,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,tru? ,,by ,h4 ,,wildon ,,c>r ,,honor>y ,d4,,litt41 ,,durham ,,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack #fg ,,long ,,acre1 ,w4,c41 ,,& ,,ed9burgh ,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge ,,publi%+ ,,co4 v ,,preface ,a problem ( philosophy is completely diff]5t f a problem ( sci5ce4 ,9 sci5ce we accept our subject-matt] z x is pres5t$ 9 unanalys$ exp]i5ce2 9 philosophy we exam9e ! fir/ pr9ciples & ultimate que/ions t conc]n consci\s exp]i5ce itself4 ,! problem ( tru? is a problem ( philosophy4 ,x is n a problem ( m]ely hi/orical int]e/1 b a pres5t problem--a liv+ controv]sy1 ! issue ( :i* is undecid$4 ,its pres5t int]e/ may be said to c5tre r\nd ! doctr9e ( pragmatism1 :i* "s fifte5 ye>s ago began to *all5ge ! g5]ally accept$ pr9ciples ( philosophy4 ,9 exp\nd+ ?is problem ( tru?1 my ma9 purpose has be5 to make cle> to ! read] ! nature ( a problem ( philosophy & to disclose ! secret ( its int]e/4 ,my book presumes no previ\s /udy ( philosophy nor special k ( its problems4 ,! !ories t ,i h %[n 9 conflict on ?is "q are1 ea* ( !m1 held by "s ( ! lead]s ( philosophy4 ,9 pres5t+ !m1 !re=e1 ,i h tri$ to let ! full dialectical =ce ( ! argum5t appe>4 ,i h indicat$ my own view1 t ! direction 9 :i* ! solution lies is 9 ! new conception ( life & ! !ory ( k giv5 to u 9 ! philosophy ( ,b]gson4 ,if ,i am "r1 ! solution is n1 l pragmatism1 a doctr9e ( ! nature ( tru?1 b a !ory ( k 9 :i* vi ! dilemma 9 reg>d to tru? does n arise4 ,b1 z always 9 philosophy1 ! solution ( "o problem is ! em]g5ce ( ano!r4 ,!re is no f9ality4 ,my grateful ackn[l$gm5t is due to my fri5d ,pr(essor ,s4 ,alex&]1 :o k9dly read my manuscript & assi/$ me ) mo/ valuable sugge/ions1 & also to my fri5d ,dr4 ,t4 ,p]cy ,nunn = a simil> s]vice4 ,h4 ,,wildon ,,c>r4 vii ,,cont5ts ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,physics ,,& ,,metaphysics ,,ii4 ,,appe>ance ,,& ,,reality ,,iii4 ,,! ,,logical ,,!ories ,,iv4 ,,! ,,absolute ,v4 ,,pragmatism ,,vi4 ,,utility ,,vii4 ,,illusion ,,viii4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,error ,,ix4 ,,conclusion ,,bibliography ,,index #i ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,tru? ,,*apt] ,i ,,physics ,,& ,,metaphysics ,! progress ( physical sci5ce leads to ! cont9ual discov]y ( complexity 9 :at is fir/ appreh5d$ z simple4 ,! atom ( hydrog51 s long accept$ z ! ideal limit ( simplicity1 is n[ suspect$ to be n ! l[e/ unit 9 ! scale ( elem5ts1 & x is no long] conceiv$1 z x us$ to be1 z /ructureless1 b z an individual sy/em1 comp>able to a sol> sy/em1 ( electrical compon5ts pres]v+ an equilibrium probably only tempor>y4 ,! same t5d5cy to discov] complexity 9 :at is fir/ appreh5d$ z simple is evid5t 9 ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,! m our simple & ord9>y notions are submitt$ to analysis1 ! m are pr(\nd problems br\ght to consci\sness4 ,x is impossible to ?9k t we d n "k :at su* an ord9>y1 simple notion z t ( tru? is2 yet ! attempt to give a def9ition ( its mean+ br+s q unexpect$ difficulties to light1 & ! wide/ div]g5ce at ! pres5t "t betwe5 rival pr9ciples ( philosophical int]pretation is 9 reg>d to a !ory ( ! nature ( tru?4 ,x is n a problem t is press$ on u by any felt ne$1 nor is anyone :o does n feel its int]e/ call$ ^u to occupy himself ) x4 ,we speak our language be=e we "k its #aj gramm>1 & we reason j z well :e!r we h le>nt ! sci5ce ( logic or n4 ,?is sci5ce ( ,logic1 or1 z x is sometimes call$1 ( ,=mal ,logic1 01 until mod]n times1 reg>d$ z a q simple acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples t gov]n ! ex]cise ( our reason+ faculty1 & ( ! rules f\nd$ on ^? pr9ciples by foll[+ :i* tru? 0 atta9$ & false op9ion or error avoid$4 ,x 0 call$ =mal because x 0 suppos$ to h no relation to ! matt] ( ! subject reason$ ab\t1 b only to ! =m :i* ! reason+ mu/ take4 ,a complete acc\nt ( ?is =mal sci5ce1 z x 0 recognis$ & accept$ = _m ages1 might easily h be5 set =? )9 ! limits ( a small volume su* z ?is4 ,b ! developm5t ( mod]n philosophy has wr\ght an extraord9>y *ange4 ,anyone n[ :o w set himself ! task ( ma/]+ all ! problems t h be5 rais$ r\nd ! "q ( ! nature ( logical process1 w f9d himself confront$ ) a va/ libr>y ( special treatises1 & involv$ 9 discussions t embrace ! :ole ( philosophy4 ,! special problem ( tru? t x is ! object ( ?is little volume to expla9 is a q mod]n "q4 ,x has be5 rais$ )9 ! pres5t g5]ation ( philosophical writ]s1 & is to-day1 p]haps1 ! *ief controv]sy 9 :i* philosoph]s are engag$4 ,b al?\gh x is only 9 ! la/ few ye>s t controv]sy has be5 ar\s$ on ?is "q1 ! problem is n new--x is inde$ z old z philosophy itself4 ,9 ! fif? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 & 9 ! g5]ation t imm$iately prec$$ ,socrates1 a fam\s philosoph]1 ,protagoras 7#dha-daa ,b4,c47 publi%$ a book ) ! title ,! ,tru?4 ,he _h ! mis=tune1 common at t "t1 to (f5d ! religi\s ,a!nians1 #aa = he spoke slight+ly ( ! gods1 propos+ to bani% _! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce f writ+ & spee*4 ,he 0 convict$ ( a!ism1 & 8 books 7 publicly burnt1 & he himself1 !n sev5ty ye>s ( age1 0 ei!r bani%$ or at lea/ 0 oblig$ to flee f ,a!ns1 & on 8 way to ,sicily he lo/ 8 life 9 a %ipwreck4 ,our k ( ?is book ( ,protagoras is due to ! pres]vation ( its argum5t by ,plato 9 ! dialogue ,!tetus4 ,protagoras1 we are !re told1 taught t man is ! measure ( all ?+s--( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s t are1 & ( ! non-exi/5ce ( ?+s t are n4 ,y h read him8 asks ,socrates1 address+ ,!tetus4 ,oh yes1 aga9 & aga91 is ,!tetus' reply4 ,plato 0 entirely oppos$ to ! doctr9e t ,protagoras taught4 ,x seem$ to him to br+ gods & m5 & tadpoles to "o level z f> z tru? 0 conc]n$2 = he drew ! d$uction t if man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 !n to ea* man 8 own op9ion is "r4 ,plato oppos$ to x ! !ory t tru? is ! vision ( a pure objective reality4 ,?is same problem t ex]cis$ ! anci5t _w is n[ aga9 a *ief c5tre ( philosophical int]e/1 & ! aim ( ?is little book is n to decide t "q1 b to s]ve z a guide & introduction to ^? :o desire to "k :at ! "q is t divides philosoph]s to-day into ! ho/ile camps ( pragmatism & intellectualism4 ,! subject is n likely to int]e/ anyone :o does n c>e = ! /udy ( ! exact def9itions & ab/ract pr9ciples t lie at ! basis ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,!re are _m :o are engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ! physical & natural sci5ces1 & also _m :o devote !mselves to ! social & political #ab sci5ces1 :o hold 9 pr(\nd contempt ! f9e di/9ctions & intellectual subtleties t seem to !m ! :ole cont5t ( logic & metaphysic4 ,! attitude ( ! sci5tific m9d is n difficult to und]/&4 ,x has rec5tly be5 r graphically express$ by a di/+ui%$ & popul> expon5t ( ! pr9ciples ( natural sci5ce4 ,"o may reg>d ! utmo/ possibilities ( ! results ( human k z ! cont5ts ( a bracket1 & place outside ! bracket ! factor x to repres5t ^? unkn[n & unkn[able possibilities :i* ! imag9ation ( man is nev] we>i$ ( sugge/+4 ,?is factor x is ! play?+ ( ! metaphysician4#a ,?is ma!matical symbol ( ! bracket1 multipli$ by x to repres5t ! unkn[n & unkn[able possibilities beyond x1 w s]ve me to indicate ) "s exactness ! problem ) :i* ,i am go+ to deal4 ,! symbol is an expression ( ! agno/ic position4 ,! popul> c>icature ( ! metaphysician & 8 play?+ we may disreg>d z a pure fiction4 ,! unkn[able x ( ! agno/ic is n ! meta or beyond ( physics :i* ! metaphysician va9ly seeks to "k4 ,! only beyond ( physics is consci\sness or exp]i5ce itself1 & ?is is ! subject-matt] ( metaphysics4 ,our pres5t problem is t ( ! bracket1 n t ( ! factor outside1 if !re is any su* factor1 nor yet ! p>ticul> nature ( ! cont5ts )94 ,!re are1 z we %all see1 ?ree views t are possible ( ! nature ( ! bracket4 ,9 "o view1 x is m]ely ! conception ( ! ext5t :i* k has atta9$ or c atta92 x has no intimate relation to ! k1 b m>ks ext]nally its limit4 ,?is is ! view ( ! reali/4 ,9 ano!r view1 ! :ole ( k is intimately relat$ #ac to its p>ticul> p>ts2 ! ?+s we "k are n a m]e collection or aggregate ( indep5d5t facts t we h discov]$2 ! bracket :i* conta9s our k gives =m to x1 & relates organically ! dep5d5t p>ts to ! :ole 9 "o compreh5sive individual sy/em4 ,?is is ! view ( ! ideali/4 ,!re is yet ano!r view3 human k is relative to human activity & its ne$s2 ! bracket is ! ev]-*ang+ limit ( t activity--)9 x is all t is relevant to human purpose & p]sonality )\t x is all t is irrelevant4 ,?is is ! view ( ! pragmati/4 ,x is n only ! sci5tific m9d1 b also ! e?ical & religi\s m9d1 t is likely to be at lea/ impati5t1 if n contemptu\s1 ( ?is inquiry4 ,! "q ,:at is tru?8 w probably br+ to ev]yone's m9d ! words utt]$ by a ,roman ,procurator at ! supreme mom5t ( a great _w-trag$y4 ,pilate's "q is usually int]pret$ z ! cynical je/ ( a judge indiff]5t to ! significance ( ! great cause he 0 try+--! expression ( ! belief t !re is no revelation ( spiritual tru? ( ! highe/ importance = our human nature1 or at lea/ t !re is no infallible te/ by :i* x c be kn[n4 ,x is n ?is problem ( tru? t we are n[ to discuss4 ,!re are1 on ! o!r h&1 _m m9ds t c nev] re/ satisfi$ :ile !y h accept$ only1 & n exam9$1 ! assumptions ( sci5ce & ! values ( social & political & religi\s ideals4 ,_! que/ ( fir/ pr9ciples may appe> to m practical natures a h>mless amusem5t or a useless wa/e ( intellectual en]gy2 b !y are respond+ to a deep ne$ ( our human nature1 a ne$ t1 x may be1 is 9 its v nature insatiable--! ne$ ( intellectual satisfaction4 ,x is #ad ! nature ( ?is intellectual satisfaction itself t is our problem ( tru?4 ,!re are !re=e two attitudes t[>ds ! problem ( tru? & reality--t ( ! m9d :i* br+s a practical te/ to e "q1 & t ( ! m9d re/less to ga9 by insight or by speculation a clue to ! my/]y t en%r\ds ! mean+ ( exi/5ce4 ,! fir/ attitude seems peculi>ly to *>act]ise ! man ( sci5ce1 :o delights to ?9k t ! problem ( reality is simple & op5 to ! meane/ und]/&+4 ,betwe5 ! pla9 man's view & t ( ! man ( high atta9m5t 9 sci5tific rese>* !re is = him only a diff]5ce ( degree1 & sci5ce seems almo/ to require an apology if x does n directly enl>ge our comm& ov] nature4 ,x w\ld expla9 life & consci\sness z ! result ( *emical comb9ation ( mat]ial elem5ts4 ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! in/9ctive feel+ t ! secret ( ! univ]se is n op5 & reveal$ to ! pla9 man guid$ by common-s5se exp]i5ce alone1 ev5 if to ?is exp]i5ce be add$ ! highe/ atta9m5ts ( sci5tific rese>*4 ,ei!r !re is f> m 9 matt] ?an is conta9$ 9 ! ?ree-dim5sional space x occupies1 or else ! univ]se mu/ owe its developm5t to some?+ beyond matt]4 ,! univ]se mu/ seem a poor ?+ inde$ to a man :o c ?9k t physical sci5ce does or c lay b>e its mean+4 ,x is ! int5se desire to cat* "s glimpse ( its mean+ t leads ! philosoph] to /rive to transc5d ! actual _w by foll[+ ! speculative b5t ( ! reason+ p[] t 8 intellectual nature makes possible4 #a ,sir ,kay ,lanke/]4 #ae ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,appe>ance ,,& ,,reality ,our consci\s life is "o unceas+ *ange4 ,f ! fir/ awak5+ ( consci\sness to ! actual pres5t1 no "o mom5t has be5 ! m]e repetition ( ano!r1 & ! mom5ts :i* z we look back seem to h made up our life are n sep>able elem5ts ( x b our own divisions ( a *ange t has be5 cont9u\s4 ,& z x has be51 s we "k x w be until consci\sness ceases ) dea?4 ,consci\sness & life are 9 ?is respect "o & ! same1 al?\gh :5 we speak ( our consci\sness we ?9k *iefly ( a passive receptivity1 & :5 we speak ( our life we ?9k ( an activity4 ,consci\sness z ! unity ( kn[+ & act+ is a becom+4 ,! pa/ is n left beh9d1 x is ) u 9 ! =m ( memory2 ! future is n a pr$et]m9$ ord] :i* only a natural disability prev5ts u f kn[+1 x is yet uncreat$2 consci\s life is ! endur+ pres5t :i* gr[s ) ! pa/ & makes ! future4 ,?is reality ( consci\sness is our cont9ually *ang+ exp]i5ce4 ,b !re is also ano!r reality ) :i* x seems to be 9 necess>y relation & also 9 complete contra/--?is is ! reality ( ! mat]ial or physical univ]se4 ,! _w ( physical reality seems to be compos$ ( a matt] t _c *ange 9 a space t is absolutely un*angeable4 ,?is physical _w seems made up ( solid ?+s1 =m$ out ( matt]4 ,*ange 9 physical sci5ce is only a re>rangem5t ( matt] or an alt]ation ( position 9 space4 ,?is physical reality is n1 z psy*ical reality is1 #af kn[n to u directly2 x is an int]pretation ( our s5se exp]i5ce4 ,imm$iate exp]i5ce has objects1 g5]ally call$ s5se data4 ,^! objects are :at we actually see 9 s5sations ( sight1 :at we actually he> 9 s5sations ( s\nd1 & s on2 & !y lead u to suppose or inf] physical objects--t is1 objects t d n dep5d ^u our exp]i5ce = _! exi/5ce1 b ^: exi/5ce is ! cause ( our hav+ ! exp]i5ce4 ,! process by :i* we inf] ! nature ( ! ext]nal _w f our felt exp]i5ce is logical4 ,x includes p]ceiv+1 conceiv+1 ?9k+ or reason+4 ,! object ( ! logical process1 ! aim or ideal to :i* x seeks to atta91 is tru?4 ,k ( reality is tru?4 ,!re are !re=e two realities1 ! reality ( our felt exp]i5ce f :i* all ?9k+ sets out1 & ! reality :i* 9 ?9k+ we seek to "k4 ,! "o reality is imm$iate2 x is consci\s exp]i5ce itself4 ,! o!r reality is t :i* we inf] f ! fact ( exp]i5ce1 t by :i* we seek to expla9 our exi/5ce4 ,! "o we feel1 ! o!r we ?9k4 ,if ! diff]5ce betwe5 imm$iate k & m$iate k or inf]5ce lay 9 ! feel+ ( c]ta9ty alone or 9 ! nature ( belief1 ! di/9ction w\ld n be ! difficult "o t x is4 ,! !ories ( idealism & realism %[ h[ widely philosoph]s are divid$ on ! subject4 ,we are q z c]ta9 ( "s ( ! ?+s t we c only inf] z we are ( ! ?+s ( :i* we are imm$iately aw>e4 ,we _c d\bt1 = in/ance1 t !re are o!r p]sons besides ourselves1 yet we c h no di/9ct k ( any consci\sness b "o--our own4 ,our k t !re are o!r m9ds is an inf]5ce f our obs]vation ( ! behavi\r ( "s ( ! ?+s we #ag directly exp]i5ce1 & f ! exp]i5ce ( our own consci\sness4 ,& ev5 ^? ?+s :i* seem 9 direct relation to u--! ?+s we see1 or he>1 or t\*--are imm$iately pres5t 9 only a v small1 p]haps an inf9itesimal1 "p ( :at we "k & ?9k ( z _! full reality2 all b ?is small "p is inf]r$4 ,f a mom5t>y s5sation ( sight1 or s\nd1 or t\* we inf] reality t f> exce$s any?+ actually giv5 to u by ! s5sation4 ,?9k+ is que/ion+ exp]i5ce4 ,:5 our att5tion is sudd5ly attract$ by some?+--a fla% ( light1 or a s\nd1 or a tw+e ( pa9--consci\sly or unconsci\sly we say to ourself1 ,:at is t8 ,! t--a simple felt exp]i5ce--conta9s a mean+1 br+s a message1 & we ask :at8 ,we di/+ui% ! exi/5ce z an appe>ance1 & we seek to "k ! reality4 ,! que/ ( ! reality :i* is made kn[n to u by ! appe>ance is ! logical process ( ?\ght4 ,! end or purpose ( ?is logical process is to replace ! imm$iate reality ( ! felt exp]i5ce ) a m$iat$-reality--t is1 a reality made kn[n to u4 ,directly1 !re=e1 t we beg9 to ?9k1 ! imm$iately pres5t exi/5ce becomes an appe>ance1 & ?r\gh\t ! developm5t ( our ?\ght x is tak5 to be some?+ t requires explanation4 ,we seek to discov] ! reality :i* w expla9 x4 ,x is 9 ?is di/9ction ( appe>ance & reality t ! problem ( tru? arises4 ,x does n dep5d ^u any p>ticul> !ory ( k4 ,! same fact is recognis$ by ideali/s & by reali/s4 ,idealism may d5y t ! k ( indep5d5t reality is possible2 realism may insi/ t x is impli$ 9 ! v fact ( consci\sness itself--:i*ev] is "r1 ! reality :i* ?9k+ br+s be=e ! m9d is q #ah unlike & ( a diff]5t ord] to t :i* we imm$iately exp]i5ce 9 feel+4 ,& ev5 if we "k no?+ ( philosophy1 if we are ignorant ( all !ories ( k & ?9k ( ! nature ( k simply f ! /&po9t ( ! natural man1 ! fact is ess5tially ! same--! true reality ( ?+s is some?+ conceal$ f outw>d view1 some?+ to be f\nd out by sci5ce or by practical wisdom4 ,our k ( ?is reality may be true1 9 ?is case only is x k2 or x may be false1 9 :i* case x is n k b op9ion or error4 ,! reality !n1 ! k ( :i* is tru?1 is n ! imm$iate reality ( feel+ b ! inf]r$ reality ( ?\ght4 ,to h any intelligible mean+1 ! affirmation t k is true supposes t !re already exi/s a di/9ction betwe5 k & ! reality kn[n1 betwe5 ! be+ & ! kn[+ ( t :i* is kn[n4 ,9 imm$iate k1 9 actual consci\s felt exp]i5ce !re is no su* di/9ction1 & !re=e to affirm tru? or error ( su* k is unmean+4 ,i _c h a too?a*e )\t kn[+ t ,i h x4 ,9 ! actual felt too?a*e kn[+ & be+ are n only insep>able--!y are indi/+ui%able4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ,i ?9k ( my too?a*e z "p ( an indep5d5t ord] ( reality1 my k ( x may be true or false4 ,i am !n ?9k+ ( x z ! effect ( an expos$ n]ve1 or ( an abscess or ( an inflammation--z some?+1 t is to say1 t is condition$ indep5d5tly ( my consci\sness & t w cease to exi/ :5 ! conditions are alt]$4 ,9 ! same way1 :5 ,i behold a l&scape1 ! blue expanse ( sky & v>iegat$ col\r ( ! l& :i* ,i actually exp]i5ce are n ei!r true or false1 !y are imm$iate exp]i5ce 9 #ai :i* kn[+ is be+ & be+ is kn[+4 ,tru? & error only apply to ! int]pretation ( t exp]i5ce1 to ! indep5d5t reality t ,i inf] f x4 ,we c1 !n1 di/+ui% two k9ds ( k :i* we may call imm$iate & m$iate1 or1 bett] /ill1 acqua9tance & description4 ,accord+ly1 :5 we say t some?+ is1 or :5 we say ( any?+ t x if real1 we may mean ei!r ( two ?+s4 ,we may mean t x is "p ( ! *ang+ exi/5ce t we actually feel & t we call consci\sness or life1 or we may mean t x is "p ( an indep5d5t ord] ( ?+s ^: exi/5ce we ?9k ab\t 9 ord] to expla91 n :at our feel+ is 7!re c be no explanation ( ?is71 b h[ x comes to exi/4 ,we "k by description a va/ numb] ( ?+s ) :i* we nev] c be actually acqua9t$4 ,su*1 inde$1 is ! case ) all ! k by :i* we rule our lives & conceive ! reality :i* environs u4 ,yet we are absolutely dep5d5t on ! reality we "k by acqua9tance = all our k ( ^! ?+s4 ,n only is imm$iate s5se exp]i5ce & ! k x gives u by acqua9tance ! only evid5ce we h ( ! great] & wid] reality1 b we are dep5d5t on x = ! t]ms :]e) to describe x1 = ! =m 9 :i* to pres5t x1 = ! matt] ) :i* to compose x4 ,& ?is is ! real gr\nd ( ! /udy ( philosophy1 ! ju/ification ( its /&po9t4 ,x is ?is fact--?is ultimate und5iable fact--t all reality ( :atev] k9d & 9 :atev] way kn[n1 :e!r by ?\ght or by feel+1 :e!r x is p]ceiv$ or conceiv$1 rememb]$ or imag9$1 is 9 ! end compos$ ( s5se exp]i5ce3 x is ?is fact f :i* all ! problems ( philosophy arise4 ,x is ?is fact t our utilit>ian m5 ( sci5ce f9d #bj !mselves =c$ to recognise1 h[ev] scornful !y may be ( metaphysical me?ods & results4 ,! special problem ( ! nature ( tru? is conc]n$1 !n1 ) ! reality t we h di/+ui%$ z kn[n by description1 & conceiv$ by u z indep5d5t 9 its exi/5ce ( ! consci\sness by :i* we "k x4 ,:at is ! nature ( ! seal by :i* we /amp ?is k true8 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,logical ,,!ories ,:oev] c>es to become acqua9t$ ) ! difficulty ( ! problem ( tru? mu/ n be impati5t ( dialectical subtleties4 ,!re is a well-kn[n /ory 9 ,boswell's ,life ( ,dr4 ,johnson :i* relates h[ ! ,doctor refut$ ,b]keley's philosophy :i* affirm$ ! non-exi/5ce ( matt]4 ,i obs]v$1 says ,boswell1 t ?\gh we are satisfi$ 8 doctr9e is n true1 x is impossible to refute x4 ,i %all nev] =get ! alacrity ) :i* ,johnson answ]$1 /rik+ 8 foot ) mighty =ce aga9/ a l>ge /one1 till he reb\nd$ f x--',i refute x ?us4' ,dr4 ,johnson is ! repres5tative ( robu/ common s5se4 ,x has v (t5 turn$ out 9 metaphysical disputes t ! common-s5se answ] is ! "o t has be5 ju/ifi$ 9 ! end4 ,^? :o are impati5t ( metaphysics are1 !re=e1 n )\t reasonable gr\nd2 & inde$ ! /rong belief t ! common-s5se view w be ju/ifi$ 9 ! end1 h[ev] p[]ful ! sceptical d\bt t seems to contradict x1 h[ev] />tl+ ! p>adox t seems to be involv$ 9 x1 is a possession ( ! human m9d )\t :i* ! ord9>y #ba practical conduct ( life w\ld be impossible4 ,:51 !n1 we ask ourselves1 ,:at is tru?8 ! answ] seems to be simple & obvi\s4 ,tru?1 we reply1 is a prop]ty ( c]ta9 ( our ideas2 x means _! agreem5t1 z falsity means _! disagreem5t1 ) reality4 ,if ,i say ( any?+ t x is s1 !n1 if x is s1 :at ,i say is true2 if x is n s1 !n :at ,i say is false4 ,?is simple def9ition ( tru? is "o t is univ]sally accept$4 ,no "o really c d5y x1 = if he did he w\ld h no?+ to appeal to to ju/ify 8 own !ory or condemn ano!r4 ,! problem ( tru? is only rais$ :5 we ask1 ,:at does ! agreem5t ( an idea ) reality mean8 ,if ! read] w ask himself t "q1 & c>efully pond] x1 he w see t !re is "s difficulty 9 ! answ] to ! simple "q1 ,:at is tru?8 ,! answ] t w probably fir/ ( all sugge/ itself is t ! idea is a copy ( ! reality4 ,& at once _m exp]i5ces w seem to confirm ?is view4 ,?us :5 we look at a l&scape we "k t ! l9es ( light :i* radiate f e po9t ( x pass ?r\gh ! l5s ( ea* ( our eyes to be focuss$ on ! ret9a1 =m+ !re a small picture :i* is ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! reality4 ,if we look into ano!r p]son's eye we may see !re a picture ( ! :ole field ( 8 vision reflect$ f 8 l5s4 ,x is true t :at we see is n :at he sees1 = t is on 8 ret9a1 b ! analogy ( ?is ) a photographic cam]a1 :]e we see ! picture on ! gr\nd glass1 seems obvi\s & natural2 & s we ?9k ( k1 s f> z x dep5ds on ! s5se ( vision1 z consi/+ 9 m or less vivid1 m or less fad$1 copies ( real ?+s /or$ up by ! memory4 ,b a v little reflection w conv9ce u t ! tru? ( our ideas _c consi/ 9 ! fact #bb t !y are copies ( realities1 = cle>ly !y are n copies 9 any possible mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,take1 = example1 ?is v illu/ration ( see+ a l&scape3 :at we see is n a picture or copy ( ! l&scape1 b ! real l&scape itself4 ,we feel q sure ( ?is1 & ) reg>d to ! o!r s5sations1 ^? t come to u by he>+1 ta/e1 smell1 t\*1 x w\ld seem highly absurd to suppose t ! ideas ^! s5sations produce 9 u are copies ( real ?+s4 ,! pa9 ( burn+ is n a copy ( real fire1 & ! tru? ( ! judgm5t1 ,fire burns1 does n consi/ 9 ! fact t ! ideas d5ot$ by ! words fire1 burns1 fai?fully copy c]ta9 real ?+s :i* are n ideas4 ,& ! :ole notion is se5 to be absurd if we consid] t1 7 x a fact t real ?+s produce copies ( !mselves 9 our m9d1 we c\ld nev] "k x 0 s--all t we %\ld h any k ( w\ld be ! copies1 & :e!r ^! 7 l or unlike ! reality1 or inde$ :e!r !re 0 any reality = !m to be l w\ld1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 be unkn[able1 & we c\ld nev] ask ! "q4 ,if1 !n1 our ideas are n copies ( ?+s1 & if !re are ?+s z well z ideas ab\t ?+s1 x is q cle> t ! ideas mu/ correspond to ! ?+s 9 "s way t does n make !m copies ( ! ?+s4 ,! mo/ famili> in/ance ( correspond5ce is ! symbolism we use 9 ma!matics4 ,are our ideas ( ?is nature8 ,& is _! tru? _! correspond5ce8 ,is a p]fectly true idea "o 9 :i* !re exi/s a po9t to po9t correspond5ce to ! reality x repres5ts8 ,at once !re w occur to ! m9d a great numb] ( in/ances :]e ?is seems to be ! case4 ,a map ( ,engl& is n a copy ( ,engl& su* z1 = example1 a photograph might be if we 7 to imag9e x tak5 #bc f ! moon4 ,! correctness or ! tru? ( a map consi/s 9 ! correspond5ce betwe5 ! reality & ! diagram1 :i* is an arbitr>y sign ( x4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole ( our ord9>y life we f9d t we make use ( symbols & signs t are n !mselves ei!r p>ts ( or copies ( ! ?+s = :i* !y /&4 ,language itself is ( ?is nature1 & !re may be symbols ( symbols ( symbols ( real ?+s4 ,writt5 language is ! arbitr>y visual sign ( spok5 language1 & spok5 language is ! arbitr>y sign1 x may be1 ( an exp]i5c$ ?+ or ( an ab/ract idea4 ,is1 !n1 ?is prop]ty ( our ideas :i* we call tru? ! correspond5ce ( ideas ) _! objects1 & is falsity ! abs5ce ( ?is correspond5ce8 ,x _c be s4 ,to imag9e t ideas c correspond ) realities is to =get t ideas simply are ! k ( realities2 x is to slip into ! notion t we "k two k9ds ( diff]5t ?+s1 fir/ realities & secondly ideas1 & t we c comp>e toge!r ^! two sorts ( ?+s4 ,b x is at once evid5t t if we c\ld "k realities )\t ideas1 we %\ld nev] ne$ to h rec\rse to ideas4 ,x is simply ridicul\s to suppose t ! relation betwe5 consci\sness & reality :i* we call kn[+ is ! discov]y ( a correspond5ce betwe5 m5tal ideas & real ?+s4 ,! two ?+s t are relat$ toge!r 9 k are n ! idea & its object1 b ! m9d & its object4 ,! idea ( ! object is ! k ( ! object4 ,!re may be correspond5ce betwe5 ideas1 b n betwe5 ideas & indep5d5t ?+s1 = t supposes t ! m9d kn[s ! ideas & also kn[s ! ?+s & obs]ves ! correspond5ce betwe5 !m4 ,& ev5 if we suppose t ideas are an indep5d5t k9d ( entity di/+ui%able & sep>able f ano!r k9d #bd ( entity t =ms ! real _w1 h[ c\ld we "k t ! two correspond$1 = ! "o w\ld only be inf]r$ f ! o!r8 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a =m ( ! correspond5ce !ory ( tru? t is pres5t$ 9 a way :i* avoids ?is difficulty4 ,tru?1 x is said1 is conc]n$ n ) ! nature ( ?+s !mselves b ) our judgm5ts ab\t !m4 ,judgm5t is n conc]n$ ) ! t]ms t ent] into relation--^! are imm$iately exp]i5c$ & ultimate--b ) ! relations 9 :i* !y /& to "o ano!r4 ,?us1 :5 we say ,john is ! fa!r ( ,james1 ! tru? ( our judgm5t does n consi/ 9 ! adequacy ( our ideas ( ,john & ,james1 nor 9 ! correspond5ce ( our ideas ) ! realities1 b is conc]n$ only ) ! relation t is affirm$ to exi/ betwe5 !m4 ,?is relation is decl>$ to be indep5d5t ( or at lea/ ext]nal to ! t]ms1 &1 s f> z x is express$ 9 a judgm5t1 tru? consi/s 9 its actual correspond5ce ) fact4 ,s if ,i say ,john is ! fa!r ( ,james1 !n1 if ,john is ! fa!r ( ,james1 ! judgm5t is true1 ! affirmation is a tru?2 if he is n1 x is false1 ! affirmation is a falsehood4 ,?is view has ! m]it ( simplicity1 & is suffici5tly obvi\s almo/ to dis>m criticism4 ,!re is1 inde$1 little difficulty 9 accept+ x if we are able to take ! view ( ! nature ( ! real univ]se :i* x assumes4 ,! !ory is be/ describ$ z plurali/ic realism4 ,x is ! view t ! univ]se consi/s ( or is compos$ ( an aggregate ( an inf9ite numb] ( entities4 ,"s ( ^! h a place 9 ! space & "t s]ies1 & ^! exi/4 ,"s1 on ! o!r h&1 are possibilities :i* h n & may nev] h any actual exi/5ce4 ,entities t h _! place 9 ! p]ceptual ord] ( exp]i5ce exi/1 #be or h exi/$1 or w exi/2 b entities t are concepts1 su* z goodness1 beauty1 tru?1 or t are ab/ract symbols l numb]s1 geometrical figures1 pure =ms1 d n exi/1 b are none ! less j z real z ! entities t d exi/4 ,^! entities are ! subject-matt] ( our judgm5ts1 & kn[+ is discov]+ ! relations 9 :i* !y /& to "o ano!r4 ,! :ole significance ( ?is view lies 9 ! doctr9e t relations are ext]nal to ! entities t are relat$--!y d n ent] into & =m "p ( ! nature ( ! entities4 ,! difficulty ( ?is view is j ?is ext]nality ( ! relation4 ,x seems difficult to conceive :at nature is left 9 any entity depriv$ ( all its relations4 ,! relation ( fa!r & son 9 ! judgm5t1 ,john is ! fa!r ( ,james1 is s f> "p ( ! nature ( ! p]sons ,john & ,james1 t if ! judgm5t is false !n to t ext5t ,john & ,james are n ! actual p]sons ,john & ,james t !y are ?\ght to be4 ,& ?is is ! case ev5 9 s purely ext]nal a relation z is express$1 say1 9 ! judgm5t1 ,ed9burgh is ,ea/ ( ,glasg[4 ,x is difficult to discuss any relation :i* c be said to be entirely indiff]5t to ! nature ( its t]ms1 & x is d\btful if any?+ :atev] w\ld be left ( a t]m ab/ract$ f all its relations4 ,^! difficulties h l$ to ! =mulation ( an altoge!r diff]5t !ory1 namely1 ! !ory t tru? does n consi/ 9 correspond5ce betwe5 ideas & _! real c\nt]p>ts1 b 9 ! consi/5ce & int]nal h>mony ( ! ideas !mselves4 ,x is nam$ ! coh]5ce !ory4 ,x w be recognis$ at once t !re is v mu* 9 common exp]i5ce to support x4 ,x is by ! te/ ( consi/5cy & coh]5ce t we inv>iably judge ! tru? ( evid5ce4 #bf ,also x seems a v ess5tial "p ( our intellectual nature to reject z untrue & false any /atem5t or any idea t is self-contradictory or irreconcilable ) ! _w ( liv+ exp]i5ce4 ,b !n1 on ! o!r h&1 we by no means all[ t t mu/ be true :i* does n exhibit logical contradiction & inconsi/5cy4 ,x is a common en\gh exp]i5ce t ideas prove false ?\gh !y h exhibit$ no inh]5t failure to h>monise ) surr\nd+ circum/ances nor any self-contradiction4 ,! !ory1 !re=e1 requires m ?an a cursory exam9ation4 ,?9k+ is ! activity ( our m9d :i* discov]s ! ord]1 arrangem5t1 & sy/em 9 ! reality t ! s5ses reveal4 ,)\t ?\ght1 our felt exp]i5ce w\ld be a *aos & n a _w4 ,! philosoph] ,kant express$ ?is by say+ t ! und]/&+ gives unity to ! manifold ( s5se4 ,! und]/&+1 he said1 makes nature4 ,x does ?is by giv+ =m to ! matt] :i* comes to x by ! s5ses4 ,! m9d is n a tabula rasa ^u :i* ! ext]nal _w makes & leaves impressions1 x is a relat+ activity :i* arranges ! matt] x receives 9 =ms4 ,fir/ ( all !re are space & "t1 :i* are =ms 9 :i* we receive all p]ceptual exp]i5ce1 & !n !re are categories t are conceptual frames or m\lds by :i* we ?9k ( ev]y?+ we exp]i5ce z hav+ def9ite relations & belong+ to a real ord] ( exi/5ce4 ,sub/ance1 causality1 quality1 & quantity are categories2 !y are univ]sal =ms 9 :i* ! m9d arranges s5se exp]i5ce1 & :i* con/itute ! laws ( nature1 ! ord] ( ! _w4 ,space & "t1 & ! categories ( ! und]/&+ ,kant decl>$ to be transc5d5tal--t is to say1 !y are ! elem5ts necess>y to exp]i5ce :i* are n #bg !mselves d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 z1 = example1 t e ev5t has a cause4 ,!re are1 he decl>$1 syn!tic a priori judgm5ts--t is1 judgm5ts ab\t exp]i5ce :i* are n !mselves d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 b1 on ! contr>y1 ! conditions t make exp]i5ce possible4 ,x is f ?is doctr9e ( ,kant t ! :ole ( mod]n idealism takes its rise4 ,kant1 inde$1 held t !re are ?+s-9-!mselves1 & to ?is ext5t he 0 n himself an ideali/1 b he also held t ?+s-9-!mselves are unkn[able1 & ?is is ess5tially ! ideali/ position4 ,cle>ly1 if we hold ! view t ?+s-9-!mselves are unkn[able1 tru? _c be a correspond5ce betwe5 our ideas & ^! ?+s-9-!mselves4 ,tru? mu/ be "s quality ( ! ideas !mselves1 & ?is c only be _! logical consi/5cy4 ,consi/5cy1 because ! ideas mu/ be 9 agreem5t ) "o ano!r2 & logical1 because ?is consi/5cy belongs to ! ?9k+1 & logic is ! sci5ce ( ?9k+4 ,tru?1 9 effect1 is ! ideal ( logical consi/5cy4 ,we exp]i5ce 9 ?9k+ an activity /riv+ to atta9 ! k ( reality1 & ! belief1 ! feel+ ( satisfaction t we exp]i5ce :5 our ?9k+ seems to atta9 ! k ( reality1 is ! h>mony1 ! abs5ce ( contradiction1 ! coh]5ce1 ( our ideas !mselves4 ,?is is ! coh]5ce !ory4 ,let u see :at x implies z to ! ultimate nature ( tru? & reality4 ,9 bo? ! !ories we h n[ exam9$1 tru? is a logical "* ( ideas4 ,9 ! correspond5ce !ory !re is inde$ suppos$ a non-logical reality1 b x is only 9 ! ideas t !re is ! con=mity or correspond5ce :i* con/itutes _! tru?4 ,9 ! coh]5ce !ory1 reality is itself ideal1 & ! #bh ultimate gr\nd ( ev]y?+ is logical4 ,?is is ! !ory ( tru? t accords ) ! ideali/ view1 & ?is view f9ds its mo/ p]fect expression 9 ! !ory ( ! ,absolute4 ,! ,absolute is ! idea ( an object t realises p]fect logical consi/5cy4 ,?is object logic itself creates2 if x be a necess>y exi/5ce1 !n k ( x _c be o!r ?an tru?4 ,?is view1 on acc\nt ( ! supreme position t x assigns to ! intellect1 & ( ! fundam5tal "* ) :i* x inve/s ! logical categories1 has be5 nam$ by ^? :o oppose x ,intellectualism4 ,x is important t x %\ld be cle>ly und]/ood1 & ! next *apt] w be devot$ to its exposition4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,absolute ,a comp>ison ( ! two !ories ( tru? exam9$ 9 ! la/ *apt] w %[ t1 :]eas bo? re/ on a logical quality 9 ideas1 ! fir/ dep5ds on an ext]nal view tak5 by ! m9d ( an indep5d5t non-m5tal reality1 :]eas ! second dep5ds on ! discov]y ( an inn] mean+ 9 exp]i5ce itself4 ,x is ?is inn] mean+ ( exp]i5ce t we seek to "k :5 ask+ any "q conc]n+ reality4 ,x is ! developm5t ( ?is view1 & :at x implies z to ! ultimate nature ( reality & tru?1 t we are n[ to exam9e4 ,:5 we ask que/ions ab\t reality1 we assume 9 ! v inquiry t reality is ( a nature t exp]i5ce reveals4 ,reality 9 its ultimate nature may be logical--t is to say1 ( ! nature ( reason1 or x may #bi be non-logical--t is to say1 ( ! nature ( feel+ or w2 b 9 ei!r case x mu/ be a nature ( :i* consci\s exp]i5ce c give u k4 ,if inde$ we hold ! view :i* philosoph]s h (t5 endeav\r$ to =mulate1 t reality is unkn[able1 !n !re is no m to be said2 =1 :atev] ! picture or ! blank = a picture by :i* ! m9d tries to pres5t ?is unkn[able reality1 !re c be no "q 9 relation to x ( ! nature & mean+ ( tru?4 ,an unkn[able reality1 z we %all %[ lat] on1 is to all int5ts & purposes non-exi/5t reality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ?9k+ leads to ! k ( reality t we call tru?1 x is because be+ & kn[+ are ultimately "o1 & ?is unity c only be 9 consci\s exp]i5ce4 ,?is is ! axiom on :i* ! ideali/ argum5t is bas$4 ,! !ory ( ! ,absolute is a logical argum5t ( great dialectical =ce4 ,x is n an exagg]ation to say t x is ! greate/ dialectical triumph ( mod]n philosophy4 ,x is ! mo/ successful expression ( idealism4 ,t ?is is n an extravagant e/imate is %[n1 ,i ?9k1 by ! fact t1 widespread & det]m9$ z is ! opposition x has _h to enc\nt]1 criticism has be5 direct$ n s mu* aga9/ its logic z aga9/ ! basis ( intellectualism on :i* x re/s4 ,! v boldness ( its claim & brilliance ( its triumph lead to ! suspicion t ! intellect _c be ! sole det]m9+ factor ( ! ultimate nature ( reality4 ,x w be easi] to und]/& ! !ory ( ! ,absolute if we fir/ ( all notice1 = ! sake ( aft]w>ds comp>+ x1 ano!r argum5t v fam\s 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy--! argum5t to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god nam$ aft] ,/4 ,anselm ( ,cant]bury4 #cj ,x runs ?us3 ,we h 9 ,god ! idea ( a p]fect be+2 ! idea ( a p]fect be+ includes ! exi/5ce ( t be+1 = n to exi/ is to fall %ort ( p]fection2 !re=e ,god exi/s4 ,! !ological =m ( ?is argum5t ne$ raise no prejudice aga9/ x4 ,x is ( v great intr9sic importance1 & if x is wrong x is n easy to po9t out :]e9 ! fallacy lies4 ,x may1 ( c\rse1 be d5i$ t we h or c h ! idea ( a p]fect be+--t is to say1 t we c pres5t t idea to ! m9d ) a positive cont5t or mean+ z di/9ct f a m]ely negative or limit+ idea4 ,b ?is is practically to admit ! driv+ =ce ( ! argum5t1 namely1 t !re may be an idea ( ^: cont5t or mean+ exi/5ce =ms "p4 ,) reg>d to ev]y?+ else ! idea ( exi/+ is n exi/5ce4 ,!re is absolutely no diff]5ce betwe5 ! idea ( a hundr$ doll>s & ! idea ( a hundr$ doll>s exi/+1 b !re is ! :ole diff]5ce betwe5 ?\ght & reality 9 ! idea ( ! hundr$ doll>s exi/+ & ! exi/5ce ( ! hundr$ doll>s4 ,_! actual exi/5ce 9 no way dep5ds on ! p]fection or imp]fection ( my idea1 nor 9 ! inclusion ( _! exi/5ce 9 my idea4 ,?is is suffici5tly obvi\s 9 e case 9 :i* we are deal+ ) p]ceptual reality1 & 9 :i* we c1 9 ! words ( ! philosoph] ,hume1 produce ! impression :i* gives rise to ! idea4 ,b !re are "s objects :i* by _! v nature w n submit to ?is te/4 ,no man ha? se5 ,god at any "t1 n because ,god is an object exi/+ "u conditions & circum/ances ( place & "t impossible = u to realise by reason ( ! limitations ( our f9ite exi/5ce1 b because ,god is an object 9 a diff]5t s5se f t :i* has a place 9 ! p]ceptual ord]1 & !re=e x is affirm$ ( ,god t ! #ca idea involves exi/5ce4 ,god is n an object ( p]ception1 ei!r actual or possible2 nor 9 ! /rict s5se is ,god a concept--t is to say1 a univ]sal ( :i* !re may be p>ticul>s4 ,he is 9 a special s5se ! object ( reason4 ,if we believe t !re is a ,god1 x is because our reason tells u t !re mu/ be4 ,god1 9 philosophy1 is ! idea ( necess>y exi/5ce1 & ! argum5t runs3 ,god mu/ be1 !re=e is4 ,if1 !n1 we exclude f ! idea ( ,god e my?ological & !ological elem5t--if we mean n ,zeus nor ,jehovah nor ,brahma1 b ! fir/ pr9ciple ( exi/5ce--!n we may f9d 9 ! ,/4 ,anselm argum5t ! v gr\nd ( !ism4 ,i h expla9$ ?is argum5t1 :i* is ( ! class call$ ontological because x is conc]n$ ) ! fundam5tal "q ( be+1 9 ord] to give an in/ance ( ! k9d ( argum5t t has giv5 u ! !ory ( ! ,absolute4 ,i w n[ try to set t !ory be=e ! read]1 ask+ only t he w put himself into ! position ( a pla9 man ) no special acqua9tance ) philosophy1 b reflective & anxi\s to int]pret ! mean+ ( 8 ord9>y exp]i5ce4 ,we h already se5 t ?9k+ is ! que/ion+ ( exp]i5ce1 & t ! mom5t x beg9s x gives rise to a di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality4 ,x is ! ask+ :at8 ( e t ( felt exp]i5ce to :i* ! m9d att5ds4 ,! _w 9 :i* we f9d ourselves is ext5d$ all ar\nd u 9 space & full ( ?+s :i* affect u 9 v>i\s ways3 "s give u pleasure1 o!rs give u pa91 & we ourselves are ?+s t affect o!r ?+s z well z be+ ourselves affect$ by !m4 ,:5 we ?9k ab\t ! ?+s 9 ! _w 9 ord] to discov] :at !y really are1 we v soon f9d t we are liable to illusion & error4 #cb ,?+s turn out on exam9ation to be v diff]5t to :at we fir/ imag9$ !m to be4 ,our ideas1 by :i* we try to und]/& ! reality ( ?+s are j s _m attempts to correct & set "r our illusions & errors4 ,& s ! "q arises1 h[ f> are our ideas ab\t ?+s tru?s ab\t reality8 ,x is v soon evid5t t !re are "s qualities ( ?+s t give rise to illusion & error mu* m readily ?an o!rs4 ,! spatial qualities ( ?+s1 solidity1 %ape1 size1 seem to be real 9 a way t does n admit ( d\bt4 ,we seem able to apply to ^! qualities a te/ t is def9ite & absolute4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re seem to be effects ( ^! ?+s 9 u su* z _! col\r1 ta/e1 od\r1 s\nd1 coldness1 or heat1 qualities t are incessantly *ang+ & a fruitful s\rce ( illusion & error4 ,we !re=e di/+ui% ! spatial qualities z prim>y1 & consid] t !y are ! real ?+s & diff]5t f _! effects1 :i* we call _! second>y qualities4 ,& ?is is1 p]haps1 our mo/ ord9>y te/ ( reality4 ,if1 = example1 we %\ld ?9k t some?+ we see is an unreal phantom1 or a gho/1 or "s k9d ( halluc9ation1 & on go+ up to x f9d t x does actually occupy space1 we correct our op9ion & say ! ?+ is real4 ,b ! spatial or prim>y qualities ( a ?+1 al?\gh !y may seem m p]man5t & m ess5tial to ! reality ( ! ?+ ?an ! second>y qualities1 are nev]!less only qualities4 ,!y are n ! ?+ itself1 b ways 9 :i* x affects u4 ,x seems to u t ^! qualities mu/ inh]e 9 or belong to ! ?+1 & s we try to =m ! idea ( ! real ?+ z a sub/ance or sub/ratum :i* has ! qualities4 ,?is 0 a g5]ally accept$ notion until ,b]keley 7#afhe-agfc7 %[$ h[ contradictory x is4 ,s #cc simple & conv9c+ 0 8 criticism ( ! notion1 t nev] s9ce has mat]ial sub/ance be5 put =w>d z an explanation ( ! reality ( ! ?+s we p]ceive4 ,all t he did 0 to %[ h[ impossible & contradictory x is to ?9k t ! reality ( t :i* we p]ceive is some?+ 9 its nature imp]ceptible1 = su* mu/ mat]ial sub/ance be ap>t f its s5se qualities4 ,h[ c t :i* we p]ceive be some?+ imp]ceptible8 ,& if we reflect on x1 we %all surely agree t x is s--by ! ?+ we mean its qualities1 & ap>t f ! qualities !re is no ?+4 ,we mu/ try1 !n1 9 "s o!r way to rea* ! reality4 ,:at1 we %all n[ ask1 c x be t b9ds toge!r ^! s5se qualities s t we speak ( !m z a ?+8 ,!re are two elem5ts t seem to ent] into ev]y?+ :atev] t comes into our exp]i5ce1 & :i* x seems to u w\ld rema9 if ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se 7 annihilat$4 ,^! are space & "t4 ,are !y reality8 ,"h we are met ) a new k9d ( difficulty4 ,x 0 possible to dismiss mat]ial sub/ance z a false idea1 an idea ( some?+ ^: exi/5ce is impossible2 b space & "t are c]ta9ly n false ideas4 ,! difficulty ab\t !m is t we _c make our ?\ght ( !m consi/5t--!y are ideas t conta9 a self-contradiction1 or at lea/ t lead to a self-contradiction :5 we affirm !m ( reality4 ,) ! ideas ( space & "t are closely l9k$ ! ideas ( *ange1 ( movem5t1 ( causation1 ( quality & quantity1 & all ( ^! exhibit ?is same puzzl+ *>act]i/ic1 t !y seem to make u affirm :at we d5y & d5y :at we affirm4 ,i might fill ?is little book ) illu/rations ( ! p>adoxes t are involv$ 9 ^! ord9>y work+ ideas4 ,ev]yone is famili> ) ! difficulty involv$ 9 ! #cd idea ( "t4 ,we mu/ ?9k !re 0 a beg9n+1 & we _c ?9k t !re 0 any mom5t to :i* !re 0 no be=e4 ,s also ) space1 x is an inf9ite ext5sion :i* we c only ?9k ( z a beyond to e limit4 ,?is rec$+ limit ( ! inf9itely ext5sible space involves ! "* ( inf9ite divisibility1 = if !re are an inf9ite numb] ( po9ts f :i* /raight l9es c be drawn )\t int]sect+ "o ano!r to any fix$ po9t !re is !re=e no smalle/ space t _c be fur!r divid$4 ,! contradictions t foll[ f ^! demon/rable cont5ts ( ! idea ( space are endless4 ,! relation ( "t to space is ano!r s\rce ( contradictory ideas4 ,i %all p]haps1 h[ev]1 be/ make ! mean+ ( ?is self-contradictory "* ( our ord9>y ideas cle> by foll[+ out a def9ite illu/ration4 ,:at is kn[n z ! ant9omy ( motion is probably famili> to ev]yone f ! well-kn[n p>adox ( ! ,greek philosoph] ,z5o4 ,! fly+ arr[1 he said1 does n move1 because if x did x w\ld be 9 two places at "o & ! same "t1 & t is impossible4 ,i w n[ put ?is same p>adox ( movem5t 9 a =m :i*1 s f> z ,i "k1 x has n be5 pres5t$ be=e4 ,my illu/ration w involve ! idea ( causation z well z t ( movem5t4 ,if we suppose a space to be fully occupi$1 we %all agree t no?+ )9 t space c move )\t !reby displac+ :atev] occupies ! position into :i* x moves4 ,t is to say1 ! movem5t ( any occupant ( "o position mu/ cause ! displacem5t ( ! occupant ( ! new position into :i* he moves4 ,b on ! o!r h& x is equally cle> t ! displacem5t ( ! occupant ( ! new position is a prior condition ( ! possibility ( ! movem5t ( #ce ! mov]1 = no?+ c move unless !re is an unoccupi$ place = x to move into1 & !re is no unoccupi$ place unless x has be5 vacat$ by its occupant be=e ! movem5t beg9s4 ,we h !re=e ! cle> contradiction t a ?+ c only move :5 some?+ else :i* x causes to move has already mov$4 ,n[ if we reflect on x we %all see t ?is is exactly ! position we occupy 9 our ?ree-dim5sional space4 ,! space :i* surr\nds u is occupi$1 & !re=e we _c move until a way is made cle> = u1 & no?+ makes way = u unless we move4 ,we _c move ?r\gh /one walls because we _c displace solid matt]1 b we c move ?r\gh air & wat] because we are able to displace ^!4 ,! problem is ! same4 ,my movem5t displaces ! air1 b !re is no movem5t until ! air is displac$4 ,c we escape ! contradiction by suppos+ ! displacem5t is ! cause & ! movem5t ! effect4 ,are we1 l p 9 a !atre queue1 only able to move f beh9d =w>d z ! place is vacat$ = u 9 front8 ,9 t case we %\ld be driv5 to ! incr$ible supposition t ! orig9al cause or condition ( our movem5t is ! previ\s movem5t ( some?+ at ! outskirts ( our occupi$ space1 t ?is some:at mov+ into ! void made possible ! movem5t ( ! occupant ( ! space next adjo9+1 & s on until aft] a lapse ( "t :i* may be ages1 :i* may inde$ be inf9ite1 ! possibility ( movem5t is op5$ to u4 ,9 fact we mu/ believe t ! effect ( our movem5t--namely1 ! displacem5t ( ! previ\s occupants f ! positions we occupy 9 mov+--happ5$ be=e x 0 caus$4 ,n[ x is impossible = u to believe ei!r ( ! only two alt]natives--ei!r t we d n really move b only #cf appe> to d s1 or t ! displacem5t our movem5t causes really prec$es ! movem5t4 ,:5 we meet ) a direct self-contradiction 9 our ?\ghts ab\t any?+1 we c only suppose t t ab\t :i* we are ?9k+ is 9 its nature nons5sical1 or else t our ideas ab\t x are wrong4 ,x may p]haps be ?\ght t ! :ole difficulty arises simply because :at we are try+ to ?9k consi/5tly ab\t is a reality t is ext]nal to u4 ,space & "t1 movem5t1 cause & effect are ideas t apply to a _w outside & indep5d5t ( ! m9d t tries to ?9k x4 ,may n ?is be ! reason ( our failure & ! :ole explanation ( ! seem+ contradiction8 ,if we turn our ?\ghts inw>d ^u our own be+ & ?9k ( ! self1 ! ,i1 ! real subject ( exp]i5ce1 !n surely :]e ?\ght is at home & its object is m5tal n physical1 we %all "k reality4 ,x is n s4 ,! same self-contradiction *>act]ises our ideas :5 we try to pres5t ! real object ( inn] p]ception z :5 we try to pres5t ! real object ( ext]nal p]ception4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 t x is possible to d\bt ! reality ( our own exi/5ce1 b t we fail altoge!r to express ! mean+ ( ! self we s surely "k to exi/ 9 any idea :i* does n fall into self-contradiction4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ?+ & its qualities1 we ?9k t !re is some?+ di/9ct f ! qualities 9 :i* !y inh]e & yet f9d ourselves unable to pres5t to ! m9d any consi/5t idea ( su* ?+1 s we ?9k t !re mu/ be "s sub/ance or basis ( p]sonal id5tity1 "s real self :i* has ! successive *ang+ consci\s /ates1 :i* has ! "* :i* di/+ui%es our actions z p]sonal b :i* nev]!less is n itself ^! ?+s4 ,! self-contradiction #cg 9 ! idea ( self1 or ,i1 or subject1 is t x bo? _c *ange & is always *ang+4 ,z un*ang+1 we di/+ui% x f our body1 :i* is an ext]nal object among o!r objects & is diff]5t f o!r objects only 9 ! m direct & intimate relation 9 :i* x /&s to u4 ,! body is always *ang+2 nev] = two successive mom5ts is x exactly ! same comb9ation ( *emical elem5ts4 ,we di/+ui% also ourself f t consci\sness :i* is memory1 ! aw>5ess ( pa/ exp]i5ce1 f pres5t feel+s1 desires1 ?\ghts1 & /riv+s--^!1 we say1 belong to ! self b are n x4 ,! self mu/ h qualities & dwell 9 ! body1 guid+1 direct+1 & controll+ x1 yet ?is self we nev] p]ceive1 nor c we conceive x1 = our idea ( x is ( a reality t *anges & is yet un*angeable4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o idea--an idea to :i* we h already allud$--t seems to (f] u an escape f ! :ole ( ?is logical difficulty1 ! idea t reality is unkn[able4 ,may n ! contradictor9ess ( our ideas be due to ?is fact1 t our k is entirely ( ph5om5a1 ( appe>ances ( ?+s1 & n ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves8 ,by a ?+-9-itself we d n mean a reality t dwells ap>t 9 a univ]se ( its own1 out ( any relation :atev] to our univ]se4 ,!re may or may n be su* realities1 & :e!r !re are or n is purely irrelevant to any "q ( ! nature ( reality 9 our univ]se4 ,! ?+-9-itself is ! unkn[able reality ( ! ?+ we "k4 ,we conceive x z exi/+ 9 complete ab/raction f e aspect or relation ( x t con/itutes k ( x 9 ano!r4 ,! self-contradiction ( su* an idea is n difficult to %[1 q ap>t f any consid]ation ( its utt] futility z an #ch explanation4 ,! ?+-9-itself ei!r is or else x is n ! reality ( ph5om5a4 ,if x is1 !n1 inasmu* z ! ph5om5a reveal x1 x is nei!r 9-itself nor unkn[able4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x is n1 if x is unrelat$ 9 any way to ph5om5a1 !n x is n only unkn[able--x does n exi/ to be kn[n4 ,x is an idea )\t any cont5t or mean+1 & !re=e indi/+ui%able f no?+4 ,x is simply say+ ( "o & ! same ?+ t x mu/ be & t !re is no?+ t x c be4 ,:ile1 !n1 !re is no actual ?+ t we exp]i5ce1 :e!r x be an object outside ( u or an object )9 u1 ( :i* we c say ?is is n a ph5om5on or appe>ance ( reality b ! actual reality itself1 we _c also say t we d n "k reality1 because if we _h no idea1 no crit]ion1 ( reality we c\ld nev] "k t any?+ 0 only an appe>ance4 ,x is ?is fact--! fact t we und\bt$ly possess1 9 ! v process ( ?9k+ itself1 a crit]ion ( reality--t ! ideali/ argum5t lays hold ( z ! basis ( its doctr9e4 ,! m]e fact seems1 at fir/ sight1 b>r5 & unpromis+ en\gh1 b ! ideali/ does n f9d x s4 ,possess$ ( ?is pr9ciple1 logic1 :i* has seem$ till n[ purely de/ructive1 becomes 9 8 h&s creative1 & gives =m & mean+ to an object ( pure reason4 ,! crit]ion ( reality is self-consi/5cy4 ,we _c ?9k t any?+ is ultimately real :i* has its gr\nd ( exi/5ce 9 some?+ else4 ,a real ?+ is t :i* c be expla9$ )\t ref]5ce to "s o!r ?+4 ,reality1 !re=e1 is completely self-conta9$ exi/5ce1 n m]ely dep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,contradictions _c be true4 ,if we h to affirm a contradiction ( any?+1 x mu/ be due to an #ci appe>ance1 & ! reality mu/ reconcile ! contradiction4 ,! idea ( reality1 !re=e1 is ! idea ( p]fect h>mony4 ,kn[+1 !n1 :at reality is1 c we say t !re is any actual object ( ?\ght t con=ms to x8 ,& h we 9 our limit$ exp]i5ce any?+ t w guide u to ! atta9m5t ( ?is object8 ,! ideali/ is confid5t t we h4 ,"s ?+s seem to u to possess a f> high] degree ( reality ?an o!rs1 j because !y con=m 9 a great] degree to ?is ideal ( h>moni\s exi/5ce4 ,x is :5 we comp>e ! reality ( physical ?+s ) ! reality ( m5tal ?+s t ! contra/ is mo/ /rik+1 & 9 x we h ! clue to ! nature ( ! high] reality4 ,physical reality may seem1 & inde$ 9 a c]ta9 s5se is1 ! basis ( exi/5ce1 b :5 we try to ?9k out ! mean+ ( physical reality1 x becomes increas+ly ab/ract1 & we seem unable to set any actual limit to prev5t x dissipat+ into no?+4 ,9 physical sci5ce we nev] h be=e u an actual elem5t1 ei!r matt] or en]gy1 9 :i* we c recognise1 h[ev] f> bel[ ! limit ( p]ceivability1 ! ultimate /uff ( :i* ! univ]se is compos$4 ,sci5ce has simply to arre/ ! dissipation by boldly assum+ a matt] t is ! sub/ance & f\ndation ( reality & an en]gy t is ! ultimate cause ( ! evolution ( ! univ]se4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we consid] m5tal exi/5ce1 ! pursuit ( reality is 9 an exactly contr>y direction4 ,!re1 ! m concrete1 ! m compreh5sive1 ! m individual a ?+ is1 ! great] degree ( reality x seems to h4 ,9 ! spiritual realm1 by :i* we mean1 n "s suppos$ supra-mundane sph]e1 b ! _w ( values1 ! _w 9 :i* ideas h reality1 9 :i* we live our rational life1 reality is always s\ght 9 a #dj high] & high] individuality4 ,! pr9ciple ( individuality is t ! :ole is m real ?an ! p>ts4 ,an individual human be+1 = example1 is a :ole1 an indivisible organic unity1 n m]ely an aggregation ( physiological organs ) special functions1 nor are ^! a m]e collection ( special cells1 nor ^! a m]e conc\rse ( *emical elem5ts4 ,! ,/ate z a community is an individual organic unity ) a reality t is m ?an ! m]e total ( ! reality ( individual citiz5s :o compose x4 ,x is ?is pr9ciple ( individuality t is ! true crit]ion ( reality4 ,x is ?is pr9ciple t1 :ile x leads u to seek ! unity 9 an individuality ev] high] & m complete ?an we h atta9$1 at ! same "t expla9s ! discrepancy ( our p>tial view1 expla9s contradictions z ! necess>y result ( ! ef=t to und]/& ! p>ts 9 indep5d5ce ( ! :ole :i* gives to !m _! reality4 ,?us1 :ile on ! "o h& ! sci5tific se>* = reality is ev] t[>ds great] simplicity & ab/ractness1 a simplicity ^: ideal limit is z]o1 ! philosophical se>* = reality is ev] t[>ds great] concret5ess1 t[>ds full compreh5siv5ess1 & its ideal limit is ! :ole univ]se z "o p]fect & completely h>moni\s individual4 ,?is idea ( full reality is ! ,absolute4 ,!re are n two realities1 "o mat]ial & ! o!r spiritual2 ! mat]ial & ! spiritual are two directions 9 :i* we may seek ! "o reality1 b !re is only "o pa?way by :i* we %all f9d x4 ,! ,absolute is ! :ole univ]se n 9 its aspect ( an aggregate ( inf9itely div]se sep>ate elem5ts1 :e!r ^! are mat]ial or spiritual1 b 9 its aspect ( an individual :ole & 9 its nature z a :ole4 ,?is nature ( ! :ole is to be individual--only 9 #da ! individual are contradictions reconcil$4 ,is ! ,absolute m ?an an idea8 ,does x actually exi/8 ,cle>ly we _c claim to "k x by direct exp]i5ce1 by acqua9tance2 x is n a t ( :i* we c ask :at8 ,x is ! object ( reason itself1 !re=e we "k t x mu/ be4 ,also we "k t x c be2 x is a possible object 9 ! logical mean+ t x is n a self-contradictory idea1 l e o!r idea t we c h4 ,x is n self-contradictory1 = x is itself ! idea ( t :i* is consi/5t4 ,!re=e1 argues ! ideali/1 x is1 = t :i* mu/ be1 & c be1 surely exi/s4 ,! read] w n[ und]/& :y ,i introduc$ ?is acc\nt ( ! ,absolute ) a description = comp>ison ( ! ,/4 ,anselm pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,!re is "o fur!r "q4 ,:e!r ! ,absolute does or does n exi/1 is x1 ei!r 9 idea or reality1 ( any use to u8 ,! reply is t its value lies 9 ?is1 t x reveals to u ! nature ( reality & ! mean+ ( tru?4 ,logic is ! creative p[] ( ?\ght :i* leads u to ! discov]y ( high] & high] degrees ( reality4 ,! ,satyr1 9 ! fable1 drove 8 gue/ f 8 %elt] because ! man blew into 8 h&s to w>m !m1 & into 8 porridge to cool x4 ,! ,satyr c\ld n reconcile ! contradiction t "o c\ld ) ! same brea? bl[ hot & cold4 ,nor w\ld he reconcile x ev]1 s long z he s\ght tru? z correspond5ce4 ,tru? w\ld h %[n ! facts coh]5t by reconcil+ ! contradiction 9 a high] reality4 #db ,,*apt] ,v ,,pragmatism ,! !ory ( ! ,absolute is only "o =m ( ,idealism1 b x illu/rates ! nature & g5]al direction ( ! developm5t ( philosophy along ! l9e ( speculation t began ) ,kant4 ,!re h be51 ( c\rse1 o!r directions4 ,9 p>ticul> _m attempts h be5 made to make philosophy an adjunct ( physical sci5ce1 b ! !ory ,i h sket*$ is *>act]i/ic ( ! prevail+ movem5t 9 philosophy dur+ ! la/ p]iod ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 & until ! movem5t kn[n z ,pragmatism direct$ criticism ^u x4 ,! =m ! pragmatical criticism ( ! !ory ( ! ,absolute took 0 to direct att5tion to ! logical or intellectual pr9ciple on :i* x re/s--9 fact to raise ! problem ( ! nature ( tru?4 ,pragmatism is a !ory ( ! mean+ ( tru?4 ,x is ! d5ial ( a purely logical crit]ion ( tru?1 & ! insi/5ce t tru? is always dep5d5t on psy*ological conditions4 ,pragmatism !re=e rejects bo? ! views t we h exam9$--! !ory t tru? is a correspond5ce ( ! idea ) its object1 & ! !ory t x is ! logical coh]5ce & consi/5cy ( ! idea itself4 ,x proposes in/ead ! !ory t tru? is always f\nd$ on a practical po/ulate1 & consi/s 9 ! v]ification ( t po/ulate2 ! v]ification n be+ ! discov]y ( some?+ t 0 wait+ to be discov]$1 b ! discov]y t ! po/ulate t claims to be true is useful1 9 t x works4 ,tru? is :at works4 ,! ,absolute is reality & tru?4 ,! ideali/ argum5t :i* we h foll[$ 0 an attempt to #dc det]m9e ! nature ( reality1 & n an attempt to expla9 :at we mean :5 we say t an idea agrees ) its object4 ,:at is true ab\t reality8 0 ! />t+ po9t1 & n1 ,:at is tru?8 nor ev51 ,:at is true ab\t tru?8 ,! se>* = reality fail$ to discov] any object t agre$ ) its idea1 b at la/ !re 0 f\nd an idea t mu/ agree ) its object1 an idea ^: object _c n be4 ,?is idea1 ! ,absolute1 reveals ! nature ( reality4 ,! pragmati/ :5 he asks1 ,:at is tru?8 seems to dig b5ea? ! argum5t1 seems inde$ ev5 to rea* ! b$rock1 b x is only 9 appe>ance t ?is is s4 ,h[1 inde$1 c\ld he hope to be able to answ] ! "q he has himself ask$1 if !re is no way ( di/+ui%+ ! true answ] f ! false8 ,we mu/ already "k :at tru? is ev5 to be able to ask :at x is--a po9t :i* _m pragmati/ writ]s appe> to me to h ov]look$4 ,9 *all5g+ ! idea ( tru?1 ! pragmati/ raises ! no less important "q ( ! nature ( error4 ,a !ory ( tru? mu/ n only %[ 9 :at tru? consi/s1 b mu/ di/+ui% false f true & %[ ! nature ( error4 ,! pragmati/ claims = 8 !ory t x alone c give a consi/5t acc\nt ( illusion & error4 ,n[1 z we saw 9 our acc\nt ( ! ideali/ argum5t1 x is ! fact ( illusion & error t compels u to seek reality beh9d ! appe>ances t are ! s5se data ( our consci\s exp]i5ce4 ,! :ole =ce ( ! pragmati/ movem5t 9 philosophy is direct$ to prov+ t tru? is a prior consid]ation to reality4 ,if we und]/& ! nature ( tru?1 we %all see reality 9 ! mak+4 ,reality c 9 fact be left to look aft] itself2 our bus9ess is ) our conceptions alone1 :i* are ei!r true or false4 ,! di/9ction ( appe>ance & reality does #dd n expla9 illusion & error because x does n di/+ui% betwe5 true & false appe>ance4 ,!re is no pr9ciple 9 idealism by :i* ! ,absolute rejects ! false appe>ance & reconciles ! true4 ,be=e ,i exam9e ! pragmati/ argum5t1 ,i ought fir/ to expla9 ! mean+ & orig9 ( ! ^w4 ,! t]m pragmatism1 t has 9 ! la/ few ye>s ent]$ s widely into all philosophical discussion1 0 us$ fir/ by ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,peirce1 an ,am]ican philosoph]1 9 a magaz9e article writt5 z long ago z #ahgh1 b x attract$ no att5tion = ne>ly tw5ty ye>s1 :5 x 0 recall$ by ,william ,james 9 ! criticism ( ! curr5t philosophy 9 8 ,w to ,believe1 a book :i* m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! new movem5t4 ,pragmatism 0 fir/ put =w>d z ! pr9ciple t ! :ole mean+ ( any conception expresses itself 9 practical consequ5ces4 ,! conception ( ! practical effects ( a conception is ! :ole conception ( ! object4 ,! pragmati/ maxim is--w\ld y "k :at any idea or conception means1 !n consid] :at practical consequ5ces are involv$ by its acceptance or rejection4 ,dr4 ,s*ill]1 ! lead+ expon5t ( ! pr9ciple 9 ,engl&1 pref]s to call ! philosophy ,humanism 9 ord] /ill m to emphasize ! psy*ological & p]sonal "* ( k4 ,! "n is sugge/$ by ! maxim ( ,protagoras1 ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s4 ,! t]m ,intellectualism is us$ by pragmati/ writ]s to include all !ories ( k t d n agree ) _! own1 v mu* z ! ,greeks call$ all :o 7 n ,greeks1 ,b>b>ians4 ,x mu/ n be tak5 to mean1 z its etymology w\ld imply1 a philosophy l t ( ,plato1 :i* held t only univ]sals1 ! ideas1 are real1 or l t ( ,hegel1 :o said t ! actual is ! rational & ! rational is ! actual4 ,! #de pragmati/s apply ! t]m intellectuali/ to all philosoph]s :o recognise an objective "* 9 ! logical ideal ( tru?1 :e!r or n !y also recognise non-logical elem5ts 9 reality1 & :e!r or n ^! non-logical elem5ts are physical1 su* z matt] & en]gy1 or purely psy*ical1 su* z w1 desire1 emotion1 pleasure1 & pa94 ,pragmatism is a criticism & a !ory4 ,if reality 9 its full mean+ is ! ,absolute1 & if all seem+ reality is only a degree ( or approximation to ?is full reality1 if ! k ( ?is reality only is tru?1 mu/ x n seem to u t tru? is useless k8 ,useless1 n 9 ! s5se t x is )\t value to ! m9d t c>es to contemplate x1 b useless 9 s f> z ! h>d ev]yday work+ _w 9 :i* we h to sp5d our lives is conc]n$4 ,we :o h to w9 our exi/5ce 9 ! /ruggle ( life1 ne$ tru?4 ,we ne$ tru? 9 ord] to act4 ,tru? t transc5ds our temporal ne$s1 tru? t is et]nal1 tru? t reconciles illusion & error1 t accepts !m z a necess>y condition ( appe>ance 9 "t1 is useless 9 practice1 h[ev] x may inspire ! poet & philosoph]4 ,tru? to s]ve u mu/ reject error & n reconcile x1 mu/ be a work+ crit]ion & n only a rational "o4 ,:atev] tru? is1 x is n useless2 x is a necessity ( life1 n a luxury ( speculation4 ,pragmatism !re=e rejects ! logical crit]ion ( tru? because x is purely =mal & !re=e useless4 ,x dem&s = u a practical crit]ion1 "o t w s]ve our cont9ual ne$s4 ,:e!r our work+ ideas--cause1 "t1 space1 movem5t1 ?+s & _! qualities1 t]ms & _! relations1 & ! l--are consi/5t or inconsi/5t 9 !mselves1 !y m or less "w2 & 9 s f> z !y "w !y are useful & s]ve u1 & because !y "w1 & j 9 s f> z !y "w1 !y are true4 #df ,! pragmati/ !re=e decl>es t utility1 n logical consi/5cy1 is ! crit]ion ( tru?4 ,ideas are true 9 s f> z !y "w4 ,! discov]y t !y s]ve u is _! v]ification4 ,if we discov] ideas t w s]ve u bett]1 ! old ideas t 7 true become untrue1 & ! new ideas t we adopt become true because !y are f\nd to "w4 ,?is doctr9e ( ! v]ification or mak+ true ( ideas leads to a !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! ideas !mselves4 ,ea* idea has aris5 or be5 call$ =? by a human ne$4 ,x has be5 =m$ by human nature to meet a ne$ ( human nature4 ,x is a practical po/ulate claim+ tru?4 ,ev5 ! axioms t n[ seem to u self-evid5t--su*1 = example1 z ! v law ( contradiction itself1 f :i*1 z we h se51 ! logical crit]ion ( consi/5cy is d$uc$--7 9 _! orig9 practical po/ulates1 call$ =? by a ne$1 &1 because f\nd to "w1 true4 ,! inconsi/5cies & contradictions 9 our ideas d n condemn !m z appe>ance1 & compel u to con/ruct a reality 9 :i* !y disappe> or are reconcil$1 b are evid5ce ( _! orig9 9 practical ne$ & ( _! provisional "*4 ,tru? is n et]nal1 x is *ang+4 ,new conditions are ev] call+ =? new ideas1 & tru?s become untrue4 ,ea* new idea comes =w>d ) a claim to tru?1 & its claim is te/$ by its practicability4 ,tru? is n some?+ we discov]1 & :i* 0 !re to be discov]$4 ,we v]ify ideas4 ,to v]ify is n to f9d true b to make true4 ,! pragmati/ !ory !re=e is t tru? is made4 ,9 all o!r !ories tru? is f\nd4 ,b if we make tru? we mu/ make reality1 = x is cle> t if reality is !re already1 ! agreem5t ) x ( man-made tru? w\ld be no?+ %ort ( a miracle4 ,! pragmati/1 or at all ev5ts ! pragmati/ :o is also a #dg humani/1 f9ds no difficulty 9 accept+ ?is consequ5ce ( ! !ory1 al?\gh at ! same "t insi/+ t ! :ole problem1 ( be+ z well z ( kn[+ is conc]n$ ) tru?4 ,we %all see1 h[ev]1 t x (f]s a s]i\s difficulty to ! acceptance ( ! !ory--a !ory :i* 9 v _m respects agrees ) ord9>y practice & ) sci5tific me?od4 ,take1 = example1 sci5tific me?od4 ,is n all progress 9 sci5ce made by sugge/+ a hypo!sis1 & te/+ x by exp]im5t to see if x works8 ,d we n judge its claim to tru? by ! practical consequ5ces involv$ 9 accept+ or reject+ x8 ,is !re any o!r v]ification8 ,?is is ! simple pragmati/ te/1--does ! laboratory work] add to x or f9d x 9 any respect insuffici5t8 ,if tru? c be consid]$ alone1 !n we mu/ admit t x is ! attribute ( k :i* is compris$ "u ! t]m useful1 ! t]m be+ us$ 9 its mo/ compreh5sive mean+ to include e k9d ( practical consequ5ce4 ,x is ! "q ( reality t raises ! difficulty = ! sci5tific work]4 ,we _c believe1 or p]haps we %\ld say1 ! ord9>y man & ! sci5tific man w\ld f9d x v difficult to believe1 t reality *anges correspond+ly ) our success or failure 9 ! v]ification ( our hypo!sis4 ,:5 ! sci5tific work] v]ifies 8 hypo!sis1 he feels n t he has made some?+ true :i* be=e 0 n true1 b t he has discov]$ :at always 0 true1 al?\gh until ! discov]y he did n "k x4 ,to ?is ! pragmati/ reply is1 t ?is v belief is a practical consequ5ce involv$ 9 ! v]ification ( ! hypo!sis1 involv$ 9 ! discov]y t x works4 ,:at he d5ies is t tru? reveals1 or ev] c reveal1 a reality entirely irrelevant to any human purpose4 ,x is also v important to add t 9 decl>+ t tru? is v]ification1 ! #dh pragmati/ does n set up a purely practical or utilit>ian /&>d4 ,! work+ ( tru? means !oretical z well z practical work+4 ,mu* ( ! curr5t criticism ( pragmatism has fail$ to take notice ( ?is int5tion or mean+ ( its pr9ciple1 & h5ce ! common misappreh5sion t ! maxim tru? is :at works mu/ mean t :atev] a man believes is = him tru?4 ,! pragmati/ doctr9e & attitude w p]haps be easi] to und]/& if we take x 9 reg>d to a p>ticul> in/ance ( tru? & error 9 reg>d to fundam5tal notions4 ,9 ! la/ f\r or five ye>s a new pr9ciple has be5 =mulat$ 9 ,physics1 nam$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity4 ,x revolutionises ! curr5t conceptions ( space & "t4 ,x is s rec5t t probably "s ( my read]s n[ he> ( x = ! fir/ "t1 & !re=e be=e ,i ref] to its =mulation by ma!maticians ,i w give a simple illu/ration to expla9 :at x is4 ,suppose t y are walk+ up & d[n ! deck ( a /eam]1 & let u suppose t ! /eam] is proce$+ at ! spe$ ( f\r miles an h\r1 ! space t y cov] & ! int]val ( "t t y occupy are exactly ! same = y :e!r y are mov+ up ! deck 9 ! direction ! /eam] is go+ or d[n ! deck 9 ! direction :i* is ! rev]se ( ! /eam]'s movem5t4 ,b suppose "s "o on ! %ore c\ld obs]ve y mov+ :ile ! %ip 0 invisible to him1 y\r movem5t w\ld appe> to him entirely diff]5t to :at x is to y4 ,:5 y 7 walk+ up ! deck y w\ld seem to be go+ at twice ! spe$ y w\ld be go+1 & :5 y 7 go+ d[n ! deck y w\ld seem n to be mov+ at all4 ,! "t measurem5t w\ld also seem diff]5t to ! obs]v] on ! %ore1 = :ile to y ea* mom5t w\ld be measur$ by an equal #di space cov]$1 to him "o mom5t y w\ld be mov+ rapidly1 ! next at re/4 ,?is is simple & easy to und]/&4 ,n[ suppose t bo? y & ! obs]v] 7 ea* obs]v+ a natural ph5om5on1 say a ?und]-/orm1 x w\ld seem t ea* ( y ought to obs]ve x ) a diff]5ce--a diff]5ce /rictly calculable f ! sy/em ( movem5t1 ! %ip1 9 :i* y 7 plac$ 9 relation to him4 ,! propagation ( ! s\nd & ( ! light w\ld h to und]go a correction if ea* ( y describ$ y\r exp]i5ce to ! o!r4 ,if y 7 mov+ 9 ! direction ( ! light waves !y w\ld be sl[] = y ?an = him1 & if aga9/ _! direction !y w\ld be fa/] = y ?an = him4 ,( c\rse ! imm5se velocity ( ! light waves1 ab\t #bjj1jjj miles a second1 w\ld make ! diff]5ce 9 a movem5t ( f\r miles an h\r s inf9itesimal z to be altoge!r inappreciable1 b x w\ld n be no?+1 & y w\ld feel q confid5t t if x c\ld be measur$ ! inf9itesimal quantity w\ld appe> 9 ! result4 ,n[ suppose t we c\ld measure x ) absolute accuracy1 & t ! result 0 ! discov]y t ! suppos$ diff]5ce did n exi/ at all--& ( c\rse1 we suppose t !re is no d\bt :atev] ab\t ! measurem5t--:at1 !n1 %\ld we be oblig$ to ?9k8 ,we %\ld be =c$ to believe t z ! velocity ( light 0 ! same = ! two obs]v]s1 "o mov+1 "o at re/1 !re=e ! space & ! "t mu/ be diff]5t = ea*4 ,n[1 h[ev] /range x may seem1 su* a measurem5t has be5 made1 & ) ?is surpris+ result4 ,9 consequ5ce !re has be5 =mulat$ a new pr9ciple 9 ,physics nam$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity4 ,i take ?is ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity = my illu/ration because x is bas$ on reason+ t practically admits ( no d\bt1 & because #ej x requires u to =m new conceptions ( space & "t :i* seem to alt] fundam5tally :at we h hi!rto consid]$ z ! evid5t & unmi/akable nature ( ^? realities4 ,x has always seem$ t ! di/ance sep>at+ two po9ts1 & ! int]val ( "t sep>at+ two ev5ts1 7 ea* indep5d5t ( ! o!r & ea* absolute4 ,h[ev] diff]5t ! di/ance & ! int]val may appe> to obs]v]s 9 movem5t or to obs]v]s 9 diff]5t sy/ems ( movem5t 9 relation to ourselves & to "o ano!r1 9 !mselves !y are ! same di/ance & ! same int]val = all4 ,!y are ! same = ! man 9 ! express tra9 z = ! man /&+ on ! /ation plat=m4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity requires u to ?9k t ?is is n s1 b t1 contr>y to all our settl$ notions1 ! actual space & "t v>y--really und]go an alt]ation1 a contraction or expansion--) ea* diff]5t sy/em ( movem5t ( translation to :i* ! obs]v] is b\nd4 ,ev5ts t = an obs]v] belong+ to "o sy/em ( movem5t happ5 9 ! same place1 = ano!r obs]v] 9 a diff]5t sy/em ( movem5t happ5 9 diff]5t places4 ,ev5ts t = "o obs]v] happ5 simultane\sly1 = o!r obs]v]s are sep>at$ by a "t int]val accord+ to ! movem5t ( translation ( ! sy/em to :i* !y belong4 ,s t space1 :i* ,newton describ$ z rigid1 & "t :i* he describ$ z fl[+ at a con/ant rate1 & :i* = him 0 absolute1 are = ! new !ory relative1 diff]5t = an obs]v] 9 e diff]5t sy/em ( movem5t ( translation4 ,or we may /ate x 9 ! opposite way1 & say t ! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity %[s u t ! reason :y natural ph5om5a1 su* z ! rate ( propagation ( light1 und]go no alt]ation :5 we pass f "o sy/em ( movem5t ( translation to ano!r1 z we #ea are con/antly do+ 9 ! *ang+ velocity ( ! e>?'s movem5t r\nd ! sun1 is t space & "t alt] ) ! velocity4 ,i _c "h give ! argum5t or describe ! exp]im5ts :i* h giv5 ?is result--,i am simply tak+ x z an illu/ration4#a ,x seems to me admirably suit$ to comp>e ! pragmati/ me?od & ! pragmati/ attitude ) t ( sci5tific realism & ( absolute idealism4 #a ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity is ma9ly ! result ( ! rec5t ma!matical "w ( ,h4 ,a4 ,lor5tz1 ,e9/e91 & ! late ,pr(essor ,m9k[ski4 ,a v int]e/+ & n excessively difficult1 acc\nt ( x is conta9$ 9 ,d]nires ,p5ses1 by ! late ,h5ri ,po9c>2 ,p>is1 ,alcan4 ,"h1 !n1 is a "q 9 :i* ! tru? ( our accept$ notions is call$ 9 "q1 & new notions claim to be true4 ,! sole "q involv$1 pragmatism insi/s1 is ! tru? ( conceptions1 n ! reality ( ?+s1 & !re is b "o way ( te/+ ! tru? ( conceptions--& t is by comp>+ ! rival conceptions 9 respect ( ! practical consequ5ces t foll[ f !m & adopt+ ^? t w "w4 ,if ! old conceptions ( space & "t fail to con=m to a new ne$1 !n :at 0 true be=e ! ne$ 0 reveal$ is no long] true1 ! new conception has become true4 ,by v]ify+ ! new conception1 we make x true4 ,b1 objects ! reali/1 an idea _c become true2 :at is n[ true always 0 true1 & :at is no long] true nev] 0 true1 ?\gh we may h work$ ) ! false notion ignorant t x 0 false4 ,beh9d tru? !re is reality4 ,! e>? 0 sph]ical ev5 :5 all mank9d believ$ x flat & f\nd ! belief "w4 ,to ?is ! pragmati/ reply is t reality is only our objectification ( tru?2 x possesses no mean+ divorc$ f human purposes4 ,_h anyone ann\nc$ t ! e>? 0 a sph]e #eb :5 x 0 g5]ally held to be flat1 unless 8 ann\ncem5t _h "s relevance to a defect 9 ! flat e>? notion1 or a claim to revise t notion1 8 ann\ncem5t w\ld h be5 nei!r a tru? nor a falsehood 9 any intelligible mean+ ( ! t]m--he w\ld h be5 mak+ an irrelevant rem>k4 ,! notions ( space & "t t ,newton held work$1 & 7 !re=e true2 if a new ne$ requires u to replace !m ) o!r notions1 & ^! o!r notions w "w & are !re=e true1 !y h become true & ,newton's notions h become false4 ,if x is /ill object$ t ! new notions 7 also true = ,newton1 al?\gh he 0 ignorant ( !m1 ! ne$ = !m n hav+ aris51 ! only reply is t tru?1 or reality1 9 complete deta*m5t f human purposes1 _c be ei!r affirm$ or d5i$4 ,) ?is view ! ideali/ w be 9 agreem5t2 8 objection is ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,he rejects1 z ! pragmati/ does1 ! notion ( a reality indep5d5t ( human nature t =ces ^u u ! *anges t our conceptions und]go4 ,^! *anges1 he holds1 are ! inn] work+ ( ! conceptions !mselves1 ! manife/ation ( our intellectual nature1 ev] /riv+ = an ideal ( logical consi/5cy4 ,tru? is ?is ideal4 ,we d n make x2 we move t[>ds x4 ,if we comp>e1 !n1 ! ideali/ & ! pragmati/ doctr9e1 x w seem t1 :ile = ! ideali/ tru? is gr[+ ) advanc+ k into an ev] l>g] because m compreh5sive sy/em ( reality1 = ! pragmati/ x is ev] n>r[+1 disc>d+ failures z useless & irrelevant to pres5t purpose4 ,h[ inde$1 ! ideali/ w ask1 if practical consequ5ces be ! mean+ ( tru?1 is x possible to und]/& t k has advanc$ or c advance8 ,does n ! hi/ory ( sci5ce prove a cont9ual expansion1 an increas+ #ec compreh5sion8 ,x is )9 ! conception t ! inconsi/5cy is reveal$1 n 9 any m]e outw>d use ( ! conceptions1 & ! intellectual ef=t is to reconcile ! contradiction by relat+ ! conception to a m compreh5sive :ole4 ,h[1 !n1 does ! ideali/ meet ?is case :i* we h specially in/anc$1 ! dem& = new notions ( space & "t made by ! ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity8 ,he d5ies t ! new conceptions are call$ =? by human ne$s 9 ! n>r[ s5se--t is to say1 9 ! s5se t work+ hypo!ses or practical po/ulates are requir$4 ,! ne$ is purely logical4 ,! inconsi/5cy reveal$ 9 ! notions t h hi!rto s]v$ u c only be reconcil$ by appreh5d+ a high] unity4 ,if ! old] notions ( space & "t are inadequate to ! m compreh5sive view ( ! univ]se z a co-ord9ation ( sy/ems ( movem5t1 !n ?is v negation ( ! old] notions is ! affirmation ( ! new1 & f ! negation by pure logic ! cont5t & mean+ :i* are ! tru? ( ! new notions are d]iv$4 ,to ?is objection ! pragmati/ reply is t if ?is be ! mean+ ( ! tru? !re is no way %[n by :i* x c be di/+ui%$ f error4 ,!re is 9 fact = idealism no error1 no illusion1 no falsehood2 z real facts1 !re are only degrees ( tru?4 ,b a !ory ( tru? :i* ignores su* /ubborn realities z illusion1 falsehood1 & error is1 f :atev] /&po9t we view x1 useless4 ,on ! o!r h&1 pragmatism (f]s a te/ by :i* we c discrim9ate betwe5 true & false--namely1 ! me?od ( judg+ conceptions by _! practical consequ5ces4 ,c we or c we n make our conceptions "w8 ,t is ! :ole mean+ ( ask+1 ,are !y true or false8 ,& n[1 le/ ! read] is al>m$ at ! prospect ( hav+ to revise 8 work+ ideas ( space & #ed "t1 ,i w1 to reassure him1 quote ! words ) :i* ,h5ri ,po9c> conclud$ 8 acc\nt ( ! new conceptions1 & :i* admirably express & illu/rate ! pragmati/'s attitude3 ,:at is to be our position 9 view ( ^! new conceptions8 ,are we ab\t to be =c$ to modify our conclusions8 ,no1 inde$3 we _h adopt$ a conv5tion because x seem$ to u conv5i5t1 & we decl>$ t no?+ c\ld compel u to ab&on x4 ,to-day c]ta9 physici/s wi% to adopt a new conv5tion4 ,x is n because !y are compell$ to2 !y judge ?is new conv5tion to be m conv5i5t--t is all2 & ^? :o are n ( ?is op9ion c legitimately keep ! old & s leave _! old habits undi/urb$4 ,i ?9k1 betwe5 ourselves1 t ?is is :at !y w d = a long "t to come4 ,i h s f> consid]$ pragmatism r z a criticism ?an z a doctr9e4 ,i w n[ try & *>act]ise x on its positive side4 ,x decl>es t !re is no su* ?+ z pure ?\ght1 b t all ?9k+ is p]sonal & purposive2 t all kn[+ is direct$1 controll$1 & qualifi$ by psy*ological conditions su* z int]e/1 att5tion1 desire1 emotion1 & ! l2 & t we _c1 z =mal logic does1 ab/ract f any ( ^!1 = logic itself is "p ( a psy*ical process4 ,tru? !re=e dep5ds ^u belief2 tru?s are matt]s ( belief1 & beliefs are rules ( action4 ,x is ?is doctr9e t gives to pragmatism its p>adoxical1 "s h ev5 said its grotesque1 "*4 ,x seems to say t ! same proposition is bo? true & false--true = ! man :o believes x1 false = ! man :o _c4 ,x seems to say t we c make any?+ true by believ+ x1 & we c believe any?+ s long z ! consequ5ces ( act+ on x are n absolutely disa/r\s4 ,& ! proposition1 ,all tru?s "w1 seems to involve ! conclusion t all t works is true2 & ! proposition1 ,! true is ! useful1 seems to imply t #ee :atev] is useful is !re=e true4 ,no small "p ( ! pragmati/ controv]sy has be5 direct$ to ! attempt to %[ t all & ea* ( ^! coroll>ies are1 or arise f1 misconceptions ( ! doctr9e4 ,i ?9k1 & ,i %all endeav\r to %[1 t !re is a s]i\s defect 9 ! pragmati/ /atem5t1 & t ^! misconceptions are 9 a great "p due to x4 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ accept ! pragmati/ disav[al4 ,& !re is no difficulty 9 do+ s1 = ! mean+ ( ! !ory is suffici5tly cle>4 ,tru?1 accord+ to pragmatism1 is a value & n a fact4 ,tru? is ?us connect$ ) ! conception ( good4 ,9 say+ t tru? is useful1 we say t x is a means to an end1 a good4 ,x is n a moral end1 b a cognitive end1 j z beauty is an e/hetic end4 ,tru?1 beauty1 & goodness ?us /& toge!r z judgm5ts ( value or wor?4 ,x is only by recognis+ t tru? is a value t we c possess an actual crit]ion to di/+ui% x f error1 = if tru? is a judgm5t ( fact1 if x ass]ts exi/5ce1 s also does error4 ,! pragmati/ pr9ciple has an important be>+ on religion4 ,x ju/ifies ! ,fai? attitude4 ,x %[s t ! good aim$ at by a tru? claim is only atta9able by ! ex]cise ( ! w to believe4 ,?us x replaces ! intellectual maxim1 ,believe 9 no?+ y c possibly d\bt1 ) ! practical maxim1 ,resolve n to qu5* any impulse to believe because d\bts ( ! tru? are possible4 ,belief may ev5 be a condition ( ! success ( ! tru? claim4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,utility ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t pragmatism is bo? a criticism & a !ory4 ,x %[s u t ! #ef notion t tru? is correspond5ce involves ! conception ( an impossible k1 & ! notion t tru? is coh]5ce or consi/5cy involves ! conception ( a useless k4 ,! explanation pragmatism itself (f]s is ( ! k9d t is call$ 9 ! te*nical language ( philosophy teleological4 ,?is means t to expla9 or to give a mean+ to tru? all we c d is to po9t out ! purpose on acc\nt ( :i* x exi/s4 ,?is is n sci5tific explanation4 ,physical sci5ce expla9s a fact or an ev5t by %[+ ! conditions :i* give rise to x or t det]m9e its "*4 ,pragmatism recognises no conditions det]m9+ tru? su* z ^? :i* sci5ce embodies 9 ! conception ( a natural law--t is1 ! idea ( a connection ( natural ev5ts ) "o ano!r :i* is n dep5d5t on human ?\ghts ab\t !m nor on human purposes 9 reg>d to !m4 ,tru? is 9 intimate association ) human practical activity2 its mean+ lies :olly 9 its utility4 ,we mu/ !re=e n[ exam9e some:at closely ?is notion ( utility4 ,!re appe>s to me to be a s]i\s defect 9 ! pragmati/ conception & application ( ! pr9ciple ( utility2 x is bas$ on a conception altoge!r too n>r[4 ,a !ory t condemns any purely logical process z result+ 9 useless k c only ju/ify itself by insi/+ on an application ( ! pr9ciple ( utility t w be f\nd to exclude n m]ely ! ,absolute ( philosophy b mo/ if n all ( ! results ( pure ma!matics & physics1 = ^! sci5ces apply a me?od ( pure logical d$uction & induction indi/+ui%able f t :i* pragmatism condemns4 ,! intellectual nature ( man is an end[m5t :i* %>ply di/+ui%es him f o!r =ms ( liv+ creatures4 ,s supreme a position does our intellect assign to u1 s wide is ! gap t sep>ates #eg u f o!r creatures little diff]5t f ourselves 9 respect ( p]fection ( mat]ial organisation & adaptation to environm5t1 t x seems almo/ natural to suppose t our intellect is t = :i* we exi/1 & n m]ely a mode ( controll+1 direct+1 & advanc+ our life4 ,n[ x is possible to hold--& ?is is ! view t ,i %all endeav\r 9 :at foll[s to develop--t ! intellect is subs]vi5t to life1 & t we c %[ ! mann] & me?od ( its work+ & ! purpose x s]ves4 ,s f> we may agree ) ! pragmati/1 b x is n ! same ?+ to say t ! intellect s]ves a useful purpose & to say t tru?1 ! ideal ( ! intellect1 ! end :i* x /rives =1 is itself only a utility4 ,7 !re no mean+ 9 tru? except t x is :at works1 7 !re no mean+ indep5d5t ( & altoge!r di/9ct f ! practical consequ5ces ( belief1 ( :at value to u w\ld ! intellect be8 ,if ! mean+ ! intellect assigns to tru? is itself n true1 h[ c ! intellect s]ve u8 ,! v ess5ce ( its s]vice is r$uc$ to n\ght2 = :at else b ! conception ( an objective tru?1 a logical reality indep5d5t ( any & e psy*ological condition1 is ! utility t ! intellect puts u 9 possession (8 ,x is ?is conception alone t con/itutes x an effective mode ( activity4 ,!re=e1 if we hold ) ! pragmati/ t ! intellect is subs]vi5t to life1 tru? is inde$ a utility1 b x is a utility j because x has a mean+ di/9ct f usefulness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to condemn any k z useless is to d5y utility to ! intellect4 ,be=e ,i try to %[ t ! logical me?od ( ! ideali/ philosophy1 :i* pragmatism condemns because x leads to useless k1 is id5tical 9 e respect ) ! me?od employ$ 9 pure ma!matics & physics1 ,i w give = comp>ison two illu/rations #eh t seem to me in/ances ( a n>r[ & ( a wide use ( ! concept ( utility4 ,a %ort "t ago an orang-utang escap$ f its cage 9 ! ,zoological ,g>d5s "u some:at s+ul> & v int]e/+ circum/ances4 ,! cage 0 secur$ ) me%$ wire ( great /r5g?1 judg$ suffici5t to resi/ ! direct impact ( ! mo/ p[]ful ( ! c>nivora2 b ! ape1 by att5tion to ! twi/+ ( ! pli$ wire1 _h by con/ant try+ succe$$ 9 loos5+ & f9ally 9 unw9d+ a l>ge section4 ,x escap$ f its enclosure1 & aft] do+ consid]able damage 9 ! corridor1 includ+ ! te>+ out ( a w9d[ frame1 made its way into ! gr\nds & took refuge 9 a tree1 twi/+ ! bran*es into a plat=m said to be simil> to ! con/ructions x makes 9 its native =e/s4 ,9 tak+ ?is action z an illu/ration1 ,i am n conc]n$ ) ! "q ( :at may be ! di/9ction betwe5 action t is intellig5t & action t is in/9ctive4 ,if we take intellig5ce 9 a wide & g5]al mean+1 we may comp>e ! intellig5ce %[n by ?is ape ) ! intellig5ce %[n by man 9 ! highe/ processes ( ! m9d4 ,psy*ologi/s w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be unanim\s 9 hold+ t 9 ! m9d ( ! ape !re 0 no conception ( fre$om1 no k9d ( m5tal image ( unre/rict$ life & ( a di/9ct means ( atta9+ x1 no cle>ly purpos$ end1 ! means ( atta9+ :i* 0 :at prompt$ ! undo+ ( ! wire1 su* z we %\ld c]ta9ly suppose 9 ! case ( a man 9 a simil> situation4 ,x 0 ! k9d ( intellig5t action t psy*ologi/s d5ote by ! description trial & error4 ,x seems to me1 h[ev]1 t ?is exactly fulfils ! conditions t ! pragmati/ doctr9e ( ! mean+ ( tru? require4 ,we see ! intellect ( ! ape mak+ true by f9d+ out :at works4 #ei ,we c suppose an entire abs5ce ( ! idea ( objective tru? to :i* reality mu/ con=m1 ( tru? unaffect$ by purpose4 ,"h1 !n1 we seem to h ! pure type ( tru? 9 its simple/ conditions1 a practical activity us+ intellig5ce to discov] :at works4 ,is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is practical activity & ! high] m5tal activities z we employ !m 9 ! ab/ract sci5ces "o ( degree ( complexity only1 or is x diff]5t 9 k9d8 ,let u consid] n[1 z an illu/ration ( ! me?od ( ! ab/ract sci5ces1 ! well-kn[n case ( ! discov]y ( ! planet ,neptune4 ,?is planet 0 discov]$ by calculation & d$uction1 & 0 only se5 :5 its position _h be5 s accurately det]m9$ t ! a/ronom]s :o se>*$ = x knew exactly ! po9t ( ! heav5s to :i* to direct _! telescopes4 ,! calculation 0 "o ( extraord9>y intricacy1 & 0 made indep5d5tly by two ma!maticians1 ,adams ( ,cambridge & ,lev]ri] ( ,p>is1 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahdc & #ahdf4 ,ea* communicat$ 8 result indep5d5tly--,adams to ! a/ronom] ,*allis1 ! ,director ( ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 & ,lev]ri] to ,dr4 ,galle ( ! ,b]l9 ,obs]vatory4 ,)9 six weeks ( "o ano!r & entirely unkn[n to "o ano!r1 9 ,augu/ & ,septemb] #ahdf1 ea* ( ^! a/ronom]s obs]v$ ! planet :]e he _h be5 told to look = x4 ,?is is "o ( ! romances ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,x is n ! discov]y b ! me?od t l$ to x :i* may ?r[ light on our problem ( ! nature ( tru?4 ,at fir/ sight ?is seems exactly to accord ) & ev5 to illu/rate ! pragmati/ !ory1 t tru? is :at works4 ,! inve/igation is prompt$ by ! discrepancies betwe5 ! actual & ! calculat$ positions ( ,uranus1 ! out]mo/ planet1 z x 0 !n suppos$1 ( ! sy/em4 ,?is reveal$ a ne$1 & ?is #fj ne$ 0 met by ! practical po/ulate ( ! exi/5ce ( ano!r planet z yet unse54 ,! hypo!sis 0 f\nd to "w ev5 be=e ! actual obs]vation put ! f9al seal ( actuality on ! discov]y4 ,:at else b ! practical consequ5ces ( ! tru? claim 9 ! =m ( ! hypo!sis ( an undiscov]$ planet 7 ev] 9 "q8 ,yes1 we reply1 b ! actual me?od adopt$1 & ! k s\ght = by ! me?od1 are precisely ( ! k9d t pragmatism rejects z useless k4 ,:y 7 n ! obs]v$ movem5ts ( ,uranus accept$ z :at !y 78 ,:y 0 x felt t !y mu/ be o!r ?an !y 7 se5 to be unless !re 0 ano!r planet8 ,! ne$ lay 9 ! idea ( sy/em4 ,x 0 inconsi/5t ) ! sy/em !n believ$ complete1 & ! ne$ 0 to f9d ! complete sy/em 9 :i* x w\ld h>monise4 ,! tru? t 0 s\ght = 0 a h>moni\s individual :ole1 & ! me?od employ$ precisely t :i* ! ,absoluti/ !ory ( reality employs4 ,!re is obs]v$ a discrepancy1 an inconsi/5cy1 a contradiction )9 ! :ole conceiv$ z a sy/em4 ,?is negation is treat$ z a defect1 is calculat$ & accurately det]m9$1 & is !n positively affirm$ ( ! reality4 ,n[1 :at is di/9ctive 9 ?is me?od is t reality is conceiv$ z a complete sy/em4 ,if ! felt defect 9 ?is sy/em _c be made good by direct discov]y1 its place is suppli$ by a fiction1 us+ ! t]m 9 its etymological mean+ to express some?+ made & n 9 its d]iv$ mean+ to express some?+ f\nd false4 ,?is intellectual process ( con/ruction is purely logical2 no psy*ological elem5t 9 ! s5se ( ! w to believe ent]s into x or col\rs x 9 any way4 ,?is is n an isolat$ in/ance1 x illu/rates ! me?od ( sci5ce 9 all !oris+4 ,an ev5 m #fa /rik+ illu/ration ?an t we h j giv5 is ! case ( ! hypo!sis ( ! lum9if]\s !r--a suppos$ exi/5ce1 a fiction1 t has s]v$ a useful1 ev5 an indisp5sable s]vice 9 ! hi/ory ( mod]n physics4 ,to _m physici/s1 ev5 to ,"l ,kelv91 ! hypo!sis seem$ s surely e/abli%$ t its nonexi/5ce h>dly seem$ ?9kable1 yet all ! exp]im5ts design$ to detect its pres5ce h be5 uni=mly negative 9 result1 & x n[ seems n ev5 necess>y z a hypo!sis1 & likely to disappe>4 ,! !r 0 n only n discov]$1 x 0 n ev5 suspect$ to exi/1 z 9 ! case ( ! unkn[n planet ,neptune--x 0 logically con/ruct$4 ,x 0 requir$ to support ! !ory ( ! undulatory nature ( light & to fulfil ! possibility ( light propagation 9 space4 ,x 0 !re=e a po/ulate1 call$ =? by a ne$--s f> we may adopt ! pragmati/ acc\nt4 ,b :at 0 ! nature ( ! ne$1 & :at 0 ! me?od by :i* ! po/ulate 0 call$ =?8 ,x is 9 answ]+ ?is "q t ! pragmati/ crit]ion fails4 ,! ne$ 0 intellectual 9 ! purely logical mean+ ( ! t]m1 & x 0 met by a purely logical con/ruction4 ,! ne$ 0 a practical human ne$ only 9 s f> z ! intellect work+ by logical process is a human end[m5t b n 9 any p]sonal s5se su* z is convey$ by ! t]m psy*ological4 ,will+ness or unwill+ness to believe1 desire1 av]sion1 int]e/ 7 all irrelevant4 ,giv5 ! intellect1 ! logical necessity 0 ! only ne$ t call$ =? by logical process ! tru?-claim+ hypo!sis ( ! !r4 ,b ev5 s1 ! pragmati/ w urge1 is its tru? any?+ else b its usefulness z %[n 9 ! practical consequ5ces ( believ+ x8 ,0 x n true :ile x 0 useful1 & is x n only n[ false1 if x is false1 if x is actually discov]$ n to be useful8 #fb ,! reply is t no ma!matician or physici/ w\ld recognise ! possibility ( work+ ) a conception ( tru? t simply id5tifi$ tru? ) utility1 & = ?is reason t he c only conceive reality z a sy/em ^: tru? is symbolis$ 9 an equation4 ,x is ! sy/em t det]m9es & *>act]ises ! po/ulate1 & n ! po/ulate advanc$ at a v5ture1 tri$ & v]ifi$1 t con/itutes ! sy/em4 ,! ma!matician beg9s by plac+ symbols to repres5t ! unkn[n factors 9 8 equation1 & proce$s by means ( 8 kn[n factors to det]m9e _! value4 ,! !r is at fir/ a pure fiction con/ruct$ to supply an unkn[n exi/5ce recognis$ z a defect4 ,its tru? _c mean t x works = x _c b "w1 hav+ be5 con/ruct$ purely = t purpose4 ,its tru? means t x corresponds to "s actual exi/5ce at pres5t unkn[n4 ,to prove its tru? ! physici/ does n appeal to its value z a hypo!sis1 b devises exp]im5ts by :i*1 if x does exi/1 its exi/5ce w be demon/rat$4 ,9 ?is actual case ! exp]im5ts h _h a uni=mly negative result1 & !re=e ! tru? ( ! hypo!sis is made d\btful or d5i$4 ,! hypo!sis cont9ues to "w z well z x ev] did1 & physici/s w probably long cont9ue to use x1 b x has fail$ to e/abli% its tru? claim4 ,! result is ! mod]n ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity1 :i*1 z we h already said1 has produc$ a revolution 9 mod]n physics4 ,! abolition ( ! !r w\ld h be5 impossible if ! physici/ _h be5 cont5t ) ! utility ( 8 hypo!sis & _h n exp]im5t$ to prove its tru?4 ,! relation betwe5 tru? & utility is ?us prov$ to be t x is useful to "k :at is true4 ,^! two illu/rations ( sci5tific me?od--namely1 ! discov]y ( ,neptune & ! negative discov]y #fc t ! !r is non-exi/5t--make x evid5t t v]ification is ! intellectual process n ( mak+ true1 b ( f9d+ true4 ,we c1 inde$1 di/+ui% q cle>ly ! two processes4 ,! fir/ process1 t ( mak+ true1 is ! con/ruct+ ( ! fiction by :i* we complete an incomplete sy/em1 & ! second is ! te/+ ( t fiction to see if x corresponds to any?+ actually exi/+4 ,no k9d ( intellectual activity w make an idea true1 & conv]sely we may say t 7 tru? only a utility1 !n k in/ead ( be+ sy/ematic w\ld be *aotic4 ,exi/5ce has its roots 9 reality1 n 9 k4 ,reality does n dep5d on tru?4 ,tru? is ! intellectual appreh5sion ( reality4 ,if ! pragmati/ objects t 9 ?is argum5t ,i h ?r\gh\t suppos$ him to be urg+ ! n>r[ mean+ ( utility1 namely1 t x is usefulness 9 ! /rictly practical s5se1 :]eas he int5ds x 9 ! wide/ possible mean+--a mean+ t includes !oretical usefulness--!n ! tr\ble is a diff]5t "o2 x is to "k h[ & :]e ! pragmati/ /ops %ort ( ! coh]5ce !ory ( tru?1 & :]e9 8 me?od diff]s f t ( ! ideali/4 ,?is br+s me to ! consid]ation ( ano!r !ory 9 :i* ! concept ( utility plays a l>ge1 inde$ a pr$om9ant "p4 ,?is is ! !ory ( ! relation ( k to life t is giv5 to u 9 ! philosophy ( ,b]gson4 ,i h 9 "o ( ! volumes ( ?is s]ies giv5 an acc\nt ( ?is philosophy2 ,i am "h only deal+ ) its relation to ?is special problem ( ! nature ( tru?4 ,x has be5 claim$ t ?is philosophy is only a =m ( pragmatism1 b x is n a !ory ( tru?1 & x has ?is ess5tial diff]5ce f pragmatism t x is ! intellect & n tru? t is a utility4 ,be=e we consid] ! "q t x gives #fd rise to 9 reg>d to tru?1 let u fir/ exam9e ! !ory ( ! intellect1 & ! nature ( its utility4 ,! intellect is a mode ( activity1 an end[m5t acquir$ 9 ! c\rse ( evolution1 & :i* has be5 reta9$ & p]fect$ because ( its utility4 ,?is does n mean t ! intellect directs u to :at is useful & inhibits u f c\rses fatal to life1 nei!r does x mean t x gives u any p[] to make true :at is n already true1 x means t ! p[] to acquire k is useful4 ,!re is a contra/ 9 our own exi/5ce betwe5 our life & our intellect4 ,to und]/& ! way 9 :i* ! intellect s]ves ! liv+ creature end[$ ) x1 we ne$ only reg>d x f ! /&po9t ( ord9>y exp]i5ce4 ,we "k 9 ourselves t our life is wid] ?an our intellect1 & t our intellect s]ves ! activity ( our life4 ,! common expressions we employ1 su* z us+ our wits1 tak+ an intellig5t int]e/1 try+ to ?9k1 all imply a utility di/9ct f ! intellect4 ,s view$1 our life appe>s z an active pr9ciple )9 u1 ma9ta9+ our organism 9 its relations1 active & passive1 & reactive to ! reality outside & indep5d5t ( x4 ,our intellect also seems bo? active & passive4 ,x receives ! influ5ces t /ream 9 ^u u f ! reality ar\nd u1 x appreh5ds & int]prets !m1 & works out ! l9es ( our possible action 9 reg>d to !m4 ,! influ5ces t fl[ 9 ^u u f ! outside _w are already select$ be=e our intellect appreh5ds !m1 = !y fl[ 9 by ! av5ues ( our s5ses1 & ! s5ses are natural in/rum5ts ( selection4 ,if we picture ^! influ5ces z vibrations1 !n we may say t a c]ta9 gr\p ( vibrations ( a v rapid frequ5cy are select$ by ! eye & give rise to vision1 t ano!r gr\p ( v mu* l[] frequ5cy are select$ by ! e> & #fe give ! s5sation ( s\nd1 & o!r gr\ps are select$ by ta/e1 smell1 & t\*4 ,_m gr\ps are kn[n indirectly by means ( artificial in/rum5ts1 & all ! inf9ite s]ies t unite ^! gr\ps ( ! actually exp]i5c$ vibrations escape our appreh5sion altoge!r--we h no means ( select+ !m4 ,b all ^! s5se data1 z we may call !m1 come to u )\t ex]tion or activity on our "p2 x is ! intellect :i* gives !m mean+1 :i* int]prets !m1 :i* makes !m ! appreh5sion or aw>5ess ( objects or ?+s4 ,& ! active "p t ! intellect plays is also a process ( selection4 ,?is is evid5t if we reflect ^u ! univ]sal =m :i* our intellectual activity takes1 namely1 att5tion4 ,x is 9 ! act ( att5tion t we are consci\s ( m5tal activity1 & att5tion is ess5tially selection--! selection ( an int]e/4 ,besides ! natural selection t is effect$ by our s5ses & ! consci\s selection t is manife/ 9 att5tion1 !re is also a m or less arbitr>y selection t our intellect p]=ms 9 m>k+ out ! l9es ( our practical int]e/ & possible action4 ,9 ?is "w ( selection ! intellect makes ! _w con=m to ! necessities ( our action4 ,s f> we h look$ at our intellectual end[m5t f ! /&po9t ( ord9>y common-s5se exp]i5ce4 ,let u n[ consid] ! philosophical !ory bas$ on ?is view1 :i* expla9s ! nature ( k by %[+ its purpose4 ,! intellect n only selects1 b 9 select+ trans=ms ! reality4 ,x pres5ts u ) k t inde$ corresponds ) reality1 = x is ess5tially a view ( reality1 b also 9 select+ x m>ks out divisions1 & gives to reality a =m t is det]m9$ by practical int]e/4 ,! same reality is diff]5t to diff]5t individuals & to diff]5t species accord+ to _! practical int]e/s4 #ff ,! practical end :i* ! human intellect s]ves is to pres5t u ) a field = our life activity4 ,?is is ! real _w = u1 z we "k x1 real objects 9 a real space4 ,_h we no o!r way ( kn[+ b t ( our intellect we %\ld n "k ! life :i* is active )9 u z x is really liv$1 we %\ld be z ^? :o1 /&+ outside1 wat* a movem5t1 & n z ^? :o are c>ri$ along 9 ! movem5t & exp]i5ce x f )94 ,9 life & intellect we h ! c\nt]p>t ( reality & appe>ance4 ,life is n some?+ t *anges2 x is ! *ange ( :i* ! some?+ is ! appe>ance4 ,life is ! reality ( :i* all ?+s1 z we und]/& !m1 are ! appe>ances1 & on acc\nt ( :i* !y appe>4 ,! solid ?+s 9 space & "t are n 9 reality :at !y appe>2 !y are views ( ! reality4 ,! intellect guid$ by our practical int]e/ pres5ts reality "u ?is =m ( solid spatial ?+s4 ,cle>ly1 !n1 if ?is view be true1 ! :ole _w1 z x is pres5t$ to u & ?\ght ( by u1 is an illusion4 ,our sci5ce is n unreal1 b x is a trans=m$ reality4 ,! illusions may be useful1 may1 inde$1 be necess>y & indisp5sable1 b nev]!less x is illusion4 ,b "h !re arises a new difficulty 9 reg>d to tru?4 ,if ! usefulness ( ! intellect consi/s 9 ! active production ( an illusion1 c we say t ! intellect leads u to tru?8 ,is x n only if we c turn away f ! intellect & obta9 a non-intellectual intuition t we c "k tru?8 #fg ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,illusion ,! doctr9e t ! _w t appe>s is ess5tially unlike ! _w t is is nei!r new nor peculi> to any p>ticul> !ory ( philosophy4 ,x has receiv$ a new int]e/ & a new int]pretation lately 9 ! !ory t we are n[ consid]+1 t ! clue to ! appe>ance ( ! _w to u is to be f\nd 9 ! conception ( ! nature ( ! utility ( ! intellect & 9 ! mode ( its activity4 ,! idea t we are p]haps disqualifi$ by our v nature itself f behold+ reality & kn[+ tru? is illu/rat$ 9 ! well-kn[n allegory 9 ! ,republic ( ,plato3 ,& n[ let me %[ 9 a figure h[ f> our nature is enlight5$ or un5light5$4 ,behold6 human be+s liv+ 9 an und]gr\nd d51 :i* has a m\? op5 t[>ds ! light & rea*+ all along ! d52 "h !y h be5 f _! *ildhood1 & h _! legs & necks *a9$ s t !y _c move & c only see be=e !m1 be+ prev5t$ by ! *a9s f turn+ r\nd _! heads4 ,above & beh9d !m a fire is blaz+ at a di/ance1 & betwe5 ! fire & ! prison]s !re is a rais$ way2 & y w see1 if y look1 a l[ wall built along ! way1 l ! scre5 :i* m>ionette play]s h 9 front ( !m1 ov] :i* !y %[ ! puppets4 ,& m5 are pass+ along ! wall c>ry+ all sorts ( vessels1 & /atues1 & figures ( animals made ( wood & /one & v>i\s mat]ials1 :i* appe> ov] ! wall4444 ,!y are /range prison]s1 l ourselves1 & !y see only _! own %ad[s or ! %ad[s ( "o ano!r :i* ! fire ?r[s on ! opposite wall ( ! cave4 ,& s also ( ! objects c>ri$ & ( ! pass]s-by2 to ! prison]s ! tru? w\ld be lit]ally no?+ b ! %ad[s ( ! images4 #fh ,& n[ look aga91 & see :at w naturally foll[ if ! prison]s are releas$ & disabus$ ( _! error4 ,at fir/1 :5 any ( !m1 is lib]at$ & compell$ sudd5ly to /& up & turn 8 neck r\nd & walk & look t[>ds ! light1 he w suff] %>p pa9s2 ! gl>e w di/ress him1 & he w be unable to see ! realities ( :i* 9 8 =m] /ate he _h se5 ! %ad[s4 ,& !n conceive someone say+ to him t :at he saw be=e 0 an illusion1 b t n[1 :5 he is approa*+ ne>] to be+1 & 8 eye is turn$ t[>ds m real exi/5ce1 he has a cle>] vision1 & :at w be 8 reply8 ,w he n fancy t ! %ad[s :i* he =m]ly saw are tru] ?an ! objects :i* are n[ %[n to him8444 ,& suppose t he is =c$ into ! pres5ce ( ! sun himself1 is he n likely to be pa9$ & irritat$8 ,:5 he approa*es ! light 8 eyes w be dazzl$1 & he w n be able to see any?+ at all ( :at are n[ call$ realities4 ,! ?\ght t ,plato has express$ 9 ?is wond]ful allegory has ent]$ deeply into all philosophy4 ,:at we fir/ take = reality is m]ely a %ad[ _w4 ,b 9 ,plato's view x is ! intellect :i* gives u ! means ( escape1 ! p[] to turn f ! illusion to behold ! reality4 ,x is n until n[ t philosophy has s\ght ! clue to ! illusion 9 ! nature ( ! intellect itself4 ,! v in/rum5t ( tru? is unfitt$ to reveal to u ! reality z x is1 because its nature & purpose is to trans=m reality1 to make reality appe> 9 a =m :i*1 ?\gh ( p>am\nt importance to u z active be+s1 is ess5tially an illusion4 ,! intellectual b5t ( our m9d leads u away f1 & n t[>ds a vision ( reality 9 its purity4 ,! m our intellect progresses1 & ! m & m cle>ly we #fi see into a great] & ev] great] numb] ( ?+s1 ! f>!r are we f1 & n ! ne>] to a grasp ( reality z x is4 ,to obta9 ?is vision ( reality we h to turn away f ! intellect & f9d ourselves aga9 9 t wid] life out ( :i* ! intellect is =m$4 ,life1 z x lives1 is an intuition t is non9tellectual4 ,human intellig5ce1 writes ,b]gson1 is n at all :at ,plato taught 9 ! allegory ( ! cave4 ,its function is n to look at pass+ %ad[s1 nor yet to turn itself r\nd & contemplate ! gl>+ sun4 ,x has some?+ else to d4 ,h>ness$1 l yok$ ox51 to a heavy task1 we feel ! play ( our muscles & jo9ts1 ! weight ( ! pl\gh1 & ! resi/ance ( ! soil4 ,to act & to "k t we are act+1 to come into t\* ) reality & ev5 to live x1 b only 9 ! measure 9 :i* x conc]ns ! "w t is be+ accompli%$ & ! furr[ t is be+ pl\gh$1 su* is ! function ( human intellig5ce4 ,! illusion to :i* our intellectual nature subjects u is ! necessity we are "u to reg>d ! ?+s ( ! univ]se z m ultimate1 z m fundam5tal ?an ! movem5t :i* actuates ! univ]se4 ,x seems to u impossible t !re c\ld exi/ movem5t or *ange1 unless !re already exi/$ ?+s to be mov$ or *ang$1 ?+s ^: nature is n alt]$1 b only _! =m & _! ext]nal relations1 :5 !y are mov$ or *ang$4 ,?is necessity ( ?\ght seems to h receiv$ au?oritative recognition 9 all attempts1 religi\s & sci5tific1 to conceive orig9s4 ,?us we read 9 ! ,book ( ,g5esis3 ,9 ! beg9n+ ,god creat$ ! heav5 & ! e>?4 ,& ! e>? 0 )\t =m1 & void2 & d>kness 0 ^u ! face ( ! deep4 ,& ! ,_s ( ,god mov$ ^u ! face ( ! wat]s4 #gj ,! matt] ( ! univ]se1 x is felt1 mu/ be 9 exi/5ce be=e ! movem5t :i* vivifies x4 ,! dead in]t /uff mu/ be creat$ be=e x c receive ! brea? ( life4 ,& if ,god ! creator is conceiv$ z liv+ be=e ! matt] :i* ,he has creat$1 x is z an ext]nal pr9ciple1 ! relation ( :i* to ! creation is by mo/ religi\s m9ds ?\ght to transc5d ! p[] ( ! f9ite und]/&+ to conceive4 ,! same fundam5tal conception ( ! primacy ( matt] ov] movem5t is evid5t 9 ! sci5tific !ories ( ! nature & orig9 ( life4 ,life appe>s to sci5ce z a =m ( en]gy t requires ?+s1 matt] occupy+ space1 to support x4 ,accord+ to "o view1 life is ! result ( a c]ta9 comb9ation or syn!sis ( *emical or physical elem5ts1 previ\sly exi/+ sep>ately--a comb9ation ( v great complexity1 & "o t may possibly h occurr$ once only 9 ! long process ( nature1 b :i* nev]!less might be1 & "s ?9k probably1 or ev5 c]ta9ly1 w be br\ght ab\t by a *emi/ work+ 9 8 laboratory4 ,?is is ! me*ani/ic or mat]iali/ view4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is ! !ory ( vitalism4 ,life1 x is cont5d$1 _c be due to su* a syn!sis ( mat]ial elem5ts z ! me*ani/ic view supposes1 because x is ( ! nature ( an entele*y--t is1 an individual exi/5ce :i* functions1 z a :ole1 9 e m9ute/ "p ( ! organism x vitalises4 ,life has sup]v5$ ^u1 & n aris5 out ( ! mat]ial organism :i* x guides & controls n by relat+ indep5d5t p>ts1 b by mak+ e "p subs]ve ! activity & unity ( ! :ole4 ,b ! vitali/ !ory1 z well z ! me*ani/ic !ory1 conceives ! movem5t & *ange :i* is life z dep5d5t on ! previ\s exi/5ce ( a matt] or /uff :i* is mov$ or *ang$4 ,! philosophical #ga conception diff]s1 !re=e1 f bo? ^! !ories4 ,x is t life is an orig9al movem5t1 & t ?is movem5t is ! :ole reality ( :i* ?+s1 in]t matt]1 ev5 spatial ext5sion1 are appe>ances4 ,true duration is *ange1 n ! p]man5ce ( some?+ amid/ *ange4 ,!re are no un*ang+ ?+s4 ,ev]y?+ *anges4 ,reality is ! flux2 ?+s are views ( ! flux1 arre/s or contractions ( ! fl[+ t ! intellect makes4 ,! appe>ance ( ! _w to u is our intellectual grasp ( a reality t fl[s4 ,?is orig9al movem5t is ! life ( ! univ]se4 ,briefly /at$1 ! argum5t on :i* ! !ory is bas$ is t x is logically impossible to expla9 *ange by *angelessness1 movem5t by immobility4 ,real *ange _c be a succession ( /ates !mselves fix$ & *angeless2 real movem5t _c be ! immobile positions 9 :i* "s ?+ is successively at re/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if movem5t is orig9al1 ! int]ruption ( movem5t1 9 :atev] way effect$1 w appe> z ?+s4 ,! exp]i5ce :i* confirms ?is argum5t is ! insight t ev]yone may obta9 ( ! reality ( 8 own life z cont9u\s movem5t1 unceas+ *ange1 :]e9 all t exi/s exi/s toge!r 9 a pres5t activity4 ,to develop ?is argum5t w\ld exce$ ! limits ( ?is book1 & w\ld be outside its purpose4 ,x is ess5tial1 h[ev]1 t su* a !ory %\ld be und]/ood1 = cle>ly x is possible to hold n only t we are subject to illusion1 b t illusion is ( ! v nature ( intellectual appreh5sion4 ,if1 !n1 ! und]/&+ works illusion = ! sake ( action1 is x !reby disqualifi$ z an in/rum5t = ! atta9m5t ( tru?8 ,we are br\ght1 !n1 to ! critical po9t ( our inquiry4 ,if illusion is ! ess5tial condition ( human activity1 if ! intellect1 ! v in/rum5t ( tru?1 #gb is itself affect$1 :at is to save u f univ]sal scepticism8 ,if ! salt h lo/ 8 sav\r1 :]e) %all x be salt$8 ,! intellect ) its frames & m\lds %apes liv+ *ange & movem5t into fix$ immobile /ates2 ! process ( kn[+ alt]s pr(\ndly ! reality kn[n4 ,mu/ we n conclude t k1 h[ev] useful1 is n true8 ,& to :at %all we turn = tru?8 ,!re is1 inde$1 if ?is be s1 a deep] irony 9 ! "q1 ,:at is tru?8 ?an ev5 ,pilate c\ld h imag9$4 ,we h absolutely no practical conc]n ) tru?--we mu/ leave x to ! my/ic1 to ! unpractical1 ! contemplative man :o has turn$ aside f ! /]n task ( busy life4 ,x is n s4 ,! problem t seems s fundam5tal admits a q simple solution4 ,illusion is n error1 nor is x falsehood2 x is ! appe>ance ( reality4 ,x is ! reality t appe>s1 & :5 we grasp ! pr9ciple ( utility we und]/& ! %ape t ! appe>ance mu/ assume4 ,?is %ape may seem to u a di/ortion1 b 9 recognis+ appe>ance we are 9 t\* ) reality1 & practical int]e/ is ! key t op5s to u ! int]pretation ( intellectual exp]i5ce4 ,& x is n only by ! intellect t we int]pret ! nature ( reality1 = besides logic !re is life1 & 9 life we directly p]ceive ! reality t 9 logic we ?9k ab\t4 ,! intellect1 !n1 does n make tru?1 nei!r does x make reality2 x makes reality take ! =m ( spatial ?+s1 & x makes ?+s seem to be ! gr\nd ( reality4 ,7 our nature n intellectual1 if all consci\sness 0 intuitive1 ! _w w\ld n !n appe> z ?+s--!re w\ld be no ?+s4 ,b1 not)/&+ t our _w is an illusion1 x is n ! less on t acc\nt a true _w1 & our sci5ce is true k1 9 ! objective mean+ ( tru?1 = #gc once an illusion is int]pret$1 x becomes an integral "p ( ! conception ( reality4 ,x w\ld be easy to f9d abundant illu/ration ( ?is fact )9 sci5ce itself4 ,?us 9 ! famili> case ( ! /raight /ick :i* appe>s b5t :5 p>tly imm]s$ 9 wat]1 z soon z ! illusion is und]/ood z due to ! diff]5t refraction ( light 9 m$ia ( diff]5t d5sity1 air & wat]1 x ceases to be an illusion4 ,we !n recognise t if a p>tly imm]s$ /ick did n appe> b5t1 x w\ld really be b5t4 ,aga91 ! illusion t cl+s to u mo/ p]si/5tly ?r\gh\t our exp]i5ce is t :i* is connect$ ) movem5t & re/4 ,! sy/em ( movem5t 9 :i* we are ourselves c>ri$ along appe>s to u /ation>y1 :ile t :i* is outside x seems alone to move4 ,9 v simple cases1 su* z view+ ! l&scape f a railway-c>riage w9d[1 habit has long caus$ ! illusion to cease1 b we all rememb] ! *ild's feel+ t ! trees & fields 7 fly+ pa/ u4 ,! e>?'s motion nev] becomes to u a real exp]i5ce ( movem5t1 we accept ! fact & nev] d\bt ! sci5tific evid5ce on :i* x re/s1 yet we always speak & ?9k ( sunrise & sunset2 & ?is is n m]ely due to ! accid5t t our language 0 fix$ be=e ! nature ( ! cele/ial movem5t 0 kn[n1 b to a natural illusion :i* x is f> m conv5i5t to reta9 ?an to ab&on4 ,! fact ( illusion is n ! t5et ( any p>ticul> philosophy1 nor ev5 ( philosophy itself2 x is a recognis$ factor 9 common life & 9 physical sci5ce1 b 9 in/anc+ ! !ory ( ,b]gson's philosophy ,i am *oos+ an extreme case4 ,b]keley held t illusion is practically univ]sal2 ,kant taught t ! app>5t objectivity ( ph5om5a is ! =m t ! und]/&+ imposes on ?+s2 b ,b]gson tea*es #gd n only t all mat]ial reality is illusion1 b also t ?is v illusion is ! "w ( ! intellect1 t ! intellect is =m$ = ?is purpose1 intellect & matt] be+ correlative1 evolv+ p>i passu4 ,to su* a doctr9e !re is ( necessity a positive side1 = x is impossible t x c re/ on univ]sal scepticism--scepticism bo? ( k & ( ! in/rum5t ( k4 ,if ! intellectual view ( reality z solid matt] 9 absolute space is illusion1 x mu/ be possible to appreh5d ! reality f :i* ! judgm5t t x is illusion is d]iv$4 ,if ! intellect di/orts1 !re mu/ be an intuition :i* is pure1 & ! relation betwe5 ^! w be ! relation betwe5 reality & appe>ance4 ,nei!r1 !n1 is reality tru?1 nor appe>ance error4 ,!re is a tru? ( appe>ance1 a tru? t is a value 9 itself1 a tru? t is m ?an ! m]e negation t appe>ance is n reality4 ,! appe>ance is our hold ^u ! reality1 our actual contact ) x1 ! mode & direction ( our action ^u x4 ,:at1 !n1 is error8 ,x _c consi/ 9 ! fact t we "k appe>ance only1 n reality1 = we c only "k reality by its appe>ance4 ,x _c be an appe>ance beh9d :i* !re is no reality1 = non-be+ _c appe>4 ,x _c be no?+ at all or pure non-be+1 = to ?9k ( absolute no?+ is n to ?9k4 ,9 error !re is "s object ( ?\ght :i* is d5i$ real be+4 ,:at ?is is is ! problem ( error4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,error ,9 ! ,!tetus ( ,plato1 ,socrates has be5 discuss+ ) ,!tetus :at k is1 & :5 at la/ agreem5t seems to be rea*$ 9 ! def9ition t #ge k is true op9ion1 a new difficulty occurs to ,socrates3 ,!re is a po9t :i* (t5 tr\bles me & is a great p]plexity to me bo? 9 reg>d to myself & to o!rs4 ,i _c make out ! nature or orig9 ( ! m5tal exp]i5ce to :i* ,i ref]4 ,h[ !re c be false op9ion--t difficulty /ill tr\bles ! eye ( my m9d4 ,d we n speak ( false op9ion1 & say t "o man holds a false & ano!r a true op9ion1 z ?\gh !re 7 "s natural di/9ction betwe5 !m8 ,all ?+s & ev]y?+ are ei!r kn[n or n kn[n4 ,he :o kn[s1 _c b "k2 & he :o does n "k1 _c "k4444 ,:]e1 !n1 is false op9ion8 ,= if all ?+s are ei!r kn[n or unkn[n1 !re c be no op9ion :i* is n compreh5d$ "u ?is alt]native1 & s false op9ion is exclud$4 ,?is difficulty may appe> at fir/ sight purely v]bal1 & we %all p]haps be incl9$ to see ! answ] to x 9 ! d\ble use t we make ( ! ^w k4 ,we use ! ^w 9 two s5ses1 9 "o ( :i* x includes all & ev]y?+ t is or c be pres5t to ! m9d 9 ?9k+1 & 9 ano!r & n>r[] s5se ! ^w k means tru?4 ,x 0 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! ^w t :atev] is n true is n k t ,socrates int]pret$ ! mean+ ( ! ,delphic oracle t _h decl>$ him ! wise/ ( m54 ,8 wisdom mu/ be1 he said1 t :]eas o!r m5 seem$ to be wise & to "k some?+1 he knew t he knew no?+4 ,all m5 h op9ion1 b op9ion is n k1 ?\gh easily & g5]ally mi/ak5 = x4 ,8 p]plexity 0 to und]/& :at actually ?is false op9ion c\ld be :i* pass$ = k4 ,x c\ld n be no?+ at all1 = !n x w\ld simply mean ignorance2 b 9 false op9ion #gf "s object is pres5t to ! m9d4 ,ev]y?+ t ! m9d ?9ks ( has be+4 ,a ?+ may h be+ t does n exi/ if by exi/5ce is meant ! p>ticul> exi/5ce ( an ev5t 9 "t1 = mo/ ( ! ?+s we ?9k ab\t are timeless--!y are ideas1 su* z :it5ess1 goodness1 numb]s & ! prop]ties ( numb]s1 fai?1 love1 & su*-l4 ,all su* ideas are call$ univ]sals1 because _! reality does n mean t !y exi/ at "o p>ticul> mom5t & no o!r1 b !y are real1 !y h be+4 ,h[1 !n1 c !re be any?+ int]m$iate betwe5 be+ & n be+1 any?+ t is & also is n1 = ?is is :at false op9ion or error seems to be8 ,!re is1 !n1 a problem ( error1 & x is q di/9ct f ! problem ( tru?4 ,! problem ( tru? is to "k by :at crit]ion we c te/ ! agreem5t ( our ideas ) reality2 ! problem ( error is to "k h[ !re c be false op9ion4 ,!re is false op9ion1 ( ?is no "o ne$s to be conv9c$2 b :]e its place is 9 ! fundam5tal s*eme ( ! m5tal process1 9 :at precisely x consi/s1 :e!r x is purely a negation or :e!r x has a positive nature ( its own1 ?is is ! problem we h n[ to consid]4 ,!re is an important di/9ction 9 logic betwe5 :at is contradictory & :at is contr>y4 ,( two contradictory propositions "o mu/ be true1 ! o!r mu/ be false2 b ( two contr>y propositions "o mu/ be false1 b bo? may be false4 ,( contradictory propositions "o is always a pure negation1 "o decl>es ! non-exi/5ce ( :at ! o!r affirms ! exi/5ce2 b ( contr>y propositions ea* has a positive cont5t1 & bo? may be false4 ,a true proposition may be bas$ on a false op9ion1 & x is v important to h a cle> idea ( :at we int5d by false op9ion4 ,we d n mean by false op9ion su* pla9ly false #gg propositions z t two & two are five or t !re may be no corn]s 9 a squ>e--su* propositions are false1 because !y contradict propositions t are self-evid5t4 ,if anyone %\ld s]i\sly affirm !m1 we %\ld n1 ,i ?9k1 say t su* a "o _h a false op9ion1 b t he fail$1 p]haps ?r\gh "s illusion1 to und]/& ! mean+ ( ! t]ms he 0 us+4 ,an example ( :at w\ld n[1 ,i suppose1 be unque/ionably reg>d$ by ev]yone z error is t :ole body ( op9ion t f\nd expression 9 ! !ory & practice ( wit*craft4 ,?is 0 once almo/ univ]sally accept$1 & ?\gh probably at no p]iod nor 9 any c\ntry 0 !re n "s "o :o d\bt$ or disbeliev$1 /ill ! reasons ( su* d\bt or disbelief w\ld probably be v diff]5t f ^? reasons :i* lead u to reject x to-day4 ,= wit*craft 0 gr\nd$ on a g5]al belief t spiritual ag5cies1 b5efic5t & malign1 7 ! cause ( mat]ial well-be+ or evil4 ,?is conception has n[ giv5 place to ! me*ani/ic or naturali/ic !ory on :i* our mod]n physical sci5ce is bas$4 ,we int]pret all physical occurr5ces z caus$ by mat]ial ag5cy4 ,b ?is belief1 q z mu* z ! belief 9 spiritual ag5cies1 is op9ion1 n k1 & x may be false4 ,x is conceivable t future g5]ations w reject our sci5tific notions1 self-evid5t ?\gh !y seem to u1 z completely z we reject ! notions ( ! d>k ages4 ,x is ev5 conceivable t ! :ole ( our mod]n sci5ce may come to appe> to mank9d z n ev5 an approximation to k4 ,error1 l illusion1 may be univ]sal4 ,no "o ^: op9ion c\nts z a rational belief n[ holds t sickness may be caus$ by ! malign influ5ce ( ! evil eye1 & t ?is influ5ce may be neutralis$ by mak+ ! sign ( ! cross2 "s1 b v few1 believe t a #gh sick man may be heal$ by ! pray]s & ano9t+ ( righte\s m52 _m believe t mat]ial disease1 h[ev] malignant1 may be expell$ f ! body by fai?2 :ile ! majority ( rational m51 :atev] indep5d5t religi\s views !y hold1 reg>d sickness & disease z mat]ial 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 & expect !m to yield to drugs & treatm5t4 ,n[1 ( ^! v>i\s op9ions "s mu/ be false1 :ile all may be false4 ,let u add "s illu/rations f philosophy4 ,"s philosoph]s hold1 9 common ) g5]al op9ion1 t s5se exp]i5ce is caus$ by physical objects2 o!rs hold t !re are no physical objects1 b t consci\sness is ! "o & only reality2 & !re are o!rs :o ?9k t ! reality t gives rise to our s5se exp]i5ce is nei!r physical 9 ! s5se ( a mat]ial ?+1 nor m5tal 9 ! s5se ( consci\sness or ?\ght1 b is movem5t or *ange--*ange t requires no support & is absolute4 ,all ^! are op9ions1 & may be false1 & our belief t any "o ( !m is true does n dep5d on imm$iate exp]i5ce1 b on reasons4 ,! be/ t c be said 9 fav\r ( any belief is t !re is no reason = suppos+ x false1 & ! wor/ t c be said aga9/ any belief is t !re is no reason = suppos+ x true4 ,our problem1 !n1 is to "k :at con/itutes ! nature ( error 9 any "o ( ^! examples if x is1 z ea* "o may be1 false8 ,! in/ances we h giv5 are all ( !m propositions or judgm5ts1 or else conceptions =m$ out ( propositions or judgm5ts1 ! purpose ( :i* is to int]pret exp]i5ce4 ,! actual exp]i5ce itself1 9 s f> z x consi/s ( ! actual pres5ce ( ! object to ! m9d aw>e ( x1 is1 z we h se51 nei!r tru? nor error2 x simply is :at x is4 ,x is ! conceptions by :i* we int]pret ?is exp]i5ce t are #gi true or false4 ,& our problem is t ! mean+ or cont5t ( a conception1 t :i* is pres5t to ! m9d :5 we make a judgm5t1 is precisely ! same :e!r ! conception is true or false1 !re is no di/9ctive m>k or feature by :i* we c "k t 9 ! "o case ! object ( ?\ght is a real or actual fact1 9 ! o!r an op9ion to :i* no reality corresponds4 ,&1 fur!r1 x seems exce$+ly difficult to und]/& 9 :at way a non-reality c be pres5t to ! m9d at all4 ,let u n[ exam9e "s attempts to solve ?is problem1 & fir/ ( all let u take ! pragmati/ solution4 ,pragmatism claims t x has no difficulty 9 expla9+ error1 because1 z we h already se51 x ackn[l$ges no o!r te/ or crit]ion ( tru? except a pragmatic "o4 ,e proposition or judgm5t t we make mu/1 9 ord] to h any mean+ :atev]1 be relevant to "s human purpose2 e su* proposition is a tru?-claim2 & e tru?-claim is te/$ by its workability4 ,consequ5tly1 error is simply ! failure ( a proposition to e/abli% its claim by ! practical te/ ( work+4 ,propositions m>k$ by su* failure are errors4 ,z !re is no tru? indep5d5t ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 no irrelevant tru?1 no tru? indep5d5t ( ! conditions "u :i* its claim is put =w>d1 !re is no tru? t may n become error4 ,no judgm5t1 accord+ to pragmatism1 is an error pure & simple--t is to say1 x _c come into exi/5ce z error1 = x comes claim+ tru?1 & ma9ta9+ t claim until *all5g$2 x becomes an error 9 retrospect only1 & always 9 relation to ano!r judgm5t :i* corrects x4 ,error does n *>act]ise a class ( judgm5ts2 x is some?+ t happ5s to a judgm5t1 x is a judgm5t ^: tru?-claim is reject$ 9 ref]5ce to ano!r judgm5t #hj :i* succe$s4 ,! ess5tial ?+ 9 ! pragmati/ doctr9e ( error is t 9 claim+ to be true a judgm5t is n *all5g+ comp>ison ) "s indep5d5t reality1 nor is x claim+ to belong to a timeless ord] ( exi/5ce--to be et]nal2 x is claim+ to fulfil ! p>ticul> purpose = :i* x has be5 call$ =?1 :e!r t purpose be practical or !oretical4 ,let u n[ consid] ! explanation ( error (f]$ by ! ideali/ philosophy4 ,9 ?is view only ! :ole tru? is :olly true2 ! ,absolute1 z a p]fect1 concrete1 individual sy/em1 is ! ideal1 & all t falls %ort ( x c only possess a degree ( tru?--a degree :i* is great] or less accord+ z x approximates to ! ideal4 ,! degrees ( tru? are n quantitative1 n a mixture ( tru? & error1 b a ne>] or m di/ant approa* to ! ideal4 ,!re c be no absolute error1 because if tru? is ! :ole1 error1 if x exi/s at all1 mu/ 9 "s way be includ$ 9 tru?4 ,cle>ly error _c z su* be tru?1 & !re=e x mu/ foll[ t1 9 ! :ole1 error loses its "* ( error1 & f9ds reconciliation ( its contradiction to tru?4 ,error1 !n1 if x is some?+1 & n a pure negation1 is p>tial or incomplete tru?2 ! p]plexity & contradiction t x gives rise to are incid5tal to our p>tial view4 ,k1 x mu/ seem to u1 c exi/ only = omnisci5ce4 ,unless we "k ev]y?+1 we "k no?+4 ,^! two doctr9es are 9 a s5se ! exact anti!sis ( "o ano!r4 ,!y agree toge!r 9 ?is1 t 9 ea* ! explanation ( error foll[s z a consequ5ce ( ! conception ( ! nature ( tru?4 ,! pragmati/ !ory implies t !re is no tru? 9 any real s5se1 b only m or less successful error4 ,! ideali/ !ory implies t !re is no real error1 b only a v>iety 9 ! degree ( tru?4 #ha ,mo/ p1 h[ev]1 are conv9c$ t tru? & error are n relat$ to "o ano!r1 nor to ! circum/ances t call =? belief or disbelief4 ,let u n[ exam9e a !ory t recognises ?is4 ,!re are false judgm5ts1 & !y ne$ explanation2 error has a nature ( its own4 ,if a judgm5t is false1 x is absolutely & unalt]ably false2 if x is true1 x is unconditionally true & ) no res]ve4 ,no logical process1 no psy*ological disposition1 c make :at is false true4 ,error mu/ lie 9 ! nature ( k1 & to discov] t nature we mu/ und]/& ! !ory ( k & det]m9e ! exact nature ( ! m5tal act 9 kn[+4 ,! fir/ ess5tial is to di/+ui% ! k9d ( k to :i* tru? & error c apply4 ,we po9t$ out 9 ! second *apt] t all k re/s ultimately on imm$iate exp]i5ce4 ,9 imm$iate exp]i5ce ! relation betwe5 ! m5tal act ( kn[+ & ! object t is kn[n is s simple t any "q z to tru? or error 9 reg>d to x is unmean+4 ,to "q ! tru? ( imm$iate exp]i5ce is to "q its exi/5ce2 x is to ask if x is :at x is1 & ?is is pla9ly unmean+4 ,b ?9k+1 we said1 is que/ion+ exp]i5ce 9 ord] to "k its cont5t or mean+1 & 9 ?9k+1 ! simplicity ( ! relation :i* unites ! m9d to its object 9 imm$iate exp]i5ce is left beh9d1 & a logical process ( v great complexity takes its place4 ,x is 9 ?is complexity t ! possibility ( error lies4 ,let u look at x a little m closely4 ,kn[+ is a relation :i* unites two ?+s1 "o ! m9d t kn[s1 ! o!r ! ?+ kn[n4 ,9 e act ( kn[+1 some?+ is pres5t to ! m9d2 if kn[+ is simply aw>5ess ( ?is actually pres5t some?+1 we call x imm$iate exp]i5ce1 we are acqua9t$ ) ! object4 ,b our k is n only ( objects #hb imm$iately pres5t to ! m9d & ) :i* we are !re=e acqua9t$4 ,k embraces ! pa/ & future & ! di/ant realms ( space4 ,inde$ 7 k only ( :at is actually pres5t to ! m9d1 x is difficult to imag9e t we c\ld1 9 ! ord9>y mean+ ( ! ^w1 "k any?+ at all4 ,i may be ?9k+1 = example1 ( an abs5t fri5d2 all t is pres5t to my m9d is1 x may be1 a memory image1 a fa9t recall ( 8 appe>ance on "s "o occasion1 or p]haps a recollection ( ! tone ( 8 voice1 or x may be ! black m>ks on :ite pap] :i* ,i recognise z 8 h&writ+4 ,?is image is pres5t to my m9d1 b ! image is n ! object1 my fri5d1 ab\t :om ,i ?9k & make endless judgm5ts1 true & false4 ,s also1 if :at is pres5t to ! m9d is affect+ me ?r\gh ! ext]nal s5ses1 if x is a s5se impression1 x is cle> t :at is actually pres5t is n ! :ole object ( :i* ,i am aw>e1 b only a v small "p ( x1 or1 x may be1 no "p ( x at all1 b some?+1 a s\nd1 or an od\r1 t repres5ts x4 ,! imm$iate data ( consci\sness are nam$ by "s philosoph]s s5se data1 by o!rs1 pres5tations1 by o!rs images1 & !re is mu* controv]sy z to _! nature & exi/5ce1 b ) ?is controv]sy we are n "h conc]n$--we are seek+ to make cle> an obvi\s di/9ction1 namely1 ! di/9ction betwe5 k by acqua9tance & k by description4 ,:at k9d ( k is x t we acquire by description8 ,k ab\t ?+s ) :i* we are n fir/ acqua9t$4 ,! mo/ important k t we possess or acquire is k ( objects :i* we "k only by ! k we h ab\t !m--objects t we "k ab\t )\t kn[+ !m4 ,!y are n direct impressions on our s5ses1 #hc nor are !y ideas kn[n 9 actual exp]i5ce4 ,we make judgm5ts ab\t !m1 & ! subjects ab\t :i* we make ^! judgm5ts are really compos$ ( ^! judgm5ts t we make ab\t !m4 ,to g back to our illu/rations1 we may "k a great deal ab\t ! evil eye1 a malignant influ5ce1 disease1 fai?1 heal+1 causality1 physical objects1 )\t any acqua9tance ) !m1 )\t ev5 kn[+ t !y exi/4 ,su* k is descriptive1 & ! objects are descriptions4 ,k by description is nev] q simple1 & is (t5 v complex1 =1 besides ! relation ( ! m5tal act to ! object kn[n1 !re are ! t]ms & relations :i* are ! elem5ts 9 ! judgm5t & ! relations ( ! judgm5ts !mselves4 ,if we analyse a judgm5t1 e ^w 9 :i* x is express$1 :e!r x is a n\n or a v]b or a preposition or a conjunction1 conveys a di/9ct mean+1 indicates a t]m or a relation1 ea* ( :i* c be made a di/9ct object to ! m9d1 & all ( :i* are comb9$ 9 ! s+le mean+ ! judgm5t expresses4 ,x is 9 ?is complexity t ! possibility ( error lies1 & ! possibility increases z ! complexity increases4 ,all ! t]ms & ! relations :i* a judgm5t conta9s dep5d on ! k we h by acqua9tance--t is to say1 we are ultimately dep5d5t on our actual exp]i5ce = all k :atev]1 :e!r x is acqua9tance or description1 = we c only describe 9 t]ms ) :i* we are acqua9t$2 b 9 ! judgm5t ^! elem5ts are comb9$ into new objects1 or a c]ta9 relation is decl>$ to exi/ betwe5 objects1 & x is ?is comb9ation ( ! elem5ts ( ! judgm5t t involves its tru? or falsehood4 ,if ?is view ( ! nature ( ! m5tal act ( kn[+ is accept$1 we are able to und]/& h[ false op9ion #hd is consi/5t ) ! fact t all k is tru?4 ,we escape bo? ! alt]natives t seem$ to ,socrates ! only possible ones4 ,:5 a man has a false op9ion1 does he ?9k t :i* he kn[s to be "s o!r ?+ :i* he kn[s1 & kn[+ bo? is he at ! same "t ignorant ( bo?8 ,or does he ?9k ( some?+ :i* he does n "k z "s o!r ?+ :i* he does n "k8 ,no1 nei!r2 9 error he ?9ks t some?+ t he kn[s is 9 a relation t he kn[s to "s o!r ?+ t he kn[s1 :5 9 fact t relation is n relat+ ! two ?+s4 ,! false proposition is n "o 9 :i* ! con/itu5t t]ms & relations are unkn[n or non-exi/5t1 b "o 9 :i* a comb9ation ( ^! t]ms & relations is ?\ght to exi/ :5 9 fact x does n exi/2 & ! true proposition is t 9 :i* ! comb9ation ?\ght to exi/ does exi/4 ,we c1 !re=e1 if ?is acc\nt be true1 at lea/ "k :at false op9ion or error c be1 :e!r or n we h any means ( decid+ 9 reg>d to any p>ticul> op9ion t x is false4 ,!re is "o o!r !ory1 ! la/ we %all notice4 ,x is 9 "o respect ! mo/ important ( all1 namely1 t x is ! mo/ direct attempt to grapple ) ! problem ( error4 ,x is f\nd$ on a !ory ( k :i* we owe ma9ly to ! pr(\nd & acute "w ( a ,g]man philosoph] 7,me9ong71 & :i* at ! pres5t "t is be+ ke5ly discuss$4 ,x is an attempt to det]m9e m exactly ?an has yet be5 done ! fundam5tal s*eme ( ! m5tal life & developm5t4 ,! brief acc\nt t ,i am n[ (f]+1 ,i owe to a pap] by ,pr(4 ,g4 ,f4 ,/\t on ,"s ,fundam5tal ,po9ts 9 ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,we h se5 t ! problem ( error is ! difficulty !re is 9 conceiv+ h[ !re c be any real ?+1 any real #he object ( ?\ght1 int]m$iate betwe5 be+ & n-be+4 ,error seems to exi/ & yet to h a nature :i* is a negation ( exi/5ce1 & x seems !re=e to be a d[nright contradiction :5 we affirm t error or false op9ion c be--t !re is a real object ( ?\ght :5 we judge falsely4 ,?is !ory meets ! difficulty directly by di/+ui%+ 9 ! m5tal act ( kn[+ a process t is nei!r p]ceiv+ nor ?9k+ ( ?+s1 & t involves nei!r believ+ nor disbeliev+ on ! "o h& nor desir+ or will+ on ! o!r3 ?is is ! process ( suppos+4 ,correspond+ to ?is m5tal act ( suppos+1 !re is a di/9ct k9d ( object int5d$ or meant by ! m9d--an object t is nei!r a s5se datum nor an idea1 nor a judgm5t1 b a supposition4 ,also & aga9 correspond+ to ?is m5tal act ( suppos+ & its int5d$ object ! supposition1 !re is a mode ( be+ :i* is nei!r exi/5ce nor non-exi/5ce1 b is nam$ subsi/5ce4 ,a supposition1 x is said1 does n exi/--x subsi/s4 ,?is !sis1 x w easily be und]/ood1 is bas$ on an analysis1 & deals ) argum5ts t t\* ! mo/ fundam5tal problems ( !ory ( k4 ,moreov]1 its pres5tm5t is excessively te*nical1 & only ^? highly tra9$ 9 ! habit ( psy*ological introspection & skill$ 9 philosophical analysis are really compet5t to discuss x4 ,x is n possible to (f] "h any?+ b a simple outl9e ( ! "p ( ! !ory t conc]ns ! pres5t problem4 ,! actual exp]i5ce ( kn[+ is a relation betwe5 two ?+s1 "o ( :i* is a m5tal act1 ! act ( p]ceiv+ or ?9k+ or hav+ ideas1 & ! o!r is an object1 t :i* is p]ceiv$ or ?\ght (4 ,! act is a p>ticul> m5tal exi/5ce1 x is ! act ( a psy*ical individual4 ,! object is n includ$ )9 ! actual exp]i5ce :i* is ! kn[+ ( x1 x is #hf t :i* is meant or int5d$ by ! exp]i5ce4 ,! act1 !n1 is ! m5tal process ( mean+ or int5d+1 ! object ! ?+ meant or int5d$4 ,! m5tal act diff]s accord+ to ! k9d ( object int5d$4 ,! act ( p]ceiv+ is ! direction ( ! m9d t[>ds s5se data & ideas2 ! act ( judg+ is ! direction ( ! m9d t[>ds judgm5ts or propositions ab\t ?+s1 propositions t affirm or d5y relations betwe5 ?+s2 ! act ( suppos+ is diff]5t f bo? ^!--x is ! direction ( ! m9d t[>ds suppositions4 ,suppositions diff] f ideas 9 ?is1 t !y may be ei!r positive or negative1 :]eas ideas are nev] negative4 ,?is may seem to contradict exp]i5ce4 ,c we n1 = example1 h an idea ( n-r$ j z well z an idea ( r$8 ,no1 ! two ideas c easily be se5 to be "o & ! same2 9 ea* case x is r$ we are actually acqua9t$ )1 & ! diff]5ce is 9 affirm+ or d5y+ exi/5ce to ! "o idea4 ,! diff]5ce is 9 our judgm5t1 :i* may be affirmative or negative4 ,a supposition is l a judgm5t 9 ?is respect2 x may be ei!r affirmative or negative1 b x diff]s f a judgm5t 9 ano!r respect1 t :ile a judgm5t always conveys a conviction1 always expresses belief or disbelief1 a supposition does n--x is nei!r believ$ nor disbeliev$4 ,be=e ,i %[ ! application ( ?is analysis ( k to ! problem ( error1 let me try & cle> up its obscurity1 = und\bt$ly x is difficult to compreh5d4 ,its difficulty lies 9 ?is1 t ?\gh all ! ideas ) :i* x deals are q famili>--suppositions1 real & unreal possibilities1 fulfill$ & non-fulfill$ beliefs--yet x seems to run c\nt] to all our notions ( ! extreme simplicity ( ! appeal to reality4 ,x seems /range & p>adoxical to our ord9>y habit #hg ( ?9k+ to affirm t !re are real ?+s & real relations betwe5 ?+s :i* ?\gh real yet d n exi/1 & also t non-exi/5t realities are n ?+s t once 7 real b n[ are n\ght--!y are ?+s t subsi/4 ,yet ?is is no new doctr9e4 ,! mo/ famili> case ( su* realities is t ( numb]s4 ,! ,greeks discov]$ t numb]s d n exi/--t is to say1 t _! reality is ( ano!r k9d to t :i* we d5ote by exi/5ce4 ,numb]s are realities1 o!rwise !re w\ld be no sci5ce ( ma!matics4 ,py?agoras 7ab\t #edj-ejj ,b4,c47 taught t numb]s are ! reality f :i* all else is d]iv$4 ,& !re are _m o!r ?+s ( ! m9d t seem inde$ to be m real ?an ! ?+s ( s5se4 ,x is ?is v problem ( error t br+s into relief ?is mo/ important doctr9e4 ,n[ let u apply ?is !ory ( ! supposition to ! problem ( error1 & we %all !n see h[ !re c be an object pres5t to ! m9d :5 we judge falsely1 & also t ! object is ! same :e!r we judge truly or falsely4 ,suppositions are real possibilities2 !y are alt]natives t may be fulfill$ or t may nev] be fulfill$4 ,^! real possibilities1 or ^! possible alt]natives1 are objects ( ?\ght2 !y d n belong to ! m5tal act ( ?9k+2 !y are n 9 ! m9d1 b realities pres5t to ! m9d4 ,9 m]e suppos+ !y are pres5t z alt]natives2 9 judg+1 we affirm ( !m or d5y ( !m ! relation to g5]al reality t !y are fulfill$4 ,judgm5ts !re=e are true or false accord+ly z ! fulfilm5t !y affirm does or does n agree ) reality4 ,9 ?is way1 !n1 we may answ] ! p]plex+ "q1 ,h[ c !re be an object ( ?\ght 9 a false judgm5t8 ,! answ] is1 t ! objects ( ?\ght ab\t :i* we make judgm5ts are suppositions1 & our judgm5ts #hh conc]n _! fulfilm5t1 & _! fulfilm5t is a relation ext]nal to !m--x is _! agreem5t or disagreem5t ) reality4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,conclusion ,i w n[ briefly sum up ! argum5t ( ?is book4 ,! problem ( tru? is to discov] ! nature ( ! agreem5t betwe5 ! ?+s ( ! m9d1 our ideas1 & ! reality ( :i* ideas are ! k4 ,we call ! agreem5t tru?4 ,:at is x8 ,we h se5 t !re are ?ree diff]5t answ]s1 namely--7#a7 ,t x is a correspond5ce betwe5 ! idea & ! reality2 7#b7 ,t x is ! coh]5ce ( ! idea 9 a consi/5t & h>moni\s :ole2 & 7#c7 ,t x is a value t we ourselves give to our ideas4 ,! !ory t tru? is correspond5ce we f\nd to (f] ?is difficulty4 ,to say ( an idea t x corresponds ) reality supposes a k ( reality 9 addition to & di/9ct f ! k t is ! idea1 & yet ! k ( reality is ! idea ( x4 ,& if x be said t n ! idea b ! judgm5t is :at corresponds ) reality 9 tru?1 ?is equally supposes a k ( reality t is n a judgm5t4 ,if1 z ! common s5se ( mank9d requires u to believe1 ! reality t is kn[n by u exi/s 9 entire indep5d5ce ( our relation ( kn[+ to x1 h[ c we /ate ?is fact )\t fall+ into contradiction 9 ! v /atem5t ( x8 ,?is is ! difficulty ( a reali/ !ory ( k4 ,we next exam9$ ! !ory t tru? is coh]5ce1 & ?is seem$ to pres5t to u an unatta9able ideal4 #hi ,only ! :ole tru? is :olly true4 ,we foll[$ ! ideali/ argum5t on :i* x is bas$1 & ?is seem$ to lead u inevitably1 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,absolute1 to ! p>adox t unless we "k ev]y?+ we "k no?+4 ,9 pragmatism we met a new pr9ciple1 ! proposal to reg>d tru? z a value4 ,tru?1 x is said1 is some?+ t happ5s to ideas2 !y become true1 or are made true4 ,!re is no crit]ion1 no absolute /&>d1 indep5d5t ( ideas to :i* !y mu/ con=m if !y are judg$ to be true4 ,! value ( an idea is its practical usefulness z te/$ by its workability4 ,tru? is :at works4 ,?is l$ u to criticise ! concept ( utility4 ,we f\nd t x is impossible to id5tify utility ) tru? ev5 if we include !oretical utility 9 its wide/ mean+1 because ov] & above ! usefulness & workability ( an idea !re always rema9s ! "q ( its relation to reality4 ,b we recognis$ 9 ! pr9ciple ( tru?-value an important advance t[>ds a !ory ( k4 ,! solution ( ! problem ( tru?1 x became cle>1 mu/ be s\ght 9 a !ory ( k4 ,h we1 9 ! new !ory ( life & k ( ,b]gson's philosophy1 an answ] to ! "q1 ,:at is tru?8 ,yes1 b n 9 ! =m ( a direct solution ( ! dilemma :i* confronts u 9 e !ory t accepts ! indep5d5ce ( k & reality--r 9 a !ory ( k 9 :i* ! dilemma does n & _c arise4 ,! !ory ( ,b]gson is t 9 ! intuition ( life we "k reality z x is1 our k is "o ) our kn[+2 & 9 ! intellect we possess a mode ( kn[+ :i* is equally imm$iate b ! ess5tial quality ( :i* is t x ext]nalises or spatialises reality4 ,we und]/& ?is mode ( kn[+ 9 #ij recognis+ ! purpose x s]ves1 its practical advantage to u4 ,! !ory1 !re=e1 resembles pragmatism 9 br++ ! concept ( utility to ! aid ( its !ory ( k4 ,b1 we insi/$1 ! resemblance is outw>d only1 = ! ess5tial t5et ( pragmatism1 t tru? itself is a value1 is fatal to ! !ory4 ,x w\ld mean1 9 fact1 t n ! mode ( kn[+1 t is ! intellect1 b ! actual k itself1 is a practical end[m5t4 ,b ! problem ( tru? arises 9 a new =m1 = ! practical utility ( ! intellect consi/s 9 ! illusion :i* x produces 9 u4 ,x makes ! fl[+ reality appe> z fix$ /ates4 ,h[1 !n1 c univ]sal illusion be consi/5t ) ! possession ( tru?8 ,to answ] ?is "q we exam9$ ! nature ( illusion & its di/9ction f error4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] we h dealt ) ! problem ( error4 ,! fact ( error pres5t$ a difficulty di/9ct f ! "q1 ,:at is tru?8 = x impli$ a real object ( ?\ght1 ( :i* x seem$ equally contradictory to say t x exi/s & t x does n exi/4 ,9 ! solutions t h be5 propos$ we saw h[ ! problem is =c+ philosoph]s to exam9e aga9 ! fundam5tal processes ( ! m9d & ! nature ( ! univ]se !y reveal4 #ia ,,bibliography ,! ,!tetus ( ,plato is an exposition ( ! problem ( tru? & error z x pres5t$ itself 9 anci5t philosophy4 ,! quotation ,i h made f x1 & also ! quotations f ! ,republic1 are f ,j[ett's translation4 ,! mo/ cle> exposition ( :at ,i h call$ ! reali/ic doctr9e is ,! ,problems ( ,philosophy1 by ! ,hon4 ,b]tr& ,russell1 9 ! ,home ,univ]sity ,libr>y 7,williams & ,norgate74 ,i h adopt$ ,mr4 ,russell's t]ms1 acqua9tance & description2 ! di/9ction !y d5ote seems to me ( fundam5tal importance1 & ,mr4 ,russell's doctr9e on ?is po9t a p]man5t addition to philosophy4 ,mr4 ,russell's !ory1 t 9 ! judgm5t :at is pres5t to ! m9d is a relation :i* is ext]nal to ! t]ms ( ! judgm5t1 & t agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 ?is relation & reality makes ! tru? or falsehood ( ! judgm5t1 c only be appreciat$ if /udi$ 9 connection ) 8 g5]al s*eme4 ,! classical "w on :at ,i h call$ ! mod]n ideali/ doctr9e 7,i h avoid$ ! ^w intellectuali/7 is ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley's ,appe>ance & ,reality4 ,i h attempt$ to give ! ma9 l9es ( ! !ory 9 my *apt] on ,! ,absolute4 ,al?\gh x is a book = advanc$ /ud5ts1 x is n a clos$ volume ev5 to ! un9/ruct$4 ,! brilliant dialectical skill ( ! #ib au?or is ackn[l$g$ & may be enjoy$ by ^? :o reject or may fail to und]/& 8 conclusion4 ,mr4 ,h>old ,h4 ,joa*im's ,! ,nature ( ,tru? 7,ox=d1 ,cl>5don ,press7 is a mo/ able & s*ol>ly argum5t = ! coh]5ce !ory ( tru?4 ,! pr9cipal expositions ( ,pragmatism are ! works ( ,william ,james & ( ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill]4 ,william ,james' ,! ,w to ,believe 0 ! fir/ di/9ct =mulation ( ! pr9ciple4 ,pragmatism1 a ,new ,"n = "s ,old ,ways ( ,?9k+1 is ! fulle/ & mo/ sy/ematic /atem5t ( ! doctr9e4 ,! ,mean+ ( ,tru? is a def5ce ( ! doctr9e aga9/ ! criticism t _h be5 met$ out to x unsp>+ly4 ,all ?ree books are publi%$ by ,longmans4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill] is uncompromis+ 9 8 advocacy ( a complete return to ! doctr9e taught 9 ! anci5t _w by ,protagoras4 ,he has def5d$ t philosoph] aga9/ ! argum5ts ( ,plato 9 a polemical pamphlet entitl$ ,plato or ,protagoras8 7,ox=d1 ,blackwell74 ,an ,essay on ,axioms z ,po/ulates 9 ,p]sonal ,idealism 7,macmillan ,co471 & two volumes ( collect$ essays on ,humanism 7,macmillan ,co471 set =? ! doctr9e1 :i* he pref]s to call ,humanism1 ) great =ce1 abundant illu/ration1 & ! relief ( no small am\nt ( hum\r4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! !ories ( ,b]gson1 ,i may m5tion my own little book 9 ?is s]ies1 ,h5ri ,b]gson3 ,! ,philosophy ( ,*ange4 ,m4 ,b]gson's books are ,"t & ,freewill1 ,matt] & ,memory1 & ,creative ,evolution4 ,to ^! has be5 rec5tly add$ ,an ,introduction to ,metaphysics 7,macmillan1 #aiab74 ,x is ! republication 9 ,engli% ( an article writt5 9 #aijc1 :i* has be5 = a long "t out ( pr9t4 ,x is a %ort & cle> /atem5t ( ! doctr9e ( ,intuition4 #ic ,! important /udies ( ,pr(essor ,g4 ,f4 ,/\t are n easily accessible to ! g5]al read]1 z !y consi/ 9 contributions to philosophical j\rnals & proce$+s ( le>n$ societies4 ,! essay ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ,"s ,fundam5tal ,po9ts 9 ! ,!ory ( ,k1 is 9 ! ,/4 ,&rews ,qu9c5t5>y ,publications1 #aiaa 7,maclehose74 ,i may m5tion also 8 essay on ,error 9 ,p]sonal ,idealism1 notic$ above1 & ,! ,object ( ,?\ght & ,real ,be+1 9 ,proce$+s ( ! ,ari/otelian ,society1 #aiaa4 #id ,,index ,,ndx ,b]gson1 ,mons4 ,h5ri1 #fc1 #fi1 #gc1 #hi ,b]keley1 #bj1 #cb1 #gc ,coh]5ce ,!ory1 #be1 #bg ,correspond5ce ,!ory1 #bd1 #bg ,discov]y ( ,planet ,neptune1 #ei ,fai?-attitude ( ,pragmatism1 #ee ,=mal ,logic1 #aj ,hegel1 #dd ,hume1 #cj ,intellectualism1 #dd ,james1 ,william1 #dd ,kant1 #bf1 #bg1 #db1 #gc ,me9ong1 #hd ,pi]ce1 ,c4 ,s41 #dd ,plato1 #aa1 #dd1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd ,plurali/ic ,realism1 #bd ,po9c>1 ,h5ri1 #ed ,pragmati/ ,!ory ( ,tru?1 #ee ,prim>y ,qualities1 #cb ,protagoras1 ,8 book ,! ,tru?1 #aj1 #aa2 ,8 maxim1 #dd ,py?agoras1 #hg ,relativity1 ,pr9ciple (1 #dh1 #ec1 #fb ,republic ( ,plato1 #fg ,s4 ,anselm's ,argum5t1 #bi1 #ca1 #da ,s*ill]1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 #dd ,self1 ,! ,idea (1 #cf ,socrates1 #aa1 #gd ,space & ,"t1 #cc1 #cd1 #cf ,/\t1 ,pr(4 ,g4 ,f41 #hd ,!tetus ( ,plato1 #aa1 #gd ,unkn[able1 ,!1 #bi1 #cg ,z5o1 #cd ,,endx ,pr9t$ by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,co4 ,ed9burgh ,london 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,p',s ,,books ,,! ,,fir/ ,,hundr$ ,,volumes 7,spr+ #aiac7 ,,sci5ce #a4 ,! ,f\ndations ( ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,:e?am1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b4 ,embryology--,! ,beg9n+s ( ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,g]ald ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #c4 ,biology 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,w4 ,d4 ,h5d]son1 ,m4,a4 #d4 ,zoology3 ,! ,/udy ( ,animal ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,w4 ,mac,bride1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #e4 ,botany2 ,! ,mod]n ,/udy ( ,plants 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,/opes1 ,d4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s4 #g4 ,! ,/ructure ( ! ,e>? 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney1 ,f4,r4,s4 #h4 ,evolution 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,s4 ,goodri*1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #aj4 ,h]$ity 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,b4,sc4 #aa4 ,inorganic ,*emi/ry 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,c4 ,c4 ,baly1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ab4 ,organic ,*emi/ry 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,b4 ,coh51 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ac4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,electricity 4 4 4 ,by ,norman ,k4 ,campbell1 ,m4,a4 #ad4 ,radiation 4 4 4 ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4,sc4 #ae4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ! ,/>s 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,maund]1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #af4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,light 4 4 4 ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4,sc4 #ag4 ,wea!r ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,k4 ,lempf]t1 ,m4,a4 #ah4 ,hypnotism & ,self-,education 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,hut*ison1 ,m4,d4 #ai4 ,! ,baby3 ,a ,"m's ,book 4 4 4 ,by a ,univ]sity ,woman4 #bj4 ,y\? & ,sex--,dang]s & ,safegu>ds = ,boys & ,girls 4 4 4 ,by ,m>y ,s*>lieb1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,s41 & ,f4 ,ar?ur ,sibly1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #ba4 ,m>riage & ,mo!rhood 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,davidson1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4,e4 #bb4 ,"l ,kelv9 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 #bc4 ,huxley 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #bd4 ,sir ,william ,hugg9s & ,spectroscopic ,a/ronomy 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,maund]1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ( ! ,royal ,obs]vatory1 ,gre5wi*4 #fb4 ,practical ,a/ronomy 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,macph]son1 ,jr41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #fc4 ,aviation 4 4 4 ,by ,sydney ,f4 ,walk]1 ,r4,n4 #fd4 ,navigation 4 4 4 ,by ,william ,hall1 ,r4,n41 ,b4,a4 #fe4 ,pond ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,a%1 ,m4,r4,a4,c4 #ff4 ,dietetics 4 4 4 ,by ,alex4 ,bryce1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,p4,h4 #id4 ,! ,nature ( ,ma!matics 4 4 4 ,by ,p4 ,e4 ,b4 ,j\rda91 ,m4,a4 #ie4 ,applications ( ,electricity 4 4 4 ,by ,alex4 ,ogilvie1 ,b4,sc4 #if4 ,g>d5+ 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,cecil ,b>tlett4 #ig4 ,! ,c>e ( ! ,tee? 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,"y1 ,l4,d4,s4 #ih4 ,atlas ( ! ,_w 4 4 4 ,by ,t4 ,b>?olomew1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 #aaj4 ,briti% ,birds 4 4 4 ,by ,f4 ,b ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 ,,philosophy ,,& ,,religion #be4 ,! ,mean+ ( ,philosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #bf4 ,h5ri ,b]gson 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,c>r1 ,litt4,d4 #bg4 ,psy*ology 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,watt1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,phil4 #bh4 ,e?ics 4 4 4 ,by ,canon ,ra%dall1 ,d4,litt41 ,f4,b4,a4 #bi4 ,kant's ,philosophy 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,l9dsay1 ,m4,a41 ( ,balliol ,college1 ,ox=d4 #cj4 ,! ,tea*+ ( ,plato 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,l9dsay1 ,m4,a4 #fg4 ,ari/otle 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #fh4 ,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,a4 ,mgge4 #fi4 ,euck53 ,a ,philosophy ( ,life 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,jones1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d4 #gj4 ,! ,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology ( ,beauty 4 4 4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,val5t9e1 ,b4,a41 ,d4,phil4 #ga4 ,! ,problem ( ,tru? 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,c>r1 ,litt4,d4 #ii4 ,george ,b]keley3 ,! ,philosophy ( ,idealism 4 4 4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,val5t9e1 ,b4,a4 #ca4 ,buddhism 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,f4,b4,a4 #cb4 ,roman ,ca?olicism 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,coxon4 ,preface1 ,mgr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,b5son4 #cc4 ,! ,ox=d ,movem5t 4 4 4 ,by ,wilfrid ,w>d4 #cd4 ,! ,bible & ,criticism 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,b5nett1 ,d4,d41 ,litt4,p41 & ,w4 ,f4 ,ad5ey1 ,d4,d4 #ce4 ,c>d9al ,newman 4 4 4 ,by ,wilfrid ,meynell4 #gb4 ,! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,canon ,ma/]man4 #gc4 ,anglo-,ca?olicism 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,mann+ ,fo/]4 #gd4 ,! ,free ,*ur*es 4 4 4 ,by ,rev4 ,edw>d ,%illito1 ,m4,a4 #ge4 ,judaism 4 4 4 ,by ,ephraim ,lev9e1 ,m4,a4 #gf4 ,!osophy 4 4 4 ,by ,annie ,besant4 ,,hi/ory #cf4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,fre$om 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,nev9son4 #cg4 ,bism>ck & ! ,orig9 ( ! ,g]man ,empire 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,m4 ,p[icke4 #ch4 ,oliv] ,cromwell 4 4 4 ,by ,hilda ,john/one1 ,m4,a4 #ci4 ,m>y ,que5 ( ,scots 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 #dj4 ,cecil ,john ,rhodes1 #ahec-aijb 4 4 4 ,by ,ian ,d4 ,colv94 #da4 ,julius ,cs> 4 4 4 ,by ,hil>y ,h>d+e4 #db4 ,engl& 9 ! ,mak+ 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,he>n%aw1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #dc4 ,engl& 9 ! ,middle ,ages 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 #dd4 ,! ,mon>*y & ! ,p 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,waugh1 ,m4,a4 #de4 ,! ,indu/rial ,revolution 4 4 4 ,by ,ar?ur ,jones1 ,m4,a4 #df4 ,empire & ,democracy 4 4 4 ,by ,g4 ,s4 ,veit*1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d4 #fa4 ,home ,rule 4 4 4 ,by ,l4 ,g4 ,r$mond ,h[>d4 ,preface by ,rob]t ,h>c\rt1 ,m4,p4 #gg4 ,nelson 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,wilson4 #gh4 ,well+ton & ,wat]loo 4 4 4 ,by ,major ,g4 ,w4 ,r$way4 #ajj4 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,greece 4 4 4 ,by ,e4 ,fe>5side1 ,b4,a4 #aja4 ,lu!r & ! ,re=mation 4 4 4 ,by ,leon>d ,d4 ,agate1 ,m4,a4 #ajb4 ,! ,discov]y ( ! ,new ,_w 4 4 4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 #ajc4 ,turkey & ! ,ea/]n ,"q 4 4 4 ,by ,john ,macdonald1 ,m4,a4 #ajd4 ,ar*itecture 4 4 4 ,by ,mrs4 ,ar?ur ,bell4 ,,social ,,& ,,economic #dg4 ,wom5's ,suffrage 4 4 4 ,by ,m4 ,g4 ,fawcett1 ,,ll4,d4 #dh4 ,! ,work+ ( ! ,briti% ,sy/em ( ,gov]nm5t to-day 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,ramsay ,muir1 ,m4,a4 #di4 ,an ,introduction to ,economic ,sci5ce 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,h4 ,o4 ,m]$i?1 ,m4,a4 #ej4 ,socialism 4 4 4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 #gi4 ,m$ival ,socialism 4 4 4 ,by ,b$e ,j>rett1 ,o4,p41 ,m4,a4 #hj4 ,syndicalism 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,h>ley1 ,m4,a4 #ha4 ,lab\r & ,wages 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,hallswor?1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 #hb4 ,co-op]ation 4 4 4 ,by ,joseph ,clayton4 #hc4 ,insurance z a ,means ( ,inve/m5t 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,rob]tson1 ,f4,f4,a4 #ib4 ,! ,tra9+ ( ! ,*ild 4 4 4 ,by ,g4 ,spill]4 #aje4 ,trade ,unions 4 4 4 ,by ,joseph ,clayton4 #ajf4 ,ev]yday ,law 4 4 4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,adams4 ,,lett]s #ea4 ,%akespe>e 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h]=d1 ,litt4,d4 #eb4 ,wordswor? 4 4 4 ,by ,rosal9e ,masson4 #ec4 ,pure ,gold--,a ,*oice ( ,lyrics & ,sonnets 4 4 4 by ,h4 ,c4 ,o',neill #ed4 ,francis ,bacon 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #ee4 ,! ,bronts 4 4 4 ,by ,flora ,masson4 #ef4 ,c>lyle 4 4 4 ,by ,l4 ,mac,lean ,watt4 #eg4 ,dante 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,f]r]s ,h[ell4 #fj4 ,a ,diction>y ( ,synonyms 4 4 4 ,by ,au/9 ,k4 ,gray1 ,b4,a4 #hc4 ,insurance z a ,means ( ,inve/m5t 4 4 4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,rob]tson1 ,f4,f4,a4 #hd4 ,classical ,diction>y 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,/irl+4 #he4 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,lit]ature 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,compton-,rickett1 ,,ll4,d4 #hf4 ,br[n+ 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #hg4 ,*>les ,lamb 4 4 4 ,by ,flora ,masson4 #hh4 ,goe! 4 4 4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h]=d1 ,litt4,d4 #hi4 ,balzac 4 4 4 ,by ,frank ,h>ris4 #ij4 ,r\sseau 4 4 4 ,by ,h4 ,sa*] #ia4 ,ibs5 4 4 4 ,by ,hil>y ,h>d+e4 #ic4 ,t5nyson 4 4 4 ,by ,a>on ,watson4 #ajg4 ,r4 ,l4 ,/ev5son 4 4 4 ,by ,rosal9e ,masson4 #ajh4 ,%elley 4 4 4 ,by ,sydney ,wat]l[1 ,m4,a4 #aji4 ,william ,morris 4 4 4 ,by ,a4 ,bly? ,web/]1 ,m4,a4 ,,london ,,& ,,ed9burgh3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack ,,new ,,york3 ,,dodge ,,publi%+ ,,co4