,,three ,,hundred ,,things ,a ,,bright ,,boy ,,can ,,do ,,by ,,many ,,hands ,,fully ,,illustrated ,,london ,,sampson ,,low1 ,,marston ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #aiad ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,in ,,training #a ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,gymnast #g ,,iii4 ,,walking1 ,,running1 ,,and ,,jumping #bb ,,iv4 ,,hockey ,,and ,,indian ,,clubs #bf ,v4 ,,swimming1 ,,rowing1 ,,and ,,water ,,polo #db ,,vi4 ,,paperchasing1 ,,football1 ,,golf1 ,,and ,,boxing #dh ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,ice #eg ,,viii4 ,,angling #fg ,,ix4 ,,canoes ,,and ,,yachts #hd ,x4 ,,cooking ,,in ,,camp #aab ,,xi4 ,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths #aag ,,xii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,aquariums #aca ,,xiii4 ,,in ,,the ,,playing ,,fields #ach ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,garden #aej ,,xv4 ,,the ,,boy ,,as ,,artist #aeg ,,xvi4 ,,ventriloquism ,,and ,,polyphony #aia ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,boy ,,as ,,magician #bjh ,,xviii4 ,,pets #bbh ,,xix4 ,,things ,,boys ,,can ,,make #bee ,,xx4 ,,fireside ,,amusements #bgc ,,xxi4 ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,at ,,the ,,bench #cej ,,xxii4 ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,play-,,hour #cfe ,,xxiii4 ,,home-,,made ,,toys #chi ,,xxiv4 ,,concerning ,,many ,,things #daf ,,preface ,the ,editor hopes that this volume will be the means of inspiring boys to adopt some hobby and to follow it diligently4 ,at any rate he has arranged that they shall be able to have a wide choice of occupations1 and shall begin with expert assistance4 ,too many youths fall into mere aimless dawdling1 and waste the golden years of their life loafing about smoking cigarettes1 watching others play1 chattering endlessly about games1 but never engaging in them4 ,though this book is written for the boy's play hour1 it will not be without value in aiding him upon the sterner side of his career1 if it shows him how to train hand and eye1 how to strengthen his will and muscles1 and if it inculcates patience1 exactitude1 and perseverance4 ,,three ,,hundred ,,things ,a ,,bright ,,boy ,,can ,,do ,,chapter ,i ,,in ,,training ,there are few things about which so many mistaken notions exist as about training4 ,there are several reasons for this1 but most of the erroneous ideas may be traced back to the days when professional pugilists and runners were the only men who ever entered on any athletic exercise with any sort of organised preparation4 ,for them a severe course of training was possibly a necessity4 ,they were for the most part men well advanced in years and naturally fleshy2 and to achieve the feats which they accomplished they no doubt found it necessary to reduce their weight1 and for this purpose to take a great deal of exercise and to avoid all food tending to the formation of flesh2 but for the average school-boy who plays football or fives1 or goes paper-chasing1 or1 in fact1 takes the ordinary amount of boy's exercise1 training1 as it is generally misunderstood1 is quite unnecessary1 even if not harmful4 ,he has no superfluous fat of which to rid himself1 so any sweating which he may do only weakens him and renders him liable to cold4 ,his lungs are in proper order and therefore his wind is good1 and so there is no need for him to deprive himself of vegetables or his favourite pies or puddings4 ,all he wants is to lead a healthy active life1 and to do a fair amount of practice in the particular branch of athletics in which he hopes to excel4 ,if a boy be accustomed to walk to and from school1 or even a part of the way1 or to take his place regularly in the school games1 he will already be in proper condition of wind and limb4 ,he will now only require to develop the muscles which1 in his contests1 he will find it most necessary to use4 ,these vary in nearly every branch of athletics2 so his practice must be specially directed to the races or events in which he intends to take part4 ,now this practice is often as much overdone as in the old days the dieting and sweating used to be4 ,i remember that when ,i was at school and training for a mile race1 ,i was seldom content unless ,i had run two or three miles each day4 ,since then ,i have found out the error of my ways4 ,the result of my long practice run was that when the day came for the sports ,i was much over-trained1 and in the state usually described as stale4 ,i could have pounded along for miles1 but ,i was as slow as the proverbial cart-horse1 and when it came to hard racing ,i was beaten by boys who had practised less persistently than ,i had1 and whose limbs and muscles were therefore lissom and pliant4 ,the exact amount of practice required depends a good deal on the stamina and build of each particular boy4 ,big1 muscular boys can undergo far more work than lightly-strung ones of less robust constitution2 but it may be taken for granted as a general rule that it is better to do too little than too much4 ,practice should never be continued after one begins to feel tired2 and if one is still feeling the effects of the previous day's practice1 it is always a good thing to rest for a day from active work1 and instead to take a good sharp walk of four or five miles4 ,when your muscles are stiff1 as they are bound to be at the beginning1 never force them4 ,get them gradually into working order1 and never hesitate to rest entirely if you feel disinclined for exercise4 ,rest1 in moderation1 is always good1 and for this reason ,i advise boys of all ages who may be training1 to make a point of going to bed early4 ,to get up early is another aid to leading a healthy life1 but ,i would especially warn my readers against taking any violent exercise before breakfast4 ,have your bath1 followed by a brisk rub down with a rough towel2 dress quickly1 and then1 if you like and can manage it1 go out into the open air for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes4 ,put on plenty of clothes1 and eat either a biscuit or a piece of bread and walk quietly about1 breathing freely4 ,in the same way never do any practising immediately after a heavy meal4 ,an interval of at least two hours should elapse to allow of the digestion of food4 ,remember that your one object in training is not to force your powers1 but to so increase and nurse them1 that when the day for the sports comes you will be able to do your very best without fear of hurting or over-straining yourself4 ,before entering for his school sports a boy must realise the important fact that it is given only to a few to excel at everything4 ,the majority must be content to discover the branch of sport for which1 by their natural abilities1 they are most suited1 and then to practise quietly and persistently so as to gain the best possible results4 ,school games and odd trials of skill will probably give the aspiring athlete some idea of the direction in which he is better than1 or as good as1 his fellows4 ,in running races it is generally found that the heavily and powerfully-built boy is best suited by short-distance races1 that is from a hundred yards to a quarter of a mile2 but a long1 loosely-knit lad usually excels at distances from half a mile to a mile4 ,a short1 sturdy boy1 as a rule1 develops into a long-distance runner1 but as events above a mile are generally excluded1 and very wisely too from the programmes of school sports1 he has very little chance of distinguishing himself until later years1 when his frame is set1 and his heart and lungs are in a fit condition to withstand the strain caused by prolonged contests4 ,the prime object of the boy who desires to train for short-distance running should be to improve his speed4 ,with this purpose in view1 he should practise running from thirty to fifty yards at a time--running hard from the very beginning1 and going at his fastest possible pace the whole of the way4 ,he should do this three or four times each day1 occasionally--that is1 once or twice a week--running the full hundred yards4 ,races of two hundred yards and a quarter of a mile in length may be prepared for in just the same way1 except that for the latter1 a practice-run should seldom exceed three hundred and fifty yards4 ,a quarter of a mile is a very fatiguing distance1 and although it may be run in practice at a moderate speed1 it should not be taken at racing pace1 except in an actual race4 ,in the intervals of training it is a good plan to obtain the assistance of a friend1 and practise starting4 ,in a short race so much depends on the start1 that one who is able to go right away directly the signal is given possesses a great advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,he ,,should ,,jump ,,cleanly4 ,the boy who intends to take part in the half-mile and mile races must pursue a somewhat different method1 but he also must make a point of practising for speed4 ,most of his work must consist of running a quarter of a mile1 or six hundred yards1 with an occasional spin of half or three-quarters of a mile4 ,the former distances must be accomplished at almost top speed1 but without quite exhausting oneself2 the latter must be taken at a regular1 steady gait1 bringing the legs out well to the front1 but not carrying the knees too high4 ,one run a day is quite sufficient1 and perhaps once before the sports the full mile may be run1 but this should not be done within a week of the eventful day4 ,walking races are sometimes included in the sports' programme1 the distance usually being one mile4 ,the best training for this is to walk half a mile1 or sometimes three-quarters1 at one's best pace1 taking great care to be perfectly fair1 to keep the head erect1 and to avoid all semblance of wriggle or shuffle4 ,for the hurdle race and steeplechase the beginner should practise persistently over obstacles similar to the ones which are to be used on the day1 but never going the full distance1 and occasionally running fifty yards or so on the level with a view to an improvement in speed4 ,of jumping competitions there are usually two kinds--the high jump and the long jump1 and much the same kind of advice applies to both4 ,in each instance practice should be daily1 with an occasional rest for a day1 and taking great care to leave off always at the first symptom of fatigue1 coupled with the feeling that what has already been done cannot be improved upon4 ,in the high jump a beginning should be made at a height well within reach1 the jumper going gently and lightly over so as to gradually extend the muscles4 ,then as he approaches the summit of his powers1 he should pull himself together so as to put full force into each effort4 ,he should jump cleanly1 and start facing the bar4 ,he should avoid all contortions and straining of the body1 and above all things1 refrain from the somewhat enticing-looking practice of jumping from one side--a practice which ,i once heard described as putting one leg over the bar1 and then going round and fetching the other4 ,it may pay up to a certain point1 but after that point is reached it is absolutely useless4 ,the best and most successful jumpers have been those who have depended entirely on the spring from the hips4 ,it is thence that all the power is obtained4 ,byrd ,page1 the famous ,american jumper1 who often cleared #f ft41 and once reached #f ft4 #d-a_/d ins41 was a thorough believer in the straightforward method4 ,to show what persistent practice will do1 ,i may mention that when he was very young1 his legs were so weak that he was compelled to wear irons to support them4 ,one day the doctor told him to attend a gymnasium and practise jumping in order to strengthen his limbs4 ,he did so1 with the result that his weakness was entirely cured1 and that he became1 as well as an expert bicyclist1 the most famous jumper the world has ever seen4 ,to long jumping many of my previous remarks apply4 ,in preparing for the jump1 too long a run should not be taken1 and in making the spring1 the feet should be placed firmly together4 ,the whole of one's force should be put into each effort1 and care should be taken to avoid making false attempts4 ,when once he has started1 the jumper should make up his mind to go right through4 ,both the jumper and the short-distance runner will find that a few minutes' daily practice with a skipping rope will greatly strengthen the legs and the fore part of the feet1 on which much of the strain is placed4 ,to all aspiring young athletes ,i would say3 ,be moderate1 and take care not to overdo it2 lead healthy1 active lives2 and avoid stuffing yourselves between meals with pastry and sweets4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,gymnast ,much benefit can be derived from gymnastic appliances if they are used understandingly4 ,no advantage is to be gained by exercise that is carried on in a careless manner4 ,neither too much nor too violent exercise is beneficial1 though constant and regular work is necessary4 ,it is better to work for a certain length of time every other day than to devote all of one week to exercise1 and not go near the gymnasium the next4 ,to use any apparatus carelessly is to use it dangerously4 ,the writer has had many of his worst falls in doing some of the simplest tricks1 because he was careless1 and did not put his entire mind upon what he was doing4 ,there is something besides and beyond the mere pleasure of being able to perform tricks in a gymnasium2 there is a lasting benefit to be obtained in careful gymnastic exercise4 ,in beginning your exercises there are two points that you must bear in mind always4 ,stand erect1 and before beginning any work draw a long deep breath4 ,breathe from the abdomen1 so that the lower parts of the lungs are expanded4 ,you will find by following this simple advice that anything you attempt will be much easier for you than if you go about your exercises in a careless or slouchy way4 ,there should be no round-shouldered gymnasts4 ,there is no one who has achieved distinction as a gymnast who is not as straight as an arrow1 and across whose shoulder-blades a yardstick could not be placed without touching his back4 ,in your exercises avoid devoting too much time to one kind of work4 ,do not spend all your time1 for instance1 on the horizontal bar1 or on the parallel bars4 ,what all would-be gymnasts should strive for is a symmetrical development of their muscles4 ,you do not want to have legs like a piano1 hard and knotted with muscles1 and arms like pipe stems4 ,nor do you want to have the arms and chest of a blacksmith1 and legs like those of a crane4 ,you want to have all your muscles developed alike1 not one at the expense of another4 ,to avoid this lop-sided kind of growth is the reason that gymnasiums have such a variety of appliances4 ,now for the apparatus1 and how it should be used4 ,what boy1 especially if he has lived in the country1 has not tried to climb a rope1 or go up a ladder hand over hand1 and then1 for the first time in his life1 realised how heavy he is8 ,perhaps no form of exercise develops so quickly the upper arm and the chest as work on the rope and ladder in a gymnasium4 ,in practising on the ladder1 first try to pull yourself up until your chin is even with the rung4 ,keep at this exercise until you can repeat it three or four times without tiring yourself2 then try to reach the rung above4 ,do not go up too far at first1 for you may find yourself many feet from the floor without strength enough to come back as you went up4 ,that1 it is almost needless for me to remind you1 means a fall--and a hard one too it may be4 ,the same advice applies to the rope4 ,almost as quick results may be obtained by practice with the dumb-bells1 with which it is possible to exercise almost every muscle in the body4 ,the dumb-bells should be light4 ,too heavy dumb-bells are apt to make a boy slow and sluggish in his movements4 ,the proper weight for a beginner is half a pound1 and under no circumstances should a boy use for regular exercise bells that weigh more than two pounds4 ,indian clubs are valuable1 chiefly in strengthening the muscles of the arms and wrists4 ,exercises on the rings are divided into two classes--stationary and swinging4 ,in the former the rings are not swung4 ,in the latter the tricks are performed while swinging4 ,there are two ways of grasping the rings with the hands4 ,in single grip1 the rings are clasped as a boy grips his base-ball bat when he is ready to strike4 ,it is used chiefly in swinging tricks4 ,in the double-grip1 the thumbs are kept close to the palms1 and the hands rest on and over the rings4 ,the first trick on the rings1 and the one that must be mastered before anything else is attempted1 is the breast-up4 ,this consists in taking a double-grip1 and raising the body so that the chin is even with the hands4 ,the hands and wrists should be over the rings1 and the elbows straight out from the shoulder4 ,now1 by leaning forward you necessarily bring your hands under your armpits1 and you find yourself in such a position that you can push down on the rings and raise your body erect by simply straightening your arms4 ,you must not expect to be able to do this the first time4 ,it will take many efforts before you can accomplish it4 ,the best way to learn it is to hold your weight with one hand1 after you have raised your chin even with the rings1 while you practise pulling the other in and under your armpit4 ,when a boy can do this trick easily he will find that he has strength and skill enough to learn the other feats1 of which this is the foundation4 ,in horizontal bar exercises the breast-up is executed in the same way1 but it is seldom used in getting up on the bar4 ,a much prettier way is the trick called the circle4 ,this is done by clasping the bar with the double-grip--which1 by-the-way1 is the only one used on the bar--and raising your body as high as you can4 ,if you can raise your chin above the bar1 all the better4 ,now raise your legs in front of you as high as possible1 and lift them over the bar1 letting your head drop back4 ,this will bring your legs and body down on the other side4 ,if a boy can do this with a fortnight's hard practice1 he is doing remarkably well4 ,in learning this trick lower the bar to the height of the shoulder and start the circle with a jump1 which materially assists your progress during the revolution4 ,all boys who practise on the horizontal bar probably have in mind the giant swing1 the hardest and most daring feat on the bar2 but that is a long way in the future1 and many other tricks must be mastered before it should even be attempted4 ,perhaps the best of these intermediate exercises is the hook swing4 ,this is a very neat trick4 ,you sit on the bar1 apparently fall backward1 catching the bar in the knee joints1 and swing around1 until you come up in your original position without touching your hands to the bar4 ,it is not so hard as it looks if you go about it in the right way1 and this is the proper way3 ,first practise by hanging head downward from the bar by the knees4 ,any boy can do this2 but to learn the rest of the trick you need two assistants1 who take hold of your hands and swing you gently at first1 gradually increasing the swing as you gain confidence4 ,when you can swing easily and safely without losing your grip and falling to the mattress as you swing backward1 straighten your knees1 and you will leave the bar and alight upon your feet4 ,your assistants will save you from falling on your head should you happen to let go with your knees too soon1 which you would certainly do more times than once should you attempt the trick alone4 ,practise this until you can do it without help4 ,the next step is to sit on the bar1 which should be lowered to within four feet of the ground1 and fall backward4 ,when you come to the end of the swing1 let go with your knees and alight on your feet4 ,at first you will need help in this1 as in the early part of the practice4 ,when this is learned you can go half-way around4 ,the object now is to come back to the position you originally had on the top of the bar4 ,the mistake that nine boys out of ten make at this point is in thinking that all that is needed to complete the revolution is to give the body a harder swing4 ,when you dropped from the bar in the way ,i have just described it was because you straightened your knees4 ,if you bent your knees more at this point in the swing1 and at the same time threw your head back1 you would have found yourself on the bar instead of on the mattress4 ,to prevent accident at first1 you should have an assistant stand in front of you1 so that in case you should pitch forward the moment you reach the top of the bar1 you will fall into his arms4 ,in case you should swing so hard that you cannot stop when your body becomes erect1 you will simply make another half-revolution backward1 when you can straighten your legs and come down on your feet in the way described already4 ,the most important exercises on the parallel bars are called the dip and the grasshopper4 ,to do a dip1 stand between the bars1 placing your hands upon them1 and raise your body to arm's length4 ,then lower the body and raise it again by bending and straightening the arms4 ,to do a grasshopper1 begin in the same manner1 but as the arms are almost straight make a little forward jump1 lifting your hands from the bars1 and bringing them down a few inches in advance of their original position4 ,in this way you can travel from one end of the bar to the other1 as this trick can be done equally well forward and backward4 ,the jump may be combined with a swing in an exercise called the pump4 ,these tricks are easily learned2 they are very safe and make muscle fast4 ,the chief danger in their use lies in their over-indulgence4 ,in this1 as in all other gymnastic exercises1 enough is as good as a feast4 ,the flying trapeze is the most difficult of all the apparatus1 and feats on the double trapeze are dangerous even to the trained gymnast4 ,after you have mastered the exercises already described1 it will be time enough for you to think about the trapeze4 ,do not practise just before your meal hour1 nor directly after it4 ,the best time is from an hour and a half to two hours after eating4 ,do not practise for over an hour a day at first2 that is sufficient for any boy provided he does not waste his time4 ,it should be remembered that gymnastic feats are not necessary for health4 ,it is quite possible to exercise all the muscles without an indulgence in dangerous displays2 but many boys have the courage1 the desire1 and the skill to pass from exercises to gymnastics4 ,we may supplement our remarks by adding some observations upon how he became a gymnast by a writer who chooses to be known as ,an ,ex-,little ,fellow4 ,he says3 ,i have no doubt at least one of the readers of this book is a little fellow4 ,he has just as much pluck as his bigger brother1 his eye is as true and his mind as quick1 but he does not weigh enough to be a success at athletics4 ,his arms are too weak to knock out home-runs2 his legs are not strong enough to carry a football through a rush line2 and as for his back1 the muscles are not hard enough1 and the other fellow always turns him over when they are wrestling on the grass4 ,this little fellow doubtless thinks he is made that way1 and cannot help himself4 ,no matter how much he dislikes it1 he feels that he will have to go through life watching bigger and stronger fellows playing all the games and having most of the fun4 ,now this is all a mistake1 that is1 if the little fellow has as much pluck and perseverance as little fellows generally have4 ,the writer of this sketch was a little fellow himself not many years ago4 ,he remembers how he used to look with complete and absolute disgust on his bony little arms and thin pipe-stem legs4 ,he used to look at the big muscles of one or two companions with hopeless envy4 ,in fact1 it got so bad that this particular little fellow determined to get strong1 if it took years to do it4 ,the first thing was to get a bar4 ,i selected a nice spot in the garden1 planted deep in the ground two heavy timber uprights1 and fastened firmly across the top1 with mortised ends1 a long heavy pitchfork handle1 which was purchased at a village store1 at a cost1 ,i believe1 of tenpence4 ,when the turning-pole was finished1 the next thing was to learn to do something4 ,the first thing ,i learned was to hang on the pole4 ,this may not seem like a very exciting trick1 but the fact is my muscles were so weak that it took all my strength to hang there4 ,after hanging awhile ,i learned to swing a little back and forth1 working up higher and higher1 and it was a proud day when ,i was able to swing my body up over the bar1 and rest my stomach on the top of it4 ,then ,i had to learn to chin myself4 ,this came more slowly2 but daily practice at dumb-bells and constant tugging at the bar gradually hardened the biceps and back1 until on one happy day my arms bent to the strain1 my head went up1 and my chin projected triumphantly over the bar4 ,by this time the other boys became interested4 ,they began to put bars in their own yards1 and the little fellow had to superintend the operation and give instructions4 ,the uprights should be about three by three1 and planted with side braces4 ,the post-holes should be at least three feet deep1 and after the posts are set1 filled in with stones and earth firmly stamped down4 ,the bar must be just a couple of inches out of one's reach standing under it flat footed4 ,half a dozen private bars resulted in a gymnasium in an empty stable loft1 equipped with a bar1 a ladder1 and two trapezes4 ,the little fellow watched his arms and legs with great concern1 and could not for the life of him see that they were getting any bigger4 ,illustration3 ,,other ,,boys ,,became ,,interested4 ,it did not take many months for the breeze to blow over with the other boys1 but the little fellow kept on4 ,when the weather got too cold for the out-door bar1 he read ,blaikie's ,how to get ,strong1 and went through the prescribed dumb-bell exercises every night before going to bed4 ,then two pairs of cleats were put in the door-frame1 as ,mr ,blaikie directs1 and a short bar cut to fit them4 ,it did not improve the looks of the bedroom door1 but the little fellow was determined to have muscle at any cost1 and swung on the high bar1 and pushed on the low one every night for the whole winter4 ,the next spring he was happy4 ,his chest was beginning to stand out in front of his shoulders1 and his biceps were swelling a little4 ,he and his chum purchased a boat that summer1 and rowed on the river every day1 until they were brown as ,indians1 and could beat most of the light craft on the river4 ,the following year the little fellow went to the city1 and joined a ,y4,m4,c4,a4 gymnasium4 ,there was plenty of good apparatus here1 and he watched the other fellows and tried their tricks4 ,a year or two in this gymnasium1 with daily rowing in the summer1 began to tell4 ,the little fellow stripped at #abc pounds now2 his arms were brown and sinewy2 he could hold a good steady stroke for ten or fifteen miles in a working boat2 could run several miles at a dog-trot2 and had learned to handle his body on the bar4 ,then he went to college1 and in the gymnasium his arms1 brown to the shoulders from rowing in the sun1 won him among his classmates the sobriquet of ,athlete4 ,this was very agreeable to the little fellow4 ,four years of work and practice in a college gymnasium could have only one result4 ,at the end of that time the little fellow was no longer a little fellow4 ,he weighed in his clothes #aej pounds1 and every muscle in his body was hard and well trained4 ,the friends who came down to college to see him get his diploma were greatly surprised to see him on the programme as ,captain of the ,gymnastic ,team1 and still more astonished to see him no longer a little fellow1 but a stout gymnast circling the bar1 swinging gaily on the trapezes1 and building pyramids with his nimble confreres4 ,that is not very long ago1 and now the little fellow is surprised to find himself spoken of as about the best gymnast in one of the largest amateur athletic clubs in the country4 ,so much for our ,ex-,little ,fellow2 and now we may recount how ,mr4 ,e4 ,lawrence ,levy became the amateur champion weight lifter of the world4 ,although when a boy at school he was proficient in nearly every branch of athletics1 and an adept at all games1 it was not until later years that he turned his attention to gymnastics4 ,it came about in this way4 ,when twenty-five years old1 ,mr4 ,levy1 having passed from school-boy to tutor1 started a school of his own1 and with a genuine love of athletics and a knowledge of the benefit which boys may gain from them by following them within reason1 he had fitted up in his school-room a trapeze on which he was wont to practise with his pupils4 ,finding that it was scarcely safe to do this without skilled tuition1 he sent for ,professor ,hubbard1 the instructor of the ,birmingham ,athletic ,club4 ,the result was that the trapeze was removed from the school-room to the playground1 where other appliances such as horizontal and parallel bars were also fixed4 ,here ,mr4 ,levy again joined his pupils1 and then1 after three or four lessons1 he1 to the instructor's surprise1 accomplished several feats which are1 as a rule1 only achieved by practised gymnasts4 ,finding that he was outstripping his boys1 he determined to join the ,birmingham ,athletic ,club4 ,here he was able to measure himself against men of his own age and strength4 ,it was at the club gymnasium that he one night saw the heavy dumb-bells belonging to two professional strong men4 ,he tried to lift the bells1 but failed4 ,this seems to have shaped his future course4 ,instead of being discouraged by failure1 he determined to overcome all obstacles and go in for heavy dumb-bell exercise4 ,he began with comparatively light bells1 and with these he practised in the solitude of his school-room for hours at a time4 ,then he bought two new bells weighing #bh lbs4 each1 using them assiduously until he could do almost anything with them--holding them out at arms' length1 bringing them down to the sides of his legs and up again4 ,when he had thoroughly mastered the twenty-eights1 he tried two fifty-sixes4 ,these he retained for months1 being determined not to attempt the heavier bells until he was quite perfect with the lighter ones4 ,at length ,mr4 ,levy was able to put up the #aab lb4 dumb-bell4 ,this was more than any member of the ,birmingham ,gymnasium had ever done1 and it then became necessary to add two #hd lb4 dumb-bells to the collection4 ,with these ,mr4 ,levy began quietly practising1 one at a time4 ,then he took to using them together1 and gradually overcoming the difficulties of the harder work1 succeeded one evening in putting them up simultaneously4 ,from that point he never went back4 ,having done as much with the dumb-bells as at the time seemed possible1 he decided to add the lifting of bar-bells to his exercises4 ,he bought three1 weighing #adj lbs41 #afe lbs4 and #ahj lbs4 ,he practised assiduously with these1 but all the time he was yearning to do still bigger feats with dumb-bells4 ,at last his opportunity came4 ,one ,friday evening1 on visiting the ,gymnasium1 he found a dumb-bell weighing #aej lbs4 ,it had been sent there for exhibition by some professionals who were visiting the city4 ,he tried to put it up1 and failed2 but the dogged perseverance which marked his whole career came once again to his aid4 ,finding that the huge plaything was to be left at the gymnasium till the following ,tuesday1 he began practising indefatigably1 and on the ,tuesday evening1 in the presence of his club fellows1 he achieved his self-imposed task4 ,the next week a dumb-bell of the same weight 7#aej lbs47 was added to his private collection1 and he used it regularly4 ,this private collection now consisted of two #bh lbs41 two #ef lbs41 two #hd lbs41 two #ajj lbs41 one #aab lbs41 and one #aej lbs4 in dumb-bells1 the three bar-bells already mentioned1 and two iron bars1 one #gj lbs4 and one #abj lbs4--all these1 together with two ring weights of #ef lbs4 each1 representing a total weight of nearly sixteen hundred pounds4 ,mr4 ,levy appeared constantly in public4 ,in #ahia he won the contest1 held then for the first time1 for the amateur weight-lifting championship1 and afterwards he succeeded1 at ,northampton1 in establishing a new record by putting up above his head no fewer than ten times a bar-bell weighing in all #agj lbs4 ,of the recognised records for weight-lifting he held as many as nine2 but ,mr4 ,levy did not confine himself to one branch of gymnastics1 nor made gymnastics his only athletic exercise4 ,each year at the grand display of the ,birmingham ,athletic ,club he figured as a leader in exercises on the horizontal and parallel bars and on the rings4 ,he was also an enthusiastic and expert cyclist1 and took an intelligent interest in nearly every form of manly sport4 ,he was1 too1 a busy brain worker4 ,his height was #e feet #c-a_/b inches2 his chest measurement #da inches2 he weighed #aa st4 #d lbs41 and had biceps measuring #af inches and a forearm of #ab-a_/d inches4 ,at twenty-five years of age1 before he took to gymnastics1 his chest measurement was #cd inches1 and the circumference of his biceps was twelve inches4 ,illustration3 ,,achieved ,,his ,,self-,,imposed ,,task4 ,to my readers ,i commend ,mr4 ,levy as an example of what pluck and perseverance will do when used to a rational end4 ,for the benefit of those who may wish to follow in his footsteps1 ,i will quote some advice from his own pen3-- ,in gymnastics it is never too late to begin4 ,there may be some who may want1 like ,i did1 to emulate the deeds of the strong men whom every age supplies2 to them ,i would say1 give yourself up to your favourite exercise as you would to music if you would excel in it4 ,athleticism is as jealous an accomplishment as any art you would acquire4 ,excel in it and you will find your reward in that rough physical vigour which the world has not ceased to admire4 ,in order to gain it you will go through a course of training which will lay the impress of health on all you do4 ,instead of defying nature you will learn more readily to obey her1 and your obedience will be gratefully1 cheerfully accorded1 for you will realise how magnificent it is to be strong yourself1 and by your example and your deeds inspire others to dignify their physical powers4 ,it would be difficult to say which ranks the higher in the estimation of modern boys--brain or muscle4 ,certain it is that in these days boys of grit feel a contemptuous pity for the youth who is all head and no muscle4 ,possibly most readers will admit that muscular and mental development should go together1 and that modern athletics are the necessary adjunct of school life for the building up of a sound mind in a sound body 7,mens sana in corpore sano74 ,of the ancients it may be said that their faith was in muscle4 ,even old ,homer1 philosopher and poet1 goes so far as to say1 ,there is no greater honour for a man during his life than that he should be accomplished in the use of his hands and feet4 ,it was the man of muscle who in ancient ,greece received the highest honours and rewards2 it was for him that breaches were made in the city walls that he might pass through in his triumphal march4 ,it was he who was relieved from the payment of taxes1 whose statue was erected at the public cost1 and whose praise was sung by the poets4 ,in ancient days leaders and rulers were selected simply on account of their development of muscle4 ,hence we read of ,caius ,maximinus1 who from the lowly position of herdsman1 was raised to the dignity of a ,roman ,emperor on account of his physical strength4 ,this ,maximinus1 it is said1 could squeeze to powder the hardest stone with his fingers1 and history tells us that on one occasion he knocked down six men without drawing breath6 ,those fingers of his must surely have been moved by muscles of iron1 and his biceps must have appeared a veritable mountain6 ,a consideration of the fact that ,maximinus was upwards of eight feet in height renders these feats less surprising1 but to most beef-eating ,british boys it will perhaps be a staggerer to learn that the mighty deeds of ,maximinus were performed on a vegetable diet4 ,illustration3 ,,milo ,,of ,,crotona4 ,the history of another muscular leader1 ,milo of ,crotona1 may possibly have some elements of truth in it1 and we can quite imagine his marching with his countrymen against an army of ,sybarites1 clothed in a lion's skin and brandishing a tremendous club2 but it will take more than the proverbial grain of salt to enable us to swallow the story of his running a mile with a four-year-old ox on his shoulders1 killing the animal1 and eating the carcase1 every inch1 in one day6 ,it is not the way of modern athletes to show their strength by killing four-year-old oxen1 or knocking men down like ninepins4 ,they let us see their development of muscle at the wrestling match1 at the oar and the wicket1 at swimming and cycling1 at their walking1 running1 and leaping performances1 and one great advantage of this is that the ladies1 who were excluded from the ancient gymnasia on pain of death1 can in these days1 by their presence1 not only secure enjoyment to themselves1 but give pleasure and encouragement to many an aspirant for athletic fame1 who1 if for no other reason1 would endure the hardest training to win the plaudits of the fair4 ,in the matter of training and developing the muscles1 the old ,italian proverb will1 as in so many other cases1 apply1 ,chi va piano va sano e lontano1 or1 as we should say1 ,he that goes gently and steadily goes safely and far4 ,there must be moderation in the commencement1 or there will be a breakdown in the end4 ,no youth who doubts the soundness of his heart and lungs should go in for muscular training--for heavy work with the dumb-bells1 for instance--without medical advice4 ,to weakly constitutions training may be injurious--even fatal4 ,in developing the voluntary muscles1 as of the arm and leg1 the growth of which we can measure1 we must be careful of the involuntary muscles--those regulating the heart and lungs1 and which are naturally and unconsciously brought into use4 ,of course1 those muscles most brought into play by special exercise will be most developed--of the legs and thighs1 for instance1 in walking1 and those of the arms1 legs1 and loins in rowing4 ,for the general development of muscle1 it is1 of course1 well to take on those sets of muscles not used in one's ordinary occupation4 ,thus a youth who is sitting the greater part of his time at study or work should walk1 swim1 and row2 one who has a walking occupation would do well to take both to rowing and swimming2 whilst a waterman would do best to go in for hard walking4 ,every one knows that diet has a great deal to do with the development or deterioration of muscle1 and that meat1 vegetables1 and drink should be very judiciously combined4 ,weston--whose great walk1 in #ahhd1 of #e1jjj miles in #ajj days1 was spoken of by ,dr4 ,andrew ,blyth as the greatest recorded labour1 if its continuity be considered1 that a human being has ever taken without injury--dieted himself as follows3-- ,,breakfast 7#f4cj a4m474--,porridge1 eggs or fish1 bread and butter1 toast or mutton1 and coffee4 ,,lunch 7#aa a4m474--,bread and butter1 and coffee4 ,,dinner 7#b p4m474--,mutton broth1 meat1 potatoes1 cabbage1 bread pudding1 and soda water or ginger ale4 ,,tea 7#g p4m474--,a little toast1 and tea or coffee4 ,,supper 7#aj4cj p4m474--,toast1 figs1 sponge cake1 pudding1 and milk or soda water4 ,it will be thus seen that alcohol formed no part of ,weston's diet1 and that his principal drinks were tea1 coffee1 and milk4 ,this says much for the advantage of the practice of total abstinence1 especially in view of the fact of the continuity of muscular exertion4 ,the number of steps taken in ,weston's great walk has been calculated at about #aa1jjj1jjj1 and the daily work of the muscles equivalent to that of raising #gic tons one foot4 ,another testimony to the advantage of abstinence from stimulants in the development of muscle is given by ,louis ,cyr1 the ,canadian athlete1 who secured the title of1 ,strongest ,man in the ,world at a ,paris ,exhibition4 ,he weighed #cae lbs41 and mentioned1 among his feats1 that he could break with his bare fist a stone two inches thick1 four inches wide1 and six inches long4 ,he took his wife 7who weighed #aaj lbs47 and balanced her on the top of a #ab-;ft4 ladder1 resting on his chin4 ,cyr said that the great secret of his strength was his total abstinence from all alcoholic drinks1 and this bears out ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson's statement that the idea of alcohol giving force and activity to the muscles is entirely false4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,walking1 ,,running1 ,,and ,,jumping ,walking4--,as a rule1 the walking of long distances in a short time is a sad mistake4 ,there is little or no pleasure in it1 and the injury it may do you quite counter-balances the satisfaction you may feel in having accomplished it4 ,i wouldn't give a pin to be able to do my three miles in #ba min4 #bh secs4 like ,webster1 because ,i know perfectly well that my mind would gain nothing1 or my body either from such an achievement4 ,every day of the year1 unless specially hindered1 ,i walk between eight and ten miles1 and ,i am always discontented if anything stands in the way of my walk4 ,from my own experience1 ,i feel sure that boys1 whether training for football1 or school examinations1 cannot do better for themselves than walk whenever they have the chance4 ,you never know what call may suddenly be put upon the muscles of your legs4 ,a life may depend upon your ability to sprint seven or eight miles in the hour4 ,and if you can walk as many miles straight off and enjoy every yard of it1 you may rely on being able to walk and run the distance in the time4 ,a few words may be said on style in walking4 ,it is simply wonderful how people differ in this respect4 ,hardly two persons walk alike4 ,they either carry their heads1 or bodies1 or arms differently1 or there is a distinct difference in the way they use their legs or feet4 ,however1 there is nothing very sad about this4 ,variety is charming1 even in pedestrianism1 though in professional walkers this variety is apt to show itself in a walk that is almost twin brother to a trot4 ,the following words of the once celebrated ,westhall are valuable for boys and men who walk for health and pleasure1 as well as professionals who walk for pots or purses3--,to be a good and fair walker the attitude should be upright1 or nearly so1 with the shoulders well back1 though not stiffly so1 and the arms1 when in motion1 held well up in a bent position1 and at every stride swinging with the movement of the legs well across the chest1 which should be well thrown out4 ,the loins should be slack1 to give plenty of freedom to the hips1 and the leg perfectly straight1 thrown out from the hip bodily and directly in front of the body1 and allowed to reach the ground with the heel being decidedly the first portion of the foot to meet it4 ,some people insist on the toes being turned out in a most unmistakable way when walking4 ,it is not at all a pretty sight1 and much more suggestive of a duck waddling out of a pond than a well-trained human being4 ,besides1 it throws an undesirable and harmful amount of strain upon the smaller toes4 ,better to point the toes downwards and forwards1 never outwards2 spring sharply towards the tiptoe1 straightening the knee4 ,learn also to hold the ground with the great toe at the beginning and at the end of each step4 ,we cannot grasp the ground2 good foothold is only to be obtained by pressure of the toes against it4 ,this may1 at first reading1 seem rather strange counsel2 but if we have any physical relationship with monkeys1 the strangeness of it is at once removed4 ,mark how the monkey holds with his feet4 ,perhaps a million years ago we also 7or rather our prototypes7 held the ground with our feet in like manner4 ,one thing is certain1 that bad walkers 7bad in style1 ,i mean7 are very ugly to see1 whereas there is something majestic about the carriage of a good walker4 ,sprinting4--,not many athletes can excel in all kinds of running1 and the champion sprinter is not generally a winner of long-distance races4 ,moreover1 it is necessary for each runner to decide which he will be1 for the training for each is different4 ,train gradually4 ,at first take sharp walks of three or four miles4 ,this will make the muscles begin to harden4 ,then run steadily for a quarter of a mile at a time1 not troubling much about the speed4 ,cultivate the use of the toes and stride straight forward4 ,towards the end of the run the speed may be increased1 for the muscles will then be in working order4 ,even now1 however1 the young sprinter should not tire himself4 ,a week should be employed in this way before the more severe training is undertaken4 ,never begin to run violently at first1 and this rule should be observed particularly in cold weather1 for until the muscles have warmed to their work they are liable to strain1 or even to suffer more severe injury4 ,practise starting4 ,if you have a friend ask him to act as starter1 and start over and over again1 going to the mark and putting yourself in position time after time4 ,in a short race like this a good start often makes all the difference1 for it means sometimes a gain of a yard4 ,middle ,distance ,races4--,speed wins short-distance races2 endurance wins long-distance races1 but a combination of each is needed in the medium distance contests4 ,long ,distances4--,the training for long-distance races needs patience and endurance1 for the tax upon the runner is great4 ,boys should not compete in long distances4 ,no one under eighteen years of age should run a mile4 ,the method of training is to run a quarter1 or half a mile1 according to the strength of the runner1 and then each day to increase the distance or to run the same distance at a greater speed4 ,gradually by this process the lungs1 the heart1 and the muscles are strengthened until feats hitherto impossible become easy4 ,in a long-distance race judgment must be exercised whether to go the distance rapidly and trust to endurance or to run warily and win by a spurt at the end1 when it may be that your opponent is exhausted4 ,the ,long ,jump4--,speed is an important element in this feat1 more important indeed than the spring4 ,experts take a run of from a hundred to two hundred feet as though they were running a sprint race and are going at their highest speed when they rise from the ground4 ,when they are coming to the ground again they thrust their legs forward as far as they can1 and so gain a foot or even more4 ,this needs practice1 however1 for if the leaper loses his balance and falls backward his jump does not count4 ,to start from the mark also needs practice1 and one of the methods of mastering this feat is to run slowly to a point about nine paces short of the starting place4 ,in training this point may be marked by a piece of paper4 ,then sprint from the paper to the starting place4 ,experts are able to jump twenty-four feet1 and a leap of twenty-two is excellent1 but not many can hope to reach these lengths4 ,the ,high ,jump4--,here the athlete begins his run to the centre of the bar slowly1 then he increases his speed a little1 finishing with a quick run and a bound4 ,the spring is taken in something like a crouching position with the head drawn in1 but in the air the shoulders are lifted and the arms and legs jerked upwards4 ,as the jumper crosses the bar he shoots out his legs1 raises his shoulders still higher1 and twists his body until he faces downwards4 ,in fact he is then nearly horizontal1 and an amateur champion of the world has likened his position at this stage to that of an arrow crossing a bow4 ,when he comes to the ground he faces the bar4 ,some jumpers rise from the right foot1 some from the left4 ,the young athlete should find for himself which method suits him best4 ,it is usual to take the leap as far in front of the bar as the bar is from the ground4 ,thus1 if the bar is four feet high the leap would begin four feet from a point on the ground directly under the bar4 ,the run usually begins twelve good paces from the bar1 and consists of one bound after another1 concluding with three short energetic ones4 ,then comes the spring from a crouching position4 ,if the start is from the right foot1 this foot should be almost parallel to the bar1 and the heel of this foot should be the last to leave the ground4 ,a run would carry you far1 but in this feat it is the vigorous spring which carries you high4 ,there are those who can jump more than six-feet high in this way1 but they are among the champions4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,hockey ,,and ,,indian ,,clubs ,hockey4--,hockey is a game which has become very popular in ,england during the past few years4 ,it is generally believed to be a southern form of the ,highland game of shinty1 the great game of the clansmen in years gone past1 and still played in many of the northern glens1 notably on the ,dumbartonshire side of ,loch ,lomond4 ,the hockey of the ,north is not played according to any scale of points1 the winning team being that which secures most goals2 in the ,south1 where it is frequently played on ice as well as on terra firma1 certain marks of merit are awarded1 after the style of ,rugby ,union football4 ,the modern hockey stick is to some extent an artificial contrivance after the style of the driver or play club of golf4 ,indeed1 to golf it bears some little semblance1 and strangers frequently confound the two pastimes4 ,the ,scottish school-boy1 when hockey comes on in its turn with other recreations of the playground1 sets out for the woodlands with a strong1 sharp pocket-knife4 ,he examines carefully all the hedge-rows to see if there is any young plant which has a natural turn at the end4 ,if he can find such with a three feet shaft and a four-inch crook at the end he sets to work there and then1 and in due time his shinty or hockey stick is pruned and ready for the game4 ,the full-grown ,highland player will possibly provide himself with a very heavy oak sapling1 and with this he will strike powerful strokes1 with his right hand1 or both hands if required1 when in a close contested maul or fray in front of the goal4 ,these naturally-grown clubs have more spring in them than those of artificial make1 but unless they are carefully bound with cord the head is apt to give after a little hard play4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,a good deal of the art of the game consists in passing or nursing1 as in ,association football4 ,a novice would strike the knag or knob away from him as soon as he had obtained his opportunity4 ,not so the adept1 who would dribble it forward1 to use a football phrase1 a few yards at a time1 work it on to his partner1 back up1 and keep following it1 then1 with one swinging blow1 make a shot for goal4 ,in hockey on the ice the dribbling game is seen to most advantage1 as the skilful skater can take the knag a hundred yards or more by adroit nursing or passing2 were he to strike it away with the first blow the chances are that it would be immediately returned with interest1 and a goal scored to the opposite side4 ,illustration ,illustration ,in the ,highlands it is a grand sight to see two opposing bodies of clansmen--met as of old they met with targe and claymore--to fight out a friendly game4 ,everything is cast aside but shirt and kilt1 and bare-headed and bare-legged the contestants seem to have walked out of the picture of some ancient ,highland foray4 ,striking off in mid-ground the welkin soon rings with their shouts in ,gaelic1 their cheers and expostulations4 ,blows that were meant for the knag sometimes fall heavy upon an opponent's knees1 and soon legs are to be seen streaming with blood4 ,in the heat of the play they feel it not1 though next day they will possibly not have a part of their under limbs without bruises between ankles and knees4 ,with terrific swing ,donald or ,duncan1 who stands six-feet two in his socks1 will drive it like a cannon ball through the air2 and arrested by ,malcolm's head in its flight the latter drops like a stone1 only to recover his senses in a minute again and go off in wild pursuit4 ,when the sun sinks1 the game is proclaimed over1 and both sides shake hands1 dress1 and depart homeward1 well pleased with their sport1 no matter whether they may have won or lost4 ,illustration ,indian ,clubs4--,club swinging1 if carried out in the correct style1 brings almost every muscle into play1 develops the chest and arms1 imparts an easy carriage to the figure1 and1 if persevered in1 under proper conditions to be hereafter mentioned1 will ultimately enable the most round-shouldered individual to assume that lissom and perpendicular attitude which is the characteristic of the finished athlete4 ,first let me impress upon you the importance of avoiding heavy clubs when you commence the exercise1 or even after becoming moderately proficient4 ,difficult feats are not easy to accomplish with very heavy clubs1 besides the latter1 instead of strengthening the muscles1 are more likely to produce the opposite effect4 ,directly the club is heavy enough to sway you about on your feet1 the exercise is doing you harm1 and your attitude will appear ungraceful4 ,should you be ambitious to swing very heavy clubs1 be advised to proceed cautiously1 and gradually increase the weight at long intervals4 ,clubs recommended for ordinary use should weigh between #a-a_/b and #b lbs4 each1 as that weight affords plenty of muscular exertion to strong and comparatively weak men alike1 especially in difficult exercises4 ,after becoming fairly proficient with the lighter weights1 heavier clubs might be used with advantage1 say three or four pounds each1 but a practised athlete of great muscular power may safely swing clubs of twenty pounds or more4 ,a club1 say twenty-two inches in length1 made of willow which should weigh about #a-a_/b lbs41 is the most suitable for young boys or ladies4 ,the club should be well tapered towards the top and artistically shaped3 an ill-shaped club is a very awkward and unsatisfactory instrument4 ,in nearly all exercises the feet should be some distance apart in proportion to your height3 for a man of five feet nine inches1 about the proper distance between heels would be seventeen inches4 ,for many exercises the shoulders should be kept square to the front1 while in others it is necessary to turn more or less to the right or left4 ,if the shoulders are turned through half a right angle1 reckoning from the position with the shoulders square1 the shoulders are said to be half-right or half-left2 if the shoulders are turned through a complete right angle1 the shoulders are considered full right or full left as the case may be4 ,style is a most important item to be considered1 not only for the sake of appearance1 but also in order that the utmost physical benefit may be derived from the exercise4 ,an eminent authority1 in speaking of style1 remarks3 ,if you swing clubs without regard to style1 you will naturally contrive to cast almost all the labour upon your strongest muscles1 so that the exercise1 instead of searching out and strengthening your weak points1 will merely tend to increase the muscles which are already disproportionately developed2 whereas1 if you attend carefully to style1 you will be compelled to bring a great variety into play1 so that your weakest muscles will be at first most severely taxed1 and will gradually become developed in proportion to those which are naturally strong4 ,it is necessary that the knees be kept straight and the muscles of the legs well braced1 as there is a tendency at first1 especially with heavy clubs1 to let the knees bend in the course of certain movements2 the head should be carried erect1 and should turn with the shoulders1 so that you always look in a direction at right angles to the line of the shoulders4 ,the best way to keep the head steady and in its proper position is to fix the eyes on some point a trifle above their own level1 in a direction at right angles to the line of the shoulders for the time being4 ,should you allow your eyes to wander1 you will find it impossible to keep the head steady4 ,in summing up the chief points relating to style1 the following should be kept in view1 viz43-- 7#a7 ,all unnecessary movement of the body should be avoided1 the head should be carried erect1 and the feet firmly placed at a distance apart in proportion to your height4 7#b7 ,in swings1 keep the arm as nearly straight as possible2 in twists1 the hand should be kept almost in the same place throughout the movement4 7#c7 ,the movement of the club should be kept even1 and avoid all abrupt or sudden changes of pace4 7#d7 ,the clubs should be kept in accurate turn with each other4 ,in order to correct your own style1 a good plan is to practise before a looking-glass4 ,the proper position for holding the club before beginning an exercise is called the carry4 ,stand erect and grasp the club with the right hand1 lift the club and hold it up vertically1 with the hand just in a line1 and not raised higher than the shoulder4 ,club exercises are divided into four series4 ,the first1 called ,outward1 are those in which the right club moves in the same direction as the hands of a clock facing you1 whilst the left club moves against the hands of the clock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,inward exercises are those in which these conditions are entirely reversed1 and parallel exercises are those in which both clubs swing with or against the clock4 ,windmill exercises are explained at ,fig4 #b1 the subject is made clear in ,fig4 #a1 where1 for the sake of simplicity1 both hands are holding the same club2 the right hand1 which is travelling in the same direction as a clock facing the athlete1 is making an outward circle1 as the left hand is working against the clock1 the left hand is making an inward circle1 and as both hands are swinging with the clock1 a parallel exercise would be in progress1 if there were two clubs instead of one as shown in the illustration4 ,the outward front swing follows the carry as a natural consequence4 ,straighten the arm completely till the hand is above and about three inches in front of the shoulder2 the point of the club should then be allowed to move slightly forward1 with the wrist turned in1 then let the hand and club move to the right1 the arm being kept straight1 and the club being kept in a straight line with the arm throughout the movement4 ,a circle can then be described and a return made to the initial position4 ,to make this description more easily understood1 ,i have a capital illustration in front of me1 and ,i cannot do better than quote it4 ,if you were to stand with a wall about ten inches in front of you1 the point of the club1 would1 in the preparatory position1 just touch the wall at the highest point you could reach with the club2 and as you did the swing1 the point of the club would always touch the wall1 and1 if it were chalked1 would draw a circle on the wall1 of which the radius would be as nearly as possible equal to the length of your arm and the club together4 ,this is one of those simple-looking movements which are by no means easy of accomplishment4 ,the arm should be kept straight with the arm and the club in a line1 and avoid stooping as the club passes in front of the legs4 ,beginners should practise front swings1 and follow them up until they are done with before attempting anything else4 ,,circles1 ,,swings1 ,,and ,,twists4--,it should be noted that circles are divided into swings and twists4 ,the club and forearm acting in a straight line during the movement would come under the heading of swings1 whilst circles swung from the wrist with the hand as a centre point are reckoned as twists4 ,some of the very advanced movements1 however1 unite the characteristics of both swings and twists1 and it is difficult to say under which heading they should be classed4 ,fig4 #b illustrates the outward front swing with both clubs4 ,the exercise shown is a cross windmill1 the performer with both clubs straight above the shoulder swings the left club outwards2 so soon as the left club points downwards he will swing the right club outwards1 and it will arrive at the lowest point just as the left club has completed its circle4 ,,the ,,outward ,,back ,,twist4--,from the carry1 raise the hand a little above the shoulder1 passing it slightly to the rear1 so that the forefinger is level with and within two inches of the lobe of the ear1 the elbow being raised to the right till it is nearly as high as the shoulder1 allowing the club to slope a little backwards from the hand4 ,from this preparatory position1 let the point of the club move to the right1 and1 keeping the hand close to the ear throughout the movement1 a circle can be described by the point of the club4 ,in this twist get the point of the club sufficiently to the right and to the rear as the club descends1 in order to avoid letting the point of the club pass too far to the rear as it ascends4 ,care should be taken to keep the hand in the same place throughout the twist1 and don't duck the head forward during the ascent of the club4 ,this tendency is produced by the fear of a blow on the head while the club is travelling in its upward course4 ,,windmill ,,exercises4--,the exercises known as windmill are very interesting4 ,as in parallel exercises1 the one club does outward circles and the other inward circles1 keeping exact pace with each other1 the one being always half a circle ahead of the other2 therefore1 when one club points straight up1 the other points straight down1 so that when viewed from the front1 the clubs appear always to point in exactly opposite directions4 ,a windmill exercise is difficult to learn1 but when grasped1 you should at once tackle the corresponding form on the other side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #c shows the inward back twist being cross windmilled4 ,,the ,,outward ,,cross ,,front ,,twist4--,in this twist the hand should be kept close to the left breast throughout the movement1 and as the club descends1 turn the wrist out and bend it over1 the while turning the wrist out as the club ascends till it is horizontal on the left1 again turning it sharply as the club finishes its ascent4 ,twists similar to the cross front twist may be performed with the hand above or below the height of the shoulder1 also a cross front twist may be done with the hand at the height of and in front of either the right or left hip4 ,avoid letting the clubs go too far forward while they are below the horizontal1 and too far back during the higher part of the movement4 ,each front swing should be done in good style1 and endeavour not to stoop as the clubs pass each other when they begin to ascend4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d;,a4 ,fig4 #d shows the outward cross front twist with the right hand at arm's length1 whilst the left club is simultaneously making an outward back twist at arm's length1 it must be noted1 that although the right club is moving towards the performer1 yet as it is moving in the same direction as the hand of a clock1 parallel1 and in front of the twist made1 it is called an outward twist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #e shows an outward back twist at arm's length with the right club1 the left club is making an outward front twist1 the only difference being1 that the circle is made with the left club entirely in front of the left arm1 instead of in the rear of it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f shows an inward swing with the right club done simultaneously with an inward swing with the left club4 ,this exercise can be made into a cross inside windmill in the same way that ,fig4 #b can be made into a regular outside exercise1 instead of being a cross outside windmill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #g shows an inside back twist at arm's length above the head and an inward cross front twist at arm's length downwards1 the connecting inward front swings being also shown4 ,this is very difficult4 ,,parallel ,,exercises4--,these consist of an outward circle with one club and an inward circle with the other1 in which the two circles are begun together1 and in which the two clubs keep exact pace with each other throughout1 consequently both clubs appear to be always parallel to each other4 ,this is called a parallel combination4 ,when the various parallel combinations have become familiar to the learner1 he may continue such combinations in succession to each other and profit thereby4 ,parallel exercises are considered the greatest test of proficiency with clubs1 as the slightest error will cause a divergence of the clubs and be at once detected4 ,endeavour to master a parallel combination thoroughly1 and then the combination on the other side will come easy enough4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #h shows a parallel exercise1 an inward front swing with ,r4 being done simultaneously with an outward front swing with ,l4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #i shows an outward back twist with ,r4 and an inward cross twist with ,l4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,fig4 #aj shows an inward back twist with ,r4 and an outward back twist with ,l41 followed by an inward front swing with ,r4 and an outward front swing with ,l4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,fig4 #aa shows an inward back twist with ,r4 and an outward front swing with ,l4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa;,a4 ,fig4 #aa;,a shows an outward front swing with ,r4 and an inward back twist with ,l4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad show some of the movements of clubs as generally practised on the ,continent1 but we consider dumb-bells more suitable for lunging movements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,figs4 #ae1 #af show some wrist exercises1 which are sufficiently plain to need no explanation4 ,fig4 #ad shows the outward cross front twist with the ,r4 hand near left breast1 while the left club is making an outward front swing2 the corresponding movement would be an outward cross front with the ,l4 whilst the ,r4 made the outward front swing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,circles4--,circles which may be done with the arm passed behind the neck1 and the hand brought forward over the left shoulder1 require extraordinary length of arm and elasticity4 ,circles are sometimes done in which the centre of gravity of the club is caused to remain stationary while the hand moves in a circle1 which conveys the impression that the club is revolving about an axle through its centre of gravity4 ,these are difficult movements1 and very attractive4 ,,throwing ,,the ,,clubs4--,these exercises require great dexterity before satisfactory results can be obtained4 ,to let go the club and cause it to turn twice or more in the air and catch it again1 is a feat that entails endless practice4 ,dealing only with the right club1 a few brief notes regarding some of the simpler movements must suffice4 7#a7 ,perform an outward front swing1 and as the club approaches the horizontal in its ascent let it go1 and after it has made one revolution in the air catch it again2 this is the outward throw4 7#b7 ,the inward throw is an exact counterpart of the outward throw1 but done by an inward swing4 7#c7 ,the double outward throw and the double inward throw are done by allowing the club to turn twice before catching it4 ,there are endless varieties of other throws1 all of which allow unlimited action1 as the shoulder cannot be kept strictly in position1 because the clubs have to be carefully watched while they are in the air4 ,without doubt1 ,indian club exercise is an attractive pastime1 and entails no strain on the system1 unless by the foolish practice of using too heavy clubs4 ,,chapter ,v ,,swimming1 ,,rowing1 ,,and ,,water ,,polo ,swimming4--,a glance at some books of instruction conveys the impression that swimming is difficult and complicated2 but many boys learn in three or four days1 and we know a timid boy who had much to overcome in fear of the water who learnt in fourteen without more aid than he obtained from reading directions in books4 ,it is easier to learn in a tepid indoor bath1 because the novice is not worried by having to keep himself warm1 and he has the rail1 a sure bottom1 and the side of the bath to help him4 ,a friendly companion who will support his chest with one hand at first1 especially if he can instruct him too1 will shorten the period of learning4 ,there is no need to go into deep water1 nor to run any risks in learning to swim4 ,the action of the arms may be practised in or out of the water4 ,draw the arms to the chest with the elbows touching the sides4 ,close the fingers and thumb of each hand1 and make the hands slightly hollow4 ,the hands will be under the chin and the hollowed palms downwards4 ,push them out in front of your nose1 not vigorously1 but quietly and steadily1 for so far the action is one that retards the swimmer rather than advances him4 ,once at their full extent1 however1 the hands should be turned almost back to back1 and then each should be swept away from the other in a semi-circle1 something like the action of the oars when a boat is being rowed4 ,when the elbows touch the body the stroke ends1 and the hands should go back to their position under the chin ready for another stroke4 ,more important than the arms in swimming are the legs1 but their movements are very simple and easy to learn4 ,grasp the rail that runs round the bath with one hand and place the other hand flat upon the side of the bath about a foot below4 ,draw the legs up to the body1 with the heels touching each other1 toes of each foot turned outwards1 the toes of the right foot to the right1 the toes of the left foot to the left4 ,keep the knees wide apart and turned outwards4 ,when the legs have been drawn up as far as possible the soles of the feet should be only just under the water4 ,now shoot both legs out vigorously1 not only as far as they will go1 but as widely asunder as you can spread them4 ,then bring the heels smartly together so that the legs return in a line with the body again4 ,this last movement is very important1 for it is in displacing the wedge of water between the widely opened legs that the body receives its forward impulse4 ,writers upon swimming have likened this action to the flight of the slippery orange pip when it is squeezed in the fingers of the school-boy4 ,when the use of arms and legs is practised together the legs are drawn up and the hands are placed under the chin at the same time1 and the hands and legs are sent out from the body together4 ,the head should be thrown back well1 and it will help the learner to do this if he looks at the sky or at the ceiling of the bath when he is learning4 ,it is easier to swim upon the back than upon the chest4 ,the movement of the legs is the same1 and the movement of the hands not very different4 ,lie backwards upon the water and with the hands together stretch the arms behind the head1 palms upwards1 thumbs touching4 ,then sweep the hands away from each other1 using them like oars1 and so bringing them back with a wide curve to the hips4 ,upon the back it is possible to swim without the use of the arms at all4 ,learning to swim makes one sadly out of breath1 but with practice the art becomes easy1 and we swim with almost as much ease as we walk4 ,having learned plain swimming it is not difficult to add gradually the numerous other methods of propelling the body through the water4 ,rowing4--,to watch and imitate a good rower is the best way to acquire a good style1 but a few hints will help4 ,sit squarely upon the seat and stretch your legs straight before you1 but with your toes turned out slightly4 ,rowers are not agreed about the knees4 ,some keep them together2 others have them apart1 and they will tell you that this arrangement permits the body to come further forward over the knees4 ,your feet should be placed firmly against the stretcher1 and this must be let out or shortened1 to suit the length of the rower4 ,one foot may be placed in the strap which is often attached to the stretcher4 ,the outside hand is placed upon the handle of the oar1 with the thumb as well as the fingers above it1 while the other hand grasps it firmly lower down1 keeping the nut towards you4 ,the arms are now quickly thrust forward till they are quite straight at the elbows1 after which the back follows the arms by bending forward at the hips4 ,be careful1 however1 to avoid round shoulders4 ,when your hands have reached their full stretch raise them1 and the blade will drop quietly into the water4 ,then with the water just covering the blade1 the body is brought back with a strong but not clumsy movement1 till it reaches a little beyond the perpendicular of the back of the seat1 when the hands are brought back to the ribs1 the elbows gliding near the hips2 and at the last moment1 as the hand touches the ribs1 the wrist of the inside hand is lowered1 the knuckles being at the same time brought against the chest1 and the oar is made to revolve in the rowlock4 ,this is called feathering the oar1 a process by which it is brought neatly out of the water4 ,now push the oar rapidly forward again1 first1 however1 restoring it to its original position in the rowlock4 ,this is done by raising the wrist1 and then darting the arms forward till the elbows are quite straight4 ,now the rower is at his starting point4 ,to back water these actions are reversed4 ,the oar is first reversed in the rowlock1 and then it is pushed through the water with as much power as is needed1 and pulled through the air4 ,when the oars on one side are pulled1 and those on the other are backed1 the boat is made to turn round completely in a small space4 ,expert rowers have arrived at the following maxims3 ,straighten the arms before bending the body forward2 drop the oar neatly into the water2 draw the oar straight through at the same depth2 feather the oar cleanly1 and without bringing the oar out before doing so2 use the back and shoulders freely1 keeping the arms as straight as possible2 keep your eyes fixed on the rower before you4 ,by this means the body is almost sure to swing backwards and forwards regularly in a straight line4 ,if you look out of the boat you will probably lose this rhythmic motion4 ,sculling4--,this process is different from that of rowing in that the sculler has a scull for each hand1 whereas the rower uses both hands for one oar4 ,the rower sits near the side of the boat1 the sculler in the centre of the seat4 ,the sculls are lighter than oars1 the action quicker4 ,there are from thirty to forty strokes a minute in sculling1 but the average is about thirty-two4 ,the boy who goes out sculling alone is often his own steerer1 and so needs to keep a sharp look-out over his shoulder4 ,having taken a seat in the centre1 stretch out your legs to their fullest extent and adjust the stretcher4 ,grasp the sculls1 one in each hand1 by the handles1 and bend your body forward until your head is well over your knees4 ,throw your arms well forward1 and straight1 so that the sculls will be thrown well backwards4 ,then dip the sculls1 try to keep the dip uniform1 and pull hard4 ,the stroke comes to an end when the elbows are brought to the top of the hips1 and the hands to the chest1 with the body well back as a result of the strong pull4 ,the sculls are feathered as they leave the water by the depressing of the elbows and the bending upwards of the wrists1 as the back of the hands are turned towards the forearms1 an operation which offers the least resistance to the water when releasing the sculls to obtain the position known as the return1 that is1 the position to begin again4 ,to turn a boat in the water the sculler must back water with one scull and pull with the other4 ,to do this one scull is reversed1 its rounded face being towards the rear as the sculler pushes it from him4 ,at the same time pull sharply with the other scull until the boat's head has been turned round completely4 ,boats without rudders are managed in the water1 either by pulling both sides alike1 in which case the boat moves in a straight line1 or by reversing the action of the oars1 equally on both sides1 pushing them through the water instead of pulling them1 and called backing water4 ,in this case the boat recedes4 ,by pulling one side only1 the boat describes a part of a circle1 which is made smaller by pulling one oar1 and backing the other4 ,by means of a rudder the boat may be made to take almost any direction without reference to the rowers4 ,a few experiments with a rudder will soon demonstrate what its powers are4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,polo4 ,water ,polo4--,boys who can swim will find this excellent sport4 ,each player should provide himself with a sound cask4 ,place it upon its side and weight it with lead or other material1 making this ballast fast so that it cannot move about4 ,now make the cask quite water-tight4 ,upon one end fix a horse's head made of wood1 upon the other a tail4 ,these features may be made as extravagant and comic as the owner pleases4 ,get a paddle like a canoe paddle1 and astride of this horse take to the water4 ,choose sides as at football and have for goals stakes driven into the bed of the river or floating objects moored into position4 ,the ball should be a light hollow india-rubber one1 or a bladder from the butcher4 ,some players use the inner part of a football4 ,the paddle both strikes the ball and propels the steed4 ,this game should never be played unless the players are accompanied by a capable person in a boat who can go to the assistance of those who may be in difficulties4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,paperchasing1 ,,football1 ,,golf1 ,,and ,,boxing ,paperchasing4--,this may be practised with more or less success all the year round1 but it is in the winter time that it can best be enjoyed4 ,it is then that the air is cool and invigorating1 and that the fields1 being unoccupied by crops1 may be run over without any very great damage being done4 ,for boys it is a grand game2 it affords a welcome change from the scrimmages and knocks of football and fives2 and if the distance run be not too far1 nor the pace too fast1 there are few who cannot take part in it with pleasure4 ,an important point in its favour is that the expenses connected with it are small4 ,the paperchaser wears jersey1 knickerbockers and stockings as at football1 with the addition1 in very cold weather1 of woollen mittens to keep the wrists warm1 and the substitution of light leather or rubber and canvas shoes1 for heavy boots4 ,for each of the hares there must be provided a bag in which to carry the scent4 ,these bags should be of stout linen or canvas and shaped like a life-buoy1 so that they go round the runner--under the left shoulder and over the right--with a hole in the under-side1 by means of which they are filled and emptied4 ,time was when the scent consisted of paper torn up very small1 the preparation of which afforded almost as much fun as the chase itself2 but nowadays we have grown luxurious1 and fill the bags with the paper shavings which may be purchased for a very small sum from any bookbinder or printer4 ,much of the success of a paperchase depends on the choosing of the hares4 ,of these there are generally two or three--more often the former--and it is necessary that one of them should have a good knowledge of the surrounding country4 ,the time of their departure having been noted1 they start off and lay a trail as they go4 ,sometimes one will lay for a while1 and then the other will take a turn2 occasionally one will lead and lay his trail1 and the other following some little distance in the rear1 will look out for gaps and fill them in4 ,it is not necessary to lay a continuous trail1 but care should be taken that it is quite easy to see from one patch of scent to the next4 ,when the wind is high1 it is always well in crossing from one field to another1 to sprinkle some scent on the hedge itself4 ,the laying of an occasional false scent adds to the troubles of the hounds1 and gives the hares a chance of regaining some of the advantage which they naturally lose in choosing their course4 ,a false is usually managed by the hares separating1 and each laying a trail in different directions2 then one ceases laying1 and makes his way straight across country to join his companion1 and they go on again together as before4 ,in laying a false trail1 much ingenuity may be shown4 ,one way is to make the wrong one much the more distinct of the two2 but this must not always be done1 or naturally it will soon cease to have any effect4 ,in selecting a course1 it is well to choose a circular one1 so that in case of accidents1 the distance from home is not very far2 and it is a very good plan1 and one which is likely to be of advantage to all1 to start out against the wind and to return with it4 ,the reason for this is that it is easier to face the wind when starting out fresh than when returning home fatigued at the end of a run4 ,the hounds1 or pack1 must be provided with a captain and a whipper-in--the former to set the pace and generally take command1 and the latter to look after the stragglers and see that none are left behind4 ,both should be good runners1 and if possible should have had some experience of the game4 ,after an interval--the length of which is arranged with the hares before they start1 and depends chiefly on the distance it is proposed to travel--the pack set out on their journey4 ,the pace should be a steady jog-trot1 especially at the beginning2 afterwards1 if all goes well1 it may be increased4 ,it is a rule that so long as the hares are not in sight1 all must follow the trail2 but if once they are seen1 it becomes a case of catch who can1 the scent is ignored1 and all go off straightway in pursuit4 ,if the hares are not seen and there appears to be no likelihood of their being caught1 it is usual for the captain on getting within a mile or so of home1 to give the word for a race and for the hounds to set off then to compete among themselves for the honour of being the first to reach the goal4 ,carried out on these lines1 paperchasing provides plenty of fun1 and is as healthy a pastime as can be found4 ,now and again there will be a ducking caused by a failure to clear a brook1 or a stumble at a fence2 but if the victims of these mishaps keep moving1 and immediately they reach home1 change their clothes1 little harm will be done4 ,two warnings may be given3 ,do not go too far2 and when feeling tired1 do not strain yourself by trying to race4 ,a six or seven miles spin is quite long enough for any one2 and it is better to go all through at a jog-trot1 and even to walk occasionally1 than to sow the seeds of future ills by striving to outdo fleeter rivals4 ,hints on ,football4--,football is one of the games which cannot be learned from books4 ,its best lessons are those taught by hard experience1 and as much may be learned in an afternoon's play and in watching a match between two good teams1 as by a diligent study of all the books on the game that have ever been written2 but at the same time there are a number of unwritten rules which1 although they often take years to learn1 are of service to every player2 and ,i have therefore deemed it wise to collect them and put them down here in black and white in the hope that they may be of use to many who1 with some experience of the game1 and eager to improve their play1 have no opportunity for seeing big matches1 and no one whom they can ask for advice4 ,these rules are fourteen in number1 and should be learned by heart by every player4 ,they apply specially to the ,rugby game1 but some of them are of use also to those who favour the ,association pastime3-- #a4 ,never play immediately after a meal4 ,it is best to have dinner two hours before the game begins4 #b4 ,in passing a ball to a comrade send it smartly and quickly straight into his hands4 #c4 ,never pass the ball when you are near your own goal line1 and never pass straight back except when opposite your opponents' goal1 and the player to whom you pass is well placed for dropping a goal4 #d4 ,never be too eager to pick up the ball and run with it4 ,a neat dribble with the feet is often most effective1 and it is generally very difficult to stop4 #e4 ,in collaring an opponent always keep your eyes open1 and always go hard and low4 #f4 ,never speculate or take flying kicks at the ball4 #g4 ,when fairly held by an opponent1 do not waste your strength by useless struggling1 but at once cry held1 and put down the ball4 #h4 ,when you have the ball in your possession1 and find it impossible to pass it to advantage or to proceed1 always punt into touch4 #i4 ,in handing off an opponent1 turn your thumb inside your hand and turn the palm outwards with the fingers held together4 #aj4 ,when one of your own side is running with the ball1 always follow up close behind1 but a little on one side of him4 ,when passed by an opponent who has it1 try to get round again to meet him before he reaches your goal line4 #aa4 ,in your spare time practise punting1 drop-kicking1 and place-kicking1 with both feet4 ,an otherwise good player is often left out of a team in order to make room for one who is not quite so good1 but is able to kick4 #ab4 ,study the laws of the game whenever you have an opportunity4 #ac4 ,always keep your temper and do not talk4 ,obey your captain at once1 and unhesitatingly accept the decision of the referee4 #ad4 ,change your clothes as soon as possible after playing1 and in going home be careful to wrap up well4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would point out that if properly played ,rugby ,football is not dangerous4 ,the great majority of accidents which occur are due to the neglect of one of the simple rules here laid down--through useless struggling1 loose collaring1 wild kicking1 or blind rushing4 ,the rules for the ,association and the ,rugby game may be obtained for one penny each1 so we have refrained from reproducing them here4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,golf4--,this is another of those games well learned on the field1 by observation of the best players1 and by hints from friends4 ,we have1 however1 compiled a series of injunctions based upon long experience4 ,,driving4--,lower your left shoulder4 ,stand still and do not see-saw with your body4 ,plant your feet squarely4 ,grasp your club lightly yet firmly in the hollow of your fingers4 ,slowly swing well back and complete your stroke well through1 pushing to the very end with your right hand4 ,it is a disadvantage to try to get under the ball4 ,illustration ,,the ,,brassy4--,in using this club swing as far back as you can1 slowly4 ,,the ,,mashie ,,and ,,iron4--,swing back very slowly and have the forefinger of your right hand well down the club1 which should be held lightly4 ,go well through with the stroke and rise slightly off your left heel4 ,,putting4--,grasp the club firmly1 swing back very slowly1 and go well through with the stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,furze ,illustration3 ,,out ,,of ,a ,,bunker ,illustration3 ,,putting ,,general ,,advice4--,in all kinds of strokes swing back slowly with your left shoulder down and the forefinger of your right hand well down the club4 ,ever have your eye upon the ball1 and finish every stroke to the very end4 ,in all your strokes let your arms go well out from your body4 ,your hands should be close together on your club and the right hand well round to the left but not under the club4 ,press the ground with your feet and stand well back upon your heels4 ,hints on ,boxing4--,it is true that boxing has become associated with all manner of ruffianism1 but it is true also that it is one of the most effective forms of physical exercise1 and that low life and brutality need no more enter into this pastime than into cricket4 ,all the muscles are exercised1 and dexterity1 nimbleness1 prompt decision1 quickness of sight and many other admirable qualities are promoted4 ,the right arm is held across the body so as to protect the pit of the stomach4 ,the elbow of the left arm is held to the side4 ,this position enables the boxer to hit from the shoulder1 an important matter in boxing4 ,the right leg bears most of the weight of the body1 an arrangement which permits rapid movement backwards and forwards as occasion demands with a minimum of exposure4 ,the left side should be towards your antagonist1 the left hand has the principal part of hitting allotted to it1 the right stops1 parries1 and at close quarters hits too4 ,study all these things carefully before a mirror1 noting what parts are exposed and the manner in which the exposure may be remedied4 ,throw your head well back1 and watch your opponent's eyes1 for there you get the earliest indication of his intentions1 and therefore you are able to make your arrangements for circumventing his plans4 ,when you strike let it be from the shoulder and with all the weight of your body pressing the right foot upon the ground and making a kind of spring4 ,do not draw back your hand to make a stroke1 because that gives your adversary warning4 ,come upon him unawares and then recover your position immediately4 ,generally the time to strike is when your left toe is level with his heel1 but if his reach is longer or shorter than yours this rule may need modification4 ,remember that a curved blow is longer on its way than a straight one4 ,if your adversary strikes at your face or the upper part of the chest1 do not retreat from the blow1 but fling your right arm sharply outwards and upwards1 catching your opponent's arm by the wrist1 and throwing it out of the direction in which it was aimed4 ,this generally lays open your opponent's head1 and gives opportunity for a smart return blow with the left hand2 it is then near his head1 and has only a short distance to go4 ,this return blow is called the counter1 and is very effective1 as it arrives when your opponent is expecting to give rather than receive a blow4 ,this plan of campaign may be practised before a mirror4 ,stopping comes in where this parry is impracticable4 ,if your adversary strikes at your body you must either get away1 stop1 or suffer the blow in hopes of being able to hit him in return4 ,in stopping you receive the blow on your arm1 and break its force4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,on ,,the ,,ice ,figure ,skating4--,as soon as the skater has gained confidence and can skate in the ordinary way1 he should begin to master the art of skating upon the outside edge4 ,put upon the ice a small stone1 piece of wood1 or any other object to serve for a centre4 ,from this stand three yards with your right side towards it4 ,leaning a little in the direction of this centre and pressing your weight upon the outer edge of the blade of the skate1 push yourself round and round the centre with your left foot4 ,then practise going round on the outside edge of your left skate in a similar way4 ,difficult as these movements will be at first1 they become easy like other hard tasks by practice1 and they open the way to graceful figure skating4 ,when the two circles have been mastered it is quite easy to cut a figure #c upon the ice4 ,begin on the outside edge of the right skate as though you meant to go in a circle1 but allow your left foot to hang behind your right foot4 ,there it will act as a kind of weight1 your body will tend to swing round and you will cut the second part of the #c travelling backwards1 and upon the inner edge of the skate4 ,the impetus gained in cutting the first part of the figure will carry you to the end4 ,going in the other direction cut another #c with your left foot1 and when you can do these you are on the high road to complete success as a skater4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,sailing on ,skates4--,boys who are so fortunate as to live where there is a large sheet of ice will find much fun in sailing4 ,if you have the money the draper will supply you with calico1 or sheeting1 or other similar material1 two yards wide1 and a journey to the joiner will be necessary1 as we shall see4 ,a ,b in ,figure #a is the yard made of wood1 one and a half inches thick in the middle1 tapering to each end to five-eighths of an inch4 ,at ,c and ,d holes are bored for the lashings of the sail4 ,e ,f is the sprit1 and we get its length by measuring the boy who is going to use the sail from his neck to his ankles4 ,this gives the length of the sprit1 and the yard should be made twice as long4 ,we have given the longest that the sprit should be4 ,it may be shorter1 and then1 of course1 the yard would be shortened in proportion4 ,the sprit is tapered towards ,f and a hole is bored at ,g for lashings4 ,the sprit is connected with the yard by what sailors call a crotch4 ,we have given a representation of it in ,fig4 #b4 ,the cord is used to lash the sprit to the yard4 ,c ,d ,g in ,fig4 #a shows the sail4 ,it is cut to allow a broad hem1 and may be sewn rapidly with a sewing machine4 ,a strong loop of tape or cord should be sewed at each corner of the sail ,c ,d ,g1 and at the head of the sail1 that is from ,c to ,d1 eyelets should be made six inches apart4 ,at each of these the sail is tied to the yard and also at ,g4 ,a reference to ,figures #c1 #d and #e will show how the sail is used1 but practice will be needed and much studying of the effect of wind upon the sail before the art of sailing on skates has been mastered4 ,a wooden rod may be attached to ,f1 ,fig4 #a4 ,this will aid in the management of the sail1 as is shown in ,figures #d and #e4 ,curling4--,like most other pastimes1 curling is best learned when you are young4 ,your good golfer1 who swipes clean and clever from the tee1 picked up that draw and swing which the able golfer so much prides himself upon1 in youth4 ,it is quite true that laddies in ,scotland first learn to skate2 yet many of the best hands at the roaring game have learned to throw a stane ere fifteen4 ,you cannot learn young enough at anything1 a true sportsman will tell you4 ,that little1 bare-legged herd laddie1 who sits on the banks of the ,ettrick or ,yarrow1 will laugh at the middle-aged tyro who vainly tries to fling a fly where there is no fish lying4 ,the young yachtsman gets his tiller hand in his first matches in an open boat2 the trigger finger of the crack shot is made over his early successes at rooks or rabbits2 and the good seat in the saddle on the back of the ,shetland pony2 but our boys are ready for their bonspeil1 which means a good spell or game4 ,before giving a description of an actual game1 the writer will endeavour to give some idea of what curling is like4 ,in ,germany it has been successfully introduced by ,sir ,edward ,malet1 the ,english ambassador1 and there is every reason to believe that in a few years it will take as strong a hold of the ,english people1 as already golf has done4 ,pennant1 in his ,tour of the ,north 7#agib71 writes of it as follows3--,of all the sports of these parts1 that of curling is the favourite1 and one unknown in ,england4 ,it is an amusement of the winter1 and played on the ice1 by sliding from one mark to another great stones of from forty to seventy pounds weight1 of a hemispherical form1 with an iron or wooden handle at the top4 ,the object of the player is to lay his stone as near the mark as possible1 to guard that of his partner1 which had been well laid before1 or to strike his antagonist's4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,roaring ,,game ,the game is played on a carefully-chosen piece of ice called the rink1 which should be forty-two yards long1 unless special circumstances1 such as thaw1 and consequently dull ice1 require it to be shortened4 ,this piece of ice should be as level1 smooth1 and free from cracks as possible4 ,there is usually a trifling bias1 which however to the skilled curler rather adds interest to the game1 as it calls forth additional science in the play4 ,illustration3 ,,bringing ,,down ,,the ,,stones ,when the rink is chosen1 a little mark is made at each end4 ,this is called the 'tee1' and near that point stands1 in his turn1 each player1 whose object is to hurl or slide his stones to the opposite end by a swinging motion of the arm4 ,each opponent also endeavours to place his stones nearer the tee than those of his opponents4 ,so far for ,pennant's description of curling in the olden time4 ,the old style1 thanks to the ,edinburgh men1 who play on ,duddingston ,loch1 has long gone out4 ,seventy pound stones would no longer be tolerated by any body of sportsmen affiliated under the ,royal ,caledonian ,curling ,club4 ,in the olden times it seems1 in some parts of ,scotland1 notably in the south-west1 to have been a game of strength rather than of skill1 and the man who threw his huge block the farthest1 and struck his opponent's stone from the tee1 or cock1 was considered to be the superior player4 ,the stones are not now much more than half this weight1 and so highly are the soles polished that they slip along keen ice so much faster with slight exertion on the part of the player1 that they pass the tee or mark altogether1 and go clean off the rink4 ,the rinks or sides have been chosen--four players1 one of whom acts as skip or director4 ,he is generally the ablest and most experienced curler1 and equal to the responsible duty of guarding the winning shot1 if in his favour1 or securing it if against him1 with his last stone4 ,the rink1 which is also the name of the diagram of the game1 is drawn off according to the rules of the ,royal ,caledonian ,curling ,club1 and carefully swept clear of all snow or hoar frost4 ,the skip takes up his station at the tee1 which is the innermost of a set of circles1 known as the hoose1 no stone outside of the outer one counting in the actual score4 ,sweeping scores are drawn for the guidance of the players2 one down the centre1 which practically is a sort of hockey arrangement1 as you must stick to your own side of the rink4 ,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,for ,,the ,,game ,sweeping commences half-down1 that is1 at the centre of the forty-two yards between tee and tee1 and can be carried on by the players' side up to the tee1 when1 if it still has a little impetus1 the opposing skip will sweep it out of the house altogether4 ,when this happens after a stone has been brought on when apparently lagging1 it is generally greeted with what in ,parliamentary phrase would be called ,opposition cheers and laughter4 ,in this a skip may show very superior judgment1 and order his men to desist from sweeping4 ,at his words up hands1 brooms must be raised immediately4 ,in front of the house or counting circle is the hog score4 ,if stones are not thrown with sufficient force to be taken over this with the assistance of the sweepers they are shoved off the ice as dead4 ,this is sometimes galling to a young player who1 when it happens1 as it does repeatedly happen on soft ice1 is practically put out of the game4 ,but the crampits have been adjusted4 ,these are foot-boards1 grated so that they hold firmly to the ice4 ,on these both feet must be placed when the stone is delivered4 ,the skip gives his directions to his first player to place him a stone on the near edge of the outer ring4 ,why not exactly at the tee8 ,because if there it would form a rest for the stone of his opponent and be forced out4 ,our young player1 who is wielding a beautifully polished pair of ,ailsa ,craigs1 with a sweep or two of the ice does exactly what is wanted4 ,his opponent is asked to play to the face of this stone4 ,this he does1 hurling it out and laying his own almost in its place4 ,the next stone of the leading player fails to catch it1 and goes away to the rear1 dead4 ,the fourth stone played effectually covers or guards the winner4 ,the next pair of players give up their brooms to the leaders1 and take up their position at the crampits4 ,a gentle draw past guard and winning stone is counselled2 and this is well executed1 the brooms taking the stone to the very edge of the tee or centre circle4 ,the next player fails to remove this1 and being slow guards his opponent's stone4 ,illustration3 ,soop her up ,this is a piece of good fortune for the other side1 who now have a second shot drawn by a very skilful player4 ,the third pair of players cannot well get home and try to wick1 and curl in 7from the latter expression we have curling74 ,this is done by putting with a turn of the wrist a certain bias or screw1 by means of the handle when the stone is being delivered4 ,the position of the game is not changed when the skips lay aside their brooms4 ,there is a little more than half of the winning shot visible through a port or channel4 ,through this the skip1 against whom the shot counts1 threads his stone gently and easily and rubs the winner out4 ,his opponent has no chance now1 unless he rattles out the nearest guards4 ,this he tries to do1 but his opponent guards again1 this time just across the hog score4 ,a gentle draw1 with an inner twist1 might succeed4 ,it is bravely attempted1 but it is short a foot1 and the leading skip claims one shot--victory for a well contested end4 ,and so the game will last for twenty more heads1 the winning rink being that which has the majority of shots4 ,it is a happy1 healthy game1 not so well-known in ,england as it ought to be4 ,in ,germany some enthusiasts have introduced it1 and from the military-like character in which it is carried out1 guarding and storming and knocking out occupants of the fortress1 it is likely there to come greatly into favour4 ,it is to be hoped that we may oft see the pond where1 in the language of an old ,scottish curling poet-- ,drawn are the rinks where lines and curves combine1 ,the tee1 the house1 hog score and central line2 ,the cramps are laid1 the champions ready stand1 ,with eye intent and trusty broom in hand4 ,those who decide to include this game in their activities should put themselves into touch with the ,royal ,caledonian ,curling ,club through its honorary ,secretary1 ,a4 ,davidson ,smith1 ,esq41 at the headquarters of the club1 ,york ,place1 ,edinburgh4 ,they will then be able to obtain the rules for the proper playing of this delightful game4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,angling ,hints by an ,old ,hand4--,when fishing in ponds1 lakes1 meres1 canals1 or in waters where there is no stream1 the depth should be carefully taken the night before1 or when ground-baiting1 and marked on the rod1 or by measuring the distance from the plummet to the cap of the float with a piece of cotton or string4 ,if the angler prefers the bait to be within touch of the bottom1 the better plan is to use a self-cocking float1 and always use the finest possible tackle in clear water2 but if an ordinary float be employed1 and the novice wishes the bait to lie six or eight inches on the bottom 7a good plan71 the lowest shot should be from #ae in4 to #bj in4 from the hook4 ,this will neither interfere with the proper cocking of the float nor with the angler striking1 for1 from the moment the fish seizes the bait to the indication of a bite1 the resistance of 7at most7 two or three small shots is infinitesimal4 ,if the bottom be at all muddy1 then the plummet should be as light as possible1 or into the ooze it will sink1 and when this is known to be the case1 the depth may be obtained by the aid of a small pellet of bread and bran4 ,should it drop off the hook before the depth is obtained1 the pellet should be made a little stiffer4 ,a piece of tea lead from a tea-chest1 or lead wire1 similar to that used on the gut in ,lea fishing 7some use nothing else71 may be carefully tied round the bottom of the float1 to make it cock without using any shots on the tackle1 and painted the same colour as the float1 or1 failing this1 the usual self-cocking float sold at the tackle-shops may be used4 ,gentles should be kept in plenty of damp sand for a few days in an earthenware pan1 biscuit-tin1 or tin pail1 in a cellar1 or any dark1 cool place1 when they will be ready for use4 ,the sides of the pan or tin should not be allowed to get wet1 or many of the gentles will make their escape4 ,they should be kept in what is termed golden sand4 ,this sand1 which should be damp1 is almost as fine to the touch as barley-meal1 of a deep rich golden colour1 and they will live in it for days without turning into the chrysalis state1 which they do in a comparatively short time if exposed to the sun--a practice to which many anglers are addicted1 and then wonder the gentles change colour4 ,it is a great mistake to use silver sand1 as it over-scours and makes them attenuated and hard4 ,i have repeatedly seen them in this state4 ,so much for sand4 ,the finest gentles ,i ever saw were obtained from the best rump steak and a sheep's head1 and kept in coarse bran2 but for taking out the black steck or saddle-back near the head1 and scouring them until perfectly white1 give me the sand mentioned above and plenty of it4 ,the weight floats required may be arranged and tested before they are wound on the winder for final use4 ,this saves the beginner considerable time and trouble at the water-side4 ,if he has a four-line winder1 with lines already weighted or shotted for roach1 perch1 bream1 tench1 so much the better4 ,a piece of cork about the size and shape of a ,tonquin bean attached to the line may sometimes be used with success for fishing-swims1 within easy distance from the side1 in smooth clear water1 near patches of weeds1 flags1 or candocks1 the angler taking great care to keep out of sight1 and to be as still as possible4 ,when the bean-like piece of cork goes under or runs1 strike gently4 ,never use long-shanked hooks 7the well-known crystal roach hooks1 for instance7 for such baits as gentles1 cockspur1 or small worms1 small pellets of paste1 wheat and malt4 ,a considerable portion of the shank is certain to become bare in a short time1 and so prevent the fish from biting4 ,i have repeatedly seen nearly the whole shank of a crystal hook bare1 and the small worm1 gentles1 and more especially a grain of creed wheat1 dangling from the bend as a kidney might from a butcher's hook2 and ,i have an idea that no fish properly constituted would be stupid enough to be caught under such absurd conditions4 ,i may just mention in passing1 that when fishing with gentles1 the last one put on the hook should have the point to come through the skin of the thick or tail end1 and the twirling thin or head end to hang clear of the hook4 ,one gentle on a ,no4 #ab or #ac hook will often do the trick1 when they won't look at a bunch of gentles4 ,use as small hooks as possible4 ,they will hook a fish1 or for the matter of that1 get fast into almost anything1 much quicker than large hooks3 they penetrate sooner1 hold very fast1 and pierce the lips of such fish as trout1 perch1 chub1 barbel1 carp1 when a large hook would not4 ,for instance1 the other day ,i hooked a #c lb4 barbel in the centre of the upper lip with a ,no4 #aj sneck-bend1 and it was quite a job to extract it4 ,i once saw four splendid chub1 all caught with similar hooks2 and on several occasions ,i have caught good perch with roach hooks4 ,if the novice will only remember not to allow slack line when playing a good fish on a small hook1 provided the tackle is good and strong1 a fish should seldom escape4 ,beginners often use hooks three times too big for the fish they are after1 and it goes without saying1 that the smaller the hook the finer the gut should be2 for a small hook on thick1 coarse gut is not to be thought of4 ,on the other hand1 never use a too small hook for too large a pellet of paste1 with the hook embedded in the centre1 instead of the point just protruding4 ,i have seen an angler fishing under these conditions for chub with cheese paste miss five fish out of six1 the damson-like pellet being pulled clean out of the mouth of the chub1 without the slightest chance of hooking the fish4 ,we will now supplement what our ,old ,hand has told us by other hints4 ,bait and ,other ,matters4--,we shall not occupy space discussing rods1 and such things4 ,each boy settles these questions for himself1 in accordance with the money he can spare1 after a talk with the dealer and a contemplation of his wares4 ,such accessories as landing nets he leaves generally until he is grown up1 and manages very well without them4 ,he may1 however1 provide himself with a clearing ring and line1 because he is likely to feel the need for these often4 ,this useful clearing tackle consists of a number of yards of strong cord1 to the end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass4 ,if the hook should get fast in a weed or anything else1 this ring is put over the butt of the rod1 and allowed to slip down the line to the hook4 ,the rod should be held in the right hand1 the top pointing downwards1 the clearing-line in the left2 the ring falling on the hook from its weight usually clears the hook4 ,if not1 the angler should grasp the rod firmly1 and draw the line sideways1 and break away4 ,in this case1 he seldom loses more than a hook2 but without the use of a clearing-line he frequently loses his float as well as his hook and line1 and sometimes breaks his rod4 ,the brass clearing-rings are best1 because they are jointed1 and can be used when the angler has a reel on his rod4 ,an old angler advises that after the young fisherman has made choice of a place to fish1 he should first plumb the depth truly1 and with as little disturbance to the water as may be4 ,if the water be still throw in small pieces of ground bait2 if there is a strong current large pieces4 ,keep as far from the water as you can1 and go slily to work1 for even the shaking of the bank will frighten some of these fish4 ,the bait should be dropped into the water quietly4 ,stand as far from the edge of the water as possible1 and never let your shadow fall upon the water4 ,when it is possible hide behind a bush or a tree4 ,in baiting a hook insert the point of the hook near to the top of the worm's head1 and carry it down to within a quarter of an inch of its tail4 ,to do this you must work up the worm with your left thumb and finger1 while with your right you are gradually pressing the hook downwards4 ,if too much of the worm hangs loose the fish will seldom take the whole in their mouth1 and will not be hooked4 ,to bait a hook well with a worm is necessary to ensure catching a fish when you strike2 and it consists in drawing the worm without injuring it quite over and up the shank of the hook1 leaving only a small lively part of the tail below4 ,if you bait with half a worm1 choose the tail end1 and insert the point of the hook into the top part1 and bring it down nearly to the end of the tail1 leaving only a very small piece of it free4 ,if you bait with two worms on the same hook1 draw the first up above the shank1 and put the second on in the same manner as directed with one worm1 but insert the hook near the tail of the second worm2 then draw the first one down on the second over the shank of the hook4 ,,red ,,worm4--,found with the brandling but not so common4 ,at their best in tan heaps1 but are found also in the banks of ditches and sewers4 ,,marsh ,,worms4--,known also as blue heads4 ,found in marshes at night1 especially after rain4 ,a good bait for gudgeon1 trout1 perch1 bream1 and grayling4 ,,tag ,,tail4--,tail has a yellow tint4 ,found in fields in moist spring weather4 ,often preferred when the water is muddy1 especially for trout4 ,,water ,,worms4--,found in sedges and at the bottom of dock roots4 ,turn up the long slimy moss on weirs for them4 ,they are of a clear bluish white1 occasionally very light purple1 becoming red at the head4 ,fish eat them voraciously4 ,,ash ,,grub4--,look for these in the bark of trees4 ,they are good for grayling1 dace1 roach1 or chub4 ,,cow ,,dung ,,bait4--,from ,may to the end of ,september these may be found under cow dung4 ,they are eaten by roach1 chub1 grayling1 and dace4 ,,gentles4--,the usual term1 used in angling1 for maggots4 ,putrid meat1 especially liver1 will produce them4 ,they may be obtained from butchers or fell-mongers4 ,good for most fish4 ,,lob ,,worm4--,sometimes called the dew worm1 or the wachel4 ,it is the ordinary large garden worm4 ,dig for them if they are needed at once4 ,if wet straw is strewed upon the ground for a couple of days they will come to the surface4 ,in the evenings they come out1 and a quiet search with a lantern in gardens1 or church-yards1 or on lawns will discover them4 ,they are useful for trout1 eels1 large perch1 barbel1 chub1 and salmon4 ,,brandling4--,search for these in chaff pits1 old heaps of compost1 rotten tan1 sweepings1 manure of all kinds and tanners' bark4 ,good for trout1 grayling1 carp1 bream1 and indeed for almost every fish4 ,,miscellaneous ,,baits4--,cockchafer1 black or evening beetle1 grasshoppers1 moths1 ,may-flies1 caddis worms1 bees1 caterpillars1 wasp-grubs1 baked for half an hour1 paste made of bread or cheese4 ,,ground ,,bait4--,in addition to the bait upon the hook the angler usually strews what is known as ground bait1 and so attracts the fish to where he is angling4 ,it is chiefly by the judicious use of ground baits1 and by fishing at a proper depth1 that one angler is more successful than another1 although fishing with the same baits and within a few yards of each other4 ,if a place can be ground baited frequently fish begin to come there regularly for food4 ,care must be taken not to glut the fish1 and the bait upon the hook ought to be more attractive than the bait flung into the stream4 ,the ground bait most in use includes bran mixed with clay1 and made into balls of about the size of a pigeon's egg4 ,if the current is strong a stone in the ball may be needed4 ,another ground bait is made by cutting the crust from a loaf4 ,then cut the loaf into slices each about two inches thick4 ,put these slices into a deep vessel of water1 and when the bread has been well soaked squeeze it until it is nearly dry4 ,add bran and knead the whole until the mixture is as stiff as clay4 ,this is well adapted for still waters4 ,another ground bait is made of barley-meal one part1 mashed potatoes three parts1 stiff clay two parts1 worked thoroughly well together1 but better even than this is one composed of stiff clay with as much bran as it will hold without destroying its stickiness4 ,at the water side separate pieces about the size of the egg of a goose1 into which stick a few worms and gentles4 ,as these drop from the dissolving clay they are seized on by the fish1 who continue to wait in the expectation of more1 and are thus ready to take the angler's bait1 especially if it is more tempting than the ground bait4 ,boiled malt1 barley1 wheat1 and such things1 mixed with coarse sand to sink them also answer the purpose4 ,trout-fishing4--,in the ,easter holidays boys are apt to find it difficult to decide just what to do4 ,football is nearly over1 cricket is hardly in4 ,it is still somewhat early for bird-nesting1 except for rooks1 and perhaps blackbirds and thrushes4 ,just at this juncture the obliging trout come into season1 and best of all1 are ravenously hungry4 ,now is the time for the beginner to try his hand with the deceitful fly4 ,do not be discouraged1 even if you have made a dismal failure of it last ,august4 ,in the summer holidays it requires a practised hand to take trout with fly2 but in ,april on a moorland stream a boy may go out and actually have some success on his first attempt4 ,it will be wiser1 certainly1 to practise a little first1 in your own garden1 with all the tackle except the fly4 ,by tackle ,i don't mean necessarily a glittering rod1 fresh from the shop1 with a brilliant winch and gaudy fittings4 ,it is well to get all these things if you can afford them1 though they should be toned down before using2 but want of money need not prevent a boy from trying his hand at trout-fishing4 ,a long willow wand1 or even a hazel stick will throw a fly if properly managed2 and running tackle is not an absolute necessity1 though in every respect advantageous4 ,the only things that must be bought are the hooks1 and these are very cheap1 as most boys know4 ,for this time of year your flies should be ,march browns and blue uprights1 and need not be tied on very fine gut4 ,the outfit that is required then need cost but a few shillings1 but if you can spare more get a small fishing-basket1 and a fly-book1 with a stock of flies4 ,thus equipped and with good boots you may fish for weeks without needing to visit a shop4 ,in order to learn how to throw a fly you should persuade a friend to show you the way he does it4 ,this need not be at the river1 nor need you tax your friend's time to any great extent4 ,after you have once learnt the knack practice only is required to enable you to throw a fly fairly1 though it may be years before you can do so well4 ,this preliminary trial 7during which you will have wound the line round your neck a few times7 being over1 you can go with some confidence to the stream4 ,arrived at the bank1 don't peer over to see whether there are any trout1 because if you do there won't be any--at least1 not after you have shown yourself4 ,if convenient1 make for a point some distance down-stream1 and work upwards4 ,by this plan you will have a chance of circumventing the trout1 even if the water be clear1 and not rough4 ,in rough or coloured water these tactics are not necessary1 and1 in fact1 it is as well1 because much easier1 to fish down-stream under such circumstances4 ,let us take first the case of clear water1 not very rough4 ,keep back from the edge and stoop a little1 taking advantage of any cover1 even the stump of a thistle4 ,watch for a rise1 and1 if possible1 throw your fly lightly a little above it1 and let it float down over the fish4 ,should the fish be extra silly he may take your fly1 and then you must strike1 as in bait-fishing1 but with less force4 ,if you are fishing a northern stream1 or a ,devon or ,cornwall brook1 you will find it worth while to go on casting even if you see no rises2 but on ,hampshire1 or other slow running rivers1 the usual plan is to wait for a rise4 ,but this style of fishing1 though practised with some success by the lucky fellows who are in ,winchester ,school1 is not altogether suited for the restless nature of a boy4 ,to return to the fish which has taken your fly4 ,being a little one 7for nothing large would be so silly71 he will give you little trouble to land4 ,take care1 though1 to guide him down-stream2 which1 being below him1 you can easily do4 ,lift him out as quietly as you can1 and lose no time in getting your flies on the water once more4 ,i say flies1 because you will find it best to use two in ordinary fly-fishing4 ,the upper fly1 or bob1 as it is called1 should be two feet or more from the tail1 and should only have about three inches of gut attached to it1 so that it may stick out nearly at right angles with the line4 ,it should be fastened to a knot in the gut1 so that it may not slip up and down4 ,there are several ways of fastening it on1 but they cannot be fully explained without diagrams1 and a boy of any ingenuity can easily find out for himself4 ,the plan most commonly adopted1 that of looping it on1 though it is not so neat as a knot1 has the advantage of permitting the fly to be changed easily--a great point when the trout are fickle4 ,illustration ,having landed your first trout1 do not try again in the same place1 but work gradually upwards1 trying every likely pool and eddy2 but not casting more than two or three times in one place4 ,if you succeed in getting two or three little trout on your first attempt in clear water you may think yourself lucky4 ,in ,april 'tis likely enough you may find the water coloured and high4 ,if it is in flood1 or approaching to it1 of course the worm or minnow should be used2 but of these anon4 ,we will suppose the stream to be but little above its usual level1 and of that rich brownish colour so dear to the heart of the angler4 ,doubtless a worm or a minnow might still succeed2 but a fly will give abundant sport1 and that without requiring a high degree of skill4 ,your mode of procedure need not now be so cautious as before described2 and1 in fact1 you will find down-stream fishing often best in a coloured water4 ,throw1 then1 a long line right across the stream1 near the edge of which you can safely show yourself1 and work your flies across and towards you1 striking smartly at any rise4 ,you will often miss1 for in down-stream fishing a strike tends to pull the fly out of the fish's mouth1 besides which the trout1 on touching the surface1 having his head towards you1 is apt to get a sight of your rod1 and to rise short4 ,if the weather and water are both favourable for down-stream fishing1 you will have lots of rises1 and some of the fish at least will fasten1 so that you have a chance of getting a dozen or so on a good day1 even before you have acquired any great skill4 ,the best fly for thick water ,i have found to be the soldier palmer1 a red fly with gold twist1 but it will not always succeed4 ,a ,march brown1 or a blue upright1 or blue palmer with silver twist1 may also be useful4 ,remember that the thicker the water the larger and more gaudy the fly may be4 ,we have to consider the chance of the water being too thick for fly4 ,then either minnow or worm will answer1 the former in moderately thick water1 and the latter in an absolute flood1 unless the water is like pea soup4 ,the minnow is used on a short line1 with a longish rod4 ,it requires considerable skill1 and cannot be practised with safety in strange water by the beginner1 or the minnow will constantly be getting lost by fouling snags4 ,as minnows are expensive1 this is a bad sort of sport for a boy with limited pocket-money4 ,it is a favourite1 however1 with the professional angler in the north1 and he doesn't lose his minnows4 ,it is a treat to see one of these gentry spin a rough run with his minnow1 and take two or three good trout where an amateur would do nothing but lose tackle4 ,the best way to learn to spin a minnow is to watch an old hand do it2 but if the stream you fish is free from snags you might find it worth while to try to learn without such teaching4 ,if so1 be careful to keep the tip of the rod near the water1 and1 using a short line1 to spin your minnow near the surface4 ,if you get a run don't snatch your minnow away1 but keep it steadily on4 ,very likely the trout may bite short1 but there is always a good chance that one of the revolving hooks may catch his jaw4 ,if you do hook a fish get him out quickly1 for your tackle being stout 7as it must be for minnow-fishing7 will bear the strain of anything short of a snatch4 ,to turn to worm-fishing4 ,it is1 of course1 comparatively easy to get a few fish with a worm1 but it takes a practised hand to take a basketful1 even from thick water4 ,a couple of shot will generally be enough1 and they should be about a foot from the hook1 which should be large1 unless you use the ,stewart tackle1 which consists of two or three small hooks4 ,a small marsh worm is considered best1 but a brandling or a red worm will answer2 or in a flood the tail half of a lob worm4 ,the worm should be kept rolling along the bottom of fairly swift water1 where the soil is gravelly2 and a little time should be given when you feel a bite4 ,in this way not only are large trout often taken in a flood1 but sea trout1 grilse1 and sometimes salmon4 ,a delicate hand is the chief requisite2 but much judgment is also required in deciding which pools to fish1 and when to shift your ground1 according to the rising or falling of the water4 ,there is a sort of worm-fishing which is very different from the kind just described4 ,the tackle used is much finer1 and the method altogether different4 ,for as it is practised in the clearest water and in the hottest weather1 it is necessary to take great care not to be seen1 and to avoid the slightest possible disturbance of the water4 ,a very small red worm is used on one or two tiny hooks1 and the boy who can take good trout in this way is as much a skilled angler as any fly-fisher can claim to be4 ,fishing for ,roach4--,most boys know what a roach is like1 so it will be enough by way of description to say that it is a fish of the carp tribe1 of a silvery colour1 and covered with scales4 ,its fins are of a pale1 pinkish grey1 and its mouth is small and soft1 suited best for vegetable food4 ,the roach grows sometimes to two pounds in weight1 but in most rivers one pound is considered large1 whilst in ponds the fish seems to deteriorate1 and swarms of little roach are generally to be seen1 but very few fish of over a quarter of a pound4 ,in rivers roach should not be killed unless they are seven or eight inches long2 but in ponds1 where they are very numerous1 it is best to keep all that are caught4 ,more food is thus left for the remainder4 ,the roach spawns in ,may1 and is1 therefore1 out of condition from the end of ,april till ,june or ,july4 ,it is fattest and most healthy in autumn and winter1 and when caught from a clear river will be found fairly good eating4 ,pond roach taste muddy2 but before we bring our fish to table we must learn how to catch it4 ,the rod should be long1 light1 and stiff4 ,white cane is best1 but is very dear2 and the rods now to be had at many tackle-makers for three or four shillings will answer nearly as well4 ,they are of ,japanese make1 and have no metal on them1 which makes them light and cheap1 though less durable than the expensive ,english rods4 ,for the line1 if roach only are expected1 nothing is better than good single horse-hair4 ,if there are large carp about1 fine gut will be better2 but carp do not feed after ,october4 ,in any case1 it will be found convenient to have a few inches of fine plaited silk for that part of the line which is next the rod4 ,the float should be as small as can conveniently be used1 and if the fish are very shy1 a little rough bit of stick is sometimes preferable4 ,a porcupine quill is generally best1 and just enough shot to sink it within a quarter of an inch1 or less1 of the surface should be put on the line4 ,one of the shot should be placed within six inches of the hook1 and the rest about a foot higher4 ,the hook should be of fine wire and about ,no4 #ab4 ,it is important to see that the hair or gut on which this is tied is perfectly round and clear4 ,with regard to baits1 the very best are wasp-grubs2 but these are often unobtainable1 and gentles 7the maggots of the friendly bluebottle7 answer fairly well4 ,a cleaner and pleasanter bait to use is paste1 made from bread one day old4 ,this should be dipped in water1 and then quickly squeezed dry with clean hands1 or in a cloth4 ,in some rivers--the ,ouse for instance--boiled wheat is a very good bait4 ,in order to find the depth1 use a little roll of lead1 called a plummet4 ,this should be attached to the line1 close to the hook1 by being partly unrolled1 to admit the hook1 and then fastened again2 and the depth should be plumbed as soon as the tackle is ready1 and before bait is prepared4 ,the operation necessarily disturbs the fish1 and time must elapse before they will feed4 ,it is desirable to keep well away from the water while putting your rod together1 and1 if possible1 even while fishing4 ,many roach fishers carry a light square box1 or basket1 which serves for a seat4 ,these anglers will sit still for hours1 patiently waiting for the roach to come on2 they are often very successful4 ,when a roach is hooked1 the angler retains his seat1 and in order to bring the fish to the net1 will remove the butt and second joint of the rod4 ,this is also done when rebaiting4 ,it is the great length of the rod and the shortness of the line that makes this necessary4 ,but to return to the method of fishing3 the depth being ascertained1 the float should be so placed that the bait will just touch the bottom at the shallowest part of the swim1 and only a foot of line should be used between the float and the top of the rod4 ,calm weather is best for roach-fishing1 as it is easier to see the bites2 but if there is a gentle wind from south or west1 sport is often good4 ,in summer1 evening is much the best1 but at this time of year roach will often feed all day4 ,let us suppose that you start fishing on a calm afternoon in ,february or ,march1 and on reaching the river1 which is free for fishing1 wonder where to begin4 ,it is lined with rushes1 but here and there are gaps1 and on the banks at some of these points you notice scraps of ground-bait on the ground1 and you also see that the grass is trampled and worn4 ,this shows that anglers have found the spot a good one4 ,seat yourself1 or stand quietly near one of these points1 and put your rod together4 ,then attach your line and plummet as described1 and when all the rest is ready put in a little ground-bait1 some yards above your swim4 ,chewed bread will do if you have no bran to mix with it4 ,if your tackle is in order1 and the roach are there1 you will have a nibble before many minutes2 but at this stage of your education it is useless to strike at nibbles4 ,keep on the alert1 and you will find that if you can manage to strike as the float is sinking1 when a bite occurs1 you will hook your fish2 not otherwise4 ,a gentle jerk is enough1 as your little hook is sharp1 and the roach's mouth soft4 ,violence risks breaking the line1 and in any case disturbs the fish unduly4 ,if the roach is of good size1 remember that your tackle is weak1 and play your fish carefully2 and don't attempt to get it out1 whether with net or otherwise1 till quite exhausted4 ,even if you have only a small fish it is well to land him gently1 or you will scare others4 ,when placing the line do not flop it in1 but let it sink bait first1 and be prepared for a bite the moment the float cocks1 for the first few seconds are the best4 ,there is also a good chance at the end of the swim4 ,if there is a stream the top of your rod must follow the course of the float4 ,the rule1 as to only a foot of line above the float1 may be relaxed if the swim is long1 for to walk along is most undesirable2 it scares the fish by shaking the banks4 ,you should stand still1 or better sit still while roach-fishing4 ,even this rule has many exceptions4 ,if1 for instance1 the stream is very rapid1 the saving in time effected by following your float may more than compensate for the disturbance caused by your footsteps4 ,in swift or flooded streams fish are less easily scared than when the water is quiet4 ,under these circumstances a worm is often better bait than paste1 or even than gentles4 ,again1 in clear water which is swift and not deep it may be desirable to let out line by using running tackle4 ,in this way you may reach fish which are too shy to let you get within casting distance of them4 ,the ,nottingham anglers are particularly expert at this sort of fishing1 and use rods and reels which are specially adapted for it4 ,they are very successful on their own river1 the ,trent1 and have introduced their style on the ,thames1 and even the ,lea1 and have sometimes taken fish when ordinary fishing was useless4 ,they are very skilful in casting from the reel without unwinding any line first2 but many different circumstances must be studied before the sort of fishing most effective can be chosen4 ,rules are very necessary2 but the young angler will soon find that the most important thing is to find out when the exceptions1 which are so numerous and important1 come in4 ,this can best be learnt by careful study of the habits of the fish1 carried on patiently1 day after day1 at the water-side4 ,the ,fishing ,season4--,on ,june #afth the close time comes to an end1 and boys may fish in free water for any kind of fish1 from bleak to barbel4 ,if we have had a very genial spring1 many fish will have finished spawning and be getting into condition1 so that there will be no harm in taking advantage of legal permission1 and beginning to fish as soon as opportunity occurs4 ,it will be found that many fish1 especially chub and dace1 can be caught much better at this season by flies1 either natural or artificial1 than by the usual float and shot system4 ,a common house fly1 used either on the top of the water or sunk by a single shot1 will be found very effective1 both for these fish and for roach1 rudd1 and bleak4 ,chub will take any large insect readily1 if it is presented to them in an artistic manner--that is1 in such a way that they can see little of either tackle or angler4 ,on some parts of the ,lea the wooded banks and deep holes afford capital chances for dapping for chub--a kind of fishing in which a boy with some patience and ingenuity should be very successful4 ,no cumbrous tackle is required1 only a long1 light1 and stiff rod1 and two or three yards of medium gut1 ending in a foot or two of finer stuff1 with a largish hook1 about ,no4 #f or #g4 ,running tackle would seldom be of use1 as the awkward places1 overgrown by bushes1 in which the best chub are usually hooked1 make it very desirable to keep your line short4 ,if the chub run large 7two pounds or more71 you will have to use stout tackle1 or even carry a landing net4 ,if you have a bamboo rod1 which is hollow throughout 7through the knots71 it is a good plan to pass the line through the middle1 instead of the rings4 ,in this way one disadvantage of using running tackle is avoided--the rod can be pushed through bushes1 etc41 without entangling the line4 ,another and more lively plan for chub catching is to whip for them with the artificial fly2 and in this case running tackle is1 of course1 necessary4 ,in the shallower parts of the rivers you will get more dace and bleak than chub in this way1 and very pretty sport it is1 only second to trout-fishing4 ,when you are trying for roach only1 it is best to use a sunk fly1 and to move it up and down very gently4 ,you can feel the roach bite if you have a delicate hand1 but if you find this difficult put on a small gentle with the fly4 ,this can be seen at a considerable depth1 and will disappear1 of course1 when the roach takes the fly4 ,it also forms an additional attraction1 and at a pinch will do alone2 but ,i have found the house fly generally more effective4 ,single hair is best for your line1 unless you see large chub cruising about1 which is often the case4 ,in this sort of fishing you can generally watch your quarry1 and you have to be very careful that they do not see too much of you4 ,it will be found far more interesting than regular bottom-fishing1 and requires more thought and more resource for its successful prosecution4 ,among the insects most useful for bait1 the grasshopper stands 7or jumps7 pre-eminent1 but is not often obtainable much before ,july4 ,the cow-dung fly has a brilliant yellow colour1 which is very fascinating to roach2 and the green caterpillar 7to be obtained by tapping the boughs of oaks7 is almost irresistible1 especially to trout4 ,the oak-fly1 called also the up and down fly1 from the position it always assumes on the oak trunk1 is equally attractive1 and no doubt would be appreciated also by other fish4 ,the hottest and calmest weather is best for this sort of fishing1 as it is usually worst for the other sorts4 ,in case the day should be windy or otherwise unsuitable for dapping1 and yet the season too early to fish the deeps1 a good plan is to put on a very small quill float1 and one shot2 and1 using a ,no4 #aj or #aa hook and a single gentle1 to fish the shallow gravelly runs from as great a distance as you can manage4 ,the ,nottingham method is very useful for this purpose4 ,this consists in using a free running wooden reel1 and a light line1 and throwing from the reel4 ,it is difficult1 but very useful on open rivers1 where fishing fine and far off is essential4 ,of course1 you have to fish down-stream by this method1 and will often miss your fish when striking2 but that is better than getting no bites--the usual result of fishing under your nose at this time of year4 ,occasionally you may get hold of a barbel in this way1 when using gentles for bait2 and1 if so1 it will not be easy to land him1 though he is not so strong now as he would be later on4 ,bream-fishing will be coming on before long1 and the early boy will get the bream4 ,before sunrise is the best time1 and for this fish-tackle of a different sort is required4 ,a strong rod with rings is useful1 and the gut and reel line may be stout4 ,if the water is deep1 use a long float and fairly heavy lead1 and fish on the bottom with a worm 7a small lob by preference7 on a large hook4 ,put in ground-bait1 over-night if possible1 and lose no time when fishing4 ,a three-pound bream can be got out in two minutes1 and twenty or thirty may thus be had in an hour or two of early morning1 and1 perhaps1 not another all day1 though in the ,norfolk broads ,i've known the bites continue till mid-day4 ,roach-fishing proper is not in season till ,august1 and has been described in these pages4 ,jack should be let alone for a month or two yet1 and perch are scarcely in order4 ,in conclusion1 let me suggest that all fish found to be out of condition should be gently returned to the water4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,canoes ,,and ,,yachts ,to speak of canoes is to recall the name of ,john ,macgregor1 ,m4,a41 the author of those delightful books ,a ,thousand ,miles in the ,rob ,roy ,canoe on ,rivers and ,lakes of ,europe2 ,the ,rob ,roy on the ,baltic2 ,the ,voyage ,alone in the ,yawl ,rob ,roy1 and other interesting works4 ,when the first of these was issued other people built canoes1 the ,canoe ,club was formed with the then ,prince of ,wales1 afterwards ,king ,edward the ,seventh1 as ,commodore4 ,macgregor was enthusiastic about canoes4 ,when he contemplated his voyage of a thousand miles he concluded that no row-boat would serve on a land-water voyage of this sort1 for in the wildest parts of the best rivers the channel is too narrow for oars1 or1 if wide enough1 it is often too shallow2 and the tortuous passages1 the rocks and banks1 the weeds and snags1 the milldams1 barriers1 fallen trees1 rapids1 whirlpools1 and waterfalls that constantly occur on a river winding among hills1 make those very parts where the scenery is wildest and best to be quite unapproachable in such a boat1 for it would be swamped by the sharp waves1 or upset over the sunken rocks1 which cannot be seen by a steersman4 ,now these very things which bother the 'pair oar1' become cheery excitements to the voyager in a canoe4 ,for now1 as he sits in his little bark1 he looks forward1 and not backward4 ,he sees all his course1 and the scenery besides4 ,with one sweep of his paddle he can turn aside when only a foot from destruction4 ,he can steer within an inch in a narrow place1 and can easily pass through reeds and weeds or branches and grass2 can work his sail without changing his seat2 can shove with his paddle when aground1 and can jump out in good time to prevent a bad smash4 ,he can wade and haul his craft over shallows1 or drag it on dry ground1 through fields and hedges1 over dykes1 barriers1 and walls2 can carry it by hand up ladders and stairs1 and can transport his canoe over high mountains and broad plains in a cart drawn by a man1 a horse1 or a cow4 ,besides all this1 the covered canoe is far stronger than an open boat1 and may be fearlessly dropped into a deep pool1 a lock1 or a millrace1 and when the breakers are high in the open sea or in river rapids1 they can only wash over the deck of a canoe1 while it is always dry within4 ,the canoe is also safer than a rowing-boat1 because you sit so low in it1 and never require to shift your place or lose hold of the paddle2 while for comfort during long hours1 for days and weeks of hard work1 the canoe is evidently the best1 because you lean all the time against a swinging backboard1 and when the paddle rests on your lap you are at ease as in an arm-chair2 so that1 while drifting along with the current or the wind1 you can gaze around1 and eat or read1 or sketch1 or chat with the starers on the bank1 and yet1 in a moment of sudden alarm1 the hands are at once on the faithful paddle ready for action4 ,finally1 you can lie at full length in the canoe1 with a sail as an awning for the sun1 or a shelter for rain1 and you can sleep at night under its cover1 or inside it when made for that purpose1 with at least as much room for turning in your bed as sufficed for the great ,duke of ,wellington2 or1 if you are tired of the water for a time1 you can leave your boat at an inn--where it will not be 'eating its head off1' like a horse2 or you can send it home1 or sell it1 and take to the road yourself1 or sink back again into the lazy cushions of a first-class carriage1 and dream you are seeing the world4 ,but it may well be asked from one who thus praises the paddle1 ',has he travelled in other ways1 so as to know their several pleasures8 ,has he climbed glaciers and volcanoes1 dived into caves and catacombs1 trotted in the ,norway carriole1 ambled on an ,arab1 and galloped on the ,russian steppes8 ,does he know the charms of a ,nile boat1 or a ,trinity ,eight1 or a ,yankee steamer1 or a sail in the gean1 or a mule in ,spain8 ,has he swung upon a camel1 or glided in a sleigh1 or sailed a yacht1 or trundled in a ,rantoone8' ,yes1 he has thoroughly enjoyed these and other modes of locomotion1 fast and slow4 ,and now having used the canoe in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 he finds the pleasure of the paddle is the best of them all4 ,the ,rob ,roy ,canoe was built of oak1 with a deck of cedar4 ,she was made just short enough to go into the ,german railway waggons2 that is to say1 fifteen feet in length1 twenty-eight inches broad1 nine inches wide1 and weighed eighty pounds4 ,my baggage for three months was in a black bag one foot square and six inches deep4 ,a paddle seven feet long1 with a blade at each end1 and a lug-sail and jib1 were the means of propulsion2 and a pretty blue silk ,union ,jack was the only ornament4 ,after the cruise the author had a better canoe constructed1 shorter1 and narrower 7but with the same name71 and in her he voyaged through ,sweden1 ,norway and ,denmark1 ,holstein1 and some ,german waters4 ,the account of this voyage is given in ,the ,rob ,roy on the ,baltic1 #eth ,edition 7,low and ,marston74 ,the later improvements of the canoe are described in that book1 with woodcuts4 ,the full description of a third canoe for sleeping in during a six months' voyage is given in ,the ,rob ,roy on the ,jordan1 ,nile1 ,red ,sea1 and ,gennesareth1 a canoe cruise in ,palestine and ,egypt and the waters of ,damascus1 #fth ,edition1 with eighty illustrations and maps 7,murray74 ,a fourth canoe was used in the ,zuyder ,zee and among the isles of ,holland and the ,friesland coast2 and the latest ,rob ,roy 7,number #g7 ran through the ,shetland ,isles and the ,orkneys1 and ,scotch lakes4 ,the ,building ,of the ,rob ,roy4--,john ,macgregor has told us that among the many who are building canoes1 there may be some persons who have undue expectations as to what such boats can do4 ,now1 the three kinds of canoes1 for racing1 for sailing1 and for travelling1 are quite distinct in their forms and capabilities4 ,a long1 narrow1 light racing-canoe1 with a long1 spooned paddle1 will attain great speed4 ,a sailing-canoe with flat bearing1 and some keel1 will sail off the wind admirably4 ,the travelling-canoe has to sail1 to paddle1 and to bear portage and rough handling4 ,the endeavour to combine these three qualities in suitable proportions1 without sacrificing more of any of them than can be well dispensed with1 has led to the building of the canoe now to be described2 and the new ,rob ,roy has been a great success4 ,the old ,rob ,roy canoe1 which made a voyage through ,france1 ,germany1 c41 was specially built for the purpose2 and it is described in the book which gives an account of that journey4 ,a more detailed description was given in the ,transactions of the ,institute of ,naval ,architects1 but the numerous improvements suggested during that voyage1 and in careful experiments afterwards1 were embodied in the new ,rob ,roy1 so that this novel1 inexpensive1 and healthful mode of travelling might be facilitated4 ,the ,rob ,roy was designed to sail steadily1 to paddle easily1 to float lightly1 to turn readily1 and to bear rough usage on stones and banks1 and in carts1 railways1 and steamers2 to be durable and dry1 as well as comfortable and safe4 ,to secure these objects every plank and timber was carefully considered beforehand1 as to its size1 shape1 and material1 and the result has been most successful4 ,in the efforts to obtain a suitable canoe for this purpose ready made1 it was soon found that boat-builders might be proficient at the cabinet-makers' work of their calling1 without any knowledge of the principles required for a new design1 especially when sailing1 paddling1 and carrying had to be provided for at once1 and the requirements for each were not understood1 except by those who had personally observed them1 and had known how to work the paddle as well as the saw and the plane4 ,a canoe ought to fit a man like a coat2 and to secure this the measure of the man should be taken for his canoe4 ,the first regulating standard is the length of the man's foot1 which will determine the height of the canoe from keel to deck2 next1 the length of his leg1 which governs the size of the well2 and then the weight of the crew and luggage1 which regulates the displacement to be provided for4 ,the following description is for a canoe to be used by a man #f feet high1 #ab stone weight1 and with boots #a foot long in the sole4 ,the ,rob ,roy is built of the best oak1 except the top streak of mahogany1 and the deck of fine cedar4 ,the weight1 without fittings1 is #fj lb41 and with all complete1 #ga lb4 ,lightness is not of so much consequence in this case as good line1 for a light boat if crank1 will tire the canoeist far more in a week's cruise than would a heavier but stiff craft1 which does not strain his body at every moment to keep her poised under the alternate strokes of the paddle or the sudden pressure of a squall on the sail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a1 ,fig4 #b1 ,fig4 #f1 ,fig4 #e1 ,fig4 #aj1 ,fig4 #aa ,scale of ,figs #a #b4 #a_/d of an inch to the foot4 ,the illustration on page #hi represents1 on a scale a quarter of an inch to the foot1 ,fig4 #a1 a section1 with masts and sails2 ,fig4 #b a bird's-eye view of the deck4 ,the woodcuts at pages #ia1 #ic represent1 on a scale of an inch to the foot1 ,figs4 #c and #d1 cross sections at the beam and at the stretcher2 ,figs #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 the backboard and the apron2 the rest of the drawings showing particular portions more minutely4 ,the principal dimensions are3--,length over all1 ,a ,s1 #ad feet2 from stem to beam1 ,b1 #g feet #f inches2 beam1 outside 7#f inches abaft midships71 #bf inches2 depth from top of deck at ,c1 fore end of the well1 to upper surface of keel1 #aa inches2 keel1 depth1 outside1 #a inch1 with an iron band along its whole length1 #c_/h inch wide2 camber1 #a inch2 depth at gunwale1 #h-a_/b inches4 ,the upper streak is of mahogany1 and quite vertical at the beam1 where its depth is #c inches4 ,the garboard streaks1 and the next on each side are strong1 while the next two on each side are light1 as it is found that they are less exposed than the others1 particularly in a canoe where all these lower streaks are of oak4 ,the stem and stern posts project over deck1 the canoe1 if turned over1 will rest on the upper edge of the combing1 round the well1 #a_/h inch deep1 projecting #a_/b inch1 of steamed oak1 curved at the corners1 and adding1 by its angular position1 very much to the strength of the deck about the well4 ,the well is #cb inches from ,c to ,d1 and #bj inches from ,e to ,f1 so placed that ,d ,m is #b feet1 and thus the beam of the boat being aft of the midships the weight of the luggage ,g1 and of the masts and sails stowed forward1 brings the boat to nearly an even keel4 ,the additional basket of cooking-things at ,i 7,fig4 #b7 brings her a little by the stern4 ,for a boat without luggage the beam should be #a foot abaft midships to secure an even keel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c1 ,,fig4 #e1 ,,fig4 #d1 ,,fig4 #f ,the deck is supported on four carlines forward and three aft1 the latter portion being thus more strengthened1 because1 in some cases1 it is required to support the weight of the canoeist sitting on the deck with his legs in the water4 ,each carline has a piece cut out of its end 7see ,fig4 #f71 so that the water inside may run along to the beam when the canoe is canted to sponge it out4 ,the after edge of the carline at ,c is bevelled off 7,fig4 #e in section71 so as not to catch the shins of your legs4 ,all the carlines are narrow and deep1 to economize strength1 and the deck is screwed to them with brass screws1 so that it might be removed for internal repairs4 ,a flat piece is inserted under the deck at the mast-hole ,h1 which is also furnished with a flanged brass ring4 ,the deck is so arched as to enable the feet to rest comfortably on the broad stretcher ,j 7,fig4 #d71 the centre of it being cut down in a curve in order that the mast and sails1 rolled together1 may rest there when there is no luggage1 and be kept under the deck1 but above any wet on the floor4 ,when there is luggage 7as in this voyage7 ,i usually put the mast and sails under the after deck4 ,the cedar deck round the well at ,e ,f is firmly secured by knee-pieces1 and the boat may thus be lifted up by any part1 and may be sat upon in any position1 without injury4 ,the luggage for three months1 weighing #i-a_/b lbs41 is carried in a black leather-cloth bag1 #a foot by #a foot by #e inches deep 7,g1 ,figs4 #a and #b74 ,a water-tight compartment may be made by an after bulkhead1 with a lid to open1 so as to allow the air to circulate when on shore4 ,the floor-boards1 about #b feet long1 rest on the timbers until1 at the part below ,c 7,fig4 #b71 they end at ,p ,p 7,fig4 #g71 in notched grooves1 which fit into short oak pieces ,m ,n1 #a_/d inch thick1 sloping forwards on each side of the keel ,o4 ,their ends rest on the garboard streaks1 and so lower the heels nearly #a inch below the level of the floor-board on the top of the timbers4 ,the canoeist sits on the floor-boards1 ,i prefer this to any cushion or mat whatever2 but if a mat or cushion be used1 it should be firmly fixed1 especially in rough water4 ,the canoeist's knees touch the combing and the apron boards1 while his heels touch the keel4 ,thus the dotted lines in ,fig4 #a1 from the stretcher to the deck1 show how the shin-bones are supported in comfort1 enabling the paddler to sit for hours together without straining4 ,but comfort is additionally secured by my new kind of backboard1 shown in ,figs4 #h and #i1 in section and elevation4 ,this consists of two strips of oak1 #ah inches long1 #b-a_/b inches wide1 and united by a cross piece at ,y1 and another at ,x1 the latter being grooved 7,fig4 #h7 so as to rest on the top of the combing1 and to oscillate with the movement of the canoeist's back1 which is thus supported on both sides along the muscles1 while the spine is untouched between the strips4 ,the dotted line ,u 7,fig4 #h7 is a strong cord passed round all 7through a hole in the deck or two eyes71 and this serves to keep the backboard in general upright1 while it is free to vibrate1 or1 when on shore1 to be closed down flat on deck or to be removed entirely in a moment by unloosing the cord4 ,the use of this backboard is a leading feature of the canoe1 and adds very much indeed to the canoeist's comfort1 and1 therefore1 to his efficiency4 ,the length and width of the oaken strips1 and the width of the interval between them1 ought to be carefully adjusted to the size and build of the canoeist1 just as a saddle ought to fit a horse and its rider too4 ,the paddle is #g feet long1 flat-bladed1 with a breadth of #f inches in each palm1 which is copper-banded1 and made of the best spruce fir1 the weight being little over #b lbs4 ,the spoon-shaped blade is better for speed1 and a longer paddle is suitable for a racing-boat1 but for a travelling canoe1 where long paddling1 occasional sailing1 and frequent shoving1 require the instrument to combine lightness1 straight edge1 handiness1 and strength1 it is found that a short paddle is best for the varied work of a protracted voyage4 ,leather cups have been usually employed on the wrists of the paddle to catch the dripping water1 but round india-rubber rings look much better and answer every purpose1 if placed just above the points where the paddle dips into the water in an ordinary stroke4 ,these rings may be had for twopence1 and can be slipped on over the broad blade4 ,if necessary1 two are used on each side1 and they bear rough usage well1 while if they strike the cedar deck1 no injury is done to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad1 ,,fig4 #i1 ,,fig4 #h1 ,,fig4 #g1 ,,fig4 #aa1 ,,fig4 #aj ,after numerous experiments1 the following very simple plan has been devised for a waterproof apron1 and its application at once removes one of the chief objections to canoes in rough water1 as heretofore constructed4 ,it is necessary to have a covering for the well which shall effectually exclude the water1 and yet be so attached as not to hamper the canoeist in case of an upset1 or when he desires to get out of the boat in a more legitimate manner4 ,these desiderata are completely secured by the new apron1 which is not permanently attached in any manner to the boat1 but is formed as follows3-,a piece of light wood1 of the form in ,fig4 #aj1 #b feet long and #c inches deep at the deepest part1 is placed along each side of the deck vertically1 so as just to rest against the outside of each knee of the canoeist1 and then a piece of macintosh cloth 7drab colour is best7 is tightly nailed along and over these1 so as to form an apron1 supported at each side on ,z 7,fig4 #aa71 and sloping from the highest part forwards down to the deck in front of the combing1 over which its edge projects #a inch1 and then lies flat4 ,the other or after end is so cut and formed as to fit the body neatly1 and the ends may be tucked in behind1 or1 when the waves are very rough1 they should be secured outside the backboard by a string with a knot4 ,when this apron is so applied1 and the knees are in position1 their pressure keeps the whole apron steady1 and the splash of small waves is not enough to move it4 ,in rough water ,i place a string across the end and round two screw nails on the deck2 or an india-rubber cord run through the hemmed end1 but best of all is a strip of wood bent across the deck with its ends under two screws or chocks4 ,a button-hole at the highest point of the apron allows it to be supported on the waistcoat4 ,when you have to get out on shore1 or when sailing1 it is usually best to stow the apron away1 so that the legs may be turned into any desired position of ease4 ,the apron ,i used in this tour had been perfectly fitted by myself to me and the boat4 ,several others1 a little like it 7very little671 roughly made for other canoes1 have1 as might be expected1 failed to give satisfaction4 ,one important advantage of a canoe is the capacity for sailing without altering the canoeist's seat2 and we shall now describe the mast and sails found by experience to be most convenient1 after three masts had been broken and eight sets of sails had more or less failed4 ,the mast is #a-c_/d inches thick 7tapering71 and #e feet #f inches long1 of which the part above deck is #d feet #i inches4 ,the lug-sail ,k 7,fig4 #a71 has a yard and a boom1 each #d feet #i inches long1 so that when furled the end of the boom and mast come together4 ,the fore-leach is #b feet long1 and the after-leach #f feet #f inches1 giving an area of about #ae square feet4 ,the yard and boom are of bamboo1 and the yard passes into a broad hem on the sail-head1 while the halyard is rove aloft through a small boxwood block #c_/d inch long1 and with a brass sheave1 and through another 7a brass blind pulley7 well fastened on the side of the mast near the deck1 so that the sail can be lowered and hoisted readily4 ,the lower joint of a fishing-rod1 #d feet #i inches long1 is a spare boom4 ,the tack end of the boom is made fast to the mast by a flat piece of leather1 lashed to its upper part and to the mast1 and so as to be free to swing in every direction2 after many other plans had failed this was quite successful1 and lasted through the whole voyage4 ,no hole is made in the mast1 and no nail or screw driven into it1 for these are causes of weakness4 ,two cord loops1 about #f inches apart1 near the mast-head1 support the flagstaff1 of bamboo-cane #b feet long1 and with a silk flag #g inches by #i inches4 ,when the mast is not used this flagstaff is detached and placed in the mast-hole1 which it fits by a button #b inches wide1 permanently fixed on the staff1 the lower end of which rests in the mast-step4 ,the halyard and sheet should be of woven cord1 which does not untwist1 and is soft to handle in the wet4 ,the sheet when not in hand may be belayed round a cleat on deck on either side of the apron1 where it is highest1 and thus these cleats are protected from the paddle4 ,for the sake of convenience the mast is stepped so far forward as to allow the boom to swing past the canoeist's breast when the sail is jibbed or brought over4 ,this also allows the luggage-bag to be between the stretcher and the mast4 ,thus the mast-hole ,h is at #c feet #f inches distance from the stem4 ,the mast-step is a simple wedge-like piece of oak 7see ,r1 ,fig4 #ad71 made fast to the keel1 and abutting on the garboard streak on each side1 with a square hole in it for the foot of the mast4 ,it may be thought that the mast is thus stepped too far forward1 but the importance of having the sail free to swing1 without lying against the canoeist's body1 or getting entangled with his paddle1 which is used in steering1 is so great1 that some sacrifice must be made to secure this point4 ,however1 it is found that the boat sails very well on a wind with this sail1 if the breeze is strong2 and in light breezes it is only expedient to sail with the wind well aft1 when the jib can also be used4 ,a canoe must have a strong1 light1 flexible painter1 suitable for constant use1 because a great deal has to be done by its means in towing on dull water1 guiding the boat while wading down shallows or beside falls1 lowering into lochs1 hauling her over hedges1 walls1 locks1 banks1 and even houses2 and raising or lowering her 7with luggage in7 to and from steamboats4 ,the ,alpine ,club rope1 used in the new ,rob ,roy1 was found to be hard and kinky when wet1 and the softer rope used in the old ,rob ,roy was far better4 ,another kind of brown-tanned rope has been recommended4 ,the painter should not be longer than twice the length of the boat4 ,each end is whipped with wax-end1 which sort of fine twine is also invaluable for all the other fastenings1 as it never slips4 ,the painter passes through a hole in the stem1 and another in the stern-post1 and is drawn tight to lie on deck in the lines ,,ay and ,,sy1 ,fig4 #b2 the slack of about four feet is belayed round the windward cleat and coiled outside1 so that it may be seized instantly when you go ashore1 or have to jump out to save a smash or an overset in a dangerous place4 ,this mode of fixing and belaying the painter ,i adopted after numerous trials of other plans1 and it is found to be far the best4 ,the jib is a triangle of #c feet hoist and #c feet foot1 the fore-leach fast by a loop1 passing under the painter and over the stem2 the head is fixed by a loop over the mast-head1 and under the flagstaff button4 ,thus the jib can be struck while the canoeist remains in the boat1 by pushing off these two loops with his paddle4 ,to set the jib1 it is best to land4 ,this is much more generally convenient than to have jib-tackle on the mast4 7,i have now discarded the jib entirely47 ,the sails are of calico1 without any seam4 ,this lasts quite well enough1 dries speedily1 and sets well1 too1 provided that care is taken to have it cut out with the selvage along the after-leach1 and not along any of the other sides4 ,inattention to this last direction simply ruins sails2 and it cannot be too often repeated that the success of the six ,rob ,roy voyages could not be expected if great care had not been devoted to all these details4 ,a good travelling canoe costing #ae ought to last a long time1 for it is not racked and pulled in pieces at every stroke1 as a rowing-boat is4 ,,the ,,paddle4--,it has been said that the use of a canoe paddle must contract the chest1 but this is certainly a mistake4 ,if indeed1 you merely dapple each blade of the paddle in the water without taking the full length of the stroke the shoulders are not thrown back1 and the effect will be injurious2 but exactly the same is true if you scull or row with a short jerky stroke4 ,in a proper use of the paddle the arms ought to be in turn fully extended1 and then brought well back1 so that the elbow grazes the side1 and the chest is then well plied in both directions4 ,in very shallow water the paddle should be clasped lightly 7turning the thumbs upwards then71 so that if it strikes the bottom or a rock the hand will yield and not the blade be broken4 ,the distance between the hands should be that of the breadth of the chest4 ,one can tell a tyro in a moment by seeing him with his hands two feet apart1 and therefore with a shortened stroke or too long a paddle4 ,great caution should be used when placing the blade in advance to meet a rock1 or even a gravel bank1 otherwise it gets jammed in the rock or gravel1 or the boat overrides it4 ,it is better in such a case to retard the speed rather by dragging the paddle 7tenderly71 and always with its flat side downwards1 so that the edge does not get nipped4 ,for long cruises lightness is the first necessity4 ,an ounce more or less makes a great difference when you have to carry it with outstretched arms all day4 ,my paddle weighs two pounds4 ,a swivel crutch on deck on the quarter is used sometimes4 ,in my ,shetland cruise ,i used a single paddle blade and steered by my feet acting on a light rudder by two cords4 ,this plan has many advantages for a sailing cruise and general work1 but it is not good for rapids4 ,,rudder4--,for long sailing this is useful1 and foot-lines should be used1 or a rod to the yoke4 ,i used the rod for sailing in the ,dutch cruise always4 ,,leeboards4--,these may be made of wooden triangles one foot each way1 hung at each side by two corners4 ,the lee one is thus pressed against the gunwale1 and acts well4 ,,centre-,,board4--,when the ,rothion sailed across the ,english ,channel1 the late ,hon4 ,james ,gordon used a centre-board at my suggestion1 and his ,rob ,roy thus furnished held her wind admirably4 ,the centre-board might come up through a slit one foot long in the garboard streak 7not through the keel7 into a closed mackintosh bag1 so that when raised it would turn to one side1 and lie flat on the bilge within4 ,,the ,,apron4--,the canoeist soon finds that this is the most difficult part of the boat to arrange with perfect satisfaction4 ,i have had more experiments and trouble and thought about the apron than upon any other part of the canoe's arrangements4 ,a full wooden hatch does well for common work1 but not for rough cruising4 ,now and then the legs need play1 and if the hatch is rigid at the height thus needed1 it is much too high in ordinary times2 and it curbs the freedom for the arms near the deck1 being also unwieldy for instant debarking in rapids1 and for stowing away4 ,the detached apron of the ,baltic pattern is wet in use4 ,side pieces on deck to clutch the wooden cheeks kept out by a cane across the knees1 and a permanent flap on deck1 covering the fore end of the mackintosh1 are great improvements4 ,the ,jordan ,rob ,roy had a sheet mackintosh apron1 with only a cane fixed in the combing to keep the apron off the knees4 ,for her cruise she had under this apron six inches of the after part of wood4 ,the loose breast flap and side flaps rolled up 7usually7 form a curved edging near the body4 ,by lifting this hatch1 and laying it forward1 the whole apron is folded forward of the knees1 and in one foot of space fore and aft4 ,this plan is a complete success2 and at last my apron is all right4 ,when a single bladed paddle is used the apron is needed only in rough water1 that is1 one day in four4 ,,stretcher4--,the form described with a cut in the ,rob ,roy on the ,jordan1 is a very great improvement4 ,each foot has a light board abutting on the carline above and the timber below1 so that ample room is given for the luggage bag1 and much strength is combined with extreme lightness4 ,,sail4--,many forms have been tried1 but the ,club sailing matches have often been won by a lug sail4 ,this rig is also the safest of all1 and the boom can be detached from a hook on the mast to stow away4 ,,portable ,,canoes4--,a wooden canoe in four pieces is easily made1 although somewhat heavy4 ,the additional expense is soon saved1 if the canoe is taken often by railway as a box4 ,colonel ,bradford's india-rubber canoe packs up into a parcel five feet long1 and one foot across4 ,in the ,eastern trip a canoe in two pieces might have been readily carried on a horse1 but the ,rob ,roy1 undivided1 was thus carried easily4 ,berthon's ,collapsible ,boat ,company presented to me a charming collapsible canoe1 nine feet long1 and which is very cheap1 safe1 light1 and can easily be carried in one hand4 ,the shortest canoe in the ,club was the ,wharbe1 #h feet #f inches long4 ,but ,i have paddled the little dingy only eight feet long1 which was carried aboard the ,rob ,roy yawl4 ,i think #ab feet the best length for a cruising canoe4 ,i have designed a cork canoe in three pieces1 five feet1 four feet1 and three feet long2 the last to pack in the next1 and both in the large middle one2 weight about #cj lbs4 ,,sun4--,when there is a brilliant glare of the sun1 and it is low1 and directly in front1 and the eyes are dazzled by its reflection on the water1 a good plan is to direct the bow to some point you are to steer for1 and then observe the reflection of the sun on the cedar deck of the boat4 ,having done this you may lower the peak of your hat so as to cut off the direct rays of the sun1 and its reflected rays on the water1 while you steer simply by the light on the deck4 ,,caution4--,when a great current moves across a river to a point where it seems very unlikely to have an exit1 you may be certain that some unusual conformation of the banks or of the river bed will be found there1 and caution should be used in approaching the place4 ,this1 however1 is less necessary when the river is deep4 ,,weeds4--,the ripple and bubbles among weeds are so totally different from those on free water that their appearance at a distance as a criterion of the depth1 current1 and direction of the channel must be learned separately4 ,in general1 where weeds are under water1 and can sway or wave about1 there will be water enough to pass--the requisite three inches4 ,backing up stream against long weeds is so troublesome1 and so sure to sway the stern round athwart stream1 that it is best to force the boat forward instead1 even if you have to get out and pull her through4 ,paddling through rushes1 or flags1 or other plants1 so as to cut off a corner1 is a mistake4 ,much more way is lost then by the friction than might be supposed4 ,,stores ,,on ,,the ,,rob ,,roy4--,paddle1 painter 7#ca feet at first1 but cut down to #bj feet71 sponge1 waterproof cover1 #e feet by #b feet #c inches1 silk blue union jack1 #aj inches by #h inches1 on a staff two feet long4 ,mast1 boom1 and yard4 ,lug sail1 jib1 and spare jib 7used as a sun shawl74 ,stretcher1 two back boards1 floor-boards1 basket holding a mackintosh coat4 ,for repairs--iron and brass screws1 sheet copper and copper nails1 putty and whitelead1 a gimlet1 cord1 string1 and thread1 one spare button1 needle1 pins1 canvas wading shoes 7wooden clogs would be better72 all the above should be left with the boat4 ,black bag for #c months' luggage1 size1 #ab inches by #ab inches1 by #e inches deep 7just right71 closed by three buttons1 and with shoulder-strap4 ,flannel ,norfolk jacket 7flaps not too long1 else they dip in the water1 or the pockets are inverted in getting out and in72 wide flannel trousers1 gathered by a broad back buckle belt1 second trousers for shore should have braces1 but in the boat the back buttons are in the way4 ,flannel shirt on1 and another for shore4 ,before me while writing this there are #ba various head covers used in different tours1 but for boating the straw hat is best of all4 ,thin alpaca black ,sunday coat1 thick waistcoat1 black leather light-soled shoes 7should be strong for rocks and village pavements71 cloth cap 7only used as a bag71 #b collars1 #c pocket handkerchiefs1 ribbon tie1 #b pairs of cotton socks 7easily got off for sudden wading1 and drying quickly on deck74 ,brush1 comb1 and tooth-brush4 ,testament1 passport 7scarcely needed now71 leather purse1 large 7and full71 circular notes1 small change in silver and copper for frequent use1 blue spectacles in strong case1 book for journal and sketches1 black1 blue1 and red chalk1 and steel pen4 ,maps1 cutting off a six inch square at a time for pocket reference4 ,guide-books and pleasant evening reading book4 ,cut off covers and useless pages1 and every page as read2 no needless weight should be carried hundreds of miles2 even a fly settling on the boat must be refused a free passage4 ,medicine 7rhubarb and court plaster71 small knife1 and pencil4 ,rocks and ,currents4--,even if a set of rules could be laid down for the management of a boat in the difficult parts of a river1 it would not be made easier until practice has given the boatman that quick judgment as to their application which has to be patiently acquired in all athletic exercises4 ,but the canoeist1 who passes many hours daily in the consideration of the river problems always set before him1 will feel some interest in this attempt to classify those that occur most frequently4 ,steering a boat in a current among rocks is like walking on a crowded pavement1 where the other passengers are going in various directions1 and at various speeds4 ,a great deal of practice1 and lessons enforced by collisions1 are needed to make a pedestrian au fait in a crowd4 ,but years of walking produce a certain power1 which insensibly directs a man in his course and his speed4 ,after this capacity becomes1 as it were1 instinctive1 a man can walk briskly along ,fleet-street at four ,p4,m41 and1 without any distinct thought about other people1 or about his own progress1 he can get safe to the end4 ,indeed1 if he does begin to think of rules or how to apply them1 he is almost sure to knock up against somebody4 ,nay1 if two men meet as they walk through a crowd1 and each of them catches the eye of the other1 they will probably cease to move instinctively1 and1 with uncertain data to reason from1 a collision is often the result4 ,the importance of this subject of boating instinct will be considered sufficient to justify these remarks when the canoeist has by much practice at last attained to that desirable proficiency which enables him to steer without thinking about it1 and therefore to enjoy the conversation of other people on the bank1 or the scenery1 while he is rapidly speeding through rocks1 eddies1 and currents4 ,as the descent of a current among rocks resembles a walk along the pavement through a crowd1 so the passage across a rapid is even more strictly in resemblance with the course of a man who has to cross a street where vehicles are passing at uncertain intervals and at various speeds1 though all in the same direction4 ,for it is plain that the thing to be done is nearly the same1 whether the obstacles 7as breakers7 are fixed and the current carries you towards them1 or the obstacles 7as cabs and carts7 are moving1 while you have to walk through them on terra firma4 ,to cross ,park-lane in the afternoon requires the very same sort of calculation as the passage across the stream in a rapid on the ,rhine4 ,we may divide the rocks thus encountered in fast water into two classes--7#a7 ,those that are sunk1 so that the boat may possibly float over them1 and which do not deflect the direction of the surface current4 7#b7 ,those that are breakers1 and so deflect the current1 and do not allow the boat to float over them4 ,the currents may be divided into--7#a7 ,those that are equable in force1 and in the same direction through the course to be steered4 7#b7 ,those that alter their direction in a part of that course4 ,in the problems before the canoeist will be found the combinations of every degree and variety of these rocks and currents1 but the actual circumstances he has to deal with at any specified moment may be generally ranged under one or other of the six cases depicted in the accompanying woodcut4 ,in each of the figures in the diagram the current is supposed to run towards the top of the page1 and the general course of the canoe is supposed to be with the current4 ,the particular direction of the current is indicated by the dotted lines4 ,the rocks when shaded are supposed to be sunk1 and when not shaded they are breakers4 ,thus the current is uniform in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c2 and it is otherwise in ,figs4 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,the rocks are all sunk in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #e2 whereas in ,figs4 #d and #f there are breakers4 ,the black line in all the figures shows the proper course of the centre of the boat1 and it is well to habituate oneself to make the course such as that this line shall never be nearer to the rock than one-half of the boat's length4 ,the simplest case that can occur is when the canoe is merely floating without way through a current1 and the current bears it near a rock4 ,if this be a breaker1 the current1 being deflected1 will generally carry the boat to one side4 ,the steering in such cases is so easy1 and its frequent occurrence gives so much practice1 that no more need be said about it4 ,but if the rock be a sunk rock1 and if it be not quite plain from the appearance of the water that there is depth enough over the rock to float the boat1 then it is necessary to pass either above the rock1 as in ,fig4 #a1 or below it1 as in ,fig4 #b4 ,a few days' practice is not thrown away if the canoeist seizes every opportunity of performing under easy circumstances feats which may at other times have to be done under necessity1 and which would not be so well done then if attempted for the first time4 ,let him1 therefore1 as soon as possible1 become adept in crossing above or below a single sunk rock with his boat's bow pointed to any angle of the semi-circle before him4 ,illustration ,next we have to consider the cases in which more than one rock will have to be avoided4 ,now1 however great the number of the rocks may be1 they can be divided into sets of three1 and in each of the figures #c1 #d1 #e1 #f it is supposed that 7for reasons which may be different in each case1 but always sufficient7 the canoe has to pass between rocks ,a and ,b1 and then between ,b and ,c1 but must not pass otherwise between ,a and ,c4 ,in ,fig4 #c the course is below ,b1 and above ,c1 being a combination of the instance in ,fig4 #b with that in ,fig4 #a4 ,the precise angle to the line of the course which the boat's longer axis ought to have will depend upon what is to be done next after passing between ,b and ,c1 and hence the importance of being able to effect the passages in ,fig4 #a and ,fig4 #b1 with the axis at any required angle4 ,we may next suppose that one of the three rocks1 say ,b1 as in ,fig4 #d1 is a breaker which will deflect the current 7as indicated by the dotted stream lines71 and it will then be necessary to modify the angle of the boat's axis1 though the boat's centre has to be kept in the same course as before4 ,it will be seen at once that if ,a were a breaker the angle would be influenced in another manner1 and that if ,c were a breaker the angle at which the boat should emerge from the group of rocks would be influenced by the stream from ,c also2 but it is only necessary to remind the reader that all the combinations and permutations of breakers and sunk rocks need not be separately discussed1--they may be met by the experience obtained in one case of each class of circumstances4 ,fig4 #e represents a circular current over the group of three rocks4 ,this is a very deceptive case1 for it looks so easy that at first it is likely to be treated carelessly4 ,if the boat were supposed to be a substance floating1 but without weight1 it would have its direction of motion instantly altered by that of the current4 ,but the boat has weight1 and as it has velocity 7that of the current even if the boat is not urged also by the paddle so as to have way through the water71 therefore it will have momentum1 and the tendency will be to continue the motion in a straight line1 instead of a curve guided solely by the current4 ,in all these cases1 therefore1 it will be found that the boat insists upon passing between ,a and ,c1 where it must not be allowed to go 7on the hypothesis we have started with71 and if it effects a compromise by running upon ,c1 that will be by no means satisfactory4 ,this class of cases includes all those in which the river makes a quick turn round a rock or a tongue ,b1 where the boundary formed by the rock ,a on the outer bend of the stream is a solid bank1 or a fringe of growing trees1 or of faggots artificially built as a protection against the erosion of the water4 ,this case occurs1 therefore1 very frequently in some fast rivers1 say1 at least1 a hundred times in a day's work1 and perhaps no test of a man's experience and capacity as a canoeist is more decisive than his manner of steering round a fast1 sharp bend4 ,the tendency of the canoeist in such cases is always to bring the boat round by paddling forward with the outer hand1 thereby adding to the way1 and making the force of the current in its circular turn less powerful relatively4 ,whereas1 the proper plan is to back with the inner hand1 and so to stop all way in the direction of the boat's length1 and to give the current its full force on the boat4 ,repeated lessons are needed before this is learned thoroughly4 ,the case we have last remarked upon is made easier if either ,a or ,c is a breaker1 but it is very much increased in difficulty if the rock ,b is a breaker or is a strong tongue of bank1 and so deflects the current outwards at this critical point4 ,the difficulty is often increased by the fact that the water inside of the curve of the stream may be shoal1 and so the paddle on that side strikes the bottom or grinds along it in backing4 ,when the curve is all in deep water1 and there is a pool after ,b1 the boat ought not to be turned too quickly in endeavouring to avoid the rock ,c1 else it will sometimes then enter the eddy below ,b1 which runs up stream sometimes for fifty yards4 ,in such a case the absurd position you are thereby thrown into naturally causes you to struggle to resist or stem this current2 but ,i have found1 after repeated trials of every plan ,i could think of1 that if once the back current has taken the canoe it is best to let the boat swing with the eddy so as to make an entire circuit1 until the bow can come back towards ,b 7and below it71 when the nose of the boat may be again thrust into the main stream1 which will now turn the boat round again to its proper course4 ,much time and labour may be spent uselessly in a wrong and obstinate contest with an eddy4 ,in ,fig4 #f1 where the three rocks are in a straight line1 and the middle one is a breaker1 an instance is given when the proper course must be kept by backing during the first part of it4 ,we must suppose that the canoeist has attained the power of backing with perfect ease1 for this will be quite necessary if he intends to take his boat safely through several hundred combinations of sunk rocks and breakers4 ,presuming this1 the case in ,fig4 #f will be easy enough1 though a little reflection will show that it might be very difficult1 or almost impossible1 if the canoeist could give only a forward motion to the boat4 ,to pass most artistically1 then1 through the group of rocks in ,fig4 #f the stern should be turned towards ,a1 as shown in the diagram1 and the passage across the current1 between ,a and ,b1 is to be effected solely by backing 7and chiefly in this case with the left hand7 until the furthest point of the right of the curve is reached1 with the boat's length still as before in the position represented in the figure4 ,then the forward action of both hands will take the canoe speedily through the passage between ,b and ,c4 ,cases of this sort are rendered more difficult by the distance of ,c from the point above ,a1 where you are situated when the instant decision has to be made as to what to do1 and it would usually be imprudent to rise in the boat in such a place to survey the rock ,c4 ,if it is evident that the plan described above will not be applicable1 because other and future circumstances will require the boat's bow to emerge in the opposite direction 7pointing to the right71 then you must enter forwards1 and must back between ,b and ,c1 so as to be ready1 after passing ,c1 to drive forward1 and to the right4 ,it is plain that this is very much more difficult than the former case1 for your backing now has to be done against the full stream from the breaker ,b4 ,in all these instances the action of the wind has been entirely omitted from consideration1 but it must not be forgotten that a strong breeze materially complicates the problem before the canoeist4 ,this is especially so when the wind is aft2 when it is ahead you are not likely to forget its presence4 ,a strong fair wind 7that has scarcely been felt with your back to it7 and the swift stream and the boat's speed from paddling being all in one direction1 the breeze will suddenly become a new element in the case when you try to cross above a rock as in ,fig4 #a1 and find that the wind carries you broadside on against all your calculations4 ,as for sailing among rocks in a current1 if the rapid is long the canoe must be directed solely by the paddle1 and in short groups of rocks the course to be steered by a boat sailing is the same as if it were paddled1 though the action of the wind has to be carefully taken into consideration4 ,in all these things free boldness and skill come best after lessons of experience1 and the canoeist will find himself ready and able1 at the end of his voyage1 to sail down a rapid which he would have approached very timidly1 at the beginning1 even with the paddle4 ,but perhaps enough has been said for the experienced paddler1 while surely more than enough has been said to show the tyro aspirant what varied work he has to do1 and how interesting are the circumstances that will occupy his attention on a delightful river cruise4 ,the ,boy as ,yacht ,owner4--,boys who live near a sheet of water may like to know how to make--or to have made for them by a carpenter--a homely rough-hewn yacht4 ,they may not be able to win the ,american cup with it1 but they may have much fun on board1 and it will be difficult to wreck4 ,indeed1 it is said to be impossible to upset a yacht of this pattern4 ,the natives of ,south ,america use yachts of this build1 and even go to sea in this kind of craft4 ,we do not advise our readers to round ,cape ,horn or to cross the ,bay of ,biscay in a yacht like this1 but on a lake or river they are not likely to come to grief4 ,all the same1 skill in swimming should precede boating of all kinds4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d represent six pine logs1 each one fourteen feet long and eight inches in diameter4 ,the six joined together make a deck four feet wide4 ,both ends of each log are roughly trimmed with an adze and underneath each log is bevelled along three feet of its length at each end4 ,the middle eight feet of each log is thus left in its natural state1 round and still bearing its bark2 but three feet at each end of each log is trimmed to slope and taper towards its termination4 ,e is four feet seven inches from the bow and represents a hole down to the water two inches wide and eighteen inches long4 ,it is formed by cutting an inch away from each of the two centre logs to make two inches1 and making the length of the indentation eighteen inches on each of these two logs4 ,the purpose of the hole is to hold a centre-board1 which is passed through it to act instead of a keel4 ,it is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide4 ,next the bow ends of the logs are fastened together by what joiners call rabbeting and bolting4 ,fig4 #b represents a rabbet1 and gives the dimensions4 ,one of these rabbets is cut upon the upper side of each log1 one foot six inches from the bow1 so that when all the logs have been served exactly alike1 and they have been placed in position side by side1 these indentations form an unbroken channel across the boat4 ,now a piece of the toughest dry wood--the bolt--shaped like ,fig4 #c1 should be made to fit this groove1 and should then be placed therein4 ,at ,h1 ,i1 in ,fig4 #a bore with an auger holes three-quarters of an inch in diameter through the bolt1 and right on through the log4 ,into these holes fit pegs of hard1 very dry wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,if these pegs and the bolt fit tightly when they are quite dry they will swell and fit very much tighter when they become wet4 ,two and a half feet further back at ,j1 ,k1 the logs are rabbeted again in precisely the same way1 and again at ,l ,m1 ,n ,o1 and ,p ,q4 ,the mast should be as long as the boat1 and at its base four and a half inches in diameter4 ,generally it consists of a small tree1 a spruce fir1 or something of that kind4 ,the boom1 seen in the completed picture1 is almost as long as the mast1 though more slender1 and it must have a fork at its thickest end4 ,a lighter bough1 with a fork1 three feet six-inches long1 is needed as a rest for the boom4 ,illustration ,the mast is fixed at ,r in ,fig4 #a1 and is secured as in ,fig4 #d4 ,it stands in a hole four inches in diameter and four inches deep4 ,a and ,b in ,fig4 #d stand a foot away from the mast in holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep4 ,a and ,b are each eighteen inches long1 and ,c is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide1 and it has a hole bored in it four inches in diameter to admit the mast4 ,at ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 ,v1 in ,fig4 #a holes are bored three inches in diameter exactly upon the middle of the next to the outermost log on each side of the boat4 ,these are fitted with forked uprights1 those at ,s and ,t are eight inches long2 those at ,u and ,v are twelve inches long4 ,at ,w1 ,x1 ,y and ,z in ,fig4 #a bore holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep1 ,w and ,x being one foot away from ,n1 ,o4 ,two feet from ,w and ,x should be ,y ,z4 a and b are holes of the same size over the middle logs of the boat4 ,in ,w1 ,x1 ,y and ,z should be forked uprights fourteen inches long4 ,in a and b are uprights sixteen inches long with a cross piece upon which to rest the oar of the steersman4 ,fig4 #e shows what the arrangements are with regard to these uprights4 ,a little before the mast1 on each side of the boat1 a pole runs through the forks of the uprights4 ,the ends of these poles are joined aft by a piece of one-inch plank1 upon which sits the man at the helm4 ,a shelter may be made with a piece of sailcloth or other material as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration ,the helm consists of a pole four feet long1 which is fixed at an angle of forty-five degrees to a piece of inch plank two feet long and eight inches wide1 as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,it will be found that the vessel easily answers this helm1 which is used like an oar4 ,along the mast the sail is nine feet long4 ,it does not run on rings1 but is nailed to the mast4 ,the corner is tied securely to the end of the boom1 whose length is ten feet4 ,the boom rests with its fork upon the mast and is prevented from slipping away by a forked1 upright support4 ,it is an easy matter to unfurl the sail4 ,take the fork of the boom from the mast1 and the sail collapses instantaneously4 ,much navigation can be learned in a vessel of this kind1 and it may be that some future admiral will have his small beginnings in a craft of this homely character4 ,,chapter ,x ,,cooking ,,in ,,camp ,in the last chapter we had much to say of the famous canoe traveller1 the late ,john ,macgregor1 and our readers will welcome an account of his portable cooking apparatus1 because even if they do not go voyages in a boat they will find it useful for picnics and camping out4 ,this apparatus1 the voyager tells us1 has been designed after numerous experiments with various portable cooking-machines which ,i could procure for trial1 and1 as it succeeds better than any of them1 and has been approved by trial in five of my own voyages1 and in another to ,iceland1 besides shorter trips1 and in the ,abyssinian campaign1 it may be of some use to describe the contrivance here4 ,the object proposed was to provide a light but strong apparatus which could speedily boil water and heat or fry other materials even in wet and windy weather1 and with fuel enough carried in itself for several days' use4 ,fig4 #a is a section of the ,rob ,roy cuisine as it is made up for carrying4 ,there is first a strong waterproof bag about one foot high1 and closed at the top by a running cord4 ,at the bottom is the cuisine itself1 a1 which occupies a space of only six inches by three inches 7when of smaller size71 and has the various parts packed inside1 except the drinking cup b4 ,provisions1 such as bread and cold meat or eggs1 may be stowed in the bag above the cuisine1 and if the string of it be then attached to a nail fixed in the boat1 the whole will be kept steady4 ,for use1 when it is desired to boil water1 the cuisine being opened1 the lower part is a copper pan1 c1 ,fig4 #b1 with a handle1 e1 which can be fixed either into a socket in the side of the pan1 or another socket in the side of the lid1 as represented in ,figs4 #b and #f4 ,three iron legs also fix into sockets and support the pan over the spirit-lamp1 f1 by which the pan1 two-thirds full of liquid1 will be boiled in five minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the lamp is the main feature of the apparatus1 and it is represented in section in ,fig4 #c4 ,it consists of two cylinders1 one within the other4 ,the space between these 7shaded dark7 is closed at top and bottom1 and a tube b1 fixed through the bottom1 rises with one open end inside1 and another 7a small nozzle7 curved upwards in the open internal cylinder4 ,another tube1 h1 opens into the annular chamber between the cylinders1 and it has a funnel-shaped mouth at the outer end1 through which the chamber may be filled1 while a screw in the inside allows a handle1 ,fig4 #d 7in section71 to have its end1 j1 screwed in4 ,a small hole in the upper surface is closed by a little cork1 which will be expelled if the pressure within is so high as to require escape by this safety-valve4 ,the hole may be in any part of the annular cover 7but is not shown in the sketch71 and in such case the hole shown in the handle is omitted4 ,the outer cylinder of the lamp1 being larger than the inner one1 has a bottom1 k1 ,fig4 #c1 which forms a circular tray of about two inches wide and half an inch deep4 ,the original form of the lamp1 which was first brought to notice by the cook of the ,royal ,canoe ,club1 had a detached tray for the bottom1 but now1 instead of this plan for the admission of air into the lamp1 two saw cuts are made1 each about an inch long4 ,one of them is shown below f1 ,fig4 #b1 and thus the lamp and tray are united in one compact piece while there still is access for air4 ,the late ,professor ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1 who used this lamp1 says it was introduced into this country from ,russia by ,dr4 ,samuel ,brown1 and that the jet of burning spirit has such force as to resist the blast of a hurricane4 ,to put the lamp in operation1 unscrew its handle from the position in ,fig4 #b1 so that it will be as in ,figs4 #c and #d4 ,then from a tin flask 7which has been packed with the rest of the things in the pan7 pour spirits of wine--or1 if the odour is not objected to1 methylated spirit1 into the measure m1 ,fig4 #e1 and from that into the interior of the lamp through the opening at h4 ,next screw in the handle1 and place the lamp level under the pan1 and pour nearly another measure full into the interior tray4 ,set fire to this1 and shelter it for a few seconds if there be much wind4 ,i used this always with complete success on the ,jordan1 ,nile1 ,danube1 and many other rivers4 ,in a short time the flame heats the spirits in the closed chamber1 and the spirituous steam is forced by pressure down the tube1 and inflames at the nozzle1 from which it issues with much force and some noise in a lighted column1 which is about one foot in height when unimpeded4 ,this powerful flame operates on the whole of the bottom and lower edge of the pan1 and it cannot be blown out by wind nor by a blast from the mouth1 but may be instantly extinguished by sharply placing the flat bottom of the measure upon it4 ,the cover may be put on so as to rest with the flat bottom downwards1 and with or without the handle4 ,if tea is to be made with the water when it boils1 the requisite quantity is to be placed in the tea vessel1 n1 ,fig4 #e1 which has perforated sides1 and1 its lid being closed1 this is placed in the water1 where it will rest on the curved side1 and can be agitated now and then for a minute1 after which insert the handle in the socket of the pan and remove the lamp1 allowing the tea to infuse for four minutes1 when the tea vessel may be removed and the made tea may be poured out into the cup4 ,the dry tea can be conveniently carried in a paper inside the tea vessel4 ,salt is carried in the box o1 and the matches are in the box p4 ,coffee may be best carried in the state of essence in a bottle4 ,an egg-spoon and a soup-spoon are supplied4 ,a flat clasp knife and fork may be had extra4 ,if bacon is to be fried1 or eggs to be poached or cooked sur le plat1 they may be put into the lid and held by hand over the lamp-flame1 so as to warm all parts equally1 or the slower heat of a simple flame may be employed by lighting the measure full of spirits and then placing it on the bottom of the upturned pan as shown at ,fig4 #f1 where it will be observed that the three legs are placed in their sockets with the convex curve of each turned outward1 so that the lid1 as a frying-pan1 can rest upon their three points4 ,the spirit-flask contains enough for six separate charges of the lamp1 and the cost of using methylated spirits at #ds4 #f;d4 a gallon is not one penny a meal4 ,the lamp-flame lasts from ten to fifteen minutes1 and the weight of the cuisine1 exclusive of the bag and cup1 is about two pounds4 ,these cuisines1 improved by the suggestions obtained in their use1 should be carefully made with the best materials and workmanship1 and the cost would be about two and a half guineas2 or if with tin boiler instead of copper1 and brass lamp1 #a #abs4 #f;d4 ,many of much larger size 7to cook for twenty men7 have been used in ,australia4 ,the lamp above described was used daily in my yawl but the other fittings were on a more enlarged scale1 as extreme lightness was not then required4 ,the ,norwegian ,cooking ,apparatus of another kind entirely will be a valuable adjunct to the yachtsman's stores4 ,by means of this1 meat or pudding after being heated for only five minutes1 and then enclosed in a box which retains the heat1 will be found to be perfectly cooked after three hours1 though no more heat has been applied to it4 ,illustration ,since ,john ,macgegor used this stove there have been other wickless stoves invented1 and sold at more moderate prices4 ,for instance there are the ,primus and the ,optimus and the ,wickless oil stove of the ,wilson ,engineering ,company4 ,several such stoves1 of which two are illustrated here1 are included in the lists of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,w4 ,gamage1 ,ltd41 and they are useful indoors and in the open4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths ,for those boys who have the good fortune to live in ,britain1 few hobbies are better or more enticing than collecting butterflies and moths4 ,the following apparatus will be enough to start with3 7#a7 a butterfly net2 7#b7 a few dozens of one ounce and two ounce deep willow pill-boxes1 which may be strengthened by a little liquid shellac glue run round the inside edges2 7#c7 a handbag which excludes the light2 7#d7 a two-pound biscuit-tin with tightly-fitting lid2 7#e7 a zinc pinning box1 cork lined2 7#f7 some entomological pins in three sizes2 7#g7 some setting boards or blocks2 and 7#h7 a store box for keeping the specimens when dry enough to remove from the setting boards4 ,we will now consider these items in detail4 ,the butterfly net can quite easily be home-made1 though1 where money is plentiful1 it is best bought with the other things above named4 ,to make the net-frame1 obtain from a dealer what is called a ,y-piece1 in brass tube4 ,then obtain a piece of short walking-stick1 not more than two feet long1 which will fit into the lower section of the ,y1 which has a broader tube than the two upper sections4 ,a short stick is always best1 because more handy and sure in manipulation when catching the butterflies4 ,into the upper sections of the ,y place the ends of a piece of cane about three or four feet long1 being careful that each end of the cane fits tightly into the brass sockets4 ,then get a lady friend to make for you a green or white leno-muslin bag net1 with a brown calico hem attached1 into which the cane runs4 ,this net should be made just deep enough to reach with the hand to the bottom1 or an inch or so deeper only4 ,mind the bottom is made round1 and not jelly-bag shaped with a point1 which will ruin nearly all your captures before they are secured4 ,before using the net1 have the muslin steeped in water for a whole night1 so as to take all the stiffness out of the muslin4 ,it will require several rinsings before the size is all removed1 and it becomes quite soft4 ,never mind the loss of colour if green--it will only look the more workman-like4 ,in using the net to catch the specimens1 like so many other things1 it requires practice to make perfect2 but when once the knack is obtained1 it should be a rare thing to miss a specimen4 ,don't race after them1 but wait until the butterfly hovers over a flower1 or flies steadily past1 then1 with a bold1 steady stroke1 catch it in the centre of the net opening1 at the same moment giving the wrist a sharp half-turn1 which will close the mouth of the net1 and so secure the novelty4 ,carry the empty pill-boxes in the right-hand side pocket of the coat1 transferring them to the left-hand side as filled1 so that the full and empty boxes never get mixed in the pockets4 ,having safely netted the butterfly1 place the net on the ground1 and take a suitable sized pill-box in the right hand4 ,remove the lid1 which is to be placed in the ball of the hand loosely under the bottom of the pill-box4 ,this leaves the left hand free4 ,then insert the right hand into the net1 and cover the butterfly with the pill-box1 holding it with the left hand from the outside of the net1 carefully keeping the gauze tightly over the box with the left forefinger4 ,the right hand1 which is now free1 still contains the lid of the pill-box1 which gently place over the butterfly1 slowly drawing out the gauze remaining between the lid and the box4 ,quickly transfer the filled box1 which should contain only one specimen1 into the dark left-hand pocket4 ,most butterflies will at once become quiet in the dark1 if it is not too hot4 ,as opportunity occurs1 it is best to transfer them to the hand-bag1 which should be left near1 under the shade of a bush in a cool place4 ,by this means every specimen should be so boxed without the apparent loss of a single scale from their wings4 ,only take good specimens--don't be tempted to get a quantity1 but rather go in for fine quality4 ,especially avoid any which are chipped1 rubbed1 or otherwise unfit for cabinet specimens4 ,it is a great mistake to take imperfect specimens1 for they give just as much trouble as the finest1 and are never of use either for the collection or for scientific purposes4 ,if it is not convenient on arrival home to immediately set out our captures1 they should not be killed1 but placed in the biscuit-tin or left in the bag just as they are1 in a cold1 dark cellar1 or like place1 where they will be all right for a couple of days or more1 remaining perfectly still4 ,having brought home our captures we now produce the biscuit-tin4 ,this is to be used for the lethal-chamber1 where the specimens are to be sent to sleep1 but not to awake refreshed4 ,the processes of by-gone times for killing butterflies for collections have been many1 the most primitive1 perhaps1 being pinching the under side of the thorax1 or that part of the body to which the wings are attached4 ,doubtless1 there are in the various collections of butterflies1 large numbers of fine specimens which have been so killed2 but it is an objectionable plan1 because even when skilfully executed1 the specimens are more or less mutilated in the structure1 and are consequently difficult to set out with accuracy4 ,we are almost certain by this method to break off a leg or two1 or otherwise render the specimen imperfect4 ,chloroform is used by some people to kill their butterflies1 but it is unsatisfactory1 for it often renders them very rigid and too stiff to immediately set out1 which is a great disadvantage4 ,much the same may be said of the fumes of cyanide of potassium1 which constitute the active properties of the killing bottles sold by the dealers4 ,it is1 however1 always wise to keep one of these bottles in the hand-bag1 in case something very special is to be immediately stupefied4 ,it must1 however1 be a good large bottle1 with wide mouth1 for it is needed generally for the big butterflies1 such as the larger fritillaries1 purple emperors1 and the like in size and strength4 ,there is nothing1 however1 so good for obtaining perfect specimens as boxing the butterflies in the nets1 conveying them home in a dark hand-bag1 and then killing them in a biscuit-tin with the fumes of strong liquid ammonia4 ,it is best to buy a four-ounce tightly-stoppered squat-bottle for keeping the ammonia1 which1 when not in use1 should be placed out of the light1 in a drawer or cupboard1 taking care the stopper is tightly fixed4 ,in buying the ammonia ask the chemist for that with a specific gravity of 4#hhj1 which is commonly kept by them4 ,some chemists will try to persuade the buyer that it is not safe1 so as to supply a weaker article2 in which case don't trade with him again1 for anything weaker will not only not kill the butterflies1 but simply irritate them into knocking themselves into small pieces4 ,now to proceed4 ,we place about a large teaspoonful of the liquid ammonia into a little cup1 or better1 in a small mustard-tin lid1 taking care to keep our eyes and nose clear of the fumes4 ,place this as quickly as possible at the bottom of the biscuit-tin1 and over it loosely a piece of paper1 so as to let out the fumes1 but to stop the pill-boxes from falling into the fluid1 and so doing damage to box and contents4 ,then place the boxes containing the butterflies into the tin and tightly close the lid and leave them for not less than half an hour1 or better still1 a little longer4 ,the boxes thus placed may be left overnight and opened next morning1 if more convenient2 but in that case it is best to put in with them a small piece of damp sponge about the size of a walnut1 so as to keep the specimens from getting too dry4 ,this damp atmosphere should also be there when the butterflies are stored away alive in the dark1 for a day or two1 as described already4 ,on opening the lid of the biscuit-tin containing the ammonia and pill-boxes1 be careful to keep your face well away1 or the puff of vapour may be very painful4 ,there is no danger whatever to be feared from the use of ammonia in this manner1 but still it may lead to temporary discomfort1 such as pain in the eyes and loss of breath for a moment4 ,having removed the lid proceed in the following manner3 ,first place on the table before you a sheet of white paper or a blotting-pad4 ,by your side on the table have a small tea-tray1 or other flat receptacle4 ,take out of the tin one of the top pill-boxes1 open the lid1 and shake out the butterfly on the sheet of paper in front of you4 ,then put the lid of the pill-box with its top turned downwards1 on the tea-tray1 and place the remainder of the pill-box1 sideways within the lid4 ,the object is to let the air get to the inside of the boxes1 so as to evaporate the ammonia still remaining about them1 or the next butterfly to occupy the box will object to the stale fumes of smelling salts1 and probably knock itself about in consequence4 ,the boxes may be thus all emptied and left to air1 which will not require much more than an hour1 or even less1 if the tray be placed in the sunshine near an open window4 ,by placing each box sideways in its lid1 the boxes and lids all fit one another1 and do not get tiresomely mixed4 ,in shaking out the butterflies place them in rows neatly on the paper1 so that you know which was the first to leave the boxes1 for that row should be the first pinned1 having been exposed longer to the fresh air1 to permit the ammonia attached to them to evaporate4 ,if pinned too soon1 the ammonia is apt to affect the metal of the pin and make it brittle where it passes through the body of the insect4 ,the action of this gas is most peculiar on the colours of some insects1 especially on that of the small heath butterfly1 marbled whites1 or some of the blues4 ,when seen for the first time one is horror-stricken1 and apt to exclaim that the specimens are ruined with the nasty stuff4 ,this1 however1 soon all passes away as the ammonia evaporates and the normal colours reappear in all their former beauty4 ,some collectors rail against ammonia1 using themselves some worse killing medium4 ,there is no other such medium which will allow of one1 after pinning the insect1 to move it up and down quickly in the air with the effect that the wings are as flaccid as though the specimen were alive4 ,it leaves not the slightest trace of rigidity1 which is of the highest importance for quick and successful setting out4 ,the next proceeding is one which requires delicate handling and touch1 which can only come with practice4 ,it is pinning the insects4 ,to do this there is only one way which permits of the specimen being afterwards exactly set out1 and that is1 the proper way4 ,any deviation from it1 simple as it is1 leads to all sorts of trouble and vexation when we come to set the butterflies out on the blocks4 ,take the butterfly--with the wings closed together over the back1 so that the under side only can be seen--between the left hand first finger and thumb4 ,touch it deftly1 but firmly1 holding no more than is necessary of the under side of the thorax1 where the legs are fixed4 ,be very careful not to break off any of the legs1 or rub off any scales from the body or legs4 ,a small pair of curved forceps are of great use in delicately placing the butterfly in position between the fingers4 ,the proper position allows of the wings to more than half open1 when gently blown upon with one's breath4 ,then choose a pin of suitable size1 rather a little large than otherwise1 and pass it through the centre of the upper part of the thorax1 just where the two front wings meet4 ,mind it is exactly in the centre and so placed that the pin's head leans somewhat forward when the pin is fully in the body4 ,pass the pin well through the body1 so that at least one third of its length is clear of the underside of the butterfly1 and all as nearly as possible the same distance through4 ,when we have pinned the specimens1 we proceed to set or spread them out on the blocks to dry4 ,in selecting these1 say they are for butterflies1 do not get the slot groove down the centre too wide1 as is needed for the fat-bodied moths4 ,those blocks used in this country are generally somewhat rounded on each side where the wings are to rest4 ,this is called round-setting in distinction to flat-setting1 which means that the wings1 when quite dry1 remain set out flatly at right angles from the body2 while round-setting leaves them drooping at the tips in an unnatural manner4 ,round-setting is considered1 outside the ,british ,islands1 an insular abomination4 ,it was the style1 unfortunately1 adopted in this country with the dawn of the present activity among ,british entomologists1 and everybody knows how difficult it is to change even such a simple fashion as the round-setting of butterflies4 ,simple as the matter seems at first sight1 it has contributed more than any other cause to the generally shameful ignorance which prevails among ,british entomologists of even the butterflies of the ,continent of ,europe outside our islands4 ,because they can only be obtained from abroad flat-set1 most of our collectors would hardly look at a foreign butterfly2 and so the study of the ,british species has been blocked for years1 entirely from this cause1 which fostered so largely the prejudice in favour of ,british specimens4 ,a ,british ,camberwell ,beauty is now worth a sovereign1 if taken in ,britain1 although it doubtless flew over from the opposite ,continent2 but the same specimen1 if taken in ,france or ,belgium1 would not be worth sixpence to a ,british collector4 ,now all this is wrong and should not be4 ,of course1 it is quite right to know what does occur in our country1 but there is no need for these absurd differences in value of the specimens1 whether taken in ,britain or on the mainland of ,europe4 ,it leads to fraud1 and it is sad to think that some professional dealers have actually made more than comfortable livings1 chiefly by inducing young or inexperienced people to pay long prices for ,british specimens which were perhaps captured in ,germany1 where they were set on rounded blocks1 sent out for the purpose to deceive ,english people1 because they were round-set and pinned with ,birmingham-made pins6 ,another result of this insular prejudice is that some species of butterflies very closely allied to others have been overlooked for want of familiarity with another ,continental species4 ,a case of this kind was the cause of our last addition to the ,british list being so long overlooked4 ,there was this butterfly1 quite common1 year after year1 within twenty miles of ,london1 and flying over fifty miles of country1 overlooked2 all because of our want of knowledge of even the commonest ,european species4 ,we therefore recommend the flat-setting1 and if the new generation of students of butterflies will adopt it1 the round-setting style will disappear in a very few years4 ,the blocks should be covered with very fine cork1 or may be of soft wood1 if the steel pins can be obtained4 ,then they would be cheaper1 as the cork covering adds much to the expense1 besides being always unsatisfactory1 in consequence of the holes in the cork1 which hold mites and such vermin4 ,place the setting block on the table1 with the top furthest away from you4 ,proceed to select the various butterflies from your damp collecting-box which will best suit the size of the block1 allowing about a quarter of an inch clear from the outer edge on each side4 ,then1 with the forceps1 take hold of the upper part of the pin near to the body and firmly drive it in the same leaning position as it is fixed into the body1 firmly into the exact centre of the groove4 ,if the pin will not go readily into the block1 make a lead for it with a sharp-pointed penknife4 ,do not be tempted to push down the body on the pin1 or your specimens will1 on removal from the blocks1 be all sorts of heights on the pins1 and quite unfit for cabinet purposes4 ,next see that the shoulders of the wings just touch the edge of the block1 so as to place the wings flat1 without tilting up the tips4 ,observe carefully that the bodies are straight and lifted by placing under them bits of paper or cotton wool so as to extend on an even plane with the thorax and wings4 ,continue placing your specimens until exhausted in number1 or until the block is quite full1 after leaving a clear space between each butterfly sufficient to lift the wing tips slightly forward of the front part of the head4 ,then with a sharp penknife1 very neatly cut a thin nick in the under edge of the ends of the block directly below the shoulder piece of the centre groove4 ,there should be four of these little nicks4 ,next get a piece of glazed cotton thread1 and tie a knot at one end4 ,insert this knot in the top left-hand nick1 the knotted end being below the block4 ,very gently1 but firmly1 bring the thread over the end of the block1 close to the shoulder1 down the left-hand side closely into the inner edge of the block1 catching it in the bottom left-hand nick under the block4 ,this will have had the effect of placing all the wings firmly on that side of the block4 ,then carry the thread underneath the block into the top right-hand nick and over the end of the block1 down the right-hand upper side1 over the lower end1 firmly fix in that nick and cut off the thread4 ,great care must be taken to pull the thread over the wings not so tightly as to mark them4 ,a good plan is to push under each upper end of the thread a thin pin which eases it1 so as to avoid damaging the top and bottom specimens in the row while setting them into their respective places4 ,these pins may afterwards be withdrawn4 ,next proceed with a very fine pointed needle to gently lift all the wings into their proper places so as to get the effect of a well-set butterfly4 ,it may be found that the thread is too slack in places to hold down the wings in proper position4 ,that may be obviated by neatly cross-pinning down the thread on either side at intervals between the butterflies4 ,when all the specimens have been arranged with perfect uniformity1 take two slips of tracing-paper1 which have been previously cut to fit the length of the block1 and each must be three-fourths the breadth of one side of the setting block4 ,then lay one of these strips of paper on the left-hand side1 being very careful to keep just clear of the thread4 ,all the wings will be seen plainly through the transparent paper and can be readjusted if any slip out of position4 ,next place with the forceps a ,no4 #aj entomological pin firmly through the top and at the bottom of the paper1 near the edge next the cotton4 ,place another between the first and second butterfly on the block1 and so on down the row2 also1 as you go along1 place another pin between the outer indentation where the upper and lower wings meet2 also put a fourth pin by the tip of the upper wing4 ,these pins should firmly secure the paper over the wings1 which1 when thus treated on both sides1 will dry into the desired position for cabinet specimens4 ,the greatest care must be taken not to allow any pin-point to enter the wing or fringe of a butterfly1 or it will be quite spoiled4 ,next very carefully and gently undo the fastened thread1 first taking out any cross pins which secure it4 ,after its removal gently stroke from the body towards the paper on each side with a soft camel's hair brush any disturbed scales4 ,with practice there should not be the least damage done by the thread1 which leaves no mark whatever if moved at once when the papers are firmly fixed4 ,if they should be left on carelessly1 or by any mistake1 the threads will be certain to mark every butterfly1 to their complete disfigurement4 ,keep the blocks which contain the set-out butterflies in a dry cupboard or other safe place4 ,when thus drying they fall an easy prey to earwigs1 wasps1 ants1 cockroaches1 and such like small beasts1 which will strip off all the bodies on a block in a single night4 ,they should not be exposed to too bright a light whilst drying on the blocks1 or they often suffer in colour4 ,when single specimens have to be set out it is easy to work the thread by putting a pin through the knot and holding down the other end with the left-hand forefinger until the paper is fixed1 and then treating the other wings in like manner4 ,it is advisable to leave the butterflies on the blocks for about a week1 though the surest test is to touch the body gently with a pin1 and if quite hard1 it is safe to remove the insects to a store box without fear of the wings springing4 ,after removing the butterflies1 pass over the surface of the block some hard substance1 such as the back of an ivory-handled knife1 to rub down any little roughness made by the pins on the surface1 where the wings are placed1 when setting any fresh insects on the same block4 ,most of the butterflies are easily reared through all their stages1 from the eggs up to the perfect insect4 ,this is by far the most interesting part of the study4 ,until within the last few years1 when the writer of these chapters pressed some of his friends to look more closely into the life histories of our common butterflies1 it was the custom of some naturalists to sneer at butterfly-catchers4 ,since then a wonderful book has been published on the butterflies of the ,eastern portion of ,north ,america by ,mr4 ,scudder1 and all these scoffers must feel very small when they see such splendid science in the study of butterflies4 ,now1 many people1 who never thought of rearing a butterfly1 are giving careful attention to them in all their stages4 ,several kinds of butterflies are readily induced to lay their eggs in captivity when carefully managed4 ,various species differ much in this--some may be depended upon with certainty1 such as the green-veined white 7,pieris napi71 which will deposit its eggs at night upon a piece of watercress1 under the influence of a warm room1 and the bright light of a paraffin lamp4 ,this species1 however1 is quite an exception1 for1 as a rule1 every attention should be given to copying their natural surroundings as closely as possible4 ,a good plan is to have ready planted in a large flower-pot a plant of the food of the particular species from which it is desired to have eggs1 or1 as they are called by the entomologists1 the ova--that being1 as you know1 the plural of ovum1 the ,latin for an egg4 ,having got your plant nicely established in its flower-pot1 buy a piece of wire-netting1 about a foot wide1 and bend it round so as to fit just inside the flower-pot4 ,by cutting the wire so as to overlap a little1 it is easy to twist or hook the ends1 so as to make a cylinder to just fit inside the pot4 ,then cover this with very open muslin all round and over the top1 neatly stretched1 so as not to look untidy or to stop a single ray of sunshine which can get through4 ,having had several of these cages prepared1 they may be used at the moment when you bring home the freshly-caught females4 ,the sooner the female butterflies are placed in the cage the better1 for if they remain too long in the pill-box they are apt to get too dry1 and so never recover enough to deposit their ova4 ,after firmly tying the cage to the pot1 do not disturb them when once in the cages1 so long as they are alive2 but leave them out of doors1 where they get all the sunlight or rain4 ,if the plant be watered1 that is best done by soaking the flower-pot in water up to two-thirds the height of the soil1 and not by removing the cage4 ,still1 in dry weather it is best to sprinkle the cage with water1 so that the captive may drink1 which they often require to do4 ,another way1 especially in the case of small butterflies1 is to use large glass jam-pots1 with a piece of muslin tied over the top4 ,in these pots should be a little sprig of food-plant in a small bottle of water1 and also a bit of damp sponge to keep up a moist atmosphere1 without which there will rarely be any eggs4 ,the pots may be placed in the sunlight in a room near an open window1 but care should be taken that the glass does not get too hot1 or both parent and eggs may be killed4 ,when the eggs hatch1 never1 if possible1 touch1 except with a camel-hair brush1 the young caterpillars--or larv as they are scientifically called1 that being the plural for larva1 a single caterpillar4 ,pupa is the singular1 and pup the plural1 for the chrysalis2 imago the singular1 and imagines the plural1 for the perfect insects or complete butterflies4 ,these scientific terms are quite easy to learn1 and are the best to use when referring to the various stages of insects generally4 ,in selecting females for depositing ova1 take those which are a little worn1 and not too recently emerged from pup1 as they are the more likely to produce fertile eggs4 ,when the ova hatch1 watch them very closely1 at least three or four times a day4 ,if they are on growing food1 do not touch them at all1 but if they require moving for any reason1 a soft1 sharp-pointed camel-hair pencil is the best tool to use4 ,glass jam-pots are very nice for feeding young larv of any kind4 ,the method is1 to change the food daily1 taking care to remove at the same time all dirt made by the larv1 which is called frass4 ,cleanliness in rearing larv is the first consideration1 and the next most important thing is to always gather their food from the same tree as that from which they began to feed when hatched4 ,if they are fed on growing plants this does not1 of course1 apply4 ,tie over the mouth of the pot with fine unglazed calico1 and over this place a piece of glass so as to stop1 as far as possible1 the drying of the food plant in the jar4 ,be very particular to supply the fresh food always quite dry1 and never in a wet condition1 which is apt to give the larv diarrhoea1 to which in captivity they are very subject4 ,never give more food than the young larv are likely to eat1 increasing the supply as they get older4 ,when changing the larv always count them1 or some will be lost and thrown out with the withered food4 ,the best plan is to spread out a sheet of white paper on a table1 and empty the contents of the jar on it4 ,then examine the interior of the jar1 seeing that every little one is out4 ,having cleaned it out with a clean1 dry duster1 put in the fresh food4 ,then lift in with the hair-pencil any active larv4 ,those which are sulky-looking on the leaves clip off with part of the leaf1 and drop into the jar4 ,they may be changing their skin1 and1 if disturbed then1 will probably not recover4 ,the food should be changed at least once every day4 ,while growing1 larv of butterflies generally like plenty of light1 but it is unsafe to leave the sunshine too long on the jars1 in case the living contents get baked1 as will the food certainly4 ,some species while in the larval stage1 feed only at night1 hiding away in the daylight4 ,these are matters which will soon be found out by experience4 ,we have never heard of any one having reared all the ,british species through their stages1 but we know one friend who reared no less than eighteen different kinds through1 from ova to imagines1 in a single season4 ,moth ,catching4--,students of natural history in search of moths which they may identify by a reference to such works upon the subject as those by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 will find an interesting method of catching them in preparing ,treacles4 ,the fancy golden syrups of the kitchen should be avoided4 ,ask the grocer to get common treacle--green treacle they call it in the trade4 ,to a pound of this will be added a wineglassful of stale beer and about three-quarters of a wineglassful of the most inferior rum you can buy4 ,a few drops of oil of aniseed will improve this dreadful concoction4 ,do not add the rum1 beer1 and aniseed to the treacle at once1 but keep them in a bottle apart until you are going to use the mixture4 ,with a companion who carries a net1 look out now for isolated trees that have a rough bark4 ,do not waste attention on dead trees1 fences1 nor chestnut trees1 willows1 nor flowering ivy4 ,in warm1 damp weather when there is no moon1 go out with a bottle of this mixture and a house-painter's brush1 a sash tool1 as painters call it1 will serve you well1 and a lantern1 some pill-boxes or similar small receptacles4 ,having selected a tree daub it well with your mixture in a patch about a foot long and half a foot broad4 ,so pass from tree to tree4 ,come back at last to the first tree again4 ,your companion should hold the net under the treacle patch for some of the moths that have come to enjoy the rum and treacle will fall when you turn the lantern light upon them4 ,those that do not may be taken from the tree by an upward scoop of a pill-box1 and then secured by the lid4 ,try to avoid getting the sticky mixture upon the handle of the brush and upon your hands1 for it will prevent your deft manipulation of your pill boxes4 ,after the first night very little treacle will be needed to freshen the patches1 but the mixture may be used freely on your first round4 ,the treacling season begins about ,march #ba and goes on until the end of ,april4 ,may does not yield many moths1 nor the first week in ,june1 but after that you may go round again with your bottle until the end of ,september4 ,you may find sometimes that toads and bats poach on your preserves4 ,illustration ,another way to secure specimens of moths is to make a moth trap4 ,our diagram gives a plan of it1 that is a representation of it as seen from above if we look down at it with the lid off4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d is a box4 ,it may be made for the purpose1 or a soap box or other case may be purchased from the grocer for a few coppers4 ,e1 ,f1 and ,g are panes of glass1 held in grooves4 ,h is another pane of glass which comes up to the lid1 and cuts the box into two unequal parts4 ,j is the reflector of a lighted lamp placed in front of it4 ,there will need to be a hole in the lid over the lamp1 and a flower pot upside down may be put over this hole4 ,it is best to have three doors into the larger compartment2 one in the lid and one in each of the two sides1 ,k and ,l1 so that two hands may be used in putting the moths that come to the light into pill boxes4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,hints ,,on ,,aquariums ,it is better to have several aquariums than one4 ,often the mistake is made of gathering together all kinds of savage and voracious creatures that prey upon each other4 ,pretty as they are1 there is no need to buy the glass aquariums1 and indeed better in every way for the inhabitants is a large tub put out of doors in a place where there is not too much sun4 ,clean sand or gravel should be strewed upon the bottom and in this water-plants may be fixed4 ,if you have any bivalves they will love to burrow in it1 and some kinds of fish love to rest upon a bottom of this kind4 ,large stones should be built to reach half-way up the tub1 with spaces between so that the fish may dart out of the light whenever they wish4 ,if you keep fish that need running water it will be necessary to put the tub under a tap1 and to pierce a hole near the top of the tub for the superfluous water to flow away4 ,in this case it will be as well to cover the tub with a net1 or the fish may be found to have leapt over the edge4 ,boys may make their own net from the instructions given in ,chapter ,,xix41 or may buy cheap gauze or other similar material4 ,if the tub is for newts and such things as do not live wholly in the water1 then the stones should be built until they come above the water and so form a little island4 ,for these creatures the water should not be so deep1 and there should be an abundance of weeds4 ,freshwater shrimps and crayfish should have a shallow tub or trough1 a sandy bottom1 and places in which they can hide4 ,here1 too1 there must be water running in and out always4 ,by these means we imitate the natural surroundings of the shrimps and crayfish1 for they delight in the running water of shallow streams that have a bottom of sand and stones4 ,the outlet for the waste water should be protected with a grating and probably with gauze1 or some of the inhabitants of the tub will escape4 ,there are many objections to glass vessels1 though some of their faults may be corrected4 ,they trouble the fish with too much light1 but if a brown paper case of the same size and shape as the aquarium be made it can be slipped over the vessel and removed occasionally when you wish to observe the movements of the fish4 ,glass soon becomes foul1 and needs frequent cleaning4 ,in any case the aquarium should be kept out of the sun1 and for this reason a northern window is best4 ,whatever form of aquarium is selected there must be soil and sand at the bottom1 weeds1 and shelter for the fish4 ,the bell glass is the least favourable form of aquarium1 but even that may be made tolerable if the hints we have given are adopted4 ,in the square or oblong form only one side need be glass and the remaining three sides wood1 metal or slate4 ,the sand that forms the bottom of an aquarium should be quite clean4 ,if you have found it in the bottom of a swift stream it will not need much washing1 but if from any other place it should be washed thoroughly4 ,put a large bucket under a tap1 and as the water runs into the bucket strew the sand gradually into the moving water with one hand1 and stir the water as hard as you can with the other4 ,keep this going until the water that runs out of the bucket is quite clean4 ,even now1 however1 the sand may not be thoroughly cleansed4 ,put a drop of the water upon a piece of clean glass1 and when the water has been evaporated there should be no sediment4 ,when the sand1 plants1 pebbles and stones have been arranged in an aquarium it is best to introduce the water gently by means of a syphon1 a method explained in ,chapter ,,xix4 ,the aquarium may be emptied in the same way4 ,there are a number of ways of supplying the fish with the amount of oxygen they need4 ,one is to change the water frequently1 another already mentioned is to have running water and a pipe for the surplus water2 a third means is to have a fountain1 an attractive element described in ,chapter ,,xix4 ,these methods1 however1 are mechanical and artificial4 ,the natural way of providing the oxygen is to secure the aid of water plants4 ,these absorb carbonic acid gas1 and1 having made use of the carbon in their growth1 set free the oxygen1 which is waste as far as they are concerned4 ,thus in a well-balanced aquarium the fish provide the plants with carbonic acid gas1 and receive back the oxygen which they need2 the plants provide the fish with oxygen which they do not want1 but which is the very life of the fish1 and receive back the carbon without which they would die4 ,water-beetles1 newts and some other creatures come to the surface for their air1 and take no oxygen1 or very little1 from the water4 ,for many reasons the best aquarium is a pond in the garden1 for here we may have greater variety of animal and vegetable life1 and beautiful surroundings of plant life too4 ,the pond should be about three feet deep1 and the banks should slope1 so that there will be a little spade work at first4 ,the bottom may be of clay1 but it is better for many reasons to have cement4 ,the points mentioned with regard to the indoor aquarium apply here also1 but many of the arrangements are more easily carried out in the pond than in the tank4 ,plants for the ,aquarium4--,the duckweeds float and need no planting4 ,they spread rapidly4 ,there are four kinds3 the ,lesser ,duckweed 7,lemna minor72 the ,ivy-leaved ,duckweed 7,lemna trisulca74 ,then there is the ,american ,pondweed 7,anacharis alsinastrum71 a weed that almost blocks slow moving rivers and canals4 ,it will grow either attached to the bottom or floating4 ,not only does it supply the fish with air but with food also4 ,the ,hornwort 7,ceratophyllum demersum7 needs no soil1 and gives off much oxygen1 though probably not so much as ,vallisneria spiralis1 a great favourite in the aquarium4 ,easier to obtain is the ,water ,crowfoot 7,ranunculus aquatilis71 and we may mention also the ,broad-leaved ,pondweed 7,potamogeton natans71 ,close-leaved ,pondweed 7,potamogeton densus71 the ,perfoliate ,pondweed 7,p4 perfoliatus71 the ,curled ,pondweed 7,p4 crispus71 the ,starwort 7,callitriche verna71 the ,grassy ,pondweed 7,potamogeton gramineus71 and the enterprising boy will find many others for himself in ponds1 streams1 and canals4 ,foreign plants are sold by dealers4 ,for the garden pond the beautiful water lilies may be obtained4 ,the weeds should be prevented from occupying too much space1 and if the creatures in the aquarium do not keep them in check by eating them it will be necessary to remove some of the plants occasionally4 ,sanitation4--,if a fish dies remove it at once1 or its dead body will pollute the water4 ,to clean a glass aquarium let the water run away through a siphon until only a few inches remain1 then clean the sides with a piece of rag tied upon a stick4 ,now siphon the remaining water away1 at the same time supplying fresh water4 ,do not throw a lot of food to the fishes4 ,what they do not eat decays and poisons the water4 ,if there are molluscs in the aquarium this danger is lessened1 for many of them act as scavengers1 and they are assisted by freshwater shrimps1 tadpoles1 and beetles4 ,the shrimps1 however1 may eat the living as well as the dead1 and the tadpoles1 instead of being allowed to eat1 may themselves be eaten4 ,the ,food ,supply4--,fish eat the buds and tender shoots of pond weeds4 ,they may have also a moderate supply of small worms1 gentles1 different kinds of larv1 and what are called ants' eggs4 ,frogs and toads eat insects1 little beetles1 worms1 grubs1 caterpillars1 and newts need an occasional worm4 ,the ,fish4--,many of the fish that swarm in most ponds and streams are suitable for the aquarium4 ,the carp is related to the goldfish1 which is the golden carp4 ,it is quiet and harmless1 and will not interfere with other creatures in the aquarium4 ,minnows are pretty1 and should have running water1 and the roach is another suitable fish for life in captivity4 ,the gudgeon1 loach1 and bullhead serve for bottom fish4 ,jack and sticklebacks are extremely interesting1 but need a place for themselves1 as they eat any other inhabitants of the same aquarium4 ,fishes as ,pets4--,perhaps1 writes one of our contributors1 the most interesting of freshwater fishes to watch is the stickleback1 especially if a pair can be kept during the breeding season in a good-sized aquarium1 so that they have the opportunity to collect materials and build their curious nest in the natural way4 ,the male fish develops during this season a most beautiful vermilion-coloured breast1 and is exceedingly pugnacious1 so that it is useless to attempt to keep two males in the same aquarium4 ,in fact1 the stickleback is often so quarrelsome that it is not desirable to try to keep other fish with him1 unless they are much larger than he is4 ,the easiest fish to keep alive are the carp 7to which tribe the goldfish belongs7 and the minnow4 ,these can be kept for years without much difficulty1 and will not be likely to injure one another1 or any other fish that may be placed in the same tank4 ,small rudd are also very good pets1 and are nearly as hardy and equally harmless4 ,roach are easily obtained1 and will not quarrel1 but they are not quite so strong4 ,perch1 on the contrary1 will live a long time if regularly fed1 but it will not do to put any smaller fish1 except sticklebacks1 with them2 yet they look so handsome that an aquarium containing two or three perch and a pair of sticklebacks is perhaps better worth looking at than one which can only boast of shoals of roach or other soft-mouthed fishes4 ,dace and chub are pretty and harmless1 but require more changes of water than is usually convenient1 or they will soon die4 ,tench are tenacious of life1 but sluggish and fond of lying at the bottom4 ,small bream are fairly lively1 and ,i have found them moderately hardy4 ,they do not require water of special purity4 ,gudgeons live very well1 and may be kept with minnows1 being good friends together4 ,the loach and the bullhead are fairly hardy1 but have little other attraction4 ,the grayling is very delicate1 and it is not possible to keep her long1 except under very favourable conditions4 ,the ruffe or pope is hardy1 like its relative the perch1 and might1 if obtainable 7it is not a common fish71 be placed in a perch tank1 as a humble companion4 ,the bleak is almost as delicate as the grayling2 and the jack is too ravenous for any fish to live in his company except another jack of his own size4 ,this about ends the list1 excepting that ,i've left till the last the noblest of fish--trout and salmon4 ,with regard to the latter ,i don't want to encourage a boy in the notion that he can keep a ten-pound salmon in a tank4 ,nevertheless1 ,i have for many successive seasons kept salmon for weeks or months in a small tank2 but these were young ones1 very young1 about the size of tadpoles1 in fact1 and not unlike them in some respects4 ,they are almost indistinguishable from the young trout with which ,i keep them4 ,of course1 they are but babies1 and they have their feeding bottles attached1 and do not want feeding till these are absorbed4 ,to return to trout4 ,these fish1 when about a year old1 are very interesting1 and if a constant change of water can be secured may be kept alive for years4 ,even without this advantage1 ,i have kept them many months1 and have found their little ways very curious4 ,the trait ,i objected to the most was the habit of cannibalism which the larger fish developed4 ,i found one fish of about one and a half ounces with another about half that size half way down its throat4 ,this makes it desirable to keep only such trout as are about the same size together4 ,they will gradually1 though very slowly1 get tame1 and will come out from their shelter under a weed to eat a caddis as you drop it from your hand4 ,this was only the case with some of the fish1 others remaining as shy as ever in spite of petting4 ,it is best to choose fish that have been taken by net1 but trout taken by a fly1 or roach taken by a small hook in the lip1 will live very well4 ,i have kept trout for months that ,i had caught with fly and carried home for miles4 ,some of these were from a quarter to half-a-pound in weight2 but ,i found smaller fish would thrive better4 ,for food1 caddis or other water insects are best2 but gentles would perhaps do1 if the former are not to be had4 ,i found the freshwater shrimp capital food1 as it keeps alive1 of course1 till the trout is inclined to eat4 ,one of the chief causes of mortality in the aquarium is the fouling of water by the decomposition of surplus food4 ,if you are obliged to use dead matter1 such as chopped liver1 or meat1 be careful to remove any that may be left4 ,flies may be put on the surface1 and will be appreciated2 but the trout will seldom take them while you are watching1 though they will often eat the caddis as you put them in1 and even chase the shrimps4 ,on the whole1 ,i think perch are the best fish to make pets of1 as they can be taught even to take worms from your hand1 and require much less water running in and out than do the trout4 ,i've known a perch to live for years in a tin bath in my stable2 whereas the trout would not be happy without a long tank1 and continual change of water4 ,if you have only a very small aquarium it may be better to be contented with a few minnows4 ,these1 with the water weeds and little fresh-water snails1 which should be in every aquarium1 will be quite enough to make it look pretty4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,in ,,the ,,playing ,,fields ,nickie1 ,nickie1 ,night4--,before the period when lucifer matches came into general usage and were manufactured at a moderate price1 our grandparents relied on the flint1 the steel1 and the tinder-box to produce fire4 ,these implements have been very completely dealt with by various writers and illustrators1 who have given us some idea of the importance they were to every household4 ,to the student1 and to the curious who desire a more tangible acquaintance1 we may remark that a very fine collection of tinder-boxes1 flints1 and steels can be seen both at the ,british ,museum and at the ,guildhall ,museum of the ,city of ,london4 ,a very favourite boys' game1 in the earlier part of the nineteenth century1 which necessitated the possession of at least a flint and steel1 the game being played in the after-dark of evening1 was somewhat similar to the modern game of ,touch4 ,the game was called ,nickie1 ,nickie1 ,night1 and admitted any number of players4 ,a boy was elected to the position of ,nickie1 and he could only retain this position by fleetness of foot and dexterity in avoiding his pursuers1 the pursuers being formed by the remaining number of players4 ,the game was played in any open locality1 and ,nickie being allowed a start of perhaps thirty to forty seconds1 disappeared into the darkness1 shouts of ,nickie6 ,nickie6 ,night6 show your light6 show your light6 resounding from the waiting boys1 whereupon ,nickie struck a few sparks from his flint and steel1 indicating to the others his position2 these at once tore off in his direction2 while he1 as quickly and silently as possible1 changed his locality to elude capture4 ,having baffled his pursuers1 ,nickie would1 if a good player1 again quickly chink flint and steel1 drawing off the boys in a new direction2 and so the game would continue amidst the greatest excitement1 fun1 and laughter2 ,nickie1 like a ,will-o'-the-,wisp1 darting here1 there1 and everywhere1 greeted with shouts of ,nickie6 ,nickie6 ,night6 show your light6 until1 being ultimately captured1 he gave way to a new ,nickie1 and took his place amongst the pursuers4 ,illustration ,our illustrations of flint and tinder-box are selected from numerous patterns2 in many cases--older readers will probably remember the immense variety of these--the tinder-box was round1 and the steel consisted of an old file stuck in a wooden handle1 the flint being frequently picked up from among the stones in the roadway4 ,illustration ,how to make a ,kite4--,take a lath1 ,a1 ,b1 which should be three feet long and about an inch wide4 ,one of the ordinary laths used by builders will be quite suitable if one of the lighter ones is selected1 and if care is taken to choose a straight one4 ,next take a cane or other piece of light flexible wood1 and bind the centre of it tightly at the point ,g an inch below ,a4 ,bend the cane into a semi-circle and connect ,c and ,d with string4 ,if this has been done properly the distance from ,c to ,d will be two feet4 ,now connect ,d ,b ,c with string and the frame will be ready4 ,many years ago it was possible to cover a kite with ordinary newspaper1 but the paper that is used now is not strong enough1 and it is better to use calico4 ,place the frame upon the calico and cut round the frame with scissors1 not close to the frame1 but leaving a margin of calico4 ,turn this over string and cane and stitch it in position4 ,this may be done with a sewing machine4 ,at ,e midway between ,h ,g bore a hole with a pricker1 and another at ,f1 which is the same distance from ,h as ,e is4 ,string a foot long should connect ,e and ,f1 and this is kept in position by having knotted ends so that the ends cannot pass through the holes at ,e and ,f4 ,this string will not be tight1 but will hang loosely4 ,at ,c and ,d tassels about eight inches long may be fixed4 ,the tail is made by folding paper4 ,take a number of pieces about five inches long and four broad1 and fold them as though you were making spills for the lighting of candles4 ,how long the tail should be is a matter for experiment4 ,try it with forty and a tassel at the end1 and you will see afterwards when you try to fly the kite if that is the right length and weight4 ,attach your long flying line now to the string that connects ,e and ,f1 about four and a half inches below ,e4 ,choose a breezy day and ask someone to face the wind and hold the kite aloft4 ,keeping the line tight1 run a few yards in the face of the wind to give the kite a start upon its upward journey4 ,now is the time to see if the tail is too heavy or too light4 ,if the kite labours upwards and shows a tendency to come straight down1 tail first1 then it may be inferred that the tail is too heavy1 and by reducing the number of chickens as they are called in some parts of the country1 and by taking from the tassel the kite may be relieved of its too heavy burden4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the tail is not heavy enough1 the kite will plunge madly from side to side and will dive downwards head foremost1 demanding more chickens or a heavier tassel4 ,the kite may be flown in the dark with a ,chinese lantern where the tassel is4 ,illustration ,rackets4--,a racket ground is in the form of a parallelogram1 not less than fifty yards long and twenty-five broad4 ,sometimes a wall of a garden may be adapted by fixing boards and net-work along the top1 if there is space enough below4 ,the wall should be painted black1 and the ground be divided into four equal divisions1 distinctly marked4 ,the flooring of the court should be paved4 ,the divisions are1 two close to the wall1 ,a and ,b1 and two in front of them1 ,c and ,d4 ,these divisions are occupied by those who play the game4 ,the wall should be marked by a broad line of white paint ,e at forty-two inches from the ground1 and above this line each ball should strike4 ,the ball weighs one ounce1 and should be white4 ,when it becomes dirty its whiteness is renewed by dipping it into a bag of chalk1 so that it may be seen against the black wall4 ,the game may be played by two or more players4 ,when it is played by four1 one stands in each of the compartments1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d2 those near the wall being called in-hand1 and those furthest from it out-hand players4 ,when two play1 each player has two of the divisions1 and the one who takes the ,a and ,b is called in-hand player1 and the other out-hand player4 ,having decided who is to begin the game1 the in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against the wall2 if it strikes under the line1 goes over the wall1 does not rebound into the out-hand spaces1 or goes beyond the racket ground1 the striker is out1 and the out-hand player takes his place2 but if the player is successful1 and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces1 and as it rises is sent back to the wall1 to rebound into one of the in spaces1 the game proceeds4 ,in a close-court game the server who serves the ball properly above the line but not into his adversary's court is allowed three trials before his hand is out4 ,the game is1 that the in-player should send the ball in such a manner against the wall that1 on its rebound1 the opposite player1 or players1 shall be able to pick it up or strike it4 ,when this happens1 he who struck the ball counts one point1 or an ace1 and the play proceeds until one player or players scores eleven1 or fifteen1 as the players decide4 ,this game may be played either in an open court1 that is in a court with only one wall1 against which the game is played1 or in a closed court surrounded by four walls4 ,sometimes there is an ordinary high front wall1 and a smaller back wall1 omitting the side walls4 ,the close-court game is the best1 but the expense compels many to adopt the open-court game4 ,fives4--,this game needs a high wall1 free from abutments1 and under it a smooth1 dry1 paved ground4 ,a line is drawn on the wall1 about three feet from the ground2 another line is drawn upon the ground itself about #aj feet from the wall1 ,a2 and two others are drawn on each side as boundaries1 ,b1 ,c4 ,the player needs a ball of tightly-sewn leather and a fives-bat4 ,this has a long handle1 and an oval bowl of wood4 ,the ball is hard1 capable of bouncing1 small and white4 ,the game may be played by two or four people2 in the last arrangement1 two on each side4 ,the game may be played either single-handed or with partners4 ,when it is played with partners1 the players toss up for first innings4 ,the first player takes the ball1 and strikes it against the wall with his bat above the line on the wall1 and so that it may fall outside the line on the ground4 ,the other then strikes it1 and the players continue to hit it against the wall1 either before it comes to the ground or at the first rebound1 until one of them missing it1 or driving it out of bounds1 or beneath the wall-line1 loses or goes out4 ,the ball may fall anywhere within the side boundaries1 after being once struck up by the player who is in4 ,the game is usually fifteen1 but is sometimes extended to twenty-five4 ,this is bat-fives1 and is not unlike rackets1 except that it may be played in any open court1 and that another kind of bat and a larger ball are used4 ,fives was originally played with the hand1 instead of a racket4 ,prisoners' ,base4--,appoint the two best players captains1 and let them choose their men alternately4 ,next mark the homes and prisons4 ,two semicircles are drawn1 large enough to hold the two sides1 the distance between the semicircles being about twenty yards4 ,these are the homes1 or bounds4 ,twenty yards in front of these1 two other semicircles1 of a rather larger size1 are drawn4 ,these are the prisons1 and the prison of each party is in a line with the enemy's home4 ,having settled which side shall commence the game the captain of that side orders out one of his own side who must run at least beyond the prisons before he returns4 ,as soon as he has started1 the ,captain of the other side sends out one of his men to try to touch him before he can regain his own home4 ,if this is accomplished1 the successful runner is permitted to return home while the boy who has been touched must go to the prison belonging to his enemies' side2 from which he cannot move until someone from his own side releases him1 by evading the enemy and touching him4 ,this is not easy1 because in order to reach the prison1 the player must cross the enemy's headquarters4 ,it is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his hand as far towards his rescuer as possible1 but he must keep some part of his body within the prison2 and if a number of prisoners are captured1 it is sufficient for one to remain within the prison1 while the rest1 by joining hands make a line towards the boy who is trying to release them4 ,when this is done1 both the prisoner and his rescuer return home1 no one being able to touch them until they have reached their home and started off again4 ,the game1 however1 is not only confined to the two originally sent out4 ,as soon as a captain sees his man in difficulty he sends out a third1 who is in his turn pursued by another from the other side2 each being able to touch any who have preceded1 but none who have left their home after him4 ,the captains direct1 and hold themselves ready in case of an emergency1 and the side wins which imprisons the whole of the boys upon the other side4 ,french and ,english4--,choose two sides in the usual way4 ,one side takes hold of one end of a stout rope1 and the other side of the other end4 ,a line is made midway between the sides1 each strives to pull the other over it1 and those who are so pulled over1 lose the game4 ,two captains should be appointed1 and each should have a code of signals to communicate with his own side1 that he may direct them when to stop1 when to slacken1 or when to pull hard4 ,in this game sometimes a good captain may win even when he has an inferior team4 ,for instance1 if he sees all the boys are pulling their hardest1 the captain of the other side sees that his opponents are leaning back too much1 that is they are trusting to their weight rather than to their strength4 ,he gives the signal to slacken1 when down go the enemy1 and are then dragged over the line with the greatest ease4 ,if the enemy begins to be tired a united and sudden tug will generally bring them upright1 and once moved1 the victory is easily gained4 ,no knots are to be allowed on the rope1 nor is the game won1 unless the whole side has been dragged over the line4 ,fight for the ,flag4--,a game played from a mound1 and any number may play4 ,each party chooses a captain1 and having done this1 divide themselves into attackers and defenders4 ,the defending party provide themselves with a small flag1 which is fixed on a staff on the top of the mound1 and then arrange themselves round it so as to defend it from the attacks of their opponents1 who advance towards the hillock1 and try to throw down those who oppose them4 ,those who are so thrown on either side1 are called dead men1 and must lie quiet till the game is finished4 ,this happens either when all the attacking party are dead1 or when the flag has been carried off by one of them4 ,the player who carries off the flag is called the knight1 and is chosen captain for the next game4 ,hop-,scotch4--,a game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an oyster-shell or piece of tile or stone from one compartment to the other1 without placing the lifted foot1 except in one case1 upon the ground1 and without allowing the shell or tile to rest on any of the lines4 ,a diagram is first drawn consisting of twelve compartments1 each being numbered1 and at its further end the picture of a plum pudding with knife and fork4 ,in commencing the game1 the players take their stand at the place marked by ,a1 and throw for innings4 ,he who can go nearest to the plum in the centre of the pudding1 plays first4 ,illustration ,the winner begins by throwing his shell into ,no4 #a2 he then hops into the space1 and kicks the tile out to ,a2 he next throws the tile into ,no4 #b1 kicks it from ,no4 #b to ,no4 #a1 and thence out4 ,he then throws it into ,no4 #c1 kicks it from #c to #b1 from #b to #a1 and out4 ,he next throws it into ,no4 #d1 kicks it from #d to #c1 from #c to #b1 from #b to #a1 and out2 and so he goes on till he has passed the cross and comes to ,no4 #g1 when he is allowed to rest1 by standing with one foot in ,no4 #f and the other in ,no4 #g2 but he must go on hopping before he kicks the tile home4 ,he then passes through the beds #h1 #i1 #aj and #aa1 as he did those of #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 etc41 and so on1 till he gets to plum pudding1 when he may rest1 and placing his tile on the plum1 he is required1 while standing on one foot1 to kick it with such force as to send it through all the other beds to ,a at one kick4 ,if one player throws his tile into the wrong compartment1 or when he is kicking it out1 he loses his innings1 as he does also if the tile or his foot at any time rests on a line1 or if he kicks his tile out of the diagram4 ,we give also diagrams for simpler forms of the game4 ,turnpike4--,although turnpike-keepers upon the roads have long since been abolished1 there is no reason why the game of turnpike1 played with hoops1 should be played no longer4 ,any number of boys may play1 but we will suppose there are six4 ,one should have a hoop and the others will then be turnpike-keepers4 ,these take two stones or two bricks and place them about two inches apart upon the ground4 ,we may call each pair of stones or bricks the toll-bar1 and each toll-bar should be some distance from the others4 ,it is the task of the boy with the hoop to pass between the stones without touching them1 and if he goes through the five then he turns and comes through them again from the other side1 and so on until he fails4 ,if he touches a toll-bar then the keeper of the bar takes that hoop1 and he who had hitherto been driving the hoop becomes the keeper of that particular toll-bar at which he failed4 ,if the hoop driver touches his hoop with his hands1 or allows it to fall he must give it to the nearest toll-bar keeper and take his place while the toll-bar keeper becomes a hoop driver4 ,each keeper must stand upon that side of his toll-gate which is towards the right hand of the hoop driver1 so that when the hoop driver returns he must cross to the other side of his toll-bar4 ,if he is on the wrong side the hoop driver need not trouble to pass through his toll-bar at all4 ,if the boys prefer it there may be more hoop drivers and fewer toll-bar keepers4 ,posting4--,places called posting-stations are formed at regular intervals in a large circle or oval1 and at each place a player takes his stand4 ,every player1 except the hoop driver1 has charge of one of these stations4 ,suppose there are seven players--,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 and ,g1 and that ,g holds the hoop4 ,the other six players having taken their places1 ,g starts from the station belonging to ,f1 and drives the hoop towards ,a1 who waits1 with hoop-stick in hand1 ready to relieve ,g of his hoop4 ,g stops at the posting-station1 while ,a runs the hoop to ,b1 who takes charge of it1 and delivers it to ,c4 ,c trundles the hoop to ,d2 ,d takes it to ,e2 ,e to ,f1 and ,f conveys it to the first player1 ,g4 ,in this way the game continues1 until all the players have worked round the circle five or six times4 ,the game is rendered more boisterous by increasing the numbers of players1 and having two or three hoop drivers4 ,do not touch the hoop with your hands1 and do not let the hoop fall4 ,fox4--,one player is called ,fox1 and he has a den where none of the players may annoy him4 ,the other players arm themselves with knotted handkerchiefs1 and wait for ,reynard's appearance4 ,he is also armed with a knotted handkerchief1 and hops out of his den4 ,when he is out1 the other players attack him with their handkerchiefs1 and he endeavours to strike one of them without putting down his other foot4 ,if he puts down his foot he has to run back as fast as he can1 without the right to strike the other players1 who flog him the whole way4 ,if1 however1 he succeeds in striking one without losing his balance1 the one so struck becomes ,fox2 and1 as he has both feet down1 is thrashed to his den4 ,drop ,ball4--,a line must be drawn three feet from the wall at which this game of ball is to be played4 ,the player must kneel outside this line1 and never cross it2 if the ball falls inside the line it is reckoned a miss4 ,each time the player throws up the ball and catches it it counts a point4 ,there are many ways of playing this game4 #a4 ,throwing the ball and catching it before it touches the ground4 #b4 ,clapping the hands after throwing1 before the ball touches the ground4 #c4 ,putting one knee to the ground before catching the ball4 #d4 ,putting one knee to the ground and clapping the hands before catching the ball4 #e4 ,circling round on one heel before catching the ball4 #f4 ,circling round on one heel and counting #a1 #b1 #c1 or any number agreed upon1 before catching the ball4 #g4 ,strike the player nearest you before catching the ball4 ,there should not be too many players1 for they would have to wait too long for a turn4 ,jingling4--,the game should be played on soft grass inside a large circle1 enclosed with ropes4 ,the players should not exceed ten4 ,all except one of the nimblest1 who is the jingler1 have their eyes blindfolded with handkerchiefs4 ,the jingler holds a bell in his hand1 which he is obliged to keep ringing4 ,the aim of the jingler is to elude the pursuit of his companions1 who follow him by the sound of the bell within the boundaries of the rope1 for he is forbidden to pass beyond it4 ,if he be caught in the time allotted for the game1 generally twenty minutes1 the player who caught him wins the match2 if they are not able to take him1 he is proclaimed the victor4 ,the ,fugleman4--,the ,fugleman places himself in a prominent place1 and arranges the other boys before him in a line4 ,he then begins with grotesque gestures1 which all the boys are compelled to copy4 ,those who are seen to laugh are immediately ordered to stand out of the line1 and when half the number of players are so put out1 the others are allowed to ride them three times round the playground1 while the ,fugleman with a knotted handkerchief beats the steeds from behind4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,garden ,how to ,dig4--,it is beyond the scope of this book to enter into all the intricacies of gardening4 ,to do this we should need a volume larger than this devoted to that subject alone4 ,whatever branch of gardening a boy may pursue1 however1 whether he grows gooseberries1 sweet peas1 or cabbages1 he will need to know how to dig4 ,one of the pleasures of life is to come to a garden that has been neglected or to a plot of land that hitherto has been a field and to see it gradually become a well kept garden without a weed1 under the magic of good spade work4 ,it is like subduing an enemy4 ,the simplest way to dig is to take a spade full of earth1 turn it over1 and put it back where you found it4 ,this1 however1 is only for lightening the soil when the garden has been cultivated already4 ,you would not subdue an unruly garden in that way4 ,shallow ,trenching4--,if ,,abcd is a plot of land and you are beginning at the ,,ab end1 dig out the earth ,,abef and convey it to the ,,dc end and put it near but off the plot you are digging4 ,now dig ,,efgh and throw the earth from that into the trench ,,abef and so on for the rest of the plot4 ,when you have come to the end of the plot there will be a trench1 but this will be filled by the earth you took there at the beginning of your digging4 ,illustration3 ,,shallow ,,trenching4 ,deep ,trenching4--,the best basis for gardening1 however1 is a more drastic1 deeper trenching than this4 ,let ,,abcd be the plot we are going to dig deeply4 ,divide it into equal parts by the line ,,ef4 ,make the line ,,gh #c-a_/b feet from ,,fc4 ,dig out the earth from ,,ghcf and carry it to ,x where it may be put in a heap4 ,make the line ,,ij #c feet from ,,gh4 ,dig out the earth one spade deep from ,,ghij and throw it upon the heap at ,x4 ,this earth at ,x taken from the top is known as top soil4 ,now return to ,,gfch and go another spade deeper1 throwing the soil of this digging into a heap at ,y4 ,still at ,,gfch break up the soil there with a fork1 and manure and refuse may be placed there4 ,weeds put down here would have no chance to grow again4 ,go now to ,,gijh1 dig out the subsoil there and put it into ,,gfch4 ,on the top of this subsoil so removed place the top soil from ,,kijl4 ,go on like this until you come to ,,eb1 when the top soil from ,,aemn should go to ,,noqr and the subsoil of ,,aemn into ,,noqr and the top soil from ,,mnpq into ,,ebon4 ,when you get to ,,df you will find the subsoil at ,y and the top soil at ,x ready for the filling of the last trench4 ,it is important to keep the top soil on the top and the subsoil underneath4 ,drive the spade into the earth in a perpendicular direction and the full depth of the blade4 ,let the garden endure the winter with a rough surface so that the soil may present as many surfaces to the frost as possible4 ,jack ,frost is one of the very best gardeners1 and to see soil before he has bitten it and afterwards will be a revelation to the young gardener4 ,double ,digging4--,the deep trenching just described1 in which the top soil was kept upon the top1 and the subsoil underneath1 is excellent where the subsoil is unfit for plant food1 but there is a problem which it does not solve4 ,suppose we come to a garden matted hard upon the surface with buttercups1 convolvulus1 grass1 twitch1 groundsel1 thistles and other tiresome weeds1 then the last thing we desire is that these should remain on top4 ,you cannot pull up the weeds by hand because the ground is so hard that you do no more than break the weeds1 leaving the roots embedded firmly in the earth4 ,before there is any peace in the garden these weeds must be killed1 and we will now describe how to do it4 ,suppose ,,abcd is the plot of ground4 ,from ,,ab measure four feet and draw the line ,,ef4 ,from ,,abfe take out the soil one spade deep1 that is the top soil1 and put it in a heap at ,g outside the plot4 ,now from ,,abfe take out the soil another spade deep1 the subsoil1 and put it in a heap at ,h4 ,now from ,,ef measure two feet and draw the line ,,ij4 ,take the top soil1 weeds and everything1 from ,,efji and throw it to ,,abkl--,,kl is two feet from ,,ab--leaving ,,klfe empty for the present4 ,now take the subsoil from ,,efji and throw it into ,,abkl1 that is upon the top of the top soil you have just thrown there4 ,now measure another two feet from ,,ij and draw the line ,,mn4 ,the soil from ,,ijnm will go into ,,klfe1 top soil first and the subsoil on the top of it4 ,proceed in this way1 two feet at a time1 and when you come to ,,cd throw the soil at ,g and ,h into the trench that will be left1 top soil first and subsoil upon the top of it4 ,the plot ,,abcd will now be well dug1 and all the weeds will be deep under the soil where they will speedily die and decay2 and even supposing that the subsoil you had brought to the top is not good1 you may double dig again next year and so recover the old top soil minus the weeds4 ,any weeds that grow now may be eradicated easily from the loose soil1 and even the weeds of twitch and convolvulus may be followed down and extracted4 ,unless you have unlimited time and patience to look after them do not be tempted to leave grass paths1 but dig the garden from side to side4 ,grass paths are always spreading upon the garden and making the edges weedy and untidy4 ,if you prefer it you may do this double digging with the plot divided as we divided it for deep trenching4 ,illustration3 ,,deep ,,trenching4 ,how to sow ,seed4--,it is not wise to sow old seed4 ,even if they grow the plants are often without vigour4 ,go to a seedsman who has a good character and do not buy seed because its price is low4 ,the soil must be fine and firm1 porous and moist4 ,it must not be sticky nor dry4 ,the seeds will not germinate until they can have both warmth and moisture4 ,sow thinly because crowded plants do not grow well4 ,it is best to sow small flower seeds in pans and boxes well drained1 as explained in our article on window-boxes to follow4 ,level the surface of the earth and make it firm4 ,water it with a fine spray and then stand it in the shade for about five hours4 ,now scatter the seed thinly and cover it very lightly with sifted earth4 ,white-washed or paper shaded glass may be placed over the box or pan until the seeds appear4 ,the glass will keep the air warm and moist4 ,except in the case of the very small seeds1 the depth at which they are sown should be about three times their size or thickness4 ,in the garden do not sow broadcast1 but in drills1 as the ground can then be more easily weeded and kept loose when the seeds have grown4 ,after sowing press the soil well down and then water gently so that the seeds are not washed out1 and the water drains away quickly4 ,the soil must not be allowed to get quite dry1 and yet excessive moisture must be avoided4 ,too much watering is a common cause of failure4 ,if the soil becomes caked before the seedlings appear or patches be lifted by them1 break it up with the point of a knife1 and then water gently and just sufficiently to settle the soil round the plants4 ,do not water seeds or seedlings with water that is colder than the soil1 and in summer do not water until the evening4 ,if the watering of very small seeds is necessary1 stand the pans or boxes in a shallow vessel of water for an hour4 ,for watering seedlings use a vaporiser1 or dip a hair brush in water1 shake off most of the fluid1 and then1 while holding the brush over the plants draw the hand along the bristles several times4 ,when the seedlings are up1 loosen the soil around them very gently4 ,a ,window ,box4--,there are not many forms of gardening that are so pleasant as that of having a window box4 ,there need be no bearing of the heat and burden of the day1 no laborious double digging1 no tedious weeding1 no back-aching hoeing1 no hard days with the wheelbarrow4 ,the window box1 too1 is not merely a fine weather friend4 ,as you sit in your room upon a rainy day it is at the window beside you1 and if your window is open the scent from the flowers comes in with every breeze4 ,if you have a succession of window-boxes you can have a blaze of flowers upon your window sill at most seasons of the year4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,digging4 ,the box need not be made elaborately1 and though some people do give themselves much trouble yet flowers look as well or even better in such a roughly made box painted green as most boys can make out of a packing case bought for a few coppers from the grocer4 ,you may put plants already in pots in your box1 but if you desire to grow flowers in the box itself it will be necessary to fill it with earth4 ,before this is done holes about the size of a farthing should be bored in the bottom of the box with a brace and bit or with that more homely if unjoiner-like tool the red hot poker4 ,these are to provide drainage4 ,then there should come between one and two inches of broken stones and upon this the earth4 ,as a rule this may be the ordinary earth from the garden1 but it is better to add some coarse sand if you have it1 and if in your walks into woods and along the hedges you can secure some leaf mould to put with the earth so much the better4 ,well decayed manure1 odds and ends of mortar and lime which the builders may have left about will all help to provide the flowers with food4 ,there are so many flowers that look well in window-boxes that no complete list can be given4 ,boys should be ever on the look out to find from the boxes of other people what thrives in these boxes4 ,each end of the box should be left for climbers that will run up each side of the window1 and no better plant for this position can be named than the delicate canary creeper with its pale green leaves and dainty yellow flowers4 ,nasturtiums1 too1 look well in this position1 and no better border for the front of the box can be imagined than the blue of the beautiful lobelia4 ,another good climber is convolvulus major4 ,these climbers live for one season only1 but one that grows year after year is tropolum pentaphyllum4 ,in the winter the tubers of this plant are kept in sand and are placed in position each spring4 ,plants that hang over the front of the box are graceful like single petunias and rock bindweed1 and for the rest each boy can make a selection of his favourites for the remaining part of the box4 ,if he likes he may have a number of boxes so that when one has had its day another may be ready4 ,in the spring box he would have crocuses1 snowdrops1 squills1 daffodils and such flowers2 then a box with primroses1 tulips and hyacinths2 and after that a box of pinks1 lilies of the valley1 anemones1 and next the real summer flowers and blooms of autumn4 ,let the plants be watered regularly with water that is not too cold1 and if it be possible use rain water4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,boy ,,as ,,artist ,it would be idle to pretend that it is possible in the chapter of a book1 or indeed in a book itself1 to give instruction that would make a boy an artist2 but most people have the capacity to make sketches1 and this is a pleasing and useful training of the eye and hand4 ,the power to bring away a sketch of a scene that has charmed us is one well worth the cultivation1 and in the making of the sketch we see many things that would otherwise escape our notice4 ,if a boy finds he has special ability in this direction he should read the lives of artists1 visit picture galleries1 and join an art class1 where he will be conducted through the severe discipline that leads him to drawing the living human form1 amusing himself meanwhile by sketching in the lanes and woods1 among the mountains1 or wherever he happens to be1 even if it is in the streets4 ,hints on ,sketching4--,the drawing of a cathedral with all its complexities and innumerable details is governed by the same rules as the drawing of a barn or even of a brick1 and these rules are simple1 and are easily stated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,in sketching we have to draw things as they seem1 not as we know them to be4 ,the top of a bucket is a perfect circle2 yet when we draw it1 unless we look down upon it from a point exactly above its centre1 we represent it by an oval4 ,similarly1 when we look along a stretch of railway line we know that the lines are exactly parallel1 but they seem to draw nearer to each other4 ,the rails of a fence are of equal height1 and have been put at equal distances apart1 but as we look along the fence it seems as though further away the workman had used shorter posts1 and had put them nearer together4 ,if we can see through a railway tunnel1 it looks as though the way out at the other end were smaller than the way in at this2 but we know they are of the same size4 ,the rules under which lines seem to draw together and spaces become smaller have been called the rules of perspective1 and it is important that we should learn these rules4 ,luckily they are few and not difficult to understand1 and we will learn them as we go along in drawing a few simple forms that shall include them4 ,in ,fig4 #a we have a box1 its corner towards us4 ,in the box itself the lines ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 and ,e ,f would be the same distance from each other from end to end1 and if they were made ever so long would never meet1 but here in the drawing they meet at ,g4 ,in the same way the lines ,a ,h1 ,c ,e1 and ,d ,f1 which in the actual box are parallel or equi-distant and so draw no nearer to each other1 meet in the drawing at ,i4 ,in the drawing1 as in reality1 the lines ,e ,h1 ,c ,a1 and ,d ,b are parallel1 and would never meet1 however far we might lengthen them4 ,the lines of the brass round the key-hole follow the same rules4 ,let this box illustrate another matter4 ,we move it into a slightly different position1 so that we almost lose sight of the end ,e ,c ,a ,h4 ,this end1 in the language of artists1 is now said to be fore-shortened4 ,the lines that draw nearer together are said to vanish4 ,the point where they meet is their vanishing point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,we will give some further examples of the same rules of perspective applied to different forms4 ,the young artist standing before a scene he is going to sketch should decide what point is opposite his eyes4 ,it may be some place in a church wall or in a tree1 or even in the sky4 ,however1 having fixed it1 mark it also upon your paper1 and then draw a horizontal line through it4 7,fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,rigg',s ,,farm1 ,,near ,,aysgarth1 ,,wensleydale4 ,in the scene we have selected we stand upon a hill and look at a farmhouse that stands upon another hill4 ,the point opposite our eyes is the window ,a4 ,it will be noticed that the lines above the eyes come down to the line of sight or horizontal line1 ,b ,c4 ,those below rise to it4 ,lines that are parallel to each other1 whether they are roof lines tiles1 the tops or bottoms of windows1 meet in the same point1 so that if you get one of those lines right1 it is easy to get all the others right by continuing them to the same point4 ,from this sketch1 and the foregoing examples1 we arrive at the following rules3-- ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,at ,,norton4 ,parallel lines1 as they recede1 vanish to a point4 ,horizontal1 receding lines1 if they are below the level of the eyes1 appear to rise4 ,horizontal1 receding lines1 if they are above the level of the eyes1 appear to descend4 ,spaces1 as they recede1 appear to become smaller4 ,illustration3 ,,saskia ,,van ,,ulenburgh1 ,,rembrandt',s ,,wife4 ,from a drawing by ,rembrandt in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,objects1 as they recede1 appear to become smaller4 ,all horizontal receding lines have their vanishing point upon the line of sight4 ,all parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point as each other4 ,all horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane are drawn parallel with each other1 and with the line of sight4 ,all horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture plane1 or with our position1 have the point of sight for their vanishing point4 ,we have here introduced a new term1 the picture plane4 ,the best way to understand this is to imagine you are looking at everything through a pane of glass4 ,in this case the glass would be the picture plane1 and if we could stand steadily enough in one place and trace upon the window pane the lines of the streets and houses1 we should find the lines upon the pane following the rules we have given4 ,many of the rules of perspective are to be seen in the sketch of ,rigg's ,farm1 ,wensleydale1 ,yorkshire1 ,fig4 #d4 ,the receding lines of the road1 the grass edges1 and the walls2 the front of the farmhouse is so much foreshortened that it is possible to see only a very small part of it1 though the building is really a long one4 ,we have given also a sketch by ,rembrandt1 and a pen and ink landscape drawing made at ,norton in ,north ,derbyshire by ,charles ,ashmore4 ,stencilling4--,the use of stencils is familiar to most people in one form or other4 ,ladies frequently use stencil plates in which their names or initials are cut out to mark linen4 ,a commoner use is that of metal plates in which the letters of the alphabet are cut out in thin metal for use in labelling trunks1 boxes in commerce1 with the name and destination of the owner1 merchant1 or goods4 ,it is possible that a very delicate form of stencilling is familiar to many of my readers1 which is used to multiply copies of letters1 circulars or notices to go through the post4 ,the machine consists of a handle to which is attached a small wheel which has projecting from its rim a series of sharp points4 ,the letters are formed by writing with this wheel4 ,as the wheel passes over the paper the points pierce small round holes1 sufficiently close to each other to indicate the letters1 while the paper between the holes are bridges or ties holding the inside of the loops firmly to the rest of the sheet4 ,this writing becomes the stencil4 ,to obtain copies1 the stencil is laid over a sheet of paper1 and a brush charged with colour is rubbed across4 ,the colour passes through the holes to the paper beneath1 and the copy is secured4 ,in making the metal stencil plates of letters1 ties or bridges have to be left to prevent the inner parts of the letters becoming solid like a printer's4 ,such letters as ,i1 ,f1 ,j1 ,t1 and some others1 can be given in their complete form1 though in the case of the ,f1 it would be better1 that is1 the stencil plate would be firmer1 if a tie were left where the top horizontal line joins the perpendicular stem4 ,in cutting stencils this matter of tying or supporting all the interior or enclosed parts of the composition is very important1 and should never be lost sight of4 ,it is better to err in an excess of ties1 than to risk the falling to pieces of the whole by insufficient support4 ,the reader will perceive that if the white parts of the loops in the letter ,b are not connected with the outer surrounding whites1 they would fall out1 and the letter would stencil solid1 while if only one tie is given1 the loops would get out of position1 as the paper swells with the moisture of the paint4 ,instances of these ties will be found in nearly all the illustrations1 particularly in the ,mooresque design1 ,fig4 #b4 ,it is the aim of the designer to make these ties a part of the composition1 and an assistance in the effect of the whole4 ,but cases will occur where the composition must be ruthlessly cut across as in the ,greek design1 ,fig4 #a1 where in one repeat the central portions are shown with ties1 and in the other in its complete form4 ,the restoration is made with the brush afterwards4 ,the ties should be broad or narrow according to the strength of the material of which the stencil is made1 and the number of repeats for which it will be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,frieze ,,or ,,dado4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a;,a4 ,,altered ,,for ,,vertical ,,use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,mooresque ,,design ,,for ,,dado4 ,stencilling is employed as an easy method of repeating the same ornament1 figures1 or letters1 with exactness and speed4 ,if ,i desired to use the simple ,greek composition ,fig4 #a1 as a frieze in the study in which ,i am writing1 not by any means a large room1 being about #ad feet by #aa feet1 it would be necessary to repeat it between #ij and #ajj times4 ,if ,i had to draw this in by hand1 and laboriously paint it1 probably the enthusiasm for art which projected the scheme would be frittered away long before ,i completed it1 and ,i should throw it up in disgust and call in the paperhanger to put on the usual wall furnishing4 ,but if the design were cut out in stencil1 it would take but little if any longer to stencil the frieze than it would for the hanger to paper it1 and the scheme being carried out in the other details1 ,i should have the satisfaction and enjoyment of a room specially decorated to suit my own taste1 and unique according to the originality of the design4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,frieze3 ,,silverweed1 ,,frog4 ,illustration3 ,,and ,,toad4 ,in the article on the use of leaves which follows1 it is suggested that the forms of leaves to be met with in the field1 hedgerow or wood1 are peculiarly adapted to ornamental purposes1 stencilling in decoration of the home among others4 ,but this use of natural forms in ornament requires taste and consideration4 ,to stick a leaf here and another there1 without a purpose or design in the composition1 is not ornament4 ,i propose1 with the aid of the printer1 to give an idea of the principles which govern the making of designs4 ,the first one is repetition4 ,to use a star thus 99 singly1 is not ornament4 ,place a number of stars side by side at regular distances between parallel lines thus3-- 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 and you have a design1 elementary1 it is true1 but as far as it goes decorative4 ,in place of the star put a clover leaf1 a conventional flower such as is used in ,fig4 #c1 or a briar leaf laid slanting to the right or left1 and you have a border which may be used for a light frieze or the top of a dado4 ,arrange the stars in parallel rows thus3-- 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 so that each star falls midway between the star above and below1 and you have the elements of a design such as is very commonly used in wall-papers1 prints1 and nearly all forms of decoration under the name of diaper patterns4 ,again1 in place of the star put some other form1 as an ivy leaf or a small spray4 ,but in this class of design we shall not be much concerned in room decoration1 as they are only used for large panels4 ,another principle in ornament is alternation4 ,it may be illustrated thus3-- 99 99 99 99 99 in which parallel lines alternate with stars4 ,this composition is not more crude than much of what passes for decoration at the present time4 ,for our immediate purpose let a shapely leaf take the place of the upright lines and a flower the place of the star1 and you have a more advanced border1 and if the masses are well balanced and drawn1 one agreeable to the eye4 ,i think the printer can illustrate another principle of design for us in symmetry thus3-- 99 6 99 6 99 6 99 6 99 66 66 66 66 99 - 99 - 99 - 99 - 99 in which three exclamation marks are placed side by side at different levels1 with parallel lines and a hyphen below1 alternating with stars4 ,or a simpler form still of the same principle may be given thus3-- 99 99 99 99 99 99 in which the double dagger alternates with a star4 ,if you draw a perpendicular line up the central exclamation mark or the daggers1 the right and left sides will be found to be alike or symmetrical4 ,in place of the daggers or the exclamation marks1 draw the leaves of the wild rose1 one in the centre and one inclining to the right1 another to the left2 put a flower in place of the parallel lines1 and you will have a symmetrical composition1 the stalks being prolonged below4 ,this principle of design is clearly shown in the two designs1 ,figs4 #a and #a;a4 ,a perpendicular line divides the designs into two equal parts4 ,this is two-sided symmetry1 what we are more particularly concerned with4 ,another principle in ornament is balance of parts4 ,this is symmetry of another order1 in which the two sides of the composition1 although different in all the details1 yet preserve the same weight or balance4 ,the general effect is the same4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #c1 which is a design for a frieze4 ,in no place could a line be drawn which would divide the composition into two similar parts1 but by the disposition of the leaves of the silverweed there is an equal distribution of weight on either side of the design4 ,this balance of parts is important to preserve when the design departs from the symmetrical in its arrangements4 ,it makes all the difference between a pleasing and unsatisfactory composition1 and is not to be acquired without considerable practice4 ,the chrysanthemum design1 ,fig4 #f1 is an illustration of this principle4 ,it is designed for the panels of a door1 or the sides of a grate1 or to go round a door in the form of a vertical border1 but in every case where it can be placed in pairs with the flowers away from the centre1 to be done by reversing the stencil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,dado ,,or ,,frieze3 ,,oak ,,and ,,squirrels4 ,having thus cleared the ground for practical work1 we can describe the way to make stencils4 ,for our purpose the best material for the stencil is the oiled paper used in the letter-copying press4 ,this will be found strong1 hard1 and non-absorbent4 ,it is comparatively cheap and can be purchased at most stationers4 ,in cases in which this paper would not be large enough1 which may happen in some of the running patterns1 cartridge paper1 or better still1 hot-pressed ,whatman's1 if coated on both sides with knotting varnish 7to be procured at any oilman's shop71 would do very well4 ,for smaller subjects1 which are not required for more than a score repeats1 ordinary note paper1 the highly polished kind that crackles like sheet iron when bent is excellent1 and has been largely used by the writer4 ,the knife used is one with a blade that runs to a sharp point4 ,this point must be kept with a keen edge1 so that one cut will go through the paper1 leaving a clear edge4 ,hold the blade of the knife at right angles to the paper1 which must rest upon a clean sheet of glass4 ,if cut upon any yielding surface1 the paper will bruise4 ,a hone should be close at hand to keep a good edge to the knife4 ,it is important to get a clean1 square cut1 with no ragged margins4 ,to get the drawing on the paper1 first make a rough sketch giving the size and general character of the design on ordinary sketching paper4 ,if the design is symmetrical1 i4e41 both sides alike1 rule a perpendicular line4 ,draw as clearly and carefully as possible one-half the composition1 that is all that will appear on the left-hand side of the line4 ,when you are satisfied with this1 place a piece of looking-glass exactly on the vertical line2 you will see the image of your drawing in the glass1 but in reverse1 thus completing the design4 ,if looking-glass is not available1 a coat of ,brunswick black on one side of any piece of glass will give you a sufficiently good reflector4 ,probably you will not be altogether satisfied with the drawing as shown complete in the glass4 ,the lines are not agreeable ones1 or pretty in curve1 or the balance of the parts is not quite as you would like it4 ,make the alterations you feel necessary1 and apply the glass again4 ,when satisfied1 place tracing-paper over the drawing4 ,this may be fastened down by drawing-pins1 a touch of gum1 or pieces of the free edge of postage-stamps4 ,indicate carefully by clear marks the position of the vertical line1 and proceed to draw a firm outline of the design1 with1 say1 an ,f pencil or an ,,hb4 ,when done1 remove the tracing-paper and fold it exactly down the vertical line1 with the pencil drawing outside4 ,double it1 in fact4 ,then placing it on a sheet of white paper1 draw the other half1 thus completing the design4 ,put it1 pencilled side downwards1 on the oil paper or note-paper1 and rub off with your thumb nail4 ,go over the design1 marking all the ties very distinctly4 ,then cut out as before1 taking care not to cut through the ties4 ,in practice you will find it best to begin cutting at the ties2 the paper will readily spin round on the glass so that you can follow the curves of the design with your knife4 ,should you cut through a tie1 it must be made good4 ,cut off a slip of paper of the same size1 put on some of the knotting1 and when it is tacky1 stick down the strengthening slip4 ,the stencil may include more than one repeat of the pattern1 the more repeats there are the quicker the work can be done4 ,some decorators in making stencils do rather more than they intend to use when stencilling1 so that parts overlap1 which is done to get the repeat true4 ,i find it better1 more exact1 to work from two lines on the stencil1 one a horizontal line and another a vertical line4 ,by using a needle point 7a needle in a wood handle71 ,i rule a horizontal line upon the wall in the position the horizontal line on the stencil should fall4 ,this is altogether indistinguishable when the work is finished4 ,then1 vertically to this line1 with the same point1 ,i indicate where the repeats should fall1 and then go ahead4 ,it is a considerable help to get a friend to join in the work1 as he can assist in holding the stencil on the surface to be decorated1 giving you more freedom in the use of the right hand4 ,if working alone the stencil is held with the left hand while the colour is applied with the free hand4 ,the straight lines are not stencilled1 they are run on by the help of a bevelled straight-edge4 ,the position of these lines is indicated by ruling as above or by twanging a piece of string charged with charcoal dust in the position required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,running ,,border4 ,in decorating your room1 the first point to be decided is to what extent and where you will apply the work4 ,if cost is not a great consideration1 undoubtedly the best thing to do is to paint the wall over with a pleasing tone in oil colours4 ,a frieze running round the room immediately under the moulding1 the depth being according to the height of the room2 a dado running round the bottom of the walls1 high enough to clear the top of the chair-backs3 and if the room is large enough1 the division of the room into panels by ornamental columns at the corners1 and appropriate divisions4 ,a border may be run round the doors and the sides of the fireplace may receive separate attention if there are surfaces suitable for stencilling4 ,but it is usual to apply this system of decoration to distempered walls1 in which case the decoration to be applied would probably be above the dado 7which would be papered in some richly decorated pattern71 a frieze under the ceiling1 and a border round the door4 ,in mixing the distemper 7whiting and size71 powder colours are used to get the tone desired4 ,this will vary with the taste of the reader1 the use the room is put to1 and the aspect1 whether on the shady or sunny side of the house4 ,do not let it be too dark1 or muddy in tone3 a cheerful terra-cotta1 with a dash of amber in it1 if on the shady side2 or some tone of sage green1 ,french grey1 or peacock blue1 if on the sunny side4 ,perhaps the best way is to keep your eyes open when passing some decorator's establishment1 or buying the paper for the dado1 and fix upon the tone of colour you would like4 ,then mix some harmonizing tints which will go well with the wall colour for your stencil work4 ,you will find that if you decide upon stencilling in dark tones upon light1 that it will be more pleasing to get these richer1 that is more pure1 than the ground colour4 ,the three rich or primary colours are red1 blue1 and yellow4 ,in mixing your stencil colours1 approach these in purity1 according to the tone used4 ,these powder colours are obtained by ounces or pounds at colourmen's shops4 ,the first thought to the beginner1 if he wishes to darken a tone1 is to put black 7lamp-black7 in4 ,in practice this must be used sparingly4 ,rather get your strength of tint by using pure colours4 ,with distemper colours1 you will find that they are much darker wet than dry4 ,if you wish to employ more colours than one1 each colour should have a separate stencil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,pilaster3 ,,chrysanthemums4 ,having made your stencils1 fixed upon and mixed your colours1 and indicated the position of the repeats1 the next step is the direct application of the colour4 ,this is usually done with flat-headed hog-hair brushes1 about #c_/d of an inch across1 specially made for the purpose4 ,with your palette knife spread out a thin film of the colour on the palette1 which may be the back of a plate1 or a glazed tile1 charge the flat end of the brush with it1 and bring it down perpendicularly upon the stencil4 ,don't overcharge the brush4 ,if the pattern is irregular in its details1 do every other one with one side of the stencil1 and then having been round1 wash off the colour from the stencil1 and turn it round and do the intervening repeats4 ,the lines are put on with a smaller brush1 using the bevelled side of the straight-edge to guide the hand1 using more pressure for a broad line1 and charging the brush heavily with colour4 ,brushes specially made for lining1 known as ,fitch hair tools1 cost1 according to size1 from #a-a_/b;d4 to #e;d4 each4 ,stencilling brushes cost only a few pence4 ,the method of producing designs1 stencils1 and using the stencils is employed in the production of designs for paper-hangings1 carpets1 floor cloths1 damasks and most flat manufactured materials1 except that the white used is flake-white1 and the colours are mixed with gum and water4 ,the colours are known in the trade as tempera colours4 ,the ground is laid evenly upon strained cartridge paper1 and absolute flatness of tint in working out the design may be gained by using stencils4 ,in making irregular designs1 that is designs which are not symmetrical1 the whole composition has to be drawn and traced4 ,in decorating a room1 there is a very considerable range of choice in the styles available1 some idea of which is given in the accompanying designs1 from the purely ornamental ones of ,figs4 #a and #b to the natural treatment of ,figs4 #d and #f4 ,the design suitable for the top of a dado as ,fig4 #a would1 with a slight modification1 equally suit the frieze of a room1 as both are horizontal treatments2 but for perpendicular applications1 the designs should be redrawn4 ,some idea of the fresh treatment required is given in ,fig4 #a;a1 where the parts of the composition have been re-arranged to suit a vertical position4 ,should it be desired to adopt two colours1 the principle to be acted upon is to make the smaller masses darker tones1 and more intense colours1 the larger the mass1 the lighter and more neutral the tone should be4 ,fig4 #d is equally adapted for a frieze or dado top4 ,it is designed in squares1 so that by a re-arrangement of the squares1 i4e41 by placing the squirrel squares under the oak-leaf squares1 it can be made suitable for a vertical treatment1 or for the body of the dado4 ,in designing such patterns as ,fig4 #f1 where again two or more colours may well be used1 care should be taken that the repeats fit well in with one another1 so that no ugly spaces are left unfurnished1 as decorators say1 and also to prevent the recurrence of horizontal or diagonal lines4 ,this is a failure with many commercial designs and is a fault very distressing to the eye4 ,how a ,portrait ,bust is ,made4--,the chief work of the sculptor consists in working in clay2 therein lies the main portion of his art1 and there are those at the head of their profession who rarely handle a chisel1 and then only to give a final touch here and there after their carver has finished his work4 ,moreover1 there are many more busts made in bronze and in terra-cotta than in marble2 but the initial procedure of building up is the same in all cases4 ,the first thing a sculptor does in setting about a bust is to fix a square1 upright peg1 or support1 about twenty inches in length1 into a wooden platform eighteen inches square4 ,the platform1 in order to prevent warping1 should be made of two pieces of board so joined as to have the grain of the one running transverse to the other4 ,the peg is generally furnished with a bar1 like a ,latin cross1 and is provided at the top with what is called an armature1 that is1 two pieces of lead piping looped over the peg from side to side1 so as to form1 as it were1 the outline of a head4 ,the ends of one piece are nailed to either side of the top of the peg1 and the ends of the other to the back and front of it2 or the armature may consist 7as some sculptors prefer that it should7 of a loop of lead-piping1 fixed to a large nail1 with what is called a butterfly attached 7see illustration74 ,the transverse1 or crosspiece1 is fitted into a slot cut in the upright1 and is intended to support the shoulders of the bust1 the armature serving as the skeleton1 so to speak1 of the head4 ,being made of lead1 the armature can be bent this way and that1 and twisted about1 even after it has been covered with clay4 ,this is a very important matter1 as a portrait frequently consists as much in a characteristic pose of the head as in the exact representation of features1 and the peculiarity or habit of the one whose bust is to be made cannot always be perceived at the first sitting1 everybody attitudinising more or less at first when about to have a likeness taken4 ,but after a while the sitter is sure to forget himself2 then the natural pose comes1 and the sculptor flexes his armature this way or that1 and secures the right expression1 in so far as the turn or cant of the head is concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,a ,,bust ,,is ,,made4 ,having thus prepared his skeleton1 the sculptor is now ready to begin with the more important matter of modelling4 ,but first of all he has to see that his clay is all right4 ,the clay commonly used for this purpose is the china clay of the potter2 but at a pinch any clay will do1 and ,i know of more than one sculptor who1 in his impecunious days1 has been obliged to turn to the common clay of the brick-field4 ,the essential thing is that it should not be rotten and friable1 but rather elastic1 spreading easily and cohering well4 ,when the clay is too dry it is put in water over night4 ,in the morning it is in such a state that it may be passed through a coarse sieve1 and so the rough particles be got rid of4 ,then1 when it has dried until of the consistency of putty1 it is ready for use4 ,the sculptor now takes four or five largish lumps and rolls them with his hands into long strips1 from half to three-quarters of a foot in length1 and of the thickness of a good-sized ruler4 ,he then takes portions of these strips and applies them bit by bit to the armature and the transverse bar1 thus gradually building up the general shape of the head and shoulders4 ,care has to be taken from the first to have an eye to the features and contour of the head that is being modelled4 ,it is not necessary that the model should keep seated in the same attitude all the time4 ,if required to do so1 he or she1 as the case may be1 is apt to acquire a very stiff pose1 with the result that the stiffness may be transferred to the bust4 ,the best way is to let the sitter converse freely1 and assume a natural position4 ,by this means the habitual expression is seized1 and a good likeness is more likely to be the result4 ,when a general rough outline of the head has been secured1 it is then time to begin to work for exactitude of feature and facial expression4 ,this the artist does by putting on a bit here1 and taking off a bit there4 ,all this is done with the fingers and thumb4 ,occasionally it may be necessary to use a tool1 but rarely4 ,the best sculptors work mainly with the instrument nature has provided them withal1 the hands4 ,with his fingers the artist has more freedom in handling his material1 and in communicating to it that life-like expression which is the aim and object of his art4 ,no tool yet invented by man enables him to enjoy such fineness of touch1 or to give so much breadth or such delicacy of detail to his work1 as that which he naturally commands in the use of his fingers4 ,of course1 a bust is not modelled in an hour1 nor in a day4 ,a good sculptor will finish one in four or five sittings of an hour or an hour and a half each2 others will require a dozen or more4 ,everything depends upon the facility of the artist in seizing upon expression4 ,this will be the difficult point with the beginner4 ,he may1 after a while1 get the general outline of the head and face of his sitter and feel utterly helpless to go further4 ,but then is the time to exercise patience4 ,michael ,angelo did not become a sculptor in a day1 nor yet in a year4 ,when the tyro feels that he cannot go further1 it is generally because he does not see further4 ,of course1 he sees that his portrait is not like2 but he has not yet learned to see in detail1 in minutiae4 ,that he must now begin to do by observing every little point1 depression1 curve1 wrinkle1 wart1 hair1 and so forth4 ,and then1 what his mind has learned to take note of1 his hand will soon learn to imitate4 ,all the time the work is in progress the clay must be kept moist1 otherwise it will crack and fall to pieces4 ,this is commonly done by spraying it with a garden syringe1 and covering it over at night with wet cloths4 ,when the bust is finished1 if it has to be cast in bronze1 or reproduced in marble1 a cast of it is taken in plaster of ,paris2 but if it is intended to fire it1 and make a terra-cotta bust of it1 the operation of hollowing it is necessary4 ,this is effected by slicing off the crown of the head with a piece of thin wire or thread1 and then scooping out the inside until a uniform thickness of about an inch and a half is left4 ,when this is done the bust will be easily freed from its peg1 and the armature attached to it4 ,the next thing is to set it aside to dry4 ,this takes some time1 and only when it is quite free from all moisture is it ready to be taken to the kiln to bake or fire4 ,the kiln in which it is fired is the ordinary one of the potter4 ,this having been done1 the work is complete4 ,if the bust has to be reproduced in bronze1 the plaster cast must be taken to the bronze casters1 where the transformation will be effected4 ,the process of making an exact reproduction in marble is generally done by the sculptor himself1 or by his assistant1 and is more or less a mere mechanical operation1 the carvers working by points1 as they are called1 mathematically accurate1 by means of which he is enabled to make an exact copy of the cast4 ,when this is done the sculptor goes over it carefully with his chisel and gives some final touches by way of finish1 and to add to the vividness and life-likeness1 so to speak1 of expression4 ,how to ,use ,leaves4--,there is one desirable quality in the hobby ,i am about to recommend boys1 and that is its inexpensive character4 ,a quarter of a yard of nainsook muslin1 a tube or two of oil paint1 a good-sized handful of lint or cotton wool1 two or three sheets of foolscap1 and as many of cartridge paper1 and you are set up for any number of wet days or vacant half-holidays4 ,the leaves can be obtained free of cost1 anywhere and at any time1 winter or summer1 and in any number4 ,ivy leaves do well1 leaves of the black or red currant or gooseberry bushes are better1 and the flowering currant better still4 ,brambles1 lime1 and plane trees which grow everywhere1 and most trees or bushes except holly1 will give you excellent subjects4 ,some boys know how to keep in the good graces of the housekeeper1 and would borrow the muslin from her4 7,say you would like it fine47 ,probably one of your sisters paints a bit1 and would lend you the burnt sienna tube 7oil colour7 upon the same terms2 of course1 the wool or lint you would get from the housekeeper with the muslin2 while an application to the pater for some foolscap--you would prefer blue1 it is more business-like--would be sure to be successful1 for somehow fathers like to encourage boys when they mean to do something serious2 and there is left only the cartridge paper to finish the outfit4 ,perhaps somewhere in the establishment there is even a store of this2 if not1 there is nothing for it but a visit to the stationer and an attack upon the pocket-money4 ,now to proceed4 ,make the cotton wool into a nice round even ball1 quite free from lumps1 particularly at the bottom4 ,fold the muslin to get a double thickness1 place the wool inside1 make it into a mass about the size of a cricket-ball1 tie this tightly1 leaving enough muslin free to take hold of easily4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,,dabber4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,maple ,,leaf ,,centre4 ,fig4 #c4 ,next get your leaves4 ,the front or back garden1 or the greenhouse1 will probably afford all you want1 to begin with4 ,choose in preference leaves which lie flat1 with no bulgings or cockles2 you will get much better results4 ,put them in a dish or basin large enough to take them easily1 and cover with a damp cloth4 ,if you have to go farther afield for your leaves take with you1 if possible1 a tin box or botanist's vasculum1 and sprinkle a little water upon them4 ,if not able to obtain such a box1 then a wooden or cardboard one must do1 but pack the leaves in damp moss1 if able to get any4 ,when you reach home cover up as before4 ,you are now ready to commence4 ,squeeze out some colour upon the foolscap1 spread this evenly with the muslin dabber1 not by smearing but by dabbing1 with a slight twisting motion of the wrist1 taking care that the colour is evenly distributed on the paper and the dabber4 ,then try it by bringing down the dabber upon a clean sheet of paper with a smart blow4 ,if the colour comes away evenly you are ready to begin upon the leaves2 if not1 work away with the dabber on the foolscap till you get better results4 ,patience will do it4 ,take one of your flattest leaves1 and remove all moisture from the surface4 ,a piece of blotting-paper is good for this purpose4 ,then1 with a series of good hard raps with the dabber--don't be afraid of hurting the leaf--get the colour evenly upon the face1 working as near to the veins as possible4 ,cut a piece of cartridge paper twice the size of the leaf--and now comes the careful treatment--put the leaf down1 handling it by the stalk1 in the place you want it2 don't shift it about or attempt any fresh arrangement4 ,to do so would smear the paper4 ,bring down the upper half of the paper upon the leaf1 and hold steadily with the left hand4 ,then1 with the forefinger of the right hand inside your handkerchief or a cloth1 rest upon the outside of the paper1 taking care not to let the leaf inside slip about4 ,you may use some amount of pressure2 the colour will not yield itself up too readily4 ,if the leaf is full of sap1 less force must be used1 or you will crush the tissue4 ,now raise the paper and remove the leaf4 ,probably you will not be satisfied with the first attempt4 ,some parts will be faint1 other parts loaded with colour4 ,possibly also the leaf has shifted a little4 ,if this has not occurred you will have got a portrait of the leaf1 showing the cutting of the edges and the ramifications of the veins4 ,now try again1 either upon the same leaf or a fresh one4 ,at each fresh attempt you will be getting more skilful in handling the leaf1 in the use of the dabber1 and the careful placing and rubbing to get the impression4 ,and the dabber1 too1 will be getting into better condition4 ,the colour will have penetrated the muslin and gone a little way into the wool4 ,use as little colour as possible1 getting the colour on rather by smart blows than any other way4 ,it would be well to have the cartridge paper folded ready for use1 in appropriate sizes1 a little too large1 to permit of after-trimming4 ,illustration3 ,,hawthorn ,,border4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,plaque3 ,w4 ,,veitch',s ,,creeper ,,leaves4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,you will find that leaves are not alike in the character of the surface4 ,some are covered with hairs1 like the mulleins2 these will take almost any quantity of colour4 ,perhaps you had better begin upon such leaves4 ,others have a few stiff hairs1 and others1 again1 are quite free from such appendages4 ,these require least colour of all4 ,you will find1 too1 that it is better to commence with the back of the leaf4 ,the veins are usually more prominent1 and the impression obtained is more interesting4 ,there is greater difficulty in getting the colour on all parts of the leaf1 close up to the principal veins1 and the rubbing for the impression is harder4 ,but by patience and perseverance1 to quote the copybook1 you will soon obtain pleasing results4 ,i don't think ,i can tell you much more that will aid you in getting good impressions4 ,i have recommended the use of burnt sienna1 because it is a cheap and easily worked colour2 but any oil colour can be used1 either straight from the tube1 or mixed to suit your judgment or taste4 ,greens1 olives1 russets1 browns1 greys1 yellows1 or even reds1 can be used4 ,you can certainly get some startling effects with these1 if removed some distance from ,nature2 or by using two or more colours and dabbers you may graduate the tones or colours on the same leaf4 ,suppose you want an autumn effect4 ,mix or choose your yellow1 and prepare also an orange-red colour4 ,coat the leaf first of all with the yellow--don't use gamboge--then with the red dabber apply that colour to the end or margin of the leaf1 and take off as before ,illustration3 ,,leaves ,,of ,,the ,,ginko ,,tree4 ,fig4 #d4 ,you may say1 ,what is the use of it all when the necessary skill is obtained8 ,you will find it a very good and useful hobby even to so obtain a series of prints of the leaves of our forest trees4 ,there are1 perhaps1 more of these than you are aware of4 ,and there is another point--the leaves of any particular plant vary very much in shape4 ,a collection of these variations1 if at all complete1 would be held even by botanists to be very valuable indeed4 ,then1 what a number of forest trees there are6 ,the common and wych elms1 the oak and maple1 the two chestnuts1 the ,spanish and horse--a full-grown leaf of the latter you will find a large order--the beech and hornbeam 7note the difference in the margin71 the wild cherry1 crab1 and sloe1 the dogwood1 the two buckthorns1 the service tree1 the wayfaring tree1 the back of the leaf of which you will find good to begin with4 ,a good instance of the variety in form in the leaves of one plant is the now common wall plant1 ,veitch's ,virginian creeper1 which ,i have used to decorate a plaque in ,fig4 #e4 ,the seedling leaves1 too1 are well worthy of collection--they vary very much from the more adult leaves4 ,i have no need to write more upon this1 as1 if you make the collection of leaves a hobby1 these details will come4 ,but the use of leaves does not stop here4 ,more than any other part of the plant1 leaves are used by the designer for sculptural details1 and for decoration in all its branches4 ,but most boys are not designers or skilful draughtsmen1 neither have they the time to make drawings or paintings which would give the results so easily obtained by this process4 ,even excellent artists shrink from giving the amount of details which are secured in these transfers from the objects themselves4 ,some applications of foliage which can be done from the leaves themselves are given as hints of what is possible4 ,these vary in difficulty1 until the results are to be described only as works of art4 ,figs4 #c and #d are applications of leaves to the decoration of occasional tables1 which more frequently than not are ebonised4 ,fig4 #d is an arrangement of the leaves of the ,ginko1 or ,adiantum tree4 ,when the table is ready for the varnish1 apply the leaves in the positions marked out beforehand4 ,in the illustration a band of colour is supposed to be previously painted to the shape indicated1 and should be some rich olive or russet tone1 upon which the leaves are printed in a lighter1 say a sage green4 ,a very good scale of colours1 adapted for use on black1 is used by the ,japanese on the trays to be found in almost any house4 ,you may not be able to get ,ginko leaves1 but several of the adiantums have fronds the pinn of which could be similarly used4 ,an arrangement of maple leaves in ,fig4 #c could be copied for the centre of the table1 and similarly treated4 ,by-the-by1 should you in placing the leaf make any false marks1 these can be easily removed while the colour is wet by wiping off with a cloth1 using turpentine or spirit of wine if obstinate4 ,illustration3 ,,photo4 ,,mount ,,decorated ,,with ,,bramble ,,leaves4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f is an arrangement of bramble leaves4 ,a very considerable variety of form is usually found on the same plant2 this variety has been utilised4 ,use pale tones of colour1 and make out the stalks with a brush afterwards4 ,it will be found useful to roughly indicate the position of the leaves by pencil or chalk after having placed them1 and before applying their painted surfaces4 ,it is intended as a decoration to a photographic mount4 ,if the mount is of a dark tea-green colour a very considerable richness of effect can be obtained4 ,the chief difficulty will be the careful adjustment and selection of the leaves4 ,fig4 #e is the application of ,veitch's ,ampelopsis to a terra-cotta plaque4 ,you will find this more difficult1 as the surfaces to which the leaves are applied are not flat1 and the material is absorbent to a high degree4 ,first give the plaque a coating of size2 this will keep the colour on the surface4 ,roughly sketch the position of the leaves in pencil2 apply colour more copiously to the leaves1 and transfer4 ,when dry give a coating of quick-drying varnish4 ,copal1 dissolved in methylated spirits1 will prove the most satisfactory4 ,the end of the spray is done all at once4 ,the stems1 stalks1 and tendrils are put in afterwards by brush work4 ,fig4 #b is the most difficult of all4 ,it is an arrangement of hawthorn leaves in different tones of colour1 and intended for a title-page or elaborate mount4 ,the leaves can be easily obtained in considerable variety4 ,roughly mark out the places the leaves should occupy4 ,some are in front of others2 do these first in a paler green4 ,cut out paper shapes to cover them1 and stick them down temporarily after they are dry4 ,then1 in darker and richer tones of colour1 transfer the back leaves2 when dry remove the covers1 and touch up with a brush any deficiencies4 ,add the stalks1 stems1 and thorns1 and paint in the haws4 ,there are many other applications to which these prints from leaves could be put4 ,a branch of oak running across the panels of a door1 a simple leaf upon the cover of a book1 nicely done2 in the making of stencil plates1 for borders1 friezes1 and dados1 or a conventional pattern for wall papers4 ,studies for wood carving can easily be obtained from the store of prints from leaves1 such as the strawberry1 potentilla1 goose-grass1 buttercup1 dandelion1 and many wayside plants4 ,when the stalk or principal vein is too succulent or thick1 it would be well to pare it down1 to permit of easier rubbing1 not attempting to get an impression from more than one surface of the leaf4 ,it may be useful to some readers to give the prices at which the materials may be obtained4 ,the cheaper colours are in every respect quite as good for the purpose as the more expensive ones1 and should cost about threepence a tube from an artists' colourman4 ,a small camel-hair brush1 from a penny upwards1 would do2 but it might be sable in preference1 from sixpence upwards4 ,you can get a good-sized sheet of cartridge paper for a penny4 ,the nainsook muslin should be new1 and of a fine quality4 ,any holes in it would be fatal to good work4 ,a penny or two would buy the foolscap paper4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,points4 ,pyrography4--,the outfit consists of a platinum point1 sometimes called the burner1 an alcohol lamp1 and a benzine bottle with rubber tubing terminating in a bulb as shown in the illustration4 ,the points or burners may be obtained in many sizes for fine or broad lines4 ,the work is done upon unvarnished wood1 which should be seasoned and free from resin4 ,sometimes designs are drawn too upon calf1 cardboard1 and even upon velvet1 but upon these materials be careful the point is not too hot4 ,to use the pyrography apparatus fill both the alcohol lamp and the benzine bottle half full4 ,upon the benzine bottle put the rubber stopper that has the metal nozzle and join the bellows and the tubing4 ,now light your alcohol lamp1 and in its flame hold with your right hand the platinum point1 and with your left hand work the bulb steadily and continuously4 ,the platinum point will thus become red hot and it must be kept so4 ,with this hot point draw upon the wood and you will find that all kinds of designs and effects are possible by using different points1 and1 indeed1 by using the same in different ways and at different temperatures4 ,the judicious use of sandpaper improves the general effect afterwards1 and a wax finish may be obtained by the application of pure bees'-wax slowly melted in turpentine4 ,when it is in a syrupy state apply it with a cloth1 and a few days later brush away the superfluous wax and wipe tenderly with a soft cloth4 ,the general effect may be heightened by the use of colour4 ,the young pyrographist may practise upon some of the designs given in the other sections of this chapter1 and he will be able to purchase his outfit with directions for its use4 ,messrs4 ,gamage1 in ,holborn1 and ,messrs4 ,benetfink1 in ,cheapside1 have many kinds of apparatus and accessories4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,ventriloquism ,,and ,,polyphony ,ventriloquism4--,ventriloquism is no more a gift than is the ability to talk or sing2 it does not depend on any peculiar formation of the throat2 it is1 in fact1 an art which can be acquired by almost any one possessing a voice of average compass 7some twelve notes71 together with an ordinarily good ear for music4 ,if1 in addition to these1 the tyro show any aptitude for acting and mimicry1 there is prospect of his becoming an expert performer4 ,broadly speaking1 ventriloquism consists in a close imitation of sound as it falls upon the ear1 the ventriloquist effecting this by skilfully modifying the cavity of the mouth in such a way as to give his voice a deceptive character4 ,the young ventriloquist must study all sorts and conditions of sounds and voices as they fall on the ear4 ,he must become familiar with the models he seeks to imitate4 ,he must1 for example1 note that a voice from the cellar1 heard in a room above1 has a subdued and muffled sound1 many of the consonants being strangely altered1 so that the words1 ,i'm down here in the cellar1 sir6 would sound more like1 ,in'e down here in a zellar1 zir6 ,again1 in listening to the knife-grinder1 he must observe1 first the bur-r-r of the wheel1 and then a combination of the bur-r-r with a prolonged iss when the knife touches the grindstone4 ,these little hints will1 we trust1 sufficiently impress the beginner with the necessity of learning to listen with new ears whilst endeavouring to speak with a new voice4 ,you will observe1 too1 that the character of the assumed voice is determined chiefly by the shape of the mouth4 ,this is the more important1 because misguided learners are so apt to strain the larynx4 ,there should be no pressure on the throat1 though some pressure must necessarily be exerted on the chest and the abdominal muscles by reason of the slow rate at which the air is allowed to leave the lungs2 for1 be it carefully noted1 the ventriloquial voice can only be spoken during a slow expiration of the breath4 ,consequently1 the learner must exercise himself in controlling the breath1 for which purpose let him practise filling the lungs with air and then reading aloud as long a passage as he can whilst the air is being slowly expelled4 ,with regard to modifying the natural voice1 every one knows how this can be done by extraneous means4 ,a speaking-trumpet1 for example1 renders it loud and harsh1 whilst a hand placed lightly over the mouth makes it low and muffled4 ,at an evening party where we had been amusing some juvenile friends1 a voice seemed to come from the chimney in obedience to one of the boys1 who stood before the fireplace as a new fledged professor of ventriloquism1 and we considered the imitation to be rather good until1 upon lifting the table-cloth near us1 we discovered a confederate on the floor1 talking into an empty jug4 ,this1 of course1 was mere jugglery1 but genuine ventriloquism is to be attained by a careful management of the breath whilst modifying the shape of the cavity of the mouth by a proper adjustment of lips1 teeth1 jaws1 tongue and palate4 ,and here let us point out that1 although the best ventriloquial effects can only be produced by the mature voice1 it is well to begin practising at an early age1 in order to make the vocal organs strong and flexible4 ,the present writer began experimenting at the age of twelve1 only resting therefrom1 as every boy should1 during that beautiful period of gruffiness consequent on the breaking of the voice4 ,after that we went on again1 making slow headway1 until one memorable night when we received undoubted assurance of our ability to deceive4 ,it was at a party given by a bluff sea-captain in a northern town1 and a young gentleman was singing a very sentimental ditty to a saddened audience1 when we essayed between whiles to imitate the singer in a falsetto voice1 muffled1 as if coming through the closed shutters1 towards which we took care to cast an occasional glance of annoyance4 ,presently the captain rose and left the room on tiptoe1 at the same time indicating by vigorous pantomime that the singer was to proceed with his song4 ,before long a tremendous splash of water was heard on the pavement outside1 and our host soon after re-entered1 remarking that he had taught those young vagabonds not to mock people outside the shutters1 for he'd given them billows from the top bed-room window4 ,there are in reality only three well-defined ventriloquial voices3 7#a7 the distant voice1 as from the roof1 the street1 etc42 7#b7 the resonant voice1 as from a chimney1 cupboard1 cellar1 etc42 and 7#c7 the falsetto voice4 ,but1 exclaims the intelligent reader1 how can each voice be used for various imaginary places8 ,will the distant voice serve equally well for roof or street8 ,it will2 and this brings us to a very important point1 viz41 that we judge of the direction of sound partly by means of the sense of sight4 ,a railway traveller1 for instance1 seated in a waiting-room1 is often perplexed as to whether an approaching train is up or down until he notes the demeanour of those on the platform who can see the train coming in4 ,it is always difficult to determine the direction from which distant sounds proceed1 and frequently of sounds much nearer4 ,but this uncertainty is of vital importance to the ventriloquist1 as it enables him to make the ears the fool of the other senses4 ,when he uses the distant voice1 the audience will be unable to refer it to any particular quarter1 unless the place be suggested to them by the performer4 ,the moment he does this1 however1 by word or sign or mere glance even1 the imagination of the audience does the rest1 and the illusion is complete4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that the tyro should have some taste for acting1 otherwise he can neither conceal the internal efforts he is making1 nor invest his shadowy characters with any degree of naturalness4 ,coming now to practical details1 let the student attempt the distant voice in the following manner4 ,say the word ,hallo6 just in your ordinary speaking voice1 in order to fix the pitch4 ,then open the mouth slightly1 draw in the lower jaw a little1 and firmly fix both jaws4 ,next1 stretch or arch the soft palate as in the act of yawning take a deep breath1 and utter the word ,hallo6 in the same pitch as before1 but softly1 and without moving the lips1 endeavouring at the same time to direct the sound against the soft palate by turning the tongue well back so as to strike the roof of the mouth4 ,at first your strange gurglings may alarm the household1 and much fatigue may be felt in the jaws and tongue1 but persevere and you will soon acquire a new voice of startling character4 ,the resonant voice is produced on the lower tones of the scale1 the sound being forced into the nasal passages with a jerky explosive delivery of the breath4 ,the parts against which the voice and the tongue should respectively strike may be felt by prolonging the sound of the letter n on a low note with the mouth nearly closed and the lower jaw drawn back a little as before4 ,in this way utter the sentence1 ,joe's down here in the cellar6 and the words will sound deep and muffled and be accompanied by a resonant hum4 ,remember always to keep the lips and jaws immovable1 even at the cost of mutilating your words4 ,these will greatly improve by-and-by4 ,the practised ventriloquist can1 of course1 judge the effect he is producing1 but the learner1 as soon as he makes any progress1 had better get a companion to criticize his efforts4 ,the falsetto voice is feminine and must be familiar to all4 ,if spoken with the lower jaw drawn in and the mouth all but closed it will strike against the hard palate and produce a thin1 metallic voice like that of a child4 ,it can also be used for distant effects1 according to the method set forth for voice ,no4 #a4 ,the falsetto voice is frequently used for doll-talking--a branch of the ventriloquial art concerning which1 and polyphonism also1 we shall have something to say presently4 ,meanwhile1 devote a few minutes daily to each of the following exercises3-- 7#a7 ,singing the common musical scale to the vowel sounds1 as well as to the syllables ha and coo4 ,all good vocal exercises are an aid to ventriloquism4 7#b7 ,practising the management of the breath as already described4 7#c7 ,experimenting with the three ventriloquial voices4 7#d7 ,studying all the peculiarities of voices and other sounds as they fall upon the ear4 ,the learner still finds it difficult1 no doubt1 to enunciate his words at all clearly without moving the lips and jaws1 but this difficulty1 though it will never quite vanish1 may be greatly reduced4 ,the vowels run smoothly enough1 but the consonants give trouble1 particularly the labials1 b1 p1 m1 and their first cousins1 the spirants1 v1 f1 w4 ,as to the spirants1 one may soon acquire the knack of sounding f fairly well1 so this must be used for v also1 unless one can hit upon that nearer substitute got by compounding g and f4 ,to catch this sound with lips and jaws immovable1 pronounce the word never as negfer1 quickly1 with a light touch on the g4 ,the sound of w is well represented by that of oo4 ,for the labials1 however1 demanding as they do a positive closing of the lips1 we must substitute the letters g1 k1 ng4 ,thus1 the sentence1 ,jim broke seven of ,tom's pens this morning1 would be rendered as ,jing groke se7g7fen of ,tong's kens this ng-orning1 and the query1 ,when am ,i to come up8 would become ,oohen ang ,i to cung uk8 ,such sentences1 though good for practice1 are bad for exhibition1 and must be carefully avoided in the preparation of dialogue4 ,nevertheless1 they look much more imperfect here than they would sound in the mouth of an able ventriloquist2 besides1 as nobody expects to hear perfect words from a distant source1 the audience readily accepts the performer's mode of rendering them4 ,in this connection it should be remarked that the performer may occasionally turn his face from view1 and allow his lips free play1 although1 as a rule1 either a side face1 or a three-quarters face should be presented to the audience1 and1 pretty frequently1 a front face also4 ,we have next to deal with ventriloquial perspective1 which appertains to the gradual increase or decrease in the loudness of a sound as it approaches or recedes4 ,attention to this will give our assumed voices just the magic touch4 ,for the receding voice1 speak more and more gently1 whilst gradually closing the mouth1 until the sound is shut off4 ,for an approaching voice1 reverse the process1 but in either case take care to maintain the original pitch4 ,this is just where beginners stumble2 they mostly alter the pitch at every step1 graduating it from a growl to a squeak1 or vice versa2 nor do they observe how the words spoken by a receding voice grow less and less distinct until only the vowel sounds remain4 ,the following presentment of these important matters may impress itself on the reader's mind3--,,good-,,night6 ,,good-,,night6 ,,goo'-,,nigh'6 'oo'-nigh'6 'igh'6 ,we shall now give in outline a few sketches for the student to fill in with dialogue of his own4 ,the situations will readily suggest some simple conversations well suited for effective treatment4 ,for the man in the chimney1 assume a voice of low pitch1 strongly resonant throughout4 ,express your belief that somebody is up the chimney1 and stoop near the fireplace to question the intruder in a soft and rather high-pitched voice4 ,then draw down the corner of the mouth turned from the audience1 and deliver your answers with force1 so that the sound may be deflected from the stone-work supporting the mantel-piece4 ,your man in the chimney is a rough1 cantankerous fellow1 who accounts for his presence in the most absurd way1 and answers with great warmth1 especially when there is a fire in the grate4 ,as soon as he begins to ascend the chimney1 step back a pace1 keeping your face in the same direction4 ,to wind up1 either leave him stuck in the chimney1 or dismiss him by way of the roof4 ,in speaking to the man on the roof1 begin by taking a deliberate look at the ceiling1 and then shout ,hallo-o6 ,the answer1 given in the distant voice1 should sound almost like an echo4 ,before answering1 turn your face to the audience1 and1 with the head in an easy1 listening attitude1 produce the reply softly on a note of middle pitch4 ,the man on the roof rarely speaks more than a few sentences4 ,the audience seem to understand how trying it is for him to converse at such a distance1 so he is humanely dismissed very soon1 and may then be heard faintly answering as he wanders on from roof to roof1 or reaches the ground by a ladder4 ,sometimes1 however1 the voice grows in strength and resonance as the man enters the chimney1 and descends almost to the hearthrug2 at other times1 if the night is particularly cold1 you may ask him to remain where he is in the silvery moonlight4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,hall4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,talking ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,trap ,,door4 ,illustration3 ,,raising ,,the ,,trap ,,door4 ,the man in the hall is a capital voice to practise4 ,with your hand on the handle of the door1 parley with the rough fellow who is trying to push it open from the other side4 ,at this stage use the resonant voice1 and explode your answers against the panel of the door4 ,as the man is noisy1 you may produce a striking effect by alternately opening and shutting the door rapidly1 accompanying the action with a sudden swelling and sinking of the voice1 remembering at the same time to maintain the original pitch4 ,much amusement will arise if your visitor happens to be a sweep who has come to the wrong house1 but insists on cleaning the drawing-room chimney4 ,you may even put your head outside the door for a moment to remonstrate with him1 and then step back suddenly with the mark of a grimy hand upon your face--self-inflicted1 of course1 with a burnt cork4 ,as the voice moves away1 its resonant quality should be moderated1 and1 in case the man talks himself out into the street1 it should merge into the distant voice4 ,sometimes1 however1 affairs take a novel turn1 and the sweep1 in seeking an exit1 wanders into the cellar1 where he may be heard making unkind remarks in accents faint and sooty4 ,the voice of the man in the cellar is a modified form of the resonant voice1 delivered with less force and less of the nasal quality4 ,a fine effect may be introduced by making your man slowly ascend and descend the cellar steps1 talking or singing all the time4 ,moreover1 this effect may be greatly heightened by using a trap-door made in the following manner4 ,cover a sheet of stout cardboard 7about #b-a_/b ft4 square7 with grained wall-paper to imitate woodwork1 and let it dry thoroughly under pressure1 as warping would render it useless4 ,on it paint two large hinges with black enamel1 and near the front edge fix a large black ring by means of a loop of leather or black tape4 ,the ring may be either a wooden curtain-ring or a coil of cane bound with wax-end4 ,to the under-side of the board glue two leather tabs1 in line with the hinges1 but projecting1 so that the trap may thereby be fastened to the floor with drawing-pins4 ,before the audience arrive1 fix the trap-door in position1 well to the right or left of the platform or other space1 and take care to indicate the thickness of the woodwork on the edge which is to face the performer4 ,under the trap a corresponding square of black tissue paper should be pinned to the floor1 so that1 when the trap is raised1 a dark hole may appear beneath4 ,during the performance1 the trap must be lifted with considerable toil1 else its flimsy nature will be discovered1 and perhaps cause an untimely titter4 ,if managed properly1 however1 it is most realistic1 and may be employed in a startling way to convey the idea of a man raising it from below4 ,this is done by fixing to the upper edge of the board a piece of strong black thread 7invisible to the audience7 at a few yards distance and attaching the other end to a strong finger-ring to be worn by the performer4 ,the ring1 if placed on a table or chair near the trap-door1 may be slipped on the finger at the right moment1 and will thus enable the performer1 whenever he raises his arm with a gesture of alarm or of command1 to raise the trap-door at the same time4 ,doll-talking is a branch of our subject which finds great favour with boys1 for it is often as funny as droll figures and smart witty dialogue can make it4 ,the nature of the dialogue1 indeed1 is of much more importance here than in pure ventriloquism4 ,the voices are easy to acquire1 but not so easy to describe4 ,draw back the lower jaw pretty well2 press the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth2 raise the rest of the tongue until it nearly touches 7and it will touch every now and then7 the roof of the mouth1 and then project the sound forcibly against the hard palate1 just above the front teeth4 ,the falsetto voice treated in this way1 sometimes becomes almost perfect1 enabling the ventriloquist to sound nearly every letter2 whilst appearing to be absolutely mute4 ,fix upon two well-contrasted characters3 one speaking in a shrill falsetto1 the other in a hard1 metallic voice of middle pitch4 ,figures for this purpose can be purchased at some of the ,london toy bazaars and conjurers' shops4 ,a pair of large dolls1 with practical mouths and eyes1 would cost about two pounds1 but heads may be purchased separately and fixed to home-made bodies4 ,these heads1 which represent a funny man1 an old woman1 a little girl and a negro1 range in price from five shillings and sixpence to eighteen and sixpence1 the latter kind being life-size4 ,the pairs of dolls mostly used are styled ,tommy and ,joey1 ,tommy and ,granny1 etc4 ,the performer places a doll on each knee and holds a lively conversation with them1 often interrupted1 however1 by the crying1 giggling1 and singing of the dolls1 whose unseasonable jokes and general naughtiness call down upon their wooden heads many a resounding blow4 ,illustration3 ,,betty ,,bouncer4 ,there is a cheaper figure1 however1 called ,the ,talking ,hand1 which may be bought at almost any large toy shop for about half-a-crown4 ,as great fun can be got from this figure1 we shall now tell our boys how to make it at the cost of a few pence4 ,get a quarter-yard of unbleached calico1 fold it double and trace upon it an outline of the right hand and wrist4 ,then cut round the outline1 taking care to leave a broad margin and a long thumb4 ,stitch round the glove1 turn it inside out1 and insert the hand4 ,now close the hand1 and1 with a soft blacklead1 mark in roughly the eyes1 nose1 etc4 ,the projecting knuckles will form the nose and the thumb the lower jaw4 ,to give the latter a better appearance fill out the tip with wadding and sew it to that part of the glove just above it4 ,having withdrawn your hand1 flatten the glove1 and proceed to mark in the features more carefully with good writing-ink and a quill pen4 ,the furrows in the face and the hair should also be marked with black ink1 but the wide mouth and the tip of the nose with red ink4 ,colour the face with powdered chalk 7yellow ochre and red7 rubbed in with pellets of blotting-paper4 ,take care to make the eyes extra large and paint them with ,chinese white4 ,to complete the figure1 sew to the glove a cap-frill1 a shawl of red flannel1 and a large bow under the chin1 and ,betty ,bouncer becomes one of the most comical creatures you ever saw1 ready to talk1 laugh1 or cry to order1 while as to singing--well1 you should just see the old lady getting her top note6 ,the chief subject of our next section will be polyphonism1 or the imitation of various musical instruments1 cries of animals1 and other sounds4 ,meanwhile the young ventriloquist will find quite enough to do in practising3 7a7 ,sentences containing labials and spirants2 7b7 voices saying ,good-night1 etc41 in a monotone1 whilst approaching or receding2 7c7 voices at the door1 on the roof1 up the chimney1 in the cellar2 7d7 the talking hand or other figures4 ,polyphony4--,polyphony is the art of imitating sounds of various kinds1 usually1 without attempting to deceive the hearer as to their direction4 ,it may therefore be studied independently of ventriloquism4 ,already the art is much in vogue4 ,we all know the boy who occasionally alarms the street with the yelp of an injured dog1 or imitates the cock's shrill clarion cleverly enough to deceive half the roosters in the neighbourhood and make quiet people mutter of canes and constables4 ,as in ventriloquism1 so now the learner must first of all study closely the sounds he wishes to imitate4 ,very often they may be roughly indicated in words or syllables1 and this is very helpful4 ,indeed1 many words in our language1 such as buzz1 bang1 tinkle1 thud1 crash1 splash1 and the like1 originated in this very way4 ,let us begin with a few easy examples4 ,knife-grinding sounds like the combination of a bur-r-r--made by fluttering the lips--with a prolonged ss4 ,sawing may be indicated by the syllables shuh-szee uttered alternately with the difference of a semitone4 ,planing can be effectively rendered by strongly whispering shee-yick1 shee-ic-yick1 ll-ll-luc1 and then yu-yu-yook as a long shaving curls out of the plane4 ,with regard to musical instruments1 there is the ta-ra-ra of the trumpet1 the pangka-bongka of the banjo1 the zhing-sching of the cymbals1 the pom-pome of the trombone1 the r-rhumbu-dhumba of the drum1 the explosive plim-blim of the harp1 and the floo-lu-loo of the flute1 whilst the notes of a clarionet may be imitated by the player's running rapidly down the scale from a sharp nasal pli-li-li-plan-plah into a deeper glug-lu-lu-glah4 ,syllables like the foregoing give1 as it were1 an outline for the polyphonist to fill in with sound of the right colour or quality4 ,thus1 a tune on the cornet should be sung to a ra-ra-ra forced through the tightly compressed lips1 and the flu-lu-loo of the flute1 with its roundness of tone and breathiness1 should be vocalised in the falsetto while the cheeks are distended with air4 ,an amusing and realistic imitation of the ,jew's-harp can be given in the following manner4 ,stiffen the first and second fingers of the left hand and place them firmly over the lips1 but lightly1 so as to allow the lips perfectly free play4 ,then give a strongly nasal rendering of some monotonous air whilst ringing the changes as rapidly as possible on the syllables whanga-whonga whee-whaw whoodle-ongle eedle-ongle whow-zeedle oodle-ee whay-whonga whaw1 during which beat time upon the projecting fingers with the right forefinger as if twanging the tongue of the instrument4 ,by following on the lines now laid down the apt learner may even become skilful enough to imitate an entire brass band1 a feat which has been performed by at least one ventriloquist of our acquaintance4 ,some sounds1 of course1 it is almost impossible to reduce to writing1 as1 for example1 the hollow skaw and murmur produced by a multitude of skaters1 or the roar of an excited crowd1 but in listening to these sounds1 it is useful to remember that we may often obtain a key tone to work upon by partly closing the ears--just as a painter can often find the prevailing tint of a confused mass of objects by partly closing the eyes4 ,illustration3 ,,phantom ,,poodles4 ,illustration3 ,i ,,have ,,to ,,watch ,,charlotte6 ,when the young polyphonist has acquired some degree of skill1 he need not be at a loss to entertain his friends1 provided he is fairly resourceful as regards acting4 ,but acting is of the greatest importance to the polyphonist4 ,as a knife-grinder he must work an imaginary wheel1 and deftly turn the blade of a table knife upon the stone2 as a waiter about to pop a cork with a strong click of the tongue against the palate--he should first insert a shadowy cork-screw with a chirrupy squeak2 and as a cook frizzling bacon1 he may do a cardboard rasher to a turn on a battledore or fire-shovel4 ,even the buzz of a bluebottle 7made sometimes by a prolonged cornet note1 sometimes by a stream of air forced through the compressed lips7 will occasion much amusement if the performer acts the part of a languid mortal lolling behind his newspaper in the dog days1 and murmuring1-- ,oh6 for the green of a lane1 ,where one might lie and be lazy6 ,buzz6 goes a fly in the pane-- ,bluebottles drive me crazy6 ,then might follow a reckless chase after that fly1 which should finally buzz itself crazy beneath the huntsman's handkerchief4 ,again1 the barking of dogs may not be much in itself1 yet we have seen a performer cause roars of laughter by making his phantom poodles dance1 tumble1 and leap over chairs and through a hoop1 to a lively tune on the piano4 ,as a final step in polyphony1 the learner should practise the ventriloquial treatment of noises4 ,this adds greatly to the effectiveness of a ventriloquial sketch2 as when the man in the cellar takes to sawing and planing2 or goes home accompanied by a dog1 whose barking1 mingled with the shouts of the man1 grows fainter and fainter in the distance2 or1 it may be1 the moaning of the wind is heard without1 while a last-century watchman proclaims the hour in a storm-tossed voice4 ,to show how perfect such displays may become1 we may instance the case of ,thomas ,ring1 a conjurer who gave an entertainment before the entire ,english ,court in the seventeenth century4 ,from behind a screen he imitated the voices of three butchers engaged in a conversation1 which was presently interrupted by a barking dog4 ,the dog having been whipped1 a bleating calf was dragged in1 a knife whetted1 and the calf killed amid the talk and laughter of the men4 ,all this is1 no doubt1 within the reach of some of our living ventriloquists4 ,illustration3 ,,bluebottles ,,drive ,,me ,,crazy6 ,illustration3 ,,good-,,bye4 ,and now a few necessary hints must be given in regard to the management of an audience4 ,get your hearers seated in front of you1 not around you1 with the front row at a distance of at least ten or twelve feet4 ,politely impose silence upon them1 and take care to repeat your opening question two or three times before replying in the ventriloquial voice1 because this straining the attention stimulates the imagination of your audience1 and makes the illusion more complete4 ,another important point--keep the assumed voice and the natural voice in contrast all the time1 by means of a running fire of questions2 finally1 never use elaborate apparatus4 ,besides1 ordinary windows1 doors1 and fireplaces1 an old chest1 a folding screen1 a trap-door1 and perhaps one or two practical dolls1 will amply suffice4 ,ventriloquists who employ a whole family of ingeniously contrived figures--we have seen some of these dance a jig--should get them to talk by machinery as well4 ,there is very little artistic merit in such performances4 ,nor should the performer be suspiciously surrounded by scenery2 it may cause misunderstanding1 as the following instance will prove3-- ,a ventriloquist performing at a ,london theatre some years ago imitated a voice on the roof so successfully as to induce a man in the audience to ascend to the roof in search of a confederate4 ,unfortunately1 however1 two other men1 filled with the self-same idea1 also found their way to the roof in company1 and mistaking the first man for the guilty person1 gave him a sound thrashing4 ,in drawing our instructions to a close1 let us point out that the proper end and aim of ventriloquism should be not to play the pranks of ,valentine ,vox1 but to afford our friends innocent amusement4 ,of course1 no manly boy would ever think of frightening little children2 but he might be tempted to give older people a little surprise4 ,it is therefore well he should know that persons altogether ignorant of ventriloquism may be wonderfully deceived4 ,one morning1 just after a new servant had come to the house1 we noticed a doll in the kitchen1 sitting bolt upright and staring as hard as her glass eyes would let her4 ,so1 going up to it1 in presence of the girl1 we shook hands gravely1 and said1 ,good morning1 ,dolly6 ,to which she sweetly replied1 ,good morning1 sir6 ,i have to watch ,charlotte6 ,the effect produced on the girl was so pronounced that for days after she would hardly touch the uncanny creature4 ,on another occasion1 at a house in ,kentish ,town1 affairs took a more serious turn2 for a young woman1 upon hearing a gruff voice proceed from the chimney1 astonished a company of six or eight persons by falling on her knees in broad daylight to implore the troubled spirit to unburden its mind4 ,upon this we at once desisted1 and explained1 though not without difficulty1 the nature of the deception4 ,the ventriloquist should therefore use his strange power with caution1 and mainly1 as we have said1 for the innocent amusement of every one concerned4 ,at the same time he will reap from his studies certain advantages often lost sight of1 viz41 the training given to the ear as regards the nice discrimination of sound--musical and non-musical--and the command obtained over the vocal organs with respect to elocution4 ,the whole of our instructions may be summarized thus3 7#a7 ,listen to sound intently2 7#b7 learn to analyze it2 7#c7 experiment patiently and regularly2 7#d7 cultivate acting4 ,with these points in view1 no reader possessing an average voice1 together with some aptitude for mimicry1 should fail to acquire the coveted art4 ,some folks may fear that these practical lessons will produce ventriloquists by the score4 ,to such we reply1 ,rest easy1 good people6 ,ventriloquism1 like every other art1 requires patience and perseverance for its attainment4 ,consequently1 many a reader1 sufficiently gifted by nature1 will fail in its pursuit4 ,it is the enthusiasts who will succeed1 and they1 after all1 are the ones who deserve the reward4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,boy ,,as ,,magician ,cremated ,alive4--,the curtain rises and a young and beautiful girl1 clothed in white1 is introduced to the spectators as the victim who has been doomed to cremation1 which will be instantaneously accomplished4 ,the girl mounts upon a table placed at the back of a kind of alcove1 consisting of a three-sided screen1 and above her is suspended a big fire-proof sack1 folded up as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,the table upon which the victim stands ready for sacrifice appears to have four legs1 and under this table burn1 or appear to burn1 four candles1 the purpose being to indicate to the public that the space beneath the table is open1 perfectly free1 and beyond suspicion of any trickery4 ,the sack1 which forms a cylindrical screen under which the victim is to be burned1 has been previously handed round to the spectators1 so that they might assure themselves that it was entire1 without any hole or split1 lacing1 or other artifice allowing of an escape from behind--a precaution invariably taken to allay the too ready suspicions of incredulous spectators4 ,all these verifications being made1 and the audience perfectly satisfied as to the bona fides of the case1 the sack is lowered upon the victim1 a pistol is fired1 and the cremation commences4 ,flames and smoke 7see ,fig4 #b7 soon indicate to the terrified spectators that the fire is pursuing its destructive work4 ,when the flames have ceased1 the sack1 composed as we have stated1 of an incombustible material1 is raised1 and there is seen upon the table1 in the midst of the still smoking dbris1 only a few bones and a skull 7,fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,cremated ,,alive4 ,an examination of the conditions under which the disappearance has taken place does not in the least reveal the methods by which it has been so rapidly accomplished2 but as it is clearly inadmissible that the sacrifice of a young and beautiful person should thus take place every evening for the simple gratification of the public1 one is1 of course1 pushed to the conclusion that there must be some trick4 ,and a trick there is of a most ingenious character1 as will be seen by the following explanation1 the comprehension of which will be aided by ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,in this particular case the illusion is a happy combination of suitable appliances underneath the scene and of the well-known properties of plane mirrors placed on the incline4 ,the table upon which our victim mounts for cremation has1 as a matter of fact1 only two legs1 instead of four1 and the two others are only seen by the spectators as a reflection of the two real legs in the two glasses inclined at an angle of #ij degrees with each other1 and at #de degrees with the two side panels of the three-fold screen which contains the scene of the disappearance4 ,it is precisely the same with the two candles1 which1 in consequence of their reflection in the mirrors1 appear to be four in number1 whilst the central rod hides the edges of the mirrors4 ,thanks to the combination of the glasses and panels1 and to the adoption of a uniform surface for these panels1 the reflection of the two sides in the two lower glasses appears to be but the continuation of the panel at the back4 ,the triangular box1 of which the two glasses comprise the two sides1 and the floor the bottom1 has its surface formed of two parts2 the one made up of the top of the table itself1 and the other of pieces of mirror which reflect the back panel1 and pieces of material of the same colour as the panel itself4 ,it is easy from this to understand the whole course of the operations1 more or less fantastic1 which the spectator watches with such breathless interest4 ,as soon as the victim is hidden by the sack which comes down upon her1 she at once escapes by a secret trap-door in the top of the table1 as is shown in ,fig4 #d2 she then rapidly puts into position the skull and bones1 as well as some inflammable material1 to which she sets fire when she hears the pistol shot4 ,she then1 closing the trap1 tranquilly retires1 and remains hidden in the triangular space arranged between the back panel and the two glasses until the fall of the curtain4 ,money ,dissolved in ,water4--,for this trick the young magician needs a glass1 which may be either the ordinary tumbler or a wine-glass1 as shown in our illustration 7,fig4 #b74 ,it must be of such a size that if a half-crown be dropped into the glass1 it shall1 lying flat1 nearly or quite fill the bottom space4 ,the conjuror must be provided also with a glass disc1 of the thickness of a half-crown1 and in diameter exactly corresponding with the bottom space of the glass4 ,this1 when about to perform the trick1 he holds concealed in his right hand1 after the manner of ,a in ,fig4 #c4 ,filling the glass about three-quarters full1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 he hands it to a spectator to hold4 ,he then asks the loan of a half-crown1 and a lady's pocket-handkerchief4 ,taking the coin as ,c in ,fig4 #c1 he accordingly throws the handkerchief over it1 or1 rather1 makes believe to do so1 for in reality1 under cover of the handkerchief1 he deftly substitutes the glass disc1 and holds this between his fingers1 while the coin takes its place in his palm4 ,he now asks the person holding the glass to take charge of the coin also4 ,he is instructed to hold it 7the glass disc7 just over the glass1 the four corners of the handkerchief hanging down around it1 and at the word three1 to drop it into the glass4 ,the conjuror counts one1 two1 three8 ,at the word three the supposed coin falls1 and is heard to tinkle upon the glass4 ,illustration ,touch the glass through the handkerchief with your magic wand1 and state that by the time you have counted three the half-crown will have dissolved4 ,count three very slowly1 then the handkerchief is removed1 the water is seen1 but the supposed coin has vanished1 for the disc1 being of glass1 lies quite invisible at the bottom2 and if it fits the water may be poured away without the disc falling out1 the thin layer of water remaining underneath it holding it by atmospheric pressure to the bottom of the tumbler4 ,it is not worth while to do this unless some one challenges you to pour off the water1 then the challenge should be accepted readily4 ,the conjurer should now pay back the half-crown1 but it will assist the illusion if he pays it back with two shillings and a sixpence1 or in some other coins1 instead of in the form in which it was borrowed4 ,the ,vanished ,half-,crown4--,the trick of the dissolved half-crown may be varied4 ,in this case the coin should be marked by the owner4 ,upon finding it is not in the water when the handkerchief has been removed pretend to be anxious about its loss4 ,say you will pay it back in instalments1 and offer a shilling towards it4 ,when the money-lender tries to take the proffered shilling it vanishes too4 ,this is managed by boring a hole in the shilling1 tying some elastic through the hole1 and stitching the other end of the elastic up your sleeve4 ,then as soon as you leave hold of the coin it darts back up your sleeve4 ,has that gone too6 you exclaim4 ,well1 we must try to find that half-crown2 perhaps it is in this ball of worsted1 you say1 as you pick one from the table4 ,hand the ball of worsted to someone to examine and they declare that the coin is not in it4 ,as you walk back to the table secretly exchange this ball for another4 ,now this other ball of worsted has been prepared in this way4 ,it has been wound round a tin tube about three inches long1 a tube through which half-a-crown may be passed4 ,when you have the marked coin at the beginning of the trick you should have the ball of worsted in your pocket1 and putting your hand there1 should put the coin through the tube into the ball of worsted4 ,then take the tube away and press the ball into its proper shape4 ,it is this ball that you now place in an empty glass1 and giving the end of the worsted to some lady in the audience1 ask her to unwind it4 ,as she does so the half-crown will begin to rattle upon the glass4 ,magic ,florins4--,take four half sheets of note-paper from any table1 and then borrow four florins2 these florins you place upon a table about a foot apart1 and gently lay the half sheets over each4 ,you then take up one sheet and discover the florin underneath4 ,placing the paper on one side you take up the coin1 and without touching1 in some extraordinary way1 make it pass through the next paper4 ,you lift it1 and sure enough1 there lie two florins4 ,you then lift the third paper1 to find the florin you placed there4 ,again1 in the same mysterious manner you pass the coin through the paper4 ,it makes no hole going through1 but when the paper is lifted up there are the three of them4 ,now you lift up the last piece of paper1 thereby uncovering the last florin4 ,repeating the same process1 you then request one of the audience to lift the paper1 so that he or she may see that there is no deception4 ,this being done1 there lie the four florins as cosy as little fledglings in a nest4 ,the extreme simplicity of the trick is the most taking part of it4 ,and now to explain this seeming mystery4 ,one great golden rule of conjuring successfully is1 as it were1 to take your audience into partnership with you4 ,when you borrowed the four florins of course they thought that was all you wanted4 ,but you began the trick with one in your left hand cunningly concealed under the four sheets1 all of which you hold in that hand4 ,then placing the four borrowed coins on the table 7which1 by the by1 must have a thick cloth on it to deaden the sound71 twelve inches apart1 with the right hand you take the three top sheets4 ,this leaves you with the fourth sheet in the left hand1 the coin below being held in position by gentle pressure from fingers below1 and thumb above4 ,then simultaneously with each hand you place a sheet of paper over two of the four coins on the table4 ,doing it simultaneously distracts the audience's attention from what you are doing with your left hand2 for it is at this particular moment that the trick is being performed4 ,as you place the paper down1 with a gentle and even motion of the thumb you leave the fifth coin there1 too1 taking great care that it does not clash with the one there already4 ,now you have two coins under that sheet1 though the audience only know of one4 ,there is one under each of the other three sheets4 ,you take one of these sheets up now and take the coin between the top of the thumb and fingers of the left hand1 then with the fingers and thumb of the right hand you pretend to take it1 but in reality you let it fall into the palm of the left hand1 a feat that must be practised carefully before a mirror4 ,you close the fingers of the right hand over the imaginary coin in them1 and act as if it were there4 ,one way of aiding the deception is to follow the right hand with your eyes as it goes away from the left1 at the same time dropping the left hand in an easy unconstrained position to the side4 ,now choosing the sheet which covers the two coins 7though the audience only know of one71 you place the right hand a few inches above it1 and open the fingers1 making some mysterious passes4 ,of course1 nothing passes in reality1 but when you proceed to lift up the sheet and display the second coin1 the audience will either think that they could not see it1 or that you are a very mysterious person1 which1 indeed1 you are4 ,the remainder of the trick is only a repetition of what has been already explained2 but it excites more and more astonishment as it proceeds4 ,the bewilderment of the audience culminates in the last act1 when1 as before1 you have pretended to take the coin in the right hand 7really having left it in the left71 and making the passes1 request one of the audience to lift up the last sheet--there lie all the four florins4 ,meanwhile1 your left has dropped quietly to your side1 the coin in it been slipped noiselessly into the pocket1 and both hands are free to return to their astonished owners the four borrowed coins4 ,this trick is a particularly effective one1 requiring1 as it does1 no paraphernalia except what are always to be met with in almost every room4 ,only let the beginner recollect this4 ,he must never begin the trick without the fifth coin1 or he will come to grief4 ,nor must he accede to requests to do it again1 or he will be detected4 ,magic ,pens4--,take a small quantity of ,aniline ,violet1 obtainable at any chemist's1 two pennyworth making about two dozen pens1 and make it into a thick paste with water1 taking care not to leave any lumps2 then add a few drops of mucilage or good gum4 ,do not add too much1 or the paste will not set well4 ,apply a small quantity of the paste thus made to the hollow part of a clean pen1 within a quarter of an inch of the point1 and leave it for a few hours to dry4 ,when dry1 tell your friends that you will write anything they like to tell you with the pen1 but instead of using ink1 you will use water4 ,then dip the pen into the water1 taking care not to show the side with the paste on1 and write whatever they ask you to1 the writing appearing the same as if you were using an ordinary pen4 ,the ,magic ,bottle4--,you will need two cardboard cases open at each end1 and large enough to slip easily over the bottles2 a specially constructed bottle1 the upper part of which can contain a liquid1 and the lower part containing an open space in which a glass can stand2 an imitation bottle made of tin and large enough to just slide over the special bottle2 and two glasses4 ,with this apparatus before us we are ready to proceed with the performance4 ,we introduce an empty glass and what appears to be an ordinary wine bottle1 but which is really a special bottle1 with its tin case over it1 and containing a second wine-glass inside4 ,by careful manipulation we pour the contents from the upper part of the bottle into the wine-glass1 and then setting the bottle down in its position1 pour back half the liquid1 which now runs through a hole in the partition into the glass beneath4 ,so that the audience sees one glass half full1 two cardboard cases1 and what appears to be the bottle 7as in figure71 but which really is our special bottle covered by its tin case1 shaped and coloured like a bottle1 and a second glass half full beneath it4 ,now we show the cardboard cases to prove that they are empty1 and then place one case over the glass and another over the bottle4 ,at this stage everything depends on the talk of the performer1 who1 by his jokes and comicalities1 somewhat diverts the attention of his audience4 ,some excuse is now invented for changing the cases1 and in doing this by nipping the one over the bottle the tin case is lifted off with it 7as in ,fig4 #b71 and placed over the glass1 then on again raising the cases1 the glass has disappeared1 and there are now two bottles instead4 ,again1 the cases are put over the bottles1 and again they are raised1 but by nipping both the cases1 the bottles are lifted with them1 and now only the two glasses appear4 ,again the cases are put on1 and the bottle and glass restored as at first1 and so a number of changes can be worked at will1 the performer1 of course1 talking all the while and referring in the language of magicians to his power and skill in causing the bottle and the glasses to obey his will4 ,fig4 #c shows the construction of the special bottle with its two linings and the space for the glass to stand within it4 ,illustration ,the ,magic ,wand4--,by means of this wand 7a piece of thin glass rod7 we may produce fire at will4 ,take a teaspoonful of castor sugar1 and rather less than half a teaspoonful of ground chlorate of potash1 thoroughly mix without friction1 and place on a saucer standing on an old tray4 ,secretly dip the point of the glass rod in sulphuric acid 7oil of vitriol7 and then touch the mass on the saucer4 ,another ,wand ,trick4--,leave the room under some pretext and bring in with you a wand that has been made hot4 ,touch the wick of a candle1 in which you have concealed previously a piece of phosphorus1 and tell it to light and it will obey4 ,it is better to use a candle that has already been lighted1 because such a wick lights more readily4 ,the ,dancing ,egg4--,request someone to play the piano1 and1 touching an egg with your magic wand1 call upon it to dance4 ,it will do so if you observe the following directions4 ,let the egg be boiled hard and brought into the room piping hot4 ,make a small hole in the shell and through this push into the egg a quill that contains quicksilver1 and has both ends firmly sealed4 ,so long as the egg retains its heat1 so long will it dance4 ,mystic ,thread4--,have suspended by a long thread an ordinary ring4 ,let someone in the audience strike a match and set fire to the thread4 ,it burns1 but the ring does not fall because the thread has been thoroughly steeped in common salt and water4 ,eggs without ,hens4--,have a bag made of calico or similar material4 ,have it made double and just inside the mouth of the part you keep towards you have six little pockets made4 ,into each of these put an egg that has been blown or sucked until nothing remains in it4 ,you may now shake the bag and turn it inside out to show it is empty1 and yet you are able to produce one egg after another4 ,one may be a full one1 and if you break this the trick will seem more real4 ,feathers from a ,handkerchief4--,obtain some long feathers--the longer the better4 ,take off your coat and lay the feathers in the left sleeve with the quills near the wrist4 ,now put on your coat with the feathers still there4 ,borrow a large handkerchief1 and after flourishing it1 to show it conceals nothing1 throw it over your left arm4 ,when you take it up again take with it one of the feathers1 and when you shake the handkerchief again out drops the feather4 ,if the feather is large and curved it will not appear as though it had been up your sleeve4 ,repeat the process with suitable talk until all the feathers have been produced4 ,ink ,changed to ,water4--,fit a black silk lining into a glass vessel so that it lines the sides but not the bottom4 ,put water in the glass and gold fish1 but let the audience see nothing except the black lining4 ,behind the glass have a spoon with ink in it4 ,speak to the audience with an empty spoon in your hand1 and then go to the glass1 secretly change the spoons and pretend to take a spoonful of ink from the glass4 ,now show the spoon with the ink in it to the audience1 and they will believe the vessel is full of ink4 ,throw a cloth over the glass and call upon the ink to change to water4 ,remove the cloth1 and with it the black lining1 and there you have the water and the gold fish swimming in it4 ,the ,mysterious ,box4--,secure a little round box1 into the bottom of which a half-crown will fit exactly4 ,line the box with dark paper and cover one side of a half-crown with the same material4 ,retaining this half-crown1 pass the box round to be examined so that the audience may be sure it has no false bottom4 ,now borrow half-a-crown1 and as you return to the table exchange it for your prepared one4 ,show this to the audience1 keeping the papered side carefully towards you1 and let them see you drop it into the box4 ,in doing this keep the papered side upwards4 ,close the box and shake it up and down so that the coin rattles4 ,now touch the box with your wand and charge the coin to pass into a box1 vase1 or any other object in another part of the room into which you have previously placed half-a-crown4 ,shake the box again1 this time from side to side1 and there will be no rattle4 ,open it1 the coin cannot be seen4 ,now ask the audience to go to the place where you have planted the other half-crown1 and while they are looking for it take out your papered half-crown4 ,when they have found the other half-crown hand round the box again for them to examine4 ,simple as is this trick1 it is very puzzling to the audience4 ,how ,threepence ,vanished4--,place a threepenny piece upon the palm of your hand4 ,close your hand1 but have a piece of wax upon the nail of your middle finger4 ,press this upon the coin1 open your hand1 and the coin will be out of sight4 ,the ,hat ,trick4--,borrow a hat1 for a trick with a hat always has an air of importance4 ,now1 with a deal of elaboration1 take a glass of water and proceed deliberately to cover the glass over with the hat4 ,you undertake to drink the water without removing the hat4 ,your challenge is accepted4 ,you stoop beneath the table and commence making a loud sucking noise with the lips1 as though you were drawing the water through the table4 ,with a sharp ,now1 sir6 the curiosity of your opponent will make him lift up the hat2 you instantly seize the glass and swallow the contents1 saying1 ,you perceive1 sir1 ,i have drunk the water and ,i have not removed the hat4 ,card ,tricks4--,,inseparable ,,kings4--,take four kings4 ,beneath the last place any two cards1 which you take care to conceal4 ,then show the four kings and replace the six cards under the pack4 ,then take a king and place it on the top of the pack1 place one of the two other cards in the middle1 and the other about the same place1 and then1 turning up the pack1 show that one king is still at the bottom4 ,then let the cards be cut1 and as three kings were left below1 all must necessarily get together somewhere about the middle of the pack4 ,of course in placing the two other cards you pretend to be placing two kings4 ,,to ,,guess ,,chosen ,,cards4--,make a set of all the clubs and spades1 and another set of hearts and diamonds4 ,shuffle well each set1 and even let them be shuffled by the spectators4 ,then request a person to draw a card from one of the sets1 and another person to draw one from the second set4 ,you now take a set in each hand1 presenting them to the two persons requesting them to replace the drawn cards4 ,you must pretend to present to each person the set from which he drew his card1 but in reality you present the red set to the person who drew the black card1 and the black set to the person who drew the red card4 ,,to ,,tell ,a ,,card ,,thought ,,of4--,take twenty-one cards of a pack1 and deal them out one by one in three lots1 requesting someone to think of a card1 and remember in which lot it is4 ,having dealt out the cards1 ask him in which lot the card is4 ,take up the lots successively1 and place the lot containing the card in the middle4 ,deal out the cards again1 and ask him to state in which lot the card is2 and proceed as before1 placing the lot containing the card in the middle4 ,deal out the cards in like manner a third time1 proceeding as before4 ,then deal them out as usual1 and the eleventh card will be the one thought of1 infallibly4 ,this is the usual way of showing the card thought of2 but1 as the trick may be partly discovered by the counting1 it is better to hold the cards in your hand1 and take out the eleventh card1 counting to yourself1 of course1 from the left hand1 but pretending to be considering the guess4 ,,cheating ,,the ,,maid4--,for this amusing trick you arrange the cards thus3 ,holding the pack in your hands1 find all the knaves1 place one of them next to your left hand1 and the other three on the table4 ,then find a queen1 which also place on the table4 ,then say3--,three scamps went into a tavern1 and ordered drink4 ,here they are--the three knaves4 ',who's to pay8 ,i can't1' said the first4 ',i won't1' said the second4 ',i wish she may get it1' said the third4 ',i'll manage it1' said the first1 the greatest rogue of the three4 ',i say1 my pretty girl1 haven't you some very old wine in your cellar8' ,here's the barmaid thus addressed by the rogue in question 7showing the queen71 and she replied3--',oh1 yes1 sir1 prime old wine4' ',let's have a bottle4' ,off went the barmaid4 7,put the queen in your pocket47 ',now for it1 my lads1' said the knave in question2 'run is the word4 ,let's be off in opposite directions1 and meet to-night2 you know where4' ,hereupon they decamped1 taking opposite directions1 which ,i will indicate by placing one on the top of the pack1 one at the bottom1 and the other in the middle4 ,when the poor barmaid returned 7taking out the queen from your pocket7 with the wine1 great was her astonishment to find the room empty4 ',lor6' she exclaimed1 'why1 ,i do declare--did you ever6--,oh6 but ,i'm not agoing to be sarved so4 ,i'll catch the rogues1 all of them--that ,i will4' ,and off she went after them1 as shown by placing her on or after the first4 ,now1 to catch the three seems impossible2 but the ladies have always smiled at impossibilities1 and wonders never cease2 for1 if you have the goodness to cut these cards1 you will find that she has caught the three rogues4 ,when the cards are cut1 proceed in the usual way after cutting2 and taking up the cards1 you will find the queen and three knaves together1 which you take out and exhibit to the astonished audience4 ,one of these knaves is not one of the three first exhibited1 but the one which you slipped on your left hand at first4 ,there is no chance of detection1 however2 simply for the reason before given--nobody suspects the trick4 ,,another ,,guessing ,,trick4--,lay out twenty cards of any kind1 two by two1 and request a friend to think of two in a line2 that is1 one of the ten sets formed by the twenty cards4 ,this done you take up the sets in the order in which they lie1 and place them in rows according to the letters of the following words3-- ------------------------- c i c o s ------------------------- d e d i t ------------------------- t u m u s ------------------------- n e m o n ------------------------- ,you may use a diagram like the above1 but as the words are easily retained it had better be dispensed with1 distributing the cards on the table just as though upon the diagram1 which will make the trick more puzzling and extraordinary4 ,proceed as follows3--,place the cards two by two on similar letters3 thus1 place the two cards of the first set on the two d's in dedit2 the two cards of the second set on the two i's of cicos and dedit2 the two of the third set on the two c's1 and so on with the ten sets4 ,all the letters of the words being thus covered1 ask the friend who has thought of the cards to tell you in which lines these cards are4 ,if both are in the first line 7cicos71 they must be those on the two c's2 if they are both in the second line1 they cover the d's in dedit2 both in the third line1 they cover the u's in tumus2 both in the fourth1 they cover the n's in nemon4 ,if one be in the first line and the other in the second1 they cover the i's in cicos and dedit1 and thus of the rest--the two cards thought of necessarily covering two similar letters1 whilst each of the letters occurs only twice in the diagram4 ,,to ,,tell ,a ,,card ,,thought ,,of4--,take any number--say twenty4 ,pretend to shuffle them with the faces towards you and remember the first card as you close the pack--say1 the ten of diamonds4 ,tell the friend that the only condition you require is to be told the order in which the card is dealt out by you2 in other words he must tell you whether in dealing it comes out first1 second1 third1 etc4 ,remembering your first card1 you may then turn your back to him1 and deal out the cards one by one1 and one upon the top of the other1 requesting him to think of a card and its order as before said4 ,then take up the cards1 and shuffle them repeatedly by throwing a portion of them from the bottom to the top1 taking care not to mix the cards or letting any drop1 and then let the friend cut them as often as he pleases4 ,then take the cards in hand4 ,pretend to examine them mysteriously1 but in reality only look for your card--the first dealt out--the ten of diamonds1 for instance4 ,now1 suppose he tells you that the card he thought of came out fifth4 ,then1 for a certainty1 it is the fourth card on the right of the ten of diamonds1 in spite of all shuffling1 for shuffling cannot alter the order or sequence of the cards4 ,always remember to count from your own card inclusive to the number of the card thought of towards your right hand4 ,but1 should your card happen to be so near the right hand or the top as not to allow sufficient counting1 then count as far as it admits to the right and then continue at the left4 ,thus1 suppose there are only two cards above the ten of diamonds1 then count two more on the left1 making the fifth4 ,if the card you remember1 or your first card1 is first1 then count the requisite number on the left1 always beginning with your card1 however4 ,the reason of this trick is simply that by merely cutting the cards and shuffling them in the way indicated1 you do not alter the sequence of the cards4 ,,another ,,method4--,form three ranks of five cards each1 and request a person to think of one of these cards1 and tell you in which rank it is4 ,take up the cards of the three ranks1 taking care to place the cards of the ranks in which is the card thought of between those of the two other ranks4 ,make three more ranks as before4 ,ask him again in which rank the card is1 and take them up1 placing the rank in which the card is between the two others4 ,operate in like manner a third time1 and the card thought of will infallibly be the third of the rank named4 ,observe1 however1 you must not form each rank with five consecutive cards2 but you must place the cards one by one1 placing one successively in each rank3 thus1 one at the top on the left of the first rank1 one below that first for the second rank1 one below the second for the third rank1 then one in the first1 one in the second1 one in the third1 and so on4 ,this trick1 which is very easy1 always produces a great effect4 ,it only requires a little attention1 and it can never fail unless you make a mistake in arranging the cards4 ,,to ,,tell ,,chosen ,,cards4--,the cards may be easily divided into two numerical parts1 even and odd3 by taking a king for four points1 a queen for three1 a knave for two1 and the other cards for their especial points1 we may make up two sets of sixteen cards each1 the even composing one1 and the odd the other4 ,these two sets being before the performer1 he takes one1 shuffles it well1 and lets a person take a card4 ,he then takes the other1 shuffles it1 and lets another person take a card4 ,then1 whilst each person is looking at his card1 which he is requested to do1 the performer dexterously changes the place of the two sets1 and he requests them to replace the cards in the set whence they took them4 ,it follows that he who took a card from the even set places it in the odd set1 and he who took it from the odd set places it in the even set4 ,consequently all the shuffling and cutting in the world will be useless1 for the performer has only to spread out the cards of each set to point out the cards drawn4 ,,singular ,,arrangement ,,of ,,sixteen ,,cards4--,take the four kings1 the four queens1 the four knaves1 and the four tens of a pack1 and ask if there be any one in the company who can form a square with them in such a manner that1 taken in any direction1 from right to left1 from the top to the bottom1 by the diagonal--anyhow1 in fact--there will always be in each line a king1 queen1 knave1 and a ten4 ,everybody will think the thing easy1 but it is certain that no one will succeed in doing it4 ,when they give it up1 take the sixteen cards and arrange them as follows1 when the king1 queen1 knave1 and ten will stand as required4 --------------------------------------- ,ten ,jack ,queen ,king of of of of ,spades4 ,clubs4 ,diamonds4 ,hearts4 --------------------------------------- ,king ,queen ,jack ,ten of of of of ,spades4 ,hearts4 ,diamonds4 ,clubs4 --------------------------------------- ,jack ,ten ,king ,queen of of of of ,hearts4 ,diamonds4 ,clubs4 ,clubs4 --------------------------------------- ,queen ,king ,ten ,jack of of of of ,spades4 ,diamonds4 ,hearts4 ,spades4 --------------------------------------- ,,the ,,card ,,that ,,cannot ,,be ,,found4--,take any number of cards and spread them out fan-like in your hand1 faces fronting the spectators4 ,ask one of them to select a card4 ,you tell him to take it1 and then to place it at the bottom of the pack4 ,you hold up the pack1 so that the spectators may see that the card is really at the bottom4 ,suppose this card is the king of hearts4 ,then1 pretending to take that card1 you take the card preceding it1 and place it at a point corresponding to ,a in the following figure4 ,a ,c ,b ,d ,you then take the card drawn1 namely1 the king of hearts1 and place it at the point corresponding to ,b in the above figure4 ,finally1 you take any two other cards1 and place them at ,c and ,d4 ,of course1 the cards are placed face downwards4 ,after this location of the cards1 you tell the person who has chosen the card that you will change the position of the cards1 by pushing alternately that at the point ,a to ,b1 and that at ,d to ,c1 and vice versa2 and you defy him to follow you in these gyrations of the card1 and to find it4 ,of course1 seeing no difficulty in the thing1 and believing with everybody that his card is placed at the point ,a1 he will undertake to follow and find his card4 ,then performing what you undertake to do1 you rapidly change the places of the cards1 and yet slowly enough to enable the person to keep in view the card which he thinks his own1 and so that you may not lose sight of the one you placed at ,b4 ,having thus disarranged the cards for a few moments1 you ask the person to perform his promise by pointing out his card4 ,feeling sure that he never lost sight of it1 he instantly turns one of the cards and is astonished to find that it is not his own4 ,then you say3--,i told you you would not be able to follow your card in its ramble4 ,but ,i have done what you couldn't do3 here is your card6 ,the astonishment of the spectators is increased when you actually show the card2 for1 having made them observe1 in the first instance1 that you did not even look at the drawn card1 they are utterly at a loss to discover the means you employed to find out and produce the card in question4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,pets ,cavies or ,guinea ,pigs4--,in starting these little chats1 suppose we commence with cavies4 ,some who ought to know better have said that cavies are very dull1 stupid little animals1 but ,i entirely disagree with this1 as will also the lad who has kept them for ever so short a time2 they are bright1 intelligent little fellows1 and most pleasant to make pets of1 and although they belong to the rodent or rat family are not the least vicious4 ,cavies are extremely clean in their habits1 very handsome in colour1 and if their little houses are kept clean there is no disagreeable smell from them4 ,now before you buy your guineas you should build and furnish their house1 and ,i will proceed to tell you how to do this4 ,the selection of a suitable place comes first4 ,if you live in the country there is generally an outhouse or wood-shed1 and if so here is the spot to commence operations2 if1 on the other hand1 you only have a small garden or back-yard1 then select a spot in it which gets a fair share of pure air and sunlight1 and which is protected from the cruel east winds4 ,the smooth-haired cavy must have a hutch not less than #b ft4 long1 #ah to #bj in4 from front to back1 and about the same height4 ,let the floor of your hutch have a slight fall to the back so as to carry off the moisture2 the roof must also have a slope1 and should be covered with tarred felt1 or brown paper well tarred and sanded1 which makes a capital waterproof covering4 ,in the front of your hutch have a closely and well-fitting wooden door1 large enough for you to clean out the interior comfortably2 the other portion of the front must be covered with wire netting of a very close mesh4 ,be sure that your doors fasten securely1 as some cavies have a habit of shaking them1 and if not properly secured1 open comes the door and out drops poor guinea1 who is almost sure to be killed4 ,it is always best to have the hutch two or three feet from the ground1 and resting on four legs1 which is much better than nailing it to the wall4 ,after having got so far1 go carefully over your work to see that there are no cracks or crannies in your hutch1 as these let in draughts1 which lead to disease and death4 ,cover the floor of the hutch with fine sawdust1 and over this some sweet chopped hay1 and your house is ready for its occupants4 ,without going fully into the history of the cavy1 ,i may say that it is a native of ,south ,america1 where in many parts it is very numerous4 ,in its wild state the cavy1 where the ground is suitable1 burrows like a rabbit2 in damp1 marshy places it hides under the many plants that flourish in such neighbourhoods4 ,they are not difficult to catch1 and not being of a savage nature are easily tamed4 ,in their native haunts they are greatly esteemed as an article of food1 and although ,i have never had the pleasure of tasting cavy flesh1 ,i am told by those who have1 and who are well able to give an opinion1 that it is delicious2 and ,i see no reason to doubt it1 as cavies are exceedingly cleanly in their habits and feeding4 ,there are several varieties of cavies1 and as these are bred in almost every colour they afford the greatest pleasure1 not only to the lad who is fond of experimenting1 but also to hundreds of men and women4 ,that the various colours can be easily bred and well fixed1 has been proved beyond doubt by the many handsome little specimens that are to be seen at any of our exhibitions to-day4 ,as we have them now1 we may for our purpose divide the cavy into three classes or divisions1 namely1 long-haired 7,peruvians71 rough-haired 7,abyssinian71 and smooth-haired2 but before going on with their description ,i would like to say a word as to handling them4 ,this may seem superfluous1 but it is not so1 as they are easily injured2 therefore1 when you have occasion to lift your pet put your finger and thumb of the right hand round its neck1 not tightly1 but sufficiently firm to hinder it slipping1 gently raise it and place it on your left hand1 and so it can be safely lifted about and handled4 ,in mating your cavies remember that the boar 7male7 controls the colour and outward characteristics of the future family1 consequently he should be as typical in colour and shape as possible1 and not younger than ten or twelve months2 the sow 7female7 must not be less than about six months old1 and in selecting her see that she is very tame and gentle1 as she gives the inward characteristics to the young ones4 ,of course1 in keeping cavies1 as in any other variety of pets1 a very great deal depends on the individual fancy1 and1 therefore1 ,i shall give a short description of the three classes mentioned1 and leave you boys to select which you think will give you the greatest pleasure4 ,,the ,,peruvian ,,cavy4--,the ,peruvian cavy is noted for its long hair1 which is its chief characteristic1 and when nicely combed and brushed it would be hard to find a handsomer little fellow4 ,the hair grows right over its head and face1 so that it is sometimes difficult to see either its eyes or ears2 yet its beautiful bright eyes are always on the look out1 and can see you and all your movements4 ,on the body the hair grows to such a length that it trails on the ground1 some actually having it as long as seven or eight inches4 ,the hair or fur should be as long1 soft1 and silky as possible1 and to keep it in proper order a good deal of attention is necessary2 it grows very evenly from a natural parting1 from the crown of the head to the stern1 falling over to each side1 and to keep your pet neat and trim as well as healthy you must brush its coat regularly1 using a soft brush1 and if any part is matted take a wide-toothed comb and very gently comb it out4 ,you boys know what it is to comb your hair when it is matted1 and how it hurts if roughly done4 ,remember1 therefore1 that without care you will not only cause your pet pain1 but1 as the fur or hair on it is only1 comparatively speaking1 slightly attached to the skin1 carelessness will result in pulling it out1 thus leaving bare and unsightly patches4 ,if1 however1 the brush is regularly used1 there will be little or no need of the comb4 ,,the ,,abyssinian ,,cavy4--,the next variety that claims our notice is the quaint little ,abyssinian or rough-haired cavy4 ,unlike the ,peruvian1 the hair of the ,abyssinian is short and hard or rough to the touch1 and instead of growing all one way it is rosetted1 as it were1 in bunches1 each rosette or bunch being separate and distinct1 and the more evenly these are distributed over the body the more charming the result4 ,what do my readers think of one of these little fellows--a beautiful tortoiseshell1 very well rosetted1 and with short1 hard hair1 being sold for upwards of #cj8 ,but such is a fact4 ,it was bred by a lady who takes a very great interest in ,master ,cavy1 and who exhibits some most beautiful specimens1 and it was disposed of for the sum mentioned4 ,the ,abyssinian is a hardy little chap and must not be coddled up in a warm hutch4 ,keep him dry and sheltered from draughts and he will thrive merrily4 ,,smooth-,,haired ,,cavies4--,last1 but not least in any shape or form1 comes the smooth-haired variety1 which you boys all know1 ,i am sure1 and which is1 as it fully deserves to be1 the favourite4 ,the coat of the smooth-haired cavy is soft and velvety to the touch1 and the immense number of colours in which it is now bred makes it a most delightful little pet4 ,i will not go through the many different colours further than to mention that we have them black1 white1 golden1 brown1 grey1 red1 and the various sub-divisions and blendings between these colours4 ,the cavy has a good-sized head1 is ,roman-nosed1 has a very thick1 or bull1 neck1 and a nicely rounded body1 tapering towards the stern2 eyes full and bright1 and small1 neatly-shaped ears2 his whole make-up giving him the appearance of a cheerful1 happy1 and contented little fellow4 ,now1 as to feeding1 remember that regularity and cleanliness must be observed1 and that a variety or change in food is very much relished1 and is necessary for the health of your cavies4 ,for breakfast1 which give early1 provide some bread and milk sop1 in which now and again put a piece of boiled potato2 and as a change1 in cold weather some barley-meal1 scalded in boiling water and made into a nice crumbly mass4 ,this latter is very warm and comforting1 too1 for supper1 in cold frosty weather4 ,as dry food1 you must have good sound oats1 wheat1 a few crushed peas1 bran1 and hay4 ,green food must on no account be overlooked1 as it is one of the most valuable things for keeping the blood cool and the stomach in proper working order2 but remember that all green food must be fresh and dry4 ,almost any green stuff is relished1 but there are a few kinds that are very good3 lettuce1 cabbage leaves 7not too many71 parsley1 celery tops1 carrot1 turnip1 beet-root1 chickweed1 groundsel1 and chicory4 ,clean water must be always at hand1 and a drink of milk now and then is much appreciated4 ,as cavies are very apt to scratch their food all over the hutch1 and so waste a lot of it1 you should always feed in dishes or troughs4 ,the heavy earthenware troughs1 with flanged edges1 which are used for rabbits1 are best1 as they cannot be upset1 nor the food scratched out easily4 ,i prefer earthenware to any other material1 as it is so easily cleansed1 and there is nothing about it that will poison or give a disagreeable taste to the food4 ,though water and dry food should always be at hand for your cavies1 never leave soft food or greens long in the hutch1 as these soon become tainted1 and if eaten in that state bring on disease4 ,let them eat their fill of soft food and greens1 and then take away any that is left4 ,the lad who pays proper attention to his pets will soon be able to gauge to a nicety the amount of food they require4 ,rabbits4--,if you have sufficient pocket-money you can buy a hutch ready-made1 or you can build it on similar lines to that for cavies1 but of course much larger4 ,for ordinary-sized rabbits a hutch #c-a_/b ft4 long by #bj or #bb in4 will do1 but for lop-eared and ,belgians it should be #d-a_/b ft4 by #b ft42 whilst for ,flemish giants #e ft4 by #b ft4 ,it is always preferable to have your hutch in some outhouse1 where1 though the inmates will have plenty of fresh air1 they will be protected from very cold winds and rain4 ,as there is a deal of moisture from rabbits1 it is a good plan to have the floor of the outhouse cemented and connected with a drain1 so as to carry off the wet that comes from the hutches2 but as this cannot always be managed by boys who keep a few rabbits as pets1 you should have a piece of guttering fixed along the back of the hutch and so placed that it will drain into a pail1 in which put some sawdust and a little disinfectant1 which will keep down any unpleasant smell4 ,this pail you must empty every two or three days4 ,in every hutch ,i like a part of it boarded off as a sleeping-room1 which can be easily done by making a wooden partition and slipping it into the hutch1 allowing a space of #ab inches for this purpose4 ,this partition must have a hole cut in it large enough for the rabbits to pop in and out comfortably4 ,over this part of the hutch you must have a well-fitting wooden door1 not only to keep them warm1 but to darken the nest and so make them comfortable4 ,in giving your rabbits their food1 remember that you cannot measure the quantity exactly1 any more than you can say that because you have eaten so much to-day you will want exactly so much to-morrow and every day during the week4 ,study and observation are the only true guides4 ,in giving soft food and green food let them have as much as they eat up greedily and no more4 ,feed twice a day1 as early as possible in the morning and about sundown4 ,in the morning give soft food1 such as barley-meal1 pollard1 sharps1 middlings1 and bran1 which mix with scalding water into a soft1 rather crumbly than sticky mess4 ,a few tea-leaves in the soft food now and then is a nice change4 ,of course1 these foods must not be all mixed together1 but given on different mornings1 so as to provide a nice variety4 ,as there is not much feeding in bran it should always have one of the other foods mixed in it4 ,when they have had breakfast put sufficient corn into their troughs to last them all day to nibble at1 and for this oats are best2 but as a change1 once or twice a week crack up some barley for them4 ,a feed1 once a week1 of grey peas1 steeped till well soaked1 will also be much relished4 ,bits of biscuit and dry1 stale crusts are also good1 and can be given at any meal4 ,for the evening feed give a bit of sweet hay1 dry1 sweet clover1 and green food of almost any description that grows1 so long as it is fresh and dry4 ,it is impossible here to mention all the greens they will eat1 but amongst others ,i may mention parsley1 chicory1 dandelion1 lettuce1 cabbage1 celery1 clover in flower2 carrots1 turnips1 and mangolds 7a slice or two7 are very good4 ,be very careful not to leave any soft food or greens lying about the hutch1 as they soon spoil1 and not only smell offensively1 but injure the rabbits4 ,on the floors of your hutches spread sawdust 7pinewood sawdust is first-rate when it can be had71 and over this some nice clean straw2 and always keep in the hutch a little of one of the many disinfectants that are now manufactured4 ,drinking vessels and feeding troughs should all be made of glazed earthenware1 the latter having a flange round them to prevent the rabbit scratching out the food1 and being heavy enough to prevent them being pulled about and upset4 ,once more1 do not neglect cleanliness and regularity in feeding4 ,,the ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbit4--,one of the oldest varieties of the rabbit when these were first taken in hand and bred as fancy or domestic stock1 was the ,lop-ear2 and so1 paying reverence to his age1 ,i will give him the first place4 ,at the majority of rabbit shows ,i see lads and young men1 as well as old ones1 congregated in eager groups round the pens containing the ,lops1 or1 as they are sometimes called1 the ,king of the ,fancy4 ,i need scarcely tell our boys that the great feature in the ,lop rabbit is the immense lop or hanging ears4 ,well do ,i remember in the early days how proud the owner of a ,lop was if he could show to those assembled a specimen whose ears measured from tip to tip #ai inches2 yet to-day1 such a rabbit 7if an adult7 would not be looked at by the judges in a show1 for specimens #be inches and upwards are now produced4 ,in measuring the ears you must understand it is done as follows3 ,take hold of one ear1 lay it flat out full length1 but not stretching it to hurt the rabbit1 then place a rule at the extreme tip of the ear1 pass it along1 across the head1 and so on to the tip of the other ear1 which must be held out at full length as was the other1 and so you have the proper measurement of your specimen so far as length is concerned4 ,besides this1 however1 you want width of ear1 and this should1 roughly speaking1 be one quarter the total length1 measured across the widest part of one ear4 ,the ears of the ,lop must be as long as possible and wide in proportion2 not set on too closely on top of the head2 thick at the root1 and fall gracefully down the sides of the cheeks1 nicely rounded at the tip and free from knots or lumps2 the head large1 with full1 round1 bright eyes4 ,the body1 when in repose1 should be rather low at the shoulders1 rising in a graceful curve to the hind quarters1 which should be gradually and nicely rounded off1 the head resting on the pouch or dew-lap2 the tail must be straight1 and carried close to the body1 and the fore-legs straight and strong4 ,lops are bred in various colours1 such as black1 yellow1 fawn1 blue1 grey1 and tortoiseshell1 so that there is any amount of room for experimenting4 ,some people1 ,i am sorry to say1 have the absurd idea that constant pulling and stretching the ears of their rabbits1 whilst even in the nest1 greatly helps to lengthen them1 but like many cruel and ignorant ideas it is altogether wrong4 ,all that ,lop rabbits require to develop the length of ear and keep them healthy is regular feeding1 cleanliness1 and being kept at a temperature of from #ee to #fj degrees ,fahrenheit2 to secure which1 during spring1 autumn1 and winter1 artificial heat must be supplied1 the best for the purpose probably being hot-water pipes4 ,lops breed freely1 but1 as the young ones require a good deal of nourishment1 the doe should1 in order not to weaken her too much1 only be allowed to bring up two or three1 the others being given to nurse-does or foster-mothers1 which can generally be had easily if a little trouble is taken to enquire for one or two amongst friends who keep rabbits4 ,a healthy common rabbit makes a good foster-mother4 ,,the ,,himalayan ,,rabbit4--,it would be difficult to find a more handsome little rabbit than the ,himalayan1 and as it is one of the healthiest and hardiest of the coney family1 ,i propose to give a few particulars of it4 ,to commence1 then1 the ,himalayan1 or1 as it has been called1 the ,chinese rabbit1 has a perfectly white body1 with dark chocolate-brown 7as nearly black as can be7 ears1 nose1 feet1 and tail1 and pink or rich golden eyes1 the whole appearance being that of a very handsome animal4 ,the ears must be short1 close together1 and stand very erect1 so much so that if you bend them in any direction they immediately spring back into their proper position when released4 ,the eye is round1 bright1 and rather full1 and as ,i have just said1 pink or rich golden in colour2 the shape is very graceful1 rather long than short or stumpy1 giving it all the appearance of a thoroughbred animal4 ,the coat is short1 pure white1 and fine and silky in texture1 and the weight of a full-grown specimen should not exceed about six lbs4 ,the fur is greatly in request for the making of imitation ermine1 and good skins are always saleable to the manufacturers4 ,now that we have this beautiful little rabbit in our hutch1 how are we to preserve its distinctive markings in all their beauty8 ,for be it remembered that the white turns yellow1 and the black or dark brown markings grey1 unless proper attention is paid to them4 ,in ,chinese or ,russian markets where these rabbits are on sale1 we are told that the colour1 especially on the feet1 is not so distinct as is seen in our domestic specimens2 and this ,i can quite understand1 as1 with their constant burrowing and scratching amongst damp sand1 earth1 lime1 etc41 the colour on the feet will soon be affected4 ,a very great deal of care is bestowed by those who exhibit ,himalayans in order to have their handsome markings as even as possible2 for instance1 the ears1 from roots to tips1 should be as dark as possible1 and the nose the same colour1 as well as all four feet and tail4 ,this is often difficult to get2 still1 were it all as simple as ,a ,b ,c1 there would be little honour in producing what any one else could produce without trouble4 ,as on many other questions1 considerable discussion has been carried on as to how best to preserve the distinct colour4 ,many argued that the rabbits should be kept in entirely dark hutches1 as they said the light not only destroyed the colour1 but the rabbits in their wild state lived in dark burrows2 just so1 but these people forgot that such of the wild specimens as are to be seen in the foreign markets are not of that dark or nearly black colour1 especially so far as their feet are concerned1 as are those which are domesticated4 ,others took up the extreme opposition view1 and recommended as much light as possible4 ,these latter were further astray than their dark opponents1 for there is no doubt that constant exposure to the full light does destroy the purity of both black and white4 ,another thing that was overlooked by the advocates of light was that too much exposure to light affected the eyes of the ,himalayan1 which1 as ,i have said1 are pink1 for it is a well-known fact that human beings1 as well as animals and birds who have pink eyes1 avoid a strong light4 ,himalayans are best provided for in a partially darkened or shaded hutch1 and this can be easily arranged1 especially if the hutch stands in an outhouse or shed2 if not1 then partially cover the front with a bit of sacking or anything that will keep off the full glare4 ,if your ,himalayan is allowed to sleep or sit about in a wet hutch the colour of the feet will soon be destroyed2 but if the hutch is built as ,i previously described1 all water from the rabbit will soon run away4 ,however1 in the case of the rabbit under notice1 it is best to make assurance doubly sure1 so1 on the bottom of your hutch put a nice layer of fine sand or sawdust1 and over this straw or dried ferns1 then any water will run through and be absorbed by the sand or sawdust1 which should be raked over each morning1 and renewed once a week4 ,do not give your ,himalayan too much green meat1 and never any that is wet or stale1 as they are rather prone to scours4 ,a few acorns are always a valuable thing to have on hand1 and immediately bunny is seen to be relaxed2 give one or two1 and you will soon see the great good they will do4 ,,silver ,,and ,,angora ,,rabbits4--,amongst the many beautiful specimens that are to be seen now-a-days at exhibitions and in the rabbitries of breeders1 the silver varieties hold a deservedly high place4 ,the various colours include silver grey 7light1 medium1 and dark shade71 silver brown1 silver cream1 silver fawn1 and silver blue4 ,the silvers are of medium size1 and should weigh between six lbs4 and seven lbs41 be compactly built1 having a very neat head1 ears moderately short1 clear bright eyes1 and with that general appearance of activity that denotes a healthy constitution4 ,the coat or fur is close-fitting and smooth to the touch4 ,the skin or ground colour of the silver grey should be blue1 the fur consisting of black1 white1 and blue hair1 and1 according to its distribution1 so we have the three shades of light1 medium1 or dark1 as mentioned4 ,when the silver grey is born it is black1 the colour only beginning to develop between the age of one and two months1 and being fully developed at about five or six months1 when their coats are very handsome4 ,some breeders1 in order to get the silvering as quickly as possible1 help nature by keeping their pets in artificially heated hutches2 they succeed in thus accelerating development1 but1 as we have found from many years' experience1 those who so interfere1 and think they know more than ,mother ,nature1 have generally to pay the penalty for their presumption2 for rabbits1 too quickly developed1 although their coats have a beautiful appearance1 do not continue so long in that grand bloom and brightness that denotes the rabbit that has been allowed to get its coat as nature intended4 ,all the warmth that is necessary can be obtained by having the hutches water-tight1 kept clean1 and protected from the extremes of heat and cold4 ,during the years the silver grey colour was being perfected1 it is needless to say1 crosses of various colours had to be resorted to1 and amongst these were white rabbits1 which naturally threw offspring with white or very pale ground 7skin7 colour in many cases1 and as the fur grew1 it was observed that the white hair predominated1 giving the rabbit a cream or fawn colour1 the lighter being designated creams1 whilst the darker 7or medium7 were called fawns4 ,the silver brown was another outcome of the various crosses1 the ,belgian1 wild ,english1 and common grey hutch rabbit1 all leaving their trace in the silver variety1 the under coat and top coat being1 as the name denotes1 a brown colour2 this colour1 pretty as it is1 is not so taking to the eye as the other handsome ones are1 and so it has not been kept or bred so carefully as the foregoing colours mentioned4 ,the silver blue is still a rare colour1 and has not yet reached anything like such perfection as the others2 a correct blue1 whilst evenly silvered1 should show a beautiful blue colour all through4 ,although not so frequently seen1 the ,angora is an exceedingly handsome rabbit1 but needs a good deal of attention to keep it as it ought to be4 ,the great feature of this breed is the immense length of its wool--not hair1 mind1 boys--which should be of the finest quality1 soft as silk1 pure white1 and well distributed all over the body2 the face and ears have less wool1 in proportion to the other parts1 but finer and more silky4 ,the head is not very broad1 and is surmounted with a pair of small and neatly-shaped ears1 the eyes being pink and bright1 a beautiful contrast to the snow-white wool4 ,the weight should not exceed seven lbs4 or eight lbs41 although from the amount of wool they carry1 they look very much heavier4 ,angoras must be kept in large hutches1 on the bottoms of which have nice1 clean1 soft1 oat straw4 ,to keep their coats in proper order1 they must be gently combed and brushed at least every other day1 care being taken to pull as little wool out as possible4 ,should any part of the coat become matted1 do not tug at it with the comb1 which should be a wide-toothed one1 but disentangle it with your fingers1 and use a little warm water on it to help2 if it is too securely matted to enable you to loosen it1 there is nothing for it but to clip it off1 which will1 of course1 spoil its appearance till the wool grows again4 ,a healthy1 well-groomed ,angora is one of the handsomest pets possible2 but on the other hand1 if neglected1 the coat becomes foul and matted1 and a more disconsolate1 miserable-looking animal it would be difficult to imagine4 ,the hutches must be cleaned out thrice a week1 and a manger fixed in which to put hay or clover1 of which they are very fond1 and which is good for them4 ,,belgian ,,hares4--,the ,belgian hare is a large and very handsome variety of our domestic rabbit4 ,although designated hare1 it is not a hare at all1 but a rabbit pure and simple1 although it has more of the hare-like form and colour than any other variety4 ,being a large animal1 scaling from eight pounds to ten pounds in weight1 it is necessary that it should be kept in a large1 roomy hutch4 ,an old and experienced breeder says the hutch should be at least #e feet long1 by #b feet broad1 and #ah inches high1 and the shaded sleeping compartment #f inches wider than in the ordinary hutch4 ,the ,belgian in colour somewhat resembles the ,english hare1 being of a sandy-brown or golden-foxey colour1 ticked as evenly as possible with dark chocolate1 thus giving the fur1 which should be short1 firm and glossy1 a very handsome appearance2 the head is of good size1 broad between the eyes1 and gradually tapering towards the nose2 the eyes1 a special feature in ,belgians1 are a beautiful brown colour1 full1 bright1 and wild-looking2 the ears1 about five inches long1 should be laced round the edges with black1 and carried very neatly and closely together2 the body should be long1 giving it a graceful1 hare-like carriage1 so much esteemed1 and the legs strong1 long1 and straight4 ,belgians are very apt to develop a dew-lap or pouch1 or as some have called it a large double chin2 this is a defect1 but1 owing to an undoubted cross at a remote time with the lop rabbit1 is very difficult to avoid4 ,many specimens now-a-days do not show this point until they get old and fat4 ,one of the best preventatives we believe is large airy hutches1 and the avoidance of over-feeding4 ,where it can be done1 ,belgians should be allowed to run in a nice dry open shed1 or failing this1 an hour's run three or four times a week on a nice1 dry grass plot4 ,plenty of room1 judicious feeding1 and cleanliness1 work wonders in the development of the ,belgian hare4 ,,dutch ,,rabbits4--,unlike the ,belgian1 the ,dutch rabbit is noted for its small size1 and is generally called the dwarf or bantam representative of the domestic rabbit4 ,there are few lads who have not been captivated by the handsome little ,dutchman1 and there are few large rabbitries where some of them are not kept1 such great favourites are they4 ,the breed being of small size should not exceed about five pounds in weight1 and many grand ones are to be found under that weight4 ,the pretty markings1 combined with the various colours of this variety and the difficulties in getting both colour and markings exactly as they ought to be1 makes the breeding of them very fascinating to those fond of experiments1 and who delight in observing the various developments of the little animal4 ,probably the most favourite colours are the blacks and the blues2 but greys1 tortoiseshells1 and yellows1 are all alike handsome4 ,the head of the ,dutch rabbit is shapely and not large1 the ears small1 neat1 and carried slightly backwards2 the eyes in this variety are frequently not both of the same colour owing to crossing for various colours1 and the too frequent and pernicious habit of in-breeding4 ,it is1 however1 necessary that both eyes should match1 and be bright and sparkling2 the body rises from behind the shoulders1 curving nicely over the stern1 and giving the rabbit a compact1 well-put-together shape2 legs1 medium length1 straight1 and fine in bone4 ,now to come to the markings of this little aristocrat of the rabbitry4 ,from between the ears comes a narrow white line1 gradually widening as it descends to1 and encircles the smellers1 and continuing round the face1 this is called the blaze1 the cheeks and ears are of the same colour as the body1 whilst the chest1 fore-legs1 and shoulders are pure white1 and the hind feet for about an inch and a half should also be white1 the whole remaining part of the rabbit being a solid colour1 as black1 blue1 grey1 etc4 ,the collar of white which runs round the shoulders should descend in a straight line1 as though cut with scissors1 encircling the fore-legs4 ,the markings of a ,dutch rabbit should be sharply defined1 and not blur or run into each other4 ,for instance1 in a black ,dutch1 the cheeks1 ears1 and body from behind the shoulders should be a bright1 solid1 glossy black1 and the remaining part pure white1 a very beautiful contrast indeed4 ,one great advantage in keeping and breeding ,dutch rabbits is that they are small and can be more successfully brought up in cool1 outdoor hutches4 ,if your rabbit has canker of the ear1 clear out the discharge by gentle pressure with a sponge or soft rag soaked in warm water1 taking great care that none of the water falls into the ear4 ,when dry after this bathing1 apply the following lotion1 which any druggist will make up for you3 sulphate of zinc #ab grains1 water #b ounces1 wine of opium #a drachm1 mixed4 ,or you might try a mixture of one part ,goulard's extract of lead to five parts of pure olive oil4 ,hold the rabbit's head on one side and pour into the ear half a teaspoonful of either of the above twice a day4 ,give plenty of the best food1 for if the rabbit does not feed well the chances of recovery are slight4 ,cage ,birds4--,,canaries4--,having determined to keep a bird1 the first thing is to provide proper accommodation for it1 and here let us suppose the lad has only accommodation for one1 or at most1 a pair of birds4 ,very well1 then1 procure a cage4 ,oh1 yes1 says the boy2 of course1 ,i know that4 ,just so1 but do not forget that there are cages and cages1 and that whilst some look very pretty and are quite an ornament1 they are perhaps the most unsuitable and miserable of prisons for poor little ,dick2 avoid by all means round cages1 which are the worst possible for the poor little inmates1 who have no room to exercise themselves1 and where it is quite impossible for them to get out of the way of draughts or shelter themselves from the scorching sun4 ,the best and most convenient cages are those which have plain wire in front1 the rest being made of wood2 the larger the size the better1 as a great thing is to give the inmates plenty of room for exercise4 ,the size that ,i have used for years in which to keep a pair of canaries or other small birds1 is as follows3--,length #bd in41 depth1 from back to front1 #aj in41 and height #ae in4 ,in such a cage small birds will live healthily for years4 ,next in importance to size of cage is where to hang it1 and a great deal depends upon this point4 ,first1 then1 let me impress upon you never to hang ,dickey 7except1 perhaps1 for an hour or two's change in fine1 but not too sunny weather7 in front of the window1 for here the bird is exposed to draughts and every change of temperature1 which is more injurious to the health and well-being of your pet than anything else4 ,select a part of the room against one of the walls as free from draught as possible1 and where there is plenty of light and air2 and be particular not to hang the cage higher than 7but rather below7 the level of the gas1 as when that is lighted the air in the higher parts of the room becomes very hot1 and anything but comfortable or healthy for the bird4 ,now that you have got your cage1 which will be fitted with the necessary perches1 drinking glasses1 and seed hoppers1 examine it carefully to see that it is clean and free from insects1 then fill your water-glasses1 and put seed in the tins or hoppers1 and on the bottom of the cage a good supply of sand and small grit1 which can be bought in penny bags at all corn chandlers or bird-shops1 and your house is ready for ,master ,dick4 ,perches are usually too thin4 ,they should not be like a lead pencil1 but more like your thumb1 and flat on top4 ,feed regularly each morning1 on either the mixed seed1 or1 as we prefer it1 buy some good1 clean1 sweet1 canary seed and summer rape seed1 and mix them yourself1 one part of the latter to two parts of the former2 clean water each day1 and a wee bit of nice1 dry1 fresh1 green food1 such as groundsel1 watercress1 lettuce1 chickweed1 or plantain1 as they are in season4 ,do not indulge your bird in luxuries1 but ,dickey will enjoy 7and it will do it good7 now and then1 a morsel of sweet1 ripe apple1 pear1 grape1 or cherry4 ,following these directions1 and keeping the cage thoroughly clean1 you will find ,dickey a delightful pet and one that will repay you for any little trouble4 ,whenever you have occasion to go near the cage1 either to look at the bird or to feed or clean it1 always speak to it cheerfully but quietly1 and so gain its confidence1 and you will soon be surprised how earnestly it will greet you whenever you come into the room4 ,it will greatly contribute to the health and vigour of your bird if you can now and then let it fly in the room where the cage is4 ,close the room door and windows1 and1 yourself and ,dick being the only inmates1 talk to him and then open the cage-door and sit down1 and you will be amused at the bird's antics2 first he will hop on the ledge of the door1 then1 looking this way and that1 he will either try his wings on a fly round the room or drop to a table or chair-back1 and so investigate the whole surroundings2 do not startle the bird whilst it is out or it will get frightened and dash itself about4 ,if it seems unable to find its way back to the cage1 talk to it and drive it gently in that direction1 but never wave a handkerchief or paper at it or you will probably frighten it to death4 ,,zebra-,,finches4--,one of the merriest1 boldest1 most impudent and inquisitive little fellows is the handsome zebra1 or chestnut-eared1 finch2 a prettier or more charming little pet it would be difficult to find4 ,zebra-finches are the hardiest and best known of the ,australian finches1 and are natives of ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales1 where they are found in great numbers2 they are stoutly built1 compact little birds1 measuring between four and five inches from beak to end of tail1 the tail itself being about an inch and a half long4 ,the hen is soberly clad in grey with yellow beak and legs1 but her mate is a handsome little fellow and somewhat difficult to describe2 his beak is red2 head1 neck1 and throat grey1 the feathers on the latter being pencilled with white1 which gives it a very beautiful appearance2 the ears are a bright chestnut colour1 and a line of black and one of white surround the beak2 the breast is white1 sides darker chestnut spotted with white2 back and wings grey2 tail black1 barred and spotted with white2 legs orange colour4 ,no description1 however1 can adequately convey the handsome appearance of ,master ,zebra-finch when in the full beauty of his plumage4 ,he is a fearless little fellow and bold to the extent of rashness in defending his mate1 for he will attack birds many times larger than himself1 and generally comes off the victor2 and then doesn't he let you know it2 how he struts about1 blowing himself out and trumpeting to his heart's content4 ,they are most lovable little birds1 their every action being full of grace4 ,zebra-finches do not sing1 but the male bird's note is a sweet trumpeting sound1 very cheerful and pleasant1 and varying in tone4 ,watch him making love to his little mate or helping her to make a nest2 how low and soothing is his little trumpet1 and how much it is appreciated is easily perceived by the joyous twitterings of his soberly clad lady-love2 listen to him again when he is showing-off2 with what vigour does he blow his trumpet1 and how proudly he hops about1 especially if he has just thrashed a bigger fellow than himself4 ,i kept a pair for several years in a cage1 such as ,i described to you1 and although kept in a room where more or less noise was going on all day they were as happy as the day was long1 and being continually petted and talked to became very tame1 ,master ,jocky never failing to trumpet to us when we went to the cage or spoke coaxingly to him2 his little wife ,jenny was1 however1 very shy and always allowed her lord and master to do all the talking1 she chiming in now and again as though saying ,hear1 hear1 to his remarks4 ,as ,i had not1 at the time1 convenience for an aviary1 ,i made a point1 as soon as the birds were thoroughly tamed1 of opening the cage-door every afternoon for an hour or two so that they might fly round the room2 and how they did enjoy themselves6 ,the first time ,i opened the cage-door they made no rush for freedom1 but seemed to talk the matter over with each other1 and then ,jocky came to the open door1 trumpeting his best to attract my attention4 ,i spoke to him1 and then1 apparently reassured1 he launched himself forth across to where ,i was and back again to his cage2 then he enticed ,jenny to come out1 and they flew round and round1 resting close together on the top of the cage now and then1 when he would trumpet in his loudest and most vigorous tones2 they would thus tire themselves out1 and in a few minutes after would be sound asleep4 ,thus they lived joyously for years1 but she at last succumbed to egg-binding1 which1 unfortunately1 with this variety is more common and more fatal than with many others4 ,they had lived together so long and so happily that poor little ,jock never got over his sorrow1 his delightful little trumpetings soon lost their bonny sound1 and do what we could we failed to rouse him to anything like what he used to be1 and so one morning when we took the cover off his cage he was dead4 ,we all sorrowed over their deaths1 for they made themselves most lovable little companions to one and all of us4 ,dr4 ,greene1 the naturalist1 speaking of his first experience with these delightful little birds1 says3-- ,as soon as ,i got them home1 ,i turned the birds loose into a greenhouse in which was nothing but a grape-vine in full foliage4 ,i shall never forget the delight of the little couple as they rushed into the midst of the leaves1 the male trumpeting loudly and his mate twittering in joyful response4 ,they paired almost as soon as ,i let them out of the cage1 and in a minute or two the hen bird was hopping about with a little bit of fibre she had picked up off the floor in her beak1 looking for a place to build her nest in2 this she was not long in finding1 and on my supplying her with some fine hay1 she very soon1 or1 ,i should say they1 for the male helped in the construction1 made a little domed nest among the vine branches1 and in less than a week were engaged in the important duty of incubation1 male and female sitting alternately on five tiny white eggs4 ,zebra-finches breed freely1 especially when kept in cages in a rather warm temperature4 ,the young ones1 which are hatched in about twelve days1 do not leave the nest till fully fledged1 when they almost immediately commence to feed themselves1 when they must be removed or they will interfere with the old birds4 ,when kept in an aviary not supplied with heat artificially1 they generally content themselves with two or perhaps three broods a year1 which is much better for them4 ,it must be remembered that when kept in an aviary with other birds they are inclined to be quarrelsome and masterful1 frequently either taking possession of some other nest or pulling it to pieces to construct their own1 in spite of the fact that abundant nest-making material is lying about4 ,for food1 canary seed and millet is the best1 and will keep them vigorous and in good health4 ,as a change give them a few hay-seeds1 a spray of millet1 or some grass in flower1 which they will greatly enjoy1 as also now and again a morsel of sweet apple or pear4 ,when bringing up young1 give a small piece of sponge cake and a little of the yolk of a hard-boiled egg crushed and mixed with sweet biscuit4 ,always see that they have plenty of grit1 and keep a piece of rock-salt and cuttlefish-shell for them to peck at4 ,they are very cleanly birds1 and when the weather is not too cold1 should be allowed a bath at least twice or thrice a week4 ,,budgerigars4--,this beautiful little bird1 called variously ,undulated ,grass ,parrakeet1 ,zebra ,grass ,parrakeet1 and ,shell ,parrot1 is a native of ,south ,australia1 and is deservedly a very general favourite1 its hardy constitution1 the readiness with which it adapts itself to confinement1 its handsome plumage1 and its winning ways1 all tending to make it a great pet4 ,it can be kept in a large cage1 but is much merrier and more contented in a garden aviary1 where it may be kept all the year round so long as it has an inner compartment to retire to in very severe cold or wet weather4 ,it is a miniature long-tailed parrot1 measuring seven or eight inches1 of which the tail is about half that length2 its general colour is a brilliant grass-green1 the head pale primrose1 whilst the neck1 shoulders1 and wings are yellow-green1 the feathers being edged with grey1 giving it an undulating appearance1 hence one of its names2 the two long middle-tail feathers are blue1 whilst the others are yellow with green tips2 the beak is white1 chin yellow1 spotted with blue1 which latter colour also runs down each side of the beak like a moustache2 legs and feet grey or slate colour4 ,the male bird is distinguished from the female by the blue colour of the cere round the nostrils1 which in the female is of a brown shade4 ,budgerigars breed well in confinement1 the season lasting from about ,december to ,july1 during which two or three broods will be produced4 ,several pairs can be kept together in one aviary1 the only thing to be particular about is to provide sufficient nesting material1 otherwise quarrels ensue4 ,in the native woods these handsome little fellows generally make their nests in the hollows of gum-trees1 taking very little trouble as to furnishing it2 in an aviary they will select almost any hole or corner2 but one of the best nests ,i know of is the husk of a cocoa-nut1 which should have a hole cut in one end2 this should be hung high up so that mice cannot reach it1 and a perch should be provided close to the hole1 where the male will sit and sing his love ditties1 and tell his wife all the gossip of the day1 whilst she is attending to her maternal duties inside4 ,the hen lays three1 four1 five and sometimes six eggs1 the youngsters being hatched in fourteen or fifteen days4 ,when feeding-time comes the young ones do not open their mouths as do so many young birds1 but the parents take the beak of their offspring into their own1 and the youngsters feed themselves on the food which the old ones disgorge for them4 ,the young birds leave the nest when five or six weeks old1 as soon as they are fully fledged1 and in a few days leave the parents1 who soon set about nesting again2 the first thing they do being to thoroughly clean out the husk for the reception of the next batch of eggs4 ,if husks cannot be got conveniently1 little wooden boxes 7which should have some sawdust put in so that the eggs will not roll about7 holes in the wall1 or a rotten wood log will do4 ,when kept in small cages budgerigars1 not having room to properly show off1 are apt to become silent1 but once in an aviary and the change is marvellous1 as they dart about1 tumbling1 twisting1 and climbing in all positions in the most graceful and delightful manner1 and singing a pleasant little song all the while1 stopping now and again as though to exchange confidences and to express delight at their surroundings4 ,these birds do not bathe1 but one of their greatest delights is to tumble and roll about in wet grass2 if1 therefore1 the aviary has not a grass bottom1 a large sod should be supplied and artificial rain produced by the aid of the watering can4 ,when thus tumbling about1 and the sun glints on their plumage it sparkles like so many gems4 ,so far as food is concerned these charming little birds are easily satisfied1 canary seed and white millet being sufficient to keep them healthy and vigorous1 the only change necessary being when they are feeding young ones1 when a little stale bread soaked in water and squeezed dry1 and a few oats1 should be added to their bill of fare2 the simpler the diet the better1 so do not indulge them with tit-bits4 ,in the aviary or cage always have a supply of clean drinking water at hand1 pounded oyster shells1 as well as sand1 fine shell grit and cuttlefish bone1 which can be had at all bird shops1 seed dealers1 etc4 ,being such hardy1 sprightly little fellows1 the handsome budgerigars are not liable to so many illnesses as frequently fall to the lot of our caged pets2 now and again one may have a fit1 due probably to improper feeding2 should such occur1 be careful to correct your feeding1 and give grass in flower1 dandelion1 or a bit of groundsel4 ,cramp they sometimes suffer from1 which is produced by cold or damp1 the latter more especially2 a simple remedy is the removal of the bird to a warm and dry atmosphere4 ,all cage-birds 7hens7 are liable to egg-binding1 one of the most serious complaints1 and difficult to deal with1 and budgerigars suffer from it like the rest2 it is seldom curable1 but immediately the hen is observed to be suffering she should be taken gently1 very gently1 in hand1 and a drop or two of castor oil or sweet oil put in her mouth1 whilst the egg passage should be gently oiled with a feather1 and then held over the mouth of a jug of hot water1 so that the steam may get to the part affected1 and so relax it and assist in the delivery of the egg4 ,a bird which has been egg-bound should not be allowed to mate and go to nest again1 as sooner or later she will again suffer from the distressing complaint and die4 ,any one fond of birds cannot fail to be delighted and charmed with such a handsome1 good-tempered1 loving1 and jolly little fellow as the budgerigar4 ,how to treat ,dogs4--,twice a day feed the dog moderately4 ,paunch and tripe are excellent for dogs4 ,boil this food1 cut into small pieces1 in a moderate quantity of water1 and when the meat is sufficiently done throw into the gravy some good dog biscuits4 ,when these are soft mix meat1 biscuits and gravy well together4 ,for an occasional change oatmeal or rice may be given instead of meat4 ,during the summer boil a cabbage with the food twice a week1 for unless dogs have vegetable food occasionally they are liable to have mange and scurvy4 ,in winter put mashed potatoes in the food sometimes1 for these contain the properties for which dogs sometimes eat the coarse grass in some parts called couch grass1 in others twitch4 ,once or twice a week a dog should have boiled liver and sometimes milk in which powdered brimstone has been placed4 ,always he should be able to drink clean water4 ,a dog's kennel should be in a dry1 sheltered place and lifted from the ground4 ,it should face south or west4 ,let him have plenty of dry straw4 ,wheat straw and oat straw are best2 it is said that barley straw will cause mange4 ,cedar or pine shavings are good if you can secure some4 ,in cold weather a piece of canvas or carpet should be nailed to hang over the entrance1 and great care should be taken to keep the kennel dry1 or there will be mange and lameness4 ,a kennel with an adjustable bottom which can be removed to be cleaned1 is better than one with a fixed bottom4 ,at least every two weeks the kennel should be thoroughly cleaned4 ,apply some good disinfectant to every crevice with a brush1 then expose the inside to the sun and air to dry it4 ,it is usual to chain the dog to the kennel1 but a better plan is to place in front of the kennel a stout wire about fifteen feet long stretched between two posts that are about three feet above the ground4 ,the ring at the end of the dog's chain should have this wire running through it4 ,this plan gives him a much wider range4 ,to destroy vermin in a dog rub soft soap well into his coat1 and in about a quarter of an hour lather it well into him1 and then wash it away with an abundance of tepid water4 ,when dogs have the husk1 a kind of cough1 they should be fed with finely chopped suet boiled in milk1 with a little garlic also finely chopped added to the suet4 ,for worms1 administer a teaspoonful of salt either dry or dissolved in lukewarm water4 ,this is also a good remedy when distemper begins1 for it acts as an emetic4 ,the least exercise a dog should have is an hour each day4 ,dogs kept in the house should have exercise for half an hour before breakfast and after supper too4 ,a run at mid-day1 too1 is an advantage4 ,to lead them out soberly on a chain and back again is not sufficient for a dog4 ,he needs more lively exercise than that4 ,a large dog should run six miles each day4 ,brush your dog's coat each day and wash him once a week4 ,bad habits should be checked when the dog is young1 with a whip if that is necessary1 but without cruelty4 ,a little whip goes a long way with a dog4 ,even the sight of it is sufficient usually4 ,be sure he understands for what he is being punished1 and be consistent4 ,don't laugh at him for one thing one day1 and punish him for it another4 ,do not let him annoy neighbours by barking4 ,if you do it will serve you right if the neighbours obtain an order from the magistrates for his destruction4 ,they are entitled to do this1 and1 indeed the right ought to be exercised more often than it is4 ,so far we have mentioned grown dogs only1 but a few hints about puppies may be given4 ,when these are five or six weeks old they may be weaned4 ,feed them now for three weeks upon boiled milk1 sometimes breaking into it a little stale bread4 ,then they may begin to have soup made of meat and vegetables occasionally4 ,when they are between six weeks and a year old they may be fed three times a day1 the most generous meal at night before they go to sleep4 ,the ,raven4--,if you keep a raven be prepared for unending mischief and destruction4 ,he needs plenty of room1 and will eat most things4 ,raw meat is perhaps his favourite diet1 and he is pleased with rats1 mice1 small birds1 beetles1 grubs or worms1 and bread4 ,he ought to be fed once1 and once only1 each day1 for he will find insects1 worms1 and other delicacies for himself4 ,from time to time he loves to retire to a place that is sheltered1 warm and dark1 and where no one can see him4 ,white ,mice4--,the principal food for white mice is bread-and-milk1 oatmeal grits1 and any other common food1 except cheese1 which is bad for them4 ,they should be kept particularly clean1 and their cages overhauled each day and the bedding changed1 or they will smell offensively4 ,cages may be adapted from boxes4 ,give them more room than the bought cages give them1 and a dark compartment4 ,jackdaws4--,the jackdaw is tamed easily1 and can be taught to say a few words4 ,it is as alert as a terrier for visitors1 and affectionate towards its friends4 ,jack loves a bath1 and may be fed on bread and milk1 oats1 mice1 small birds1 insects1 and meat4 ,the ,jay4--,the jay is not so impatient of captivity as the magpie1 and will tolerate confinement in a large cage4 ,it will eat meat1 small birds1 mice1 insects1 worms1 and is particularly fond of eggs4 ,it eats1 too1 much vegetable food4 ,the ,magpie4--,do not keep a magpie unless you can give him generous room4 ,he is a very clever talker and mimic4 ,he is extremely fond of bathing1 and a plentiful supply of water is needful to keep his beautiful plumage in good condition4 ,the food of the magpie is the same as that of the jackdaw4 ,the ,hedgehog4--,this animal likes insects and snails1 frogs and mice1 and will even kill a snake1 and eat it4 ,in its wild state it sleeps all the winter1 rolled up in a hole which it has filled with grass1 moss1 or leaves2 and when tamed it will hide itself in some dark place for weeks1 and never make its appearance1 unless it should feel hungry4 ,hedgehogs destroy beetles1 eating them quickly and gladly4 ,they need no looking after1 but will fend for themselves1 though it is better to have a little hutch to put them into sometimes4 ,their feeding-time is in the night2 and if there are black-beetles in the kitchen1 the best plan is to leave the hedgehog there4 ,silkworms4--,buy a few eggs1 which should be of a lilac or grey colour4 ,avoid yellow ones4 ,the silkworm when hatched is black1 and about one-fourth of an inch long4 ,the desire for food is the first sign of life1 and it is more alive then than at any other time4 ,when about eight days have elapsed its head becomes enlarged and it turns ill1 refuses food1 and remains torpid for about three days4 ,this seems to be caused by the pressure of the skin1 which has become too tight4 ,the difference in the size of the worm from the beginning to the end of the caterpillar state is such1 that the worm has been provided with several skins1 each of which it throws off in succession4 ,the silkworm feeds on the leaves of the white mulberry2 or1 when these cannot be obtained1 upon those of the black mulberry2 or even upon the leaves of the lettuce4 ,the eggs should be bought about the end of ,april and placed in trays made of pasteboard4 ,over the case put thin gauze4 ,the trays may be placed in a window facing the south1 where they are fully exposed to the sun1 and there they should remain undisturbed till the eggs begin to hatch4 ,as the worms appear they should be removed into other trays1 and fed with the mulberry leaves4 ,the temperature should be from sixty-six to seventy degrees1 and the room ventilated1 and preserved free from damp and from too much dryness4 ,the trays should be kept clean1 dead leaves and any other refuse cleared away4 ,in moving the caterpillars from one tray to another they should not be touched by the fingers1 but removed by threads of cotton passed under their bodies1 or with a camel-hair brush4 ,the caterpillar has four moultings1 which may be all over in four days each1 if the heat of the room be increased to from ninety-five to one hundred degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,when the heat is lower1 the first moulting takes place on the fourth or fifth day after hatching1 the second in four days more1 the third in five or six days more1 and the last in about eight days4 ,ten days more are required after this moulting1 so that in about thirty-two days after hatching the caterpillar is fully grown4 ,illustration ,at the end of this time the silkworms change to a clear pink or flesh colour1 and look semi-transparent2 they refuse food1 become restless1 and prepare to spin their cocoon4 ,care should be taken to raise the walls of their tray or they will climb over and be lost4 ,the cocoon nest should now be prepared by twisting the corners of a piece of writing-paper1 and raising its edges into the form shown in the illustration4 ,a number of these should be prepared and fixed to a piece of tape1 with their pointed ends downwards2 and into each one a single worm should be placed when it refuses its food1 and seems inclined to spin3 it will then weave its web so as to leave a space within4 ,the cocoon consists of three layers of silk3 the first is loose and flossy1 and is of no use for the silk manufacture2 the second is closer1 the silk crossing from side to side2 and the third is still finer1 and is stuck firmly together1 so as to form a compact inner coating4 ,when the cocoon is completed1 the enclosed caterpillar once more casts its skin1 with its head and jaws attached to it4 ,it is now a conical chrysalis of the ordinary shape4 ,at first the chrysalis1 when opened1 contains only a yellow fluid1 but by degrees the parts of the moth appear1 and in a fortnight or three weeks a swelling of the chrysalis indicates the approach of another change4 ,a rupture down its back comes next1 and the moth bursts through its coating into the hollow of the cocoon1 and if left to itself would soon eat its way through4 ,the chrysalis1 however1 must be stopped from eating through the cocoon2 and the silk must be wound4 ,when1 by shaking the cocoon1 it is found to rattle1 then it is time to wind the silk4 ,the cocoon is placed in a cup of warm water1 after the loose outward silk has been removed1 and then1 an end being taken1 the whole filament may be wound off on a piece of card4 ,the length of the thread of a cocoon varies from #fjj to #a1jjj feet4 ,when the silk is wound off the aurelia presents itself1 and being put in a separate case1 it remains motionless for about twenty days1 when it appears as a pale yellow moth4 ,the male soon dies2 the females lay their eggs on the slips of paper provided for that purpose4 ,they then soon die4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,things ,,boys ,,can ,,make ,a ,way to ,bind ,magazines4--,first1 we must have a frame in which to stitch the sheets together4 ,here is mine in ,fig4 #a4 ,i made it myself1 and any handy lad can make one4 ,the frame shown has an opening a foot long1 so it is big enough to bind a book as long as that1 or any smaller magazine4 ,i have drawn it fitted with five strings1 which would be the right number for a full-sized magazine2 more or less strings are required according to the size of the book4 ,they are1 as may be seen1 passed through holes bored opposite to each other above and below1 and fixed tight with pegs4 ,these strings are tapes #a_/d inch wide1 which mother or sister will supply4 ,now for the sewing4 ,we have stripped off the wrappers1 cleaned the backs of the sheets1 and laid them in order1 the last sheet on the top4 ,but to make neat work1 we should have what bookbinders call end papers--plain pieces of paper cut and folded to the size of the magazine--to go at the beginning and end of the volume2 one leaf of each will be pasted down by-and-by to the inside of the cover adjoining it4 ,we begin by laying an end paper on the frame with its back against the tapes4 ,we take a needle and thread1 tie a knot at the end of the latter1 and pass the needle1 as in ,fig4 #b1 through the middle of tape ,no4 #a1 and through the paper1 drawing the thread to the knot4 ,how we then go on is shown by the dotted line in ,fig4 #b2 at the nearer side of tape ,no4 #b we pass the needle out again1 carry it behind the tape1 in again at the farther side of the tape1 and so on1 till we finally bring it out on the near side of tape ,no4 #e4 ,please to notice that we do not pass the needle through any tape except through ,no4 #a at first starting2 with that exception1 the thread merely goes behind the tapes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,when we have reached the last tape and brought the needle out on the near side of it1 we lay a sheet1 in this case the last sheet1 of the magazine1 on the frame1 and pass the needle through it inwards on the farther side of tape ,no4 #e1 and then work back to the nearest side of tape ,no4 #a4 ,another sheet is now laid on1 and so we proceed till the whole volume1 including the front end paper1 is stitched together4 ,if we now lay a good heavy weight on our volume1 we can squeeze it into narrower compass1 for as the threads merely go round the tapes1 they will slip down them2 and we can then glue the back4 ,everybody has not a glue-pot1 but everybody can get a #d;d4 bottle of ,le ,page's ,liquid ,glue1 and nothing is better or more handy4 ,damp a strip of paper1 or better1 of thin muslin1 and rub it down on the glue2 it will strengthen the back4 ,leave the volume under pressure till the glue has set1 and we may then take it out of the frame and cut off the tapes to1 say1 about two inches long on each side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,and now we are ready for our covers2 a couple of pieces of stiff millboard1 the wreckage of some old draper's box1 will do very well4 ,we cut them to size1 and glue down the tapes upon them1 as is shown in ,fig4 #c2 and when the volume is heavy it is well to paste a strip of thin muslin over the hinge1 as indicated by the dotted lines at a1 to keep all tight4 ,i have just spoken of paste2 we shall want it for everything else that we have to do1 so ,i will tell you how to make it4 ,take a couple of tablespoonfuls of flour and half a teaspoonful of powdered alum1 beat them carefully with cold water to the consistency of thin cream1 and boil briskly for four minutes1 stirring all the time4 ,what we want to do now is to put a back to our volume4 ,we want something that will look well1 and be strong1 and nothing that ,i have tried has been equal to window-blind holland4 ,a dark green ,i prefer1 but colour is a matter of taste4 ,this material will not stretch out of place in pasting1 as bookbinders' cloth is apt to do4 ,fig4 #d shows how the back piece is cut4 ,the middle part b has a strip of stiff paper pasted on it1 which is not exactly the width of the back of the volume1 but just a shade wider1 that when pasted in place1 it may have the proper curve outwards4 ,the flap c is to be turned and pasted down on this strip of paper1 but the flaps d and d will be turned and pasted down inside the covers1 after the back has been pasted in its place on the volume2 and when that has been done1 the volume should be kept under pressure till the paste is dry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c41 ,fig4 #d4 ,we must1 of course1 cover the sides of our volume2 bookbinders' cloth or marbled paper1 both of which are very inexpensive1 are what ,i commonly use4 ,after that1 we can line the insides of the covers by pasting down on them a leaf of the end paper4 ,and only one more thing now remains to be done1 that is to letter a label neatly1 and to paste it on the back4 ,scrap ,book and ,index4--,keep two scrap-books--one for cuttings and the other for notes4 ,the scrap-book might be made of brown paper4 ,take an ordinary quarto exercise-book1 with about #ajj pages in it1 and set apart the first fifteen pages for forming the index1 for a scrap-book or a note-book without an index is as absurd as a public library without a catalogue4 ,on the first page of your scrap-book write1 in clear style1 your name and address4 ,next1 put the date on which you commenced to insert cuttings in the book4 ,and then you might add an appropriate motto4 ,how would this title-page do8 ,illustration3 ,when found make a note of4 ,,captain ,,cuttle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,my ,,newspaper ,,cuttings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,frederick ,,cowley1 #ad1 ,,abbey ,,road1 ,,knutsford4 ,commenced ,jan4 #beth1 #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,a4 ,having finished the all-important question of a title-page1 which might be much more ornamental than the one above1 begin the index on page #b of the book4 ,take a strip of paper of the same length as the pages in your book1 and by doubling it in half twice and then dividing it into three equal parts1 mark it off into twelve portions1 as shown in ,fig4 ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,b4 ,,strip1 ,,the ,,same ,,length ,,as ,,the ,,page4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,now place your strip alongside of the edge of page #b1 and rule a line on the page exactly where the figure #a has been put4 ,only a tiny line1 about three-quarters of an inch in length1 is needed4 ,on page #c1 again place your strip along the edge1 and rule a line where the figure #b occurs4 ,on page #d rule a line where the figure #c is2 on page #e rule a line where the figure #d is2 on page #f rule a line where the figure #e is2 and so on1 till on page #ab you rule a line where the figure #aa is4 ,i expect you see why ,i have done this4 ,now neatly cut from the bottom of page #b a strip1 three-quarters of an inch wide1 as far as the line you have ruled4 ,this will leave at the top of the page a piece of paper jutting out4 ,on this write the letters ,a ,b in ink4 ,then on page #c cut your strip three-quarters of an inch wide1 up to the ruled line1 and write ,c ,d on the little square which projects underneath ,a ,b2 and continue to write two letters of the alphabet on each page till you get to page #ab1 when you must write ,,uv ,w4 ,on page #ac you can write ,,xy ,z4 ,now your index is complete so far as the lettering4 ,the edge of your book should look something like ,fig4 ,c4 ,if you want the index to look still better1 you should write the letters alternately in red and black ink4 ,on the first line of page #b in your book put ,a1 and turning over the leaf write ,b on the top line4 ,on page #c write ,c1 and turning overleaf write ,d upon the top line4 ,thus you will have allotted a page to each letter in the alphabet1 with the exception of the last six letters4 ,i think ,i should put on the top line of page #ab ,u ,v1 and overleaf write ,w1 as ,w needs more room than ,u ,v4 ,on page #ac write ,x ,y1 and overleaf ,z4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,c4 ,now that the mysteries of what the bookbinders call index cutting have been overcome1 nothing remains to be done in the way of preparing your scrap-book for the reception of the numerous newspaper cuttings which ,i hope will find a home therein4 ,we will suppose you are interested in cricket4 ,here comes the usefulness of your book4 ,when the averages of the ,county ,cricket are published you can cut out the list and paste it in your book1 and enter in your index1 under ,c1 the fact thus3 ,cricket1 ,county ,averages1 #be1 the #be referring to the page on which you have pasted the cutting4 ,when ,brown minor is trying to prove that his county of ,kent was third on the list1 you will be able to convince him of his error by a reference to the page in your scrap-book1 whereon you have pasted a cutting headed ,county ,championship4 ,reserve a few pages in your book for cuttings from the comic papers4 ,you have no idea1 until you commence1 how interesting and engrossing your scrap-book will prove4 ,in the newspapers there are so many curious little incidents recorded as to swimming1 cycling1 football1 science1 which you will be glad to preserve for future reference4 ,then1 any little facts about your favourite hero may well find a place in your book4 ,and when you have filled one book1 commence another1 and thus manufacture your own library of best bits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,net ,making4--,in ,fig4 #a we have a netting needle and the way of filling it1 in ,fig4 #b a mesh stick4 ,the stick may be almost any shape and about nine inches long4 ,it regulates the mesh of the net1 for the mesh is twice the circumference of the stick1 so you may make a coarse net for tennis or a finer one to protect your strawberries1 or a hammock net1 or any kind you wish4 ,fix a hook into a wall or door1 or in some other similar position4 ,take a piece of twine1 a foot long will serve1 tie the ends together1 and hang the circle ,a thus made over the hook as in ,fig4 #c4 ,take the needle in your right hand and pass it through the loop4 ,at ,b hold the loop and the twine that comes from the needle4 ,now cast a turn of the twine so that it rests on the upper part of your left hand and wrist1 and also over loop ,a4 ,next pass the needle in an upward direction1 pulling slowly and finishing with a tight knot4 ,what makes the knot is shown at ,fig4 #d4 ,in ,fig4 #e the knot loose and tight is shown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,slowly as this is done a time will come when you can do it rapidly4 ,when you have tightened the knot1 hold the mesh stick in the left hand1 lay the twine over the stick with the knot resting at its edge1 as in ,fig4 #f4 ,pass the needle through the loop that has thus been made1 pull the twine firmly round your mesh stick1 then throw a turn of the twine over your wrist and so make the same knot again4 ,throw the twine once more round the stick and make one more stitch through our old friend loop ,a4 ,at this stage slip all you have done from your mesh stick1 and you will find two half meshes attached to your loop ,a4 ,in ,fig4 #g these are shown as #a and #b4 ,treat #a and #b as you treated loop ,a1 that is first in #b make #c and #d in #a4 ,now you have your first completed mesh1 #d4 ,mesh #e also is made on #a1 the knots being one on the top of the other4 ,now go on in the same way1 making the meshes in the order that you find them numbered in ,fig4 #g4 ,the taking of two stitches through the last mesh of each row is the widening process1 and this operation is maintained to the end of the net as far as the top edge is concerned4 ,on the other edge1 however1 as soon as you have reached the width you need you must change this policy to that of taking the stitch through the last two meshes of the preceding row as in ,fig4 #h4 ,when the net is as long as you need it this narrowing as it is called is applied to both edges1 and the fourth corner is finished off by taking the stitch through the last two meshes4 ,then they should be tied fast4 ,do not widen or narrow at the wrong edges as you work4 ,to prevent this mistake some netters lie a piece of ribbon upon the top or narrowing edge4 ,nets for fishing and for such pursuits may be made in this way4 ,first make a square1 then go along the edges of the square1 narrowing at regular intervals until the net is of the size needed4 ,gloves may be worn if the fingers become chafed1 or the knots may be drawn tight in such a way that the strain is on the needle and not on the finger4 ,when a new needleful is commenced be sure to make the first knot very firm4 ,among the useful articles that may be made in this way are tennis nets1 onion bags1 nets for the protection of growing fruit1 and hammock nets4 ,photographic ,enlargements4--,there are so many excellent sources1 easily available1 from which boys may learn how to use their cameras1 so many developers1 toners1 and fixers ready to their hands at the chemist's1 that we have not occupied space here with a general dissertation upon photography4 ,we think1 however1 a chapter on enlargements will be welcome4 ,the rapid development of bromide printing paper1 and the ease by which enlargements may be produced thereon1 has created quite a new era in amateur photography4 ,no longer is it necessary to carry about an unwieldy heavy kit1 which destroys half the pleasure of the amateur1 when on pictures bent1 for now he may make use of even the smallest form of camera1 and enlarge his pictures when he has returned from his meanderings4 ,enlargements may be produced in several ways4 ,the negative itself may be enlarged1 or what is simpler still a direct enlargement may be made on bromide paper4 ,the latter may be easily effected in two ways--7#a7 by means of daylight1 or 7#b7 by artificial light4 ,it is with the former that the writer intends to deal in the present paper4 ,a word first as to the kind of negative best adapted for enlarging purposes4 ,the quarter-plate size will be found most suitable1 and these may be successfully enlarged to #ab by #aj4 ,the negative must be perfectly sharp1 full of crisp detail1 and perfect in every way4 ,any small defect in a negative is fatal to its enlargement1 as it is made so much more apparent by magnification4 ,most amateurs find a room at the top of the house the most convenient for enlarging purposes1 and one with only one window is best1 and that preferably with an uninterrupted view of the sky4 ,the light must next be excluded by pasting brown paper over the entire window1 or by having a tightly-fitting wooden frame made to answer the same purpose4 ,provision is then made to fit into the frame a quarter-plate printing frame1 in which is placed the negative4 ,by this means no light is permitted to enter the room1 save that which filters through the negative4 ,as a general rule1 it will be found necessary to fit on the outside of the window frame a reflector of some sort1 and a piece of white glazed board fixed at an angle will be found as effective as anything4 ,this will concentrate the light and produce an equal amount of illumination over the entire negative4 ,the arrangement of the camera calls next for consideration4 ,if the camera possessed by the would-be enlarger is one which focuses from the front1 no adaptation of any sort will be required4 ,all that is necessary is to place an oblong table close to the window1 so arranging it that the camera when placed thereon will be on the same level as the negative4 ,the ground-glass at the back of the camera being removed1 place the camera as near to the negative as possible1 which must have its film side facing the room4 ,to prevent any escape of light through the body of the camera there should be as little space as possible between the negative and the camera1 a black cloth being thrown over the end of the latter to make quite certain4 ,at the other end of the table is fixed the enlarging board1 on which the bromide is affixed by means of drawing pins4 ,the farther this board is from the lens1 the greater the enlargement1 of course4 ,a few experimental trials will soon show the tyro the proper distance the board should be placed1 and this discovered1 the place should be marked for future reference4 ,it will be found a great convenience to have a piece of ruby glass fixed in the end of the lens cap1 as this will enable the operator to see the full size of the image on the enlarging board1 and thus obviate any difficulty as to the exact spot in which the bromide paper should be4 ,the greatest difficulty experienced by the beginner in enlarging is undoubtedly the gauging of the correct exposure4 ,light varies so1 that it will be found necessary to give the same negative longer or shorter exposures at different times4 ,the best plan is to make a table of approximate exposures by experimenting with a few strips of bromide paper1 giving each a different exposure4 ,these strips should then be pasted in a note-book for any future reference1 together with the following particulars3--7#a7 ,time of day and year2 7#b7 intensity of the light2 7#c7 density of negative2 7#d7 brand of paper2 and 7#e7 size of the enlargement4 ,an observant worker will soon master all these little difficulties1 and when once success has been achieved1 enlarging pictures from small negatives will be found to be one of the most interesting branches of photographic operations4 ,magic ,lantern ,slides4--,draw first on paper the figures you wish to paint1 lay the paper on the table1 and cover it over with a piece of glass of the right size and shape4 ,draw the outlines with a fine camel's hair pencil or a pen1 in black paint mixed with varnish1 and when this is dry1 add the proper colours4 ,the transparent colours are alone to be used in this kind of painting1 and these include aureolin1 gamboge1 ,italian pink1 ,indian yellow1 madder lake1 crimson lake1 ,prussian blue1 indigo1 burnt sienna1 madder brown1 vandyke brown1 lamp black4 ,ox gall will cause the colours to flow more easily on glass4 ,be careful that the glass is not greasy4 ,both water colours and oil colours are available4 ,an easy way to make diagrams and other outline drawings for the magic lantern is to take a piece of frosted glass of the right size and draw upon it1 using ,indian ink4 ,the frost enables you to do this1 but would prevent the maximum of light passing through the glass when it was in the lantern4 ,accordingly1 to remove the frost now that it has served its purpose1 pour ,canada balsam upon it1 cover with another piece of glass and bind the two pieces together as other magic lantern slides are bound4 ,a curious effect may be obtained by a magic lantern slide made as follows3--,tint vaseline with cochineal and place some between glasses of the magic lantern slide size1 making a kind of vaseline sandwich4 ,put this slide in the lantern and focus it1 and then insert a knife point a little way between the two pieces of glass and so let them be alternately forced asunder and drawn together4 ,the effect upon the vaseline as seen upon the sheet is very peculiar4 ,three ,ways of ,making a ,hectograph4--,it happens often that a boy1 especially if he be the secretary of a cricket or football club1 needs to send away many letters or notices1 all alike2 and few things are so wearisome as this writing of the same thing over and over again4 ,if he will make for himself a hectograph he need write his notice no more than once and yet he may have more copies than he is likely to need4 ,here is the mixture that will prove so useful3 gelatine1 #d ounces2 glycerine1 #ae fluid ounces2 carbolic acid1 #a_/b fluid ounce2 water1 #ae fluid ounces4 ,first add the water to the gelatine and let it stand until the gelatine is quite soft4 ,now place all this in the glycerine and heat it over the fire until the gelatine has been dissolved1 and then until the water has passed away in steam4 ,the carbolic acid is to keep the mixture from turning sour1 and it must be added gradually now1 before cooling begins4 ,pour the whole into some shallow tray like the lid of one of those square tin boxes in which grocers keep biscuits4 ,when the mixture has become firm and cold it is ready to be used4 ,get a bottle of aniline ink and write or sketch whatever you desire to multiply4 ,when the ink is dry place your letter or drawing face downwards upon the pad you have made with the gelatine4 ,rub the back of the paper with your hand to force the ink upon the gelatine4 ,when the paper has been upon the hectograph for some time strip it off and you will find that your drawing or writing has been transferred to the gelatine4 ,if you now press clean paper upon this drawing or writing it will be printed upon the paper1 and so you may have copy after copy4 ,when you have as many as you need clean the surface of the hectograph for the next time you wish to use it4 ,this may be done with a soft sponge and tepid water1 but this process being rather tedious1 most boys will be pleased to hear of an easier method1 though it causes the hectograph in time to lose its clean appearance4 ,put it in the oven and let it melt1 and when it is cold again it will be ready for the next letter or drawing4 ,the following is another way to make a hectograph3 ,take of pure glycerine1 #i parts2 water1 #f parts2 barium sulphate1 #c parts2 sugar1 #a-a_/b parts2 gelatine1 #a-a_/b parts4 ,mix well together1 and allow all to stand for twenty-four hours2 then heat gently over a slow fire until the whole is melted1 stirring continuously until the various ingredients are thoroughly amalgamated4 ,it may now be poured into the shallow tin or dish prepared to receive it1 and allowed to stand for a day where it will be free from dust4 ,it should not be used until absolutely cold and firm4 ,here is another method we have found very successful4 ,take #b ounces of fine ,russian glue and #d fluid ounces of cold water4 ,let the glue steep in the water until the water has been absorbed1 or nearly so4 ,now place the glue and water in a vessel upon the fire until the glue melts4 ,it need not boil4 ,add eight fluid ounces of common glycerine and six drops of carbolic acid1 and also as much ,paris white as will make the solution milky4 ,stir well and then pour the mixture into a shallow tray4 ,in about twelve hours it will have set4 ,for ink ,judson's purple dye will serve4 ,how to ,make a ,filter4--,you should procure a common flower-pot1 nine or ten inches deep4 ,put in a layer of animal charcoal two inches thick4 ,wood charcoal may be used1 but animal charcoal--that is charcoal made from bones--is best4 ,on this put a layer of well washed sand4 ,for the way to wash sand see page #acb4 ,the layer is two inches thick4 ,then comes a two-inch layer of small pebbles1 each about as large as a pea4 ,at the hole at the bottom of the flower-pot should be a fragment of brick which fits the hole loosely4 ,put the filter on a stool or on a shelf4 ,there should be a hole in the stool or shelf to correspond with the hole in the flower-pot1 and under the hole a vessel to catch the filtered water4 ,the first drops that come through the filter may not be clear1 but in about a quarter of an hour clear water will commence to issue from the hole in the bottom of the flower-pot4 ,take out the sand and the pebbles and wash them thoroughly once in six weeks1 and once in four months replace the vegetable charcoal4 ,the ,syphon4--,in aquarium work and in other occupations it is necessary sometimes to empty water from a vessel by means of a syphon4 ,suppose that we wish to empty a bucket4 ,the simplest thing would be to take the bucket and turn it upside down4 ,suppose1 however1 the bucket were fast and could not be moved1 or suppose there were some dregs or sediment in the bucket which we did not wish to disturb1 then we should find a syphon useful4 ,suppose a bucket is on a table4 ,one end of a pipe is in the water in the bucket and the other end is dangling down4 ,now if we can once induce the water to flow through the pipe the water will continue to run1 although at first it has to run up-hill a little1 a most unwaterlike proceeding4 ,there are two ways of inducing the flow4 ,if you take the lower end of the pipe and suck1 water will be brought over the elbow4 ,or if before you put the pipe in position you fill it with water1 it will flow1 and in each case it will continue to flow until it has emptied the bucket2 that is1 if the pipe reaches to the bottom of the bucket4 ,how to ,make a ,fountain4--,a fountain is based on the principle that water strives to find its own level4 ,the water tries to rise as high as the reservoir which feeds it1 and would succeed1 but the pressure of the air prevents it4 ,in a ,u tube the water keeps at the same level in each part of the tube1 but if you were to cork one arm of the tube it would not come so high there1 because the air would not allow it4 ,the writer of this article when he was a boy made fountains for a fern rockery and for a garden aquarium in the following simple way3--,upon the garden wall he placed a bucket4 ,at the bottom of the bucket he punched a hole and inserted one end of a length of india-rubber tube bought from a shop where they sell the appliances for the teaching of chemistry4 ,at the same place he bought some pieces of glass tubing of such a size that it would fit inside the rubber tubing4 ,explain to the man in the shop1 and he will know exactly what you need4 ,take a few inches of the tube and hold the middle of it in the gas flame1 or in a ,bunsen burner if you have one4 ,when the glass is soft draw the ends asunder gently1 and you will find you have two pieces of glass shaped like a fountain-pen filler4 ,it may be that one end of each of these two pieces of tube may have been closed by this process1 but all that needs to be done is to file the sharp point until you have come to where the tube is open again4 ,this serves for the nozzle of the fountain4 ,there were no fountain pens when the author made his fountain1 and it has just occurred to him that perhaps the best thing would be to buy a fountain pen-filler at once and have your nozzle ready-made4 ,if you make your own you may not get it right first time4 ,it may be crooked or the opening too large or too small4 ,however1 there will be this advantage1 you may make many nozzles1 and so by changing them have a variety of sprays4 ,the finer the opening the higher will be the jet4 ,it is not difficult to apply the fountain to an aquarium4 ,for a rockery it will be easy to arrange the pipe and nozzle1 and to fix it in position with the stones4 ,case for ,shaving ,papers4--,decide upon the size of paper you like best4 ,cut a piece of millboard1 celluloid1 or even thin wood the same size1 and upon this paint an attractive design4 ,now cut a strip of the same material as wide as this piece1 but only an inch1 or less1 deep4 ,arrange piece1 paper and strip as in the sketch4 ,a is the piece of millboard1 ,b the sheets of paper1 ,c the strip4 ,at ,d ,e ,f bore holes and secure the whole with paper fasteners put through these4 ,this pad may hang upon the wall with ribbon1 but the design and not the strip should hang outwards4 ,when all the pieces of paper have been used the paper fasteners may be unfastened1 and a new set of papers introduced4 ,the turned-down ends of the paper fasteners are ugly and are liable to scratch4 ,paste over them very neatly a strip of brown paper or other suitable material4 ,a ,blotting ,pad4--,a very serviceable blotting-pad may be made upon the same principle as the case for shaving papers4 ,the measurements only will be different1 and a pad of writing paper may be made in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,,shaving ,,papers4 ,illustration3 ,,hygrometer4 ,a ,hygrometer4--,this is a ,greek word made up of hygros meaning moist1 and metron a measure4 ,it indicates how much or how little moisture there is in the air4 ,in the diagram is a small nail ,a1 a thread ,b1 or better still1 a long hair begged from your mother1 sister1 or friend4 ,c is a weight of some kind4 ,the author had a penny that had a hole in it4 ,hang this on a wall in your bedroom or in an outhouse1 or even in some sheltered place out of doors4 ,when you hang it up rule a line at ,d1 and put the date4 ,in damp weather the weight will rise1 in dry it will descend so you may rule other lines showing where it was at different times of the year4 ,the hair should be as free from oil as possible4 ,you may have noticed that the clothes line slackens in dry weather1 and tightens on rainy days1 and this applies also to the cords of the window blinds4 ,there is a story that when some men were putting a ,london monument in position1 by a miscalculation it needed to be raised just a few inches more1 and this elevation the men were unable to bring about4 ,at last1 from the crowd that had gathered to watch the proceedings1 a sailor bawled1 ,wet the ropes4 ,they wetted the ropes1 and up went the heavy monument into its right place4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,fireside ,,amusements ,chess in ,twelve ,easy ,lessons4--,there is nothing like beginning at the beginning1 so ,i first give a diagram of the board and men as set out for play4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,it will be noticed that in the above diagram the square at the bottom right hand is a white one1 and it is in this way that1 by custom1 the chess-board is always placed4 ,the board is divided into #fd squares1 coloured alternately black and white1 or some similar distinctive colours4 ,the squares are always called ,white and ,black1 whatever their actual colour may be1 and similarly the men are invariably termed ,white and ,black1 though1 as a matter of fact1 often coloured white and red4 ,having got the board in proper position1 with its white square at the bottom right-hand corner1 the next thing is to set up the men in proper order4 ,there are thirty-two men in all--sixteen ,white and sixteen ,black4 ,they consist of the following3-- ,,two ,,kings3 one ,white1 one ,black4 ,the ,white ,king stands on the fourth square1 counting from the ,white player's right hand1 and the ,black ,king stands on the fourth square1 counting from the ,black player's left hand4 ,this brings the two ,kings opposite each other1 the ,white ,king standing on a black square and the ,black ,king on a white square4 ,,two ,,queens3 one ,white and one ,black4 ,the ,white ,queen stands on the white square to the left of the square occupied by the ,king4 ,similarly1 the ,black ,queen stands on the black square next to the ,black ,king4 ,it is of importance in setting up the men to bear in mind that the ,queens stand on squares of the same colour as themselves1 the ,white ,queen being on a white square and the ,black ,queen on a black square4 ,,four ,,bishops3 two ,white and two ,black4 ,these stand on the squares adjoining their respective ,king and ,queen4 ,the one next the ,king is called the ,king's ,bishop1 and the one next the ,queen is known as the ,queen's ,bishop4 ,,four ,,knights3 two ,white and two ,black4 ,these stand on the squares adjoining the ,bishops4 ,the ,knight nearest the ,king is called the ,king's ,knight2 the other is called the ,queen's ,knight4 ,,four ,,rooks3 two ,white and two ,black4 ,these occupy the four corner squares1 the one nearest the ,king being termed the ,king's ,rook2 the one nearest the ,queen the ,queen's ,rook4 ,the ,rooks are sometimes called ,castles4 ,these sixteen men are collectively called pieces4 ,,sixteen ,,pawns3 eight ,white and eight ,black4 ,these stand on the squares immediately in front of the sixteen pieces4 ,they are named after the pieces in front of which they stand1 as the ,king's ,pawn1 the ,queen's ,pawn1 the ,king's ,bishop's ,pawn1 and so on4 ,as it would be very cumbrous to use the full name of each piece or ,pawn every time it may be necessary to refer to it1 ,i shall in future use the recognised ,english notation1 as follows3-- ,k for ,king4 ,q for ,queen4 ,b for ,bishop4 ,kt for ,knight4 ,p for ,pawn4 ,other abbreviations will be-- ,sq for square4 ,ch for check4 ,dis ch for discovered check2 and ,doub-ch for double check4 ,written in this notation1 ,king's ,rook's ,pawn becomes ,k ,r ,p1 and ,queen's ,bishop's square ,q ,b sq1 and so on4 ,now for the practical use of this lesson4 ,let all the readers who wish to learn the game first of all set the board before them as herein described4 ,then let them place the ,white men in their proper order on the board1 beginning with the ,k4 ,similarly let them place the ,black men on the board1 beginning also with the ,k4 ,as a second try1 let them place the men on the board beginning with one of the ,r's1 and going across to the other ,r4 ,finally1 let them familiarise themselves with the ,english notation1 as given above4 ,by the time they have done this they will be in a position to benefit by a further lesson4 ,,ii ,,the ,,board4--,the chess-board is not merely something upon which the game of chess is played2 it is part of the game itself1 for it limits1 and1 to some extent1 controls the action of the men4 ,in my first lesson ,i gave a diagram of the board with the men set out for play1 and ,i now give an outline diagram of the board on which the name of each square is given1 both from the ,white and the ,black side4 ,now1 in order to read the moves correctly1 it is of the greatest importance for the student to understand the method of naming the various squares4 ,from the diagram on page #bgf it is clear that1 according to our ,english style1 each square has two names1 the ,white player naming the squares from his own side1 and the ,black player from his4 ,thus1 what the ,white player calls his ,king's square the ,black player calls his ,king's eighth1 and so on with all the other squares4 ,all the boys who are taking an interest in these lessons should get this point fixed in their minds to avoid mistakes4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,black',s ,,side4 ,,from ,,white',s ,,side4 ,,iii ,the squares running across the board are termed ranks2 those running up and down1 files2 and those in a slanting direction1 diagonals4 ,the squares1 as will be seen1 are named from the pieces1 which1 at starting1 occupy their first rank2 thus the square at the lower right-hand corner is ,white's ,king's ,rook's ,square 7,k ,r sq72 the square immediately in front is ,white's ,king's ,rook's second 7,k ,r #b7--the word square being omitted2 the next in front is ,white's ,k ,r #c1 and so on till you come to ,white's ,k ,r #h4 ,in a similar way you get ,white's ,k ,kt sq1 or #b or #c1 etc41 or ,white's ,k or ,q sq1 or #b or #c1 and so on4 ,similarly1 by turning the board round1 you count the squares from the ,black side as ,black's ,k ,r sq1 or #b1 etc41 or ,black's ,k or ,q sq1 or #b or #c1 etc4 ,the files are also named in a similar manner2 thus the file running from ,white's ,k sq to ,black's ,k sq is called the ,k's file1 and so with all the other files4 ,the ranks are simply called first rank1 second rank1 etc4 ,the diagonals have no special name1 with the exception of the two running direct from one corner of the board to the other--that is1 the diagonal from ,white's ,k ,r sq to ,black's ,q ,r sq1 and that from ,white's ,q ,r sq to ,black's ,k ,r sq4 ,these are called the long diagonals4 ,of course1 some of the very sharp boys who read this will at once exclaim1 ,why1 they are the only diagonals a square can have1 for a rectangular figure can only have two diagonals4 ,well1 that is all right in mathematics1 but in chess1 use or custom has brought about the practice of calling all the sloping lines of squares diagonals1 and the two which1 according to mathematics1 are really diagonals1 the long diagonals4 ,having thus described the board1 ,i next proceed to describe the moves of the various men4 ,,the ,,king4--,the ,king is by far the most important man on the board1 inasmuch as a successful attack upon him 7as will be explained later on7 involves the loss of the game4 ,on the other hand1 his moves are much more circumscribed and his powers of attack more limited than those of any other man except the ,pawn4 ,he moves only one square at a time1 but that move can be made in any direction--that is1 to any adjacent square1 either forward1 backward1 sideways1 or diagonally4 ,place the king on his own square and he can move to ,q sq1 ,q #b1 ,k #b1 ,k ,b #b1 or ,k ,b sq4 ,similarly1 if he be placed on a centre square1 he can move on to any of the eight adjacent squares4 ,the ,king captures in the same direction in which he moves2 that is1 if any one of the enemy's men stands on an adjacent square to his own1 he can occupy that square1 the other piece being removed from the board1 or taken or captured1 as it is termed4 ,the ,king cannot move on to any square commanded by an enemy's man1 or1 as it is technically called1 he cannot move into check2 neither can the two ,kings occupy adjacent squares4 ,once during the progress of each game the ,king has the option of an extension of his ordinary move1 but this ,i will describe under its proper head of castling4 ,,the ,,queen4--,the ,queen is by far the most powerful piece on the board1 as she possesses such a wide range of moves4 ,like the ,king1 she can move in any direction--forward1 backward1 sideways1 or diagonally2 but these moves are not confined to the adjacent squares1 for the only limits to her range of moves are the sides of the board1 provided no piece or ,pawn is in the way of her march4 ,place the ,queen on her own square1 and she can be moved to any one of twenty-one squares1 namely1 ,q ,b sq1 ,q ,kt sq1 ,q ,r sq1 ,k sq1 ,k ,b sq1 ,k ,kt sq1 ,k ,r sq1 ,q #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g and #h squares1 ,q ,b #b1 ,q ,kt #c1 ,q ,r #d1 ,k #b1 ,k ,b #c1 ,k ,kt #d1 and ,k ,r #e4 ,similarly placed on a centre square1 say ,q #d or #e1 or ,k #d or #e1 and it will be found that she commands 7that is1 can be moved to7 no less than twenty-seven squares on a clear board4 ,the ,queen takes in the same direction as she moves2 this she does by displacing the enemy's man1 and occupying the vacated square herself4 ,,the ,,rook4--,next in importance comes the ,rook4 ,this piece moves forward1 backward1 or sideways1 as far as the open board permits1 but not diagonally4 ,place the ,k ,r on its own square1 and it can move to fourteen squares1 namely1 ,r's #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g and #h squares1 ,k ,kt sq1 ,k ,b sq1 ,k sq1 ,q sq1 ,q ,b sq1 ,q ,kt sq and ,q ,r sq4 ,placed on any position on the open board1 in a corner1 at the side1 or in the centre1 it will be found that it always commands fourteen squares1 neither more nor less4 ,it captures in the same direction as it moves in a similar manner to the ,king or ,queen2 that is1 by removing the enemy's attacked man and occupying the square so vacated4 ,,iv ,,the ,,bishop4--,the ,bishop moves diagonally only 7that is1 in a similar manner to a man at draughts7 but he can pass over any number of squares that may be open to him4 ,place the ,k ,b on its own square1 and it can move on to any of the following seven squares1 viz43 ,kt #b1 ,r #c1 ,k #b1 ,q #c1 ,b #d1 ,kt #e1 or ,r #f4 ,placed on a centre square1 it commands thirteen squares in all4 ,it captures in the same direction as it moves1 and in a manner similar to the ,k and ,q4 ,from the nature of its move the ,b can never leave the squares of the colour on which it originally stood4 ,therefore the ,white ,k ,b is always on a ,white square1 and the ,black ,k ,b upon a ,black one4 ,,the ,,knight4--,whilst the move of the ,kt is one of the most beautiful upon the chess-board1 it is1 at the same time1 the most difficult to describe1 though a knowledge of its move is not by any means difficult to acquire by a little practice4 ,it may be described as a combination of the shortest move of the ,r with the shortest move of the ,b2 that is1 one square in a straight direction--forward1 backward1 or sideways--and one square in a diagonal direction4 ,place the ,k ,kt on its own square1 and it can move on to the following three squares1 viz43 ,k #b1 ,b #c1 and ,r #c4 ,it will be seen that its imaginary ,r's move would bring it over ,kt #b1 and then its imaginary ,b's move places it on ,b #c or ,r #c4 ,or its imaginary ,r's move takes it over ,b sq41 and then its imaginary ,b's move places it on ,k #b4 ,placed on a centre square1 say ,k's #d1 it commands eight squares--,k ,b #b1 ,k ,kt #c1 ,k ,kt #e1 ,b #f1 ,q #f1 ,q ,b #e1 ,q ,b #c1 and ,q #b4 ,it will be noticed that it invariably moves on to a square differing in colour from that which it has just left2 or1 in other words1 that it leaps from a ,white square to a ,black one1 and from a ,black square to a ,white one4 ,this peculiarity arises from the combination of the ,r and ,b moves4 ,place the ,kt again on ,k's #d 7a ,white square71 and it will be seen that the imaginary ,r's move brings it on to a square of a different colour 7in this case a ,black one71 either ,k #c1 ,q #d1 ,k #e1 or ,b #d--;and then the imaginary ,b's move keeps it on the same colour4 ,the ,knight captures as it moves in the same manner as the other pieces--that is1 the captured piece is removed from the board1 and the capturing ,kt occupies the vacated square4 ,it has one advantage possessed by no other man1 and that is the power of leaping over any intervening piece or ,pawn1 whether belonging to its own side or the enemy's4 ,for example1 when the men are first set out in battle array1 the only piece that can move without some of the ,pawns first making an opening is the ,kt1 for it can at once spring on to ,b #c or ,r #c1 despite the intervening ,pawns4 ,,the ,,pawns4--,the ,pawn moves in one direction only1 and that is one square straight forward 7that is the shortest ,p's move1 except that on its first move it has the option of moving forward either one or two squares74 ,place the ,k ,p on its square1 and it can move either to ,k #c or ,k #d4 ,place on ,k #d1 however1 it can only move to ,k #e4 ,unlike the pieces1 the ,pawn does not capture in the same direction that it moves1 but diagonally1 one square only 7the ,bishop's shortest move74 ,place a ,pawn at ,k #d1 and whilst it can move to ,k #e it can only capture at ,b #e or ,q #e4 ,the capture is effected1 as it is by the pieces1 by removing the enemy's man and placing the ,pawn on the square thus left vacant4 ,the ,pawn has the privilege of claiming promotion as soon as it reaches the eight square4 ,this is done by its being exchanged for any piece of its own colour 7excepting a ,king7 which the player may desire4 ,this is technically called queening a pawn1 although it does not follow that a ,queen is always called for4 ,it is not necessary that the player should have lost a piece when he thus promotes a ,pawn1 and it therefore follows that he can have two or more ,queens or three or more ,rooks1 etc41 on the board at the same time4 ,this last statement may puzzle a good many boys1 some of whom may say3 ,i am under the impression that there is only one set of chessmen used at a game of chess4 ,if this is so ,i do not see that there can be two or more ,queens1 etc41 of the same colour on the board at the same time4 ,will you kindly explain this8 ,they would be perfectly right in stating that only one set of men is used in a game4 ,the set constitutes thirty-two men 7sixteen ,white and sixteen ,black71 and these thirty-two men form a complete set4 ,to distinguish one piece from another different figures are used1 but the shape of these figures is purely conventional1 and flat counters could be used with the name or with some other distinguishing mark written on them4 ,as a matter of fact1 indeed1 the ,mohammedans do play chess with such counters1 sculptured figures of any kind being prohibited by the ,koran4 ,now1 supposing a set is rendered incomplete by a man being lost1 the place of the lost man can be taken by anything that will serve to denote that the piece should be on the board4 ,i have often played a game where a thimble has done duty for a ,bishop1 and a small paper-weight for a ,rook1 and so on4 ,so that it is quite easy to get something to do duty as a second ,queen1 etc4 ,in clubs and chess resorts1 where there are many sets of men1 a second ,queen1 if need be1 is borrowed from another set4 ,sometimes1 where only one set of men is available1 a ,rook 7if one has been captured7 is turned upside down1 the promoted ,pawn is placed on the top1 and there you have a most excellent substitute for a ,queen4 ,supposing1 however1 that no piece has been lost when the ,pawn is promoted1 then a piece of twisted paper can be placed on the head of the ,pawn1 and again we have a good substitute for a ,queen4 ,some boys may ask me to explain to them what is meant by ,castling and ,taking en passant1 and as it is somewhat difficult to do so without the use of diagrams1 ,i think ,i cannot do better than give the required explanation4 ,v ,,castling4--,in describing the move of the ,k1 ,i stated that once during the game the ,k had the option of an extension of his ordinary move1 and promised to describe it later on4 ,this extended move of the ,k--or rather combined moves of ,k and ,r--is termed ,castling4 ,there are two species of ,castling1 one on the ,k's side1 the other on the ,q's side1 as shown on the diagrams upon the next page4 ,the operation of ,castling can only be performed once on each side in a game1 and that under the following conditions3-- #a4 ,the ,king must not be in check4 #b4 ,the ,king must not have moved4 #c4 ,the ,rook must not have moved4 #d4 ,the ,king must not pass over or occupy any square commanded by an adverse man4 #e4 ,all the squares between the ,king and the ,rook must be unoccupied4 ,illustration3 ,these five points being kept in view1 ,castling is performed as follows3--,on the ,king's side by the ,k being moved to ,k ,kt sq and the ,k ,r over him to ,k ,b sq4 ,on the ,queen's side by the ,k being moved to ,q ,b sq and the ,q ,r over him to ,q sq4 ,by inspecting the diagrams this will be made clear4 ,in ,castling it will be observed that the ,k moves two squares 7to the right or left1 as the case may be71 and the ,r leaps over him to the adjoining square4 ,in ,castling it is always best to move the ,k first to show clearly that ,castling is the move intended4 ,the diagrams show only ,white's method of ,castling1 but ,black castles exactly in the same way4 ,it must be borne in mind that previous checks do not prevent the ,k ,castling1 so long as he has not been moved1 and is not in check at the time of ,castling4 ,the young player must also remember that though the ,k be on his own square1 and the ,r on its square with no intervening piece1 yet ,castling cannot be performed if either the ,k or ,r has moved1 and then come back to his original square4 ,,pawn ,,taking ,,en ,,passant4--,this method of capturing can only be exercised by a ,p standing on its fifth square1 and the captured ,p on the move immediately preceding the capture1 have been played from the second to the fourth square4 ,the following diagram will assist the student4 ,illustration3 ,if ,black in this position move the ,p to ,k #c1 then the ,white ,p at ,b #e can capture it in the usual course1 that is by taking it off the square it occupied at ,k #c and occupying the vacated square4 ,should1 however1 the ,black ,p go to ,k's #d then the ,white ,p at ,b #e could capture it en passant1 or in passing as the term means4 ,this is done by lifting the ,b ,p from ,k #d 7to which square it has gone7 and placing the ,w ,p not on the square thus left vacant but on the ,k #f 7,black ,k #c7 precisely as if the ,black ,p had only moved to ,k #c4 ,in the position on the diagram1 should the ,black ,p go to ,k #d1 then the ,white ,p at ,q's fourth could capture it in the ordinary manner4 ,it must be borne in mind that the right of capturing en passant must be exercised on the move immediately following the one which the adverse ,pawn has made its move from the second to the fourth square1 otherwise the right lapses4 ,,vi ,i now resume the easy lessons by giving a list of ,,technical ,,terms4 ,,adverse ,,piece1 ,,adverse ,,pawn4--,an adverse piece is a piece of an opposite colour to your own1 and1 of course1 belongs to your adversary4 ,similarly1 an adverse ,pawn is a ,pawn of an opposite colour to your own4 ,,attack4--,the combined action of several men against an adverse position4 ,attacks1 of course1 are generally made directly against the ,king1 but occasionally they are directed against some weak point in the enemy's position apart from the ,king4 ,,to ,,attack3 ,,attacked4--,a piece or ,pawn attacks an adverse man when it threatens to capture it on the move4 ,a piece or ,pawn is said to be attacked when it is threatened with capture on the move by an adverse man4 ,,castling4--,this combined move of ,k and ,r ,i have fully described previously4 ,,check4--,this term signifies that the ,king is attacked by an adverse piece or ,pawn4 ,it is one of the very fundamental principles of the game that the ,king cannot be captured1 and therefore when a move is made by which he is attacked1 notice thereof must be given by audibly saying ,check4 ,the ,king is now said to be checked1 or in check1 and this check must be at once parried4 ,there are three methods by which this can be done3-- #a4 ,by moving the ,king on to a square not commanded by any of the adverse men4 #b4 ,by interposing a man between the attacking piece and the ,king4 #c4 ,by capturing the attacking man4 ,there are three descriptions of checks3-- #a4 ,the direct check1 which is given by a piece or ,pawn directly attacking the ,king4 #b4 ,the discovered check1 or check by discovery1 which is given by a piece1 which1 whilst it does not attack the ,king directly1 yet by its removal1 uncovers an attack from another piece4 #c4 ,double check1 which is a combination of the direct check and the discovered check4 ,this is brought about by a piece directly attacking the ,king and at the same time uncovering an attack from another piece4 ,this last is the most dangerous form of all the checks1 for it cannot be parried either by interposition or capturing4 ,the available defences of the ,king are therefore greatly lessened1 as he must move to get out of check4 ,,vii ,,checkmate4--,when the ,king is in check and has no power of escape--that is1 the attacking piece cannot be captured1 the ,king moved1 or a piece interposed between the ,king and the attacking piece--it is checkmate1 and the game is lost for his side4 ,to escape from a double check the ,king must move1 and if there is no square to which he can move the game is lost1 though both the attacking pieces are en prise1 for it is plain that if one be taken the check from the other yet remains4 ,the diagram on page #bhf will help the student to understand these different checks4 ,in the first place let ,white play ,r to ,q #b1 and it is a direct check4 ,the ,black ,k cannot move out of check1 as all the squares adjoining his present position are either guarded by ,white pieces1 or blocked by ,black ones2 neither can the ,r be taken1 for no ,black piece attacks it4 ,black1 however1 has one move to parry the check1 and that is by playing ,q to ,q #e1 or interposing the ,q as it is termed4 ,similarly1 ,white can play ,q to ,q sq1 again giving direct check1 to which ,black can again only reply ,q to ,q #e4 ,once more1 ,white can play ,p to ,r #h1 becoming a ,q or a ,b and giving direct check1 to which ,black's only reply is ,q1 ,q ,kt #b4 ,in the second place1 if ,white play ,kt to ,q #b he gives a discovered check2 that is1 by so moving his ,kt he uncovers the attack of the ,q upon the ,k1 or1 in other words1 the ,kt moving discovers the check by the ,q4 ,in reply to this move ,black has again only one move1 that being ,p to ,b #e or interposing the ,p4 ,if ,white play ,b ,r #g1 ,q #c1 ,b #b1 or ,kt sq4 there is again a discovered check1 for the ,r now attacks the ,k4 ,in reply to this ,black has three lines of play1 namely1 ,k takes ,kt 7at ,k #c7 which is left unguarded by the removal of the ,b1 or by playing the ,q either to ,k #d1 or ,kt #d interposing4 ,if the ,b had gone to ,kt #f the ,q could only interpose at ,k #d2 and if it had gone to ,kt #d or ,r #c the ,k could not then capture the ,kt1 but1 instead1 could have moved to ,k #e out of check4 ,illustration3 ,,black--#e ,,men4 ,,white--#aa ,,men4 ,in the third place if the ,b move to ,k #d there is then given double check1 for whilst the ,b now directly checks himself1 by moving he has also discovered the check from the ,r1 and the ,king to get out of this double attack must move4 ,he has two lines of escape1 one by capturing the ,kt at ,k's third1 the other by capturing the attacking ,b4 ,in the fourth place let ,white play ,p ,k #d1 and the ,k is in direct check2 but it is now checkmate1 for the ,k has no possible move out of check1 and the checking ,pawn cannot be taken4 ,again1 let ,white play ,kt1 ,kt #f1 and he gives double check1 for the ,kt checks directly1 and has also discovered the check by the ,q4 ,once more this is checkmate1 for the ,k has no possible move4 ,it is true that the ,b could capture the attacking ,kt1 but then the ,q still checks and the danger of mate has not been averted2 similarly1 the ,p could cover at ,b #e1 but the attack from the ,kt remains all the same4 ,this aptly illustrates what ,i have already said as to the extra danger of a double check4 ,,viii ,,close ,,game4--,see ,game later on4 ,,combinations4--,the concentrated action of two or more pieces and ,pawns1 operating in common either for attack or defence4 ,,command3 ,,commanded4--,to command a square is to have the power of moving a piece on to it1 or to capture an enemy's piece that already occupies it4 ,to command the board is to have the pieces so placed that a great many of the squares are commanded4 ,,counter ,,gambit4--,see ,game later on4 ,,counter ,,attack4--,see ,game later on4 ,,debut4--,a ,french word1 meaning opening1 sometimes used by ,english writers on chess4 ,,defi4--,a ,french word meaning challenge1 and sometimes used in ,english chess books4 ,,develop3 ,,development4--,to develop a piece is to bring it into more active play4 ,to develop a game is to bring as many pieces as you possibly can into active co-operation4 ,,doubled ,,pawn4--,two ,pawns of the same colour standing on the same file are said to be doubled4 ,generally1 but not always1 this is a weak position for the ,pawns to occupy1 as one cannot support the other4 ,,doubled ,,rooks4--,when two ,rooks of the same colour occupy the same file1 or the same rank with no man of their own colour intervening they are said to be doubled4 ,this is one of the strongest positions the ,rooks can occupy4 ,,end ,,game4--,see ,game later on4 ,,en ,,passant4--,a ,french term1 meaning in passing1 and applied to a peculiar capture of ,p by ,p1 which ,i have fully described previously4 ,,en ,,prise4--,a ,french term signifying exposed1 or in danger of capture4 ,in chess a piece or ,pawn is said to be en prise when it is attacked by an enemy's piece and not sufficiently guarded4 ,we do not say1 however1 that the ,k is en prise when attacked1 but in check1 as already explained4 ,,establish4--,to establish a piece or ,pawn is to place it in such a position that it cannot be dislodged by the enemy's pieces1 except at a loss4 ,to establish a centre of ,pawns is to occupy the centre squares of the board with ,pawns1 which mutually strengthen and support each other4 ,,exchange4--,the winning of one piece by the losing of another4 ,,exchange1 ,,to ,,win ,,the4--,the winning of a superior piece by losing an inferior one4 ,especially used when a ,rook is won at the expense of a ,b or ,kt4 ,the player on winning the ,r is said to have won the exchange2 the player losing the ,r is said to have lost the exchange4 ,,ix ,,file4--,each line of squares stretching from one player's side of the board to the other is termed a file1 and appears perpendicular in printed diagrams4 ,each file is named from the piece which originally stood on its outermost square1 as the ,king's file1 the ,queen's file1 the ,k ,r's file1 and so on4 ,the lines of squares stretching horizontally across the board are termed ranks4 ,,file3 ,,open4--,an open file is one unoccupied by pieces or ,pawns1 and it is a great point that a ,rook should be played so as to command such a file4 ,in the diagram on page #bhi the ,k ,b's file is open1 whilst ,white has doubled his ,rooks on the otherwise open ,k ,kt's file4 ,,fork4--,a term originally applied to the attack of a ,pawn upon two of the opponent's men at the same time4 ,it is now1 however1 so extended as to include the minor pieces when any one of them--more especially the ,kt1 however--attacks two pieces at the same time4 ,in the diagram the ,black ,pawn on ,q ,kt #d forks the ,q and ,b4 ,if ,white plays ,p ,q #d ch1 then the ,p forks both ,k and ,q4 ,if the ,kt goes to ,q #g ch1 it also forks ,k and ,q4 ,similarly if ,kt ,b #c it forks the ,q and ,r1 and lastly1 if ,b takes ,kt ch1 it forks ,k and ,q4 ,a fork from a ,kt on two superior pieces is always dangerous1 and often fatal1 whilst that from a ,pawn is also dangerous4 ,illustration3 ,,black--#f ,,men4 ,,white--#aa ,,men4 ,x ,,gambit4--,see ,game4 ,,game4--,besides its ordinary meaning1 the word is used in a technical sense1 such as open game1 close game1 etc4 ,a game of chess has three phases more or less well defined4 ,the opening1 the mid game1 and the end game4 ,,the ,,opening4--,the first or developing moves in a game1 wherein the pieces are brought from their original comparatively inoperative position into active co-operation1 both for attack and defence4 ,it is here that book play comes in1 and in the study of openings the young student of chess will find wide scope4 ,,the ,,mid ,,game4--,that portion of the game immediately following the opening2 the pieces being developed on both sides1 combinations result1 and attack1 defence1 and counter-attack take place4 ,it is here that the native skill of the player finds full scope for its display4 ,,the ,,end ,,game4--,the final scene of all1 after the bustle and life of the mid-game pieces have been exchanged1 the board stripped of the men1 and the combat reduced to narrower bounds4 ,here again book knowledge is of the greatest benefit to the player4 ,it is to be noted that some games never pass into the third stage1 for the attack in the mid-game may have been so strong that surrender was imperative forthwith4 ,nay1 in the hands of a weak player1 or by some gross blunder1 a game may be finished even in the opening stage4 ,the openings may be thus classified-- 7a7 ,,games1 when neither player offers any sacrifice of material force in order to gain some strategical advantage4 7b7 ,,gambits1 when the first player offers to sacrifice some material force in order to quickly develop his game1 or otherwise to gain some advantage in position4 ,a ,pawn is generally sacrificed in the gambits4 7c7 ,,counter ,,gambits1 when the second player makes the sacrifice4 7d7 ,,defences1 when the game gains its distinctive character from the line of play adopted by the second player4 ,some defences may properly be termed ,counter ,attacks4 ,there are many well-known openings1 all of which have a distinctive name1 sometimes that of their inventor1 sometimes that of a well-known player who may have made them familiar1 sometimes from some place or incident with which they have been connected4 ,thus there are the ,scotch ,game1 the ,steinitz ,gambit1 the ,greco ,counter ,gambit1 the ,philidor ,defence1 and ,petroff ,defence1 the latter of which should be more properly termed ,petroff ,counter ,attack4 ,then there are many other recognised openings4 ,,xi ,,game1 ,,close4--,a close game is one wherein the development both of pieces and ,pawns is mainly of a conservative or non-committal nature1 the ,pawns being very cautiously advanced1 and the pieces mainly massed behind them4 ,the term close is used to designate this class of openings1 because1 as a rule1 for many moves the board presents a crowded appearance1 owing to the massing of the pieces and ,pawns1 and the few exchanges effected4 ,great nicety is required in playing the close game1 so that when the time does come for dissolving the close position1 the pieces may occupy commanding positions4 ,,game1 ,,open4--,an open game is one wherein the opening moves are of a more immediately attacking nature1 and where the pieces are more quickly marched to the front4 ,the game is termed open because the board1 as a rule1 soon presents an open appearance4 ,pieces and ,pawns are often got rid of early1 and attack and defence embarked on at an early stage4 ,formerly all games commencing #a ,p ,k #d on each side were classed as open1 and all games1 such as the ,french1 etc41 wherein one or both players adopted other opening moves were classed as close4 ,this is1 however1 now given up1 for as a matter of fact1 many ,french defences develop into very open games indeed1 whilst games commencing #a ,p ,k #d1 ,p ,k #d often early take on a close character4 ,,hole1 ,a4--,this is a modern term greatly used by ,mr4 ,steinitz1 who may be considered as the great apostle of what is called the modern school of chess4 ,as used by him1 a hole means any square on the third rank left unguarded by a ,pawn during the developing or opening moves4 ,for example1 if a player having advanced both his ,k ,p and ,q ,p1 should follow this up by advancing his ,k ,b ,p1 or his ,q ,b ,p1 in each case he creates a hole2 in one instance at ,k #c1 in the other at ,q #c4 ,these holes are regarded by modern theorists as very dangerous1 for an adverse piece can often be posted with great advantage on the unguarded square4 ,,xii ,,interpose4--,to move a man between an attacked man and the opponent's piece which attacks it4 ,very often checks to the ,king1 and attacks upon the ,queen are warded off by interposing a ,pawn or piece4 ,as an illustration of interposing let the student refer to the diagram on page #bhi4 ,if ,white play #a ,q ,r #c ch1 then ,black plays #a 444 ,p ,kt #e1 thereby warding off the check4 ,the ,pawn thus moved is said to be interposed4 ,similarly1 if it were ,black's turn to move1 and he played #a ,q ,k #h ch1 or #a ,r ,q #h ch1 then ,white could play either #a 444 ,r ,kt sq1 or #a 444 ,kt ,b sq1 either piece then warding off the check1 or interposing4 ,,isolated ,,pawn4--,when a ,pawn occupies any file1 both the adjoining files of which are unoccupied by any ,pawns or ,pawn of the same colour1 such ,pawn is said to be isolated4 ,in the diagram on page #bhf1 ,white's ,pawns on ,q ,b #c and ,q ,r #g are both isolated4 ,isolated ,pawns in an end game are often weak1 whilst ,pawns on adjoining files are generally strong4 ,j',,adoube4--,this is a ,french term1 and means ,i adjust1 and is used by players who may touch a man without intending to move it4 ,any ,english expression signifying that the man is touched merely with the intention of adjusting it on the board may be used4 ,any man that may be touched without such intimation being given1 must be moved should it be the player's turn to move1 hence the importance of saying j'adoube 7or similar words7 in such cases4 ,young players 7and indeed old ones also for that matter7 should never get into a habit of touching any piece unless they intend to move it1 except such piece manifestly needs to be adjusted on its square4 ,such a habit is likely to irritate your opponent4 ,draughts in ,nineteen ,easy ,lessons4--,it is very easy to learn the moves of the men on the draught-board1 but it is not quite so easy to learn to play draughts4 ,draughts is not a complex game like chess1 but simple and straightforward1 and herein lies its charm to many people who are afraid of chess with its variety of men1 and their diverse powers and moves4 ,in draughts there is only one description of men when the board is set for play1 and the only addition is when any of these men become promoted to ,kings by gaining the opposite side of the board from that whence they started4 ,it is plain then that any boy can learn the moves of the game in a few minutes1 and can at once commence to play4 ,english draughts is played on the #cb white squares of a #fd-square board1 the squares of which are alternately coloured white and black1 white and red1 or in some other similar distinctive manner4 ,there are #bd men--#ab ,white and #ab ,black4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,above is a diagram of the numbered draught-board1 and it is well for the beginners to number the white squares of their draught-board in a similar manner4 ,the best way to do this is to write the numbers on small pieces of paper and stick these on the upper left-hand corner of the squares4 ,then when the men are placed on the squares the numbers can still be read4 ,it will be observed that the position of the board is the reverse of that of the chess-board1 for here a black1 and not a white square1 occupies the lower right-hand corner4 ,this brings what is technically called the double corner to the right hand of the player4 ,the black double corner is formed by the squares #a and #e2 the white double corner by squares #cb and #bh4 ,at the commencement of the game the ,black men occupy the #c rows of squares numbered from #a to #ab1 and the ,white the #c rows numbered from #cb to #ba1 the intervening two rows1 numbered from #ac to #bj1 being vacant4 ,the row #a to #d is ,black's crown-head1 and the row #cb to #bi ,white's crown-head2 the square #d being ,black's single corner1 the square #bi ,white's single corner4 ,by usage in this country ,black is always given the first move1 which again reverses the custom observed in chess4 ,the first move at draughts1 however1 gives no advantage to the player having it1 whereas in chess the advantage of the first move is of some moment4 ,,ii ,at draughts the men move forward diagonally from square to square4 ,that is1 a black man on #aa can move to #ae or #af1 and a white man on #bb can move to #ag or #ah4 ,when a man reaches the far side of the board he becomes a ,king1 or is crowned2 that is1 a second man is placed on top of him4 ,a ,king moves precisely in a similar way to an ordinary man1 except that he can go either backwards or forwards2 that is1 a ,king 7either ,black or ,white7 on #aa can go to #g or #h1 or #ae or #af4 ,in capturing or taking1 the capturing piece jumps over the captured piece or pieces4 ,supposing a ,black man is on #ae and a ,white man on #ah1 whilst #bb is vacant1 then the ,black man can capture the ,white man4 ,this he does by jumping over him to square #bb1 and the captured man is removed from the board4 ,if a second ,white man stood on #be1 and #bi were vacant1 the ,black man could jump over both the ,white men1 and go to #bi4 ,the ,king captures in a similar manner1 except that he can capture as he moves either backwards or forwards4 ,,iii ,a game at draughts is won when all the pieces of one colour have either been captured1 or forced into such a position that their ultimate capture is certain1 or where the remaining pieces of one colour are so blocked that the player thereof cannot move any of them when it is his turn to move1 and the player1 who thus captures or blocks all his opponent's men1 is the winner of the game4 ,a game at draughts is drawn when an end game results wherein the two forces are so balanced1 both in number and position1 that neither side can force the capture or blocking of all the pieces of the opposite side4 ,the following positions are illustrations of the close of games4 ,white to move and ,black to win4 7,fig4 #a47 ,in this position ,white cannot go to #bg1 or he would lose at once2 he therefore plays #ca-bf1 and the game goes on #cb-bg1 #bf-bb1 #bg-bc1 #bb-ag1 #bc-ah1 #ag-ac1 #ah-ad4 ,white has now no other move than #ac-i1 whereupon the ,black ,king jumps over it and the game is won4 ,had ,white had a ,king instead of a man he would just as surely have lost4 ,black to move and win4 7,fig4 #b47 ,in this position the pieces are perfectly equal on both sides1 but ,black has the advantage in position4 ,he played #a-f1 and the game goes on #e-a1 #f-i1 #ad-e1 #g-aj4 ,now ,white has no other move than #a-f1 whereupon the ,black ,king jumps over it to #a1 and the remaining ,white man is blocked and consequently ,black has won4 ,,iv ,further illustrations of won and drawn games are the following positions3-- ,white to move and win4 7,fig #c47 ,black men on #c1 #h1 #ab1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 and #bh4 ,kings on #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 and #cb4 ,white man on #ae4 ,kings on #ah and #ai4 ,this is a position well known to old hands at the game2 though it is not likely to occur in actual play1 yet it illustrates the power of the block4 ,white has only three pieces against ,black's twelve1 yet he wins the day4 ,here is the play which brings this about3-- #ai-bd #ag-bf #aj- #f #h-aa #bj-bg #ae-aj #af-ai #a- #e #ah-bb #ab-af #f- #a #aa-ae ,white now plays #e-a and #a-e alternately1 and the ,black men must go forward until they are blocked2 and ,white therefore wins4 ,now1 to illustrate one form of the draw1 let the student look again at the first position in third easy lesson4 ,had it been ,black's turn to move1 no more than a draw would result1 for ,black must play #cb-bh1 whereupon ,white plays #ca-bg and runs down to #a1 making a ,king and drawing4 ,in the following position ,white has two ,kings to one1 yet ,black1 by the strength of his position1 forces the draw4 ,black to move and draw4 7,fig4 #d47 ,black ,king on #bb4 ,white ,kings on #be and #bi4 ,the ,black now plays #bb-ag or #bf1 ,white replies #be-ba or #cj1 whereupon the ,black ,king comes back to #be and the draw is manifest4 ,v ,when a man reaches the crown-head in capturing1 and thus becomes a ,king1 that completes the move1 although there may be a piece or pieces which could have been captured if it had been a ,king and not a man1 which made the original capture4 ,many of the finest stroke problems are based upon this peculiarity1 for the opposing player has thereby time to make a move4 ,the subjoined position 7,fig4 #e7 shows another won game1 the victory being brought about by ,white gaining a move through the ,black having to stop to be crowned4 ,black men on #b1 #f1 #ae1 and #bb4 7,fig4 #e47 ,white men on #bg1 #cj1 and #cb4 ,white plays #cj-bf1 then ,black must play #bb-ca and becomes a ,king4 ,then the game goes on #cb-bh1 #ca-bd1 #bh-a4 ,black must now play #b-g1 and ,white follows him up and takes him #bd4 ,if the piece on #bb had been a ,king this could not have been brought about1 for after going to #ca1 thereby taking the man on #bf1 the move would not then have been finished1 but the ,king would have continued by taking the man on #bg1 thus winning easily4 ,illustration3 ,,black--,,one ,,piece4 ,,white--,,one ,,piece4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,black--#b ,,pieces4 ,,white--#b ,,pieces4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,black--#ab ,,pieces4 ,,white--#c ,,pieces4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,black--#a ,,piece4 ,,white--#b ,,pieces4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,many young players are puzzled how to force the victory when they have two ,kings against one1 the single ,king being within reach of the double corner4 ,take the following position as an example3-- ,black ,kings on #ah and #ai4 7,fig4 #f47 ,white ,king on #bg4 ,black wins thus3-- #ah- #a #ae-ai #bh-cb #ae-ah #bg-cb #bh-cb #bg-ca #bf-ca #ai-bd #bd-bh 7a7 #ai-ae #ah-bb #cb-bh #cb-bg #ca-bf ,b4 wins4 7a7 ,it is here that many young players miss the point4 ,they play #ai-bc and ,black moves to #ca-bg and the work is all to do over again4 ,,vi ,the last lesson showed how to win with two ,kings against one1 the latter being able to reach the double corner4 ,three ,kings can also win against two1 even when each of these latter can reach a separate double corner4 ,the way to win has often puzzled young players1 but yet it is comparatively easy4 ,the following position shows how to force the victory3-- ,black ,kings on #ad1 #ah1 and #bc4 7,fig4 #g47 ,white ,kings on #f and #bd4 ,black to move and win4 ,the win is brought about thus3-- #ah-ae 7a7 #f- #a 7c7 #bg-bd #e- #a 7f7 #bd-bh #ad-aj #a- #e 7e7 #bd-ai #bc-bg 7b7 #bh-cb 7d7 #aj-f ,b4 wins4 7a7 ,one of the ,black ,kings must now go into the double corner4 7b7 ,this is an important move1 forcing as it does the remaining ,king into the other double corner4 7c7 ,for if #bh-cb1 then #ae-ah wins4 7d7 ,compulsory1 for if #a-e1 then #bg-bd wins4 7e7 ,if #cb-bh1 then #bd-ai wins4 7f7 ,if #cb-bh1 then #f-aj wins4 ,it will be noticed that ,black must force the exchange of a ,king1 and then he wins with two ,kings against one1 as shown in fifth lesson4 ,,vii ,already it has been pointed out that the weaker side1 though a man down1 can often force a draw by correct play4 ,here is a position from ,sturge3-- ,black man on #g4 ,king on #f4 7,fig4 #h47 ,white men on #ad and #bj4 ,king on #c4 ,black to play and draw4 ,the draw is brought about thus3-- #g-aj #f- #b #b-bj #bj-af #ad- #g #bj-af #c- #g ,drawn4 ,here is another example of a draw1 this time by ,payne3-- ,black ,kings on #g and #aa4 7,fig4 #i47 ,white man on #bj4 ,kings on #ah and #ai4 ,black to move and draw4 ,this position is more complicated than the former1 and ,white can vary his moves to a considerable extent1 but ,black1 by careful play1 can always force the draw4 ,the point is that ,black must hold the ,white man on #bj4 ,here is a leading line of play3-- #g-aj #ah-bc #ae-aa 7a7 #ab-af #ai-af #aa-ae #bc-ai #c- #g #aj- #af-ab #g- #c ,drawn4 7a7 ,if #ai-af then #aa-ae draws4 ,this is a useful position as similar endings often occur in actual play1 and all younger students should study it carefully4 ,,viii ,here are some examples of easy forced wins4 ,payne has the following3-- ,black man on #a4 ,king on #g4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,white man on #ad4 ,king on #e4 ,black to move and win4 ,the win is brought about thus3-- #a-f #f-i #g-aj #aj-a #e-a #ad-e #a- #f ,b4 wins4 ,another very interesting position is3-- ,black man on #b4 ,kings on #f and #aa4 7,fig4 #aa47 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,white man on #h4 ,kings on #a and #d4 ,black to move and win4 ,black wins thus3-- #aa-af #b- #g #af-ab #a-aj #aj- #c ,b4 wins4 ,,ix ,some of the finest play in end games occurs in positions when two ,kings more or less sheltered by the double corner are opposed by three ,kings or two ,kings and a man4 ,the point for the player with the strong forces to seize1 is either to force the exchange of a ,king for a ,king1 or to give up a ,king for a forced won position4 ,it is here that great nicety of judgment is required1 and the greatest attention is necessary if the game is to be won4 ,the following position is from ,payne3-- ,black ,kings on #a and #b4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,white man on #e4 ,kings on #aj and #aa4 ,either to move4 ,white wins4 ,here is the win when ,black moves first3-- #b- #f #f- #i #i- #f #f-ac #aa-ae #ad-ag #bb-ah #ah-ad #f- #i #i-ac #f- #b #b- #g #ae-ah #ah-bb #ac- #i #a- #f #i- #f #ac- #i #a- #f ,white wins 7b7 #aj-ad #ag-ac 7a7 #e- #a 7a7 ,here comes ,white's opportunity of sacrificing a ,king1 thereby obtaining a position won by force4 7b7 ,for this ,king must ultimately fix the ,king now on #g4 ,this is the victory when ,white moves first3-- #aj-ad #f- #b #ah-bb #ac- #i #b- #f #af-ai #f-b #ad-aj #ad-ag #b- #f 7b7 #ac-i #i-ac #f- #i #ai-bc 7c7 #a-f #e- #a #ag-ac #f- #b #bb-ah 7d7 #ac-ag #i- #f #bc-ah #f-ac #a- #e 7a7 #aa-af #b- #f #ah-ad ,white wins 7e7 7a7 ,not #aa-ae1 for then ,black wins two for one by #f-i1 and this danger must be guarded against for several moves4 7b7 ,this is the decisive moment when the sacrifice of the ,king must be prepared4 7c7 #b-g1 too1 would lose1 for ,white would then move up his ,king now on #bb1 and ultimately man off4 7d7 ,if #b-g1 #aj-ad1 #g-b1 #ad-i1 and ,white wins4 7e7 ,black must play #ag-ac or #ag-bb1 and then comes #aj-f1 #b-i1 #e-ad1 and all is over4 ,x ,the play in these double corner positions is always of a very delicate nature4 ,here is a drawn position from ,payne1 requiring great nicety of play3-- ,black ,kings on #a and #f4 7,fig4 #ac47 ,white man on #e4 ,kings on #ad and #ae4 ,black to move and draw4 ,the draw is proved thus3-- #f- #i #ah-bb #i-ac #bb-ah #ae-ah #ac- #i #ag-ad #i-ac 7a7 #i-ac #ad-ag #ac- #i ,drawn4 7a7 ,black keeps command of square #ac and so forces the draw4 ,here is another drawn position1 from ,rogers3-- ,black ,kings on #a and #aj4 7,fig4 #ad47 ,white man on #ac4 ,kings on #c and #af4 ,black to move and draw4 ,the play on the position runs thus3-- #a- #f #aj- #f #b-f #i-ac #af-aa #i- #e #g-b #ae-aj #f- #b #f- #a #f-i #ac- #i 7b7 #ac- #i 7a7 #c- #g #aa-ae ,drawn4 7a7 #c- #h #f- #a #af-ai #b- #f #ab-af #aj-ad #h-ab #a- #f ,drawn4 7b7 ,white cannot crown the man or force an exchange1 and hence the game is drawn4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,xi ,when the forces on each side are reduced to two men1 or a man and a ,king each1 many positions occur which are won1 lost1 or drawn by well-known and long-recognised lines of play1 and all who wish to become draught players should have a knowledge of them4 ,here is such a position3-- ,black man on #bb4 ,king on #bg4 7,fig4 #ae47 ,white man on #cj4 ,king on #g4 ,black to move and win4 ,here is the win3-- #bg-bc #ah-ad #f- #a #e- #a #g-aj #f- #a #e- #i #be-ba #bb-bf #bb-ah #a- #e #a- #e 7a7 #aj-cf #a- #f #i-ac #aj- #f #bf- #a #ah-ae #aj-ad #ah-ae #f- #i #f- #a #ac- #i #ba-ag #ca-bf #ae-aj #ad-ah #e- #a #i- #f #a- #e #i- #f #f- #i #bf-bb #aj- #f #ah-ae #ae-ah #f-aj #e- #a #cj-be ,black wins #bc-ah #ad-aj #ae-ah by first #aj- #f #a- #e #f-aj position4 7a7 #cj-be #aj- #f #a- #f #a- #e #bc-ah #ah-ad #bf-bb ,black wins #be-ba #f- #a #f- #a by first #bf-cj #cj-bf #bb-ag position4 ,here is another position3-- ,black ,kings on #ad and #bb4 7,fig4 #af47 ,white man on #bi4 ,king on #a4 ,black to move and win4 ,this is the play for the defeat of your opponent3-- #bb-ag #a- #e #ah-ae #ba-ag #a- #e #f- #a #bi-be #e- #a #ag-ac #e- #i #ae-ah #f- #i #e- #a #a- #e #f-aj #ae-ah #ac- #i #i-ac #e- #a ,black wins #a- #e #aj-ad #be-ba by first #i- #f #ac- #i #a- #e position4 #e- #a #ad-ah #aj-f #ad-aj #i- #f #ah-ae ,the student will notice that all these victories are by first position4 ,this so-called first position will be explained in the next lesson4 ,,xii ,we now come to the ending known amongst all draught players as ,,the ,,first ,,position4 ,black ,kings on #ad and #ag4 7,fig4 #ag47 ,white man on #ba4 ,king on #e4 ,black to move and win4 ,if the student refers to the solution of the position on the first diagram in the eleventh lesson1 he will find that the play shown in note 7a7 ends with the position shown above4 ,the victory is brought about thus3-- #ag-ac #ad-aj #ae-ah #e- #a #e- #a #a- #e #e- #i7;a7 #f- #i #ac- #i #f- #a #a- #e #ae-ah #a- #e #e- #i #i- #f7;b7 ,see #i- #f #aj-ae #ah-ae position #e- #a #i- #e #ba-ag below4 7a7 #ba-ag #a- #f #a- #e ,black #ah-bb #e- #a #bb-ag wins4 #ag-ad #f- #b 7b7 #i-ac #e- #a #ad-aj #e- #a #ah-bb #ag-ad #bb-ah ,black #ba-ag #a- #e #aj- #f wins4 ,a ,,more ,,advanced ,,stage ,,of ,,first ,,position4 ,black ,kings on #a and #ah4 7,fig4 #ah47 ,white man on #ag4 ,king on #i4 ,white to move4 ,black to win4 ,this position is formed at the end of main play of both positions given in eleventh easy lesson1 as well as of main play in the position on the first diagram above4 ,white has two lines of play4 ,first-- #ag-ac #ae-aj #be-bb #aj-ae #ah-ae #ag-bb #a- #f #bb-be #i-ad #aj-ad #bb-be #ae-ah #a- #e #bb-be #f-aj ,black #ad-ag #a- #e #be-bb wins4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #af4 ,second-- 7a7 #i- #e #a- #f #a- #e ,black #ah-bb #e- #a #bb-ag wins4 #ag-ad #f- #b #ad- #i 7a7 ,both #ag-ad and #i-ac lose at once by #f-b4 ,,xiii ,a careful study of the principles underlying the play given in the positions in the eleventh and twelfth lessons will suffice to show the student how to secure success 7if that is possible7 when two ,kings are opposed to man and ,king1 the latter commanding or occupying his opponent's double corner1 where also the man can only hope to be crowned4 ,if the single man and the ,king cannot be forced to take up some of the positions shown at some part of the different lines of the play1 then the game will be drawn4 ,the next class is composed of endings in which two ,kings are opposed to two ,kings and a man4 ,the following diagram shows what is called ,,the ,,third ,,position4 ,black man on #e4 ,kings on #ac and #ba4 7,fig4 #ai47 ,white ,kings on #ad and #bb4 ,black to move and win4 ,the end is brought about thus-- #ac- #i #be-bb #bg-bc #bd-bj #bb-ah #ae-aj #bb-be #bb-bf #i- #f #bb-bf #b- #g #bj-af #ah-bb #ad-ah #be-bb #bf-bb #f- #a #e- #i #g-aa #af-ab #bb-ah #aj- #f #bb-be #bb-bf #ba-be #i-ac #aa-ae #ab- #h #ah-ae #f-aj #be-bb #bf-bb #a- #f #bf-ca #bc-bg #h- #c #ad-ag #aj-ad #bb-bf #ad- #i #f- #b #ca-bg #bg-bd #ae-aj #ag-ad #ah-bb #bf-bb ,black wins4 ,,xiv ,another class of endings is when three pieces are opposed to three pieces1 generally1 of course1 drawn1 but yet in some cases admitting of forced wins by delicate play4 ,the following is a characteristic specimen of such a forced victory1 and should be carefully studied by all young students of the game4 ,it is well known to experts as ,,the ,,second ,,position4 ,black men on #c and #f4 ,king on #a4 7,fig4 #bj47 ,white men on #ab and #ac4 ,king on #h4 ,black to move and win4 ,the play for the victory follows3-- #a- #e #cb-bh #bd-bg #bh-cb #h-aa #bd-bg #bh-bd #ai-bd #e- #i #bh-cb #bg-cb #cb-bh #aa-ae #bg-ca #bd-bh #aa-af #i-ad #cb-bh #cb-bg #bh-ai #ae-aa #ca-bg #bh-cb #af-bc #ad-ah #bh-cb #bg-bd #ab- #h #aa-af #bg-bc #cb-bh #bc-ah #ah-ae #cb-bh #bd-ai #h- #d #af-bj #bc-ah #bh-cb #ah-ad #ae-aa #bh-bd #ai-ae #d- #h #bj-bd #ah-ad #cb-bh #f- #a #c- #g #bd-ai #ae-aj #h-aa #bd-ai #f-aj #bh-bd #ad- #i #g-aj #ai-bc #aj- #f #ac- #f #ai-bc #aj-ae #bd-ai #a-aj #aj-ae #bc-bg #ad-aj #aa-af #bc-bg #ae-ai #ai-bd #aj-ae #ae-ai #bg-cb #aj-ae #af-bj #bg-cb #ai-bd #bd-bh #ae-ai #ai-bd #cb-bh #ae-ai ,black wins4 ,,xv ,the position given below is well known to experts1 and the play upon it is very fine2 but with the proviso1 ,black to move and win1 it cannot easily occur in actual play1 as the student will speedily discover if he examine the position carefully4 ,nevertheless1 it aptly illustrates an important principle in end game play1 and is well worthy of careful study4 ,it is known as ,,the ,,fourth ,,position4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,black man on #ba4 ,kings on #bb1 #bc1 and #bh4 7,fig4 #ba47 ,white man on #cj4 ,kings on #ca and #cb4 ,black to move and win1 or ,white to move and draw4 ,the ,black victory is brought about as follows3-- #bh-bd #bc-ai #ah-bb #bd-bg #cb-bh #bg-ca #ca-bg #ca-bd #bd-bj #ai-bd #bb-bf #bj-ah #bh-cb #cb-bg #cj-bc ,black #bb-ah #bd-bh #bh-bd wins4 #ca-bg #bg-cb #bg-ca ,the draw arises thus3-- #ca-bg #cb-bg #ca-bg #ca-bf #bc-ai #bd-bj #bh-bd #bg-ca #bg-cb #bg-ca ,drawn4 #ai-bd #bb-ah #ah-bc ,black can vary his play to some extent1 but he can never man off to advantage1 or force a winning position by any line of play1 and the position is drawn4 ,,xvi ,here is an example of a ,black win brought about by very fine play1 and well worthy of attentive study4 ,it is by the celebrated ,james ,wyllie3-- ,black man on #c4 ,kings on #aa1 #ai1 #bg4 7,fig4 #bb47 ,white men on #ab1 #bj4 ,kings on #a1 #b4 ,white to move1 ,black to win4 #a- #f #ah-ad #a- #f #g-aj #bg-bc #e- #a #e- #a #ah-bc #f-aj #ad- #i #f- #i #aj-ae #bc-ah #f- #b #ai-ae #bc-bg #aj- #f #ac-ag 7b7 #i- #e #ae-ai #ah-ad #a- #e #aa- #g #bg-cb #f- #a #ag-ad #ad- #i #ai-bc #ad-ag #e- #a #g- #b #cb-bh #a- #f #i- #e #i-ac #f-aj #ai-bc #b- #f #ae-aa #bh-bd #f- #i #ad-ah #ac-ag #aj-ae #bc-ah #f-aj #c- #g ,black #b- #f #ah-bc #ag-ad wins4 #ag-ac 7a7 #aj-ad #b- #f #i- #e #bc-ai #ad-ah ,var4 7a47 #aj- #f #ai-ae #f- #b ,black #bc-ai #b-f #ag-aj wins4 #f- #b #c-g ,var4 7b47 #i-ac #ag-ba #ag-ac #bj-af #aa- #g #a- #f #aj-ad #ah-ae #ad-ag #ac-ag #ac-ag ,black #ae-ah #f-aj #g-aj wins4 ,,xvii ,the position given in the last easy lesson showed a ,black win when it was ,white's turn to play1 but it is only a draw if ,black had to play first4 ,let the student add to the diagram the condition ,black to move1 ,white to draw4 ,the draw is brought about as follows3-- #bg-bc #aj- #f #g-aj #b- #f #a- #f #ai-ae #e- #a #ah-bc #ai-ae #f- #b #ad- #i #f-aj #f- #a #g-aa #bj-af #ae- #f #ae-ah #i- #f #aj-ae #a-aj #a- #f #ag-ac #a- #f #bc-ai #ah-bb #f- #a #i- #e #af-aa #f- #i #ae-aj #f- #a #ai-af #bb-ag #b- #f #ac-ag #aa- #g #b- #f #aj-ad #b- #f ,drawn4 #bc-ai #a- #e #ag-ad #f-aj 7a7 #aa- #g #f- #b #aa- #g #f- #b #ad-ah ,var47a47 #aa-ae #aj-ad #ah-bc #bc-ai #e- #a #e- #a #f-aj #aa- #g #ad-aj #i- #e #ae- #f #ai-af #f- #b #bj-af #a-aj #g- #b #ac- #i #ad-ah #e- #i ,drawn #a- #e #b- #f #f-aa ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,here is a neat winning stroke from ,sturges3-- ,black ,kings on #aj1 #af1 #bc4 7,fig4 #bc47 ,white ,kings on #i1 #ai4 ,black to move and win4 ,the win is forced thus3-- #aj-ad1 #i-bg1 #af-cb4 ,black wins4 ,,xviii ,i give the following beautiful example of a ,black win by ,w4 ,g4 ,w4 ,leggett3-- ,black man on #a4 ,kings on #c and #aa4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,white men on #i1 #aj1 #ac4 ,king on #d4 ,black to move and win4 ,the win is thus brought about3-- #aa- #g 7b7 #a- #e #be-bb #e- #a #aj- #f #ae-ai #i- #e #g-aj #a-aj #e- #a #bb-ah #a- #e #i- #f #ai-bc #e- #i #aj- #f #g- #b #a- #e #ah-ae #e- #a 7a7 #f- #a #bc-bf #i- #e #ad-aj #b- #f #e- #i #ae-aa #a- #e #a- #e #bf-cj #e- #i #f- #a #aj-ae #i- #e #aa- #g #e- #i #e- #a #cj-be #i- #e #a- #e #f-aj #e- #i #aj-ad ,black wins4 ,var4 7a47 #ac- #i #c- #g #h-aa #ah-bb #aj-ae #d- #h #ae-ah ,black #f- #a #g-aj #aa-af wins4 ,var4 7b47 #ac- #i #d- #h #h-c ,black #c- #g #ae-ah #g-b wins4 ,,xix ,,classified ,,list ,,of ,,principal ,,openings4 #i-ac ,,opening4 ,edinburgh ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bd4 #i-ad ,,opening ,double ,corner #i-ad ,choice #i-ad1 #bb-ah1 #aa-ae #aj-ad ,,opening ,denny #aj-ad #aj-ae ,,opening ,kelso #aj-ae #aa-ae ,,opening4 ,ayrshire ,lassie #aa-ae1 #bd-bj1 #h-aa1 #bh-bd ,second ,double ,corner #aa-ae1 #bd-ai ,virginia #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #aj-ad ,glasgow 7,irregular7 #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bb-ag #h-aa1 #be-bb1 #aa-af ,wilter 7,irregular7 #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bb-ag #g-aa ,fife #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bb-ag #e-i ,souter #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bb-ag #f-i ,sunderland #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bb-ag #ad-ah ,defiance #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ad1 #bg-bc ,will o' the ,wisp #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #i-ac ,old ,fourteenth #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #d-h ,alma #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #c- #h ,glasgow #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #aa-af ,laird and ,lady #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #i-ac ,centre #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #ae-ah ,doctor #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ag #i-ac1 #ag-ad1 #aj-ag1 #ai-aj #g-ad ,nailor #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bf-bc ,cuckoo #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #h-aa1 #bb-ah ,wilter #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #g-aa ,wilter-,cross #aa-ae1 #bc-ai1 #g-aa1 #bf-bc #c-g1 #bc-ah ,cross #aa-ae1 #bc-ah ,cross ,choice #aa-ae1 #bc-ah1 #i-ad ,dyke 7second ,irregular7 #aa-ae1 #bc-ah1 #h-aa1 #bf-bc #d-h1 #cj-bf1 #ae-ai ,single ,corner #aa-ae1 #bb-ah1 #ae-bb1 #be-ah #h-aa ,flora ,temple #aa-ae1 #bb-ah1 #ae-bb1 #be-ah #i-ac ,maid of the ,mill #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #ae-ah ,maid of the ,mill #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #h-aa1 #ag-ac 7,irregular7 #ae-ah ,pioneer #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #h-aa1 #be-bb ,white ,dyke #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #h-aa1 #ag-ad ,albemarle #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #h-aa1 #ag-ac #d-h1 #ba-ag ,erie #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #h-aa1 #ag-ac #i-ad ,dyke #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #ae-ai ,dyke 7,irregular7 #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #i-ad1 #be-bb #ae-ai ,boston #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #i-ac1 #ag-ad ,wagram #aa-ae1 #bb-ag1 #i-ac1 #bd-bj ,switcher #aa-ae1 #ba-ag #aa-af ,,opening4 ,bristol #aa-af1 #bd-bj ,liverpool #aa-af1 #bd-bj1 #i-ac1 #bj-aa #h-ae ,paisley #aa-af1 #bd-ai ,manchester #aa-af1 #bc-ah ,london #aa-af1 #bb-ah ,white ,doctor #aa-af1 #bb-ah1 #aj-ad1 #bd-bj #af-ai1 #bc-af1 #ad-bc ,leeds #aa-af1 #bb-ag ,newcastle #aa-af1 #ba-ag #ab-af ,,opening4 ,dundee #ab-af ,,the ,,losing ,,game4 ,as a matter of fact very fine scientific play is possible with this form of ,draughts1 but all the same the youngest beginner can play at it1 and very amusing results will follow4 ,the object in the game is for one of the players to give all his men away1 or get them fixed immovably1 which1 of course1 would be a lost game in ordinary draughts1 but is a won one at the losing game4 ,it must be borne in mind1 in playing the losing game1 that it is not good policy to give away men at the beginning of the game so as to be left with three men against six1 or two against five1 for as a matter of fact in most positions the player with the superior forces can give all his men away1 leaving the other player with one or more of his men left4 ,here is where the laugh comes in4 ,the hasty player keeps giving away his men until possibly he has only one left1 whilst his more wary opponent has three or four4 ,but can he give that man away and so win8 ,not much6 ,he soon finds he is perfectly helpless1 and the other player can force him to take all his men1 whilst his solitary man or ,king remains still on the board1 a woeful example of vaulting ambition1 overleaping itself and falling on t'other side4 ,in the losing game it is a case of the more haste the least speed1 for he who is too hasty to give away his men at the beginning finds he cannot give the remainder away at the end4 ,from the first position must be played for1 the board opened1 and men exchanged carefully1 so that at the end the player who wants to win may have such advantage that he can compel his opponent to capture his remaining pieces4 ,when the game is reduced to one man on each side he who has the move1 as it is called1 which would enable him to win1 or draw1 at the least1 in the ordinary game must lose at the ,losing ,game4 ,here is an example of ,a ,,losing ,,game4 #aa-ae #h-aa #e- #i #bj-bg #bd-ai #bb-ah #ag-ac #cj-bf #ae-bd #i-ad #c- #h #bc-ad #bg-bj #ah- #i #bi-be ,white wins1 #h-aa #f-ac #ab-af for his sole #bj-af #be-bb #bc-ai remaining man #aa-bj #a- #f #af-cb is blocked4 #cb-bg #bb-ag #ca-bg #d- #h #ac-bb #cb-bc #bh-bd #bf-ag #ba-ag ,another form of the ,losing ,game is for one player to have all his twelve men against a single man of the other player4 ,i give a position of this kind as ,illustration3 ,a ,,problem ,,in ,,the ,,losing ,,game4 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the #ab ,black men on their original squares4 ,white man on #bi4 ,black to move and win1 that is1 give all his men away4 ,another funny form of draughts is for one player to give the other the odds of having once 7or oftener during the progress of the game7 the right of moving twice in succession1 this right being exercised at such time as the odds-receiver may choose4 ,there should be great disparity in the strength of the two players1 as the odds is really very great4 ,,the ,,interchanged ,,men4 ,as a final poser for those who like to puzzle their brains1 ,i give the following as a problem4 ,place the men in due order on the draught-board1 and then by a series of legal moves reverse the position of the men1 that is1 the ,black men must stand where the ,white men came from1 and vice versa4 ,quaternions4--,quaternions is the name of a somewhat easy yet interesting game played on a checkered board 7similar to a draughts board7 with thirty-two counters or draughtsmen 7sixteen white and sixteen black74 ,the players move alternately by placing one of their men on a white square of the board1 and the object of the game is to get four men of the same colour in a line1 either perpendicular1 horizontal1 or diagonally1 and the player who first succeeds in doing this wins the game4 ,of course1 each player also does his best to stop his opponent from forming his quaternion or file of four4 ,should neither player be able to form a quaternion1 then the game is drawn4 ,to show clearly what a quaternion is1 ,i give the following diagram3-- ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,the four men on squares #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d1 form a quaternion1 and similarly do those on #e1 #ac1 #ba1 and #bi1 and those on #aj1 #ae1 #ai1 and #bd4 ,the numbers here given to the squares are the same as in draughts4 ,the point to be borne in mind in playing the game is to try to unite a perpendicular with a horizontal line of squares1 or with a diagonal line4 ,by careful play three men can be got on one of these lines1 and three on a communicating line1 each having a vacant square4 ,the player of the opposite colour can fill only one of these squares1 and consequently cannot prevent the formation of the quaternion on the other line4 ,the most careful play on both sides is required from the very first move1 or the game can be forced right off4 ,i give a diagram of an opening3-- ,illustration3 ,,black4 ,,white4 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,it is now ,black's turn to play1 and he must stop ,white from forming a line of three men with a vacant square at each end4 ,to do this he must place a man either on #g or #ag4 ,supposing he plays on to #ag1 then ,white can force the game thus3-- ,white4 ,black4 #ah #bc ,black plays on #bc to stop ,white #g #c getting an open three2 #i would not #i #e be so good4 #aa #ab #b ,the position is now as diagrammed3-- ,illustration3 ,,black ,,to ,,play4 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,it will be seen that ,white has now three on a perpendicular 7beginning at #b7 with a vacant square1 and he also has three on a diagonal 7also beginning at #b7 with a vacant square4 ,black can now only occupy one of the vacant squares1 and ,white thereupon occupies the other1 thereby forming his quaternion and winning4 ,black lost the game on his second play by placing his man on #ag2 had he gone on to #g his game would have been as good as ,white's4 ,now for a few general hints4 ,open the game on the middle of the board4 ,play to squares near those occupied by your opponent's men4 ,keep your men in connection 7with an eye to forming threes1 as in the illustrative game given above74 ,keep forming threes as long as you can so as to force your opponent to stop the threatened quaternion4 ,keep a wary eye always on your opponent's game1 and try to confine him as much as possible so as to prevent him from forming threes with an adjacent vacant square4 ,play the cautious game rather than the risky one--that is1 keep the draw always in hand1 and win if you can4 ,consequences4--,each player has a slip of paper4 ,three inches broad and eight inches long is a convenient shape and size4 ,each player writes upon the top an adjective which might be applied to a lady1 and then folds the top of the slip so as to cover the word4 ,all now pass their slips to their neighbours so that each one has another slip4 ,without looking at the adjective1 which should be well covered by the fold1 each writes the name of a lady who is in the room1 and folds the slip again so that no writing may be seen4 ,once more the slips are passed along1 and upon the new slip which each player has now should be written an adjective applicable to a gentleman4 ,fold the paper and pass it along again4 ,this process is repeated until this adjective has been followed by the name of some gentleman of the party1 then by the name of a place1 next by what the gentleman said to the lady1 then her reply4 ,after that come the consequences1 and finally what the world said4 ,all the slips are now dropped into a hat1 and someone is appointed to read them one by one1 supplying the verbs in the right place4 ,they will create roars of laughter1 for they will run something like this3 ,simpering ,jane ,cook met ,knock-kneed ,peter ,thompson up a tree4 ,he said to her1 ,well1 ,i am surprised and she replied1 ,does your mother know you're out8 ,the consequences were that he pawned his boots1 and the world said1 ,i told you so4 ,concert4--,the players having selected a conductor1 seat themselves round him4 ,the conductor now gives to each a musical instrument1 and shows how it is to be played4 ,when all are provided with their imaginary instruments1 he orders them to tune1 and so gives each musician a chance to make all sorts of noises4 ,next the conductor waves an imaginary baton1 and begins to hum a lively tune1 in which he is accompanied by his band1 each player imitating with his hands the different movements made in performing on his supposed instrument4 ,every now and then the conductor pretends to play an instrument1 and the player to whom it belongs must instantly alter his movements for those of the conductor1 and continue to beat time until the conductor abandons his instrument4 ,should a player fail to take the conductor's office at the proper time1 he must pay a forfeit4 ,shadow ,buff4--,a sheet or other large piece of white linen should be fastened at one end of the room1 so that it hangs without wrinkles2 ,buff seats himself on a low stool with his face to the sheet1 and a table1 on which is a lighted candle1 should be placed about four or five feet behind him1 and the rest of the lights in the room extinguished4 ,buff's playfellows next pass in succession1 between him and the candle1 distorting their features as much as possible--hopping1 limping1 and performing odd antics1 so as to make their shadows very unlike themselves4 ,buff1 who is not blindfolded1 must try to guess to whom the shadows belong1 and if he guesses correctly1 the player whose shadow he recognises takes his place4 ,buff is allowed only one guess for each person1 and must not turn his head either to the right or to the left to see who passes4 ,the ,boat ,race4--,a most exciting game1 and one that is particularly suited to parties4 ,any number of players may take part in it1 the more the merrier1 and they must be divided into two sides4 ,the players stand in two rows1 facing one another2 at one end of the line there is the starter and at the other the umpire4 ,at the word ,go6 the starter drops a penny into the hands of each of the two men nearest him4 ,these two men then drop it into the outstretched palms of the people next to them1 and so the pennies are passed along from one to the other1 and the winning side is the one which manages to get its penny into the hands of the umpire first4 ,a great point which all the players must bear in mind is that on no account must the coin be touched by the fingers4 ,each player must secure the penny in the palms of his hands placed together1 and must drop the penny into the hands of the man next him by simply opening his palms4 ,this greatly adds to the fun of the game4 ,in the hurry to pass on the coin the excited player will drop the money and pick it up in his fingers1 and his side is then disqualified for that game4 ,a ,musical ,glass4--,take a thin cut-glass goblet1 and having cut out of stiff writing-paper a cross with arms of equal length1 lay it on the top of the glass1 and turn down each end of the four arms1 so that the cross will not slip off4 ,having thus fitted the cross1 take it off the glass and pour water into the glass until it is nearly full4 ,now wipe the rim carefully1 so that no particle of moisture remains on it1 and replace the cross4 ,you can make the glass vibrate and give out a sound by rubbing your damped finger over some part of the exterior4 ,that is why it is called a musical glass2 but an even more wonderful experiment may be made with it4 ,you rub the glass with your damped finger under one of the arms of the cross2 the cross will not move4 ,rub it between any two of the arms1 and the cross will begin to turn slowly1 as if by magic1 and will not stop turning until one of the arms reaches a point immediately over the place you are rubbing4 ,you can then move your finger round the glass and make the cross move as you please4 ,boomerangs4--,the wooden boomerang of the ,australian savage has elements of danger1 and attempts should not be made to throw it except away from other people and from animals4 ,even the thrower will do well to have a tree behind which he can retire2 but meanwhile much fun can be derived from small boomerangs made of pasteboard4 ,they should be cut in the shapes given1 ,a and ,b are the best4 ,there is no need to be very exact1 but the card should not be bent and should be capable of lying flat upon a table4 ,other similar shapes may be invented4 ,the curious flight of a little boomerang of this kind is induced by placing it upon a book with one of its ends projecting over the side of the book4 ,raise the book to a level with your eyes and then with a pencil or penholder strike sharply the edge of the boomerang near the end4 ,do not treat the boomerang as though you were playing at tip-cat or peggy1 and avoid smiting it upon its upward flat surface4 ,when you have learned to hit it properly it will skim through the air1 then rise a little1 and finally come back to some place not far from its starting-point4 ,in any case its peculiar movements are likely to be amusing4 ,a flip with the finger nail is another way to start the boomerang upon its course4 ,an ,amusing ,game4--,in this game the ball is an empty egg-shell1 and the field a covered table4 ,after the sides have been chosen--any number of persons taking part--the players kneel at both sides of the table1 a captain at the head on one side1 and another captain at the foot on the other side4 ,in front of each captain are placed two upright articles--candlesticks1 tumblers1 or what not4 ,these are the goals1 across which a ribbon is stretched4 ,illustration3 ,,boomerangs4 ,the egg-shell is placed in the centre of the table1 and put in play by both captains blowing at it4 ,all the other players then assist in the blowing1 which keeps the ball moving about the table at such a rapid succession of tangents as to cause a great deal of fun4 ,soon most of the players will be helpless with laughter4 ,a touchdown1 which scores four points1 is made by blowing the ball through the opponents' goal4 ,the captain of the victorious side then takes the ball back to the opposite goal and blows it across the table1 the object being to pass it through the same goal again4 ,this1 if successful1 scores two more points4 ,the time limit of the game is thirty minutes1 divided into two parts of fifteen minutes each4 ,after the first half the two teams change positions1 as in football4 ,nine ,men's ,morris4--,two persons1 having each of them nine pieces1 or men1 different in colour from those of his opponent1 lay them down alternately1 one by one1 upon the spots2 and the aim of both players is to prevent his antagonist from placing three of his pieces so as to form a row of three without the intervention of an opposing piece4 ,if a row be formed1 he that made it is at liberty to take up one of his competitor's pieces from any part he thinks most to his advantage2 unless he has made a row1 which must not be touched4 ,when all the pieces are laid down1 they are played backwards and forwards in any direction that the lines run1 but can only move from one spot to another at one time4 ,he that takes all his antagonist's pieces1 is the winner4 ,illustration3 ,,nine ,,men',s ,,morris4 ,,fox ,,and ,,geese4 ,fox and ,geese4--,fifteen draughtsmen serve for the flock of geese4 ,the fox may be two draughtsmen placed one upon another4 ,the game is played on a board marked as shown in the illustration4 ,sometimes holes are pricked at the junction of the lines and pegs are used instead of draughtsmen4 ,the fox is placed in the middle of the board1 and the geese as shown in the illustration4 ,the game is to confine the fox to some spot on the board1 so that there shall be either the edge of the board or else two rows of men round him4 ,when the fox cannot escape1 the game is done1 and the player of the geese wins2 but when one of the geese is left on a point next to that occupied by the fox1 and is not supported by another goose behind1 or by the edge of the board1 the fox can take it1 and by jumping over its head to the next space1 as in draughts1 he may1 perhaps1 escape the others1 as all the geese are compelled to move forwards towards the end of the board that was unoccupied at the commencement of the game4 ,the fox is allowed to move either backwards or forwards4 ,neither the fox nor a goose must be moved more than one space at a time4 ,if the fox neglects to take when he has a chance1 he is huffed1 and one of the captured geese is restored to the board4 ,the fox should avoid getting into the lower square of the board if possible1 as he will find it difficult to extricate himself from a position which can be so easily blockaded4 ,illustration3 ,,fox ,,and ,,geese--,a ,,second ,,method4 ,a ,,second ,,method4--,there is another way of playing fox and geese on a chessboard1 with four white men1 representing the geese1 and one black one1 for the fox4 ,the geese are placed on the four white squares nearest one player1 and the fox may be put where his owner pleases4 ,the best place for him is that marked in the diagram4 ,the geese can move forward only1 and the fox moves either way4 ,the object of the geese is to pen the fox so that he cannot move1 and the fox has to break through4 ,the geese have a great advantage1 and a good player keeps them in a line as much as he can4 ,this the fox tries to prevent1 and if the geese make a false move he is able generally to break through the line4 ,puzzles4--,,dead ,,dogs ,,made ,,living4--,the dead dogs are1 by placing two lines upon them1 to be suddenly aroused to life and made to run away4 ,how and where should these lines be placed1 and what should be the shapes of them8 ,,the ,,springs ,,puzzle4--,a is a wall1 ,b ,c ,d three houses1 and ,e ,f ,g three springs4 ,it is required to bring the water from ,e to ,d1 from ,g to ,b1 and from ,f to ,c1 without one pipe or channel crossing the other1 and without passing outside of the wall ,a4 ,,three-,,square ,,puzzle4--,cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal lengths1 and put them on a table to form six squares1 as in the figure4 ,now take away five of the pieces1 leaving only three perfect squares4 ,,six ,,and ,,five ,,make ,,nine4--,draw six vertical lines1 and1 by adding five more lines let the whole make nine4 ,,cylinder ,,puzzle4--,cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long1 of the oblong shape of the figure1 and make three holes in it as shown4 ,make one piece of wood pass through1 and also exactly fill1 each of the three holes4 ,illustration3 ,,dead ,,dogs ,,made ,,living4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,springs ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,square ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,six ,,and ,,five ,,make ,,nine4 ,illustration3 ,,cylinder ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,button ,,puzzle4 ,a ,,button ,,puzzle4--,in the middle of a piece of leather make two parallel cuts1 and below a small hole of the width of the distance between the cuts1 pass a piece of string under the slit and through the hole1 as in the diagram1 and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends of the string4 ,the problem is to draw the string out without taking off the buttons4 ,a ,,slit ,,puzzle4--,cut a round piece of wood as in ,a1 and four others1 like ,b4 ,get them all into the cross-shaped slit1 as in ,c4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,slit ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,creeping ,,through ,a ,,small ,,space4 ,,creeping ,,through ,a ,,small ,,space4--,take a piece of cardboard or of leather1 the shape and size suggested in the diagram4 ,cut it in such a way that you may creep through it1 still keeping it in one piece4 ,,an ,,ingenious ,,square4--,here is a way to place one to nine in three rows of three figures each1 so that they will add up to fifteen in eight different ways4 ,illustration ------ #d #i #b ------ #c #e #g ------ #h #a #f ------ ,illustration3 ,,circle ,,puzzle4 ------------------- o o o o o o o o o o o o ------------------- ,,the ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,problem4--,a cabinet-maker had a round piece of veneering1 with which he has to cover the tops of two oval stools4 ,it so happens that the area of the stools1 without the hand-holes in the centre1 and the circular piece1 are the same4 ,how must he cut his veneer so as to be exactly enough for his purpose8 ,,circle ,,puzzle4--,secure a piece of cardboard1 the size and shape of the diagram1 and punch in it twelve holes in the position shown in the diagram4 ,cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size1 each piece to be of the same shape1 and to contain three holes1 without cutting into any of them4 ,,the ,,nuns4--,twenty-four nuns were placed in a convent by night to count nine each way1 as in the figure4 ,four of them went for a walk2 how were the remaining nuns arranged in the square so as still to count nine each way8 ,the four who went out returned1 bringing with them four friends2 how were they all arranged still to count nine each way1 and thus to deceive the sister in charge1 as to whether there were #bj1 #bd1 #bh1 or #cb in the square8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nuns4 ,,cross-,,cutting4--,how can you cut out of a single piece of paper1 and with one cut of the scissors1 a perfect cross1 and all the other forms that are shown in the diagram8 ,,cross ,,puzzle4--,cut three pieces of paper to the shape of ,a1 one to the shape of ,b1 and one to that of ,c4 ,let them be of the same relative sizes as in the diagram4 ,place the pieces together so as to form a cross4 ,,more ,,cross ,,cutting4--,with three pieces of cardboard of the form and size of ,a1 and one each of ,b and ,c1 to form a cross4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,cutting4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,more ,,cross ,,cutting4 ,a ,,problem ,,for ,,surveyors4--,a gentleman who lived in a house on an estate decided that he would divide the estate into five building plots4 ,there were ten fine old trees1 and his instructions to the surveyor were3 ,don't count my house in the division4 ,i shall have that extra1 but divide the remainder of the park into five equal parts with straight boundaries4 ,i shall retain one part for my own grounds4 ,be careful to arrange that each plot shall have two of the trees4 ,how did the surveyor divide the estate8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,problem ,,for ,,surveyors4 ,,another ,,problem ,,for ,,surveyors4--,a squire planted a number of oaks when his heir was born1 and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man there was a tree for every year1 and yet though there were only #bg trees1 there were ten rows and six trees in each row1 which made sixty1 the age of the squire himself4 ,how did he manage it8 ,,halfpence ,,puzzle4--,place ten halfpence in a row on the table4 ,take up one of them and place it on another1 never in any case passing over more than two halfpence4 ,repeat the operation until no halfpenny remains by itself in the row4 ,,puzzling ,,advice4--,read the following3-- ,if your ,b m t put 3 ,when your ,,is 4 putting 3 ,,the ,,miser',s ,,ruse4--,a miser once asked his tenants to dinner at an inn1 and asked the landlord to join the party4 ,when the bill was presented1 the miser suggested that they should cast lots who should pay the score4 ,it was decided that they should be counted by the days of the week1 and that every time he who counted called ,saturday1 the person so named should leave the room until there was only one man left1 and he should pay4 ,how did the miser manage to throw the expense on the landlord8 ,,two ,,eyes ,,better ,,than ,,one4--,put a coin on a table's edge1 with half the coin's edge overlapping4 ,move three yards away and close one eye2 now advance1 and try to knock it off with one finger1 keeping the one eye shut all the time4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,double ,,handcuffs4 ,,wolf1 ,,goat1 ,,and ,,cabbages4--,suppose a man has a wolf1 a goat1 and some cabbages on the bank of a river1 and he wishes to cross with them1 and that his boat is only large enough to carry one out of the three besides himself4 ,he must1 therefore1 take them over one by one1 in such a manner that the wolf shall have no opportunity of devouring the goat1 or the goat the cabbages4 ,in which way is he to do this8 ,,the ,,double ,,handcuffs4--,ask two friends to allow their hands to be fastened together with string1 which must be looped1 as shown in the illustration4 ,now tell them to liberate themselves without unfastening the knots1 or cutting the string4 ,answers to ,puzzles4 ,illustration3 ,,dead ,,dogs ,,made ,,living4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,springs ,,puzzle4 ,,three-,,square ,,puzzle4--,take away the pieces numbered #h1 #aj1 #a1 #c1 #ac1 and three squares only will remain4 ,illustration3 ,,six ,,and ,,five ,,make ,a ,,slit ,,puzzle4--,arrange the pieces side by side in the short arms of the cross1 draw out the centre piece1 and the rest will follow easily4 ,the same process reversed will put them back again4 ,illustration3 ,,slit ,,puzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,creeping ,,through ,a ,,small ,,space4 ,,creeping ,,through ,a ,,small ,,space4--,double the cardboard or leather lengthways down the middle1 and then cut first to the right1 nearly to the end1 and then to the left and so on to the end of the card2 then open it and cut down the middle1 except the two ends4 ,by opening the card or leather1 a person may pass through it4 ,a tough leaf may be treated in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,circle ,,puzzle4 ,,the ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,problem4--,the cabinet-maker must find the centre of the circle1 and strike another circle1 half the diameter of the first1 and having the same centre4 ,then cut the whole into four parts1 by means of two lines drawn at right angles to each other1 then cut along the inner circle1 and put the pieces together as in the following diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,problem4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nuns4 ,illustration3 ,,more ,,cross ,,cutting4 ,,button ,,puzzle4--,pull the narrow slip of the leather through the hole1 and the string and buttons may be released4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,cutting4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,,cross ,,cutting4--,take a piece of writing paper about three times as long as it is broad1 say six inches long and two wide4 ,fold the upper corner down1 as shown in ,fig4 #a2 then fold the other upper corner over the first1 and it will appear as in ,fig4 #b2 you next fold the paper in half lengthwise1 and it will appear as in ,fig4 #c4 ,then the last fold is made lengthwise also1 in the middle of the paper1 and it will exhibit the form of ,fig4 #d1 which1 when cut through with the scissors in the direction of the dotted line1 will give all the forms mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,cylinder ,,puzzle4 ,,cylinder ,,puzzle4--,take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular hole1 and of the height of the square hole4 ,having drawn a straight line across the end1 dividing it into two equal parts1 cut an equal section from either side to the edge of the circular base1 a figure like that represented by the woodcut in the margin would then be produced1 which would fulfil the required conditions4 ,,halfpence ,,puzzle4--,place the fourth on the first1 seventh on the third1 fifth upon the ninth1 the second upon the sixth1 and the eighth upon the tenth4 ,,puzzling ,,advice4-- ,if your grate be 7great ,b7 empty1 put coal on4 ,when your grate is 7great ,,is7 full1 stop putting coal on4 ,,the ,,miser',s ,,ruse4--,the counting1 which stopped at every seventh man1 was made to begin at the sixth from the landlord1 who sat at the end of the table4 ,,wolf1 ,,goat1 ,,and ,,cabbages4--,first he takes over the goat2 he then returns and takes the wolf2 he leaves the wolf on the other side1 and brings back the goat2 he now takes over the cabbages1 and comes back once more to fetch the goat4 ,thus the wolf will never be left with the goat1 nor the goat with the cabbages4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,problem ,,for ,,surveyors4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,problem ,,for ,,surveyors4 ,,the ,,double ,,handcuffs4--,this is the way to do it4 ,c must gather up into a loop the string which binds his hands1 pass it under the string fastened round either of ,b's wrists1 and slip it over ,b's hands4 ,this done1 both will be set free4 ,to replace the strings1 reverse the process4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,at ,,the ,,bench ,wood ,carving4--,the best kinds of wood include white holly1 walnut and sycamore1 and pieces of empty cigar boxes1 often ,spanish cedar1 are not to be despised4 ,a pocket-knife1 some bradawls1 a few files1 flat1 round and triangular1 a fine saw and some coarse sandpaper complete the tools needed for most of the work4 ,draw very carefully upon paper the design with which you wish to ornament some article you may have made with wood4 ,when you have at last drawn the design quite accurately there are many ways in which you may transfer the drawing to the wood4 ,it may be pasted upon the wood so that paper and wood will be cut away together in those parts that are to fall below the general surface of the wood and at the end the paper that remains may be washed away4 ,another way is to cut out the design with scissors1 lay it upon the wood and go carefully round the edges with a lead pencil2 or you may without cutting it out place it upon the wood and prick through the design or at any rate the principal points with a pin4 ,if you were to scribble with crayon1 coloured chalk or pencil upon the back of the paper and were then to lay the paper upon the wood and go over the design with a hard point1 using some pressure1 the design would be transferred to the wood1 or still another way would be to use carbon paper 7see ,chap4 ,,xxiv47 between the paper and the wood instead of scribbling upon the back of the paper4 ,however1 we will suppose the design in some way or another has been placed in pencil upon the wood4 ,now with regard to every part in which the intention is to take out the wood completely from front to back bore a hole4 ,then take your fret-cutter's saw or dentist's saw and unfastening one end put this end through the hole and fasten it again4 ,saw perpendicularly4 ,at this stage the young carver will need to decide whether he will follow the pencil lines exactly4 ,if he is a very expert sawyer he may1 but it is much safer to leave a little wood to be removed by pocket-knife1 chisel1 or file4 ,it is easy to do this2 but if he saws out a little too much wood1 if he transgresses the pencil line1 he cannot put back the wood he has wrongfully cut away4 ,after the filing a little rubbing with sandpaper will complete the work4 ,sometimes it is an advantage to adjust the saw in its frame with the teeth inside or sideways4 ,how to make a ,schooner4--,take a block of wood two feet four inches long1 eight inches wide1 and eight inches deep4 ,we name this as a convenient size2 but a boy may if he likes make his boat twice this size1 or half this size1 and so long as he makes his alterations in proportion it will not matter4 ,try to get the wood without knots or other faults4 ,white pine or deal with a straight grain is the best1 for this wood is easy to cut into shape1 and it is light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,before the schooner is shaped it should be hollowed4 ,draw a straight line with pencil along the centre of the upper surface of the block ,a ,b 7,fig4 #a74 ,if the breadth of the block is eight inches then the centre will be four inches from each edge4 ,next1 in a similar way divide the length of the block into two equal parts with a pencil line ,c ,d4 ,if the length is two feet four inches then this line will be one foot two from each end of the block4 ,now divide the length into three equal parts by the lines ,e ,f and ,g ,h4 ,one third of two feet four inches is nine inches and one third of an inch1 so that each of the three parts will have this measurement4 ,draw now the line ,i ,j ,c ,b and when this line is of the right shape make a tracing of it1 and from the tracing a cardboard model4 ,by placing this model upon the other side of the line ,a ,b and drawing round its edge you will get the line ,b ,d ,k ,i and it will be exactly like ,i ,j ,c ,b1 a very important matter4 ,with a knife1 gouge1 and chisel the boat may now be hollowed with care1 and we may repeat that it is easier to hollow the block before its outside has been shaped than afterwards1 because it stands now more firmly upon the table or bench4 ,the shape of the outside is shown in ,fig4 #b1 and it should be noticed that the line ,l ,m ,n is not straight but curves so that ,m is the lowest point and ,l and ,n the highest4 ,upon the counter at ,o a hole must be bored for the stern-post1 which will come through at ,p in ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,it is well from time to time to try the boat in water to see if it floats evenly1 or if more has been taken from one side than the other4 ,these little matters should be corrected1 and a number of little touches will be needed here and there with tools or sandpaper before the vessel is right inside and out4 ,then put a deck of thin wood over the hollowed part4 ,this should be fitted very carefully so that no water can pass into the hold of the ship4 ,if bulwarks are desired the deck may be half an inch or an inch below the edge of the vessel1 but if the deck is flush with the sides of the hull there will be no place for water to lodge4 ,we now come to the masts1 of which there will be two4 ,for the foremast make a hole through the deck at ,q on ,fig4 #a4 ,it is about an inch from the line ,g ,h4 ,at ,r two inches from the line ,e ,f a similar hole should penetrate the deck for the main mast4 ,the circumference of the lower masts should be one inch and three quarters1 but an inch will serve for the topmasts4 ,the bowsprit and the booms should measure one inch and a quarter round1 and the gaffs an inch4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,schooner4 ,a ,bobstay4 ,b ,bowsprit4 ,c ,forestay4 ,d ,stay ,foresail4 ,e ,foremast4 ,f ,gaff ,foresail4 ,g ,fore ,gaff4 ,h ,fore ,boom4 ,i ,mainmast4 ,j ,mainsail4 ,k ,main ,boom4 ,l ,main ,gaff4 ,m ,main ,topmast4 ,n ,gaff ,topsail4 ,o ,main ,topmast ,stay4 ,p ,fore ,peak ,haulyards4 ,q ,fore ,throat ,haulyards4 ,r ,main ,peak ,haulyards4 ,s ,main ,throat ,haulyards4 ,t ,mainsheet4 ,u ,foresheet4 ,v ,stay ,foresheet4 ,w ,rudder4 ,x ,lead ,ballast4 ,y ,forecap and ,cross ,trees4 ,z ,maincap and ,cross ,trees4 ,linen will serve for the sails1 and odds and ends of fishing lines for the ropes and rigging1 with stouter cord like whipcord for the shrouds4 ,the caps1 deadeyes1 blocks and such things may be made1 but the process is wearisome and difficult and perhaps the better way is to buy them4 ,the following measurements will be useful3-- inches ,bowsprit #c-a_/b ,foremast #ae ,mainmast #af ,topmast #f ,fore boom #h-a_/b ,fore gaff #h ,main boom #ab ,main gaff #h ,the sails should be made to fit these4 ,if the schooner has been properly made she will sail well with the rudder but slightly turned to one side4 ,if it is necessary to turn her rudder much she will lose speed and will not rank in the first class4 ,to steady the schooner it is necessary to nail or screw along her keel1 a strip of lead as ballast4 ,err upon the side of making this too heavy1 because it is easier to cut and file away than it is to add4 ,the making of a ,cutter4--,having made a schooner it will not be difficult to make a cutter from the appended diagrams with a few particulars regarding the measurements4 ,illustration ,the cutter has but one mast reaching about fifteen inches above the deck4 ,this is surmounted by a seven-inch top-mast1 so that the complete height above the deck is twenty-two inches4 ,here are the other measurements4 ,bowsprit1 #i inches from the stem of the vessel to the end4 ,main gaff1 #i inches long4 ,main boom1 #ae inches4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cutter4 ,a ,bobstay4 ,b ,bowsprit4 ,c ,forestay4 ,d ,foresail4 ,e ,jib4 ,f ,topmost ,stay4 ,g ,mast4 ,h ,topmast4 ,i ,mainsail4 ,j ,main ,boom4 ,k ,main ,gaff4 ,l ,gaff ,topsail4 ,m ,peak ,haulyards4 ,n ,throat ,haulyards4 ,o ,main ,sheet4 ,p ,rudder4 ,q ,lead ,ballast4 ,r ,jib ,sheets4 ,s ,the ,cap4 ,t ,cross ,trees4 ,a ,sleigh that can be ,steered4--,with the sketches we shall give1 a boy unaided1 or with a little assistance from a carpenter1 will be able to make a sleigh that he can steer4 ,take a piece of board #i-a_/b feet long1 six inches wide and #g_/h of an inch thick4 ,ash is excellent4 ,avoid large knots4 ,let ,fig4 #a represent the face of the board4 ,from ,b measure three inches to ,c4 ,connect ,a ,c4 ,from ,a measure two feet1 four times4 ,these measurements will give you ,d ,e ,f ,g4 ,from ,c repeat this process and you will have ,h ,i ,j and ,k4 ,saw from ,a to ,c2 from ,d to ,h2 from ,e to ,i2 ,f to ,j1 and from ,g to ,k4 ,you will have now four pieces of wood like the piece in ,fig4 #b and some wood to spare for a purpose that will be explained soon4 ,with regard to your four pieces of wood which are to serve for runners remember that two will be right-hand runners and two left-hand runners1 because the treatment of each kind varies a little4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,with regard to ,fig4 #b draw the curved line ,a ,e4 ,no rule can be given for this except that ,b ,e represents eight inches4 ,cut the curve from ,a to ,e1 round off the angle ,c ,d ,b a little1 and you will have a runner from which the three remaining runners may be made4 ,this runner however is not yet finished4 ,from ,c in ,fig4 #b measure #b-a_/b inches to ,f1 then another #b-a_/b inches to ,g4 ,make ,f ,h one inch deep and ,g ,i4 ,then connect ,h ,i4 ,measure #h inches from ,g to ,j and then mark off ,j ,k ,l ,m making it like ,h ,g ,f ,i4 ,now direct your attention to the upper edge of the runner represented in ,fig4 #c4 ,two points will have been fixed already4 ,m ,j1 ,g ,f4 ,to find the remaining points ,n ,o1 ,p ,q draw the lines ,m ,n2 ,j ,o2 ,g ,p and ,f ,q making the angles ,n ,m ,j2 ,o ,j ,m2 ,p ,g ,f and ,q ,f ,g the same as the angle ,b ,d ,c in ,fig4 #b4 ,now saw and chisel out carefully ,n ,o ,m ,j ,l ,k and ,p ,q ,g ,f ,i ,h making what joiners call mortices4 ,in repeating this process upon the other runners remember to have the narrower end of these dovetails inside the sledge4 ,the arrangement will be as in ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the next thing is to connect your four runners with cross bars 7,fig4 #e7 which are each fourteen inches long1 two and a half inches broad1 and one inch thick4 ,of these cross bars there are four4 ,the distance from ,a to ,b and from ,c to ,d is one inch in each case4 ,these ends are shaped to form what joiners call dovetails1 and they should fit exactly into the mortices upon the upper edges of the runners4 ,the black dots represent screws4 ,one of the cross bars does not appear in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the runners should be shod with iron by the blacksmith4 ,he will need eleven-and-a-half feet of half round #e_/h inch rolled iron1 divided into four1 a piece for each runner4 ,each piece will be #cd inches long pierced for screws as in ,fig4 #f4 ,a and ,b are an inch from centre to centre4 ,c is eight inches from the end1 ,d another ten inches2 ,e a further ten inches4 ,f ,g are like ,a and ,b4 ,take now a piece of board one foot wide1 fifteen inches long and one inch thick 7,fig4 #g74 ,find the centre by connecting ,b and ,c and ,a and ,d by straight lines4 ,the place where they cross1 ,e1 will be the centre4 ,this board should be placed lengthways upon the cross bars of the front portion of your sleigh and should be fixed very securely in position with long screws4 ,it should be at ,a in the completed sleigh1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,now for the long board upon which you sit1 the board that connects the two pairs of runners1 the board marked ,b in the completed sleigh1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,its width is sixteen inches1 its length #g-a_/b feet1 its thickness #a-a_/b inches4 ,it is known as the reach board and should be of seasoned pine4 ,this board is represented in ,fig4 #h4 ,fix your compass at ,a and describe a semi-circle1 and then at ,b4 ,a and ,b are each seven inches from the end of the board and seven inches from the sides4 ,by the aid of these lines you will be able to give your board rounded ends as in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,having decided which end of this board you will have forward measure underneath #h inches from the front extremity and at that point draw the line ,a ,b 7,fig4 #aj74 ,now take the piece of wood you spared from your runners and saw it lengthwise into two equal parts4 ,make each part precisely as long as your reach board is wide4 ,screw one at ,c ,d in ,fig4 #aj so that its outer edge is close to the line ,a ,b4 ,the screws go through the reach board into the cross piece4 ,in the centre of the cross piece bore a hole with a half inch bit right through cross piece and reach board1 this is for the bolt4 ,now take that other piece of runner wood and fix hinges upon it as shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,the hinges should be #dd hinges1 and should move round to their full extent each way4 ,leaving the reach board for a few minutes we go to the pair of runners that will be at the back of the sleigh4 ,it will be seen that we connected these with two cross pieces4 ,it is upon the back cross piece that we have to place our piece of wood that has the hinges upon it4 ,lay it upon the cross piece and when the two are even all round fasten the remaining flap of the hinges with screws upon this cross piece of the runners4 ,these two cross pieces of wood will be separated only by the thickness of the hinges if the work has been deftly done4 ,place the reach board so that the outer edge of the cross piece shall come exactly to a line we may draw now upon the under-side of the reach board five inches from its backward end as in ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,fasten there the reach board to the cross piece with screws4 ,the front pair of runners is fastened by passing a half inch bolt through the half inch hole we bored in the reach board and in the top of the front pair of runners4 ,here you will need a few washers and a nut4 ,each back runner should be fastened to the reach board by a loose chain as shown in the completed sleigh4 ,foot rests of bent iron or of wood are a great advantage4 ,place these where you need them4 ,the sleigh is steered by means of two strong cords4 ,fig4 #ac is merely general4 ,some of the details do not appear there4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a41 ,fig4 #b41 ,fig4 #c41 ,fig4 #e41 ,fig4 #f41 ,fig4 #d4 ,baby's ,sleigh4--,in ,fig4 #a we have the sleigh as it looks when it is finished4 ,to upholster it would add to our difficulties1 so we will depend upon an abundance of cushions for baby's comfort4 ,in ,fig #b we have a piece of strong board ,a ,b ,c ,d #c_/h of an inch thick1 two feet long and one foot wide4 ,from ,c to ,e is three inches1 from ,c to ,g seven inches and from ,d to ,f three inches4 ,the curve from ,a to ,g must be drawn according to the taste of the young joiner4 ,when this side has been cut out it is easy to make the other from it4 ,now for the backboard4 ,in ,fig4 #c ,a ,b ,c ,d we have a piece of wood fifteen inches square4 ,the inside lines at the bottom are one and a half inches from ,d and ,c4 ,e and ,f are three inches from ,a and ,b4 ,put your compasses at ,i for a centre and draw the curve ,e ,f4 ,if your compasses are not large enough a piece of pencil tied to a string will serve4 ,the front board may be made like the lower half of the back board4 ,nail or screw the parts together and put on a bottom that fits4 ,inside1 the seat rests on two strips1 one screwed upon each side4 ,these strips are of wood three eighths of an inch thick1 an inch wide and eight inches long4 ,the seat may be about a foot wide4 ,the runners come next4 ,in ,fig4 #d ,a ,b ,c ,d1 we have a board three quarters of an inch thick1 three feet long and seven inches wide4 ,the distance from ,d to ,e is eight inches4 ,from ,a measure eight inches along the upper edge to ,g1 then two inches to ,h and from ,h draw the line ,h ,f4 ,draw the curve ,a ,h4 ,f should be three inches from the line ,b ,c4 ,from ,f draw a straight line to ,c4 ,cut out the runner and use it as a pattern for the making of another4 ,to connect the two runners use a couple of cross bars of hard wood each an inch and a half wide1 one inch thick and a foot long4 ,cut the ends as shown in ,fig4 #e1 the cuts being three quarters of an inch deep4 ,carpenters call an arrangement of this kind a tenon4 ,the front cross bar will connect the two runners fifteen inches from the front and the back cross bar will be fifteen inches further back than that4 ,the method of fixing them is shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,the cuts ,a and ,b--mortices1 joiners call them--are half an inch deep4 ,having placed the tenons in the mortices fasten them there with screws4 ,now get a board ten inches wide1 half an inch thick and two feet long and screw this to the bars4 ,if you want the runners shod with iron the blacksmith will do this for you4 ,place now the car in position upon the runners1 and bore two quarter-inch holes in the centre of the bottom1 one under the seat and the other in front4 ,make two corresponding holes in the board of the sleigh and so with two bolts and nuts secure the car to the runners4 ,illustration3 ,,hammock ,,from ,a ,,barrel4 ,a ,hammock from a ,barrel4--,look round for a clean barrel4 ,perhaps an apple barrel will be as easy to find as any4 ,strip off the hoops and draw all the nails4 ,measure three inches from the top1 and three inches from the bottom of the barrel1 and draw thence a line round the top and a line round the bottom of the barrel1 keeping it three inches from top or bottom all the way round4 ,upon these lines1 and upon each stave1 bore two holes with a brace and bit4 ,place the holes so that they are about the same distance from each other and from the edges of the staves4 ,if some of the staves are wider than others1 each will need slightly different treatment4 ,a stout rope should be threaded through these holes in the manner shown in the diagram4 ,about twenty feet of rope will be sufficient4 ,an inch or thereabouts should be left between each stave4 ,cushions add to the comfort of this simple hammock4 ,illustration3 ,,hammock ,,from ,a ,,barrel4 ,illustration3 ,,olian ,,harp4 ,an olian ,harp4--,make a shallow box of thin dry pine4 ,the top piece should be free from knots and three-sixteenths of an inch thick4 ,this is the sounding board4 ,the sides and bottom of the box may be of wood one quarter of an inch in thickness4 ,the harp should be two inches shorter than the width of the window in which you are going to place it4 ,the width of the box itself may be ten inches1 its depth two and a half inches4 ,the ends should be of hard wood1 for they have to bear the strain of the strings4 ,in one end put studs or rings or eyes to which are fastened the wires or catgut strings4 ,at the other end should be a corresponding row of violin pegs if you use catgut1 or iron piano pins if you use wire4 ,if you do use wire it should be of steel4 ,in the diagram you will see the two bridges of hard wood glued diagonally across each end for the strings to rest upon4 ,if steel wire is employed a piece of wire should run along the top of each bridge to prevent the other wires from cutting into the wood4 ,four holes1 each an inch in diameter1 in the sounding board improves the harp4 ,the tuning may be harmonics1 thirds1 fifths1 and octaves4 ,raise the sash of the window1 and place the harp so that the wind blows across the strings4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,play-,,hour ,a ,home-,made ,electrical ,machine4--,to make a really first-class machine of the modern type would require a good deal of mechanical skill1 even supposing my readers to be the happy possessors of the necessary tools and materials2 but the older type of machine--though of course not so powerful--will probably do quite well enough for most of their purposes4 ,i will1 therefore1 describe one of the simplest forms of these machines1 such as any one1 with a little care and patience1 can make for himself4 ,the first thing to do is to get a general idea of what you are going to construct1 which may be had from the illustration1 and from the actual machines you may sometimes see in a shop window or in a scientific collection1 like the ,science ,departments of the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it is the making of the cylinder machine we are going to work out1 and1 therefore1 to begin with1 the glass cylinder must be procured4 ,this can be had from a dealer in chemical apparatus and costs only a few pence for the smaller size--about #c inches by #f inches4 ,at the same time purchase a round glass rod1 #c_/h inch diameter by #e inches long2 a sheet or two of tinfoil1 and sixpennyworth of amalgam4 ,from a carpenter or timber-merchant you will require a base-board for the machine1 say #ac inches by #h inches1 by #a inch thick1 and of heavy wood2 also two uprights1 which are to stand on the base-board to support the cylinder4 ,these may be #f inches tall1 by #b inches by #c_/d inch4 ,having now the principal parts of the frame1 the work of fitting together can be begun by making a circular hole 7centre about #a-a_/d inches from the end7 in one wooden upright1 to take easily one of the projecting glass pieces1 or pivots1 at the ends of the cylinder--probably #c_/d inch diameter will do4 ,this hole may be made with a brace and suitable bit1 or failing that1 with a round chisel--taking care not to split the wood4 ,in one end of the other upright cut a slot of same width as the hole1 the bottoms of both being on the same level4 ,then rest the two glass pivots in the hole and slot1 holding the uprights vertically on the base-board1 when the cylinder should be quite horizontal4 ,if it is not so1 deepen the slot1 or shorten either upright1 as required4 ,drill a hole through the two sides of the slot at the top1 and insert a round nail to keep the pivot from having too much play4 ,it will next be necessary to secure these supports to the board1 which may be done by driving stout screws from below1 together with the aid of some strong glue4 ,if you have the skill it will be better to sink the supports #a_/b inch into the surface4 ,the position should be such1 that the cylinder is not quite over the middle of the board4 7,see illustrations47 ,next remove the cylinder by a little side working1 and screw a piece of wood1 #a-a_/b inches by #a_/d inch by about #g inches1 to the supports and base4 ,this is to act as a brace to the supports1 and also for holding tightening screws for the rubber4 ,we now come to the preparation of the rubber1 which is an important detail4 ,get a wooden block #a-a_/d inches by #a_/b inch and #a inch shorter than the cylinder4 ,smoothe off all the corners1 and glue on one long edge1 a piece of thin leather 7chamois will do72 fold over the flat side1 and then glue it again at the other long edge2 double it back loosely1 and glue again in original place4 ,this should make a sort of bag on one side of the block1 which should now be stuffed with dry wool or hemp1 and the two ends fastened down4 ,a piece of black silk1 about #e inches by #i inches1 must be attached to the bottom edge4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,view1 ,,showing ,,rubber ,,seen ,,through ,,cylinder2 ,,conductor ,,removed4 ,a ,a ,supports2 ,r ,rubber2 ,b ,brace ,board2 ,c ,c ,adjusting ,screws2 ,f ,rubber ,stand4 ,illustration3 ,,end ,,view4 ,h ,handle2 ,d ,conductor2 ,e ,glass ,support4 ,,rubber1 ,,silk ,,flap ,,and ,,support4 ,a ,,home-,,made ,,electrical ,,machine4 ,now place the cylinder on its bearings1 and press the rubber against the middle of one side1 which will show what length to make the rubber stand4 ,the thickness may be #a_/d inch1 and the breadth #b inches2 one end being screwed to the rubber block at the back1 and the other resting on the base-board1 but attached to the brace piece by two bolts with adjustable nuts4 ,these you can get at an ironmonger's--thumb nuts are preferable1 as they can be tightened up without pliers4 ,as this board will be on a slope1 the cushion block must be bevelled off with a chisel1 so that it may rest squarely against the glass4 ,the adjusting screws will enable the pressure on the glass to be regulated4 ,be careful to see that the silk flap 7attached to the bottom edge of the rubber7 comes between the leather and the cylinder1 and then folds over the cylinder to about the middle of the opposite side4 ,we next come to the prime conductor1 which is a piece of rounded wood1 #b inches in diameter and #a inch less than the length of the cylinder4 ,the end corners must be made round with a knife and sandpaper1 so the whole surface may be quite smooth4 ,then lay on evenly with paste1 a sheet of tinfoil1 notching it so that it may fold nicely over the spherical ends1 and take out any ridges by rubbing with the knife handle4 ,an insulating support must be given to the conductor1 as it is to hold the accumulated electric energy1 and for this the glass rod above mentioned is required4 ,make a suitable hole in one side of the conductor1 and in it fix one end of the rod with cement4 ,the other end can be fixed to the base-board in the same way2 or a separate stand may be used2 but before doing this1 drive a horizontal row of strong pins along a side of the conductor1 at right angles with the rod4 ,these should be #a_/d inch apart1 starting and finishing #a_/d inch from where the surface becomes spherical at the two ends2 the heads should be cut off previously with pliers1 and the external length1 when driven into the wood1 should not exceed #a_/b inch4 ,now erect the conductor1 and see that the rod brings it level or thereabouts with the centre line of the cylinder-side4 ,the points should not quite touch the latter2 and the silk flap must not hang down far enough to come between4 ,there remains now but one piece of mechanism to construct--the handle4 ,this is apt to give trouble at first1 but with care may be successfully completed4 ,a short piece of hard wood 7say #b-a_/b inches long71 half of circular and half of square section1 must be procured1 and the rounded half cemented into one of the glass pivots4 ,this must be done with good cement and both the glass and wood warmed1 and cleaned first of all4 ,be careful not to crack the glass by too rapid heating4 ,a thin layer of cement is best1 while1 of course1 the wooden rod ought to fit closely4 ,the square end now projecting must be provided with a handle1 the making of which will serve to pass the time during which the cement is drying4 ,cut a square hole to fit the end in a piece of wood say #a_/d inch by #b-a_/b inches by #a inch1 which is the handle shaft4 ,pass a bolt through the lower part and secure the handle-bobbin itself by a nut4 ,if nothing else can be got1 a cotton-reel makes a fair handle when the flanges are cut off4 ,if the nut works loose1 pinch the threads at the end of the screw1 or add a lock nut--i4e4 an extra nut4 ,dry the cylinder and put a wooden stopper in the other glass pivot to keep out damp4 ,take care to have the handle on the right-hand end of the machine when the rubber is closest to you and the conductor opposite2 notice also that of the supports the slotted one should now be on the left-hand side4 ,all the woodwork1 as well as the ends and pivots of the cylinder1 and the glass rod should be painted with shellac varnish1 which may generally be had ready mixed from paint merchants1 or may be made at home by dissolving shellac in methylated spirits4 ,a stick of red sealing-wax gives a more pleasing colour for the glass work if added to the shellac solution4 ,all through the construction of the machine must be borne in mind the fact that rough edges or points attract away the electricity1 and1 therefore1 all the edges and corners must be well rounded off and smoothed with sandpaper1 and everything must be kept clean and free from dust4 ,when the shellac is dry1 let all the parts1 especially the rubber1 cylinder1 and rod1 have a good warming before the fire4 ,then fixing the cylinder in its place1 press the rubber firmly against it by means of the adjusting screws4 ,after turning for a few minutes1 the handle should become stiffer1 and a small spark be obtained on touching the conductor4 ,if not1 tighten up the screws a little more4 ,it is also advisable to lay a little amalgam with tallow on the rubber1 between the silk and the leather3 a piece of tinfoil is also said to be of advantage when amalgam is not handy4 ,sometimes1 too1 a wire connection from the back of the cushion to a neighbouring gas or water pipe helps the success of the machine1 but if proper attention be paid to warming and cleaning and the avoiding of edges and corners1 success is almost certain after a short time4 ,a delicate test is to observe whether a thread is attracted by the conductor1 and if so1 a spark may be soon looked for4 ,an iron clamp or two will be found of great assistance for holding down the base-board to the corner of a table4 ,the ,indestructible ,candles4--,when a candle burns1 the matter of which the candle is composed1 is not lost nor destroyed4 ,it is simply changing its form1 and every part of it may be accounted for4 ,if we take a cold clean tumbler and hold it over the flame of the candle 7,fig4 #a7 we shall see that the inside becomes moist with water1 and on touching it our fingers are made wet4 ,on the tumbler becoming warm1 this moisture disappears4 ,if we could surround the tumbler with an ice jacket1 we should see the water from the flame of the candle dripping down1 and if this were caught in a vessel we could obtain from an ordinary candle about a wine-glassful of water4 ,we may therefore produce water from a burning candle4 ,the cause of the water being formed is that there is in the fat of the candle1 as one of its constituents1 hydrogen1 and as the candle burns1 this unites with the oxygen of the air to form water4 ,wherever water is found it always consists of hydrogen and oxygen in combination1 and of nothing else4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,presence of ,hydrogen ,proved4--,we may prove the presence of hydrogen gas by bringing a lighted taper within two or three inches of the wick of a candle just after it has been extinguished4 ,on holding the lighted taper in the stream of smoke coming from the wick1 we shall see a tiny flame run down the smoke and re-light the candle4 ,the hydrogen gas coming from the hot fat is being carried off in the smoke4 ,it is very inflammable1 and the flame from the taper ignites it1 and in turn rekindles the candle4 ,when the stream of smoke has ceased1 it does not matter how near we hold the taper to the wick without actually touching1 it will not be re-lighted4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,the ,hydrogen ,located4--,a still better way of showing the presence of this gas is by bending a piece of glass tubing of small-bore1 into the shape shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,glass tubing may be bent easily to any shape by holding it in the flame of an ordinary gas burner4 ,the tube becomes covered with soot1 and this prevents its getting hot too rapidly1 and so enables the tube to bend easily and evenly4 ,the bending must never be forced1 but very gently done as the glass softens4 7,see ,fig4 #c47 ,a little practice will enable any boy to make a first-rate bend4 ,on carefully observing the flame of the candle we shall see that it really consists of three distinct parts4 ,round the wick it looks black1 this is really a hollow chamber filled with unconsumed hydrogen4 ,next to this is a bright luminous cone1 and outside of that is an almost invisible covering of blue flame4 ,in the black space gas is unconsumed1 in the luminous part the combustion is only partial1 but outside of all1 where there is most oxygen1 the combustion is complete1 and the flame can hardly be discovered4 ,now when the flame is quite steady the tube must be gently inserted at an angle into the black cone2 after a few minutes1 on applying a light at the end of the tube1 although the candle is still burning1 we shall see that this free hydrogen will burn there too with a small bluish flame4 ,the ,candle's ,carbon4--,as the candle burns1 another part of its constituents is passing off into the air as soot or carbon1 and this can be shown by holding a sheet of white paper or cardboard in the top of the flame1 or better still1 a cold saucer1 on which there will be a copious deposit of black soot4 ,this is another proof that as a candle burns it is not destroying matter1 but only changing its form2 from the white fat of the candle1 black sooty carbon is liberated by the process of incomplete combustion that is going on4 7,see ,fig4 #e47 ,carbonic ,acid ,gas4--,when substances containing carbon are burnt1 one of the products is an invisible gas1 commonly called carbonic acid gas4 ,after an explosion in a mine1 all the workings are filled with a deadly gas1 which often kills more men than the explosion4 ,this is called choke damp1 and is the same as carbonic acid gas4 ,whenever a fire burns--gas1 lamp1 coal fire1 or candle1 this gas is one of the products4 ,let us fasten a piece of wire round our candle1 and1 after lighting it1 lower it down into a glass bottle with a wide mouth4 ,at first the candle burns dimly1 and then1 when a current of air is established1 brightens4 ,now cover the mouth of the jar with a piece of card or the hand1 and we shall see that the candle again burns dimly and quickly goes out4 ,the jar now contains a considerable quantity of this carbonic acid gas4 ,we may prove its presence by pouring into the jar a little clear lime-water and shaking it up4 ,the carbonic acid gas will turn the lime-water milky4 7,see ,fig4 #f47 ,lime-water can be purchased at any chemist's very cheaply1 or it can be made by pouring water on a piece of quicklime1 well shaking it1 and then allowing it to settle4 ,the clear lime-water may then be poured off4 ,the lime may be used again and again until it is all dissolved4 ,our ,use of ,oxygen4--,we are breathing out carbonic acid gas2 and on breathing through a piece of glass tubing into some of the clear lime-water we shall see that it will be turned milky in just the same way as when the candle burned4 ,we are using up oxygen to support life1 the candle uses up oxygen to support life1 and in both cases the product is carbonic acid gas1 as we have proved by means of the lime-water test4 7,see ,fig4 #g47 ,convincing ,proof4--,all that we have done up to the present supports our statement that the matter of the candle is not destroyed4 ,in fact we have accounted for all its parts excepting that of a little mineral ash which will be left after the candle has burned away4 ,we may1 however1 show in a very convincing way that our contention is true4 ,an ordinary gas chimney is obtained1 and at about three inches from one end a piece of wire gauze is placed1 and the open end filled up with quicklime1 at the lower end a cork is fixed upon which a short piece of candle is placed4 ,there must also be a hole in the cork for the admission of air2 when all is ready1 carefully counterpoise the scales4 ,then remove the cork and light the candle and quickly replace4 ,after burning a short time it will be found that the chimney glass bears down the beam because of increased weight4 ,the products of the burning candle have united with the oxygen of the air1 and these products1 consisting chiefly of carbonic acid gas and water1 have been caught by the quicklime4 ,because of the added oxygen they are heavier than the original candle4 7,see ,fig4 #h47 ,capillary ,attraction4--,there is still one interesting thing to illustrate about the burning candle1 and that is the way in which the particles of fat ascend the wick to reach the flame4 ,this is accomplished by what is known as capillary attraction4 ,a very good illustration of this is afforded by a piece of salt standing upon a plate1 on which is poured some salt water coloured blue with indigo or ink4 ,the liquid will rise up the pillar of salt1 and eventually reach the top4 ,it rises by the force of capillary attraction4 ,let the pillar of salt represent the wick of the candle1 and the coloured water1 the fat1 and the illustration is complete4 ,analysis of ,candle ,flame4--,our candle can still give us some useful and suggestive illustrations of flame and combustion4 ,we have seen that unconsumed gaseous vapours can be obtained from the flame by means of a bent glass tube4 ,in the candle flame 7,fig4 #i7 we see that this is because of the way the flame is built4 ,the part marked o is the gaseous chamber1 i is the luminous part1 and e is where combustion is complete4 ,on taking a sheet of clean white paper and pressing it down on the candle flame for a moment or two we shall get the fact of this hollow chamber demonstrated by the smoke ring upon the paper1 which will appear thus-- ,the paper is left clean at the hollow chamber1 but marked with smoke at the luminous part of the flame4 7,see ,fig4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,now we must find the differences between the non-luminous outer flame and the luminous inner flame4 ,to do this thoroughly we must have a ,bunsen burner to afford the best illustration4 ,this is not an expensive item4 ,a cheap and simple form of it can be obtained for #as4 #c;d4 ,to understand the nature of the flame we must first understand the principles of the ,bunsen4 ,it is a burner in which a mixture of air and gas is consumed4 ,a is a brass tube1 mounted on a solid foot ,k1 with a small tube ,c to admit the gas4 ,there are two holes at the bottom of the brass tube to admit air in the direction of the arrows1 and a movable brass collar fits over these holes1 so that the air can be admitted or excluded at will4 ,on igniting the gas1 with the holes of the ,bunsen open1 we shall see that it burns with a non-luminous but exceedingly hot flame4 ,on closing the holes we shall notice that the flame becomes luminous1 much more languid1 and does not give off nearly so much heat4 7,see ,fig4 #aa47 ,we must ask ourselves the question1 ,what is the cause of this difference8 ,the answer is a simple but very instructive one4 ,coal-gas1 like the fat of the candle1 contains carbon1 and in the luminous flame1 owing to the limited supply of oxygen1 these particles of carbon are made white hot1 and so emit light1 but are not entirely consumed till they reach the outer edge of the flame1 where combustion is more complete1 owing to the contact of the flame with the air1 and even then many of them escape2 and so where gas is burnt the ceilings after a time become blackened4 ,in the non-luminous flame1 owing to the air being admitted and mixed with the gas1 the increased supply of oxygen renders combustion more complete1 greatly increases the heat of the flame1 but renders it incapable of giving light4 ,now1 the reasons for the differences of the two flames are made clear4 ,a very clever modification of this principle has been utilised in what is known as the ,argand burner1 in which the gas and air are not mixed as in a ,bunsen1 but the burner is made circular1 and the air is made to pass up the centre of the flame1 so that it gets its supply of oxygen1 burns steadily1 and presents a very large surface of luminous flame4 7,see ,fig4 #ab47 ,a ,pretty ,experiment4--,let us now go back to our candle flame4 ,we see that it gives light1 emits smoke1 and does not yield a very large amount of heat4 ,we have learnt that it gives light because the particles of carbon are heated to a white heat1 but not entirely consumed4 ,these particles in the flame are held very closely together1 and so present a continuous surface4 ,if we could get inside the flame and scatter them we should have a pretty shower of glowing sparks4 ,we can illustrate this by the following experiment4 ,take as much gunpowder as will rest on a sixpence1 and a like quantity of iron filings1 mix them together on a small tin dish4 7,see ,fig4 #ac47 ,this must be done carefully and without friction4 ,then ignite with a taper4 ,the gunpowder burns1 makes the particles of iron red hot1 and scatters them in a beautiful shower of glowing sparks4 ,this is a fair representation of pulling a candle flame to pieces1 the only difference is that the glowing particles are of iron instead of carbon4 ,artificial ,lightning4--,this may be further illustrated by putting a flame together4 ,we may accomplish this by passing any very fine particles of carbonaceous matter through a non-luminous flame1 and we shall see that whilst these particles pass through the flame it will give light owing to their presence4 ,we require a little lycopodium1 a piece of glass tubing one foot long1 and about a quarter-inch bore1 and the non-luminous flame of the ,bunsen burner or a spirit lamp4 ,insert into one end of the tube a little of the lycopodium powder1 and then1 pea-shooter fashion1 apply the mouth to the other end of the tube1 and blow the contents into the flame4 ,there will be a great flash of light whilst these infinitely small particles are passing through the flame1 thus establishing the fact that luminosity is due to the presence of unconsumed solid matter in the flame4 ,this experiment is sometimes called making artificial lightning1 and in a dark room it is very effective4 7,see ,fig4 #ad47 ,flames that ,laugh4--,what makes the candle flame burn steadily is the next problem before us1 and we shall see that it is very simple and at the same time most philosophical4 ,it tells us the reason why candles are made round1 and not square4 ,the section of a candle being circular1 with the wick in the centre1 it can1 as it burns1 get its supply of oxygen from all directions at an equal distance2 thus it burns regularly and steadily4 ,if the candle were square1 the four corners being at a greater distance from the wick than the sides1 we should have four columns of fat standing up at the corners1 and as the air rushed in to feed the flame it would come into contact with these1 and so the current would be broken and the flame would become unsteady4 ,we can show this by placing some cotton wool on tin dishes1 and saturating it with methylated spirits and igniting it4 ,this will give us what are known as laughing flames1 because they burn so unsteadily4 ,the air rushing in to feed the flame comes into contact with the wool1 which impedes it1 and so the flame has a dancing or laughing appearance4 ,this experiment may be made very pretty by rendering the flames coloured4 ,to do this add to the cotton wool1 before pouring on the methylated spirit1 chloride of copper2 this will give a green flame2 to another1 chloride of strontium2 this will colour the flame red2 to another1 common salt2 this will give a yellow coloration4 ,all these should be shown in a dark room4 ,the ,importance of ,oxygen4--,by previous experiment we have seen that oxygen is necessary to a flame1 and our ingenious readers may now make a piece of apparatus to prove this4 7,see ,fig4 #ae47 ,it consists of two pieces of glass tube standing upright near the two ends of a board1 in which there is a covered channel communicating with the two4 ,a small candle is lighted and placed in one of the tubes4 ,the air heated by the flame rises in the tube and causes a corresponding descent of cold air down the other tube4 ,this gives us a good illustration of ventilation produced by artificial heat4 ,so great is the down draught1 that if we hold a lighted taper over the mouth of the cold tube the smoke and the flame will be carried down1 with the result that the candle is soon extinguished4 ,the reason for this is that the smoke and burnt air from the taper contain insufficient oxygen to feed the candle flame1 and it dies4 ,to make this apparatus1 obtain a piece of deal board about ten inches long and four inches wide1 cut along the middle a groove about three quarters of an inch deep1 and about the same width1 leaving about half an inch at each end uncut4 ,cover this groove with a tightly-fitting slip4 ,over the two ends of the groove are fastened two small blocks of cork pierced with apertures1 into which fit the vertical glass tubes2 these should be about ten inches high and about three-quarters of an inch bore4 ,fig4 #af1 which is a section of one end of the apparatus1 shows how a small candle like those used on ,christmas trees is held erect by a wooden socket at the end of the groove so as not to impede the current of fresh air4 ,rates of ,combustion4--,we must remember that all things do not burn at the same rate4 ,iron rust is a product of very slow combustion4 ,in using up food to maintain the heat of the body1 combustion goes on more quickly than in rusting iron1 the candle burns more quickly still1 gas still faster1 the ,bunsen burner faster still4 ,we may get an idea of the different rates of combustion by the two following experiments4 ,on a tin dish place half a thimbleful of gunpowder and lay on it a tiny piece of gun-cotton4 ,ignite the gun-cotton2 it burns so fast that it has no time to set fire to the gunpowder1 which may now be ignited in its turn by the taper4 ,another example is the laying of two long trains of gunpowder1 one fine grain and the other coarse4 ,it will be found that the two flames travel at very different rates along the same path4 ,the ,egg and ,bottle ,trick4--,an ordinary water-bottle1 a hard-boiled egg1 divested of its shell1 and a piece of thin paper are all that is requisite4 ,how can we make this egg get inside the bottle8 ,light the paper1 quickly thrust it into the bottle1 and immediately place the egg over the mouth of the bottle1 gently pressing it closely down to the glass4 ,the burning paper consumes some of the air1 a partial vacuum is formed1 and air pressure will force the egg into the bottle with a loud detonation4 7,see ,fig4 #ag47 ,making ,water ,boil by ,means of ,coldness4--,heat some water to boiling in a glass flask over a spirit lamp4 ,after the water has boiled for a minute or two1 quickly insert a well-fitting cork1 and remove the flask from the flame4 ,wrap a duster or towel round the neck of the flask1 and1 holding it over a basin 7in case of breakage71 pour gently a stream of cold water on to the flask4 ,the steam inside is condensed1 a partial vacuum is formed1 and as long as any heat remains in the water1 it will boil1 whilst the stream of cold water is continued on the outside4 ,when ebullition no longer occurs1 it will be found that the cork is held in so tightly by air pressure that it is very difficult to draw it4 7,see ,fig4 #ah47 ,fire ,designs4--,this is very simple1 amusing1 and effective4 ,make a saturated solution of nitrate of potash 7common nitre or saltpetre71 by dissolving the substance in warm water1 until no more will dissolve2 then draw with a smooth stick of wood any design or wording on sheets of white tissue paper1 let it thoroughly dry1 and the drawing will become invisible4 ,by means of a spark from a smouldering match ignite the potassium nitrate at any part of the drawing1 first laying the paper on a plate or tray in a darkened room4 ,the fire will smoulder along the line of the invisible drawing until the design is complete4 7,see ,fig4 #ai47 ,the ,magic ,wine ,glass4--,the holding of a wine-glass to a substance mouth upwards without its falling off1 may be accomplished thus4 ,obtain a wine-glass with a very even edge 7this may be done by grinding on a flat stone71 a square of blotting-paper1 and a piece of glass4 ,about half fill the glass with water1 place upon its rim the blotting paper1 and then the piece of glass4 ,whilst pressing them closely down invert the glass4 ,the blotting-paper absorbs some of the water1 a partial vacuum is formed1 and on holding the sheet of glass1 the wine-glass will remain suspended1 being held on by atmospheric pressure4 7,see ,fig4 #bj47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,the ,floating ,needle4--,the idea of making a needle float upon water at first sight seems an impossibility but it can be done1 and that with comparative ease4 ,take a fine needle1 and rub the fingers over it gently to grease it4 ,now lay it very carefully on a piece of thin tissue paper on the surface of the water1 as shown4 ,presently the paper will sink1 and leave the needle floating on the water4 ,the thin coating of grease serves to protect the needle from actual contact with the water1 and thus enables it to float4 7,see ,fig4 #ba47 ,a ,glass of ,water ,turned ,upside ,down4--,a tumbler is filled with water1 a piece of paper laid on1 and the surface and the tumbler deftly inverted1 the atmospheric pressure being unable to enter the glass1 the water is kept in1 so long as the paper holds4 ,the effect of the experiment is very greatly increased1 if1 instead of using paper1 a piece of thin mica1 cut to the size of the glass1 is used4 ,the audience cannot then discover what prevents the water from running out4 ,any gasfitter will supply a piece of mica4 ,the ,inexhaustible ,bottle4--,this wonderful bottle1 from which five separate liquids can be poured1 owes its marvellous qualities to the application of the simple law of atmospheric pressure4 ,it is made of tin1 and encloses five internal cylinders1 each of which has a tube from the upper end running into the neck of the bottle1 and another tube from the lower end opening into the side4 ,the cylinders are filled with different liquids--water1 milk1 tea1 coffee1 lemonade4 ,whilst the fingers are kept over the holes the bottle may be inverted1 and nothing will run out4 ,on opening the holes one by one the liquid may be poured out1 according to the wishes of the audience1 and greatly to their astonishment4 7,see ,fig4 #bb47 ,the ,magic ,writing4--,fill a deep tumbler with water1 and add a few crystals of iodide of potassium and a few drops of sulphuric acid4 ,the liquid will remain perfectly clear like water4 ,on some strips of white cardboard write various names with starch paste2 when dry these will be invisible4 ,on dipping the cardboard into the liquid the name will appear in blue writing1 owing to the formation of starch iodide1 which is blue4 ,by previously preparing the names of those present at the experiment1 by a little manipulation you can1 to the astonishment of the audience1 produce any name called for4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,producing ,smoke at ,will4--,two glass cylinders are the best for this1 but ordinary tumblers will do4 ,with a separate feather make the inside of each tumbler quite wet1 one with hydrochloric acid1 and the other with liquid ammonia4 ,both glasses appear to be quite empty1 and nothing occurs4 ,but on bringing the mouths of the two vessels together1 a thick white smoke is at once developed4 ,the hydrochloric acid gas and the ammonia gas unite chemically1 and form the solid white powder known as sal-ammoniac4 7,see ,fig4 #bc47 ,a ,novel ,fountain4--,this is a pretty experiment1 and owes its action to the fact that ammonia gas is very soluble in water4 ,in a basin place some water4 ,fit up a flask with a small-bore glass tube1 about eighteen inches long1 as shown4 ,the end entering the flask should be drawn out so that there is only a small opening4 ,in the flask place about a teaspoonful of liquid ammonia1 and heat it over a spirit lamp4 ,as soon as the liquid boils a large amount of ammonia gas is disengaged1 and fills the flask and the tube4 ,now close the tube by means of the finger1 and invert the flask over the basin of water4 ,when the end of the tube is under the water remove your finger1 and then1 as the water dissolves the gas1 it will rise in the tube1 and will presently play into the flask like a fountain until the flask is full4 7,see ,fig4 #bd47 ,to ,boil ,water in a ,paper ,bag4--,here is a sheet of note-paper2 can you boil me a little water in it8 ,this would appear to be a thorough puzzler1 yet it is exceedingly easy to do4 ,fold a piece of paper so that it will hold water1 now suspend it above the flame of a lamp4 ,the water will so readily take up all the heat that there is none left with which to burn the paper1 and presently it will bubble and give off steam4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 ,illuminated ,water4--,wet a lump of loaf sugar with phosphorized ether1 and throw it into a basin of water in a dark room4 ,the surface of the water will become luminous4 ,blow on the water1 and you will have phosphorescent waves1 and the air1 too1 will be illuminated4 ,in winter the water should be warmed a little4 ,if the phosphorized ether be applied to the hand or to other warm bodies these will become luminous4 ,the ether will not injure the hand4 ,brilliant ,crystals4--,spread upon a plate of glass or upon a smooth slate1 a few drops of nitrate of silver1 previously diluted with double its quantity of soft water4 ,place at the bottom of it1 flat upon the glass1 and in contact with the fluid1 a copper or zinc wire1 bent to any figure1 and let the whole remain undisturbed in a horizontal position4 ,in a few hours a brilliant crystallization of metallic silver will make its appearance around the wire upon the glass1 and this arrangement of crystals will extend gradually till the whole quantity of fluid has been acted on by the wire4 ,a ,well of ,fire4--,add gradually one ounce1 by measure1 of sulphuric acid1 to five or six ounces of water in an earthenware basin2 and add to it also1 gradually1 about three quarters of an ounce of granulated zinc4 ,a rapid production of hydrogen gas will instantly take place4 ,then add1 from time to time1 a few pieces of phosphorus of the size of a pea4 ,a multitude of gas bubbles will be produced1 which will fire on the surface of the effervescing liquid2 the whole surface of the liquid will become luminous1 and fire balls1 with jets of fire1 will dart from the bottom through the fluid with great rapidity and a hissing noise4 ,the ,writing on the ,wall4--,take a piece of phosphorus from the bottle in which it is kept1 and1 while the room is lighted write upon a whitewashed wall any word or sentence1 or draw any object4 ,now put out the light1 and the writing will appear in illuminated letters4 ,care must be taken to dip the pencil of phosphorus in cold water frequently while you are using it4 ,otherwise it will burn4 ,to ,make a ,ghost4--,put one part of phosphorus into six of olive oil1 and let it dissolve in a slightly warm place4 ,shut your eyes tightly and rub the mixture upon your face4 ,in the dark your face will be luminous1 your eyes and mouth like dark spots4 ,altogether you will have a very ghastly appearance4 ,there is no danger in the experiment1 and the effect might be useful in charades or home theatricals4 ,a ,seeming ,conflagration4--,take half an ounce of sal-ammoniac1 one ounce of camphor1 and two ounces of aqua vitae4 ,put them into an earthen vessel that is small at the top4 ,set fire to the contents1 and the room will seem to be on fire4 ,three ,haloes4--,one of the pleasing experiments of ,dr4 ,brewster was to take a saturated solution of alum1 and having spread a few drops of it over a plate of glass1 it will crystallize rapidly though the crystals are so small you may scarcely see them4 ,when this plate of glass is held between you and the sun or artificial light1 with the eyes very near to the smooth side of the glass1 there will be seen three beautiful haloes of light4 ,beautiful ,crystals4--,pour three ounces of diluted nitric acid into a glass vessel1 and add gradually to it two ounces of bismuth1 broken by a hammer into small pieces4 ,the metal will be attacked with great energy1 and nitrate of bismuth will be formed4 ,crystallize the solution by a gentle heat1 and preserve the crystals1 which possess great beauty1 under a glass4 ,the ,centre of ,gravity4--,a shilling may be made to balance on the point of a needle with very simple apparatus4 ,put a bottle on the table with a cork in its neck2 into the cork stick a middle-sized needle in an upright position4 ,in another cork cut a slit1 and insert the shilling1 then into this cork stick a couple of forks1 one on each side1 with the handles inclining outwards4 ,now poise the rim of the shilling upon the point of the needle1 and it will rotate without falling4 ,so long as the centre of gravity is kept within the points of support of a body it cannot fall4 ,the balancing shilling may be transposed to the edge of a bottle1 and it will still perform1 even as the bottle is being tilted4 ,what a ,vacuum ,can ,do4--,take a new or nearly new penny and rub it briskly upon your coat sleeve until it is warm4 ,then slide it up and down upon a door panel1 pressing it closely to the wood4 ,now hold it in one place for a few seconds and you will find it will stick there1 because between the penny and the surface of the door there is a layer of air which was slightly heated4 ,as it became cool a partial vacuum was formed1 and the pressure of the outer air held the penny to the door4 ,an ,experiment in ,leverage4--,it would seem almost impossible that a column of iron or a plank or a spar of any kind could be so placed that one end of the spar needs support only1 whilst the other end would extend from1 say the edge of a precipice1 horizontally into space2 but that such can be done is very easily demonstrated1 by very simple materials almost always at hand4 ,by adopting the principle we may easily perform an interesting scientific parlour experiment1 which always causes difficulty to the non-studious section of humanity1 until the apparent mystery is explained4 ,in illustrating this experiment the prongs of two ordinary table forks are fastened together1 one over the other--net fashion--thus causing the handles of the forks to form the termini of an angle of about #de degrees4 ,now take an ordinary lucifer match and place one end between the network of the prongs firmly4 ,then place the other end of the match upon the edge of an elevation1 such as a tumbler or cup1 when the match1 acting as a lever1 with the forks giving a hundred or a thousand times additional weight to the lever1 will rest 7or apparently float in the air7 without further support4 ,ask your friends to try the experiment1 after placing the materials before them1 and find how many can perform it without guidance4 ,coloured ,fires4--,it is perilous to make some coloured fires1 especially those in which there is sulphur1 and even if they do not explode their fumes are harmful1 so that their use in the house for charades or other home purposes is objectionable and at times positively dangerous4 ,we give1 however1 a number of coloured fires that are free from these drawbacks1 though all the same it is wiser to reduce the ingredients to powder quite separately before they are mixed1 and if a pestle and mortar are used all traces of one powder should be removed before another is introduced4 ,each ingredient should be reduced to a fine powder4 ,,red ,,fire4 ,parts4 ,strontia #ah ,shellac #d ,chlorate of ,potash #e ,charcoal #d ,,green ,,fire4 ,nitrate of ,barytes #ah ,shellac #d ,calomel 7,chloride of ,mercury7 #d ,chlorate of ,potash #b ,,green ,,fire4 ,nitrate of ,barytes #i ,shellac #c ,chlorate of ,potash #ab ,charcoal #d ,,blue ,,fire4 ,parts4 ,chlorate of ,potash #ad ,salpetre #f ,ammonia ,sulphate of ,copper #f ,arsenite of ,copper #f ,shellac #b ,,blue ,,fire4 ,ammonia ,sulphate of ,copper #h ,chlorate of ,potash #f ,shellac #a ,charcoal #b ,,red ,,fire4 ,nitrate of ,strontia #i ,shellac #c ,chlorate of ,potash #a-a_/b ,charcoal #d ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,home-,,made ,,toys ,it may be that some of these toys would amuse only little boys1 but we have included them because our directions will enable older boys to entertain their little sisters and brothers4 ,how to ,make ,fire ,balloons4--,you will require for materials1 tissue paper1 which may be all white1 or varied in colour4 ,a balloon of white and red gores alternately is perhaps the best1 as it may be used day or night2 and as the balloon is constantly turning when it is in the air1 the stripes add to the effect4 ,then again there are conditions of the clouds and atmosphere when a white balloon ascending by daylight would be scarcely visible1 and for parachute purposes a daylight ascent is desirable4 ,tissue paper1 then1 paste1 bonnet wire or cane1 finer wire2 some tow1 cotton wool1 or common sponge1 or better than all1 some round lamp-cotton1 and methylated spirit or tallow1 as fuel for your furnace4 ,the shaping of the gores which are to form your balloon must be your first consideration4 ,you will find it advisable not to go in for overgrown balloons4 ,they are far more troublesome to build1 and to manage when they are built1 and are little if any more effective than those of moderate dimensions4 ,about four feet in height is the size which produces the best results1 and in making it one is neither cramped for room1 nor are the gores of unmanageable proportions4 ,twelve or fourteen gores1 if you use two colours1 or thirteen if you confine yourself to one1 will be needed2 and it will be wise not to attempt to emulate the graceful pear-shape of the ordinary passenger gas balloon1 but to aim at something approaching much nearer to a ball in form4 ,the pear-shaped balloon would take fire to a certainty4 ,fig4 #a is an example of the unsafe form which is to be avoided2 ,fig4 #b is a perfectly safe model4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fire ,,balloons4 ,a piece of common cardboard or stout brown paper1 six feet in length and a foot in width1 will serve for a pattern gore4 ,fold it exactly in half lengthwise1 and then mark off each foot1 beginning at the bottom 7,fig4 #c74 ,at a measure off horizontally #b inches2 at b1 which is the first foot1 #c-a_/b inches2 at c1 #e inches2 at a point #d inches above d1 the third foot1 measure off #f inches2 at e #e-a_/b inches1 marking each point4 ,then connect the points by as graceful a curve as may be1 and cut through the line thus obtained1 unfold the pattern1 and you have your standard gore4 ,sufficient tissue paper should have been pasted together by the narrow edges from which to cut the #ab1 #ac1 or #ad lengths of #f feet each4 ,the sheets should now be placed one upon the other1 and the pattern being opened out and laid upon the top1 the whole of the gores may be cut at one operation4 ,fold a gore in half lengthwise and lay it upon your table or the floor1 and upon this place a second about half an inch within the margin of the first 7,fig4 #d74 ,with a stiff brush--sable is the best--paste the protruding edge of the lower gore1 turn it over the edge of the upper and smooth it down with a duster4 ,if you have a warm flat-iron by your side1 and laying a piece of flannel or cloth over the join1 you run the iron carefully along1 the paste will dry at once and all fear of puckering or displacement will be obviated4 ,fold the upper gore lengthwise as you did the lower1 and proceed in the same way with the remainder of the gores until the whole have been pasted 7,fig4 #e74 ,if your balloon is a very big one it will be advisable to lay a string inside each seam as you paste it1 leaving the ends long enough to tie round the hoop which is to go at the bottom or neck of your balloon4 ,a piece of bonnet wire or split cane #e feet long1 bent to a circle1 will form this hoop1 and this must now be pasted at the bottom1 and the neck may be strengthened by pasting inside a strip of stouter paper1 such as foolscap or cartridge1 snicked with the scissors so that it may take the right shape readily4 ,now a circular piece of stronger paper1 curl paper for instance1 about #i inches or a foot across1 should be pasted over the top to cover the hole where the points of the gores approach each other1 and to this should be pasted a piece of yet stronger paper1 writing paper for instance1 to form the loop by which the balloon is to be supported during the process of inflation4 ,the handle of a saucepan-lid should be the model to be followed4 ,this is the method to be adopted if you want to produce a balloon of a shape which will bear criticism1 but if you are not particular in this respect1 a rough and ready gore may be made by a much simpler process4 ,you have only to take four sheets of tissue paper and paste them together by the narrow edges4 ,then trim off the two outside sheets as shown in ,fig4 #f1 and from the pieces so trimmed off1 add a small piece at the top ,a1 and there is your pattern gore in a little less than no time4 ,you can then paste several together as already directed1 arranging the number as you wish your balloon to be pudgy and safe1 or lanky and dangerous4 ,the next thing is to provide the means of ascension4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d41 ,fig4 #e41 ,fig4 #c41 ,fig4 #f41 ,fig4 #g41 ,fig4 #h41 ,fig4 #i41 ,fig4 #aj41 ,fig4 #aa41 ,fig4 #ab41 ,fig4 #ac41 ,fig4 #ad41 ,fig4 #ae41 ,fig4 #af41 ,fig4 #ag41 ,fig4 #ah41 ,fig4 #ai41 ,fig4 #bj4 ,lamp cotton is the best material for the wick1 though any of the other substances already mentioned may be used if this is not come-at-able4 ,it may be saturated with methylated spirit1 or1 if the material is easily accessible1 melted tallow4 ,in the latter case the wick should then be sprinkled with turpentine that it may catch fire readily4 ,the tallow gives the best light1 and lasts the longest4 ,two pieces of thin wire should be attached to the hoop as shown in ,fig4 #g1 ,w ,w1 and your ball of lamp-wick is to be placed in the centre1 ,l ,w4 ,the placing of the wick is the last operation1 but of course1 it will have been prepared beforehand4 ,it is simply a loosely rolled ball of lamp-cotton through which a piece of fine wire has been passed and the ends formed into hooks 7,fig4 #h74 ,the size of the ball must be governed by the dimensions of the balloon and by your ambition as to the height to which it is to rise4 ,the wick may easily be made large enough to carry the balloon out of sight altogether1 especially if tallow be used4 ,in this case the wick should have been saturated with melted tallow beforehand1 but where methylated spirit is used the proceedings must be delayed till the moment of ascension4 ,with a fan--a folded newspaper will do as well as anything--fan the balloon full of air to start with4 ,then your assistant must elevate the balloon to the right height by the aid of a smooth stick inserted in the loop1 and he must stand on something to raise him to the right level4 ,now the air in the inflated balloon must be warmed by holding beneath it a paper torch1 care being taken that no flame touches the balloon1 or it will be shrivelled up by the fire in a moment and your labour wasted4 ,another assistant meanwhile should have been looking after the methylated spirit--if you use the tallow you can do without him4 ,the spirit should be kept in a closely corked bottle and as far from your paper torch as possible4 ,when the balloon begins to try to rise give the word to assistant ,no4 #b1 who will pour some of the spirit into the jam-pot in which the wick is lying1 wait till it is saturated1 and then1 taking it from the jam-pot1 run with it to the balloon and attach it to the cross wire by the hooks4 ,directly it is in position1 give the word to assistant ,no4 #a to let go2 touch the wick with a light1 and up will sail the balloon into the air4 ,a windy day should1 naturally1 be avoided1 or your balloon is not likely to proceed far on its journey in safety4 ,but a good deal more is to be got out of a fire balloon than a mere ascension1 and even the mere ascension may be improved4 ,you may1 for instance1 attach a car to the balloon 7,fig4 #i7 and a couple of figures ,a ,a--it matters little how rough they are--will1 very shortly after the liberation of the balloon1 look so natural that the balloon will be taken for the real thing4 ,when it has mounted but a little distance there is nothing by which its size may be compared1 and if netting is imitated by lines drawn with a pen and ink1 the illusion will be yet more complete4 ,the car may be made of a square of writing paper with the four edges folded over equally all round4 ,the corners should then be pinched together1 folded over as in the illustration1 and secured with a little paste4 ,a parachute may be dropped from the clouds4 ,this may be simply a square of paper with a string at each corner and a figure hanging on at the ends 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the figure may be as rough as you like1 detail would be lost4 ,or1 two squares of paper may be used1 the strings being crossed over the lower and kept in place by the upper1 which should be pasted upon it 7,fig4 #ae74 ,a more elaborate parachute may be made by folding a square of paper from corner to corner into a triangle4 ,this should be folded again and once again from corner to corner when it will take the shape of ,fig4 #ab4 ,a cut through the dotted line and a couple of holes pierced at the dots will give1 when opened out1 ,fig4 #ac2 and a string passed through each hole and made to carry a car will give the complete parachute 7,fig4 #ad74 ,a piece of cotton or twine should be passed through the parachute to attach it to the balloon4 ,then a piece of wire should be twisted and bent1 as in ,fig4 #aj1 w4 ,fasten to this with thin wire a piece of time-fuse1 t f1 turned up as shown1 and to the bend b attach the cotton4 ,at the moment of ascension1 light the top end of the fuse at a1 and when it has burned to b the parachute will be liberated4 ,fireworks may be lighted in the same way4 ,you will need time-fuse1 quickmatch1 and such fireworks as you prefer4 ,blue lights1 squibs1 and fireworks of that description should be arranged as in ,fig4 #bj4 ,here c is a cork or bung with holes bored in it for the insertion of the fireworks f f f f4 ,q is the quickmatch which is to light them simultaneously when the time-fuse1 t f1 has burnt far enough4 ,a catherine wheel may be pinned at the bottom of the cork and connected with the quickmatch1 or the pin may be dispensed with1 when it will whizz through the darkness in grand style4 ,one of the most successful effects may be obtained with the balls or stars from ,roman candles4 ,you can1 of course1 pull the candles to pieces1 but a better plan is to buy the balls at #f;d4 a dozen4 ,bend a piece of wire into a circle 7,fig4 #af7 and take two wires across at a right angle4 ,then place the balls1 one by one1 in pieces of tissue paper and cover them with meal powder and tie up the ends 7,fig4 #ag71 fastening them on the wire1 as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,a piece of time-fuse1 or quickmatch1 q1 as you want the stars to drop singly or in a shower1 must next be passed through each ball packet and connected with lighted time-fuse4 ,of course the fireworks should hang some distance below the balloon4 ,crackers or maroons may be arranged as in ,figs4 #ah and #ai1 and many other devices invented4 ,your balloon may also carry up a piece of magnesium wire with which the country may be lighted up1 or it may take up a ,chinese lantern--in fact there is no end to the fun which may be got out of it4 ,you will find it difficult1 however1 to get an effect to beat the ,roman candle balls4 ,quickmatch costs #b;d4 or #c;d4 a six-feet length1 according to the thickness required2 time-fuse one penny an inch4 ,bubble ,balloons4--,one reason for the short life of the bubble as usually blown is the excessive evaporation which takes place from the large surface presented to the air4 ,as this evaporation of the fluid goes on1 the film gets thinner1 the tension gets more acute1 accompanied by ever changing and brightening hues of colour1 until the thin walls can no longer bear the strain1 and the bubble bursts into fine spray4 ,another1 perhaps1 more powerful reason is the unequal strength of the walls1 due to the drainage of the moisture from the upper parts of the bubble into the lower parts by its own weight4 ,this produces a weak and thin area1 denoted by the refraction of the blue rays of light in the top of the bubble1 and it cannot resist the pressure from within4 ,there are two ways of prolonging the life of a bubble4 ,when the breath is first driven into the liquid1 the force used is sufficient to send the fluid surging in all directions1 and the film is fairly well nourished4 ,presently as the soapy water dipped out by the bowl of the pipe gets distributed over the walls of the bubble and it increases in size1 this no longer acts1 and drainage from the top at once sets in4 ,if the blowing is now continued1 the end so much the more quickly approaches4 ,to enable you to continue enlarging the bubble and lengthen its life1 feed it4 ,this may be done readily and safely1 by dipping a camel-hair brush in the soapy emulsion and1 letting it touch the bubble at the top1 when the fluid will stream down over the surface1 thickening the film1 and permitting you to get a bubble as big as your hat4 ,this is only a temporary expedient1 a flank movement1 and merely defers the end by a minute or two4 ,to attack the difficulty with more success1 change the mixture4 ,shred some ,castile soap1 which may be purchased by the pennyworth at the chemist's1 and beat up in the usual way with water2 you will find that much more can be done with this preparation than the usual household soap4 ,if your aim is merely to produce an overgrown1 sagging1 wobbling bubble1 feed with a brush as above4 ,for further experiments do not blow large unmanageable ones1 but an ordinary sized bubble blown in this liquid will enable you to show its toughness1 length of life1 and other qualities4 ,if your coat is made of a woollen fabric1 release some bubbles on the shoulder2 they will roll down the sleeve and tumble off to the floor1 if they do not meet with any cotton fabric on the way2 ,this is due to the repulsion which exists between wool and the watery film1 doubtless due to the presence of fat in some form upon the fibres4 ,while upon the sleeve they may be carried about the room1 or passed from one person to another4 ,this repulsion may be further utilized1 too1 and the bubble treated as a shuttlecock4 ,to do this1 procure the ordinary wooden bat used by your sister for the game of bat and shuttlecock4 ,cover it with a piece of flannel1 fine or coarse will do4 ,then blow a bubble not too large1 so that the film shall be robust and heavy4 ,such is the toughness of the skin of the bubble1 and the repulsion of the woollen surface to the soapy film1 that it may be batted nearly two hundred times before the collapse takes place4 ,by striking it on the side and getting some work into the bubble1 it revolves slowly and the drainage from the upper part is counteracted4 ,two or more can play thus with the glittering ball1 passing it on1 or a ring of players may be formed and a stream of bubbles passed round from one member to another4 ,another form of the game is the keeping up a number of bubbles by the same bat4 ,as the bubbles are very light they fall slowly1 and six or eight may be kept up by the player4 ,by having two bats1 one in each hand1 this becomes a game of considerable skill1 and will tax the concentrated attention of the player to the utmost4 ,now cut some circular discs out of note-paper about the size of a sixpence1 larger rather than smaller4 ,get a reel of fine white cotton1 and pass the end of the thread through the centre of the disc4 ,tie a knot in the cotton1 so that it cannot readily be pulled through the hole4 ,then dip the disc in the mixture till the paper is wet4 ,blow your bubble1 and before you release it from the pipe bowl1 place the dripping disc of paper on the side of the bubble by dangling it from your right hand by the cotton4 ,when it is in complete contact1 a slight turn of the wrist releases the bubble from the pipe1 and you will find that you have it attached to the paper disc1 which in the meantime has sunk to the lowest part of the bubble4 ,it can now be carried about by means of the disc4 ,there is so much carbon dioxide in the breath that bubbles blown in this way have very little power of rising1 as the difference in the heat of the breath does not sufficiently counterbalance the heavier weight of the expired air4 ,by attaching a piece of india-rubber tubing to the stem of the pipe and gas burner1 you can get a supply of lighter gas which will make the bubble into a balloon4 ,having effected this arrangement1 dip the pipe in the mixture and turn on the gas4 ,feed the top of the bubble with more fluid1 and when it has reached a size which satisfies you1 attach the paper disc as before4 ,it will be an easy task to detach the bubble1 which will rise towards the ceiling1 until the weight of the thread counterbalances the buoyancy of the gas4 ,it will probably rise to the ceiling1 where it is quite safe1 as a cushion of air will prevent the bubble striking the surface4 ,instead of the long thread1 make out of the thinnest and lightest paper you can get1 a small car1 attach cotton to the corners of the car and gather the threads together and tie them so that the car hangs level4 ,attach this to the cotton which bears the paper disc1 and connect the disc with the bubble as before1 wetting only the disc4 ,you will have a miniature gossamer balloon4 ,cut out two small figures of men in paper and put inside the car4 ,do all this before blowing the bubble4 ,if you have a glass shade1 a number of these bubbles balanced by threads may be kept for hours inside4 ,you will find it very interesting to watch the changes of colour in the films as they get thinner through evaporation4 ,to check this1 put under the shade a wet sponge1 this will moisten the air enclosed in the shade1 and prolong the life of the bubbles4 ,no great skill is required in making the above experiments1 and variations of an amusing character can be made by cutting out figures of animals and men and attaching them to the disc in place of the car4 ,if the figures are painted so much better will the trick look4 ,to make the mixture still stronger add nearly half as much again of pure glycerine4 ,boxing by ,electricity4--,a ,b ,c is a piece of iron wire inserted in the board ,d ,e ,f ,g4 ,cut out the boxer ,h in cardboard4 ,on one side of this figure paste tinfoil bringing the tinfoil to the other side of the figure just a little at the edges4 ,you will be able to get your tinfoil from the packages of tea1 chocolate1 tobacco or other source4 ,fasten the boxer to the board with sealing-wax4 ,now make the other boxer ,i in the same way and suspend him from the iron wire by means of thread4 ,borrow a lamp glass or the chimney from the incandescent gas burner and fit a cork ,k into the bottom4 ,through the cork pass a nail ,l4 ,connect the nail with the boxer by means of the wire ,m4 ,warm and dry the lamp chimney1 and rub it with fur or silk4 ,the boxer ,i will rush at boxer ,h1 then retreat hurriedly1 and this will be repeated as long as you rub the lamp chimney4 ,men1 skilled in the science of electricity1 will tell you that the reason for these strange proceedings is that the rubbing of the lamp chimney produces electricity2 this passes along the wire to boxer ,h who becomes charged with the mysterious property4 ,this electricity attracts boxer ,i who goes for boxer ,h4 ,when he touches he becomes charged with the same kind of electricity and is then attracted no longer but repelled1 and he continues to be repelled until his electricity has drained away by the linen thread1 wire and board to the earth4 ,then he is ready for another round4 ,illustration3 ,,boxing ,,by ,,electricity4 ,a ,prancing ,horse4--,carve the figure of a horse1 and having fixed a bent wire to the under part of its body1 place a small ball of lead upon the end of the wire4 ,place the hind legs of the horse upon the table1 and it will prance to and fro4 ,sometimes the figure of a man is treated in the same way and in ,yorkshire it used to be called a ,saaging ,tommy1 to saag being an old word meaning to saw or see-saw4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,prancing ,,horse4 ,boats ,made of ,pasteboard4--,pasteboard is not a very satisfactory material of which to construct model boats1 if these are wanted to sail1 but it is possible to make them4 ,the best plan for making pasteboard waterproof is to paint it with a solution of sealing wax4 ,to make this1 take sealing wax of the colour you prefer1 break it into small pieces and place it in a wide-mouthed bottle4 ,now pour in some methylated spirits and shake occasionally until the wax is all dissolved4 ,if too thick1 add more spirit2 if too thin1 more wax4 ,apply with a brush4 ,owing to the evaporation of the spirit1 this paint dries hard and glossy in an hour4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,simple ,,top4 ,a ,simple ,top4--,procure a piece of white cardboard1 two inches square1 and cut it into a sexagon1 as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,now bore a small hole in the middle1 into which push an ordinary match4 ,you may number the sections of the sexagon and see who scores the highest number1 counting the figure resting against the table as it falls4 ,fig4 #b shows the top complete4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,apple ,,or ,,potato ,,mill4 ,the ,apple or ,potato ,mill4--,this is made by boring a hole in a nut1 just large enough to pass a thin skewer through2 the kernel should then be extracted1 and another hole bored in the side of the nut1 as in the diagram4 ,a skewer should next be cut large enough at the top to form a head4 ,a piece of string is then tied to the skewer1 and passed through the hole in the side of the nut1 and an apple or potato stuck on the end of the skewer4 ,the mill should be twirled round in the same way as the humming top to wind up the string1 holding the nut stationary between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand4 ,when this is done1 the string must be pulled out rapidly1 and the mill will spin4 ,many other toys may be made upon the same principle1 and some of these we will now describe4 ,illustration3 ,,whirling ,,mac4 ,whirling ,mac4--,our illustration shows how the apple mill may be modified for a whirling ,mac4 ,the arms and legs of the figure should be tied loosely to the body and the skirt should be loose too4 ,tie the string to the spindle inside the nut and have a button on the end of the string so that you may have a firm hold4 ,now twist the figure round until all the string is wound1 then hold the nut firmly in your left hand and draw the string out suddenly and swiftly with your right hand4 ,the figure will whirl round1 throwing out his arms and legs4 ,when the string comes to an end slacken it1 and the impetus of the figure will cause it to wind the string again4 ,thus you may go on and on until you are tired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a41 ,,fig4 #b41 ,,fig4 #c41 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,flying ,,machine4 ,a ,flying ,machine4--,similar in principle is the flying machine now to be described4 ,in ,fig4 #a a is a handle cut in any hard wood four and a half inches long4 ,into the top of this handle bore a hole down its centre about one inch deep1 and force into this a piece of wire so that the wire will be quite firm4 ,this wire should be of iron or steel1 with a diameter of one-eighth of an inch1 and it should be about three and a half inches long4 ,it will be easier to force the wire into the wood if it is sharpened4 ,the hole you have bored is only an inch deep2 force the wire half an inch deeper than that4 ,obtain now from your mother or sister an ordinary cotton spool about one and a quarter inches long4 ,this is shown at b in ,fig4 #a4 ,in the same figure c is a kind of wheel made as follows4 ,if you cannot find something ready made take a small piece of well-seasoned wood4 ,cut it until it is an inch in diameter and five-eighths of an inch deep4 ,see ,fig4 #b4 ,down the middle bore the hole a large enough that the wire you put down the handle in ,fig4 #a may turn easily in it4 ,mark the upper surface of the wheel into four equal parts1 and then you will be able to draw four perpendicular lines round this wheel at equal distances4 ,two of these lines are shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,now draw the line a b in ,fig4 #c half way down the wheel4 ,follow this line round and bore four pairs of holes as deeply as you can without piercing the centre hole4 ,one pair is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,each little hole is about a quarter of an inch from its neighbour4 ,these pairs of holes must be the same distance from each other2 they are for the wings you see in ,fig4 #a1 and which we will now proceed to make4 ,take forty-two inches of light brass wire4 ,divide this into four equal parts4 ,you will then have four pieces of ten and a half inches each4 ,bend each one into the shape shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,these wings will be about four inches long and about two inches broad at their widest part4 ,the ends of the wire should be about a quarter of an inch apart4 ,cover these wire frames with light tough paper1 using as little paste as possible4 ,the wings are inserted slanting like the sails of a windmill4 ,now let us go back to the spool4 ,upon the upper surface midway between its centre hole and the edge of the spool insert a piece of strong wire or the end of a broken knitting needle4 ,the wire should be rigid1 and should project from the spool about half an inch4 ,when you put your wheel and wings upon the spool this wire will rest beside one of the wings and cause it to turn when the spool turns4 ,now take a piece of cord and wind it away from you with your right hand round the spool4 ,hold the handle firmly in your left hand and withdraw the string rapidly4 ,the wheel and wings will mount rapidly in the air for about fifty feet and then come steadily down4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,dancing ,,figure4 ,a ,dancing ,figure4--,the illustration shows the back view of a toy easily constructed but capable of affording much amusement to the little ones4 ,a is an ordinary lath glued to a cardboard figure of a man4 ,the arms and legs too are of cardboard fixed loosely with short string knotted at each end4 ,at the extremities of the arms and legs the strings ,b and ,c are tied and connected with the string ,d4 ,pull the string ,d and the figure will throw up his arms and legs wildly4 ,bears and other figures may be made upon the same principle4 ,a string ,f may be put at ,e and then the lath is not necessary1 for the performer can then hold string ,f in one hand and pull string ,d with the other4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lively ,,donkey4 ,the ,lively ,donkey4--,on stout paper or cardboard draw upon a large scale the illustration4 ,divide the drawing into three parts by cutting out the circle4 ,you may now pin the parts upon the wall in such attitudes as are shown in the smaller illustration1 or if you cut out many donkeys you may have all these attitudes and more4 ,illustration3 ,,camera ,,obscura4 ,a ,camera ,obscura4--,obtain an oblong box1 about two feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and eight high4 ,in one end of this a tube must be fitted containing a lens4 ,it must be possible to slide the tube backwards and forwards so as to obtain the focus4 ,inside the box should be a plain mirror reclining backwards from the tube at an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,see ,a ,b in the ,figure4 ,at the top of the box at ,c is a square of frosted glass or a piece of tissue paper1 upon which from beneath the picture will be thrown1 and may be seen by raising the lid ,d4 ,to use the camera place the tube with the lens in it opposite the object or scene1 and having adjusted the focus1 the image will be thrown upon the ground-glass or tissue paper4 ,jig ,saw ,puzzle4--,this old form of toy has been revived lately4 ,it is easily made4 ,glue upon a thin piece of wood a picture1 a coloured one is best4 ,then with a fret saw cut picture and board into all manner of wild shapes1 shake them into disorder and then try to put them back again into their proper position4 ,jig saw is a piece of ,american slang for fret saw4 ,the ,wonderful ,chicken4--,with the help of the diagram it will not be difficult to construct a chicken that will move its head and tail in a comic manner4 ,a ,b ,c ,d is a box that acts as a base and conceals the pendulum4 ,it will need to have a slit in the top for the strings which hold the pendulum4 ,the chicken is of wood and its body has two sides4 ,one side has been removed so that the mechanism may be seen1 but when the chicken is complete the mechanism is hidden4 ,it will be seen that the head and tail are attached to the body with nails1 but in such a way that they are not rigid but will move up and down4 ,e is a pendulum of lead or other heavy material1 and as it swings to and fro the strings cause the head and tail to bob up and down alternately4 ,other moving figures may be made upon the same principle4 ,longer strings1 and a longer box to accommodate them1 give slower and more lasting movements4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wonderful ,,chicken4 ,the ,mouse in the ,trap4--,cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a penny1 and paint on one side a mouse1 and on the other a trap2 fasten two pieces of thread one on each side at opposite points of the card1 so that the card can be made to revolve by twirling the threads with the finger and thumb4 ,while the toy is in its revolution1 the mouse will be seen inside the trap4 ,many others may be made upon the same principle4 ,distorted ,landscapes4--,take a piece of smooth white pasteboard and sketch a picture upon it4 ,prick the outlines in every part with a pin or needle1 then put the pricked drawing in a perpendicular position1 and place a lighted candle behind it4 ,stand in front of it another piece of pasteboard1 and trace with a pencil the lines given by the light1 and you will have a peculiar distorted landscape4 ,take away the candle and the pricked drawing1 and put your eye where the light was1 and the drawing will lose its peculiarities4 ,to find the proper position for your eye it will be best to cut out a piece of card1 adjust it1 and look through a hole made to occupy the place where stood the flame of the candle4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mouse ,,in ,,the ,,trap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a41 ,,fig4 #b41 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the ,working ,woodman4--,the wind1 as well as a pendulum1 may be used to make wooden figures move4 ,in ,fig4 #a we have two pieces of wood1 each an inch thick1 an inch and a half wide1 and twelve inches long4 ,if we place them as in ,fig4 #a we have four arms five and a quarter inches long4 ,each one of these four arms has now to be cut into a shape to adapt it as a windmill sail2 that is it has to be made into a slanting thin blade not more than an eighth of an inch thick1 and all the blades must present a similar slope to the wind4 ,as mistakes are likely to occur1 here we will endeavour to make the point clear4 ,take the arm ,a1 ,fig4 #b4 ,suppose you have slanted this from x to y4 ,now imagine that ,b comes round to ,a's position1 then it1 too1 must be sloped in precisely the same way1 and not sloped from y to x4 ,the same applies to arms ,c and ,d4 ,imagine them coming to this upright position1 and make them all alike as they arrive there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the method of fixing the four arms into one piece is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,a hole should now be bored exactly in the centre at the crossing of the arms4 ,the platform upon which the figure of the woodman will stand1 shown in ,fig4 #d1 consists of a piece of wood half an inch thick1 six inches wide and twelve inches long4 ,at each end is screwed a block to hold the shaft which communicates the movement of the sails to the figure4 ,this shaft is a piece of strong wire fifteen inches long1 bent into a crank1 as shown in the diagram1 and working round and round in the two blocks4 ,the end of the wire that comes through the centre of the windmill sails should be bent up or down to prevent it from slipping out of position4 ,the vane1 which will cause the mill to keep in the right position whichever way the wind blows1 is shown twice in ,fig4 #d4 ,it is of thin wood1 and is fastened to the underside of the platform by means of the little catch1 which should be left when the vane is made4 ,the figures whose parts are shown should be cut out of thin wood with a fret-saw1 and put together so that the joints turn easily on the pins that are put through them4 ,two bodies are needed4 ,to adjust the figure take off one side of the body and place the woodman in the act of completing his stroke1 with the axe touching the wood1 then put a peg or small tack or nail immediately behind the projection on the top of the legs4 ,this will keep his body from bending too far forward4 ,now let the axe be raised to the beginning of the stroke1 and put a peg in front of the projection4 ,the arm is connected with the crank by a piece of wire4 ,you may not find the right place at first1 but a few trials will put you right4 ,bore a hole in the arm1 put the wire through1 and twist it round to keep it there4 ,illustration ,a sawyer may be made upon the same principle1 as the illustrations show1 or you may have a simple windmill and no figures4 ,fix the platform and its figures on the top of a pole with a pivot so that they may turn freely in the wind4 ,before you bore the hole through the platform balance the whole carefully upon the pole or you will put the hole in the wrong place4 ,the ,skip-,jack4--,the skip-jack is made out of the merry-thought of a goose4 ,a strong doubled string must be tied at the two ends of the bone1 and a piece of wood about three inches long put between the strings1 as shown in the illustration1 and twisted round until the string has the force of a spring4 ,a bit of shoemaker's wax should then be put in the hollow of the bone at the place where the end of the piece of wood touches1 and when the wood is pressed slightly on the wax the toy is set4 ,the wood sticks only a very short time1 and then springs forcibly up4 ,the skip-jack is placed on the ground with the wax downwards4 ,upon this principle toy frogs are made sometimes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,skip-,,jack4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,jolly ,,pea4 ,the ,jolly ,pea4--,stick through a pea1 or small ball of pith1 two pins at right angles1 and put upon the points pieces of sealing-wax4 ,the pea may be kept dancing in the air at a short distance from the end of a straight tube1 by means of a current of breath from the mouth4 ,this imparts a rotatory motion to the pea4 ,a piece of broken clay tobacco pipe serves very well4 ,some boys prefer one pin 7the vertical one7 and dispense with the cross pin4 ,illustration3 ,,revolving ,,serpent4 ,a ,revolving ,serpent4--,draw on a piece of cardboard a spiral serpent1 as shown in the figure4 ,cut along the lines with a sharp knife1 and mount it on a needle fixed in a cork4 ,the serpent will now revolve on its own account4 ,its movements may be greatly accelerated by fixing it by means of a bent wire over the flame of a lamp or candle4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,concerning ,,many ,,things ,a ,simple ,shelter4--,a very easy way to rig up a shelter from sun or rain is given in the accompanying sketch4 ,two poles with a deep notch in the top of each1 a rope1 two pegs1 a sheet1 and a few large stones complete the shelter4 ,an ingenious boy could arrange an end1 or two if he needs them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,simple ,,shelter4 ,a ,calendar on ,your ,fingers4--,this is the way that an old-timer manages to keep account of the days of the week that months open with4 ,it will be found correct and interesting to people who have a memory for such things3 ,what day of the week did ,january come in on8 asked ,grandfather ,martin4 ,if you can tell that1 ,i can tell you the day that any month will come in on1 by help of a little lingo ,i learned from my father when ,i was a boy4 ,friday1 did you say8 and he held up his hand preparatory to counting his fingers4 ,now1 ,april is the fourth month2 let us see--',at ,dover dwelt ,george ,brown1 ,esq41 good ,christopher ,finch1 and ,david ,frier4' ,we go by the first letters of these words--#a1 #b1 #c1 #d3 ',at ,dover dwelt ,george'--,g is the letter1 and it is the seventh in the alphabet4 ,january came in on ,friday you say1 ,friday1 ,saturday1 ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday--seven2 ,april comes in on ,thursday4 ,take ,february--second month3 ',at ,dover4' ,d is the letter1 and fourth in the alphabet4 ,friday1 one2 ,saturday1 two2 ,sunday1 three2 ,monday1 four2 ,february comes in on ,monday4 ,if you make no mistake in using the rule1 it will give you the answer every time4 ,but it did not give the answer for ,april1 said ,harry1 who had been referring to an almanac4 ,april began on ,friday4 ,to be sure1 boy6 ,this is ,leap ,year1 is it not8 ,leap year requires the addition of one day for the last ten months1 to allow for the #bith of ,february4 ,so ,all ,fools' ,day came on ,friday this year4 ,i never knew anybody outside of my father's family1 continued the old gentleman1 who knew this little lingo and how to use it4 ,he taught it to his children1 and ,i have tried to teach it to mine1 but they seem to forget it1 and ,i am afraid it will get lost4 ,when father used to go to ,presbytery1 fifty years ago1 it often happened that a question of dates and their relation to days would come up1 and no almanac at hand2 in fact1 the question might be as to some day of the next year2 but almanac or not1 my father could always find the fact wanted with just the little key of the first day of the year4 ,leap ,year4--,divide the year by #d4 ,if nothing remains it is leap year4 ,for instance #ahgf _/ #d #dfi so that #ahgf is leap year4 ,if #a1 #b or #c remain these figures give the years after leap year4 ,remember1 leap year lapses once a century4 ,spiders and the ,weather4--,if the weather is likely to become rainy1 windy1 or anything but fine1 spiders fix the terminating filaments1 on which the whole web is suspended1 unusually short4 ,if these filaments are made unusually long we may expect a spell of fine weather4 ,in proportion to their length is the fineness of the weather4 ,spiders are generally indolent in rainy weather4 ,if they are active in rain the rain will not long continue4 ,a ,barometer4--,put two drams of pure nitre and half a dram of chloride of ammonia1 reduced to powder1 into two ounces of spirits of wine1 or pure alcohol1 and place this mixture in a glass tube1 ten inches long and about an inch in diameter1 the upper extremity of which must be covered with a piece of skin or bladder1 pierced with small holes4 ,if the weather is to be fine1 the solid matters remain at the bottom of the tube1 and the alcohol is transparent4 ,if rain is to fall in a short time1 some of the solid particles rise and fall in the alcohol1 which becomes somewhat thick4 ,when a storm or even a squall is about to come on all the solid matters rise from the bottom of the tube and form a crust on the surface of the alcohol1 which appears in a state of fermentation4 ,these appearances take place twenty-four hours before the storm comes1 and the point of the horizon from which it is to blow is indicated by the particles gathering most on the side of the tube opposite to that part whence the wind is to come4 ,another ,simple ,barometer4--,take a common phial bottle1 and cut off the rim and part of the neck4 ,this may be done by means of a piece of string1 or better still1 whipcord1 twisted round it1 and pulled strongly in a sawing position by two persons1 one of whom holds the bottle firmly in his left hand4 ,heated in a few minutes by the friction of the string1 and then dipped suddenly into cold water1 the bottle will be beheaded easily4 ,let the bottle be filled now with water1 and applying the finger to its mouth1 turn it quickly upside down4 ,when you remove your finger it will be found that only a few drops will escape4 ,without cork or stopper of any kind1 the water will be retained within the bottle by the pressure of the external air4 ,now let a bit of tape be tied round the middle of the bottle to which the two ends of a string may be attached so as to form a loop to hang on a nail4 ,let it be thus suspended in a perpendicular manner1 with the mouth downwards4 ,when the weather is fair1 and inclined to remain fair1 the water will be level with the section of the neck1 or perhaps elevated above it1 and forming a concave surface4 ,when the weather is disposed to be wet a drop will appear at the mouth1 which will enlarge till it falls1 and then another drop so long as the humidity of the air continues4 ,how to go to ,sea4--,decide first whether you will go by wind or steam1 as steamboat seamen and sailing-ship sailors are distinct1 the former having little to do with actual seamanship1 the latter everything4 ,consequently1 most parents are well advised to send their boys on sailing ships only4 ,parents generally are at their wits' end to know what to do with boys with the sea craze4 ,therefore they are1 as a general rule1 rushed into paying exorbitant sums for apprenticing fees1 only to find1 after a voyage1 their sons refuse to go again1 having had enough to tire them of it4 ,now1 the best and safest way to get boys comfortably berthed as apprentices is to see by the daily papers1 or the ,shipping ,gazette1 the names of the largest firms advertising ,australian voyages1 or voyages to the ,east ,indies1 and write them particulars briefly1 enclosing a stamped envelope for reply4 ,the large firms keep a book or register1 where boys' names are entered1 so that when an apprentice is required the first on the page has the preference4 ,this is the simplest and safest way1 for there are always plenty of sharpers advertising for boys in the ,london and ,liverpool journals1 offering midship berths and other baits at the moderate sum of from #aj to #ej4 ,this is by no means a high estimate1 for by some of the gentry larger sums are asked1 and these reap golden harvests4 ,these sharpers act as intermediates between the office people and themselves1 sharing the bounty4 ,now1 few are aware that when apprenticing boys to the sea a trial voyage is necessary4 ,a number of lads after one voyage prefer shore4 ,therefore1 before any binding moneys are paid1 be careful to see that the indentures are made out clearly1 as often they are carefully worded1 or blinded1 as it is called at sea2 so that if by chance money were paid down the difficulty would be to get it refunded1 for if this is not stipulated1 and a wish is afterwards expressed to cancel agreements1 the purchase-money is forfeited4 ,an excellent plan is to have a paper drawn up and signed by both parties1 witnessed1 and the indentures made up after the first trial trip2 but it must be understood that the time of the first voyage1 if it be a long one1 makes a difference1 as unless lads are apprenticed off-hand the time is counted as nothing4 ,there is a pamphlet sold by mercantile stationers at one shilling containing much information1 showing parts1 and describing the various builds of sea-going craft4 ,the contents of this should be completely mastered before any boy joins a ship1 as it will help him to know part of his duties in addition to the nautical language1 thereby showing to his officers that he is not a know-nothing lad4 ,it will also help him in a variety of ways1 it being in point of fact the ,a ,b ,c of ship life4 ,do as you are told with a will is an expression often made use of1 and in fact it must be practised by all contemplating sea life4 ,ship shape is another saying suggested by the rigid discipline exercised by mariners4 ,on one large vessel the following maxim was painted on the walls of the midship quarters3 ,there is a place for everything2 put everything in its place4 ,one of the things a captain or the mates dislike to see is a boy clambering over the rigging in port2 time and circumstance will soon teach him that part of his duties1 so that while he is in port a lad should busy himself in tidying up the deck1 or by doing the work allotted to him4 ,a boy does well to be on board his ship a day or two before departing1 so as to get acquainted with the various parts1 also to get himself known1 and somewhat used to the deck4 ,apprentices are expected to have a stout chest made for the purpose of storing clothes and sundries4 ,some companies provide the articles necessary for the mess-room use1 but it is well to inquire of berth-mates1 or the steward1 and arrange accordingly4 ,a stout tin box1 capable of holding linen is necessary1 and the following articles must be procured3-- ,white shirt1 collars1 and a uniform suit for shore wear4 ,this must be made in accordance with the rules of the company1 the coat and waistcoat brass-buttoned1 and the cap embellished with the house flag design and gold cordage4 ,for ship wear no complete list can be given1 the principal articles being the following3 oilskin suit1 one pair of sea boots1 one or two pairs of half ,wellingtons2 flannel shirts1 and as many pairs of trousers and shoes as can be procured1 the limit of these being at least three pairs4 ,the numerous small articles may be left to discretion4 ,another word of warning--do not deal with slop-shop outfitters advertising rig outs at low figures1 but rather go to respectable tailors and traders1 and purchase1 or have made1 the articles separately4 ,with strict obedience1 promptitude1 and a cheerful disposition a lad can hardly fail to get promoted4 ,to ,make ,your ,own ,toffee4--,to one pound of the best ,demerara sugar add about a quarter of a pint of cold water and a pinch of cream of tartar4 ,go on boiling it until when you drop a little into cold water it goes hard4 ,you may look for this stage in about ten minutes4 ,next take it off and add three ounces of butter cut into small pieces4 ,boil again and test in the same way for hardness4 ,at this stage put in lemon juice to flavour it and then pour the mixture into oiled tins4 ,when it is nearly cold mark it into squares1 and when it is quite cold divide it according to these marks4 ,steam ,rings4--,when the kettle is boiling and sending steam from its spout gently raise the lid and then shut it down again deftly4 ,this will force the steam rapidly from the spout in the shape of very pretty rings which will rise in the air1 growing larger and larger4 ,skeleton ,leaves4--,leaves from which the reader intends to derive the skeleton should be gathered fresh from tree or shrub1 and put in an earthen pan filled with rain water and placed in the sunshine4 ,when the substance of the leaf becomes soft and easily detached1 they should be removed to another pan1 containing clean water1 in which they must be shaken about until the soft tissue breaks away from the skeleton4 ,wash again in fresh water1 and so continue until only the ribs and nervures remain4 ,a soft tooth-brush1 carefully used1 will assist in the final part of this operation1 the leaf being held in the palm of the hand during the process4 ,now for the bleaching4 ,purchase two pennyworth of purified chloride of lime1 and dissolve it in a pint of water4 ,in this solution put your skeleton leaves1 and keep them under observation4 ,as soon as one has become quite white it should be taken out and rinsed in clear water1 then carefully dried4 ,the softening process will take weeks1 in some tougher species of leaf it may take months4 ,this period may be lessened by using a small quantity of either muriatic acid or chloride of lime1 but with either of these agents there is danger of rotting the skeleton4 ,the rain-water process is the safest and most permanent4 ,to ,imitate a ,nightingale4--,many years ago a clever ,frenchman analysed the song of the nightingale and made out that it consists of the following sounds3-- ,temee temee temee tan ,spretu zqua ,querree pee pee ,teeo teeo teeo tix ,quteeo quteeo quteeo ,zquo zquo zquo zquo ,zee zee zee zee zee zee zee ,querrer teeu zqula peepee quee4 ,pith ,beads4--,a little boy we know amuses himself by threading pieces of pith and then painting the pith with water colours4 ,when his mother wears the necklace he has made in this way people are very curious to know what the beads are1 and fancy they must have been made by the natives of foreign parts1 probably of the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,hints on ,handwriting4--,although typewriters are excellent things1 they are comparatively useless just in those particular cases where distinct handwriting is of the greatest importance1 and where it is so very rarely met with4 ,by some strange process of reasoning1 it has come about that almost any sort of writing is thought good enough for a postcard1 telegram1 or medical prescription4 ,the same man who would make a very fair performance when engaged on a long communication1 in which the context would be almost certain to help the reader to decipher a queer word here and there1 will dash off the most puzzling penmanship when writing a short but urgent note or postcard4 ,the very brevity of the communication adds to the difficulty of understanding it4 ,when the present writer was at school1 it was impressed upon us that1 whatever else might be faulty1 the addressing of the envelope should be as near perfection as we could make it4 ,the postman of the present day will tell you that this arrangement is now reversed1 and1 with the exception of letters sent out by business firms1 the addresses he has to grapple with are very badly and incompletely written4 ,here are a few short hints1 the acting upon which will vastly improve the most slovenly handwriting in a week1 if persevered in4 ,in the first place1 reduce the slope of your handwriting until it is almost1 if not quite vertical4 ,then break yourself of the habit of crowding your letters too closely together1 on the one hand1 and sprawling them out unduly1 on the other4 ,instead of sprawling the letters out so1 write each character compactly1 but join it to the following one by a distinct link-stroke1 as it were4 ,this is the sort of writing approved of by the ,civil ,service ,commissioners4 ,at one time much stress was laid upon the importance of thick and thin strokes1 hair strokes1 and so on4 ,excepting in the case of professional engravers1 and for artistic purposes1 all these refinements are out of date4 ,what is of vastly more importance is the making of a careful distinction between the letters m1 n1 and u1 and again between the letters e and i4 ,good test-words to practice with are these3 union1 commence1 ounce1 suit1 sweet1 manumotive1 immense1 unite1 untie4 ,characters which extend above or below the line should not do so more than is sufficient to prevent their being mistaken for other letters4 ,all the i's should be dotted and the t's crossed4 ,finally1 the last letter of every word should be written distinctly1 no matter in what hurry you may be1 for it is wonderful what an aid to legibility the observance of this simple rule will afford4 ,those who follow these hints may never write a pretty hand1 but they can scarcely fail to write a legible one1 no small accomplishment in these days1 when so many of us can do almost any out-of-the-way thing1 but find it difficult to sign our names distinctly4 ,secret ,writing4--,mix well some lard with a little ,venice turpentine1 and rub a small part of it equally on very thin paper by means of a piece of fine sponge1 or in some other way4 ,lay this with the greasy side downwards upon a sheet of note-paper1 and write your message upon the plain side of the greasy paper with a style or the thin end of your pen-holder1 using a little pressure4 ,nothing will be seen on the note-paper2 but what you have written may be made visible there by dusting upon it some pounded charcoal or other coloured dust4 ,shake or blow this dust away and there will remain as much of it as has fallen upon the parts where your style pressed the lard upon the note-paper4 ,resin ,bubbles4--,if the end of a copper tube or of a tobacco pipe be dipped in melted resin at a temperature a little above that of boiling water1 taken out and held nearly in a vertical position1 and blown through1 bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes1 from that of a hen's egg down to sizes which can hardly be seen4 ,these bubbles have a very pleasing appearance and are permanent4 ,etching on ,glass4--,cover the glass with a thin coat of beeswax1 and draw your design with a needle cutting down through the wax to the surface of the glass4 ,place the glass in a shallow bath1 and cover it evenly with fluor-spar to the depth of an eight of an inch4 ,now pour sulphuric acid diluted with three times its weight of water upon the spar4 ,let this remain three or four hours4 ,pour away the acid1 remove the spar1 and clean the glass with turpentine1 and your design will be found upon the glass4 ,how to make ,carbon ,paper4--,carbonic paper for use with order books1 and for other purposes1 is made as follows3 ,cold lard well mixed with lamp-black is well rubbed into the paper with a soft piece of cotton rag4 ,when evenly and thoroughly done1 wipe the surface gently with flannel until the colour ceases to come off2 it is then ready for use4 ,to obtain similar papers but of other colours1 substitute ordinary paint powders for the lamp-black4 ,the most suitable colours will be found to be ,venetian red1 ,prussian blue1 chrome green4 ,the ,making of ,paste4--,there are so many occupations with which boys amuse themselves that need paste that we have included a few recipes4 ,a ,,simple ,,paste4--,for a breakfast cup full of a simple paste1 needed for use at the moment1 and not required to be kept for many days1 take a heaped tablespoonful of flour4 ,mix it thoroughly with cold water as though you were mixing mustard1 then fill the cup with boiling water1 pour the whole into a saucepan1 and let it boil gently for a few minutes4 ,it is then ready for use4 ,you may use starch instead of flour4 ,a ,,large ,,quantity ,,that ,,will ,,last4--,in a quart of water dissolve a teaspoonful of pure powdered alum4 ,into this stir as much flour as will make a thick cream1 and keep on stirring until the mixture is smooth and until every lump has been removed4 ,thoroughly mix with this a teaspoonful of powdered resin1 and into this mixture pour a cup of boiling water4 ,keep on stirring1 and if the mixture does not thicken from the action of the boiling water assist it to thicken by placing it upon the fire for a minute or two4 ,afterwards add a few drops of oil of cloves to preserve it from going sour4 ,pour the paste into some vessel that has a cover1 and keep it covered and in a cool place4 ,in this form it will be thicker and stronger than is necessary for general use1 but take a little as you need it and reduce it to its right consistency with warm water4 ,rice ,glue4--,mix rice flour well with cold water1 then simmer it gently over the fire4 ,this makes a fine kind of paste1 durable and effective4 ,mixed thickly it may be used as a modelling clay1 and when it is dry it takes a high polish4 ,dressing the ,skins of ,small ,animals4--,different dressings have been recommended1 most of which contain arsenic or corrosive sublimate1 which are deadly poisons2 but really all that is necessary is simple alum1 a pound of which can be bought for three-halfpence4 ,stretch the skin fur downwards on a board1 and fasten it with tacks4 ,put powdered alum over it1 and rub it in well4 ,continue to do this every two or three days for a fortnight4 ,then remove the alum1 and with a knife scrape carefully off any bits of flesh or fat that may be left on the skin4 ,when dried1 to render it soft1 rub a little yolk of egg or oil into it1 and draw it backwards and forwards across the edge of a blunt knife1 fixed for the purpose4 ,drawing through a ring1 or well rubbing between the hands will also serve to soften it4 ,casts of ,medals and ,coins4--,cut a strip of brown paper about six inches long by one inch deep4 ,rub a little oil or grease all over that side of the coin you wish to reproduce1 cleaning off all superfluous grease with a little cotton wool1 but still leaving the surface greased4 ,then roll the paper round the edge of the coin so that it resembles a pill-box with a metal bottom1 and fix the loose end with a dab of sealing wax4 ,into this pour a mixture of plaster of ,paris and water made to the consistence of cream1 tapping the box lightly on the table to cause the plaster to settle down free from bubbles4 ,when the plaster is set quite hard1 strip off the paper1 and you have your plaster mould4 ,by soaking this with oil and fastening a strip of paper round it as round the coin1 you have a complete mould into which you can pour plaster and so take a cast exactly like the original except in colour1 which however may be imitated with water colours4 ,another plan is to make the mould of a different substance1 such as isinglass2 thoroughly dissolve isinglass in spirits of wine1 then pour upon the coin as before1 and set aside for a day or two4 ,when quite hard it will separate easily and be found as clear as a bit of glass4 ,removal of ,ink ,blots4--,ink-blots can be removed from paper by painting over with a camel-hair brush dipped in a solution of #b drachms muriate of tin in #d drachms of water4 ,when the ink has quite disappeared1 rinse the paper in clean water2 then dry it4 ,grease removed from ,paper4--,to remove grease spots from paper1 gently warm the greasy part and press it1 under and over1 with blotting-paper4 ,repeatedly change the blotting-paper until most of the grease has disappeared4 ,then heat a very little oil of turpentine until nearly boiling1 again warm the paper1 and apply the turpentine to the grease spot by means of a camel's hair brush1 on both sides of the paper4 ,repeat this process until the grease has quite disappeared4 ,finally1 with a clean brush1 dipped in spirits of wine1 again brush over the spot1 and as the spirit evaporates the paper will be left free from grease or stain4 ,remember that oil of turpentine is very inflammable4 ,it would be safer to heat it in the oven4 ,invisible ,ink4--,take an ounce of oil of vitriol1 and mix with a pint of rain water1 and when cool write with a clean pen4 ,when it is cold it will disappear4 ,heat it and it will appear in black ink4 ,here are some other inks which appear and disappear at the writer's will3-- ,solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt1 when heated turns green2 solution of acetate of cobalt1 with a little nitre becomes rose-colour when warm4 ,inks which remain visible when heated1 but do not disappear when cooled include1 onion-juice1 yellow2 equal parts of copper and sal-ammoniac in water1 yellow2 aquafortis1 spirits of salt1 oil of vitriol1 and salt and water1 yellow or brown4 ,inks which appear when exposed to light may be made with diluted solution of nitrate of silver1 or with diluted solution of terchloride of gold4 ,how ,leaves ,keep ,clean4--,while leaf shapes have formed a subject of study ever since botanical science has existed1 it is only recently that one of the most remarkable purposes which the points of leaves serve has been clearly brought out4 ,it has been shown1 as the result of some special investigations made in ,germany1 that the long points quickly drain off the excess of moisture deposited upon the foliage in heavy rains4 ,this ready method of disposing of a surplus of moisture is important to some plants4 ,it also serves as a means of cleaning the surface of the leaves4 ,round leaves do not so easily get rid of the rain water1 and it has been noticed that they remain dusty and dirty after a shower1 the escape of the water by evaporation not tending to cleanse them1 while long1 narrow1 pointed leaves are washed clean and bright4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet ,illustration3 ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet ,,single ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet ,,single ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,how to ,tie ,knots4 ,illustration3 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,end ,,index ,alcohol and ,athletics1 #ba ,alphabet1 ,deaf and ,dumb1 #dbh ,angling1 #fg ,apple ,mill1 #djb ,aquariums1 #aca ,artist1 ,the boy as1 #aeg olian ,harp1 ,an1 ,how to make1 #cfc ,balloons1 ,bubble1 #cif ,balloons1 ,fire1 ,to make1 #chi ,barometers1 ,simple1 #dah ,barrel1 ,hammock made from a1 #cfb ,beads of ,pith1 #dbb ,binding ,books1 #bee ,blotting ,pad1 #bga ,boat ,race1 ,game of1 #cbh ,boats made of ,pasteboard1 #dja ,books1 ,how to bind1 #bee ,boomerangs1 #cbi ,bottle1 ,the inexhaustible1 #chb ,boxing1 #ee ,boxing by ,electricity1 #cii ,bubble ,balloons1 #cif ,bubbles of ,resin1 #dbd ,budgerigars1 #bdf ,bust in ,clay1 ,how made1 #age ,butterflies1 #aag ,cage ,birds1 #bdb ,calendar1 ,a1 on your fingers1 #daf ,camera ,obscura1 ,a1 #djg ,camp1 ,cooking in1 #aab ,canaries1 #bdb ,candle1 ,the chemistry of a1 #cgj ,canoes1 #hd ,canoes1 ,steering of1 #ajj ,carbon ,paper1 ,how to make1 #dbd ,card ,tricks1 #bbj ,casting ,coins and ,medals1 #dbf ,cavies1 #bbh ,chess1 ,how to play1 #bgc ,chicken1 ,the wonderful1 #djh ,coins1 ,how to cast1 #dbf ,coloured ,fires1 #chg ,concert1 ,game of1 #cbg ,conflagration1 ,a seeming1 #che ,conjuring1 #bjh ,consequences1 ,game of1 #cbg ,cooking in ,camp1 #aab ,cremated ,alive1 #bjh ,crystals1 ,beautiful1 #che ,crystals1 ,brilliant1 #chd ,curling1 #fj ,cutter1 ,model1 ,how to make1 #ced ,cyr ,louis1 #ba ,dancing ,figure1 #djf ,deaf and ,dumb ,alphabet1 #dbh ,digging1 #aej ,distorted ,landscapes1 #dji ,dogs1 #bdi ,donkey1 ,the lively1 #djg ,draughts1 ,how to play1 #bib ,draughts1 ,the losing game1 #cba ,drawing1 #aeg ,drop ,ball1 #adh ,dumb ,bells1 #h1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae ,egg and ,bottle ,trick1 #cgi ,electricity1 ,boxing by1 #cii ,electrical ,machine1 ,an1 ,how to make1 #cfe ,enlargement of ,photographs1 #bfd ,etching on ,glass1 #dbd ,fight for the ,flag1 #ade ,filter1 ,how to make a1 #bfh ,fire1 ,a well of1 #chd ,fire ,balloons1 ,to make1 #chi ,fires1 ,coloured1 #chg ,fire ,designs1 #chj ,fishing1 #fg ,fives1 #adc ,flying ,machine1 #djd ,football1 #di ,fountain1 ,a novel1 #chc ,fountain1 ,how to make a1 #bfi ,fox1 #adh ,fox and ,geese1 #cca ,french and ,english1 #add ,fugleman1 #adi ,game1 ,an amusing1 #ccj ,games1 #ach ,gardening1 #aej ,ghost1 ,to make a1 #che ,glass1 ,etching on1 #dbd ,glue made of ,rice1 #dbe ,golf1 #eb ,gravity1 ,the centre of1 #chf ,grease1 ,to remove1 #dbf ,guinea ,pigs1 #bbh ,gymnastics1 #g ,haloes1 ,three1 #che ,hammock1 ,how to make a1 #cfb ,handwriting1 ,hints on1 #dbb ,harp1 olian1 ,an1 ,how to make1 #cfc ,hectograph1 ,how to make1 #bfg ,hedgehog1 ,the1 #beb ,hockey1 #bf ,hoops1 ,games with1 #adg ,hop-,scotch1 #ade ,horizontal ,bar1 #i1 #ab ,horse1 ,a prancing1 #dja ,hurdle ,races1 #e ,hygrometer1 ,a1 #bga ,illusions1 ,optical1 #dji ,index1 ,how to make1 #beh ,indian ,clubs1 #h1 #ca ,ink1 ,invisible1 #dbg ,ink1 ,removal of1 #dbf ,jackdaws1 #bea ,jay1 ,the1 #bea ,jig ,saw ,puzzle1 #djh ,jingling1 #adi ,jumping1 #e1 #bd ,kite1 ,how to make a1 #aci ,knots1 ,how to tie1 #dcb ,landscapes1 ,distorted1 #dji ,lantern ,slides1 #bff ,leap ,year1 #dag ,leverage1 ,an experiment in1 #chf ,leaves1 ,how they keep clean1 #dbg ,leaves1 ,how to use1 #ahj ,leaves1 ,skeleton1 #dba ,levy1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,lawrence1 #ad ,mac1 ,a ,whirling1 #djc ,macgregor1 ,john1 #hd ,magazines1 ,how to bind1 #bee ,magician1 ,the boy as1 #bjh ,magic ,lantern ,slides1 #bff ,magpie1 ,the1 #bea ,medals1 ,how to ,cast1 #dbf ,mice1 ,white1 #bea ,modelling with ,clay1 #age ,moths1 #aag ,mouse1 ,the1 ,in the ,trap1 #dji ,musical ,glass1 ,a1 #cbi ,needle1 ,the floating1 #chj ,net ,making1 #bfa ,newspaper ,cuttings ,book1 #beh ,nickie ,nickie ,night1 #ach ,nightingale1 ,to imitate a1 #dbb ,nine ,men's ,morris1 #cca ,optical ,illusions1 #dji ,paperchasing1 #dh ,parallel ,bars1 #aj ,pasteboard1 ,boats made of1 #dja ,paste1 ,how to make1 #dbe ,pea1 ,the jolly1 #dad ,perspective1 ,rules of1 #afa ,pets1 #bbh ,photographic ,enlargements1 #bfd ,pith ,beads1 #dbb ,polyphony1 #bja ,portrait ,bust1 ,how made1 #age ,posting1 #adg ,potatoe ,mill1 #djb ,prisoners' ,base1 #add ,puzzles1 #ccc ,puzzles1 #djh ,puzzles1 ,answers to1 #cdb ,pyrography1 #ahi ,quaternions1 ,how to play1 #cbd ,rabbits1 #bcb ,rackets1 #ada ,raven1 ,the1 #bea ,resin ,bubbles1 #dbd ,rice ,glue1 #dbe ,rings1 ,exercises with1 #h ,rings of ,steam1 #dba ,rob ,roy ,canoe1 #hd1 #hf ,rowing1 #dc ,running1 #c1 #bc ,sailing on ,skates1 #eg ,schooner1 ,model1 ,how to make1 #cea ,scrap ,book1 ,how to make1 #beh ,sculling1 #de ,sea1 ,how to go to1 #dai ,secret ,writing1 #dbd ,seed1 ,how to sow1 #aec ,serpent1 ,a revolving1 #dae ,shadow ,buff1 #cbh ,shaving ,papers1 ,case for1 #bgj ,shelter1 ,a simple1 #daf ,silkworms1 #beb ,skates1 ,sailing on1 #eg ,skating1 #eg ,skeleton ,leaves1 #dba ,sketching1 #aeg ,skins1 ,how to dress1 #dbe ,skip-,jack1 ,the1 #dac ,sleigh for ,baby1 ,how to make1 #cfj ,sleigh1 ,how to make1 #cef ,slides for ,magic ,lantern1 #bff ,smoke produced at ,will1 #chc ,spiders and the ,weather1 #dag ,sprinting1 #bc ,steam ,rings1 #dba ,steeplechasing1 #e ,stencilling1 #afc ,swimming1 #db ,syphon1 ,the1 #bfi ,tent1 ,a simple1 #daf ,toffee1 ,to make your own1 #dba ,top1 ,a simple1 #djb ,training for athletics1 #a ,trapeze1 #aa ,turnpike1 #adg ,vacuum1 ,a1 ,what it can do1 #chf ,ventriloquism1 #aia ,walking1 #e1 #ba1 #bb ,water boiled by ,coldness1 #chj ,water boiled in ,paper ,bag1 #chd ,water1 ,illuminated1 #chd ,water ,polo1 #df ,water upside down1 #chb ,weather1 ,the1 and ,spiders1 #dag ,weston's ,walk1 #ba ,whirling ,mac1 ,a1 #djc ,white ,mice1 #bea ,window ,box1 #aed ,wine ,glass1 ,the magic1 #chj ,wood ,carving1 #cej ,woodman1 ,the working1 #daj ,writing ,pad1 #bga ,writing1 ,secret1 #dbd ,writing1 ,the magic1 #chb ,writing1 ,the1 on the wall1 #che ,yachts1 #hd1 #ajg ,zebra ,finches1 #bdc ,,printed ,,by ,,the ,,london ,,and ,,norwich ,,press1 ,,limited ,,london ,,and ,,norwich ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the symbol #c represents a reversed numeral three4 ,missing punctuation has been added in several places4 ,the symbol ,a ,b represents an ,a printed vertically above a ,b4 ,the oe ligature is rendered as oe4 ,italics are rendered between underscores1 e4g4 italics4 ,bold text is rendered between dollar signs1 e4g4 bold4 ,small caps are rendered with ,,all ,,caps4 ,the following table lists other changes made by the transcriber4 --------------------------- ,transcriber's ,changes ------------------------- page as printedchanged to ------------------------- #abf throught thought #bbd shuffllingshuffling #bha ,v -------------------------