grass1 also in water-meadows4 ,its roots are abundant1 and it will grow well in calcareous soils 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,avena pubescens1 ,huds4 7,downy ,oat-grass74 ,a variety of ,a4 pratensis 7see p4 #dg71 but less densely tufted1 and the leaves flat and pubescent1 and especially the sheaths very pubescent4 ,ligule ovate-acute4 ,shoots flat4 ,dry districts1 and a weed4 ,avena flavescens is not easily confounded with any other grass if well grown4 ,all the ,poas otherwise like it are glabrous1 and without the ridges4 ,the same applies to ,a4 pubescens4 ,arrhenatherum is also glabrous1 its leaves narrower1 its ridges much flatter and broader1 and its ligule is hairy outside 7see p4 #ef74 ,brachypodium sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 7,wood ,false-brome74 ,rather slender1 perennial4 ,leaves flat and devoid of ridges2 long1 very thin and dry1 limp1 slightly tapering below1 hirsute4 ,sheath round1 hairy4 ,ligule fairly long1 obtuse1 toothed4 ,copses1 c4 ,useless4 ,brachypodium pinnatum1 ,l4 7,heath ,false-brome71 is a species growing in the open1 with narrow1 firm1 rigid1 erect leaves1 hardly hairy2 with distinct ridges1 and tending to roll up4 ,ligule fringed with hair4 ,open heaths4 ,useless4 ,the only grasses likely to be confounded here are the ,bromes1 and they have entire sheaths4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,and ,,histology4 ,the principal anatomical features observed in the leaves of grasses--apart from finer histological details into which it is not my purpose to enter--concern the characters of the epidermis and distribution of the stomata and hairs1 the arrangement of the chlorophyll-tissue1 that of the mechanical tissue 7sclerenchyma7 and the vascular bundles to which the venation and ribbing of the leaves are due1 and the presence or absence of those peculiar thin-walled cells 7motor-cells7 which bring about the infolding or inrolling of the lamina 7see p4 #be7 as they lose water1 and1 finally1 the presence or absence of conspicuous lacun or air-spaces so characteristic of aquatic species4 ,several observers have occupied themselves with these matters1 and the researches of ,schwendener1 ,duval ,jouve1 ,pfitzer1 ,pe-,laby1 and others have rendered it possible to group most of our grasses according to the microscopic characters of the leaves1 somewhat as ,i have done in ,chapter ,v4 ,reference has been made to the rolling and folding of leaves1 due to the thin-walled cells on the upper surfaces capable of varying in turgescence 7motor-cells74 ,these are specially adapted epidermal cells found on the upper surfaces only4 ,in the leaves of ,poa compressa1 ,p4 annua 7,fig4 #ba71 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,p4 alpina1 ,catabrosa1 ,sesleria1 c41 a row of these motor-cells1 easily distinguished by their large size1 thin walls and clear contents1 is found on each side of the mid-rib2 as they dry the leaf folds its two halves together 7conduplicate71 and on the re-absorption of water they flatten the two halves out again4 ,in ,dactylis these flanking rows coalesce into one over the mid-rib4 ,in other leaves1 e4g4 ,avena pratensis1 ,festuca elatior 7,figs4 #ag1 #bb71 ,melica1 ,elymus 7,fig4 #be71 c41 there are in addition to these two flanking rows1 other sets of motor-cells between the other ribs1 and their combined action causes the halves of the lamina to inroll1 usually one-half inside the other--convolute4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,transverse section of left-half of leaf of ,poa annua 7 about #ej7 showing keel below1 and two flanking lines of motor-cells 7slightly shaded7 above the median vascular bundle of the mid-rib4 ,hence the leaf folds4 ,the half lamina has six smaller vascular bundles1 only the stronger one girdered4 ,ridges practically obsolete and subtending bands of sclerenchyma slight3 hence the leaf-surfaces are parallel4 ,it is easy to observe leaves of such grasses as ,festuca pratensis 7,fig4 #bb71 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 c41 which are wide open in the dewy mornings in summer1 close up as the air gets dry and hot2 and any such leaf may be seen to roll up after plucking and can be reopened by moistening it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,transverse section of left-half of leaf of ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis 7 about #ej74 ,the ridges are well marked and flattened above4 ,the vascular bundles of two orders are girdered below1 but only slightly above4 ,there is no keel4 ,there are well marked motor-cells--not shown in the figure--in each groove4 ,the epidermis of grasses has been closely investigated by ,grob1 but unfortunately his results concern very few of our native species4 ,the principal elements are ordinary elongated cells1 with plane or sinuous walls1 various kinds of short cells intercalated between the ends of these1 several forms of papill1 hairs1 c4 and stomata4 ,the epidermis over the parenchyma of ,digraphis arundinacea consists of rectangular cells with plane walls4 ,series or bands of long cells only may alternate with other series where short cells intervene between the long ones--e4g4 ,nardus4 ,nardus has some of the bands devoid of stomata1 but abounding in short cells1 whereas others 7above7 have stomata throughout4 ,in ,nardus stricta1 ,glyceria fluitans1 ,sesleria1 c41 there are two kinds of short cells1 some siliceous1 others cutinized only4 ,nardus has closely appressed small #b-;celled hairs bent at right-angles1 and some epidermal and parenchyma cells--especially below the stomata--have solid masses of silica filling the lumina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,part of transverse section of leaf of ,aira cspitosa 7 about #cj74 ,ridges very high and acute1 each tipped with sclerenchyma1 and containing an isolated vascular bundle--sometimes one or more small ones also4 ,motor-cells well developed at the base of each groove4 ,the bundles are not girdered1 but numerous bands of sclerenchyma almost join into a continuous band below4 ,the leaf rolls inwards4 ,short cells occur in ,holcus lanatus1 ,hierochloe borealis and ,dactylis glomerata interspersed between plane-walled cells4 ,they may be silicified and vary in shape--square1 saddle-shaped1 elliptical1 irregular1 c42 or they may be replaced here and there by asperities--e4g4 ,elymus--or in rarer cases by stomata4 ,grob has attempted the classification of their distribution in different grasses1 but the subject is too complex for treatment here4 ,the epidermis of many grasses is studded with short two-celled hairs bent sharply at right-angles2 so that the pointed or blunt1 hollow or solid1 apical portion is appressed to the surface4 ,grob says that these are absent from the ,horde1 whereas #ij of the ,panicoide and many species of all other groups have them4 ,examples of the sharply pointed form occur in ,nardus1 of blunt ones in ,cynodon c4 ,in ,nardus they occur on the leaf surface both between and above the veins1 but in ,hierochloe c4 they are confined to the margins4 ,the following grasses have no hairs of either type3 ,agrostis vulgaris1 ,calamagrostis lanceolata1 ,avena pratensis1 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 ,dactylis glomerata1 ,briza media1 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,glyceria fluitans4 ,the sharp1 hard prickle-hairs which give the pronounced roughness to many leaves of grasses are longer than the foregoing1 and stand off more from the leaf4 ,they occur both on the surface and at the margins1 and may be isolated--e4g4 ,avena pratensis1--or mixed with the short cells--,aira canescens1 ,elymus arenarius4 ,they are very abundant on ,kleria cristata4 ,leersia oryzoides has asperities at the margin of the leaf with their points directed upwards on the upper part of the leaf1 downwards on the basal parts1 and the direction of such minute marginal asperities often affords a useful distinctive character--e4g4 ,phleum1 ,arrhenatherum4 ,the marginal asperities in ,nardus are siliceous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,transverse section of part of leaf of ,agropyrum junceum 7 about #dj7 partly inrolled2 showing unequal ridges4 ,the principal vascular bundles are girdered below1 the sclerenchyma joining into a strong continuous sheath4 ,each ridge is tipped with sclerenchyma1 and each groove has motor-cells--not shown in the figure--below4 ,bristles--i4e4 long1 sharp1 stiff hairs--are not very common4 ,they occur on ,nardus1 ,anthoxanthum ,puelii1 ,panicum1 ,cynodon4 ,papill occur on the leaves of ,glyceria1 ,nardus1 ,leersia1 c4 ,poa pratensis has soft hairs on the upper epidermis4 ,the stomata of ,sesleria crulea are depressed and six-celled1 two guard-cells being overgrown by four accessory cells1 but in most grasses they are of the ordinary type with two elongated guard-cells only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,transverse section of part of leaf of ,elymus arenarius1 partly inrolled 7 about #cj71 showing ridges of unequal height1 of which the higher are flat above4 ,vascular bundles girdered1 the stronger above and below4 ,motor-cells in each groove cause the inrolling of the lamina by their contraction4 ,as regards the vascular bundles constituting the venation1 they are as is well known parallel from base to apex in our common grasses1 with linear leaves1 and are usually of four orders as regards strength4 ,those of the first 7e4g4 mid-rib7 and second orders have conspicuous vessels1 but those of the third and fourth orders may be practically devoid of vessels1 though xylem and phloem elements are always present4 ,contrary to the general assumption1 there are frequent though minute transverse bundles joining the parallel veins4 ,the rule is that one vascular bundle runs up each mid-rib or ridge1 but exceptions occur--e4g4 in ,arundo several bundles run up the mid-rib1 and in ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc7 and others even the strong ribs may have two or three bundles4 ,each vascular bundle has its own sclerenchyma sheath1 and very often the stronger veins are accentuated owing to the vascular bundle having a girder-like band of sclerenchyma running conjointly with its sheath and joining the latter above and below--or below only--to the epidermis 7,figs4 #bd and #be74 ,in many cases these lower girders spread out laterally below--fan-shaped in section--and nearly join the neighbouring girders4 ,in other cases the strands of sclerenchymatous supporting tissue do not join the bundles1 but run parallel to them1 above or below1 as separate strands just beneath the epidermis4 ,finally1 these strands may separate from the bundles1 and fuse below into a continuous layer under the epidermis2 this occurs especially in leaves of xerophytes where the cuticle is well developed--e4g4 in varieties of ,festuca ovina 7,fig4 #ah71 ,aira flexuosa 7,fig4 #bh74 ,the distribution of the strands of isolated sclerenchyma affords good characters4 ,while there are none in ,mibora1 we find one large strand at the ridge of the keel and one at each margin1 in addition to smaller ones subtending each vascular bundle1 in ,avena pubescens1 ,sesleria1 ,poa annua 7,fig4 #ba71 ,p4 bulbosa1 ,p4 compressa and ,dactylis glomerata4 ,in ,festuca ovina1 ,f4 rubra1 ,f4 heterophylla 7,figs4 #ah1 #bg7 there are groups more or less pronounced at the keel and margins1 or even a continuous band below1 but none above the bundles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,transverse section of leaf of ,nardus stricta 7 about #ej74 ,the upper surface is represented by the four grooves and five ridges1 each of the former with traces of motor-cells at its base4 ,the deep shaded portions are sclerenchyma1 strong girders of which join the vascular bundle of each ridge to the lower surface4 ,this type is obviously derived from that in ,fig4 #ai1 and may be regarded as a permanently rolled leaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,transverse section of leaf of ,festuca ovina1 var4 duriuscula 7 about #ej71 the type of a permanently folded leaf4 ,seven ridges and six intervening grooves are seen3 each of the latter with traces of motor-cells below4 ,in each ridge is an isolated vascular bundle1 and a narrow sclerenchyma band below4 ,many grasses have an isolated band above and below each primary bundle only--e4g4 ,panicum1 ,cynodon--or above and below each of the other bundles as well--e4g4 ,spartina1 ,arundo1 ,polypogon1 ,agrostis alba1 ,aira cspitosa 7,fig4 #bc71 ,holcus lanatus1 ,glyceria aquatica1 ,g4 fluitans1 ,digraphis1 ,elymus 7,fig4 #be71 ,agropyrum 7,fig4 #bd71 ,brachypodium1 ,nardus 7,fig4 #bf74 ,in ,psamma arenaria the lower bands join into a continuous layer4 ,in the following there is a band like a girder above and below each bundle1 and contiguous with it1 joining it to the epidermis above and below--,leersia1 ,phleum pratense1 ,calamagrostis ,epigeios1 ,bromus erectus1 c4 ,gntz points out that xerophilous grasses are apt to have upright1 narrow 7,figs4 #bf-bh71 grooved or folded leaves1 with strong cuticle1 and marked motor-cells when the leaves open4 ,it is in grasses of this kind1 especially such as inhabit dry sandy districts1 that the subulate1 solid or grooved leaves shown in ,figures #ah1 #ai occur--e4g4 ,festuca ovina and its varieties1 ,aira flexuosa1 ,nardus stricta1 c4 ,the epidermal cell-walls are sinuous1 the stomata protected--e4g4 on the flanks of ribs and in grooves--and waxy or hairy coverings occur4 ,colourless water-storing cells are apt to occur between or around the vascular bundles1 and the chlorophyll-tissues tend to be dense and well protected inside the leaf3 strongly developed bast-sclerenchyma is also frequent 7,fig4 #ah74 ,in shade-grasses1 on the other hand1 and in hygrophilous species1 the leaves are as a rule flat1 with thin epidermal cell-walls1 which have plane sides1 free stomata1 and no wax c4 ,water-storing tissue 7apart from tropical species7 is sparse or absent1 and the chlorophyll-tissues have well aerated lacunar spaces4 ,bast-sclerenchyma is in these cases feebly developed4 ,in the following chapter ,i have brought together some of the principal anatomical features1 in such form that the characters can be employed in checking other determinations of grass leaves4 ,the results1 which are based on the elaborate investigations of ,duval ,jouve1 ,schroeter1 ,pe-,laby and ,grob1 as well as on my own observations1 are not complete in all respects1 and much more should be done to extend the theme1 but the account given will serve to show the student how such results may be employed4 ,it is as yet impossible to decide how far these characters are constant--they are known to be fairly so in many cases--but several grasses cannot yet be distinguished by them alone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,transverse section of subulate leaf of ,aira flexuosa 7 about #ej71 the upper surface represented by a mere ridge with two flanking grooves each with but traces of motor-cells below4 ,one large vascular bundle and four much smaller ones are seen4 ,there are no girders1 but slender bands of sclerenchyma at the lower surface nearly join into a continuous sub-epidermal sheath4 ,this type is the extreme form of that in ,fig4 #bf4 ,it should also be added that some grasses develope two types of leaves 7heterophylly71 solid or subulate below1 flat or slightly inrolled above--e4g4 ,festuca heterophylla--and the following arrangement is intended to apply to the vegetative lower leaves and not to those on the upper parts of the flowering specimen4 ,moreover the sections should be cut from the basal third of the lamina1 and not from the tip of the leaf4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,grasses ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,anatomical ,,characters ,,of ,,the ,,leaf4 ,i4 ,,the ,,chlorophyll-,,tissue1 ,,on ,,transverse ,,sections1 ,,is ,,arranged ,,in ,,rings ,,round ,,the ,,vascular ,,bundles4 ,,there ,,are ,,motor-,,cells ,,between ,,the ,,ribs1 ,,and ,,the ,,stomata ,,are ,,sunk ,,and ,,occur ,,on ,,both ,,faces4 ,cynodon ,dactylon4 ,the larger lateral nerves have as a rule three smaller ones between each pair1 hardly projecting as ribs4 ,chlorophyll chiefly in a ring round the vascular bundle4 ,long hairs on lower surface1 a few papill above4 ,motor-cells in each shallow furrow4 ,short cells occur between the long epidermal cells over the bast-region4 ,the ,panicums also come here1 and differ according to the disposition of the sclerenchyma sheaths around the bundles4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,chlorophyll-,,tissue ,,is ,,between ,,the ,,vascular ,,bundles1 ,,and ,,not ,,confined ,,to ,,rings ,,surrounding ,,them4 ,a4 ,conspicuous lacun between the vascular bundles4 ,stomata on both faces4 ,motor-cells occur4 ,lacun large and rectangular4 ,motor-cells confined to a flanking line on each side of the mid-rib4 ,glyceria aquatica4 ,leaves folded and in section ,v-shaped1 hardly keeled1 with sclerenchyma at apex4 ,motor-cells each side of the mid-rib only4 ,the large square or rectangular lacun bounded by stellate cells4 ,papill on epidermal cells4 ,vascular bundles midway between upper and lower surfaces4 ,glyceria fluitans4 ,section ,v-shaped and keeled1 the roof of each polygonal lacuna arched1 hence the 8ribs0 on the upper surface are between the vascular bundles4 ,the latter lie nearer the lower epidermis4 ,the epidermis has papill4 ,catabrosa aquatica and ,hierochloe also come here1 the former with small lacun1 the latter with larger ones chiefly towards the upper surface of the leaf4 ,digraphis is also apt to have a few air cavities near the mid-rib4 ,b4 ,lacun none1 or inconspicuous1 the chlorophyll-tissue filling up between the ribs4 7a7 ,upper and lower leaf-surfaces parallel1 or nearly so1 and much alike1 the ridges being very low or obsolete4 ,stomata equal or nearly so on both surfaces4 7#a7 ,motor-cells absent2 vascular bundles feeble and very few4 ,mibora verna4 ,the small leaves are flat1 or nearly so1 and have three isolated and very feebly developed bundles1 devoid of girders or sclerenchyma bands4 7#b7 ,motor-cells present1 vascular bundles of various orders1 with sclerenchyma bands or girders4 99 ,leaf keeled1 and folded--not inrolled4 ,motor-cells confined to the neighbourhood of the mid-rib4 ,no hairs4 ,motor-cells conspicuous and conjoined into a band above the mid-rib4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,keel pronounced1 with one large vascular bundle and a sclerenchyma band occupying its crest4 ,motor-cells forming one conjoint band along the upper course of the mid-rib only4 ,stomata on both faces1 but no hairs or thick cuticle4 ,ribs low1 and all bundles have feeble girders4 ,a little sclerenchyma at the margins4 ,a few pale cells in the chlorophyll-tissue4 ,motor-cells inconspicuous and in two flanking lines1 one on each side of the mid-rib4 ,poa trivialis4 ,keel with sclerenchyma at its apex1 and a small band of the same at the margins4 ,vascular bundles of three orders1 isolated1 without girders1 but with a small band of sclerenchyma above and below4 ,ridges obsolete4 ,short hook-asperities above4 ,no thickened cuticle4 ,other species of ,poa also come here3 ,i cannot distinguish them by the leaf anatomy2 but ,p4 annua1 ,p4 compressa1 ,p4 nemoralis and ,p4 pratensis are devoid of the hooked asperities2 ,p4 nemoralis has a thicker lamina than the rest1 and girders to the secondary bundles4 ,p4 annua agrees in the latter point4 9999 ,leaf not keeled3 rolling up4 ,motor-cells distributed between the ridges4 ,hairs none or rare1 or at most a few asperities4 ,veins numerous1 #cj-dj on each half lamina4 ,motor-cells very large4 ,all vascular bundles with girders above and below4 ,digraphis arundinacea4 ,no keel4 ,marginal sclerenchyma conspicuous4 ,a few asperities below4 ,leaf thin1 and all the bundles joined to the epidermis above and below by girders 7,fig4 #ad74 ,stomata on both surfaces1 fairly large3 epidermal cells with plane walls4 ,there may be a few irregular air cavities1 especially near the mid-rib4 ,only the principal bundles girdered4 ,arundo ,phragmites4 ,ridges very numerous and low4 ,no keel4 ,marginal sclerenchyma strong4 ,vascular bundles with sheaths of large colourless cells1 a few of the strongest girdered below1 but most have only sclerenchyma bands above and below4 ,motor-cells particularly large1 between all the bundles4 ,there are no conspicuous lacun4 ,hairs very rare4 ,epidermal cells small1 with sinuous walls3 all the cell-walls contain silica4 ,stomata on both faces1 sunk1 small and more difficult to see than in ,digraphis1 where the epidermal cells are plane walled1 or nearly so4 ,arundo ,donax is very like ,a4 ,phragmites1 but has larger bundles each with a horse-shoe shaped sclerenchymatous mass below1 and larger lacun4 ,veins not more than #aj-bj in each half lamina4 ,more or less conspicuously hairy4 ,the smaller bundles isolated and devoid of girders4 ,bromus sterilis4 ,girders to the stronger bundles only4 ,stiff hairs above and below4 ,motor-cells poorly developed between each pair of low ridges4 ,no pronounced cuticle4 ,a faint sclerenchyma-band at margin1 and at apex of low rounded keel4 ,stomata on both faces4 ,bromus arvensis4 ,similar to ,b4 sterilis1 with stiff hairs commoner below4 ,harsh in cutting4 ,b4 giganteus shows no hairs1 but ,i cannot distinguish the ,bromes generally by the leaf anatomy4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,no keel1 ridges obsolete1 the stronger bundles only with girders4 ,motor-cells conspicuous between all the ribs4 ,marginal sclerenchyma1 and that above and below the bundles1 poorly developed4 ,a few coarse hairs both above and below1 and stomata on both faces4 ,leaf thin and narrow4 ,hordeum murinum4 ,few girdered bundles1 and sclerenchyma at margins poor4 ,hairs sparse and coarse4 ,bromus asper1 ,brachypodium sylvaticum and ,lagurus also come here4 ,in all these grasses the epidermal cells are chiefly long1 rectangular or slightly hexagonal1 with thin and plane walls4 ,hairs none or very rare on the sections4 ,phleum pratense4 ,low rounded ribs with motor-cells between4 ,the larger vascular bundles girdered4 ,stomata about equal on both faces4 ,no hairs4 ,no keel4 ,marginal sclerenchyma scanty4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum4 ,very rare hairs above3 a few blunt asperities here and there4 ,no keel4 ,ridges low4 ,girders to the primary bundles1 but not very strong3 marginal and other sclerenchyma faint1 as is also the cuticle4 ,stomata on both faces4 ,motor-cells fairly developed between the ridges4 ,briza media4 ,no keel1 and mere traces of marginal sclerenchyma4 ,ribs practically obsolete1 but well developed motor-cells in furrows4 ,principal bundles girdered4 ,stomata on both sides4 ,no hairs or thickened cuticle4 ,avena fatua1 ,molinia and ,leersia also come here4 7b7 ,upper and lower leaf-surfaces dissimilar1 or at least not parallel1 owing to the conspicuous ridges and grooves above4 7#a7 ,no stomata below4 99 ,leaves flat or nearly so1 or at least exhibit a conspicuous concave upper surface4 ,motor-cells between each pair of ribs3 sclerenchyma not forming a continuous layer below4 ,ridges at least #e-f times as high as the leaf-thickness between4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,ridges high1 #g-aj times as high as the breadth of leaf between1 triangular1 each with #a-c vascular bundles devoid of girders1 with an upper isolated band of sclerenchyma at the acute tip1 and another below the principal bundle4 ,also small bands below each group of motor-cells4 ,small conical asperities on the ridges and below4 ,no mid-rib4 ,stomata on flanks of ridges only1 and few motor-cells between 7,fig4 #bc74 ,each vascular bundle has a sheath1 but is isolated4 ,sclerenchyma at tips of the ridges dense3 smaller bands below3 strong at margins4 ,lower cuticle strong4 ,leaf rolls up4 ,the flat upper leaves of ,festuca rubra 7,fig4 #bj7 and ,f4 heterophylla are somewhat similar in type4 ,they have stiff hairs on the ridges4 ,ridges not more than #b-c times as high as the tissue between2 each furrow with motor-cells1 and each vascular bundle joined to epidermis above and below by a sclerenchyma girder4 ,brachypodium pinnatum4 ,smooth4 ,ridges rounded4 ,hairs rare4 ,the strong sclerenchyma girders below almost continuous laterally4 ,epidermal cells with sinuous thick walls1 and a few tooth-hairs4 ,note the differences from ,b4 sylvaticum1 p4 #gf4 ,melica nutans1 ,m4 uniflora1 and ,calamagrostis ,epigeios also come here4 ,motor-cells confined to the innermost #b-d furrows4 ,sclerenchyma in a continuous band just inside the thick cuticle below4 ,festuca duriuscula4 ,the ridges are only about half to one-third as high again as the thickness between1 and the motor-cells in four series at the base of the three innermost ridges4 ,each ridge has only one isolated sheathed bundle1 without girders4 ,stomata on the flanks of the ridges1 and few in number4 ,the sclerenchyma forms a thick band just inside the strong cuticle below4 ,the leaf is conduplicate1 not convolute4 ,this applies particularly to the more open leaves3 the subulate leaves belong to the next type 7see ,fig4 #bg74 ,aira canescens and ,spartina stricta also come here4 ,psamma arenaria4 ,inrolled4 ,smooth below and devoid of keel1 with sub-epidermal band of sclerenchyma1 and similar tissue at the margin4 ,ridges of three sizes1 the largest twice or three times as high as the leaf-tissue between is thick1 all rounded above1 and very hairy4 ,stomata above only4 ,motor-cells in each sinus not large4 ,vascular bundles isolated1 without girders or bands of sclerenchyma4 ,elymus is very like ,psamma1 but has a few stomata below and the sub-epidermal sclerenchyma is not continuous 7see ,fig4 #be74 9999 ,leaves 7subulate7 not opening out1 the upper surface represented by a groove or a few ridges above the angular or ovate solid section4 ,section pentagonal or angular-ovate3 sclerenchyma below in a continuous band4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,upper surface a depression1 with one ridge flanked by two grooves at its base1 the depression extending about one-fifth through the whole thickness of the nearly solid leaf4 ,vascular bundles about #c-e1 isolated1 sheathed4 ,sclerenchyma band extending all round the lower surface just inside the thick cuticle4 ,stomata very few1 flanking the ridge2 motor-cells in the furrows1 poorly developed 7,fig4 #bh74 ,section elliptical or angular-ovate2 sclerenchyma not always in a continuous band below4 ,festuca ovina4 ,upper surface a deep fold1 with three ridges and #b-d grooves at its base4 ,vascular bundles several1 with girders4 ,motor-cells in four series1 in the grooves4 ,the lower girders may not fuse laterally into a continuous band of sclerenchyma below 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the folded lower leaves of ,f4 rubra and ,f4 heterophylla come here also4 ,for the flatter leaves of ,f4 duriuscula see p4 #gh and compare ,fig4 #bg4 ,the epidermal cells in this series have sinuous thickened walls1 and here and there small tooth-like hairs4 ,nardus also comes here 7see ,fig4 #bf74 7#b7 ,there are stomata below1 but fewer than on the upper surface4 ,motor-cells usually conspicuous between the ridges4 99 ,stronger bundles with girders of sclerenchyma joining them to the epidermis1 at least below4 ,hairs sparse or none4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 ,mid-rib obsolete1 except the strong vascular bundle4 ,ridges low and rounded1 with #b-d flanking stomata1 and well developed motor-cells in furrows4 ,secondary vascular bundles with strong girders below1 the smaller bundles sheathed only and isolated4 ,each ridge with slight sclerenchyma above4 ,a few stiff short hairs above1 and the leaves are convolute4 ,ridges about twice the height of the leaf-thickness between 7,fig4 #af74 ,agropyrum repens4 ,mid-rib and margin with strong sclerenchyma-groups3 ridges unequal1 low and rounded and each vascular bundle girdered4 ,a few pointed hairs above1 and motor-cells in all the grooves4 ,a slight keel1 stomata on both surfaces4 ,agropyrum caninum4 ,all the bundles have girders4 ,slight keel4 ,marginal sclerenchyma4 ,few1 very short1 hard1 hooked asperities above and below4 ,ridges low1 and motor-cells poorly developed between4 ,few stomata on lower surface4 ,very like ,a4 repens1 but the principal ridges are more prominent below and those nearer the mid-rib have asperities4 ,a4 junceum resembles ,psamma1 but the ridges are much lower1 and there are a few stomata on the under surface 7,fig4 #bd74 ,leaf obviously hairy4 ,hairs more especially above4 ,avena flavescens is very similar to ,cynosurus1 but is evidently hairy1 and ,a4 pratensis also comes here4 ,hairs abundant on both surfaces4 ,holcus lanatus4 ,very hairy above and below1 and at the margins4 ,slight keel with sclerenchyma band3 sclerenchyma at margin slight4 ,ridges rounded1 about twice as high as thickness between4 ,stomata more abundant above4 ,cuticle very thin and leaf soft4 ,all bundles except the mid-rib with girders4 ,motor-cells fairly well developed between the ridges 7,fig4 #ae74 ,kleria cristata4 ,very hairy on both surfaces4 ,ridges irregular1 the largest flat and high1 the others rounded or triangular4 ,vascular bundles isolated1 and the sclerenchyma reduced to a few cells in a single layer beneath the epidermis at the apex of each ridge and below the bundle4 ,motor-cells well developed in each furrow4 ,stomata more numerous above4 9999 ,no girders to the vascular bundles4 ,lolium perenne4 ,ridges numerous and unequal4 ,vascular bundles sheathed and isolated--i4e4 devoid of girders3 small patches of sclerenchyma at the apex of each stronger ridge1 and on the opposite side below only4 ,no hairs4 ,lolium temulentum is similar but is more apt to be convolute1 whereas ,l4 perenne is more folded4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,leaf thin and somewhat like ,phleum1 but the ridges somewhat higher and more rounded1 and only the principal bundles girdered below4 ,stomata on both faces4 ,festuca elatior1 ,bromus giganteus and most species of ,agrostis come near ,lolium4 ,see ,figs4 #ag1 #bb4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,grasses ,,in ,,flower4 ,when the flowering shoot of a grass pushes up into the light and air from the enveloping leaves1 it forms a more or less branched collection of flowers known as the ,inflorescence1 and in all our grasses this inflorescence consists of a principal stalk1 haulm or culm1 on which shorter stalks--branched or not--are arranged4 ,the mode of branching is usually such that the youngest branches are nearest the top1 and the oldest nearest the bottom4 ,it is evident at once1 on comparing the ,moor ,mat-grass 7,nardus71 ,vernal-grass 7,anthoxanthum71 ,cock's-foot 7,dactylis71 ,meadow-grass 7,poa7 that considerable differences exist as to the extent of this primary branching of the inflorescence4 ,in ,nardus 7,fig4 #b7 we find a number of long cylindrical-tapering bud-like structures each seated on one side of the principal stem1 and one over the other3 in the ,vernal-grass and ,cock's-foot we find tufts of such bud-like structures closely crowded round the upper end of the principal stalk1 the whole forming an elongated tuft of tufts3 in the ,poa we find a number of radiating1 slender1 long branches springing from the principal stalk1 and each of these ramifies again1 and yet again1 until each of the ultimate hair-like branches bears one of the bud-like structures4 ,see also ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,a spikelet of ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis1 from which the glumes and one palea 7the outer7 have been removed to show the flower in situ 7 #ab74 ,the two lodicules are in front3 the inner palea behind4 ,strasburger4 ,the first thing for the student to apprehend is the nature of the bud-like structures referred to4 ,each of these is in itself a small tuft or bud of leaflike organs or scales arranged on a short twig 7,rachis1 ,rachilla71 as it were1 and is called a ,spikelet1 and the true flowers of the grass are contained in the angles between the scales--the scales being popularly known as 8chaff03 technically as ,glumes and ,pale4 ,in order to understand the structure of a spikelet the student should carefully dissect a large one1 such as that of an ,oat 7,fig4 #a74 ,proceeding from outside1 he will find two large scales1 like two boats1 fixed below to the stalk 7rachis7 one just below the other1 and shutting together as if hinged4 ,these are called the glumes--the inner and outer glume respectively--and they enclose the rest of the spikelet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,diagram of a spikelet of a grass as it would appear if the internodes between each set of organs were elongated4 g#a lower and g#b upper glume4 ,p lower and p upper palea of the second oldest flower ,f#b4 f a barren flower represented only by the axis and pale4 ,above it a single palea and the termination of the axis 7a7 of the spikelet4 ,inside them the axis or stalk 7rachis7 is continued for a short distance only and on its sides are hinged two other pairs of more or less boat-shaped scales1 smaller and more delicate than the glumes1 and known as the pales 7pale71 while a third pair of still smaller pales is fixed to the end of the axis4 ,in each case one smaller and more delicate inner palea is hinged just inside its more obvious outer palea4 ,in the closed condition of the spikelet each of the three pairs of pales is shut together1 and pressed close to the axis1 and the pair of glumes shut in the whole4 ,on opening each of the lower pairs of pales we find a flower inside2 but the terminal pair usually contain only the barren end of the axis4 ,hence the latter is barren and the former are fertile4 ,each fertile flower is found on careful dissection to consist of a small swollen ,ovary1 or young grain1 covered with silky hairs and with a couple of delicate plumes 7the ,stigma7 at its apex1 and three long and slender ,stamens2 while the magnifying glass will show two tiny scales at the base--the ,lodicules4 ,all our ordinary grasses have their flowers thus constructed--a pair of lodicules1 three dangling stamens and an ovary with a feathery two-plumed stigma3 each such flower is also enclosed in its pair of pales1 and the several pairs of pales of each spikelet1 with their contents1 are enclosed in the pair of glumes 7,figs4 #bi-cb74 ,returning now to the inflorescence4 ,it is clear that we have to distinguish between the entire branched total ,inflorescence1 and the ,spikelets or partial inflorescences of which it is composed4 ,in ,botany it is agreed to call any inflorescence consisting of a stalk or axis on which the flowers are arranged without stalks--i4e4 sitting directly on it--and so that the youngest are above and the older below1 a ,spike1 and each spikelet is a little spike4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,diagram of a spikelet of ,wheat dissected 7 about #e7 showing--from below upwards--the two glumes1 two pale1 two lodicules1 three stamens1 and the ovary of the typical grass4 ,oliver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,diagram of a spikelet of ,anthoxanthum dissected 7 about #h71 and showing--from below upwards--two outer and two 7awned7 inner glumes1 two pale1 two stamens1 and the ovary4 ,there are no lodicules4 ,oliver4 ,on looking at the total inflorescence of the ,nardus we see that we have a number of spikelets seated on the sides of an axis3 this is then a spike of spikelets1 or1 shortly1 a ,spike#i 7,fig4 #e74 ,mibora and ,lepturus afford other examples4 ,in ,panicum1 ,cynodon 7,fig4 #b7 and ,spartina we have groups of such spikes4 ,the ,poa inflorescence is1 however1 different4 ,it consists of a loose branched system of spikelets4 ,botanists term such a loosely branching system1 where each branch ends in a flower1 a panicle3 here then we have a panicle of spikelets1 or1 shortly1 a ,panicle4 ,aira1 ,agrostis1 ,calamagrostis1 ,avena1 ,catabrosa 7,fig4 #d7 and many others afford further examples4 ,in ,dactylis we have a condition of affairs between the two extremes given3 the inflorescence is not so close a spike as ,nardus1 and not so open a panicle as ,poa--it is rather a spike-like panicle1 partaking of the nature of both4 ,a special type of this 7,foxtail7 occurring in certain grasses--e4g4 ,phleum1 ,alopecurus1 ,phalaris and ,lagurus1--is so characteristic as to be worth noting 7,fig4 #c74 ,there is also another aspect of these inflorescences which is not without interest as showing how diagnostic characters may be obtained from purely external features1 easily observed in the field4 ,we have seen that in ,nardus the spikelets are arranged on one side only of the rachis1 or main axis1 so that about three quarters of the circumference of the latter is bare2 whereas in ,lolium--with which ,agropyrum and ,brachypodium agree in this respect--the spikelets are on opposite sides1 leaving the intervening two quarters1 i4e4 half its surface1 of the circumference of the axis naked4 ,in ,cynosurus and the simpler forms of ,dactylis1 we find the spikelets crowded round about three quarters of the surface of the rachis1 leaving the fourth quarter naked2 and1 finally1 in ,phleum1 ,alopecurus1 ,hordeum1 and ,anthoxanthum the spikelets cover the entire surface4 ,in the first 7,nardus7 and third examples 7,cynosurus1 ,dactylis7 where the spikelets are turned to one side1 the inflorescence is said to be secund4 ,the next point to notice is that not every grass has so many as two fertile flowers and one barren one in its spikelet1 as the ,oat has4 ,a spikelet may have one 7,phleum71 two 7,aira7 or three 7,avena7 or more 7,poa7 fertile flowers1 and no barren ones or several1 the number of flowers being counted by the number of pairs of pales found inside the pair of glumes4 ,moreover every flower is not necessarily fertile 7e4g4 ,arrhenatherum1 ,holcus7 and several grasses have one or more flowers in each spikelet containing stamens only--male flowers--while others may have ovaries only--female flowers4 ,in some exotics the male and female flowers are on different parts of the same plant 7,maize7 or even on different plants 7,gynerium71 an arrangement not met with in our grasses4 ,accordingly1 it is of importance in determining a grass to discover how many flowers the spikelet contains1 and whether any are male only1 or barren1 c41 as well as to make out the character of its inflorescence4 ,in the following lists ,i have brought together some of the chief points with illustrative examples4 ,,spikelets with only one perfect flower 7without rudimentary ones74 ,psamma4 ,milium4 ,nardus4 ,alopecurus4 ,phleum4 ,hordeum4 ,agrostis4 ,and species of the rare grasses ,calamagrostis1 ,mibora1 ,lepturus1 ,spartina1 ,cynodon1 ,gastridium1 ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,leersia4 ,,spikelets with one perfect flower and one or more male or rudimentary ones4 ,digraphis4 ,anthoxanthum4 ,holcus4 ,arrhenatherum4 ,and the rare genera ,hierochloe and ,panicum4 ,,spikelets with at least two perfect flowers4 ,molinia4 ,arundo4 ,avena4 ,aira 7some species74 ,bromus4 ,cynosurus4 ,dactylis4 ,triodia4 ,sesleria4 ,kleria4 ,melica 7one species74 ,briza4 ,poa trivialis4 ,catabrosa4 ,,spikelets with at least three perfect flowers and usually more4 ,elymus4 ,agropyrum4 ,brachypodium4 ,lolium4 ,festuca4 ,poa4 ,glyceria4 ,,inflorescence1 a spike of single spikelets4 ,agropyrum4 ,brachypodium4 ,lolium4 ,nardus4 ,and varieties of ,festuca ,myurus and ,f4 loliacea1 c4 ,,inflorescence1 a spike of pairs or tufts of three or more spikelets4 ,elymus 7pairs74 ,hordeum 7threes74 ,cynosurus 7clusters74 ,,inflorescence1 a cylindrical closely tufted spike-like panicle4 ,phleum4 ,alopecurus4 ,psamma4 ,anthoxanthum4 ,,inflorescence1 a compact more or less tufted panicle4 ,molinia4 ,kleria4 ,triodia4 ,dactylis4 ,aira prcox4 ,a4 canescens4 ,sesleria4 ,and rare grasses like ,polypogon1 ,gastridium1 c4 ,,inflorescence1 a loose plume-like or branched panicle4 ,avena4 ,bromus4 ,arrhenatherum4 ,catabrosa4 ,aira 7except ,a4 prcox and ,a4 canescens74 ,arundo4 ,digraphis4 ,milium4 ,agrostis4 ,melica4 ,holcus4 ,poa 7most of the species74 ,glyceria4 ,briza4 ,festuca 7except ,f4 ,myurus74 ,and the rare ,hierochloe4 ,the ,glumes are always present in our grasses1 and rudimentary only in the rare grass ,leersia2 but ,lolium and ,nardus have only one glume to the spikelet1 and ,hierochloe1 ,digraphis and ,anthoxanthum 7,fig4 #cb7 have four or six4 ,our other grasses have two1 but often unequal in size4 ,in shape they are usually boat-like1 pointed or obtuse 7,briza7 and frequently with a distinct keel 7,anthoxanthum1 ,digraphis1 ,phleum1 c47 or with ridges1 green lines 7veins7 and other characteristic markings 7e4g4 ,digraphis74 ,the tip may be extended into a stiff long point or awn 7,agropyrum1 ,phleum1 ,nardus7 and the keel1 ribs1 and awn may have hairs or serrul on them4 ,the rule is1 however1 that the glumes are not awned4 ,in texture the glumes may be herbaceous and green-brown or purple 7e4g4 ,melica7 or membranous or stiff1 or scarious 7i4e4 browned1 as if scorched7 at the edges4 ,in ,hordeum some of the glumes are so narrow and pointed as to resemble stiff awns4 ,in ,catabrosa the glumes are truncate1 as if bitten off at the top4 ,the ,pale are also often more or less boat-shaped1 or flat ovate or oblong scales1 usually more delicate than the glumes and frequently pointed1 or 7especially the outer pale7 awned at the tip3 in some cases1 however1 the awn springs from the middle or base of the back of the pale1 and the latter may be bifid at its apex4 ,the pale has usually a distinct middle nerve4 ,the inner pale is commonly the smaller and more delicate of the two1 and is sometimes difficult to see4 ,,conspicuously ,,awned ,,grasses4 ,avena4 ,arrhenatherum 7,fig4 #cc74 ,hordeum4 ,bromus4 ,agropyrum caninum4 ,lolium temulentum4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum4 ,festuca ,myurus4 ,and a few rare grasses like ,panicum1 ,polypogon1 ,lagurus4 ,,grasses ,,with ,,no ,,true ,,awns4 ,kleria4 ,milium4 ,digraphis4 ,elymus4 ,festuca 7except ,f4 ,myurus and ,f4 uniglumis74 ,briza4 ,poa4 ,glyceria4 ,catabrosa4 ,molinia4 ,melica4 ,psamma4 ,agrostis alba4 ,and a few rare forms like ,leersia1 ,hierochloe1 c4 ,,grasses ,,with ,,inconspicuous ,,awns1 ,,or ,,mere ,,points1 ,,to ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,glumes ,,or ,,pales4 ,arundo4 ,phleum4 ,alopecurus4 ,holcus4 ,nardus4 ,agropyrum repens4 ,lolium perenne4 ,brachypodium pinnatum4 ,dactylis4 ,cynosurus4 ,sesleria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,arrhenatherum4 #a unopened and #b open anther 7 #ab74 #c1 spikelets open and exposing the stamens and stigmas2 #d1 the pollen escaping and being dusted on to the stigmas 7 about #e74 ,kerner4 ,as regards the flower proper1 all our ,british grasses except ,anthoxanthum 7which has two only7 have three stamens2 but many exotic grasses have six stamens1 and a few have a large number--even #dj4 ,the stamens have slender filaments and large versatile anthers1 which dangle from between the pale when the flowers are mature1 scattering their clouds of fine pollen in the wind 7,fig4 #cc74 ,all our ordinary grasses except ,nardus--where there is a simple straight hairy style--have two spreading feathery stigmatic plumes1 which stand out right and left from between the pale when the pollen is flying about on the wind4 7,fig4 #cc47 ,much interesting speculation has been expended in attempting to explain the morphological or theoretical significance of the parts of the spikelet of a grass4 ,if we project the various organs on a flat surface in the form of a plan1 keeping their relative positions intact1 we obtain a diagram such as that shown in ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,diagram of a spikelet of a grass4 ,the two glumes--g#a outer1 g#b inner--embrace four flowers1 of which #a is the lowermost and #d the uppermost4 ,the comparison of numerous cases1 and the study of the development of the parts on the microscopic growing point dissected out from young buds1 have suggested that the inner and outer glumes are bracts1 or covering leaves1 at the base of the true spikelet4 ,in like manner the two pale are bracteoles which subtend the flower proper4 ,on this assumption they can be compared with the corresponding structures in other plants2 whereas any attempt to compare the pale or glumes with the sepals and petals of ordinary flowers breaks down4 ,a curious interest attaches to the awns so often found on the backs of pale1 and especially to those where the 7sub-terminal7 awn springs from just below the bifid apex 7e4g4 ,avena1 c474 ,hackel showed by comparison with a rolled leaf attached to its sheath and ligule 7e4g4 ,psamma7 that such an awn as that of ,bromus ,alopecurus attached to its palea stands in the relation of a leaf to its sheath1 the part of the palea above the insertion corresponding to the ligule1 the awn itself to the lamina1 and the palea below its insertion to the sheath4 ,this view is rendered the more probable by the anatomy of the awn and by the observations of ,schmid1 who has shown that the awns of cereals contain chlorophyll-tissue and a vascular bundle1 and have stomata1 and his experiments led him to conclude that in the young condition they transpire and assimilate1 and probably even contribute to the nutrition of the ripening grain4 ,when dry and mature the awns subserve biological functions of quite another kind1 and as we shall see are of importance in the distribution and sowing of the grains4 7,fig4 #db47 ,returning to the floral diagram1 we see that the two lodicules1 the three stamens and the ovary still remain to be explained4 ,much discussion has been held regarding the lodicules4 ,functionally they are said to aid in the divarication of the pale when the period of anthesis arrives1 and the stamens and stigmatic lobes are to be exposed1 by swelling and driving the valve-like pale apart4 ,morphologically they have been explained as representing the rudimentary perianth1 here reduced to two minute scales1 but in some exotic grasses 7,bambusa1 ,stipa1 c47 three lodicules1 or even more1 are present4 7,figs4 #ce1 #cf47 ,on the other hand they may be1 and probably are1 scales of the nature of minute bracteoles and of no significance to the flower itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,floral diagram of ordinary grass4 ,each pair of pale--i4p4 inner and o4p4 outer palea--encloses three stamens 7s71 two lodicules 7l7 and the ovary4 st1 stigmatic plumes4 a1 axis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,floral diagram of a ,bamboo1 showing six stamens1 three inner 7i4s47 and three outer 7a4s471 and three lodicules 7l7 in addition to the ovary4 i4p4 inner and o4p4 outer palea4 a1 axis4 ,if this is so the flower of the grass is perfectly naked1 and consists in the typical case of three stamens and one carpel4 ,the development of the ovary lends no support to the view that there are two carpels3 the stigmatic plumes are not separate styles4 ,nor does the fact that some grasses have six stamens lend support to the idea that the flower is derived from the trimerous type so common in ,monocotyledons3 other numbers may occur--e4g4 as few as two 7,anthoxanthum1 ,fig4 #cb7 or even one only 7,uniola1 ,cinna1 c47 or as many as #bj or #dj in certain other exotic grasses4 ,even when three stigmatic plumes are developed1 as in some ,bamboos1 close investigation does not confirm the view that the ovary consists of more than one carpel4 ,we must therefore regard the flower of the grass as typically composed of one carpel and three stamens1 with no perianth whatever4 ,it is subtended by one or more bracteoles 7the lodicules71 and enclosed in a pair of bracteoles one higher than the other 7the pale74 ,the glumes are bracts of the partial inflorescence--the spikelet4 ,that there are some departures from this type in detail does not invalidate the importance of the fact that most grasses conform to it4 ,i now pass to the consideration of a grouping of our ordinary grasses according to their floral arrangements4 ,the student should distinctly understand that the following notes are intended to serve as an introduction to the floral characters of our grasses1 and not to replace the study of the ,flora4 ,i have dealt with this section of the subject less in detail1 because our best ,floras give so much information that it seemed undesirable to do more than attempt to guide the reader in the recognition of the genera and principal species by means of external features easily observed by anyone with a little care4 ,the detailed and critical examination of species1 varieties and rare forms should always be done with reference to a complete ,flora4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,grasses ,,grouped ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,flowers ,,and ,,inflorescences4 ,i4 ,,grasses ,,with ,,only ,,one ,,perfect ,,flower ,,in ,,the ,,spikelet4 7#a7 ,inflorescence spikate#aj4 ,a4 ,inflorescence a spike of simple spikelets4 ,nardus stricta1 ,l4 ,a tough wiry tufted moor-grass1 with setaceous leaves1 secund spikelets with a single rudimentary glume1 and a stiff simple hairy style4 7,fig4 #b47 ,the much rarer ,mibora verna about three inches or so high1 and ,lepturus1 both with flat leaves1 also come here4 ,certain superficial resemblances in the habit or inflorescence in ,festuca ,myurus and rare forms like ,spartina1 may occasionally cause hesitation until the spikelets are examined4 ,b4 ,spike with sessile or sub-sessile tufts of three or more spikelets4 7a7 ,a spike of tufted awned spikelets1 in triplets at each notch of the rachis1 and one or two of each triplet barren4 ,hordeum4 ,no other genus of our grasses is like ,hordeum4 ,the purely superficial resemblances in the inflorescences of ,polypogon1 ,lagurus1 and ,cynosurus echinatus--all extremely rare species--disappear at once on examination4 ,in ,bromus erectus the equally superficial resemblance is due to the stiff awns3 the spikelet has six to twelve flowers and is stalked4 ,it should also be noted that ,hordeum sylvaticum occasionally has a rudimentary second flower in the lateral spikelets 7see note p4 #aje74 77 ,a shade-grass with the central spikelet only imperfect2 staminate1 or rudimentary1 or entirely wanting4 ,h4 sylvaticum1 ,huds4 77 ,the central spikelet is the perfect one1 the two lateral barren4 ,growing in open land4 7i7 ,a perennial meadow-grass4 ,all the glumes scabrid and bristle-like4 ,h4 pratense1 ,huds4 7ii7 ,annuals with some of the glumes at least1 lanceolate or broad below4 99 ,ruderal plant1 with cylindrical spikes1 long awns2 glumes of the central flower dilated below4 ,h4 murinum1 ,with4 9999 ,maritime plant1 more or less glaucous1 with short ovoid spikes3 glumes of the central flower bristle-like4 ,h4 maritimum1 ,with4 7b7 ,spike cylindrical1 of sessile or nearly sessile awned spikelets1 densely crowded round the axis1 the whole resembling a fox's brush or cat's tail4 ,species of ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,phalaris 7not truly awned71 ,panicum 7with bristles between the spikelets71 and ,gastridium are other ,british grasses approaching this type of inflorescence3 they are all rare or very local4 ,sesleria has an ovoid spike1 but the spikelets are two-flowered and not truly awned4 ,kleria may present resemblances1 but the spikelets are very different in detail 7see p4 #aji74 7i7 ,awns inserted into the back of the single palea1 and hair-like4 ,glumes connate below1 keeled4 ,only one palea4 ,alopecurus4 99 ,annual corn-weed1 with a long and slender spike1 pointed above4 ,glumes almost glabrous1 and connate to the middle4 ,a4 agrestis1 ,l4 9999 ,perennials1 with shorter and stouter spikes1 rounded above4 ,glumes connate at the base only1 and obviously hairy on the keel4 ,procumbent and kneed at the nodes below4 ,spike #a-b inches long4 ,in marshy places4 ,a4 geniculatus1 ,l4 ,a meadow-grass1 with erect stems1 and spikes #b-c inches or more and stouter4 ,a4 pratensis1 ,l4 ,the rare ,a4 alpinus1 ,sm4 with short ovoid spikes1 about one inch long1 only occurs in the ,highlands4 7ii7 ,awns1 when present1 merely the stiff1 pointed termination of the keel4 ,glumes free below4 ,pale two4 99 ,a glaucous shore plant with long creeping stolons 7sand-binder74 ,inflorescence harsh1 #e--f inches long4 ,glumes tapering1 simply acute4 ,psamma arenaria1 ,beauv4 ,elymus1 a much rarer sand-binder of similar habit1 may lead to confusion until the #c--d flowered spikelets and different arrangement are observed4 7,see p4 #ajh47 ,agropyrum repens 7var4 junceum7 is similar in habit and station1 but its spikes and spikelets are very different 7see p4 #ajg74 ,phleum arenarium is much smaller 7see below74 9999 ,erect4 ,inflorescence rarely longer than three inches4 ,spikelets flat3 glumes keeled1 the keel suddenly produced into a sharp stiff awn or mucronate point4 ,pale two4 ,phleum4 ,tall perennial meadow-grass4 ,awn bristle-like1 almost as long as the nearly glabrous glume3 spike long1 cylindrical4 ,p4 pratense1 ,l4 ,small1 compact annual shore plant1 with the glumes acute only and the keel ciliate above4 ,inflorescence not more than #a--a-a_/d inch long4 ,p4 arenarium1 ,l4 ,the rare ,p4 ,bhmeri1 ,schrad4 has the glumes merely tapering to a sharp point2 and the rare ,p4 alpinum1 ,l4 has a much shorter spike and glumes ciliate on the keels4 ,the rare ,p4 asperum1 ,jacq4 has broad1 shortly mucronate glumes and a longer and more slender spike4 7#b7 ,inflorescence a panicle--i4e4 tufts or spreading stalked groups of spikelets are arranged on the main axis4 ,a4 ,inflorescence compact and irregular2 a spike of tufts 7spike-like panicle74 ,glumes four1 the inner pair awned3 pale minute4 ,stamens two only4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum1 ,l4 ,the four glumes and two stamens distinguish this grass at once4 ,other grasses with occasionally tuft-like inflorescences--e4g4 species of ,agrostis1 ,gastridium1 ,aira1 ,dactylis1 ,cynosurus1 ,poa1 ,triodia1 ,kleria--are distinguished at once by having three stamens 7,bromus occasionally has but two71 only two glumes1 several flowered spikelets1 c4 ,b4 ,inflorescence a distinctly branched panicle1 more or less loose and spreading4 7a7 ,tall reed-like perennials1 growing in water or in marshes1 with plume-like inflorescences1 and silky hairs at the base of the pale4 ,glumes with a keel and point1 but not awned4 7i7 ,spikelets purplish3 outer palea with a slender dorsal awn3 basal hairs longer than the pale4 ,leaves narrow4 ,not common4 ,calamagrostis ,epigeios1 ,roth4 7ii7 ,spikelets greenish4 ,no awns3 basal hairs much shorter than the pale4 ,leaves broad4 ,common4 ,digraphis arundinacea1 ,trin4 ,a variety of ,digraphis with white stripes in the leaves is grown in gardens4 ,other aquatic reed-like grasses are ,arundo and ,glyceria aquatica3 both have several flowers in the spikelet4 ,the rare ,calamagrostis lanceolata1 ,roth41 ,c4 stricta1 ,nutt4 and ,c4 strigosa1 ,hartm4 also come here4 7b7 ,slender grasses1 not reed-like1 with delicate loosely spreading panicles of small spikelets4 7i7 ,a tall1 slender shade-grass1 in woods4 ,pale very smooth and glistening4 ,spikelets few1 distant and turgid1 awnless4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 ,melica uniflora1 also a wood-grass1 has the spikelets two-flowered1 though the upper one may be a mere rudiment1 and much fewer1 on a flexuous nodding axis4 ,the much rarer ,m4 nutans has two perfect flowers in the spikelet 7see p4 #aje74 7ii7 ,grasses of open situations1 with numerous small pointed spikelets4 ,inner palea minute or absent4 ,agrostis4 ,the genus most likely to give trouble here is ,aira1 which though normally with two flowers in the spikelet1 occasionally has but one4 ,as regards the common species of similar habit1 c41 ,aira has bristle-like leaves and ,agrostis flat ones4 ,again1 ,agrostis alba has no protruding awn1 as in the spikelets of ,aira4 ,for ,aira cspitosa and other details1 see p4 #aag4 99 ,awnless1 or at most a short bristle not equalling the palea4 ,leaves flat and short4 ,a4 alba1 ,l4 ,an exceedingly variable plant4 ,the variety ,a4 stolonifera has a less spreading panicle1 and broader leaves with a long serrated and pointed ligule3 the variety ,a4 vulgaris has a spreading loose panicle1 narrower leaves1 and a short truncated ligule4 ,there is1 however1 much difficulty in distinguishing the intermediate forms on mountain-pastures1 c4 9999 ,distinctly awned4 ,leaves narrower1 the lower ones inrolled and almost setaceous4 ,a4 canina1 ,l4 ,the rarer ,a4 setacea1 ,curt4 with subulate leaves and ,a4 ,spicaenti1 ,l4 with long awns also come here4 ,the lax spreading type of panicle characteristic of ,aira and ,agrostis1 c41 described above1 occurs in species of ,avena1 ,bromus1 ,briza1 ,poa and ,catabrosa1 but the basal silky hairs and twisted awns 7,avena71 long sub-terminal bristle-awns 7,bromus71 habit 7,catabrosa71 and the presence of two1 three1 or more flowers in the considerably larger spikelets of all1 easily distinguish them4 ,the rare grasses ,leersia1 with two glumes and no pale1 and ,gastridium1 with curiously bullate bases to the glumes1 also come into this group with one-flowered spikelets1 but their characters must be studied with the flora4 ,the same remark applies to species of ,panicum1 ,cynodon1 ,spartina and other aliens1 occasionally met with4 ,,ii4 ,,grasses ,,with ,,at ,,least ,,two ,,flowers--,,of ,,which ,,one ,,may ,,be ,,imperfect--,,in ,,the ,,spikelet4 ,a4 ,only one perfect flower1 the other staminate only or altogether rudimentary4 ,inflorescence a loose or racemous panicle4 ,in ,hordeum sylvaticum the two lateral spikelets occasionally conform to this heading 7see p4 #ajj71 and the same is said to be the case sometimes in ,aira 7see p4 #ajd74 ,the rudiments are extremely minute1 however1 and hardly suffice to justify the removal of these grasses to this group4 ,in one or two species of ,aira the panicle may be somewhat contracted and tuft-like4 ,the very rare ,hierochloe has one perfect flower1 and two lower staminate ones in each spikelet4 7a7 ,a shade-grass found in woods4 ,awnless4 ,one flower perfect1 the other 7upper7 reduced to a small stalked knob4 ,inflorescence racemous4 ,melica uniflora1 ,l4 ,the much rarer ,m4 nutans has two perfect flowers and a similar rudiment 7see note1 p4 #ajd74 7b7 ,grasses of open situations1 spikelets with awns4 ,the reduced flower staminate4 99 ,upper flower perfect1 lower staminate only4 ,tall oat-like meadow-grass1 with a bent and twisted dorsal awn to the outer palea of the lower flower3 silky hairs at the base of pale4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 ,beauv4 ,the grasses most like this are species of ,avena and ,aira4 ,the former have two or more perfect flowers1 and the only broad-leafed ,aira--,a4 cspitosa1 see p4 #aag--;is easily distinguished by its leaves and its very small spikelets and short simple awns4 9999 ,upper flower staminate3 lower perfect4 ,small hairy grasses1 with red-veined basal leaf-sheaths and short simple awns4 ,holcus4 ,erect1 evenly hairy1 glumes blunt1 awn not protruding4 ,common4 ,h4 lanatus1 ,l4 1 ,more or less procumbent1 hairs chiefly at the nodes4 ,glumes pointed4 ,awns simple and exserted4 ,rarer4 ,h4 mollis1 ,l4 ,b4 ,each spikelet with at least two perfect flowers1 often more4 7#a7 ,inflorescence spikate1 the main axis bearing sessile or sub-sessile spikelets1 each containing three or more flowers4 7a7 ,spike simple#aa1 axis stout and notched1 each notch having one spikelet closely sessile in it4 7i7 ,spikelets distichous1 the flat side of each--i4e4 the edges of the glumes--being next the axis 7rachis74 ,agropyrum4 99 ,a weed with creeping stolons1 and no awns or mere points to the glumes4 ,a4 repens1 ,beauv4 ,the variety ,a4 junceum found as a sand-binder on sea-coasts is glaucous1 stiffer1 with sharply pointed leaves1 and blunt glumes4 ,for other sand-binders see note1 p4 #ajb4 9999 ,not creeping4 ,awns long and prominent4 ,a4 caninum1 ,beauv4 7ii7 ,the rounded backs of the glumes are next the rachis4 99 ,spikelets flat and closely sessile in the notches of the rachis4 ,lolium4 ,awnless or nearly so4 ,perennial4 ,l4 perenne1 ,l4 ,with conspicuous awns4 ,annual1 not common4 ,l4 temulentum1 ,l4 ,there are several cultivated varieties of ,l4 perenne3 ,l4 temulentum is notoriously poisonous 7see note1 p4 #afh74 ,the lowermost glume of each spikelet is often alone developed or conspicuous1 and looks like a bract in the axis of which the spikelet sits4 9999 ,spikelets elongated and hardly flattened1 and not quite sessile1 especially the lower3 rachis scarcely notched1 the spikelets with their sides 7edges of glumes7 next the axis4 ,brachypodium4 ,a shade-grass with long1 conspicuous awns to the more or less drooping spikelets4 ,common4 ,b4 sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 ,growing in the open4 ,spikelets stouter1 stiffer and more erect1 with short awns4 ,not common4 ,b4 pinnatum1 ,l4 ,brachypodium may easily be confounded with ,bromus1 but the spikelets are nearly sessile3 their shape and the absence of conspicuous notches distinguish this genus from ,agropyrum4 ,lolium has a conspicuously notched rachis and the spikelets arranged in the other plane4 ,poa loliacea1 ,huds41 an uncommon sea-shore weed1 may also be placed here2 as also ,festuca elatior1 var4 loliacea1 ,curt4 and some forms of ,bromus arvensis1 var4 mollis1 ,l4 ,no other ,british grasses resemble ,brachypodium3 any superficial likeness remarked in species of ,hordeum1 ,festuca1 c4 disappears at once on examination4 7b7 ,spike compound--i4e4 with clusters of two or more sessile or sub-sessile spikelets arranged along the rachis4 7i7 ,spike elongated1 fertile spikelets with #c-e flowers4 99 ,pasture-grass with wiry rachis1 on which the spikelets are secund and sessile in clusters3 in each cluster a comb-like group of barren glumes subtends one of fertile spikelets4 ,cynosurus cristatus1 ,l4 ,the rare ,c4 echinatus has the pectinate groups of barren glumes even more prominent4 9999 ,stout glaucous sand-binder with pairs of spikelets sessile in the notches of the rachis1 and all fertile4 ,spike cylindrical4 ,not common4 ,elymus arenarius1 ,l4 ,for other sand-binders see p4 #ajb4 ,the only grass likely to be confounded is ,agropyrum1 in which the spikelets are not paired4 ,lolium1 ,brachypodium1 c4 are easily distinguished4 7ii7 ,spike short and ovoid3 spikelets sub-sessile and imbricate1 in clusters4 ,bluish4 ,sesleria crulea1 ,ard4 ,not easily mistaken for any other grass4 ,as some of the spikelets are shortly stalked1 the inflorescence is strictly paniculate1 but the fact is not obvious4 ,the glume-like bract at the base of the spike1 and the general appearance suggest resemblances to certain moor-sedges at first sight4 ,the only other grasses with similarly shaped spikes are species of ,alopecurus1 ,phleum1 and the rare ,lagurus1 ,polypogon1 ,phalaris1 ,panicum1 all with very different spikelets and easily distinguished4 7#b7 ,inflorescence a panicle or raceme--i4e4 the spikelets on evident stalks1 simple or branched1 from the main axis4 ,it does not follow that every spikelet is distinctly stalked1 and cases occur where the stalks are very short and stiff3 when this happens to the stalks arising from the main axis1 and the latter is elongated1 the type of the spike is closely approached1 and the inflorescence resembles that of ,brachypodium1 ,lolium1 c4 ,in some depauperated varieties of ,poa1 ,festuca1 c41 an actual spike results 7see note1 p4 #aaa73 the number of flowers in the spikelet is important4 a7 ,panicle short1 contracted and tuft-like1 owing to the shortness and stiffness of most of the stalks and their tendency to remain erect1 at least until anthesis4 ,glumes keeled and ending in a point4 7i7 ,panicle with a few branches1 at first erect1 ending in tuft-like secund clusters4 ,spikelets harsh1 with #c-e flowers4 ,coarse meadow-grass4 ,dactylis glomerata1 ,l4 ,not easily confounded with any other grass if attention is paid to the folded coarse leaves1 the tufted perennial habit1 and the harsh inflorescence1 the glumes on the spikelets being stiffly hairy on the keel4 7ii7 ,panicle contracted1 more or less ovoid or cylindroid1 but most of the spikelets stalked1 and not aggregated into dense clusters1 spikelets silvery1 containing #b-c flowers4 ,kleria cristata1 ,pers4 ,any resemblances to forms of ,aira are at once nullified by the absence of true awns in ,kleria4 ,festuca and ,poa have more numerous flowers in the spikelet4 ,anthoxanthum has only one flower1 with two stamens1 in the spikelets4 ,phleum and ,alopecurus present resemblances1 but see pp4 #aja and #ajb4 7b7 ,panicle elongated and lax--i4e4 all or most of the spikelets on distinct slender stalks1 longer than themselves4 7i7 ,panicle close3 the spikelets on distinct and even long stalks1 but the latter erect and keeping the spikelets near the main axis4 ,in some cases the stalks from the main axis bear only one spikelet each and the type of inflorescence is that of a raceme2 usually1 however1 one or more of the lowermost stalks branch and disclose the panicle4 99 ,panicle with few simple branches1 racemous1 each spikelet large and containing about four flowers1 palea three-toothed at the apex4 ,a small heath-grass1 with hairs at the ligule4 ,triodia decumbens1 ,beauv4 ,the inflorescence may have some resemblance to ,melica 7see p4 #aje71 but the four-flowered spikelet1 ligule1 habitat and stature distinguish it at once4 9999 ,panicle with divided branches1 which are more or less erect4 ,spikelets awnless4 ,spikelets small1 purplish1 with two or at most three florets2 the upper on a stalk4 ,coarse moor-grass4 ,molinia crulea1 ,mnch4 ,spikelets with six or more florets4 ,tall aquatic grass with long1 lax1 narrow panicle and spikelets1 somewhat nodding1 and with #h-bj flowers in each4 ,glyceria fluitans1 ,br4 ,the only similar grass is ,glyceria aquatica1 ,sm4 which differs in its more reed-like habit1 open panicle1 and fewer flowers4 ,small land-plants not more than a foot high1 with short1 stiff1 somewhat crowded panicles1 and spikelets containing #f-h flowers4 ,maritime perennial with creeping stolons1 and about a foot high3 panicle somewhat open below4 ,poa maritima1 ,huds4 ,inland plant with secund panicle1 about six inches high4 ,p4 rigida1 ,l4 ,the rare ,p4 procumbens1 ,curt4 and ,p4 bulbosa1 ,l4 also come here1 as well as starved forms of ,p4 compressa1 ,l4 ,some forms of ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis1 ,huds4 growing in dry situations may give trouble1 and will have to be examined with the flora4 ,see also note1 p4 #aji4 ,spikelets awned4 ,awns bristle-like and terminal on the pale3 flowers about six in each spikelet4 ,leaves setaceous4 ,panicle secund4 ,awns long and bristle-like4 ,an annual weed4 ,festuca ,myurus1 ,l4 ,awns very short1 or merely the drawn out points of the pale4 ,perennial4 ,f4 ovina4 ,the rare ,f4 uniglumis1 ,soland41 and some other varieties may also come here4 ,some forms of ,f4 ovina are viviparous 7see p4 #acd71 and several varieties have to be distinguished4 ,awns hair-like and dorsal on the pale4 ,flowers two in each spikelet4 ,annual1 six inches or less in height4 ,aira prcox1 ,l4 ,the rare ,a4 canescens1 ,l4 also comes here3 its awn is jointed and with a minute tuft of hairs about the middle4 7ii7 ,panicle lax and open1 the fine hair-like branches spreading widely during florescence1 or even pendent or drooping4 99 ,spikelets awnless4 ,a small aquatic grass with prostrate habit and two-flowered spikelets with broad truncate glumes and pale4 ,catabrosa aquatica1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #d74 ,the two-flowered spikelets distinguish it at once from ,glyceria aquatica1 to say nothing of its softer and smoother texture and small stature4 ,poa trivialis may have two flowers1 but it is an erect meadow-grass1 with keeled and pointed glumes and pale4 ,aira and ,agrostis are awned1 or differ entirely in habit4 ,spikelets with at least three or four1 but usually more flowers4 ,a perennial field-grass with few large1 compressed1 bluntly triangular or ovate spikelets1 dangling at the end of capillary branchlets2 with membranous1 loosely imbricated1 concave and inflated pale and glumes1 and #f-h flowers4 ,briza media1 ,l4 ,the much rarer ,b4 minor1 ,l4 is an annual and smaller4 ,spikelets small and numerous1 more or less elongated and pointed1 not dangling3 glumes and pale not inflated4 ,poa and ,festuca 7see p4 #aaf7 are difficult genera for the beginner2 several of the species vary considerably in detail4 ,generally speaking the spikelets of ,festuca are hard1 harsh and sharply pointed1 or with short or evident awns2 in ,poa they are softer1 and with blunter points1 and never awned4 ,the most obviously awned species of ,festuca have more or less setaceous leaves and contracted inflorescences 7see p4 #aaa74 ,some of the mountain species of ,poa are extremely variable in small characters4 ,reed-like aquatic1 with obtuse glumes rounded dorsally2 the large richly branched panicle bearing numerous #e-aj flowered spikelets4 ,sheath entire or nearly so4 ,no we to the pale4 ,glyceria aquatica1 ,sm4 ,for other reed-grasses1 see note1 p4 #ajc4 ,glyceria fluitans has a more contracted panicle and usually more flowers in the spikelet c4 7see p4 #aaa74 ,meadow and pasture grasses c41 usually small4 ,glumes more or less keeled and acute4 ,sheaths split4 ,poa4 ,spikelets very small and containing #b-c flowers only4 ,stem slender1 terete and rough2 ligule long and acute1 palea with prominent lateral nerves4 ,p4 trivialis1 ,l4 ,the flowers are fewer than in any other ,poa1 and may be only two4 ,p4 nemoralis1 with #c-e flowers1 may also occasionally be found with two only3 it differs from others in its more acute glumes1 smooth stem and short ligule4 ,p4 pratensis differs in its creeping stolons1 short ligule and more numerous #d-e flowers1 and in the indistinct nerves of the palea4 ,spikelets #d-f flowered4 ,annuals1 about six inches high1 with relatively large and numerous spikelets for so small a panicle4 ,no 8web0 at the base of the pale4 ,p4 annua1 ,l4 ,this is the small grass so common as a weed on road-sides and on lawns1 flowering even in winter4 ,for other annual species of ,poa--,p4 rigida1 ,p4 loliacea and ,p4 procumbens--see note p4 #ajh and p4 #aaa4 ,perennials4 ,with creeping stolons4 x ,stems and leaf-sheaths flattened4 ,panicle somewhat close and secund1 some spikelets being nearly sessile4 ,p4 compressa1 ,l4 xx ,stems and leaf-sheaths terete4 ,panicle spreading widely4 ,p4 pratensis1 ,l4 ,without creeping stolons4 ,stems and panicle slender1 round4 ,a shade-plant4 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,l4 ,the rarer species of ,poa are ,p4 bulbosa with the stems swollen below2 ,p4 alpina1 also slightly bulbous and often viviparous2 ,p4 laxa an allied ,highland species2 and ,p4 distans a maritime form allied to ,p4 maritima 7see p4 #aaa74 9999 ,spikelets with awns or with sharp terminal points 7awn-points7 to the glumes or pale4 ,in some species and varieties of ,festuca awns are not evident 7see p4 #aaf73 the hard pale simply end in acute or acuminate points1 but these are sharp and in most cases much more so than in any ,poa4 ,when not so evident1 the student will probably think the specimen is a ,poa and the flora must be consulted4 ,the difficulty is most likely to occur with varieties of ,f4 ovina and ,f4 elatior3 in the former the leaves are narrower1 setaceous and stiffer than in any ,poa4 ,the ribbing of the leaf1 the ligule1 and other characters of the vegetative organs 7see pp4 #de and #ej7 will help in these doubtful cases4 ,awns terminal1 or sub-terminal2 often very short or nearly obsolete and the pale merely drawn out at the tips to a hard sharp awn-point4 ,awns long and sub-terminal1 inserted between the teeth of the cleft apex of the pale4 ,sheaths entire4 ,panicle usually nodding4 ,bromus4 ,with the exception of ,festuca ,myurus and one or two other rare ,fescues with setaceous leaves1 ,hordeum and ,brachypodium are the only other genera with awns much resembling the ,bromes4 ,the former has a totally different inflorescence1 and in the latter the spikelets are practically sessile 7see p4 #ajg74 ,spikelets short and fat1 and relatively heavy4 ,pale broad and distinctly nerved4 ,awns fine1 about as long as the pale4 ,b4 arvensis1 ,l4 ,there are several varieties1 of which ,b4 secalinus with a looser panicle1 and ,b4 mollis with a more compact panicle and very downy1 are the chief4 ,spikelets lanceolate and with conspicuous awns4 ,nerves on the pale obsolete4 x ,panicle conspicuously loose and drooping and awns long1 pale narrow and elongated4 z ,sheaths with long often reflexed hairs4 ,a shade-grass over three feet high4 ,b4 asper1 ,mull4 zz ,sheaths downy4 ,a weed of open lands and hedges1 two feet or less4 ,b4 sterilis1 ,l4 ,b4 giganteus is rarer than ,b4 asper and has smaller spikelets and more slender awns4 ,b4 maximus and ,b4 madritensis are rare4 ,awns1 if present1 merely the points of the pale1 very short or obsolete4 ,sheaths split3 ligule short4 ,festuca4 ,leaves flattened4 ,panicle somewhat close4 ,often tall grasses4 z ,meadow-grass1 with #e-f to a dozen or more flowers in the spikelet4 ,f4 elatior1 ,l4 zz ,shade-grass1 with #d-e flowers only in the spikelet4 ,f4 sylvatica1 ,vill4 ,leaves subulate or setaceous1 at least below4 ,mountain pasture grass1 usually small4 ,f4 ovina4 ,concerning difficulties between ,poa and the awnless forms of ,festuca1 see p4 #aad4 ,f4 elatior and ,f4 sylvatica are practically awnless1 the awn-points being merely the acuminate tips of the pale4 ,the long-awned species of ,festuca have compact stiff panicles and narrow or setaceous leaves 7see p4 #aaa74 ,regarding varieties of ,f4 ovina1 see p4 #aab4 ,awns1 twisted below and bent above1 inserted into the middle of the back of the bifid palea or below it4 ,awns long and conspicuously projecting from the spikelet1 which is gaping and contains #c-e flowers4 ,leaves flat4 ,avena4 ,tall annual corn-weed1 with large 7#ah-bj mm47 heavy1 pendent1 hairy spikelets on the long slender stalks of the lax open panicle4 ,leaves glabrous4 ,a4 fatua1 ,l4 ,this is the so-called ,wild ,oat1 and the type of this group4 ,tufted perennials with spikelets more or less erect on stiffer stalks1 the panicle therefore less open4 z ,panicle nearly simple2 spikelets silvery or reddish1 #ab-ae mm4 long4 ,a4 pratensis1 ,l4 zz ,panicle branched but not very open2 spikelets glistening yellow and only #e-f mm4 long4 ,a4 flavescens1 ,l4 ,there is no other genus closely resembling ,avena4 ,the superficial likeness of some ,bromes disappears at once on examination4 ,the spikelets of ,aira are much smaller1 and the leaves quite different 7see below and p4 #dg74 ,awns fine and hair-like and not conspicuously protruding from the spikelets2 the latter small1 #b-e mm4 ,flowers two in each spikelet4 ,aira4 ,coarse and tall tufted grass with flattened1 harsh1 and conspicuously ribbed leaves3 the very short awns hardly protruding4 ,a4 cspitosa1 ,l4 ,no other grass can be confused with this if the very high ridges of the leaves are observed 7see p4 #dg74 ,small grasses with setaceous or very narrow inrolled leaves4 ,awns slightly protruding4 x ,palea distinctly bifid at the apex3 awn nearly twice its length4 ,a very small grass about six inches high3 leaves subulate1 fine and short4 ,a4 caryophyllea1 ,l4 xx ,pale almost imperceptibly bidentate3 awn not much longer than palea4 ,about #ab-ah inches high3 leaves inrolled4 ,a4 flexuosa1 ,l4 ,other species of ,aira1 with more condensed inflorescences1 are dealt with on p4 #aab4 ,agrostis is distinguished by the leaves and one-flowered spikelets 7see p4 #ajd74 ,poa and ,catabrosa have no awns4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,fruit ,,and ,,seed4 ,the stigma of an ordinary grass consists of two divaricating plume-like structures composed of thin-walled cells4 ,when the pale open these stigmatic plumes protrude1 one on either side1 and readily catch pollen shed from the dangling stamens and carried by the wind1 and since the pollen of the same flower is usually shed at a time when the stigmas of many neighbouring plants are mature1 there is every opportunity for cross-fertilisation4 7,fig4 #cc47 ,in some cases1 however1 e4g4 ,anthoxanthum1 ,alopecurus1 the flowers are proterogynous1 the stigmatic plumes being ready for pollination some time before the pollen is shed from the anthers of the same flower2 whereas in most of our grasses the pollen begins to scatter before the stigmas are ready 7protandrous74 ,among exotic grasses1 many are dicious or moncious--i4e4 the flowers contain stamens only or ovary only1 on each plant1 or on different inflorescences of the same plant respectively--and even in our own ,holcus and ,arrhenatherum this state of affairs is partially represented1 since one flower of the spikelet is male only4 ,in some grasses1 e4g4 ,rye1 however1 it appears improbable that cross-fertilisation ever occurs1 since the pale do not open1 and the pollen falls on to the stigma direct2 and in ,leersia and the foreign ,amphicarpum the spikelets are completely cleistogamous1 those of the latter being on stalks close to the ground which push the flowers into the soil1 where pollination and fructification are accomplished4 ,hybrid grasses are by no means uncommon4 ,to say nothing of the numerous cross-bred ,wheats and ,barleys1 artificial hybrids have been raised between ,wheat and ,rye4 ,in the ,maize an astonishing number of selected cross-breeds have been obtained1 and1 among others1 certain forms in which the seeds have a violet outer layer and a sugary endosperm1 are found to transmit these characters to the resulting seed of a variety which would normally have produced seed with white outer layers and starchy endosperm1 if the pollen of the former is used on the stigma of the latter4 ,such direct influences of the pollen are termed ,xenia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,pollen-grains adherent to the papill of the stigma1 on which they germinate1 sending the pollen-tubes down between the cells4 ,kerner4 about #ajj4 ,when the pollen-grain1 having adhered to the hairy stigma1 has begun to germinate1 the resulting pollen-tube creeps down between the cells of the stigma1 and hands over its enclosed nuclei to the embryo-sac1 where fertilisation of the egg-cell is accomplished1 by the fusion of one of the pollen nuclei with the nucleus of the egg-cell4 ,as the resulting embryo developes1 the sac becomes filled with endosperm-cells charged with starch-grains or sugar1 and in the ripe seed the embryo is always found affixed laterally and below to this endosperm--a point of distinction from ,sedges1 where the embryo is buried in the endosperm4 ,the ripe seed fills the ovary1 and its outer walls usually fuse with those of the carpel1 forming the well-known ,caryopsis or 8grain40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,longitudinal median section of the caryopsis of a grass--e4g4 ,lolium 7 about #ce74 p1 pericarp2 t1 attachment to axis2 m1 position of micropyle2 ,e1 endosperm2 ,a1 its aleurone layer2 l1 folded leaves of plumule2 r1 radicle2 r1 secondary roots2 ,,rc1 root-cap2 s1 scutellum4 ,the dark line e represents the surface where the face of the scutellum is applied to the endosperm and where absorption of the latter takes place4 ,if such a 8grain0 is carefully examined1 three chief parts are visible in addition to the embryo4 7,fig4 #ch47 ,firstly1 we find on the outside the fused seed- and fruitcoats1 differing in the number of layers and in the microscopic characters of the cells1 some of which characters can be employed in diagnoses4 7,fig4 #ci47 ,secondly1 the great mass of the 8grain0 internally is composed of delicate cells filled in most cases with starch-grains1 the sizes1 shapes and arrangement of which can also be employed for diagnoses--e4g4 the compound grains of the ,avene and ,festuce are different from the simple polyhedral or rounded grains of the ,andropogone and ,mayde1 and some races of ,maize have sugar and soluble starch instead of grains of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,transverse section 7highly magnified7 through a grain of ,brachypodium pinnatum taken about half-way up4 #a1 epidermis2 #b1 pericarp2 #c1 remains of the true seed-coat2 #d1 vascular bundle2 #e1 remains of nucellus2 ,p1 epidermis of nucellus2 ,g1 aleurone layer3 remarkable in being several cells thick2 ,e1 endosperm4 ,harz4 ,thirdly1 the outermost layer or layers of cells of the endosperm are filled with proteids1 and are known as the ,aleurone layer4 7,fig4 #ch1 ,a47 ,the embryo consists of the folded embryonic leaves in bud 7plumule7 above1 which will grow up on germination as the shoot or 8spear10 the short primary root 7radicle7 below1 with in many cases two or more secondary rootlets already showing in its tissues1 and from the common 8collar0 uniting these a more or less prominent shield-shaped organ 7scutellum7 standing out laterally in contact with the endosperm1 the dissolved contents of which it absorbs on germination4 7,fig4 #ch1 s47 ,although typical grasses form a caryopsis as described1 exceptions occur4 ,in the exotic ,sporobolus1 ,eleusine1 ,crypsis and ,heleochloa the fruit becomes truly dehiscent1 the seed being loose in the fruit1 and the latter opens and allows it to fall out2 and in many ,bamboos the seed is loose in the achene1 while in a few cases--e4g4 ,melocanna--the fruit is fleshy and may be as big as a walnut4 ,returning to the typical grasses4 ,when the fruit ripens in the spikelet1 several events may happen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,triodia decumbens4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 #f4 ,note the basal hair-tuft and rachilla1 and the ciliate1 toothed outer palea with a short awn-point1 enclosing the inner more delicate palea4 ,between the two lies the caryopsis4 ,nobbe4 ,in most of our grasses the caryopsis comes away trapped between its two pale1 and the latter bring away with them the small piece of the axis of the spikelet on which they stand3 this bit of axis--the rachilla--often affords valuable characters in diagnosis4 7,fig4 #da47 ,it is the pair of pale enclosing their caryopsis which goes by the name of 8seed0 in most of our grasses4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,in a few cases1 however1 e4g4 ,panicum1 the spikelet comes away as a whole1 so that here the 8seed0 consists of the glumes1 enclosing one1 two or more pairs of pale with their contained caryopses4 ,even among our native grasses1 however1 cases occur where the separation takes place below some of the glumes1 and so the 8seed10 as met with in samples1 consists of glumes as well as enclosed pale and caryopsis--e4g4 ,anthoxanthum1 ,alopecurus1 c4--and some care is necessary in examining grass 8seed0 in these circumstances 7see p4 #acd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,diagram of a spikelet of a grass--e4g4 ,festuca--comprising six matured flowers and their pale1 embraced by the two glumes 7g#a;g#b7 at the moment of disarticulation as the fruits ripen4 ,the small piece of axis 7a7 left attached to each segment is the rachilla ,r4 ,at p#b the tip of the inner palea is visible protruding from the outer one p#a3 in the rest it is still enclosed in the latter4 ,interesting biological adaptations are met with in the distribution of grass 8seeds40 ,the very small and light fruits of ,agrostis easily fall and are scattered by the wind1 but in many cases the glumes 7,holcus7 or pale 7,briza7 are expanded and serve as 8wings0 offering extensive surfaces to the wind4 ,in ,arundo1 ,calamagrostis1 ,aira1 c41 fine silky hairs attached to the rachilla serve a similar function1 reminding us of the coma of true seeds and the pappus of ,composites4 ,in ,hordeum jubatum of the prairies1 the axis breaks up and the disarticulated portions with their attached tufts of fruits are blown away by the wind1 and something similar occurs in our own ,h4 murinum to a less extent4 ,in the exotic ,spinifex whole heads of fruits are thus detached and blown over the sands as 8tumble weeds40 ,in ,stipa pennata we have an example of perhaps the most complex of all such adaptations3 the exceedingly long awn terminating the palea is plumose at the upper end and twisted below1 and the hard sharp rachilla at the base of the fruit is furnished with short1 stiff hairs directed upwards4 ,the plumed awn serves as a wind surface1 the whole fruit flying like an arrow through the air4 ,the stiff hairs below serve to fix the lower end between particles of soil1 and by their alternate drying and wetting1 the warping of these and of the twisting and untwisting awn drives the sharp base into the soil4 7,fig4 #db47 ,similar mechanisms exist in ,avena and others4 ,these bristles and awns also subserve dissemination in other ways1 especially by clinging to the wool and fur of sheep and other animals1 and cases occur where the twisting awns and reflexed hairs on the hard pointed fruit-base drive the latter into the bodies of sheep with fatal effects--e4g4 ,stipa capillata in ,russia1 ,s4 spartea in ,america1 ,aristida hygrometrica in ,new ,zealand1 ,heteropogon contortus in ,new ,caledonia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,awned fruit of ,stipa4 ,the reflexed stiff hairs and hard point favour penetration into the soil4 ,the long twisted awn performs hygroscopic movements1 and its terminal plume offers surface to the wind4 ,lubbock4 ,the driving action of even small reflexed asperities on awns is well illustrated by the fruits of ,hordeum1 which are often made by children to creep up the sleeve4 ,when we come to examine the external features of the 8seeds0 of grasses--usually the caryopsis enclosed in one or more pale1 but sometimes in glumes as well--the following diagnostic characters are of importance4 ,the size varies from lengths of #b mm4 or less 7,poa1 ,aira7 7,figs4 #dc1 #dd7 to #ae-bj mm4 or more 7,arrhenatherum7 7,fig4 #dg7 and distinction must be made between the various characters of the caryopsis devoid of its coverings 7pale1 glumes7 and such as really belong to the latter4 ,the caryopsis proper may be short and stout and devoid of a groove--8,millet-seed0 type 7,fig4 #de7--;but is oftener elongated1 like a grain of ,wheat1 and then has the characteristic longitudinal groove on the face opposite that where the embryo is situated 7,fig4 #df74 ,details of shape--e4g4 cylindroid1 fusiform1 flattened1 c4--are also of diagnostic value4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,poa annua4 d1 the 8seed10 nat4 size2 a and b1 ditto1 about #g2 c1 caryopsis1 natural size 7above7 and about #g4 ,note the ribs and silky keel4 ,no 8web40 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #ed-ef4 ,in many cases the 8seed10 consisting of the caryopsis closely compressed between the pale1 is boat-shaped1 e4g4 ,lolium perenne1 ,festuca elatior4 ,if this 8boat0 is long and narrow it may be termed barge-shaped1 e4g4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum1 c4 7,figs4 #ga1 #gb73 if short1 broad1 and open or shallow1 the term coracle-shaped seems to apply1 e4g4 ,bromus arvensis 7,fig4 #gc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,aira cspitosa4 ,the minute 8seed0 7nat4 size7 is seen to the right1 and the caryopsis 7nat4 size7 to the left of c1 the caryopsis1 #h4 a and b1 the 8seed10 #aj4 ,the basal awn is about as long as the palea1 and the rachilla is very hairy4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,phleum pratense4 ,millet-seed type4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 about #g2 d1 caryopsis1 nat4 size2 c1 ditto1 #g4 ,the rounded caryopsis in b is only loosely covered by one palea4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,boat-shaped 8seed0 of ,glyceria fluitans4 a1 nat4 size2 b and c1 about #f4 d1 caryopsis1 about #aj4 ,note the #e-g strong nerves1 and the slender cylindrical rachilla4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #eg and #eh4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum4 ,the 8double seed0 7a and b7 consists of two pairs of pale with their enclosures4 ,the lower pair 77 are devoid of fruit1 and the outer palea has a long twisted and kneed basal awn3 the upper pair 77 enclose the fruit1 and the palea has a short straight awn4 ,note the stiff basal hairs4 a1 nat4 size2 b1 about #f2 c1 caryopsis1 nat4 size2 d1 ditto1 #f4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,lolium temulentum4 ,type of boat-shaped 8seed0 with sub-terminal awn arising from between two teeth4 c1 8seed10 nat4 size2 a and b1 ditto1 #f4 ,note the large smooth rachilla4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,further important distinctive characters are obtained from the absence or presence of awns1 and the peculiarities--length1 stiffness1 c4--of the latter4 ,the awns may be straight1 hooked1 or kneed 7i4e4 sharply bent72 twisted or not2 smooth or serrulate4 ,they may be inserted at the base or near the middle of the back of the investing palea1 or glume1 or near its apex1 as indicated by the terms basal1 dorsal1 sub-terminal 7see ,figs4 #dg-ej74 ,some difficulty arises in connection with terminal awns4 ,in some cases there is a true awn--i4e4 a distinct bristle or hair--at the apex of the palea1 and apparently continuing its substance without interruption2 but in most instances close examination shows that this awn arises from between two minute teeth1 and is really inserted at the back of the slight depression between them--e4g4 ,lolium temulentum 7,fig4 #dh71 ,brachypodium pinnatum 7,fig4 #gg71 c4 ,in another class of cases the awn appears to be really the prolongation of the palea--e4g4 ,nardus 7,fig4 #ha71 ,festuca ,myurus 7,fig4 #hj71 c4--and when it runs out into a distinct bristle we may speak of a terminal awn without staying to discuss whether or no it is really terminal in development4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,agrostis ,spicaventi4 c1 8seed10 nat4 size2 a and b1 ditto1 about #i4 ,the long slender awn is inserted below the bifid tip of the palea4 ,nobbe4 ,in ,arundo1 ,cynosurus and some ,fescues1 where the palea tapers off into a stiff long point1 ,i have not spoken of it as an awn1 but have described the palea as tapering into a sharp point 7awn-point74 ,it must be admitted that the distinction is somewhat artificial1 but it has its advantages in practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,bromus sterilis4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 about #b4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,figs4 #hj and #ha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,festuca sylvatica4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 #h4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,the rachilla 7,fig4 #da71 when present1 often affords good characters1 and in a few cases is relied on for the distinction of 8seeds0 otherwise much alike--e4g4 ,lolium perenne and ,festuca elatior2 and similarly with the presence or absence of hairs 7,digraphis1 ,arundo1 c47 or 8web0 7,poa7 at the base of the 8seed40 7,figs4 #ee1 #fi47 ,on germination the primary root of the embryo usually emerges and at once plunges into the soil1 but soon ceases to grow1 and the secondary roots 7and subsequently adventitious rootlets from the lower internodes7 soon give the peculiar fibrous character so well known in grass-roots4 ,the plumule either pushes out from the same end of the caryopsis as the root 7e4g4 ,wheat1 ,rye7 or drives its way between the coats to the opposite end 7e4g4 ,barley7 and appears as a pointed cylinder of rolled leaves 7the 8spear07 the outermost of which is sheath only1 no lamina being developed4 ,as ,darwin showed1 the pointed apex of such a plumule is hardened1 facilitating the piercing of the soil above1 and when the blade attains the open air it performs spiral movements during growth1 indicating that similar attempts to rock from side to side have aided the plumule in forcing its way through the soil4 ,it has also been shown that the apices of roots and plumules are sensitive to differences of temperature1 of light-intensity1 moisture and contact1 all of which aid the seedling in establishing its position in the soil and in liberating the 8spear40 ,for particulars the student should read ,darwin's ,power of ,movement in ,plants4 ,with regard to the established seedlings of grasses1 many interesting details of structure are to be found in them4 ,i have not sufficient material to draw up a diagnostic arrangement of grass-seedlings1 but it is evident that such could be done4 ,it may be useful to illustrate this by the following tabular view of the characters of the larger seedlings of our common cereals1 in part adapted from ,vesque and ,percival2 though ,i find that some variations may occur1 especially in the development of the auricles4 ,,seedlings4 ,i4 ,first expanded aerial leaves broad1 bright green1 with #ah-bd ribs4 ,barley4 ,the blade tends to twist to the left3 auricles1 when well developed1 long1 pointed1 and claw-like1 embracing the glabrous sheath in front4 ,ligule long1 membranous1 pointed and irregularly toothed4 ,the plumule emerges at the upper end of the grain1 and the embryo has #e-f secondary roots4 ,,ii4 ,first aerial leaves narrower1 with not more than #aa-ac ribs4 ,a4 ,ligule long1 rounded and toothed4 ,wheat4 ,the blade tends to twist to the left3 auricles filiform and embrace the densely pubescent sheath4 ,leaves green4 ,embryo with three roots4 ,b4 ,ligule short and toothed4 ,leaves with a reddish cast4 7a7 ,blade and sheath softly hairy1 the latter with scattered long hairs1 the former tending to twist to the left4 ,rye4 ,the first leaf-sheath purple4 ,auricle-claws more triangular and smaller than those of wheat1 and the accompanying bristles are fewer and shorter4 ,embryonic roots four4 7b7 ,blade and sheath glabrous or merely ciliate or silky1 the former tending to twist to the right4 ,oat4 ,auricles filiform4 ,the plumule emerges above4 ,the embryo has three roots4 ,a curious phenomenon is observed in some grasses growing in high latitudes1 or mountainous regions1 or in moist situations4 ,the flowers1 or even entire spikelets1 grow out into minute leafy buds1 with rudimentary roots at the base1 and fall off like the bulbils of other monocotyledons1 taking root directly in the damp soil4 ,the phenomenon must be looked upon as a case of apogamy1 since the development of sexual organs is entirely passed over2 the parts which would normally have become ovary and stamens being transformed into leaves4 ,in some species or varieties--e4g4 ,poa alpina1 ,festuca ovina--this viviparous condition may coexist with normal flowers and spikelets2 in others--e4g4 ,poa laxa1 var4 stricta--only the viviparous state occurs4 ,in the following arrangement the student should note that the terms 8,seed0 and 8,fruit0 are used in the ordinary sense of the farmer and seedsman3 by the former is meant the 8seed0 as it comes in samples into the market1 when the true fruit or grain 7,caryopsis7 is almost invariably invested by adherent 8chaff0--i4e4 pale or glumes or both4 ,when the word ,caryopsis is employed1 ,i mean it strictly in the botanical sense explained above4 ,in ,hordeum1 for example1 we never see the true fruit1 the grain consisting of the caryopsis with pale so closely adherent to it1 that we are apt to take them as part of the grain itself4 ,the true seed1 in the strict botanical sense1 is never seen as a naturally separate organ in our native grasses2 and1 as already explained1 only very few exotic grasses ever shed it--e4g4 ,sporobolus4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,classification ,,of ,,grasses ,,by ,,the 8,,seeds0 7,,grains74 ,i4 8,seed0 rounded 7,millet-seed#ab type74 ,caryopsis ovoid or sub-globose1 devoid of distinct groove1 and distending the awnless pale1 or falling out free4 ,a4 ,glumes cuspidate1 8fruit0 yellowish4 ,phleum pratense4 ,the student should familiarise himself with the 8seed0 of ,phleum pratense1 as a type1 and an important grass easily obtained pure1 but sometimes with minute round seeds of weeds intermixed4 ,phleum pratense1 ,l4 7,fig4 #de74 ,palea #bc mm4 long1 five-ribbed1 with a short point1 delicate but hard1 smooth1 with a silvery lustre4 ,inner pale two-nerved4 ,closely investing the yellow-brown caryopsis1 which easily falls out and is ovoid-acute1 about #b mm4 long by #a broad1 and finely punctate4 ,the much rarer ,p4 arenarium and the very rare ,p4 ,bhmeri and ,p4 asperum also come here4 ,phleum is not easily confounded with any other of our grasses1 and ,briza and ,glyceria are almost the only other common grasses of about the same size of which the caryopsis often falls free from the palea 78naked fruits074 ,glyceria is longer and corn-shaped1 and ,briza usually larger4 ,anthoxanthum and ,phalaris are easily distinguished4 ,agrostis is smaller and 8corn-shaped40 ,certain species of ,panicum present resemblances1 but the enveloping pale1 c4 are very different4 ,melica also occurs as 8naked fruits10 but is rarely seen1 and its colour and brilliant lustre distinguish it4 ,b4 ,glumes not cuspidate4 8,fruit0 not yellow4 7a7 8,fruit0 white1 owing to the closely investing palea4 ,milium effusum4 ,a common grass1 but not often met with in 8seed0 grasses4 ,it is eagerly eaten by birds4 ,milium effusum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #eb74 ,palea about #c mm4 long1 with few nerves1 closely investing the caryopsis3 the seed is ellipsoid-acute1 slightly compressed1 and #bb-bg mm4 long4 ,the inner pale becomes hard and shines like porcelain4 7b7 8,fruit0 dark-brown shining2 slightly flattened and grooved4 ,melica4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,milium effusum4 8,seed10 a1 nat4 size2 b and c1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,melica is rarely met with as 8seed40 ,when it is1 it has to be distinguished from the other 8,millet-seed0 types which readily fall as naked fruits--see ,phleum1 ,milium1 c4 ,agrostis1 ,glyceria and other corn-shaped 8seeds0 are easily distinguished4 ,melica nutans1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ec74 8,seed0 coracle-shaped4 ,palea broad1 parchment-like1 elliptic convex1 #e-f mm4 long1 #e-g nerved and keeled1 awnless1 loose1 purplish4 ,caryopsis ellipsoid-acute1 #b-c mm4 long1 and easily separating1 wrinkled1 dark shining brown as if lacquered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,coracle-shaped 8seed0 of ,melica nutans1 showing the broad1 ribbed and keeled palea 7c71 and small rachilla 7d74 a1 the 8seed10 nat4 size2 c and d1 ditto1 #h2 b1 the caryopsis1 nat4 size2 e and f1 ditto1 #aj4 ,nobbe4 ,m4 uniflora1 ,retz4 is commoner and very similar1 but neither is often met with in 8seed0 grass1 except as impurities among ,fescues4 ,the rare ,panicum ,crus-galli and allies1 and the rice-like ,leersia oryzoides as well as ,cynodon ,dactylon1 come here4 ,panicums may occur in grass 8seed0 from ,america3 ,burchard describes them in detail4 ,,ii4 8,seed0 long 7,corn and ,barley type74 ,caryopsis oblong or flattened1 usually trapped between the boat-shaped pale3 if otherwise1 with an awn4 ,a4 8,seed0 awnless4 ,there may be a short sharp point to the palea 7mucronate71 but no prominent hair-or bristle-awn exceeding half the length of the palea4 7a7 ,a 8web0 or tuft of hairs at the base or on the rachilla4 7#a7 ,hairs of basal tuft silky and erect4 99 ,pencil of hairs as long as palea or longer4 ,calamagrostis lanceolata1 ,roth4 ,palea #c mm4 long1 thin1 two-toothed and with a short bristle at the apex4 ,other species of ,calamagrostis are awned4 ,none occurs as an ordinary impurity in 8seed40 ,arundo ,phragmites1 ,l4 ,palea narrow and long1 #aj-aa mm41 delicate1 entire1 tapering to an acuminate point1 violet1 three-nerved1 smooth4 ,caryopsis about #b mm4 ,a pencil of long silky hairs on the rachilla4 ,the long acuminate point is almost an awn4 ,calamagrostis also has long basal hairs3 both are useless grasses agriculturally4 ,for ,glyceria see note1 p4 #adf4 ,avena1 ,aira and ,psamma are easily distinguished4 9999 ,pencil of hairs short4 ,palea mucronate1 #aa-ab mm4 long3 caryopsis #de mm4 ,psamma arenaria4 ,digraphis differs in the stout caryopsis1 smaller size1 double hair-tuft4 ,arundo has a long pointed palea and long silky basal hairs and is larger4 ,psamma arenaria1 ,beauv4 ,palea #aae mm4 ovate-lanceolate1 papery1 #d-e nerved1 as rolled round the fruit about #ac mm4 diameter1 yellow1 and with a small tuft of stiff fine hairs at the base4 ,mere trace of awn1 sub-terminal4 ,fruit #d-e mm4 long1 obovate1 pale-brown4 ,a shore-grass1 not often seen as 8seed03 more valuable as a sand-binder than as fodder1 though the young shoots are grazed4 ,palea acuminate1 and only about #d mm4 long3 caryopsis #ad mm4 ,digraphis arundinacea4 ,a ,fen-grass1 but coarse and not in use except the young growth1 and for thatching4 ,digraphis arundinacea1 ,trin4 ,pale ovate-lanceolate1 nerveless and awnless1 but silky with double basal hair-tuft1 and polished at the base2 smooth1 hard and shining1 and closely investing the caryopsis which has no groove4 ,dark grey in colour4 ,the glumes are without awns or wings1 and are left behind4 ,the allied ,phalaris canariensis has wing-like keels to the glumes4 ,triodia also comes into this group1 with short basal hairs2 but its broad ciliate palea1 #f mm4 long1 has a short mucronate point between two teeth 7,fig4 #dj74 7#b7 ,hairs at the base forming a fluffy 8web40 ,pale thin1 #b-c mm4 long4 ,poa pratensis4 ,p4 trivialis4 ,p4 compressa4 ,p4 nemoralis4 ,the 8seeds0 of ,poa proper are nearly all small--not more than #c-d mm41 more or less lanceolate1 with tough1 keeled glumes1 and when 8webbed0 tend to adhere together as if stuck with cobweb4 ,the keeled glumes give them an angular appearance--triangular in section--and make them tend to lie on the side4 ,rachilla evident4 ,nerves of pale distinct4 ,poa pratensis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ee74 8,seed0 #b-c mm4 long1 brownish3 caryopsis about #a-ae mm4 ,outer palea acute1 indistinctly #c-e nerved1 edges and keel1 silky2 margins overlapping the hyaline inner palea4 ,the 8web0 looks like hyph of a mould4 ,caryopsis ellipsoid-acute1 with traces of the stigma4 ,it falls easily4 ,no distinct groove1 section somewhat triangular4 ,rachilla truncate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,poa nemoralis4 c1 the minute 8seed0 7to the right7 and caryopsis 7to the left7 nat4 size4 a1 the 8seed10 #h2 b1 the caryopsis1 #h4 ,traces of a basal 8web10 not shown here1 occasionally occur4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,poa pratensis4 ,type of a 8webbed seed40 a1 8seed10 about #g2 b1 caryopsis 7inverted71 #g4 ,between are the same1 nat4 size4 ,note the nerves on the palea and the conspicuous 8web0 at the base a4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,poa trivialis4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size and #h2 b1 caryopsis1 nat4 size and #g4 ,note the conspicuous 8web40 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,poa compressa1 ,l4 ,palea obtuse1 nearly glabrous and nerveless1 or faintly #c-e nerved and with a faint web4 ,it is close to ,p4 pratensis4 ,poa trivialis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ef74 8,seed0 #b-be mm41 and with a bluish or bronzed cast4 ,caryopsis #a-ae mm4 ,palea acute1 distinctly five-ribbed1 glabrous1 the margin scarcely overlapping4 ,caryopsis grooved1 blunt and more tightly held in the palea4 ,p4 trivialis differs from ,p4 pratensis chiefly in the distinct ribs and smoother palea1 grooved caryopsis1 and bluer hue4 ,p4 nemoralis1 ,l41 hardly differs from ,p4 trivialis1 but the pale are sub-acute1 nerves obsolete1 and scarcely hyaline at the margins4 ,the 8seed0 is shorter and more acute1 and the colour less pronounced1 and with hardly a trace of hairs 7,fig4 #ed74 ,when the basal hairs are absent this should go with ,p4 annua1 c4 7see p4 #adf74 ,it is practically impossible to distinguish these species by the 8seed40 ,care is necessary to distinguish ,kleria1 which is somewhat larger in size1 keeled1 compressed and nerved similarly1 but is more pointed and curved and paler yellowish white in colour4 ,hard and devoid of web or hairs4 ,aira is distinguished by the awn3 ,agrostis by the very different pale and caryopsis4 ,the other ,poas are devoid of web1 though they may have hairs below1 and require very careful examination4 ,the whole group is excessively difficult to deal with in 8seed10 and a special study of it is needed1 since several species are important1 and it forms a type4 b ,no web or pencil of hairs below the 8seed40 7#a7 ,apex of palea rounded1 blunt1 notched1 or at most bluntly pointed1 but with no trace of awn-or bristle-tip4 99 ,palea inflated1 round-backed and somewhat winged1 membranous4 ,briza media4 ,b4 minor4 ,briza media1 ,l4 ,pale blunt1 #be-c mm41 without lateral projections1 markedly convex--almost conduplicate2 nerves several4 ,caryopsis ovoid1 #ae-be mm41 dark brown4 ,sometimes called a good grass1 but meagre and only found in poor meadows in this country4 ,it should perhaps go with the 8,millet-seed0 type and should be compared with ,phleum1 ,melica1 ,panicum1 c4 8,seed0 seldom met with4 ,b4 minor is smaller4 9999 ,pale not inflated or winged4 ,pale broad1 flat and truncate1 prominently three-ribbed4 ,caryopsis #b mm4 long4 ,catabrosa aquatica1 ,beauv4 ,cattle like it1 but it only grows in ditches c4 in water-meadows3 distinction from ,glyceria aquatica easy if the pale are examined4 ,pale acute or sub-acute1 boat-shaped4 ,pale and 8seed0 at least #f-h mm4 long4 ,rachilla flattened or angular1 and tapering below4 ,lolium perenne4 ,occasionally awned1 and then less easily distinguished from ,l4 temulentum4 ,one of our most valuable grasses4 ,it forms a distinct type of boat-shaped 8seeds40 ,lolium perenne1 ,l4 7,fig4 #eg74 ,palea distinctly five-ribbed1 glabrous1 oblong-lanceolate1 obtuse or sub-acute1 awnless1 about #g mm4 long4 ,margins membranous4 ,inner palea nearly as long1 delicate1 ciliate4 ,rachilla short1 flattened and angular1 tapering below 7see ,festuca elatior74 ,caryopsis about #ce mm4 long1 obovate1 yellowish brown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,lolium perenne with typical boat-shaped 8seed40 a1 natural size2 b and c1 about #h4 d1 caryopsis1 #h4 ,the rachilla1 in c1 is broader upwards and flatter than in ,fig4 #eh4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,festuca elatior1 var4 pratensis4 ,lettering and sizes as in ,fig4 #eg3 compare the more cylindrical and slender rachilla4 ,nobbe4 ,although ,bromus mollis1 ,holcus lanatus1 c4 occur as impurities1 they are easily distinguished3 the real difficulties are with ,festuca elatior and ,f4 pratensis4 ,rachilla cylindrical4 ,festuca elatior4 ,this is an important grass1 and should be thoroughly mastered as a type of the boat-shaped 8seed40 ,this1 with ,lolium1 ,agropyrum1 other ,fescues1 and even some ,bromes and ,poas1 will give trouble until the student thoroughly masters the importance of the minute characters of size1 nervature1 of the rachilla1 awn1 palea1 c4 ,festuca elatior1 ,l4 7var4 pratensis7 7,fig4 #eh74 ,palea ovate-lanceolate1 five-nerved1 slightly scabrid1 with a slight membranous margin and cilia1 rounded back1 and no awn4 #f-ge mm4 long4 ,caryopsis oblong-obovate1 somewhat flattened1 hardly grooved and adhering to the pale1 about #c-ce mm4 long4 ,rachilla cylindrical1 smooth4 ,the other varieties of ,f4 elatior cannot be distinguished by the 8seed0 alone3 in my samples ,f4 elatior proper is longer than ,f4 pratensis1 and both have occasionally a trace of awn4 ,var4 arundinacea has a more acuminate1 stiff point4 ,festuca pratensis has its palea as a rule somewhat more acute than ,lolium perenne1 and the flatter tapering rachilla of the latter is more closely appressed to the palea4 ,the caryopsis of ,festuca also tends to adhere to the pale4 ,pale and 8seed0 at most #c-ce mm4 long4 ,palea devoid of hairs or keel1 notched or blunt1 and with no trace of awn4 ,palea hyaline1 nerves indistinct4 ,tips notched or blunt4 ,agrostis alba4 ,there is occasionally a very short basal hair 7awn74 ,agrostis and ,aira will present difficulties to the beginner1 not only on account of their small sizes1 but also from the variability as regards awns1 basal hair-tuft1 c4 ,none are of value1 and most of them are weeds4 ,agrostis alba1 ,l4 7var4 stolonifera74 ,palea enclosing the fruit #ah-b mm4 long1 white1 delicate1 membranous1 with a blunt notched apex and three 7or five7 nerves3 occasionally there is a fine kneed basal awn1 not projecting4 ,the glumes may remain attached3 the outer has a serrulate keel1 and often a violet hue4 ,no awn4 ,about #b-c mm4 ,caryopsis about #aa mm4 long1 oblong1 yellow1 corn-shaped1 furrowed1 shining through4 ,a4 vulgaris1 ,l41 is a variety with slightly smaller fruits1 no awn1 and usually three nerves to the palea1 but they cannot be distinguished with certainty by the 8seed40 ,rachilla obsolete4 ,the colour of the glumes may vary considerably and is sometimes yellow4 ,the absence of awn1 rachilla1 and basal hairs distinguishes ,agrostis from ,aira4 ,palea membranous1 ribbed1 tips scarious4 ,glyceria aquatica4 ,g4 fluitans4 ,glyceria aquatica1 ,sm4 ,palea strongly #e-g ribbed1 obtuse and scarious1 about #d mm4 long4 ,green with a purple cast4 ,caryopsis dark-brown1 about #b mm4 long4 ,inner palea punctate4 ,rachilla slender and cylindrical4 ,glyceria fluitans1 ,br41 is very similar1 but longer 7#f mm47 and more slender2 the palea scabrid with truncate or ragged tips1 and the inner palea not punctate4 ,yellow4 7,fig4 #df47 ,glyceria aquatica and ,g4 fluitans are sweet grasses of value in water-meadows only4 ,the 8seed0 is not often met with4 ,not only with the ,poas1 but also with ,catabrosa are there difficulties in determination4 ,molinia and ,kleria also present difficulties with ,glyceria3 the former has fewer and feebler nerves4 ,digraphis and ,arundo are easily distinguished by the basal hairs4 ,palea acute and somewhat compressed and keeled1 and with hairs on the ribs4 ,tips nerved4 ,poa annua4 ,p4 maritima4 ,p4 distans4 ,p4 rigida4 ,p4 loliacea4 ,p4 bulbosa4 ,p4 alpina4 ,their 8seeds0 are all small1 about #b-ce mm4 only1 and angular1 brown1 and present many difficulties 7see note1 p4 #ada74 ,poa annua1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dc74 ,palea #ce and caryopsis #b mm4 long1 so that the 8seed0 is much larger than ,p4 trivialis1 and there is no web4 ,minutely silky-hairy on the keel1 and the ribs are strong for a ,poa4 ,poa alpina1 ,l41 has the palea five-ribbed with stiffish hairs below1 but no web4 ,bronzy green-violet4 8,seed0 #c-ce mm4 long4 ,caryopsis #ae-b mm41 and slightly grooved4 ,it is rare in ,england1 and is interesting as it becomes viviparous in ,alpine situations4 7#b7 ,apex of palea distinctly pointed1 acuminate or mucronate1 but not giving rise to a true1 long1 bristle-like awn4 99 ,palea acuminate--i4e4 taper pointed4 ,not compressed or obviously keeled4 ,festuca ovina4 ,f4 sylvatica4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 ,it is doubtful whether these should not be regarded as awned3 if so they come near ,nardus--see p4 #acj4 ,festuca ovina1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ei74 ,palea rounded on the back1 narrow1 terete-lanceolate and five-nerved1 tip scaberulous and drawn out to a stiff scabrid point half as long as the palea1 or less4 ,about #c-d mm4 long without the tip-point1 #d-ee mm4 with it4 ,rachilla obliquely truncate and concave at its apex4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,festuca ovina4 a1 spikelet1 about #c-a_/b4 b1 8seed10 nat4 size and about #g4 c1 caryopsis1 nat4 size and #g4 ,caryopsis oblong1 somewhat flattened1 dark-brown4 ,the numerous varieties of ,f4 ovina cannot be distinguished by the 8seed03 the allied varieties ,f4 rubra1 ,f4 duriuscula1 and ,f4 heterophylla1 c4 are sometimes more distinctly awned 7see p4 #agb74 ,but difficulties will be found with the whole group1 which needs revision4 ,this group comprises the grasses so valued on downs and dry hill-pastures for sheep-feeding4 ,festuca sylvatica1 ,vill41 not a common plant1 is also with difficulty separable 7,fig4 #ea74 ,cynosurus cristatus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fj74 ,palea canary yellow to light-brown1 lanceolate with rounded back and the mid-rib prominent as a slight keel and margins infolded1 about #d mm4 long 7varies from #c-de #je to #a mm4 broad71 scabrid above1 dotted below and acute to acuminate with a scabrid awn-point1 often curved4 ,caryopsis #b-bc mm41 somewhat flattened4 ,rachilla short and smooth1 dilated above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,cynosurus cristatus4 a1 8seed0 and caryopsis1 nat4 size2 b and c1 8seed0 about #h4 ,note the scabrid and slightly curved awn-point4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,a valuable and easily recognised grass4 ,molinia1 ,holcus and similar impurities are easily detected3 some ,fescues are much more like it2 e4g4 ,f4 tenuifolia 7see p4 #df7 in which the apex tapers suddenly to a point4 ,dactylis should also be compared4 ,pale compressed or distinctly keeled4 ,molinia crulea4 ,kleria cristata4 ,unimportant1 except as impurities among other grass 8seeds40 ,molinia is said to occur as such in samples of ,cynosurus1 ,dactylis1 ,poa trivialis1 ,fescues1 c41 but it should give little difficulty except in comparison with ,glyceria 7see p4 #adf74 ,molinia crulea 7,mnch47 7,fig4 #fa74 8,seed0 #c-d mm4 or more1 leather coloured or with a bluish tinge4 ,pale divaricating1 the lower keeled and compressed1 and tapering to a sharp point4 ,rachilla long1 oblique and prominent4 ,smooth tapering1 palea #ee1 fruit #b mm4 long4 ,kleria cristata1 ,pers4 7,fig4 #fb74 ,palea #f mm41 keeled1 entire1 no awn but stiffly tapering1 ribbed1 no hairs4 ,rachilla large4 ,fruit #de mm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,molinia crulea4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 about #h2 d1 the caryopsis1 nat4 size2 e1 ditto1 about #g4 ,note the compressed1 keeled and glabrous palea1 and the long slender bone-shaped rachilla4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,kleria cristata4 a1 the 8seed0 7to the left7 and caryopsis 7to the right71 nat4 size2 b1 8seed10 about #g4 ,the palea is compressed and keeled1 and1 like the large rachilla1 glabrous4 ,nobbe4 9999 ,palea not taper pointed1 but mucronate1 or two-toothed1 with a sub-terminal point or spine4 ,elymus arenarius4 ,agropyrum repens4 ,dactylis glomerata4 ,sesleria crulea4 ,elymus arenarius1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fc74 ,fruiting palea lanceolate1 #ac-ae #c mm41 tough and stiffly hairy or velvety3 #e-g ribs4 ,rachilla stout1 hairy4 ,fruit hairy above1 #e-aa mm4 #be #ab1 somewhat grooved4 ,no keel4 ,apex of inner palea bifid1 outer mucronate4 ,fruit shelled4 ,easily distinguished from ,digraphis arundinacea1 which has a basal hair-tuft and very different caryopsis2 less easily from ,agropyrum and ,lolium1 except in the velvety surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,elymus arenarius4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 the same1 #c4 ,note the stiff1 velvety1 bifid and mucronate outer palea1 and the large hairy rachilla4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,dactylis glomerata4 a1 spikelet with glumes removed1 nat4 size2 b1 ditto1 about #f2 c and d1 8seed10 nat4 size 7below7 and about #f4 ,the stiff and slightly curved awn-point is sub-terminal and arises from between two teeth4 ,rachilla dilated above4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,agropyrum repens may have a mucronate awn-point or not4 ,the small palea #aj-ab1 the caryopsis #e-f mm4 7see p4 #afi for description74 ,this troublesome weed 7,couch-grass7 presents similar difficulties with ,lolium perenne that ,agropyrum caninum does with ,lolium temulentum--see p4 #afh4 ,it is moreover extremely variable4 ,dactylis glomerata1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fd74 ,stiff awn-point just below the two teeth of apex of pale4 ,rachilla dilated above4 ,pale #e-f mm4 long exclusive of point1 compressed and inflated1 ribbed and ciliate-bristly on keel1 the tip incurved4 ,caryopsis yellow-brown1 ellipsoid1 #b mm4 ,an important grass1 said to be adulterated with ,lolium1 ,fescues1 ,holcus1 ,molinia1 ,bromus1 c41 most of which should be readily detected4 ,the curved tip is an important distinctive character4 ,cynosurus and ,festuca arundinacea1 ,f4 ovina and ,f4 rubra present resemblances4 ,the seed is larger than that of ,poa4 ,f4 ovina and ,f4 rubra are smaller1 rounded dorsally1 and have no keel or cilia3 the nerves are less prominent and the rachilla smaller4 ,sesleria crulea1 ,ard4 ,palea distinctly toothed at the apex1 making it almost three-lobed and very characteristic2 with awn-point2 five ribs1 serrulate4 ,fruit grey-yellow1 obovate4 ,it is a mountain-and moor-grass of little value4 ,b4 8,seed0 awned--i4e4 the investing palea bears1 or tapers into1 a distinct bristle or hair at least as long as itself or nearly so4 7a7 ,awn not terminal4 7#a7 ,awn stout1 either obviously twisted and bent or 8kneed40 7i7 8,seed0 consisting of the glumes as well as pale investing the caryopsis#ac4 ,awn bent but not twisted2 glumes free below1 ribbed1 and with stiff short hairs on the keel4 ,awn sub-terminal1 shorter than the palea1 hooked4 ,holcus lanatus4 8,yorkshire ,fog10 of little use or importance1 except that it is frequently found as an impurity of other hairy grasses--e4g4 ,alopecurus4 ,it cannot easily be confounded with any other grass3 ,anthoxanthum and ,alopecurus1 ,arrhenatherum1 c4 present superficial resemblances only4 ,these glumed hairy 8seeds0 are uncommon and form an easily recognised type4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,holcus lanatus4 a1 8seed0--i4e4 complete spikelet--and ditto devoid of glumes1 nat4 size2 b1 spikelet1 and c the same devoid of glumes1 #g4 ,the 8seed0 is here composed of the keeled glumes enclosing two pairs of pale and their flowers 7c73 the upper of these is barren and has a hooked sub-terminal awn to its outer palea4 ,the lower awnless one is fertile4 ,nobbe4 ,holcus lanatus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the 8seed0 consists of the complete spikelet1 separated below the compressed and acute1 keeled glumes2 these have hairs on the keel1 and completely enclose the two flowers and their pale4 ,palea ribless1 white to grey1 shining1 obtuse1 that of the upper 7male7 flower with a sub-terminal short hook-like awn4 ,total length about #d-e mm4 ,caryopsis oblong-ovate1 grooved4 ,in its palea about #b-c mm4 long and with a few hairs at the base4 ,awn dorsal1 kneed1 longer than the palea4 ,holcus mollis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ff74 ,palea #be mm41 fruit #ca mm4 long2 glumes with stiff hairs or serrul on keel4 ,the seeds of ,holcus often fall from the glumes1 but may bring them away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,holcus mollis4 ,type of 8double seed10 which really consists of the entire spikelet 7a1 nat4 size2 c and d1 #h7 comprised of the two glumes enclosing two pairs of pale and their enclosures 7b1 nat4 size2 e1 about #h74 ,the lower pair of pale are devoid of awns and enclose the caryopsis3 the upper pair have stamens only1 and the outer palea has a dorsal kneed awn1 not twisted or hooked4 ,nobbe4 ,holcus is of little use4 ,the two-flowered spikelets and peculiar awns sufficiently distinguish it among the smaller forms4 ,it is said to occur as an adulterant in 8seed0 of ,alopecurus4 ,awn bent and twisted1 basal or nearly so2 glumes very hairy4 ,glumes golden brown3 one awn straight1 one 8kneed40 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,the grass which gives the scent to new-mown hay4 ,the 8seed0 is often impure1 containing a continental species ,a4 ,puelii and other hairy forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 a1 8seed0 and caryopsis1 nat4 size2 b1 the 8seed10 and c1 caryopsis1 about #g4 ,the 8seed0 consists of the inner hairy glumes1 each with a dorsal awn--one kneed--enclosing the pale and caryopsis4 ,the outer pair of unawned glumes has been removed4 ,nobbe4 ,anthoxanthum odoratum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fg74 ,the one-flowered spikelet has four hairy glumes1 the outer pair of which are unequal and awnless3 the 8seed0 consists of the inner pair of golden-brown hairy and dorsally awned glumes1 covering the thin1 membranous1 shining1 smooth1 blunt pale and the caryopsis1 to which the inner palea adheres4 ,total length1 without awns1 about #c-d mm4 ,palea #af mm4 ,caryopsis #ae mm41 brown1 shiny1 and easily separating4 ,one awn is short1 stiff and straight and inserted above the middle of its glume2 the other longer and sharply bent1 inserted about the middle4 ,hierochloe1 a rare northern grass1 also comes here4 ,glumes connate below1 hairy on the keels4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 ,a4 geniculatus4 ,a4 agrestis4 ,alopecurus is very characteristic1 and should be carefully examined as a type4 ,a4 pratensis is a valuable grass and said to be often adulterated with the undesirable ,a4 agrestis1 ,holcus1 c4 ,arrhenatherum and ,avena are easily distinguished by the basal hairs1 rachilla1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,alopecurus pratensis4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size1 and b1 c1 ditto1 #h2 d1 caryopsis1 #g4 ,the 8seed0 here consists of the two glumes1 connate below and hairy on the keel and ribs1 including the caryopsis enveloped in a single palea with a dorsal awn4 ,note remains of stigma in d4 ,nobbe4 ,alopecurus pratensis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fh74 ,inner palea absent4 ,outer palea #e mm41 caryopsis #c mm4 long1 often with remains of the stigma4 ,the greyish-brown spikelet of ,alopecurus easily falls as a whole1 included in the glumes2 the palea is loose and delicate4 ,glumes connate below1 silky-hairy on keel and ribs all the way up4 ,the palea has a bent dorsal awn1 about #e mm4 long4 ,alopecurus geniculatus1 ,l4 ,palea #b mm41 fruit #ac mm4 long4 ,the glumes hairy on ribs and keel as in ,a4 pratensis3 glumes more obtuse4 ,alopecurus agrestis1 ,l4 ,palea #f mm41 fruit #c mm4 long4 ,glumes only ciliate1 on ribs and keel1 except at the base where the hairs are longer4 ,keel slightly winged4 ,best distinguished from ,a4 pratensis by the glumes1 which are smoother1 broader above the middle1 harder and with a few basal hairs4 ,the species ,a4 fulvus1 ,a4 bulbosus1 and ,a4 alpinus are rare4 7ii7 8,seed0 consisting of the pale investing the caryopsis1 freed from the glumes4 99 ,palea at least #ad or #ae mm4 long3 caryopsis #e-g mm4 ,oat type4 ,avena fatua4 ,a4 pratensis4 ,avena fatua1 ,l4 ,palea parchment-like1 lanceolate-terete1 acuminate and bifid at the apex1 rounded on the back and with yellow hairs on the lower part4 #ae #c mm4 ,awn brown1 twisted and bent1 arising from the middle1 about #cj mm4 long4 ,caryopsis #g mm4 long1 hairy at the top and distinctly grooved4 ,rachilla with fine bristles4 ,avena pratensis1 ,l4 ,palea very similar to ,a4 fatua1 apex #b--d-toothed or bifid1 rachilla with stiffer hairs4 ,caryopsis about #e mm4 long4 ,avena pubescens1 ,huds4 is a variety of ,a4 pratensis found on dry calcareous soils4 ,the caryopsis is very narrow1 and the rachilla long and feathered with hairs4 8,seed0 shorter than ,a4 pratensis1 #aj-ac mm41 and darker in colour4 ,a4 fatua is an excellent type of the grasses with dorsal twisted and bent awns1 and easily examined on account of its size4 ,the student will find difficulties with other species of ,avena and ,arrhenatherum4 ,harz says the stiff hairs of ,avena bring about the formation of intestinal concretions 7phytobezoars7 and are therefore dangerous to domestic animals4 9999 ,palea not more than #g-aj mm4 long4 ,caryopsis #d-e mm4 long4 ,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #dg74 ,pale papery1 ribbed4 ,awn #ac-ae mm41 twisted below2 pale1 with a tuft of hairs below and a ciliate keel1 investing the fruit3 the whole being cylindrical1 #h-aj mm4 #ae4 ,caryopsis #d-e mm4 #ab1 fusiform1 pubescent4 ,rachilla hairy4 ,the distinctive difference between ,avena and ,arrhenatherum is in the spikelets as a whole4 ,the latter has the lower flower of each spikelet male only4 ,samples contain the 8double seeds10 and the awn of the upper fertile portion is short 7see ,fig4 #fi74 ,caryopsis not more than #c mm4 long4 ,a tuft of hairs on rachilla and base4 ,avena flavescens4 ,aira flexuosa1 distinguished by its nearly basal awn1 harder texture and darker colour of pale1 and ,dactylis--awnless and with curved long drawn-out apex--are found as impurities in foreign 8seed40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,avena flavescens4 c1 8seed10 nat4 size2 a and b1 ditto1 about #g4 ,the dorsal twisted and kneed awn is very characteristic4 ,note also the hairy rachilla4 ,the palea is bifid above--not visible in the lateral view4 ,nobbe4 ,avena flavescens1 ,l4 7,fig4 #fi74 ,yellow4 ,palea about #e mm4 long1 five-ribbed1 bifid at the apex into two long slender teeth1 closely investing the brownish caryopsis1 and with a sub-dorsal awn #aj mm4 long with little or no twist1 and hairy at the base4 ,rachilla flattened and with white hairs4 ,caryopsis not much grooved1 fusiform1 #b-c mm4 long1 glumes unequal1 somewhat keeled and rough4 7#b7 ,awn dorsal or basal1 fine and hair-like1 and little or not at all twisted or kneed4 8,seed0 small4 99 ,a pencil of silky hairs on base or rachilla4 ,palea bifid at the tip4 ,basal hairs longer than palea1 and obscuring the awn4 ,calamagrostis ,epigeios4 ,of little importance4 ,digraphis has no awn4 ,calamagrostis ,epigeios1 ,roth4 ,palea about #c mm4 long with toothed apex and very thin caryopsis #a mm4 ,a conspicuous tuft of fine silky hairs1 longer than the palea at the base and on the rachilla4 ,awn slender1 dorsal1 about as long as the palea4 ,c4 stricta1 ,nutt4 and ,c4 strigosa1 ,hartm4 are rare4 ,basal hairs shorter than palea4 ,awn brown1 bearded in the middle1 thickened and white above4 ,aira canescens4 ,the student will find considerable difficulties in the various species of ,aira and ,agrostis1 owing to their small size and variability as regards awn and basal hair-tufts4 ,all these are weeds1 but some occur as adulterants4 ,aira canescens1 ,l4 8,seed0 7apart from the awn1 it is very like ,agrostis7 #ae-b mm41 with a very thin1 smooth1 keeled1 two-nerved palea1 bifid at its apex1 through which the yellow caryopsis shines4 ,awn slender1 basal1 dark-brown1 with oblique colourless hairs above the middle and with a slight swelling above4 ,the palea has a few hairs on its mid-rib below4 ,caryopsis about #a mm4 long4 ,this grass is somewhat rare in ,england4 ,the jointed basal awn1 with a minute hair-tuft above the middle1 is unique1 and readily distinguishes it when mixed with ,agrostis4 ,awn not bearded or thickened4 ,palea bifid at apex4 ,aira caryophyllea4 ,a4 prcox4 ,aira caryophyllea1 ,l4 8,seed0 #ad-af mm41 comma-shaped and dark-brown4 ,palea acute1 nerveless1 inrolled at edges and with a dorsal1 kneed1 very fine1 dark twisted awn twice as long as the palea3 the latter with two-toothed apex and a basal hair-tuft4 ,a common impurity in commercial seed4 ,aira prcox1 ,l4 is very similar1 and cannot be distinguished with certainty by the 8seed10 but has a shorter awn and no basal hairs4 ,apex of palea two-toothed4 ,palea jagged or toothed1 but not bifid4 ,aira flexuosa4 ,a4 cspitosa4 ,aira flexuosa1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gj74 ,palea #e mm4 long1 four-toothed at the apex1 and caryopsis #bf mm4 ,the fine basal awn waved or kneed1 about twice as long as the palea4 ,fruit with a groove4 ,rachilla hairy4 ,whole 8seed0 browner than ,avena flavescens 7see p4 #aeh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,aira flexuosa4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 c and d1 the same1 about #g2 b1 portion of fruiting panicle1 showing the flexuous rachis2 e1 the caryopsis1 nat4 size2 f1 ditto1 about #g4 ,note the basal hairs and twisted awn4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,an almost worthless grass1 on sandy soils1 but important as an impurity in ,avena flavescens 7see note1 p4 #aeh74 ,aira cspitosa1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dd74 ,the palea1 about #be mm4 long1 toothed above1 has a fine straight hair-like basal awn not longer than itself4 ,caryopsis #ac mm41 grooved4 ,rachilla distinctly hairy4 ,easily distinguished when mixed with ,poa nemoralis1 c4--e4g4 by the awn1 hairs on rachilla1 c4 ,it requires scrutiny in regard to ,agrostis1 which also has no awn or basal hairs4 9999 ,no basal tuft1 or merely a few short microscopic hairs below4 ,pale not bifid above4 ,agrostis canina4 ,a4 ,spica-venti4 ,a4 setacea4 ,agrostis canina1 ,l41 is somewhat larger than ,a4 alba4 ,palea 7only one present1 sometimes minute7 punctate1 #b mm41 with a fine dorsal awn a little longer than the palea4 ,caryopsis #ab mm4 ,rachilla obsolete4 ,the awn is usually absent from ,a4 alba and its varieties2 and when present is so small as to be almost negligible4 ,a4 canina is easily distinguished from ,poa by the rachilla in the latter1 and absence of awn4 ,aira has basal hairs1 c4 ,agrostis setacea1 ,curt41 has the awn basal and just projecting beyond the pointed glumes1 and the palea very minute1 with a few silky hairs below4 ,agrostis ,spica-venti1 ,l4 7,fig4 #di74 ,palea #bd mm4 long1 with infolded edges and punctate2 a minute rachilla at its base1 and a slender awn1 #h-i mm4 or more long1 inserted below the bifid tip4 ,caryopsis #ae mm4 ,a few silky hairs at the base of the palea4 7b7 ,awn terminal or slightly sub-terminal1 and straight1 or at least not twisted or 8kneed40 7#a7 ,pale so closely adherent to the fruit that the terminal awn appears to come from the latter ,barley type4 ,the three florets generally coherent4 ,awn at least twice the length of the grain4 ,hordeum sylvaticum4 ,h4 murinum4 ,hordeum sylvaticum1 ,huds4 ,palea scabrid1 ribbed above1 awn at least twice as long as the very narrow grain4 ,hordeum murinum1 ,l4 ,lower palea #i-aj mm4 long1 five-ribbed1 lanceolate and wrapped round and adhering to the fruit 7grain71 upper palea also ribbed4 ,the grain about #g-h mm4 #b #ab1 hardly grooved4 ,awn about #cj mm4 long1 serrulate4 ,rachilla slightly serrulate4 9999 ,awn not twice the length of the grain4 ,hordeum pratense4 ,h4 maritimum4 ,hordeum pratense1 ,huds4 ,spikelet with a reddish tinge2 awn almost smooth1 less than #bj mm4 long3 not twice the length of the smooth and obscurely nerved grain4 ,hordeum maritimum1 ,with41 similar to ,h4 pratense1 but softer and the awn somewhat longer4 ,the principal features of the ,hordeum-grain are the closely adherent pale and angular fruit1 the stiff awn appearing to come off from it as in ,barley4 ,the rachilla remains4 ,they are all weeds of no use in agriculture1 though ,h4 pratense is not uncommon in good pastures4 7#b7 ,palea investing the caryopsis1 often closely1 but not fused with it1 and its tip and awn quite free4 99 ,awn not strictly terminal but sub-terminal1 or arising from between two teeth or in a sinus at the apex of the palea4 ,caryopsis thin1 flattened and usually #f-aj mm4 long1 and the pale hairy4 ,palea inrolled1 terete-lanceolate-acuminate1 or linear-lanceolate 7barge-shaped74 ,apical teeth minute and pointed4 ,palea scaberulous or hairy1 awn from half to about its own length4 ,bromus erectus4 ,b4 asper4 ,bromus erectus1 ,huds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,bromus asper1 a barge-shaped 8seed0 with terminal awn1 nat4 size and about #e4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,stebler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum1 a barge-shaped 8seed0 with terminal awn1 natural size and about #e4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,stebler4 ,palea with #e-g scaberulous ribs1 but not hairy1 flat above1 incurved below1 so that the inner palea is clearly visible4 ,about #aj-ad mm4 long and narrowing somewhat suddenly into the smooth stiff awn1 shorter than itself4 ,indications of a tooth at each side of the base of the awn4 ,caryopsis somewhat flattened1 thin and long1 barge-shaped1 #h-aj #ae-b mm41 pointed at both ends1 brown1 hairy at the tip with the remains of the stigma4 8,seed0 often purplish4 ,rachilla long and slender4 ,must be carefully distinguished from ,brachypodium1 which has the palea less inrolled and a stouter rachilla4 ,bromus giganteus has a shorter and flatter 8seed0 and longer awn4 ,bromus asper1 ,murr4 7,fig4 #ga74 ,palea often reddish1 #e-g ribbed and usually roughly hairy1 mid-rib scaberulous1 about #ae mm4 long1 linear-lanceolate 7barge-shaped71 the tip more distinctly two-toothed and tapering more gradually into the smooth awn1 about its own length4 ,rachilla distinct4 ,otherwise resembling ,b4 erectus4 ,b4 giganteus has a shorter 8seed0 and longer awn4 ,palea scarcely hairy3 awn up to twice its length4 ,bromus sterilis4 ,b4 giganteus4 ,bromus sterilis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ej74 ,palea nearly smooth1 somewhat inrolled1 terete-lanceolate-acuminate1 tough1 red-brown1 #ab-ae mm4 long1 seven-ribbed1 with a long serrulate awn 7#bj-cj mm4 or more7 practically terminal4 ,ribs serrate4 ,caryopsis #i-aj mm4 long1 flattened1 thin4 ,rachilla distinct1 smooth1 much wrapped in1 widens upwards and is somewhat flattened4 ,the very slender and long 8seed0 and caryopsis distinguish this from all but ,b4 erectus1 which has a shorter awn4 ,perhaps the awn is truly terminal3 if so it should go with ,festuca ,myurus1 c4 7see p4 #aga74 ,the length varies greatly4 ,bromus giganteus1 ,l4 ,palea #g mm4 long and inrolled1 the base and rachilla bristly1 indistinctly #e-g nerved1 the tip bifid3 sub-terminal awn serrulate1 #ab-ae mm4 long4 ,caryopsis #de mm4 long1 flattened1 thin1 glabrous4 ,the caryopsis is shorter and more ovoid than in other ,bromes4 ,palea expanded above 7coracle-shaped71 awn from sinus between two blunt or triangular teeth4 ,bromus arvensis4 ,bromus arvensis1 var4 mollis1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gc74 ,palea oblong or obovate1 somewhat flattened above 7coracle-shaped71 distinctly #e-g ribbed1 #h-i mm4 long1 not hairy1 though the ribs may be ciliate4 ,awn smooth1 arising from the depression between two teeth or rounded projections4 ,caryopsis flattened and thin1 #f #ae mm42 apt to fall loose from the pale4 ,in the variety ,b4 secalinus the awn is usually shorter than the elliptical palea1 and originates in the sinus of a notch 7,fig4 #gd73 in ,b4 mollis from between two teeth1 and is as long as the obovate palea4 ,bromus maximus and ,b4 madritensis are both rare4 ,the broader nerved pale of ,b4 mollis and shorter1 fatter caryopsis1 as well as the longer awn distinguish it from ,b4 secalinus and ,b4 arvensis4 ,in the other ,bromes the palea is more inrolled and the 8seed0 more slender as a rule4 ,the rachilla is usually bent above into a slight kink4 ,the ,bromes are an extremely difficult group4 ,the awn is inserted between the two teeth of the palea or just below4 ,the palea smooth or ciliate on the nerves or roughly hairy4 ,the fruit is flattened in the antero-posterior plane1 and usually shines through the closely investing palea4 ,a rachilla is visible4 ,in ,brachypodium the caryopsis is less flattened1 and the apex tapers into the awn without teeth4 ,in ,lolium and ,agropyrum the caryopsis is still more wheat-like and grooved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,bromus arvensis1 var4 mollis4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 the same1 #c4 d1 caryopsis1 about #c4 ,the awn originates between two teeth of the strongly ribbed palea4 ,coracle-shaped type4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,bromus arvensis1 var4 secalinus4 a1 spikelet1 b and c1 8seed10 nat4 size2 d and e1 the same1 #f4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,all our ,bromes are weeds1 but some of them are important adulterants1 requiring careful examination4 ,b4 inermis is cultivated1 and is a valuable grass4 ,awn short or wanting4 ,pale strongly #e-g ribbed1 inner with a marked central rib1 closely adhering to caryopsis4 ,b4 ,schraderi is also said to be valuable4 ,caryopsis not thin and flattened1 corn-like1 #ce-e mm4 ,palea smooth1 inflated1 boat-like4 ,lolium temulentum4 ,a weed of cultivation1 said to be poisonous to cattle1 a possible explanation of which may be found in a fungus recently discovered as a very constant inhabitant of the tissues under the seed coats4 ,lolium temulentum1 ,l4 7,fig4 #dh74 ,palea ovate1 #f-ge #be mm41 papyraceous1 inflated1 smooth1 the tip dry and emarginate with a slender sub-terminal awn its own length or longer4 ,it tends to adhere to the fruit4 ,fruit #ce-e mm4 #be #ae1 somewhat depressed4 ,rachilla large1 cylindrical and smooth4 ,l4 perenne has no awn1 or the merest trace of one4 8,seed0 #aj-ab mm4 long4 ,boat-shaped4 ,palea yellow1 three-nerved1 margins papery4 ,rachilla flat1 see p4 #adc4 9999 ,awn terminal1 and with no evident teeth at its base4 ,palea not much inrolled1 ovate-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate1 and therefore boat-or barge-shaped4 ,very hairy4 ,brachypodium sylvaticum1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #gb74 ,palea ribbed and hirsute much like that of ,bromus asper1 but straw-coloured1 shorter 7#aj-ab mm471 linear-lanceolate1 more boat-shaped1 and tapering without teeth into the longer 7#aj-ac mm47 hairy awn4 ,caryopsis #g-h mm41 less flattened than in ,bromus1 with a shallow groove4 ,rachilla smooth4 ,b4 pinnatum 7p4 #aga7 has a much shorter awn1 and is nearly glabrous4 ,these grasses are weeds1 but are said to occur frequently as adulterants4 ,glabrous or nearly so4 ,palea five-nerved1 pubescent4 ,agropyrum caninum4 ,agropyrum repens is also often awned and may be described here 7see also p4 #aej74 ,agropyrum repens1 ,beauv4 7,fig4 #gf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,agropyrum caninum4 ,type of boat-shaped 8seed0 with sub-terminal awn4 a1 nat4 size2 b1 about #i1 but with awn cut short4 ,rachilla thicker above and hairy2 palea not toothed4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,agropyrum repens4 ,awned variety4 ,the awn is very short and sub-terminal3 the rachilla smooth4 a1 the 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 about #d-a_/b4 ,boat-shaped 8seed0 with rounded back4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,palea tough1 #aj-ab mm4 long1 ovate-lanceolate1 #c-e ribbed and smooth2 with a short 7#b-c mm47 or long 7#h mm47 terminal awn or a mere tooth4 ,rounded back4 ,fruit grey-brown1 ciliate above1 #e-f #ad #jg-ji mm41 depressed1 hardly grooved1 adhering to the palea4 ,rachilla smooth or not1 and narrowed below4 ,a noxious weed 7see p4 #aej7 and hence should be carefully excluded from 8seeds40 ,a4 caninum1 ,beauv41 has a longer 7#aj mm4 or more7 and rougher awn1 and is smaller 7about #h mm471 but otherwise very similar4 ,palea smooth except at the five-nerved apex4 ,rachilla thickened above1 and hairy 7,fig4 #ge74 ,elymus differs from ,agropyrum in its harder velvety palea1 no awn1 and its club-like velvety rachilla4 ,it is also larger altogether1 as a rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,brachypodium pinnatum4 ,type of boat-shaped 8seed0 with awn4 a1 nat4 size2 b and c1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,palea seven-ribbed1 smooth4 ,brachypodium pinnatum4 ,brachypodium pinnatum1 ,l41 is similar1 but the palea more open and boat-like and narrows more suddenly above into the smooth awn which is shorter than itself 7,fig4 #gg74 ,length #h-i mm4 ,the caryopsis is1 however1 much more slender than in ,agropyrum4 ,for distinction from ,b4 sylvaticum1 see above4 ,the inner palea is ciliate and more delicate than in ,agropyrum4 ,pale rolled round the 8seed0 which is terete and tapering gradually into a stiff awn4 ,awn longer than the palea4 ,festuca ,myurus4 ,see also ,festuca ovina1 ,cynosurus1 c41 p4 #adg1 and ,arundo4 ,festuca ,myurus1 ,l4 7,fig4 #hj74 8,seed0 #e-g mm4 without the long 7#aj mm47 awn1 tapering and slender 7like ,nardus71 grey or brown4 ,finely mamillate upwards4 ,rachilla small4 ,awn shorter than palea4 ,festuca ovina 7var4 rubra74 ,nardus stricta4 ,aira flexuosa1 ,molinia and other moor-grasses occur with these narrow-leafed ,fescues1 but are easily distinguished3 ,molinia by having no awn and being shorter and stouter1 and ,aira flexuosa by the dorsal awn and basal hairs4 ,festuca rubra1 ,l4 7,fig4 #gh74 8,seed0 pale brown with rosy tinge1 #c-e mm4 long without the awn1 smooth1 or slightly hairy upwards4 ,caryopsis #b-ce mm41 compressed1 with a shallow broad flat furrow on the ventral face and a median long 8hilum40 ,rachilla cylindrical1 smooth1 dilated above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,festuca ovina1 var4 rubra4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 about #g4 ,nobbe4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,festuca ovina1 var4 heterophylla4 a1 spikelet1 about #c-a_/b2 b1 8seed10 and c1 caryopsis1 nat4 size2 d and e1 8seed10 and f1 caryopsis1 #g4 ,nobbe4 ,the variety ,f4 heterophylla has narrower and longer 8seeds10 and a hispid rachilla4 ,palea #e-f mm43 caryopsis #ce-de mm4 7,fig4 #gi74 ,perhaps ,bromus sterilis should also come here 7see p4 #afe74 ,with regard to these ,fescues the student may note that ,f4 ovina1 var4 tenuifolia1 has the smallest 7#d-e mm47 and most ovoid 8seeds10 usually golden brown in colour4 ,f4 rubra is darker and larger 7#e-f mm471 as is also ,f4 duriuscula 7#f-g mm473 the latter is also narrower1 with toothed palea1 tapering suddenly at the base and more awned4 ,f4 heterophylla is much like ,f4 duriuscula1 but the palea less toothed1 and it tapers gradually at the base4 ,the whole group is very difficult1 and needs attention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,festuca ,myurus4 a1 8seed10 nat4 size2 b and c1 ditto1 about #f4 ,compare ,fig4 #ej4 ,nobbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,nardus stricta4 ,type of cylindrical 8seed0 with a terminal stiff awn1 here serrulate2 c1 8seed10 nat4 size2 a and b1 ditto1 #h4 ,compare ,fig4 #ej4 ,nobbe4 ,nardus stricta1 ,l4 7,fig4 #ha74 ,outer palea tough and fused1 #aj-ab mm4 long1 narrow1 lanceolate and tapering gradually into the stiff1 serrulate1 terminal awn shorter than itself4 ,inner palea minutely toothed at the apex and without awn1 loosely enclosing the red-brownish yellow to bluish grey fruit which has no groove4 8,seed0 #d-f mm4 #jf #je 7without the awn71 more or less triangular in section and serrulate on angles above4 ,,bibliography4 ,,bentham ,,and ,,hooker1 ,british ,flora1 ,london1 #ahif4 ,,bonnier and ,,layens1 ,nouvelle ,flore de ,france1 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,,bruns1 ,der ,grasembryo in ,flora1 #ahib1 vol4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,burchard1 ,die ,unkrautsamen der ,klee-und ,grasarten1 ,berlin1 #aijj4 ,,darwin1 ,power of ,movement in ,plants1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,,duval ,,jouve1 in ,mmoires de l',acad4 des ,sciences de ,montpellier1 #ahga1 vol4 ,,vii4 ,,fream1 ,elements of ,agriculture1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,,grob1 in ,bibliotheca ,botanica1 ,h4 #cf1 #ahif4 ,,gu,,rin1 ,recherches sur le dveloppement du ,tgument c4 des ,gramines in ,ann4 d4 ,sc4 ,nat4 #ahii4 ,g,,ntz1 ,unters4 4 d4 anatomische ,structur d4 ,grasbltter1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,,hackel1 in ,engler's ,natrliche ,pflanzenfamilien1 ,,ii4 ,th4 #b ,abth4 #ahhg4 ,,harz1 ,landwirthschaftliche ,samenkunde1 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 ,,holzner1 ,beitr4 zur ,kenntn4 d4 ,gerste1 ,munich1 #ahhh4 ,index ,kewensis1 ,london1 #ahic-ie4 ,,jackson1 ,a ,glossary of ,botanic ,terms1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,kienitz-,,gerloff1 ,botanik fr ,landwirte1 ,berlin1 #ahhf4 ,,nobbe1 ,handbuch der ,samenkunde1 ,berlin1 #ahgf4 ,,parnell1 ,british ,grasses1 ,london1 #ahde4 ,p,e-,,laby1 in ,annales des ,sc4 ,naturelles1 #ahih1 vol4 ,,viii4 ,,percival1 ,agricultural ,botany1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,pfitzer1 in ,pringsh4 ,jahrb4 f4 wiss4 ,bot4 ,b4 ,,vii4 ,,schmid1 in ,bot4 ,centralbl4 #ahih1 ,b4 ,,lxxvi4 ,,schwarz1 ,forstliche ,botanik1 ,berlin1 #ahib4 ,,schwendener1 in ,sitzungsber4 d4 ,akad4 ,berlin1 #ahhi and #ahij4 ,,settegast1 ,die landwirthschaftl4 ,smereien u4 d4 ,samenbau1 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,,sinclair1 ,hortus gramineus ,woburnensis1 ,london1 #ahbd4 ,,sowerby1 ,the ,grasses of ,great ,britain1 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,,stebler and ,,schroeter1 ,the ,best ,forage ,plants1 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,,sutton1 ,permanent and ,temporary ,pastures1 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,,trimen1 ,article ,grasses1 in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith ed4 ,,van ,,tieghem1 ,morphol4 de l'embryon c4 chez les ,gramines in ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 #ahig4 ,,vesque1 ,trait de ,botanique ,agricole c4 #ahhe4 ,,warming1 ,lehrb4 d4 ,oekologischen ,pflanzengeogr4 ,berlin1 #ahif4 ,,wittmack1 ,gras- und ,kleesamen1 ,berlin1 #ahgc4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,some foreign grasses 7,andropogon1 ,panicum1 c47 have solid stems1 and in ,psamma and some others the lower parts may be solid4 ,footnote #b3 ,leaf-stalks occur in tropical ,bamboos4 ,footnote #c3 ,tropical ,bamboos branch in the upper parts and are woody4 ,dinochloa and ,olyra are climbing grasses4 ,footnote #d3 ,except1 of course1 in cases of virgin ground rapidly occupied by the seedlings4 ,footnote #e3 ,the most marked exceptions are the lemon-scented grasses 7especially ,andropogon7 of ,india and ,ceylon4 ,footnote #f3 ,the pale flanking lines seen in many grasses on each side of the mid-rib are the series of motor-cells referred to on p4 #be4 ,footnote #g3 ,they may have short microscopic asperities1 but there are no distinct long hairs4 ,footnote #h3 ,very like a ,poa when opened out1 but the leaves are scabrid at the sheaths4 ,footnote #i3 ,strictly speaking a spike is an axis bearing sessile flowers--not sessile spikelets3 in ,grasses1 however1 the conventional abbreviated term is sanctioned by long usage4 ,the same applies to the panicle1 c4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see note1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see note1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #ab3 ,this term does not necessarily imply any botanical relationship with the true ,millets 7,panicum71 but merely that the caryopsis is short and broad as in these grasses4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in cases where the 8seed0 has fallen from the glumes the sample will usually show some of the latter lying loose4 ,,index1 ,,glossary ,,and ,,list ,,of ,,synonyms4 ,figures in bold type 7#be7 refer to pages whereon the species or subject is more particularly dealt with2 figures in italics 7#be7 refer to pages containing illustrations4 ,achene1 #abc ,acicular--bristle-like ,acuminate--tapering to a long point1 #ba1 #aci1 #adf1 #adg ,acute--simply pointed1 #ai1 #ba ,adaptations1 #bj1 #bd1 #cf1 #cg1 #gj1 #abd1 #abe1 #acb ,adventitious roots1 #h1 #aca ,agriculture1 #b1 #c ,agropyrum--,wheat-grass1 #aa1 #ad1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #cf1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eg1 #fi1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #add1 #aej1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga2 ,a4 caninum1 #g1 #ba1 #bh1 #cd1 #eg1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajg1 #aej1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj2 ,a4 junceum--var4 of ,a4 repens1 #ba1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #eg1 #ff1 #ha1 #ajb1 #ajg2 ,a4 repens1 #g1 #cj1 #eg1 #hj1 #ha1 #ic1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #adi1 #aej1 #afi1 #agj ,agrostis--,bent-grass1 #g1 #ae1 #bb1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #eg1 #hb1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aab1 #aah1 #abe1 #acf1 #acg1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa2 ,a4 alba1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #bh1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ea1 #eb1 #fi1 #ib1 #ajd1 #add1 #ade1 #afb2 ,a4 canina1 #g1 #aa1 #bj1 #bh1 #bi1 #cg1 #ea1 #eb1 #ajd1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 setacea1 #ca1 #ajd1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 ,spica-venti1 #ca1 #ajd1 #acj1 #afa1 #afb2 ,a4 stolonifera--var4 of ,a4 alba1 #ad1 #ea1 #eb1 #ajd1 #ade2 ,a4 vulgaris--var4 of ,a4 alba1 #bi1 #ea1 #eb1 #ff1 #ajd1 #ade ,aira--,hair-grass1 #f1 #bj1 #ba1 #cf1 #dh1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #abe1 #abg1 #ach1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aei1 #afb2 ,a4 alpina--var4 of ,a4 cspitosa2 ,a4 canescens1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #cb1 #dg1 #ff1 #gh1 #ia1 #aab1 #aei2 ,a4 caryophyllea1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #bi1 #cb1 #df1 #aah1 #afj2 ,a4 cspitosa1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #bh1 #cc1 #cg1 #da1 #dg1 #dh1 #fc1 #fe1 #fh1 #fi1 #gg1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aag1 #abh1 #afj1 #afa2 ,a4 flexuosa1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1 #df1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi1 #aah1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #aga2 ,a4 montana--var4 of ,a4 flexuosa2 ,a4 setacea--var4 of ,a4 flexuosa2 ,a4 prcox1 #h1 #aj1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #dg1 #ia1 #aab1 #afj ,air-spaces1 #ba1 #ci1 #dj1 #fb ,aleurone layer1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc ,alopecurus1 #be1 #ec1 #ee1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #aja1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aai1 #abd1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee2 ,a4 alpinus1 #ca1 #aja1 #aef2 ,a4 agrestis1 #g1 #ah1 #cj1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef2 ,a4 bulbosus--var4 of ,a4 geniculatus1 #h1 #i1 #aef2 ,a4 fulvus--var4 of ,a4 geniculatus1 #aef2 ,a4 geniculatus1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #bh1 #bi1 #cc1 #dj1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef2 ,a4 pratensis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bh1 #cb1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ee1 #hb1 #aja1 #aee1 #aef ,alpine ,foxtail--,alopecurus alpinus ,alpine ,meadow-grass--,poa alpina ,alpine ,poa--,poa alpina ,alps1 #cf1 #cg ,ammophila--,psamma2 ,a4 arundinacea--,psamma arenaria ,amphicarpum1 #abj ,anatomy1 #fb-ga1 #ie ,andropogon1 #d1 #bg ,andropogone1 #abb ,animal-distribution of seeds1 #abe ,animals killed by grasses1 #abg ,annual ,beard-grass--,polypogon monspeliensis ,annual grasses1 #aj1 #aa1 #cg1 #dc1 #ei1 #aad ,annual ,meadow-grass--,poa annua ,anther1 #ic1 #id1 #aai ,anthesis--the period of opening of the flower1 #if ,anthoxanthum--,vernal grass1 #aa1 #ac1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #cf1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #hc1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #id1 #ig1 #aaj1 #aai1 #abd1 #acf1 #aeb1 #aed2 ,a4 odoratum1 #g1 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #eg1 #gf1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aed2 ,a4 ,puelii1 #fg1 #aed ,anti-ligular peg1 #da ,apera--,agrostis2 ,a4 ,spica-venti--,agrostis ,spica-venti ,apex of leaf1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb ,apogamy1 #acd ,appressed hairs1 #fe ,aquatic grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #ci1 #fb1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac ,arctic species1 #cg ,aristida1 #cf2 ,a4 hygrometrica1 #abg ,arrhenatherum--,false ,oat1 #f1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #bf1 #cb1 #ee1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa1 #ff1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aai1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aeg2 ,a4 avenaceum1 #f1 #h1 #be1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #ef1 #ff1 #gg1 #ic1 #ajf1 #abi1 #aeg ,arundo--,reed1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #cg1 #dj1 #fh1 #fi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #aci1 #adf1 #aga2 ,a4 ,donax1 #ba1 #ge2 ,a4 ,phragmites1 #b1 #f1 #bi1 #cb1 #dj1 #ea1 #ee1 #ff1 #ge1 #ach ,asperities--minute stiff hairs giving roughness to the touch1 #bd1 #de1 #fe1 #ff1 #ge1 #gg1 #abg ,auricles--ear-like projections at base of leaf-blade1 #bb1 #acc ,avena1 #e1 #ae1 #ba1 #bc1 #dg1 #ed1 #ef1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abe1 #abg1 #ach1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aeh2 ,a4 alpina--var4 of ,a4 pratensis2 ,a4 elatior--,arrhenatherum avenaceum2 ,a4 fatua1 #bh1 #gg1 #aag1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,a4 flavescens1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ah1 #bf1 #bh1 #ef1 #fj1 #fa1 #ha1 #aag1 #aeh1 #afa2 ,a4 pratensis1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #be1 #bg1 #dg1 #ef1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff1 #ha1 #aag1 #aef1 #aeg2 ,a4 pubescens--var4 of ,a4 pratensis1 #af1 #bf1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #ef1 #fa1 #fh1 #aeg2 ,a4 strigosa--var4 of ,a4 fatua ,avene1 #abb ,awn1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ii-aah1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #adb1 #add1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 #agc ,awned grasses1 #ib1 #ii-aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aea-agd ,awned ,nit-grass--,gastridium lendigerum ,awnless ,brome--,bromus inermis ,awnless grasses1 #ic1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #ach-aea ,awn-point1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abc1 #aca1 #aej ,ballast plants1 #cj ,bamboos1 #a1 #e1 #f1 #cg1 #ch1 #if1 #ig1 #abc ,bambusa1 #if ,barge-shaped 8seeds10 #abh1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh ,barley--,hordeum1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc1 #afc ,barley-type of 8seed10 #ach1 #afb ,barren ,brome--,bromus sterilis ,barren flowers1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj ,basal-awn1 #ib1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aei ,basal hair-tufts1 #ach1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa ,base of leaf1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb ,bast-sclerenchyma1 #gj ,bearded ,darnel--,lolium temulentum ,bearded ,wheat-grass--,agropyrum caninum ,beard-grass--,polypogon ,bent-grass--,agrostis ,bent-grass--,agrostis canina ,bermuda grass--,cynodon ,dactylon ,biennial grasses1 #aj1 #dc ,bifid--cleft into two teeth1 #ie ,bitter-tasting grasses1 #eh1 #ei ,blade of leaf1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf ,blue ,moor-grass--,sesleria crulea ,boat-shaped 8seeds10 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj ,bhmer's ,phleum--,phleum ,bhmeri ,brachypodium--,false ,brome1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #fj1 #gj1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #afe1 #afg2 ,b4 pinnatum1 #g1 #cd1 #fa1 #gh1 #ic1 #ajg1 #acj1 #afh1 #agj1 #aga2 ,b4 sylvaticum1 #g1 #bf1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #fj1 #fa1 #gf1 #gh1 #ib1 #ajg1 #abh1 #afd1 #afh1 #aga ,bracteoles1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,bracts1 #id1 #ig ,branching1 #f1 #aa ,branching of inflorescence1 #hc ,bristle-grass--,setaria ,bristle-leafed ,bent-grass--,agrostis setacea ,bristle-like leaves1 #af1 #ba1 #bd1 #de ,bristle ,oat--,avena strigosa ,bristles1 #fg1 #abe1 #acj ,briza--,quaking-grass1 #ad1 #af1 #bb1 #be1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajd1 #acf2 ,b4 media1 #h1 #aa1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #de1 #ff1 #gg1 #aab1 #adb2 ,b4 minor1 #aj1 #ag1 #de1 #aab1 #adb ,brome--,bromus1 #aff1 #afg ,bromus--,brome-grass1 #f1 #aj1 #ad1 #ag1 #bf1 #dd1 #ea1 #ei1 #fa1 #gf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ie1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aag1 #add1 #aea1 #afh2 ,b4 ,alopecurus1 #ie2 ,b4 arvensis1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #gf1 #ajh1 #aae1 #abh1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 asper1 #f1 #aa1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #dc1 #dd1 #ei1 #gf1 #aae1 #aaf1 #afd1 #afe1 #afh2 ,b4 commutatus--,b4 racemosus2 ,b4 diandrus--,b4 madritensis2 ,b4 erectus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #dc1 #ea1 #gj1 #ajj1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff2 ,b4 giganteus1 #f1 #aa1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #dc1 #dd1 #ea1 #gf1 #hb1 #aae1 #aaf1 #afe1 #aff2 ,b4 inermis1 #ac1 #bb1 #ca1 #dc1 #afg2 ,b4 madritensis1 #ca1 #aaf1 #aff2 ,b4 maximus1 #ca1 #aaf1 #aff2 ,b4 mollis--var4 of ,b4 arvensis1 #h1 #bf1 #dc1 #dd1 #ajh1 #aae1 #adc1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 multiflorus--var4 of ,b4 arvensis2 ,b4 racemosus--var4 of ,b4 arvensis2 ,b4 ,schraderi1 #afg2 ,b4 secalinus--var4 of ,b4 arvensis1 #aae1 #aff1 #afg2 ,b4 sterilis1 #g1 #aa1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #gf1 #aaf1 #aca1 #afe1 #agb ,brown ,bent--,agrostis canina ,buds1 #ab ,bulbous ,meadow-grass--,poa bulbosa ,bulbous ,poa--,poa bulbosa ,bulbs1 #h1 #cg1 #aad ,calamagrostis--,small reed1 #bi1 #dj1 #hh1 #hi1 #abe1 #ach2 ,c4 ,epigeios1 #ca1 #gj1 #gh1 #ajc1 #aei2 ,c4 lanceolata1 #ca1 #ff1 #ajc1 #ach2 ,c4 strigosa1 #ajc1 #aei2 ,c4 stricta1 #ca1 #ajc1 #aei ,canary grass--,phalaris canariensis ,carpel1 #ig1 #aba ,caryopsis--the true fruit of the grass1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abg1 #abh1 #acb1 #acd1 #ace ,catabrosa--,whorl-grass1 #ad1 #ba1 #bc1 #bi1 #dj1 #fc1 #hd1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aah1 #adf2 ,c4 aquatica1 #ab1 #be1 #ca1 #gc1 #aab1 #adb ,cat's-tail grass--,phleum ,cat's-tail type of inflorescence1 #ajj ,cells1 #fe ,cereals1 #a ,chaff1 #he1 #acd ,chalk-fleeing1 #ce ,chalk species1 #bg1 #cb1 #ce ,chamagrostis--,mibora ,chlorophyll1 #b1 #fb1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #ie ,cinna1 #ig ,circular shoot sections1 #af1 #dc ,classification according to anatomical characters of leaf1 #gb-hb ,classification according to floral characters1 #ig1 #ii-aah ,classification according to characters of seed1 #ace-agd ,classification according to vegetative characters1 #ci-fa ,classification of seedlings1 #acc ,clay species1 #cb ,cleistogamous--when pollination and fertilisation are completed in flowers which do not open1 #abj ,climbing grasses1 #f ,close panicle--an inflorescence in which the primary branches do not diverge widely from the rachis1 #aaj ,cock's-foot--,dactylis glomerata1 #hc ,cockspur ,panicum--,panicum ,crus-galli ,collar1 #eh1 #abc ,coloured nodes1 #ae ,coloured sheath1 #ah ,coma1 #abe ,common ,cat's-tail--,phleum pratense ,common ,dog's-tail--,cynosurus cristatus ,common ,foxtail--,alopecurus pratensis ,common ,mat-grass--,nardus stricta ,common ,quaking-grass--,briza media ,common ,reed--,arundo ,phragmites ,compact ,brome--,bromus madritensis ,composites1 #b1 #abe ,compressed shoots1 #ae1 #af1 #dj1 #da1 #dh1 #ec ,conduplicate--folded1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #fc ,convolute--inrolled1 #ae1 #af1 #fc ,copses1 grasses of1 #bh1 #cd ,coracle-shaped 8seeds10 #abh1 #acg1 #aff1 #afg ,cord-grass--,spartina stricta ,coriaceous--leathery1 #ba ,corn1 #a ,corn-field species1 #bh ,corn-type of fruit1 #acf1 #ach1 #afg ,corynephorus canescens--,aira canescens ,cotton-grass--,eriophorum ,couch-grass--,agropyrum repens4 ,see also ,twitch1 #aej ,creeping ,fescue--,festuca rubra ,creeping grasses1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,creeping grass-seeds1 #abg ,creeping ,soft-grass--,holcus lanatus--,holcus mollis ,creeping stem1 #ab ,crested ,dog's-tail--,cynosurus cristatus ,crested ,kleria--,kleria cristata ,cross-breeds1 #abj ,cross-fertilisation1 #aai1 #abj ,crypsis1 #abc ,culms1 #ad1 #cg1 #hc ,curved ,lepturus--,lepturus incurvatus ,cuspidate--ending suddenly in a short point1 #ace ,cut-grass--,leersia ,cuticle1 #fh1 #gj ,cutinized1 cuticularized--impregnated with corky substance1 #fd ,cylindrical inflorescence1 #ij ,cylindrical 8seed10 #agc ,cynodon--,dog's-tooth grass1 #ad1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #hg1 #ij1 #aje2 ,c4 ,dactylon1 #ae1 #ca1 #gb1 #acg ,cynosurus--,dog's-tail1 #ad1 #ah1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ha1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #ajc1 #acj1 #adh1 #aea1 #aga2 ,c4 cristatus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #bc1 #bh1 #cb1 #ej1 #hj1 #ajh1 #adg1 #adh2 ,c4 echinatus1 #ajj1 #ajh ,dactylis--,cock's-foot1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #bf1 #da1 #fc1 #hc1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc1 #adh1 #aeh2 ,d4 glomerata1 #g1 #af1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #da1 #fe1 #ff1 #fi1 #gd1 #aji1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea ,darnel--,lolium perenne--,lolium temulentum ,decumbent ,heath-grass--,triodia decumbens ,dehiscent fruits1 #abc ,depauperated--starved and consequently dwarfed1 #aji ,deschampsia cspitosa--,aira cspitosa ,deschampsia flexuosa--,aira flexuosa ,digitaria--,panicum ,digitate--spread out like fingers1 #ae ,digraphis--,reed-grass1 #f1 #aa1 #ac1 #bf1 #dj1 #da1 #ea1 #ee1 #fi1 #gc1 #ge1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajc1 #aca1 #aci1 #adf1 #aei2 ,d4 arundinacea1 #f1 #af1 #bc1 #bi1 #cb1 #ed1 #fd1 #ge1 #ajc1 #aci1 #aej ,dimensions of grasses1 #f ,dinochloa1 #f ,dicious1 unisexual1 the male and female flowers being on separate plants1 #aai ,disarticulation of fruits1 #abd ,dissemination1 #abe1 #abg ,distichous--in two ranks on the axis1 #ajf ,distribution of grasses1 #b1 #cg1 #ch ,distribution of seeds1 #abd-abg ,distribution of sexes1 #aai ,ditches1 grasses of1 #bh1 #bi ,dog's-tooth grass--,cynodon ,dactylon ,dorsal awn1 #ib1 #aab1 #aaf1 #acj1 #aei ,double seed--grass 8seed0 where the remains of a second flower come away with the first1 #aeb1 #aec ,downs1 grasses of1 #bi ,downy ,oat--,avena pubescens ,dry leaves1 #ba ,dry situations1 #bd1 #bf1 #bi ,dry soils1 #bi1 #cb ,duration1 #aj ,dwarfed species1 #f ,early ,hair-grass--,aira prcox ,ears1 #ai1 #bb1 #eg1 #ei ,echinochloa--,panicum ,effects of grasses on soil1 #ce1 #cf ,egg-cell1 #aba ,eleusine1 #abc ,elliptical shoot-section1 #af1 #dd ,elymus--,lyme-grass1 #f1 #ac1 #ad1 #ba1 #bb1 #be1 #cf1 #dh1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #fi1 #gi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajb1 #agj2 ,e4 arenarius1 #f1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #ff1 #fg1 #ajh1 #adi1 #aej ,embryo1 #aba1 #aca1 #acc ,embryo-sac1 #aba ,embryonic bud--plumule1 #abc ,embryonic roots1 #abc1 #acc ,endosperm1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc ,energy stored in leaves1 #b1 #c ,entire--not cut3 with unbroken outline1 #ai ,entire sheath1 #ag ,entire-sheathed grasses1 #ag1 #ci1 #aac1 #aae ,epidermis1 #be1 #cf1 #fb-fg1 #gj1 #gf1 #abb ,equitant--one folded leaf straddling over another1 #ci1 #da ,eriophorum1 #c ,extra-vaginal shoots1 #ab ,false ,oat--,arrhenatherum avenaceum ,female flowers1 #hi ,fertile flowers1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij ,fertilisation--the fusion of the nucleus of the pollen-tube with that of the egg-cell1 #aba ,fescue--,festuca1 #aae1 #acj1 #acg1 #add1 #adh1 #aea1 #agb ,festuca--,fescue1 #b1 #f1 #g1 #ae1 #ba1 #be1 #cf1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abd1 #add1 #adg2 ,f4 arundinacea--var4 of ,f4 elatior1 #add1 #aea2 ,f4 calamaria--,f4 sylvatica2 ,f4 duriuscula--var4 of ,f4 ovina1 #df1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #agb1 #agc2 ,f4 elatior1 #f1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #dd1 #ej1 #ea1 #fc1 #fd1 #hb1 #hd1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abh1 #aca1 #adc1 #add2 ,f4 gigantea--,bromus giganteus2 ,f4 heterophylla--var4 of ,f4 ovina1 #ac1 #df1 #fi1 #ga1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #agb1 #agc2 ,f4 uniglumis1 #ca1 #ib1 #aaa2 ,f4 loliacea--var4 of ,f4 elatior1 #ij1 #ajh2 ,f4 ,myurus1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #bh1 #df1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ii1 #aaa1 #aae1 #acj1 #aff1 #aga1 #agc2 ,f4 ovina1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #de1 #df1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #gi1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #aaf1 #acd1 #adg1 #aea1 #aga1 #agb2 ,f4 pratensis--var4 of ,f4 elatior1 #g1 #ai1 #bd1 #di1 #fc1 #fd1 #hd1 #aaa1 #adc1 #add2 ,f4 procumbens--,poa procumbens2 ,f4 rigida--,poa rigida2 ,f4 rubra1 var4 of ,f4 ovina1 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bd1 #cc1 #df1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj1 #adg1 #aea1 #aga1 #agb2 ,f4 sabulicola--,f4 rubra1 #df2 ,f4 sciuroides--var4 of ,f4 ,myurus1 #be1 #bf1 #df2 ,f4 sylvatica1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bh1 #cd1 #aaf1 #aca1 #adg2 ,f4 tenuifolia--var4 of ,f4 ovina1 #df1 #adh1 #agb2 ,f4 vivipara--var4 of ,f4 ovina ,festuce1 #abb ,fibichia umbellata--,cynodon ,dactylon ,fibrous roots1 #h ,fibrous ,twitch--,agropyrum caninum ,field ,brome--,bromus arvensis ,filament1 #id ,fine ,bent--,agrostis vulgaris ,finger-grass--,panicum glabrum ,fiorin--,agrostis alba ,firing1 #ce1 #ch ,flanking lines1 #da1 #ec1 #fc1 #gc1 #gd ,flat leaves1 #bj1 #dg1 #gg ,flat shoots1 #ae1 #af1 #bj ,flattened ,meadow-grass--,poa compressa ,flavour1 #bg ,fleshy fruits1 #abc ,floating leaves1 #ci ,floating ,foxtail--,alopecurus geniculatus ,floating ,meadow-grass--,glyceria fluitans ,floating ,sweet-grass--,glyceria fluitans ,floral diagram1 #id1 #ie1 #if ,flower1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ii1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aab ,flowering glume--the outer palea ,flowering stem1 #hc1 #hd ,flying ,bent--,molinia crulea ,folded leaves1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #bd1 #be1 #fc1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd ,foreign grasses1 #cj ,forestry1 #c ,forest species1 #bg1 #bh1 #cc ,form of lamina1 #ai1 #bj ,foxtail grass--,alopecurus ,foxtail type of inflorescence1 #i1 #hh1 #ajj ,fructification--fruiting1 #abj ,fruit1 #aai1 #abc1 #abe1 #abf1 #abi1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,fruit-coats1 #aba1 #abb ,functions of awns1 #ie1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg ,functions of ears1 #ai ,functions of leaves1 #b ,functions of ligule1 #ah1 #ai ,functions of lodicules1 #if ,functions of spear1 #acb ,furrows1 #bc1 #gh ,gastridium--,nit-grass1 #ij1 #ia1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aje2 ,g4 lendigerum1 #ca ,germination1 #abc1 #aca-acc ,germination of pollen-grain1 #abj1 #aba ,giant ,fescue--,festuca gigantea ,girders--supporting bands of sclerenchyma running in the principal ribs and ridges1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd-hj ,glabrous--devoid of hairs1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #de1 #dh1 #hj1 #afh ,glaucous--pale sea-green1 usually due to a waxy bloom1 #bb ,glume1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ii-aah1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #acj1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef ,glyceria--,sweet-grass1 #f1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #cg1 #dj1 #ed1 #fg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adf1 #adh2 ,g4 aquatica1 #f1 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #be1 #bf1 #bh1 #ci #ed1 #fi1 #gc1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #adb1 #ade2 ,g4 distans--,poa distans2 ,g4 fluitans1 #f1 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #ci1 #dj1 #ed1 #fd1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #aaa1 #aac1 #abh1 #ade2 ,g4 maritima--,poa maritima2 ,g4 procumbens--,poa procumbens2 ,g4 rigida--,poa rigida ,grain1 #hf1 #ie1 #aba1 #abb1 #abg1 #ace ,graminace1 characters1 #c1 #cf1 #cg ,gramine1 see ,graminace ,grass1 origin of the word1 #c ,grass carpets1 #b1 #cg ,grasses1 identification of1 #c1 #d ,grazing1 #bg ,grey ,hair-grass--,aira canescens ,grooved leaf1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi ,grooved sheath1 #ah ,gynerium1 #hi ,habit1 #ac1 #cd ,habitats1 #bg-ca ,hair-grass--,aira ,hairs1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bd1 #bf1 #fb1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #ia1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #ach1 #aci1 #add ,hair-tufts1 #ei1 #abc1 #abe1 #abi1 #aeh ,hairy grasses1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf1 #eg1 #gf1 #ha ,hairy ,brome--,bromus asper ,hairy 8seeds10 #afh ,half-shade species1 #cd ,halophytes1 #cf ,hard ,fescue--,festuca duriuscula ,hard-grass--,lepturus ,hard leaves1 #ba1 #dg ,hard ,meadow-grass--,poa rigida ,hardy ,bamboos1 #ch ,hare's-tail--,lagurus ,harsh leaves1 #ba ,haulm1 #hc ,havers--,avena fatua ,hay1 #bg1 #cg ,heath ,false-,brome--,brachypodium pinnatum ,heath-grass--,triodia decumbens ,heath-grasses1 #bj1 #bi1 #cf ,height1 #f ,heleochloa1 #abc ,herbaceous--of the ordinary soft texture of herbs1 #f1 #ba1 #ia ,heterodera1 #aj ,heterophylly1 #ga ,heteropogon contortus1 #abg ,hierochloe--,holy-grass1 #bj1 #bg1 #ff1 #gc1 #ia1 #ib1 #aje1 #aee2 ,h4 borealis1 #cj1 #fe ,hill-pastures1 #bi ,hispid--covered with stiff and rather long hairs1 #eh ,histology1 #fb-ga1 #abb ,holcus--,soft grass1 #h1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #ef1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajf1 #aai1 #abe1 #adh1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee2 ,h4 lanatus1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ei1 #fe1 #fi1 #ha1 #ajf1 #adc1 #aea1 #aeb2 ,h4 mollis1 #aa1 #bh1 #cj1 #cc1 #ei1 #ajf1 #aec ,holy-grass--,hierochloe ,hooded leaf-apex1 #ba ,hook-hairs1 #fe ,hordeum--,barley1 #aj1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #dd1 #ei1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajh1 #abg1 #acd1 #afc2 ,h4 jubatum1 #abe2 ,h4 maritimum1 #h1 #aj1 #bi1 #cc1 #ei1 #ajj1 #afc2 ,h4 murinum1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ba1 #cj1 #ej1 #ei1 #gf1 #ajj1 #abe1 #afb1 #afc2 ,h4 pratense1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #ba1 #bb1 #bh1 #eh1 #ajj1 #afc2 ,h4 sylvaticum1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #bh1 #cd1 #dd1 #eh1 #ei1 #ajj1 #aje1 #afb ,humus species1 #cc1 #ce ,hybrids1 #abj ,hydrophytes--plants requiring much water1 and therefore aquatic or semi-aquatic1 #cg ,hygrophilous species--hydrophytes1 #gj ,imperfect--rudimentary or staminate1 #aje ,inconspicuously awned grasses1 #ic ,indicator-plants1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd ,inflorescence1 #e1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #hc1 #hf-ia1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aji-aah1 #aai ,infolding of leaves1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd ,inrolling of leaves1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #df1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #ge1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,intercellular spaces1 #cg ,internode1 #h1 #ag ,intra-vaginal shoots1 #ab1 #ac ,introduced grasses1 #cj ,involute--rolled inwards1 #bj1 #dg ,irritability of seedlings1 #acb ,italian ,rye-grass--,lolium italicum ,keel1 #ah1 #bc1 #bf1 #fc1 #fh1 #fi1 #ia1 #aac1 #abg1 #adj1 #add1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea ,keeled grasses1 #bf1 #gd ,knappia--,mibora ,kneed awns1 #abi1 #acj1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh ,kneed stem1 #i ,knot-grass--,polygonum ,kleria1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #be1 #bf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adi2 ,k4 cristata1 #h1 #bi1 #cb1 #ff1 #ha1 #aji1 #adh1 #adi ,lacun--air-spaces1 #gj1 #gc ,lagurus--,hare's-tail1 #gf1 #hh1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aji2 ,l4 ovatus1 #ca ,lamina--the blade of the leaf1 #fc-ga1 #ie ,lanceolate--narrow and tapering at both ends1 #afc ,lanceolate-acuminate--lanceolate1 but the upper end drawn out to a long point1 #afc ,large grasses1 #f ,lawns1 #aj1 #cg ,lax--loose1 the spikelets on slender branches some distance apart1 #aaj1 #aag ,layed shoots1 #ae ,leaf1 #ag-bg1 #ci-fa1 #ie1 #acc ,leaf anatomy1 #fb-ga1 #gb-hb ,leaf-apex1 #ba ,leaf-base1 #aj1 #bb1 #dj ,leaf-blade--,lamina ,leaf characters1 #d1 #bj-bg ,leaf-margin1 #bb1 #dd1 #ff ,leaf-section1 #af1 #bj1 #fb-gb ,leaf-stalk--,petiole ,leaf-surface1 #bb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg ,least ,quaking-grass--,briza minor ,leathery leaves1 #ba ,leersia--,cut-grass1 #fg1 #gj1 #gg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aje1 #abj2 ,l4 oryzoides1 #cj1 #ff1 #acg ,leguminos1 #c ,lepturus1 #hg1 #ij1 #ii2 ,l4 filiformis--,l4 incurvatus2 ,l4 incurvatus1 #ca ,ligule1 #ah1 #ai1 #de1 #df1 #ea1 #ie1 #aac1 #acc ,limestone species1 #cb ,linear--at least five times as long as broad1 with parallel straight sides1 #ai ,linear-acuminate--linear1 but tapering to a long point at the apex1 #ai ,linear-acute--linear1 but pointed at the apex1 #ci ,linear-lanceolate--linear1 but tapering at both ends1 #ai1 #bj1 #afc1 #afh ,linear-oblong--oblong1 but drawn out so that the sides are parallel for some distance1 #af ,local grasses1 #cj1 #ca ,lodicules1 #hf1 #hg1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,lolium--,rye-grass1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #bb1 #be1 #di1 #ej1 #ec1 #eg1 #ei1 #hb1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #add1 #aea1 #afg2 ,l4 italicum1 #g1 #aa1 #bh1 #ca1 #di2 ,l4 perenne1 #h1 #aa1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #di1 #ha1 #hb1 #ic1 #ajg1 #abh1 #aca1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #aej1 #afh2 ,l4 temulentum1 #h1 #aj1 #cj1 #di1 #ej1 #hb1 #ib1 #ajg1 #abi1 #acj1 #adb1 #aej1 #afg1 #afh ,loose ,panic-grass--,panicum ,crus-galli ,lygeum1 #cf ,lyme-grass--,elymus ,maize1 #a1 #hi1 #abj ,male flowers1 #hi1 #ij1 #aai ,manna-croup--,glyceria fluitans ,many-flowered spikelets1 #ij ,margin of leaf1 #ba1 #bb1 #ff ,marginal asperities1 #bb ,maritime grasses1 #bi ,marram--,psamma ,marsh ,bent--,agrostis alba ,marsh ,foxtail--,alopecurus geniculatus ,marsh grasses1 #bh1 #bi ,mat-grass--,psamma arenaria ,mayde1 #abb ,meadows1 #a ,meadow ,barley--,hordeum pratense ,meadow ,fescue--,festuca elatior--,festuca pratensis ,meadow ,foxtail--,alopecurus pratensis ,meadow-grass--,poa pratensis1 #hc ,meadow grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #cg1 #aac ,meadow ,soft-grass--,holcus lanatus ,mechanical tissues--tissues composed of hard-walled cells 7sclerenchyma7 serving for support1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh ,medium grasses1 #g ,melica--,melick1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cd1 #fc1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aaj1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,m4 ciliata1 #cb2 ,m4 nutans1 #g1 #ag1 #cc1 #da1 #gh1 #ajd1 #aje1 #acg2 ,m4 uniflora1 #g1 #ag1 #bh1 #cc1 #dj1 #da1 #gh1 #ajd1 #aje1 #acg ,melocanna1 #abc ,membranous ligule1 #ai ,mesophytes--plants adapted to ordinary conditions of moisture1 #cg ,mibora1 #fh1 #hg1 #hi2 ,m4 verna1 #ca1 #gd1 #ii ,micropyle1 #aba ,microscopic characters1 #fb1 #abb ,mid-rib1 #ae1 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 #fc1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd ,milium--,millet-grass1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #bb1 #bg1 #cd1 #hi1 #ia1 #ib1 #acg2 ,m4 effusum1 #f1 #bh1 #cc1 #ajc1 #acf ,millet--,panicum1 #ace ,millet-grass--,milium ,millet-seed type1 #abg1 #ace ,moist soils1 #bf1 #cb ,molinia1 #h1 #ad1 #ai1 #bj1 #dj1 #fj1 #gg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea1 #aga2 ,m4 crulea1 #g1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #ei1 #aaj1 #adh1 #adi ,monocotyledons1 #ig1 #acd ,moncious--male and female flowers on the same plant1 #aai ,moor-grass--,sesleria ,moor-grasses1 #h1 #bj1 #bi1 #cg ,moor ,mat-grass--,nardus stricta1 #hc ,morphology of flower1 #ie1 #if1 #ig ,morphology of spikelet1 #id ,motor-cells1 #be1 #da1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,mountain ,melick--,melica nutans ,movements of awns1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg ,movements of seedlings1 #acb ,mucronate--with a short point suddenly springing from a rounded apex1 #bb1 #ach1 #aci1 #adf1 #adi1 #aej ,myosotis1 #c ,naked fruits1 #acf ,nardus1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #ba1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #hj1 #hc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #id1 #acj1 #adf1 #aga2 ,n4 stricta1 #h1 #i1 #bi1 #cc1 #cf1 #df1 #fd1 #fi1 #gj1 #ii1 #aga1 #agc1 #agd ,narrow-leafed ,oat--,avena pratensis ,narrow ,small-reed--,calamagrostis stricta ,naviculate--,boat-shaped1 but pointed at both ends1 #af ,nematode worms1 #aj ,nerves--minute veins on pale1 #aac1 #aae1 #abh1 #adj1 #add1 #afh ,nodes1 #f1 #h1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae ,nodules1 #aj ,northern ,holy-grass--,hierochloe borealis ,nucellus--the body of the ovule or young seed1 #abb ,nuclei1 #aba ,numbers of grasses1 #b ,oat--,avena1 #he1 #hi1 #acc ,oat-type of 8seed10 #aef ,obsolete--so much reduced as to be practically absent1 #ai1 #de1 #dh1 #aae1 #aaf ,obtuse--rounded off and blunt at the apex1 #ai1 #ia ,odours1 #bg ,offsets1 #ab ,olyra1 #f ,one-flowered spikelets1 #hi ,one-glumed ,fescue--,festuca uniglumis ,open panicle--one where the primary branches stand off at right angles from the rachis1 #aab ,orange spiked ,foxtail--,alopecurus fulvus ,orchids1 #b ,ovary1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #aai1 #aba ,ovate-acute--egg-shaped in outline1 but the free narrow end pointed1 #fa ,ovate-lanceolate--ovate1 but tapering above1 #afh ,pale--,palea1 #hf1 #hi ,palea1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ib1 #ic1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ii-aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,pampas-grass1 #a ,panic-grass--,panicum ,panicle1 #e1 #ab1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aji-aah ,panicum1 #d1 #ai1 #fg1 #fi1 #gb1 #hg1 #ij1 #ib1 #aja1 #aje1 #aji1 #abd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,p4 ,crus-galli1 #acg2 ,p4 glaucum1 #cj2 ,p4 plicatum1 #ba2 ,p4 sanguinale1 #cj2 ,p4 verticillatum1 #cj ,papill--protruding cells not long enough to be termed hairs1 #fd1 #fg ,pappus1 #abe ,parallel venation1 #ba1 #bb ,parenchyma--ordinary soft cellular tissue of herbaceous parts1 #fd1 #fe ,partial inflorescence1 #hf ,pasture1 #a1 #aj ,pasture-grasses1 #bg1 #bh1 #cg ,perennial ,beard-grass--,polypogon littoralis ,perennial grasses1 #aj1 #aa1 #dj1 #dc1 #eh1 #aad ,perennial ,oat--,avena pratensis ,perennial ,oat-grass--,avena pratensis ,perfect flowers1 #hi1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajf ,perianth--the floral coverings1 #if ,pericarp--the coats of the true fruit1 #aba1 #abb ,petiole1 #e1 #ag ,phalaris--,canary grass1 #hh1 #aja1 #aji1 #acf2 ,p4 arundinacea--,digraphis arundinacea2 ,p4 canariensis1 #ca1 #aci ,phleum1 #ff1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb2 ,p4 alpinum1 #cj1 #ajb2 ,p4 arenarium1 #g1 #aj1 #bi1 #cg1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 asperum1 #ca1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 ,bhmeri1 #h1 #ca1 #ee1 #ajb1 #acf2 ,p4 nodosum--var4 of ,p4 pratense2 ,p4 phalaroides--,p4 ,bhmeri2 ,p4 pratense1 #g1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #be1 #bh1 #cb1 #ee1 #gj1 #gf1 #ajb1 #abh1 #ace ,phloem1 #fg ,phragmites communis--,arundo ,phragmites ,physiognomy1 #cf1 #cg ,piercing of soil1 #acb ,pilose--with scattered1 rather long soft hairs1 #ei ,plaited vernation1 #ba ,plantago1 #c ,plicate--plaited ,plume-like inflorescence1 #ia1 #ajc ,plumule1 #aba1 #abc1 #acb1 #acc ,poa1 #b1 #ae1 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #dg1 #ed1 #fa1 #gd1 #hc1 #hd1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abg1 #aca1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #adf1 #aea1 #afb2 ,p4 alpina1 #h1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ca1 #dd1 #ed1 #fc1 #aad1 #acd1 #adf2 ,p4 annua1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #af1 #cj1 #cd1 #db1 #ec1 #ed1 #fc1 #fh1 #gd1 #ge1 #aad1 #abg1 #ada1 #adf2 ,p4 aquatica--,glyceria aquatica2 ,p4 bulbosa1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #bi1 #ed1 #fi1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 compressa1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #cj1 #cb1 #db1 #ec1 #ed1 #fc1 #fi1 #gd1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj2 ,p4 distans1 #bi1 #cj1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 fertilis--,p4 serotina1 #de2 ,p4 fluitans--,glyceria fluitans2 ,p4 laxa1 #ca1 #acd2 ,p4 loliacea1 #ca1 #ajh1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 maritima1 #h1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #bb1 #bf1 #bi1 #dg1 #ed1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 nemoralis1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #bh1 #cd1 #de1 #ed1 #fc1 #gd1 #ge1 #aac1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #afa2 ,p4 pratensis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #ed1 #ee1 #fg1 #ge1 #aac1 #aad1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada2 ,p4 procumbens1 #ca1 #aaa1 #aad2 ,p4 rigida1 #aj1 #ad1 #cj1 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf2 ,p4 stricta--var4of ,p4 alpina1 #acd2 ,p4 trivialis1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bg1 #cb1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #ed1 #gd1 #ij1 #aab1 #aac1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adh ,pollen1 #ic1 #id1 #aai ,pollen-grain1 #abj1 #aba ,pollen-tube1 #abj1 #aba ,pollination1 #ic1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba ,polygonum1 #c ,polypogon--,beard-grass1 #fi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aji2 ,p4 littoralis1 #ca2 ,p4 monspeliensis1 #ca ,ponds1 grasses of1 #bh1 #bi ,popular names1 #f ,potassium salts1 #cb ,prairies1 #a1 #cf1 #ch ,prickle-hairs1 #ff ,primary root1 #abc1 #aca ,procumbent ,meadow-grass--,poa procumbens ,protandrous--when the pollen is mature and shed before the stigma of the same flower is ready for pollination1 #aai ,proterogynous--when the stigma is receptive before the pollen of the same flower is mature1 #aai ,psamma1 #d1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ba1 #be1 #cf1 #dh1 #gi1 #ha1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ie1 #ach2 ,p4 arenaria1 #g1 #bi1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #gj1 #gi1 #ajb1 #ach1 #aci ,pubescence--hairiness1 #bf ,pungent--spine-like1 #bb ,purple-flowered ,small-reed--,calamagrostis lanceolata ,purple-stalked ,cat's-tail--,phleum ,bhmeri ,purple-veined sheaths1 #ah ,quadrangular shoot-section1 #af1 #dj ,quake-grass--,briza ,quaking-grass--,briza media ,racemous--like a raceme1 #aje ,rachilla1 #he1 #abc1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acg1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #adi1 #aej1 #afd1 #afg1 #afi1 #agj1 #agb ,rachis1 #i1 #he1 #hh1 #ajf1 #ajg ,radicle1 #aba1 #abc ,rare grasses1 #f1 #cj1 #ca1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib ,rat's-tail ,fescue--,festuca ,myurus ,red-sheathed grasses1 #ah1 #di1 #ei ,reed1 #b ,reed ,canary grass--,digraphis arundinacea ,reed ,fescue--,festuca sylvatica ,reed-grass1 #a1 #f ,reed ,meadow-grass--,glyceria aquatica ,reed ,sweet-grass--,glyceria aquatica ,reflexed leaves1 #af ,reflexed ,meadow-grass--,poa distans ,rhizomes1 #aj1 #aa1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg ,rhomboidal shoot-section1 #af1 #db ,rib-grass--,plantago ,ribbon-grass--,digraphis arundinacea ,ribs--the more opaque veins due to the larger vascular-bundles1 #bb1 #be1 #fb1 #ia1 #abg ,rice1 #a ,ridgeless grasses1 #be ,ridges1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #dg1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj1 #ia ,river-banks1 #bh1 #bi ,road-sides1 #bi ,rolled leaves1 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 #bd1 #be1 #fc ,rolling of leaves1 #bd1 #be1 #cf ,root-cap1 #aba ,roots1 #h1 #ab1 #ce1 #aba1 #abc1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc ,rough ,cock's-foot--,dactylis glomerata ,rough ,meadow-grass--,poa trivialis ,rough ,phleum--,phleum asperum ,rough-stalked ,meadow-grass--,poa trivialis ,round shoots1 #ae1 #af1 #db1 #ej1 #eg ,ruderal grasses1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce ,rudimentary flowers1 #hi1 #ij1 #aje ,runners1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad ,rushes1 #d1 #cc ,rushy ,wheat-grass--,agropyrum junceum ,rye--,secale1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc ,rye ,brome--,bromus secalinus ,rye-grass--,lolium perenne ,salt species1 #cc ,sand-binders1 #ac1 #ce1 #cf1 #dh1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #ajh ,sand ,cat's-tail--,phleum arenarium ,sand dunes1 #ce1 #cf ,sand species1 #bi1 #cb1 #cf ,sandy situations1 #h1 #bi1 #cc ,savannahs1 #a1 #ch ,scaberulous--slightly rough to the touch1 #bb1 #de1 #afd ,scabrid--rough to the touch1 #bb1 #dg1 #ed ,scarious--as if scorched by fire1 #ib1 #ade ,scents1 #bg ,sclerenchyma--mechanical tissue1 #fb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj ,sclerochloa--,poa ,sclerochloa maritima--,poa maritima2 ,s4 procumbens--,poa procumbens2 ,s4 rigida--,poa rigida ,scorpion-grass--,myosotis ,scutellum1 #aba1 #abc ,sea ,barley--,hordeum maritimum ,sea ,cat's-tail--,phleum arenarium ,sea-grass--,zostera ,sea ,hard-grass--,lepturus incurvatus ,sea ,lyme-grass--,elymus arenarius ,sea ,mat-grass--,psamma arenaria ,sea ,mat-weed--,psamma arenaria ,sea ,meadow-grass--,poa maritima ,sea ,poa--,poa maritima ,sea ,reed--,psamma arenaria ,sea-side grasses1 #bg1 #bi ,secondary roots1 #aba1 #abc1 #aca1 #acc ,secund--turned to one side1 #i1 #hi1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aad ,sedges1 #c1 #d1 #cc1 #ce1 #aba ,seed--strictly the contents of the caryopsis 7fruit71 but in practice the fruit and its adherent pale etc4 7chaff7 are termed 8seed10 #aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace-agd ,seed-coats1 #aba1 #abb ,seedlings1 #acb1 #acc ,semi-aquatic species1 #bh1 #bi ,separation of fruits1 #abd ,serrul--minute tooth-like asperities1 #bb1 #ia1 #agc ,sesleria--,moor-grass1 #bb1 #be1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #aja2 ,s4 crulea1 #ag1 #db1 #fg1 #ajh1 #adi1 #aea ,sessile--sitting directly on an axis without an intervening stalk1 #hg1 #ii1 #ajg ,setaceous--bristle-like1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #de1 #aaa1 #aac ,setaria--,panicum ,sexual organs1 #acd ,shade action of grasses1 #ce ,shade-grasses1 #bj1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #gj ,shapes of caryopsis1 #abg ,shapes of leaves1 #d1 #ai1 #bj ,shapes of shoot1 #af ,sharp-edged shoots1 #af ,sheath1 #e1 #h1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #ea1 #ie1 #acc ,sheep's ,fescue--,festuca ovina ,shelving sheath-margin1 #bb ,shoot1 #aj1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #abc ,sieglingia decumbens--,triodia decumbens ,siliceous--impregnated with flint--silex1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,silky ,bent-grass--,agrostis ,spicaventi ,silvery ,hair-grass--,aira caryophyllea ,single-husked ,fescue--,festuca uniglumis ,slender ,foxtail--,alopecurus agrestis ,small grasses1 #g ,small ,reed--,calamagrostis ,smooth ,brome--,bromus racemosus ,sociable plants1 #cf ,sod1 #cg ,sodium chloride1 #cc ,soft ,brome--,bromus mollis ,soft-grass--,holcus ,soft ,holcus--,holcus mollis ,soil formation1 #cf ,soil protection1 #cf ,solid leaves1 #df ,solid stems1 #d ,sour soils1 #cc ,spartina--,cord-grass1 #fi1 #hg1 #ij1 #ii1 #aje2 ,s4 stricta1 #bg1 #ca1 #gh ,spear1 #abc1 #acb ,spikate inflorescence1 #ii1 #ajf ,spike1 #i1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh ,spiked ,fescue--,festuca loliacea ,spikelet1 #i1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii-aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #abc1 #abd ,spike-like panicle1 #i1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajb ,spinescent leaf1 #bb ,spinifex1 #abe ,split sheath1 #e1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai ,split-sheathed grasses1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #de1 #ej ,sporobolus1 #abc1 #acd ,squirrel-tail grass--,hordeum maritimum ,stamen1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aai ,staminate--a flower with stamens and no ovary1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajf ,starch1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb ,stem1 #d1 #f1 #h ,steppes1 #a1 #cf1 #ch ,stigma--stigmatic plumes1 #hf1 #hg1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #ig1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba ,stipa1 #cf1 #if1 #abf2 ,s4 capillata1 #abe2 ,s4 pennata1 #cb1 #abe2 ,s4 spartea1 #abe ,stolon1 #aj1 #ab1 #ce1 #aad ,stoloniferous grasses1 #h1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,stomata1 #be1 #cf1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gj1 #gc1 #gg1 #hj1 #ie ,strand-plants1 #cf ,stringy roots1 #h ,striped grass--,digraphis arundinacea ,struggle for existence1 #b1 #cg1 #ch ,style1 #id1 #ig1 #ii ,sub-acute--hardly pointed1 #adb ,sub-sessile--very shortly stalked1 so as to be all but sessile1 #ii1 #ajf ,sub-terminal awn1 #ie1 #aae1 #abi1 #acj1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afb1 #afc-afh1 #afi ,subulate--awl-shaped3 stouter than setaceous1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi ,sugar1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb ,sugar-cane1 #a ,sun-plants1 #cf ,sweet-tasting grasses1 #ci ,sweet ,vernal grass--,anthoxanthum odoratum ,sympodium1 #aa ,tall ,brome--,bromus giganteus ,tall ,fescue--,festuca elatior ,tapering leaves1 #ba ,tastes1 #bg ,temperate species1 #b ,terete--cylindrical and gradually tapering1 #f1 #ed1 #afc1 #aga ,terminal awn1 #ib1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abf1 #acj1 #afb1 #afh-agd1 #agc ,texture of leaf1 #ba ,three-flowered spikelets1 #ij ,timothy--,phleum pratense ,tomentose--softly hairy1 #ei ,transpiration1 #bj ,transverse sections of leaves1 #af1 #bc1 #bd1 #fc1 #fd ,transverse section of shoot1 #ae1 #af ,triodia--,heath-grass1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #be1 #bf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajc1 #aci2 ,t4 decumbens1 #h1 #bi1 #cd1 #aaj1 #abc ,trisetum flavescens--,avena flavescens ,triticum--,wheat2 ,t4 acutum--,t4 laxum2 ,t4 junceum--,agropyrum junceum2 ,t4 laxum--,agropyrum laxum2 ,t4 pungens--,t4 laxum2 ,t4 repens--,agropyrum repens ,tropical species1 #a1 #b ,truncate1 #ib1 #adb ,tuber1 #h ,tufted grasses1 #ac1 #ad ,tufted ,hair-grass--,aira cspitosa ,tufted inflorescences1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aji ,tufts1 #e1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #cg ,tumble-weeds1 #abe ,turgescence--the distension of cells with water which they have absorbed1 #fc ,tussocks1 #ac ,twisted awns1 #aaf1 #abe1 #abf1 #abi1 #acj1 #aea1 #aed1 #aeh ,twisting of seedling leaves1 #acc ,twitch--certain persistent weeds belonging to the genera ,agropyrum1 ,agrostis1 ,holcus1 etc43 see ,couch-grass1 #eb1 #eg1 #ei ,two-flowered spikelets1 #ij ,u-shaped leaf-sections1 #bj ,uniola1 #ig ,upright ,brome--,bromus erectus4 ,also ,b4 madritensis ,uses of grasses1 #a1 #b ,v-shaped leaf-sections1 #bj1 #ec1 #gc ,vagabond grasses1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd ,variability1 #bf ,vascular bundles1 #ba1 #bb1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha ,vascular-bundle sheath1 #fh1 #ie1 #abb ,vegetative organs1 #d ,veins1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #fh1 #gf1 #ia ,venation1 #ba1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh ,vermin1 #ce ,vernal grass--,anthoxanthum1 #hc ,vernation--folding of the leaves in bud1 #ba ,versatile--hung loosely so as to turn freely1 #id ,vessels1 #fg ,violet-brown sheath1 #ah ,viviparous grasses1 #aab1 #aad1 #acd ,vulpia ,myurus--,festuca ,myurus2 ,v4 uniglumis--,festuca uniglumis ,wall ,barley--,hordeum murinum ,wall ,fescue--,festuca ,myurus ,walls1 grasses of1 #bi ,waste-places1 #bi ,water-storing tissues1 #cf1 #gj ,water ,whorl-grass--,catabrosa aquatica ,wavy ,hair-grass--,aira flexuosa ,wavy ,meadow-grass--,poa laxa ,wax1 #cf1 #gj ,web--minute tufted soft hairs at the base of the caryopsis1 #aac1 #aad1 #abg1 #aca1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada ,weeds1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #ce ,wheat--,triticum1 #a1 #abj1 #abg1 #acb1 #acc ,wheat-grass--,agropyrum ,whorl-grass--,catabrosa ,wild ,oat--,avena fatua1 #aag ,wind-borne seeds1 #abe1 #abf ,wings1 #abe1 #adb ,wood ,barley--,hordeum sylvaticum ,wood ,false-,brome--,brachypodium sylvaticum ,wood ,meadow-grass--,poa nemoralis ,wood ,melick--,melica uniflora ,wood ,poa--,poa nemoralis ,wood-species1 #bh1 #cc ,woolly ,holcus--,holcus lanatus ,xenia--cases where the direct influence of the pollen is evident on the seed resulting from its action1 #abj ,xerophilous--of the nature of a xerophyte1 #gj ,xerophytes--plants adapted to dry situations1 #bd1 #be1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #fh1 #gj ,xylem1 #fg ,yellow ,oat-grass--,avena flavescens ,yellow-sheathed grasses1 #ah ,yorkshire ,fog--,holcus lanatus1 #aeb ,zostera1 #c ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 ,,cambridge ,,biological ,,series ,the ,elements of ,botany4 ,by ,,francis ,,darwin1 ,sc4,d41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of ,christ's ,college4 ,second edition4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with #id illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,journal of ,education4 ,a noteworthy addition to our botanical literature4 ,practical ,physiology of ,plants4 ,by ,,francis ,,darwin1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,e4 ,,hamilton ,,acton1 ,m4,a4 ,third edition4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with #de illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,nature4 ,the authors are much to be congratulated on their work1 which fills a serious gap in the botanical literature of this country4 ,morphology and ,anthropology4 ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,duckworth1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,fellow and ,lecturer of ,jesus ,college1 ,university ,lecturer in ,physical ,anthropology4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #ccc illustrations4 #aes4 net4 ,athenum4 ,mr ,duckworth has managed to produce in his 8,morphology and ,anthropology0 just such a text-book as students have long been asking for4444 ,it is no easy task to have undertaken such a work and the author is to be congratulated on the success which has attended his efforts4 ,the volume can be confidently recommended to all whose studies lead them in this direction4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,physiology during the ,sixteenth1 ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries4 ,by ,sir ,m4 ,,foster1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,m4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with a frontispiece4 #is4 ,nature4 ,there is no more fascinating chapter in the history of science than that which deals with physiology1 but a concise and at the same time compendious account of the early history of the subject has never before been presented to the ,english reader4 ,physiologists therefore owe a debt of gratitude to ,sir ,michael ,foster for supplying a want which was widely felt4444 ,no higher praise can be given to the book than to say that it is worthy of the reputation of its author4 ,the ,soluble ,ferments and ,fermentation4 ,by ,j4 ,,reynolds ,,green1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,botany to the ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,great ,britain4 ,second edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 ,nature4 ,it is not necessary to recommend the perusal of the book to all interested in the subject since it is indispensable to them1 and we will merely conclude by congratulating the ,cambridge ,university ,press on having added to their admirable series of ,natural ,science ,manuals an eminently successful work on so important and difficult a theme1 and the author on having written a treatise cleverly conceived1 industriously and ably worked out1 and on the whole1 well written4 ,conditions of ,life in the ,sea4 ,a short account of ,quantitative ,marine ,biological ,research4 ,by ,,james ,,johnstone1 ,fisheries ,laboratory1 ,university of ,liverpool4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with a chart and #ca illustrations4 #is4 net4 ,the ,natural ,history of some ,common ,animals4 ,by ,,oswald ,h4 ,,latter1 ,m4,a41 ,senior ,science ,master at ,charterhouse4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with #ed illustrations4 #es4 net4 ,nature4 ,an excellent book1 written by a man who is equally in his element whether he writes as an outdoor naturalist or as a laboratory student4 ,this combination is by no means a common one1 and it is just the combination that is wanted for a book of this kind4444 ,altogether the book is an admirable one4 ,athenum4 ,a book that may be judiciously placed in the hands of any boy who evinces a reasonable interest in the animal life around him4 ,the ,classification of ,flowering ,plants4 ,by ,,alfred ,,barton ,,rendle1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab471 ,d4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,l4,s41 ,keeper of the ,department of ,botany1 ,british ,museum4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,gymnosperms and ,monocotyledons4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #ahg illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,gardener's ,chronicle4 ,numerous illustrations and an excellent index add to the value of the work4 ,we heartily congratulate the author on the partial accomplishment of a difficult and laborious task4 ,the part before us does but whet our appetite for what is to follow4 ,athenum4 ,the first instalment of a text book which will well represent the state of our knowledge in the early years of the century4 ,in the present volume the ,gymnosperms and the ,monocotyledons alone are dealt with2 but they are treated with such excellent co-ordination of detail and such clear-headed sense of proportion1 that we eagerly await the publication of the next instalment4 ,the ,origin and ,influence of the ,thorough-bred ,horse4 ,by ,w4 ,,ridgeway1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,disney ,professor of ,archology and ,fellow of ,gonville and ,caius ,college4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #adc illustrations4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,westminster ,gazette4 ,there has never been a more learned contribution to equine literature than ,professor ,ridgeway's comprehensive and exhaustive book4 ,spectator4 ,it would be difficult for ,professor ,ridgeway to write a book which did not contain at least one wholly novel thesis1 and the present work is no exception to his practice4 ,it is also an encyclopaedia of information on the history of the ,equidae1 collected from every source1 from post-,pleiocene deposits to modern sporting newspapers4 ,no detail escapes the author's industry1 and 444 the result is a monument of sound learning1 unique of its kind4 ,manual of ,practical ,morbid ,anatomy1 being a ,handbook for the ,post-mortem ,room4 ,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,rolleston1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 and ,a4 ,a4 ,,kanthack1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,r4,c4,p4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,fossil ,plants3 a text-book for students of ,botany and ,geology4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,seward1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,in #c vols4 ,demy #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i4 with a frontispiece and #aaa illustrations1 #ajs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 with a frontispiece and #bfe illustrations4 #aes4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii in the ,press4 ,revue ,scientifique4 ,nous ne pouvons entrer dans le dtail2 mais il est vident que ,m4 ,seward1 praticien distingu lui-mme1 est trs au courant des travaux des autres1 il les cite et utilise abondamment2 et ceci est fait pour inspirer confiance4 ,au total1 son uvre est appuye sur des bases solides1 et elle restera sans doute longtemps le brviaire1 le manuel de ceux qui veulent1 non pas seulement s'initier la palobotanique1 mais retrouver les renseignements qui sont pars dans des centaines de monographies qu'on a souvent peine se procurer4 ,le livre de ,m4 ,seward fait partie des ,cambridge ,natural ,science ,manuals1 et il est digne de cette collection1 qui est elle-mme digne du foyer scientifique universellement rput1 o il a vu le jour4 ,zoology4 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,shipley1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,e4 ,w4 ,,macbride1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab471 ,d4,sc4 7,london74 ,second edition4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #cdi illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,precisely the sort of book which1 if it came into a thoughtful boy's hands1 would turn him from a smatterer into a student4444 ,one of the most instructive and attractive books that could be put into the hands of a young naturalist4 ,trees3 ,a ,handbook of ,forest ,botany for the ,woodlands and the ,laboratory4 ,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,buds and ,twigs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,leaves4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,flowers and ,inflorescences4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,fruits4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,form and ,habit1 with an ,appendix on ,seedlings4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 net each4 ,price for the set of five volumes1 #bjs4 net4 ,nature4 ,the clear and simple way in which the author treats the subject is sure to inspire many with interest and enthusiasm for the study of forest botany4444 ,the work will be found indispensable to those students who wish to make an expert study of forest botany4 ,at the same time it is expressed in language so clear and devoid of technicalities that the amateur who wishes to know something about our trees and shrubs will find this one of the most useful guides to which he can turn4444 ,the work is a many sided one1 acting not only as a guide to the naturalist in the field1 but also as a laboratory handbook1 where the use of the lens and microscope may be employed to amplify the study of objects already observed in their natural habitats4 ,botanists generally1 and especially forest botanists will welcome the appearance of this book as supplying a decided want1 and filling a distinct gap in our literature of forest botany4 ,grasses3 a ,handbook for use in the ,field and ,laboratory4 ,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with #ha figures4 #fs4 ,field4 ,the work is essentially suited to the requirements of those desirous of studying the grasses commonly grown in this country1 and it can fairly be said that it furnishes an amount of information seldom obtained in more pretentious volumes4 ,p4 ,t4 ,o4 ,a ,treatise on the ,british ,freshwater ,alg4 ,by ,g4 ,s4 ,,west1 ,m4,a41 ,a4,r4,c4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,lecturer in ,botany in the ,university of ,birmingham4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with a frontispiece and #aff illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,nature4 ,its aim is stated as 8to give the student a concise account of the structure1 habits and life-histories of ,freshwater ,alg1 and also to enable him to place within the prescribed limits of a genus any ,alg he may find in the freshwater of the ,british ,islands40 ,to do this within the limits of an octavo volume of less than #djj pages1 in which are numerous illustrations1 is a task possible of accomplishment only by one very familiar with the subject and skilled in concise expression2 but that it has been successfully done will1 we think1 be the verdict after testing the book thoroughly4444 ,prof4 ,west's treatment of his subject is instructive and stimulating4 ,a ,manual and ,dictionary of the ,flowering ,plants and ,ferns4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,willis1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d41 ,director of the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens1 ,ceylon4 ,third edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,field4 ,taking this handy volume and a local flora1 the traveller or student may do an enormous amount of practical field work without any other botanical literature whatever4444 ,the result is a work that ought to be included in every library of botany and horticulture or agriculture1 and it is certainly one that the nomadic botanist cannot afford to leave at home4444 ,we have used the original edition of this work since its publication1 and have found it to be one of the most useful and comprehensive works on plants ever produced4 ,athenum4 ,the whole is well abreast of modern research1 and a thoroughly business-like volume1 lucid though compact4 ,agriculture in the ,tropics4 ,an elementary ,treatise4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,willis1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #be plates4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,palontology--,invertebrate4 ,by ,,henry ,,woods1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,university ,lecturer in ,palozoology4 ,fourth edition4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with #aea illustrations4 #fs4 ,outlines of ,vertebrate ,palontology for students of ,zoology4 ,by ,,arthur ,,smith ,,woodward1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,keeper of the ,department of ,geology in the ,british ,museum4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with #bbh illustrations4 #ads4 ,athenum4 ,the author is to be congratulated on having produced a work of exceptional value1 dealing with a difficult subject in a thoroughly sound manner4 ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,princes ,street ,,also ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,lewis1 #acf1 ,gower ,street1 ,w4,c4