,,the ,,brochure ,,series ,japanese ,gardens ,,february1 #aijj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi ,,daimio',s ,,garden ,,at ,,shinjiku ,,the ,,brochure ,,series ,,of ,,architectural ,,illustration4 #aijj4 ,,february ,no4 #b4 ,,japanese ,,gardens4 ,the ,japanese garden is not a flower garden1 neither is it made for the purpose of cultivating plants4 ,in nine cases out of ten there is nothing in it resembling a flower-bed4 ,some gardens may contain scarcely a sprig of green2 some 7although these are exceptional7 have nothing green at all and consist entirely of rocks1 pebbles and sand4 ,neither does the ,japanese garden require any fixed allowance of space2 it may cover one or many acres1 it may be only ten feet square2 it may1 in extreme cases1 be much less1 and be contained in a curiously shaped1 shallow1 carved box set in a veranda1 in which are created tiny hills1 microscopic ponds and rivulets spanned by tiny humped bridges1 while queer wee plants represent trees1 and curiously formed pebbles stand for rocks4 ,but on whatever scale1 all true ,japanese gardening is landscape gardening2 that is to say1 it is a living model of an actual ,japanese landscape4 ,but1 though modelled upon an actual landscape1 the ,japanese garden is far more than a mere naturalistic imitation4 ,to the artist every natural view may be said to convey1 in its varying aspects1 some particular mental impression or mood1 such as the impression of peacefulness1 of wildness1 of solitude1 or of desolation2 and the ,japanese gardener intends not only to present in his model the features of the veritable landscape1 but also to make it express1 even more saliently than the original1 a dominant sentimental mood1 so that it may become not only a picture1 but a poem4 ,in other words1 a ,japanese garden of the best type is1 like any true work of art1 the representation of nature as expressed through an individual artistic temperament4 ,through long accumulation of traditional methods1 the representation of natural features in a garden model has come to be a highly conventional expression1 like all ,japanese art2 and the ,japanese garden bears somewhat the same relation to an actual landscape that a painting of a view of ,fuji-yama by the wonderful ,hokusai does to the actual scene--it is a representation based upon actual and natural forms1 but so modified to accord with accepted canons of ,japanese art1 so full of mysterious symbolism only to be understood by the initiated1 so expressed1 in a word1 in terms of the national artistic conventions1 that it costs the ,western mind long study to learn to appreciate its full beauty and significance4 ,suppose1 to take a specific example1 that in the actual landscape upon which the ,japanese gardener chose to model his design1 a pine tree grew upon the side of a hill4 ,upon the side of the corresponding artificial hill in his garden he would therefore plant a pine1 but he would not clip and trim its branches to imitate the shape of the original1 but rather1 satisfied that by so placing it he had gone far enough toward the imitation of nature1 he would clip his garden pine to make it correspond1 as closely as circumstances might permit1 with a conventional ideal pine tree shape 7such a typical ideal pine tree is shown in the little drawing on page #be71 a shape recognized as the model for a beautiful pine by the artistic conventions of ,japan for centuries1 and one familiar to every ,japanese of any pretensions to culture whatsoever4 ,and1 as there are recognized ideal pine tree shapes1 there are also ideal mountain shapes1 ideal lake shapes1 ideal water-fall shapes1 ideal stone shapes1 and innumerable other such ideal shapes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,,river ,,view1 ,,koraku-,,en1 ,,koishikawa ,in like manner in working out his design the gardener must take cognizance of a multitude of religious and ethical conventions4 ,the flow of his streams must1 for instance1 follow certain cardinal directions2 in the number and disposition of his principal rocks he must symbolize the nine spirits of the ,buddhist pantheon4 ,some tree and stone combinations are regarded as fortunate1 and should be introduced if possible2 while other combinations are considered unlucky1 and are to be as carefully avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,model ,,pine ,,tree ,but endless and complex and bewildering to the western mind as are the rules and formul1 sthetic1 symbolistic and religious1 by which the ,japanese landscape gardener is bound1 it is apparent that most of them were originally based upon purely picturesque considerations1 and that the earliest practitioners of this very ancient art1 finding that certain types of arrangement1 certain contrasts of mass or line1 led to harmonious results1 formulated their discoveries into rules1 much as the rules of composition are formulated for us today in modern artistic treatises4 ,moreover1 as ,japanese gardening was at first1 and for many years1 practised only as a sacred art and by the priests of certain religious cults1 it was but natural that they should impart to these laws which they had discovered symbolic and religious attributes4 ,to preserve the arts in their purity1 and to prevent the vulgar from transgressing sthetic laws1 combinations productive of beauty were represented as auspicious1 and endowed with moral significance1 while inharmonious arrangements were condemned as unlucky or inauspicious4 ,it is one of the cardinal principles of ,japanese philosophy1 for example1 that the inanimate objects of the universe are endowed with male or female attributes1 and that from a proper blending of the two sex essences springs all the harmony1 good fortune and beauty in this world4 ,when1 therefore1 two contrasting shapes1 colors1 or masses1 such as those of the sturdy pine tree and the graceful willow1 were found conducive of a pleasing combination1 they were named respectively male and female1 and it became almost a religious observance to thereafter place them together in their attributed sex relations4 ,it will be apparent1 therefore1 that with an art of such antiquity1 originally practised as a religious ceremony1 and in a country in which inherited tradition has such binding force1 that there should have grown up around the craft of landscape gardening1 a code of the most complex laws1 rules1 symbolism1 formul and superstitions1 which the artistic gardener is bound to learn and to implicitly obey4 ,and yet it must not be considered that the art of the ,japanese gardener has1 through the accumulation of its limiting rules1 become a mere science1 or that its practice is only a mechanical expression of pre-established artistic conventions4 ,on the contrary1 the landscape gardener must be1 first of all1 a student and lover of nature1 for his art is founded on nature2 he must be next a poet1 in order to appreciate and re-express in his garden the moods of nature1 and he must thereafter be a lifelong student of his craft1 that he may design in accordance with its established principles4 ,but the very number of these precepts makes a wide range of choice among them possible2 and in almost every instance1 even the most apparently superstitious and fanciful of them will be found1 upon examination1 to make in some way for beauty in the final result4 ,to those who can understand it1 moreover1 the mystical symbolism of a ,japanese garden design is an added source of pleasure1 just as a knowledge of symphonic form makes a symphony more enjoyable to the musician4 ,after having learned1 writes ,mr4 ,lafacdio ,hearn1 something about the ,japanese manner of arranging flowers1 one can thereafter consider ,european ideas of floral decoration only as vulgarities4 ,somewhat in the same way1 and for similar reasons1 after having learned what a ,japanese garden is1 ,i can remember our costliest and most elaborate gardens at home only as ignorant displays of what wealth can accomplish in the creation of incongruities that violate nature4 ,the ,japanese artist who is called upon to design a new garden will first examine the site1 and confer with his patron regarding its proposed size and character4 ,if the site be large1 and already furnished with natural hills1 trees and water1 the gardener will1 of course1 take advantage of these features4 ,if it possess none of them1 he will inquire the amount of money that can be placed at his disposal for the construction of artificial hills1 lakes and the like2 and this amount of money will also determine another important point1 namely1 the degree of elaboration with which the whole is to be treated4 ,for all works of ,japanese art whatsoever are rigorously divided into three styles1 the rough style1 the finished style and the intermediate style2 and the adoption of any one style governs the degree of elaboration to which any part of the design may be carried4 ,if the rough style is chosen1 even the smallest accessory detail--a rustic well1 or a stone lantern--must be rude to harmonize2 if the finished style1 no detail that does not correspond can be admitted1--a restriction greatly conducive to harmony1 and one to which the almost invariable congruity and unity of ,japanese compositions is due4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii ,,daimio ,,of ,,satsuma',s ,,garden1 ,,kagoshima ,knowing1 then1 the size and character of the site1 and his patrons' wishes as to expense and elaboration1 the landscape gardener will next choose the model landscape1 or landscapes1 upon which he is to base his design4 ,he will find them divided by convention into two classes3 those representing ,hill ,gardens and ,flat ,gardens4 7,there is a third class1 the ,tea ,garden1 but as this is of a separate genus altogether1 it will be considered later47 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,garden1 ,,fukagawa ,showing some important features of arrangement close to a dwelling1--the water basin with its rock-hidden drain1 the lantern1 with its fire-box partially concealed by the trained branches of the pine tree4 ,the ,hill ,garden class is the more elaborate of the two1 and that best adapted for large gardens1 and for those where the natural site is undulating1 or where money can be spent in artificial grading4 ,the ,hill ,garden has many different species1 such1 for instance1 as the ,rocky-ocean style1 which represents in general an inlet of the sea surrounded by high cliffs1 the shores spread with white sea-sand1 scattered with sea rocks and grown upon with pine trees trained to look as if bent and distorted with the sea wind2 or the ,wide-river style1 showing a spreading stream issuing from behind a hill and running into a lake2 or the ,reed-marsh style1 in which the hills are low1 rounded sand dunes bordering a heath or moor in which lies a marshy pool overgrown with rushes2 and many other such styles1 all well recognized1 all carefully discriminated and all modelled upon actual landscapes4 ,in any case1 however1 the true ,hill ,garden must present1 in combination1 mountain or hill1 and water scenery4 ,if on the contrary the site be small and flat1 and the garden is to be less elaborate1 the ,flat style is usually chosen4 ,the ,flat ,garden is generally supposed to represent either the floor of a mountain valley1 a moor1 a rural scene1 or the like2 and as in the case of ,hill ,gardens1 there are a number of well recognized and classical examples4 ,having1 then1 determined that the garden is to be of one of these types1 and having also determined the degree of elaboration with which it is to be treated1 the gardener will next proceed to fix the scale upon which it is to be constructed1--and this scale 7a most important factor7 is decided by the size of the garden area1 and the number of features which must be introduced into the scene2 for it is clear that if the site be large1 and one in which natural hills or large bodies of water are already present1 the scale will be a normal one2 whereas if a whole valley1 with hills1 a river1 a water-fall1 a lake and a wooded slope is to be presented in a space of some fifty or sixty square yards1 the scale of the whole must be miniature4 ,but whatever scale is adopted1 every tree1 every rock1 every pool1 every accessory detail must be made exactly to correspond to it4 ,a hill that might in a large garden be a natural elevation of considerable size1 with full sized trees planted upon it1 might in a smaller one modelled after the same design1 be only a hillock1 planted with dwarfed trees or shrubs2 or in a still smaller area become only a clump of thick-leaved bushes trimmed to resemble a hill-shape1 or even a large boulder flanked by tiny shrubs4 ,so skilfully and completely do ,japanese gardeners carry out any scale that they have determined upon1 however1 that ,mr4 ,hearn describes a garden of not much above thirty yards square1 that when viewed through a window from which the garden alone was visible1 seemed to be really an actual and natural landscape seen from a distance1--a perfect illusion4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv ,,merchant',s ,,garden1 ,,awomori ,having determined upon the natural model and the scale for it1 the gardener will begin by imitating on the given site the main natural land conformations of his original1 building hills or grading slopes1 excavating lake basins and cutting river channels4 ,these natural features he will next proceed to elaborate1 and it is in this process of elaboration that he must most carefully observe all those complex laws and conventions to which we have before alluded4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,a ,,merchant',s ,,villa ,,garden1 ,,fukagawa ,showing some characteristic garden accessories1--stepping-stones1 a lantern1 a common variety of bamboo fence4 ,the lantern and plum tree conventionally mark the approach to a little shrine reached through a ,shinto archway by means of a row of stepping-stones4 ,almost every ,japanese garden1 be it hilly or flat1 large or small1 rough or elaborate1 must be made to contain1 in some form1 water1 rocks and vegetation1 as well as such architectural accessories as bridges1 pagodas1 lanterns1 water-basins1 stepping-stones and boundary fences or hedges4 ,water may be made to present the sea1 lakes1 rivers1 brooks1 water-falls1 springs1 or combinations of them4 ,it is not1 of course1 possible to imitate the open sea with any degree of realism2 and when a coast scene is presented1 it is customary to fashion the body of water as an ocean inlet1 the supposed juncture with the sea being hidden by a cliff or hill4 ,lake scenes are much more common4 ,there are six classical shapes into which lake forms are divided1 some of them more formal for use near buildings1 others more natural for use in wilder landscapes4 ,it is an axiom that every lake1 or pool1 or stream represented must have both its source and outlet indicated4 ,sometimes the inflow is indicated by a stream issuing from behind a hillock which conceals its artificial source1 sometimes a deep pool of clear water may suggest a spring1 sometimes a water-fall 7at least ten individual and distinct forms of water-fall are recognized as admissible into a properly planned garden7 supplies the water2 but water showing no inflow or outlet is termed dead water1 and is regarded with the contempt bestowed upon all shams and falsities in art4 ,in cases where it is impossible to introduce actual water into a garden its presence is often imitated by areas of smooth or rippled sand1 the banks of the sand bed treated to simulate the banks of a natural lake or stream1 and islands and bridges introduced to further the illusion4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv ,,shirase-,,no-,,niwa1 ,,niigata ,extreme importance is attached to the use in gardens of natural stones1 rocks and boulders2 and some teachers of the craft go so far as to maintain that they constitute the skeleton of the design1 and that their proper disposition and selection should receive the primary consideration4 ,in large gardens there may be as many as one hundred and thirty-eight principal rocks and stones1 each having its special name and function2 but in smaller ones as few as five rocks will often suffice4 ,whatever the style of landscape composition1 three stones1 the ,guardian ,stone1 the ,stone of ,worship1 and the ,stone of the ,two ,deities must never be dispensed with1 their absence being regarded as inauspicious4 ,on the same principle there are certain stone forms which are considered unlucky1 and are therefore invariably avoided4 ,the raised parts of a ,japanese garden are supposed to represent the nearer eminences or distant mountains of natural scenery1 and the stones which adorn them are intended to imitate either minor undulations and peaks1 or rocks or boulders on their slopes4 ,in like manner there are no less than twenty water stones1 which have their places in lake and river scenery1 as well as nine varieties of cascade stones alone4 ,there are also sixteen stones which have their functions solely in the adornment of islands4 ,after the contours of land and water and the principal rocks and stones have been arranged1 the distribution of garden vegetation is considered2 for the garden rocks form only the skeleton of the design and are only complete when embellished with vegetation4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,arrangements ,,of ,,stones ,,with ,,foliage ,in the grounds of the larger temples1 avenues and groves of trees are planted with the same formality adopted in ,western gardens1 but in true landscape gardening such formal arrangements are never resorted to4 ,indeed it is an axiom that when several trees are planted together they should never be placed in rows1 but always in open and irregular groups4 ,the rules for planting the clumps are rigidly determined2 and these clumps may be disposed in double1 triple or quadruple combinations1 while these combinations may be again regrouped according to recognized rules based upon contrasts of form1 line and color of foliage4 ,occasionally1 when it is the designer's purpose to represent a natural forest or woodland1 formulas are1 of course1 disregarded1 and the trees are grouped together irregularly4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,varieties ,,of ,,garden ,,lantern ,the architectural accessories of the ,japanese garden1--bridges1 pagodas1 lanterns1 water-basins1 wells and boundary fences or hedges1 we have no space to consider in detail4 ,it must suffice to say that their use is rather ornamental than to aid in the landscape imitation1 and that they are generally placed in the foreground of the scene4 ,there are many beautiful designs for each of them1 and their use and disposition is formally regulated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi ,,public ,,garden ,,of ,,shuzenji1 ,,kumamato ,important accessories in the ,japanese garden are ,stepping-,stones4 ,turf is not used in the open spaces1 but these are spread with sand1 either pounded smooth or raked into elaborate patterns4 ,this sand1 kept damp at all times1 presents a cool and fresh surface1 and to preserve its smoothness1 which the marks of the ,japanese wooden clogs would sadly mar1 a pathway is invariably constructed across such areas with stones called stepping-stones1 or flying stones as they are occasionally termed1 on account of the supposed resemblance in their composition to the order taken by a flight of birds4 ,in the simpler and smaller gardens such stones form one of the principal features of the design4 ,as nothing could be less artistic than a formal arrangement of stones at regular intervals1 not to speak of the difficulty of keeping one's balance while walking upon them1 the ,japanese gardener therefore uses certain special stones and combinations having definite shapes and dimensions1 the whole being arranged with a studied irregularity4 ,the sketch on this page exhibits three typical arrangements4 ,the left hand group shows stepping-stones as arranged to lead from a tea room4 ,the centre group shows stepping-stones combined with a pedestal stone which marks the point from which a typical cross view in the garden is to be observed4 ,the right hand group shows the stones near a veranda with a shoe-removing stone terminating the series4 ,illustration3 ,,arrangements ,,of ,,stepping-,,stones ,a third main type of garden1 neither ,flat nor ,hilly1 to which we have before referred1 properly speaking1 is called the ,tea ,garden4 ,tea ,gardens are used for the performance of the tea ceremony1 and to explain the principle of its design would require a preliminary explanation of the intricacies of that ceremony itself1 to which an entire volume might easily be devoted4 ,a most cursory indication of the principal use and requirements must here suffice4 ,tea ,gardens are divided into outer and inner inclosures separated by a rustic fence4 ,the outermost inclosure contains a main entrance gate1 and behind this there is often a small building in which it is sometimes the custom to change the clothing before attending the ceremony4 ,the outer inclosure also contains a picturesque open arbor1 called the ,waiting ,shed1 which plays an important part in tea ceremonies1 for here the guests adjourn at stated intervals to allow of fresh preparations being made in the tiny tea room4 ,the tea room is entered from the garden through a low door1 about two and one-half feet square1 placed in the outer wall and raised two feet from the ground1 through which the guests are obliged to pass in a bending posture indicative of humility and respect4 ,the rustic well forms an important feature of the inner garden1 as do the principal lantern and the water-basin4 ,a portion of the inner inclosure of a ,tea ,garden in the ,tamagawa1 or ,winding-river style1 showing the stream1 bridge1 lantern1 water-basin1 and an arrangement of stones1 including the indispensable ,guardian ,stone1 is represented in the drawing on this page4 ,all these separate features are connected1 according to very rigid principles1 by stepping-stones which make meandering routes between them1 and form the skeleton of the whole design4 ,illustration3 ,,inner ,,inclosure ,,of ,a ,,tea ,,garden1 ,,tamagawa ,,style ,we can1 perhaps1 no better summarize this necessarily sketchy review of a complex subject1 than by reproducing here1 from ,professor ,conder's very elaborate monograph1 ,landscape ,gardening in ,japan1 7,tokio1 #ahic7--;from which most of the information in this article has been derived1 and to which the student of the subject is referred1--a figured model of an ordinary ,hill ,garden in the finished style4 ,the numbers refer to the titles of the principal hills1 stones1 tree clumps and accessories1 the positions of which are all relatively established by rule4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii ,,daimio ,,of ,,mito',s ,,garden1 ,,honjo ,illustration3 ,,figured ,,model ,,of ,,an ,,ordinary ,,hill ,,garden ,,in ,,the ,,finished ,,style ,,hills3 #a1 ,near ,mountain4 #b1 ,companion ,mountain4 #c1 ,mountain ,spur4 #d1 ,near ,hill4 #e1 ,distant ,peak4 ,,stones3 #a1 ,guardian ,stone4 #b1 ,cliff ,stone4 #c1 ,worshipping ,stone4 #d1 ,view ,stone4 #e1 ,waiting ,stone4 #f1 ,moon-,shadow ,stone4 #g1 ,cave ,stone4 #h1 ,seat of ,honor ,stone4 #i1 ,pedestal ,stone4 #aj1 ,idling ,stone4 ,,trees3 #a1 ,principal ,tree4 #b1 ,view ,perfecting ,tree4 #c1 ,tree of ,solitude4 #d1 ,cascade-,screening ,tree4 #e1 ,tree of ,setting ,sun4 #f1 ,distancing ,pine4 #g1 ,stretching ,pine4 ,,accessories3 ,a1 ,garden ,well4 ,b1 ,lantern4 ,c1 ,garden ,gate4 ,d1 ,boarded ,bridge4 ,e1 ,plank ,bridge4 ,f1 ,stone ,bridge4 ,g1 ,water ,basin4 ,h1 ,lantern1 ,i1 ,garden ,shrine4 ,hill #a represents a mountain of considerable size in the middle distance1 in front of which should be placed the cascade which feeds the lake2 while ,hills #b and #c are its companions1 the depressions between them being planted with shrubs giving the idea of a sheltered dale4 ,hill #e represents a distant peak in the perspective4 ,the model shows ten important stones4 ,the ,guardian ,stone1 #a1 representing the dedication stone of the garden1 occupies the most central position in the background1 and in this case forms the flank of the cliff over which the cascade pours4 ,the broad flat ,worshipping ,stone1 #c1 indicating the place for worship1 is placed in the foreground1 or some open space4 ,the ,moon-,shadow ,stone1 #f1 occupies an important position in the distant hollow between two hills and in front of the distant peak1 its name implying the sense of indistinctness and mystery attached to it4 ,the term tree as used in the diagram often refers to an arrangement or clump of trees4 ,the ,principal ,tree1 #a1 is placed in the centre of the background1 and is usually a large and striking specimen4 ,the ,view ,perfecting ,tree1 #b1 generally stands alone1 and its shape is carefully trained to harmonize with the foreground accessories4 ,the ,tree of ,solitude1 #c1 is a group to afford a shady resting place4 ,the ,tree of the ,setting ,sun1 #e1 is planted in the western part of the garden to intercept the direct rays of the sunset4 ,the titles of the other features in the model will probably be found self explanatory4 ,errata4 ,by an unfortunate misprint in the preceding issue of ,,the ,,brochure ,,series1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,d4 ,f4 ,hamlin1 author of the article on the ,ten ,most ,beautiful ,buildings in the ,united ,states1 was announced as ,professor of ,architecture in ,cornell ,university1 instead of in ,columbia ,university4 ,mr4 ,hamlin's correct title is3 ,adjunct-,professor of ,architecture1 ,columbia ,university4 ,in the same issue 7page #ae71 it was stated that the terraces and approaches to the ,capitol at ,washington were the work of ,mr4 ,edward ,clark4 ,this was an error3 they were designed by ,mr4 ,frederick ,law ,olmstead1 and elaborated by ,mr4 ,thomas ,wisedell under ,mr4 ,olmstead's supervision4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii ,,daimio',s ,,garden1 ,,kanazawa ,transcriber's ,note3 ,small capitals have been rendered in full capitals4 ,a number of minor spelling errors have been corrected without note4