,,the ,,reason ,,why3 ,a ,,careful ,,collection ,,of ,,many ,,hundreds ,,of ,,reasons ,,for ,,things ,,which1 ,,though ,,generally ,,believed1 ,,are ,,imperfectly ,,understood4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,condensed ,,scientific ,,knowledge ,,for ,,the ,,million4 ,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,inquire ,,within4 ,this collection of useful information on ,common ,things is put in the interesting form of ,why and ,because1 and comprehends a familiar explanation of many subjects which occupy a large space in the philosophy of ,nature1 relating to air1 animals1 atmosphere1 caloric1 chemistry1 ventilation1 materia medica1 meteorology1 acoustics1 electricity1 light1 zology1 etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 ,,publishers1 ,no4 #ah ,,ann ,,street4 ,,preface4 ,we are all children of one ,father1 whose ,works it should be our delight to study4 ,as the intelligent child1 standing by his parent's knee1 asks explanations alike of the most simple phenomena1 and of the most profound problems2 so should man1 turning to his ,creator1 continually ask for knowledge4 ,not because the profession of letters has1 in these days1 become a fashion1 and that the man of general proficiency can best work out his success in worldly pursuits2 but because knowledge is a treasure which gladdens the heart1 dignifies the mind1 and ennobles the soul4 ,the occupation of the mind1 by the pursuit of knowledge1 is of itself a good1 since it diverts from evil1 and by elevating and refining the mind1 and strengthening the judgment1 it fortifies us for the hour of temptation1 and surrounds us with barriers which the powers of sin cannot successfully assail4 ,it is not contended that the mere acquisition of knowledge will either ensure a good moral nature1 or convey religious truth4 ,but both religion and morals will find in the diffusion of knowledge a ground work upon which their loftier temples may discover an acceptable foundation4 ,the man who comprehends the order of ,nature1 and the immutability of ,divine law1 must of necessity bring himself in some degree into accordance with that order1 and under submission to the law3 hence the tendency of knowledge will always be found to harmonise the fragment with the mass1 and to subvert the evil to the good4 ,the troubles of the world have arisen from the want of knowledge1 not from the possession of it4 ,and in proportion as man becomes an intelligent and reflective being1 he will be a better creature in all the relations of life4 ,if these benefits1 vast and incalculable as they are1 be the real tendency and result of knowledge1 why is ignorance allowed to remain1 and why is the world still distracted by error8 ,it is because the moral and intellectual qualities of man are1 like all creations and gifts of ,god1 the subjects of development1 whose law is progression4 ,we can aid human improvement1 but we cannot unduly hasten it4 ,whenever man has sprung too rapidly to a conclusion1 he has alighted upon error1 and has had to retrace his steps4 ,the greatest philosophers have been those who have clung to the demonstrative sciences1 and have held that a simple truth well ascertained1 is greater than the grandest theory founded upon questionable premises4 ,newton made more scientific revelations to mankind than any other philosopher2 and his discoveries have borne the searching test of time1 because he snatched at nothing1 leaped over no chasm to establish a favourite dogma2 but1 by the slowest steps1 and by regarding the merest trifles1 as well as the highest phenomena1 he learnt to read ,nature correctly4 ,he discovered that her atoms were letters1 her blades of grass were words1 her phenomena were sentences1 and her complete volume a grand poem1 teaching on every page the wisdom and the power of an ,almighty ,creator4 ,when he observed an apple fall to the ground1 he asked the ,reason ,why2 and in answer to that enquiry1 there came one of the grandest discoveries that has ever been recorded upon the book of science4 ,with that discovery a flood of light burst upon the human mind1 illustrating in a far higher degree than had ever previously been conceived1 the vastness of ,almighty ,power4 ,why should not each of us enquire the ,reason ,why regarding everything that we observe8 ,why should we mentally grope about1 when we may see our way8 ,when addressed in a foreign tongue1 we hear a number of articulated sounds1 to which we can attach no meaning2 they convey nothing to the mind1 make no impression upon the in-dwelling soul4 ,when those sounds are interpreted to us1 in a language that we can understand1 they impart impressions of joy1 hope1 surprise1 or sorrow1 because the words convey to us a meaning4 ,in like manner1 if we fail to understand ,nature1 its beauties1 its teachings are lost4 ,everything speaks to us1 but we do not understand the voices4 ,they come murmuring from the brook1 trilling from the bird1 or pealing from the thunder2 but though they reach the ear of the body1 they do not impress the listening spirit4 ,every flower1 every ray of light1 every drop of dew1 each flake of snow1 the curling smoke1 the lowering cloud1 the bright sun1 the pale moon1 the twinkling stars1 speak to us in eloquent language of the great ,hand that made them4 ,but millions lose the grand lesson which ,nature teaches1 because they can attach no meaning to what they see or hear4 ,,the ,,reason ,,why is offered as an interpreter of many of ,nature's utterances4 ,great care has been taken that these interpretations may be consistent with the latest knowledge1 obtained from the highest sources4 ,if the author finds that his work if accepted for the good of those who seek not only to know1 but to understand1 he will make it his constant care to read the ,book of ,nature1 and to add to the pages of this volume whatever interpretations the progress of enquiry and discovery may demand and supply4 ,,index1 ,,and ,,index ,,lessons4 ,pointing hand symbol ,the numbers refer to the ,questions4 ,the ,index ,lessons do not correspond with the ,chapters1 but are designed to bring together in their alphabetical connection1 all the ,questions and ,answers upon each particular subject included in the work4 ,,lesson ,i4 ,acids1 vegetable1 whence are they obtained1 #abef ,actinism1 what is it1 #eeb ,actinism1 what effect has it upon vegetation1 #eei ,actinism1 at what season of the year is it most abundant1 #efj rial spectra1 what is the cause of1 #ebg ,affinity1 what is the attraction of1 #ggg ,air1 why do we breathe it1 #d ,air1 what is the composition of it1 #ab ,air1 what is its state after it has been breathed1 #ac ,air1 is that sent from the lungs light or heavy1 #ad ,air1 is it a good or bad conductor of heat1 #aej ,air1 why is a still summer said to be sultry1 #aga ,air1 why does it feel cooler when in motion1 than when still1 #age ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,air1 when is it hot enough to destroy life1 #agi ,air1 why is it often excessively hot in chalk districts1 #bai ,air1 is it heated directly by the sun's rays1 #bba ,air1 why does it ascend the chimney1 #bdj ,air1 why does it fly through the doors and windows towards the fire-place1 #bda ,air1 what does the motion of it in our rooms illustrate1 #bdb ,air1 why does it become charged with watery vapour1 #cdf ,air1 when is it said to be saturated with vapour1 #dcj ,air1 what proportion of water is air capable of holding in the form of vapour1 #dca ,air1 what is its weight relative to that of water1 #fdg ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,air1 which is heavier1 dry or vaporised1 #fig ,air-pistol 7or pop-gun71 why does pressure applied to the handle propel the cork1 #hed ,air-pistol1 why must the handle be drawn out before the cork is placed in1 #hee ,air1 why does fresh impart a healthy appearance1 #iae ,albumen1 what is it1 #hii ,alkalies1 what are they1 #cf ,amber1 or electrum1 what is it1 #efd ,animals1 how is their greater warmth in winter provided for1 #afh ,animal forms1 why are there so many1 #ajbi ,animal furs1 why do they become thicker in the winter1 #ajce ,animals1 why have carnivorous1 long pointed teeth1 #ajch ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,animals with long necks1 why have they large throats1 #ajdi ,animals1 why cannot flesh-eaters live upon vegetables1 #ajga ,animals1 why can ruminating recover the food from their paunches1 #ajhi ,animals1 why can ruminating keep the chewed from the unchewed food in their stomachs1 #ajij ,animals1 why do the smaller animals breed more abundantly than the larger ones1 #ajid ,animals1 domestic1 why may change of weather be expected when they are restless1 #aajg ,animals1 plants1 and minerals1 what are the differences between them1 #aadj ,animals that graze1 why do they crop the tender blades1 but leave the tall grass1 #abhg ,,lesson ,v4 ,animals1 distribution of1 #acbf ,arms and hands1 why do we see blue marks upon them1 #hif ,arms and legs1 why does it require the influence of the will to set them in motion1 #iag ,arms and legs1 why are they made subject to the will1 #iai ,ascending1 what is the cause of bodies1 #gge ,atmosphere1 how is it heated1 #bcb ,atmospheric humidity1 why does it sometimes form clouds1 at others form dews1 fogs1 mists1 c41 #dji ,atmospheric pressure1 how high will it raise water1 #feb ,atmosphere1 what is the1 #fci ,atmosphere1 to what height does it extend1 #fci ,atmosphere1 what is the amount of its pressure1 #fda ,atmosphere1 what is the proportion of watery vapour in the1 #fdb ,atmosphere1 why are its upper regions intensely cold1 #ddd ,atmosphere1 what is the greatest height ever reached in the1 #fdh ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,atmospheric pressure1 what is the total amount on the earth's surface1 #fdd ,atmosphere1 what is the amount of its pressure upon the human body1 #fde ,atmosphere1 why do we not feel its pressure1 #fdf ,atmosphere1 to what extent may its pressure vary1 #gjb ,attractive agent1 what is an1 #gf ,attraction1 what is it1 #ggb ,attraction1 how many kinds are there1 #ggc ,aurora ,borealis1 what is the cause of1 #eij ,bananas or plantains1 where are they cultivated1 #abbj ,bark ,peruvian1 where is it produced1 #abbh ,barometer1 what is a1 #fia ,barometer1 why does it indicate the pressure of the atmosphere1 #fib ,barometer1 why is it also called a weather-glass1 #fic ,barometers1 why are they constructed with circular dials1 #fid ,barometer1 why does the hand change its position when the mercury rises or falls1 #fie ,barometer1 why does tapping its face cause the hand to move1 #fif ,barometer1 why does its fall denote the approach of rain1 #fii ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,barometer1 why does its rise denote the approach of fine weather1 #gjj ,barometer1 how does it enable us to calculate the height of the mountains1 #gja ,barometer1 when does it stand highest1 #gjd ,barometer1 when does it stand lowest1 #gje ,barometer1 what effect has heat upon the1 #gjg ,barometer1 what effect has cold upon the1 #gjh ,balloons1 why do they ascend in air1 #hcj ,balloons1 why do air balloons become inflated1 #hca ,balloons1 why do they sometimes burst when they reach a high altitude1 #hcb ,bat and ball1 what principles of natural philosophy are illustrated in the play1 #hfg ,bats1 why have they hooked claws in their wings1 #ajgi ,bats1 why do they fly by night1 #ajhj ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,bats1 why do they sleep during winter1 #ajha ,beds1 why should they be raised two feet from the ground1 #ae ,bed-room windows1 why are they sometimes covered with ice crystals1 #cdd ,beer1 why will it not run out of a cask until a hole is made at the top1 #ffj ,beer1 why does it get flat1 #hje ,bees1 why have they stings1 #aaja ,bees1 why may we expect fine weather when bees wander far from their hives1 #aaad ,beetles1 why are they called coleoptera1 #acai ,beetles1 why have they hard horny wing-cases1 #acbj ,beetles1 why have many of them hard horns1 #acba ,bile1 why does it separate nutritious from innutritious matter1 #hhd ,birds1 why have water-fowls feathers of a close and smooth texture1 #ajcc ,birds1 why are they covered with feathers1 #ajcj ,birds1 why does black down grow under their feathers on the approach of winter1 #ajcf ,birds1 why have they hard beaks1 #ajdj ,birds1 why are their beaks generally long and sharp1 #ajda ,birds1 why are their bones hollow1 #ajej ,birds1 why do they lay eggs1 #ajea ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,birds1 why have those with long legs short tails1 #ajeb ,birds1 why have aquatic web-feet1 #ajei ,birds1 why have those that swim and dive short legs1 #ajfj ,birds1 why have some deep rough notches on the under surfaces of their feet1 #ajfa ,birds1 why have they gizzards1 #ajgb ,birds of prey1 why have they no gizzards1 #ajhd ,birds1 why may wet and thunder be expected when they cease to sing1 #aaba ,birds of passage1 why1 if they arrive early1 may severe weather be expected1 #aaba ,birds1 geological distribution of1 #acbf ,birds1 tameness of in unfrequented countries1 #acbg ,birds1 why are birds of song not also remarkable as birds of plumage1 #acbh ,birds1 what are the velocities of their flights1 #acbi ,birds1 what is the cause of their migrations1 #accj ,black1 why should parts of kettles and saucepans be allowed to remain1 #bjd ,blood1 in what proportions are the gases found in it1 #ci ,,lesson ,x4 ,blood1 what is venous1 #da ,blood1 what is arterial1 #db ,blood1 what is the constitution of the1 #hii ,blood1 what quantity does the human body contain1 #ibj ,blood1 how frequently does the whole quantity pass through the system1 #ibb ,blowing upon tea1 why does it cool it1 #agd ,bow1 why does it propel the arrow1 #hdg ,bow and arrow1 what line does the arrow describe1 #hdh ,bow and arrow1 what forces tend to arrest the arrow1 #hdi ,bow and arrow1 why are there feathers at the ends of arrows1 #hej ,bones1 how many are there in the human body1 #ibc ,bones1 of what substances are they composed1 #ibd ,bones1 what are the uses of the1 #ibe ,bones1 why are those of the back hollowed out1 #ibg ,bones1 why are those of the skull arched1 #icj ,bones1 why are those of the skull divided by small sutures1 #ica ,bones1 why are they hollow1 #icd ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,bones1 why are those of the arms and legs formed into long shafts1 #ice ,bones1 why are those of the feet and hands numerous and small1 #icf ,botanical geography1 #abjh ,brain1 why is it placed within the skull1 #ibf ,bread-fruit trees1 where are they natives of1 #abbc ,breathing1 is it a kind of combustion1 #ag ,breaths1 have people ever been poisoned by their own1 #bd ,breezes1 why are summer said to be cool1 #agj ,breezes1 what is the cause of sea and land1 #bce ,bubbles1 why do they ascend in the air1 #bcf ,bubbles1 why do they fall1 after having ascended1 #bcg ,bubbles1 why do they display rainbow colours1 #dii ,bubbles1 why are they round1 #hbe ,bubbles1 why are they elongated when being blown1 #hbf ,bubbles1 why do they close1 and become perfect spheres when shaken from the pipe1 #hbg ,bubbles1 why do they change their colours in the sunshine1 #hbh ,bubbles1 why do they burst1 #hbi ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,burning or supporting combustion1 what is the difference1 #de ,burning-glasses1 why do they appear to set fire to substances1 #hj ,butterflies1 why do they lay their eggs upon cabbage-leaves1 #ajii ,butterflies' eggs1 why do they lie dormant in the winter1 #abhh ,butterflies1 why do they fly by day1 #abif ,calms1 why do they prevail at the equator1 #fga ,caloric1 what is it1 #gb ,caloric1 what is the source of it1 #gc ,caloric1 what are the effects of it1 #gd ,caloric1 why is it called a repulsive agent1 #ge ,caloric1 how may it be excited to develope heat1 #gi ,caloric1 is there any in ice1 snow1 water1 marble1 c41 #hi ,caloric1 how do we measure the quantity of in any substance1 #cbi ,caloric1 how does it travel1 #ccb ,caloric1 how do we know that it is caloric which fuses metals1 #ccd ,calves and lambs1 why have they no horns1 #ajfi ,camel1 why has its stomach a number of distinct bags1 #ajfe ,candles1 why do tallow require snuffing1 #bfd ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,candles1 why do composite and wax not require snuffing1 #bfe ,candle1 what becomes of it after it is burnt1 #bfi ,capillary blood-vessels1 why are they found in every part of the system1 #iai ,capillary attraction1 what is it1 #ghj ,carbonic acid gas1 how is it formed1 #i ,carbonic acid gas1 what becomes of it1 #aj ,carbonic acid gas1 is it heavier or lighter than air1 #aa ,carbonic acid gas1 what are the chief sources of1 #af ,carbonic acid gas1 what is its effect upon the human system1 #ba ,carbonic acid gas1 what becomes of that formed by combustion1 #ei ,carbonic acid gas1 what proportion is dangerous to life1 #fj ,carbonic acid1 what is it1 #gih ,carbonic acid1 where does it chiefly exist1 #gii ,carbonic acid1 what are its pure states1 #hjj ,carbon1 what is it1 #ah ,carbon1 will it produce flame when burnt in oxygen1 #ajf ,carbon and hydrogen1 what differences characterise the combustion of1 #bfh ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,carbon1 what is the purest form of it1 #bgg ,card1 why do the images on each side blend while a card is revolving1 #hdf ,caterpillars1 why do they appear in the spring1 #abhi ,caterpillars1 why do they eat voraciously1 #abij ,caterpillars1 why do they pass into the state of the chrysalis1 #abia ,caterpillars1 why do they become torpid in the chrysalis1 #abib ,caterpillars1 why do they attach themselves to the leaves of plants when in the chrysalis1 #abid ,cats1 c41 why do they see in the dark1 #iha ,cats' eyes1 why are the pupils of nearly closed by day1 #ihb ,cats1 c41 why have they whiskers1 #ajif ,cattle1 why if they run round in meadows may thunder be expected1 #aabb ,ceiling1 how did ,mr4 ,sands walk on the1 #ffd ,champagne1 why does it effervesce1 #hjf ,champagne1 why do bubbles rise from it in two or three columns1 #hjg ,charcoal1 why is it dangerous to burn it in rooms1 #bj ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,charcoal fires1 why do they not give flames1 #ajg ,charcoal1 what is it1 #bge ,charcoal1 why does it act as a disinfectant1 #hji ,chicory1 what is it1 #aaif ,chimney1 why does it cease smoking after the fire has been lighted a little while1 #fhj ,chimney1 why does a long one create a better draught than a short one1 #fha ,chimneys1 why do some smoke when windows and doors are closed1 #fhc ,chimneys that stand under elevated objects1 why do they smoke1 #fhe ,chimneys1 why do sooty smoke1 #fhg ,chimneys1 why do they smoke in damp and gusty weather1 #fhh ,chimney1 why does it smoke when first lighted1 #fgi ,chocolate1 what is it1 #aaid ,circulation1 why are the venous blood and chyle sent to the lungs1 #hhg ,circulation1 what is the course of the arterial blood1 #hhh ,circulation1 why does the blood impart vitality1 #hia ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,circulation1 how do we know the blood is alive1 #hib ,circulation1 why does the blood circulate1 #hic ,circulation1 how is the body renewed by the blood1 #hid ,circulation1 how does the blood return to the lungs after it has reached the extremities1 #hie ,circulation1 why are the veins more perceptible than the arteries1 #hig ,circulation1 why when we prick the flesh does it bleed1 #hic ,circulation1 what occurs during the1 #hii ,circulation1 what becomes of the matter collected by the blood1 #ija ,circulation1 how is the blood propelled through the arteries1 #iaf ,circulation1 why are the capillary vessels capable of receiving the quantity of blood sent through larger vessels1 #iag ,cinnamon1 where is it produced1 #abci ,cleanliness1 why does it promote health1 #ajae ,clothes on fire1 why should persons throw themselves down1 #beb ,clothing1 why do some articles feel cold1 and others warm1 #abj ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,clothing1 are conductors or non-conductors the warmer1 #aba ,clothing1 why are white and light-coloured articles cool1 #bah ,clothing1 why are dark-coloured dresses worn in winter1 and light in summer1 #bcj ,clouds1 what are they1 #cgc ,clouds1 why do we not see them ascend1 #cge ,clouds1 why are they invisible when they rise1 but become visible when they have ascended1 #cgf ,clouds1 why do they not descend to the earth1 #cgg ,clouds1 at what altitudes do they fly1 #cgh ,clouds1 how many descriptions are there1 #cgi ,clouds1 what produces their various shapes1 #chj ,clouds1 what are their dimensions1 #cha ,clouds1 how are they affected by winds1 #chb ,clouds1 what do ,cirrus foretell1 #chi ,clouds1 what do ,cumulus foretell1 #cij ,clouds1 what do ,stratus foretell1 #cia ,clouds1 what do ,nimbus foretell1 #cib ,clouds1 what do ,cirro-cumulus foretell1 #cic ,clouds1 what do ,cirro-stratus foretell1 #cid ,clouds1 what do ,cumulo-stratus foretell1 #cie ,,lesson ,,xviii4 ,clouds1 why are cloudy days colder than sunny days1 #cif ,clouds1 why are cloudy nights warmer than clear nights1 #cig ,cloudy days and nights1 why are they not always wet1 #dcb ,clouds1 why are they white1 #eca ,clouds1 why are they sometimes yellow1 #ecc ,clouds1 what develops the electricity in the1 #eha ,clouds1 why do they sometimes move towards each other from opposite directions1 #ggh ,clouds1 why do they gather around mountain tops1 #gha ,cloves1 where are they produced1 #abca ,coal1 what is it1 #bga ,coal1 why do we know that it is of vegetable origin1 #bgc ,coal1 what are the chemical components of1 #bgd ,coals1 why do they produce yellow flame1 #bgi ,cockles1 why have they stiff muscular tongues1 #ajhg ,cocoa1 what is it1 #aaie ,cocoa1 what tree produces it1 #abba ,coffee-pot1 why has it a wooden handle1 #abe ,,lesson ,,xix4 ,coffee1 what is it1 #aaic ,coffee1 where is it cultivated1 #abbd ,cohesion1 what is the attraction of1 #ggf ,coke-fires1 why do they not give flames1 #ajg ,coke1 what is it1 #bgh ,cold1 when is a body said to be1 #gh ,cold1 what is the cause of the sensation1 #acc ,cold1 does it radiate1 #bjg ,colour1 why is a substance white1 #dff ,colour1 why is a substance black1 #dfg ,colour1 why is a rose red1 #dfh ,colour1 why is a lily white1 #dfi ,colour1 why is a primrose yellow1 #dgj ,colour1 why are there so many varieties of colour and tint in nature1 #dga ,colours1 remarks upon1 #eja ,combustion1 what takes place during1 #dh ,combustion1 how many kinds are there1 #ic ,conductors of heat1 what substances are good1 #aaj ,conductors of heat1 why do bad conductors readily ignite1 #bie ,combustion1 what is spontaneous1 #caa ,combustibles used for lighting1 which vitiates the air most1 #fb ,conduction of heat1 what is the1 #aac ,convection1 what is the chief effect of the law of1 #bdc ,,lesson ,,xx4 ,cork1 what is it1 #abga ,cork-tree1 why does it shed its own bark1 #abgb ,corns1 why when they ache may rain be expected1 #aaae ,corn1 why does the young ear come up enfolded in two leaves1 #aafg ,cotton1 what is it1 #aaii ,cough1 why do we1 #ajbc ,crickets1 why do they make a chirping noise1 #aabc ,cross-bills1 why do their mandibles overlap each other1 #aacf ,cup in a pie1 why does it become filled with juice1 #fca ,cup in a pie1 does it prevent the juice from boiling over1 #ffb ,dates1 what are they produced by1 #abba ,death-watch1 why does it make a ticking noise1 #acja ,dew1 what is it1 #cde ,dew1 what causes the decline of temperature which produces it1 #cdg ,dew1 why is there little or none1 when the nights are cloudy1 #cdh ,dew1 why does it form most abundantly on cloudless nights1 #cdi ,dew1 why is there little under the branches of thick foliage1 #cea ,,lesson ,,xxi4 ,dew1 why is there none formed on windy nights1 #ceb ,dew1 why are valleys and low places chiefly subject to it1 #cec ,dew1 what bodies receive little of it1 #cee ,dew1 what bodies receive most of it1 #ced ,dew1 at what period of the night is it chiefly formed1 #cef ,dew1 why is it chiefly formed at that period1 #ceg ,dew1 in what parts of the world is the greatest quantity formed1 #ceh ,dew1 in what parts of the world is the least quantity formed1 #cei ,dew1 why is it seldom formed at sea1 #cfj ,dew1 why is it1 when heavy1 regarded as a precursor of rain1 #cfa ,dew1 what is honey-dew1 #cfd ,dew1 why does it lie on the exposed sides of screens of plants1 #dja ,dew1 why does it rest upon the upper surfaces of leaves1 #djb ,dews1 why are cultivated lands more subject to them than those that are uncultivated1 #djc ,,lesson ,,xxii4 ,dew1 why does the gravel-walk receive less dew than the grass1 #djd ,dew1 why does little of it form at the base of hedges1 walls1 and trees1 #djf ,dews1 why do morning dews and mists usually come together1 #djg ,dew1 what effect have winds upon its formation1 #djh ,dew1 why does it form in round drops upon leaves1 #gid ,diamond1 what causes the brilliant colours of the1 #eja ,digestion1 why does food flow more freely to the stomach during1 #hgi ,digestion1 why does excess in eating impair1 #hhj ,digestion1 what changes occur to food in the stomach1 #hha ,digestion1 what causes bilious attacks1 #hhb ,digestion1 how is the nutritious matter taken from that which is innutritious1 #hhe ,digestion1 what becomes of the nutrition when it enters into the circulation1 #hhf ,dish-covers1 why should they be plain in form1 and have bright surfaces1 #bjc ,dogs1 geographical distribution of1 #accc ,dream1 why do we1 #ajbj ,drowsiness1 why is it felt in crowded rooms1 #bb ,,lesson ,,xxiii4 ,ducks and geese1 why do they dash water over their backs on the approach of rain1 #aaje ,ducks and geese1 why have they square-pointed bills1 #ajdd ,dyes1 vegetable1 what are they1 #abei ,ear1 why is it spread out externally1 #ihd ,ears1 why do hairs grow across them1 #ihf ,ear-wig1 why is it so called1 #ihf ,ears1 why is wax secreted in the1 #ihg ,ears1 why do singing noises occur in the1 #ihh ,ears1 why do people become deaf1 #ihi ,ears1 why do people accustomed to loud noises feel no inconvenience from them1 #iij ,ears of animals of prey1 why do they bend forward1 #ajfc ,ears of animals of flight1 why do they bend backward1 #ajfd ,earth1 why is it warmer than air during sunshine1 #cih ,earth1 why is it colder than air after sunset1 #cii ,,lesson ,,xxiv4 ,earth1 how can man weigh the1 #ghd ,earth1 what is the weight of the1 #ghh ,earth-worms1 why have they no feet1 #ajhe ,echoes1 why do some occur immediately after the sounds1 #gdb ,echoes1 why do some occur at a considerable interval after the sound1 #gdc ,echoes1 why do some change the tone and quantity of sounds1 #gdd ,echoes1 why are there sometimes several to one sound1 #gde ,echoes1 are they caused only by distant objects1 #gdf ,echoes1 what are they1 #gda ,electricity1 what is it1 #efa ,electricity1 why is it so called1 #efb ,electric fluid1 why is it so called1 #eff ,electrics1 what substances are1 #efg ,electricity1 what is positive1 #efh ,electricity1 what is negative1 #efi ,electricity1 what is vitreous1 #egj ,electricity1 what is resinous1 #egj ,electrical phenomena1 what produces them1 #ega ,electricity1 how does its equilibrium become disturbed1 #egb ,electricity1 how does it seek to regain its equilibrium1 #egc ,electricity1 what substances are conductors1 #egd ,electricity1 what substances are non-conductors1 #ege ,electricity1 what substances are insulators1 #egf ,,lesson ,,xxv4 ,electricity1 what is the effect when a current of electricity meets with an insulator1 #egg ,electric sparks1 what is the cause of1 #egh ,electricity1 why does lightning attend it1 #ehd ,electricity1 why does it affect the shape of clouds1 #fac ,electric storms1 why are they more frequent in hot than in cold weather1 #fbd ,electric storms1 why do they frequently occur after dry weather1 #fbe ,electric storms1 why do they purify the air1 #fbi ,electricity1 what is ,voltaic1 #fcf ,electrical attraction1 what is it1 #ggh ,elementary body1 what is meant by1 #ai ,element1 what is the most abundant in nature1 #gef ,elephant1 why has it a short unbending neck1 #ajgf ,elephant1 why has it a trunk1 #ajgg ,elephants' hind legs1 why do they bend forward1 #ajgh ,etna1 what are the botanical regions of ,mount1 #abdj ,endogenous stems1 what are they1 #abhj ,,lesson ,,xxvi4 ,endogenous stems1 why do they abound in tropical climates1 #abha ,endogenous stems1 why have they no bark1 #abhb ,endogenous stems1 why do they grow to a great height1 #abhc ,exogenous stems1 what are they1 #abgi ,exercise1 why does it promote health1 #ajaf ,exercise1 why does it make us feel warm1 #hci ,explosions of gas1 what is the best method of preventing1 #fe ,eye-balls1 why are they white1 #iaa ,eye-balls1 why do they sometimes become blood-shot1 #iab ,eyes1 why are they placed in the sockets of the skull1 #ibi ,eyes1 why are we able to move them1 #ife ,eye1 why does the pupil look black1 #ifh ,eye1 why is the pupil larger sometimes than at others1 #ifi ,eyes1 why have we two1 #igj ,eyes1 why having two1 do we see singly1 #iga ,eyes1 why are they provided with eyelids1 #igb ,eyelids1 why are they fringed with eyelashes1 #igc ,eyes1 whence are their humours derived1 #igf ,,lesson ,,xxvii4 ,eyes1 why do we feel inconvenienced by sudden light1 #igh ,eyes1 why if we look upon a bright object and turn away1 are we unable to see1 #igi ,eyes1 why are we able to see better after a little while1 #ihj ,eyes1 why do cats1 bats1 owls1 c41 see in the dark1 #iha ,eels1 why are their eyes covered with a transparent horny coat1 #aacj ,falling1 what is the cause of bodies1 #ggd ,fanning the face1 why does it make us feel cooler1 #agb ,fata morgana1 what is the cause of1 #ebg ,fatigue1 why do we feel1 #ajag ,feather1 why does it fall to the earth more gradually than a shilling1 #gia ,features1 why do we preserve the same through life1 #ijc ,feel1 why do we1 #ajjd ,feeling1 why is it impaired when the hands are cold1 #ajjf ,feeling1 why do the fingers prick and sting when they again become warm1 #ajjg ,,lesson ,,xxviii4 ,feeling1 why do persons whose legs or arms have been amputated1 for some time continue to feel the part that has been removed1 #ajjh ,fibrin1 what is it1 #hii ,fingers1 why can we raise them1 #idc ,fingers1 why can we draw them back after they have been raised1 #idd ,fire1 why does it burn more brightly when blown by a bellows1 #bg ,fire1 what is it1 #hb ,fire1 what are its properties1 #hc ,fire1 what elements take part in its maintenance1 #hd ,fire1 how does its combustion begin1 #he ,fire-screens1 how do they contribute to keep rooms cool1 #bag ,fire1 why is it sometimes put out by blowing it when it is low1 #bfb ,fire1 why does poking it cause it to burn more brightly1 #bhg ,fires1 why do blowers improve the draft of air1 #bhh ,fire1 why does it sometimes appear red1 and without flame1 #bhc ,fire1 what effect has it upon air1 #bhd ,fires1 why do charcoal and coke burn without flame1 #bib ,fires1 why are charcoal and coke difficult to light1 #bic ,fires1 a new plan of kindling1 #bic ,,lesson ,,xxix4 ,fires1 why in lighting them do we first lay in paper1 wood1 and coal1 #bih ,fire1 why does a poker laid across the top revive it when dull1 #cjb ,fire-places1 why should they be near the ground1 #cjc ,fire1 why does the blacksmith sprinkle water upon the coals of his forge1 #cjh ,fires1 what is the best method of conveying air to1 #fhd ,fish1 why does putrifying look luminous1 #ie ,fishes1 why have they fins1 #ajec ,fishes1 why are their fins proportionately so much smaller than the wings of birds1 #ajed ,fishes1 why have they scales1 #ajee ,fishes1 why do they float in streams1 with their heads towards the current1 #ajef ,fishes1 why have they air-bladders1 #ajeg ,fishes1 why do not their eyes contract1 #aabi ,fishes1 why have they no eyelids1 #aacb ,fishes1 why have they the power of giving their eye-balls a sudden motion1 #aacc ,fishes1 why are their tails so much larger than their fins1 #aacg ,flame1 what is it1 #if ,,lesson ,,xxx4 ,flame1 what temperature is required to produce it1 #aja ,flame of a candle1 why does the lower part of the flame appear blue1 #bdf ,flame of a candle1 why does the middle of the flame look dark1 #bag ,flame of a candle1 why does the upper part produce a bright yellow light1 #bdh ,flame of a candle1 why is there a fringe of pale light around the flame1 #bdi ,flame of a candle1 why does it terminate in a point1 #bej ,flame of a candle1 why does it lengthen when anything is held over it1 #bea ,flame or spark1 why does pressing it put it out1 #bec ,flame of a candle1 why does holding a candle upside down put it out1 #beg ,flame of a candle1 why is it more difficult to blow out the flame of a candle with a cotton wick than one with a rush wick1 #beh ,flame of a candle1 why does blowing sharply on it put it out1 #bei ,flame of a candle1 why will a gentle puff of air sometimes relight it1 #bfj ,,lesson ,,xxxi4 ,flame of a candle1 why will not a similar puff rekindle a rushlight1 #bfa ,flame of a candle1 why will a piece of paper twisted to form an extinguisher put it out1 #bfc ,flame of a candle1 why does it become dim when the wick is loaded with carbon1 #bfg ,flames of a fire1 why do some appear much whiter than others1 #bhj ,flames of a fire1 why do some of them appear blue1 #bhb ,flesh1 why does it heal when we cut it1 #ijb ,flesh-eaters1 why do they satisfy themselves with a rapid meal1 #ajib ,flesh1 why do the marks of deep cuts remain1 #ije ,flesh1 why does that under the nails look red1 #ijg ,flies1 how can they walk on the ceiling1 #ffc ,flies1 why have they fine hairs growing on the extremities of their legs1 #aajb ,flowers1 what is the chief cause of the differences of their temperatures1 #bbg ,flowers1 why may wet weather be expected when their perfume is strong1 #aajc ,,lesson ,,xxxii4 ,flowers1 why1 if certain close1 may rain be expected1 #aaaf ,flying-top1 why does it rise on the air1 #hdc ,flying-top1 why does it return to the earth1 when its rotations are expended1 #hdd ,focus1 what is a1 #ha ,fogs1 what are they1 #cfe ,fogs1 why are certain coasts very liable to them1 #cff ,fogs1 what are dry1 #cfg ,fogs1 why do they frequently rise in the morning and fall in the evening1 #cga ,fogs1 why do they sometimes rest upon a locality for days together1 and then disappear1 #cgb ,food1 why do we eat it1 #hfi ,food1 why do we eat animal and vegetable1 #agb ,food1 why do we masticate it1 #hga ,food1 how does it descend into the stomach1 #hge ,food1 why do we not feel it being transmitted through the throat1 #hgf ,food1 why do we feel uneasy after eating to excess1 #hgg ,food1 why do we feel drowsy after eating heartily1 #hgh ,food1 why do some portions nourish us1 while other portions are useless1 #hhc ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4 ,fossil1 vegetable1 what is it1 #bgb ,friction1 why does it produce heat1 #cba ,friction1 why does rubbing two surfaces together attract latent heat1 #cbb ,frost1 why is the air warmer during1 #afc ,frost1 what is white1 #dab ,frost1 what is black1 #dac ,frost1 why are black frosts said to last1 #dad ,fruit1 why do gooseberries1 plums1 c41 taste acid1 #aahd ,fruit1 why do ripe taste sweet1 and unripe sour1 #aahe ,fruits1 why are succulent most abundant in tropical climates1 #abjg ,fruits and vegetables1 why do they ripen in succession1 #abhd ,furs1 why are they worn in winter1 #aff ,galvanism1 what is it1 #fce ,gas1 what kind lights our streets1 #ef ,gas1 why does it expand in thin air1 #hcc ,geology1 what has been its influence upon botanical geography1 #abdi ,giraffes1 why have they small heads1 #acbb ,giraffes1 why have they long necks1 #acbc ,giraffes1 why have they long and flexible tongues1 #acbd ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4 ,giraffes1 why are their nostrils narrow and small1 and studded with hairs1 #acbe ,glass upon a lamp1 why does it increase the brilliancy of the light1 #bff ,glass1 why is it transparent1 #ejf ,glass1 does transparent reflect any light1 #ejg ,glow-worms1 why have they brushes attached to their tails1 #aabg ,glow-worms1 why do they emit light1 #aabh ,gnats1 why are their larv and pup found in water1 #acad ,gnats1 why may fine weather be expected if they fly in large numbers1 #aaaj ,grasses1 why are they so widely diffused throughout nature1 #aaff ,grasshoppers1 why are they comparatively active in their pupa stages1 #abic ,gravitation1 what is the attraction of1 #ggd ,guano1 why is it a good manure1 #abfb ,gum resins1 what are they1 #abee ,gums1 vegetable1 what are they1 #abed ,gunpowder1 why does it explode1 #hjh ,gutta-percha1 whence is it obtained1 #abed ,,lesson ,,xxxv4 ,hail1 what is it1 #ddh ,hail1 why is it supposed that the electrical state of the clouds affects the formation of hail1 #ddi ,hail-storms1 why do they usually occur by day1 #dej ,hairs1 why do they grow across the passages of the nostrils1 #iic ,halo1 what is a1 #did ,halo1 what is the cause of a1 #die ,haloes1 why are they sometimes large1 and at other times small1 #dif ,haloes1 why do they foretell wet weather1 #dig ,hands1 why when we hold them against the candle do we perceive a crimson colour1 #ijf ,hay-stacks1 why do they sometimes take fire spontaneously1 #caf ,head1 why is it set upon the neck1 #ibh ,hearing1 why do people engaged in battle frequently lose their1 #iia ,hearing1 death of a dog through noise1 #iia ,heart1 why does it beat without any effort of the will1 #idh ,heart1 why is it placed in the chest of the body1 #icb ,heart and lungs1 why are they enclosed by ribs1 #icc ,heart1 why are its motions made independent of the will1 #iej ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4 ,heat1 what is it1 #ga ,heat1 what are the properties of1 #hf ,heat1 what is animal1 #hg ,heat1 what is latent1 #hh ,heat1 what is a conductor of1 #ajh ,heat1 what is a non-conductor of1 #aji ,heat1 how is it transmitted from one body to another1 #aai ,heat1 what is the radiation of1 #aad ,heat1 what is the reflection of1 #aae ,heat1 what is the absorption of1#aaf ,heat1 what is the convection of1 #aag ,heat1 what is the cause of the sensation1 #acd ,heat1 what becomes of that which the hearth-stone receives1 #acf ,heat1 how long does a substance feel hot or cold to the touch1 #aci ,hearth-rug1 and hearth-stone1 their relative states of heat1 #adb ,heat1 which are the better conductors1 fluids or solids1 #adf ,heat1 why are dense substances the best conductors1 #adg ,heat1 why are fluids bad conductors1 #adh ,heat1 why are woollen fabrics bad conductors1 #adi ,heat1 is air a good or bad conductor1 #aej ,,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,heat1 is water a good or a bad conductor1 #aea ,heat1 how do we know that air is not a good conductor1 #aee ,heat1 how do we know that water is not a good conductor1 #aef ,heat1 why are bottles of hot water wrapped in flannel1 #aeh ,heat1 why are hot rolls wrapped in flannel1 #aei ,heat1 what is the highest degree that man can bear1 #agf ,heat1 why may man endure a high degree without injury1 #agh ,heat1 why may we believe that the internal heat of the earth does not arise from terrestrious combustion1 #bbd ,heat1 what is the radiation of1 #aha ,heat1 what becomes of that which is radiated1 #ahf ,heat1 when does a body radiate it1 #ahd ,heat1 does the movement of the air affect the radiation of1 #ahh ,heat1 why will not the motion of air disturb the rays of1 #aij ,heat1 what bodies are good radiators of1 #aib ,heat1 what bodies are bad radiators of1 #aic ,heat1 why does water keep hot longer in a bright metal jug1 #aie ,,lesson ,,xxxviii4 ,heat1 may it be reflected1 #baj ,heat1 are light or dark-coloured bodies the best reflectors1 #baa ,heat what bodies are the best reflectors of1 #bab ,heat1 why is that which is reflected less intense than the primary1 #bad ,heat1 can it be reflected in any great intensity1 #bae ,heat1 are good reflectors also good absorbers1 #baf ,heat of the sun's rays1 how is it diffused1 #bai ,heat1 how do we know that it is absorbed by the earth1 #bbb ,heat1 do plants absorb it1 #bbe ,heat1 how is it diffused through the atmosphere1 #bcb ,heat1 how is it diffused through the ocean1 #bcc ,heat1 why is it developed during chemical changes1 #cab ,heat1 what are the sources of1 #cbc ,heat1 what is the accepted theory of1 #cbh ,heat1 what is the point at which it becomes luminous1 #ede ,heat1 what is the relative intensity of primary and reflected1 #edh ,heat to cold1 why does a sudden change bring on illness1 #ajac ,,lesson ,,xxxix4 ,heat of the earth1 ,humboldt's opinion upon the internal1 #acce ,heat of the earth1 ,hunt's opinion upon the internal1 #accf ,hear1 why do we1 #ihc ,hiccough1 why do we1 #ajbg ,hoar-frost1 what is it1 #cfb ,hoar-frost1 why does it foretell rain1 #cfc ,hoar-frosts1 why are they so frequent1 and black-frost so unfrequent1 #dab ,hogs1 why have ,indian large tusks turning back towards their eyes1 #ajfh ,hog1 why is the under-jaw of the1 shorter than the upper-jaw1 #ajci ,hoop1 why does it roll without falling to the ground1 #hfa ,hoop1 why does it when falling make several side revolutions1 #hfb ,horses1 why have they smaller stomachs proportionately than other animals1 #ajig ,horse1 why has it no gall-bladder1 #ajih ,horses1 why is the secretion of their eyes thick and glutinous1 #aacd ,horses and cattle1 why do they stretch out their necks1 and snuff the air on the approach of rain1 #aajf ,horse-chestnut1 why is it unfit for food1 #abjc ,hot1 when is a body said to be1 #gg ,,lesson ,,xl4 ,hot water1 why does it feel hotter in a metal jug than in an earthenware one1 #abf ,hot metal1 why does it feel hotter than hot wool1 #acj ,hot metal and hot wool1 which would become cold first1 #aca ,hot and cold bodies1 why1 when placed near each other1 do their temperatures approximate1 #cca ,humming-tops1 why do we see the figures painted on them before they spin1 but not while they are spinning1 #hac ,humming-top1 why does it make a noise1 #haj ,hydrogen1 what is it1 #di ,hydrogen1 will it support animal life1 #ej ,hydrogen1 will it support combustion1 #ea ,hydrogen1 why will it explode1 #eb ,hydrogen1 where does it chiefly exist1 #ed ,hydrogen1 how is it obtained from coal1 #eg ,hydrogen-gas1 is an escape of it dangerous to life1 #fc ,hydrogen-gas1 what proportion mixed with air will explode1 #fd ,hydrogen-gas1 does it rise or fall1 #ff ,,lesson ,,xli4 ,hydrogen-gas1 what proportion is dangerous if inhaled1 #fg ,hydrogen-gas1 what proportion may be recognised by its smell1 #fh ,hydrogen-gas1 may the use of it be considered dangerous1 #gj ,hydrogen-gas1 what sources of it are there in our dwellings1 #fi ,hydrogen1 why will it burst into flame when coals become heated1 #ajj ,hydrogen1 why does hi-carburetted burn with a whiter flame than common coal-gas1 #bha ,ice1 why are blocks of it wrapped in flannel in summer time1 #aed ,ice1 why does it melt1 #cbe ,ice1 why does it occupy more space than water1 #geb ,ignis fatuus1 what is it1 #cah ,incidence1 what is the line of1 #eai ,incidence1 what is the angle of1 #eba ,india-rubber1 where is it obtained1 #abed ,infants1 why have they no teeth1 #ajgj ,insects1 why have they a large number of eyes1 #ajhc ,insects1 why have they long projections from their heads1 #aajj ,insects1 why do they attach their eggs to leaves1 #abie ,insects1 why do they multiply so numerously1 #acjj ,,lesson ,,xlii4 ,insects1 what is a larva1 #acjb ,insects1 what is a pupa1 #acjc ,insects1 what is a chrysalis1 #acjd ,insects1 what is a nymph1 #acje ,insects1 why do they abound in decaying substances and in putrid waters1 #acac ,insects1 why do we see them in tanks of rain-water1 #acad ,iron articles1 why are they intensely cold in winter1 #acb ,iron articles1 why do they usually feel cool1 even when near a fire1 #acb ,ironing-box1 why does the iron sometimes become too large for the box to receive it1 #cce ,ironing-box1 why does the iron enter it1 when partially cooled1 #ccf ,iron1 why does it rust when wetted1 #gfh ,jew's-harps1 why do they give musical sounds1 #hea ,jew's-harps1 why will they not produce loud sounds unless they are applied to the mouth1 #heb ,jew's-harps1 why does the alteration of the form of the mouth alter the sounds1 #hec ,kangaroos and opossums1 why have they pouches in which they carry their young1 #aaci ,,lesson ,,xliii4 ,kettle-holders1 of what use are they1 #abh ,kettles and saucepans1 why should the lids and fronts of be kept bright1 #bjf ,kettles1 why do they become encrusted with stony deposits1 #gfb ,kite1 why does it rise in the air1 #hdj ,kite-string1 why does it feel hot when running through the hand1 #hda ,kite1 why does running with it cause it to ascend1 #hab ,knowledge1 why should we seek it1 #a ,knowledge1 why does the possession of it give us power1 #b ,knowledge1 what are the benefits of1 #c ,latent heat1 will the abstraction of it reduce the bulk of bodies1 #ccg ,latent heat1 how do we know that it exists in air1 #cci ,laugh1 why do we1 #ajbf ,ligaments1 what are they1 #icg ,ligaments1 why are they wrapped around the joints1 #ich ,light1 what is it1 #dea ,leaves1 why are they green1 #aaha ,leaves1 why do some turn yellow1 #aahf ,leaves1 why do they fall off in the autumn1 #aahg ,leaves1 how to make skeleton1 #aaei ,,lesson ,,xliv4 ,leaves1 why do they turn brown in autumn1 #aahc ,legs crossed1 why do we see the elevated leg move at regular intervals1 #iah ,light1 at what velocity does it travel1 #dec ,light1 how long does it take to travel from the sun to the earth1 #ded ,light what are the minor sources of1 #deg ,light1 what is a ray of1 #deh ,light1 what is a medium of1 #dei ,light1 what is a beam of1 #dfj ,light1 what is a pencil of1 #dfa ,light1 what is the radiant point1 #dfb ,light1 what is the focus of1 #dfc ,light1 what is the constitution of a ray of1 #dfd ,light1 why are its rays white1 #dfe ,light1 what are the estimated vibrations of1 #dfe ,light1 what is the refraction of1 #dgb ,light1 is it refracted when it falls upon a surface in a straight line1 #dgc ,light1 is the direction in which its rays are best dependent on the densities of the media1 #dgd ,light1 why does a spoon look bent when placed in a basin of water1 #dgg ,light1 why do we see the rays of the sun burst through the clouds in different directions1 #dgh ,,lesson ,,xlv4 ,light1 why is the apparent depth of water always deceptive1 #dgi ,light1 why are some substances opaque to it1 #eaa ,light1 how do we know that bodies reflect it in every direction1 #eag ,light1 meditation on1 #eag ,light and heat1 what are the differences between1 #edj ,light and heat1 are they combined in the sun's rays1 #eda ,light and heat1 how do we know that they are separate elements1 #edb ,light and heat1 in what respects are they similar1 #edc ,light and heat1 in what respects are they dissimilar1 #edd ,light1 what is polarized1 #edi ,light1 what is the velocity of artificial1 #edf ,light1 at what rate does the light of the stars travel1 #edg ,light1 why does it tarnish silver1 #eec ,light1 why does it affect colours1 #eed ,light1 why can pictures be taken by the sun's rays1 #eee ,light1 when does it scorch plants1 #eeh ,lightning1 what is the cause of1 #ehj ,lightning1 why does it sometimes become zigzag1 #ehf ,lightning1 why is it sometimes forked1 #ehg ,,lesson ,,xlvi4 ,lightning1 why is it sometimes like a lurid sheet1 #ehh ,lightning1 when is the flash straight1 #ehg ,lightning1 when does the flash appear blue1 #eia ,lightning1 why is it sometimes red1 at others blue1 yellow1 or white1 #eib ,lightning1 does it ever pass from the earth to the clouds1 #eic ,lightning1 does it pass from the clouds to the earth1 #eid ,lightning1 what is the force of1 #eie ,lightning1 why is it dangerous to stand near a tree during a storm1 #eif ,lightning1 why is it dangerous to sit near a fire during a storm1 #eih ,lightning1 why is it dangerous to be near water during a storm1 #eii ,lightning1 are iron houses dangerous1 #fjj ,lightning1 why does it seize upon bell wires1 c41 #fja ,lightning1 are umbrellas with steel frames dangerous1 #fjc ,lightning1 are iron bedsteads dangerous1 #fjd ,lightning1 what is the safest situation during a storm1 #fjf ,lightning-conductors1 do they attract electricity1 #fjh ,,lesson ,,xlvii4 ,lightning-conductors1 which is the best metal for1 #faj ,lightning-conductors1 why have they sometimes been found ineffective1 #fji ,lightning-conductors1 why should large buildings have several1 #faa ,lightning-conductors1 why should they have several branches penetrating the earth1 #fab ,lightning1 through what distance will its light penetrate1 #fbb ,lightning1 how may we calculate the distance of a storm1 #fbc ,lightning1 why is the flash generally succeeded by heavy rain1 #fbf ,lightning1 why is a flash generally followed by a gust of wind1 #fbg ,lime-kilns1 why do persons viewed through the hot air of1 appear distorted and tremulous1 #dhc ,limpets1 why is it difficult to strike them from rocks1 #ffe ,lips1 why are they red1 #iac ,liver1 what effect has it upon the circulation1 #ija ,looking-glass1 why1 if you hold one at an angle towards the sun1 will light be thrown in an opposite direction1 #bjh ,loss1 is there any such thing in the operations of nature1 #bgj ,,lesson ,,xlviii4 ,lungs1 why are they placed in the chest of the body1 #icb ,magnetism1 what is it1 #fcc ,magnetic bodies1 what are they1 #fcd ,magpie1 why is a single one said to foretell bad weather1 #aaah ,mahogany1 what is it1 #aaij ,mahogany and other woods1 why are there curious markings in1 #abgc ,man1 why is he born without a covering1 #ajcd ,man1 why has he no external appendage to his mouth1 #ajcg ,marbles1 why do they revolve when propelled along the ground1 #hah ,marbles1 why do striped appear to have more stripes when they are rolling than when at rest1 #hai ,marbles1 why do they rebound when dropped upon the pavement1 #hbj ,marbles1 why do they roll furthest upon smooth surfaces1 #hba ,marbles1 how many forces contribute to stop their rolling1 #hhb ,marbles1 why do the stripes upon them disappear when they are spinning rapidly1 #hbc ,marbles1 why are the rings upon them most perceptible at the poles1 while they are spinning1 #hbd ,,lesson ,,xlix4 ,matches1 do they ignite spontaneously1 #cac ,meat1 why is it sooner cooked when a tin screen is placed before the fire1 #bac ,metal1 why does it run like a fluid when melted1 #ccc ,mirrors1 why do we see our features therein1 #bji ,mirrors1 why do we see our faces in them1 #eab ,mirrors1 what has the glass of to do with the reflection1 #ead ,mirrors1 why do compound mirrors reflect many images of one object1 #eae ,mirrors1 why do reflections appear as far behind a mirror as the object reflected stands before it1 #eah ,mirage1 what is the cause of the1 #ebg ,mists1 what are they1 #cfh ,mists and fogs1 what is the difference between them1 #cfi ,mists end fogs1 why do they disappear at sunrise1 #cgj ,mistletoe1 why have its berries a thick viscid juice1 #aagg ,mistletoe1 how are its seeds conveyed to the bark of trees1 #aagh ,moles1 why have they hard flat feet1 #ajgd ,mole's fur1 why is it glossy and smooth1 #ajge ,,lesson ,l4 ,moles1 why are they permanent1 #ijd ,moles1 why may rain be expected when they throw up their hills1 #aaag ,monsoons1 what are they1 #fgb ,monsoons1 what is the cause of1 #fgc ,mornings1 why are they usually clear when frosty1 #daj ,mother-of-pearl1 what causes the rich tints displayed by1 #ejj ,moths1 why do they fly by night1 #abig ,moths1 why are their bodies generally covered with thick down1 #abbh ,moths1 why do they fly against the candle-flame1 #abii ,muscles1 how many are there in the human body1 #ida ,muscle1 what is the constitution of a1 #idb ,muscles1 what degree of strength do they possess1 #ide ,muscles1 what is the stimulus which sets them in action1 #idf ,mussels1 why have they tendinous cords proceeding from their shells1 #ajhf ,natural phenomena1 a world of miniature1 #fij ,nails1 why have we got them at the fingers' ends1 #ijh ,nails1 why is there a circular line of whitish colour at the root of the1 #iji ,,lesson ,,li4 ,nails1 why do white spots occur upon the1 #iaf ,needle1 why will it float if laid carefully upon water1 #gie ,nerves1 what are they1 #iea ,nervous system1 of what does it consist1 #iee ,nerve1 what is the constitution of a1 #ief ,nervous fluid1 what is the1 #ieg ,nerves1 how many kinds are there1 #ieh ,nerves of motion1 what are they1 #iei ,nerves of sensation1 what are they1 #ifj ,nerves of special sense1 what are1 #ifa ,nerves of sympathy1 what are the1 #ifb ,nights1 why are they usually cold when clear1 #daa ,nitrogen1 what is it1 #cc ,nitrogen1 where is it found1 #cd ,nitrogen1 could animals live in it1 #cg ,nitrogen1 is it taken into the blood from the air1 #dj ,nitrogen1 will it burn1 #dd ,nitrogen1 what becomes of that which is inhaled1 #df ,nitrogen1 where does it find a fresh supply of oxygen1 #dg ,nitrous oxide1 why does it excite the system1 #ch ,non-conductors of heat1 what substances are1 #aaa ,nostrils1 why are they directed downwards1 #iid ,,lesson ,,lii4 ,nose1 why is it placed over the mouth1 #iie ,nutmegs1 where are they produced1 #abcb ,ocean1 how is it heated1 #bcc ,oils and fats1 what are vegetable1 #abjd ,oils and fats1 animal1 why are they found most abundantly in cold climates1 #abje ,oils and fats1 vegetable1 why are they found most abundantly in hot countries1 #abjf ,opium1 what is it1 #abeh ,ostriches1 why have they small wings1 #ajca ,ostriches1 why are their feathers soft and downy1 #ajcb ,otters1 seals1 c41 why have they web-feet1 #ajfb ,owls1 why does their screeching denote change of weather1 #aaaa ,owls1 why does their moping foretell death1 #aaab ,oxen1 sheep1 deer1 c41 why do they ruminate1 #ajhh ,oxen1 and other quadrupeds1 why have they a tough elastic ligament in their necks1 #aach ,oxygen1 why is it necessary to life1 #e ,oxygen1 what is its union with carbon called1 #g ,,lesson ,,liii4 ,oxygen1 what is it1 #be ,oxygen of the air1 why does it not take fire1 #bh ,oxygen1 why do we know that it will not burn of itself1 #bi ,oxygen1 why do we know that it is necessary to our existence1 #cj ,oxygen1 where is it found1 #ca ,oxygen1 why is it mixed with nitrogen in the air1 #cb ,oxygen of water1 why does it not support fire1 #cjg ,oxygen1 in what way does man use it1 #geg ,ozone1 what is it1 #fcj ,ozone1 why do we know that electricity produces it1 #fca ,ozone1 what are the properties of1 #fcb ,paleness1 what is the cause of1 #iad ,palms1 what are their characteristics1 #abba ,paper held over a candle-flame1 why does it become scorched1 #bdd ,paper held below a candle-flame1 why does it scarcely become warm1 #bde ,paper1 why does it more readily ignite than wood1 #bid ,paper1 why1 if it is laid flat upon the fire1 will it char before it ignites1 #cjd ,,lesson ,,liv4 ,paper on a fire1 why will it ignite when you send a puff of air to it1 #cje ,parachutes1 why do they fall gradually to the ground1 #hcd ,parrots1 c41 why have they crooked bills1 #ajdg ,parrots1 why can they move their upper as well as their lower beak1 #ajdh ,particles of matter1 why do they draw near each other1 #ggf ,particles of matter1 why will they attach themselves to sealing-wax excited by friction1 #ggi ,pea and pin1 why do they rotate upon a jet of air blown through a tobacco-pipe1 #hde ,peg-top1 why does it make less noise than a humming-top1 #haa ,peg-top1 why does it sometimes hum1 and at other times not1 #hab ,pelican1 why has it a large pouch under its bill1 #ajic ,pepper1 where is it produced1 #abbi ,perspiration1 why does it cool the body1 #agc ,perspire1 why do we1 #ajji ,perspiration1 how is it formed1 #ajaj ,perspiration1 what is insensible1 #ajaa ,perspiration1 what is sensible1 #ajab ,,lesson ,,lv4 ,phosphorous1 why does it look luminous1 #id ,phosphorous1 does it ignite spontaneously when placed upon a hot surface1 #cad ,phosphorous1 why does it ignite when sprinkled with powdered charcoal1 #cae ,photographic pictures1 how does light produce them1 #eef ,photographic rooms1 why are they glazed with blue glass1 #eeg ,pith-tumblers1 why do they always pitch on one end1 #hfh ,planets1 how can man weigh them1 #ghe ,planets1 how can man measure their distances1 #ghf ,plants1 do they absorb heat1 #bbe ,plants1 how do we know that they absorb heat1 #bbf ,plants1 why do screens prevent frost from killing them1 #djj ,plants1 why1 if we cut across their stems1 do we see tubes arranged in parallel lines1 #aaei ,plants1 why do some droop and turn to the earth after sunset1 #aafg ,plants1 why are the seeds of many enclosed in rich juice or pulp1 #aagb ,plants1 why have some tough curly tendrils1 #aagc ,,lesson ,,lvi4 ,plants1 why have peas tendrils1 and beans none1 #aagd ,plants1 why have grasses1 c41 joints or knots in their stalks1 #aagf ,plants1 what is the circulation of sap in1 #aagi ,plants1 why does their sap ascend and descend1 #aahj ,plants1 why do they suffer from the smoke of cities1 #aahh ,plants1 why is it understood that some of them feel1 #aada ,plants1 why is it understood that some of them move1 #aadb ,plants1 of what elementary substances are they composed1 #aadc ,plants1 whence do they derive their elementary substances1 #aadd ,plants1 how do they obtain carbon1 #aade ,plants1 how do they obtain oxygen1 #aadf ,plants1 their decomposition of gases by day and by night1 #aadg ,plants1 how do they obtain hydrogen1 #aadg ,plants1 how do they obtain nitrogen1 #aadh ,plants1 how do they apply their elements to the formation of their structures1 #aadi ,plants1 how is their nutritive sap applied to their growth and nourishment1 #aaej ,,lesson ,,lvii4 ,plants1 why do they grow1 #aaed ,plants1 why if we break the stem of a hyacinth do we see a glutinous fluid exude1 #aaee ,plants1 why if we split the petal of a tulip do we see cells containing different colouring matters1 #aaef ,plants1 why if we break a pea-shell across do we find a transparent membrane1 #aaeg ,plants1 why if we cut through a cabbage-stump do we find a tough coating enveloping a cellular substance1 #aaeh ,plants1 why are their seeds formed within the corollas of flowers1 #aafh ,plants1 why does the flower of the poppy turn down during the early formation of seed1 #aafi ,plants1 why have those of the pea-tribe a folding blossom1 #aagj ,plants1 why are leaf-buds enclosed in scales which fall off as the leaves open1 #aaga ,plants1 what is meant by species of1 #abji ,plants1 what is meant by genus of1 #abaj ,plants1 progressive discovery of new species1 #abaa ,plants1 what are the three great classes of1 #abab ,,lesson ,,lviii4 ,plants1 what are the characteristics of exogenous1 #abac ,plants1 what are the characteristics of cryptogamus1 #abaf ,plants1 what are the effects of diverse climates upon1 #abdb ,plants1 what are the effects of altitude upon mountains1 #abdc ,plants1 what agencies influence their geographical distribution1 #abej ,plants1 what are the chief facts connected with the distribution of by man1 #abea ,plants1 why are herbaceous less solid than woody1 #abfe ,plants1 why are the stalks of herbaceous generally cylindrical1 #abff ,plants1 what are the stomata of1 #abfg ,plants1 why are their stomata generally on the underside of their leaves1 #abfh ,plants1 why have they pith in their centres1 #abfi ,porter1 why does bottled produce large volumes of froth1 #hja ,pulse1 why do we feel it beat1 #ijj ,quadrupeds1 geographical distribution of1 #acca ,quicksilver1 why does it reflect light from mirrors1 #eac ,,lesson ,,lix4 ,radiation1 why does scratching a bright metal surface increase its powers of1 #aii ,radiation of heat1 what benefits arise from it1 #dae ,radiation of light1 what is it1 #ejc ,radiation1 do all bodies radiate light1 #ejd ,rain1 what is it1 #daf ,rain1 does it ever occur without clouds1 #dag ,rain-drops1 why are they sometimes large1 and at other times small1 #dah ,rains1 at what seasons are they most prevalent1 #dai ,rainy days1 in what months of the year are they most frequent1 #dbj ,rainy days1 why are there more from ,september to ,march1 #dba ,rain1 in what part of the world does the greatest quantity fall1 #dbb ,rain1 in what part of the world do the heaviest rains fall1 #dbc ,rain1 in what part of the world does the least rain fall1 #dbd ,rainy days1 how many are there in a year1 #dbe ,rain1 in what part of ,england does the greatest quantity fall1 #dbf ,rains1 why do the heaviest occur in hot countries1 #dbg ,,lesson ,,lx4 ,rain1 why does the greatest quantity fall at the equator1 #dbh ,rain1 why are some parts of the earth without it1 #dbi ,rain1 why does it purify the air1 #dcc ,rainy localities1 why are mountainous countries more rainy than flat ones1 #dcd ,rain1 why does more fall by night than by day1 #dce ,rain1 why do bunches of dried sea-weed indicate its coming1 #dcf ,rain1 why do weather-toys foretell its coming1 #dcg ,rain1 the ,capuchin toy2 mysterious walk of a wooden horse1 #dch ,rain1 why does ladies' hair drop out of curl as rain approaches1 #dch ,rain1 why is it said to be coming1 when the mountains are putting on their night-caps1 #dci ,rainbow1 what causes a1 #dhf ,rainbow1 why does it exhibit colours1 #dhg ,rainbows1 why are there sometimes two1 #dhh ,rainbows1 why are the columns of the secondary bow1 arranged in the reverse order of those of the primary1 #dhi ,,lesson ,,lxi4 ,rainbow colours1 why do glass lustres and chandeliers exhibit them1 #dih ,rainbows1 why are the colours of the secondary bow fainter than those of the primary1 #dia ,rainbow1 what is a lunar1 #dib ,rainbow1 why is a lunar bow fainter than the solar1 #dic ,rainbow1 why is one in the morning the shepherd's warning1 #ech ,rainbow1 why is one at night the shepherd's delight1 #eci ,refraction of light1 what is it1 #dgb ,refraction and reflection of light1 what is the difference1 #ejb ,reflections1 why are they reversed1 #dij ,reflection1 why do black bodies reflect any light1 #eje ,reflection1 why does a window-pane appear to reflect better by night than by day1 #eaf ,reflection1 what is the line of1 #ebj ,reflection1 what is the angle of1 #ebb ,repulsion1 what is it1 #gib ,respiration1 why does the chest expand when we breathe1 #hhi ,respiration1 how does blood communicate with the air in the lungs1 #hij ,rest1 why does it invigorate us1 #ajah ,rice1 where is it cultivated1 #abai ,rosewood1 what is it1 #aaia ,,lesson ,,lxii4 ,saliva1 why does saliva enter the mouth while we are eating1 #hgb ,sea1 why is it salt1 #gfd ,sea1 what is the estimated amount of salt in the1 #gfe ,sea1 what is the depth of the1 #gff ,sea-gulls1 why are they numerous in fine weather1 #aaai ,sea-gulls1 why do they fly over the land on the approach of stormy weather1 #aabj ,sea-crow1 why is its lower bill longer than the upper1 #aace ,sealing-wax1 why does rubbing it attract to it small particles of matter1 #efe ,see1 why do we1 #ifc ,seeds1 why are they generally enveloped in hard cases1 #aaeb ,seeds1 why do they throw out roots before they form leaves1 #aaec ,seeds1 why does the leaf-germ come up to the light and the root-germ penetrate the earth1 #abhe ,seeds1 why are they indigestible1 #abhf ,see-saw1 why may a little boy balance a larger boy1 #hfc ,see-saw1 why does the little boy sink to the earth1 when the larger boy kicks the ground1 #hfa ,,lesson ,,lxiii4 ,see-saw1 why may the little boy keep the larger one up1 when once he is up1 #hfd ,shadows1 what is the cause of1 #ejh ,shadows1 why is there some light where shadows fall1 #eaj ,shadows1 why do they lengthen as the sun goes down1 #ebf ,shuttle-cock1 why does it travel slowly through the air1 #hcf ,shuttle-cock1 why do we hear a noise when we strike it with the battledore1 #hcg ,sight1 why are two persons able to see each other1 #eea ,sight1 why can we see so many upon the small retina1 #iff ,sight1 why are we able to see at long or short distances1 #igd ,sigh1 why do we1 #ajbe ,silica1 what is it1 #abfj ,silk1 what is it1 #abjj ,skin1 why does a chill of the produce inflammatory action in the lungs1 #ajad ,sky1 what is it1 #ecj ,sky1 why is it red at sunset1 #ecb ,sleet1 what is it1 #ddg ,sleep1 what is it1 #ajai ,smell1 why do we1 #iib ,smoke1 what is it1 #ajb ,smoke1 why is there so little when the fire is red1 #aje ,smoke1 what is it1 #bhi ,,lesson ,,lxiv4 ,smoke1 why do fresh coals increase the quantity of1 #bia ,smoke1 why does it issue in folds and curls1 #fcb ,smoke1 why does it ascend in mild and fine weather1 #fhi ,snails1 why can they move in an inverted position1 #fff ,snails1 where do they obtain their shells1 #acjf ,snails1 why do their shells grow1 #acjg ,snails1 why are their shells spiral1 #acjh ,snails1 why have they four tentacula attached to their heads1 #acji ,snails1 why are they able to move without feet1 #acaj ,snails1 why do we see none in the winter time1 #acaa ,snails1 why can they live in sealed shells1 #acab ,sneeze1 why do we1 #ajbd ,snipes and woodcocks1 why have they long1 tapering bills1 #ajdb ,snore1 why do we1 #ajbh ,snow1 why does it keep the earth warm1 #afj ,snow1 why is it a good non-conductor of heat1 #afb ,snow1 what is it1 #ddj ,snow1 why is it white1 #dda ,,lesson ,,lxv4 ,snow1 why is it warm1 though white garments are cool1 #ddb ,snow1 why is it always on the tops of high mountains1 #ddc ,snow-line1 what is meant by the1 #dde ,snow1 what is red1 #ddf ,soda-water1 why does it effervesce1 #hjb ,soils1 why are clayey unfavourable to vegetation1 #aafj ,soils1 why are sandy unfavourable to vegetation1 #aafb ,soils1 why are chalk unfavourable to vegetation1 #aafb ,soils1 why are mixed favourable to vegetation1 #aafc ,soils1 why do farmers manure their land1 #aafe ,soot1 why should it be prevented from accumulating at the bottom and sides of saucepans1 #bje ,soot1 what is it1 #bij ,sound1 what is it1 #gaf ,sounds1 what causes the air to produce1 #gag ,sounds1 how do we know that they are produced by vibrations1 #gah ,sounds1 how do we know that without air there would be none1 #gai ,sounds1 how are the vibrations of sonorous bodies imparted to the air1 #gbj ,,lesson ,,lxvi4 ,sounds1 how rapidly do the vibrations of travel1 #gba ,sounds1 do all sounds travel at the same rate1 #gbb ,sounds1 why are bells and glasses stopped from ringing by touching them with the finger1 #gbc ,sounds1 why does a cracked bell give discordant1 #gbd ,sounds1 why do we see the flash of a gun before we hear the report1 #gbe ,sound1 why does the marching of long ranks of soldiers appear to be irregular1 #gbf ,sounds1 what are the numbers of vibrations that produce various1 #gbg ,sounds1 why does the length of a wire or string influence the sounds it produces1 #gbh ,sound1 why does the tension of a wire or string affect its vibrations1 #gbi ,sound1 why are some notes low and solemn1 and others high and quick1 #gcj ,sound1 why can our voices be heard at a greater distance when we speak through tubes1 #gca ,sound1 is air a good conductor1 #gcb ,sounds1 why can we hear them at a greater distance on water than on land1 #gcc ,,lesson ,,lxvii4 ,sound1 why do sea-shells give a murmuring noise when held to the ear1 #gcd ,sound1 why can people in the arctic regions converse when more than a mile apart1 #gce ,sounds1 why do savages lay their heads upon the earth to catch sounds1 #gcf ,sounds1 why can church clocks be heard striking more plainly at some times than at others1 #gcg ,sound1 why may the scratching of a pin at one end of a long pole be heard at the opposite extremity1 #gch ,sound1 why is the hearing of deaf persons assisted by ear-trumpets1 #gci ,sounding-boards1 why are they used to improve the hearing of congregations1 #gdj ,sounds1 why1 when we are walking under arches or tunnels1 do our voices appear louder1 #gdg ,spark1 what causes it when a horse's shoe strikes against a stone1 #cdj ,specific gravity1 what is it1 #ghi ,spiders1 why have they the power of spinning webs1 #ajhb ,spiders1 why may fine weather be expected when they build their webs1 #aajh ,,lesson ,,lxviii4 ,spiders1 why may wet weather be expected when they hide1 #aaji ,spiders1 why may wet weather be expected when they break off their webs and remove them1 #aaac ,spider1 why1 if the webs of the gossamer fly about in autumn1 may east winds be expected1 #aabd ,spiders1 gossamer1 why can they float through the air1 #aabe ,spinal cord1 what is the1 #ieb ,spinal cord1 why is it placed in the back-bone1 #iec ,spinal-cord1 how do the branches pass out from it1 #ied ,spontaneous combustion1 what substances are liable to it1 #cag ,spontaneous combustion1 has it ever occurred in living bodies1 #cai ,spontaneous combustion1 why does it occur in the case of the drunkard1 #cbj ,spoon-bill1 why has it a long expanded bill1 lined with sharp1 muscular points1 #ajde ,spoon-bill1 why has it long legs1 #ajdf ,squint1 why do some people1 #ifg ,starch1 what is it1 #abjb ,star-lit nights1 why are they usually colder than cloudy nights1 #cej ,stars1 why do they twinkle1 #dhd ,,lesson ,,lxix4 ,stars1 why does their twinkling foretell bad weather1 #dhe ,steam1 why does it issue from the spout of a kettle1 #gej ,storms1 what is the cause of1 #fgf ,storms1 why do the most violent occur in and near the tropics1 #fgg ,straw1 why is it frequently used for manure1 #abfd ,sucker1 why does it raise a stone1 #hfj ,sugar1 what is it1 #aaig ,sugar-cane1 where is it cultivated1 #abbf ,sun1 what is its distance from the earth1 #deb ,sun1 what is the1 #dee ,sun1 from what does its luminosity arise1 #def ,sun and moon1 why do they appear smaller when near the meridian1 than when near the horizon1 #ebe ,sun1 why do we see it before sunrise1 and after sunset1 #dhb ,sun1 what is the magnitude of the1 #ghg ,suppers1 why do they cause dreams1 #ajba ,swallows1 why may wet weather be expected when they fly low1 #aajd ,syringe1 why does pressing in the handle force out a jet of water1 #hef ,syringe1 why will not the water run out1 unless the handle is pressed in1 #heg ,,lesson ,,lxx4 ,syringe1 why will the water leak out1 but not run1 #heh ,syringe1 why cannot the handle be pressed in1 if a finger is kept on the orifice1 #hei ,tannin1 what is it1 #abeg ,taste1 why do we1 #iif ,taste1 why are some substances sweet1 others sour1 c41 #iig ,taste1 why is it most powerful after substances have been a little while in the mouth1 #iih ,taste1 why if we put out the tongue and touch it with a nub of sugar1 shall we perceive no taste1 #iii ,taste1 why when we draw in the tongue do we then perceive the taste of the sugar1 #ajjj ,taste1 through what nerves are we made sensible of the contact of sugar with the tip of the tongue1 #ajja ,taste1 why do connoisseurs of wines hold wine in their mouths a few seconds when judging of it1 #ajjb ,taste1 why do they also pass the fumes of the wine through their nostrils1 #ajjc ,tea-pot1 why does a bright metal one produce better tea than a black earthenware1 #bjj ,,lesson ,,lxxi4 ,tea-pot1 if the earthenware one were set by the fire1 why would it then make the best tea1 #bja ,tea1 what is it1 #aaib ,tea1 where is it cultivated1 #abbe ,tears1 what is the cause of1 #igg ,temperature1 why do some articles feel colder than others1 #ach ,temperature1 why does it feel warmer after a frost has set in1 #afc ,tendons1 what are they1 #ici ,tendons1 why are they used to attach the muscles to the bones1 #idj ,teneriffe1 what are the botanical regions of the ,peak of1 #abda ,thaumatrope1 why do the figures on appear to dance1 #hfi ,thaw1 why is it colder when a thaw takes place1 #afd ,thermometer1 what is the1 #gji ,thermometer1 why does it indicate degrees of heat1 #gaj ,thermometer1 why are there ,reaumur's and ,fahrenheit's1 #gaa ,thermometer and barometer1 what is the difference1 #gab ,thermometer1 in what season of the year does it vary most1 #gae ,thunder1 what is it1 #fad ,thunder-peal1 why is it sometimes loud and continuous1 #faf ,,lesson ,,lxxii4 ,thunder-peal1 why is it sometimes broken and unequal1 #fag ,thunder-peal1 why is it sometimes a low1 grumbling noise1 #fah ,thunder-peal1 why does it sometimes follow immediately after the flash of lightning1 #fbj ,thunder1 through what distance will the sound travel1 #fba ,thunderbolt1 what is a1 #fbh ,tinder-box1 the history of a1 #cdj ,toasting-fork1 why has it a wooden handle1 #abd ,tops1 why do they stand erect while they spin1 but fall when they stop1 #had ,tops1 why do they sleep1 #haf ,tops1 why do they cease to spin1 #hag ,touch1 in what part of the body is the sense of most perfect1 #ajje ,toxicologists1 what are they1 #fa ,trap and ball1 why is the ball propelled upward1 when the trigger is struck1 #hff ,trees1 what are the estimated ages of1 #abad ,trees1 what are the northern limits of1 #abcg ,trees1 why are they covered with bark1 #abgj ,,lesson ,,lxxiii4 ,trees1 why have those with large trunks a great number of leafy branches1 #abgd ,trees1 why have poplars comparatively few leaves1 #abge ,trees1 why had the mammoth comparatively few leaves1 #abgf ,trees1 why have oaks an abundance of leaves1 #abgg ,trees1 why are their trunks generally round1 #abgh ,twilight1 what is the cause of1 #dhb ,vacuum1 what is a1 #fdi ,vacuum1 is it possible to obtain a perfect1 #fej ,vegetables1 have they any heat1 #ij ,vegetable structures1 of what do they consist1 #aaea ,vegetables1 why do farmers sow different crops in rotation1 #aafd ,vegetables1 why are the hearts of cabbages1 c41 pale yellow1 #aahb ,vegetable productions1 why are they so widely diffused1 #aahi ,vegetable eaters1 why do they feed so continually1 #ajia ,vegetation1 geographical distribution of1 #abjh ,vegetation1 what are the characteristics of tropical1 #abah ,vegetation1 what are the changes in on quitting the tropics1 #abcb ,,lesson ,,lxxiv4 ,vegetation1 what are the characteristics of1 upon approaching the polar zones1 #abcd ,vegetation1 what are the characteristics of mountain1 #abch ,vines1 where are their favourable climates1 #abcc ,walking1 why does it make us warmer1 #bf ,water1 what becomes of that formed by combustion1 #eh ,water1 is it a good or bad conductor of heat1 #aea ,water1 why does it extinguish fire1 #cjf ,water1 why1 when a blacksmith thrusts a hot iron into a tank1 do we perceive a peculiar smell1 #cji ,water1 why does it freeze1 #cbd ,water1 why does it become steam1 #cbf ,water1 how many degrees of latent heat are hidden in its several states1 #cbg ,water1 why does it expand when freezing1 while bodies generally contract with cold and expand with heat1 #cda ,water1 why does it never freeze to a great depth1 #cdb ,water1 how much deeper is it than it appears to be1 #dhj ,,lesson ,,lxxv4 ,water1 why has the exceptional law1 by which it expands when freezing1 been ordained1 #cdc ,water1 why can we seldom succeed in the first attempt to touch anything lying at the bottom of1 #dha ,water1 what causes it to flow from a pump1 #fea ,water1 why does it run through a syphon1 #fee ,water1 what is it1 #gdh ,water1 why does it become solid when it freezes1 #gea ,water1 why does it boil1 #gec ,water1 what proportion of the earth's surface is covered by it1 #eed ,water1 why does it dissolve substances1 #geh ,water1 why does hot dissolve more readily than cold1 #gei ,water1 why is it sometimes hard1 #gfj ,water1 why is rain-water soft1 #gfa ,water1 why is it difficult to wash in hard1 #gfc ,waters1 why are some impregnated with mineral matters1 #gfg ,water1 why does stagnant become putrid1 #gfi ,water1 is there danger attending drinking it on account of animalcul1 #ggj ,water1 what are the means by which it may be purified1 #gga ,,lesson ,,lxxvi4 ,water1 what is the pressure of1 #gge ,water1 why will a drop upon the blade of a knife leave a dark spot1 #ggg ,water1 why does it roll in agitated globules when dropped upon hot iron1 #gif ,water1 why does oil float upon it1 #gig ,water1 why is spring fresh and invigorating1 #hjc ,water1 why is boiled flat and insipid1 #hjd ,weather1 why does a yellow sunset foretell wet1 #ecd ,weather1 why does a red sunset foretell fine1 #ece ,weather1 why does a red sunrise foretell wet1 #ecf ,weather1 why does a grey sunrise foretell dry1 #ecg ,weather1 barometrical indications of1 #gjh ,whales1 why have they a large development of oily matter about their heads1 #ajfh ,whale1 why has it feathery bones extending from its jaws1 #ajie ,whales1 why are1 their eyes provided with very thick coats1 #aaca ,wheat1 why do the ears stand up by day and turn down by night1 #aage ,wheat1 what is it1 #aaii ,,lesson ,,lxxvii4 ,wheat1 what is the northern limit of1 #abce ,wheat1 why is silica diffused over its stem1 #abfa ,wheat-crops1 why do they greatly exhaust the soil1 #abfc ,whirlwinds1 what are they1 #fgh ,why do we see1 #ifc ,why do we wink1 #ige ,why do we weep1 #igg ,why do we hear1 #ihc ,why do we taste1 #ihf ,why do we smell1 #iib ,why do we feel1 #ajjd ,why do we sleep1 #ajai ,why do we dream1 #ajbj ,why do suppers produce dreaming1 #ajba ,why do we yawn1 #ajbb ,why do we cough1 #ajbc ,why do we sneeze1 #ajbd ,why do we sigh1 #ajbe ,why do we laugh1 #ajbf ,why do we hiccough1 #ajbg ,why do we snore1 #ajbh ,why do we feel hungry1 #accg ,why do we feel thirsty1 #acch ,wick of a candle1 why does it turn black as it burns1 #bbe ,wick of a candle1 why is there a spark generally at the end of it1 #bef ,will-o'-the-wisp1 what is it1 #cah ,winds1 what is the cause of1 #bcd ,winds1 why are east usually dry1 #chd ,winds1 why are west usually wet1 #che ,winds1 why are north usually cold and dry1 #chf ,,lesson ,,lxxviii4 ,winds1 why are south warm and rainy1 #chg ,wind1 what is it1 #fff ,winds1 what are the velocities of1 #ffg ,winds1 what are trade1 #ffh ,winds1 what is the cause of trade1 #ffi ,winds1 why do trade winds blow from east to west1 #fgj ,winds1 what determines the character of1 #fgd ,wind-mills1 why do their wings turn round1 #fij ,windows1 why do they reflect the sun's rays in the evening1 #ebc ,windows1 why do they not reflect the sun's rays at noon1 #ebd ,wood1 why does decayed look luminous1 #ie ,wood1 burning at one end1 why does it not feel hot at the other1 #aah ,wood1 why is it a bad conductor of heat1 #aai ,wood that is green1 why does it hiss and steam when burning1 #bhe ,wood1 why does it ignite less readily than paper1 #big ,woodcocks and snipes1 why have they nerves running down to the tip of their bills1 #ajdc ,woodpeckers1 why do they tap at old trees1 #ajff ,woollens1 why are they worn in winter1 #aff ,wool1 what is it1 #abja ,yawn1 why do we1 #ajbf ,zoological geography1 #acbf ,verse3 ,god looked down from heaven upon the children of men1 to see if there were any that did understand that did see ,god4--,,psalm ,,liii4 ,,the ,,reason ,,why4 ,,chapter ,i4 #a4 ,why should we seek knowledge8 ,because it assists us to comprehend the goodness and power of ,god4 ,and it gives us power over the circumstances and associations by which we are surrounded3 the proper exercise of this power will greatly promote our happiness4 #b4 ,why does the possession of knowledge enable us to exercise power over surrounding circumstances8 ,knowledge enables us to understand that1 in order to live healthily1 we require to breathe fresh and pure air4 ,it also tells us that animal and vegetable substances1 undergoing decay1 poison the air1 though we may not be able to see1 or to smell1 or otherwise discover the existence of such poison4 ,knowing this1 we become careful to remove from our presence all such matters as would tend to corrupt the atmosphere4 ,this is only one of the countless instances in which knowledge gives us power over surrounding circumstances4 #c4 ,name some other instances in which knowledge gives us power4 ,knowledge of ,geography and of ,navigation enables the mariner to guide his ship across the trackless deep1 and to reach the sought-for port1 though he had never before been on its shores4 ,knowledge of ,chemistry enables us to separate or to combine the various substances found in nature4 ,thus we obtain useful and precious metals from what at first appeared to be useless stones2 transparent glass from pebbles1 through which no light could pass2 soap from oily substances2 and gas from solid bodies4 ,verse3 ,give instruction to a wise man1 and he will be yet wiser2 teach a just man1 and he will increase in learning4--,,proverbs ,,ix4 ,knowledge of ,medicine enables the physician to overcome the ravages of disease1 and to save suffering patients from sinking prematurely to the grave4 ,knowledge of ,anatomy and of ,surgery enables the surgeon to bind up dangerous fractures and wounds1 and to remove1 even from the internal parts of bodies1 ulcers and diseased formations that would otherwise be fatal to life4 ,knowledge of ,mechanics enables man to increase his power by the construction of machines4 ,the steam-ship crossing the ocean in opposition to wind and tide1 the railway locomotive travelling at #fj miles an hour1 and the steam-hammer beating blocks of iron into useful shapes1 are evidences of the power which man acquires through a knowledge of mechanics4 ,knowledge of ,electricity enables man to stand in comparative safety amid the awful war of the elements4 ,lightning1 the offspring of electricity1 has a tendency to strike upon lofty objects by which it may be attracted4 ,by its mighty powers churches or houses may be instantly levelled with the dust4 ,but man1 knowing that electricity is strongly attracted by particular substances1 raises over lofty buildings rods of steel communicating with bars that descend into the ground4 ,the lightning1 rushing with indescribable force toward the steeple1 is attracted by the bar of steel1 and conducted harmlessly to the earth4 ,man may thus be said to take even lightning by the hand1 and to divert its destroying force by the aid of ,knowledge4 ,and in countless other instances ,knowledge is ,power4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 #d4 ,why do we breathe air8 ,because the air contains oxygen1 which is necessary to life4 #e4 ,why is oxygen necessary to life8 ,because it combines with the carbon of the blood1 and forms carbonic acid gas4 ,verse3 ,be not as the horse1 or as the mule1 which have no understanding3 whose mouth must be held with the bit and bridle4--,,psalm ,,xxxii4 #f4 ,why is this combination necessary8 ,because we are so created that the substances of our bodies are constantly undergoing change1 and this resolving of solid matter into a gaseous form1 is the plan appointed by our ,creator to remove the matter called carbon from our systems4 #g4 ,why do our bodies feel warm8 ,because1 in the union of oxygen and carbon1 heat is developed4 #h4 ,what is this union of oxygen and carbon called8 ,it is called combustion1 which1 in chemistry1 means the decomposition of substances1 and the formation of new combinations1 accompanied by heat2 and sometimes by light1 as well as heat4 #i4 ,what is formed by the union of oxygen and carbon8 ,carbonic acid gas4 #aj4 ,what becomes of this carbonic acid gas8 ,it is sent out of our bodies by the compressure of the lungs1 and mingles with the air that surrounds us4 #aa4 ,is this carbonic acid gas heavier or lighter than the air8 ,pure carbonic acid gas is the heaviest of all the gases4 ,that which is sent out of the lungs is not pure1 because the whole of the air taken into the lungs at the previous inspiration has not been deprived of its oxygen1 and the nitrogen is returned4 ,therefore the breath sent out of the lungs may be said to consist of air1 with a large proportion of carbonic acid gas4 #ab4 ,what is the composition of air in its natural state8 ,it consists of oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic acid gas1 in the proportions of oxygen #bj volumes1 nitrogen #gi volumes1 and carbonic acid gas #a volume4 ,it also contains a slight trace of watery vapour4 #ac4 ,what is the state of the air after it has once been breathed8 ,it has parted with about one-sixth of its oxygen1 and taken up an equivalent of carbonic acid4 ,and were the same air to be breathed six times successively1 it would have parted with all its oxygen1 and could no longer sustain life4 ,verse3 ,a prudent man forseeth the evil1 and hideth himself2 but the simple pass on1 and are punished4--,,proverbs ,,xxvii4 #ad4 ,is the impure air sent out of the lungs lighter or heavier than common air8 ,at first1 being rarefied by warmth1 it is lighter4 ,but1 if undisturbed1 it would become heavier as it cooled1 and would descend4 #ae4 ,why is it proper to have beds raised about two feet from the ground8 ,because at night1 the bed-room being closed1 the breath of the sleeper impregnates the air of the room with carbonic acid gas1 which1 descending1 lies in its greatest density near to the floor4 #af4 ,what are the chief sources of carbonic acid gas8 ,the vegetable kingdom 7as will be hereafter explained71 the combustion of substances composed chiefly of carbon1 the breathing of animals1 and the decomposition of carbonic compounds4 #ag4 ,is breathing a kind of combustion8 ,it is4 ,in the breathing of animals1 the burning of coals1 or of wood1 or candles1 c41 similar changes occur4 ,the oxygen of the air combines with the carbon of the substance said to be burnt1 and forms carbonic acid gas1 which unfits the air for the purposes of either breathing or of burning1 until it has been renewed by admixture with the air4 #ah4 ,what is carbon8 ,it is one of the elementary bodies1 and is very abundant throughout nature4 ,it abounds mostly in vegetable substances1 but is also contained in animal bodies1 and in minerals4 ,the form in which it is most familiar to us is that of charcoal1 which is carbon almost pure4 #ai4 ,what is meant by an elementary body8 ,an elementary body is one of those substances in which chemistry is unable to discover more than one constituent4 ,for instance1 the chemist finds that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen4 ,water is therefore a compound body4 ,but carbon consists of carbon only1 and therefore it is called a simple1 or elementary body4 ,verse3 ,where no wood is1 there the fire goeth out3 so where there is no tale-bearer1 the strife ceaseth4--,,proverbs ,,xxvi4 #bj4 ,why is it dangerous to burn charcoal in rooms8 ,because1 being composed of carbon that is nearly pure1 its combustion gives off a large amount of carbonic acid gas4 #ba4 ,what is the effect of carbonic acid gas upon the human system8 ,it induces drowsiness and stupor1 which1 if not relieved by ventilation1 would speedily cause death4 #bb4 ,what is the reason that people feel drowsy in crowded rooms8 ,because the large amount of carbonic acid gas given off with the breaths of the people1 makes the air poisonous and oppressive4 #bc4 ,what other causes of drowsiness are there8 ,the candles1 gas1 or fires that may be burning in the rooms where people are assembled4 ,three candles produce as much carbonic acid gas as one human being2 and it is probable that one gas-light produces as much carbonic acid gas as two persons4 #bd4 ,have people ever been poisoned by their own breaths8 ,in the reign of ,george the ,second1 the ,rajah of ,bengal took some ,english prisoners in ,calcutta1 and put #adf of them into a place which was called the ,black ,hole4 ,this place was only #ah feet square by #af feet high1 and ventilation was provided for only by two small grated windows4 ,one hundred and twenty-three of the prisoners died in the night1 and most of the survivors were afterwards carried off by putrid fevers4 ,many other instances have occurred1 but this one is the most remarkable4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 #be4 ,what is oxygen8 ,oxygen is one of the most widely diffused of the elementary substances4 ,it is a gaseous body4 ,verse3 ,stand in awe and sin not3 commune with your own heart upon your bed and be still--,,psalm ,,iv4 #bf4 ,why do persons who are walking1 or riding upon horseback feel warmer than when they are sitting still8 ,because as they breathe more rapidly1 the combustion of the carbon in the blood is increased by the oxygen inhaled1 and greater heat is developed4 #bg4 ,why does the fire burn more brightly when blown by a bellows8 ,because it receives1 with every current of air1 a fresh supply of oxygen1 which unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the coals1 causing more rapid combustion and increased heat4 #bh4 ,why does not the oxygen of the air sometimes take fire8 ,because oxygen1 by itself1 is incombustible4 ,the wick of a candle1 which retains the slightest spark1 being immersed in oxygen1 will instantly burst into a brilliant flame2 and even a piece of iron wire made red-hot1 and dipped in oxygen1 will burn rapidly and brilliantly4 ,oxygen1 though non-combustible of itself1 is the most powerful supporter of combustion4 #bi4 ,why do we know that oxygen will not burn of itself8 ,because when we immerse a burning substance into a jar of oxygen1 it immediately burns with intense brilliancy2 but directly it is withdrawn from the oxygen1 the intensity of the flame diminishes1 and the oxygen which remains is unaffected4 #cj4 ,why do we know that oxygen is necessary to our existence8 ,because animals placed in any kind of gas1 or in any combination of gases1 where oxygen does not exist1 die in a very short time4 #ca4 ,where is oxygen found8 ,it is found in the air1 mixed with nitrogen2 in water combined with hydrogen2 in the tissues of vegetables and animals2 in our blood2 and in various compounds called1 from the presence of oxygen1 oxides4 #cb4 ,why is the oxygen of the air mixed so largely with nitrogen8 ,because oxygen in any greater proportion than that in which it is found in the atmosphere1 would be too exciting to the animal system4 ,animals placed in pure oxygen die in great agony from fever and excitement1 amounting to madness4 ,verse3 ,as vinegar is to the teeth1 and as smoke to the eyes1 so is the sluggard to him that sent him4--,,proverbs ,x4 #cc4 ,what is nitrogen8 ,nitrogen is an elementary body in the form of gas4 #cd4 ,where is nitrogen found8 ,it is chiefly found in the air1 of which it constitutes #gi out of #ajj volumes4 ,it may be mixed with oxygen in various proportions2 but in the atmosphere it is uniformly diffused4 ,it is found in most animal matter1 except fat and bone4 ,it is not a constituent of the vegetable acids1 but it is found in most of the vegetable alkalies4 #ce4 ,what are acids8 ,acids are a numerous class of chemical bodies4 ,they are generally sour4 ,usually 7though there are exceptions7 they have a great affinity for water1 and are easily soluble therein2 they unite readily with most alkalies1 and with the various oxides4 ,all acids are compounds of two or more substances4 ,acids are found in all the kingdoms of nature4 #cf4 ,what are alkalies8 ,alkalies are a numerous class of substances that have a great affinity for1 and readily combine with1 acids1 forming salts4 ,they exercise peculiar influence upon vegetable colours1 turning blues green1 and yellows reddish brown4 ,but they will restore the colours of vegetable blues which have been reddened by acids2 and1 on the other hand1 the acids restore vegetable colours that have been altered by the alkalies4 ,alkalies are found in all the kingdoms of nature4 #cg4 ,could animals live in nitrogen8 ,no2 they would immediately die4 ,but a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen1 in equal volumes1 constitutes nitrous oxide1 which gives a pleasurable excitement to those who inhale it1 causing them to be merry1 almost to insanity2 it has1 therefore1 been called laughing gas4 #ch4 ,why does nitrous oxide produce this effect8 ,because it introduces into the body more oxygen than can be consumed4 ,it1 therefore1 deranges the nervous system1 and being a powerful stimulant1 gives an unnatural activity to the nervous centres and the brain4 ,verse3 ,lord1 make me know mine end1 and the measure of my days1 that ,i may know how frail ,i am4--,,psalm ,,xxxix4 #ci4 ,in what proportions are the atmospheric gases found in the blood8 ,the mean quantity of the gases contained in the human blood has been found to be equal to #a-ajth of its whole volume4 ,in venous blood1 the average quantity of carbonic acid is about #a-ahth1 that of oxygen about #a-heth1 and that of nitrogen about #a-ajjth of the volume of the blood4 ,in arterial blood their quantities have been found to be carbonic acid about #a-adth1 oxygen about #a-chth1 and nitrogen about #a-gbnd4 #dj4 ,then is nitrogen taken into the blood from the air8 ,such a supposition is highly improbable4 ,it is probably derived from nitrogenised food1 just as carbonic acid is derived from carbonised food4 #da4 ,what is venous blood8 ,venous blood is that which is returning through the veins of the body from the organs to which it has been circulated4 #db4 ,what is arterial blood8 ,arterial blood is that which is flowing from the heart through the arteries to nourish the parts where those arteries are distributed4 #dc4 ,what is the difference between venous and arterial blood8 ,venous blood contains more carbonic acid1 and less oxygen and nitrogen than arterial blood4 #dd4 ,will nitrogen burn8 ,it will not burn1 nor will it support combustion4 #de4 ,what is the difference between burning and supporting combustion8 ,oxygen gas will not burn of itself1 but it aids the decomposition by fire of bodies that are combustible4 ,it is therefore called a supporter of combustion4 ,but hydrogen gas1 though it burns of itself will extinguish a flame immersed in it4 ,it is therefore said to be a body which will burn1 but will not support combustion4 ,verse3 ,as coals are to burning coals1 and wood to fire2 so is a contentious man to kindle strife4--,,proverbs ,,xxvi4 #df4 ,what becomes of the nitrogen that is inhaled with the air8 ,it is thrown off with the breath1 mixed with carbonic acid gas1 and flies away to be renewed by a fresh supply of oxygen4 #dg4 ,where does nitrogen find a fresh supply of oxygen8 ,in the atmosphere4 ,nitrogen is said to possess a remarkable tendency to mix with oxygen1 without having a positive chemical affinity for it4 ,that is to say1 neither the oxygen nor the nitrogen undergoes any change by the union1 except that of admixture4 ,the oxygen and the nitrogen still possess their own peculiar properties4 ,oxygen and nitrogen are found in nearly the same proportions in all climates1 and at all altitudes4 #dh4 ,in combustion does any other result take place besides the union of oxygen and carbon forming carbonic acid gas8 ,yes4 ,usually hydrogen is present1 which in burning unites with oxygen1 and forms water4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 #di4 ,what is hydrogen8 ,hydrogen is an elementary gas1 and is the lightest of all known bodies4 #ej4 ,will hydrogen support animal life8 ,it will not4 ,it proves speedily fatal to animals4 #ea4 ,will hydrogen support combustion8 ,although it will burn1 yielding a feeble bluish light1 it will1 if pure1 extinguish a flame that may be immersed in it4 ,hydrogen will therefore burn1 but will not support combustion4 #eb4 ,why will hydrogen explode1 if it will not support combustion8 ,when hydrogen explodes it is always in combination with oxygen1 or with the common air1 which contains oxygen4 ,two measures of hydrogen and one of oxygen form a most explosive compound4 ,verse3 ,as smoke is driven away1 so drive them away3 as wax melteth before the fire1 so let the wicked perish at the presence of ,god4--,,psalm ,,xlvi4 #ec4 ,why does hydrogen explode1 when mixed with oxygen1 upon being brought in contact with fire8 ,because of its strong affinity for oxygen1 with which1 upon the application of heat1 it unites to form water4 #ed4 ,where does hydrogen chiefly exist8 ,in the form of water1 where it exists in combination with oxygen4 ,eleven parts of hydrogen1 and eighty-nine of oxygen1 form water4 #ee4 ,is hydrogen found elsewhere8 ,it is never found but in a state of combination2 united with oxygen1 it exists in water2 with nitrogen1 in ammonia2 with chlorine1 in hydro-chloric acid2 with fluorine1 in hydro-fluoric acid2 and in numerous other combinations4 #ef4 ,is the gas used to illuminate our streets1 hydrogen gas8 ,it is2 but it is combined with carbon1 derived from the coals from which it is made4 ,it is therefore called carburetted hydrogen1 which means hydrogen with carbon4 #eg4 ,how is hydrogen gas obtained from coals8 ,it is driven out of the coals by heat1 in closed vessels1 which prevent its union with oxygen4 #eh4 ,what becomes of the water which is formed by the burning of hydrogen in oxygen8 ,it passes into the air in the form of watery vapour4 ,frequently it condenses1 and may be seen upon the walls and windows of rooms where many lights or fires are burning4 ,sometimes1 also1 portions of it become condensed in the globes of the glasses that are suspended over the jets of gas4 ,a large volume of these gases forms only a very small volume of water4 #ei4 ,what becomes of the carbonic acid gas which is produced by combustion8 ,it is diffused in the air1 which should be removed by adequate ventilation4 ,verse3 ,i will both lay me down in peace and sleep3 for thou1 ,lord1 only1 makest me dwell in safety4--,,psalm ,,iv4 #fj4 ,what proportion of carbonic acid gas is dangerous to life8 ,any proportion over the natural one of #a per cent4 may be regarded as injurious4 ,but toxicologists state that five per cent4 of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is dangerous to life4 #fa4 ,what are toxicologists8 ,persons who study the nature and effects of poisons and their antidotes4 #fb4 ,which kind of combustible used for lighting tends most to vitiate the air8 ,assuming all the lights to be of the same intensity1 the degree in which the substances burnt would vitiate the atmosphere may be gathered from the number of minutes each would take to exhaust a given quantity of air4 ,this has been found to be3 rape oil1 #ga minutes2 olive oil1 #gb2 ,russian tallow1 #ge2 town tallow1 #gf2 sperm oil1 #gf2 stearic acid1 #gg2 wax candles1 #gi2 spermaceti candles1 #hc2 common coal gas1 #ih2 canal coal gas1 #aeb4 ,thus it is shown that rape oil is most destructive of the atmosphere1 and that coal gas is the least destructive4 #fc4 ,is an escape of hydrogen gas from a gas-pipe dangerous to life8 ,it is dangerous1 first1 by inhalation4 ,there are no less than six deaths upon record of persons who were killed by sleeping in rooms near to which there was a leakage of gas4 ,it is dangerous1 secondly1 by explosion4 ,in #ahdh1 an explosion of gas occurred in ,albany-street1 ,regent's-park1 ,london4 ,the gas accumulated in a shop for a very short time only4 ,it had been escaping from a crack in the meter for about one hour and twenty minutes4 ,the area of the room was about #a1fbj cubic feet4 ,when the gas exploded1 it blew out the entire front of the premises1 carried two persons through a window into an adjoining yard1 and forced another person on to the pavement on the opposite side of the street1 where she was killed4 ,the effect of the explosion was felt for more than a quarter of a mile on each side of the house1 and most of the windows in the neighbourhood were shattered4 ,the iron railings over the area of the house directly opposite were snapped asunder2 and a part of the roof1 and the back windows of another house1 were carried to a distance of from #bjj to #cjj yards4 ,the pavement was torn up for a considerable length1 and the damage done to #ajc houses was afterwards reported to amount to #bj1jjj4 ,other serious explosions have taken place4 ,the explosions of coal damp1 which frequently occur in mines1 are of a similar character4 ,verse3 ,o ,lord1 our ,lord1 how excellent is thy name in all the earth6 who hast set thy glory above the heavens4--,,psalm ,,viii4 #fd4 ,what proportion of hydrogen gas with atmospheric air will explode8 ,according to the researches of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 seven or eight parts of air1 to one of gas1 produce the greatest explosive effect2 while larger proportions of gas are less dangerous4 ,a mixture of equal parts of gas and air will burn1 but it will not explode4 ,the same is the case with a mixture of two of air1 or three of air1 and one of gas2 but four of air and one of gas begin to be explosive1 and the explosive tendency increases up to seven or eight of air and one of gas1 after which the increased proportion of gas diminishes the force of the explosion4 #fe4 ,what is the best method of preventing the explosion of gas8 ,observe the rule1 never to approach a supposed leakage with a light4 ,fortunately the gas1 which threatens our lives1 warns us of the danger by its pungent smell4 ,the first thing to be done is to open windows and doors1 and to ventilate the apartment4 ,then turn the gas off at the main1 and wait a short time until the accumulated gas has been dispersed4 #ff4 ,does hydrogen gas rise or fall when it escapes8 ,being twelve times lighter than common air it rises1 and therefore it would be better for ventilation to open the window at the top than at the bottom4 ,but all gases exhibit a strong tendency to diffuse themselves1 and therefore they do not rise or fall in the degree that might be anticipated4 #fg4 ,what proportion of hydrogen in the air is dangerous to life1 if inhaled8 ,one-fiftieth part has been found to have a serious effect upon animals4 ,the effects it produces upon the human system are those of depression1 headache1 sickness1 and general prostration of the vital powers4 ,it is therefore advisable to observe precautions in the use of gas4 ,verse3 ,from the place of his habitation he looketh upon all the inhabitants of the earth4--,,psalm ,,xxxiii4 #fh4 ,what proportion of gas in the air may be recognised by the smell8 ,by persons of acute powers of smelling it may be recognised when there is one part of gas in five hundred parts of atmospheric air2 but it becomes very perceptible when it forms one part in a hundred and fifty4 ,warning is1 therefore1 given to us long before the point of danger arrives4 #fi4 ,what other sources of hydrogen are there in our dwellings8 ,it arises from the decomposition of animal and vegetable substances1 containing sulphur and hydrogen4 ,these give off a gas called sulphuretted hydrogen1 from which the ftid effluviam of drains and water-closets chiefly arise4 ,we should1 therefore1 take every precaution to secure effective drainage1 and to keep drain-traps in proper order4 #gj4 ,may the use of gas for purposes of illumination be considered highly dangerous8 ,not if it is intelligently managed4 ,the appliances for the regulation of gas are so very simple and perfect1 that accidents seldom arise except from neglect4 ,in ,england #f1jjj1jjj tons of coal are usually consumed in the manufacture of gas1 producing #fj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,and yet accidents are of very uncommon occurrence4 ,,chapter ,v4 #ga4 ,what is heat8 ,heat is a principle in nature which1 like light and electricity1 is best understood by its effects4 ,we popularly call that heat1 which raises the temperature of bodies submitted to its influence4 #gb4 ,what is caloric8 ,caloric is another term for heat4 ,it is advisable1 however1 to use the term caloric when speaking of the cause of heat1 and of heat as the effect of the presence of caloric4 ,verse3 ,while the earth remaineth1 seed-time and harvest1 and cold and heat1 and summer and winter1 and day and night1 shall not cease4--,,gen4 ,,viii4 #gc4 ,what is the source of caloric8 ,the sun is its chief source4 ,but caloric1 in some degree1 exists in every known substance4 #gd4 ,what are the effects of caloric8 ,heat which1 in proportion to its intensity1 acts variously upon all bodies1 causing expansion1 fusion1 evaporation1 decomposition1 c4 #ge4 ,why is caloric called a repulsive agent8 ,because its chief effects are to expand1 fuse1 evaporate1 or decompose the substances upon which it acts4 #gf4 ,what is an attractive agent1 in contradistinction to a repulsive agent8 ,chemical attraction1 or affinity1 is an attractive agent--as when bodies seek of their own natures to unite and form some new body4 #gg4 ,when is a body said to be hot8 ,when it holds so much caloric that it diffuses heat to surrounding objects4 #gh4 ,when is a body said to be cold8 ,when it holds less caloric than surrounding objects1 and absorbs heat from them4 #gi4 ,how may caloric be excited to develop heat8 ,by any means which cause agitation1 or produce an active change in the condition of bodies4 ,thus friction1 percussion1 sudden condensation or expansion1 chemical combination1 and electrical discharges1 all develope heat4 #hj4 ,why do burning glasses appear to set fire to combustible substances8 ,because they gather into one point1 or focus1 several rays of caloric as they are travelling from the sun1 and the accumulation of caloric developes that intensity of heat which constitutes fire4 #ha4 ,what is a focus8 ,in optics1 it is the point or centre at which1 or around which1 divergent rays are brought into the closest possible union4 ,verse3 ,yet man is born to trouble1 as the sparks fly upward4--,i would seek unto ,god1 and unto ,god would ,i commit my cause4--,,job ,v4 #hb4 ,what is fire8 ,it is a violent chemical action attending the combustion of the ingredients of fuel with the oxygen of the air4 #hc4 ,what are the properties of fire8 ,it imparts heat1 which has the effect of expanding both fluids and solids4 ,it cannot exist without the presence of combustible materials4 ,it has a tendency to diffuse itself in every direction4 ,it cannot exist without oxygen or atmospheric air4 #hd4 ,what elements take part in the maintenance of a fire8 ,hydrogen1 carbon1 and oxygen4 ,hydrogen and carbon exist in the fuel1 and oxygen is supplied by the air4 #he4 ,how does the combustion of a fire begin8 ,a match made of phosphorous and sulphur 7highly inflammable substances7 is drawn over a piece of sand-paper2 the friction of the match induces the presence of caloric1 which developes heat1 and ignites the match1 the burning of which is sustained by the oxygen of the air4 ,the flame is then applied to paper or wood1 and the heat of the flame is sufficient to drive out hydrogen gas1 which unites with the oxygen of the air1 and burns1 imparting greater heat to the carbon of the coals1 which assumes the form of carbonic acid gas by union with oxygen1 and in a little while all the conditions of combustion are established4 #hf4 ,what are the properties of heat8 ,it may exist without fire or light4 ,it is not sensible to vision4 ,it makes an impression upon our feelings4 ,it acts powerfully upon all bodies4 ,it has no weight4 ,it attends1 or is connected with1 all the operations of nature4 ,it radiates from all bodies in straight lines1 and in all directions4 ,it strikes most powerfully in direct lines4 ,its rays may be collected into a focus1 just as the rays of the sun4 ,it may be reflected from a polished surface4 ,it is more easily conducted by some substances than by others4 ,verse3 ,for my days are consumed like smoke1 and my bones are burned as an hearth4--,,psalm ,,cii4 #hg4 ,what is animal heat8 ,animal heat is derived from the slow combustion of carbon in the blood of animals with the oxygen of the air which the animals breathe4 #hh4 ,what is latent heat8 ,latent heat 7or more properly latent caloric7 is that which exists1 in some degree1 in all bodies1 though it may be imperceptible to the senses4 #hi4 ,is there latent caloric in ice1 snow1 water1 marble1 c8 ,yes2 there is some amount of caloric in all substances4 ,a blacksmith may hammer a small piece of iron until it becomes red hot4 ,with this he may light a match1 and kindle the fire of his forge4 ,the iron has become more dense by the hammering1 and it cannot again be heated to the same degree by similar means1 until it has been exposed in fire1 to a red heat4 ,is it not possible that1 by hammering1 the particles of iron have been driven closer together1 and the latent heat driven out8 ,no further hammering will force the atoms nearer1 and therefore no further heat can be developed4 ,but when the iron has again absorbed caloric1 by being plunged in a fire1 it is again charged with latent heat4 ,indians produce sparks by rubbing together two pieces of wood4 ,two pieces of ice may be rubbed together until sufficient warmth is developed to melt them both4 ,the axles of railway carriages frequently become red hot from friction4 #ij4 ,have vegetables heat8 ,yes2 whenever oxygen combines with carbon to form carbonic acid gas1 an extrication of heat takes place1 however minute the amount4 ,such a combination occurs much more extensively during the germination of seeds and the impregnation of flowers1 than at any other time4 ,in the germination of barley heaped in rooms1 previous to being converted into malt1 it is well known that a considerable amount of heat is developed4 #ia4 ,has any investigation of this subject ever been carefully made8 ,yes4 ,lamarck1 ,senebier1 and ,de ,candolle1 found the flowers of the ,arum ,maculatum1 between three and seven o'clock in the afternoon1 as much as #g deg4 ,reaum4 warmer than the external air4 ,schultz found a difference of #d deg4 to #e deg4 between the heat of the spathe of the ,canadian pinnatifolium and the surrounding air1 at six to seven o'clock p4m4 ,other observations have established differences of as much as #cj deg4 between the temperature of the spathe of the ,arum cordifolium1 and that of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,verse3 ,and there are diversities of operations1 but it is the same ,god which worketh in all4--,,corinthians ,,xii4 #ib4 ,have plants sometimes a temperature lower than that of the surrounding air8 ,yes4 ,it has not only been found that under particular circumstances the heat of certain parts of plants is elevated to a very remarkable degree1 but that1 under nearly all circumstances1 they have a temperature different from that of the external air1 being warmer in winter1 and cooler in summer4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 #ic4 ,how many kinds of combustion are there8 ,there are three1 viz41 slow oxydation1 when little or no light is evolved2 a more rapid combination1 when the heat is so great as to become luminous2 and a still more energetic action1 when it bursts into flame4 #id4 ,why does phosphorous look luminous8 ,because it is undergoing slow combustion4 #ie4 ,why do decayed wood1 and putrifying fish1 look luminous8 ,because they are undergoing slow combustion4 ,in these cases the heat and light evolved are at no one time very considerable4 ,but the total amount of heat1 and probably of light1 generated through the lengthy period of this slow oxydation1 amounts to exactly the same as would be evolved during the most rapid combustion of the same substances4 #if4 ,what is flame8 ,it is gaseous matter burning at a very high temperature4 #ig4 ,why1 when we put fresh coals upon a fire1 do we hear the gas escaping from the coals without taking fire8 ,because1 the fire being slow1 the temperature is not high enough to ignite the gas4 ,verse3 ,i will praise thee1 ,o ,lord1 with my whole heart2 ,i will show forth thy marvellous work4--,,psalm ,,ix4 #ih4 ,what is the gas which escapes from the coals8 ,carburetted hydrogen4 #ii4 ,why1 if we light a piece of paper1 and lay it where the gas is escaping from the coals1 will it burst into flame8 ,because the lighted paper gives a heat sufficient to ignite the gas2 and because also hydrogen requires the contact of flame to ignite it4 #ajj4 ,why1 when the coals have become heated1 will the hydrogen burst into flame8 ,because the carbon of the coals1 and the oxygen of the air1 have begun to combine1 and have greatly increased the heat1 and have produced a rapid combustion1 so nearly allied to flame1 that it ignites the hydrogen4 #aja4 ,what temperature is required to produce flame8 ,that depends upon the nature of the combustible you desire to burn4 ,finely divided phosphorous and phosphorated hydrogen will take fire at a temperature of #fj deg4 or #gj deg42 solid phosphorous at #adj deg42 sulphur at #ejj deg42 hydrogen and carbonic oxide at #a1jjj deg4 7red heat72 coal gas1 ether1 turpentine1 alcohol1 tallow1 and wood1 at about #b1jjj deg4 7incipient white heat74 ,when once inflamed they will continue to burn1 and will maintain a very high temperature4 #ajb4 ,what is smoke8 ,smoke consists of small particles of carbon of hydrogen gas1 and other volatile matters1 which are driven off by heat and carried up the chimney4 #ajc4 ,is it not a waste of fuel to allow this matter to escape8 ,it is1 as it might all be burnt up by better management4 #ajd4 ,how may the waste be avoided8 ,by putting on only a little coals at a time1 so that the heat of the fire shall be sufficient to consume these volatile matters as they escape4 ,verse3 ,and the strong shall be as tow1 and the maker of it as a spark1 and they shall both burn together1 and none shall quench them4--,,isaiah ,i4 #aje4 ,why is there so little smoke when the fire is red8 ,because the hydrogen and the volatile parts of the coal have already been driven off and consumed1 and the combustion that continues is principally caused by the carbon of the coals1 and the oxygen of the air4 #ajf4 ,will carbon1 burnt in oxygen1 produce flame and smoke8 ,it burns brightly1 but it produces neither flame nor smoke4 #ajg4 ,why do not charcoal and coke fires give flame8 ,because the hydrogen has been driven off by the processes by which charcoal and coke are made4 #ajh4 ,what is a conductor of heat8 ,a conductor of heat is any substance through which heat is readily transmitted4 #aji4 ,what is a non-conductor of heat8 ,a non-conductor is any substance through which heat will not pass readily4 #aaj4 ,name a few good conductors4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 platinum1 iron1 zinc1 tin1 stone1 and all dense solid bodies4 #aaa4 ,name a few non-conductors4 ,fur1 wool1 down1 wood1 cotton1 paper1 and all substances of a spongy or porous texture4 #aab4 ,how is heat transmitted from one body to another8 ,by ,conduction1 ,radiation1 ,reflection1 ,absorption and ,convection4 #aac4 ,what is the ,conduction of heat8 ,it is the communication of heat from one body to another by contact4 ,if ,i lay a penny piece upon the hob1 it becomes hot by conduction4 #aad4 ,what is the ,radiation of heat8 ,the transmission of heat by a series of rays4 ,if ,i hold my hand before the fire1 the rays of heat fall upon it1 and my hand receives the heat through radiation4 ,verse3 ,sing praises to the ,lord1 which dwelleth in ,zion1 declare among the people his doings4--,,psalm ,,ix4 #aae4 ,what is the ,reflection of heat8 ,the reflection of heat is the throwing back of its rays towards the direction whence they came4 ,in a ,dutch oven the rays of heat pass from the fire to the oven1 and are reflected back again by the bright surface of the tin4 ,there is1 therefore1 considerable economy of heat in ovens1 and other cooking utensils constructed upon this plan4 #aaf4 ,what is the ,absorption of heat8 ,the absorption of heat is the taking of it up by the body to which it is transmitted or conducted4 ,heat was conveyed to my hand by radiation1 and taken up by my hand by absorption4 #aag4 ,what is the ,convection of heat8 ,the convection of heat is the transmission of it through a body or a number of bodies1 or particles of bodies1 by those substances which first received it2 as when hot water rises from the bottom of a kettle and imparts heat to the cold water lying above it4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 #aah4 ,why does not a piece of wood which is turning at one end1 feel hot at the other end8 ,because wood is a bad conductor of heat4 #aai4 ,why is wood a bad conductor of heat8 ,because the arrangement of the particles of which it is composed does not favour the transmission of caloric4 #abj4 ,why do some articles of clothing feel cold1 and others warm8 ,because some are bad conductors of heat1 and do not draw off much of the warmth of our bodies2 while others are better conductors1 and take up a larger portion of our warmth4 ,verse3 ,the fining pot is for silver1 and the furnace for gold3 but the ,lord trieth the hearts4--,,proverbs ,,xvii4 #aba4 ,which feels the warmer1 the conductor or non-conductor8 ,the non-conductor1 as it does not readily absorb the warmth of our bodies4 #abb4 ,what substances are the best conductors of heat8 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 and most substances of close and hard formation1 c4 #abc4 ,what substances are the worst conductors of heat8 ,fur1 eider down1 feathers1 raw silk1 wood1 lamp-black1 cotton1 soot1 charcoal1 c4 #abd4 ,why has the toasting-fork a wooden handle8 ,because wood is not so good a conductor as metal1 therefore the wood prevents the heat from being transmitted by conduction to our hands4 #abe4 ,why has the coffee-pot a wooden handle8 ,because the metal of the coffee-pot would otherwise conduct the heat to the hand2 but wood1 being a bad conductor1 prevents it4 #abf4 ,why does hot water in a metal jug feel hotter than in an earthenware one8 ,because metal1 being a good conductor1 readily delivers heat to the hand2 but earthenware1 being an indifferent conductor1 parts with the heat slowly4 #abg4 ,how can we ascertain that wood prevents the conduction of heat to the hand8 ,by passing the top of the finger along the wooden handle of the coffee-pot1 until it reaches the point where the wood meets the metal4 ,the wooden handle will be found to be cool1 but the metal will feel very hot4 #abh4 ,of what use are kettle-holders8 ,being made of bad conductors1 such as wood1 paper1 or woollen cloth1 they will not readily conduct the heat from the kettle to the hand4 ,verse3 ,wisdom is the principal thing2 therefore get wisdom3 and with all thy getting get understanding4--,,proverbs ,,iv4 #abi4 ,will a kettle-holder1 being a bad conductor1 sometimes conduct heat to the hand8 ,yes4 ,but so slowly that the hand will not feel the inconvenience of too much heat4 #acj4 ,why does hot metal feel hotter than heated wool1 though they may both be of the same degree of temperature8 ,because metal gives out heat more rapidly than wool1 by which it is made more perceptible to our feelings4 #aca4 ,which would become cold first--the metal or the wool8 ,the wool1 because1 although the metal conducts heat more rapidly1 to a substance in contact with it1 it does not radiate heat as well as a black and rough substance4 #acb4 ,why do iron articles feel intensely cold in winter8 ,because iron is one of the best conductors1 and draws off heat from the hand very rapidly4 #acc4 ,what is the cause of the sensation called cold8 ,when we feel cold1 heat is being drawn off from our bodies4 #acd4 ,what is the cause of the sensation called heat8 ,when we feel hot1 our bodies are absorbing heat from external causes4 ,the condition here implied is that of health1 and of ordinary circumstances4 ,a person in a condition of fever1 suffering from intense heat arising from a diseased state of the blood1 could not be said to be absorbing heat4 ,nor could such a description apply to a person who1 by a very rapid walk1 has raised the temperature of his body considerably above its natural state1 by the internal combustion which has already been described4 ,a person feeling hot in bed1 from excessive clothes1 feels hot from the development of heat internally1 which is not conducted away with sufficient rapidity to maintain the natural temperature of the body4 #ace4 ,if a person1 sitting before a fire-place1 without a fire1 were to set one foot upon a rug1 and the other upon the stone hearth1 which would feel the colder8 ,the foot on the stone1 because stone is a good conductor1 and would conduct the warmth of the foot away from it4 ,verse3 ,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fulness thereof2 the world1 and they that dwell therein4--,,psalm ,,xxiv4 #acf4 ,what does the hearth-stone do with the heat that it receives8 ,it delivers it to the surrounding air1 and to any other bodies with which it may be in contact--and as it parts with heat1 it takes up more from any body hotter than itself4 #acg4 ,when there is no fire in a room1 what is the relative temperature of the various things in the room8 ,they are all of the same temperature4 #ach4 ,if all the articles in the room are of the same temperature1 why do some feel colder than others8 ,because they differ in their relative powers of conduction4 ,those that are the best conductors feel coldest1 as they convey away the heat of the hand most rapidly4 ,if you lay your hand upon the woollen table cover1 or upon the sleeve of your coat or mantle1 it will feel neither warm nor cold1 under ordinary circumstances4 ,but if you raise your hand from the table cover1 or coat1 and lay it on the marble mantel piece1 the mantel-piece will feel cold4 ,if now you return your hand from the mantel-piece to the table cover or coat1 a sensation of warmth will become distinctly perceptible4 ,this will afford a good conception of the relative powers of conduction of wool and marble4 #aci4 ,how long does a substance feel cold or hot to the touch8 ,until it has brought the part touching it to the same temperature as itself4 #adj4 ,when do substances feel neither hot nor cold8 ,when they are of the same temperature as our bodies4 #ada4 ,why1 under these circumstances1 do they feel neither hot nor cold8 ,because they neither take heat from1 nor supply it to1 the body4 #adb4 ,which would feel the warmer1 when the fire was lighted1 the hearth-rug or the hearth-stone8 ,the hearth-stone1 because it is a good conductor1 and would not only receive heat readily1 but would part with it as freely 7thereby making its heat perceptible74 ,but the hearth-rug1 being a bad conductor1 would part with its heat very slowly1 and it would therefore be less perceptible4 ,verse3 ,fire and hail2 snow and vapour2 stormy wind fulfilling his word4--,,psalm ,,cxlviii4 #adc4 ,would the hearth-stone feel hotter than the hearth-rug though both were of the same temperature8 ,it would feel hotter than the hearth-rug1 because it would part with its heat so rapidly that it would be the more perceptible4 #add4 ,but if the hearth-stone and the hearth-rug were both colder than the hand1 which would feel the colder of the two8 ,then the hearth-stone would feel the colder1 because1 being a good conductor1 it would take heat from the hand more freely than the hearth-rug1 which is a bad conductor4 #ade4 ,why would the hearth-stone feel comparatively hotter in the one case1 and colder in the other8 ,because1 being a good conductor1 it would conduct heat rapidly to the hand when hot1 and take heat rapidly from the hand when cold4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 #adf4 ,which are the better conductors of heat1 fluids or solids8 ,generally speaking1 solids1 especially those of them that are dense in their substance4 #adg4 ,why are dense substances the best conductors of heat8 ,because the heat more readily travels from particle to particle until it pervades the mass4 #adh4 ,why are fluids bad conductors of heat8 ,because of the want of density in their bodies2 and because a portion of the imbibed heat always passes off from fluids by evaporation4 ,verse3 ,he casteth forth his ice like morsels3 who can stand before his word1--,,psalm ,,cxlvii4 #adi4 ,why are woollen fabrics bad conductors of heat8 ,because there is a considerable amount of air occupying the spaces of the texture4 #aej4 ,is air a good or a bad conductor8 ,air is a bad conductor1 and it chiefly transmits heat1 as water does1 by convection4 #aea4 ,is water a good or a bad conductor8 ,water is an indifferent conductor1 but it is a better conductor than air4 #aeb4 ,why1 when we place our hands in water1 which may be of the same temperature as the air1 does the water feel some degrees colder8 ,because water1 being a better conductor than air1 takes up the warmth of the hand more rapidly4 #aec4 ,why1 when we take our hands out of water do they feel warmer8 ,because the air does not abstract the heat of the hand so rapidly as the water did1 and the change in the degree of rapidity with which the heat is abstracted produces a sensation of increased warmth4 #aed4 ,why do we see blocks of ice wrapped in thick flannel in summer time8 ,because the flannel1 being a non-conductor1 prevents the external heat from dissolving the ice4 ,flannel wrapped around a warm body keeps in its heat2 and wrapped around a cold body1 prevents heat from passing into it4 #aee4 ,how do we know that air is not a good conductor of heat8 ,because1 in still air1 heat would travel to a given point much more rapidly1 and in greater intensity1 through even an indifferent solid conductor1 than it would through the air4 #aef4 ,how do we know that water is not a good conductor of heat8 ,because in a deep vessel containing ice1 and with heat applied at the top1 some portion of the water may be made to boil before the ice1 which lies a little under the surface1 is melted4 ,verse3 ,as snow in summer1 and as rain in harvest2 so honour is not seemly for a fool4--,,prov4 ,,xxvi4 #aeg4 ,why would you apply the heat at the top1 in this experiment8 ,because in heating water it expands and rises4 ,the boiling of water is caused by the heated water ascending from the bottom1 and the colder water descending to occupy its place4 ,if the heat were not applied at the top1 it would be distributed quickly by convection1 but not by conduction4 #aeh4 ,why are bottles of hot water1 used as feet-warmers1 wrapped in flannel8 ,because the flannel1 being a bad conductor1 allows the heat to pass only gently from the bottle1 and preserves the warmth for a much longer time4 #aei4 ,why are hot rolls sent out by the bakers1 wrapped up in flannel8 ,because the flannel1 being a bad conductor1 does not carry off rapidly the heat of the rolls4 #afj4 ,why is it said that snow keeps the earth warm8 ,because snow is a bad conductor1 and prevents the frosty air from depriving the earth of its warmth4 #afa4 ,why are snow huts which the ,esquimaux build found to be warm8 ,because snow1 being a bad conductor1 keeps in the internal heat of the dwelling1 and prevents the cold outer air from taking away its warmth4 #afb4 ,why is snow1 being composed of congealed water 7and water being a better conductor than air71 so good a non-conductor8 ,because in the process of congealation it is frozen into crystalline forms1 which1 being collected into a mass1 form a woolly body1 thus proving the truthfulness of the ,bible simile1 which says1 ,god giveth snow like wool4 ,verse3 ,he giveth snow like wool3 he scattereth the hoar frost like ashes4--,,psalm ,,cxlvii4 ,illustration3 ,,crystals ,,of ,,snow1 ,,as ,,seen ,,through ,a ,,microscope4 ,,fig4 #a4 #afc4 ,why does it frequently feel warmer after a frost has set in8 ,because1 in the act of congealation a great deal of heat is given out1 and taken up by the air1 and thus the severity of the cold is in some degree moderated4 #afd4 ,why is it frequently colder when a thaw takes place8 ,because1 in the process of thawing1 a certain amount of heat is withdrawn from the air1 and enters the thawed ice4 #afe4 ,what benefit results from these provisions of ,nature8 ,they moderate both the severity of frosts1 and the rapidity of thaws1 which1 in changeable climates1 would be seriously detrimental to life1 and to vegetation4 #aff4 ,why are furs and woollens worn in the winter8 ,because1 being non-conductors1 they prevent the warmth of the body from being taken up by the cold air4 #afg4 ,why are the skins of animals usually covered with fur1 hair1 wool1 or feathers8 ,because their coverings1 being non-conductors of heat1 preserve the warmth of the bodies of the animals4 ,verse3 ,he sendeth out his word1 and melteth them3 he causeth his wind to blow1 and the waters to flow4--,,psalm ,,cxlvii4 #afh4 ,how is the greater warmth of animals provided for in the winter8 ,it is observed that1 as winter approaches1 there comes a short woolly or downy growth1 which1 adding to the non-conducting property of their coats1 confines their animal warmth4 ,in small birds during winter1 let the external colour of the feathers be what it may1 there will be found a kind of black down next their bodies4 ,black is the warmest colour1 and the purpose here is to keep in the heat1 arising from the respiration of the animal4 #afi4 ,how is warmth provided for in animals that have no such coats8 ,they are furnished with a layer of fat1 which lies underneath the skin4 ,fat consists chiefly of carbon1 and is a non-conductor4 #agj4 ,why are summer breezes said to be cool8 ,because1 as they pass over the heated surface of the body1 they bear away a part of its heat4 #aga4 ,why is a still summer air said to be sultry8 ,because1 being heated by the sun's rays1 and being a bad conductor1 it does not relieve the body by carrying off its heat4 #agb4 ,why does fanning the face make it feel cooler8 ,because1 by inducing currents of air to pass over the face1 a part of the excessive heat is taken up and carried away4 #agc4 ,why does perspiration cool the body8 ,because it takes up a part of the heat1 and1 evaporating1 carries it into the air4 #agd4 ,why does blowing upon hot tea cool it8 ,because it directs currents of air over the surface of the tea1 and these currents take up a part of the heat and bear it away4 #age4 ,why does air in motion feel cooler than air that is still8 ,because each wave of air carries away a certain portion of heat and being followed by another portion of air1 a further amount of heat is borne away4 ,verse3 ,though ,i walk in the valley of the shadow of death ,i will fear no evil1 for thou art with me4--,,psalm ,,xxiii4 #agf4 ,is the atmosphere ever as hot as the human body8 ,not in this country4 ,on the hottest day it is #aj or #ab deg4 cooler than the temperature of our bodies4 #agg4 ,what is the highest degree of artificial heat which man has been known to bear8 ,a man may be surrounded with air raised to the temperature of #cjj deg4 7the boiling point being #bab71 and yet not have the heat of his body raised more than two or three degrees above its natural temperature of from #ig deg4 to #ajj deg4 #agh4 ,why may man endure this degree of heat for a short time without injury8 ,because the skin1 and the vessels of fat that lie underneath it1 are bad conductors of heat4 ,and because perspiration passing from the skin and evaporating1 would bear the heat away as fast as it was received4 ,because1 also1 the vital principle 7life7 exercises a mysterious influence in the preservation of living bodies from physical influences4 #agi4 ,is the air ever hot enough1 in any part of the world1 to destroy life8 ,yes4 ,the hot winds of the ,arabian deserts1 which are called simooms1 scatter death and desolation in their track1 withering trees and shrubs1 and burying them under waves of hot sand4 ,when camels see the approach of a simoom they rush to the nearest tree or bush1 or to some projecting rock1 where they place their heads in an opposite direction to that from which the wind blows1 and endeavour to escape its terrible violence4 ,the traveller throws himself on the ground on the lee side of the camel1 and screens his head from the fiery blast within the folds of his robe4 ,but frequently both man and beast fall a prey to the terrible simoom4 #ahj4 ,why are these hot winds so terrible in their effects8 ,because1 being in motion1 they search their way to every part of the body1 and passing over it leave some portion of their heat behind1 which is again followed by additional heat from every fresh blast of wind4 ,verse3 ,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of knowledge3 but fools despise wisdom and instruction4--,,proverbs ,i4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 #aha4 ,what is ,radiation8 ,the radiation of heat is a motion of the particles1 in a series of rays1 diverging in every direction from a heated body4 #ahb4 ,what is this phenomena of ,radiation understood to arise from8 ,from a strongly repulsive power1 possessed by particles of heat1 by which they are excited to recede from each other with great velocity4 #ahc4 ,what is the greatest source of ,radiation8 ,the sun1 which sends forth rays of both light and heat in all directions4 #ahd4 ,when does a body radiate heat8 ,when it is surrounded by a medium which is a bad conductor4 #ahe4 ,when we stand before a fire1 does the heat reach us by conduction or by radiation8 ,by radiation4 #ahf4 ,what becomes of the heat that is radiated from one body to another8 ,it is either absorbed by those bodies1 or transmitted through them and passed to other bodies by conduction1 or diffused by convection1 or returned by reflection4 #ahg4 ,how do we know that heat is diffused by radiation8 ,if we set a metal plate 7or any other body1 though metal is best for the experiment7 before the fire1 rays of heat will fall upon it4 ,if we turn the plate at a slight angle1 and place another object in a line with it1 we shall find that the plate will reflect the rays it has received by radiation1 on to the object so placed2 but if we place an object between the fire and the plate1 we shall find that the rays of heat will be intercepted1 and that the latter can no longer reflect heat4 ,verse3 ,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom3 a good understanding have all they that do his commandments4--,,psalm ,,cxi4 #ahh4 ,does the agitation of the air interfere with the direction of rays of heat8 ,it has been found that the agitation of the air does not affect the direction of rays of heat4 #ahi4 ,why1 then1 if a current of air passes through a space across which heat is radiating1 does the air become warmer8 ,because it takes up some portion of the heat1 but it does not alter the direction of the rays4 ,this is clearly illustrated by reference to rays of light which are seen under many circumstances4 ,but they are never bent1 moved1 nor in any way affected by the wind4 #aij4 ,why will not a current of air disturb the rays of heat1 just as it would a spider's web1 or threads of silk8 ,because heat is an imponderable agent1 that is1 something which cannot be acted upon by the ordinary physical agencies4 ,it has no weight1 presents no substantial body1 and is1 in these latter respects1 similar to light and electricity4 #aia4 ,what other sources of radiation of heat are there besides the sun and the fire8 ,the earth1 and all minor bodies1 are1 in some degree1 radiators of heat4 #aib4 ,what substances are the best radiators8 ,all rough and dark coloured substances and surfaces are the best radiators of heat4 #aic4 ,what substances are the worst radiators of heat8 ,all smooth1 bright1 and light coloured surfaces are bad radiators of heat4 ,dr4 ,stark1 of ,edinburgh1 has proved1 by a series of experiments1 the influence which the colours of bodies have upon the velocity of radiation4 ,he surrounded the bulb of a thermometer successively with equal weights of black1 red1 and white wool1 and placed it in a glass tube1 which was heated to the temperature of #ahj deg4 by immersion in hot water4 ,the tube was then cooled down to #ej deg4 by immersion in cold water2 the black cooled in #ba minutes1 the red in #bf minutes1 and the white in #bg minutes4 ,verse3 ,say unto wisdom1 ,thou art my sister2 and call understanding thy kinswoman4--,,proverbs ,,vii4 #aid4 ,if you wished to keep water hot for a long time1 should you put it into a bright metal jug1 or into a dark earthenware one8 ,you should put it into a bright metal jug1 because1 being a bad radiator1 it would not part readily with the heat of the water4 #aie4 ,why would not the dark earthenware jug keep the water hot as long as the bright metal one8 ,because the particles of earthenware being rough1 and of dark colour1 they radiate heat freely1 and the water would thereby be quickly cooled4 ,,chapter ,x4 #aif4 ,but if 7as stated in the ,lessons upon ,conduction7 metal is a better conductor of heat than stone or earthenware1 why does not the metal jug conduct away the heat of the water sooner than the earthenware jug8 ,it would do so1 if it were in contact with another conductor2 but1 being surrounded by air1 which is a bad conductor1 the heat must pass off by radiation1 and as bright metal surfaces are bad radiators1 the metal jug would retain the heat of the water longer than the earthenware one4 #aig4 ,supposing a red-hot cannon ball to be suspended by a chain from the ceiling of a room1 how would its heat escape8 ,almost entirely by radiation4 ,but if you were to rest upon the ball a cold bar of iron1 a part of the heat would be drawn off by conduction4 ,warm air would rise from around the ball1 and1 moving upwards1 would distribute some of the heat by convection4 ,and some of its rays1 falling upon a mirror1 or any other bright surface1 might be diffused by reflection4 ,verse3 ,i will teach you by the hand of ,god2 that which is with the ,almighty will ,i not conceal4--,,job ,,xxvii4 #aih4 ,do some substances absorb heat8 ,yes2 those substances which are the best radiators are also the best absorbers of heat4 #aii4 ,why does scratching a bright metal surface increase its power of radiation8 ,because every irregularity of the surface acts as a point of radiation1 or an outlet by which the heat escapes4 #bjj4 ,why does a bright metal tea-pot produce better tea than a brown or black earthenware one8 ,because bright metal radiates but little heat1 therefore the water is kept hot much longer1 and the strength of the tea is extracted by the heat4 #bja4 ,but if the earthenware tea-pot were set by the fire1 why would it then make the best tea8 ,because the dark earthenware tea-pot is a good absorber of heat1 and the heat it would absorb from the fire would more than counterbalance the loss by radiation4 #bjb4 ,how would the bright metal tea-pot answer if set upon the hob by the fire8 ,the bright metal tea-pot would probably absorb less heat than it would radiate4 ,therefore it would not answer so well1 being set upon the hob1 as the earthenware tea-pot4 #bjc4 ,why should dish covers be plain in form1 and have bright surfaces8 ,because1 being bright and smooth1 they will not allow heat to escape by radiation4 #bjd4 ,why should the bottoms and back parts of kettles and saucepans be allowed to remain black8 ,because a thin coating of soot acts as a good absorber of heat1 and overcomes the non-absorbing quality of the bright surface4 ,verse3 ,and the foolish said unto the wise1 ,give us of your oil1 for our lamps are gone out4 #bje4 ,but why should soot be prevented from accumulating in flakes at the bottom and sides of kettles and saucepans8 ,because1 although soot is a good absorber of heat1 it is a very bad conductor2 an accumulation of it1 therefore1 would cause a waste of fuel1 by retarding the effects of heat4 #bjf4 ,why should the lids and fronts of kettles and saucepans be kept bright8 ,because bright metal will not radiate heat2 therefore1 the heat which is taken up readily through the absorbing and conducting power of the bottom of the vessel1 is kept in and economised by the non-radiating property of the bright top and front4 #bjg4 ,does cold radiate as well as heat8 ,it was once thought that cold radiated as well as heat4 ,but a mass of ice can only be said to radiate cold1 by its radiating heat in less abundance than that which is emitted from other bodies surrounding it4 ,it is1 therefore1 incorrect to speak of the radiation of cold4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 #bjh4 ,why1 if you hold a piece of looking-glass at an angle towards the sum1 will light fall upon an object opposite to the looking-glass8 ,because the rays of the sun are reflected by the looking-glass4 #bji4 ,why1 when we stand before a mirror1 do we see our features therein8 ,because the rays of light that fall upon us are reflected upon the bright surface of the mirror4 #baj4 ,why1 if a plate of bright metal were held sideways before a fire1 would heat fall upon an object opposite to the plate8 ,because rays of heat may be reflected in the same manner as the rays of light4 ,verse3 ,but the wise answered saying1 ,not so2 lest there be not enough for us and you3 but go ye rather to them that sell1 and buy for yourselves4--,,matt4 ,,xxv4 #baa4 ,why would not the same effect arise if the plate were of a black or dark substance8 ,because black and dark substances are not good reflectors of heat4 #bab4 ,what are the best reflectors of heat8 ,smooth1 light-coloured1 and highly polished surfaces1 especially those of metal4 #bac4 ,why does meat become cooked more thoroughly and quickly when a tin screen is placed before the fire8 ,because the bright tin reflects the rays of heat back again to the meat4 #bad4 ,why is reflected heat less intense than the primary heat8 ,because it is impossible to collect all the rays1 and also because a portion of the caloric1 imparting heat to the rays1 is absorbed by the air1 and by the various other bodies with which the rays come in contact4 #bae4 ,can heat be reflected in any great degree of intensity8 ,yes2 to such a degree that inflammable matters may be ignited by it4 ,if a cannon ball be made red hot1 and then be placed in an iron stand between two bright reflectors1 inflammable materials1 placed in a proper position to catch the reflected rays1 will ignite from the heat4 ,there is a curious and an exceptional fact with reference to reflected heat1 for which we confess that we are unable to give ,the ,reason ,why4 ,it is found that snow1 which lies near the trunks of trees or the base of upright stones1 melts before that which is at a distance from them1 though the sun may shine equally upon both4 ,if a blackened card is placed upon ice or snow under the sun's rays1 the frozen body underneath it will be thawed before that which surrounds it4 ,but if we reflect the sun's rays from a metal surface1 the result is directly contrary--the exposed snow is the first to melt1 leaving the card standing as upon a pyramid4 ,snow melts under heat which is reflected from the trees or stones while it withstands the effect of the direct solar rays4 ,in passing through a cemetery this winter 7#aheg71 when the snow lay deep1 we were struck with the circumstance that the snow in front of the head-stones facing the sun was completely dissolved1 and1 in nearly every instance1 the space on which the snow had melted assumed a coffin-like shape4 ,this forced itself so much upon our attention that we remained some time to endeavour to analyse the phenomena2 and it was not until we remembered the curious effect of reflected heat that we could account for it4 ,it is obvious that the rays falling from the upper part of the head-stone on to the foot of the grave would be less powerful than those that radiated from the centre of the stone to the centre of the grave4 ,hence it was that the heat dissolved at the foot of the grave only a narrow piece of snow1 which widened towards the centre1 and narrowed again as it approached the foot of the head-stone1 where the lines of radiation would naturally decrease4 ,such a phenomena would prove sufficient to raise superstition in untutored minds4 ,verse3 ,the light of the righteous rejoiceth1 but the lamp of the wicked shall be put out4--,,proverbs ,,xiii4 #baf4 ,are good reflectors of heat also good absorbers8 ,no2 for reflectors at once send back the heat which they receive1 while absorbers retain it4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that reflectors cannot be good absorbers4 #bag4 ,how do fire-screens contribute to keep rooms cool8 ,because they turn away from the persons in the room rays of heat which would otherwise make the warmth excessive4 #bah4 ,why are white and light articles of clothing cool8 ,because they reflect the rays of heat4 ,white1 as a colour1 is also a bad absorber and conductor4 #bai4 ,why is the air often found excessively hot in chalk districts8 ,because the soil reflects upon objects near to it the heat of the solar rays4 #bbj4 ,how does the heat of the sun's rays ultimately become diffused8 ,it is first absorbed by the earth4 ,generally speaking1 the earth absorbs heat by day1 and radiates it by night4 ,in this way an equilibrium of temperature is maintained1 which we should not otherwise have the advantage of4 #bba4 ,does not the air derive its heat directly from the sun's rays8 ,only partially4 ,it is estimated that the air absorbs only one-third of the caloric of the sun's rays--that is to say1 that a ray of solar heat1 entering our atmosphere at its most attenuated limit 7a height supposed to be about fifty miles71 would1 in passing through the atmosphere to the earth1 part with only one-third of its calorific element4 ,verse3 ,as for the earth1 out of it cometh bread2 and under it is turned up as it were fire4--,,job ,,xxviii4 #bbb4 ,what becomes of the remaining two-thirds of the solar heat8 ,they are absorbed chiefly by the earth1 the great medium of calorific absorption2 but some portions are taken up by living things1 both animal and vegetable4 ,when the rays of heat strike upon the earth's surface1 they are passed from particle to particle into the interior of the earth's crust4 ,other portions are distributed through the air and water by convection1 and a third portion is thrown back into space by radiation4 ,these latter phenomena will be duly explained as we proceed4 #bbc4 ,how do we know that heat is absorbed1 and conducted into the internal earth8 ,it is found that there is a given depth beneath the surface of the globe at which an equal temperature prevails4 ,the depth increases as we travel south or north from the equator1 and corresponds with the shape of the earth's surface1 sinking under the valleys1 and rising under the hills4 #bbd4 ,why may we not understand that this internal heat of the earth arises1 as has been supposed by many philosophers1 from internal combustion8 ,because recent investigations have thrown considerable and satisfactory light upon the subject4 ,it has been ascertained that the internal temperature of the earth increases to a certain depth1 one degree in every fifty feet4 ,but that below that depth the temperature begins to decline1 and continues to do so with every increase of depth4 #bbe4 ,do plants absorb heat8 ,yes4 ,they both absorb and radiate heat1 under varying circumstances4 ,the majestic tree1 the meek flower1 the unpretending grass1 all perform a part in the grand alchemy of nature4 ,verse3 ,consider the lilies of the field1 how they grow2 they toil not1 neither do they spin4 ,when we gaze upon a rose it is not its beauty alone that should impress us3 every moment of that flower's life is devoted to the fulfilment of its part in the grand scheme of the universe4 ,it decomposes the rays of solar light1 and sends the red rays only to our eyes4 ,it absorbs or radiates heat1 according to the temperature of the rial mantle that wraps alike the flower and the man4 ,it distills the gaseous vapours1 and restores to man the vital air on which he lives4 ,it takes into its own substance1 and incorporates with its own frame1 the carbon and the hydrogen of which man has no immediate need4 ,it drinks the dew-drop or the rain-drop1 and gives forth its sweet odour as a thanksgiving4 ,and when it dies1 it preaches eloquently to beauty1 pointing to the end that is to come6 ,,chapter ,,xii4 #bbf4 ,how do we know that plants operate upon the solar and atmospheric heat8 ,a delicate thermometer1 placed among the leaves and petals of flowers1 will at once establish the fact1 not only that flowers and plants have a temperature differing from that of the external air1 but that the temperature varies in different plants according to the hypothetical1 or supposed requirements1 of their existences and conditions4 #bbg4 ,what is the chief cause of variation in the temperature of flowers8 ,it is generally supposed that their temperature is affected by their colours4 #bbh4 ,why is it supposed that the colour of a flower influences its temperature8 ,because it is found by experiment that the colours of bodies bear an important relation to their properties respecting heat1 and hold some analogy to the relation of colours to light4 ,if when the ground is covered with snow1 pieces of woollen cloth1 of equal size and thickness1 and differing only in colour1 are laid upon the surface of the snow1 near to each other1 it will be found that the relation of colour to temperature will be as follows3--,in a few hours the black cloth will have dissolved so much of the snow beneath it1 as to sink deep below the surface2 the blue will have proved nearly as warm as the black2 the brown will have dissolved less of the snow2 the red less than the brown2 and the white the least1 or none at all4 ,similar experiments may be tried with reference to the condensation of dew1 c4 ,and it will be uniformly found that the colour of a body materially affects its powers of absorption and of radiation4 ,verse3 ,and yet ,i say unto you1 that even ,solomon1 in all his glory1 was not arrayed like one of these4--,,matt4 ,,vi4 #bbi4 ,why do we know that these effects are not the result of light8 ,because they would occur1 in just the same order1 in the absence of light4 #bcj4 ,why are dark coloured dresses usually worn in winter1 and light in summer8 ,because black absorbs heat1 and therefore becomes warm2 while light colours do not absorb heat in the same degree1 and therefore they remain cool4 #bca4 ,why do iron articles1 even when near fire1 usually feel cool8 ,because they are bad absorbers1 and do not take up heat freely1 unless they are in contact with a hot body4 #bcb4 ,how is heat diffused through the atmosphere8 ,by convection4 ,the warmth radiating from the surface of the earth warms the air in contact with it2 the air expands1 and becoming lighter1 flies upwards1 bearing with it the caloric which it holds1 and diffusing it in its course4 #bcc4 ,how do the waters of the ocean become heated8 ,chiefly by convection4 ,nearly all the heat which the sun sheds upon the ocean is borne away from its surface by evaporation1 or is radiated back into the atmosphere4 ,but the ocean gathers its heat by convection from the earth4 ,it girdles the shores of tropical lands where1 being warmed to a high degree of temperature1 it sets across the ,atlantic from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and exercises an important influence upon the temperature of our latitude4 #bcd4 ,what is the cause of winds8 ,currents of air1 and winds1 are the result of convection4 ,the air1 heated by the high temperature of the tropics1 ascends1 while the colder air of the temperate and the frigid zones blows towards the equator to supply its place4 ,verse3 ,give unto the ,lord the glory due unto his name2 worship the ,lord in the beauty of holiness4--,,psalm ,,xxix4 #bce4 ,what is the cause of sea breezes8 ,sea breezes are also the result of convection4 ,the land1 under the heat of the day's sunshine1 becomes of a high temperature1 and the expanded air on its surface flies away towards the ocean4 ,as the sun goes down1 the earth cools again1 and the air flies back to find its equilibrium4 ,many countries by the sea are subjected to these periodical breezes1 known as either land or sea breezes1 according to their direction4 ,about eight o'clock in the morning an rial current begins to flow from the sea towards the land1 and continues until about three o'clock in the day2 then the current takes a reverse direction1 flowing from the land to the sea4 ,this it continues to do throughout the night1 until the time of sunrise1 when a temporary calm ensues4 #bcf4 ,why does a soap bubble ascend in the air8 ,because1 being filled with warm air1 it is lighter than the surrounding medium1 and therefore ascends4 #bcg4 ,why does the bubble fall after it has been in the air some time8 ,because the air contained in it has become cool1 and1 as it contains carbonic acid gas1 it is heavier than the air4 #bch4 ,what became of the warmth at first contained in the bubble8 ,it has been distributed in the air through which the bubble passed4 #bci4 ,what does this simple illustration of the distribution of warmth explain8 ,it explains the law of convection1 or heat distribution1 over the surface of the globe4 #bdj4 ,why does air ascend the chimney8 ,because1 being heated1 it becomes lighter than the surrounding medium1 and therefore flies upwards1 through the outlet provided for it4 #bda4 ,why does air fly from the doors and windows towards the fire-place8 ,because1 as the warm air flies away1 cold air rushes in to occupy its place4 ,verse3 ,how much better is it to get wisdom than gold8 and to get understanding rather to be chosen than silver4--,,proverbs ,,xvi4 #bdb4 ,what does this example of the motion of the air in our rooms explain8 ,it explains the movement of volumes of air by convection1 and illustrates the origin of breezes and winds4 #bdc4 ,what is the chief effect of this law of convection8 ,under its influence air and water are the great equalisers of solar heat1 rendering the earth agreeable to living things1 and suited to the laws of their existence4 ,owing1 also1 to this law of convection1 the constituents of the air are equalised4 ,the breath of life1 supplied by the purer oxygen of the sunny south1 is diffused in salubrious gales over the wintry climes of the north4 ,and the waters1 evaporated from the bosom of the central ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,pacific1 are borne across vast continents1 and poured down in fertilising showers upon distant lands4 ,to the educated mind1 nothing is too simple to merit attention4 ,to the ignorant1 few things are sufficiently attractive to excite curiosity4 ,knowledge enables us to estimate the varied phenomena that are hourly arising around us1 and to see1 even in the most trifling effects1 illustrations of those great causes and consequences that govern with mighty power the material world4 ,man1 sitting by his fire-side1 is enabled to witness the operation of some of nature's grandest laws3 light and heat are around him2 conduction1 radiation1 reflection1 absorption1 and convection of heat are all going on before him2 little winds are sweeping by his footstool1 and warm currents1 with miniature clouds folded in their arms1 are passing upward before his view4 ,chemical changes are going on2 the solid rock of coal disappears1 flying away as an invisible gas4 ,the little hills are melted1 and hard stones have been converted into fervent heat4 ,although some of these changes are imperceptible to the eye1 they are manifest to the educated mind2 and the pleasures of philosophical observation are as sweet as a poet's dreams4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 #bdd4 ,why will a piece of paper1 held three or four inches over the flame of a candle1 become scorched8 ,verse3 ,neither do men light a candle1 and put it under a bushel1 but on a candlestick2 and it giveth light unto all that are in the house4--,,matt4 ,v4 ,because the hot air and gas produced by the burning of the candle ascends rapidly4 #bde4 ,why will a piece of paper held about an inch below the flame of a candle scarcely become warmed8 ,because the heat ascends2 and only a little of it falls upon the paper1 and that by radiation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,combustion ,,of ,a ,,candle4 #bdf4 ,why does the lower part of the flame of a candle 7,d7 burn of a blue colour8 ,because the hydrogen of the tallow1 having a stronger affinity for the oxygen of the air than carbon has1 ignites first4 ,pure hydrogen burns with a bluish flame4 #bdg4 ,why does the middle of the flame 7,c7 look dark8 ,because it is occupied with gaseous vapours1 derived from the tallow1 which have not yet ignited4 #bdh4 ,why does the upper part of the flame 7,b7 produce a bright yellow light8 ,because it is in this part of the flame that the hydrogen of the candle1 and the oxygen of the air1 combine1 and there is just sufficient carbon mixed with the hydrogen to improve its illuminating power4 #bdi4 ,why is there a fringe of pale light 7,a7 around the upper part of the flame8 ,because some of the carbon escapes in a state of incandesence1 and as soon as it reaches the air it combines with oxygen1 and so forms carbonic acid gas4 ,if any dark body1 such as the blade of a knife1 be held between the eye and the flame of the candle1 so as to shut off the light of the more luminous part1 the pale fringe around the flame will be found distinctly perceptible4 ,incandesence means heated to whiteness4 ,verse3 ,how oft is the candle of the wicked put out8 and how oft cometh their destruction upon them8--,,job ,,xxi4 #bej4 ,why does the flame terminate in a point8 ,because cold air rushes towards the flame in every direction1 and is carried upward4 ,at the point where the flame terminates the cold currents have so reduced the temperature that combustion can no longer be sustained4 #bea4 ,why1 if you hold anything immediately over the flame1 will the flame lengthen8 ,because1 by preventing the rapid escape of the heated air1 you maintain a temperature which increases the combustion at the point of the flame4 #beb4 ,why should persons whose clothes take fire1 throw themselves down8 ,because flame spreads most rapidly in an upward direction4 #bec4 ,why should persons whose clothes are on fire roll slowly about when they are down8 ,because they thereby press out the fire4 #bed4 ,why does pressing a flame or a spark put it out8 ,because it prevents the contact of the flame or spark with the oxygen of the air4 ,extinguishers put out the flame of candles in the same manner4 ,a person dies from suffocation through the absence of oxygen2 and it is literally practicable to suffocate a fire4 #bee4 ,why does the wick turn black as it burns8 ,because it consists principally of carbon4 #bef4 ,why1 when the point of the wick turns out and meets the air1 does it exhibit a bright spark8 ,because the carbon of the wick comes into immediate contact with the oxygen of the air4 #beg4 ,why does holding a candle upside down put it out8 ,because the melted grease runs down too rapidly1 and at too low a temperature to undergo combustion4 ,it therefore reduces the heat1 and extinguishes the flame4 ,verse3 ,lord1 what is man that thou takest knowledge of him6 or the son of man1 that thou makest account of him4--,,psalms ,,cxliv4 #beh4 ,why is it more difficult to blow out the flame of a candle with a cotton wick than one with a rush wick8 ,because the cotton wick imbibes more of the combustible materials1 and holds in its loose texture the inflammable gases in a state ready for combustion4 #bei4 ,why does blowing sharply at a candle flame put it out8 ,because the breath drives away the vapour of the grease which1 becoming gaseous1 supports the flame4 ,and because too rapid a flow of cold air reduces the temperature below the point at which combustion can be maintained4 #bfj4 ,why will a gentle puff of breath1 if given speedily after the flame is extinguished1 rekindle it8 ,because the oxygen of the air combines with the carbon and hydrogen that are still escaping from the heated wick1 and re-lights it4 #bfa4 ,why will not a similar puff rekindle the flame of a rushlight8 ,because its wick retains but little heat1 and holds a comparatively small amount of combustible matter in a volatile state4 #bfb4 ,why is a fire1 when it is very low1 sometimes put out by blowing it8 ,because the too rapid flow of cold air reduces the temperature of the burning mass4 #bfc4 ,why will a piece of paper twisted like an extinguisher put out a candle8 ,because1 before the flame of the candle can ignite the paper1 the oxygen contained within it is consumed1 and the flame is suffocated4 ,verse3 ,when his candle shined upon my head1 and when by his light ,i walked through darkness4--,,job ,,xxix4 #bfd4 ,why do tallow candles require snuffing8 ,because the oxygen of the air cannot reach the wick through the body of flame--therefore the unconsumed carbon accumulates upon the wick4 #bfe4 ,why do composite and wax candles not require snuffing8 ,because their wicks are made by a series of plaits1 by which they are bent to meet the oxygen of the air1 and consumed4 #bff4 ,why does setting a glass upon a lamp increase its brilliancy1 though it shortens the flame8 ,because it conducts an increase of air to the flame1 and the greater supply of oxygen causes the escaping vapour of oil to be all rapidly consumed4 #bfg4 ,why does a candle burn dimly when the wick has become loaded with carbon8 ,because the carbon radiates the heat1 and disperses it1 and reduces the heat of the flame below that temperature which is essential to its luminosity4 #bfh4 ,what differences characterise the combustion of carbon and of hydrogen8 ,the combustion of carbon takes place without the production of flame4 ,the charcoal 7or carbon in any other form7 being heated to redness1 enters directly into combination with the oxygen of the surrounding air1 and the carbonic acid gas1 being invisible1 passes away unobserved4 ,but in the combustion of hydrogen the heat developed is so intense as to render the gas itself luminous1 just as iron may be heated to a red or white heat4 #bfi4 ,what has become of the candle when it has been burnt8 ,it has been resolved partly into carbonic acid gas which1 though unperceived1 has diffused itself through the surrounding air2 and partly into water1 which escaped in the form of thin vapour4 #bgj4 ,has any part of the candle been consumed or lost8 ,no2 there is no such thing as loss in the operations of nature4 ,every particle of the candle1 now invisible1 exists either in the form of gas1 vapour1 or water1 with1 perhaps1 a few solid particles that may be called ashes1 but which are too minute to excite attention4 ,verse3 ,i know that whatsoever ,god doeth1 it shall be for ever3 nothing can be put to it1 nor anything taken from it2 and ,god doeth it that men should fear before him4--,,eccles4 ,,iii4 ,the economy of nature should teach us a very impressive lesson--nothing is suffered to be wasted1 not even the slightest atom4 ,as soon as any body has fulfilled its purpose in one state of being1 it is passed on to another4 ,the candle1 existing no longer as a candle1 is flying upon the wings of the air as carbonic acid gas1 and as water4 ,these probably find their way to the garden or the field1 where the carbonic acid gas forms the food of the plant1 and the water affords it a refreshing drink4 ,and can it be supposed that the ,almighty ,being1 who has thus economised the existence of the material creation1 should be less mindful of the immaterial soul of man8 ,there is an eternity before us1 the certainty of which is evidenced even by the laws of the material creation4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 #bga4 ,what is coal8 ,coal is a vegetable fossil4 #bgb4 ,what is meant by a vegetable fossil8 ,it is a substance originally vegetable1 which1 by pressure and other agencies within the earth1 has been brought to a condition approaching that of mineral or earthy matter4 #bgc4 ,why do we know that coal is of vegetable origin8 ,by the chemical components of its substance2 and also by the vegetable forms that are found abundantly in coal beds4 ,professor ,buckland1 in his ,bridgewater ,treatise1 speaking of the impressions of plants found in the coal mines1 says2 ,the finest example ,i have ever witnessed is that of the coal mines of ,bohemia4 ,the most elaborate imitations of living foliage upon the painted ceilings of ,italian palaces bear no comparison with the beauteous profusion of extinct vegetable forms with which the galleries of these instructive coal mines are overhung4 ,the roof is covered as with a canopy of gorgeous tapestry1 enriched with festoons of most graceful foliage1 flung in wild irregular profusion over every part of its surface4 ,the effect is heightened by the contrast of the coal-black colour of these vegetables with the light ground-work of the rock to which they are attached4 ,the spectator feels himself transported1 as if by enchantment1 into the forests of another world2 he beholds trees1 of forms and characters now unknown upon the surface of the earth1 presented to his senses almost in the beauty and vigour of their primeval life2 their scaly stems and bending branches1 with their delicate apparatus of foliage1 are all spread forth before him1 little impaired by the lapse of countless ages1 and bearing faithful records of extinct systems of vegetation which began and terminated in times of which these relics are the infallible historians4 ,verse3 ,surely every man walketh in a vain show2 surely they are disquieted in vain3 he heapeth up riches1 and knoweth not who shall gather them4--,,ps4 ,,xxxix4 #bgd4 ,what are the chemical components of coal8 ,they consist of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen4 ,the proportions of these elements vary in different kinds of coal4 ,carbon is the chief component2 and the proportions may be stated to be1 generally1 carbon1 #ij per cent42 hydrogen1 from #c to #f per cent42 the other elements enter into the compound in such small proportions1 that1 for all ordinary purposes1 it is sufficient to say that coal consists of carbon and hydrogen1 but chiefly of carbon4 #bge4 ,what is charcoal8 ,charcoal consists almost entirely of carbon4 ,it is made from wood by the application of heat1 without the admission of air4 ,the hydrogen and oxygen of the wood are expelled1 and that which remains is charcoal1 or carbon in one of its purest states4 #bgf4 ,what is animal charcoal8 ,animal charcoal1 like vegetable charcoal1 consists of carbon in a state approaching purity4 ,it is made from the bones of animals1 heated in iron cylinders4 ,it is commonly called ivory black4 #bgg4 ,what is the purest form of carbon known8 ,the purest form of carbon is the diamond1 which may be said to be absolutely pure4 ,hence we derive another of the beautiful lessons of science--a lesson which teaches us to despise nothing that ,god has given4 ,the soot which blackens the face of a chimney-sweep1 and the diamond that glistens in the crown of the monarch1 consist of the same element in merely a different atomic condition4 ,what a lesson of humility this teaches to ,pride6 ,the haughty beauty as she walks the ball-room1 inwardly proud of the radiance of her gems as they rise and fall upon her breast1 little thinks or knows that every breath that is expired around her wafts away the like element of which her treasures are composed4 ,that even in our own flesh and bones the same abounding substance lies hid2 and that the buried tree of the primitive world1 and the little flower of to-day1 are both the instruments of giving this singular element to man6 #bgh4 ,what is coke8 ,coke is coal1 divested of its hydrogen and other volatile parts1 by a similar process to that by which charcoal is produced4 ,it forms the residue after hydrogen gas has been made from coals4 ,it consists almost entirely of carbon4 ,verse3 ,oh that men would praise the ,lord for his goodness1 and for his wonderful works to the children of men4--,,psalm ,,cvii4 #bgi4 ,why do burning coals produce yellow flame8 ,because the hydrogen which they contain is combined with some proportion of carbon1 which imparts a bright yellow colour to the flames4 #bhj4 ,why do some of the flames of a fire appear much whiter than others8 ,because the quality of coals1 and the conditions under which they are burnt1 are liable to variation4 ,some coals yield a heavy hydrogen1 called bi-carburetted hydrogen1 which burns with a much brighter flame than carburetted hydrogen4 #bha4 ,why does bi-carburetted hydrogen burn with a whiter flame than the common coal gas8 ,because it is combined with a larger proportion of carbon1 to which it owes its increased luminosity4 #bhb4 ,why do some of the flames of a fire appear blue8 ,because the hydrogen which is escaping where those flames occur is pure hydrogen1 destitute of carbon4 #bhc4 ,why does the fire sometimes appear red1 and without flame8 ,because the volatile gases have been driven off and consumed1 and combustion is continued by the carbon of the coals and the oxygen of the air4 #bhd4 ,what effect has the burning of a fire upon the composition of the air8 ,it is found that in burning #ajlb4 of coal the oxygen contained in #a1eea cubic feet of air is altogether absorbed4 ,it is therefore necessary to keep the atmosphere of a room1 in which a coal fire is burning1 fresh and pure1 to supply #aee cubic feet of fresh air for every pound of coal that is consumed4 ,verse3 ,o ,lord how manifold are thy works1 in wisdom hast thou made them all3 the earth is full of thy riches4--,,psalm ,,civ4 #bhe4 ,why does wood which is green hiss and steam when it is burnt8 ,because it contains a large amount of water1 which must be evaporated before combustion can proceed4 #bhf4 ,what is the effect of this evaporation8 ,a great deal of heat is unprofitably expended in driving off the water of the fuel4 #bhg4 ,why does poking a fire cause it to burn more brightly8 ,because it opens avenues through which the air may enter to supply oxygen4 #bhh4 ,why do blowers improve the draft of air through a fire8 ,because1 by obstructing the passage of the current of air over the fire1 they cause additional air to pass through it1 and therefore a greater amount of oxygen is carried to the coals4 #bhi4 ,what is smoke8 ,unconsumed particles of coal1 rendered volatile by heat1 and driven off4 #bij4 ,what is soot8 ,carbon in minute particles1 driven off with other volatile matters and deposited on the walls of chimneys4 #bia4 ,why do fresh coals increase the quantity of smoke8 ,because they contain volatile matters which are easily driven off2 and because1 also1 they reduce momentarily the heat1 so that those matters that first escape cannot be consumed4 #bib4 ,why do charcoal and coke fires burn clearly and without flame8 ,because the hydrogen has been previously driven off from those substances4 #bic4 ,why is it difficult to light charcoal and coke fires8 ,because they contain no hydrogen to produce flame1 and assist combustion4 ,verse3 ,he hath made his wonderful works to be remembered3 the ,lord is precious and full of compassion4--,,psalm ,,cxl4 ,a new plan of kindling fires has lately been recommended4 ,coals are to be laid in the bottom of the fire-place to a considerable depth1 then the paper and wood are to be laid on1 and then a little coals and cinders over them4 ,this plan of laying in the fire is precisely the reverse of that which has been pursued for many years4 ,the theory is1 that when the coals in the bottom are ignited1 a more even combustion is kept up1 whilst the smoke and gas which would otherwise escape1 and become as so much waste fuel1 is burnt up1 and produces heat4 ,we have heard the plan strongly recommended by persons who have tried it1 and who testify to the great economy of fuel to which it conduces4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 #bid4 ,why does paper ignite more readily than wood8 ,because its texture is less dense than that of wood2 its particles are therefore more readily heated and decomposed4 #bie4 ,but if articles of loose texture are bad conductors of heat1 why do they so easily ignite8 ,the fact that they are bad conductors assists their ignition4 ,the heat which would pass from particle to particle of the dense substance of iron1 and be conducted away1 accumulates in the interspaces of paper1 and ignites it4 #bif4 ,why does wood ignite less readily than paper8 ,because its substance is denser than that of paper2 it therefore requires a higher degree of heat to inflame its substance4 #big4 ,why does wood1 when ignited1 burn longer than paper8 ,because1 being a denser substance1 it submits a larger number of particles1 within a given space1 to the action of the heat1 and the formation of gases4 #bih4 ,why do we1 in lighting a fire1 first lay in paper1 then wood1 and lastly coals8 ,because the paper is more easily ignited than wood1 and wood than coals2 therefore the paper assists the ignition of the wood1 and the wood assists the ignition of the coals4 ,verse3 ,it is a good thing to give thanks unto the ,lord1 and to sing praises unto thy name1 ,o ,most ,high4--,,psalm ,,xcii4 #bii4 ,why will not wood ignite by the flame of a match8 ,it will do so1 unless there is a great disproportion between the size of the wood and the flame of a match4 ,a thin piece of wood will ignite1 but a square block will not1 because the heat of the flame is insufficient to raise the temperature of a large surface to the point that will drive out its gases4 #cjj4 ,why do we place the paper under the wood1 and the wood under the coals8 ,because heat and flame1 when surrounded by air1 have a strong tendency to spread themselves upwards4 #cja4 ,would it be possible to light the coals by putting the paper and the wood upon the top8 ,it would be possible2 but the loss of heat would be so great1 that a much larger quantity of paper and wood would be required4 #cjb4 ,why does a poker laid across the top of a dull fire revive it8 ,because the poker radiates the heat it receives from the fire downward upon the fuel4 ,because1 also1 it divides the ascending air1 and thereby creates currents4 ,the amount of good which the poker does to the fire is very slight indeed4 ,generally1 the housewife stirs the fire first1 and blows or brushes away the ashes that prevent the influx of air4 ,she then places the poker upon the top1 and the popular mind supposes that the poker draws the fire4 ,the custom of placing a poker over the fire is of very remote antiquity4 ,it was once believed that forming a cross1 by placing the poker over the bars1 protected the fire from the hostility of malignant witches6 #cjc4 ,why should fire-places be fixed as low as possible in rooms8 ,because heat ascends1 and when the fire-places are high the lower parts of the room are inadequately warmed4 ,also1 as currents of air fly towards the fire1 elevated fire-places cause drafts about the persons of the inmates to a much greater extent than they would if they were lower down4 ,verse3 ,unto thee1 ,o ,god1 do we give thanks3 for that thy name is near thy wondrous works declare4--,,psalm ,,lxxv4 #cjd4 ,why1 if a piece of paper be laid with its flat surface upon the fire1 will it char1 but not ignite8 ,because1 as in the case of the proper candle-extinguisher1 the carbonic acid gas accumulating beneath it prevents its igniting4 #cje4 ,why1 if you direct a current of air towards the paper1 will it burst into a blaze8 ,because the carbonic acid gas is displaced by a current of air containing oxygen4 #cjf4 ,why does water extinguish fire8 ,because it saturates the fuel1 and prevents the gases thereof from combining with the oxygen of the air4 #cjg4 ,as water contains oxygen1 why does not the oxygen of the water support the fire8 ,because the affinity between the hydrogen and oxygen of the water is so strong that fire cannot separate them4 ,water may be decomposed by heat1 as will be hereafter explained4 ,but the heat of an ordinary fire is insufficient4 ,there is1 however1 some reason for believing that1 in cases of very large fires1 such as the accidental burning of houses1 c41 when the supply of water thrown upon the fire is very deficient1 the water does become decomposed1 and add to the fury of the flames4 #cjh4 ,why does the blacksmith sprinkle water upon the coals of his forge8 ,the blacksmith uses small coals because the small pieces thereof are more easily ignited than large lumps would be1 and they convey heat better by completely surrounding the articles put into the fire4 ,he sprinkles water on the coal dust to hold its particles together by cohesion1 until the heat forms it into a cake4 ,a strong blast of hot hair drives the vapour of the water away1 and leaves a porous mass to the action of the fire4 #cji4 ,why1 when the blacksmith thrusts a heated iron into a tankard of water1 do we recognise a peculiar smell8 ,because the intense heat disengages a small volume of the gases of which water is formed4 ,verse3 ,oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of ,god6 how unsearchable are his judgments1 and his ways past finding out4--,,rom4 ,,xi4 #caj4 ,which gas do we 7in this instance7 recognise by the smell8 ,the hydrogen gas4 ,oxygen gas possesses no odour4 #caa4 ,what is ,spontaneous ,combustion8 ,spontaneous combustion is that which occurs in various bodies when they become highly heated by chemical changes4 #cab4 ,why is heat developed during chemical changes8 ,because1 as all bodies contain latent caloric1 the disturbance of the atoms of which those bodies are composed1 during the new combinations that constitute chemical changes1 frequently sets the caloric free1 and an accumulation of caloric produces spontaneous combustion4 #cac4 ,does a match ignite spontaneously when drawn over a rough surface8 ,no4 ,because in this case the combustion arises from heat applied by friction4 #cad4 ,does phosphorous ignite spontaneously when held in a warm hand8 ,phosphorous will ignite when held in a warm hand1 but it does not then produce spontaneous combustion1 because it ignites through the agency of applied heat4 #cae4 ,but if a piece of dry phosphorous be sprinkled with powdered charcoal it will ignite1 without the application of heat4 ,why is this8 ,because the carbon 7charcoal7 absorbs oxygen from the air1 and conveys it to the phosphorous4 ,here are chemical changes which develope heat1 and produce spontaneous combustion4 #caf4 ,why do hay-stacks sometimes take fire8 ,because the hay1 having become damp1 decays1 and passes on to a state of fermentation1 in which chemical changes occur1 during which heat is evolved4 ,hay1 taking fire under these circumstances1 would exhibit spontaneous combustion4 ,verse3 ,who hath woe8 who hath sorrow8 who hath contentions8 who hath babbling8 who hath words without cause8 who hath redness of the eyes8 99 99 99 ,they that tarry long at the wine4--,,prov4 ,,xxiii4 #cag4 ,what substances are liable to produce spontaneous combustion8 ,all substances which contain sugar1 starch1 and other components liable to fermentation4 ,all bodies that evolve1 under low degrees of temperature1 inflammable gases4 ,and all organic bodies undergoing decay4 ,grain1 cotton1 hemp1 flax1 coals1 oily and greasy substances4 #cah4 ,what is the ,ignis ,fatuus 7sometimes called ,will-o'-the-,wisp1 ,corpse ,candles1 and ,jack-o'-,lantern78 ,it is a flame produced by spontaneous combustion1 caused by the decay of animal or vegetable bodies1 which evolve phosphoretted hydrogen gas1 under circumstances attended by a low degree of heat1 sufficient to ignite the gases4 ,it is mostly seen over marshy places1 and burial-grounds4 ,many a ,ghost ,story has owed its origin to these singular but harmless appearances4 ,people1 ignorant of the cause1 have been terrified at the effect4 ,to the fancy of an affrighted mortal1 the simple flame of the ,ignis ,fatuus has assumed the form of a departed friend1 and even found a supernatural voice4 ,if1 excited by a momentary daring1 the beholder moved towards the light upon which he gazed1 it fled from him4 ,if he turned from it and walked away1 it followed him1 step by step4 ,the darkness of a lonely road1 or the sacred solitude of a burial-place1 have been sufficient accessories to authenticate the appearance of a spirit4 ,and yet how simple the phenomenon8 ,matters so volatile as those which produce the ,ignis ,fatuus would naturally be driven back by the motion in the air caused by an advancing body2 and1 on the other hand1 a body moving from them would create a current in which the ,ignis ,fatuus would follow4 ,poisonous gases1 escaping from decaying bodies1 pass into the air and take fire4 ,they are thereby converted into harmless compounds4 ,thus we see that the ghost which terrifies the mind of the ignorant1 becomes a guardian angel to the educated4 #cai4 ,has spontaneous combustion ever occurred in living bodies8 ,it has occurred in numerous instances to persons habituated to the excessive use of spirits4 #cbj4 ,why should spontaneous combustion occur in the case of the drunkard8 ,because spirituous drinks contain a large proportion of ,,alcohol1 one of the constituents of which is hydrogen4 ,the vital energies of the drunkard1 being destroyed by excess1 chemical agencies obtain an ascendancy1 and it is supposed that the hydrogen of the alcohol combines with the phosphorous of the body to form phosphoretted hydrogen1 which ignites spontaneously1 and literally consumes the living temple4 ,verse3 ,drought and heat consume the snow waters2 so doth the grave those which have sinned4--,,job ,,xxiv4 ,cases of spontaneous combustion are of rare occurrence4 ,but they are sufficiently well authenticated by high medical authority1 in many parts of the world1 to present an awful warning to the inveterate drunkard4 ,the cases of which we have read the particulars present details of the most appalling description4 ,how signally the ,almighty displeasure at intemperance is expressed1 when the very drink which imparts the mad pleasure of intoxication is made the direct instrument by which the drunkard is destroyed6 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 #cba4 ,why does friction produce heat8 ,because all bodies contain latent heat1 that is1 heat that lies hid in their substance1 and the rubbings of two bodies against each other draws the latent heat to the excited surfaces4 #cbb4 ,why does the rubbing of two surfaces together attract latent heat to those surfaces8 ,because it is a law of nature that heat shall always attend motion2 and it is generally found that the intensity of heat bears a specific relation to the velocity of motion4 #cbc4 ,what are the sources of heat8 ,the rays of the sun1 the currents of electricity1 the action of chemicals1 and the motion of substances4 #cbd4 ,why does water freeze8 ,because its latent heat is partly drawn off by the surrounding air4 #cbe4 ,why does ice melt8 ,because the heat1 once latent in the water1 but drawn off by the air1 has returned to it1 and restored the water to its former condition4 ,verse3 ,so teach us to number our days1 that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom4 ,,psalm ,,xc4 #cbf4 ,why does water become steam8 ,because a larger amount of heat has entered into it than can remain latent in water4 ,the water therefore expands and rises in the form of vapour1 or water attenuated by heat4 #cbg4 ,how many degrees of heat are latent1 or hidden1 in the different states of water8 ,in thawing ice1 #adj deg4 of caloric become latent2 and in converting the water into steam1 #a1jjj deg4 more of caloric are be taken up4 ,therefore1 ice requires to take up #a1adj deg4 of latent caloric before it becomes steam4 #cbh4 ,what is the most modern theory of heat8 ,it is this--that caloric1 which produces heat1 is an extremely subtile fluid1 of so refined a nature that it possesses no weight1 yet is capable of diffusing itself among the particles of the most solid bodies4 ,it is also believed that--all bodies are subject to the action of two opposing forces3 one1 the mutual attraction of their particles2 the other1 the repulsive force of caloric--and that bodies exist in the riform1 fluid1 or solid state1 according to the predominance of either the one or the other of these opposing forces4 #cbi4 ,how do we measure the quantity of caloric in any substance8 ,it is impossible to determine the amount of caloric which any body contains4 ,our sensations would obviously be deceptive1 since1 if we dipped the right hand in snow1 and held the left hand before the fire1 and then immersed both hands in cold water1 the water would feel warm to the right hand and cold to the left hand4 ,but1 as caloric uniformly expands substances that are under its influence1 one of the bodies most sensitive to calorific effects has been selected to be the indicator of the amount of caloric4 ,this substance is quicksilver2 and the scale of measurement1 and the apparatus for exhibiting the rise or fall of the quicksilver1 constitute the thermometer4 #ccj4 ,if it is impossible to measure the amount of caloric in any substance1 how can it be said that ice absorbs #adj deg4 in becoming water8 ,those figures simply record the amount of calorie indicated by the thermometer4 ,the instrument will show with sufficient accuracy the relative amount of caloric in various bodies1 or in the same bodies under different circumstances1 but it can never determine the precise amount of caloric in any one body4 ,verse3 ,great is the ,lord1 and greatly to be praised in the city of our ,god1 in the mountain of his holiness4--,,psalm ,,xlviii4 #cca4 ,why1 if a hot and a cold body were placed near to each other1 would the cold one become warmer1 and the hot one cooler8 ,because free caloric 7that is1 caloric that is not latent17 always exhibits a tendency to establish an equilibrium4 ,if twenty bodies1 of different temperatures1 were placed in the same atmosphere1 they would all soon arrive at the same temperature4 ,the caloric would leave the bodies of those of the highest1 and find its way to those of the lowest temperature4 #ccb4 ,how does caloric travel8 ,it travels in parallel rays in all directions with a velocity approximating to that of light2 and it passes through various bodies with a rapidity proportionate to their power of conduction4 #ccc4 ,why does melted metal run like a stream of fluid8 ,because caloric has passed into its substance1 and1 repelling its particles1 has separated them to that degree which produces fluidity4 #ccd4 ,how do we know that it is caloric passing into the substance of the metal which produces this effect8 ,because1 as soon as a bar of metal begins to be heated1 it expands and lengthens4 ,it continues to do so1 until the heat arrives at that point which causes the metal to melt4 #cce4 ,why does the iron of an ironing-box sometimes become too large for the box to receive it8 ,because caloric has passed into the substance of the iron1 and repelled its particles1 by which it has become expanded4 #ccf4 ,why does the iron enter the box when it has become partially cooled8 ,because a portion of the caloric has left the iron1 the particles of which have drawn closer together1 and contracted the mass4 ,verse3 ,cast thy burden upon the ,lord1 and he shall sustain thee2 he shall never suffer the righteous to be moved4--,,psalm ,,lv4 ,this effect is frequently observed by females in domestic life1 who1 when they are ironing1 or using the ,italian irons1 find that the heated metal has been too much expanded to enter the box or tube4 ,they find it necessary to wait until the cooling of the iron has had the effect of reducing its dimensions4 ,the expansion of bodies by heat is one of the grandest and most important laws of nature4 ,we are indebted to it for some of the most beautiful1 as well as the most awful1 phenomena4 ,and science has gained some of its mightiest conquests through its aid4 ,yet frequently1 though quite unthought of1 in the hands of the humble laundress1 will be found a most striking illustration of this wonderful force of caloric4 #ccg4 ,are there any instances in which the abstraction of latent heat will reduce the hulk of bodies8 ,yes1 there are several4 ,but the most familiar one is that which is exhibited by mixing a pint of the oil of vitriol with a pint of water4 ,a considerable amount of heat will be evolved2 and it will be found that the two pints of fluid will not afterwards fill a quart measure4 #cch4 ,is there any latent heat in air8 ,yes3 a considerable amount4 ,in a pint measure of air1 though in no way evident to our perceptions1 there lurks sufficient caloric to raise a piece of metal several inches square to glowing redness4 #cci4 ,how do we know that caloric exists in the air8 ,it has been positively demonstrated by the invention of a small condensing syringe1 by which1 through the rapid compression of a small volume of air1 a spark is emitted which ignites a piece of prepared tinder4 #cdj4 ,what is the cause of the spark when a horse's shoe strikes against a stone8 ,the latent heat of the iron or the stone is set free by the violent percussion4 ,the same effect takes place when flint strikes against steel1 as in the old method of obtaining a light with the aid of the tinder-box4 ,verse3 ,the waters are laid as with a stone1 and the face of the deep is frozen4--,,job ,,xxxviii4 ,what an eloquent lecture might be delivered upon the old-fashioned tinder-box1 illustrated by the one experiment of striking a light4 ,in that box lie1 cold and motionless1 the ,flint and ,steel1 rude in form and crude in substance4 ,and yet1 within the breast of each1 there lies a spark of that grand element which influences every atom of the universe2 a spark which could invoke the fierce agents of destruction to wrap their blasting flames around a stately forest1 or a crowded city1 and sweep it from the face of the world2 or which might kindle the genial blaze upon the homely hearth1 and shed a radiant glow upon a group of smiling faces2 a spark such as that which rises with the curling smoke from the village blackmith's forge--or that which leaps with terrific wrath from the troubled breast of a ,vesuvius4 ,and then the tinder--the cotton--the carbon3 ,what a tale might be told of the cotton-field where it grew1 of the black slave who plucked it1 of the white toiler who spun it into a garment1 and of the village beauty who wore it--until1 faded and despised1 it was cast amongst a heap of old rags1 and finally found its way to the tinder-box4 ,then the ,tinder might tell of its hopes2 how1 though now a blackened mass1 soiling everything that touched it1 it would soon be wedded to one of the great ministers of nature1 and fly away on transparent wings1 until1 resting upon some ,alpine tree1 it would make its home among the green leaves1 and for a while live in freshness and beauty1 looking down upon the peaceful vale4 ,then the ,steel might tell its story1 how for centuries it lay in the deep caverns of the earth1 until man1 with his unquiet spirit1 dug down to the dark depths and dragged it forth1 saying1 ,no longer be at peace4 ,then would come tales of the fiery furnace1 what ,fire had done for ,steel1 and what ,steel had done for ,fire4 ,and then the ,flint might tell of the time when the weather-bound mariners1 lighting their fires upon the ,syrian shore1 melted silicious stones into gems of glass1 and thus led the way to the discovery of the transparent pane that gives a crystal inlet to the light of our homes2 of the mirror in whose face the lady contemplates her charms2 of the microscope and the telescope by which the invisible are brought to sight1 and the distant drawn near2 of the prism by which ,newton analysed the rays of light2 and of the photographic camera in which the sun prints with his own rays the pictures of his own adorning4 ,and then both ,flint and ,steel might relate their adventures in the battle-field1 whither they had gone together2 and of fights they had seen in which man struck down his fellow-man1 and like a fiend had revelled in his brother's blood4 ,thus1 even from the cold hearts of flint and steel1 man might learn a lesson which should make him blush at the glory of war2 and the proud1 who despise the teachings of small things1 might learn to appreciate the truths that are linked to the story of a tinder-box4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 #cda4 ,since all bodies expand by heat and contract by cold1 why does water1 when it reaches the freezing point1 expand8 ,because1 in freezing1 water undergoes crystallization1 in which its particles assume a new arrangement occupying greater space4 #cdb4 ,why does water never freeze to a great depth8 ,because the covering of ice which is formed upon the surface of the water prevents the cold air from continuing to draw off the caloric of the water4 ,verse3 ,for he saith to the snow1 ,be thou on the earth2 likewise to the small rain1 and to the great rain of his strength4--,,job ,,xxxvii4 #cdc4 ,why has this exceptional law of the expansion of water1 when freezing1 been ordained8 ,because1 but for this1 deep waters might be frozen through their whole depth4 ,this would destroy the myriads of fish and other living things that inhabit the water4 ,parts of the earth1 now clad in verdure1 would be lost in eternal winter2 and even in the most temperate zones it would take months to effect a thaw2 and thawing would be attended with such floods and subterranean commotion as are terrible to contemplate4 #cdd4 ,why are bed-room windows sometimes covered with crystalline forms on winter mornings8 ,because the vapour of the breaths of the inmates has condensed upon the window-panes1 and formed water4 ,the water has frozen with the cold1 and exhibits the beautiful crystalline forms into which its particles are arranged4 ,here we have another domestic illustration of the great laws of nature4 ,it is the same law which locks the arctic regions in ice and decorates our window-panes4 ,this beautiful phenomenon is usually witnessed by us on frosty mornings when we rise from our beds4 ,it has a story which the observer of nature may read in its sparkling eyes4 ,it tells that1 although without the air is biting cold1 ,god has wrapped a mantle around the face of nature to keep it from injury2 and that the earth and the waters1 though looking chilled and dead1 have still the warmth of life preserved in their bosoms4 #cde4 ,what is dew8 ,dew is watery vapour diffused in the air1 condensed by coming in contact with bodies colder than the atmosphere4 #cdf4 ,why does the air become charged with watery vapour8 ,because1 during the day1 under the influence of the sun's rays1 vapours are exhaled from all the moist and watery surfaces of the earth4 ,these vapours are held in suspension in the atmosphere until1 by a change in the temperature of the earth1 and of bodies on the surface of the earth1 they are condensed1 and deposited in translucid drops4 #cdg4 ,what causes the decline of temperature that favours the deposition of dew8 ,the earth1 which during the day received heat from the solar rays1 radiates the heat back into the air1 and therefore becomes itself colder4 ,all the various objects upon the face of the earth also radiate heat in a greater or lesser degree4 ,and dew will be found to be deposited upon the surfaces of such bodies in proportion to the fall of their temperature through radiation4 ,verse3 ,the ,lord is my shepherd1 ,i shall not want4 ,he maketh me to lie down in green pastures4--,,psalm ,,xxiii4 #cdh4 ,why is there little or no dew when the nights are cloudy8 ,because clouds act as secondary radiators2 and when the earth radiates its heat towards the clouds1 the clouds again radiate it back to the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,dew4 ,if plates of glass be laid over grass-beds1 as in the engraving ,fig4 #c1 no dew will be deposited on the grass underneath the glass plates1 although all around the grass will be completely wetted4 ,the explanation is that the glasses1 being radiators of heat1 act in the same manner as the clouds1 returning the heat to the bodies underneath them1 and preventing the formation of dew thereon4 #cdi4 ,why does dew form most abundantly on cloudless nights8 ,because the heat which is radiated by the earth does not return to it4 ,the temperature of the earth1 and the air immediately upon its surface1 is therefore lowered1 and dew is formed4 ,it has been observed that sheep that have lain on the grass during the formation of dew have their backs completely saturated with it1 but that underneath the line where their bodies turn to the earth1 their coats will be dry4 ,in the same manner glass globes suspended in the air1 on dew forming nights1 will be found loaded with globules of dew upon the top1 but there will be no appearance of moisture underneath4 ,verse3 ,dost thou know the balancings of the clouds1 the wondrous works of him which is perfect in knowledge4--,,job ,,xxxvii4 #cej4 ,why are star-lit nights usually colder than cloudy nights8 ,because heat is radiated from the earth1 and passes away into the utmost regions of the atmosphere4 #cea4 ,why is there little dew under branches of thick foliage8 ,because the foliage acts as a screen1 which prevents the radiated heat of the earth from passing away4 #ceb4 ,why is there no dew formed on windy nights8 ,because1 as winds generally consist of dry air1 they absorb and bear away the atmospheric moisture4 #cec4 ,why are valleys and low places chiefly subject to dew8 ,because the elevated lands around them prevent the disturbance of the air in which the moisture is held4 #ced4 ,what bodies are most likely to be covered with dew8 ,all bodies that are good radiators of heat1 such as wool1 swansdown1 grass1 leaves of plants1 wood1 c4 #cee4 ,what bodies are likely to receive little dew8 ,all bad radiators of heat1 such as polished metal surfaces1 smooth stones1 and polished surfaces generally4 ,dew will be found to lie more abundantly upon rough and woolly leaves than upon smooth ones4 #cef4 ,at what period of the night is the largest amount of dew usually formed8 ,it is generally supposed that dew is formed most copiously in the mornings and evenings4 ,but such is not the case4 ,it is deposited at all hours of the night1 but most plentifully after midnight4 #ceg4 ,why is dew formed most plentifully after midnight8 ,because1 as radiation has been going on for some time1 the temperature of the earth1 and of various bodies upon it1 has been considerably reduced4 ,verse3 ,out of whose womb came the ice8 and the hoary frost of heaven1 who hath gendered it8--,,job ,,xxxviii4 #ceh4 ,in what parts of the world is the maximum of dew formed8 ,in warm lands near the sea1 or in the vicinity of rivers or lakes1 as the localities of the ,red ,sea1 the ,persian ,gulf the coast of ,coromandel1 in ,alexandria1 and ,chili4 #cei4 ,in what parts of the world is the minimum of dew formed8 ,it is quite absent in arid regions1 in the interior of continents1 such as ,central ,brazil1 the ,sahara1 and ,nubia4 #cfj4 ,why is dew seldom formed at sea8 ,because of the defective radiating quality of the surface of water4 #cfa4 ,why is a heavy dew regarded as the precursor of rain8 ,because a heavy formation of dew indicates that the air is saturated with moisture4 #cfb4 ,what is hoar-frost8 ,hoar-frost is frozen dew4 #cfc4 ,why is hoar-frost said to foretell rain8 ,because it shows that the air is saturated with moisture1 and the temperature of the air being low1 the vapours are likely to condense1 and produce showers4 #cfd4 ,what is honey-dew8 ,honey-dew is the name applied to a sweet and sticky moisture occasionally deposited upon the leaves of plants4 ,it is1 however1 an error to call it dew1 as it is procured by a class of insects termed aphides4 #cfe4 ,what are fogs8 ,fogs are clouds formed near the earth's surface2 but ,london fogs are distinguished from clouds by the fact that they embrace in their vaporous folds the smoke and volatile matters imparted to the air by the operations of man4 ,this is also the case with fogs generally that arise near large towns4 ,verse3 ,hath the rain a father8 or who hath begotten the drops of dew8--,,job ,,xxxviii4 #cff4 ,why are certain coasts liable to almost perpetual fogs8 ,because of local or geographical agencies which contribute to their production4 ,the coasts of ,california are almost constantly wrapped in fog2 and1 almost as constantly1 the western coast of the ,american continent1 as far south as ,peru4 ,newfoundland1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,hudson's ,bay1 are all subject to dense and frequent fogs arising from the condensation of vapour from the water flowing from the hot ,gulf-stream1 coming in contact with the colder air4 #cfg4 ,what are dry fogs8 ,dry fogs are characterised by a dull opaque appearance of the atmosphere4 ,they are most common in certain parts of ,north ,america1 though they sometimes occur in ,germany and in ,england4 ,they are generally referred to the electrical state of the atmosphere1 but the theory of them is still a matter of doubt4 #cfh4 ,what is a mist8 ,the term mist is generally applied to vapours that rise over marshy places1 or the surfaces of water1 and roll or move over the land4 #cfi4 ,what is the difference between a mist and a fog8 ,fogs1 as they are known to us1 generally arise over the land1 and are usually mingled with the smoke of large towns4 ,mists generally arise over water1 or wet surfaces4 #cgj4 ,why do mists and fogs disappear at sunrise8 ,because the condensed vapours are again expanded and dispersed by the heat of the sun's rays4 #cga4 ,why do fogs frequently rise in the morning and fall again in the evening8 ,because1 warmed by the sun's rays1 they become more rarefied1 and fly away at an altitude where they appear to be altogether dispelled2 but at night1 when the earth cools by radiation1 the vapours near the earth again condense1 and settle in the form of fog4 #cgb4 ,why do fogs sometimes rest upon a given locality for several days together1 and then disappear8 ,they are probably kept near to the surface of the earth by a superstratum of cold air4 ,a cold air lying above1 or a cold air lying below1 might equally contribute to keep a fog near the surface of a particular part of the earth1 until a flow of wind1 or a fall of rain1 altered the atmospheric condition4 ,verse3 ,he bindeth up the waters in his thick clouds2 and the cloud is not rent under them4--,,job ,,xxvi4 ,there are many interesting facts connected with the history of dew4 ,it has attracted the attention of natural philosophers in all ages4 ,but its true theory was never understood until recently4 ,the ancients imagined that dews were shed from the stars2 and the alchemists and physicians of the middle ages believed that the dew distilled by night possessed penetrating and wonder-working powers4 ,the ladies of those times sought to preserve their beauty by washing in dew1 which they regarded as a celestial wash4 ,they collected it by placing upon the grass heaps of wool1 upon the threads of which the magic drops clustered4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 #cgc4 ,what are clouds8 ,clouds are volumes of vapour1 usually elevated to a considerable height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d--;,,cirro-,,cumulus1 ,,or ,,sonder ,,cloud4 #cgd4 ,whence do clouds arise8 ,from the evaporation of water at the earth's surface4 #cge4 ,why do we not see them ascend8 ,we do1 sometimes1 in the form of what we call mists1 but generally the vapours that rise and contribute to the formation of clouds are so thin that they are invisible4 ,verse3 ,with clouds he covereth the light1 and commandeth it not to shine by the cloud that cometh betwixt4--,,job ,,xxxvi4 #cgf4 ,why1 if they are invisible when they rise1 do they became visible when they have ascended8 ,because the vapours become cooled in passing through the air1 and form a denser body4 #cgg4 ,why1 when they are condensed1 do they not follow the course of gravitation1 and descend8 ,because the vapours form into minute vesicles1 which we may call vapour bubbles1 and these1 being warmed by the sun1 are specifically lighter than the air4 ,because1 also1 the lower parts of clouds do partially descend1 but again becoming more rarefied by meeting with a warmer atmosphere1 they again ascend1 and are thus poised upon the air4 ,because1 also1 there is always a degree of atmospheric motion upward1 caused by the convection of heat from the earth's surface4 ,and1 although there must also be downward movements of the air to supply the place of that which has ascended1 still the heat of the ascending air1 combined with its upward movement1 expands and floats the vapour of the clouds4 #cgh4 ,at what height do clouds usually fly8 ,they fly at every degree of altitude2 but clouds of specific character are said to fly at given altitudes1 or to occupy certain ranges of altitude4 ,we will give their probable altitudes when speaking of the specific clouds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,,cirrus1 ,,or ,,curl ,,cloud4 ,verse3 ,who giveth rain upon the earth1 and sendeth waters upon the fields4--,,job ,v4 #cgi4 ,how many descriptions of clouds are there8 ,there are seven4 #a4 ,the ,cirrus 7,fig4 #e71 estimated range of altitude from #aj1jjj to #bd1jjj feet4 #b4 ,the ,cumulus 7,fig4 #g71 from #c1jjj to #aj1jjj feet4 #c4 ,the ,stratus1 an extended continuous level sheet of cloud1 increasing from beneath4 ,they fly very low4 #d4 ,the ,nimbus 7,fig4 #aj71 #a1ejj to #e1jjj feet4 #e4 ,the ,cirro-cumulus 7,fig4 #d71 from #c1jjj to #bj1jjj feet4 #f4 ,the ,cirro-stratus 7,fig4 #f71 from #e1jjj to #aj1jjj feet4 #g4 ,the ,cumulo-stratus 7,fig4 #i71 from #c1jjj to #aj1jjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f--;,,cirro-,,stratus1 ,,or ,,wane ,,cloud4 ,the estimated heights given must be looked upon as very conjectural1 although they have been derived from the best existing authorities4 ,it is sufficient to know that the range of the altitude of the various clouds is from that of the ,nimbus1 or thunder cloud1 #a1ejj feet1 to that of the ,cirrus1 #bd1jjj feet1 the others being intermediate4 ,the first three of the clouds above enumerated constitute what are called the primary forms4 ,the remaining four are called secondary forms1 because they arise1 as their names generally indicate1 out of combinations of the primary forms4 ,although1 from the frequent mingling of clouds1 it is not always practicable to identify them by the adopted classification1 still1 as there is generally a prevalence of one type of cloud over another1 the observer would be able to distinguish a ,cirrus sky1 or ,cirro-cumulus sky1 c4 ,upon some occasions the typical characters of the clouds are beautifully defined2 and the contemplation of their forms1 and the laws of their formation1 affords infinite pleasure to the observer4 ,the advantages of scientific knowledge are such1 that whether you look downwards1 to the earth1 or upwards to the sky1 you have still the writing of ,god to read4 #chj4 ,what produces the various shapes of clouds8 #a4 ,the state of the atmosphere4 #b4 ,the electrical condition of the clouds4 #c4 ,the movements of the atmosphere4 #d4 ,the season of the year4 ,verse3 ,behold1 he withholdeth the waters1 and they dry up2 also he sendeth them out1 and they overturn the earth4--,,job ,,xii4 #cha4 ,what are the dimensions of clouds8 ,a single cloud has been estimated to have as many as twenty square miles of surface1 and to be above a mile in thickness1 while others are no larger than a house1 or a man's hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,,cumulus1 ,,or ,,pile ,,cloud4 #chb4 ,how are clouds affected by winds8 ,if cold winds blow upon the clouds1 the cold condenses the vapour1 turning the clouds into rain4 ,but if warm dry winds blow upon the clouds1 they rarefy the vapour to a greater degree1 and temporarily disperse the clouds4 #chc4 ,how do winds affect the shapes of clouds8 ,when winds are mild and gentle1 the clouds break into small patches1 and rise to a considerable height4 ,but when the winds are cold and blustering1 the clouds fly low1 and roll along in heavy masses4 #chd4 ,why are east winds usually dry8 ,because in coming towards ,england they pass over vast continents of land1 and comparatively little ocean4 ,hence they are not loaded with vapours4 #che4 ,why do west winds generally bring rain8 ,because they come across the ,atlantic1 and are heavily charged with vapour4 #chf4 ,why are north winds generally cold and dry8 ,because they come from the arctic ocean1 over vast areas of ice and snow4 ,verse3 ,terrors are turned upon me3 they pursue my soul as the wind2 and my welfare passeth away as a cloud4--,,job ,,xxx4 #chg4 ,why are south winds warm and rainy8 ,because they come from the southern regions1 heated by the hot earth and sands1 and as they cross the sea they absorb a large amount of vapour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,,cumulo-,,stratus1 ,,or ,,twain ,,cloud4 #chh4 ,why are clouds said to indicate the changes of the weather8 ,because1 as it is the state of the clouds that1 to a great extent1 determines the state of the weather1 the formation of the clouds must predicate approaching changes4 #chi4 ,what do cirrus clouds foretell8 ,cirrus clouds foretell fine weather1 when they fly high1 and are thin and light4 ,they foretell light rain when1 after a long continuance of fine weather1 they form fleecy lines stretched across the sky4 ,they foretell a gale of wind when1 for some successive days1 they gather in the same quarter of the heavens1 as if denoting the point from which to expect the coming gale4 7,fig4 #e74 #cij4 ,what do cumulus clouds foretell8 ,cumulus clouds1 when they are well defined1 and advance with the wind1 foretell fine weather4 ,when they are thin and dull1 and float against the wind1 or in opposition to the lower currents1 they foretell rain4 ,when they increase in size1 and become dull and grey at sunset1 they predict a thunder-storm4 7,fig4 #g47 ,verse3 ,when he made a decree for the rain1 and a way for the lightning and the thunder4--,,job ,,xxviii4 #cia4 ,what do stratus clouds foretell8 ,stratus clouds foretell damp and cheerless weather4 #cib4 ,what do nimbus clouds foretell8 ,nimbus clouds foretell rain1 storm1 and thunder4 7,fig4 #aj47 #cic4 ,what do cirro-cumulus clouds foretell8 ,cirro-cumulus clouds1 in summer1 foretell increasing heat attended by mild rain1 and a south wind2 but in winter they commonly precede the breaking up of a frost1 and the setting in of foggy and wet weather4 7,fig4 #d47 #cid4 ,what do cirro-stratus clouds foretell8 ,cirro-stratus clouds foretell rain or snow1 according to the season of the year4 ,these clouds extend in long horizontal streaks1 thinning away at their base1 and in parts becoming wavy or patchy4 ,when they are thus defined in the heavens they are a certain indication of bad weather4 7,fig4 #f47 #cie4 ,what do cumulo-stratus clouds foretell8 ,cumulo-stratus clouds usually foretell a change of weather--from rain to fine1 or from fine to rain4 7,fig4 #i47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,,nimbus1 ,,or ,,storm ,,cloud4 ,verse3 ,behold1 ,i will put a fleece of wool in the floor2 and if the dew be on the fleece only1 and it be dry upon all the earth beside1 then shall ,i know that thou wilt save ,israel4 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xix4 #cif4 ,why are cloudy days colder than sunny days8 ,because the clouds intercept the solar rays in their course towards the earth4 #cig4 ,why are cloudy nights warmer than cloudless nights8 ,because the clouds radiate back to the earth the heat which the earth evolves8 ,because1 also1 the clouds radiate to the earth the heat they have derived from the solar rays during a cloudy day4 #cih4 ,why is the earth warmer than the air during sunshine8 ,because the earth freely absorbs the heat of the solar rays2 but the air derives comparatively little heat from the same source4 #cii4 ,why does the earth become colder than the air after sunset8 ,because the earth parts with its heat freely by radiation2 but the air does not4 #djj4 ,why do glasses1 mats1 or screens1 prevent the frost from hitting plants8 ,because they prevent the radiation of heat from the plants1 and also from the earth beneath them4 #dja4 ,why are the screens frequently covered with dew on their exposed sides8 ,because they radiate heat from both their surfaces4 ,a piece of glass1 laid horizontally over the earth1 would radiate heat both upwards and downwards4 ,but on its lower surface it would receive the radiated heat of the earth1 while from its upper surface it would throw off its own heat and become cool4 ,therefore dew would be deposited upon the upper1 but not on the under surface4 #djb4 ,why does dew rest upon the upper surfaces of leaves8 ,because the under surfaces receive the radiated warmth of the earth4 ,verse3 ,and it was so3 for he rose up early on the morrow1 and thrust the fleece together1 and wringed the dew out of the fleece1 a bowl full of water4 #djc4 ,why are cultivated lands subject to heavier dews than those that are uncultivated8 ,because cultivation breaks up the hard surface of the earth1 and thus its radiating power is increased4 #djd4 ,why is the gravel walk through a lawn comparatively dry while the grass of the lawn is wet with dew8 ,because gravel is a bad radiator1 but grass is a good radiator4 #dje4 ,what benefit results from this arrangement8 ,in cultivated lands1 where moisture is required1 it is induced by the very necessity which demands it2 while in rocky and barren places1 where it would be of no good1 dew does not form4 #djf4 ,why does little dew form at the base of hedges and walls1 and around the trunks of trees8 ,because those bodies in some degree counteract the radiation of heat from the earth2 and they also radiate heat from their own substances4 #djg4 ,why do heavy morning dews and mists usually come together8 ,because they both have their origin in the humidity of the atmosphere4 ,the temperature of the earth having fallen1 dew has been deposited2 but1 at the same time1 the condensation of the vapour in the air has formed a screen over the surface of the earth1 which has checked the further radiation of heat1 and1 consequently1 the further formation of dew4 ,the sun rises1 therefore1 upon an atmosphere charged with visible vapour at the earth's surface1 and his first sloping rays1 having little power to warm the atmosphere1 the mist continues visible for some time4 #djh4 ,what effect have winds upon the formation of dew8 ,winds1 generally1 and especially when rapid1 prevent the formation of dew4 ,but those winds that are moist1 and contribute to the formation of clouds1 indirectly aid the formation of dew through the formation of clouds1 and also by the moisture they impart to the air4 ,verse3 ,and ,gideon said unto ,god1 99 99 99 ,let it now be dry only upon the fleece1 and upon all the ground let there be dew4 #dji4 ,why does the humidity of the atmosphere sometimes form clouds1 and at others form fogs1 mists1 dews1 c48 ,the result depends upon the varying temperature1 motion1 and direction of the atmosphere4 ,a warm light atmosphere1 of a few day's duration1 will elevate the vapours to the region where they are formed into clouds4 ,a chill air1 lying upon the surface of the warmer earth1 will occasion mists or fogs4 ,a cold earth1 acting upon the vapours contained in a warmer atmosphere1 will condense them and occasion dews4 #daj4 ,why are frosty mornings usually clear8 ,because1 in the cold atmosphere which preceded the frost1 there was but little evaporation2 and now that the frost has set in1 the vapours that existed have become frozen in the form of hoar-frost4 #daa4 ,why are clear nights usually cold8 ,because the screen afforded by the clouds does not exist2 therefore the heat of the earth escapes1 while the vapours of the air are abstracted from it by condensation into dew1 thereby imparting great clearness to the nights4 #dab4 ,why are hoar-frosts1 or1 as they are termed1 white frosts1 so frequent1 and black frosts so unusual8 ,because white1 or hoar frosts1 result from the coldness of the earth1 which1 from its great radiating power1 is always varying4 ,but black-frosts result from the coldness of the air1 which is liable to less variation of temperature than the earth4 #dac4 ,what is a black-frost8 ,a black-frost results from the coldness of the atmosphere1 which is at the time overshadowed by a dull cloud1 giving a darkness to everything1 and a leaden appearance to the frozen surface of water4 #dad4 ,why are black-frosts said to last8 ,because as they result from the temperature of the air1 which is less likely to vary than that of the earth1 there is a probability that the coldness thereof will last for some time4 ,verse3 ,and ,god did so that night3 for it was dry upon the fleece only1 and there was dew on all the ground1--,,judges ,,vi4 #dae4 ,what benefits result from the radiation of heat1 c48 ,but for the radiation of heat1 we should be subjected to the most unequal temperatures4 ,the setting of the sun would be like the going out of a mighty fire4 ,the earth would become suddenly cold1 and its inhabitants would have to bury themselves in warm covering1 to wait the return of day4 ,by the radiation of heat1 an equilibrium of temperature is provided for1 without which we should require a new order of existence4 ,the amount of heat which our earth receives from the sun1 and the economy of that heat by the laws of radiation1 reflection1 absorption1 and convection1 are exactly proportionate to the necessities of our planet1 and the living things that inhabit it4 ,it is held by philosophers that any change in the orbit of our earth1 which would either increase or decrease the amount of heat falling upon it1 would1 of necessity1 be followed by the annihilation of all the existing races4 ,the planets ,mercury and ,venus1 which are distant respectively #cg millions of miles1 and #fc millions of miles1 from the great source of solar heat1 possess a temperature which would melt our solid rocks2 while ,uranus 7#a1hjj millions of miles71 and ,neptune 7whose distance from the sun has not been determined71 must receive so small an amount of heat1 that water1 such as ours1 would become as solid as the hardest rock1 and our atmosphere would be resolved into a liquid6 ,yet1 poised in the mysterious balance of opposing forces1 our orb flies unerringly on its course1 at the rate of #fc1jjj miles an hour2 preserving1 in its wonderful flight1 that precise relation to the sun1 which takes from his life-inspiring rays the exact degree of heat1 which1 being shared by every atom of matter1 and every form of organic existence1 is just the amount needed to constitute the heat-life of the world6 ,,chapter ,,xx4 #daf4 ,what is rain8 ,rain is the vapour of the clouds which1 being condensed by a fall of temperature1 forms drops of water that descend to the earth4 ,it is the return to the earth in the form of water1 of the moisture absorbed by the air in the form of vapour4 #dag4 ,does rain ever occur without clouds8 ,it sometimes1 but rarely happens1 that a sudden transition from warmth to cold will precipitate the moisture of the air1 without the formation of visible clouds4 ,verse3 ,canst thou lift up thy voice to the clouds1 that abundance of waters may cover thee8--,,job ,,xxxviii4 #dah4 ,why are drops of rain sometimes large and at other times small8 ,because the drops1 in falling1 meet and unite1 and also gather moisture in their descent4 ,the greater the height from which a rain drop has descended1 the larger it is1 provided that its whole course lay through a rainy atmosphere4 ,the size of the drops is also influenced by the amount of moisture in the atmosphere1 the degree of cold1 and the rapidity of the change of temperature1 by which the drops are produced4 #dai4 ,in what seasons of the year are rains most prevalent8 ,throughout ,central ,europe rains are most prevalent in summer1 but in ,southern ,europe the preponderance is on the side of winter rains4 #dbj4 ,in what months of the year does it rain most frequently in this country8 ,it rains more frequently from ,september to ,march1 than from ,march to ,september2 but the heaviest rains occur from ,march to ,september4 #dba4 ,why are there more rainy days from ,september to ,march8 ,because the temperature of the air is more frequently lowered to that degree which precipitates its vapours4 ,months in the order of their comparative wetness3--#a4 ,october4 #b4 ,february4 #c4 ,july4 #d4 ,september4 #e4 ,january4 #f4 ,december4 ,months in the order of their comparative dryness3--#a4 ,march4 #b4 ,january4 #c4 ,may4 #d4 ,august4 #e4 ,april4 #f4 ,november4 #dbb4 ,in what part of the world does the greatest quantity of rain fall8 ,the greatest quantity of rain falls near the equator1 and the amount decreases towards the poles4 ,verse3 ,who can number the clouds in wisdom8 or who can stay the bottles of heaven4--,,job ,,xxxviii4 #dbc4 ,in what part of the world do the heaviest rains occur8 ,the heaviest rains occur in the tropics1 during the hot season4 ,the drops of rain in the tropical regions are so large1 and the force with which they descend so great1 that their splash upon the skin causes a smarting sensation4 #dbd4 ,in what parts of the world do the least rains occur8 ,there are some parts of the earth which are rainless1 such as ,egypt1 the desert of ,sahara1 the table lands of ,persia and ,montgolia1 the rocky flat of ,arabia ,petr1 c4 #dbe4 ,how many rainy days are there in a year8 ,the frequency of rainy days is greatest in countries near the sea1 and their number decreases the further we journey from the sea-border towards the inland4 ,in ,england it rains on an average #aeb to #aee days in the year4 #dbf4 ,in what part of ,england does the greatest amount of rain fall8 ,in the town of ,keswick1 in ,cumberland1 where #fc inches of rain fall in a year2 ,kendal1 in ,westmoreland1 #eh inches2 ,liverpool1 #cd inches2 ,dublin1 #be inches2 ,lincoln1 #bd inches2 ,london1 #ba inches4 #dbg4 ,why do the heaviest rains occur at the tropics8 ,because the hot air absorbs a large amount of vapour1 and rises into the higher regions of the atmosphere1 where the vapours are suddenly condensed into heavy rains1 by cold currents from the poles4 #dbh4 ,why does the greatest quantity of rain fall at the equator8 ,because the hot air absorbs a large amount of vapour1 and as the atmosphere is usually calm1 there is an absence of currents1 by which the saturated air would be removed4 ,in this1 which is called the ,region of ,calms1 rain falls almost daily4 #dbi4 ,why are some parts of the earth rainless8 ,because1 being situated in tropical or torrid latitudes1 and at a distance from the ocean1 the atmosphere above them is always in a dry state4 ,verse3 ,thou1 ,o ,god1 didst send a plentiful rain1 whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance1 when it was weary4--,,psalm ,,lxviii4 #dcj4 ,when is air said to be saturated with vapour8 ,when it cannot take up a larger quantity than that which it already holds4 ,when common salt is dissolved in water1 until the water can take up no more1 the water is then said to be saturated with salt4 #dca4 ,what proportion of water is air capable of sustaining in the form of vapour8 ,the amount of water held in suspension by the air averages the following proportion3 one thousand cubic feet of air contain as much vapour as1 were it condensed to water1 would yield about two fifths of a pint4 ,but one thousand cubic feet of air are capable of holding half-a-pint of water2 and this may be regarded as the point of saturation4 ,thus1 in a room ten feet square and ten feet high1 the air1 at the point of saturation1 would hold in the form of vapour1 half-a-pint of water4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that the point of saturation necessarily varies with the temperature of the air4 #dcb4 ,why are cloudy days and nights not always wet8 ,because the air has not reached the state of saturation4 #dcc4 ,why does rain purify the air8 ,because it produces motion in the particles of the air1 by which they are intermixed4 ,and it precipitates noxious vapours1 and cleanses the face of the earth from unhealthy accumulations4 #dcd4 ,why are mountainous localities more rainy than flat ones8 ,because the mountains attract the clouds2 and because the clouds that are flying low are borne against the sides of the mountains and directed upwards1 where they meet with cold currents of air4 #dce4 ,why does more rain fall by night than by day8 ,because by night the temperature of the air1 heated during the day1 falls to that degree which condenses its vapours into rain4 ,verse3 ,as the hart panteth after the water brooks1 so panteth my soul after thee ,o ,god4--,,psalm ,,xlii4 #dcf4 ,why do bunches of dried sea-weed indicate the probability of coming rain8 ,because they readily imbibe moisture1 and when they become soft and damp they show that the air is approaching the point of saturation4 #dcg4 ,why does the weather-toy1 called the weather-cock1 foretell the probability of rain8 ,because it is made with a piece of cat-gut which swells with moisture1 and as it swells1 shrinks4 ,the cat-gut is so applied that when it shrinks1 it turns a rod which sends the man out of the house1 and when it dries it sends the woman out4 ,therefore1 when the man appears1 it is a sign of wet1 and when the woman appears it is a sign of dry weather4 ,there is another toy1 called the ,capuchin1 which is made upon the same principle4 ,the figure lifts a hood over its head when wet is approaching1 and takes it off when the weather is becoming dry4 ,in this case1 a piece of cat-gut is also employed4 ,various weather-toys may be made upon this principle--among others1 a little umbrella1 which will open on the approach of wet1 and close on the return of fine weather4 ,a gentleman once made a wooden horse1 which he declared should of itself walk across a room1 without machinery of any kind4 ,the assertion was discredited2 but the horse was placed in a room close to the wall on one side4 ,the room was locked1 and otherwise fastened1 so that no one could interfere with the experiment4 ,after a time the door was opened1 and it was found that the horse had actually crossed the floor1 and stood on the opposite side4 ,the horse was made from wood of a peculiar kind1 liable to great expansion in wet weather1 and cut in a manner to produce the greatest elongation4 ,the fore hoofs were so made that where they were set they would remain1 so that the contracting parts should draw up from behind4 ,it is easy to understand how1 in this way1 the wooden horse crossed the apartment4 #dch4 ,why does ladies' hair drop out of curl upon the approach of damp weather8 ,because the hair absorbs moisture1 which causes its spirals to relax and unfold4 #dci4 ,why is it said in mountainous countries that rain is coming1 because the mountains are putting their night-caps on8 ,because the clouds descend when they are heavy with vapour1 and being attracted to the mountain tops they are said to cap the mountains4 ,verse3 ,hast thou entered into the treasures of the snow2 or hast thou seen the treasures of the hail4--,,job ,,xxxviii4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 #ddj4 ,what is snow8 ,snow is congealed vapour1 which would have formed rain2 but1 through the coldness of the air1 has been frozen in its descent into crystalline forms4 7,fig4 #a47 #dda4 ,why is snow white8 ,because it reflects all the component rays of light4 #ddb4 ,why is snow said to be warm1 while white garments are worn for coolness8 ,snow is warm by virtue of its light and woolly texture4 ,but it is also warm on account of its whiteness2 for1 had it been black1 it would have absorbed the heat of the sun1 which would have thawed the snow4 ,instead of which1 it reflects heat2 and the reflected heat falls upon bodies above the snow1 while the warmth of the earth is preserved beneath it4 ,white clothing is cool1 because it reflects from the body of the wearer the heat of the sun4 ,white snow is warm1 because it reflects the sun's heat upon bodies4 ,there are few persons but have felt the effect of the sun's rays reflected by the white snow on a clear wintry day4 ,and1 as regards the warmth of snow towards the earth1 by preventing the radiation of heat1 it has been found that a thermometer buried four inches deep in snow has shown a temperature of nine degrees higher than at the surface4 #ddc4 ,why are lofty mountains always covered with snow8 ,because the upper regions of the atmosphere are intensely cold4 #ddd4 ,why are the upper regions of the atmosphere intensely cold8 ,because the atmosphere retains but little of the heat of the sun's rays as they pass to the earth4 ,because at high altitudes the air is greatly rarefied4 ,and because the radiation of heat from the earth does not materially affect such high regions4 ,verse3 ,he causeth the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth3 he maketh lightnings for the rain3 he bringeth the wind out of his treasuries4--,,ps4 ,,xxxv4 #dde4 ,what is meant by the snow line8 ,the snow line is the estimated altitude in all countries where snow would be formed4 ,even at the equator1 at an altitude of #ae1jjj to #af1jjj feet from the level of the sea1 snow is found upon the mountain summits1 where it perpetually lies4 ,as we proceed north or south from the equator the snow line lessens in altitude4 ,had we in ,england a mountain #f1jjj feet high1 it would be perpetually crowned with snow4 #ddf4 ,why do we hear of red snow8 ,red snow is the name given to the snow in the arctic regions upon which a minute vegetable 7probably the ,protoccus nivalis7 grows1 imparting to the snow a red colour4 ,recent microscopic investigations have shown it to consist of a minute vegetable cell1 which secretes a red colouring matter4 ,snow is found to be of greater importance to man than is generally supposed4 ,but1 although in this country we are enabled to recognise the hand of ,providence in the gift1 there are latitudes wherein the blessing thus conferred is more deeply felt4 ,in such countries as ,canada1 ,sweden1 and ,russia1 the falling of snow is looked for with glad anticipations1 quite equalling those which herald the harvest-home of ,england1 or the vintage of ,france4 ,no sooner is the ground covered with snow1 than cranky old vehicles that had been jolting over rough roads1 and sticking fast in deep ruts of mud1 are wheeled aside1 and swift sledges take their place4 ,towns distant from each other find an easy mode of communication2 the markets are enlivened1 and trade thrives4 ,snow supplies a kind of railroad1 covering the entire face of the country1 and sledges glide over it1 almost with the speed of the locomotive4 #ddg4 ,what is sleet8 ,sleet is snow which1 in falling1 has met with a warmer current of air than that in which it congealed4 ,it therefore partially melts and forms a kind of wet snow4 #ddh4 ,what is hail8 ,hail is also the frozen moisture of the clouds4 ,it is probably formed by rain drops in their descent to the earth1 meeting with an exceedingly cold current of air by which they become suddenly frozen into hard masses4 ,it is also supposed that the electrical state of the air and of the clouds influences the formation of hail4 ,verse3 ,if the clouds be full of rain1 they shall empty themselves upon the earth4--,,eccles4 ,,xi4 #ddi4 ,why is it supposed that the electrical state of the air and the clouds affects the formation of hail8 ,because hail is more common in the summer than at other seasons1 and is frequently attended by storms of thunder and lightning4 #dej4 ,why do hail-storms most frequently occur by day8 ,because the clouds1 being charged with vapour to saturation1 favour the formation of hail by sudden electrical or atmospheric changes4 ,in the gradual cooling of night1 the clouds would expend themselves in rain4 ,astonishing facts respecting hail-storms are upon record4 ,in #agai there fell at ,kremo1 hailstones weighing six pounds4 ,in #ahbh there was a fall of ice at ,horsley1 in ,staffordshire1 some of the pieces of which were three inches long1 by one inch broad2 and other solid pieces were about three inches in circumference4 ,hail storms are most frequent in ,june and ,july1 and least frequent in ,april and ,october4 ,hail clouds float much lower in the sky than other clouds2 their edges are marked by frequent heavy folds2 and their lower edges are streaked with white1 the other portions being massive and black4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 #dea4 ,what is light8 ,light1 according to ,newton1 is the effect of luminous particles which dart from the surfaces of bodies in all directions4 ,according to this theory1 the solar light which we receive would depart from the sun and travel to the earth4 ,according to ,huyghens1 light is caused by an infinitely elastic ether1 diffused through all space4 ,this ether1 existing everywhere1 is excited into waves1 or vibrations1 by the luminous body4 ,the theory of light is so undetermined that neither the views of ,newton1 nor those of ,huyghens1 can be said to be exclusively adopted4 ,writers upon natural philosophy seize hold of either or both of those theories1 as they present themselves more or less favourably in the explanation of natural phenomena4 ,in ,the ,reason ,why1 as we have to speak of the effects of light rather than of its cause1 we shall avoid1 as far as possible1 the doubtful points4 ,but let no one be discouraged by the fact that the theory of light1 as1 indeed1 of all the imponderable agents1 is imperfectly understood4 ,rather let us rejoice that there are vast fields of discovery yet to be explored2 and that light1 the most glorious and inspiring element in nature1 invites us from the sun1 the moon1 and the stars1 and from the face of every green leaf and variegated flower1 to search out the wonders of its nature1 and further to exemplify the goodness and wisdom of ,god4 ,verse3 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be light3 and there was light4 #deb4 ,what is the distance of the sun from the earth8 ,ninety five millions of miles4 #dec4 ,at what rate of velocity does light travel8 ,at the rate of #aib1jjj miles in a second1 through our atmosphere2 and #aib1ejj miles in a second through a vacuum4 #ded4 ,how long does light take to travel from the sun to the earth8 ,eight minutes and thirteen seconds4 #dee4 ,what is the constitution of the sun8 ,it is a spherical body1 #a1chd1dgb times larger than the earth4 #def4 ,from what does the luminosity of the sun arise8 ,from a luminous atmosphere1 or1 as ,m4 ,arago named it1 photosphere1 which completely surrounds the body of the sun1 and which is probably burning with great intensity4 #deg4 ,what are the minor sources of light8 ,light may be produced by chemical action1 by electricity1 and by phosphoresence1 in the latter of which various agencies unite4 #deh4 ,what is a ray of light8 ,a ray of light is the smallest portion of light which we can recognise4 #dei4 ,what is a medium8 ,a medium is a body which affords a passage for the rays of light4 #dfj4 ,what is a beam of light8 ,a beam of light is a group of parallel rays4 #dfa4 ,what is a pencil of light8 ,a pencil of light is a body of rays which come from or move towards a point4 ,verse3 ,and ,god saw the light1 that it was good3 and ,god divided the light from the darkness4--,,gen4 ,i4 #dfb4 ,what is the radiant point8 ,the radiant point is that from which diverging rays of light are emitted4 #dfc4 ,what is the focus8 ,the focus is the point to which converging rays are directed4 ,diverging1 starting from a point1 and separating4 ,converging1 drawing together towards a point4 #dfd4 ,what is the constitution of a ray of light8 ,a ray of white light1 as we receive it from the sun1 is composed of a number of elementary rays1 which1 with the aid of a triangular piece of glass1 called a prism1 may be separated1 and will produce under refraction the following colours3-- #a4 ,an extreme red ray--a mixture of red and blue1 the red predominating4 #b4 ,red4 #c4 ,orange--red passing into and combining with yellow4 #d4 ,yellow--the most luminous of all the rays4 #e4 ,green--yellow passing into and combining with the blue4 #f4 ,blue4 #g4 ,indigo--a dark and intense blue4 #h4 ,violet--blue mingled with red4 #i4 ,lavender grey--a neutral tint4 #aj4 ,rays called fluorescent1 which are either of a pure silvery blue1 or a delicate green4 #dfe4 ,why is a ray of light1 which contains these elementary rays1 white8 ,because the colour of light is governed by the rapidity of the vibrations of the ether-waves4 ,when a ray of light is refracted by1 or transmitted through a body1 its vibrations are frequently disturbed and altered1 and thus a different impression is made upon the eye4 ,light which gives #cg1fdj vibrations in an inch1 or #deh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj in a second of time1 produces that sensation upon the eye which makes the object that directs the vibrations appear red4 ,yellow light requires #dd1jjj vibrations in an inch1 and #ece1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj in a second of time4 ,and the other colours enumerated 7see #dfd7 all require different velocities of vibration to produce the colours by which they are distinguished4 ,verse3 ,the light of the body is the eye3 if therefore thine eye be single1 thy whole body shall be full of light4--,,matt4 ,v4 ,accepting the theory of vibrations1 and applying it to the elucidation of the phenomena of light--it is unnecessary1 we think1 to believe that a ray of white light contains rays in a state of colour4 ,it is said that if we divide a circular surface into parts1 and paint the various colours in the order and proportions in which they occur in the refracted ray1 and then spin the circle with great velocity1 the colours will blend and appear white4 ,but such is not the case2 the result is in some degree an illusion1 arising out of the sudden removal of the impression made upon the eye by the colours2 and if a piece of white paper be held by the side of the coloured circle in motion1 the latter will be found to be grey4 ,when it is remembered that in colouring a white surface with thin colours1 the white materially qualifies the colours1 it must be admitted that the experiment fails to support the assertion that the colours of the spectrum produce white4 ,but there can be no difficulty in understanding that a ray of light undergoing refraction1 becomes divided into minor rays1 which differing in their degrees of refrangibility1 vary also in the velocity of their vibrations1 and produce the several sensations of colour4 #dff4 ,why is a substance white8 ,because it reflects the light that falls upon it without altering its vibrations4 #dfg4 ,why is a substance black8 ,because it absorbs the light and puts an end to the vibrations4 #dfh4 ,why is the rose red8 ,because it imparts to the light that falls upon it that change in its vibratory condition1 which produces on our eyes the sensation of redness4 #dfi4 ,why is the lily white8 ,because it reflects the light without altering its vibrations4 #dgj4 ,why is the primrose yellow8 ,because1 though it receives white light1 it alters its vibrations to #dd1jjj in an inch1 and #ece1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj in a second1 and this is the velocity of vibration which produces upon the eye a sensation of yellow4 ,verse3 ,but if thine eye be evil1 thy whole body shall be full of darkness4 ,if therefore the light that is in thee be darkness1 how great is that darkness4--,,matt4 ,v4 #dga4 ,why are there so many varieties of colour and tint in the various objects in nature8 ,because every surface has a peculiar constitution1 or atomic condition1 by which the light falling upon it is influenced4 ,in tropical climates1 where the brightness of the sun is the most intense1 there the colours of natural objects are the richest2 the foliage is of the darkest green2 the flowers and fruits present the brightest hues2 and the plumage of the birds is of the most gaudy description4 ,in the temperate climates these features are more subdued1 still bearing relation to the degree of light4 ,and at a certain depth of the ocean1 where light penetrates only in a slight degree1 the objects that abound are nearly colourless4 ,it has been held by many philosophers 7and the theory is so far conclusive that it cannot be dispensed with7 that there is an analogy between the vibratory causes of sound1 and the vibratory causes of colour4 ,any one who has seen an olian harp1 and listened to the wild notes of its music1 will be aware that the wires of the harp are swept by accidental currents of air2 that when those currents have been strong1 the notes of the harp have been raised to the highest pitch1 and as the intensity of the currents has fallen1 the musical sounds have deepened and softened1 until1 with melodious sighing1 they have died away4 ,no finger has touched the strings2 no musical genius has presided at the harp to wake its inspiring sounds2 but the vibration imparted to the air1 as it swept the wires1 has alone produced the chromatic sounds that have charmed the listener4 ,if1 then1 the varied vibrations of the air are capable of imparting dissimilar sensations of sounds to the ear1 is it not only possible1 but probable1 that the different vibrations of light may impart the various sensations of colours to the eye8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 #dgb4 ,what is the refraction of light8 ,when rays of light fall obliquely upon the surface of any transparent medium1 they are slightly diverted from their course4 ,this alteration of the course of the rays is called refraction1 and the degree of refraction is influenced by the difference between the densities of the mediums through which light is transmitted4 ,verse3 ,let your light so shine before men1 that they may see your good works1 and glorify your father which is in heaven4--,,matt4 ,v4 #dgc4 ,if a ray of light falls in a straight line upon a transparent surface1 is it then refracted8 ,in that case the ray pursues its course--there is no refraction4 #dgd4 ,is the direction in which the rays are bent1 or refracted1 influenced by the relative densities of the media8 ,a ray of light falling slantingly upon a window1 in passing through it is slightly brought to the perpendicular2 and if it then falls upon the surface of water1 it is still further brought to the perpendicular in passing through the water4 #dge4 ,is light refracted in passing from a dense medium to a thinner one8 ,it is2 but the direction of the refraction is just the opposite to the instance just given2 a ray of light passing through water into air1 does not take a more perpendicular course1 but becomes more oblique4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #dgf4 ,why1 if a rod or a spoon be set in an empty basin1 will it appear straight1 or of its usual shape8 ,because the rays of light that are reflected from it all pass through the same medium1 the air4 #dgg4 ,why if water be poured into the basin will the rod or spoon appear bent8 ,because the rays of light that pass through the water are reflected in a different degree to those that pass through the air4 ,verse3 ,evening1 and morning1 and at noon1 will ,i pray1 and cry aloud2 and he shall hear my voice4--,,psalm ,,lv4 ,place in the bottom of an empty basin 7,fig4 #aa47 a shilling2 then stand in such a position at the point ,b that the line of sight1 over the edge of the basin1 just excludes the shilling from view4 ,then request some one to pour water into the basin1 until it is filled to ,c 7,fig4 #ab471 keeping your eye fixed upon the spot4 ,the shilling will gradually appear1 and will soon come entirely in view4 ,not only will the shilling be brought in view1 but also portions of the basin before concealed4 ,this is owing to the rays of light passing from the bottom through the water in a direction more perpendicular than they would have done through the air2 but on leaving the water they become more oblique1 and hence they convey the image of the shilling over the edge of the basin1 which otherwise would have obstructed the view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 #dgh4 ,why is it that in cloudy and showery days we see the sun's rays bursting through the clouds in different directions8 ,because1 in passing through clouds of different densities the rays are bent out of their course4 #dgi4 ,why is the apparent depth of water always deceptive8 ,because the light reflected from the objects at the bottom is refracted as it leaves the water4 #dhj4 ,how much deeper is water than it appears to be8 ,about one-third4 ,a person bathing1 and being unable to swim1 should calculate before jumping into the water1 that if it looks two feet deep1 it is quite three feet4 #dha4 ,why can we seldom at the first attempt touch anything lying at the bottom of the water with a stick8 ,because we do not allow for the different refractive powers of water and of air4 ,verse3 ,i do set my bow in the cloud1 and it shall be for a token of a covenant between me and the earth4 #dhb4 ,why do we see the sun before sunrise1 and after sunset8 ,because of the refractive effects of the atmosphere4 ,rays of light1 passing obliquely from the sun through the air to the earth1 are refracted three or four times by the varying density of the medium4 ,each refraction bends the rays towards the perpendicular2 and hence we see the sun before it rises and after it sets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,,diagram ,,exhibiting ,,the ,,refraction ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,rays ,,in ,,passing ,,through ,,the ,,atmosphere4 #dhc4 ,why do figures1 viewed through the hot air proceeding from furnaces1 and from lime-kilns1 appear distorted and tremulous8 ,because the ever varying density of the air which is flying away in hot currents1 and succeeded by cold1 constantly changes the refractive power of the medium through which the figures are viewed4 #dhd4 ,why do the stars twinkle8 ,because their light reaches us through variously heated and moving currents of air4 ,in this case the earth is the kiln1 and the stars the object that is viewed through the refractive medium4 #dhe4 ,why does much twinkling of the stars foretell bad weather8 ,because it denotes that there are various rial currents of different temperatures and densities1 producing atmospheric disturbance4 ,verse3 ,and it shall come to pass1 when ,i bring a cloud over the earth1 that the bow shall be seen in the cloud4--,,genesis ,,ix4 #dhf4 ,what causes the rainbow8 ,the refraction of the sun's rays by the falling rain4 #dhg4 ,why does the rainbow exhibit various colours8 ,the colours belong to the elementary rays of light2 and these rays having different degrees of refrangibility1 some of them are bent more than others2 they are therefore separated into distinct rays of different colours4 #dhh4 ,why are there sometimes two rainbows8 ,because the rays of refracted light1 reflected upon other drops of rain1 are again refracted1 and then reflected again1 forming a secondary bow4 #dhi4 ,why are the colours of the secondary bow arrayed in the reverse order of the primary bow8 ,because the secondary bow is a reflection of the primary bow1 and1 like all reflections1 is reversed4 #dij4 ,why are reflections reversed8 ,because those rays which first reach the reflecting surface are the first returned4 ,if you hold your open hand towards the looking-glass1 the light passing from the point of your finger will reach the reflector and be returned before the rays that pass from the back parts of the hand4 ,hence the image of the hand will present the reflection of the finger point towards the point of the finger4 #dia4 ,why are the colours of the secondary rainbow fainter than those of the primary8 ,because they are derived from the refraction and reflection of rays which have already been refracted and reflected1 and thereby their intensity has been diminished4 #dib4 ,what is a lunar rainbow8 ,a lunar rainbow is caused by the light of the moon1 in the same manner as the solar rainbow is caused by the light of the sun4 ,verse3 ,i am come a light into the world1 that whosoever believeth in me should not abide in darkness4--,,john ,,xiii4 #dic4 ,why is the lunar rainbow fainter than a solar rainbow8 ,because the light of the moon is the reflected light of the sun1 and is therefore less intense4 #did4 ,what is a halo8 ,a halo is a luminous ring1 which forms between the eye of the observer and a luminous body4 ,haloes may appear around the disc of the sun1 moon1 or stars4 ,but in this country the lunar haloes are the most remarkable and frequent4 #die4 ,what is the cause of the luminous ring8 ,the refraction of light as it passes through an intervening cloud1 or a stratum of moist and cold air4 #dif4 ,why are haloes sometimes large and at other times small8 ,because they are sometimes formed very high in the atmosphere1 at other times very low4 ,being high1 and farther removed from the spectator1 and nearer the source of light1 they appear smaller2 while the nearer they are1 the larger they appear4 #dig4 ,why do haloes foretell wet weather8 ,because they show that there is a great amount of atmospheric moisture1 which will probably form rain4 #dih4 ,why do glass lustres and chandeliers exhibit rainbow colours8 ,because they refract the rays of light in the same manner as the rain drops4 #dii4 ,why does a soap bubble show the prismatic colours8 ,because1 like a large rain drop1 it refracts the rays of light1 and shows the elementary rays4 #ejj4 ,what causes the rich tints displayed by mother-of-pearl8 ,the refraction of the light that falls upon the surface of the pearl4 ,verse3 ,light is sown for the righteous1 and gladness for the upright in heart4--,,psalm ,,xcvii4 #eja4 ,what causes the brilliant colours of the diamond8 ,the refraction of the rays of light by the various facets of the diamond4 ,the refraction of light1 and the production of prismatic colours1 surrounds us with most interesting phenomena4 ,the laundress1 whose active labours raise over the wash-tub a soapy froth1 performs inadvertently one of the most delicate operations of chemistry--the chemistry of the imponderable agents--and the result of her manipulations manifests itself in the delicate colours that dance like a fairy light over the glassy films that follow the motion of her arms4 ,the laughing child1 throwing a bubble from the bowl of a tobacco pipe into the air1 performs the same experiment1 and produces a result such as that which filled the philosophic ,newton with unbounded joy4 ,the foam of the seashore1 the plumage of birds1 the various films that float upon the surface of waters1 the delicate tints of flowers1 and the rich hues of luscious fruits1 all combine to remind us1 that every ray of light comes like an angelic artist sent from heaven1 bearing upon his palette the most celestial tints1 with which to beautify the earth1 and show the illimitable glory of ,god4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 #ejb4 ,what is the difference between the refraction and the reflection of light8 ,refraction is the deviation of rays of light from their course through the interference of a different medium2 reflection is the return of rays of light which1 having fallen upon a surface1 are repelled by it4 #ejc4 ,what is the radiation of light8 ,the radiation of light is its emission in rays from the surface of a luminous body4 #ejd4 ,do all bodies radiate light8 ,all bodies radiate light2 but those that are not in themselves primary sources of light1 are said to reflect it4 #eje4 ,do black bodies reflect any light8 ,black bodies absorb the light that falls upon them4 ,but they reflect a very small degree of light4 #ejf4 ,why is glass transparent8 ,because its atoms are so arranged that they allow the vibrations of light to continue through their substance4 ,verse3 ,as in water face answereth to face1 so the heart of man to man4--,proverbs xxvii4 #ejg4 ,does glass obstruct the passage of any portion of light8 ,glass reflects 7sends back7 a very small portion of light4 ,this may be observed by holding a piece of paper1 or a hand1 a few inches from a window1 when a faint reflection of it will be visible4 ,probably the small amount of light reflected by transparent glass1 which gives a passage to the greater part of the rays1 may serve to illustrate the small amount of light reflected from black surfaces1 which absorbs the greater portion of light4 ,instead of a piece of white paper1 hold a piece of black cloth two or three inches from the window-pane1 and you will have two reflections so weak that the image of the cloth will be almost lost4 ,the first reflection is that of the very small amount of light from the black surface on to the glass1 and the second reflection is that of the inconceivably small amount returned by the glass1 and by which the faint image of the black cloth is produced4 ,but put the black cloth outside of the window-pane1 and then hold an object before them1 and you will find that the two weak reflectors1 acting together1 produce an improved image1 or reflection4 #ejh4 ,why1 if a book is held between a candle-light and the wall1 does a shadow fall upon the wall8 ,because the rays of light are intercepted by the book4 #eji4 ,why do the rays pass over the edges of the book in a direct line with the flame of the candle8 ,because light always travels in straight lines4 #eaj4 ,why is there some amount of light even where shadows fall8 ,because1 as all objects reflect light1 some of them throw their light into the field of the shadow4 #eaa4 ,why are some substances opaque to light8 ,because the arrangement of their particles will not admit of the vibrations of the luminous ether passing through them4 ,opaque--impervious to rays of light4 #eab4 ,why do we see our faces reflected in mirrors8 ,because the rays of light from our faces are reflected by the surface of the quicksilver at the back of the glass4 ,verse3 ,the day is thine1 the night also is thine3 thou hast prepared the light and the sun4--,,psalm ,,lxxiv4 #eac4 ,why does the quicksilver reflect the rays of light8 ,because1 being densely opaque to light1 and presenting also a bright surface1 it is a good reflector1 and it throws back the whole of the rays4 #ead4 ,what has the glass to do with the reflection8 ,the glass has nothing to do with the reflection1 except that it affords a field upon which the reflecting surface of the quicksilver is spread2 and it keeps the air and dirt from dulling the quicksilver4 ,the parts of a mirror from which the quicksilver is rubbed away give no reflection that could assist the reflecting power of the quicksilver4 ,that the surface of the glass does not reflect the image1 is shown by the fact1 that if you put the point of any object against the glass1 the thickness between the point and the place where the reflection of it begins1 will show the exact thickness of the glass4 #eae4 ,why does a compound mirror 7a multiplying mirror7 exhibit a large number of images of one object4 ,because all objects reflect rays of light in every direction1 and therefore the different mirrors1 being at various angles1 receive each a reflection of the same object4 #eaf4 ,why does a window-pane appear to be a better reflector by candle-light than by day-light8 ,the reflecting power of glass is precisely the same by night as by day1 and is always very feeble4 ,but it appears to be greater by night1 because the surrounding darkness increases the apparent strength of the reflection4 #eag4 ,how do we know that objects reflect light in every direction8 ,because if we prick a hole in a card with a pin1 and then look through that small hole upon a landscape1 we can see some miles of country1 and some thousands of objects2 every part of every object throughout the whole scene1 must have sent rays of light the small hole pricked in the card4 ,verse3 ,such knowledge is too wonderful for me2 it is high1 ,i cannot attain unto it4--,,psalm ,,cxxxix4 ,at one extremity of the landscape1 viewed through the hole in the card1 there may be a forest of trees2 in the distance there may be hills bathed in golden light1 and overhung with glittering clouds2 in the mid-distance there may be a river winding its course along1 as though it loved the earth through which it ran1 and wished1 by wandering to and fro1 to refresh the thirsty soil2 in the foreground may be a church1 covered by a million ivy leaves2 and grouping towards the sacred edifice may be hundreds of intending worshippers1 old and young1 rich and poor2 flowers may adorn the path-ways1 and butterflies spangle the air with their beauties2 yet every one of those objects--the forest1 the hills1 the clouds1 the river1 the church1 the ivy1 the people1 the flowers1 the butterflies--must have sent rays of light1 which found their way through the little hole in the card1 and entered to paint the picture upon the curtain of the eye4 ,this is one of the most striking instances that can be afforded of the wonderful properties of light1 and of the infinitude of those luminous rays that attend the majestic rising of the sun4 ,not only does light fly from the grand ruler of the day with a velocity which is a million and a half times greater than the speed of a cannon-ball1 but it darts from every reflecting surface with a like velocity1 and reaches the tender structure of the eye so gently that1 as it falls upon the little curtain of nerves which is there spread to receive it1 it imparts the most pleasing sensations1 and tells its story of the outer world with a minuteness of detail1 and a holiness of truth4 ,philosophers once sought to weigh the sunbeam2 they constructed a most delicate balance1 and suddenly let in upon it a beam of light2 the lever of the balance was so delicately hung that the fluttering of a fly would have disturbed it4 ,everything prepared1 the grave men took their places1 and with keen eyes watched the result4 ,the sunbeam that was to decide the experiment had left the sun eight minutes prior to pass the ordeal4 ,it had flown through ninety-five millions of miles of space in that short measure of time1 and it shot upon the balance with unabated velocity3 but the lever moved not1 and the philosophers were mute4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 #eah4 ,why1 when we move before a mirror1 does the image draw near to the reflecting surface as we draw near to it1 and retire when we retire8 ,because the lines and angles of reflection are always equal to the lines and angles of incidence4 #eai4 ,what is the line of incidence8 ,if a person stands in a direct line before a mirror1 the line through which the light travels from him to the mirror is the line of incidence4 ,incidence--falling on4 ,verse3 ,blessed be the ,lord1 who daily loadeth us with benefits1 even the ,god of our salvation4--,,psalm ,,lxviii4 #ebj4 ,what is the line of reflection8 ,the line of reflection is the line in which the rays of light are returned from the image formed in the glass to the eye of the observer4 ,reflection--a turning back4 #eba4 ,what is the angle of incidence8 ,the angle of incidence is the angle which rays of light1 falling on a reflecting surface1 make with a line perpendicular to that surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,,explaining ,,the ,,lines ,,and ,,angles ,,of ,,incidence ,,and ,,of ,,reflection4 #ebb4 ,what is the angle of reflection8 ,the angle of reflection is the angle which is formed by the returning rays of light1 and a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface4 ,it is always equivalent to the angle of incidence4 ,take a marble and roll it across the floor1 so that it shall strike the wainscot obliquely4 ,let ,a in the diagram represent the point from which the marble is sent4 ,the marble will not return to the hand1 nor will it travel to the line ,b1 but will bound off1 or be reflected1 to ,c4 ,now ,b is an imaginary line1 perpendicular to the reflecting surface2 and it will be found that the path described by the marble in rolling to the surface and rebounding from it1 form1 with the line ,b1 two angles that are equal4 ,these represent the angles of incidence and of reflection1 and explain why the reflection of a person standing at ,a before a mirror1 would be seen by another person standing at ,c4 ,this simple law in optics explains a great many interesting phenomena1 and therefore it should be clearly impressed upon the memory4 ,verse3 ,and ,god made two great lights2 the greater light to rule the day1 and the lesser light to rule the night3 he made the stars also4--,,gen4 ,i4 #ebc4 ,why do windows reflect the sun in the evening8 ,because the eye of the observer is in the line of the reflection4 #ebd4 ,why do windows not reflect the sun at noon8 ,they do1 but our eyes are not then in the line of the reflection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,,showing ,,the ,,lines ,,of ,,incidence ,,and ,,reflection ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,rays ,,at ,,noon ,,and ,,at ,,evening4 ,it is obvious from the foregoing diagram that the evening rays of reflection fall upon the eyes of spectators1 while the reflections at noon are so perpendicular that they are lost4 #ebe4 ,why do the sun and moon appear smaller when near the meridian1 than when near the horizon8 ,because1 when near the horizon1 they are brought into comparison with the sizes of terrestrial objects2 but when near the meridian they occupy the centre of a vast field of sky1 and as there are no objects of comparison surrounding them1 they appear smaller4 ,verse3 ,there is no darkness nor shadow of death1 where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves4--,,job ,,xxxiv4 ,this is one ,reason ,why1 assigned by some observers4 ,but there is also another reason to be found in the fact that1 when the sun or moon is near the horizon1 we view it through a greater depth of atmosphere than we do when at the meridian4 7,see ,fig4 #ac47 ,a straight line passed upward through the air1 would not be so long as that which passes to ,s4 ,consequently1 as the air is generally impregnated with moisture1 at the time when these effects are observed1 the rays of light are caused to diverge more1 and the disc of the sun or moon appears magnified4 ,probably both of these reasons contribute to the effect4 ,this latter reason also explains why the disc of the sun or moon may sometimes appear oval in shape1 the lower stratum of air being more loaded with moisture than that through which we view the upper part of the disc4 #ebf4 ,why do our shadows lengthen as the sun goes down8 ,because light travels only in straight lines1 and as the sun descends1 the direction of his rays becomes more oblique1 thereby causing longer shadows4 #ebg4 ,what is the cause of the optical illusions frequently observed in nature8 ,there are various kinds of natural optical illusions3-- ,the mirage1 in which landscapes are seen reflected in burning sands4 ,the fata morgana1 in which two or three reflections of objects occur at the same time4 ,the rial spectra1 or rial reflections1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,phantom ,,ships4 ,the optical illusions above enumerated owe their origin to various atmospheric conditions1 in which refractions and reflections are multiplied by the different densities of atmospheric layers4 ,they chiefly occur in hot countries1 where1 from the varying effects of heat1 the conditions of atmospheric refraction and reflection frequently prevail in their highest degree4 ,verse3 ,in the morning ye say1 it will be foul weather to-day1 for the sky is red and lowering4--,,matt4 ,,xvi4 #ebh4 ,why do we have twilight mornings and evenings8 ,because the coming and the departing rays of the sun are refracted and reflected by the upper portions of the atmosphere4 7,see ,fig4 #ac47 #ebi4 ,how long before the sun appears above the horizon does the reflection of his light reach us8 ,the time varies with the refracting and reflecting power of the atmosphere1 from twenty minutes to sixty minutes4 ,but the sun's position is usually eighteen degrees below the horizon when twilight begins or ends4 #ecj4 ,why is the sky blue8 ,the white light of the sun falls upon the earth without change2 it is then reflected back by the earth1 and as it passes through the atmosphere portions of it are again returned to us1 and this double reflection produces a polarised condition of light which imparts to vision the sensation of a delicate blue4 7,see #edi47 #eca4 ,why do the clouds appear white8 ,because they reflect back to us the solar beam unchanged4 #ecb4 ,why does the sky appear red at sunset8 ,because the light vapours of the air1 which are condensed as the sun sets1 refract the rays of light1 and produce red rays4 ,the refraction which produces red requires only a moderate degree of density4 #ecc4 ,why do the clouds sometimes appear yellow8 ,because there is a larger amount of vapour in the air1 which produces a different degree of refraction1 resulting in yellow4 #ecd4 ,why does a yellow sunset foretell wet weather8 ,because it shows that the air is heavy with vapours4 ,the refraction that produces yellow requires a greater degree of density4 ,verse3 ,when it is evening ye say it will be fair weather1 for the sky is red4--,,matt4 ,,xvi4 #ece4 ,why does a red sunset foretell fine weather8 ,because the redness shows that the vapours in the air towards the ,west1 or wet quarter1 are light1 as is evidenced by the degree of refraction of the sun's rays4 #ecf4 ,why does a red sunrise foretell wet8 ,because it shows that towards the ,east1 or dry quarter1 the air is charged with vapour1 and therefore probably at other points the air has reached saturation4 #ecg4 ,why does a grey sunrise foretell a dry day8 ,because it shows that the vapours in the air are not very dense4 #ech4 ,why is a rainbow in the morning the shepherd's warning8 ,because it shows that in the ,west1 or wet quarter1 the air is saturated to the rain point4 #eci4 ,why is a rainbow at night the shepherd's delight8 ,because it shows that the rain is falling in the ,east1 and as that is a dry quarter1 it will soon be over4 ,rainbows are always seen in opposition to the sun4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 #edj4 ,what is the difference between light and heat8 ,the most obvious distinction is1 that light acts upon vision1 and heat upon sensation1 or feeling4 ,another distinction is1 that heat expands all bodies1 and alters their atomic condition2 while light1 though usually attended by heat1 does not display the same expansive force1 but produces various effects which are peculiar to itself4 ,verse3 ,ye are the light of the world4 ,a city that is set on a hill cannot be hid4--,,matthew ,v4 #eda4 ,are light and heat combined in the solar ray8 ,yes4 ,a ray of light1 as well as containing elementary rays that produce colours under refraction1 contains also chemical rays1 and heat rays4 #edb4 ,how do we know that light and heat are separate elements8 ,because we have heat rays1 as from dark hot iron1 from various chemical actions1 and from friction1 which are unattended by the development of light4 ,and we have light1 or luminosity1 such as that of phosophoresence1 which is unaccompanied by any appreciable degree of heat4 ,but1 besides this confirmation1 further proof is afforded by the fact1 that in passing rays of solar light through media that are transparent to heat1 but not to light1 the heat rays may be separated from the luminous rays1 and vice versa4 ,black glass1 and black mica1 which are nearly opaque to light1 are transparent to heat to the extent of ninety degrees out of a hundred4 ,while pale green glass1 coloured by oxide of copper1 and covered with a coating of water1 or a thin coating of alum1 will be perfectly transparent to light1 but will be almost quite opaque to heat4 ,these remarks apply1 in a greater or less degree1 to various other substances4 #edc4 ,in what respects are light and heat similar8 ,both heat and light have been referred to minute vibratory motions which occur1 under exciting causes1 in a very subtile elastic medium4 ,they are both united in the sun's rays4 ,they are both subject to laws of absorption1 radiation1 reflection1 and refraction4 ,they are both essential to life1 whether animal or vegetable4 ,both may be developed in their greatest intensity by electricity4 ,they are both imponderable4 ,verse3 ,when ,i consider thy heavens1 the work of thy fingers1 the moon and the stars which thou hast ordained3 #edd4 ,in what respects are light and heat dissimilar8 ,heat frequently exists without light4 ,light is usually attended with heat4 ,light may be instantly extinguished1 but ,heat can only be more gradually reduced1 by diffusion4 ,the solar rays deliver heat to the earth by day1 and the heat remains with the earth when the light has departed4 ,heat diffuses itself in all directions4 ,light travels only in straight lines4 ,the colours that absorb and radiate both light and heat do not act in the same degree upon them both4 ,black1 which does not radiate light1 is a good radiator of heat1 c41 c4 ,the oxy-hydrogen light emits a most intense heat1 but glass which will transmit the rays of light1 will afford no passage to the rays of the heat4 ,heat is latent in all bodies1 but no satisfactory proof has been found that light is latent in substances4 ,these are only a few of the analogies and distinctions that exist between the two mysterious agents1 light and heat4 ,but they are sufficient to supply the starting points of investigation4 ,the importance of the heat that attends the solar rays may be illustrated by the experiments performed a few years ago1 by ,mr4 ,baker1 of ,fleet-street1 ,london1 who made a large burning lens1 three feet and a half in diameter1 and employed another lens to reduce the rays of the first to a focus of half an inch in diameter4 ,the heat produced was so great that iron plates1 gold1 and stones were instantly melted2 and sulphur1 pitch1 and resinous bodies1 were melted under water4 #ede4 ,what is the point of heat at which bodies become luminous8 ,the point of heat at which the eye begins to discover luminosity has been estimated at #a1jjj deg4 #edf4 ,what is the velocity of artificial light8 ,the light of a fire1 or of a candle1 or gas1 travels with the same velocity as the light of the sun1--a velocity which would convey light eight times round the world while a person could count one4 #edg4 ,at what rate of velocity does the light of the stars travel8 ,at the same velocity as all other light4 ,and yet there are stars so distant that1 although the light of the sun reaches the earth in eight minutes and a half1 it requires hundreds of years to bring their light to us4 ,verse3 ,what is man1 that thou art mindful of him8 and the son of man that thou visitest him8--,,psalm ,,viii4 #edh4 ,what is the relative intensity of primary and reflected light8 ,the intensity of a reflection depends upon the power of the reflecting surface4 ,but1 taking the sun and moon as the great examples of primary and reflected light1 the intensity of the sun's light is #hja1jgb times greater than that of the moon4 #edi4 ,what is polarized light8 ,polarized light is light which has been subjected to compound refraction1 and which1 after polarization1 exhibits a new series of phenomena1 differing materially from those that pertain to the primary conditions of light4 #eej4 ,what are the chief deductions from the phenomena observed under the polarization of light8 ,the polarization of light appears to confirm in a high degree the vibratory theory of light2 and to show that the vibrations of light have two planes or directions of motion4 ,the mast of a ship1 for instance1 has two motions3 it progresses vertically as the ship is impelled forward1 and it rolls laterally through the motion of the billows4 ,something like this occurs in the vibrations of light1 only the vertical vibration is the condition of one ray1 and the lateral vibration is the condition of another ray1 and the vibrations of these two rays intersect each other in the solar ray4 ,when these vibrations occur together1 the ray has certain properties and powers4 ,but by polarization the rays may be separated1 and the result is two distinct rays1 having different vibrations4 ,it then appears that various bodies are transparent to these polarized rays only in certain directions4 ,and this fact is supposed to show that bodies are made up of their atoms arranged in certain planes1 through or between which the lateral or the vertical waves of light1 together or singly1 can or cannot pass2 and that the transparency or the opacity of a body is determined by the relation of its atomic planes to the planes of the vibrations of light4 ,ordinary light1 passing through transparent media1 produces no very remarkable effect in its course2 but polarized light appears to illuminate every atom of the permeated substance1 and by surrounding it with a prismatic clothing1 to afford an illustration of its molecular arrangement4 ,verse3 ,a man that is called ,jesus made clay1 and anointed mine eyes1 and said unto me1 ,go to the pool of ,siloam1 and wash3 and ,i went and washed1 and ,i received sight4--,,john ,,ix4 #eea4 ,why are two persons able to see each other8 ,because rays of light flow from their bodies to each other's eyes1 and convey an impression of their respective conditions4 ,in some popular works that have come under our notice1 we find that the student is told that we cannot absolutely see each other--we only see the rays of light reflected from each other4 ,the statement is erroneous as expressed4 ,we do not see the rays of light1 for if we did so1 the effect of vision would be destroyed1 and all bodies would appear to be in a state of incandesence1 or of phosphoresence4 ,rays of light1 which are in themselves invisible1 radiate from the objects we look upon1 enter the pupil of the eye1 and impress the seat of vision in a manner which conveys to the mind a knowledge of the form1 colour1 and relative size and position of the figure we look upon4 ,if this is not seeing the object--what is8 ,it would be just as reasonable to say1 that we cannot hear a person speak--that we only hear the vibrations of the air4 ,but as the vibrations are imparted to the air by the organs of voice of the speaker1 as he sets the air in motion1 and makes the air his messenger to us1 we certainly hear him1 and can dispense with any logical myths that confound the understanding1 and contribute to no good result4 #eeb4 ,what is actinism8 ,actinism is the chemical property of light4 ,actinism--ray power4 #eec4 ,why does silver tarnish when exposed to light8 ,because of the actinic1 or chemical power of the rays of the sun4 #eed4 ,why do some colours fade1 and others darken1 when exposed to the sun8 ,because of the chemical power of the sun's rays4 #eee4 ,why can pictures be taken by the sun's rays8 ,because of the actinic powers that accompany the solar light4 #eef4 ,what is the particular chemical effect of light exhibited in the production of photographic pictures8 ,simply the darkening of preparations of silver1 by the actinic rays4 #eeg4 ,why are photographic studios usually glazed with blue glass8 ,because blue glass obstructs many of the luminous rays1 but it is perfectly transparent to actinism4 ,verse3 ,the hay appeareth1 and the tender grass showeth itself1 and herbs of the mountain are gathered4--,,prov4 ,,xxvii4 #eeh4 ,why do plants become scorched under the unclouded sun8 ,because the heat rays are in excess4 ,the clouds shut off the scorching light2 but1 like the blue glass of the photographer's studio1 they transmit actinism4 #eei4 ,what effect has actinism upon vegetation8 ,it quickens the germination of seeds2 and assists in the formation of the colouring matter of leaves4 ,seeds and cuttings1 which are required to germinate quickly1 will do so under the effect of blue glass 7which is equivalent to saying1 the effect of an increased proportion of actinism71 in half the time they would otherwise require4 #efj4 ,in what season of the year is the actinic power of light the greatest8 ,in the spring1 when the germination of plants demands its vitalising aid4 ,in summer1 when the maturing process advances1 light and heat increase1 and actinism relatively declines4 ,in the autumn1 when the ripening period arrives1 light and actinism give way to a greater ratio of heat4 ,verse3 ,but as it is written1 ,eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither have entered into the heart of man1 the things which ,god hath prepared for them that love him4--,,corinth4 ,,book ,i41 ,,ii4 ,we shall have frequently1 in the progress of our lessons1 to refer to light in its connection with the chemistry of nature1 and with organic life4 ,but let us now invite the student to pause1 and for a moment contemplate the wonders of a sunbeam4 ,how great is its velocity--how vast its power--how varied its parts--yet how ethereal6 ,first1 let us contemplate it as a simple beam in which light and heat are associated4 ,how deep the darkness of the night1 and how that darkness clings to the recesses of the earth4 ,but the day beams1 and darkness flies before it1 until every atom that meets the face of day is lit up with radiance4 ,that which before lay buried in the shade of night is itself now a radiator of the luminous fluid4 ,mark the genial warmth that comes as the sister of light2 then stand by the side of the experimentalist and watch the point on which he directs the shining focus1 and in an instant see iron melt and stones run like water1 under the fervent heat6 ,now look upward to the heavens1 where the falling drops of rain have formed a natural prism in the rainbow1 and shown that the beam of pure whiteness1 refracted into various rays1 glows with all the tints that adorn the garden of nature4 ,these are the visible effects of light4 ,but follow it into the crust of the earth1 where it is1 by another power1 which is neither light nor heat1 quickening the seed into life2 watch it as the germ springs up1 and the plant puts forth its tender parts1 touching them from day to day with deeper dyes1 until the floral picture is complete4 ,follow it unto the sea1 where it gives prismatic tints to the anemone1 and imparts the richest colours to the various algae4 ,think of the millions of pictures that it paints daily upon the eyes of living things4 ,contemplate the people of a vast city when1 attracted by some floating toy in the air1 a million eyes look up to watch its progress4 ,the sun paints a million images of the same object1 and each observer has a perfect picture4 ,it makes common to all mankind the beauties of nature1 and paints as richly for the peasant as for the king4 ,the ,siamese twins were united by a living cord which joined their systems1 and gave unity and sympathy to their sensations4 ,in the great flood of light that daily bathes the world1 we have a bond of union1 giving the like pleasures and inspirations to millions of people at the same instant4 ,and that which floods the world with beauty1 should no less be a bond of unity and love4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 #efa4 ,what is electricity8 ,electricity is a property of force which resides in all matter1 and which constantly seeks to establish an equilibrium4 #efb4 ,why is it called electricity8 ,because it first revealed itself to human observation through a substance called1 in the ,greek language1 electrum4 ,this substance is known to us as amber4 #efc4 ,in what way did electrum induce attention to this property of force in matter8 ,thales1 a ,greek philosopher1 observed that1 by briskly rubbing electrum1 it acquired the property of attracting light particles of matter1 which moved towards the amber1 and attached themselves to its surface1 evidently under the influence of a force excited in the amber4 #efd4 ,what is amber8 ,it is a resinous substance1 hard1 bitter1 tasteless1 and glossy4 ,it has been variously supposed to be a vegetable gum1 a fossil1 and an animal product4 ,it is probably formed by a species of ant that inhabit pine forests4 ,the bodies of ants are frequently found in its substance4 ,verse3 ,he made darkness his secret place3 his pavilion round about him were dark waters and thick clouds of the skies4 #efe4 ,why does the rubbing of a stick of sealing-wax cause it to attract small particles of matter8 ,because it excites in the sealing wax that force which was first observed in the amber4 ,sealing-wax1 therefore1 is called an electric 7amber-like7 body4 #eff4 ,why do we hear of the electric fluid8 ,simply because the term fluid is the most convenient that can be found to express our ideas when speaking of the phenomena of electric force4 ,but of the nature of electricity1 except through its observed effects1 nothing is known4 #efg4 ,what substances are electric8 ,all substances in nature1 from the metals to the gases4 ,but they differ very widely in their electrical qualities4 #efh4 ,what is positive electricity8 ,electricity1 when it exists1 or is excited1 in any body1 to an amount which is in excess of the amount natural to that body1 is called positive 7called also vitreous74 #efi4 ,what is negative electricity8 ,electricity1 when it exists1 or is excited1 in any body1 in an amount which is less than is the amount natural to that body1 is called negative 7called also resinous74 #egj4 ,why is positive electricity called also vitreous1 and negative electricity called also resinous8 ,because some philosophers believe that there is but one electricity1 but that it is liable to variations of quantity or state1 which they distinguish by positive and negative2 while other philosophers believe that there are two electricities1 which they name vitreous and resinous1 because they may be induced respectively from vitreous and resinous substances1 and they display forces of attraction and repulsion4 #ega4 ,upon what do the electrical phenomena of nature depend8 ,upon the tendency of electricity to find an equilibrium between its positive and negative states 7assuming there to be but one fluid72 or upon the tendency of vitreous electricity to seek out and combine with resinous electricity 7assuming that there are two fluids74 ,verse3 ,the ,lord also thundered in the heavens1 and the ,highest gave his voice2 hailstones and coals of fire4 #egb4 ,how does the equilibrium of electricity become disturbed8 ,by changes in the condition of matter4 ,as electricity resides in all substances1 and is1 perhaps1 an essential ingredient in their condition1 so every change in the state of matter--whether from heat to cold1 or from cold to heat2 from a state of rest to that of motion2 from the solid to the liquid1 or the riform condition1 or vice versa2 or whether substances combine chemically and produce new compounds--in every change the electrical equilibrium is disturbed2 and1 in proportion to the degree of disturbance1 is the force exerted by electricity to resume its balance in the scale of nature4 #egc4 ,how does electricity seek to regain equilibrium8 ,by passing through substances that are favourable to its diffusion2 therefore they are called conducting or non-conducting bodies1 according as they favour or oppose the transmission of the electrical current4 #egd4 ,what substances are conductors of electricity8 ,metals1 charcoal1 animal fluids1 water1 vegetable bodies1 animal bodies1 flame1 smoke1 vapour1 c4 #ege4 ,what substances are non-conductors8 ,rust1 oils1 phosphorous1 lime1 chalk1 caoutchouc1 gutta percha1 camphor1 marble1 porcelain1 dry gases and air1 feathers1 hair1 wool1 silk1 glass1 transparent stones1 vitrefactions1 wax1 amber1 c4 ,these bodies are also called insulators4 ,some of these substances1 as chalk1 feathers1 hair1 wool1 silk1 c41 though non-conductors when dry1 become conductors when wetted4 ,insulating--preventing from escaping4 #egf4 ,why are amber and wax classed among the non-conductors1 when they have been pointed out as electrics1 and used to illustrate electrical force8 ,it is because they are non-conductors that they have displayed1 under excitement1 the attractive force shown in respect to the particles of matter which were drawn towards their substances4 ,if a bar of iron were excited1 instead of a stick of wax1 electricity would be equally developed2 but the iron1 being a good conductor1 would pass the electricity to the hand of the operator as fast as it accumulated1 and the equilibrium would be undisturbed4 ,verse3 ,yea1 he sent out his arrows1 and scattered them2 and he shot out lightnings and discomfited them4--,,psalm ,,xviii4 #egg4 ,what is the effect when electricity1 in considerable force1 seeks its equilibrium1 but meets with insulating bodies8 ,the result is a violent action in which1 intense heat and light are developed1 and in the evolution of which the electric force becomes expended4 #egh4 ,what is the cause of electric sparks8 ,the electric force1 passing through a conducting body to find its equilibrium1 is checked in its course by an insulator1 and emits a spark4 #egi4 ,what produces the electric light8 ,currents of electricity pass towards each other along wires at the ends of which two charcoal points are placed4 ,as long as the charcoal points remain in contact1 the electric communication is complete1 and no light is emitted1 but1 when they are drawn apart1 intense heat and light are evolved4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ag #ah4--,,showing ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,and ,,the ,,separation ,,of ,,the ,,charcoal ,,points4 #ehj4 ,what is the cause of lightning8 ,lightning is the result of electrical discharges from the clouds4 #eha4 ,what develops electricity in the clouds8 ,evaporations from the surface of the earth2 changes of temperature in the atmospheric vapour2 chemical action upon the earth's surface2 and the friction of volumes of air of different densities against each other4 ,verse3 ,his lightnings enlightened the world3 the earth saw and trembled4--,,psalm ,,xcvii4 #ehb4 ,why do these phenomena produce electricity8 ,because they disturb the equilibrium of the electric force1 and produce positive and negative states of electricity4 #ehc4 ,when does lightning occur8 ,when clouds1 charged with the opposite electricities approach1 the forces rush to each other1 and combine in a state of equilibrium4 #ehd4 ,why does lightning attend this movement of the forces of electricity8 ,because the atmosphere1 being unable to convey the great charges of electricity as they rush towards each other1 acts as an insulator1 and lightning is caused by the violence of the electricity in forcing its passage4 #ehe4 ,does lightning ever occur when the conducting power is equal to the force of the electricity8 ,no2 electricity passes invisibly1 noiselessly1 and harmlessly1 whenever it finds a sufficient source of conduction4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 #ehf4 ,why does lightning sometimes travel through a zigzag course8 ,because the electricity1 being resisted in its progress by the air1 flies from side to side1 to find the readiest passage4 #ehg4 ,why does lightning sometimes appear forked8 ,because1 being resisted in its progress by the air1 the electricity divides into two or more points1 and seeks a passage in different directions4 #ehh4 ,why is lightning sometimes like a lurid sheet8 ,because the flash is distant1 and therefore we see only the reflection4 ,verse3 ,he directeth it under the whole heavens1 and his lightning unto the ends of the earth4 #ehi4 ,when is the flash of lightning straight8 ,when the distance between the clouds whose electricities are meeting1 is small4 #eij4 ,what is the cause of the aurora borealis8 ,the mingling of the electricities of the higher regions of the atmosphere4 #eia4 ,when does the flash of lightning appear blue8 ,when the degree of electrical excitement is intense1 and general throughout the atmosphere4 #eib4 ,why does lightning sometimes appear red1 at others yellow1 and at others white8 ,because of the varying humidity1 which affects the refracting power of the atmosphere4 #eic4 ,does lightning ever pass upwards from the earth to the clouds8 ,yes2 when the earth is charged with a different electricity to that which is in the clouds4 #eid4 ,does lightning ever pass directly from the clouds to the earth8 ,yes2 when the electricity of the clouds seeks to combine with the different electricity of the earth4 ,the mingling of the electricities of the earth and the air must be continually going on4 ,but lightning does not attend the phenomena1 because all natural bodies1 vapours1 trees1 animals1 mountains1 houses1 rocks1 c41 c41 act more or less as conductors between the earth and the air4 ,it is only when there is a great disturbance of the electrical forces1 that terrestrial lightning is developed4 ,when lightning strikes the earth with great force1 it sometimes produces what are called fulgurites in sandy soils2 these are hollow tubes1 produced by the melting of the soil4 #eie4 ,what is the extent of mechanical force of lightning8 ,lightning has been proved1 in one instance1 to have struck a church with a force equal to more than #ab1jjj horse-power4 ,a single horse-power1 in mechanical calculations1 is equivalent to raising a weight of #cb1jjj lbs4 one foot in a minute4 ,the force of lightning1 therefore1 has been proved to be equal to the raising of #chd1jjj1jjj lbs4 one foot in a minute4 ,this is equal to the united power of twelve of our largest steamers1 having collectively #bd engines of #ejj horse-power each4 ,the velocity of electricity is so great that it would travel round the world eight times in a minute4 ,verse3 ,after it a voice roareth3 he thundereth with the voice of his excellency2 and he will not stay them when his voice is heard4--,,job ,,xxxvii4 ,the church alluded to was ,st4 ,george's church1 ,leicester1 a new edifice1 which was completely destroyed on the #ast of ,august1 #ahdf1 by a thunder-storm4 ,the steeple was rent asunder1 and massive stones were hurled to a distance of thirty feet4 ,the vane rod and top part of the spire fell down perpendicularly and carried with it all the floors of the tower4 ,a similar disaster occurred to ,st4 ,bride's church1 ,fleet-street1 ,london1 about #ajj years ago4 ,the lightning first struck upon the metal vane of the steeple1 and then ran down the rod and attacked the iron cramps1 smashing the large stones that lay between them4 ,the church was nearly destroyed4 ,by the same wonderful force1 ships have been disabled1 trees split asunder1 houses thrown down1 and animals struck dead4 #eif4 ,why is it dangerous to stand near a tree during an electric storm8 ,because the tree is a better conductor than air1 and electricity would probably strike the tree1 and then pass to the person standing near4 #eig4 ,if trees are good conductors1 why do they not convey the electricity to the ground8 ,trees are only indifferent conductors1 and the electricity would quit the tree to pass through any better conductor4 #eih4 ,why is it dangerous to sit near a fire during an electric storm8 ,because the chimney1 being a tall object1 and smoke a good conductor1 would probably attract the electricity1 and convey it to the body of a person sitting near the fire4 #eii4 ,why is it dangerous to be near water during an electric storm8 ,because water is a good conductor1 and the vapour arising from it might attract the electricity4 ,man1 being elevated over the water1 might form the first point attacked by the electricity4 #fjj4 ,are iron houses dangerous during an electric storm8 ,no2 they are very safe1 because their entire surface is a good conductor1 and would convey the electricity harmlessly to the earth4 ,verse3 ,to him that rideth upon the heavens of heavens1 which were of old2 lo1 he doth send out his voice1 and that a mighty voice4--,,psalm ,,lxviii4 #fja4 ,why does electricity seize upon bell wires and iron fastenings8 ,because copper wires are the very best conductors of electricity2 and iron articles are also good conductors4 #fjb4 ,supposing electricity to attack a bell wire1 where would the point of danger exist8 ,at the extremities of the wire1 where the conducting power of the wire would cease1 and the electricity would seek to find another conductor4 #fjc4 ,are umbrellas1 with steel frames1 dangerous in an electric storm8 ,they are dangerous in some degree1 because they might convey electricity to the hand1 and then transfer it to the body4 ,but1 generally speaking1 when it rains1 the rain itself1 being a good conductor1 relieves the disturbance of electricity by conveying it to the ground4 #fjd4 ,are iron bedsteads dangerous in electric storms8 ,no1 they are safe1 because the iron frame1 completely surrounding the body1 and having a great capacity for conduction1 would keep the electricity away from the body4 #fje4 ,why is it safe to be in bed during an electric storm8 ,because feathers1 hair1 wool1 cotton1 c41 especially when dry1 are good insulators or non-conductors4 #fjf4 ,what is the safest situation to be in during an electric storm8 ,in the centre of a room1 isolated as far as possible from surrounding objects2 sitting on a chair1 and avoiding handling any of the conducting substances4 ,the windows and doors should be closed1 to prevent drafts of air4 #fjg4 ,in the open air1 what is the safest situation8 ,to keep aloof1 as far as possible1 from elevated structures2 and regard the rain1 though it might saturate our clothes1 as a protection against the lightning stroke1 for wet clothes would supply so good a conductor1 that a large amount of electricity would pass over man's body1 through wet garments1 and he would be quite unconscious of it4 ,verse3 ,god thundereth marvellously with his voice3 great things doeth he1 which we cannot comprehend4--,,job ,,xxxvi4 ,during a violent electric storm in the ,shetland ,islands1 a fishing boat was attacked by the electric fluid1 which tore the mast to shivers4 ,a fisherman was sitting by the side of the mast at the time1 but he felt no shock4 ,upon taking out his watch1 however1 he found that the electric current had actually fused his watch into a mass4 ,in this case1 it is more than probable that the man was saved through the saturation of his clothes with rain4 #fjh4 ,do lightning conductors attract electricity8 ,not unless the electric current lies in their vicinity4 #fji4 ,why have lightning conductors sometimes been found ineffective8 ,because they have been unskilfully constructed2 have been too small in their dimensions1 and have not been properly laid to convey the electricity harmlessly away4 #faj4 ,what is the best metal for a lightning conductor8 ,copper1 the conducting power of which is five times greater than that of iron4 #faa4 ,why should a large building have several conductors8 ,because the influence of a conductor over the electricity of the surrounding air does not extend to more than a radius of double the height of the conductor above the building3 for instance1 a conductor rising ten feet high above the building would influence the electricity twenty feet all round the conductor4 #fab4 ,why should conductors have at their base several branches penetrating the earth8 ,to facilitate the discharge of the accumulated electricity into the earth4 #fac4 ,why does electricity affect the shapes of clouds8 ,because electricity does not penetrate the masses of bodies1 but affects generally their surfaces4 ,hence electricity exists in the surfaces of clouds1 and in its efforts to find an equilibrium it causes the clouds to roll in heavy masses1 having dark outlines4 ,verse3 ,all ye inhabitants of the world1 and dwellers on the earth1 see ye1 when he lifteth up an ensign on the mountains2 and when he bloweth a trumpet1 hear ye4--,,isaiah ,,xviii4 ,the fact that electricity resides in1 and is conducted by1 the surfaces of bodies1 is well established1 and should receive due attention in the protective measures adopted to secure life and property against the effects of lightning4 ,a practical suggestion that arises out of this fact is1 that tubes of copper would form far more efficient conductors than bars of the same metal4 ,a copper tube1 of half an inch diameter1 would conduct nearly double the amount of electricity which could be conveyed away by a bar of copper of the same diameter4 ,the upper extremity of the tube should be open obliquely1 that the electric current might be induced to pass over both the inner and outer surfaces4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 #fad4 ,what is thunder8 ,thunder is the noise which succeeds the rush of the electrical fluid through the air4 #fae4 ,why does noise follow the commotion caused by electricity8 ,because1 by the violence of the electric force1 vast fields of air are divided2 great volumes of air are rarefied2 and vapours are condensed1 and thrown down as rain4 ,thunder is therefore caused by the vibrations of the air1 as it collapses1 and seeks to restore its own equilibrium4 #faf4 ,why is the thunder-peal sometimes loud and continuous8 ,because the electrical discharge takes place near the hearer1 and therefore the vibrations of the air are heard in their full power4 #fag4 ,why is the thunder-peal sometimes broken and unequal8 ,because the electrical discharge takes place at a considerable distance1 and the vibrations are affected in their course by mountains and valleys4 ,because1 also1 the forked arms of the lightning strike out in different directions1 causing the sounds of thunder to reach us from varying distances4 ,verse3 ,lo1 these are parts of his ways2 but how little a portion is heard of him8 but the thunder of his power who can understand8--,,job ,,xxv4 #fah4 ,why has the thunder-peal sometimes a low grumbling noise8 ,because the electrical discharges1 though violent1 take place far away1 and the vibrations of the air become subdued4 #fai4 ,why does the thunder-peal sometimes follow immediately after the flash of lightning8 ,because the discharge of electricity takes place near the hearer4 #fbj4 ,why does the thunder-peal sometimes occur several seconds after the flash8 ,because the discharge takes place far away1 and light travels with a much greater velocity than sound4 #fba4 ,through what distance will the sound of thunder travel8 ,some twenty or thirty miles1 according to the direction of the wind1 and the violence of the peal4 #fbb4 ,through what distance will the light of lightning travel8 ,the light of lightning1 and its reflections1 will penetrate through a distance of from a hundred and fifty to two hundred miles4 #fbc4 ,how may we calculate the distance at which the electric discharge takes place8 ,sound travels at the rate of a quarter of a mile in a second4 ,if1 therefore1 the peal of thunder is heard four seconds after the flash of lightning1 the discharge took place about a mile off4 ,the pulse of an adult person beats about once in a second2 therefore1 guided by the pulse1 any person may calculate the probable distance of the storm3-- #b beats1 #a_/b a mile4 #c beats1 #c_/d of a mile4 #d beats1 #a mile4 #e beats1 #a-a_/d miles4 #f beats1 #a-a_/b miles4 #g beats1 #a-c_/d miles4 #h beats1 #b miles1 c4 ,attention should be paid to the direction and speed of the wind1 and some modifications of the calculation be made accordingly4 ,persons between #bj and #dj years of age should count five beats of the pulse to a mile2 under #bj1 six beats4 ,verse3 ,the clouds poured out water2 the skies sent out a sound2 thine arrows also went abroad4 #fbd4 ,why are electric storms more frequent in hot than in cold weather8 ,because of the greater evaporation1 as the effect of heat2 and also of the effect of heat upon the particles of all bodies4 #fbe4 ,why do electric storms frequently occur after a duration of dry weather8 ,because dry air1 being a bad conductor1 prevents the opposite electricities from finding their equilibrium4 #fbf4 ,why is a flash of lightning generally succeeded by heavy rain8 ,because the electrical discharge destroys the vescicles of the vapours4 ,if a number of small soap-bubbles floating in the air were suddenly broken by a violent commotion of the atmosphere1 the thin films of the bubbles would form drops of water1 and fall like rain4 #fbg4 ,why is an electrical discharge usually followed by a gust of wind8 ,because the equilibrium of the atmosphere is disturbed by the heat and velocity of lightning1 and the condensation of vapour4 ,air1 therefore1 rushes towards those parts where a degree of vacuity or rarefaction has been produced4 #fbh4 ,what is a thunderbolt8 ,the name thunderbolt is applied to an electrical discharge1 when the lightning appears to be developed with the greatest intensity around a nucleus1 or centre1 as though it contained a burning body4 ,but there is1 in reality1 no such thing as a thunderbolt4 ,verse3 ,the voice of the ,lord is upon the waters3 the ,god of glory thundereth2 the ,lord is upon many waters4--,,psalm ,,xxix4 #fbi4 ,why do electric storms purify the air8 ,because they restore the equilibrium of electricity which is essential to the salubrity of the atmosphere2 they intermix the gases of the atmosphere1 by agitation2 they precipitate the vapours of the atmosphere1 and with the precipitation of vapours1 noxious exhalations are taken to the earth1 where they become absorbed2 they also contribute largely to the formation of ozone1 which imparts to the air corrective and restorative properties4 #fcj4 ,what is ozone8 ,ozone is an atmospheric element recently discovered1 and respecting which differences of opinion prevail4 ,it is generally supposed to be oxygen in a state of great strength1 constituting a variety of form or condition4 #fca4 ,why do we know that electricity contributes to the formation of ozone8 ,because careful observations have established the fact that the proportion of ozone in the atmosphere is relative to the amount of electricity4 #fcb4 ,what are the properties of ozone8 ,it displays an extraordinary power in the neutralisation of putrefactions1 rapidly and thoroughly counteracting noxious exhalations2 it is the most powerful of all disinfectants4 ,schonbien1 the discoverer of ozone1 inclines to the opinion that it is a new chemical element4 ,whatever it may be1 there can be no doubt that it plays an important part in the economy of nature4 ,its absence has been marked by pestilential ravages1 as in the cholera visitations2 and to its excess are attributed epidemics1 such as influenza4 ,it was found1 during the last visitation of cholera1 that the fumigation of houses with sulphur had a remarkable efficacy in preventing the spread of the contagion4 ,the combustion of sulphur ozonised the atmosphere2 the same result occurs through the emission of phosphoric vapours2 ozone is also developed by the electricity evolved by the electrical machine1 and in the greater electrical phenomena of nature4 ,the smell imparted to the air during an electric storm is identical with that which occurs in the vicinity of an electrical apparatus--it is a fresh and sulphurous odour4 ,the opinion is gaining ground that the respiration of animals and the combustion of matter are sources of ozone1 and that plants produce it when under the influence of the direct rays of the sun4 ,it is also believed to be produced by water1 when the sun's rays fall upon it4 ,the most recent opinion respecting ozone is1 that it is electrized oxygen4 ,the subject is of vast importance1 and opens another field of discovery to the pioneers of scientific truth4 ,verse3 ,the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven3 the lightnings lightened the world1 the earth trembled and shook4--,,psalm ,,lxvii4 #fcc4 ,what is magnetism8 ,magnetism is the electricity of the earth1 and is characterised by the circulation of currents of electricity passing through the earth's surface4 #fcd4 ,what are magnetic bodies8 ,magnetic bodies are those that exhibit phenomena which show that they are under the influence of terrestrial electricity1 and which indicate the direction of the poles1 or extreme points1 of magnetic force4 #fce4 ,what is ,galvanism8 ,galvanism is the action of electricity upon animal bodies1 and is so called from the name of its first discoverer1 ,galvani4 #fcf4 ,what is ,voltaic electricity8 ,voltaic electricity is the electricity that is developed during chemical changes1 and is so called after ,volta1 who enlarged upon the theory of ,galvani4 #fcg4 ,what are the differences between mechanical1 or frictional electricity1 ,voltaic electricity1 ,galvanism1 and magnetism8 ,frictional electricity is electricity suddenly liberated under the effects of the motion1 or the mechanical disturbance of bodies4 ,voltaic electricity is a steady flow of an electric current1 arising from the gradual changes of chemical phenomena4 ,galvanism and ,voltaism are almost identical1 since the latter is founded upon1 and is a development of1 the former4 ,but the term ,galvanism is frequently used when speaking of the development of electricity in animal bodies4 ,magnetism is the electricity of the earth1 and is understood to imply the fixed electricity of terrestrial bodies4 ,verse3 ,and ,i heard as it were the voice of a great multitude1 and as the voice of many waters1 and as the voice of mighty thunderings1 saying ,alleluia3 for the ,lord ,god omnipotent reigneth4--,,rev4 ,,xix4 ,man knows not what electricity is2 yet1 by an attentive observance of its effects1 he avails himself of the power existing in an unknown source1 and produces marvellous results4 ,when the ,grecian philosopher1 ,thales1 sat rubbing a piece of amber1 and watching the attraction of small particles of matter to its surface1 he little knew of the mighty power that was then whispering to him its offer to serve mankind4 ,and when ,franklin1 with the aid of a boy's plaything1 drew down an electric current from the clouds1 and caught a spark upon the knuckles of his hand1 even he little conjectured that the time was so near when that strange element1 which sent its messenger to him along the string of a kite1 would become one of man's most submissive servants4 ,so many great results have sprung from the careful observation of the simplest phenomena1 that we should never pass over inattentively the most trifling thing that offers itself to our examination4 ,nature1 in her revelations1 never seeks to startle mankind4 ,the formation of a rock1 and the elaboration of a truth1 are alike the work of ages4 ,it was the simple blackening of silver by the sun's rays which led to the discovery of the chemical agency of light4 ,it was the falling of an apple which pointed ,newton to the discovery of the laws of gravitation4 ,it was the force of steam1 observed as it issued from beneath the lid of a kettle1 that led to the invention of the steam-engine4 ,and it is said of ,jacquard1 that he invented the loom which so materially aided the commerce of nations1 while watching the motions of his wife's fingers1 as she plied her knitting4 ,as great discoveries spring from such small beginnings1 who among us may not be the herald of some great truth--the founder of some world-wide benefaction8 ,that the area of discovery has not perceptibly narrowed its limits1 is evident from the fact that the greatest elements in nature are still mysteries to man4 ,and though it may not be within the power of a finite being to unravel the chain of wonders that enfold the works of an infinite ,god1--still it is evident1 from the progress which discovery has made1 and from the good which discovery has done1 that ,god does invite and encourage the human mind to contemplate the workings of ,divine power1 and to pursue its manifestations in every element1 and in every direction4 ,the wonderful force of electricity astonishes us all the more when we view it in contrast with that equally wonderful element1 light4 ,we have seen that light travels with a velocity of #aib1jjj miles in a second1 but that it falls upon a delicate balance so gently1 that it produces no perceptible effect4 ,as far as we know the nature of electricity1 it is even more ethereal than light2 yet1 while the ether of light falls harmlessly and imperceptibly--even with the momentum of a flight of ninety-five millions of miles1 the ether of electricity1 bursting from a cloud only five hundred yards distant1 will split massive stones1 level tall towers with the dust1 strike majestic trees to the ground1 and instantly extinguish the life of man6 ,why does the one ether come divested of all mechanical force1 while that which seems to be even more ethereal than it1 is capable of exerting the mightiest force over material things8 ,does it not appear that the ,creator of the universe has established these paradoxes of power to testify his ,omnipotence--to show to man that with ,him all things are possible2 and that1 in the grand cosmicism of the universe1 every attribute of ,omnipotence has been fulfilled8 ,verse3 ,and the seventh angel poured out his vial into the air2 and there came a great voice out of the temple of heaven1 from the throne1 saying1 ,it is done4--,,rev4 ,,xvi4 ,let us now consider man's relation to this ,omnipotence4 ,he sees that electricity smites the tall edifice1 and observes that in doing so it displays a choice of a certain substance through which it passes harmlessly1 and that its violence is manifested only when its path is interrupted4 ,man1 taking advantage of this preference of electricity for a particular conductor1 stretches out an arm of that substance1 and points it upwards to the clouds2 electricity accepts the invitation1 and passes harmlessly to the earth4 ,but this not all3 man learns by observation that electricity resides in all matter2 that it may be collected or dispersed2 that it travels along a good conductor at the rate of half-a-million of miles in a second of time2 he constructs a battery1 a kind of scientific fortress1 in which he encamps the great warrior of nature2 and then1 laying down a conducting wire1 he liberates the mighty force3 but its flight must be on the path which man has defined1 and its journey must cease at the terminus which man has decreed1 where1 by a simple contrivance of his ingenuity 7the movements of a magnetic needle71 the electric current is made to deliver whatever message of importance he desires to convey4 ,thus1 the element which in an instant might deprive man of life1 is subdued by him1 and made the obedient messenger of his will4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 #fch4 ,what is the atmosphere8 ,the atmosphere is the transparent and elastic body of mixed gases and vapours which envelopes our globe1 and which derives its name from ,greek words1 signifying sphere of vapour4 #fci4 ,to what height does the atmosphere extend8 ,it is estimated to extend to from forty to fifty miles above the surface of the earth4 #fdj4 ,why is it supposed that the atmosphere does not extend beyond that height8 ,because it is found1 by experiment and observation1 that the air becomes less dense in proportion to its altitude from the earth's surface4 ,the gradual decrease of atmospheric density observed in ascending a mountain1 or in a balloon1 supplies sufficient data to enable us to calculate the height at which the atmosphere would probably altogether cease4 ,at an altitude of #ah1jjj feet the air is indicated by the barometer to be only half as dense as at the surface of the earth4 ,and as the densities of the atmosphere decrease in a geometrical progression1 the density will be reduced to one-fourth at the height of #cf1jjj feet2 and to one-eighth at #ed1jjj feet4 ,the effects of the decreasing density of the atmosphere are1 that the intensity of light and sound are diminished1 and the temperature is lowered4 ,persons who have reached a very high elevation1 state that the sky above them began to assume the appearance of darkness2 and there can be no doubt that1 if it were possible to reach an altitude of some fifty to sixty miles1 there would be perfect blackness although the sun's rays might be pouring through the darkened space1 to illuminate the atmosphere4 ,upon the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 the report of a pistol at a short distance can scarcely be heard4 ,when ,gay ,lussac reached the height of #bc1jjj feet1 he breathed with great pain and difficulty1 and felt distressing sensations in his ears1 as though they were about to burst4 ,upon the high table-lands of ,peru1 the lips of ,dr4 ,ischudi cracked and burst2 and blood flowed from his eyelids4 ,verse3 ,for he looketh to the ends of the earth1 and seeth under the whole heaven2 ,to make the weight for the winds4--,,job ,,xxviii4 #fda4 ,what is the amount of atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface8 ,the pressure of the atmosphere at the earth's surface is fifteen pounds to every square inch of surface4 ,that is to say1 that the column of air1 extending fifty miles over a square inch of the earth1 presses upon that square inch with a weight equal to fifteen pounds4 #fdb4 ,is that the weight of dry or moist air8 ,that is the weight of air at what is called the point of saturation1 when it is fully charged with watery vapour4 #fdc4 ,what is the proportion of watery vapour in the atmosphere8 ,the proportion constantly varies4 ,evaporation is not a result of accident2 it seems an established law that the air shall constantly absorb vapour until it has reached the maximum that it can hold4 ,experiments have been tried1 in which dry air has been pressed upon the surface of water with great force1 but no degree of pressure could prevent the formation of vapour4 7,see #dca47 #fdd4 ,what is the total amount of atmospheric pressure on the earth's surface8 ,the total amount of atmospheric pressure on the earth's surface1 at #ae lbs4 to the square inch1 amounts to #ab1jdb1fjd1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,this pressure is equal to that of a globe of lead of sixty miles in diameter4 #fde4 ,what is the pressure of the atmosphere upon the human body8 ,estimating the surface of man's body to be equal to fifteen square feet1 he sustains an atmospheric pressure of #cb1djj lbs41 or nearly fourteen tons and a-half4 ,the mere variation of weight1 arising out of the changes in the state of the atmosphere1 may amount to as much as a ton and a-half4 ,verse3 ,i therefore so run1 not as uncertainly2 so fight ,i1 not as one that beateth the air4--,,corinth4 ,,ix4 #fdf4 ,why does not man feel this pressure8 ,because the diffusion of air which1 surrounding him in every direction1 and acting upon the internal as well as the external surfaces of his body1 and probably surrounding every atom of his frame1 establishes an equilibrium1 in which every degree of pressure counteracts and sustains itself4 #fdg4 ,what is the weight of air relative to that of water8 ,a cubic foot of air weighs only #ebc grains1 a little more than an ounce2 a cubic foot of water weighs one thousand ounces4 #fdh4 ,what is the greatest height in the atmosphere which any human being has ever reached8 ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 in the year #ahjd1 ascended to the height of #bc1jjj feet4 #fdi4 ,what is a vacuum8 ,a vacuum is a space devoid of matter4 ,the term is generally applied to those instances in which air is drawn from within an air-tight vessel4 #fej4 ,is it possible to form a perfect vacuum8 ,it is probably impossible to do so1 even with the most powerful instruments--some portion of air would remain1 but in so thin a form that it would be imperceptible4 #fea4 ,why does the depression of a pump-handle cause the water to flow8 ,because the putting down of the handle lifts up the piston with its valve closed1 thereby tending to produce a vacuum2 but the pressure of the air upon the water not contained in the pump1 forces more water up into the part where a vacuum would otherwise be formed4 ,then1 when the handle is raised1 and the piston forced downwards1 the valve opens1 and the water rushes through4 ,there is a second valve1 below the piston1 which closes with the downward movement1 to prevent the water from rushing back again4 ,verse3 ,the wind bloweth where it listeth1 and thou hearest the sound thereof1 but canst not tell whence it cometh1 and whither it goeth3 so is every one that is born of the ,spirit4--,,john ,,ii41 ,,iii4 #feb4 ,how high will atmospheric pressure raise water in the bore of a pump8 ,it will raise water to an elevation of thirty feet above its level4 #fec4 ,why will it raise water to an elevation of thirty-feet8 ,because a column of water of thirty feet high1 nearly balances the weight of a column of air of equal surface1 extending to the whole height of the atmosphere4 ,when1 therefore1 water is elevated to the height of thirty feet1 the power of the pump is enfeebled1 as the air and the water balance each other4 #fed4 ,how is water raised to a greater elevation when it is required8 ,by mechanical contrivances1 by which the water is forced to a greater elevation4 #fee4 ,why does water run through the bent tube called a syphon8 ,because the atmospheric pressure upon the water on the outside of the syphon forces it into the tube as fast as the syphon empties itself through its longer arm4 #fef4 ,why does water run through the longer arm of the syphon8 ,because the weight of the water in the longer arm of the syphon is greater than that in the shorter2 therefore it runs out by its own gravity4 ,and1 as in running out1 it creates a tendency towards a vacuum1 the pressure of the outer air comes into operation1 and forces the water through the tube4 #feg4 ,why does water issue from the earth in springs8 ,some springs are caused by natural syphons formed in the fissures of rocks1 which1 communicating with bodies of water1 are continually filled by atmospheric pressure1 and therefore convey streams of water to the point where they are set free4 ,verse3 ,ascribe ye strength unto ,god3 his excellency is over ,israel1 and his strength is in the clouds4--,,psalm ,,lviii4 #feh4 ,why1 if a wine glass is filled with water1 and a card laid upon it1 and the whole inverted1 will the water remain in the glass8 ,because the pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the card counteracts the weight of the water4 #fei4 ,what has the card to do with the experiment8 ,it forms a base upon which the water may rest1 while the glass is being inverted2 and it prevents the air from acting upon the fluidity of the water1 and forcing it out of the glass4 #ffj4 ,why will not beer run out of the tap of a cask until a spile has been driven in at the top8 ,because the pressure of the air upon the opening of the tap counteracts the weight of the beer4 ,but when the spile is driven in1 the air enters at the top1 and counteracts its own pressure at the bottom4 #ffa4 ,why does a cup in a pie become filled with juice8 ,because the heat expands the air1 and drives nearly all of it out of the cup4 ,when the pie is taken out of the oven1 and begins to cool1 air cannot get into the cup again1 because its edges are surrounded by juice4 ,a partial vacuum1 therefore1 exists within the cup1 and the pressure of the external air forces the juice into it4 #ffb4 ,does the cup prevent the juice from boiling over8 ,no4 ,so long as the heat exists1 the cup remains empty2 and as it occupies space1 the air is driven out of it1 into the pie1 it rather tends to force the juice over the sides of the dish4 ,it is only when cooling that the juice enters the cup4 #ffc4 ,why can flies walk on the ceiling8 ,because their feet are so formed that they can form a vacuum1 under them2 their bodies are therefore sustained in opposition to gravitation by atmospheric pressure4 #ffd4 ,how did ,mr4 ,sands perform the feat of walking across the ceiling8 ,by having large discs of wet leather attached to his feet1 so that when they were placed upon a smooth surface1 the air was excluded1 and when he allowed his weight to act upon one of the discs1 it formed a hollow cup and a vacuum4 ,by forming a vacuum of only twelve square inches he gained a pressure of #ahj lbs42 this being more than his weight he could accomplish the feat with no other difficulty than that of remaining in an inverted position4 ,the air was admitted underneath the discs by valves1 which were closed by springs1 which being pressed by the heels of the performer1 let in the air1 and set the feet free4 ,verse3 ,and ,god made a wind to pass over the earth4--,,genesis ,,viii4 #ffe4 ,why is it difficult to strike limpets from rocks8 ,because they have the means of forming a vacuum under their shells1 and are pressed on to the rocks by the weight of the atmosphere4 #fff4 ,why can snails move over plants in an inverted position8 ,because they form a vacuum with the smooth and moist surfaces of their bodies1 and are supported by atmospheric pressure4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 #fff4 ,what is wind8 ,wind is air in motion4 7,see #bcd47 #ffg4 ,what are the velocities of winds8 ,a breeze travels ten feet in a second2 a light gale1 sixteen feet in a second2 a stiff gale1 twenty-four feet in a second2 a violent squall1 thirty-five feet in a second2 storm wind1 from forty-three to fifty-four in a second2 hurricane of the temperate zone1 sixty feet in a second2 hurricane of the torrid zone1 one hundred and twenty to three hundred feet in a second4 ,when wind flies at one mile an hour1 it is scarcely perceptible4 ,when its velocity is one hundred miles an hour1 it tears up trees1 and devastates its track4 #ffh4 ,what are trade winds8 ,trade winds are vast currents of air1 which sweep round the globe over a belt of some #ab1jjj miles in width4 ,verse3 ,they shall be as the morning cloud1 and as the early dew that passeth away1 as the chaff that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor1 and as the smoke out of the chimney4--,,hosea ,,xiii4 #ffi4 ,what is the cause of trade winds8 ,the air over the tropical regions becomes heated and ascends2 it then diverges in two high currents1 one towards the north1 and the other towards the south pole1 where1 being cooled1 it again descends1 and returns towards the equator to replace the air as it ascends therefrom4 ,there is1 therefore1 a constant revolution of vast currents of air between the tropics and the poles1 producing north and south winds4 #fgj4 ,why do the trade winds blow from east to west1 though1 in their origin1 their direction is from north to south and from south to north8 ,because1 as the north and south winds blow towards the equator1 they are affected by the revolution of the earth from west to east4 ,as the two winds from the poles approach the equator1 they are gradually diverted from their northerly and southerly course1 to an easterly direction1 by the revolution of the earth4 #fga4 ,why is there a prevalence of calms at the equator8 ,because1 as the north and the south winds move towards the equator1 they drive before them volumes of atmosphere1 which1 meeting in opposite directions1 resist and counterpoise each other1 and abide in a state of stillness between the north and south-easterly winds1 one on the north and the other on the south of the equator4 #fgb4 ,what are monsoons8 ,monsoons are periodical winds which blow at a given period of the year from one quarter of the compass1 and in another period of the year from the opposite quarter of the compass4 #fgc4 ,what is the cause of monsoons8 ,monsoons are caused by changes in the position of the sun4 ,when the sun is in the southern hemisphere1 it produces a north-east wind1 and when it is in the northern hemisphere1 a north-west wind4 ,the north-east monsoon blows from ,november to ,march1 and the south-west monsoon from the end of ,april to the middle of ,october4 ,the region of monsoons lies a little to the north of the northern border of the trade wind1 and they blow with the greatest force1 and with most regularity1 between the eastern coast of ,africa and ,hindustan4 ,verse3 ,he shall blow upon them and they shall wither1 and the whirlwind shall take them away as stubble4--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #fgd4 ,what determines the character of winds8 ,the character of winds is influenced by the condition of the surfaces over which they blow4 ,winds blowing over dry and arid plains and deserts are dry and hot4 ,winds blowing across snow-capped mountains and regions of ice are cold4 ,winds that cross oceans are wet2 and those that cross extensive continents are dry4 #fge4 ,what winds are most prevalent in ,england8 ,in ,england out of a thousand days1 north winds prevail in #hb2 north-east1 #aaa2 east1 #ii2 south-east1 #ha2 south1 #aaa2 south-west1 #bbe2 west1 #aga2 north-west1 #abj4 #fgf4 ,what is the cause of storms8 ,storms result from violent commotions of the atmosphere1 and are chiefly the result of extreme changes of temperature4 ,the magnetic state of the earth1 and the electrical state of the atmosphere1 also materially influence the phenomena of storms4 ,by some persons the theory is entertained that storms result from various winds rushing into a centre in which the atmosphere has become extremely condensed4 ,according to this theory1 a storm is a mighty whirlwind4 ,a most violent hurricane occurred in #aghj1 which destroyed ,lord ,rodney's fleet1 and a vast number of merchant ships4 ,it is said to have killed #i1jjj persons in ,martinique alone1 and #f1jjj in ,st4 ,lucia4 ,the town of ,st4 ,pierre in ,martinique was totally destroyed2 and only fourteen houses in the town of ,kingston1 in ,st4 ,vincent1 were left uninjured4 #fgg4 ,why do the most violent storms occur in and near the tropics8 ,because there the temperature is very high1 and the cold currents of air rushing towards the equator from the poles1 causes great atmospheric disturbance4 #fgh4 ,what are whirlwinds8 ,whirlwinds are produced by violent and contrary currents meeting and striking upon each other1 producing a circular motion4 ,they generally occur after long calms1 attended by much heat4 ,whirlwinds occurring at sea1 or over the surface of water1 sometimes put the water in motion1 and as the wind rises upwards it lifts with it a whirling mass of water1 producing a water spout4 ,verse3 ,out of the south cometh the whirlwind2 and cold out of the north4--,,job ,,xxxvii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,a ,,water ,,spout4 #fgi4 ,why does the chimney smoke when the fire is first lighted8 ,because the air in the chimney is of the same temperature as that in the room1 and therefore will not ascend4 #fhj4 ,why does the smoking 7into the room7 cease1 after the fire has been lighted a little while8 ,because the air in the chimney1 being warmed by the fire beneath1 becomes lighter and ascends rapidly4 #fha4 ,why does a long chimney create a greater draught than a short one8 ,because the short chimney contains less air than the long one2 there is1 consequently1 less difference of weight between the warm air of the short chimney and the external air2 it therefore has not so great an ascensive power4 ,verse3 ,and1 lo1 the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace4--,,gen4 ,,xix4 #fhb4 ,why does smoke issue in folds and curls8 ,because it is pressed upon by the cold air which always rushes towards a rarer atmosphere4 ,it thus illustrates the development of storms4 #fhc4 ,why do some chimneys smoke when the doors and windows are closed8 ,because the draught of air is not sufficient to supply the wants of the fire1 and enable it to create an upward current4 #fhd4 ,what is the best method of conveying air to fires8 ,tubes built in the walls1 communicating with the outer air1 and terminating underneath the grates4 #fhe4 ,why is this the best method of ventilation8 ,because doors and windows may then be made air-tight1 and draughts across rooms be prevented4 #fhf4 ,why do chimneys that stand under elevated objects1 such as hills1 trees1 and high buildings1 smoke8 ,because the wind1 striking against the elevated object1 flies back1 and a part of it rushes downward4 #fhg4 ,why do sooty chimneys smoke8 ,because the accumulation of the soot diminishes the size of the flue1 and lessens the ascensive power of the draught1 by reducing the quantity of warm air4 ,it also obstructs the motion of the air1 by the roughness of its surface4 #fhh4 ,why do chimneys smoke in damp and gusty weather8 ,because the ascending air is suddenly chilled by gusts of damp and cold air1 and driven down the chimney4 ,verse3 ,remember that thou magnify his work1 which men behold4 ,every man may see it2 man may behold it afar off4--,,job ,,xxxvi4 #fhi4 ,why does smoke ascend in a straight line in mild and fine weather8 ,because the air is still1 and being dry and warm it does not chill the smoke1 nor drive it out of its course4 #fij4 ,why do the wings of wind-mills turn round8 ,because the wind1 striking at an angle upon the wings1 forces them aside2 and as there are four wings all upon the same angle1 and fixed upon the same centre1 the oblique pressure of the wind causes the centre to rotate4 ,there is a world of miniature phenomena which has never been fully recognised1 in which we may see the mightier works of nature pleasingly and truthfully illustrated4 ,when the wind blows into the corner of a street1 and whirling around1 catches straw1 dust1 and feathers in its arms1 and then wheels away1 flinging the troubled atoms in all directions1--it is a miniature of the mightier whirlwind1 which wrecks ships1 uproots trees1 and levels houses with the earth4 ,when a cloud of dust1 on a hot summer's day1 rises and flies along the thirsty road1 making the passenger close his eyelids1 and dusting the leaves of wayside vegetation1--it is a miniature of the terrible simoom1 which blows from the desert sands1 scattering death and devastation in its track4 ,when steam issues from the tea-urn1 and becomes condensed in minute drops upon the window-pane1--the miniature is of the earth's heat1 evaporating the waters1 and the cold air of night condensing the vapours into dew4 ,when grass and corn bend before the wind1 and are beaten down by its force2 when the pond forgets its calm1 and rises in troubled waves1 casting the flotilla of natural boats that move upon its surface1 in rude disorder upon its windward shore1--the little storm is but a miniature of those great hurricanes which wrecked a fleet in the ,black ,sea1 and levelled the encampments of a mighty army4 ,when the snow that has gathered upon the house-top1 warming beneath the smiles of the sun1 slips from its bed1 and drops in accumulated heaps from the roof1--it is a miniature of those terrible avalanches which in the ,pyrenees bury villages in their icy pall1 and doom man and beast to death4 ,when the rivulet hurries on its course1 and meeting with obstructions1 leaps over them in mimic wrath1 overturning some little raft upon which1 perchance1 a weary fly has alighted1--it is a miniature of those rapids on whose banks the hippopotamus and the alligator yet live2 and where1 though rarely1 man may be seen directing his raft over the troubled current1 amid the rush of debris from forests unexplored4 ,and when1 in a basin of the rivulet1 two opposing currents meet1 and form a little vortex into which insect life and vegetable fragments coming within the sphere of its influence are drawn1--it is a miniature of the roaring whirlpool1 or the wilder maelstrom of the ,norwegian seas4 ,nature rehearses all her parts in mild whispers2 and for every picture that she paints1 she places a first study upon the canvas4 ,man need not go into the heart of her terrors to understand their laws4 ,many an unknown ,humboldt1 sitting by the river's side1 may rejoice in the aspects of nature1 and share the bliss of knowledge with the great philosopher4 ,verse3 ,can any understand the spreadings of the clouds1 or the noise of his tabernacle8--,,job ,,xxxvi4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 #fia4 ,what is a barometer8 ,a barometer is an instrument which indicates the pressure of the atmosphere1 and which takes its name from two ,greek words signifying measurer of weight4 #fib4 ,why does a barometer indicate the pressure of the atmosphere8 ,because it consists of a tube containing quicksilver1 closed at one end and open at the other1 so that the pressure of the air upon the open end balances the weight of the column of mercury 7quicksilver71 and when the pressure of the air upon the open surface of the mercury increases or decreases1 the mercury rises or falls in response thereto4 #fic4 ,why is a barometer called also a weather-glass8 ,because changes in the weather are generally preceded by alterations in the atmospheric pressure4 ,but we cannot perceive those changes as they gradually occur2 the alteration in the height of the column of mercury1 therefore1 enables us to know that atmospheric changes are taking place1 and1 by observation1 we are enabled to determine certain rules by which the state of the weather may be foretold with considerable probability4 #fid4 ,why are barometers constructed with circular dials1 and an index to denote changes8 ,because that is a convenient mechanical arrangement1 by which the alterations of the relative pressures of the air and the mercury are more clearly denoted than by an inspection of the mercury itself4 ,verse3 ,fair weather cometh out of the north3 with ,god is terrible majesty4--,,job ,,xxxvii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,,barometer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,,tube ,,of ,,barometer1 ,,wheel1 ,,and ,,pulley4 #fie4 ,why does the hand of the weather dial change its position when the column of mercury rises or falls8 ,because a weight1 which floats upon the open surface of the mercury1 is attached to a string1 having a nearly equal weight at the other extremity2 the string is laid over a revolving pivot to which the hand is fixed1 and the friction of the string turns the hand1 as the mercury rises or falls4 ,verse3 ,thou visitest the earth1 and waterest it3 thou greatly enrichest it with the river of ,god1 which is full of water3 thou preparest them corn1 when thou hast so provided for it4--,,psalm ,,lxv4 #fif4 ,why does tapping the face of the barometer sometimes cause the hand to move8 ,because the weight on the surface of the mercury frequently leans against the sides of the tube1 and does not move freely4 ,and1 also1 the mercury clings to the sides of the tube by capillary attraction2 therefore1 tapping on the face of the barometer sets the weight free1 and overcomes the attraction which impedes the rise or fall of the mercury4 ,fig4 #ba illustrates the mechanism at the back of the barometer4 ,a is a glass tube2 between ,a and ,e there exists a vacuum1 caused by the weight of the mercury pressing downwards4 ,this space being a vacuum1 makes the barometrical column more sensitive1 as there is no internal force to resist or modify the effects of the external pressure4 ,e represents the height of the column of mercury2 ,c the open end of the tube2 ,f the weight resting on the surface of the mercury2 ,p the pivot over which the string passes1 and upon which the hand turns2 ,w the weight which forms the pulley with the weight ,f4 #fig4 ,which is the heavier1 dry or vaporised air8 ,dry air is heavier than air impregnated with vapours4 #fih4 ,why is dry air heavier than moist air8 ,because of the extreme tenuity of watery vapours1 the density of which is less than that of atmospheric air4 #fii4 ,why does the fall of the barometer denote the approach of rain8 ,because it shows that as the air cannot support the full weight of the column of mercury1 the atmosphere must be thin with watery vapours4 ,the fall of the mercury in the long arm of the tube would cause the weight ,f to be pressed upwards4 ,this would release the string to which the weight ,w is attached2 it would1 therefore1 fall1 and turn the hand down to ,rain or ,much ,rain4 #gjj4 ,why does the rise of the barometer denote the approach of fine weather8 ,because the external air becoming dense1 and free from highly elastic vapours1 presses with increased force upon the mercury upon which the weight ,f floats2 that weight1 therefore1 sinks in the short tube as the mercury rises in the long one1 and in sinking turns the hand to ,change1 ,fair1 c4 ,verse3 ,he caused an east wind to blow in the heaven2 and by his power he brought in the south wind4--,,psalm ,,lxxviii4 #gja4 ,why does the barometer enable us to calculate the height of mountains8 ,because1 as the barometer is carried up a mountain1 there is a less depth of atmosphere above to press upon the mercury2 it therefore falls1 and by comparing various observations1 it has been found practicable to calculate the height of mountains by the fall of the mercury in a barometer4 #gjb4 ,to what extent of variation is the weight of the atmosphere liable8 ,it may vary as much as a pound and a half to the square inch at the level of the sea4 #gjc4 ,when does the barometer stand highest8 ,when there is a duration of frost1 or when north-easterly winds prevail4 #gjd4 ,why does the barometer stand highest at these times8 ,because the atmosphere is exceedingly dry and dense1 and fully balances the weight of the column of mercury4 #gje4 ,when does the barometer stand lowest8 ,when a thaw follows a long frost2 or when south-west winds prevail4 #gjf4 ,why does the barometer stand lowest at those times8 ,because much moisture exists in the air1 by which it is rendered less dense and heavy4 #gjg4 ,what effect has heat upon the barometer8 ,it causes the mercury to fall1 by evaporating moisture into the air4 #gjh4 ,what effect has cold upon the barometer8 ,it causes the mercury to rise1 by checking evaporation1 and increasing the density of the air4 ,verse3 ,for so the ,lord said unto me1 ,i will take my rest1 and ,i will consider in my dwelling place like a clear heat upon herbs1 and like a cloud of dew in the heat of harvest4--,,isaiah ,,xviii4 ,in noting barometrical indications1 more attention should be paid to the tendency of the mercury at the time of the observation1 than to the actual state of the column1 whether it stands high or low4 ,the following rules of barometric reading are given as generally accurate1 but liable to exceptions3-- ,fair weather indicated by the rise of the mercury4 ,foul weather by the fall of the mercury4 ,thunder1 indicated by the fall of the mercury in sultry weather4 ,cold1 indicated by the rise of the mercury in spring1 autumn1 and winter4 ,heat1 by the fall of the mercury in summer and autumn4 ,frost1 indicated by the rise of the mercury in winter4 ,thaw1 by the fall of the mercury during a frost4 ,continued bad weather1 when the fall of the mercury has been gradual through several fine days4 ,continued fine weather1 when the rise of the mercury has been gradual through several foul days4 ,bad weather of short duration1 when it sets in quickly4 ,fine weather of short duration1 when it sets in quickly4 ,changeable weather1 when an extreme change has suddenly set in4 ,wind1 indicated by a rapid rise or fall unattended by a change of temperature4 ,the mercury rising1 and the air becoming cooler1 promises fine weather2 but the mercury rising1 and the air becoming warmer1 the weather will be changeable4 ,if the top of the column of mercury appears convex1 or curved upwards1 it is an additional proof that the mercury is rising4 ,expect fine weather4 ,if the top of the column is concave1 or curved downwards1 it is an additional proof that the mercury is falling4 ,expect bad weather4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 #gji4 ,what is the thermometer8 ,the thermometer is an instrument in which mercury is employed to indicate degrees of heat4 ,its name is derived from two ,greek words1 meaning heat measurer4 #gaj4 ,why does mercury indicate degrees of heat8 ,because it expands readily with heat1 and contracts with cold2 and as it passes freely through small tubes1 it is the most convenient medium for indicating changes of temperature4 #gaa4 ,why are there ,reaumur's ,thermometers and ,fahrenheit's ,thermometers8 ,because their inventors1 after whom they are named1 adopted a different system of notation1 or thermometrical marks2 and as their thermometers have been adopted by various countries and authors1 it is now difficult to dispense with either of them4 ,verse3 ,when ye see a cloud rise out of the west straightway ye say1 ,there cometh a shower2 and so it is4 ,and when ye see the south wind blow1 ye say there will be heat2 and it cometh to pass4--,,luke ,,xiii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,thermometers ,,of ,,reaumur ,,and ,,fahrenheit ,,compared4 ,we have combined the two 7see ,fig4 #bb47 ,the diagram will1 we have no doubt1 prove exceedingly useful to scientific readers and experimentalists4 ,there is also another system of notation1 adopted by the ,french1 called the centigrade1 but it is not much referred to in ,great ,britain4 ,in the centigrade thermometer #j zero is the freezing point1 and #ajj the boiling point4 ,fahrenheit's scale is generally preferred4 ,reaumur's is mostly used in ,germany4 ,of ,fahrenheit's scale #cb is the freezing point1 #ee is moderate heat1 #gf summer heat in ,great ,britain1 #ih is blood heat1 and #bab is the boiling point4 ,mr4 ,wedgwood has invented a thermometer for testing high temperatures1 each degree of which answers to l#cj degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,according to his scale cast iron melts at #b1ghf deg42 fine gold at #b1jaf deg42 fine silver #a1hgc deg42 brass melts at #a1hfi deg42 red heat is visible by day at #ihj deg42 lead melts #fab deg42 bismuth melts #dgf deg42 tin melts #dab deg42 and there is a curious fact with regard to the three metals1 lead1 bismuth1 and tin1 that if they are mixed in the proportions of #e1 #h1 and #c parts respectively1 the mixture 7after previous fusion7 will melt at a heat below that of boiling water4 #gab4 ,what is the difference between the thermometer and the barometer8 ,in the thermometer the column of mercury is much smaller than in the barometer1 and is sealed from the air2 while in the barometer the column of mercury is open at one end to atmospheric influence4 #gac4 ,why does the mercury in the thermometer1 being sealed up1 indicate the external temperature8 ,because the heat passes through the glass1 in which the mercury is enclosed1 and expanding or contracting the metal within the bulb1 causes the small column above it to rise or fall4 ,verse3 ,blessed is the people that know the joyful sound3 they shall walk1 ,o ,lord1 in the light of thy countenance4--,,psalm ,,lxxxix4 #gad4 ,when does the thermometer vary most in its indication of natural temperature8 ,it varies more in the winter than in the summer season4 #gae4 ,why does it vary more in the winter than in the summer8 ,because the temperature of our climate differs more from the temperature of the torrid zones in the winter than it does in the summer1 and the inequalities of temperature cause frequent changes in the degree of prevailing heat4 ,the same remarks 7#gad1 #gae17 apply to the barometer4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 #gaf4 ,what is sound8 ,sound is an impression produced upon the ear by vibrations of the air4 #gag4 ,what causes the air to vibrate and produce sounds8 ,the atoms of elastic bodies being caused to vibrate by the application of some kind of force1 the vibrations of those atoms are imparted to the air1 and sound is produced4 #gah4 ,how do we know that sounds are produced by the vibrations of the air1 induced by the vibrations of the atoms of bodies8 ,if we take a tuning fork1 and hold it to the ear1 we hear no sound4 ,if we move it rapidly through the air1 or if we blow upon it1 it produces no sound2 but if we strike it1 a sound immediately occurs2 the vibration of the fork may be seen1 and felt by the hand that holds it2 and as those vibrations cease1 the sound dies away4 #gai4 ,how do we know that without air there would be no sound8 ,because if a tuning fork were to be struck in a vacuum 7as under the receiver of an air pump7 no sound would be heard1 although the vibrations of the fork could be distinctly seen4 ,verse3 ,and even things without life giving sound1 whether pipe or harp1 except they give a distinction in the sounds1 how shall it be known what is piped or harped4--,,corinth4 ,,xiv4 #gbj4 ,how are the vibrations of sonorous bodies imparted to the air8 ,when a bell is struck1 the force of the blow gives an instant agitation to all its particles4 ,the air around the bell is driven back by the impulse of the force1 and thus a vibration of compression is imparted to the air2 but the air returns to the bell1 by its own natural elasticity1 thus producing a vibration of expansion--when it is again struck1 and thus successive vibrations of compression and expansion are transmitted through the air4 #gba4 ,how rapidly are these vibrations transmitted through the air8 ,they travel at a rate of rather more than a quarter of a mile in a second1 or twelve miles and three-fourths in a minute4 #gbb4 ,do all sounds travel at the same rate8 ,all sounds1 whether strong or weak1 high or low1 musical or discordant1 travel with the same velocity4 #gbc4 ,why are bells and glasses stopped from ringing by touching them with the finger8 ,because the contact of the finger stops the vibration of the atoms of the metal and glass1 which therefore cease to impart vibrations to the air4 #gbd4 ,why does a cracked bell give discordant sounds8 ,because the connection between the atoms of the bell being broken1 their vibrations are not uniform3 some of the atoms vibrate more intensely than the others2 the vibrations imparted to the air are therefore jarring and discordant4 #gbe4 ,why1 when we see a gun fired at a distance1 do we see the flash and smoke1 before we hear the report8 ,because light1 which enables us to see1 travels at the velocity of #aib1jjj miles in a second2 while sound1 by which we hear1 travels only at the rate of a quarter of a mile in a second4 ,verse3 ,my heart maketh a noise in me3 ,i cannot hold my peace1 because thou hast heard1 ,o my soul1 the sound of the trumpet1 the alarm of war4--,,jer4 ,,iv4 #gbf4 ,why does the tread of soldiers1 when marching in long ranks1 appear to be irregular8 ,because the sounds proceeding from different distances1 reach our ears in varying periods of time4 #gbg4 ,what are the numbers of vibrations in a second that produce the various musical sounds8 ,c or ,do1 #dhj vibrations in a second2 ,b or ,si1 #dej vibrations2 ,a or ,la1 #djj vibrations2 ,g or ,sol1 #cfj vibrations2 ,f or ,fa1 #cbj vibrations2 ,e or ,mi1 #cjj vibrations2 ,d or ,re1 #bgj vibrations2 ,c or ,do1 #bdj vibrations4 ,it is thus seen that the more rapid the vibrations1 the higher the note1 and vice versa4 #gbh4 ,why does the length of a wire or string determine the sound that it produces8 ,because the shorter the string the more rapid are its vibrations when struck4 #gbi4 ,why does the tension of a wire or string affect its vibrations8 ,because when the string or wire is tight1 a touch communicates vibrations to all its particles2 but when it is loose the vibrations are imperfectly communicated4 #gcj4 ,why are some notes low and solemn1 and others high and quick8 ,because the vibrations of musical strings vary from #cb vibrations in a second1 which produces a soft and deep bass1 to #ae1jjj vibrations in a second1 which produces the sharpest treble note4 #gca4 ,why can our voices be heard at a greater distance when we speak through tubes8 ,because the vibrations are confined to the air within the tube1 and are not interfered with by other vibrations or movements in the air2 the tube itself is also a good conductor of sound4 ,verse3 ,and ,i will cause the noise of thy songs to cease2 and the sound of thy harps shall no more be heard4--,,ezekiel ,,xxvi4 #gcb4 ,is air a good conductor of sound8 ,air is a good conductor1 but water is a better conductor than air2 wood1 metals1 the earth1 c41 are also good conductors4 #gcc4 ,why can we hear sounds at a greater distance on water than on land8 ,for various reasons3 because the smooth surface of water is a good conductor2 because there are fewer noises1 or counter vibrations1 to interfere with the transmission of sound2 and because there are no elevated objects to impede the progress of the vibrations4 #gcd4 ,why do sea-shells give a murmuring noise when held to the ear8 ,because what may be called expended vibrations always exist in air where various sounds are occurring4 ,these tremblings of the air are received upon the thin covering of the shell1 and thus being collected into a focus1 are transmitted to the ear4 #gce4 ,why can people in the arctic regions converse when more than a mile apart8 ,because there the air1 being cold and dense1 is a very good conductor2 and the smooth surface of the ice also favours the transmission of sound4 #gcf4 ,why do savages lay their heads upon the earth to hear the sounds of wild beasts1 c48 ,because the earth is a good conductor of sound4 ,for this reason1 also1 persons working under ground in mines can hear each other digging at considerable distances4 #gcg4 ,why can church clocks be heard striking much more clearly at some times than at others8 ,because the density of dry air improves the sound-conducting power of the atmosphere4 ,the transmission of sounds is also assisted by the direction of the winds4 #gch4 ,why may the scratching of a pin at one extremity of a long pole be heard by applying the ear to the opposite extremity8 ,because wood is a good conductor of sound1 and its atoms are susceptible of considerable vibration4 ,it is1 therefore1 chosen in numerous instances for the construction of musical instruments4 ,verse3 ,the morning is come unto thee1 ,o thou that dwellest in the land3 the time is come1 the day of trouble is near1 and not the sounding again of the mountains4--,,ezekiel ,,vii4 ,deaf persons have been known to derive pleasure from music by placing their hands upon the wood-work of musical instruments while being played upon4 #gci4 ,why is the hearing of deaf persons assisted by ear-trumpets8 ,because ear-trumpets collect the vibrations of the air into a focus1 and make the sounds produced thereby more intense4 #gdj4 ,why are sounding-hoards used to improve the hearing of congregations8 ,because1 being suspended over1 and a little behind1 the speaker1 they collect the vibrations of the air1 and reflect them towards the congregation4 #gda4 ,what are echoes8 ,echoes are sounds reflected by the objects on which they strike4 #gdb4 ,why do some echoes occur immediately after a sound8 ,because the reflecting surface is very near2 therefore the sound returns immediately4 #gdc4 ,why do some echoes occur a considerable time after a sound8 ,because they are at a considerable distance1 and the sound takes time to travel to it1 and an equal time to return4 #gdd4 ,why do some echoes change the tone and quality of sound8 ,because the reflecting surface1 having vibratory qualities of its own1 mingles its own vibrations with that of the sound4 #gde4 ,why are there sometimes several echoes to one sound8 ,because there are various reflecting surfaces1 at different distances1 each of which returns an echo4 ,verse3 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters under the heaven be gathered together onto one place1 and let the dry land appear3 and it was so4--,,gen4 ,i4 #gdf4 ,are sounds reflected only by distant objects8 ,sounds are doubtless reflected by walls and ceilings around us4 ,but we do not perceive the echoes1 because they are so near that they occur at the same moment with the sound4 ,in lofty buildings1 however1 there is frequently a double sound1 making the utterance of a speaker indistinct4 ,this arises from the echo following very closely upon the sound4 #gdg4 ,why1 when we are walking under an arch-way or a tunnel1 do our voices appear louder8 ,because the sounds of our voices are immediately reflected4 ,and as a gas reflector increases the intensity of light1 so a sound reflector will increase the apparent strength of our voices4 ,there are many places where remarkable echoes occur4 ,on the banks of the ,rhine1 at ,lurley1 if the weather be favourable1 the report of a rifle1 or the sound of a trumpet1 will be repeated at different periods1 and with various degrees of strength1 from crag to crag1 on opposite sides of the river alternately4 ,a similar effect is heard in the neighbourhood of some of the ,lochs in ,scotland4 ,there is a place at ,woodstock1 in ,gloucestershire1 which is said to echo a sound fifty times4 ,near ,rosneath1 a few miles from ,glasgow1 there is a spot where1 if a person plays a bar of music upon a bugle1 the notes will be repeated by an echo1 but a third lower2 after a short pause1 another echo is heard1 again in a lower tone2 then follows another pause1 and a third repetition follows in a still lower key4 ,the effect is very enchanting4 ,the whispering galleries of ,st4 ,paul's1 of the cathedral church of ,gloucester1 and of the ,observatory of ,paris1 owe their curious effects to those laws of the reflection of sound1 by which echoes are produced2 but in these cases the effect is assisted by the elliptical form of the edifice1 each person being in the focus of an ellipse4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 #gdh4 ,what is water8 ,water is a fluid composed of two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen1 or eight parts by weight of oxygen to one of hydrogen4 ,it is nearly colourless and transparent4 #gdi4 ,why1 if a saucer of water be exposed to the air1 will it gradually disappear8 ,because water is highly expansive1 and rises in thin vapour1 when in contact with warm and dry air4 ,verse3 ,behold there ariseth a little cloud from the sea1 of the bigness of a man's hand4 ,and it came to pass in the meantime1 that the heaven was black with clouds and wind1 and there was a great rain4--#a ,,kings ,,xviii4 #gej4 ,why does steam issue from the spout of a kettle8 ,because the heat of the fire passes into the water1 and drives its atoms apart1 making those of them that rise quickly to the surface lighter than the air1 upon which they consequently rise4 #gea4 ,why does water become solid when it freezes8 ,because the latent heat of the water passes away from between its atoms into the air2 the atoms1 therefore1 draw closer together4 #geb4 ,why1 if the atoms of water draw closer together when freezing1 does ice expand1 and occupy greater space than water8 ,because1 when the atoms of water are congealing1 they do not form a compact mass1 but arrange themselves in groups of crystal points1 which occupy greater space4 ,water contracts when freezing until it sinks to #dj deg41 and then it expands as ice is formed4 #cb deg4 is said to be the freezing point1 but it should be called the frozen point4 #gec4 ,why does water boil8 ,because heat1 entering into the lower portions of the water1 expands it2 the heated portions are then specifically lighter than those that are cooler2 the hot water therefore rises upward1 and forces the cooler water down4 #ged4 ,what proportion of the earth's surface is covered with water8 ,there are about one hundred and forty seven millions of square miles of water1 to forty-nine and a half millions of square miles of land4 #gee4 ,what is the amount of water pressure8 ,the pressure of the sea1 at the depth of #a1ajj yards1 is equal to #ae1jjj lbs4 to the square inch4 ,verse3 ,but the land1 whither ye go to possess it1 is a land of hills and valleys1 and drinketh water of the rain of heaven4--,,deut4 ,,xi4 #gef4 ,what element is the most abundant in nature8 ,oxygen1 which forms so large a part of water4 ,of animal substances1 oxygen forms three-fourths2 of vegetable substances it forms four-fifths2 of mineral substances it forms one-half2 it forms eight-ninths of the waters and one-fifth of the atmosphere2 and aggregating the whole creation1 from one-half to two-thirds consists of oxygen4 #geg4 ,in what ways does man use oxygen8 ,man eats1 drinks1 breathes1 and burns it1 in various proportions and combinations4 ,it is estimated that the human race consume in those various ways #a1jjj1jjj1jjj lbs4 daily2 that the lower animals consume double that amount2 and that1 in the varied works of nature1 no less than #h1jjj1jjj1jjj lbs4 of oxygen are used daily4 #geh4 ,why does water dissolve various substances8 ,because the atoms of water are very minute2 they therefore permeate the pores1 or spaces1 between the atoms of those bodies1 and overcoming their attraction for each other1 cause them to separate4 #gei4 ,why does hot water dissolve substances more readily than cold8 ,because the heat assists to repel the particles of the substance undergoing solution1 and gives the water a freer passage between the atoms4 #gfj4 ,why is pump water sometimes hard8 ,because1 in passing through the earth1 it has become impregnated with mineral matters1 usually the sulphate and carbonate of lime4 #gfa4 ,why is rain water soft8 ,because it is derived from vapours which1 in ascending to the clouds1 could not bear up the mineral waters with them4 ,it therefore became purified or distilled4 #gfb4 ,why do kettles become encrusted with stony deposits8 ,because that portion of the water which is driven off in steam leaves the mineral matters behind2 they therefore form a crust around the sides of the kettle4 ,verse3 ,he gathereth the waters of the sea together as an heap2 he layeth up the depth in storehouses4--,,psalm ,,xxxiii4 ,it is said that if a child's marble be placed in a kettle1 it will attract the earthy particles1 and prevent the encrusting of the sides of the vessel4 #gfc4 ,why is it difficult to wash in hard water8 ,because the soap unites with the mineral matters in the water1 and being neutralised thereby1 cannot dissolve the dirt which we desire to cleanse away4 #gfd4 ,why is the sea salt8 ,because salt is a mineral which prevails largely in the earth1 and which1 being very soluble in water1 is taken up by the ocean4 ,lakes and rivers1 also1 even those that are considered fresh1 hold in solution some degree of saline matters1 which they contribute to the ocean4 ,as1 in the evaporations from the sea1 the salt remains in it1 while the vapours fall as rain1 and again wash the earth and carry some of its mineral properties to the ocean1 the greater saltness of the sea1 as compared with rivers1 is accounted for4 ,by some persons the opinion is entertained that the sea has been gradually getting salter ever since the creation of the world4 ,this1 they say1 arises from the evaporation of water free from salt1 and the returns of the water to the sea1 taking with it salt from the land4 #gfe4 ,what is the estimated amount of salt in the sea8 ,the amount of common salt in the various oceans is estimated at #c1jea1cdb cubic geographical miles1 or about five times more than the mass of the mountains of the ,alps4 #gff4 ,what is the depth of the sea8 ,the extreme depth has not1 probably1 been ascertained4 ,but ,sir ,james ,ross took soundings about #ijj miles west of ,st4 ,helena1 whence he found the sea to be nearly six miles in depth4 ,now1 if we take the height of the highest mountain to be five miles1 the distance from that extreme rise of the earth1 to the known depth of the sea1 will be no less than eleven miles4 #gfg4 ,why are the waters of some springs impregnated with mineral matters8 ,because the water passes through beds of soda1 lime1 magnesia1 carbonic acid1 oxides of iron1 sulphate of iron1 c41 c41 and takes up in some slight degree the particles of those minerals1 according to the proportions in which they abound4 ,verse3 ,who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand1 and meted out heaven with the span1 and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure and weighed the mountains in scales1 and the hills in a balance8--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #gfh4 ,why does iron rust rapidly when wetted8 ,because the water contains a large proportion of oxygen1 some of which combines with the iron and forms an oxide of iron1 which is rust4 #gfi4 ,why does stagnant water become putrid8 ,because the large amount of oxygen which it contains accelerates the decomposition of dead animal and vegetable substances that accumulate in it4 #ggj4 ,is there danger in drinking water on account of the living animalcules which it contains8 ,no danger arises from the living creatures in water2 but putrefactive matters may produce serious diseases4 #gga4 ,what is the best method of guarding against impurities8 ,by obtaining water from the purest sources1 and by filtering it before drinking1 by which nearly all extraneous matters would be separated from it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 #ggb4 ,what is attraction8 ,attraction is the tendency of bodies to draw near to each other4 ,it is called attraction1 from two ,latin words signifying drawing towards4 #ggc4 ,how many kinds of attraction are there8 ,there are five principal kinds of attraction3-- #a4 ,the attraction of gravitation4 #b4 ,the attraction of cohesion4 #c4 ,the attraction of chemical affinity4 #d4 ,the attraction of electricity4 #e4 ,and capillary attraction4 ,verse3 ,behold1 the nations are as a drop of a bucket1 and are counted as the small dust of the balance3 behold1 he taketh up the isles as a very little thing4--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #ggd4 ,why do all bodies heavier than the air fall to the earth8 ,because they are influenced by the attraction of gravitation1 by which all bodies are drawn towards the centre of the earth4 #gge4 ,why do bodies lighter than the air ascend8 ,because the air1 being a denser body1 obeys the law of attraction1 and in doing so displaces lighter bodies that interfere with its gravitation4 #ggf4 ,why do fragments of tea1 and bubbles floating upon the surface of tea1 draw towards each other1 and attach themselves to the sides of the cup8 ,because they are influenced by the attraction of cohesion4 ,cohesion4--,the act of sticking together4 #ggg4 ,why will a drop of water upon the blade of a knife leave a dark spot8 ,because the iron of the knife attracts the oxygen of the water1 by chemical affinity2 and the two substances form a thin coating of oxide of iron4 ,affinity4--,attraction between dissimilar particles through which they form new compounds4 #ggh4 ,why do clouds sometimes move towards each other from opposite directions8 and #ggi4 ,why do light particles of matter attach themselves to sealing wax1 excited by friction8 ,because they are moved by the attraction of electricity4 #ghj4 ,why will a towel1 the corner of which is dipped in water1 become wet far above the water8 ,because the water is conveyed up through the towel1 by capillary attraction4 ,the atoms of the water are attracted by the threads of the towel1 and drawn up into the small spaces between the threads4 ,capillary4--,resembling a hair1 small in diameter4 ,verse3 ,he stretcheth out the north over the empty place1 and hangeth the earth upon nothing4--,,job ,,xxvi4 #gha4 ,why do small bodies floating upon water move towards larger ones8 ,because the attractive power of a large body is greater than that of a small one4 ,as each atom of matter has inherent power of attraction1 it follows that a large aggregation of particles must attract in proportion to the number of those particles4 #ghb4 ,why do clouds gather around mountain tops8 ,because they are attracted by the mountains4 #ghc4 ,why would a piece of lead tied to a string1 and let down from a church steeple1 incline a little from the perpendicular towards the church8 ,because the masses of stone of which the church is built would attract the lead4 #ghd4 ,how can man weigh the earth8 ,by observing what is called the deflection of small bodies when brought within given distances of larger bodies1 the degree of attraction exercised by the large body upon the smaller one becomes known4 ,this attraction of the large body exercised over the smaller body is an opposing influence1 acting against the earth's attraction of the small body1 which is drawn out of its course3 it constitutes a natural balance between the influence of the earth and another body1 acting in opposition to it4 ,founded upon these1 and some other data1 man can weigh the earth1 and give a morally certain result6 ,deflection4--,the act of turning aside4 #ghe4 ,how can man weigh the planets8 ,the planets exercise as certain an influence upon each other as do two pieces of wood floating upon a basin of water4 ,as the planetary bodies fly through their prescribed orbits1 and approach nearer to1 or travel further from1 each other1 they are observed to deviate from that course which they must have pursued but for the increase or the decrease of some influence of attraction4 ,by making observations at various times1 and by comparing a number of results1 it is possible to weigh any planetary body1 however vast1 or however distant4 ,verse3 ,is not ,god in the height of the heaven8 and behold the height of the stars1 how high they are8--,,job ,,xii4 #ghf4 ,how can man measure the distances of the planets8 ,by making observations at different seasons of the year1 when the earth is in opposite positions in her orbit2 and by recording1 by instruments constructed with the greatest nicety1 the angle of sight1 at which the planetary body is viewed2 by noticing1 also1 the various eclipses1 and estimating how long the first light after an eclipse has ceased reaches the earth1 it is possible to estimate the distances of heavenly bodies1 no matter how far in the depths of the universe those orbs may be4 #ghg4 ,what are the opinions founded upon estimates respecting the magnitude of the sun8 ,the diameter of the sun is #ggj1hjj geographical miles1 or #aab times greater than the diameter of the earth2 its volume is #a1djg1abd times that of the earth1 and #fjj times greater than all the planets together2 its mass is #cei1eea times greater than the earth2 and #gch times greater than that of all the planets4 ,a single spot seen upon its surface has been estimated to extend over #gg1jjj miles in diameter1 and a cluster of spots have been estimated to include an area of #c1ghj1jjj miles4 #ghh4 ,what is the weight of the earth8 ,the earth has a circumference of #be1jjj miles1 and is estimated to weigh #a1bef1aie1fgj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons4 #ghi4 ,what is the specific gravity of a body8 ,it is its weight estimated relatively to the weights of other bodies4 #gij4 ,what determines the force with which bodies fall to the earth8 ,generally speaking1 their specific gravity1 which is proportionate to the density1 or compactness of the atoms of which they are composed4 #gia4 ,why does a feather fall to the earth more gradually than a shilling8 ,because the specific gravity of the feather and of the shilling is relative to that of the air1 the medium through which the feather and the shilling pass4 ,if there were no air1 a shilling and a feather dropped at the same time from a height of forty miles1 would reach the earth at the same moment4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,verse3 ,where wast thou when ,i laid the foundations of the earth8 declare1 if thou hast understanding4 #gib4 ,what is repulsion8 ,repulsion is that property in matter by which it repels or recedes from1 those bodies for which it has no attraction or affinity4 #gic4 ,why does dew form into round drops upon the leaves of plants8 ,because it repels the air1 and the substances of the leaves upon which it rests4 ,because1 also1 its own particles cohere4 #gid4 ,why do drops of water roll over dusty surfaces8 ,because they repel the particles of dust2 and also because their own particles have a stronger attraction for each other than for the particles of dust4 #gie4 ,why does a needle float when carefully laid upon the surface of water8 ,because the needle and the water mutually repel each other4 #gif4 ,why does water1 when dropped upon hot iron1 move about in agitated globules8 ,because the caloric repels the particles of the water4 #gig4 ,why does oil float upon the surface of water8 ,because1 besides being specially lighter than water1 the particles of the oil and the water mutually repel each other4 #gih4 ,what is carbonic acid8 ,carbonic acid is a mixture of carbon and oxygen1 in the proportion of #c lbs4 of carbon to #h lbs4 of oxygen4 ,verse3 ,who hath laid the measures thereof1 if thou knowest8 or who hath stretched the line upon it8 #gii4 ,where does carbonic acid chiefly exist8 ,it exists in various natural bodies in which carbon and oxygen are combined2 it is evolved by the decomposition of numerous bodies called carbonates1 in which carbon is united with a particular base1 such as the carbonate of lime1 the carbonate of iron1 the carbonate of copper1 c4 ,it is also evolved by the processes of fermentation1 by the breathing of animals1 the combustion of fuel1 and the functions of plants4 ,carbonic acid also exists in various waters4 ,carbonic acid is found most largely in solid combinations with other bodies3 it forms #dd-ajjths of all limestones and marbles1 and it exists in smaller quantity1 combined with other earths1 and with metallic oxides4 #hjj4 ,what are the states in which pure carbonic acid exists8 ,pure carbonic acid may exist in the solid1 the liquid1 or the riform state4 ,in the solid state it is produced only by artificial means1 and it is then a white crystallised body1 in appearance like snow2 in the liquid state it is a heavy colourless fluid2 in the riform state it is a pungent1 heavy1 colourless gas1 and is known as carbonic acid gas4 #hja4 ,why does bottled porter produce large volumes of froth1 much more than the bottle could contain8 ,because1 by the fermentive process1 carbonic acid has been developed in the porter1 and is held in liquid solution2 but it always has a strong tendency to escape1 and directly the pressure is removed1 it evolves into gas1 by which it occupies much greater space1 and forces the porter in millions of small bubbles out of the bottle4 #hjb4 ,why does soda-water effervesce8 ,because carbonic acid gas is forced into the water by pressure4 ,pressure alters the gas into a liquid1 and directly the pressure ceases1 the liquid again evolves into gas4 #hjc4 ,why does spring water taste fresh and invigorating8 ,because it contains carbonic acid4 ,verse3 ,whereupon are the foundations thereof fastened8 or who laid the cornerstone thereof4--,,job ,,xxxviii4 #hjd4 ,why does boiled water taste flat and insipid8 ,because the carbonic acid has been driven off by boiling4 #hje4 ,why does beer which has been standing in a glass taste flat8 ,because its carbonic acid has escaped as carbonic acid gas4 #hjf4 ,why1 when we look into a glass of champagne1 do we see bubbles spontaneously appear at the bottom1 and then rise to the top8 ,because1 in the places where the bubbles are formed1 the liquid carbonic acid is evolving into carbonic acid gas4 #hjg4 ,why do the bubbles arise from two or three points in columns1 rapidly succeeding each other8 ,because1 when the formation of gas once begins1 and bubbles ascend1 there is less pressure in the line of the column of bubbles2 the carbonic acid1 therefore1 draws towards those points as the easiest channel of escape4 ,these explanations equally apply to the working of beer1 by which yeast is produced2 to the effervescence of various waters1 acidulated drinks1 ginger beer1 c41 and also to the sponging of bread1 c4 #hjh4 ,why does gunpowder explode8 ,gunpowder is made of a very intimate mechanical mixture of nitrate of potash1 charcoal1 and sulphur4 ,when these substances are heated to a certain degree1 the nitrate of potash is decomposed1 and its oxygen combines with the charcoal and sulphur1 instantaneously forming large volumes of carbonic acid gas and nitrogen1 which1 seeking an escape1 produce an explosion4 #hji4 ,why does charcoal act as a powerful disinfectant8 ,because the carbon readily absorbs1 and combines with various gases1 neutralising their offensive odours1 and destroying their unhealthy properties4 ,let us now pause for a few moments to consider the importance of those two great divisions of nature1 ,air and ,water1 and to reflect upon the wisdom of some of those laws which are connected with the phenomena thereof1 and which have not yet been sufficiently explained4 ,verse3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,let not the wise man glory in his wisdom1 neither let the mighty man glory in his might1 let not the rich man glory in his riches4--,,jeremiah ,,ix4 ,we have seen that the air is a thin elastic body surrounding the globe2 that it consists of certain gases essential to the life of animals1 and to the growth of plants2 and that it takes part in most of those chemical changes1 which mark the transformations of the inorganic creation4 ,whether it be the burning of a piece of wood1 the evaporation of a drop of water1 the breathing of an animal1 the respiration of a plant1 or the fermentation of bodies1 the air in almost every instance gives or receives--and in most of the operations in which it engages1 it does both4 ,but there is one point of view1 which we must add to those which have already been considered3 the order of nature consists of generation1 life1 and death4 ,every beat of the watch signals the birth of millions of living things1 and the same beat proclaims that as many living organisms have yielded up their vital spark1 and that forthwith the elements of which they are composed must be dissolved1 and restored to the great laboratory of nature4 ,the air is the vast receptacle of those organic matters which are undergoing dissolution4 ,the body of the shipwrecked mariner1 cast upon the shore of a desolate island1 blackens in the sun1 and the full round form gradually dwindles to skin and bone1 until at last the few atoms that remain crumble into dust1 and are scattered to the wind4 ,the same process occurs1 with some modifications1 whether bodies are buried in the earth1 or dissolve upon its surface4 ,the leaves of forests fall and accumulate in heaps1 where they ferment and dissolve1 leaving only their more earthy particles behind4 ,the amount of matter which day by day passes from the state of the living to that of the dead1 must be enormous2 but from the difficulties of acquiring data1 beyond the possibility of calculation4 ,such statistics as we have1 however1 enable us to form conclusions as to the mighty agencies in which the air is constantly engaged4 ,there are on the earth #a1jjj1jjj1jjj inhabitants of whom nearly #ce1jjj1jjj die every year1 #ia1hbd every day1 #c1gcj every hour1 and #fj every minute4 ,but even the living die daily1 and undergo an invisible change of substance1 as we shall hereafter explain4 ,the bodies of those many millions are dissolved in the air1 in vapours and gases which1 before the dissolution of each corporeal organism is complete1 begin to live again in the various forms of vegetable and animal life4 ,of the number of animals living and dying upon the face of the earth1 we can form no adequate estimate4 ,of mammals there are about #b1jjj ascertained species2 of birds #h1jjj species2 of reptiles #b1jjj species2 of fishes some #h1jjj or #aj1jjj species2 of molluscs some #ae1jjj species2 of shell fish #h1jjj species2 of insects #gj1jjj species4 ,and1 including others not specified here1 the total number of species of animals probably amounts to no less than #bej1jjj1--;each species consisting of many millions of living creatures4 ,in the area of ,london alone1 no less than #bjj1jjj tons of fuel are annually cast into the air in the form of smoke4 ,and if we take into account the vast operations of nature in evaporation1 fermentation1 and putrefactive decomposition1 we may be enabled to form a conception of the mighty part which that thin air1 of which we think so little1 plays in the grand alchemy of nature4 ,verse3 ,i will praise thee2 for ,i am fearfully and wonderfully made2 marvellous are thy works2 and that my soul knoweth right well4--,,psalm ,,cxxxix4 ,in addition1 also1 to the facts already communicated1 respecting the sound-bearing and light-refracting properties of air1 it must be remarked1 that but for the atmosphere1 and the general refraction of light by its particles--each atom as it were catching a fairy taper1 and dancing with it before our view--the condition of vision would be widely opposite to that which exists1 and totally unsuited to our wants4 ,the various objects upon which the illuminating rays of the sun fell1 would be lighted up with an intense glare1 but all around would be darkness1 just as when a single ray of light is passed into a dark chamber1 and directed upon a solitary object4 ,the air1 without becoming itself visible1 diffuses luminous rays1 in modified intensity1 in every direction4 ,if the air reflected so much light as to render itself visible1 it would appear like the glittering surface of the water reflecting the solar rays1 and we should then be unable to see the various objects which surround us4 ,of the importance of ,water in the scheme of creation1 man generally entertains an imperfect conception4 ,it is simply supposed to afford moisture to plants1 drink to animals1 and to promote salubrity by its cleansing properties4 ,let us1 however1 contemplate man as he stands before us1 noble in form1 erect in position1 full of strength1 joy1 ambition4 ,how much of that noble form is composed of water8 ,suppose that it could all be instantaneously withdrawn--not the oxygen and the hydrogen1 which might combine to form water--but the fluid that exists in his body as water1 unchanged--except by mechanical admixture with the secretions of the body--,why then that beautiful temple would collapse and become a mere shred1 so thin1 that it would seem but a shadow of the body as it existed before1 and the beholder might doubt whether life ever inhabited a frame whose structure was so frail4 ,it is said that three-fourths by weight of the human body consist of water4 ,thus1 if man weighs #abjlbs41 #ijlbs4 consist of water1 and this subtracted1 only #cjlbs4 of solid matter remain4 ,this statement is rather under than over the fact4 ,the assertion is startling1 but so true that it can be verified by simple experiment4 ,a piece of lean flesh--say of beef--cut an inch thick1 and placed in a slow oven1 and allowed to remain until all its water was driven off in vapour1 would become as thin as a wafer1 and as light as a cork4 ,with a more scientific arrangement1 it would be possible to collect the water1 and the weights of the condensed vapour1 and of the solid residue1 would together make up the weight of the beef3 if the piece weighed sixteen ounces1 the weight of the water would be about #ad ounces1 and the solid matter about two ounces4 ,water holds a similar proportion in the bodies of all animals1 and of vegetables4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that it occupies a more important place in the scale of creation than is generally accorded to it by the unobservant mind4 ,we are indebted to it for those atmospheric changes which constitute the peculiar feature of our varying climate4 ,rising in invisible vapours1 it builds palaces of glory in the skies1 and often presents to the view of man the imagery of heaven4 ,persons who have ascended above the altitude of the clouds1 have described the scene upon looking down towards them as the most celestial that the mind can conceive4 ,fields of fleecy radiance1 majestically rolling like a sea of gold1 occupied the whole range of vision1 and seemed to embellish an eternity of space4 ,those golden clouds that at one time are decked in the richest splendour1 and occupy the upper chambers of the ,court of ,nature1 become grave councillors when the earth grows thirsty1 and the plant droops with languor4 ,they roll their heavy brows together1 as in consultation upon some grave necessity3 down come the refreshing showers1 the mighty tongue of thunder rocks the air1 the earth is drenched1 and becomes fresh with the salubrity of her toilette2 obnoxious substances1 with their offensive exhalations1 are swept away3 living things rejoice1 and beautiful flowers throw their incense in thanksgiving into the air2 the broad blue heavens for a time look down and smile upon the blessed work2 and then the clouds again gather in a golden train1 and one by one fill the high arches of the atmosphere1 until the earth once more grows thirsty1 and the flower supplicates for drink4 ,verse3 ,how mighty are his wonders6 his kingdom is an everlasting kingdom1 and his dominion is from generation to generation4--,,daniel ,,iv4 ,with reference to ,light1 its wonders1 and the curious but imperfect theories respecting it1 we have little to add1 except with regard to its physiological action upon the eyes of man and of animals1 which will be given in another place4 ,but of its sister1 ,darkness--for it would not do now to call darkness the antagonist of light1 since it will be seen that they work harmoniously for good--we have to say1 that recent discoveries indicate that darkness is as necessary to the health of nature as light4 ,not only is it necessary to compose man and animals to sleep1 to give rest to the over-wrought nerves of the industrious--but light is the quickening power of vegetation1 and although plants grow by night1 they grow1 as man does1 when stretched upon his bed--but some of their functions1 which are actively excited in the presence of light1 are at rest in darkness4 ,nor is this all3 there is not an atom upon the face of the earth which is not affected by the rays of the sun1 their light1 their heat1 their actinism4 ,colours change3 some are bleached1 others are darkened4 ,all bodies are expanded4 ,the hardest rock sustains an effect from the sun's rays2 and an unceasing sun1 shining upon the hardest granite1 would in time produce such a disturbance of its atomic condition1 that adamant would crumble away to dust4 ,the going down of the sun1 therefore1 marks the period when not only does the bird fly to her resting-place1 and man turn to his couch2 but when every atom of a vast hemisphere subsides into a state of quietude1 and when homogeneous particles of matter return to their mutual rest4 ,in a few succeeding lessons1 we intend to point out some of the scientific truths that are illustrated in the use of toys4 ,we think we shall be able to show to our young readers1 that even the hours of play may be made the periods of delightful instruction2 and that there is no reason why the acquirement of knowledge should not sweetly accord with the occasional pursuit of those pastimes by which health of body and vigour of mind are induced4 ,but before we commence the discharge of that pleasant duty1 let us say a few words respecting ,carbon1 that important agent in the world's history4 ,it is1 doubtless1 perplexing to the minds of many persons1 to understand how the diamond can be pure carbon2 how charcoal can be carbon a little less pure than the diamond2 and how coal and sugar can also be carbon1 less pure than the charcoal4 ,the statement that in the diamond carbon exists in a different atomic condition1 is almost as instructive to the inquiring mind1 as to say1 ,it is so1 because it is4 ,diamonds are expensive things1 and so difficult to experiment upon1 even if they were not expensive1 that the doors of inquiry seem locked4 ,to turn diamonds into charcoal1 or into carbonic acid gas1 is a very costly formula of experiment4 ,charcoal fires1 thus sustained1 would soon burn a man out of his house2 and soda water1 impregnated with carbonic acid gas1 produced from diamonds1 would be a very expensive beverage4 ,if we could only turn charcoal into diamonds1 and carbonic acid gas into brilliants1 that would be quite another affair4 ,a new ,eldorado would be discovered1 and there would be so many experimenters that1 when they all succeeded1 they would find that diamonds had lost their value4 ,however1 as a fact for the encouragement of those who would like to be early in the race1 we may state that the atoms of charcoal which are repulsed from the charcoal points1 during the electric agitation which produces the electric light1 acquire a hardness and a sharpness almost equal to that of the diamond--only there is still the awkward obstacle in the way1 that they happen to be black4 ,verse3 ,he delivereth and rescueth1 and he worketh signs and wonders in heaven and in earth4--,,daniel ,,vii4 ,we must see1 therefore1 whether there is anything in nature that we can experiment upon1 theoretically or practically1 to give us a clearer conception of this difficult matter4 ,there is a large dew-drop resting upon a luxuriant cabbage leaf--one of those great leaves that have flourished in defiance of the snail1 and now spreads out like the gigantic frond of the ,victoria ,regina4 ,that dew-drop is one of the beautiful diamonds which ,nature sprinkles about on cloudless nights1 as if to show the stars1 in answer to their twinkling1 that we have something that will glisten and twinkle too4 ,the dew-drop is a very good imitation of a diamond1 and to the lover of ,god's works1 quite as precious as the stone set in gold4 ,it does not consist of carbon--it probably may have a mite of carbonic acid in its embrace--but that is not necessary to our purpose3 all we want to know is1 the different atomic conditions of which bodies are susceptible1 and the very dissimilar appearances they exhibit under the variations of atomic states4 ,it doesn't glisten so much as the diamond1 because it is round--if we could cut it into a number of facets1 it would refract light almost as perfectly as the diamond4 ,it is not solid--but we can freeze it1 and we shall at once exhibit two different atomic conditions1 that will represent nearly enough the diamond1 and the liquid carbonic acid4 ,then1 if we evaporate the dew-drop1 we shall produce a volume of vapour nearly two thousand times as large as the dew-drop4 ,the steam will be white2 but we have only to imagine it black1 and then we get an analogy of the differences of the atomic conditions that prevail in the diamond1 carbonic acid1 and charcoal1 tinder1 lamp-black1 or any light form of carbon4 ,of course we have been illustrating atomic conditions only1 and not chemical composition4 ,there are a few other facts connected with carbon that merit consideration4 ,carbonic acid gas1 entering the lungs1 is a deadly poison2 but entering the stomach1 which lies close under the lungs1 and is over-lapped by them1 it is a refreshing beverage4 ,although charcoal1 when burnt1 gives off the most poisonous gas1 it seems to be very jealous of other gaseous poisons2 for if it be powdered1 and set about in pans where there is a poisonous atmosphere1 it will seize hold of poisonous gases1 and1 by absorbing1 imprison them4 ,even in a drop of toast and water1 the charred bread seizes hold of whatever impurities exist in the water2 and water passed through beds of charcoal1 becomes filtered1 and made beautifully pure1 being compelled to give up to the charcoal whatever is obnoxious4 ,if a piece of meat that has already commenced putrifying1 be sprinkled with charcoal1 it will not only object to the meat putrifying any further1 but it will sweeten that which has already undergone putrefaction4 ,although1 in the form of gas1 it will poison the blood1 and cause speedy stupefaction and death2 if it be powdered1 and stitched into a piece of silk1 and worn before the mouth as a respirator1 it will say to all poisonous gases that come to the mouth with the air1 ,i have taken this post to defend the lungs1 and ,i arrest you1 on a charge of murderous intention4 ,such are the various facts connected with carbon2 and they forcibly indicate that those who understand ,nature's works1 are likely to receive her best protection4 ,verse3 ,the father of the righteous shall greatly rejoice2 and he that begetteth a wise child shall have joy of him4--,,proverbs ,,xxiii4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 #haj4 ,why does a humming-top make a humming noise8 ,because the hollow wood of the top vibrates1 and the edges of the hole in its sides strike against the air as it spins2 the air is thereby set in vibration4 #haa4 ,why does a peg-top hum less than a humming-top8 ,because1 being a solid body of wood1 and having no hole in its sides1 its particles are not so easily thrown into vibration2 consequently it does not so readily impart vibrations to the air4 #hab4 ,why does a peg-top sometimes hum1 and at other times not8 ,because1 if it is spun with great force1 and its peg is struck sharply against the pavement1 the wood is set in vibration1 and the surface of the top1 repelling the air by its rapid motion1 causes vibratory waves4 ,but if it be spun with insufficient force1 the wood is not set in vibration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,,humming-,,top ,,before ,,spinning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,,humming-,,top ,,spinning4 #hac4 ,why do we see the figures painted upon the humming-top1 before it spins1 but not while it is spinning8 ,because the rapid whirling of the top brings the images of its different parts so quickly in succession upon the retina of the eye1 that they deface each other1 and impart an impression of coloured rings1 instead of definite objects4 ,verse3 ,train up a child in the way he should go2 and when he is old1 he will not depart from it4--,,proverbs ,,xxii4 #had4 ,why does a top stand erect when it spins1 but fall when it stops8 ,because the top is under the influence of1 and is balanced between opposing forces4 ,the rapid rotation of the top gives to all its particles a tendency to fly from the centre4 ,if the atoms of the wood were not held together by the attraction of cohesion1 they would fly away in a circle outward from the top1 just as drops of water fly off from a mop1 while it is being twirled4 ,if you take a spoonful of sand1 salt1 or dust1 and drop it upon the top1 it will be scattered in a circle1 just as the atoms of the top would be1 if they were free to separate1 but not with the same force1 because the atoms of the salt1 c41 not being in an active state of rotation1 would only be influenced by momentary contact with the rotating body4 ,this tendency of the particles of a rotating body to fly outward from the centre1 is called the centrifugal force4 ,centrifugal4--,from two ,latin words meaning receding from the centre4 ,the other force influencing the top is the attraction of gravitation3 the attraction which1 were the top not spinning1 would draw it towards the earth4 ,the spill projecting from the bottom of the top stands in the line in which the top is drawn towards the earth and keeps it from obeying the law of gravitation4 ,therefore the rotatory motion given to the top1 by the rapid unwinding of the string1 and the tendency of its atoms to fly outward1 balance the top upon the line in which it is drawn to the earth1 and which is occupied by the spill1 which prevents it falling to the ground4 #hae4 ,why does a top first reel around upon the spill1 then become upright1 and sleep1 and then reel again1 and fall8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,,peg-,,top ,,reeling4 ,because1 in being thrown from the hand1 the top is delivered a little out of the perpendicular1 but the spill is rounded off at the point1 and when the top is rotating rapidly1 the gravitative force which attracts the top to the ground continually acting upon it1 draws the weight of the top on to the extreme centre of the round point4 ,when the rotation subsides1 and the centrifugal force is weakened1 then the top is no longer balanced upon the extreme point of the spill1 but falls upon its sides1 until the force of gravitation is exerted beyond the line of the spill1 upon the body of the top1 and then it falls to the ground4 ,verse3 ,even a child is known by his doings1 whether his work be pure1 and whether it be right4--,,proverbs ,,xx4 #haf4 ,why does a top sleep8 ,because at that period of its spinning1 which is called sleeping1 the centrifugal and the gravitative forces acting upon the top1 are nearly balanced2 and the top1 obeying chiefly the rotatory force1 appears to be in a state of comparative rest4 #hag4 ,why does the top cease to spin8 ,because the friction of the air against its sides1 and the friction of the spill against the ground1 act in opposition to the rotatory force1 which is a temporary impulse applied by external means--the hand of the person who spins it--and as soon as this applied force is expended1 the top yields to the law of gravitation1 which is a permanent and ever-prevailing force4 #hah4 ,why does a marble revolve1 as it is propelled along the ground8 ,because1 in propelling the marble1 the thumb impels the upper surface forward1 and the finger draws the under surface backward4 ,this gives a tendency to the upper and lower hemispheres of the marble to separate1 which they would do1 but for the cohesion of the atoms of the marble4 ,the upper part of the marble1 therefore1 rolls forward1 drawing after it the under part1 which acquires a forward motion by the force with which it is drawn upward1 and in this way the opposite portions of the marble act upon each other in the successive revolutions4 ,when the marble strikes upon the earth1 a new influence is exerted upon it1 which is the friction of the earth upon the surface that comes in contact with it2 but the upper part of the marble1 being free1 overcomes the friction acting upon the lower part1 and thus the marble continues to progress1 until the applied force which projected it is expended4 ,verse3 ,better is a poor and a wise child1 than an old and foolish king who will no more be admonished4--,,ecclesiastes ,,iv4 #hai4 ,why does a striped marble appear to have a greater number of stripes when rolling1 than when at rest8 ,because the stripes are presented in rapid succession to the eye2 and as the eye receives fresh impressions of stripes before the previous impressions have passed away1 the stripes appear multiplied4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,,marble ,,at ,,rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,,marble ,,rolling4 #hbj4 ,why does a marble rebound when dropped upon the pavement8 ,because the force of its fall to the earth compresses the atoms of which the marble is composed2 and the atoms then exert the force of elasticity to restore themselves to their former condition2 and by the exercise of this force the marble is repelled1 or thrown upward from the pavement4 ,although a marble may be made of very hard stone1 yet that stone may be elastic1 and possess1 though in a much less degree1 the same kind of elasticity which causes the ,india-rubber ball to rebound from the earth4 #hba4 ,why does a marble1 assuming it to be impelled with equal force1 roll further on ice than on pavement1 and further on pavement than on a pebble walk8 ,because the friction is greater upon pavement than upon ice1 and greater upon a pebble walk than upon pavement4 #hbb4 ,how many forces contribute to stay the progress of a rolling marble8 ,the friction of the air1 the friction of the earth1 and the attraction of gravitation1 which tends to bring all bodies to a state of rest4 ,verse3 ,he shall turn the heart of the fathers towards the children1 and the heart of the children to their fathers4--,,malachi ,,iv4 #hbc4 ,why do the stripes upon a marble disappear when it is spun with great velocity8 ,because1 as in the case of the humming-top1 the different parts of the surface are brought so rapidly in succession to the sight1 that they deface or confuse the impressions upon the retina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh--,,marble ,,spinning ,,rapidly4 #hbd4 ,why are rings most perceptible at the opposite points1 or poles1 of the marble8 ,because the point1 or pole1 upon which the marble spins1 and that which corresponds to it1 on the upper surface1 travel less rapidly than the central portions1 which being of a larger circumference1 pass through a greater amount of space1 in the same period of time4 ,the stripes at the poles of the marble1 are1 therefore visible1 while those at its equator are imperceptible4 7,see #ebb47 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 #hbe4 ,why are soap-bubbles round8 ,because they are equally pressed upon all parts of their surface by the atmosphere4 #hbf4 ,why are bubbles elongated when being blown8 ,because the unequal pressure of the current of breath by which they are being filled1 alters the relative pressure upon the outer surfaces4 #hbg4 ,why does the bubble close1 and become a perfect sphere1 when shaken from the pipe8 ,because the attraction of cohesion draws the particles of soap together1 directly the bubble is set free from the bowl4 ,verse3 ,children's children are the crown of old men2 and the glory of children are their fathers4--,,proverbs ,,xvii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,,blowing ,,soap ,,bubbles4 #hbh4 ,why do bubbles1 blown in the sunshine1 change their colours8 ,because the films of the bubbles constantly change in thickness1 through the atoms from the upper part descending towards the bottom1 and therefore the varying thickness of film refracts1 in different degrees1 the rays of light4 #hbi4 ,why do bubbles burst8 ,because the atoms that compose their films fall towards the earth by gravitation2 the upper portion of the bubbles then becomes very thin1 and as the denser air of the atmosphere presses towards the warm breath within the bubble1 it bursts the film4 ,see #bcf1 #bcg1 etc41 #eja1 etc4 #hcj4 ,why do balloons ascend in air8 ,because the air or gas which they contain is specifically lighter than the atmosphere2 the atmosphere1 therefore1 forces itself underneath the balloon1 by its own tendency towards the earth1 and the balloon is thereby raised upwards4 ,a balloon is but a larger kind of bubble1 made of stronger materials4 #hca4 ,why does an air-balloon become inflated when the spirit set upon the sponge is lit8 ,because the heat of the flame1 and the burning of the spirit1 ,a1 create a volume of rarefied1 or thin air1 which inflates the balloon1 and makes it specifically lighter than the surrounding medium4 ,verse3 ,a wise son heareth his father's instruction4--,,proverbs ,,xiii4 #hcb4 ,why do balloons sometimes burst when they ascend very high8 ,because1 as they get into the thinner air1 which exists at high altitudes1 the gas within them expands1 and the coating of the balloon is burst asunder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,,air-,,balloon4 #hcc4 ,why does the gas of balloons expand in thin air8 ,because the air exerts a less amount of pressure upon the air or gas contained in the balloons4 #hcd4 ,why do parachutes fall very gradually to the ground8 ,because the air1 coming in contact with the under surface of the expanded head of the parachute resists its downward progress4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,,paper ,,parachute4 #hce4 ,why does a shuttlecock travel slowly through the air8 ,because the air acts upon the feathers of the shuttlecock1 in the same manner as it does upon the parachute--it strikes against their expanded surface1 and resists their progress through the air4 #hcf4 ,why does the shuttlecock spin in the air8 ,because the surfaces of the feathers fall upon the air obliquely1 or slantingly1 and therefore1 as the shuttlecock descends1 it turns in the air4 ,verse3 ,come ye children1 hearken unto me1 ,i will teach you the fear of the ,lord4--,,psalm ,,xxxv4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,,battledore ,,and ,,shuttlecock4 #hcg4 ,why do we hear a noise when we strike the shuttlecock with the battledore8 ,because the percussion of the shuttlecock upon the parchment of the battledore causes it to vibrate1 and the vibrations are imparted to the air4 #hch4 ,why is the sound a dull and short one8 ,because the vibrations of the parchment are not very rapid1 therefore there is little intensity in the vibrations of the air4 #hci4 ,why does the exercise1 afforded by playing battledore and shuttlecock1 make us feel warm8 ,because it makes us breathe more freely1 and causes the blood to flow faster2 we1 therefore1 inhale more oxygen1 which produces heat by combining with the carbon of our blood4 #hdj4 ,why does a kite rise in the air8 ,a kite rises in the air by the force of the wind1 which strikes obliquely upon its under surface4 ,the string is attached to the belly-band in such a manner that it is nearer the top than the bottom of the band3 this causes the bottom of the kite1 when its surface is met by the wind1 to recede in the direction of the wind3 the top is accordingly thrown forward1 and the kite is made to lie obliquely upon the current of air moving against it4 ,the kite then being drawn by the string in one direction1 and pressed by the air in another direction1 moves in a line which describes a medium between the two forces acting upon it4 ,verse3 ,be ye therefore followers of ,god1 as dear children2 and walk in love1 as ,christ also hath loved us4--,,ephesians ,v4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,,diagram ,,explaining ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,a ,,kite4 #hda4 ,why does the kite-string feel hot when running through the hand8 ,because the rapid friction sets free the latent heat of the string1 attracts the heat of the hand to the spot where the friction occurs1 and sets free the latent heat of the air1 which follows the string through the hand1 and is compressed by the friction4 #hdb4 ,why does running with the kite cause it to rise higher8 ,because it increases the force with which the wind strikes upon the surface of the kite4 ,if a person were to run with a kite at the rate of five miles an hour1 through a still air1 the effect would be equal to a wind flying at the rate of five miles an hour against a kite held by a stationary string4 #hdc4 ,why does the flying-top rise in the air8 ,because its wings meet the air obliquely1 just as the surface of the kite does4 ,and the twirling of the top1 causing the oblique surfaces of its wings to strike the air1 produces the equivalent effect of a wind from the earth blowing the top upwards4 ,verse3 ,children obey your parents in the ,lord3 for this is right4 #hdd4 ,why does the flying-top return to the earth when its rotations are expended8 ,because the reaction produced by its wings striking upon the air1 is insufficient to counteract the attraction of gravitation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,,flying-,,top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,,pea ,,and ,,pipe4 #hde4 ,why does a pea1 into which a pin has been stuck1 dance in suspension upon a jet of air blown through a pipe8 ,because the jet of air1 being slightly compressed under the convex form of the pea1 by the weight of the pin1 forms a concave cup of air1 in which the pea rests4 ,in the case put1 it is supposed that the pin is passed through the pea until its head comes in contact with it4 ,the pin is dropped into the hole of the pipe1 and the breath is then applied1 the pipe being held upright4 ,the pea will rise in the air1 and be suspended upon the jet1 while the point of the pin will rotate around the stem of the pipe4 ,there are other methods of fixing the pin which alter the result1 and require a different explanation to that given above4 ,,lesson ,,xl4 #hdf4 ,why does a mouse1 painted upon one side of a card1 and a trap upon the other1 represent to the eye a mouse in a trap when the card is rapidly twirled upon a string8 ,because the image of the mouse is brought to the retina of the eye before the image of the trap has passed away4 ,the two impressions1 therefore1 unite upon the retina1 and produce the image of a mouse in a trap4 ,verse3 ,honour thy father and thy mother 99 99 ,that it may be well with thee1 and thou mayest be long on the earth4--,,ephesians ,,vi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,,card ,,with ,,mouse-,,trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,,reverse ,,of ,,card ,,with ,,mouse4 #hdg4 ,why will a bow stretched out of its natural position1 propel an arrow through the air8 ,because its substance1 being highly elastic1 the particles thereof seek to restore themselves to their former state1 as soon as the resisting power is withdrawn4 ,the force derived from this elasticity1 is communicated to the arrow by the string against which it is placed4 #hdh4 ,why is the arrow propelled forward8 ,because the elasticity of the bow1 acting equally upon its two ends1 to which the string is fastened1 produce a line of force in a diagonal direction4 ,it thus illustrates the law1 that when a body is acted upon by two forces at the same time1 whose directions are inclined to each other1 it will not follow either of them1 but will describe a line between the two4 #hdi4 ,what forces tend to arrest the flight of the arrow8 ,the friction of the air1 and the attraction of gravitation4 ,verse3 ,my son1 give1 ,i pray thee1 glory to the ,lord ,god of ,israel1 and make confession unto him4--,,joshua ,,vii4 #hej4 ,why are feathers usually fastened to the ends of arrows8 ,because the greater friction of air acting upon them1 opposes the progress of that part of the arrow in a greater degree than it does the other portion4 ,the effect is1 to keep the point of the arrow forward1 and in a straight line with its opposite extremity4 ,if the arrow were shot the reverse way from the bow1 it would turn round1 in the course of its flight1 in consequence of the friction of the air1 offering greater resistance to the progress of the feathered end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,,bow ,,and ,,arrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,,jew',s ,,harp4 #hea4 ,why does a ,jew's harp give musical sounds8 ,because the vibrations of the metal tongue are communicated to the ear4 #heb4 ,why will not the ,jew's harp produce loud sounds unless it is applied to the mouth8 ,because the vibrations are not very intense1 but when it is blown upon by the breath1 the air is pressed upon it1 and the vibrations are thereby rendered more powerful4 #hec4 ,why does the alteration of the arrangement of the mouth1 affect the formation of the sounds8 ,because it sends the air to the tongue of the harp in a greater or lesser degree of compression4 ,verse3 ,hear1 ye children1 the instruction of a father1 and attend to know understanding4--,,proverbs ,,iv4 #hed4 ,why does the pressure applied to the handle of an air pistol propel the cork8 ,because1 between the cork ,a and the air-tight piston ,c1 there is a closed chamber of air ,b4 ,when the handle ,d1 which moves the piston ,c1 is rapidly pushed in1 it compresses the air until it is so much condensed1 that it forces out the cork ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,,air ,,pistol1 ,,or ,,pop-,,gun4 #hee4 ,why must the handle be drawn out1 before the cork is placed in8 ,because otherwise a partial vacuum would be formed between ,a and ,c1 and there would not be sufficient air to force out the cork by the return of the piston ,c ,d4 #hef4 ,why does water rise in a syringe when the handle is drawn out8 ,because the pressure of the air on the water outside of the syringe1 forces it into the space vacated by the drawing up of the handle1 and where1 otherwise1 a vacuum would be formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,,syringe1 ,,with ,,jet ,,of ,,water4 #heg4 ,why does not the water run out when the syringe is raised8 ,because the pressure of the air upon the small orifice resists the weight of the water4 #heh4 ,why does the water leak out1 but not run8 ,because water has a tendency always to move to the lowest point1 but as the air does not enter freely the water cannot escape4 ,it therefore drops1 as small portions of the air enter4 ,verse3 ,remember now thy creator in the days of thy youth4--,,ecclesiastes ,,xi4 #hei4 ,why cannot the handle be pressed in1 if the finger is applied to the orifice8 ,because water is not compressible1 like air2 it must therefore escape before the handle can be pressed in4 ,air may be forced into a much smaller compass than is natural to it2 but it is impossible to compress water in any great degree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,,sucker4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,,hoop4 #hfj4 ,why does a sucker raise a stone8 ,because underneath the sucker a vacuum is formed and the external air1 pressing on all sides against the vacuum1 lifts the stone4 ,the term sucker is founded upon the mistaken notion that the leather sucks1 or draws the stone4 ,that such is not the case is evident3 if1 when the stone is suspended1 a pin's point be passed under the leather1 so as to open a small passage for the air1 the stone will drop instantly4 #hfa4 ,why does a hoop roll1 without falling to the ground8 ,because the centrifugal force gives it a motion which is called the tangent to a circle--that is1 a tendency in all its parts to fly off in a straight line4 ,when a piece of clay adhering to the hoop flies off1 it leaves the hoop in a line which is straight with the part of the surface from which it was propelled2 this line is the tangent to the circle of the hoop2 and the tendency of all the parts of the hoop to fly off in this manner1 counteracts the attraction of the earth1 so long as the hoop is kept in motion4 ,verse3 ,children obey your parents in all things3 for this is well-pleasing unto the ,lord4--,,colossians ,,iii4 #hfb4 ,why does the hoop1 in falling1 make several side revolutions8 ,because its onward movement1 not being quite expended1 influences the centre of gravity of the hoop1 and changes its line of direction4 ,the hoop is also elastic1 and when its sides strike the earth1 they spring up again1 and continue turning until the opposing forces are overcome by the attraction of gravitation4 #hfc4 ,why will a little boy balance a large boy on a see-saw8 ,because the see-saw may be placed so that its ends are at unequal distances from the centre4 ,this gives the little boy the power of leverage1 by which is meant the increase of power1 or weight1 by mechanical means4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,,boys ,,and ,,see-,,saw4 #hfd4 ,why does the little boy sink to the ground when the larger boy slightly kicks the earth8 ,because the larger boy1 by kicking against the earth1 opposes by mechanical force the attraction of gravitation acting upon him1 and he becomes temporarily less attracted to the earth than the little boy4 #hfe4 ,why can the little boy1 if he choose1 keep the big boy up1 when once he is up8 ,because1 as the big boy is then on an inclined plane with the fulcrum1 or centre upon which the see-saw moves1 the arm of the lever1 upon which the big boy sits1 is relatively shortened1 and he has then less mechanical power4 ,also1 a portion of the weight of the larger boy is transmitted along the lever to the arm upon which the little boy sits4 ,verse3 ,little children1 let no man deceive you3 he that doeth righteousness is righteous1 even as he is righteous4--#a ,,john ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,,trap ,,and ,,ball4 #hff4 ,why is the ball propelled upward1 in the game of trap and ball1 when the trigger is struck8 ,because1 when the trigger is struck at ,a1 it is forced downwards1 turning upon the fulcrum ,b1 the opposite end1 forming the spoon1 is thereby forced upwards1 describing a small arc1 or curved line2 but directly the ball is set free from the spoon1 it rises in a right line with the direction it was taking1 at the moment it was set free4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,,bat ,,and ,,ball4 #hfg4 ,what principles of natural philosophy are illustrated by the results of bat and ball8 ,percussion1 when the bat strikes the ball2 rotatory motion1 when the ball is sent whirling away2 momentum1 which it acquires by velocity2 elasticity1 when it rebounds from an object against which it strikes2 reflected motion1 when it is turned by a body upon which it impinges2 friction1 as it rolls along the ground2 the communication of force1 when it sets another body in motion against which it strikes2 gravitation1 when it falls to the earth2 and inertia1 when it lies in a state of rest4 ,verse3 ,a wise son makes a glad father3 but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother4--,,proverbs ,x4 #hfh4 ,why do pith-tumblers always pitch upon one end8 ,because the lead ,b is specifically heavier than the pith to which it is attached2 it therefore always falls undermost2 and as the lead is rounded off1 just like the spill of a top1 after the head has oscillated a little1 and expended the force of the momentum of its fall1 it will settle upon its centre of gravity1 or the point through which it is attracted to the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,,pith-,,tumbler4 #hfi4 ,why do the figures upon the ,thaumatrope appear to dance1 when they are made to revolve before a mirror8 ,because the eye1 in looking through the holes in the card1 towards the reflections in the mirror1 receives a rapid succession of impressions4 ,as the figures upon the card are represented in a graduated series of positions--the first one standing upright1 the second with his knees a little bent1 the third a little more bent1 as in the act of springing1 and so on1 the figure being in each case the same1 but the position slightly altered1 imparts an impression to the mind1 through the eye1 that one figure is passing through a series of motions4 ,thaumatrope4--,from two ,greek words1 meaning wonder and to turn4 ,we have said enough1 we hope1 to show that even the play-hours of children may be made instructive to them2 and that the simplest toys may be used to illustrate some of the grandest laws of nature4 ,nor may this kind of instruction be confined to children alone4 ,grown-up people1 whether participators in the sports of youth1 or simple observers of their games1 may gain instruction for themselves1 and be the better teachers of their children1 by taking an interest in their enjoyments1 and giving to their minds1 through the attractiveness of pastime1 a taste for observing and estimating the varied phenomena which present themselves4 ,verse3 ,jesus said1 ,suffer little children1 and forbid them not1 to come unto me2 for of such is the kingdom of heaven4--,,matthew ,,xix4 ,moreover1 we think that parental government acquires a greater power when it leans towards the natural desires of childhood1 and wins those desires into a proper direction4 ,love existing between parent and child is the best tie to home1 and the strongest incentive to duty4 ,there is also something in the gentleness of childish nature which may influence for good the sterner mould of man1 too often warped and clouded by the cares of life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,,thaumatrope1 ,,or ,,wonder-,,turner4 ,in ,kay's ,life of ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 we find an admirable and apt passage4 ,sir ,john says3--,i have been employed these last few hours with ,john ,elliot1 and other boys1 in trying how long we could keep up two cricket-balls4 ,lord ,minto caught us4 ,he says he must send me on a commission to some very young monarch1 for that ,i shall never have the gravity of an ambassador for a prince turned of twelve4 ,he1 however1 added the well-known and admirable story of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 who1 when caught on all fours carrying one of his children1 by the ,spanish envoy1 looked up and said1 ',is your excellency married8' ',i am1 and have a family1' was the reply4 ',well1 then1' said the monarch1 ',i am satisfied1 and shall take another turn round the room1' and off he galloped1 with his son on his back flogging and spurring him4 ,i have sometimes thought of breaking myself of what are termed boyish habits2 but reflection has satisfied me that it would be very foolish1 and that ,i should esteem it a blessing that ,i can find amusement in everything1 from tossing a cricket-ball1 to negotiating a treaty with the ,emperor of ,china4 ,men who will give themselves entirely to business1 and despise 7which is the term7 trifles1 are very able1 in their general conception of the great outlines of a plan1 but they feel a want of knowledge1 which is only to be gained by mixing with all classes in the world1 when they come to those lesser points upon which its successful execution may depend4 ,verse3 ,whether therefore ye eat1 or drink1 or whatsoever ye do1 do all to the glory of ,god4--,,corinth4 ,x4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 #hfi4 ,why do we eat food8 ,because the atoms of which our bodies are composed are continually changing4 ,those atoms that have fulfilled the purposes of nature are removed from the system1 and1 therefore1 new matter must be introduced to supply their place4 #hgj4 ,why do we eat animal and vegetable food8 ,because their substances are composed of oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and nitrogen--the four chemical elements of which the human system is formed4 ,they are1 therefore1 capable of nourishing the body1 after undergoing digestion4 #hga4 ,why do we masticate our food8 ,because mastication is the first process towards the digestion of food4 ,before animal or vegetable substances can nourish us1 their condition must be entirely changed1 their organic states must be dissolved1 and they must become simple matter1 in a homogeneous mass1 consisting of the four chemical elements necessary to nutrition1 and they must again be restored to an organic condition4 #hgb4 ,why does saliva enter the mouth when we are eating8 ,because1 in addition to the mechanical grinding of the food by the action of the teeth1 it is necessary that it should undergo certain chemical modifications to adapt it to our use4 ,there are placed1 therefore1 in various parts of the body1 glands1 which secrete peculiar fluids1 that have a chemical influence upon the food4 ,the first of these glands are the salivary glands of the mouth1 which pour out a clear watery fluid upon the food we eat1 and which fluid has been found to possess a property which contributes to the digestion of food4 ,the moisture afforded by the salivary secretion is also necessary to enable us to swallow the food4 ,verse3 ,and the ,lord said unto him1 ,who hath made man's mouth8 or who maketh the dumb1 or the seeing1 or the blind8 have not ,i the ,lord8--,,exodus ,,iv4 #hgc4 ,why does the salivary juice enter the mouth just at the moment that we are eating8 ,because the glands1 which are buried in the muscles of the mouth1 and which in their form are much like bunches of currants1 are always full of salivary secretion4 ,there are nerves which are distributed from the brain to these glands1 and when other nerves which belong to the senses of taste1 of sight1 or of feeling1 are excited by the presence of food1 a stimulus is imparted to the salivary glands1 through the nerves that surround them1 their cells collapse1 and the juice which they contain is poured out through their stems1 or ducts1 into the mouth4 #hgd4 ,how do we know that impressions imparted to one set of nerves1 may be imparted to another set1 so as to put any particular organ in action4 ,because very frequently the mere sight of rich fruit1 or acid substances1 will cause the saliva to flow freely4 ,in this case it is evident that the salivary glands could not see or know that such substances were present4 ,an impression must1 therefore1 be made upon the brain1 through the organ of vision1 and the desire to taste the substances being awakened1 a nervous stimulus is imparted to the glands of the mouth1 and they at once commence their action1 as if food were present4 #hge4 ,why does food descend into the stomach8 ,because1 after the teeth1 the tongue1 and the muscles of the mouth generally1 have rolled the food into a soft bolus1 it is conveyed to the back of the mouth1 where it is set upon the opening of the throat 7oesophagus74 ,it does not then descend through the throat by its own gravity1 because the throat is generally in a compressed or collapsed state1 like an empty tube2 and we know that persons can eat or drink when with their heads downwards4 ,the oesophagus is formed of a number of muscular threads1 or rings1 and each little thread is like a hand ready to grasp at the morsel that is coming4 ,as soon as the bolus is presented at the top of the throat1 these little muscular hands lay hold of it1 and transmit it downward1 passing it from one to another1 until it is conveyed through the long passage1 to the door of the stomach1 which it enters4 ,verse3 ,remove far from me poverty and lies2 give me neither poverty nor riches2 feed me with food convenient for me4--,,proverbs ,,xxx4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,stomach1 c4 ,a4 ,the inner coat of the stomach4 7,the stomach is here represented cut through its length1 so that we can see its inside47 ,b4 ,the lower extremity of the throat1 or oesophagus1 through which food enters the stomach4 ,c4 ,the passage out of the stomach1 called the pylorus1 where a muscular contraction prevents the escape of undigested food4 ,d4 ,the duodenum1 and the ducts through which the bile and pancreatic juices enter and mingle with our food4 #hgf4 ,why do we not feel the food being transmitted through the throat8 ,because the nerves of the body differ in their powers3 some are nerves of feeling1 some of motion1 and others are nerves of the senses4 ,the nerves of feeling are most abundantly distributed to those parts where feeling is most useful and necessary to us4 ,but the faculty of feeling our food undergoing digestion would be no service to us whatever2 therefore the nerves of motion are plentifully distributed to the throat and stomach1 but very few of the nerves of feeling--just as many as will tell us when we eat anything too hot1 or too cold1 or that the stomach is out of order4 #hgg4 ,why do we feel uneasy after eating to excess8 ,because the stomach is distended1 and presses upon the other organs by which it is surrounded4 ,verse3 ,who satisfieth thy mouth with good things2 so that thy youth is renewed like the eagles4--,,psalm ,,ciii4 #hgh4 ,why do we feel drowsy after eating heartily8 ,because1 while the stomach is in action1 a great proportion of the blood of the body is drawn towards it1 and as the blood is withdrawn from the other parts of the body1 they fall into a state of languor4 #hgi4 ,why does blood flow more freely to the stomach during digestion8 ,because the energy of an organ is increased by the flow of blood1 which supplies the material of which our organs are composed1 and in which the vital essence1 supporting life1 resides4 #hhj4 ,why does excess in eating bring on indigestion8 ,because the power of the stomach to digest food is governed by the amount of food required by the system4 ,it seems to be an instinct of the stomach to hold back food which is in excess1 and by indications of pain and disturbance to warn its master that excess has been committed4 #hha4 ,why is food digested in the stomach8 ,because it enters the stomach in the form of a paste1 produced by the action of the mouth2 and directly food enters1 the gastric juice1 which is formed by glands embedded in the coats of the stomach1 trickles down its sides4 ,this is a more powerful solvent than the salivary juice--it is like the same kind of fluid1 only much stronger1 and it soon turns the food from a rough and crude paste into a greyish cream 7chyme74 ,the heat of the stomach assists the operation1 and the muscular threads of the coats move the cream along1 in the same manner that the muscles of the oesophagus brought down the food4 ,the cream is passed towards the door which leads outward from the stomach 7pylorus72 but if1 in the midst of the cream1 there are any undissolved particles of food1 it closes upon them1 and they return again to the stomach to be further changed4 ,verse3 ,when thou hast eaten and art full1 then thou shalt bless the ,lord thy ,god for the good land which he hath given thee4--,,deut4 ,,viii4 #hhb4 ,why does indigestion bring on bilious attacks8 ,because the liver secretes a fluid to assist in the digestion of food4 ,the liver is a gland--a similar organ to the glands of the mouth--and it forms bile in the same manner that they form the salivary juice4 ,only the liver is a much larger gland1 and a much greater quantity of blood passes through it4 ,the liver pours its secretion into the biliary duct 7,fig4 #di7 to mix with the grey cream as it passes onward1 and to further dissolve it4 ,but when the stomach is excited by food which it cannot dissolve1 and when the owner of the stomach1 disregarding its remonstrances1 will persist in over-eating1 or in eating things that disagree with the system1 then the liver and the stomach sympathise1 and the muscular threads1 or hands1 that prevail all through the alimentary organs1 instead of moving onward1 move backward1 and throw some bile into the stomach to assist to dissolve and remove the excessive or improper food4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 #hhc4 ,why does some portion of the food we eat nourish the system1 while other portions are useless8 ,because most food contains some particles that are indigestible1 or that1 if digested1 are innutritious1 and not necessary for the system4 ,the liver is the organ by whose secretion the useful is separated from the useless2 for when the bile enters through the duct 7,fig4 #di7 and mixes with the grey cream coming from the stomach1 it remains no longer a grey cream1 but turns into a mass coloured by bile1 having upon its surface little globules of milk1 small1 but very white4 ,those minute globules of milk 7chyle7 are the nutritious particles derived from the food2 the other portion1 coloured with bile1 is the useless residue1 or rather the bulk from which the nutrition has been extracted4 ,verse3 ,god hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth4--,,acts ,,xvii4 #hhd4 ,why does the milky1 or nutritious matter1 separate from the innutritious1 upon admixture with bile8 ,because the bile contains an oily matter which repels the watery milk of nutrition4 ,the pancreatic juice also enters through the same duct with the bile4 ,but its precise use is not understood4 ,it is a fluid much like the salivary secretion of the glands of the mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,,great ,,vessels ,,of ,,the ,,circulation1 ,,and ,,the ,,duct ,,which ,,conveys ,,nutritive ,,matter ,,to ,,the ,,blood4 ,a ,b4 ,jugular veins which return blood from the head to the heart4 ,c4 ,the superior ven cava1 or trunk vein1 which pours the blood returned from the upper part of the system into the heart4 ,there is a similar large vessel which meets this one and brings back blood from the lower part of the body1 and they both pour the blood into the right side of the heart4 ,d ,e4 ,the branches of the venous system which bring back the blood from the arms4 ,f ,f4 ,the great aorta1 the blood vessel which conveys arterial blood from the heart1 and gives off branches that supply every part of the body4 ,g4 ,another large vein which returns the blood from the muscles of the chest1 c4 ,h ,h4 ,the thoracic duct1 which receives the newly dissolved food from the small absorbents1 that collect it from the intestines4 ,it conveys this nutrition 7called chyle7 upward along the back1 until it reaches where the duct turns into the junction of two veins1 and pours its contents into the veins bringing blood back to the heart4 ,the nutrition1 therefore1 is at this moment mixed with the venous blood1 and is sent to the lungs to be oxygenised4 ,verse3 ,but now hath ,god set the members in the body1 every one as it pleased him4--#a ,,corinthians ,,xii4 #hhe4 ,how is the nutrition taken away from the bilious residue8 ,the muscular threads 7or hands1 as we figuratively call them7 continue to push forward the digested matter through a long tube1 called the alimentary canal1 or bowels4 ,this canal is some thirty feet in length1 and is folded in various layers across the abdomen1 and tied to the edge of a sort of apron1 which is gathered up and fastened to the back-bone4 ,all along this alimentary canal those muscular hands are pushing the digested mass along4 ,but upon the coat or surface of the canal there are millions of little vessels called lacteals1 which look out for the minute globules of milk as they pass1 and absorb them1 which means that they pick them up1 and carry them away4 ,there is an immense number of these little vessels1 all busily at work picking up food for the system4 ,then there is a large vessel1 called the thoracic duct1 which comes down and communicates with those little vessels 7it is a sort of overseer1 having a large number of workmen17 and collects the produce of their toil1 and carries it upwards to the part where it passes from the organs of digestion into the vessels of circulation4 #hhf4 ,what becomes of the nutrition1 when it has entered the vessels of the circulation8 ,it is sent through a large vein into the heart1 entering that organ on the right side1 from which the heart propels it into the lungs1 mixed with venous blood2 and the venous1 or blue blood1 is sent into the lungs1 taking with it the milk1 the formation of which we have traced4 #hhg4 ,why are the venous blood and the chyle sent to the lungs8 ,because the venous blood1 in its circulation through the body1 has parted with its oxygen1 and taken up carbon1 and it requires to get rid of the carbon1 and take up more oxygen4 ,the chyle1 also1 now combined with the blood1 requires oxygen1 and having obtained it1 is converted into bright red blood1 and the blue blood of the veins1 having got rid of its carbon1 which formed the carbonic acid of the breath1 has again become bright red blood4 ,we must therefore1 in pursuing our description1 cease to speak of blue1 or venous blood1 and of white milk1 or chyle1 for the two have now combined1 and1 with the oxygen of the air1 have formed arterial blood4 ,verse3 ,my flesh and my heart fainteth2 but ,god is the strength of my heart1 and my portion for ever4--,,psalm ,,lxxiii4 #hhh4 ,what becomes of the arterial blood thus formed8 ,it is sent back from the lungs to the right side of the heart1 from which it is sent into the great trunk of the aorta1 and from thence it passes into smaller blood-vessels1 until it finds its way to every part of the system4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,respiration4 ,a4 ,the heart4 ,b ,b4 ,the lungs4 ,c4 ,the aorta1 and on either side of the aorta the vessels which convey the venous blood to the lungs to be oxygenised1 and the corresponding vessels which return it to the heart1 after it has undergone that operation4 7,for aorta see ,fig4 #ej47 ,d4 ,the trachea1 or large air passage1 through which the air passes into the spongy texture of the lungs1 when we breathe4 ,e ,e4 ,arteries and veins1 being the trunks of the vessels that supply the head1 c4 #hhi4 ,why does the chest expand when we breathe8 ,because the lungs consist of millions of hollow tubes1 and cells1 which1 having been emptied by throwing off carbonic acid gas and nitrogen1 become compressed1 and the atmospheric air flowing into these millions of spaces1 and filling the lungs1 just as water fills and swells a sponge1 causes them to expand1 and occupy greater room4 ,verse3 ,all the while my breath is in me1 and the spirit of ,god is in my nostrils4 ,my lips shall not speak wickedness1 nor my tongue utter deceit4--,,job ,,xxvii4 #hij4 ,how does the blood communicate with the air in the lungs8 ,through the sides of very minute vessels1 of which1 perhaps1 a fine hair gives us the best conception4 ,but these vessels are twisted and wound round each other in such a curious manner1 that they form millions of cells1 and by being twisted and wound1 a much greater surface of air and blood are brought to act upon each other1 than could otherwise be accomplished4 #hia4 ,why does the blood which is thus formed1 impart vitality to the parts to which it is sent8 ,because the blood is itself vitalised--is1 in fact1 alive1 and capable of diffusing life and vitality to the organisation of which it forms a part4 ,this is a very wonderful fact1 but no less true than wonderful1 that dead matter which1 but a little while ago1 was being ground by the teeth1 softened by the saliva1 and solved by the gastric juice and bile1 has now acquired life4 ,nobody can tell the precise stage or moment when it began to live4 ,but somewhere between the stomach and the lungs1 melted by the gastric juice1 softened by the secretion of the pancreas1 separated by the bile of the liver1 macerated by the muscular fibres of the bowels1 taken up by the absorbents1 warmed by the heat of the body1 and rated in the lungs1 it has by one1 or by all of these processes combined1 been changed from the dead to the living state1 and now forms part of the vital fluid of the system4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 #hib4 ,why do we know that the blood has become endowed with vital powers8 ,because1 in the course of its formation1 it has not only undergone change of condition and colour2 but1 if examined now by the microscope1 it will be found to consist of millions of minute cells1 or discs1 which float in a watery fluid4 ,the paste produced by mastication consisted of a crude admixture of the atoms of food2 the cream 7chyme7 formed from this in the stomach1 presents to the microscope a heterogeneous mass of matter1 exhibiting no appearance whatever of a new organic arrangement2 the milk 7chyle7 which is formed in the intestines is found to contain a great number of very small molecules1 which probably consist of some fatty matter2 as the chyle progresses towards the thoracic duct 7,fig4 #ej71 it appears to contain more of these1 and slight indications present themselves of the approach towards a new organic condition4 ,but wherever vitalisation begins1 no human power can say with confidence4 ,yet there can be no doubt that the blood is both organised and vitalised1 and that it consists of corpuscles1 or little cells1 enclosing matters essential to life4 ,verse3 ,but they that wait upon the ,lord shall renew their strength2 they shall mount up with wings as eagles2 they shall run and not be weary2 and they shall walk and not faint4--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #hic4 ,why does the blood circulate8 ,because all the bones1 muscles1 blood-vessels1 nerves1 glands1 cartilages1 c41 of which the body is composed1 are constantly undergoing a change of substance4 ,it is a condition of their life1 health1 and strength1 that they shall be renewed1 and the blood is the great source of the materials by which the living temple is kept in repair4 #hid4 ,how is the body renewed by the blood8 ,every drop of blood is made up of a large number of corpuscles1 each of which contains some of the elements essential to the wants of the system4 ,let us1 to simplify the subject1 consider the blood vessels of the body to be so many canals1 on the banks of which a number of inhabitants live1 and require constant sustenance4 ,the corpuscles of the blood are the boats which are laden with that sustenance1 and when the heart beats1 it is a signal for them to start on their journey4 ,away they go through the arch of the great aorta1 and some of the earliest branches which it sends off convey blood to the arms4 ,we will now for a moment dismiss the word artery1 and keep up the figure of a system of canals1 with a number of towns upon their banks4 ,well1 away go a fleet of boats through the aorta canal1 until they reach a point which approaches ,shoulder-town2 some of the boats pass into the axillary canal and ,shoulder-town is supplied2 the other boats proceed along the humeral canal until they approach ,elbow-town1 when another division of the boats pass into other branch canals and supply the wants of the neighbourhood2 the others have passed into the ulnar canals and the radial canals until they have approached ,wrist-town and ,hand-town1 which are respectively supplied2 and then the two canals have formed a junction across the palm and supplied ,palm-town1 where they have given off branches and boats to supply the four ,finger-towns1 and ,thumb-town4 ,verse3 ,though hand join in hand1 the wicked shall not be unpunished2 but the seed of the righteous shall be delivered4--,,proverbs ,,xxi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,canals ,,that ,,supply ,,the ,,fore-,,arm ,,with ,,blood4 ,between ,a and ,b the brachial canal1 which gives off branches to supply ,elbow-town1 c41 and then divides into two main courses1 diverging to the opposite sides of the arm1 and sending a smaller canal down the centre4 ,d ,d4 ,the point where the ulnar canal and the radial canal1 after having passed and supplied ,wrist-town1 form a junction1 running through ,palm-town1 and in their course giving off branches to supply the four ,finger-towns and ,thumb-town4 ,for further explanations of the engraving1 see #eg4 #hie4 ,how does the blood return to the lungs1 after it has reached the extremities8 ,the veins constitute a system of vessels corresponding to the arteries4 ,we may say that the arteries form the down canal1 and the veins the up canal4 ,the arteries1 commencing in the great trunk of the aorta1 branch off into large and then into smaller tubes1 until they form capillary or hair-like vessels1 penetrating everywhere4 ,verse3 ,as for man his days are as grass2 as a flower of the field so he flourisheth4--,,psalm ,,ciii4 ,the capillary extremities of the arteries1 unite with the capillary extremities of the veins1 and the blood passes from the one set of vessels into the other4 ,as the arteries become smaller from the point where they receive the blood1 so the veins grow larger2 the venous capillaries1 pour their contents into small vessels1 and these again into larger ones1 until the great venous trunks are reached1 and the blood is passed again into the heart as at first described4 7,fig4 #ej47 #hif4 ,why do we see blue marks upon our arms and hands8 ,because large veins lie underneath the skin1 through which the blood of the fingers and hand is conveyed back to the heart4 #hig4 ,why are the veins more perceptible than the arteries8 ,because the arteries are buried deeper in the flesh1 for protection4 ,it would be more dangerous to life to sever by accident an artery than a vein4 ,a person might bleed longer from a vein than from an artery1 without endangering life2 because the arteries supply the life sustaining blood4 ,the ,almighty1 therefore1 has buried the arteries for safety4 #hih4 ,why when we prick the flesh with a needle does it bleed8 ,because the capillary arteries and veins are so fine1 and are so thickly distributed all over the body1 that not even the point of a needle can enter the flesh without penetrating the coats of several of these small vessels4 ,verse3 ,let every thing that hath breath praise the ,lord4 ,praise ye the ,lord4--,,psalm ,,cl4 #hii4 ,what occurs during the circulation of the blood8 ,not only do the various parts to which the boats are sent take from them whatever they require1 but the boats collect all those matters for which those parts have no further use4 ,the bones1 the nerves1 the muscles1 c41 all renew themselves as the boats pass along2 and all give something to the boats to bring back4 ,one of the chief exchanges is that of oxygen for carbon1 by which a gentle heat is diffused throughout the system4 ,it is for this purpose that fresh air is so constantly necessary4 ,but other exchanges take place4 ,the blood1 in addition to oxygen and carbon1 contains hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,but it contains its four elements in various forms of combination1 producing the following materials for the use of the body3 of #a1jjj parts of blood1 about #ggi are water2 #ada are red globules2 #fi are albumen2 #c are fibrin2 #b are fatty matter2 #f are various salts4 ,albumen and fibrin are a kind of flesh imperfectly formed1 and probably are chiefly used in repairing the muscles4 ,the red corpuscles contain the oxygen which goes to combine with the superabundant carbon1 and develop heat2 the fatty matters probably repair the fatty tissues1 and glands that are of a fatty nature2 and the various salts contribute to the bones1 and to the chemical properties of those secretions which are formed by the glands1 c41 while the great proportion of water is employed in cleansing1 softening1 and cooling the whole1 or the living edifice1 and it is the medium through which all the nutrition of the body is distributed4 #ijj4 ,why do we feel the pulse beat8 ,because every time that the heart contracts it send a fresh supply of blood to the blood-vessels1 and the motion thus imparted creates a general pulsation throughout the system3 but it is more distinctly perceived at the pulse1 because there a rather large artery lies near to the surface4 ,verse3 ,thy hands have made me and fashioned me3 give me understanding1 that ,i may learn thy commandments4--,,psalm ,,cxix4 #ija4 ,what becomes of the matter collected by the blood in the course of its circulation8 ,we have already explained that carbon is thrown off from the lungs in the form of carbonic acid gas4 ,but there are many other matters to be separated from the venous blood1 and its purification is assisted by the action of the liver1 which is supplied with a large vein1 called the portal vein1 which conveys into the substance of the liver1 a large proportion of the venous blood1 from which that organ draws off those matters which form the bile1 and other matters which are transmitted with the bile to the bowels4 ,the liver and the lungs1 therefore1 are the great purifiers of the venous blood4 ,but there are also smaller organs that assist in the same work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,,showing ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,blood ,,through ,,branches ,,of ,,the ,,aorta4 ,a4 ,the aorta4 ,b4 ,branches given off for the aorta to supply one portion of the intestines4 ,c4 ,branches given off by the aorta to supply other portions of the intestines4 ,a complete communication may be traced between these vessels from the origin of one to that of the other4 ,d4 ,the pancreas1 or sweetbread1 a large gland that forms the pancreatic juice1 which it pours in through the duct4 7,see ,fig4 #ej47 ,e ,e ,e4 ,the large intestines1 forming the termination of the alimentary canal4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 #ijb4 ,why when we cut our flesh does it heal8 ,because the blood coagulates over the cut1 and throws out a kind of lymph1 which forms an incipient flesh1 and excludes the air while the blood-vessels are engaged in repairing the part4 ,verse3 ,and ,god said1 ,let us make man in our own image1 after our likeness2 and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over the cattle1 and over all the earth1 and over every creeping thing4--,,gen4 ,i4 #ijc4 ,why1 since all the substance of the body undergoes change1 do we preserve the same features throughout our lives8 ,because our substance changes in the minutest atoms2 and each separate atom has a life of itself1 the maintenance of which preserves the unity and permanence of the whole4 #ijd4 ,why do moles upon the skin continue permanent1 while bruises and wounds disappear8 ,because moles are themselves organised formations1 and repair themselves just as any other part of the body does4 ,but bruises and wounds are the result of accidental disturbances1 which in course of time become removed4 #ije4 ,why do the marks of deep cuts sometimes remain8 ,if the cut is so deep and serious as to destroy the system of vessels which supply and repair the part1 then it is evident that they cannot work so perfectly as when in their sound condition4 ,their functions are1 therefore1 interfered with1 and instead of having flesh uniform with the other parts of the system2 there results a scar1 or a wound imperfectly repaired4 #ijf4 ,why when we hold our hands against a candle-light do we perceive a beautiful crimson colour8 ,because the fluids and vessels of the body are in some degree transparent1 and the thin textures of the sides of the fingers allows the light to pass1 and shows the beautiful crimson colour of the blood4 ,if the web of a frog's foot be brought in the field of a good microscope1 and set against a strong light1 the blood may be seen in circulation1 with the most wonderful effect4 ,each vessel1 and every globule of blood1 can be seen most distinctly1 and the junction of the arteries and veins can be clearly traced4 ,the little boats of nutrition may be seen chasing each other in rapid succession1 and when the animal exerts itself to escape1 the flow of the blood increases2 and not unfrequently1 under these circumstances of agitation1 have we seen two or three blood discs struggling together to enter a vessel that was too small for them4 ,again and again they have endeavoured to find a passage1 until one of them happening to slip forward1 got away1 followed by the others6 ,verse3 ,know ye that the ,lord he is ,god3 it is he that hath made us1 and not we ourselves3 we are his people1 and the sheep of his pasture4--,,psalm ,c4 #ijg4 ,why does the flesh underneath the nails look red8 ,because the transparent texture of the nails enables us to see the colour of the vascular structure that lies underneath the skin4 ,vascular4--,full of vessels4 ,in this instance1 full of capillary blood-vessels4 #ijh4 ,why have we nails at our fingers' ends8 ,because they give firmness to the touch1 and enable us to apply the extremities of the fingers to many useful purposes for which they would otherwise be unfitted4 ,they enable us to press the tips of the fingers1 where the highest degree of sensitiveness prevails1 so as to bring the largest amount of nervous perception into the sense of touch4 #iji4 ,why do white spots occur upon the nails8 ,because the vascular surface underneath is attached to the horny texture of the nail2 but by knocks and other causes1 the nail sometimes separates in small patches from the membrane below1 and becomes dry and opaque4 #iaj4 ,why is there a circular line of whitish colour at the root of the nail8 ,because there the nail is newly formed by the vascular substance out of which it grows1 and has not yet assumed its proper horny and transparent nature4 #iaa4 ,why is the eyeball white8 ,because the blood-vessels that supply its surface are so very fine that they do not admit the red corpuscles of the blood4 #iab4 ,why does the eyeball sometimes become blood-shot8 ,because1 under exciting causes of inflammation1 the blood-vessels become distended1 and the red corpuscles enter1 producing a net-work of red blood-vessels across the white surface of the eye4 #iac4 ,why are the lips red8 ,because the lips are formed of the mucous membrane that lines the body internally1 and covers the surface of most of the internal parts4 ,this membrane contains a great number of minute red vessels1 which give softness and moisture to the surface4 ,a very beautiful illustration of the softness1 moisture1 and delicate colour of the mucous membrane is afforded by turning up and examining the under surface of the upper eyelid4 ,verse3 ,hast thou not known1 hast thou not heard1 that the everlasting ,god1 the ,lord1 the ,creator of the ends of the earth1 fainteth not1 neither is weary8 there is no searching of his understanding--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #iad4 ,why do delicate persons look pale and languid8 ,because1 generally from the want of exercise and fresh air1 their blood is deficient of the healthy proportion of red corpuscles4 #iae4 ,why does exercise and fresh air impart to healthy persons a red and fresh appearance8 ,because the redness of the blood is due to the amount of oxygen which it contains1 and air and exercise oxygenise the blood1 and diffuse it throughout the system4 #iaf4 ,how is the blood propelled through the arteries8 ,by the very powerful contraction 7and alternate dilation7 of the thick muscles of the heart1 assisted also by the muscular cords of the blood-vessels themselves1 and in many instances by the compression of the muscles in which the arteries lie embedded4 #iag4 ,why are the capillary arteries capable of receiving the great quantity of blood sent out through the larger vessels8 ,because the capillary vessels are so numerous1 that though they are infinitely smaller1 they are capable of receiving in their minute tubes the whole of the quantity of blood transmitted to them through the larger vessels4 #iah4 ,why1 when we sit with our legs crossed1 do we see the foot that is raised move at regular intervals8 ,because the pressure upon the muscles of the leg retards the progress of the blood until it forces itself through the compressed vessels1 and thereby imparts a pulsation which moves the leg and foot4 #iai4 ,why are capillary blood-vessels found in every part of the system8 ,because it is through these small vessels alone that the substances of the body are renewed and changed4 ,even the larger blood-vessels do not sustain themselves upon the blood which they contain1 but receive into their coats numerous capillary vessels by which they are nourished4 ,verse3 ,all my bones shall say1 ,lord1 who is like unto thee1 which deliverest the poor from him that is too strong for him1 yea1 the poor and the needy from him that spoileth him8--,,psalm ,,xxxv4 #ibj4 ,how much blood does the human body contain8 ,from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds4 7,see #fbc47 #iba4 ,how does the blood ascend in the veins1 in opposition to gravitation8 ,in addition to the muscular coats of the veins1 and the influence of muscular action upon them1 there are in the veins numerous semi-circular valves1 which are not found in the arteries4 ,these valves extend from the sides of the veins in such a manner that they allow the free passage of the blood upwards1 but a backward motion of the blood would expand the cup-like valves and stop the passage2 so that the blood can only move in one direction1 and that towards the heart4 #ibb4 ,how frequently does the total amount of blood circulate through the system8 ,the blood circulates once through the body in about two minutes4 ,if1 therefore1 we estimate the amount of blood at twenty-four pounds1 it follows that no less than twelve pounds of blood pass through the heart every minute2 and it is estimated that if the blood moved with equal force in a straight line it would pass through one hundred and fifty feet in a minute4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 #ibc4 ,how many bones are there in the human body8 ,there are two hundred and forty-six1 and they are apportioned to the various parts of the body in the following numbers3-- ,head #h ,ears #f ,face #ad ,teeth #cb ,back-bone and its base #bf ,chest1 c4 #bf ,arms and ,hands #fd ,legs and ,feet #fb ,small moveable bones #h ,verse3 ,our bones are scattered at the grave's mouth1 as when one cutteth and cleaveth wood upon the earth4--,,psalm ,,cxli4 #ibd4 ,of what substances are the bones composed8 ,one hundred parts of bone consist of ,cartilage #cbag parts ,blood-vessels #aac ,carbonate of lime #aacj ,phosphate of lime #eajd ,fluate of lime #bjj ,phosphate of ,magnesia #aaf ,soda1 chloride of sodium #abj ------ #ajjjj #ibe4 ,what are the uses of the bones8 ,they protect soft and delicate organs2 they form a framework to which the organs are attached1 and by which they are kept in their places2 and they supply a mechanism1 by which the motions of the body are produced1 in combination with the muscles4 #ibf4 ,why is the brain placed within the skull8 ,because that delicate and vital organ1 being the centre and the root of the nervous system1 requires a position of the greatest safety4 #ibg4 ,why are the bones that constitute the vertebr 7back-bone7 hollowed out1 so as to form a continuous groove8 ,because through that groove the spinal cord passes out from the brain4 ,being in the centre of that column of bones1 the spinal cord receives from them a similar protection to that which the brain obtains from the skull4 #ibh4 ,why is the head set upon the neck8 ,because in that position it obtains the freest motion1 can turn in any direction1 and is placed relatively to the other parts of the body1 in that situation where it acquires the greatest possible advantage4 #ibi4 ,why are the eyes placed in the sockets of the skull8 ,because the bones of the skull afford protection to the delicate and complicated structure of the eyes1 and supply points of attachment1 and grooves1 by which the muscles are enabled to turn the eyes freely1 and thereby extend the field of vision4 ,verse3 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god unto these bones1 ,behold ,i will cause breath to enter into you1 and ye shall live3 #icj4 ,why are the bones of the skull arched8 ,because in that form they acquire greater strength1 and hence the utmost degree of safety is combined with extreme lightness of material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,,view ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,thorax1 ,,or ,,chest1 ,,showing ,,the ,,protection ,,afforded ,,to ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,circulation ,,and ,,respiration4 ,a4 ,the sternum1 or breast-bone4 ,b ,b4 ,the ribs1 which rise a little from behind1 and fall as they come forward1 by which they acquire a greater flexibility4 ,c ,c4 ,the cartilaginous points of the short ribs1 by which their expansive and compressive powers are much increased4 ,d ,e4 ,part of the vertebral column1 or back-bone4 #ica4 ,why are the bones of the skull divided by sutures 7seams71 with points which fit into each other like small teeth8 ,because1 by that arrangement1 concussions of the skull1 which might be fatal to the brain1 are deadened1 and injuries from accident greatly modified4 ,verse3 ,and ,i will lay the sinews upon you1 and will bring up flesh upon you1 and cover you with skin1 and put breath in you1 and ye shall live2 and ye shall know that ,i am the ,lord4--,,ezekiel ,,xxxvii4 #icb4 ,why are the heart1 lungs1 c41 placed within the chest8 ,because the functions of those organs require considerable space1 while their importance in the system of life1 renders it essential that they should be securely protected from the probabilities of accident4 #icc4 ,why are the heart and lungs enclosed for protection in a series of ribs1 and not in a close case1 like the brain8 ,because1 by the inflation and contraction of the lungs1 their capacity is constantly changing4 ,when man takes a moderate inspiration1 he inhales about thirty cubic inches of air1 and the lungs increase in size one-eighteenth of their whole capacity4 ,consequently1 were they enclosed in a frame of fixed dimensions1 it must needs be1 to that extent at least1 larger than is necessary1 when the frame is made to dilate and contract with the capacity of the lungs4 ,so perfect is the ,almighty contrivance1 that not only are the ribs made to protect the lungs1 but1 by their elasticity1 and the contractions and dilations of the muscles which lie between them1 they assist the lungs in their labours1 and work with them in perfect harmony4 #icd4 ,why are the bones of the arms1 legs1 c41 made hollow8 ,because lightness is thereby combined with strength4 ,there is a provision by which1 in the extremities of bones1 where an enlarged surface is required1 lightness is still combined with the necessary degree of strength4 ,the bones are made up of a cellular formation2 and this generally occurs in parts which are much called into action1 in the various movements of the body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,knee ,,joint1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cellular ,,structure ,,of ,,bone1 ,,by ,,which ,,lightness ,,and ,,strength ,,are ,,obtained4 ,a4 ,lower part of the bone of the thigh4 ,b4 ,head of the bone of the leg4 ,c4 ,the knee cap1 showing its relation to the other bones1 and the manner in which it is enclosed by the tendons seen at ,fig4 #eh4 ,d4 ,a pad of fat1 lessening the friction of the bones1 and modifying the shocks produced by jumping1 c4 ,verse3 ,again he said unto me1 ,prophesy upon these bones1 and say unto them1 ,o ye dry bones1 hear the word of the ,lord4--,,ezekiel ,,xxxvii4 #ice4 ,why are the bones of the arms and legs formed in long shafts8 ,because a considerable leverage is gained1 by which the advantages of quickness of motion1 and increase of mechanical power1 are secured4 #icf4 ,why are the bones of the hands and feet numerous and small8 ,because the motions of the hands and feet are very varied and complicated4 ,there are no less than twenty-eight bones in one hand and wrist2 and about as many in a foot and ankle4 ,to these are fastened a great number of ligaments and muscles1 by which their varied compound movements are controlled4 ,but for the complexity of the mechanism of our hands and feet1 our motions would be extremely awkward1 and many of the valuable mechanical inventions which now benefit mankind1 could never have been introduced4 ,the bones of the hands and feet are in number equal to one-half of the whole of the bones of the body4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 #icg4 ,what are ligaments8 ,ligaments consist of bands and cords of a tough1 fibrous1 and smooth substance1 by which the bones are bound together and held in their places1 allowing them freedom to move1 and supplying smooth surfaces over which they glide4 #ich4 ,why are the joints bound with ligaments8 ,because the bones would otherwise be constantly liable to slip from their places4 ,verse3 ,that which is born of the flesh is flesh2 and that which is born of the ,spirit is spirit4--,,john ,,iii4 #ici4 ,what are tendons8 ,tendons are long cords1 of a substance similar in its nature to cartilage1 by which the muscles are attached to the bones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,,showing ,a ,,ball ,,and ,,socket ,,joint1 ,,and ,,the ,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,ligaments ,,are ,,employed ,,to ,,hold ,,bones ,,in ,,their ,,positions4 ,a4 ,the ball1 or head of the thigh bone4 ,b4 ,the socket1 showing the ligament in the socket1 which holds the head of the bone in its place1 but allows it free motion4 ,c4 ,ligaments tied from bone to bone1 giving firmness to the parts4 #idj4 ,why are tendons used to attach the muscles to the bones8 ,because1 by this arrangement1 the large muscles by which the extremities are moved1 may be placed at some distance from the bones upon which they act1 and thus the extremities1 instead of being large and clumsy1 are small and neat4 #ida4 ,how many muscles are there in the human body8 ,there are about four hundred and forty-six muscles that have been dissected and described1 and the actions of which are perfectly understood4 ,but there is probably a much larger number of muscles1 and of compound actions of muscles1 than the skill of man has been able to recognise4 ,verse3 ,all flesh is not the same flesh3 but there is one kind of flesh of men1 another flesh of beasts1 another of fishes1 and another of birds4--,,corinthians ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,muscles1 ,,tendons1 ,,and ,,bones4 #idb4 ,what is the constitution of a muscle8 ,every muscle is made up of a number of parallel fleshy fibres1 or threads1 which are bound together by a smooth and soft tissue1 forming a sheath or case to the muscle1 and enabling it to glide freely over the surfaces upon which it moves4 ,a4 ,lower extremity of the muscle which draws the fore-arm towards the upper-arm1 bends the elbow1 raises the hand to the head1 and is powerfully exerted in pulling1 lifting1 c4 ,c4 ,a muscle which gives off four long tendons1 which pass under the ligaments of the wrist1 one to each finger1 and by which the fingers are bent upon the palm of the hand1 as in grasping1 c4 ,f4 ,tendon of a muscle which draws the little finger and the thumb towards each other4 ,the ligaments may be seen enfolding the finger-joints1 and also crossing the wrist1 underneath the tendons4 ,the muscles are compressed into tendinous cords at their ends1 by which they are united to the bones4 ,they are arranged in pairs1 having reciprocal actions--each muscle having a companion muscle by which the part which it moves is restored to its original position1 when the influence of the first muscle is withdrawn1 and the stimulus given to bring back the part4 #idc4 ,why can we raise our fingers8 ,because muscles which lie on the fore-arm1 and have their tendons fastened at the ends of the fingers1 contract1 and by becoming shorter1 draw the fingers upward1 and towards the arm4 ,verse3 ,thou hast clothed me with skin and flesh1 and hast fenced me with bones and sinews4--,,job ,,xi4 #idd4 ,why can we throw back the fingers after they have been raised8 ,because the muscles at the back of the arm1 whose tendons are attached to the back of the fingers1 contract and restore them to their former position4 #ide4 ,what degree of strength do the muscles possess8 ,the degree of strength of a muscle depends upon the healthy condition of the muscle1 the amount of stimulus which it receives at the time of exertion1 and the manner in which its powers are applied4 ,the great muscle of the calf of the leg has been found1 when removed from a dead body1 to be capable of sustaining a weight equal to seven times the weight of the entire body4 ,but the contractile power of the living muscles is very great3 the thigh bone has frequently been broken by muscular contractions in fits of epilepsy4 ,and in cases where there has been a dislocation of the thigh1 the head of the thigh-bone being thrown out of its socket1 7,fig4 #ef7 it has been found necessary to employ strong ropes1 attached to a wheel turned by several hands1 in order to overcome the contraction of the excited muscles1 and to enable the operator to restore the bone to its place4 #idf4 ,what is the stimulus which sets the muscles in action8 ,the muscles are excited to action by the nerves1 which they receive from the spinal cord4 #idg4 ,why does it require the influence of the will to set the arms in motion8 ,because the muscles which form their mechanism are voluntary muscles--that is1 they are subject to the will of man1 and influenced by impulses directed to them through the nervous system by the mind1 which is the governing power4 ,verse3 ,and he took him by the right hand1 and lifted him up2 and immediately his feet and ankle bones received strength4--,,acts ,,iii4 #idh4 ,why does the heart beat without any effort of the will8 ,because the muscles of the heart are involuntary muscles--that is1 they are independent of the will1 and receive a continuous nervous stimulus which is not under the controul of the mind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,,muscles ,,and ,,vessels ,,of ,,the ,,leg ,,and ,,foot4 ,a4 ,a large ligament1 which covers the knee pan1 or moveable bone of the knee1 by which the ends of the bones of the thigh and leg are kept from slipping over each other4 ,b4 ,a muscle which passes underneath the cartilages of the ankle1 and gives off four tendons1 which are distributed to the toes1 and by which they are extended in elongating the foot1 walking1 c4 ,c4 ,part of the muscle which forms the fleshy bulb of the calf of the leg1 and which terminates in the large tendon attached to the heel1 called the tendon of ,achilles4 ,d4 ,one of the ligaments which bind the tendons and the bones of the ankle4 ,e4 ,arteries proceeding from the large vessel descending the leg1 by which the toes are supplied4 #idi4 ,why are the muscles of the arms1 c41 made subject to the controul of the will8 ,because1 as they supply the mechanism through which we adapt ourselves to our varying wants and circumstances1 it was necessary that they should be placed under the controul of the mental power1 and be moved only in accordance with man's necessities4 ,verse3 ,if thou sayest1 ,behold1 we knew it not2 doth not he that pondereth the heart consider it8 and he that keepeth thy soul1 doth not he know it8 and shall not he render to every man according to his works8--,,proverbs ,,xxiv4 #iej4 ,why are the motions of the heart1 c41 made independent of the will8 ,because1 as the necessity for the heart's motion is fixed and unalterable1 the constant motion of the heart could be best secured by giving it a fixed nervous influence1 by which it might be unfailingly prompted to fulfil its functions4 ,if the movements of man's heart were subject to his will1 he would be constantly required to regard the operations of that organ2 and so large an amount of mental care and physical exertion would have to be employed in that direction1 that man's sole work would be to keep himself alive4 ,hence we see the goodness of the ,creator in giving life to man1 and in keeping the vital impulses under his divine care4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 #iea4 ,what are nerves8 ,the nerves are branches of the brain and the spinal cord2 they are distributed in great numbers to all the active and sensitive parts of the body4 #ieb4 ,what is the spinal cord8 ,the spinal cord is a long and large cord of nervous matter1 which extends from the brain through a continuous tube formed by corresponding hollows in the bones of the back4 ,it serves as a nervous trunk for the distribution of nerves1 just as the aorta distributes branches of blood-vessels4 #iec4 ,why is the spinal cord placed in the grooves formed by the back-bone8 ,being a very vital part of the system1 and from the delicacy of its structure liable to injuries1 it is set in the back-bone for protection2 and so great is its security that it is only by force of an unusual kind that it can be injured4 ,verse3 ,a sound heart is the life of the flesh3 but envy is the rottenness of the bones4--,,proverbs ,,xiv4 #ied4 ,how can branches proceed from it1 if it is so securely encased in bone8 ,because in the bones1 on each side of the spinal cord1 there are smaller grooves for the transmission of the nervous branches4 #iee4 ,of what does the nervous system consist8 ,of the brain1 the spinal cord1 and the branches which are called nerves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,,showing ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,nerves ,,and ,,veins1 ,,and ,,illustrating ,,the ,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,they ,,pass ,,through ,,the ,,flesh ,,to ,,reach ,,the ,,parts ,,to ,,which ,,their ,,functions ,,belong4 ,a4 ,b4 ,veins of the fore-arm4 ,b4 ,canal formed in the muscle1 through which a trunk-vein emerges4 ,c4 ,canal formed in the muscle1 through which a large nerve emerges4 ,d4 ,canal through which a vein enters to communicate with the deep muscles of the arm4 #ief4 ,what is the constitution of a nerve8 ,it consists of a thin membrane1 or sheath1 surrounding a greyish oily matter1 which forms the nervous marrow4 ,in the centre of this marrow is usually found a small fibre1 which is supposed to be the essential part of the nerve2 and most nerves consist of a number of these sheaths enclosing fibres running in parallel directions4 #ieg4 ,what is the nervous fluid8 ,the term nervous fluid is used to express our ideas of the mode by which the brain and spinal cord influence the remote parts3 just as we say the electric fluid1 without knowing that such a fluid exists4 ,it is the most convenient form of expression4 #ieh4 ,how many classes of nerves are there8 ,there are3-- #a4 ,the nerves of motion4 #b4 ,the nerves of sensation4 #c4 ,the nerves of special sense4 #d4 ,the nerves of sympathy4 ,verse3 ,having many things to write unto you1 ,i would not write with paper and ink2 but ,i trust to come unto you1 and speak face to face1 that our joy may be full4--,,ii ,,john4 #iei4 ,what are the nerves of motion8 ,the nerves of motion are those which1 in obedience to the will1 stimulate the muscles to act1 and apportion the amount of stimulation they convey to the degree of exertion required4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,face1 ,,with ,,nerves ,,distributed ,,thereto4 ,a ,a ,a4 ,the facial nerve emerging from underneath the ear1 and distributing branches to the cheeks1 temple1 forehead1 c4 ,this nerve excites the muscles of the face1 and is chiefly instrumental in producing the expressions of the countenance under the changing emotions of the mind4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,muscles by which various motions are imparted to the head1 face1 mouth1 c41 under the stimulus of the nerves4 #ifj4 ,what are the nerves of sensation8 ,the nerves of sensation are those which impart a consciousness to the brain that its commands to the nerves of motion have been obeyed1 and how far they have been fulfilled4 ,verse3 ,oh that men would praise the ,lord for his goodness1 and for his wonderful works to the children of men4--,,psalm ,,cvii4 ,let us perform a simple experiment1 which will more clearly illustrate the phenomena of motion and of sensation1 which we are now describing1 than a great deal of writing upon the subject4 ,you hold in your hand this book3 close it1 and set it upon the table2 lay your hands passively upon your lap1 and then will your hand1 to take up the book1 which is the same as to say1 command your hand to take up the book4 ,what occurs8 ,the hand1 immediately obeying your desire1 stretches forward to the book1 and takes hold of it4 ,how do you know that you have hold of it8 ,you see that you have3 but were your eyes closed1 you would be equally aware that the hand had reached the book1 and fulfilled your wishes4 ,it is by the nerves of sensation that you are made aware that the hand has fulfilled your instructions4 ,consider what took place in the simple action4 ,in the first instance1 a desire arose in your mind to take up the book4 ,the brain is the organ of the mind2 and having branches either proceeding from itself1 or from the spinal cord1 to every part of the body--branches that traverse like telegraphic wires throughout every part of the system1--it transmitted instructions along the nerves that proceed to the muscles of the arm and hand1 directing them to take up the book4 ,this was done instantly2 and as soon as it was done you became conscious that your will had been obeyed--because the nerves sent back a sensation to the brain acquainting it that the book had been taken up1 and that at the moment of the dispatch it was in the firm hold of the hand4 ,in all the varied motions of the body this double action of the nerves takes place4 ,it is obvious that without an outward impulse from the brain1 upon which the desire of the mind first made an impression1 no motion of the muscles of the arm and the hand could have taken place2 and it is also obvious that without an inward impulse from the nerves to the brain you would not have known that the muscles had fulfilled your instructions4 ,the hand might have dropped by the side of the book1 or have gone too far1 or not far enough1 and you would not have been aware of the result1 but for an inward communication through the nerves4 ,we are not now speaking of the nerves which endow us with the sense of feeling1 because they are regarded as separate and distinct from those nerves that produce in us consciousness of muscular response4 ,when we walk1 rise1 or sit1 we are made conscious1 without any special feeling being exerted1 that the muscles have placed the limb1 or the body1 in the desired position1 that it is set down safely and firmly1 and that we may repose upon it securely without further attention4 ,we refer the impressions made by the book upon the nerves of the hand1 and which enable us to tell whether it feels hot or cold1 whether its surface is rough or smooth1 and so on1 to the special sense of feeling4 ,the consciousness of muscular action is a separate and distinct function2 and it is generally believed that the same nerves that convey the command of the will outward1 bringing back the intimation that the will has been obeyed1 but that different fibres of the nerves convey the outward and the inward impulses4 ,a single nerve may therefore be likened to a double wire connected with the electric telegraph3 one transmitting despatches in one direction1 and the other in the opposite direction4 #ifa4 ,what are the nerves of special sense8 ,the nerves of special sense are those through which we hear1 see1 feel1 smell1 and taste4 ,verse3 ,for the ,lord seeth not as man seeth2 for man looketh on the outward appearance1 but the ,lord looketh on the heart4--,,samuel ,,xvi4 #ifb4 ,what are the nerves of sympathy8 ,the nerves of sympathy1 or the system of sympathetic nerves1 are those which are distributed to the internal organs1 and which are independent of the will4 ,they regulate the motions of the heart1 the lungs1 the stomach1 c41 and stimulate the organs of secretion1 so that those organs work in harmony with each other4 ,as the internal organs are all more or less dependent upon each other1 and unite their functions for similar ends1 it is obvious that there should prevail among them a mutual consciousness of their state4 ,otherwise1 when the stomach had formed chyme1 the liver might have no bile ready to fulfil its office2 the absorbents might be in a state of rest at the moment when nutrition was set before them2 and the heart might beat slowly1 while the lungs were in active exertion to obtain additional blood to support an active exercise4 ,the sympathetic system of nerves therefore regulates and harmonises these internal functions4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 #ifc4 ,why do we see objects8 ,because the light which is reflected from them enters our eyes and produces images of their forms upon a membrane of nerves called the retina1 just as images are produced upon a mirror4 #ifd4 ,why does this enable us to see8 ,because the membrane which receives the images of objects is connected with the optic nerve which transmits to the brain impressions made by the reflections of light1 just as other nerves convey the effects of feeling1 hearing1 tasting1 c4 #ife4 ,why are we enabled to move our eyes8 ,because various muscles are so placed in relation to the eyeball1 that their contraction draws the eye in the direction required4 ,we are thus enabled to adjust the direction of the eye to the position of the objects we desire to see1 in other words to set the mirror in such a position that it will receive the reflection4 7,see #eag47 ,verse3 ,truly the light is sweet1 and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold the sun4--,,ecclesiastes ,,xi4 #iff4 ,why are we enabled to see large objects upon so small a surface8 ,because the lenses and humours of the eye collect the rays of light coming from every direction1 and1 bringing them into a focus1 transmit them to the retina1 where each ray impresses upon the nervous surface the qualities it received from the object which reflected it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,,the ,,eyeball ,,and ,,its ,,muscles4 ,a4 ,portion of bone through which the optic nerve passes in its communication between the brain and the eye4 ,b4 ,the optic nerve1 from before which an external muscle has been cut away1 leaving its two attachments4 ,c4 ,the globe of the eye4 ,d4 ,the muscle which turns the eye outward1 and which is counteracted by a muscle on the other side4 ,e4 ,the muscle which passes through a loop1 or staple of cartilage ,i1 and turns the eye obliquely4 ,it is counteracted by a muscle situated underneath4 ,f4 ,the muscle situated underneath1 which turns the eyeball upwards1 and is counteracted by ,g4 ,the muscle which turns the eyeball downwards4 ,h4 ,the muscle attached to a bone which turns the eyeball upwards4 ,i4 ,the cartilaginous loop through which a muscle passes4 ,j4 ,the front chamber of the eye filled with a clear fluid4 ,k4 ,fragment of the bone by which one of the muscles is fastened4 #ifg4 ,why do some persons squint8 ,because it sometimes happens that a muscle of the eye acts too powerfully for its companion muscle1 and draws the eye too much on one side4 #ifh4 ,why does the pupil of the eye look black8 ,because the pupil is an opening through which the rays of light pass into the chamber of the eye4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing in the pupil1 of the eye to reflect light4 ,verse3 ,keep me as the apple of thine eye2 hide me under the shadow of thy wings4--,,psalm ,,xvii4 #ifi4 ,why is the pupil of the eye larger sometimes than at others8 ,because the iris1 a ring of extremely fine muscles which surround the pupil1 contracts when too much light falls upon the retina1 and dilates when the light is feeble4 ,it therefore enlarges or diminishes the size of the pupil to regulate the admission of light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,seen ,,from ,,behind4 ,a4 ,the pupil of the eye through which the light enters4 ,b4 ,the iris1 which dilates or contracts1 and thereby increases or lessens the size of the pupil4 ,c4 ,the three coats of the eye1 called the sclerotic1 choroid1 and retina4 ,d4 ,the ciliary processes1 or hair-like muscles1 which have a slight vibratory motion which they impart to the fluids of the eye4 ,e4 ,the dark coat of the choroid1 the coat forming the retina removed4 #igj4 ,why have we two eyes8 ,because the field of vision is thereby much extended2 the intensity of sight is also increased1 the impressions upon the brain being clearer and better defined1 just as in a stereoscope the effect of vision is heightened by a double picture2 the sense of sight being more constantly exercised than any other sense during our waking moments1 one eye is frequently called upon to give rest to the other2 and the important faculty of vision1 being endangered by the necessary exposure of some parts of the eye1 and the equally necessary delicacy of an organ formed to receive impressions from so ethereal an element as light1 is rendered the more secure to us1 since though one eye may become enfeebled1 diseased1 or wholly lost1 the other eye will retain the blessing of sight4 ,verse3 ,the eyes of the ,lord are upon the righteous1 and his ears are open unto their cry4--,,psalm ,,xxxiv4 #iga4 ,why1 having two eyes1 and each eye receiving a reflection upon its retina1 does the brain experience only one impression of an object8 ,because1 besides those optical laws which bring upon the two retinas the exactly corresponding images of the same objects1 the optic nerves meet before they reach the brain1 and blend the impulses which they convey4 #igb4 ,why are the eyes provided with eyelids8 ,because the eyes require to be defended from floating particles in the air1 and to be kept moist and clean4 ,the eyelids form the shutters of the eye1 defending it when waking1 by closing upon its surface whenever danger is apprehended1 moistening its surface when it becomes dry1 and covering it securely during the hours of sleep4 #igc4 ,why are the eyelids fringed with eyelashes8 ,because the eyelashes assist to modify the light1 and to protect the eye1 without actually closing the eye-ids4 ,when the eyelids are partially closed1 as in very sunny or dusty weather1 the eyelashes cross each other1 forming a kind of shady lattice-work1 from the interspaces of which the eye looks out with advantage1 and sees sufficiently for the guidance of the body4 #igd4 ,why are we able to see at long or short distances8 ,because the crystalline lens of the eye is a moveable body1 and is pushed forward1 or drawn back by fine muscular fibres1 according to the distances of the objects upon which we look4 ,by these means its focus becomes adjusted4 #ige4 ,why do we wink8 ,because1 by the repeated action of winking1 the eye is kept moist and clean1 and the watery fluid secreted by little glands in the eyelids1 and at the sides of the eye1 is spread equally over the surface1 instead of being allowed to accumulate4 ,but the action of winking1 or brightening the eye1 is so instantaneous that it does not impede the sight4 ,verse3 ,and the eye cannot say unto the hand1 ,i have no need of thee2 nor again the head to the feet1 ,i have no need of you4--,,corinth4 ,,xii4 #igf4 ,whence are the humours and secretions of the eye derived8 ,from the blood1 which flows abundantly to the eyes1 and is circulated in capillary vessels that are spread out upon the membranous coats of the eye-balls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 ,a and ,b4 ,the sclerotic1 choroid1 and retina1 the three layers or coats which form the walls of the globe of the eye1 and enclose its humours4 ,c ,c4 ,the iris4 ,d4 ,the front chamber of the eye1 filled with watery humour4 ,e4 ,the pupil1 through which the rays of light pass to ,f4 ,the crystalline lens4 ,g ,g4 ,the vitreous humour enclosed in cells formed by the hyaloid membrane4 ,h4 ,an artery which supplies blood to the crystalline lens1 and which passes through the centre of the optic nerve4 ,g4 ,the optic nerve1 showing the sheath in which the nerve is enclosed4 #igg4 ,why do tears form in the eyes8 ,because1 under the emotions of the mind1 the circulation of blood in the brain1 and in its nearest branches1 becomes considerably quickened4 ,the eyes receive a larger amount of blood1 and the secretion of the lachrymal glands being increased1 the fluid overflows1 and tears are formed4 ,the use of tears is probably to keep the eyes cool during the excitement of the brain4 ,they are formed also during laughing1 but less frequently4 ,verse3 ,if the whole body were an eye1 where were hearing8 if the whole were hearing1 where were smelling8--,,corinthians ,,xii4 #igh4 ,why do we feel inconvenienced by sudden light8 ,because an excess of light enters the eye before the iris has had time to adjust the pupil to the amount of light to be received4 #igi4 ,why if we look upon a very bright light1 and then turn away1 are we unable to see8 ,because the iris has so reduced the pupil while we were looking at the bright light1 that immediately upon turning to a darker object1 the pupil is too small to admit sufficient rays to enable us to see4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,,capillary ,,blood-,,vessels ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 ,a ,a4 ,capillary veins distributed over the sclerotic coat4 ,b4 ,one of the trunks of the optic nerve4 ,c4 ,a nerve communicating with the ciliary processes4 ,d4 ,a vein running parallel with the nerve to the ciliary processes4 ,e4 ,side view of the iris4 #ihj4 ,why do we see better after a short time8 ,because the iris has relaxed and enlarged the pupil1 therefore we receive more rays of light from the comparatively dark object1 and are enabled to see it more clearly4 #iha4 ,why do cats1 bats1 owls1 c41 see in the dark8 ,because their eyes are made highly sensitive to small quantities of light4 ,it is also believed that there are certain properties of light which affect their eyes1 but do not affect ours4 ,in other words1 that there are some rays which are luminous to them which are not luminous to us4 ,hence they find light in what we call darkness4 ,verse3 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear4--,,matthew ,,xi4 #ihb4 ,why does the pupil of a cat's eye appear nearly closed by day8 ,because the cat's eye is so sensitive to light that the iris closes the pupil almost entirely to shut out the too powerful light4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 #ihc4 ,why do we hear8 ,because the tympanum of the ear receives impressions from sounds1 and transmits those impressions to the brain in a similar manner to that in which the retina of the eye transmits the impressions made upon it by light4 #ihd4 ,why is one part of the ear spread out externally8 ,the external ear is a natural ear-trumpet1 and serves to collect the vibrations of sound1 and to conduct them towards the internal ear4 #ihe4 ,why is the ear allowed to project1 whilst the eye is carefully enclosed8 ,because the external ear1 being formed of tough cartilaginous substance1 and being very simple in its organisation1 is but little liable to injury4 #ihf4 ,why do hairs grow across the entrance of the ears8 ,because they prevent the intrusion of insects1 and of particles of dust1 by which otherwise the faculty of hearing would be impaired4 ,the insect called the earwig is popularly supposed to be so named from its tendency to get into the human ear1 and cause pain and madness by penetrating to the brain4 ,an earwig1 however1 is no more likely to get into the ear than any other insect whose habit it is to penetrate the corollas of flowers2 and should an insect enter the ear1 it could get no further than the membrane of the tympanum1 which spreads all over the auditory passage1 just as the parchment of a drum spreads over the entire circumference of that instrument4 ,the fact is1 that the wing of the insect1 when spread1 resembles the external ear in shape4 ,it is similar to the wing of the stag beetle 7see illustration71 and this fancied resemblance of the wing of the insect to the ear of man may have given rise to the name of ear-wing1 which became corrupted to earwig4 ,verse3 ,doth not the ear try words8 and the mouth taste his meat4--,,job ,,xii4 #ihg4 ,why is wax secreted at the entrance of the ear8 ,because1 by the peculiar resinous property which it possesses1 it improves the sound-conducting power of the auditory canal through which it prevails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,ear4 ,a ,a4 ,glands which secrete wax in the walls of the tube of the ear4 ,b4 ,the membrane of the tympanum1 or drum of the ear1 formed in the shape of a funnel4 ,c ,c4 ,bones which act as a sort of sounding-board to the ear1 giving strength to the vibrations4 ,d4 ,the ,eustachian tube1 which opens into the root of the mouth1 and which serves to preserve an equilibrium in the density of the air occupying the tubes of the ear4 ,e and ,f4 ,the labrynth of the ear1 consisting of folds of membraneous tubes1 filled with fluid1 which serves to undulate with the vibrations of the tympanum1 and thus gives clearness and precision to the sounds4 ,the auditory nerves are distributed in the tubes above described 7the vestibule and the cochlea ,e ,f71 and the nerves receive their impressions from the undulations of the fluid4 #ihh4 ,why do we sometimes hear singing noises in the ear8 ,because the ear is liable to inflammation from various causes1 and when the blood flows unduly through the vessels of the ear it produces a slight sound4 ,verse3 ,apply thine heart unto instruction1 and thine ears to the words of knowledge4--,,proverbs ,,xxiii4 #ihi4 ,why do people become deaf8 ,because the ear may be injured in various ways3 the tympanum may be impaired1 the fluid of the ear dried up1 or the nerves be pressed upon by swellings in the surrounding parts4 ,when1 therefore1 the mechanism of hearing is impaired1 the sense of hearing becomes weakened1 or altogether lost4 #iij4 ,why do persons accustomed to loud noises feel no inconvenience from them8 ,because the sensitiveness of the nerves of the ear becomes deadened4 ,they do not convey to the brain such intense impulses when they are frequently acted upon by loud sounds4 #iia4 ,why do persons engaged in battle often lose their hearing8 ,because the vibrations caused by the sounds of artillery are so violent that they overpower the mechanism of the ear1 and frequently rupture the connection of the fine nervous filaments with the textures through which they spread4 ,the violent concussions of the air produced by volleys of cannon1 or by loud peals of thunder1 have an overpowering effect upon persons nervously constituted1 and upon the organ of hearing1 which is more especially affected4 ,as persons have been struck blind by intense light1 so others have been deafened by intense sounds4 ,in #afig a butcher's dog was killed by the noise of the firing to celebrate the proclamation of peace4 ,two troops of horse were dismounted1 and drawn up in a line to fire volleys4 ,at the moment of the first volley a large and courageous mastiff1 belonging to a butcher1 was lying asleep before the fire4 ,at the noise of the first volley the dog started up1 and ran into another room1 where it hid itself behind a bed2 on the firing of the second volley1 it ran several times bout the room1 trembling violently2 and when the third volley was fired it ran around once or twice with great violence1 and then dropped down dead1 with blood flowing from its mouth and nose4 ,persons who are painfully affected by loud noises should put a little wool in their ears when such noises are occurring2 they will thereby save themselves from temporary inconvenience1 and probably preserve the sense of hearing from permanent injury4 #iib4 ,why do we smell8 ,because minute particles of matter1 diffused in the air1 come in contact with the filaments of the olfactory nerve1 which are spread out upon the walls of the nostrils1 and those nerves transmit impressions to the brain1 constituting what we call the odour of substances4 ,verse3 ,and the ,lord ,god formed man of the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life2 and man became a living soul4--,,genesis ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,,showing ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,filaments ,,upon ,,sensitive ,,membranes4 ,a4 ,the olfactory nerve1 distributed in minute branches upon the membrane of the nostril4 ,b4 ,the bulb of the olfactory nerve4 ,c4 ,the roots from which the olfactory nerve originates4 ,d ,e4 ,nerves of the palate1 showing the manner in which they are passed through the bones of the roof of the mouth4 #iic4 ,why do hairs grow across the passages of the nostrils8 ,because they form a defence against the admission of dust and insects1 which would otherwise frequently irritate the nervous structure of the nose4 #iid4 ,why are the nostrils directed downwards8 ,because1 as odours and effluvia ascend1 the nose is directed towards them1 and thereby receives the readiest intimation of those bodies floating in the air which may be pleasurable to the sense1 or offensive to the smell1 and injurious to life4 ,verse3 ,can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt8 or is there any taste in the white of an egg8--,,job ,,vi4 #iie4 ,why is the nose placed over and near the mouth8 ,because1 as one of the chief duties of that organ is to exercise a watchfulness over the purity of the substances we eat and drink1 it is placed in that position which enables it to discharge that duty with the greatest readiness4 ,,chapter ,l4 #iif4 ,why do we taste8 ,because the tongue is endowed with gustatory nerves1 having the function of taste as their special sense1 just as the optic1 the auditory1 and the olfactory nerves1 have their special duties in the eyes1 ears1 and nose4 #iig4 ,why do some substances taste sweet1 others sour1 others salt1 c48 ,it is believed that the impressions of taste arise from the various forms of the atoms of matter presented to the nerves of the tongue4 #iih4 ,why do we taste substances most satisfactorily after they have remained a little while in the mouth8 ,because the nerves of taste are most abundantly distributed to the under surface of the tongue2 and when solid substances have been in the mouth a little while1 they impregnate the saliva of the mouth with their particles and come in contact in a fluid solution with the gustatory nerves4 #iii4 ,why if we put a nub of sugar to the tip of the tongue has it no taste8 ,because the gustatory nerves are not distributed to that part of the tongue4 ,verse3 ,wine is a mocker1 strong drink is raging2 and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise4--,,proverbs ,,xx4 #ajjj4 ,why1 when we draw the tongue in1 do we recognise the sweetness of the sugar8 ,because the dissolved particles of sugar are brought in contact with the nerves of taste4 #ajja4 ,through what nerves are we made sensible of the contact of sugar with the tip of the tongue8 ,through the nerves of feeling1 which are abundantly distributed to the tongue to guide it in its controul over the mastication of food4 #ajjb4 ,why do connoisseurs of wines close their mouths and distend their chins for a few seconds1 when tasting wines8 ,because they thereby bring the wine in contact with the under surface of the tongue1 in which the gustatory nerves chiefly reside4 #ajjc4 ,why do they also pass the fumes of the wines through their nostrils8 ,because flavour1 in its fullest sense1 comprehends not only the taste1 but the odour of a substance2 and1 therefore1 persons of experience attend to both requisites4 ,the various conditions of taste are defined to be3-- #a4 ,where sensations of touch are alone produced1 as by glass1 ice1 pebbles1 c4 #b4 ,where1 in addition to being felt upon the tongue1 the substance excites sensation in the olfactory nerves1 as by lead1 tin1 copper1 c4 #c4 ,where1 besides being felt1 there are peculiar sensations of taste1 expressive of the properties of bodies1 as salt1 sugar1 tartaric acid1 c4 #d4 ,where1 besides being felt and tasted1 there is an odour characteristic of the substance1 and essential to the full development of its flavours1 as in cloves1 lemon-peel1 caraway-seed1 and aromatic substances generally4 #ajjd4 ,why do we feel8 ,because there are distributed to various parts of the body fine nervous filaments1 which have for their special duty the transmission to the brain of impressions made upon them by contact with substances4 ,verse3 ,the works of the ,lord are great1 sought out of all them that have pleasure therein4--,,psalm ,,cxi4 #ajje4 ,in what parts of the body does the sense of touch more especially reside8 ,in the points of the fingers and in the tongue4 ,by laying a piece of paper upon a table1 and upon the paper a piece of cloth1 on the piece of cloth a bit of silk1 and on the bit of silk a piece of leather1 so that the edge of each would be exposed to the extent of half-an-inch1 it would be possible by the touch to tell when the finger passed successively over the leather1 silk1 cloth1 or paper1 and arrived on the table4 ,those impressions of touch must have been communicated1 with their extremely nice distinctions1 to the sensitive nerves that lie underneath the skin1 and must have been transmitted all the way through the arm to the brain1 although the touch itself was so light as scarcely to be appreciable with regard to the force applied4 ,a hair lying on the tongue will be plainly perceptible to the touch of the tongue2 and the surface of a broken tooth will often cause the tongue great annoyance1 by the acute perception it imparts of the roughness of its surface4 ,the toes are also highly sensitive1 though their powers of touch are seldom fully developed4 ,persons who have lost their arms1 however1 have brought their feet to be almost as sensitive as fingers4 ,blind persons increase1 by constant exercise1 their powers of touch to such a degree that they are able to read freely by passing their fingers over embossed printing2 and they have been known to distinguish colours by differences in their grain1 quite unappreciable by other persons4 #ajjf4 ,why is feeling impaired when the hands are cold8 ,because1 as the blood flows slowly to the nerves1 they are less capable of that perception of touch which is their special sense4 ,the skin contracts upon the nervous filaments1 and impairs the contact between them and the bodies which they touch4 #ajjg4 ,why do the fingers prick and sting when they again become warm8 ,because1 as the warmth expands the cuticle1 and the blood begins to flow more freely through the vessels1 the nerves are made conscious of the movements of the blood1 and continue to be so until the circulation is equally restored to all the parts4 ,verse3 ,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1 till thou return to the ground2 for out of it thou wast taken3 for dust thou art1 and unto dust shalt thou return4--,,genesis ,,iii4 #ajjh4 ,why do persons whose legs and arms have been amputated fancy they feel the toes or fingers of the amputated limb8 ,because the nervous trunk which formerly conveyed impressions from those extremities remains in the part of the limb attached to the body4 ,the mind has been accustomed to refer the impulses received through that nervous trunk to the extremity where the sensations arose4 ,and now that the nerve has been cut1 the painful sensation caused thereby is referred to the extremity which the nerve supplied1 and the sufferers for a time appear to continue to feel the part which they have lost4 ,,chapter ,,li4 #ajji4 ,why do we perspire8 ,because the skin is filled with very minute pores1 which act as outlets for a portion of the water of the blood1 that serves to moisten and cool the surface of the body1 and to carry away some of the matter no longer needed in the system4 #ajaj4 ,how is the perspiration formed8 ,by very small glands1 which lie embedded in the skin4 ,it is estimated that there are about #b1gjj1jjj perspiratory glands distributed over the surface of the body1 and that these glands find outlets for their secretion through no less than seven millions of pores4 #ajaa4 ,what is insensible perspiration8 ,insensible perspiration is that transmission of watery particles through the skin which is constantly going on1 but which takes place so gently that it cannot be perceived4 ,it is1 however1 very important in its results1 as no less than from twenty to thirty-three ounces of water may pass imperceptibly through the skin in twenty-four hours4 #ajab4 ,what is sensible perspiration8 ,sensible perspiration is that moisture which exudes upon the skin in drops large enough to be perceptible1 when the body is heated by exercise or other means4 ,verse3 ,and ,elisha sent a message unto him1 saying1 ,go and wash in ,jordan seven times1 and thy flesh shall come again to thee1 and thou shalt be clean4--,,ii ,,kings ,v4 #ajac4 ,why does a sudden change from heat to cold bring on illness8 ,because the effect of cold arrests the action of the vessels of the skin1 and suddenly throws upon the internal organs the excretory labour which the skin should have sustained4 #ajad4 ,why does a chill upon the skin frequently produce inflammation of the lungs8 ,because the lungs and the skin together discharge the chief proportion of the watery fluid of the body4 ,when the skin's action is checked1 the lungs have to throw off a much greater amount of fluid4 ,the lungs1 therefore1 become over worked1 and inflammatory action sets in4 #ajae4 ,why does cleanliness promote health8 ,because every atom of dirt which lodges upon the surface of the body serves to clog and check the working of those minute pores1 by which much of the fluid of the body is changed and purified4 ,in the internal parts of the system1 the ,creator has made ample provision for cleanliness4 ,every organ is so constituted that it cleanses and lubricates itself4 ,every surface of the inner body is perfectly clean1 and as soft as silk4 ,nature leaves to man the care of those surfaces which are under his immediate observation and controul2 and he who1 from idleness1 or indifference to nature's laws1 is guilty of personal neglect1 opposes the evident intentions of the ,creator1 and must sooner or later pay the penalty of disobedience4 #ajaf4 ,why does exercise promote health8 ,because it assists all the functions upon which life depend4 ,it quickens the circulation1 and thereby nourishes every part of the body1 causing the bones to become firm1 and the muscles to become full and healthy4 ,it promotes breathing1 by which oxygen is taken into the system1 and carbon thrown off1 and thereby it produces a higher degree of organic life and strength than would otherwise exist4 ,it promotes perspiration1 by which1 through the millions of pores of the skin1 much of the fluid of the body is changed and purified4 ,and it induces that genial and diffused warmth1 which is one of the chief conditions of a high degree of vitality4 ,verse3 ,love not sleep lest thou come to poverty3 open thine eyes1 and thou shalt be satisfied with bread4--,,prov4 ,,xx4 #ajag4 ,why do we feel fatigue8 ,because those organs which stimulate the mechanism of the body to act1 themselves require rest and repair4 ,when the brain and nerves arrive at that state1 they make their condition known to the system generally1 by indications which we denominate fatigue4 #ajah4 ,why1 after rest1 do we return invigorated to our labours8 ,because the nervous system has accumulated1 during the hours of rest1 a fresh amount of that vital force which we call the nervous fluid1 and by which the various organs of the body are excited to perform the duties assigned to them4 #ajai4 ,what is sleep8 ,sleep is understood to be that state of the body in which the relation of the brain to some parts of the body is temporarily suspended4 ,there are some parts of the body that never sleep3 such are the heart1 the lungs1 the organs of circulation1 and those parts of the nervous system that direct their operations4 ,but when sleep overtakes the system1 it seems as if the relations of those parts under the controul of the will were temporarily suspended2 as if1 for instance1 those nerves which move the arms1 the legs1 the eyes1 the tongue1 c41 were all at once unfastened1 just as the strings of an instrument are relaxed by the turning of a key1 or the throwing down of a bridge over which they were stretched4 ,what is meant by the temporary suspension of the relation of the brain to some parts of the body1 may be thus explained4 ,notice a man when he sits dosing in a chair3 at first his head is held up1 the brain controlling the muscles of the neck1 and keeping the head erect4 ,but drowsiness comes on1 the brain begins to withdraw its influence1 and the muscles of the neck becoming as it were unstrung1 the head drops down upon the breast4 ,but the sleep is unsound1 and disturbed by surrounding noises4 ,the brain is therefore frequently excited to return its influence to the muscles1 and draw up the head of the sleeper4 ,he gives a sudden start1 every muscle is tightened in an instant1 up goes the head1 the eyes open1 the ears listen1 until a feeling of security and composure returns2 the sleep again deepens1 the nervous connection is again withdrawn1 and then down drops the head as before4 ,verse3 ,yet a little sleep1 a little slumber1 a little folding of the hands to sleep3 ,so shall thy poverty come as one that travelleth2 and thy want as an armed man4--,,proverbs ,,xxv4 #ajbj4 ,why do we dream8 ,dreams appear to arise from the excitement of the brain during those hours when its connection with the other parts of the living organism is suspended4 ,for instance3 a man dreams that he is pursued by a furious animal1 and the mind passes through all the excitement of flying from danger2 but the connection between the moving power1 and the machinery of motion being suspended1 no motion takes place4 ,the same impressions upon the brain1 when the nerves were strung to the muscles1 would have caused a rapid flight1 and a vigorous effort to escape from the apprehended danger4 #ajba4 ,why do suppers1 when indigestible substances are eaten1 produce dreaming8 ,probably because1 as the digestive organs are oppressed1 and those parts of the nervous system which stimulate the organs of digestion are excited by excessive action1 those portions of the brain which are not immediately employed by the digestive process are disturbed by that sympathy which is observed to prevail between the relative parts and functions of the body4 #ajbb4 ,why do we yawn8 ,because1 as we become weary1 the nervous impulses which direct the respiratory movements are enfeebled4 ,it has been said that those movements are involuntary1 and that the parts engaged in producing them are not subject to fatigue4 ,but the operation of breathing is1 to some extent1 voluntary1 though when we cease to direct it voluntarily1 it is involuntarily continued by organs which know no fatigue4 ,when1 therefore1 we feel weary--still controuling our breathing in our efforts to move or to speak--there frequently arrives a period when1 for a few seconds1 the respiratory process is suspended4 ,it seems to be the point at which the voluntary nerves of respiration are about to deliver their office over to the involuntary nerves2 but the pause in the respiration has caused a momentary deficiency of breath1 and the involuntary nerves of respiration1 coming suddenly to the aid of the lungs1 cause a spasmodic action of the parts involved1 and a yawn1 attended by a deep inspiration to compensate for the cessation of breathing1 are the result4 ,verse3 ,and it shall be1 when they say unto thee1 ,wherefore sighed thou that thou shalt answer1 ,for the tidings1 because it cometh2 and every heart shall melt1 and all hands shall be feeble4--,,ezekiel ,,xxi4 #ajbc4 ,why do we cough8 ,because the respiratory organs are excited by the presence of some body foreign or unnatural to them4 ,a cough is an effort on the part of the air tubes to free themselves from some source of irritation4 ,and so important are the organs of breathing to the welfare of the body1 that the muscles of the chest1 back1 and abdomen1 unite in the endeavour to get rid of the exciting substance4 #ajbd4 ,why do we sneeze8 ,because particles of matter enter the nostrils and excite the nerves of feeling and of smell4 ,in sneezing1 as in coughing1 the effort is to free the parts affected from the intrusion of some matters of an objectionable nature4 ,and in this case1 as in the former one1 there is a very general sympathy of other organs with the part affected1 and an energetic effort to get rid of the evil4 #ajbe4 ,why do we sigh8 ,the action of sighing arises from very similar causes to those of yawning4 ,but in sighing1 the nervous depression is caused by grief2 while in yawning1 it is the result of fatigue4 ,in sighing1 the effect is generally erased by an expiration--in yawning by an inspiration4 ,the mind1 wearied and weakened by sorrow1 omits for a few seconds to continue the respiratory process2 and then suddenly there comes an involuntary expiration of the breath1 causing a faint sound as it passes the organs of the voice4 #ajbf4 ,why do we laugh8 ,laughing is caused by the very opposite influences that produce sighing4 ,the nervous system is highly excited by some external cause4 ,the impression is so intense1 and the mind so fixed upon it1 that the respiratory process is irregular1 and uncontrolled4 ,persons excited to a fit of laughter generally hold their breath until they can hold it no longer1 and then suddenly there is a quick expiration causing eccentric sounds1 the mind being too intently fixed upon the cause of excitement1 either to moderate the sounds1 or to controul the breathing4 ,verse3 ,except ye utter by the tongue words easy to be understood1 how shall it be known what is spoken8 for ye shall speak into the air4--,,corinth4 ,,xiv4 #ajbg4 ,why do we hiccough8 ,hiccough is caused by a spasmodic twitching of the diaphragm1 a thin muscular membrane which divides the chest from the abdomen4 ,it generally arises from sympathy with the stomach2 and it is highly probable that the muscular twitches and jerks are so many efforts on the part of the diaphragm to assist the stomach to get rid of some undigested matter4 #ajbh4 ,why do we snore8 ,snoring is caused by air sweeping through the passages that lead from the mouth through the nostrils1 and which1 in our waking moments1 are capable of certain muscular modifications to adapt them to our breathing4 ,but as in sleeping the nervous controul over them is withdrawn1 they are left to the action of the air which1 in sweeping by them1 sets them in vibration4 ,we have endeavoured1 by the employment of the simplest language1 and by reference to some of the most familiar phenomena of nature1 to impart to the reader a clear conception of those sublime laws which control our being1 and afford evidence of the goodness and power of that ,almighty ,god to whom we are indebted for the life that we enjoy1 and the varied and beautiful existences which1 to the rightly constituted mind1 make the earth a vast aggregation of interesting objects4 ,we will now1 before we pass on to the final section of our work1 review some of the more important facts that have been communicated1 and devote a few pages to meditations upon the formation of the human body--that wonderful temple of which each of us is a tenant4 ,we have described man's organisation4 ,what is that organisation for8 ,it is to make use of the elements upon which man exists4 ,the lungs make use of the air2 the eye makes use of the light2 the stomach1 and the system generally1 make use of water2 every part of the body uses heat2 and all parts of the system demand food4 ,the hand feeds as constantly as the mouth4 ,the mouth is the receptacle of food1 by which the body is to be fed2 the stomach is the kitchen in which food is prepared for the use of the body2 and the blood-vessels are the canals through which the food is sent to those members of the body that are in need of it4 ,when we speak of man's organs or members1 we speak of those parts of the living machinery by which the elements are used up1 or employed1 for man's benefit4 ,and this view of the subject1 bearing in mind that the body is held together as the temple of a living ,spirit1 superior to mere flesh and blood1 gives us a higher and clearer perception of the distinction between the body and the soul than that which we might otherwise entertain4 ,the body is a machine1 working for the spirit1 which is its owner4 ,while the machine works1 the spirit directs and influences its actions4 ,but when the machine stops1 the spirit resigns its power over a ruined temple1 quits it1 and flies to a region where1 as a spirit1 it becomes subject to a new order of existence consistent with its severance from earthly things and laws1 and there it enters upon its eternal destiny1 according to the judgments and appointments of ,god4 ,it is no longer dependent upon a relation between spiritual and material laws4 ,verse3 ,not unto us1 ,o ,lord1 not unto us1 but unto thy name give glory1 for thy mercy1 and for thy truth's sake4--,,psalm ,,cxv4 ,suppose that the air which man breathes1 instead of returning from his lungs clear and imperceptible to sight1 were tinged with colour2 we should see1 that every time a man breathed1 the air would rush in a stream into his mouth1 and then return again2 and the air which returned would1 being warm1 be lighter than the outer air1 and would rise upward over the man's head1 where1 cooling and mingling with the outer air1 it would descend again4 ,we do1 in fact1 see this action evidenced2 when in winter time the cold condenses the vapour of the breath1 we see the little cloud constantly rising before the breather's face1 and dispersing in the surrounding air4 ,is it not a wonderful thing that that clear and elastic substance1 which you cannot feel1 though it touches every part of your body1 and which you cannot see1 is composed of two distinct bodies1 having very different properties2 and that the two bodies can easily be separated from each other8 ,air is of the first importance to life4 ,hence it is provided for us everywhere4 ,we require air every second1 water every few hours1 and food at intervals considerably apart4 ,air is therefore provided for us everywhere4 ,whether we stand or sit2 whether we dwell in a valley or upon a mountain2 whether we go into the cellar under our house1 or into the garret at the top of it1 air is there provided for us4 ,god1 who made it a law that man should breathe to live1 also sent him air abundantly1 that he might comply with that law4 ,and all that is required from man in this respect is1 that he will not shut out ,god's bounty1 but receive it freely4 ,as we have employed the idea that if the air were coloured we should have the opportunity of marking the process of breathing1 let us enlarge upon this1 and suppose that every time the air were returned from the lungs it became of a darker colour1 the darkness denoting increasing impurity4 ,if we placed a man in a room full of pure air1 we should see the air enter his lungs1 and sent back slightly tinged2 but this would disperse itself with the other air of the room and scarcely be perceptible4 ,as the man continued to breathe1 however1 each measure of air returning from the lungs would serve to pollute that abiding in the room1 until at last the whole mass would become cloudy and discoloured1 and we should see such a change as occurs when water is turned from a pure and clear state into a muddy condition4 ,the air does become polluted with each respiration1 and although it is colourless1 it is as impure as if with every breath given off from the lungs it became of a dark colour in proportion to its impurity4 ,thus we see how important it is that we should provide ourselves with pure air2 and that1 in seeking warmth and comfort in our houses1 we should provide an adequate supply of fresh atmosphere--because it is more vital to life than either water or food4 ,indeed1 so constant is our requirement of air1 that if we had to fetch it1 for purposes of breathing1 or simply to raise it to our mouths1 as we do water when we drink1 it would be the sole occupation of our lives--we could do nothing else4 ,for this reason1 ,god has sent the air to us1 and not required us to go to the air4 ,and the great error of man is1 that in too many instances1 he shuts off the supply from himself1 and brings on disease and pain by inhaling a poisonous compound1 instead of air of a healthful kind1 which bears an adaptation to the wants of life4 ,verse3 ,there is a natural body1 and there is a spiritual body4--,i ,,corinthians ,,xv4 ,whilst the rooms of our house are filled with air1 it is otherwise with water1 which we require in less degree than air4 ,if we have not the artificial means by which water is brought to our houses1 through the pipes of a water company1 there is a spring or a pump in the garden2 or in the absence of these1 a good sound cask1 standing at the end of our house1 forming a receptacle to the water-pipes that surround it1 provides us with a supply of water distilled from the clouds4 ,if we were to drink a good draught of water once a day1 that would be sufficient for all the purposes of life1 as far as regards the alimentary uses of water4 ,man is1 therefore1 allowed to go to the stream for his drink1 and is required to raise it to his lips at those moments when he uses it4 ,although1 in breathing1 man separates the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen thereof1 he does not separate the oxygen of the water from the hydrogen4 ,water1 in fact1 undergoes no change in the body1 excepting that of admixture with the substances of the body4 ,and its uses are1 to moisten1 to cool1 to cleanse1 and also to nourish the parts with which it comes in contact4 ,but it affords no nourishment of itself2 it mixes with the blood1 of which it forms a material part1 and is the means of conveying the nourishment of the blood to every part of the system4 ,after it has filled this office1 and taken up impurities that are required to be removed1 it is cast out of the system again1 without undergoing any chemical change4 ,man's body is to his ,soul1 in many respects1 what a house is to its occupant4 ,but how superior is the dwelling which ,god erected1 to that which man has built4 ,reader1 come out of yourself1 and in imagination realise the abstraction of the ,soul from the body4 ,make an effort of thought1 and do not relinquish that effort1 until you fancy that you see your image seated on a chair before you4 ,and now proceed to ask yourself certain questions respecting your bodily tenement--questions which1 perchance1 have never occurred to you before2 but which will impress themselves the more forcibly upon you1 in proportion as you realise for a moment the idea of your ,soul examining the body which it inhabits4 ,there sits before you a form of exquisite proportions1 with reference to the mode of life it has to pursue--the wants of the ,soul for which it has to care1 and which it has to guard1 under the direction of that ,soul1 its owner and master4 ,over the brows that mark the intellectual front of that due form1 there fall the auburn locks of youth1 or the grey hair of venerable age4 ,each of those hairs is curiously organised4 ,if you take a branch of a tree1 and cut it across1 you will find curious markings caused by vessels of various structure1 all necessary to the existence of the plant4 ,in the centre will be found either a hollow tube1 or a space occupied by a soft substance called pith4 ,each hair of your head is as curiously formed as the branch of a tree1 and in a manner not dissimilar1 though its parts are so minute that the unaided eye cannot discern them4 ,every hair has a root1 just as a tree has1 and through this root it receives its nourishment4 ,as the vessel which feed a plant are always proportionate to the size of the plant itself1 how fine must be those vessels which form the roots of the hair1 being in proportion to the size of the hair1 which is in itself so small that the eye cannot see its structure8 ,the hair is1 in fact1 an animal plant1 growing upon the body in much the same manner that plants grow upon the surface of the earth4 ,but how does this hair grow8 ,not alone by the addition of matter at its roots1 pushing up and elongating its stem3 nourishment passes up through its whole length1 and is deposited upon its end1 just as the nourishment of a tree is deposited upon its extreme branches4 ,if1 after having your hair cut1 you were to examine its ends by the microscope1 you would discover the abrupt termination left by the scissors4 ,but allow the hair to grow1 and then examine it1 and you will discover that it grows from its point which1 in comparison with its former state1 is perfect and fine4 ,the reason why the beard is so hard is1 that the ends of the hair are continually being shaved off4 ,the hair of the beard1 if allowed to grow1 would become almost as soft as the hair of the head4 ,verse3 ,the very hairs of your head are all numbered4--,,matthew ,,xi4 ,but why is man's head thus covered with hair8 ,for precisely the same reason that a house is thatched--to keep the inmates warm4 ,we might add1 also1 to give beauty to the edifice4 ,but as beauty is a conventional quality--and if men were without it they would consider themselves quite as handsome as they do now--we will not enlarge upon the argument4 ,our bald-headed friends1 too1 might have reason to complain of such a partial hypothesis4 ,the brain is the great organ upon which the health1 the welfare1 and the happiness of the system depends4 ,the skull1 therefore1 may be regarded as analogous to the strong box1 the iron chest in which the merchant keeps his treasure4 ,there is no point at which the brain can be touched to its injury1 without first doing violence to the skull4 ,even the spinal cord runs down the back through a tunnel or tube1 formed in a number of strong bones1 so closely and firmly jointed together1 that they are commonly termed the back-bone4 ,look at the eyebrows4 ,what purpose do they fulfil8 ,precisely that of a shed1 or arch placed over a window to shelter it from rain4 ,but for the eyebrows the perspiration would frequently run from the brow into the eyes1 and obscure the sight2 a man walking in a shower of rain would scarcely be able to see2 and a mariner in a storm would find a double difficulty in braving the tempest4 ,now we come to the eye1 which is the window of the ,soul's abode4 ,and what a window6 how curiously constructed6 how wisely guarded6 ,in the eyelashes1 as well as the eyebrows1 we see the hair fulfilling a useful purpose1 differing from any already described4 ,the eyelashes serve to keep cold winds1 dust1 and too bright sun1 from injuring or entering the windows of the body4 ,when we walk against the east wind1 we bring the tips of our eyelashes together1 and in that way exclude the cold air from the surface of the eye2 and in the same manner we exclude the dust and modify the light4 ,the eyelashes1 therefore1 are like so many sentries1 constantly moving to and fro1 protecting a most important organ from injury4 ,the eyelids are the shutters by which the windows are opened and closed4 ,but they also cleanse the eye1 keeping it bright and moist4 ,there are1 moreover1 in the lids of each eye or window1 little glands1 or springs1 by which a clear fluid is formed and supplied for cleansing the eye4 ,the eye is placed in a socket of the skull1 in which it has free motion1 turning right or left1 up or down1 to serve the purpose of the inhabitant of the dwelling4 ,of the structure of the eye itself we will not say much1 for the engravings will afford a clearer understanding than a lengthy written description4 ,but we would have you examine the formation of the iris of the living eye1 the ring which surrounds the pupil4 ,hold a light to it1 and you will find that the iris will contract and diminish the pupil2 withdraw the light1 and the iris will relax1 and the pupil expand1 thus regulating the amount of light4 ,the images of external objects are formed upon the retina of the eye1 a thin membrane1 spread out upon the extremity of a large nerve1 which proceeds immediately to the brain1 and forms the telegraphic cord by which information is given to the mind1 of everything visible going on within the range of sight4 ,verse3 ,thou art of purer eyes than to behold evil1 and canst not look on iniquity4--,,habakkuk ,i4 ,now1 think for a few moments upon the wonderful structure of those windows of the body4 ,can you fancy1 in the walls of your house1 a window which protects itself1 cleanses itself1 and turns in any direction at the mere will of the tenant2 and when that tenant is oppressed by excess of light1 draws its own curtain1 and gives him ease2 and when he falls asleep1 closes its own shutters1 and protects itself from the cold and dust of night1 and the instant he awakes in the morning1 opens1 cleanses itself with a fluid which it has prepared during the night1 and kept in readiness2 and repeats this routine of duty day after day for half a century1 without becoming impaired8 ,such1 nevertheless1 is the wonderful structure of the window of the body--the eye4 ,in some scientific works that have recently been published1 curious investigations have been made known4 ,it has been shown that the eye is impressed momentarily1 as a photographic plate is impressed by the rays of the sun4 ,but the photography of the eye has this extraordinary quality--that one image passes away1 and another takes its place immediately1 without confusion or indistinctness4 ,but the most wonderful assertion of all is1 that under the excitement of memory these photographic images are restored2 and that when1 in our mind's eye1 we see the image of some dear departed friend1 the retina really revives an image which once fell upon its sensitive surface1 and which image has been stored up for many years in the sacred portfolio of its affections6 ,another extraordinary assertion is one which comes supported by a degree of authenticity that entitles it to consideration4 ,it is said that the eye of a dead man retains an impression of the last picture that fell upon the faithful retina4 ,dr4 ,sandford1 of ,america1 examined the eye of a man named ,beardley1 who had been murdered at ,auburn1 and he published in the ,boston ,atlas the following statement3--,at first we suggested the saturation of the eye in a weak solution of atrophine1 which evidently produced an enlarged state of the pupil4 ,on observing this1 we touched the end of the optic nerve with the extract1 when the eye instantly became protuberant4 ,we now applied a powerful lens1 and discovered in the pupil1 the rude1 worn-away figure of a man1 with a light coat1 beside whom was a round stone1 standing or suspended in the air1 with a small handle1 stuck in the earth4 ,the remainder was debris1 evidently lost from the destruction of the optic nerve1 and its separation from the mother brain4 ,had we performed the operation when the eye was entire in the socket1 with all its powerful connection with the brain1 there is not the least doubt but that we should have detected the last idea and impression made on the mind and eye of the unfortunate man4 ,the picture would evidently be entire2 and perhaps we should have had the contour1 or better still1 the exact figure of the murderer4 ,the last impression on the brain before death is always more terrible from fear than any other cause1 and figures impressed on the pupil more distinct1 which we attribute to the largeness of the optic nerve1 and its free communication with the brain4 ,whether the supposition1 which seems to be supported by the experiment above detailed1 be correct or not1 it is in no sense more wonderful than the facts which are already known respecting this curious and perfect organ4 ,verse3 ,be not rash with thy mouth1 and let not thine heart be hasty to utter anything before ,god3 for ,god is in heaven1 and thou upon earth2 therefore let thy words be few4--,,ecclesiastes ,v4 ,the nose is given us for two purposes--to enable us to respire and to smell4 ,as odours arise from the surface of the earth1 the cup or funnel of the nose is turned down to meet them4 ,in the nostrils hair again serves a useful purpose4 ,it not only warms the air which enters the nostrils1 but it springs out from all sides1 and forms an intersecting net1 closing the nostrils against dust1 and the intrusion of small insects4 ,if by any means1 as when taking a sharp sniff1 foreign matters enter the nostrils1 the nose is armed with a set of nerves which communicate the fact to certain muscles1 and the organs of respiration unite with those muscles to expel the intruding substances4 ,in this action1 the diaphragm1 or the muscle which divides the abdomen from the chest1 is pressed down1 the lungs are filled with air1 the passage by which that air would otherwise escape through the mouth1 is closed up1 and then1 all at once1 with considerable force1 the air is pressed through the nostrils1 to free them from the annoying substance4 ,so great is the force with which this action takes place1 that the passage into the mouth is generally pushed open occasioning the person in whom the action takes place1 to cry 'tsha6 and thus is formed what is termed a sneeze4 ,as with the eye1 so with the nose--innumerable nerves are distributed over the lining membrane1 and these nerves are connected with larger nerves passing to the brain1 through which everything relating to the sense of smell is communicated4 ,the nose acts like a custom-house officer to the system4 ,it is highly sensitive to the odour of most poisonous substances4 ,it readily detects hemlock1 henbane1 monk's hood1 and the plants containing prussic acid4 ,it recognises the foeted smell of drains1 and warns us not to breathe the polluted air4 ,the nose is so sensitive1 that air containing a #bjj1jjjth part of bromine vapour will instantly be detected by it4 ,it will recognise the #a1cjj1jjjth part of a grain of otto of roses1 or the #ac1jjj1jjjth part of a grain of musk6 ,it tells us in the mornings that our bed-rooms are impure2 it catches the first fragrance of the morning air1 and conveys to us the invitation of the flowers to go forth into the fields1 and inhale their sweet breath4 ,to be led by the nose1 has hitherto been used as a phrase of reproach4 ,but to have a good nose1 and to follow its guidance1 is one of the safest and shortest ways to the enjoyment of health4 ,the mouth answers the fourfold purpose of the organ of taste1 of sound1 of mastication1 and of breathing4 ,in all of these operations1 except in breathing1 the various parts of the mouth are engaged4 ,in eating we use the lips1 the tongue1 and the teeth4 ,the teeth serve the purpose of grinding the food1 the tongue turns it during the process of grinding1 and delivers it up to the throat for the purposes of the stomach1 when sufficiently masticated4 ,the lips serve to confine the food in the mouth1 and assist in swallowing it1 and there are glands underneath the tongue1 and in the sides of the mouth1 which pour in a fluid to moisten the food4 ,and so watchful are those glands of their duty1 that the mere imagination frequently causes them to act4 ,their fluid is required to modify the intensity of different flavours and condiments in which man1 with his love of eating1 will indulge4 ,thus1 when we eat anything very acid1 as a lemon1 or anything very irritating1 as ,cayenne pepper1 the effect thereof upon the sensitive nerves of the tongue is greatly modified by a free flow of saliva into the mouth4 ,and if we merely fancy the taste of any such things1 those glands are so watchful1 that they will immediately pour out their fluid to mitigate the supposed effect4 ,verse3 ,i say unto you1 ,swear not at all2 neither by heaven1 for it is ,god's throne2 ,nor by the earth2 for it is his footstool4--,,matthew ,v4 ,in speaking1 we use the lips1 the teeth1 the tongue2 and the chest supplies air1 which1 being controlled in its emission1 by a delicate apparatus at the mouth of the wind-pipe1 causes the various sounds which we have arranged into speech1 and by which1 under certain laws1 we are enabled to understand each other's wants1 participate in each other's emotions1 express our loves1 our hopes1 our fears1 and glean those facts1 the accumulation of which constitutes knowledge1 enhances the happiness of man1 and elevates him1 in its ultimate results above the lower creatures to which the blessing of speech is denied4 ,the curious structure of the tongue1 and the organs of speech1 would fill a very interesting volume4 ,the tongue is unfortunately much abused1 not only by those who utter foul words1 and convert the blessing of speech1 which should improve and refine1 into a source of wicked and profane language2 but it constantly remonstrates against the abuse of food1 and the use of things which are not only unnecessary for the good of our bodies1 but prejudicial to their health4 ,when the body is sufficiently fed1 the tongue ceases its relish1 and derives no more satisfaction from eating3 but man contrives a variety of inventions to whip the tongue up to an unnatural performance of its duty1 and thus we not only over-eat1 but eat things that have no more business in our stomachs1 than have the stones that we walk upon4 ,can we wonder1 then1 that disease is so prevalent1 and that death calls for many of us so soon4 ,that wonderful essence1 the ,soul of man1 rises above all finite knowledge4 ,its wonders and powers will never1 probably1 be understood until when1 in a future state of existence1 the grandest of all mysteries shall be explained4 ,when we talk of the brain1 we speak of that which it is easy to comprehend as the organ1 or the seat of the mind2 when we speak of the mind1 we have greater difficulty in comprehending the meaning of the term we employ2 but when we speak of the ,soul1 we have reached a point which defies our understanding1 because our knowledge is limited4 ,the brain may be injured by a blow2 the mind may be pained by a disagreeable sight1 or offended by a harsh word2 but the ,soul can only be influenced secondarily through the mind1 which is primarily affected by the organs of the material senses4 ,thus the happiness or the misery of the ,soul depends to a very great extent upon the proper fulfilment of the duties of the senses1 which are the servants of the ,soul1 over which the mind presides1 as the steward who mediates between the employer and the employed4 ,the ,ear1 which is taught to delight in sweet sounds1 and in pure language1 is a better servant of the master ,soul1 than one which delights not in music1 and which listens1 with approbation or indifference1 to the oaths of the profane4 ,the ,eye which rejoices in the beauties of nature1 and in scenes of domestic happiness and love1 is a more faithful servant than one that delights in witnessing scenes of revelry1 dissipation1 and strife4 ,the ,nose which esteems the sweet odour of flowers1 or the life-giving freshness of the pure air1 is more dutiful to his master than one that rejects not the polluted atmosphere of neglected dwellings4 ,the ,mouth which thirsts for morbid gratification of taste1 is more worthless than one which is contented with wholesome viands1 and ruled by the proper instincts of its duty4 ,who that can understand the wonderful structure of the tongue1 and the complicated mechanism of the organs of speech and of hearing1 could be found to take pleasure in the utterance of oaths1 and of words of vulgar meaning8 ,were those beautiful cords that like threads of silk are woven into the muscular texture of the mouth1 and along which the essence of life travels with the quickness of thought1 to do the bidding of the will--were they given for no higher use than to sin against the ,god who gave them1 and upon whose mercy their existence every moment depends8 ,verse3 ,out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing4 ,my brethren1 these things ought not so to be4--,,james ,,iii4 ,the actions of the senses must necessarily affect the mind1 which is the head steward of the ,soul2 and the ,soul becomes rich in goodness1 or poor in sin1 in proportion as the stewardship1 held by his many servants1 is rightly or wrong-fully fulfilled4 ,as in an establishment where the servants are not properly directed and ruled1 they often gain the ascendancy1 and the master has no power over them1 so with man1 when he gives himself up to sensual indulgences4 ,the ,soul becomes the slave of the senses--the master is controlled by the servants4 ,with regard to the mechanism of motion1 let us take the case of a man who is walking a crowded thoroughfare1 and we shall see how active are all the servants of the ,soul1 under the influence of the mind4 ,he walks along in a given direction4 ,but for the act of volition in the mind1 not a muscle would stir4 ,the eye is watching his footsteps4 ,there is a stone in his path1 the eye informs the mind1 the mind communicates with the brain1 and the nerves stimulate the muscles of the leg to lift the foot a little higher1 or turn it on one side1 and the stone is avoided4 ,the eye alights on a familiar face1 and the mind remembers that the eye has seen that face before4 ,the man goes on thinking of the circumstance under which he saw that person1 and partially forgets his walk1 and the direction of his steps4 ,but the nerves of volition and motion unite to keep the muscles up to their work1 and he walks on without having occasion to think continually1 ,i must continue walking4 ,he has not to make an effort to lift his leg along between each interval of meditation2 he walks and meditates the while4 ,presently a danger approaches him from behind4 ,the eye sees it not--knows no more1 in fact1 than if it were dead4 ,but the ear sounds the alarm1 tells the man1 by the rumbling of a wheel1 and the tramp of horses' feet1 that he is in danger2 and then the nerves1 putting forth their utmost strength1 whip the muscles up to the quick performance of their duty2 the man steps out of the way of danger1 and is saved4 ,he draws near to a sewer1 which is vomiting forth its poisonous exhalations4 ,the eye is again unconscious--it cannot see the poison lurking in the air4 ,the ear1 too1 is helpless2 it cannot bear witness to the presence of that enemy to life4 ,but the nose detects the noxious agent1 and then the eye points out the direction of the sewer1 and guides his footsteps to a path where he may escape the injurious consequences4 ,a clock strikes1 the ear informs him that it is the hour of an appointment2 the nerves stimulate the muscles again1 and he is hastened onward4 ,he does not know the residence of his friend1 but his tongue asks for him1 and his ear makes known the reply4 ,he reaches the spot--sits--rests4 ,the action of the muscles is stayed2 the nerves are for a time at rest4 ,the blood which had flown freely to feed the muscles while they were working1 goes more steadily through the arteries and veins1 and the lungs1 which had been purifying the blood in its course1 partake of the temporary rest4 ,verse3 ,i am but a little child3 ,i know not how to go out or come in4--,i ,,kings ,,iii4 ,let us remember that there are two sets of muscles1 acting in unison with each other1 to produce the various motions2 they are known by the general terms of flexors and extensors2 the first enable us to bend the limbs1 the other to bring the limbs back to their former position4 ,the flexors enable us to close the hand1 the extensors to open it again4 ,the flexors enable us to raise the foot from the ground2 the extensors set the foot down again in the place desired4 ,consider for a moment the nicety with which the powers of these muscles must be balanced1 and the harmony which must subsist between them in their various operations4 ,when we are closing the hand1 if the extensor muscles did not gradually yield to the flexors--if they gave up their hold all at once1 the hand1 instead of closing with gentleness and ease1 would be jerked together in a sudden and most uncomfortable manner4 ,if1 in such a case1 you were to lay your hand with its back upon the table1 and wish to close the hand1 the fingers would fall down upon the palm suddenly1 like the lid of a box4 ,again1 consider how awkward it would be in such a case2 our walk through the streets would become a series of jumps and jerks2 when a man had raised his foot1 after it had been jerked up1 there it would stand fixed for a second before the opposite muscles could put on their power to draw it down again4 ,this case is not at all suppositious3 there is a derangement frequently observed in horses1 in which one set of muscles becomes injured1 and we may see horses suffering from this ailment1 trotting along with one of their legs jerking up much higher than the others1 and set down again with difficulty1 just in the manner described4 ,it is also to be observed that very nice proportions must exist between the sizes of the muscles and the sizes of the bones4 ,if this were not the case1 our motions1 instead of being firm and steady1 would be all shaky and uncertain4 ,in old persons the muscles become weak and relaxed2 hence there is a tendency in the movements of the aged to fall1 as it were1 together2 the head is no longer erect1 the body bends1 the knees totter1 and the arms lean towards the body as for support4 ,in the child a somewhat similar state of things exists4 ,the muscles have not been properly developed1 nor have they been brought sufficiently under the controul of the nervous system4 ,the child1 therefore1 totters and tumbles about1 and it is not until it has stumbled and tumbled some hundreds of times in its little history1 that the muscles have become strong enough to fulfil their office1 or have been brought sufficiently under the controul of the nervous system1 to perform well the various duties required from them4 ,in all these things1 we recognise the perfection of the divine works4 ,we are apt1 too apt1 to overlook this perfection1 because it prevails in everything2 but by speculating upon what inconveniences we might suffer1 were not things ordained as they are1 we obtain most convincing evidences of divine goodness and wisdom4 ,verse3 ,watchman1 what of the night8 ,the watchman said1 ,the morning cometh1 and also the night2 if ye will enquire1 enquire ye2 return1 come4--,,isaiah ,,xxi4 ,having taken this view of the muscular system of the external man1 let us turn our attention to the muscles of the internal organs4 ,the muscles of which we have been speaking are called the voluntary muscles1 because we have them under our own controul--they are subject to the influences of our will4 ,but there is the other set of muscles4 ,what are they8 ,we talk of the beating1 or of the palpitation1 of the heart4 ,but1 what is it that causes the heart to beat8 ,you cannot1 if you wish it1 make your heart beat more quickly or more slowly4 ,place your finger upon your pulse1 and notice the degree of rapidity with which its pulsations follow4 ,now think that you should like to double the frequency of those pulsations4 ,say to the heart1 with your inner voice1 that you wish it to beat #abj times in a minute1 instead of #fj4 ,it does not obey you2 it does not appreciate your command4 ,now place your finger on the table1 and your watch by the side of your hand1 and tell your finger to beat #fj times in the minute1 or #ajj times1 or #aej times1 or #bjj times1 and the finger will obey you--because it is moved by muscles which are subject to the will1 while the heart is composed of muscles which are not subject to the will4 ,why should this be8 ,why should man have the power to regulate his finger1 and not to regulate his heart8 ,for the sustentation of our bodies it is needful that the blood should ever be in circulation4 ,if the heart were to cease beating only for three or four minutes 7perhaps less7 life would be extinct4 ,in this short time the whole framework of man1 beautiful in its proportions1 perfect in its parts1 would pass into the state of dead matter1 and would simply wait the decay that follows death4 ,the eye would become dull and glazed1 the lips would turn blue1 the skin would acquire the coldness of clay--love1 hope1 joy1 would all cease4 ,the sweetest1 the fondest ties would be broken4 ,flowers might bloom1 and yield their fragrance1 but they would be neither seen nor smelt2 the sun might rise in its brightest splendour1 yet the eye would not be sensitive to its rays2 the rosy-cheeked child might climb the paternal knee2 but there1 stiff1 cold1 without joy1 or pain1 or emotion of any kind1 unconscious as a block of marble1 would sit the man whose heart for a few moments had ceased to beat4 ,how wise1 then1 and how good of ,god1 that he has not placed this vital organ under our own care6 ,how sudden would be our bereavements--how frequent our deaths1 how sleepless our nights1 and how anxious our days1 if we had to keep our own hearts at work1 and death the penalty of neglect4 ,and yet1 before we were born1 until we reach life's latest moment--through days of toil1 and nights of rest--even in the moments of our deepest sin against the ,god who at the time is sustaining us1 our hearts beat on1 never stopping1 never wearying1 never asking rest4 ,this brings us to another reflection4 ,our arms get weary1 our legs falter from fatigue1 the mind itself becomes overtaxed1 and all our senses fall to sleep4 ,the eye sees not1 the ear is deaf to sound1 the sentinels that surround the body1 the nerves of touch1 are all asleep--you may place your hand upon the brow of the sleeping man1 and he feels it not4 ,yet1 unseen1 unheard1 without perceptible motion1 or the slightest jar to mar the rest of the sleeper1 the heart beats on1 and on1 and on4 ,as his sleep deepens1 the heart slackens its speed1 that his rest may be the more sound4 ,he has slept for eight hours1 and the time approaches for his awakening4 ,but is the heart weary--that heart which has toiled through the long and sluggard night8 ,no6 ,the moment the waking sleeper moves his arm1 the heart is aware that a motion has been made1 that effort and exercise are about to begin4 ,the nerves are all arousing to action2 the eyes turn in their sockets1 the head moves upon the neck2 the sleeper leaves his couch1 and the legs are once more called upon to bear the weight of the body4 ,blood is the food of the eye1 the food of the ear1 of the foot1 the hand1 and every member of the frame4 ,while they labour they must be fed--that is the condition of their life1 the source of their strength4 ,the heart1 therefore1 so far from seeking rest1 is all fresh and vigorous for the labours of the day1 and proceeds to discharge its duty so willingly1 that we do not even know of the movements that are going on within us4 ,verse3 ,awake up1 my glory2 awake1 psaltery and harp3 ,i myself will awake early4--,,psalm ,,lvii4 ,thus we have seen the difference between the voluntary and the involuntary muscles1 and we have perceived the goodness of our ,creator in not entrusting to our keeping the controul of an organ so vital to life1 as the heart4 ,but the heart is not the only organ which thus works unseen and unfelt4 ,there are the lungs and the muscles of the chest1 the stomach1 and other parts occupying the abdomen1 together with all those muscular filaments which enter into the structure of the coats and valves of the blood-vessels1 and which assist to propel the blood through the system4 ,all these are at work at every moment of man's life2 and yet1 so perfect is this complicated machinery1 that we really do not know1 except by theory1 what is going on within us4 ,during the time that the sleeper has been at rest1 the stomach has been at work digesting the food which was last eaten4 ,then the stomach has passed the macerated food into the alimentary canal1 the liver has poured out its secretion1 and produced certain changes in the condition of the dissolved food3 and the lacteals1 of which there may be many thousands1 perhaps millions1 have been busy sucking up those portions of the food which they knew to be useful to the system1 whilst they have rejected all those useless and noxious matters upon which the liver1 like an officer of health1 had set his mark1 as unfitting for the public use4 ,this busy life has gone on uninterruptedly2 every member of that body1 every worker in that wonderful factory1 has been unremitting in his duty1 and yet the owner1 the master1 has been asleep1 and wakes up finding every bodily want supplied6 ,notwithstanding that much has already been said of the wonders that pertain to the eye1 it has not yet been considered as the seat of tears1 those mute but eloquent utterers of the sorrows of the heart4 ,beautiful ,tear6 whether lingering upon the brink of the eyelid1 or darting down the furrows of the care-worn cheek--thou art sublime in thy simplicity--great1 because of thy modesty--strong1 from thy very weakness4 ,offspring of sorrow6 who will not own thy claim to sympathy8 who can resist thy eloquence8 who can deny mercy when thou pleadest8 ,every tear represents some in-dwelling sorrow preying upon the mind and destroying its peace4 ,the tear comes forth to declare the inward struggle1 and to plead a truce against further strife4 ,how meet that the eye should be the seat of tears--where they cannot occur unobserved1 but1 blending with the beauty of the eye itself1 must command attention and sympathy6 ,whenever we behold a tear1 let our kindliest sympathies awake--let it have a sacred claim upon all that we can do to succour and comfort under affliction4 ,what rivers of tears have flown1 excited by the cruel and perverse ways of man6 ,war has spread its carnage and desolation1 and the eyes of widows and orphans have been suffused with tears6 ,intemperance has blighted the homes of millions1 and weeping and wailing have been incessant6 ,a thousand other evils which we may conquer have given birth to tears enough to constitute a flood--a great tide of grief4 ,suppose we prize this little philosophy1 and each one determine never to excite a tear in another4 ,watching the eye as the telegraph of the mind within1 let us observe it with anxious regard2 and whether we are moved to complaint by the existence of supposed or real wrongs1 let the indication of the coming tear be held as a sacred truce to unkindly feeling1 and our efforts be devoted to the substitution of smiles for tears6 ,verse3 ,who is as the wise man8 and who knoweth the interpretation of a thing8 a man's wisdom maketh his face to shine1 and the boldness of his face shall be changed4--,,ecclesiastes ,,viii4 ,there is only one other matter to which we think it necessary to allude1 before we pass to the concluding section of our work4 ,it has been said 7#afb71 that snow which is white1 keeps the earth warm2 that white as a colour is cool1 and that black absorbs heat 7#bcj74 ,these assertions may appear to be contradictory1 and1 taken in connection with the fact of the blackness of the skin of negroes in hot climates1 may at a first glance be considered unsatisfactory4 ,they are1 however1 perfectly reconcileable1 and that too1 without the slightest evasion of the real bearing of the asserted facts4 ,white snow is warm on account of its texture1 which1 being woolly1 forms a layer of non-conducting substance over the surface of the earth1 and keeps in its warmth2 white clothing1 worn as a garment consisting of a thin material1 is cool1 because the white colour turns back the rays of the sun that fall upon it4 ,swansdown1 although white1 being a non-conductor1 would be warm1 because1 though it would reflect the light and heat1 it would confine and accumulate the heat of the body4 ,the black skin of the negro is a living texture1 and is not subject to the same laws that govern dead matter4 ,the skin of the negro is largely provided with cells which secrete a fatty matter that acts as a non-conductor of the external heat1 and also a much larger number of perspiratory glands than exist in the skins of ,europeans4 ,the perspiration cools the blood1 and carries off the internal heat1 while the oily matter gives a shining surface to the skin1 and reflects the heat1 to which the fatty matter presents itself as a non-conductor4 ,we see1 therefore1 that there are two express provisions for the cooling of the negroes' skin1 independent of the colour4 ,the skin of the ,esquimaux who inhabits a cold country is white1 though it might be supposed that a black skin would best conduce to the warmth of his body4 ,but the ,esquimaux has1 underneath his skin1 a thick coating of fat1 by which the internal heat of the body is prevented from escaping4 ,this resume of the subjects embodied in the form of question and answer in the previous pages1 will serve to impress the more important truths upon the mind of the reader1 while it has enabled us to fill up many omissions necessitated by the arbitrary form of catechetical composition4 ,verse3 ,ask now the beasts1 and they shall teach thee2 and the fowls of the air1 and they shall tell thee4--,,job ,,xii4 ,,chapter ,,lii4 #ajbi4 ,why are there so many bodily forms in the animal creation8 ,because the various creatures which ,god has created have different modes of life1 and the forms of their bodies will be found to present a perfect adaptation to the lives allotted to them4 ,because1 also1 the beauty of creation depends upon the variety of objects of which it consists4 ,and the greatness of the ,creator's power is shown by the diversity of ends accomplished by different means4 #ajcj4 ,why are birds covered with feathers8 ,because they require a high degree of warmth1 on account of the activity of their muscles2 but in providing that warmth it was necessary that their coats should be of the lightest material1 so as not to impair their powers of flight2 and feathers combine the highest warming power1 with the least amount of weight4 #ajca4 ,why have ostriches small wings8 ,because1 having long legs1 they do not require their wings for flight2 they are merely used to steady their bodies while running4 #ajcb4 ,why are ostrich feathers soft and downy8 ,because1 as the feathers are not employed for flight1 the strength of the feather as constructed for flying is unnecessary1 and the feathers therefore consist chiefly of a soft down4 #ajcc4 ,why have water-birds feathers of a close and smooth texture8 ,because such feathers keep the body of the bird warm and dry1 by repelling the water from their surface4 ,a bird could scarcely move through the water1 with the downy feathers of the ostrich1 because of the amount of water the down would absorb4 #ajcd4 ,why is man born without a covering8 ,because man is the only animal that can clothe itself4 ,as in the various pursuits of life he wanders to every part of the globe1 he can adapt himself to all climates and to any season4 ,verse3 ,who teacheth us more than the beasts of the earth1 and maketh us wiser than the fowls of heaven8--,,job ,,xxxv4 #ajce4 ,why do the furs of animals become thicker in the winter than in the summer8 ,because the creator has thus provided for the preservation of the warmth of the animals during the cold months of winter4 #ajcf4 ,why does a black down grow under the feathers of birds as winter approaches8 ,because the down is a non-conductor of heat1 and black the warmest colour4 ,it is therefore best adapted to keep in their bodily warmth during the cold of winter4 #ajcg4 ,why has man no external appendage to his mouth8 ,because his hands serve all the purposes of gathering food1 and conveying it to the mouth4 ,man's mouth is simply an opening2 in other animals it is a projection4 #ajch4 ,why have dogs1 and other carnivorous animals1 long pointed teeth1 projecting above the rest8 ,because as they have not hands to seize and controul their food1 the projecting teeth enable them to snap and hold the objects which they pursue for food4 #ajci4 ,why is the under jaw of the hog1 shorter and smaller than the upper one8 ,because the animal pierces the ground with its long snout1 and then the small under jaw works freely in the furrow that has been opened1 in quest of food4 #ajdj4 ,why have birds hard beaks8 ,because1 having no teeth1 the beak enables them to seize1 hold1 and divide their food4 #ajda4 ,why are the beaks of birds generally long and sharp8 ,because the greater number of birds live by picking up small objects1 such as worms1 insects1 seeds1 c4 ,the sharp beak1 therefore1 serves as a fine pincers1 enabling them to take hold of their food conveniently4 ,verse3 ,as the fishes that are taken in an evil net1 and as the birds that are caught in the snare2 so are the sons of men snared in an evil time1 when it falleth suddenly upon them4--,,ecclesiastes ,,ix4 #ajdb4 ,why have snipes and woodcocks long tapering bills8 ,because they live upon worms which they find in the soft mud of streams and marshy places2 their long bills1 therefore1 enable them to dig down into the mud after their prey4 #ajdc4 ,why have woodcocks1 snipes1 c41 nerves running down to the extremities of their bills8 ,because1 as they dig for their prey in the soft sand and mud1 they cannot see the worms upon which they live4 ,nerves are1 therefore1 distributed to the very point of their bills 7where1 in other birds1 nerves are entirely absent7 to enable them to prehend their food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,,spoonbill4 #ajdd4 ,why have ducks and geese square-pointed bills8 ,because they not only feed by dabbling in soft and muddy soil1 but they consume a considerable quantity of green food1 and their square bills enable them to crop off the blades of grass4 ,verse3 ,let the heaven and earth praise him1 the seas1 and everything that moveth therein4--,,psalm ,,lxix4 #ajde4 ,why has the spoon-bill a long expanded bill1 lined internally with sharp muscular points8 ,because the bird lives by suction1 dipping its broad bill in search of aquatic worms1 mollusks1 insects and the roots of weeds4 ,the bill forms a natural spoon1 and the muscular points enable the bird to filter the mud1 and to retain the nourishment which it finds4 #ajdf4 ,why has the spoon-bill long legs8 ,because it wades in marshy places to find its food4 ,its legs are therefore long1 for the purpose of keeping its body out of the water1 and above the smaller aquatic plants1 while it searches for its prey4 #ajdg4 ,why have the parrots1 c41 crooked and hard bills8 ,because they live upon nuts1 the stones of fruit1 and hard seeds4 ,the shape of the bill1 therefore1 enables them to hold the nut or seed firmly1 and the sharp point enables them to split or remove the husks4 #ajdh4 ,why can a parrot move its upper as well as its lower bill8 ,because by that means it is enabled to bring the nut or seed nearer the fulcrum1 or joint of the jaw4 ,it1 therefore1 acquires greater power1 just as with a pair of nut-crackers we obtain increased power by setting the nut near to the joint4 #ajdi4 ,why have animals with long necks large throats8 ,animals that graze1 or feed from the ground1 generally have a more powerful muscular formation of the throat than those which feed in other positions1 because a greater effort is required to force the food upward1 than would be needed to convey it down4 #ajej4 ,why are the bones of birds hollow8 ,because they are thereby rendered lighter1 and do not interfere with the flight of the bird as they would do if they were solid4 ,greater strength is also obtained by the cylindrical form of the bone1 and a larger surface afforded for the attachment of powerful muscles4 ,verse3 ,and my hand hath found1 as a nest1 the riches of the people2 and as one gathereth eggs that are left1 have ,i gathered all the earth2 and there was none that moved the whip1 or opened the mouth1 or peeped4--,,isaiah ,x4 #ajea4 ,why do all birds lay eggs8 ,because1 to bear their young in any other manner1 would encumber the body1 and materially interfere with their powers of flight4 ,as soon as an egg becomes large and heavy enough to be cumbersome to the bird1 it is removed from the body4 ,a shell1 impervious to air1 protects the germ of life within1 until from two to twenty eggs have accumulated1 and then1 although laid at different intervals1 their incubation commences together1 and the young birds are hatched at the same time4 ,,chapter ,,liii4 #ajeb4 ,why have birds with long legs short tails8 ,because the tails of birds are used to guide them through the air1 by a kind of steerage4 ,when birds with long legs take to flight1 they throw their legs behind1 and they then serve the same purpose as a tail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,,perch4 #ajec4 ,why have fishes fins8 ,the fins of fishes are to them1 what wings and tails are to birds1 enabling them to rise in the fluid in which they live by the reaction of the motions of the fins upon its substance4 ,verse3 ,speak to the earth1 and it shall teach thee2 and the fishes of the sea shall declare unto thee4 ,who knoweth not in all these that the hand of the ,lord hath wrought this4--,,job ,,xii4 #ajed4 ,why are the fins of fishes proportionately so much smaller than the wings of birds8 ,because there is less difference between the specific gravity of the body of a fish1 and the water in which it moves1 than between the body of a bird1 and the air on which it flies4 ,the fish1 therefore does not require such an expanded surface to elevate or guide it4 #ajee4 ,why have fishes scales8 ,because scales1 while they afford protection to the bodies of fish1 are conveniently adapted to their motions2 and as the scales present no surface to obstruct their passage through the water1 as hair or feathers would do1 they evidently form the best covering for the aquatic animal4 #ajef4 ,why do fishes float in streams 7when they are not swimming7 with their heads towards the stream8 ,because they breathe by the transmission of water over the surface of their gills1 the water entering at the mouth1 and passing over the gills behind4 ,when1 therefore1 they lie motionless with their heads to the stream1 they are in that position which naturally assists their breathing process4 #ajeg4 ,why have fishes air-bladders8 ,because1 as the density of water varies greatly at different depths1 the enlargement or contraction of the bladder regulates the relation of the specific gravity of the body of the fish to that of the water in which it moves4 #ajeh4 ,why have whales a very large development of oily matter about their heads8 ,because their heads are thereby rendered the lighter part of their bodies1 and a very slight exertion on the part of the animal will bring its head to the surface to breathe air1 which it constantly requires4 #ajei4 ,why have birds that swim upon water web-feet8 ,because the spreading out of the toes of the bird brings the membrane between the toes into the form of a fin1 or water-wing1 by striking which against the water1 the bird propels itself along4 ,verse3 ,and ,jesus saith unto him1 ,the foxes have holes1 and the birds of the air have nests2 but the son of man hath not where to lay his head4--,,matthew ,,xiii4 #ajfj4 ,why have birds that swim and dive short legs8 ,because long legs would greatly impede their motions in the water1 by becoming repeatedly entangled in the weeds1 and by striking against the bottom4 ,waders1 however1 require long legs because they have to move about through the tall vegetation of marshy borders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,,stilt-,,plover ,,and ,,duck4 #ajfa4 ,why have the feet of the heron1 cormorant1 c41 deep rough notches upon their under surface8 ,because1 as those birds live by catching fish1 they are enabled by the notches in their feet1 to hold the slippery creatures upon which they feed4 #ajfb4 ,why have otters1 seals1 c41 web-feet8 ,because1 while the feet enable them to walk upon the land1 they are equally effective in their action upon the water1 and hence they are adapted to the amphibious nature of the animals to which they belong4 #ajfc4 ,why do the external ears of animals of prey1 such as cats1 tigers1 foxes1 wolves1 hyenas1 c41 bend forward8 ,because they collect the sounds that occur in the direction of the pursuit1 and enable the animal to track its prey with greater certainty4 ,verse3 ,doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom1 and stretch her wings toward the south8 ,doth the eagle mount up at thy command1 and make her nest on high8 #ajfd4 ,why do the ears of animals of flight1 such as hares1 rabbits1 deer1 c41 turn backward8 ,because they thereby catch the sounds that give them warning of the approach of danger4 #ajfe4 ,why has the stomach of the camel a number of distinct bags1 like so many separate stomachs8 ,because water is stored up in the separate chambers of the stomach1 apart from the solid aliment1 so that the animal can feed1 without consuming all its drink4 ,it is thereby able to retain water to satisfy its thirst while travelling across hot deserts1 where no water could be obtained4 #ajff4 ,why do woodpeckers tap at old trees8 ,because by boring through the decayed wood1 with the sharp and hard bills with which they are provided1 they get at the haunts of the insects upon which they feed4 #ajfg4 ,why are woodpeckers' tongues about three times longer than their bills8 ,because1 if their bills were long1 they would not bore the trees so efficiently2 and when the trees are bored1 and the insects alarmed1 they endeavour to retreat into the hollows of the wood2 but the long thin tongue of the woodpecker fixes them on its sharp horny point1 and draws them into the mouth of the bird4 #ajfh4 ,why have the ,indian hogs large horns growing from their nostrils and turning back towards their eyes8 ,because the horns serve as a defence to the eyes while the animal forces its way through the thick underwood in which it lives4 #ajfi4 ,why have calves and lambs1 and the young of horned cattle generally1 no horns while they are young8 ,because the presence of horns would interfere with the suckling of the young animal4 ,when1 however1 it is able to feed itself by browsing1 then the horns begin to grow4 ,verse3 ,she dwelleth and abideth on the rock1 upon the crag of the rock1 and the strong place4 ,from thence she seeketh the prey1 and her eyes behold afar off4 ,her young ones also suck up blood3 and where the slain are1 there is she4--,,job ,,xxxix4 #ajgj4 ,why have infants no teeth8 ,because the presence of teeth would interfere with their suckling1 while the teeth would be of no service1 until the child could take food requiring mastication4 #ajga4 ,why cannot flesh-eating animals live upon vegetables8 ,because the gastric juice of a flesh-eating animal1 being adapted to the duty which it has to perform1 will not dissolve vegetable matter4 #ajgb4 ,why have birds gizzards8 ,because1 having no teeth1 the tough and fibrous gizzards are employed to grind the food preparatory to digestion4 #ajgc4 ,why are small particles of sand1 stone1 c41 found in the gizzards of birds8 ,because1 by the presence of those rough particles1 which become embedded in the substance of the gizzard1 the food of the bird is more effectively ground4 ,when our fowls are abundantly supplied with meat1 they soon fill their craw1 but it does not immediately pass thence into the gizzard2 it always enters in small quantities1 in proportion to the progress of trituration1 in like manner1 as in a mill1 a receiver is fixed above the two large stones which serve for grinding the corn1 which receiver1 although the corn be put into it by bushels1 allows the grain to dribble only in small quantities into the central hole in the upper mill-stone4--,paley4 ,,chapter ,,liv4 #ajgd4 ,why has the mole hard and flat feet1 armed with sharp nails8 ,because the animal is thereby enabled to burrow in the earth1 in search for worms4 ,its feet are so many shovels4 #ajge4 ,why is the mole's fur exceedingly glossy and smooth8 ,because its smoothness enables it to work under ground without the soil sticking to its coat1 by which its progress would be impeded4 ,from soils of all kinds1 the little worker emerges shining and clean4 ,verse3 ,i know all the fowls of the mountains1 and the wild beasts are mine4--,,psalm ,l4 ,what ,i have always most admired in the mole is its eyes4 ,this animal occasionally visiting the surface1 and wanting1 for its safety and direction1 to be informed when it does so1 or when it approaches it1 a perception of light was necessary4 ,i do not know that the clearness of sight depends at all upon the size of the organ4 ,what is gained by the largeness or prominence of the globe of the eye1 is width in the field of vision4 ,such a capacity would be of no use to an animal which was to seek its food in the dark4 ,the mole did not want to look about it2 nor would a large advanced eye have been easily defended from the annoyance to which the life of the animal must constantly expose it4 ,how indeed was the mole1 working its way under ground1 to guard its eyes at all8 ,in order to meet this difficulty1 the eyes are made scarcely larger than the head of a corking-pin2 and these minute globules are sunk so deeply in the skull1 and lie so sheltered within the velvet of its covering1 as that any contraction of what may be called the eyebrows1 not only closes up the apertures which lead to the eyes1 but presents a cushion1 as it were1 to any sharp or protruding substance which might push against them4 ,this aperture1 even in its ordinary state1 is like a pin-hole in a piece of velvet1 scarcely pervious to loose particles of earth4--,paley4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,,elephants ,,drinking4 #ajgf4 ,why has the elephant a short unbending neck8 ,because the elephant's head is so heavy1 that it could not have been supported at the end of a long neck 7or lever71 without a provision of immense muscular power4 ,verse3 ,be not afraid1 ye beasts of the field3 for the pastures of the wilderness do spring1 for the tree beareth her fruit1 the fig-tree and the vine do yield their strength4--,,joel ,,ii4 #ajgg4 ,why has the elephant a trunk8 ,the trunk of an elephant serves as a substitute for a neck1 enabling the animal to crop the branches of trees1 or to raise water from the stream4 #ajgh4 ,why do the hind legs of elephants bend forward8 ,because the weight of the animal is so great1 that when it lay down it would rise with great difficulty1 if its legs bent outward1 as do the legs of other animals4 ,being bent under the body1 they have a greater power of pushing directly upward1 when the powerful muscles of the thighs straighten them4 ,according to ,cuvier1 the number of muscles1 in an elephant's trunk1 amounts to forty thousand1 all of which are under the will1 and it is to these that the proboscis of this animal owes its flexibility4 ,it can be protruded or contracted at pleasure1 raised up or turned to either side1 coiled round on itself or twined around any object4 ,with this instrument the elephant collects the herbage on which he feeds and puts it into his mouth2 with this he strips the trees of their branches1 or grasps his enemy and dashes him to the ground4 ,but this admirable organ is not only adapted for seizing or holding substances of magnitude2 it is also capable of plucking a single leaf1 or of picking up a straw from the floor4 ,the orifices of the canals of the extremity are encircled by a projecting margin1 produced anteriorly into a finger-like process endowed with a high degree of sensibility and exceedingly flexible4 ,it is at once a finger for grasping and a feeler3 the division between the two nasal orifices or their elevated sides serves as a point against which to press2 and thus it can pick up or hold a small coin1 a bit of biscuit1 or any trifling thing with the greatest ease4--,knight's ,animal ,kingdom4 #ajgi4 ,why have bats hooked claws in their wings8 ,because bats are almost destitute of legs and feet2 at least those organs are included in their wings4 ,if they alight upon the ground1 they have great difficulty in again taking to the wing1 as they cannot run or spring to bring their wings in action upon the air4 ,at the angle of each wing there is placed1 therefore1 a bony hook1 by which the bat attaches itself to the sides of rocks1 caves1 and buildings1 laying hold of crevices1 joinings1 chinks1 c42 and when it takes its flight1 it unhooks itself1 and its wings are at once free to strike the air4 #ajhj4 ,why does the bat fly by night8 ,because it lives chiefly upon moths1 which are night-flying insects4 ,verse3 ,so are the paths of all that forget ,god2 and the hypocrite's hope shall perish3 ,whose hope shall be cut off1 and whose trust shall be a spider's web4--,,job ,,viii4 #ajha4 ,why does the bat sleep during the winter8 ,because1 as the winter approaches1 the moths and flying insects upon which it feeds1 disappear4 ,if1 therefore1 it did not sleep through the winter it must have starved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,,bat ,,with ,,hooked ,,wings4 #ajhb4 ,why has the spider the power of spinning a web8 ,because1 as it lives upon flies1 but is deficient of the power of flying in pursuit of them1 it has been endowed with an instinct to spread a snare to entrap them1 and with the most wonderful machinery to give that instinct effect4 ,there are few things better suited to remove the disgust into which young people are betrayed on the view of some natural objects1 than this of the spider4 ,they will find that the most despised creature may become a subject of admiration1 and be selected by the naturalist to exhibit the marvellous works of the creation4 ,the terms given to these insects1 lead us to expect interesting particulars concerning them1 since they have been divided into vagrants1 hunters1 swimmers1 and water spiders1 sedentary1 and mason-spiders2 thus evincing a variety in their condition1 activity1 and mode of life2 and we cannot be surprised to find them varying in the performance of their vital functions 7as1 for example1 in their mode of breathing71 as well as in their extremities and instruments4 ,of these instruments the most striking is the apparatus for spinning and weaving1 by which they not only fabricate webs to entangle their prey1 but form cells for their residence and concealment2 sometimes living in the ground1 sometimes under water1 yet breathing the atmosphere4 ,corresponding with their very singular organisation are their instincts4 ,we are familiar with the watchfulness and voracity of some spiders1 when their prey is indicated by the vibration of the cords of their net-work4 ,others have the eye and disposition of the lynx or tiger1 and after couching in concealment1 leap upon their victims4 ,some conceal themselves under a silken hood or tube1 six eyes only projecting4 ,some bore a hole in the earth1 and line it as finely as if it were done with the trowel and mortar1 and then hang it with delicate curtains4 ,a very extraordinary degree of contrivance is exhibited in the trap-door spider4 ,this door1 from which it derives its name1 has a frame and hinge on the mouth of the cell1 and is so provided that the claw of the spider can lay hold of it1 and whether she enters or goes out1 says ,mr4 ,kirby1 the door shuts of itself4 ,but the water-spider has a domicile more curious still3 it is under water1 with an opening at the lower part for her exit and entrance2 and although this cell be under water1 it contains air like a diving-bell1 so that the spider breathes the atmosphere4 ,the air is renewed in the cell in a manner not easily explained4 ,the spider comes to the surface2 a bubble of air is attracted to its body2 with this air she descends1 and gets under her cell1 when the air is disengaged and rises into the cell2 and thus1 though under water1 she lives in the air4 ,there must be some peculiar property of the surface of this creature by which she can move in the water surrounded with an atmosphere1 and live under the water breathing the air4 ,verse3 ,the spider taketh hold with her hands1 and is in king's palaces4--,,proverbs ,,xxx4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,,web ,,of ,,the ,,geometrical ,,spider4 ,the chief instrument by which the spider performs these wonders is the spinning apparatus4 ,the matter from which the threads are spun is the liquid contained in cells2 the ducts from these cells open upon little projecting teats1 and the atmosphere has so immediate an effect upon this liquid1 that upon exposure to it the secretion becomes a tough and strong thread4 ,twenty-four of these fine strands form together a thread of the thickness of that of the silk-worm4 ,we are assured that there are three different sorts of material thus produced1 which are indeed required for the various purposes to which they are applied--as1 for example1 to mix up with the earth to form the cells2 to line these cells as with fine cotton2 to make light and floating threads by which they may be conveyed through the air1 as well as those meshes which are so geometrically and correctly formed to entrap their prey4--,note by ,lord ,brougham to ,paley's ,natural ,theology4 ,verse3 ,for every beast of the forest is mine1 and the cattle upon a thousand hills4--,,psalm ,l4 #ajhc4 ,why have many insects a great number of eyes8 ,because the orb of the eye is fixed2 there is therefore placed over the eye a multiple-lens1 which conducts light to the eye from every direction2 so that the insect can see with a fixed eye as readily as it could have done with a movable one4 ,as many as fourteen hundred eyes1 or inlets of light1 have been counted in the head of a drone-bee4 ,the spider has eight eyes1 mounted upon different parts of the head2 two in front1 two in the top of the head1 and two on each side4 #ajhd4 ,why have birds of prey no gizzards8 ,because their food does not require to be ground prior to digestion1 as does the food of grain-eating birds4 #ajhe4 ,why have earth worms no feet8 ,because the undulatory motion of their muscles serves them for fill the purposes of progression needed by their mode of life4 #ajhf4 ,why have mussels strong tendinous threads proceeding from their shells8 ,because as they live in places that are beaten by the surf of the sea1 they moor their shells by those threads to rocks and timbers4 #ajhg4 ,why have cockles stiff muscular tongues8 ,because1 having no threads to moor themselves1 as the mussels have1 they dig out with their tongues a shelter for themselves in the sand4 #ajhh4 ,why do oxen1 sheep1 deer1 c41 ruminate8 ,because they have no front teeth in the upper jaw1 the place of which is occupied by a hardened gum4 ,the first process1 therefore1 consists simply of cropping their food1 which is passed into the paunch1 to be brought up again and ground by the back teeth when the cropping process is over4 ,because1 in a wild state1 they are constantly exposed to the attacks of carnivorous beasts1 and as the mastication of the large amount of vegetable food required for their sustenance would take a considerable time1 they are provided with stomachs1 by which they are enabled to fill their paunches quickly1 and then1 retiring to a place of safety1 they bring their food up again1 and chew it at leisure4 ,verse3 ,a righteous man regardeth the life of his beast3 but the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel4--,,proverbs ,,xii4 #ajhi4 ,why can ruminating animals recover the food from their paunches8 ,because they have a voluntary power over the muscles of the throat1 by which they can bring up the food at will4 #ajij4 ,why can they keep the unchewed food in the paunch1 from the cud they have chewed for nourishment8 ,because their stomachs are divided into three chambers3 #a1 the paunch1 where the unchewed food is stored2 #b1 the reticulum1 where portions of the food are received from the paunch1 and moistened and rolled into a cud1 to be sent up and chewed2 and #c1 the psalterium1 which receives the masticated food1 and continues the process of digestion4 ,in quadrupeds the deficiency of teeth is usually compensated by the faculty of rumination4 ,the sheep1 deer1 and ox tribe1 are without fore-teeth in the upper jaw4 ,these ruminate4 ,the horse and ass are furnished with teeth in the upper jaw1 and do not ruminate4 ,in the former class1 the grass and hay descend into the stomachs nearly in the state in which they are cropped from the pasture1 or gathered from the bundle4 ,in the stomach1 they are softened by the gastric juice1 which in these animals is unusually copious4 ,thus softened and rendered tender1 they are returned a second time to the action of the mouth1 where the grinding teeth complete at their leisure the trituration which is necessary2 but which was before left imperfect4 ,i say1 the trituration which is necessary2 for it appears from experiments1 that the gastric fluid of sheep1 for example1 has no effect in digesting plants1 unless they have been previously masticated2 that it only produces a slight maceration1 nearly as common water would do in a like degree of heat2 but that when once vegetables are reduced to pieces by mastication1 the fluid then exerts upon them its specific operation4 ,its first effect is to soften them1 and to destroy their natural consistency2 it then goes on to dissolve them1 not sparing even the toughest parts1 such as the nerves of the leaves4 ,i think it very probable1 that the gratification also of the animal is renewed and prolonged by this faculty4 ,sheep1 deer1 and oxen1 appear to be in a state of enjoyment whilst they are chewing the cud4 ,it is then1 perhaps1 that they best relish their food4--,paley4 ,verse3 ,i am like a pelican of the wilderness3 ,i am like an owl of the desert4 ,i watch1 and am as a sparrow alone upon the house top4--,,psalm ,,cii4 ,,chapter ,,lv4 #ajia4 ,why do quadrupeds that are vegetable eaters feed so continually8 ,because their food contains but a small proportion of nutrition1 so that it is necessary to digest a large quantity to obtain sufficient nourishment4 #ajib4 ,why do flesh eating animals satisfy themselves with a rapid meal8 ,because the food which they eat is rich in nutritious matter1 and more readily digestible than vegetable food2 it does not therefore1 require the same amount of grinding with the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,,pelican ,,with ,,dilated ,,pouch4 #ajic4 ,why has the pelican a large pouch under its bill8 ,because it subsists upon fish1 generally of the smaller kind1 and uses its pouch as a net for catching them2 the pouch also serves as a paunch1 in which the fish are stored1 until the bird ceases from the exertion of fishing1 and takes its meal at leisure4 ,verse3 ,and ,god created great whales1 and every living creature that moveth1 which the waters brought forth abundantly1 after their kind1 and every winged fowl after his kind3 and ,god saw that it was good4--,,genesis ,i4 ,in their wild state they hover and wheel over the surface of the water1 watching the shoals of fish beneath1 and suddenly sweeping down1 bury themselves in the foaming waves2 rising immediately from the water by their own buoyancy1 up they soar1 the pouch laden with the fish scooped up during their momentary submersion4 ,the number of fish the pouch of this species will contain may be easily imagined when we state that it is so dilatable as to be capable of containing two gallons of water2 yet the bird has the power of contracting this membranous expansion1 by wrinkling it up under the lower mandible1 until it is scarcely to be seen4 ,in shallow inlets1 which the pelicans often frequent1 it nets its prey with great adroitness4 ,the pelican chooses remote and solitary islands1 isolated rocks in the sea1 the borders of lakes and rivers1 as its breeding place4 ,the nest1 placed on the ground1 is made of coarse grasses1 and the eggs1 which are white1 are two or three in number4 ,while the female is incubating1 the male brings fish to her in his pouch1 and the young1 when hatched1 are assiduously attended by the parents1 who feed them by pressing the pouch against the breast1 so as to transfer the fish from the former into the throats of the young4 ,this action has doubtless given origin to the old fable of the pelican feeding its young with blood drawn from its own breast4--,knight's ,animal ,kingdom4 #ajid4 ,why do the smaller animals breed more abundantly than the larger ones8 ,because the smaller ones are designed to be the food of the larger ones1 and are therefore created in numbers adapted to that end4 ,an elephant produces but one calf2 the whale but one young one2 a butterfly lays six hundred eggs2 silk-worms lay from #a1jjj to #b1jjj eggs2 the wasp1 #e1jjj2 the ant1 #d1jjj to #e1jjj2 the queen bee1 #e1jjj to #f1jjj1 or #dj1jjj to #ej1jjj in a season2 and a species of white ant 7termes fatalis7 produces #hf1djj eggs in a day4 ,birds of prey seldom produce more than two eggs2 the sparrow and duck tribe frequently sit upon a dozen2 in rivers there prevail a thousand minnows for one pike2 and in the sea1 a million of herrings for a single shark2 while of the animalcules upon which the whale subsists1 there must exist hundreds of millions for one whale4 #ajie4 ,why has the whale feathery-like lamin of whale-bone extending from its jaws8 ,because these feathery bones1 lying side by side1 form a sieve1 or strainer1 for the large volumes of water which the whale receives into its mouth1 drawing off therefrom millions of small animals1 which form a jelly-like mass upon which the whale feeds4 ,a whale has been known to weigh as much as #bdi tons1 and its blubber yielded #d1jjj gallons of oil4 ,how many millions of living creatures must have gone to make up that enormous mass of animal matter6 ,verse3 ,hast thou given the horse strength8 hast thou clothed his neck with thunder8 99 99 ,he paveth the valley1 and rejoiceth in his strength3 he goeth on to meet the armed men4--,,job ,,xxxix4 #ajif4 ,why have cats1 and various other animals1 whiskers8 ,the whiskers of cats1 and of the cat tribe1 are exceedingly sensitive1 enabling them1 when seizing their prey in the dark1 to feel its position most acutely4 ,these hairs are supplied1 through their roots1 with branches of the same nerves that give sensibility to the lips1 and that in insects supply their feelers4 #ajig4 ,why has the horse a smaller stomach proportionately than other animals8 ,because the horse was created for speed4 ,had he the ruminating stomach of the ox1 he would be quite unfitted for the labour which he now so admirably performs4 #ajih4 ,why has the horse no gall-bladder8 ,because the rapid digestion of the horse1 by which its fitness for speed is greatly increased1 does not require the storing up of the bile as in other animals in which the digestive process is a slower operation4 #ajii4 ,why do certain butterflies lay their eggs upon cabbage leaves8 ,because the cabbage leaves are the food of the young caterpillars2 and although the butterfly does not subsist herself upon the leaf1 she knows by instinct that the leaf will afford food to her future young2 she therefore lays her eggs where her young ones will find food4 ,this explanation applies to many insects that lay their eggs upon other plants4 #aajj4 ,why have insects long projections from their heads1 like horns or feathers8 ,because those organs 7the antenn71 are those through which come insects hear and others feel2 and the projecting of these antenn from their bodies probably enables them to hear or feel more acutely while their wings are in motion1 without the interference of the vibrations of their wings4 ,verse3 ,my son1 eat thou honey1 because it is good2 and the honey-comb1 which is sweet to thy taste4--,,proverbs ,,xxiv4 #aaja4 ,why have bees stings8 ,because they gather and store up honey which would constantly attract other insects1 and the bees would be robbed of their food but for the sting1 which is given to them for protection4 #aajb4 ,why have flies fine hairs growing at the extremities of their legs8 ,because they require to cleanse their bodies and wings1 and to free them from particles of dust4 ,and as they cannot turn their heads for this purpose1 they have hairy feet1 which serve as brushes1 by which any part of their bodies can be reached and cleaned4 ,,chapter ,,lvi4 #aajc4 ,why when the perfume of flowers is unusually perceptible may wet weather be anticipated8 ,because when the air is damp it conveys the odours of flowers more effectively than it does when dry4 #aajd4 ,why when swallows fly low may wet weather be expected8 ,because the insects which the swallows pursue in their flight are flying low1 to escape the moisture of the upper regions of the atmosphere4 #aaje4 ,why do ducks and geese go to the water1 and dash it over their backs on the approach of rain8 ,because by wetting the outer coat of their feathers before the rain falls1 by sudden dashes of water over the surface1 they prevent the drops of rain from penetrating to their bodies through the open and dry feathers4 #aajf4 ,why do horses and cattle stretch out their necks and snuff the air on the approach of rain8 ,because they smell the fragrant perfume which is diffused in the air by its increasing moistness4 ,verse3 ,i will remember the works of the ,lord3 ,surely ,i will remember thy wonders of old4--,,psalm ,,lxxvii4 #aajg4 ,why may change of weather be anticipated when domestic animals are restless8 ,because their skins are exceedingly sensitive to atmospheric influences1 and they are oppressed and irritated by the changing condition of the atmosphere4 #aajh4 ,why may fine weather be expected when spiders are seen busily constructing their webs8 ,because those insects are highly sensitive to the state of the atmosphere1 and when it is setting fine they build their webs1 because they know instinctively that flies will be abroad4 #aaji4 ,why is wet weather to be expected when spiders hide8 ,because it shows that they are aware that the state of the atmosphere does not favour the flight of insects4 #aaaj4 ,why if gnats fly in large numbers may fine weather be expected8 ,because it shows that they feel the state of the atmosphere to be favourable1 which induces them all to leave their places of shelter4 #aaaa4 ,why if owls scream during foul weather1 will it change to fine8 ,because the birds are pleasurably excited by a favourable change in the atmosphere4 #aaab4 ,why is it said that the moping of the owl foretells death8 ,because owls scream when the weather is on the change2 and when a patient is lingering on a death bed1 the alteration in the state of the atmosphere frequently induces death1 because the faint and expiring flame of life has not strength enough to adapt itself to the change4 #aaac4 ,why may wet weather be expected when spiders break off their webs1 and remove them8 ,because the insects1 anticipating the approach of rain1 remove their webs for preservation4 ,verse3 ,there shall the great owl make her nest1 and lay1 and hatch1 and gather under her shadow3 there shall the vultures also be gathered1 every one with her mate4--,,isaiah ,,xxxiv4 #aaad4 ,why may we expect a continuance of fine weather when bees wander far from their hives8 ,because the bees feel instinctively that from the state of the atmosphere they may wander far in search of honey1 without the danger of being overtaken by rain4 #aaae4 ,why if people feel their corns ache1 and their bones rheumatic1 may rain be expected8 ,because the dampness of the atmosphere affects its pressure upon the body1 and causes a temporary disturbance of the system4 ,all general disturbances of the body1 manifest themselves in those parts which are in a morbid state--as in a corn1 a rheumatic bone1 or a decayed tooth4 #aaaf4 ,why if various flowers close may rain be expected8 ,because plants are highly sensitive to atmospheric changes1 and close their petals to protect their stamens4 #aaag4 ,why when moles throw up their hills may rain be expected8 ,because the moles know instinctively1 that on the approach of wet1 worms move in the ground2 the moles therefore become active1 and form their hills4 #aaah4 ,why is a magpie1 when seen alone1 said to foretell bad weather8 ,because magpies generally fly in company2 but on the approach of wet or cold1 one remains in the nest to take care of the young1 while the other one wanders alone in search of food4 #aaai4 ,why do sea-gulls appear numerous in fine weather8 ,because the fishes swim near to the surface of the sea1 and the birds assemble over the sea to catch the fish1 instead of sitting on rocks1 or wading on the shore4 #aabj4 ,why do sea-gulls fly over the land1 on the approach of stormy weather8 ,because in stormy weather they cannot catch fish2 and the earth-worms come up on the land when the rain falls4 ,verse3 ,and ,i said1 ,oh1 that ,i had wings like a dove6 for then would ,i fly away1 and be at rest4--,,psalm ,,lv4 #aaba4 ,why if birds cease to sing1 may wet1 and probably thunder1 be expected48 ,because birds are depressed by an unfavourable change in the atmosphere1 and lose those joyful spirits which give rise to their songs4 #aabb4 ,why if cattle run around in meadows1 may thunder be expected8 ,because the electrical state of the atmosphere has the effect of making them feel uneasy and irritable1 and they chase each other about to get rid of the irritability4 #aabc4 ,why if birds of passage arrive early1 may severe weather be expected8 ,because it shows that the indications of unfavourable weather have set in1 in the latitudes from which the birds come1 and that they have taken an early flight to escape it4 #aabd4 ,why if the webs of the gossamer spider fly about in the autumn1 may east winds be anticipated8 ,because an east wind is a dry and dense wind1 and suitable to the flight of the gossamer spider2 the spider feeling instinctively the dryness of the air1 throws out its web1 and finds it more than usually buoyant upon the dense air4 ,the observation of the changing phenomena which attend the various states of the weather is a very interesting study1 though no general rules can be laid down that can be relied upon1 because there are modifying circumstances which influence the weather in various localities and climates4 ,to observe weather indications accurately1 no phenomenon should be taken alone1 but several should be regarded together4 ,the character and the duration of the weather of the preceding days1 the direction of the wind1 the forms of the clouds1 the indications of the barometer1 the rise or fall of the thermometer1 and the instinctive forewarnings of birds1 beasts1 insects1 and flowers1 should all be taken into account4 ,although no direct material advantages attend such a study1 it induces a habit of observation1 and develops the inductive faculty of the mind1 which1 when applied to more significant things1 may trace important effects to their greater causes4 ,verse3 ,go to the ant1 thou sluggard2 consider her ways1 and be wise4--,,prov4 ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,lvii4 #aabe4 ,why can gossamer spiders float through the air8 ,because1 having no wings1 and being deficient in the active muscular powers of other spiders1 they have been endowed with the power of spinning a web which is so light that it floats in the air1 and bears the body of the gossamer spider from place to place4 ,each web acts as a balloon1 and the spider attached thereto is a little aeronaut4 #aabf4 ,why do crickets make a peculiar chirping sound8 ,because they have hard wing cases1 by the friction of the edges of which they cause their peculiar noise1 to make known to each other where they are1 in the dark crevices in which they hide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,,glow-,,worm ,,using ,,his ,,brush4 #aabg4 ,why has the glow-worm a brush attached to its tail8 ,because it is necessary to keep its back very clean1 that the light which its body emits may not be dimmed4 #aabh4 ,why does the glow-worm emit a light8 ,because the female glow-worm is without wings1 but the male is a winged insect4 ,the female1 therefore1 is endowed with the power of displaying a phosphorescent light4 ,the light is only visible by night1 but it is1 nevertheless1 beautifully adapted for the purpose stated1 because the male is a night-flying insect1 and never ventures abroad by day4 ,verse3 ,they that go down to the sea in great ships1 that do business in great waters these see the works of the ,lord1 and his wonders in the deep4--,,psalm ,,cvii4 ,there exists some difference of opinion between naturalists upon the uses of the light of a glow-worm2 there are some who doubt that it is exhibited to attract the flying insect4 ,the objectors1 however1 offer no explanation of the luminous properties of the worm4 ,sir ,charles ,bell says the preponderance of the argument is decidedly in favour of the explanation we have given4 #aabi4 ,why does not the iris of the fish's eye contract8 ,because the diminished light in water is never too strong for the retina4 #aacj4 ,why is the eye of the eel covered with a transparent horny covering8 ,because1 as the eel lives in holes1 and pushes its head into mud1 and under stones1 c41 it needed such a covering to defend the eye4 #aaca4 ,why is the whale provided with an eye1 having remarkably thick and strong coats8 ,because1 when he is attacked by the sword-fish and the shark1 he is almost helpless against his enemies1 as they fix themselves upon his huge carcase4 ,he therefore dives with them down to a depth where the pressure of the water is so great that they cannot bear it4 ,the eye of the whale is expressly organised to bear the immense pressure of extreme ocean depths1 without impairing the sight4 #aacb4 ,why have fishes no eyelids8 ,because the water in which they swim keeps their eyes moist4 ,eyelids would therefore be useless to them4 #aacc4 ,why have fishes the power of giving their eye-balls very sudden motion8 ,because1 having no eyelids 7such organs being unnecessary to keep their eyes moist71 they still need the power of freeing their eyes from the contact of foreign matters2 and this is secured to them by the power they have of giving the eyeball a very rapid motion1 which causes reaction in the fluid surrounding it1 and sweeps the surface4 ,this motion may frequently be seen in the eyes of fishes1 in glass globes4 ,verse3 ,and ,god made the beast of the earth after his kind1 and cattle after their kind1 and everything that creepeth upon the earth after his kind3 and ,god saw that it was good4--,,genesis ,i4 #aacd4 ,why is the lachrymal secretion of the horse's eye thick and glutinous8 ,because1 as his eye is large1 and constantly exposed to dust on journeys1 it is provided with a viscid secretion1 which cleanses the eye1 and more instantly and securely removes the dust1 than a watery secretion would4 #aace4 ,why does the lower bill of the sea-crow project beyond the upper one8 ,because the bird obtains his food by skimming along the water1 into which he dips his bill1 and lifts his food out4 #aacf4 ,why do the mandibles of the cross-bill overlap each other8 ,because the bird requires a peculiar bill1 to enable it to split seeds into halves1 and to tear the open cones of the fir-tree4 #aacg4 ,why are the tails of fishes so much larger than their fins8 ,because their tails are their chief instruments of motion1 while their fins are employed simply to direct their progress1 and steady their movements4 #aach4 ,why have oxen1 and other quadrupeds a tough ligament called the pax-wax1 running from their backs to their heads8 ,because their heads are of considerable weight2 and having frequent occasion to lift them1 they are provided with an elastic ligament1 which is fastened at the middle of their backs1 while its other extremity is attached to the head4 ,this enables them to raise their heads easily2 otherwise the effort to do so would be a work of great labour4 ,to the horse1 the pax-wax acts as a natural bearing-rein1 assisting it to hold its head in that position which adds to the grace and beauty of the animal4 ,in carving beef1 this ligament may be seen passing along the vertebr of the neck1 the chuck1 and the fore ribs4 ,verse3 ,he shall feed his flock like a shepherd2 he shall gather the lambs with his arm1 and carry them in his bosom1 and shall gently lead those that are with young4--,,isaiah ,,xl4 #aaci4 ,why have the females of the kangaroo and opossum tribes pouches1 or pockets1 formed in the skin of their breasts for the reception of their young8 ,because their young ones are remarkably small and helpless2 in fact1 more so than those of any other animal of equal proportions4 ,besides which1 the full grown animals have very long hind-legs1 and they progress by a series of extraordinary leaps4 ,it would consequently be impossible for their helpless young ones to follow them3 ,god has therefore given to female kangaroos and opossums curious pockets1 formed out of their own skin1 in which they place their little young ones1 and bear them through their surprising leaps with the greatest ease and safety4 ,,chapter ,,lviii4 #aadj4 ,what is the difference between an animal1 a plant1 and a mineral8 ,the great naturalist1 ,linnus1 used to say that animals grow1 live1 and feel2 plants grow and live2 and minerals grow4 ,animals are here defined to enjoy three conditions of existence2 plants two conditions2 and minerals one condition4 ,this definition has1 in latter days1 been held to be unsatisfactory1 since there are a few plants that are supposed to feel1 and a few animals that are supposed to have even less feeling than the sensitive plants alluded to4 ,the concise definition by ,linnus1 nevertheless1 is true1 as far as regards a vast majority of the bodies constituting the three great kingdoms of nature4 ,and it may be sufficient to say that ,animals--grow1 live1 feel1 and move4 ,plants--grow and live4 ,minerals--grow1 by the addition of particles of inorganic matter4 ,if we now state the few exceptions that are admitted to this definition1 we shall bring the explanation as near to the truth1 as the present state of knowledge will permit4 ,verse3 ,and ,god said1 ,behold1 ,i have given you every herb bearing seed1 which is upon the face of all the earth1 and every tree1 in the which is the fruit of a tree1 yielding seed2 to you it shall be for meat4--,,genesis ,i4 #aada4 ,why is it understood that some plants feel8 ,because the sensitive plant closes its leaves on being touched2 the ,venus's fly trap closes its leaves upon flies that alight upon them2 others close upon the approach of rain1 and at sunset1 and open at sunrise1 and turn towards the sun during its daily transit4 #aadb4 ,why is it understood that some plants move8 ,because certain sea-weeds throw off undeveloped young plants1 which move through the water by the aid of fine cilia1 or muscular hairs1 until they find a suitable place upon which to attach themselves4 ,the roots of plants will penetrate through the ground in the direction of water1 and of favourable soil4 #aadc4 ,of what elementary substances are plants composed8 ,of carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen4 #aadd4 ,whence do plants derive those substances8 ,from the air1 the earth1 and water4 #aade4 ,how do plants obtain carbon8 ,they obtain it chiefly from the air1 in the form of carbonic acid gas4 ,the carbon1 of the carbonic acid gas1 which is thrown out by the breath of animals1 and by other processes in nature1 is absorbed by the leaves of plants1 and the oxygen which had united with the carbon to form the carbonic acid gas1 is again set free for the use of animals4 #aadf4 ,how do plants obtain oxygen8 ,they obtain it from the atmospheric air4 ,but as they do not require a large amount of oxygen for their own use1 they throw off the amount which is in excess1 after having separated it from the other elements with which it was combined when taken up by them4 ,from the humble blade of grass1 to the stately tree of the forest1 plants operate to purify the air1 and to correct and counteract the corruption of the air1 by the myriads of animals inhabiting the earth4 ,it has been generally stated that plants in rooms purify the air by absorbing carbonic acid by day1 and releasing a part of the oxygen2 but that1 as the presence of light is necessary to produce this action1 they do not restore oxygen to the air1 by night1 but1 on the contrary1 give off carbonic acid gas4 ,therefore it has been stated that plants in rooms by night are unhealthy4 ,mr4 ,robert ,hunt1 one of the ablest chemists of the present time1 makes the following remarks upon this subject in his ,poetry of ,science3-- ,verse3 ,the heavens declare the glory of ,god3 and the firmament showeth his handy work4 ,day unto day uttereth speech1 and night unto night showeth knowledge4--,,psalm ,,xix4 ,the power of decomposing carbonic acid is a vital function which belongs to the leaves and bark4 ,it has been stated1 on the authority of ,leibig1 that during the night the plant acts only as a mere bundle of fibres--that it allows of the circulation of carbonic acid and its evaporation1 unchanged4 ,in his eagerness to support his chemical hypothesis of respiration1 the able chemist neglected to enquire if this was absolutely correct4 ,the healthy plant never ceases to decompose carbonic acid during one moment of its existence2 but during the night1 when the excitement of light is removed1 and the plant reposes1 its vital powers are at their minimum of action1 and a much less quantity is decomposed than when a stimulating sun1 by the action of its rays1 is compelling the exertion of every vital function4 ,in hot1 swampy countries1 where vegetation is very rapid1 and the soil loaded with decomposing carbonic matter1 the plants absorb more carbonic acid than they require1 and they then evolve carbonic acid gas from their leaves4 ,hence such climates as the ,west ,indies are injurious to life1 though favourable to vegetation4 #aadg4 ,how do plants obtain hydrogen8 ,they obtain hydrogen in combination with oxygen in water1 and with nitrogen1 in the form of ammonia1 as which it exists in animal manures4 #aadh4 ,how do plants obtain nitrogen8 ,from the atmospheric air1 and from the soil1 in which it is combined with other elements4 #aadi4 ,how do plants apply these elements to the formation of their own structures8 ,when those substances which form the food of plants are absorbed1 either by their leaves or their roots1 they are converted1 with the aid of water1 into a nutritive sap1 which answers the same purposes in plants as blood does in animals4 #aaej4 ,how is the nutritive sap applied to the growth and enlargement of the plant8 ,every seed contains a small amount of nutrition1 sufficient for the sustentation of the germ of the plant1 until those vessels are formed1 by which the nutritive elements can be absorbed and used for the further development of the living structure4 ,the earth1 penetrated by the sun's rays1 warms the sleeping germ1 and quickens it into life4 ,for a short time the germ lives upon the seed1 which1 moistened and warmed by the soil1 yields a kind of glutinous sap1 out of which the first members of the plant are formed4 ,and then the tender leaf1 looking up to the sky1 and the slender rootlet penetrating the soil1 begin to draw their sustenance from the vast stores of nature4 ,verse3 ,he causeth the grass to grow for the cattle1 and herb for the service of man3 that he may bring forth food out of the earth4--,,psalm ,,civ4 #aaea4 ,of what do vegetable structures consist8 ,of membranes1 or thin tissues1 which1 being variously arranged1 form cells1 tubes1 air passages1 c4 ,of fibres1 which form a stronger kind of membrane1 and which is variously applied to the production of the organs of the plants4 ,and of organs1 formed by those elementary substances1 by which the plants absorb1 secrete1 and grow1 and fulfil the conditions of their existence4 #aaeb4 ,why are seeds generally enveloped in hard cases8 ,because the covering of the seed1 like the shell of an egg1 is designed to preserve the germ within from the influence of external agencies1 until the time for development has arrived1 and the conditions of germination are fulfilled4 #aaec4 ,why does a seed throw out a root1 before it forms a leaf8 ,because moisture1 which the root absorbs from the earth1 is necessary to enable the germ to use the nutrition which the seed itself contains1 and out of which the leaf must be eliminated4 ,moisture forms a kind of gluten1 in which the starch of the seed is dissolved1 and converted into sugar1 the sugar into carbonaceous sap1 and the sap into cellular tissue and woody fibre1 as the leaves present themselves to the influence of the air and light4 #aaed4 ,why does a plant grow8 ,because1 as soon as membranes and vessels are organised in the young germ1 the nutritive fluid1 formed by its first organs1 begins to move through the fine structures1 and from that time the plant commences to incorporate with its own substance the elements with which it is surrounded1 that are suitable to its development4 ,verse3 ,can the rush grow up without mire8 can the flag grow without water8 ,whilst it is yet in his greenness1 and not cut down1 it withereth before any other herb4--,,job ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,lix4 #aaee4 ,why1 if we break the stem of a hyacinth1 do we see a glutinous fluid exude8 ,because1 by breaking the stem1 we rupture the vessels of the plant1 and cause the nutritive fluid to escape4 ,the sap of the plant is analogous to the blood of man1 and the vessels1 to the arteries and veins of the animal body4 #aaef4 ,why1 if we split the petal of a tulip1 do we see cells containing matter of various colours8 ,because1 by splitting the petal of the flower1 we disclose the anatomy of its structure1 and bring to view those cells1 or organs1 of the vegetable body1 by which the different colouring matters are secreted4 #aaeg4 ,why1 if we break a pea-shell across1 do we discover a transparent membrane which may be removed from the green cells underneath8 ,because we separate from the cellular1 or fleshy part of the shell1 the membrane1 which forms the epidermis1 and answers to the skin of the animal body4 #aaeh4 ,why1 if we cut through a cabbage stump1 do we find an outer coat of woody fibre1 and an inner substance of cellular matter8 ,because the woody fibre forms a kind of skeleton1 which supports the internal stricture of the plant1 and gives form and character to its organisation4 ,the woody fibre of plants is analogous to the bony structure of animal bodies4 #aaei4 ,why1 if we cut across the stem of a plant do we see numerous tubes arranged in parallel lines8 ,because we thereby bring to view the vessels formed by the membranes and fibres of the vegetable body1 for the transmission of the fluids1 by which the structure is sustained4 ,verse3 ,it was planted in a good soil by great waters1 that it might bring forth branches1 and that it might bear fruit1 that it might be a goodly vine4--,,ezekiel ,,xvii4 ,skeleton leaves1 and seed vessels of plants1 form exceedingly interesting objects1 and serve to illustrate the wonderful structure of plants4 ,with patience and care1 they may be produced by any person1 and will afford an interesting occupation4 ,the leaves should be gathered when they are in perfection--that is1 when some of the earliest leaves begin to fall from the trees4 ,select perfect leaves1 taking care that they are not broken1 or injured by insects4 ,lay them in pans of rain water1 and expose them to the air to undergo decomposition4 ,renew the water from time to time1 taking care not to damage the leaves4 ,they need not be examined more than once a week1 and then only to see that the water is sufficient to cover them4 ,give them sufficient time for their soft parts to become decomposed1 then take them out1 and laying them on a white plate with a little water1 wash away carefully1 with a camel-hair pencil1 the green matter that clings to the fibres4 ,the chief requirement is patience on the part of the operator1 to allow the leaves and seed vessels sufficient time to decompose4 ,some leaves will take a few weeks1 and others a few months1 but a large panful may be put to decompose at the same time1 and there will always be some ready for the process of cleansing4 ,when they are thoroughly cleaned1 they should be bleached1 by steeping for a short time in a weak solution of chloride of lime4 ,they should then be dried1 and either pressed flat1 or arranged in bouquets for preservation under glass shades4 ,the result will amply reward the perseverance of the operator4 #aafj4 ,why are clayey soils unfavourable to vegetation8 ,because the soil is too close and adhesive to allow of the free passage of air or water to the roots of the plants2 it also obstructs the expansion of the fibres of the roots4 #aafa4 ,why are sandy soils unfavourable to vegetation8 ,because they consist of particles that have too little adhesion to each other2 they do not retain sufficient moisture for the nourishment of the plants2 and they allow too much solar heat to pass to the roots4 #aafb4 ,why are chalk soils unfavourable to vegetation8 ,because they do not absorb the solar rays1 and are therefore cold to the roots of plants4 #aafc4 ,why are mixed soils favourable to vegetation8 ,because they contain the elements of nutrition essential to the development of the vegetables1 and the plants absorb from them those constituents which are necessary to their growth4 #aafd4 ,why do farmers sow different crops in rotation8 ,because every plant takes something from the soil1 and gives something back2 but all kinds of plants do not absorb nor restore the elements in the same proportions4 ,therefore a succession of crops of one kind would soon impoverish the soil2 but a succession of crops of different kinds will compensate the soil1 in some degree1 for the nourishment withdrawn4 ,verse3 ,he watereth the hills from his chambers2 the earth is satisfied with the fruit of thy works4--,,psalm ,,civ4 #aafe4 ,why do farmers manure their lands8 ,because1 as soils vary1 and crops impoverish the soils1 the farmer employs manure to restore fertility1 and to adapt the soils to the wants of the plants he desires to cultivate4 ,it is remarkable that ,nature herself points out to man the necessity for changing the succession of vegetable growths4 ,when plants have exhausted the soil upon which they grow1 they will push their roots far in search of sustenance1 and in time migrate to a new soil1 while other plants will spring up and thrive upon the area vacated4 ,when a forest in ,north ,america is destroyed by fire1 the trees that grow afterwards are unlike those that the fire consumed1 and evidently arise from seeds that have long lain buried in the earth1 waiting the time when the ascendancy of the reigning order of plants should cease4 #aaff4 ,why are grasses so widely diffused throughout nature8 ,because they form the food of a very large portion of the animal kingdom4 ,they have therefore been abundantly provided4 ,no spot of earth is allowed to remain idle long4 ,when the foot of man ceases to tread down the path1 grass immediately begins to appear2 and by its universality and the hardihood of its nature1 it clothes the earth as with a carpet4 ,many grasses1 whose leaves are so dry and withered that the plants appear dead1 revive and renew their existence in the spring by pushing forth new leaves from the bosom of the former ones4--,withering's ,botany4 ,grasses are ,nature's care4 ,with these she clothes the earth2 with these she sustains its inhabitants4 ,cattle feed upon their leaves2 birds upon their smaller seeds2 men upon the larger2 for1 few readers need be told that the plants which produce our bread-corn1 belong to this class4 ,in those tribes which are more generally considered as grasses1 their extraordinary means and powers of preservation and increase1 their hardiness1 their almost unconquerable disposition to spread1 their faculties of reviviscence1 coincide with the intention of nature concerning them4 ,they thrive under a treatment by which other plants are destroyed4 ,the more their leaves are consumed1 the more their roots increase4 ,the more they are trampled upon1 the thicker they grow4 ,many of the seemingly dry and dead leaves of grasses revive1 and renew their verdure in the spring4 ,in lofty mountains1 where the summer heats are not sufficient to ripen the seeds1 grasses abound which are viviparous1 and consequently able to propagate themselves without seed4 ,it is an observation1 likewise1 which has often been made1 that herbivorous animals attach themselves to the leaves of grasses2 and1 if at liberty in their pastures to range and choose1 leave untouched the straws which support the flowers4--,paley4 ,verse3 ,for the earth bringeth forth fruit of herself2 first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full ear in the corn4--,,mark ,v4 ,,chapter ,,lx4 #aafg4 ,why do some plants droop1 and turn to the earth after sunset8 ,because1 when the warmth of the son's rays is withdrawn1 they turn downwards1 and receive the warmth of the earth by radiation4 #aafg4 ,why does the young ear of corn first appear enfolded in two green leaves8 ,because the light and air would act too powerfully for the young ear2 two leaves therefore join1 and embrace the ear1 and protect it until it has acquired strength1 when they divide1 and leave the ear to swell and ripen4 #aafh4 ,why are the seeds of plants usually formed within the corollas of flowers8 ,because the petals of the flowers1 surrounding the seeds1 afford them protection until they are ripened1 when the flower dies1 and the petals fall to the ground4 #aafi4 ,why does the flower of the poppy turn down during the early formation of seed8 ,because the heat would probably be too great for the seed in its early stage4 ,the plant is therefore provided with a curious curve in its stalk1 which turns the flower downward4 ,but when the seeds are prepared for ripening1 the stalk erects itself1 and the seeds are then presented to the ripening influences of the sun4 #aagj4 ,why have plants of the pea tribe1 a folding blossom called the boat1 or keel8 ,because1 within that blossom the pea is formed1 and the shape of the blossom is exactly suited to that of the pea which is formed therein4 ,the blossom is itself protected by external petals2 and when the wind blows1 and threatens to destroy the parts upon which the seeds depend1 the plants turn their backs to the wind1 and shelter the seed4 ,verse3 ,the fruit of the righteous is a tree of life2 and he that winneth souls is wise4--,,proverbs ,,xi4 #aaga4 ,why are the leaf buds enclosed in scales which fall off as the leaf opens8 ,because the scales serve as a shelter to the tender structure of the young leaf4 ,the scales are rudimentary leaves1 formed at the end of the previous season1 and which1 being undeveloped then1 serve to guard the young leaves of the future year4 ,in trees1 especially those which are natives of colder climates1 this point is taken up earlier4 ,many of these trees 7observe in particular the ash and the horse-chestnut7 produce the embryos of the leaves and flowers in one year1 and bring them to perfection the following4 ,there is a winter therefore to be gotten over4 ,now what we are to remark is1 how nature has prepared for the trials and severities of that season4 ,these tender embryos are1 in the first place wrapped up with a compactness1 which no art can imitate2 in which state they compose what we call the bud4 ,this is not all4 ,the bud itself is enclosed in scales2 which scales are formed from the remains of past leaves1 and the rudiments of future ones4 ,neither is this the whole4 ,in the coldest climates1 a third preservative is added1 by the bud having a coat of gum or resin1 which1 being congealed1 resists the strongest frosts4 ,on the approach of warm weather this gum is softened1 and ceases to be an hindrance to the expansion of the leaves and flowers4 ,all this care is part of that system of provisions which has for its object and consummation1 the production and perfecting of the seeds4--,paley4 #aagb4 ,why are the seeds of many plants enclosed in a rich juice1 or pulp8 ,because the matter by which the seed is surrounded1 as well as being intended for the nourishment and care of the seed1 is designed for the use of man and of animals1 by whom the seed is set free to take its place in the earth4 ,by virtue of this process1 so necessary1 but so diversified1 we have the seed1 at length1 in stone-fruits and nuts1 incased in a strong shell1 the shell itself enclosed in a pulp or husk1 by which the seed within is1 or hath been1 fed2 or1 more generally 7as in grapes1 oranges1 and the numerous kinds of berries71 plunged overhead in a glutinous syrup1 contained within a skin or bladder2 at other times 7as in apples and pears7 embedded in the heart of a firm fleshy substance2 or 7as in strawberries7 pricked into the surface of a soft pulp4 ,these and many more varieties exist in what we call fruits4 ,in pulse1 and grain1 and grasses2 seeds 7as in the pea tribe7 regularly disposed in parchment pods1 which1 though soft and membranous1 completely exclude the wet even in the heaviest rains2 the pod also1 not seldom1 7as in the bean71 lined with a fine down2 at other times 7as in the senna7 distended like a blown bladder2 or we have the seed enveloped in wool 7as in the cotton-plant71 lodged 7as in pines7 between the hard and compact scales of a cone1 or barricadoed 7as in the artichoke and thistle7 with spikes and prickles2 in mushrooms1 placed under a pent-house2 in ferns1 within slits in the back part of the leaf2 or 7which is the most general organisation of all7 we find them covered by strong1 close tunicles1 and attached to the stem according to an order appropriated to each plant1 as is seen in the several kinds of grains and of grasses4 ,verse3 ,and ,i will send grass in thy fields for thy cattle1 that thou mayest eat1 and be full4--,,deuteronomy ,,xi4 ,in which enumeration1 what we have first to notice is1 unity of purpose under variety of expedients4 ,nothing can be more single than the design2 more diversified than the means4 ,pellicles1 shells1 pulps1 pods1 husks1 skin1 scales armed with thorns1 are all employed in prosecuting the same intention4 ,secondly2 we may observe1 that in all these cases1 the purpose is fulfilled within a just and limited degree4 ,we can perceive1 that if the seeds of plants were more strongly guarded than they are1 their greater security would interfere with other uses4 ,many species of animals would suffer1 and many perish1 if they could not obtain access to them4 ,the plant would overrun the soil2 or the seed be wasted for want of room to sow itself4 ,it is1 sometimes1 as necessary to destroy particular species of plants1 as it is1 at other times1 to encourage their growth4 ,here1 as in many cases1 a balance is to be maintained between opposite uses4 ,the provisions for the presentation of seeds appear to be directed1 chiefly against the inconstancy of the elements1 or the sweeping destruction of inclement seasons4 ,the depredation of animals1 and the injuries of accidental violence1 are allowed for in the abundance of the increase4 ,the result is1 that out of the many thousand different plants which cover the earth1 not a single species1 perhaps1 has been lost since the creation4 ,when nature has perfected her seeds1 her next care is to disperse them4 ,the seed cannot answer its purpose1 while it remains confined in the capsule4 ,after the seeds therefore are ripened1 the pericarpium opens to let them out1 and the opening is not like an accidental bursting1 but for the most part1 is according to a certain rule in each plant4 ,what ,i have always thought very extraordinary2 nuts and shells1 which we can hardly crack with our teeth1 divide and make way for the little tender sprout which proceeds from the kernel4 ,handling the nut1 ,i could hardly conceive how the plantule was ever to get out of it4 ,there are cases1 it is said1 in which the seed-vessel1 by an elastic jerk1 at the moment of its explosion1 casts the seeds to a distance4 ,we all1 however1 know1 that many seeds 7those of most composite flowers1 as of the thistle1 dandelion1 c47 are endowed with what are not improperly called wings2 that is1 downy appendages1 by which they are enabled to float in the air1 and are carried oftentimes by the wind to great distances from the plant which produces them4 ,it is the swelling also of this downy tuft within the seed-vessel that seems to overcome the resistance of its coats1 and to open a passage for the seed to escape4 ,but the constitution of seeds is still more admirable than either their preservation or their dispersion4 ,in the body of the seed of every species of plant1 or nearly of every one1 provision is made for two grand purposes3 first1 for the safety of the germ2 secondly1 for the temporary support of the future plant4 ,the sprout1 as folded up in the seed1 is delicate and brittle beyond any other substance4 ,it cannot be touched without being broken4 ,yet in beans1 peas1 grass-seeds1 grain1 fruits1 it is so fenced on all sides1 so shut up and protected1 that whilst the seed itself is rudely handled1 tossed into sacks1 shovelled into heaps1 the sacred particle1 the miniature plant remains unhurt4 ,it is wonderful1 also1 how long many kinds of seeds1 by the help of their integuments1 and perhaps of their oils1 stand out against decay4 ,a grain of mustard-seed has been known to lie in the earth for a hundred years2 and as soon as it had acquired a favourable situation1 to shoot as vigorously as if just gathered from the plant4 ,then1 as to the second point1 the temporary support of the future plant1 the matter stands thus4 ,in grain1 and pulse1 and kernels1 and pipins1 the germ composes a very small part of the seed4 ,the rest consists of a nutritious substance1 from which the sprout draws its aliment for some considerable time after it is put forth2 viz41 until the fibres1 shot out from the other end of the seed1 are able to imbibe juices from the earth1 in a sufficient quantity for its demand4 ,it is owing to this constitution that we see seeds sprout1 and the sprouts make a considerable progress1 without any earth at all4 ,verse3 ,say not ye1 ,there are four months1 and then cometh harvest8 behold1 ,i say unto you1 ,lift up your eyes1 and look on the fields2 for they are white already to harvest4--,,john ,,iv4 ,from the conformation of fruits alone1 one might be led1 even without experience1 to suppose1 that part of this provision was destined for the utilities of animals4 ,as limited to the plant1 the provision itself seems to go beyond its object4 ,the flesh of an apple1 the pulp of an orange1 the meat of a plum1 the fatness of the olive1 appear to be more than sufficient for the nourishing of the seed or kernel4 ,the event shows1 that this redundancy1 if it be one1 ministers to the support and gratification of animal natures2 and when we observe a provision to be more than sufficient for one purpose1 yet wanted for another purpose1 it is not unfair to conclude that both purposes were contemplated together4--,paley4 #aagc4 ,why have climbing plants tough curly tendrils8 ,because1 having no woody stalks of their own to support them1 they require to take hold of surrounding objects1 and raise themselves from the ground by climbing4 ,their spiral tendrils are1 therefore1 so many hands1 assisting them to rise from the earth4 #aagd4 ,why does the pea put forth tendrils1 and the bean not8 ,because the bean has in its stalk sufficient woody fibre to support itself1 but the pea has not4 ,we do not know a single tree or shrub having a firm strong stem sufficient for its support which is also supplied with tendrils4 #aage4 ,why do the ears of wheat stand up by day1 and turn down by night8 ,because1 when the ear is becoming ripe1 the cold dew falling into the ear1 might induce blight2 the ears therefore turn down to the earth1 and receive warmth by radiation4 #aagf4 ,why have grasses1 corn1 canes1 c41 joints1 or knots in their stalks8 ,because a long hollow stem would be liable to bend and break4 ,but the joints are so many points where the fibres are bound together1 and the structure greatly strengthened4 ,verse3 ,then shall the earth yield her increase2 and ,god1 even our own ,god1 shall bless us4--,,psalm ,,xlvii4 #aagg4 ,why have the berries of the mistletoe a thick viscid juice8 ,because the mistletoe is a parasitical plant1 growing upon the bark of other trees4 ,it will not grow in the ground2 its seeds are therefore filled with an exceedingly sticky substance1 which serves to attach them to the bark of trees1 to which the berries attach themselves at once1 by throwing out tough fibres2 and the next year the plant grows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,,the ,,mistletoe4 #aagh4 ,how are the seeds of the mistletoe transferred from its own stem to the bark of trees8 ,various birds1 and particularly the missel thrush1 feed upon the berries4 ,as the bird moves in pursuit of its food1 the viscid berries attach themselves to its feathers1 and in this way the thrush is the instrument which conveys the seed to the spot to which it adheres1 and from which the tree ultimately grows4 #aagi4 ,what is the circulation of the sap in plants8 ,the circulation of the sap is the movement of the nutritive juices by which the plant is sustained4 ,there is a slow uninterrupted movement of the sap from the root through the stems to the leaves1 and downwards from the leaves through the bark to the root4 ,verse3 ,for the sun is no sooner arisen with a burning heat1 but it withereth the grass1 and the flower thereof falleth1 and the grace of the fashion of it perisheth3 so also shall the rich man fade away in his ways4--,,james ,i4 #aahj4 ,why does the sap of plants thus ascend and descend8 ,because it conveys upward from the ground some of the matter by which the plant is to be nourished1 and which must undergo digestion in the leaves2 and it brings downward from the leaves the matters absorbed1 for the nourishment of the plant1 and discharges through the root the substances which the plant cannot use4 ,the movement of the sap is most active in the spring2 but in the depths of the winter it almost ceases4 ,there are other motions of the sap in plants1 which are called special1 in distinction from the ascending and descending of the sap1 which is called general1 or common to all plants4 ,the special movements of the sap are peculiar to certain plants1 in some of which a fluid1 full of little green cells1 is found to have a rotatory motion2 in other plants1 a milky fluid is found to move through particular tissues of the vegetable structure4 #aaha4 ,why are the leaves of plants green8 ,because they secrete a carbonaceous matter1 named chlorophyll1 from which they derive their green colour4 #aahb4 ,why are the hearts of cabbages1 lettuces1 c41 of a pale yellow colour8 ,because the action of light is necessary to the formation of chlorophyll2 and as the leaves are folded upon each other1 they exclude the light1 and the green matter is not formed4 #aahc4 ,why do leaves turn brown in the autumn8 ,because1 when their power of decomposing the air declines1 the oxygen absorbed in the carbonic acid gas1 lodges in the leaf1 imparting to it a red or brown colour4 #aahd4 ,why do succulent fruits1 such as gooseberries1 plums1 c41 taste acid8 ,because1 in the formation of juices1 a considerable amount of oxygen is absorbed1 and the oxygen imparts acidity to the taste4 ,verse3 ,the earth is full of the goodness of the ,lord4--,,psalm ,,xxxiii4 #aahe4 ,why do ripe fruits taste sweet1 and unripe fruits taste sour8 ,because the juices of the ripe fruit contain a large proportion of sugar1 which in the unripe fruit has not been formed4 #aahf4 ,why do some leaves turn yellow8 ,because they retain an excess of nitrogen4 ,leaves undergoing decay turn either yellow1 red1 crimson1 or violet4 ,yellow is due to the excess of nitrogen2 red and crimson to various proportions of oxygen2 violet to a mixture of carbon2 and green to chlorophyll4 #aahg4 ,why do leaves fall off in the autumn8 ,because they have supplied for a season the natural wants of the tree4 ,every part has received nutrition through the spring and summer months2 and the wants of the tree being supplied1 the chief use of the leaf ceases1 and it falls to the ground to decay1 and enrich the soil4 #aahh4 ,why do plants suffer from the smoke of cities8 ,because the smoke injures the porous structure of the leaves1 and interferes with their free respiration4 ,,chapter ,,lxi4 #aahi4 ,why are vegetable productions so widely diffused8 ,because they everywhere form the food of the animal creation4 ,without them1 neither man nor beast could exist4 ,even the flesh-eating animals are sustained by them1 since they live by preying upon the bodies of vegetable-eaters4 ,they also enrich and beautify the earth4 ,they present the most charming diversities of proportions and features4 ,from the cowslip1 the primrose1 and the blue-bell of our childish days1 to the broad oak under which we recline1 while children gambol round us1 they are all beautiful or sublime1 and eminently useful in countless ways to man4 ,they spread a carpet over the surface of the earth2 they cling to old ruins1 and cover hard rocks1 as though they would hide decay1 and give warmth to the coldness of stone4 ,in tropical climates they supply rich fruits full of cool and refreshing juices1 and they spread out upon the crests of tall trees those broad leaves which shelter the native from the scorching heat of the sun4 ,they supply our dwellings with furniture of every kind1 from the plain deal table1 to the handsome cabinet of satin or rose-wood2 they afford rich perfumes to the toilette1 and luscious fruits and wines to the desert2 they charm the eye of the child in the daisied field2 they adorn the brow of the bride2 they are laid in the coffin with the dead2 and1 as the cypress or the willow bend over our graves1 they become the emblems of our grief4 ,verse3 ,the glory of the ,lord shall endure for ever3 the ,lord shall rejoice in his works4--,,psalm ,,civ4 #aaij4 ,what is mahogany8 ,mahogany is the wood of trees brought chiefly from ,south ,america and ,spain4 ,the finest kind is imported from ,st4 ,domingo1 and an inferior kind from ,honduras4 ,we all know the beauty of mahogany wood4 ,but we do not all know that mahogany was first employed in the repair of some of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's ships at ,trinidad in #aeig4 ,the discovery of the beauty of its grain for furniture and cabinet work was accidental4 ,dr4 ,gibbons1 a physician of eminence1 was building a house in ,king-street1 ,covent-garden2 his brother1 captain of a ,west ,indiaman1 had brought over some planks of mahogany as ballast1 and he thought that the wood might be used up in his brother's building1 but the carpenters found the wood too hard for their tools1 and objected to use it4 ,mrs4 ,gibbons shortly afterwards wanted a small box made1 so the doctor called upon his cabinet-maker1 and ordered him to make a box out of some wood that lay in his garden4 ,the cabinet-maker also complained that the wood was too hard4 ,but the doctor insisted upon its being used1 as he wished to preserve it as a memento of his brother4 ,when the box was completed1 its fine colour and polish attracted much attention2 and he1 therefore1 ordered a bureau to be made of it4 ,this was done1 and it presented so fine an appearance that the cabinet-maker invited numerous persons to see it1 before it was sent home4 ,among the visitors was her ,grace the ,duchess of ,buckingham1 who immediately begged some of the wood from ,mr4 ,gibbons1 and employed the cabinet-maker to make her a bureau also4 ,mahogany from this time became a fashionable wood1 and the cabinet-maker1 who at first objected to use it1 made a great success by its introduction4 #aaia4 ,what is rose-wood8 ,rosewood is the wood of a tree which grows in ,brazil4 ,it is1 generally speaking1 too dark for large articles of furniture1 but is admirably adapted for smaller ones4 ,it is expensive1 and the hardness of the wood renders the cost of making articles of it very high4 ,verse3 ,i am come up to the height of the mountains1 to the sides of ,lebanon1 and will cut down the tall cedars thereof1 and the choice fir trees thereof4--,,ii4 ,,kings ,,xxiii4 ,respecting the other woods used in the manufacture of furniture1 we have nothing special to say1 except of the oak--the emblem of our native land4 ,this tree yields a most useful and durable wood1 and as it not only defends our country by supplying our wooden walls1 but gives to us the floors of our houses1 furnishes our good substantial tables1 and comfortable arm-chairs1 it will be well for us to know a few facts about this celebrated tree4 ,it is said that there are no less than one hundred and fifty species of the oak4 ,the importance of the growth of oaks may be gathered from the fact1 that the building of a #gj-;gun ship would take forty acres of timber4 ,the building of a #gj-;gun ship is estimated to cost about #gj1jjj4 ,oak trees attain to the age of #a1jjj years4 ,the oak enlarges its circumference from #aj-a_/b inches to #ab inches in a year4 ,the interior of a great oak at ,allonville1 in ,normandy1 has been converted into a place of worship4 ,an oak at ,kiddington1 served as a village prison4 ,a large oak at ,salcey1 was used as a cattle fold2 and others have served as tanks1 tombs1 prisons1 and dwelling-houses4 ,the ,mammoth tree1 which is exhibiting at the ,crystal ,palace1 is one of the great wonders of the vegetable creation4 ,it is the grand monarch of the ,californian forest1 inhabiting a solitary district on the elevated slopes of the ,sierra ,nevada1 at #e1jjj feet above the sea-level4 ,from #hj to #ij trees exist1 all within the circuit of a mile1 and these varying from #bej to #cbj feet in height1 and from #aj to #bj feet in diameter4 ,the bark is from #ab to #ae inches in thickness2 the branchlets are somewhat pendent1 and resemble those of cypress or juniper1 and it has the cones of a pine4 ,of a tree felled in #ahec1 #ba feet of the bark from the lower part of the trunk were put in the natural form as a room1 which would contain a piano1 with seats for forty persons2 and on one occasion #aej children were admitted4 ,the tree is reputed to have been above #c1jjj years old2 that is to say1 it must have been a little plant when ,samson was slaying the ,philistines4 ,the portion of the tree exhibiting at the palace is #ajc feet in height1 and #cb feet in diameter at the base4 #aaib4 ,what is tea8 ,tea is the leaf of a shrub 7,thea ,chinensis74 ,the plant usually grows to the height of from three to six feet1 and resembles in appearance the well-known myrtle4 ,it bears a blossom not unlike that of the common dog-rose4 ,the climate most congenial to it is that between the #beth and #ccrd degrees of latitude4 ,the growth of good tea prevails chiefly in ,china1 and is confined to a few provinces4 ,the green and black teas are mere varieties1 depending upon the culture1 time of gathering1 mode of drying1 c4 ,coffee was used in this country before tea4 ,in #affd1 it is recorded1 the ,east ,india ,company bought #blb4 #boz4 of coffee as a present for the king4 ,in the year #ahcb1 there were #aja1fhg licensed tea dealers in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,green tea was first used in #agae4 ,a dispute with ,america about the duty upon tea led to the ,american war1 out of which arose ,american independence4 ,the consumption of tea throughout the whole world is estimated at above #eb1jjj1jjj lbs41 of which the consumption of ,great ,britain alone amounts to #cj1jjj1jjj4 7,see #abbe74 ,verse3 ,every man should eat and drink1 and enjoy the good of all his labour1 it is the gift of ,god4--,,ecclesiastes ,,iii4 #aaic4 ,what is coffee8 ,coffee is the berry of the coffee plant1 which was a native of that part of ,arabia called ,yemen1 but it is now extensively cultivated in ,india1 ,java1 the ,west ,indies1 ,brazil1 c4 7,see #abbd74 ,the first coffee-house in ,london was opened in #afeb1 under the following circumstances4 ,a ,turkey merchant named ,edwards1 having brought along with him from the ,levant1 some bags of coffee1 and a ,greek servant who was skilful in making it1 his house was thronged with visitors to see and taste this new beverage4 ,being desirous to gratify his friends without putting himself to inconvenience1 he allowed his servant to open a coffee-house1 and to sell coffee publicly4 ,here we have another illustration of the great results springing from trifling causes4 ,coffee soon became so extensively used that taxes were imposed upon it4 ,in #affj a duty of #d;d4 a gallon was imposed upon all coffee made and sold4 ,before #agcb the duty upon coffee was #bs4 a pound2 it was afterwards reduced to #as4 #f;d41 at which it yielded to the revenue1 for many years1 #aj1jjj per annum4 ,the duty has been gradually reduced1 and the consumption has gone on increasing1 until at last above #be1jjj1jjj of pounds are consumed annually6 ,fancy this great result springing from a friendly coffee party that assembled in the year #afeb4 #aaid4 ,what is chocolate8 ,it is a cake prepared from the cocoa-nut4 ,the nut is first roasted like coffee1 then it is reduced to powder and mixed with water1 the paste is then put into moulds and hardened4 ,the properties are very healthful1 but its consumption is very insignificant1 as compared with tea or coffee4 ,the cocoa tree grows chiefly in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america4 #aaie4 ,what is cocoa8 ,cocoa is also a preparation from the seeds or beans of the cocoa tree4 ,but the best form of cocoa for family use is to obtain the beans pure1 as they are now commonly sold ready for use1 and to break them and then grind them in a large coffee mill4 #aaif4 ,what is chicory8 ,chicory is the root of the common endive1 dried and roasted as coffee1 for which it is used as a substitute4 ,some persons prefer the flavour of chicory admixed with coffee4 ,but very opposite opinions prevail respecting the qualities of chicory4 ,we believe it to be perfectly healthful1 and attribute the prejudice that prevails against it1 to its having been used1 from its cheapness1 to adulterate coffee4 ,verse3 ,he that tilleth the land shall have plenty of bread3 but he that followeth after vain persons shall have poverty enough4--,,proverbs ,,xxviii4 #aaig4 ,what is sugar8 ,sugar is a sweet granulated substance1 which may be derived from many vegetable substances1 but the chief source of which is the sugar cane4 ,the other chief sources that supply it are the maple1 beet-root1 birch1 parsnip1 c4 ,it is extensively used all over the world4 ,sugar is supposed to have been known to the ancient ,jews4 ,it was found in the ,east ,indies by ,newcheus1 ,admiral of ,alexander1 #cbe ,b4,c4 ,it was brought into ,europe from ,asia4 ,the art of sugar refining was first practised in ,england1 in #afei1 and sugar was first taxed by name by ,james ,,ii41 #afhe4 ,sugar is derived from the ,west ,indies1 ,brazil1 ,surinam1 ,java1 ,mauritius1 ,bengal1 ,siam1 the ,isle de ,bourbon1 c4 c4 ,before the introduction of sugar to this country1 honey was the chief substance employed in making sweet dishes2 and long after the introduction of sugar it was used only in the houses of the rich4 ,the consumption in ,england in #agjj reached only #aj1jjj tons2 in #ahcd it had reached #ahj1jjj tons4 ,the ,english took possession of the ,west ,indies in #afgb1 and in #afdf began to export sugar4 ,in #afgf it is recorded that #djj vessels1 averaging #aej tons1 were employed in the sugar trade of ,barbadoes4 ,jamaica was discovered by ,columbus1 and was occupied by the ,spaniards1 from whom it was taken by ,cromwell1 in #afef1 and has since continued in our own possession4 ,when it was conquered there were only three sugar plantations upon it4 ,but they rapidly increased4 ,until the abolition of slavery in the ,west ,indies1 the production of sugar was almost exclusively limited to slave labour4 7,see #abbf74 #aaih4 ,what is wheat8 ,wheat1 rye1 barley1 oats1 millet1 and maize1 all belong to the natural order of grain-bearing plants4 ,they all grow in a similar manner1 and all yield starch1 gluten1 and a certain amount of phosphates4 ,they are commonly spoken of as farinaceous foods4 ,verse3 ,i clothed thee also with broidered work1 and shod thee with badgers' skin1 and ,i girded thee about with fine linen1 and ,i covered thee with silk4--,,ezekiel ,,xvi4 ,from the ,sacred writings we learn that unleavened bread was common in the days of ,abraham4 ,in the earlier periods of our own history1 people had no other method of making bread than by roasting corn1 and beating it in mortars1 then wetting it into a kind of coarse cake4 ,in #aeif1 rye bread and oatmeal formed a considerable part of the diet of servants1 even in great families4 ,in the time of ,charles the ,first1 barley bread was the chief food of the people4 ,in many parts of ,england it was more the custom to make bread at home than at present4 ,in #ahjd1 there was not a single public baker in ,manchester4 ,in ,france1 when the use of yeast was first introduced1 it was deemed by the faculty of medicine to be so injurious to health that its use was prohibited under the severest penalties4 ,herault says that1 during the siege of ,paris by ,henry the ,fourth1 a famine raged1 and bread sold at a crown a pound4 ,when this was consumed1 the dried bones from the charnel house of the ,holy ,innocents were exhumed1 and a kind of bread made therefrom4 ,bread-street1 in ,london1 was once a bread market4 ,from the year #abff1 it had been customary to regulate by law the price of bread in proportion to the price of wheat or flour at the time4 ,this was called the assize of bread2 but1 in #ahae1 it was abolished4 ,in the year #bgb there was a famine in ,britain so severe that people ate the bark of trees2 forty thousand persons perished by famine in ,england in #caj6 ,in the year #dej there was a famine in ,italy so dreadful that people ate their own children4 ,a famine1 commencing in ,england1 ,wales1 and ,scotland1 in #ied1 lasted four years4 ,a famine in ,england and ,france1 in #aaic1 led to a pestilential fever1 which lasted until #aaie4 ,in #acae there was again a dreadful famine in ,england1 during which people devoured the flesh of horses1 dogs1 cats1 and vermin6 ,in the year #agge1 #af1jjj people died of famine in the ,cape de ,verds4 ,these are only a few of the remarkable famines that have occurred in the course of history4 ,let us thank ,god that we live in times of abundance1 when improved cultivation1 the pursuit of industry1 and the settlement of the laws1 render such a calamity as a famine almost an impossibility4 #aaii4 ,what is cotton8 ,cotton is a species of vegetable wool1 produced by the cotton shrub1 called1 botanically1 ,gossypium herbaceum1 of which there are numerous varieties4 ,it grows naturally in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 and is cultivated largely for purposes of commerce4 ,the precise time when the cotton manufacture was introduced into ,england is unknown2 but probably it was not before the #agth century4 ,since then1 what wonderful advances have been made6 ,the cotton trade and manufacture have become a vast source of ,british industry1 and of commerce between nations4 ,it was some years ago calculated that the cotton manufacture yielded to ,great ,britain one thousand millions sterling4 ,the names of ,hargreaves1 ,arkwright1 ,crompton1 ,cartwright1 and others1 have become immortalised by their inventions for the improvement of the manufacture of cotton fabrics4 ,little more than half a century has passed since the ,british cotton manufactory was in its infancy--now it engages many millions of capital--keeps millions of work people employed2 freights thousands of ships that are ever crossing and re-crossing the seas2 and binds nations together in ties of mutual interest4 ,the present yearly value of cotton manufactures in ,great ,britain is estimated at #cd1jjj1jjj4 ,about #f1jdd1jjj of the above sum is distributed yearly among working people as wages4 #abjj4 ,what is silk8 ,silk1 though not directly a vegetable product1 is1 nevertheless1 indirectly derived from the vegetable creation1 since it is a thread spun by the silk-worm from matter which the worm derives from the mulberry leaf4 ,verse3 ,and there was a man in ,maon1 whose possessions were in ,carmel2 and the man was very great1 and he had three thousand sheep1 and a thousand goats3 and he was shearing his sheep in ,carmel4--,i ,,samuel ,,xxv4 ,silk is supplied by various parts of the world1 including ,china1 the ,east ,indies1 ,turkey1 c41 where the silk-worm has been found to thrive4 ,the attempts that have been hitherto made to cultivate it in this country have proved unsuccessful4 ,at ,rome1 in the time of ,tiberius1 a law passed the senate which1 as well as prohibiting the wearing of massive gold jewels1 also forbade the men to debase themselves by wearing silk4 ,there was a time when silk was of the same value as gold--weight for weight--and it was thought to grow upon trees4 ,it is recorded that silk mantles were worn by some noble ladies at a ball at ,kenilworth ,castle1 #abhf4 ,it was first manufactured in ,england in #afjd4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth1 the manufacture of silk in ,england made rapid strides4 ,in #afff1 there were #dj1jjj persons engaged in the silk trade4 ,the silk throwsters of the metropolis were enrolled in a fellowship in #aefb1 and were incorporated in #afbi4 ,in #afhe1 a considerable impetus was given to the ,english silk manufactures4 ,louis the ,fourteenth of ,france revoked the edict of ,nantes4 ,the edict of ,nantes was promulgated by ,henry the ,fourth of ,france in #aeih4 ,it gave to the ,protestants of ,france the free exercise of their religion4 ,louis the ,fourteenth revoked this edict in #afhe1 and thereby drove the ,protestants as refugees to ,england1 ,holland1 and parts of ,germany1 where they established various manufactures4 ,many of these ,french refugees settled in ,spitalfields1 and there founded extensive manufactories1 which soon rivalled those of their own country2 and thus the intolerance of the king was justly punished4 ,what important facts we see connected with the simple thread of the silk-worm6 #abja4 ,what is wool8 ,wool is a kind of soft hair or coarse down1 produced by various animals1 but chiefly by sheep4 ,this is another of the useful productions of nature1 for which we are indirectly indebted to the vegetable kingdom2 for were it not for the rich pastures forming the green carpet of the earth1 it would be impossible for man to keep large flocks of sheep for the production of wool4 ,wool1 like the hair of most animals1 completes its growth in a year1 and then exhibits a tendency to fall off4 ,for the production of wool in ,england and ,wales it has been estimated that there are no less than #bg1jjj1jjj sheep and lambs2 and1 in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the total number is estimated at #hb1jjj1jjj4 ,wool was not manufactured in any quantity in ,england until #acca1 when the weaving of it was introduced by ,john ,kempe and other artizans from ,flanders4 ,the exportation or non-exportation of wool has from time to time formed a vexed subject for legislators4 ,woollen clothes were made an article of commerce in the reign of ,julius ,csar4 ,they were made in ,england prior to #abjj4 ,blankets were first made in ,england in #acdj4 ,the art of dyeing wools was first introduced into ,england in #afjh4 ,the annual value of the raw material in wool is set down at #f1jjj1jjj2 the wages of workmen engaged in the wool trade1 #i1fjj1jjj4 ,the number of people employed is said to be #ejj1jjj4 #abjb4 ,what is starch8 ,starch is one of the most useful products of the vegetable kingdom4 ,as a rule1 a vegetable1 if nutritious at all1 is so according to the amount of starch which it contains4 ,it is most abundantly found in the seeds of plants1 and especially in the wheat tribe4 ,it is also met with in the cellular tissues of plants1 and especially in such underground stems as the potatoe1 carrot1 turnip1 c41 and the stems of the sago-palm fig1 c4 ,it is also found in the bark of some trees4 ,verse3 ,every good gift and every perfect gift is from above1 and cometh down from the ,father of lights1 with whom is no variableness1 neither shadow of turning4--,,james ,i4 #abjc4 ,why is the horse chestnut1 though containing a great quantity of starch1 unfit for food8 ,because 7like many other vegetable productions7 it contains with the starch an acrid juice1 which renders it unhealthy2 and although the juice can be separated from the starch1 the process is too expensive to be made generally available4 ,the starch which is used for domestic purposes is an artificial preparation1 and does not properly represent the starch of nutrition4 ,a better idea of it is afforded by the meal of a flowery potatoe4 ,the starch used by laundresses is frequently prepared from diseased potatoes4 ,this does not impair the quality of the starch1 for the purposes of the laundress1 and the reason why potatoes that are diseased are thus applied is1 that it is one method of saving some part of their value4 ,the finest kinds of starch are prepared from rice4 ,it is prepared by breaking the pulp1 and disengaging the starch from the cells2 and it is then put through other processes to remove the fragments of the broken cells4 ,but in the flowery meal of the potatoe1 the starch cell may be seen entire4 ,,chapter ,,lxii4 #abjd4 ,what are vegetable oils and fats8 ,vegetable oils and fats constitute1 next to starch and sugar1 the most important secretion of the vegetable creation4 ,there are very few plants from which some amount of oil cannot be obtained2 and those which are famed for yielding it owe their celebrity rather to the abundance that they yield1 and the peculiar qualities of their oil1 than to the secretion of oil being rare--for probably there is no plant without it4 ,oil is most commonly found in seeds1 as rape-seed1 linseed1 c41 but it is found also in leaves1 as in the rose1 sweet-briar1 peppermint1 c41 where its presence may be recognised by the distinguishing perfume2 and it is also found in the wood of a few trees1 such as the sassafras and the sandal-wood2 the bark frequently yields an oily secretion4 ,verse3 ,ointment and perfume rejoice the heart2 so doth the sweetness of a man's friend by hearty counsel4--,,proverbs ,,xxvii4 ,the ,london and ,north ,western ,railway ,company alone use about #ej1jjj gallons of oil yearly4 #abje4 ,why are fat and oil found most abundantly in the bodies of animals in cold climates8 ,because they contribute to keep the bodies of animals warm1 not only by their non-conducting property keeping in the heat of the animals1 but by supplying carbon abundantly to combine with oxygen during respiration1 and thereby developing animal heat4 #abjf4 ,why are oil and fat-forming trees found most abundantly in hot climates8 ,because1 in hot countries1 the formation of large quantities of fat in animal bodies would oppress living creatures with heat2 fats and oils are1 therefore1 produced in those countries chiefly by vegetables1 and are used externally by the ,asiatics and ,africans as an external unction for cooling the skin1 and as perfumes which give inspiriting properties to the air1 rendered oppressive by excess of heat4 #abjg4 ,why are succulent fruits most abundant in tropical climates8 ,because they are rendered necessary in those climates by the excessive heat1 and are found to have a most beneficial effect in cooling1 purifying the blood of the inhabitants of tropical countries2 while the grandeur of their foliage1 and the richness of their flowers1 are in perfect keeping with the intensity of light and heat1 and serve1 by throwing dense shades over the earth1 to cool its surface1 and to offer to living creatures a pleasant retreat from the rays of the burning sun4 ,the following sketch of ,botanical ,geography should be read attentively after the reader has gone through the whole of the ,chapters of ,reasons4 ,the technical terms employed in the course of the article are nearly all explained at #abab1 and should be committed to memory at the commencement of the perusal4 ,mimosa means a sensitive plant2 concentric zones1 circular lines spreading from a centre2 arborescent1 resembling trees2 ,gramine1 grass-like4 ,the botanical names represent individual plants4 ,verse3 ,blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly1 nor standeth in the way of sinners1 nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful3 #abjh4 ,when treating of the geographical distribution of vegetables1 we have to mark the general arrangements indicated1 and the agencies that have evidently operated in promoting the diffusion of floral tribes4 ,vegetation occurs over the whole globe1 therefore1 under the most opposite conditions4 ,plants flourish in the bosom of the ocean as well as on land1 under the extremes of cold and heat in polar and equatorial regions1 on the hardest rocks and the soft alluvium of the plains1 amidst the perpetual snow of lofty mountains1 and in springs at the temperature of boiling water1 in situations never penetrated by the solar rays1 as the dark vaults of caverns1 and the walls of mines1 as well as freely exposed to the influences of light and air4 ,but these diverse circumstances have different species and genera4 ,there is only one state which seems fatal to the existence of vegetable life--the entire absence of humidity4 #abji4 ,by species we understand so many individuals as intimately resemble each other in appearance and properties1 and agree in all their permanent characters1 which are founded in the immutable laws of creation4 ,an established species may frequently exhibit new varieties1 depending upon local and accidental causes1 but these are imperfectly1 or for a limited time1 if at all1 perpetuated4 #abaj4 ,a genus comprises one or more species similar to each other1 but essentially differing in formation1 nature1 and in many adventitious qualities from other plants4 ,a tribe1 family1 group1 or order1 comprises several genera4 #abaa4 ,the known number of species in the vegetable kingdom has been gradually enlarged by the progress of maritime and inland discovery2 but owing to great districts of the globe not having yet been explored by the botanist1 the interior of ,africa1 and ,australia1 with sections of ,america1 ,asia1 and ,oceanica1 it is impossible to state the exact amount4 ,the successive augmentation of the catalogue appears from the numbers below3 ,species4 ,theophrastus #ejj ,pliny #a1jjj ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,arabian botanists #a1djj ,bauhin #f1jjj ,linnus #h1hjj ,persoon #bg1jjj ,humboldt and ,brown #ch1jjj ,de ,candolle #ef1jjj ,lindley #hf1jjj ,hinds #hi1jjj #abab4 ,vegetable forms are divided into three great classes which differ materially in their structure3--#a4 ,cryptogamous plants--those which have no flowers1 properly so called1 mosses1 lichens1 fungi1 and ferns3 as distinguished from those which are phnogamous1 or flower-bearing1 to which the two following classes belong4 #b4 ,endogenous plants1 which have stems increasing from within1 also called ,monocotyledons1 from having only one seed-lobe1 as the numerous grasses1 lilies1 and the palm family4 #c4 ,exogenous plants1 which have stems growing by additions from without1 also called ,dicoteledons1 from the seed consisting of two lobes1 the most perfect1 beautiful1 and numerous class1 embracing the forest trees1 and most flowering shrubs and herbs4 #abac4 ,the exogens furnish examples of gigantic size1 and great longevity4 ,in ,south ,america on the banks of the ,atabapo1 ,humboldt measured a ,bombax caiba more than #abj feet high1 and #ae in diameter2 and near ,cumana1 he found the ,zamang del ,guayra1 a species of mimosa1 the pendant branches of the hemispherical head having a circumference of upwards of #fjj feet4 ,the ,adansonia1 or baobab of ,senegal1 though attaining no great height1 rarely more than fifty feet1 has a trunk with a diameter sometimes amounting to #cd feet2 while the ,pinus ,lambertiana1 growing singly on the plains west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 has been found #bej feet high1 #fj feet in circumference at the base1 #d-a_/b feet in girth at the height of #aij feet1 yielding cones #aa inches round1 and #af long4 ,the ,ficus ,indicus1 or banian tree1 sending out shoots from its horizontal branches1 which reaching the ground take root1 and form new stems till a single tree multiplies almost to a forest1 has been observed covering an area of #agjj square yards4 ,verse3 ,he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water1 that bringeth forth his fruit in season3 his leaf also shall not wither2 and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper4--,,psalm ,i4 #abad4 ,from the number of concentric zones observed in a transverse section of the stems ,de ,caudolle advances proof of the following ages3 ,elm #cce years4 ,cypress about #cej ,cheirostemon #djj ,ivy #dej ,larch #egf ,orange #fcj ,olive #gjj ,oriental ,plane #gbj and upwards4 ,cedar of ,lebanon #hjj ,oak #haj1 #ajhj1 #aejj ,lime #ajgf1 #aadg ,yew #abad1 #adeh1 #behh1 #bhhj ,taxodium #djjj to #fjjj ,baobab #eaej #abae4 ,admitting1 with ,professor ,henslow1 that ,de ,candolle overrated the ages of these trees one-third1 they are examples of extraordinary longevity4 ,yew trees upwards of #gjj years old remain at ,fountains ,abbey1 ,yorkshire1 as there is historic evidence of their existence in the year #aacc4 ,but a yew in the churchyard of ,darley-in-the-,dale1 ,derbyshire1 is considered by ,mr4 ,bowman as #bjjj years old4 #abaf4 ,the cryptogamous plants afford the most numerous examples of wide diffusion4 ,a lichen indigenous in ,cornwall1 sticta aurata1 is also a native of the ,west ,india ,islands1 ,brazil1 ,st ,helena1 and the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 while #ch lichens and #bh mosses are common to ,great ,britain and ,australia1 though the general vegetation of the two districts is remarkably discordant4 ,some species of endogenous plants are also widely distributed1 the ,phleum alpinum of ,switzerland occurring without the slightest difference at the ,strait of ,magellan1 and the quaking grasses of ,europe in the interior of ,southern ,africa4 ,but only in very few instances are the same species of exogenous plants met with in regions far apart from each other2 and generally speaking1 in passing from one country to another1 we encounter a new flora2 for if the same genera occur1 the species are not identical1 while in districts widely separated the genera are different4 #abag4 ,the cryptogamic plants1 mosses1 lichens1 ferns1 and fungi1 are to the whole mass of phnogamic vegetation in the following proportions in different districts3 ,equatorial latitudes1 #j deg4 to #aj deg42 on the plains1 #a-beth1 on the mountains1 #a-eth2 mean latitudes1 #de deg4 to #eb deg4 #a_/b2 high latitudes1 #fg deg4 #gj deg41 proportion about equal4 ,thus the proportion of the flowerless vegetation to the flowering increases from the equator to the poles4 ,but the family of ferns1 filices1 viewed singly1 forms an exception to this law1 decreasing as we depart from equinoctial countries1 being #a-bjth in equatorial and #a-gjth in mean latitudes1 and not found at all in the high latitudes of the new world4 ,verse3 ,to give unto them beauty for ashes1 the oil of joy for mourning1 the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness2 that they might be called ,trees of righteousness1 ,the planting of the ,lord1 that he might be glorified4--,,isaiah ,,lxi4 #abah4 ,in equinoctial and tropical countries1 where a sufficient supply of moisture combines with the influence of light and heat1 vegetation appears in all its magnitude and glory4 ,its lower orders1 mosses1 fungi1 and conferv1 are very rare4 ,the ferns are aborescent4 ,reeds ascend to the height of a hundred feet1 and rigid grasses rise to forty4 ,the forests are composed of majestic leafy evergreen trees bearing brilliant blossoms1 their colours finely contrasting1 scarcely any two standing together being of the same species4 ,enormous creepers climb their trunks2 parasitical orchid hang in festoons from branch to branch1 and augment the floral decoration with scarlet1 purple1 blue1 rose1 and golden dyes4 ,of plants used by man for food1 or as luxuries1 or for medicinal purposes1 occurring in this region1 rice1 bananas1 dates1 cocoa1 cacao1 bread-fruit1 coffee1 tea1 sugar1 vanilla1 ,peruvian bark1 pepper1 cinnamon1 cloves1 and nutmegs1 are either characteristic of it as principally cultivated within its limits1 or entirely confined to them4 #abai4 ,rice 7,oryza-sativa71 the chief food of1 perhaps1 a third of the human race1 is cultivated beyond the tropics1 but principally within them1 only where there is a plentiful supply of water4 ,it has never been found wild2 its native country is unknown2 but probably southern ,asia4 #abbj4 ,bananas1 or plantains 7,musa sapientum et paradisiaca71 are cultivated in intertropical ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,the latter species occur in ,syria4 ,the banana is not known in an uncultivated state4 ,its produce is enormous1 estimated to be on the same space of ground to that of wheat1 as #acc to #a1 and to that of potatoes as #dd to #a4 #abba4 ,dates 7,phoenix dactylifera71 and cocoa 7,cocos nucifera71 belonging to the family ,palm4 ,the palms1 remarkable for their elegant forms and importance to man1 contribute more than any other trees to impress upon the vegetation of tropical and equinoctial countries its peculiar physiognomy4 ,the date palm is a native of northern ,africa1 and is so abundant between the ,barbary states and the ,sahara1 that the district has been named ,biledul erid1 the land of dates4 ,as the desert is approached1 the only objects that break the monotony of the landscape are the date palm1 and the tent of the ,arab4 ,it accompanies the margin of the mighty desert in all its sinuosities from the shores of the ,atlantic to the confines of ,persia1 and is the only vegetable affording subsistence to man that can grow in such an arid situation4 ,the annual produce of an individual is from #aej to #bfjlbs4 weight of fruit4 ,the cocoa palm furnishes annually about a hundred cocoa-nuts4 ,it is spread throughout the torrid zone2 but occurs most abundantly in the islands of the ,indian archipelago4 ,the family of palms is supposed to contain a thousand species1 some of large size1 forming extensive forests4 #abbb4 ,cacao 7,theobrama cacao71 from the seeds of which chocolate is prepared1 grows wild in central ,america1 and is also extensively cultivated in ,mexico1 ,guatemala1 and on the coast of ,cumana4 #abbc4 ,bread-fruit tree 7,artocarpus incisa71 a native of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 and ,indian archipelago1 grows also in ,southern ,asia1 and has been introduced into the tropical parts of ,america2 but the fruit is not equal to the banana as an article of human food4 ,verse3 ,and they returned and prepared spices and ointments2 and rested the ,sabbath-day1 according to the commandment4--,,luke ,,xxiv4 #abbd4 ,coffee 7,coffea ,arabica74 ,the bush has probably for its native region the ,ethiopian ,highlands1 from whence it was taken in the fifteenth century to the ,highlands of ,yemen1 the southern part of the ,arabian peninsula4 ,it has been introduced1 and is now extensively cultivated in ,british ,india1 ,java1 ,ceylon1 the ,mauritius1 ,brazil1 and the ,west ,indies1 but the quality is inferior1 which makes the climate of the ,mocha coffee district of importance1 as peculiarly favourable to the plant4 ,it grows there on hills described by ,niebuhr as being soaked with rain every day from the beginning of ,june to the end of ,september1 which is carefully collected for the purpose of irrigation during the dry season4 ,forskhal gives the following temperatures in the district3 ,boit el ,fakih ,march #af1 #g ,a4,m4 #gf deg4 #a ,p4,m4 #ie deg4 #ah1 #gg #ie ,hodeida #ah1 #gb #ib-c_/d ,bulgosa1 a village in the hills #bj1 #fi-a_/b #he-a_/b ,boit el ,fakih #aj ,p4,m4 #ha deg4 #ha ,hodeida #gh ,bulgosa1 a village in the hills #gc #abbe4 ,tea 7,thea ,chinensis74 ,the plant is indigenous in ,china1 ,japan1 and ,upper ,assam4 ,in the latter country1 it has recently been found in a wild state1 and is in process there of extensive cultivation4 ,as the plant is hardy1 its culture has very lately been attempted in the ,south of ,france1 and apparently with complete success4 ,a similar experiment on the burning plains of ,algeria completely failed1 all the plants being killed by the heat1 notwithstanding every precaution4 ,tea was first introduced into ,europe by the ,dutch in #afff4 ,the leaves of the coffee-plant have long been used as a substitute for tea1 by the lower classes in ,java and ,sumatra2 and recently1 ,professor ,blume1 of ,leyden1 exhibited samples of tea prepared from coffee-leaves1 agreeing entirely in appearance1 odour1 and taste1 with the genuine ,chinese production4 #abbf4 ,sugar-cane 7,saccharum officinaram71 a species of ,gramine1 occurs to some extent without the tropics1 having been cultivated centuries ago in ,europe1 as at present scantily in the ,south of ,spain4 ,but it properly belongs to the torrid zone1 and has for its principal districts1 the ,southern ,united ,states1 the ,west ,indies1 ,venezuela1 ,brazil1 the ,mauritius1 ,british ,india1 ,china1 the ,sunda and ,philippine ,islands4 ,the plant was found wild in several parts of ,america on the discovery of that continent1 and occurs in a wild state on many of the islands of the ,pacific4 #abbg4 ,vanilla 7,vanilla aromatica71 the fruit of which forms the well-known aromatic1 grows wild principally in ,mexico4 #abbh4 ,peruvian bark 7,cinchona officinalis71 a forest tree1 of which there are several species1 furnishing the valuable medicine so called4 ,it is exclusively confined to ,south ,america1 and grows chiefly on the ,andes of ,loxa and ,venezuela4 #abbi4 ,pepper 7,piper nigrum7 belongs exclusively to the ,malabar coast1 where it has been found wild1 ,sumatra1 which produces the greatest quantity1 ,borneo1 the ,malay peninsula1 and ,siam4 ,other species of ,piperaceoe occur in tropical ,america4 #abcj4 ,cinnamon 7,laurus ,cinnamomum71 a small tree yielding the aromatic bark1 is found native only in the island of ,ceylon2 but another species occurs in ,cochin ,china4 ,verse3 ,i am the true vine1 and my ,father is the husbandman4--,,john ,,xv4 #abca4 ,clove 7,myrtus caryophyllus71 an evergreen small tree1 the dried flower-buds of which form the celebrated aromatic1 grows naturally in the ,moluccas1 whence it has been conveyed to other tropical districts4 ,the island of ,amboyna1 one of that group1 is the principal seat of its cultivation4 ,the lowest temperature there is #gb degs42 the mean temperature of the year #hb degs4 #abcb4 ,nutmeg 7,myrstica moschata7 grows naturally in several islands of the eastern archipelago1 but is principally cultivated in the ,banda ,isles4 ,tropical families and forms successively vanish with an increase of distance from the equator1 and new phases of vegetation mark the transition from hot to temperate climates4 ,vividly green meadows1 abounding with tender herbs1 replace the tall rigid grasses which form the impenetrable jungle2 and instead of forests composed of towering evergreen trees1 woods of the deciduous class appear1 which cast their leaves in winter1 and hybernate in the colder season1 the oak1 ash1 elm1 maple1 beech1 lime1 alder1 birch1 and sycamore4 ,the cultivation of the vine becomes characteristic1 with the perfection of the cereal grasses1 and a larger proportion of herbaceous annuals and cryptogamic plants4 #abcc4 ,the vine 7,vitis vinifera7 is less impatient of a cold winter than a cool summer4 ,hence its northern limit1 which coincides with lat4 #dg deg4 #cj min4 on the west coast of ,france1 rises in the interior1 where1 though the winters are colder1 the summers are warmer1 to lat4 #di degs41 cuts the ,rhine at ,coblentz in lat4 #ej deg4 #bj min41 and ascends to #eb deg4 #ca min4 in ,germany4 #abcd4 ,receding further from the equator1 magnificent forests of the fir and pine tribe prevail1 as in the central parts of ,russia1 on the southern shores of the ,baltic1 in ,scandinavia1 and ,north ,america4 ,but some of the cereals are no longer cultivatable1 and several timber-trees common to the temperate zone do not reach its northern limits4 ,gradually all ligneous vegetation disappears entirely as higher latitudes are approached1 the woods having first dwindled to mere dwarfs in struggling with the elements1 hostile to that state which nature destined them to assume4 ,the limit of the forests is a sinuous line running along the extreme north of the old world2 and extending from ,hudson's ,bay1 lat4 #fj deg41 to the ,mackenzie ,river1 lat4 #fh deg41 and thence to ,behring's ,strait4 ,the dwarf birch 7,betula nana71 a mere bush1 is the last tree found on drawing near the eternal snow of the pole4 ,at the island of ,hammerfest1 lat4 #gj deg4 #dj min41 near the ,north ,cape1 it rises to about the height of a man1 in sheltered hollows between the mountains1 its lower branches trailing on the ground1 affording a shelter to the ptarmigan4 ,in the polar zone1 some low flowering annuals1 saxifrages1 ranunculi1 gentians1 chickweeds1 and others1 flourish during the brief ardent summer2 a few perennials also accommodate themselves to the rigorous climate by spreading laterally1 never rising higher than four or five inches from the ground2 till finally no development of vegetable life is met with1 but lichens1 and the microscopic forms that colour the snow4 #abce4 ,in ,europe1 wheat ceases with a line connecting ,inverness in ,scotland1 lat4 #eh deg41 ,drontheim in ,norway1 lat4 #fd deg41 and ,petersburgh in ,russia lat4 #fj deg4 #ae min4 ,oats reach a somewhat higher latitude4 ,barley and rye ascend to lat4 #gj deg41 but require a favourable aspect and season to produce a crop4 #abcf4 ,the northern limit of the growth of oak1 lat4 #fa deg41 falls short of that of wheat4 ,the oak makes a singular leap at the confines of ,europe and ,asia1 disappearing towards the ,ural mountains4 ,this is the case also with the wild-nut and apple4 ,the oak and the wild-nut1 however1 re-appear suddenly in ,eastern ,asia1 on the banks of the ,argoun and the ,amour2 and the apple occurs again in the ,aleutian ,isles4 ,verse3 ,he hath made the earth by his power1 he hath established the world by his wisdom1 and hath stretched out the heavens by his discretion4--,,jeremiah ,x4 #abcg4 ,the following are the northern limits of several trees in ,scandinavia3 ,lat4 ,beech1 ,fagus silvatica #fj deg4 #j min4 ,hard ,oak1 ,quercus robur #fa #j ,common ,elm1 ,ulmus campestris #fa #j ,common ,lime1 ,tilia communis #fa #j ,common ,ash1 ,fraxinus excelsior #fb #j ,fruit trees #fc #j ,hazel1 ,corylus1 avellana #fd #j ,spruce ,fir1 ,abies excelsa #fg #dj ,service ,tree1 ,sorbus aucuparia #gj #j ,scotch ,fir1 ,pinus silvestris #gj #j ,white ,birch1 ,betula alba #gj #dj ,dwarf ,birch1 ,betula nana #ga #j #abch4 ,thus distinct vegetable regions are observed on passing from south to north through different climatic zones1 defined as to their limits by the isothermal curves1 and not by the parallels of latitude4 ,similar changes of vegetation mark a perpendicular transit through varying climates4 ,a succession of plants appear on the tropical mountains which rise above the snow line1 corresponding to those which are encountered in mean and high latitudes4 ,the higher we ascend1 the more does the number of the phnogamic class diminish in proportion to the cryptogamic1 till only members of the latter family are found1 whose further progress upward is arrested by the everlasting snow4 ,the last lichen met with by ,saussure on ,mont ,blanc1 ,silene acaulis1 was also observed by ,m4 ,brevais in the neighbourhood of ,bosekop1 lat4 #fi deg4 #eh min4 where it was vegetating on the seashore1 shaded by the last pines of ,europe4 #abci4 ,isolated mountains display to the best advantage the effort of climatic change of vegetation4 #abdj4 ,etna is divided into three great regions3 ,la ,regione ,culta1 or fertile region2 ,la ,regione ,sylvosa1 or woody region2 ,la ,regione ,deserta1 the bare or desert region4 ,but each of these is susceptible of sub-divisions1 defined by the presence of certain families of plants1 forming seven botanical zones4 #a4 ,the sub-tropical zone1 which does not rise more than #ajj feet above the level of the sea1 is characterised by the palm1 banana1 ,indian fig1 sugar-cane1 varieties of mimosa and acacia1 which with us are only found in conservatories4 #b4 ,the hilly zone1 rises about #b1jjj feet1 characterised by the orange1 lemon1 shaddock1 maize1 cotton1 and grape plants4 #c4 ,the woody zone lies between the height of #b1jjj and #d1jjj feet1 where the cork-tree flourishes1 several kinds of oak1 the maple1 and enormous chestnuts4 #d4 ,the zone between the height of #d1jjj and #f1jjj feet is distinguished by the beech1 ,scotch fir1 birch1 and1 among small plants1 by clover1 sandwort1 chickweed1 dock1 and plantain4 #e4 ,the sub-alpine zone1 between the elevation of #f1jjj and #g1ejj feet1 produces the barberry1 soap-wort1 toad-flax1 and juniper4 #f4 ,the zone between #g1ejj and #i1jjj feet1 has almost all the plants of the preceding1 with the fleshy and jagged groundsel4 ,verse3 ,in the mountain of the height of ,israel will ,i plant it2 and it shall bring forth boughs1 and bear fruit1 and be a goodly cedar3 and under it shall dwell all fowl of every wing2 in the shadow of the branches thereof shall they dwell4--,,ezekiel ,,xvii4 #g4 ,the narrow zone between #i1jjj and #i1bjj feet1 only produces a few lichens1 beyond which1 there is complete sterility4 #abda4 ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe exhibits five botanical districts1 thus distinguished by ,von ,buch3 #a4 ,the region of ,africa forms1 #j--a1bdh feet1 comprising palms1 bananas1 the sugar-cane1 various species of arborescent ,euphorbi1 ,mesembryanthema1 the ,dracna1 and other plants1 whose naked and tortuous trunks1 succulent leaves1 and bluish-green tints1 are distinctive of the vegetation of ,africa4 #b4 ,region of ,vines and ,cereals1 #a1bdh--b1gdh feet1 comprising also the olive1 and the fruit-trees of ,europe4 #c4 ,region of ,laurels1 #b1gdh--d1cej feet1 including lauri of four species1 the wild olive1 an oak1 the iron-tree1 the arbutus1 and other evergreens4 ,the ivy of the ,canaries and various twining shrubs cover the trunks of the trees1 and numerous species of fern occur1 with beautiful flowering plants4 #d4 ,region of the ,pines1 #d1cej--f1bgj1 characterised by a vast forest of trees resembling the ,scotch fir1 intermixed with juniper4 #e4 ,region of the ,retama1 #f1bgj--aa1jfa feet1 a species of broom1 which forms oases in the midst of a desert of ashes1 ornamented with fragrant flowers1 and furnishing food to the goats1 which run wild on the ,peak4 ,a few gramineous and cryptogamic plants are observed higher1 but the summit is entirely destitute of vegetation4 #abdb4 ,there are many plants which can accommodate themselves to the most diverse climates and localities2 and therefore ascend from the plains close to the boundary of vegetable life on the highest mountains4 ,but it is the general law in these cases for such plants to be singularly modified in appearance and anatomical structure as they ascend4 ,the spring gentian1 ,gentiana verna1 is one of the exceptions1 which ,raymond found unaltered at all heights in the ,pyrenees4 #abdc4 ,trees1 plants1 and bushes1 of humbler growth1 which occur on the plains and at great heights1 are usually much smaller in the latter situation4 ,the leaves1 and everything green about them1 dwindle with the increased elevation2 and the pure1 well defined green is exchanged for an ill-defined light yellow4 ,singular enough1 those parts which seem most capable of resisting cold1 as the leaves and stalks1 are uniformly subjected to a diminution of their vital functions2 while the flowers remain of the same size1 are never deformed1 and become more dense and richer in their colours4 ,while the ,myosotis silvestris becomes stunted1 its flowers assume an intense blue--the admiration of the traveller4 ,the flowers of the pale primrose have a much deeper colour on the top of the ,faulhorn1 while the plant itself is much smaller than its congener on the ,swiss plains4 ,the observations of ,m4 ,parrot1 among others1 are to this effect on the flora of the ,caucasus1 of ,ararat1 the ,swiss and ,italian ,alps1 and the ,pyrenees4 ,the arctic flora is similarly distinguished4 #abdd4 ,the preceding references to different climatic states are1 however1 perfectly inadequate to explain the phenomena of vegetable distribution4 ,while an analogy is often observable between the plants of different regions under corresponding circumstances of latitude1 elevation1 and soil1 the species are generally found to be different2 and usually the botanical character of countries not widely apart from each other1 is totally different1 though under the same parallels4 ,verse3 ,from the rising of the sun1 unto the going down of the same1 the ,lord's name is to be praised4--,,psalm ,,cxiii4 #abde4 ,some plants are entirely confined to one side of our planet4 ,the beautiful genus ,erica1 or heath1 of which there are upwards of #cjj species1 occurs with breaks over a narrow surface1 extending from a high northern latitude to the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,but the whole continent of ,america does not contain a single native specimen2 nor has a ,poenia been found in it1 except a solitary one to the west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,on the other hand1 the ,new ,world contains many families1 as the ,cacti1 which are not found naturally in the ,old4 #abdf4 ,some plants occur in a single specific locality1 frequently a contracted area1 and nowhere else4 ,the beautiful ,disa grandiflora is limited to a spot on the top of the ,table ,mountain at the ,cape2 and the celebrated cedar of ,lebanon appears to be restricted in its spontaneous growth to the ,syrian mountains4 ,the small island of ,st4 ,helena has an indigenous flora1 with a few exceptions different from that of the rest of the globe4 #abdg4 ,mountain chains of no great width very commonly divide a totally distinct botany4 ,there is a marked difference in the vegetation of the ,chilian and opposite side of the ,andes1 though the climate as well as the soil is nearly the same1 and the difference of longitude very trifling4 ,in ,north ,america1 two completely different classes of vegetation appear on the two sides of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,a variety of oaks1 palms1 magnolias1 azaleas1 and magnificent rhododendrons occur on the eastern side1 all of which are unknown on the western1 the region of the giant pine4 #abdh4 ,the distinct vegetation possessed by various parts of the globe1 has led to its division into botanical kingdoms or phyto-geographical regions1 named in general after the genera that are either peculiar to them1 or predominant in them4 ,the arrangement of ,m4 ,schouw1 which is usually adopted1 discriminates twenty-five great provinces of characteristic vegetation upon the surface of the earth4 ,in constituting any portion of the globe into a phyto-geographical region1 ,m4 ,schouw has proceeded upon the following principles3--#a4 ,that at least one-half of the species should be indigenous in it4 #b4 ,that a-quarter of the genera should also be peculiar to it1 or at least should have a decided maximum4 #c4 ,that individual families of plants should either be exclusively confined to the region1 or have their maxima there4 #abdi4 ,the phenomena of botanical geography1 and the facts of geology1 are mutually illustrative4 ,the existing dry land having been upheaved above the waters at different epochs1 it may be reasonably inferred that each portion on its emergence received a vegetable creation in harmony with its position4 ,the ultimate constitution of the general surface into different botanical kingdoms would hence follow1 each of which has preserved its primitive features1 while adjoining1 and even far distant foci1 have to some extent intermingled their respective products1 under control of the natural agencies of diffusion4 #abej4 ,the agents that involuntarily officiate in the diffusion of vegetable products are the atmosphere1 the waters1 and many animals4 #a4 ,the impulsion of the atmosphere in its calmest state1 is quite sufficient to transport to considerable distances seeds furnished with downy appendages or winglets1 as is the case with many plants1 with the minute sporules of cryptogamia1 which are light as the finest powder4 ,when ordinary breezes convey the sand-dust of the ,sahara a thousand miles or more from the desert1 it may be conceived that seeds1 which are comparatively heavy1 are borne far from home by the hurricane4 ,two ,jamaica lichens1 which had never been seen in ,france before1 were found by ,de ,candolle growing on the coast of ,brittany1 the offspring of sporules which had been swept over the ,atlantic4 ,verse3 ,he shall come down like rain upon the mown grass1 as showers that water the earth4--,,psalm ,,lxxii4 #b4 ,the mountain torrent washes down into the valley the seeds that have accidentally fallen into it1 or have been swept away by its overflows2 and hence the plants of the ,high ,alps occur on the plains of ,switzerland1 which are entirely wanting in ,france and ,germany4 ,rivers answer the same purpose more extensively1 and also the oceanic currents4 ,the nicker-tree1 one of the leguminous tribe1 has been raised from seed borne across the ,atlantic by the ,gulf stream4 #c4 ,animals of the sheep and goat kinds1 with the horse1 deer1 buffalo1 and others1 widely disperse several species of plants1 the seeds of which1 furnished with an apparatus of barbs and hooks1 adhere to their coating4 ,seeds also of various kinds pass through the digestive organs of birds1 uninjured as to their vitality4 ,the little squirrel buries the acorn in the ground for winter provender1 and sows an oak1 if prevented from returning to the spot4 #abea4 ,plants capable of extended naturalisation1 and serviceable as articles of food or luxury1 have been widely disseminated by the human race in their migrations4 ,the cerealia afford a striking example4 ,these important grasses known to the ancients1 wheat1 barley1 oats1 and rye1 were the gifts of the ,old ,world to the ,new4 ,they are also importations into ,europe2 but the loose reports of the ancients1 and the diligent researches of the moderns1 alike leave us in ignorance of their native seat4 ,probability points to the conclusion that they have spread from the neighbourhood of the great rivers of ,western ,asia1 the primitive location of the human family2 and it is not impossible that in that imperfectly explored district1 or further east on the ,tartarian table-land1 some of the cereals may yet be found growing spontaneously4 ,the first wheat sown in ,north ,america1 consisted of a few grains accidentally found by a negro slave of ,cortes1 among the rice taken for the support of his army4 ,in ,south ,america the first wheat was brought to ,lima by one of the early colonists1 a ,spanish lady1 ,maria d',escobar4 ,an ecclesiastic1 ,jose ,rixi1 was the first to sow it in the neighbourhood of ,quito4 #abeb4 ,maize1 or ,indian corn 7,zea mays71 has been dispersed in the ,old ,world from the ,new2 and also a more important product1 the potato 7,solanum tuberosum71 the use of which now extends from the extremity of ,africa to ,lapland4 ,in ,chili1 the native country of the plant1 it occurs at present in a wild state4 ,the ,spaniards imported it into ,spain1 and from thence it was communicated to ,italy4 ,it was first made known in ,england at a subsequent period from ,virginia1 having been received there from the ,spanish colonists in ,south ,america1 as it is not a native of intervening ,mexico4 #abec4 ,the grape-vine1 so extensively spread over ,europe1 is probably not indigenous in any part of it4 ,it chiefly owes its diffusion there to the ,romans1 who received it from the ,greeks1 to whom it most likely immediately came from the country between the ,black and ,caspian ,seas4 ,the ,romans introduced most of the finer ,european fruit-trees1 some from ,africa1 as the pomegranate1 but the great majority from ,western ,asia1 as the orange1 fig1 cherry1 peach1 apricot1 apple1 and pear4 ,a variety of the plum1 the damson1 or damascene1 came from the neighbourhood of ,damascus during the ,crusades4 ,the name of the damask-rose points to the importation of the plant from the same quarter into ,europe4 ,verse3 ,to every thing there is a season1 and a time to every purpose under heaven4--,,ecclesiastes ,,iii4 ,the ocean as well as the land has different botanical regions2 and changes of the vegetation are observed with the depth analogous to the variations of terrestrial plants with the height4 ,marine vegetation seems to have its vertical extent determined by the range of light in water1 which varies with the power of the sun and the transparency of the water4 ,,chapter ,,lxiii4 #abed4 ,what are vegetable gums8 ,vegetable gums are secretions of plants which are generally soluble in water1 and which subserve various useful purposes4 ,gum ,arabic is one of the most important of this class of vegetable productions4 ,gutta-percha is an invaluable substance lately added to the list of known vegetable productions4 ,it is obtained by cutting the bark of trees of the class called ,sapotacea4 ,its proper name is gutta ,pulo ,percha1 gutta meaning gum1 and ,pulo ,percha is the island whence it is obtained4 ,but gutta-percha is not1 strictly speaking1 a gum4 ,india-rubber is also a vegetable secretion1 improperly called elastic gum4 ,it is obtained from the milky juice of various trees and plants1 especially from the syringe tree1 of ,cayenne4 #abee4 ,what are vegetable resins8 ,vegetable resins are derived from the secretions of plants1 and are generally distinguished from gums by being insoluble in water1 but being soluble in spirits4 ,when one of these substances is soluble in either water or spirits it is called a gum-resin4 #abef4 ,what are vegetable acids8 ,vegetable acids are chiefly obtained from fruit2 but also abundantly from wood1 by distillation4 ,verse3 ,thou art the ,god that doest wonders4--,,psalm ,,lxxvii4 #abeg4 ,what is tannin8 ,tannin is a vegetable production1 obtained chiefly from the oak-bark1 and from a variety of other vegetable sources4 ,it possesses the peculiar chemical property which renders it valuable in tanning leather4 #abeh4 ,what is opium8 ,opium is the produce of the poppy1 and is obtained from the seed4 #abei4 ,what are vegetable dyes8 ,vegetable dyes are the various colours derived from the secretions of plants1 such as indigo1 madder1 logwood1 alkanet-root1 c4 #abfj4 ,what is silica8 ,silica is a mineral substance1 commonly known as flint2 and it is one of the wonders of the vegetable tribes1 that1 although flint is so indestructible that the strongest chemical aid is required for its solution1 plants possess the power of dissolving and secreting it4 ,even so delicate a structure as the wheat straw dissolves silica1 and every stalk of wheat is covered with a perfect1 but inconceivably thin coating of this substance4 ,amid all the wonders of nature which we have had occasion to explain1 there is none more startling than that which reveals to our knowledge the fact that a flint stone consists of the mineralised bodies of animals1 just as coal consists of masses of mineralised vegetable matter4 ,the animals are believed to have been infusorial animalcul1 coated with silicous shells1 as the wheat straw of to-day is clothed with a glassy covering of silica4 ,the skeletons of animalcul which compose flint may be brought under microscopic examination4 ,geologists have some difficulty in determining their opinions respecting the relation which these animalcul bear to the flint stones in which they are found4 ,whether the animalcul1 in dense masses1 form the flint2 or whether the flint merely supplies a sepulchre to the countless millions of creatures that1 ages ago1 enjoyed each a separate and conscious existence1 is a problem that may never be solved4 ,and what a problem6 ,the buried plant being disentombed1 after having lain for ages in the bowels of the earth1 gives us light and warmth2 and the animalcule1 after a sleep of ages1 dissolves into the sap of a plant1 and wraps the coat it wore1 probably in the beginning1 when ,god created the heavens and the earth1 and when the earth first brought forth living creatures1 around the slender stalk of waving corn6 #abfa4 ,why is silica diffused over the stems of wheat1 grasses1 canes1 c48 ,because it affords strength1 density1 and durability1 to structures that are very light1 and which1 but for this beautiful provision1 would be exceedingly perishable4 ,verse3 ,for in this mountain shall the hand of the ,lord rest1 and ,moab shall be trodden down under him1 even as straw is trodden down for the dunghill4--,,isaiah ,,xxv4 #abfb4 ,why is guano a productive manure8 ,because it contains1 with other suitable elements1 an abundance of the silicous skeletons of animalcul4 #abfc4 ,why does a wheat-crop greatly exhaust the soil8 ,because1 as well as the carbon1 and the salts1 which form the straw and the grain1 it draws off from the soil a great amount of silica4 #abfd4 ,why is straw frequently used as a manure8 ,because it gives back1 with other substances1 a considerable proportion of silica1 in that form which adapts it to the use of the succeeding crop4 #abfe4 ,why is the structure of herbaceous plants less consolidated than that of woody plants8 ,because1 for the most part1 herbaceous plants last only a single year2 they1 therefore1 do not require the enduring qualities of plants that have to sustain the influences of the elements for a succession of seasons4 #abff4 ,why are the stalks of plants of light structure generally cylindrical8 ,because the cylindrical form is stronger than any other2 a hollow cylinder1 with moderately thick walls1 is stronger than a solid rod1 containing the same amount of material4 #abfg4 ,why do the stalks of plants become hollow8 ,because the parallel and perpendicular fibres of the stalk are developed more rapidly than the horizontal4 ,the growth of the plant1 therefore1 consists of a kind of divergence from the centre4 #abfh4 ,why are the stomata1 or pores of leaves1 generally placed on their under surface8 ,because1 being placed on the under surface1 they are shaded from the action of the sun's rays1 and so carry on the function of respiration more actively than if subjected to direct heat2 they are also protected from the injurious effects of dust2 and are moistened by evaporation from the earth's surface4 ,verse3 ,the trees of the ,lord are full of sap3 and the cedars of ,lebanon which he hath planted4--,,psalm ,,civ4 #abfi4 ,why have plants a formation of pith in their centre8 ,the pith is the chief organ of nutriment1 especially in the young plant4 ,it is the structure which first conveys fluids to1 and receives them from1 the newly-formed leaf4 ,it communicates with every branch1 leaf1 bud1 and flower2 and also with the bark1 through the medullary rays1 which radiate horizontally from the centre of the plant4 ,it is the centre of the movements of the sap which occur in the horizontal vessels2 and it holds an important influence over the life of the plant4 #abgj4 ,why are trees covered with bark8 ,because the bark serves to protect the woody structure1 and also to give a passage to the descending sap which flows abundantly in the spring1 and out of which the woody fibre is formed4 ,it is also1 from its peculiar nature1 well fitted to endure the changes of the seasons for many years2 and from its non-conducting properties it serves to maintain the equal temperature of the vital parts of the tree4 #abga4 ,what is cork8 ,cork is the bark of a description of oak-tree1 which grows in great abundance in ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,france4 #abgb4 ,why does the cork-tree release its own bark8 ,because it possesses a bark which is exceedingly useful to man2 and it seems1 therefore1 to have been the design of providence that the tree should cast it off1 to be applied to the wants of the human family2 for the cork-tree does not discharge its bark by the mere cracking1 or exfoliation1 of its substance2 the tree retains the bark for a number of years1 until it has attained that consistency and thickness which renders it useful1 and then the tree forms within the bark a series of tabular cells1 which cut off the connection of the bark with the internal structure1 after which it peels off in large sheets4 ,verse3 ,and all the trees of the field shall know that ,i the ,lord have brought down the high tree1 have exalted the low tree1 have dried up the green tree1 and have made the dry tree to flourish3 ,i the ,lord have spoken1 and have done it4--,,ezek4 ,,xvii4 ,man assists this evident intention of nature1 by slitting the bark from the top of the tree to its base2 but even were this not done1 the bark would be cast off by the tree itself4 ,another proof of design in this useful adaptation of the cork-tree is to be found in the fact1 that it thrives under treatment that would destroy other trees4 ,the cork-tree will endure the barking process for seven or eight successive years4 ,,chapter ,,lxiv4 #abgc4 ,why are there curious markings in walnut1 mahogany1 rose-wood1 satin-wood1 c48 ,because those markings are produced by the various structure of the vessels by which the wood is formed2 and by successive zones of wood1 which indicate the periods of growth4 ,the inclosure of zone within zone is owing to the mode in which the wood is produced1 and the position in which it is deposited4 ,wood is formed by the leaves during the growing season1 and passes down towards the root between the bark and the wood of the previous year 7if any71 or in the position in which cambium is effused2 and1 as the leaves more or less surround the whole stem1 the new layer at length completes a zone1 and perfectly encloses the wood of all former years4 ,this is the explanation of the term exogenous1 which is derived from two words signifying to grow outwardly1 for the stem increases in thickness by successive layers on the outer side of the previously-formed wood4 ,that this is the mode of growth has been abundantly proved by experiment1 and demonstrated by accidental discoveries4 ,thus1 if a plate of metal be inserted between the bark and wood1 it will1 in progress of time1 become inclosed by the new wood which has overlaid them4 ,so in like manner if letters be cut deeply through the bark and into the wood1 the spaces will not be filled up from the bottom1 but may be seen in subsequent years overlaid by new wood4 ,a statement appeared in a daily paper1 during the past year1 to the effect that in cutting down a tree a cat had been discovered inclosed in the wood of the trunk4 ,these facts prove that the wood is applied from without4 ,again1 if a branch be stripped of its leaves down to a certain point1 it will not grow above that point2 and so1 in like manner1 if branches be stripped from one side of a tree1 the tree will not grow on that side4 ,if a circle of bark be removed from a branch above and also below a leaf1 it will be found that increase of size will occur below1 but not above that bud2 and so1 likewise1 whenever a ring of bark is removed from a tree1 the new woody fibre will not proceed from the lower but from the upper edge4--,orr's ,circle of the ,sciences4 ,verse3 ,and when he saw a fig tree in the way1 he came to it1 and found nothing thereon1 but leaves only1 and said unto it1 ,let no fruit grow on thee henceforward for ever4 ,and presently the tree withered away4--,,matthew ,,xxi4 #abgd4 ,why have trees with large trunks a great number of leafy branches8 ,because it is by the leaves that the secretion is formed which supplies the woody fibre4 ,the number of leaves on a tree1 therefore1 generally bears a relation to the size of its trunk1 and the number of its branches4 #abge4 ,why have poplar-trees comparatively few branches and leaves8 ,because their trunks are comparatively small1 although they grow to a great height4 #abgf4 ,why had the mammoth-tree comparatively few leaves in relation to the immense size of its bark8 ,because the woody texture of this tree 7,wellingtonea gigantea7 is exceedingly light and porous4 ,it is1 in fact1 lighter than cork1 and1 therefore1 requires less leaf-produce in its formation4 #abgg4 ,why have oak-trees an abundance of leaves8 ,because their wood is so dense that they require a larger amount of the wood-forming secretion which is supplied by the leaves4 #abgh4 ,why are the trunks of trees round8 ,because1 generally speaking1 the leaves are distributed upon branches around the trees in every direction4 ,they consequently send down the wood-forming principle on all sides4 ,when a trunk is unduly developed on one side1 it may generally be traced to the unequal distribution of the branches4 #abgi4 ,what are exogenous stems8 ,exogenous stems are those that grow by the addition of wood on their outer surface1 underneath the bark4 #abhj4 ,what are endogenous stems8 ,endogenous stems are those that grow inwardly1 from the centre4 ,trees of this class1 of which palms are the best example1 are almost peculiar to tropical climates4 #abha4 ,why do endogenous stems chiefly abound in tropical climates8 ,because1 probably1 the excessive heat of those climates would interfere with the formation of wood from the sap upon the outer surface4 ,the vascular structure of endogenous stems lying more abundantly towards their centre1 tends to conserve the juices which in hot climates are so highly valued4 ,palm-wine is a delicious and cooling beverage1 and is procured from various kinds of palms1 but especially from the cocoa-nut palm4 ,even the fresh sap is very refreshing4 ,the juice is procured by cutting the tree in the upper part1 and attaching a vessel to the opening1 to receive the sap4 ,its flow is increased by cutting off a slice of the wood daily4 ,verse3 ,i have caused thee to multiply as the bud of the field1 and thou hast increased and waxen great1 and thou art come to excellent ornaments4--,,ezekiel ,,xvi4 #abhb4 ,why have endogenous stems no bark8 ,because1 one of the chief functions of the bark in exogenous trees1 is to protect the sap from which the wood is formed on the outward surface2 and as there is no such external flow of sap in endogenous trees1 the bark is unnecessary to them1 and is therefore withheld4 ,they are furnished instead with a thin cuticle4 #abhc4 ,why do endogenous stems grow to a great height8 ,because1 as the stem grows from the centre1 it soon reaches that limit of diameter which its vascular structure is calculated to support2 and1 therefore1 the wood-forming sap is deposited chiefly at the top of the stem1 causing it to grow to a considerable height4 #abhd4 ,why do the various vegetable fruits ripen in succession8 ,because the ,author of ,nature has thus arranged its economy1 in order that the wants of living creatures may be adequately provided for4 ,some vegetable productions arrive at their perfection in the spring2 others in summer2 and others in autumn4 ,among the latter are many that require to come slowly to maturity after they are gathered2 by these the winter season is provided for1 and a surplus of the winter stock goes to supply the natural deficiency of spring4 ,verse3 ,o sing unto the ,lord a new made song2 for he hath done marvellous things4--,,psalm ,,xcviii4 #abhe4 ,why1 when seeds are sown1 and germination begins1 does the leaf-germ seek the light1 and the root-germ grow down into the earth8 ,because the ,creator has endowed every single seed with a vital instinct which governs its development4 ,the rootlet could more easily grow upward than downward1 because of the looser earth1 and of the exciting influences of light and moisture4 ,yet it takes the contrary course1 leaving the leaf-germ to come up to meet the sun-light1 and to send down to the stem and roots1 the matter needed for their growth4 ,frequently1 indeed1 when seeds are thrown into the earth1 their natural position is reversed1 and when the germs first start from the seed1 the root-germ is directed upward and the leaf-germ downward4 ,what then occurs8 ,they each turn1 and1 in doing so1 frequently cross each other4 ,each goes to its particular duty--the duty that ,god appointed4 ,,chapter ,,lxv4 #abhf4 ,why are the seeds of plants indigestible8 ,because they are encased in a hard covering upon which the gastric juice of animals takes no effect4 ,this provision has been made by the ,creator1 for the preservation of seeds1 the productions of which are so essential to animal life4 ,the gastric juice can dissolve any other part of the plant1 even the woody fibre1 and yet upon the seed it takes no effect4 ,when1 however1 the seed is crushed1 and1 thereby1 the vital principle destroyed1 so that no plant can spring from it1 the gastric juice acts upon it1 and it is soon dissolved4 ,hence graminivorous birds are provided with gizzards to break the protecting coats of the grain2 and animals that feed on seeds and nuts strip them of their shells and husks4 ,it is remarkable that in the succulent fruits1 such as the strawberry1 the raspberry1 currant1 apple1 orange1 melon1 c41 and which1 from their very nature1 are likely to attract animals to use them1 and in eating which the seeds are likely to be swallowed1 they are fortified by a doubly-protective coating2 the pips of the apple1 orange1 c41 and the seeds of the strawberry and raspberry1 pass through the digestive organs1 not only unharmed1 but their germinating powers are even improved by the warmth and trituration of the stomach4 ,indeed1 the stomachs of quadrupeds and birds have been made the vehicles of propagating plants1 and distributing them to the widest geographical latitudes4 ,it is even said of some seeds that they will not germinate until they have passed through the digestive organs of an animal4 ,verse3 ,and it was commanded them that they should not hurt the grass of the earth1 neither any green thing1 neither any tree4--,,revelation ,,ix4 #abhg4 ,why do animals that graze1 crop the tender blades of grass1 but avoid the tall stems8 ,because they are tempted by the greater sweetness and tenderness of the young blades2 and in this temptation a very important end is served2 for1 by avoiding the stems that have grown up1 the animals spare the matured plant by which seeds are borne1 and by which the supply of food is to be continued4 #abhh4 ,why do the eggs of butterflies lie dormant during the winter8 ,because the coldness of the winter would be fatal to the life of the young insects2 and the absence of vegetation would leave the caterpillars to perish of starvation1 if they were developed during the winter months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,,caterpillar ,,feeding4 #abhi4 ,why do caterpillars appear in the spring8 ,because the increasing warmth of the sun developes the living embryo1 at the same time that it developes the vegetable germ4 ,the warmth1 therefore1 that calls the caterpillar from its embryo sleep1 also kindles the germinating power of the vegetable upon which it is destined to feed4 ,the worm awakes and finds the bountiful table of nature spread for it4 ,verse3 ,thou shalt plant vineyards1 and dress them1 but shalt neither drink of the wine1 nor gather the grapes3 for the worms shall eat them4--,,deuteronomy ,,xxviii4 #abij4 ,why does the caterpillar eat voraciously8 ,because it grows rapidly1 and a large amount of vegetable matter is necessary to supply the rapid growth of its animal substance4 ,caterpillars in the course of a month devour #fj1jjj times their own weight of aliment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,,the ,,under ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,chrysalis ,,of ,,the ,,peacock ,,butterfly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,,the ,,same ,,chrysalis1 ,,with ,,part ,,of ,,its ,,sheath ,,raised ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,partially-,,formed ,,wings1 c4 #abia4 ,why do caterpillars pass into the state of the chrysalis8 ,because they are thereby prepared for the new existence which they are about to enjoy2 new organs must be perfected in them to adapt them to the altered conditions of their lives4 ,because1 also1 in the transformation of their bodies1 differing materially from the laws of existence that pertain to other creatures1 the ,creator affords another illustration of his ,omnipotence4 ,because1 also1 during the stage that the insect sleeps in the chrysalis1 the flowers and their sweet juices1 upon1 which the fly is to feed1 are being prepared for it1 just as1 when it was sleeping in the egg1 the green food was being prepared for the caterpillar4 ,when1 therefore1 the beautiful fly spreads its silken wings1 it finds a second time that1 while it has slept1 its meal has been prepared1 and it now flies away joyously to feed upon the milk and honey of beautiful flowers which1 at the time it passed into the chrysalis1 had not yet unfolded their petals4 ,verse3 ,for the moth shall eat them up like a garment1 and the worm shall eat them like wool3 but my righteousness shall be for ever1 and my salvation from generation to generation4--,,isaiah ,,li4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,,the ,,peacock ,,butterfly4 ,paley observes1 that the metamorphosis of insects from grubs into moths and flies1 is an astonishing process4 ,a hairy caterpillar is transformed into a butterfly4 ,observe the change4 ,we have four beautiful wings where there were none before2 a tubular proboscis1 in the place of a mouth with jaws and teeth2 six long legs1 instead of fourteen feet4 ,in another case1 we see a white1 smooth1 soft worm1 turned into a black1 hard1 crustaceous beetle1 with gauze wings4 ,these1 as ,i said1 are astonishing processes1 and must require1 as it should seem1 a proportionably artificial apparatus4 ,the hypothesis which appears to me most probable1 is that1 in the grub1 there exists at the same time three animals1 one within another1 all nourished by the same digestion1 and by a communicating circulation2 but in different stages of maturity4 ,the latest discoveries made by naturalists1 seem to favour this supposition4 ,the insect1 already equipped with wings1 is descried under the membranes both of the worm and nymph4 ,in some species1 the proboscis1 the antenn1 the limbs1 and wings of the fly1 have been observed to be folded up within the body of the caterpillar2 and with such nicety as to occupy a small space only under the two first wings4 ,this being so1 the outermost animal1 which1 besides its own proper character1 serves as an integument to the other two1 being the farthest advanced1 dies1 as we suppose1 and drops off first4 ,the second1 the pupa or chrysalis1 then offers itself to observation4 ,this also1 in its turn1 dies2 its dead and brittle husk falls to pieces1 and makes way for the appearance of the fly or moth4 ,now1 if this be the case1 or indeed whatever explication be adopted1 we have a prospective contrivance of the most curious kind2 we have organisations three deep2 yet a vascular system1 which supplies nutrition1 growth1 and life1 to all of them together4 ,verse3 ,that which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten2 and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten2 and that which the canker-worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten4--,,joel ,i4 ,lord ,brougham1 in a note upon the above1 does not support ,paley's view4 ,he says ,it is more than probable that the parts which are to appear in the perfect insect do not exist in the larv1 where there is not much difference between the larva and pupa1 excepting at the time just previous to its becoming a pupa1 at which time the larva is motionless and torpid4 ,the caterpillar of a moth1 when about to turn into a pupa1 provides for the protection of the latter state1 either by surrounding itself with a web1 or by some other means4 ,soon after this is accomplished1 the caterpillar becomes motionless1 or nearly so2 it can neither eat nor crawl4 ,at this time1 and not before1 the parts of the pupa are forming within the skin of the caterpillar1 which may be easily seen by dissection4 ,it appears to the author1 however1 that ,paley is partially right1 and ,lord ,brougham totally wrong1 in these remarks4 ,when ,lord ,brougham asserts that the parts of the pupa are forming within the skin of the caterpillar at that time when the transformation begins1 and not before1 which may be easily seen by dissection1 he forgets1 that although in some instances it is the first moment when1 to the human eye1 the organs of the new creature become perceptible1 that the three deep nature which ,paley attributes to the grub1 must really have existed in the egg--that the butterfly originated in the egg1 as certainly as did the caterpillar1 or the chrysalis1 and that unless that egg had possessed its three mysterious embryos1 it would have been impossible for the grub to have progressed to the stages of transformation4 ,no one has ever known the embryo of a bird's egg to pass through three distinct and dissimilar states of existence2 nor has any one ever known the embryo of the butterfly's egg to stop short at either of the stages1 if the proper conditions of its existence and development were supplied to it4 ,why8 ,because the embryo of the insect has a threefold nature1 while that of the bird is single4 ,verse3 ,they shall cut down her forest1 saith the ,lord1 though it cannot be searched2 because they are more than the grasshoppers1 and are innumerable4--,,jeremiah ,,xlvi4 ,,chapter ,,lxvi4 #abib4 ,why does the caterpillar become torpid when passing into the state of the chrysalis8 ,because in all probability1 where the difference between the first and the ultimate form is considerable1 the organs of the insect having to undergo great changes1 it would suffer considerable pain4 ,torpor comes upon the insect1 it is thrown into a state similar to that of a person who has inhaled chloroform2 and after what has1 in all probability1 proved a pleasant dream1 the insect awakes to find itself changed and beautified4 #abic4 ,why are the pup of grasshoppers and other insects1 when about to undergo transformation1 still active and sensitive8 ,because1 as there is but a slight difference between the form which they have in the pupa state1 and that which they ultimately assume1 they do not require the state of torpidity to save them from pain1 nor to arrest their movements while their organs are being changed4 ,with them the outer skin is thrown off1 and they are then perfect insects4 #abid4 ,why do caterpillars1 when about to pass through the chrysalis state1 attach themselves to the leaves of plants1 c48 ,because they know instinctively that for a time they will be unable to controul their own movements1 and to avoid danger4 ,they therefore choose secure and dry places1 underneath leaves1 or in the crevices of old and dry walls1 and there they firmly attach themselves1 to await the time of their liberation4 #abie4 ,why do insects attach their eggs1 to leaves c48 ,because1 as the eggs have to be preserved during the winter1 the insect attaches them to some surface which will be a protection to them4 ,generally speaking1 the eggs are attached to the permanent stems of plants1 and not to those leafy portions which are liable to fall and decay4 ,the spider weaves a silken bag in which it deposits its eggs1 and then it hangs the bag in a sheltered situation4 ,nature keeps her butterflies1 moths1 and caterpillars1 locked up during the winter1 in their egg-state2 and we have to admire the various devices to which1 if we may so speak1 the same nature has resorted for the security of the egg4 ,many insects enclose their eggs in a silken web2 others cover them with a coat of hair1 torn from their own bodies2 some glue them together2 and others1 like the moth of the silk-worm1 glue them to the leaves upon which they are deposited1 that they may not be shaken off by the wind1 or washed away by rain2 some again make incisions into leaves1 and hide an egg in each incision2 whilst some envelope their eggs with a soft substance1 which forms the first aliment of the young animal2 and some again make a hole in the earth1 and1 having stored it with a quantity of proper food1 deposit their eggs in it4 ,verse3 ,lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven1 where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt1 and where thieves do not break through and steal4--,,matt4 ,,vi4 #abif4 ,why do butterflies fly by day8 ,because they are organised to enjoy light and warmth1 and they live upon the sweets of flowers which by day are most accessible4 #abig4 ,why do moths fly by night8 ,because they are organised to enjoy subdued light and cool air2 and as they take very little food during the short life they have in the winged state1 they find sufficient by night4 ,some of the moths1 like that of the silk-worm1 take no food from the time they escape from the chrysalis until they die4 ,because1 also1 they form the food of bats1 owls1 and other of the night-flying tribes4 #abih4 ,why are the bodies of moths generally covered with a very thick down8 ,because1 as they fly by night1 they are liable to the effects of cold and damp4 ,the moths1 therefore1 are nearly all of them covered with a very thick down1 quite distinguishable from the lighter down of butterflies4 #abii4 ,why do moths fly against the candle flame8 ,because their eyes are organised to bear only a small amount of light4 ,when1 therefore1 they come within the light of a candle1 their sight is overpowered and their vision confused2 and as they cannot distinguish objects1 they pursue the light itself1 and fly against the flame4 ,verse3 ,let him that glorieth glory in this that he understandeth and knoweth me1 that ,i am the ,lord which exercise loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness in the earth3 for in these things ,i delight1 saith the ,lord4--,,jer4 ,,ix4 #acjj4 ,why do insects multiply so numerously8 ,because they form the food of larger animals1 and especially of birds4 ,a single pair of sparrows and a nest of young ones have been estimated to consume upwards of three thousand insects in a week4 #acja4 ,why does the death-watch make a ticking noise8 ,because the insect is one of the beetle tribe1 having a horny case upon its head1 with which it taps upon any hard substance1 the ticking is the call of the insect to its species1 just as the noise made by the cricket is a note of communication with other crickets4 ,there is a superstition connected with the death-watch1 which1 like most superstitions1 is based upon the theory of probabilities4 ,the death-watch is usually heard in the spring of the year1 and a superstition runs to the effect that some one in the house will die before the year has ended4 ,persons who are superstitious are never very strict in the interpretation of their predictions2 and therefore1 whether a person dies in the house or out of it1 in the same room where the death-watch was heard1 or across the wide ,atlantic1 so that there be some kind of relationship1 or even acquaintance1 between the person who hears the omen1 and the person dying1 the event is sure to be connected with the prophetic sounds of the death-watch4 ,little weens the small timber-boring beetle1 when he is tapping gently to call his mate1 and perhaps peeping into every corner and crevice to find her1 that he is sending dismay into the heart of some superstitious listener1 who1 in ignorance of a simple fact1 overwhelms herself with an imaginary grief4 #acjb4 ,why are insects in the first stage1 after leaving the egg1 said to be in the larva state8 ,because the term larva is derived from the ,latin larvated1 meaning masked1 clothed as with a mask2 the term is meant to express that the future insect is disguised in its first form4 #acjc4 ,why are insects in the second state said to be in the pupa state8 ,because the term is derived from the ,latin pupa1 from a slight resemblance in the manner in which the insects are enclosed1 to that in which it was the fashion of the ancients to bandage their infants4 #acjd4 ,why are insects in the pupa stage also called chrysalides8 ,because1 as the ,latin term implies1 it is adorned with gems4 ,many chrysalides are studded with golden and pearl-like spots4 ,verse3 ,thou hast set all the borders of the earth3 thou hast made summer and winter4--,,psalm ,,lxxiv4 #acje4 ,why are the perfect insects said to be in the nymph state8 ,because their joyful existence1 and their beautiful forms1 give them a fancied resemblance to the nymphs of the heathen mythology4 ,the nymphs were supposed goddesses of the mountains1 forests1 meadows1 and waters4 ,this term has generally1 but very improperly1 been also applied to the pupa state1 so that pupa1 chrysalis1 and nymph have all been employed to represent one state4 ,this is obviously an error1 as there is nothing in the condition of the pupa or chrysalis that can at all accord with the mythological idea of a nymph1 and which1 in reference to the beautiful and joyous fly1 finds a much truer application4 ,,chapter ,,lxvii4 #acjf4 ,whence does the snail obtain its shell8 ,young snails come from the egg with a shell upon their backs4 #acjg4 ,how does the shell grow with the increase of size of the animal8 ,the soft slime which is yielded by the body of the animal1 hardens upon the orifice of the shell1 and thus increases its size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,,common ,,garden ,,snail4 #acjh4 ,why is the shell spiral8 ,partly because of its original formation2 but also because1 as the shell grows1 the opening is elongated2 and thrown up1 causing the spiral body of the shell to turn1 and so to wind its growth around the centre4 ,verse3 ,notwithstanding they hearkened not unto ,moses2 but some of them left it until the morning1 and it bred worms1 and stank3 and ,moses was wrath with them4--,,exodus ,,xvi4 #acji4 ,why has the snail four tentacula attached to its head8 ,because the insect1 having no other limbs1 is provided with those projecting members1 the lower two serving as feelers and the upper two also as feelers and eyes4 ,these1 projecting in the front of the animal1 impart to it a consciousness of surrounding objects1 and especially of those which lie in its path4 #acaj4 ,why is the snail able to move1 without feet8 ,because it has attached to its body a fringe of muscular skin1 which is capable of considerable contraction and expansion1 and by alternately stretching and shortening this1 the snail is able to draw himself along4 #acaa4 ,why do we see no snails in the winter time8 ,because they bury themselves in the ground1 or in holes1 where they remain in a torpid state for several months4 ,before they enter into the torpid state1 they form with their slimy secretion1 and with some earthy matters which they collect1 a strong cement with which they seal up the opening to their shells4 #acab4 ,why can snails live in shells thus sealed8 ,because they leave1 in the thin wall by which they close themselves in1 a small hole1 too small to admit water1 but large enough to let in sufficient air to carry on their feeble respiration during their winter sleep4 #acac4 ,why do insects abound in putrid waters1 and in decaying substances8 ,because they have been endowed with appetites and with constitutions that enable them to live upon and to enjoy corrupt matter4 ,in this point of view the maggots of flies are exceedingly useful2 a dead carcass is speedily threaded by them in every direction2 thus that corrupt matter which1 in a large mass1 would poison the air1 is taken up in small portions by millions of living bodies1 and by them dispersed1 and becomes innoxious4 ,verse3 ,for he maketh small the drops of water3 they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof4--,,job ,,xxxv4 #acad4 ,why do we see1 in tanks of rain water1 insects rising to the surface8 ,because numerous insects pass through their first stages of existence in water1 and among them the common gnat4 ,the gnats of the previous season having deposited their eggs on the sides of the water-butt1 the warm water developes them1 and the larv of the gnats appear 7,fig4 #ha2 c natural size of larva2 b larva magnified74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,,larva ,,and ,,pupa ,,of ,,gnat4 7,greatly magnified47 #acae4 ,why do they continually rise to the surface of the water8 ,because they require to breathe air1 and therefore they come up to the surface1 where1 elevating the tube 7b7 above the surface of the water1 they are enabled to breathe4 #acaf4 ,why do some appear to have larger heads than others8 ,those that have apparently larger heads1 and that breathe through tubes attached to their heads 7d7 are in the pupa1 or second stage of development1 and underneath the large shield by which their heads are marked1 their wings1 feet1 c41 are being formed4 ,verse3 ,because thy loving kindness is better than life1 my lips shall praise thee4--,,psalm ,,lxiii4 #acag4 ,why1 when the water is disturbed1 do the larv descend more rapidly than the pup8 ,because the pup are in a torpid condition1 awaiting the formation of their perfect organs4 #acah4 ,why are the flies able to escape from the water8 ,because1 as their formation becomes perfected1 and the fluids of the body of the pupa become absorbed in the production of the light texture of the wings1 c41 the body and its case become lighter than the water1 and rise and float upon the surface4 ,the pupa-case then forms a natural boat1 from which the fly emerges1 and spreading its wings1 enters upon the final state of its existence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,,the ,,perfect ,,gnat4 ,,escaping ,,from ,,the ,,pupa-,,case4 7,greatly magnified47 ,this interesting metamorphosis may be seen going on in the summer time1 in every pond1 brook1 and reservoir4 ,a fine sunny morning calls up millions of these little boats from beneath the surface1 and the diver within that wonderful little bell breaks its sealed doors1 and flies away to enjoy the bright sunshine4 #acai4 ,why are beetles denominated coleoptera8 ,because they have wings protected by horny sheaths2 the term coleoptera signifies wings in a sheath4 ,verse3 ,they shall lie down in the dust2 and the worms shall cover them4--,,job ,,xxi4 #acbj4 ,why have beetles hard horny wing-cases8 ,because they live underground1 or in holes excavated in wood1 c4 ,if1 therefore1 their wings were not protected by a hard and firm covering1 they would be constantly liable to destruction from the movement of the insect within hard and rough bodies4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,,stag-,,beetle1 ,,showing ,,its ,,wings ,,unfolded1 ,,and ,,the ,,wing-,,cases ,,open4 ,the elytra1 or scaly wings of the genus of scarabus1 or beetle1 furnish an example of this kind4 ,the true wing of the animal is a light1 transparent membrane1 finer than the finest gauze1 and not unlike it4 ,it is also1 when expanded1 in proportion to the size of the animal1 very large4 ,in order to protect this delicate structure1 and1 perhaps1 also to preserve it in a due state of suppleness and humidity1 a strong1 hard case is given to it1 in the shape of the horny wing which we call the elytron4 ,when the animal is at rest1 the gauze wings lie folded up under this impenetrable shield4 ,when the beetle prepares for flying1 he raises the integument1 and spreads out his thin membrane to the air4 ,and it cannot be observed without admiration1 what a tissue of cordage1 i4 e4 of muscular tendons1 must run in various and complicated1 but determinate directions1 along this fine surface1 in order to enable the animal1 either to gather it up into a certain precise form1 whenever it desires to place its wings under the shelter which nature hath given to them1 or to expand again their folds when wanted for action4 ,verse3 ,the ,lord is good2 his mercy is everlasting2 and his truth endureth to all generations4--,,psalm ,c4 ,in some insects1 the elytra cover the whole body2 in others1 half2 in others only a small part of it2 but in all1 they completely hide and cover the true wings4 ,also1 ,many1 or most of the beetle species lodge in holes in the earth1 environed by hard1 rough substances1 and have frequently to squeeze their way through narrow passages2 in which situation1 wings so tender1 and so large1 could scarcely have escaped injury1 without both a firm covering to defend them1 and the capacity of folding themselves up under its protection4 #acba4 ,why have many of the beetle tribe large strong horns8 ,because1 as they live in holes in the earth1 or in excavations in wood1 they use their horns to dig out their places of retreat4 #acbb4 ,why has the giraffe a small head8 ,because1 being set upon the end of a very long neck1 the animal would be unable to raise it if it were heavy4 #acbc4 ,why has the giraffe a long neck8 ,because it feeds upon the branches of tall trees4 #acbd4 ,why has the giraffe a long and flexible tongue8 ,because it is thereby enabled to lay hold of the tender twigs and branches1 and draw them into its mouth1 avoiding the coarser parts of the branches4 #acbe4 ,why are the nostrils of the giraffe small and narrow1 and studded with hairs8 ,because the hairs and the peculiar shape of the nasal passages are designed as a protection against the insects which inhabit the boughs of the trees upon which the giraffe feeds2 and also against the sands of the desert1 which storms raise into almost suffocating clouds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,,giraffe ,,feeding4 ,verse3 ,bless the ,lord1 all his works1 in all places of his dominion3 bless the ,lord1 ,o my soul4--,,psalm ,,ciii4 #acbf4 ,the distribution of animals1 or ,zoological ,geography1 is of great interest1 and should be carefully studied in connection with ,botanical ,geography 7see #abjh74 ,the highest department of the animal kingdom 7writes the ,rev4 ,w4 ,milner7 commences with the class of ,birds1 which may be naturally divided into the three great orders of rial1 terrestrial1 and aquatic4 ,aggregation into immense flocks is a distinguishing feature of several species1 especially of the aquatic order1 which form separate colonies1 building their nests in the same state1 though other spots equally adapted are at no great distance4 ,hence the ,vogel-bergs1 or bird rocks of the northern seas1 one of which at ,westmannsharn in the ,faroe group of islands1 seldom intruded upon by man1 presents a most extraordinary spectacle to the visitor4 ,the ,vogel-berg lies in a frightful chasm in the precipitous shores of the island1 which rise to the height of a thousand feet1 only accessible from the sea by a narrow passage4 ,here congregate a host of birds4 ,thousands of guillemots and auks swim in groups around the boat which conveys man to their domain1 look curiously at him1 and vanish beneath the water to rise in his immediate neighbourhood4 ,the black guillemot comes close to the very oars4 ,the seal stretches his head above the waves1 not comprehending what has disturbed the repose of his asylum1 while the rapacious skua pursues the puffin and gull4 ,high in the air the birds seem like bees clustering about the rocks1 whilst lower they fly past so close that they might be knocked down with a stick4 ,but not less strange is the domicile of this colony4 ,on some low rocks scarcely projecting above the water sit the glossy cormorants1 turning their long necks on every side4 ,next are the skua gulls1 regarded with an anxious eye by the kittiwakes above4 ,nest follows nest in crowded rows along the whole breadth of the rock1 and nothing is visible but the heads of the mothers and the white rocks between4 ,a little higher on the narrow shelves sit the guillemots and auks1 arranged as on parade1 with their white breasts to the sea1 and so close that a hailstone could not pass between them4 ,the puffins take the highest station1 and1 though scarcely visible1 betray themselves by their flying backwards and forwards4 ,the noise of such a multitude of birds is confounding1 and in vain a person asks a question of his nearest neighbour4 ,the harsh tones of the kittiwakes are heard above the whole1 the intervals being filled with the monotonous note of the auk1 and the softer voice of the guillemot4 ,when ,graba1 from whose travels this description is principally drawn1 visited the ,vogel-berg1 he was tempted by the sight of a crested cormorant to fire a gun1 but what became of it1 he remarks1 it was impossible to ascertain4 ,the air was darkened by the birds roused from their repose4 ,thousands hastened out of the chasm with a frightful noise1 and spread themselves over the ocean4 ,the puffins came wandering from their holes1 and regarded the universal confusion with comic gestures4 ,the kittiwakes remained composedly in their nests1 whilst the cormorants tumbled headlong into the sea4 ,similar great congregations of the feathered race appear where the shores are rocky high1 and precipitous1 but this is strikingly the case1 where ----,the northern ocean1 in vast whirls1 ,boils round the naked melancholy isles ,of farthest ,thule2 and the ,atlantic surge ,pours in among the stormy ,hebrides4 ,who can recount what transmigrations there ,are annual made8 what nations come and go8 ,and how the living clouds on clouds arise8 ,infinite wings6 till all the plume-dark air ,and rude resounding shore are one wild cry4 ,verse3 ,he rained flesh upon them as dust1 and feathered fowls like as the sand of the sea4--,,psalm ,,lxxviii4 #acbg4 ,most terrestrial birds1 unacquainted with man1 exhibit a remarkable tameness1 and are slow in acquiring a dread of him1 even after repeated lessons that danger is to be apprehended from his neighbourhood4 ,mr4 ,darwin speaks of a gun as almost superfluous in the unfrequented districts of ,south ,america1 for with its muzzle he pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree4 ,once1 while lying down1 a mocking thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher1 made of the shell of a tortoise1 which he was holding in his hand1 and began very leisurely to sip the water1 even allowing him to handle it while seated on the vessel4 ,in ,charles ,island1 which had been colonised about six years1 he saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand1 with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink2 and for some time had been constantly in the habit of waiting by the well for the same purpose1 to provide himself with his dinners4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 at ,bourbon1 and at ,tristan d',acunha1 the same tameness was noticed by the early visitors4 ,on the other hand1 the small birds in the arctic regions of ,america1 which have never been persecuted1 exhibit the anomalous fact of great wildness4 ,from a review of various facts1 ,mr4 ,darwin concludes1 first1 that the wildness of birds with regard to man is a particular instinct directed against him1 and not dependent on any general degree of caution arising from other sources of danger2 secondly1 that it is not acquired by individual birds in a short time1 even when much persecuted2 but that in the course of successive generations it becomes hereditary4 ,comparatively few young birds in any one year have been injured by man in ,england1 yet almost all1 even nestlings1 are afraid of him2 many individuals1 however1 both at the ,galapagos and at the ,falklands1 have been pursued and injured by man1 but yet have not learned a salutary dread of him4 ,verse3 ,as a bird that wandereth from her nest2 so is a man that wandereth from his place4--,,psalm ,,xxvii4 #acbh4 ,numerous species of birds may be regarded as the favourites of nature on account of the gracefulness given to their shape1 and the richly-coloured plumage with which they are adorned1 as evidenced in the gaudy liveries of many of the parrot tribe1 and the forms and hues of the birds of paradise4 ,but they are especially interesting to man for the faculty of song with which they are endowed2 in some1 most musical1 most melancholy1 in others1 sprightly and animating1 inspiriting the sons of toil under the burdens peculiar to their station4 ,it deserves to be remarked1 as an instance of compensation and adjustment1 that whilst the birds of the temperate zone are far inferior to those of tropical climes in point of beauty1 they have far more melodious notes in connection with their less attractive appearance4 #acbi4 ,from the powerful means of locomotion possessed by several of the bird tribe1 and their great specific levity1 air being admitted to the whole organisation as water to a sponge1 it might be inferred1 that the entire atmosphere was intended to be their domain1 so that no species would be limited to a particular region4 ,the common crow flies at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour2 the rapidity of the eider-duck1 ,anas mollissima1 is equal to ninety miles an hour2 while the swifts and hawks travel at the astonishing speed of a hundred and fifty miles in the same time4 ,it is true that some species have a very extensive range1 as the nightingale1 the common wild goose1 and several of the vulture tribe4 ,the same kind of osprey or fishing-eagle that wanders along the ,scottish shores appears upon those of the south of ,europe1 and of ,new ,holland4 ,the lammergeyer haunts the heights of the ,pyrenees1 the mountains of ,abyssinia1 and the ,mongolian steppes2 and the penguin falcon occurs in ,greenland1 ,europe1 ,america1 and ,australia4 ,in general1 however1 like plants and terrestrial quadrupeds1 the birds are subject to geographical laws1 definite limits circumscribing particular groups4 ,the common grouse of our own country affords a striking exemplification of this arrangement1 as it is nowhere met with out of ,great ,britain2 and other examples occur of a very scanty area containing a species not to be found in any other region4 ,the celebrated birds of paradise we exclusively confined to a small part of the torrid zone1 embracing ,new ,guinea and the contiguous islands2 and the beautiful ,lories are inhabitants of the same districts1 being quite unknown to the ,new ,world4 ,parroquets are chiefly occupants of a zone extending a few degrees beyond each tropic1 but the ,american group is quite distinct from the ,african1 and neither of these have one in common with the parrots of ,india4 ,the great eagle is limited to the highest summits of the ,alps2 and the condor1 which soars above the peak of the loftiest of the ,andes1 never quits that chain4 ,humming-birds are entirely limited to the western hemisphere1 where a particular species is sometimes bounded by the range of an island1 while others are more extensively spread1 the ,trochilus flammifrons1 common to ,lima1 being observed by ,captain ,king upon the coast of the ,straits of ,magellan1 in the depth of winter1 sucking the flowers of a large fuchsia1 then in bloom in the midst of a shower of snow4 ,among the birds incapable of flight1 which rival the quadrupeds in their size1 the intertropical countries of the globe have their distinct species1 presenting similar general features of organisation1 as the ostrich of ,africa and ,arabia1 the cassowary of ,java and ,australia1 and the touyou of ,brazil4 ,in the arctic regions1 we meet with species peculiar to them1 the ,strix laeponicus or ,lapland owl1 and the eider-duck1 an inhabitant of the shores1 from whose nests the eider-down is obtained4 ,several families of maritime birds are likewise limited to particular oceanic localities4 ,approaching the fortieth parallel of latitude1 the albatross is seen flitting along the surface of the waves1 and soon afterwards the frigate and other tropical birds appear1 which never wander far beyond the torrid zone4 ,it thus appears1 that1 notwithstanding the great locomotive powers of birds1 particular groups have had certain regions assigned to them as their sphere of existence1 which they are adapted to occupy1 and to which they adhere in the main1 though it is easy to conceive of natural causes occasionally constraining to a migration into new and even distant territories4 ,captain ,smyth informed ,mr4 ,lyell1 that when engaged in his survey of the ,mediterranean1 he encountered a gale in the ,gulf of ,lyons1 at the distance of between twenty and thirty leagues from the coast of ,france1 which bore along many land-birds of various species1 some of which alighted on the ship1 while others were thrown with violence against the sails4 ,in this manner1 many an islet in the deep1 after ages of solitude and silence1 uninterrupted except by the wave's wild dash1 and the wind's fierce howl1 may have received the song of birds1 forced by the tempest from their home1 and compelled to seek a new one under its direction4 ,verse3 ,there is a path which no fowl knoweth1 and which the vulture's eye hath not seen4--,,job ,,xviii4 #accj4 ,there is no feature more remarkable in the economy of birds than the periodical migrations1 so systematically conducted1 in which five-sixths of the whole feathered population engage4 ,in the case of ,north ,america1 according to an estimate by ,dr4 ,richardson1 the passenger-pigeons form themselves into vast flocks for the journey1 one of which has been calculated to include #b1bcj1jjj1jjj individuals4 ,we are familiar with the cuckoo as our visitor in spring1 and with the house-swallow as our guest through the summer1 the latter usually departing in ,october to the warmer regions of the south1 wintering in ,africa1 returning again when a more genial season revives its insect food4 ,by cutting off two claws from the feet of a certain number of swallows1 ,dr4 ,jenner ascertained the fact of the same individuals re-appearing in their old haunts in the following year1 and one was met with even after the lapse of seven years4 ,the arctic birds migrate farther south1 when the seas1 lakes1 and rivers become covered with unbroken sheets of ice2 the swans1 geese1 ducks1 divers1 and coots flying off in regular phalanxes to regions where a less rigorous winter allows of access to the means of life4 ,hence1 soon after1 we lose the swallows1 we gain the snipes and other waders1 which have fled from the hard frozen north to our partially frozen morasses1 where their ordinary nutriment may still be obtained4 ,the equinoctial zone1 where the seasonal change is that of humidity and drought furnishes an example of the same phenomenon4 ,as soon as the ,orinoco is swollen by the rains1 overflows its banks1 and inundates the country on either side1 an innumerable quantity of aquatics leave its course for the ,west ,india islands on the north1 and the valley of the ,amazon on the south1 the increased depth of the river1 and the flooded state of the shores1 depriving them of the usual supply of fish and insects4 ,upon the stream decreasing1 and retiring within its bed1 the birds return4 ,verse3 ,the ,lord is my light and my salvation2 whom shall ,i fear8 the ,lord is the strength of my life2 of whom shall ,i be afraid8--,,psalm ,,xxvii4 #acca4 ,a comparison between the quadrupeds of the ,old and ,new ,worlds is in every point strikingly in favour of the former4 ,not only has the western continent no animals of such giant bulk as those of the eastern1 but no examples of such high organisation1 such power and courage1 as the ,african lion and the ,asiatic tiger display4 ,buffon's remark must indeed be considerably modified1 respecting the cowardice of the ,american feline race2 for the jaguar of the woods about the ,amazon1 when attacked by man1 will not hesitate to accept his challenge1 will even become the assailant1 nor shrink from an encounter against the greatest odds4 ,the following passages from the writings of ,humboldt show that this transatlantic animal is not to be despised3-- ,the night was gloomy2 the ,devil's ,wall and its denticulated rocks appeared from time to time at a distance1 illuminated by the burning of the savannahs1 or wrapped in ruddy smoke4 ,at the spot where the bushes were the thickest1 our horses were frightened by the yell of an animal that seemed to follow us closely4 ,it was a large jaguar1 that had roamed for three years among these mountains4 ,he had constantly escaped the pursuit of the boldest hunters1 and had carried off horses and mules from the midst of enclosures2 but1 having no want of food1 had not yet attacked men4 ,the negro who conducted us uttered wild cries4 ,he thought he should frighten the jaguar2 but these means were of course without effect4 ,the jaguar1 like the wolf of ,europe1 follows travellers even when he will not attack them2 the wolf in the open fields and in unsheltered places1 the jaguar skirting the road1 and appearing only at intervals between the bushes4 ,the same illustrious observer also remarks1-- ,near the ,joval1 nature assumes an awful and savage aspect4 ,we there saw the largest jaguar we had ever met with4 ,the natives themselves were astonished at its prodigious length1 which surpassed that of all the tigers of ,india ,i had seen in the collections of ,europe4 ,still these were extraordinary specimens of the race1 and leave the fact undoubted1 that the most formidable of the western ,fer has no pretensions to an equality with his congener1 the tyrant of the jungles of ,bengal4 #accb4 ,in vain also we look among the tribes of ,america for a rival in outward appearance to the giraffe1 so remarkable for its height1 its swan-like neck1 gentle habits1 and soft expressive eye2 while of the animals most serviceable to mankind--the horse1 the ox1 the ass1 the goat1 and the hog--not a living example of either was known there before its occupancy by the ,europeans4 ,but1 however inferior the animal race of the ,new may be as compared to those of the ,old world1 the balance between the two appears to have been pretty equal in remote ages2 geological discovery has disproved the assertion of ,buffon1 that the creative force in ,america in relation to quadrupeds never possessed great vigour1 and has established the fact1 that it is only the more recent specimens of its energy that are upon an inferior scale4 ,the relics of the unwieldly magatherium1 of the gigantic sloth1 and armadillo-like animals1 discovered in great abundance imbedded in its soil1 prove that at a former period it swarmed with monsters of equal bulk with those that now roam in the midst of ,africa and ,asia4 ,the estuary deposit that forms the plains westward of ,buenos ,ayres1 and covers the gigantic rocks of the ,bando ,oriental1 appears to be the grave of extinct gigantic quadrupeds4 ,verse3 ,but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there2 and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures2 and owls shall dwell there1 and satyrs shall dance there4--,,isaiah ,,xiv4 #accc4 ,there are various animals which are very widely dispersed1 enduring the extremes of tropical heat and of polar cold1 which are either in a wild condition or in a state of domestication4 ,wild races1 considered to be varieties of the domestic dog1 occur in ,india1 ,sumatra1 ,australia1 ,beloochistan1 ,natolia1 ,nubia1 various parts of ,africa1 and both the ,americas2 while in subjection to man1 the dog is his faithful companion1 and has followed his steps into every diversity of climate and of situation to which he has wandered4 ,the north temperate zone of the ,old ,continent appears to be the native region of the ox1 which passes in ,lapland within the arctic circle1 and has been spread over ,south ,america since its first introduction by the ,spaniards4 ,the horse1 originally an inhabitant of the temperate parts of the ,old ,world1 has shared in a similar dispersion1 and now exists in the high latitude of ,iceland1 in the desolate regions of ,patagonia1 and roams wild in immense herds over the ,llanos of the ,orinoco1 leading a painful and restless life in the burning climate of the tropics4 ,humboldt draws a striking picture of the sufferings of these gifts of the ,old ,world to the ,new1 returned to a savage state in their western location4 ,in the rainy season1 the horses that wander in the savannah1 and have not time to reach the rising grounds of the ,llanos1 perish by hundreds amidst the overflowings of the rivers4 ,the mares are seen1 followed by their colts1 swimming1 during a part of the day1 to feed upon grass1 the tops of which alone wave above the waters4 ,in this state they are pursued by the crocodiles2 and it is by no means uncommon to find the prints of the teeth of these carnivorous reptiles on their thighs4 ,pressed alternately by excess of drought and of humidity1 they sometimes seek a pool1 in the midst of a bare and dusty soil1 to quench their thirst2 and at other times flee from water and the overflowing rivers1 as menaced by an enemy that encounters them in every direction4 ,harassed during the day by gad-flies and mosquitoes1 the horses1 mules1 and cows find themselves attacked at night by enormous bats1 that fasten on their backs1 and cause wounds which become dangerous1 because they are filled with acarid and other hurtful insects4 ,in the time of great drought1 the mules gnaw even the thorny melocactus 7melon-thistle71 in order to drink its cooling juice1 and draw it forth as from a vegetable fountain4 ,during the great inundations1 these same animals lead an amphibious life1 surrounded by crocodiles water-serpents1 and manatees4 ,yet1 such are the immutable laws of nature1 their races are preserved in the struggle with the elements1 and amid so many sufferings and dangers4 ,when the waters retire1 and the rivers return into their beds1 the ,savannah is spread over with a fine odoriferous grass2 and the animals of old ,europe and ,upper ,asia seem to enjoy1 as in their native climates the renewed vegetation of spring4 #accd4 ,the first colonists of ,la ,plata landed with seventy-two horses1 in the year #aece1 when1 owing to a temporary desertion of the colony1 the animals ran wild2 and in #aehj1 only forty-five years afterwards1 it had reached the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,the ass has a more restricted range than the horse1 not being capable of enduring so great a degree of cold1 though usually far from being considered a delicate animal4 ,to the warmer parts of the temperate zone1 between the #bjth and the #djth parallels of latitude1 the ass seems best adapted1 not propagating much beyond the #fjth1 and only occurring in a state of degeneration beyond the #ebnd4 ,the sheep and goat tribe are widely spread1 equally supporting the extremes of temperature4 ,according to ,zimmerman1 the ,argali or ,mouflon1 the original race of sheep1 still exists on all the great mountains of the two continents2 and the ,capricorn and ,ibex1 the ancestors of the common goat inhabit the high ,european elevations4 ,from the #fdth degree of north latitude the hog is met with all over the old continent1 and also in the islands of the ,indian ,ocean1 peopled by the ,malay race2 and since its introduction into the ,new ,world1 it has diffused itself over it1 from the #ejth parallel north as far as ,patagonia4 ,originally the cat was not known in ,america1 nor in any part of ,oceanica2 but it has now spread into almost every country of the globe4 ,among animals entirely wild1 the most extensively diffused1 are the fox1 hare1 squirrel1 and ermine2 but the species are different in every region of the world2 nor is there perhaps one example to be found of a species perfectly identical naturally existing in distant localities of the earth4 ,verse3 ,his going forth is from the end of the heaven1 and his circuit unto the ends of it2 and there is nothing hid from the heat thereof4--,,psalm ,,xix4 ,respecting the internal constitution and heat of the earth1 differences of opinion1 and some very wild speculation have existed4 ,we find in ,humboldt's ,cosmos the following remarks3-- #acce4 ,it has been computed at what depths liquid and even gaseous substances1 from the pressure of their own superimposed strata1 would attain a density exceeding that of platinum1 or of iridium2 and in order to bring the actual degree of ellipticity1 which was known within very narrow limits1 into harmony with the hypothesis of the infinite compressibility of matter1 ,leslie conceived the interior of the ,earth to be a hollow sphere1 filled with an imponderable fluid of enormous expansive force4 ,such rash and arbitrary conjectures have given rise1 in wholly unscientific circles1 to still more fantastic notions4 ,the hollow sphere has been peopled with plants and animals1 on which two small subterranean revolving planets1 ,pluto and ,proserpine1 were supposed to shed a mild light4 ,a constantly uniform temperature is supposed to prevail in these inner regions1 and the air being rendered self-luminous by compression1 might well render the planets of this lower world unnecessary4 ,near the north pole1 in #hb deg4 of latitude1 an enormous opening is imagined1 from which the polar light visible in ,aurora streams forth1 and by which a descent into the hollow sphere may be made4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy and myself were repeatedly and publicly invited by ,captain ,symmes to undertake this subterranean expedition2 so powerful is the morbid inclination of men to fill unseen spaces with shapes of wonder1 regardless of the counter-evidence of well-established facts1 or universally recognised natural laws4 ,even the celebrated ,halley1 at the end of the #agth century1 hollowed out the earth in his magnetic speculations2 a freely rotating subterranean nucleus was supposed to occasion1 by its varying positions1 the diurnal and annual changes of the magnetic declination4 ,it has been attempted in our own day1 in tedious earnest1 to invest with a scientific garb that which1 in the pages of the ingenious ,holberg1 was an amusing fiction4 ,the following are among the speculations which ,humboldt thus severely but justly condemns3-- ,the increase of temperature observed is about #a deg4 ,fahr4 for every fifteen yards of descent4 ,in all probability1 however1 the increase will be found to be in a geometrical progression as investigation is extended2 in which case the present crust will be found to be much thinner than we have calculated it to be4 ,and should this be found to be correct1 the igneous theory will become a subject of much more importance1 in a geological point of view1 than we are at present disposed to consider it4 ,taking1 then1 as correct1 the present observed rate of increase1 the temperature would be as follows3 ,water will boil at the depth of #b1dcj yards4 ,lead melts at the depth of #h1djj yards4 ,there is red heat at the depth of #g miles4 ,gold melts at #ba miles4 ,cast iron at #gd miles4 ,soft iron at #ig miles4 ,and at the depth of #ajj miles there is a temperature equal to the greatest artificial heat yet observed2 a temperature capable of fusing platina1 porcelain1 and indeed every refractory substance we are acquainted with4 ,these temperatures are calculated from ,guyton ,morveau's corrected scale of ,wedgwood's pyrometer2 and if we adopt them1 we find that the earth is fluid at the depth of #ajj miles from the surface1 and that even in its present state very little more than the soil on which we tread is fit for the habitation of organised beings4 ,the above is to be found in ,mr4 ,timbs's ,things not ,generally ,known1 a little book which professes to set people right upon points on which they are in error6 ,verse3 ,he hath filled the hungry with good things2 and the rich he hath sent empty away4--,,luke ,i4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,hunt1 in his ,poetry of ,science1 says3-- #accf4 ,a question of great interest1 in a scientific point of view1 is the temperature of the centre of the earth4 ,we are1 of course1 without the means of solving this problem2 but we advance a little way onwards in the inquiry by a careful examination of subterranean temperature at such depths as the enterprise of man enables us to reach4 ,these researches show us1 that where the mean temperature of the climate is #ej deg41 the temperature of the rock at #ei fathoms from the surface is #fj deg42 at #acb fathoms it is #gj deg2 at #bci fathoms it is #hj deg42 being an increase of #aj deg4 at #ei fathoms deep1 or #a deg4 in #ce4d feet2 of #aj deg4 more at #gc fathoms deeper1 or #a deg4 in #dc4h feet2 and of #aj deg4 more at #aad fathoms still deeper1 or #a deg4 in #fd4b feet4 ,although this would indicate an increase to a certain depth of about one degree in every fifty feet1 yet it would appear that the rate of increase diminishes with the depth4 ,it appears therefore probable1 that the heat of the earth1 so far as man can examine it1 is due to the absorption of the solar rays by the surface4 ,the evidences of intense igneous action at a great depth cannot be denied1 but the doctrine of a cooling mass1 and of the existence of an incandescent mass1 at the earth's centre1 remains but one of those guesses which active minds delight in4 ,upon the subject of hunger and thirst1 by which living creatures are prompted to feast upon the bounties of nature1 ,sir ,charles ,bell says1 in ,appendix to ,paley's ,natural ,theology3-- #accg4 ,hunger is defined to be a peculiar sensation experienced in the stomach from a deficiency of food4 ,such a definition does not greatly differ from the notions of those who referred the sense of hunger to the mechanical action of the surfaces of the stomach upon each other1 or to a threatening of chemical action of the gastric juice on the stomach itself4 ,but an empty stomach does not cause hunger4 ,on the contrary1 the time when the meal has passed the stomach is the best suited for exercise1 and when there is the greatest alacrity of spirits4 ,the beast of prey feeds at long intervals2 the snake and other cold-blooded animals take food after intervals of days or weeks4 ,a horse1 on the contrary1 is always feeding4 ,his stomach1 at most1 contains about four gallons1 yet throw before him a truss of tares or lucerne1 and he will eat continually4 ,the emptying of the stomach cannot1 therefore1 be the cause of hunger4 ,the natural appetite is a sensation related to the general condition of the system1 and not simply referable to the state of the stomach2 neither to its action1 nor its emptiness1 nor the acidity of its contents2 nor in a starved creature will a full stomach satisfy the desire of food4 ,under the same impulse which makes us swallow1 the ruminating animal draws the morsel from its own stomach4 #acch4 ,hunger is well illustrated by thirst4 ,suppose we take the definition of thirst--that it is a sense of dryness and constriction in the back part of the mouth and fauces2 the moistening of these parts will not allay thirst after much fatigue or during fever4 ,in making a long speech1 if a man's mouth is parched1 and the dryness is merely from speaking1 it will be relieved by moistening1 but if it comes from the feverish anxiety and excitement attending a public exhibition1 his thirst will not be so removed4 ,the question1 as it regards thirst1 was brought to a demonstration by the following circumstance4 ,a man having a wound low down in his throat1 was tortured with thirst2 but no quantity of fluid passing through his mouth and gullet1 and escaping by the wound1 was found in any degree to quench his thirst4 ,thirst1 then1 like hunger1 has relation to the general condition of the animal system--to the necessity for fluid in the circulation4 ,for this reason1 a man dying from loss of blood suffers under intolerable thirst4 ,in both thirst and hunger1 the supply is obtained through the gratification of an appetite2 and as to these appetites1 it will be acknowledged that the pleasures resulting from them far exceed the pains4 ,they gently solicit for the wants of the body2 they are the perpetual motive and spring to action4 ,verse3 ,let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter2 ,fear ,god1 and keep his commandments3 for this is the whole duty of man4--,,ecclesiastes ,,xii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our task draws near to a conclusion2 and we hope that those who have followed our teachings will thirst after further knowledge2 that they will henceforward regard the great ,book of ,nature as the work of an ,almighty ,hand1 and endeavour to find1 for everything that ,nature does1 the ,reason ,why4 ,a high perception of the wisdom of the ,divine ,being1 must necessarily be the result of an intelligent contemplation of the ,divine works4 ,to the ignorant1 the name of ,god is an unmeaning word2 it may inspire fear1 but it does not develope love4 ,to the dark mind of the untaught man1 ,god is no more than one of those mysterious existences that awe the superstitious1 and deter the wicked4 ,there is no grafting of the soul of the man upon the eternal love4 ,but knowledge brings man into communion with that ,almighty wisdom which is the fountain of all truth and happiness4 ,to the enlightened man1 ,god is the sun of all goodness1 around whom the attributes of ,power1 ,wisdom1 and ,love1 radiate and fill the universe4 ,as man's physical eye cannot withstand the light of the sun1 neither can man's spiritual eye see the whole glory of ,god4 ,but as we can rejoice in the sunshine1 and interpret the mission of the sunbeam1 so can we find happiness in the ,divine presence1 and gather wisdom by the contemplation of the ,creator's works4 ,nature is a great teacher4 ,what a lesson may be gathered from the germination of a seed2 how uniformly the germs obey their destiny4 ,however carelessly a seed may be set in the ground1 the germ which forms the root1 and that which is the architect of the stem1 will seek their way--the one to light1 the other to darkness--to fulfil their duty4 ,the obstruction of granite rocks1 cannot force the rootlet upward1 nor drive the leaflet down4 ,they may kill the germs by exhausting their vital powers in an endeavour to find the proper elements2 but no obstruction can make a single blade of grass do aught but strive to fulfil the end for which it was created4 ,would that man were equally true to the purpose of his existence1 and suffered neither the rocks of selfishness1 nor the false light of temptation1 to force or allure him from duty to his ,god4 ,,the ,,end4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,universal ,,knowledge4 ,,just ,,published1 ,,the ,,most ,,useful ,,and ,,extraordinary ,,volume ,ever yet issued from the ,press1 as it comprises all the essence contained in a ,dozen of any other ,books of ,information that have hitherto been printed4 ,,the ,,title ,,of ,,this ,,wonderful ,,book1 ,,is ,,as ,,follows3 ,,inquire ,,within ,,for ,,any ,,thing ,,you ,,wish ,,to ,,know2 ,,or ,,over #c1gjj ,,facts ,,for ,,the ,,people4 ,a ,large ,volume of #dcf pages--,cloth1 gilt--,price #a4 ,sent free of ,postage4 ,this ,book1 as its title imports1 will give you correct information on every possible subject that you ever heard or thought of6 ,it tells you how to cook a dinner--to cure a sick friend1 or cut an acquaintance--to get up a dinner party1 or dine abroad--to play at cards1 at chess1 or any other popular game1--whether you wish to establish yourself in life according to the rules of etiquette1--to get up a sumptuous entree for the dinner table1 or arrange a plain dinner--to fold fancy napkins--to start business--to make money--to dress with taste--to conduct a courtship--to tie any kind of a knot--to get married--to give an evening party to your friends--to behave well in company--to keep house properly--to dance--to make ornamental vases1 by the new art of ,porchomanie1 or ,wax work1 and other fancy employments for the ladies3 to establish acquaintances according to the rules of etiquette--to enjoy an hour at curious puzzles and arithmetical questions--to do up a neat parcel--to relieve the invalid--to acquaint yourself with the technical terms in literature1 law1 and medicine--in short1 to do every useful thing that can be thought of or imagined1 whether at home or abroad1 or among your friends1 or in your business1 or on your farm1 or in your garden1 or at a public meeting1 or at a private assembly4 ,it contains tables of all weights and measures2 ,interest ,tables from #a to #aj1jjj at six and seven per cent1 besides innumerable tables on ,interesting and ,curious ,subjects4 ,it gives complete directions how to wash1 starch1 and iron--how to keep the eyes1 hair1 teeth and complexion in perfect order--how to punctuate1 spell and write correctly--how to compose all kinds of letters1 from the billet-doux to the business letter--how to clean furniture1 take care of pet animals--how to measure all kinds of mechanic's work--how to detect fraudulent scales--and all about the properties and uses of different medicines4 ,indeed this is really and truly one of the most wonderful and valuable books ever printed4 ,besides all this information--and we have not room to give an idea of a hundredth part of it--it contains so many ,valuable and ,useful receipts that an enumeration of them requires ,,seventy-,,two ,,columns ,,of ,,fine ,,type ,,for ,,the ,,index4 ,if you wish to consult law or physic1 buy this book6 ,if you want to learn mechanically how to do a little of everything that is useful1 buy it6 ,if you have any literary vanity1 and wish to become a blue-stocking--or if you desire to make a sensation in almost any way1 this book will tell you exactly how to do it6 ,it is no collection of ancient sayings and receipts1 but the whole are fresh and new1 and suited to the present times4 ,as a book to keep in the family for reference1 it is unequaled1 comprising as it does all kinds of ,books of ,information in a single volume4 ,send cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald4 ,no4 #ah ,ann ,street1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,live ,,and ,,learn2 ,a ,,guide ,,for ,,all ,,who ,,wish ,,to ,,speak ,,and ,,write ,,correctly3 particularly intended as a ,book of ,reference for the ,solution of ,difficulties connected with ,grammar1 ,composition1 ,punctuation1 c41 with ,explanations of ,latin and ,french words and ,phrases of frequent occurrence in ,newspapers1 ,reviews1 ,periodicals1 and ,books in general containing ,examples of ,,one ,,thousand ,,mistakes of ,daily ,occurrence1 in ,speaking1 ,writing and ,pronunciation4 ,together with ,detailed ,instructions for ,writing for the ,press1 and forms of ,articles in the various departments of ,newspaper ,literature4 #baf pages1 bound in ,cloth1 #abmo1 price #ej cents1 and sent to any address free of postage4 ,live and ,learn is a most useful book1 designed as a ,guide to ,grammar1 ,composition1 and ,punctuation4 ,so few people speak or write really good grammar1 and fewer still punctuate decently1 that a book that informs them how to do so--and not only that indicates their faults1 but shows them how they are to be corrected--cannot fail to be popular2 there is not a person indeed1 who might not learn something from it4 ,no work heretofore written on this subject contains one half the really useful information that the present does4 ,it should be in the hand of every man1 woman and child in the country1 and is alike invaluable to the ,scholar1 the ,merchant1 the ,farmer1 and the ,artizan4 ,there are hundreds of persons engaged in professional and commercial pursuits1 who are sensible of their deficiencies on many points connected with the grammar of their own tongue1 and who1 by self-tuition1 are anxious to correct such deficiencies1 and to acquire the means of speaking and writing1 if not with elegance at least with a due regard to grammatical accuracy1 to whom this little work is indispensible4 ,as a book of reference1 ,live and ,learn will settle many disputes4 ,it ought to be on every table1 and be particularly recommended to the young1 before habit makes common blunders uncommon hard to cure4 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,live and ,learn is an excellent book4 ,to show our appreciation of its merits we have had it cased in leather1 and have made a pocket companion of it4 ,we look upon it as really indispensible4 ,we advise our readers to imitate our example--procure the book and sell it not for any price--,educational ,gazette4 ,such a book as this has long been wanted by those who entertain the wish alluded to in the title4 ,it is suitable for all classes4 ,we have attentively conned its pages1 and can recommend it as one of the best works of reference for the young student1 or even the ripe scholar1 and as deserving to be generally consulted4 ,the work is altogether useful and indispensible4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,this book1 particularly intended as a work of reference for the solution of difficulties connected with grammar1 composition and punctuation1 etc41 etc41 will be found useful by those who have not received a sound elementary education and who nevertheless move in position4--,daily ,times4 ,this capital work not only gives examples of over #ajjj mistakes1 but it gives rules for their correction so clear1 so terse1 and at once so simple that the most ordinary mind cannot fail to comprehend their meaning4 ,this is one of the chief beauties of ,live and ,learn1 for what is the use of pointing out a grammatical error without giving a key to its correction8 ,there has been several catchpenny works on this subject lately issued4 ,they tell the reader that mistakes exist1 but give no rule for their avoidance4 ,if you want a really good work1 buy ,live and ,learn4 ,send cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 ,no4 #ah ,ann ,st4 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,every ,,man ,a ,,magician4 ,,the ,,magician',s ,,own ,,book2 ,,or1 ,the ,whole ,art of ,conjuring4 ,being a ,complete ,hand-,book of ,parlor ,magic1 containing over ,one ,thousand ,optical1 ,chemical1 ,mechanical1 ,magnetical1 and ,magical ,experiments1 ,amusing ,transmutations1 ,astonishing ,sleights and ,subtleties1 ,celebrated ,card ,deceptions1 ,ingenious ,tricks with ,numbers1 ,curious and ,entertaining ,puzzles--,together with all the most ,noted ,tricks of ,modern ,performers4 ,the whole ,illustrated with ,,over #ejj ,,wood ,,cuts1 ,and intended as a source of amusement for ,,one ,,thousand ,,and ,,one ,,evenings4 #abmo41 cloth1 #djj pages2 gilt side and back stamp4 ,price1 ,,one ,,dollar1 sent free of postage4 ,here is a book for the long winter evenings1 and one that will make all merry and happy4 ,it contains over a ,,thousand ,,tricks1 of every description1 and they are all explained so clear and explicitly that any person can comprehend and perform them with ease4 ,it also contains numerous ,,curious ,,puzzles1 with patterns showing how they are done1 any one of which will afford amusement enough for a whole evening4 ,there is1 also1 the best collection of wonderful ,,card ,,deceptions ever yet published1 any one of which is worth more than double the price of the book4 ,this work also contains a splendid collection of ,,curious ,,tricks ,,with ,,numbers1 and embraces several hundred tricks never before in print4 ,it is no catchpenny affair1 but a standard work1 containing every variety of ,experiment in ,conjuring1 ,cards1 ,legerdemain1 ,transmutations1 the ,magic of ,chemistry1 the ,magic of ,mechanics1 the ,magic of ,pneumatics1 the ,magic of ,numbers1 the ,magic of ,art1 the ,magic of ,strength1 the ,magic of ,magnetism1 the ,magic of ,secret ,writing1 ,miscellaneous ,curious ,tricks and ,fancies1 c4 ,this book is beautifully bound in fine cloth1 with gilt side and back stamp1 and is illustrated with ,,over #ejj ,,wood ,,engravings1 ,besides a ,tinted ,title ,page and ,frontispiece4 ,price1 ,,one ,,dollar1 and sent to any address1 free of postage4 ,send cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 ,no4 #ah ,ann ,street1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,fountain ,,of ,,all ,,knowledge4 ,,the ,,reason ,,why3 ,a ,,careful ,,collection ,,of ,some ,thousands of ,reasons for ,things which1 though ,generally ,known1 are ,imperfectly ,understood4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,condensed ,,scientific ,,knowledge ,,for ,,the ,,million4 ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,inquire ,,within4 ,this is a goodly sized volume of #cef pages1 comprising a sort of ,encyclopedia of ,scientific ,information of all kinds4 ,it is arranged with an ,alphabetical ,index1 in referring to which you can solve almost any problem in ,natural ,philosophy or ,learned ,science that may come up4 ,it is a book that will give you the cream of the information that a long course of practical experiments and profound study has imparted to the savants and philosophers of this progressive age4 ,it contains a collection and solution of ,thirteen ,hundred ,thirty-,two ,facts in ,science ,philosophy1 some of which1 on their first discovery1 puzzled the most learned and apt scholars4 ,it is useless to go into details of this excellent work4 ,suffice it to say1 that it treats on every imaginable subject pertaining to ,causes and ,effects1 and must necessarily be invaluable to all persons who desire ,,knowledge1 and whose means and position in life have prevented them from acquiring it by a regular and tedious course of ,study4 ,we hesitate not to say1 that any one who closely reads this volume will obtain as much real learning in a few days as years of study and patient research would afford them in a regular course4 ,in a word it makes you a learned and refined person with spending but very little money1 time or trouble4 ,no pains have been spared by the ,author to make this a popular book1 in fact a book for the million1 and some idea may be formed of its vast usefulness when we inform the reader that ,,the ,,reason ,,why has an ,index of ,contents requiring ,forty ,columns of ,fine ,type4 ,no person who desires to figure in refined and intelligent circles should delay purchasing a copy of this capital work1 for it will furnish thousands of ideas and important topics of conversation1 so that the most ignorant person by reading it will be posted up on all scientific subjects4 ,what ,haydn's ,dictionary of ,dates is in regard to historical events1 this wonderful book is in respect to scientific facts4 ,the plan of the book and its execution1 leave nothing to be desired4 ,we can cordially recommend this work to all those inquirers1 young and old1 of both sexes1 who are never satisfied until they know the reason why4 ,the man who goes out into the world1 or attempts to attend properly to his domestic duties1 will find himself1 however abundantly supplied with books or bullion1 perpetually embarrassed for the want of small facts and small change4 ,this volume supplies the ,ready ,coin of ,conversation4 ,in the shape of ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,million1 and makes even the neglected in early studies feel quite at home upon every topic likely to be discussed within the ordinary range of the social circle4 ,it imparts ,practical ,information on the ,subject of ,practical ,facts4 ,it may be denominated1 ,science made easy1 or a world of useful every-day learning condensed into a volume for your pocket6 ,,the ,,reason ,,why ,is a handsome #abmo4 volume of #cef pages1 printed on fine paper1 bound in cloth1 gilt1 and embellished with a large number of ,wood ,cuts1 illustrating the various subjects treated of4 ,,price ,,one ,,dollar4 ,pointing hand symbol ,copies mailed to any address in the ,united ,states or ,canada1 free of postage4 ,send your ,cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 ,publishers1 ,,no4 #ah ,,ann ,,street1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sam ,,slick',s ,,new ,,work4 ,buy it1 and if you don't laugh1 then there is no laugh in you4--,,ohio ,,statesman4 ,,just ,,published1 ,,nature ,,and ,,human ,,nature ,a ,sequel to ,wise ,saws2 or1 ,sam ,slick in ,search of a ,wife4 ,,by ,,judge ,,haliburton1 ,author of ,sam ,slick1 the ,clockmaker1 ,old ,judge1 c41 c4 ,,neatly ,,bound ,,in ,,muslin1 #ge ,,cents2 ,,in ,,paper1 #ej ,,cents4 ,,contents4 ,a ,surprise4 ,clippers and ,steamers4 ,unlocking a ,woman's ,heart4 ,a ,critter with a ,thousand ,virtues and but ,one ,vice4 ,a ,new ,way to ,learn ,gaelic4 ,the ,wounds of the ,heart4 ,fiddling and ,dancing1 and ,serving the ,devil4 ,stitching a ,button-,hole4 ,the ,plural of ,moore4 ,a ,day on the ,lakes4 ,the ,betrothal4 ,a ,foggy ,night4 ,female ,colleges4 ,gipseying4 ,the ,world before the ,flood4 ,lost at ,sea4 ,holding up the ,mirror4 ,the ,bundle of ,sticks4 ,town and ,country4 ,the ,honeymoon4 ,a ,dish of ,clams4 ,the ,devil's ,hole2 or1 ,fish and ,flesh4 ,the ,cucumber ,lake4 ,the ,recall4 ,,notices ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,the writings of ,judge ,haliburton have long been regarded as the production of the finest humorist that has ever attempted the delineation of ,yankee character1 and the entertaining work before us shows that he has lost none of his original wit and humor4 ,it will be difficult to find a volume so full of fun and good sense as this1 which chronicles the last experiences of ,sam ,slick4--,commercial ,advertiser4 ,since ,sam ,slick's first work he has written nothing so fresh1 racy1 and genuinely humorous as this4 ,every line of it tells1 some way or other--instructively1 satirically1 jocosely or wittily4--,london ,observer4 ,we sincerely pity the man who cannot find in it the materials for the loosening of several of his coffin nails4 ,it is full of oddity and fun1 and must sell like new tomatoes4--,buffalo ,express4 ,published by ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 #ah ,ann ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,and for sale by all the principal ,booksellers4 ,pointing hand symbol ,persons forwarding the price by mail will receive the ,work ,,free ,,of ,,postage4,pointing hand symbol 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dick ,,co4',s ,,list ,,of ,,publications4 ,a ,book for ,housekeepers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,american ,,home ,,cook-,,book4 ,containing several hundred ,,excellent ,,recipes4 ,the whole based on many years' experience of an ,american ,housewife4 ,illustrated with engravings4 ,price #be cents4 ,all the ,recipes in this book are written from actual experiments in ,cooking4 ,there are no copying from theoretical cooking recipes4 ,they are intended for ,american families1 and may be depended upon as good and practicable4 ,the authoress is a lady who understands how cooking ought to be done1 and has here given her experience4 ,it is a book of #abh pages1 and is ,,cheap at #be cents4 ,we expect to sell a very large number at this low price4 99 99 99 99 99 ,works for the ,ladies4 ,,the ,,ladies' ,,guide ,,to ,,beauty4 ,a ,,companion ,,for ,,the ,,toilet4 ,paper 444 #be cts4 ,cloth 444 #cg-a_/b ,containing ,practical ,advice on ,improving the ,complexion1 the ,hair1 the ,hands1 the ,form1 the ,teeth1 the ,eyes1 the ,feet1 the ,features1 so as to insure the highest degree of perfection of which they are susceptible4 ,and also upwards of ,one ,hundred ,recipes for various ,cosmetics1 ,oils1 ,pomades1 etc41 etc41 being the result of a combination of ,practical and ,scientific ,skill4 ,by ,sir ,james ,clark1 ,private ,physician to ,queen ,victoria4 ,revised and edited by an ,american ,physician and ,chemist4 ,price #be cents1 and we send it free of postage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ladies' ,,guide ,,to ,,crochet4 ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,ann ,s4 ,,stevens4 ,copiously illustrated with original and very choice ,designs in ,crochet1 etc41 printed in colors1 separate from the letter-press1 on tinted paper4 ,also with numerous wood-cuts printed with the letter-press1 explanatory of terms1 etc4 ,oblong1 pp4 #aag1 beautifully bound in extra cloth1 gilt4 ,price #ge cents4 ,this in by far the best work on the subject of ,crochet yet published4 ,there are plenty of other books containing ,crochet patterns1 but the difficulty is1 they do not have the necessary instructions how to work them1 and are1 therefore1 useless4 ,this work1 however1 supplies this much felt and glaring deficiency1 and has the terms in ,crochet so clearly explained that any ,crochet pattern1 however difficult1 may be worked with ease4 ,copies of the above mailed to any address in the ,united ,states free of postage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,books by ,celebrated ,authors4 ,,which--,,the ,,right ,,or ,,the ,,left8 ,a ,religions ,novel4 ,royal #abmo41 cloth4 #ecd pages4 ,price #a #be4 ,this work has received favorable notice from the entire secular as well as the religious press4 ,the main design of the author in the illustration of the fact that success in business may easily consort with fervid piety and the strictest honesty on the part of those engaged in it4 ,the story is that of a young man1 the son of a country pastor1 who goes as an assistant into a dry goods store1 at ,new ,york2 and not only maintains his religious principles amidst the allurements of the capital1 but succeeds in drawing within their happy influence a number of the clerks and other assistants1 who at first scoffed at his rural piety1 as they termed it1 but were at length led by him to abandon the frivolities which had formed their former delight1 and devote themselves to religious exercises and the visitation of the sick and poor4 ,his influence reached even a higher circle2 and the author gives us some lively sketches of the insipidity and heartlessness of fashionable life1 whose unhappy devotees choose to live for society and self1 rather than for ,religion and their fellow-creatures4 ,inverted asterism symbol ,the ,publishers have in their possession1 testimonials from over three hundred of the principal ,clergymen in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 pronouncing this to be the best work that has been published for years1 and in every instance they are the honest convictions formed after an actual perusal of the volume itself4 ,this work has also received high laudation from almost every paper of character and standing in this country4 ,added to which it has been read by thousands1 and has received universal commendation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,estelle ,,grant2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,lost ,,wife4 ,large #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #jj4 ,this is a book so thoroughly excellent1 so exalted in its character1 so full of exquisite pictures of society1 and manifesting so much genius1 skill1 and knowledge of human nature1 that no one can possibly read it without admitting it to be1 in every way1 a noble book4 ,the story1 too1 is one of stirring interest2 and it either sweeps you along with its powerful spell1 or beguiles you with its tenderness1 pathos1 and geniality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,pilgrims ,,of ,,walsingham4 ,a ,romance of the ,middle ,ages1 from the accomplished pen of ,agnes ,strickland4 ,large #abmo41 pp4 #dfj4 ,price #a #jj4 ,truly a charming book6 ,full of the profoundest interest1 yet not one improbable incident--not one prurient idea4 ,you will sooner find spots upon the leaves of the silvery lily than an impure sentence in a book by this author4--,buffalo ,courier4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,na ,,motu2 ,,or1 ,,reef ,,rovings ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,seas4 ,a ,narrative of ,adventures in the ,hawaiian1 ,georgian1 and ,society ,islands1 with original illustrations4 ,,by ,,edward ,t4 ,,perkins #abmo4 ,cloth4 #a #jj ,na ,motu is the quaint title of a handsome volume of voyage and adventure in the ,south ,seas4 ,mr4 ,perkins1 the author1 a schoolmate of ,ike ,marvel1 has spent several years before the mast1 and on the salt water in other capacities1 and his style is characterized by a straightforward1 honest nonchalance and idiomatic flavor1 redolent of ,old ,ocean from stem to stern4 ,his daguerreotype of nautical dialogues is only a little too perfect1 occasionally1 for good taste2 a large portion of his experience being gained on a whaling ship4--,new ,york ,church ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sam ,,slick',s ,,yankee ,,courtship4 ,,recently ,,published1 ,,wise ,,saws2 ,,or1 ,,sam ,,slick ,,in ,,search ,,of ,a ,,wife4 ,by the ,author of ,sam ,slick ,in ,england1 ,nature and ,human ,nature1 ,sam ,slick's ,sayings and ,doings1 c4 ,in ,one ,elegant ,volume1 neatly bound in ,muslin2 ,price #ge ,cts4--in ,paper #ej ,cts4 ,extract from the ,preface3 99 99 99 99 ,fun has no limits4 ,it is like the human race and face2 there is a family likeness among all the species1 but they all differ4 ,new combinations produce new varieties4 ,a man who has an eye for fun sees it in everything4 99 99 99 ,there is a work called ',the ,horse1' and another ',the ,cow1' and ',the ,dog1' and so on2 why should'nt there be one on ',the ,galls8' ,they are about the most difficult to choose and to manage of any created critter1 and yet there aint any dependable directions about pickin' and choosin' of them4 ,is it any wonder then so many fellows get taken in when they go for to swap hearts with them8 ,besides2 any one can find a gentleman that keeps a livery stable to get him a horse to order1 but who can say1 ',this is the ,gall for your money6' ,,contents4 ,introductory ,letter1 ,chat with the ,president1 ,stealing a ,speech1 ,everything in ,general1 and ,nothing in ,particular1 ,the black ,hawk3 or ,life in a ,fore-and-,after1 ,old ,blowhard1 ,the ,widow's ,son1 ,the ,language of ,mackerel1 ,the ,best-natured ,man in the ,world1 ,the ,bait-,box1 ,the ,water-,glass2 or a ,day-,dream of ,life1 ,old ,sarsaparilla ,pills1 ,our ,colonies and ,sailors1 ,the ,house that ,hope ,built1 ,the ,house without ,hope1 ,an ,old ,friend with a ,new ,face1 ,chat in a ,calm1 ,the ,sable ,island ,ghost1 ,the ,witch of ,eskisoony1 ,jericho beyond ,jordan1 ,three ,truths for ,one ,lie1 ,aunt ,thankful her ,room1 ,a ,single ,idea1 ,an ,excellent ,plan of ,reform1 ,goose ,van ,dam1 ,a ,hot ,day1 ,a ,pic-,nic at ,la ,haire1 ,a ,narrow ,escape4 ,published by ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 #ah ,ann ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,and for sale by all the principal ,booksellers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,artist',s ,,bride2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,pawnbroker',s ,,heir4 ,a ,novel1 by ,,emerson ,,bennet4 #abmo4 ,cloth1--#dbj pages1--,price #a #jj4 ,we have perused this work with some attention1 and do not hesitate to pronounce it one of the very best productions of the talented author4 ,there is not a page that does not glow with thrilling and interesting incident1 and will well repay the reader for the time occupied in perusing it4 ,the characters are most admirably drawn1 and are perfectly natural throughout4 ,we have derived so much gratification from the perusal of this charming novel1 that we are anxious to make our readers share it with us3 and1 at the same time1 to recommend it to be read by all persons who are fond of romantic adventures4 ,mr4 ,bennett is a spirited and vigorous writer1 and his works deserve to be generally read2 not only because they are well written1 but that they are1 in most part1 taken from events connected with the history of our own country1 from which much valuable information is derived1 and should1 therefore1 have a double claim upon our preference1 over those works where the incidents are gleaned from the romantic legends of old castles and foreign climes4--,louisville ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dick ,,tarleton2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,his ,,race4 ,containing #aab very large octavo pages4 ,price #be cts4 and the book sent free of postage4 ,this well written work has been pronounced by good judges to be the best of ,mr4 ,smith's production4 ,this is saying a great deal1 considering that gentleman is the author of ,minnie ,grey1 and ,woman and her ,master1--works which have become famous with novel readers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cyrilla2 ,a ,,romance4 ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,initials4 ,large ,octavo4--,price #ej;c4 ,every person who has read that charming novel1 ,the ,initials1 should purchase a copy of ,cyrilla4 ,it is one of the best novels that has been published in the past ten years4 ,there is1 probably no work of fiction now before the public that surpasses it for power1 pathos1 depth of plot1 delineation of character and brilliancy of sentiment4 ,it forcibly shows that ,many who have perished have erred and sinned for woman4 ,copies of the above books sent by mail free of postage4 ,send cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald1 ,no4 #ah ,ann ,st41 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,works by ,miss ,e4 ,marryatt4 7,,daughter ,,of ,,captain ,,marryatt47 ,,henry ,,lyle2 ,,or ,,life ,,and ,,existence4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 ,price #a #jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,temper2 ,a ,,tale4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 ,price #a #jj4 ,the above novels1 by the talented daughter of the late ,captain ,marryatt1 were written in compliance with the wishes of her father1 expressed a short time previous to his death2 and the fair authoress alludes to this circumstance by way of apology1 in the preface to ,temper4 ,we predict for them a wide spread popularity4 ,they are original in style1 truly moral and religious in tone1 and are calculated to accomplish much good1 as the author aims some telling blows at the tendency of the present generation towards ,infidelity1 and other modern evils4 99 99 99 99 99 ,works by the ,author of ,zaidee4 ,,adam ,,graeme ,,of ,,mossgray4 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #jj4 ,the characters are painted in bold relief1 and seem to live1 move and speak before you4 ,not one is overdrawn1 and yet each comes up to the popular standard1 in point of interest1 individualization1 and spirit4 ,the tale is1 indeed1 sad1 high and working2 full of state and woe2 but it is pleasant enough for all that1 and the sober1 truthful earnestness with which it is related1 will at once communicate itself to the mind of the most fastidious and hypercritical peruser of modern volumes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,magdalen ,,hepburn2 ,a ,story of the ,scottish ,reformation4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 ,price #a #jj4 ,this charming novel1 by the author of ,zaidee1 will be welcomed by all who have had the pleasure of reading the former production4 ,the quaint originality1 the healthy and cheerful religious tone1 and charming simplicity and good sense of this volume1 will render it a general and permanent favorite4 ,a work which will be read as long as any volume of our time4 ,we know of no fiction1 in fact1 that we would sooner recommend2 for1 while it will fascinate all who merely read for amusement1 it will delight as well as improve those who seek for something even in a novel4 ,it is fascinating from beginning to ending1 and no reader will lay it down1 after perusal1 without wishing the author had extended its pages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,reply ,,to ,,dred1 ,,and ,,uncle ,,tom4 ,,tit ,,for ,,tat2 ,a ,,novel1 ,,by ,a ,,lady ,,of ,,new ,,orleans4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 ,price #a4 ,sent free of postage4 ,this the title of a most wonderful book1 written by a lady of ,new ,orleans1 and issued from the press for the perusal of all persons whose minds have been poisoned by the pernicious exaggerations of ,american life and ,negro ,slavery to be found in ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin and ,dred4 ,the lady of ,new ,orleans has done her work manfully4 ,the book shows clearly that those who cry out against ,negro ,slavery1 and utter the rankest falsehoods about that institution1 are the supporters and proprietors of a system of white slavery more cruel and debasing in its character and operations than the most skilful romancist could imagine4 ,all this is shown in a ,tale abounding with spirited and dramatic scenes and incidents4 ,,tit ,,for ,,tat embraces forty chapters of astonishing interest4 ,,millions of copies of this work should be circulated4 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,it recounts1 in a forcible manner1 the evils of the ,english social system4444 ,we only wish it furnished any sufficient apology for our shortcomings4--,commercial1 ,buffalo4 ,one of the must powerfully written novels of the day4--,springfield ,republican4 ,it is a poem in all its parts2 fervid1 womanly and eloquent4--,galveston ,news4 ,she shows clearly that those who cry out against ,negro ,slavery are the supporters of a system of white ,slavery1 most cruel and depraved4--,savannah ,news4 ,this is carrying the war into ,africa with a vengeance4 ,it is more than a ,roland for an ,oliver4 ,it is more caustic than even ,change for ,dickens' ,american ,notes4 ,by a lady4 ,dred1 a ,tale of the ,dismal ,swamp1 the offspring of foreign influence2 ,british influence2 subsidising and ,anglicising the ,yankee pen of ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 is answered most effectually in a tale of white slavery1 far more dismal than all the caricatures that have ever been painted of ,negro servitude in the ,south4 ,our bane and antidote are both before us4 ,tit for ,tat is confined to ,england and the ,english1 and is1 therefore1 a more direct and appropriate reply to the ,duchess of ,sutherland's minion4 ,the bold1 startling pictures are drawn from real life1 and their darkest shadows do not exaggerate the depths of degradation and misery into which the fairest specimens of ,god's handiwork are plunged2 white men capable of appreciating misery in its highest forms1 and of enjoying all its benefits and refinements4 ,and all the suffering and woe depicted by the author with masculine vigor are the direct results of the cruel oppression of the aristocracy1 to whom ,mrs4 ,stowe plays the flunkey1 flattering in their vices1 the tyrants who wallow in luxury upon the toil and blood of the people4--,new ,york ,citizen4 ,copies of the above books sent per mail free of postage4 ,send cash orders to ,,dick ,,fitzgerald4 ,no4 #ah ,ann ,street1 ,new ,york4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant form was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them4 ,the ,list of ,illustrations paginations were changed accordingly4 ,italicized words are surrounded by underline characters1 like this4 ,each page starts with a biblical quotation4 ,these were enclosed in square brackets1 labeled verses and moved between paragraphs when needed4 ,other ,notes3 p4 ix3 ,,lesson ,,xi follows ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,this was not changed4 p4 #aea3 ,two consecutive questions are labeled #fff4 ,this was not changed4 p4 #agg3 ,question #hib was mislabeled4 ,changed to #hjb4 p4 #bcb3 ,f4 ,the muscle situated underneath1 444 ,this muscle is shown above in ,fig4 #fa4 pp4 #aii and #bja each have a question #hfi4 ,this was not changed4 p4 #bea3 444 that required to be removed444 changed to 444 that are required to be removed444 p4 #bec3 444 destruction of the optic1444 changed to 444 destruction of the optic nerve1444 p4 #bhf3 444 that minerals1 and animals444 changed to 444 animals444 p4 #bic3 ,two consecutive questions are labeled #fff4 ,this was not changed4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------