,brett ,fi%burne ,,! ,,game ,,( ,,logic ,by ,lewis ,c>roll --------------------- #i #aj -----x------ #aa #ab ---y-----m------y'--- #ac #ad -----x'----- #ae #af --------------------- ,,col\rs ,,= ------------- ,,c\nt]s #e #f x ,see ! ,sun is ov]head1 --y-------y'- ,%9+ on u1 ,,full & ,,r$6 x' #g #h ,n[ ! ,sun is gone away1 ------------- ,& ! ,,empty sky is ,,grey6 ,,! ,,game ,,( ,,logic ,by ,lewis ,c>rol ,to my ,*ild-fri5d4 ,i *>m 9 va92 = nev] aga91 ,all ke5ly z my glance ,i b5d1 ,w ,memory1 goddess coy1 ,embody = my joy ,dep>t$ days1 nor let me gaze ,on !e1 my fairy fri5d6 ,yet c\ld ?y face1 9 my/ic grace1 ,a mom5t smile on me1 'tw\ld s5d ,f>-d>t+ rays ( light ,f ,heav5 a?w>t ! night1 ,by :i* to read 9 v de$ ,?y _s1 sweete/ fri5d6 ,s may ! /ream ( ,life's long dream ,fl[ g5tly onw>d to its end1 ,) _m a fl[]et gay1 ,ad[n its will[y way3 ,may no sigh vex1 no c>e p]plex1 ,my lov+ little fri5d6 ,,nota ,,b5e4 ,) ea* copy ( ?is ,book is giv5 an ,envelope1 conta9+ a ,diagram 7simil> to ! frontispiece7 on c>d1 & n9e ,c\nt]s1 f\r r$ & five grey4 ,! ,envelope1 c4 c be _h sep>ately1 at #c;d4 ea*4 ,! ,au?or w be v grateful = sugge/ions1 especially f beg9n]s 9 ,logic1 ( any alt]ations1 or fur!r explanations1 t may seem desirable4 ,lett]s %\ld be address$ to him at #bi1 ,b$=d ,/reet1 ,cov5t ,g>d51 ,london4 ,,preface ,!re foam'd rebelli\s ,logic1 gagg'd & b\nd4 ,?is ,game requires n9e ,c\nt]s--f\r ( "o col\r & five ( ano!r3 say f\r r$ & five grey4 ,besides ! n9e ,c\nt]s1 x also requires "o ,play]1 ,,at ,,lea/4 ,i am n aw>e ( any ,game t c be play$ ) ,,less ?an ?is numb]3 :ile !re are sev]al t require ,,m3 take ,cricket1 = in/ance1 :i* requires tw5ty-two4 ,h[ mu* easi] x is1 :5 y want to play a ,game1 to f9d ,,"o ,play] ?an tw5ty-two4 ,at ! same "t1 ?\gh "o ,play] is en\gh1 a good deal m amusem5t may be got by two work+ at x toge!r1 & correct+ ea* o!r's mi/akes4 ,a second advantage1 possess$ by ?is ,game1 is t1 besides be+ an endless s\rce ( amusem5t 7! numb] ( argum5ts1 t may be work$ by x1 be+ inf9ite71 x w give ! ,play]s a little in/ruction z well4 ,b is !re any great h>m 9 ,,t1 s long z y get pl5ty ( amusem5t8 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,new ,,lamps ,,= ,,old4 #a4 ,propositions 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a #b4 ,syllogisms 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bj #c4 ,fallacies 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cb ,,ii4 ,,cross ,,que/ions4 #a4 ,elem5t>y 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cg #b4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$ 4 4 4 4 4 #dj #c4 ,d4 ,symbols to be int]pret$4 4 #db #d4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #dd #e4 ,d4 ,symbols to be int]pret$4 4 #df #f4 ,l>g] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #dh #g4 ,bo? ,diagrams to be employ$ 4 4 #ea ,,iii4 ,,crook$ ,,answ]s4 #a4 ,elem5t>y 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ee #b4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ei #c4 ,d4 ,symbols int]pret$ 4 4 4 #fa #d4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$4 #fb #e4 ,d4 ,symbols int]pret$ 4 4 4 #fe #f4 ,l>g] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$4 #fg #g4 ,bo? ,diagrams employ$ 4 4 4 4 #gb ,,iv4 ,,hit ,,or ,,miss 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #he ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,new ,,lamps ,,= ,,old4 ,light come1 light g4 #a4 ,propositions4 ,"s new ,cakes are nice4 ,no new ,cakes are nice4 ,all new cakes are nice4 ,!re are ?ree ',,propositions' = y--! only ?ree k9ds we are go+ to use 9 ?is ,game3 & ! fir/ ?+ to be done is to le>n h[ to express !m on ! ,bo>d4 ,let u beg9 ) ,"s new ,cakes are nice4 ,b be=e do+ s1 a rem>k has to be made--"o t is r important1 & by no means easy to und]/& all 9 a mom5t3 s please to read ?is ,,v c>efully4 ,! _w conta9s _m ,,?+s 7su* z ,buns1 ,babies1 ,beetles4 ,battl$ores4 c472 & ^! ,?+s possess _m ,,attributes 7su* z bak$1 beautiful1 black1 brok51 c43 9 fact1 :atev] c be attribut$ to1 t is said to belong to1 any ,?+1 is an ,attribute74 ,:5ev] we wi% to m5tion a ,?+1 we use a ,,sub/antive3 :5 we wi% to m5tion an ,attribute1 we use an ,,adjective4 ,p h ask$ ! "q ,c a ,?+ exi/ )\t any ,attributes belong+ to x8 ,x is a v puzzl+ "q1 & ,i'm n go+ to try to answ] x3 let u turn up our noses1 & treat x ) contemptu\s sil5ce1 z if x really wasn't wor? notic+4 ,b1 if !y put x ! o!r way1 & ask ,c an ,attribute exi/ )\t any ,?+ = x to belong to81 we may say at once ,no3 no m ?an a ,baby c\ld g a railway-j\rney ) no "o to take c>e ( x6 ,y nev] saw beautiful float+ ab\t 9 ! air1 or litt]$ ab\t on ! floor1 )\t any ,?+ to ,,be beautiful1 n[ did y8 ,& n[ :at am ,i driv+ at1 9 all ?is long rigm>ole8 ,x is ?is4 ,y may put is or are betwe5 names ( two ,,?+s 7= example1 "s ,pigs are fat ,animals71 or betwe5 ! names ( two ,,attributes 7= example1 p9k is light-r$71 & 9 ea* case x w make good s5se4 ,b1 if y put is or are betwe5 ! "n ( a ,,?+ & ! "n ( an ,,attribute 7= example1 "s ,pigs are p9k71 y d ,,n make good s5se 7= h[ c a ,?+ ,,be an ,attribute87 unless y h an und]/&+ ) ! p]son to :om y are speak+4 ,& ! simple/ und]/&+ w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be ?is--t ! ,sub/antive %all be suppos$ to be repeat$ at ! end ( ! s5t5ce1 s t ! s5t5ce1 if writt5 out 9 full1 w\ld be "s ,pigs are p9k 7,pigs74 ,& n[ ! ^w are makes q good s5se4 ,?us1 9 ord] to make good s5se ( ! ,proposition "s new ,cakes are nice1 we mu/ suppose x to be writt5 out 9 full1 9 ! =m "s new ,cakes are nice 7,cakes74 ,n[ ?is conta9s two ',,t]ms'--new ,cakes be+ "o ( !m1 & nice 7,cakes7 ! o!r4 ,new ,cakes1 be+ ! "o we are talk+ ab\t1 is call$ ! ',,subject' ( ! ,proposition1 & nice 7,cakes7 ! ',,pr$icate'4 ,also ?is ,proposition is said to be a ',,p>ticul>' "o1 s9ce x does n speak ( ! ,,:ole ( its ,subject1 b only ( a ,,"p ( x4 ,! o!r two k9ds are said to be ',,univ]sal'1 because !y speak ( ! ,,:ole ( _! ,subjects--! "o d5y+ nic5ess1 & ! o!r ass]t+ x1 ( ! ,,:ole class ( new ,cakes4 ,la/ly1 if y w\ld l to h a def9ition ( ! ^w ',,proposition' itself1 y may take ?is3--a s5t5ce /at+ t "s1 or none1 or all1 ( ! ,?+s belong+ to a c]ta9 class1 call$ its ',subject'1 are also ,?+s belong+ to a c]ta9 o!r class1 call$ its ',pr$icate'4 ,y w f9d ^! sev5 words--,,proposition1 ,,attribute1 ,,t]m1 ,,subject1 ,,pr$icate1 ,,p>ticul>1 ,,univ]sal--*>m+ly useful1 if any fri5d %\ld happ5 to ask if y h ev] /udi$ ,logic4 ,m9d y br+ all sev5 words into y\r answ]1 & y fri5d w g away deeply impress$--'a sadd] & a wis] man'4 ,n[ please to look at ! small] ,diagram on ! ,bo>d1 & suppose x to be a cupbo>d1 int5d$ = all ! ,cakes 9 ! _w 7x w\ld h to be a good l>ge "o1 ( c\rse74 ,& let u suppose all ! new ones to be put into ! upp] half 7m>k$ 'x'71 & all ! re/ 7t is1 ! ,,n-new ones7 into ! l[] half 7m>k$ 'x''74 ,?us ! l[] half w\ld conta9 ,,eld]ly ,cakes1 ,,ag$ ,cakes1 ,,ante-,,diluvian ,cakes--if !re are any3 ,i hav5't se5 _m1 myself--& s on4 ,let u also suppose all ! nice ,cakes to be put into ! left-h& half 7m>k$ 'y'71 & all ! re/ 7t is1 ! n-nice ones7 into ! "r-h& half 7m>k$ 'y''74 ,at pres5t1 !n1 we mu/ und]/& x to mean new1 x' n-new1 y nice1 & y' n-nice4 ,& n[ :at k9d ( ,cakes w\ld y expect to f9d 9 comp>tm5t ,no4 #e8 ,x is "p ( ! upp] half1 y see2 s t1 if x has any ,cakes 9 x1 !y mu/ be ,,new3 & x is "p ( ! left-h& half2 s t !y mu/ be ,,nice4 ,h5ce if !re are any ,cakes 9 ?is comp>tm5t1 !y mu/ h ! d\ble ',,attribute' new & nice3 or1 if we use lett]s1 ! mu/ be x y4 ,obs]ve t ! lett]s x1 y are writt5 on two ( ! edges ( ?is comp>tm5t4 ,?is y w f9d a v conv5i5t rule = kn[+ :at ,attributes belong to ! ,?+s 9 any comp>tm5t4 ,take ,no4 #g1 = in/ance4 ,if !re are any ,cakes !re1 !y mu/ be x' y1 t is1 !y mu/ be n-new & nice4 ,n[ let u make ano!r agreem5t--t a r$ c\nt] 9 a comp>tm5t %all mean t x is ',,occupi$'1 t is1 t !re are ,,"s ,cakes 9 x4 7,! ^w '"s1' 9 ,logic1 means '"o or m' s t a s+le ,cake 9 a comp>tm5t w\ld be q en\gh reason = say+ !re are ,,"s ,cakes "h74 ,also let u agree t a grey c\nt] 9 a comp>tm5t %all mean t x is ',,empty'1 t is t !re are ,,no ,cakes 9 x4 ,9 ! foll[+ ,diagrams1 ,i %all put '#a' 7mean+ '"o or m'7 :]e y are to put a ,,r$ c\nt]1 & '#j' 7mean+ 'none'7 :]e y are to put a ,,grey "o4 ,z ! ,subject ( our ,proposition is to be new ,cakes1 we are only conc]n$1 at pres5t1 ) ! ,,upp] half ( ! cupbo>d1 :]e all ! ,cakes h ! attribute x1 t is1 new4 ,n[1 fix+ our att5tion on ?is upp] half1 suppose we f\nd x m>k$ l ?is1 ----------- #a ----------- t is1 ) a r$ c\nt] 9 ,no4 #e4 ,:at w\ld ?is tell u1 ) reg>d to ! class ( new ,cakes8 ,w\ld x n tell u t !re are ,,"s ( !m 9 ! x y-comp>tm5t8 ,t is1 t "s ( !m 7besides hav+ ! ,attribute x1 :i* belongs to bo? comp>tm5ts7 h ! ,attribute y 7t is1 nice74 ,?is we might express by say+ "s x-,cakes are y-7,cakes71 or1 putt+ words in/ead ( lett]s1 ,"s new ,cakes are nice 7,cakes71 or1 9 a %ort] =m1 ,"s new ,cakes are nice4 ,at la/ we h f\nd out h[ to repres5t ! fir/ ,proposition ( ?is ,section4 ,if y h n ,,cle>ly und]/ood all ,i h said1 g no fur!r1 b read x ov] & ov] aga91 till y ,,d und]/& x4 ,aft] t is once ma/]$1 y w f9d all ! re/ q easy4 ,x w save a little tr\ble1 9 do+ ! o!r ,propositions1 if we agree to leave out ! ^w ,cakes altoge!r4 ,i f9d x conv5i5t to call ! :ole class ( ,?+s1 = :i* ! cupbo>d is int5d$1 ! ',,univ]se4' ,?us we might h begun ?is bus9ess by say+ ,let u take a ,univ]se ( ,cakes4 7,s\nds nice1 doesn't x87 ,( c\rse any o!r ,?+s w\ld h done j z well z ,cakes4 ,we might make ,propositions ab\t a ,univ]se ( ,liz>ds1 or ev5 a ,univ]se ( ,hornets4 7,w\ldn't ,,t be a *>m+ ,univ]se to live 987 ,s f>1 !n1 we h le>n$ t ----------- #a ----------- means "s x & y1 i4e4 "s new are nice4 ,i ?9k y w see )\t fur!r explanation1 t ----------- #a ----------- means "s x are y'1 i4e4 "s new are n-nice4 ,n[ let u put a ,,grey c\nt] into ,no4 #e1 & ask ourselves ! mean+ ( ----------- #j ----------- ,?is tells u t ! x y-comp>tm5t is ,,empty1 :i* we may express by no x are y1 or1 no new ,cakes are nice4 ,?is is ! second ( ! ?ree ,propositions at ! head ( ?is ,section4 ,9 ! same way1 ----------- #j ----------- w\ld mean no x are y'1 or1 no new ,cakes are n-nice4 ,:at w\ld y make ( ?is1 ,i wond]8 ----------- #a #a ----------- ,i hope y w n h mu* tr\ble 9 mak+ out t ?is repres5ts a ,,d\ble ,proposition3 namely1 "s x are y1 ,,& "s are y'1 i4e4 "s new are nice1 & "s are n-nice4 ,! foll[+ is a little h>d]1 p]haps3 ----------- #j #j ----------- ,?is means no x are y1 ,,& none are y'1 i4e4 no new are nice1 ,,& none are n-nice3 :i* leads to ! r curi\s result t no new exi/1 i4e4 no ,cakes are new4 ,?is is because nice & n-nice make :at we call an ',,exhau/ive' division ( ! class new ,cakes3 i4e4 betwe5 !m1 !y ,,exhau/ ! :ole class1 s t all ! new ,cakes1 t exi/1 mu/ be f\nd 9 "o or ! o!r ( !m4 ,& n[ suppose y _h to repres5t1 ) c\nt]s ! contradictory to no ,cakes are new1 :i* w\ld be "s ,cakes are new1 or1 putt+ lett]s = words1 "s ,cakes are x1 h[ w\ld y d x8 ,?is w puzzle y a little1 ,i expect4 ,evid5tly y mu/ put a r$ c\nt] ,,some:]e 9 ! x-half ( ! cupbo>d1 s9ce y "k !re are ,,"s new ,cakes4 ,b y mu/ n put x into ! ,,left-,,h& comp>tm5t1 s9ce y d n "k !m to be ,,nice3 nor may y put x into ! ,,"r-,,h& "o1 s9ce y d n "k !m to be ,,n-,,nice4 ,:at1 !n1 are y to d8 ,i ?9k ! be/ way out ( ! difficulty is to place ! r$ c\nt] ,,on ,,! ,,division-,,l9e betwe5 ! xy-comp>tm5t & ! xy'-comp>tm5t4 ,?is ,i %all repres5t 7z ,i always put '#a' :]e y are to put a r$ c\nt]7 by ! diagram ----------- -#a- ----------- ,our +5i\s ,am]ican c\s9s h inv5t$ a phrase to express ! position ( a man :o wants to jo9 "o or ! o!r ( two p>ties--su* z _! two p>ties ',democrats' & ',republicans'--b c't make up 8 m9d ,,:i*4 ,su* a man is said to be sitt+ on ! f5ce4 ,n[ t is exactly ! position ( ! r$ c\nt] y h j plac$ on ! division-l9e4 ,he likes ! look ( ,no4 #e1 & he likes ! look ( ,no4 #f1 & he doesn't "k ,,:i* to jump d[n into4 ,s !re he sits a/ride1 silly fell[1 dangl+ 8 legs1 "o on ea* side ( ! f5ce6 ,n[ ,i am go+ to give y a mu* h>d] "o to make out4 ,:at does ?is mean8 ----------- #a #j ----------- ,?is is cle>ly a ,,d\ble ,proposition4 ,x tells u n only t "s x are y1 b also ! no x are ,,n y4 ,h5ce ! result is ,,all x are y1 i4e4 all new ,cakes are nice1 :i* is ! la/ ( ! ?ree ,propositions at ! head ( ?is ,section4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! ,univ]sal ,proposition ,all new ,cakes are nice consi/s ( ,,two ,propositions tak5 toge!r1 namely1 ,"s new ,cakes are nice1 & ,no new ,cakes are n-nice4 ,9 ! same way ----------- #j #a ----------- w\ld mean all x are y' 1 t is1 ,all new ,cakes are n-nice4 ,n[ :at w\ld y make ( su* a ,proposition z ,! ,cake y h giv5 me is nice8 ,is x ,p>ticul> or ,univ]sal8 ,p>ticul>1 ( c\rse1 y readily reply4 ,"o s+le ,cake is h>dly wor? call+ '"s1' ev54 ,no1 my de> impulsive ,read]1 x is ',univ]sal'4 ,rememb] t1 few z !y are 7& ,i grant y !y c\ldn't well be few]71 !y are 7or r 'x is'7 ,,all t y h giv5 me6 ,?us1 if 7leav+ 'r$' out ( ! "q7 ,i divide my ,univ]se ( ,cakes into two classes--! ,cakes y h giv5 me 7to :i* ,i assign ! upp] half ( ! cupbo>d71 & ^? y ,,hav5',t giv5 me 7:i* are to g bel[7--,i f9d ! l[] half fairly full1 & ! upp] "o z ne>ly z possible empty4 ,& !n1 :5 ,i am told to put an upright division into ea* half1 keep+ ! ,,nice ,cakes to ! left1 & ! ,,n-,,nice ones to ! "r1 ,i beg9 by c>efully collect+ ,,all ! ,cakes y h giv5 me 7say+ to myself1 f "t to "t1 ,g5]\s creature6 ,h[ %all ,i ev] repay su* k9dness871 & pil+ !m up 9 ! left-h& comp>tm5t4 ,,& ,,x ,,doesn',t ,,take ,,long ,,to ,,d ,,x6 ,"h is ano!r ,univ]sal ,proposition = y4 ,b>zillai ,beckalegg is an hone/ man4 ,t means ,,all ! ,b>zillai ,beckaleggs1 t ,i am n[ consid]+1 are hone/ m54 7,y ?9k ,i inv5t$ t "n1 n[ don't y8 ,b ,i didn't4 ,x's on a c>ri]'s c>t1 some:]e d[n 9 ,cornwall47 ,?is k9d ( ,univ]sal ,proposition 7:]e ! ,subject is a s+le ,?+7 is call$ an ',,individual' ,proposition4 ,n[ let u take ,,nice ,cakes z ! ,subject ( ,proposition3 t is1 let u fix our ?\ghts on ! ,,left-,,h& half ( ! cupbo>d1 :]e all ! ,cakes h attribute y1 t is1 nice4 ----- ,suppose we f9d x m>k$ l ?is3-- #a ,:at w\ld t tell u8 ----- ----- ,i hope t x is n necess>y1 aft] expla9+ ! ,,horizontal oblong s fully1 to sp5d mu* "t ov] ! ,,upright "o4 ,i hope y w see1 = y\rself1 t ?is means "s y are x1 t is1 ,"s nice ,cakes are new4 ,b1 y w say1 we h _h ?is case be=e4 ,y put a r$ c\nt] into ,no4 #e1 & y told u x meant '"s new ,cakes are nice'2 & ,,n[ y tell u t x means '"s ,,nice ,cakes are ,,new'6 ,c x mean ,,bo?8 ,! "q is a v ?\ghtful "o1 & does y ,,great cr$it1 de> ,read]6 ,x ,,does mean bo?4 ,if y *oose to take x 7t is1 new ,cakes7 z y\r ,subject1 & to reg>d ,no4 #e z "p ( a ,,horizontal oblong1 y may read x "s x are y1 t is1 "s new ,cakes are nice3 b1 if y *oose to take y 7t is1 nice ,cake7 z y\r ,subject1 & to reg>d ,no4 #e z "p ( an ,,upright oblong1 ,,!n y may read x "s y are x1 t is1 "s nice ,cakes are new4 ,!y are m]ely two diff]5t ways ( express+ ! v same tru?4 ,)\t m words1 ,i w simply set d[n ! o!r ways 9 :i* ?is upright oblong might be m>k$1 add+ ! mean+ 9 ea* case4 ,by comp>+ !m ) ! v>i\s cases ( ! horizontal oblong1 y w1 ,i hope1 be able to und]/& !m cle>ly4 ,y w f9d x a good plan to exam9e y\rself on ?is table1 by cov]+ up fir/ "o column & !n ! o!r1 & 'dodg+ ab\t'1 z ! *ildr5 say4 ,also y w d well to write out = y\rself two o!r tables--"o = ! ,,l[] half ( ! cupbo>d1 & ! o!r = its ,,"r-,,h& half4 ,& n[ ,i ?9k we h said all we ne$ to say ab\t ! small] ,diagram1 & may g on to ! l>g] "o4 ,symbols4 ,mean+s4 ----- ,"s y are x'2 i4e4 ,"s nice are n-new4 ----- #a ----- ----- ,no y are x2 #j i4e4 ,no nice are new4 ----- ,obs]ve t ?is is m]ely ano!r way ( express+ ,no new are nice4 ----- ----- ,no y are x'2 i4e4 ,no nice are n-new4 ----- #j ----- ----- #a ,"s y are x1 & "s are x'2 i4e4 ,"s nice are new1 & "s are ----- n-new4 #a ----- ----- #j ,no y are x1 & none are x'2 i4e4 ,no y exi/2 ----- i4e4 ,no ,cakes are nice4 #j ----- ----- #a ,all y are x2 i4e4 ,all nice are new4 ----- #j ----- ----- #j ,all y are x'2 i4e4 ,all nice are n-new4 ----- #a ----- ,?is may be tak5 to be a cupbo>d divid$ 9 ! same way z ! la/1 b ,,also divid$ into two portions1 = ! ,attribute m4 ,let u give to m ! mean+ :olesome3 & let u suppose t all ,,:olesome ,cakes are plac$ ,,inside ! c5tral ,squ>e1 & all ! ,,un:olesome ones ,,outside x1 t is1 9 "o or o!r ( ! f\r que]-%ap$ ,,out] comp>tm5ts4 ,we see t1 j z1 9 ! small] ,diagram1 ! ,cakes 9 ea* comp>tm5t _h ,,two ,attributes1 s1 "h1 ! ,cakes 9 ea* comp>tm5t h ,,?ree ,attributes3 &1 j z ! lett]s1 repres5t+ ! ,,two ,attributes1 7 writt5 on ! ,,edges ( ! comp>tm5t1 s1 "h1 !y are writt5 at ! ,,corn]s4 7,obs]ve t m' is suppos$ to be writt5 at ea* ( ! f\r out] corn]s47 ,s t we c tell 9 a mom5t1 by look+ at a comp>tm5t1 :at ?ree ,attributes belong to ! ,?+s 9 x4 ,= in/ance1 take ,no4 #ab4 ,"h we f9d x1 y'1 m1 at ! corn]s3 s we "k t ! ,cakes 9 x1 if !re are any1 h ! triple ,attribute1 'xy'm'1 t is1 new1 n-nice1 & :olesome4 ,aga91 take ,no4 #af4 ,"h we f9d1 at ! corn]s1 x'1 y'1 m'3 s ! ,cakes 9 x are n-new1 n-nice1 & un:olesome4 7,rem>kably untempt+ ,cakes67 ,x w\ld take f> too long to g ?r\gh all ! ,propositions1 conta9+ x & y1 x & m1 & y & m :i* c be repres5t$ on ?is diagram 7!re are n9ety-six altoge!r1 s ,i am sure y w excuse me67 & ,i mu/ cont5t myself ) do+ two or ?ree1 z specim5s4 ,y w d well to "w out a lot m = y\rself4 ,tak+ ! upp] half by itself1 s t our ,subject is new ,cakes1 h[ are we to repres5t no new ,cakes are :olesome8 ,?is is1 writ+ lett]s = words1 no x are m4 ,n[ ?is tells u t none ( ! ,cakes1 belong+ to ! upp] half ( ! cupbo>d1 are to be f\nd ,,inside ! c5tral ,squ>e3 t is1 ! two comp>tm5ts1 ,no4 #aa & ,no4 #ab1 are ,,empty4 ,& ?is1 ( c\rse1 is repres5t$ by ------------------- #j #j ------------------- ,& n[ h[ are we to repres5t ! contradictory ,proposition ,,"s x are m8 ,?is is a difficulty ,i h already consid]$4 ,i ?9k ! be/ way is to place a r$ c\nt] ,,on ,,! ,,division-,,l9e betwe5 ,no4 #aa & ,no4 #ab1 & to und]/& ?is to mean t ,,"o ( ! two comp>tm5ts is 'occupi$1' b t we d n at pres5t "k ,,:i*4 ,?is ,i %all repres5t ?us3-- ------------------- -#a- ------------------- ,n[ let u express all x are m4 ,?is consi/s1 we "k1 ( ,,two ,propositions1 ,"s x are m1 & ,no x are m'4 ,let u express ! negative "p fir/4 ,?is tells u t none ( ! ,cakes1 belong+ to ! upp] half ( ! cupbo>d1 are to be f\nd ,,outside ! c5tral ,squ>e3 t is1 ! two comp>tm5ts1 ,no4 #i & ,no4 #aj1 are ,,empty4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is repres5t$ by ------------------- #j #j ------------------- ,b we h yet to repres5t ,"s x are m4 ,?is tells u t !re are ,,"s ,cakes 9 ! oblong consi/+ ( ,no4 #aa & ,no4 #ab3 s we place our r$ c\nt]1 z 9 ! previ\s example1 on ! division-l9e betwe5 ,no4 #aa & ,no4 #ab1 & ! result is ------------------- #j #j -#a- ------------------- ,n[ let u try "o or two int]pretations4 ,:at are we to make ( ?is1 ) reg>d to x & y8 ------------------- #j #a #j ------------------- ,?is tells u1 ) reg>d to ! xy'-,squ>e1 t x is :olly 'empty'1 s9ce ,,bo? comp>tm5ts are s m>k$4 ,) reg>d to ! xy-,squ>e1 x tells u t x is 'occupi$'4 ,true1 x is only ,,"o comp>tm5t ( x t is s m>k$2 b t is q en\gh1 :e!r ! o!r be 'occupi$' or 'empty'1 to settle ! fact t !re is ,,some?+ 9 ! ,squ>e4 ,if1 !n1 we transf] our m>ks to ! small] ,diagram1 s z to get rid ( ! m-subdivisions1 we h a "r to m>k x ----------- #a #j ----------- :i* means1 y "k1 all x are y4 ,! result w\ld h be5 exactly ! same1 if ! giv5 oblong _h be5 m>k$ ?us3-- ------------------- #a #j #j ------------------- ,once m3 h[ %all we int]pret ?is1 ) reg>d to x & y8 ------------------- #j #a ------------------- ,?is tells u1 z to ! xy-,squ>e1 t ,,"o ( its comp>tm5ts is 'empty'4 ,b ?is in=mation is q useless1 z !re is no m>k 9 ! ,,o!r comp>tm5t4 ,if ! o!r comp>tm5t happ5$ to be 'empty' too1 ! ,squ>e w\ld be 'empty'3 &1 if x happ5$ to be 'occupi$'1 ! ,squ>e w\ld be 'occupi$'4 ,s1 z we d n "k ,,:i* is ! case1 we c say no?+ ab\t ,,?is ,squ>e4 ,! o!r ,squ>e1 ! xy'-,squ>e1 we "k 7z 9 ! previ\s example7 to be 'occupi$'4 ,if1 !n1 we transf] our m>ks to ! small] ,diagram1 we get m]ely ?is3-- ----------- #a ----------- :i* means1 y "k1 "s x are y'4 ,^! pr9ciples may be appli$ to all ! o!r oblongs4 ,= in/ance1 to repres5t all y' are m' we %\ld m>k ! ------- ,,"r-,,h& ,,upright ,,oblong 7! "o t has ! attribute y'7 ?us3-- --- #j ----#a- #j --- ------- &1 if we 7 told to int]pret ! l[] half ( ! cupbo>d1 m>k$ z foll[s1 ) reg>d to x & y1 ------------------- #j ---------- #a #j ------------------- we %\ld transf] x to ! small] ,diagram ?us1 ----------- #a #j ----------- & read x all x' are y4 ,two m rem>ks ab\t ,propositions ne$ to be made4 ,"o is t1 9 e ,proposition beg9n+ ) "s or all1 ! ,,actual ,,exi/5ce ( ! ',subject' is ass]t$4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ,i say all mis]s are selfi%1 ,i mean t mis]s ,,actually ,,exi/4 ,if ,i wi%$ to avoid mak+ ?is ass]tion1 & m]ely to /ate ! ,,law t mis]l9ess necess>ily involves selfi%ness1 ,i %\ld say no mis]s are unselfi% :i* does n ass]t t any mis]s exi/ at all1 b m]ely t1 if any ,,did exi/1 !y ,,w\ld be selfi%4 ,! o!r is t1 :5 a ,proposition beg9s ) "s or no1 & conta9s m t two ,attributes1 ^! ,attributes may be re-arrang$1 & %ift$ f "o ,t]m to ! o!r1 ad libitum4 ,= example1 "s abc are def may be re-arrang$ z "s bf are acde1 ea* be+ equival5t to "s ,?+s are abcdef4 ,aga9 ,no wise old m5 are ra% & reckless gambl]s may be re-arrang$ z ,no ra% old gambl]s are wise & reckless1 ea* be+ equival5t to ,no m5 are wise old ra% reckless gambl]s4 #b4 ,syllogisms ,n[ suppose we divide our ,univ]se ( ,?+s 9 ?ree ways1 ) reg>d to ?ree diff]5t ,attributes4 ,out ( ^! ?ree ,attributes1 we may make up ?ree diff]5t c\ples 7= in/ance1 if !y 7 a1 b1 c1 we might make up ! ?ree c\ples ab1 ac1 bc74 ,also suppose we h two ,propositions giv5 u1 conta9+ two ( ^! ?ree c\ples1 & t f !m we c prove a ?ird ,proposition conta9+ ! ?ird c\ple4 7,= example1 if we divide our ,univ]se = m1 x1 & y2 & if we h ! two ,propositions giv5 u1 no m are x' & all m' are y1 conta9+ ! two c\ples mx & my1 x might be possible to prove f !m a ?ird ,proposition1 conta9+ x & y47 ,9 su* a case we call ! giv5 ,propositions ',,! ,,premisses'1 ! ?ird "o ',,! ,,conclusion' & ! :ole set ',a ,,syllogism'4 ,evid5tly1 ,,"o ( ! ,attributes mu/ occur 9 bo? ,premisses2 or else "o mu/ occur 9 ,,"o ,premiss1 & its ,,contradictory 9 ! o!r4 ,9 ! fir/ case 7:51 = example1 ! ,premisses are "s m are x & no m are y'7 ! ,t]m1 :i* occurs twice1 is call$ ',,! ,,middle ,,t]m'1 because x s]ves z a sort ( l9k betwe5 ! o!r two ,t]ms4 ,9 ! second case 7:51 = example1 ! ,premisses are no m are x' & all m' are y7 ! two ,t]ms1 :i* conta9 ^! contradictory ,attributes1 may be call$ ',,! ,,middle ,,t]ms'4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ case1 ! class ( m-,?+s is ! ,middle ,t]m2 &1 9 ! second case1 ! two classes ( m-,?+s & m'-,?+s are ! ,middle ,t]ms4 ,! ,attribute1 :i* occurs 9 ! ,middle ,t]m or ,t]ms1 disappe>s 9 ! ,conclusion1 & is said to be elim9at$1 :i* lit]ally means turn$ out ( doors4 ,n[ let u try to draw a ,conclusion f ! two ,premisses-- ,"s new ,cakes are un:olesome2 ,no nice ,cakes are un:olesome4 ,9 ord] to express !m ) c\nt]s1 we ne$ to divide ,cakes 9 ,,?ree diff]5t ways1 ) reg>d to newness1 to nic5ess1 & to :olesom5ess4 ,= ?is we mu/ use ! l>g] ,diagram1 mak+ x mean new1 y nice1 & m :olesome4 7,ev]y?+ ,,inside ! c5tral ,squ>e is suppos$ to h ! attribute m1 & ev]y?+ ,,outside x ! attribute m'1 i4e4 n-m47 ,y _h bett] adopt ! rule to make m mean ! ,attribute :i* occurs 9 ! ,,middle ,t]m or ,t]ms4 7,i h *os5 m z ! symbol1 because 'middle' beg9s ) 'm'47 ,n[1 9 repres5t+ ! two ,premisses1 ,i pref] to beg9 ) ! ,,negative "o 7! "o beg9n+ ) no71 because ,,grey c\nt]s c always be plac$ ) ,,c]ta9ty1 & w !n help to fix ! position ( ! r$ c\nt]s1 :i* are sometimes a little unc]ta9 :]e !y w be mo/ welcome4 ,let u express1 ! no nice ,cakes are un:olesome 7,cakes71 i4e4 no y-,cakes are m'-7,cakes74 ,?is tells u t none ( ! ,cakes belong+ to ! y-half ( ! cupbo>d are 9 its m'-comp>tm5ts 7i4e4 ! ones outside ! c5tral ,squ>e74 ,h5ce ! two comp>tm5ts1 ,no4 #i & ,no4 #ae1 are bo? ',,empty'2 & we mu/ place a grey c\nt] 9 ,,ea* ( !m1 ?us3-- ----------- #j ---- --------- ---- #j ----------- ,we h n[ to express ! o!r ,premiss1 namely1 "s new ,cakes are un:olesome 7,cakes71 i4e4 "s x-,cakes are m'-7,cakes74 ,?is tells u t "s ( ! ,cakes 9 ! x-half ( ! cupbo>d are 9 its m'-comp>tm5ts4 ,h5ce ,,"o ( ! two comp>tm5ts1 ,no4 #i & ,no4 #aj1 is 'occupi$'3 &1 z we are n told 9 ,,:i* ( ^! two comp>tm5ts to place ! r$ c\nt]1 ! usual rule w\ld be to lay x on ! division-l9e betwe5 !m3 b1 9 ?is case1 ! o!r ,premiss has settl$ ! matt] = u1 by decl>+ ,no4 #i to be ,,empty4 ,h5ce ! r$ c\nt] has no *oice1 & ,,mu/ g into ,no4 #aj1 ?us3-- ----------- #j #a ---- --------- ---- #j ----------- ,& n[ :at c\nt]s w ?is in=mation enable u to place 9 ! ,,small] ,diagram1 s z to get "s ,proposition involv+ x & y only1 leav+ out m8 ,let u take its f\r comp>tm5ts1 "o by "o4 ,fir/1 ,no4 #e4 ,all we "k ab\t ,,?is is t its ,,out] portion is empty3 b we "k no?+ ab\t its inn] portion4 ,?us ! ,squ>e ,,may be empty1 or x ,,may h some?+ 9 x4 ,:o c tell8 ,s we d>e n place ,,any c\nt] 9 ?is ,squ>e4 ,secondly1 :at ( ,no4 #f8 ,"h we are a little bett] (f4 ,we "k t !re is ,,some?+ 9 x1 = !re is a r$ c\nt] 9 its out] portion4 ,x is true we d n "k :e!r its inn] portion is empty or occupi$3 b :at does ,,t matt]8 ,"o solit>y ,cake1 9 "o corn] ( ! ,squ>e1 is q suffici5t excuse = say+ ,,?is ,,squ>e ,,is ,,occupi$1 & = m>k+ x ) a r$ c\nt]4 ,z to ,no4 #g1 we are 9 ! same condition z ) ,no4 #e--we f9d x ,,p>tly 'empty'1 b we d n "k :e!r ! o!r "p is empty or occupi$3 s we d>e n m>k ?is ,squ>e4 ,& z to ,no4 #h1 we h simply no in=mation at all4 ,! result is ------- #a ------ ------- ,our ',conclusion'1 !n1 mu/ be got out ( ! r meag] piece ( in=mation t !re is a r$ c\nt] 9 ! xy'-,squ>e4 ,h5ce our ,conclusion is "s x are y' 1 i4e4 "s new ,cakes are n-nice 7,cakes73 or1 if y pref] to take y' z y\r ,subject1 "s n-nice ,cakes are new 7,cakes72 b ! o!r looks neate/4 ,we w n[ write out ! :ole ,syllogism1 putt+ ! symbol !re#d99 = !re=e1 & omitt+ ,cakes1 = ! sake ( brevity1 at ! end ( ea* ,proposition4 99,,note f ,brett3 ,! use ( !re#d is a r arbitr>y selection4 ,!re is no font available 9 g5]al practice :i* r5d]s ! !re=e symbol correction 7?ree dots 9 a triangul> =mation74 ,?is c be done1 h[ev]1 9 ,,html1 s if ?is docum5t is read 9 a br[s]1 !n ! symbol w be prop]ly recogniz$4 ,?is is a poor man's excuse4 ,"s new ,cakes are un:olesome2 ,no nice ,cakes are un:olesome !re#d ,"s new ,cakes are n-nice4 ,& y h n[ work$ out1 successfully1 y\r fir/ ',,syllogism'4 ,p]mit me to congratulate y1 & to express ! hope t x is b ! beg9n+ ( a long & glori\s s]ies ( simil> victories6 ,we w "w out "o o!r ,syllogism--a r h>d] "o ?an ! la/--& !n1 ,i ?9k1 y may be safely left to play ! ,game by y\rself1 or 7bett]7 ) any fri5d :om y c f9d1 t is able & will+ to take a %>e 9 ! sport4 ,let u see :at we c make ( ! two ,premisses-- ,all ,dragons are uncanny2 ,all ,scot*m5 are canny4 ,rememb]1 ,i don't gu>antee ! ,premisses to be ,,facts4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i nev] ev5 saw a ,dragon3 &1 9 ! second place1 x isn't ( ! slighte/ consequ5ce to u1 z ,,logicians1 :e!r our ,premisses are true or false3 all ,,we h to d is to make out :e!r !y ,,lead ,,logically ,,to ,,! ,,conclusion1 s t1 if ,,!y 7 true1 ,,x w\ld be true also4 ,y see1 we mu/ give up ! ,cakes n[1 or our cupbo>d w be ( no use to u4 ,we mu/ take1 z our ',univ]se'1 "s class ( ?+s :i* w include ,dragons & ,scot*m53 %all we say ',animals'8 ,&1 z canny is evid5tly ! ,attribute belong+ to ! ',middle ,t]ms'1 we w let m /& = canny1 x = ,dragons1 & y = ,scot*m54 ,s t our two ,premisses are1 9 full1 ,all ,dragon-,animals are uncanny 7,animals72 ,all ,scot*man-,animals are canny 7,animals74 ,& ^! may be express$1 us+ lett]s = words1 ?us3-- ,all x are m'2 ,all y are m4 ,! fir/ ,premiss consi/s1 z y already "k1 ( two p>ts3-- ,"s x are m'1 & ,no x are m4 ,& ! second also consi/s ( two p>ts3-- ,"s y are m1 & ,no y are m'4 ,let u take ! negative portions fir/4 ,we h1 !n1 to m>k1 on ! l>g] ,diagram1 fir/1 no x are m1 & secondly1 no y are m'4 ,i ?9k y w see1 )\t fur!r explanation1 t ! two results1 sep>ately1 are ----------- ----------- #j ---- ---- #j #j -------- -------- ---- ---- #j ----------- ----------- & t ^! two1 :5 comb9$1 give u ----------- #j ---- #j #j -------- ---- #j ----------- ,we h n[ to m>k ! two positive portions1 "s x are m' & "s y are m4 ,! only two comp>tm5ts1 available = ,?+s :i* are xm'1 are ,no4 #i & ,no4 #aj4 ,( ^!1 ,no4 #i is already m>k$ z 'empty'2 s our r$ c\nt] mu/ g into ,no4 #aj4 ,simil>ly1 ! only two1 available = ym1 are ,no4 #aa & ,no4 #ac4 ,( ^!1 ,no4 #aa is already m>k$ z 'empty'2 s our r$ c\nt] ,,mu/ g into ,no4 #ac4 ,! f9al result is ----------- #j #a ---- #j #j -------- #a ---- #j ----------- ,& n[ h[ mu* ( ?is in=mation c usefully be transf]r$ to ! small] ,diagram8 ,let u take its f\r comp>tm5ts1 "o by "o4 ,z to ,no4 #e8 ,?is1 we see1 is :olly 'empty'4 7,s m>k x ) a grey c\nt]47 ,z to ,no4 #f8 ,?is1 we see1 is 'occupi$'4 7,s m>k x ) a r$ c\nt]47 ,z to ,no4 #g8 ,ditto1 ditto4 ,z to ,no4 #h8 ,no in=mation4 ,! small] ,diagram is n[ pretty lib]ally m>k$3-- ------- #j #a ------ #a ------- ,& n[ :at ,conclusion c we read (f f ?is8 ,well1 x is impossible to pack su* abundant in=mation into ,,"o ,proposition3 we %all h to indulge 9 ,,two1 ?is "t4 ,fir/1 by tak+ x z ,subject1 we get all x are y'1 t is1 ,all ,dragons are n-,scot*m53 secondly1 by tak+ y z ,subject1 we get all y are x'1 t is1 ,all ,scot*m5 are n-,dragons4 ,let u n[ write out1 all toge!r1 our two ,premisses & our brace ( ,conclusions4 ,all ,dragons are uncanny2 ,all ,scot*m5 are canny4 !re#d ,all ,dragons are n-,scot*m52 ,all ,scot*m5 are n-,dragons4 ,let me m5tion1 9 conclusion1 t y may p]haps meet ) logical treatises 9 :i* x is n assum$ t any ,?+ ,,exi/s at all1 by "s x are y is und]/ood to mean ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,compatible1 s t a ,?+ c h bo? at once1 & no x are y to mean ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,incompatible1 s t no?+ c h bo? at once4 ,9 su* treatises1 ,propositions h q diff]5t mean+s f :at !y h 9 our ',game ( ,logic'1 & x w be well to und]/& exactly :at ! diff]5ce is4 ,fir/ take "s x are y4 ,"h ,,we und]/& are to mean are1 z an actual ,,fact--:i* ( c\rse implies t "s x-,?+s ,,exi/4 ,b ,,!y 7! writ]s ( ^! o!r treatises7 only und]/& are to mean ,,c be1 :i* does n at all imply t any ,,exi/4 ,s !y mean ,,less ?an we d3 our mean+ includes !irs 7= ( c\rse "s x ,,are y includes "s x ,,c ,,be y71 b !irs does ,,n include ours4 ,= example1 "s ,wel% hippopotami are heavy w\ld be ,,true1 accord+ to ^! writ]s 7s9ce ! ,attributes ,wel% & heavy are q ,,compatible 9 a hippopotamus71 b x w\ld be ,,false 9 our ,game 7s9ce !re are no ,wel% hippopotami to ,,be heavy74 ,secondly1 take no x are y4 ,"h ,,we only und]/& are to mean are1 z an actual ,,fact--:i* does n at all imply t no x ,,c be y4 ,b ,,!y und]/& ! ,proposition to mean1 n only t none ,,are y1 b t none ,,c ,,possibly be y4 ,s !y mean m ?an we d3 _! mean+ includes ours 7= ( c\rse no x ,,c be y includes no x ,,are y71 b ours does ,,n include !irs4 ,= example1 no ,policem5 are eight feet high w\ld be ,,true 9 our ,game 7s9ce1 z an actual fact1 no su* spl5did specim5s are ev] f\nd71 b x w\ld be ,,false1 accord+ to ^! writ]s 7s9ce ! ,attributes belong+ to ! ,police ,=ce & eight feet high are q ,,compatible3 !re is no?+ to ,,prev5t a ,policeman f gr[+ to t height1 if suffici5tly rubb$ ) ,r[l&'s ,macass> ,oil--:i* said to make ,,hair gr[1 :5 rubb$ on hair1 & s ( c\rse w make a ,,policeman gr[1 :5 rubb$ on a ,policeman74 ,?irdly1 take all x are y1 :i* consi/s ( ! two p>tial ,propositions "s x are y & no x are y'4 ,"h1 ( c\rse1 ! treatises mean ,,less ?an we d 9 ! ,,fir/ "p1 & m ?an we d 9 ! ,,second4 ,b ! two op]ations don't balance ea* o!r--any m ?an y c console a man1 = hav+ knock$ d[n "o ( 8 *imneys1 by giv+ him an extra door-/ep4 ,if y meet ) ,syllogisms ( ?is k9d1 y may "w !m1 q easily1 by ! sy/em ,i h giv5 y3 y h only to make 'are' mean 'are ,,capable ( be+'1 & all w g smoo?ly4 ,= "s x are y w become "s x are capable ( be+ y1 t is1 ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,compatible4 ,& no x are y w become no x are capable ( be+ y1 t is1 ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,incompatible4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 all x are y w become "s x are capable ( be+ y1 & none are capable ( be+ y'1 t is1 ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,compatible1 & ! ,attributes x1 y' are ,,incompatible4 ,9 us+ ! ,diagrams = ?is sy/em1 y mu/ und]/& a r$ c\nt] to mean !re may ,,possibly be some?+ 9 ?is comp>tm5t1 & a grey "o to mean !re _c ,,possibly be any?+ 9 ?is comp>tm5t4 #c4 ,fallacies4 ,& s y ?9k1 d y1 t ! *ief use ( ,logic1 9 real life1 is to d$uce ,conclusions f workable ,premisses1 & to satisfy y\rself t ! ,conclusions1 d$uc$ by o!r p1 are correct8 ,i only wi% x 76 ,society w\ld be mu* less liable to panics & o!r delusions1 & ,,political life1 especially1 w\ld be a totally diff]5t ?+1 if ev5 a majority ( ! argum5ts1 t scatt]$ broadca/ ov] ! _w1 7 correct6 ,b x is all ! o!r way1 ,i fe>4 ,= ,,"o workable ,pair ( ,premisses 7,i mean a ,pair t lead to a logical ,conclusion7 t y meet ) 9 read+ y\r newspap] or magaz9e1 y w probably f9d ,,five t lead to no ,conclusion at all3 &1 ev5 :5 ! ,premisses ,,are workable1 = ,,"o in/ance1 :]e ! writ] draws a correct ,conclusion1 !re are probably ,,t5 :]e he draws an incorrect "o4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 y may say ! ,,premisses are fallaci\s3 9 ! second1 ! ,,conclusion is fallaci\s4 ,! *ief use y w f9d1 9 su* ,logical skill z ?is ,game may tea* y1 w be 9 detect+ ',,fallacies' ( ^! two k9ds4 ,! fir/ k9d ( ,fallacy--',fallaci\s ,premisses'--y w detect :51 aft] m>k+ !m on ! l>g] ,diagram1 y try to transf] ! m>ks to ! small]4 ,y w take its f\r comp>tm5ts1 "o by "o1 & ask1 = ea* 9 turn1 ,:at m>k c ,i place ,,"h82 & 9 ,,e "o ! answ] w be ,no in=mation61 %[+ t !re is ,,no ,,conclusion ,,at ,,all4 ,= in/ance1 ,all soldi]s are brave2 ,"s ,engli%m5 are brave4 !re#d ,"s ,engli%m5 are soldi]s4 looks uncommonly ,,l a ,syllogism1 & might easily take 9 a less exp]i5c$ ,logician4 ,b ,,y are n to be caught by su* a trick6 ,y w\ld simply set out ! ,premisses1 & w\ld !n calmly rem>k ,fallaci\s ,,premisses63 y w\ldn't condesc5d to ask :at ,,conclusion ! writ] pr(ess$ to draw--kn[+ t1 ,,:atev] x is1 x ,,mu/ be wrong4 ,y w\ld be j z safe z t wise "m 01 :o said ,m>y1 j g up to ! nurs]y1 & see :at ,baby's do+1 ,,& ,,tell ,,him ,,n ,,to ,,d ,,x6 ,! o!r k9d ( ,fallacy--',fallaci\s ,conclusion'--y w n detect till y h m>k$ ,,bo? ,diagrams1 & h read (f ! correct ,conclusion1 & h comp>$ x ) ! ,conclusion :i* ! writ] has drawn4 ,b m9d1 y mu/n't say ,,fallaci\s ,conclusion1 simply because x is n ,,id5tical ) ! correct "o3 x may be a ,,"p ( ! correct ,conclusion1 & s be q correct1 ,,z ,,f> ,,z ,,x ,,goes4 ,9 ?is case y w\ld m]ely rem>k1 ) a pity+ smile1 ,,defective ,conclusion6 ,suppose1 ( example1 y 7 to meet ) ?is ,syllogism3-- ,all unselfi% p are g5]\s2 ,no mis]s are g5]\s4 !re#d ,no mis]s are unselfi%4 ! ,premisses ( :i* might be ?us express$ 9 lett]s3-- ,all x' are m2 ,no y are m4 ,"h ! correct ,conclusion w\ld be ,all x' are y' 7t is1 ,all unselfi% p are n mis]s71 :ile ! ,conclusion1 drawn by ! writ]1 is ,no y are x'1 7:i* is ! same z ,no x' are y1 & s is ,,"p ( ,all x' are y'47 ,"h y w\ld simply say ,,defective ,conclusion6 ,! same ?+ w\ld happ51 if y 7 9 a confection]'s %op1 & if a little boy 7 to come 91 put d[n twop5ce1 & m>* (f triumphantly ) a s+le p5ny-bun4 ,y w\ld %ake y\r head m\rnfully1 & w\ld rem>k ,defective ,conclusion6 ,poor little *ap6 ,& p]haps y w\ld ask ! "y lady beh9d ! c\nt] :e!r %e w\ld let ,,y eat ! bun1 :i* ! little boy _h paid = & left beh9d him3 & p]haps ,,%e w\ld reply ,%a'n't6 ,b if1 9 ! above example1 ! writ] _h drawn ! ,conclusion ,all mis]s are selfi% 7t is1 ,all y are x71 ?is w\ld be go+ ,,beyond 8 legitimate rights 7s9ce x w\ld ass]t ! ,,exi/5ce ( y1 :i* is n conta9$ 9 ! ,premisses71 & y w\ld v prop]ly say ,fallaci\s ,conclusion6 ,n[1 :5 y read o!r treatises on ,logic1 y w meet ) v>i\s k9ds ( 7s-call$7 ',fallacies' :i* are by no means ,,always s4 ,= example1 if y 7 to put be=e "o ( ^! ,logicians ! ,pair ( ,premisses ,no hone/ m5 *eat2 ,no di%one/ m5 are tru/wor?y4 & 7 to ask him :at ,conclusion foll[$1 he w\ld probably say ,none at all6 ,y\r ,premisses (f5d aga9/ ,,two di/9ct ,rules1 & are z fallaci\s z !y c well be6 ,!n suppose y 7 bold en\gh to say ,! ,conclusion is ',no m5 :o *eat are tru/wor?y'1 ,i fe> y\r ,logical fri5d w\ld turn away ha/ily--p]haps angry1 p]haps only scornful3 9 any case1 ! result w\ld be unpleasant4 ,i ,,advise ,,y ,,n ,,to ,,try ,,! ,,exp]im5t6 ,b :y is ?is8 y w say4 ,d y mean to tell u t all ^! ,logicians are wrong8 ,f> f x1 de> ,read]6 ,f ,,_! po9t ( view1 !y are p]fectly "r4 ,b !y d n include1 9 _! sy/em1 any?+ l ,,all ! possible =ms ( ,syllogisms4 ,!y h a sort ( n]v\s dread ( ,attributes beg9n+ ) a negative p>ticle4 ,= example1 su* ,propositions z ,all n-x are y1 ,no x are n-y1 are q outside _! sy/em4 ,& ?us1 hav+ 7f %e] n]v\sness7 exclud$ a quantity ( v useful =ms1 !y h made rules :i*1 ?\gh q applicable to ! few =ms :i* !y all[ (1 are no use at all :5 y consid] all possible =ms4 ,let u n qu>rel ) !m1 de> ,read]6 ,!re is room en\gh 9 ! _w = bo? ( u4 ,let u quietly take our broad] sy/em3 &1 if !y *oose to %ut _! eyes to all ^! useful =ms1 & to say ,!y are n ,syllogisms at all6 we c b /& aside1 & let !m ,ru% ^u _! ,fate6 ,!re is sc>cely any?+ ( y\rs1 ^u :i* x is s dang]\s to ,ru%1 z y\r ,fate4 ,y may ,ru% ^u y\r ,potato-b$s1 or y\r ,/rawb]ry-b$s1 )\t do+ mu* h>m3 y may ev5 ,ru% ^u y\r ,balcony 7unless x is a new h\se1 built by contract1 & ) no cl]k ( ! works7 & may survive ! foolh>dy ent]prise3 b if y once ,ru% ^u y\r ,,fate--:y1 y mu/ take ! consequ5ces6 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,cross ,,que/ions4 ,! ,man 9 ! ,wild]ness ask$ ( me ',h[ _m /rawb]ries gr[ 9 ! sea8' #a4 ,elem5t>y4 #a4 ,:at is an ',attribute'8 ,give examples4 #b4 ,:5 is x good s5se to put is or are betwe5 two names8 ,give examples4 #c4 ,:5 is x ,,n good s5se8 ,give examples4 #d4 ,:5 x is ,,n good s5se1 :at is ! simple/ agreem5t to make1 9 ord] to make good s5se8 #e4 ,expla9 ',proposition'1 ',t]m'1 ',subject'1 & ',pr$icate'4 ,give examples4 #f4 ,:at are ',p>ticul>' & ',univ]sal' ,propositions8 ,give examples4 #g4 ,give a rule = kn[+1 :5 we look at ! small] ,diagram1 :at ,attributes belong to ! ?+s 9 ea* comp>tm5t4 #h4 ,:at does "s mean 9 ,logic8 ,see pp4 #ee1 #f #i4 ,9 :at s5se d we use ! ^w ',univ]se' 9 ?is ,game8 #aj4 ,:at is a ',d\ble' ,proposition8 ,give examples4 #aa4 ,:5 is a class ( ,?+s said to be 'exhau/ively' divid$8 ,give examples4 #ab4 ,expla9 ! phrase sitt+ on ! f5ce4 #ac4 ,:at two p>tial ,propositions make up1 :5 tak5 toge!r1 all x are y8 #ad4 ,:at are ',individual' ,propositions8 ,give examples4 #ae4 ,:at k9ds ( ,propositions imply1 9 ?is ,game1 ! ,,exi/5ce ( _! ,subjects8 #af4 ,:5 a ,proposition conta9s m ?an two ,attributes1 ^! ,attributes may 9 "s cases be re-arrang$1 & %ift$ f "o ,t]m to ! o!r4 ,9 :at cases may ?is be done8 ,give examples4 ,break up ea* ( ! foll[+ into two p>tial ,propositions3 #ag4 ,all tig]s are fi]ce4 #ah4 ,all h>d-boil$ eggs are un:olesome4 #ai4 ,i am happy4 #bj4 ,john is n at home4 ,see pp4 #ef1 #g #ba4 ,give a rule = kn[+1 :5 we look at ! l>g] ,diagram1 :at ,attributes belong to ! ,?+s conta9$ 9 ea* comp>tm5t4 #bb4 ,expla9 ',premisses'1 ',conclusion'1 & ',syllogism'4 ,give examples4 #bc4 ,expla9 ! phrases ',middle ,t]m' & ',middle ,t]ms'4 #bd4 ,9 m>k+ a pair ( ,premisses on ! l>g] ,diagram1 :y is x be/ to m>k ,,negative ,propositions be=e ,,affirmative ones8 #be4 ,:y is x ( no consequ5ce to u1 z ,logicians1 :e!r ! ,premisses are true or false8 #bf4 ,h[ c we "w ,syllogisms 9 :i* we are told t "s x are y is to be und]/ood to mean ! ,attribute x1 y are ,,compatible1 & no x are y to mean ! ,attributes x1 y are ,,incompatible8 #bg4 ,:at are ! two k9ds ( ',fallacies'8 #bh4 ,h[ may we detect ',fallaci\s ,premisses'8 #bi4 ,h[ may we detect a ',fallaci\s ,conclusion'8 #cj4 ,sometimes ! ,conclusion1 (f]$ to u1 is n id5tical ) ! correct ,conclusion1 & yet _c be fairly call$ ',fallaci\s'4 ,:5 does ?is happ58 ,& :at "n may we give to su* a ,conclusion8 ,see pp4 #eg-ei #b4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$4 ----------- x --y-----y'- #a4 ,"s x are n-y4 #b4 ,all x are n-y4 #c4 ,"s x are y1 & "s are n-y4 #d4 ,no x exi/4 #e4 ,"s x exi/4 #f4 ,no x are n-y4 #g4 ,"s x are n-y1 & "s x exi/4 ,tak+ xjudges2 yj2 #h4 ,no judges are j4 #i4 ,"s judges are unju/4 #aj4 ,all judges are j4 ,tak+ xplums2 y:olesome2 #aa4 ,"s plums are :olesome4 #ab4 ,!re are no :olesome plums4 #ac4 ,plums are "s ( !m :olesome1 & "s n4 #ad4 ,all plums are un:olesome4 ,see pp4 #ei1 #fj ----- x --y-- x' ----- ,tak+ ydilig5t /ud5ts2 xsuccessful2 #ae4 ,no dilig5t /ud5ts are unsuccessful4 #af4 ,all dilig5t /ud5ts are successful4 #ag4 ,no /ud5ts are dilig5t4 #ah4 ,!re are "s dilig5t1 b unsuccessful1 /ud5ts4 #ai4 ,"s /ud5ts are dilig5t4 ,see pp4 #fj1 #a #c4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,symbols to be int]pret$4 ----------- x --y-----y'- ------- ------- #a4 #j #b4 #j #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #c4 - #d4 #j #a ------- ------- ,tak+ xgood riddles2 yh>d2 ------- ------- #e4 #a #f4 #a #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #g4 #j #j #h4 #j ------- ------- ,see pp4 #fa1 #b ,tak+ xlob/]2 yselfi%2 ------- ------- #i4 #a #aj4 #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #aa4 #j #a #ab4 #a #a ------- ------- ----- x --y'- x' ----- ,tak+ yheal?y p2 xhappy2 --- --- --- --- #j #a #j #ac4 --- #ad4 -#a- #ae4 --- #af4 --- #a #a --- --- --- --- ,see p4 #fb #d4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$4 ----------- x --y----y'- x' ----------- #a4 ,all y are x4 #b4 ,"s y are n-x4 #c4 ,no n-x are n-y4 #d4 ,"s x are n-y4 #e4 ,"s n-y are x4 #f4 ,no n-x are y4 #g4 ,"s n-x are n-y4 #h4 ,all n-x are n-y4 #i4 ,"s n-y exi/4 #aj4 ,no n-x exi/4 #aa4 ,"s y are x1 & "s are n-x4 #ab4 ,all x are y1 & all n-y are n-x4 ,see pp4 #fb1 #c ,tak+ nations z ,univ]se2 xcivilis$2 yw>like2 #ac4 ,no uncivilis$ nation is w>like4 #ad4 ,all unw>like nations are uncivilis$4 #ae4 ,"s nations are unw>like4 #af4 ,all w>like nations are civilis$1 & all civilis$ nations are w>like4 #ag4 ,no nation is uncivilis$4 ,tak+ crocodiles z ,univ]se2 xhungry2 & yamiable2 #ah4 ,all hungry crocodiles are unamiable4 #ai4 ,no crocodiles are amiable :5 hungry4 #bj4 ,"s crocodiles1 :5 n hungry1 are amiable2 b "s are n4 #ba4 ,no crocodiles are amiable1 & "s are hungry4 #bb4 ,all crocodiles1 :5 n hungry1 are amiable2 & all unamiable crocodiles are hungry4 #bc4 ,"s hungry crocodiles are amiable1 & "s t are n hungry are unamiable4 ,see pp4 #fc1 #d #e4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,symbols to be int]pret$4 ----------- x --y----y'- x' ----------- ------- ------- #a4 ------ #b4 ------ #a #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #a #c4 ------ #d4 ------ #j #j #j ------- ------- ,tak+ h\ses z ,univ]se2 xbuilt ( brick2 & ytwo-/ori$2 int]pret ------- ------- #j #e4 ------ #f4 ------ #j - ------- ------ ------- ------- #j #g4 ------ #h4 ------ #j #a ------- ------- ,see p4 #fe ,tak+ boys z ,univ]se2 xfat2 & yactive2 int]pret ------- ------- #a #a #j #i4 ------ #aj4 ------ #a ------- ------- ------- ------- #j #a #a #aa4 ------ #ab4 ------ #j #j #a ------- ------- ,tak+ cats z ,univ]se2 xgre5-ey$2 & ygood-temp]$2 int]pret ------- ------- #j #j #a #ac4 ------ #ad4 ------ #j #a ------- ------- ------- ------- #a #j #a #ae4 ------ #af4 ------ #j #a #j ------- ------- ,see pp4 #fe1 #f #f4 ,l>g] ,diagram4 ,propositions to be repres5t$4 ----------- --x-- --y--m--y'- --x'- ----------- #a4 ,no x are m4 #b4 ,"s y are m'4 #c4 ,all m are x'4 #d4 ,no m' are y'4 #e4 ,no m are x2 ,all y are m4 #f4 ,"s x are m2 ,no y are m4 #g4 ,all m are x'2 ,no m are y4 #h4 ,no x' are m2 ,no y' are m'4 ,see pp4 #fg1h ,tak+ rabbits z ,univ]se2 mgre$y2 xold2 & yblack2 repres5t #i4 ,no old rabbits are gre$y4 #aj4 ,"s n-gre$y rabbits are black4 #aa4 ,all :ite rabbits are free f gre$9ess4 #ab4 ,all gre$y rabbits are "y4 #ac4 ,no old rabbits are gre$y2 ,all black rabbits are gre$y4 #ad4 ,all rabbits1 t are n gre$y1 are black2 ,no old rabbits are free f gre$9ess4 ,tak+ birds z ,univ]se2 mt s+ l\d2 xwell-f$2 & yhappy2 repres5t #ae4 ,all well-f$ birds s+ l\d2 ,no birds1 t s+ l\d1 are unhappy4 #af4 ,all birds1 t d n s+ l\d1 are unhappy2 ,no well-f$ birds fail to s+ l\d4 ,tak+ p]sons z ,univ]se2 m9 ! h\se2 x,john2 & yhav+ a too?-a*e2 repres5t #ag4 ,john is 9 ! h\se2 ,ev]ybody 9 ! h\se is suff]+ f too?-a*e4 #ah4 ,!re is no "o 9 ! h\se b ,john2 ,nobody1 out ( ! h\se1 has a too?-a*e4 ,see pp4 #fh-gj ,tak+ p]sons z ,univ]se2 m,i2 xt has tak5 a walk2 yt feels bett]2 repres5t #ai4 ,i h be5 out = a walk2 ,i feel mu* bett]4 ,*oos+ y\r own ',univ]se' c41 repres5t #bj4 ,i s5t him to br+ me a kitt52 ,he br\ght me a kettle by mi/ake4 ,see pp4 #gj1 #a #g4 ,bo? ,diagrams to be employ$4 ----------- ----------- --x-- x --y--m--y'- --y----y'- x' --x'- ----------- ----------- ,n4,b4 ,9 ea* ,"q1 a small ,diagram %\ld be drawn1 = x & y only1 & m>k$ 9 accordance ) ! giv5 l>ge ,diagram3 & !n z _m ,propositions z possible1 = x & y1 %\ld be read (f f ?is small ,diagram4 ----------- ----------- #j ---- ---- #j #j #j #a #a4 -------- #b4 -------- #a #j ---- ---- #j ----------- ----------- ,see p4 #gb ----------- ----------- #j ---- ---- #j #j #c4 -------- #d4 -------- #a #j #j ---- ---- #j ----------- ----------- ,m>k1 9 a l>ge ,diagram1 ! foll[+ pairs ( ,propositions f ! prec$+ ,section3 !n m>k a small ,diagram 9 accordance ) x1 c4 #e4 ,no4 #ac4 see p4 #di #i4 ,no4 #ag4 #f4 ,no4 #ad4 #aj4 ,no4 #ah4 #g4 ,no4 #ae4 #aa4 ,no4 #ai4 see p4 #ej #h4 ,no4 #af4 #ab4 ,no4 #bj4 ,m>k1 on a l>ge ,diagram1 ! foll[+ ,pairs ( ,propositions3 !n m>k a small ,diagram1 c4 ,^! are1 9 fact1 ,pairs ( ,,premisses = ,syllogisms3 & ! results1 read (f f ! small ,diagram1 are ! ,,conclusions4 #ac4 ,no excit+ books suit fev]i% pati5ts2 ,unexcit+ books make "o dr[sy4 #ad4 ,"s1 :o des]ve ! fair1 get _! des]ts2 ,none b ! brave des]ve ! fair4 #ae4 ,no *ildr5 are pati5t2 ,no impati5t p]son c sit /ill4 ,see pp4 #gb-e #af4 ,all pigs are fat2 ,no skeletons are fat4 #ag4 ,no monkeys are soldi]s2 ,all monkeys are mis*iev\s4 #ah4 ,none ( my c\s9s are j2 ,no judges are unju/4 #ai4 ,"s days are ra9y2 ,ra9y days are tiresome4 #bj4 ,all m$ic9e is na/y2 ,s5na is a m$ic9e4 #ba4 ,"s ,jews are ri*2 ,all ,patagonians are ,g5tiles4 #bb4 ,all teetotal]s l sug>2 ,no night+ale dr9ks w9e4 #bc4 ,no muff9s are :olesome2 ,all buns are un:olesome4 #bd4 ,no fat creatures run well2 ,"s greyh\nds run well4 #be4 ,all soldi]s m>*2 ,"s y\?s are n soldi]s4 #bf4 ,sug> is sweet2 ,salt is n sweet4 #bg4 ,"s eggs are h>d-boil$2 ,no eggs are uncrackable4 #bh4 ,!re are no ,jews 9 ! h\se2 ,!re are no ,g5tiles 9 ! g>d54 ,see pp4 #ge-hb #bi4 ,all battles are noisy2 ,:at makes no noise may escape notice4 #cj4 ,no ,jews are mad2 ,all ,rabbis are ,jews4 #ca4 ,!re are no fi% t _c swim2 ,"s skates are fi%4 #cb4 ,all passionate p are unreasonable2 ,"s orators are passionate4 ,see pp4 #hb-hd ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,crook$ ,,answ]s4 ,i answ]$ him1 z ,i ?\ght good1 ',z _m z r$-h]r+s gr[ 9 ! wood'4 #a4 ,elem5t>y4 #a4 ,:atev] c be attribut$ to1 t is said to belong to1 a ,?+1 is call$ an ',attribute'4 ,= example1 bak$1 :i* c 7frequ5tly7 be attribut$ to ,buns1 & beautiful1 :i* c 7seldom7 be attribut$ to ,babies4 #b4 ,:5 !y are ! ,names ( two ,?+s 7= example1 ^! ,pigs are fat ,animals71 or ( two ,attributes 7= example1 p9k is light r$74 #c4 ,:5 "o is ! ,"n ( a ,?+1 & ! o!r ! ,"n ( an ,attribute 7= example1 ^! ,pigs are p9k71 s9ce a ,?+ _c actually ,,be an ,attribute4 #d4 ,t ! ,sub/antive %all be suppos$ to be repeat$ at ! end ( ! s5t5ce 7= example1 ^! ,pigs are p9k 7,pigs774 #e4 ,a ',proposition' is a s5t5ce /at+ t "s1 or none1 or all1 ( ! ,?+s belong+ to a c]ta9 class1 call$ ! ',subject'1 are also ,?+s belong+ to a c]ta9 o!r class1 call$ ! ',pr$icate'4 ,= example1 "s new ,cakes are n nice1 t is 7writt5 9 full7 "s new ,cakes are n nice ,cakes2 :]e ! class new ,cakes is ! ,subject1 & ! class n-nice ,cakes is ! ,pr$icate4 #f4 ,a ,proposition1 /at+ t ,,"s ( ! ,?+s belong+ to its ,subject are s-&-s1 is call$ ',p>ticul>'4 ,= example1 "s new ,cakes are nice1 "s new ,cakes are n nice4 ,a ,proposition1 /at+ t ,,none ( ! ,?+s belong+ to its ,subject1 or t ,,all ( !m1 are s-&-s1 is call$ ',univ]sal'4 ,= example1 no new ,cakes are nice1 all new ,cakes are n nice4 #g4 ,! ,?+s 9 ea* comp>tm5t possess ,,two ,attributes1 ^: symbols w be f\nd writt5 on two ( ! ,,edges ( t comp>tm5t4 #h4 ,"o or m4 #i4 ,z a "n ( ! class ( ,?+s to :i* ! :ole ,diagram is assign$4 #aj4 ,a ,proposition conta9+ two /atem5ts4 ,= example1 "s new ,cakes are nice & "s are n-nice4 #aa4 ,:5 ! :ole class1 ?us divid$1 is exhau/$ among ! sets into :i* x is divid$1 !re be+ no memb] ( x :i* does n belong to "s "o ( !m4 ,= example1 ! class new ,cakes is exhau/ively divid$ into nice & n-nice s9ce ,,e new ,cake mu/ be "o or ! o!r4 #ab4 ,:5 a man _c make up 8 m9d :i* ( two p>ties he w jo91 he is said to be sitt+ on ! f5ce--n be+ able to decide on :i* side he w jump d[n4 #ac4 ,"s x are y & no x are y'4 #ad4 ,a ,proposition1 ^: ,subject is a s+le ,?+1 is call$ ',individual'4 ,= example1 ,i am happy1 ,john is n at home4 ,^! are ,univ]sal ,propositions1 be+ ! same z all ! ,i's t exi/ are happy1 ,,all ! ,johns1 t ,i am n[ consid]+1 are n at home4 #ae4 ,propositions beg9n+ ) "s or all4 #af4 ,:5 !y beg9 ) "s or no4 ,= example1 "s abc are def may be re-arrang$ z "s bf are acde1 ea* be+ equival5t to "s abcdef exi/4 #ag4 ,"s tig]s are fi]ce1 ,no tig]s are n-fi]ce4 #ah4 ,"s h>d-boil$ eggs are un:olesome1 ,no h>d-boil$ eggs are :olesome4 #ai4 ,"s ,i's are happy1 ,no ,i's are unhappy4 #bj4 ,"s ,johns are n at home1 ,no ,johns are at home4 #ba4 ,! ,?+s1 9 ea* comp>tm5t ( ! l>g] ,diagram1 possess ,,?ree ,attributes1 ^: symbols w be f\nd writt5 at ?ree ( ! ,,corn]s ( ! comp>tm5t 7except 9 ! case ( m'1 :i* is n actually ins]t$ 9 ! ,diagram1 b is ,,suppos$ to /& at ea* ( its f\r out] corn]s74 #bb4 ,if ! ,univ]se ( ,?+s be divid$ ) reg>d to ?ree diff]5t ,attributes2 & if two ,propositions be giv51 conta9+ two diff]5t c\ples ( ^! ,attributes2 & if f ^! we c prove a ?ird ,proposition1 conta9+ ! two ,attributes t h n yet occurr$ toge!r2 ! giv5 ,propositions are call$ '! ,premisses'1 ! ?ird "o '! ,conclusion'1 & ! :ole set 'a ,syllogism'4 ,= example1 ! ,premisses might be no m are x' & all m' are y2 & x might be possible to prove f !m a ,conclusion conta9+ x & y4 #bc4 ,if an ,attribute occurs 9 bo? ,premisses1 ! ,t]m conta9+ x is call$ '! ,middle ,t]m'4 ,= example1 if ! ,premisses are "s m are x & no m are y'1 ! class ( m-,?+s is '! ,middle ,t]m4' ,if an ,attribute occurs 9 "o ,premiss1 & its contradictory 9 ! o!r1 ! ,t]ms conta9+ !m may be call$ '! ,middle ,t]ms'4 ,= example1 if ! ,premisses are no m are x' & all m' are y1 ! two classes ( m-,?+s & m'-,?+s may be call$ '! ,middle ,t]ms'4 #bd4 ,because !y c be m>k$ ) ,,c]ta9ty3 :]eas ,,affirmative ,propositions 7t is1 ^? t beg9 ) "s or all7 sometimes require u to place a r$ c\nt] 'sitt+ on a f5ce'4 #be4 ,because ! only "q we are conc]n$ ) is :e!r ! ,conclusion ,,foll[s ,,logically f ! ,premisses1 s t1 if ,,!y 7 true1 ,,x also w\ld be true4 #bf4 ,by und]/&+ a r$ c\nt] to mean ?is comp>tm5t ,,c be occupi$1 & a grey "o to mean ?is comp>tm5t ,,_c be occupi$ or ?is comp>tm5t ,,mu/ be empty4 #bg4 ',fallaci\s ,premisses' & ',fallaci\s ,conclusion'4 #bh4 ,by f9d+1 :5 we try to transf] m>ks f ! l>g] ,diagram to ! small]1 t !re is 'no in=mation' = any ( its f\r comp>tm5ts4 #bi4 ,by f9d+ ! correct ,conclusion1 & !n obs]v+ t ! ,conclusion1 (f]$ to u1 is nei!r id5tical ) x nor a "p ( x4 #cj4 ,:5 ! (f]$ ,conclusion is ,,"p ( ! correct ,conclusion4 ,9 ?is case1 we may call x a ',defective ,conclusion'4 #b4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$4 ------- ------- #a4 #a #b4 #j #a ------- ------- ------- ------- #c4 #a #a #d4 #j #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #e4 #a #f4 #j ------- ------- ------- #g4 #a #a ,x might be ?\ght t ! prop] ------- ------- ,diagram w\ld be #a #a 1 9 ord] to express "s ------- x exi/3 b ?is is really conta9$ 9 "s x are y'4 ,to put a r$ c\nt] on ! division-l9e w\ld only tell u ,,"o ,,( ,,! comp>tm5ts is occupi$1 :i* we "k already1 9 kn[+ t ,,"o is occupi$4 ------- #h4 ,no x are y4 i4e4 #j ------- ------- #i4 ,"s x are y'4 i4e4 #a ------- ------- #aj4 ,all x are y4 i4e4 #a #j ------- ------- #aa4 ,"s x are y4 i4e4 #a ------- ------- #ab4 ,no x are y4 i4e4 #j ------- ------- #ac4 ,"s x are y1 & "s are y'4 i4e4 #a #a ------- ------- #ad4 ,all x are y'4 i4e4 #j #a ------- --- #ae4 ,no y are x'4 i4e4 --- #j --- --- #a #af4 ,all y are x4 i4e4 --- #j --- --- #j #ag4 ,no y exi/4 i4e4 --- #j --- --- #ah4 ,"s y are x'4 i4e4 --- #a --- --- #ae4 ,"s y exi/4 i4e4 -#a- --- #c4 ,half ( ,small] ,diagram4 ,symbols int]pret$4 #a4 ,no x are y'4 #b4 ,no x exi/4 #c4 ,"s x exi/4 #d4 ,all x are y'4 #e4 ,"s x are y4 i4e4 ,"s good riddles are h>d4 #f4 ,all x are y4 i4e4 ,all good riddles are h>d4 #g4 ,no x exi/4 i4e4 ,no riddles are good4 #h4 ,no x are y4 i4e4 ,no good riddles are h>d4 #i4 ,"s x are y'4 i4e4 ,"s lob/]s are unselfi%4 #aj4 ,no x are y4 i4e4 ,no lob/]s are selfi%4 #aa4 ,all x are y'4 i4e4 ,all lob/]s are unselfi%4 #ab4 ,"s x are y1 & "s are y'4 i4e4 ,"s lob/]s are selfi%1 & "s are unselfi%4 #ac4 ,all y' are x'4 i4e4 ,all invalids are unhappy4 #ad4 ,"s y' exi/4 i4e4 ,"s p are unheal?y4 #ae4 ,"s y' are x1 & "s are x'4 i4e4 ,"s invalids are happy1 & "s are unhappy4 #af4 ,no y' exi/4 i4e4 ,nobody is unheal?y4 #d4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$4 ------- ------- #a #a4 ------ #b4 ------ #j #a ------- ------- ------- ------- #a #c4 ------ #d4 ------ #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #a #e4 ------ #f4 ------ #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #g4 ------ #h4 ------ #a #j #a ------- ------- ------- ------- #i4 ----#a- #aj4 ------ #j #j ------- ------- ------- ------- #a #a #j #aa4 ------ #ab4 ------ #a #a ------- ------- ------- #ac4 ,no x' are y4 i4e4 ------ #j ------- ------- #j #ad4 ,all y' are x'4 i4e4 ------ #a ------- ------- #ae4 ,"s y' exi/4 i4e4 ----#a- ------- ------- #a #j #af4 ,all y are x1 & all x are y4 i4e4 ------ #j ------- ------- #ag4 ,no x' exi/4 i4e4 ------ #j #j ------- ------- #j #a #ah4 ,all x are y'4 i4e4 ------ ------- ------- #j #ai4 ,no x are y4 i4e4 ------ ------- ------- #bj4 ,"s x' are y1 & "s are y'4 i4e4 ------ #a #a ------- ------- #j #a #ba4 ,no y exi/1 & "s x exi/4 i4e4 ------ #j ------- ------- #a #bb4 ,all x' are y1 & all y' are x4 i4e4 ------ #a #j ------- ------- #a #ag4 ,"s x are y1 & "s x' are y'4 i4e4 ------ #a ------- #e4 ,small] ,diagram4 ,symbols int]pret$4 #a4 ,"s y are n-x1 or1 ,"s n-x are y4 #b4 ,no n-x are n-y1 or1 ,no n-y are n-x4 #c4 ,no n-y are x4 #d4 ,no n-x exi/4 i4e4 ,no ,?+s are n-x4 #e4 ,no y exi/4 i4e4 ,no h\ses are two-/ori$4 #f4 ,"s x' exi/4 i4e4 ,"s h\ses are n built ( brick4 #g4 ,no x are y'4 ,or1 no y' are x4 i4e4 ,no h\ses1 built ( brick1 are o!r ?an two-/ori$4 ,or1 no h\ses1 t are n two-/ori$1 are built ( brick4 #h4 ,all x' are y'4 i4e4 ,all h\ses1 t are n built ( brick1 are n two-/ori$4 #i4 ,"s x are y1 & "s are y'4 i4e4 ,"s fat boys are active1 & "s are n4 #aj4 ,all y' are x'4 i4e4 ,all lazy boys are ?94 #aa4 ,all x are y'1 & all y' are x4 i4e4 ,all fat boys are lazy1 & all lazy ones are fat4 #ab4 ,all y are x1 & all x' are y4 i4e4 ,all active boys are fat1 & all ?9 ones are lazy4 #ac4 ,no x exi/1 & no y' exi/4 i4e4 ,no cats h gre5 eyes1 & none h bad temp]s4 #ad4 ,"s x are y'1 & "s x' are y4 ,or "s y are x'1 & "s y' are x4 i4e4 ,"s gre5-ey$ cats are bad-temp]$1 & "s1 t h n gre5 eyes1 are good-temp]$4 ,or1 "s good-temp]$ cats h n gre5 eyes1 & "s bad-temp]$ ones h gre5 eyes4 #ae4 ,"s x are y1 & no x' are y'4 ,or1 "s y are x1 & no y' are x'4 i4e4 ,"s gre5-ey$ cats are good-temp]$1 & none1 t are n gre5-ey$1 are bad-temp]$4 ,or1 "s good-temp]$ cats h gre5 eyes1 & none1 t are bad-temp]$1 h n gre5 eyes4 #af4 ,all x are y'1 & all x' are y4 ,or1 all y are x'1 & all y' are x4 i4e4 ,all gre5-ey$ cats are bad-temp]$ & all1 t h n gre5 eyes1 are good-temp]$4 ,or1 all good-temp]$ ones h eyes t are n gre51 & all bad-temp]$ ones h gre5 eyes4 #f4 ,l>g] ,diagram4 ,propositions repres5t$4 --------------- --------------- ------ ------ #j #j #a4 ------------ #b4 -#a---------- ------ ------ --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- #j ------ ------ #j #j #c4 ------------ #d4 ------------ - ------ ------ #j --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- #j ------ ------ #j #j #j #a #e4 ------------ #f4 ------------ #a #j ------ ------ #j --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- #j ------ ------ #j #j #g4 ------------ #h4 ------------ #j #a #j #j ------ ------ #j --------------- --------------- --------------- ------ #j #j #i4 ,no x are m4 i4e4 ------------ #j ------ --------------- --------------- ------ #aj4 ,"s m' are y4 i4e4 -#a---------- ------ --------------- --------------- ------ #j #aa4 ,all y' are m'4 i4e4 ----------#a- #j ------ --------------- --------------- ------ #j #j #ab4 ,all m are x'4 i4e4 ------------ #a ------ --------------- --------------- #j ------ #j #j #ac4 ,no x are m2 i4e4 ------------ ,all y are m4 #a ------ #j --------------- --------------- #j #j ------ #ad4 ,all m' are y2 i4e4 ------------ ,no x are m'4 ------ #a #j --------------- --------------- #j #j ------ #a #j #ae4 ,all x are m2 i4e4 ------------ ,no m are y'4 #j ------ --------------- --------------- #j #j ------ #af4 ,all m' are y'2 i4e4 ------------ ,no x are m'4 ------ #j #a --------------- --------------- #j #j ------ #a #j #ag4 ,all x are m2 i4e4 ------------ ,all m are y4 #j ------ ,see rem>ks on ,no4 #g1 p4 #fj4 --------------- --------------- #j ------ #ah4 ,no x' are m2 i4e4 ------------ ,no m' are y4 #j #j ------ #j --------------- --------------- ------ #a #j #ai4 ,all m are x2 i4e4 ------------ ,all m are y4 #j #j ------ --------------- #bj4 ,we _h bett] take p]sons z ,univ]se4 ,we may *oose myself z ',middle ,t]m'1 9 :i* case ! ,premisses w take ! =m ,i am a-p]son-:o-s5t-him-to-br+-a-kitt52 ,i am a-p]son-to-:om-he-br\ght-a-kettle-by-mi/ ake4 ,or we may *oose he z ',middle ,t]m'1 9 :i* case ! ,premisses w take ! =m ,he is a-p]son-:om-,i-s5t-to-br+-me-a-kitt52 ,he is a-p]son-:o-br\ght-me-a-kettle-by-mi/ake4 ,! latt] =m seems be/1 z ! int]e/ ( ! anecdote cle>ly dep5ds on ,,8 /upidity--n on :at happ5$ to ,,me4 ,let u !n make m he2 x p]sons :om ,i s5t1 c42 & y p]sons :o br\ght1 c4 ,h5ce1 ,all m are x2 ,all m are y4 & ! requir$ ,diagram is --------------- ------ #a #j ------------ #j #j ------ --------------- #g4 ,bo? ,diagrams employ$4 ------- #j #a4 ------ i4e4 ,all y are x'4 #a ------- ------- #a #b4 ------ i4e4 ,"s x are y'2 or1 ,"s y' are x4 ------- ------- #c4 ------ i4e4 ,"s y are x'2 or1 ,"s x' are y4 #a ------- ------- #d4 ------ i4e4 ,no x' are y'2 or1 ,no y' are x'4 #j ------- ------- #j #e4 ------ i4e4 ,all y are x'4 i4e4 ,all black rabbits #a are "y4 ------- ------- #f4 ------ i4e4 ,"s y are x'4 i4e4 ,"s black #a rabbits are "y4 ------- ------- #a #j #g4 ------ i4e4 ,all x are y4 i4e4 ,all well-f$ birds are happy4 ------- ------- i4e4 ,"s x' are y'4 i4e4 ,"s birds1 #h4 ------ t are n well-f$1 are unhappy2 #a or1 ,"s unhappy birds are n ------- well-f$4 ------- #a #j #i4 ------ i4e4 ,all x are y4 i4e4 ,john has got a too?-a*e4 ------- ------- #aj4 ------ i4e4 ,no x' are y4 i4e4 ,no "o1 b ,john1 #j has got a too?-a*e4 ------- ------- #a #aa4 ------ i4e4 ,"s x are y4 i4e4 ,"s "o1 :o has tak5 a walk1 feels bett]4 ------- ------- #a i4e4 ,"s x are y4 i4e4 ,"s "o1 #ab4 ------ :om ,i s5t to br+ me a kitt51 br\ght me a kettle by mi/ake4 ------- --------------- #j ------ #j #j #ac4 -#a---------- ------- #j ------ ------ #j --------------- ------- ,let books be ,univ]se2 mexcit+1 xt suit fev]i% pati5ts2 yt make "o dr[sy4 ,no m are x2 !re#d ,no y' are x4 ,all m' are y4 i4e4 ,no books suit fev]i% pati5ts1 except su* z make "o dr[sy4 --------------- ------ #a #j #ad4 ------------ ------- #j #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 mt des]ve ! fair2 xt get _! des]ts2 ybrave4 ,"s m are x2 !re#d ,"s y are x4 ,no y' are m4 i4e4 ,"s brave p]sons get _! des]ts4 --------------- #j ------ #j #j #ae4 ------------ ------- #j ------ ------ #j --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 mpati5t2 x*ildr52 yt c sit /ill4 ,no x are m2 !re#d ,no x are y4 ,no m' are y4 i4e4 ,no *ildr5 c sit /ill4 --------------- #j #j ------ #j #a #af4 ------------ ------- #j #j #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let ?+s be ,univ]se2 mfat2 xpigs2 yskeletons4 ,all x are m2 !re#d ,all x are y'4 ,no y are m4 i4e4 ,all pigs are n-skeletons4 --------------- ------ #j #j #ag4 ------------ ------- #a #j ------ ------ #a --------------- ------- ,let creatures be ,univ]se2 mmonkeys2 xsoldi]s2 ymis*iev\s4 ,no m are x2 !re#d ,"s y are x'4 ,all m are y4 i4e4 ,"s mis*iev\s creatures are n soldi]s4 --------------- #j ------ #j #j #ah4 ------------ ------- #j ------ ------ #j --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 mj2 xmy c\s9s2 yjudges4 ,no x are m2 !re#d ,no x are y4 ,no y are m'4 i4e4 ,none ( my c\s9s are judges4 --------------- ------ #a #j #ai4 ------------ ------- #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let p]iods be ,univ]se2 mdays2 xra9y2 ytiresome4 ,"s m are x2 !re#d ,"s x are y4 ,all xm are y4 i4e4 ,"s ra9y p]iods are tiresome4 ,n4,b4 ,^! are n legitimate ,premisses1 s9ce ! ,conclusion is really "p ( ! second ,premiss1 s t ! fir/ ,premiss is sup]flu\s4 ,?is may be %[n1 9 lett]s1 ?us3-- ,all xm are y conta9s ,"s xm are y1 :i* conta9s ,"s x are y4 ,or1 9 words1 ,all ra9y days are tiresome conta9s ,"s ra9y days are tiresome1 :i* conta9s ,"s ra9y p]iods are tiresome4 ,moreov]1 ! fir/ ,premiss1 besides be+ sup]flu\s1 is actually conta9$ 9 ! second2 s9ce x is equival5t to ,"s ra9y days exi/1 :i*1 z we "k1 is impli$ 9 ! ,proposition ,all ra9y days are tiresome4 ,altoge!r1 a mo/ unsatisfactory ,pair ( ,premisses6 --------------- #j ------ #a #bj4 ------------ ------- #j #j #a ------ ------ #j #j --------------- ------- ,let ?+s be ,univ]se2 mm$ic9e2 xna/y2 ys5na4 ,all m are x2 !re#d ,all y are x4 ,all y are m4 i4e4 ,s5na is na/y4 ,see rem>ks on ,no4 #g1 p #fj4 --------------- ------ #j #a #ba4 -#a---------- ------- #j #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 m,jews2 xri*2 y,patagonians4 ,"s m are x2 !re#d ,"s x are y'4 ,all y are m'4 i4e4 ,"s ri* p]sons are n ,patagonians4 --------------- #j ------ - #bb4 ------------ ------- #j #j ------ ------ #j #j --------------- ------- ,let creatures be ,univ]se2 mteetotal]s2 xt l sug>2 ynight+ales4 ,all m are x2 !re#d ,no y are x'4 ,no y are m'4 i4e4 ,no night+ales dislike sug>4 --------------- ------ #j #j #bc4 -#a---------- ------- #j ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let food be ,univ]se2 m:olesome2 xmuff9s2 ybuns4 ,no x are m2 ,all y are m4 ,!re is 'no in=mation' = ! small] ,diagram2 s no ,conclusion c be drawn4 --------------- ------ #j #j #bd4 ------------ ------- #a ------ ------ #a --------------- ------- ,let creatures be ,univ]se2 mt run well2 xfat2 ygreyh\nds4 ,no x are m2 !re#d ,"s y are x'4 ,"s y are m4 i4e4 ,"s greyh\nds are n fat4 --------------- ------ - #be4 -#a---------- ------- #j #j ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 msoldi]s2 xt m>*2 yy\?s4 ,all m are x2 ,"s y are m'4 ,!re is 'no in=mation' = ! small] ,diagram2 s no ,conclusion c be drawn4 --------------- #j #j ------ #j #a #bf4 ------------ ------- #j #j #a ------ ------ #a #a --------------- ------- ,let food be ,univ]se2 msweet2 xsug>2 ysalt4 ,all x are m2 !re#d ,all x are y'4 ,all y are m'4 ,all y are x'4 i4e4 ,sug> is n salt4 ,salt is n sug>4 --------------- ------ #a #j #bg4 ------------ ------- #j #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let ,?+s be ,univ]se2 meggs2 xh>d-boil$2 ycrackable4 ,"s m are x2 !re#d ,"s x are y4 ,no m are y'4 i4e4 ,"s h>d-boil$ ?+s c be crack$4 --------------- #j ------ #j #j #bh4 ------------ ------- #j ------ ------ #j --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 m,jews2 xt are 9 ! h\se2 yt are 9 ! g>d54 ,no m are x2 !re#d ,no x are y4 ,no m' are y4 i4e4 ,no p]sons1 t are 9 ! h\se1 are also 9 ! g>d54 --------------- #j #j ------ - #bi4 ------------ ------- ------ ------ #a #j #a --------------- ------- ,let ,?+s be ,univ]se2 mnoisy2 xbattles2 yt may escape notice4 ,all x are m2 !re#d ,"s x' are y4 ,all m' are y4 i4e4 ,"s ?+s1 t are n battles1 may escape notice4 --------------- #j ------ #j #j #cj4 ------------ ------- #a #j ------ ------ #j #a --------------- ------- ,let p]sons be ,univ]se2 m,jews2 xmad2 y,rabbis4 ,no m are x2 !re#d ,all y are x'4 ,all y are m4 i4e4 ,all ,rabbis are sane4 --------------- ------ #a #ca4 ------------ ------- #j #j #a ------ ------ --------------- ------- ,let ,?+s be ,univ]se2 mfi%2 xt c swim2 yskates4 ,no m are x'2 !re#d ,"s y are x4 ,"s y are m4 i4e4 ,"s skates c swim4 --------------- ------ #j #j #cb4 ------------ ------- #a ------ ------ #a --------------- ------- ,let p be ,univ]se2 mpassionate2 xreasonable2 yorators4 ,all m are x'2 !re#d ,"s y are x'4 ,"s y are m4 i4e4 ,"s orators are unreasonable4 ,see rem>ks on ,no4 #g1 p4 #fj4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,hit ,,or ,,miss4 ,?\ can/ n hit x1 hit x1 hit x1 ,?\ can/ n hit x1 my good man4 #a4 ,pa9 is we>isome2 ,no pa9 is eag]ly wi%$ =4 #b4 ,no bald p]son ne$s a hair-bru%2 ,no liz>ds h hair4 #c4 ,all ?\ghtless p d mis*ief2 ,no ?\ghtful p]son =gets a promise4 #d4 ,i d n l ,john2 ,"s ( my fri5ds l ,john4 #e4 ,no potatoes are p9e-apples2 ,all p9e-apples are nice4 #f4 ,no p9s are ambiti\s2 ,no ne$les are p9s4 #g4 ,all my fri5ds h colds2 ,no "o c s+ :o has a cold4 #h4 ,all ^! di%es are well-cook$2 ,"s di%es are un:olesome if n well-cook$4 #i4 ,no m$ic9e is nice2 ,s5na is a m$ic9e4 #aj4 ,"s oy/]s are sil5t2 ,no sil5t creatures are amus+4 #aa4 ,all wise m5 walk on _! feet2 ,all unwise m5 walk on _! h&s4 #ab4 ,m9d y\r own bus9ess2 ,?is qu>rel is no bus9ess ( y\rs4 #ac4 ,no bridges are made ( sug>2 ,"s bridges are picturesque4 #ad4 ,no riddles int]e/ me t c be solv$2 ,all ^! riddles are insoluble4 #ae4 ,john is indu/ri\s2 ,all indu/ri\s p are happy4 #af4 ,no frogs write books2 ,"s p use ink 9 writ+ books4 #ag4 ,no pok]s are s(t2 ,all pill[s are s(t4 #ah4 ,no antelope is ungraceful2 ,graceful animals delight ! eye4 #ai4 ,"s uncles are ung5]\s2 ,all m]*ants are g5]\s4 #bj4 ,no unhappy p *uckle2 ,no happy p groan4 #ba4 ,audible music causes vibration 9 ! air2 ,inaudible music is n wor? pay+ =4 #bb4 ,he gave me five p\nds2 ,i 0 delight$4 #bc4 ,no old ,jews are fat mill]s2 ,all my fri5ds are old mill]s4 #bd4 ,fl\r is good = food2 ,oatmeal is a k9d ( fl\r4 #be4 ,"s dreams are t]rible2 ,no lambs are t]rible4 #bf4 ,no ri* man begs 9 ! /reet2 ,all :o are n ri* %\ld keep acc\nts4 #bg4 ,no ?ieves are hone/2 ,"s di%one/ p are f\nd out4 #bh4 ,all wasps are unfri5dly2 ,all puppies are fri5dly4 #bi4 ,all improbable /ories are d\bt$2 ,none ( ^! /ories are probable4 #cj4 ,he told me y _h gone away4 ,he nev] says "o ^w ( tru?4 #ca4 ,8 songs nev] la/ an h\r2 ,a song1 t la/s an h\r1 is t$i\s4 #cb4 ,no bride-cakes are :olesome2 ,un:olesome food %\ld be avoid$4 #cc4 ,no old mis]s are *e]ful2 ,"s old mis]s are ?94 #cd4 ,all ducks waddle2 ,no?+ t waddles is graceful4 #ce4 ,no ,pr(essors are ignorant2 ,"s ignorant p are conceit$4 #cf4 ,too?a*e is nev] pleasant2 ,w>m? is nev] unpleasant4 #cg4 ,bores are t]rible2 ,y are a bore4 #ch4 ,"s m\nta9s are insurm\ntable2 ,all /iles c be surm\nt$4 #ci4 ,no ,fr5*m5 l plumpudd+2 ,all ,engli%m5 l plumpudd+4 #dj4 ,no idl]s w9 fame2 ,"s pa9t]s are n idle4 #da4 ,no lob/]s are unreasonable2 ,no reasonable creatures expect impossibilities4 #db4 ,no k9d de$ is unlawful2 ,:at is lawful may be done )\t fe>4 #dc4 ,no fossils c be cross$ 9 love2 ,any oy/] may be cross$ 9 love4 #dd4 ,?is is beyond endurance6 ,well1 no?+ beyond endurance has ev] happ5$ to me4 #de4 ,all un$ucat$ m5 are %all[2 ,all ^! /ud5ts are educat$4 #df4 ,all my c\s9s are unju/2 ,no judges are unju/4 #dg4 ,no c\ntry1 t has be5 explor$1 is infe/$ by dragons2 ,unexplor$ c\ntries are fasc9at+4 #dh4 ,no mis]s are g5]\s2 ,"s old m5 are n g5]\s4 #di4 ,a prud5t man %uns hya5as2 ,no bank] is imprud5t4 #ej4 ,"s poetry is orig9al2 ,no orig9al "w is producible at w4 #ea4 ,no mis]s are unselfi%2 ,none b mis]s save egg-%ells4 #eb4 ,all pale p are phlegmatic2 ,no "o1 :o is n pale1 looks poetical4 #ec4 ,all spid]s sp9 webs2 ,"s creatures1 t d n sp9 webs1 are savage4 #ed4 ,none ( my c\s9s are j2 ,all judges are j4 #ee4 ,john is indu/ri\s2 ,no indu/ri\s p are unhappy4 #ef4 ,umbrellas are useful on a j\rney2 ,:at is useless on a j\rney %\ld be left beh9d4 #eg4 ,"s pill[s are s(t2 ,no pok]s are s(t4 #eh4 ,i am old & lame2 ,no old m]*ant is a lame gambl]4 #ei4 ,no ev5tful j\rney is ev] =gott52 ,unev5tful j\rneys are n wor? writ+ a book ab\t4 #fj4 ,sug> is sweet2 ,"s sweet ?+s are lik$ by *ildr54 #fa4 ,ri*>d is out ( temp]2 ,no "o b ,ri*>d c ride t horse4 #fb4 ,all jokes are meant to amuse2 ,no ,act ( ,p>liam5t is a joke4 #fc4 ,i saw x 9 a newspap]4 ,all newspap]s tell lies4 #fd4 ,no nightm>e is pleasant2 ,unpleasant exp]i5ces are n anxi\sly desir$4 #fe4 ,prud5t travell]s c>ry pl5ty ( small *ange2 ,imprud5t travell]s lose _! luggage4 #ff4 ,all wasps are unfri5dly2 ,no puppies are unfri5dly4 #fg4 ,he call$ "h ye/]day2 ,he is no fri5d ( m9e4 #fh4 ,no quadrup$s c :i/le2 ,"s cats are quadrup$s4 #fi4 ,no cook$ meat is sold by but*]s2 ,no uncook$ meat is s]v$ at d9n]4 #gj4 ,gold is heavy2 ,no?+ b gold w sil5ce him4 #ga4 ,"s pigs are wild2 ,!re are no pigs t are n fat4 #gb4 ,no emp]ors are d5ti/s2 ,all d5ti/s are dread$ by *ildr54 #gc4 ,all1 :o are n old1 l walk+2 ,nei!r y nor ,i are old4 #gd4 ,all blades are %>p2 ,"s grasses are blades4 #ge4 ,no dictatorial p]son is popul>2 ,%e is dictatorial4 #gf4 ,"s sweet ?+s are un:olesome2 ,no muff9s are sweet4 #gg4 ,no milit>y m5 write poetry2 ,no g5]als are civilians4 #gh4 ,bores are dread$2 ,a bore is nev] begg$ to prolong 8 visit4 #gi4 ,all owls are satisfactory2 ,"s excuses are unsatisfactory4 #hj4 ,all my c\s9s are unju/2 ,all judges are j4 #ha4 ,"s buns are ri*2 ,all buns are nice4 #hb4 ,no m$ic9e is nice2 ,no pills are unm$ic9al4 #hc4 ,"s lessons are difficult2 ,:at is difficult ne$s att5tion4 #hd4 ,no unexpect$ pleasure annoys me2 ,y\r visit is an unexpect$ pleasure4 #he4 ,cat]pill>s are n eloqu5t2 ,jones is eloqu5t4 #hf4 ,"s bald p we> wigs2 ,all y\r *ildr5 h hair4 #hg4 ,all wasps are unfri5dly2 ,unfri5dly creatures are always unwelcome4 #hh4 ,no bankrupts are ri*2 ,"s m]*ants are n bankrupts4 #hi4 ,weasels sometimes sleep2 ,all animals sometimes sleep4 #ij4 ,ill-manag$ conc]ns are unpr(itable2 ,railways are nev] ill-manag$4 #ia4 ,ev]ybody has se5 a pig2 ,nobody admires a pig4 ,extract a ,pair ( ,premisses out ( ea* ( ! foll[+3 & d$uce ! ,conclusion1 if !re is "o3-- #ib4 ,! ,lion1 z any "o c tell y :o has be5 *as$ by !m z (t5 z ,i h1 is a v savage animal3 & !re are c]ta9 individuals among !m1 ?\gh ,i w n gu>antee x z a g5]al law1 :o d n dr9k c(fee4 #ic4 ,x 0 mo/ absurd ( y to (f] x6 ,y might h kn[n1 if y _h _h any s5se1 t no old sailors ev] l gruel6 ,b ,i ?\ght1 z he 0 an uncle ( y\rs-- ,an uncle ( m9e1 inde$6 ,/uff6 ,y may call x /uff1 if y l4 ,all ,i "k is1 ,,my uncles are all old m53 & !y l gruel l any?+6 ,well1 !n ,,y\r uncles are-- #id4 ,d come away6 ,i c't /& ?is squeez+ any m4 ,no cr[d$ %ops are com=table1 y "k v well4 ,well1 :o expects to be com=table1 out %opp+8 ,:y1 ,i d1 ( c\rse6 ,& ,i'm sure !re are "s %ops1 fur!r d[n ! /reet1 t are n cr[d$4 ,s-- #ie4 ,!y say no doctors are metaphysical organi/s3 & t lets me into a little fact ab\t ,,y1 y "k4 ,:y1 h[ d y make ,,t out8 ,y nev] he>d me play ! organ4 ,no1 doctor1 b ,i've he>d y talk ab\t ,br[n+'s poetry3 & t %[$ me t y're ,,metaphysical1 at any rate4 ,s-- ,extract a ,syllogism out ( ea* ( ! foll[+3 & te/ its correctness3-- #if4 ,don't talk to me6 ,i've kn[n m ri* m]*ants ?an y h3 & ,i c tell y n ,,"o ( !m 0 ev] an old mis] s9ce ! _w began6 ,& :at has t got to d ) old ,mr4 ,br[n8 ,:y1 isn't he v ri*8 ,yes1 ( c\rse he is4 ,& :at !n8 ,:y1 don't y see t x's absurd to call him a mis]ly m]*ant8 ,ei!r he's n a m]*ant1 or he's n a mis]6 #ig4 ,x ,,is s k9d ( y to enquire6 ,i'm really feel+ a great deal bett] to-day4 ,& is x ,nature1 or ,art1 t is to h ! cr$it ( ?is happy *ange8 ,art1 ,i ?9k4 ,! ,doctor has giv5 me "s ( t pat5t m$ic9e ( 84 ,well1 ,i'll nev] call him a humbug aga94 ,!re's ,,somebody1 at any rate1 t feels bett] aft] tak+ 8 m$ic9e6 #ih4 ,no1 ,i don't l y "o bit4 ,& ,i'll g & play ) my doll4 ,,dolls are nev] unk9d4 ,s y l a doll bett] ?an a c\s98 ,oh y little silly6 ,( c\rse ,i d6 ,,c\s9s are nev] k9d--at lea/ no c\s9s ,i've ev] se54 ,well1 & :at does ,,t prove1 ,i'd l to "k6 ,if y mean t c\s9s ar5't dolls1 :o ev] said !y 78 #ii4 ,:at are y talk+ ab\t g]aniums =8 ,y c't tell "o fl[] f ano!r1 at ?is di/ance6 ,i grant y !y're all ,,r$ fl[]s3 x doesn't ne$ a telescope to "k ,,t4 ,well1 "s g]aniums are r$1 ar5't !y8 ,i don't d5y x4 ,& :at !n8 ,i suppose y'll be tell+ me "s ( ^? fl[]s are g]aniums6 ,( c\rse t's :at ,i %\ld tell y1 if y'd ! s5se to foll[ an argum5t6 ,b :at's ! good ( prov+ any?+ to ,,y1 ,i %\ld l to "k8 #ajj4 ,boys1 y've pass$ a fairly good exam9ation1 all ?+s consid]$4 ,n[ let me give y a ^w ( advice be=e ,i g4 ,rememb] t all1 :o are really anxi\s to le>n1 "w ,,h>d4 ,i ?ank y1 ,sir1 9 ! "n ( my s*ol>s6 ,& pr\d am ,i to ?9k !re are ,,"s ( !m1 at lea/1 t are really ,,anxi\s to le>n4 ,v glad to he> x3 & h[ d y make x out to be s8 ,:y1 ,sir1 ,i "k h[ h>d !y "w--"s ( !m1 t is4 ,:o %\ld "k bett]8 ,extract f ! foll[+ spee* a s]ies ( ,syllogisms1 or argum5ts hav+ ! =m ( ,syllogisms3 & te/ _! correctness4 ,x is suppos$ to be spok5 by a fond "m1 9 answ] to a fri5d's cauti\s sugge/ion t %e is p]haps a ,,little ov]do+ x1 9 ! way ( lessons1 ) h] *ildr54 #aja4 ,well1 !y've got _! own way to make 9 ! _w4 ,,we c't leave !m a =tune apiece4 ,& money's n to be _h1 z ,,y "k1 )\t money's wor?3 !y mu/ ,,"w if !y want to live4 ,& h[ are !y to "w1 if !y don't "k any?+8 ,take my ^w = x1 !re's no place = ignorance 9 ,,^! times6 ,& all au?orities agree t ! "t to le>n is :5 y're "y4 ,"o's got no memory aft]w>ds1 wor? speak+ (4 ,a *ild w le>n m 9 an h\r ?an a gr[n man 9 five4 ,s ^?1 t h to le>n1 mu/ le>n :5 !y're "y1 if ev] !y're to le>n at all4 ,( c\rse t doesn't d unless *ildr5 are ,,heal?y3 ,i q all[ ,,t4 ,well1 ! doctor tells me no *ildr5 are heal?y unless !y've got a good col\r 9 _! *eeks4 ,& only j look at my d>l+s6 ,:y1 _! *eeks bloom l peonies6 ,well1 n[1 !y tell me t1 to keep *ildr5 9 heal?1 y %\ld nev] give !m m ?an six h\rs altoge!r at lessons 9 ! day1 & at lea/ two half-holidays 9 ! week4 ,& t's ,,exactly our plan ,i c assure y6 ,we nev] g beyond six h\rs1 & e ,w$nesday & ,saturday1 z ev] is1 n "o syllable ( lessons d !y d aft] _! "o o'clock d9n]6 ,s h[ y c imag9e ,i'm runn+ any risk 9 ! education ( my preci\s pets is m ?an ,i c und]/&1 ,i promise y6 ,,! ,,end4