,transcriber ,note ,emphasized text is displayed as ,italic4 ,except in tables where the characters and were used1 whole and fractional numbers are shown like3 #cf-a_/h4 ,,the ,,silversmith',s ,,handbook ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author1 ,,uniform ,,with ,,the ,,present ,,volume4 ,ninth ,impression1 price #es4 net1 cloth4 ,,the ,,goldsmith',s ,,handbook1 ,,containing ,,full ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,alloying ,,and ,,working ,,of ,,gold4 ,including the ,art of ,alloying1 ,melting1 ,reducing1 ,colouring1 ,collecting1 and ,refining2 ,the ,processes of ,manipulation1 ,recovery of ,waste2 ,chemical and ,physical ,properties of ,gold2 with a ,new ,system of ,mixing its ,alloys1 ,solders1 ,enamels1 and other ,useful ,rules and ,recipes4 ,crown #hvo1 price #cs4 #f;d4 net1 cloth4 ,,the ,,hall-,,marking ,,of ,,jewellery1 ,,practically ,,considered4 ,comprising an account of all the different ,assay ,towns of the ,united ,kingdom1 with the ,stamps at present employed2 also the ,laws relating to the ,standards and ,hall ,marks at the various ,assay ,offices2 and a variety of ,practical ,suggestions concerning the ,mixing of ,standard ,alloys1 and other ,useful ,information4 ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,son1 #g1 ,stationers' ,hall ,court1 ,ludgate ,hill1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,silversmith',s ,,handbook ,,containing ,,full ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,alloying ,,and ,,working ,,of ,,silver ,,including ,,the ,,different ,,modes ,,of ,,refining ,,and ,,melting ,,the ,,metal2 ,,its ,,solders2 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,imitation ,,alloys2 ,,methods ,,of ,,manipulation2 ,,prevention ,,of ,,waste2 ,,instructions ,,for ,,improving ,,and ,,finishing ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,together ,,with ,,other ,,useful ,,information ,,and ,,memoranda ,by ,,george ,e4 ,,gee ,,goldsmith ,,and ,,silversmith ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,goldsmith',s ,,handbook1 ,,the ,,hall-,,marking ,,of ,,jewellery1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,fifth ,edition ,illustration ,,london ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,and ,,son #g1 ,,stationers' ,,hall ,,court1 ,,ludgate ,,hill #aiba ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,beccles4 ,,preface4 ,the object of this ,treatise is to supply a want long felt in the ,silver ,trade1 namely1 a work of reference from which workmen1 apprentices1 and manufacturers1 employing the material upon which it treats1 may find information which will be of assistance to them in the performance of their daily duties1 and by which their operations may be rendered more successful4 ,the ,author was led to undertake the present work from having had many opportunities1 during his lengthened experience in the art of silver-working1 of observing the difficulties and stumbling-blocks that are constantly to be met with in the manifold branches of this important trade1 by those practically engaged in it1 and also by those persons who are desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the mechanical and manipulative details belonging to it4 ,to assist his object1 numerous illustrations have been prepared for this ,treatise1 with the view of rendering the various processes of the art more readily comprehensible1 and to save a lengthened or detailed description of them4 ,the different modes of alloying and melting silver2 its solders2 the preparation of imitation alloys2 methods of working2 the prevention of waste2 instructions for improving and finishing the surface of the work1 together with other useful information and memoranda--all these have been carefully collected and placed in order in the body of the work4 ,the ,author has endeavoured1 throughout1 to present the contents 7which he has with some little difficulty and labour brought together7 in as practical and readable a form as is compatible with accuracy and efficiency4 ,g4 ,e4 ,,gee4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,since the publication of the first edition of this work important changes have taken place in the commercial value of silver1 its present cost in the best markets being sixpence per ounce lower than it was when this volume first appeared in #ahgg4 ,this depreciation in value has1 of course1 necessitated a thorough revision of the former prices of the various alloys1 solders1 and other substances mentioned throughout the work2 and this has been done in order to render it the more complete as a work of general reference1 conveying correct and useful information to the reader4 ,the ,author trusts that his endeavours in this direction will be appreciated4 #eh1 ,tenby ,st4 ,north1 ,birmingham4 ,february1 #ahhe4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,in issuing the present edition1 a few introductory remarks are necessary to explain that numerous revisions have been made in ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,vii4 7by means of the ,tables referred to below7 regarding the cost prices of the different alloys1 solders1 etc41 which ,i trust will increase the value of the book4 ,through the repeal of the silver duty in the year #ahij1 a great impetus has been given to the ,silver industry of this country1 and notwithstanding the length of time that has elapsed since this book was first published1 a steady demand has continued for its possession by workers in the precious metal trades--a fact which is gratifying to the ,author1 not only because a reprint is again called for1 but as showing that the work has held its position1 and may now justly claim to be a standard authority on the subject of which it treats4 ,it has not been found necessary to interfere with the general processes embodied in the book1 as they are practically the same as formerly2 but as regards the commercial value of silver1 there is again a considerable depreciation,a to record on the prices prepared for the second edition in #ahhe1 and it becomes imperative that this depreciation should be dealt with in this new edition1 in order to bring the work up to date4 ,a s4 d4 ,in #ahgg fine silver cost #e #b per ounce4 #ahhe #d #h #aijf #c #j ,the market price of silver has for many years been of a very variable nature1 almost each day's prices showing a difference1 so that it would be impossible to provide the reader with an unvarying fixed price per ounce4 ,the best and most practical thing to do under the circumstances1 it seemed1 was to carefully revise the different cost prices of the alloys and solders specified in ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,vii4 and give them by way of approximate ,tables1 compiled for each chapter separately4 ,these two ,tables follow this ,preface 7making pp4 ix4 and x47 and will serve as a ready reference for present workers in the silver trades4 ,thus1 by bringing the figures down to date1 the work may still retain its reliable character as a practical guide to the silversmith's workshop4 ,g4 ,e4 ,,gee4 #eh1 ,tenby ,st4 ,north1 ,birmingham4 ,january1 #aijg4 ,,publishers' ,,note ,,to ,,fifth ,,edition4 ,in ,february #aiba silver was quoted at #cd-a_/b;d4 to #cf-a_/h;d41 and it is therefore sufficient to note that the prices at that date correspond approximately to those current in #aijg4 ,it should be noted that the melting of ,british gold and silver is prohibited1 as well as their export4 ,table of ,revised and ,up-to-date ,cost ,prices of the ,different ,alloys in ,chapter ,,vi4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,page4 ,no4 and quality of ,cost price #ahhe4 ,cost price #aijg alloy4 and #aiba4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #fa ,old standard alloy ,for #d_/d per oz4 read #b_/i per oz4 #fb ,new standard alloy #d_/f #b_/aj #fd ,no4 #a1 silver alloy #d_/b #b_/i #fd ,no4 #b1 silver alloy #c_/i #b_/e #fe ,no4 #c1 silver alloy #c_/f #b_/c #fe ,no4 #d1 silver alloy #c_/c #b_/a #ff ,no4 #e1 silver alloy #c_/b #b_/j #ff ,no4 #f1 silver alloy #c_/a #b_/- #fg ,no4 #g1 silver alloy #c_/- #a_/aa #fg ,no4 #h1 silver alloy #b_/aj #a_/aj #gj ,french coinage alloy #d_/b #b_/i #gj ,french plate alloy #d_/e #b_/aj #gj ,french #jhjj alloy #c_/i #b_/e #gb ,german coinage alloy #jijj standard #b_/i #gb ,german silver wares alloy #jiej #ast standard #b_/aj #gc ,ditto #jhjj #bnd #b_/e #gc ,ditto #jgej #crd #b_/c ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,this ,table is based on the market price of fine silver being #c_/- per ounce4 ,table of ,revised and ,up-to-date ,cost ,prices of the ,different ,solders in ,chapter ,,vii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,page4 ,quality of solder4 ,cost price #ahhe4 ,cost price #aijg and #aiba4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #gh ,hardest silver solder ,for #c_/i per oz4read #b_/e per oz4 #gi ,hard silver solder #c_/f #b_/c #gi ,easy silver solder #c_/b #b_/j #ha ,best silver solder #c_/i #b_/e #hb ,medium silver solder #c_/f #b_/c #hb ,easy silver solder #c_/c #b_/a #hc ,common silver solder #c_/- #a_/aa #hd ,enamelling silver solder #c_/i #b_/e #hd ,ditto #c_/b #b_/j #hd ,filigree solder #c_/i #b_/e #he ,quick-running silver solder #c_/- #a_/aa #he ,silver solder for chains #c_/- #a_/aa #he ,easy solder for chains #c_/- #a_/aa #he ,common silver solder #b_/i #a_/i #hf ,common easy solder #b_/i #a_/i #hf ,arsenic silver solder #c_/i #b_/e #hf ,ditto #c_/f #b_/c #hf ,easy silver solder #c_/b #b_/j #hg ,common easy silver solder #b_/i #a_/i ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,this ,table is based on the market price of fine silver being #c_/- per ounce4 ,,contents4 ,,introductory ,,chapter4 ,page ,silver a ,precious ,metal #a ,economy of ,treatment #a ,working ,silversmiths #b ,english and ,foreign ,workmen #b ,technical ,education #b ,pure ,silver #c ,plate and ,ornamental ,wares #d ,,chapter ,i4 ,silver4 ,silver1 ,characteristics of #e ,silver for ,filigree ,work #e ,indian ,filigree ,workers #e ,malleability of ,silver #f ,ductility of ,silver #f ,test for ,pure ,silver #f ,silver known to the ,ancients #f ,silver ,currency #f ,polished ,silver #g ,tarnishing of ,silver #g ,density of ,silver #g ,fusibility of ,silver #g ,heating ,power of ,silver #g ,action of ,silver under ,great ,heat #h ,hardness of ,silver #h ,nitrate of ,silver #h ,silver resists ,aqua-regia #h ,chief ,places of ,filigree ,manufacture #h ,chief ,uses of ,silver #i ,price of ,silver1 ,commercial #i ,ores of ,silver #i ,dissolution of ,silver #i ,caustic ,alkalies #aj ,nitre #aj ,vegetable ,acids #aj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,sources of ,silver4 ,silver-mining #aa ,great ,britain #aa ,british ,isles' ,yield of ,silver #aa ,spain #aa ,america #aa ,native ,silver #aa ,european ,supplies of ,silver #ab ,american ,supply of ,silver #ab ,the ,richest ,mine #ab ,state of the ,jewellery ,trade #ab ,yield of ,silver #ac ,foreign ,silver ,currency #ac ,chief ,sources of ,british ,silver #ac ,state in which it is found #ad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,assay of ,silver ,ores4 ,silver and ,mercury #ae ,assaying of ,silver ,ores #af ,crucible ,assay #af ,fluxes for ,crucible ,assay #af ,assay of ,genuine ,silver ,ores #af ,carbonate of ,soda #af ,dimensions of ,crucible #af ,litharge #ag ,preparation and ,charge for ,assay #ag ,treatment in the ,furnace #ah ,casting-mould #ah ,scorification ,process #ah ,fusing ,cup or ,scorifier #ai ,special ,form of ,scorifier #ai ,scorification ,assay the ,reverse of ,crucible ,assay #ai ,charge for ,scorification ,assay #bj ,advantages of the ,process #bj ,anthracite and its ,object #ba ,separation of the ,silver from the ,slag #ba ,borax1 use of1 in ,assaying #bb ,continental ,method of ,assaying #bb ,flux and ,charge for ,crucible #bc ,details of the ,process #bc1 #bd ,skittle-pot #be ,cupellation #bf ,cupel1 its ,mode of ,manufacture #bf ,cupel-mould #bg ,assayer's ,muffle #bh ,cupel-tongs #bh ,brightening #bi ,sprouting #bi ,weighing of ,silver ,assay #cj ,chief ,alloy of ,silver #cj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,cupellation of ,silver ,ores4 ,test-ring #ca ,preparation of ,bone-ash #cb ,defects in ,bone-ash ,cupel #cc ,currents of ,air to the ,furnace #cc ,withdrawal of the ,silver from the ,cupel #cd ,removal of the ,litharge1 ,manner of #ce ,quantity of ,alloy per ,cupel #ce ,purity of ,silver after ,cupellation #cg ,ancient ,method of ,assaying #cg ,dr4 ,lamborn on ,assaying #ch ,scriptural ,testimony #cg1 #ch ,english ,system of ,assay #ci ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,alloys of ,silver4 ,silversmith's ,alloys #dj ,filigree ,work #dj ,alloy #da ,amalgam #da ,metals employed in the ,industrial ,arts #da ,metals1 their various ,characteristics #da ,principal ,alloys of ,silver #db ,copper #db ,characteristics of ,copper #dc ,protoxide of ,copper #dd ,action of ,acids on ,copper #dd ,bean-shot ,copper for ,alloying #dd ,chemical name for ,copper #dd ,nickel #de ,cronstedt #de ,density of ,nickel #de ,ductility of ,nickel #de ,malleability of ,nickel #de ,fusibility of ,nickel #de ,nickel ,coinage #de ,nickel ,alloys #df ,electro-plate #df ,zinc #df ,spelter #df ,zinc in ,silver ,solder #df ,annealing of ,zinc #dg ,specific ,gravity of ,zinc #dg ,spelter used by ,jewellers #dg ,tarnishing of ,zinc #dg ,malleability of ,zinc #dh ,ductility of ,zinc #dh ,tenacity of ,zinc #dh ,tin #dh ,ancient ,workers in ,tin #dh ,density of ,tin #dh ,christianity and ,tin #dh ,fusibility of ,tin #dh ,dissolving of ,tin #dh ,tin alloyed with ,gold #di ,tin alloyed with ,silver #di ,tin in ,silversmith's ,solders #di ,vapours of ,tin injurious to ,gold #di ,malleability of ,tin #di ,ductility of ,tin #di ,tenacity of ,tin #di ,scientific ,name for ,tin #ej ,table of ,metallic ,elements #ej ,melting-points of the ,principal ,metals #ea ,physical ,properties of the ,principal ,metals #ea ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,various ,qualities of ,silver4 ,mechanical ,uses of ,silver #eb ,filigree ,work #eb ,birmingham #eb ,london #eb ,indian #ec ,chief ,places of ,filigree ,manufacture #ec ,continental ,cheap ,labour #ed ,hand-made ,articles #ed ,process of ,workmanship #ee ,maltese ,filigree #ee ,chinese and ,japanese ,filigree #ef ,filigree of ,norway and ,sweden #ef ,filigree working1 ,necessity for ,pure ,metal #ef ,old ,method of making ,filigree #eg ,twisting of the ,wire #eh ,lathe1 ,use of #eh ,flattening of ,twisted ,wire for ,filigree #ei ,new ,method of preparing ,filigree ,wire #ei ,english ,standards for ,silver #fj ,english ,coinage #fa ,standard ,silver ,alloy #fa ,alloy for ,hall-marking #fb ,standard ,alloy of the ,highest ,quality #fb ,standard ,alloy for ,hall-marking #fb ,alloy commonly used in ,england #fc ,qualities used by ,english ,silversmiths #fc ,drawbacks to ,hall-marking #fc ,method of calculating the ,qualities of ,silver #fc ,silver ,alloy ,no4 #a1 cost #ds4 #g;d4 per oz4 #fd ,no4 #a1 differently calculated #fd ,no4 #b1 cost #ds4 #a;d4 per oz4 #fd ,no4 #b1 differently calculated #fd ,no4 #c1 cost #cs4 #aj;d4 per oz4 #fe ,no4 #c1 differently calculated #fe ,silver ,alloy ,no4 #d1 cost #cs4 #g;d4 per oz4 #fe ,no4 #d1 differently calculated #fe ,no4 #e1 cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 #ff ,no4 #e1 differently calculated #ff ,no4 #f1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 #ff ,no4 #f1 differently calculated #ff ,no4 #g1 cost #cs4 #b;d4 per oz4 #fg ,no4 #g1 differently calculated #fg ,no4 #h1 cost #cs4 per oz4 #fg ,no4 #h1 differently calculated #fg ,instructions in the ,preparation of ,alloys #fh ,copper for ,alloying #fh ,french ,standards #fi ,silver ,ware #fi ,coinage #fi ,french ,alloy for ,coinage #gj ,french ,alloy for ,plate #gj ,french ,alloy for ,silver ,ware #gj ,instructions in the ,preparation of these ,alloys #gj ,german ,standards #ga ,silver ,ware #ga ,coinage #ga ,silver ,alloy for the ,german ,coinage #gb ,alloy for ,plate #gb ,alloys for ,silver ,wares #gb1 #gc ,law on the ,manufacture of ,silver ,wares #gc ,remedy allowed in ,fineness #gc ,government ,exports #gc ,guarantee ,marks #gc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,silver ,solders3 their ,uses and ,applications4 ,the ,act of ,soldering #gd ,cause of ,inferior ,manufactures #gd ,tin in ,solders #ge ,filed ,solders #gf ,zinc in ,silver ,solder #gf ,solders made with ,copper and ,silver #gf ,hard ,silver ,solders #gg ,medium ,solders #gg ,easy ,solders #gg ,connections for ,soldering #gg ,flux for ,soldering #gg ,fusibility of ,silver ,solders #gh ,hardest ,silver ,solder1 cost #ds4 #a;d4 per oz4 #gh ,ditto1 differently calculated #gi ,medium ,silver ,solder1 cost #cs4 #aj;d4 per oz4 #gi ,ditto1 differently calculated #gi ,easy ,silver ,solder1 cost #cs4 #e;d4 per oz4 #gi ,ditto1 differently calculated #hj ,remarks on ,silver ,solders #hj ,composition for ,solder #ha ,best ,hard ,solder1 cost #ds4 #a;d4 per oz4 #ha ,ditto1 differently calculated #ha ,medium ,solder1 cost #cs4 #aj;d4 per oz4 #hb ,ditto1 differently calculated #hb ,easy ,solder1 cost #cs4 #g;d4 per oz4 #hb ,ditto1 differently calculated #hb ,common ,solder1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 #hc ,ditto1 differently calculated #hc ,directions on the ,melting of ,solders #hc ,solder for ,enamelling1 cost #ds4 #a;d4 per oz4 #hd cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 #hd ,easy ,solder for ,filigree ,work #hd ,quick ,running ,solder1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 #he ,silver ,solder for ,chains1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 #he ,easy ,solder for ,chains1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 #he ,common ,silver ,solder1 cost #cs4 per oz4 #he ,common ,easy ,solder1 cost #cs4 per oz4 #hf ,arsenic ,solder1 cost #ds4 #a;d4 per oz4 #hf ,silver ,solder with ,arsenic1 #cs4 #aj;d4 per oz4 #hf ,easy ,silver ,solder1 cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 #hf ,common ,easy ,solder1 cost #cs4 per oz4 #hg ,another ,common ,solder #hg ,very ,common ,solder #hg ,directions in the ,preparation of ,solders #hg ,drossy ,solders #hh ,mode of ,soldering ,gold and ,silver #hh ,pallion ,solder #hh ,blowpipes #hi ,solder-dish and ,charger #hi ,soft ,solder #ij ,art in ,soldering #ij ,solder for ,filigree #ia ,lemaille ,solder #ia ,english ,filigree ,workers #ia ,sprinkle ,borax #ib ,special ,soldering ,flux #ib ,boiling-out ,pickle #ic ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,on the ,melting of ,silver4 ,directions on ,melting #id ,weighing ,metal for the ,crucible #id ,crucibles #ie ,best ,crucibles to employ #ie ,fluxes3 their ,action on ,crucibles #if ,fluxes employed in ,melting #if ,testing the ,soundness of a ,crucible #ig ,mixing various ,metals for melting #ig ,zinc a fusible ,metal #ih ,charcoal #ii ,bad working ,material #ii ,plumbago ,crucible for ,melting #ii ,tongs for ,melting #ajj ,ingot-mould #ajj ,flux and the ,pouring of ,molten ,metal #aja ,protoxide of ,zinc #ajb ,scrap ,silver #ajb ,carbonate of ,soda #ajb ,dissolving ,impurities #ajc ,lead and ,tin in ,silver #ajc ,sal-ammoniac #ajc ,lemel #ajc ,mixture prepared for ,crucible #ajd ,burning of ,lemel #ajd ,skittle-pot for ,lemel #ajd ,melting of ,lemel #aje ,another ,mode of melting ,lemel #ajf ,crucible for ,lemel #ajf ,pouring of ,lemel from ,crucible #ajg ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,on the ,working of ,silver4 ,rolling ,silver #ajh ,annealing ,silver #aji ,irregularities in ,rolling-mills #aaj ,messrs ,kemp's ,mill #aaj1 #aaa ,table of the ,cost of ,silver-rolling #aab ,slitting ,rollers #aab ,breaking-down ,rollers #aab ,wire-rolling #aac ,wire-drawing #aac ,draw-plate #aad ,draw-bench #aaj1 #aae ,draw-tongs #aae ,drum used by ,wire-drawers #aae ,fine ,wire-drawing #aae1 #aaf ,wire-drawer's ,punch and ,hammer #aag ,wrought ,work #aah ,sparrow-hawk #aai ,raised ,work #abj ,cement for ,chasers #aba ,snarling-tools for ,raising #abb ,art in the ,silver ,trade #abc ,burnished ,silver ,work #abd ,silver ,filigree ,work #abe ,stamped or ,struck-up ,work #abf ,press #abg ,plain ,solid ,work #abg ,chain ,bracelets #abh ,present ,state of ,silver ,trade #abh ,silver1 ,liability to become tarnished #abi ,enamelling #abi ,galvanic ,ring #abi ,mode of preparing ,ring #abi1 #acj ,hollow ,silver ,work #aca ,stamping-press #acb ,spinning #acd1 #ace ,polishing #ace ,water-of-,ayr ,stone #acf ,polishing-lathe #acg ,washing-out ,mixture #ach ,,chapter ,x4 ,enriching the ,surfaces of ,silver4 ,production of the best and richest ,surface #aci ,oldest ,method for ,whitening #adj ,east ,indian ,silversmiths #ada ,indian ,mode of ,whitening ,silver #adb ,another ,mode of ,whitening #adb ,boiling-out ,pan #adc ,boiling-out ,mixture #adc1 #add ,our ,mode of ,whitening #ade ,surface ,refining of ,silver #adf ,brown ,colour on ,silver ,goods #adf ,common ,articles of ,silver #adg ,whitening ,powder or ,mixtures #adg ,nitrate of ,silver ,mixture #adh ,improving the ,colour of ,electro-plate #adi ,electro-plating #adi ,discoverer of ,electro-plating #adi1 #aej ,constant ,battery #aej ,best ,battery for ,plating #aea ,strength of ,battery ,solution #aea ,bunsen's ,battery #aeb ,exciting ,mixture for ,battery #aeb ,zinc ,amalgamation #aec ,conducting ,wires #aed ,preparation of ,plating ,solution #aee ,cyanide ,solution #aef ,black ,cyanide #aeg ,strength of ,plating ,solution #aeg1 #aeh ,inferior ,plating ,solution #aei ,recovery of ,silver from ,plating ,solutions #afj ,scratch-brushing #afa ,scratch-brush ,lathe #afa ,burnishing ,silver ,work #afa1 #afb ,oxidizing ,silver ,work #afc ,solution ,no #a4 #afc ,solution ,no #b4 #afd ,solution ,no #c4 #afd ,producing various ,shades #afe ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,imitation ,silver ,alloys4 ,melting ,imitation ,alloys #aff ,common ,silver ,alloy #afg ,another #afg ,another #afh ,another #afh ,another #afh ,another #afh ,another #afi ,another #afi ,another #afi ,another #afi ,another #agj ,another #agj ,chinese ,silver #agj ,imitation ,silver #agj ,another #aga ,another #aga ,another #aga ,another #aga ,white ,alloy #agb ,clark's ,patent ,alloy #agb ,white ,alloy #agb ,alloy with ,platinum #agb ,alloy with ,palladium #agc ,uses for ,imitation ,alloys #agc ,characteristics of ,imitation ,alloys #agd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,economical ,process4 ,working ,loss #age ,lowest ,estimate ,real ,loss #age ,total ,working ,loss #agf ,shop ,floors #agg ,waste-saving ,precautions #agg1 #agh ,treatment of ,waste #agh ,burning of ,polishings #agi ,treatment of ,waste ,liquids #ahj ,processes for the ,recovery of ,silver from ,waste ,waters #ahj1 #ahb ,chloride of ,silver #ahc ,aqua-regia #ahc ,precipitating ,silver in ,waste ,waters #ahc ,solution for ,precipitation #ahd ,sediment in ,collecting-vessels #ahe ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,licences and ,duties4 ,acts of the ,legislature #ahf #dc ,george ,,iii41 c4 #fi #ahf #f ,george ,i41 c4 #aa #ahg #ca ,george ,,ii41 c4 #cb #ahh #cb ,george ,,ii41 c4 #ad #ahh #bd ,george ,,iii41 c4 #ec #ahh #cg ,george ,,iii41 c4 #ij #ahh #dd ,george ,,iii41 c4 #ih #ahi #ee ,george ,,iii41 c4 #ahe #ahi ,table of ,various ,duties #ahi ,manufactured ,plate #aij ,remarks on the ,licence ,question #aia1 #aif ,act of ,parliament in ,licences #aic ,clause of ,act #aic1 #aid ,tax or ,licence unjustly ,assessed #aie1 #aif ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,useful ,information for the ,trade4 ,silversmith's ,alloys #aig ,silver ,wares #aig ,cleaning ,plate #aih ,imitation ,silver #aih ,another #aih ,removing ,gold from ,silver ,articles #aih ,oxidizing ,silver #aih ,dipping ,mixture #aii ,silver ,powder for ,copper #aii ,powder for ,silver #bjj ,to protect the ,polish of ,metals #bjj ,silver-stripping ,mixture #bjj ,stripping ,silver #bja ,soft ,solder #bja ,soldering ,fluid #bja ,dissolving ,silver #bjb ,dissolving ,silver ,alloy #bjb ,dissolving ,copper #bjb ,dissolving ,soft ,solder #bjb ,dissolving ,silver ,solder #bjb ,dissolving ,sealing-wax #bjb ,resist ,varnish #bjb ,plate ,powder #bjb ,electro-plating ,soft ,solder #bjb ,another ,recipe #bjc ,testing ,silver ,wares #bjc ,another ,test #bjd ,perchloride of ,iron #bje ,aluminium ,alloy #bje ,new ,alloy #bje ,removing ,gold from ,silver ,wares #bje ,silver ,plating ,fluid #bjf ,plate-cleaning ,powder #bjf ,solder for ,aluminium #bjf ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,foreign ,silver ,standards #bjg ,french ,work1 ,duty on #bjh ,continental ,silversmiths #bji ,french ,style of ,work #bji ,german ,style of ,work #baj ,indian ,style of ,work #baj ,austrian ,style of ,work #baa ,english ,style of ,work #baa ,index #bab ,,the ,,silversmith',s ,,handbook4 ,,introductory ,,chapter4 ,in reviewing the rise and progress of the silversmith's beautiful and interesting art1 in its relation to the manufacture of articles of personal ornament and luxury at home and abroad1 we may observe at the outset1 that the material of which they are composed differs widely in character from that employed by the ordinary metalsmiths and the manufacturer of electro-plated wares4 ,silver1 the material of which we are now treating1 being a precious metal and of considerable value1 it is essentially necessary that the most careful means be exercised in dealing with it from the commencement--that is1 from the pure or fine state--and also that the utmost economy be observed in reference to the kind of mechanical treatment to which it is subjected in the production of the silversmith's work1 in order to prevent too great a quantity of waste or loss of material4 ,for it should be borne in mind that silver1 like gold1 begins to lose1 in one way or another1 every time it is touched2 therefore1 carefulness and economy will be the characteristics of our teaching1 so far as regards the present subject4 ,the vast majority of working silversmiths know very little of the physical and chemical properties of the metal they employ1 and still less of the comparison it bears with other metals in the field of science2 and this want of scientific knowledge is nowhere more apparent than in our own country1 where the ,english workman1 in art education1 is much behind the foreigner2 and yet we have some of the finest and best workmen1 in their special branches1 in the whole world4 ,the ,english workman believes that if the work is worth doing at all1 it is worth doing well2 and we have no hesitation in saying1 that1 if a good technical education were afforded1 concerning the precious metal trades1 he would scarcely have an equal1 and certainly no superior1 abroad1 in art workmanship1 both in respect to the display of good taste and judgment1 combined with a knowledge of design1 so far as the exercise of these qualities is compatible with the manufacture of articles specially designed for use and ornament4 ,the object of the information we are about to supply is to enable the practical silversmith to become a perfect master of his art or profession2 and such a condition1 when once achieved1 will be found of considerable assistance to him in the various kinds of manufacture that present themselves2 so that he will know how to begin a piece of work and when to leave it off2 be able to remedy a defect in the metal when required1 as well as be in a position to form an opinion as to the relative treatment of its different alloys2 all of which invariably require different treatment4 ,we shall commence by describing the characteristics of fine silver1 carefully narrating the distinctive features of its alloys2 then give an account of the processes employed1 mechanical and chemical1 in the silversmith's workshop2 and conclude by pointing out the difference between ,english and foreign work in regard both to style and workmanship4 ,it may be thought by the reader1 if uninitiated in the art1 that the costly plate and other articles made from the precious metal are manufactured from entirely pure silver1 and therefore that they possess absolute freedom from alloy2 but this is not the case4 ,pure silver being far too soft to stand the necessary wear and tear of 7metallic7 life1 it is mixed with some other metal1 to give it increased hardness4 ,in the manufacture of plate and ornamental wares the metal employed is always copper1 in various proportions1 thus forming different commercial qualities2 and of these we shall speak hereafter4 ,our first object is to treat of the chemical and physical properties of the pure metal4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,silver4 ,pure silver is1 next to gold1 the finest metal1 but of a smoother and more polished nature4 ,it may be said to be almost infinitely malleable1 but it will not so easily yield or extend under the hammer as fine gold4 ,as a malleable metal1 however1 it stands next to it in this respect4 ,it is characterized by its perfectly white colour1 being the whitest of all the metals4 ,it is harder than gold1 yet in a pure state it is so soft that it can easily be cut with a knife4 ,on account of its extreme softness1 when in a pure state1 it is employed for filigree work1 being utterly devoid of that elastic power which is found in the metal when alloyed4 ,it is for this reason that the ,indian filigree workers1 who are the finest in the world1 are so very particular about the absolute purity of the metal before commencing the manufacture of their artistic work2 all of which is exceedingly beautiful4 ,it is reported that fine silver is capable of being beaten into leaves of less than one-hundred-thousandth part of an inch in thickness4 ,for the accuracy of this statement we cannot vouch1 never having had occasion to try the experiment2 its employment in that form being unknown in the ordinary industrial pursuits4 ,fine silver is extremely ductile1 and may be drawn into the very finest wire without breaking1 and almost without annealing4 ,its purity can be partly ascertained by the latter process2 for perfectly fine silver never changes colour by heat1 whereas when it contains alloy it blackens if heated in contact with a current of air1 and soon hardens in wire-drawing4 ,silver was a metallic element known to the ancients1 and it is repeatedly mentioned in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,in the time of the patriarchs we read of it as having been constantly employed in the transactions of nations1 and that it was in use as a standard of value2 thus forming a circulating medium for the purpose of exchange4 ,this function it has always continued to fulfil down to the present day1 except that since the year #ahaf it has not been so employed in the ,english currency4 ,however1 as token money1 it is everywhere recognised as a circulating medium of trade4 ,the ,egyptian symbol for silver was represented by ,fig4 #a1 relating to the moon2 in modern chemistry it is understood by ag4 from the ,latin name argentum1 denoting silver4 ,illustration3 ,luna4 ,fig4 #a4 ,egyptian mark for ,silver4 ,fine silver is capable of receiving a polish scarcely inferior in lustre to that of highly polished steel1 and in this state it reflects more light and heat than any other metal1 without any perceptible change of colour for some considerable time4 ,it is chiefly on this account1 as well as its resistance to oxidation in air and water1 that it is used for such a variety of purposes1 not only of ornament and luxury1 but also in a domestic way4 ,silver1 unlike gold1 cannot resist the influence of sulphuretted hydrogen1 from the action of which it very soon becomes much tarnished if left exposed in damp rooms1 c4 ,silver ranks next to gold in point of ductility and malleability4 ,when pure1 its density1 or specific gravity1 lies between #aj4dg and #aj4ej1 taking water as #a1 according to the degree of compression it has received by rolling and hammering4 ,it is fusible at a full red heat1 or about #ahgc ,fahr4 ,it is a metal having a very low radiating power for heat2 hence silver wire of given dimensions retains and conducts heat better than a similar piece of another metal2 for the same reason1 a liquid contained in a silver vessel retains its heat much longer than if placed in one made of some other substance4 ,silver volatilises when subjected to a very great temperature in the fire1 emitting rather greenish fumes4 ,it loses between #b_/basts and #c_/beths1 in proportion to its impurity1 of its absolute weight in air when weighed in water4 ,in point of tenacity it occupies the fifth position among the useful metals4 ,in hardness it lies between copper and gold2 and a small addition of the former substance considerably increases this quality1 in which state it is largely employed in the arts4 ,nitric acid is the proper solvent for silver1 as it dissolves it with the greatest ease and rapidity1 forming nitrate of silver1 which is much used for medical purposes1 and in art4 ,sulphuric and hydrochloric acids act upon it but slowly in the cold4 ,silver resists partially the best aqua-regia1 probably on account of the dense chloride which forms on the surface of the metal1 from the action of the hydrochloric acid in the mixture of aqua-regia4 ,fine silver is largely used in the industrial and commercial arts1 in the manufacture of silver lace and fine filigree work2 the latter branch being more commonly practised in ,india1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 and some parts of ,germany1 where labour is cheap1 than in ,england4 ,this class of silversmith's work takes a long time to produce1 and as labour forms the chief item of its cost1 this1 not unnaturally1 acts as a great drawback in the extension of the art of very fine filigree working1 in all its intricate variety1 in countries where labour is dear4 ,to this subject we shall subsequently refer again in detail4 ,fine silver1 with a small proportion of alloy1 is largely used by all nations for purposes of coinage4 ,it amalgamates with nearly all the metals1 but is principally used in alloys suitable to the watchmaker's and silversmith's art4 ,the purchasable price of fine silver for manufacturing purposes1 which in #ahhd was #ds4 #h;d4 is now1 #aiba1 #cs4 per ounce1 troy weight1 varying however in value according to the total amounts purchased2 for which see refiners' and assayers' charge lists1 to be procured at the offices of any bullion dealer4 ,the silver ores of commerce have generally an intermixture of a small quantity of gold1 and sometimes instances have occurred in which it has been employed in manufactures without a proper chemical investigation2 and in such cases the loss resulting from the omission would have amply paid the expenses of the process4 ,exposed to the action of hot and concentrated sulphuric acid1 silver dissolves1 setting free sulphurous acid4 ,by the application of this process--which is one of the most advantageous methods--silver may readily be separated from gold1 sulphuric acid having no action upon the latter metal4 ,with the exception of gold1 silver perhaps more perfectly resists the action of the caustic alkalies and the powerful effects of nitre 7saltpetre7 than any other metal1 if we omit platinum from the list of elements at present known to metallurgical chemistry4 ,for reasons such as these its superiority for the manufacture of utensils for culinary and other domestic purposes is at once apparent1 and because it is a metal upon which vegetable acids produce no effect4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,sources of ,silver4 ,strictly speaking1 silver mining does not exist as a distinct operation in ,great ,britain1 for it can hardly be said that this country possesses any great quantity of silver ore4 ,yet we must not disguise or leave unnoticed1 in dealing with this subject1 the positive fact that silver is found to some extent in our copper and lead mines1 principally in the latter2 but in no case1 as far as we know1 have mines been worked for the sake of the silver alone4 ,it is almost always found in conjunction with lead1 and it is from that source that we have a good supply of ,british silver4 ,the average annual yield in the ,british ,isles for some years has been equal to #hjj1jjj ounces--a position in regard to the quantity produced ranking second only to ,spain amongst the nations of the world1 ,america1 of course1 being excepted4 ,silver is found in a native state1 the commonest ore being a sulphuret4 ,the chief ,european supplies are derived from ,spain1 in which country genuine silver ore exists2 from ,saxony and ,prussia1 where the ores are principally associated with lead1 as in ,england2 and from ,austria1 where it is for the greater part found mixed with copper4 ,silver is nearly always to be found in copper and lead mines1 but generally in such small quantities that it is rarely worth the trouble and expense of separation4 ,considerably more than three-fourths of the whole total supply of silver comes from ,america2 and in fact nearly the whole territory of ,america is said to be more or less argentiferous4 ,until lately ,mexico carried off the palm1 as containing and yielding the largest percentage of silver2 but through the discovery of another mine in the ,united ,states1 at ,nevada1 of considerable richness1 which has yielded enormous supplies1 we shall not be far wrong in pronouncing the silver mines in the ,state of ,nevada to be the richest in the whole world4 ,the extensive production of these mines1 combined with other causes1 has led to a considerable depreciation in the value of silver1 and probably this may yet lead to its more extensive employment in the arts and manufactures2 and1 in the midst of the very general depression of the jewellery trade1 any change extending in that direction would be joyfully accepted by the thousands of workmen in the precious metal trades now standing idle4 ,we are told that1 since the year #ahfj1 the production of silver has increased from an average yield of eight or nine to fourteen millions per annum1 or about #fj per cent42 while1 on the other hand1 the foreign demand for the metal 7formerly largely employed for the currency7 has greatly diminished4 ,the rise in cost of silver during the war years and those immediately following necessitated an ,act in ,great ,britain to amend the law in respect of the standard fineness of silver coins current in the ,united ,kingdom and in other parts of ,his ,majesty's ,dominions4 ,the chief sources of supply in the ,british ,isles1 according to ,professor ,george ,gladstone1 are as given below2 and as all the silver found in this country is produced from lead ores1 the average yield here given must be understood to exist in about that proportion to every ton of lead ore assayed3--,isle of ,man1 #ej to #fj oz42 ,cornwall1 about #cj oz42 ,devonshire1 about #cj oz42 ,cardiganshire1 #ae to #bj oz42 ,montgomeryshire1 #ae to #bj oz4 ,thus1 it will be seen the lead ores of the ,isle of ,man yield the greatest proportion of silver in the ,british dominions4 ,silver is also found in the undermentioned counties1 in all of which it is produced from lead ore3--,cumberland1 ,durham1 and ,northumberland1 ,denbighshire1 ,flintshire1 and ,derbyshire2 but the percentage is much smaller than in the preceding cases4 ,ireland also yields a fair percentage of silver4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,assay of ,silver ,ores4 ,a large proportion of the silver of commerce is extracted from ores 7which are too poor to allow of their being smelted or fused7 by a process called amalgamation4 ,founded on the ready solubility of silver1 c41 in metallic mercury1 the ore is first crushed to powder1 then mixed with common salt1 and afterwards roasted4 ,by the adoption of this plan the silver is reduced to a state of chloride4 ,the roasting is done in a reverberatory furnace1 in which the heat is very gradually raised1 the ore being constantly stirred2 the heat is then increased sufficiently to raise the ore to a good red heat4 ,it is then put into wooden barrels1 revolving on iron axles attached to the ends1 and scraps of iron are then added to it2 both are then agitated together by rotary motion1 the effect of which is to reduce the chloride of silver to a metallic state4 ,when this is effected1 it is again agitated with mercury1 and a fluid amalgam is formed with the metal1 together with any other metallic ingredient that may happen to be present in the roasted ore4 ,subsequently1 to recover the silver1 the mercury is driven off by heat1 and the silver is thus left behind in an impure state4 ,there are three ways of assaying silver ores2 they are in the test assay as follows3-- #a4 ,melting in a crucible4 #b4 ,scorification4 #c4 ,cupellation4 ,in the crucible assay the ore is commonly run down with a suitable flux1 those most frequently employed being litharge1 carbonate of soda1 borax1 and charcoal4 ,these four substances are all that are required by the practical assayer in the treatment of the regular ores of silver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,fire-clay ,crucible4 ,the assaying of the genuine ores is performed in the following manner2 that is1 if they contain but little earthy matter4 ,they may then be conveniently treated by fusing with carbonate of soda1 on account of its cheapness1 and borax1 in a fire-clay crucible 7,fig4 #b74 ,the dimensions of the crucible should be as follows3 #d-a_/b inches in height1 and #b-a_/b inches in its greatest diameter1 which should be at the top4 ,a quantity of litharge 7a semi-vitrious substance1 oxide of lead71 more than is actually necessary to take up the whole of the silver in the ore1 should be added1 so as to promote fusion1 and collect the ingredients into one mass at the bottom of the crucible4 ,in preparing the ore for the crucible1 it must be well pounded1 and intimately mixed with the undermentioned chemicals3-- ,pounded silver ore #bdj grains4 ,litharge #hjj ,carbonate of soda #gjj ,borax #cjj ,charcoal #ej ,place two crucibles to warm during the time occupied in the preparation of the mixture1 then put it into the warm crucible2 take #ajj grains more of litharge1 and powder it over the contents in the vessel4 ,prepare in this manner a second mixture for the other crucible1 place them both in the furnace1 and put plenty of coke round them4 ,the mixtures may be melted in an ordinary wind or melting furnace1 such as is used by jewellers in the preparation of their material for art working4 ,the fusion should take place very gradually at first1 as silver in combination with lead is sensibly volatile at a high temperature3 it may then be continued at a low heat for twenty-five minutes1 and finally the operation may be completed with a full red heat for five minutes longer4 ,during the process of fusing the contents of the crucible may be watched by removing one of the bricks from the top of the furnace1 and when the whole mass has become quite liquid the crucible must be seized with a pair of suitable tongs1 tapped once or twice very lightly against the side of the furnace to procure the settlement of the contents1 and immediately poured into an iron mould1 previously warmed and greased to prevent adhesion and spitting4 ,allow the mould to remain for some time1 in order to partially cool1 and then plunge it into a vessel of cold water4 ,on cooling1 the metallic elements will be found incorporated into a button1 the slag can then easily be removed by tapping with a hammer on the edge1 and the plunging into cold water greatly facilitates this separation4 ,the whole mass has then to be cupelled1 in order to separate the silver from the lead and other metals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,fire-clay ,fusing ,cup4 ,silver ores1 containing a large proportion of the sulphides 7chemical combinations of sulphur with metallic substances7 of other metals1 may be easily assayed by the scorification process1 which is1 without exception1 applicable to the assay of all kinds of argentiferous ores2 and is one of the best1 most simple1 and most exact methods that can possibly be employed in the extraction of silver from its ores4 ,this process1 like that of fusion with litharge1 already described1 has the effect of producing an alloy1 and subsequently requires cupellation4 ,the ore is first well pounded1 and then put into a small shallow vessel made of close-grained refractory fire-clay 7,fig4 #c71 with an excess of finely granulated lead and some borax4 ,the fusing cup or scorifier employed in this process should be about #a-a_/b in4 high and #b-a_/b ins4 in its greatest diameter2 some assayers1 however1 use them deeper in proportion to their width1 and representing in form the end of an egg4 ,the object of this shape is to preserve the bath of molten metal at the bottom1 and that it may always be well covered and protected by the slag on the top during the process of fusing4 ,in the scorification method the principles are exactly the reverse of those of the crucible assay2 for in the latter the object is to reduce the oxide of lead to a metallic state1 whereas in the former the metallic lead added to the pounded ore in the scorifier is oxidized by being fused in contact with the air4 ,the charge for this assay may be as follows3-- ,well pounded ore #fj grains4 ,finely granulated lead #fjj ,borax anhydrous #ajj ,powdered anthracite #e ,the cups or scorifiers should be charged in the following manner3 well mix the silver ore with #cjj grains of granulated lead2 place this mixture in a scorifier1 and add #cjj grs4 more of granulated lead1 and over the top of the whole put the burnt borax4 ,the vessel may then be placed in an ordinary assay furnace or muffle1 as many being introduced at one time as there is room for in the furnace1 and submitted to the strongest heat for about thirty minutes2 during the greater portion of this time the door should be kept closed1 especially for the first fifteen minutes4 ,on opening the muffle-door a current of air passes through the furnace1 converting a portion of the lead into litharge2 this enters into combination with the earthy portions of the ore1 the other metallic sulphides1 and also the borax1 producing a fusible slag on the surface of the metallic bath1 extending over the whole surface of the scorifier4 ,the excess of lead is thus protected by this film or flux from the oxidizing effects of the currents of air admitted into the furnace1 and remains united with whatever silver there may be in the ore1 in a metallic state4 ,the fusing should be continued longer than the thirty minutes--in fact until the slag or flux is reduced into a perfectly liquid state2 stirring it well with a slender iron rod will facilitate the operation1 as it will tend to mix with the mass any hard portions remaining undissolved and attached to the sides or other parts of the vessels4 ,this condition of the flux is absolutely indispensable2 when the slags are quite liquid1 which with a strong fire will take place in from thirty to forty minutes1 wrap up in a piece of paper the powdered anthracite1 and drop it into the scorifier while still in the furnace or muffle4 ,the object of adding the anthracite at the last moment is to reduce any minute portions of the metal that may exist in the slags1 and remain separated from the bulk4 ,when the anthracite has burnt off1 which process usually takes about five minutes1 this point is considered to have been attained1 and the operation is then complete4 ,the scorifier may be immediately withdrawn from the fire1 and the contents poured into a suitable casting-mould1 of the form represented in ,fig4 #d1 a button of silver lead being the result4 ,when cold1 the metallic mass is readily separated from the slag or flux by slightly tapping with a hammer2 the former may then be passed on to the next operation1 viz4 to be purified of its lead by the process of cupellation1 which will be presently described4 ,when there is not enough borax present the assayer will observe an infusible skin floating upon the surface2 should this be the case more borax must at once be employed1 in order to dissolve such impurity4 ,when a chloride of silver ore is to be assayed1 carbonate of soda must be added to the mixture to prevent sublimation4 ,the following method of assaying is adopted in several large ,continental establishments1 where the ores have1 beside the usual earthy matter and the sulphides of lead1 an admixture of zinc1 iron1 and copper4 ,the process is precisely similar to the crucible assay1 in the case of genuine silver ores1 as already described--with this exception1 that no more lead is added than the ores then contain--that is1 if we are treating galena or silver lead2 other ores require different treatment according to their known composition4 ,in this process wrought-iron crucibles are employed having the form and shape as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,they are made of thick iron plate1 and are rendered secure by welding the edges firmly together4 ,their dimensions are as follows3 a depth of #d-a_/b ins41 with a thickness of iron at the bottom of #a-a_/b in41 and a #a_/d of an inch in the sides2 the diameter at the top of the crucible should be about #b-a_/b ins41 and at the bottom between #b and #b-a_/d ins4 ,a mechanical mixture or flux is prepared to use with the ores to which we have referred1 consisting of the following chemicals1 all of which should be finely powdered and well mixed with the ore to be assayed3-- ,carbonate of soda #f parts4 ,tartar #c ,saltpetre #b ,borax #a part4 ,the furnace used for this assay is the ordinary one1 having rather a high chimney1 to insure a perfect draught4 ,in effecting the reduction of the silver1 the crucible is first placed as before on the fire1 and allowed to become hot2 when this is accomplished1 take ,well powdered ore #dhj grains4 ,prepared flux #ejj ,these ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together1 and put into the red hot crucible4 ,fuse at a low heat for about twenty minutes1 when the whole will be in a perfect state of fusion2 then give about five minutes strong heat1 and at the end of that time the crucible may be withdrawn1 and its contents poured into an iron mould1 as represented in ,fig4 #d1 having one or two conical holes for the reception of the fused mass4 ,the silver and lead collect at the bottom of the mould by reason of its high specific gravity4 ,it may be removed by reversing the position of the latter1 when a gentle tap or two will deprive it of that slag or flux which is usually attached to it4 ,a large quantity of silver can be readily collected from its ores by an alternate use of crucibles1 in which case it is possible to make a regular number of fusions per hour4 ,wrought-iron crucibles1 when strongly prepared and carefully made1 will stand about thirty of these fusions1 giving way in the end on account of the action of the sulphur contained in the ores4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,iron ,casting-moulds4 ,another kind of crucible1 in addition to those already mentioned1 is used by the trade1 and is recommended by many assayers as superior to all others4 ,fig4 #f represents the form of it4 ,it is about #d-a_/b ins4 high1 and #b ins4 in its greatest interior diameter1 being in the form of a skittle4 ,the charge consists of the following in this assay3 ,finely powdered ore #fj grains4 ,small pieces of iron #ab ,black flux #ahj ,common salt #ej ,put the powdered ore into the crucible1 and place upon it the iron1 which should not be in the form of filings or dust1 but in small pieces2 upon the ore and iron should be put the black flux1 and lastly the common salt must be placed above all these substances as a protection against the air4 ,the crucibles1 as many as convenient1 may now be introduced into the furnace1 and slowly raised to a strong red heat1 at which temperature they should be kept for about half an hour2 at the end of that period they should be removed from the fire1 slightly tapped to settle the contents1 and then placed aside to cool4 ,when this has taken place1 a few blows with a hammer near the base of the crucibles1 each in turn1 will soon expose the button of silver attached to the undecomposed iron2 the latter substance may1 however1 be easily detached by a few well-directed blows with the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,iron ,crucible for ,assay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,fire-clay ,crucible for ,assay4 ,in order to ascertain the exact amount of the precious metal--that is1 the silver--contained in the buttons of lead obtained as the results of the foregoing operations1 they are subjected to a purifying process by the metallurgist1 called cupellation4 ,by this means the lead and other impurities are driven off by heat in contact with a current of air1 and the silver is left behind in a pure state4 ,to perform this operation it is necessary to expose the buttons on some absorbing medium or porous support1 and this support is commonly known as a cupel4 ,no doubt many porous substances could be made available for the formation of cupels1 but bone-ash is the best for all practical purposes1 such as are required by the assayer4 ,the bone-ash1 in the condition of a very fine powder1 is mixed with a little water in which has been dissolved a small quantity of potash1 and moulded into the desired shape4 ,the cupels are tightly consolidated by pressure in an iron mould of the form shown in ,fig4 #g1 which is the best in use1 being well adapted for the manufacture of cupels4 ,it consists of a slightly conical steel ring1 #b ins4 in depth1 and about #a-a_/b in4 in diameter at the top internally2 a steel die with a wooden handle 7,fig4 #h7 is made to fit the mould4 ,to make a cupel the space in the ring is nearly filled with the moistened bone-ash1 and pressed down by the hand1 and afterwards by the die1 the latter being driven into the ring by the application of a wooden mallet 7,fig4 #i7 to the handle of the die4 ,it will be seen from the illustration that the die forms a cavity in the cupel capable of receiving the charge of metal for assay4 ,when the bone-ash has been sufficiently compressed1 the die is withdrawn1 and the cupel removed from the ring4 ,this is a delicate operation1 as sometimes the edges of the cupel are liable to be injured2 to prevent which and facilitate the removal a loose plate of iron1 exactly fitting the bottom of the mould1 should be introduced previous to putting in the bone-ash4 ,the iron plate of course being removed with the cupel1 it must be replaced before another can be made4 ,by introducing a cylindrical piece of wood to the lower aperture of the steel ring1 the cupel can be removed without difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,cupel ,mould4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,die for ,cupel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,wooden ,mallet4 ,the size of the cupel should always be regulated according to the quantity of foreign matter to be absorbed1 it being generally understood that the material of which it is formed takes up double its weight of lead4 ,the process of cupelling is conducted in the furnace of the assayer1 an apparatus of peculiar construction1 the most important part of which1 however1 is the muffle 7,fig4 #aj71 consisting of a small arched oven of fire-clay closed at one end1 and furnished with perpendicular slits in the sides1 in order to allow of a free access of air to the cupels inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,assayer's ,muffle for ,cupels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,cupel ,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,cupels1 section and perspective views4 ,the position of the muffle in the furnace is so arranged that it can be readily heated on every side2 and when it has become red hot1 six or eight cupels1 previously well dried1 are taken and placed on the floor of it1 which should be covered with a thin layer of bone-ash4 ,the form of tongs required for this purpose is shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,when the cupels have been raised to the temperature of the muffle itself1 the assays are put in by a very slender pair of tongs1 the door of the furnace is then closed for a few minutes1 when the metal will have become fused1 and the litharge will begin to be taken up by the bone-ash of which the cupel is composed4 ,the temperature of the furnace is now lowered as much as possible1 although not to such an extent that it will retard the progress of oxidation and absorption4 ,when nearly the whole of the lead has been thus absorbed1 the bead remaining will have become very rich in silver1 and1 as the oxidation proceeds1 will appear much agitated1 assuming a rapid circular movement1 and revolving with great rapidity4 ,the silver gradually concentrates itself in the centre of the cupel1 taking the form of a globule1 and at this stage the fire should be made sharper1 the operation being carefully watched4 ,when the last particle of lead leaves the silver1 the agitation will suddenly cease1 and a beautiful phenomenon be witnessed1 called by assayers the brightening4 ,the button of silver then becomes brilliant and immovable1 and the operation1 when this takes place1 is complete4 ,the cupel must be cooled with very great care1 in order to prevent the silver from sprouting2 which if allowed to take place would result in considerable loss1 besides destroying the accuracy of the assay4 ,to prevent this sprouting it is a good plan immediately to cover the cupel by another1 which has been heated for that purpose2 the two are withdrawn together1 and allowed to remain at the mouth of the muffle until the silver has become solid2 the metal is then in a state of almost chemical purity1 and may be detached and weighed4 ,previous to the latter1 however1 it should be carefully cleansed from all foreign matter1 and flattened on a smooth-faced anvil1 this process greatly assisting in the removal of any oxide of lead1 which not unfrequently attaches itself to the globule of silver4 ,the weighing is conducted with a pair of scales having an extremely delicate balance2 and where any commercial transaction depends upon the accuracy of the assay1 it is always imperative to make several tests of the same sample1 to avoid the consequences of any accident or mistake4 ,the chief element in combination with silver on the large scale is lead4 ,formerly the plan adopted in the separation of this metal was cupellation alone4 ,this process on the large scale is somewhat different from that just described2 and as it may appear to the reader interesting and instructive1 a brief explanation of it may not be considered out of place4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,cupellation of ,silver ,ores4 ,this interesting process is performed in a reverberatory furnace of a very peculiar construction1 the cupel employed on the large scale differing somewhat from the ordinary one1 being considerably larger and varying also in form4 ,it consists of a strong oval wrought-iron ring1 with a part of the full shape omitted1 as shown in accompanying sketch1 in order to allow of the overflow of lead during the process1 in the form of litharge4 ,this iron ring1 known as the test ring1 contains the cupel1 and in order to prepare the latter1 the frame1 which measures about #fj ins4 in its longest diameter1 #dj ins4 in breadth1 and #f ins4 in depth1 is strengthened by having a number of broad strips of iron seamed across the bottom by riveting to the sides of it4 ,the cupel itself is prepared for use by taking finely ground bone-ash1 together with a little carbonate of potash1 and working them up with just sufficient water to make the mass cohere properly2 the carbonate of potash may be advantageously dissolved in the water2 the latter is then applied in small quantities at a time to the bone-ash until the proper coherency has been obtained2 of the total quantity of bone-ash employed in the operation1 #b per cent4 of potash will be quantum sufficit to mix with it4 ,the iron frame1 or test1 is then filled with the mixture1 and it is pressed down into a solid compact mass1 the centre part being hollowed out with a small trowel1 the sides sloping towards the concavity in the middle2 the hollow should not however be extended more than within #a to #a-a_/b in4 of the bottom of the frame1 and above the iron bars4 ,the cupel forms the hearth of the furnace we have spoken of1 and of which ,fig4 #ac is a sectional view2 it is removable1 and not a fixture in the furnace4 ,it must be left for several days to dry1 after having been constructed as described1 when it is ready for use1 and only requires firmly wedging in its place beneath the arch of the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,cupels1 section and perspective views4 ,the fire should be only very moderate at the commencement of the operation1 and the furnace slowly raised in temperature1 lest the cupel should crack by being too quickly heated4 ,as the temperature increases1 if without any apparent defects in the bone-ash cupel1 or hearth1 which it may now be termed1 the wind or blast1 generally driven by a fan1 is thrown in through a nozzle1 or an aperture in the furnace1 which1 for facilitating the immediate removal of the bone-ash hearth1 is placed upon an iron car1 and runs beneath the vault of the furnace on rails1 so that it may thus be very readily withdrawn when found necessary4 ,the admission of a current of air into the furnace oxidizes the excess of lead1 in combination with the silver1 producing litharge on the surface of the molten mass2 the formation of the litharge takes place rapidly1 and it is continually blown forward by the strength of the blast as fast as it is produced1 running through a gap or channel specially made for the purpose in the mouth of the cupel into a movable iron pot which is placed for its reception4 ,the continual oxidization and flow-off of the lead alters the respective proportions of the metals in the cupel4 ,for this reason it is always kept full of lead ore1 which is effected by taking it in its fused state from a kettle in which it is ready melted by means of a long-handled ladle2 and thus about #ejj or #fjj lbs4 of metal are constantly kept in this bone-ash cupel or hearth4 ,as the silver necessarily increases in the hearth1 it will require to be occasionally withdrawn1 in order to make room for a further supply of lead ore4 ,this process is adopted when it reaches about from #h to #aj per cent4 of silver to the ton 7between #b1jjj and #c1jjj ozs471 and may be effectually performed by drilling a hole underneath the cupel1 and letting the silver flow through it into a receptacle placed to receive it4 ,of course the operations of the furnace are arrested while these manipulations are being carried on4 ,after the withdrawal of the silver1 the hole is closed up again with a plug of moistened bone-ash prepared as before2 when the process may be continued a second time by giving #ejj or #fjj lbs4 of fresh lead ore to the cupel4 ,thus a single cupel will often last #dh hours1 and #f or #g tons of lead may be oxidized upon it4 ,we have already observed that the prolongation of the cupelling process increases the richness of the remaining alloy1 and this very rich silver-lead alloy is again subjected to a second operation in cupelling4 ,this process of assaying or refining is similar in every respect to the former1 and is often performed in the same furnace1 the cupel being first of all brought to almost a bright red heat1 when about #fjj lbs4 of the silver-lead alloy are added1 and a strong current of air given in order to oxidize the remaining lead in combination with the silver4 ,in this operation the material under treatment1 previous to its introduction to the cupel1 should be melted in a kettle easy of access1 and added in its fused state4 ,the current of air in connection with the heat of the furnace immediately begins to purify the silver by oxidizing the lead1 and forms litharge1 which passes off through the channel provided in the mouth of the cupel2 as this proceeds1 fresh silver-lead alloy is added1 to keep the level of the metal always at the same height4 ,this is continued until some three tons of the alloy from the first cupellation have been put in1 and when about #fjj or #gjj lbs4 of silver are collected in the cupel4 ,when the cupel has received the above proportion of metal1 the addition of the alloy ceases1 and the silver is allowed to purify4 ,the litharge which passes off towards the close of this process will be richer in silver than in the former one2 consequently it is found best in practical metallurgical operations to treat in a special manner the last part of silver cupelling on the large scale1 for it needs very careful management indeed to secure all the silver1 especially to do so in a fine state4 ,towards the completion of the process the fire should be increased considerably1 in order to keep the silver thoroughly melted1 and also to oxidize and completely remove every trace of lead that is possible4 ,as it begins to purify itself from the remaining lead a characteristic brightness will be perceived4 ,when this takes place the fire must be lowered1 the wind or blast stopped1 and the metal left to cool gradually4 ,this latter proceeding is of some importance1 as a too sudden cooling of the surface causes the interior of the metal to expand and shoot1 by which means little globules of silver may be lost2 therefore it should be allowed to cool very slowly4 ,the iron ring encircling the cupel with its contents may now be drawn from beneath the arch of the furnace1 and the cake of silver taken from its bed in the bone-ash which formed the vessel1 and cleaned of any impurity2 when it may be re-melted in a plumbago crucible1 and cast into ingot moulds4 ,these moulds should be made of iron1 and should always1 when used for this purpose1 be warmed and greased a little1 previous to the introduction of the melted material1 to prevent the metal from spitting and adhering to it4 ,if skilfully treated during the process of cupellation1 the desilvered lead seldom contains more than #jjb to #jjc per cent4 of silver to the test assay of #bjj grs41 or between six and ten pennyweights to the ton1 beyond which point it is unprofitable to carry on the operation4 ,the litharge which is formed and passes off during the process gradually grows richer in silver towards the end of the cupellation4 ,it probably contains after concentration about thirty to forty ounces of silver to the ton of litharge4 ,this is again subjected to the several operations of the same kind for the recovery of the silver4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that the present method of recovering and purifying this metal bears a strong resemblance to that employed in ancient times1 and which is spoken of in the ,holy ,scriptures by the prophet ,ezekiel 7xxii4 #ah and #bj73 ,son of man1 the house of ,israel is to me become dross3 all they are brass1 and tin1 and iron1 and lead1 in the midst of the furnace2 they are even the dross of silver4 ,and also1 ,as they gather silver1 and brass1 and iron1 and lead1 and tin1 into the midst of the furnace1 to blow the fire upon it1 to melt it2 so will ,i gather you in mine anger and in my fury1 and ,i will leave you there1 and melt you4 ,the celebrated metallurgist ,dr4 ,lamborn says1 ,only those who have seen1 beneath the glowing arch at the smelting works1 flames surging wave after wave across the surface of the liquid metal1 carrying all the substances1 here called dross1 from the pure silver2 and only those who have heard the roar of the fiery blast1 that ceases neither day nor night1 until its task of purification is accomplished1--can appreciate the terrible force of the figure made use of by the prophet4 ,according to the above scriptural passage it is evident that the ancients were in possession of the first rudiments of assaying1 and understood to some extent the purification of metals2 but scriptural testimony does not point out with what amount of skill and success these operations were performed4 ,judging from the appliances which have been handed down from generation to generation1 we are inclined to think they must have been practised somewhat rudely2 for it has been left to the present school of scientific and practical metallurgists to found and develop the art in the direction of that commercial success to which it has at the present day attained4 ,this plan of cupellation which we have just described is still adopted in many continental works in the assaying of silver-lead ores4 ,in ,england the system has been almost entirely superseded by one invented by the late ,mr4 ,pattinson of ,newcastle1 and which is confidently stated to be far more convenient in practice4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,alloys of ,silver4 ,fine silver enters freely into combination with nearly all the useful metals1 but its most important alloys are those prepared from copper1 the latter substance being more suitable for the production of silversmith's work than any other2 whilst it produces a more pleasing effect1 if not over-alloyed1 in regard to finish4 ,silver articles1 especially of the filigree kinds1 if the designs are good1 possess a very tasteful appearance4 ,in treating of the alloys of silver1 it is our intention1 first1 to give a cursory glance at the chemical and physical properties of the metals which form these alloys4 ,such a description1 although brief1 will1 we believe1 prove of essential service1 not only to working silversmiths and metalsmiths1 but also to goldsmiths and jewellers1 who are constantly manipulating with these inferior metals in precisely the same way as the silversmith4 ,besides1 such information cannot1 we apprehend1 fail to be useful1 whether to the student1 the theorist1 or the practical worker4 ,an alloy is the union of two or more metals by fusion1 so as to form a metallic compound4 ,it may consist of any number of the metallic elements1 and in any proportion1 provided they will chemically combine1 always excepting mercury as one of the ingredients4 ,in this latter case the mixture is called an amalgam4 ,chemistry has made us acquainted with about forty-nine metals2 of that number1 however1 not more than fourteen are employed to any considerable extent for industrial art purposes4 ,they are as follow3 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 zinc1 platinum1 aluminum1 nickel1 iron1 mercury1 lead1 tin1 arsenic1 antimony1 and bismuth4 ,some of these are occasionally employed for special purposes in the arts in their pure state2 but where hardness is to be a distinguishing characteristic1 combined with certain variations in shades of colour1 a union is effected of two or more of these metals in different proportions1 by fusion and stirring1 so as to form the requisite alloy4 ,metals used in the pure state1 that is1 without any mixture of alloy1 have very few applications in regard to industrial pursuits and the arts4 ,the precious metals--gold1 silver1 c4--would be much too soft1 while1 on the other hand1 arsenic1 bismuth1 and antimony would be far too brittle to be employed alone for manufacturing purposes4 ,it is quite possible to effect some thousands of alloys1 but there do not appear to have been more than about three hundred practised successfully for commercial purposes4 ,the principal alloy of silver1 as we have already remarked1 is copper2 but1 occasionally1 nickel1 and even zinc are employed in the case of the commoner qualities of silver4 ,tin is also used in the preparation of solder for these qualities1 in order to render it the more easy of fusion when used for soldering the work4 ,of the distinctive features of these elements of silver-alloy we shall now speak with some amount of detail4 ,silver will unite with copper in various proportions by melting the two ingredients together1 and stirring them whilst in a fused state4 ,a product will thus be formed differing physically in character from fine silver1 caused by the loss of some little of the latter's ductility and malleability2 but1 on the other hand1 a compound will be produced harder and more elastic1 which is in every sense better adapted to the manufacture and also to the durability of the articles made by the silversmith4 ,copper1 like the precious metals1 appears to have been known from a very early age1 being one of the six metals spoken of in the ,old ,testament2 and described by the historian as being also one of the seven made use of by the ancient philosopher4 ,it is of a reddish colour1 malleable1 ductile1 and tenacious4 ,it is largely employed in alloying both gold and silver for the manufacture of jewellery and other articles4 ,with regard to malleability1 it stands next to gold and silver in the list of useful metals2 in ductility it occupies the fifth position2 and in tenacity one only is superior1 viz4 iron4 ,it is not very fixed in the fire1 for if subjected to a long-continued heat it loses a part of its substance2 for this reason the alloys of silver and copper should be carefully watched in the crucible to prevent this loss when under the action of the fire4 ,when struck copper gives only a feeble sound1 and is easily abraded by the file4 ,it fuses at a good white heat1 or about #aiid ,fahr41 although some authors have given it as #aiif ,fahr4 ,its specific gravity varies between #hhh for cast copper1 and #hif when rolled and hammered4 ,it loses between one-eighth and one-ninth1 or #d_/ceths1 of its weight in water4 ,when exposed to a damp atmosphere a greenish oxide1 called verdigris1 is produced on its surface1 and this is one of the reasons why silver articles containing a percentage of copper become so readily discoloured if left exposed to atmospheric influences2 copper also1 if heated in contact with the air1 quickly becomes oxidized1 and1 on being touched1 scales fall off3 these form the protoxide of copper4 ,if this process is frequently repeated under a great heat1 each time the metal is operated upon it loses a part of its malleability and ductility1 which are both eminent characteristics of the pure metal4 ,most of the ordinary acids act on copper but slowly in the cold1 but nitric acid very readily dissolves it1 even if largely diluted4 ,copper amalgamates with most of the metals1 and its subsidiary alloys are very largely employed in the arts and manufactures of every kind4 ,the bean-shot copper of commerce1 costing about a shilling per pound avoirdupois weight1 is quite good enough for all the practical purposes of the silversmith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,venus4 ,egyptian ,mark for ,copper4 ,the name given to this metal by the alchemists was ,venus 7,fig4 #ad71 which is one of the principal planets1 whose orbit is situated between the ,earth and ,mercury4 ,the scientific name of cuprum for copper is derived from the ,isle of ,cyprus1 where1 it is said by ,pliny1 the ,greeks discovered the method of mining and working it4 ,copper is found distributed all over the world2 a considerable portion1 however1 is found in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,nickel4--,this metal is found chiefly in the ,hartz ,mountains4 ,it was formerly called by the ,germans ,kupfer nickel1 or false copper1 nickel being a term of detraction4 ,it was first discovered about a century and a half ago by ,cronstedt4 ,it has a greyish-white colour1 and is slightly magnetic1 i4e4 it is attracted by the magnet in the same way as iron and steel1 but it loses this property if heated to about #fjj ,fahr4 ,its specific gravity varies between #hdj and #hej1 according to the amount of compression it has received1 and it is rather brittle2 it may1 however1 be drawn into wire1 and rolled flat1 or into sheets4 ,it is considerably harder and less ductile than any of the other metals employed in jeweller's and silversmith's work4 ,in hardness it nearly approaches iron1 and on this account1 when polished1 a characteristic brightness is produced4 ,the malleability of nickel is less than that of iron1 standing tenth in the list of useful metals2 and in ductility it also occupies the tenth position4 ,nickel is very infusible1 and does not so easily oxidize or tarnish at ordinary temperatures as copper does4 ,several countries have tried to employ it in the manufacture of small coin for the currency1 but its use has now been almost abandoned4 ,nickel alloys are much used in the arts for manufacturing purposes1 under the name of ,german silver1 there being large demand for this metal1 as it forms the hard white alloy much used in making electro-plate1 and on which silver is afterwards deposited4 ,it also is used in common silver alloys1 in order to keep up the whiteness of the latter element1 the addition of too large a proportion of copper maintaining the tint of the latter metal1 in too strong a degree to be altogether employed by the silver-worker4 ,nickel is sometimes specially employed1 in combination with other metals1 to replace or imitate silver in the manufacture of commercial wares1 while with copper1 zinc1 tin1 c41 it forms very useful alloys1 producing great hardness4 ,zinc4--,this metal in its pure state is sometimes called spelter4 ,at the present day it is not much used for alloying silver2 but1 as it is commonly employed in the preparation of silver-solder1 it is necessary that the amateur and the student should know1 as well as the practical mechanic1 the distinctive characteristics of it1 together with the qualities it imparts to others when in combination with them4 ,as a metallic substance it was unknown until a long time subsequent to the discovery of the principal metals2 and only since the commencement of the present century has its uses been thoroughly known and appreciated in the industrial world4 ,in its pure state1 zinc is a bluish-white metal1 hard and highly crystalline2 but1 when raised to a heat of between #bej and #cjj ,fahr41 it is malleable1 and may safely be rolled and hammered3 it is in this way that the zinc of commerce is produced4 ,zinc may be annealed by placing it for a time in boiling water4 ,its specific gravity varies between #fh and #gb1 according to the previous kind of mechanical treatment it has received4 ,at #ggc ,fahr4 it melts1 and is quickly oxidized by exposure to a current of air1 emitting white vapours1 which rise into the air1 and are not unlike cotton-flakes2 oxide of zinc is thus formed by the burning away of the zinc4 ,spelter or zinc is employed by jewellers in the manufacture of bright gold alloys1 as it gives liveliness of colour to their wares not to be equalled by any other metal4 7,for the proportions and treatment of this composition see ,the ,goldsmith's ,handbook47 ,it may be alloyed with most of the metals we have named2 its uses in roofing1 gutters1 spouting1 and chimney-pots being all well known4 ,all the acids very readily attack it in the gold1 and even when largely diluted2 it speedily tarnishes1 and becomes covered with a white oxide which protects the metal from atmospheric influences4 ,in point of malleability zinc stands eighth among the metals1 seventh in ductility1 and as regards tenacity about seventh also4 ,in chemistry it is represented by the symbol ,zn4 ,its value when in a state of purity1 commercially speaking1 is about #d;d4 per4 lb4 ,tin4--,this appears to have been one of the oldest known metals1 and was employed in the ,egyptian arts by the ancients1 in combination with copper4 ,its colour is white1 with a shining lustre almost as brilliant as that of silver1 but it tarnishes much more quickly than alloys of the latter metal4 ,with the exception of aluminum and zinc1 it is the lightest of all the metals1 its density being between #gj and #gc1 whether cast1 hammered1 or rolled4 ,it is found in abundance in ,cornwall1 where it was also obtained at a very early period by the ,phoenicians2 and it is reported in ,soame's ,latin ,church1 p4 #cj1 that it was through the medium of the trade in tin that ,christianity was first introduced into this country4 ,tin is not of a fixed nature like gold or silver1 but melts in a moderate fire long before it becomes red hot1 or about #ddb ,fahr4 ,it is rapidly oxidized when kept for a long time in a fire having a free access to the air2 and it is dissolved by hydrochloric1 sulphuric1 and nitric acids1 the latter acting on it most powerfully4 ,tin should not be alloyed with gold or silver1 as with either of these it easily enters into combination by fusion1 rendering them extremely brittle1 especially in the case of silver1 which becomes by the least mixture of it so brittle that it is totally unfit for the work of the silversmith4 ,however1 for solder1 for filing into dust1 it may be advantageously employed to promote a quicker fusion2 but even for this it should be avoided where it is possible to do so4 ,the vapours of tin are also permanently injurious in the melting of gold1 silver1 and their alloys1 as they render them very unworkable1 and the operator being often at a loss to understand the cause of his misfortune2 therefore1 in melting silver alloys1 it is advisable to avoid as much as possible the introduction of little bits of scrap tin into the furnace4 ,if such a thing should happen1 however1 make the fire once or twice stronger in order that the tin may all be destroyed before the crucible containing the silver alloy is put in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,jupiter4 ,egyptian mark for ,tin4 ,tin is very malleable1 moderately ductile1 and tenacious1 being fifth on the list for malleability1 eighth for ductility1 and eighth for tenacity4 ,the ,egyptian mark or symbol for tin 7sign of ,jupiter7 was the same as is represented in ,fig4 #ae1 and related to the planet of that name1 one remarkable for its brightness4 ,in mythology it is understood as representing the supreme deity of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the modern scientific name for tin is ,sn4 ,tin loses over one-seventh1 or #d_/biths1 of its weight in water from its absolute weight in air4 ,in the next chapter we shall treat of the mixing of silver alloys1 c41 and in order to make our information regarding the various metals so employed as complete as possible1 we shall conclude this one with the following tables1 each of which will no doubt be found useful3-- ,table of ,metallic ,elements4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,names of ,elements4 ,symbols4 ,specific ,gravities4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,platinum ,pt #badj to #baej ,gold ,au #aibe #aiej ,mercury ,hg #acef #acei ,lead ,pb #aadj #aade ,silver ,ag #ajdg #ajej ,bismuth ,bi #ihb #iij ,copper ,cu #hhi #hif ,nickel ,ni #hej #hfj ,iron ,fe #ggg #ghj ,tin ,sn #gbe #gcj ,zinc ,zn #fhj #gbj ,antimony ,sb #fge #fhj ,arsenic ,as #egj #eij ,aluminum ,al #bef #bfj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,melting-points of the ,principal ,metals4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,names of ,elements4 ,fahrenheit4 ,centigrade4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,platinum ,infusible1 except by the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe4 ,cast ,iron #bghf #aecj ,nickel #bgjj #adhb ,gold #bjaf #aajb ,copper #aiid #ajij ,silver #ahgc #ajbc ,aluminum #acjj #gje ,zinc #ggc #dab ,lead #fab #cbb ,bismuth #dig #beh ,tin #ddb #bbh ,antimony ,fuses a little below red heat4 ,arsenic ,volatilises before it fuses4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,physical ,properties of the ,principal ,metals4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,malleability4 ,ductility4 ,tenacity4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,gold ,gold ,iron #edi ,silver ,silver ,copper #cjb ,copper ,platinum ,aluminum #cjj ,aluminum ,iron ,platinum #bgd ,tin ,copper ,silver #ahg ,platinum ,aluminum ,gold #aej ,lead ,zinc ,zinc #aji ,zinc ,tin ,tin #cd ,iron ,lead ,lead #bg ,nickel ,nickel ,b ---------------------------------------- ---- ,b ,the above weights were lbs4 sustained by #jghg of a line in diameter1 in wires of the various metals4 ,,chapter ,,vi4,c ,various ,qualities of ,silver4 ,c ,see observations on ,depreciation of ,cost ,price of ,silver in ,preface to ,fourth ,edition 7pp4 vii1 viii71 and the new ,table of ,cost ,prices of ,alloys in this ,chapter1 following the ,preface 7p4 ix74 ,the chemical and physical properties of fine silver having been dealt with in a preceding chapter1 we shall not refer to them again in detail2 but1 as we have already observed that it is sometimes employed in its pure state for special purposes1 it is desirable that we should point out the uses to which it has been applied1 especially those of a mechanical nature4 ,with reference to the latter part of the subject we will now proceed to describe the commercial utility of the metal4 ,one of the greatest demands for pure silver--if not the greatest of all--is in the manufacture of fine filigree work1 a branch of industry extensively practised on the ,continent4 ,this kind of silversmith's work was attempted to be revived in this country during the years #ahfd-e1 ,birmingham and ,london being the principal places where the manufacture was carried on2 but the success of the undertaking as a staple industry must1 at the most1 have been only a partial one1 for it soon declined1 and the trade was thus virtually left1 as before1 in the hands of our ,eastern competitors2 most of whom produce splendid specimens of the art of filigree and fine wire-working4 ,in ,india this work is wonderfully performed1 and it is truly marvellous to witness the beautiful handiwork of the natives who practise this craft4 ,their productions are quite the work of the true artist1 almost every article representing ,nature in some of her various forms1 such as flowers1 animals1 serpents1 c41 and these are so skilfully imitated that no one could possibly dispute either the faithfulness of the representation or the ability of the workman4 ,this is all the more surprising1 because in ,india the natives have not the modern mechanical appliances which we possess in this country4 ,the jeweller there represents to some extent our travelling tinker1 only with this difference1 that the travelling tinker in this country is generally an inexperienced and unskilful workman1 whereas the ,indian1 if we are to judge him by his work1 must be just the reverse4 ,filigree wire-work is manufactured in ,italy1 ,germany1 ,norway1 and ,sweden1 and the secret of these countries maintaining the monopoly in this branch of the silversmith's trade is that labour there is cheap2 and not in any sense because ,english workmen cannot make the articles in question4 ,it is owing to this cheapness of labour and the inexpensiveness of living that our ,continental competitors can beat us by underselling us in the market2 and to no other cause can the production of the foreign cheap article be assigned4 ,in ,india the art of working in silver and gold has long been practised1 and so particular are the workmen there about the absolute purity of the metals they use1 that they refine them by melting five times1 under a very strong blast heat1 before commencing the work of manufacture4 ,the principal places where these art-manufactures are carried on are in ,southern ,india and at ,trichinopoly2 and in these districts the delicacy and intricacy of the workmanship are brought to the greatest possible perfection4 ,the articles produced there are all hand-made1 and wrought entirely with a few simple tools1 such as a hammer and an anvil 7both of which are highly polished and burnished71 a few fine pliers1 blow-pipes1 burnishers1 scrapers1 a pair of fine dividers1 and some delicate scales and weights2 these1 with a few perforated steel-plates for drawing the wire through1 comprise the chief appliances of the travelling native jewellers4 ,the process of the work is very simple4 ,it is commenced by hammering out the metal upon the anvil1 and when it has assumed a certain degree of thinness the dividers are next brought into requisition to mark it into certain widths1 which are subsequently cut into strips and drawn into very fine wire through perforated steel-plates1 a pair of strong pliers being used for the purpose4 ,the holes in the steel-plates consist of graduated sizes1 and by this means the strips of metal are soon considerably reduced2 and when the proper thinness has been attained the wire is ready for the exercise of the practical skill and dexterity of the artisan1 who produces from it the best filigree work in the world4 ,most of the native jewellers have books containing a variety of designs1 but they more commonly work from memory1 without any reference to patterns4 ,the principal localities where this description of work is produced in the highest perfection are ,delhi1 ,cuttack1 and ,trichinopoly1 in ,india2 and ,genoa1 ,paris1 ,florence1 ,malta1 ,norway1 and ,sweden4 ,the ,indian filigree work is the finest and cheapest in the world4 ,the ,maltese manufacture a very good kind1 and their crosses are much admired2 so also do the ,chinese and ,japanese1 but the manufactures of these latter countries are not so tasteful as those of ,india1 consequently they have not been so highly appreciated4 ,norway and ,sweden produce filigree work of a very light weight2 but still their productions in this art will not compare in regard to effect with the finest specimens from ,india4 ,we have said that the silver employed by the filigree worker should be in every case absolutely pure2 because1 when it is quite fine1 it is extremely soft and pliable1 so that it will remain in almost any form the artist may choose to work it1 without that springiness which is found in all alloyed metals4 ,however small might be the amount of alloy contained in the metal1 the least admixture of it would produce an elasticity in the wire when pressed into form which would make it unworkable for fine filigree purposes2 and in this state it would be the utter bane of the workman1 as his progress would be altogether impeded in the production of his work4 ,it is of the greatest importance that the spirals1 and all the various forms required in filigree working1 should remain steadily in their places when pressed into shape1 without that rebounding which happens in the case of metals of an elastic nature1 and in consequence of which no really first-class work can be performed in connection with this art4 ,for such reasons as these it will be at once palpable even to the ordinary reader that fine silver should always be used in preference to alloyed in the manufacture of filigree work4 ,the various ornaments of the filigree kind are commonly enclosed in a rim of plain and somewhat stronger wire1 which gives additional strength to each part2 and1 when put together1 tends to compose an article of considerably greater durability4 ,in ,england these outside rims consist exclusively of sterling or standard silver1 whilst all the inner work is of the finer material4 ,there are several methods of preparing the wire called filigree4 ,the oldest and the one almost invariably practised in ,india consists in the first place in drawing down the wire in a circular form until the very lowest possible thinness has been attained1 and frequently annealing it during the process1 which is done by heating it to a red heat in a muffle placed upon an iron or copper pan4 ,when this process has been effectually performed the wire is taken 7if of the proper degree of thinness7 and doubled together2 these two fine wires are then twisted into one cord1 which should be of the fineness desired4 ,the wire requires annealing more than once during the process of twisting1 and when it is completed it has a corded appearance1 it is then ready for the manufacture of the various articles comprised in this kind of work4 ,the old plan of twisting was accomplished in the following manner4 ,one end of the doubled wire being firmly secured in a vice or some other suitable instrument1 so as to prevent it from turning round and so prevent the progress of the work1 the other end of it was also firmly secured in a small hand machine or vice1 which was made to revolve by turning a small handle with the right hand1 the machine being held and regulated with the left1 in order to keep the wire out at its full length so as to avoid knotting in the various parts of it2 it was in this manner that fine filigree wire was in the first instance made4 ,the second plan was somewhat different1 and in regard to the last part of the process it was certainly a great advantage1 especially in the saving of labour1 as a greater quantity could be prepared in a much less time than by the old method1 that being slow in its progress4 ,here the lathe was made to supply the place of the small hand machine1 the speed of which soon brought about the object in view4 ,the flattening of this twisted wire has now commonly come into use1 and is effected by passing it through small steel rollers1 hardened and polished4 ,the object of this is soon manifest1 as the labour-saving process is brought prominently into play3 the wire in the first place need not be so finely drawn1 and secondly the same filigree surface can be made to appear upon the articles as before1 by securing the edges of the wires which show the filigree uppermost2 and this is always the case in manipulating with this kind of wire4 ,this method is generally in vogue with most filigree workers4 ,a third plan of preparing the material for the manufacture of filigree work is1 we believe1 due to the ingenuity of a celebrated ,birmingham firm1 who extensively practised this kind of work some years ago4 ,the secret is not now generally known to the trade1 therefore a few observations bearing upon it will not be unacceptable to those for whose benefit we are writing4 ,the process is commenced in the same manner as before1 in the preparation of the round wire1 though this need not be drawn so fine1 because by this method we have no twisting4 ,when the round wire has arrived at the proper size it is flattened in the manner already explained2 and when this is done it should be annealed1 but experience will dictate best when this particular process should be carried out4 ,after this latter operation the wire is submitted to the action of very small rollers1 and bearing the pattern required in small grooves of various sizes4 ,the pattern takes effect upon the edges of the wires only1 and resembles the milled or serrated edges of our coinage1 only of course the latter bears no comparison with regard to fineness4 ,lastly1 the wire is again passed through the flattening rollers1 and then it is ready to be worked up into the object desired4 ,having gone through the general details of filigree working we shall next direct our attention to the component parts and commercial uses of the ,english standards1 together with those of some other countries4 ,in ,england there are two silver standards1 called respectively the old and the new standards4 ,they are as follows3-- ,fine silver per lb4 troy4 ,old ,standard1 #aa oz4 #b dwts4 #ibe millims4 ,new ,standard1 #aa oz4 #aj dwts4 #iei millims4 ,the older of these appears to have been always the legally recognised standard for the coinage1 and also for the manufacture of plate4 ,by a law passed1 however1 in the reign of ,william ,,iii4 7#afig7 it was raised to #aa oz4 #aj dwts4 of fine silver in the pound troy weight4 ,the manufacture of silver articles from this standard was soon found to be not so durable as those made under the older one2 consequently the silversmiths were permitted by a law passed in the reign of ,george ,,iii4 7#ahai7 to manufacture from the former standard of #aa oz4 #b dwts41 the use of the new one being likewise permitted for the benefit of those who chose to avail themselves of it2 and to this day it remains an ,english standard1 though hardly ever employed4 ,by the ,silver ,coinage ,act 7#aj ,geo4 #e71 the fineness of the ,british coinage was reduced on account of the increased price of silver bullion2 and the silver coinage now consists of one-half silver1 one-half alloy1 one troy pound of silver being coined into sixty-six shillings4 ,the copper which composes the alloy in the silver coinage hardens the material employed1 and it is found to wear better4 ,in order to make the matter as simple as possible1 we purpose giving a few practical alloys1 as follows3-- ,old standard silver alloy1 cost #ds4 #d;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ah #ab ,shot ,copper #j #a #ab ---------------- #a #j #j ,if it is intended that the above alloy should be for ,hall-marking1 it will be advisable to add a little extra silver to the prepared composition1 because fine silver purchased from the refiner or bullion dealer is never absolutely pure1 consequently the work will not pass the ,hall2 or better still alloy as follows3-- ,old standard silver for ,hall marking4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ah #ad ,shot ,copper #j #a #aj ---------------- #a #j #j ,the new standard silver is composed of #ch-a_/c-djths of fine silver and #a-b_/c-djths of copper alloy2 or millesimal fineness #iei parts of fine silver and #da parts of copper per #a1jjj parts2 the remedy being as before #jjjd parts4 ,new standard silver alloy1 cost #ds4 #f;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ai #d ,shot ,copper #j #j #bj ---------------- #a #j #j ,new standard silver for ,hall marking4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ai #f ,shot ,copper #j #j #ah ---------------- #a #j #j ,quality commonly used in ,england4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ah #j ,shot ,copper #j #b #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,the qualities of the silver employed by the ,english silversmiths are invariably below the standard1 the duties1 assay charges1 and loss of time in sending the work to the ,hall to be marked acting as a great drawback to the trade in the midst of the keen competition of the present day4 ,silver chains1 brooches1 buckles1 collarets1 c4 are for the most part manufactured from inferior metal4 ,in fact1 some manufacturers positively refuse to make ,hall-marked goods1 on account of the great drawbacks attending the marking4 ,the alloys of silver are not calculated on the carat system1 like gold1 but by certain numbers1 or other distinctive features1 well understood by the particular firms which trade in silver wares4 ,for our present purpose it will be sufficient to distinguish them by using the numerals1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c42 the alloy nearest approaching sterling or standard we shall call ,no4 #a1 and so on downwards until the lowest quality has been reached4 ,we may state that silver does not lose its whiteness if not alloyed below equal quantities of the two metals2 however1 the alloys used in manufactures seldom reach so low a limit4 ,silver alloy ,no4 #a1 cost #ds4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #ah #j ,shot ,copper #j #b #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #a1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #a #j #j ,shot ,copper #j #b #f --------------- #a #b #f ,silver alloy ,no4 #b1 cost #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #j #af #j ,shot ,copper #j #d #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #b1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine ,silver #a #j #j ,shot ,copper #j #e #j ---------------- #a #e #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #c1 cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ae #j ,shot copper #j #e #j --------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #c1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #f #af --------------- #a #f #af ,silver alloy ,no4 #d1 cost #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ad #j ,shot copper #j #f #j --------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #d1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #h #ab ---------------- #a #h #ab ,silver alloy ,no4 #e1 cost #cs4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ac #ab ,shot copper #j #f #ab ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #e1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #i #ah ---------------- #a #i #ah ,silver alloy ,no4 #f1 cost #cs4 #a;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ac #j ,shot copper #j #g #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #f1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #aa #j ---------------- #a #aa #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #g1 cost #cs4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ab #ab ,shot copper #j #g #ab ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #g1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #ab #j ---------------- #a #ab #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #h1 cost #bs4 #aj;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ab #j ,shot copper #j #h #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,silver alloy ,no4 #h1 same as before4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #ac #ab ---------------- #a #ac #ab ,the qualities of the silver alloys have been reduced in this list to various values1 and the latter ones are as common as it is possible to make them1 without a great and perceptible change of colour taking place in the prepared material4 ,but if it be desired to work a still more inferior metal1 then another ingredient must enter into its composition1 in order to keep up the whiteness of the silver2 and this other metal employed is nickel1 the alloys with which we shall have occasion to refer to hereafter4 ,suffice it to say1 however1 that these inferior alloys of silver1 prepared with nickel1 are not now much employed by silversmiths in their art-manufactures4 ,it will be observed that we have recommended the employment of shot copper in the manufacture of silver alloys3 we do so for two reasons--first1 because it can be purchased at a considerably cheaper rate than can the ordinary forms of copper1 costing only one shilling per lb41 whilst the ordinary prepared copper for alloying will cost double that amount2 and1 secondly1 if proper attention has been given to the melting and casting process1 the workable qualities of the metal will be found everything that could be desired4 ,therefore an excellent material in all respects can be produced by the means suggested at half the cost of alloy4 ,a considerable saving to a large firm might thus be easily effected by its employment4 ,in ,france there are three silver standards--two to be employed by silversmiths1 and one for the coinage1 as follows3-- ,fine silver per lb4 troy4 ,silver ware1 #aa oz4 #h dwts4 #iej millims4 ,coinage1 #aj oz4 #af dwts4 #ijj millims4 ,silver ware1 #i oz4 #ab dwts4 #hjj millims4 ,it will be seen from the above table that pre-war coinage in ,france did not represent the highest standard1 and also that their principal one was inferior to our highest standard4 ,french coinage contained #cf-djths of fine silver and #d-djths of copper alloy1 or millesimal fineness #ijj parts of fine silver and #ajj parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal2 the highest standard for silver wares contains #ch-djths of fine silver and #b-djths of copper alloy1 or millesimal fineness #iej parts of fine silver and #ej parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal2 the lowest ,french standard for silver wares contains #cb-djths of fine silver and #h-djths of copper alloy1 or millesimal fineness #hjj parts of fine silver and #bjj parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal4 ,the remedy is millesimal fineness #jjje4 ,french alloy for coinage1 #ds4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ah #j ,copper #j #b #j ----------- #a #j #j ,french alloy for plate1 #ds4 #e;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ai #j ,copper #j #a #j ----------- #a #j #j ,french alloy1 lowest standard1 #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #af #j ,copper #j #d #j ----------- #a #j #j ,in the preparation of these alloys with ,french silver it is undesirable to make any addition of fine silver1 in order to enable goods manufactured from them to pass the ,hall in safety1 because the former is assayed before it leaves the bullion dealers1 and the bars of metal are marked with their various standards4 ,such is not the case in ,england1 and refiners' fine metal is sometimes two or three grams under what it is supposed to be2 hence the necessity for the further addition of some fine metal as we have already pointed out1 when the object in view is to have goods ,hall-marked2 without which addition it cannot be effected4 ,in ,germany there are four silver standards--one for the coinage1 and three to be employed in the manufacture of silversmiths' wares2 and in that country the various standards are severally applied in the production of fine filigree and other artistic work4 ,the fineness of the standards is as follows3-- ,fine silver per lb4 troy4 ,silver ware1 #aa oz4 #h dwts4 #iej millims4 ,coinage1 #aj oz4 #af dwts4 #ijj millims4 ,silver ware1 #i oz4 #ab dwts4 #hjj millims4 ,silver ware1 #i oz4 #j dwts4 #gej millims4 ,as regards the alloy to be employed in the manufacture of these various qualities1 copper only must be used1 all other metals being forbidden4 ,these standards represent all home manufactured articles of silver having reference to the standards of that country1 as lately appointed by law4 ,german pre-war coinage was the same as ,french and contained #cf-djths of fine silver and #d-djths of copper1 or millesimal fineness #ijj parts of fine silver and #ajj parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal4 ,the highest standard of all is used for silver wares1 and contains #ch-djths of fine silver and #b-djths of copper1 or millesimal fineness #iej parts of fine silver and #ej parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal4 ,the next ,german standard for silver wares contains #cb-djths of fine silver and #h-djths of copper1 or millesimal fineness #hjj parts of fine silver and #bjj parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal4 ,the commonest ,german standard employed by the silversmiths of that country contains #cj-djths of fine silver and #aj-djths of copper1 or millesimal fineness #gej parts of fine silver and #bej parts of copper per #a1jjj parts of metal indicated4 ,remedy #jjjc4 ,silver alloy for the ,german coinage4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ah #j ,copper #j #b #j --------------- #a #j #j ,alloy for silver wares of the first standard4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ai #j ,copper #j #a #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,alloy for silver wares of the second standard4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #af #j ,copper #j #d #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,alloy for silver wares of the third standard4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ae #j ,copper #j #e #j ----------------- #a #j #j ,silver goods manufactured according to these standards in ,germany1 which have recently become law1 may be alloyed only with copper1 and any foreign substance is not allowed to enter into their composition4 ,the remedy permitted in the actual fineness of the silver must not be under three thousandths of the standard specified4 ,the goods to be stamped with the number of thousandths and the name of the manufacturer of them1 and the correctness to be certified by the firm named4 ,experts are appointed by the ,government to test this correctness1 and if the provisions of the law have been justly observed a government guarantee mark is applied to them4 ,,chapter ,,vii4,d ,silver ,solders3 their ,uses and ,applications4 ,d ,see observations on ,depreciation of ,cost ,price of ,silver in ,preface to ,fourth ,edition 7pp4 vii1 viii71 and the new ,table of ,cost ,prices of ,alloys in this ,chapter1 following the ,preface 7p4 x74 ,soldering as applied to silversmith's work is an art which requires great care and practice to perform it neatly and properly4 ,it consists in uniting the various pieces of an article together at their junctions1 edges1 or surfaces1 by fusing an alloy specially prepared for the purpose1 and which is more fusible than the metal to be soldered4 ,the solder should in every way be well suited to the particular metal to which it is to be applied1 and should possess a powerful chemical affinity to it2 if this be not the case1 strong1 clean1 and invisible connections cannot be effected1 whilst the progress of the work would be considerably retarded4 ,this is partly the cause of inferior manufactures1 and not1 as frequently supposed1 the want of skill in the workman4 ,the best connections are made when the metal and solder agree as nearly as possible in uniformity1 that is1 as regards fusibility1 hardness1 and malleability4 ,experience has proved1 more especially in the case of plain and strong work 7or work that has to bear a strain in the course of manufacture71 that the soldering is more perfect and more tenacious as the point of fusion of the two metals approaches each other2 the solder having a greater tendency to form a more perfect alloy with the metal to which it is applied than under any other conditions4 ,the silver or other metal to be operated upon by soldering being partly of a porous nature1 the greater the heat required in the fusion of the solder the more closely are the atoms of the two metals brought into direct relationship2 thus greater solidity is given to the parts united1 and which are then capable of forming the maximum of resistance4 ,it is thus obvious that tin should not be employed in forming solders possessing the characteristics we have just described1 for being a very fusible metal it greatly increases the fusibility of its alloys2 but when very easy solder is required1 and this is sometimes the case1 especially when zinc has been employed in the preparation of the silver alloy1 its addition is a great advantage when it comes to be applied to the work in hand4 ,solders made with tin are not so malleable and tenacious as those prepared without it1 as it imparts a brittleness not usually to be found in those regularly employed by silversmiths2 for this reason it is advisable to file it into dust1 and apply it in that state to the articles in course of manufacture4 ,the best solders we have found to be those mixed with a little zinc4 ,these may be laminated1 rolled or filed into dust2 if the latter1 it should be finely done1 and this is better for every purpose4 ,too much zinc1 however1 should not be added under any conditions1 as it has a tendency to eat itself away during wear1 thus rendering the articles partly useless either for ornamental or domestic purposes earlier than might be anticipated4 ,solders thus prepared also act with some disadvantage to the workman using them1 for they possess the property of evaporating or eating away during the process of soldering1 leaving behind scarcely anything to indicate their presence2 consequently the workman has to keep on repeating the process until the connection is made perfect1 which is always done at the expense of a quantity of solder as well as loss to the workman as regards time4 ,solders made from copper and silver only are1 generally speaking1 too infusible to be applied to all classes of silversmith's work4 ,solders are manufactured of all degrees of hardness2 the hardest of all being a preparation of silver and copper in various proportions2 the next being a composition of silver1 copper1 and zinc2 and the easiest or most fusible being prepared from silver1 copper1 and tin1 or silver1 brass1 and tin4 ,arsenic sometimes enters into the composition of silver solders1 for promoting a greater degree of fusion2 and we have heard of workmen actually refusing to work with any other solder4 ,the employment of arsenic has1 however1 a tendency to slightly endanger the health of those persons using it in large quantities2 and of late its employment has not been persevered in4 ,in applying solder of whatever composition it is of the utmost importance that the edges or parts to be united should be chemically clean2 and for the purpose of protecting these parts from the action of the air1 and oxidation during the soldering process1 they are covered by a suitable flux1 which not only prevents oxidation1 but has also a tendency to remove any portion of it left on the parts of the metal to be united4 ,the flux employed is always borax1 and it not only effects the objects just pointed out1 but greatly facilitates the flow of the solder into the required places4 ,silver solder should be silver of a little inferior quality to that about to be worked up4 ,the various degrees of fusibility of the several solders are occasioned by the different proportions of the component parts of the elements which enter into their existence4 ,for instance1 a solder in which tin forms a component part will flow or fuse much sooner than one in which copper and silver alone enter into composition1 or of one wholly composed of copper1 silver1 and zinc1 or of silver and brass2 therefore it must be understood that tin is the best metal for increasing the fusibility of silver solders1 and for keeping up their whiteness4 ,nevertheless it should always be used sparingly1 and even then drawbacks will present themselves such as we have already alluded to4 ,it is our intention to give a list of the various solders which have been usually employed with more or less success1 so that the silversmith and the art workman will be enabled to select the one most suitable to the particular branch of his trade2 and we contend1 from experience in the craft1 that success of workmanship mainly depends upon this point4 ,hardest silver solder1 cost #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #af #j ,shot copper #j #d #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,hardest silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #e #j ---------------- #a #e #j ,hard silver solder1 cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ae #j ,brass #j #e #j ---------------- #a #j #j ,hard silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,brass #j #f #af ---------------- #a #f #af ,easy silver solder1 cost #cs4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ac #h ,brass #j #f #af ------------- #a #j #j ,easy silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,brass #j #aj #j ---------------- #a #aj #j ,the silver solders here given are not such as we can confidently recommend to the general silversmith1 having proved them to be very unsatisfactory in certain classes of work4 ,for example1 the first solder1 except in the case of plain strong work1 would be far too infusible to be generally used by the silversmith2 the second1 although much more fusible1 cannot safely be applied to very fine and delicate wire-work1 because the brass in its composition is so uncertain3 unless specially prepared by the silversmith1 it probably1 if purchased from the metal warehouses1 contains lead2 the latter is injurious1 and in process of soldering it burns and eats away1 much resembling the application of burnt sawdust to the work4 ,no really effective work can be produced when the above symptoms present themselves4 ,the same remarks apply to ,no4 #c1 which is the most fusible1 and when free from lead or other base metal it may be classed as a tolerably fair common solder4 ,in the preparation of the solders to which we are alluding1 it is preferable to employ1 instead of the brass1 a composition consisting of a mixture of copper and zinc1 in the proportion of two parts of copper to one part of zinc2 the operator then knows of what the solder is composed1 and if it should turn out bad he will partly know the cause1 and be able to supply a remedy4 ,the solders that we have found to answer our purpose best are composed of the following elements4 ,the first is described again as hard solder1 but it is not nearly so hard as the one previously described4 ,best hard silver solder1 #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #af #j ,shot copper #j #c #ab ,spelter #j #j #ab ------------- #a #j #j ,best hard silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #d #i ,spelter #j #j #ae ------------- #a #e #j ,medium silver solder1 #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ae #j ,shot copper #j #d #j ,spelter #j #a #j ------------- #a #j #j ,medium silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #e #h ,spelter #j #a #h ------------- #a #f #af ,easy silver solder1 #cs4 #c;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ad #j ,shot copper #j #d #ab ,spelter #j #a #ab ------------- #a #j #j ,easy silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #f #ab ,spelter #j #b #d ------------- #a #h #af ,common silver solder1 #cs4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #ab #ab ,shot copper #j #f #j ,spelter #j #a #ab ------------- #a #j #j ,common silver solder1 same as above4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #i #ae ,spelter #j #b #i ------------- #a #ab #j ,the whole of the above-named solders will bleach or whiten properly if applied to silver of the suitable quality for such purposes4 ,we have used copper and spelter in our silver solders1 because we have found from experience that the fewer number of times a solder is melted the better it is for all purposes4 ,this result of our experience is in direct opposition to those authors who have professed to treat upon this subject1 and who can have had but a small amount of real practical knowledge1 for it is argued by them that the oftener a solder is melted the more properly does it become mixed1 and1 consequently1 the more fit is it for the workman's use4 ,to such arguments we are prepared to give a blank denial1 and our reasons for so doing we will state further on in this treatise4 ,there are various other silver solders used by silversmiths2 some few of which it will be as well perhaps1 while we are on the point1 to enumerate3-- ,silver solder for enamelling1 cost #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #e #j ------------- #a #e #j ,silver solder for enamelling1 cost #cs4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #aj #j ------------- #a #aj #j ,easy silver solder for filigree work1 cost #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #j #af #j ,shot copper #j #j #ab ,composition #j #c #ab ------------- #a #j #j ,quick-running silver solder1 cost #cs4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #aj #j ,pure tin #j #b #j ------------- #a #ab #j ,silver solder for chains1 cost #cs4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #aj #j ,pure spelter #j #b #j ------------- #a #ab #j ,easy solder for chains1 cost #cs4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #aj #j ,pure spelter #j #b #j ------------- #a #ab #j ,common silver solder1 cost #bs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #ab #j ,pure spelter #j #c #j ------------- #a #ae #j ,common easy solder1 cost #bs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #ab #j ,pure spelter #j #c #j ------------- #a #ae #j ,silver solder with arsenic1 cost #cs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #c #j ,yellow ,arsenic #j #b #j ------------- #a #e #j ,silver solder with arsenic1 cost #cs4 #f;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #f #j ,yellow ,arsenic #j #a #j ------------- #a #g #j ,easy silver solder1 cost #cs4 #b;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #e #j ,tinsel #j #e #j ------------- #a #aj #j ,common easy solder1 cost #bs4 #i;d4 per oz4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,tinsel #j #aj #j ,arsenic #j #e #j ------------- #a #ae #j ,another common silver solder4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #j #ae #j ,arsenic #j #a #f ------------- #a #af #f ,a very common solder4 oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,composition #a #j #j ,white arsenic #a #j #j ------------- #c #j #j ,the solders here given will be found amply sufficient to select from1 for every operation of the silversmith1 and will answer the several purposes for which they have been described4 ,when tin and arsenic are employed in the composition of solder1 either together or separately1 they should be withheld until the more infusible metals with which they are to be united have become melted2 the tin or tinsel should then be added1 and when this is well melted with the mass1 fling on the top the arsenic1 let it melt1 stir it well together1 and pour it out quickly into an ingot mould already prepared for its reception4 ,when silver and brass1 or silver and composition1 alone form the component parts of the solder1 these metals may be put into the melting-pot together1 well fused1 stirred1 and poured out as before4 ,solders into which volatile metals enter1 upon repeated meltings1 become hard1 brittle1 and drossy1 and are therefore not so good as when the metal has received only one melting2 it is for this reason that we have always preferred to manufacture our solders from metals which have not been melted before1 or from those which have gone through the process as few a number of times as possible4 ,the mode of soldering gold and silver is as follows3 ,take the solder and roll it out thin between the flattening rollers1 or file it into dust1 according to the kind of work in hand4 ,if filed into dust1 it is all the better if done very fine2 and if reduced to a flat state1 which should be tolerably thin1 cut it into little bits1 or pallions1 which may easily be performed with a pair of hand-shears1 length-ways and afterwards cross-ways4 ,when this is done1 take the work which is to be soldered1 join it together by means of fine binding-wire 7very thin iron wire71 or lay it upon the pumice so that the joinings can come close together1 and will not be liable to move during the process2 wet the joinings with a solution of borax and water1 mixed into a thick paste1 applying it with a small camel-hair pencil2 then lay the bits or pallions of solder upon the parts to be united1 and having placed the article upon some suitable object1 take your blowing instrument 7,fig4 #af7 and blow with it1 through a gas-jet1 a keen flame upon the solder in order to melt it2 this will render the unification of the parts complete and compact4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,blowpipes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,solder-dish4 ,when filed solder is used1 the process of charging the article is rather different from the above4 ,in the latter case the filings are commonly put into a small cup-shaped vessel 7,fig4 #ag71 in most cases the bottom of a tea-cup1 or some other similar vessel1 being used for the purpose2 a lump of borax is then taken and rubbed upon a piece of slate1 to which a little water is occasionally added during the rubbing2 when this solution attains the consistency of cream1 it is put into the solder-dish and well mixed with the solder4 ,this is then applied to the article to be soldered1 by means of a charger1 consisting of a piece of round metal wire1 flattened at one end1 and shaped for the purpose it has to serve4 ,the joinings1 when this kind is employed1 require no boraxing with the pencil1 as described under pallion solder2 the borax being intermixed with the solder flushes with it through the joinings to be united1 thus rendering any further application unnecessary4 ,the process to which we are alluding is called hard soldering1 and cannot be applied to metals of a fusible nature2 neither must it be attempted in the case of goods bearing the name of plated1 which are put together with soft or pewter solder1 similar to that used by tinsmiths and gasfitters4 ,if there should be any soft solder about the article1 to be soldered by the means we are describing1 it would be almost certain to destroy it1 the soft solder having such an affinity for entering into combination with metals more infusible than itself when overheated4 ,there is an art in soldering greater than some people would believe4 ,the heat required is of various degrees1 some articles requiring a broad rough flame1 others a smooth one1 and others again a fine pointed one4 ,all these circumstances connected with the process1 together with others which we could detail1 proving that it is an art only to be acquired by practice1 must be considered enough2 and we proceed to observe that the skilful jeweller in soldering a large piece of work will direct the flame of the gas jet to all parts of it1 until it is tolerably hot1 and then return to the spot to be soldered1 and by a very dexterous movement of the flame1 produced by the blow-pipe1 increase the heat at that spot until the solder has flushed and the parts are rendered thoroughly secure4 ,so far as some of the work of the silversmith is concerned1 the process of soldering is a very delicate operation1 and ought not to be undertaken by an unpractised hand4 ,the method of preparing solder for filigree work is worthy of a passing notice4 ,it is called by the ,germans ,lemaille solder4 ,in the first place it is reduced to very fine filings1 mixed with burnt borax powdered fine1 and in this state it is sprinkled from a spouted grater over the work to be soldered4 ,the ,english filigree workers commonly use clean filed solder1 and by means of the camel-hair pencil apply a solution of borax to the work1 and then sprinkle the dry solder upon it from the grater4 ,in ,vienna a kind of powdered borax is employed1 called ,streu borax1 or sprinkle borax4 ,it is composed of the following ingredients1 which should be gently annealed to expel their water of crystallization1 the whole well pounded and mixed together1 and sprinkled over the parts to be joined from the spouted grater as before3-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,calcined borax #j #ag #ab ,carbonate of soda #j #a #ab ,common salt #j #a #j --------------- #a #j #j ,the object of this mixture is to prevent the rising of the solder1 and to facilitate its flushing4 ,too much of it should not1 however1 be put with solder in the grater at one time1 as it is as objectionable as too much borax applied in the ordinary way1 but every workman will learn from experience concerning these matters4 ,we have tried this mixture1 prepared with filed solder in the ordinary way1 and found it advantageous at first2 but its greatest drawback is the turning of the solder yellow if not quickly used upon the work after mixing1 thus rendering the solder permanently injured4 ,for this reason we have had to abandon its employment in the wet state4 ,but1 in its dry state1 to the silversmith for filigree purposes it is likely to be of advantage4 ,it may be remarked that this preparation encumbers the work with a great deal more flux than borax does1 and consequently it requires to be more often boiled out during the period of soldering together the component parts4 ,this is effected by boiling in a weak pickle of sulphuric acid and water1 composed of the following proportions3 one part of acid to thirty parts of water4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,on the ,melting of ,silver4 ,the processes of melting and properly mixing silver with its alloys in a crucible are among the first operations of the silversmith1 and are1 moreover1 of great importance in the production of intimate and homogeneous alloys4 ,in order to effect these1 however simple they may appear1 various precautions are necessary1 and certain principles require carrying out to arrive at the best possible results1 otherwise a great loss or waste of material may take place4 ,to direct attention to those principles1 which from very careful attention to the subject we have found to answer best1 will first be our aim1 and if we succeed in rendering some little service to our fellow-workers in the craft to which our toil and leisure have been devoted we shall feel highly gratified4 ,the weighing of the component metals1 the selection of the crucible1 the charging of it1 and the attention it requires whilst in the furnace are considerations to which we cannot too strongly call attention4 ,the regulations with regard to weighing should be strictly and accurately carried out4 ,the best and safest plan is1 after the various metals have been separately weighed1 to re-weigh them1 this time collectively1 in order to ascertain whether the total weight corresponds with the previous calculation2 if it does1 the mixture has been properly prepared4 ,we have known both time and trouble saved by the adoption of this precaution1 after mistakes had occurred which could not have been detected until the weighing of the bar of metal had taken place after melting4 ,there are various kinds of crucibles manufactured for the use of the precious metal workers4 ,crucibles were so-called from originally being impressed by the alchemists with the sign of the cross4 ,they are calculated to bear very high temperatures1 and consist of ,english1 ,hessian1 ,cornish1 ,black-lead1 and ,plumbago4 ,the last two are by far the best2 the plumbago1 however1 being the hardest1 and capable of standing the highest temperature1 is to be preferred before all others4 ,it will also stand more frequent meltings than any of the rest4 ,such crucibles have been known to withstand the heat of the furnace for upwards of fifty times without giving way4 ,the wear of them is very strong and resisting1 as they only gradually become reduced in thickness1 so that it is easy to distinguish their unfitness for use4 ,fluxes act on earthern crucibles1 particularly ,english at a high temperature1 whilst nitre and carbonate of soda soon destroy them4 ,fluxes are necessary in most cases of metallic reductions3 they protect the metal from the air1 and dissolve impurities4 ,they are of several kinds1 as follows3-- ,vegetable charcoal4 ,carbonate of potash4 ,carbonate of soda4 ,common salt4 ,sal-ammoniac4 ,sal-enixum4 ,saltpetre4 ,borax4 ,sandiver4 ,yellow soap4 ,black flux4 ,white flux4 ,crude tartar4 ,brown potash4 ,sub-carbonate of potash4 ,all these fluxes have occasional duties to perform1 and are therefore of great service to the metallurgist4 ,to prevent the cracking or flying of the crucible1 when newly employed1 it should1 before being charged with the precious metal1 be well annealed2 that is1 heated to redness upon a very slow fire--one that is gradually going down1 and in which there is no blaze is to be preferred1 because the flame has a tendency1 on the introduction of a new crucible1 to make it fly to pieces4 ,when it has become red hot1 if a cold bar of iron be introduced it will soon show whether there are any cracks1 and if so the crucible should be rejected2 on the contrary1 if it withstands this test it may be placed aside until required for use1 when it may be employed with perfect safety in the melting of silver and its alloys4 ,when copper and silver only form the alloys of the silversmith1 they should both be added to the crucible at the commencement of the operation2 and it is the best plan to put the copper at the bottom1 because it is the most infusible metal4 ,by doing so1 it will receive the greatest degree of heat1 which in jewellers' furnaces always comes upwards and the higher specific gravity of the silver has a tendency to force that metal downwards2 consequently1 when the two metals have become fused1 upon well stirring--which should be done with an iron stirrer tapered at the point1 and previously heated to redness--a perfectly homogeneous mass will be the result4 ,when the more fusible metals of which we have spoken are to form the component parts of the mixture1 different treatment with regard to them will be required4 ,they should not be added at the commencement of the operation1 but should be dealt with afterwards1 in the following manner3-- ,zinc is one of the more fusible metals1 and is sometimes employed by the silversmith in his alloys1 for the purpose of imparting a greater degree of whiteness to them1 as well as rendering inferior silver more easily bleached or whitened2 thus assisting to bring back the natural colour of fine silver to manufactured articles1 which have partially lost it by the addition of alloy of some other colour4 ,zinc1 when employed in silver alloys1 should be cautiously used1 and care should be taken not to add too much to a given quantity of material4 ,the solder used with silver-zinc alloys should be far more fusible than that employed with the other alloys4 ,if too much zinc be added in the preparation of these alloys1 in the course of the work1 particularly in the process of soldering1 they have a tendency to sweat1 and sometimes to eat the metals into holes around the parts to be united2 such alloys1 therefore1 render this process very difficult to perform1 besides entailing more labour in the production of a clean and smooth finish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,plumbago ,crucible for melting4 ,in melting an alloy of silver1 copper1 and zinc1 the silver and copper should first be melted in a plumbago crucible of the form shown in ,fig4 #ah1 and well stirred together in order that they may become properly mixed4 ,the zinc is sold in flat cakes under the name of spelter1 and1 when required1 is usually cut up with a chisel into pieces of various weights suitable for the object in view4 ,when the copper and silver have become well incorporated1 the mixture should be protected from the air by a suitable flux1 charcoal being the best for this purpose4 ,the most suitable time to add it to the crucible in the furnace is when the metals are just beginning to fuse4 ,this flux covers the whole of the surface of the molten mass1 and so prevents the action of the air from destroying some of the baser metal4 ,the charcoal should be perfectly pure and in a finely divided state1 for if adulterated with any gritty matter 7and sometimes such is the case7 a very indifferent working material is produced1 the evil results of which show themselves in every stage of manufacture4 ,these instructions with regard to melting the more infusible metals having been carried out1 the zinc is taken with a long pair of tongs 7,fig4 #ai71 and held within the furnace1 over the mouth of the crucible1 until the temperature has almost reached the melting point1 when it should be carefully dropped into the fused mass below1 quickly stirred1 so that it may become intimately mixed with the other metals1 and at once withdrawn from the furnace and poured into a suitable ingot mould 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the ingot mould should be clean and smooth inside1 slightly greased1 and dusted over with fine vegetable charcoal2 this latter substance prevents the metal from adhering to the sides of the mould4 ,it is1 perhaps1 almost unnecessary to state that the ingot mould requires heating to a certain temperature before the melted composition is poured in1 otherwise serious spouting takes place1 resulting in a great loss of metal4 ,on the other hand1 the operator should be cautious not to over-heat it1 as the same evil consequences may result4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,tongs for ,melting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,ingot ,mould4 ,the bar of metal upon cooling should be weighed1 and the difference--as most meltings show a little--noted4 ,this is loss1 but it will be very little1 if the above instructions have been strictly adhered to from the beginning of the operation4 ,with the charcoal flux we have referred to1 very nice and clean bars of metal can be produced4 ,this flux is always floating upon the surface of the mixture1 and1 with a little dexterity in the pouring1 it can be prevented from coming out of the crucible with the metal2 its proper place is at the end of the pouring4 ,when tin is employed1 either in alloys or solders1 its treatment is similar to that described for zinc2 such alloys should not be kept too long in the furnace after they have become fused1 as they rapidly become oxidized1 especially if brought into contact with the air4 ,the waste in silver1 and in fact of all alloys1 is entirely dependent on the duration of the time of fusion4 ,if it is prolonged after the addition of the fusible metals1 the loss is greater in every case1 than when once melted4 ,the metals should be subjected to the beat of the furnace for the shortest possible period4 ,the alloys of silver with zinc would lose more than the alloys of silver with tin1 because zinc rapidly volatilises when heated above the temperature of its fusion1 and this is especially the case when it enters into combination with silver and copper in the fused state2 its vapours can be seen to rise and burn in the air1 producing light and white flaky fumes1 and1 chemically speaking1 forming the protoxide of zinc4 ,with care and manipulative skill during the process of fusion1 the proportion of waste can be reduced to a minimum2 and when this is exactly ascertained an allowance can be made in the preparation of the mixture for the crucible4 ,from the above remarks it will be apparent that when both tin and zinc form component parts of a mixture1 either to be used as an alloy or as solder1 the tin should be added to the other metals1 and well stirred1 so as to obtain an intimate mixture1 before the addition is made of the zinc4 ,scrap silver should be carefully sorted before undergoing the process of re-melting1 and if possible all foreign substances removed4 ,it may1 if preferred to work it in that way1 be melted into a separate bar1 or otherwise used as an addition to a new mixture4 ,when1 however1 it is separately melted1 a flux1 such as carbonate of soda1 may be employed1 on account of its cheapness1 in small proportions to the charcoal flux already alluded to4 ,in brittle and troublesome alloys we have found charcoal and a small quantity of borax extremely effective4 ,saltpetre is a very useful flux in dissolving impurities1 but in some alloys its presence is injurious4 ,sandiver will remove iron or steel from the mixture4 ,corrosive sublimate destroys lead and tin4 ,we have found the sub-carbonate of potash one of the best fluxes for silver1 when matters have not been quite so straight as they should be in the working of the metal2 it is used in melting the difficult alloy of #ah-;carat gold1 and is considered a secret not generally known to the trade4 ,sal-ammoniac is an excellent flux for producing clean and bright ingots and tough alloys4 ,we invariably use it with all our alloys1 mixed in small quantities with charcoal1 and prefer it to all others4 ,lemel1 that is the filings and turnings produced during the process of manufacture1 should have quite a separate method of treatment4 ,it is best prepared for the crucible by passing it through a fine sieve1 afterwards thoroughly burning it in an iron ladle1 and then intimately mixing it with a flux of the following nature and proportions3-- ,silver dust #bd parts ,carbonate of soda #d ,common salt #b ,sal-enixum #a ---------- #ca parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,fire-clay ,crucible for ,lemel4 ,the sal-enixum prevents the rising of the mixture in the crucible--which should be of the skittle shape 7,fig4 #ba7--;and keeps it from overflowing2 it also possesses a refining capacity the same as saltpetre1 and is much cheaper4 ,the burning of the lemel has a great tendency to destroy all organic matter that would be likely to cause the mixture to overflow during the period of fusion2 but if such a thing should be at all likely to take place1 the addition of a little dried common salt would remedy the evil1 a small quantity of which ought always to be provided for the purpose4 ,the common carbonate of soda is also a cheap and useful flux to the silversmith4 ,five-sixths of the above flux should be well mixed with the stated proportion of lemel1 then placed in the pot1 and the one-sixth remaining placed upon the top of the mixture1 when it may at once be transferred to the furnace4 ,great heat is required in this operation1 and it also requires careful supervision to prevent1 if possible1 waste of material4 ,when the mixture has become perfectly liquid1 the heat of the furnace should not be allowed to decrease1 but continued for half an hour longer1 and if the use of it be not further required1 the fire may then be allowed gradually to die out4 ,the mixture will require repeated stirrings during the period of fusion1 in order to dissolve such portions as might otherwise not come immediately under the action of the flux4 ,when the operation of fusion has been completed1 the crucible is withdrawn and allowed to cool1 the solidification of the metal is then perfect1 and it may be recovered by breaking the pot at the base1 when it will fall out in a lump corresponding with the shape of the crucible4 ,the lump of metal should then be carefully weighed1 the loss ascertained--which always varies in proportion to the amount of organic matter contained therein2 it may then be sold to the refiner1 or exchanged for new metal4 ,in this process it will be observed that the crucible is broken every time a fusion takes place1 consequently some little expense is incurred in providing crucibles for the purpose4 ,to obviate which the following plan may be economically and successfully employed2 and especially when the metal is sold to the refiner by assay1 the method about to be described will be found most advantageous1 for it should be borne in mind that the lump of metal from the previous fusion has to be again run down in another crucible and poured into an ingot mould before the refiner will consent to take his assay from it4 ,in this latter process the whole work is performed in one fusion1 and the expense of a new crucible thereby saved4 ,the flux employed in the reduction of the metal is also considerably reduced4 ,the plan is performed after the following manner3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,plumbago ,crucible for ,lemel4 ,take a plumbago crucible of the shape shown in ,fig4 #bb1 and capable of holding the required mixture2 put the lemel into it1 and then place on the top one ounce of finely powdered carbonate of soda2 this is all the flux the mixture requires1 and it is then quite ready for the furnace4 ,when the lemel has become properly fused1 for facilitating which it is repeatedly stirred with a thin iron rod1 it is withdrawn and poured into an ingot mould prepared for it as previously described4 ,the flux and other organic matter1 which always accumulates upon mixtures of this kind1 is held back by the timely application of a thin piece of flat wood to the mouth of the crucible4 ,after the withdrawal of the bar of metal from the ingot mould1 it is cooled and weighed1 and then it is quite ready for the operations of the refiner4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,on the ,working of ,silver4 ,having reached a most important and very interesting part of our subject1 viz4 the working of silver1 and being desirous of making this treatise useful to the silver-worker in all the branches of his art1 it is our intention to enlarge upon these processes--which are purely mechanical--and somewhat minutely to describe the various manipulations and arrangements required in the production of the wares of the silversmith4 ,after the removal of the bar of metal from the ingot mould1 it should be plunged into a vessel of cold water1 dried1 and then carefully weighed4 ,at this stage of the process it is ready for the operation of rolling4 ,this process1 so far as it concerns large ingots of the metal1 is a distinct branch of the trade1 and is carried on in separate premises established by certain firms for the purpose4 ,these establishments are called rolling-mills1 the machinery used in them 7which is powerful and costly7 being moved by steam-power1 the reduction of the bars of metal to their various sizes is soon effected4 ,the very thin ribbon-shaped metal is produced by submitting it to the action of rollers of smaller dimensions1 one after the other1 until the desired thinness is obtained4 ,the bars of metal are taken to these mills by a man whose special duty it is to watch over them during the processes of rolling and annealing1 otherwise it would be very easy to have an ingot of gold or silver exchanged for one of base metal1 the mill companies not being responsible for the material intrusted to their care for rolling2 hence the necessity for the porter's services1 to watch over his employer's interests4 ,to prevent accidentally exchanging the bars of metal1 through their great similarity to each other1 it is the usual thing for the men in charge of them to put a special mark upon the property of each person1 previous to the process of annealing4 ,this mark is applied by means of a piece of chalk or soap1 and is not removable by heat4 ,the annealing is performed in large iron muffles1 heated to redness and kept in that condition by flues2 the bars which require annealing being placed upon a piece of sheet-iron which slides into the muffle1 and there they remain with the doors closed until they have become red hot4 ,it is more particularly during this operation that each person's property requires marking and watching1 because of the number of bars admitted at one time into the muffle2 and unless the greatest care be exercised at such a time some mistake is almost sure to occur4 ,a register is kept of the weight of the metal sent to the mill for the purpose of being rolled into the required shapes and sizes by the manufacturer1 who afterwards works it up into different wares and utensils4 ,the metal is also weighed on its admittance to the mill1 by the clerk of the works1 and again on its passage out1 and a comparison of the weights registered2 but in ,birmingham1 in some cases1 this has been so irregularly performed that great discrepancies have actually taken place in the weights at times1 and it has led to the establishment of another rolling-mill for gold and silver1 in which the proprietors take upon themselves the whole responsibility and care of metals intrusted to their charge for the above purpose4 ,the method pursued by them in respect to their business is as follows3 ,a manufacturer sends a bar of metal to be rolled1 carefully noting the exact weight and size to which it is to be reduced upon a proper order head4 ,this weight is carefully tested at the mill1 and if found correct1 an invoice is given in exchange1 upon which is entered the cost of rolling and the time when the work will be completed4 ,the messenger then goes away1 returning at the time stated to bring away the rolled metal4 ,the advantages this system presents over the others are obvious2 the return of the full weight of the metal is guaranteed by responsible persons1 the messenger is at liberty during the time occupied in rolling to follow his other duties1 the weighing of the respective metals is far more accurately performed both in and out of the mill1 besides greater satisfaction being given both to the manufacturer and the roller1 the reciprocation of confidence between each1 being among some of the additional advantages which might be enumerated4 ,messrs4 ,kemp1 of ,birmingham1 deserve the thanks of the jewellery community for their enterprising efforts in the establishment of a system so admirably suited to the requirements of the trade4 ,the following table gives the charges at the present time for rolling bars of silver3-- ,table of the ,cost of ,silver ,rolling4 oz4 oz4 s4 d4 ,under #f #j #j #f ,above #f and under #ab #j #j #i #ab #ah #j #j #aj #ah #be #j #a #j #be #ce #j #a #c #ce #de #j #a #f #de #ee #j #a #i #ee #gj #j #b #j #gj #he #j #b #c #he #ajj #j #b #f #ajj #aae #j #b #i #aae #acj #j #c #j ,above this #bs4 #f;d4 per #ajj ozs4 ,it is a usual thing at all rolling establishments to provide slitting-rolls for those who choose to avail themselves of that mode of cutting up their metal4 ,these rolls are used for the purpose of cutting stout bars of metal into strips suitable for wire-drawing1 thus dispensing with the older process of cutting with a pair of vice shears1 which method was slow and somewhat uncertain in the production of good work4 ,the slitting-rolls consist of circular barrels1 after the manner of the breaking-down rolls1 only of course much smaller in diameter1 and with this exception1 the slitting-rolls have square grooves cut into each barrel1 the projecting portion of each corresponding with the hollow of the other1 whereas the breaking-down rolls are perfectly smooth and plain4 ,rollers something similar to those we have described are used by wire-drawers to facilitate the speedy reduction of the metal1 the difference being in the construction and action of the grooves4 ,in the grooves of the latter1 which are inserted farther apart1 the hollows take a half-round shape1 and unlike the slitting-rollers1 during the revolution of the barrels1 the grooves in this case directly meet each other1 and thus produce a strip of wire almost round4 ,it is almost needless to remark that wire-rolling requires some amount of practical knowledge to perform it properly4 ,the manipulations indispensable to the art of silver working are so varied and so numerous that we are at a comparative loss which part of the process to consider first2 however1 if we follow the course of the workman with regard to the production of the various manufactures of his art1 we shall perhaps not be far wrong in our desire to effect the purpose we have in view4 ,in commencing to enlarge upon these mechanical processes we may at once state that it is our intention to refrain from going into the whole art of wire-drawing1 because that process has been somewhat minutely alluded to in our other work recently published in the interests of the goldsmiths2 the details of which are there fully described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,draw-plate4 ,the draw-plate1 ,fig4 #bc1 which is the principal tool of the modern wire-drawer1 was unknown in this country until the middle of the sixteenth century1 when it was introduced by ,christopher ,schultz1 a ,saxon1 from ,france4 ,it was supposed to have been the invention of a native of that country named ,archal4 ,the draw-plate had been in use some years on the ,continent previous to its introduction into ,england4 ,the old method of making wire was upon the anvil1 by means of the hammer2 and those who manipulated in this art were termed wiresmiths at that period4 ,the best form of draw-plate consists of a piece of steel about nine or ten inches long1 one and a quarter to one and a half inch broad1 and about half an inch thick1 each containing a number of conical holes of various sizes1 becoming smaller in succession until the last hole in the plate is reached1 when another plate1 corresponding in size1 having smaller graduated holes1 is employed1 and the wire drawn through it2 and so on1 until the proper size has been obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,draw-bench for ,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,draw-tongs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,drum used by wire-drawers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,skeleton ,frame or ,swift used by wire-drawers4 ,the drawing of stout pieces of wire is effected very readily by means of the draw-bench 7,fig4 #bd71 and the thinner pieces1 by the application of draw-tongs 7,fig4 #be71 held in the hands of the operator1 and made to do service by swinging the body backwards4 ,very fine wire is now drawn by means of an apparatus called a drum 7,fig4 #bf71 revolving upon a perpendicular pin1 the exterior of which receives the wire and prevents it from becoming entangled4 ,when the end of the wire has finally passed through the draw-plate1 the whole coil is carefully removed from the drum 7which is made slightly conical in form for facilitating the process7 and placed upon a skeleton frame made to receive it 7,fig4 #bg72 it is then in proper form for its passage through the next hole of the draw-plate4 ,in the production of very fine wire1 the metal1 after passing a few times through the draw-plate1 requires annealing1 as its fibres become so condensed and hardened that it is impossible to repeat the operation without some risk of the wire breaking4 ,for fine wire the annealing is repeated five or six times during its passage through the draw-plate2 for stouter kinds the annealing need not be so frequent4 ,this process produces a scale or oxide upon the surface of the wire1 which should be removed before the continuation of the drawing takes place1 which is generally done by an immersion for a time in very dilute sulphuric acid pickle2 or its passage may be assisted through the draw-plate by the application of some lubricating substance1 such as beeswax1 or a mixture of beeswax and oil1 which enables it the more readily to pass through it4 ,in the progress of the wire-drawing the holes have a tendency to become enlarged2 these are made smaller again1 by repeated blows upon the front of the plate with a somewhat pointed hammer 7,fig4 #bh71 and then opened from the back with a tapered steel punch1 such as is shown in the woodcut 7,fig4 #bi74 ,the hardening and tempering of the punch is of importance4 ,a gauge-plate is used in all establishments for the purpose of determining the size of the wire4 ,the hammering should not take place upon a hardened draw-plate1 as it would fly to pieces3 it is only those known as soft which should receive such treatment2 and those1 by a continual alteration of the holes1 gradually become hard and require annealing at intervals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,knocking-up ,hammer4 ,draw-plates for wire-drawing purposes are mostly cylindrical in form1 but they are employed in various degrees of fineness and in different shapes2 such as oval1 oblong1 half-round1 square1 fluted1 star1 sexagon1 triangular1 and other complex sections1 for the production of corresponding wires1 all of which receive similar treatment to that above described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,round ,steel ,punch4 ,the process of wire-drawing1 in connection with the art of the silversmith1 is more particularly employed in the manufacture of chains1 in which branch a very large quantity of silver is consumed4 ,this branch of the craft is almost a purely mechanical one1 but1 nevertheless1 there are some designs in chains which require a considerable knowledge of art for the proper execution of them4 ,it is1 however1 in wrought or hand-made work that true art is made to play so conspicuous a part2 for it is here that perfect workmanship1 together with great skill and taste1 are required in the manufacture of an article4 ,wrought work was one of the earliest productions of the goldsmith and silversmith1 and it still remains the true artistic method1 although it has been superseded by others of a less expensive character2 such as stamping1 chasing1 engraving1 enamelling1 casting1 c41 to which the older processes of ornamentation and decoration by means of hammering have given place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,hammer for ,wrought ,work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,sparrow-hawk4 ,wrought work is produced by hammering and soldering the various pieces or ornaments together2 and one of the very first things to be attended to in the production of this kind of work is proportion1 a knowledge of which is indispensable to true art-workmanship2 for the piece of metal which is to be operated upon by the hammer should be of the proper size1 so as to require none to be cut off afterwards4 ,every portion of a design should be wrought out of the piece of metal separately1 and soldered in its proper place upon the article in process of manufacture4 ,when circular forms have to be raised or flanged by the employment of the hammer1 as in the case of a raised or flanged brooch bezil1 the modus operandi is as follows3--,take a piece of metal of the exact size and shape1 turn the two ends together from the longitudinal direction1 and unite them by soldering2 when this is done1 the circular band of metal is taken and flanged by means of the hammer and a miniature anvil1 placed upon a stout piece of wood which the workman renders secure by placing between his knees1 the pressure of which retains it steadily in its place during the various manipulations performed upon it2 this kind of tool is termed a sparrow-hawk--a representation of it is given in ,fig4 #ca4 ,the work is effected by a series of blows dealt with the hammer in regular concentric circles1 the bezil all the time gradually working round the pointed end of the sparrow-hawk4 ,it requires great skill and practice to produce the proper shape1 and to keep all parts of the metal of equal thickness4 ,the bezils may be produced in this manner round or oval1 as well as other complex shapes2 the hammering taking place according to the shape required4 ,when raised or ornamental brooch bezils1 such as concave or convex patterns1 are to be made1 the means adopted in their execution are somewhat more complicated than the mode of flanging above alluded to4 ,a tool called a swage is employed1 which partakes of many forms1 the pattern or ornamental device which the metal is required to take being the shape of the swage1 or otherwise cut upon it4 ,the metal is easily raised to take the proper design1 by a very careful application of the hammering process4 ,sometimes in silver-working the form of the object to be manufactured is of such a nature as not to allow of the use of the swage tool1 and this is more particularly the case in the manufacture of plate4 ,such things1 for instance1 as cups or tankards which have raised ornamental surfaces1 and which have to be executed after the vessel is roughly finished1 require altogether a different tool for the effecting of such purposes4 ,the one commonly employed in operations of this description consists of a bent piece of steel1 upon one end of which is cut the device required2 this end being turned up to the required height for raising the design1 and the other end being bent in an opposite direction1 which1 when required for use1 is secured in a vice4 ,the workman1 in executing the design upon the object in hand1 places it upon the snarling-iron 7for such the tool is called7 at the part to be raised1 and there holds it securely while another man strikes the piece of steel at the top of the angle1 or just above where it is secured in the vice1 the reaction of the steel wire then throws out the metal1 in accordance with the device or pattern cut on the end of it4 ,designs are only roughly raised in this manner1 the perfecting of them being performed by the application of various kinds of chasing tools4 ,to prevent a change in the form of the object undergoing this operation1 it is filled with a composition formed of pitch1 resin1 and brick-dust1 in the following proportions3-- ,pitch #d parts4 ,resin #d ,brick-dust #b --------- #aj parts4 ,the preparation of the cement is as follows3--,reduce the brick-dust to a very fine powder1 and pass it through a fine sieve2 then take the other ingredients and melt them in an iron ladle or other suitable vessel over a slow fire1 stirring them well together2 when this has taken place1 the mixture will present a thin liquid appearance1 which is the time for using the brick-dust4 ,this should be added in small quantities at a time1 and well stirred together1 until the mass has become tolerably thick4 ,it is then poured out either upon the floor1 or into some suitable vessel provided for its reception4 ,while undergoing the operation of chasing1 the lower part of the object is preserved from injury1 by being laid on a sand-bag4 ,the illustrations1 ,figs4 #cb and #cc1 represent the snarling-tool1 and its mode of application to the work of the silversmith4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #cb1 #cc4 ,snarling-tool1 and its mode of application for raising4 ,the progress of the silversmith's art1 in conjunction with the researches and discoveries in the mode of working the precious metal during the past century1 have wrought a great change both in the style and manner of workmanship4 ,before the period referred to1 the gold and silversmiths' trade was in its lowest possible condition2 partly1 no doubt1 on account of the war then raging on the continent of ,europe1 and partly because the silversmith at that time was not allowed to manufacture articles of any standard inferior to that of the coinage of #aa ozs4 #b dwts4 ,until the peace of ,waterloo1 few people were busy but the gun-maker1 and other smiths who were able to work at similar occupations2 but with respect to most other trades1 the men did all they were capable of1 in order to earn their daily bread4 ,if at that time the silver trade had been specially cultivated1 the art1 as regards its progress1 would have met with many drawbacks1 as compared with the present time2 the knowledge of the workmen in the production of finished work was not equal to that to be found upon the best articles now manufactured4 ,and although forbidden by law to work in inferior metal1 they would have been incapable of effecting the beautiful surfaces which modern articles of inferior quality are made to present4 ,the recent scientific discoveries1 both chemical and mechanical1 that have taken place during the last sixty or seventy years1 have wrought a great change in the general conditions1 as well as in the mode of the manufacture of silver wares4 ,we have said that previous to the year #ahae all was dark and obscure with the precious metal worker1 but from that period the work gradually rose in artistic excellence1 and the trade very slowly improved2 the cause of this no doubt being due1 in a great measure1 to the security afforded as the result of peace1 and with it a revival of the industrial occupations4 ,with the increased industries of the nation arose the pleasures and pastimes of the people1 and racing became a national sport4 ,this kind of pleasure soon led to an increase in the work of the silversmith1 in consequence of the demand for racing cups1 which gave opportunities for the artistic excellence of design in their manufacture2 and the silversmiths who made them soon acquired a prestige as ,art-manufacturers4 ,the demand for work of that and a similar kind led to the employment of regular designers and modellers1 who gradually improved both the designs and the work in different parts of the country4 ,at the period of which we are speaking1 polished or burnished silver goods were most in demand1 the modern processes of surface finishing not being then understood4 ,the introduction of the ,french style of work in filigree soon afterwards caused a demand for that class of work2 and the attention of those in the trade was then turned in that direction for a time1 and others springing up1 the silversmith's and goldsmith's trade generally began to assume a position of importance4 ,this kind of work required no polishing and very little artificial finish2 besides being exceedingly light in weight and graceful in appearance4 ,it required fine material for its manufacture4 ,in ,england filigree work has been superseded by other processes1 but in ,india1 and in other parts of the ,east1 it is still cultivated to perfection4 ,silver and gold filigree is also manufactured in the ,ionian ,islands1 in ,switzerland1 and in some parts of ,germany and ,france1 where labour is cheap4 ,in the two latter countries it is made from a very inferior material to that used in ,india4 ,silver filigree work in this country was soon found not to answer all the requirements of modern society1 so far as regarded its utility1 durability1 and cheapness2 fashion therefore demanded something different4 ,it is worthy of remark that while this class of jewellery in both gold and silver was so much in vogue for ladies' wear1 the old-fashioned seals and keys had undergone a change1 and the chasing of them in representation of filigree ornamentation had become the fashion for gentlemen's wear4 ,the processes of the manufacture of filigree wire and its mode of application to the work of the artist1 have been considered in a previous chapter1 further detailed information is therefore rendered unnecessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,die4 ,when filigree work was no longer used1 the fashion changed into stamped or struck-up ornament4 ,small pieces of metal were struck-up by means of the hammer and punch1 or by the use of the hand-press or stamp2 in the former case a lead cake would be prepared1 composed of a mixture of lead and tin1 and upon it the various ornaments would be produced from the flat metal1 corresponding with the pattern of the punch employed for the purpose2 in the latter a small die 7,fig4 #cd7 would be employed with the pattern sunk upon it2 this would have an aperture through it1 the dimensions of the off-side being generally rather large1 gradually becoming smaller towards the front surface1 which takes the form1 in general outline1 of the desired pattern4 ,when the necessary blanks have been cut out1 another die and punch are used1 by which they are raised to their proper shape4 ,these tools should be firmly secured in the press 7,fig4 #ce71 otherwise they are likely to be soon destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,press4 ,the small ornaments thus raised were variously arranged one upon another1 until a design or pattern was formed1 which in every way appeared very showy4 ,such articles suited the tastes of the people at that time1 and still suits those who require good weight for their money4 ,the same kind of thing existed at that period in chains1 and being heavy-looking1 and costly in appearance1 they attracted attention and caused a demand4 ,thus with the continual changing of the fashions a new era for the goldsmiths and silversmiths of ,england began4 ,they were beginning to work in all sorts of qualities1 with the manipulations and finish of which they were becoming now thoroughly conversant1 and a demand springing up for goods for purposes of exportation1 encouragement was given to the trade1 which soon assumed the position of a thriving industry4 ,the style of work that followed the struck-up patterns was that of plain and solid silver-work1 well polished and whitened4 ,this sprung up about the period when coloured gold became the fashion1 and the mode of finishing it being somewhat similar1 no doubt the demand arose as much from the introduction of colouring as from any other assignable cause4 ,in the chain-maker's branch of the art1 a great variety of new patterns came into existence at this period2 chain bracelets also began to be introduced2 and altogether the trade made rapid strides1 and fast rose into a great commercial industry4 ,this kind of work has remained more or less in fashion up to the present time1 and vast quantities of silver chains of the plain and solid patterns are now being made in ,birmingham4 ,the silver trade seems to be an exception to the general depression which now prevails in all the other branches of the jewellery trade2 the fashion just now is for silver1 which causes a greater demand than is usual for goods manufactured of that material4 ,in a short time we believe this fashion will undergo a change1 and then no doubt manufacturers who have taken advantage of it to make large stocks will have goods remaining upon their hands which they will not be able readily to dispose of1 unless at a sacrifice2 for it should be borne in mind1 that to keep a large stock of silver goods in a saleable condition1 and without a quick sale1 considerable expense is entailed above the cost of making1 to keep them in that condition1 through their great liability to become tarnished4 ,after the introduction of plain and solid-looking work1 it next became the fashion to have it chased over its entire surface4 ,following this1 about the year #ahbe1 came the beautiful process of enamelling1 which added artistic beauty to the work1 and brought out the harmonies of colour4 ,about this time1 too1 there sprung up a great demand for the so-called galvanic ring1 which consisted of a lining of zinc and one of silver4 ,the ring represented1 in appearance1 those large1 plain1 half-round rings which are now made in #ah-;carat gold1 and which weigh from #g to #aj dwts4 each4 ,it was then as now made of half-round shape1 and sometimes with the addition of a buckle upon it4 ,the silver was so drawn upon the zinc that the outer surface appeared entirely of silver1 and a portion of the inner surface was made to show the zinc only1 which was quite sufficient for the purpose required4 ,when the ring was put on the finger the zinc1 in conjunction with the silver1 touched the flesh of the wearer1 and was thus supposed to create a galvanic action1 which it was alleged had a tendency to remove or prevent rheumatism4 ,this kind of work had a good run at the time of its introduction1 but like all the rest1 the fashion lasted only for a while1 when something else had to be brought to the front in the silver trade4 ,the mode of the preparation of the wire was as follows3--,a bar of silver would be rolled out until a certain thinness was attained1 occasionally annealing it during the process2 it was then cut into strips wide enough for the purpose required1 again annealed1 and subsequently doomed4 ,the latter process was effected in this manner3--,a block of hard wood1 such as boxwood1 would be made use of1 having a round groove in one side of it1 the metal to be doomed would be laid along the groove and a round piece of iron or steel held upon the upper surface with the left hand2 a wooden mallet is then taken with the right hand1 and by a skilful application of it to the piece of iron or steel1 the metal is soon forced down in the groove and made to take the proper form for drawing4 ,the flat strip of metal should be pointed2 this may either be done before or after the dooming process1 though it commonly takes place before4 ,it is performed by taking away a small portion in a conical form1 from one of the ends with a pair of hand-shears4 ,a piece of zinc wire should be provided1 corresponding in shape with that the ring is to take2 this is placed in the hollow of the silver to be drawn1 with the flat side outwards1 so as to correspond with the aperture in the plate through which it has to be drawn4 ,a draw-plate is then taken1 with holes of the half-round shape1 and the two metals carefully drawn through them4 ,the drawing through a succession of holes produces an edge upon the silver coming against the flat side of the aperture in the draw-plate which overlaps the zinc and thus holds it securely in its place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,hammer for dooming4 ,a change in the style of work gradually took place in the course of every few years1 and thus it was that hollow-work became the fashion4 ,this kind could be made in a variety of ways1 and being very light and showy1 it appeared much more expensive than it really was4 ,it is therefore very easy to account for the changes which have taken place in the manufacture of articles of adornment and luxury1 and for the encouragement which the art has received4 ,with the present styles of the plain1 the solid1 the filigree1 the stamped1 the mosaic1 the cameo1 the repouss1 the inlaid1 the enamelled1 and a variety of others1 we can fearlessly say that silver-working has of late years made rapid progress1 and attained to a higher standard than it ever before possessed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,steel ,die4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,stamping ,press4 ,the art of stamping and shaping articles of jewellery from sheets of the various metals came into general use just previous to the first ,exhibition in #ahea4 ,these1 which are made in considerable numbers1 are produced by means of dies1 having the shape of the pattern upon them1 both at the top and bottom1 made of hardened steel4 ,fig4 #cg represents a bottom die for the use of the stamping press1 and ,fig4 #ch represents the press4 ,in raising the metal by stamping1 the material undergoes the same bendings and extensions between the dies as if it were being manipulated by the hammer1 and consequently it requires to be repeatedly annealed1 otherwise it would crack and fall to pieces in a subsequent operation4 ,the raising should be brought about gradually1 and this is done by placing a number of sheets of metal between the dies1 which prevents the top die from falling with too sudden an action upon the metal1 which it would do1 as it falls with a succession of forces if the process be repeated1 and if its action be not arrested by the means we have pointed out4 ,after every blow of the stamp one of these pieces is removed from the bottom1 and a fresh one added at the top2 the continual falling of the stamp gradually forces these plates1 if placed in the manner we have indicated1 to take the shape of the die4 ,the exact form of the figure is effected by striking the plates singly between dies which exactly correspond4 ,a very large quantity of work is now produced by the means we have stated1 such as brooches1 studs1 locket-backs1 earrings1 rings1 and an endless variety of other things2 moreover1 by the cultivation of this art a considerable amount of the labour formerly bestowed by hand upon the work is now saved1 as the stamping in many instances is so complete1 almost taking the form of a finished article after that process has been performed1 that the workman has only to arrange the parts and supply the ornamentation when required1 to render the article complete4 ,works of art are also produced by other methods2 as an example1 we will take the process of spinning or burnishing into form1 which consists in spinning the metal to the desired shape in a lathe1 by means of burnishing tools1 specially made for the purpose4 ,this process is employed in the production of large bangle bracelets with plain surfaces and other similar works4 ,the metal to be operated upon should be soft and malleable1 otherwise the process is very difficult to perform4 ,the disc1 or other form of metal1 is taken and fixed in the lathe with the aid of holdfasts1 a chuck or mould of the desired pattern being provided1 upon which the disc is turned by the tools referred to4 ,the metal1 as in the other processes1 is gradually spun into the required form4 ,in most cases the mould is exactly the shape of the interior of the article required to be made1 and under these circumstances it would be made up in several pieces together with a key-piece2 so that when this latter is taken away1 there is no difficulty in removing the rest1 and leaving the article free4 ,it is of importance1 during the spinning1 to keep the edges free from notches1 but should these occur1 it would be better to touch them a little with a turning tool4 ,the metal for spinning into a bangle bracelet should be of the form of a flat circular band1 soldered of course2 it would then be secured upon a properly shaped mould1 composed of several pieces1 in the manner above described2 this would then be placed in the lathe1 and the application of the spinning tools would soon bring about the desired form4 ,after the removal of the spun piece of metal1 the workman trims the edges up a little1 then saws it into two pieces1 and at once proceeds to the operations of snapping and jointing1 which are delicate processes to perform properly in work of this kind1 and require the services of a skilled and competent workman4 ,having now described some of the processes in the working of silver1 and alluded to the various articles which are produced by wire-drawing2 raising with the hammer2 stamping2 spinning2 chasing1 c42 we shall next direct attention to those processes which immediately come after the putting together and soldering the article2 and foremost of these is polishing4 ,we trust that the foregoing details in reference to this part of the subject will convey some idea of the art of silver-working4 ,polishing is an important process ,with all precious metal workers4 ,it is applied for the production of surface to their wares1 and in proportion to the smoothness required upon the work1 so should be the fineness of the material employed in effecting it4 ,the polishing powders are emery1 powdered pumice1 crocus1 rottenstone1 putty of tin1 and rouge4 ,in the best work1 scratches are removed with a smooth and rather soft dark grey stone 7,water-of-,ayr stone72 it is then polished in the lathe with a stiff brush1 and the application of a little fine polishing mixture4 ,we have placed the materials for polishing in their respective order of smoothness or fineness1 beginning with emery1 which is the coarsest4 ,a very good mixture for ordinary work consists of equal portions of emery1 pumice1 and crocus1 with oil added to the consistence of a thick paste4 ,good work does not want much polishing1 for the beauty of it depends more on its being executed by a well-trained workman2 whereas rough and badly executed work requires much polishing1 and for this the coarser powders are preferable1 or a mixture of them2 but for the smoother work the finer powders should be employed4 ,the ,water-of-,ayr stone employed for polishing is usually obtained in the form of small square sticks1 and is used with a small quantity of water to the surface of the work1 in a similar manner to filing4 ,the stone is softer than the material upon which it operates 7and1 in fact1 so are all the materials for polishing71 and therefore wears away1 producing a mud-like substance upon the article1 which should be repeatedly removed in order to ascertain the progress made4 ,this may be done with a piece of clean rag1 or tissue-paper4 ,when the work is polished at the lathe it will gradually become enveloped in grease1 c41 which should be removed occasionally1 to show when the process has been carried far enough4 ,the polishing of silver work is a branch of the trade commonly performed by girls4 ,it is hard work for them1 as the metal possesses a very soft nature2 it therefore pulls hard against the brush which holds the polishing mixture4 ,the lathe employed is the ordinary polishing lathe with a horizontal spindle1 and is worked with a common foot-treadle2 steam-power is used by some firms for moving these lathes1 but it is by no means the usual custom at present4 ,after the completion of the polishing process1 the work is well washed out in a prepared solution1 to remove the mixture which adheres to it2 a solution of soda is found to answer the purpose best1 both from its cheapness and effectiveness4 ,it should be used hot1 with the addition of a little soap1 and with a stiff brush the dirt is soon removed4 ,the quantity of soda used to a given proportion of water differs in the trade1 and there is no set rule to go by2 it depends1 more or less1 upon the adhesiveness of the polishing mixture4 ,we have found about two ounces of it to a quart of water amply sufficient for the purpose4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,enriching the ,surfaces of ,silver4 ,by the application of the processes about to be described1 the finishing touches in their relation to articles or wares of silver manufacture are effected4 ,these processes1 as adopted by the trade1 are various1 almost every firm having a specially prepared mixture and mode of employing it4 ,we shall refer only to those which1 from their practical utility1 are likely to be of service to those workmen who have to do with this particular metal4 ,the branch of the art of which we are now treating comes only into operation when every other process of workmanship has been completed2 and some of these processes must be executed in a perfect manner in order to arrive at the highest possible results in this one4 ,the best and richest surface is produced when the metal to be operated upon is good in quality1 and the workmanship of a fair order1 so far as regards smoothness1 and freedom from surplus solder-marks4 ,one of the oldest methods for producing a pure snowy whiteness upon articles of silver was as follows3--,take an iron or copper annealing pan 7the latter is much to be preferred71 place the work upon it in proper order1 so that it may be heated all over alike4 ,it should1 previous to this1 be immersed in a thick solution of borax1 or otherwise brushed over with it4 ,after the work has been properly arranged upon the pan for annealing1 it must be sprinkled over with fine charcoal dust2 the pan is then placed in the muffle upon a bright clear fire without blaze1 and when the work has assumed a degree of heat approaching to cherry redness1 it is withdrawn and allowed to cool4 ,when this has taken place1 it is removed and boiled out in a very weak solution of sulphuric acid1 commonly called oil of vitriol4 ,if the right colour was not then produced1 the process was repeated as many times as circumstances permitted1 though usually two or three times was found to be amply sufficient4 ,the annealing process required great attention1 for the work being in contact with borax1 if slightly overheated1 it was liable to become melted1 therefore the operation was a delicate one to perform1 and was only intrusted to such workmen as were experienced in the art4 ,small delicate articles were commonly treated with the mouth blow-pipe and gas-jet1 and were placed upon a pumice-stone1 or some other suitable substance capable of withstanding the power of burning4 ,according to the inferiority of the silver alloy1 is the difficulty of producing a good white surface on wares of such standards4 ,fine silver requires very little whitening1 generally one process suffices to effect a good colour2 but inferior standards require half a dozen or more to bring up the proper degree of whiteness2 and those ranging below #i oz4 #ab dwts4 to the lb4 ,troy cannot be whitened at all by the means we have described1 but require the application of the modern chemical process1 known as electro-plating4 ,the ,east ,indian silversmiths never touch their manufactures with any kind of abrasive substance1 from the most delicate1 to the more strongly made article4 ,but then it should be remembered1 that in ,india the natives work from the pure material1 a point which they rigidly adhere to2 whereas we are compelled in this country to manipulate in all sorts of qualities2 and some of these require no little trouble and difficulty to bring back to the surface the snow-white appearance of the pure metal4 ,in the former case it is effected without any difficulty whatever--in fact1 the metal scarcely undergoes any change throughout the whole of the manipulations to which it is subjected in the various processes of manufacture4 ,the ,indian mode of procedure is as follows3--,some juicy lemons are cut into slices2 the silver articles are briskly rubbed with these for a short time1 and subsequently covered with them1 being placed in a suitable vessel for a few hours for the completion of the process4 ,for very delicate articles of jewellery the natives cut a large lime nearly in two halves1 into which they insert the work2 the halves are then tightly closed up again1 and placed aside for a few hours2 when the article is removed1 it is well rinsed in clean water1 and consigned to a vessel of nearly boiling soap-suds1 where it is well brushed1 again rinsed in fresh hot water1 and finally dried on a metal plate placed over hot water2 the process is rendered complete by a little gentle rubbing with wash-leather if the work be of a plain nature4 ,green tamarind pods are also employed by them for the purpose of whitening silver1 in the same manner as just described2 they are great detergents both of gold and silver manufactures1 and are largely employed by artisans in the ,east for the removal of oxides and fire-marks4 ,another process for the whitening of silver goods is performed in the following manner3--,take the work1 which must be cleanly prepared1 and give it a coating of the following mixture3--,finely powdered vegetable charcoal four parts1 saltpetre one part2 the ingredients should be well mixed with a little water1 and may be applied to the surface of the metal either by brushing over with a soft brush1 or by dipping the work into it4 ,the work is then placed upon the annealing pan and submitted to the heat of the muffle1 until the wet powder has become perfectly dry and ceased to fly about2 it is then withdrawn from the muffle1 allowed to cool1 and afterwards boiled out in a solution of potash prepared for the purpose1 in the proportion of about one ounce of bi-sulphate of potash to twenty ounces of water4 ,the boiling out is done in a copper pan 7,fig4 #ci71 and if the work be put through the above process two or three times a beautiful dead-white colour is the result4 ,it is then washed in a hot solution of soda1 soap1 and water1 or if preferred bright1 scratched1 or burnished1 and the process is finally completed by drying it in fine boxwood sawdust1 which should be made hot1 but not allowed to char or burn in any way1 as it would produce a stain upon the work very difficult to remove1 and thus the finish would be considerably impaired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,boiling-out ,pan4 ,in large manufactories the process of whitening silver goods is repeatedly required to be performed1 and where such is the case1 the above methods are found not only tedious and expensive1 but occupy much unnecessary time and labour2 to dispense with a portion of which1 the custom of covering the work with a chemical preparation was accordingly departed from1 and yet it was made to show its former brilliancy4 ,to effect this object the liquid for boiling it in was differently prepared1 which only required to be made of a proper strength to do all that the surface mixture had done before4 ,the following is the method adopted in preparing the cleansing liquid4 ,boiling-out mixture3--,to one pound of smoking salts1 add two ounces of cream of tartar2 well shake the ingredients together1 so that they may be thoroughly incorporated4 ,the smoking salts employed for this purpose are not the ordinary spirits of salts of commerce1 but a preparation of the common oil of vitriol2 therefore the one should not be taken for the other2 the spirits of salts would turn the work black1 whereas1 if the proper ingredient were procured1 a fine dead matte or blanched surface would be the result of its application4 ,the mixture employed for boiling the work in consists of the proportion of one ounce of the above preparation to about thirty ounces of water4 ,the silver articles simply require to be annealed1 allowed to cool1 and then boiled for a minute or so in this solution1 when the desired result will be attained2 if1 however1 the exact colour be not obtained the first time1 the process should be repeated a second1 and if necessary1 a third time2 the right colour will then be produced1 if the articles are not made of a too inferior standard4 ,the mode we have ourselves adopted for the colouring or whitening of silver goods is somewhat different1 and still more simple than even the above4 ,we will proceed to give the details of the process4 ,a mixture of very dilute sulphuric acid is first provided1 in the proportion of one ounce to forty ounces of water1 and well mixed together2 the work1 after being heated to a good red heat1 is boiled in this1 which soon removes the oxide from the surface1 and shows the fine white colour of the pure silver4 ,for fine silver work1 such as ,indian filigree1 one process will generally suffice1 for ,english standard quality two1 and for low qualities three1 but these latter must not by any means be too low2 if so1 no colouring can take place by the method just described4 ,objects of delicate workmanship are usually annealed by the gas2 being placed on a pumice-stone of light material1 the flame of the gas is blown with the mouth blow-pipe1 in such a manner that the object gradually becomes heated all over alike2 and the work should be well heated1 as this facilitates the process of oxidation1 and subsequently that of whitening4 ,the oxidation takes place at the expense of the copper in the silver alloy1 and this is only effected by raising the articles to a very high temperature1 which produces the oxidation of the copper coming in contact with the air1 and which necessarily exists upon the surface of the alloyed goods4 ,whitening silver goods then is nothing more than the removal of the base alloy from the surface1 leaving the pure metal behind with its full rich colour4 ,therefore to be clear1 the process of annealing in contact with cold air oxidizes the copper upon the surface1 and the pickling mixture so dissolves and removes it1 that it gradually undergoes a process of refining1 and is ultimately made to represent the finest material in all its purity4 ,sometimes silver work is to be seen having a brown colour upon it2 this is produced when the acid employed for cleansing has been too strong2 it can only be remedied by another annealing and boiling-out in a much more diluted mixture4 ,there are various other methods employed in the trade for the purpose of whitening silver work of the best quality2 and although annealing is always a part of the process1 other ingredients1 such as salt and tartar1 permanganate of potash1 cyanide of potassium1 alum1 c41 have been severally used for the cleansing or whitening mixture4 ,they may be useful in their application to plated work 7articles that have received a coating of pure metal by means of the electro-metallurgical process71 for cleansing purposes only1 but for all practical purposes the process to which we have called special attention is to be much preferred4 ,common articles of silver cannot be whitened by annealing and boiling-out in a diluted acid2 a thin film of pure silver must be deposited upon their surface by the process of electro-deposition1 or by the action of some chemical preparation in which fine silver forms the principal ingredient4 ,such preparation1 however1 as the latter can be used only to plain surfaces1 therefore they are not applicable to all kinds of work4 ,they are composed of the following chemical ingredients3--#ast1 chloride of silver #a part1 cream of tartar #a part2 #bnd1 chloride of silver #a part1 common salt #a-a_/b parts2 #crd1 chloride of silver #a part1 prepared chalk #a part1 pearl-ash #a part2 #dth1 chloride of silver #a part1 alum #a part1 common salt #b parts4 ,the chloride of silver is easily prepared by precipitating it from the nitrate with a solution of common salt or hydrochloric acid4 ,the various mixtures should be worked up with water into a thin paste1 and applied to the work by rubbing with a soft cork or piece of wash-leather1 or by thoroughly stirring it about in the mixture until it has acquired the requisite degree of whiteness4 ,for the purpose of silvering watch and clock faces1 c4 these mixtures may be used with advantage and entire success4 ,other solutions are sometimes employed for similar purposes and are very useful2 being simple in their preparation and easy of management4 ,we have selected the following as being the most practical3--,take one ounce of the nitrate of silver and dissolve it in one quart of pure distilled water1 or if this cannot be procured1 water which has been boiled1 by which it loses some of its impurity4 ,when the nitrate of silver has become thoroughly dissolved1 throw into the mixture a little powdered hyposulphite of soda1 this will precipitate the silver1 and when it has taken place1 a further addition of hyposulphite of soda should be made1 which will eventually re-dissolve the precipitate1 and the solution is then ready for use4 ,to produce a good mixture1 the salt of soda should be added slightly in excess4 ,the solution is used by simply dipping a sponge in it and rubbing it over the surface of the articles to be coated1 and this is continued until they have assumed the desired colour4 ,for improving the colour of silver and electro-plated wares1 the following mixture has been strongly recommended3--,nitrate of silver #d pennyweights1 cyanide of potassium #e ounces1 and water #a quart2 the ingredients should be well mixed together1 and applied by means of a soft brush or sponge to the surface of the work4 ,in using this cyanide solution1 the operator should be careful to guard against a too frequent contact with it1 as it is decidedly injurious to the hands1 especially if there be any abrasion of the skin2 it being one of the deadliest poisons known4 ,sufficient details of the process of silver whitening and cleansing having now been given to assist the workman who manipulates in this particular metal1 and to enable him to select a form of recipe in every way adapted to the kind of work in hand1 we shall now proceed to the modern process of electro-plating1 and give a practical description of it in its applicability to the trade of the silversmith4 ,this art is decidedly of modern origin1 as far as concerns its employment for commercial purposes4 ,the invention is supposed to be due to the electrical and chemical researches of ,mr4 ,spencer1 of this country1 and ,professor ,jacobi1 of ,russia1 both of whom claim to have found out the art of depositing one metal upon another1 somewhere about the same period4 ,of course it was left to others to apply the invention to the industrial arts1 and it was not until after the discovery of the ,constant ,battery1 by ,professor ,daniell1 about half a century ago1 that the art began gradually to extend in the direction of commercial pursuits4 ,the ,messrs4 ,elkington1 of ,birmingham1 were the first to employ it in their manufactures1 with a success which their enterprise thoroughly merited4 ,this took place about the year #ahdj1 and since that time the art of electro-plating and gilding has wonderfully developed1 in its application to the various manufactures of the country4 ,its progress would be a subject highly interesting1 were we to trace the general details of it1 but the part of it we are considering being the practical mode of its employment in manufactures1 we shall at once direct our attention to it1 by giving a complete description of the process2 so that the ordinary silversmith may be enabled to employ it in his business with safety and advantage4 ,the first thing to be considered in electro-plating is what ,battery to employ1 which will be the most simple1 inexpensive1 and effective one4 ,when the battery is only occasionally required for use we prefer the ,smee before any other4 ,it is a small portable apparatus1 and consists of a high1 but narrow1 glass or stoneware jar1 in the form of a cylinder1 capable of holding about two quarts2 inside this jar is fitted a thin plate of platinized silver fitted to a frame with two zinc plates1 one on each side of it1 the zinc plates being held to the frame by means of a binding screw4 ,strong copper wires are firmly secured to these screws1 which serve as the positive and negative poles of the battery4 ,those parts of the plates which are not exposed to the action of the acid solution may be advantageously coated with sealing-wax varnish or melted paraffin wax1 to protect them from the destructive influences of the battery acid1 and to prevent it from creeping upwards1 which destroys the connections4 ,the jar is filled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid1 in the proportion of #a of acid to #bj of water2 the frame containing the plates is then lowered into the solution1 and the battery is ready for use4 ,in the above form of battery for occasional use we have one simple in construction1 easy of management1 of fair constancy1 and when once prepared very inexpensive1 merely requiring a little free acid at times to keep up the strength of the current4 ,two cells of this form of battery1 each holding two quarts of mixture1 will be found sufficient for all ordinary purposes4 ,the zincs should be well amalgamated1 and not touch the bottom of the cells4 ,the connections should be regularly examined1 and kept perfectly free from corrosion1 which would stop the passage of the current4 ,for plating small delicate articles of jewellery one cell of the above form will be found powerful enough for the purpose4 ,the battery that we prefer and have of late years employed1 for regular continuous working1 is the ,bunsen1 consisting as before of a cylindrical glass or stoneware jar of the same size and dimensions1 fitted with a well amalgamated cylinder of zinc and a copper wire secured to it2 a porous cell is placed in the centre1 and a bar or rod of carbon is put into this cell with a copper wire also secured to it4 ,the porous cell is filled with a mixture of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids1 or sulphuric acid alone2 we prefer the latter1 as it does not give off such fumes as does the other acid2 a little of the more powerful acid1 however1 is sometimes required to be added in order to increase the action1 as with this acid alone it sometimes becomes slow4 ,the outer cell is filled with a mixture of #a part of sulphuric acid to #bj parts of water1 and the connections being in proper order the battery is then ready for use4 ,in action this form of battery is regular and continuous1 it lasts a long time upon one charge1 and is therefore inexpensive in use2 if the two cells are coupled for power or intensity1 an unusual quantity of work may be got through in a given time4 ,this cell is admirably suited to the work of the manufacturing silversmith1 and to those who prefer doing their own plating4 ,the amalgamation of the zinc is effected as follows3--,the cylinders are best treated by putting some mercury into a coarse flannel bag1 dipped repeatedly into muriatic acid and applied to the surface of the zinc1 both inside and out2 and when they present the bright characteristic appearance of mercury they are sufficiently operated upon1 and may be rinsed and set aside to drain4 ,the zinc plates may be advantageously amalgamated by placing some mercury in a shallow dish with a little muriatic or sulphuric acid1 a hare's foot or a piece of cloth tied to the end of a stick is then dipped into the mercury and acid1 and rubbed over the plates until they are sufficiently protected with mercury1 when they should be rinsed in clean water and set aside to drain4 ,if possible the process of amalgamation should always be conducted in the open air1 as the fumes which are given off1 if breathed1 are highly injurious4 ,the best possible way to amalgamate rods of zinc is by pouring mercury into the melted metal just before casting it into rods1 in the proportion of #a-a_/b oz4 of mercury to the pound of zinc4 ,this makes the rods exceedingly brittle1 and they should therefore be handled with care4 ,the mercury should not be added to the zinc when the latter is at too high a temperature1 and the best manner of testing this is by the application of a piece of paper to the molten metal1 when if it takes fire1 the temperature is still too high2 it should be allowed to cool until the paper refuses to ignite1 then and not till then is the proper time for the addition of the mercury4 ,the copper conducting wires and binding screws must be cleaned when they become much corroded2 if not they add resistance to the current1 and it will become considerably diminished1 or cease altogether4 ,the cleaning may be effected by simply annealing and then plunging them while still hot into dilute sulphuric acid pickle1 or dipping them into nitric acid for about an instant4 ,the zincs should be taken from the battery liquids when not required for use2 and the porous cells should be removed every night and their contents poured into a large jug kept for the purpose4 ,the porous cells should be placed in clean water to prevent the salts of the battery liquid from crystallizing in the pores1 which would crack and spoil them for future use2 the carbons should also be placed in water2 and when required for use again these arrangements should be reversed1 when the battery will work as well as ever4 ,the solution for electro-plating articles of jewellery is the next part of the subject we have to consider1 of which there are many1 containing various proportions of the metal employed in silver depositing4 ,the following is one of the best we have employed3 take pure silver and dissolve it in a mixture of nitric acid and water3-- ,fine silver #e dwts4 ,nitric acid #d drms4 ,water #b drms4 ,the silver should be put into a small ,florence flask1 so as to allow the mixture of acid and water to cover it thoroughly2 this mixture on being added to the metal soon promotes a chemical action1 and the silver becomes gradually dissolved4 ,if the acid employed has been weak1 it will necessitate a further addition of it to complete the dissolution of the silver1 or the removal of the flask to some other and warmer place1 such as a sand-bath1 but care should be taken not to apply too much heat4 ,as the chemical action proceeds1 red fumes are formed in the flask2 and the action should be allowed to go on until these cease to rise1 when the silver should by that time have become dissolved4 ,the mixture then consists of a solution of nitrate of silver1 and should be carefully poured into a suitable porcelain or ,wedgwood capsule2 this is then heated upon a sand-bath until a scum or pellicle appears upon the surface1 when it should at once be transferred from the sand-bath to a suitable place for cooling4 ,during the last operation the mixture begins to form itself into crystals1 and the liquid which appears reluctant to crystallize should be poured away from those already formed1 into another capsule1 and again heated until it has sufficiently evaporated to crystallize4 ,when the whole of the liquor has finally undergone this process1 the crystals of nitrate of silver must be removed to another vessel1 and about one pint of cold water added1 the whole being then well stirred until they have become thoroughly dissolved4 ,a solution of cyanide of potassium is next prepared in water1 in the proportion of about one ounce of cyanide to the pint of water2 some of this solution is then added to the one containing the nitrate of silver4 ,it must1 however1 be added very cautiously1 for precipitation soon takes place1 and if too much be used1 the precipitate becomes again dissolved4 ,for this reason it is advisable to take a little of the solution from the vessel1 in a wine-glass or test tube1 and to add a few drops of the prepared solution of cyanide1 in order to ascertain its exact state4 ,if the application of this solution produces no effect upon the nitrate of silver1 the operation of precipitation is complete4 ,the liquid above the sediment should next be carefully poured away to avoid any waste of silver2 when this is done fresh water should be added1 well stirred with the sediment1 and allowed to settle2 it is then again poured off1 and the process repeated until the precipitate has become thoroughly washed4 ,now add sufficient cyanide of potassium to dissolve the precipitate and a little more1 and make up two quarts of solution with fresh clean water4 ,it is better to filter the solution before using it4 ,the solution may be made by means of the battery1 and1 if preferred1 the above mode of chemically preparing it may be dispensed with4 ,the following is the most simple method by the battery process3--,dissolve in two quarts of water about half an ounce1 and no more1 of best black cyanide2 this should be done in an oval1 or still better1 oblong stoneware vessel1 placed in an iron one of the same shape containing water4 ,the stone jar should not be allowed to touch the bottom or sides of the iron one1 a space being left for holding the water4 ,when the cyanide has become dissolved1 fill a porous cell with some of the solution1 place this cell in the other vessel containing the cyanide2 the solution should be about the same height in both vessels4 ,now put a piece of sheet copper1 secured to the end of the wire issuing from the zinc of the battery1 into the porous cell1 and place in the larger vessel containing the cyanide solution about one ounce of sheet silver1 properly secured to the wire issuing from the carbon of the battery4 ,in a short time the solution in the larger vessel will have acquired the right proportion of silver 7#e dwts4 to the two quarts7 for use2 when this has been effected1 the porous cell should be removed and its contents thrown away4 ,these solutions are both worked hot1 at a temperature of not exceeding #abj ,fahr4 with the battery we have described4 ,the solutions are heated by means of gas-jets1 and the articles are plated by being suspended to the wire proceeding from the zinc of the battery4 ,to the wire proceeding from the carbon is to be attached the piece of sheet silver which dissolves and keeps up the strength of the solution4 ,the piece of silver or anode being lowered into the solution1 upon the immersion of the work1 an almost instantaneous deposit of fine silver takes place1 the thickness of which depends entirely upon the period of immersion4 ,when a solution begins to plate of an inferior kind through the acquisition of organic matter1 it will be better to abandon it altogether and make a new one1 rather than to waste valuable time in repeated attempts at improvement1 which seldom can be effected in solutions that have been employed for all kinds of work4 ,the silver may be recovered from such solutions by means of the battery1 by precipitation1 and by evaporation2 the first process1 however1 we have not always found successful1 the solution in some cases refusing to give up its silver to the action of the battery4 ,it is put into operation as follows3--,the anode which supplies the solution with silver is replaced by one of platinum1 on which the cyanide solution has no action whatever2 a piece of clean sheet copper should be hung upon the zinc wire of the battery1 and the battery kept in action until the whole of the silver held in the solution has become deposited upon it2 at which stage it may be removed1 and the exhausted solution thrown into the waste water tub4 ,the piece of copper containing the silver may be used again in the place of the silver anode until it has become dissolved1 or it may be removed by any other means1 if preferred4 ,in the event of the above plan failing1 the process of precipitation or evaporation should be resorted to4 ,if the former one be adopted1 the solution should be poured into a large open vessel1 and considerably diluted with water2 sulphuric acid should then be carefully poured in1 a little at a time1 until it produces no effervescence4 ,the sulphuric acid precipitates the silver1 and the fumes which it creates are highly deleterious to health1 therefore the process ought to be performed in the open air1 and not in ill-ventilated workshops4 ,when the sulphuric acid produces no effect upon the solution1 it should be allowed to stand for a while for the precipitate to subside1 when the water above 7which should be clear7 may be drawn off1 the precipitate well washed1 to free it from the acid1 dried1 and fused in a crucible with a little potash or soda4 ,if the latter plan be adopted1 the solution may be placed in a cast-iron kettle or saucepan1 and then heated upon a gas-jet or stove1 until evaporation takes place1 after which the sediment should be removed and fused in a crucible1 as before4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,scratch-brush ,lathe4 ,the finishing of silver work requires some little knowledge and skill to perform it properly2 and we think that a few observations bearing upon it will be of service to those for whom this manual is written4 ,after either of the processes of whitening or plating1 the work has to be scratched1 unless required to be left a dead white1 then this process does not take place2 the scratching removes from the surface the dull white colour produced by the above processes1 and effects a characteristic bright and uniform colour to the work of the silversmith4 ,scratching is done at the lathe 7,fig4 #dj7 by the application of a very fine brass-wire brush of circular form running upon the spindle2 a solution of weak ale runs from a barrel with a tap to it1 placed upon the framework of the lathe so as to enable the beer running from it to fall upon the brush during the whole time of its rotary action1 and this assists the brush the more easily to glide over the surface of the work submitted to it4 ,a large quantity of silversmith's work receives no other treatment than this1 after the whitening processes have taken place4 ,silver chains are burnished by means of a polished steel jack chain1 and the application of a little soft soap and hot water1 or otherwise scratch-brushed4 ,the beautiful frosted surfaces to be seen upon silver lockets1 and other work of a similar nature1 are all produced by means of the scratch-brush4 ,burnishing is another mode of finishing silver work4 ,it produces a polished surface1 which reflects like a mirror1 and gives the greatest lustre3 it removes marks left by the polishing mixtures1 and produces a darker surface than the other modes of finishing4 ,the tools employed for this process are extremely variable1 and well adapted to the different kinds of work to which they are applied2 they are of two kinds1 one being formed of hard stone1 and the other of polished hardened steel2 they vary with regard to shape1 some being straight with rounded points1 or with curved and blunted edges1 others with large rounded surfaces1 c4 ,stone burnishers are made of blood-stone1 which is mounted in a wooden handle with a brass ferrule1 which firmly secures the stone to it1 in which state it is used4 ,steel burnishers are likewise fixed in wooden handles1 which enable them to be firmly grasped by the operator4 ,throughout the whole process of burnishing1 the tool should be repeatedly moistened with a solution of soap and water2 which causes it to glide more easily over the surface of the work1 prevents it from becoming too much heated1 and generally facilitates its action4 ,in consequence of the great friction which the burnishing tool undergoes1 it soon loses its bite1 when it slips over the work as if it were greasy2 its effectiveness must therefore be restored from time to time by rubbing it upon the leather which the workman has beside him for the purpose4 ,it generally consists of a piece of buff leather1 impregnated with a little crocus4 ,in very small articles only steel burnishers are used1 as they are finer in make1 and by their greater variety of form1 are exceedingly well adapted to all kinds of work2 in this class of work1 if any soap-suds should adhere to the article they may be removed by the application of a little tissue paper4 ,large pieces of work are rubbed with a piece of old linen1 or washed in a warm solution of soap and water1 rinsed1 and dried in boxwood sawdust1 which finally completes the process4 ,silver work may be oxidized by any of the following processes3-- ,i4 ,sal-ammoniac #b parts4 ,sulphate of ,copper #b ,saltpetre #a part4 ,reduce the above ingredients to a fine powder1 and dissolve it in a little acetic acid4 ,if the article is to be entirely oxidized1 it may be dipped for a short time into the boiling mixture2 if only in parts1 it may be applied with a camel-hair pencil1 the article and the mixture both being warmed before using4 ,,ii4 ,platinum #a part4 ,hydrochloric acid #b parts4 ,nitric acid #a part4 ,dissolve the platinum in the mixture of acid1 evaporate to crystallization1 and when cold1 dissolve again in a little sulphuric ether4 ,apply the mixture with a camel-hair pencil to the parts required to be blackened4 ,,iii4 ,saltpetre #b parts4 ,common ,salt #a part4 ,spirits of ,salts #a ,reduce the salts to powder1 and place it in a black-lead crucible along with the acid1 boil up1 and then dip the articles into the mixture for a short time1 or otherwise apply it to the parts required to be oxidized4 ,these mixtures will give the various tints of oxidation to silver work if properly treated2 but if other tints be desired1 the following chemical substances may be employed according to taste3--,for slate-coloured surface1 dip the articles into a boiling solution of sulphuret of potassium4 ,strong hydrosulphate of ammonia produces a dark tint of oxidation1 and if diluted with much water a light tint is produced4 ,nitric acid produces a light surface4 ,the fumes of sulphur produce a beautiful blue-coloured surface4 ,this operation should be conducted in a closed box1 and all parts not to be blackened should be coated with a suitable resist varnish4 ,after any of these processes the articles may either be scratched1 or otherwise burnished4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,imitation ,silver ,alloys4 ,the undermentioned white alloys have their various uses in the industrial and mechanical arts1 some being employed as common silver1 whilst others are manufactured as near as possible in imitation of it1 and used as a substitute1 for many purposes4 ,in melting the alloys in which nickel and several other compounds enter into combination1 unless very great care be exercised1 it is a difficult matter to maintain the true and definite proportion of each metal of which the alloy proper is composed1 owing to the loss of the more fusible metals by volatilization1 if allowed to remain too long in the furnace4 ,the best method of preparing the compound for the crucible1 is to mix the copper and nickel together4 ,the latter is produced from the pure oxide of nickel2 therefore it is taken in this form and placed in the crucible with the copper at the commencement of the operation4 ,when these ingredients are well melted1 and incorporated by stirring1 add the zinc or other fusible metal required to make up the compound1 previously heating it thoroughly over the mouth of the crucible1 to prevent the chilling of the already molten metal which it contains4 ,when silver forms a component part in any of these alloys it should be added at the beginning of the process along with those of a high degree of fusibility1 and reduced under the protection of a suitable flux2 charcoal being the best for the purpose4 ,this flux also tends to preserve the fusible metals1 upon their addition to the melted compound in the pot1 from too suddenly flying away in the shape of fumes4 ,the best zinc of commerce should be employed in these alloys1 which is sold under the name of spelter4 ,common silver alloy alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #ag #j ,nickel #j #ac #j ------------- #b #aj #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #j #j ,nickel #j #ae #j ------------- #b #ae #j ,common silver alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #c #j ,nickel #j #ag #j ------------- #c #j #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #f #j ,nickel #j #ai #j ------------- #c #e #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #i #j ,nickel #a #a #j ------------- #c #aj #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #ab #j ,nickel #a #c #j ------------- #c #ae #j ,common silver alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #ae #j ,nickel #a #e #j ------------- #d #j #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #b #b #ab ,nickel #a #g #ab ------------- #d #aj #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #c #aj #j ,nickel #a #aj #j ------------- #e #j #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #af #j ,nickel #j #aj #ab ,spelter #j #c #ab -------------- #b #aj #j ,common silver alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #j #ai #j ,nickel #j #ab #j ,spelter #j #d #j ------------ #b #ae #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,shot copper #a #b #j ,nickel #j #ae #j ,spelter #j #c #j ------------ #c #j #j ,chinese silver-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,spelter #j #f #j ,nickel #j #d #j ,cobalt #j #c #ah ,silver #j #j #ah ------------ #a #ad #ab ,imitation silver-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,nickel #j #f #ab ,spelter #j #d #ah ------------ #a #aa #f ,imitation silver-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,spelter #j #ab #j ,nickel #j #h #j ----------- #b #j #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,spelter #j #h #j ,nickel #j #d #j ----------- #a #ab #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,spelter #j #aj #j ,nickel #j #aj #j ----------- #b #j #j ,another-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,nickel #j #h #h ,spelter #j #f #af ----------- #a #ae #j ,white alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,tin #j #aj #f ,brass #j #b #ab ,arsenic #j #j #ah ------------- #a #ac #ab ,clark's patent alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,nickel #j #c #ah ,spelter #j #a #bb ,tin #j #j #ab ,cobalt #j #j #ab ------------- #a #f #af ,white alloy-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,shot copper #a #j #j ,tin #j #aj #j ,arsenic #j #a #j ------------- #a #aa #j ,alloy with platinum-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,platinum #j #e #j ------------- #a #e #j ,alloy with palladium-- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,fine silver #a #j #j ,palladium #j #e #j ------------- #a #e #j ,the platinum and palladium of which the last two alloys are composed1 although very difficult to use in combination with any other metal1 readily unite in any proportions with silver2 and it has been found that such alloys are not so easily tarnished as the ordinary ones1 or even as fine silver itself4 ,these various alloys serve to effect the several purposes for which they are employed in manufactures2 wires prepared from any of them will supply the place of silver1 as brooch tongs1 stems for pins1 catches and joints1 c4 for articles of common quality and cheap workmanship4 ,they are also employed for preparing the ground for electro-plate1 for which they are very serviceable4 ,when1 however1 these alloys are employed by the regular silversmith1 care should be taken not to get the scraps of metal in any way mixed with those of the better material1 otherwise difficulties will soon begin to present themselves1 which will materially interfere with the regular and proper working of the best silver alloys2 and in fact1 with all qualities that have originally been prepared free from nickel4 ,those prepared from nickel are much more infusible than those made without it2 consequently1 if a piece of the nickel alloy1 either by accident or design1 gets intermixed with the other quality1 in a subsequent melting1 it will be found to float upon the surface of the molten metal for some considerable time1 and thus retard the process4 ,alloys prepared in imitation of silver are harder and much more difficult to work than those of the true metal2 therefore it can easily be imagined what alteration the latter undergo upon the addition of some of the former compounds4 ,the hardness and toughness which these alloys possess admirably adapt them for such purposes as we have described4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,economical ,processes4 ,in all silversmiths' establishments1 the economical or waste-saving processes1 as they are termed1 require special and careful attention1 so that the actual working loss1 or that portion of it which is entirely irrecoverable by the manufacturer1 may be reduced to the lowest possible degree4 ,it may not be known to the general reader1 or to the beginner in the precious metal trades1 that there always takes place in the working up of the metal a loss of material1 a portion of which the manufacturer is unable to recover1 however cautious may be the means employed for that purpose4 ,in the best regulated workshops1 this loss will amount at the lowest estimate to about #b-a_/b per cent4 of the whole quantity worked up in the establishment4 ,if the actual loss can be reduced to within the above limit it is considered very low1 and highly satisfactory4 ,taking into consideration the loss that is occasioned in precious metal working1 and from calculations that we have made from experience1 we have long since arrived at the conclusion1 that it cannot possibly be estimated under #aj per cent4 of the total work daily performed2 and this opinion is based upon experiments1 the raw material being weighed before the process of melting and after the articles were completed1 a fair calculation of course being made for unfinished work4 ,this was including every description of manufacture2 in some branches of the trade the working loss is not quite so great1 but then there are others in which it is exceedingly heavy1 so that the estimated loss in the jewellery trades cannot be safely put at a lower percentage than we have quoted4 ,it will thus be seen that the real loss1 such as manufacturers are unable to recover by the means already known to them1 amounts to one-fourth part of the total working loss of the establishment4 ,this is easily accounted for3 in the first place1 a little takes place in the melting of the various alloys1 the re-melting of scrap metal1 the reduction of lemel1 c42 then there are the sundry manipulations of working2 the passage of the metal through various acids1 and the processes of finishing1 each of which detaches small particles of metal1 too small to be visible to the naked eye1 but all of which go to form a portion of the loss which the manufacturer never recovers4 ,the unrecovered metal may be judiciously proportioned as follows3--,a portion of it works itself into the wood-work of the flooring of the shops1 lathes1 boards1 and other parts of workshop appliances2 then there is the refiner's profit--as purchases of the sweep1 polishings1 and other refuse of precious metal workers4 ,instances can be recorded in which shrewd business-men have actually taken up the floors of their workshops and recovered a vast quantity of metal which was supposed to be lost for ever2 and instances are well remembered in which two jewellers1 upon removing into more extensive premises1 availed themselves of the opportunity1 not only of removing the boards which formed the flooring of the premises they were about to leave1 but also those of the tenants they were about to succeed4 ,in one case1 metal of the value of #hj was recovered1 and in the other it reached the large amount of #aej4 ,the two jewellers referred to1 of course1 were too un-,english to refund the proceeds to the late tenants1 who1 when they became aware of it1 if ever they did1 would be1 no doubt1 wiser if sadder men4 ,to prevent the precious metal from finding its way into such places as these1 it is advisable to have the floors well protected with sheet zinc or iron1 in which case not the least particle could be lost in this manner4 ,the extra cost of laying the floors would soon be amply repaid1 by an extra quantity of the working loss being recovered2 and if other equally effective precautions were adopted in the waste-saving processes by precious metal workers1 the real loss1 which they cannot avoid suffering1 might even yet be reduced to the lowest possible point4 ,iron or zinc covered floors may be protected from wear1 by laying over the surface small square grates of perforated iron1 and these1 being removable1 may be readily taken up at stated periods1 for sweeping the refuse from the floors2 once a month will be found often enough to do this4 ,the gratings should1 however1 be swept over lightly every day in order to remove the dust and particles of metal that may accumulate upon the surface into the perforations1 and also for the removal of waste paper and other rubbish1 continually accumulating in workshops4 ,floors containing no such waste-saving precautions1 are commonly swept over once1 and sometimes twice each day1 the refuse arising therefrom being carefully passed through a very fine sieve1 all extraneous matter removed1 and the residue remaining in the sieve being well sorted for the detection of all the precious metal visible to the naked eye4 ,the whole refuse matter is then thoroughly burned in a muffle provided specially for the purpose1 and finally reduced to a fine powder in a cast-iron mortar4 ,when it has reached this stage of the process1 it is quite ready for the particular kind of treatment it next receives at the hands of the refiner4 ,grinding by large stone rollers is now fast superseding this mode of pulverising jewellers' waste and refuse4 ,when the latter plan is adopted1 the refuse should be swept from the floors every morning1 carefully looked through1 and then transferred to a barrel 7having the top removed1 which may be used as a lid71 where it can be well kept together1 and hidden from view until the time arrives for its further treatment4 ,the waste which accumulates in the processes of polishing1 lapping1 c41 is greater than that already referred to1 consequently1 it cannot be too carefully looked after1 in every stage1 where a large manufacturing trade is being carried on in various branches4 ,it is advisable in the practice of true economy1 for the polishing1 lapping1 and scratching boxes to be repeatedly cleaned out1 and the contents removed out of the temptation of every one1 by being placed in a box1 well lined with either sheet lead or zinc1 which ensures the perfect safety of the material placed therein from all irregularities in the workshop4 ,this kind of waste on being prepared for sale is again placed in a very strong wrought-iron box1 made of a suitable size to fit the muffle1 and having a thick close lid to it4 ,after the work of the day has been completed1 the fire in the furnace or muffle is made up1 the dampers are closed1 and then the iron box containing the refuse is at once passed in and allowed to remain there till morning1 when every particle of matter will have become thoroughly burned2 a slight pulverization after this process readily reduces it to a fine powder2 further operations then cease1 and the product is in all probability in a fine state of division1 and fit for the subsequent operations of the refiner and assayer1 whose special business it is to attend to these arrangements of precious metal workers4 ,the next process we have to consider is one which includes the whole of the liquid substances variously employed in silver-working establishments1 such as the pickling solutions1 washing-out waters1 whitening mixtures1 and waste or spent solutions of every kind4 ,the whitening solutions or mixtures1 when in use1 should be kept apart from the ordinary cleansing liquids1 as after they have been in use for a time1 they become saturated with copper taken off the work during the whitening processes2 if the solution is then set aside for some time the copper eventually crystallizes out from the liquor1 which may be poured into the waste-water tub1 and the remaining crystals of sulphate of copper1 for such it then is1 may be removed and preserved4 ,in small establishments one large tub1 to form the receptacle for all spent or used-up liquids1 will be found sufficient2 but in large places several will be required4 ,in the former case the water is only drawn off at the beginning of every fresh week1 which allows plenty of time for the precipitation of the silver without any disturbance taking place in the mixture between the close of one week and the commencement of another2 whereas in large concerns it requires to be drawn off continually unless other vessels are provided for its reception during a long period4 ,attempts have been made to recover the silver from these solutions by simply filtering the liquid through a coarse piece of felt or flannel2 or by providing a false bottom in the tub or other vessel containing the waste waters1 arranged in the following manner3--,a tolerably large tub would be employed1 being about one-fourth filled with coarse deal sawdust1 next would be placed the false bottom perforated with numerous small holes1 and upon this would be firmly secured a piece of felt1 so as to exactly fill up the space in that part of the tub1 which then serves to act as the filterer of all solutions poured in above4 ,the liquid after passing through the piece of felt proceeds through the perforations in the false bottom into the sawdust beneath1 where it is allowed to run away by means of a small hole or tap at the bottom4 ,but the use of either of these processes1 if adopted on a large scale1 where the waste products amounted to some hundreds per annum1 would be wretchedly bad economy and tend to a serious loss of valuable metal2 the boiling sulphuric acid1 used in cleansing the work and for other purposes1 has the power of dissolving minute particles of silver as well as those of the baser metal which always enters into the composition used in the production of the work of the silversmith2 therefore1 that portion of the metal which has become dissolved and entered into the chemical state1 requires to be brought back to its original form before it can be saved by such means as those just described4 ,to illustrate this more clearly1 we will take the process of gold-colouring4 ,if workmen were to notice the rinsing waters employed in this process1 subsequently allowing the vessels containing the rinsing to stand for a very short time1 upon pouring away the surplus water1 a white curdy precipitate will at once be observed at the bottom4 ,this is the silver removed from the surface of the gold alloy1 which has been precipitated by the muriatic acid and the common salt employed in the colouring mixture1 into the form of chloride of silver4 ,now in this proceeding there is no gold to be seen in any of the vessels1 but it is a well-known fact that a portion has been removed during the process from the surface of the gold articles4 ,where is it8 ,why1 it has become dissolved1 and is therefore held invisible in the solution1 in consequence of the colouring mixture forming the well-known solvent for gold1 aqua-regia4 ,this is exactly the case with a portion of silver in the silversmith's solutions2 small particles are continually being dissolved by the mixtures employed1 and are thus held in solution past the power of filtering1 unless some chemical ingredient be added to it1 which acts as a re-agent upon the metal sought to be recovered4 ,from what we have seen in the colour water1 which always contains a little silver1 it is evident that both muriatic acid and common salt will do this work for us4 ,we prefer common salt1 on account of its cheapness1 besides being easily procurable4 ,the best mode of treatment for the silversmith's waste waters1 after being collected together by pouring into the receptacle specially provided for that purpose1 is to prepare a saline solution for the precipitation of the silver4 ,this may be made by mixing together common salt and tepid water1 in the following proportions3-- ,common salt #c oz4 ,tepid water #a pt4 ,the water need only be sufficiently warm to dissolve the salt1 and the proportions given do not require to be strictly adhered to2 in fact any quantity1 if properly mixed1 will do to effect the purpose required1 and we merely give these as a guide for the process4 ,in small establishments where only one tub is employed1 the above proportion of saline solution may be added 7every ,saturday after the completion of the day's work7 to the waste-water2 the whole should then be stirred slowly in a circular direction1 and allowed to settle until ,monday morning1 when all the surplus water may be drawn off and poured away4 ,in larger establishments the accumulation of waste-water is greater1 therefore several collecting vessels should be employed1 and the mixture for precipitation may be added to them at other times than those stated1 if required1 and in accordance with workshop regulations4 ,the sediment produced in the collecting vessels after the supernatant water has all been drawn off1 may be removed1 dried by heat in a strong iron pan1 and subsequently sold to the refiner4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,licences and ,duties4 ,manufacturing silversmiths1 and all persons trading in silver wares of more than five pennyweights each1 are compelled to take out a licence2 articles under that weight being exempt4 ,the licence has to be taken out annually1 and costs #b #fs4 for manufacturing or trading in articles under thirty ounces in weight1 and #e #aes4 for articles of thirty ounces and upwards4 ,it should be taken out on the #fth day of ,july in each year at the ,excise ,office4 ,this ,act of the ,legislature was passed in the year #ahjc1 #dc ,george ,,iii4 c4 #fi1 and is not the only one which refers to the subject we are now considering4 ,there are other conditions besides the compulsory ,plate ,licence1 as it is called1 to which manufacturing silversmiths are subject1 such as the supervision of the assay offices1 in the case of certain descriptions of goods2 and the payment of duty on all such goods4 ,at the present time all hall-marked silver articles have to pay a duty of #as4 #f;d4 per ounce1 calculated not on their gross weight1 but on five-sixths of the weight1 the other sixth being allowed for waste in finishing the articles1 as they are sent to the ,hall in a half-finished state4 ,the duty is paid at the ,assay ,office at the time the goods are sent to be marked4 ,some dissatisfaction just now exists in a portion of the trade with regard to the above duty1 as it is considered excessive1 besides having a tendency to discourage the manufacture of silver wares2 be this as it may with respect to a certain description of goods1 on the bulk of the trade it can have no injurious effect whatever4 ,the duty is paid only on manufactured plate and such other articles as are requested to be hall-marked2 besides which the trade in this particular department of manufacture has never been very extensive1 being confined to a few firms of eminence only4 ,before going into the general details of this question1 it will be as well1 perhaps1 if we give a short history of the imposts that have existed in the silver trade for some time back4 ,the first impost that we can find recorded took the shape of a duty1 and was levied as far back as the year #agbj1 by #f ,george ,i4 c4 #aa1 which placed a tax of #f;d4 per ounce on all silver plate manufactured in ,great ,britain1 which1 should be assayed or marked4 ,the officers of the ,excise were to collect the tax1 but the great difficulty of ascertaining the number of ounces worked up1 which the provisions of the ,act did not clearly set forth1 soon rendered it ineffectual1 and it was consequently repealed by the statute #ca ,george ,,ii4 c4 #cb1 and a licence then substituted had to be taken out by manufacturers and dealers in plate4 ,the licence at this period amounted to forty shillings1 and had to be renewed annually4 ,in #agei1 #cb ,george ,,ii4 c4 #ad1 it was increased to #e per annum1 for every person trading in silver wares of thirty ounces and upwards2 wares in one piece not exceeding five pennyweights in weight being exempted4 ,the next change that took place was in the year #aghd1 #bd ,george ,,iii4 c4 #ec1 when a duty was again imposed of #f;d4 per ounce on silver plate4 ,it was also enacted that the assay masters should stamp the work with the additional mark of the ,king's head1 as well as the others already ordered by the various ,acts of the ,legislature4 ,the mark of the ,king's head represented that of the reigning sovereign1 and showed that the duty had been paid on the work4 ,the present mark1 therefore1 is the ,queen's head4 ,by an ,act passed in the year #agig1 #cg ,george ,,iii4 c4 #ij1 the duty on silver ware was increased to one shilling per ounce1 but the ,act which subjected silver wares to a duty of #f;d4 per ounce 7#bd ,george ,,iii4 c4 #ec7 has not been repealed1 and is therefore in existence to this very day2 by its provisions1 however1 the duty has been increased from time to time1 until it has reached the amount at which it now stands4 ,the present annual licences of #b #fs4 and #e #aes4 respectively1 were enacted in the year #ahjc by an ,act of #dc ,george ,,iii4 c4 #fi1 and by these regulations every person making or trading in silver wares1 or otherwise dealing in the raw material1 is compelled to take out an annual licence1 or render himself liable to a penalty of #ej4 ,another ,act was passed in reference to the duty on silver goods in the year following1 #ahjd1 #dd ,george ,,iii4 c4 #ih1 whereby it was increased to #as4 #c;d4 per ounce4 ,and in the year #ahae1 #ee ,george ,,iii4 c4 #ahe1 the ,act was further extended to #as4 #f;d4 per oz4 calculated in the manner we have described at the beginning of this chapter4 ,to sum up1 therefore1 the silver duties in their several forms1 bearing upon the trade at the present time1 we find them as follows3-- ,manufacturers of silver wares under #e dwts4 in weights4--,exempted from all duties4 ,vendors and dealers in silver wares under #e dwts4 in weight4--,exempted from all duties4 ,manufacturers of silver wares under #cj oz4 in weight4--,a plate licence of #b #fs4 annually4 ,vendors and dealers in silver wares under #cj oz4 in weight4--,a plate licence of #b #fs4 annually4 ,manufacturers of silver wares of more than #cj oz4 in weight4--,a plate licence of #e #aes4 annually4 ,vendors and dealers in silver wares of more than #cj oz4 in weight4--,a plate licence of #e #aes4 annually4 ,bullion dealers1 refiners1 and assayers4--,a plate licence of #e #aes4 annually4 ,manufacturers of plate4--,a duty of #as4 #f;d4 per ounce4 ,hall-marked goods4--,a duty of #as4 #f;d4 per ounce4 ,manufactured plate includes silver wares1 such as spoons1 forks1 snuff-boxes1 tea-sets1 c41 and other articles used by the rich1 and upon which the duty is compulsory2 the duty on hall-marked goods1 refers to all articles--with the exception of watch-cases1 which are free--marked at the request of intended purchasers1 which then pay duty on the manufacture of them4 ,it will be observed from these remarks1 that the silver trade generally is not at all affected by the duty tax2 the wares manufactured by the trade at large not coming directly under the compulsory provisions of the law bearing upon this subject4 ,it has been said that the silver trade ministers to luxury1 and no doubt that portion of it which manufactures costly articles of plate for the wealthy does so2 but we fail to see exactly1 that the same remark applies to that vast and increasing commercial industry which has sprung up of late years1 and which bids fair to become one of the staple trades of the country4 ,the duty-bearing articles are generally purchased by the classes of society who can well afford to pay the little extra which the duty imposes1 and as the tax affects only that section of the silver trade which manufactures the article of luxury1 it is not at all likely that the general trade would be increased by its entire removal4 ,the duty1 no doubt to most persons1 may seem excessive1 when calculated upon the percentage system2 such for instance1 as a tax of #bj per cent4 upon spoons and forks2 or one of #ae per cent4 upon chains2 or of #ab-a_/b per cent4 upon tea-sets1 c42 this appears unjustly oppressive1 and undoubtedly affects the silver-plate manufacturer more vitally than any one else4 ,to the ordinary silversmith this question of duty is not likely to be of much importance2 the agitation therefore commenced against it1 may be expected to confine itself to those persons more directly affected1 and whose interests would be advanced by its abolition4 ,the question of licences is one of far greater importance to the trade generally than that of duties1 every manufacturer and dealer being compelled to procure a licence before he can carry on his business4 ,if more direct action were taken in regard to this particular question1 we believe that the whole trade would enter into it2 for it resolves itself into this3--,why should the silversmith or goldsmith pay for a licence for the purpose of manufacturing and dealing1 any more than the coppersmith1 or the manufacturer of electro-plate1 both of whom escape scot-free8 ,we believe this to be an unjust tax1 and that it ought not to be levied upon one particular trade any more than another4 ,we have also distinctions made in the general class of silversmiths3 we have those who may trade without any licence at all2 those who may trade with a #dfs4 licence2 and those who may trade with #aaes4 licence1 that is1 those who work or sell under #e dwts41 those who work or sell under #cj oz41 and those who work or sell at any weight4 ,now this way of arranging the matter is very unsatisfactory to the trade generally2 and any one of the first two traders to whom we have referred1 is liable at any moment to be summoned before a criminal court for an infringement of the law1 if he should happen to sell an article slightly over the weight for which he is duly licensed4 ,at the present time a raid is being made upon the goldsmiths with reference to this particular question1 and a number have already been summoned for infringing their licences in this manner4 ,however1 there appears to be some doubt with respect to the ,act of ,parliament bearing upon the subject1 as in most of the cases the defendants have gained a verdict1 the line of defence on their behalf being1 that the clause of the act which bore upon the cases referred to1 meant the weight in fine metal1 i4e4 pure gold1 of which the article was composed1 and not that of the gross weight of the article sold4 ,it was urged by those engaged in the various cases on the side of the defendants1 that1 for a #dfs4 licence1 the vendor could sell an article in which the gold did not exceed two ounces1 without any regard to the quality and weight made by alloy1 and on this plea the magistrates granted them a verdict4 ,in the higher courts we believe such verdicts would be reversed1 for we firmly believe that the framers of the act meant no such thing1 however defective may have been the legality of the points raised4 ,the clause of the act to which we have alluded is ,no4 #e1 and runs as follows3--,all articles sold1 or offered for sale1 or taken in pawn1 or delivered out of pawn1 and alleged to be composed wholly1 or in part1 of gold or silver1 are for the purposes of the above act to be deemed to be composed of gold or silver respectively2 and if upon the hearing of any information for any offence against this act1 any question shall arise touching the quantity of gold or silver contained in any article1 the proof of such quantity shall be upon the defendant4 ,the ,excise authorities argue that this clause means that the absolute or gross weight of an article sold as gold must not exceed two ounces1 and one sold as silver must not exceed thirty ounces1 gross weight4 ,if this view of the meaning of the act be eventually taken1 and we believe it will1 it will certainly operate to a greater extent against makers and vendors of gold articles than it will against silversmiths4 ,that part of the clause referring to the quantity of gold or silver contained in a given article1 we believe has reference to articles containing jewels1 c41 in their construction1 which renders it exceedingly difficult to get at their exact weight1 when the work is finally completed with these jewels properly affixed upon it1 and not to the amount of fine material any article may contain by assay4 ,the last part of the clause we have marked in italics1 proof of such quantity shall be upon the defendant1 fully bears out these observations1 because he is supposed to know the gross weight of any special article before the addition to it of any jewels4 ,we have been led to make these few remarks1 in order to point out the gross anomalies which exist in the trade with respect to these licences1 and to show the necessity of a reform taking place in a trade singled out from all the others1 and made to pay a tax for the privilege of being allowed to make1 or sell1 articles in which gold or silver forms a component part4 ,therefore1 if any action is to be taken in the matter1 it must not be confined 7if it is to be successful7 to one particular branch of this important trade1 but all must unite1 and every influence should be brought to bear upon it in as forcible a manner as possible4 ,the electro-plate manufacturer1 and the dealer in his wares1 ought in all common fairness to the trade1 to be put upon the same footing as the silversmith1 if this licence is to be still continued4 ,in electro-plating establishments1 thousands of ounces of silver are being annually used on the surface of such wares as are manufactured there2 and if such decisions as those lately given at the ,thames and other police courts1 with reference to the ,act of ,parliament on the subject of gold and silver wares are upheld1 we fail to see how the manufacturers of silver-plated articles1 who are continually making and selling them1 containing as they do1 more silver than the general public would suppose1 are to escape much longer these new interpretations of the ,act of ,parliament1 and avoid being called upon to take out a licence in the same manner as the silversmiths4 ,this is a tax in which the holder gets no direct return1 and is levied in an unfair manner by the establishment of various grades of silversmiths1 so that it gives a just cause for grievance4 ,if the tax is to be upheld at all1 why not make it equal by the establishment of one uniform rate for all trades alike8 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,useful ,information for the ,trade4 ,silversmith's ,alloy4 ,copper1 #a oz42 nickel1 #c dwts4 #ab grs2 bismuth1 #f grs42 zinc1 #b dwts4 #ab grs42 soft iron1 #ab grs42 tin1 #ab grs4 ,this compound is said to form a fusible and malleable metal1 that can be easily worked by the silversmith2 it is also said to resist oxidation through atmospheric influences4 ,silver ,wares4 ,never scratch-brush silver ware with a solution of soap and water2 neither should it be washed with the solution if it can be avoided1 as it gives it the colour of pewter2 better to scratch in weak ale1 or if plain1 rub it with a piece of wash-leather and prepared chalk4 ,cleaning ,plate4 ,carbonate of ammonia1 #a oz42 water1 #d oz42 ,paris white1 #af oz42 well mix the ingredients together1 and apply to the surface of the plate by means of a piece of soft leather or sponge4 ,imitation ,silver4 ,fine silver1 #f dwts42 nickel1 #f dwts42 copper1 #h dwts4 ,this alloy will cost about #as4 #i;d4 per ounce4 ,another ,recipe4 ,fine silver1 #e dwts42 nickel1 #f dwts42 copper1 #i dwts4 ,cost about #as4 #f;d4 per ounce4 ,removing ,gold from ,silver ,articles4 ,silver articles which have been gilt1 may be brought back to their original colour1 by simply covering them with a thick solution of borax1 and then well annealing them4 ,after this process if the articles are boiled for a short time in one of the whitening mixtures and scratched1 they will present a beautiful white and uniform surface4 ,oxidizing ,silver4 ,a beautiful deep black colour1 possessing great lustre1 may be given to finished silver work by boiling it in the following preparation for some time3--,bromine1 #e grs42 bromide of potassium1 #e dwts42 water1 #aj oz4 ,the boiling should be effected in a stoneware pipkin1 and generally from two to five minutes will suffice for the purpose4 ,the work is finished after the proper colour has been attained1 by well rubbing with a soft piece of wash-leather and a little best jeweller's rouge4 ,it is better to make the work as bright as possible before submitting it to this mixture2 for this reason it is preferable to thoroughly buff all plain surfaces on a piece of felt by the application of the lathe1 as by that means a characteristic brightness is imparted4 ,dipping ,mixture4 ,brass or metal goods may be cleaned and their oxides removed by dipping into the undermentioned liquid for a few seconds only3--,oil of vitriol1 five parts2 water1 five parts2 nitric acid1 two and a half parts2 spirits of salts1 two drachms4 ,well mix the several ingredients together1 and immerse the work in the solution cold4 ,the mixture improves after a quantity of work has been dipped into it4 ,silver ,powder for ,copper4 ,chloride of silver1 two parts2 cream-of-tartar1 two parts2 alum1 one part4 ,mix with water to the consistence of a paste1 and apply with a soft leather or sponge2 when sufficiently whitened1 well polish4 ,powder for ,silver4 ,chloride of silver1 #a oz42 sal ammoniac1 #b oz42 sandiver1 #b oz42 white vitriol1 #b oz42 bichloride of mercury1 #e dwts4 ,make into a paste with water and rub the articles over with it2 then expose them to a good heat upon a clear fire1 in order to run the silver and evaporate the mercury1 after which process dip in very weak sulphuric acid to clean4 ,to ,protect the ,polish of ,metals4 ,melt one part by weight of best wax paraffin and when sufficiently cooled1 add three parts of petroleum4 ,well mix together1 and apply to the polished articles by means of a soft brush4 ,the protecting film is required to be only very thin1 therefore too much should not be put on4 ,silver ,stripping ,mixture4 ,sulphuric acid1 six parts2 nitric acid1 one part4 ,take a large black-lead crucible or pipkin1 and heat the mixture in it2 when this is done1 put in the work required to be stripped1 occasionally withdrawing it to ascertain the progress made4 ,the large proportion of sulphuric acid allows of the dissolution of the silver1 and does not sensibly corrode or interfere with copper1 or any of its alloys1 if kept quite free from water2 therefore be careful not to introduce wet articles into the mixture4 ,after finally withdrawing the work1 it should be well rinsed1 annealed1 and then boiled out4 ,stripping ,silver4 ,put some strong oil of vitriol in a similar vessel to those above described1 apply heat1 and during the process add a few crystals of saltpetre4 ,when the solution has become hot enough the work should be immersed in it1 and be moved about or agitated until the silver is dissolved from the surface4 ,the articles should not be allowed to remain too long in the solution1 and if it does not remove the silver quickly1 more saltpetre should be added from time to time until the desired end be attained4 ,soft ,solder4 ,pure tin1 two parts2 lead1 one part4 ,melt and well incorporate together2 when this is done pour into strips for use4 ,soldering ,fluid4 ,muriatic acid 7spirits of salts71 three parts2 metallic zinc1 one part2 or as much as the acid will take up4 ,when dissolved and all effervescence ceases1 allow it to settle1 then decant the clear solution from the sediment at the bottom of the vessel in which it has been made1 and it is ready for use4 ,if a small quantity of water be added to the mixture at this stage1 say one-sixth1 it will answer quite as well for some purposes4 ,for soldering iron and steel1 a very small portion of sal ammoniac is of great advantage to the mixture for promoting toughness4 ,dissolving fine silver4--,nitric acid1 two parts2 water1 one part4 ,dissolving silver alloys4--,nitric acid1 one part2 water1 two parts4 ,dissolving copper4--,nitric acid1 one part2 water1 four parts4 ,dissolving soft solder4--,perchloride of iron1 one part2 water1 four parts4 ,dissolving silver solder4--,nitric acid one part2 water four parts4 ,dissolving sealing-wax4--,place for a time in a solution of spirits of wine4 ,resist ,varnish4 ,dissolve resin1 or copal1 in essence of turpentine1 or boiled linseed oil2 to give it different shades of colour1 add red lead1 chrome yellow1 or ,prussian blue4 ,plate ,powder4 ,whitening1 two parts1 white oxide of tin1 one part1 calcined hartshorn1 one part4 ,reduce to a powder and well mix together2 apply as usual4 ,electro-plating ,soft ,solder4 ,take nitric acid1 #a oz42 water1 #b oz42 copper about #a oz4 in small flat pieces2 when the copper has all dissolved and effervescence has ceased1 the solution is ready for use4 ,to apply it1 take up a few drops by means of a camel-hair pencil and apply it to the desired part1 then touch it with a bright piece of steel1 and there will be instantaneously a film of copper deposited4 ,if the copper has not spread all over the desired part1 the process should be repeated1 when deposition in the plating bath will take place with perfect success4 ,another ,recipe4 ,take sulphate of copper 7that which accumulates in the whitening mixture71 one ounce2 water1 six ounces4 ,reduce the sulphate of copper to a fine powder and dissolve it in the water4 ,treat according to the directions given in the previous one4 ,a good mixture for effecting the same result may be made by dissolving verdigris in vinegar4 ,testing ,silver ,wares4 ,take nitric acid1 six ounces2 water1 two ounces2 bichromate of potash1 one ounce4 ,reduce the salt of potash to a powder and well mix it with the acid and water4 ,the solution is used cold1 and should be placed in a stoppered glass bottle1 the stopper having a long dropper extending into the mixture1 which acts as the agent for conveying the liquid from the bottle to the article to be tested4 ,the surface of the article should be perfectly clean1 and to make certain what kind of metallic substance you are testing1 it is advisable to rub a file over some obscure part of the surface and to apply the liquid to that part4 ,the test liquid should be used1 by means of the glass stopper1 to the filed part1 and immediately removed by a sponge damped with cold water4 ,if the article consists of pure silver1 there will appear a clean blood-red mark1 which is less deep and lively in proportion to the quality of the metal4 ,upon platinum the test liquid has no action whatever2 on ,german silver at first a brown mark appears1 but this is removed by the sponge and cold water2 on ,britannia metal a black mark is produced2 and on all the various metals an entirely different result takes place to that on silver2 therefore the test is a simple one1 and may be advantageously employed for the detection of any fraud in relation to the precious metal4 ,another ,test4 ,water1 #b oz42 sulphuric acid1 #b drs42 chromate of potash1 #d dwts4 ,this mixture is applied in the same way as before and produces a purple colour of various depths1 according to the quality of the silver4 ,no other metallic element exhibits the same colour with this preparation4 ,perchloride of ,iron4 ,take spirits of salts1 #h oz42 crocus powder 7jeweller's polishing material71 #a oz42 well mix them together and keep in solution4 ,in preparing the mixture for the dissolution of soft solder1 c41 take #a oz4 of it1 and add to it #d ozs4 of boiling water4 ,aluminium ,alloy4 ,copper1 #ah dwts2 aluminium1 #b dwts4 ,new ,alloy4 ,zinc1 #ai dwts2 soft iron1 #a dwt4 ,this alloy is said by the inventor to be remarkable for its whiteness and tenacity4 ,removing ,gold from ,silver ,wares4 ,sometimes the process of annealing and boiling-out fails to effect the removal of the gold from articles which have been thickly gilt1 in which case the work should be submitted to the action of the following chemical preparation3--,sulphuric acid1 #f ozs42 muriatic acid1 #a oz42 nitric acid1 #a_/b oz4 ,this mixture should be heated in a black-lead crucible or earthen vessel1 and the work immersed until the dissolution of the gold takes place1 carefully watching it during the progress of the operation4 ,the gold may also be removed by using a strong solution of oil of vitriol1 to which has been added a fair proportion of common salt4 ,silver ,plating ,fluid4 ,nitrate of silver1 #a oz42 cyanide of potassium1 #b ozs42 water1 #ab ozs4 ,put the cyanide and the nitrate of silver into the water2 shake them well together until they become thoroughly dissolved1 then let the mixture stand till it becomes thoroughly clear4 ,it is then ready for use4 ,if preferred1 a little prepared chalk may be used as an additional ingredient4 ,plate-cleaning ,powder4 ,take of the finest rouge1 and prepared chalk1 equal parts1 well mix and use dry by means of soft leather4 ,solder for ,aluminium4 ,spelter1 #ah dwts42 aluminium1 #a dwt4 #f grs42 copper1 #ah grs4 ,to be employed for soldering the pure white metal1 and not the so-called aluminum bronze1 that being commonly soldered with bath-metal solder4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,foreign ,silver ,standards--,pre-,war4 ,table showing the various standards of the silver work manufactured in the principal countries previous to the ,european ,war1 #aiad-aiah3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,thousandth ,countries4 ,silver per oz4 parts4 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- oz4 dwts4 grs4 ,france #j #ah #bc #idh-ajjj ,old ,standard4 #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ah #j #ijj-ajjj ,coinage4 #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #bnd ,standard4 ,germany #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ah #j #ijj-ajjj #bnd #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #crd #j #ae #j #gej-ajjj #dth ,austria #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ah #j #ijj-ajjj #bnd #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #crd #j #ae #j #gej-ajjj #dth ,geneva #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ag #ab #hge-ajjj #bnd #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #crd ,holland #j #ag #ab #hge-ajjj ,old ,standard4 #j #ah #af #icc-ajjj #ast #j #af #af #hcc-ajjj #bnd ,belgium #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ah #j #ijj-ajjj #bnd #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #crd ,spain #j #ad #ah #gch-ajjj ,lowest ,portugal #j #af #ba #hdd-ajjj ,one only4 ,neuchatel #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj ,one only4 ,russia #j #af #ai #hdj-ajjj #ast ,standard4 #j #ae #j #gej-ajjj #bnd ,italy #j #ai #j #iej-ajjj #ast #j #ah #j #ijj-ajjj #bnd #j #af #j #hjj-ajjj #crd ,china #j #ai #ad-a_/b #ihj-ajjj ,about4 ,norway #j #af #ai #hdj-ajjj ,one only4 ,sweden #j #af #ai #hdj-ajjj ,denmark #j #af #ai #hdj-ajjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,in ,france1 all articles manufactured as silver are subject to ,government control and pay duty1 but this is very slight compared with the ,english duty1 amounting only to one franc per hectogramme1 which is equal to about threepence per ounce4 ,this is exclusive of the charge for testing and marking2 the state of the articles sent for this purpose with regard to the state of manufacture is1 moreover1 very different from the custom in this country4 ,here they are sent in their rough or half-manufactured state1 and this seems better suited to the particular processes through which they have to pass2 whereas in ,france they may be tested and marked in their whole or finished state2 and1 if thought requisite1 this operation may be performed while the goods are on their way to their final destination1 by calling at the ,control ,office for that purpose4 ,the ,continental silversmiths1 especially the ,french workmen1 exhibit much ingenuity1 original thought1 and refined taste1 in the execution of their work2 and the natural capacity for design which they possess enables them to produce articles of a very high order and artistic character4 ,the construction of some of their productions is exceedingly ornamental and decorative1 and in some instances this is even carried to excess1 as may be seen from some very elaborate articles which they manufacture4 ,to them belongs the credit of being producers of the most artistic and best decorative work in the whole world4 ,they set the fashions and work them out with a will to be only found in a people so enthusiastic as the ,french4 ,their jewellery is very elegant1 light1 and showy2 some of which is prepared so thin as regards material1 that it has to be supported underneath by a wax composition1 which1 however1 gives increased strength to all articles so manipulated4 ,with regard to articles of vertu1 the ,french workmen certainly far excel those of any other country3 they are more original1 and bring into play greater ingenuity in the various processes which they employ in their manufactures4 ,still with all this ingenuity and skill1 their works of art in this department are not durable1 being very tinselfied2 in wear their shape and form soon undergo a change1 and eventually they soon get destroyed4 ,in this branch of art the ,french workman might learn something to his advantage from the ,english style of work1 which is the most durable of any nation in the world4 ,french silver plate and jewellery of the best manufacture partake of the first standard2 all other kinds are of the lowest standard4 ,in ,germany all silver manufactures are placed under ,imperative control1 and lower standards than those given in the table1 under their respective heads1 cannot be worked4 ,the ,german style is similar to that of the ,french1 but the former manufacture an unusually large quantity of filigree articles1 very light in construction1 tasteful1 and cheap2 and the possession of these advantages enables them to export to ,england and other countries their wares at a cheap rate4 ,they are commonly sold by weight1 and not so much per article2 in many cases the charge does not exceed #abs4 #f;d4 per ounce4 ,in filigree work the ,germans cannot equal the taste and variety displayed in ,indian workmanship4 ,in ,india the natives have definite designs1 but the ,germans are too fond of a variety of colours in their wares1 which do not always harmonize with their particular kind of work4 ,in ,austria silver manufactures are commonly ornamented by enamel1 niello1 c41 which gives them a very pleasing appearance4 ,they are usually light and showy1 and something after the style of ,french work4 ,the laws affecting the ,austrian silver workers are the same as those of ,germany4 ,the ,english style of work is strong and solid2 and is undoubtedly superior to that of all ,continental manufacturers as regards substantial workmanship1 careful manipulation1 and durability4 ,it is1 moreover1 capable of a higher finish1 and possesses more evenness of surface1 together with a combination of strength1 that admirably suits it for articles and utensils for daily use1 and which causes it to be preferred before that of any other nation2 and while ,france1 ,germany1 and other countries may exhibit greater ingenuity1 to ,england belongs the credit of producing the best finished and the most durable work of any nation in the world4 ,,index4 ,acids1 vegetable1 #aj ,action of acids on copper1 #dd of silver under heat1 #h ,acts of the ,legislature1 #ahi on licences1 #ahf clause on1 #aic1 #aid ,advantages of scorification1 #bj ,air in furnace1 #cc ,alkalies1 caustic1 #aj ,allowed1 remedy in fineness1 #gb ,alloy1 #da ,clark's patent1 #agb commonly used1 #fc for cupel quantity1 #ce for hall-marking1 #fb for plate1 #ga for silver-wares1 #gb ,french1 for coinage1 #fi ,french1 for plate1 #fi ,french1 for silver-ware1 #fi ,german1 for coinage1 #ga instructions in preparing1 #gj new1 #bje ,nos4 #a to #h1 #fd-fg of the highest quality1 #fb silver dissolving1 #bjb standard1 #fa white1 #agb ,alloy1 with copper1 #fh with palladium1 #agc with platinum1 #agb ,alloys of common silver1 #afg-agj characteristics of1 #agc1 #agd imitation1 #aff-agc imitation1 uses of1 #agc of nickel1 #df of silver1 #db of tin with gold1 #di of tin with silver1 #di silversmith's1 #dj1 #aig ,aluminium alloy1 #bje solder1 #bjf ,amalgam1 #da ,amalgamation of zinc1 #aec ,america1 #aa ,american supply of silver1 #ab ,ancient method of assaying1 #cg workers in tin1 #dh ,ancients1 #f ,annealing silver1 #aji ,anthracite1 #ba ,art in soldering1 #ij in the silver trade1 #abb ,articles1 hand-made1 #ed of silver common1 #adg ,art of soldering1 #gd ,arts1 metals employed in1 #da ,assay crucible1 #af charge for1 #ag ,english system1 #ci fluxes1 #af of silver ores1 #af scorification1 #ai weighing of1 #cj ,assayer's muffle1 #bh ,assaying1 borax1 use of1 in1 #bb ,dr4 ,lamborn on1 #ch of silver ores1 #af ,austrian style of work1 #baa ,battery1 ,bunsen's1 #aeb constant1 #aej exciting mixture1 #aea for plating1 #aej solution1 #aea ,bean-shot copper1 #dd ,best crucibles1 #ie ,birmingham1 #eb ,black cyanide1 #aeg ,blowpipes1 #hi ,boiling-out mixture1 #add pan1 #adc pickle1 #ic ,bone-ash1 #cb cupel1 #cc ,borax1 #bb sprinkle1 #ib ,breaking-down rollers1 #aab ,brightening1 #bi ,british ,isles1 #aa ,brown colour on silver goods1 #adf ,burning of lemel1 #ajd of polishings1 #agi1 #ahj ,burnished silver work1 #abd ,burnishing silver work1 #afa1 #afb ,calculated alloys1 various1 #hj ,calculating the qualities of silver1 #fd ,carbonate of soda1 #af1 #ajb ,casting-mould1 #ah ,cause of inferior work1 #gd ,caustic alkalies1 #aj ,cement for chasers1 #aba ,chain bracelets1 #abh ,chain solder1 #he ,characteristics of imitation alloys1 #agc1 #agd of metals1 #da ,charcoal1 #ii ,charge and flux for crucible1 #bc for assay1 #ag for scorification assay1 #bj ,chief places for filigree1 #ec of filigree manufacture1 #h uses of silver1 #i ,chinese filigree1 #ef silver1 #agj ,chloride of silver1 #ahc ,christianity and tin1 #dh ,clark's alloy1 #agb ,cleaning plate1 #aih powder for plate1 #bjf ,coinage1 #fi alloys for1 #ga ,english1 #fa ,french1 #fi ,german1 #ga ,collecting-vessels1 #ahd ,colour-improving1 #adi ,common articles of silver1 #adg easy solder1 #he silver alloy1 #afg-agc silver solder1 #hd solder1 #he solders1 #ha ,composition for solder1 #ha ,conducting-wires1 #aed ,connections for soldering1 #gg ,constant battery1 #aej ,continental cheap labour1 #ed method of assaying1 #bb silversmiths1 #bjh ,copper1 #db action of acids on1 #dd bean-shot1 #dd characteristics of1 #dc chemical name1 #dd dissolving1 #bjb for alloying1 #fh powder for1 #aii protoxide of1 #dd solder with1 #gf ,cost of silver alloys1 #fd1 #fg of silver-rolling1 #aab ,cronstedt1 #de ,crucible1 dimensions1 #af for lemel1 #ajf mixture for1 #ajd pouring lemel from1 #ajg weighing metal for1 #ie ,crucible assay1 #af fluxes for1 #af process of1 #ai ,crucibles1 #ie best to employ1 #ie action with fluxes1 #if testing soundness1 #ig ,cupel1 defects in1 #cc mode of manufacture1 #bf mould1 #bg quantity of alloy for1 #ce tongs1 #bh withdrawal of silver1 #cd ,cupellation1 #bf of silver ores1 #ca purity of silver1 #cg ,cup-fusing1 #ai ,currents of air to furnace1 #cc ,cyanide solution1 #aef black1 #aeg ,defects in bone-ash cupel1 #cc ,density of nickel1 #de of silver1 #g of tin1 #dh ,dimensions of crucible1 #af ,dipping-mixture1 #aii ,directions on melting1 #id in preparing solders1 #hh ,discoverer of electro-plating1 #adi ,dissolving silver1 #bjb copper1 #bjb impurities1 #ajc soft solder1 #bjb silver solder1 #bjb sealing-wax1 #bjb tin1 #dh ,dissolution of silver1 #i ,dr4 ,lamborn1 #ch ,drawbacks to hall-marking1 #fc ,draw-bench1 #aad1 #aae ,drawing fine wire1 #aaf ,draw-plate1 #aad ,draw-tongs1 #aae ,drossy solders1 #hh ,drum for wire-drawing1 #aae ,ductility of nickel1 #de of silver1 #f of tin1 #di of zinc1 #dh ,east ,indian silversmiths1 #ada ,easy solders1 #gi for chains1 #he silver solder1 #hj solder1 #ha solder1 for filigree work1 #hd solder1 common1 #he ,economical processes1 #age ,economy1 #a ,education1 technical1 #b ,electro-plate1 #df ,electro-plating1 #adg discoverer of1 #adi soft solder1 #bjb ,elements1 metallic1 table of1 #ej ,employed metals1 #da ,enamelling1 #aca ,england1 alloy commonly used1 #fc ,english and foreign workmen1 #b coinage1 #fa filigree workers1 #ia silversmiths1 #fc standard for silver1 #fj style of work1 #baa system of assay1 #ci ,enriching the surfaces of silver1 #aci ,exciting mixture for battery1 #aea ,experts1 ,government1 #gc ,filigree manufacture1 #h method of making1 #eg of ,china and ,japan1 #ef of ,norway and ,sweden1 #ef silver work1 #abg wire1 new1 #ei work1 #e1 #dj1 #eb working1 #ef ,filed solders1 #gf ,flatting of twisted wire1 #ei ,flux and charge for crucible1 #bc for soldering1 #gg in pouring1 #aja ,fluxes for assay1 #af their action on crucibles1 #if employed in melting1 #if ,foreign silver currency1 #ac silver standards1 #bjg1 #h workmen1 #b ,french alloy for silver ware1 #fi alloy for coinage1 #fi alloy for plate1 #gj ,french duty1 #bjh standards1 #fi style of work1 #bji ,fusibility of nickel1 #de of tin1 #dh of silver solders1 #hj ,fusing-cup1 #ai ,galvanic ring1 #abi ,german coinage1 #ga standards1 #gb style of work1 #baj ,gold alloyed with tin1 #di mode of soldering1 #hh removing1 from silver1 #aih1 #bje ,goods1 silver1 brown colour of1 #adf ,government experts1 #gc ,gravity1 specific1 of zinc1 #dg ,great ,britain1 #aa ,guarantee mark1 #gc ,hall-marking1 alloy for1 #fb drawbacks1 #fc ,hand-made articles1 #ed ,hard silver solders1 #gi solder1 best1 #ha ,hardest silver solder1 #gh silver solder1 #gi ,hardness of silver1 #h ,hawk-sparrow1 #aai ,heating power of silver1 #g ,hollow silver work1 #aca ,imitation silver alloys1 #aff1 #agc alloys1 characteristics of1 #agc alloys1 uses of1 #agc silver1 #aff1 #aig ,improving colour of electro-plate1 #adi ,impurities1 dissolving1 #aje ,indian filigree workers1 #e ,indian filigree silversmiths1 #ada mode of whitening1 #adb ,industrial arts1 #da ,inferior plating solution1 #aei ,ingot-mould1 #ajj ,instructions in preparing alloys1 #fh ,irregularities in rolling-mills1 #aaj ,japanese filigree1 #ef ,jewellery trade1 state of1 #ab ,law on silver wares1 #gc ,lead1 #ajc ,legislature1 ,acts of1 #ahf ,lemaille solder1 #ia ,lemel1 #ajd burning1 #ajd crucible1 #ajf melting1 #ajd-ajf pot for1 #ajd pouring from crucible1 #ajg ,licence question1 #aia ,licences1 #aij ,litharge1 #ag ,loss1 working1 #age real1 #age total working1 #agf ,making filigree1 #ef ,malleability of nickel1 #de of silver1 #f of tin1 #di of zinc1 #dh ,maltese filigree1 #ee ,manner of removing litharge1 #ce ,manufacture of cupels1 #bf inferior1 #gc of filigree1 #ec of silver wares1 #gb ,mark1 guarantee1 #gb ,marking1 hall1 #fb ,marking1 hall1 drawbacks of1 #fc ,material1 bad working1 #ih ,mechanical uses of silver1 #eb ,medium solders1 #hb silver solder1 #gi ,melting1 crucible for1 #ii directions on1 #id fluxes employed1 #if imitation alloys1 #aff points of metals1 #ea solders1 #hf tongs for1 #ajj ,mercury1 #ae ,metal1 fusible1 #ih pure1 #ef ,metallic elements1 table of1 #ej ,metals1 #da their characteristics1 #da ,method of assaying1 #bb for whitening1 #aci of calculating qualities1 #fd of preparing filigree1 #ei ,mills1 rolling1 #aaj ,kemp's1 #aaa ,mine1 richest1 #ab ,mining1 #aa ,mixing metals for melting1 #ig ,mixture1 boiling-out1 #add dipping1 #aii for washing-out1 #ach stripping1 #bjj ,mixtures for whitening1 #adg for battery1 #aeb nitrate of silver1 #adh ,modes of melting lemel1 #aje of preparing ring1 #acj of whitening1 ,indian1 #adb of whitening1 our1 #ade ,molten metal1 #ii lemel1 #ajc ,mould-casting1 #ah ,mould cupel1 #bg ,mould ingot1 #ajj ,muffle assayers1 #bh ,native silver1 #aa ,necessity for pure metal1 #ef ,new alloy1 #bje method for filigree1 #ei ,nickel1 #de ,nitrate of silver1 #h of silver1 mixture1 #adh ,nitre1 #aj ,norway filigree1 #ef ,old method of filigree1 #eg ,oldest method of whitening1 #adj ,on the melting of silver1 #id working of silver1 #ajh ,ores of silver1 #i ,our mode of whitening1 #ade ,oxidizing silver work1 #afc ,palladium alloy1 #agc ,pallion solder1 #hi ,parliament1 ,acts of1 #aij ,perchloride of iron1 #bje ,physical properties of metals1 #ea ,plain solid work1 #abg ,plate1 #d alloy for1 #gj cleaning powder1 #bjf electro1 #df1 #aej ,french1 #gj manufacture1 #aij powder1 #bjb ,plating1 battery for1 #aej discoverer of1 #adi electro1 #aej fluid silver1 #bjf soft solder1 #bja solution1 #aeg ,plating solutions1 recovery of silver1 #afj ,platinum alloy1 #agb ,plumbago1 crucible for melting1 #ii ,polished silver1 #g ,polishing1 #ace lathe1 #acg ,polishings1 burning of1 #agi ,pouring off lemel1 #ajg ,powder for silver1 #bjj ,precious metal1 #a ,precipitation of silver1 #ahc ,preparation for assay1 #ag of bone-ash1 #cb of plating solution1 #aee of solders1 #hg ,present state of silver trade1 #abh ,press1 #abg stamping1 #acb ,price of silver1 #i ,principal alloys of silver1 #db metals1 #ea ,process1 scorification1 #ah advantages of1 #bj details of1 #bc of silver recovery1 #ahj-ahc ,producing various shades1 #afe ,production of surface1 #ace ,protect polish of metals1 #bjj ,protoxide of copper1 #dd of zinc1 #ajb ,pure silver1 #c ,purity of silver1 #cg ,qualities used by silversmiths1 #fd ,quantity of alloy for cupel1 #ce ,quick-running solder1 #he ,raised work1 #abj ,raising1 #abb ,recovery of silver from waste1 #afj of silver from waste waters1 #ahc1 #ahe ,refining surface of silver1 #adf ,remarks on silver solders1 #hj ,remedy in fineness1 #gb ,removal of litharge1 #ce ,removing gold from silver1 #aih gold from silver-wares1 #bje ,resist varnish1 #bjb ,ring1 galvanic1 #abi preparing wire for1 #acj ,rollers1 slitting1 #aab breaking-down1 #aab ,rolling1 silver1 #ajh mills1 #aaj silver1 #aab wire1 #aac ,sal-ammoniac1 #ajc ,saving waste1 #agg ,scientific name for tin1 #di ,scorification process1 #ah assay1 #bj ,scorifier1 #ai special form1 #ai ,scrap silver1 #ajb ,scratch-brushing1 #afa brush lathe1 #afa ,scriptural testimony1 #cg1 #ch ,sealing-wax1 dissolving1 #bjb ,sediment1 #ahe ,separation of silver1 #ba ,shades1 #afe ,shop floors1 #agg ,shot copper for alloying1 #dd ,silver a precious metal1 #a action under heat1 #h alloy1 dissolving1 #bjb alloy for coinage1 #gb alloy1 standard1 #fa alloyed with tin1 #di alloys1 ,chinese1 #agj alloys1 common1 #afg1 #agb alloys1 imitation1 #afg1 #agb ,silver alloys1 ,no4 #a1 #fd ,no4 #b1 #fd ,no4 #c1 #fe ,no4 #d1 #fe ,no4 #e1 #ff ,no4 #f1 #ff ,no4 #g1 #fg ,no4 #h1 #fg ,american supply1 #ab and aqua-regia1 #h and mercury1 #ae annealing1 #aji articles1 #aid articles1 common1 #adg assay1 #ad ,british1 chief sources1 #ac ,british yield1 #aa burnishing1 #afb characteristics of1 #e chief alloy of1 #cj chloride1 #ahc commercial1 #i currency1 #f currency1 foreign1 #ac density of1 #g dissolution of1 #i dissolving1 #bjb ductility of1 #f easily tarnished1 #abi ,european supplies1 #ab filigree work1 #abe for filigree work1 #e fusibility of1 #g goods1 brown colour1 #adf hardness of1 #h heating power of1 #g imitation1 #aih known to the ancients1 #f law on1 #gc lead and tin in1 #ajc malleability of1 #f mechanical uses of1 #eb ,silver1 method of calculating1 #fc mining1 #aa native1 #aa nitrate of1 #h1 #adh ores1 #i ores1 assay of1 #af oxidizing1 #afc1 #aih plating fluid1 #bjf polished1 #g powder1 #aii1 #bjj powder for copper1 #aii precipitating1 #ahc principal alloys1 #db pure1 #c purity of1 after cupellation1 #cg recovery of1 #afj recovery1 #agg1 #agh rolling1 #aji rolling1 table of cost1 #aab solders1 #ha solder1 dissolving1 #bjb solder1 easy1 #hb solder1 hardest1 #gi solder1 medium1 #hb solder1 zinc in1 #df solders1 fusibility of1 #hj standards1 foreign1 #bjg stripping mixture1 #bjj surface1 improving1 #aci tarnished1 #g test for1 #f trade1 art in1 #abc uses of1 #i various qualities1 #eb ware1 #fi1 #aie ware1 ,french1 #fi ware1 ,german1 #ga wares1 alloys for1 #gb wares1 removing gold1 #bje wares1 testing1 #bjc weighing1 #cj whitening of1 #adj ,silver work1 burnished1 #abd work1 hollow1 #aca yield of1 #ac ,silversmiths1 #fc alloys1 #dj1 #aig continental1 #bji ,east ,indian1 #ada working1 #b ,skittle-pot1 #be for lemel1 #ajd ,slitting-rollers1 #aab ,snarling-tools1 #abb ,soda1 carbonate of1 #af1 #ajb ,soft solder1 #ij1 #bjb dissolving1 #bjb plating1 #bjb ,solder1 composition for1 #ha1 #ih best hard1 #ha common1 #hc1 #he common easy1 #hf dish1 #hi easy1 #gi1 #hb1 #hf filed1 #gf for aluminium1 #bjf for chains1 #he for filigree1 #hd1 #ia hard1 #gg ,lemaille1 #ia medium1 #gf1 #hb pallion1 #hh quick running1 #he very common1 #hg with arsenic1 #hf with copper and silver1 #gf with zinc1 #gf ,soldering1 art of1 #gd1 #ij alloy1 dissolving1 #bjb connections1 #gg mode of1 #hh fluid1 #bja flux1 #gg ,solders containing tin1 #ge ,solders1 drossy1 #hh for enamelling1 #hd melting of1 #hc preparations of1 #hg remarks on1 #hj tin in1 #di ,solid plain work1 #abg ,solution for battery1 #aea 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,technical education1 #b ,test for pure silver1 #f ,testing crucible1 #ig silver wares1 #bjc ,testimony1 ,scriptural1 #cg1 #ch ,test-ring1 #ca ,tin1 #dh alloyed with gold1 #di alloyed with silver1 #di ancient workers1 #dh and ,christianity1 #dh density of1 #dh dissolving1 #dh ductility of1 #di fusibility of1 #dh in solders1 #di1 #gf malleability of1 #di scientific name1 #ej tenacity of1 #di vapours1 #di ,tongs1 draw1 #aae ,tongs for melting1 #ajj ,total working loss1 #agf ,trade1 silver1 state of1 #abh useful information for1 #aig ,treatment1 economical1 #a in furnace1 #ah of waste1 #agi ,treatment of waste liquids1 #ahj ,twisting wires1 #eh ,unjustly assessed tax1 #aie ,uses of silver1 #i borax1 #bb for imitation alloys1 #agc of lathe1 #eh silver1 mechanical1 #eb ,vapours of tin1 #di ,various qualities of silver1 #eb duties1 table of1 #aij metals1 mixing1 #ie ,varnish1 resist1 #a ,wares1 ornamental1 #d law on1 #gc removing gold from1 #bje silver alloy for1 #gb silver1 #aig testing 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of1 #dg in silver solder1 #df1 #gf malleability of1 #dh on floors1 #agh tarnishing of1 #dg tenacity of1 #dh ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,beccles4 ,,lockwood',s ,,manuals ,trade ,clock ,repairing ,garrard ,net #f_/- ,watch ,repairing ,garrard #f_/- ,mechanical ,dentistry ,hunter #f_/- ,electro-,plating ,watt #e_/- ,house ,painting ,davidson #g_/f ,carpentry and ,joinery ,tredgold #f_/- ,gas-,fitting ,briggs #f_/- ,bricks and ,tiles ,dobson #g_/f ,metal ,plate ,work ,barrett #c_/f ,technical ,engineers' ,screw ,cutting ,pull #b_/f ,engineering ,measuring ,tools ,pull #d_/f ,slide ,rule ,hoare #d_/- ,craft-,work ,modern ,fretcutting ,makinson #b_/f ,art-,work ,illuminating ,whithard #f_/- ,educational ,portuguese ,dictionary ,elwes #h_/f ,business ,foreign ,commercial ,correspondent ,baker #g_/f ,complete ,list on ,application4 ,,london3 ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,son ,transcriber ,note ,the following changes were made3 p4 #dg ,fahr4 moved from after #fh and #gb to after #ggc p4 #ic week pickle weak pickle p4 #age regulated workships regulated workshops