,,the ,,ocean ,,world4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,stamford ,,street ,,and ,,charing ,,cross4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i4--,the ,argonaut sailing in the open sea4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,world3 ,,being ,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,living ,,inhabitants4 ,,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,,the ,,chapters ,,on ,,conchology ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,,charles ,o4 ,,groom-,,napier1 ,f4,g4,s41 c4 ,,with #dbg ,,illustrations4 ,,london3 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,and ,,galpin2 ,,and #eif1 ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,preface4 ,our ,planet is surrounded by two great oceans1 says ,dr4 ,maury1 the eminent ,american savant3 the one visible1 the other invisible2 one is under foot1 the other over head4 ,one entirely envelopes it1 the other covers about two-thirds of its surface4 ,it is proposed in ,,the ,,ocean ,,world to give a brief record of the ,natural ,history of one of those great oceans and its living inhabitants1 with as little of the nomenclature of ,science1 and as few of the repulsive details of ,anatomy1 as is consistent with clearness of expression2 to describe the ocean in its majestic calm and angry agitation2 to delineate its inhabitants in their many metamorphoses2 the cunning with which they attack or evade their enemies2 their instructive industry2 their quarrels1 their combats1 and their loves4 ,the learned ,schleiden eloquently paints the living wonders of the deep3 ,if we dive into the liquid crystal of the ,indian ,ocean1 the most wondrous enchantments are opened to us1 reminding us of the fairy tales of childhood's dreams4 ,the strangely-branching thickets bear living flowers4 ,dense masses of ,meandrineas and ,astreas contrast with the leafy1 cup-shaped expansions of the ,explanarias1 and the variously-branching ,madrepores1 now spread out like fingers1 now rising in trunk-like branches1 and now displaying an elegant array of interlacing tracery4 ,the colouring surpasses everything2 vivid greens alternate with brown and yellow2 rich tints1 ranging from purple and deepest blue to a pale reddish-brown4 ,brilliant rose1 yellow1 or peach-coloured ,nullipores overgrow the decaying masses3 they themselves being interwoven with the pearl-coloured plates of the ,retipores1 rivalling the most delicate ivory carvings4 ,close by wave the yellow and lilac ,sea-fans 7,gorgonia71 perforated like delicate trellis-work4 ,the bright sand of the bottom is covered with a thousand strange forms of sea-urchins and star-fishes4 ,the leaf-like ,flustr and ,eschar adhere like mosses and lichens to the branches of coral--the yellow1 green1 and purple-striped limpets clinging to their trunks4 ,the sea-anemones expand their crowns of tentacula upon the rugged rocks or on flat sands1 looking like beds of variegated ranunculuses1 or sparkling like gigantic cactus blossoms1 shining with brightest colours4 ,around the branches of the coral shrubs play the humming-birds of the ocean3 little fishes sparkling with red or blue metallic glitter1 or gleaming in golden green or brightest silvery lustre2 like spirits of the deep1 the delicate milk-white jelly-fishes float softly through the charmed world4 ,here gleam the violet and gold-green ,isabelle1 and the flaming yellow1 black1 and vermilion-striped ,coquette1 as they chase their prey2 there the band-fish shoots snake-like through the thicket1 resembling a silvery ribbon glittering with rose and azure hue4 ,then come the fabulous cuttle-fishes1 in all the diaphanous colours of the rainbow1 but with no definite outline4 ,when day declines1 with the shades of night this fantastic garden is lighted up with renewed splendour4 ,millions of microscopic medus and crustaceans1 like so many glowing sparks1 dance through the gloom4 ,the ,sea-pen waves in a greenish phosphorescent light4 ,whatever is beautiful or wondrous among fishes1 ,echinoderms1 jelly-fishes and polypi and molluscs1 is crowded into the warm and crystal waters of the ,tropical ocean4 ,it is stated on the ,title-page that ,,the ,,ocean ,,world is chiefly translated from ,m4 ,louis ,figuier's two most recent works4 ,in justice to that gentleman1 we must explain this statement4 ,the ,history of the ,ocean is to a large extent1 but not wholly1 compiled from ,la ,terre et les ,mers1 one of the volumes of ,m4 ,figuier's ,tableau de la ,nature2 but the larger portion of the work is a free translation of that author's latest work1 ,la ,vie et les ,moeurs des ,animaux4 ,other chapters1 such as ,life in the ,ocean1 the chapter on ,crustaceans1 and some others1 are compiled from various sources2 they will not be found in either of ,m4 ,figuier's volumes2 but in other respects his text has been pretty closely followed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,figuier's plan is to begin the study of animals with the less perfect beings occupying the lower rounds of the ,zoological ladder1 his reason for doing so being an impression that the presence of the gradually perfecting animal structure1 from the simplest organisms up to the more perfect forms1 was specially calculated to attract the reader4 ,what can be more curious or more interesting to the mind1 he asks1 than to examine the successive links in the uninterrupted chain of living beings which commence with the ,infusoria and terminate in ,man8 ,the work1 he hopes1 is not without the impress of a true character of novelty and originality2 at least he knows no work in which the strange habits and special interests of the ,zoophytes and ,molluscs can be studied1 nor any work in which an attempt is made to represent them by means of designs at once scientifically correct and attractive from the picturesque character of the illustrations1 most of which have been made from specimens selected by ,monsieur ,ch4 ,bvalet from the various museums in ,paris4 ,one of those charming plain-speaking children we sometimes meet with lately said to ,m4 ,figuier1 ,they tell me thou art a vulgariser of ,science4 ,what is that8 ,he took the child in his arms1 and carried it to the window1 where there was a beautiful rose-tree in blossom1 and invited it to pull a rose4 ,the child gathered the perfumed flower1 not without pricking itself cruelly with the spines2 then1 with its little hands still bleeding1 it went to distribute roses to others in the room4 ,thou art now a vulgariser1 said he to the child2 for thou takest to thyself the thorns1 and givest the flowers to others6 ,the parallel1 although exaggerated1 is not without its basis of truth1 and was probably suggested by the criticism some of his works have met with2 the critics forgetting apparently that these works are an attempt to render scientific subjects popular1 and attractive to the general reader4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the present edition of ,,the ,,ocean ,,world it is only necessary to add to the above 7dated ,january1 #ahfh71 that the work has been revised throughout1 and some not unimportant errors corrected4 ,for several of these ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,c4 ,o4 ,g4 ,napier1 who has rearranged the whole of the ,mollusca4 ,mr4 ,david ,grieve has kindly revised and added to the ,crustacea2 and to the ,messrs4 ,johnston of ,montrose1 and ,dr4 ,wilson ,johnston of the ,bengal service1 ,i am indebted for some valuable practical information respecting the salmon and the various modes of taking it4 ,w4 ,s4 ,o4 ,march #a1 #ahfi4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,the ,,ocean #a ,depth of the ,sea #e ,colour of the ,ocean #aa ,phosphorescence #ac ,saltness of the ,sea #ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,currents ,,of ,,the ,,ocean #bg ,trade-winds #bh ,gulf ,stream #ca ,storms #cb ,tides #ce ,polar ,seas #dc ,antarctic ,seas #ej ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,ocean #fj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,zoophytes #fh ,foraminifera #hg ,infusoria #ig ,,chapter ,v4 ,,polypifera #aaf ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,corallines #aai ,tubiporin #abj ,gorgoniad #aba ,isidians #abd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,zoantharia #adg ,madreporid #adi ,porites #afb ,actiniaria #aha ,minyadinians #aic ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,acaleph #aie ,medusad #bac ,rhizostoma #bai ,vilellad #bbi ,ctenophora #bed ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,echinodermata #bei ,asterias #bfj ,crinoidea #bgj ,echinid #bhj ,,mollusca4 ,,general ,,definition #cja ,,chapter ,x4 ,,molluscoida #cjc ,tunicata #cji ,ascidians #cji ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,acephalous ,,mollusca #caf ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,acephalous ,,mollusca #cdd ,mytilid #cdd ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cephalous ,,mollusca #cia ,their ,characteristics #cia ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,pulmonary ,,gasteropods #cif ,limnid #cig ,buccinid #dbh ,purpura #dcj ,pterocera #dci ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,molluscous ,,pteropods #dda ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,cephalopodous ,,mollusca #dde ,tentaculifera #dde ,acetabula #ddh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,crustaceans #dgg ,general ,definition #dgg ,crabs and ,crayfish #dhf ,lobsters #dif ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,fishes #ejb ,,cartilaginous ,,fishes #ejh ,cyclostomata #ejh ,selachia #eaj ,sturiona #ebd ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,ossei1 ,,or ,,bony ,,fishes #ebi ,plectognathi #ebi ,lophobranchii #ecd ,malacopterygii #ecf ,abdominales #efj ,acanthopterygians #eij ,pharyngeans #eif ,,illustrations4 ,,plate ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,argonaut ,,sailing ,,before ,,the ,,wind 7,frontispiece7 #dfg ,,ii4 ,,sponge ,,fishing ,,on ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,syria #gh ,,iii4 ,,coral ,,fishing ,,on ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,sicily #ach ,,iv4 ,,coral ,,island ,,in ,,the ,,pomotouan ,,archipelago #afi ,v4 ,,sea ,,anemones 7,i47 #ahg ,,vi4 ,,sea ,,anemones 7,,ii47 #ahi ,,vii4 ,,agalma ,,rubra #bci ,,viii4 ,,galeolaria ,,aurantiaca #bdd ,,ix4 ,,sea-,,urchins #bij ,x4 ,,fishing ,,for ,,holothuria #bie ,,xi4 ,,synapta ,,duvernaea #bii ,,xii4 ,,dredging ,,for ,,oysters #cgd ,,xiii4 ,,oyster ,,parks ,,on ,,lake ,,fusaro #cgf ,,xiv4 ,,pectinid #chf ,,xv4 ,,spondylus #chh ,,xvi4 ,,anodonta #cdj ,,xvii4 ,,tridacna ,,gigantea #cch ,,xviii4 ,,venus ,,and ,,cytherea #ccf ,,xix4 ,,solenid 7,razor-fish7 #ccc ,,xx4 ,,temple ,,of ,,serapis #ccj ,,xxi4 ,,conus #dbg ,,xxii4 ,,cypr,,ad #dba ,,xxiii4 ,,voluta #dbf ,,xxiv4 ,,capture ,,of ,a ,,gigantic ,,cuttle-,,fish #dfb ,,xxv4 ,,shark ,,fishing #ebj ,,xxvi4 ,,sturgeon ,,fishing ,,on ,,the ,,volga #ebh ,,xxvii4 ,,fishing ,,for ,,electrical ,,eels #eci ,,xxviii4 ,,greenlanders ,,fishing ,,for ,,halibut #eea ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,herring ,,fishery #ehj ,,xxx4 ,a ,,roman ,,feast #eic ,,xxxi4 ,,fishing ,,for ,,tunny ,,in ,,provence #eih ,,xxxii4 ,,fishing ,,for ,,mackerel ,,off ,,the ,,cornwall ,,coast #fja ,,the ,,ocean ,,world4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,ocean4 --,the best of all things is water4--,,pindar4 ,it is estimated that the sea covers nearly two-thirds of the surface of the earth4 ,the calculation1 as given by astronomers1 is as follows3 ,the surface of the earth is #ca1fbe1fbe square miles1 that portion occupied by the waters being about #bc1had1aba square miles1 and that consisting of continents1 peninsulas1 and islands1 being #g1haa1ejd miles2 whence it follows that the surface covered with water is to dry land as #ch is to #ab4 ,the waters thus cover a little more than seven-tenths of the whole surface4 ,on the surface of the globe1 ,michelet remarks1 water is the rule1 dry land the exception4 ,nevertheless1 the immensity and depth of the seas are aids rather than obstacles to the intercourse and commerce of nations2 the maritime routes are now traversed by ships and steamers conveying cargoes and passengers equal in extent to the land routes4 ,one of the features most characteristic of the ocean is its continuity2 for1 with the exception of inland seas1 such as the ,caspian1 the ,dead ,sea1 and some others1 the ocean is one and indivisible4 ,as the poet says1 it embraces the whole earth with an uninterrupted wave4 ' ' 4 ,,schylus in ,prometheus ,vinctus4 ,the mean depth of the sea is not very exactly ascertained1 but certain phenomena observed in the movement of tides are supposed to be incapable of explanation without admitting a mean depth of three thousand five hundred fathoms4 ,it is true that a great number of deep-sea soundings fall short of that limit2 but1 on the other hand1 many others reach seven or eight thousand4 ,admitting that three thousand fathoms represents the mean depth of the ocean1 ,sir ,john ,herschel finds that the volume of its waters would exceed three thousand two hundred and seventy-nine million cubic yards4 ,this vast volume of water is divided by geographers into five great oceans3 the ,arctic1 the ,atlantic1 ,indian1 ,pacific1 and ,antarctic ,oceans4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean extends from the ,pole to the ,polar ,circle2 it is situated between ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,america4 ,the ,atlantic ,ocean commences at the ,polar ,circle and reaches ,cape ,horn4 ,it is situated between ,america1 ,europe1 and ,africa1 a length of about nine thousand miles1 with a mean breadth of two thousand seven hundred1 covering a surface of about twenty-five million square miles1 placed between the ,old ,world and the ,new4 ,beyond the ,cape of ,storms1 as ,cape ,horn may be truly called1 it is only separated by an imaginary line from the vast seas of the south1 in which the waves1 which are the principal source of tides1 have their birth4 ,here1 according to ,maury1 the young tidal wave1 rising in the circumpolar seas of the south1 and obedient to the sun and moon1 rolls on to the ,atlantic1 and in twelve hours after passing the parallel of ,cape ,horn is found pouring its flood into the ,bay of ,fundy1 whence it is projected in great waves across the ,atlantic and round the globe1 sweeping along its shores and penetrating its gulfs and estuaries1 rising and falling in the open sea two or three feet1 but along the shore having a range of ten or twelve feet4 ,sometimes1 as at ,fundy on the ,american coast2 at ,brest on the ,french coast2 and ,milford ,haven1 and the mouth of the ,severn in the ,bristol ,channel1 rising and falling thirty or forty feet1 impetuously rushing against the shores1 but gently stopping at a given line1 and flowing back to its place when the word goes forth1 ',thus far shalt thou go1 and no farther4' ,that which no human power can repel1 returns at its appointed time so regularly and surely1 that the hour of its approach and the measure of its mass may be predicted with unerring certainty centuries beforehand4 ,the ,indian ,ocean is bounded on the north by ,asia1 on the west by ,africa1 on the east by the peninsula of ,molucca1 the ,sunda ,isles1 and ,australia4 ,the ,pacific1 or ,great ,ocean1 stretches from north to south1 from the ,arctic to the ,antarctic ,circle1 being bounded on one side by ,asia1 the island of ,sunda1 and ,australia2 on the other by the west coast of ,america4 ,this ocean contrasts in a striking manner with the ,atlantic3 the one has its greatest length from north to south1 the other from east to west2 the currents of the ,pacific are broad and slow1 those of the other narrow and rapid2 the waves of this are low1 those of the other very high4 ,if we represent the volume of water which falls into the ,pacific by one1 that received by the ,atlantic will be represented by the figure #e4 ,the ,pacific is the calmest of seas1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean is the most stormy4 ,the ,antarctic ,ocean extends from the ,antarctic ,polar ,circle to the ,south ,pole4 ,it is remarkable that one half of the globe should be entirely covered with water1 whilst the other contains less of water than dry land4 ,moreover1 the distribution of land and water1 if1 in considering the germ of the oceanic basins1 we compare the hemispheres separated by the ,equator and the northern and southern halves of the globe1 is found to be very unequal4 ,oceans communicate with continents and islands by coasts1 which are said to be scarped when a rocky coast makes a steep and sudden descent to the sea1 as in ,brittany1 ,norway1 and the west coast of the ,british ,islands4 ,in this kind of coast certain rocky indentations encircle it1 sometimes above1 sometimes under water1 forming a labyrinth of islands1 as at the ,land's ,end1 ,cornwall1 where the ,scilly ,islands form a compact group of from one to two hundred rocky islets1 rising out of a deep sea2 or in the case of the ,channel1 on the opposite coast of ,france1 where the coast makes a sudden descent1 forming steep cliffs and leaving an open sea4 ,the coast is said to be flat when it consists of soft argillaceous soil descending to the shore with a gentle slope4 ,of this description of coast there are two1 namely1 sandy beaches1 and hillocks or dunes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what is the average depth of the sea8 ,it is difficult to give an exact answer to this question1 because of the great difficulty met with in taking soundings1 caused chiefly by the deviations of submarine currents4 ,no reliable soundings have yet been made in water over five miles in depth4 ,laplace found1 on astronomical consideration1 that the mean depth of the ocean could not be more than ten thousand feet4 ,alexander von ,humboldt adopts the same figures4 ,dr4 ,young attributes to the ,atlantic a mean depth of a thousand yards1 and to the ,pacific1 four thousand4 ,mr4 ,airy1 the ,astronomer ,royal1 has laid down a formula1 that waves of a given breadth will travel with certain velocities at a given depth1 from which it is estimated that the average depth of the ,north ,pacific1 between ,japan and ,california1 is two thousand one hundred and forty-nine fathoms1 or two miles and a half4 ,but these estimates fall far short of the soundings reported by navigators1 in which1 as we shall see1 there are important and only recently discovered elements of error4 ,du ,petit ,thouars1 during his scientific voyage in the frigate ,venus1 took some very remarkable soundings in the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean3 one1 without finding bottom at two thousand four hundred and eleven fathoms2 another1 in the equinoctial region1 indicated bottom at three thousand seven hundred and ninety4 ,in his last expedition1 in search of a north-west passage1 ,captain ,ross found soundings at five thousand fathoms4 ,lieutenant ,walsh1 of the ,american ,navy1 reports a cast of the deep-sea lead1 not far from the ,american coast1 at thirty-four thousand feet without bottom4 ,lieutenant ,berryman reported another unsuccessful attempt to fathom mid ocean with a line thirty-nine thousand feet in length4 ,captain ,denman1 of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,herald1 reported bottom in the ,south ,atlantic at the depth of forty-six thousand feet2 and ,lieutenant ,j4 ,p4 ,parker1 of the ,united ,states frigate ,congress1 on attempting soundings near the same region1 let go his plummet1 after it had run out a line fifty thousand feet long1 as if the bottom had not been reached4 ,we have the authority of ,lieutenant ,maury for saying1 however1 that there are no such depths as these4 ,the under-currents of the deep sea have power to take the line out long after the plummet has ceased to sink1 and it was before this fact was discovered that these great soundings were reported4 ,it has also been discovered that the line1 once dragged down into the depths of the ocean1 runs out unceasingly4 ,this difficulty was finally overcome by the ingenuity of ,midshipman ,brooke4 ,under the judicious patronage of the ,secretary to the ,united ,states ,navy1 ,mr4 ,brooke invented the simple and ingenious apparatus 7,fig4 #a71 by which soundings are now made1 in a manner which not only establishes the depth1 but brings up specimens of the bottom4 ,the sounding-line in this apparatus is attached to a weighty rod of iron1 the lower extremity of which contains a hollow cup for the reception of tallow or some other soft substance4 ,this rod is passed through a hole in a thirty-two pound spherical shot1 being supported in its position by slings ,a1 which are hooked on to the line by the swivels a4 ,when the rod strikes the bottom1 the tension on the line ceases1 the swivels are reversed1 the slings ,b are thrown out of the hooks1 the ball falls to the ground1 and the rod1 released from its weight1 is easily drawn up1 bringing with it portions of the bottom attached to the greasy substance in the cup4 ,by means of this apparatus1 specimens of the bottom have been brought up from the depth of four miles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,brooke's ,sounding ,apparatus4 ,the greatest depth at which the bottom has been reached with this plummet is in the ,north ,atlantic between the parallels of thirty-five and forty degrees north1 and immediately south of the great bank of rocks off ,newfoundland4 ,this does not appear to be more than twenty-five thousand feet deep4 ,the basin of the ,atlantic1 says ,maury1 according to the deep-sea soundings in the accompanying diagram1 is a long trough separating the ,old ,world from the ,new1 and extending1 probably1 from pole to pole4 ,in breadth1 it contrasts strongly with the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,from the top of ,chimborazo to the bottom of the ,atlantic1 at the deepest place yet reached by the plummet in that ocean1 the distance in a vertical line is nine miles4 ,could the waters of the ,atlantic be drawn off1 so as to expose to view this great sea gash which separates continents1 and extends from the ,arctic to the ,antarctic ,seas1 it would present a scene the most rugged1 grand1 and imposing2 the very ribs of the solid earth with the foundations of the sea would be brought to light1 and we should have presented to us in one view1 in the empty cradle of the ocean1 'a thousand fearful wrecks1' with the array of 'dead men's skulls1 great anchors1 heaps of pearls1 and inestimable stones1' which1 in the poet's eye1 lie scattered on the bottom of the sea1 making it hideous with the sight of ugly death4 ,the depth of the ,mediterranean is comparatively inconsiderable4 ,between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta1 ,captain ,smith estimates the depth at about five thousand seven hundred feet1 and from one to three thousand in the narrower parts of the straits4 ,near ,nice1 ,saussure found bottom at three thousand two hundred and fifty4 ,it is said that the bottom is shallower in the ,adriatic1 and does not exceed a hundred and forty feet between the coast of ,dalmatia and the mouths of the ,po4 ,the ,baltic ,sea is remarkable for its shallow waters1 its maximum rarely exceeding six hundred feet4 ,it thus appears that the sea has similar inequalities to those observed on land2 it has its mountains1 valleys1 hills1 and plains4 ,the ,deep-sea ,sounding ,apparatus of ,lieutenant ,brooke has already furnished some very remarkable results4 ,aided by it1 ,dr4 ,maury has constructed his fine orographic map of the basin of the ,atlantic1 which is probably as exact as the maps which represent ,africa or ,australia4 ,dr4 ,maury has also published many charts1 giving the depths of the ocean1 the substance of which is given in the accompanying map1 which represents the configuration of the ,atlantic up to the tenth degree of south latitude1 not in figures1 as in ,dr4 ,maury's charts1 but in tints2 diagonal lines from right to left1 representing the shores of both hemispheres1 indicate a depth of less than a thousand fathoms2 from left to right1 indicate bottom at one thousand to two thousand2 horizontal lines1 two to three thousand fathoms2 cross lines show an average depth of three to four thousand fathoms2 finally1 the perpendicular lines indicate a depth of four thousand fathoms and upwards4 ,solid black indicates continents and islands2 waving lines1 surrounding both continents at a short distance from the shore1 indicate the sands which surround the coast line at a little distance from the shore4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,chart of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the question may be asked1 what useful purpose is served by taking soundings at great depths8 ,to this we may quote the answer of ,franklin to a question of similar tendency1 addressed to aeronauts--,what purpose is served by the birth of a child8 ,every fact in physics is interesting in itself2 it forms a rallying point1 round which1 sooner or later1 others will meet1 in order to establish some useful truth2 and the importance of making and recording deep-sea soundings is established by the successful immersion of the transatlantic telegraph4 ,at the bottom of the ,atlantic there exists a remarkable plateau1 extending from ,cape ,race in ,newfoundland1 to ,cape ,clear in ,ireland1 a distance of over two thousand miles1 with a breadth of four hundred and seventy miles3 its mean depth along the whole route is estimated at two miles to two miles and a half4 ,it is upon this telegraphic plateau1 as it has been called1 that the attempt was made to lay down the cable in #aheh1 and it is on it that the enterprise has been so successfully completed1 during the year #ahff4 ,tubular annelids1 capable of boring into all organic substances1 are native to this plateau1 and have materially assisted in destroying the electric cable4 ,the surface of the plateau had been previously explored by means of ,brooke's apparatus1 and the bottom was found to be composed chiefly of microscopic calcareous shells 7,foraminifera71 and a few siliceous shells 7,diatomace74 ,these delicate and fragile shells1 which seemed to strew the bottom of the sea1 in beds of great thickness1 were brought up by the sounding-rod in a state of perfect preservation1 which proves that the water is remarkably quiet in these depths1--an inference which is fully borne out by the condition in which the cable of #aheh was found1 when picked up in #ahff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,section of the ,atlantic1 showing its depth and the position of the ,atlantic ,telegraph4 ,the first exploration of this plateau was undertaken by the ,american brig ,dolphin1 which took a hundred soundings one hundred miles from the coast of ,scotland1 afterwards taking the direction of the ,azores1 to the north of which bottom was found1 consisting of chalk and yellow sand1 at nine thousand six hundred feet4 ,to the south of ,newfoundland1 the depth was found to be sixteen thousand five hundred feet4 ,in #ahef1 ,lieutenant ,berryman1 of the ,american steamer ,arctic1 completed a line of soundings from ,st4 ,john1 ,newfoundland1 to ,valentia1 off the ,irish coast1 and in #aheg1 ,lieutenant ,dayman1 of the ,english steamship ,cyclops1 repeated the same operation3 this last line of soundings1 the result of which is represented in the accompanying section1 differed slightly from that followed by ,lieutenant ,berryman4 ,in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the depth does not seem to exceed seven thousand feet2 the ,baltic does not in any place exceed eleven hundred4 ,the depth of the ,mediterranean is1 as we have said1 very variable4 ,at ,nice1 according to ,horace de ,saussure1 the average depth is three thousand three hundred feet4 ,between the ,dalmatian coast and the mouth of the ,po1 bottom is found at a hundred and forty feet4 ,captain ,smith found soundings at from one thousand to nine thousand feet in the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 and at ten thousand feet between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta1 where the breadth exceeds sixteen miles4 ,between ,rhodes and ,alexandria1 the greatest depth is ten thousand feet4 ,between ,alexandria and ,candia it is ten thousand three hundred4 ,a hundred and twenty miles east of ,malta it is fifteen thousand4 ,the peculiar form of the ,mediterranean has led to its being compared to a vast inverted tunnel4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean has1 probably1 no great depth4 ,hence salt water1 following the general law of contracting as it is cooled until it freezes1 no ice can be formed on its surface till the temperature has fallen through its entire depth nearly to freezing point1 when the entire mass is consolidated into pack-ice4 ,according to ,baron ,wrangel1 the bottom of the glacial sea1 on the north coast of ,siberia1 forms a gentle slope1 and1 at the distance of two hundred miles from the shore1 it is still only from ninety to a hundred feet4 ,nevertheless1 in ,baffin's ,bay1 ,dr4 ,kane made soundings at eleven thousand six hundred feet4 ,the inequalities of the basin of the ,pacific ,ocean are1 comparatively1 unknown to us4 ,the greatest depth observed by ,lieutenant ,brooke in the great ocean is two thousand seven hundred fathoms1 which he found in fifty-nine degrees north latitude and one hundred and sixty-six degrees east longitude4 ,applying the theory of waves to the billows propelled from the coast of ,japan to ,california1 during the earthquake of the #bcrd of ,december1 #ahed1 ,professor ,bache calculated that the mean depth of this part of the ,pacific is fourteen thousand four hundred feet4 ,in the ,pacific ,ocean1 latitude sixty degrees south and one hundred and sixty degrees east longitude1 he found soundings at fourteen thousand six hundred feet--about two miles and a half4 ,another cast of the lead in the ,indian ,ocean was made in seven thousand and forty fathoms1 but without bringing up any soil from the bottom4 ,among the fragments brought up from the bottom of the ,coral ,sea1 a remarkable absence of calcareous shells was noted1 whilst the siliceous fragments of sponges were found in great quantities4 ,other soundings made in the ,pacific1 at a depth of four or five miles1 were examined by ,ehrenberg1 who found a hundred and thirty-five different forms of infusoria represented1 and among them twenty-two species new to him4 ,generally speaking1 the composition of the infusoria of the ,atlantic are calcareous2 those of the ,pacific1 siliceous4 ,these animalcules draw from the sea the mineral matter with which it is charged--that is1 the lime or silica which form their shell4 ,these shells accumulate after the death of the animal1 and form the bottom of the ocean4 ,the animals construct their habitations near the surface2 when they die1 they fall into the depths of the ocean1 where they accumulate in myriads1 forming mountains and plains in mid ocean4 ,in this manner1 we may remark1 en passant1 many of the existing continents had their birth in geological times4 ,the horizontal beds of marine deposits1 which are called sedimentary rocks1 and especially the cretaceous rocks and calcareous beds of the ,jurassic and ,tertiary periods1 all result from such remains4#a ,the sea level is1 in general1 the same everywhere4 ,it represents the spherical form of our planet1 and is the basis for calculating all terrestrial heights2 but many gulfs and inland seas open on the east are supposed to be exceptions to this rule3 the accumulation of waters1 pressed into these receptacles by the general movement of the sea from east to west1 it is alleged1 may pile up the waters1 in some cases1 to a greater height than the general level4 ,it had long been admitted1 on the faith of inexact observation1 that the level of the ,red ,sea was higher than that of the ,mediterranean4 ,it has also been said that the level of the ,pacific ,ocean at ,panama is higher by about forty inches than the mean level of the ,atlantic at ,chagres1 and that1 at the moment of high water1 this difference is increased to about thirteen feet1 while at low it is over six feet in the opposite direction4 ,this has been proved1 so far as the evidence goes1 to be error in what concerns the difference in level of the ,red ,sea and ,mediterranean2 and the opening of the ,suez ,canal1 which is near at hand1 will probably furnish still more convincing proofs4 ,recent soundings show that the mean level of the ,pacific and ,atlantic ,oceans are identical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been calculated that all the waters of the several seas gathered together would form a sphere of fifty or sixty leagues in diameter1 and1 supposing the surface of the globe perfectly level1 that these waters would submerge it to the depth of more than six hundred feet4 ,again1 admitting the mean depth of the sea to be thirteen thousand feet1 its estimated contents ought to be nearly two thousand two hundred and fifty millions of cubic miles of water2 and1 if the sea could be imagined to be dried up1 all the sewers of the earth would require to pour their waters into it for forty thousand years1 in order to fill the vast basins anew4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we could imagine the entire globe to be divided into one thousand seven hundred and eighty-six parts by weight1 we should find approximately1 according to ,sir ,john ,herschel1 that the total weight of the oceanic waters is equivalent to one of these parts4 ,the specific weight of sea water is a little above that of fresh water1 the proportion being as a thousand to a thousand and twenty-seven4 ,the ,dead ,sea1 which receives no fresh water into its bosom to maintain itself at the same level as other seas1 acquires a higher degree of saltness1 and is equal to a thousand and twenty-eight4 ,the specific gravity of sea water is about the same as the milk of a healthy woman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the colour of the sea is continually varying1 and is chiefly caused by filtration of the solar rays4 ,according to the testimony of the majority of observers1 the ocean1 seen by reflection1 presents a fine azure blue or ultramarine 7cruleum mare74 ,when the air is pure and the surface calm this tint softens insensibly1 until it is lost and blended with the blue of the heavens4 ,near the shore it becomes more of a green or glaucus1 and more or less brilliant1 according to circumstances4 ,there are some days when the ocean assumes a livid aspect1 and others when it becomes a very pure green2 at other times1 the green is sombre and sad4 ,when the sea is agitated1 the green takes a brownish hue4 ,at sunset1 the surface of the sea is illumined with tints of every hue of purple and emerald4 ,placed in a vase1 sea water appears perfectly transparent and colourless4 ,according to ,scoresby1 the ,polar seas are of brilliant ultramarine blue4 ,castaz says of the ,mediterranean1 that it is celestial blue1 and ,tuckey describes the equinoctial ,atlantic as being of a vivid blue4 ,many local causes influence the colours of marine waters1 and give them certain decided and constant shades4 ,a bottom of white sand will communicate a greyish or apple-green colour to the water1 if not very deep2 when the sand is yellow1 the green appears more sombre2 the presence of rocks is often announced by the deep colour which the sea takes in their vicinity4 ,in the ,bay of ,loango the waters appear of a deep red1 because the bottom is there naturally red4 ,it appears white in the ,gulf of ,guinea1 yellow on the coast of ,japan1 green to the west of the ,canaries1 and black round the ,maldive group of islands4 ,the ,mediterranean1 towards the ,archipelago1 sometimes becomes more or less red4 ,the ,white and ,black ,seas appear to be named after the ice of the one and the tempests to which the other is subject4 ,at other times1 coloured animalcules give to the water a particular tint4 ,the ,red ,sea owes its colour to a delicate microscopic alg 7,trychodesmium erythrum71 which was subjected to the microscope by ,ehrenberg2 but other causes of colouration are suggested4 ,some microscopists maintain that it is imparted by the shells and other remains of infusoria2 others ascribe the colour to the evaporation which goes on unceasingly in that riverless district1 producing salt rocks on a great scale all round its shores4 ,in the same manner sea water1 concentrated by the action of the solar rays in the salt marshes of the south of ,france1 when they arrive at a certain stage of concentration take a fine red colour1 which is due to the presence of some red-shelled animalcules which only appear in sea water of this strength4 ,the saline lakes on the ,great ,thibetian water sheds are due to this cause4 ,strangely enough1 these minute creatures die when the waters attain greater density by further concentration1 and also if it becomes weaker from the effects of rain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,navigators often traverse long patches of green1 red1 white1 or yellow coloured water1 all of which are due to the presence of microscopic crustaceans1 medus1 zoophytes1 and marine plants2 the ,vermilion ,sea on the ,californian coast is entirely due to the latter cause4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the phenomenon known as ,phosphorescence of the ,sea is due to analogous causes4 ,this wonderful sight is observable in all seas1 but is most frequent in the ,indian ,ocean1 the ,arabian ,gulf1 and other tropical seas4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean1 ,captain ,kingman1 of the ,american ship ,shooting ,star1 traversed a zone twenty-three miles in length so filled with phosphorescent animalcules that at seven hours forty-five minutes the water was rapidly assuming a white1 milky appearance1 and during the night it presented the appearance of a vast field of snow4 ,there was scarcely a cloud in the heavens1 he continues1 yet the sky1 for about ten degrees above the horizon1 appeared as black as if a storm were raging2 stars of the first magnitude shone with a feeble light1 and the ',milky ,way' of the heavens was almost entirely eclipsed by that through which we were sailing4 ,the animals which produced this appearance were about six inches long1 and formed of a gelatinous and translucent matter4 ,at times1 the sea was one blaze of light1 produced by countless millions of minute globular creatures1 called ,noctiluc4 ,the motion of a vessel or the plash of an oar will often excite their lucidity1 and sometimes1 after the ebb of tide1 the rocks and seaweed of the coast are glowing with them4 ,various other tribes of animals there are which contribute to this luminous appearance of the sea4 ,m4 ,peron thus describes the effect produced by ,pyrosoma ,atlanticum1 on his voyage to the ,isle of ,france3 ,the wind was blowing with great violence1 the night was dark1 and the vessel was making rapid way1 when what appeared to be a vast sheet of phosphorus presented itself floating on the waves1 and occupying a great space ahead of the ship4 ,the vessel having passed through this fiery mass1 it was discovered that the light was occasioned by animalcules swimming about in the sea at various depths round the ship4 ,those which were deepest in the water looked like red-hot balls1 while those on the surface resembled cylinders of red-hot iron4 ,some of the latter were caught3 they were found to vary in size from three to seven inches4 ,all the exterior of the creatures bristled with long thick tubercles1 shining like so many diamonds1 and these seemed to be the principal seat of their luminosity4 ,inside also there appeared to be a multitude of oblong narrow glands1 exhibiting a high degree of phosphoric power4 ,the colour of these animals when in repose is an opal yellow1 mixed with green2 but1 on the slightest movement1 the animal exhibits a spontaneous contractile power1 and assumes a luminous brilliancy1 passing through various shades of deep red1 orange1 green1 and azure blue4 ,the phosphorescence of the sea is a spectacle at once imposing and magnificent4 ,the ship1 in plunging through the waves1 seems to advance through a sea of red and blue flame1 which is thrown off by the keel like so much lightning4 ,myriads of creatures float and play on the surface of the waves1 dividing1 multiplying1 and reuniting1 so as to form one vast field of fire4 ,in stormy weather the luminous waves roll and break in a silvery foam4 ,glittering bodies1 which might be taken for fire-fishes1 seem to pursue and catch each other--lose their hold1 and dart after each other anew4 ,from time immemorial1 the phosphorescence of the sea has been observed by navigators4 ,the luminous appearance presents itself on the crest of the waves1 which in falling scatters it in all directions4 ,it attaches itself to the rudder and dashes against the bows of the vessel4 ,it plays round the reefs and rocks against which the waves beat1 and on silent nights1 in the tropics1 its effects are truly magical4 ,this phosphorescence is due chiefly to the presence of a multitude of mollusks and zoophytes which seem to shine by their own light2 they emit a fluid so susceptible of expansion1 that in the zigzag movement pursued they leave a luminous train upon the water1 which spreads with immense rapidity4 ,one of the most remarkable of these minute mollusks is a species of ,pyrosoma1 a sort of mucous sac of an inch long1 which1 thrown upon the deck of a ship1 emits a light like a rod of iron heated to a white heat4 ,sir ,john ,herschel noted on the surface of calm water a very curious form of this phosphorescence2 it was a polygon of rectilinear shape1 covering many square feet of surface1 and it illuminated the whole region for some moments with a vivid light1 which traversed it with great rapidity4 ,the phosphorescence of the sea may also result from another cause4 ,when animal matter is decomposed1 it becomes phosphorescent4 ,the bodies of certain fishes1 when they become a prey to putrefaction1 emit an intense light4 ,,mm4 ,becquerel and ,breschet have noted fine phosphorescent effects from this cause in the waters of the ,brenta at ,venice4 ,animal matter in a state of decomposition1 proceeding from dead fish which floats on the surface of ponds1 is capable of producing large patches of oleaginous matter1 which1 piled upon the water1 communicates to a considerable extent the phosphorescent aspect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,whatever may be the case elsewhere1 there are local causes which affect the colour of the waters in certain rivers1 and even originate their names4 ,the ,guania1 which with the ,casiquaire forms the ,rio ,negro1 is of a deep brown1 which scarcely interferes with the limpidity of its waters4 ,the waters of the ,orinoco and the ,casiquaire have also a brownish colour4 ,the ,ganges is of a muddy brown1 while the ,djumna1 which it receives1 is green or blue4 ,the whitish colour belongs to the ,rio ,bianco1 or ,white ,river1 and to many other rivers4 ,the ,ohio in ,america1 the ,torgedale1 the ,goetha1 the ,traun at ,ischl1 and most of the ,norwegian rivers1 are of a delicate limpid green4 ,the ,yellow ,river and the ,blue ,river in ,china are distinguished by the characteristic tint of their waters4 ,the ,arkansas1 the ,red ,river1 and the ,lobregat in ,catalonia1 are remarkable for their red colour1 which1 like the ,dart and other ,english rivers1 they owe to the earth over which they flow1 or which their waters hold in suspension4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the water of the sea is essentially salt1 of a peculiar flavour1 slightly acrid and bitter1 and a little nauseous4 ,it has an odour perfectly sui generis1 and is slightly viscous4 ,in short1 it includes a great number of mineral salts and some other compounds1 which give it a very disagreeable taste1 and render it unfit for domestic use4 ,it contains nearly all the soluble substances which exist on the globe1 but principally chloride of sodium1 or marine salt1 and sulphate of magnesia1 of potassium1 and of lime4 ,pure water is produced by a combination of one volume of oxygen and of two volumes of hydrogen1 or in weight1 #ajj oxygen and #abej hydrogen4 ,sea water is composed of the same2 but we find there1 besides1 other elements1 the presence of which chemistry reveals to us4 ,in #ajjj grains of sea water the following ingredients are found3-- ,water #ifbj ,chloride of sodium #bga ,chloride of magnesium #ed ,chloride of potassium #jd ,bromide of magnesia #ja ,sulphate of magnesia #ab ,sulphate of lime #jh ,carbonate of lime #ja ,leaving a residuum of #bi ----- #ajjj consisting of sulphuretted hydrogen1 hydrochlorate of ammonia1 iodine iron1 copper1 and even silver in various quantities and proportions1 according to the locality of the specimen4 ,in examining the plates of copper taken from the bottom of a ship at ,valparaiso1 which had been long at sea1 distinct traces of silver were found deposited by the sea4 ,finally1 we find dissolved in the ocean a peculiar mucus1 which seems of a mixed animal and vegetable nature1 and is evidently organic matter proceeding from the successive decomposition of the innumerable generations of animals which have disappeared since the beginning of the world4 ,this matter has been described by the ,count ,marsigli1 who designates it sometimes under the name of glu1 and sometimes as an unctuosity4 ,it is the ooze of marine surveyors1 and consists chiefly of carbonate of lime1 ninety per cent4 of which is formed of minute animal organisms4 ,its mealy adhesiveness results from the pressure of the superimposed water4 ,the numerous salts which exist in the sea can neither be deposited in its bed1 nor exhaled with the vapour1 to be again poured upon the soil in showers of rain4 ,particular agents retain these salts in solution1 transform them1 and prevent their accumulation4 ,hence sea water always maintains a certain degree of saltness and bitterness1 and the ocean continues to present the chemical characters which it has exhibited in all times1 varying only in certain localities where more or less fresh water is poured into the sea basin from rivers3 thus the saltness of the ,mediterranean is greater than that of the ocean1 probably because it loses more water by evaporation than it receives from its fresh-water affluents4 ,for the opposite reason1 the ,black and the ,caspian ,seas are less charged with these salts4 ,the ,dead ,sea is so strongly impregnated with salt that the body of a man floats on its surface without sinking1 like a piece of cork upon fresh water4 ,the supposed cause is excessive evaporation and the absence of rivers of any importance4 ,the saltness of the sea seems to be generally less towards the poles than the equator2 but there are exceptions to this law4 ,in the ,irish ,channel1 near the ,cumberland coast1 the water contains salt equal to the fortieth of its weight2 on the coast of ,france1 it is equal to one thirty-second2 in the ,baltic1 it is equal to a thirtieth2 at ,teneriffe1 a twenty-eighth2 and off the coast of ,spain1 to a sixteenth4 ,again1 in many places the sea is less salt at the surface than at the bottom4 ,in the ,straits of the ,dardanelles1 at ,constantinople1 the proportion is as seventy-two to sixty-two4 ,in the ,mediterranean1 it is as thirty-two to twenty-nine4 ,it is also stated that as the salt increases at a certain depth1 the water becomes less bitter4 ,at the mouth of the great rivers it is scarcely necessary to add that the water is always less saline than on shores which receive no supplies of fresh water2 the same remark applies to sea water in the vicinity of polar ice1 the melting of which is productive of much fresh water4 ,a recent analysis of the water of the ,dead ,sea by ,m4 ,roux gives about two pounds of salt to one gallon of water4 ,no mineral water1 if we except that of the ,salt ,lake of ,utah1 is so largely impregnated with saline substances2 the quantity of bromide of magnesia is #jce grammes to the litre4 ,the water of the ,dead ,sea is1 according to these proportions1 the richest natural depository of bromide1 which it might be made to furnish abundantly4 ,the waters of the great ,lake of ,utah and ,lake ,ourmiah in ,persia are both highly saline4 ,in ,lake ,ourmiah1 as in the ,dead ,sea1 the proportion of salt is six times greater than in the ocean4 ,many of our fresh-water lakes were probably salt originally1 but have by degrees lost their saline properties by the mingling of their waters with those of the rivers which traverse or flow into them4 ,among the lakes which appear to have been divested of their saline properties may be mentioned the great lakes of ,canada and the ,sea of ,baikal1 in all of which seals and other marine animals are still found1 which have become acclimatized as the water gradually became fresh4 ,the saltness of sea water increases its density1 and at the same time its buoyancy1 thus adapting it for bearing ships and other burdens on its bosom2 moreover1 to abbreviate slightly ,dr4 ,maury's remark1 the brine of the ocean is the ley of the earth4 ,from it the sea derives dynamical power1 and its currents their main strength4 ,it is the salt of the sea that imparts to its waters those curious anomalies in the laws of freezing and of thermal dilatation1 that assist the rays of heat to penetrate its bosom2 the salts of the sea invest it with adaptations which fresh water could not possess4 ,in the latter case1 the maximum density would be thirty-nine degrees two seconds ,f4 instead of twenty-seven degrees two seconds ,f41 when the dynamical force of the sea would be insufficient to put the ,gulf ,stream in motion4 ,nor could it regulate those climates we call marine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have said that sea water contains nearly all the soluble substances which exist in the globe4 ,nevertheless its exhalation is comparatively pure4 ,the water which evaporates from the sea1 says ,youman1 in his ,chemistry1 is nearly pure1 containing but very minute traces of salts4 ,falling as rain upon the land1 it washes the soil1 percolates through the rocky layers1 and becomes charged with saline substances1 which are borne seaward by the returning currents4 ,the ocean1 therefore1 is the great depository of all substances that water can dissolve and carry down from the surface of the continents2 and1 as there is no channel for their escape1 they would constantly accumulate1 were it not for the creatures which inhabit the seas1 and utilize the material thus brought within their reach4 ,these substances are chloride of sodium or marine salt1 sulphates of magnesia1 potassa1 lime1 and other substances which the water of various seas is found to contain4 ,in the year #ahdg1 ,i made an analysis of water taken a few leagues from the coast at ,havre1 which gave the following result1 from one litre 7#a pint#gfjggc73--b ,grammes4 ,chloride of sodium #begjd ,chloride of magnesium #bije ,sulphate of magnesia #bdfb ,sulphate of lime #abaj ,sulphate of potassa #jjid ,carbonate of lime #jacb ,silicate of soda #jjag ,bromide of sodium #jajc ,bromide of magnesium #jjcj ,oxide of iron1 carbonate and phosphate of magnesia1 ,only and oxide of manganese traces4 ------ #cbfeg ,the water of the ,mediterranean contains more salts than that of the ocean4 ,the following are1 according to ,m4 ,usiglio1 who was one of a commission sent to examine the different kinds of salt water in the south of ,france1 the component parts of one hundred gallons of ,mediterranean water3-- lbs4 ,chloride of sodium #biebd ,chloride of potassium #jdje ,chloride of magnesium #cbai ,sulphate of magnesia #bdgg ,chloride of calcium #fjhj ,sulphate of lime #aeeg ,carbonate of lime #jaad ,bromide of sodium #jcef ,protoxide of iron #jjjc ------ ,total #dcgce ,we conclude1 from the quantity of sea salt contained in the water of the ocean1 that1 if it were spread over the surface of the globe1 it would form a layer of more than thirty feet in height4 ,the salt contained in sea water gives it a greater density than fresh water2 its average specific weight is #a4jbg4 ,the density of the water of the ,mediterranean is1 according to ,m4 ,usiglio1 #a4jbe when at the temperature of seventy degrees4 ,but the saltness of the sea varies very much under the influence of a great many local circumstances1 among which we must count principally currents1 winds favourable to evaporation1 rivers coming from the continents1 c4 ,it has been remarked that the sea is less salt towards the poles than at the equator2 that the saltness increases1 in general1 with the distance from land1 and the depth of the water2 that the interior seas1 such as the ,baltic1 the ,black ,sea1 the ,white ,sea1 the ,sea of ,marmora1 and the ,yellow ,sea1 are less salt than the ocean4 ,the ,mediterranean is an exception to this last rule2 it is1 as we have seen1 salter than the ocean4 ,this difference is explained by the fact that the quantity of fresh water brought into it by rivers is less than that lost by evaporation4 ,the ,mediterranean must therefore grow salter with time1 unless its water is discharged into the ocean by a counter current1 which would run under the current coming from the ,atlantic by the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,the ,black ,sea1 on the contrary1 the water of which has a density of only #a4jac1 receives from rivers more fresh water than it loses by evaporation4 ,the saltness of this interior sea is only half as intense as that of the ocean4 ,the ,sea of ,azov and the ,caspian ,sea are still less salt than the ,black ,sea4 ,the following table shows the relative composition of the water in these three interior seas3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,black ,sea4 ,sea of ,azov4 ,caspian ,sea4 ,in #ajj ,gallons of ,water4 ,density ,density ,density #ajac #ajji4 #ajje4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,chloride of sodium #adjaie #ifehc #cfgca ,chloride of potassium #iahib #jabgi #jjgfa ,chloride of magnesium #acjde #jhhgj #jfcbd ,sulphate of magnesia #adgjd #jgfdb #abchi ,sulphate of lime #jajdg #jbhgi #jdijc ,bicarbonate of magnesia #jbjhf #jabhf #jjabi ,bicarbonate of lime #jcfdf #jjbba #jagje ,bromide of magnesium #jjjeb #jjjce traces ---------------------------------------- -- #agfffc #aahgie #fbidb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,in lakes without any outlet1 as the ,dead ,sea and the ,lake of ,ural1 the degree of saltness is considerably augmented4 ,numerous experiments have proved that the water of the ,dead ,sea is six times salter than that of the ocean4 ,,mm4 ,boutron and ,o',henry analysed1 in ,april1 #ahej1 after the rainy season1 some water of the ,dead ,sea1 taken at about two leagues from the mouth of the ,jordan2 its density was then #aaj4 ,the saltness of sea water makes it more fitted to float ships1 because its density is increased by the salts which are dissolved in it4 ,besides this1 these salts contribute to prevent the water becoming contaminated with decomposed organic matter4 ,by the table representing the composition of the water of the ocean and of that of the ,mediterranean1 we see that salts of lime and potassium1 as well as iodine and silica1 are only found in infinitely small quantities4 ,nevertheless1 the lime and silica contained in the sea water are of very great importance2 for these quantities1 which appear to us so small in the table of a chemical analysis1 become enormous in the entire extent of the ocean4 ,the marine plants take in the lime1 the silica1 the potassa1 and the iodides which are dissolved in the sea water2 these mineral substances enter into their textures4 ,it is from the carbonate of lime and silica that the marine animals form their solid covering1 their shell or carapace4 ,the infusoria make use of the lime1 silica1 and potassa for the same purpose4 ,it is by the life and habits of the polypi that we explain those ,coral ,islands found in the sea1 the existence of which has been a subject of much astonishment1 and ought1 therefore1 to find a place in this chapter4 ,the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans are studded with islands in a state of formation1 which owe their origin to the polypi and corallines4 ,these zoophytes extract from the sea water the lime and silicium which are found there in the state of soluble salts4 ,in order to grow and develop1 they must be continually under water4 ,they are constantly producing calcareous deposits2 these deposits rise rapidly1 and at last reach the surface of the water4 ,then the seaweed and rubbish of all kinds that the sea carries along with it1 arrested by these emerged masses1 cover them with a layer of fertile soil2 which is soon covered with vegetation1 as the birds and the waves bring seeds thither4 ,the ,coral ,islands of the ,pacific1 which are described in another chapter1 are formed in this manner4 ,besides the substances named1 sea water also contains1 in infinitesimally small quantities1 metals1 such as iron1 copper1 lead and silver4 ,the old copper collecting round the keels of ships sometimes so much silver that it has been thought worth extracting6 ,a curious calculation has been attempted1 based on the age of ships and the distance they have gone during all their voyages1 to show that the sea contains in solution two million tons of silver4#c ,the question has often been asked1 whence comes the salt and other substances held in solution in sea water8 ,if our readers will turn back to the first few pages of ,the ,world before the ,deluge1 they will better understand the very simple geological explanation that we are going to give of the origin of different substances dissolved in sea water4 ,in the first stage of our planet1 before the watery vapours contained in the primitive atmosphere were condensed1 and before they had begun to fall on the earth in the form of boiling rain1 the shell of the earth contained an infinite variety of heterogeneous mineral substances1 some soluble in water1 others not4 ,when rain fell on the burning surface for the first time1 the waters became charged with all the soluble substances1 which were reunited and afterwards deposited1 accumulating in the large depressions of the soil4 ,the seas of the primitive globe were thus formed of rain water1 holding in solution all that the earth had given up1 collected in large basins4 ,chloride of sodium1 sulphates of soda1 magnesia1 potassium1 lime1 and silica1 in the form of soluble silicate2 in a word1 every soluble matter that the primitive globe contained formed part of the mineral contingent of this water4 ,if we reflect that through all time up to the present day none of the general laws of nature have changed--if we consider that the soluble substances contained in the water of the primitive seas have remained there1 and that the fresh water of the rivers constantly replaces the water which disappears by evaporation--we have the true explanation of the saltness of sea water4 ,it is a very simple theory1 it is true1 adds ,m4 ,figuier1 but one that we have found nowhere1 and the responsibility of which we therefore claim4 ,the chloride of sodium is by no means the only substance dissolved in sea water4 ,it contains1 besides1 many other mineral substances3 in short1 every soluble salt on the face of the globe1 and1 along with them1 portions of different metals in infinitely small quantities4 ,the mean temperature of the surface of the sea is nearly the same as the atmosphere1 so long as no currents of heat or cold interpose their perturbing influence4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,tropics1 it appears that the surface of the water is slightly warmer than the ambient air1 but experiments on the temperature of the sea from the surface to the bottom reveal1 according to our author1#d some evidence which establishes a curious law4 ,in very deep water a perfectly uniform temperature of four degrees below zero prevails1 which corresponds1 as physics have established1 to the maximum density of water4 ,under the ,equator this temperature exists at the depth of seven thousand feet4 ,in the ,polar regions1 where water is colder at the surface1 this temperature is maintained at four thousand six hundred feet4 ,the isothermal lines of four degrees form a line of demarcation between the ,zones1 where the surface of the sea is colder1 and those where it is warmer than the bed of four degrees below zero4 ,this is more clearly shown in ,fig4 #d1 which represents a section of the ocean1 the curved line which touches two points at the surface indicating the depths where the temperature is constantly fixed at four degrees4 ,dr4 ,maury's account of this phenomenon is asserted with less confidence4 ,the existence of an isothermal floor of the ocean1 as he calls it1 was first suggested by the observations of ,kotzebue1 ,admiral ,beechey1 and ,sir ,james ,c4 ,ross4 ,its temperature1 according to ,kotzebue1 is thirty-six degrees ,fahr41 or four degrees ,cent42 the depth of this bed1 of invariable and uniform temperature1 is twelve hundred fathoms at the ,equator2 thence it gradually rises to the parallel of about fifty-six degrees north and south1 when it crops out1 and there the temperature of the sea from top to bottom is conjectured to be permanent at thirty-six degrees4 ,the place of this outcrop1 no doubt1 shifts with the seasons1 vibrating north and south1 after the manner of the ,calm belts4 ,proceeding onwards to the ,frigid zones1 this aqueous stratum of an unchanging temperature dips again1 and continues to incline till it reaches the ,poles1 at the depth of seven hundred and fifty fathoms2 so that on the equatorial side of the outcrop the water above the isothermal floor is the warmer1 but in ,polar seas the supernatant water is the colder4 ,illustration3 ,fig #d4 ,thermal ,lines of equal ,temperature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the saline properties of sea water ,maury discovers one of the principal forces from which currents in the ocean proceed4 ,the brine of the ocean is the ley of the earth1 he says2 from it the sea derives dynamical powers1 and its currents their main strength4 ,hence1 to understand the dynamics of the ocean1 it is necessary to study the effects of their saltness upon the equilibrium of the waves4 ,why is the sea made salt8 ,it is the salts of the sea that impart to its waters those curious anomalies in the laws of freezing and of thermal dilatation4 ,it is the salts of the sea that assist the rays of heat to penetrate its bosom4 ,the circulation of the ocean is indispensable to the distribution of temperature--to the maintenance of the meteorological and climatic conditions which rule the development of life2 and this circulation could not exist--at least1 the character of its waters would be completely changed--if they were fresh in place of salt4 ,let us imagine1 says ,m4 ,julien1 that the sea1 now entirely composed of fresh water1 of one uniform temperature from the ,pole to the ,equator1 and from the surface to its greatest depths2 the solar heat would penetrate the liquid beds nearest to the ,equator2 it would dilate them1 so as to raise them above their primitive level2 by the single effect of gravitation1 they would glide on the surface towards the polar zones4 ,the absence of all solar radiation would tend1 on the contrary1 to cool and contract them without this tendency4 ,an exchange would be established from the extremities towards the centre2 in other words1 a counter current of cold and heavy water1 calculated to replace the losses occasioned by the action of solar radiation1 would descend from the ,poles1 but quite maintaining itself beneath the light and warm current from the ,equator4 ,in a like system of general circulation1 the physical properties of pure water1 which attains its maximum of density seven degrees two seconds ,f4 below zero1 would produce the most singular consequences4 ,as its temperature rose above that point1 the water would become lighter1 having1 consequently1 a tendency to ascend towards the upper beds4 ,after this1 the equatorial current1 meeting in its progress towards the ,poles the cold water1 would itself be cooled down2 and when its temperature had reached four degrees below zero1 being now heavier than the polar current1 would change places with it1 descending until it reached water equally dense1 while the polar current would ascend4 ,hence would arise a sort of confusion of currents which would give to a fresh-water ocean the strangest results1 disarranging every instant the regular circulation of its waters4 ,it could not be so1 however1 in an ocean of salt water1 which attains its maximum specific gravity at four degrees eight seconds ,f4 below zero4 ,by evaporation at the surface it is concentrated and precipitated1 and thus rendered denser than that immediately below the surface4 ,it consequently sinks1 while the lower beds come up to replace1 in order to modify it1 and in turn to be precipitated in the same manner4 ,in this manner we find established a continually ascending and descending movement1 which carries down into the depths of ocean the water warmed at the surface by the solar rays of the ,torrid zone4 ,this double vertical current facilitates and prepares the grand horizontal current which puts these submarine reservoirs of heat in communication with the lower beds of the glacial sea4 ,in the ,arctic basin the clouds1 the melted snow1 and the great rivers1 which have their mouths on the north of both continents1 produce considerable quantities of fresh water1 which1 mixing with the waves of the ,polar ,sea1 form a bed of mean density light enough to maintain itself and flow off towards the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,these surface movements determine in the lower regions certain contrary movements1 whence originate the powerful counter currents which ascend the ,straits from ,baffin's ,bay and reappear in the mysterious ',polynia' of ,kane1 diffusing there its treasure of heat brought from intertropical seas4 ,dr4 ,kane1 in his interesting ,narrative1 reports an open sea north of the parallel of eighty-two degrees1 which he and his party crossed a barrier of ice eighty miles broad to reach1 and before he reached it the thermometer marked sixty degrees4 ,beyond this ice-bound region he found himself on the shores of an iceless sea1 extending in an unbroken sheet of water as far as the eye could reach towards the ,pole4 ,its waves were dashing on the beach with the swell of a great ocean2 the tides ebbed and flowed4 ,now the question arises1 ,where did those tides have their origin8 ,the tidal wave of the ,atlantic could not have passed under the icy barrier which ,de ,haven found so firm2 therefore they must have been cradled in the cold sea round the ,pole2 in which case it follows that most1 if not all1 the unexplored regions about the ,pole must be covered with deep water1 the only source of strong and regular tides4 ,seals were sporting and waterfowl feeding in this open sea1 as ,dr4 ,kane tells us1 and the temperature of the water which rolled in and dashed at his feet with measured beat was thirty-six degrees1 while the bottom of the icy barrier of eighty miles was probably hundreds of feet below the surface level4 ,the existence of these tides1 says ,maury1 with the immense flow and drift which annually take place from the ,polar ,seas and the ,atlantic1 suggests many conjectures as to the condition of these unexplored regions4 ,whalemen have always been puzzled as to the breeding place of the great whale4 ,it is a cold-water animal1 and1 following up the train of thought1 the question arises1 ,is not the nursery for the great whale in this ,polar ,sea1 which is so set about and hemmed in by a hedge of ice1 that man may not trespass there8 ,one or two points worthy of notice may be recorded here4 ,shallow water1 and water near the coast1 or covering raised sand-banks1 is colder than water in the open sea4 ,alexander von ,humboldt explains this phenomenon by supposing that deep waters of higher temperature reascend from the lowest depths and mingle with the upper beds4 ,fogs are frequently formed over sand-banks1 because the cold water which covers them produces a local precipitation of atmospheric vapour4 ,the contour of these fogs are perfectly defined when seen from a distance3 they reproduce the form and accidents due to the submarine soil4 ,moreover1 we often see clouds arrested over these points1 which look from afar like the peaks of mountains4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,world before the ,deluge4 ,second edition4 ,footnote #b3 ,examen ,comparatif des ,principales eaux ,minrales ,salines de ,france et d',allemagne1 par ,,mm4 ,l4 ,figuier et ,mialhe4 ,read at the ,acadmie de ,mdecin1 #bcrd of ,may1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #c3 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel's ,physical ,geography1 p4 #bb1 gives the basis and details of this calculation4 ,footnote #d3 ,la ,terre et les ,mers1 p4 #eag4 ,troisime ,ed4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,currents ,,of ,,the ,,ocean4 444 seas that sweep ,the three-decker's oaken mast4 ,,tennyson4 ,the ocean is a scene of unceasing agitation2 its vast surface rises and falls1 to use the image suggested by ,schleiden1 as if it were gifted with a gentle power of respiration2 its movements1 gentle or powerful1 slow or rapid1 are all determined by differences of temperature4 ,heat increases its volume and changes the specific gravity of the water1 which is dilated or condensed in proportion to the change of temperature4 ,in proportion as it cools1 water increases in density1 and descends into the depths until it reaches a constant temperature of four degrees twenty-five minutes ,cent4 below zero1 which it preserves in all latitudes at the depth of a thousand yards1 according to ,m4 ,d',urville4 ,if the water continues to cool1 and reaches zero1 it becomes lighter than it was at four degrees twenty-five minutes ,cent41 and ascends in a state of congelation--a process which1 by an admirable provision of nature1 can only take place at the surface4 ,so long as the temperature is above four degrees twenty-five minutes1 water is light1 and ascends to the surface1 while colder water sinks to the bottom4 ,below four degrees twenty-five minutes the process is reversed2 the first phenomenon is always in force under the ,equator1 the second near the ,poles4 ,the evaporation1 which is in continual operation in warm seas1 forming vast rain-clouds at the expense of the sea1 is compensated by unceasing currents of colder water flowing from the ,poles4 ,this evaporation has a direct influence1 moreover1 on the density of sea water1 and is pointed out by ,dr4 ,maury as a remarkable instance of the compensations by which the oceanic waters are governed3 ,according to ,rodgers' observations1 he says1 the average specific gravity of sea water on the parallels of thirty-four degrees north and south1 at a mean temperature of sixty-four degrees1 is just what it ought to be1 according to saline and thermal laws2 but its specific gravity1 when taken from the ,equator at a mean temperature of eighty-one degrees1 is much greater than1 according to the same laws1 it ought to be--the observed difference being #jjae1 whereas it ought to be #jjbe4 ,let us inquire1 he adds1 what makes the equatorial waters so much heavier than they ought to be4 ,the anomaly occurs in the trade-wind region1 and is best developed between the parallel of forty degrees in the ,north ,atlantic and the ,equator1 where the water grows warmer1 but not proportionally lighter4 ,the water sucked up by the trade-winds is fresh water1 and the salt it contained1 being left behind1 is just sufficient to counteract by its weight the effect of thermal dilatation upon the specific gravity of water between the parallels of thirty-four degrees north and south4 ,the thirsting of the trade-winds for vapour is so balanced as to produce perfect compensation1 and a more beautiful instance than we have here stumbled upon is not1 it appears to me1 to be found in the mechanism of the universe4 ,the oceanic currents are due to a great number of causes3 the duration and force of the winds1 for instance2 the rise and fall of tides all over the globe2 the variations in the density of the waters1 according to its temperature1 and the evaporating powers of the atmosphere2 the depth and degree of saltness to which we have already alluded2 finally1 to the variations of barometric pressure4 ,the currents which furrow the ocean present a striking contrast with the immobility of the neighbouring waters2 they form rivers of a determinate breadth1 whose banks are formed by the water in repose1 and whose course is often made quite perceptible by the vrachs and other aquatic plants which follow in their train4 ,in order to comprehend the origin of these pelagic rivers1 it is necessary to consider the laws which govern the atmospheric currents1 in particular the trade-winds4 ,hence1 says ,maury1 in studying the system of oceanic circulation1 we set out with the very simple assumption1 that from whatever part of the ocean a current is found to run1 to that same part a current of equal volume is bound to return2 for on this principle is based the whole system of currents and counter currents4 ,the differences of temperature between equinoctial and polar countries generate two opposing currents1 the upper one proceeding from the ,equator to the ,poles1 the lower one directed from the ,poles towards the ,equator4 ,on reaching the ,equator1 the cold current of air from the ,poles is warmed and rarefied1 and ascends to the upper beds of the atmosphere1 whence it is again led to its point of departure2 there it is again cooled1 and returns with the lower current towards the tropical regions4 ,but the rotatory movement of the earth modifies the direction of these atmospheric currents4 ,the movement by which it is carried from west to east being almost nothing at the ,poles1 but inconceivably rapid under the ,equator1 it follows that the cold air1 in proportion as it advances towards the ,tropics1 ought to incline a little towards the west4 ,this is just what takes place with these counter currents4 ,the north-east trade-winds1 which prevail in the northern hemisphere1 move in a sort of spiral curve1 turning to the west as they rush from the ,poles to the ,equator1 and in the opposite direction as they move from the ,equator towards the ,poles2 the immediate cause of this motion being the rotation of the earth on its axis4 ,the earth1 says ,dr4 ,maury1 moves from west to east4 ,now1 if we imagine a particle of atmosphere at the ,north ,pole1 where it is at rest1 to be put in motion in a straight line towards the ,equator1 we can easily see how this particle of air1 coming from the very axis of diurnal rotation1 where it did not partake of the diurnal motion1 would1 in consequence of its own vis inerti1 find as it travelled south that the earth was slipping from under it1 as it were1 and it would appear to be coming from the north-east and going towards the south-west2 in other words1 it would be a north-east wind4 ,in the same manner1 the upper currents of air1 which proceed towards the ,poles with equatorial rapidity1 ought to outstrip the atmospheric beds1 which are gifted with much smaller rapidity of motion towards the ,poles1 and turn them towards the east in consequence4 ,these are the south-west and north-west counter trade-winds1 which1 passing above the north and south-east trades1 often sweep the surface of the sea in the latitudes of the ,temperate zone4 ,the two trades are separated by a belt more or less broad1 where the friction experienced at the surface of the sea neutralizes their impulse towards the west2 in general1 the current of air there is an ascending current4 ,this belt1 which does not exactly correspond with the ,equator1 is called the ,zone of ,calms1 where atmospheric tempests frequently occur1 and the winds make the entire tour of the compass1 which has acquired for them the name of tornadoes4 ,the trade-winds1 whose movement towards the west is retarded by the friction which the waves of the ocean oppose to them1 communicate to these waves1 by a sort of reaction1 a tendency towards the west1 or1 to speak more exactly1 towards the south-west in the northern hemisphere1 and towards the north-west in the opposite hemisphere4 ,the currents on the surface of the water which result from this reaction1 reunite under the ,equator1 and form the grand equinoctial current which impels the waters of the east towards the west4 ,this movement is stronger at the edges than in the middle of the current1 because the force which produces it acts there with more energy3 it results from this1 that the currents bifurcate more readily when any obstacle presents itself to its movement4 ,in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 bifurcation takes place a little to the south of the ,equator2 the southern branch descends along the coast of ,brazil1 and probably returns by reascending along the west coast of ,africa4 ,the northern branch follows the coast of ,brazil and ,guiana1 enters the ,sea of the ,antilles1 and directs its course1 reinforced by the current which reaches it from the north-east1 into the ,bay of ,honduras1 traverses the ,yucatan ,channel1 and enters the ,gulf of ,mexico1 whence it debouches by the ,florida ,channel1 under the name of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,of this oceanic marvel ,dr4 ,maury observes that there is a river in the bosom of the ocean2 in the several droughts it never fails1 and in the mightiest floods it never overflows2 its banks and its bottom are of cold water1 while its current is of warm2 it takes its rise in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and empties itself into the ,arctic ,seas4 ,this mighty river is the ,gulf ,stream4 ,in no other part of the world is there such a majestic flow of water2 its current is more rapid than the ,amazon1 more impetuous than the ,mississippi1 and its volume is more than a thousand times greater4 ,its waters1 as far as the ,carolina coast1 are of indigo blue2 they are so distinctly indicated that their line of junction can be marked by the eye4 ,such is ,dr4 ,maury's description of this powerful current of warm water1 which traverses the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and influences in no slight manner the climate of ,northern ,europe1 and especially our own shores4 ,the ,gulf ,stream thus described by the ,american savant issues from the ,florida ,channel1 with a breadth of thirty-four miles1 and a depth of two thousand two hundred feet1 moving at the rate of four and a half miles per hour4 ,the temperature of the water in the vicinity is about thirty degrees ,cent4 ,from the ,american coast the current takes a north-east direction towards ,spitzbergen1 its velocity and volume diminishing as it expands in breadth4 ,towards the forty-third degree of latitude it forms two branches1 one of which strikes the coast of ,ireland and of ,norway1 whither it frequently transports seeds of tropical origin3 it also warms the frozen waters of the glacial sea4 ,the other branch1 inclining towards the south1 not far from the ,azores1 visits the coast of ,africa1 whence it returns to the ,antilles4 ,throughout this vast circuit may be seen all sorts of plants and driftwood1 with waifs and strays of every description borne on the bosom of the ocean4 ,midway the ,atlantic1 in the triangular space between the ,azores1 ,canaries1 and ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 is the great ,sargasso ,sea1 covering an area equal in extent to the ,mississippi ,valley3 it is so thickly matted over with the ,gulf ,weed 7,sargassum bacciferum71 that the speed of vessels passing through it is actually retarded1 and to the companions of ,columbus it seemed to mark the limits of navigation2 they became alarmed4 ,to the eye at a little distance it seemed sufficiently substantial to walk upon4 ,these moving vegetable masses1 always green1 which tail off to a steady breeze1 serving as an anemometer to the mariner1 afford an asylum to multitudes of mollusks and crustaceans4 ,the ,gulf ,stream plays a grand part in the ,atlantic system4 ,it carries the tepid water of the equinoctial regions into the high latitudes2 beyond the fortieth parallel the temperature is sixteen degrees ,cent4 ,urged by the south-west winds which predominate in that zone1 its tepid waters mix with those of the ,northern ,sea1 softening the rigour of the climate in these regions4 ,to the south of the great bank of ,newfoundland1 the warm current1 in vast volume rushing from the ,florida ,straits1 meets the cold currents descending from the ,arctic ,circle through ,baffin's ,bay and the ,sea of ,greenland1 running with equal velocity towards the south4 ,a portion of these waters reascend towards the ,pole along the western coast of ,greenland4 ,it is to this conflict of the polar and equatorial waters1 that the formation of the banks of ,newfoundland is ascribed4 ,each of these great currents having unceasingly deposited the dbris carried in its bosom1 the bank has been thus formed bit by bit in the concourse of ages4 ,the difference of temperature between the ,gulf ,stream and the waters it traverses gives birth inevitably to tempests and cyclones4 ,in #aghj a terrible storm ravaged the ,antilles1 in which twenty thousand persons perished4 ,the ocean quitted its bed and inundated whole cities2 the trunks of trees1 mingled with other dbris1 were tossed into the air4 ,numerous catastrophes of this kind have earned for the ,gulf ,stream the title of the ,king of the ,tempests4 ,in consequence of the numerous nautical documents which have been placed at the command of the ,national ,observatory of ,washington1 and the admirable use made of them by the late ,naval ,secretary and his assistants1 the directions and range of these cyclones engendered by the ,gulf ,stream may be foreseen1 and their most dangerous ravages turned aside4 ,as an example of the utility of ,dr4 ,maury's labours in settling the direction of storms in the traject of the ,gulf ,stream1 we quote a well-known instance3 ,in the month of ,december1 #ahei1 the ,american packet ,san ,francisco was employed as a transport to convey a regiment to ,california4 ,it was overtaken by one of these sudden storms1 which placed the ship and its freight in a most dangerous position4 ,a single wave1 which swept the deck1 tore out the masts1 stopped the engines1 and washed overboard a hundred and twenty-nine persons1 officers and soldiers4 ,from that moment the unfortunate steamer floated upon the waters1 a waif abandoned to the fury of the wind4 ,the day after the disaster the ,san ,francisco was seen in this desperate situation by a ship which reached ,new ,york1 although unable to assist her4 ,another ship met her some days after1 but1 like the other1 could render no assistance4 ,when the report reached ,new ,york1 two steamers were despatched to her assistance2 but in what direction were they to go8 what part of the ocean were they to explore8 ,the luminaries of ,washington ,observatory were appealed to6 ,having consulted his charts as to the direction and limits of the ,gulf ,stream at that period of the year1 ,dr4 ,maury traced on a chart the spot to which the disabled steamer was likely to be driven by the current1 and the course to be taken by the vessels sent to her assistance4 ,the crew and passengers of the ,san ,francisco were saved before their arrival4 ,three ships1 which had seen their distressing situation1 had been able to reach them1 and the steamers sent to their assistance only arrived to witness the safety of the passengers and crew4 ,but the point where the steamer foundered shortly after they were transferred to the rescuing ships was precisely that indicated by ,dr4 ,maury4 ,if the ships sent to their assistance had reached in time1 the triumph of ,,science would have been complete4 ,the equinoctial currents of the ,pacific are very imperfectly known4 ,it is believed1 however1 that they traverse the ,great ,ocean in its whole length1 and bifurcate opposite the ,asiatic coast1 where the weakest branch bends northward until it encounters the polar current from ,behring's ,straits1 when it returns along the ,mexican coast4 ,the larger branch inclines towards the south1 passing round ,australia1 where it is met by one or many counter currents coming from the ,indian ,ocean--of the complicated and dangerous nature of which both ,cook and ,la ,peyrouse speak4 ,the cold waters from the ,antarctic ,pole are carried towards the ,equator by three great oceanic rivers4 ,the first bifurcates in forty-five degrees2 one portion goes round ,cape ,horn2 the other--,humboldt's current--ascends the ,chilian and ,peruvian coasts up to the ,equator1 ameliorating the rainless climate as it goes1 and making it delightful4 ,a second great current takes the direction of the ,african coast1 and is divided at the ,cape1 ascending both the east and west coasts of ,africa4 ,on either side of the warm current which escapes from the intertropical parts of the ,indian ,ocean1 but especially along the ,australian coast1 a polar current wends its way from the ,antarctic regions1 carrying supplies of cold water to modify the climate and restore the equilibrium in that part of the world4 ,this cold current turns at first towards the west1 then towards the south in the direction of ,madagascar2 more to the south still it is driven back by the polar current from ,cape ,horn4 ,it is thus that the warm waters from the ,bay of ,bengal1 pressed by the ,indian polar current1 circulate between ,africa and ,australia1 one lateral branch of the current sweeping along the south coast of this vast continent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the monsoons which reign in the ,indian ,ocean tend still more to complicate the currents1 already sufficiently intricate and confused4 ,but it is not intended at present to occupy the reader's attention further with these questions of intricate currents4 ,we have already spoken of a submarine current which appears to carry the waters of the ,mediterranean into the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,its existence is in some respects established by calculations which prove that the quantity of salt water supplied by the upper current through the ,straits of ,gibraltar is equal to seventy-two cubic miles per annum1 while the quantity of fresh water brought down by the rivers is equal to six1 and the quantity lost by evaporation to twelve cubic miles per annum4 ,this would leave an annual excess of sixty-six cubic miles1 if the equilibrium was not re-established by an under current flowing into the ,atlantic4 ,this hypothesis would appear to have been confirmed by a very curious fact4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century1 a ,dutch brig1 pursued by the ,french corsair ,phoenix1 was overhauled between ,tangier and ,tarifa1 and seemed to be sunk by a single broadside2 but1 in place of foundering and going down1 the brig1 being freighted with a cargo of oil and alcohol1 floated between the two currents1 and1 drifting towards the west1 finally ran aground1 after two or three days1 in the neighbourhood of ,tangier1 more than twelve miles from the spot where she had disappeared under the waves4 ,she had therefore traversed that distance1 drawn by the action of the under current in a direction opposite to that of the surface current4 ,this ascertained fact1 added to some recent experiments1 lend their support to the opinion which admits of the existence of an outward current through the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,dr4 ,maury quotes an extract from the log of ,lieutenant ,temple1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 bearing the same inference4 ,at noon on the #hth of ,march1 #ahee1 the ship ,levant stood into ,almeria ,bay1 where many ships were waiting for a chance to get westwards4 ,here he was told that at least a thousand sail were waiting between the bay and ,gibraltar1 some of them having got as far as ,malaga only to be swept back again4 ,indeed1 he adds1 no vessel had been able to get out into the ,atlantic for three months past4 ,supposing this current to run no faster than two knots an hour1 and assuming its depth to be four hundred feet only1 and its width seven miles1 and that it contained the average proportion of solid matter1 estimated at one-thirtieth1 it appears that salt enough to make eighty-eight cubic miles of solid matter were carried into the ,mediterranean in those ninety days4 ,now1 continues ,dr4 ,maury1 unless there were some escape for all this solid matter which has been running into the sea1 not for ninety days1 but for ages1 it is very clear that the ,mediterranean would long ere this have been a vat of strong brine1 or a bed of cubic crystals4 ,for the same reason1 ,dr4 ,maury considers it certain that there is an under current to the south of ,cape ,horn1 which carries into the ,pacific ,ocean the overflowings of the ,atlantic4 ,in fact1 the ,atlantic is fed unceasingly by the ,great ,american rivers1 while the ,pacific receives no important affluent1 but ought to be1 and is1 subjected to enormous losses1 in consequence of the evaporation continually taking place at the surface4 ,,tides4 ,tides are periodical movements produced by the attraction of the sun and moon4 ,this action1 which influences the whole mass of the earth1 is made manifest by the swelling movement of the waters4 ,the attractive force exercised by the moon is three times that of the sun1 in consequence of its approximation to the earth1 as compared to the greater luminary4 ,in order to comprehend the theory of tides1 we shall first consider the lunar influences1 putting aside for a moment the solar action4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,lunar ,tides4 ,the attraction which the moon exercises upon any point on the earth's surface is in the inverse ratio of the square of its distance4 ,if we draw a straight line from the moon passing through the centre of the earth1 this line will meet the surface of the waters at two points diametrically opposite to each other--namely1 ,z and ,n 7,fig4 #e72 one of these points would be to the moon its zenith1 the other its nadir4 ,the point of the sea which has the moon in the zenith--namely1 that above which the moon is perfectly perpendicular--will be nearest to the planet1 and will consequently be more strongly attractive to the centre of the earth1 while the points diametrically opposite to which the moon is the nadir will be more distant1 and consequently less strongly attracted by that luminary4 ,it follows that the waters situated directly under the moon will be attracted towards it1 and form an accumulation or swelling at that point2 the waters at the antipodes being less strongly attracted to the moon than to the centre of the earth1 will form also a secondary swelling on the surface of the sea1 thus forming a double tide1 accumulating at the point nearest the moon and at its antipodes4 ,at the intermediate points of the circumference of the globe1 where the waters are not subjected to the direct attraction of the moon1 the sea is at low water1 as represented in ,fig4 #e4 ,the earth1 in its movement of rotation1 presents1 in the course of twenty-four hours1 every meridian on its surface to the lunar attraction2 consequently1 each point in its turn1 and at intervals of six hours1 is either under the moon1 or ninety degrees removed from it3 it follows1 that in the space of a lunar day--that is to say1 in the time which passes between two successive passages of the moon on the same meridian--the oceanic waters will be at high and low tide twice in the month on every point of the surface of the globe4 ,but this result of attraction is not exercised instantaneously4 ,the moon has passed from the meridian of the spot before the waters have attained their greatest height2 the flux reaches its maximum about three hours after the moon has culminated2 and the watery mountain follows the moon all round the globe1 from east to west1 about three hours in its rear4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the great inequalities of the bottom of the sea2 the existence of continents2 the slopes of the coast1 more or less steep2 the different breadths of channels and straits2 finally1 the winds1 the pelagic currents1 and a crowd of local circumstances1--must materially modify the course of the tides4 ,nor is the moon the only celestial body which influences the rise and fall of the waters of the sea4 ,we have already said that the sun asserts an influence on the waves4 ,it is true that1 in consequence of its great distance1 this only amounts to a thirty-eight-hundredth part of that of the earth's satellite4 ,the inequality which exists between the solar and lunar days--the latter exceeding the first by fifty-four minutes--has also the effect of adding to or subtracting from this force alternately4 ,when the sun and moon are in conjunction 7,fig4 #f71 or in opposition1 that is to say1 placed upon the same right line1 their attraction on the sea is combined1 and a spring tide is produced4 ,this happens at the period of the syzygies--the period of new and full moon4 ,at the period of the quadrature1 or the first and last quarters1 the solar action1 being opposed to that of lunar attraction1 tends to produce a sensibly weaker tide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,lunar-,solar ,tides4 ,these effects are never produced instantaneously2 but1 the impulse once given1 it will continue to influence the tides for two or three days1 the highest and lowest tides being nearly in the proportion of #ach to #fc1 or of #g to #c4 ,the highest tides occur at the equinoxes1 when the moon is in perigee2 the lowest at the solstices1 when it is in apogee4 ,in our ports1 and along the coast1 the water rises twice in twenty-four hours1 when it is said to be high water2 when it retires1 it is low water3 they are respectively the flux and reflux of the waves4 ,the tide is retarded every day about fifty minutes1 the lunar day being twenty-four hours fifty minutes of mean time4 ,if1 for instance1 it is high water to-day at two o'clock in the morning1 that of the next day will take place at fifty minutes past two4 ,low water does not occur1 however1 at the half of the intermediate time2 the flux is more rapid than the reflux3 thus at ,havre1 ,boulogne1 and at corresponding places on this side of the ,channel1 it takes two hours and eight minutes more in retiring2 at ,brest1 the difference is only sixteen minutes more than the flux4 ,the daily retardation of high water by the passage of the moon in the meridian1 at the equinoxes1 is a constant quantity for the same locality1 which can be determined by direct observation4 ,the height of the tide varies in the different regions of the globe1 according to local circumstances4 ,the eastern coast of ,asia and the western coast of ,europe are exposed to extremely high tides2 while in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 where they are very regular1 they scarcely reach the height of twenty inches4 ,on the western coast of ,south ,america1 the tides rarely reach three yards2 on the western coast of ,india they reach the height of six or seven2 and in the ,gulf of ,cambay it ranges from five to six fathoms4 ,this great difference makes itself felt in our own and adjoining countries3 thus1 the tide1 which at ,cherbourg is seven and eight yards high1 attains the height of fourteen yards at ,saint ,malo1 while it reaches the height of ten yards at ,swansea1 at the mouth of the ,bristol ,channel1 increasing to double that height at ,chepstow1 higher up the river4 ,in general1 the tide is higher at the bottom of a gulf than at its mouth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the highest tide which is known occurs in the ,bay of ,fundy1 which opens up to the south of the isthmus uniting ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick4 ,there the tide reaches forty1 fifty1 and even sixty feet1 while it only attains the height of seven or eight in the bay to the north of the same isthmus4 ,it is related that a ship was cast ashore upon a rock during the night1 so high1 that at daybreak the crew found themselves and their ship suspended in mid-air far above the water6 ,in the ,mediterranean1 which only communicates with the ocean by a narrow channel1 the phenomenon of tides is scarcely felt1 and from this cause--that the moon acts at the same time upon its whole surface1 which are not sufficiently abundant to increase the swelling mass of waters formed by the moon's attraction2 consequently1 the swelling remains scarcely perceptible4 ,this is the reason why neither the ,black ,sea or ,white ,sea presents a tide1 and the ,mediterranean a very inconsiderable one4 ,nevertheless1 at ,alexandria the tide rises twenty inches1 and at ,venice this height is increased to about six feet and a half4 ,lake ,michigan is slightly affected by the lunar attraction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,whewell has prepared maps1 in which the course of the tidal wave is traced in every country of the globe4 ,we see here that it traverses the ,atlantic1 from the fiftieth degree of south latitude up to the fiftieth parallel north1 at the rate of five hundred and sixty miles an hour4 ,but the rapidity with which it proceeds is least in shallow water4 ,in the ,north ,sea it travels at the rate of a hundred and eighty miles4 ,the tidal wave which proceeds round the coast of ,scotland traverses the ,german ,ocean and meets in ,st4 ,george's ,channel1 between ,england and ,ireland1 where the conflict between the two opposing waves presents some very complicated phenomena4 ,the winds1 again1 exercise a great influence on the height of the tides4 ,when the impulse of the wind is added to that of the attracting planet1 the normal height of the wave is considerably increased4 ,if the wind is contrary1 the flux of the tide is almost annihilated4 ,this happens in the ,gulf of ,vera ,cruz1 where the tide is only perceptible once in three days1 when the wind blows with violence4 ,an analogous phenomenon is observable on the coast of ,tasmania4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,point du ,raz1 ,coast of ,brittany4 ,the rising tide sometimes strikes the shore with a continuous and incredible force4 ,this violent shock is called the surf4 ,the swell then forms a billow1 which expands to half a mile4 ,the surf increases as it approaches the coast1 when it sometimes attains the height of six or seven yards1 forming an overhanging mountain of water1 which gradually sinks as it rolls over itself4 ,but this motion is not in reality progressive--it transports no floating body4 ,the surf is very strong at the ,isle of ,fogo1 one of the ,cape de ,verd ,islands in the ,indian ,ocean1 and at ,sumatra1 where the surf renders it dangerous and sometimes impossible to land on the coast4 ,fig4 #g represents the effects of the surf at ,point du ,raz1 on the coast of ,brittany4 ,the winds adding their influence to these causes1 give birth on the surface of the sea to waves or billows1 which increase rapidly1 rising in foaming mountains1 rolling1 bounding1 and breaking one against the other4 ,in one moment1 says ,malte ,brun1 the waves seem to carry sea-goddesses on its breast1 which seem to revel amid plays and dances2 in the next instant1 a tempest rising out of them1 seems to be animated by its fury4 ,they seem to swell with passion1 and we think we see in them marine monsters which are prepared for war4 ,a strong1 constant1 and equal wind produces long swelling billows1 which1 rising on the same line1 advance with a uniform movement1 one after the other1 precipitating themselves upon the coast4 ,sometimes these billows are suspended by the wind or arrested by some current1 thus forming1 as it were1 a liquid wall4 ,in this position1 unhappy is the daring navigator who is subjected to its fury4 ,the highest waves are those which prevail in the offing off the ,cape of ,good ,hope at the period of high tide1 under the influence of a strong north-west wind1 which has traversed the ,south ,atlantic1 pressing its waters towards the ,cape4 ,the billows there lift themselves up in long ridges1 says ,dr4 ,maury1 with deep hollows between them4 ,they run high and fast1 tossing their white caps aloft in the air1 looking like the green hills of a rolling prairie capped with snow1 and chasing each other in sport4 ,still1 their march is stately1 and their roll majestic4 ,the scenery among them is grand4 ,many an ,australian-bound trader1 after doubling the ,cape1 finds herself followed for weeks at a time by these magnificent rolling swells1 furiously driven and lashed by the brave west winds4 ,these billows are said to attain the height of thirty1 and even forty feet2 but no very exact measurement of the height of waves is recorded4 ,one of these mountain waves placed between two ships conceals each of them from the other--an effect which is partially represented in ,fig4 #h4 ,in rounding ,cape ,horn1 waves are encountered from twenty to thirty feet high2 but in the ,channel they rarely exceed the height of nine or ten feet1 except when they come in contact with some powerful resisting obstacle4 ,thus1 when billows are dashed violently against the ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 the spray goes right over the building1 which stands a hundred and thirty feet above the sea1 and falls in torrents on the roof4 ,after the storm of ,barbadoes in #aghj1 some old guns were found on the shore1 which had been thrown up from the bottom of the sea by the force of the tempests4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,height of ,waves off the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,if the waves1 in their reflux1 meet with obstacles1 whirlpools and whirlwinds are the result--the former the terror of navigators4 ,such are the whirlpools known in the ,straits of ,messina1 between the rocks of ,charybdis and ,scylla1 celebrated as the terror of ancient mariners1 and which were sung by ,homer1 ,ovid1 and ,virgil3-- ,scylla latus dextrum1 lvum irrequieta ,charybdis1 ,infestat2 vorat hc raptis revomitque carinas4 444 ,incidit in ,scyllam1 cupiens vitare ,charybdim4 ,these rocks are better understood1 and less redoubted in our days4 ,at ,charybdis1 there is a foaming whirlpool2 at ,scylla1 the waves dash against the low wall of rock which forms the promontory1 scarcely noticed by the navigator of our days4 ,another celebrated whirlpool is that of ,euripus1 near the ,island of ,euboea2 another is known in the ,gulf of ,bothnia4 ,but perhaps the best known rocky danger is the ,maelstrm1 whose waters have a gyratory movement1 producing a whirlpool at certain states of the tide1 the result of opposing currents1 which change every six hours1 and which1 from its power and magnitude1 is capable of attracting and engulfing ships to their destruction1 although chiefly dangerous to smaller craft4 ,to the combined effects of tides and whirlpools may also be attributed the hurricanes1 so dreaded by navigators1 which so frequently visit the ,mauritius and other parts of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,in periods of the utmost calms1 when there is scarcely a breath to ruffle the air1 these shores are sometimes visited by immense waves1 accompanied by whirlwinds1 which seem capable of blowing the ships out of the water1 seizing them by the keel1 whirling them round on an axis1 and finally capsizing them4 ,at the period of the changing monsoon1 the winds1 breaking loose from their controlling forces1 seem to rage with a fury capable of breaking up the very fountains of the deep4 ,the hurricanes of the ,atlantic occur in the months of ,august and ,september1 while the south-west monsoon of ,africa and the southeast monsoon of the ,west ,indies are at their height2 the agents of the one drawing the north-east trade-winds into the interior of ,mexico and ,texas1 the other drawing them into the interior of ,africa1 greatly disturbing the equilibrium of the atmosphere4 ,,the ,,polar ,,seas4 ,the extreme columns of the known world are ,mount ,parry1 situated at eight degrees from the ,north ,pole1 and ,mount ,ross1 twelve degrees from the ,south ,pole4 ,beyond these limits our maps are mute2 a blank space marks each extremity of the terrestrial axis4 ,will man ever succeed in passing these icy barriers8 ,will he ever justify the prediction of the poet ,seneca1 who tells us that the time will come in the distant future when ,ocean will relax her hold on the world1 when the immense earth will be open1 when ,tethys will appear amid new orbs1 and where ,thule 7,iceland7 shall no longer be the extreme limit of the earth8 ,venient annis ,scula seris quibus oceanus ,vincula rerum laxet et ingens ,pateat tellus1 ,tethysque novos ,detegat orbes1 nec sit terris ,ultime ,thule4 ,medea4 ,no one can say4 ,every step we have taken in order to approach the ,pole has been dearly purchased2 and it is not without reason that navigators have named the south point of ,greenland1 ,cape ,farewell4 ,of the number of expeditions1 for the most part ,english1 which have been fitted out1 at the cost of nearly a million sterling1 to explore the ,frozen ,ocean1 one-twentieth have had for their mission to ascertain the fate of the lamented ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,the first navigator who penetrated to ,arctic polar regions was ,sebastian ,cabot1 who in #adih sought a north-west passage from ,europe to ,china and the ,indies4 ,considering the date1 and the state of navigation at that period1 this was perhaps the boldest attempt on record4 ,scandinavian traditions attribute similar undertakings to the son of the ,king ,rodian1 who lived in the seventh century2 to ,osher1 the ,norwegian1 in #hgc2 and to the ,princes ,harold and ,magnus1 in #aaej4 ,sebastian ,cabot reached as high as ,hudson's ,bay1 but a mutiny of his sailors forced him to retrace his steps4 ,in #aejj1 ,gaspard de ,cortereal discovered ,labrador2 in #aeec1 ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby ,nova ,zembla2 and ,chancellor the ,white ,sea1 about the same time4 ,davis visited in #aehe the west coast of ,greenland1 and two years later he discovered the strait which bears his name4 ,in #aeif ,barentz discovered ,spitzbergen1 which was again seen by ,hendrich ,hudson1 who sailed up to and beyond the eighty-second parallel4 ,three years later ,hudson gave his name to the great ,labrador ,bay1 but he could get no farther4 ,his crew also revolted1 and he was left in the ship's launch with his son1 seven sailors1 and the carpenter1 who remained faithful4 ,thus perished one of our greatest navigators4 ,the ,island of ,jan ,mayen was discovered in #afaa2 the channel which ,baffin took for a bay1 and which bears his name1 was discovered in #afaf4 ,behring discovered1 in his first voyage in #agbg1 the strait which separates ,siberia from ,america2 he sailed through it in #agda1 but his ship was stranded1 and he himself died of scorbutic disease4 ,in the year #agga the ,polar ,sea was discovered by ,hearne1 a fur merchant2 it was explored long after by ,mackenzie4 ,from the year #ahaj1 when ,sir ,john ,ross1 ,franklin1 and ,parry turned their attention to the ,arctic regions1 these expeditions to the ,polar ,seas rapidly succeeded each other4 ,in #ahbg ,parry reached the eighty-second degree of north latitude2 and in #ahde ,sir ,john ,franklin1 with the ships ,erebus and ,terror1 and their crews1 departed on their last voyage1 from which neither he nor his companions ever returned4 ,there is now no doubt that they perished miserably1 after having discovered the north-west passage1 which ,captain ,m',clure also discovered1 coming from the opposite direction1 in #ahej4 ,in #ahee the expedition of ,dr4 ,elisha ,kane found the sea open from the ,pole4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,antarctic ,pole had in the meantime attracted the attention of navigators4 ,in #aggb the ,dutch captain1 ,kerguelen1 discovered an island which he took for a continent4 ,in #aggd ,captain ,cook explored these regions up to the seventy-first degree of latitude4 ,james ,weddell1 in a small whaler1 sailed past this parallel in #ahbc4 ,biscoe discovered ,enderby's ,land in #ahca4 ,the ,zele and ,astrolabe1 under the command of ,captain ,dumont ,d',urville1 of the ,french ,marine1 and the ,american expedition1 under ,captain ,wilkes1 reached the same region in #ahch4 ,the former discovered ,adelia's ,land4 ,finally1 in #ahda1 ,sir ,james ,clark ,ross1 nephew of ,sir ,john ,ross1 with the ,erebus and ,terror1 penetrated up to the seventy-eighth degree south latitude4 ,here he discovered the volcanic islands which he named after his ships1 and1 farther to the south1 a new continent or land1 which he called ,victoria's ,land4 ,while these efforts were being made to penetrate the ice which surrounds the ,antarctic ,pole1 a region having little which could attract human enterprise1 the interests of commerce seemed to call for obstinate and persevering attempts to penetrate to the ,arctic ,pole4 ,in spite of these numerous expeditions1 however1 which extend over two centuries1 the regions round the ,north ,pole are far from being known to geographers4 ,the fogs and snows which almost always cover them were the source of many errors made by the earlier navigators4 ,in his first voyage1 made in #ahah1 ,sir ,john ,ross was led to think that ,lancaster ,sound was closed by a chain of mountains1 which he called the ,croker ,mountains2 but in the following year ,captain ,parry1 in command of two ships1 the ,hecla and ,griper1 discovered that this was an error4 ,this celebrated navigator discovered ,barrow's ,straits1 ,wellington ,channel1 and ,prince ,regent ,inlet2 ,cornwallis1 ,sir ,byam ,martin1 and ,melville ,islands1 to which the name of ,parry's ,archipelago has been given4 ,in this short voyage he gathered more new results than were obtained by his successors during the next forty years4 ,he was the first to traverse these seas4 ,upon ,sir ,byam ,martin ,island he has described the ruins of some ancient habitations of the ,esquimaux4 ,he passed the winter on ,melville ,island4 ,in order to attain his chosen anchorage in ,winter's ,bay1 he was compelled to saw a passage in the ice of a league in length1 which involved the labour of three days2 but scarcely were they moored in their chosen harbour than the thermometer fell to eighteen degrees below zero4 ,they carried ashore the ship's boats1 the cables1 the sails1 and log-books4 ,the masts were struck to the maintop2 the rest of the rigging served to form a roof1 sloping to the gunwale1 with a thick covering of sail-cloth1 which formed an admirable shelter from the wind and snow4 ,numberless precautions were taken against cold and wet under the decks4 ,stoves and other contrivances maintained a supportable degree of temperature4 ,in each dormitory a false ceiling of impermeable cloth interposed to prevent the collection of moisture on the wooden walls of the ship4 ,the crew were divided into companies1 each company being under the charge of an officer1 charged with the daily inspection of their clothes and cleanliness--an essential protection against scurvy4 ,as a measure of precaution1 ,captain ,parry reduced by one-third the ordinary ration of bread2 beer and wine were substituted for spirits2 and citron and lemon drinks were served out daily to the sailors4 ,game was sometimes substituted to vary a repast worthy of ,spartans4 ,as a remedy against ennui1 a theatre was fitted up and comedies acted1 for which occasions ,parry himself composed a vaudeville1 entitled ,the ,north-west ,passage2 or1 the ,end of the ,voyage4 ,during this long night of eighty-four days1 the thermometer in the saloons marked #bh1 and outside #ce below zero1 and for a few minutes actually reached #dg4 ,some of the sailors had their members frozen1 from which they never quite recovered4 ,one day the hut which served as an observatory was discovered to be on fire4 ,a sailor who saved one of the precious instruments lost his hands in the effort2 they were completely frost-bitten in the attempt4 ,nevertheless1 the month of ,june arrived1 and with it the opportunity of making excursions in the neighbourhood4 ,it was found that1 in ,melville ,island1 the earth was carpeted with moss and herbage1 with saxifrages and poppies4 ,hares1 reindeer1 the musk-ox1 northern geese1 plovers1 white wolves and foxes1 roamed around their haunts1 disputing their booty with the crew4 ,captain ,parry could not risk a second winter in this terrible region4 ,he returned home as soon as the thaw left the passage open4 ,in #ahba1 ,captain ,parry undertook a second voyage with the ,fury and ,hecla4 ,he visited ,hudson's ,bay and ,fox's ,channel4 ,in his third voyage1 undertaken in #ahbd1 he was surprised by the frost in ,prince ,regent's ,channel1 and was constrained to pass the winter there4 ,the ,fury was dismantled1 and1 being found unfit for service1 ,captain ,parry was obliged to abandon her and return to ,england4 ,accompanied by ,sir ,james ,ross1 ,parry again put to sea in the ,hecla1 in ,april1 #ahbf4 ,on his third voyage1 on leaving ,table ,island on the north of ,spitzbergen1 ,parry placed his crew in the two training ships1 ,enterprise and ,endeavour2 the first under his own command1 the second under orders of ,sir ,james ,ross4 ,sometimes they sailed1 sometimes hauled through the crust of the ice2 sometimes the ice1 which pierced their shoes1 showed itself bristling with points1 intersected into valleys and little hills1 which it was difficult to scale4 ,in spite of the courage and energy of their crews1 the two ships scarcely advanced four miles a day1 while the drifting of the ice towards the south led them imperceptibly towards their point of departure4 ,they reached latitude eighty-two degrees forty-five minutes fifteen seconds1 however1 and this was the extreme point which they attained4 ,in the month of ,may1 #ahbi1 ,sir ,john ,ross1 accompanied by his nephew1 ,james ,clark ,ross1 again turned towards the ,polar ,seas4 ,he entered ,prince ,regent's ,channel1 and there he found the ,fury1 which had been dismantled and abandoned by ,parry1 in these regions1 eight years before4 ,the provisions1 which the old ship still contained1 were quite a providential resource to ,ross's crews4 ,the distinguished navigator explored the ,boothian ,peninsula1 and passed four years consecutively in ,port ,felix1 without being able to disengage his vessel1 the ,victory4 ,this gave him ample leisure to become familiar with the ,esquimaux4 ,sir ,john ,ross1 in his account of this long sojourn in polar countries1 has recorded many conversations with the natives1 which our space does not permit us to quote4 ,from this terrible position he was extricated1 and emerged with his crew from this icy prison1 when all hope of his return had been abandoned4 ,after being exposed to a thousand dangers1 ,ross and his crew were at last observed by a whaling ship1 which received them on board1 after many efforts to attract attention4 ,on learning that the ship which had saved them was the ,isabella1 formerly commanded by ,captain ,ross1 he made himself known4 ,but ,captain ,ross has been dead two years1 was the reply4 ,we need not repeat here the enthusiastic reception ,captain ,ross and his companions met with on their arrival in ,london4 ,during an excursion made by the nephew of the ,commander 7afterwards ,sir ,james ,clark ,ross71 he very closely approached the ,north ,magnetic ,pole4 ,this was at eight o'clock on the morning of the #ast of ,june1 #ahca1 on the west coast of ,boothia4 ,the dip of the magnetic needle was nearly vertical1 being eighty-nine degrees fifty-nine seconds--one minute short of ninety degrees4 ,the site was a low flat shore1 rising into ridges from fifty to sixty feet high1 and about a mile inland4 99 99 99 99 99 ,contrary to the judgment of many officers of experience in polar explorations1 the last and most fatal of all the expeditions was undertaken by ,sir ,john ,franklin1 with one hundred and thirty-seven picked officers and men1 in the ships ,erebus and ,terror4 ,the adventurers left ,sheerness on the #bfth of ,may1 #ahdf1 the ships having been strengthened in every conceivable way1 and found in everything calculated to secure the safety of the expedition4 ,on the #bbnd of ,july the ships were spoken by the whaler ,enterprise1 and1 four days later1 they were sighted by the ,prince of ,wales1 of ,hull1 moored to an iceberg1 waiting an opening to enter ,lancaster ,sound4 ,there the veil dropped over the ships and their unhappy crews4 ,in #ahdh1 their fate began to excite a lively interest in the public mind4 ,expedition in search of them succeeded expedition1 at immense cost1 sent both by the ,english and ,american authorities1 and by ,lady ,franklin herself1 some of which penetrated the ,polar ,seas through ,behring's ,straits1 while the majority took ,baffin's ,bay4 ,in #ahej1 ,captains ,ommaney and ,penny discovered1 at the entrance of ,wellington ,channel1 some vestiges of ,franklin1 which led to another expedition in #aheg1 which was got up by private enterprise1 of which ,captain ,m',clintock had the command4 ,guided by the indications collected in the previous expedition1 and intelligence gathered from the ,esquimaux by ,dr4 ,rae in his land expedition1 ,captain ,m',clintock in the yacht ,fox discovered1 on the #fth of ,may1 #ahei1 upon the north point of ,king ,william's ,land1 a cairn or heap of stones4 ,several leaves of parchment1 which were buried under the stones1 bearing date the #bhth of ,april1 #ahdh1 solved the fatal enigma4 ,the first1 dated the #bdth of ,may1 #ahdg1 gave some details ending with all well4 ,the papers had been dug up twelve months later to record the death of ,franklin1 on the #aath of ,june1 #ahdg4 ,the survivors are supposed to have been on their way to the mouth of the ,river ,back1 but they must have sunk under the terrible hardships to which they were exposed1 in addition to cold and hunger4 ,in ,september1 #ahei1 ,captain ,m',clintock returned to ,england1 bringing with him many relics of our lost countrymen1 found in the theatre of their misfortunes4 ,it only remains to us to say a few words on the latest voyages undertaken in the ,polar ,seas4 ,after the return of ,captain ,m',clintock1 in #ahej1 ,captain ,m',clure1 leaving ,behring's ,straits1 discovered the north-west passage between ,melville and ,baring's ,island1 which passage had been sought for without success during so many ages4 ,he saw the thermometer descend fifty degrees below zero4 ,in the month of ,october1 #ahed1 he returned to ,england1 and at a subsequent period it was ascertained with certainty that1 before his death1 ,franklin knew of the other passage which exists to the north of ,america1 to the south of ,victoria ,land1 and ,wollaston4 ,the expedition of ,dr4 ,kane entered ,smith's ,strait in #ahec1 and advanced towards the north upon sledges drawn by dogs2 the mean temperature1 which ranged between thirty degrees and forty degrees below zero1 fell at last to fifty degrees4 ,at eleven degrees from the ,pole they found two ,esquimaux villages1 called ,etah and ,peterovik1 then an immense glacier4 ,a detachment1 conducted by ,lieutenant ,morton1 discovered1 beyond the eightieth degree of latitude1 an open channel inhabited by innumerable swarms of birds1 consisting of swallows1 ducks1 and gulls1 which delighted them by their shrill1 piercing cries4 ,seals 7phoca7 enjoyed themselves on the floating ice4 ,in ascending the banks1 they met with flowering plants1 such as ,lychnis1 ,hesperis1 c4 ,on the #bdth of ,june1 ,morton hoisted the flag of the ,antarctic1 which had before this seen the ice of the ,south ,pole1 on ,cape ,independence1 situated beyond eighty-one degrees4 ,to the north stretched the open sea4 ,on the left was the western bank of the ,kennedy ,channel1 which seemed to terminate in a chain of mountains1 the principal peak rising from nine thousand to ten thousand feet1 which was named ,mount ,parry4 ,the expedition returned towards the south1 and reached the port of ,uppernavick exhausted with hunger1 where it was received on board an ,american ship4 ,dr4 ,kane1 weakened by his sufferings1 from which he never quite recovered1 died in #aheg4 ,we cannot conclude this rapid sketch of events connected with the expeditions to the ,arctic ,pole without noting a geological fact of great and singular interest4 ,when opportunities have presented themselves of examining the rocks in the regions adjoining the ,north ,pole1 it has been found that great numbers belong to the coal measures4 ,such is the case in ,melville ,island and ,prince ,patrick's ,island4 ,under the ice which covers the soil in these islands coal exists1 with all the fossil vegetable dbris which invariably accompany it4 ,this shows that in the coal period of geology1 the ,north ,pole was covered with the rich and abundant vegetation whose remains constitute the coal-fields of the present day2 and proves to demonstration that the temperature of these regions was1 at one period of the earth's history1 equal to that of equatorial countries of the present day4 ,what a wonderful change in the temperature of these regions is thus indicated6 ,it is1 indeed1 a strange contrast to find coal formations under the soil covered by the polar ice4 ,let us suppose that human industry should dream of establishing itself in these countries1 and drawing from the earth the combustible so needed to make it habitable1 thus furnishing the means of overcoming the rigorous climatic conditions of these inhospitable regions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,antarctic ,pole is probably surrounded by an icy canopy not less than two thousand five hundred miles in diameter2 and numerous circumstances lead to the conclusion that the vast mass has diminished since #aggd1 when the region was visited by ,captain ,cook4 ,the ,antarctic region can only be approached during the summer1 namely1 in ,december1 ,january1 and ,february4 ,the first navigator who penetrated the ,antarctic circle was the ,dutch captain1 ,theodoric de ,gheritk1 whose vessel formed part of the squadron commanded by ,simon de ,cordes1 destined for the ,east ,indies4 ,in ,january1 #afjj1 a tempest having dispersed the squadron1 ,captain ,gheritk was driven as far south as the sixty-fourth parallel1 where he observed a coast which reminded him of ,norway4 ,it was mountainous1 covered with snow1 stretching from the coast to the ,isles of ,solomon4 ,the report of ,simon de ,cordes was received with great incredulity1 and the doubts raised were only dissipated when the ,new ,south ,shetland ,islands were definitely recognized4 ,the idea of an ,antarctic continent is1 however1 one of the oldest conceptions of speculative geography1 and one which mariners and philosophers alike have found it most difficult to relinquish4 ,the existence of a southern continent seemed to them to be the necessary counterpoise to the ,arctic land4 ,the ,terra ,australis incognita is marked on all the maps of ,mercator1 round the ,south ,pole1 and when the ,dutch officer1 ,kerguelen1 discovered1 in #aggb1 the island which bears his name1 he quoted this idea of ,mercator as the motive which suggested the voyage4 ,in #aggd1 ,captain ,cook ventured up to and beyond the seventy-first degree of latitude under the one hundred and ninth degree west longitude4 ,he traversed a hundred and eighty leagues1 between the fiftieth degree and sixtieth degree of south latitude1 without finding the land of which mariners had spoken3 this led him to conclude that mountains of ice1 or the great fog-banks of the region1 had been mistaken for a continent4 ,nevertheless1 ,cook clung to the idea of the existence of a southern continent4 ,i firmly believe1 he says1 that near the ,pole there is land where most part of the ice is formed which is spread over the vast ,southern ,ocean4 ,i cannot believe that the ice could extend itself so far if it had not land--and ,i venture to say land of considerable extent--to the south4 ,i believe1 nevertheless1 that the greater part of this southern continent ought to lie within the ,polar ,circle1 where the sea is so encumbered with ice as to be unapproachable4 ,the danger run in surveying a coast in these unknown seas is so great1 that ,i dare to say no one will venture to go farther than ,i have1 and that the land that lies to the south will always remain unknown4 ,the fogs are there too dense2 the snowstorms and tempests too frequent2 the cold too severe2 all the dangers of navigation too numerous4 ,the appearance of the coast is the most horrible that can be imagined4 ,the country is condemned by nature to remain unvisited by the sun1 and buried under eternal hoar frost4 ,after this report1 ,i believe that we shall hear no more of a southern continent4 ,this description of these desolate regions1 to which the great navigator might have applied the words of ,pliny1 ,pars mundi a natura damnata et densa mersa caligine1 only excited the courage of his successors4 ,in our days1 several expeditions have been fitted out for the express survey of regions which may be characterised as the abode of cold1 silence1 and death4 ,in #ahcc1 a free passage opened itself into the ,antarctic ,sea4 ,the ,scottish whaling ship1 commanded by ,james ,weddell1 entered the pack ice1 and penetrated it in pursuit of seals2 but having1 by chance1 found the sea open on his course1 he forced his way up to seventy-four degrees south latitude1 and under the thirty-fourth degree of longitude1 but the season was too advanced1 and he and his crew retraced their steps4 ,the voyage of ,captain ,weddell caused a great sensation1 and suggested the possibility of more serious expeditions4 ,twelve years later three great expeditions were fitted out3 one1 under ,dumont ,d',urville1 of the ,french ,marine2 an ,american expedition1 under ,captain ,wilkes1 of the ,united ,states ,navy2 and an ,english expedition1 under ,sir ,james ,clark ,ross4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 who perished so miserably in the railway catastrophe at ,versailles1 in #ahdb1 passed the ,straits of ,magellan on the #ith of ,january1 #ahch1 having under his command the two corvettes ,astrolabe and ,zele4 ,he expected to find it as ,weddell had described1 and that1 after passing the first icy barrier1 he should find an open sea before him4 ,but he was soon compelled to renounce this hope4 ,the floating icebergs became more and more closely packed and dangerous4 ,the southern icebergs do not circulate in straits and channels already formed1 like those of the ,north ,pole1 but in enormous detached blocks which hug the land4 ,sometimes in shallow water they form belts parallel to the base of the cliffs1 intersected by a small number of sinuous narrow channels4 ,these icy cliffs present a face more or less disintegrated as they approximate to the rocky shore4 ,the blocks of ice form at first huge prisms1 or tabular1 regular masses of a whitish paste2 but they get used up by degrees1 and rounded off and separated under the action of the waves1 which chafe them1 and their colour becomes more and more limpid and bluish4 ,they ascend freely towards the north1 in spite of the winds and currents which carry them in the contrary direction4 ,one year with another these floating icebergs accumulate with very striking differences1 and it is only by a rare chance that they open up a free passage such as ,captain ,weddell had discovered4 ,these floating islands of ice have been met with in thirty-five degrees south latitude1 and even as high as ,cape ,horn4 ,the two ,french ships frequently found themselves shut up in the icebergs1 which continued to press upon them1 and driven before the north winds1 until the south wind again dispersed their vast masses1 enabling them to issue from their prison in health and safety4 ,in some cases ,d',urville found it necessary to force his ship through fields of ice by which he was surrounded and imprisoned1 and to cut his way by force through the accumulating blocks1 using the corvette as a sort of battering-ram4 ,in #ahch he recognized1 about fifty leagues from the ,south ,orkney ,isles1 a coast1 to which he gave the name of ,louis ,philippe's and ,joinville's ,land4 ,this coast is covered with enormous masses of ice1 which seemed to rise to the height of two thousand six hundred feet4 ,ross discovered still more lofty peaks1 such as ,mount ,penny and ,mount ,haddington1 rising about seven thousand feet4 ,the ,english navigator states that this land is only a great island4 ,the crew of ,d',urville's ship being sickly and overworked1 he returned to the port of ,chili1 whence he again issued for the ,south ,pole in the following ,january4 ,on this occasion his approach was made from a point diametrically opposite to the former4 ,he very soon found himself in the middle of the ice4 ,he discovered within the ,antarctic ,circle land1 to which he gave the name of ,adelia's ,land4 ,the long and lofty cliffs of this island or continent he describes as being surrounded by a belt of islands of ice at once numerous and threatening4 ,d',urville did not hesitate to navigate his corvettes through the middle of the band of enormous icebergs which seemed to guard the ,pole and forbid his approach to it4 ,for some moments his vessels were so surrounded that they had reason to fear1 from moment to moment1 some terrible shock1 some irreparable disaster4 ,in addition to this1 the sea produces around these floating icebergs1 eddies1 which were not unlikely to draw on the ship to the destruction with which it was threatened at every instant4 ,it was in passing at their base that ,d',urville was able to judge of the height of these icy cliffs4 ,the walls of these blocks of ice1 he says1 far exceed our masts and riggings in height2 they overhang our ships1 whose dimensions seem ridiculously curtailed4 ,we seem to be traversing the narrow streets of some city of giants4 ,at the foot of these gigantic monuments we perceive vast caverns hollowed by the waves1 which are engulfed there with a crashing tumult4 ,the sun darts his oblique rays upon the immense walls of ice as if it were crystal1 presenting effects of light and shade truly magical and startling4 ,from the summit of these mountains1 numerous brooks1 fed by the melting ice produced by the summer heat of a ,january sun in these regions1 throw themselves in cascades into the icy sea4 ,occasionally these icebergs approach each other so as to conceal the land entirely1 and we only perceive two walls of threatening ice1 whose sonorous echoes send back the word of command of the officers4 ,the corvette which followed the ,astrolabe appeared so small1 and its masts so slender1 that the ship's crew were seized with terror4 ,for nearly an hour we only saw vertical walls of ice4 ,ultimately they reached a vast basin1 formed on one side by the chain of floating islands which they had traversed1 and on the other by high land rising three and four thousand feet1 rugged and undulating on the surface1 but clothed over all with an icy mantle1 which was rendered dazzlingly imposing in its whiteness by the rays of the sun4 ,the officers could only advance by the ship's boats through a labyrinth of icebergs up to a little islet lying opposite to the coast4 ,they touched the land at this islet2 the ,french flag was planted1 possession was taken of the new continent1 and1 in proof of possession1 some portions of rock were torn from the scarped and denuded cliffs4 ,these rocks are composed of quartzite and gneiss4 ,the southern continent1 therefore1 belongs to the primitive formation1 while the northern region belongs in great part to the transition1 or coal formation4 ,according to the map of ,adelia's ,land1 traced by ,d',urville over an extent of thirty leagues of country1 the region is one of death and desolation1 without any trace of vegetation4 ,a little more to the north1 the ,french navigator had a vague vision on the white lines of the horizon of another land1 which he named ,cte ,clarie1 or ,coast ,clear1 the existence of which was soon confirmed by the ,american expedition under ,commodore ,wilkes4 ,this officer has explored the southern land on a larger scale than any other navigator1 but he suffered himself to be led into error by the dense fogs of the region1 and has laid down coast lines on his map where ,sir ,james ,boss subsequently found only open sea--an error which has very unjustly thrown discredit on the whole expedition4 ,the ,english expedition entered this region on ,christmas ,day1 #ahdj1 which was passed by ,ross in a strong gale1 with constant snow or rain4 ,soon after1 the first icebergs were seen1 having flat tabular summits1 in some instances two miles in circumference1 bounded on all sides by perpendicular cliffs4 ,on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahda1 the ships crossed the ,antarctic ,circle1 and reached the edge of the pack ice1 which they entered1 after skirting it for several days4 ,on the #eth1 the pack was passed through1 amid blinding snow and thick fog1 which on clearing away revealed an open sea1 and on the #aath of ,january land was seen directly ahead of the ships4 ,a coast line rose in lofty snow-covered peaks at a great distance4 ,on a nearer view1 this coast is thus described3 ,it was a beautifully clear evening1 and two magnificent ranges of mountains rose to elevations varying from seven thousand to ten thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,the glaciers which filled their intervening valleys1 and which descended from near the mountain summits1 projected in many places several miles into the sea1 and terminated in lofty perpendicular cliffs4 ,in a few places the rocks broke through their icy covering1 by which alone we could be assured that lava formed the nucleus of this1 to all appearance1 enormous iceberg4 ,this antarctic land was named ,victoria ,land1 in honour of the ,queen4 ,it was coasted up to latitude seventy-eight degrees south1 and near to this a magnificent volcanic mountain presented itself1 rising twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea1 which emitted flame and smoke in splendid profusion4 ,the flanks of this gigantic mountain were clothed with snow almost to the mouth of the crater from which the flaming smoke issued4 ,at a short distance1 ,ross discovered the cone of an extinct1 or1 at least1 inactive volcano nearly as lofty4 ,he gave to these two volcanoes the names of his vessels1 ,erebus and ,terror 7,fig4 #i7--names perfectly in harmony with the surrounding desolation4 ,the ice-covered cliffs rose about a hundred and ninety feet high1 and appear to be about three hundred feet deep1 soundings being found at about four hundred fathoms4 ,in the distance1 towards the south1 a range of lofty mountains were observed1 which ,ross named ,mount ,parry1 in honour of his old commander4 ,when ,ross retraced his steps1 the expedition had advanced as far as the seventy-ninth degree of south latitude4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,mounts ,erebus and ,terror4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it may be said of polar countries1 that they form a transition state between land and sea1 for water is always present1 although in a solid state2 the surface is always at a very low temperature2 snow does not melt as it falls1 and the sea is thus sometimes covered with a continuous sheet of frozen snow2 sometimes with enormous floating blocks of ice which are driven by the currents4 ,meeting with these floating masses of ice is one of the dangers of polar navigation4 ,captain ,scoresby has given a very detailed description of the different kinds of ice met with in the ,arctic ,seas4 ,the ice-fields of this writer form extensive masses of solid water1 of which the eye cannot trace the limits1 some of them being thirty-five leagues in length and ten broad1 with a thickness of seven to eight fathoms2 but generally these ice-fields rise only four to six feet above the water1 and reach from three to four fathoms beneath the surface4 ,scoresby has seen these ice-fields forming in the open sea4 ,when the first crystals appear1 the surface of the ocean is cold enough to prevent snow from melting as it falls4 ,on the approach of congelation the surface solidifies1 and seems as if covered with oil2 small circles are formed1 which press against each other1 and are finally soldered together until they form a vast field of ice1 the thickness of which increases from the lower surface4 ,the water produced from melted ice is perfectly fresh--the result of a well-known physical cause4 ,when a saline solution like sea water is congealed by cold1 pure water alone passes into the solid state1 the saline solution becomes more concentrated1 increases in density1 and1 sinking to the bottom1 remains liquid4 ,blocks of ice1 therefore1 in the ,polar ,seas1 are always available for domestic use4 ,there are1 however1 salt blocks of ice1 which are distinguished from fresh-water ice by their opaqueness and their dazzling white colour3 this saltness is due to the sea water retained in its interstices4 ,scoresby amused himself sometimes by shaping lenses of ice1 with which he is said to have set fire to gunpowder1 much to the astonishment of his crew4 ,the ice-fields1 which are formed in higher latitudes1 are driven towards the south by winds and currents1 but sooner or later the action of the waves breaks them up into fragments4 ,the edges of the broken icebergs are thus often rising and continually changing3 these asperities and protuberances are called hummocks by ,english navigators2 they give to the polar ice an odd1 irregular appearance4 ,hummocks form themselves of the stray1 broken icebergs which come in contact with each other at their edges1 and thus form vast rafts1 the pieces of which may exceed a hundred yards in length4 ,when these icebergs are separated by open spaces1 through which vessels can be navigated1 the pack ice is said to be open4 ,but it often happens that mountains of ice occur partly submerged1 where one edge is retained under the principal mass1 while the other is above the water4 ,scoresby once passed over a calf1 as ,english mariners call these icy mountains1 but he trembled while he did so1 dreading lest it should throw his vessel1 himself1 and crew into the air before he could pass it4 ,the aspect of the ice-fields varies in a thousand ways4 ,here it is an incoherent chaos resembling some volcanic rocks1 with crevices in all directions1 bristling with unshapely blocks piled up at random2 there it is a strongly-marked plain1 an immense mosaic formed of vast blocks of ice of every age and thickness1 the divisions of which are marked by long ridges of the most irregular forms2 sometimes resembling walls composed of great rectangular blocks1 sometimes resembling chains of hills1 with great rounded summits4 ,in the spring1 when a thaw sets in1 and the fields begin to break up1 the pieces of light ice which unite the great blocks into unique masses are the first to melt2 the several blocks then separate1 and the motion of the water soon disperses them1 and the imprisoned ships find a free passage4 ,but a day of calm is still sufficient to unite the dispersed masses1 which oscillate and grind against each other with a strange noise1 which sailors compare to the yelping of young dogs4 ,when a ship is shut up in one of these floating ice-fields1 inexplicable changes sometimes occur in the vast incoherent aggregations4 ,vessels1 which think themselves immovable1 are found in a few hours to have completely reversed their positions4 ,two ships shut in at a short distance from each other were driven many leagues without being able to perceive any change in the surrounding ice4 ,at other times ships are drawn with the floating ice-fields1 like the white bears1 who make long voyages at sea upon these monster vehicles4 ,in #aggg the ,dutch vessel1 the ,wilhelmina1 was driven with some other whaling ships from eighty degrees north back to sixty-two degrees1 in sight of the ,iceland coast4 ,during this terrible journey the ships were broken up one after the other4 ,more than two hundred persons perished1 and the remainder reached land with difficulty4 ,lieutenant ,de ,haven1 navigating in search of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 was caught in the ice in the middle of the channel in ,wellington ,strait4 ,during the nine months which he remained in captivity1 he drifted nearly thirteen hundred miles towards the south2 and the ship ,resolute1 abandoned by ,captain ,kellet in an ice-field of immense extent1 was drifted towards the south with this vast mass to a much greater distance4 ,some curious speculations are hazarded by ,dr4 ,maury1 arising out of his investigations of winds and currents1 facts being revealed which indicate the existence of a climate1 mild by comparison1 within the ,antarctic ,circle4 ,these indications are a low barometer1 a high degree of aerial rarefaction1 and strong winds from the north4 ,the winds1 he says1 were the first to whisper of this strange state of things1 and to intimate to us that the ,antarctic climates are in winter very unlike the ,arctic for rigour and severity4 ,the result of an immense mass of observation on the polar and equatorial winds reveals a marked difference in atmospherical movements north1 as compared with the same movements south of the ,equator2 the equatorial winds of the northern hemisphere being only in excess between the tenth and thirteenth parallel1 while those of the southern hemisphere are dominant over a zone of forty-five degrees1 or from thirty-five degrees south to ten degrees north4 ,the fact that the influence of the polar indraught upon the winds should extend from the ,antarctic to the parallel of forty degrees south1 while that from the ,arctic is so feeble as scarcely to be felt in fifty degrees north1 is indicative enough as to the difference in degree of aerial rarefaction over the two regions4 ,the significance of the fact is enhanced by the consideration that the 'brave west winds1' which are bound to the place of greatest rarefaction1 rush more violently and constantly along to their destination than do the counter-trades of the northern hemisphere4 ,why should these polar-bound winds differ so much in strength and prevalence1 unless there be a much more abundant supply of caloric1 and1 consequently1 a higher degree of rarefaction1 at one pole than at the other8 ,that this is the case is confirmed by all known barometrical observations1 which are very much lower in the ,antarctic than in the ,arctic1 and ,dr4 ,maury thinks this is doubtless due to the excess in ,antarctic regions of aqueous vapour and this latent heat4 ,there is rarefaction in the ,arctic regions4 ,the winds show it1 the barometer attests it1 and the fact is consistent with the ,russian theory of a ,polynia in polar waters4 ,within the ,antarctic ,circle1 on the contrary1 the winds bring air which has come over the water for the distance of hundreds of leagues all around2 consequently1 a large portion of atmospheric air is driven away from the austral regions by the force of vapour4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,ocean4 ,see what a lovely shell1 small and pure as a pearl1 ,frail1 but a work divine1 made so fairly well1 ,with delicate spore and whorl1 a miracle of design4 ,,tennyson4 ,the appearance of the open sea1 says ,frdol1 from whose elegant work this chapter is chiefly compiled1 far from the shore--the boundless ocean--is to the man who loves to create a world of his own1 in which he can freely exercise his thoughts1 filled with sublime ideas of the ,infinite4 ,his searching eye rests upon the far-distant horizon4 ,he sees there the ocean and the heavens meeting in a vapoury outline1 where the stars ascend and descend1 appear and disappear in their turn4 ,presently this everlasting change in nature awakens in him a vague feeling of that sadness 'which1' says ,humboldt1 'lies at the root of all our heartfelt joys4' ,emotions of another kind and equally serious are produced by the contemplation and study of the habits of the innumerable organized beings which inhabit the great deep4 ,in fact1 that immense expanse of water1 which we call the sea1 is no vast liquid desert2 life dwells in its bosom as it does on dry land4 ,here this mystery reigns supreme in the midst of its expansions1 luxuries1 and agitations4 ,it pleases the ,creator4 ,it is the most beautiful1 the most brilliant1 the noblest1 and the most incomprehensible of ,his manifestations4 ,without life1 the world would be as nothing4 ,the beings endowed with it transmit it faithfully to other beings1 their children1 and their successors1 which will be1 like them1 the depositaries of the same mysterious gift2 the marvellous heritage thus traverses years and hundreds of years without losing its powers2 the globe is redolent with the life which has been so bounteously distributed over it4 ,in the words of ,lamartine1 ,we know what produces life1 but we know not what it is2 and this ignorance is perhaps the powerful attraction which provokes our curiosity and excites us to study4 ,every living being is animated by two principles1 between which a silent but incessant combat is being carried on--life1 which assimilates1 and death1 which disintegrates4 ,at first1 life is all powerful--it lords it over matter2 but its reign is limited4 ,beyond a certain point its vigour is gradually impaired2 with old age it decays2 and is finally extinguished with time1 when the chemical and physical laws seize upon it1 and its organization is destroyed4 ,but the elements1 though inert at first1 are soon reanimated and occupied with a new life4 ,every plant1 every animal is bound up with the past1 and is part of the future1 for every generation which starts into life is only the corollary upon that which expires1 and the prelude of another which is about to be born4 ,life is the school of death2 death is the foster-mother of life4 ,life1 however1 does not always exhibit itself at the moment of its formation4 ,it is visible later1 and only after other phenomena4 ,in order to develope itself1 a suitable soil or other medium must be prepared1 and other determinate physical and chemical conditions provided4 ,the presence and diffusion of living beings are no chance products2 they follow rigorously an order of law4 ,speaking of the higher forms of animal life1 the ,duke of ,argyll says1 in his able and satisfactory work1 ,the ,reign of ,law1--,in all these there is an observed order in the most rigid scientific sense1 that is1 phenomena in uniform connexion and mutual relations which can be made1 and are made1 the basis of systematic classification4 ,these classifications are imperfect1 not because they are founded on ideal connexions where none exist1 but only because they fail in representing adequately the subtle and pervading order which binds together all living things4 ,the knowledge of fossils has thrown great light upon the regular and progressive development of organization4 ,the evolution of living beings seems to have commenced with the more rudimentary forms2 the more ancient rocks1 until very recently1 had revealed no traces of life1 and what has been revealed tends to confirm this view4 ,in the ,cambrian rocks of ,bray ,head1 county ,wicklow1 the ,oldhamia is a zoophyte of the simplest organization1 and the ,rhizapods found near the bottom of the ,azoic rocks of ,canada are the lowest form of living types2 and it is only in beds of comparatively recent formation that complex organization exists4 ,vegetables first show themselves1 and even among these the simplest forms have priority4 ,animals afterwards appear1 which1 as we have seen1 belong to the least perfect classes4 ,the combinations of life1 at first simple1 have become more and more complex1 until the creation of man1 who may be considered the masterpiece of organization4 ,if we expose a certain quantity of pure water to the light and air in the spring1 we should soon see it producing shades of a yellowish or greenish colour4 ,these spots1 examined through the microscope1 reveal thousands of vegetable agglomerates4 ,presently thousands of animalcules appear1 which swim about among the floating masses1 nourishing themselves with its substance4 ,other animalcules then appear1 which1 in their turn1 pursue and devour the first4 ,in short1 life transforms inanimate into organized matter4 ,vegetables appear first1 then come herbivorous animals1 and then come the carnivorous4 ,life maintains life4 ,the death of one gives food and development to others1 for all are bound up together--all assist at the metamorphoses continually occurring in the organic as in the mineral world1 the result being general and profound harmony--harmony always worthy of admiration4 ,the ,creator alone is unchangeable1 omnipotent1 and permanent2 all else is transition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the inhabitants of the water are much more numerous than those of the solid earth4 ,upon a surface less varied than we find on continents1 says ,humboldt1 the sea contains in its bosom an exuberance of life of which no other portion of the globe could give us any idea4 ,it expands in the north as in the south2 in the east as in the west4 ,the seas1 above all1 abound with it2 in the bosom of the deep1 creatures corresponding and harmonizing with each other sport and play4 ,among these especially the naturalist finds instruction1 and the philosopher subjects for meditation4 ,the changes they undergo only impress upon our minds more and more a sentiment of thankfulness to the ,author of the universe4 ,yes1 the ocean in its profoundest depths--its plains and its mountains1 its valleys1 its precipices1 even in its ruins--is animated and embellished by innumerable organized beings4 ,these are at first plants1 solitary or social1 erect or drooping1 spreading into prairies1 grouped in patches1 or forming vast forests in the oceanic valleys4 ,these submarine forests protect and nourish millions of animals which creep1 which run1 which swim1 which sink into the sands1 attach themselves to rocks1 lodge themselves in crevices1 which construct dwellings for themselves1 which seek for or fly from each other1 which pursue or fight1 caress each other lovingly1 or devour each other without pity4 ,charles ,darwin truly remarks somewhere that our terrestrial forests do not maintain nearly so many living beings as those which swarm in the bosom of the sea4 ,the ocean1 which for man is the region of asphyxia and death1 is for millions of animals the region of life and health3 there is enjoyment for myriads in its waves2 there is happiness on its banks2 there is the blue above all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sea influences its numerous inhabitants1 animal or vegetable1 by its temperature1 by its density1 by its saltness1 by its bitterness1 by the never-ceasing agitation of its waves1 and by the rapidity of its currents4 ,we have seen in preceding chapters that the sea only freezes under intense cold1 and then only at the surface1 and that at the depth of five hundred fathoms the same permanent temperature exists in all latitudes4 ,on the other hand1 it is agreed that the agitations produced by the most violent storms are never felt beyond the depth of twelve or thirteen fathoms4 ,from this it follows that animals and vegetables1 by descending more or less1 according to the cold or disturbing movements1 can always reach a medium which agrees with their constitutions4 ,the hosts of the sea are distinguished by a peculiar softness4 ,certain pelagic plants present only a very weak1 feeble consistence2 a great number are transformed by ebullition into a sort of jelly4 ,the flesh of marine animals is more or less flaccid2 many seem to consist of a diaphanous mucilage4 ,the skeleton of the more perfect species is more or less flexible and cartilaginous2 and it rarely attains1 as to weight and consistency1 the strength of bone exhibited by terrestrial vertebrate animals4 ,nevertheless1 both the shells and coral produced in the bosom of the ocean are remarkable for their stony solidity4 ,among marine bodies1 in short1 we find at once the softest and hardest of organized substances4 ,the separation of organized beings1 nourished by the ocean1 is subjected to certain fixed laws4 ,we never find on the coast1 except by evident accident1 the same species that we meet with far from the shore2 nor on the surface1 creatures whose habits lead them to hide in the depths of ocean4 ,what immense varieties of size1 shape1 form1 and colour1 from the nearly invisible vegetation which serves to nourish the small zoophytes and mollusks1 to the long1 slender alg of fifty--and even five hundred--yards in length6 ,how vast the disparity between the microscopic infusoria and the gigantic whale6 ,we find in the sea1 says ,lacepede1 unity and diversity1 which constitute its beauty2 grandeur and simplicity1 which give it sublimity2 puissance and immensity1 which command our wonder4 ,in the following pages we shall figure and describe many inhabitants of the sea2 but how many remain still to figure and describe6 ,during more than two thousand years research has been multiplied1 and succeeded by research without interruption4 ,but how vast the field1 as ,lamarck observes1 which ,science has still to cultivate1 in order to carry the knowledge already acquired to the degree of perfection of which it is susceptible6 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the tide retires from the shore1 the sea leaves upon the coast some few of the numberless beings which it bears in its bosom4 ,in the first moments of its retreat1 the naturalist may collect a crowd of substances1 vegetable and animal1 with their various characteristic colours and properties4 ,the inhabitants of the coast find there their food1 their commerce1 and their occupations4 ,at low water the nearest villages and hamlets send their contingents1 old and young1 men1 women1 and children1 to the harvest4 ,some apply themselves to gathering the riband seaweed 7,zostera71 the membranous ,ulva1 the sombre brown ,fucus vesiculosus1 formerly a source of great wealth to the dwellers by the sea1 being then much used in making kelp2 others gather the small shells left on the sands2 boys mount upon the rocks in search of whelks 7,buccinum71 mussels 7,mytilus71 detach limpets 7,patella71 and other edible marine animals1 from the rocks to which they have attached themselves4 ,on some coasts1 shells1 as ,mactra1 ,cytheria1 and ,bucardium1 are sought for their beauty4 ,by turning the stones1 or by sounding the crevices of the rocks with a hook at the end of a lath1 polypes and calmars are sometimes surprised--sometimes even sea and conger eels1 which have sought refuge there2 while the pools1 left here and there by the retiring tide1 are dragged by nets of very small mesh1 in which the smaller crustaceous mollusks and small fish are secured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,mediterranean and other inland seas1 where the tide is almost inappreciable1 there exist a great number of animals and vegetables belonging to the deep sea1 which the waves or currents very rarely leave upon the sea shore4 ,there are others so fugitive1 or which attach themselves so firmly to the rocks1 that we can watch them only in their habitats4 ,it is necessary to study them floating on the surface of the waves1 or in their mysterious retirements4 ,hence the necessity that naturalists should study the living productions of the salt water even in the bosom of the ocean1 and not on the sea shore4 ,the means generally employed for this purpose is a drag-net1 sounding-line1 and other engines suitable for scraping the bottom1 and breaking the harder rocks4 ,in a voyage which ,milne ,edwards made to the coast of ,sicily1 he formed the idea of employing an apparatus invented by ,colonel ,paulin1 which consisted of a metallic casque provided with a visor of glass1 and consequently transparent1 which fixed itself round the neck by means of a copper collar made water-tight by stuffing--a diving-bell1 in short1 in miniature4 ,it communicated with an air-pump by means of a flexible tube4 ,four men were employed in serving the pump1 two exercising it while the other two rested themselves4 ,other men held the extremity of a cord1 which was passed over a pulley attached at a higher elevation1 and enabled them to hoist up the diver with the necessary rapidity in emergencies4 ,a vigilant observer held in his hand a small signal cord4 ,the immersion of the diver was facilitated by heavy leaden shoes1 which assisted him at the same time to maintain his vertical position at the bottom4 ,m4 ,edwards made the descent with this apparatus in three fathoms water with perfect success4 ,he was thus enabled to study1 in their most hidden and most inaccessible retreats1 the radiate animals1 mollusks1 crustaceans1 and annelids1 especially their larv and eggs1 and by his descriptions to contribute most essentially to make known the functions1 manners1 and mode of development of certain inhabitants of the sea1 whose sojourn and habits would seem to sequestrate them for ever from our observation4 ,another and easier mode of studying the living creatures sheltered by the sea was first suggested by ,m4 ,charles des ,moulins of ,bordeaux1 in #ahcj4 ,the aquarium1 which is charged with fresh or salt water1 according to the beings it is intended to contain1 serves the same purpose for the inhabitants of the deep which the aviary does for the birds of the air--cages of glass being used in place of iron wire or wicker-work1 and water in place of atmospheric air4 ,when a globe is filled with fresh water1 and with mollusks1 crustaceans1 or fishes1 it is observed1 after a few days1 that the water loses its transparency and purity1 and becomes slightly corrupt4 ,it necessarily follows that the water must be changed from time to time4 ,changing the water1 however1 causes much suffering1 and even death to the animals4 ,besides1 the new water does not always present the same composition1 the same aeration1 or the same temperature with that which is replaced4 ,to obviate this defect1 and taking a leaf out of ,nature's book1 ,m4 ,moulins proposed to put into the vase a certain number of aquatic plants floating or submerged--duckweed1 for example--which would act upon the water in a direction inverse to that of the animals inhabiting it4 ,it is known that vegetables assimilate carbon1 while decomposing the carbonic acid produced by the respiration of animals1 thus disengaging the oxygen indispensable to animal life4 ,in this simple manner was the necessary change of water obviated4 ,the same happy idea has been successfully applied to salt water1 and aquariums for salt-water plants and animals have been proposed on a great scale4 ,that of the ,zoological ,gardens of ,paris1 in the ,bois de ,boulogne1 inaugurated in #ahfa1 is perhaps the largest in the world4 ,it is a solid stone building of fifty yards in length by about twelve broad1 presenting a range of forty reservoirs of ,angers slate1 running north and south4 ,the reservoirs are nearly cubical1 presenting in front the strong glass of ,saint ,gobain1 which permits of the interior being seen4 ,they are lighted from above2 but the light is weak1 greenish1 uniform1 and consequently mysterious and gloomy1 giving a pretty exact imitation of the submarine light some fathoms down4 ,each reservoir contains about two hundred gallons of water4 ,it is furnished with rocks disposed a little in the form of an amphitheatre1 and in a picturesque manner4 ,upon the rocks various species of marine vegetables are planted4 ,the bottom is of shingle1 gravel1 and sand1 in order to give certain animals a sufficiently natural retreat4 ,ten of these reservoirs are intended for marine animals4 ,the water employed is never changed1 but it is kept in continual agitation by circulation1 produced by a current of water led from the great pipe which feeds the ,bois de ,boulogne4 ,this water1 being subjected to a strong pressure1 compresses a certain portion of air1 which1 being permitted to act on a portion of the sea water contained in a closed cylinder placed below the level of the aquarium1 makes it ascend1 and enter with great force into a reservoir1 into which it is thrown from a small jet4 ,the sea water thus pressed absorbs a portion of the air1 which is drawn with it into the reservoir4 ,a tube placed in a corner of the reservoir receives the overflow1 and conducts it into a closed carbon filter1 whence it passes into a gravelly underground reservoir1 returning again to the closed cylinder4 ,the water is once more subjected to the pressure of air1 and again ascends to the aquarium4 ,the cylinder being underground1 a temperature equal to about sixteen degrees ,cent41 which is nearly the uniform temperature of the ocean1 is easily maintained4 ,during winter1 the aquarium is heated artificially4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,zoophytes4 ,nature is nowhere more perfect than in her smaller works4 ,natura nusquam magis qum in minimis tota est4 ,,pliny4 ,it will not be out of place here to offer some remarks on animals in general1 including the whole kingdom as well as the great divisions which form the subject of this particular volume4 ,but considering the vastness of the subject1 and our imperfect knowledge of the whole animal series as a subject of study1 nothing is more difficult than to seize upon the real analogies between beings of types so varied1--of organizations so dissimilar4 ,the arrangements which naturalists have established in order to study and describe animals--the divisions1 classes1 orders1 families1 genera1 and species--are admirable contrivances for facilitating the study of creatures numerous as the sands of the sea shore4 ,without this precious means of logical distribution1 the individual mind would recoil before the task of describing the innumerable phalanges of contemporary animal life4 ,but the reader must never forget that these methodical divisions are pure fictions1 due to human invention3 they form no part of nature2 for has not ,linnus told us that nature makes no leaps1 natura non facit saltus8 ,nature passes in a manner almost insensibly from one stage of organization to another1 altogether irrespective of human systems4 ,moreover1 when we come to watch the confines of the animal and vegetable kingdom1 we realise how difficult it is to seize the precise line of demarcation which separates the great kingdoms of ,nature4 ,we have seen in the ,vegetable ,world germs of the simplest organization1 as in the ,cryptogamia1 spores1 as in the ,alg1 and fruitful corpuscles1 as in the ,mosses1 which seem to be invested with some of the characteristics of animal life1 for they appear to be gifted with organs of locomotion1 namely1 vibratile cilia1 by means of which they execute movements which are to all appearance quite voluntary4 ,side by side with these are vegetable germs and fecundating corpuscles1 known as antherozoides among the ,alg1 ,mosses1 and ,ferns1 which1 when floating in water1 go and come like the inferior animals1 seeking to penetrate into cavities1 withdrawing themselves1 returning again1 and again introducing themselves1 and exhibiting all the signs of an apparent effort4 ,let us compare the ,infusoria1 or even the ,polypi and ,gorgons1 with these shifting vegetable organisms1 and say if it is easy to determine1 without considerable study1 which is the plant and which the animal4 ,the precise line of demarcation which it is so desirable to establish between the two kingdoms of ,nature is indeed difficult to trace4 ,the word zoophyte1 to which this comparison introduces us1 seems very happily applied3 it is derived from the ,greek word 1 animal1 and 1 plant2 and is1 as it seems to us1 quite worthy of being retained in ,science1 because it consecrates and materialises1 so to speak1 a sort of fusion between the two kingdoms of ,nature at their confines4 ,let us guard ourselves1 however1 from carrying this idea too far1 and1 upon the faith of a happy word1 altering altogether the true relations of created beings4 ,in adopting the name zoophyte1 to indicate a great division of the animal kingdom1 the reader must not imagine that there is any ambiguity about the creatures designated1 or that they belong at once to both kingdoms1 or that they might be ranged indifferently in the one or the other4 ,zoophytes are animals1 and nothing but animals2 the justification for using a designation which signifies animal-plant is1 that many of them have an exterior resemblance to plants2 that they divide themselves by offshoots1 as some plants do1 and are sometimes crowned with organs tinted with lively colours1 like some flowers4 ,this analogy between plants and zoophytes is nowhere more apparent than in the coral4 ,rooted in the soil and upon rocks1 the form of its branches many times subdivided1 above all1 the coloured appendages which at certain periods so closely resemble the corolla of a flower1 have all the form and appearance of plants4 ,until the eighteenth century most naturalists classed the coral as ,linnus did1 without the least hesitation1 with analogous creations in the vegetable world4 ,raumur long contended for the contrary opinion2 but it is only in our day that the animal nature of the coral is satisfactorily established4 ,the sea anemone may be cited as another striking example of the resemblance borne by certain inferior organisms to vegetables4 ,we hold1 then1 that we are justified in using the word zoophyte to designate the beings which now occupy our attention4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall not surprise our readers by telling them that the structure of the zoophyte1 especially in its inferior orders1 is excessively simple4 ,they are the first steps in the scale of animal life1 and in them a purely rudimentary organization was to be expected4 ,in these beings--true types of animal life--the several parts of the body1 in place of being disposed in pairs on each side of its longitudinal plane1 as occurs in animals of a higher organization1 are found to radiate habitually round an axis or central point1 and this whether in its adult or juvenile state4 ,zoophytes have not generally an articulate skeleton1 either exterior or interior1 and their nervous system1 where it exists1 is very slightly developed4 ,the organs of the senses1 other than those of touch1 are altogether absent in the greater part of beings which belong to this1 the lowest class of the last division of the animal kingdom4 ,several questions arise here3 ,has the zoophyte sentiment1 feeling1 perception8 ,has it consciousness1 sense1 sensibility8 ,the question is insoluble2 it is an abyss of obscurity4 ,the coral1 or rather the aggregation of living beings which bear the name1 are attached to the rock which has seen their birth1 and which will witness their death3 the infusoria1 of microscopic dimensions1 which revolve perpetually in a circle infinitesimally small2 the ,amoeb1 the marvellous ,proteus1 which in the space of a minute changes its form a hundred times under the surprised eyes of the observer1 are1 in truth1 mere atoms charged with life4 ,yet all these beings have an existence to appearance purely vegetative4 ,in their obscure and blind impulse1 have they consciousness or instinct8 ,do they know what takes place at the three-thousandth part of an inch from their microscopic bodies8 ,to the ,creator alone does the knowledge of this mystery belong4 ,it would be foreign to the object of this work to enter into minute division of the innumerable creatures which swarm on the ocean and on its confines4 ,we shall perhaps best consult the convenience of our readers by adopting the following simple arrangement of these animals into ,i4 ,,protozoa1 including the ,spongiad1 ,infusoria1 and ,foraminifera4 ,,ii4 ,,polypifera1 including the ,hydr1 ,sertularia1 and ,pennatulari4 ,,iii4 ,,echinodermata1 or ,sea-urchins and ,star-fishes4 ,our space will prevent our doing more than presenting to the reader in succession the most characteristic types of each of these groups4 ,i4 ,,the ,,protozoa4 ,the ,protozoares represent animal life reduced to its most simple expression4 ,they are organized atoms1 mere animated and moving points1 living sparks4 ,as they are the simplest forms of animal life as regards their structure1 so also they are the smallest4 ,their microscopic dimensions hide them from our view4 ,the discovery of the microscope was a necessary step to our becoming acquainted with these beings1 whose existence was ignored by the ancient world1 and only revealed in the seventeenth century by the discovery of the microscope4 ,when armed with this marvellous instrument1 applied to examine the various liquid mediums--as when ,leuwenhoek1 for example1 applied the magnifying glass to the inspection of stagnant water1 with its infusions of macerated vegetable and animal substances--when he scrutinized a drop of water borrowed from the ocean1 from rivers1 or from lakes1 he discovered there a new world--a world which will be unveiled in these pages4 ,some modern writers believe that the ,protozoa is a mere cellular organism1 that being the principle and end of organization1 such as we find it in the cellular vegetable4 ,according to this hypothesis1 the ,protozoares would be the cellulars of the animal kingdom1 as the ,alg and ,mushrooms are of the vegetable world4 ,this idea is so far wrong1 that it has been founded upon the empire of pure theory4 ,in reality1 says ,paul ,gervais and ,van ,beneden1 the animals to which we extend it very rarely resemble elementary cellulars4 ,the tissue of which the bodies of the ,protozoa are composed is habitually destitute of cellular structure4 ,they are formed of a sort of animated jelly1 amorphous and diaphanous1 and have received from ,dujardin the name of ,sarcoda1 or soft-fleshed animals4 ,infinitely varied in their form1 the ,protozoares are furnished with vibratile cilia1 which are organs of locomotion belonging to the lower animals inhabiting the liquid element4 ,their bodies are sometimes naked1 sometimes covered with a siliceous1 chalky1 or membranous cuirass4 ,they are divided into two great classes1 the ,rhizopoda and ,infusoria4 ,,spongia4 ,the ,sponge is a natural production1 which has been known from times of the highest antiquity4 ,aristotle1 ,pliny1 and all other writers who occupied themselves with natural history in ancient times1 are agreed in according to it a sensitive life4 ,they recognize the curious fact that the sponge evades the hand which tries to seize it1 and clings to the rocks on which it is rooted1 as if it would resist the efforts made to detach it4 ,pliny1 ,dioscorides1 and their commentators1 even formed the idea that sponges were capable of feeling1 that they adhered to their native rock by special force1 and that they shrunk from the hand which tried to seize them4 ,they even distinguished males from females4 ,erasmus1 however1 criticising ,pliny1 concludes that he may pass over all he has written upon the sponge4 ,the sponge1 in short1 was to the ancients something between a plant and an animal4 ,rondelet1 the friend of the celebrated ,rabelais1 whom the merry curate of ,meudon designated under the name of ,rondibilis1 who was himself a physician and naturalist of ,montpellier1 denied at first the existence of sensibility in sponges4 ,he originated the idea that these productions belonged to the vegetable world--an idea which ,tournefort1 ,gaspard ,bauhin1 ,rey1 and even ,linnus1 in the first editions of his ,systema ,natur1 supported by the great authority of their names4 ,afterwards1 influenced by the convincing labours of ,trembley and some other observers1 ,linnus withdrew the sponges from the vegetable world4 ,he satisfied himself1 in short1 that certain polypiers much resembled sponges in the nature of their parenchyma1 and that1 on the other hand1 the assimilation of sponges with plants was not such as could be maintained4 ,neuremberg1 ,peyssonnel1 and ,trembley maintain the animal nature of sponges1 and their views are adopted by ,linnus1 ,guettard1 ,donati1 ,lamouroux1 and ,ehrenberg on the ,continent1 and by ,ellis1 ,fleming1 and ,grant in ,england4 ,they live at the bottom of the seas in five to twenty-five fathoms of water1 among the clefts and crevices of the rocks1 always adhering and attaching themselves1 not only to inorganic bodies1 but even growing on vegetables and animals1 spreading1 erect1 or pendent1 according to the body which supports them and their natural habit4 ,the power of fixing themselves to other objects1 which certain animals possess1 is very singular4 ,nevertheless1 it is certain that whole tribes exist consisting of innumerable strictly adherent species1 which live and die attached to some rock or other object2 and among these are all polypiers1 such as the sponges and corallines4 ,it follows that they are wholly dependent on external agencies for their means of existence4 ,the poor little creatures1 says ,alfred ,frdol1 receive their nourishment from the wave which washes past them2 they inhale and respire the bitter water all their lives2 they are insensible to that which is only the hundredth part of an inch from their mouth4 ,in the months of ,april and ,may1 these animalcules engender germs1 round1 yellow1 or white1 whence proceed certain ovoid granular embryos furnished towards their largest extremity with small vibratile cilia4 ,they are thrown off by the currents1 which serve as a stomach1 and form swarms of larv round the polypier4 ,they swim about with a gliding wavy motion1 and when they have been some time in the water they usually come to the surface2 but they are also often carried off by the current4 ,during two or three days they seem to seek a convenient place to fix themselves4 ,once fixed1 the larv loses the cilia1 spreads itself out1 and takes the form of a flattened gelatinous disk4 ,its interior organization consists of contractile cellules and numerous spicul--a tribe1 says ,gosse1 of the most debateable forms of life1 long denied a right to stand in the animal ranks at all1 and even still admitted there doubtingly and grudgingly by some excellent naturalists4 ,yet such they certainly are1 established beyond reasonable controversy as true and proper examples of animal life4 ,it may1 then1 be safely asserted that all naturalists are now satisfied of the animal nature of sponges1 although they represent the lowest and most obscure grade of animal existence1 and that so close to the confines of the vegetable world1 that it is difficult in some species to determine whether they are on the one side or the other4 ,several of them1 however1 says ,mr4 ,gosse1 if viewed with a lens under water while in a living state1 display vigorous currents constantly pouring forth from certain orifices2 and we necessarily infer that the water thus ejected must be constantly taken in through some other channel4 ,on tearing the mass open1 we see that the whole substance is perforated in all directions by irregular canals1 leading into each other1 of which some are slender1 and communicate with the surface by minute but numerous pores1 and others are wide1 and open by ample orifices2 through the former the water is admitted1 through the latter it is ejected4 ,it is not to be denied1 however1 that these beings constitute1 in spite of investigations of modern naturalists1 a group still somewhat problematical1 and still very imperfectly known as regards their internal organization4 ,sponges are masses of a light elastic tissue1 which is1 at the same time1 resistant1 full of air-cells1 and with much varied exterior arrangements4 ,nearly three hundred species are known1 the different appearances of which have been characterised by names more or less singular4 ,there is1 for instance1 the ,feather ,sponge1 the ,fan ,sponge1 the ,bell1 the ,lyre1 the ,trumpet1 the ,distaff1 the ,peacock ,tail1 and ,neptune's ,glove4 ,there are river sponges and sea sponges4 ,the first are irregular and arenaceous masses1 which pile themselves upon plants and solid bodies immerged in fresh water4 ,such are the spongilles1 upon which anatomic and embryonic observations have very frequently been made in relation to the group more immediately under consideration4 ,the second is found in almost every sea2 especially are they found in the ,mediterranean1 the ,red ,sea1 and the ,mexican ,gulf4 ,affecting warm and quiet waters1 they attach themselves to bold and rugged rocks at depths ranging from five to twenty-five fathoms4 ,they are erect1 pendent1 or spreading1 according to their form or position4 ,fig4 #aj1 drawn from ,nature1 represents a very remarkable form of sponge1 which was fished up in sixty fathoms4 ,the sponge is very common in the ,mediterranean and round the ,grecian ,archipelago1 and is known vulgarly under the name of the ,marine ,mushroom1 the ,sailor's ,nest1 and the fine soft sponge of ,syria4 ,it is a mass more or less rounded1 covered with a mucous bed1 glutinous above1 formed of a light elastic but resisting tissue full of gaps1 and riddled with air-cells4 ,this tissue is formed of delicate flexible fibres1 uniting in all directions by anastomosis1 but presenting numerous pores1 which are formed by what is termed osculation1 having irregular conduits which connect them4 ,in this tissue certain very small solid bodies are discovered1 named spicul4 ,the spicul are siliceous or calcareous in their nature1 varying according to the species1 and sometimes varying even in the same species4 ,some of these resemble needles1 others are pin-like1 and others again resemble very small stars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,spongia1 half the natural size1 attached to its rocky bed4 ,the physiological function of those tubes and orifices which present themselves on all parts of the sponge has been interpreted in various ways4 ,ellis1 writing in #agfe1 supposes that they were the orifices of the cells occupied by the polypi4 ,in #ahaf1 ,lamarck still advocated this opinion2 and even now we find the observer1 whose notes ,m4 ,frdol has edited with so much judgment1 asserting that the inhabitants of the sponge are a species of fleeting1 transparent1 gelatinous tube1 susceptible of extension and contraction2 young polypes1 as we may call them1 without consistence1 without cilia2 incipient polypes1 in short1 of very simple but sufficient organization4 ,the animalcule of the sponge is a stomach1 without arms1 very simple1 very elementary--in short1 an animal all stomach6 ,this mode of considering the sponge is not conformable to the views of the leaders of modern science1 however4 ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 for instance1 in place of seeing in the sponge a collection of united beings1 forming as it were a colony1 considers each to be an isolated being1 an unique individual4 ,the innumerable canals by which the sponge is traversed1 according to that author1 are at once the digestive organs and breathing pores of the zoophyte4 ,the vibratile cilia are necessary to the renewed aeration of the water required as a respiratory fluid in the interior canals of the sponge4 ,the currents in these channels have one constant direction4 ,the water penetrates the sponge by numerous orifices of minute dimensions and irregular disposition2 it traverses channels in the body of the zoophyte1 which reunite somewhat like the root of a plant1 in order to constitute the trunk and increase its substance2 finally1 the water makes its escape by special openings4 ,according to this view1 the channels of the sponge have a kind of cumulative physiology1 performing the two functions of digestion and respiration4 ,the rapid currents of aerated water which traverse them lead into them the substances necessary to the nourishment of these strange creatures1 rejecting all excremental matter4 ,at the same time1 the walls of these canals present a large absorbing surface which separates the oxygen with which the water is charged1 and disengages the carbonic acid which results from respiration4 ,sponges contain true eggs1 from which embryo polyps are produced2 these have not cilia at first4 ,in the interior of these eggs the contractile cellules have their birth2 then the spicul2 and when they are finally covered with the vibratile cilia1 aided by them these larv of ovoid form swim1 or rather glide1 through the water4 ,the species of infusoria born of the sponge resemble the larv of various polypes at the moment they issue from the egg4 ,they soon attach themselves to some foreign body1 says ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 and become henceforth immovable2 no longer giving signs either of sensibility or of contractibility1 while in their enlargement they are completely transformed4 ,the gelatinous substance of their bodies is channeled and riddled with holes--the fibrous framework is completed--the sponge is formed4 ,we may add1 however1 that other zoologists1 and among them ,,mm4 ,paul ,gervais and ,van ,beneden1 take a different view of the development of the sponges1 and ,dr4 ,johnston omits them altogether from his great work on ,british ,zoophytes4 ,if they are not the production of polypi1 he says1 the zoologist who retains them in his province must contend that they are individually animals1 an opinion to which ,i cannot assent1 seeing that they have no animal structure or individual organs1 and exhibit not one function usually supposed to be characteristic of the animal kingdom4 ,gervais and ,van ,beneden consider1 as ,milne ,edwards does1 that the embryos are at first movable1 then fixed1 many of them uniting together1 and melting1 as it were1 into one common colony1 which become a sponge1 such as we see it4 ,an isolated embryo might also1 by throwing out germs1 produce a similar colony1 which would thus become a product of agamous generation4 ,thus it appears that ,science is far from being settled in its views as to the organization and development of these obscure and complex formations2 nor is it more advanced in its knowledge of the duration of life and the quickness of growth in sponges4 ,it is agreed1 however1 on one point--namely1 that the sponge-fisher may return to the same fishing-ground after three years from the last fishing4 ,at the present time sponge-fishing takes place principally in the ,grecian ,archipelago and the ,syrian littoral4 ,the ,greeks and ,syrians sell the product of their fishing to the ,western nations1 and the trade has been immensely extended in recent times1 when the sponge has become an almost necessary adjunct of the toilet as well as the stable1 and in other cleansing operations4 ,fishing usually commences towards the beginning of ,june on the coast of ,syria1 and finishes at the end of ,october4 ,but the months of ,july and ,august are peculiarly favourable to the sponge harvest1 if we may use the term4 ,latakia furnishes about ten boats to the fishery1 ,batroun twenty1 ,tripoli twenty-five to thirty1 ,kalki fifty1 ,simi about a hundred and seventy to a hundred and eighty1 and ,kalminos more than two hundred4 ,the operations of one of these boats fishing for sponges on the ,syrian coast is represented in ,plate ,,ii4 ,the boat's crew consists of four or five men1 who scatter themselves along the coast for two or three miles in search of sponges under the cliffs and ledges of rock4 ,sponges of inferior quality are gathered in shallow waters4 ,the finer kinds are found only at a depth of from twelve to twenty fathoms4 ,the first are fished for with three-toothed harpoons1 by the aid of which they are torn from their native rock2 but not without deteriorating them more or less4 ,the finer kinds of sponges1 on the other hand1 are collected by divers aided by a knife2 they are carefully detached4 ,thus the price of a sponge brought up by diving is much more considerable than that of a harpooned sponge4 ,among divers1 those of ,kalminos and of ,psara are particularly renowned4 ,they will descend to the depth of twenty-five fathoms1 remain down a shorter time than the ,syrian divers1 and yet bring up a more abundant harvest4 ,the fishing of the ,archipelago furnishes few fine sponges to commerce1 but a great quantity of very common ones4 ,the ,syrian fisheries furnish many of the finer kinds1 which find a ready market in ,france2 they are of medium size4 ,on the other hand1 those which are furnished from the ,barbary coast are of great dimensions1 of a very fine tissue1 and much sought for in ,england4 ,on the ,bahama banks1 and in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the sponges grow in water of small depth4 ,the fishermen1 ,spanish1 ,american1 and ,english1 sink a long mast or perch into the water moored near the boat1 down which they drop upon the sponges2 by this means they are easily gathered4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4--,sponge ,fishing on the ,coast of ,syria4 ,in the ,red ,sea1 the ,arabs fish for sponges by diving1 their produce being either sold to the ,english at ,aden or sent to ,egypt4 ,sponge-fishing is carried on at various other stations in the ,mediterranean1 but without any intelligent direction1 and in consequence it is effected without any conservative foresight4 ,at the same time1 however1 the trade in this product goes on increasing4 ,but it is only a question of time when the trade shall cease2 the demand which every year clears the submarine fields of these zoophytes causes such destruction that their reproduction will soon cease to be equal to the demand4 ,in order to prevent this troublesome result1 it is very desirable that the several species of sponges should be naturalized on the ,french and ,algerian coast1 and the cultivation and reproduction of the zoophyte protected4 ,for this purpose1 the rocky coasts of the ,mediterranean1 from ,cape ,cruz to ,nice1 and round the islands of ,corsica and ,hyres1 in the ,algerian waters1 and even some of the salt lakes of the departments near the ,mediterranean1 might be utilized4 ,the whole of the ,italian littoral would also be available under the new rgime for this purpose4 ,m4 ,lamiral considered that the composition of the water of the ,mediterranean being thought the same on the coast of ,france1 of ,algeria1 and on the ,syrian coast1 that the difference of temperature between the two latitudes--especially at the depth where the sponges flourish most--would not interfere with the existence of these robust zoophytes1 and that their acclimatization on the coasts of ,france and ,algeria would be a certain success4 ,he remarked1 moreover1 that the more the sponges advanced towards the north1 the finer and compacter their tissues became2 and he argued from this fact1 that a considerable improvement in the quality would result from the experiment4 ,the only difficulty1 then1 would consist in the transplanting sponges from ,syrian waters to the coasts of ,france and ,algeria4 ,a submarine boat1 such as ,m4 ,lamiral makes use of for operations conducted in deep water1 would1 according to this naturalist1 give every facility for collecting sponges for the purpose4 ,this boat can descend to great depths1 and its crew can dwell there a considerable time1 for it is continually fed with fresh air from above1 which is conveyed by an air-pump and tube into the interior of the boat1 so that the men could readily select such individuals as were suited for acclimatizing2 removing the blocks of rock along with them1 either by placing them in cases pierced with holes1 or by towing them to their new abode4 ,everything seems to promise that in the following year the zoophytes would begin to multiply in their new country4 ,the larv might also be collected in the months of ,april and ,may1 as they separate from the parent sponge1 and be transplanted to favourable localities4 ,at the end of three years1 when these true submarine fields would be ripe for harvesting1 they could be put in train for methodical collection by means of diving boats4 ,the toilet sponge is an article which produces a high price1 often as much as forty shillings the pound for very choice specimens1 a price which few commercial products attain1 which prohibits its use1 in short1 to all but the wealthy4 ,it is1 therefore1 very desirable to carry out the submarine enterprise of ,m4 ,lamiral4 ,with the assistance of the ,acclimatization ,society of ,paris1 some experiments have already been made in this direction--so far without any satisfactory results1 it is true1 but everything indicates that by perseverance we shall see the enterprise crowned by the success it merits4 ,such specimens as now reach our ports are chiefly distinguished by their appearance1 quality1 and origin4 ,the fine soft ,syrian sponge is distinguished by its lightness1 its fine flaxen colour1 its form1 which is that of a cup1 its surface convex1 voluted1 pierced with innumerable small orifices1 the concave part of which presents canals of much greater diameter1 which are prolonged to the exterior surface in such a manner that the summit is nearly always pierced throughout in many places4 ,this sponge is sometimes blanched by the aid of caustic substances1 acids1 or alkalies2 but this preparation shortens its duration and changes its colour4 ,this sponge is specially employed for the toilet1 and its price is high4 ,those which are round-shaped1 large1 and soft1 sometimes produce as much as five or six pounds4 ,the ,fine ,sponge of the ,archipelago is scarcely distinguishable from that of ,syria1 either before or after being cleansed2 nevertheless1 it is weightier1 its texture is not so fine1 and the holes with which it is pierced are at once larger and less in number4 ,it is nearly of the same country as the former1 in fact1 the fishing extending along the ,syrian coast as well as the littoral of ,barbary and the ,archipelago4 ,the ,fine ,hard ,sponge1 called ,greek1 is less sought for than either of the preceding2 it is useful for domestic and for certain industrial purposes4 ,its mass is irregular1 its colour fauve2 it is hard and compact1 and pierced with small holes4 ,the ,white ,sponge of ,syria1 called ,venetian1 is esteemed for its lightness1 the regularity of its form1 and its solidity4 ,in its rough state it is brown in colour1 of a fine texture1 compact and firm4 ,purified1 it becomes flaxen and of a looser texture4 ,the orifice of the great channels which traverse it are edged with rough and bristly hairs4 ,illustration3 7,from ,dr4 ,grant47 ,fig4 #aa4 ,spongia oculata1 showing the orifices and currents outwards4 #b4 ,anastomosing horny substance of ,spongia communis4 #c4 ,siliceous spiculum of ,s4 papillaris4 #d4 ,of ,s4 cineria4 #e4 ,s4 panicea4 #f4 ,calcareous spiculum of ,s4 compressa4 #g4 ,transverse section of a canal of ,s4 papillaris1 showing the structure of the ova passing along the canal4 #h4 ,ovum of ,s4 panicea seen laterally--the cili anterior4 #i4 ,the same seen on the end1 with a circle produced by the ciliary action4 #aj4 ,young ,spongia papillaris4 ,the ,brown ,barbary ,sponge1 called the ,marseillaise1 when first taken out of the water1 presents itself as an elongated flattened body1 gelatinous1 round in shape1 and charged with blackish mud4 ,it is then hard1 heavy1 coarse1 but compact1 and of a reddish colour4 ,by a simple washing in water it becomes round1 still remaining heavy and reddish4 ,it presents many gaps1 the intervals of which are occupied by a sinuous and tenacious network4 ,it is valuable for domestic use1 because of the facility with which it absorbs water1 and its great strength4 ,other sorts of sponges are very abundant4 ,the ,blonde ,sponge of the ,archipelago1 often confounded with the ,venetian2 the ,hard ,barbary ,sponge1 called ,gelina1 which only comes by accident into ,france2 the ,salonica ,sponge is of middling quality2 finally1 the ,bahama ,sponge1 from the ,antilles1 is wanting in flexibility and a little hard1 and so is sold at a low price1 having few useful properties to recommend it4 ,many species of ,spongia are described as inhabiting ,british seas1 but none of any commercial value4 ,regarding them as apolypiferous zoophytes1 ,dr4 ,grant has pointed out certain principles of analysis on which they may be grouped1 according to the arrangement of the horny fibres1 the calcareous and siliceous spicul1 and the distribution and formation of their pores and orifices4 ,i4 ,,groups ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,constituent ,,structure ,,is ,,known4 ,spongia4--,mass soft1 elastic1 more or less irregular in shape1 very porous1 traversed by many tortuous canals1 which terminate at the surface in distinct orifices4 ,substance of the skeleton cartilaginous1 fibres anastomosed in all directions1 without any earthy spicula4--,example1 ,s4 communis 7,fig4 #aa #b74 ,calcispongia 7,blainville74--,mass rigid or slightly elastic1 of irregular form1 porous1 traversed by irregular canals1 which terminate on the surface in distinct orifices2 skeleton cartilaginous1 fibres strengthened by calcareous spicula1 often tri-radiate4--,example1 ,s4 compressa 7,fig4 #aa #f74 ,halispongia 7,blainville74--,mass more or less rigid or friable1 irregular1 porous1 traversed by tortuous irregular canals1 which terminate at the surface in distinct orifices2 substance cartilaginous1 fibres strengthened by siliceous spicula1 generally fusiform or cylindrical4--,example1 ,s4 papillaris 7,grant7 7,fig4 #aa #c74 ,spongilla 7,lamarck74--,mass more or less rigid or friable1 irregular1 porous1 but not furnished with regular orifices or internal canals4--,example1 ,s4 fluviatalis 7,linn474 ,,ii4 ,,groups ,,depending ,,on ,,characters ,,of ,,surface ,,or ,,general ,,figure4 ,geodia 7,lamarck74--,fleshy mass1 tuberous1 irregular1 hollow within1 externally incrusted by a porous envelope1 which bears a series of orifices in a small tubercular space4--,example1 ,g4 gibberosa 7,schmeiger74 ,coeloptychium 7,goldfuss74--,mass fixed1 pedicled1 the upper part expanded1 agariciform1 concave1 and radiato-porose above1 flat and radiato-sulcate below2 substance fibrous4--,example1 ,c4 agarisidioideum 7,goldfuss74 ,fossils from the chalk of ,westphalia4 ,siphonia 7,parkinson74--,mass polymorphous1 free or fixed1 ramose or simple1 concave or fistulous above1 porous at the surface1 and penetrated by anastomosing canals1 which terminate in sub-radiating orifices within the cup4 ,myrmecium 7,goldfuss74--,mass sub-globular1 sessile1 of a close fibrous texture1 forming ramified canals which radiate from the base to the circumference4 ,summit with a central pit4 ,scyphia 7,oken74--,mass cylindrical1 simple1 or branched1 fistulous1 ending in a large rounded pit1 and composed entirely of a reticulated tissue4 ,eudea 7,lamouroux74--,mass filiform1 attenuated1 sub-pedicellate at one end1 enlarged and rounded at the other1 with a large terminal pit2 surface reticulated by irregular lacun1 minutely porous4 ,halirrhoa 7,lamouroux74--,mass turbinated1 nearly regular1 circular1 or lobate2 surface porous2 a large central pit on the upper face4 ,happalimus 7,lamouroux74--,mass fungiform1 pedicellate below1 expanding conically1 with a central pit above2 surface porous and irregularly excavated4 ,cnemidium 7,goldfuss74--,mass turbinate1 sessile1 composed of close fibres and horizontal canals1 diverging from the centre to the circumference2 a central pit on the upper surface1 cariose in the exterior and radiate at the margin4 ,ierea 7,lamouroux74--,mass ovoid1 sub-pedicellate1 finely porous2 pierced on the upper part by many orifices1 the terminations of the internal tubes4 ,tethium 7,lamarck74--,mass sub-globose1 tuberose1 composed of a cariose firm substance1 strengthened by abundance of siliciary spicula1 fasciculated1 and diverging from the centre to the circumference4 ,,rhizopoda4 ,gervais and ,van ,beneden include under the name of ,rhizopods1 or foot-rooted animals 7so called from 11 root2 1 1 footed animals71 those of the simplest organization1 which may be characterised by the absence of distinct digestive cavities1 and the presence of vibratile cilia1 as well as by the soft parts of their tissues4 ,this tissue emits prolongations or filaments which admit of easy extension1 sometimes simple1 sometimes branching4 ,occasionally we see these branching filaments withdraw themselves towards the mass of the body1 disappear1 and gradually melt into its substance in such a manner that the individual seems to absorb and devour itself4 ,if1 in exceptional cases1 some of the superior animals1 as the wolf1 devour each other1 the rhizopods go much farther3 they devour themselves1 so to speak6 ,the rhizopods are found both in fresh and salt water4 ,they live1 as parasites1 on the body of worms and other articulated animals4 ,the class is divided into many orders4 ,we shall speak here only of three1 namely1 the ,amoeb1 ,foraminifera1 and ,noctiluca4 ,,amoeb4 ,in nearly all ancient animal and vegetable infusions1 not quite putrid--upon all oozy beds covering bodies which have remained for some time in fresh or sea water--we find the singular beings which belong to this order4 ,they are the simplest organisms in creation1 being reduced to a mere drop of living matter4 ,their bodies are formed of a gelatinous substance1 without appreciable organization4 ,the quantity of matter which forms them is so infinitesimal1 that it becomes incredibly diaphanous1 and so transparent that the eye1 armed with the microscope1 traverses it in all directions1 so that it is necessary to modify the nature of the liquid in which it is held in suspension1 and introduce the phenomenon of refraction in order to observe them4 ,it would be difficult to say exactly what is the form these creatures assume4 ,they frequently have the appearance of small rounded masses1 like drops of water2 but1 whatever their form may be1 it is always so unstable1 that it changes1 so to speak1 every moment1 so that it is found impossible to make a drawing from the model under the microscope--the design must be finished by an appeal to memory4 ,this instability is the characteristic manifestation of life in the ,amoeb1 which are naked beings1 without apparent organization2 in fact1 they occupy the first step in the scale of creation4 ,the transparent immovable drop under consideration emits an expansion1 and a lobe of a vitreous appearance upon its circumference1 which1 gliding like a drop of oil upon the object-glass of the microscope1 begins by fixing itself to it as a supporting point1 afterwards slowly attracting to itself the whole mass1 and thus gradually increasing its bulk under the observer's eye4 ,the ,amoeb1 according to their dimensions and degree of development1 successively emit a greater or smaller number of lobes1 none of which are precisely alike1 but1 after having appeared for an instant1 each successively re-enters into the common mass1 with which it becomes completely incorporated4 ,variable in their respective forms1 these lobes present appearances quite different in the several genera4 ,they are more or less lengthy1 more or less fringed1 and often branching2 sometimes they are filiform1 sprouting in all directions over the animal mass1 which rolls in the liquid like the husk of a small chestnut4 ,if we ask how these animals are nourished1 in which no digestive apparatus can be distinguished1 the question is difficult to answer4 ,it is thought that they are nourished by simple absorption1 and by absorption only4 ,in the interior of the gelatinous mass which constitutes the animals1 however1 granules and microscopic portions of vegetables are frequently discovered4 ,we can conceive1 says ,dujardin1 how these objects have penetrated to the interior1 if we remark1 on the one hand1 that in creeping on the surface of the glass1 to which they adhere very exactly1 the ,amb can be made to receive1 by pressure1 foreign substances into their own bodies1 by means of the alternate contraction and extension of the various parts natural to them1 and1 on the other hand1 that the gelatinous mass is susceptible of spontaneous depressions--here and there near to or even at the surface of the spherical cavities1 which successively contract themselves and disappear in connection with the strange body which they have absorbed4 ,the ,amoeb are often observed to be tinted red or green2 this arises from the special colouring matter which has been absorbed into its mass4 ,the question arises1 ,how do these creatures1 so simple in their organization1 propagate their species8 ,we believe that they are chiefly multiplied by parting with a lobe1 which1 in certain conditions1 is enabled to live an independent existence1 and develop itself1 thus forming a new individual4 ,this is what naturalists term generation by division--fissiparism or fission4 ,the absence of a nutritive and reproductive apparatus in the ,amoeb1 and the want of stability in their forms1 explain how nearly impossible it is to characterise as species the numerous individuals daily met with in infusions of organic matter in stagnant water4 ,in order to distinguish some of the groups1 ,dujardin bases his descriptions upon their size and the general form into which they expand4 ,we shall be able to form some idea of the appearance of these beings1 rendered mysterious by their very simplicity1 by throwing a glance upon the two accompanying figures 7,figs4 #ab and #ac71 borrowed from the ,atlas of ,dujardin's great work1 ,les ,zoophytes ,infusoires1 which we shall have occasion to quote more than once4 ,we have said that the ,amb change their form every few moments under the eyes of the observer4 ,fig4 #ac represents the changes of form through which they pass1 according to ,dujardin1 when examined under the microscope4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,amoeb princeps 7,ehrenberg71 magnified #ajj times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,various forms of ,amoeb diffluens 7,mller71 magnified #djj times4 ,dujardin points out very clearly the identity of structure between organisms like ,amoeb and such forms as ,difflugia and ,arcella4 ,all these creatures are without trace of mouth or digestive cavity1 and the entire body is a single cell1 or aggregation of cells1 which receive their nutriment by absorption2 for1 although the creatures have neither mouth nor stomach1 yet1 according to ,professor ,klliker1 they take in solid nutriment1 and reject what is indigestible4 ,when in its progress through the water one of these minute organisms approaches one of the equally minute ,alg1 from which it draws nourishment1 it seizes the plant with its tentacular filaments1 which it gradually encloses on all sides2 the filaments1 to all appearance1 becoming more or less shortened in the process4 ,in this way the captive is brought close to the surface of the body2 a cavity is thus formed1 in which the prey is lodged1 which closes round it on all sides4 ,in this situation it is gradually drawn towards the centre1 and passes at last entirely into the mass4 ,the engulfed morsel is gradually dissolved and digested4 ,,foraminifera4 ,there is nothing small in ,nature4 ,the idea of littleness or greatness is a human conception--a comparison which is suggested by the dimensions of his own organs4 ,nature1 on the other hand1 compensates smallness by numbers4 ,the result produced by the bones of some large animals is also accomplished by the accumulated spoils of millions of animalcules4 ,the history of the ,foraminifera is a striking example of this great truth4 ,what1 then1 is a ,foraminifer8 ,it is a very small zoophyte1 a shell nearly invisible to the naked eye2 for1 in general1 its dimensions rarely exceed the two hundredth part of an inch2 in short1 it is strictly microscopic4 ,examine under a microscope the sand of the ocean1 and it will be found that one-half of it consists of the dbris of shells1 of various but well-defined forms1 each habitually pierced with a number of holes4 ,to this they are indebted for their name ,foraminifera1 from foramen1 a hole4 ,with these microscopic animalcules ,nature has worked wonders in geological times2 nor have the wonders ceased in our days4 ,many beds of the terrestrial crust consist entirely of the remains of ,foraminifera4 ,in the most remote ages in the history of our planet1 these zoophytes must have lived in innumerable swarms in the seas of the period2 they buried themselves in the bottoms of the seas1 and their shells1 heaped up during many ages1 have finished by forming hills of great thickness and extent4 ,we may say1 to give an example1 that during the ,carboniferous period1 a single species of these zoophytes has formed1 in ,russia alone1 enormous beds of calcareous rock4 ,many beds of cretaceous formation are1 in great part1 composed of ,foraminifera1 and they exist in immense numbers in the white chalk which covers and forms the vast mountains ranging from ,champagne1 in ,france1 nearly to the centre of ,england4 ,but it is to the ,tertiary formation that these zoophytes have contributed the most enormous deposits4 ,the greater part of the ,egyptian pyramids is only an aggregation of ,nummulites inserted in the syenite4 ,a prodigious number of ,foraminifera present themselves in the tertiary deposits of the ,gironde1 of ,italy1 and of ,austria4 ,the chalk so abundant in the basin of ,paris is almost entirely composed of ,foraminifera4 ,the remains of these creatures are so abundant in the ,paris chalk1 that ,m4 d',orbigny found upwards of fifty-eight thousand in a small block1 scarcely exceeding a cubic inch of chalk1 from the quarries of ,chantilly4 ,this fact1 according to this author1 implies the existence of three thousand millions of these zoophytes in the cubic mtre 7thirty-nine inches square and a small fraction7 of rock6 ,as the chalk from these quarries has served to build ,paris1 as well as the towns and villages of the neighbouring departments1 it may be said that ,paris1 and other great centres of population which surround it1 are built with the shells of these microscopic animals4 ,the sand of the littoral of all existing seas is so full of these minute but elegant shells1 that it is often half composed of them4 ,ehrenberg1 the celebrated ,german microscopist1 was recently invited by the ,prussian government to assist in tracing the robbery of a special case of wine4 ,it had been repacked in littoral sand only found in an ancient sea-board in ,germany4 ,the criminal was thus detected4 ,m4 d',orbigny found in three grammes 7forty-six grains troy7 of sand from the ,antilles1 four hundred and forty thousand shells of ,foraminifera4 ,bianchi found in thirty grammes 7four hundred and sixty-seven grains7 from the ,adriatic1 six thousand of these shells4 ,if we calculate the proportion of these beings contained in a cubic mtre alone of sea-sand1 we reach a figure which passes all conception4 ,what would this be if we could extend the calculation to the immensity of surface covered by the waves which surround the globe8 ,m4 d',orbigny has satisfied himself1 by microscopic examination of sands from all parts of the globe1 that it is the dbris of ,foraminifera which form1 in all existing seas1 those enormous deposits which raise banks1 obstruct the navigation in gulfs and straits1 and fill up ports1 as may be seen in the port of ,alexandria4 ,in common with the corals and madrepores1 the ,foraminifera are the great agents in forming the isles which surge up under our eyes from the bosom of the ocean in the warmer regions of the globe4 ,thus shells1 scarcely appreciable to the sight1 suffice by their accumulations to fill up seas1 while performing a very considerable part in the great operations of ,nature1 although it may not be apparent to us4 ,our exact knowledge of the ,foraminifera is of very recent date4 ,great numbers of minute particles1 of regular and symmetrical form1 were long distinguished on the sands of the sea shore4 ,these corpuscular atoms early attracted the attention of observers4 ,but with the discovery of the microscope1 these small elegant shells1 which were among the curiosities revealed by the instrument1 assumed immense importance4 ,we have stated that these corpuscles are nothing but the shell or solid framework of a crowd of marine animalcul3 we may then consider them as living species analogous to the ,ammonites and ,nautilus of geological times4 ,linnus has placed them in this last genus1 which would include1 according to that author1 all the multilocular shells4 ,in #ahjd1 ,lamarck classed them among the molluscous cephalopods4 ,but ,alcide d',orbigny1 who has devoted long years to study and observation1 and may be considered the great historian of the ,foraminifera1 makes it appear that this mode of classification was inexact4 ,dujardin separated them altogether from the class of mollusks1 and showed that they ought to be consigned to an inferior class of animals4 ,these minute creatures1 in short1 are deficient in the true appendages analogous to feet1 which exist in the higher mollusks4 ,they simply possess filamentous expansions1 very variable in their form4 ,we have stated that the ,foraminifera are of microscopic dimensions4 ,with some trifling exceptions1 this is generally true2 but there exist a number of species which are visible to the naked eye4 ,the ,foraminifers found in the nummulite formation of ,tremsted1 in ,bavaria1 between ,munich and ,saltzberg1 are still larger1 being nearly double the size of the nummulite of the ,pyramids2 in short1 they are the giants of this tribe of animals4 ,after these remarks1 we may venture to give some idea of the structure and classification of these beings1 whose part in the work of creation has1 in former times1 been so considerable4 ,the bodies of the ,foraminifera are formed of a gelatinous substance1 sometimes entire and round1 sometimes divided into segments1 which can be placed upon a line1 simple or alternate1 wound up into a spiral form or rolled round its axis1 like a ball4 ,a testaceous envelope1 modelled upon the segments1 follows the various modifications of form1 and protects the body in all its parts4 ,from the extremity of the last segment of one or many openings of the shell1 or of the numerous pores1 issue certain long and slender filaments1 more or less numerous1 which are divided and subdivided over their whole length1 like the spreading branches of a tree4 ,they can attach themselves to external bodies with force enough to determine the progression of the animal4 ,being formed of transparent non-colouring matter1 they may be said to be mere expansions1 which vary in form and length according to the conditions of the ambient medium4 ,the filaments have also very variable positions3 sometimes they form an unique and retractile band1 issuing from a single opening2 sometimes they project themselves across from numerous little pores in the shell1 which covers the last segment of the animal4 ,these pores1 or openings1 give the name to the creatures under consideration4 ,in conclusion1 the filaments1 contractile and variable in their form1 which constitute the feet and arms of these little creatures1 appear to have something electric in them3 it is stated that the ,infusoria are at once paralysed in their motions when brought in contact with the minute arms of the ,foraminifera4 ,it is probably by this means1 says ,m4 ,frdol1 that these creatures succeed in catching their prey4 ,is it not worthy of remark that these beings1 however small their size and slight their form1 are unpitying flesh-eaters8 ,the smallest1 the weakest1 and the most microscopic animal in existence thus becomes1 by means of a homopathic dose of poison1 a most formidable destroyer4 ,another singular observation on these little filaments or arms we owe to ,dujardin4 ,this naturalist observed that1 when a miliola attempted to climb up the walls or sides of a vase1 it could improvise1 as it were1 on the instant1 and at the expense of its own substance1 a provisional foot1 which stretched itself out rapidly and performed all the functions of a permanent member4 ,the occasion served1 this temporary foot seemed once more to return to the common mass1 and was absorbed into the body4 ,it would thus appear that with these minute creatures the presence of a necessity gives the power to create an organ by the mere will of the creature1 while man1 with all his genius1 cannot manufacture a hair4 ,to the present day1 however1 we have not been able to discover any organ of nutrition in the ,foraminifera2 they have no stomach1 properly so called1 but ,nature has gifted them with a peculiar tissue1 at once gelatinous and contractile1 and essentially simulative1 which probably serves the same purpose4 ,we have already said that the shells of these minute zoophytes vary much in form4 ,they are generally many-chambered1 each chamber communicating by pores in the walls2 the different gelatinous parts of the animalcules are1 in this manner1 placed in continual communication with each other4 ,alcide d',orbigny1 to whom we owe almost all that is known of the class1 has distributed them into six families1 making the form of the shell the basis of their arrangement4 ,these six families include sixty genera1 and more than sixteen hundred species1 the families being as follows3-- ,i4 ,monostega4--,animals consisting of a single segment4 ,shell of a single chamber4 ,,ii4 ,stichostega4--,animal in segments1 arranged in a single line4 ,shell in chambers1 superimposed linearly on a straight or curved axis4 ,,iii4 ,helicostega4--,animal in segments1 spirally arranged4 ,chambers piled or superimposed on one axis1 forming a spiral erection4 ,in ,fig4 #ba we have a horizontal section of ,faujasina1 in which the spiral convolutions are visible on the truncated half of the shell4 ,,iv4 ,entomostega4--,animal composed of alternating segments forming a spiral4 ,chambers superimposed on two alternating axes1 also forming a spiral4 ,v4 ,enallostega4--,animal formed of alternate segments4 ,non-spiral chambers disposed alternately along two or three axes1 also non-spiral4 ,,vi4 ,agathistega4--,animal formed of segments wound round an axis4 ,chambers formed round a common axis1 each investing half the circumference4 ,the simplest form of ,foraminifera is illustrated by ,fig4 #ad 7,orbulina universa71 which is a small spherical shell1 having a lateral aperture1 the interior of which has been occupied by the living jelly1 to which the shell owes its existence4 ,in the second order1 the shell 7,fig4 #ae71 ,dentalina communis1 advances beyond this simple type by a process of linear budding1 the first cell being spherical1 with an opening through which a second segment is formed1 generally a little larger than the first4 ,this new growth is successively followed by others developed in the same way1 until the organism attains its maturity1 when it exhibits a series of cells arranged end on end1 in a slightly curved line4 ,in the next group the gemmation takes a spiral bias1 producing the nautilus shape which misled the earlier naturalists4 ,in some cases all the convolutions are visible1 as in ,operculina 7,fig4 #af74 ,in others1 the external convolute conceals those previously formed1 as in ,nummulitis lenticularis 7,fig4 #ag71 ,cassidulina 7,fig4 #ah71 ,textilaria 7,fig4 #ai71 and ,alveolina oblonga1 d',orbigny 7,fig4 #be71 the latter forming part of the eocene formation in the quartz and greystone rocks of the neighbourhood of ,paris2 one figure representing the shell entire1 and the other a vertical section1 while the small figure between represents it in its natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,orbulina universa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,dentalina communis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,operculina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,nummulitis lenticularis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,cassidulina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,textilaria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,spiroloculina4 ,in the fourth group the shell is spiral1 with the chamber equilateral1 with a larger and smaller side1 the position being alternately reversed as the segments are multiplied1 as in ,cassidulina 7,fig4 #ah74 ,in the succeeding group the new segments are arranged alternately on opposite sides of the central line1 as in ,textilaria 7,fig4 #ai71 thus forming two alternating non-spiral parallel segments1 each connected by a single orifice4 ,the sixth family differ entirely in appearance and structure from the other ,foraminifera4 ,they are more opaque than the other orders1 having a resemblance to white porcelain1 which presents a rich amber-brown hue when viewed by transmitted light4 ,they are more or less oblong1 each new segment being nearly equal to the entire length of the shell1 so that the terminal orifice presents itself alternately at its opposite extremities1 sometimes in one uniform plane1 as in ,spiroloculina 7,fig4 #bj71 and ,faujasina 7,fig4 #ba74 ,at other times each new segment1 instead of being exactly opposite each other1 is a little on one side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,faujasina4 ,professor ,williamson has shown that the shell enclosing each new segment is at first very thin2 but as additional calcareous chambers are formed1 each addition not only encases the new gemmation of the soft animal1 but extends over all the exterior of the previously formed shell4 ,the exact manner in which this is accomplished is doubtful2 but the ,professor thinks it probable that the soft animal has the power of diffusing its substance over the shell1 and thus depositing upon its surface additional layers of calcareous matter4 ,the fossil ,foraminifera are chiefly distinguished from recent and existing species by the size of the former4 ,while the living forms range from one-fourth to the one-hundredth part of an inch1 the tertiary strata abound in examples of ,nummulites varying from the eighth of an inch to the size of half-a-crown4 ,the engraving is a drawing from ,nature1 by ,,mm4 d',archaic and ,haime1 of a piece of nummulitic rock1 of ,nousse1 in the ,landes1 in which a great variety of sizes and forms are exhibited4 ,the ,nummulina belong to the third family1 or ,helicostega1 in which the outer convolutions completely embrace the earlier-formed ones4 ,hence it is only by making microscopic sections1 or thin slices1 that their structure can be fully seen4 ,when such a section is carried horizontally through the centre of the shell1 the segments present a spiral arrangement1 which1 like the convolutions1 are remarkable for their small size1 and consequent great number4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,nummulites ,rouaulti 7d',archaic and ,j4 ,haime74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,siderolites calcitrapoides 7,lamarck74 ,natural size and magnified4 ,with respect to the distribution of the ,foraminifera according to geological periods1 we may briefly state that they have been found in every formation from the ,silurian to the ,tertiary4 ,the species1 at first very simple in their forms1 begin to appear in increasing numbers in the carboniferous formations4 ,they become more numerous1 and1 at the same time1 more complex in their forms1 in the ,cretaceous period2 they are still more diversified1 and appear to have multiplied much more rapidly in the ,tertiary period1 where they attain the maximum of their numerical development4 ,in the celebrated quarries of ,st4 ,peter1 at ,maestrecht1 the ,siderolites calcitrapoides of ,lamarck are found in the upper chalk 7,fig4 #bc74 ,in the calcareous formation of ,chaussy1 in the ,seine and ,oise district1 and other parts of the ,paris basin1 the ,fabularia discolithes 7,fig4 #bd7 of ,defrance is found4 ,finally1 the ,dactylopora cylindracea of ,lamarck 7,fig4 #bf7 is found in the eocene formation of ,valmondois and in the chalk of ,grignon4 ,at first1 this little creature was thought to be a polype2 but d',orbigny1 in his ,prodrome de ,paleontologie1 has placed it among the ,foraminifera1 thinking that it appeared to occupy a place between the two classes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,fabularia discolithes 7,defrance74 ,natural size and magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,alveolina oblonga 7d',orbigny74 ,natural size and magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,dactylopora cylindracea 7,lamarck74 ,natural size and magnified4 ,the existing ,foraminifera are by no means equally distributed in every ocean4 ,some genera belong to warm countries1 others to temperate and cold climates4 ,they are much more numerous1 however1 and much more varied in their forms1 in warm than in cold climates1 and1 we may add1 larger also1 for ,sir ,e4 ,belcher brought a recent species from ,borneo which measured two inches in diameter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before passing on to the study of the ,infusoria1 a few words may be offered on the ,noctiluca1 a genus of animals usually referred to the class ,,acaleph4 ,one species only of this genus has been described1 which occurs occasionally on the ,english coast in prodigious numbers4 ,it is a small creature1 scarcely the hundredth part of an inch in diameter1 according to ,mr4 ,huxley 7,fig4 #bg1 ,noctiluca miliaris74 ,it was discovered by ,m4 ,surriray1 in #ahaj1 who describes it as a spherical gelatinous mass1 scarcely bigger than a pin's head1 with a long filiform tentacular appendage1 a mouth1 an oesophagus1 one or many stomachs1 and branching ovaries--thus exhibiting a certain complexity of organization4 ,de ,blainville took the same view1 and placed it among the ,diphyd4 ,van ,beneden and ,doyre1 on the other hand1 deny its relation to the ,acaleph1 conceiving its organization to be much more simple3 they place it with the ,rhizopoda4 ,quatrefages adopts the same view1 denying the existence of a true mouth or intestinal canal3 he considers the so-called stomachs as simple vacuales1 similar to those observed in the ,rhizopoda and ,infusoria4 ,mr4 ,huxley1 describing it in the ,journal of ,microscopical ,science 7vol4 iii471 says it has nearly the form of a peach1 a filiform tentacle1 equal in length to the diameter of the body1 occupying the place where the stalk of the peach might be1 which depends from it1 and exhibits slow wavy motions when the creature is in full activity4 ,i have even seen a noctiluca1 he adds1 appear to push against obstacles with this tentacle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,noctiluca miliaris4 ,magnified4 ,the body1 he continues1 is composed of a structureless and somewhat dense external membrane1 which is continued on to the tentacle4 ,beneath this is a layer of granules1 or rather of gelatinous membrane1 through whose substance minute granules are scattered without any very definite arrangement2 from hence arises a network of very delicate fibrils1 whose meshes are not more than one three-hundredth part of an inch in diameter1 which gradually pass internally--the reticulation becoming more and more open--into coarser fibres1 taking a convergent direction towards the stomach and nucleus4 ,all these fibres and fibrils are covered with minute granules1 which are usually larger towards the centre4 ,mr4 ,huxley is inclined to think1 from all he has observed1 that the animal has a definite alimentary cavity1 and that this cavity has an excretory aperture distinct from the mouth4 ,surriray discovered the noctiluca while investigating the cause of phosphorescence of sea water at ,havre1 where it was abundant in the basins2 sometimes in such abundance as to form a crust on the surface of the water of considerable thickness4 ,this singular little creature1 says ,m4 ,frdol1 offers here and there in its interior certain granules1 probably germs1 and also luminous points1 which appear and disappear with great rapidity--the least agitation determining their lustre4 ,the noctiluca are so abundant in the ,mediterranean and in some parts of the channel1 that in a cubic foot of sea water1 which has been rendered phosphorescent by their presence1 it is calculated that there exist about twenty-five thousand4 ,,infusoria4 ,with the ,infusoria we return to the domain of the infinitely little4 ,of this very interesting group a large proportion are marine1 and numerous varieties of them are found in ,british seas4 ,in their minuteness and variety they almost baffle the attempts of naturalists to classify them4 ,the waters1 both fresh and salt1 are inhabited by legions of active1 ever-moving beings1 of dimensions so small as to be inappreciable to the naked eye2 these minute creatures are disseminated by millions and thousands of millions in the great deep1 and all knowledge of them would have escaped us1 as they escaped the knowledge of the ancients1 but for the discovery of the microscope1 the sixth sense of man1 as it has been happily expressed by the historian and poet ,michelet4 ,another writer of equally poetical mind1 ,m4 ,frdol1 tells us that the infusorial animalcules are so small that a drop of water may contain them in many millions4 ,they exist in all waters1 the fresh as well as the salt1 the cold as well as the hot4 ,the great rivers are continually discharging them in vast quantities into the sea4 ,the ,ganges transports them in the course of one year in masses equal to six or eight times the size of the great pyramid of ,egypt4 ,among these animalcules1 according to ,ehrenberg1 we may reckon seventy-one different species4 ,the water collected in vases between the ,philippine and the ,marianne ,isles at the depth of twenty-two thousand feet 7making some allowance for erroneous soundings71 have yielded a hundred and sixteen species4 ,near the ,poles1 where beings of higher organization could not exist1 the ,infusoria are still met with in myriads2 those which were observed in the ,antarctic ,seas1 during the voyages of ,captain ,sir ,james ,ross1 offer a richness of organization1 often accompanied by elegance of form1 quite unknown in more northern regions4 ,in the residuum of the blocks of ice floating about in latitude seventy-eight degrees ten minutes1 nearly fifty different species were found4 ,many of them had ovaries1 according to ,ehrenberg1 still green1 which proved that they had struggled successfully with the rigours of the climate in searching for food4 ,at a depth in the sea which exceeds the height of the loftiest mountain1 ,humboldt asserts that each bed of water is animated by an innumerable phalanx of inhabitants imperceptible to the human eye4 ,these microscopic creatures are1 in short1 the smallest and the most numerous creations in ,nature4 ,they constitute with human beings one of the wheels of that very complicated machine1 the globe4 ,they are in the rank and at the station willed for them1 as determined in the great ,first ,thought4 ,suppress these microscopic beings1 and the world would be incomplete4 ,it was said1 and wisely said1 long1 long ago1 there is nothing so small to the view but that it may become great by reflection4 ,the ,infusoria1 in short1 abound everywhere4 ,we find their remains on the loftiest mountain ridges1 and in the profoundest depths of the sea4 ,they increase and multiply alike under the ,equator1 and towards the polar regions4 ,the seas1 rivers1 ponds--the flower vase which rests upon the casement--even our tissues1 and the fluids of our bodies--all contain infusorial animalcules4 ,whole beds of strata1 often many feet thick1 and covering a surface of considerable extent1 are almost exclusively formed of their accumulated dbris4 ,it is to the ,infusoria that the mud of the ,nile and other fluviatile and lacustrine deposits owe their prodigious fertility4 ,to them also is due the red or green layer of colouring matter found in ponds and tanks at certain seasons4 ,when exposed to great solar heat1 in order to extract the salt1 as it is in the vast artificial basins hollowed out for the purpose in the salt marshes near the sea-shore in the south of ,france1 the salt water1 when it reaches a certain degree of concentration1 acquires a fine rose colour1 which is due to the presence of innumerable masses of small ,infusoria having a reddish shell4 ,finally1 let us add that the solid dbris of certain fossil ,infusoria1 of surprising minuteness1 have formed the stone so much used by workers in metal1 which is known as tripoli4 ,the study of these creatures is intensely interesting to the naturalist1 the philosopher1 the physician1 and the general reader4 ,they have had a great part assigned to them in ,nature1 as is evident in the formation of certain beds of rock of immense extent1 in which the geologist traces their action4 ,our earliest knowledge of the ,infusoria is traceable to the seventeenth century2 to the celebrated naturalist1 ,leuwenhoek1 we are indebted for their discovery4 ,on the #bdth of ,april1 #afgf1 this observer saw for the first time some infusorial animalcules4 ,fifty years later1 ,baker and ,trembley studied them anew4 ,in #ageb1 ,hill essayed the first attempt at their classification4 ,in #agfd1 ,wiesberg gave them the name of ,infusoria1 because he found them in such great abundance in animal and vegetable infusions4 ,mller published a special book upon them4 ,from that time the ,infusoria have been considered as forming a special group among the radiate animals2 afterwards1 in the pages of ,baer and of ,de ,blainville1 we see in these creatures1 so imperfect in appearance1 only the indeterminate prototype of other classes4 ,but ideas changed altogether respecting them when microscopes of great power1 and armed with achromatic lens1 were employed in their study4 ,thanks to the labours of ,ehrenberg and ,dujardin1 we have arrived at a better comprehension of the organization of these infinitely small beings4 ,naturalists have established1 with more exactness1 the limits of the zoological group to which they belong4 ,some stagnant waters are so filled with ,infusoria that it is only necessary to dip at random into the liquid medium to procure them in abundance4 ,in other waters they form a bed1 occupying the whole basin4 ,in general1 it is necessary to search for them where the water is calm1 and occupied by vegetation of some kind1 such as the conferv1 or lemna1 c41 in the marshes1 and ceramium if in the sea4 ,certain ,infusoria live not only in water1 but also in places habitually moist1 as among tufts of mosses2 in beds of oscillaria1 on moist soil1 or on air-damp walls4 ,others live as parasites on the exterior or in the interior of animals1 such as hydra1 lombrics1 and naads4 ,quantities of them are found in the liquid excrements and other products of certain organisms1 and they have been noted even in women's milk4 ,but1 as their name indicates1 it is in aqueous infusions1 vegetable or animal1 that these animalcules abound4 ,armed with a microscope1 the reader may1 with very little trouble1 afford himself the pleasure of studying these animals4 ,it is only necessary to place some organic dbris--the white of an egg1 or some grass1 for example--in a vase with a large mouth1 filled with water1 and expose it to the light and air4 ,certain reagents1 as phosphate of soda1 the phosphates1 nitrates1 or oxalates of ammonia1 or carbonate of soda added to these infusions1 will singularly favour the development of ,infusoria4 ,there are also some accidental infusions which seem to furnish these microscopic beings in great abundance4 ,water which stagnates in garden soil or in vegetable mould1 in the watering-cart or in flower vases1 is filled with myriads of these beings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so much for the medium in which they live1 move1 and have their being4 ,let us pass on to their organization4 ,we have already dwelt on their extreme minuteness2 their mean size is a fifth of a line or the sixtieth part of an inch2 the largest species scarcely reveal themselves to the naked eye4 ,they are generally colourless2 some of them are1 nevertheless1 green1 blue1 red1 brown1 and even blackish4 ,seen on the object-glass of the microscope1 they appear to be gelatinous1 transparent1 and naked1 or invested with an envelope more or less resistant1 which we shall designate after ,dujardin by the term ,sarcoda1 a substance which is homogeneous1 diaphanous1 elastic1 contractile1 and1 above all1 destitute of every kind of organization4 ,they are usually ovoid or globular4 ,those most frequently met with1 and which attract the most attention from observers1 are furnished with vibratile cilia1 which cover the whole body1 acting as paddles4 ,these organs are evidently intended to propel the animal from one place to another4 ,at other times they appear to be employed in conveying food to the mouth1 if we may use the expression4 ,some ,infusoria are without these cilia1 having only one or many very slender filaments1 the undulating movement of which suffices to determine their progression through the liquid which surrounds them4 ,authors who have written on the ,infusoria have sometimes1 like ,leuwenhoek1 ,ehrenberg1 and ,pouchet1 attributed to them a very complex structure4 ,others1 like ,mller1 ,cuvier1 and ,lamarck1 have considered them to be gifted with an organization extremely simple4 ,we shall probably find that the truth lies between these two extremes4 ,in the superior ,infusoria1 besides the granules1 the interior globules1 vesicles full of liquid1 vibratile cils1 and a tegumentary system1 more or less complex1 we find the substance which is called ,sarcoda4 ,the digestive apparatus of the ,infusoria has been the subject of numerous observations1 and has been provocative of very animated discussions4 ,in the inferior order of the class1 which comprehends the very smallest animalcules1 it has not been found possible to observe the organization of the digestive apparatus in a satisfactory manner4 ,some writers think they have no mouth1 what has been taken for that organ being only hollow dimples on the surface of the body2 others recognize the existence of a buccal orifice1 sometimes furnished with a solid armature4 ,as to the arrangements of the interior cavities in which digestion takes place1 we know nothing certain4 ,the digestive apparatus is better understood in the superior ,infusoria1 called ciliate1 namely1 those provided with vibratile cils4 ,these cils seem to determine the currents of the liquid1 leading the nutritive corpuscles suspended in the water towards the entrance of the digestive apparatus4 ,they form1 in some sort1 the prehensile organs which seize the aliment4 ,the cils are1 at the same time1 the organs intended to facilitate respiration2 in short1 these little whips playing upon the water unceasingly round the ,infusoria1 is just the action required for the absorption of the oxygen contained in the water4 ,these cils1 then1 serve at once for the propulsion of the animal1 for its nutrition1 and for its respiration1 presenting a remarkable example of cumulative functions in physiology4 ,the corpuscles of nutritive substances directed towards the buccal orifice by the vibratile cils soon disappear in the interior of the animal4 ,availing himself of this fact and the transparency of the animal1 ,herr ,gleichen1 a ,german physiologist of the last century1 conceived the happy idea of colouring the water which contained these animalcules with a finely-powdered carmine2 he traced the colouring matter in the bodies of some of them4 ,but it was reserved for ,ehrenberg to avail himself of the same artifice in order to study the internal structure and mode of absorbing nutritive matter in these minute creatures4 ,this physiologist fed many groups of ,infusoria1 some of them with water coloured with carmine1 others with indigo and other colouring matters4 ,he saw1 besides1 some coloured globules1 nearly uniform in size1 in different individuals of the same species4 ,from this he arrived at the conclusion that the colouring matter was deposited in many of the surrounding dimples4 ,ehrenberg thought that each of these dimples was a stomach1 and that the introduction of the food into the interior of these reservoirs1 as well as the evacuations1 were produced by means of an intestine around which these stomachs are arranged4 ,in some cases he even thought he could distinguish the outlines of this intestinal canal1 and its connection with numbers of ampula or bladders4 ,generalizing the conclusions drawn from his observations1 in short1 we find that his class1 ,infusoria1 embraced two very different forms of animal life1 which he divided into ,infusoria1 ,polygastrica1 and ,rotifera1 the latter division including those known as ,wheel animalcules2 the ,polygastrica being so called from his idea that the typical forms possessed a number of stomachs4 ,in some1 ,ehrenberg counted four stomachs1 an organization which brings these microscopic beings into a strange kind of comparison with the ox and the goat4 ,in others he counted two stomachs4 ,other observers were not slow in raising objections to these views4 ,dujardin1 especially1 was much opposed to the batch of stomachs attributed to these creatures by the ,german physiologist4 ,he attempted to establish the fact that the coloured globules which appeared in the bodies of the ,infusoria1 while subjected to a regimen of carmine and indigo1 are not confined by a membrane2 that is to say1 they are not contained in intestinal sacs4 ,according to ,milne ,edwards1 they are a species of basins1 constituted1 he says1 by the alimentary matter with which each is gorged1 united into a rounded pasty mass1 where it could no longer be dispersed1 but would continue to advance1 still preserving its form4 ,we have1 in short1 seen these spherules changing their places1 and passing one another in their progress from the mouth to the intestinal canal4 ,that they could not do this is evident1 if many stomachs were attached to the intestinal canal6 ,this opinion1 due to the patient and precise studies of ,dujardin1 has been adopted by most naturalists of eminence4 ,besides1 this learned microscopist does not admit that there was in the sarcodic mass of ,infusoria any pre-existent cavity destined to receive the food4 ,in a word1 he does not recognise any stomach whatever4 ,this view of the extreme simplicity of structure in the ,infusoria has1 however1 met with much opposition4 ,to accord them neither four nor two stomachs1 it is not necessary to deprive them of the organ altogether4 ,meyen represents them as having one great hollow stomach occupied by a pulpy matter1 into which the alimentary masses are successively absorbed4 ,all recent observations1 says ,milne ,edwards1 tend to establish the fact that the digestive apparatus of the ciliate ,infusoria consists of--first1 a mouth2 second1 of a pharyngeal canal1 in which the food often assumes the form of a bolus2 third1 of one great stomach with distinct walls1 and more or less distant from the common tegumentary membrane2 fourth1 of an excretory orifice4 ,this mouth presents sensible differences both as to its position and conformation1 often occupying the bottom of a hollow1 the edges of which are furnished with well-developed cilia1 the action of which attracts the aliment2 in short1 the mouth is a sort of decoy at the bottom of a simple pit1 being at once contractile and prehensile1 the interior part being sometimes capable1 according to ,milne ,edwards1 of being turned inside out in the form of a trumpet1 while in a great many species it is provided with a peculiar armature1 consisting of a band of rigid bristles disposed in the form of a bow-net1 and susceptible of dilatation and contraction1 according to the wants of the animal4 ,the oesophagus1 which is connected by means of the canal with the mouth1 has generally an oblique direction backwards1 often terminating in a great undivided stomach4 ,the reproduction of the ,infusoria exhibits some very surprising phenomena1 while it offers another proof of the wonderful means ,nature employs for perpetuating the races of animals4 ,they can be reproduced by three different processes3 #a4 ,by gemmation1 or budding1 somewhat after the manner of plants4 #b4 ,by sexual reproduction2 for in these little creatures it has recently been discovered that sexual differences exist4 #c4 ,by the spontaneous division of the animal into two individuals--a process known to zoologists as fissiparism or fission4 ,among these three processes1 that which appears best understood is the last4 ,the singular phenomenon of spontaneous division may be witnessed by any one having patience to examine the creature long enough1 isolated from its innumerable companions1 under the microscope4 ,the oblong body of the animal will soon be observed to contract at the middle1 the compression becoming more and more marked4 ,the lower segment soon begins to show a few vibratile cils1 thus indicating the place which will soon be a new mouth2 the organ soon becomes more and more distinct1 and now the ,infusoria literally cuts itself into two parts4 ,we see1 at first1 the fragment of glutinous substance fluttering on the edge of the plate2 the two halves then separate from each other very quickly1 each moiety having finally a perfect resemblance to the primitive animal4 ,this process is represented in ,fig4 #bh1 ,a and ,b being the adult1 ,c the same in course of separation1 ,d after its completion4 ,assuredly this is one of the most remarkable phenomena which the study of living beings can present4 ,by this mode of propagation1 says ,dujardin1 an infusoria is the half of the one which preceded it1 the fourth of the parent of that1 the eighth of its grand-parent1 and so on1 if we can apply the terms father or mother to animals which must see in its two halves the grandfather himself by a new division again living in his four parts4 ,we might imagine such an infusoria to be an aliquot part of one like it1 which had lived years1 and even ages before1 and which by continued subdivision into pairs might continue to live for ever by its successive development4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,propagation of an ,infusoria by spontaneous division4 ,this mode of generation1 however1 enables us to comprehend the miraculous fecundity of these beings4 ,the process defies calculation1 if we wished to be precise4 ,we may1 however1 arrive at a proximate estimate of the number which may be derived from a single individual by this process of fission4 ,it has been found that at the end of a month two ,stylonichi had a progeny of more than one million and forty-eight thousand individuals1 and that in a lapse of forty-two days a single ,paramecium had produced more than one million three hundred and sixty-four thousand forms like itself4 ,life is spread over ,nature in such abundance that the smallest infusoria has its parasite a little smaller2 these in their turn serving as a dwelling and pasture ground1 to use ,humboldt's words1 for still smaller animalcules1 as represented in ,fig4 #bi--;a being parasites in various stages2 b1 the larger animalcule on which they have established themselves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,paramecium aurelia and its ,parasites4 ,the prodigious number to which the calculation would reach1 if we were to add the other modes of propagation1 viz41 by germs and by budding1 we dare not mention3 it would only be necessary to place a single germ in a favourable condition for its development1 in order to produce myriads of these microscopic animalcules in a very few days4 ,we have seen three modes of reproduction in the ,infusoria2 it is possible that a fourth mode exists1 to which its partisans give the name of spontaneous generation4 ,according to their views1 an infusoria can be produced without egg-germ or pre-existent parent4 ,it would be sufficient to expose organic matter1 animal or vegetable1 to the action of the air and water at a suitable temperature1 in order to see this matter organize itself1 and form itself into living infusorial animals4 ,such is the general enumeration of the question of spontaneous or heterogeneous generation1 on which so much has been written in the last ten years4 ,the great expounders of the doctrine have been the two ,french naturalists1 ,,mm4 ,pouchet and ,joly4 ,their views have1 however1 made little progress2 they have1 on the contrary1 met with vigorous opposition from the generality of ,french naturalists1 and from most of the members of the ,acadmie des ,sciences of ,paris1 who have raised their voices against a doctrine which is contrary to the ordinary course of nature4 ,in short1 the direct observations made upon the theory of primitive generation are as yet wanting in necessary exactness2 those observers who profess to have witnessed the sudden origin of the minutest of the infusoria from elementary substances have in all probability overlooked the organic structure of these elementary bodies4 ,the wonderful changes of form undergone by many infusoria have their limits1 and the laws governing them have still to be defined4 ,with the poet we may say3 ,grammatici certant et adhuc sub judice lis est4 ,many of the ,infusoria are subject to metamorphoses1 and it has already been ascertained that certain species which have been considered as distinct are only transition forms of the same species depending on age4 ,we know that it is common for insects to enclose themselves in protecting envelopes1 and to remain for whole months shut up in this their retreat1 to all appearance dead4 ,similar facts have been observed in the ,infusoria4 ,we have even seen some of these beings surrounding strange bodies as if in a mass of jelly1 forming a sort of living envelope around them4 ,the average duration of life with them is only a few hours2 but certain species present1 in relation to the duration of life1 phenomena which are only imperfectly known1 but which never fail to excite the surprise and admiration of the naturalist4 ,by drying certain infusoria with care1 it is possible to suspend and indefinitely prolong its life4 ,thus dried1 and covered with a powder1 which shelters it from every breath of wind1 it may be carried to any given distance1 through any indefinite period of time--abandoned on some ledge of rock1 on a housetop1 in the cleft of a wall1 or under the capital of a column2 but let a drop of water approach it1 and the dormant being awakes immediately--the microscopic ,lazarus springs again into existence3 feeds and multiplies as before3 and its life1 suspended possibly for years1 resumes its interrupted course6 ,into what a world of reflection does not a revelation of this mysterious property of a living creature plunge us6 ,the physiologist ,mller has noted another peculiarity in infusorial life4 ,these animalcules can lose a part of their bodies without being destroyed2 the dead part disappears1 and the individual1 diminished by one-half1 or reduced to a fourth of its former size1 continues to live as if nothing had happened4 ,mller has observed a kalpode 7,kolpoda meleagris7 thus melt before his eyes until scarcely a sixteenth part of its body remained4 ,after its loss1 this sixteenth part of an animal continued to swim about without troubling itself as to its diminished proportions4 ,the infusoria1 says ,frdol1 in ,la ,monde de la ,mer1 present yet another kind of decomposition4 ,if we approach the drop of water in which it swims with the barb of a feather dipped in ammonia1 the animalcule is arrested in its movement1 but its cils continue to move rapidly4 ,all at once1 upon some point of its circumference1 a notch is formed1 which increases bit by bit until the whole animal is dissolved4 ,if a drop of pure water is added1 the decomposition is suddenly stopped1 and what remains of the animalcule recommences its swimming movements4 7,dujardin47 ,we may divide the ,infusoria into two orders--the ,ciliate ,infusoria1 namely1 those provided with vibratile cilia1 and the ,flagelliferous ,infusoria1 those1 namely1 which have arms or branches4 ,the greater part of ,infusoria belong to the first order1 which comprehends many families2 our space limits us to the mention here of a few typical forms only in each group1 selecting those which appear the most interesting1 from their size1 structure1 rarity1 or abundance4 ,,flagelliferous ,,infusoria4 ,the family of ,vibrionid1 so named from their darting or quivering motion1 includes the eel-like microscopic animalcules which occur in stale paste1 vinegar1 c41 with some others1 which are parasitic on living vegetables1 such as ,vibrio tritici1 which infest the grains of wheat1 producing the destructive disease called corn-cockle or purples4 ,they are filiform animals1 extremely slender1 without appreciable organization1 internal stomach1 or apparent organs of locomotion4 ,they are the first animalcules which show themselves in any infusion of organic matter4 ,by using microscopes of the highest magnifying power1 traces of very thin1 short lines can be perceived1 either straight or sinuous1 the thickest of them not exceeding the thousandth part of the fraction of an inch4 ,they are contractile1 and propagated by spontaneous division1 or fission4 ,among them some resemble right lines1 more or less distinctly articulated1 and endowed with a very slow movement2 these are ,bacterid4 ,others are flexuous and undulating1 and more or less lively2 these are true ,vibrions4 ,others have the body fashioned in the form of a corkscrew1 turning unceasingly upon themselves with great rapidity2 these are the ,spirillid1 having an oblong fusiform or filiform body1 which undulates or turns spirally upon itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,bacterium1 termo 7,mller71 magnified #fjj times4 ,the same1 magnified #afjj times4 ,the ,bacterium termo 7,fig4 #cj7 is the smallest of the ,infusoria4 ,it is found1 at the end of a short time1 in all vegetable or animal infusions exposed to the air4 ,it shows itself in infinite numbers1 forming swarms of animalcules1 which disappear as other species multiply in the liquid1 to which animals it serves for nourishment4 ,when the infusion becomes too foetid for these new species to live in it1 in consequence of fermentation or putrefaction1 the ,bacterium termo reappears4 ,this species was one of the first observed2 ,leuwenhoek found it in the white matter in the teeth and gums1 which is called teeth tartar4 ,it is also found in the fluids of various animals which have been affected by disease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,vibrion baguette 7,mller71 magnified #cjj times4 ,the ,wand-like ,vibrion 7,fig4 #ca7 has the body transparent1 filiform1 with long articulations1 often appearing as if broken at each connection4 ,it moves very slowly in the water4 ,leuwenhoek observed this second species joined to the first in the teeth tartar1 and also in a great number of organic infusions4 ,there is no microscopic object1 says ,dujardin1 which excites the admiration of the observer more vividly than the twisting spirillum 7,fig4 #cb74 ,he is struck with surprise when he first contemplates this little creature1 which1 under the greatest magnifying power1 only presents the appearance of a thin black line1 fashioned like a corkscrew1 which every instant turns upon itself with marvellous velocity1 such as the eye can scarcely follow1 or the mind divine the cause which produces this startling phenomenon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,spirillum tournoyant 7,ehr471 magnified #cjj times4 ,the ,monads are other infusorial animalcules which make an early appearance in vegetable infusions4 ,they constitute a family that are destitute of any covering4 ,the substance of their bodies can swallow itself1 or draw itself out more or less2 many of the whip-like filaments serve as organs of locomotion4 ,they are sometimes provided with lateral appendages disposed as a kind of tail4 ,their organization is extremely simple2 their whip-like filaments are so fine as to be scarcely perceptible1 their length being sometimes double and even quadruple the length of the animal itself4 ,the ,lentille ,monad 7,fig4 #cc7 is a species which is frequently met with in vegetable and animal infusions4 ,the older microscopists had it indicated under the form of a globule1 moving in a slow and vacillating manner4 ,the globule is formed of a homogeneous transparent substance1 swollen into tubercles on its surface1 and throws out obliquely a whip-like filament1 three1 four1 or even five times the length of the body of the ,monad4 ,the ,cercomonad of ,davaine was discovered by this gentleman in the still warm ejections of cholera patients4 ,its body is pyriform1 having1 in front1 a vibratile filament1 very long1 very flexible1 and easily agitated4 ,behind the body there is a thicker straight filament attaching itself sometimes to neighbouring corpuscles1 round which1 in this case1 the ,cercomonad oscillates like the ball of a pendulum round its stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,monade lentille 7,dujardin71 magnified #ajjj times4 ,the ,volvocine are inhabitants of fresh limpid water full of conferv and other aquatic plants4 ,the ,volvocine are1 according to ,dujardin1 animalcules of a green or yellowish brown colour1 regularly disseminated in the thickness and near the surface of a gelatinous and transparent globe1 which would become hollow and be filled with water in its perfect state4 ,in this state1 from five to eight smaller globules1 with the same organization1 appear destined to undergo the same changes when they are released by the rupture of the globule4 ,these animalcules are each furnished with one or two flagelliform filaments1 which1 by their agitation1 determine the movement by rotation of the mass4 ,a very remarkable phenomenon is recorded in the ,transactions of the ,microscopic ,society1 namely1 the conversion of the contents of an ordinary vegetable cell into a free moving mass of ,protoplasm1 bearing a strong resemblance to the animal ,amoeb 7,fig4 #bj74 ,this1 it is affirmed by ,dr4 ,hicks1 takes place in ,volvox1 under circumstances which suggest a vegetable transformation4 ,but ,dr4 ,carpenter does not consider that this involves any real confusion in the boundaries of ,animal and ,vegetable ,life4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #cd and #ce4 ,volvox globator 7,mller71 magnified #gjj times4 ,the ,revolving ,volvox1 ,v4 globator 7,figs4 #cd and #ce71 is found in great abundance1 during summer1 in tanks and ponds of stagnant water4 ,it consists of green or brownish-yellow globules about the eighth part of an inch1 formed of animalcules scattered round a gelatinous and diaphanous spherical membrane1 each furnished with a flagelliform filament and with a reddish interior point1 which ,ehrenberg took for an eye4 ,leuwenhoek first observed this ,volvox in marshy waters4 ,this eminent naturalist has left a very interesting account of his observations on these microscopic inhabitants of the waters1 displaying an amount of patience and address which cannot be too much admired2 his observations were made with a simple lens1 which he constructed himself4 ,in one hand he held his instrument1 which was very coarse if we compare it to the more perfect and infinitely more powerful instruments now in use2 whilst1 in the other hand1 he carried to his eye the glass tube full of water which contained the object under observation4 ,the microscopes of ,leuwenhoek1 says ,dujardin1 were the very smallest bi-convex lenses1 mounted in a silver frame4 ,he made a collection of twenty-six1 which he bequeathed to the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,these instruments1 subject to all the inconveniences of a maximum of spherical aberration and a total want of stability1 were only fit for use in the hands of ,leuwenhoek himself1 who had acquired1 in his labour of twenty years1 habits of observation which compensated1 in great part1 for the want of perfection in his instruments4 ,the ,eugleni are infusoria usually coloured green or red4 ,their form is very variable4 ,they are oblong or fusiform in shape1 swelling at the middle during action1 and contracted or bowl-shaped in repose1 or after death4 ,they are furnished with the usual whip-shaped filament1 which issues from an opening in front1 and from one or many reddish points irregularly placed anteriorly4 ,euglenia viridis 7,fig4 #cf7 is the most common species1 and1 perhaps1 the most widely diffused of all the ,infusoria4 ,it is this animalcule which habitually covers stagnant pools with its floating surface of green1 and which forms1 on the surface of marshy waters1 the shining pellicle so strongly coloured1 which1 collected upon paper1 so long preserves its brilliant tint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,euglenia viridis 7,ehr471 magnified #cej times4 ,the ,euglenia sanguinea1 at first green1 becomes subsequently of a blood colour4 ,it has often been met with by microscopists4 ,ehrenberg1 who first described it1 attributes to its great abundance the red colour of some stagnant waters4 ,its presence explains the pretended miracle of water changing into blood1 which was frequently invoked by the ,egyptian priests4 ,,ciliate ,,infusoria4 ,let us now take a glance at some of the more remarkable species of ,ciliate ,infusoria4 ,the bodies of these creatures are all more or less translucent4 ,they have not substance enough1 in fact1 to reach a state of opacity4 ,their bodies are more or less globular or ovoid1 sometimes fashioned like a shuttle1 or curved while growing1 sometimes swollen in the middle like an ampulla1 or bell-shaped1 and flattened into a discoid shape2 some slightly resemble a tadpole1 a thimble1 a shoe1 a rose-bud1 a flower1 even a seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,cothurnia pyxidiformis 7,udckem74 ,the ,paramecians have a soft flexible body1 usually of oblong form1 and more or less depressed4 ,they are provided with a loose reticulated covering1 through which issue numerous vibratile cilia1 arranged in a regular series4 ,they were known to the older naturalists2 and it is in this group that organization is carried to the highest perfection it attains among the ,infusoria4 ,the ,paramecium possess1 besides their reticulated and contractile tegument1 cilia disposed in such a manner as to serve at once for locomotion1 for prehension1 that is1 for seizing its food1 and as a means of respiration4 ,they are furnished with a mouth1 at the bottom of which the whorl excited by the cilia determines1 according to ,dujardin1 the hollowing out of a cavity1 formed after the manner of a cul-de-sac1 and also the formation of vacuoles with permanent partitions1 in which are enclosed the substances which the animalcules have swallowed along with the water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,paramecium bursaria 7,pritchard74 ,the ,paramecium are propagated by spontaneous division1 as already described4 ,they abound1 as we have said1 in stagnant water1 or in pure water which is occupied by aquatic plants1 sometimes in such prodigious quantities that they become troublesome4 ,they occur also in flower vases where the water is not frequently renewed4 ,the species of this genus have an oblong compressed body1 with an oblique longitudinal fold1 directed towards the mouth1 which is lateral4 ,they are sufficiently large to be observed by the common lens1 or eye-glass4 ,paramecium aurelia appears chiefly in vegetable infusions4 ,it is common in ditches and moats with aquatic plants4 ,humboldt's assertion is fully verified in the case of the ,infusoria under consideration1 which is often found with its parasites4 ,these are small creatures1 cylindrical in form1 and provided with suckers4 ,swimming vigorously in the water1 they devote themselves to chasing the ,paramecium4 ,when they have overtaken the fugitive1 they throw themselves upon it1 and establish themselves there4 ,they soon multiply in the interior of its body1 and their starving progeny suck and devour the unfortunate animalcule1 which serves them at once for dwelling-house and larder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,condylostoma patens 7,duj471 magnified #cej times4 ,another of the parasites which prey upon the ,paramecium1 in place of pursuing it1 remains perfectly quiet until one of these approach1 when it throws itself upon its victim1 and is carried along with it4 ,it buries itself in the body of the ,paramecium1 and1 in a short time1 multiplies to such a degree1 that sometimes fifty of them are found on a single individual4 ,poor victim6 ,the ,nassula have the body entirely covered with cilia2 they are ovoid or oblong in form1 contractile1 the mouth placed laterally and dentate1 or surrounded with a band of horny bristles1 the band dilating and contracting according to the size of the prey which it would swallow4 ,it either advances to seize the prey1 which the movement of vibratile cilia have failed to draw within the vortex of its mouth1 or1 as in the case of the ,paramecium1 it is sometimes obliged to seek for its prey4 ,these curious infusoria live in stagnant waters1 feeding on the dbris of aquatic plants1 from which they draw their chief nourishment as well as their colour4 ,the ,bursarians are animals with an oval or oblong contractile body1 provided also with vibratile cilia1 especially on the surface1 having also a large mouth1 surrounded with cilia1 forming a sort of microscopic moustache1 spirally arranged4 ,among the species belonging to this group may be noted the ,condylostoma patens 7,fig4 #ci71 remarkable for its size and voracity4 ,it sometimes attains the twelfth of an inch1 and abounds on every shore from the ,mediterranean to the ,baltic4 ,another ,bursarian1 a species of ,plagiostoma1 lives between the intestines and the external muscular bed of the earth-worm1 ,lumbricus terrestris4 ,to the group of ,urceolarians belong the ,stentors1 which are in number the most numerous of the ,infusoria2 they are1 for the most part1 visible to the naked eye4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,stentor ,muelleri 7,enr471 magnified #ge times4 ,the ,stentors are inhabitants of fresh1 tranquil water1 not subject to agitation1 and covered with water plants4 ,they are nearly all coloured green1 blackish1 or blue2 their bodies covered with cilia4 ,they are eminently contractile1 and very variable in form4 ,they can attach themselves temporarily1 by means of the cils at their posterior extremities1 when they assume a trumpet-like form1 the bell of which is closed by a convex membrane1 the edge being furnished with a row of very strong obliquely-placed cilia1 ranged in a spiral1 meeting at the mouth1 which is placed near this edge4 ,when they swim freely1 they alternately resemble a club1 a spindle1 or a sphere4 ,the ,stentor ,muelleri is seen in ponds in the neighbourhood of ,paris and elsewhere2 it has been found even in the basins of the ,jardins des ,plantes 7,fig4 #dj74 ,the animals which constitute this genus are fixed in the first part of their existence1 but free in the second4 ,so long as they are fixed1 they resemble1 in their expanding state1 a bell or funnel1 with the edges reversed and ciliate4 ,when they become free1 they lose their crown of cilia1 take a cylindrical form1 more or less ovoid and elongated1 and move themselves by means of a new organ4 ,there is no animal1 says ,dujardin1 which excites our admiration in a higher degree than the ,vorticellate ,infusoria1 by their crown of cilia1 and by the vortex which it produces2 by their ever-varying forms2 above all1 by their pedicle1 which is susceptible of rapid spiral contraction1 by drawing the body backward and again extending it4 ,this pedicle is a flat membranous band1 thicker upon one of its edges than the other1 and containing on the thicker side a continuous channel1 occupied1 at least in part1 by a fleshy substance1 analogous to that of the interior of the body4 ,during contraction1 this thick edge is shortened more than the thin side1 and hence results the precise form of the spiral of the corkscrew4 ,we cannot conclude our brief history of these curiously-organized beings without recording the doubt which still exists in the minds of our most eminent naturalists1 whether some of those we have named are animal or vegetable in their origin4 ,the ,desmide1 long classed among animals1 are now generally recognized as plants4 ,the group of ,diatomace are still considered doubtful1 and the ,monads and ,volocina are still subjects of discussion1 the evidence inclining in favour of those who argue for their vegetable nature4 ,messrs4 ,busk1 ,williamson1 and ,cohn1 have published in the ,microscopical ,transactions minute details of the evolutions of these curiously-organized globules1 which seem to prove their vegetable nature4 ,on the other hand1 it is difficult to imagine so accurate an observer as ,agassiz writing so positively as he does on a doubtful subject4 ,remarking on a former paper1 in which he had shown that the embryo hatched from the egg of a ,planaria was a true polygastric animalcule of the genus ,paramecium1 he adds1 that in former writers a link was wanting1 viz41 tracing the young hatched from the egg of ,distoma4 ,this deficiency1 he says1 ,i can now fill4 ,it is another ,infusorium1 a genuine ,opalina4 ,with such facts before us there is no longer any doubt left respecting the character of all these ,polygastria2 they are the earliest larv condition of worms4 ,amid these friendly disputes we congratulate ourselves that we have to do with the oceanic creations1 both animal and vegetable4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,polypifera4 ,happy is he who1 satisfied with his humble fortune1 lives contentedly in the obscure state where ,god has placed him4--,,racine4 ,entering on the class ,polypifera1 we leave the domain of the infinitely small to enter the world of the visible4 ,beside the ,infusoria1 the ,polypifera1 which are sometimes several inches in length1 are very important beings4 ,science has made great advances towards giving us an exact knowledge of these singular animals4 ,many scientific prejudices have been dissipated1 many errors have been corrected4 ,the ,polyps1 as they are defined in the actual state of ,science1 correspond not only with the ,polypes1 properly so called1 of ,cuvier and ,de ,blainville1 but also with the acalephous zoophytes of the same authors4 ,we now know that certain ,polyps engender medus1 or acalephous zoophytes1 and that there exist some medus scarcely differing in their structure and habits of life from the ordinary ,polyps4 ,thus regarded1 the ,polyps comprehend a great variety of animals1 the bodies of which are generally soft or gelatinous substances4 ,the principal and smaller divisions1 to the number of more than two1 are arranged round an imaginary axis1 represented by the central part of the body4 ,these divisions of the body have in their ensemble the appearance of a regular cylinder1 of a truncated cone1 or of a disk4 ,they are invested with a skin or envelope of calcareous or siliceous corpuscles1 and even a portion of the deepest-lying tissues may be invaded by a calcareous deposit1 the mass of which belongs sometimes to an individual2 sometimes it is common to many1 constituting what ,dr4 ,johnston calls the ,polypidom1 of which ,professor ,grant says1 there is but one life and one plan of development in the whole mass1 and this depends1 not on the ,polypi1 which are but secondary1 and often deciduous parts1 but on the general fleshy substance of the body2#e the ramifications1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 being disposed in a variety of elegant plant-like forms4 ,the stem and branches are alike in texture3 slender1 horny1 fistular1 and almost always jointed at short and regular intervals1 the joint being a mere break in the continuity of the sheath1 without any character of a proper hinge1 and formed by regular periodical interruptions in the growth of the polypidoms4 ,along the sides of these1 or at their extremities1 we find the denticles or cup-like cells of the polypi arranged in a determinate order1 either sessile or elevated on a stalk4 ,near the base of each of these there is a partition or diaphragm1 on which the body of the polyps rests1 with a plain or tubulous perforation in the centre1 through which the connection between the individual polyps and the common medullary pulp is retained4 ,besides the cells1 there are found at certain seasons a larger sort of vesicle1 readily distinguished from the others by their size1 and the irregularity of their distribution1 which are destined to contain and maturate the ovules4 ,with these animals the digestive tube is very simple1 and presents only one distinct orifice2 the same opening serving at once for receiving the food and the expulsion of the residuum of digestion4 ,this is one of ,nature's economies1 which it is not for us to dispute3 we must record it without further remark4 ,in nearly all the ,polyps the sexes are separate2 the generation is sometimes sexual2 but these beings multiply also by what the zoologists call gemmation1 or buds4 ,they are provided with organs of the senses2 nearly all of them have eyes--an immense progress in organization as compared with the animals which have hitherto engaged our attention4 ,their respiration is effected by the skin--another instance of the economy of ,nature4 ,the apparatus of their circulation is indistinct1 but they have a nourishing fluid analogous to the blood in vertebrated animals4 ,vibratile cilia and stinging hairs often cover the entire surface of the ,polyps4 ,these general remarks may appear obscure and insufficient to the larger number of our readers4 ,they are necessarily so2 they are generalities upon animals very little known1 even to naturalists4 ,we quit this difficult ground1 trusting to make the special study of the several types we shall have to describe more interesting4 ,the group of ,polyps divide themselves into many classes1 namely1 the ,alcyonid1 the ,zoanthina1 the ,discophora1 and ,ctenophora4 ,it will be our task to describe in succession the habits and characters of each of these classes1 dwelling on such species as appear to us to offer to the reader most real interest4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #e3 ,outlines of ,comparative ,anatomy4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,corallines4 ,as for your pretty little seed-cups or vases1 they are a sweet confirmation of the pleasure ,nature seems to take in superadding elegance of form to most of her works4 ,how poor and bungling are all the imitations of art6 ,when ,i have the pleasure of seeing you next1 we shall sit down--nay1 kneel down--and admire these things4--,,hogarth ,,to ,,ellis4 ,the ,alcyonaria are so designated from their principal type1 that of the ,alcyons4 ,the fresh-water species are composed of a fleshy1 sponge-like mass1 consisting of vertical1 aggregated1 membranaceous tubes1 which are open on the surface4 ,in these tubes the polyps1 which are ,isidians1 are located4 ,the mouth is encircled with a single series of filiform tentacula1 which1 like those of the whole family1 are depressed or incomplete on one side4 ,the eggs are contained in the tubes1 and are coriaceous and smooth4 ,the tentacula of these polyps are generally eight1 disposed somewhat like the barbs of a feather1 and toothed on their edges like a saw1 which has procured them the name of ,ctenoceros1 from the ,greek word 1 a comb4 ,their bodies present eight perigastric lamell2 their coral is often formed of spicul4 ,we shall see1 farther on1 that among the ,gorgonid the coral ceases to be parenchymous--that is1 spongy and cellular2 that its axis assumes a horny and resistant consistence1 which becomes stony in the corallines4 ,in this last group1 the external bed1 which is the special lodging of the polyps1 always remains soft on the surface4 ,we shall have a general idea of the organization1 manners1 and mode of multiplication among the ,alcyonaria when we come to treat of corals and their strange history4 ,the class ,alcyonaria is divided into many orders4 ,we shall consider--,i4 ,the ,tubiporin4 ,,ii4 ,the ,gorgoniad4 ,,iii4 ,the ,pennatulid4 ,,iv4 ,the ,alcyonaria1 properly so called4 ,i4 ,,the ,,tubiporin form a group consisting of several species1 which live in the bosom of tropical seas1 in which the ,coral ,islands form so prominent a feature4 ,the group is exclusively formed of the curious genus ,tubipora4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,tubipora musica 7,linn471 half the natural size4 ,the ,tubipora is a calcareous coral1 formed by a combination of distinct1 regularly-arranged tubes1 connected together at regulated distances by lamellar expansion of the same material4 ,the aggregate formation resulting from this combination of tubes constitutes a rounded mass1 which often attains a very considerable size4 ,in ,fig4 #da we have a representation of the zoophyte ,tubipora musica and its product1 which is sometimes designated by the vulgar name of ,sea-,organ4 ,in the engraving1 #a is the calcareous product1 reduced to half its size2 #b1 is a portion in its natural size2 #c1 the tubes magnified1 and containing the polyp which occupies the summit of the tube1 the whole of which constitutes this curious coral2 #d1 is the polyp magnified2 #e1 the head or collection of tentacula of the individual polyp4 ,zoologists of the last century confounded all the species of this genera inhabiting the tropical seas1 making only one species1 to which they gave the name of ,tubipora musica4 ,but it is now known that there are many species of ,tubipor1 readily distinguishable in a fresh condition by a difference in the colour of the polyps4 ,the tissue of these singular beings is of an intensely red colour4 ,the disposition of their tubes in the style of organ pipes has always attracted the attention of the curious inquirer into the secrets of ,nature4 ,,ii4 ,,gorgoniad4 ,milne ,edwards divides this order into three natural groups3--,i4 ,the ,gorgoniad4 ,,ii4 ,the ,isidians4 ,,iii4 ,the ,corallines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,the ,sea ,fan1 ,gorgonia flabellum 7,linn474 ,the ,gorgonians are composed of two substances3 the one external1 sometimes gelatinous and fugitive2 sometimes1 on the contrary1 cretaceous1 fleshy1 and more or less tenacious4 ,animated with life1 this membrane is irritable and encloses the polyp2 it becomes friable or arenaceous in drying4 ,the second substance1 internal and central1 sustains the first1 and is called the axis4 ,this axis presents a horny appearance1 and was formerly believed to possess chemical characters analogous to the horns and hoofs of some of the vertebrated animals4 ,it has recently been asserted that the tissues of these corals consist essentially of a particular substance which resembles horn1 but which is called ,corneine4 ,a little carbonate of lime is sometimes found united with this substance1 but never in a sufficient quantity to give it a stony consistence4 ,this outer covering developes itself in concentric beds1 between the portion of the axis previously formed and the internal surface of the sclerotic covering4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,fan ,gorgon1 magnified4 ,the mode of growth in this axis presents great variations4 ,sometimes it remains simple and rises like a slender rod1 sometimes it has numerous branches4 ,it is arborescent when the branches and their accompaniments take different directions so as to constitute tufts4 ,it is panicled when they arrange themselves on both sides of the stem or principal branches1 after the manner of the barbs of a feather4 ,it is flabelliform when the branches rise irregularly under the same plane2 reticulated1 when branches are so disposed as to be attached to each other by network in place of remaining free4 ,the ,gorgoniad are found in every sea1 and always at considerable depths4 ,they are larger and more numerous between the ,tropics than in cold or even temperate climates4 ,some of these corals scarcely attain the twelfth of an inch in height1 while others rise to the height of several feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,gorgonia verticellata 7,pallas74 ,formed in the bosom of the ocean1 it is only necessary to behold these singular creations in order to admire the brilliant colours which decorate their semi-membranaceous branches4 ,the brilliancy of their robes are singularly diminished1 have almost entirely disappeared1 indeed1 when they make their appearance in the cases of our natural history collections4 ,the ,fan ,gorgon1 from the ,antilles 7,fig4 #db71 is a species which often attains the height of eighteen or twenty inches1 and nearly as much in breadth4 ,the network of its interstices with its unequal and serried meshes1 resembling fine lace1 have led to its designation of ,sea ,fan4 ,its colour is yellow or reddish4 ,in ,fig4 #dc we have the ,sea ,fan magnified to twice its natural size1 showing the curious details of its organization4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,gorgonia verticellata 7,pallas71 magnified four times4 ,the ,whorled ,gorgon 7,g4 verticellata71 which is found in the ,mediterranean1 is yellowish in colour1 and also of elegant form4 ,it is sometimes called the ,sea ,pen4 ,this species is represented in ,fig4 #dd1 while ,fig4 #de represents a small branch magnified four times1 in order to give an exact idea of its form4 ,the ,gorgons are not known to be useful either in the arts or in medicine4 ,they are ornamental in cabinets1 and interesting both as objects of study and of zoological curiosity4 ,,isidians4 ,the ,isid constitute an intermediate group between the ,gorgons and ,corallines4 ,their polypidom is arborescent1 but its axis is formed of articulations alternately calcareous and horny4 ,the principal genus is that of the ,isis1 which is met with in the ,indian ,ocean1 on the ,american coast1 and in ,oceania4 ,the inhabitants of the ,molucca ,islands use these animals medicinally as a remedy in certain diseases2 but as they use them for the most opposite maladies1 it may be doubted if they are really efficacious in any medicinal point of view4 ,the ,isis corollodis of ,oceania has a coral with numerous slender branches1 furnished with cylindrical knots at intervals1 contracted towards the middle1 finely striated1 and rose-coloured4 ,isis hippuris1 represented in ,fig4 #df1 has a singular resemblance to the ,common ,mare's ,tail 7,hippuris vulgaris74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,isis hippuris4 ,four other species of ,isidians are known4 ,the same family includes the genera of ,melita and ,mopsea1 which1 however1 our limits forbid us to describe4 ,,corallin4 ,the group of ,corallines consist of a single genus1 ,corallium1 having a common axis1 inarticulate1 solid1 and calcareous1 the typical species of which furnishes matter hard1 brilliant1 and richly coloured1 and much sought after as an object of adornment4 ,this interesting zoophyte and its product require to be described with some detail4 ,from very early times1 the coral has been adopted as an object of ornament4 ,from the highest antiquity1 also1 efforts were made to ascertain its true origin1 and the place assignable to it in the works of ,nature4 ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny considered that the coral was a plant4 ,tournefort1 in #agjj1 reproduced the same idea4 ,raumur slightly modified this opinion of the ancients1 and declared his opinion that the coral was the stony product of certain marine plants4 ,science was in this state when a naturalist1 who has acquired a great name1 the ,count de ,marsigli1 made a discovery which threw quite a new light on the true origin of this natural product4 ,he announced that he had discovered the flowers of the coral4 ,he represented these flowers in his fine work1 ,la ,physique de la ,mer1 which includes many interesting details respecting this curious product of the ocean4 ,how could it be longer doubted that the coral was a plant1 since he had seen its expanded flowers8 ,no one doubted it1 and ,raumur proclaimed everywhere the discovery of the happy ,academician4 ,unhappily1 a discordant note soon mingled in this concert4 ,it even emanated from a pupil of ,marsigli6 ,jean ,andr de ,peyssonnel was born at ,marseilles in #afid4 ,he was a student of medicine and natural history at ,paris when the ,acadmie des ,sciences charged him with the task of studying the coral on the sea-shore4 ,peyssonnel began his observations in the neighbourhood of ,marseilles in #agbc4 ,he pursued it on the ,north ,african coast1 where he had been sent on a mission by the ,government4 ,aided by a long series of observations as exact as they were delicate1 ,peyssonnel demonstrated that the pretended flowers which the ,count de ,marsigli thought he had discovered in the coral1 were true animals1 and showed that the coral was neither plant nor the product of a plant1 but a being with life1 which he placed in the first rung of the zoological ladder4 ,i put the flower of the coral1 says ,peyssonnel1 in vases full of sea-water1 and ,i saw that what had been taken for a flower of this pretended plant was1 in truth1 only an insect1 like a little sea-nettle1 or polyp4 ,i had the pleasure of seeing removed the claws or feet of the creature1 and having put the vase full of water1 which contained the coral1 in a gentle heat over the fire1 all the small insects seemed to expand4 ,the polyp extended his feet1 and formed what ,m4 de ,marsigli and ,i had taken for the petals of a flower4 ,the calyx of this pretended flower1 in short1 was the animal1 which advanced and issued out of its cell4 ,the observations of ,peyssonnel were calculated to put aside altogether theories which had lately attracted universal admiration1 but they were coldly received by the naturalists1 his contemporaries4 ,raumur distinguished himself greatly in his opposition to the young innovator4 ,he wrote to ,peyssonnel in an ironical tone3 ,i think 7he says7 as you do1 that no one has hitherto been disposed to regard the coral as the work of insects4 ,we cannot deny that this idea is both new and singular2 but the coral1 as it appears to me1 never could have been constructed by sea-nettles or polyps1 if we may judge from the manner in which you make them labour4 ,what appeared impossible to ,raumur was1 however1 a fact which ,peyssonnel had demonstrated to hundreds by his experiments at ,marseilles4 ,nevertheless1 ,bernard de ,jussieu did not find the reasons he urged strong enough to induce him to abandon the opinions he had formed as to their vegetable origin4 ,afflicted and disgusted at the indifferent success with which his labours were received1 ,peyssonnel abandoned his investigations4 ,he even abandoned science and society1 and sought an obscure retirement in the ,antilles as a naval surgeon1 and his manuscripts1 which he left in ,france1 have never been printed4 ,these manuscripts1 written in #agdd1 were preserved in the library of the ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,paris4 ,the title is comprehensive and sufficiently descriptive4 ,it should be added1 in order to complete the recital1 that ,raumur and ,bernard de ,jussieu finally recognized the value of the discoveries and the validity of the reasoning of the naturalist of ,marseilles4 ,when these illustrious savants became acquainted with the experiments of ,trembley upon the fresh-water hydr2 when they had themselves repeated them2 when they had made similar observations on the sea anemone and alcyonid2 when they finally discovered that on other so-called marine plants animalcules were found similar to the hydra1 so admirably described by ,trembley2--they no longer hesitated to render full justice to the views of their former adversary4 ,while ,peyssonnel still lived forgotten at the ,antilles1 his scientific labours were crowned with triumph at ,paris2 but it was a sterile triumph for him4 ,raumur gave to the animalcules which construct the coral the name of ,polyps1 and ,coral to the product itself1 for such he considered the architectural product of the polyps4 ,in other words1 ,raumur introduced into ,science the views which he had keenly contested with their author4 ,but from that time the animal nature of the coralline has never been doubted4 ,without pausing to note the various authors who have given their attention to this fine natural production1 we shall at once direct our attention to the organization of the animalcules1 and the construction of the coral4 ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers1 professor at the ,jardin des ,plantes of ,paris1 published in #ahfd a remarkable monograph1 entitled ,l',histoire ,naturelle du ,corail4 ,this learned naturalist was charged by the ,french ,government1 in #ahfj1 with a mission having for its object the study of the coral from the natural history point of view4 ,his observations upon the zoophytes are numerous and precise1 and worthy of the successor of ,peyssonnel2 but for close observation1 practical conclusions1 and popular exposition1 the world is more indebted to ,charles ,darwin than to any other naturalist4 ,a branch of living coral1 if we may use the term1 is an aggregation of animals derived from a first being by budding4 ,they are united among themselves by a common tissue1 each seeming to enjoy a life of its own1 though participating in a common object4 ,the branch seems to originate in an egg1 which produces a young animal1 which attaches itself soon after its birth1 as already described4 ,from this is derived the new beings which1 by their united labours1 produce the branch of coral or polypidom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,living ,bed of ,coral after the entrance of the ,polyps4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,this branch is composed of two distinct parts3 the one central1 of a hard1 brittle1 and stony nature1 the well-known coral of commerce2 the other altogether external1 like the bark of a tree1 soft and fleshy1 and easily impressed with the nail4 ,this is essentially the bed of the living colony4 ,the first is called the polypidom1 the second is the colony of polyps4 ,this bed 7,fig4 #dg7 is much contracted when the water is withdrawn from the colony4 ,it is covered with salient mammals or protuberances1 much wrinkled and furrowed4 ,each protuberance encloses a polyp1 and presents on its summit eight folds1 radiating round a central pore1 which presents a star-like appearance4 ,this pore as it opens gives to the polyps the opportunity of coming out4 ,its edge presents a reddish calyx1 like the rest of the bark1 the festooned throat of which presents eight dentations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,three ,polyps of the ,coral4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the polyp itself 7,fig4 #dh7 is formed of a whitish membranous tube1 nearly cylindrical1 having an upper disk1 surrounded by its eight tentacula1 bearing many delicate fibres spreading out laterally4 ,this assemblage of tentacula resembles the corolla of some flowers2 its form is very variable1 but always truly elegant4 ,fig4 #di 7which is borrowed from ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers' great work7 represents one of these forms of the coral4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,coral ,polyp4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the arms of the polyps are at times subject to violent agitation3 the tentacula become much excited4 ,if this excitement continues1 the tentacula can be seen to fold and roll themselves up1 as shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,if we look at the expanded disk1 we see that the eight tentacula attach themselves to the body1 describing a space perfectly circular1 in the middle of which rises a small mammal1 the summit of which is occupied by a small slit like two rounded lips4 ,this is the mouth of the polyps1 the form being very variable1 but well represented in ,fig4 #ej1 where the organ under consideration is displayed4 ,a cylindrical tube connected with the mouth represents the oesophagus or gullet2 but all other portions of the digestive tube are very rudimentary4 ,the oesophagus connects the general cavity of the body with the exterior1 and looks as if it were suspended in the middle of the body by certain folds1 which issue with perfect symmetry from eight points of its circumference4 ,the folds which thus fix the oesophagus form a series of cells1 above each of which it attaches itself1 and supports an arm or tentaculum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,another form of the ,coral ,polyp4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,let us pause an instant over the soft and fleshy bark in which the polyps are engaged4 ,let us see also what are the mutual relations which exist between the several inhabitants of one of these colonies1 how they are attached to one another1 and what is their connection with the polypidom4 ,the thick fleshy body1 soft1 and easily impressed with the finger1 is the living part which produces the coral2 it extends itself so as exactly to cover the whole polypidom4 ,if it perishes at any one point1 that part of the axis which corresponds with the point no longer shows any increase4 ,an intimate relation1 therefore1 exists between the bark and the polypidom4 ,if the bark is examined more closely1 three principal elements are recognized--a common general tissue1 some spicula1 and certain vessels4 ,the general tissue is transparent1 glossy1 cellular1 and contractile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,coralline ,spicula4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the spicul are very small calcareous concretions1 more or less elongated1 covered with knotted joints bristling with spines1 and of regular determinate form 7,fig4 #ea74 ,they refract the light very vividly1 and their colour is that of the coral1 but much weaker1 in consequence of their want of thickness4 ,they are uniformly distributed throughout the bark1 and give to the coral the fine colour which generally characterises it4 ,the vessels constitute a network1 which extends and repeats itself in the thickness of the crust4 ,these vessels are of two kinds 7,fig4 #eb72 the one1 comparatively very large1 is imbedded in the axis1 and disposed in parallel layers2 the others are regular and much smaller4 ,they form a network of unequal meshes1 which occupies the whole thickness of the external crust4 ,this network has direct and important connection with the polyps on the one hand1 and with the central substance which forms the axis on the other4 ,it communicates directly with the general cavity of the body of the animal1 by every channel which approaches it1 while the two ranges of network approach each other by a great number of anastomosing processes4 ,such is the vascular arrangement of the coral4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,circulating ,apparatus for the nutritive fluids in the ,coral4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the circulation of alimentary fluids in the coral is accomplished by means of vessels near to the axis1 without1 however1 directly anastomosing with the cavities containing the polyps which live in the polypidom2 they only communicate with those cavities by very delicate intermediary canals4 ,the alimentary fluids they receive from the secondary system of network1 which brings them into direct communication with the polyps4 ,the alimentary fluids elaborated by the polyps pass into the branches of the secondary and irregular network system1 in order to reach the great parallel tubes which extend from one extremity of the organism to the other1 serving the same purpose to the whole community4 ,when the extremity of a branch of living coral is torn or broken1 a white liquid immediately flows from the wound1 which mingles with water1 and presents all the appearance of milk4 ,this is the fluid aliment which has escaped from the vessel containing it1 charged with the dbris of the organism4 ,what occurs when the bud produces new polyps8 ,it is only round well-developed animals1 and particularly those with branching extremities1 in which this phenomenon is produced4 ,the new beings resemble little white points pierced with a central orifice4 ,aided by the microscope1 we discover that this white point is starred with radiating white lines1 the edge of the orifice bearing eight distinctly-traced indentations4 ,all these organs are enlarged step by step until the young animal has attained the shrub-like or branched aspect which belongs to the compound polypidom4 ,the tube is branching1 and the orifices from which the polypi expand become dilated into cup-like cells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,section of a ,branch of ,coral4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the coral of commerce1 so beautiful and so appreciated by lovers of bijouterie1 is the polypidom4 ,it is cylindrical1 much channeled on the surface1 the lines usually parallel to the axis of the cylinder1 the depressions sometimes corresponding to the body of the animal4 ,if the transverse section of a polypidom be examined1 it is found to be regularly festooned on its circumference4 ,towards its centre certain sinuosities appear1 sometimes crossing1 sometimes trigonal1 sometimes in irregular lines1 and in the remaining mass are reddish folds alternating with brighter spaces which radiate from the centre towards the circumference 7,fig4 #ec74 ,in the section of a very red coral1 it will be observed that the colour is not equally distributed1 but separated into zones more or less deep in colour1 containing very thin preparations which crack1 not irregularly1 but parallel to the edge of the plate1 and in such a manner as to reproduce the festoons on the circumference4 ,from this it may be deduced that the stem increases by concentric layers being deposited1 which mould themselves one upon the other4 ,in the mass of coral certain small corpuscles occur1 charged with irregular asperities1 much redder than the tissue into which they are plunged4 ,these are much more numerous in the red than in the light band1 and they necessarily give more strength to the general tint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,birth of the ,coralline ,larv4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,to the mode of reproduction in the coral polyps1 so well described by ,lacaze-,duthiers1 we can only devote a few lines4 ,sometimes1 according to this able observer1 the polyps of the same colony are all either male or female1 and the branch is unisexual2 in others there are both male and female1 when the branch is bisexual4 ,finally1 but very rarely1 polyps are found uniting both sexes4 ,the coral is viviparous2 that is to say1 its eggs become embryos inside the polyp4 ,the larv remain a certain time in the general cavity of the polyp1 where they can be seen through its transparency1 as exhibited in ,fig4 #ed4 ,aided by the magnifying powers of the microscope1 coral larv may here be perceived through the transparent membranous envelope4 ,from this position they escape from the mouth of the mother in the manner represented in the upper branch4 ,the animal then resembles a little white grub or worm1 more or less elongated4 ,the larva is1 however1 still egg-shaped or ovoid2 moreover1 it is sunk in a hollow cavity1 and covered with cilia1 by the aid of which it can swim4 ,sometimes one of its extremities becomes enlarged1 the other remaining slender and pointed4 ,upon this an opening is formed communicating with the interior cavity3 this is the mouth4 ,the larv swim backwards2 that is to say1 with the mouth behind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,very young ,polyps1 attached to a ,bryozoa4 ,it is only at a certain period after birth that the coral polyp fixes itself and commences its metamorphoses1 which consist essentially in a change of form and proportions4 ,the buccal extremity is diminished and tapers off1 whilst the base swells1 and is enlarged--it becomes discoid2 the posterior surface of this sort of disk is a plane1 the front representing the mouth1 at the bottom of a depression edged with a great cushion4 ,eight mammillations or swellings now appear1 corresponding to the chambers which divide the interior of the disk3 the worm has taken its radiate form4 ,finally1 the mammals are elongated and transformed into tentacula4 ,in ,fig4 #ee a young coral polyp is represented fixed upon a bryozoa1 a name employed by ,ehrenberg for zoophytes having a mouth and anus4 ,it forms a small disk1 the fortieth part of an inch in diameter1 and having its spicula already coloured red4 ,fig4 #ef shows the successive forms of the young polyps in the progressive phases of their development--being a young coralline polyp fixed upon a rock still contracted4 ,fig4 #eg is a similar coralline attached to a rock and expanding its tentacula4 ,fig4 #eh represents a small pointed rock covered with polypi and polypidoms of the natural size and of different shapes1 but all young1 and indicating the definite form of development which the collective beings are to assume4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,a young ,coral ,polyp fixed upon a ,rock4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the simple isolated state of the animal1 whose phases of development we have indicated1 does not last long4 ,it possesses the property of producing new beings1 as we have already said1 by budding4 ,but how is the polypidom formed8 ,if we take a very young branch1 we find in the centre of the thickness of the crust a nucleus or stony substance resembling an agglomeration of spicula4 ,when they are sufficient in number and size1 these nuclei form a kind of stony plate1 which is imbedded in the thickness of the tissues of the animal4 ,these lamin1 at first quite flat1 assume in the course of their development a horse-shoe shape4 ,figs4 #ei and #fj will give the reader some idea of the form in which the young present themselves4 ,fig4 #ei represents the corpuscles in which the polypidom has its origin2 ,fig4 #fj1 the rudimentary form of the coralline polypidom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,young ,coral ,polyp attached to a ,rock and expanded4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,our information fails to convey any precise notion of the time necessary for the coral to acquire the various proportions in which it presents itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,a ,rock covered with young ,polyps and ,polypidom4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,darwin1 who examined some of these creatures very minutely1 tells us that several genera 7,flustr1 ,eschar1 ,cellaria1 ,cresia1 and others7 agree in having singular movable organs attached to their cells4 ,the organs in the greater number of cases very closely resemble the head of a vulture2 but the lower mandible can be opened much wider than a real bird's beak4 ,the head itself possesses considerable powers of movement1 by means of a short neck4 ,in one zoophyte the head itself was fixed1 but the lower jaw free2 in another it was replaced by a triangular hood1 with a beautifully-fitted trap-door1 which evidently answered to the lower mandible4 ,in the greater number of species each cell was provided with one head1 but in others each cell had two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,corpuscles from which originate the ,polypidom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,first form of the ,polypidom4 7,lacaze-,duthiers47 ,the young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines contain quite immature polypi1 yet the vulture heads attached to them1 though small1 are in every respect perfect4 ,when the polypus was removed by a needle from any of the cells1 these organs did not appear to be in the least affected4 ,when one of the vulture-like heads was cut off from a cell1 the lower mandible retained its power of opening and closing4 ,perhaps the most singular part of their structure is1 that when there are more than two rows of cells on a branch1 the central cells were furnished with these appendages of only one-fourth the size of the outside ones4 ,their movements varied according to the species2 but in some ,i never saw the least motion1 while others1 with the lower mandible generally wide open1 oscillated backwards and forwards at the rate of about five seconds each turn2 others moved rapidly and by starts4 ,when touched with a needle1 the beak generally seized the point so firmly that the whole branch might be shaken4 ,in the ,cresia1 ,darwin observed that each cell was furnished with a long-toothed bristle1 which had the power of moving very quickly2 each bristle and each vulture-like head moving quite independently of each other2 sometimes all on one side1 sometimes those on one branch only moving simultaneously1 sometimes one after the other4 ,in these actions we apparently behold as perfect a transmission of will in the zoophyte1 though composed of thousands of distinct polyps1 as in any distinct animal4 ,what can be more remarkable1 he adds1 than to see a plant-like body producing an egg1 capable of swimming about and choosing a proper place to adhere to1 where it sprouts out into branches1 each crowded with innumerable distinct animals1 often of complicated organization6--the branches1 moreover1 sometimes possessing organs capable of movement independent of the polypi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing to the coral fishing1 it may be said to be quite special1 presenting no analogy with any other fishing in the ,european seas1 if we except the sponge fisheries4 ,the fishing stations which occur are found on the ,italian coast and the coast of ,barbary2 in short1 in most parts of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,in all these regions1 on abrupt rocky beds1 certain aquatic forests occur1 composed entirely of the red coral1 the most brilliant and the most celebrated of all the corals1 ,coralium decus liquidi6 ,during many ages1 as we have seen1 the coral was supposed to be a plant4 ,the ancient ,greeks called it the daughter of the sea 7 71 which the ,latins translated into corralium or coralium4 ,it is now agreed among naturalists that the coral is constructed by a family of polyps living together1 and composing a polypidom4 ,it abounds in the ,mediterranean and the ,red ,sea1 where it is found at various depths1 but rarely less than five fathoms1 or more than a hundred and fifty4 ,each polypidom resembles a pretty red leafless under shrub bearing delicate little star-like radiating white flowers4 ,the axes of this little tree are the parts common to the association1 the flowrets are the polypi4 ,these axes present a soft reticulated crust1 full of little cavities1 which are the cells of the polyps1 and are permeated by a milky juice4 ,beneath the crust is the coral1 properly so called1 which equals marble in hardness1 and is remarkable for its striped surface1 its bright red colour1 and the fine polish of which it is susceptible4 ,the ancients believed that it was soft in the water1 and only took its consistence when exposed to the air3-- ,sic et coralium1 quo primum contigit auras ,tempore1 durescit4 ,,ovid4 ,the fishing is chiefly conducted by sailors from ,genoa1 ,leghorn1 and ,naples1 and it is so fatiguing1 that it is a common saying in ,italy that a sailor obliged to go to the coral fishery should be a thief or an assassin4 ,the saying is a gratuitous insult to the sailor1 but conveys a good idea enough of the occupation4 ,the barks sent to the fishing range from six to fifteen tons2 they are solid1 and well adapted for the labour2 their rig is a great lateen sail1 and a jib or staysail4 ,the stern is reserved for the capstan1 the fishers1 and the crew4 ,the fore part of the vessel is reserved for the requirements of the patron or master4 ,the lines1 wood1 and irons employed in the coral fisheries are called the engine3 it consists of a cross of wood formed of two bars1 strongly lashed or bolted together at their centre2 below this a great stone is attached1 which bears the lines1 arranged in the form of a sac4 ,these lines have great meshes1 loosely knotted together1 resembling the well-known swab4 ,the apparatus carries thirty of these sacs1 which are intended to grapple all they come in contact with at the bottom of the sea4 ,they are spread out in all directions by the movement of the boat4 ,the coral is known to attach itself to the summit of a rock and to develop itself1 forming banks there1 and it is to these rocks that the swab attaches itself so as to tear up the precious harvest4 ,experience1 which in time becomes almost intuitive1 guides the ,italian fisher in discovering the coral banks4 ,the craft employed in the great fishery have a patron or captain1 the bark having a poop1 with a crew of eight or ten sailors1 and in the season it is continued night and day4 ,the whole apparatus1 and mode of using it1 is shown in ,,pl4 ,,iii4 ,when the patron thinks that he has reached a coral bank1 he throws his engine overboard4 ,as soon as the apparatus is engaged1 the speed of the vessel is retarded1 the capstan is manned by six or eight men1 while the others guide the helm and trim the sails4 ,two forces are thus brought to act upon the lines1 the horizontal action of the vessel and the vertical action of the capstan4 ,in consequence of the many inequalities of the rocky bottom1 the engine advances by jerks1 the vessel yielding more or less1 according to the concussion caused by the action of the capstan or sail4 ,the engine seizes upon the rugged rocks at the bottom1 and raises them to let them fall again4 ,in this manner the swab1 floating about1 penetrates beneath the rocks where the coral is found1 and is hooked on to it4 ,to fix the lines upon the coral and bring them home1 is a work of unheard-of labour4 ,the engine long resists the most energetic and repeated efforts of the crew1 who1 exposed almost naked to the burning sun of the ,mediterranean1 work the capstan to which the cable and engine are attached1 while the patron urges and excites them to increased exertion1 and the sailors trim the sail and sing with a slow and monotonous tone a song1 the words of which improvise in a sort of psalmody the names of the saints most revered among the seafaring ,italian population4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii4--,coral ,fishing on the ,coast of ,sicily4 ,the lines are finally brought home1 tearing or breaking blocks of rock1 sometimes of enormous size1 which are brought on board4 ,the cross is now placed on the side of the vessel1 the lines are arranged on the deck1 and the crew occupy themselves in gathering the results of their labour4 ,the coral is gathered together1 the branches of the precious zoophyte are cleansed1 and divested of the shells and other parasitic products which accompany them2 finally1 the produce is carried to and sold in the ports of ,messina1 ,naples1 ,genoa1 or ,leghorn1 where the workers in jewellery purchase them4 ,behold1 fair reader1 with what hard labour1 fatigue1 and peril1 the elegant bijouterie with which you are decked is torn from the deepest bed of the ocean6 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,pennatulid1 ,,or ,,sea-,,pen4 ,this curious family received from ,cuvier the name of ,swimming ,polypi1 and from ,lamarck that of ,floating ,polypi4 ,the name of ,pennatul1 by which they are generally known1 is taken from their resemblance to a quill1 penna4 ,in the words of ,lamarck1 ,it seems as if ,nature1 in forming this composite animal1 had wished to copy the external form of a bird's feather4 ,our fishermen call it the cock's comb1 which is not inapt1 but less expressive of its peculiarities4 ,this animal is from two to four inches in length1 of a uniform purplish-red colour1 except at the hip or base of the stalk1 where it is pale orange-yellow2 the skin is thickish1 very tough1 and of a curious structure1 being composed of minute crystalline cylinders1 densely arranged in straight lines1 and held together by a tenacious glutinous matter1 the cylinders being about six inches in diameter1 in length straight and even1 or sometimes slightly curved1 and of a red colour1 which communicates itself to the zoophyte4 7,johnston47 ,the animals by which it is formed constitute colonies1 which1 however1 are only attached to the rocks by an enlarged basis2 it appears to live generally at the bottom of the sea2 its root1 if we can use the term1 buried in the sands or mud2 its polypiferous portion sallying out into the water4 ,the agitation of the waves and the fishermen's nets often displace these aggregates of creation1 and then they float at various depths in the bosom of the ocean4 ,the stalk of the polypidom is hollow in the centre1 having a long slender bone-like substance1 which is white1 smooth1 and square1 but tapering at each extremity to a fine point4 ,the polyps1 which are fleshy and white1 are provided with eight long retractile tentacula1 beautifully ciliated on their inner edge with two series of short processes strengthened with crystalline spicula4 ,the mouth in the centre of the tentacula is somewhat angular1 bounded by a white ligament1 a process from which encircles the base of each tentaculum1 which thus seems to issue from an aperture4 ,the ova lie between the membranes of the pinn2 they are globular1 of a yellowish colour1 and by a little pressure can be made to pass through the mouth4 ,the polyps are distributed with more or less regularity in such a manner that one of the extremities of the common axis is always naked3 this part has been compared to the tubulous part of a feather4 ,the stem1 common to the colony1 is a solid central axis1 more or less developed1 which is covered with a fleshy fibrous substance1 susceptible of dilatation and contraction4 ,the ,pennatulid comprehend three genera2 namely1 those with polyps on bipinnate wings1 having--according to ,dr4 ,johnston-- ,polypidoms plumose1 in ,pennatula4 ,polypidoms virgate1 or wand-shaped ,virgularia4 ,polypi1 unilateral and sessile ,polypidom1 linear-elongate4 ,pavonaria4 ,in the genus ,pennatula1 the polyps are disposed in transverse rows upon the outer and inner edge1 in a series of prolongations in the form of a feather4 ,these winged species of polypidom are somewhat scythe-shaped1 well developed1 and furnished with a great quantity of pointed spicul1 which are constituted of bundles at the base of the calyx4 ,the space between the two rows of appendages is sometimes a tissue1 sometimes scaly1 sometimes granulous4 ,of the ,pennatula five species are known1 and all of them appear to be gifted with phosphorescent properties4 ,we may note among these species ,pennatula spinosa 7,fig4 #fa71 which inhabits the ,mediterranean1 and takes its name from its colour2 ,pennatula phosphorea1 which abound in most ,european seas1 being found in great plenty1 clinging to the fishermen's lines round our own northern shores1 more especially when they are baited with mussels4 ,p4 phosphorea is of a reddish purple1 the base of the smooth stalk pale2 the raches roughened with close-set papill1 and furrowed down the middle2 pinn close2 polyp cilia uniserial1 tubular1 with spinous apertures4 7,sibbald47 ,bohadsch says the ,pennatul swim by means of their pinn1 which they use as fishes do their fins4 ,ellis says1 ,it is an animal that swims about in the sea1 many of them having a muscular motion as they swim along2 these motions being effected1 as he tells us in another place1 by means of the pinnules or feather-like fins1 evidently designed by ,nature to move the animal backward or forward in the sea4 ,cuvier tells us they have the power of moving by the contraction of the fleshy part of the polypidom1 and also by the combined action of its polyps4 ,dr4 ,grant says1 ,a more singular and beautiful spectacle could scarcely be conceived than that of a deep purple ,p4 phosphorea with all its delicate transparent polypi expanded1 and emitting their usual brilliant phosphorescent light1 sailing through the still and dark abyss1 by the regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute fringed arms of the whole polypi2 while ,linnus tells us that the phosphorescent sea-pens which cover the bottom of the ocean cast so strong a light1 that it is easy to count the fishes and worms of various kinds which sport among them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,sea-pen1 ,pennatula spinosa4 7,edes47 ,lamarck1 ,schweigger1 and other naturalists1 however1 reasoning from what is known of other compound animals1 deny the existence of this locomotive power in these zoophytes2 and there is little doubt1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 that these authors are right1 for1 when placed in a basin of sea water1 the ,pennatul are never observed to change their position2 they remain in the same spot1 and lie with the same side up or down1 just as they have been placed4 ,they inflate the body until it becomes to a considerable degree transparent1 and only streaked with intercepted lines of red1 which distend at one place and contract at another2 they spread out the pinn1 and the polyps expand their tentacula1 but they never attempt to swim1 or perform any process of locomotion4 ,p4 mirabilis is common in the east and north coasts of ,scotland4 ,the virgularias differ from the pennatula chiefly in their development1 relative to the axis of the colony and the shortness of the pinn1 which carry the polyps2 and in this1 that no spicul enter into the composition of its softer parts4 ,v4 mirabilis is found in the ,north ,sea1 on the coast of ,scotland1 and as far north as ,norway4 ,in ,zetland it is known as the sea-rush4 ,it is abundant in ,belfast ,lough1 but1 from its brittle nature1 perfect specimens are difficult to obtain4 ,it seems1 says ,sowerby1 to represent a quill stripped of its feathers4 ,the base looks like a pen in this as in other species1 swelling a little way from the end1 and then tapering4 ,the upper part is thicker1 with alternate semicircular pectinated swellings1 larger towards the middle1 tapering upwards1 and terminating in a thin bony substance1 which passes through the whole extent1 and is from six to ten inches in length4 ,in a communication to ,dr4 ,johnston1 from ,mr4 ,r4 ,patterson of ,belfast1 commenting on ,mller's figure of ,virgularia1 he tells us that in the longest specimen he had1 no two plumes were precisely alike--so unlike1 indeed1 that the artist copying one1 could not for a moment hesitate1 after raising her eyes from her paper1 to look at the animal1 as to which she was copying4 ,its short waving and deeply dentated wings are of a brilliant yellow4 ,the polyps1 which appear upon their lobes1 are whitish1 transparent1 and form a fringe of small diaphanous white stars 7,figs4 #fb and #fc74 ,we may figure to ourselves a slender wand-like and much-elongated polypidom1 carrying only a non-contractile polyp on one side1 which would give us an idea of the ,pavonaria1 of which we know only one species1 which is from the ,mediterranean4 ,virgularia mirabilis is undoubtedly one of the finest polypidoms found in the ocean4 ,two series of half-moon shaped wings1 obliquely horizontal1 are placed symmetrically round an upright axis4 ,they embrace the stem somewhat in the manner termed petiolate by botanists1 clasping it alternately2 or1 shall we say1 like two broad ribbons rolled round a stem in an inverse direction1 in such a manner as to produce the effect of two opposing flights of stairs4 ,these wings are waving1 vandyked1 and fringed on their outer edge1 and of a brilliant yellow2 the dentature of the fringe being the lodging of their pretty little polyps1 which display occasionally their gaping mouths and expanded gills4 ,the polyps are white and semi-transparent4 ,when they display their rays1 the margin of each wing presents an edging of silvery stars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,loose-winged ,virgularia1 ,virgularia mirabilis 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,branch of ,virgularia1 enlarged4 ,the ,umbellularia have a very long stem1 supported by a bone 7,fig4 #fd7 of the same length1 and terminated at the summit only by a cluster of polyps4 ,they have been found in the ,greenland and other northern seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,umbellularia ,greculandrea 7,lamarck74 ,the ,veretillum1 which inhabit the ,mediterranean 7,fig4 #fe71 have a simple cylindrical body1 without branchi1 and a rudimentary polypidom1 furnished with very large polyps of a whitish colour4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,alcyonaria ,,proper4 ,the beings which compose this group have the fleshy polypidom always adherent1 without axis or solid interior stem4 ,they are divided into four families or tribes4 ,one of these1 the ,cornularia1 are zoophytes1 and live in isolation1 or gathered together in small numbers on the surface of a common membraniform expansion4 ,the ,cornularia cornucopia live on the coast of ,naples1 ,c4 crassa on the ,algerian coast4 ,other genera make their appearance on the coast of ,scotland1 of ,norway1 in the ,red ,sea1 and in the ,indian ,ocean they appear in great numbers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,veretillum cynomorium 7,lamarck74 ,in the ,alcyonaria1 properly so called1 the polypidom is very thick1 of a semi-cartilaginous consistence1 granular1 and rough to the touch4 ,the genus ,alcyonium is numerous in species and widely dispersed4 ,a4 digitatum is very common on our coasts1 and on many parts of the coast scarcely a stone or shell is dredged up from deep water which does not serve as a support to some one or more species of ,alcyonium4 ,it is known by various popular names by our sea-side population1 such as cow's paps1 from its resemblance to the teats of the cow--dead man's fingers1 from the occasional resemblance of its finger-like lobes to a man's fingers4 ,the polypidom is a simple obtuse process1 the outer skin of which is tough and coriaceous1 studded all over with star-like figures1 which on examination are found to be divided into eight rays1 indicating the number of the polyps enclosed in its transparent vesicular membrane4 ,it is dotted with minute calcareous grains1 and marked with eight longitudinal lines or septa1 stretching between the membrane and the central stomach1 which divide the intermediate space into an equal number of compartments4 ,these lines not only extend to the base of the tentacula1 but run across the anal disk1 and terminate in a central mouth4 ,the tentacula are short1 obtuse1 ciliate on the margins1 and strengthened at their roots by numerous crystalline spicul4 ,the polyp cells are oval1 placed just under the skin1 and are the terminating points of certain long canals which traverse the whole polypidom4 ,the polyps1 which are distributed over the whole surface1 can withdraw into the cavities2 they are1 besides1 of an extremely vital sensibility3 the least shock impresses itself on the tentacula1 the impulse of a wave even producing contraction2 in response1 the animal1 which is well developed1 sallies out perceptibly1 but immediately retires again to hide itself in the cell4 ,we find on the coast1 in the ,channel1 and in the ,north ,sea1 ,alcyonium digitatum1 the mass of which is of a reddish white1 ferruginous1 or orange2 ,a4 stellatum1 found on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 is expanded in its upper part1 narrow towards its base1 very rough on the surface1 and rose-coloured2 ,a4 palmatum1 is cylindrical1 branching at the summit1 of a deep red1 except at the base1 where it is yellow3 this is met with in the ,mediterranean4 ,we may note as a type1 altogether different from any yet touched upon1 the ,nephtys1 in which the polypidom is a coriaceous tissue bristling with spicul over its whole surface4 ,in ,n4 ,chabroli1 the polypidom is squat1 with thick spreading arms covered with lobiliform branches1 the tubercular polypidom of which are columnar and obtuse1 the sicula green1 and the tentacula of the polyps yellow4 ,on a cursory view1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 the polypodium of the three families embraced appear very dissimilar1 and accordingly1 by many recent authors1 they have been scattered over the class1 and placed widely asunder4 ,the affinity between them1 however1 is generally acknowledged1 and had been distinctly perceived by some of the earliest zoophytologists4 ,thus ,bohadsch found so much in common in the typical pennatul and a species of ,alcyonium1 that he has not hesitated to describe them as members of the same genus2 and1 although the more systematic character of ,pallas prevented him from falling into this error1 if error it can be called1 he did not the less recognize the relationship between the genera or families4 ,pallas also tells us that his ,pennatula cynomorium differs from the ,alcyonium only in this1 that the former is a movable and the latter a fixed polypidom2 and he saw with equal clearness the connection which exists between these genera and the shrub-like ,gorgonia4 ,of the ,pennatula mirabilis he had doubts whether it was not rather a species of ,gorgonia1 until he perceived that the stem was attenuated at each end1 and free2 and of the ,sea-pens generally1 ,ellis remarks that they are 'a genus of zoophytes not far removed from the ,gorgonias1 on account of their polyp mouths1 as well as having a bone in the inside and flesh without4' ',on the other hand1 the ,gorgoni seem1' says ,pallas1 'with the exception of their horny skeleton1 to be nearly similar in structure to the ,alcyonia2 but as there are species of ,gorgonia which are suberose internally1 and almost of a uniform medullary consistence1 even this mark of distinction fails to separate the tribes1 and we have little left to guide us in arranging these esculent species excepting their external habits4' ,with most corallines1 says ,frdol1 the elementary individual1 in spite of the adhesion established among them1 possesses a vital energy all its own2 it is in some respects quite independent4 ,they have each its own particular will1 which it is difficult to mistake for a common will2 but it is not thus with the ,pennatula4 ,their association consists of a non-adherent polyp1 which moves--obscurely1 it is true--but still it moves4 ,to what does this lead8 ,to this3 that the parts which they possess in common1 in place of being horny or calcareous--that is1 completely inert--are fleshy1 with contractile powers2 that is to say1 animated4 ,consequently1 the polyp of the ,pennatula are less independent of each other than the coral polyp1 which have a central1 perhaps a sensible organ1 common to all1 which binds them to each other1 giving a certain unity to their acts4 ,the ,coralline polyps have no will2 the ,pennatula have4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,zoantharia1 ,,or ,,animal ,,flowers4 ,i saw the living pile ascend ,the mausoleum of its architects1 ,still dying upwards as their labour closed3 ,slime the material1 but the slime was turned ,to adamant by their petrific touch4 ,,montgomery',s ,pelican ,island4 ,the zoophytes which constitute the class ,zoantharia are quite great personages4 ,some of them are eighteen or twenty inches long2 at the same time1 others scarcely exceed the eighth part of an inch in length4 ,they live in all seas1 and seem to have existed through many ages of the earth's history2 they appear at an early geological period1 and they have performed an important part in its formation2 we shall see that1 with great numbers of them1 parts cut off from their bodies continue to live and become new individuals4 ,the name of ,zoantharia was first given to the class by ,gray2 but here we give it a somewhat wider signification1 embracing under it the madrepores and starred stones of ,lasueur1 who is reminded of a field enamelled with small flowers when he sees the little polyp of ,porites ,astrodes in full blow4 ,but it is only1 says ,johnston1 when they lie with their upper disk expanded1 and their tentacula displayed1 that they solicit comparison with the boasts of ,flora2 for1 when contracted1 the polyp of the madrepores conceal themselves in their calcareous cups1 and the actini hide their beauty1 assuming the shape of an obtuse cone or hemisphere of a fleshy consistence1 or elongating themselves into a sort of flabby cylinder that indicates a state of relaxation and indolent repose4 ,these zoophytes are flesh-eaters1 and consume quantities truly prodigious1 of animals such as the crustaceans1 worms1 and small fishes4 ,they are all marine1 nearly all attached to the same spot for life1 and they live in colonies4 ,some few are isolated and live by themselves1 either free or attached to the soil4 ,they differ altogether from the animals belonging to the ,alcyonaria by their disposal of1 and mode of multiplying1 tentacula4 ,these appendages in the ,zoantharia never present the bipinnate arrangement which is observable in the ,alcyonaria4 ,they are habitually simple1 and1 if they present ramifications1 these are only exceptional4 ,in nearly every instance1 the tentacles exist to the number of twelve1 eighteen1 twenty-four1 and even larger numbers1 which form a sort of concentric crown to the animal4 ,zoantha thalassanthos 7,lesson71 which has given its name to the group1 consists of large turf-like tufts of coral attached to a rock4 ,its animalcules are packed closely together1 and their expanded flower-like heads have a curious resemblance to a mass of flowers in full bloom4 ,they are borne on bending root-like stems of pure white1 interlacing one with the other1 surmounted by a fusiform or spindle-shaped body1 pediculate and swelling towards the middle1 but truncate at the summit1 of a reddish-brown colour1 marked with longitudinal stripes more highly coloured2 its consistence is firm and parchment-like4 ,from the body issues a tube1 narrow1 muscular1 contractile1 and red in colour1 terminating at the summit in eight elongated arms or tentacula1 of a pure yellow1 traversed by a nervure of the same colour4 ,the edges of these arms are fringed with fine pinn1 parallel to each other1 of a bright maroon colour1 and resembling the barbs of a feather4 ,according to ,lesson1 the arms of this ,zoantha are kept unceasingly in motion1 which produces in the water small oscillating currents1 in the course of which the animalcules on which the polyps feed are precipitated into the stream leading to their mouths4 ,the tendency to produce a calcareous polypidom is a property almost universal with animals of this class4 ,zoologists are agreed in dividing them into three very distinct orders--namely1 the ,,antipathid1 consisting of the genera ,antipathes1 ,cirripathes1 and ,seipathes1 in which the polypidom is of a horny consistence2 the ,,madreporid1 in which the polypidom is calcareous and stony2 finally1 the ,,actinid1 which produce no polypidom4 ,,antipathid4 ,we need not dwell upon this group1 which is comparatively uninteresting4 ,they correspond with the family of ,gorgonid among the ,alcyonaria1 which they resemble in having the central axes branching after the manner of a shrub2 but the polyps have the mouth surrounded with a crown of six simple tentacula4 ,the axis is of a harder and denser tissue than that of the ,gorgons1 and presents on its surface small spiniform projections4 ,the polypiferous crust1 with which they are covered1 is in general very arenaceous1 and is so easily detached1 that it is rare to see in collections anything but the denuded skeleton of the colony4 ,in ,a4 arborea1 the polypidom is fragile and brittle2 when dry1 the branches1 always slender and delicate1 resemble the barbs of a feather4 ,the colour is of a deep black1 or rather bistre and terra de sienna tint4 ,under a powerful lens1 the extremities of the branches appear to be covered with small spines1 and the trunk is formed of oval and irregular concentric beds1 which are the zones of growth4 ,its consistence is firm1 so that it can be worked up and converted into chaplets for pearls and other bijouterie3 it is known in commerce as black coral4 ,,madreporid4 ,the ,madrepora are better known than their congeners4 ,they are sometimes1 but erroneously1 designated corals1 since the coral forms no part of this group4 ,the ,madrepores are remarkable for the calcareous crust which always surrounds their tissue1 and determines the formation of their polypidom4 ,they are in other respects easily recognized by the star-like structure of their polypidom1 in which may always be distinguished a visceral chamber1 the circumference of which is furnished with perpendicular lamin or partitions1 which are always directed towards the axis of the body4 ,when sufficiently developed they constitute1 by their assemblage1 a star-like body formed of a great number of rays4 ,the polypidom is always calcareous4 ,the consolidation of the envelope of each polyp produces at first a kind of sheath1 to which ,milne ,edwards has given the name of the wall4 ,the partitions which proceed from the interior towards the axis of the visceral chamber occupy the subtentacular cells2 the terminal and open portion designated the calyx is in organic continuity with the polyp1 which has retired thither more or less completely as into a cell4 ,milne ,edwards remarks that the polypidom of the ,madrepora present in their structure five principal modifications1 due in part to the fundamental number of which the chambered cells are the multiple1 and in part to the mode of division in the visceral chamber1 and finally to the manner in which its tissue is constituted4 ,m4 ,edwards avails himself of this peculiarity of structure in order to divide the ,madrepores into fixed sections2 namely1 ,madrpores apores1 ,madrpores perfors1 ,madrpores tabuls1 ,madrpores tuberleux1 and ,madrpores rugueux4 ,in the group of ,aporous ,madrepores1 the polypidom is perhaps the most highly organized4 ,we find there a well-developed and very perfect wall1 and a well-developed visceral apparatus4 ,the calyx is neatly starred2 the number of rays in the earlier stages being six1 which soon afterwards reach from twelve to twenty-four4 ,the cells between the chambers are sometimes open in all their depth1 sometimes more or less shut up by transverse plates2 these1 being independent of each other1 are never reunited in the breadth of the visceral cavity1 so that they constitute discoid plates such as we find in tabular and rugose ,madrepores4 ,the animals belonging to this group1 which may be characterised as stelliform or star-like1 are very abundant in every sea1 and in several geological formations4 ,they constitute many families1 among which may be noted the ,,milleporina of ,ehrenberg1 the polypidom of which ,dr4 ,johnston describes as calcareous1 fixed1 plant-like1 branching or lobed1 with cells scattered over the whole surface1 distinct1 sunk in little fosses1 obscurely stellate1 the lamell narrow and almost obsolete4 7,,johnston',s ,zoophytes1 vol4 i4 p4 #aid47 ,in ,turbinolia1 the animal is simple1 conical1 striped1 furrowed externally with larger and smaller ribs1 the mouth surrounded by numerous tentacula1 and solidified by a calcareous polypidom1 which is free1 conical1 and also furrowed externally2 attenuated at the base1 but enlarged at the summit1 and terminating in a shallow radiated lamellar cup or cell4 ,several species have been dredged off the coast of ,cornwall1 and the west coast of ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,t4 melletiana is described as coral-white1 wedge-shaped1 somewhat compressed1 with interspaces or ribs equidistant1 smooth1 and glossy4 ,above1 the ribs turn over the edge1 and are continued into the centre of the enlarged cup1 forming its lamell4 ,that the zoophyte must have lived for some time after having become a movable thing1 is proved1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 by the ribs being continued beyond or round the point of attachment4 ,the specimen here described was dredged alive1 and ,professor ,forbes says of it that it is a most interesting and beautiful species1 the more so as it is certainly identical with ,defrance's ,turbinolia melletiana1 found in both the crag formations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,caryophillia cyathus 7,lamarck74 ,the ,caryophilli 7,lamarck71 from 1 a nut1 and 1 a leaf1 have the polypidom permanently fixed1 simple1 striated longitudinally1 and the summit hollowed into a lamellated star-like cup2 the animal1 actinia-like1 is provided with a simple1 or double crown of tentacula1 projecting from the surface of star-like1 cylindrical1 cone shaped cells4 ,in ,c4 cyathus 7,lamarck7 7,fig4 #ff71 which inhabits the ,mediterranean1 the polyps are of a greyish colour1 the tentacula streaked with black4 ,the polypidom is erect and upright1 sometimes cylindrical1 and generally so firmly attached to the rock as to seem a part of it4 ,the lamell are of three kinds3 one large and prominent1 between every pair of which there are three1 sometimes five1 smaller ones1 the centre one being divided into two portions forming an inner series4 ,the lamell are arched entire and striated on the sides1 whence the margin appears somewhat crenelated4 ,it is found1 says ,mr4 ,couch1 of all sizes1 from a mere speck to an inch in height4 ,in a very young state1 it is sometimes found parasitical on ,alcyonium digitatum1 on shells1 and on the stalks of sea-weeds2 but as these substances are very perishable1 and offer no solid foundation1 large specimens are never found on them4 ,in its young state the animal is naked1 and measures about the fifteenth of an inch in diameter1 and about the thirty-second of an inch in height4 ,in the earliest state in which ,i have seen the calcareous polypidom1 there were four small rays1 which were free or unconnected down to the base2 in others ,i have noticed six primary rays1 but in every case they were unconnected with each other4 ,other rays soon make their appearance between those first formed2 they are mere calcareous specks at first1 but afterwards increase in size4 ,the first union of rays is observed as a small calcareous rim at the base of the polyp1 which afterwards increases in height and diameter with the age of the animal4 ,the animals of this interesting polypidom are vividly described by ,dr4 ,coldstream1 in a communication to ,dr4 ,johnston1 as he observed them at ,torquay3-- ,when the soft parts are fully expanded1 he says1 the appearance of the whole animal closely resembles an actinia4 ,when shrunk1 they are almost entirely hid amongst the radiating plates4 ,they are found pendent1 he adds1 from large boulders of sandstone1 just at low-water mark4 ,sometimes they are dredged from the middle of the bay4 ,their colour varies considerably4 ,i have seen the soft parts white1 yellowish1 orange-brown1 reddish1 and of a fine apple-green4 ,the tentacula are usually paler4 ,the ,caryophilli are sometimes dredged from great depths2 ,professor ,travers dredged one in eighty fathoms1 and ,dr4 ,johnston remarks that the existence of an animal so vividly coloured at so great a depth is worthy of remark4 ,when taken1 says the professor1 the animal was scarcely visible1 being contracted2 when expanded1 the disk was conspicuously marked by two dentated circles of bright apple-green1 the one marginal and outside the tentacula1 the other at some distance from the transverse and linear mouth4 ,in the dark1 the animal gave out a few dull flashes of phosphorescent light4 ,in addition1 we may mention the assertion of ,mr4 ,swainson1 that ,c4 ramea1 common in the ,mediterranean1 is occasionally found on the ,cornish coast2 but ,dr4 ,johnston thinks it improbable that it could have escaped the attention of ,mr4 ,couch and ,mr4 ,peach1 had it been so4 ,as belonging to this family1 we present here illustrations of ,flabellum pavoninum1 ,lesson 7,fig4 #fg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,flabellum pavoninum 7,lesson74 #a4 ,vertical position4 #b4 ,upper edge1 with its plates and median thread4 #c4 ,form of the animal4 ,of the ,occulin1 the animal is unknown1 but it is contained in regular round radiated cells1 more or less prominent1 and scattered on the surface of a solid1 compact1 fixed tree-like coral4 ,the individuals dispose themselves in ascending spiral lines1 and appear to be regularly dispersed on the surface of the several branches4 ,the typical species1 ,o4 virginea1 formerly known as the ,white ,coral1 although it differs widely in reality from the true ,coral1 both in its structure and by its star-like polypiferous cells 7,fig4 #fh71 is found in the ,mediterranean and also in the equatorial seas4 ,over the specimen we see 7#b7 a portion of a branch magnified1 in order that the reader may appreciate numerically the form of polype over its cells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,occulina virginea 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,stylaster flabelliformis 7,lamarck74 ,the species formerly named ,occulina flabelliformis1 and which now bears the name of ,stylaster flabelliformis1 which is represented in ,fig4 #fi1 will give an excellent idea of these arborescent zoophytes4 ,the polypidom is in the form of a fan1 with many very unequal branches2 the larger branches are smooth1 the middle-sized are covered with small points4 ,this fine zoophyte is found in the seas which surround the ,isle of ,bourbon and the ,mauritius1 a fine example of which is to be seen in the collection of the ,museum of ,natural ,history of ,paris4 ,,astr,,acea4 ,how diversified are the forms of aquatic life6 ,nature revels in these diversities1 to paraphrase the saying of one of the ancient kings of ,france4 ,here are animals1 the frame of which might have been designed by a geometrician4 ,they are called ,star ,corals 7,astrea74 ,their resemblance to the well-known figure was too striking to escape the observation of naturalists2 but the organization of these creatures of the ocean is far from being rigorously regular1 for ,nature rarely employs perfectly straight lines1 giving an evident preference to circles and waving lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,astrea punctifera 7,lamarck74 ,the ,astrea are inhabitants of the ,indian ,ocean1 where they are found in a great variety of forms1 which has led to their subdivision into many genera by ,messrs4 ,milne ,edwards and ,j4 ,haime4 ,the animals are short1 more or less cylindrical1 with rounded mouth placed in the centre of a disk1 covered with a few rather short tentacula2 the cells are shallow1 with radiating lamell in ,astrea punctifera 7,fig4 #gj71 forming by their union a many-formed coral1 which often encrusts other bodies4 ,in short1 this polyp may be described as a parasite1 for it generally attaches to some other bodies1 and it is by no means unusual to meet with it attached even to shells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,meandrina cerebriformis 7,lamarck74 ,the ,meandrina differ from the ,astreas in having the surface hollowed out into shallow sinuous elongated cells1 furnished on each side of the mesial line with hooked lamell1 ending against one or other of the ridges with separate valleys2 the polypidom1 which is calcareous1 being fixed1 simple1 and inversely conical when young1 and globular when old4 ,the animals have each a distinct mouth1 and lateral series of short tentacula2 they are contained in shallow cells1 meeting at the base1 and forming by their union long and tortuous hollows4 ,meandrina cerebriformis 7,fig4 #ga71 so called from its resemblance to the folds of the brain1 is a native of the ,american ,seas4 ,the ,fungia1 so called by ,lamarck from their resemblance to the vegetable ,fungi1 are too remarkable in their appearance to be passed over in silence4 ,the major part of the species only occur in recent geological strata4 ,nevertheless some of the species were very numerous in the ,cretaceous period1 and even find representatives in the ,silurian period2 it is this group in which ,madrepores of great size are found4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,fungia echinata 7,milne ,edwards74 ,the family1 as we have already said1 take their names from their supposed resemblance to the ,mushroom4 ,but1 says ,peyssonnel1 there is this difference between terrestrial and marine mushrooms--that the former have leaflets below1 and those of the ocean have them above 7,fig4 #gb74 ,these leaflets are only expansions of the ,madrepores4 ,now1 although ,i have not actually examined these petrified ,mushrooms of the sea1 ,i have no reason to doubt but that they are true genera or species of ,madrepores1 containing1 like others1 the zoophytes which form them4 ,in my travels in ,egypt1 in #agad and #agae1 ,i never heard it said that the ,nile could produce them4 ,in this last remark1 ,peyssonnel makes allusion to the opinion entertained by many ancient authors1 that the ,fungia were productions of the ,nile4 ,the animal is gelatinous or membranous1 generally simple1 depressed1 and oval1 with mouth superior and transverse1 in a large disk1 which is covered by many thick cirrhiform tentacula2 the polypidom is rendered solid internally by a calcareous solid deposit of a simple figure1 having a star of radiating1 acutely-pointed lamell above1 and simple rays1 full of wrinkles1 beneath4 ,there are nine species1 mostly natives of the ,indian ,seas1 which ,de ,blainville arranges in three groups1 according as they are simple and circular1 simple and compressed1 or complex and oblong4 ,in ,fungia echinata1 represented in ,fig4 #gb1 we have a species which inhabits the ,indian and ,chinese ,seas4 ,it belongs to the last group1 being oblong in form1 convex above1 and concave below4 ,the hollow1 from which the lamell or chamber-walls proceed1 are of considerable length2 the toothed partitions are very irregular1 thin and prickly1 resting upon their lower edge1 in order to leave the concave portion of the field free to a host of excrescences1 resembling the roof of a grotto studded with small stalactites4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,fungia agariciformis 7,lamarck74 ,the conformation of the softer parts of this polypus has been described by many travellers4 ,the upper portion of the body of the animal1 corresponding to the lamelliform part of the polypus1 is furnished with scattered tentacula1 very long in some species1 and remarkably short in others4 ,these tentacula appear to terminate in a small sucker1 and the animal seems to recover its position with difficulty1 when overturned4 ,in order to complete our description of these curious madrepores1 we may refer to ,fungia agariciformis1 represented in ,fig4 #gc4 ,this remarkable species inhabits the ,red ,sea and the ,indian ,ocean1 and is here represented with its polyps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,de ,blainville gave the name of ,,madrepor,a to the second group of his stony ,zoantharia1 placing them after the ,madrephylli4 ,the products of this section are generally arborescent1 with small1 partially lamelliform cells1 which are constantly porous in the interstices of the walls of the cells1 this being its most important characteristic4 ,thus the visceral apparatus constitutes the essential part of the polypus1 presenting no side plates1 the visceral chamber being open from the base to the summit1 and neither filled with dissepiments1 pulpy matter1 nor with plates4 ,the history of these inhabitants of the deep is extremely obscure1 and will probably always remain so2 the most beautiful of their productions are intertropical1 and consequently beyond the reach of discriminating observers during the life of the animal4 ,solander proposed to divide the genus according to certain characteristics in the growth of the coral1 and ,de ,blainville has rearranged the groups formed by ,lamarck1 ,lamouroux1 and ,goldfuss1 with special reference to the soft parts of the animals figured by ,lesueur1 ,quoy1 ,gaimard1 and others1 who have observed them in their native state4 ,the perforated ,zoantharia form three very natural families3 the ,eupsammid1 the ,madreporid1 and the ,poritid4 ,the first have the solid parts of the polyps1 simple or complex1 with well-developed lamellar portions1 the central column spongious1 walls granular1 semi-ribbed1 and perforated4 ,the second are composite1 increasing by gemmation2 walls spongy and porous2 septa lamellous1 and well developed4 ,in the third the visceral chambers are divided into two equal parts by the principal septa1 which are more developed than the others1 meeting by their inner edge4 ,the ,dendrophylli 7,fig4 #gd7 are conspicuous among the ,eupsammid4 ,we shall describe three genera1 the two first of which belong to the ,,madrepor,a1 and the last of the family of the ,porides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,dendrophyllia ramea1 half natural size 7,de ,blainville74 ,dendrophyllia ramea1 represented in ,figs4 #ge and #gf1 is an elegant madrepore of the ,mediterranean4 ,its polyp presents a very large trunk charged with short ascending branches2 it usually attains to about a yard and a half in height4 ,the polyps are provided with a great number of tentacula1 in the centre of which the mouth is placed4 ,they are deeply buried in the cells1 which radiate from numerous unequally saillant plates4 ,peyssonnel1 who had seen the polyps of this colony1 says3 ,i may observe that the extremities or summits of the branching madrepore1 the species in question1 which in the ,provencal we call ,sea-fennel1 is soft and tender1 filled with a glutinous and transparent mucous thread1 similar to that which the snail leaves on its path4 ,these extremities are of a fine yellow colour1 five or six lines in diameter2 soft1 and more than a finger's breadth in length4 ,i have seen the animal nestling in them2 it seemed to be a species of cuttle-fish or sea-nettle4 ,the body of this sea-nettle must have filled the centre2 the head being in the middle1 surrounded by many feet or claws1 like those of the cuttle-fish4 ,the flesh of this animal is very delicate1 and is easily reduced to the form of a paste1 melting almost under the touch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,dendrophyllia ramea 7,de ,blainville74 ,natural size1 with polypi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,a part magnified4 ,the madrepores abound in all intertropical seas1 taking a considerable part in the constitution of the reefs which form the coral and madreporic islands so conspicuous in the ocean4 ,the tree-like ,dendrophyllia 7,d4 ramea1 ,figs4 #ge and #gf7 have cells of considerable depth1 radiating into numerous lamell1 forming a widely-branching arborescent coral1 externally striated1 internally furrowed1 and truncate at the extremities4 ,the animals are actiniform1 furnished with numerous cleft tentacula1 in the centre of which is the polygonal mouth4 ,in the ,lobophyllia1 the tentacula are cylindrical1 the cells conical1 sometimes elongated and sinuous1 with a sub-circular opening terminating the few branches of the polyp1 which is fixed1 turbinate1 and striated4 ,the ,plantain ,madrepore1 ,m4 plantaginea 7,lamarck71 is an interesting example1 the polyp presenting itself1 as in ,fig4 #gg1 in tufts1 with slender and prolific branches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,madrepora plantaginea 7,lamarck74 ,in ,madrepora palmata1 vulgarly named ,neptune's ,car1 we have a large and beautiful species1 whose expanding branches are flat1 round at the base1 and forming in lobes1 whose length is often as much as three feet high1 with a breadth of twenty inches1 and a thickness of two to two and a half3 this fine madrepore is found in the ,caribbean ,sea and among the ,antilles4 ,,porites4 ,the ,porites are madrepores produced by a pitcher-shaped fleshy animal1 with twelve short tentacula2 the cells are unequally polygonal1 imperfectly defined1 slightly radiating by thread-like pointed rays1 with prickles placed at intervals4 ,the polypus is polymorphous or many-formed1 composed of a reticulated and porous tissue1 the individuals forming it being always completely united together4 ,externally it presents the figure of an irregular trellis-work1 more or less loosely connected in its meshes4 ,as a type of this organization1 we give a figure of the ,forked ,porites 7,p4 furcata1 ,fig4 #gh71 of the natural size4 ,the branches are generally dichotomous1 that is1 rising in pairs obtusely lobed4 ,in some of the species the rays are more fully marked1 and resemble a bed of miniature anemones thickly crowded together1 as in ,gonispora columna1 in which the polypi have a central mouth1 round which the twelve short tentacula radiate2 the coral is stony1 fixed1 branched1 or lobed1 having a free surface covered with a great number of regular stars1 which are highly characteristic1 and cannot be confounded with those of an astrea or madrepore4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,porites furcata 7,lamarck71 natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,millepora alcicornis 7,linn471 one-fourth natural size4 ,in the ,tabulate ,madreporides1 the polyp is essentially composed of a highly-developed mural system4 ,the visceral chambers are divided into a series of stages or stories1 by perfect diaphragms or plates placed transversely1 the plates depending from the walls and forming perfect horizontal divisions1 extending from one wall of the general cavity to the other4 ,in order that the reader may form some idea of the ,tabulate ,madrepores1 one of the polyps known as millepores is here represented4 ,the millepores were first separated from the madrepores by ,linnus1 along with a great number of species distinguished by the minuteness of their pores or polypiferous cells 7,fig4 #gi71 represented above1 as nearly allied1 and perhaps identical with ,dr4 ,johnston's ,cellepora cervicornis1 a species found in deep water on the ,devonshire and ,cornwall coasts1 and1 indeed1 all round our west coast4 ,a single specimen of this millepore is about three inches in height1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 and somewhat more in breadth4 ,it rises from a broad flattened base1 and begins immediately to expand and divide into kneed branches or broad segments1 many of which anastomose1 so as to form arches and imperfect circles4 ,the extreme segments are dilated and variously cut1 sometimes truncate1 both sides being perforated with numerous pores just visible to the naked eye1 and arranged in rows2 the pores circular1 and level with the surface on the smooth and newly-formed parts2 but in the older parts they form apertures of urceolate cells1 which appear to be formed over the primary layer of cells1 giving to the surface a roughish or angular appearance4 ,the orifice is simple1 contracted1 with a very small denticle on one side2 the thickness of the branches varies from one half to two lines2 the interior is cellular2 the new parts are formed of two layers of horizontal cells1 but the older parts are thickened by cells superimposed on the primary layers4 ,millepora moniliformis is a species which attaches itself to the branches of the gorgons1 and forms there a series of little rounded or lateral lobes4 ,the animal is unknown1 the cells very small1 unequal1 completely immersed1 obsoletely radiate and scattered2 the polypier fixed1 cellular within1 finely porous and reticulated externally1 extending into a palmated form4 ,of tuberous or wrinkled madrepores1 which consist almost entirely of fossil species chiefly belonging to the ,silurian formation1 we shall only note ,cyathophyllum as one of the best known species4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is no spectacle in ,nature more extraordinary1 or more worthy of our admiration1 than that now under consideration4 ,these zoophytes1 whose history we are about to investigate--wretched beings gifted with a half-latent life only--these animalcules so small and so fragile--labour silently and incessantly in the bosom of the ocean1 and1 as they exist in innumerable aggregated masses1 their cells and solid axes finish by producing in the end enormous stony masses4 ,these calcareous deposits increase and multiply with such incalculable rapidity1 that they not only cover the submarine rocks as with a carpet1 but they finish by forming reefs1 and even entire islands1 which rise above the surface of the ocean in a manner remarkable at once for their form and the regularity with which they repeat themselves4 ,in noting the ,indian and ,pacific ,oceans1 navigators had long been struck with the appearance of certain earthy bases1 which presented a conformation altogether singular4 ,in #afja1 ,pyrard de ,laval1 speaking of the ,malouine 7now the ,falkland7 ,islands1 said3 ,they are divided into thirteen provinces1 named atollons1 which is so far a natural division in that place1 that each atollon is separated from the other1 and contains a great number of smaller islands4 ,it is a marvel to see each of these atollons surrounded on all sides by a great bank of stone--walls such as no human hands could build on the space of earth allotted to them4 ,these atollons are almost round1 or rather oval1 being each about thirty leagues in circumference1 some a little less1 others a little more1 and all ranging from north to south1 without any one touching the other4 ,there is between them sea channels1 one broad1 the other narrow4 ,being in the middle of an atollon1 you see all around you this great stone bank1 which surrounds and protects the island from the waves2 but it is a formidable attempt1 even for the boldest1 to approach the bank and watch the waves as they roll in and break with fury upon the shore4 ,since the publication of ,laval's description1 many circular isles1 or groups of islands1 analogous to these atollons1 since called atolls1 have been discovered in the ,pacific ,ocean and other seas4 ,the naturalist ,forster1 who accompanied ,cook in his voyage round the world1 first made known the more remarkable characteristics of these gigantic formations4 ,he perfectly comprehended their origin1 which he was the first to attribute to the development of the calcareous zoophytic polypier4 ,after ,forster1 many other naturalists--,lamouroux1 ,chamisso1 ,quoy1 ,gaimard1 ,ehrenberg1 ,ellis1 ,darwin1 ,couthony1 and ,dana--have furnished ,science with many precious lessons on the natural history of coral islands and madreporic reefs4 ,we can only glance at a few of the more remarkable genera of these interesting creatures4 ,those occupying the same ,coral1 says ,frdol1 live in perfect harmony2 they constitute a family of brothers1 physically united in the closest bonds of union4 ,they occupy the same dwelling1 each having its separate chamber2 but the power of abandoning it is denied them4 ,attached each to its cell1 they are driven to trust in ,providence for the food which never fails them2 moreover1 what is eaten by each mouth profits the whole community4 ,urged on by a wonderful instinct1 the polypes labour together at the same work2 isolated1 they would be weak and helpless2 in combination1 they are strong4 ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers has even demonstrated that ,antipathes glaberrima1 ,gorgonia tuberculata 7,lamarck71 ,leiopathes glaberrima 7,gray71 and ,leiopathes ,lamarckii 7,haime71 were present on the same coral1 the ,gerardia of ,lamarck4 ,it is thus recognized that1 under the general denomination of polyps1 very distinct genera are found1 some being of the ,hydra type1 others belonging to the ,plumularia4 ,the first are very common on our coast3 they include the ,tubularia1 the ,campanularia1 and the ,sertularia4 ,the ,reed ,tubularia 7,t4 indivisa7 is remarkably curious3 its numerous stems are horny1 yellow1 and marked at intervals with irregular knots1 resembling the joints of a straw4 ,their lower extremity is tortuous1 and apt to adhere to foreign bodies2 the upper part is nearly upright1 and slightly flexuous1 the whole resembling some flowering plant1 without leaves or lateral branches4 ,the ,campanularias are altogether different2 the end of the branches whence the polyps issue are broad and bell-shaped1 ,c4 dichotoma presenting a stem of brownish colour1 thin as a silken thread1 but strong and elastic4 ,the polyps are numerous1 a branch eight inches in height being inhabited by as many as twelve hundred individuals4 ,the ,sertularias have a horny stem1 sometimes simple1 sometimes branching1 and may easily be mistaken for small plants4 ,their name is derived from the ,latin sertum1 a bouquet2 and1 indeed1 they can only be described as trees in miniature1 with branches yellow and semi-transparent1 each tree having seven1 eight1 twelve1 or twenty small panicles1 each of which will contain about five hundred animals1 the tree itself containing probably an association of ten thousand4 ,occasionally ,sertularia argentea is said to afford shelter and employment for a hundred thousand of these creatures4 ,s4 falcata1 having all the grace and elegance of the delicate and slender ,mimosa1 is now placed among the ,bryozoares4 ,the minute cells in which the polyps are lodged are not always arranged in the same manner4 ,sometimes the cells occupy one side only2 in other instances they occupy both2 sometimes they are grouped like the pipes of an organ1 at others they are ranged spirally round the stem1 or arranged at intervals1 forming horizontal rings round it4 ,the ,alcyonaria are very common on some parts of our coast1 where scarcely a stone or shell is dredged up that does not support one or more specimens known to the fishermen as cow's paps1 dead men's fingers1 and other popular names4 ,this round and lobed fleshy mass is quite a colony in itself2 placed in pure sea water1 it very soon presents certain yellow or grass-like points1 which gradually expand and display themselves in their native transparent and animated coralline4 ,each of these polyps have eight dentate petals1 in the centre of which is the mouth2 the body of the polyp is tubular1 varying externally in length1 traversed internally throughout its entire mass by a tissue studded with reddish spicul1 and furrowed with small reed-like ribbons1 common to all the individuals of the association4 ,among the ,tubiporid may be noted ,tubipora musica 7,linnus71 from the ,indian ,ocean1 characterised by its stony tubes1 simple1 numerous1 straight or flexible1 parallel1 and slightly radiating1 of a fine purple1 and united together at intervals by transverse bands1 so as to resemble the pipes of an organ4 ,the polyp is a brilliant grass green1 according to ,pron2 the tentacula furnished on each side with two or three rows of granulous fleshy papill1 to the number of sixty to eighty 7,lesson74 ,the ,gorgonia is studded with calcareous or siliceous spicul which form a crust in drying4 ,this crust is friable1 and frequently preserves the colours more or less brilliant which characterise it4 ,their cells are sometimes hollowed out of the plain surface2 sometimes they occur in the projecting mammals2 these are smooth1 rough1 or scaly--sometimes pendent the one from the other4 ,these animals attach themselves to solid bodies1 sometimes even to each other1 grafting themselves or interlacing each other in all directions4 ,in colour they are whitish1 pure white1 yellow1 and apple-green2 their shades1 passing from olive-brown to deep blue1 from vermilion to violet1 and from pale yellow to pearly-grey4 ,each tube or cell contains an individual4 ,the cells are more or less deep1 according to the species4 ,the polyps are composed generally of a hidden portion more or less tubular1 and of a star-like portion more or less displayed4 ,this latter portion presents from eight to twelve soft and granulous wattles1 susceptible of expansion1 like the petals of a flower4 ,when these appendages are displayed1 they often attain twice the height of the body2 in this state they are nearly transparent1 except towards the extremity4 ,they extend or compress these wattles1 dilate or contract the mouth according to their wants2 but their digestive tube is firmly soldered to the cell1 while the axis which supports the cells is motionless4 ,what a singular combination is here presented6 ,trees1 one-half of which are animated1 growing at the bottom of the sea2 polyps1 one-half of which is imprisoned1 and riveted to their person2 their stomachs in the bark1 their arms on a branch1 their movements perfect repose6 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4--,coral ,island of ,clermont-,tonnerre1 in the ,pomotouan ,archipelago4 ,these minute silent workers are active and indefatigable2 their task is to separate the salt and other chemical particles from the waters of the ocean1 and1 while feeding themselves1 secrete and organise the axis which bears their lodging4 ,they love the warmer regions of the ocean2 in colder regions1 the results of their labours are extremely limited3 the one forms a sward of submarine life1 which carpets the rocks2 the other produces animated stalactites1 great shrubs1 whole forests of small trees4 ,the electric cable which unites ,sardinia to the ,genoese fort was so encrusted with corals and bryozoares1 that certain portions taken from the water for repairs had attained the size of a small barrel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the atolls present three unfailing and constant peculiarities4 ,sometimes they constitute a great circular chain1 the centre of which is occupied by a deep basin1 in direct communication with the exterior sea1 through one or many breaches of great depth4 ,these are the atolls1 described more than two centuries ago by ,pyrard de ,laval2 sometimes they surround1 but at some distance1 a small island1 in such a manner as to constitute a sort of skeleton or girdle of reefs2 finally they may form the immediate edging or border of an island or continent4 ,in this last case they are called fringing littorals1 or edging reefs4 ,at the distance of a few hundred yards only from the edge of some of these reefs1 the sea is of such a depth that the sounding-lead has failed to reach the bottom4 ,in order to give an idea of the general form of these atolls1 although they are rarely so regular1 the reader is referred to ,,pl4 ,,iii41 which represents one of these islands of the ,pomotouan ,archipelago1 in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,it represents the island of ,clermont-,tonnerre1 figured by ,captain ,wilkes in the ,american ,exploring ,expedition4 ,the exterior girdle of rocks here surrounds a basin nearly circular4 ,such is the general form--the typical form1 so to speak--of the coral isles1 of which this is a fair representation4 ,the zoophytes which form these mineral accumulations belong to diverse groups1 and nowhere have the results of observations made upon these atolls been more minutely described than in ,mr4 ,darwin's remarks on the grand ,cocos ,island situated to the south of ,sumatra1 in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,no writer1 it seems to us1 has reasoned on these atolls more comprehensively than the author of the ,origin of ,species4 ,the earlier voyagers1 he says1 fancied that the coral-building animals instinctively built up their great corals to afford themselves protection in the inner parts2 but so far is this from the truth1 that those massive kinds1 to whose growth on the exposed outer shores the very existence of the reef depends1 cannot live within the lagoon1 where other delicately-branching kinds flourish4 ,moreover1 in this view1 many species of distinct genera and families are supposed to combine for one end2 and of such a combination not a single instance can be found in the whole of nature4 ,the theory that has been most generally received is1 that atolls are based on submarine craters1 but when the form and size of some of them are considered1 this idea loses its plausible character4 ,thus1 the ,suadiva atoll is forty-four geographical miles in diameter in one line by thirty-four in another2 ,rimsky is fifty-four by twenty miles across2 ,bow atoll is thirty miles long1 and1 on an average1 six miles broad4 ,this theory1 moreover1 is totally inapplicable to the ,northern ,maldivian atolls in the ,indian ,ocean1 one of which is eighty-eight miles in length1 and between ten and twenty in breadth4 ,the various theories which had been propounded failing to explain the existence of the coral islands1 ,mr4 ,darwin was led to reconsider the whole subject4 ,numerous soundings taken all round the ,cocos atoll showed that at ten fathoms the prepared tallow in the hollow of the sounding rod came up perfectly clean1 and marked with the impression of living polyps4 ,as the depth increased1 these impressions became less numerous1 but adhering particles of sand succeed1 until it was evident that the bottom consisted of smooth sand4 ,from these observations1 it was obvious to him that the utmost depth at which the coral polyps can construct reefs is between twenty and thirty fathoms4 ,now1 there are enormous areas in the ,indian ,ocean in which every island is a coral formation raised to the height to which the waves can throw up fragments and the winds pile up sand2 and the only theory which seems to account for all the circumstances embraced1 is that of the subsidence of vast regions in this ocean4 ,as mountain after mountain and island after island slowly sunk beneath the water1 he says1 fresh bases would be successively afforded for the growth of the corals4 ,i venture to defy any one to explain in any other manner how it is possible that numerous islands should be distributed throughout vast areas1 all the islands being low1 all built of coral absolutely requiring a foundation within a limited depth below the surface4 ,the ,porites1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 form the most elevated deposits of those which are situated nearer the level of the water3 ,millepora complanata also enters into the formation of the upper banks4 ,various other branched corals present themselves in great numbers in the cavities left by the ,porites and ,millepora crossing each other4 ,it is difficult to identify species occupying themselves in the deeper parts1 but1 according to ,darwin1 the lower parts of the reefs are occupied by polyps of the same species as in the upper parts2 at the depth of eighteen fathoms and upwards1 the bottom consists alternately of sand and corals4 ,the total breadth of the circular reef or ring which constitutes the atoll of the ,keeling or ,cocos ,island varies from two hundred to five hundred yards in breadth4 ,some little parasitic isles form themselves upon the reefs1 at two or three hundred yards from their exterior edge1 by the accumulation of the fragments thrown up here during great storms4 ,they rise from two to three yards above the sea level1 and consist of shells1 corals1 and sea urchins1 the whole consolidated into hard and solid rock4 ,mr4 ,darwin's description of a kind of ,sea-pen1 ,virgularia ,patagonia1 throws some curious light on the habits of these creatures4 ,this zoophyte consists of a thin1 straight1 fleshy stem1 with alternate rows of polypi on each side1 and surrounding an elastic stony axis1 varying in length from eight inches to two feet4 ,the stem at one extremity is truncate1 but at the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage4 ,the stony axis1 which gives strength to the stem1 may be traced at the extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter4 ,at low water1 hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen projecting like stubble1 with the truncate end upwards1 a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand4 ,when touched or pulled1 they suddenly drew themselves in with force1 so as nearly1 or quite1 to disappear4 ,by this action1 the highly elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity1 where it is naturally slightly curved2 and ,i imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud4 ,each polyp1 though closely united to its brethren1 has a distinct mouth1 body1 and tentacula4 ,of these polyps1 in a large specimen there must be many thousands1 yet we see that they act by one movement4 ,they have also one central axis connected with a system of obscure circulation1 and the ova are produced in an organ distinct from the separate individuals4 ,for1 adds ,mr4 ,darwin1 in a note1 the cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the extremity were filled with a yellow pulpy matter which1 under a microscope1 consisted of rounded semi-transparent grains aggregated together into particles of various sizes4 ,all such particles1 as well as separate grains1 possessed the power of rapid motion1 generally revolving round different axes1 but sometimes progressive4 ,the description of the ,island of ,cocos or ,keeling is as follows3--,the ring-formed reef of the lagoon island is surmounted1 in the greater part of its length1 by linear islets4 ,on the northern1 or leeward side1 there is an opening through which vessels can pass to the anchorage within4 ,on entering1 the scene was very curious1 and rather pretty2 its beauty1 however1 entirely depended on the brilliancy of the surrounding colours4 ,the shallow1 clear1 and still water of the lagoon1 resting in its greater part on white sand1 is1 when illumined by a vertical sun1 of the most vivid green4 ,this brilliant expanse1 several miles in width1 is on all sides divided1 either by a line of snow-white breakers from the dark heaving waters of the ocean1 or from the blue vault of heaven by the strips of land crowned by the level tops of the cocoa-nut tree4 ,as a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing contrast to the azure sky1 so in the lagoon bands of living coral darken the emerald-green water4 ,the next morning ,i went ashore on ,direction ,island4 ,the strip of dry land is only a few hundred yards in width2 on the lagoon side there was a white calcareous beach1 the radiation from which1 under this sultry climate1 was very oppressive4 ,on the outer coast1 a solid broad flat of coral rock served to break the violence of the open sea4 ,excepting near the lagoon1 where there is some sand1 the land is entirely composed of rounded fragments of coral4 ,in such a loose1 dry1 stony soil1 the climate of the intertropical regions alone could produce so vigorous a vegetation4 ,on some of the smaller islets1 nothing could be more elegant than the manner in which the young and full-grown cocoa-nut trees1 without destroying each other's symmetry1 were mingled into one wood4 ,a beach of glittering white sand formed a border to those fairy spots4 ,the natural history of these islands1 from its very paucity1 possesses peculiar interest4 ,the cocoa-nut tree1 at the first glance1 seems to compose the whole wood2 there are1 however1 five or six other trees4 ,one of these grows to a very large size1 but1 from the extreme softness of its wood1 it is useless2 another sort affords excellent timber for shipbuilding4 ,besides the trees1 the number of plants is exceedingly limited1 and consist of insignificant weeds4 ,in my collection1 which includes1 ,i believe1 nearly the perfect ,flora1 there are twenty species1 without reckoning a moss1 lichen1 and fungus4 ,to this number two trees must be added1 one of which was not in flower1 and the other ,i only heard of4 ,the latter is a solitary tree of its kind1 and grows near the beach1 where1 without doubt1 the one seed was thrown up by the waves4 ,the next day ,i employed myself in examining the very interesting yet simple structure and origin of these islands4 ,the water being unusually smooth1 ,i waded over the flat of dead rock as far as the living mounds of coral1 on which the swell of the open sea breaks4 ,in some of the gulleys and hollows there were beautiful green and other coloured fishes1 and the forms and tints of many of the zoophytes were admirable4 ,it is excusable to grow enthusiastic over the infinite number of organic beings with which the sea of the ,tropics1 so prodigal of life1 teems2 yet ,i must confess1 ,i think those naturalists who have described in well-known words the submarine grottoes1 decked with a thousand beauties1 have indulged in rather exuberant language4 ,i accompanied ,captain ,fitzroy to an island at the head of the lagoon2 the channel was exceedingly intricate1 winding through fields of delicately-branched corals4 ,at the head of the lagoon we crossed a narrow islet1 and found a great surf breaking on the windward coast4 ,i can hardly explain the reason1 but there is1 to my mind1 much grandeur in the view of the outer shores of these lagoon islands4 ,there is a simplicity in the barrier-like beach1 the margin of green bushes and tall cocoa-nuts1 the solid flat of dead coral-rock1 strewed here and there with great loose fragments1 and the line of furious breakers1 all rounding away towards either hand4 ,the ocean1 throwing its waters over the broad reef1 appears an invincible1 all-powerful enemy2 yet we see it resisted and even conquered by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient4 ,it is not that the ocean spares the rock of coral2 the great fragments scattered over the reef1 and heaped on the beach whence the tall cocoa-nut springs1 plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves4 ,nor are any periods of repose granted2 the long swell caused by the gentle but steady action of the trade-winds1 always blowing in one direction over a wide area1 causes breakers almost equalling in force those during a gale of wind in the temperate regions1 and which never cease to rage4 ,it is impossible to behold these waves without feeling a conviction that an island1 though built of the hardest rocks--let it be porphyry1 granite1 or quartz--would ultimately yield and be demolished by such an irresistible power4 ,yet these low1 insignificant coral islets stand1 and are victorious2 for here another power1 as an antagonist1 takes part in the contest4 ,the organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime1 one by one1 from the foaming breakers1 and unite them into a symmetrical structure4 ,let the hurricane tear up its thousand huge fragments1 yet what will that tell against the accumulated labour of myriads of architects at work night and day1 month after month8 ,thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body of a polyp1 through the agency of the vital laws1 conquering the great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which neither the art of man nor the inanimate works of ,nature could successfully resist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have said that madreporic or coralline formations affect three forms1 to which the names of atolls1 barrier reefs1 and fringing reefs have been applied4 ,we have spoken of atolls2 we shall now say a few words on barrier and fringing reefs4 ,barrier reefs are formations which surround the ordinary islands1 or stretch along their banks4 ,they have the form and general structure of atolls4 ,like atolls1 the barrier reefs appear placed on the edge of a marine precipice4 ,they rise on the edge of a plateau which looks down on a bottomless sea4 ,on the coast of ,new ,caledonia1 only two lengths of his ship from the reef1 ,captain ,kent found no bottom in a hundred and fifty fathoms4 ,this was verified at ,gambier ,island in the ,pacific ,ocean1 in ,qualem ,island1 and at many others4 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 the barrier reef situated on the western coast of ,new ,caledonia is four hundred miles long2 that along the eastern coast of ,australia extends almost without interruption for a thousand miles1 ranging from twenty or thirty to fifty or sixty miles from the coast4 ,as to the elevation of the islands thus surrounded with reefs1 it varies considerably4 ,the ,isle of ,tahiti rises six thousand eight hundred feet above the level of the sea2 the ,isle of ,maurua to six hundred2 ,aituaki to three hundred2 and ,manonai to about fifty feet only4 ,around the ,isle of ,gambier the reef has a thickness of a thousand and sixty feet1 at ,tahiti of two hundred and thirty4 ,round the ,fiji ,islands it is from two to three thousand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fringing reefs immediately surrounding the island1 or a portion of it1 might be confounded with the barrier reefs we have been describing1 if they only differed in their smaller breadth2 but the circumstance that they abut immediately on the coast in place of being separated by a channel or lagoon more or less deep and continuous1 proves that they are in direct communication with the slope of the submarine soil1 and permits of their being distinguished from the barrier reefs4 ,the dangerous breakers which surround the ,mauritius are a striking example of the fringing reef4 ,this island is almost entirely surrounded by a barrier of these rocks1 the breadth of which varies from a hundred and fifty to three hundred and thirty feet2 their rugged and abrupt surface is worn almost smooth1 and is rarely uncovered at low water4 ,analogous reefs surround the ,isle of ,bourbon2 all round this island the polyps construct on the volcanic bottom of the sea detached mammalons1 which rise from a fathom to a fathom and a half above the water4 ,madreporic coasting reefs present themselves also on the eastern coast of ,africa and of ,brazil4 ,in the ,red ,sea1 reefs of corals exist which may be ranked among the madreporic coasting reefs1 in consequence of the limited breadth of the gulf4 ,ehrenberg and ,hemprich examined a hundred and fifty stations in the ,red ,sea1 all of which had outlying fringing reefs of this description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it may be asked1 ,with what rapidity are these coral and madreporic banks formed1 so as to become atolls and fringing reefs8 ,to answer this question even approximately is very difficult4 ,on the coast of the ,mauritius1 according to ,m4 d',archaic1#f the learned professor of the ,jardin des ,plantes1 the edge of the reef is produced by ,madrepora corymbosa1 ,m4 pocillifera1 and two species of ,astrea1 which pursue their operations at the depth of from eight to fifteen fathoms4 ,at the base is a bank of ,seriatopora1 from fifteen to twenty fathoms in height4 ,at the bottom1 the sand is covered with ,seriatopora4 ,at twenty fathoms we also meet with fragments of ,madrepora4 ,between twenty and forty fathoms the bottom is sandy1 and the sounding-rod brings up great fragments of ,caryophylla4 ,according to ,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard1 the ,astreas1 which1 as these naturalists consider1 constitute the greater part of the reefs1 cannot live beyond four or five fathoms deep4 ,millepora alcicornis extends from the surface to the depth of twelve fathoms2 the ,madrepores and ,seriatopores down to twenty fathoms4 ,considerable masses of ,meandrina have been observed at sixteen fathoms2 and a ,caryophylla has been brought up from eighty fathoms in thirty-three degrees south latitude4 ,among the polyps which do not form solid reefs1 ,mr4 ,darwin mentions ,cellaria1 found at a hundred and ninety fathoms deep1 ,gorgonia at a hundred and sixty1 ,corallines at a hundred1 ,millepora at from thirty to forty-five1 ,sertularias at forty1 and ,tubulipora at ninety-five fathoms4 ,according to ,dana1 none of the species which form reefs--namely1 ,madrepora1 ,millepora1 ,porites1 ,astreas1 and ,meandrineas--can live at a greater depth than eighteen fathoms4 ,it is only near the surface of the water that the zoophytes which produce minerals and form madreporic banks put forth their powers2 the points most exposed to the beating of the waves is that which is most favourable to their growth2 it is there that the ,astreas1 ,porites1 and ,millepores most abound4 ,the proportionate increase of the structures1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 depends at once upon the species which construct the reefs and upon various accessary circumstances4 ,the ordinary rate of increase of the madrepores1 according to ,dana1 is about an inch and a half annually2 and1 as their branches are much scattered1 this will not exceed half an inch in thickness of the whole surface covered by the madrepore4 ,again1 in consequence of their porosity1 this quantity will be reduced to three-eighths of an inch of compact matter4 ,it is1 besides1 to be noted that great spaces are wanting2 the sands filling up the destroyed part of the polyp are washed out by the currents in the great depths where there are no living corals1 and the surface occupied by them is reduced to a sixth of the whole coralline region1 which reduces the preceding three-eighths to one-sixth4 ,the shells and other organic dbris will probably represent a fourth of the total produce in relation to corals4 ,in this manner1 taking everything into account1 the mean increase of a reef cannot exceed the eighth of an inch annually4 ,according to this calculation1 some reefs which are not less than two thousand feet thick would require for their formation a hundred and ninety-two thousand years4 ,it is necessary to add1 however1 that in favourable circumstances the increase of the masses of coral may be much more rapid4 ,mr4 ,darwin speaks of a ship which1 having been wrecked in the ,persian ,gulf1 was found1 after being submerged only twenty months1 to be covered with a bed of coral two feet in thickness2 he also mentions experiments made by ,mr4 ,allen on the coast of ,madagascar1 which tend to prove that in the space of six months certain corals increased nearly three feet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we proceed to the theoretic explanation of these curious mineral formations4 ,naturalists and navigators have been much divided in opinion as to the true origin of these madreporic islands4 ,most of them have admitted that these enormous banks are composed of the mineral spoils and earthy detritus of the madrepores and corals1 which1 developing themselves in their midst1 or upon the bed of the ocean1 multiplying and superposing themselves1 age after age1 and generation after generation1 have finally concluded by forming deposits of this immense extent4 ,the growth of the vast madreporic column would be finally arrested by the want of water when its summit approached the level of the sea4 ,it is thus that ,forster1 ,pron1 ,flinders1 and ,chamisso have explained the formation of the atolls and madreporic reefs4 ,this opinion has also found a supporter1 in our times1 in the ,french admiral1 ,du ,petit ,thouars4 ,but he objects1 with reason1 that the corals cannot live at the prodigious depth of sea at which the base of these islets lie4 ,it has therefore been found necessary to seek for another cause to satisfy the diverse conditions of the phenomena1 and explain1 at the same time1 the strange circular arrangement of these islands1 which is almost constant1 and which it is essential to keep in view4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell was of opinion that the base of an atoll was always the crater of an ancient submarine volcano1 which1 when crowned with corals and madrepores1 would naturally reproduce this circular wall formed of heaped-up corals4 ,this theory supposes the existence of volcanic craters in the neighbourhood of all the coral islands4 ,it is quite certain that these islands are often found not far from extinct volcanoes1 and ,sir ,charles ,lyell has published a very curious map in connection with the subject2 nevertheless1 the coincidence does not always exist4 ,we have already remarked on the theory by which ,mr4 ,darwin seeks to explain the complicated conditions of the phenomena4 ,the explanation proposed accounts for the known facts1 as well as the present appearance of the madreporic islands4 ,the circular atolls and madreporic banks which are disposed as a sort of girdle1 are principally formed of porites1 millepora1 and astrea1 zoophytes which cannot exist at any great depth in the ocean1 but which swarm on the rocks at some few fathoms only below the limits of the tide4 ,these animals1 by means of their accumulated dbris1 soon form a sort of coating round the island1 which constitutes the littoral reefs3 this marginal tongue or shoulder1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 is the first stage in the existence of a madreporic island4 ,at this point the author introduces a geological cause1 namely1 a great subsiding movement of the soil1 in which the madreporic colony is sunk under the water4 ,it is evident that after submersion the zoophyte will only continue to develop itself on the upper surface1 and within the limits which its nature prescribes4 ,the madrepores exhibiting their greatest vitality at the points most exposed to the fury of the waves1 it will be near the outer edge of the reef that the development will be most rapid4 ,if the subsidence of the island thus surrounded should still continue1 as mountain after mountain and island after island slowly sink beneath the water1 fresh bases would be successively afforded for the growth of the corals1 and the outer edge elevated by their continual labour1 thus transforming the space into a sort of circular lagune4 ,the madreporic deposits would thus form an isolated girdle1 and the lagune1 which occupies the centre1 would become deeper and deeper in proportion to the lowering of the soil4 ,this is the second stage of the madreporic isle4 ,the existence of the atolls are thus subordinated to two principal conditions3 the progressive subsidence of the shore washed by the sea1 and the existence of coral formed of stony cells1 the growth and multiplication of which are extremely rapid4 ,it follows from this that madreporic isles cannot exist in all seas2 that they only have their birth in the ,torrid zone1 or at least near the ,tropics1 for it is only in these regions where the warmth exists1 so necessary to their development1 that the madrepores show themselves in greatest abundance4 ,the great field of madreporic formations1 in short1 is found in the warm parts of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it is from this point1 as from a common centre1 round which are ranged the series of madreporic isles and islets1 that it will be useful1 in concluding this chapter1 to trace their geographical distribution4 ,we borrow the materials for this from ,milne ,edwards's tableaux of their distribution in the principal seas of the world4 ,it is1 as we have said1 only in the warm parts of the ,pacific ,ocean that the great mass of these islands are found4 ,they give birth towards the south to the group of atolls known as the archipelago of the ,bashee ,islands1 the extreme limit of the region being the ,isle of ,ducie4 ,a multitude of other islands of the same nature are sparsely scattered over the sea1 up to the east coast of ,australia4 ,there are enormous areas here1 in which every single island is of coral formation1 and is raised to the height at which the waves can throw up fragments4 ,the ,radack group is an angular square1 four hundred miles long by two hundred and forty broad4 ,between this group and the ,low ,archipelago itself1 eight hundred and forty miles by four hundred and twenty1 there are groups and single islands covering a linear space of more than four thousand miles4 ,to the north of the ,equator1 the archipelago of the ,caroline ,islands constitutes a very considerable group of madreporic formation1 comprehending upwards of a thousand1 extending in a broad belt over nearly forty degrees of longitude4 ,on the other hand1 all along the coast of the ,american continent1 round the ,galapagos and the ,isle of ,paques1 we find no trace of them4 ,the reason assigned is1 that in these regions a great current of cold water1 flowing from the ,antarctic ,pole1 so much lowers the temperature of the sea1 that the zoophytes no longer possess the requisite vigour4 ,we still meet with atolls in the ,chinese ,seas1 and madreporic barrier reefs are abundant round the ,marianne and ,philippine ,islands4 ,these marginal reefs form also an immense tract1 from the ,isle of ,timor1 along the south coast of ,sumatra1 up to the island of ,nicobar1 in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,to the west of the ,indian ,peninsula1 the ,maldive and ,laccadive ,islands form the extremity of another group of atolls1 and important madreporic reefs1 which extend towards the south1 by the ,maldives and the ,chagos ,islands2 they consist of low coral formations1 densely clothed with cocoa-nut trees4 ,the ,maldives1 the most southerly cluster1 include upwards of a thousand islands and reefs2 the ,laccadives1 seventeen in number1 are of similar origin4 ,the ,saya de ,malha bank1 towards the south-east1 constitutes a further group of madreporic islets4 ,finally1 the coast of the ,mauritius1 of ,madagascar1 of the ,seychelles1 and even the ,african continent1 from the northern extremity of the ,mozambique ,channel to the bottom of the ,red ,sea1 are studded with numerous reefs of the same nature4 ,they fail1 however1 almost completely1 along the coast of the ,asiatic continent1 where1 among others1 the waters of the ,euphrates1 the ,indus1 and the ,ganges1 enter the sea1 and diversify its inhabitants4 ,the western coast of ,africa1 and the east coast of the ,american continent1 are almost entirely destitute of great madreporic reefs1 but they abound in the ,caribbean ,seas4 ,in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 where the vast fresh-water current of the ,mississippi debouches into the sea1 they are unknown4 ,it is principally on the north coast and upon the eastern flanks of the chain of ,west ,indian ,islands that the madreporic reefs show themselves in these regions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the polyps which have produced these vast ranges of islands would be set down1 at first sight1 as the most incapable objects in creation for accomplishing it4 ,in the case of the ,pennatulid1 the case is coriaceous1 strengthened with calcareous particles2 the interior is a fibrous network containing a transparent jelly in the squares1 and permeated by a certain number of longitudinal cartilaginous tubes2 the soft part is uniformly gelatinous1 but the skin is also coriaceous1 with a great number of calcareous spicula placed parallel to one another1 adding greatly to its strength and consistency4 ,the polyps are placed in this external fleshy crust2 their position being marked by an orifice on the surface1 distinguished by eight star-like rays1 which open when the upper portion of the body is forced outwards1 in which state it resembles a cylindrical bladder or nipple crowned with a fringe of tentacula1 which surround the mouth4 ,under this orifice is the stomach1 occupying the centre of the cylinder4 ,the space between this stomach and the outer envelope is divided into eight equal compartments or cells by as many thin septa1 originating in a labial rim or lip between the basis of the tentacula1 which descend through the cylinder attached on the one side to the inner tunic of the body1 and on the other to the stomach1 which is thus retained in its position4 ,the protruding portion of the polyp is very delicate1 the internal viscera being1 as it were1 enclosed in a bladder formed of two very thin membranes in intimate union1 so transparent as to permit a view of their arrangement4 ,at the base of the body1 where thickest1 it coalesces with the base of the adjacent polyp2 thus constituting the common cortical portion into which each animal retreats at will1 by a process in many respects resembling that by which a snail draws in its horns4 ,in the greater number of ,asteroid this common portion secretes carbonate of lime1 which is deposited in the meshes of its tissues either in granules or in crystalline spicul1 which imparts a solid consistency to the whole4 ,the inner tissue meanwhile continues unaltered1 being prolonged throughout the polypiferous lining of the cell1 the abdominal cavity1 and the longitudinal canals which permeate the whole polyp1 as well as the tubular network with which the space between the canals is occupied4 ,it is among these inner tissues that the buds or gemm are generated1 by whose increase and evolution the polyp mass is enlarged1 the shape and size depending on the manner in which the buds are evolved2 for in some1 as in the ,pennatulid1 determinate spots only have the appropriated organization1 while in others1 as in ,alcyonium1 the generative faculty appears to be undefined and more diffused4 ,,the ,,actiniaria4 ,here we leave the group of polyps which form united families4 ,the ,sea ,anemones1 of which the ,actinia are the type1 consist of ,zoanthaires1 which produce no corals1 that is to say1 of polyps whose covering remains always soft1 and in whose interior nothing solid is produced4 ,this order is usually divided into two families--the ,actiniad1 having the tentacles in uninterrupted circles1 with no corallum1 and the ,minyadin1 having globose bodies1 and very short tentacula4 ,the modern aquarium exposes the spectator to many wonderful surprises4 ,coiled up against the transparent crystal walls of the basin1 he observes living creatures of the most brilliant shades of colour1 and more resembling flowers than animals4 ,supported by a solid base and cylindrical stem1 he sees them terminate like the corolla of a flower1 as in the petals of the anemone3 these are the animals we call ,sea ,anemones--curious zoophytes1 which1 as all persons familiar with the sea shore may have observed1 are now seen suspended from the rocks1 and presently buried at the bottom of the sea1 or floating on its surface4 ,these charming and timid creatures are also called ,actinia1 as indicating their disposition to form rays or stars1 from the ,greek 1 a ray4 ,the body of these animals is cylindrical in form1 terminating beneath in a muscular disk1 which is generally large and distinct1 enabling them to cling vigorously to foreign bodies4 ,it terminates above in an upper disk1 bearing many rows of tentacles1 which differ from each other only in their size4 ,these tentacles are sometimes decorated with brilliant colours1 forming a species of collarette1 consisting of contractile and often retractile tubes1 pierced at their points with an orifice1 whence issue jets of water1 which is ejected at the will of the animal4 ,arranged in multiples of circles1 they distribute themselves with perfect regularity round the mouth4 ,these are the arms of this species of zoophyte4 ,the mouth of the ,actinia opens among the tentacles4 ,oval in form1 it communicates by means of a tube with a stomach1 broad and short1 which descends vertically1 and abuts by a large opening on the visceral cavity1 the interior of which is divided into little cells or chambers4 ,these cells and chambers are not all of the same dimensions2 in parting from the cylindrical walls of the body1 they advance1 the one increasing1 the others getting smaller1 in the direction of the centre4 ,moreover1 they have many kinds of cells1 which dispose themselves in their different relations with great regularity--their tentacula1 which correspond with them1 being arranged in circles radiating more or less from the centre4 ,the stomach of the sea anemones fulfils a multitude of functions4 ,at first1 it is the digestive organ2 it is also the seat of respiration2 and is unceasingly moistened by the water1 which it passes through1 imbibes1 and ejects4 ,the visceral cavity absorbs the atmospheric air contained in the water2 for the stomach is also a lung1 and through the same organ it ejects its young6 ,in short1 the reproductive organs1 the eggs1 and the larv1 are all connected with the tentacles or arms4 ,in the month of ,september the eggs are fecundated1 and the larv or embryos developed4 ,as ,frdol says in ,la ,monde de la ,mer1 ,these animals bear their young1 not upon their arms1 but in their arms4 ,the larv generally pass from the tentacula into the stomach1 and are afterwards ejected from the mouth along with the rejecta of their food--a most singular formation1 in which the stomach breathes1 and the mouth serves the purposes of accouchement--facts which it would be difficult to believe on other than the most positive evidence4 ,the ,daisy-like ,anemones 7,sagartia bellis--,gosse71 in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,paris1 says ,frdol1 frequently throw up little embryos1 which are dispersed1 and attach themselves to various parts of the aquarium1 and finally become miniature anemones exactly like the parent4 ,an actinia which had taken a very copious repast ejected a portion of it about twenty-four hours later1 and in the middle of the ejected food were found thirty-eight young individuals4 ,according to ,dalyell1 an accouchement is here a fit of indigestion4 ,the lower class of animals have1 in fact1 as the general basis of their organization1 a sac with a single opening1 which is applied1 as we have seen1 to a great variety of uses4 ,it receives and rejects2 it swallows and it vomits4 ,the vomiting becomes necessary and habitual--the normal condition1 in short1 of the animal--and is perhaps a source of pleasure to it1 for it is not a malady1 but a function1 and even a function multiplied4 ,in the sea anemone it expels the excrement1 and lays its eggs2 in others1 as we have seen1 it even serves the purposes of respiration2 so that the animal flowers may probably be said to enjoy their regular and periodical vomit4 ,the sea anemones multiply their species in another manner4 ,on the edge of their base certain bud-like excrescences may often be observed4 ,these buds are by-and-by transformed into embryos1 which detach themselves from the mother1 and soon become individuals in all respects resembling her4 ,this mode of reproduction greatly resembles some of the vegetative processes4 ,another and very singular mode of reproduction has been noted by ,mr4 ,hogg in the case of ,actinia oeillet4 ,wishing to detach this anemone from the aquarium1 this gentleman used every effort to effect his purpose2 but only succeeded1 after violent exertions1 in tearing the lower part of the animal4 ,six portions remained attached to the glass walls of the aquarium4 ,at the end of eight days1 attempts were again made to detach these fragments2 but it was observed1 with much surprise1 that they shrank from the touch and contracted themselves4 ,each of them soon became crowned with a little row of tentacula1 and finally each fragment became a new anemone4 ,every part of these strange creatures thus becomes a separate being when detached1 while the mutilated mother continues to live as if nothing had happened4 ,in short1 it has long been known that the sea anemones may be cut limb from limb1 mutilated1 divided1 and subdivided4 ,one part of the body cut off is quickly replaced4 ,cut off the tentacles of an actinia1 and they are replaced in a short time1 and the experiment may be repeated indefinitely4 ,the experiments made by ,m4 ,trembley of ,geneva upon the fresh-water polypi were repeated by the ,abb ,dicquemare on the sea anemones4 ,he mutilated and tormented them in a hundred ways4 ,the parts cut off continued to live1 and the mutilated creature had the power of reproducing the parts of which it had been deprived4 ,to those who accused the ,abb of cruelty in thus torturing the poor creatures1 he replied that1 so far from being a cause of suffering to them1 he had increased their term of life1 and renewed their youth4 ,the ,actiniad vary in their habitat from pools near low-water mark to eighteen or twenty fathoms water1 whence they have been dredged up4 ,they adhere1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 to rocks1 shells1 and other extraneous bodies by means of a glutinous secretion from their enlarged base1 but they can leave their hold and remove to another station whensoever it pleases them1 either by gliding along with a slow and almost imperceptible movement 7half an inch in five minutes71 as is their usual method1 or by reversing the body and using the tentacula for the purpose of feet1 as ,raumur asserts1 and as ,i have once witnessed2 or1 lastly1 inflating the body with water1 so as to render it more buoyant1 they detach themselves1 and are driven to a distance by the random motion of the waves4 ,they feed on shrimps1 small crabs1 whelks1 and similar shelled mollusca1 and probably on all animals brought within their reach whose strength or agility is insufficient to extricate them from the grasp of their numerous tentacula2 for as these organs can be inflected in any direction1 and greatly lengthened1 they are capable of being applied to every point1 and adhere by suction with considerable tenacity1 throwing out1 according to ,gaertner1 of their whole surface a number of extremely minute suckers1 which1 sticking fast to the small protuberances of the skin1 produce the sensation of roughness1 which is so far from being painful that it even cannot be called disagreeable4 ,the size of the prey is frequently in unseemly disproportion to the preyer1 being often equal in bulk to itself4 ,i had once brought me a specimen of ,a4 crassicornis1 that might have been originally two inches in diameter1 which had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of ,pecten maximus of the size of an ordinary saucer4 ,the shell1 fixed within the stomach1 was so placed as to divide it completely into two halves1 so that the body1 stretched tensely over1 had become thin and flattened like a pancake4 ,all communication between the inferior portion of the stomach and the mouth was of course prevented2 yet1 instead of emaciating and dying of atrophy1 the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident to increase its enjoyment and its chance of double fare4 ,a new mouth1 furnished with two rows of numerous tentacula1 was opened up on what had been the base1 and led to the under stomach2 the individual had indeed become a sort of ,siamese ,twin1 but with greater intimacy and extent in its unions6 ,the sea anemones pass nearly all their life fixed to some rock1 to which they seem to have taken root4 ,there they live a sort of unconscious and obtuse existence1 gifted with an instinct so obscure that they are not even conscious of the prey in their vicinity until it is actually in contact1 when it seizes it in its mouth and swallows it4 ,nevertheless1 though habitually adherent1 they can move1 gliding and creeping slowly by successive contractile and relaxing movements of the body1 extending one edge of their base and relaxing the opposite one4 ,at the approach of cold weather the ,actiniad descend into the deepest water1 where they find a more agreeable temperature4 ,we have said that the sea anemones are scarcely possessed of vital instinct2 but they are capable of certain voluntary movements4 ,under the influence of light1 they expand their tentacles as the daisy displays its florets4 ,if the animal is touched1 or the water is agitated in its neighbourhood1 the tentacles close immediately4 ,these tentacles appear occasionally to serve the purpose of offensive arms4 ,the hand of the man who has touched them becomes red and inflamed4 ,m4 ,hollard has seen small mackerel1 two to three inches long1 perish when touched by the tentacles of the ,green ,actinia 7,comactis viridis--,allman74 ,this is a charming little animal4 ,the brilliancy of its colours and the great elegance of its tentacular crown when fully expanded1 says ,professor ,allman1 render it eminently attractive2 hundreds may often be seen in a single pool1 and few sights will be retained with greater pleasure by the naturalist than that presented by these little zoophytes1 as they expand their green and rosy crowns amid the alg1 millepores1 and plumy corals1 co-tenants of their rock-covered vase4 ,the toxological properties of the ,actinia have been attributed to certain special cells full of liquid2 but ,m4 ,hollard believes that these effects are neither constant enough nor sufficiently general to constitute the chief function of these organs1 which are found in all the species and over their whole surface1 external and internal4 ,though quite incapable of discerning their prey at a distance1 the sea anemone seizes it with avidity when it comes to offer itself up a victim4 ,if some adventurous little worm1 or some young and sluggish crustacean1 happens to ruffle the expanded involucrum of an actinia in its lazy progress through the water1 the animal strikes it at once with its tentacles1 and instinctively sweeps it into its open mouth4 ,this habit may be observed in any aquarium1 and is a favourite spectacle at the ,jardin d',acclimatation of ,paris1 at noon on ,sunday and ,wednesday1 when the aquatic animals are fed4 ,small morsels of food are thrown into the water4 ,prawns1 shrimps1 and other crustaceans and zoophytes inhabiting this medium1 chase the morsels as they sink to the bottom of the basin2 but it is otherwise with the ,actinia2 the morsels glide downwards within the twentieth part of an inch of their crown without its presence being suspected4 ,it requires the aid of a propitious wand1 directed by the hand of the keeper1 to guide the food right down on the animal4 ,then its arms or tentacles seize upon the prey1 and its repast commences forthwith4 ,the ,actinia are at once gluttonous and voracious4 ,they seize their food with the help of the tentacula1 and engulf in their stomach1 as we have seen1 substances of a volume and consistence which contrast strangely with their dimensions and softness4 ,in less than an hour1 ,m4 ,hollard observed that one of these creatures voided the shell of a mussel1 and disposed of a crab all to its hardest parts2 nor was it slow to reject these hard parts1 by turning its stomach inside out1 as one might turn out one's pocket1 in order to empty it of its contents4 ,we have seen in ,dr4 ,johnston's account of ,a4 crassicornis that when threatened with death by hunger1 from having swallowed a shell which separated it into two halves1 at the end of eleven days it had opened a new mouth1 provided with separate rows of tentacula4 ,the accident which1 in ordinary animals1 would have left it to perish of hunger1 became1 in the sea anemone1 the source of redoubled gastronomical enjoyment4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v4--,sea ,anemones4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,a4 sulcata4 #d4 ,phymactis sanct ,helen4 #e4 ,actinia capensis4 #f4 ,a4 ,peruviana4 #g4 ,a4 sanct ,catherin4 #h4 ,a4 amethystina4 #i4 ,comactis viridis4 ,the anemones1 ,frdol tells us1 are voracious1 and full of energy2 nothing escapes their gluttony2 every creature which approaches them is seized1 engulfed1 and devoured4 ,nevertheless1 with all the power of their mouth1 their insatiable stomachs cannot retain the prey they have swallowed4 ,in certain circumstances it contrives to escape1 in others it is adroitly snatched away by some neighbouring marauder more cunning and more active than the anemone4 ,in ,,pl4 ,,iv4 are represented the principal species of ,anemone usually observed in the aquarium4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 ,a4 sulcata1 is surmised by ,johnson to be the young of ,a4 effoeta 7,linn474 ,it is also quoted as a synonyme of ,anthea cereus1 from ,drayton's stanza3 ,anthea of the flowers1 that hath a general charge1 ,and ,syrinx of the weeds1 that grow upon the marge4 ,fig4 #d1 ,phymactis ,sanct ,helen 7,edw472 ,fig4 #e1 ,a4 ,capensis 7,lesson72 ,fig4 #f1 ,a4 ,peruviana 7,lesson72 ,fig4 #g1 ,a4 ,sanct ,catherin2 ,fig4 #h1 ,a4 amethystina 7,quoy72 ,fig4 #i1 ,comactis viridis 7,milne ,edwards74 ,it is sometimes observed in aquariums that a shrimp1 which has seen the prey devoured from a distance1 will throw itself upon the ravisher1 and audaciously wrest the prey from him and devour it before his eyes1 to his great disappointment4 ,even when the savoury morsel has been swallowed1 the shrimp1 by great exertions1 succeeds in extracting it from the stomach4 ,seating itself upon the extended disk of the anemone1 with its small feet it prevents the approach of the tentacles1 at the same time that it inserts its claws into the digestive cavity and seizes the food4 ,in vain the anemone tries to contract its gills and close its mouth4 ,sometimes the conflict between the sedentary zoophyte and the vagrant crustacean becomes serious4 ,when the former is strong and robust1 the aggression is repelled1 and the shrimp runs the risk of supplementing the repast of the anemone4 ,if the actinias are voracious1 they can also support a prolonged period of fasting4 ,they have been known to live two and even three years without having received any nourishment4#g ,although the sea anemone is said to be delicate eating1 man derives very little benefit from them in that respect4 ,in ,provence1 ,italy1 and ,greece1 the ,green ,actinia is in great repute1 and ,dicquemare speaks of ,a4 crassicornis as delicate food4 ,of all the kinds of sea anemones1 ,i would prefer this for the table2 being boiled some time in sea water1 they acquire a firm and palatable consistence1 and may then be eaten with any kind of sauce4 ,they are of an inviting appearance1 of a light shivering texture1 and of a soft white and reddish hue4 ,their smell is not unlike that of a warm crab or lobster4 ,dr4 ,johnston admits the tempting description1 and does not doubt their being not less a luxury than the sea urchins of the ,greeks1 or the snails of the ,roman epicures1 but he was not induced to test its truth4 ,rondeletius tells us1 having1 as ,dr4 ,johnston thinks1 ,a4 crassicornis in view1 that it brings a good price at ,bordeaux4 ,actinia dianthus also is good to eat1 quoth ,dicquemare1 and ,plaucus directs the cook to dress it after the manner of dressing oysters1 with which it is frequently eaten4 ,actinia coriacea is found in the market at ,rochefort during the months of ,january1 ,february1 and ,march4 ,its flesh is said to be both delicate and savoury4 ,with these general considerations1 we proceed to note some of the more remarkable genera and species of these interesting creatures4 ,among these1 the species represented in ,,pl4 ,,iv4 are those usually seen collected in such aquariums as those of the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london and the ,gardens of ,acclimatization of ,paris4 ,the first section of the ,actiniad1 according to ,milne ,edwards1 includes the ,common ,actinia1 the feet of which are broad and adherent1 the lateral walls soft and imperforate4 ,to this section belongs1 among others1 the genera ,anemonia1 ,actinia1 and ,metridium4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4--,sea ,anemones4 #a4 ,actinia dianthus4 #b4 ,cereus gemmaceus4 #c4 ,actinia bicolor4 #d4 ,sagartia viduata4 #e4 ,cereus papillossus4 #f4 ,actinia picta4 #g4 ,actinia equina4 #h4 ,sagartia rosea4 #i4 ,sagartia coccinea4 ,the ,green ,actinia 7,a4 viridis7 has very numerous tentacula1 sometimes as many as two hundred1 exceeding in length the breadth of the body1 of a fine brownish or olive green1 and rose-coloured at the extremity4 ,the trunk is of a greyish green or brown2 the disk is brown with greenish rays4 ,this species is plentiful in the ,mediterranean and in the ,channel4 ,when attached to the vertical sides of a rock1 a little below the surface of the water1 in which position it is often seen on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 the tentacles hang suspended as if the animal had no power to display them in their radiate form2 but when fixed horizontally in a calm sea1 they are spread out in all directions1 and are kept in a state of continual agitation2 its long1 mane-like tentacula1 fully expanded1 float and balance themselves in the water in spite of the action of the waves1 presenting a most interesting spectacle as it displays its beauties a few feet below the passing boat4 ,a4 dianthus 7,ellis71 having a number of synonymes1 is represented in ,,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #a2 its body is smooth and cylindrical2 the disk marked in the centre with clavate radiating bands2 tentacula numerous1 irregular1 the outer small1 and forming round the margin a thick filamentous fringe4 ,this species attaches itself to rocks and shells in deep water1 or within low-water mark1 to which it permanently attaches itself1 and cannot be removed without organic injury to the base4 ,when contracted1 the body presents a thick1 short1 sub-cylindrical form1 about three inches long1 and one and a half in diameter1 and about five inches when fully expanded2 the skin is smooth1 of an uniform olive1 whitish1 cream1 or flesh colour4 ,the centre of the disk is ornamented with a circle of white bands1 radiating from the mouth1 the lamell running across1 the circumference being perceptible through the transparent skin4 ,from the narrow1 colourless interspaces between the lamell the tentacula originate4 ,they are placed1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 between the mouth and the margin1 which is encircled by a dense fringe of incontestable beauty1 composed of innumerable short tentacula or filaments1 forming a thick1 furry border4 ,in ,,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #b1 we have probably ,gaertner's ,anthea cereus1 the body of which is a light chestnut colour1 smooth1 sulcated lengthwise1 with tentacula rising from the disk to the number1 in aged animals1 of two hundred4 ,sagartia viduata--,gosse 7,fig4 #d7 has the body adherent1 cylindrical1 without a skin1 destitute of warts1 emitting capsuliferous filaments from pores2 nettling-threads short1 densely armed with a brush of hairs2 tentacles conical4 ,a4 picta 7,,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #f71 which ,professor ,edward ,forbes changes to ,adamsia palliata1 is described by ,mr4 ,adams1 who first discovered it1 as longitudinally sulcated1 having the edges of the base crenated2 the lower part an obscure red1 and the upper part transparent white1 marked with fine purple spots2 the outer circumference of the aperture has a narrow stripe of pink4 ,when expanded1 the superior division of the body seems formed of membrane4 ,from perforated warts placed without order on the outer coat1 issued white filamentous substances variously twisted together4 ,i have observed1 he adds1 similar bodies ejected from the mouths of all the species of this genus which have fallen within my notice4 ,a4 mesembryanthemum 7,johnston74--,the ,a4 equina of ,lesson 7,,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #f71 known in ,france as the ,cul d'ane1 is extremely common in the ,channel on rocks between the tide marks4 ,it attaches itself chiefly to rocks beaten by the waves and exposed to view at the moment of reflux4 ,the body is from two to three inches in height1 and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter2 hemispherical when contracted1 it resembles a bell perforated at the summit1 dilated into a cylinder4 ,when fully extended the tentacula are nearly equal to the height of the body1 of a uniform liver colour1 or olive green1 and sometimes streaked with blue1 having a greenish line either continuous or in spots1 the base generally of a greenish colour encircled with an azure blue line1 often streaked with red4 ,the tentacula are terminated by a small pore4 ,its colour is variable1 but generally it is of a violet-red4 ,sometimes it presents round spots of a fine green2 at other times it is only of a greenish hue2 the edge of the feet have a narrow border of red1 with green and blue beneath4 ,metridium dianthus has a thick body with russet grey skin1 the disk strongly lobed1 thin and transparent round the mouth2 the tentacula very numerous1 very short1 and occupying a broad1 strong zone upon the disk4 ,the mesial lines are whitish and wide apart2 externally they are closer1 papiliform1 and brown4 ,this species is found on stones and shells in the ,north ,sea and in the ,channel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the verrucous1 or warty section of the ,actiniad1 have the lateral walls of the body covered with agglutinated tubercles1 and well-developed feet4 ,to this section belong the ,coriaceous ,cereus1 ,actinia crassicornis 7,johnston71 and ,a4 senilis 7,hollard and ,dicquemare71 which seem to vary in habit4 ,hollard describes them as frequently buried in the sands on the shore1 while ,cocks describes them as attaching themselves to shells and stones in deep water1 or attached on the littoral to the sides of rocks1 in crevices1 or on the face of clean stones in sheltered places4 ,the body is variegated1 green1 and red2 the tentacles thick1 short1 and greyish1 with broad roseate bands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,edwardsia ,calimorpha 7,gosse74 ,the ,anemones belonging to the fourth section1 or tap-rooted actinia1 have the base small1 and terminating in a rounded point1 and the body much elongated1 as in ,edwardsia ,calimorpha 7,fig4 #hj71 in which the body is non-adherent1 somewhat worm-like1 having the mouth and tentacula seated on a retractile column1 the lower extremity inflated1 membranous1 and retractile4 ,in the great family of the ,actiniarians1 ,milne ,edwards forms a special group of the ,phyllactin4 ,in this group the polyps are simple1 fleshy1 and present at once simple and composite tentacula4 ,such is ,phyllactis prtexta 7,fig4 #ha71 which is found in the neighbourhood of ,rio ,janeiro4 ,the zoophyte fixes itself upon the rocks on the sea shore1 and covers itself with sand4 ,its trunk1 of cylindrical form1 is of a flesh-colour1 with vertical lines1 having red points4 ,the interior tentacles form two simple elongated rows2 the exterior tentacles are spatulate and lobed1 not very unlike the leaves of the oak4 ,another group1 that of the ,thalassianthid1 is distinguished from the preceding by having all its tentacula short1 pinnate1 and branching1 or papilliferous4 ,one species only is known1 ,t4 aster1 of a slate colour1 which inhabits the ,red ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,phyllactus prtexta 7,dana71 natural size4 ,in the last group of ,actiniad1 as arranged by ,milne ,edwards1 the polypes occur in clusters1 and are multiplied by buds1 rising from a common creeping1 root-like1 fleshy base2 they thus present a sort of coriaceous polypier1 as in ,zoanthus socialis 7,fig4 #hb74 ,in the ,british ,channel this species1 which ,dr4 ,johnston has named ,z4 ,couchii1 after ,mr4 ,couch1 jun41 is found along the ,cornish coast1 on flat slates and rocks1 in deep water1 and from one to ten leagues from the shore4 ,it is very small1 resembling1 both in shape and size1 a split pea4 ,when living1 its surface is plain but glandular1 becoming corrugated when preserved4 ,when semi-expanded1 which is its favourite state1 it elevates itself to twice its ordinary height1 becoming contracted about the middle1 like an hour-glass4 ,when the creature is fully expanded1 the tentacula become distended and elongated to about the length of the transverse diameter of the body2 and they are generally darker at their extremities than towards the base4 ,like all the ,actiniad1 the present species possess a power of considerably altering their shape2 sometimes the mouth is depressed1 and at others it is elevated into an obtuse cone4 ,this is one of the most inactive of its order1 says ,mr4 ,a4 ,couch2 for1 whether in a state of contraction or expansion1 it will remain so for many days without apparent change4 ,in its expanded state a touch will make it contract1 and it will commonly remain so for many days4 ,the trailing connecting-band is flat1 thin1 narrow1 glandular1 and of the same texture as the polyp1 sometimes enlarging into small papillary eminences1 which1 as they become enlarged1 become developed into polyps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,zoanthus socialis 7,cuvier71 natural size4 ,,minyadinians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,blue ,minyade4 ,minyas coeulea 7,cuvier71 natural size4 ,the ,minyadinians seem to represent among the ,zoanthairia the form peculiar to the ,pennatula among the ,alcyonians4 ,in the case of these animals1 the base of the body1 in place of extending itself in a disk-like form1 in order to grapple with the rock and other projections at the bottom of the sea1 turns itself inwards1 forming a sort of purse1 which seems to imprison the air4 ,from this results a sort of hydrostatic apparatus1 aided by which the animals can float in the water and transport themselves from one place to another4 ,the ,blue ,minyade 7,minyas cyanea--,fig4 #hc7 will serve as a type of this family2 its globose1 melon-like form is of azure blue1 studded with white wart-like excrescences2 it is flattened at its two extremities in its state of contraction1 and it has three rows of tentacula1 which are short1 cylindrical1 and white4 ,the internal organs are of a delicate rose colour4 ,cuvier places this species among the ,echinodermata1 but the observations of ,lesueur and ,quoy1 who were acquainted with the living animal1 place it among the ,actiniad4 ,many of the species1 which are usually fixed1 are still capable of swimming and of inflating their suctorial disks2 therefore it is by no means certain that the free habit of ,minyas cyanea is constant4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #f3 ,cours de ,paleontologie ,stratigraphique4 ,footnote #g3 ,on en a vu vivre deux et mme trois ans1 sans recevoir de nourriture4--,vie des ,animaux1 p4 #aag4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,acaleph1 ,,or ,,sea ,,nettles4 ,in nova fert animus mutatis dicere formas corpora4--,,ovid1 ,,met4 ,the class ,acaleph1 from 1 a nettle1 so called from the stinging properties which many of them possess1 include a great number of radiate animals of which the ,medus are the type4 ,they form the third class of ,cuvier's zoophytes4 ,the ,acaleph1 forming the first order1 are characterised as floating and swimming in the sea by means of the contraction and dilation of their bodies1 their substance being gelatinous1 without apparent fibres4 ,the great genus ,medusa is characterised by having a disk1 more or less convex above1 resembling a mushroom or expanded umbrella--the edges of the umbrella1 as well as the mouth and suckers1 being more or less prolonged into pedicles1 which take their place in the middle of the lower surface2 they are furnished with tentacula1 varying in form and size1 which have given rise to many subdivisions1 with which we need not concern ourselves4 ,the substance of the disk presents an uniform cellular appearance internally1 but the cellular substance being very soft1 no trace of fibre is observable4 ,taken from the sea and laid upon a stone1 a ,medusa weighing fifty ounces will rapidly diminish to five or six grains1 sinking into a sort of deliquescence1 from which ,spalanzani concluded that the sea-water penetrated the organic texture of its substance1 and constituted the principal volume of the animal4 ,those which have cilia round their margins have also cellular bands running along their bases1 and most of the projectile and extensile tentacula and filaments have sacs and canals containing fluids at their roots4 ,suckers are also found at the extremities1 and along the sides of these tentacles in several genera are suckers1 by which they are able more securely to catch their floating prey1 or to anchor themselves when at rest4 ,the indications of nerves or nervous system are too slight to be received as evidence1 although ,dr4 ,grant observed some structure which he thought could only belong to a nervous system1 and ,ehrenberg thought he observed eyes in ,medusa aurita1 as well as a nervous circle formed of four ganglion-like masses disposed round the mouth4 ,but most naturalists seem to be of opinion that touch is the only sense of which any conclusive proof can be advanced4 ,here we behold a class of bell-shaped semi-transparent organisms1 which float gracefully in the sea--a great family of soft1 wandering animals1 constituted in a most extraordinary manner4 ,they look like floating umbrellas1 breeches1 or1 better still1 floating mushrooms1 the footstalk replaced by an equally central body1 but divided into divergent lobes at once sinuous1 twisted1 and fringed1 so that one is at first tempted to take them for a species of root4 ,the edges of the umbrella or mushroom are entire or dentate1 sometimes elegantly figured1 often ciliate1 or provided with long filiform appendages which float vertically in the water4 ,sometimes the animal is uncoloured1 and limpid as crystal2 sometimes it presents a slightly opaline appearance1 now of a tender blue1 or of a delicate rose colour2 at other times it reflects the most brilliant and vivid tints4 ,in certain species the central parts only are coloured1 showing brilliant reds and yellows1 blues or violets1 the rest being colourless4 ,in others the central mass seems clothed in a thin iridescent or diaphanous veil1 like the light evanescent soap-bubble1 or the transparent glass shade which covers a group of artificial flowers4 ,the ,acaleph are animals without consistence1 imbued with much water1 so that we can scarcely comprehend how they resist the agitation of the waves and the force of the currents2 the waves1 however1 float without hurting them1 the tempest scatters without killing them4 ,when the sea retires1 or they are withdrawn from their native waters1 their substance dissolves1 the animal is decomposed1 they are reduced to nothing2 if the sun is ardent1 this disorganisation occurs in the twinkling of an eye1 so to speak4 ,when the ,medus travel1 their convex part is always kept in advance1 and slightly oblique4 ,if they are touched while swimming1 even lightly1 they contract their tentacula1 fold up their umbrella1 and sink into the sea4 ,like ,ehrenberg1 ,m4 ,klliker thought he discovered visual and auditory organs in an ,oceania1 and ,gegenbauer thought he detected them in other genera1 such as ,rhizostoma and ,pelagia4 ,the eyes are said to consist of certain small1 hemispherical1 cellulose1 coloured masses1 in which are sunk small crystalline globules1 the free parts of which are perfectly naked4 ,the supposed auditory apparatus is seated close to these organs2 they are small vesicles filled with liquid2 the eyes having neither pupil nor cornea1 and the ears without opening or arch4 ,but it is in their reproduction that these evanescent beings present the most marvellous phenomena4 ,at one period of the year the ,medus are charged with numbers of very minute eggs1 of the most lively colours1 which are suspended in large festoons from their floating bodies4 ,in some cases these eggs develop themselves grafted to their bodies1 and are only detached at maturity4 ,in other cases the larv produced bear no resemblance to the mother2 they are elongated and vermiform1 broad at their extremity2 we speak of the microscopic leeches1 which have vibrating cilia1 scarcely perceptible1 by which they execute the most lively motions4 ,at the end of a certain time they are transformed into polyps1 and furnished with eight tentacula4 ,this preparatory sort of animal seems to possess the faculty of reproduction by means of certain buds or tubercles which develop themselves on the surface of the body1 and also by filaments which start up here and there1 so that a single individual originates a numerous colony4 ,this polyp is subjected to a transformation still more remarkable2 its structure becomes complex1 its body articulate1 and it seems to be composed of a dozen disks piled one upon the other1 like the jars of a voltaic pile2 the upper disk is convex1 and is separated from the colony after a convulsive effort2 it becomes free1 and an excessively small1 star-like ,medusa is the result2 every disk1 that is1 every individual1 is isolated one after the other in the same manner4 ,thus of the sexual zoophytes which propagate their kind according to the usual laws2 but others engender young which have no resemblance to the parent zoophyte at all3 in this respect they are neuter1 that is1 non-sexual1 or agamous4 ,these are produced by budding1 or fissiparity1 from individuals like themselves4 ,they can also give sexual distinctions2 but before this change takes place the creature1 which was simple1 is transformed into a composite animal1 and it is from its disaggregation that individuals having sexual organs are produced1 the process being that which has been called alternate generation4 ,it goes on in a perfectly regular manner1 although it is a fact that the young never resemble their mothers1 but their grandmothers4 ,this great family of ,zoophytes ,gosse divides into-- ,discophora1 having the body in the form of a circular disk1 more or less convex and umbrella-shaped1 moving by alternate contractions and expansions of the disk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 querea violacea1 natural size 7,milne ,edwards74 ,ctenophora1 body cylindrical1 moving by means of many parallel rims of cilia set in longitudinal lines on the surface4 ,sophonophora1 body irregular1 without central digestive cavity like the others1 having sucking organs1 and moving by means of a contractile cavity1 or by air-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,aurelia aurita 7,lamarck74 ,cyanea aurita 7,cuvier74 ,one-third natural size4 ,the ,discophora are again subdivided into ,gymnophthalmata1 having the eye-specks uncovered or wanting1 a great central digestive cavity1 circulating vessels proceeding to the margin quite simple or branched2 and ,steganophthalmata having the eye-specks protected by membranous hoods1 or lobed coverings1 circulating vessels much ramified1 and united with a network4 ,of the ,gymnophthalmata we have an example in querea violacea 7,fig4 #hd71 in which the disk is slightly convex1 glass-like in appearance1 and furnished all round with very short1 slender1 thread-like1 violet-coloured tentacula2 with circulating vessels1 eight in number1 quite simple1 and ovaries placed on them2 peduncle wide1 expanding into many broad and long fringed lobes4 ,the ,steganophthalmata include the ,medusad proper1 in which the umbel is hemispherical1 with numerous marginal tentacles1 eight eyes covered by lobes1 four ovaries1 four chambers1 four fringed arms1 with a central and four lateral openings4 ,aurelia aurita 7,fig4 #he7 is here represented as a type of the group2 it is plentiful in the ,baltic1 and has been carefully studied by the ,swedish naturalists4 ,rosenthal has made its anatomy his special study4 ,sars has also made it the subject of observations4 ,in the same group we find the ,pelagia cyanella of ,pron1 whose body is globose1 scolloped with eight marginal tentacles1 peduncles ending in four leaf-like1 furbelowed arms1 united at the base1 having four ovaries1 and appendages to the stomach1 without orifices4 ,the ,pelagia1 as the name implies1 belong to the deep sea4 ,p4 noctiluca has a transparent1 glass-like disk1 of a reddish-brown colour and warty appearance4 ,it is found in the ,mediterranean1 about the coast near ,nice1 and is still more plentiful on the coast of ,sicily1 and on the ,african coast4 ,another species1 ,p4 panopyra1 is very common in the ,atlantic and ,pacific1 between the ,tropics4 ,the naturalist ,lesson met whole banks of them in the equatorial ocean1 about the twenty-seventh degree north latitude and the twenty-second degree west longitude4 ,during the night1 this species emits a brilliant phosphoric light1 and living individuals1 which ,lesson succeeded in preserving1 exhibited great luminosity in the dark4 ,this medusa is remarkable for its semi-spherical disk1 slightly depressed1 umbilicate at the summit1 a little compressed at the edges1 and densely bristling on the surface with small elongated warts1 but regularly festooned along the edges4 ,in colour it is a delicate rose4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the animals which constitute this class of ,zoophytes1 and1 in former times1 so curious and so imperfectly known1 were designated ,polypomedus1 in order to remind us that at one time they were called ,medus1 and at others ranged among the ,polyps4 ,it has1 however1 been recently discovered that1 shortly after they issue from the egg1 these zoophytes show themselves in the form of polyps1 and that1 at a later period1 they assume the animal form1 to which we give the name of medus4 ,these animals are1 then1 true proteans3 hence the very considerable difficulty of studying them--difficulties which have long reduced naturalists to despair4 ,even now their history is too obscure and too complicated to justify us in presenting it1 except in its general features4 ,we shall1 therefore1 content ourselves here with a description of the best known species of the class only--those1 namely1 which have particularly attracted the attention of naturalists1 and which are1 at the same time1 of a nature to interest our readers4 ,the class of ,discophor may be divided into four orders or families1 namely3-- ,i4 ,,the ,,hydraid1 having single1 naked1 gelatinous1 sub-cylindrical1 but very contractile stems1 mutable in form1 mouth encircled with a single series of granulous filiform tentacula4 ,,ii4 ,,sertulariad1 plant-like and horny1 rooted and variously branched1 filled with semi-fluid organic pulp1 the polyps contained within sessile cells disposed along the sides of the main stem or branchlets1 but never terminal4 ,,iii4 ,,medusad4 ,umbel hemispherical1 with marginal tentacula2 having eight eyes covered by lobes1 four ovaries1 four cells1 four fringed arms1 a central opening1 and four lateral openings4 ,,iv4 ,,siphonophora1 having the animals double1 and bell-shaped1 one fitting into the cavity of the other2 in ,dyphyes the animal has a large air-vessel with numerous tentacula2 in ,physalia1 the animal stretches over a cartilaginous plane4 ,the true form of the ,medusa does not appear in the two first orders4 ,,hydraid4 ,the ,hydraid are1 according to modern naturalists1 ,discophor arrested in their development4 ,they comprehend the single genus ,hydra1 of which many species are known1 whose habits and metamorphoses it will be our object to particularise4 ,hydra vulgaris inhabits stagnant ponds and slowly-running waters4 ,it is of an orange-brown or red colour1 the intensity of the colour depending on the nature of its food1 becoming almost blood-red when fed on the small crimson worms and larv to be found in such places4 ,m4 ,laurent even succeeded in colouring them blue1 red1 and white1 by means of indigo1 carmine1 and chalk1 without any real penetration of the tissue1 the buds from them acquiring the same colour as the mother1 while the colour of the ova retains its natural tint1 even when the ,hydra mother has been fed with coloured substances during the progress of this mode of reproduction4 ,the tentacula1 usually seven or eight in number1 never exceed the length of the body1 tapering insensibly to a point4 ,hydra viridis1 the fresh-water polyp1 being more immediately within the sphere of our observation1 naturally presents itself to our notice4 ,it is common in ponds and still waters4 ,it was noticed by ,pallas1 who was of opinion that offspring was produced from every part of the body4 ,de ,blainville1 on the contrary1 was of opinion that offspring was always produced from the same place2 namely1 at the junction of that part which is hollow and that which is not4 ,van der ,hven1 the ,leyden professor1 agrees with ,pallas1 and ,dr4 ,johnston's opinions accord with ,pallas4 ,the green ,hydra is common all over ,europe1 inhabiting brooks filled with herbage--attaching itself particularly to the duckweed of stagnant ponds1 and more especially to the under surface of the leaf4 ,the animal is reduced to a small greenish tubular sac1 closed at one of its extremities1 open at the other1 and bearing round this opening from six to ten appendages1 very slender1 and not exceeding a line in breadth4 ,the tubulous sac is the body of the animal 7,fig4 #hg74 ,the opening is at once its mouth and the entrance to the digestive canal2 the appendages1 the tentacula or arms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,hydra vulgaris4 #a4 ,hydra with ova and young1 unhatched4 #b4 ,hydra of natural size attached to a piece of floating wood4 #c4 ,egg ready to burst its shell4 ,the ,hydras have no lungs1 no liver1 no intestines1 no nervous system1 no heart4 ,they have no organ of the senses1 except those which exist in the mouth and the skin4 ,the arms or branches are hollow internally1 and communicate with the stomach4 ,they are provided with vibratile cells1 furnished with a great number of tuberosities disposed spirally1 and containing in their interior a number of capsules provided each with a sort of fillet4 ,these threads1 which are of extreme tenacity1 are thrown out when the animal is irritated by contact with any strange body4 ,we may see these filaments wrapping themselves round their prey1 sometimes even penetrating its substance1 and effectually subduing the enemy4 ,the green ,hydra has thus a very simple organisation4 ,nevertheless1 it would be a mistake to say the animal was imperfect1 for it possesses everything necessary for its nourishment and for the propagation of its species4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,hydra viridis 7,trembley74 #a4 ,hydra magnified1 bearing an embryo ready to detach itself4 #b4 ,animal1 natural size4 #c4 ,bud much magnified4 #d4 ,bud1 natural size4 ,there are learned men who have composed hundreds of volumes1 who have published whole libraries--naturalists and physicists who have written more than ,voltaire ever penned1 but whose names are utterly forgotten4 ,on the other hand1 there are some who have left only two or three monograms1 and yet their names will live for ever4 ,of this number is the ,genevois1 ,a4 ,trembley4 ,this writer published in #agdd a ,memoir on the ,fresh-water ,polyps4 ,in this little work he recorded his observations on some of these animals of smallest dimensions4 ,he limited himself even to two sets of experiments3 he turned the fresh-water polyp outside in1 and he multiplied it by cutting it up4 ,these experiments upon this little creature1 which few persons had seen1 have sufficed to secure immortality to his name4 ,trembley was tutor to the two sons of ,count de ,bentinck4 ,he made his observations at the country-house of the ,dutch nobleman1 and he had1 as he assures us1 frequent occasion to satisfy himself1 in the case of his two pupils1 that we can even in infancy taste the pleasures derivable from the studies of ,nature6 ,let us hope that this thought1 uttered by a celebrated naturalist1 who spoke only from what he knew himself1 may remain engraved on the minds of our younger readers4 ,trembley established by his observations1 a thousand times repeated1 that ,hydra viridis can be turned outside in1 as completely as a glove may be1 without injury to the animal1 which a day or two after this revolution resumes its ordinary functions4 ,such is the vitality of these little beings1 that what was once the outer surface soon fulfils all the functions of a stomach1 digesting its food1 while the intestinal tube expanding its exterior performs all the functions of an outer surface2 it absorbs and respires4 ,but we shall leave ,trembley to relate his very remarkable experiments4 ,i attempted1 he says1 for the first time to turn these polyps inside out in the month of ,july1 #agda but unsuccessfully4 ,i was more successful the following year1 having found an expedient which was of easy execution4 ,i began by giving a worm to the polyp1 and put it1 when the stomach was well filled1 into a little water which filled the hollow of my left hand4 ,i pressed it afterwards with a gentle pinch towards the posterior extremities4 ,in this manner ,i pressed the worm which was in the stomach against the mouth of the polyp1 forcing it to open--continuing the pinching pressure until the worm was partly pressed out of the mouth4 ,when the polyp was in this state ,i conducted it gently out of the water1 without damaging it1 and placed it upon the edge of my hand1 which was simply moistened1 in order that the polyp should not stick to it4 ,i forced it to contract itself more and more1 and1 in doing so1 assisted in enlarging the mouth and stomach4 ,i now took in my right hand a thick and pointless boar's bristle1 which ,i held as a lancet is held in bleeding4 ,i approached its thicker end to the posterior extremity of the polyp1 which ,i pressed until it entered the stomach1 which it does the more easily since it is empty at this place and much enlarged4 ,i continued to advance the bristle1 and1 in proportion as it advanced1 the polyp became more and more inverted4 ,when it came to the worm1 by which the mouth is kept open on one side1 and the posterior part of the polyp is passed through the mouth1 the creature is thus turned completely inside out2 the exterior superficies of the polyp has become the interior4 ,the poor animal would be justified in feeling some surprise at its new situation--disagreeably surprised we may add1 for it makes every imaginable effort to recover its natural position1 and it always succeeds in the end4 ,the glove is restored to its proper form4 ,i have seen polyps1 says ,trembley1 which have recovered their natural exterior in less than an hour4 ,but this would not have served the purpose of our experimenter4 ,he wished to know if the polyps thus turned outside in could live in this state2 he had consequently to prevent it from rectifying itself1 for which purpose a needle was run through the body near the mouth--in other words1 he impaled the creature by the neck4 ,it is nothing for a polyp only to be spitted1 says ,trembley4 ,it is in fact a very small thing1 as we shall see1 for thus reversed and spitted they live and multiply as if nothing had happened4 ,i have seen a polyp1 says this ingenious experimenter1 turned inside out1 which has eaten a small worm two days after the operation4 ,i have fed one in that state for more than two years1 and it has multiplied in that condition4 ,having experimented successfully myself1 ,i was desirous of having the testimony of others capable of forming opinions on the subject4 ,m4 ,allamand was persuaded to put his hand to the work1 which he did with the same success ,i had met with4 ,he has done more1 having succeeded in permanently turning specimens which had been previously turned1 and which continued to live in their re-inverted state2 he has seen them eat soon after both operations2 finally1 he has turned one for the third time1 which lived some days1 but perished without having eaten anything1 although it did not appear that its death was the result of the operation4 ,we have said that the ,hydra viridis has neither brain1 nervous system1 heart1 muscular rings1 lungs1 nor liver2 the organs of the senses--namely1 those of sight1 hearing1 and of smell--have also been denied them4 ,nevertheless1 they act as if they possessed all these senses4 ,oh ,nature6 how hidden are thy secrets1 and how the pride of man is humbled by the mysteries which surround thee--by the spectacles which strike his eyes1 and which he attempts in vain to explain6 ,trembley states that the fresh-water polyps1 having no muscular ring1 can neither extend nor contract themselves1 nor can they walk4 ,if touched1 or if the water in which they are immersed is suddenly agitated1 they are certainly observed to contract more or less forcibly1 and even to inflect themselves in all directions2 and by this power of extension1 of contraction and inflection1 they contrive to move from place to place2 but these movements are singularly slow1 the utmost space they have been observed to traverse being about eight inches in the twenty-four hours4 ,painfully conscious of his powers of progression1 however1 he has found means of remedying it1 and the aquatic snail is his steed2 he creeps upon the shell of a ,planorbis1 or ,limna1 and by means of this improvised mount he will make more way in a few minutes than he would in a day by his own unassisted efforts4 ,the ,hydra viridis1 although destitute of organs of sight1 are nevertheless sensible of light2 if the vase containing them is placed partly in shade and partly in the sun1 they direct themselves immediately towards the light2 they appreciate sounds2 they attach themselves to aquatic plants and other floating bodies4 ,without eyes1 without brain1 and without nerves1 these animals lie in wait for their prey1 recognize1 seize1 and devour it4 ,they make no blunder1 and only attack where they are sure of success4 ,they know how to flee from danger2 they evade obstacles1 and fight with or fly before their enemies4 ,there are1 then1 some powers of reflection1 deliberation1 and premeditated action in these insignificant creatures2 their history1 in short1 is calculated to fill the mind with astonishment4 ,trembley insists much upon the address which the ,hydra employs to secure its prey3 by the aid of its long arms1 small animals1 which serve to nourish it1 are seized1 for it is carnivorous1 and even passably voracious4 ,worms1 small insects1 and larv of dipterous insects are its habitual prey4 ,when a worm or woodlouse in passing its portals happens to touch them1 the polyp1 taking the hint1 seizes upon the wanderer1 twining its flexible arms round it1 and1 directing it rapidly towards its mouth1 swallows it4 ,trembley amused himself by feeding the ,hydra1 while he observed the manner in which it devoured its prey4 ,when its arms were extended1 ,i have put into the water a woodlouse or a small worm4 ,as soon as the woodlouse feels itself a prisoner it struggles violently1 swimming about1 and drawing the arm which holds it from side to side2 but1 however delicate it may appear1 the arm of the polyp is capable of considerable resistance2 it is now gradually drawn in1 and other arms come to its assistance1 while the polyp itself approaches its prey2 presently the woodlouse finds itself engaged with all the arms1 which1 by curving and contracting1 gradually but inevitably approach the mouth1 in which it is soon engulfed4 ,frdol also notices a singular fact4 ,the small worms1 even when swallowed by the polyp1 he says1 frequently try to escape2 but the ravisher retains them by plunging one of its arms into the digestive cavity6 ,what an admirable contrivance1 by which the worms are digested while the arm is respected6 ,the food of the fresh-water ,hydra influences the colour of their bodies in consequence of the thinness and transparency of their tissues2 so that the reddish matter of the woodlouse renders them red1 while other food renders them black or green1 according to its prevailing colour6 ,the multiplication of these creatures takes place in three different ways3 #a4 ,by eggs4 #b4 ,by buds1 after the manner of vegetables4 #c4 ,by separation1 in which an individual may be cut into two or many segments1 each reproducing an individual4 ,we shall only say a few words on the first mode of reproduction4 ,the eggs1 according to ,ehrenberg1 come to maturity in the ,h4 viridis at the base of the feet1 where the visceral cavity terminates4 ,they are carried during seven or eight days1 and determine by their fall the death of the animal4 ,when the ,hydra has laid its eggs1 according to ,m4 ,laurent1 it gradually lowers itself until it covers them with half its body1 which1 spreading out and getting proportionably thin1 passes into the condition of a horny substance1 that glues the eggs disposed in a circle round the body to plants and other foreign substances4 ,she ends her career by dying in the midst of her ova4 ,trembley has studied with great care the mode of reproduction by budding--a process which seems to prevail in the summer months4 ,the buds which are to form the young polyp appear on the surface of the body as little spherical excrescences terminating in a point4 ,a few steps further towards maturity1 and it assumes a conical and finally a cylindrical form4 ,the arms now begin to push out at the anterior extremity of the young animal2 the posterior extremity by which it is attached to the mother contracting by degrees1 until it appears only to touch her at one point4 ,finally1 the separation is effected1 the mother and the young acting in concert to produce the entrance of this interesting young polyp into the world4 ,each of them take with their head and arms a strong point of support upon some neighbouring body2 and a small effort suffices to procure the separation3 sometimes the mother charges herself with the effort1 sometimes the young1 and often both4 ,when the young polyp is separated from the mother1 it swims about1 and executes all the movements peculiar to adult animals4 ,the entrance into life and maturity takes place with these beings at one and the same moment4 ,infancy and youth are suppressed in this little world4 ,so long as the young polyp remains attached to the mother1 she is the nurse2 by a touching change1 the young polyp nurses her in his turn4 ,in short1 the stomach of the mother and her young have communication2 so that the prey swallowed by the parent passes partially into the stomach of her progeny4 ,on the other hand1 while still attached to the mother1 the little ones seize the prey1 which they share in their turn with their parent by means of the communication ,nature has arranged between the two organisms4 ,in the course of his experiments ,trembley states another fact still more remarkable4 ,upon a young polyp still attached to its parent he observed a new polyp or polypule1 and upon this unborn creature was another individual4 ,thus three generations were appended to the parent1 who carried at once her child1 her grandchild1 and great-grandchild4 ,in observing the young polyps still attached to their parent1 says ,trembley1 ,i have seen one which had itself a little one which was just issuing from its body2 that is to say1 it was a mother while yet attached to its own parent4 ,i had in a short time many young polyps attached to their parents which had already had three or four little ones1 of which some were even perfectly formed4 ,they fished for woodlice like others1 and they ate them4 ,nor is this all4 ,i have seen a mother-polyp which had carried its third generation4 ,from the little one which she had produced issued another little one1 and from this a third4 ,charles ,bennet1 the naturalist of ,geneva1 says wittily1 that a polyp thus charged with all its descendants constitutes a living genealogical tree4 ,we have just spoken of turning polyps inside out6 ,if one of these creatures is thus operated upon while it bears its young on the surface of its body1 such of them as are sufficiently advanced continue to increase2 although they find themselves in this sudden manner imprisoned in an internal cavity1 they re-issue subsequently by the mouth4 ,those less advanced at the moment of reversal issue by little and little from the maternal sac1 and complete their career of development on the newly-made exterior4 ,the third and most extraordinary mode of reproduction in the polyps has been discovered by ,trembley in the case of the green ,hydra4 ,so surprised was this naturalist at the strange anomalies which surrounded these creatures1 that he began to have doubts1 and gravely to ask the question1 ,was this polyp an animal8 ,is it a plant8 ,in order to escape from this state of indecision1 it occurred to him to cut a ,hydra into pieces4 ,concluding that plants alone could reproduce themselves by slips1 he waited the result of the experiment for the conclusion he sought4 ,on the #beth of ,november1 #agdj1 he cut a polyp into sections4 ,i put1 he tells us1 the two parts into a flat glass1 which contained water four or five lines in depth1 and in such a manner that each portion of the polyp could be easily observed through a strong magnifying glass4 ,it will suffice to say that ,i had cut the polyp transversely1 and a little nearer to the anterior4 ,on the morning of the day after having cut the polyp1 it seemed to me that on the edges of the second part1 which had neither head nor arms1 three small points were issuing from these edges4 ,this surprised me extremely1 and ,i waited with impatience for the moment when ,i could clearly ascertain what they were4 ,next day they were sufficiently developed to leave no doubt on my mind that they were true arms4 ,the following day two new arms made their appearance1 and1 some days after1 a third appeared1 and ,i could now trace no difference between the first and second half of the polyp which ,i had cut4 ,this is assuredly one of the most startling facts belonging to natural history4 ,divide a fresh-water polyp into five or six parts1 and at the end of a few days all the separate parts will be organized1 developed1 and form so many new beings1 resembling the primitive individual4 ,let us add1 that the polyp which should thus have lost five-sixths of its body1 the mutilated father of all this generation1 remains complete in itself2 in the interval1 it has recuperated itself and recovered all its primitive substance4 ,after this1 if a ,hydra vulgaris wishes to procure for itself the blessings of a family1 it has only one thing to do3 cut off an arm2 if it desire two descendants1 let it cut the arm in two parts2 if three1 let it divide itself into three2 and so on ad infinitum4 ,divide one of the animals1 says ,trembley1 and each section will soon form a new individual in all respects like the creature divided4 ,a whole host of polyps hewn into pieces1 says ,frdol1 will be far from being annihilated4 ,on the contrary1 we may say1 in our turn1 its youth will be renewed1 and multiplied in proportion to the number of pieces into which it has been divided4 ,the same polyp1 says ,trembley1 may be successively inverted1 cut into sections1 and turned back again1 without being seriously injured4 ,if a green ,hydra is cut into two pieces1 and the stomach is cut off in the operation1 the voracious creature will1 nevertheless1 continue to eat the prey which presents itself4 ,it gorges itself with the food1 without troubling itself with the loss which it has sustained2 but the food no longer nourishes it1 for it merely enters by one opening1 passes through the intestinal canal1 and escapes by the other4 ,it realizes ,harleville's pleasantry of ,m4 de ,crac's horse1 in the piece of that name1 which eats unceasingly1 but never gets any fatter4 ,all these instances of mutilation1 resulting in an increase of life1 are very strange4 ,the naturalists to whom they were first revealed could scarcely believe their own eyes4 ,raumur1 who repeated many of ,trembley's experiments1 writes as follows3 ,i confess that when ,i saw for the first time two polyps forming by little and little from that which ,i had cut in two1 ,i could scarcely believe my eyes2 and it is a fact that1 after hundreds of experiments1 ,i never could quite reconcile myself to the sight4 ,in short1 we know nothing analogous to it in the animal kingdom4 ,about the same period ,charles ,bennet writes3 ,we can only judge of things by comparison1 and have taken our ideas of animal life from the larger animals2 and an animal which we cut and turn inside out1 which we cut again1 and it still bears itself well1 gives one a singular shock4 ,how many facts are ignored1 which will come one day to derange our ideas of subjects which we think we understand6 ,at present we just know enough to be aware that we should be surprised at nothing4 ,notwithstanding the philosophic serenity which ,bennet recommends1 the fact of new individuals resulting from dividing these fresh-water polyps was always a subject of profound astonishment1 and of never-ending meditation4 ,,sertulariad4 ,all ,hydraid1 with the exception of the ,hydra and a few other genera1 are marine productions1 varying from a few lines to upwards of a foot in height1 attaching themselves to rocks1 shells1 sea-weeds1 and corallines1 and to various species of shell-fish4 ,many of them attach themselves indiscriminately to the nearest object1 but others show a decided preference4 ,thuiaria thrya attaches itself to old bivalves2 ,thoa halecuia prefers the larger univalves2 ,antennularia antennina attaches itself to coarse sand on rocks2 ,laomedea geniculata delights in the broad frond of the tangle2 ,plumularia catherina attaches itself in deep water to old shells1 corallines1 and ascidians1 growing in a manner calculated to puzzle the naturalist1 as it did ,crabbe1 the poet1 who writes of it3-- ,involved in sea-wrack1 here you find a race ,which science1 doubting1 knows not where to place2 ,on shell or stone is dropp'd the embryo seed1 ,and quickly vegetates a vital breed4 ,sertularia pumila1 on the other hand1 loves the commoner and coarser wracks4 ,the choice1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 may in part be dependent on their habits1 for such as are destined to live in shallow water1 or on a shore exposed by the reflux of every tide1 are1 in general1 vegetable parasites2 while the species which spring up in deep seas must select between rocks1 corallines1 or shells4 ,there seems to be a selection even as to the position on the rocks4 ,according to ,lamouroux1 some polyps always occupy the southern slopes1 and never that towards the east1 west1 or north2 others1 on the contrary1 grow only on these exposures1 and never on the south1 altering their position1 however1 according to the latitude1 and its relation to the ,equator4 ,the ,sertulariad have a horny stem1 sometimes simple1 sometimes so branching that they might readily enough be mistaken for small plants1 their branches being flexible1 semi-transparent1 and yellow4 ,their name is derived from ,sertum1 a bouquet4 ,each ,sertularia has seven1 eight1 twelve1 or twenty small panicles1 each containing as many as five hundred animalcules2 thus forming1 sometimes1 an association of ten thousand polyps4 ,each plume1 says ,mr4 ,lister1 in reference to a specimen of ,plumularia cristata1 might comprise from four to five hundred polyps2 and a specimen of no unusual size now before me1 says ,dr4 ,johnston1 with certainly not fewer cells on each than the larger number mentioned1 thus giving six thousand as the tenantry of a single polypidom1 and this on a small species4 ,on ,sertularia argentea1 it is asserted1 polyps are found on which there exist not less than eighty to a hundred thousand4 ,each colony is composed of a right axis1 on the whole length of which the curved branches are implanted1 these being longest in the middle4 ,along each of these branches the cells1 each containing a polyp1 are grouped alternately4 ,the head of the animal is conical1 the mouth being at the top surrounded by twenty to twenty-four tentacles4 ,these curious beings have no digestive cavity belonging to themselves2 the stomach is common to the whole colony--a most singular combination1 a single stomach to a whole group of animals6 ,never have the principles of association been pushed to this length by the warmest advocates of communism4 ,certain species belonging to the colony1 which seem destined to perpetuate the race1 have not the same regular form4 ,destitute of mouth and tentacles1 they occupy special cells1 which are larger than the others4 ,the entire colony is composed exclusively of individuals1 male or female4 ,we have traced ,sertularia cupressina through every stage of its development1 say ,messrs4 ,paul ,gervais and ,van ,beneden4 ,at the end of several days1 the embryos are covered with very short vibratile cells2 their movement is excessively slow2 then1 from the spheroid form which they take at first1 they get elongated1 and take a cylindrical form1 all the body inclining lightly sometimes to the right1 sometimes to the left4 ,the vibratile cells fading afterwards1 the embryo attaches itself to some solid body1 a tubercle is formed1 and the base extends itself as a disk4 ,at the same time that the first rudiments of the polyp appear1 the disk-like tubercle throws out on its flanks a sort of bud1 and a second polyp soon shows itself2 its surface is hardened2 the polyp appears in its turn1 and the same process of generation is repeated2 a colony of ,sertulariad is thus established at the summit of a discoid projection4 ,at the end of fifteen days the colony1 which has been forming under our eyes1 consists of two polyps and a bud1 which already indicates a third polyp4 ,the sea-cypress1 as this species is called1 is robust1 with longish branches decidedly fan-shaped1 the pinn being closer and nearly parallel to each other4 ,the cells form two rows1 nearly opposite1 smooth and pellucid4 ,the branches in some specimens are gracefully arched1 bending as it were under the load of pregnant ovaries which they carry1 arranged in close-set rows along the upper side of the pinn4 ,they are found in deep water on the coast of ,scotland1 and as far south as the ,yorkshire coast and the north of ,ireland4 ,the cells1 which are the abode of the polyps1 are not always alike in their distribution4 ,sometimes they are ranged on two sides1 sometimes on one only4 ,sometimes they are grouped like the small tubes of an organ1 at other times they assume a spiral form round the stem1 or they form here and there horizontal rings round it4 ,,medusad4 ,the ,medus comprehend1 not only the animals so designated in the days of ,cuvier under that name1 but also the polyps known as ,tubulariad and ,campanulariad4 ,if we walk along the sea shore1 after the reflux of the tide1 we may often see1 lying immovable upon the sands1 disk-like1 gelatinous masses of a greenish colour and repulsive appearance1 from which the eye and the steps instinctively turn aside4 ,these beings1 whose blubber-like appearance inspires only feelings of disgust when seen lying grey and dead on the shore1 are1 however1 when seen floating on the bosom of the ocean1 one of its most graceful ornaments4 ,these are ,medus4 ,when seen suspended like a piece of gauze or an azure bell in the middle of the waves1 terminating in delicate silvery garlands1 we cannot but admire their iridescent colours1 or deny that these objects1 so forbidding in some of their aspects1 rank1 in their natural localities1 among the most elegant productions of ,nature4 ,we could not better commence our studies of these children of the sea than by quoting a passage from the poet and historian ,michelet3 ,among the rugged rocks and lagunes1 where the retiring sea has left many little animals which were too sluggish or too weak to follow1 some shells will be there left to themselves and suffered to become quite dry4 ,in the midst of them1 without shell and without shelter1 extended at our feet1 lies the animal which we call by the very inappropriate name of the ,medusa4 ,why was this name1 of terrible associations1 given to a creature so charming8 ,often have ,i had my attention arrested by these castaways which we see so often on the shore4 ,they are small1 about the size of my hand1 but singularly pretty1 of soft light shades1 of an opal white2 where it lost itself as in a cloud of tentacles--a crown of tender lilies--the wind had overturned it2 its crown of lilac hair floated about1 and the delicate umbel1 that is1 its proper body1 was beneath2 it had touched the rock--dashed against it2 it was wounded1 torn in its fine locks1 which are also its organs of respiration1 absorption1 and even of love4444 ,the delicious creature1 with its visible innocence and the iridescence of its soft colours1 was left like a gliding1 trembling jelly4 ,i paused beside it1 nevertheless3 ,i glided my hand under it1 raised the motionless body cautiously1 and restored it to its natural position for swimming4 ,putting it into the neighbouring water1 it sank to the bottom1 giving no sign of life4 ,i pursued my walk along the shore1 but at the end of ten minutes ,i returned to my ,medusa4 ,it was undulating under the wind2 really it had moved itself1 and was swimming about with singular grace1 its hair flying round it as it swam2 gently it retired from the rock1 not quickly1 but still it went1 and ,i soon saw it a long way off4 ,of all the zoophytes which live in the ocean there is none more numerous in species or more singular in their matter1 more odd in their form1 or more remarkable in their mode of reproduction1 than those to which ,linnus gave the name of ,medusa1 from the mythical chief of the ,gorgons4 ,the seas of every latitude of the globe furnish various tribes of these singular beings4 ,they live in the icy waters which bathe ,spitzbergen1 ,greenland1 and ,iceland2 they multiply under the fires of the ,equator1 and the frozen regions of the south nourish numerous species4 ,they are1 of all animals1 those which present the least solid substance4 ,their bodies are little else than water1 which is scarcely retained by an imperceptible organic network2 it is a transparent jelly1 almost without consistence4 ,it is a true sea-water jelly1 says ,raumur1 writing in #agja1 having little colour or consistence4 ,if we take a morsel in our hands1 the natural heat is sufficient to dissolve it into water4 ,spallanzani could only withdraw five or six grains of the pellicle of a medusa weighing fifty ounces4 ,from certain specimens weighing from ten to twelve pounds1 only six to seven pennyweights could be obtained of solid matter1 according to ,frdol4 ,mr4 ,telfair saw an enormous medusa which had been abandoned on the beach at ,bombay2 three days after1 the animal began to putrefy4 ,to satisfy his curiosity1 he got the neighbouring boatmen to keep an eye upon it1 in order to gather the bones and cartilages belonging to the great creature1 if by chance it had any2 but its decomposition was so rapid and complete that it left no remains1 although it required nine months to dissipate it entirely4 ,floating on the bosom of the waters1 says ,frdol1 the ,medusa resembles a bell1 a pair of breeches1 an umbrella1 or1 better still1 a floating mushroom1 the stool of which has here been separated into lobes more or less divergent1 sinuous1 twisted1 shrivelled1 fringed1 the edges of the cap being delicately cut1 and provided with long thread-like appendages1 which descend vertically into the water like the drooping branches of the weeping willow4 ,the gelatinous substance of which the body of the ,medusa is formed is sometimes colourless and limpid as crystal2 sometimes it is opaline1 and occasionally of a bright blue or pale rose colour4 ,in certain species the central parts are of a lively red1 blue1 or violet colour1 while the rest of the body is of a diaphanous hue4 ,this diaphanous tissue1 often decked in the finest tints1 is so fragile1 that when abandoned by the wave on the beach1 it melts and disappears without leaving a trace of its having existed1 so to speak4 ,nevertheless1 these fragile creatures1 these living soap-bubbles1 make long voyages on the surface of the sea4 ,whilst the sun's rays suffice to dissipate and even annihilate its vaporous substance on some inhospitable beach1 they abandon themselves without fear during their entire life to the agitated waves4 ,the whales which haunt round the ,hebrides are chiefly nourished by ,medus which have been transported by the waves in innumerable swarms from the coast of the ,atlantic to the region of whales4 ,the locomotion of the ,medus1 which is very slow1 says ,de ,blainville1 and denotes a very feeble muscular energy1 appears1 on the other hand1 to be unceasing4 ,since their specific gravity considerably exceeds the water in which they are immerged1 these creatures1 which are so soft that they probably could not repose on solid ground1 require to agitate constantly in order to sustain themselves in the fluid which they inhabit4 ,they require also to maintain a continual state of expansion and contraction1 of systole and diastole4 ,spallanzani1 who observed their movements with great care1 says that those of translation are executed by the edges of the disk approaching so near to each other that the diameter is diminished in a very sensible degree2 by this movement a certain quantity of water contained in the body is ejected with more or less force1 by which the body is projected in the inverse direction4 ,renovated by the cessation of force in its first state of development1 it contracts itself again1 and makes another step in advance4 ,if the body is perpendicular to the horizon1 these successive movements of contraction and dilatation cause it to ascend2 if it is more or less oblique1 it advances more or less horizontally4 ,in order to descend1 it is only necessary for the animal to cease its movements2 its specific gravity secures its descent4 ,it is1 then1 by a series of contractions and dilatations of their bodies that the ,medus make their long voyages on the surface of the waters4 ,this double movement of their light skeleton had already been remarked by the ancients1 who compared it to the action of respiration in the human chest4 ,from this notion the ancients called them ,sea ,lungs4 ,the ,medus usually inhabit the deep seas4 ,they are rarely solitary1 but seem to wander about in considerable battalions in the latitudes to which they belong4 ,during their journey they proceed forward1 with a course slightly oblique to the convex part of their body4 ,if an obstacle arrests them1 if an enemy touches them1 the umbrella contracts1 and is diminished in volume1 the tentacles are folded up1 and the timid animal descends into the depths of the ocean4 ,we have said that the ,medus constitute in the ,arctic seas one of the principal supports of the whale4 ,their innumerable masses sometimes cover many square leagues in extent4 ,they show themselves and disappear by turns in the same region1 at determinate epochs--alternations which depend1 no doubt1 on the ruling of the winds and currents which carry or lead them4 ,the barks which navigate ,lake ,thau meet1 says ,frdol1 at certain periods of the year with numerous colonies of a species about the size of a small melon1 nearly transparent--whitish1 like water when it is mixed with a shade of aniseed4 ,one would be tempted to take these animals at first for a collection of floating muslin bonnets4 ,the ,medus are furnished with a mouth placed habitually in the middle of the neck4 ,this mouth is rarely unoccupied4 ,small molluscs1 young crustaceans1 and worms1 form their ordinary food4 ,in spite of their shape1 they are most voracious1 and snap up their prey all at one mouthful1 without dividing it4 ,if their prey resists and disputes with it1 the ,medusa which has seized it holds fast1 and remains motionless1 and1 without a single movement1 waits till fatigue has exhausted and killed its victim1 when it can swallow it in all security4 ,in respect to size1 the ,medus vary immensely4 ,some are very small1 while others attain more than a yard in diameter4 ,many species are phosphorescent during the night4 ,most ,medusad produce an acute pain when they touch the human body4 ,the painful sensation produced by this contact is so general in this group of animals1 that it has determined their designation4 ,until very recently all the animals of the group have been1 after ,cuvier1 designated under the name of ,acaleph1 or sea nettles1 in order to remind us that the sensation produced is analogous to that occasioned by contact with the stinging leaves of the nettle4 ,according to ,dicquemare1 who made experiments on himself in this matter1 the sensation produced is very like that occasioned by a nettle1 but it is more violent1 and endures for half an hour4 ,in the last moments1 says the abb1 the sensation is such as would be produced by reiterated but very weak prickings4 ,a considerable pain pervaded all the parts which had been touched1 accompanied by pustules of the same colour1 with a whitish point4 ,the sea-bladder1 says ,father ,feuille1 occasions me1 on touching it1 a sudden and severe pain1 accompanied with convulsions4 ,during the first voyage of the ,princess ,louise round the world1 to quote ,frdol1 ,meyen remarked a magnificent physalia1 which passed near the ship4 ,a young sailor leaped naked into the sea1 to seize the animal4 ,swimming towards it1 he seized it2 the creature surrounded the person of its assailant with its numerous thread-like filaments1 which were nearly a yard in length2 the young man1 overwhelmed by a feeling of burning pain1 cried out for assistance4 ,he had scarcely strength to reach the vessel and get aboard again1 before the pain and inflammation were so violent that brain fever declared itself1 and great fears were entertained for his life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,chrysaora ,gaudichaudi4 ,the organization is much more complicated than early observers were disposed to think it4 ,during many ages naturalists were inclined to imagine1 with ,raumur1 that the ,medus were mere masses of organized jelly1 of gelatinized water4 ,but when ,courtant ,dumeril tried the experiment of injecting milk into their cavities1 and saw the liquid penetrating into true vessels1 he began to comprehend that these very enigmatical beings were worthy of serious study--the study of subsequent naturalists1 such as ,cuvier1 ,de ,blainville1 ,ehrenberg1 ,brandt1 ,makel-,eschscholtz1 ,sars1 ,milne ,edwards1 ,forbes1 ,gosse1 and other modern naturalists1 who have demonstrated what richness of structure is concealed under this gelatiniform and simple structure in the ,medus2 at the same time they have revealed to us most mysterious and incredible facts as connected with their metamorphoses4 ,among the ,medus proper1 the most common are ,aurelia1 ,pelagia1 and ,chrysaora4 ,in the latter1 ,c4 ,gaudichaudi 7,fig4 #hh71 the disk is hemispherical1 festooned with numerous tentacles1 attached to a sac-like stomach1 opening by a single orifice in the centre of the peduncle1 with four long1 furbelowed1 unfringed arms4 ,gaudichaudi's chrysaora is found round the ,falkland ,islands4 ,the disk forms a regular half-sphere1 very smooth1 and perfectly concave1 forming a sort of canopy in the shape of a vault4 ,the circle which surrounds it is divided into sections by means of vertical lines1 regularly divided1 of a reddish-brown colour1 which forms an edging to the umbrella-like disk4 ,twelve broad regular festoons form this edging4 ,from the summit of these lobes issue twelve bundles of very long1 simple1 capillary tentacles1 of a bright red4 ,the peduncle is broad and flat1 perforated in the middle1 to which are attached four broad foliaceous arms4 ,,rhizostoma4 ,the ,medus which bear the name of ,rhizostoma have the disk hemispherically festooned1 depressed1 without marginal tentacles1 peduncle divided into four pairs of arms1 forked1 and dentated almost to infinity1 each having at their base two toothed auricles4 ,such is ,rhizostoma ,cuvieri of ,pron 7,fig4 #hi71 the disk of which is of a bluish-white1 like the arms1 and of a rich violet over its circumference4 ,this beautiful zoophyte is found plentifully in the ,atlantic1 living in flocks1 which attain a great size4 ,it is common in the month of ,june on the shores of the ,saint ,onge2 in ,august on the ,english coast2 and along the strand of every port in the ,channel they are seen in the month of ,october in thousands1 where they lie high and dry upon the shore1 on which they have been thrown by the force of the winds4 ,such also is ,r4 ,aldrovandi 7,fig4 #ij71 which appears all the year round in calm weather4 ,it is an animal much dreaded by bathers4 ,it possesses an urticaceous apparatus1 which produces an effect similar to the stinging-nettle when applied to the skin4 ,if the animal touches the fisherman at the moment of being drawn from the water1 it is apt to inflame the part and raise it into pustules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,rhizostoma ,cuvieri4 ,cassiopea and ,cephea are two other types belonging to the same group4 ,in ,cassiopea ,andromeda 7,fig4 #ia71 belonging to the first1 the disk is hemispherical1 but much depressed1 without marginal tentacles or peduncle1 but with a central disk1 with four to eight half-moon-shaped orifices at the side1 and throwing off eight to ten branching arms1 fringed with retractile sucking disks4 ,cephea ,cyclophora1 ,pron 7,fig4 #ib71 is another very remarkable form of these strangely-constituted organisms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having presented to the reader certain characteristic types of ,medusad1 we proceed to offer some general remark upon the organization and functions of these strange creatures4 ,we have1 in short1 selected these types because they have been special objects of anatomical and physiological study to some of our best naturalists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,rhizostoma ,aldrovandi4 ,the ,medus have no other means of breathing but through the skin4 ,we remark all over the body of these zoophytes certain cutaneous elongations1 disposed so as to favour the exercise of the breathing function4 ,certain marginal fringes of extended surface1 as well as the tentacle1 are the special seats of the apparatus4 ,the organs of digestion also present arrangements peculiar to themselves2 the mouth is placed on the lower part of the body1 and is pierced at the extremity of a trumpet-like tube1 hanging sometimes like the tongue of a bell4 ,the walls of the stomach1 again1 are furnished with a multitude of appendages1 which have their origin in the cavity of the organ1 and which are very elastic4 ,the stomach1 furnished with these vibratile cells1 appears to secrete a juice whose function is to decompose the food and render it digestible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,cassiopea ,andromeda 7,tilesius74 ,in some of the ,medusad the central mouth is absent altogether4 ,with the ,rhizostoma1 for instance1 the stomachal reservoir has no inferior orifice2 it communicates laterally with the canals which descend through the thickness of the arms1 and open at their extremities through a multitude of small mouths4 ,these are the root-like openings from which the animals derive their name of ,rhizostoma1 from the ,greek words 1 root1 and 1 mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,cephea ,cyclophora4 ,the arms of the ,rhizostoma are usually eight in number1 the free extremities of each being slightly enlarged3 in these arms many small openings or mouths occur1 which are the entrances to so many ascending canals communicating with larger ones1 as the veins do in the higher animals3 the common trunk canal is thus formed1 which directs itself to the stomach1 receiving in its way thither all the lateral branches4 ,a very distinct circulation exists in the ,medus4 ,the peripheric part of the stomach suffers the nourishing liquid which has been elaborated in the digestive cavity to pass3 this fluid then circulates through numerous canals1 the existence of which have been clearly traced4 ,it is also a singular fact1 that organs of sense seem to have been discovered in these ,medus1 which early observers believed to be altogether destitute of organization4 ,during my sojourn on the banks of the ,red ,sea1 says ,ehrenberg1 in his work on the ,medusa aurita1 although ,i had many times examined the brownish bodies upon the edge of the disk of the ,medus1 it is only in the month past that ,i have recognized their true nature and function4 ,each of these bodies consists of a little yellow button1 oval or cylindrical1 fixed upon a thin peduncle4 ,the peduncle is attached to a vesicle1 in which the microscope reveals a glandular body1 yellow when the light traverses it1 but white when the light is only reflected on it4 ,from this body issue two branches1 which proceed towards the peduncle or base of the brown body up to the button or head4 ,i have found that each of these small brown bodies presents a very distinct red point placed on the dorsal face of the yellow head2 and when ,i compare this with my other observations of similar red points in other animals1 ,i find that they greatly resemble the eyes of the ,rotifera and ,entomostraca4 ,the bifurcating body placed at the base of the brown spot appears to be a nervous ganglion1 and its branches may be regarded as optic nerves4 ,each pedunculated eye presents upon its lower face a small yellow sac1 in which are found1 in greater or smaller numbers1 small crystalline bodies clear as water4 ,the presence of a red pigment in very fine grains is an argument in favour of the existence of visual organs in these zoophytes1 for the small crystals disseminated in the interior of the organ would no doubt perform the part of refracting light which is produced by crystalline in the eyes of vertebrated animals4 ,moreover1 it is found that there are marginal corpuscles analogous to these brown spots in other species of ,medus4 ,they are of a palish yellow1 or quite colourless1 and enclose sometimes a single1 sometimes many calcareous corpuscles4 ,when they are colourless1 some naturalists have rather taken them for ears reduced to their most simple expression4 ,the ,medus are not absolutely destitute of nervous system4 ,we have seen that they have ganglions1 and probably optic nerves4 ,ehrenberg also states that they have ganglions at their base1 which furnish them with nervous filaments4 ,without entering further into the details of their delicate and complicated structure1 we shall pause briefly on their mode of reproduction4 ,we shall find here physiological phenomena so remarkable as to appear incredible1 had not the researches of modern naturalists placed the facts beyond all doubt4 ,which of us1 says ,m4 de ,quatrefages1 would not proclaim the prodigy1 if he saw a reptile issue from an egg laid in his court-yard1 which afterwards gave birth to an indefinite number of fishes and birds8 ,well1 the generation of the ,medus is at least as marvellous as the fact which we have imagined4 ,let us note1 for example1 what takes place with the ,rose ,aurelia1 a beautiful ,medusa1 of a pale rose colour1 with nearly hemispherical disk1 from four to five inches in diameter1 whose edge is furnished with short russet-brown tentacles2 taking for our guide the eloquent and learned author of the ,metamorphosis in ,men and ,animals1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages4 ,the ,medusa1 designated under the name of ,rose ,aurelia1 lays eggs which are characterised by the existence of three concentric spheres4 ,these eggs are transformed into oval larv1 covered with vibratile cells1 having a slight depression in front4 ,they swim about for a short time with great activity1 much like the infusoria1 which they strikingly resemble in other respects4 ,at the end of forty-eight hours the movements decrease4 ,aided by the depression already noted1 the larv attaches itself to some solid body1 fixing itself to it at this point by the assistance of a thick mucous matter4 ,a change of form soon takes place3 it becomes elongated2 its pedicle is contracted1 and its free extremity swells into a club-like shape4 ,an opening soon presents itself in the centre of this extremity1 through which an internal cavity appears4 ,four little mammals have now appeared on the edge1 which are elongated in the manner of arms4 ,others soon follow3 these are the tentacles of a polyp3 the young infusoria has become a polyp6 ,the polyp increases by buds and shoots1 just like a strawberry plant1 which throws out its slender stems in all directions1 covering all the neighbouring ground4 ,the young ,medusa lives some time under this form4 ,then one of the polyps becomes enlarged and its form cylindrical4 ,this cylinder is divided into from ten to fourteen superposed rings4 ,these rings1 at first smooth1 form themselves into festoons1 and separate into bifurcated thongs2 the intermediate lines become channeled4 ,the animal now resembles a pile of plates1 cut round the edges4 ,in a short time each ring is stirred at the free edge of its fringe3 this becomes contractile4 ,the rings are individualised4 ,finally1 these annular creatures1 obscure in their lives1 isolate themselves4 ,when detached1 they begin to swim3 from that time they have only to perfect and modify their form4 ,from being flat1 they become concave on the one side and convex on the other4 ,the digestive cavity--the gastro-vascular canals--become more decided2 the mouth opens1 the tentacles are elongated1 the floating marginal cirri become more and more numerous2 and now1 after all these metamorphoses1 the ,medusa appears3 it perfectly resembles the mother4 ,,tubularid4 ,we have already said that recent researches have led to a separation of a class of animals from the ,sertularia1 and to their being united with the ,medus4 ,of these creatures we formerly only knew one of the forms1 namely1 the polyp form2 or1 rather1 the first stage of it4 ,during their earliest days they possess a polyp1 furnished with tentacles1 and a bell-shaped body4 ,during their medusoid age1 they present a central stomach1 with four canals in the form of a cross1 and four to eight tentacles with cirri4 ,the animals constitute the ,tubularid1 comprehending many genera2 among others the ,tubularia and ,campanularia1 in studying which ,van ,beneden of ,louvain discovered most interesting facts connected with the subject of alternate generation4 ,the class of zoophytes ranged among the ,tubularia have the power of secreting an inverting tube of a horny nature1 in which the fleshy body can move up and down1 expanding its tentacles over the top4 ,others of them give forth buds1 each of which takes the form of a polyp1 and these1 being permanent1 give it a shrub-like or branched appearance2 it is now a compound polyp4 ,the tube is branched1 and the orifices from which the polyps expand usually dilate into cups or cells4 ,this is the condition of the ,tubulari-campanulariad groups1 which are numerous round our own coast and in the ,channel4 ,the ,tubularia are plant-like and horny1 rooted by fibres1 tubular1 and filled with a semi-fluid organic pulp2 polyps naked and fleshy1 protruding from the extremity of every branchlet of the tube1 and armed with one or two circles of smooth filiform tentacles2 bulbules soft and naked1 germinating from the base of the tentacles2 embryo medusiform4 ,some modern authors1 says ,frdol1 assure us that the tree-like form of these polyps is a degraded and transitory form of the ,medus4 ,the ,medusa originates the polyp1 the polyp becomes a ,medusa4 ,tubularia ramea so perfectly resembles an old tree in miniature1 deprived of its leaves1 that it is difficult to believe it is not of a vegetable origin2 it is now a vigorous tree in miniature1 in full flower1 rising from the summit of a brown-spotted stem1 with many branches and tufted shoots1 terminating in so many hydras of a beautiful yellow or brilliant red4 ,t4 ramosa1 of a brownish colour and horny substance1 rising six inches1 is rooted by tortuous1 wrinkled fibres1 with flexible1 smooth1 and thread-like shoots1 branching into a doubly permeate form4 ,in ,t4 indivisa the tubes are clustering2 its numerous stems are horny1 yellow1 and from six to twelve inches in height1 about a line in diameter1 and marked with unequal knots from space to space1 like the stalk of the oat-straw with the joints cut off4 ,their lower extremity is tortuous1 attaching itself readily to shells and stones in deep water1 flourishing in deep muddy bottoms1 and upright as a flower1 fixed by the tapering root-like terminations of its horny tube3 a flowering animal1 having1 however1 neither flower nor branch4 ,at the summit of each stem1 a double scarlet corolla is developed of from five to thirty-five petals1 in rows1 the external one spreading1 those in the interior rising in a tuft2 a little below1 the ovarium appears1 drooping when ripe like a bunch of orange-coloured grapes4 ,after a time the petals of the corolla fade1 fall1 and die1 and a bud replaces them1 which produces a new polyp2 and so on4 ,this succession determines the length of the stem4 ,each apparent flower throws out a small tube1 which terminates it1 and each addition adds one joint more to the axis1 which it increases in length4 ,the ,campanulari differ considerably from the above1 the ends of their branches1 whence the polyps issue1 being enlarged into a bell-like shape1 whence their name4 ,c4 dichotoma is at once the most delicate and most elegant of the species4 ,it presents a brownish stem1 thin as a thread of silk1 but strong and elastic4 ,the polyps are numerous3 upon a tree eight or nine inches high there may be as many hundreds4 ,c4 volubilis is a minute microscopic species1 living parasitically on corallines1 seaweed1 and shelled animals4 ,the stem is a capillary corneous tube1 which creeps and twists itself upon its support1 throwing out at alternate intervals a long slender stalk1 twisted throughout or only partially1 which supports a bell-shaped cup of perfect transparency1 and prettily serrated round the brim4 ,dr4 ,johnston found the antenn of a crab so profusely infested with them as to resemble hairy brushes4 ,it is furnished1 according to ,hassall1 with a delicate joint or hinge at the base of each little cup--a contrivance designed1 it is imagined1 to enable the frail zoophyte the better to elude the rude contact of the element in which it lives1 by allowing it to bend to a force which it cannot resist4 ,the ,campanulari increase by budding1 the buds being found in much the same manner as in the ,hydr4 ,it is a simple excrescence1 which1 in due time1 takes the form of the branch from which it proceeds4 ,these buds have their birth at certain distances1 and form a new polyp4 ,,siphonophora4 ,alongside the ,medus naturalists place certain marine zoophytes which are equally remarkable for their beauty and for their curious structure1 the latter being so complicated that their true organization long remained unknown4 ,they were known1 until very recently1 under the designation of ,hydrostatic ,acaleph1 or ,hydra-medus4 ,they are known in our days as ,siphonophor4 ,these inhabitants of the deep are graceful in form1 and are distinguished by their delicate tissues and brilliant colours4 ,essentially swimmers1 supported by one or many vessels filled with air--true swimming-bladders1 more or less numerous1 and of variable form--they float upon the waves1 remaining always on the surface1 whatever may be the state of the sea4 ,they are natural skiffs1 and quite incapable of immersion4 ,the ,siphonophor form four orders or families2 namely1 the ,diphyd1 double-bell-shaped animals1 one fitting into the cavity of the other2 ,physaliad1 having large oblong air-vessels and numerous tentacles of several forms1 long1 and pendent from one end of the shell1 with a wrinkled crest2 ,vilellad1 animals stretching over a cartilaginous plate with a flat body1 an oblique1 vertical1 cartilaginous crest above1 a tubular mouth below1 and surrounded by numerous short tentacles2 ,physophora1 consisting of a slender and vertical axis1 terminating in an air-bladder1 carrying laterally swimming-bladders1 which lose themselves amongst a bundle of slender white filaments4 ,,vilellad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,vilella limbosa 7,lamarck74 ,the ,vilell assemble together in great shoals2 in tropical seas and even in the ,mediterranean they may be seen in fine weather floating on the surface of the waves4 ,as described by ,de ,blainville1 the body is oval or circular1 and gelatinous1 sustained in the interior of the dorsal disk by a solid sub-cartilaginous frame1 provided on the lower surface of the disk with extensible tentacular cirri4 ,the family includes four genera2 namely1 ,vilella1 the ,holothuria of the ,chinese1 which the reader will most readily comprehend from the brief description we shall give of the ,mediterranean ,vilella 7,v4 limbosa--,fig4 #ic71 which has been very minutely examined by ,m4 ,charles ,vogt1 of ,geneva1 from whose work on the ,inferior ,animals of the ,mediterranean our details are borrowed4 ,v4 spirans1 sometimes called ,v4 limbosa1 was discovered in the ,mediterranean1 between ,monaco and ,mentone1 by ,forskahl1 who most erroneously took it for a holothuria4 ,on the upper surface of the animal is a hydrostatic apparatus1 the object of which is to maintain its equilibrium in the ambient element4 ,this apparatus consists of a shield and a crest1 organs of which ,m4 ,vogt gives a very detailed description2 but it is on the under surface that the principal organs of the ,vilella are exhibited4 ,these are not seen when the animal swims1 because under such circumstances the vertical1 oblique crest only is visible4 ,the lower surface is concave1 with a sort of mesial nucleus1 presenting at the extremity of a trumpet-like prolongation1 whitish and contractile1 a sort of central mouth1 surrounded by tentacular cirri1 the external row being much longer than the internal ones4 ,this was formerly thought to be the stomach of the ,vilella4 ,in the present day1 this appendage is known to be the central polyp around which are grouped other whitish and much smaller appendages1 the base being surrounded by little yellow bunches4 ,these are supposed to be the reproductive organs4 ,between the crest and the shield numerous free tentacles present themselves1 vermiform in appearance1 cylindrical1 and of a sky-blue colour1 which are kept in continual motion4 ,the ,vilella is therefore not an isolated individual1 but a group or colony1 in which the individuals intended to be reproductive are the most numerous1 and occupy the inferior parts4 ,the central polyp1 by its size and structure1 is distinguishable at the first glance from all the other appendages of the lower surface of the body4 ,it is a cylindrical tube1 very contractile and pear-shaped1 swollen into a round ball1 or considerably elongated4 ,its mouth is round and much dilated2 it opens in the cylindrical or trumpet part1 which is contained in a sac in the form of elongated fusci1 clothed in the whitish integuments which formed the body of the polyp when perfect4 ,at the bottom of the sac two rows of openings are observed1 which lead to a vascular network extending over the whole body2 the membranous parts1 while affecting various conditions in their arrangement1 are nevertheless in direct communication with all the reproductive individuals4 ,it is a general characteristic of all colonies of polypi that the digestive cavities of the individuals composing them meet and inosculate in a common vascular system4 ,the ,vilell present the same conformation4 ,only in their case the vascular system is extended horizontally1 this being the essential character of the union of all the individuals constituting the colony1 with the canals common to all1 in which the nourishing fluids circulate1 elaborated for all and by all4 ,it is a true picture of social communism realized by ,nature4 ,the central polyp is alone destined to absorb the food4 ,m4 ,vogt has always found in its interior cavity fragments of the shells of crustaceans1 the remains of small fishes2 and he has often seen the hard parts which resist digestion discharged through the trumpet-like opening4 ,this central polyp nourishes itself and also all the others1 but is itself sterile4 ,the tentacles are hollow cylinders1 completely closed at the extremity4 ,these are strong muscular tubes of considerable thickness1 the interior of which is filled with a transparent liquid4 ,they are enveloped in a strong membrane of a deep-blue colour4 ,the epidermis is furnished with small stinging capsules1 formed of a sac with comparatively thick walls4 ,if this sac is compressed under the microscope it explodes1 opening at a determinate part1 and throwing out an apparatus forming a long stiff filament1 which is implanted on a conical channel and surrounded with points4 ,i know not1 says ,m4 ,vogt1 if all this machinery can re-enter the capsule after it has exploded2 but ,i presume that the animal can extend itself and withdraw at pleasure4 ,a tentacle of ,vilella sufficiently compressed presents a surface bristling with these cirri1 so as to resemble a brush4 ,the tentacles themselves are in continual motion1 and ,i have no reason to doubt that the observation of ,lesson1 who saw them cover small crustaceans and fishes1 may be perfectly true4 ,these stinging organs doubtless serve the same purpose as with other animals of the same class2 namely1 to kill the prey which the tentacles have enabled them to secure4 ,thus the ,vilell have their javelins1 as the ,greek and ,roman warriors had1 and a lasso1 as the cavaliers of ,mexico and ,texas have4 ,the reproducing individuals form the great mass of the appendages attached to the under surface of the ,vilella4 ,the form of the individuals is much more varied1 inasmuch as they are extremely contractile4 ,nevertheless1 they have considerable resemblance to the corolla of a hyacinth4 ,these reproductive individuals are1 then1 at the same time nurses4 ,the ,medus originating by budding in the case of those reproductive individuals1 constitute the sexual state of the ,vilell4 ,they exist1 in short1 in two alternate states3 the one sexual1 producing eggs2 in this state they are isolated individuals of the ,medusad1 which never group themselves or form colonies3 the other aggregate state is non-sexual1 and in it they form swimming colonies1 under the special designation of ,vilell4 ,the ,vilell1 so called by ,lamarck1 are found widely diffused in the seas of ,europe1 ,asia1 ,america1 and ,australia4 ,one species1 ,v4 limbosa1 is often taken on the southern coast of ,england4 ,the animals are also met with far at sea1 and often huddled together in considerable masses1 old and young together4 ,such is a brief account of the strange facts to which the careful study of the lower class of marine animals initiates us4 ,naturalists range along with them the ,rataria and ,porpita4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,rataria have the body oval or circular1 sustained by a compressed sub-cartilaginous framework1 much elevated1 having a muscular1 movable1 longitudinal crest below1 and provided in the middle with a free proboscidiform stomach and a single row of marginal tentacular suckers4 ,de ,blainville was inclined to consider the very small animals which ,eschscholtz termed ,ratari as young and undeveloped ,vilell4 ,m4 ,vogt doubts not that the ,ratari are young ,vilell which have acquired1 by little and little1 the elliptical form1 but that the limb is only furnished at a later period to the reproductive individuals4 ,these ,ratari are engendered1 according to ,vogt1 by the naked-eyed ,medus born of the ,vilell1 and owe their existence to the eggs produced by these ,medus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,porpit constitute1 like the ,vilell1 colonies of floating animals furnished with a cartilaginous1 horizontal1 and rounded skeleton1 but they are destitute of crest or veil4 ,the body is circular and depressed1 slightly convex above1 with an internal circular cartilaginous support1 having the surface marked by concentric stri crossing other radiating stri1 the upper surface being covered by a delicate membrane only4 ,the body is concave below2 the under surface is furnished with a great number of tentacles1 the exterior ones being longest1 and also with small cilia1 each terminating in a globule1 which sometimes contains air2 the interior tentacles are shorter1 simple1 and fleshy4 ,in the centre of these tentacula is the mouth1 in form of a small proboscis1 leading to a simple stomach surrounded by a somewhat glandular substance4 ,the editors of the last edition of the ,rgne ,animal only mention one species--,p4 ,gigantea1 a native of the ,mediterranean and other warm seas1 of a beautiful blue colour4 ,lamarck gives four species4 ,de ,blainville and others consider with ,cuvier that they are only varieties1 which ,eschscholtz reunites under one species4 ,in ,fig4 #id we have represented ,p4 ,pacifica 7,lesson71 the disk of which is twelve lines in diameter1 without comprehending the tentacles4 ,this disk is finely radiated on the under surface with a brilliant argentine nacre4 ,the membranous fold which surrounds it is cut into1 leaving light and perfectly straight festoons4 ,it is of a clear celestial blue colour1 and very transparent4 ,the tentacles are much compressed1 very thin and cylindrical1 of a light blue1 and the glands are of an indigo blue colour4 ,all the reproductive individuals1 which are placed in the lower part of the body1 are of a perfect hyaline white4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,porpita pacifica 7,lesson74 ,this beautiful ,porpita was discovered by ,lesson on the ,peruvian coast1 where it occurs in swarms closely packed on the surface of the sea4 ,its manner of life1 says ,lesson1 is perfectly analogous to that of the ,vilella4 ,their locomotion on the sea is purely passive1 at least in appearance4 ,their disk laid flat on the surface upon the water-line1 leaves them to float freely and in a horizontal direction1 the irritable arms hanging all round them4 ,,physophora4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,physophora hydrostatica 7,forskahl74 ,this family includes the ,physophora1 properly so called1 the ,agalina1 and the ,stephanomina1 for the history of which we are indebted to the curious observations of ,m4 ,vogt4 ,fig4 #ie is a representation of ,physophora hydrostatica1 after ,m4 ,vogt's memoir4 ,we see that the animal is composed of a slender vertical axis1 terminating in an arial bladder1 carrying laterally certain vesicles1 known as swimming-balls1 which terminate in a bundle of whitish slender threads4 ,the arial bladder is brilliant and silvery1 punctured with red spots4 ,the swimming-bladders are encased in a transparent and somewhat cartilaginous capsule1 which is continued into the common median trunk1 the latter being rose-coloured1 hollow1 and very contractile2 in short1 it presents very delicate muscular fibres1 which expand themselves on the external fan of the capsule1 and is closed on all sides4 ,the swimming-bladders are of a glass-like transparency1 and of a firm1 compact tissue4 ,they are attached obliquely and alternately upon a common axis1 presenting an exterior curvature1 a round opening1 furnished with a fine1 muscular1 and very contractile limb1 and arranged like the iris of the eye4 ,their power of resistance is increased by certain horny hollow threads1 which are in direct communication with the cavity of the vertical trunk1 and have their origin in a common circular canal4 ,the animal1 says ,vogt1 is enabled to guide itself in any direction by means of the swimming apparatus or air-bags4 ,these1 on opening1 are filled with water1 which is again ejected in the contractile movement1 for their movements may be compared to that of the umbrella of the ,medus4 ,it is the violent expulsion of this liquid which enables the animal to advance diagonally through the water1 a kind of motion which is the consequence of its organization2 for where both rows of air-bags are working in the direction of the axis of the trunk1 the organism will incline to the side which works most1 but always in such a manner that the arial vesicle will be borne forward4 ,in its lower parts the trunk expands1 becomes flat1 and winds itself in a spiral4 ,it is hollow1 and encloses a transparent viscous liquid1 in which very small granules are observed1 which appear to be the result of digestion4 ,this disk is attached to three different sorts of appendages2 we shall first address ourselves to the tentacles4 ,these form a crown or bundle of vermiform appendages1 of a reddish colour1 over an inch in length1 and which are kept continually in motion3 these are formed of a glass-like cartilaginous substance2 they are conical tubes1 closed on all parts except at the point where the tentacle is attached to the disk4 ,their cavity is filled with the granulous liquid already mentioned4 ,on the under surface of the disk1 and to the inside of these tentacles1 the polyps and fishing-lines are attached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,p4 hydrostatica1 with a portion of the disk1 three polyps1 and reproductive clusters attached4 ,the anterior part of the polyp is formed of a glass-like substance1 which changes its form in the most varied and surprising manner4 ,it bears a roundish mouth at its summit4 ,in its posterior part the polyp presents a straight hollow stem1 of reddish colour2 but near to this red stem we find a thick tuft of cylindrical appendages1 from the middle of which springs the extensible and contractile filaments which ,vogt calls the fishing-lines 7fil pcheur71 and of which he has given the following very strange account3 ,each of these appendages consists of an assemblage of cylindrical tubes somewhat resembling and analogous to a filament of conferv4 ,all these tubes are traversed by a continuous canal1 which originates in the internal cavity of the stem of the polyp4 ,each fragment of the line is capable of a prodigious extent of elongation and contraction2 but where completely drawn back the pieces fold themselves up somewhat in the manner of a pocket foot-rule4 ,it is to the combined effect of contraction and the unfolding of the pieces that these lines owe the marvellous changes of length which they present4 ,in ,fig4 #if are represented the polyps and fishing-lines of ,p4 hydrostatica1 with a portion of the disk and two pairs of reproductive clusters4 ,in this figure it will be observed that each fragment or joint has implanted1 near the articulation1 a secondary line1 which bears the stinging organ4 ,each of these filaments consists of three parts3 a straight stem1 muscular1 contractile1 and hollow1 the cavity of which communicates with that of the trunk which carries it2 a middle part1 a sort of tube containing1 in a considerable internal cavity1 a transparent liquid2 finally1 an inflated stinging organ1 which terminates the apparatus4 ,this last is egg-shaped1 and consists internally of a hyaline substance of cartilaginous consistence1 in the interior of which we find a great cavity1 which opens from within1 near the base of the capsule2 to the inside of this cavity a second muscular sac is attached all round the opening of the capsule1 in such a manner that the opening leads directly into the cavity of the sac4 ,this cavity conceals in its interior a long filament usually rolled up in a spiral1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #ig1 where the two urticant capsules of the stinging apparatus of ,physophora hydrostatica are represented1 one of them being a section1 magnified by twelve diameters4 ,this spirally rolled-up filament consists of a large quantity of very small1 hard1 sabre-shaped1 corpuscular bodies1 supported the one against the other1 and having their points turned inwards4 ,these objects ,vogt terms urticant sabres3 the extremity of the filament consists of curved corpuscles1 larger1 of a brownish yellow1 very strong1 and with a double point4 ,m4 ,vogt had also opportunities of observing the action of these stinging capsules4 ,he has seen them burst naturally1 and he has also obtained artificially the same result4 ,in the former case the filament issues from the opening left at the base of the capsule with a sort of explosion4 ,the use1 he says1 of the fishing-lines becomes evident when we see a ,physophora in repose in a vase large enough for its full development2 then it takes a vertical position2 the lines elongate themselves more and more1 by unfolding one by one the secondary lines with stinging capsules1 and the ,physophora now resembles a flower posed upon a tuft of roots1 with extremely long and delicate rootlets reaching the bottom of the vase4 ,but in the case of the ,physophora the living roots are in continual motion4 ,each line is elongated1 foreshortened1 and contracted in a thousand ways4 ,the least movement of the water causes the stinging capsules to be suddenly drawn up1 the lines hauled in most rapidly being those near the crown of tentacles4 ,this continuous play of the lines has no other object than to attract the prey destined to feed the polyp1 and we cannot find any better comparison for them than the fishing-lines to which they have been compared4 ,the moment that some small microscopic medus1 larv1 or crustaceans come within the sphere of those redoubted lines1 it is at once surrounded1 seized1 and led with irresistible force towards the mouth of this polyp by a gentle and gradual contraction of the line2 the stinging organs1 complicated as we have seen them to be in the ,physophora1 thus serve the same purpose as the stinging organs disposed on the arms of the ,hydr1 or on the external surface of the tentacles and prolific polyps of the ,vilell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,offensive apparatus of ,physophora hydrostatica4 ,can there be any animal form more graceful than ,agalma rubra1 which is reproduced in ,plate ,,vii4 from ,vogt's ,memoir8 ,this beautiful creature is common in the ,mediterranean1 on the coast near ,nice1 from ,november till the month of ,may4 ,towards the middle of ,december ,vogt found nearly fifty individuals in the space of an hour1 opposite to the ,port of ,nice1 all following the same current1 a prodigious quantity of ,salp1 ,medus1 and small ,pteropodean ,mollusks accompanying them4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4--,agalma rubra1 three-fifths natural size4 ,i know nothing more graceful1 says ,vogt1 than this ,agalma as it floats along near the surface of the waters1 its long1 transparent1 garland-like lines extended1 and their limits distinctly indicated by bundles of a brilliant vermilion red1 while the rest of the body is concealed by its very transparency2 the entire organism always swims in a slightly oblique position near the surface1 but is capable of steering itself in any direction with great rapidity4 ,i have had in my possession some of these garlands more than three feet in length1 in which the series of air-bags measured more than four inches1 so that in the great vase in which ,i kept them the column of swimming bags touched the bottom1 while the arial vesicle floated on the surface4 ,immediately after its capture the columns contracted themselves to such a point that they were scarcely perceptible1 but when left to repose in a spacious vase1 all its shrunken appendages deployed themselves round the vase in the most graceful manner imaginable1 the column of swimming-bladders remaining immovable in their vertical position1 the air-bags at the surface1 while the different appendages soon began to play4 ,the polyps1 planted at intervals along the common trunk of rose-colour1 began to agitate themselves in all directions1 taking a thousand odd forms2 the reproductive individuals1 like the tentacles1 were contracting and twisting themselves about like so many worms2 the tentacles were stirred1 the ovarian clusters began to dilate and contract1 the spermatic air-bells agitated the waters with their umbrellas1 like the ,medus2 but what most excited my curiosity1 was the continuous action of the fishing-lines1 which continued to unroll and contract in a most surprising manner1 retiring altogether sometimes with the utmost precipitation4 ,all who have witnessed these living colonies detach themselves reluctantly from the strange spectacle1 where each polyp seems to play the part of the fisherman who throws his line1 furnished with baited hooks1 withdrawing it when he feels a nibble1 and throwing again when he discovers his disappointment4 ,these efforts continue in full vigour for two or three days1 and ,i have succeeded sometimes in feeding them with the small crustaceans which swarm on our coasts4 ,of the personelle of these colonies a few words will not be misplaced4 ,the common axis of the ,agalma is a hollow muscular tube1 the length of which may be three feet1 and its breadth an eighth or tenth of an inch2 it is traversed by a double current of granulous liquid2 at its summit is the arial vesicle2 beneath are the swimming vessels4 ,these are disposed along the trunk in a double series1 attaining sometimes the number of sixty2 their structure is analogous to the same organs in the ,physophora4 ,in examining the posterior portion of the trunk1 traversing polyps are observed at intervals1 whose base is surrounded by a cluster of reddish grains1 each of which is armed with a line1 and with its surrounding filament1 terminating in a tendril of a red vermilion colour1 which is a perfect arsenal of offensive and defensive arms4 ,there we find sabres of divers sizes1 and poniards of various forms1 the whole constituting a truly formidable stinging apparatus4 ,these warlike engines1 these arms of attack and defence with which man surrounds himself1 ,nature has freely bestowed on these little creatures with which the ocean swarms in some places4 ,it might be said that1 after having created these graceful creatures to ornament and decorate the depths of the ocean1 the ,creator was so pleased with ,his work that ,he furnished them with arms for their protection and defence against all attacks from without4 ,among these creatures we may note the pretty ,apolemia contorta of ,milne ,edwards 7,fig4 #ih71 which also inhabits the ,mediterranean1 and particularly the coast of ,nice1 and is no less admirable in its structure than ,agalma rubra4 ,this elegant species is often met with in the ,gulf of ,villafranca1 near ,nice1 and has been figured and described by ,milne ,edwards1 ,charles ,vogt1 and also by ,m4 de ,quatrefages1 who asks the reader to figure to himself an axis of flexible crystals1 sometimes more than a mtre 7forty inches71 all round which are attached1 by means of long peduncles or foot-stalks equally transparent1 some hundreds of bodies1 sometimes elongated1 sometimes flat1 and formed like the bud of a flower4 ,if we add to this garland of pearls of a vivid red colour1 an infinity of fine filaments1 varying in thickness1 and give life and motion to all these parts1 we have even now only a very slight and imperfect idea of the marvellous organism4 ,the air-bells in ,apolemia contorta consist of a mass having the form of an elongated egg cut in the middle4 ,they are arranged in a vertical series of twelves1 and the axis which supports them is terminated by the arial vesicle4 ,this axis is always arranged in a spiral form1 even in its greatest expansion1 is of a fine rose tint1 and flattened into the form of a ribbon2 it is marked in all its length with asperitics or hollow dimples1 in which the filamental appendages originate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,apolemia contorta1 one-third natural size 7,milne ,edwards74 ,the nursing polyps have been called poboscidiferous organs by ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 who has studied them carefully4 ,they are rendered conspicuous at a glance by the bright-red colour of their digestive cavity and their extreme dilatability4 ,at the base of their stems the very delicate filaments called fishing-lines are attached1 which are furnished with a multitude of stinging tendrils of a reddish colour4 ,these tendrils slightly resemble those of the ,agalm1 and the sabre-like weapons are not wanting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,apolemia contorta1 magnified #ab times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,apolemia contorta1 reproductive pair1 magnified #ab times4 ,between the nursing polyps are placed in pairs the reproductive individuals1 having the form of an elongated tube very dilatable1 and closed at the free end4 ,they have1 then1 no mouth6 ,milne ,edwards calls these vesicular appendages1 and ,m4 ,koelliker1 tentacles4 ,the buds arranged at the base of each prolific individual vary2 but1 according to ,m4 ,vogt1 they are always there in pairs--a male and female at the base of each stem4 ,figs4 #ii and #ajj represent the colony we have endeavoured to describe1 #ii being the nursing individual of ,apolemia contorta magnified twelve times1 #ajj representing the reproductive pair under the same magnifying power4 ,,the ,,diphyd4 ,we have seen that the ,physophora1 the ,agalma1 and the ,apolemia have for the use of the colony a vast number of swimming vesicles and a terminal arial vesicle4 ,it is much the same in the ,pray or ,diphyd4 ,in this family a great number of natatory vesicles are connected with the terminal arial vesicle1 as in ,fig4 #aja1 ,praya diphys4 ,this species is widely diffused in the sea which bathes the ,nicean coast1 but it is very difficult to procure perfect specimens4 ,m4 ,vogt found fragments more than three feet long which swam on the surface1 and was in its state of contraction not more than a finger's length4 ,this species has been met with at ,porta della ,praya and at ,san ,yago1 one of the ,cape de ,verde islands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,praya diphys 7,blainville74 ,the colony of the ,praya presents two great locomotive bell shaped masses1 between which the common trunk is suspended1 and to which it can retire4 ,this cylindrical trunk1 which is thin and transparent1 carries from space to space certain groups very exactly circumscribed and individualised4 ,each of these groups consists of a nursing polyp1 having its fishing-line with a special floating air-bladder1 a reproductive bud male or female1 and a protecting casque enveloping the whole4 ,another species having a great resemblance to the ,praya is ,galeolaria aurantiaca 7,plate ,,viii471 or orange ,galeolaria1 which is represented on the opposite page1 borrowed from the fine ,memoir of the ,inferior ,animals of the ,mediterranean1 by ,carl ,vogt4 ,here we find only two great floating bladders placed at each extremity of a common trunk1 and serving the purpose of a locomotive apparatus to the whole colony4 ,this trunk carries in like manner polyps placed at regular intervals forming isolated groups1 provided each with its protecting plates4 ,but there is no special swimming apparatus for each of these groups4 ,moreover1 each colony is either male or female4 ,,physalia4 ,let us finally note among the ,siphonophor a zoophyte which has attracted great attention1 and has been described under many names4 ,sailors call it the sea-bladder1 from its resemblance to that organ2 it is also known as the ,portuguese man-of-war1 from its fancied resemblance to a small ship as it floats along under its tiny sail4 ,naturalists after ,eschscholtz call it ,physalia utriculus1 from the ,greek word 1 a bubble1 and utriculus from its stinging powers4 ,it was long thought that the ,physalia was an isolated individual4 ,but1 according to recent researches1 they form1 like the species already described1 an animal republic4 ,let us imagine a great cylindrical bladder dilated in the middle1 attenuated and rounded at its two extremities1 of eleven or twelve inches in length1 and from one to three broad4 ,its appearance is glassy and transparent1 its colour an imperfect purple1 passing to a violet1 then to an azure above4 ,it is surmounted by a crest1 limpid and pure as crystal1 veined with purple and violet in decreasing tints4 ,under the vesicle float the fleshy filaments1 waving and contorted into a spiral form1 which sometimes descend perpendicularly like so many threads of celestial blue4 ,sailors believe that the crest which surmounts the vesicle performs the office of a sail1 and that they tell the navigator how the wind blows1 as they say4 ,with all respect to the sailors1 the bladder-like form1 with its arial crest1 is only a hydrostatic apparatus1 whose office is to lighten the animal1 and modify its specific gravity4 ,mr4 ,gosse thinks otherwise1 however4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii4--,galeolaria aurantiaca4 7,vogt47 ,this bladder1 says ,gosse1 in his ,year by the ,sea-side1 is filled with air1 and therefore floats almost wholly on the surface4 ,along the upper side1 nearly from end to end1 runs a thin edge of membrane1 which is capable of being erected at will to a considerable height1 fully equal at times to the entire width of the bladder1 when it represents an arched fore-and-aft sail1 the bladder being the hull4 ,from the bottom of the bladder1 near the thickest extremity1 where there is a denser portion of the membrane1 depends a crowded mass of organs1 most of which take the form of very slender1 highly contractile movable threads1 which hang down into the deep to a depth of many feet1 or occasionally of several yards4 ,the colours of this curious creature are very vivid2 the bladder1 though in some parts transparent and colourless1 and in some specimens almost entirely so1 is in general painted with richest blues and purple1 mingled with green and crimson to a smaller extent1 these all being1 not as sometimes described1 iridescent or changeable1 but positive colours independent of the incidence of light1 and1 for the most part1 possessing great depth and fulness4 ,the sail-like1 erectile membrane is transparent1 tinted towards the edge with a lovely rose-pink hue1 the colours arranged in a peculiar fringe-like manner4 ,when examined anatomically1 the bladder is found to be composed of two walls of membrane1 which are lined with cilia1 and have between them the nutritive food which supplies the place of the blood4 ,besides this1 the double membrane is turned in or inverted like a stocking prepared for putting on2 and thus there is a bladder within a bladder1 both having double walls2 the inner 7pneumatocyst7 much smaller than the outer 7pneumatophone71 and contracted at the point where it is turned into the almost imperceptible orifice4 ,the inner sends up closed tubular folds into the crest1 which1 being arrested by the membranous walls of the outer sac1 give to the sail that appearance of vertical wrinkles which is so conspicuous4 ,when it is filled with air the body is almost projected out of the water4 ,in order to descend it is necessary to compress itself or dispel the air1 in part1 for the centre of gravity in the animal is displaced according as the air is in the vesicle or in the crest4 ,when the last is distended it rises out of the water1 and becomes nearly vertical2 in short1 it then becomes a sort of sail4 ,the floating appendages beneath the body are of divers kinds4 ,some of these are reproductive individuals2 some are nurses2 some are tentacles2 finally1 there are organs designated under the name of ,sondes by ,french naturalists2 probes or suckers1 we may call them1 forming offensive and defensive arms truly formidable2 for these elegant creatures are terrible antagonists4 ,dutertre1 the veracious historian of the ,antilles1 relates the following3 ,this 'galley' 7our ,physalia71 however agreeable to the sight1 is most dangerous to the body1 for ,i can assert that it is freighted with the worst merchandise which floats on the sea4 ,i speak as a naturalist1 and as having made experiments at my own personal cost4 ,one day1 when sailing at sea in a small boat1 ,i perceived one of these little 'galleys1' and was curious to see the form of the animal2 but ,i had scarcely seized it1 when all its fibres seemed to clasp my hand1 covering it as with birdlime1 and scarcely had ,i felt it in all its freshness 7for it is very cold to the touch7 when it seemed as if ,i had plunged my arm up to the shoulder in a caldron of boiling water4 ,this was accompanied with a pain so strange that it was only with a violent effort ,i could restrain myself from crying aloud4 ,another voyager1 ,leblond1 in his ,voyage aux ,antilles1 relates as follows3 ,one day ,i was bathing with some friends in a bay in front of the house where ,i dwelt4 ,while my friends fished for sardines for breakfast1 ,i amused myself by diving1 in the manner of the native ,carribeans1 under the wave about to break2 having reached the other side of one great wave1 ,i had gained the open sea1 and was returning on the top of the next wave towards the shore4 ,my rashness nearly cost me my life3 a ,physalia1 many of which were stranded upon the beach1 fixed itself upon my left shoulder at the moment the wave landed me on the beach4 ,i promptly detached it1 but many of its filaments remained glued to my skin1 and the pain ,i experienced immediately was so intense that ,i nearly fainted4 ,i seized an oil flask which was at hand1 and swallowed one half1 while ,i rubbed my arm with the other3 this restored me to myself1 and ,i returned to the house1 where two hours of repose relieved the pain1 which disappeared altogether during the night4 ,mr4 ,bennett1 who accompanied the exploring expedition under ,admiral ,fitzroy1 as naturalist1 ventured to test the powers of the ,physalia4 ,on one occasion1 he says1 ,i tried the experiment of its stinging powers upon myself1 intentionally4 ,when ,i seized it by the bladder portion1 it raised the long cables by muscular contraction of the bands situated at the base of the feelers1 and1 entwining the slender appendages about my hand and finger1 inflicting severe and peculiarly pungent pain1 it adhered most tenaciously at the same time1 so as to be extremely difficult of removal4 ,the stinging continued during the whole time that the minutest portion of the tentacular remained adherent to the skin4 ,i soon found that the effects were not confined to the acute pungency inflicted1 but produced a great degree of constitutional irritation3 the pain extended upwards along the arm1 increasing not only in extent but in severity1 apparently acting along the course of the absorbents1 and could only be compared to a severe rheumatic attack4 ,the pulse was accelerated1 and a feverish state of the whole system produced3 the muscles of the chest1 even1 were affected2 the same distressing pain being felt on taking a full respiration as obtains in a case of acute rheumatism4 ,the secondary effects were very severe1 continuing for nearly three-quarters of an hour2 the duration being probably longer in consequence of the time and delay occasioned by removing the tentacula from the skin1 to which they adhered1 by the aid of the stinging capsules1 with an annoying degree of tenacity4 ,on the whole being removed1 the pain began to abate2 but during the day a peculiar numbness was felt1 accompanied by an increased temperature in the limb on which the sting had been inflicted4 ,for some hours afterwards the skin displayed white elevations or weals on the parts stung1 similar to those resulting from the poison of the stinging nettle4 ,the intensity of the pain depends in some degree upon the size and consequent power of the creature4 ,after it has been removed from the water for some time1 the stinging property1 although still continuing to act1 is found to have perceptibly diminished4 ,i have observed1 also1 that this irritative power is retained for some weeks after the death of the animal1 in the vesicles of the cables1 and even linen cloth which has been used for wiping off the adhering tentacles1 when touched1 still retained the pungency1 although it had not the power of producing such violent constitutional irritation4 ,the question has been much agitated1 without being positively resolved1 whether the ,physalia are venomous or not3 if they can kill or make sick the man or animal which swallows them4 ,listen to the opinions of ,m4 ,ricord-,madiana1 a physician of ,guadaloupe1 who made direct experiments with a view to settling the question4 ,many inhabitants of the ,antilles1 he says1 say that the 'galleys' are poisonous1 and that the negroes make use of them1 after being dried and powdered1 to poison both men and animals4 ,the fishermen of the islands also believe that fish which have swallowed them become deleterious1 and poison those that eat them1 a prejudice which has been adopted by many travellers1 and has even found its way into scientific books4 ,we can state as the result of direct experiment1 that though the 'galley1' will burn the ignorant hand which is touched by its tentacles1 when dried in the sun and pulverized1 it becomes mere grains of dead matter1 producing no effect whatever upon the animal economy4 ,on the other hand1 we read in ,p4 ,labat's ,voyage1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ca1 that the bcune should not be eaten without some precaution1 for this fish being extremely voracious1 greedily devours all that comes within its reach in and out of the water1 and it often happens that it meets and swallows 'galleys1' which are very caustic1 and a violent poison4 ,the fish does not die1 but its flesh absorbs the venom1 and poisons those who eat it4 ,there is every reason to believe1 says ,m4 ,leblond1 in the work already quoted1 that the sardine1 as well as many other species of fish1 after having ate the tentacles of the 'galley1' acquires a poisonous quality4 ,supping at an auberge on one occasion1 with other persons1 a bcune was served up1 of which gastronomers are very fond1 and which is usually perfectly harmless3 five persons partook of it1 and immediately afterwards exhibited every symptom of being poisoned4 ,this was manifested by a burning heat in the region of the stomach4 ,i bled two of them3 one was cured by vomiting2 one other would take nothing but tea and some culinary oil4 ,the colic continued during the night1 and had disappeared in the morning1 but he entertained so great a horror of water1 that during the remainder of the voyage a glass of it presented to him made him turn pale4 ,m4 ,leblond concludes1 from this and other facts1 that the fishes which eat the ,physalia become a poison for those who eat them1 although it does not appear that he had any evidence of the fish having ate the galley1 or any other poison4 ,let us report our own experiments1 continues ,m4 ,ricord-,madiana4 ,i4 ,i had placed a 'galley' in the sun1 in order to dry and pulverize it4 ,a nest of ants were there1 who devoured the whole of it4 ,now1 many persons in the islands think that these insects will not touch venomous fishes4 ,,ii4 ,another 'galley1' which ,i had left on the table in my laboratory1 was attacked by a number of great flies1 who deposited their eggs there2 these were duly hatched1 and the larv fed on the decomposed zoophyte4 ,,iii4 ,on the #abth of ,july1 #ahbc1 ,i saw on the sands in the bay between ,saint ,mary and ,la ,goyave1 at ,guadaloupe1 many ,physalia recently cast ashore4 ,having a dog with me1 with the assistance of my servant1 ,i made him swallow the freshest of them1 with all its filiform tentacles1 pushing it down his throat1 while my servant held his mouth open2 five minutes after1 the dog exhibited symptoms of great pain on the edges of its lips2 it foamed at the mouth and rubbed it in the sand1 or upon the grass1 leaping about1 passing its paws over its jaws1 and exhibiting every symptom of excessive pain4 ,i mounted my horse1 and1 in spite of its sufferings1 the poor animal followed me as it was wont4 ,after twenty minutes1 when its sufferings seemed over1 ,i had a piece of bread which ,i gave it1 and it ate it with appetite1 swallowing it without any difficulty2 it only seemed to feel the pain on the edges of its mouth3 it was well enough all day1 and had evacuations which gave no indication that the ,physalia had any influence over the digestive organs4 ,next day1 and the day following1 it was as well as usual1 exhibiting no signs of inflammation either in the mouth or throat4 ,,iv4 ,on the #bjth of the same month1 ,i took two 'galleys' on the sea-shore and cut them in pieces2 then1 with a spoon1 ,i had them forced down the throat of a puppy1 which still sucked its mother2 this strong dose of ,physalia had no effect upon it1 the tentacles having probably been surrounded by the fleshy parts of the animal in dividing it1 so as not to touch the mouth3 it seems probable1 therefore1 that the internal mucus is capable of subduing the irritation1 which is so distressing when applied to membranes exposed to the external air4 ,we swallow some things with impunity1 which we could not support in the mouth if the burning substance remained there4 ,v4 ,i have also procured many 'galleys' since these experiments1 and having placed them in a glass tube1 left them to dry and had them pulverized2 twenty-five grains of this powder administered to a very young dog produced no deleterious effects4 ,twice this quantity administered to a young cat produced no more1 nor has this surprised me2 for1 if the fresh animal has no poisonous properties1 how can it be supposed that drying the zoophyte can have increased its poisonous properties1 if it really possesses them8 ,on the contrary1 it is more reasonable to suppose that1 by desiccation1 the deleterious principle from any animal1 whether ,physalia or ,holothuria1 should lose infinitely in its principle by evaporation1 and other changes that heat and air produce in the process of drying4 ,,vi4 ,i have had a 'galley' cut into pieces1 and got a fat young chicken to swallow them4 ,it caused no inconvenience4 ,three hours after1 ,i had the chicken killed and roasted2 then ,i ate it1 and made my servant eat it too4 ,neither of us experienced any inconvenience from it1 a certain proof that it is not from eating ,physalia that the fish becomes poisonous4 ,,vii4 ,i put twenty-five grains of powdered ,physalia in a little 'bouillon2' ,i swallowed the dose without the least fear1 and ,i felt no inconvenience from it4 ,after these experiments1 which are certainly quite conclusive1 what are we to think of the story related of a certain ,m4 ,tb1 the managing partner of a house in ,guadaloupe1 who fell a victim to his cook1 who is said1 after having sought in vain to poison him with the rasping of his nails1 which he had spread carefully over the roasted fish daily served up for dinner1 determined1 seeing that he had signally failed by other means1 to put into his soup a pulverized ,physalia4 ,an hour after his repast1 this gentleman appeared in the burgh of ,lamantin1 at a little distance from his habitation1 and1 while entering the city with some friends1 he was seized with violent pains in the stomach and intestines1 racking him as if by the most corrosive poison4 ,his illness increased until the next day1 when he died1 under the most excruciating pains4 ,on examination1 the stomach and intestines were found to be violently inflamed and corroded1 as if he had been poisoned with arsenic1 and ,i have no doubt that it was with this poison1 or some other corrosive substance1 that ,m4 ,tb really was poisoned4 ,the negroes never make known the substance with which they commit a poisoning2 they confess all but the truth1 which they are sworn never to reveal--the means they employ1 so far as the poisoning material is concerned1 are never communicated by confession4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,physalia utriculus 7,eschscholtz74 ,the habits of the ,physalia are still imperfectly known1 but among the many strange forms of brilliant colour and elegant contour1 which swarm in the warmer parts of the ocean1 none1 says ,gosse1 take a stronger hold on the fancy of the beholder2 certainly none is more familiar than the little thing he daily marks floating in the sun-lit waves1 as the ship glides swiftly by1 which the sailors tell him is the ,portuguese man-of-war4 ,perhaps a dead calm has settled over the sea1 and he leans over the bulwarks of the ship scrutinizing the ocean-rover at leisure1 as it hastily rises and falls on the long1 sluggish heavings of the glassy surface4 ,then he sees that the comparison of the stranger to a ship is a felicitous one1 for at a little 7,fig4 #ajb7 distance it might well be mistaken for a child's mimic boat1 shining in all the gaudy painting in which it left the toy-shop4 ,not unfrequently1 one of these tiny vessels comes so close alongside1 that1 by means of the ship's bucket1 with the assistance of a smart fellow who has jumped into the 'chains' with a boat-hook1 it is captured1 and brought on deck for examination4 ,a dozen voices are1 however1 lifted1 warning you by no means to touch it1 for well the experienced sailor knows its terrible powers of defence4 ,it does not now appear so like a ship as when it was at a distance4 ,it is an oblong bladder of tough membrane1 varying considerably in shape1 for no two agree in this respect2 varying also in size1 from less than an inch to the size of a man's hat4 ,once1 on a voyage to ,mobile1 when rounding the ,florida reef1 ,i was nearly a whole day passing through a fleet of these little ,portuguese men-of-war1 which studded the smooth sea as far as the eye could reach1 and must have extended for many miles4 ,they were of all sizes within the limits ,i have mentioned4 ,generally1 there is a conspicuous difference between the two extremities of the bladder1 one end being rounded1 the other more pointed1 or terminating in a small knob-like swelling or beak-shaped excrescence1 where there is a minute orifice2 sometimes1 however1 no such excrescence is visible1 and the orifice cannot be detected4 ,that wonderful river1 continues ,mr4 ,gosse1 in his nervous1 eloquent style1 with a well-defined course through the midst of the ,atlantic--that ,gulf ,stream--brings on its warm waters many of the denizens of tropical seas1 and wafts them to the shores on which its waves impinge4 ,hence it is that so many of the proper pelagic creatures are from time to time observed on the coasts of ,cornwall and ,devon4 ,the ,portuguese man-of-war is among them1 sometimes paying its visit in fleets1 more commonly in single stranded hulks4 ,scarcely a season passes without one or more of these lovely strangers occurring in the vicinity of ,torquay4 ,usually1 he adds in a note1 in these stranded examples the tentacles and suckers are much mutilated by washing on the shore4 ,the fishermen who pick them up always endeavour to make a harvest of their capture1 not by selling1 but by making an exhibition of them4 ,the ,physalia seem to be gregarious in their habits1 herding together in shoals4 ,floating on the sea between the tropics in both oceans1 they may be seen now carried along by currents1 now driven by the trade-winds1 dragging behind them their long tentacular appendages1 and conspicuous by their rich and varied colouring1 from pale crimson to ultramarine blue4 ,certainly1 says ,lesson1 we can readily conceive that a poetical imagination might well compare the graceful form of the ,physalia to the most elegant of sailing-vessels1 even if it careened to the wind under a sail of satin1 and dragged behind it deceitful garlands which struck with death every creature which suffered itself to be attracted by its seductive appearance4 ,if fishes have the misfortune to come in contact with one of these creatures1 each tentacle1 by a movement as rapid as a flash of light1 or sudden as an electric shock1 seizes and benumbs them1 winding round their bodies as a serpent winds itself round its victim4 ,a ,physalia of the size of a walnut will kill a fish much stronger than a herring4 ,the flying fish and the polyps are the habitual prey of the ,physalia4 ,mr4 ,bennett describes them as seizing and benumbing them by means of the tentacles1 which are alternately contracted to half an inch1 and then shot out with amazing velocity to the length of several feet1 dragging the helpless and entangled prey to the sucker-like mouths and stomach-like cavities concealed among the tentacles1 which he saw filled while he looked on4 ,dr4 ,wallach thinks ,mr4 ,bennett must have been mistaken in what he saw2 because he has observed that in a great number of instances the ,physalia is accompanied by small fishes1 which play around and among the depending tentacles without molestation4 ,he has in so many cases seen this1 and even witnessed the actual contact of the fishes with the tentacles1 with no inconvenience to the former1 that he too hastily concludes that the urticating organs are innocuous4 ,surely1 says ,gosse1 the premises by no means warrant such an inference4 ,there is no antagonism between the two series of facts witnessed by such excellent observers2 the venomous virulence of these organs has been abundantly proved by many naturalists1 myself among the number1 and ,mr4 ,bennett to his cost1 as already narrated4 ,we can only suppose that the injection of the poison is under the control of the ,physalia's will1 and the impunity of the bold little fishes is sufficiently accounted for4 ,among the ,physalia captured on our coast1 one was obtained at ,tenby1 by ,mr4 ,hughes1 who has given a report of the capture1 in which he mentions a circumstance as normal1 which excited ,mr4 ,gosse's curiosity2 it was said to be accompanied by its attendant satellites1 two ,vilell4 ,in reply to his inquiries1 ,mr4 ,hughes says1 ,my authority for the association of the ,vilella with ,physalia is ,jenkins1 the collector of ,tenby1 who was attending me when it was found4 ,the ,physalia was taken by me first2 and1 while ,i was admiring it1 ,i noticed that ,jenkins continued his search for something4 ,immediately afterwards he came up with the ,vilella in his hand1 at the same time stating they were generally found with the ,portuguese man-of-war4 ,as ,i had found him very honest and truthful in his dealings with me1 ,i accepted his information as correct4 ,,ctenophora4 ,we have now reached the last class of polyps2 those1 namely1 which ,cuvier designates ,hydrostatic ,acalepha1 and which ,de ,blainville calls the ,ciliobranchi4 ,the body of these polyps presents marginal fringes furnished with vibratile cilia1 which are swimming organs4 ,moreover1 as these vibratile fringes are inserted directly over the principal canal1 in which the nourishing fluid circulates1 they ought necessarily to concur in the act of respiration1 by determining the renewal of the water in contact with the corresponding portion of the tegumentary membrane4 ,the class may be divided into three orders or families1 namely1 ,bere1 ,callianirea1 and ,cestea4 ,the creatures belonging to these three orders swarm in the deep sea2 they often appear quite suddenly1 and in vast numbers1 in certain localities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,beros ,forskahli 7,edwards74 ,the ,beres of ,forskahl have been studied with great care by ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards4 ,they inhabit the ,gulf of ,naples1 and other parts of the ,mediterranean2 the sailors of ,provence call them ,sea-cucumbers4 ,the body 7,fig4 #ajc71 cylindrical in form1 is of a pale rose colour1 thickly studded with small reddish spots1 so numerous as to appear entirely punctured with them4 ,it presents eight blue sides1 with very fine vibratile cilia1 which by their reflection produce all the colours of the rainbow4 ,the substance of the body is gelatinous1 its appearance glass-like2 its form varies according as the animal is in motion or repose4 ,sometimes it swells up like a ball2 sometimes it reverses itself1 so as to resemble a bell2 at others it is elongated and cylindrical2 at its lower extremity it presents a large mouth2 at its upper extremity is found a small nipple1 having at its base a spherical point of a reddish colour1 enclosing many crystalloid corpuscles1 which rest upon a sort of nervous ganglion1 whose physiological function is not very well determined4 ,a vast stomach1 considering its size1 occupies the whole interior of the body of the ,bere3 the circulation is also much developed in this zoophyte4 ,the circulating apparatus contains a moving fluid charged with a multitude of circular1 colourless globules1 which flows from a vascular ring round the mouth towards the summit of the body2 in the interior are eight superficial canals1 which flow under the ciliated sides1 and redescend by two much deeper canals2 but the ,beres have no heart4 ,bere ovata is a beautiful species1 seldom exceeding three inches and a half in length1 and two and a half in its larger transverse diameter2 is described by ,browne1 in his ,jamaica1 as of an oval form1 obtusely octangular1 hollow1 open at the larger extremity1 transparent1 and of a firm gelatinous consistence2 it contracts and widens with great facility1 but is always open and expanded when it swims or moves4 ,the longitudinal radii are strongest in the crown or smallest extremity where they rise from a very beautiful oblong star1 and diminish gradually from thence to the margin1 each being furnished with a single series of short1 slender1 delicate appendages1 or limbs 7cilia71 that move with great celerity in all directions1 as the creature pleases to direct its flexions1 and in a regular accelerated succession from the top to the margin4 ,it is impossible to express the liveliness of the motions of those delicate organs1 or the beautiful variety of colour which rise from them to play to and fro in the rays of the sun2 nor is it easy to express the speed and regularity with which the motions succeed each other from one end of the rays to the other4 ,the grace and beauty which the entire apparatus presents in the living animal1 says ,gosse1 or the marvellous ease and rapidity with which it can be alternately contracted1 extended1 and bent at an infinite variety of angles1 no verbal description can sufficiently treat4 ,fortunately the creature is so common in summer and autumn on all our coasts1 that few who use the surface can possibly miss its capture4 ,it is worthy of a poet's description1 which it has received3-- ',when first extracted from her native brine1 ,behold a round1 small mass of gelatine1 ,or frozen dewdrop1 void of life and limb2 ,but round the crystal goblet let her swim ',midst her own elements2 and lo6 a sphere ,banded from pole to pole2 as diamond clear1 ,shaped as bard's fancy shapes the small balloon1 ,to bear some sylph or fay beyond the moon4 ,from all her bands see lurid fringes play1 ,that glance and sparkle in the solar ray ,with iridescent hues4 ,now round and round ,she whirls and twirls2 now mounts1 then sinks profound4' ,,drummond4 ,besides the ,bere1 naturalists place the ,cydippa1 which is frequently confounded with the former4 ,the ,cydipp are globulous or egg-shaped1 furnished with eight rows of cilia1 corresponding with as many sections more or less distinct1 and terminated by two long filiform tentacles issuing from the base of the zoophyte and fringed on the sides4 ,it is1 says ,gosse1 a globe of pure colourless jelly1 about as big as a small marble1 often with a wart-like swelling at one of its poles1 where the mouth is placed4 ,at the other end there are minute orifices1 and between the two passes the stomach1 which is flat or wider in one diameter than the other4 ,cydippe pileus1 found abundantly in the spring on the ,belgian coast1 is so transparent that it is scarcely visible in the water1 where it seems like living1 moving crystal4 ,c4 densa1 which abounds in the ,mediterranean1 is of a crystalline white1 with rows of reddish cirrhi1 terminating in two tentacles1 much longer and coloured red2 it is about the size of a hazel-nut1 and phosphorescent4 ,within the clear substance of the ,cydippe1 on each side of the stomach1 there is a capacious cavity1 which communicates with the surface1 and within each cavity is fixed the tentacle1 of great length and very slender1 which the animal can at pleasure shoot out of the orifice and suffer to trail through the water1 shortening1 lengthening1 twisting1 twining1 or contracting it into a tiny ball at will1 or withdrawing it into its cavity1 short filaments being given off at intervals over the whole length of this attenuated white thread-like apparatus1 each of which can also be lengthened or shortened1 and coiled individually4 ,these proceed only from one side of the thread-like tentacle1 although1 at a casual glance1 they seem to proceed now from one side1 now from the other4 ,,callianira4 ,the ,callianira form a sort of connecting link between the ,beres and the ,cestid4 ,their bodies are smooth and regular1 vertically-elongated1 compressed on one side and as if lobated on the other2 in substance they are gelatinous1 hyalin1 and tubular1 obtuse at both extremities1 with buccal openings between the prolongations of the side1 and two pair of conical appendages resembling wings1 capable of expansion1 on the edges of which two rows of vibratory cilia are ranged4 ,a great transversal opening presents itself at one of the extremities1 a small one at the other4 ,the animal is furnished with two branching tentacles1 but without cilia4 ,,cestid4 ,in ,cestum1 or ,venus's ,girdle1 as it is vulgarly called1 we have a long1 gelatinous1 ribbon-like body1 fine1 regular1 and very short1 but much extended on each side1 while the edges are furnished with a double row of cilia2 the lower surface is also furnished with cilia1 but much smaller in size and number4 ,on the middle of the lower edge is the mouth1 opening into a large stomach4 ,this alimentary canal runs across the middle of its length1 and from it extends1 as in the ,medus1 a series of gastric canals1 which carry the nutriment into all parts of the body4 ,there are many species of ,cestum2 among them the best known is ,c4 veneris 7,fig4 #ajd71 which is found in the ,mediterranean1 particularly in the sea which bathes the coast of ,naples and ,nice1 where the fishermen call it the sabre de mer--sea-sabre4 ,this curious zoophyte unwinds itself on the bosom of the waters1 like a scarf of iridescent shades4 ,it is the scarf of ,venus traversing the waves1 under the fiery rays of the sun1 which has coloured it with a thousand reflections of silver and azure blue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,cestum veneris 7,lesueur74 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,echinodermata4 ,ultra magis pisces et ,echinos quora celent4--,hor4 ,ep4 ,in their ,natural ,history of the ,echinodermata1 ,messrs4 ,hup and ,dujardin divide this vast natural group into five orders or families1 namely3 #a1 ,asterod1 which includes the true star-fishes2 #b1 ,crinod1 stone lilies1 calcareous1 stem composed of movable pieces2 #c1 ,ophiur1 having the disk much depressed1 the rays simple1 and furnished with short stems2 #d1 ,echinid1 comprehending the animals known as sea-eggs1 or sea-urchins1 distinguished by their rounded form and absence of arms2 #e1 ,holothurod1 with soft lengthened cylindrical body1 covered with scattered suckers4 ,the ,echinodermata1 from the ,greek words 1 rough1 and 1 skin2 indicating an animal bristling with spines like the hedgehog's4 ,they are animals sometimes free1 sometimes attached by a stem1 flexible or otherwise1 and radiating1 that is1 presenting an appearance more or less regular in all its parts1 after the manner of a circle or star1 its form being globular1 egg-shaped1 cylindrical1 or like a pentagonal plate2 or1 lastly1 like a star1 with more or less elongated branches1 which secrete either in all their tissues or only in the integument very numerous symmetrical calcareous plates of solid matter1 sometimes forming an internal skeleton or regular shell covered with a more or less consistent skin1 often pierced with holes1 from which the feet or tentacula issue2 they are frequently furnished with appendices of various kinds1 such as prickles1 scales1 c4 ,the organization of the ,echinodermata is the most perfect of all the zoophytes1 serving as a transition between them and animals of more complicated frame4 ,they have a digestive and vascular system1 and a muscular system is almost always present2 in short1 they have internal or external respiratory organs1 and a rudimentary nervous system has been detected in many of the species4 ,the nutritive system is very simple1 presenting in most of the family a single orifice in the centre of the lower surface of the body1 destitute of teeth1 performing the functions both of mouth and anus4 ,de ,blainville says that the liver is apparent and rather considerable in the star-fishes1 forming bunches occupying the whole circumference of the stomach1 and extending to the cavities of the appendages where these exist4 ,the mouth and gullet is admirably adapted for securing the testaceous mollusks and other substances on which they feed4 ,reproduction in the ,echinodermata appears to be monoecious4 ,ovaries are1 as far as is known1 the only organs of generation4 ,they vary in number in different species4 ,the sexes are usually separate3 the young are produced by eggs1 the embryo of which undergo important metamorphoses4 ,immediately after birth1 the young asteri have a depressed and rounded body1 with four club-shaped appendages or arms at their anterior extremity4 ,when they are a little more developed1 papill may be observed on the upper surface1 in fine radiating rows3 after twelve days the fine rays begin to increase1 and after eight days more two rows of feet1 or tentacula1 are developed under each ray1 which assist in the locomotion of the animal by alternate elongation and contraction1 performing also the office of suckers4 ,like most other zoophytes1 they have the power of reproducing parts of their bodies which may have been accidentally destroyed4 ,,asterias1 ,,or ,,star-,,fishes4 ,as to the animal which commonly and sometimes scientifically bears the name of ,star-fish1 in walking on the sea-shore at low tide1 your eyes have often seen this strange creature half buried in the sand4 ,it is so regular and geometrical in its form that it has more the appearance of being the production of man's hand than of a creation which breathes and moves4 ,the ,divine ,geometrician who created it never realised a creature more regularly finished in shape1 or more perfectly harmonious in symmetry4 ,the star-fish has five perfectly equal arms4 ,they resemble a cross of honour1 which has five branches4 ,the star of the brave1 the star of honour--these somewhat trivial words recall1 nevertheless1 the resemblance which exists between the two objects2 doubtless1 man has here taken ,nature for his copy4 ,it must1 however1 be remarked that1 though five is the general number of lines in the star-fish1 this number is not constant2 it varies with different genera1 species1 and even with individuals4 ,the connection of the arms with the disk presents equally remarkable differences4 ,in the genus ,culcita1 the disk is so much developed that it constitutes1 so to speak1 the entire animal1 whilst the arms form only a slight protuberance upon its circumference4 ,in the genera ,luidia1 on the contrary1 the disk is reduced to minimum1 whilst the arms are of great length and very slender4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,asterias rubens 7,lamarck74 ,the colours of the star-fish vary greatly2 they vary from a yellowish-grey1 a yellow-orange1 a garnet-red1 to a dark violet1 as their name indicates4 ,star-fishes are exclusively and essentially beings of the sea2 they are never seen in fresh water2 they dwell amongst the submarine herbage1 seeking for sandy coasts2 they generally are found at moderate depths1 but there are some species which are found at the great depth of a hundred and fifty fathoms4 ,asterias are met with in almost every sea and under all latitudes1 but they are most numerous and their forms are more richly varied in the seas of tropical regions4 ,there are about a hundred and forty species described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,asterias aurantiaca 7,lamarck74 ,the body of the ,asteria is supported by a calcareous envelope composed of juxta-posed pieces at once various and numerous4 ,the number of these pieces is estimated at more than eleven thousand in the ,red ,sea ,star-fish 7,asterias rubens1 ,fig4 #aje71 a species very common in ,europe4 ,the body of the ,asterias rubens is likewise furnished with spines1 granules1 and tubercules1 the shape1 number1 and disposition of which serve to characterise the genera and the species4 ,another species1 ,asterias aurantiaca1 will give an exact idea of the general type of animals of this order4 ,this zoophyte1 which is represented in ,fig4 #ajf1 is common in the northern seas2 it has five rather long arms1 furnished with spines which are of an orange colour--hence its name4 ,when we see one of these animals stranded upon the shore1 it appears to be entirely destitute of all power of progression4 ,but the star-fish is not always immovable2 it is provided with an apparatus for locomotion1 which appears to serve at the same time the purposes of respiration2 for nature is not sparing in her gifts to the least organized beings2 she bestows upon them feet1 with respiratory organs1 or lungs1 which have the power of locomotion4 ,the muscular system1 as already stated1 is almost always present in the ,echinodermata1 but the organs of locomotion are very various1 the principal being the membranous tubes usually termed feet1 or ambulacra1 which issue from the ambulacral apertures2 but besides these1 the rays themselves are movable1 and in animals which are free to move from place to place these are used for the purpose4 ,thus in the common star-fish the rays may be bent towards the upper or lower surface of the disk1 so as to facilitate its advance either in water over small spaces or up the vertical face of rocks4 ,these ambulacra are very numerous1 disposed in rows along the under surface of the rays2 thus in ,a4 aurantiaca there are two simple rows of feet attached to each ray1 and the vesicular part is deeply cleft into two lobes2 while in ,a4 rubens 7,fig4 #aje7 there are two double rows on each ray1 and each foot has an undivided vesicle4 ,each of these ambulacra consists of two parts1 an internal and generally vesicular portion placed within the body1 and a tubular portion outside1 projecting from the surface through an aperture in the skin or shell1 the tube being closed at the extremity1 and terminating in a sucker1 usually in the form of a disk slightly depressed in the centre4 ,the feet are thus muscular fleshy cylinders1 hollow in the centre1 and very extensible2 by means of them the animal draws itself forward4 ,the foot is extended by the contraction of its internal vesicle1 which forces the fluid into the hollow tube1 or1 where the vesicle is wanting1 by projecting the fluid into the tube by a communicating vessel4 ,the tubular part is thus distended and elongated1 and again retracts itself by means of its muscular fibres1 by which action the fluid is forced back into the interior4 ,in progression the animal extends a few of its feet1 attaches its suckers to the rocks or stones1 then1 by shortening its feet1 it draws its body forward4 ,the progression of the ,asterias is thus very slow1 and so regular that only the closest observation enables the spectator to discover the movement which produces it4 ,like the movements of the hands of a watch1 the eye cannot quite follow it4 ,when an obstacle presents itself--if1 for example1 a stone comes in its way--it raises one of the rays in order to obtain a point of support1 then a second ray1 and1 if necessary1 a third1--and thus the animal creeps over the stone with as much ease as if it walked over the smooth sands4 ,in the same way the animal creeps up perpendicular rocks1 which is accomplished by means of these ambulacra and suckers4 ,frdol says3 ,if an ,asteria is turned upon its back it will at first remain immovable1 with its feet shut up4 ,soon1 however1 out come the feet1 like so many little feelers2 it moves them backward and forward1 as if feeling for the ground2 it soon inclines them towards the bottom of the vase1 and fixes them one after the other4 ,when it has a sufficient number attached the animal turns itself round4 ,it is not impossible1 whilst walking on the sea-shore1 to have the pleasure of seeing one of these star-fishes walking upon the sand4 ,a day rarely passes without one of them being thrown upon the strand by the tide1 and then abandoned by the retreating waters4 ,generally they are left dead2 this is not always the case1 however2 they are sometimes only benumbed4 ,place them in a vase full of sea-water1 or simply in a pool on the shore1 and you will sometimes see them recover from this death-like condition1 and execute the curious movements of progression which we have described4 ,the motions of an ,asterias thus saved form a very curious spectacle4 ,the mouth of this animal is situated on the lower surface of the disk4 ,at this point the constitutive pieces of the carapace leave a circular space1 covered by a fibrous resistant membrane1 pierced at the centre by a rounded opening4 ,this opening is sometimes armed with hard papill1 which play the part of teeth4 ,the mouth almost directly abuts on the stomach1 which is merely a globular sac1 filling nearly all the central portion of the visceral cavity4 ,thus1 says ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 in ,asteracanthion glacialis the stomach is globulous1 but imperfectly divided into two parts by a fold of its internal membrane2 the first chamber1 thus limited1 appears to be more especially devoted to the transformation of the elementary matter into a liquid paste1 which passes1 in small portions1 into the upper chamber4 ,this is continued upward through a small intestine1 and communicates laterally with five cylindrical prolongations1 which each divide themselves again into two much elongated tubes1 furnished with a double series of hollow branches1 each terminating in a cul-de-sac4 ,these organs advance into the interior of the rays or arms of the ,asterias4 ,imagine1 then1 an animal bearing digestive tubes in its arms--the same organ serving for digestion and progression4 ,what lessons in economy does not the study of nature teach us6 ,the products of digestion find an absorbent surface of great extent in the rays of the ,asterias4 ,they ought necessarily to pass rapidly from it into the circumjacent nourishing fluid4 ,the star-fishes are very voracious2 they even attack mollusks which are covered with shells4 ,m4 ,pouchett mentions having taken eighteen specimens of ,venus intact1 each being six lines in length1 from the stomach of one large ,asterias which he dissected upon the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,it is now even said that the star-fishes eat many oysters4 ,ancient naturalists were not ignorant that the star-fish was capable of eating oysters2 but they believed that they waited for the moment when the bivalve would open its valves to introduce one of their rays into the opening4 ,they imagined that having thus put one foot into the other's domicile1 they soon put four1 and finished by reaching and devouring the savoury inhabitant of the shell4 ,modern observations have modified the ideas of former naturalists upon this point4 ,in order to obtain possession of and swallow an oyster1 it appears that the star-fish begins its approaches by bringing its mouth to the closed edges of the oyster-shell2 this done1 with the assistance of a particular liquid which its mouth secretes1 it injects a few drops of an acrid or venomous liquid into the interior of the oyster-shell1 which forces it to open its valves4 ,an entrance once obtained1 it is not long before it is invaded and ravaged4 ,professor ,rymer ,jones gives another explanation of the transaction4 ,according to this naturalist the oyster is seized between the rays of his ravisher1 and held under his mouth by the aid of his suckers2 the ,asteria then inverts its stomach1 according to the professor1 and envelopes the entire oyster in its inmost recesses1 while1 doubtless1 distilling a poisonous liquid4 ,the victim is thus forced to open its shell1 and becomes the prey of the enemy which envelopes it4 ,whatever may be the modes of procedure employed by the star-fish1 it is now clearly ascertained1 however incredible the fact may at first appear1 that it swallows oysters in the same manner as is practised at the oyster-shop4 ,this little being1 formed of five arms and without any other apparent member1 accomplishes a work which man is quite unable to execute--it opens an oyster without an oyster-knife4 ,if reasoning man had no other means of nourishment than oysters1 and was without a knife to open them1 it is very certain that with all his genius he would be puzzled how to get at the inaccessible and savoury bivalve so obstinately closed against him4 ,the star-fish devours dead flesh of all kinds2 their sole occupation is to feed themselves1 and they keep up an incessant and active chase after all sorts of corrupt animal matter4 ,the ,asterias thus perform in the bosom of the sea the same part that certain birds and insects play on shore2 they are its scavengers1 and feed their bodies upon the carcases of animals which1 if abandoned to the action of the elements1 would become a cause of infection4 ,in the same manner that certain animals render the air healthy1 the ,asterias help1 on a considerable scale1 to keep the sea which shelters them in a pure and healthy state4 ,zoologists are not agreed upon the manner in which respiration operates on the star-fishes4 ,nevertheless they think that the principal part in this phenomenon devolves upon the subcutaneous branchi which in each ray constitute two double series of bladders4 ,the function of circulation is equally unknown4 ,the vascular apparatus is sufficiently developed in this zoophyte1 and appears to have for its centre an elongated canal with muscular walls1 which may with justice be honoured with the name of heart4 ,a little ring surrounding the oesophagus1 and from which issue certain delicate white chords1 which are prolonged into the furrows of the arms1 presents us with all that can be designated a nervous system in the star-fishes4 ,among organs of sense we may mention1 as the apparatus of touch1 the tentacular ambulacra1 as well as those which are disseminated upon the dorsal surface of the disk4 ,the eyes are considered to be certain bright red points which are situated at the extremity of the arms and on the under surface--a most singular position for the organs of sight4 ,the eyes must1 besides1 be very imperfect1 for they possess no crystalline lens4 ,ehrenberg insists upon the existence of eyes in some species1 attributing the function to those red spots1 however2 while ,rymer ,jones attributes the indications in which this originates to an extremely delicate sense of touch in the star-fishes4 ,professor ,edward ,forbes1 while he admits the existence of ganglions in the nervous system to be extremely doubtful1 seems1 by the frequent use of the terms eye and eyelids1 to admit that the specks in question are visual organs2 the weight of authority inclines therefore to ,ehrenberg's view1 that if not eyes in the strict sense of the term1 they serve the purposes of vision1 modified and adapted to the wants of the animal4 ,the star-fishes have distinct sexes1 with individual differences2 their eggs1 which are round and reddish1 undergo curious phases of development4 ,they produce little worm-like creatures1 covered with vibratile hairs1 like the infusoria1 which swim about with great vivacity2 these little creatures are subject to considerable changes4 ,in the year #ahce ,m4 ,sars described1 under the name of ,bipinnaria asterigera1 an enigmatical animal resembling a polyp from the arms at one extremity of the body1 while the other terminated in a tail1 furnished with two fins2 but it was chiefly remarkable as having an ,asterias attached to the extremity which carried the arm4 ,he expressed an opinion1 which was soon placed beyond any doubt1 that this bipinnaria was an ,asterias in its course of development4 ,the egg becomes a sort of infusoria1 the infusoria becomes a bipinnaria1 and this produces the ,asterias4 ,in short1 the ,bipinnaria does not become an ,asterias by any metamorphoses analogous to that so well known amongst insects--the butterfly1 for example--but becomes1 so to speak1 the foster-mother or nurse to the ,bipinnaria4 ,the larva is large1 and it is at the cost of a very small internal rudiment of this larva that the ,asterias is developed3 the ,asterias robs the larva of its stomach and intestines1 and turns it into a visceral apparatus for its own use4 ,but the ,asterias makes itself a mouth of any of the pieces most remote from the primitive mouth of the larva4 ,thus the ,bipinnaria divides itself2 it gives its stomach and intestines1 and keeps its oesophagus and mouth1 and it can live several days after the ,asterias is detached from it4 ,can any one imagine the existence of a being with only a mouth and oesophagus1 which has neither stomach nor intestines1 because another animal has possessed itself of them for its own use8 ,the study of the lower animals abounds in surprises of this kind4 ,it is a chain of unforeseen facts2 of natural impossibilities2 of realized points necessarily reversing all notions obtained in the study of beings which have a higher place in the animal scale4 ,the history of the star-fishes would be incomplete were we to omit mentioning the most remarkable traits of their organisation with which naturalists are acquainted4 ,the animals exhibit in the highest degree the vital phenomena of dismemberment and restoration1 that is to say1 of the faculty of reconstructing organs which they have lost4 ,these arms1 the structure of which is so complicated1 and which protect such important organs1 may be destroyed by accident4 ,the animal troubles itself little at this mutilation3 if he loses an arm it disquiets him but little2 another is immediately procured4 ,we often see in our collections of ,asterias specimens wanting in symmetry because they have been taken before the new members which are in process of development have attained their definite length4 ,professor ,rymer ,jones mentions an instance of redintegration very complete and most curious4 ,this naturalist had an isolated ray of ,asterias which he had picked up2 at the end of five days he observed that four little rays and a mouth had been produced2 at the end of a month the old ray was completely destroyed1 and this apparently useless fragment had been replaced by a new being1 quite perfect1 with four little symmetrical branches4 ,this faculty of reproducing organs1 which we have noted in describing the fresh water polyps1 the sea anemone1 c41 exists also in many other zoophytes1 but in none more strikingly than in the ,asterias4 ,but a still more startling fact remains to be mentioned3 one more strange and more mysterious1 for it does not belong to the physical or organic order1 but appears to belong to the moral world4 ,the star-fishes commit suicide6 ,certain of these animals appear to escape from dangers which menace them by self-destruction4 ,this power of putting an end to existence we only find on the highest and lowest steps of the animal scale4 ,man and the star-fishes have a common moral platform1 and it is that of self-destruction6 ,this power of dismemberment1 however1 seems to be confined to the ,ophiocoma and ,luidia--at least1 it is only carried out to its full extent in these gener4 ,mysteries of ,nature1 who can sound your depths8 ,secrets of the moral world1 what being but ,god has the privilege of comprehending you8 ,a large species of ,star-fish 7,luidia fragillissima71 which inhabits the ,english seas1 has this instinct of suicide to a great extent4 ,the following account by ,professor ,edward ,forbes of an attempt to capture a ,luidia gives a good illustration of its powers4 ,the first time that ,i took one of these creatures1 the professor says1 ,i succeeded in placing it entire in my boat4 ,not having seen one before1 and being ignorant of its suicidal powers1 ,i spread it out on a rowing bench1 the better to admire its form and colours4 ,on attempting to remove it for preservation1 to my horror and disappointment ,i found only an assemblage of detached members4 ,my conservative endeavours were all neutralised by its destructive exertions2 and the animal is now badly represented in my cabinet by a diskless arm and an armless disk4 ,next time ,i went to dredge at the same spot ,i determined not to be cheated out of my specimen a second time4 ,i carried with me a bucket of fresh water1 for which the star-fishes evince a great antipathy4 ,as ,i hoped1 a ,luidia soon came up in the dredge--a most gorgeous specimen4 ,as the animal does not generally break up until it is raised to the surface of the sea1 ,i carefully and anxiously plunged my bucket to a level with the dredge's mouth1 and softly introduced the ,luidia into the fresh water4 ,whether the cold was too much for it1 or the sight of the bucket was too terrific1 ,i do not know2 but in a moment it began to dissolve its corporation1 and ,i saw its limbs escaping through every mesh of the dredge4 ,in my despair ,i seized the largest piece1 and brought up the extremity of an arm with its terminal eye1 the spinous eyelid of which opened and closed with something exceedingly like a wink of derision4 ,the mind remains confounded before such spectacles1 and we can only say1 with ,mallebranche1 ,it is well to comprehend clearly that there are some things which are absolutely incomprehensible4 ,this is doubtless the reason that in collections of natural history we rarely find star-fishes1 and especially the ,luidia1 entire2 the moment the animal is seized by fisherman or amateur1 in its terror or despair it breaks itself up into small fragments4 ,to preserve them whole they must be killed suddenly1 before they have time to be aware of their danger4 ,for this purpose1 the moment they are drawn from the sea they must be plunged into a vase of cold fresh water2 this saltless liquid is instant death to these creatures1 which in this condition perish suddenly before they have time to mutilate themselves4 ,the star-fish is a curious ornament in our natural history collections1 but in this state they represent very imperfectly the elegance and particular grace of this curious type4 ,to understand the star-fishes1 they must be seen in an aquarium1 where we can admire the form1 figure1 movements1 and manners of these marvellous beings4 ,the ,asterias are the planets of the sea4 ,it may be said that heaven1 reflected during the night on the silvery surface of the ocean1 let fall some of those stars into its depths which decorate the resplendent vault4 ,,crino,,dea4 ,we quoted the maxim of ,linnus in the earlier pages of this volume1 that ,nature makes no leaps4 ,nature proceeds by means of insensible transitions1 rising by degrees from one organic form to another4 ,most of the animals hitherto described are immovably fixed to some solid object2 at least1 such is their condition in the adult state4 ,we are about to describe zoophytes free of all fetters2 animals which walk in their strength and liberty4 ,between zoophytes fixed to the soil1 like the corals1 gorgons1 and aggregate zoophytes1 such as sea-urchins and holothurias1 ,nature has placed an intermediate race1 namely1 the ,crinodea1 a class of zoophytes which are attached to a rock by a sort of root armed with claws1 having a long flexible stem1 which enables them to execute movements in the circle limited only by the length of this stem1 just as the ox or goat in our paddocks is confined by its tether to the space circumscribed by the length of its rope4 ,let the reader picture to himself a star-fish borne upon the summit of a flexible stem firmly rooted in the soil1 and he has a general idea of the zoophytes which compose the order of the ,crinodea4 ,naturalists of the seventeenth century bestowed the name of stone lilies on these curious products4 ,this rather poetical name proves that the conformation of these creatures had at an early period attracted observation1 presenting the naturalist with the most curious of his lessons4 ,the encrinites raise1 as from the dead1 a whole world buried in the abyss of the past4 ,at the present time only two genera of these zoophytes exist1 whilst in the early ages of the world the ocean must have swarmed with them4 ,encrinites abounded in the seas during the transition and secondary epoch4 ,it was one of the most numerous of the animal tribes which inhabited the salt waters of the ancient world4 ,in traversing some parts of ,france1 we tread under our feet myriads of these beings1 whose calcareous remains form vast beds of rock4 ,the encrinites gradually disappeared from the ancient seas2 their species were diminished as the globe became older or modified in its conditions1 so that at the present time only a few types remain in our seas--such as the ,comatula of the ,mediterranean2 ,pentacrinus1 the ,medusa's-head of the ,antilles2 and the ,european ,pentacrinus--all of them very rare1 and probably destined soon to disappear1 carrying with them the last reminiscence of the zoological races of the ancient world3 and here lies the real interest which the ,crinodea presents to the thinking man4 ,the encrinites most common in the fossil state are ,pentacrinus fasciculosus1 belonging to the lias2 ,apiocrinus rotundus1 which is found in the oolite or jurassic rocks2 and ,encrinus liliformis1 which appertains to the ,triassic period4 ,these three fixed zoophytes seem to have existed in great numbers during an early age of the world--namely1 the ,silurian period4 ,they attained their maximum of development during the ,devonian age1 after which they begin to decrease4 ,according to ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 there are thirty-nine genera found in the palozoic rocks1 two in the triassic1 seven in the jurassic1 five in the cretaceous1 and only one in the tertiary strata4 ,of all these genera only one1 namely1 ,pentacrinus1 is found in the modern epoch to represent the varied forms of these the first inhabitants of the seas4 ,the free ,crinod1 that is1 those not rooted to the soil by a stem1 of which the ,comatula may be considered the type1 only appeared at a later period4 ,they are absent in the palozoic and triassic rocks1 but appear to have attained their maximum of development in the jurassic period4 ,the numerous fossilized remains of these curious creations1 which abound in different rocks1 attracted the attention of learned men at an early period4 ,the encrinites were among the earliest objects of scientific description4 ,as early as the sixteenth century1 the celebrated mineralogist1 ,george ,agricola1 mentions them under the names of ,entrochites1 ,trochites1 and ,astrotes4 ,at the same time1 and since that epoch1 the ,crinod1 which we know by the name of stone-lilies1 and which characterises the ,muschelkalk rocks1 have been known under the name of ,encrinus1 from 1 stone1 and 1 a lily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,pentacrinus caput ,medus 7,mller74 ,during the eighteenth century the works upon the ,crinod were very numerous1 though not very correct4 ,they sometimes reported these organic remains to be vegetable2 sometimes they were beings allied to the star-fishes2 at others they were the vertebral column of fishes4 ,towards the year #agfa1 however1 ,guettard1 one of the most learned naturalists of his time1 understood the real nature of these productions4 ,he had occasion to examine a recent ,encrinus sent from ,martinique under the name of ,sea-,palm1 which was in reality ,pentacrinus caput ,medus4 ,the comparison of the living individual with the fossil fragment described by his predecessors1 and of which he had specimens in his collections1 enabled him to ascertain the real origin of the fossil ,encrinoid4 ,the beautiful fragment which still exists in the ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,paris was long considered unique1 but it is now known that ten others exist in different museums4 ,since that date the ,crinod have been examined and described by observers such as ,miller1 ,forbes1 ,d',orbigny1 and ,pictet1 and very elaborately by ,major ,austin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,pentacrinus ,europus 7,thompson74 ,the species of fixed ,crinod actually living are ,pentacrinus caput ,medus 7,fig4 #ajg71 and ,pentacrinus ,europus 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,these curious zoophytes resemble a flower borne upon a stem1 which terminates in an organ called the calyx1 but which is1 properly speaking1 the head of the animal4 ,arms1 more or less branching1 spring from this calyx1 their ramifications1 so formed1 consisting of many pieces articulated to each other4 ,the calyx is supported by a stem1 varying in height1 formed of pieces secreted by the living tissues which surround them4 ,the articulations of this stem are usually very numerous1 cylindrical1 and present a series of rays striated upon their articulated faces4 ,in ,pentacrinus they are prismatic and pentagonal2 that is1 they present five projecting angles1 and on their articulated face a star with five branches1 or1 better still1 a rose with five petals4 ,at the base of the stem of this animal-plant1 in many of the ,crinod1 we find a sort of spreading root1 which is implanted in the rocks1 and is capable of growing by itself1 of nourishing the stem1 and of producing new ones4 ,the root and stem of the fixed encrinites seem to indicate that the animal can only live with the head erect4 ,their normal condition is thus quite different from that of any other of the ,echinoderms1 almost all of which keep their mouths invariably directed downwards4 ,the ,medus heads are chiefly found on rocky beds1 or in the midst of banks of corals1 at great depths4 ,there1 firmly fixed by their roots1 their long stems raise themselves vertically2 then1 with expanded calyx and long-spreading arms1 they wait for the prey which passes within their reach in order to seize it4 ,the ,pentacrinus caput ,medus have1 as we have said1 been fished up from great depths in the ,antilles4 ,its very small calyx is borne upon a stem of from eighteen to twenty inches in height1 terminating in long movable arms1 the internal surface of which bears its tentacles in a groove4 ,in the middle of the arms is a mouth1 and at the side the orifice for the expulsion of the digested residuum4 ,in the ,medus head and ,european ,pentacrine 7,p4 ,europus1 ,fig4 #ajh71 the presence of a digestive apparatus has been distinctly traced4 ,it is a sort of irregular sac1 with a central mouth on the upper surface1 and another orifice situated at a little distance from the mouth1 and evidently intended as an outlet for the products of digestion4 ,the arms of these creatures1 which are spreading or folded up according to their wants1 are provided with fleshy tentacula1 which1 serving at once as organs of absorption and as vibratile cilia1 are at the same time organs of respiration4 ,such are these curious beings3 they occupy a sort of middle or transition state between animals permanently fixed to some spot and those capable of motion1 representing in our own times the last remains of extinct generations4 ,every type of the ,crinod furnished with arms presents incontestable evidence of their mode of reproduction or redintegration--that is1 of the power of restoring those parts of the body broken or destroyed by accident2 but as we have already drawn the attention of the reader to this strange faculty of renewing organs which many of the zoophytes possess1 we will not here enlarge further upon the subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,crinod are not all like the two species which have been described4 ,there is an entire family of animals belonging to this class1 namely1 the ,comatula1 which are fixed in their early days1 but separate themselves from the rooted stem in their adult age1 and1 throwing off the bonds imposed on their youth1 live side by side with the asterias1 with whose company they seem much pleased4 ,the encrinites and the star-fishes thus live in company1 and that at prodigious depths1 and under a body of water which no light can reach4 ,imagine the existence of animals which pass their lives in such eternal funereal darkness4 ,the family of ,comatula are found in the seas of both hemispheres4 ,their bodies are flat--a large calcareous plate formed like a cuirass upon their backs--presenting1 besides1 cirri composed of numerous curling articulations1 the last of which terminates in a hook4 ,the ventral surface presents two orifices3 the one in the centre corresponding to a mouth1 the other evidently intended for the discharge of the products of digestion4 ,this animal is provided with five arms1 which diverge directly from the centre plate or cuirass4 ,the branches of these arms have ambulacral grooves1 comprehending a double row of fleshy tentacles1 in the centre of which is the ambulacral groove1 properly so called1 clothed with vibratile cilia over their whole surface4 ,these cilia or hairs guide the current which drives the various substances on which it feeds1 such as the organic corpuscles of sea-weeds1 and microscopic animalcules floating in the sea1 towards its mouth4 ,they are also powerful aids to respiration4 ,the movements of these curious creatures are very slow1 their only object being to catch the bodies of animals and marine plants1 or1 by extending or contracting their arms1 to feel their way through the water to some new locality4 ,sometimes1 also1 in order to change their feeding-ground1 the ,comatula abandon the submarine forests1 herbage1 and sea-wracks1 and float through the water1 moving their arms with considerable rapidity in search of a new station4 ,the ,mediterranean ,comatula 7,fig4 #aji7 is largely diffused on the ,european shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,its spreading arms extend to three or four inches2 its colour purple1 shaded1 and spotted with white upon the ventral surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,comatula ,mediterranea 7,lamarck71 natural size4 ,were a traveller to tell us that he had seen animals drop their eggs upon forests of stone2 that these eggs1 after executing their progressive evolutions1 finally become individuals in all respects like their parents1 which attach themselves to the soil by a root like any flower of the fields1 or to the mother-stem like the branch of a tree1 until in due course they attained the adult state1 when the flexible band which holds them fixed either to the soil or parent-stem breaks1 and the animal1 now free1 launches itself into the liquid medium1 and goes to live a proper and independent existence2--in listening to a recital so opposed in appearance to the ordinary laws of ,nature1 we should be inclined to tax the narrator of such incredible facts with error or folly4 ,nevertheless all these facts are now perfectly established4 ,the being which presents these marvels has nothing of the fabulous about it4 ,it is the ,comatula ,mediterranea2 it lives at the bottom of the sea1 the surface of which is incessantly tracked by our vessels4 ,,ophiurad4 ,the ,ophiuras are thus named from two ,greek words 71 a serpent1 and 1 a tail71 from their fancied resemblance to the tail of a serpent4 ,these zoophytes are met with in almost every sea1 but chiefly in those of temperate regions2 they are very common on every shore1 and have been remarked by fishermen from the earliest times on account of their singular form1 the disposition of their arms1 which resemble the tail of a lizard1 and by the singularity of their movements4 ,the general characteristics of this remarkable group of ,echinodermata1 as described by ,dujardin and ,hup1 are as follows4 ,they are radiary marine animals creeping at the bottom of the sea1 or upon marine plants4 ,in form they present a sort of coriaceous disk1 which is either bare or covered with scales1 which contains all the viscera1 and five very flexible simple or branching arms1 each sustained by a series of vertebral internal pieces1 naked or covered with granules1 scales1 or bristles4 ,certain fleshy tentacula thrown out laterally are organs of respiration4 ,the mouth is situated in the middle of the lower surface of the disk1 and opens directly into a stomach in the shape of a sac2 it is circumscribed by five re-entering angles corresponding with the intervals of the arms1 having a series of calcareous pieces1 which perform the function of jaw-bones4 ,this mouth is prolonged by five longitudinal clefts1 garnished with papill or calcareous pieces1 which correspond to one of the arms4 ,a series of calcareous pieces in the shape of vertebr spring from the extremity of each of these clefts1 which occupy all the interior of the arms1 having a furrow in the middle of the ventral surface for the reception of a nursing vessel2 and laterally between their expansions are certain cavities1 from whence issue certain fleshy retractile tentacula2 the visceral cavity opens by one or two clefts on the ventral surface of each side of the base of the arms4 ,the ,ophiurad move themselves by briskly contracting their arms so as to produce a succession of undulations analogous to those by which a serpent creeps along4 ,some of these zoophytes are rather active2 but others attach themselves by their arms to the branches of certain other polyps1 like the ,gorgons1 and remain immovable for a considerable time1 waiting their prey somewhat like a spider in the midst of his web4 ,the family of ,ophiurad is divided into two great sections3 that of the ,ophiura1 which comprehends several genera1 amongst others that which gives its name to the family1 and that of the ,euryalina or ,asterophytes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,ophiocoma ,russei 7,lutken71 natural size4 ,the family of ,ophiurad constitute a group distinguished by their five simple1 articulated1 very mobile1 and non-ramified arms1 which are attached to a small disk or shield plate1 with flexible thread-like cirri between the rays4 ,ophiura natta is very common1 and has been known from very early times in ,european seas4 ,it is of a greenish colour1 with transverse bands1 which become more obscure upon the arms as the distance from the disk increases4 ,this disk is from six to seven-eighths of an inch in size1 the upper part covered with unequal plates1 in shape like tiles2 the arms are four times the length of the diameter of the disk1 very slender and tapering4 ,the zoophyte to which ,lamarck gave the name of ,ophiura fragile has now its place among the ,ophisthrix1 the specific name1 indicating a particularity of structure in all these small creatures derived from their fragile formation4 ,in short1 these beings have so little consistency that they crumble1 as it were1 under the touch1 and become reduced to pulp under the slightest pressure4 ,in ,fig4 #aaj we give the representation of an ,ophiura of the natural size1 which ,lutken has since called ,ophiocoma ,russei4 ,this ,echinoderm1 which lives in the seas of the ,antilles1 is furnished with five very flexible rays1 which are armed with from three to four rows of spines1 those on the upper part of the body being very hard ones2 the body and arms of this creature are of reddish brown1 streaked with a great number of little white lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,asterophyton verrucosum 7,lamarck74 ,the principal type of the ,euryalina is the curious and complex ,asterophyton verrucosum of ,lamarck4 ,they include animals remarkable for the extremely complicated development of their arms--the very multiplied ramifications of these1 towards the extremities1 being divided into many thousand very slender appendages1 the principal use of which is doubtless locomotion1 but at the same time they constitute a series of living thread-like fillets which seem intended to seize and close upon the animals which serve as prey to this little flesh-eater4 ,the ,asterophyton verrucosum1 which is represented in ,fig4 #aaa1 is yellowish2 its disk about four inches1 its arms sixteen to eighteen4 ,it inhabits the ,indian ,ocean4 ,another species1 ,euryala arborescens1 is met with on the coasts of ,sicily and other parts of the ,mediterranean4 ,nothing can be more elegant than these animated disks1 which resemble nothing so much as a delicate piece of lace--a piece of living lace moving in delicate festoons in the bosom of the ocean4 ,,echinid4 ,the singular shape of the ,echinid1 or ,sea-urchins1 and the spiny prolongations with which their bodies are covered1 has in all ages attracted the attention of naturalists4 ,aristotle applied to them the name 1 which signifies urchin4 ,when1 however1 one sees the body of one of these animals thrown on the sea shore1 it is difficult1 at first1 to find a reason for this designation4 ,the body of the sea-urchin is furnished with a species of spine4 ,it is a sort of shell1 nearly spherical1 empty in the interior1 its surface presenting reliefs admirable for their regularity--an egg-shell sculptured by ,divine hands4 ,in order to see the urchin with its spines1 it is necessary to seize it in the water at the bottom of the sea1 where it rolls and moves its little prickly mass2 it is then only that the real urchin1 the prickly sea-urchin1 is to be seen1 bristling with prickles1 and strongly resembling1 to compare the physical with the mental1 those amiable mortals whose character is so well depicted in the saying1 ,whom they rub they prick4 ,in his book on ,the ,sea1 ,michelet puts the following conversation into the mouth of a sea-urchin3 ,i am born without ambition1 says the modest ,echinoderm4 ,i ask for none of the brilliant gifts possessed by those gentlemen the molluscs4 ,i would neither make mother-of-pearl nor pearls2 ,i have no wish for brilliant colours1 a luxury which would point me out2 still less do ,i desire the grace of your giddy ,medusas1 the waving charm of whose flaming locks attracts observation and exposes one to shipwreck4 ,oh mother6 ,i wish for one thing only3 to be--to be without these exterior and compromising appendages2 to be thick-set1 strong1 and round1 for that is the shape in which ,i should be the least exposed2 in short1 to be a centralized being4 ,i have very little instinct for travel4 ,to roll sometimes from the surface to the bottom of the sea is enough of travel for me4 ,glued firmly to my rock1 ,i could there solve the problem1 the solution of which your future favourite1 man1 seeks for in vain--that of safety4 ,to strictly exclude enemies and admit all friends1 especially water1 air1 and light1 would1 ,i know1 cost me some labour and constant effort4 ,covered with movable spines1 enemies will avoid me4 ,now1 bristling like a bear1 they call me an urchin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,echinus mamillatus 7,lamarck71 natural size4 ,let us now look a little more closely at the general structure of the sea-urchins--in zoological language1 ,echinid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,echinus mamillatus4 ,sea ,urchin1 without spines1 natural size4 ,the body of the sea-urchin is globular in form1 slightly egg-shaped1 or of a disk slightly swollen4 ,it consists essentially of an exterior shell or solid carapace1 clothed in a slight membrane furnished with vibratile cilia4 ,this carapace is formed of an assemblage of contiguous polygonal plates1 adhering together by their edges4 ,their arrangement is such that the test or shell may be divided into vertical zones1 each springing from a central point on the summit terminating at a point of the spheroid diametrically opposite--namely1 the circumference of the buccal orifice4 ,these vertical zones are of two kinds1 some larger and others straighter1 each zone consisting of a double row of plates1 the first charged with movable spines1 the second pierced with holes disposed in regular longitudinal series1 from which emerge certain fleshy tentacula1 which1 as we shall see presently1 serve as feet to the animal4 ,when armed with these bristling spines1 the sea-urchins resemble the hedgehogs2 but when the spines are down1 they look very much like a melon or an egg1 to which their shape and calcareous nature have sometimes led to their being compared by the vulgar as well as by the learned4 ,we shall give a tolerably exact idea of the two different aspects which the carapace of the urchin presents when the spines are erect and lowered1 by reference to ,fig4 #aab 7,echinus mamillatus71 which represents the animal bristling with spines1 and ,fig4 #aac1 in which the same species is represented after death1 when deprived of these weapons of defence3 and how complicated these defences must be6 ,it has been calculated that more than ten thousand pieces1 each admirably arranged and united1 enter into the composition of the shell of the sea-urchin1 to which no other can be compared4 ,to abbreviate slightly ,gosse's description of that wonderful piece of mechanism1 the sea-urchin3 ,a globular hollow box has to be made1 of some three inches in diameter1 the walls of which shall be scarcely thicker than a wafer1 formed of unyielding limestone1 yet fitted to hold the soft tender parts of an animal which quite fills the cavity at all ages4 ,but in infancy the animal is not so big as a pea1 and it has to attain its adult dimensions4 ,the box is never to be cast off or renewed2 the same box must hold the infant and veteran urchin4 ,the limestone can only increase in size by being deposited4 ,now the vascular tissues are within1 and the particles they deposit must be on the interior walls4 ,to thicken the walls from within leaves less room in the cavity2 but what is wanted is more room1 ever more and more4 ,the growing animal feels its tissues swelling day by day1 by the assimilation of food4 ,its cry is1 ',give me space6 a larger house1 or ,i die6' ,how is this problem solved8 ,ah6 there is no difficulty4 ,the inexhaustible wisdom of the ,creator has a beautiful contrivance for the emergency4 ,the box is not made in one piece1 nor in ten1 nor a hundred4 ,six hundred distinct pieces go to make up the hollow case2 all accurately fitted together1 so that the perfect symmetry of the outline remains unbroken2 and yet1 thin as their substance is1 they retain their relative positions with unchanging exactness1 and the slight brittle box retains all requisite strength and firmness1 for each of these pieces is enveloped by a layer of living flesh2 a vascular tissue passes up between the joints1 where one meets another1 and spreads itself over the whole exterior surface4 ,this being so1 the glands of the investing tissue secrete lime from the sea water1 and deposit it after a determinate and orderly pattern on every part of the surface4 ,thus the inner face1 the outer face1 and each side and angle of polyhedron1 grow together1 and the form characteristic of the individual is maintained with immutable mathematical precision4 ,the dimensions and shape of these prickles are very variable4 ,in certain ,echinid they are three or four times the diameter of the body4 ,in the urchin1 properly so called1 they are only three-fourths or four-fifths that diameter4 ,they sometimes resemble short bristles4 ,these defensive weapons have tubercles for supports1 which are arranged on the surface of the animal with perfect regularity4 ,at the base they present a small head separated by compression4 ,this head is hollow on its lower face1 presenting a cavity adapted to a tubercle of the shell4 ,each of the prickles1 notwithstanding its extreme minuteness1 is put in action by a muscular apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,echinus esculentus 7,lamarck71 natural size4 ,in the prickles1 or spines and tentacula 7ambulacra1 feet suckers71 we see the external organs of the ,echinodermata4 ,the former are instruments of defence and progression2 the latter1 strange as it may appear1 serve them to walk with4 ,when it is considered that each of these prickles is put in motion by several muscles1 it is impossible to repress our wonder and surprise at the prodigious number of organs brought into action in the sea-urchin4 ,more than twelve hundred prickles have been counted upon the shell of ,echinus esculentus1 a representation of which is given in ,fig4 #aad4 ,if we add to this first supply of spines other smaller and in some sort accessary spines1 we shall arrive at a total of three thousand prickles4 ,each sea urchin thus bears as many weapons as ten squadrons of lancers4 ,when it is considered1 further1 that in each sucker or ambulacra there exist not less than a hundred tubes1 each having an orifice1 you will have a total of four thousand visible appendages upon the body of an animal of very small dimensions4 ,if it is considered1 finally1 that no shell exists more admirably symmetrical1 elegant1 or more highly ornamental than the carapace of the urchin1 it will readily be admitted that ,nature has been most prodigal in her gifts to one of the humblest beings in creation--a creature which passes its existence in crawling in obscurity at the bottom of the sea4 ,what elegance of form1 eternally hidden from the eyes of man1 sleeps under the heavy mass of water2 and yet man imagines that everything in ,nature has been created for his use and for his glory4 ,m4 ,hup records a somewhat curious observation in connection with the spines1 which serve as a means of defence to the ,echinodermata4 ,he found a small mollusc1 of the genus ,stelifera1 which had sought shelter in ,leixidaris imperialis1 an urchin1 native of ,australia2 in a word1 the interior of one of these prickles had been hollowed and enlarged so as to serve as a retreat for this improvised guest4 ,what unexpected facts does the study of animals present6 ,nature has bestowed a protecting armour upon one little being2 another still smaller animal discovers this1 and places itself for shelter under the protection of these levelled bayonets6 ,numerous anecdotes are told of them4 ,thus3 a man ignorantly put into his mouth one of these creatures1 with all its prickles1 and1 being detected1 thought himself1 in his pride1 compelled to swallow it because he was being looked at2 immediately his mouth was full of blood4 ,the next day he was in such a state of suffering that he could neither eat nor drink1 and for a long time his life could only be preserved by nourishing injections of soup1 cream1 and rice4 ,now let us see by what organic mechanism the urchin contrives to transport itself and walk4 ,the tentacula1 or suckers1 are hollow internally1 and1 as we have said1 are provided with small muscles4 ,by the influx of liquid which they inclose they become inflated throughout all their prickles1 in such a manner that they can attach themselves to any solid body1 at the will of the animal1 by means of their terminal suckers4 ,frdol1 in ,le ,monde de les ,mers1 thus explains the urchin's mode of progression4 ,let us imagine1 he says1 one of these creatures to be at rest2 all its spines are immovable1 and all its filaments repose within the shell2 some of these involuntarily escape2 they extend themselves and feel the ground all round them3 others follow1 but the animal is firmly fixed4 ,if it wishes for change of place1 the anterior filaments contract themselves1 whilst the hinder ones loosen their hold1 and the shell is carried forward4 ,the sea-urchin can thus advance with ease1 and even rapidity4 ,during his progression the suckers are only slightly aided by the spines4 ,it can travel either on the back or stomach2 whatever their posture1 they have always a certain number of prickles1 which carry them1 and suckers1 with which they attach themselves4 ,in certain circumstances the animal walks by turning upon itself1 like a wheel in motion4 ,nothing is more curious than to see a sea-urchin walk upon smooth sand4 ,but for the colour1 it might be mistaken for a chestnut with its bristling envelopes1 the spines serving as feet to put the little round prickly mass in motion4 ,they have even been observed to form themselves into a ball1 and roll along like a globular fagot of prickles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,buccal armature of ,echinus lividus4 ,one of the most singular organs of the sea-urchin is its mouth4 ,it is monstrous4 ,placed underneath the body it occupies the centre of a soft space invested with a thick resisting membrane3 it opens and shuts incessantly1 showing five sharp teeth 7,fig4 #aae7 projecting from the surface1 the edges meeting at a point1 as represented here1 supported and protected by a very complicated framework1 which has received the name of ,aristotle's ,lantern 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,fig4 #aae represents ,echinus lividus in its normal state2 the other shows the masticatory organs1 that is to say1 ,aristotle's ,lantern4 ,to give the reader a more complete idea of the buccal organ in the sea-urchin1 let him glance at one from the southern seas1 ,clypeaster rosaceus1 represented in ,fig4 #aag1 an outline of the entire animal1 the buccal apparatus being placed under the shell1 which has been broken in ,fig4 #aaf1 so as to lay this organ bare4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,masticating apparatus of ,echinus lividus4 ,the shape of the ,clypeaster rosaceus is oval1 straighter in front1 and thick and rounded at the edges4 ,it is more common and more largely distributed than any other living species1 and it is supplied with four or six ambulacra1 or feet4 ,i never could understand why the dental framework of the sea-urchin has been called ,aristotle's ,lantern1 for this formidable apparatus resembles the front view of a battery of cannon more than a lantern4 ,it consists of a series of pieces designated by the names of compass1 scythe1 pyramid1 and plumula1 which it would serve no useful purpose to describe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,clypeaster rosaceus 7,lamarck74 ,we have said that the mouth of the urchin is monstrous in proportion to its size1 and the teeth of proportionate dimensions4 ,as these project from a very formidable mouth1 one can easily be assured of the sharpness of their extremities by intruding his fingers on them4 ,in fact1 it is necessary that these organs should be singularly powerful1 because1 as we shall see farther on1 the sea-urchin makes incisions in the solid rock with them1 and hollows out shelter for himself4 ,the strong and sharp teeth grow at the base in proportion as they are used at the points1 as is the case with some of the rodent mammalia4 ,by this means they are always sharp and in good condition4 ,five groups of powerful muscles are used to work these terrible grinders4 ,to this formidable mouth is attached an sophagus or gullet1 and an intestine which extends along the interior walls of the carapace1 describing the circumference of its principal contour4 ,the regimen of the ,echinid is still imperfectly known2 nevertheless1 from the presence of shells1 fragments of corals1 crustaceans1 and even other ,echinodermata in their intestinal tube1 it is to be inferred that a certain number of them at least are carnassiers1 or flesh-eaters1 while others are supposed on the same evidence to be vegetarians4 ,the organs of respiration of the ,echinid appear to be certain flattened vesicles in the form of very delicate lamin1 which adhere to the internal surface of the walls of the body1 and float freely in the liquid with which the visceral cavity is filled4 ,these organs1 known as the internal branchi1 are in communication with the central canal and ambulacral tubes4 ,the heart is spindle-shaped1 tapering above1 swelling below4 ,there are two distinct vascular systems1 one intestinal1 the other cutaneous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,skeleton and ,masticating ,apparatus4 ,their nervous system consists of a ring1 which surrounds the gullet1 and is placed at a short distance from the mouth4 ,in this ring the nervous trunks have their origin4 ,in relation to the senses1 that of touch is highly developed4 ,certain branching tentacula1 which surround the mouth1 fashioned like nippers1 and the ambulacral tentacles1 are its principal organs4 ,they appear to be altogether destitute of organs of sight4 ,it has sometimes been argued that four or five red points at the summit of the dorsal face are eyes2 but this opinion has not been maintained1 nor has any crystalline lens been found in these spots to justify it4 ,captain de ,cond states that he examined a sea-urchin with long spears in a pool of water1 which he tried to catch1 when he saw it direct its flight towards his hand1 all its defences being erect4 ,surprised at this manuvre1 he tried to seize it from another quarter2 its spines were instantly directed to the other side4 ,i have thought from that time that the urchin saw me1 and prepared to resist my attack4 ,in order1 however1 to satisfy myself whether or not the movement in the water caused by my approach might have produced the effect described1 ,i repeated the experiment with greater caution4 ,but the creature always directed its spines in the direction of the object which threatened it1 whether it was in the water or out of it4 ,he satisfied himself that these animals certainly could see1 and that their spines served them as a means of defence4 ,these wonderful spines1 this calcareous envelope1 this armour so marvellously studded1 with which nature has so bountifully provided the ,echinid1 appear to have been insufficient1 inasmuch as these very spines1 in order to secure the safety of the animal1 are gifted with the power of hollowing a dwelling for themselves out of solid rocks of the hardest material1 such as granite and sandstone4 ,they fix themselves to its surface by means of their tentacles2 they make an incision by means of their strong teeth1 removing the dbris with their spines as fast as it is produced4 ,when the hole is large enough1 they entrench themselves in it1 with their spines and their threatening pikes levelled to protect them from all external assaults4 ,to ,m4 ,caillaud1 the conservator of the museum of ,nantes1 we are indebted for an excellent account of the manner in which this buccal apparatus is made to operate4 ,the ,lantern of ,aristotle1 says this author1 forms the mandibullary apparatus2 the teeth are five in number1 and they may as well receive the denomination of a series of saws and picks as of teeth1 for they are surprisingly adapted to the excavation of holes in the hardest rock4 ,these five picks are about the eighth of an inch long1 and they serve the sea-urchin at once as masticators and excavating implements4 ,in opening the jaws1 these five teeth strike the stone forcibly rather than scrape it4 ,this property of hollowing their dwelling out of the solid rock appears1 however1 to belong to only a small number of the ,echinid2 most of them are content to hide themselves under the stones1 while the species having the spines slender and the shell very thin bury themselves in the sand1 with which they cover themselves entirely1 leaving only a small hole to breathe through4 ,the ,spatangus1 which is furnished with short thick spines on the under part of its body1 which spread out at the extremity like the channel of a spoon1 proceeds with its mining operations as follows1 according to ,mr4 ,jonathan ,franklin4 ,figure to yourself1 reader1 the animal on the sea-shore4 ,he commences his operations by turning the lower spines in such a manner as to form a hollow on the sand bank1 in which he sinks by his own weight2 but as he sinks1 a great number of the spines are brought into action1 throwing up the sand with increased activity1 while the sand thrown up1 returning again1 soon covers the body of the worker1 and he has soon buried himself beneath the surface4 ,in this situation the long hair-like spines situated upon the back begin to play their part2 they prevent the sand from entirely covering the animal by forming a little round hole1 through which water is introduced to the mouth and respiratory organs4 ,the hiding-place of the sea-urchin is1 however1 easily detected in the sand by the hole thus arranged for the respiration of the animal1 and the fishermen think they can predict storms according to the depth of the hole4 ,the ,echinid are reproduced by eggs1 which are red and nearly microscopic4 ,as it issues from the egg the larva has the appearance of a very minute fish4 ,it is not at once converted into the perfect animal1 but undergoes a certain metamorphosis analogous to that of the caterpillar into the butterfly4 ,but1 as we have already stated in treating of the ,asteri1 it produces1 at a certain stage1 by some sort of internal process of generation1 a sea-urchin1 which1 being at first only an organ of the larva1 begins to live an independent life when the nursing larva has destroyed itself4 ,the manner in which the urchin unfolds itself at the expense of the larva is quite analogous to that which the asterias present3 it is another case of alternate generation1 of which our space does not permit us to give even a general outline4 ,sea-urchins are found in every sea2 they dwell in sandy bottoms1 and sometimes upon rocky ground4 ,they are caught with wooden pincers when in shallow water2 when found at the water's edge1 they may be taken by a gloved hand4 ,the urchin1 like the crab1 which it also resembles in taste1 becomes red when boiled2 only certain species are comestible1 however4 ,in ,corsica and ,algeria the ,melon-shaped ,urchin 7,echinus melo7 is much esteemed4 ,in ,naples and in the ,french ports of the ,channel the ,echinus lividus is eaten4 ,in ,provence the ,common ,sea-urchin 7,echinus esculentus and ,echinus granulosus7 are the favourites4 ,sea-urchins are eaten raw like oysters4 ,they are cut in four parts1 and the flesh taken out with a spoon2 they are sometimes1 but more rarely1 dressed by boiling1 and eaten from the shell like an egg1 using long sippets of bread3 hence the name of sea-eggs1 which they bear in many countries4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4--,sea ,urchins lodged in the rocks they have excavated4 ,sea-eggs were a choice dish upon the tables of the ,greeks and ,romans2 they were then served up with vinegar or hydromel1 with the addition of mint or parsley4 ,when ,lentulus feasted the priest of ,mars--the ,flamen ,martialis--this formed the first dish at supper4 ,sea-eggs also appeared at the marriage feast of the goddess ,hebe4 ,afterwards1 says the poet1 came crabs and sea-urchins1 which do not swim in the sea1 but content themselves by travelling on the sandy shore4 ,for my own part1 ,i have only once partaken of sea-urchin1 and it appeared to me to be food fit for the gods2 but perhaps the circumstances sufficiently explain this dash of culinary enthusiasm4 ,the ,reserve ,restaurant at ,marseilles has not always been the vast stone edifice we now behold1 backed majestically by the mountain1 and fronting the sea on the promenade of the ,corniche du ,prado4 ,in #ahde it rose quite at the entrance of the port1 a small glass cage1 suspended as it were by a magic thread between the heavens and the sea4 ,from this arial dwelling1 overhanging with unheard-of audacity the waters which surrounded it on all sides1 we gazed on the most wonderful prospect in the world1 and reposed ourselves while enjoying this intoxicating scene1 during which the ships were continually entering the port1 passing under our very feet4 ,it was in this enchanted palace that sea-urchins were served up1 supported by the traditional bouillabaise4 ,as ,i have said1 it appeared to me delicious4 ,was it the ,provenal dish1 the savoury bouillabaise1 which contributed to my appreciation of the humble sea-urchin of the ,mediterranean8 ,was not the marvellous view which ,i enjoyed from the heights of my empyreum of glass the indirect cause of it8 ,this is a tender and charming problem which ,i love to leave floating in the clouds1 half evanescent1 of my youthful recollections4 ,,holothuria4 ,the ignorant1 like you and ,i1 call the ,holothuria the ,cornechou1 or ,sea-cucumber1 and perhaps1 for two reasons1 they are not far wrong4 ,the term sea-cucumber expresses with wonderful exactness the shape of the animal1 and its habitation1 the sea2 and1 again1 it would puzzle the most learned to explain the word ,holothuria4 ,the body of this strange creature presents the form of an elongated and worm-like cylinder2 its dimensions are so variable that1 while some species are only an inch or two in length1 others attain thirty and even forty4 ,in general1 the skin of the ,holothuria is thick and leathery2 it includes muscles1 and is armed occasionally with small projecting hooks or fangs1 which enable the creature to hang for a few seconds on to foreign bodies4 ,from this coriaceous envelope issue tentacular feet analogous to those described in the sea-urchin and sea-star4 ,when we open a ,holothuria we find nearly the whole internal cavity occupied with little white tubes4 ,we know that the fabulous cucumber spoken of in the ,arabian ,nights was stuffed with pearls by the talking-bird4 ,with our poor animal this1 alas6 is not so4 ,these are no pearls1 but simple prosaical tubes containing the ova4 ,the mouth opens at the extremity of the body2 it forms a sort of funnel1 and is surrounded1 as by a glory1 with an elegant circle of tentacula4 ,in the living animal1 when it feels itself in security1 these tentacles expand themselves like the corolla of a flower4 ,when the fisherman seizes a ,holothuria in the water this crown of tentacles ceases to appear1 for the animal has the power of withdrawing it quite suddenly1 and now it resembles nothing so much as a common leech4 ,if1 however1 it is preserved in fresh sea-water and left in peace--if we treat it1 in short1 with the regard due to its elegant crown of tentacula--this elegant ornament will be expanded in all its glory4 ,immediately below the mouth is a muscular pharynx1 which is contained in a long intestine1 with many convolutions1 which terminate in the posterior part of the body in an orifice whence is thrown from time to time a little jet of water4 ,the terminal portion of the intestinal canal in these animals is enlarged1 introducing us to a system of numerous tubes which branch off into the visceral cavity1 receiving the water from without while breathing by its posterior extremity2 the animal can at will fill this reservoir or eject the water1 and it is by these alternate movements of aspiration and its reverse that it renews the oxygen necessary for respiration4 ,the circulation appears to form a complete circle1 there being no heart or central agent2 but a ring round the gullet1 from which issue five principal nervous chords1 represents the nervous system4 ,the ,holothurias are of separate sexes1 and they differ from the sea-urchins and asterias in this3 that their larv are converted bodily into a young ,holothuria without losing their organs4 ,the bodies of certain species are lubricated by an acrid and corrosive liquid3 thus ,h4 oceania1 described by ,lesson1 which is about forty inches in length1 secretes at the surface of its body an irritating fluid1 which produces an intolerable itching in the finger which touches it4 ,nor can the inhabitants of the ,south ,sea ,islands look at it without loathing4 ,fig4 #aai represents ,h4 lutea1 or the ,stychopus luteus of ,brandt1 who describes as its distinctive character three rows of tentacular feet on the ventral surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,holothuria lutea 7,quoy and ,gaimard74 ,we have spoken of the strange suicidal tendency of the sea-stars3 the ,holothuria exhibits the same phenomena1 but1 having no brittle envelope like the asterias1 it cannot break itself into bits in the presence of its disconcerted enemy2 but kills itself in this manner3 having some cause of grief and trouble--such1 for instance1 as the attack of an enemy or the pursuit of some fisherman--by a sudden and unexpected movement it ejects its teeth1 its stomach1 its digestive apparatus1 and reduces itself to a simple empty membranous sac1 with an unfurnished mouth2 and1 as a singular fact1 this empty sac still shrinks and contracts in the hand which grasps it4 ,it must be admitted that this is a strange mode of evading its enemies3 the soldier rarely throws his arms away in the moment of danger6 ,but the ,holothurias possess a wonderful recuperative power also2 and it is probably quite conscious1 when it thus empties itself to disappoint its pursuer1 that it can promptly replace the organs which it has voluntarily parted with4 ,dr4 ,johnston relates that he had forgotten for some days to supply a ,holothuria with a change of water4 ,the creature1 in consequence1 ejected its tentacles1 its buccal apparatus1 digestive tubes1 and a portion of its ovaries4 ,still it was not dead1 but was sensible to the least movement1 and lived to reproduce all its organs anew4 ,not only do the ,holothurias eject their organs and afterwards renew them1 but they divide themselves spontaneously into two portions4 ,their two extremities are first enlarged2 then their middle parts gradually become straight1 like a thread3 finally1 this thread breaks1 and each separate part of the animal becomes a perfect ,holothuria4 ,it has been cut into two pieces1 and each of these species becomes a new being4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4--,fishing for and curing the ,holothuria in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the habits of these animals are but little known4 ,they inhabit the seas1 and are spread over every latitude4 ,their very limited movements consist in a kind of reptation or crawling motion1 produced by the undulations of their bodies or by the contractions of their feet4 ,holothurias are generally found in the act of creeping upon stones or on portions of submarine rock1 but always in sheltered places1 for they appear to dread the action of light4 ,they sometimes find themselves caught by fishermen in their nets4 ,if held in the hand they contract1 their bodies become hard and rigid1 and the sea water with which they are filled is ejected with force4 ,we need not add that fishermen reject with disdain the ,holothurias taken in their nets2 the sea-cucumber has never been thought worthy of a place on our tables4 ,truth is on this side1 error on that1 is a maxim as true in morals as in cookery4 ,the sea-cucumber1 which ,europeans disdain1 is a favourite dish among the ,chinese4 ,the fishery1 preparation of1 and transport of these animals to market1 plays an important part in the commerce and industry of the ,east4 ,one rather large species1 the ,holothuria tubulosa1 in which1 by-the-bye1 a singular parasite fish 7,fierasfer fontanesii7 lives1 is common in the ,mediterranean4 ,this species is eatable1 and much relished at ,naples4 ,in the ,ladrone ,islands ,holothuria guamensis is preferred4 ,but nowhere is it esteemed of such importance as in the ,malayan and ,chinese seas4 ,in these countries1 and on most of the shores of the ,indian ,ocean1 the ,holothuria edulis1 vulgarly called ,trepang1 is eaten with delight4 ,thousands of junks are annually equipped for the ,trepang fisheries4 ,the ,malay fishermen carry to this fishery a degree of patience and dexterity truly remarkable4 ,lying down in the fore part of their vessels1 and holding in their hands a long bamboo1 terminating in a sharp hook1 their eyes1 accustomed to this fishing1 frequently discover the animal at a distance of not less than thirty yards1 as it creeps along the surface of the submarine rocks or corals4 ,the fisher darts his harpoon at this distance1 and seldom misses his prey4 ,when the water is shallow1 that is to say1 not more than four or five fathoms deep1 divers are sent down to obtain these culinary monsters1 who seize them in their hands1 and in this manner can take five or six at a time4 ,to prepare the fish and preserve them for transport to the markets1 the ,malay and ,chinese fishermen boil them in water1 and flatten them with stones4 ,they are then spread out on bamboo mats to dry2 first in the sun1 and then by smoking them4 ,thus prepared1 they are enclosed in sacks1 and shipped to the ,chinese ports1 where they are particularly esteemed4 ,this fishery takes place in the months of ,april and ,may4 ,in his voyage to the ,south ,pole1 ,captain ,dumont d',urville1 in traversing the ,chinese seas1 had an opportunity of assisting at this fishery1 which he has described very graphically4 ,we quote the passage in which the ,french navigator relates what he witnessed at this curious scene4 ,while the ships were lying quietly at anchor1 we saw1 he says1 entering the bay1 four ,malay proas1 bearing ,dutch colours1 which dropped their anchors about a cable's length from ,observatory ,islet4 ,the padrones or captains of these vessels soon presented their salutations1 and informed me that they had started from ,macassar at the end of ,october1 with the western monsoon1 and that they came to fish for ,holothuria 7trepang7 along the coasts of ,new ,holland1 from ,melville ,island to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 where the east wind met them and assisted their return1 when they revisited all the points of the coast1 anchoring in every bay where they hoped to find fish4 ,we were in the first days of ,april2 the east monsoon was definitively established2 the ,malay fishermen were returning in their circuit1 and1 in passing1 they came to exercise their industry in ,raffles' ,bay4 ,an hour after their arrival they were all at work1 and the laboratory for the preparation of their fish was established within our view4 ,the roadstead had no longer the aspect of a vast solitude3 wreaths of smoke crowned the summit of ,observatory ,island1 where1 as if by enchantment1 several large sheds had sprung up1 while numerous vessels1 supplied with divers1 were proceeding to fish for ,holothurias1 which were passed immediately to the furnaces erected for curing them4 ,in the course of my voyage ,i have often remarked little walls constructed of dry stones1 consisting of several half-circles joined one to the other4 ,i had often1 but vainly1 tried to discover the use of these little structures3 ,i was now enlightened4 ,the ,malays arrived4 ,their boats were scarcely anchored when several large boilers1 in the shape of a half-sphere1 the diameter of which might be about forty inches1 were placed upon the stone walls of which ,i have spoken1 and now served as improvised furnaces4 ,near to them are sheds1 composed of four strong posts driven into the earth1 supporting roofing covered with hurdles1 on which it is probably intended to dry the ,holothurias4 ,during their sojourn in this bay1 the fishermen1 having fine weather1 made no use of these sheds1 having probably only prepared them as a precaution4 ,a crowd of men actively employed in establishing their laboratories gave an unaccustomed appearance to the bay1 which could not fail to attract the savage inhabitants of the main land4 ,very soon1 indeed1 we could see them hastening from all sides1 and nearly all reached the little island1 either by swimming or wading through the sheet of shallow water which separates it from the main land4 ,i only saw one pirogue1 made of the bark of a tree badly put together1 which gave a passage to three of these visitors4 ,when night arrived1 the ,malays had finished all their preparations2 some of them remained to guard what they had left on shore1 all the others returned to their boats4 ,in the interval1 a boat from the ,astrolabe being wanted to carry some visitors from the island1 ,i profited by the occasion to visit one of the proas1 accompanied by ,m4 ,roquemauel4 ,we were received with much politeness1 and even cordiality1 by the captain or padrone of the boats4 ,he showed us over his little ship4 ,the keel appeared to us sufficiently solid2 even the lines did not want elegance2 but great disorder seemed to reign in the stowage department4 ,from a kind of bridge1 formed by hurdles of bamboos and junk1 we saw the cabin1 which looked like a poultry-house2 bags of rice1 packets1 and boxes were huddled together4 ,below was the store of water1 of cured trepang1 and the sailors' berths4 ,each boat was furnished with two rudders1 one at each end1 which lifted itself when the boat touched the bottom4 ,the craft was furnished with two masts1 without shrouds1 which could be lowered on to the bridge at will by means of a hinge2 they carry the ordinary sail2 the anchors are of wood1 for iron is rarely used by the ,malays2 their cables are made of ratan fibre2 the crew of each bark consists of about thirty-seven1 each shore-boat having a crew of six men4 ,at the moment of our visit they were all occupied in fishing operations1 some of them being anchored very near to us4 ,seven or eight of their number1 nearly naked1 were diving for trepang2 the padrone alone was unoccupied4 ,an ardent sun darted his rays upon their heads without appearing to incommode them1 an exposure which no ,european could hold up under4 ,it was near mid-day1 and the moment1 as our ,malay captain assured us1 most favourable for the fishing4 ,in fact1 we saw that each diver returned to the surface with at least one animal1 and sometimes two1 in his hands4 ,it appears that the higher the sun is above the horizon1 the more easily is the creature distinguished at the bottom4 ,the divers were so rapid in their movements1 that they scarcely touched the boat1 into which they threw the animals1 before they dived again4 ,when the boat was filled with them1 it proceeded to the shore1 and its place was supplied by an empty one4 ,i followed one of these1 to witness the process of curing which they adopted4 ,the ,holothuria of ,raffles' ,bay is from five to six inches long and about two in diameter2 it is a gross fleshy mass1 somewhat cylindrical in form1 but no external organ is visible4 ,the mollusc glues itself to the rocks at the bottom of the sea1 and1 as it can only move very slowly1 the ,malay divers seize it readily4 ,the greatest merit of a fisherman is to have a practised eye1 to distinguish the animal at the bottom1 and to dive directly to the spot where it lies4 ,to preserve them1 the fishermen throw them1 while still living1 into a cauldron of boiling sea water1 where they are stirred about by means of a long pole1 which is supported upon another pole fixed in the earth1 but having a forked end1 which acts as a lever4 ,in this process the trepang gives up all the water it contains1 and is withdrawn at the end of two minutes4 ,a man armed with a large knife now extracts the entrails1 and it is thrown into a second cauldron1 having only a small quantity of water1 seasoned with mimosa bark4 ,the object of this second operation is to smoke the animal in order to preserve it the better1 for the bark is consumed in the process4 ,the trepang is now placed upon hurdles and dried in the sun4 ,when sufficiently dried1 it is stowed away in the hold of the proa4 ,it was about two o'clock in the afternoon when the divers ceased their labours and came ashore4 ,my tent was soon surrounded4 ,i recognized the captain of the proa among those who had previously visited me4 ,he approached and examined all the instruments used in the ,observatory with great attention1 seeking to discover their use4 ,i showed him a gun with percussion cap1 which astonished him greatly1 especially when ,i pointed out to him its great superiority over the flint-lock4 ,he assured me that these arms were still unknown in the ,celebes1 his country2 but he failed to convince me of that4 ,he questioned me as to the places we had visited1 and where we were going4 ,i endeavoured to sketch a map of ,new ,holland1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,new ,guinea upon a leaf4 ,he then took my pencil1 and added to it the ,indian ,archipelago1 the coasts of ,china and ,japan1 and the ,philippine ,islands4 ,surprised in my turn1 ,i asked him if he had visited all these places4 ,he replied in the negative2 but added that he knew their position perfectly1 and could easily take his vessel to any of them4 ,finally1 the interview terminated by his asking for a glass of arrack4 ,i do not know if this intelligent ,malay professed the ,mahometan religion1 but ,i do know that he drank half a bottle of wine and a quarter of a pint of arrack without being at all the worse for it4 ,he then offered me some prepared trepang1 inviting me to taste it1 which ,i did2 to me it appeared to resemble the lobster in taste4 ,my men liked it1 and thankfully accepted the captain's offer2 for my part1 ,i felt an utter repugnance even to taste it4 ,according to the account ,i had from the ,malay captain1 the price of trepang in the ,chinese markets was fifteen rupees1 about thirty shillings the pekoul1 or a hundred and twenty-five pounds4 ,he estimated his cargo to be worth about a hundred and twenty pounds4 ,the fishing had occupied him and his crew three months4 ,from the earliest times this commerce has belonged exclusively to the ,malay fishermen1 and it will always be difficult for ,europeans to compete with them4 ,the ,malay vessels are equipped on the most economical principle1 and the men are wanting neither in sobriety1 intelligence1 or activity4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4--,synapta ,duverna4 7,quatrefages47 ,it was nearly four o'clock when the ,malays finished their operations4 ,in less than half an hour they had embarked their cargo2 the tents were struck1 and1 together with the boilers1 carried back to the boats1 which were already preparing to set sail4 ,at eight o'clock in the evening they hoisted sail and left the bay4 ,some idea may be formed of the extent and importance of the ,holothuria fishing by the number of ships which it attracts in this part of the ,east4 ,captain ,king assures us that two hundred vessels annually leave ,madagascar to fish for the sea slug1 as it is sometimes called4 ,captain ,flinders1 being on the coast of ,australia1 learnt that a fleet of sixty vessels1 having a hundred men on board1 had left ,madagascar two months previously in the same pursuit4 ,among the ,holothurias1 one particular genus1 the ,synapta1 is distinguished from others of the family by the absence of the ambulacral feet1 and by the fact of its uniting both sexes in one individual4 ,this remarkable ,echinoderm1 ,synapta duverna1 is represented in ,,pl4 ,,xi4 ,m4 ,quatrefages1 who discovered it in the ,channel1 gives the following description of it in his great work1 ,le ,souvenirs d'un ,naturaliste4 ,imagine1 he says1 a cylinder of rose-coloured crystal1 as much as eighteen inches long and more than an inch in diameter1 traversed in all its length by five narrow ribbons of white silk1 and its head surmounted by a living flower1 whose twelve tentacles of purest white fall behind in a graceful curve4 ,in the centre of these tissues1 which rival in their delicacy the most refined products of the loom1 imagine an intestine of the thinnest gauze gorged from one end to the other with coarse grains of granite1 the rugged points and sharp edge of which are perfectly perceptible to the naked eye4 ,but what most struck me at first in this animal was1 that it seemed literally to have no other nourishment than the coarse sand by which it was surrounded4 ,and then when1 armed with scalpel and microscope1 ,i ascertained something of its organisation1 what unheard-of marvels were revealed6 ,in this body1 the walls of which scarcely reach the sixteenth part of an inch in thickness1 ,i could distinguish seven distinct layers of tissue1 with a skin1 muscles1 and membranes4 ,upon the petaloid tentacles ,i could trace terminal suckers1 which enabled the ,synapta to crawl up the side of a most highly polished vase4 ,in short1 this creature1 denuded to all appearance of every means of attack or defence1 showed itself to be protected by a species of mosaic1 formed of small calcareous shield-like defences1 bristling with double hooks1 the points of which1 dentated like the arrows of the ,caribbeans1 had taken hold of my hands4 ,if one of these ,synapta is preserved alive in sea-water for a short time1 and subjected to a forced fast1 a very strange phenomenon will be observed4 ,the animal1 being unable to feed itself1 successively detaches various parts of its own body1 which it amputates spontaneously4 ,a great compression or ring is first formed1 and then the separation of the condemned part takes place quite suddenly4 ,it would appear1 says ,m4 ,quatrefages1 that the animal1 feeling that it had not sufficient food to support its whole body1 was able successively to abridge its dimensions1 by suppressing the parts which it would be most difficult to support1 just as we should dismiss the most useless mouths from a besieged city4 ,this singular mode of meeting a famine is employed by the ,synapta up to the last moment4 ,after a few days1 in fact1 all that remains of the animal is a round ball1 surmounted by its tentacles4 ,in order to preserve life in the head1 the animal has sacrificed all the other parts of its body4 ,in order to find natural novelties--to find unforeseen subjects of study and reflection1 it is not necessary to run over the world or travel great distances4 ,it is only necessary to visit the banks of the nearest river1 or descend to the sea shore1 and leave the sea to reveal a fragment of the marvels which it conceals in its bosom4 ,,mollusca4 ,the class ,mollusca--pulpy animals--forms a grand division which man has been pleased to make in the animal kingdom1 and immediately below the ,vertebrata and above the ,annulosa1 which again stand above the ,coelenterata1 which includes the polyps1 sea-anemones1 hydras1 and corals1 which last are more highly organized than the ,protozoa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,p4 ,c4 ,mollusca4 ,the ,mollusca may be divided into two groups1 the ,mollusca proper and the ,molluscoda4 ,the mollusc proper1 as represented in ,fig4 #abj1 presents the following parts1 and is supposed to be bilaterally symmetrical1 ,h1 is the hmal parts1 in which the heart is situated1 commonly called the dorsal part1 although the word is used in a different sense in different divisions of the animal kingdom4 ,in the same manner the opposite region 7,n7 is not termed the ventral1 but the neural part1 in philosophical anatomy4 ,it is the region in which the great centres of the nervous system are placed4 ,the termination 7a7 is the anterior or oval part2 the other end 7b71 the posterior or anal part3 between these extremities the intestines take a straight course4 ,the neural surface is that upon which the majority of molluscs move1 and by which they are supported1 and it is commonly modified to subserve these purposes by the formation of a muscular expansion or disk1 called the foot4 ,three regions1 in many genera very distinctly divided from one another1 may be distinguished in this foot3 an anterior1 the ,propodium 7p p72 a middle1 the ,mesopodium 7m s72 and a posterior1 the ,metapodium 7m t74 ,in addition to these1 the upper part of the foot1 or middle portion of the body1 may be prolonged into a muscular enlargement on each side1 just below the junction of the hmal with the neural region1 the ,epipodium 7e p74 ,the mass of the body between the foot proper and the part of the abdomen which bears the epipodium may be termed the mid-body1 or ,mesosoma4 ,on the upper part of the sides of the head are two pairs of organs1 namely1 the eyes and tentacles4 ,in the hmal region the integument may be modified and raised up into a fold at the edges1 either in front or behind the anus4 ,when so modified1 it is called a mantle1 ,pallium4 ,in front of the anus again1 the branchi 7t7 project as processes of the hmal region4 ,among the internal organs1 the heart 7u v7 lies in front of the branchi in the hmal regions1 the nervous ganglia 7x y z71 of which there are three principal pairs1 being arranged around the alimentary canal1 which they encircle4 ,such is the general type of the class ,mollusca1 of which1 however1 the variations are innumerable4 ,they are all soft-skinned animals1 without either articulated exterior or annular external skeleton4 ,their nervous system1 being without cerebro-spinal axis1 is entirely composed of ganglions1 which are all reunited in the oesophagus without constituting in any case a lengthened median chain4 ,their digestive organs are complete--that is1 they are provided with two apertures2 their principal organs are symmetrical and according to a plan1 usually curving1 by which their bodies are divided into two parts4 ,the first series or subdivision1 to which ,milne ,edwards has given the name of ,molluscoda1 includes under that term the ,bryozoaires1 ,ascidians1 and ,tunicata4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,mollusco,,da4 ,the ,bryozoaires1 or ,polyzoa1 as ,british naturalists prefer to call them1 form the boundary-line which divides the humble mollusc from the humbler zoophytes4 ,in consequence of this intermediate organization1 these creatures were long considered as polyps2 but ,de ,blainville1 ,milne ,edwards1 and ,ehrenberg1 almost simultaneously began to separate them from the molluscs1 and form them into a separate group4 ,subsequent naturalists1 while considering the ,molluscoda as truly and wholly molluscous1 admit that the distinction proposed by the ,french naturalists is most important1 and should be retained as a primary subdivision1 confining it to those molluscs which have the neural region comparatively little developed1 and the nervous system reduced to a single or at most a pair of ganglia1 and the mouth surrounded by a more or less perfect circle of tentacles3 an arrangement which would include the ,brachiopoda with the ,polyzoa4 ,marine plants are sometimes observed to be quite covered with a velvety parasitic matter1 which may at a first glance be mistaken for a moss4 ,this1 however1 is simply an aggregation of animalcules1 each of which has its separate cell1 which is placed quite contiguous to its neighbour4 ,these little creatures are thus entirely distinct4 ,each cell is formed by the skin1 which has been encrusted by calcareous salts1 or other organic matter1 hardened after the manner of a horn4 ,this kind of shell protects the animal from the attacks of its enemies4 ,this mode of retreat at the bottom of a protecting shelter is very frequently adopted in the whole series of molluscs4 ,the oyster shuts itself up by closing its valves1 and the snail retires into its shell4 ,this assemblage of small cells presented by the ,bryozoaires has long been known as a coral4 ,we propose1 says our author1 with very good reasons1 to call it a ,testier1 or shell-builder4 ,this testier1 in which each shell has its opening1 is furnished with a naked cushion1 dentate1 spinous1 or protected by an operculum or lid1 and presents itself under every variety of form4 ,it is sometimes an assemblage of branching tubes1 occasionally a rounded mass of spongy appearance1 and now it presents itself as a flat lamelliform inarticulated expansion4 ,in some of the marine species the shell of the mussel is covered as with a fine lace4 ,it is a remarkable fact that these cells are not always inert4 ,they seem to enjoy the power of motion4 ,it is well known that the leaves and branches of the sensitive plant 7,mimosa7 contract and expand under the touch of the finger2 the same phenomenon1 according to ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones1 takes place on touching the cells of certain species of ,bryozoaires4 ,the moment they are touched they quickly incline themselves2 and the movement is immediately communicated from one to the other1 until all the cells of the community are in motion4 ,returning to the organization of the little creature which occupies the cell1 it is found that the upper and retractile portion1 which is of extreme delicacy1 terminates anteriorly in a circle of long tentacles1 in the centre of which is the mouth4 ,these tentacles are fringed laterally by a series of vibratile cilia4 ,when the animal displays itself1 says ,frdol1 this circle of microscopic threads of extreme tenuity first show themselves rising from the summit of the cell2 this is followed by the upper part of its body1 which is more or less flexible2 the tentacles follow between the threads1 pushing them on one side4 ,these tentacles are furnished on the back with a dozen appendages like very fine hairs1 attached to them nearly at right angles1 in addition to the lateral cilia already spoken of1 which play a very important part in the arrangements of most microscopic animals4 ,at the moment when the tentacles appear outside the cell1 the tunic of the animalcule1 which has the power of expanding or contracting itself1 is gradually unrolled4 ,it soon spreads out its pretty little arms1 the appendages and cilia beginning their rapid vibrations1 until the eye1 deceived by the rapidity and regularity of their movements1 is dazzled1 and the beholder begins to think that he sees rosy drops of dew waving to and fro1 twisting and untwisting themselves4 ,the corpuscles which float round the animal are violently agitated1 as if they were under the influence of some strong breeze4 ,unhappy1 indeed1 is the fate of the unfortunate infusoria which chance leads at this moment into the fatal circle4 ,in many species1 observers have discovered a special organ called the vibracule1 which deserves our attention for a moment4 ,it is a hollow filament1 situated at the upper and outer angle of each cell1 filled with a substance which is at once fibrous and contractile1 admitting of some very remarkable movements1 which occur regularly1 and generally at very short intervals4 ,at first the filament inclines itself towards the base1 trembles1 oscillates1 and seems to sink2 presently it recovers itself1 and inclines in the opposite direction1 where it repeats the same operation with the same order and in the same time4 ,what are the functions thus performed8 asks ,frdol4 ,are they1 we would ask1 independent up to a certain point of the will of the ,bryozoaire8 ,what is their purpose8 ,we think he answers1 ,that this organ serves the purpose of cleansing1 and especially that of strengthening1 the entrance to the cell4 ,it even continues its movement after the animal has been mutilated or killed4 ,the poor sickly or dead creature continues to be defended by its protecting vibracule4 ,the prey which is drawn into the vortex by the tentacles and their appendages enters into the mouth1 to which is attached a pharynx1 oesophagus1 stomach1 and intestines4 ,in the back or hmal region1 not far from the mouth1 there is a special opening for this intestine4 ,respiration is provided for in the ,bryozoaires by the ciliate appendages which surround the mouth2 they are at once tentacula and branchi4 ,the animal presents no other trace of organs of the senses4 ,a small ganglion and a few fillets constitute all of the nervous system which can be traced2 neither heart nor blood-vessels have been found4 ,the egg1 in the case of the ,bryozoaires1 gives birth to a young animal covered with hairs on its surface2 it swims about freely until it has chosen a convenient place in which it can establish the new colony which it is to originate4 ,but this choice is not made for itself alone2 the young animal encloses under its hairy envelope two new individuals1 which1 young as they are1 have already the appearance of adult ,bryozoaires4 ,at first1 these only increase the number of the colony by budding1 but in a short time they produce eggs4 ,from these remarks it will be seen that the animals of the ,bryozoaires are more complex in their form and functions than those of the coral1 and the study of their anatomy confirms this conclusion4 ,in their case the digestive organs are no longer a simple sac with a single orifice2 there is a mouth1 a pharynx1 a gullet1 a gizzard1 a membranous stomach and intestines1 with a special opening4 ,we have descriptions of some species in which the gizzard seems to be provided with a certain number of interior teeth forming a wonderful pavement--a living mill for the purpose of grinding the food before it enters into the second stomach4 ,the organization of this small creature reveals to our eyes a wonderful amount of combination--of admirable art immeasurably surpassing all that the most perfect human industry and human genius can accomplish4 ,after this general view of the organization of the group1 we shall proceed to introduce the reader to some of their more characteristic species4 ,under the leaves of water-lilies 7,nymphea71 pond-weed 7,potamogeton71 or upon floating fragments of submerged wood1 are generally to be found certain ,bryozoaires1 animals described by ,trembley under the name of plumed polyps4 ,these are ,plumatell 7,fig4 #aba74 ,these little diaphanous creatures constitute colonies which under the microscope resemble small branching shrubs2 they consist of small slender tubes grafted one to the other1 and having from forty to sixty retractile tentacula1 which expand like the petals of a flower2 they are furnished with vibratile cilia1 the movements of which serve the purpose of leading food into the mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,plumatella cristallina magnified 7after ,roesel74 ,another genus1 which is found in ponds in ,france1 and which is also found in fresh water in ,britain1 is the ,cristatella of ,cuvier4 ,perfect specimens of ,c4 mucedo occur from six lines to twenty-four in length by two or three in breadth1 says ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,dalyel1 of a flattened figure1 fine translucent green colour1 and fleshy consistence4 ,some of the shorter tend to an elliptical form1 but those of larger dimensions are linear1 with parallel sides1 and curved extremities4 ,the middle of the upper and the whole of the under surface are smooth1 the former somewhat convex1 occasioned by a border of seventy or eighty1 even up to three hundred and fifty1 individual polypi1 dispersed in a triple row1 their number depending entirely on the size of the specimen4 ,each of these numerous polypi1 though an integral portion of the common mass1 is a distinct animal1 endowed with separate action and sensation4 ,the body rising about a line above a tubular fleshy stem1 is crowned by a head1 which may be circumscribed by a circle as much in diameter1 of a horse-shoe shape1 and bordered by a hundred tentacula4 ,towards one side1 the mouth1 of singular mechanism1 seems to have projecting lips and to open as a valve1 which folds up within1 conveying the particles which are absorbed to the wide orifice of an intestinal organ1 which descends1 perhaps1 in a convolution below2 and returns again1 terminating in an excretory canal under the site of the tentacula4 ,the inhabitants of the colony are then united in great numbers under one common envelope2 these are longish filaments of the size of a swan's feather1 reminding one of the appearance of the silk thread known by embroiderers as chenille4 ,the downy appearance is produced by the collection of tentacula belonging to this curious swarm4 ,the filamentous mass is the translucent row of cells in which these animalcules are lodged1 and to which they retreat when disturbed4 ,these cells are sometimes free in part1 sometimes completely rooted to the stems of aquatic plants4 ,the tentacles are of a fine transparent glass colour1 the body being of a brown colour4 ,fig4 #abb represents ,cristatella mucedo1 which is common both in this country and in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,cristatella mucedo 7,cuvier74 ,most naturalists have now agreed to place among the ,bryozoa certain species of animalcules which long remained imperfectly known4 ,amongst these are the ,flustra1 the ,eschara1 and other ascidians4 ,the ,flustra are marine ,bryozoa1 whose skin in hardening forms a thin shell of horny or cellular appearance2 their little cells1 more or less horny1 are grouped symmetrically1 somewhat like the cells in a bee-hive4 ,sometimes they form a crust which covers the alg and other submarine bodies2 sometimes they form ribbon-like stems4 ,in some species the cells are only found on one side2 in others they occupy both4 ,their orifices are extremely small1 and defended by spines quite microscopic 7,fig4 #abc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,flustra foliacea 7,linnus74 ,their tentacles are covered with cilia1 always vibratile1 disposed in a straight line1 which in their movements produce the effect which a row of animated pearls might be supposed to produce if rolled upwards from the base to the summit of the organ4 ,the ,eschara form leaf-like expansions1 the entrance to their cells having also their protecting spines4 ,the expansions still represent microscopic bee-hives1 the inhabitants of which enjoy at once a common and an independent existence4 ,as it is with the corals1 so it is here2 each eats for the benefit of itself and for the community4 ,labour and nutrition for the community1 labour and food for itself4 ,,tunicata4 ,on seeing one of the ,tunicata for the first time1 a stranger to zoology would scarcely take them for animals at all4 ,almost always attached to submarine rocks1 these beings have the form of a simple sac4 ,their skin1 gelatinous1 horny1 or rock-like1 is at times covered with marine plants and polyps4 ,they have neither arms1 nor feet1 nor head4 ,but then they have a mouth1 placed at the entrance of a digestive tube1 and1 in connection with the latter1 a special opening intended for evacuations4 ,the mouth is preceded by a great cavity1 the walls of which are covered with vessels2 for this cavity is the seat of respiration1 and is covered with vibratile cilia4 ,thus the same canal serves first for respiration1 and then1 farther on1 for digestion3 another instance of the economy of ,nature4 ,another remarkable instance of circulation is found3 they have a heart1 but no head4 ,this heart is the centre of a well-developed vascular system1 but very unlike what usually obtains4 ,the blood which traverses it takes such a course1 that1 in the space of a very few minutes1 the heart changes its aurical into ventrical and its ventrical into aurical blood4 ,at the same time the arteries are changed into veins and the veins into arteries4 ,the consequence is1 that the current which traverses these canals changes its direction with each contraction of the heart4 ,simple as is their organization1 the ,tunicata have a nervous system4 ,it is an unique ganglion1 connected with divers small fillets4 ,the organs of sensation present themselves in a very rudimentary fashion4 ,we find eyes1 and1 after very minute search1 a single ear has been found4 ,they are propagated by budding1 and also from eggs4 ,the young are subject to some very curious metamorphoses1 some particulars of which will be given farther on4 ,the ,tunicata are divided into ,ascidia and ,salpa1 to which some naturalists add the ,brachiopoda4 ,,ascidians4 ,the ,ascidia1 from the ,greek word 1 leather bottle1 have1 as the name indicates1 the shape of a bottle or purse4 ,the analogy becomes more evident when it is considered that these creatures are habitually filled with water1 which can be expelled by very slight pressure4 ,the ,ascidians are sometimes free1 sometimes united to others in a manner more or less intimate4 ,hence their division into the three groups of simple1 social1 and composite ,ascidians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,ascidia microcosmus 7,cuvier74 ,simple ,ascidians attach themselves1 each individual singly1 to rocks and other submarine bodies1 and generally at a fixed depth4 ,ascidia microcosmus a ,mediterranean species1 represented in ,fig4 #abd1 may be quoted as a type of this division of ,ascidians4 ,the name of ,microcosmus1 or the little world1 is probably given from its being inhabited by quite an animated colony of alg and corals1 which dwell upon its surface1 and give it a very peculiar1 but not very attractive1 appearance4 ,the flavour of these molluscoids is very strong1 which does not1 however1 hinder the poorer dwellers on the sea shore from eating them4 ,the genus ,phallusia is another type of the group4 ,phallusia grossularia is of a reddish colour1 and about the size of a currant-berry3 it usually lodges itself in the oysters of certain localities4 ,at ,ostend another species1 ,phallusia ampullodes1 is found in prodigious quantities in the oyster parks1 and is parasitic on living lobsters4 ,social ,ascidians comprehend living ,tunicata1 connected together on a common prolongation by the roots1 but free and unconnected in all other respects4 ,ascidia pedunculata 7,fig4 #abe7 may be quoted as an example4 ,the ,composite ,ascidians are still more intimately associated together2 a great number of these little beings live together in a single mass4 ,such are the ,botryllus and the ,pyrosoma4 ,the ,botryllus is a genera the most interesting of all the groups under consideration4 ,only imagine from ten to twenty individuals1 oval in form1 more or less flattened1 adhering by their dorsal surface to some submarine body1 and holding on by their sides1 so as to form a sort of wheel4 ,when we excite one of the branches1 says ,frdol1 a single mollusc contracts itself2 when we touch the centre1 they all seem to contract themselves 7,cuvier74 ,the buccal orifice is at the outer extremity of the radius2 but the intestinal terminations abut on the common cavity1 which occupies the centre of the wheel4 ,here we behold certain animals which eat separately1 but which fulfil together as a community very singular functions--a kind of union and communism of which the moral world presents no prototype4 ,with our molluscs1 in place of two individuals united1 we have a score4 ,we may consider the entire star as one single animal with many mouths4 ,but then1 we have with it a luxury of organs for the function of intelligence which seeks and chooses1 and parsimony of the organ of stupidity1 which neither seeks nor chooses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,ascidia pedunculata 7,milne ,edwards74 ,while the ,botryllus is fixed and adherent1 the ,pyrosoma1 on the contrary1 is perfectly free4 ,the animal colony which constitutes it floats and balances itself upon the waters1 like the sea-pen or the physalia1 of which we have spoken in treating of the zoophytes4 ,the name ,pyrosoma has been given to these animals in consequence of their brilliant phosphorescent properties4 ,according to the observations of ,pron and ,lesueur1 nothing can exceed the brilliant and dazzling light emitted in the bosom of the ocean by these animals4 ,from the manner in which the colonists dispose themselves1 they form occasionally long trains of fire2 but it is a singular fact that this phosphorescence presents the same curious characteristics that distinguish the cilia of the ,bero2 namely1 that the colours vary instantaneously1 passing with wonderful rapidity from the most intense red to yellow1 from golden colour to orange1 to green1 or to azure blue4 ,von ,humboldt saw a flock of these brilliant living colonies floating by the side of his ship1 and projecting circles of light having a radius of not less than twenty inches in diameter4 ,he could see by this light the fishes which followed the ship's track1 during many days1 at the depth of from two to three fathoms4 ,bibra1 a ,brazilian navigator1 having caught six ,pyrosoma1 employed them to light up his cabin4 ,the light produced by these little creatures was so bright1 that he could read to one of his friends the description he had written of these his living torches4 ,three species of ,pyrosoma are known2 namely1 ,p4 elegans1 two or three inches in length1 which inhabits the ,mediterranean2 ,p4 giganteum1 which is found in the same sea4 ,it is a long bluish cylinder1 bristling with tubercles1 each of which is the abode of an animal1 a citizen of this moving republic1 and is attached to its colleagues by means of its gelatinous envelope3 an alliance imposed by inexorable ,nature--a forced species of socialism4 ,the third species1 ,p4 atlanticum1 was discovered by ,pron and ,lesueur in the ,equatorial seas4 ,these curious ,ascidians are so created in rings as to constitute a long fine cylindrical tube1 closed at one end and open at the other4 ,by the contraction and dilatation of the mass of beings1 this great cylinder swims slowly through the open sea1 lighting up the ocean with its phosphorescent light1 shining through the water like a glowing fire4 ,mr4 ,bennet thus describes one of these pelagic appearances3 ,on the #hth of ,june1 being then in lat4 #cj ,s4 and #bg #e' ,w4 long41 having fine weather and a fresh south-easterly trade-wind1 and the thermometer ranging from #gh to #hd1 late at night the mate of the watch called me to witness a very unusual appearance in the water4 ,this was a broad and extensive sheet of phosphorescence extending from east to west as far as the eye could reach4 ,i immediately cast the towing-net over the stern of the ship1 which soon cleaved through the brilliant mass1 the disturbance causing strong flashes of light to be emitted1 and the shoal1 judging from the time the vessel took in passing through the mass1 may have been a mile in breadth4 ,on taking in the towing-net1 it was found half filled with ,pyrosoma atlanticum1 which shone with a beautiful pale greenish light4 ,after the mass had been passed through by the ship1 the light was still seen astern1 until it became invisible in the distance1 and the ocean became hidden in the darkness as before this took place4 ,the second occasion of my meeting these creatures was in a high latitude1 and during the winter season4 ,it was on the #aith of ,august1 the weather dark and gloomy1 with light breezes from north-northeast1 in lat4 #dj #cj' ,s41 and #ach #c' ,e4 long41 at the western entrance to ,bass's ,straits1 and about #h o'clock p4m41 when the ship's wake was perceived to be luminous1 while scintillations of the same light were abundant all round4 ,to ascertain the cause1 ,i threw the towing-net overboard1 and in twenty minutes succeeded in capturing several ,pyrosoma1 which gave out their usual pale green light2 and it was1 no doubt1 detached groups of these animals which were the occasion of the light in question4 ,the beautiful light given out by these molluscans soon ceased to be seen2 but by moving them about it could be reproduced for some length of time after4 ,the luminosity of the water gradually decreased during the night1 and toward morning was no longer seen4 ,the genus ,salpa forms another interesting group of ,tunicata4 ,the ,biphora or ,salpa 7,fig4 #abf7 are long transparent threads of the more delicate tissues1 composed of rows of individuals placed side by side1 and grafted1 as it were1 transversely3 ribbons1 in which each animal is grafted end on end to its sister3 double parallel chains of social creatures1 sometimes alternate1 sometimes opposite2 living chaplets1 of which each pearl is an individual4 ,each individual presents an oblong diaphanous or prismatic body1 more or less symmetrical1 and often furnished in front1 rarely behind1 with tentaculiform appendages4 ,so great is the transparency1 that the various organs may be observed through the skin as they perform their several functions4 ,momus1 an ancient philosopher1 thought it a subject of regret that ,nature had not thought of piercing the body with an opening sufficiently large for each one to see what was passing in the interior4 ,the creature which now occupies our attention would surely have satisfied the demands of our critic3 its body is1 metaphorically speaking1 a house of glass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,salpa maxima magnified 7,forsk74 ,in order to move itself1 the ,salpa has recourse to a singular artifice4 ,it introduces water into its body through a posterior opening1 furnished with a valve1 which it expels by an anterior outlet situated near the mouth4 ,it is thus pushed backwards1 and swims1 as it were1 by recoil4 ,moreover1 it swims with its belly upwards4 ,all the elements of a chain of ,salpas act in concert2 they contract and dilate simultaneously2 they advance as a single individual4 ,one of them floats on the surface with the undulations of a serpent1 so that among sailors they have gained the appellation of sea-serpents4 ,these long1 living trains abound in the ,mediterranean1 principally towards the ,african coast1 and in the ,equatorial seas4 ,they are inhabitants of the open sea1 and live immerged at considerable depths2 but when the nights are calm they show themselves on the surface4 ,as they spread themselves abroad with a strong phosphorescent light1 they resemble long ribbons of fire1 unrolling their long waving lines in spite of the waves1 as in ,fig4 #abg4 ,what wonders they see who go down into the great deep6 ,what sights are reserved for the navigator who traverses the ,tropical seas during the silence of night6 ,when a chain of ,salpas is drawn from the water1 the rings separate1 and they can no longer be made to adhere4 ,the social bond has been dissolved by a superior force4 ,salpas are sometimes met with1 isolated and solitary1 whose exterior conformation differs much from that which is proper to the connected ,salpa2 so different1 indeed1 that it might belong to another type4 ,chamisso1 ,krohn1 and ,milne ,edwards have ascertained that the ,biphora is viviparous1 and that each species is propogated by alternate generation1 the young creature being unlike its immediate parent4 ,one of these generations is represented by the solitary individuals1 the other by an aggregation of individuals4 ,each solitary ,biphora engenders a new group--a chain2 each constituted member of the chain engenders a solitary ,salpa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,phosphorescent chain of ,salpas on the surface of the sea4 ,thus a ,salpa is not organized like its mother or daughter1 but rather like its sister1 its grandmother1 or granddaughter--another example of alternate generation1 which has already been discussed in treating of zoophytes4 ,those marine creatures which pass their lives in a forced community--animals which eat1 sleep1 or rest always in company--who abandon themselves together to the soft caresses of the waves1--these colonies1 or1 rather1 republics of animals1 leading constantly the same monotonous existence1--reveal to us very strange things3 an identical community of sentiments in a crowd of beings riveted by the same chain--a chain at once physical1 intellectual1 and moral6 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,acephalous ,,mollusca4 ,sigiliatim mortales1 cunctum perpetul4 ,,apuleius4 ,the ,mollusca proper were divided by ,cuvier into five great classes3-- ,i4 ,lamellibranchiata1 or ,acephalous ,mollusca1 often called ,conchifera4 ,,ii4 ,brachiopoda4 ,,iii4 ,gasteropoda4 ,,iv4 ,pteropoda4 ,v4 ,cephalopoda4 ,the name ,mollusca indicates the characters which most struck the ancients3 they are soft--in ,latin1 mollis3 their flesh is cold1 humid1 and viscous4 ,in consequence of their very softness1 they are generally furnished with an apparatus of defence or protection1 in the shape of a calcareous cuirass1 called a shell4 ,according to the species this test is a coat of mail1 a buckler1 or a tower4 ,the mollusc is thus armed and defended against all attacks from without1 nearly after the manner of a knight of the middle ages2 only the knight was not quite shut up in his armour1 while the mollusc is attached to it by indissoluble organic bonds4 ,such a life and such a habitation6 says ,michelet4 ,in no other creature is there the same identity between the inhabitant and the nest4 ,drawn from its own substance1 the edifice is the continuation of its fleshy mantle4 ,it follows its form and tints4 ,the architect has communicated its own substance to the edifice4 ,the shell of the ,mollusca has been variously appreciated by naturalists4 ,we might regard the shell as the bone of the animal which occupies it1 says a celebrated ,french naturalist2 and then gives expression to a very different view4 ,we may say as a general thesis that testaceous molluscs are animals with whom ossification is thrown out on the external surface in place of the interior1 as in the ,mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes4 ,in the case of the superior animals the bones lie in the depths of the body2 in the shelled ,mollusca the bones are placed on the superficies4 ,it is the same system reversed4 ,other zoologists reject as altogether untenable this assimilative theory4 ,the shell which serves as a dwelling and a shelter cannot1 say these authors1 be considered as a skeleton1 because it does not assume the external form of the animal2 because it does not attach itself to the organs of locomotion2 and1 finally1 because it is the product of secretion1 which increases in proportion to the development of the body itself4 ,this last opinion appears to us to be the most acceptable4 ,however that may be1 from the immense variety of form and size1 from the beauty and brilliancy of their colours1 the shells of the molluscs are among the most attractive objects of natural history4 ,nor is it from their beauty alone that a fine collection of shells becomes interesting3 a living creature has inhabited the shell1 a creature which in its organization and its life1 above all1 by its habits1 excites in a high degree our interest1 curiosity1 and admiration4 ,it has been said that the shell is like a medal struck by the hand of ,nature to commemorate climates4 ,in short1 the waters of different regions of the globe1 whether fresh or salt1 are characterized by the presence of particular shells2 moreover1 the comparison of living shells with those which lie in a fossilized state buried in the depths of the soil is a most important element of our knowledge touching the origin of the different beds out of which our globe is constituted4 ,thus1 we must not shut our eyes to these beings1 in appearance so miserable and obscure1 if we would possess a general knowledge of the animal kingdom4 ,the ,creator has endowed them with many wonderful gifts to embellish their lives1 and who would dare to disregard them8 ,who could examine and compare their structure without being charmed with the study8 ,man1 who descends into the depths of the earth in search of the precious metals--who dives into the deep in pursuit of the treasures it conceals--who stoops his head over works of art--would surely not refuse to bend himself for a moment to the sand of the sea1 to gather in his hand1 to bring nearer to his eyes1 these marvellous works of the ,divine ,creator6 ,the true molluscs are divisible into two great classes3 the ,acephalous1 or ,headless1 and those having a head of structure more or less perfect1 which are called ,cephalous ,molluscs4 ,the ,acephalous or ,headless ,molluscs are so called from the ,greek 1 privative1 and 1 head4 ,they have no head2 the body is surrounded by the folds of the skin2 the shell consists of two valves4 ,such is a summary description of all the ,acephalous ,molluscs4 ,they are sometimes naked1 and sometimes enclosed in a shell1 whence they are known as ,testaceous ,molluscs4 ,they are called bivalves1 because their shell consists of two halves1 or valves united by a hinge4 ,they are sheltered in this double carapace as a book is in its cover4 ,although they have no head1 they can feed themselves1 and they reproduce their kind4 ,they have friendships and enmities1 perhaps even passions2 probably these are not very lively1 for most of them scarcely ever change their place1 even to make the least movement4 ,many of them remain fixed to the rock on which they were hatched1 and tumultuous sensations are not quite compatible with immobility4 ,the bivalves#h are found in every sea4 ,the shell of the bivalve is ovoid1 globulous1 trigonal1 heart-shaped1 elongated like a pea-pod1 or flat like the leaves of a tree1 having an opening down the ventral side4 ,in some one valve is flat1 the other round and swelling in the centre4 ,the shell is thus an outer envelope1 consisting of two pieces1 more or less corresponding to each other in size and shape 7of which the oyster is an example71 formed of carbonate of lime deposited in membranous cells in its outer layers1 the inner layers being composed of thin coatings of lime deposited in the outer surface of the tissue1 called the mantle leaves4 ,the valves are united to the animal by the insertion of certain muscles1 and by the horny epidermis of the mantle1 which stretches over the edge of the valves4 ,the hinge and ligament which unite the two valves consist of a dense elastic substance1 somewhat resembling india-rubber2 the hinge is formed of teeth1 and cavities into which the teeth fit4 ,the ligament acts in opposition to certain contractile muscles within1 which draw them together1 and is placed either within or without the hinge1 or partly both4 ,on separating the valves1 the two leaves of the mantle present themselves4 ,these are thin delicate leaves1 furnished at the margin with sensitive tentacles and other organs of sense1 and with glands sometimes highly coloured4 ,the use of these organs is thus described by ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones3-- ,when the animal is engaged in increasing the dimensions of its abode1 the margin of the mantle is protruded and firmly adherent all round to the circumference of the valve with which it corresponds4 ,thus circumstanced1 it secretes calcareous matter and deposits it upon the extreme edge of the shell1 when the secretion hardens and becomes converted into a layer of solid testaceous substance4 ,at intervals this process is repeated1 and every newly-formed layer enlarges the diameter of the valve4 ,the concentric strata thus deposited remain distinguishable externally1 and thus the lines of growth marking the progressive increase of size may easily be traced4 ,while the margin of the mantle is thus the sole agent in enlarging the circumference of the shell1 the professor continues farther on1 its growth in thickness is accomplished by a secretion of a kind of calcareous varnish derived from the external surface of the mantle generally1 which1 being deposited layer by layer over the whole interior of the previously existing shell1 progressively adds to its weight and solidity4 ,there is1 however1 a remarkable difference in character between the material secreted by the marginal fringe and that furnished by the general surface of the mantle membrane4 ,the former we have found more or less covered by glands appointed for the purpose1 situated in the circumference of the mantle2 but as these glands do not exist elsewhere1 no colouring matter is ever mixed with the layers that increase the thickness of the shell1 so that the latter always remain of a delicate whitish hue1 and form the well known iridescent material usually distinguished by the name of nacre or mother-of-pearl4 7,general ,outline1 p4 #che47 ,the process by which shells attain their beautiful markings is thus described by ,mr4 ,jones3--,the external surface is exclusively deposited by the margin of the mantle1 which contains in its substance certain coloured spots1 which are found to be of a glandular character1 and to owe their peculiar character to a pigment they secrete1 which is mixed with the calcareous matter2 coloured lines are therefore found on the exterior of the shell wherever these glandular organs exist4 ,where the deposition of colour is kept up throughout the process of enlargement1 the lines are unbroken and perfect2 but where the coloured matter is furnished only at intervals1 spots and patches of irregular form and increasing in size with the enlargement of the mantle are the consequence4 ,bivalves move about and change from place to place by means of an extensible fleshy organ called1 from some of its functions1 a foot2 in fact1 it has less resemblance to a foot than to a large tongue4 ,it is a muscular mass1 capable of being pushed out from between the mantle and the valves1 and varies much in form2 it is in turn a hatchet1 a ventilator1 a pole1 an awl1 a finger1 and a sort of whip4 ,this foot is simple1 forked1 or fringed4 ,in some species the tissues are spongy1 and capable of receiving considerable quantities of water4 ,when the organ swells1 it is elongated and stiff2 on the other hand1 by suddenly expelling all the water1 it gets small and pliable1 and can now return to its shell4 ,this organ is represented in ,fig4 #abh 7,donax trunculus1 ,linn471 in which it is singularly developed4 ,this bivalve is found on the sea shore in shallow water2 it buries itself almost perpendicularly in the sands4 ,they are so abundant on the ,french side of the ,channel and on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 that they form a considerable portion of the people's food4 ,these bivalves have the singular power of leaping to a considerable height and then throwing themselves to a distance of ten or twelve inches--a spectacle which may be witnessed any day at low water4 ,when abandoned by the retreating tide1 they try to regain the sea4 ,if seized by the hand1 in order to drag them out of the sand1 aided by their compressed1 branched1 and angular feet1 they give to their shell the sudden and energetic movement under which the bounding action takes place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,donax trunculus 7,linnus74 ,the shell of the ,donax is slightly triangular and compressed2 its length exceeds its height2 it is regular1 univalve1 unequally lateral1 and its hinge bears three or four teeth on each valve4 ,the action of these feet is very simple1 and is compared by ,raumur to that of a man placed on his belly1 who1 stretching out one hand1 seizes upon some fixed object1 and draws himself towards it4 ,there is just this difference1 that the movement of the member in the mollusc is altogether contractile4 ,authors have described more than #cj1jjj species of molluscs1 so that our space only permits us to describe a few families1 or rather types of families4 ,the arrangement of bivalves now most generally adopted in ,england is that of ,woodward1 as developed in the last edition of his manual of the mollusca2 it is greatly based on that of ,lamarck4 ,we have adopted his arrangement altered from a descending to an ascending scale of organisation4 ,the ,conchifera are divisible into two sections1 ,siphonida1 from the animals having respiratory siphons1 and ,asiphonida1 destitute of them4 ,the solen may be taken as a type of the first1 and the oyster of the second4 ,the division ,siphonida is divided into two sub-sections1 those without and those with a pallial line sinuated4 ,the first family of this section is the ,pholadid1 which includes ,teredo1 ,xylophaga1 and ,pholas1 animals which possess extraordinary powers of boring2 not merely as the ,solens do1 through sand1 but through the hardest rocks4 ,the ,teredos are marine animals having a special and irresistible inclination for submerged wood2 for while wood exposed to the air becomes a prey to terrestrial animals1 so submerged wood is subject to invasion by aquatic animals1 of which the ,teredo is by far the most formidable4 ,the ,teredos in the bosom of the ocean perforate the hardest timbers1 whatever be their essence4 ,the galleries bored by these imperceptible miners riddle the whole interior of a piece of wood1 destroying it entirely1 without the slightest external indication of its ravages4 ,the galleries sometimes follow the grain of the wood2 sometimes they cut it at right angles2 the miners1 in fact1 change their route the moment they meet in their way either the furrows hollowed out by one of their congeners1 or some ancient and abandoned gallery4 ,by a strange kind of instinct1 however multiplied may be their furrows or tubes in the same piece of wood1 they never mingle--there is never any communication between them4 ,the wood is thus attacked at a thousand diverse points1 until it is invaded and its entire substance destroyed4 ,it is by secret ravages of this kind that the piles and other submarine constructions upon which bridges are built are often riddled and perforated4 ,they appear to all outward examination as solid and perfect as at the moment they were first driven2 but they yield to the least effort1 bringing ruin and destruction on the edifices they support4 ,ships have been thus silently and secretly mined1 until the planks crumbled into dust under the feet of the sailors4 ,others have gone down with their crews1 entirely caused by the ravages of these relentless enemies1 which are terrible from their unapproachable littleness4 ,m4 ,quatrefages1 who has minutely studied the organization and habits of the ,teredos in the ,port of ,saint ,sebastian1 reports the following fact1 which will give the reader some idea of the rapidity with which these dangerous molluscs pursue their ravages3-- ,a boat1 which served as a passage-boat between two villages on the coast1 went down in consequence of an accident at the commencement of spring4 ,four months after some fishermen1 hoping to turn her materials to advantage1 raised the boat4 ,but in that short space of time the ,teredos had committed such ravages that the planks and timbers were riddled and worm-eaten so as to be totally useless4 ,at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 half the coast of ,holland was threatened with annihilation because the piles which support its dikes and sea-walls were attacked by the ,teredo2 and it proved no contemptible foe4 ,many hundreds of thousands of pounds were expended in order to avert the threatened danger4 ,fortunately1 a closer attention to the habits of the mollusc has brought a remedy to a most formidable evil2 the mollusc has an inveterate antipathy to rust1 and timber impregnated by the oxide of iron is safe from its ravages4 ,this taste of the ,teredo being known1 it is only necessary1 in order to scatter this dangerous host1 to sink the timber which is to be submerged in a tank of prepared oxide of iron--clothed1 in short1 in a thick cuirass of that antipathy of the ,teredo1 iron rust4 ,ships' timbers are also served with the same protecting coating2 but the copper in which ships' bottoms are usually sheathed serves the same purpose4 ,the singular ,acephalous ,mollusc known to naturalists as the ,teredo navalis1 and popularly as the ,ship ,worm 7,fig4 #abi71 has the appearance of a long worm without articulations4 ,between the valves of a little shell1 with which it is provided anteriorly1 may be seen a sort of smooth truncature1 which surrounds a swelling projecting pad or cushion4 ,this cushion is the only part of the body of the animal which can be regarded as a foot4 ,starting from this point1 all the body of the ,teredo is enveloped by the shell and mantle1 which form a sort of sheath communicating by two syphons with the exterior4 ,the mantle adheres to the circumference of the shell4 ,above1 it forms two great folds1 which may both be swollen by the afflux of the blood1 and acquire considerable size4 ,one of these folds placed in advance1 which is called the cephalic hood1 is worthy of attention4 ,the tissue of the mantle is of a greyish tint1 very light1 and transparent enough1 especially in the young1 to permit of the mass of liver1 the ovary1 the branchi1 and the heart being distinguished in the interior1 even to counting its pulsations4 ,the syphons are extensible1 and attached the one to the other for about two-thirds of their length1 the upper part being longer and thinner than the lower4 ,it is by these tubes that the arated water enters which feeds and enables the animal to breathe4 ,it is discharged by the second tube1 when deprived of its oxygen1 and no longer respirable1 carrying with it the useless products of digestion4 ,this movement is continuous2 but from time to time the animal shuts at once the orifices of both tubes1 and slightly contracts itself4 ,the shell1 seen on the side1 presents an irregularly triangular form2 it is nearly as broad as it is long2 its two valves are solidly attached the one to the other1 above and below1 by the mantle in such a manner as only to permit of very slight movements4 ,it is coloured in yellow and brown lines2 sometimes it is quite plain4 ,on the upper edge of the anterior truncature of the body of the animal is the mouth1 a sort of funnel1 flat and slightly bell-shaped1 furnished with four labial palpi1 a stomach without any peculiar feature1 and a well-developed intestine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,teredo navalis 7,linnus74 ,the heart consists of two auricles and a ventricle1 which beat at very irregular intervals1 four or five in the minute4 ,the blood is colourless1 transparent1 and charged with small irregular corpuscles4 ,the act of breathing is accomplished in the branchi1 or gills1 and mantle4 ,nevertheless1 the one half of the blood returns to the heart without passing through these branchi4 ,the nervous system is well developed1 and consists of a brain1 nervous filaments1 and of ganglions1 which are distributed in the mantle1 the branchi1 and the syphon tubes4 ,the adult animal is surrounded by a sort of sheath1 consisting of a solid mucus1 which has sometimes been described erroneously as forming part of the animal4 ,the ,teredo1 shut up in this tube1 is limited in its movements2 when observed in a vase1 its motions are slow and deliberate--movements of extension and contraction1 by the aid of which it contrives with difficulty to change its place2 but nothing indicates a true creeping movement4 ,in a state of nature1 according to ,m4 ,quatrefages1 the body of the animal is stretched out to three times its length without diminishing in any respect its proportional thickness2 the afflux of water penetrating under the mantle1 and of the blood which accumulates in the interior vessels1 sufficiently accounting for a phenomenon which at the first glance is very singular4 ,the ,teredo deposits a spherical greenish-yellow egg4 ,shortly after fecundation1 these eggs are transformed into larv4 ,at first naked and motionless1 these larv are soon covered with vibratile cilia1 when they begin to move1 at first by a revolving pirouette1 afterwards swimming about freely in the water4 ,when one of these larv has found a piece of submerged wood1 without which it probably could not live1 the curious spectacle is observed of a being which fabricates1 step by step1 and as it requires them1 the organs necessary for the performance of its functions4 ,it begins by creeping along the surface of the wood by means of the very long feet with which it is furnished4 ,then it is observed from time to time to open and shut the valves of the little embryo shell which partly envelopes it4 ,as soon as it has found a part of the wood sufficiently soft and porous for its purpose1 it pauses1 attacks the ligneous substance1 and soon produces a little pore1 or cell1 which will be the entrance to the future canal4 ,once fairly lodged in this little cell1 the young ,teredo is rapidly developed2 it covers itself with a coating of mucous matter1 which1 condensing by degrees1 assumes a brownish tint1 forming a solid covering1 with two small holes for the passage of the syphon tubes4 ,at the end of three days this covering has become quite solid2 it is the commencement of the organized tube1 in which the animal is to be developed4 ,when secured beneath this opaque screen1 the little miner is no longer exposed to observation2 but if his cell is opened at the end of a few days1 it is found that it has secreted a new shell1 larger and more solid than the original one2 it is the shell of the adult animal4 ,the young ,teredo1 which feeds on the raspings of the wood1 increases rapidly2 it passes first from a spheroid form to an elongated shape1 and when its body can no longer be contained in the shell1 it projects beyond the edge1 and would find itself naked were it not protected by its membranous sheath1 which adheres to the walls of the ligneous channel1 now the dwelling-place of the animal4 ,the process by which a creature soft and naked like the ,teredo should break into a solid piece of the hardest wood so quickly1 and destroy it with so much facility1 was long a mystery4 ,until very recently1 the shell was looked on as the implement of perforation4 ,but in that case the shell should preserve certain traces of its action upon surfaces so resistant as oak and fir2 but the shell1 on the contrary1 is perfect1 with no signs of friction4 ,on the other hand1 the muscular apparatus of the ,teredo is not calculated to put the shell into rotatory action1 were the process a boring one4 ,it does not seem therefore possible to attribute these perforations to a simple physical action4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,pholas dactylus having hollowed out a shelter in a block of gneiss4 ,some naturalists have suggested1 in explanation of this phenomenon1 that the animal is furnished with the means of secreting a liquid capable of dissolving the woody fibre4 ,this has been met by the statement that1 in whatever way the wood is attacked1 whether the gallery is excavated with or across the fibre of the wood1 the groove is as exactly and neatly cut as if it had been perforated by the sharpest tool1 and that a corroding dissolvent could not act with this regularity1 but would attack the harder and more tender parts unequally4 ,this objection1 which ,m4 ,quatrefages opposes to the idea of a chemical solvent1 appears to us to admit of no reply4 ,but1 while opposing unassailable reasons against two theories1 the learned author does not leave us without a very reasonable explanation of a very puzzling phenomenon4 ,let us not forget1 he says1 that the interior of the gallery is constantly saturated with water2 consequently all the points of the walls which are not protected by the tube are subjected to constant maceration4 ,in this state a mechanical action1 even very inconsiderable1 would suffice to clear away the bed of fibre thus softened1 and1 if this action is in any degree continuous1 it suffices to explain the excavation of the galleries1 however extensive their ramifications4 ,again1 the upper cutaneous folds1 especially the cephalic hood already mentioned1 having the power of expanding at will by an afflux of blood1 covered with a thick coriaceous epidermis1 and moved by four strong muscles1 seems to me very capable of performing the operation4 ,it appears very probable that it is this hood which is charged with the removal of the woody fibre1 rendering it incapable of resistance by previous maceration1 which may also be assisted by some secretion from the animal4 ,that the fleshy parts of the mollusc1 acting upon the surface1 softened by long maceration in water1 is the true boring implement employed by the ,teredo1 is1 probably1 the only explanation the case admits of2 at all events1 in the present state of our knowledge1 the explanation of the learned naturalist is the most reasonable which can be given4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #acj7 represents ,p4 dactylus1 which has hollowed itself a home out of a block of gneiss4 ,this dwelling is a cell just deep enough to contain the animal and its shell1 as represented in ,fig4 #aca4 ,to excavate its cell at the bottom of one of these gloomy retreats seems to be all that the animal lives for4 ,to ascend to the summit or sink to the bottom of their narrow house makes up all the accidents of existence to these strange creatures3 the hole they dig is at once their dwelling and their grave2 which is attested both by the rocks of the past and the present4 ,in its structure the shell differs notably from other ,acephalous ,molluscs1 which led ,linnus to place it with the multivalve shells4 ,between the two ordinary valves1 in short1 this shell presents certain accessary pieces1 smaller than the true valves1 and placed near the hinge1 as represented in ,pholas dactylus 7,fig4 #aca71 pieces which would not be there without a purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,pholas dactylus 7,linnus74 ,the shell is equivalve1 gaping on each side1 swelling below1 very thin1 transparent1 and white4 ,the animal is a thick1 white1 elongated1 fleshy body2 its mouth opening anteriorly1 throws out a long tube traversed by two canals or syphons1 through one of which the water necessary for the respiration of the animal is absorbed1 and ejected through the other4 ,through another opening in the mantle a very thick and short foot is protruded4 ,there are three ways of accounting for this creature's method of boring--the mechanical1 the chemical1 and the electric2 the first being the one generally held4 ,in this case the animal uses its foot as a boring tool4 ,the second presumes on the ,pholas secreting an acid which corrodes the rock2 the third that it possesses a galvanic battery with similar powers4 ,it is possible that all these three theories may have a measure of truth4 ,that the foot of the borer is used is clear4 ,the luminosity which is so characteristic of the animal is in favour of an electric current1 which is almost always accompanied by chemical decomposition1 which would set free the hydrochloric acid of the sea water4 ,the small size of the entrance to the chambers of the ,pholas is accounted for by the increase of its size during its residence there4 ,de ,blainville thought that a simple movement of the shell incessantly repeated would suffice to pierce the stone1 macerated by the sea water which passed through the breathing apparatus4 ,mr4 ,robertson1 of ,brighton1 exhibited the living ,pholas in the act of boring through masses of chalk1 and thinks the process entirely effected by the simple mechanical action of the hydraulic apparatus1 rasp1 and syringe4 ,if you examine these living shells1 says ,gosse1 you will see that the fore part1 where the foot protrudes1 is set with stony points arranged in transverse and longitudinal rows1 the former being the result of elevated ridges1 radiating from the hinge1 the latter that of the edges of successive growths of the shell4 ,these points have the most accurate resemblance to those set on a steel rasp in a blacksmith's shop4 ,it is interesting to know that the shell is preserved from being itself prematurely worn away by the fact that it is composed of aragonite1 a substance much harder than those rocks in which the ,pholas burrows4 ,the animal1 ,gosse adds1 turns in its burrow from side to side when at work1 adhering to the interior by the foot1 and therefore only partially rotating to and fro4 ,the substance is abraded in the form of a fine powder1 which is gradually ejected from the mouth of the hole by contraction of the bronchial syphon4 ,the ,pholades are met with on every sea shore1 and are plentiful in the ,channel2 on the ,french coast they are called ,dails1 and sought for their fine flavour4 ,as examples of the genus1 we may quote ,pholas dadylus 7,fig4 #aca72 ,pholas candida1 found in the ,channel and in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 which lives buried in the mud or in decayed wood2 ,pholas crispata 7,fig4 #acb71 also found in the ,channel2 ,pholas papyracea 7,fig4 #acc72 and ,pholas melanoura 7,fig4 #acd74 ,the bodies of many genera of ,mollusca have the property of shining in the dark1 but none emit a light more brilliant than that of the ,pholades4 ,those who eat the ,pholades in an uncooked state 7which is by no means rare1 for the flavour of the mollusc does not require the aid of cooking to render it palatable7 would appear in the dark as if they had swallowed phosphorus2 and the fisherman who1 in a spirit of economy1 supped on this mollusc in the dark1 would give to his little ones the spectacle of a fire-eater on a small scale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,pholas crispata 7,linnus74 ,the perforations produced in stone by the ,pholades have become important evidence in a geological sense4 ,in many countries there were evident signs of a considerable sinking of the earth4 ,but in no place is the evidence of this so clear as in the monument of high antiquity on the ,pozzuolan coast1 known as the ,temple of ,serapis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,pholas papyracea 7,solander74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,pholas melanoura 7,sowerby74 ,in speaking of the culture of oysters by the ,romans1 we shall have occasion to mention the disappearance of the ,lucrin ,lake1 and its replacement by an enormous mountain1 the ,monte ,nuovo4 ,now1 ,pozzuolo is situated at the foot of ,monte ,nuovo4 ,we need not add that the whole neighbourhood is volcanic4 ,pozzuolo touches on the ,solfaterra1 on the ,lake ,avernus1 and is not far from ,vesuvius2 and in the bay is the monument of other days1 erroneously called the ,temple of ,serapis4 ,in reality it was most probably a thermal establishment1 established for its mineral waters1 although the world has agreed to call it a temple4 ,however that may be1 the building has been nearly levelled by the hand of time1 aided by the hand of man2 and the ruins now consist of three magnificent marble columns of about forty feet high4 ,but the curious and important fact is1 that these three columns1 at about ten feet above the surface1 are riddled with holes1 and full of cavities bored deeply into the marble1 and these borings occupy the space of three feet on each column4 ,the cause of these perforations is no longer doubtful4 ,in some of the cavities the shell of the operator is still found1 and it seems settled among naturalists that it belongs to a species of ,pholas1 although ,m4 ,pouchet1 a naturalist of ,rouen1 denies this4 ,as far1 he says1 as ,i have been able to judge from the fragment which ,i extracted from this temple1 which is destitute of the hinge1 it is infinitely more probable that this mollusc is a species of the genus ,corallisphaga4 ,in spite1 however1 of ,m4 ,pouchet's scepticism1 the mass of evidence is opposed to his theory4 ,there are two modes of explaining the fact to which we have called attention4 ,to enable the stone-boring molluscs which live only in the sea to excavate this marble1 the temple and columns must have been buried several fathoms deep in sea-water4 ,it is only in these conditions that the borers could have made an incision1 and laboured at their ease1 in the marble column4 ,but since the same traces of perforation are now visible ten feet above the surface1 it follows that1 after being long immersed under water1 the columns have been elevated to their present position4 ,the temple has been restored to its primitive state1 carrying with it1 engraved in marble1 ineffaceable proofs of its immersion4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell has consecrated a long chapter to the successive sinking and elevation of this temple1 which proves the fact most conclusively4 99 99 99 99 99 ,family two1 the ,gastrochnid1 is a somewhat heterogeneous one1 as it contains ,saxicava and ,aspergillum4 ,we have only space for a short account of the latter1 the animal which has received the strange name of the ,watering ,pot1 and is represented in ,fig4 #ace4 ,it inhabits a calcareous tube1 thick1 solid1 of considerable length1 and nearly cylindrical1 presenting at one extremity an opening fringed with one or many foliaceous folds in the form of frills1 and at the other extremity a convex disk1 pierced with holes like a watering-pot3 whence its name4 ,the animal is attached by certain muscles to the interior of the tube4 ,chenu1 to whom we are indebted for our information respecting this curious mollusc1 tells us that the animal which inhabits this curious shell was first described by ,russell1 whose account of it is deficient in the anatomical details1 which might explain the utility of the holes in the disk of the central fissure1 and of the spiriform tubes found there4 ,we suppose that this arrangement is necessary in order to facilitate respiration2 and ,m4 ,de ,blainville thinks the small tubes are intended for the passage of the fillets which are necessary to fix the animal to the body on which it is to live1 and in such a manner as to admit of its movements round a fixed point4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4--,temple of ,serapis at ,pozzuolo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,aspergillum vaginiferum 7,lamarck74 ,the animal which inhabits the ,aspergillum is elongated1 contractile1 and only occupies the upper part of the tube1 but it can stretch itself out sufficiently for all its wants4 ,shells of this genus are very rare1 although a great number of species are known4 ,they are found in the ,red ,sea1 and in the seas of ,australia and ,java4 ,the shells are generally of a white or yellowish tint2 some have the tube covered with a glutinated sand1 mixed with small fragments of shells of diverse colours4 ,we know nothing of their habits1 and their singular forms have left naturalists in doubt as to the place which should be assigned to them in the method of arrangement4 ,it is only after having recognized the existence of two valves1 which was detected with great difficulty just under the disk1 and forming part of the sheath in which the animal is encased1 that it has been decided to range them with the ,tubicola1 and with the shells presenting an arrangement analogous or equally singular4 ,these molluscs are1 as ,m4 ,chenu says1 little known1 rare1 and hence much sought for by collectors4 ,they are exclusively exotic1 the most common species being from ,java4 ,it is imported into ,europe by the ,dutch4 ,our third family1 the ,anatinid1 includes ,myochama1 ,pandora1 ,lyonsia1 ,myacites1 ,pholadomya1 ,thracia1 and ,anatina1 genera which were more important in the former than in the present seas2 some1 in fact1 being wholly extinct1 or represented1 as in ,pholadomya1 by one or two living species4 ,our fourth family1 the ,myacid1 including ,gycimeris1 is found only in ,america2 ,panopa1 now principally extinct2 ,thetis1 ,nera1 ,corbula1 and ,mya1 or ,gaper4 ,our fifth family1 ,solenid1 contains the ,solens1 which under the name of razor-fish are so abundant on the sandy shores of all parts of the globe4 ,these molluscs live buried vertically in the sand1 a short distance from the shore2 the hole which they have hollowed1 and which they never quit1 sometimes attains as much as two yards in depth2 by means of their foot1 which is large1 conical1 swollen in the middle1 and pointed at its extremity1 they raise themselves with great agility to the entrance of their hole4 ,they bury themselves rapidly1 and disappear on the slightest approach of danger4 ,when the sea retires1 the presence of the ,solen is indicated by a small orifice in the sand1 whence escape at intervals bubbles of air4 ,in order to attract them to the surface1 the fishermen throw into the hole a pinch of salt2 immediately the sand becomes stirred1 and the animal presents itself just above the point of its shell4 ,it must be seized at once1 for it disappears again very quickly1 and no renewed efforts will bring it to the surface a second time4 ,its retreat is commonly cut short by a knife being passed below it2 for it burrows into the ground with such velocity that it is difficult to capture it with the hands alone4 ,this shell has by some been compared to a knife-handle2 by others to a razor1 which has become its popular name4 ,it is a thin1 transparent1 long1 and slender equivalved bivalve1 with parallel edges1 gaping and truncated at both extremities4 ,the tints are rose-coloured1 bluish-grey1 and violet2 the valves slightly covered with an epidermis of a greenish brown4 ,the animal which lives in this elegant dwelling has the form of an elongated cylinder4 ,its mantle is closed in its whole length1 and only open at the ends at one side for the passage of the food1 and at the other for the passage of a tube formed of two syphons united together4 ,this curious shell1 various species of which are represented in ,,pl4 ,,xix41 are known as razor-fish1 sabre-fish1 and other names1 which in some respects indicate the peculiar form of the shell1 as well as its sharpness4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4--,razor-fish4 ,solenid4 ,i4 ,solen siliqua4 7,linn47 ,,ii4 ,solen vagina4 7,linn47 ,,iii4 ,solen ensis4 7,linn47 ,,iv4 ,solen ensis major4 7,lamarck47 ,v4 ,solen ambiguus4 7,lamarck47 ,,vi4 ,solen legumen4 ,the ,tellinid1 the sixth family in our table1 is very important1 as including a vast number of genera and species1 of which1 as types1 we will particularise ,tellina and ,donax2 but ,galatea1 ,mesodesma1 ,semele1 ,sanguinolaria1 ,psammobia1 and ,capsula1 are important genera4 ,along the shores of the ,channel and in the ,mediterranean there are few bivalves more abundant than the several species of the genus ,donax4 ,they live near the shore in shallow water1 burying themselves perpendicularly in the sand4 ,they have the very singular habit1 considering their apparent helplessness1 of being able to leap to a certain height and then project themselves ten or twelve inches4 ,this may often be witnessed in the case of individuals left by the retreating tide4 ,if seized by the hand1 and attempts are made to disengage them from the sand1 they continue to impress on their shell a sudden and energetic movement1 aided by the elasticity of their foot1 which is at once decisive and angular4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,donax rugosus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,donax denticulatus4 ,the shell of the ,donax is nearly triangular in shape1 compressed1 longer than it is high1 regular1 equivalve1 not equilateral2 the hinge with three or four teeth on each valve4 ,the animal is slightly compressed1 and more or less triangular4 ,its mantle1 which forms two symmetrical lobes enveloping the body1 is open pretty nearly in all its extent1 but it is united posteriorly1 and terminates in two syphons or nearly equal tubes1 as in ,fig4 #acj1 p4 #cbf4 ,one of these tubes serves the purpose of respiration3 it is the bronchial syphon4 ,the other1 serving the purpose of ejecting the products of digestion1 is termed the anal tube4 ,the tentacles of the bronchial tube seem to be possessed of exquisite sensibility4 ,when touched1 the animal draws in its syphon1 and only puts it forth anew when the danger has passed4 ,the species of ,donax are very numerous1 especially in the ,asiatic and ,american seas4 ,among the ,european species we may mention ,donax rugosus 7,fig4 #acf7 and ,donax denticulatus 7,fig4 #acg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,tellina radiata 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,tellina virgata 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,tellina sulphurea 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,tellina donacina 7,linnus74 ,next to ,donax naturalists rank the genus ,tellina1 which includes many species of very minute shells1 all remarkable for their beauty of form1 and for their brilliant and varied colours4 ,one of these1 called the ,rising ,sun 7,tellina radiata71 is represented in ,fig4 #ach4 ,the ,tellinas are found in every sea2 the ,french coast furnishes many species3 examples1 ,tellina virgata 7,fig4 #aci7 and ,tellina sulphurea 7,lamarck7 7,fig4 #adj74 ,in ,fig4 #ada ,tellina donacina is represented with its two vital tubes1 or syphons4 ,the seventh family1 or ,mactrid1 include ,lutraria and ,mactra1 or the otter and kneading-trough shells4 ,they are widely distributed2 there are several ,british species of both4 ,the eighth family1 ,venerid1 includes ,venus1 ,cytherea1 ,meroe1 and ,artemis2 beautiful genera1 and as such called by ,linnus and his followers after heroines of ,greek mythology4 ,petricola1 ,venerupis1 ,tapes1 ,lucinopsis1 and ,trigona1 also belong to the family4 ,these acephal of size so small1 like their congeners1 inhabit every sea2 they are found in every region of the globe1 more than a hundred and fifty species being known4 ,the shell is elliptic in form1 the valves smooth1 striated1 spiny1 and lamellous1 like those of ,cardium and ,donax4 ,like these1 they bury themselves in the sand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,venus verrucosa 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,cytherea geographica 7,chemnitz74 ,among the vast number of species1 many of them are extremely rare1 and much sought after by collectors in consequence of their great beauty4 ,in the principal ports of ,france1 ,venus verrucosa 7,fig4 #adb71 and another species known in the south of ,france under the name of ,clovisse1 are eaten there like oysters4 ,prepared with fine herbs1 the ,clovisse1 we have ,m4 ,figuier's authority for saying1 is not to be despised4 ,we may be believed also1 he says1 if we add that nothing is more delicious than to eat the living ,clovisse torn from the rock of the ,phara of ,lake ,thau1 when the ,mediterranean sun of a day in winter is shining down upon us1 the heart rejoicing in manhood's strength4 ,in ,,pl4 ,,xviii4 some of the principal species are represented1 along with some of the more remarkable species of ,cytherea4 ,in ,fig4 #adc we have the elegantly pencilled shell of ,cytherea geographica1 together with the animal in its natural connection4 ,the sub-section we shall now treat of is without the pallial line sinuated4 ,the ,cyprinid form the ninth family of our arrangement of the ,conchifera1 and contain1 ,cardia1 ,cypricardia1 ,isocardia1 ,crassatella1 ,astarte1 ,circe1 and ,cyprina1 which amount together to some hundred species4 ,the ,cycladid are our tenth family1 and include ,cyrenoides1 ,cyrena1 ,pisidium1 and ,cyclas4 ,the ,lucinid is the eleventh family1 containing ,galeomma1 ,lepton1 ,montacuta1 ,kelia1 ,diplodonta1 ,corbis1 and ,lucina4 ,in the small family of which we have made the ,tridacna the representative1 as well as in some preceding families1 the mantle of the animal is more or less largely open1 but never with such a prolongation as to form tubes4 ,in the ,cardiums1 now under consideration1 as well as ,donax1 ,tellina1 and ,venus1 the respiratory organs are somewhat modified1 so as to adapt them to the habits of the animal4 ,all these molluscs live buried in the mud or sand1 and two great tubes issuing from the interior of their bodies bring the atmospheric air into communication with their respiratory organ--namely1 the branchial leaves4 ,the twelfth family1 ,cardiad1 contains the familiar cockles--,cardium--which is derived from 1 a heart1 which they are supposed to resemble in form1 are amongst the most widely-distributed of shells4 ,the shell is convex1 as we see in ,c4 hians 7,fig4 #add71 somewhat heart-shaped1 equivalved1 the edges dentate or corrugated1 the hinge furnished with four teeth upon each valve4 ,the accessary ornaments vary with the species1 some being smooth1 as in ,cardium ,greenlandicum1 ,chemnitz 7,fig4 #ade72 others1 and by far the greater number1 are furnished with regular sides1 generally obtuse1 sometimes in ridges diverging from the point and armed with straight or curved spines1 arranged in the oddest manner1 as in ,cardium aculeatum 7,fig4 #adf74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4--,venus and ,cytherea4 ,i4 ,venus plicata4 7,gmel47 ,,ii4 ,venus puerpera4 7,linn47 ,,iii4 ,venus reticulata4 7,linn47 ,,iv4 ,venus ,gnidia4 7,broderip47 ,v4 ,cytherea zonaria4 7,lamarck47 ,,vi4 ,cytherea petechialis4 7,lamarck47 ,,vii4 ,cytherea maculata4 7,linn47 ,in ,c4 hians 7,fig4 #add71 the mantle has a large opening in front1 fringed anteriorly with papill in the form of tentacula2 the inhabitant of the shell has a very large foot1 with a bend or knee near the middle2 its mouth is transverse and funnel-shaped1 and furnished with a triangular appendage4 ,one of the peculiarities in the organization of these molluscs is its direct connection with their mode of life4 ,in short1 these molluscs1 which most commonly live on the sea shore1 and bury themselves in the sand to the depth of four or five inches1 are enabled to breathe1 to draw water for their nourishment1 and also to throw off the products of digestion1 by having the mantle prolonged into two tubes1 the orifices of which reach to the surface of the soil4 ,by means of these feet and an extremely curious organ of locomotion1 the ,cardiums can at will issue from their holes and re-enter them4 ,the fishermen of the shore easily recognize the presence of these animals by the little jets of water which they throw up through the sands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,cardium hians 7,brocchi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,cardium ,greenlandicum 7,chemnitz74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,cardium aculeatum 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,cardium edulis 7,linnus74 ,these molluscs are found in every sea on the globe1 and under all latitudes4 ,many of them belong to our own and the ,french coasts1 where they are eagerly sought for by collectors1 as well as for food4 ,the flesh of the animal1 however1 is coriaceous1 and little esteemed4 ,the species most common on the littoral of the ,atlantic is ,cardium edulis 7,fig4 #adg71 its white or fawn-coloured shell being hollowed out into six and twenty furrows1 forming so many corrugated ripples on its side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,cardium costatum 7,linnus74 ,cardium costatum 7,fig4 #adh7 is an exotic species which inhabits the coast of ,guinea and the ,senegal1 the shell of which1 white and fragile1 is much sought after by collectors4 ,the thirteenth family of our table1 ,tridacnid1 consists of only eight or ten species1 but it contains the largest of all1 the giant ,tridacna4 ,the historian of the wars of ,alexander the ,great speaks of oysters inhabiting the ,indian ,ocean which were more than a foot long2 these were probably ,tridacna1 the shells of which were most likely to be seen by the ,macedonian conquerors4 ,the valves of ,tridacna gigas are sometimes found a yard and a half in length1 and weighing five hundred pounds4 ,magnificent examples may be seen in the church of ,saint ,sulpice1 ,paris1 where they hold the holy water4 ,these beautiful shells were the gift of the ,venetian ,republic to ,francis ,i4 ,under ,louis ,,xiv41 the cur ,languet had them presented to the church of ,saint ,sulpice1 where they are used as fonts for holy water4 ,another pair are exhibited in the church of ,saint ,eulala1 at ,montpelier1 but much smaller in size4 ,the shells of ,tridacna are formed1 as represented in ,,pl4 ,,xvii41 of three acute angles1 festooned on their edges by broad sides bristling with white scales4 ,the hinges have two teeth2 the ligament is elongated and external4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii4--,tridacna gigantea1 ,holy ,water ,basin in the ,church of ,saint ,sulpice at ,paris4 ,the animal of ,tridacna is remarkable for its fine colours4 ,tridacna safrana is of a beautiful blue round the edges1 rayed through a shade of very pale blue4 ,more in the interior is a row of small moons of a yellowish green2 the centre is a bright violet1 with brownish longitudinal punctured lines4 ,we have at this moment before our eyes1 say the travellers ,quoy and ,gaimard1 one of the most charming spectacles that can be seen1 when at a little depth beneath the surface a number of these animals display the brilliant velvety colours and varying shades of their submarine parterres4 ,as we can only perceive the gaping opening of the valves1 we may imagine to ourselves what is its first aspect4 ,the mantle of the animal is closed and ample2 its edges are swollen1 and reunited in nearly its whole circumference in such a manner as to leave only three very small openings--two in the upper part2 the one serves the purpose of discharging the products of digestion1 the other gives entrance and exit to the water necessary for respiratory purposes4 ,the third opening is in the lower part of the body1 and free2 it leaves an opening for the passage of the foot1 which is enormous1 and is surrounded with an ample tuft of byssoidal fibres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,tridacna squamosa 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,tridacna squamosa1 on the inside 7,lamarck74 ,aided by this silky tuft1 the animal attaches itself to the rocks1 and suspends its weighty shell from them4 ,if it is intended to remove those attached to the sides of the rock1 it is necessary to cut the cords of the tendonous byssus1 by which it is held suspended1 with a hatchet4 ,all the species are inhabitants of the ,tropical seas4 ,the ,tridacna gigas is a native of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the flesh1 though coriaceous1 and by no means of an agreeable flavour1 is a great resource to the poor ,indians4 ,the accompanying representations of ,tridacna squamosa 7,figs4 #adi and #aej7 will convey a general idea of the genus4 ,our fourteenth family1 ,hippuritid1 is entirely fossil2 but the fifteenth1 ,chamid1 of which the best example is the rugose genus ,charina1 is widely distributed in tropical seas4 ,the very numerous division of shells called ,asiphonid1 possesses animals without respiratory siphons4 ,the shells we shall now describe belong to the sixteenth family1 ,unionid1 which contain ,iridina1 ,anodon1 and ,unio4 ,the pond mussels1 ,anodon1 are found in lakes1 rivers1 and seas of almost every region of the globe4 ,their shells are rounded or oval1 generally very thin1 regular1 and equivalve1 not gaping1 the hinges without teeth1 whence their name1 from the ,greek1 1 without teeth4 ,these shells are nacred inside1 and generally smooth4 ,the ,anodon cygnea 7,fig4 ,,iii41 ,,pl4 ,,xvi47 is broad1 deep1 and light1 and is sometimes employed for skimming the cream off milk4 ,the genus is divided into many groups1 the principal forms of which are represented in ,,pl4 ,,xvi4 ,the river mussels1 ,unio1 are1 like the ,anodon1 found in the muddy bottoms of all countries4 ,the animal resembles the ,anodon1 but the shell presents a toothed hinge4 ,the lower face of the valve is nacrous1 but shaded with purplish violet1 copreous1 and iridescent2 the anterior face is of a green colour1 which varies from tender to blackish green4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,unio littoralis 7,cuvier74 ,among the species found in ,european seas may be noted the ,rhine mussel1 a large species1 the nacre of which is employed for ornamental purposes4 ,unio littoralis 7,cuvier71 represented in ,fig4 #aea1 and the painter's mussel1 ,unio pictorum 7,fig4 #aeb71 employed in the arts to contain certain colours4 ,those known as the river mussels are leathery1 of an insipid taste1 and scarcely eatable3 the finest species are found in the great ,american rivers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,anodonta4 ,i4 ,anodonta angulata4 7,lea47 ,,ii4 ,anodonta ensiformis4 7,spix47 ,,iii4 ,anodonta cygnea4 7,linn47 ,,iv4 ,anodonta magnifica4 7,lea47 ,v4 ,anodonta anserina4 7,spix47 ,,vi4 ,anodonta latomarginata4 7,lea47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,unio pictorum 7,linnus74 ,mussels1 as we have seen1 produce pearls of moderate value4 ,linnus1 who was aware of the origin of the ,pintadine pearls1 and of pearls in general1 was also aware of the possibility of producing them artificially from various molluscs4 ,he suggested bringing together a number of mussels1 piercing holes in their shells with an augur in order to produce a wound1 and afterwards leave them for five or six years1 to give the pearl time to form4 ,the ,swedish ,government consented to try the experiment1 and long did so in secret2 pearls were produced1 but they were of no value1 and the enterprise was abandoned as unsuccessful4 ,scottish pearls were much celebrated in the middle ages1 and between the years #agfa and #aghd pearls to the value of #aj1jjj were sent to ,london from the rivers ,tay and ,isla2 and the trade carried on in the corresponding years in the present century1 says ,mr4 ,bertram1 is far more than double that amount4 ,the pearl1 according to ,mr4 ,bertram1 is found in a variety of the mussel1 which is characterised by the valves being united by a broad hinge1 and having a strong fibrous byssus1 with which it attaches itself to other shells1 to rocks1 and other solid substances4 ,the pearl fisheries of ,scotland1 he adds1 may become a source of wealth to the people living on the large rivers1 if prudently conducted4 ,mr4 ,unger1 a dealer in gems in ,edinburgh1 having discerned the capabilities of the ,scotch pearl as a gem of value1 has established a scale of prices which he gives for them1 according to their size and quality2 and it is now a fact that the beautiful pearls of our ,scottish streams are admired beyond the orient pearl4 ,empresses and queens1 and royal and noble ladies1 have made large purchases of these gems2 and ,mr4 ,unger estimates the sum paid to pearl-finders in the summer of #ahfd at #aj1jjj4 ,the localities successfully fished have been the classic ,doon1 the ,forth1 the ,tay1 the ,don1 the ,spey1 the ,isla1 and most of the ,highland rivers of note4 ,scottish pearls are much whiter in colour than oriental4 ,what tint they have is bluish1 while those of the ,east are yellowish4 ,pink pearls are produced by several exotic species of ,unio4 ,our seventeenth family are the ,trigoniad1 affording ,trigonia1 of which so many occurred in the ,jurassic period of ,geologic ,history in the strata of ,europe1 but of which two or three are alone left alive in the seas of ,australia4 ,the eighteenth family1 the ,arcad1 affords between #bjj and #cjj species of the families of ,leda1 ,nucula1 ,pectunculus1 and ,arca4 ,of the eighteenth family1 ,arcad1 we shall only at present instance ,pectunculus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,pectunculus aureflua 7,reeve74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,pectunculus delessertii 7,reeve74 ,the genus ,pectunculus are abundant on the shores of the ,mediterranean and along the ,atlantic coast4 ,if we take up at hazard a handful of shells on any part of the ,french coast1 one-third will consist of ,pectunculus4 ,they are found mixed with ,cardium1 ,venus1 ,razor-fish1 and ,pectens4 ,their round and robust frame attracts much attention4 ,they form the first of those charming infantile collections which are gathered at the mother's feet4 ,the animal which inhabits this pretty shell is moulded on its curvature2 like the shell1 it is round and squat2 it is furnished with a mouth1 large1 and thick for its size1 and with double branchi4 ,when the animal is taken alive1 it sometimes exudes a thick mucous liquid over the shell1 which has disgusted many a young collector with his capture4 ,among numerous species of ,pectunculus we note as worthy of representation3 ,p4 aureflua1 ,reeve 7,fig4 #aec72 ,p4 delessertii1 ,reeve 7,fig4 #aed72 ,p4 pectiniformis1 ,lamarck 7,fig4 #aee72 and ,p4 scriptus1 ,born 7,fig4 #aef74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,pectunculus pectiniformis 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,pectunculus scriptus 7,born74 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #h3 ,the term bivalve as constituting a class must be taken in a limited sense1 for several genera1 as pholas for example1 have six or more valves4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,acephalous ,,mollusca--continued4 ,,mytilid--,,the ,,mussel4 ,ecce inter virides jactatur mytilus algas4 ,anthologia4 ,we shall now consider the nineteenth family or ,mytilid1 which includes ,mytilus1 ,modiola1 ,lithodomus1 and ,dreissena4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,mytilus edulis 7,linnus74 ,the well-known shell of the mussel 7,fig4 #aeg1 ,mytilus edulis7 is longitudinal1 equivalve1 and regular1 pointed at the base1 with capacity to attach itself by a byssus2 the hinge has no teeth1 but a deep furrow1 in which the ligament is located4 ,in the genus ,mytilus the byssus is divided to its base4 ,in ,modiola it has a common corneous centre4 ,in ,pinna the anus is furnished with a long angular base4 ,in all these genera the foot is small1 its retractile muscles numerous1 and the byssus large4 ,in ,lithodomus the byssus is rudimentary2 the muscles are retractile1 equal1 and two pairs only4 ,in ,unio1 ,cardium1 and ,hyria1 the foot is large and not byssiferous4 ,the animal1 as described by ,m4 ,chenu1 is elongate1 oval1 the lobes of the mantle simple or fringed1 divided at the edge into two leaves1 the interior being very short1 bearing a fringe of small1 cylindrical1 and movable fillets2 the exterior leaf is united to the shell very near the edge4 ,the opening by which water and food are introduced supplies the branchi at the same time4 ,the stomach consists of a white membrane1 thin1 like opaline1 and presenting itself in longitudinal folds2 the liver is granulous1 composed of greenish grains more or less deep1 contained in the meshes of a whitish tissue forming a thickish bed1 which surrounds the stomach1 the intestines taking the direction of the median and dorsal line1 and beneath the heart are received and terminate in a small appendage1 floating in the cavity of the mantle near the hinge4 ,the foot is1 perhaps1 the remarkable organ of the mussel3 it is small1 semi-lunar when not in motion1 but capable of great elongation1 resembling thus a sort of conical tongue1 having a longitudinal furrow on its side4 ,it is put in motion by several pairs of muscles1 all of which penetrate and are interlaced with the tissue2 behind it is the silky byssus4 ,the mouth is large1 and furnished with two pairs of soft palpi1 which are pointed and fixed by their summit4 ,abdominal masses emanate1 and on each side a pair of nearly equal branchi4 ,the additional muscles1 one anterior and small1 the other posterior1 large1 and rounded4 ,at the base of the foot is a gland which furnishes a viscous secretion2 this viscous liquid is organized and moulded in the groove of the foot1 and forms a thread1 and originates the byssus2 it is a bundle of hairs1 mane1 or thread1 which holds on to its shell4 ,the byssus plays an important part in the organization of the mussel4 ,while the oyster remains eternally riveted to its rock1 until torn from it by violence1 the mussel moves about1 and in this motion the byssus is an active agent4 ,the mussel attaches its byssus to some fixed object1 and drawing upon it1 as upon a line1 the shell is displaced4 ,the house is drawn onwards2 the animal is in motion4 ,it takes no great strides1 but a fraction of an inch satisfies its desires2 it is1 however1 an advance upon the oyster1 and a lesson in mechanics4 ,the mussel stretches out its foot1 and1 at the point chosen1 it hooks on a hair of the byssus2 then1 withdrawing the foot suddenly1 and hauling on the thread1 the animal and shell are moved forward4 ,every time it repeats this motion it seems to attach an additional hair1 so that at the end of the four and twenty hours it has used many inches in length of cordage4 ,in the byssus of some mussels we find as many as a hundred and fifty of these small threads1 with which the animal anchors itself most securely to the rock4 ,aided by this cordage1 the mussel suspends itself to vertical rocks1 holding on a little above the surface of the water1 so that the shell is smooth and polished as compared with the coarse and rugged shell of the oyster4 ,the mussels1 like the oysters1 are gregarious1 and widely diffused over all ,european seas4 ,they abound on both sides the ,channel1 their lower price having procured for them the name of the poor man's oyster2 but it is infinitely less digestible and savoury than its congener4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,byssus1 mantle1 and oviduct4 ,a1 right lobe of the mantle2 ,d1 rectum2 ,g1 branchi2 ,h1 foot2 ,j1 posterior muscle2 ,l1 superior tube2 ,o1 heart2 ,p1 ventricle2 ,q1 auricle2 ,x1 pericardium2 b1 tentacles2 d1 byssus2 e1 gland of the byssus2 g1 retractile muscle of the foot2 h1 valves of the mantle2 i1 oviduct2 j1 orifice of the excretory organ2 k1 internal ditto4 ,many of our readers may think that mussels are found on the shore in a state of nature1 of good size1 well flavoured1 and fit for the table4 ,nothing of the kind6 ,detached from the rocks and cliffs of the sea1 where it has been growing in a natural state1 it is lean1 small1 acrid1 and unwholesome food2 and it is only when human industry intervenes to ameliorate this child of ,nature that it becomes palatable and wholesome food4 ,in order to trace the ameliorative process by which the coriaceous flesh of the mussel was rendered tender1 fat1 and even savoury1 we must conduct the reader back into the middle ages4 ,some time in #abcf a barque1 freighted with sheep and manned by three ,irishmen1 came to grief upon the rocks in the creek of ,aiguillon1 a few miles from ,rochelle4 ,the neighbouring fishermen who came to the relief of the crew succeeded with great difficulty in saving the life of the master1 a man named ,walton4 ,exiled upon the lonely shore of the ,aunis1 with a few sheep saved from shipwreck1 ,walton at first supported himself by hunting sea-fowl1 which frequented the shore and neighbouring marshes in vast flocks4 ,he was a skilful fowler1 and invented or adapted a peculiar kind of net1 which he called the night net4 ,this consisted of a net some three or four hundred yards in length by three in breadth1 which he placed horizontally1 like a screen1 along the quiet waters of the bay1 retaining it in its position by means of posts driven into the muddy bottom4 ,in the obscurity of the night the wild-fowl1 in floating along the surface of the waters1 would come in contact with the net1 and get themselves entangled in its meshes4 ,but the ,bay of ,aiguillon was only a vast lake of mud1 in which boats moved with difficulty2 and ,walton1 having arranged his bird-net1 began to consider what kind of boat would enable him most conveniently to navigate the sea of mud4 ,the flat-bottomed1 square-sided boat1 known in our rivers as a punt1 and on the ,norman coast as an acon1 was the result4 ,walton's boat had a wooden frame some three yards long and one in breadth and depth1 the fore part of which sloped down into the water1 in the form of a prow1 at a slight angle4 ,in propelling the boat the rower1 who occupied the stern of the punt1 knelt on his right knee 7as represented in ,fig4 #aei71 inclining forward1 with one hand on each edge1 and the left leg outside the boat4 ,a vigorous push with the left foot gave the frail boat an impulse1 under which it rapidly traversed the bay from one point to the other4 ,the mussels swarmed in the little bay2 and ,walton soon remarked that they attached themselves by preference to that part of the post a little above the mud1 and that those so placed soon became fatter1 as well as more agreeable to the taste1 than those buried in the mud4 ,he saw in this peculiarity the elements of a sort of mussel culture which might become a new branch of industry4 ,the practices he introduced1 says ,m4 ,coste1 were so happily adapted to the requirements of the new industry1 that1 after six centuries1 they are still the rules by which the rich patrimony he created for a numerous population is governed4 ,he seems to have applied himself to the enterprise1 conscious not only of the service he was rendering to his contemporaries1 but desirous that their descendants should remember him1 for in every instance he has given to the apparatus which he invented the form of his initial letter ,w4 ,after due consideration1 ,walton began to carry out his design4 ,he planted a long range of piles along the low marshy shore1 each pair forming a letter ,v1 the front of the letter being towards the sea1 and each limb diverging at an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,these posts were driven about a yard asunder2 they were about twelve feet long1 six feet being above water1 and interlaced with branches wattled together1 so as to form continuous hurdles1 each about two hundred yards long1 which are called bouchots4 ,by the assistance of this apparatus1 which intercepted spat which would otherwise have been swept away to sea by the tide1 ,walton formed a magnificent collection of mussels2 but he did not abandon his isolated piles4 ,these1 being without fascines or branches1 and always submerged1 arrested the spat at the moment of emission4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,punt or ,pirogue of the ,marsh4 ,the advantages of this system of culture adopted by the ,irish exile were so obvious that his neighbours along the shore were not slow to imitate his example4 ,in a short time the whole bay was covered with similar bouchots4 ,at the present time these lines of hurdles form a perfect forest in the little creek4 ,about two hundred and thirty thousand piles support a hundred and twenty-five thousand fascines1 which1 according to ,m4 ,coste1 bend all the year under a harvest which a squadron of ships of the line would fail to float4 ,there are about five hundred of these bouchots in the bay1 each from two hundred to two hundred and fifty yards in length and six feet high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,isolated piles covered with the spawn of mussels4 ,the isolated piles are without palisades1 and are uncovered only at spring tides4 ,in the months of ,february and ,march the spat collected on them scarcely equals in size a grain of linseed2 by the month of ,may it will be about the size of a split pea2 in ,july1 a small haricot bean3 this is the moment for its transplantation4 ,in this month the bouchotiers1 as the men occupied in this culture are called1 launch their punts and proceed to the part of the bay where these piles are driven4 ,they detach with a hook the agglomerated masses of young mussels1 which they gather in baskets1 and carry them to their bouchots4 ,these bouchots1 that is to say1 the piles covered with fascines and branches1 are of four different heights1 forming1 so to speak1 four stages1 according to the age and growth of the mussel4 ,each stage receives the mollusc suitable to it4 ,in the first stage of its existence the mussel cannot endure exposure to the air1 and remains constantly under water1 except at the period of spring tides4 ,these are gathered in sacks made of old matting1 or suspended in interstices of the basket-work4 ,these immense palisades1 says ,m4 ,coste1 cover themselves with black clusters of mussels developed between the meshes of their tissues4 ,at that time the second rows are cleared away to make room for younger generations2 the mussels1 which no longer dread the air1 are transported to the more advanced bouchots1 which remain above water in all tides1 where they stay till they are fit for market1 which usually happens after ten or twelve months of culture on the more advanced bouchots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,piles1 with basket-work1 covered with mussels in a fit state to be gathered in4 ,but1 in order to prepare for this consummation1 they are subjected to a second and even a third remove4 ,there is no longer any danger in subjecting them to the air for many hours4 ,from this they pass to a fourth stage1 termed ,amont 7,fig4 #afa74 ,from this stage the full-grown mussel is removed4 ,under this system of culture the reproduction1 nursing1 collecting1 and preparing for market1 are made simultaneously4 ,from ,july to ,january the mussel trade is in full operation1 and the flesh in perfection4 ,from ,february to ,april is the close season2 their flesh is then poor and leathery4 ,it is also remarked that those which inhabit the upper rows of the wicker-work are of a mellower flavour than those on the lower ranks1 and that the intermediate rows are an improvement on those which are buried in the mud1 although even these are preferable to mussels gathered on the sea shore in a state of nature4 ,m4 ,coste gives a graphic description of the manner in which this industry is carried on4 ,having supplied the neighbouring villages1 he says1 for the purpose of supplying the more distant cities1 the bouchotiers land their punts1 filled with mussels1 which their wives carry into grottoes hollowed out of the cliffs2 where they clean and pack them in hampers1 baskets1 and panniers1 for conveyance by carts or pack-horses4 ,they depart on their respective journeys at night1 so as to reach their markets at ,la ,rochelle1 ,rochefort1 ,surgres1 ,saint-,jean-d',angely1 ,angoulme1 ,niort1 ,poictiers1 ,tours1 ,angers1 and ,saumur1 at an early hour4 ,a hundred and forty horses and ninety carts make upwards of thirty-three thousand journeys annually to these cities4 ,besides this1 forty or fifty boats come from ,bordeaux1 the isles of ,r and ,oleron1 and from the sands of ,olonne1 making an aggregate of seven hundred and fifty voyages per annum1 distributing the harvest of the little bay at places where horses could not serve the purpose4 ,a bouchot1 well furnished1 supplies annually1 according to the length of its wings1 from four to five hundred charges4 ,the charge is a hundred and fifty kilogrammes 7over three hundred pounds71 and sells for five francs2 a single bouchot thus carries a harvest equal in weight to a hundred and thirty to a hundred and forty thousand pounds1 equal in value to #ajj2 the whole bay probably yielding a gross revenue of #dhj1jjj4 ,this figure1 and the abundant harvest which produces it1 gives only a slight idea of the alimentary resources of the sea shore2 and every part of the coast1 properly adapted for the purpose1 could be turned to equal advantage4 ,in the mean time1 the ,bay of ,aiguillon remains a monument of what one man may accomplish4 ,while commending the mussel as an important article of food1 we must not conceal the fact1 that it has produced in certain persons very grave effects1 showing that for them its flesh has the effects of poison4 ,the symptoms1 commonly observed two or three hours after the repast1 are weakness or torpor1 constriction of the throat and swelling of the head1 accompanied by great thirst1 nausea1 frequent vomitings1 and eruption of the skin and severe itching4 ,the cause of these attacks is not very well ascertained2 they have in turn been ascribed to the presence of copper pyrites in the neighbourhood of the mussel2 to certain small crabs which lodge themselves as parasites in the shell of the mussel2 to the spawn of star-fishes or medus that the mussel may have swallowed4 ,but1 probably1 the true cause of this kind of poisoning resides in the predisposition of individuals4 ,the remedy is very simple3 an emetic1 accompanied by drinking plentifully of slightly acidulated beverages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,malleus alba 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,malleus vulgaris 7,lamarck74 ,we have now come to the twentieth family1 the ,aviculid1 which contains ,avicula1 ,malleus1 ,maleagrina1 ,perna1 and ,pinna4 ,the shells of the ,hammerheads 7,malleus7 have a rough resemblance to the implement from which they derive their name4 ,the valves are nearly equal1 blackish1 and somewhat wrinkled on the exterior1 often brilliantly nacred in the interior4 ,they are enlarged to the right and left of the hinge1 forming prolongations on each side1 which give them the fancied resemblance to the ,hammerhead 7,fig4 #afc74 ,at the same time they grow in a direction opposite to the hinge1 which gives something approaching the handle of the implement4 ,this is the first feature which a glance at ,malleus alba 7,fig4 #afb7 conveys4 ,the hinge is without teeth1 having instead a deep conical fossette or dimple1 for the reception of a very strong ligament which acts upon the valves4 ,the animal is contained in the interior of the shell1 its mantle fringed by very small tentacular appendages4 ,only six actually living species of the genera are known1 which are inhabitants of the ,indian ,ocean1 of the ,australian seas1 and the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the beautiful diaphanous nacre which embellishes the interior of so many ornamental cabinets are principally produced by the animal inhabiting the ,meleagrina1 a bivalve1 sometimes designated the pintadine1 or mother-of-pearl shell4 ,this bivalve moors itself to the bottom of the sea by a strong byssus of a brownish colour4 ,the door-posts of the shells are irregularly rounded in their young days2 they are externally lightly foliated1 and ornamented with bands of green and white1 which spring from the summit in rays1 and afterwards break off into two or three slightly scattered branches4 ,in old age they become rugged and blackish4 ,the shell is in its perfection when about eight or ten years old1 their size being then about six inches in diameter1 with a thickness of about an inch and a quarter4 ,nacre is the hard and brilliant substance with which the valves of certain shells are lined in the interior4 ,this substance is white1 silky1 slightly azure1 and more or less iridescent4 ,most of the bivalves are supplied with nacre2 some of them even yield a blue1 or blue and violet pigment4 ,the iridescent ,haliotis iris1 for instance1 is an emerald-greenish blue of changing colour1 with reflections of a purple violet4 ,turbo argyrostomus 7,linnus7 presents a mouth of bright silvery hue1 while ,turbo chrysostomus appears in all the glory of gold2 but the ,pintadine yields the purest white nacre1 as well as the most uniform1 and especially the thickest4 ,this product owes its brilliant and delicate appearance to the play of light on it in its highly-polished state4 ,for practical purposes the nacre is separated from the shell with an instrument2 sometimes all the exterior part of the shell being dissolved away from the precious substance1 leaving only the naked bed of nacre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,meleagrina margaritifera 7,linnus74 ,outside of the shell4 ,inside of the shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,meleagrina margaritifera 7,linnus74 ,but the most interesting of all the nacre-bearing shells is the pearl oyster 7,meleagrina margaritifera71 the exterior1 as well as the interior1 of which is represented in ,fig4 #afd4 ,the interior of the shell affords the most exquisite pearls2 the ,esterhazy collection of jewels afforded many such specimens4 ,this shell is nearly round1 and greenish in colour on the outside2 it furnishes at once the finest pearls1 under favourable circumstances1 and the nacre so useful in many industrial arts4 ,fine pearls and nacre have1 in short1 the same origin4 ,the nacre invests the whole interior of the shell of ,meleagrina margaritifera2 being the same secretion which in the pearl has assumed the globular form3 in one state it is deposited as nacre on the walls of the bivalve1 in the other as a pearl in the fleshy interior of the animal4 ,this nacre is therefore at once a calcareous and horny matter1 which the animal secretes1 and which it attaches to the interior walls of the shell during the several periods of its development4 ,pearls are formed of the same substance1 only in place of being deposited upon the valves in beds1 the material is condensed and agglomerated in small spheroids1 which develop themselves either on the surface of the valves or in the fleshy part of the mollusc4 ,between nacre and pearls1 therefore1 there is only the difference of the form of deposition4 ,fig4 #afe represents the pearl oyster with calcareous concretions in various states of progress4 ,the finest pearls--solidified drops of dew1 as the ,orientals term them in the language of poetry--are secretions supposed to be the result of disease in the animal4 ,the matter1 in place of being spread over the surface of the valves in their beds1 is condensed either on the centre of the valves or in the interior of the organ1 and forms a more or less rounded body4 ,the pearls1 when deposited on the valves1 are generally adherent2 those which originate in the body of the animal are always free4 ,generally we find some small foreign body in their centre which has served as a nucleus to the concretion1 the body being perhaps a sterile egg of the mollusc1 the egg of a fish1 a rounded animalcule1 a grain of sand even1 round which has been deposited in concentric layers the beautiful and much-prized gem4 ,the ,chinese1 and other ,eastern nations1 are said to turn this fact in the natural history of bivalves to practical use in making pearls and cameos4 ,by introducing into the mantle of the mollusc1 or into the interior of a living valve1 a round grain of sand1 glass1 or metal1 they induce a deposit which in time yields a pearl1 in the one case free1 and in the other adhering to the shell4 ,in some cases they are said to be produced in whole chaplets by the insertion of grains of quartz connected by a string into the mantle of a species of ,symphynota2 in other cases1 a dozen enamelled figures of ,buddha seated have been produced by inserting small plates of embossed metal in the valves of the same species4 ,the pearls are very small at first2 they increase by annual layers deposited on the original nucleus1 their brilliancy and shade of colour varying with that of the nacre from which they are produced4 ,sometimes they are diaphanous1 silky1 lustrous1 and more or less iridescent2 occasionally they turn out dull1 obscure1 and even smoky4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pearl oyster is met with in very different latitudes2 they are found in the ,persian ,gulf1 on the ,arabian coast1 and in ,japan1 in the ,american seas1 and on the shores of ,california1 and in the islands of the ,south ,sea2 but the most important fisheries are found in the ,bay of ,bengal1 ,ceylon1 and other parts of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the ,ceylon fisheries are under ,government inspection1 and each year1 before the fisheries commence1 an official inspection of the coast takes place4 ,sometimes the fishing is undertaken on account of the ,state1 at other times it is let to parties of speculators4 ,in #ahjd the pearl fishery was granted to a capitalist for #abj1jjj2 but1 to avoid impoverishing all the beds at once1 the same part of the gulf is not fished every year4 ,the great fishery for mother-of-pearl ,pintadines 7,meleagrina margaritifera7 takes place in the ,gulf of ,manaar1 a large bay to the north-east of the island2 it commences in the month of ,february or ,march1 and continues thirty days1 taken collectively1 and occupies two hundred and fifty boats1 which come from different parts of the coast2 they reach the ground at daybreak1 the time being indicated by a signal gun4 ,each boat's crew consists of twenty hands1 and a negro4 ,the rowers are ten in number4 ,the divers divide themselves into two groups of five men each1 who labour and rest alternately2 they descend from forty to fifty feet1 seventy being the very utmost they can accomplish1 and eighty seconds the longest period the best divers can remain under water1 the ordinary period being only thirty seconds4 ,in order to accelerate their descent1 a large stone is attached to a rope4 ,according to travellers the oars are used to rig out a stage1 across which planks are laid over both sides of the boat2 to this stage the diving-stone is suspended4 ,this stone is in the form of a pyramid1 weighing about half-a-hundredweight2 the cord which sustains it sometimes carries in its lower parts a sort of stirrup to receive the foot of the diver4 ,at the moment of his descent he places his right foot in this stirrup1 or1 where there is no such provision1 he rests it on the stone with the cord between his toes4 ,in his left foot he holds the net which is to receive the bivalves2 then1 seizing with his right hand a signal-cord conveniently arranged for his purpose1 and pressing his nostrils with the left hand1 he dives1 holding himself vertically1 and balancing himself over his foot4 ,each diver is naked1 except the band of calico which surrounds the loins4 ,having reached the bottom1 he withdraws his foot from the stone1 which ascends immediately to the stage4 ,the diver throws himself on his face1 and begins to gather all the pintadines within his reach1 placing them in his net4 ,when he wishes to ascend he pulls the signal cord1 and is drawn up with all possible expedition4 ,a good diver1 we have said1 seldom remains more than thirty seconds under water at one time2 but he repeats the operation three or four1 and1 in favourable circumstances1 even fifteen or twenty times4 ,the labour is extremely severe4 ,on returning to the boat they sometimes discharge water tinged with blood by the mouth1 nose1 and ears4 ,they are also exposed to great danger from sharks1 which lie in wait for and frequently devour the unhappy divers4 ,they continue to fish till mid-day1 when a second gun gives the signal to cease4 ,the proprietors wait on shore for their boats1 in order to superintend their discharge1 which must take place before night sets in1 in order to prevent concealment and robbery4 ,in past times the ,ceylon fisheries were very valuable4 ,in #agig they are said to have produced #add1jjj1 and in #agih as much as #aib1jjj4 ,in #ahjb the fisheries were farmed for #abj1jjj2 but for many years the banks have been less productive1 and are now said to yield only the sum of #bj1jjj per annum4 ,the natives of the ,bay of ,bengal1 those of the ,chinese coast1 of ,japan1 and the ,indian ,archipelago1 all abandon themselves to the pearl fishery1 the produce being estimated to realize at least #hjj1jjj4 ,fisheries analogous to those of ,ceylon take place on the ,persian coast1 on the ,arabian ,gulf1 along the coast of ,muscat1 and in the ,red ,sea4 ,in these countries the pearl fishing does not commence till the months of ,july and ,august1 the sea being at that time calmer than in other months of the year4 ,arrived on their fishing-ground1 the fishermen range their barques at a proper distance from each other1 and cast anchor in water from eight to nine fathoms deep4 ,the process is pursued here in a very simple manner4 ,when about to descend the divers pass a cord1 the extremity of which communicates with a bell placed in the barque1 under the armpits2 they put cotton in their ears1 and press the nostrils together with a piece of wood or horn2 they close their mouths hermetically1 attach a heavy stone to their feet1 and at once sink to the bottom of the sea1 where they gather indiscriminately all shells within their reach1 which they throw into a bag suspended round the haunches4 ,when they require to breathe they sound the bell1 and immediately they are assisted in their ascent4 ,on the oyster-banks off the ,isle of ,bahrein the pearl fishery produces about #bdj1jjj2 and if we add to this the addition furnished by the other fisheries of the neighbourhood1 the sum total yielded by the ,arabian coast would probably not fall short of #cej1jjj4 ,in ,south ,america similar fisheries exist4 ,before the ,mexican conquest the pearl fisheries were located between ,acapulco and the ,gulf of ,tehuantepec2 subsequently they were established round the ,islands of ,cubagua1 ,margarita1 and ,panama4 ,the results became so full of promise that populous cities were not slow to raise themselves round these several places4 ,under the reign of ,charles ,v41 ,america sent to ,spain pearls valued at #afj1jjj2 in the present day they are estimated to be worth #fj1jjj4 ,in the places mentioned1 the divers descend into the sea quite naked2 they remain there from twenty-five to thirty seconds1 during which space they can only secure two or three pintadines4 ,they dive in this way a dozen times in succession1 which gives an average of between thirty and forty bivalves to each diver4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the bivalve is carried on shore1 and piled up on mats of ,espartero grass4 ,the mollusc dies1 and soon becomes decomposed2 it requires ten days to be thoroughly disorganized4 ,when in a thoroughly corrupt state1 they are thrown into reservoirs of sea-water1 when they are opened1 washed1 and handed over to the dealers4 ,the valves furnish nacre1 and the parenchyma the pearls4 ,the valves are cleansed1 and piled up in tuns or casks2 by raising their external surface plates of nacre are obtained more or less thick1 according to the age of the mollusc4 ,nacre of three kinds are distinguishable in commerce3 silver-faced1 bastard white1 and bastard black4 ,the first are sold in cases of two hundred and fifty to two hundred and eighty pounds2 they are brought from the ,indies1 from ,china1 and ,peru4 ,the ships of various nations import these shells as ballast4 ,the second is delivered in casks of two hundred and fifty pounds weight2 it is a yellowish white1 and sometimes greenish2 sometimes red1 blue1 and green4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pearls form by far the most important product of the animal4 ,when they are adherent to the valves they are detached with pincers2 but1 habitually1 they are found in the parenchyma of the animal4 ,in this case the substance is boiled1 and afterwards sifted1 in order to obtain the most minute of the pearls2 for those of considerable size are sometimes overlooked in the first operation4 ,months after the mollusc is putrified1 miserable ,indians may be observed busying themselves with the corrupt mass1 in search of small pearls which may have been overlooked by the workmen4 ,the pearls adherent to the valve are more or less irregular in their shape2 they are sold by weight4 ,those found in the body of the animal1 and isolated1 are called virgin pearls1 or paragons4 ,they are globular1 ovoid1 or pyriform1 and are sold by the individual pearl4 ,in cleaning them1 they are gathered together in a heap in a bag and worked with powdered nacre1 in order to render them perfectly pure in colour and round in shape1 and give them a polish2 finally1 they are passed through a series of copper sieves1 in order to size them4 ,these sieves1 to the number of twelve1 are made so as to be inserted one within the other1 each being pierced with holes1 which determine the size of the pearl and the commercial number which is to distinguish it4 ,thus1 the sieve ,no4 #bj is pierced with twenty holes1 ,no4 #ej with fifty holes1 and so on up to ,no4 #ajjj1 which is pierced with that number of holes4 ,the pearls which are retained in ,nos4 #bj to #hj1 said to be mill1 are pearls of the first order4 ,those which pass and are retained between ,nos4 #ajj to #hjj are vivadoe1 or pearls of the second order2 and those which pass through all the others and are retained in ,no4 #ajjj belong to the class tool1 or seed pearls1 and are of the third order4 ,they are afterwards threaded2 the small and medium-sized pearls on white or blue silk1 arranged in rows1 and tied with ribbon into a top-knot of blue or red silk1 in which condition they are exposed for sale in rows1 assorted according to their colours and quality4 ,the small or seed pearls are sold by measure or weight4 ,in ,america the bivalve is opened with a knife1 like the common edible oyster1 and the pearl is obtained by breaking up the mollusc between the finger and thumb without waiting for its decomposition2 nor is it boiled4 ,this is a much longer and less certain process than that pursued in the ,east2 but the pearls are preserved in greater freshness by the process--for the nacre of the dead shells is less brilliant than that of those which have been suddenly killed1 and at once separated from the soft parts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some few pearls have become historical1 from their size and beauty4 ,a pearl from ,panama1 in the form of a pear1 and about the size of a pigeon's egg1 was presented in #aegi to ,philip ,,ii41 ,king of ,spain3 it was valued at #djjj4 ,a ,lady of ,madrid possessed an ,american pearl in #afje valued at #ca1jjj ducats4 ,the ,pope ,leo ,x4 purchased a pearl of a ,venetian jeweller for #ad1jjj4 ,another was presented to the ,sultan ,soliman the ,great by the ,venetian ,republic valued at #af1jjj4 ,julius ,csar1 who was a great admirer of pearls1 presented one to ,servilia which was valued at a million of sesterces1 about #dh1jjj of our money4 ,there is no data for the volume or value of the two famous pearls of ,cleopatra2 one of these which the queen is said to have capriciously dissolved in vinegar and drank--,heavens preserve us from such a draught6--is said by some authors to have been worth #fj1jjj2 the other was divided into two parts1 and suspended one half from each ear of the ,capitoline ,venus4 ,another pearl was purchased at ,califa by the traveller ,tavernier1 and is said to have been sold by him to the ,shah of ,persia for the enormous price of #ahj1jjj4 ,a prince of ,muscat possessed a pearl so extremely valuable--not on account of its size1 for it was only twelve carats1 but because it was so clear and transparent that daylight was seen through it--he refused #djjj for it4 ,in the ,zozema ,museum at ,moscow there is a pearl1 called the ,pilgrim1 which is quite diaphanous2 it is globular in form1 and weighs nearly twenty-four carats4 ,it is said that the pearl in the crown of ,rudolph ,,ii4 weighed thirty carats1 and was as large as a pear4 ,this size1 besides being indefinite1 is more than doubtful4 ,the shahs of ,persia actually possess a string of pearls1 each individual of which is nearly the size of a hazel nut4 ,the value of this string of jewels is inestimable4 ,at the ,paris ,exposition of #ahee1 ,her ,majesty the ,queen exhibited some magnificent pearls2 and on the same occasion the ,emperor of the ,french exhibited a collection of #djh pearls1 each weighing over nine pennyweights1 all of perfect form and of the finest water4 ,the ,romans were passionately fond of pearls1 and they have transmitted their taste to the ,eastern nations1 who attach notions of great grandeur and wealth to the possessor of large and brilliant pearls4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the genus ,pinna1 so called by ,linnus1 from one of the species which was so designated from the resemblance of its byssus to the aigrette or plumelet which the ,roman soldiers attached to the helmet4 ,french naturalists name them jambonneau1 from their singular resemblance to a dried ham 7,figs4 #aff and #afg71 their brown1 smoky colour not a little aiding the resemblance4 ,this shell is fibrous1 horny1 very thin and fragile1 compressed1 regular1 and equivalve1 triangularly pointed in front1 round or truncated behind4 ,the hinge is linear1 straight1 and without teeth2 the ligament1 in great part internal1 occupies more than half the anterior half of the dorsal edge of the shell1 forming a straight elongated fossette4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,pinna rudis 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,pinna nigrina 7,lamarck74 ,the animal is thick1 elongated1 with mantle open behind1 presenting a conical furrowed foot1 hearing a considerable byssus4 ,the ,pinn are found in almost every sea1 and at various depths2 they are constantly attached by their byssus1 and in a vertical position1 the larger side of their shell being uppermost4 ,they assemble on sandy bottoms in considerable numbers4 ,the byssus has in all ages fixed the attention of the ,mediterranean fishermen upon these curious shells4 ,with its tuft of fine silky hairs1 six or seven inches in length1 of a fine reddish-brown hue1 articles of luxury are formed1 which are often mentioned by the ,latin writers4 ,the threads of the byssus1 which are remarkable for their unalterable colour1 were formed by both ,greeks and ,romans into a fabric to which there is nothing analogous in the world4 ,the ,maltese and ,neapolitans still fashion soft tissues from it1 but the stuffs so manufactured are pure objects of curiosity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,pinna bullata 7,swainson74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,pinna nobilis1 with its byssus 7,linnus74 ,twelve species are described as living in the several seas4 ,pinna nobilis 7,fig4 #afi71 the byssus of which was employed in the ancient ,neapolitan industry1 inhabits the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,pinna bullata1 ,swainson 7,fig4 #afh71 is also a well-known species4 ,,ostreid4 ,our twenty-first family1 ,ostreid1 contains ,lima1 ,spondylus1 ,pecten1 ,anomia1 and the all-important oyster4 ,the common oyster1 ,ostrea edulis1 is found in all seas4 ,it is unequally valved1 modified in shape by the form of the submarine body to which it happens to be attached4 ,the lower or adherent valve is concave1 always the largest2 the upper one thin1 usually flat2 the shell is lamellar1 rough externally1 and seems to be composed of broken layers1 adhering slightly to each other1 as if the successive layers had been built up from within1 and each succeeding layer was an enlargement upon its predecessor4 ,the hinge which unites the valves is an elastic toothless ligament placed behind the centre1 which opens the valves4 ,the interior surface of the valves is smooth and white1 diaphanous or pearly towards the centre1 but near the back an oval or rounded impression may be observed1 to which a thick and whitish fleshy body is attached4 ,this is the central muscle which draws the valves together1 hermetically closing them upon the animal4 ,this muscle is cut through in the process of opening the oyster4 ,the animal has no power of locomotion2 its foot is very small and often wanting1 no syphon1 but lies with its mouth open1 and slightly attached to the shell4 ,the shell itself is always adherent1 as if soldered to the rock or other submarine body1 the point of adherence being near the summit of the lower valve1 at the part called the heel4 ,let us suppose the oyster opened by the double dissection of the ligament of the central muscle and of the abductor valves4 ,when displayed before our eyes1 we see in the bottom of the shell a flattened1 shapeless animal1 semi-transparent1 greyish1 and somewhat oval-shaped4 ,the gastronomist1 who seldom sees beyond his nose1 thinks that in spite of its culinary merits the oyster belongs to the lowest rank of animal existence2 but he deceives himself1 and does not know how complex and delicate is the organization of the humble bivalve4 ,the animal is enveloped in a sort of smooth1 thin1 contractile tissue called the mantle1 which folds round it1 presenting two lobes1 separated on the greatest part of its circumference1 and forming a sort of hood1 the summit of which abuts upon the hinge of the bivalve4 ,the edges of this mantle are fringed with very small cilia1 which the creature can extend and draw back at pleasure1 and which seem to be gifted with a certain amount of sensibility4 ,it is this mantle which secretes and deposits the calcareous matter which forms the shell1 each plate of which is an enlargement on the preceding one1 until it constitutes a pyramid of thin convex lamell4 ,at the point where the lobes of the mantle meet1 near the summit of the valve1 is the mouth of the animal1 with its thin membranous lips4 ,this organ is large and dilatable1 and is accompanied by four flat triangular pieces1 by means of which the animal introduces its food into the stomachal cavity4 ,a very short gullet is attached to the mouth1 which leads to a pear-shaped stomach4 ,after this stomach comes a slender sinuous intestine1 which1 leading obliquely towards the interior1 descends a little1 then reascends1 passes behind the stomachal cavity1 nearly on a level with the mouth1 crossing its first path in order to reach the posterior face of the adductor muscle1 in the centre of which it terminates with a free opening4 ,the stomach and intestines are surrounded on all sides by the liver1 which alone constitutes a notable portion of the mass of organs4 ,this liver is of a blackish colour1 pervaded with a deep yellow liquid1 which is the bile4 ,thus the stomach and intestines of the oyster are surrounded by the liver2 the mouth is connected with the stomach1 and the intestines open in the back4 ,the heart of the oyster is placed under the liver1 and is surrounded closely by the terminal part of the intestines4 ,it is composed1 like the same organ in the superior animal1 of two distinct cavities1 an auricle and ventricle4 ,from the ventricle issues a vessel1 which is divided into three distinct canals4 ,one of these carries the blood towards the mouth and tentacles2 another carries it towards the liver2 the last distributes the nourishing fluid to the rest of the body4 ,the blood of the oyster is limpid and colourless2 it passes successively from the auricle of the heart1 where it is vivified1 into the ventricle1 and from this last cavity into the great vessel of which we spoke1 which distributes it into the interior of the animal4 ,the oyster thus possesses a true circulation2 not that double system which characterises the mammals1 and which includes arterial and pulmonary action1 but a simple circulation1 as it exists in fishes and many other animals4 ,it breathes also in the bottom of the water1 after the manner of fishes1 being1 like the fish1 provided with organs called gills or branchi1 whose function is to separate the oxygen dissolved in the water from its other ingredients2 these branchi1 which are placed under the mantle1 consist of a double series of very delicate canals1 placed close together1 not unlike the teeth of a fine comb4 ,having no head1 the oyster can have no brain2 the nerves originate near the mouth1 where a great ganglion is visible1 whence issues a pair of nerves which distribute themselves in the regions of the stomach and liver1 terminating in a second ganglion1 situated behind the liver4 ,the first nervous branch distributes its sensibility to the mouth and tentacles2 the second1 to the respiratory branchi4 ,with organs of the senses oysters are unprovided4 ,condemned to a sedentary life1 riveted to a rock where they have been rooted1 as it were1 in their infancy1 they neither see nor hear2 touch appears to be their only sense1 and that is placed in the tentacles of the mouth4 ,the mode of reproduction in these creatures is very peculiar4 ,the oyster unites in itself the functions of both sexes4 ,in the same organ are found the eggs--called spat--and the mobile corpuscles intended to fertilize them4 ,the eggs are yellowish in colour1 and exist in prodigious numbers in each individual4 ,we are assured that an oyster may carry as many as two millions of eggs6 ,nature always makes ample provision for the preservation of species2 but in spite of the most ample provision here displayed1 man1 in his reckless and wasteful gluttony1 has all but defeated ,nature4 ,a tyro can compute how many individuals a bank of oysters reckoned at twenty thousand would produce1 at the rate of two millions1 or eight hundred thousand1 as other authorities assert1 from each one annually1 and it will amount to an incredible number--in fact1 each would multiply itself by millions in three years2 and yet1 thanks to our improvident management1 they get scarcer every year4 ,the spawning season is usually from the month of ,june to the end of ,september3 during this season the oysters deposit their eggs in the folds of the mantle4 ,during the period of incubation the eggs remain surrounded by mucous matter1 which is necessary to their development1 the whole having the appearance of a thick cream--this milky appearance being due to the accumulated mass of ova surrounded by the mucus3 this mass undergoes various changes of colour while losing its fluidity1 becoming successively yellowish1 greyish1 brown1 and violet1 a condition which indicates the near termination of the embryo state1 for the oysters do not1 like many other inhabitants of the sea1 leave their ova2 they incubate them in the folds of their mantle1 and only discharge them when they can live without the maternal protection4 ,nothing is more curious to witness than a bank of oysters at the spawning season4 ,every adult individual of which it is composed throws out its phalanx of progeny4 ,a living dust is seen to exhale from the oyster bank1 troubling the water and giving it a thick cloudy appearance1 which disseminates itself little by little in the liquid1 until it dissipates and loses itself far from its focus of production4 ,the spat is soon scattered far and wide by the waves2 and unless the young oyster finds some solid body to which it can attach itself1 it falls an inevitable victim to the larger animals which prey upon it4 ,in this its infant state1 when it has just left the protection of the parent shell1 the microscope reveals the young bivalve1 with its shell perfect1 having an apparatus which is also a swimming pad1 ready to adhere to the first solid body which the current drives it against4 ,this pad or cushion 7which is represented in ,fig4 #agj7 is furnished with vibratile cilia1 disposed round the young shell4 ,aided by the powerful adductor muscles1 with which it is also provided1 this cushion is projected through the water at the will of the young inhabitant1 which has every facility for the purpose3 it is even said to swim about near the mother1 before final dismissal from the maternal protection1 seeking shelter at the least alarm between the valves of the parent shell4 ,the pad disappears after the young oyster has finally attached itself to a permanent bed of its own4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,young ,oysters furnished with locomotive organs4 ,before this period of its life arrives1 however1 many are the dangers to which it is exposed3 its enemies are numerous2 they lie in ambush for it in every cranny6 ,it has to guard itself against eddies and currents1 which would drive it out to sea1 and mud banks1 in which it would be smothered4 ,crustaceans1 worms1 and polyps1 with other equally voracious marine inhabitants1 prey upon it4 ,last1 but not least1 come the terrible and multiplied engines of the eager fisherman--and we readily comprehend why the oyster is provided with such accumulated masses of ova4 ,if the young bivalve is fortunate enough to escape all the snares and dangers we have enumerated1 it grows rapidly4 ,it is quite microscopic at the period of its discharge from the parent shell2 at one month it is of the size of a large pea1 at the end of six months it is about three-quarters of an inch1 a year after its birth an inch and a half to two inches1 and finally1 at the end of three years it has become merchandise2 that is to say1 it is in a state to be sent to the parks for preservation and feeding4 ,in ,fig4 #aga we see a group of oysters1#i of various ages1 attached to a piece of wood3 ,a being oysters of twelve to fifteen months1 ,b five or six months1 ,c three to four months1 ,d one to two months1 and ,e oysters twenty days after birth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,groups of ,oysters of different ages attached to a block of wood4 ,the species of oysters usually eaten are the common oyster 7,ostrea edulis1 ,linn47 of our own coasts and the opposite shore1 and the horsefoot oyster 7,o4 hippopus1 ,linn474 ,on the ,mediterranean coast are the rose-coloured oyster 7,o4 rosacea1 ,favanue71 and the milky oyster 7,o4 lacteola1 ,moquin-,tandon71 besides the small and little-known crested oyster 7,o4 cristata1 ,born71 and the folded oyster 7,o4 plicata1 ,chemnitz74 ,on the ,corsican coast is the oyster called foliate 7,o4 lamellosa1 ,brocchi74 ,there are two principal varieties of the common oyster dredged on the ,french coast1 which differ in size and delicacy of flavour4 ,these are the ,cancale and ,ostend oyster4 ,when the first has been fed for some time in the oyster park1 and has assumed its greenish hue1 it is designated the ,marenna oyster1 from the park so named in the ,bay of ,seudre4 ,of this green colour we shall speak elsewhere4 ,who believed ,uncle ,jack when he told us in our youth of oysters growing on trees1 and oysters so large that they required to be carved like a round of beef--of oysters on the ,coromandel coast as large as soup-plates8 ,nevertheless ,uncle ,jack's stories were true3 there are oysters which require carving1 and oysters have been plucked off trees4 ,in some parts of ,america they grow very large4 ,virginia possesses nearly two million acres of oyster-beds4 ,the sea-board of ,georgia is famed for its immense supplies2 the whole coast of ,long ,island1 extending to a hundred and fifteen miles1 is occupied with them1 and all over the ,states evidence is to be seen of the estimate in which the favoured bivalve is held by the ,american people4 ,natural oyster-beds are found in bays1 estuaries1 and other sheltered sinuosities of the coast1 with shelving and not too rocky bottoms1 such places being1 according to the natural law of production1 favourable for the increase of the colony4 ,such banks abound in every sea4 ,in ,france the oyster-beds of ,rochelle1 of ,rochefort1 the ,isles of ,r and ,oleron1 the ,bay of ,st4 ,brieuc1 of ,cancale1 and ,granville1 are famous for the quality of their produce4 ,on the ,danish coast there are from forty to fifty oyster-banks1 situated on the west coast of ,schleswig2 the best bed lying between the small isles of ,sylt1 ,amron1 ,fohr1 ,pelworm1 and ,nordstrand4 ,at the point of ,jutland1 and opposite ,shagen1 beds less productive are found4 ,the great oyster-beds of ,england extend from ,gravesend1 in the estuary of the ,thames and ,medway1 along the ,kentish coast on the one hand1 and the estuary of the ,colne and other rivers on the ,essex coast4 ,the ,frith of ,forth is also famous for its oyster-beds1 extending from ,preston ,pans far up the estuary of the river2 but1 curiously enough1 all these great banks1 without exception1 have been impoverished1 and all but exhausted1 by improvident dredging1 in spite of the close season which has always existed4#aj 99 99 99 99 99 ,he was a bold man who first ate an oyster1 has been said before4 ,the name of the courageous individual has not been recorded1 but ,mr4 ,bertram1 in his ,harvest of the ,sea1 tells us a legend concerning him3 ,once upon a time1--it must have been a long time ago1--a man of melancholy mood was walking by the shores of a picturesque estuary1 listening to the monotonous murmur of the sad sea-waves1 when he espied a very old and ugly oyster-shell all coated over with parasites and sea-weeds4 ,it was so unprepossessing that he kicked it with his foot1 and the animal1 astonished at receiving such rude treatment on its own domain1 gaped wide with indignation1 preparatory to closing its bivalve still more tightly4 ,seeing the beautiful cream-coloured layers that shone within the shelly covering1 and fancying that the interior of the shell itself must be beautiful1 he lifted up the aged 'native' for further examination1 inserting his finger and thumb within the valves4 ,the irate mollusc1 thinking1 no doubt1 that this was meant as a further insult1 snapped its pearly door down upon his finger1 causing him considerable pain4 ,after releasing his wounded digit1 our inquisitive gentleman very naturally put it in his mouth4 ',delightful6' exclaimed he1 opening wide his eyes2 'what is this8' and again he sucked his finger4 ,then the great truth flashed upon him that he had found out a new delight--had1 in fact1 achieved the most important discovery ever made4 ,he proceeded at once to realize the thought4 ,with a stone he opened the oyster's stronghold1 and gingerly tried a piece of the mollusc itself4 ',delicious6' he exclaimed2 and there and then1 with no other condiment than its own juice1 with no accompaniment of foaming brown stout or pale ,chablis to wash it down1 no newly-cut1 well-buttered brown bread1 did that solitary anonymous man inaugurate the first oyster banquet4 ,another story makes the act of eating the first oyster a punishment4 ,the poetaster also had his views on the subject3 ,the man had sure a palate covered o'er ,with brass1 or steel1 that on the rocky shore ,first broke the oozy oyster's pearly coat1 ,and risked the living morsel down his throat4 ,and ever since men have gone on eating oysters4 ,emperors and poets1 princes and priests1 pontiffs and statesmen1 orators and painters1 have feasted on the favoured bivalve4 ,man has made use of the oyster from the most remote antiquity4 ,among the dbris of festivals which precede by ages the epoch of written history1 oyster-shells are found4 ,on the midden heaps of northern ,europe they are often discovered1 mingling with other rubbish and with stone implements1 evidently the refuse of very ancient feasts4 ,we have all read of the classic feasts of the ,romans1 which began with oysters brought from fabulous distances4 ,vitellius ate oysters all day long1 and the idea prevailed that he could eat a thousand4 ,calisthenes1 the philosopher1 was a passionate oyster eater2 so was ,caligula2 ,seneca the wise could eat his hundred1 and the great ,cicero did not despise the savoury bivalve4 ,lucullus had sea-water brought to his villa from the shores of the ,campania1 in which he bred them in great abundance for the use of his guests4 ,to another ,roman1 ,sergius ,orata1 we owe the original idea of the oyster-park4 ,he invented the oyster-pond1 in which he bred oysters1 not for his own table1 but for profit4 ,among modern celebrities whose love of oysters is recorded1 we may mention ,louis ,,xi41 who feasted the learned doctors of the ,sorbonne once a year on oysters4 ,another ,louis invested his cook with an order of nobility1 in reward for his skill in cooking them4 ,cervantes loved oysters1 although he satirized oyster dealers4 ,marshal ,turgot used to eat a hundred or two just to whet his appetite4 ,rousseau1 ,helvetius1 ,diderot1 the ,abb ,raynal1 and ,voltaire1 are recorded lovers of oysters4 ,danton1 ,robespierre1 and other of the revolutionists1 frequented the oyster salons of ,paris4 ,cambaceres was famous for his oyster feasts1 and it is recorded of the great ,napoleon that he always partook of the bivalve on the eve of his great battles1 when they could be procured4 ,in short1 it has been demonstrated as a gastronomic truth that there is no feast worthy of a connoisseur where oysters do not come to the front4 ,it is their office to open the way by that gentle excitement which prepares the stomach for its sublime function1 digestion2 in a word1 the oyster is the key of that paradise called appetite4 ,there is no alimentary substance1 not even excepting bread1 which does not produce indigestion under given circumstances1 says ,reveille-,parise1 but oysters never4 ,this is an homage which is due to them3 ,we may eat them to-day1 to-morrow1 eat them always1 and in profusion1 without fear of indigestion4 ,dr4 ,gastaldi could swallow1 we are assured1 his forty dozen with impunity--quite a bank must he have eaten4 ,he was unfortunately struck with apoplexy at table before a pat de foie gras4 ,montaigne quaintly says1 to be subject to colic1 or deny oneself oysters1 presents two evils to choose from1 since one must choose between the two1 and hazard something for his pleasure4 ,england has always been famous for its oysters1 and its pearls are said to have been the chief incentive to ,csar's invasion4 ,it is not1 therefore1 to be supposed that ,british magnates could be indifferent to the native4 ,but the bivalve has perhaps been more celebrated1 in prose and verse1 north of the ,tweed than south1 where silent enjoyment is more relished than noisy demonstration4 ,dugald ,stewart1 ,hume1 ,cullen1 and other ,scotch philosophers of the last centuries1 had their oyster ploys as an accompaniment to their high jinks1 in the quaint and dingy taverns of the old town of ,edinburgh2 and what the bivalve has been to modern celebrities let the ,noctes ,ambrosian tell4 ,the oyster may thus be said to be the palm and glory of the table4 ,it is considered the very perfection of digestive aliment4 ,from ,stockholm to ,naples1 from ,london to ,st4 ,petersburg1 it is always in request4 ,at ,st4 ,petersburg they cost a paper rouble 7nearly one shilling71 and at ,stockholm fivepence each4 ,for the last year or two the ,english amphitryon must pay from two shillings to half a crown a dozen for choice natives4 ,for his daily nourishment a man of middle size requires a quantity of food equal to twelve ounces of dry nitrogenized substance4 ,according to this calculation1 it would be necessary to swallow sixteen dozen of oysters to make up the necessary quantity4 ,the small proportion of nutritive matter explains the extreme digestibility of the oyster4 ,it also explains the immense consumption of them attributed to the ,emperor ,vitellius4 ,the oyster is nothing more than water slightly gelatinized4 ,without this ,vitellius1 all emperor and master of the world as he was1 never could have absorbed twelve hundred oysters by way of whetting his appetite4 ,the gourmets were long of opinion that the quadrangular pad or cushion in the bivalve was the most savoury and exciting part4 ,certain distinguished amateur performers adopted and proclaimed the principle of dividing transversely the body of the mollusc1 and eating the cushion only4 ,natural history explains this gastronomical discovery4 ,it recognizes the fact that the bile secreted by the liver is contained in this substance1 that it accelerates while it exhausts the qualitative surface of the tongue and palate1 aiding also the functions of the stomach4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have described the organization of the oyster1 and we have said something of the enjoyment it confers4 ,did it ever occur to the various ,societies for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals to consider whether the oyster might not be a very proper object of their care8 ,let us see if we can bridge over the gulf4 ,we commence operations upon them by dragging them violently from their own element4 ,we place them out afterwards in water-parks1 more or less briny and unsuitable1 filled with villainous green matter1 which presently pervades their breathing apparatus1 impregnating1 obstructing1 and colouring it2 the oyster swells1 fattens1 and soon attains that state of obesity which verges on sickness4 ,when the poor creature has attained its livid green colour1 it is fished up a second time4 ,alas6 it is now doomed neither to return to the sea1 to the park1 nor to its native rock4 ,it has water at its disposal only in the very small quantity which it can retain between its two valves1 a quantity scarcely sufficient to keep away asphyxia4 ,it is shut up in an obscure narrow basket--an ignoble prison-house1 without door or window4 ,it seems to be forgotten that they are animals3 they are piled upon the pavement like inert merchandise4 ,the basket is carried by railway2 the animal1 shaken out of existence almost1 is at last landed at the door of some oyster-shop2 and this is the critical moment for the poor bivalve6 ,it is thrown into a tub with clean water enough to remind it of its former luxurious life1 when it is again seized by the pitiless master of its fate4 ,with a great knife he brutally opens the shell1 cuts through the muscle by which it adheres to the valve1 and violently detaches it1 after breaking the hinges4 ,it is now laid out on a plate1 exposed to every current of air1 and in this state of suffering it is carried to the table4 ,there the pitiless gourmet powders it over with the most pungent pepper1 squeezes over the wounded and still bleeding body the abomination of its race in the shape of citric acid or vinegar1 and then1 alas6 with a silver knife which cannot cut1 he wounds and bruises it a second time2 or1 worse still1 he saws and tears and rends it from its remaining shell2 he seizes it with a three-pronged fork1 which is driven through liver and stomach1 and throws it into his mouth1 where the teeth cut1 crush1 and grind it1 and1 while still living and palpitating1 reduced to an inanimate mass1 these organs first triturate it1 while our gourmet is drinking its blood1 its fat1 and its bile4 ,we have said that oysters have no head1 no arms--that they are without eyes 7although that is disputed71 without ears1 and without nose2 that they do not stir--that they never cry6 ,agreed1 perfectly agreed2 but all these negatives do not prevent its being sensible to pain4 ,two eminent ,germans1 ,herren ,brandt and ,ratzeburg1 have proved that they possess a well-developed nervous system1 and if they possess sensation they must suffer4 ,can an animal with nerves be impassible8 asks ,voltaire4 ,can we suppose any such impossible contradiction in ,nature8 ,there is consolation1 however1 for all concerned4 ,let the humanitarian fishermen1 oyster-dredgers1 merchants1 and consumers1 console themselves with the vast difference between the helpless imperfect mollusc and the higher classes of animals4 ,in the case of the former we swallow the animal1 scarcely thinking of its animal nature4 ,it is the denizen of another element1 lives in a medium in which we cannot exist1 presents itself in a form1 so to speak1 degraded--an obscure vitality1 motions undecided1 and habits scarcely discernible4 ,we may therefore see the oyster mutilated1 mutilate them oneself1 grind them1 and swallow them1 without emotion or remorse4 ,a learned naturalist dwelling on the sea-shore possessed himself one day of a dozen oysters4 ,he wished to study their organization2 he turned them1 and turned them again1 examined their several parts inside and out4 ,he made drawings of and described them1 and1 having satisfied himself that he had exhausted ,science in observing1 he swallowed them2 the interesting bivalves had lost nothing of their excellence1 and the examination did not prejudice the consummation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,oyster fishing is pursued in a very different manner in different countries4 ,round ,minorca1 divers1 with hammers attached to the right hand1 descend to the depth of a dozen fathoms1 and bring up in their left hand as many of the bivalves as they can carry1 two fishermen1 usually associating for the purpose1 diving alternately until the boat is filled4 ,on the ,english and ,french coasts the dredge is employed1 as represented in ,,pl4 ,,xii4 ,this operation is necessary to keep down vegetation1 which would stifle the oysters2 the engine is of iron1 and is very heavy4 ,it is thrown overboard1 and descends to the bottom of the sea1 which it ploughs and scrapes up1 detaching the oysters1 and throwing them into a net attached to the dredge4 ,in this process oysters1 large and small1 are torn from their native bed1 some going into the net1 but a larger number1 old and young1 are torn from their native bed1 and buried in the mud4 ,it would be difficult to imagine a more destructive process2 and when the habits of the oyster are considered1 it is evidently one admirably contrived to destroy the race4 ,in ,france oyster dredging is conducted by fleets of thirty or forty boats1 each carrying four or five men4 ,at a fixed hour1 and under the surveillance of a coastguard in a pinnace bearing the national flag1 the flotilla commences the fishing4 ,in the estuary of the ,thames the practice is much the same1 although no official surveillance is observed4 ,each bark is provided with four or five dredges1 resembling in shape a common clasp purse4 ,it is formed of network1 with a strong iron frame1 as represented in ,fig4 #agb1 the iron frame serving the double purpose of acting as a sucker1 and keeping the mouth open1 while giving it a proper pressure as it travels over the oyster-beds4 ,when the boat is over the oyster scarp1 the dredge is let down1 and no more attractive sight exists than that presented by the well-appointed ,whitstable boats on one side of the estuary1 or the ,colne boats on the other1 as they wear and tack over the oyster-beds1 bearing up from time to time to haul in the dredge1 and empty its contents into the hold4 ,the tension of the rope is the signal for hauling in1 and very heterogeneous are the contents--sea-weeds1 star-fishes1 lobsters1 crabs1 actinia1 and stones4 ,in this manner the common oyster fields on both sides of the ,channel were ploughed up by the oyster dredger pretty much as the ploughman on shore turns up a field4 ,the consequence was that1 twenty years ago1 the ,french beds were totally exhausted1 and ,france had to look to foreign countries for its oyster4 ,oyster farms which had employed fourteen hundred men and two hundred boats were reduced to two hundred men and twenty boats4 ,similar results from over-dredging would have followed1 no doubt1 on this side the ,channel had the mollusc not been protected by the company and private proprietors who held the oyster-beds in the large estuaries4 ,this state of things in ,france led to some important discoveries in the science of oyster culture1 which have produced important changes there4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4--,dredging for ,oysters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,dredge employed in ,oyster fisheries4 ,the name of ,sergius ,orata has already been mentioned as a cultivator of oysters4 ,he lived in the fifth century before our era1 and according to ,pliny he first attempted parking oysters at ,baia in the times of the orator ,lucius ,crassus4 ,he was the first to recognise the superior flavour of the oysters of the ,lucrin ,lake1 the ,avernus of the poets1 probably for trade reasons of his own1 for then1 as now1 ,reveille-,parise remarks1 writing on the subject1 tradesmen speculated on the weaknesses of human gourmandism4 ,but ,sergius really created a new industry1 which is still practised in thousands of places much as he left it4 ,as a proof of the perfection to which ,sergius had brought oyster culture1 his contemporaries said of him1 in allusion to the hanging banks which he invented1 that if he had been prevented from raising oysters in the ,lucrin ,lake1 he would have made them grow on the house-tops4 ,the traveller who visits this celebrated lake finds only a miry puddle4 ,the precious oysters placed there by ,catiline's grandfather are replaced by a host of miserable eels1 which leap in the mud2 vile mountains of ashes1 coal1 and pumice-stone1 which was thrown up in a night like the mushroom1 having reduced the once celebrated lake into the state described4 ,rondeletius also speaks of a fisherman who understood the art of oyster culture4 ,the ,neapolitan ,lake ,fusaro--the terrible ,acheron of the poets--is a great oyster-park1 in which ,art is made effectually to aid ,nature in the multiplication of its products4 ,this famous oyster-bank1 which is represented in ,,pl4 ,,xiii41 lies in the neighbourhood of ,baia and ,cum4 ,it forms one of the most interesting spots in that beautiful bay4 ,in the month of ,february1 #ahfe1 ,m4 ,figuier tells us he traversed its celebrated coast1 seated himself on the banks of the historical lake1 and tasted the produce of this curious manufacture of living beings1 whose origin dates from the ,roman period4 ,lake ,fusaro was in ancient times a place of evil report3 ,virgil immortalized it as the mythological ,acheron2 but its landscape had nothing of the sadness and desolation which accords with the sojourn of the dead4 ,it is a salt pond1 shaded with a girdle of magnificent trees4 ,it is about a league in circumference1 and about a fathom in depth at its deepest part2 its bottom is muddy and black1 like the rest of this volcanic region4 ,it will be understood1 from what has been said1 that the chief obstacle to the reproduction of oysters is the absence of any solid body to which the young spawn can attach itself1 and the means of shelter from animals which prey upon them4 ,the fishermen living on the shores of ,lake ,fusaro have long realized this1 and provided against it by warehousing1 as it were1 in the lake near the sea1 the oysters ready to discharge their spawn1 while retaining the young generations captive in the protected basins1 where they are sheltered from various causes of destruction to which oysters are exposed in the open sea4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii4--,general ,view of the ,oyster ,parks on ,lake ,fusaro4 ,upon the bottom of the lake1 and on its circumference1 the proprietors of ,fusaro have constructed hillocks here and there1 with stones heaped up1 artificial rocks1 raised sufficiently to shelter the depts from mud and slime4 ,upon these rocks they deposit the young oysters gathered in the ,gulf of ,tarentum4 ,each of these rock-works is surrounded by a girdle of piles1 driven close to each other1 and raised a little above the surface of the water1 as represented in ,fig4 #agc4 ,other piles are distributed in long lines1 and bound to each other by a cord1 from which are suspended fagots of young wood4 ,in the spawning season the oysters which have been deposited on the artificial rocks discharge the myriads of young fry which have been nurtured in the folds of their mantles4 ,the fagots suspended from the piles arrest the germ before it is driven away by the waves1 much as a swan attaches itself to the first shrub which comes in the way4 ,by these precautions the riverains of ,fusaro have provided for the preservation of the young fry1 besides removing many of the natural enemies of the young oyster4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,artificial ,oyster-bank in ,lake ,fusaro4 ,in other places the piles are distributed in long lines and bound together by strong cords1 from which fagots of brushwood are suspended1 on which the young spawn lay hold1 as in ,fig4 #agd4 ,by means of these arrangements the pregnant oyster deposits its spawny progeny in quiet repose2 the young germs are intercepted by the fagots and hurdles suspended between the piles1 where the young oysters develop themselves under the favourable conditions of repose1 temperature1 and light4 ,when the fishing season arrives1 the piles and fagots which surround the beds are removed1 and the oysters are gathered suitable for market4 ,the oysters thus selected for sale are packed loosely in osier baskets and sunk1 while waiting for purchasers1 into a reserve or park4 ,this park is established on the shores of the lake4 ,it is constructed of piles which support a gangway provided with hooks1 from which the baskets filled with living oysters are suspended1 ready for sale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,pillars with cords attached in ,lake ,fusaro4 ,some twenty years ago the oyster-beds of ,france had become totally exhausted under the open system of dredging2 and circumstances having brought the protective system pursued at ,fusaro under the notice of ,m4 ,coste1 a learned academician1 to whom ,france is indebted for the restoration of the bivalve1 ,m4 ,coste reported to the ,emperor in #aheh that at ,rochelle1 ,marennes1 ,rochefort1 at the ,isles of ,r and ,oleron1 where there had formerly been twenty-three oyster-beds1 there were now only five1 and these in danger of being destroyed by the increase of mussels2 that at the ,bay of ,st4 ,brieuc1 so naturally suited for oyster culture1 the beds were reduced to three2 that even on the classic oyster grounds of ,cancale and ,granville1 it was only by the most careful administration that decay was prevented1 while the increasing numbers of consumers threatened altogether to destroy an industry essentially necessary for the support of a maritime population4 ,the impulse given by this report has been productive of the most satisfactory results in ,france4 ,all along the coast the maritime populations are actively engaged in oyster culture4 ,oyster parks1 in imitation of those at ,fusaro1 have sprung up4 ,in his appeal to the ,emperor1 ,m4 ,coste suggested that the ,state1 through the ,administration of ,marine1 and by means of the vessels at its command1 should take steps for sowing the whole ,french coast in such a manner as to re-establish the oyster-banks now in ruins1 extend those which were prosperous1 and create others anew wherever the nature of the bottom would permit4 ,the first serious attempt to carry out the views of the distinguished academician was made in the ,bay of ,st4 ,brieuc4 ,in the month of ,april in the same year in which his report was received1 operations commenced by planting three millions of mother-oysters which had been dredged in the common ground2 brood from the oyster grounds of ,cancale and ,trquiers were distributed in ten longitudinal lines on tiles1 fragments of pottery1 and valves of shells4 ,at the end of eight months the progress of the beds was tested1 and the dredge in a few minutes brought up two thousand oysters fit for the table1 while two fascines drawn up at random contained nearly twenty thousand1 from one to two inches in diameter4 ,two of these fascines exposed to public view at ,bni and ,patrieux excited the astonishment of the maritime population4 ,this result encouraged ,m4 ,coste to pursue his experiments upon a greater scale1 and he now proposed to bring the whole littoral under a regulated system of oyster culture4 ,in the roads of ,toulon and in ,lake ,thau1 which touches this port1 the same system was put in force by the ,administration of ,marine as had already been done in the ,bay of ,arcachon and in the ,isle of ,r4 ,in these localities oyster culture assumed gigantic proportions4 ,associations were formed for the purpose of prosecuting them and forming oyster-parks4 ,these exertions roused the curiosity of foreign nations4 ,van ,beneden1 a distinguished naturalist of ,louvain1 and ,m4 ,eschrecht of ,copenhagen1 visited ,france to study the arrangements for oyster culture4 ,m4 ,coste demonstrated that parks could be established on all places visited by the tide1 and under his advice the ,bay of ,arcachon is now transformed into a vast field of production1 which increases every day1 giving the happiest presages of an abundant harvest4 ,already twelve hundred capitalists1 associated with a similar number of fishermen1 occupy a surface of nine hundred and eighty-eight acres1 which emerge at low water4 ,in this bay the ,state has organized two model farms for experimental purposes1 in which tiles1 fascines1 and valves of shells are laid down with other appliances1 to which the young oysters may attach themselves4 ,these expedients have been so successful that the park1 which has cost about #aad1 is now estimated to be worth about #hjjj in money1 with a total of five million oysters1 large and small4 ,the ,isle of ,r1 which was originally surrounded by a muddy bottom ill adapted for oyster culture1 has been totally changed1 so that in two years four leagues of foreshore have been turned into a rich and profitable oyster-bed2 twelve hundred parks are in full activity1 and two thousand others are in course of construction1 the whole forming a complete girdle round the island4 ,every one has heard of the green oysters of ,marennes1 the preservation1 amelioration1 and ripening of these oysters1 so to speak1 representing a very considerable branch of industry in ,france4 ,in order to give the reader some idea of its importance1 we shall give here a brief summary of ,m4 ,coste's voyage of exploration on the ,french littoral4 ,the parks at ,marennes1 in which the oysters are placed in order to acquire the green colour which characterises them1 are basins stretching along both banks of the ,seudre for many leagues4 ,they are locally known as claires1 and differ from the oyster-parks of other countries in this particular--that1 while the ordinary parks are so arranged as to be submerged at every return of the tide1 the basins of ,marennes are so arranged that they can only be submerged at spring tides2 that is1 at the new and full moon1 when the waters rise beyond the ordinary level4 ,the basins of claires occupy from two hundred and fifty to three hundred square yards of superficies2 two sluices permit of the entrance and withdrawal of water at will1 so as to maintain it at the level most convenient to the industrial wants of the place1 or to empty it altogether when it is necessary to cleanse the basin1 pave the bottom1 and furnish it with a fresh supply of oysters4 ,when these necessary works are completed1 advantage is taken of the first spring tide to fill the basin4 ,when the tide begins to ebb1 the sluices are closed1 so as to retain sufficient water in the basins2 and while thus shut up1 salt held in solution is deposited1 and qualities analogous to those of marine bottoms are produced1 purged by cleansing processes of all products offensive to the bivalves4 ,when the basin has been filled with sea-water for the necessary time1 and the bottom is sufficiently impregnated1 it is emptied and left to dry2 and now1 the soil being prepared1 it only remains to furnish it with oysters of a mellow and ripe age1 in order to give them their green hue4 ,towards the month of ,september1 at low water1 the whole sea-side population of ,marennes go to gather oysters on the pavement left uncovered by the ebbing tide1 or by using a dredger in the deeper parts of the claires where the water still remains4 ,a temporary magazine for the reception of the oysters thus gathered is erected on the banks1 which the water revisits twice a day4 ,the young are reserved for cultivation on the parks or claires2 the fullest are sold for consumption in the neighbourhood2 but the quantity of oysters raised at ,marennes is insufficient to supply the demand4 ,about a third of the provision intended for the claires comes from the coasts of ,brittany1 of ,normandy1 and ,la ,vende4 ,these foreign oysters1 says ,m4 ,coste1 never attain the fine flavour of those bred in the locality4 ,it is necessary to keep them for a long time in the claires before they are sufficiently ameliorated1 and1 even when they become green1 they retain traces of their primitive nature1 remaining hard1 in spite of the new qualities imparted to them by cultivation2 a certain bitterness remains1 which is easily distinguished by the true amateur2 it is the same with indigenous adult oysters4 ,when they are taken at this stage of their existence the colouring does not succeed with them2--it is only1 so to speak1 the false brand used to give a speculative value to the merchandise4 ,it is not enough that the mollusc should have a fine flavour2 it must have the peculiar taste4 ,it is not enough that it has the green hue2 it is necessary that these qualities should pervade it from the earliest age1 and that the culture of the claires should continue to the end4 ,it is thus necessary that the oysters for the claires of ,marennes should be selected when from twelve to eighteen months old1 that the shells should be well-formed1 and free from all foreign bodies adhering to the surface4 ,being thus carefully picked out1 the oysters are distributed over the bottom of the claires with a shovel1 and afterwards so arranged by the hand that they may not touch each other when they increase in size2 that they do not embarrass each other by the movements of their valves2 and that nothing should interfere with the regularity of their forms4 ,the young colony reposes under a sheet of water from twelve to eighteen inches deep1 which is1 as we have said1 only renewed at spring tides1 which reach the level4 ,nor are the oysters abandoned to themselves in these privileged beds while they are growing and ripening4 ,they are objects of continual care and of special manipulation4 ,the spring tides visit the claires charged with mud1 which1 if deposited in the motionless basins1 would act as a mortal poison to the young mollusc2 hence the necessity of transporting them from one claire charged with mud into others free from such accumulations2 and this is a process in constant operation until the animals are finally gathered for consumption4 ,oysters deposited in the claires aged eighteen months should remain two years before they are ready for use2 but three and even four years are required to give them the full degree of perfection which characterises the best products of the ,marennes oyster-parks4 ,oysters placed in the reservoirs in an adult state become green1 it is true1 in a very few days1 but they never attain the exquisite flavour of those which have been bred in the parks1 and have undergone the costly manipulation described from their earliest years4 ,the question arises1 ,what is the colouring principle which is here in operation8 ,the green colour is not general2 it is shown principally on the branchi1 upon the labial feelers and intestinal canal2 it is rather undecided2 and the colouring matter appears to differ chemically from all other known pigments of green colour4 ,must it be attributed to the soil of the claire8 ,this is its most probable origin4 ,but many naturalists insist that the colouring matter proceeds from an infusorial animalcule1 the green-coloured ,vibrion4 ,others have hazarded the opinion that it is a disease of the liver in our unfortunate bivalve which produces the colour4 ,bile secreted in excess by a diseased liver would give a green hue to the parenchyma of the respiratory organs of an animal rendered sick by the exceptional treatment to which it has been subjected4 ,of these three opinions1 says ,m4 ,figuier1 the first1 as we have said1 presents the greatest appearance of probability4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the system of oyster farms1 which has worked admirably for the companies themselves1 has proved of doubtful utility1 so far as the oyster-eating public is concerned1 as the following sketch of the ,whitstable oyster farms will show4 ,the oyster farm at ,whitstable is co-operative in the best sense of the term1 and has been in operation for many years4 ,the ,company possesses large oyster grounds1 and a fine fleet of boats kept for the purpose of dredging and planting the beds2 it is established under the ,joint ,stock ,companies ,act1 but there is no other way of entrance into it but by birth1 as none of the free dredgermen of the town can hold shares4 ,when a man dies his interest in the ,company dies with him1 but his widow1 if he leaves one1 obtains a pension4 ,the affairs of the ,company are managed by twelve directors1 who are called the jury4 ,the layings at ,whitstable1 to summarise ,mr4 ,bertram1 occupy about a mile and a half square2 and the oyster-beds have been so prosperous as to have obtained the name of the 'happy fishing grounds4' ,whitstable lies in a sandy bay1 formed by a small branch of the ,medway1 which separates the ,isle of ,sheppey from the mainland4 ,throughout this bay1 from the town of ,whitstable at its eastern extremity to the old town of ,faversham1 which lies several miles inland1 the whole of the estuary is occupied by oyster farms1 on which the maritime population1 to the extent of three thousand people and upwards1 is occupied2 the sum paid for labour by the various companies being set down at #afj1jjj per annum1 besides the employment given at ,whitstable in building and repairing boats1 dredges and other requisites for the oyster-fishing4 ,the business of the various companies is to feed oysters for the ,london and other markets1 to protect the spawn or floatsome1 as the dredgers call it1 which is emitted on their own beds1 and to furnish1 by purchase or otherwise1 the new brood necessary to supply the beds which have been taken up for consumption4 ,we have hinted above that in oyster1 as in other fisheries1 a wasteful spirit of extravagance has hitherto prevailed4 ,it appears1 however1 that no rule can be laid down even as to the particular year in which the oysters will spawn1 much less where it will be carried to2 for1 although the artificial contrivances adopted by ,sergius ,orata for saving the spawn are perfectly well known to the parties interested here1 they have not hitherto been imitated2 the practice of the companies and private owners of oyster-layers being to purchase their young brood from the dredgers and others who fish along the public foreshore and open grounds on the ,kent and ,essex coasts1 and even as far north as the ,frith of ,forth4 ,the little bay of ,pont1 for instance1 on the ,essex coast1 which is an open piece of water sixteen miles long and three broad1 free to all1 and which formerly yielded considerable supplies to ,billingsgate1 now gives employment to a hundred and fifty boats1 each with crews of three or four men1 who are wholly employed in obtaining young brood--that is1 oysters from eighteen months to two years old1 which they sell to the oyster farmers4 ,the result is1 that the oyster farms have become a vast monopoly4 ,by tacit consent they agree to feed the market at some eight pounds sterling per bushel2 they pay the dredger one-fourth of that sum2 and as the common fishing grounds are thus rendered mere nurseries of young brood1 the lover of the bivalve must reconcile himself to pay a monopoly price for the precious morsel4 ,the system pursued at ,whitstable1 and other oyster-parks in the estuary of the ,thames and ,medway1 is most efficient4 ,the oysters reared in them1 called natives1 in contradistinction to those called commons1 which are bred in their natural beds1 are justly considered to be very superior in flavour1 although they are a mixed breed1 being brought from every quarter to augment the stock4 ,the ,thames1 or native system1 is as follows3 ,every year each layer is gone over and examined by means of a dredge1 successive portions being done day by day1 till it may be said that each individual oyster has been examined2 the young brood is detached from its bed1 the double oysters are separated1 and all kinds of enemies killed4 ,during three days in each week dredging is pursued for planting2 that is1 for transference from one bed to another more suitable for their growth or fattening1 and for the removal of the dead or sickly oysters and mussels4 ,on the other three days dredging for market takes place1 when the more mature beds are dredged1 and as many are lifted as are required4 ,not only is this constant dredging of the beds themselves necessary1 but the public beds immediately outside require the same care to keep them in a fit state1 and free from enemies4 ,the same story of over-fishing and improvidence extends round our whole coast4 ,the far-famed ,pandores obtained at ,preston ,pans1 near ,edinburgh1 once so cheap1 are becoming scarce and dear4 ,the brood is caught and barreled for export to ,holland and other places1 especially the ,thames oyster farms4 ,english buyers pick the grown oysters for ,manchester and other large provincial markets1 and the ,corporation of ,edinburgh1 the ,duke of ,buccleuch1 and other proprietors of the foreshore1 have just interfered in time to prevent the total destruction of the trade1 when the wild song of the ,cockenzie dredgerman might have been left to charm some future antiquary1 as it is now said to charm the oyster into the dredge with its refrain3 ,the herring it loves the merry moonlight1 ,the mackerel it loves the wind2 ,but the oyster it loves the dredger's song1 ,for it comes of a gentle kind4 ,the ,scallop-shell 7,pecten7 is round1 nearly equal-sided1 resting on the right valve1 which is more convex and marked with radiating ribs4 ,linnus made the mistake of confounding with the ,ostrea a great number of shells1 which1 by their channeled edges and surfaces1 strongly reminded one of the arrangements of the teeth of a comb1 whence their name of ,pecten4 ,they were well known to naturalists long before the time of ,linnus1 under the name of ,pilgrims' shells1 a name which came into use from the practice which prevailed among pilgrims in the middle ages--we know not why--of ornamenting habits and hats with the valves of some of the species4 ,the shell of the ,pecten is in general nearly circular1 more or less elongated1 and terminated towards the summit in a straight line1 forming a sort of triangular appendage called the ear1 to which the hinges are attached4 ,the valves are very regular1 but with no resemblance to each other4 ,in some species1 the shell of which is closely shut1 the lower valve is more or less convex than the upper one4 ,in others1 both valves are convex4 ,the hinge is without teeth1 and the ligament1 which is intended to close the shell1 is inserted into a triangular depression or dimple4 ,the retractile muscle is unequal1 and nearly central4 ,the valves are not nacred inside1 and are formed on their exterior surface of numerous fluted channels1 which spring from a lobe more or less pointed at the summit1 diverging towards the circumference4 ,the edges are sometimes smooth1 as in the ,watered ,pecten 7,p4 pseudamussium1 ,fig4 #age71 but more frequently they are formed in strips or scales1 as in the ,smooth-shelled ,pecten 7,p4 glaber1 ,fig4 #agf74 ,upon the whole1 however1 the ,pectens are very variable1 but always elegant in form2 the colours are frequently lively and brilliant4 ,in ,,pl4 ,,xiv41 some of the most striking forms are represented1 as in ,fig4 ,i41 the ,ducal ,mantle 7,pecten pallium71 an inhabitant of the ,indian ,ocean1 remarkable for its elegant form1 its twelve radiating stripes1 diverging towards the circumference1 the horizontal furrows of its salient scales1 and the striking distribution of its white spots upon a bed of red and brown marble2 ,fig4 ,,ii41 the ,purple ,pecten2 ,fig4 ,,iii41 the ,coral ,pecten2 ,fig4 ,,iv41 the ,tiger ,pecten2 ,fig4 ,v41 the ,foliaceous ,pecten2 and ,fig4 ,,vi41 the ,northern ,pecten4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,pecten pseudamussium 7,chenu74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,pecten glaber 7,linnus74 ,the animal which inhabits the ,pecten shell has the general form of the oyster1 differing however from it in a remarkable manner4 ,the edges of the mantle are furnished with multiplied fringes of simple tentacles1 between which we find other tentacular appendages a little thicker1 each terminating in a sort of small pearl1 vividly coloured1 to which is attached a nervous thread1 which has been taken for an eye4 ,another difference3 the branchi1 in place of being connected by a striated lamina1 as is the case in the oyster1 are cut into parallel capillary filaments1 forming a free and floating fringe1 and the mouth is surrounded by salient many-cleft lips4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,pectinid4 ,i4 ,pecten pallium4 7,linn47 ,,ii4 ,pecten purpuratus4 7,lamarck47 ,,iii4 ,pecten foliaceus4 ,,iv4 ,pecten tigris4 7,lamarck47 ,v4 ,pecten nodasus4 7,linn47 ,,vi4 ,pecten islandicus4 7,chemnitz47 ,while the oyster shell is completely fixed to its bed1 the ,pecten is1 on the contrary1 perfectly free1 and shifts from place to place1 moving in the water even with a certain amount of agility2 by smartly closing its half-opened valves and forcibly expelling the water1 it moves backward by a sort of reaction2 this action1 repeated many times1 compels the animal to move almost in spite of itself1 and enables it to avoid danger1 or directs its steps towards the spot it wishes to reach4 ,some naturalists even assert that1 when raised to the surface1 the ,pecten half opens its shell in such a manner that the upper valve serves the purpose of a sail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,pecten opercularis 7,linnus74 ,the ,pectens1 of which a hundred and seventy-six species are described1 are inhabitants of every known sea4 ,twenty species belong to ,europe1 among which we may mention ,p4 opercularis1 represented in ,fig4 #agg2 ,p4 glaber1 and ,p4 nivea4 ,fig4 #agh represents the ,white-mantled ,pecten 7,p4 plica1 ,linn47 of the ,indian ,ocean1 and ,fig4 #agi1 the ,concentric ,pecten 7,p4 ,japonica7 of the ,japan seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,pecten plica 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,pecten ,japonica 7,gmellin74 ,among the ,ostread the shells of ,spondylus are distinguished for their variety of form and the brilliant colours with which they are decorated4 ,this makes them much sought after by amateur collectors1 and procures for them a high price4 ,the shell of ,spondylus is solid and thick1 with unequal adherent valves1 nearly always bristling with spines1 forming a very peculiar kind of ornamentation to the valves2 the hinges have two very strong teeth4 ,the animals which inhabit this shell resemble the oyster in many respects1 but they still more closely resemble the ,pectens4 ,the edges of the mantle are provided with two rows of tentacles1 the exterior row being1 many of them1 furnished at their extremities with coloured tubercles4 ,as examples1 we note several species of these bivalves for representation4 ,spondylus regius 7,,pl4 ,,xv4 ,fig4 ,i47 is1 perhaps1 the most remarkable for its immense spines4 ,spondylus radians1 ,lamarck 7,fig4 ,,iii471 is noted for its elegant form4 ,spondylus avicularis 7,fig4 ,,iv47 shows remarkable inequality in the valves4 ,spondylus imperialis1 ,chenu 7,fig4 ,,ii471 has long projecting spines1 like feet1 and the ,scaly ,spondylus 7,s4 crassisquama1 ,fig4 ,v47 is covered with scales arranged like so many roofing-tiles4 ,like oysters1 the genus ,spondylus is frequently found firmly rooted to rocks and other submarine bodies1 and1 oftener still1 heaped one upon the other1 like herrings in their barrel4 ,these animals belong essentially to the seas of warm countries4 ,we find them1 however1 occupying considerable space in the ,mediterranean1 where 7,fig4 ,,vi47 the ,ass-footed ,spondylus 7,s4 gderopus7 abounds4 ,but the most remarkable species of all is assuredly ,spondylus regius 7,,pl4 ,,xv4 ,fig4 ,i474 ,this species is a native of the ,indian ,ocean1 and there scarcely exist three fragments of this rare shell in the museums of ,europe4 ,m4 ,chenu relates in one of his books an anecdote which would prove--if any proof were necessary--how far the desire of a collector to obtain possession of some rare and costly specimen will carry him in order to attain his object4 ,m4 ,r----1 says ,m4 ,chenu1 was ,professor of ,botany to the ,faculty of ,paris1 and was1 as some times happens1 more learned than rich2 he wished1 on the invitation of a stranger1 to purchase one of these shells at a very high price1 which might be from #cjjj to #fjjj francs2 the bargain was made1 and the price agreed upon2 it was only necessary to pay4 ,the money in the professor's hands made only a small part of the sum the merchant was to receive for his shell1 and he would not part with it without payment4 ,m4 ,r----1 now consulting his desire to possess the shell more than his weak resources1 made up secretly a parcel of his scanty plate1 and went out to sell it4 ,without consulting his wife he replaced his silver plate by coverings of tin1 and ran to the merchant to secure his coveted ,spondylus1 which he believed to be ,s4 regius4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4--,spondylus4 ,i4 ,spondylus regius4 7,linn47 ,,ii4 ,spondylus imperialis4 7,chemu47 ,,iii4 ,spondylus radians4 7,lamarck47 ,,iv4 ,spondylus avicularis4 7,lamarck47 ,v4 ,spondylus crassisquama4 7,lamarck47 ,,vi4 ,spondylus gderopus4 7,linn47 ,the hour of dinner arrived1 and we may imagine the astonishment of ,madame ,r----1 who could not comprehend the strange metamorphosis of her plate4 ,she delivered herself of a thousand painful conjectures on the subject4 ,m4 ,r----1 on his part1 returned home happy with his shell1 which he had committed to the safe custody of a box placed in his coat pocket4 ,but1 as he approached the house1 he paused1 and began for the first time to think of the reception he might meet with4 ,the reproaches which awaited him1 however1 were compensated when he thought of the treasure he carried home4 ,finally1 he reached home1 and ,madame ,r----'s wrath was worthy of the occasion2 the poor man was overwhelmed with the grief he had caused his wife2 his courage altogether forsook him4 ,he forgot his shell1 and1 in his trepidation1 seated himself on a chair without the necessary adjustment of his garment4 ,he was only reminded of his treasure by hearing the crushing sound of the broken box which contained it4 ,fortunately1 the evil was not very great--two spines only of the shell were broken2 but the good man's grief made so great an impression on ,madame ,r----1 that she no longer thought of her own loss1 but directed all her efforts to console the simple-minded philosopher4 ,the variation in the number and direction of the spines is a striking feature in ,spondylus4 ,when the whole lower surface adheres to branches of coral1 a very frequent occurrence1 they are confined to the upper valve1 but when a part only of the valve1 the whole surface becomes covered4 ,having finished our short sketch of the ,conchifera1 we shall now treat of the singular group1 ,brachiopoda1#aa which some place nearer to the ,gasteropoda than the ,pteropoda1 giving them1 in fact1 their place4 ,it is out of the province of this work to enter into the physiological arguments of such a question4 ,the days of the ,brachiopoda or short-footed animals are past4 ,of the #ahdbab species formerly known1 a few types of a small number of genera only are left1 numbering in all #ajb4 ,the ,terebratulid are best represented2 there were once #cjj or #djj species2 there are now not more than #fg in the seas of the world4 ,the difference between the past and the present is especially striking1 when we compare the recent and fossil species of ,europe4 ,among no other class of shells has there been such a wholesale extinction of species4 ,the great family of ,spirifer are wholly extinct1 and of #djj ,rhynconella only four are now living4 ,the curious ,crania1 ,discina1 and ,lingula are still living1 and are mostly found in the seas of the southern hemisphere4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #i3 ,we give this illustration as representing the comparative size of the oysters at different ages2 but it is necessary to state that the specimens were artificially attached to the block by means of glue for exhibition4 ,oysters always attach themselves by the back of the rounded shell near to the hinge1 as stated at p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the cause of the present scarcity of oysters is a much-vexed question4 ,mr4 ,frank ,buckland1 the greatest living authority on oyster and fish culture1 attributes it to sudden changes of temperature at the critical period when the spat is newly formed1 rather than to over-dredging4--,,ed4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,brachiopoda may be thus tabulated3-- ,family4 ,i4 ,lingulid1 containing ,lingula and other fossil genera4 ,,ii4 ,discinid1 containing ,siphonolreta and ,discina4 ,,iii4 ,craniad1 containing ,crania4 ,,iv4 ,productid1 containing ,chonetes and ,productus1 fossil4 ,v4 ,orthid1 containing ,calceola1 ,davidsonia1 ,strophomena1 and ,orthis4 ,,vi4 ,rhynconellid1 containing ,atrypa1 ,pentamerus1 and ,rhynconella4 ,,vii4 ,spiriferid1 containing ,uncites1 ,retzia1 ,athyris1 and ,spirifera4 ,,viii4 ,terebratulid1 containing ,thecidium1 ,agriope1 ,terebratella1 and ,terebratula4 ,footnote #ab3 ,woodward's ,manual1 p4 #ace4 ,,cephalous ,,mollusca4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,gasteropoda4 ,we shall now consider the ,gasteropoda1 which is divided into four orders4 ,firstly1 ,nucleobranchiata1 animals which float on the surface of the ocean3 they are ,dicious1 or in separate sexes1 and the nervous system is widely distributed in the body1 the shell1 in ,carinaria1 for instance1 covering only a very small portion of the body4 ,the first family of this order is ,atlantid1 of which the types are the fossil ,bellerophon and the recent ,atlanta4 ,the second family is ,firolid1 the types of which are ,carinaria and ,firola4 ,carinaria or glass nautilus is shaped like the bonnet-cap shell1 ,pileopsis4 ,it is as transparent as glass2 and although now very common1 was formerly one of the most highly-prized shells by collectors4 ,the second order of ,gasteropoda is ,opistho-,branchiata1 and is divided into two sections1 the ,nudibranchiata1 and the ,tectibranchiata4 ,the ,nudibranchiata have no shell except in the larva state2 they mostly live at the bottom of the sea on rocky shores1 but a small number swim on the surface4 ,they are remarkable for their variety of form and vivid colouring1 being the most beautiful of all molluscous animals2 they may truly be called the caterpillars of the sea1 for their branchi remind us of the spines with which many lepidopterous larv are covered4 ,the first family is ,elysiad1 types ,limapontia and ,elysia4 ,the second is ,phyllirhoid1 type ,phyllirhoe4 ,the third is olid1 types ,glaucus and olis4 ,the fourth is ,tritoniad1 types ,scylla and ,tritonia4 ,the fifth is ,dorid1 types ,idalia and ,doris1 the curious sea-lemon4 ,the first family of the second division1 ,tectibranchiata1 is ,phyllidiad1 types ,diphyllidia and ,phyllidia4 ,the second family is ,pleurobranchid1 types1 ,umbrella1 in form resembling a limpet1 and ,pleurobranchus4 ,the third family is ,aplysiad1 types1 ,dolabella and ,aplysia4 ,the fourth family is ,bullid1 types1 ,scaphander1 ,acera1 and ,bulla4 ,the fifth family is ,tornatellid1 types1 ,tornatina and ,tornatella4 ,the third order is the ,pulmonifera1 and the fourth is the ,prosobranchiata2 we shall speak of them in the next chapter4 ,in this family we reach a group of ,gasteropods much more numerous1 both in species and in special types1 which respire by the aid of branchi1 or gills4 ,cuvier divides them into many orders1 based chiefly upon their respiratory organs4 ,the ,tectibranchiata have the gills attached either to the right side of the body or upon the back1 arranged in the form of leaflets1 more or less divided1 but not symmetrical1 and nearly covered by the mantle4 ,bulla and ,aplysia are the two principal genera of the group1 and may be considered as the type of two small families4 ,the ,aplysi were known to the ancients under the name of sea-hares 7,lepus marinus71 from some fancied resemblance to the terrestrial hare4 ,they were objects of profound horror1 inspired either by their singular form1 or from an acrid1 caustic1 and inodorous liquid which they secrete4 ,a magic influence was attributed to them2 they were supposed1 for instance1 to have influence over the female heart4 ,it is not easy1 however1 to explain the evil renown acquired by an animal which is known to be gentle and even timid4 ,they are naked and fat1 somewhat resembling the ,limna in their oval1 elongated form1 their thickness in the dorsal region1 and their posterior locomotion4 ,their head1 which is very indistinct1 is furnished with four tentacles1 the anterior two of which are the largest1 and somewhat resemble the ears of a hare4 ,the eyes are found at the base of the posterior tentacles4 ,these characters are observed in ,aplysia depilans 7,fig4 #ahj74 ,aplysia inca shows also the same arrangement 7,fig4 #aha74 ,in this family the mollusc is much more important from its volume than from its internal1 rudimentary1 and horny shell1 which is contained in the branchial shield4 ,in ,fig4 #ahb we have the small and thin cartilaginous shell which exists in the interior of the animal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,aplysia depilans 7,lin74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,aplysia inca 7,d',orbigny74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,shell of ,aplysia inca4 ,the ,aplysi are found nearly in every region of the globe1 not only upon the shores of the ,continent1 but on every island shore4 ,they commonly inhabit sandy and muddy shores of small depths1 or even the rocky recesses1 or under shelter of the stones which have fallen from the cliffs4 ,their eggs consist of those long filaments which are discharged in immense numbers1 and which fishermen call sea-worms4 ,they feed upon certain alg1 with which the bottom of the sea is covered2 but they eat1 also1 small marine animals1 such as the naked molluscs1 annelids1 and crustaceans4 ,we are the less astonished to see the ,aplysi so gluttonous when we learn how liberally ,nature has accorded to them organs of mastication1 trituration1 and digestion4 ,their mouth is formed of thick and muscular lips2 a very long oesophagus or gullet succeeds1 and this oesophagus does not communicate with a single stomach1 but with four--one enormous membranous crop1 an exceedingly muscular gizzard1 with two accessary pockets1 one of which terminates in the form of a sac4 ,the gizzard has thick walls1 and is furnished on the internal wall with cartilaginous quadrangular pyramids1 the summits of which intertwine4 ,this apparatus is intended to bruise the food when it reaches the third stomach4 ,it is also armed with little hooks1 the curvature of which is directed towards the entrance of the gizzard4 ,the genus ,bulla differs materially from the ,aplysi4 ,they have a well-developed shell1 the form of which is elegant2 they are delicate in structure2 their brilliant colours1 consisting of red1 black1 or white bands1 separated by many varied tints1 cause these little molluscs to be much sought after for ornamental collections4 ,the shell itself is oval or globulous1 rolled up in a scroll1 smooth1 spotted1 very thin and fragile1 with a concave spiral1 umbilicate1 open in all its length1 with a straight1 wide1 and cutting edge4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ahc and #ahd4 ,bulla ampulla 7,linnus74 ,obtuse at its two extremities1 neither the head of the animal nor the tentacles are very apparent4 ,the gills are placed under the back1 a little to the right and behind2 its stomach1 which alone fills a great part of the cavity of the body1 presents the peculiarity1 already noted in the ,aplysia1 of being furnished with bony pieces1 evidently intended to grind the food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,bulla oblonga 7,adams74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,bulla aspersa 7,adams74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,bulla nebulosa 7,gould74 ,the ,bull can swim with facility in deep water1 but they evidently prefer the shallows and a sandy bottom1 feeding upon smaller molluscs4 ,they are found in every sea1 but they abound chiefly in the ,indian ,ocean and ,oceania4 ,some species1 however1 such as ,bulla ampulla 7,figs4 #ahc and #ahd71 the shell of which is shaded grey and brown1 and the ,water-drop 7,bulla hydratis71 inhabit ,european seas4 ,bulla oblonga and ,bulla aspersa 7,adams71 and ,bulla nebulosa 7,gould71 represented in ,figs4 #ahe1 #ahf1 and #ahg1 are also well-known species4 ,we take leave of our little friends the ,headless ,mollusca or ,acephal1 and direct our attention to those molluscs to which ,nature has been more generous1 and furnished with a head4 ,this head1 however1 is still carried humbly2 it is not yet os sublime dedit2 it is drawn along an inch or so from the ground1 and in no respect resembles the proud and magnificent organ which crowns and adorns the body of the greater and more perfectly organized animals4 ,the organization of the ,cephalous ,mollusca present three principal types1 which has led to their being divided into three classes1 after their more salient characteristics of form and locomotive apparatus2 namely1 ,gasteropoda1 ,pteropoda1 and ,cephalopoda4 ,in the class ,gasteropoda 7from 1 belly1 1 gen41 foot7 the locomotive apparatus consists of a flattened muscular disk1 placed under the belly of the animal1 aided by which it creeps4 ,the ,snail 7,helix71 the ,slug 7,limax71 and the ,cowrie1 7,cyprea71 are types of this class4 ,in the ,pteropoda1 from 1 wing1 and 1 foot1 the locomotive apparatus assumes the form of wings1 or membranous swimming-fins1 placed on each side of the neck4 ,the ,hyalea and ,clio are types of this class4 ,in the ,cephalopoda1 from 11 head1 and 1 foot1 the locomotive apparatus consists of arms1 or tentacles1 which surround the mouth in numbers more or less considerable4 ,the ,cuttle-fish 7,sepia71 and the ,poulpes 7,octopoda7 are types of this last class4 ,the ,molluscous ,gasteropoda have the organs of respiration formed for aerial respiration1 or for respiration under water4 ,this physiological arrangement involves important differences in internal organization in these molluscs1 and renders it convenient to divide them into two secondary groups2 namely1 ,pulmonary ,gasteropods1 which breathe in the air1 and by a species of lung1 and ,non-pulmonary ,gasteropods1 which breathe in the water1 by means of branchi or gills4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,pulmonary ,,gasteropods4 ,the ,pulmonary ,gasteropods comprehend those molluscs which1 as we have said1 live in the air and breathe the natural atmosphere4 ,the respiratory organ is a cavity in the walls of which the blood-vessels form a complicated network4 ,the air enters this cavity through an orifice1 which the animal opens and shuts at will--a species of lung1 in short1 which is placed upon the back of the animal4 ,they are both terrestrial and aquatic animals4 ,in the latter case1 they must come to the surface of the water in order to breathe1 like the phocas and cetacea among the ,mammifera4 ,the ,pulmonifera1 the second order of ,gasteropods1 comprehends those animals which live in and breathe the air4 ,it is divided into four sections2 the ,operculata1 or animals whose shells are closed by an operculum1 and the ,in-,operculata1 or animals without operculum4 ,operculata is divided into two families2 first1 ,aciculid1 types1 ,geomelania and ,acicula2 and second1 ,cyclostomid1 types1 ,pupina and ,cyclostoma4 ,cyclostoma is perhaps the best known2 the mouth is circular1 the name being derived from cyclos1 circle1 and stoma1 mouth4 ,the second section1 ,in-,opercula1 contains five families4 ,first1 ,auriculid1 types1 ,conovulus and ,auricula4 ,second1 ,limnid1 types1 ,planorbis1 ,physa1 and ,limna4 ,third1 ,oncidiad1 types1 ,vaginulus and ,oncidium4 ,fourth1 ,limacid1 types1 ,testacella and ,limax4 ,fifth1 ,helicid1 types1 ,clausilia1 ,pupa1 ,achatina1 ,bulimus1 ,succinea1 ,vitrina1 and ,helix4 ,,limn,,id4 ,the ,limnid1 ,aquatic ,pulmonary ,gasteropods1 is the second family of the series4 ,they belong to the group that come to the surface of the water to breathe1 as do the cetacea and phocas among the ,mammifera4 ,the ,limna1 ,planorbis1 and ,physa are the principal members of this group4 ,limna lives in great numbers in the stagnant waters of all countries1 particularly of temperate climates4 ,it cannot remain long under water1 being compelled frequently to rise to the surface in order to breathe atmospheric air4 ,it is even observed1 by a mechanism not very well understood1 to turn itself upside down1 in such a manner as to present itself feet uppermost1 and to move slowly along in this position1 creeping1 as it were1 through the water4 ,it is difficult to comprehend how the movable liquid bed upon which the animal operates can offer resistance enough to permit of its creeping as if it were on a solid resisting body2 it seems to produce the movement with the assistance of its foot1 which is broad and thick1 and shorter than the shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,limna stagnalis 7,linnus74 ,limna has a large flat head1 from each side of which issues a triangular contractile tentacle1 carrying at its base and on the inner side an extremely small dot1 or eye4 ,the most considerable part of the body1 comprehending the visceral mass1 is spiral1 and is contained in a thin diaphanous shell 7,fig4 #ahh71 the turns in the spiral of which are generally elongated1 the last turn being larger than all the others4 ,the interior of this is occupied by the respiratory cavity1 which communicates outwardly by an opening analogous to that which exists in the snails4 ,this opening dilates and contracts in such a manner as to receive the air in the cavity1 and exclude water when the animal feeds itself under the water4 ,the mouth is a transverse slit between two rather thin lips1 and is armed with small canine teeth4 ,when the animal sallies from its shell1 it has the appearance of a short trumpet4 ,in its interior is a roundish1 thick1 and fleshy tubercle1 not unlike the tongue of a paroquet4 ,the true tongue1 however1 which lies at the bottom of the slit1 is flat1 oval-shaped1 and supported by a cartilaginous or bony pedicle4 ,limna1 aided by this very complicated buccal apparatus1 is enabled to feed itself with vegetable substances1 such as the leaves of aquatic plants1 which it cuts and bruises with its teeth4 ,they are very active in the season1 reproducing towards the end of spring4 ,at this period little oval or semi-cylindrical masses are frequently found adhering to floating bodies1 glittering and transparent as crystal4 ,these are agglomerations of the eggs of ,limna4 ,when winter sets in1 the ,limna of our climate fall into a state of torpor1 and sink1 more or less deeply1 into the mud of the lakes1 marshes1 rivers1 or brooks1 which they inhabit4 ,they are of great utility1 both to feed fishes and aquatic birds1 and also as scavengers of the decaying vegetation of brooks4 ,planorbis has an organization analogous to ,limna1 of which it is the faithful companion in stagnant waters4 ,their shells 7,fig4 #ahi7 are thin1 light1 and disk-like in form1 rolled round its plane in such a manner as to render all the turns of the spiral visible from above as well as below2 it is concave on both sides1 with an oval1 oblong-shaped opening1 and with an operculum or lid4 ,the animal is conformable to the shell in shape4 ,the visceral mass forms a very elongated cone1 which unwinds itself absolutely1 according to the spiral turns of the shell4 ,the foot1 or abdominal locomotive mass1 is short1 and very nearly round4 ,the head is sufficiently distinct1 and furnished with two very long filiform1 contractile tentacles1 having at their base1 and on the inner side1 a small organ1 which looks like an egg4 ,the mouth is armed in the upper part with cross-cutting teeth1 and in the lower part with a tongue1 bristling with a great number of hooked excrescences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,planorbis corneus 7,linnus74 ,in habits ,planorbis resembles ,limna3 it creeps like it on the surface of solid bodies1 and swims in the water with the foot upwards and the shell down4 ,it feeds on similar substances1 and its eggs are collected in gelatinous masses also4 ,it passes the winter in a state of torpor1 buried in the mud of the rivers it inhabits4 ,the principal species is ,planorbis corneus 7,fig4 #ahi7 which is common in the rivers of ,england and ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,physa castanea 7,lamarck74 ,another group of molluscs1 which occupy our fresh rivers1 and swim with the shell down and feet up1 is represented by ,physa castanea 7,fig4 #aij74 ,the genus ,physa have an oval1 oblong1 or nearly globular shell1 very thin1 smooth1 and fragile1 opening longitudinally1 narrow above1 with the right edge sharp2 the last turn of the spiral being largest of all4 ,the animal appears to be intermediate in form between ,planorbis and ,limna3 it is oval in form1 and unrolls itself like the ,limna1 but its tentacles1 in place of being triangular and thick like the latter1 are elongated and narrow1 like those of ,planorbis4 ,these little inhabitants of fresh water swim with facility1 the feet upwards1 the shell below1 and like ,limna1 they feed on vegetables4 ,the fourth family1 ,limacid1 containing ,testacella and ,limax1 are terrestrial pulmonary molluscs1 entirely naked1 or having only a very small shell4 ,the ,limax varies very considerably in appearance1 in consequence of its extreme contractibility4 ,when seen creeping along on the surface of the soil1 it has nearly the form of a very elongated ellipse1 at one extremity of which is the head2 the surface of the body in contact with the earth is flat1 the other convex4 ,towards the anterior extremity1 and upon the middle of the back1 a portion of the skin projects as if it were detached from the body1 and is ornamented with transverse stripes of various convolutions4 ,this part is named the cuirass1 or buckler1 under which the animal can hide its head4 ,the mouth is a transverse opening in the front of the head2 above are two pairs of tentacles1 or horns1 immensely retractile1 cylindrical1 and terminating in a small button2 the lower tentacles are the shorter2 the upper present at their summit a black point1 as in ,helix1 which have sometimes been mistaken for the eyes4 ,upon the right side of the cuirass1 and hollowed in the thickness of its edge1 which is large and contractile1 whose function it is to give access to atmospheric air1 it abuts on an internal cavity1 also large1 and is intended to promote respiration4 ,the outer skin1 or epidermis1 is rayed in brownish furrows1 its surface covered with a viscous glutinous substance1 which permits of the animal creeping up the smoothest surfaces1 locomotion being produced by the successive contraction and extension of the muscular fibres of the feet4 ,the internal organization of the ,limax is analogous to that already described in the snails4 ,the taste and smell in the ,limaceans differ only very slightly from those organs in ,helix4 ,they are1 like the snails1 deaf1 and nearly blind4 ,they love humid places2 they lodge themselves in the holes of old walls1 under stones1 or half-decomposed leaves1 in the crevices of the bark of old trees1 and even underground1 coming forth only at night and in the morning2 especially after soft showers in spring and summer4 ,in the garden1 after one of these soft showers1 many of these little creatures are sure to be met with in the more shaded alleys4 ,the ,limax is mostly herbivorous4 ,they seek1 above all1 for young plants1 fruits1 mushrooms1 and half-decayed vegetables4 ,they are very voracious1 and cause great ravages in gardens and young plantations1 and many are the devices of the watchful gardener to destroy them4 ,lime and salt are their abomination2 ashes and fine sand they avoid4 ,they dislike the noonday sun1 and the gardener knows it2 he arranges little sheltering tiles1 or planks of wood and stone1 under which they retire1 where they are surprised to their destruction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,limax rufus 7,linnus74 ,there are thirty known species of ,limax4 ,some are remarkable for their very striking colours4 ,limax rufus 7,fig4 #aia7 is common in woods1 and well known for its large size and its colour of rich yellowish red2 it is known all over ,europe1 from ,norway to ,spain4 ,among the ,limaceans nearly destitute of shells we find ,testacella haliotidea 7,fig4 #aib71 which is provided with a very small shell placed at its posterior extremity1 just over the pulmonary cavity4 ,this shell becomes more important in ,vitrina1 already spoken of as forming the point of transition between ,limax and ,helix4 ,this passage from ,limaceans entirely destitute of shells to those furnished with a very small shell1 as in ,testacella1 is very exactly indicated by ,nature4 ,limax rufus1 spoken of above1 presents1 under the posterior part of the cuirass1 calcareous1 unequal1 isolated granulations1 which are1 so to speak1 the elements1 as yet internal1 of a shell which is on the point of being built4 ,other species in the same genus present under the cuirass a little rough1 imperfect scale1 which seems to be produced by a great number of these calcareous granulations1 which show themselves in an isolated state in ,limax rufus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,testacella haliotidea 7,draparnaud74 ,the ,helicid is the fifth family we shall now consider4 ,it is only necessary to witness the snail as it creeps along the gravel walks of a garden1 or in the damp alleys of a park1 in order to see that it is a being of higher organization than the headless molluscs4 ,the common snail 7,helix aspersa7 goes and comes2 it roams and saunters after its own peculiar manner1 searching for its food or its pleasure2 it has a head and two prominent tentacles1 which feel and seem to express their sensations2 it has nerves1 a brain1 a strong mouth1 and a well-formed stomach4 ,without possessing a high order of intelligence1 the snail is by no means imbecile2 it knows very well how to choose a tree the fruit of which is agreeable to it4 ,a fine cluster of grapes1 a succulent pear1 which the horticulturist devours with his looks1 and hopes to devour otherwise1 is sure to be the identical fruit which will be chosen by our enlightened depredator1 the snail4 ,the body of the snail is oval1 elongated1 convex above1 flat below4 ,the convex or upper surface of the body is rugged1 in consequence of the existence of numerous tubercles projecting slightly1 and separated by irregular furrows2 its anterior is terminated by an obtuse head1 its posterior more flat and less pointed4 ,all the flat portion1 thick1 soft1 and upon which the animal moves itself by a creeping motion1 bears the name of the foot4 ,the head is not really very distinct1 especially in the upper part1 but the organs with which it is provided are prominent4 ,these organs are in reality tentacles1 although they are more popularly known as horns1 especially among children--those charming ignoramuses--who have been taught to repeat the well-known stanza-- ,snail1 snail1 come out of your hole1 ,or else ,i'll beat you black as a coal-- which finds its counterpart in all ,european languages4 ,there are two pair of these tentacles or horns2 one pair quite in front and above1 and another smaller and less forward4 ,the first are distinguished by their size1 and also by a black spot or point at their extremity1 which is sometimes erroneously said to be the eye of the snail4 ,these tentacles differ in many respects from the same organs in other molluscs2 they are retractile1 and can be drawn altogether within the animal into a sort of sheath1 by the contraction of a muscle4 ,at the anterior extremity of the head we find a sort of plaited opening1 which is the mouth3 it is of moderate extent1 closed in front by two lips1 and armed with two shear-like organs of horny consistence1 one of them being a sort of rasp1 which occupies the plate of the buccal cavity1 and may be called a tongue2 the other is a median jaw1 placed transversely in the membranous walls of the palate1 terminating in a free edge1 armed with small teeth4 ,this cutting blade1 however1 executes no movement2 but the lingual organ1 pressing all alimentary matter forcibly against its lower edge1 effects their mastication1 and enables it to dispose of fruit1 tender leaves1 mushrooms1 and other substances easily divided4 ,at the bottom of the mouth is an oesophagus1 or gullet1 to which succeeds a stomach of moderate size4 ,the intestine lies in folds round the liver1 which is divided into four lobes1 and terminates in a special orifice4 ,the little lung of the snail is placed in a cavity1 vast for its size1 just above the general mass of the viscera1 and occupies all the last spiral turn of the cavity4 ,the mechanism of respiration is as follows3 ,the animal inhales the air into its lung by forcibly dilating the pulmonary orifice1 which lies in the largest spiral turn of the shell4 ,in order to expel the air respired by the lung1 it withdraws its body into the narrower part of the shell1 where it gathers itself up completely1 even to its head and feet1 and by this compression of all its little being it expels the air which fills it4 ,these respiratory movements1 however1 are not regular1 but succeed each other only at certain intervals4 ,life would be too hard for the poor snail were it passed in such violent efforts as would be necessary if it respired as the larger animals do4 ,in its case the breathing is intermittent and imperfect2 it is merely a rough attempt1 as it were1 at respiration1 which becomes perfect in some of the higher branches of the animal kingdom4 ,the snail has a heart1 consisting of a ventricle and auricle1 connected with a well-developed arterial vascular system1 while the venous system is imperfect4 ,in short1 the blood only returns from the various parts of the body to the respiratory apparatus1 after traversing lacun1 or air-cells1 existing between the several organs4 ,the blood of the snail is of a pale rose colour1 slightly tinted with blue4 ,it has a rudimentary brain1 composed of a pair of thick ganglions1 situated above the oesophagus1 which are in connection with another pair of ganglions placed below1 which1 together1 form a sort of collar1 or ring4 ,from this ring springs a great number of nervous cords1 which are distributed to the mouth1 the tentacles1 the lung1 and the heart4 ,the skin1 in those parts covered by the shell1 exhibits great sensibility2 it receives a considerable quantity of nervous filament1 so that the sense of touch ought to possess extreme delicacy4 ,the tentacles1 the skin of which is so fine and so sensitive1 are the organs of touch4 ,other functions are sometimes attributed to them2 the anterior tentacles are sometimes considered to be the organs of smell4 ,this1 at all events1 is certain1 that the snail is very sensible of strong odours1 and is easily attracted by many plants the odour of which pleases it4 ,the black points which terminate the first pair of tentacles have been considered as eyes3 but the existence of a visual organ in the snail is not quite certain4 ,they are quite insensible to sudden changes of light2 they always travel in the dark1 and never recognize obstacles placed before them4 ,we may add that the snail is destitute of all organs of hearing4 ,no noise appears to affect it1 at least till the noise is so near as to agitate the air which immediately surrounds it4 ,indeed1 the snail few has senses2 the poor creature is at once blind1 deaf1 and dumb4 ,the snails are male and female in the same individual1 or hermaphrodite4 ,their eggs are roundish1 heavy1 and of a whitish colour4 ,the animal deposits them on the soil in little irregular heaps2 at other times it deposits them one after the other1 like the grains of a chaplet1 in holes which it digs in the soil1 or in the natural excavations created by moisture4 ,the eggs are even found in the hollows of old trees2 in fissures of walls or rocks4 ,when the young ,helix issues from the egg1 it is already provided with an extremely thin membranous shell4 ,the timid and tender youth is conscious of its weakness and full of humility4 ,it rarely trusts itself out of the obscure hole in which it was hatched2 when it does1 it is only at night1 dreading the desiccating air1 and1 above all1 the sun's rays1 even with the house it always carries with it for shelter4 ,this calcareous and velluted house is spiral1 which the animal has the inappreciable advantage of transporting without fatigue4 ,it is light1 and sometimes quite disproportionate to the body of the animal1 which it covers only in that part which contains the viscera and respiratory organs4 ,the form of the shell is generally much variegated4 ,some are flattened1 others are orbicular or globose2 in some the spiral is very pointed4 ,the edges of the shell are sometimes simple1 sharp1 and pointed2 others1 on the contrary1 thick and inverted1 presenting an edging of great solidity4 ,the spire is generally rolled up from right to left4 ,a helix shell1 the spiral of which follows the inverse direction1 that is1 from left to right1 is a rarity much sought after by amateurs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ancients held snails in especial esteem for the table4 ,the ,romans had many species served up at their feasts1 which they distinguished in categories according to the delicacy of their flesh4 ,pliny tells us that the best were imported from ,sicily1 from the ,balearic ,isles1 and from the ,isle of ,capri1 the last dwelling-place of the aged ,tiberius4 ,the largest came from ,illyria4 ,ships proceeded to the ,ligurian coast to gather them for the tables of the ,roman patricians4 ,the great consumption led to the establishment of parks 7,cochlearia1 ,varro2 ,cochlearum vivari1 ,pliny71 in order to fatten the animals1 as is now done with oysters4 ,they were fed for this end upon various plants mixed with soup2 when it was desired to improve the flavour a little wine and sometimes laurel leaves were added4 ,these parks were formed in humid shady places surrounded by a foss or a wall4 ,pliny has even transmitted to us the name of the inventor of the ,cochleari1 a certain ,fulvius ,hispinus4 ,addison describes with details one of these establishments kept up by the ,capuchins at ,fribourg in ,switzerland1 in imitation of the ingenious ,roman gourmet we have named4 ,among the ,romans1 snails were served at the funeral repast4 ,certain heaps of their shells1 which are found in the cemetery of ,pompeii1 are the remains of those funeral festivities with which the inhabitants of the buried city honoured the tombs of their friends and relations4 ,the practice of eating snails had fallen into disuse in ,europe when1 in the seventeenth century1 ,john ,howard1 the philanthropist1 began to collect them with the view of reintroducing them as human food4 ,he chose ,helix ,varronis1 which was probably the species cultivated by the ,romans2 it surpasses all those of ,europe in size1 and was found plentifully in the district of ,bagnes1 in the ,valois4 ,howard1 having procured the species from ,bagnes1 found their increase so rapid that the crops were likely to be devoured by the swarms of molluscs thus brought together1 and steps were at once taken to destroy them4 ,in other parts of ,europe the snail continues to be sought for as an article of luxury4 ,they are consumed at ,vienna in great numbers during ,lent1 supplies being brought from the ,swiss canton of ,appenzell4 ,at ,naples a soup made from ,helix nemoralis is sold publicly to the strange population with which the streets of that city swarm1 for the king's pavement is their bed-chamber1 dining-saloon1 and work-room4 ,in ,france1 snails are a valuable resource to the poor in the southern departments4 ,the flesh of all snails is not alike in a culinary point of view4 ,amateurs class as first in quality ,helix vermicula1 called at ,montpelier the ,little ,hermit1 because it buries itself so deeply in its shell4 ,helix aspersa 7,figs4 #aic1 #aid1 #aie7 is thought to be more tender and delicate4 ,in ,provence a species is called tapada1 that is1 closed1 from the cretaceous deposit with which it closes its shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,helix aspersa 7,mller74 ,in the north of ,france1 and round ,paris1 ,helix pomatia is the favourite culinary snail 7,fig4 #aif74 ,this is the species which is used as a speaking sign-board over the doors of the wine-shops and small restaurants in the neighbourhood of the ,halles1 at ,paris4 ,its shell is globose and tun-shaped1 very solid1 marked with irregular transverse stripes of a brownish rust colour1 with bands1 often nearly effaced1 of a deeper tint1 and of the same colour4 ,the animal is large1 of a yellowish grey1 and covered with elongated irregular tubercles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,helix aspersa 7,mller74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,helix aspersa 7,var4 ,scalaris74 ,besides ,helix pomatia1 according to ,moquin-,tandon1 they eat in the north of ,france ,helix sylvatica and ,h4 nemoralis2 at ,montpelier1 as we have already said1 ,h4 aspersa and ,h4 rhodostoma2 at ,avignon1 also1 these1 along with ,h4 vermicula1 are favourites4 ,in ,provence1 ,helix ,pisana1 with ,h4 aspersa and melastoma1 are preferred4 ,at ,bonifacio1 ,helix aspersa1 ,h4 vermicula1 and1 more rarely1 ,h4 rhodostoma2 and in other localities the smaller species and young individuals of the larger kinds are employed for feeding poultry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,helix pomatia 7,linnus74 ,certain species are also employed for feeding ducks4 ,thus1 in the neighbourhood of ,montpelier1 ducks are fed upon ,helix variabilis and ,h4 rhodostoma4 ,some fishes1 especially the young salmon1 are very partial to the flesh of snails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,helix ,mackenzii 7,adams74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,helix undulata 7,ferussac74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,helix translucida 7,linnus74 ,this very important genera is very numerous in species1 which are distributed in groups according to the form of the shell2 that is1 whether it be globulous1 as in ,fig4 #aig1 tun-bottomed1 as in ,fig4 #aih1 plain or biform1 as in ,fig4 #aii1 or truncated1 as in ,figs4 #bjj and #bja4 ,these figures will give the reader some idea of the multiplied and elegant forms which the shells of ,helix sometimes assume4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bjj and #bja4 ,helix ,waltoni 7,reeve74 ,in connection with the snails 7,helix71 we shall note some kindred genera which our space only permits us to name4 ,such is the genus ,bulimus1 the ,european species of which are numerous2 some of them very small1 others of medium size2 of these1 ,bulimus sultanus 7,figs4 #bjd and #bje74 ,in ,figs4 #bjf and #bjg1 the ,berry ,pupa 7,p4 uva71 as an example of another genus1 is represented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,helix citrina 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,helix ,stuartia 7,sowerby74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bjd and #bje4 ,bulimus sultanus 7,lamarck74 ,yet another typical species may be noted1 which is found abundantly amid the grass and shrubs near brooks round ,paris and elsewhere4 ,it is ,succinea putris1 presenting a small1 thin1 diaphanous shell of a pale amber yellow1 marked with close and very fine longitudinal stripes 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,the ,achatina zebra of ,chemnitz is a great snail1 which devours shrubs and trees in ,madagascar 7,fig4 #bji74 ,finally1 ,vitrina1 the shell of which is very small and very thin in some species--so small1 indeed1 in ,vitrina fasciata 7,fig4 #baj71 that the animal cannot fully enter the shell--occupies a point of transition between ,helix and ,limax4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bjf and #bjg4 ,pupa uva4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,succinea putris 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,achatina zebra 7,chemnitz74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,vitrina fasciata 7,ed4 and ,soul74 ,in the ,pectinibranchial ,gasteropods the gills are composed of numerous leaflets cut like the teeth of a comb1 and attached1 on one or many lines1 to the upper part of the respiratory cavity4 ,they constitute the most numerous order of ,cephalous ,molluscs1 comprehending nearly all the univalve spiral shells1 and many others which are simply conical4 ,they inhabit the sea1 rivers1 and lakes1 and are of all sizes4 ,the most remarkable genera which we shall describe belong to the family of ,trochod and ,buccinod4 ,the fourth order of ,gasteropods1 ,prosobranchiata1 which includes the ,pecteni ,branchiata1 is distinct in the sexes1 has the branchi pectinated1 and the mantle forms a vaulted chamber over the back of the head4 ,it is divided into two sections and twenty-one families4 ,the first section1 ,holostomata1 contains the sea-snails4 ,the first family we shall treat of is the ,chitonid1 containing ,chitonellus and ,chiton4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,chiton magnificus 7,deshayes74 ,the ,chitons are very singular creatures1 destitute of eyes1 of tentacles1 and without jaws2 they bear upon their back in place of a shell a cuirass composed of imbricated and movable scales4 ,they have the power of elongating and contracting themselves like the snails4 ,they roll themselves up into a ball like the woodlouse4 ,they adhere with great force to the rocks1 preferring those places most exposed to the beating waves4 ,chiton magnificus 7,fig4 #baa7 is widely distributed4 ,the second family1 ,dentaliad1 affords the curious ,dentalium1 or tooth shell4 ,the ,patellid1 or ,limpets1 constitute a very numerous family1 distinguished at once by the form and structure of the animal1 and by that of the shell4 ,linnus called it ,patella1 i4 e41 a deep dish or knee-cap4 ,the shells of the ,patellid1 our third family1 are univalve1 oval1 or circular1 non-spiral1 but terminating in an elliptic cone1 concave and simple beneath1 non-pierced at the summit1 entire and inclined anteriorly4 ,they are smooth1 or ornamented on the sides with ridges radiating from the summit1 and often covered with scales2 the edges are frequently dentate4 ,the colours much varied4 ,the interior is very smooth1 and remarkable for the brilliancy and lustre of its tints4 ,the head of the animal is furnished with two pointed tentacles or horns1 having an eye at the external base of each4 ,the body is oval and nearly circular1 conical1 or depressed4 ,the foot is in the form of a thick fleshy disk4 ,certain lamellar branchi are arranged in series all round the body4 ,the ,limpets dwell upon the sea-shore1 in the parts alternately covered and uncovered by the waves4 ,they are almost always attached to rocks1 or other submerged bodies1 to which they adhere with great tenacity4 ,if the common ,limpet 7,patella vulgata7 is alarmed before any attempt is made to dislodge it1 no human force1 pulling in a direct line1 can remove it1 and it can sustain without being crushed a weight of many pounds4 ,it holds on by the great quantity of vertical fibres of the foot1 which in raising the median part forms in the centre a sort of sucker4 ,it is the celebrated experiment of the ,magdeburg cups which these little molluscs realise by their vital action4 ,these animals bury themselves in the chalky rocks to the depth of two or three lines2 when they are dispersed1 they are observed constantly to return to the same place4 ,their movements are1 besides1 extremely slow2 the advance of the ,limpet being only perceived by watching the slow upheaval of the shell above the plane of its position4 ,it is supposed1 from the mouth being armed on its upper edge with a large semi-lunar1 horny1 cutting tooth1 and in its lower part from having a tongue furnished with horny hooks1 and from their inhabiting in great numbers places covered with marine plants1 that their food is chiefly vegetable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,patella crulea 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,patella umbella 7,gmel474 ,the poorer inhabitants of the coast eat limpets when they have nothing else1 but their flesh is singularly coriaceous and indigestible4 ,they are found in every sea2 but are1 however1 found to be larger as well as more numerous1 and much richer in colour1 in ,equatorial seas1 and especially in the southern hemisphere1 than in ,european seas4 ,they attain1 in fact1 their maximum of development here2 for in the ,straits of ,magellan species are found as large as a slop-basin1 which the natives use for culinary purposes4 ,the common ,limpet is thick1 solid1 oval1 and nearly circular1 generally conical1 and covered with a great number of very fine stripes4 ,its colour is of a greenish grey1 uniform above1 and of a greenish yellow inside4 ,it is abundant in the ,channel and on ,atlantic coasts4 ,the ,blue ,limpet1 ,patella crulea 7,fig4 #bab71 from ,st4 ,helena1 has an oval shell1 broadest behind1 moderately thick1 depressed1 flattened1 covered with angular wrinkles1 and dentate on the edge4 ,it is of a spotted green outside and of a fine glossy blue within4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,patella granatina 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,patella barbata 7,lamarck74 ,other very elegant species are ,patella umbella 7,fig4 #bac71 from the ,african coast4 ,patella granatina 7,fig4 #bad71 the ruby-eyed ,limpet from the ,antilles2 ,patella barbata1 the bearded ,limpet 7,fig4 #bae72 and the long spined ,limpet1 ,patella longicosta 7,figs4 #baf and #bag74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #baf and #bag4 ,patella longicosta 7,lamarck74 ,the fourth family1 ,calyptrid1 types ,pileopsis and ,calyptra1 was classed by the older conchologists with ,patella4 ,pileopsis ,hungaricus1 the ,hungarian bonnet shell1 is rather abundant on some parts of the ,british coast4 ,the fifth family1 ,fissurellid1 contains ,parmophorus1 the duck's-bill-limpet of ,australia1 and ,fissurella1 the key-hole-limpet1 which is remarkable for the opening of the apex of the shell4 ,the sixth family1 ,haliotid1 contains ,ianthina1 ,scissurella1 and ,haliotis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,ianthina communis 7,lamarck74 ,the attention of naturalists has long been directed to a curious mollusc known under the name of ,ianthina communis 7,fig4 #bah72 its body is globular1 and it presents an opening in front without contracting itself in order to form the head1 which is long and trumpet-shaped1 terminating in a large buccal opening1 furnished with horny plates1 and covered with little hooks2 and two conical tentacles1 slightly contracted1 but very distinct1 each bearing at their external base a long peduncle4 ,the foot is short1 oval1 divided into two parts3 the anterior1 concave and cup-shaped2 the posterior1 flat and fleshy4 ,it is this foot1 which bears a vesiculous mass like foam1 which gives its peculiar character to the pretty mollusc4 ,the mass consists of a great number of small bladders1 which combine to keep the animal on the surface of the water4 ,the shell is light1 transparent1 violet-coloured1 and very much resembles the shell of the ,helix4 ,the ,ianthinas inhabit the deep sea1 and often form bands of very great extent4 ,messrs4 ,quoy and ,gaimard have seen legions of ,ianthinas driven by the current4 ,they have sailed during many days through these wandering tribes1 which would be the sport of every gale if they could not1 by drawing their heads within their shells and contracting their natatorial vesicles1 diminish their volume and increase their weight at will1 so as to sink quietly to the bottom of the water till the tempest was over4 ,the ,ianthina possesses a liquid of a dark violet colour1 which is believed by many naturalists to have been one of the purple dyes known to the ancients1 if not the purple of ,tyre3 it is very common in the ,mediterranean4 ,haliotis1 the ear-shell1 is remarkable for its brilliant colours1 and for a line of singular perforations in many of the species4 ,the seventh family1 ,turbinid1 contains ,trochus1 ,turbo1 ,protella1 ,monodonta1 and ,delphinula4 ,the genus ,trochus are found in all seas1 and near to the shore in the clefts of rocks1 especially in places where sea-weeds grow luxuriantly4 ,some of these thick1 cone-shaped shells are extremely beautiful1 being richly nacred inside1 and remarkable for the beauty and diversity of colour exhibited4 ,generally smooth1 the great spiral is1 nevertheless1 sometimes edged with a series of regular spines4 ,the form is conical1 the spiral more or less raised1 broad and angular at the base2 the opening entire1 depressed transversely1 and the edge disunited in the upper part4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,trochus niloticus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,trochus virgatus 7,gmel474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,trochus inermis 7,gmel474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,trochus ,cookii 7,chemnitz74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,trochus imbricatus 7,gmel474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,phorus conchyliophorus 7,borfu74 ,the animal which inhabits this shell is also spiral2 its head is furnished with two conical tentacles1 having at their base eyes borne on a peduncle2 its foot is short1 round at its two extremities1 edged or fringed in its circumference1 and furnished with a horny operculum1 circular and regularly spiral4 ,the family is divided into many sub-genera4 ,among the ,trochi1 properly so called1 we may notice ,trochus niloticus 7,fig4 #bai71 ,t4 virgatus 7,fig4 #bbj71 ,t4 inermis 7,fig4 #bba71 and ,t4 ,cookii 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,turbo margaritaceus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,turbo argyrostomus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,turbo marmoratus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,turbo undulatus 7,chemnitz74 ,the genus ,turbo are very generally diffused1 being found on every shore1 where they cling to rocks beaten by the waves4 ,about fifty species are known1 some of them large shells1 others very small4 ,turbo margaritaceus 7,fig4 #bbe7 is large1 thick1 and weighty1 round-bellied1 and deeply furrowed2 in colour it is yellow1 or rust-coloured1 marked by square brown spots4 ,turbo argyrostomus1 the ,silver-mouthed ,turbo 7,fig4 #bbf71 is still larger1 with protecting spines on the top of its larger spiral4 ,turbo marmoratus 7,linnus71 the ,marbled ,turbo 7,fig4 #bbg71 is the largest shell in the group4 ,it is marbled1 green1 white1 and brown1 outside1 and superbly nacred within4 ,the ,gold-mouthed ,turbo is so named from its nacre being of a rich golden yellow4 ,the ,wavy ,turbo 7,t4 undulatus71 7,fig4 #bbh71 vulgarly known as the ,australian ,serpent's ,skin4 ,the shell is white1 ornamented with longitudinal waving flexible lines of spots of green1 or greenish-violet4 ,turbo imperialis 7,fig4 #bbi71 from the ,chinese seas1 is green without1 and brilliantly nacred within2 it is vulgarly known as the paroquet4 ,the ,turbos are found in the ,north seas1 in the ,channel1 and on the ,atlantic coast4 ,the animal is eaten in nearly all the sea-ports of the ,channel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,turbo imperialis 7,gmel474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,rotella ,zealandica4 ,rotella ,zealandica1 from the ,indian ,ocean1 whose shell1 represented in ,fig4 #bcj1 presents the most lively colours1 forms one of a genus by no means numerous in species4 ,near to the ,trochi and ,turbos in the system are the ,monodonta4 ,the ,monodonta are elegantly-marked shells1 belonging to the seas of warm countries4 ,m4 ,australis 7,fig4 #bca7 is a native of ,australian seas4 ,m4 labia 7,fig4 #bcb7 is a small brown shell1 with white spots1 which is very common on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,monodonta ,australis 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,monodonta labia 7,lamarck74 ,the eighth family is ,neritid1 of which we give as types1 ,pileolus and ,nerita4 ,the hoof-shells1 or ,nerites1 are numerous and pretty1 and in external form approach ,turbo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,delphinula sphrula 7,kiener74 ,of the ,delphinula only a small number of living species are known4 ,they are natives of the ,indian ,ocean1 and remarkable for their numerous spines and the asperity of their shell 7,fig4 #bcc74 ,the ninth family1 ,paludinid1 contains ,ampullaria1 the idol snail of ,india1 and the widely distributed ,paludina4 ,our tenth family1 ,littorinid1 contains ,solarium1 and the periwinkles1 ,littorina and ,phorus1 example1 ,p4 ,conchyliophorus 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,the genus ,imperator belongs to the ,turbinid1 and as examples of it we may instance the ,spurred ,trochus1 ,imperator stella1 which is studded with radiating spines 7,fig4 #bcd71 and ,imperator stellaris 7,fig4 #bce72 they are natives of the ,australian seas4 ,imperator imperialis1 vulgarly called the ,royal ,spur1 and ,trochus or ,rotella ,zealandica 7,fig4 #bcj71 the ,new ,zealand ,spur1 the spiral turns of which are sculptured in descending furrows1 and studded with imbricated scales1 which form a projecting edging round the margin of the shell1 and give it a radiating form4 ,this species is of a violet brown above and white below1 and is still rare in collections4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,imperator stella 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,trochus stellaris 7,gmel74 ,the ,sun-dial 7,solarium71 recognized by its deep umbilicus1 wide and funnel-shaped1 in the interior of which may be seen the little crenated teeth which follow the edge of every turn of the spiral up to the top4 ,in most collections of these pretty shells we find the ,staircase-shell 7,solarium perspecticum7 of ,lamarck1 from the ,indian ,ocean 7,figs4 #bcf1 #bcg71 the diameter of which is sometimes two inches and a half4 ,the ,australian ,sun-dial 7,s4 variegatum1 ,linnus1 ,fig4 #bch7 is another species frequently seen in collections3 it is as much variegated above as below1 of a white and rusty brown4 ,the minute trellised ,sun-dial1 which is only ten lines in diameter1 comes from the coast of ,tranquebar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,solarium perspecticum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,solarium perspecticum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,solarium variegatum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,turritella replicata 7,linnus74 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,turritella angulata 7,sowerby74 ,fig4 #bda4 ,turritella sanguinea 7,reeve74 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,turritella goniostoma4 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,turritella terebellata 7,lamarck74 ,the eleventh family1 ,turritellid1 types ,vermetus and ,turritella1 which last is a numerous family1 being found in every sea4 ,all these shells1 as their name indicates1 represent a winding pyramid1 terminating in a sharp point1 some of them having fluted spirals1 others rounded1 angular1 or flat1 and some of them elegantly pencilled4 ,figs4 #bci to #bdc represent some of the varied forms they assume4 ,the twelfth family1 ,melaniad1 types1 ,paludomus and ,melania1 fresh-water genera4 ,the thirteenth family1 ,cerithiad1 types1 ,aporrhais and ,cerithium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,cerithium fasciatum 7,brug474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,cerithium aluco4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,cerithium giganteum 7,lamarck74 ,cerithium is a marine shell1 which is found in muddy bottoms1 on ships1 and more frequently at the mouths of rivers1 but rarely beyond the point to which the tide reaches4 ,the genus is numerous in species4 ,such are ,cerithium fasciatum 7,fig4 #bdd7 and ,cerithium aluco 7,fig4 #bde74 ,the ,giant ,cerithium1 ,cerithium giganteum 7,fig4 #bdf71 is the living analogue of a magnificent fossil species belonging to the tertiary formation4 ,the single known example of this species belongs to the ,delessert ,museum at ,paris4 ,a manuscript note by ,lamarck1 attached to this specimen1 relates that this shell was first brought to ,dunkirk in #ahaj by an ,englishman1 one of the crew of an ,english ship4 ,the ,english sailor had drawn it up from the bottom of the sea with the sounding-lead from a bed of rocks off the coast of ,australia4 ,the fourteenth family1 ,pyramidellid1 contains ,chemnitzia and ,pyramidella1 extremely pointed shells4 ,the fifteenth family1 ,naticid1 contains ,lamellaria and ,natica2 the last of which is found in most seas4 ,the second section of the ,prosobranchiata is termed ,siphonostomata1 which are characterized by a spiral imperforate shell1 the animal of which has sometimes a horny operculum1 and is furnished with an elastic trunk1 the margin of the mantle acting as a siphon4 ,they are carnivorous4 ,the first family is the ,cyprid1 containing the well-known ,cypra and ,ovulum4 ,the ,cowries1 or ,cypra1 are brilliant1 smooth1 and polished1 oval-shaped1 or oblong convex1 with edges rolling inwards and longitudinal openings1 narrow1 arched1 dentate on both edges1 and notched at the extremities4 ,the spiral1 placed quite posteriorly1 is very small1 and often hidden by a calcareous bed of a vitreous appearance4 ,it is now known that the form and colouring of the shells vary very considerably1 according to the age of the animal3 so much so1 indeed1 that the same species examined at various stages of its growth would almost seem to belong to species and even to genera essentially different4 ,the young cowries are thin1 conical1 elongated2 with conspicuous spiral1 and large openings4 ,the right edge soon becomes thicker1 and folds itself inwardly2 the opening is narrowed2 finally1 the spiral is unfolded in successive folds from the right edge1 and by successive deposits of the vitreous matter we have spoken of the opening is gradually contracted1 its extremities hollowed out1 its edges disconnected1 and the shell1 until now only shaded in pale tints1 assumes its most brilliant colours1 disposed in bands or spots1 as exhibited in ,,pl4 ,,xxii41 in which ,figs4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 are the adult shells1 and ,fig4 ,,iii4 the young shell1 of ,cypra ,scottii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4--,cyprad4 ,adults4 ,i4 ,cypra ,scottii4 7,broderip47 ,,ii4 ,cypra ,scotti4 7,broderip47 ,young4 ,,iii4 ,cypra4 7,broderip47 ,,iv4 ,cypra mappa4 ,v4 and ,,vi4 ,cypra histrio4 7,linn47 ,,vii4 ,cypra tigris4 7,linn47 ,,viii4 and ,,ix4 ,cypra argus4 7,linn47 ,the animal which inhabits this shell is elongated1 and is provided with a well-developed mantle1 furnished on the inside with a band of tentacles2 it is able to fold itself up in its shell in such a manner as to be enveloped all round4 ,the head is provided with two very long conical tentacles1 each having a very large eye1 in which a pupil and iris can be distinguished4 ,the foot is oval1 elongate1 and without operculum1 and is well represented in ,cypra tigris 7,fig4 #bdg74 ,the cowries are found at a little distance from the shore1 generally in clefts of the rocky bottoms2 but sometimes they bury themselves in the sand4 ,they are timid1 shun the light1 and only leave their retreats to creep about in search of food1 which appears to be exclusively animal4 ,these magnificent molluscs are natives of every sea4 ,one small creature lives in the ,british ,channel2 another and much larger species is found in the ,adriatic2 but the ,indian ,ocean is the home of the largest and finest species of these shells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,cypra tigris 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,cypra coccinella 7,lamarck74 ,as objects of curiosity and ornament these shells have been much in request in all ages4 ,the inhabitants of the ,asiatic coast make bracelets1 collars1 amulets1 and head-dresses of them1 and use them to ornament boxes and harness4 ,in ,new ,zealand the chiefs carry a rare and choice species1 suspended from the neck1 as a badge of their rank or sign of distinction4 ,this is ,cypra aurantium4 ,in some parts of ,india and ,africa a very small species of ,cowrie passes as current money4 ,these shells are1 indeed1 extremely numerous1 and we can only find room for very brief descriptions of a few of the best known among them4 ,the ,waving and ,zigzag ,cowries1 whose native country is unknown1 are beautifully ornamented with waving and broken lines1 as we see them in ,figs4 #bdi to #beb4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bdi and #bej4 ,cypra undata 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bea and #beb4 ,cypra zigzag 7,linnus74 ,the ,new ,zealand ,cowrie1 of which we have spoken above1 is nearly globular1 of a uniform orange colour above1 and white below2 the teeth of the opening are of a bright orange4 ,the shell is rare1 and much sought after4 ,the ,money ,cowrie1 ,cypra moneta 7,figs4 #bec and #bed71 is a little oval shell1 depressed1 flat below1 with very thick edges and slightly waving4 ,it is of a uniform yellowish white colour1 sometimes citron-yellow above and white below4 ,there are usually twelve teeth in the opening4 ,it comes from the ,indian ,ocean1 the ,maldivian ,isles1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bec and #bed4 ,cypra moneta 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,cypra ,madagascariensis 7,gmel474 7#a and #b74 ,this shell1 so common in collections1 is gathered by the women on the shore of the ,maldivian ,isles1 three days after the full moons and before the new moons2 it is afterwards transported to ,bengal1 to ,india1 and ,africa1 where1 as we have already said1 it is used by the negroes and other natives as money4 ,the ,madagascar ,cowrie1 ,cypra ,madagascariensis 7,fig4 #bee71 and the ,granular ,cowrie1 ,cypra nucleus 7,figs4 #bei and #bfj71 are beautifully marked species1 having the general appearance of the ,cowrie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,cypra capensis 7,gray74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #beg and #beh4 ,cypra testudinaria 7,linnus74 ,the species most abundant in the ,channel is the little ,coccinella1 already mentioned2 it is very small1 oval1 tun-bellied1 the opening dilated in front with smooth transverse stripes of greyish1 tawny1 or rose-colour1 with or without spots4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bei and #bfj4 ,cypra nucleus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,cypra pantherina 7,sol474 ,cypra mappa 7,,pl4 ,,xxii41 ,fig4 ,,iv47 is oval-shaped1 swelling below its sides1 well-rounded1 ornamented with small white spots below1 with a dorsal branching line above2 the interior is violet colour1 with thirty-six teeth on one side1 and forty-two on the other4 ,it belongs to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the ,harlequin ,cowrie1 ,cypra histrio 7,figs4 ,v4 and ,,vi471 from the coast of ,madagascar1 is ornamented with white spots very closely arranged1 and much circumscribed above1 with black spots upon the sides4 ,the under side is violet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,natural size of ,ovulum oviformis 7,lamarck74 ,a very fine species1 which is very common in collections1 is found in the ,indian ,ocean1 from ,madagascar to the ,moluccas--the ,tiger ,cowrie1 already figured with its inhabitant4 ,this shell 7,fig4 ,,vii47 is large1 oval1 tun-bellied1 thick1 and convex1 of a bluish white1 ornamented with numerous broad1 black1 round spots1 much scattered1 and a straight dorsal line1 brown above1 and very white below4 ,it has generally twenty-three teeth on each edge1 quite white4 ,somewhat resembling the ,tiger ,cowrie is the ,cypra pantherina 7,fig4 #bfa71 which is perhaps a variety of the same species4 ,another remarkable species is ,cypra argus1 as represented in ,,pl4 ,,xxii4 7,figs4 ,,viii4 and ,,ix47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,natural size of ,ovulum cornea 7,lamk474 ,the genus ,ovulum1 so called from their egg-shaped form1 occupy a place near the cones in some systems4 ,the shell is highly polished1 white or rose-coloured1 oblong or oval1 convex1 attenuate1 and acuminate at the extremities without apparent spiral1 the edges milled within the long1 narrow1 and curved opening1 with teeth upon the left edge1 and with a few ripples on the right edge4 ,the ,ovula are inhabitants of the ,indian ,ocean and ,chinese ,seas4 ,some few species1 however1 belong to the ,mediterranean and the ,black ,sea4 ,the three species represented in ,figs4 #bfb1 #bfc1 and #bfd1 present very singular contrasts of form and size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,ovulum volva 7,linnus74 ,the second family1 ,volutid1 contains ,mitra and ,voluta4 ,,mitra4 ,the ,mitres are so called from their resemblance to the bishop's mitre4 ,they are natives of warm climates1 such as the ,indian ,ocean1 the ,australian ,seas1 and the ,moluccas4 ,the shell of the ,mitra is long1 slender1 and spiral1 the spire ending in a point at the summit2 the opening is small1 narrow1 and triangular1 and notched in front4 ,the inhabitant of the shell has the peculiarity of projecting from its mouth a sort of cylindrical trunk1 which is long1 very extensible as well as flexible1 and probably prehensile1 the use of which is only the subject of surmise4 ,mitra episcopalis 7,fig4 #bfe71 from the ,indian ,ocean1 is white1 ornamented with square spots of a fine red1 and capable of high polish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,mitra episcopalis 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,mitra papalis 7,lamarck74 ,mitra papalis 7,fig4 #bff7 has dentiform folds round the opening1 which also crown each turn of the spiral2 the spots are smaller1 and much more numerous and varied in form than those of ,m4 episcopalis4 ,in the genus ,voluta1 from volvere1 to turn1 the shell is oval1 more or less tun-bellied4 ,a spiral rising1 slightly mammelate1 the opening large1 the edges notched1 without channel2 the columellar edge is lightly excavated and arranged in oblique folds4 ,the right edge is arched1 thick1 or cutting1 according to the species4 ,the animal has a large head1 provided with two tentacles4 ,the mouth terminates in a thick trunk furnished with hooked teeth4 ,the foot is very large1 furrowed in front1 and projecting from all parts of the shell1 but without operculum4 ,the ,volut live on the sands near the shore2 sometimes they are found high and dry1 left by the retreating tide4 ,their shells1 of various forms1 are ornamented with the most lively colours1 the surface covered with irregular lines1 the tint of which is generally in strong contrast with that of the ground4 ,among the more remarkable species illustrated in ,,pl4 ,,xxiii41 we may note3 ,fig4 ,i41 ,voluta undulata2 ,fig4 ,,ii41 ,voluta cymbium2 ,fig4 ,,iii41 ,voluta delessertii2 ,fig4 ,,iv41 ,voluta musica2 ,fig4 ,v41 ,voluta imperialis2 ,fig4 ,,vi41 ,voluta scapha2 and ,fig4 ,,vii41 ,voluta vexillum4 ,the third family1 ,conid1 contains ,pleurostoma and ,conus4 ,the genus ,conus is especially rich in species1 as well as numerous in many individuals4 ,they are much sought after by collectors1 many being rare1 and so command high prices4 ,the shells belonging to this group present a very remarkable uniformity of shape1 at the same time that the colours are very fine1 and much varied in design4 ,the shell is thick1 solid1 inversely conical1 wreathing spirally from the base to the apex1 the spiral being generally short1 the last turn constituting alone the greater part of the surface of the shell4 ,the opening extends nearly along its whole length1 occupying all the height of the last whirl4 ,it is always narrow1 its edges quite parallel2 the columella presents neither fold nor curvature2 the right edge is plain1 sharp1 and thin1 detached from the front of the last spiral by a sloping hollow1 more or less deep4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4--,voluta4 ,i4 ,voluta undulata4 7,lamarck47 ,,ii4 ,voluta cymbium4 7,linn47 ,,iii4 ,voluta ,delessertii4 7,petit47 ,,iv4 ,voluta musica4 7,linn47 ,v4 ,voluta imperialis4 7,lamarck47 ,,vi4 ,voluta scapha4 7,gmel47 ,,vii4 ,voluta vexillum4 7,chem47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4--,conus4 ,i4 ,conus imperialis4 7,linn47 ,,ii4 ,conus geographus4 7,linn47 ,,iii4 ,conus tessellatus4 7,born47 ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi4 ,conus ammiralis4 7,linn47 ,,vii4 ,conus nobilis4 7,linn47 ,,viii4 ,conus textile4 7,linn47 ,,ix4 ,conus gloria maris4 7,chemn47 ,the animal which inhabits the ,conus shell creeps upon a foot1 elongated1 narrow1 truncate in front1 furnished behind with a horny rudimentary operculum1 altogether insufficient to cover the opening4 ,the head1 which is large1 is elongated into a little snout1 or muzzle1 at the base of which rises on either side a conical tentacle1 having an exterior eye upon its anterior extremity4 ,at the extremity of the muzzle is the mouth1 which is armed within with numerous horny hooks1 inserted in the tongue4 ,a cylindrical syphon1 reversing itself in the shell1 serves the purpose of carrying water to the branchi or gills4 ,the shells inhabit the seas of warm countries1 especially those lying between the ,tropics1 where they affect sandy coasts1 with a depth of ten to twelve fathoms of water4 ,among the species bearing a spiral crown1 we may mention the rare ,conus cedonulli1 of which several varieties are known1 which come from the ,south ,american ,seas and the ,antilles4 ,conus hebraica1 from the shores of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 is a common species4 ,it is white with black spots1 which are nearly square1 arranged in transverse bands4 ,in ,,pl4 ,,xxi4 we have represented some interesting species4 ,conus imperialis 7,fig4 ,i47 is a fine species1 of white colour1 with bands of a greenish yellow or tawny colour1 ornamented with transverse1 cord-like1 articulated lines of white and brown4 ,one of the largest species is ,conus geographus 7,fig4 ,,ii471 which sometimes attains the length of six or seven inches2 it is shaded white and brown4 ,among the non-crowned species1 we have represented in ,fig4 ,,iii4 ,conus tessellatus1 common in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,its anterior part is violet in the interior4 ,the spots with which it is surrounded are of a fine red or scarlet1 or1 in short1 a red lead colour upon a white ground4 ,conus ammiralis1 of which three varieties1 ,figs4 ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi41 are natives of the seas which bathe the ,moluccas2 they are beautifully marked varieties1 of a brownish citron colour1 marked with white spots nearly triangular1 with tawny bands painted in very fine tracery4 ,this species has been1 and is still1 much sought after by collectors1 and presents many varieties besides those represented4 ,among the shells1 which seem almost ready to become cylindrical1 may be noted ,conus nobilis 7,fig4 ,,vii471 a rare shell of yellowish colour approaching citron1 ornamented with white spots4 ,the golden drop1 ,conus textile 7,fig4 ,,viii471 is yellow in colour1 ornamented with waving longitudinal lines of brown1 and white corded spots edged with tawny colour4 ,the glory of the sea1 ,conus gloria maris 7,fig4 ,,ix471 is white in colour1 banded with orange1 and reticulated with numerous triangular white spots edged with brown4 ,this is a native of the ,east ,indies1 and one of the most beautiful shells of the whole group4 ,the fourth family1 ,buccinid1 contains numerous genera1 as examples of which we may instance ,oliva1 ,harpa1 ,cassis1 ,purpura1 ,nassa1 ,terebra1 ,eburna1 and ,buccinum4 ,oliva is so named from their resemblance in form to the olive4 ,their nearly cylindrical shell is slightly spiral1 polished1 and brilliant as the ,cowries2 its opening is still long and narrow1 strongly notched in front1 its edge columellar1 swollen anteriorly into a kind of cushion1 and striped obliquely in all its length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,oliva erythrostoma 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,oliva porphyria 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,oliva irisans 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,oliva ,peruviana 7,lamarck74 ,these ,molluscs belong to the seas of warm countries1 where they frequent the sandy bottoms and clear waters4 ,they creep about with much agility1 reversing themselves quickly when they have been overturned2 they live upon other animals1 and are flesh-eaters4 ,they are1 in fact1 taken at the ,isle of ,tranu by using flesh as bait4 ,the colours of the shell are very varied1 and sometimes fantastically streaked4 ,oliva erythrostoma 7,fig4 #bfg7 is ornamented externally with flexual lines of a yellowish brown1 with two brown bands1 combined with the fine yellowish tint of gold colour within4 ,oliva porphyria1 from the ,brazil coast 7,fig4 #bfh71 presents lines of a reddish brown1 regularly interlaced with spotted large brown marks1 upon a flesh-coloured ground4 ,oliva irisans 7,fig4 #bfi7 is painted in zigzag lines1 close and brown1 edged with orange-yellow1 and with two zones of darker brown1 and reticulated4 ,oliva ,peruviana 7,fig4 #bgj7 is furrowed with regularly spaced bands4 ,in the casque1 ,cassis1 the shell is oval1 convex1 and the spiral of considerable height4 ,the longitudinal opening narrow1 terminating in front in a short channel1 which becomes suddenly erect towards the back of the shell1 as in ,cassis glauca 7,fig4 #bga71 a fine shell from the ,moluccas4 ,the columella is folded or toothed transversely1 as in ,fig4 #bgb 7,cassis rufa72 the right edge thick1 furnished with a sort of pad externally1 and dentate within4 ,this shell is from the ,indian ,ocean1 and is of a fine purple colour1 varied with black above2 the edges of the opening being of a coral red colour1 the teeth alone being white4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,cassis glauca 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,cassis rufa 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,cassis canaliculata 7,brugires74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bgd and #bge4 ,cassis ,madagascariensis 7,lamarck74 ,the head of the animal is large and thick1 furnished with two conical elongated tentacles1 at the base of which are the eyes4 ,the mantle is ranged outside the shell1 falling back upon the edges of the opening1 and terminating at its anterior extremity in a long cylindrical channel1 cloven in front1 and passing by a hollow at the base into the bronchial cavity4 ,the foot is large1 and furnished with a horny operculum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,cassis zebra 7,lamarck74 ,these animals keep near the shore1 in shallow water4 ,they walk slowly1 and often sink themselves into the sand1 where they prey upon small bivalves4 ,they are not numerous in species2 but specimens from the ,indian ,ocean are often large and beautifully marked4 ,the shells of the less marked species are frequently used in ,india as lime2 and employed as mortar1 under the name of ,chunam4 ,our space only permits us to mention1 among the more curious1 ,cassis canaliculata 7,fig4 #bgc71 two varieties of ,cassis ,madagascariensis 7,figs4 #bgd and #bge71 and the curious ,cassis undata 7,martini71 ,zebra 7,lam471 or ,zebra-marked ,casque 7,fig4 #bgf74 ,,purpura4 ,the ,purpuras have a classical name and history1 having furnished the ,greeks and ,romans with the brilliant purple colouring matter which was reserved for the mantles of patricians and princes4 ,the ,purpura is an oval shell1 thick pointed1 with short conical spiral1 as in ,purpura lapillus 7,fig4 #bgg74 ,in some it is tubercular or angular1 the last turn of the spiral being larger than all the others put together4 ,the opening is dilated1 terminating at its lower extremity in an oblique notch4 ,the columellar edge is smooth1 often terminating in a point2 the right edge often digitate1 thick internally1 and folded or rippled4 ,the animal presents a large head1 furnished with two swollen conical tentacles1 close together1 and bearing an eye towards the middle of their external side4 ,its foot is large1 bilobate in front1 with a semicircular horny operculum4 ,the ,purpuras inhabit the clefts of rocks in marine regions covered with alg4 ,on occasions they bury themselves in the sand4 ,they creep about by the help of their foot in pursuit of bivalves1 which they open by means of their short snout4 ,they are found in all seas2 but the larger species and greatest numbers come from warm regions1 more especially from the ,australian seas4 ,the ,purpura of the ancients was not1 as is generally thought1 a vermilion red1 but rather a very deep violet1 which at a later period came to have various shades of red4 ,the secret of its preparation was only known to the ,phoenicians1 that being most esteemed which came from ,tyre4 ,an ,english traveller1 ,mr4 ,wilde1 has discovered on the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean1 near the ruins of ,tyre1 a certain number of circular excavations in the solid rock4 ,in these excavations he found a great number of broken shells of ,murex trunculus4 ,it is probable that they had been bruised in great masses by the ,tyrian workmen for the manufacture of the purple dye4 ,many shells of the same species are found actually living on the same coast at the present time4 ,aristotle1 in his writings1 dwells upon the purple4 ,he says that this dye is taken from two flesh-eating molluscs inhabiting the sea which washes the ,phoenician coast4 ,according to the description given by the celebrated ,greek philosopher1 one of these animals had a very large shell1 consisting of seven turns of the spiral1 studded with spines1 and terminating in a strong beak2 the other had a shell much smaller4 ,aristotle named the last animal ,buccinum4 ,it is thought that the last species is recognized in the ,purpura lapillus 7,fig4 #bgg71 which abounds in the ,channel4 ,raumur and ,duhamel obtained1 in fact1 a purple colour from this species1 which they applied to some stuffs1 and found that it resisted the strongest lye4 ,the genus ,murex is supposed to have been the first species indicated by ,aristotle4 ,up to the present time1 the production of the purple remains a mystery4 ,it was long thought this fine dye was furnished by the stomach1 liver1 and kidneys2 but ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers has demonstrated that the organ which secretes it is found on the lower surface of the mantle1 between the intestines and the respiratory organs1 where it forms a sort of fascia1 or small band4 ,the colouring matter1 as it is extracted from the animal1 is yellowish2 exposed to the light1 it becomes golden yellow1 then green1 taking finally a fine violet tint4 ,while these transformations are in progress a peculiarly pungent odour is disengaged1 which strongly reminds one of that of assafoetida4 ,that portion of the matter which has not passed into the violet tint is soluble in water2 when it has taken that tint it becomes insoluble4 ,the appearance of the colour seems provoked rather by the influence of the sun's rays than by the action of the air4 ,the matter attains its final colour1 in short1 in proportion to the power of the sun's rays4 ,it is a question how far the colour evolved under the solar rays remains indelible4 ,it is known that the contrary is the case with the colouring matter of the cochineal insect1 which changes very quickly when exposed to the sun4 ,it is probably the remarkable resistance it opposes to the rays of the sun which recommended it to the ancients4 ,the patricians of ,rome1 and the rich citizens of ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 loved to watch the magical reflections of the sun on the glorious colour which ornamented their mantles4 ,but to return to our humble shells4 ,purpura lapillus 7,fig4 #bgg7 is a thick shell1 oval acute1 with conical spiral1 generally of a faded or yellowish white1 zoned with brown1 and more or less spotted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,purpura lapillus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,purpura patula4 ,purpura patula 7,fig4 #bgh7 is very common in the ,philippines1 and is one of the handsomest species2 its geographical distribution has been a subject of much controversy4 ,purpura consul 7,fig4 #bgi7 is one of the large shells1 and of a fine salmon colour1 with brown bands and a corona of spines4 ,the ,buccinums resemble the ,purpura in many respects4 ,their shell is oval or conical1 much notched in front4 ,they inhabit every sea1 especially those of ,europe4 ,the animal has a small flat head1 furnished with lateral tentacles or horns1 bearing the eyes upon an external swelling1 situated near their central length4 ,we need only refer to ,fig4 #bhj1 ,buccinum senticosum1 and ,buccinum undatum 7,fig4 #bha71 for their general form1 the well-known whelk of our markets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,purpura consul4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,buccinum senticosum 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,buccinum undatum 7,linnus74 ,the ,harpas are shells of the ,indian ,ocean1 richly enamelled within1 and ornamented externally with slightly oblique longitudinal stripes in gay colours1 with finely-sculptured forms in the intervals2 spiral very small1 and opening large4 ,among the more attractive species are ,harpa ventricosa 7,fig4 #bhb71 ,harpa imperialis 7,fig4 #bhc71 and ,harpa articularis 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,the fifth family1 ,muricid1 contains ,fusus1 ,pyrula1 ,triton1 and ,murex4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,harpa ventricosa 7,lamarck74 ,the ,murex1 or ,rock ,shells1 include a large number of species1 all remarkable for their bright colours and somewhat fantastical and varied forms4 ,they are found in all seas1 but become larger and more branching in the seas of warm regions4 ,the shell is oval1 or rather oblong1 the spire more or less elevated1 its surface generally covered with rows of spines1 or tubercular ramifications4 ,the opening1 which is oval1 is prolonged in a straight canal1 often of very considerable length1 as in ,fig4 #bhf 7,murex haustellum72 the external edge is often smooth or rippled1 the columellar edge sometimes callous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,harpa imperialis 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,harpa articularis 7,lamarck74 ,the head of the animal is furnished with two horns or tentacles1 ocular upon their external side1 the mouth elongated in the form of a trunk4 ,the foot is large and round1 and furnished with a horny operculum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,murex tenuispina 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,murex haustellum 7,linnus74 ,among the species with long slender tube1 covered with spines1 one of the most notable is ,murex tenuispina 7,fig4 #bhe71 which is a native of the ,indian ,ocean and the ,moluccas4 ,among the strong-tubed species with long canal and no spines1 from the same regions1 is ,murex haustellum 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,among the short-tubed species1 furnished with foliaceous and jagged fringes1 is ,murex scorpio 7,fig4 #bhg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,murex scorpio 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,murex erinaceus 7,linnus74 ,one more typical species may be noted1 namely1 ,murex erinaceus 7,fig4 #bhh71 which is found on all the coasts of ,europe1 and especially in the ,channel4 ,other species worthy of notice are found in the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic1 some of them1 according to ,cuvier and de ,blainville1 species which furnished the true ,tyrian purple of the ancients2 but our space prevents us from dwelling on them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,triton variegatum 7,lam474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,triton lotorium 7,linn474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4 ,triton anus 7,lam474 ,the ,tritons are ranged beside the genus ,murex in the system4 ,their shell is irregularly covered with scattered swelling excrescences1 not1 as in ,murex1 in longitudinal rows1 but scattered all over the surface4 ,about one hundred species of ,triton are known4 ,they inhabit many seas1 but more especially those in warm countries4 ,triton variegatum1 vulgarly called the ,marine ,trumpet 7,fig4 #bhi71 is a very large shell1 which even attains a length of sixteen inches2 it is enamelled with great elegance in white1 red1 and tawny-brown4 ,they come from the ,indian ,ocean1 where they are very common4 ,triton lotorium 7,fig4 #bij7 is of a reddish brown externally and white within4 ,the ,triton anus 7,fig4 #bia7 is of a whitish colour1 spotted with red4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,fusus proboscidiferus 7,lam474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,fusus pagodus 7,lesson74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,fusus colus4 ,the genus ,fusus1 or spindle shells1 is distinguished by the elegance of its form rather than by the brilliancy of its colours4 ,they are spindle-shaped1 spire many-whorled1 canal long1 operculum egg-shaped4 ,among the more remarkable species may be noted ,fusus proboscidiferus 7,fig4 #bib71 ,fusus pagodus 7,fig4 #bic71 and ,fusus colus 7,fig4 #bid74 ,the sixth family is ,strombid1 of which we give as types1 ,rostellaria1 ,pteroceras1 and ,strombus4 ,strombus is a marine shell1 belonging to ,equatorial seas1 of whose habits and manners very little is known4 ,it is probable that they are long-lived1 for their shells1 when found perfect1 have acquired a very considerable thickness and weight4 ,they are even found encrusted in the interior with numerous layers of soft earthy sediment1 and covered externally with small corals and other marine productions4 ,strombus gigas is represented in ,figs4 #bie and #bif4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,strombus gigas 7,linnus71 with the animal4 ,some species of ,strombus attain great size1 and are placed as ornaments in halls and dining-rooms4 ,in some of them the opening is brilliantly shaded1 and those are chiefly sought after to decorate grottoes in gardens1 or for collections of shells1 where1 from their size1 they necessarily occupy a prominent place4 ,these shells are tun-bellied1 terminating at their base by a short canal1 notched or truncated2 the right edge gets dilated with age2 simple on one wing1 lobed or cuneated in the upper part1 and presenting in its lower part a groove or cavity separated from the canal or from the notch at the base4 ,but these shells are not merely ornamental1 for some of the streets of ,vera ,cruz are said to be paved with ,strombus gigas4 ,the animal which inhabits this shell presents a distinct head1 provided with a trunk or snout1 and with two tentacles or horns1 each bearing a large and vividly-coloured eye4 ,the foot is compressed and divided into two portions1 the posterior one1 which is the longest1 bearing a horny operculum4 ,in the eagle-winged ,strombus1 represented in ,figs4 #bif and #big1 these several peculiarities are well developed4 ,this shell is large1 turbinate1 distended in the middle1 with an acutely-pointed spiral studded with conical tubercles1 the right edge very broad1 rounded off below4 ,the opening is of a vivid rose purple fading into white4 ,it is a native of the ,antilles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,shell of ,strombus gigas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,strombus gallus 7,linn474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,strombus luhuanus 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,strombus cancellatus 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,strombus thersites 7,gray74 ,strombus gallus1 or the angel-winged 7,fig4 #big71 veined with stripes of white and red1 comes from the coasts of ,asia and ,america4 ,strombus luhuanus 7,fig4 #bih7 is fawn-coloured1 marked with white1 and externally the right edge is red and striped2 inside the columella is shaded purple and black4 ,strombus cancellatus1 the trellised ,strombus 7,fig4 #bii71 is small in size and white in colour4 ,strombus thersites is also represented 7,fig4 #cjj74 ,,pteroceras4 ,the ,pteroceras1 from 1 wing1 and 1 horn1 in many respects resemble the ,strombi4 ,they are distinguished from them chiefly in this1 that the right edge developes itself with age in long and slender digital spines more or less numerous1 the numbers of which vary according to the species4 ,the ,pterocer are found in the seas of both hemispheres1 their vulgar denomination being sea-spiders or scorpions4 ,a glance at the illustrations 7,fig4 #cja1 ,pteroceras scorpio2 ,fig4 #cjb1 ,p4 millepeda2 ,fig4 #cjc1 ,p4 chiragra2 and ,fig4 #cjd1 ,p4 lambis7 will satisfy the reader as to the general correctness of this designation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,pteroceras ,scorpio 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,pteroceras millepeda 7,linnus74 ,the genus ,pteroceras1 whose remarkable form is so well calculated to excite our admiration1 has yet another attraction3 the colouring of the shell exhibits many shades1 which are particularly varied towards the opening1 where it is generally distinguished by great freshness and brilliancy1 which1 added to its other characters1 render it the most interesting of all the ,gasteropods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,pteroceras chiragra 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,pteroceras lambis 7,linnus74 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,molluscous ,,pteropods4 ,natura non facit saltus4 ,,linn,,us4 ,the position of the ,pteropoda is somewhat unsatisfactory4 ,their organization in some respects places them below the level of the ,gasteropods2 but yet the general feeling amongst naturalists has been to assign them a place between the ,gasteropods and the most highly organized of the molluscs1 the ,cephalopods4 ,the number of genera and species is less than that of the other great classes of molluscs4 ,there are three principal ,families of ,pteropods4 ,first1 the ,cliid1 containing ,cymodocea1 ,pelagia1 ,pneumodermon1 and ,clio4 ,second1 ,limacinid1 containing ,macgillivrayia1 ,cheletropis1 ,spirialis1 and ,limacina4 ,third1 ,hyaleid1 containing ,tiedemannia1 ,cymbulia1 ,eurybia1 ,theca1 ,cleodora1 and ,hyalea4 ,the principal characteristic of the ,pteropoda is a membranous expansion situated on the right and left side of their head1 from which they take their name of ,pteropoda1 from -1 winged feet4 ,the wings or flappers with which they are provided enable them to pass rapidly through the water1 reminding us strongly of the movements of a butterfly1 or other winged insect1 and like them1 their motions are long continued4 ,they advance in this manner in a given direction1 while the body or the shell remains in an oblique or vertical position4 ,these little molluscs may be seen to ascend to the surface very suddenly1 turn themselves in a determinate space1 or rather swim1 without appearing to change their place while sustaining themselves at the same height4 ,if anything alarms them they fold up their flappers1 and descend to such a depth in their watery world as will give them the security they seek4 ,they thus pass their lives in the open sea far from any other shelter1 except that yielded by the gulf weed and other alg4 ,in appearance and habits1 these small and sometimes microscopic creatures resemble the fry of some other forms of mollusca4 ,they literally swarm both in ,tropical and ,arctic seas2 sometimes so numerous as to colour the ocean for leagues4 ,they are the principal food of whales and sea-birds in high latitudes1 rarely approaching the coast4 ,only one or two species have been accidentally taken on our shores1 and those evidently driven thither by currents into which they have been entangled1 or by tempests which have stirred the waters with a power beyond theirs4 ,dr4 ,leach states that in #ahaa1 during a tour to the ,orkneys1 he observed on the rocks of the ,isle of ,staffa several mutilated specimens of ,clio borealis4 ,some days after1 having borrowed a large shrimp-net1 and rowing along the coast of ,mull1 when the sea1 which had previously been extremely stormy1 had become calm1 he succeeded in catching one alive1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,in structure1 ,mr4 ,huxley tells us1 the ,pteropods are most nearly related to the marine univalves1 but much inferior to them4 ,their numerous ganglia are concentrated into a mass below the sophagus2 they have auditory vesicles containing otolithes1 and are sensible of light and heat1 and probably of odours1 although at most they possess very imperfect eyes and tentacles4 ,the true foot is small or obsolete2 in ,cleodora lanceolata 7,fig4 #cji7 it is combined with the fins2 but in ,clio it is sufficiently distinct1 and consists of two elements or spirals2 the superior portion of the foot supports an operculum4 ,the fins are developed from the sides of the mouth or neck1 and are the equivalents of the side-lappets 7,epipoda7 of the sea-snails4 ,the mouth of ,pneumodermon is furnished with two supporting miniature suckers2 these organs have been compared to the dorsal arms of the cuttle-fishes2 but it is doubtful whether their nature is the same4 ,a more certain point of resemblance is the ventral flexure of the alimentary canal1 which terminates on the under surface near the right side of the neck4 ,the ,pteropods have a muscular gizzard armed with gastric teeth1 a liver1 a pyloric ccum1 and a contractile renal organ opening into the cavity of the mantle4 ,the heart consists of an auricle and a ventricle1 and is essentially opisthobranchiatic1 although sometimes affected by the general flexure of the body4 ,the venous system is extremely incomplete4 ,the respiratory organ1 which is little more than a ciliated surface1 is either situated at the extremity of the body1 and unprotected by a mantle1 or included in a branchial chamber with an opening in front4 ,the shell when present is symmetrical1 glassy1 and translucent1 consisting of a dorsal and a ventral plate united1 with an anterior opening for the head1 lateral slits for long filiform processes of the mantle1 and terminated behind in one or three points2 in other cases it is conical or spirally-coiled1 and closed by a spiral operculum4 ,the sexes are united1 and the orifices situated on the right side of the neck4 ,according to ,vogt1 the embryo ,pteropod has deciduous vola like the sea-snails1 before the proper locomotive organs are developed4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #cje and #cjf4 ,hyalea gibbosa 7,rang474 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #cjg and #cjh4 ,hyalea longirostris 7,lesueur74 ,the ,pteropods seem to be eminently sociable and gregarious1 swarming together in great numbers2 they present some analogical resemblances to the ,cephalopod2 but permanently they represent the larval stage of the sea-snails4 ,de ,blainville divides the group into two sections1 ,thecosomata and ,gymnosomata1 the first including the ,hyaleid and ,limacinid2 the second contains one family1 the ,cliid4 ,the ,hyaleid have small horny shells1 very thin and transparent1 globulous1 or elongated1 open anteriorly1 cloven on the sides1 and truncate at the posterior extremity4 ,their globular body is formed of two parts1 the one including the head1 bearing two very strong tentacles1 and two large fins or flappers in the form of wings1 springing from each side of the mouth4 ,these molluscs are small1 and generally of a yellowish-blue or violet colour4 ,they are inhabitants of the deep sea1 and rarely seen out of what sailors call blue water4 ,they plough the waves with great rapidity by the aid of their powerful fins4 ,certain winds throw them sometimes in great numbers on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,these little creatures1 so inoffensive1 and which live together in vast numbers1 seem to be an easy and ready-prepared prey1 which the great marine animals may swallow by thousands4 ,twenty species of ,hyalea are described as actually living in the ,atlantic and ,australian seas4 ,of these ,hyalea gibbosa 7,figs4 #cje1 #cjf7 and ,hyalea longirostris 7,figs4 #cjg1 #cjh7 are here represented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,cleodora lanceolata 7,lesueur74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caj4 ,cleodora compressa 7,eydoux and ,souleyet74 ,the great flappers of ,hyalea tridentata are yellow1 marked at their base with a fine violet spot4 ,its shell1 plain above1 convex beneath1 is cloven on the side4 ,the superior part is longer than the inferior1 and the transverse line which unites them is furnished with three teeth4 ,this shell is yellow1 and nearly translucent4 ,when the animal swims1 two expansions of its mantle issue from the lateral clefts in the shell4 ,cleodora lanceolata is a delicate and graceful creature2 its body1 of gelatinous appearance1 has a distinct head1 with its fins near the neck1 notched in the form of a heart 7,fig4 #cji72 its posterior part is globulous1 transparent1 and luminous even in the dark4 ,the animal which inhabits it sometimes shines through the shell like a light placed inside a lantern4 ,this shell is triangular1 as in ,cleodora cuspidata 7,fig4 #caa71 thin1 vitreous1 and fragile1 terminating in a long spine at the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caa4 ,cleodora cuspidata 7,bucc47 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,cephalopodous ,,mollusca4 ,monstrum horrendum1 informe1 ingens4 ,,virgil4 ,the highest class of ,molluscs is the ,cephalopoda1 which has been divided by ,professor ,owen into two ,orders1 ,tetrabranchiata1 or animals having four branchi1 and the ,dibranchiata1 having two branchi4 ,the first ,family of the ,tetrabranchiata1 having the ,ammonitid1 contains the fossil ,turrilites and ,ammonites4 ,the second ,family1 ,orthoceratid1 contains the fossil ,gomphoceras and ,orthoceras4 ,the third ,family1 ,nautilid1 contains ,nautilus4 ,the name ,cephalopoda1 as already stated1 is taken from the position of the feet1 which are inserted in the anterior part of the head3 in ,greek 1 head1 and -1 foot4 ,the ,cephalopodous ,molluscs are indeed highly organised for ,molluscs1 for they possess in a high degree the sense of sight1 hearing1 and touch4 ,they appear with the earlier animals which present themselves on the earth1 and they are numerous even now1 although they are far from playing the important part assigned to them in the early ages of organic life upon our planet4 ,the ,ammonites and ,belemnites existed by thousands among the beings which peopled the seas during the secondary epoch in the history of the globe4 ,this great class is otherwise divided into two orders3 ,tentaculiferous ,cephalopods1 those furnished with strong fleshy tentacula1 and ,acetabuliferous1 or sucker-bearing4 ,,tentaculiferous ,,cephalopods4 ,in place of bearing simple suckers 7,acetabula71 like the last order of ,cephalopods1 this group is furnished with true organs of prehension1 or tentacles4 ,they differ from the first group chiefly in their more numerous arms1 which are quite tentaculiferous1 having neither suckers nor capsules1 and by having an external shell4 ,the number of living species is extremely limited2 for this group of animals belongs peculiarly to the earlier ages of our globe1 is gradually becoming extinct1 and presents in our days only some rarer species1 when we compare them with the prodigious numbers of these beings which animated the seas of the ancient world4 ,in fact1 the only living type of the order is the nautilus1 which has a singular resemblance in form to the argonaut4 ,the shell of this mollusc has a regularly convoluted form1 the last whorl being equal to all the others4 ,it is divided internally into numerous cells1 formed by transverse partitions1 concave in front and perforated towards the centre1 and forming a kind of funnel1 which gives passage to a respiratory siphon4 ,in the last cell of the shell 7,fig4 #cab7 is the animal1 covered by its mantle1 which covers the walls of the cells4 ,when it contracts itself it is protected by a sort of triangular and fleshy hood4 ,numerous contractile tentacles1 re-entering into the sheath1 some of them furnished with numerous lamell1 surround the head1 which is1 besides1 scarcely distinguished from the body4 ,the head bears two great projecting eyes1 planted upon a peduncle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cab4 ,nautilus pompilius 7,linnus71 showing the interior of the lower cell1 to which the animal is fixed4 ,like ,sepia and ,octopus1 the mouth of the ,nautilid is armed with mandibles1 fashioned like the parrot's beak2 the branchi are four in number4 ,the circulating system consists of a ventricle and auricle1 and the locomotive tube is protected in its whole length4 ,the shell is secreted by the outer edge of the mantle1 while its posterior extremity fashions the walls of the cells1 which indicate the successive growth of the individual4 ,the siphon1 which traverses all the chambers1 receives and protects the ligament1 by the aid of which the ,cephalopod is retained in the last chamber of the shell4 ,fig4 #cac is the same section1 with the last cell empty1 and with the perforations through which the siphon passes4 ,the ,nautilid are inhabitants of the ,indian ,ocean and the sea round the ,molucca ,islands4 ,in swimming1 their head and tentacles are projected from out of the shell4 ,in walking on rocks they drag themselves along the ground1 the body upwards1 the head and tentacles beneath4 ,they betake themselves frequently to miry cavities frequented by fish4 ,it is a much more common occurrence to find the empty than inhabited shells of the ,nautilus at sea4 ,this1 probably1 arises from its exposure to the attacks of crustaceans and other marine carnivora4 ,this seems to be proved by the mangled appearance of the edges in the empty shells thus met with4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cac4 ,nautilus pompilius 7,linnus7 showing the lower cell and the partition giving passage to the siphon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,shell of ,nautilus pompilius 7,linnus74 ,the ,pearly ,nautilus1 ,nautilus pompilius 7,fig4 #cad71 is so common on the ,nicobar coast that the inhabitants salt and dry its flesh1 and store them as provisions4 ,its shell attains about eight inches in its greatest height4 ,this shell is still used by the ,hindoo priests as their conch or shell1 with which they summon their devotees to worship4 ,it is nearly round1 smooth1 transversely blazed in its posterior part1 and entirely white anteriorly4 ,a very fine nacre is yielded by this mollusc1 which is much used in ornamental cabinet-work4 ,the ,orientals make drinking-cups1 on which they engrave designs and figures1 which form graceful objects4 ,similar vases were formerly shaped in ,europe1 which found their way into great houses4 ,in our days they are generally consigned to cabinets of curiosities and the shops of dealers in articles of virt4 ,owen's second order1 ,dibranchiata1 contains six families2 the first is ,spirulid1 containing the curious ,spirula1 that little gem amongst oceanic shells4 ,the second family is ,sepiad1 containing ,belemnosis and ,sepia4 ,the third is ,belemnitid2 the fourth1 ,teuthid2 the fifth1 ,octopodid2 and the sixth1 ,argonautid4 ,,acetabuliferous ,,cephalopoda4 ,to this group belong the cuttle-fish1 squids1 and argonauts1 among existing species1 and the ,belemnites among the fossil species4 ,some of these creatures are large1 and essentially flesh-eaters1 or carnivorous2 and1 if we may believe all that has been written respecting them1 very formidable ones4 ,listen to ,michelet1 while he paints the warlike humour of these inhabitants of the deep3--,the ,medus and ,molluscs1 says this popular author1 are generally innocent creatures1 and ,i have lived with them in a world of gentle peace4 ,few flesh-eaters among them2 those even which are so1 only kill to satisfy their wants1 living for the most part on life just commenced--on gelatinous animals1 which can scarcely be called organic4 ,from this world grief was absent4 ,no cruelty and no passion4 ,their little souls1 if mild1 were not without their ray of aspiration towards the light1 and towards what comes to us from heaven1 and towards that love1 revelling in that changing flame which at night is the light of the deep4 ,it is now1 however1 necessary to describe a much graver world3 a world of rapine and of murder2 from the very beginning1 from the first appearance of life1 violent death appeared2 sudden refinement1 useful but cruel1 purification1 of all which has languished1 or which may linger or languish1 of the slow and feeble creation whose fecundity had encumbered the globe4 ,in the more ancient formations of the old world we find two murderers--a nipper and a sucker4 ,the first is revealed to us by the imprint of the trilobite1 an order now lost1 the most destructive of extinct beings4 ,the second subsists in one gigantic fragment1 a beak nearly two feet in length1 which was that of a great sucker or cuttle-fish 7,sepia74 ,if we may judge from such a beak1 this monster1 if the other parts of the body are in proportion1 must have been enormous2 its ventose1 invincible arms1 of perhaps twenty or thirty feet1 like those of some monstrous spider4 ,the sucker of the world1 soft and gelatinous6 it is himself4 ,in making war on the molluscs he remains mollusc also2 that is to say1 always an embryo4 ,he presents the strange1 almost ridiculous1 if it was not also terrible1 appearance of an embryo going to war2 of a foetus furious and cruel1 soft and transparent1 but tenacious1 breathing with a murderous breath1 for it is not for food alone that it makes war3 it has the wish to destroy4 ,satiated1 and even bursting1 it still destroys4 ,without defensive armour1 under its threatening murmurs there is no peace2 its safety is to attack4 ,it regards all creatures as a possible enemy4 ,it throws about its long arms1 or rather thongs1 armed with suckers1 at random4 ,such is the somewhat exaggerated picture which the eloquent historian and poet draws of the ,molluscous ,cephalopod1 and it must be admitted that there is a basis of truth in this1 as well as in the more recent one painted by ,victor ,hugo1 in his eloquent book1 ,les ,travailleurs de la ,mer4 ,where1 however1 there is so much of the fictitious floating about1 it will be our endeavour to eliminate facts only4 ,,family ,,of ,,the ,,sepiad4 ,the body of the cuttle-fish 7,sepia7 is thus a very singular structure1 somewhat reminding us of certain species of polyps4 ,we find a body or abdominal mass1 hand ahead1 separated by compression1 sufficiently marked4 ,the body is covered by the mantle1 which has the form of a sac opened only in front by a transverse cleft4 ,the head has a projecting and well-developed eye on each side2 it is surmounted by a sort of fleshy funnel1 which is divided by four pairs of tentacles4 ,at the bottom of this tentacular funnel is the mouth2 and from the anterior opening in the mantle a tube issues1 which is wide at its base4 ,the ,sepiad have eight arms rising from the crown of the head armed with four rows of suckers1 two long slender tentacles with broadly-expanding ends1 and stalked suckers2 eyes moving in their sockets1 and body broadly ovate in ,sepia4 ,if we study the general aspect of the animal more closely1 we find that the tentacles--which serve at once as organs of locomotion for swimming1 for creeping1 and as prehensile organs for seizing and retaining its prey--are conical1 very long1 and all of the same form4 ,each of them has towards its axis a longitudinal canal1 which encloses a great nerve1 which is also surrounded with muscular fibres1 arranged in rays4 ,the suckers1 already described1 occupy all the internal surface of the eight tentacular arms1 which are arranged in two rows1 having the form very nearly of a semi-spherical capsule4 ,of these suckers1 each arm of the cuttle-fish carries about two hundred and forty1 the total number being nearly a thousand4 ,the mouth we have already described1 in ,dr4 ,roget's words3 ,the teeth move vertically1 much as the cutting edge of the two blades of a pair of scissors move upon each other1 tearing the prey by the assistance of their hooked terminations4 ,the tongue is covered on its upper part by a thick horny bed1 bristling in the centre with a series of recurving teeth1 while its edge is armed with three other erect teeth1 which are slender and hooked4 ,the oesophagus is long and slender4 ,at the abdomen the gullet expands into a sort of frill1 to which succeeds a gizzard1 with strong fleshy walls2 and1 finally1 a very short intestine1 which directs itself forward1 terminating on the median line of the body4 ,towards the anterior parts is a cavity1 of which a few words must be said4 ,it occupies the free space comprised between the exterior surface of the abdomen and the internal face of the mantle2 and here the respiratory organs1 namely1 the branchi1 are lodged4 ,here1 also1 are the reproductive and excretory organs4 ,the branchi1 which are two in number1 are voluminous1 but short1 tufted1 and leaf-like4 ,the branchial cavity can dilate and contract itself alternately4 ,it communicates externally by two openings3 the one1 fashioned into a cleft1 receives1 while the other1 which is prolonged into a tube1 serves to eject1 the water1 and becomes a powerful organ of locomotion4 ,the inspiration of the animal is thus made by a cleft in the mantle1 and expiration by the tube3 the renewal of the respirable liquid acts as a sort of sucking and forcing pump1 at the surface of the lamellar branchials4 ,the cuttle-fish1 in short1 will be at no loss to reply to the question of the ,don ,diego of ,corneille-- ,rodrique1 as-tu du cur8 for they have three hearts4 ,the two first are placed at the end of the branchi4 ,with each beat of the pulse the venous blood is brought from all parts of the body1 and propelled through each gill or branchi4 ,vivified by respiration in the internal tissue of the branchi1 it is carried by the veins into the third heart1 situated upon the median line of the body2 and now the regenerated fluid is again distributed throughout the rest of the economy4 ,not to oppress the reader with anatomical details1 we shall just remark that the gaze of the cuttle-fish is decided and threatening4 ,its projecting eyes and golden-coloured iris are said to have something of fascination in them4 ,the animal seems able even to economise the power of its glance1 being able to cover its eyes from time to time by contracting the skin which surrounds them1 and bringing the two translucent eyelids with which it is furnished closer together4 ,the cuttle-fishes are essentially aquatic and marine animals4 ,we find them in every sea in all parts of the world2 but they are most formidable in warm countries4 ,they have a great predilection for the shore4 ,during their youth they associate in flocks2 but with age they fly from association1 and retire into the clefts and hollows of the rocks4 ,the old cuttle-fish is only found in rugged and rocky places1 bristling with naked1 pointed rocks1 which have been worn by the waves1 but generally in places only a few feet below the level of low water4 ,how often1 says ,d',orbigny1 have we not observed the cuttle-fish in his favourite retirement6 ,there1 with one of his arms cramped to the walls of its dwelling1 it extends the other towards the animals which pass at its gate1 embraces them1 and by its power renders useless all their efforts to disengage themselves4 ,if we observe a cuttle-fish when it is what may be called walking1 either on land or at the bottom of the sea1 it will be seen to walk on one side1 its head downwards1 its mouth touching the ground1 the arms extended and grappling some supporting object1 and drawing the body forward2 at the same time the arms at the opposite side are contracted and folded up1 so as to assist by a contrary movement4 ,on shore the movement of these animals is very slow4 ,on the other hand1 they swim very rapidly1 assisted by all their arms1 and aided by the water ejected from the locomotive tube1 their movement being most frequently backwards1 the body first1 the six superior arms placed horizontally1 the two others brought together above3 the first help to sustain them in their horizontal position1 the last to guide them1 inclining to the right or left as the animal changes its direction4 ,the cuttle-fishes feed on crustaceans1 fishes1 and also on shelled molluscs--every kind of animal1 in fact1 which comes within their reach2 so that it is readily taken by means of the flesh of fish or crustaceans1 in which a strong hook is concealed4 ,they live for five or six years1 and reproduce by eggs1 which are large1 and generally found in clusters1 known to fishermen under the name of sea-grapes4 ,like the zoophytes1 they possess the property of redintegration1 already described1 being able to reproduce any arm that may be destroyed4 ,there is another singular peculiarity which the cuttle-fish shares with man4 ,under the influence of strong emotion the human face becomes pale1 or blushes1 and in some individuals it is said to become blue4 ,this has always been supposed to be an attribute of humanity2 but the cuttle-fish shares it with our race4 ,yielding to the impressions of the moment1 the cuttle-fish suddenly changes colour1 and1 passing through various tints1 it only resumes its familiar one when the cause of the change has disappeared4 ,they are1 in fact1 gifted with great sensibility1 which reacts immediately upon their tissues1 these being extremely elastic and delicate4 ,sudden changes of colour are produced--changes which far exceed the same phenomena in man4 ,under the influence of passion or emotion man is born to blush1 but under no sort of excitement does he cover himself with pustules2 this the cuttle-fish does3 it not only changes colour1 but it covers itself with little warts4 ,observe a cuttle in a pool of water1 says ,d',orbigny1 as it walks round its retreat--it is smooth1 and of very pale colour4 ,attempt to seize it1 and it quickly assumes a deeper tint1 and its body becomes covered on the instant with warts and hairs1 which remain there until its confidence is entirely restored4 ,the following fact is abbreviated from the ,natural ,history and ,fishery of the ,sperm ,whale4 ,mr4 ,beale had been searching for shells among the rocks in ,bonin ,island1 and was much astonished to see at his feet a most extraordinary-looking animal1 crawling back towards the surf which it had just left4 ,it was creeping on its eight legs1 which1 from their soft and flexible nature1 bent considerably under the weight of its body1 so that it was just lifted by an effort above the rocks4 ,it appeared much alarmed1 and made every attempt to escape4 ,mr4 ,beale endeavoured to stop it by putting his foot on one of its tentacles1 but it liberated itself several times in spite of all his efforts4 ,he then laid hold of one of the tentacles with his hand1 and held it firmly1 and the limb appeared as if it would be torn asunder in the struggle4 ,to terminate the contest1 he gave it a powerful jerk2 it resisted the effort successfully1 but the moment after the enraged animal lifted a head with large projecting eyes1 and loosing its hold of the rocks1 suddenly sprang upon ,mr4 ,beale's arm1 which had been previously bared to the shoulder1 and clung to it with its suckers1 while it endeavoured to get the beak1 which he could now see1 between the tentacles1 in a position to bite him4 ,mr4 ,beale describes its cold slimy grasp as extremely sickening1 and he loudly called to the captain1 who was also searching for shells1 to come to his assistance4 ,they hastened to the boat1 and he was released by killing his tormentor with a boat-knife1 when the arms were disengaged bit by bit4 ,mr4 ,beale states that this ,cephalopod must have measured across its expanded arms about four feet1 while its body was not bigger than a large hand clenched4 ,it was the species called the rock-squid by whalers4 ,these formidable and curious ,cephalopods1 the of ,aristotle1 ,mollia of ,pliny1 and ,cephalophora of ,de ,blainville1 have the mantle1 according to ,cuvier1 united beneath the body1 thus forming a muscular sac which envelopes the whole viscera4 ,the body is soft and fleshy1 varying much in form1 being sub-spherical1 sub-elliptical1 and cylindrical1 the sides of the mantle in many species extending into fleshy fins4 ,the head protrudes from the muscular sac1 and is distinct from the body2 it is gifted with all the usual senses1 the eyes in particular1 which are either pedunculate or sessile1 being large and well developed4 ,the mouth is anterior and terminal1 armed with a pair of horny or calcareous mandibles1 which bear a strong resemblance to the bill of a parrot1 acting transversely1 one upon the other4 ,its position is the bottom of a sub-conical cavity1 forming the base of numerous fleshy tentacular appendages which surround it1 and which are termed arms by some writers4 ,these appendages in the great majority of living species are provided with suckers1 acetabula 7cupping-glass-like appendages71 by means of which the animal moves at the bottom of the sea1 head downwards1 or attaches itself to its prey4 ,these suckers are armed or unarmed with a long1 sharp1 horny claw4 ,in the unarmed acetabulum1 the mechanism for adhesion is well described by ,dr4 ,roget3 ,the circumference of the disk1 says this writer1 is raised by a soft and turned margin2 a series of long slender folds of membrane covering corresponding fascicula of muscular fibre converge from the circumference towards the centre of the sucker1 at a short distance from which they leave a circular aperture2 this opens into a cavity which widens as it descends1 and contains a cone of soft substance rising from the bottom of the cavity1 like the piston of a syringe4 ,when the sucker is applied to the surface1 for the purpose of adhesion1 the piston1 having previously been raised so as to fill the cavity1 is retracted1 and a vacuum produced1 which may be still further increased by the retraction of the plicated portion of the disk4 ,here we have an excellent description of the apparatus for holding on4 ,when the animal is disposed to let go his hold1 according to ,professor ,owen1 the muscular arrangement enables the animal to push forward the piston1 and thus in a moment destroy the vacuum which retraction had produced4 ,in the case of the armed ,cephalopods 7,onychoteuthis71 ,professor ,owen remarks1 that there are circumstances in which even the remarkable apparatus described by ,dr4 ,roget would be insufficient to fulfil the offices in the economy of ,nature for which the ,cephalopod was created1 and that in species which have to contend with the agile mucous-clad fishes more powerful organs of prehension are superadded to the suckers1 so that in the calamary the base of the piston is1 he remarks1 enclosed in a horny hoop1 the outer and anterior margin of which is developed into a series of sharp curved teeth1 which can be firmly pressed into the flesh of a struggling prey by the contraction of the surrounding transverse fibres1 and can be withdrawn by the action of the retracting fibres of the piston4 ,let the reader1 the professor adds1 picture to himself the projecting weapon of the horny hoop developed into a long1 curved1 sharp-pointed claw1 and these weapons clustered at the expanded terminations of the tentacles1 and arranged in a double alternate series along the internal surface of the eight muscular feet1 and he will have some idea of the formidable nature of the carnivorous cephalopod4 ,the professor notices another structure which adds greatly to the prehensile powers of the uncinated ,cephalopods4 ,at the extremities of the long tentacles a cluster of small1 simple1 unarmed suckers may be observed at the base of the expanded part4 ,when these latter suckers are applied to one another1 the tentacles are firmly locked together at that part1 and the united strength of both the elongated peduncles can be applied to drag towards the mouth any resisting object which has been grappled by the terminal hooks4 ,there is no mechanical contrivance which surpasses this structure2 art has remotely imitated it in the fabrication of the obstetrical forceps1 in which either blade can be used separately1 or1 by the interlocking of a temporary blade1 be made to act in combination4--,cyc4 of ,anat4 ,the third ,family1 ,belemnitid1 contains ,belemnitella and ,belemnites1 and other genera of less importance2 they are all now extinct1 although once numerous as species4 ,the cuttles1 ,sepia 7,fig4 #cae71 have the body fleshy and depressed1 continued into a sac1 and bordered on all its length on both sides with a wing or narrow fin1 the larger short and flat1 broader than it is long1 with two large eyes1 covered by an expansion of the skin1 which becomes transparent over a surface equal to the diameter of the iris1 and furnished with inferior contractile eyelids4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cae4 ,sepia officinalis 7,linnus74 ,this head is surmounted by ten tentacular arms or feet1 eight of which are short and conical1 and two long and slender1 terminating in a sort of spatula4 ,these arms are all armed with suckers1 and are perfectly retractile4 ,they surround a mouth armed with two horny jaws not unlike the beak of a parrot4 ,the skin of the cuttle-fish presents in one vast hollow1 occupying all the extent of the back1 a great calcareous part1 the form and structure of which is quite characteristic of this genus4 ,it is known as the cuttle-bone 7,fig4 #caf74 ,this bone is used for many purposes2 among others1 it is used in a powdered state as a dentifrice4 ,it is sometimes suspended in the cage with captive birds1 that they may whet their beaks on it1 and collect phosphate of lime for the formation and repair of their bones4 ,the osselet is oval or oblong1 some provided with a slightly salient point4 ,the upper part is surrounded with a horny or cretaceous margin1 and presents in the centre a combination of spongy cells4 ,most of the ,cephalopods secrete a blackish1 inky fluid1 to which some allusion has been made1 but the uses of which1 in the economy of the animals1 is imperfectly known4 ,the cuttles have considerable quantities of this liquor1 which is contained in a sort of sac or ink-purse1 placed low down in the abdomen4 ,when the animal is pursued or threatened with danger it discharges a jet of the fluid1 which renders the water thick and muddy1 and permits it to escape in the obscurity from its pursuers4 ,it appears that the cuttle-fish avails itself of this stratagem when left accidentally ashore4 ,it is related of an ,english officer1 that1 having dressed for dinner1 and having some time to spare1 he proceeded along the shore on his favourite search for objects of natural history4 ,he reached a hollow rock in which a cuttle-fish had established its quarters2 he soon detected the animal1 which looked at him for some time with its great prominent eyes2 in short1 they watched each other with fixed attention4 ,this mute contemplation came to a sudden and unexpected termination by the discharge of a voluminous jet of inky fluid1 which covered the officer1 which was the more unfortunate1 since he was in his summer dress of white trousers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caf4 ,internal bone of ,sepia officinalis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cag4 ,sepia tuberculosa 7,lamarck74 ,the ink of the cuttle-fish is a favourite pigment1 used in water-colour painting under the name of sepia4 ,it is truly indestructible2 and the hard and black substance found in the sac of fossil species of cuttle-fish when diluted with water produces a brilliant sepia4 ,this property of the inky fluid was well known to the ,romans1 who used it in making ink4 ,it was long supposed to be the chief ingredient in ,china ink2 but a recent traveller1 ,mr4 ,seebold1 who has visited the manufactory1 and investigated the subject1 has revealed the true process by which it is prepared4 ,the cuttle-fish affects the sea-shore2 they are along-shore molluscs4 ,the flattened form of their bodies is favourable to a coasting life1 by permitting them to rest easily on the bottom4 ,still they do not remain all the year round upon the coast4 ,the cold in temperate regions1 and the opposite reason in warm regions1 leads them to withdraw from the shore1 to which they only return in the spring4 ,they are rarely seen in the ,channel in winter1 but with the vernal sun they appear in large shoals4 ,what is the mechanism by which these animals are moved8 ,when the cuttle-fish wishes to swim rapidly and backwards1 they advance in the water by means of the locomotive tube1 sending back the ambient liquid4 ,when they wish to approach a prey slowly in order to seize it1 they swim by the aid of their fins and arms4 ,in order to swim backwards1 they contract the arms provided with tentacles1 and spread out horizontally the arms without tentacles4 ,the cuttles are flesh-eaters1 and tolerably voracious4 ,they feed themselves upon fishes1 molluscs1 and crustaceans4 ,they are true aquatic brigands1 who kill not to feed themselves1 but for the sake of killing2 and ,nature1 by a just equilibrium1 applies to them the lex talionis4 ,they fall victims1 in their turn1 to the vengeful jaws of the porpoises and dolphins4 ,such is the terrible law of ,nature3 some must die that others may live4 ,michelet gives us a glimpse of the manner in which the dolphins dispose of the cuttle-fish in his ,livre de la ,mer4 ,these lords of the ocean1 he says1 are so delicate in their tastes that they eat only the head and arms1 which are both tender and of easy digestion4 ,they reject the hard parts1 and especially the after-part of the body4 ,the coast at ,royan1 for example1 is covered with thousands of these mutilated cuttle-fish4 ,the porpoises take most incredible bounds1 at first to frighten them1 and afterwards to run them down2 in short1 after their feast1 they give themselves up to gymnastics4 ,in the spring the cuttle-fishes deposit their eggs1 but without abandoning them4 ,on the contrary1 they exhibit a truly maternal care1 taking much trouble to attach them to some submarine body1 in which position the temperature of the water serves to hatch the eggs4 ,sepia officinalis1 for example1 chooses1 at the moment of laying1 a stem of ,fucus1 a foot of ,gorgonia1 or some other solid submarine body not less in dimensions than the little finger1 and there it firmly attaches its eggs1 which are pear-shaped1 that is1 pointed at one extremity1 while a long lanire of a gelatinous nature1 flat and black in appearance1 with which they are provided1 surrounds the solid body like a ring4 ,each female lays and attaches in this manner from twenty to thirty eggs1 which are clustered together somewhat like a bunch of fine black grapes 7,fig4 #cah74 ,about a month after this the eggs are hatched4 ,the colours of ,sepia officinalis vary considerably2 but in general it may be remarked that the males are ornamented with deeper colours than the females4 ,transverse bands of a blackish brown furrow their backs1 and diminish their breadth4 ,outside of these bands are small spots of a vivid white3 very near the edge there is a white border1 accompanied inside with a second edging of a beautiful violet4 ,the median and anterior parts of the body are spotted here and there2 beneath1 a whitish tint with reddish speckles prevails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cah4 ,sepia officinalis 7,linnus74 ,the cuttle-fishes are found on every shore1 and wherever they are found they are eaten1 for their flesh is savoury4 ,they are usually fried or boiled4 ,they form an excellent bait for large ground-fish1 such as dog-fish1 rays1 and congers1 which are fond of their flesh4 ,thirty species are known1 and they are chiefly characterised by the arrangement and form of the cupules of the arms4 ,sepia officinalis is common on the shores of the ocean from ,sweden to the ,canaries1 and in all parts of the ,mediterranean4 ,the fourth family1 ,teuthid1 contains ,loligopsis1 ,cranchia1 and ,loligo4 ,the ,calmars were described by ,aristotle under the name of 1 and by ,pliny under that of ,loligo1 which is still retained as the generic name4 ,their popular name of ,calmar 7calamar in old ,french7 is taken from their resemblance to certain species of ink-holders4 ,oppian1 who endowed the argonaut with wings1 believed that the calmar also could take to the air1 in order to avoid his enemies4 ,nevertheless1 he was much puzzled how to give the form and functions of a bird to a fish4 ,themistocles1 by way of insult to the ,eretrians1 likened them to calmars1 saying they had swords and no hearts4 ,athenus1 a ,greek physician before ,galen1 dwelt upon the nourishing properties of the flesh of the calmar4 ,common enough in temperate regions1 the calmars abound in the seas of the ,torrid zone3 they are gregarious1 and live in numerous shoals1 their bands taking every year the same direction1 their emigration proceeding from temperate to warm regions--nearly the same course as that followed by the herrings and pilchards4 ,the calmars1 like the cuttles1 propel themselves backwards through the water with great velocity1 driving back the water by means of their locomotive tube1 moving with such vigour and promptitude that they have been known to throw themselves out of the water1 falling on the shore or on the deck of a vessel4 ,they only appear momentarily on the shore1 and only sojourn there to deposit their eggs1 which are gelatinous in substance1 about the level of the lowest tides4 ,the body in the calmars is longer than in the cuttle-fish1 cylindrical in shape1 and terminating in a point1 having two lateral fins1 which occupy the lower half or third of its body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cai4 ,loligo vulgaris1 with its pen1 or internal bone 7,lamarck74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbj4 ,loligo ,gahi 7,d',orbigny74 ,in the common calmar1 ,loligo vulgaris 7,fig4 #cai71 and the ,loligo ,gahi 7,fig4 #cbj71 we have two extreme forms represented1 both taken from the magnificent work of ,,mm4 ,d',orbigny and ,ferussac1 on the ,cephalopodes acetabulifores4 ,these molluscs are whitish-blue and transparent1 covered with spots of bright red4 ,the osselet is lanceolate--that of the male elongated and somewhat resembling a feather1 that of the female much broader and more obtuse4 ,their head is short1 furnished with two large projecting eyes2 the mouth is surrounded with ten arms1 provided with suckers1 two of these being much longer than the others1 having peduncles or foot-stalks4 ,the internal bone of the calmar differs much from that of the cuttles2 it is thin1 horny1 transparent1 and somewhat resembling a feather1 from a portion of which the barbs have been removed4 ,their food consists chiefly of small fishes and molluscs4 ,with the greater fishes and cetace they carry on constant war4 ,they are caught and used for various purposes2 along the coast they are eaten2 the fishermen use them as bait1 especially in fishing for cod4 ,it is no easy task to separate the real from the fabulous history of the ,cephalopods4 ,aristotle and ,pliny have alike assisted1 by their marvellous relations1 to throw that halo of wonder round it which the light of modern science has not altogether dispelled4 ,pliny the ,ancient relates the history of an enormous cuttle-fish which haunted the coast of ,spain1 and destroyed the fishing-grounds4 ,he adds that this gigantic creature was finally taken1 that its body weighed seven hundred pounds1 and that its arms were ten yards in length4 ,its head came by right to ,lucullus1 to whose gastronomical privileges be all honour4 ,it was so large1 says ,pliny1 that it filled fifteen amphor1 and weighed seven hundred pounds also4 ,some naturalists of the ,renaissance1 such as ,olas ,magnus and ,denis de ,montfort1 gave credit--which they are scarcely justified in doing--to the assertions of certain writers of the north of ,europe1 who believed seriously in the existence of a sea-monster of prodigious size which haunted the northern seas4 ,this monster has received the name of the ,kraken4 ,the ,kraken was long the terror of these seas2 it arrested ships in spite of the action of the wind1 sails1 and oars1 often causing them to founder at sea1 while the cause of shipwreck remained unsuspected4 ,denis de ,montfort gives a description and representation of this ,kraken1 which he calls the ,colossal ,poulpe1 in which the creature is made to embrace a three-masted ship in its vast arms4 ,delighted with the success which his representation met with1 ,denis laughed at the credulity of his contemporaries4 ,if my ,kraken takes with them1 he said1 ,i shall make it extend its arms to both shores of the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,to another learned friend he said1 ,if my entangled ship is accepted1 ,i shall make my ,poulpe overthrow a whole fleet4 ,among those who admitted the facetious history of the ,kraken without a smile1 there was at least one holy bishop1 who was1 moreover1 something of a naturalist4 ,pontoppidan1 ,bishop of ,bergen1 in ,norway1 in one of his books assures us that a whole regiment of soldiers could easily manuvre on the back of the ,kraken1 which he compares to a floating island4 ,similior insul quan besti1 wrote the good ,bishop of ,bergen4 ,in the first edition of his ,system of ,nature1 ,linnus himself admits the existence of this colossus of the seas1 which he calls ,sepias microcosmos4 ,better informed in the following edition1 he erased the ,kraken from his catalogue4 ,the statements of ,pliny respecting the ,colossal ,poulpe1 like those of ,montfort about the ,kraken1 are evidently fabulous4 ,it is1 however1 an undisputed fact that there exists in the ,mediterranean and other seas cuttle-fish--a congenerous animal--of considerable size4 ,a calmar has been caught in our own time1 near ,nice1 which weighed upwards of thirty pounds4 ,in the same neighbourhood some fishermen caught1 twenty years ago1 an individual of the same genus nearly six feet long1 which is preserved in the ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,montpellier4 ,pron1 the naturalist1 met in the ,australian seas a cuttle-fish nearly eight feet long4 ,the travellers ,quoy and ,gaimard picked up in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 near the ,equator1 the skeleton of a monstrous mollusc1 which1 according to their calculations1 must have weighed two hundred pounds4 ,m4 ,rung met1 in the middle of the ocean1 a mollusc with short arms1 and of a reddish colour1 the body of which1 according to this naturalist1 was as large as a tun cask4 ,one of the mandibles of this creature1 still preserved in the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 is larger than a hand4 ,in #ahec a gigantic cephalopod was stranded on the coast of ,jutland4 ,the body of this monster1 which was dismembered by the fishermen1 furnished many wheelbarrow loads1 its pharynx1 or back part of the mouth1 alone being as large as the head of an infant4 ,dr4 ,steenstrup1 of ,copenhagen1 who published a description of this creature under the name of ,architeuthis dux1 shows a portion of the arm of another cephalopod1 which is as large as the thigh-bone of a man4 ,but a well-authenticated fact connected with these gigantic cephalopods is related by ,lieutenant ,bayer1 of the ,french corvette ,alecton1 and ,m4 ,sabin ,berthelot1 ,french ,consul at the ,canary ,islands1 by whom the report is made to the ,acadmie des ,sciences4 ,the steam-corvette ,alecton was between ,teneriffe and ,madeira when she fell in with a gigantic calamary1 not less--according to the account--than fifteen mtres 7fifty feet7 long1 without reckoning its eight formidable arms1 covered with suckers1 and about twenty feet in circumference at its largest part1 the head terminating in many arms of enormous size1 the other extremity terminating in two fleshy lobes or fins of great size1 the weight of the whole being estimated at four thousand pounds2 the flesh was soft1 glutinous1 and of reddish-brick colour4 ,the commandant1 wishing in the interests of science to secure the monster1 actually engaged it in battle4 ,numerous shots were aimed at it1 but the balls traversed its flaccid and glutinous mass without causing it any vital injury4 ,but after one of these attacks the waves were observed to be covered with foam and blood1 and1 singular thing1 a strong odour of musk was inhaled by the spectators4 ,this musk odour we have already noticed as being peculiar to many of the ,cephalopods4 ,the musket-shots not having produced the desired results1 harpoons were employed1 but they took no hold on the soft impalpable flesh of the marine monster4 ,when it escaped from the harpoon it dived under the ship1 and came up again at the other side4 ,they succeeded at last in getting the harpoon to bite1 and in passing a bowling hitch round the posterior part of the animal4 ,but when they attempted to hoist it out of the water the rope penetrated deeply into the flesh1 and separated it into two parts1 the head with the arms and tentacles dropping into the sea and making off1 while the fins and posterior parts were brought on board3 they weighed about forty pounds4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4--,gigantic ,cuttle-fish caught by the ,french ,corvette ,alecton1 near ,teneriffe4 ,the crew were eager to pursue1 and would have launched a boat1 but the commander refused1 fearing that the animal might capsize it4 ,the object was not1 in his opinion1 one in which he could risk the lives of his crew4 ,,pl4 ,,xxiv4 is copied from ,m4 ,berthelot's coloured representation of this scene4 ,it is probable1 ,m4 ,moquin-,tandon remarks1 commenting on ,m4 ,berthelot's recital1 that this colossal mollusc was sick or exhausted by some recent struggle with some other monster of the deep1 which would account for its having quitted its native rocks in the depths of the ocean4 ,otherwise it would have been more active in its movements1 or it would have obscured the waves with the inky liquid which all the ,cephalopods have at command4 ,judging from its size1 it would carry at least a barrel of this black liquid1 if it had not been exhausted in some recent struggle4 ,is this mollusc a calmar8 asks the same writer4 ,if we might judge from the figure drawn by one of the officers of the ,alecton during the struggle1 and communicated by ,m4 ,berthelot1 the animal had terminal fins1 like the calmars2 but it has eight equal arms1 like the cuttle-fish4 ,now the calmars have ten1 two of them being very long4 ,was this some intermediate species between the two8 ,or must we admit1 with ,,mm4 ,crosse and ,fisher1 that the animal had lost its more formidable tentacles in some recent combat8#ac ,the fifth family1 ,octopodid1 contains ,eledone1 ,octopus1 ,pinnoctopus1 ,cirroteuthis1 ,philonexis1 and ,scrgus4 ,the ,octopoda1 without tentacles1 have eight long arms1 united at the base by a web2 the suckers in two rows1 which are sessile2 the eyes fixed2 shell1 two short stiles enclosed in the mantle2 the body united to the head by a broad neck-band2 no side-fins2 shell internal and rudimentary in the ,british species2 body oval1 warty1 and without fins1 in ,octopus2 small and oblong1 arms tapering and webbed1 and suckers in a single row1 in ,eledone 7,fig4 #cba74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cba4 ,eledone1 ,octopus vulgaris 7,lamarck74 ,in his great work1 ,professor ,owen proposes to divide the ,cephalopods into two groups1 which he calls ,dibranchiata1 characterised by the presence of two branchi1 which would bring together all the naked ,cephalopods1 including ,sepia1 ,loligo1 ,octopus1 ,kassia1 and ,ommastrephos2 and ,tetrabranchiata1 having four branchi1 to which the ,nautilus1 and most of the fossil ,cephalopods1 such as the ,ammonites1 belong4 ,most of the first group are represented in the ,british seas1 but the second are altogether absent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,octopus macropus 7,risso74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,octopus brevisses 7,d',orbigny74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbd4 ,octopus horridus 7,d',orbigny74 ,the ,decapoda are of all sizes4 ,dr4 ,grant describes the body1 or mantle1 of ,sepiola vulgaris1 found on our coast1 as measuring about six lines in length1 and as much in breadth1 while the head measures four lines in length1 and1 from the magnitude of the eyes1 must be equal in breadth with the body4 ,in ,onychoteuthis1 distinguished for its uncinated suckers1 they are found of the size of a man4 ,in ,cook's first voyages1 the naturalists to the expedition1 ,banks and ,solander1 to quote ,professor ,owen's account1 found the dead carcase of a gigantic species of this kind floating in the sea between ,cape ,horn and the ,polynesian ,islands1 in #cj #dd' ,s4 lat41 and #aaj #aj' ,w4 long4 ,it was surrounded by sea birds1 which were feeding on its remains4 ,from the parts of this specimen which are still preserved in the ,hunterian ,museum1 and which have always strongly excited the attention of naturalists1 it must have measured at least six feet from the end of the tail to the end of the tentacles4 ,in the genus ,eledone the arms are reunited at their base by a very short membrane1 with only a single row of suckers4 ,the two best-known species of this group inhabit the ,mediterranean4 ,the one is ,eledone moschatus1 known in ,italy under the name of ,muscardino1 from the strong odour of musk which it emits1 even after death and desiccation2 the other is ,eledone cirrhosus1 a small species1 bluish-grey on the back1 and whitish under the belly4 ,the habits of ,eledone moschatus have been carefully studied by ,m4 ,verany4 ,the able naturalist of ,nice preserved many of these animals during a month1 in a great aquarium1 noting their habits4 ,when in a state of tranquillity1 the ,eledone clung to the sides of the glass tank in which it was kept4 ,its head is then inclined forwards1 with the sac hanging behind2 the locomotive tube1 turned upwards1 presents the orifice between the arms4 ,in this state the animal is yellowish in colour1 its eyes dilated1 its inspirations regular4 ,but if irritated1 a remarkable change takes place3 its body assumes a fine maroon colour1 and it is covered with numerous tubercles2 the eye becomes contracted1 a column of water is forcibly ejected from the locomotive tube at the aggressor1 and the respiration becomes precipitate1 jerky1 and irregular4 ,the creature would take a strong inspiration1 and1 having collected its force1 suddenly throw a jet of water to a distance of more than three feet4 ,this state of passion1 which the slightest touch is sufficient to produce1 endures for half an hour or more4 ,when it ceases1 the animal resumes its form and primitive colours2 but the least shock impressed on the water is sufficient to give it a deeper tint1 which passes like a flash of lightning over the skin of this singular proteus4 ,the ,eledone sleeps by day as well as by night1 attaching itself in its sleep to the walls of its prison1 leaving its arms to float around1 the two inferior ones extending backwards1 and the sac inclining over them2 its eyes are then contracted1 and in part covered by the eyelids4 ,its respiration is regular and slow1 and any ejection of water very rare2 its colour is then of a livid grey1 and vinous red below1 with whitish spots1 while the brown spots have now entirely disappeared4 ,while still asleep1 it is watchful and attentive to all the dangers which could surprise it4 ,the extremities of the arms floating round its body are ready to announce the approach or contact of any other object4 ,even the most delicate touch is perceived immediately1 and it shrinks from the hand which seeks to approach4 ,under every circumstance the ,eledone exhales a strong odour of musk1 which it preserves long after death4 ,when the ,eledone swims1 which it rarely does unless pressed by some urgent necessity1 it carries the sac in advance1 the arms floating behind--the six upper ones being on a horizontal line1 the two others approaching each other below4 ,thus arranged1 it presents1 in consequence of its flattened form1 a very large resisting surface to the water1 its progress being due to the alternate dilatation and contraction of the body1 which expels the water through the locomotive tube1 and by reaction produces a rapid and jerking movement4 ,sometimes the arms aid the movement2 the eyes of the animal are then much dilated1 and its colour a clear livid yellow1 finely shaded with red1 and covered with bright spots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbe4 ,pinnoctopus corolliformis 7,d',orbigny74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,cirrotheutis ,mittleri 7,eschricht74 ,it is a singular fact that the creature notably changes colour under any exertion1 so that the animal at rest and in motion are two different beings4 ,when walking under water the tube is directed behind1 its arms are spread out1 the head is raised1 and the body slightly inclined forward2 its mantle is then of a pearly grey1 and the spots take the tint of wine lees4 ,when at rest the shades disappear4 ,the ,pinnoctopus 7,fig4 #cbe71 another genera of this family1 have the body oblong1 with lateral expansions1 as represented in the accompanying figure4 ,in ,cirrotheutis the arms are completely united in their whole extent by a thin membrane furnished with cirri1 which alternate with certain suckers arranged in one row4 ,only one species of this genera is known as an inhabitant of northern seas1 which is represented in ,fig4 #cbf4 ,the sixth family1 ,argonautid1 contains only ,argonauta4 ,the ,argonauta1 or ,paper-nautilus4 ,floating gracefully on the surface of the sea1 trimming its tiny sail to the breeze1 just sufficient to ruffle the surface of the waves1 behold the exquisite living shallop4 ,the elegant little bark which thus plays with the current is no work of human hands1 but a child of ,nature3 it is the ,argonaut1 whose tribes1 decked in a thousand brilliant shades of colour1 are wanderers of the night in innumerable swarms on the ocean's surface4 ,the marine shell which ,linnus called the ,argonaut enjoyed great renown among the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,it was the subject of graceful legends2 it had inspired great poets2 it occupied the attention of ,aristotle1 who called it the ,nautilus and ,nauticos1 and of ,pliny1 who called it ,pompylius4 ,few animals1 indeed1 have been so celebrated1 so anciently known4 ,the ,greek and ,roman poets saw in it an elegant model of the ship which the skill and audacity of the man constructed who first braved the fury of the waves2 in the words of the poet1 armour of triple oak and triple brass covered the heart of him who first confided himself in a frail bark to the relentless waves3 ,illi robur et s triplex ,circa pectus erat1 qui fragilem truci ,commisit pelago ratem ,primus4444 ,horace1 ,i4 ,car4 iii4 l4 #i4 ,to meet the ,pompylius was1 according to the superstitious ,roman1 a favourable presage4 ,this little oceanic wanderer1 in spite of the capricious waves1 was a tutelar divinity1 who guarded the navigator in his course1 and assured him of a happy passage4 ,listen to the immortal author of the first ,natural ,history of ,animals1 the philosophical ,aristotle4 ,the ,nautilus ,polyp1 says the learned historian1 is of the nature of animals which pass for extraordinary1 for it can float on the sea2 it raises itself from the bottom of the water1 the shell being reversed and empty1 but when it reaches the surface it readjusts it4 ,it has between the arms a species of tissue similar to that which unites the toes of web-footed birds4 ,when there is a little wind1 it employs this tissue as a sort of rudder1 letting it fall into the water with the arms on each side4 ,on the approach of the least danger it fills its shell with water1 and sinks into the sea4 ,pliny gives it the name of ,pompylius1 and1 after the example of ,aristotle1 explains how it navigates1 by elevating its two first arms1 a membrane of extreme tenuity stretching between them1 while it rows with the others1 using its median arm as a rudder4 ,the ,greek poet1 ,oppian1 who lived in the second century of our era1 and to whom we are indebted for ,poems on ,fishing 7,halieutica7 and the ,chase 7,cynegetica71 says of it3 ,hiding itself in a concave shell1 the ,pompylius can walk on land1 but can also rise to the surface of the water1 the back of its shell upwards1 for fear that it should be filled4 ,the moment it is seen1 it turns the shell1 and navigates it like a skilful seaman3 in order to do this1 it throws out two of its feet like antenn between which is a thin membrane1 which is extended by the wind like a sail1 while two others1 which touch the water1 guide1 as with a rudder1 the house1 the ship1 and the animal4 ,if danger approaches1 it folds up its antenn1 its sail1 and its rudder1 and dives1 its weight being increased by the water which it causes to enter the shell4 ,as we see a man who is victor in the public games1 his head circled by a crown1 while vast crowds press around1 so the ,pompylius have always a crowd of ships following in their track1 whose crews no longer dread to quit the land4 ,o fish justly dear to navigators6 thy presence announces winds soft and friendly3 thou bringest the calm1 and thou art the sign of it4 ,oppian carried his admiration a long way4 ,that the ,argonaut is an animated skiff is agreed on all hands2 but1 in making it almost a bird--in according to it at once the faculty of gracefully navigating the sea and floating in the atmosphere as an inhabitant of the regions of air--he was passing the limits permissible to poetic license4 ,but the properties of the ,nautilus has not alone struck the imagination of the ,greeks and ,romans2 it also attracted the attention of the ,chinese1 who call it the boat-polyp4 ,rumphius informs us1 that in ,india the shell fetches a great price 7,fig4 #cbg74 ,women consider it a great1 a magnificent ornament4 ,in their solemn ftes dancers carry one of these shells in the right hand1 holding it proudly above their heads4 ,nor did it require the dithyrambic praises with which the ancients have surrounded it to recommend it to the admiration of modern naturalists4 ,without exaggerating the graceful attributes with which it is gifted1 it is at once one of the most curious objects in ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,shell of ,argonauta argo 7,linnus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,the ,argonauta argo 7,linnus74 ,its body 7,fig4 #cbh7 is ovoid in form1 and it is furnished with eight tentacles1 covered with a double row of suckers4 ,of these tentacles1 six are narrow and slender1 tapering to a point towards the extremity1 while two of them expand toward the extremity in the form of wings or sails4 ,these are all folded up when in a state of repose4 ,the body itself is contained in a thin1 white1 and fragile univalve shell1 which is oval1 flattened on the exterior1 but rolled up in a spiral in the interior1 the last turn of the shell being so large as to give it something of the form of an elegantly-shaped shallop4 ,singularly enough1 the body of the animal does not penetrate to the bottom of the shell1 nor is it attached to it by any muscular ligament2 nor is the shell moulded exactly upon it1 as is the case with most other testaceans4 ,what does all this imply8 ,is the ,argonaut a parasite8 a fraudulent disinheritor8 a vile assassin1 who1 having surprised and killed the legitimate proprietor of the shell1 has installed itself in its place1 and in the proper house of its victim8 ,such crimes are not without example in the natural history of animals--witness the proceedings of the curious hermit crab1 whose proceedings we shall glance at in a future chapter4 ,the parasitic character of the ,nautilus was long conceded by naturalists2 but recent facts have corrected this opinion4 ,we have collected their shells1 of all dimensions and of all ages1 inhabited always by the same animal1 whose size is always proportioned to the volume of the shell4 ,more than that1 it is now known that in the egg of the ,nautilus the rudiments of the shell exist4 ,m4 ,chenu tells us1 that under the microscope ,professor ,duvernoy discovered a distinct shell contained in the embryo4 ,sir ,everard ,home asserts the contrary2 and no opportunity presented itself for the complete solution of the question1 until ,poli was placed by the ,king of ,naples in a position to solve it4 ,the piscina of ,portici was placed at his disposal4 ,he witnessed the curious mechanism by which the egg is expelled from the uterus1 having a shell1 and satisfied himself1 by following their development day by day1 that the shell existed in the embryo1 and grew with the animal4 ,he satisfied himself also that the opinion enunciated by ,aristotle1 that at no point did the animal adhere to the shell1 was perfectly true4 ,finally1 in the curious series of experiments carried on by ,madame ,power1 in the port of ,messina1 the fragments of the frail bark of the mollusc1 which were broken off in taking it1 were restored in a few days1 having been reproduced4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite demonstrated that the ,nautilus1 like other testaceous molluscs1 itself secretes and constructs its shell--its diaphanous skiff4 ,the reader1 however1 must not flatter himself that he can witness with his own eyes from the shore1 in our narrow channel1 the charming picture of the ,nautilus painted by poets and natural historians3 they never come near the shore4 ,they are timid and cautious creatures1 dwelling almost always in the open sea4 ,they live in families1 some hundreds of miles from the shore2 and it is during the night1 or at most in the fading light of sunset1 that they assemble together to pursue their gambols on the surface of a tranquil sea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbi4 ,argonauta papyracea1 as it swims by means of its locomotive tube4 ,however reluctant we may be to destroy the marvellous fictions of ancients and moderns1 we are compelled to declare that there is no truth in the often-repeated statement that the ,nautilus uses its palmated arms as oars or sails4 ,in order to swim on the surface1 it comports itself as all other ,cephalopods do4 ,it uses neither oars nor sails1 and the palmate arms only serve to envelop and retain its hold on its frail shell4 ,its principal apparatus of progression is the locomotive tube with which it is furnished1 in common with all ,cephalopods1 and which is in the ,nautilus very long4 ,aided by this apparatus1 it ejects the water after it has served the purpose of respiration1 and1 in doing so1 projects itself against the liquid1 as it were4 ,while it advances through the water under this impulse1 its pendent arms1 elongated and reunited in bundles1 extend the whole length of the shell4 ,fig4 #cbi shows the position of the different parts of the animal when it thus breasts the waves4 ,these arms are also powerful aids when the animal creeps on the ground at the bottom of the sea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,argonauta papyracea in its shell4 ,when the animal is disturbed it retires completely into its shell4 ,from that moment1 the equilibrium being changed1 the shell is overturned1 and the animal is nearly invisible4 ,if frightened1 it entirely submerges itself1 and sinks to the bottom4 ,these little beings share with other ,cephalopods the strange faculty of changing colour under the influence of some vivid impression2 but their graceful and delicate organization redeems them from the charge we have brought against the cuttles4 ,the ,nautilus can blush1 turn pale1 and show through its transparent shell its body changing in sudden shades2 but it never exhibits those bristling1 unpleasant tubercles1 the hideous inheritance of the larger and coarser ,cephalopods--the tyrants of the sea4 ,the male ,argonauts are very small1 often not a tenth part of the size of the females1 which alone possess the shells4 ,the ,nautilus carries its egg in the shell1 and the little ones are also hatched in this floating cradle4 ,four species are at present known3 the species described by ,aristotle and ,pliny1 and the more ancient naturalists2 namely1 ,a4 argo1 or papyracea 7,figs4 #cbg and #cbi71 which are inhabitants of the ,mediterranean as well as the ,indian ,ocean and the ,antilles4 ,two others1 ,a4 tubercula1 belonging exclusively to the ,indian ,ocean1 and ,a4 baillant1 which is met occasionally in the ,pacific and ,atlantic ,oceans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the nautilus belongs to the section of ,octopoda1 and the class of ,acetabuliferous ,cephalopods1 having1 as the name indicates1 eight feet1 from 1 eight1 and 1 foot2 at the same time the body is entirely fleshy1 and without fins4 ,the genera of cuttles 7,sepia7 and ,calmars 7,loligo7 belong to another section of the same class2 namely1 the ,decapoda1 because they have ten feet and a sort of internal osselet1 with fins1 c4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,mollusca4 ,we have thought it better to treat this subject in a separate chapter1 for its vast and complicated nature renders it otherwise difficult to handle1 except in a space which would exceed the limits of this work4 ,the different genera of the organic world are peculiar to1 or most frequent in1 certain localities1 and even species and varieties have their limits4 ,this habit pervades the entire range of organisms1 from the lowest plants to man1 whose qualities are to a great extent the type of the locality he inhabits4 ,the geography of the ,mollusca is perhaps the best known to science4 ,the labours of ,mr4 ,louis ,agassiz1 ,dr4 ,sclater1 and ,professor ,edward ,forbes1 have done much towards giving us a clear idea of zoological geography4 ,climate alone is insufficient to account for the distribution of animals3 some higher cause rules here4 ,but while we admit this1 still we must acknowledge that climate exerts considerable influence in modifying the qualities of species4 ,the distribution of the ,mollusca may be considered from three points of view4 ,first1 as regards geography2 second as regards depth2 and third as regards time2 the last belongs to geology4 ,we shall now survey the principal divisions of the ocean2 the line of demarcation being drawn1 not by latitude or longitude1 but by genera and species4 ,the ,mollusca of the ,arctic seas are well known to show considerable analogy with those of the later ,tertiary periods of ,europe4 ,hence the great interest connected with their comparison1 as it affords1--provided we are satisfied with this line of argument1--a proof that an ,arctic climate formerly existed in temperate regions4 ,it is the northern ,drift of which we are speaking4 ,even when species are found living in ,britain identical with those of the ,arctic regions1 still there is often a difference in the form or size of ,british and ,arctic specimens2 certain species1 such as ,cyprina ,islandica1 being comparatively small in the south of ,britain1 larger in ,shetland1 and attaining their greatest size in ,iceland4 ,the countries included in the ,arctic molluscan province are ,lapland1 ,iceland1 ,greenland1 the west coast of ,davis' ,straits1 and ,behring's ,straits4 ,about two hundred species are enumerated by the various ,arctic voyagers1 as found in these seas2 of these about one-half are peculiar to these seas1 and the other half are either found living in the temperate regions of ,europe1 or in their so-called glacial strata4 ,the ,boreal province includes the ,north ,atlantic1 from ,nova ,scotia to ,iceland1 and from thence to ,faroe1 ,shetland1 and the ,norway coast4 ,the number of species is very large2 and more than one-half are common both to ,scandinavia and the ,north ,american coast1 while a great number also are found on the ,british coast4 ,the province called ,celtic by ,professor ,edward ,forbes embraces the coasts of ,britain1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,our ,british mollusca are about seven hundred in number2 those bearing shells are above five hundred4 ,of these about thirty are peculiar to ,britain4 ,the shells of the ,baltic are identical with those of this province4 ,the ,lusitanian province stretches from ,madeira and the ,canaries to the coasts of ,spain and ,portugal1 and includes also the ,mediterranean4 ,but as one might expect1 on close examination1 the ,mollusca in so large an area differ so widely that we are forced to admit the existence of great divisions4 ,the number of species found on the coast of ,madeira by ,mr4 ,mc,andrew was one hundred and fifty-six1 of which forty-four per cent4 were identical with ,british species1 and eighty-three found near the ,canaries4 ,the shells of the ,mediterranean are six hundred in number1 but it is probable that more extensive dredging will result in great accessions being made to this list4 ,a very small number of species only are identical with those now found in the ,west ,indies4 ,nine genera are peculiar to the ,mediterranean4 ,in the character of its shells1 the ,black ,sea resembles the ,mediterranean1 but does not contain much more than a tenth of the number of its species4 ,the number of shells found on the ,spanish and ,portuguese coasts is much smaller than one would expect1 and can only be attributed to the scanty explorations that have been made4 ,as we might expect1 the number of species identical with those of ,northern ,europe is much greater on the ,atlantic than on the ,mediterranean coast of ,spain4 ,the sea of ,aral1 and the ,caspian1 contain a few peculiar species2 but they have been so little explored1 that it is premature1 we think1 to form them into a province4 ,the proportions of salt contained in these seas is much less than in the ocean4 ,the west of ,africa affords a considerable number of fine shells2 the species most numerous being those of ,murex1 ,conus1 and ,clavatula4 ,the south ,african province contains four hundred species2 the characteristic genera are ,terebratella1 ,chiton1 ,patella1 ,trochus1 ,fissurella1 ,cypra1 and ,conus4 ,a large number of these species are not found elsewhere4 ,the ,indo-,pacific province stretches from ,australia to ,japan2 the greater part of the east coast of ,africa2 the ,red ,sea2 ,persian ,gulf2 the ,asiatic coast1 and the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,the molluscs of the ,red ,sea remind us of those of ,india2 the percentage of those found also in the ,mediterranean being much less4 ,the shells of the ,persian ,gulf are but little known2 one species1 the brindled cowry 7,cypra princeps71 has been sold for fifty pounds4 ,the seas of ,new ,zealand and ,australia have been formed into a province4 ,as might be anticipated1 their mollusca have little in common with those of the rest of the globe4 ,the ,japonic province includes the coast of ,japan and the ,corea4 ,the ,aleutian province1 the centre of which may be taken to be the ,aleutian islands1 shows great analogy with the ,boreal province of the west1 a considerable number of the shells being identical--a fact especially interesting when we consider that very few species are found common to both the south-eastern and south-western coasts of ,america4 ,the ,californian province is very distinct from that of ,panama2 the most numerous genera found there1 are ,chiton1 ,acma1 ,fissurella1 ,trochus1 and ,purpura4 ,the marine shells of ,panama are upwards of thirteen hundred2 the region included stretches from the ,gulf of ,california to ,peru4 ,for our knowledge of this province we are much indebted to the researches of ,dr4 ,p4 ,p4 ,carpenter1 who has catalogued six hundred and fifty-four species1 as found at ,mazattan4 ,the ,peruvian province contains a long list of species1 and extends from ,callao to ,valparaiso4 ,the ,magellanic province includes the extreme south of ,america and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,many genera1 the species of which are usually small1 here reach an enormous size1 and afford1 in many cases1 the chief animal food consumed by the quadrupeds and human population of that wild and desolate coast4 ,the ,patagonian province extends from ,st4 ,catharina to ,point ,melo on the east coast4 ,the number of species found also in the ,falkland ,islands is very small2 but a large number are identical with ,brazilian species2 yet the majority are peculiar4 ,the ,caribbean province extends from ,brazil to the ,west ,indies1 and includes1 also1 the northern coast of ,south ,america and the ,gulf of ,mexico2 a total of fifteen hundred species is enumerated by ,professor ,adams as belonging to the province4 ,the ,transatlantic province1 or that on the coast of the ,united ,states1 does not afford a large number of species1 only two hundred and thirty being known2 of these1 only fifteen are found in ,europe4 ,the study of the terrestrial and fresh-water mollusca affords even better grounds for their division into provinces2 but we shall not enter into it here1 as it belongs to the ,land ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall now say a few words on the depth of the sea1 or ocean1 in which ,mollusca are found4 ,the observations of ,milne ,edwards1 ,audonin1 and ,professor ,edward ,forbes1 have led to the division of the sea into four zones4 ,the deep sea ,coral zone1 from fifty to one hundred fathoms2 the ,coralline zone from fifteen to fifty fathoms2 the ,laminarian zone1 which stretches from fifteen fathoms to low water2 and the ,littoral zone1 between high and low water marks4 ,the great stronghold of ,crania1 ,thetis1 ,nera1 ,yoldia1 ,dentalium1 and ,scissurella1 is in the deep sea ,coral zone2 while ,buccinum1 ,fusus1 ,pleurotoma1 ,natica1 ,aporrhais1 ,philine1 and ,velutina1 which are among the most ravenous and predatory of molluscs1 are found in the ,coralline zone4 ,they attack the bivalves1 whose shells among the relics of former seas1 as in those of the present1 show evidence of an assault and a murder4 ,the principal genera of the ,laminarian zone are the ,nudibranchiata1 ,aplysia1 ,trochus1 ,nacella1 ,rissoa1 and ,lacuna1 which feed so much on the seaweed of this region4 ,the ,littoral zone1 which being accessible as the tide recedes1 is best known1 affords ,cardium1 ,mytilus1 ,tellina1 ,solen1 ,trochus1 ,patella1 ,littorina1 and ,purpura2 or in plain ,english1 cockles1 mussels1 razor-fish1 limpets1 periwinkles and tingles2--species which are the first to attract our attention1 and which are so much used for food4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ac3 ,is it necessary to say that even this account--apparently so well authenticated1 not to speak of the representation drawn on the spot--should be taken cum grano salis8--,,ed4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,crustacea4 ,multa tamen ltus tristia pontus habet4 ,,ovid4 ,the animals of this class1 as regards organisation1 must be placed higher in the scale than the ,arachnid1 or spiders2 but they are beneath the ,mollusca1 although as regards affinity1 the ,mollusca in their lower division--the ,molluscoda--more approximate to the ,polyp class than to the ,crustacea4 ,the ,crustacea is the highest division of articulate animals with feet2 they breathe by means of gills1 and have no stigmata1 or air-passages1 as in insects4 ,the name signifies a hard crust or covering1 with which the animals are protected4 ,this consists of layers of carbonate of lime with one of pigment1 generally1 but not always1 on the surface4 ,the general outline of these animals is peculiar2 unlike insects1 they are not divisible into head1 thorax1 and abdomen2 many species truly have no head at all2 but a pair of eyes point to the seat of intelligence4 ,most of these animals have two compound eyes2 but a few1 like some insects1 have both simple and compound eyes4 ,the mouth is situated in the under part of the anterior of the body3 in some cases they have jaws1 as in crabs2 in others suckers only4 ,passing over the vast numbers of beings which inhabit the debatable ground--the ,annelids1 which were for ages confounded with the worms1 because of their resemblance in form3--a form which might be declared forbidding1 but1 as ,aristotle has well said1 ,nature1 in her domain1 knows nothing low1 nothing contemptible2 the sea-leeches1 whose condition was an impenetrable mystery to ,pliny1 ,omnia incerta ratione1 et in natur majestate abdita2 and the singular cirripedes1 one species of which1 the barnacle 7,anatifa lvis71 was thought by old ,gerard1 the herbalist1 and in his day by many others1 to be the egg from which the barnacle goose was produced--passing over these ocean tribes1 we reach the ,crustaceans--the ,insects of the ,sea2 of greater size1 force1 and voracity than any land insect with which we are acquainted4 ,they are armed1 also1 at all points2 for1 in place of the coriaceous tunic1 they are clothed in calcareous armour1 both hard and strong1 and bristling with coarse hairs1 spiny tubercles1 and even serrated spines4 ,the ,crustaceans have nearly all of them claws1 formidably hooked and toothed1 which they employ as pincers1 both in offensive and defensive war4 ,they have been compared to the heavily-armed knights of the middle ages--at once audacious and cruel2 barbed in steel from head to foot1 with visor and corslet1 arm-pieces and thigh-pieces--nothing1 in fact1 is wanting to complete the resemblance4 ,these marine marauders live on the sea-coast1 among the rocks1 and near the shore4 ,some few of them frequent the deep waters1 others hide themselves in the sand or under stones1 while the common crab 7,carcinus mnas1 ,leach7 loves the shore almost as much as the salt water1 and establishes itself accordingly under some moist cliff overhanging the sea1 where it can enjoy both4 ,one of the necessary consequences of the condition of these animals1 enclosed in a hard shell1 is their power of throwing it off4 ,the solidity of their calcareous carapace would effectually prevent their growth1 but at certain determinate periods ,nature despoils the warrior of his cuirass2 the creature moults1 and the calcareous crust falls off1 and leaves it with a thin1 pale1 and delicate tunic4 ,in this state the ,crustacean is no longer worthy of its name--its skin has become as vulnerable as that of the softest mollusc2 but it has the instinct of weakness--it retires into lonely places1 and hides its shame in some obscure crevice1 until another vestment1 more suitable for resistance1 and adapted to its increased size1 has been restored4 ,the ,crustacean has not a vertebral column4 ,the covering of the ,crustacean consists of a great number of distinct pieces1 connected together by means of portions of the epidermis which have not yet become hardened1 in the same way as the bones in the skeleton of the vertebrata are connected by cartilages1 the ossification of which only takes place in old age4 ,the covering of the ,crustacean consists of a series of rings varying in number1 the normal number of the body-segments being twenty-one4 ,each ring is divisible into two arcs--one upper1 or dorsal1 the other lower1 or ventral2 and each arc may present four elementary pieces1 two of which are united in the mesial line from the tergum1 or back2 the lower arc is a counterpart of this1 while the others form the two side1 or epimeral1 pieces4 ,the skin1 therefore1 performs the functions of a skeleton1 so that the ,crustaceans1 as was said by ,geoffroy ,saint ,hilaire1 like the molluscs1 live inside and not outside the bony column4 ,the analogue of the ,crustacea amongst vertebrata is to be found amongst ,sturgeonid1 whose hard1 immovable bony case encloses a softer skeleton2 agreeing in its characters with that of the higher divisions of vertebrata1 although not possessing the solidity of bone4 ,the ,crustaceans vary greatly in colour2 some are of a dark1 iron-grey1 with a dash of steel-blue1 like metal weapons forged for combat2 a few of them are red1 or reddish-brown2 others are of an earthy yellow1 or of a livid blue4 ,the integument1 according to ,milne ,edwards1 consists of a corium1 or true skin1 and epidermis1 with a pigmentary matter1 which colours the latter4 ,the corium is a thick1 spongy1 and vascular membrane1 connected with the serous substance which lines the parietal walls of the cavities1 as the serous membrane lines the internal cavities among the vertebrata4 ,this pigment is less a membrane than an amorphous matter diffused through the outer layer of the superficial membrane1 which changes to red in the greater number of species in alcohol1 ether1 acids1 and water at #bab ,fahr4 ,the calcareous crust of the animal is thick1 and in the dorsal region capable of great resistance2 their members are also of remarkable hardness2 but in the smaller species the shell is often thin1 and of that crystalline transparency which permits of its digestion and circulation being observed4 ,many species1 which are quite microscopic1 contribute colour to the sea--red1 purple1 or scarlet3 such are ,grimothea ,d',urvillei and ,g4 gregarea4 ,before the year #ahbc1 it was not generally supposed that this class of animals was subject to change of shape from the larva condition1 and during its progressive development2 but about this time1 and for some years following1 certain able microscopic experiments clearly demonstrated that a minute nondescript kind of animal called the ,zoea ,taurus1 was nothing more nor less than the young of a kind of ,prawn as when extracted from the egg4 ,mr4 ,vaughan ,thomson1 by many successive observations1 and under the fire of much adverse criticism1 satisfactorily established the truth of metamorphic change in many genera1 and1 in particular1 in regard to the common crab 7,cancer pagurus72 having succeeded in hatching the ova of this species1 the product of which were fine ,zoeas4 ,that there are variations in the channel of this law of change has been admitted1 but that generally a metamorphosis exists1 analogous to that of insects1 in the various genera of ,crustacea1 with hardly an exception1 has been clearly established4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cca4 ,zoea ,taurus4 ,the recorded observations of the eminent naturalist we have mentioned1 ,mr4 ,thomson1 as well as those of ,mr4 ,couch1 of ,penzance1 ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 and particularly those of the last mentioned1 the learned author of perhaps the best work extant on the ,crustacea1 are referred to as treating most lucidly on this interesting subject4 ,as an illustration of this metamorphosis1 we give figures of the ,zoea ,taurus in two states1 viz41 ,fig4 a1 in the first stage2 and second1 ,fig4 b1 as the animal appeared on the fourth day after the first microscopic examination1 and when it resolved itself into a kind of prawn4 ,the drawings appear in ,mr4 ,bell's ,history of ,british ,stalk-eyed ,crustacea1 and were taken by that gentleman from the work of a ,dutch naturalist1 named ,slabber1 who made the original observation in the year #agfh1 and published the result in #aggh1 from which time the subject had been allowed to fall asleep until revived by ,mr4 ,thomson4 ,among the sea-spiders1 which have no neck 7,cephalothorax71 the head gradually disappears in the breast1 but the belly remains distinct2 the middle of the body is compressed1 the shape narrow and graceful4 ,among the ,crustaceans which have neither neck nor shape1 the head1 the breast1 and the belly form only one mass1 often short1 squat1 athletic1 and difficult to take1 as in ,pisa tetraodon 7,fig4 #ccb71 the four-horned spider-crab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,pisa tetraodon4 ,many of these animals have a powerful tail1 consisting of a certain number of ciliated paddles1 which it uses in swimming to beat the water1 and to confuse its enemies4 ,the ,crustaceans1 so far as they are aquatic1 respire by means of branchi1 or gills4 ,in the larger species these branchi are lamellous1 or with filaments1 whose supports are traversed by two canals1 one of which leads the blood into the general economy1 the other directs it towards the heart4 ,these organs are enclosed in the body4 ,in the smaller species the branchi often appear exteriorly1 hanging in the water like a fungus4 ,sometimes these are at once swimming and breathing organs2 in other cases the animal has no special organs of respiration4 ,nearly all the ,crustaceans are strong1 hardy1 and destructive1 forming a horde of nocturnal brigands--merciless marauders1 who recoil from no trap in which they can lie in wait for their prey4 ,they fight l'outrance not only with their enemies1 but often among themselves1 either for a prey or for a female1 sometimes for the sake of the fight4 ,the miserable creatures struggle audaciously with their claws4 ,the carapace generally resists the most formidable blows2 but the feet1 the tail1 and1 above all1 the antenn1 suffer frightful mutilation4 ,happily for the vanquished1 the mutilated members sprout again after a few weeks of repose4 ,this is the reason for the many ,crustaceans met with having the talons of very unequal size3 the smaller are those lost in battle replaced4 ,nature has willed that the ,crustacean should not long remain an invalid4 ,they soon return cured of their wounds4 ,we have seen lobsters1 says ,moquin-,tandon1 which have in an unfortunate rencounter lost a limb1 sick and debilitated1 reappear at the end of a few months with a perfect limb1 vigorous1 and ready for service4 ,o ,nature1 how thou fillest our souls with astonishment and wonder6 ,on the ,spanish coast there is a species of crab1 known1 singularly enough1 by the name of ,boccaccio2 it is caught for its claw1 which is considered excellent eating4 ,this is cut off1 and the mutilated animal is thrown into the sea1 to be taken at some future time when the claw has reappeared4 ,crustaceans are nearly all carnivorous1 and eat eagerly all other animals1 whether living or dead1 fresh or decomposed4 ,little think they of the quality or condition of their food4 ,it is amusing to witness the address and gravity with which the common crab1 when it has seized an unfortunate mussel1 holds the valve open with one claw1 while with the other it rapidly detaches the animal1 carrying each morsel to the mouth1 as one might do with the hand1 until the shell is entirely empty4 ,the crab does not kill its prey directly1 like the lobster2 it is swallowed also1 but with greater appreciation4 ,m4 ,charles ,lesps surprised upon the shore at ,royan a shoal of crabs at their repast4 ,this day they seem to have dined in common1 and ,god knows the enjoyment1 as the good ,fontaines said4 ,they were in rows1 every head turned to the same side1 and nearly on end on their eight feet4 ,they seized the small objects on the shore1 which were carried to the mouth1 each hand in its turn in regular order3 when the right hand reached the mouth the left was on the ground4 ,let us just figure to oneself a company of disciplined soldiers messing together at the same table6 ,the ,long-horned ,corophius 7,corophium longicorne71 remarkable for its long antenn1 knows perfectly well how to cut the byssus by which the mussels suspend themselves1 in order that the bivalve may fall on the weeds among them4 ,other ,crustaceans1 also great oyster-eaters1 have the cunning or instinct to attack the mollusc without exposing themselves to danger4 ,when the bivalve half opens its shell to enjoy the rays of the sun or take food1 the evil-disposed ,crustacean slips a stone between the valve4 ,this done1 it devours the poor inhabitant of the shell at its leisure4 ,the ,corophius1 respecting whom this question is hazarded1 are extremely numerous on the shores of the ,atlantic towards the end of summer and autumn4 ,they make constant war upon certain marine worms4 ,off the coast of ,la ,rochelle they may be seen in myriads beating the muddy bottom with their long antenn in search of their prey4 ,sometimes they meet one of these ,nereida or ,arenicola many times their own size1 when they unite in a body to attack it4 ,in the oyster beds of ,la ,rochelle they are useful friends to the oyster by destroying these enemies1 although they do not hesitate to attack the mollusc when it comes in their way4 ,during the winter the mud of the bouchots gets piled up in unequal heaps1 and when the warm season returns1 it has become hard and unfit for the cultivation of the mollusc4 ,it is necessary to level and dry these mud-heaps--a process which would be both difficult and costly4 ,well1 the ,corophia charge themselves with the task4 ,they plough up annually many square leagues covered with these heaps4 ,they dilute the mud1 which is carried out by the ebbing tide1 and the surface of the bay is left smooth1 as it was in the preceding autumn4 ,we have said that the ,crustaceans do not even respect each other2 the larger of the same species often devour the smaller4 ,rara concordia fratrum6 ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones relates that he had on one occasion introduced six crabs 7,platycarcinus pagurus7 of different size into an aquarium4 ,one of them1 venturing towards the middle of the reservoir1 was immediately accosted by another a little larger1 which took it with its claws as it might have taken a biscuit1 and set about breaking its shell1 and so found a way to its flesh4 ,it dug its crooked claws into it with voluptuous enjoyment1 appearing to pay no attention to the anger and jealousy of another of its companions1 which was still stronger and as cruel1 and advanced towards them4 ,but1 as ,horace says--and he was not the first to say it--,no one is altogether happy in this lower world3 ,nihil est ab omni parte beatum4 ,our ferocious ,crustacean quietly continued its repast1 when its companion seized it exactly as it had seized its prey1 broke and tore it in the same fashion1 penetrating to its middle1 and tearing out its entrails in the same savage manner4 ,in the mean time the victim1 singularly enough1 did not disturb itself for an instant1 but continued to eat the first crab bit by bit1 until it was itself entirely torn to pieces by its own executioner--a remarkable instance at once of insensibility to pain and of cruel infliction under the lex talionis4 ,to eat and to be eaten seems to be one of the great laws of ,nature4 ,though essentially carnivorous1 the ,crustaceans sometimes eat marine vegetables4 ,many even seem to prefer fruit to animal food4 ,such is the robber-crab 7,birgus latro7 of the ,polynesian ,isles1 which feeds almost exclusively on the cocoa-nut4 ,this crab has thick and strong claws2 the others are comparatively slender and weak4 ,at first glance it seems impossible that it could penetrate a thick cocoa-nut surrounded by a thick bed of fibre and protected by its strong shell2 but ,m4 ,liesk has often seen the operation4 ,the crab begins by tearing off the fibre at the extremity where the fruit is1 always choosing the right end4 ,when this is removed1 it strikes it with its great claws until it has made an opening2 then1 by the aid of its slender claws1 and by turning itself round1 it extracts the whole substance of the nut4 ,the ,crustaceans have eyes of two kinds--simple and compound3 the first are sessile and immovable1 and very convex2 the other borne on a short calcareous stem or peduncle1 and formed of a number of small eyes symmetrically agglomerated--the reunion of all the microscopic cornea of a composite eye1 resembling in shape a cap formed of facets4 ,it is said1 for instance1 that the eye of the lobster consists of #bejj of these little facets4 ,the simple eyes are myopus1 or short-sighted--the compound eyes for more distant but perfect sight4 ,they appear to have a strong sense of smell4 ,many of them cannot swim1 but walk with more or less facility at the bottom of the water4 ,it is said1 for instance1 that the cavalier of the ,syrian coast1 ,oxypoda cursor 7,fabricius71 is named from the rapidity with which it traverses great distances4 ,many systems have been proposed by different writers for the arrangement of the ,crustacea4 ,that proposed by ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards recommends itself1 being founded on anatomical examination and actual experiment made by himself and ,m4 ,audouin4 ,he divides them into two great divisions3 ,i4 ,those in which the mouth is furnished with a certain number of organs adapted for the prehension or division of food4 ,,ii4 ,those in which the mouth is surrounded by ambulatory extremities1 the bases of which perform the part of jaws4 ,the first includes the ,,maxilosa or ,,mandibulata1 again divided into ,decapoda1 having branchi attached to the sides of the thorax1 and enclosed in special cavities4 ,the ,decapoda are divided into3 #a4 ,,brachyura1 namely1 the ,crabs4 ,cancer1 ,porlunus1 ,grapsus1 ,ocypode1 and ,doippe1 belong to this group4 #b4 ,,anomoura1 including ,droma1 ,pagurus1 ,porcellana1 and ,hippa4 #c4 ,,macroura1 including the ,lobsters1 ,astacus1 ,palmon1 the ,craw-fish1 ,palinurus4 ,stomatopoda1 with external branchi1 sometimes rudimentary1 sometimes none4 ,thoracic extremities prehensile1 or for swimming generally1 six or eight pairs4 ,this division includes ,mysids1 ,phyllosoma1 ,squilla1 c4 ,the ,cirripedia1 or barnacles1 are a very important division of ,crustacea2 they are found in all seas1 and attach themselves to almost every object in the sea2 from the immovable rock to the moving animal2 from the little ,tunicata to the great turtle1 or the whale4 ,the goose barnacles1 ,anatifa1 have a flexible peduncle4 ,the ,balanoidea1 or sea acorns1 like oysters1 are rooted to the spot on which they rest in their infant days2 without the power1 like the goose barnacle1 of swaying to and fro like a pendulum1 be their resting-place what it may4 ,one of the most remarkable animals of this class of ,crustacea is the ,limulus ,moluccanus--the ,molucca crab4 ,they are distinguished by a long serrated spine1 which looks most formidable4 ,they are in great request in the markets of ,java4 ,linnus thought that the fossil trilobites were closely allied to the ,limulus4 ,latreille1 on the contrary1 classed them near the mollusc1 chiton4 ,the tail of ,limulus so strikingly resembles that of many ,trilobites1 that the most common observers may perceive an affinity4 ,,crabs ,,and ,,craw-,,fish4 ,crabs and lobsters may be regarded as the chiefs or lords of the ,crustacean tribes4 ,the crabs have very large claws and smooth backs2 the last have small claws and the back covered with spines4 ,tiberius ,csar had the face of a poor fisherman scratched by the rugged shell of a craw-fish4 ,lobsters1 especially1 have an amazing fecundity1 and yield an immense number of eggs1 each female producing from #ab1jjj to #bj1jjj in the season4 ,the crab is also very prolific4 ,these eggs are1 in the lobster1 arranged in packets1 which are attached to the lower surface of the tail1 to which they are connected by a viscous substance4 ,the manner in which the female lobster disposes of her burden is curious and interesting4 ,whether she bends or stands erect she is able to hold it obscurely or expose it to the light4 ,sometimes1 according to ,coste1 the eggs are left immovable1 or simply submerged2 at others they are subjected to successive washings by gently agitating the false claw which shelters them from right to left4 ,when first exuded from the ovary the eggs are very small1 but they seem to increase during the time they are borne about under the tail1 and before they are committed to the sand or water they have attained the size of small shot4 ,the evolution of the germ is in progress during six months4 ,at the moment of exclusion the female extends the tail1 impresses upon the eggs an oscillating motion1 in order to destroy the shell and scatter the larv1 delivering herself in two or three days of her entire burden 7,coste74 ,as the young lie enclosed within the membrane of the egg1 says ,couch1 the claws are folded on each other1 and the tail is flexed on them as far as the margin of the shield4 ,the dorsal spine is bent backwards1 and lies in contact with the dorsal shield1 for the young when it escapes from the egg is quite soft2 but it rapidly hardens and solidifies by the deposition of calcareous matter on what may be called its skin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccc4 ,palinurus vulgaris4 a1 left outward jaw-foot4 ,as soon as born1 the young ,crustaceans withdraw from the mother and ascend to the surface of the water1 in order to gain the open sea4 ,they swim in a circle2 but this pelagic life is not of long duration2 they quit it after their fourth moult1 which takes place between the thirtieth and fortieth day1 at which time they lose the transitory organs of natation which they have hitherto possessed4 ,after this they are no longer able to maintain themselves on the surface1 but drop to the bottom4 ,henceforth they are condemned to remain there1 and such walking as they can exercise becomes their habitual mode of progression4 ,as they increase in size they gradually approach the shore1 which they had for the moment abandoned1 and return to the places inhabited by the parent ,crustaceans4 ,the form of the larv differs so much from that of the adult1 that it would be difficult1 except on the clearest evidence1 to determine the species from which they proceed4 ,former naturalists considered the embryo cray-fish 7,palinurus7 to belong to a distinct genera1 which they designated ,phyllosoma4 ,it is now known1 however1 that these are the young of the higher forms of ,crustaceans undergoing metamorphosis4 ,in the various forms of ,macroura the metamorphosis is less decided than in the ,brachyura4 ,in the fresh-water cray-fish no change whatever takes place4 ,dissatisfied with the uncertainty of former experiments1 ,mr4 ,couch undertook a series of observations1 which are recorded in the proceedings of the ,cornwall ,polytechnic ,society1 in which he established the fact that metamorphosis takes place in the following genera3 ,cancer1 ,xanth1 ,plumnus1 ,carcinus1 ,portunus1 ,maja1 ,galathea1 ,hornarus1 and ,palinurus4 ,metamorphosis has been demonstrated1 says ,dr4 ,bell1 in no less than seventeen genera of the ,brachyurous order of ,decapoda1 in which it is most decided and obvious2 in ,leptopodia1 ,majacea1 ,cancer1 ,portunid1 ,pinnoteres1 and ,grapsus4 ,in the ,anomourous order it is seen in the ,pagurus1 ,porcellana1 and ,galathea2 and in the ,macrouran order in ,homarus1 ,palinurus1 ,palmon1 and ,crangon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,portunus variegatus1 male4 a1 external antenna2 b1 external jaw-foot2 c1 tail or abdomen4 ,the swimming of these creatures is produced by flexions and expansions of the tail1 and by repeated beating motions of the claws1 the tail acting as a sort of vibratile oar1 aided by which they maintain themselves in the water and facilitate their progress4 ,as the shell becomes more solid they get less active1 and finally return to the bottom to cast their shell and assume a new form4 ,according to the observations of ,m4 ,coste1 the young lobster casts its shell from eight to ten times in the first year1 from five to seven in the second1 three to four times the third1 and two or three times the fourth year4 ,in the fifth year they attain the adult state4 ,whence it follows1 that the small lobsters served at our tables have changed their calcareous vestment something like twenty-one times1 and are now clothed in their twenty-second habit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cce4 ,corystes ,cassivelaunus1 male4 ,the crabs are numerous in species and various in size4 ,the long-clawed crab 7,corystes ,cassivelaunus7 of ,pennant and ,leach 7,fig4 #cce7 is remarkable for its long antenn1 which considerably exceed the body4 ,the jaw-feet have their third joint longer than the second1 terminating in an obtuse point1 with a notch on its interior edge2 eyes wide apart1 borne upon large peduncles1 which are nearly cylindrical and short2 anterior feet large1 equal1 twice the length of the body1 and nearly cylindrical in the males2 in the females 7,fig4 #ccf7 about the length of the body1 and compressed1 especially towards the hand-claw4 ,the other feet terminate in an elongated nail or claw1 which is straight-pointed and channeled longitudinally3 carapace oblong-oval1 terminating in a rostrum anteriorly truncated and bordered posteriorly2 the regions but slightly indicated1 with the exception of the cordian region1 the branchial or lateral regions being very much elongated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccf4 ,corystes ,cassivelaunus1 female4 ,latreille gives the name of ,corystes1 which signifies a warrior armed1 to this genus of ,crustaceans1 from 1 a helmet1 but it is perfectly inoffensive4 ,pennant had already conferred the name of ,cassivelaunus1 the chief of the ,ancient ,britons1 for the singular reason1 according to ,gosse1 that the carapace1 which is marked by wrinkles1 bears1 in old males especially1 the strongest and most ludicrous resemblance to the face of an ancient man4 ,pennant's well-known sympathy with his ,british ancestry certainly never led him to caricature the grand old ,british warrior1 as ,mr4 ,gosse surmises4 ,on the contrary1 he saw in the ,crustacean a creature armed at all points1 and he named it after the hero of his imagination4 ,in this species the surface of the carapace is somewhat granulous1 with two denticles between the eyes1 and three sharp points directed forward on each side4 ,the male has only five abdominal pieces1 but the vestiges of the separation of the two others may be clearly remarked upon the outer mediate or third piece1 which is the largest of all4 ,the length of the antenn is remarked on by ,mr4 ,couch1 in his ,cornish ,fauna4 ,these organs1 he says1 are of some use beyond their common office of feelers2 perhaps1 as in some other ,crustaceans1 they assist in the process of excavation2 and1 when soiled by labour1 ,i have seen the crab effect their cleaning by alternately bending the joints of their stalks1 which stand conveniently angular for the purpose4 ,each of the long antenn is thus drawn along the brush that fringes the internal face of the other1 until both are cleared of every particle that adhered to them4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,gosse suggests that the office of the antenn is to keep a passage open for ejecting the deteriorated water after it has bathed and aerated the gills4 ,i have observed1 he says1 that1 when kept in an aquarium1 these crabs are fond of sitting bolt upright1 the antenn placed close together1 and pointing straight upwards from the head4 ,this is doubtless the attitude in which the animal sits in its burrow1 for the tips of the antenn may often be seen just projecting from the sand4 ,when the chosen seat has happened to be so close to the glass side of the tank as to bring the antenn within the range of a pocket lens1 ,i have minutely investigated these organs without disturbing the old warrior in his meditation4 ,i saw on each occasion that a strong current of water was continuously pouring up from the points of the antenn4 ,tracing this to its origin1 it became evident that it was produced by the rapid vibration of the foot-jaws drawing in the surrounding water1 and pouring it off upwards between the united antenn1 as through a tube4 ,then1 on examining these organs1 ,i perceived that the form and arrangement of their bristles did indeed constitute each antenn a semi-tube1 so that when the pair were brought face to face the tube was complete4 ,among the numerous genera of ,brachyurous ,crustaceans1 ,grapsus is distinguished by its less regularly quadrilateral form2 the body nearly always compressed1 and the sternal plastron but little or not at all curved backwards2 the front strongly recurved1 or1 rather1 bent downwards2 the orbits oval-shaped and of moderate size2 the lateral edges of the carapace slightly curving and trenchant2 the ocular pedicles large1 but short3 their insertion beneath the front and the cornea occupies one-half of their length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccg4 ,pagurus ,bernhardus4 #a1 out of the shell2 a1 right jaw-foot2 b1 in the shell4 ,the ,hermit or ,soldier ,crab 7,pagurus ,bernhardus1 ,fabricius1 ,fig4 #ccg7 is1 perhaps1 the oddest and most curious of ,crustaceans4 ,it differs from most other ,crustaceans in this3 in place of having the body protected by a calcareous armour1 more or less thick and solid1 it has only a cuirass and head-piece to protect the head and breast2 all the rest of the body is invested in a soft yielding skin2 and this1 the vulnerable part of the hermit crab1 is the delicate morsel devoured by the gourmet4 ,nor is our somewhat evil-disposed ,crustacean ignorant of the perfectly weak and defenceless state of its posterior quarters4 ,prudence or instinct makes it seek the shelter of some empty shell1 of a shape and size corresponding to its own4 ,when it fails to find one empty1 it does not hesitate to attack some living testacean1 which it kills without pity or remorse1 and takes possession of its habitation without other form of process4 ,once master of the shell 7,fig4 #ccg71 it introduces itself1 stern foremost1 and installs itself as in an entrenchment1 where it is established so firmly that it moves about with it more or less briskly1 according to its comparative size4 ,the ,pagurians belong to the ,anomourous family of ,crustaceans1 of which there are several genera1 and a considerable number of species1 the animal economy of which has been ably commented upon by ,mr4 ,broderip4 ,their backs1 he says1 are towards the arch of the turbinated shell occupied by them1 and their well-armed nippers and first two pairs of succeeding feet generally project beyond the mouth of it4 ,the short feet rest upon the polished surface of the columella1 and the outer surface of their termination1 especially that of the first pair1 is in some species most admirably rough-shod1 to give 'the soldier' a firm footing when he makes his sortie1 or to add to the resistance of the crustaceous holders at the end of his abdomen1 or tail1 when he is attacked1 and wishes to withdraw into his castle4 ,on passing the finger downwards over the terminations of these feet1 they feel smooth2 but if the finger be passed upwards1 the roughness is instantly perceived4 ,the same sort of structure 7it is as rough as a file7 is to be seen in the smaller caudal holders4 ,in another species of ,pagurus1 from the ,mauritius1 which was nearly a foot in length1 he found a great number of transverse rows1 armed with acetabula1 or suckers2 these were visible without the aid of a glass1 which must very much assist the hold of the ,pagurus4 ,during the feeding and breeding-time1 the hermit throws out his head and feet1 and especially his great claws1 and feels his way with his two antenn1 which are long and slender4 ,when he walks he hooks on with his pincers to the nearest body1 and draws his shell after him1 as the snail does his4 ,but the undefended parts of the body always remain under cover4 ,at low water the hermits spread themselves over the rocky shore1 and the spectator thinks he sees a great number of shells which move in all directions1 with allurements different from that which belongs to their essentially slow and measured race4 ,if they are touched they stop suddenly1 and it is soon discovered that their shell is the dwelling of a crustacean1 not a mollusc4 ,the animal lives alone in its little citadel1 like the hermit in his cell or the sentinel in his box4 ,hence the name of hermit and soldier4 ,when our crustacean outgrows its borrowed habitation1 it sets out in search of another shell1 a little larger1 and better suited for its increased size4 ,the hermit often avails itself1 as we have said1 of empty shells abandoned by their owners2 when the tide retires these seldom fail them1 and the hermit may be seen examining1 turning1 and returning1 and even trying its new domicile4 ,it glides slowly along on its abdomen1 which is large and somewhat distorted1 sometimes in one shell1 sometimes in another1 looking defiantly all round it1 and returning very quickly to its ancient lodging if the new one does not turn out to be perfectly comfortable1 often trying a great number1 as a man might try many new clothes before suiting himself4 ,in its successive removals the little sybarite chooses a hermitage more and more spacious1 according to its taste or caprice in colour or architecture4 ,the cunning little creature chooses its mansion1 now grey or yellow1 now red or brown1 globular or cylindrical1 in the form of a spiral or of a tun1 toothed or crenulate1 with trenchant edge or pointed terminations2 but1 as a rule1 our crustacean ,diogenes houses itself in spirals of considerable length1 as in ,cerithium1 ,buccinum1 or ,murex4 ,the hermit is very timid2 at the least noise it shrinks into its shell and squats itself1 without motion1 drawing in its smaller claws and closing the door with its larger ones1 the latter being often covered with hairs1 tubercles1 or with teeth4 ,in short1 our prudent cenobite clings so closely to the bottom of its retreat1 that we might pull it to pieces without getting it out entire2 its tail is transformed into a sort of sucker1 by the aid of which it attaches itself firmly to the walls of its habitation4 ,it is at once strong and voracious1 eating with much relish the dead fishes and fragments of molluscs and annelids which come in its way4 ,nor does it hesitate to attack and devour living animals4 ,when introduced into an aquarium1 it has sometimes thrown it into the utmost disorder by its insatiable rapacity4 ,it has been possible sometimes to preserve harmony among many individuals inhabiting the same reservoir2 but this has been owing rather to the impossibility of their attacking each other1 in consequence of cunningly-devised barricades1 than to their mildness of character or love of their neighbour4 ,these animals1 in short1 are very quarrelsome4 ,two hermits cannot meet without showing hostility2 each extends his long pincers1 and seems to try to touch the other1 much as a spider does when it seeks to seize a fly on its most vulnerable side2 but each1 finding the other armed in proof1 and perfectly protected1 though eager to fight1 usually adopts the better part of valour1 and prudently withdraws4 ,they often have true passages of arms1 nevertheless1 in which claws are spread out1 and displayed in the most threatening manner2 the two adversaries tumbling head over heels1 and rolling one upon the other1 but they get more frightened than hurt4 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,gosse once witnessed a struggle which had a more tragic end4 ,a hermit crab met a brother ,bernhard pleasantly lodged in a shell much more spacious than his own4 ,he seized it by the head with his powerful claws1 tore it from its asylum with the speed of lightning1 and took its place not less promptly1 leaving the dispossessed unfortunate struggling on the sand in convulsions of agony4 ,our battles1 says ,charles ,bonnet1 have rarely such important objects in view3 they fight each other for a house4 ,a pretty little zoophyte1 the ,cloak ,anemone 7,adamsia palliata71 loves to live with the hermit1 and exhibits sympathies almost inexplicable4 ,in aquariums this anemone attaches itself almost always to the shell which serves as the dwelling of the ,crustacean2 and it may be looked upon as certain that where the hermit is there will the anemone be found4 ,these two creatures seem to live in perfect and intelligent harmony together1 for ,mr4 ,gosse's observations establish the existence of a cordial and reciprocal affection between them4 ,this learned and intelligent observer describes the proceedings of a hermit which required a new habitation2 he saw it detach1 in the most deliberate but effective manner1 its dear companion1 the anemone1 from the old shell1 transport it with every care and precaution1 and place it comfortably upon the new shell1 and then with its large pincers give to its well-beloved many little taps1 as if to fix it there the more quickly4 ,another species of ,bernhardus makes a companion of the mantled anemone4 ,and we are assured1 says ,moquin-,tandon1 that when the crab dies its inconsolable friend is not long in succumbing also4 ,is there not here much more than what our modern physiologists call automatic movements1 the results of reflex sensorial action8 says ,gosse4 ,the more ,i study the lower animals1 the more firmly am ,i persuaded of the existence in them of psychical faculties1 such as consciousness1 intelligence1 skill1 and choice2 and that even in those forms in which as yet no nervous centres have been detected4 ,,lobsters4 ,in a dietary1 as well as commercial sense1 the lobster far excels the crab2 like the latter1 they have an amazing fecundity1 each female producing from twelve to twenty thousand eggs in a season2 and wisely is it so arranged1 otherwise the consumption would soon exhaust them4 ,in ,france the size of the marketable lobster is regulated by law1 and fixed at twenty centimtres 7eight inches7 in length2 all under that size are contraband4 ,every year the inhabitants of ,blainville proceed to ,chaussey to fish for lobsters4 ,they are taken in baskets in the form of a truncated cone1 the mouth of which is so arranged that the animal can enter1 but cannot get out4 ,the numbers caught by each fisherman and his family in a season may be estimated at a thousand or twelve hundred1 which realise to the family thirteen or fourteen hundred francs1 the season lasting about nine months4 ,lobsters are collected all round our own coast for the ,london market4 ,on the ,scottish shore they are collected and kept in perforated chests floating on the water1 until they can be taken away to market4 ,from the ,sutherland coast alone six to eight thousand lobsters are collected in a season4 ,this process goes on all round the coast1 and as far as ,norway1 whence an enormous supply of the finest lobsters are obtained1 for which something like #bj1jjj per annum is paid1 all these contributions being conveyed to the ,thames and ,mersey in welled vessels4 ,but these old-fashioned systems are being rapidly superseded by the construction of artificial storing ponds1 or basins4 ,of these ponds ,mr4 ,richard ,scovell has erected one at ,hamble1 near ,southampton1 in which he can store with ease fifty thousand lobsters1 which will keep in good condition for six weeks4 ,mr4 ,scovell's tank is supplied from the coasts of ,france1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 where fine lobsters abound4 ,he employs three large and well-appointed smacks1 each of which can carry from five thousand to ten thousand4 ,on the coast of ,ireland alone1 it is said1 ten thousand fine lobsters a week might be taken4 ,the ,lobster 7,homarus7 is found in great abundance all round our coast2 frequenting the more rocky shores and clear water1 where it is of no great depth1 about the time of depositing its eggs4 ,various are the modes in which they are taken2 cone-shaped traps made of wicker-work1 and baited with garbage1 are perhaps the most successful4 ,these are sunk among the rocks1 and marked by buoys4 ,sometimes nets are sunk1 baited by the same material4 ,in other places a wooden instrument1 which acts like a pair of tongs1 is used for their capture4 ,mr4 ,pennant1 the naturalist1 paid great attention to the lobsters1 and their habits are well described in a letter from ,mr4 ,travis1 of ,scarborough4 ,the larger ones1 he says1 are in their best season from the middle of ,october to the beginning of ,may4 ,many of the smaller ones1 and some few of the larger individuals1 are good all the summer4 ,if they are four and a half inches long from the top of the head to the end of the back shell1 they are called sizeable lobsters2 if under four inches1 they are esteemed half size1 and two of them are reckoned for one of size4 ,under four inches they are called pawks1 and these are the best summer lobsters4 ,the pincers of one of the lobster's large claws are furnished with knobs1 while the other claw is always serrated4 ,with the former it keeps firm hold of the stalks of submarine plants2 with the latter it cuts and masticates its food very dexterously4 ,the knobbed or thumb claw1 as the fishermen call it1 is sometimes on the left1 sometimes on the right side1 and it is more dangerous to be seized by the serrated claw than the other4 ,there is little doubt that the lobsters cast their shell annually1 but the mode in which it is performed is not satisfactorily explained4 ,it is supposed that the old shell is cast1 and that the animal retires to some lurking-place till the new covering acquires consistence to contend with his armour-clad congeners4 ,others contend that the process is one of absorption1 otherwise1 if there were a period of moult1 it would be shown by their shells4 ,the most probable conjecture is that the shell sloughs off piecemeal1 as it does in the cray-fish4 ,the greatest mystery of all1 perhaps1 is the process by which the lobster withdraws the fleshy part of its claws from their calcareous covering4 ,fishermen say the lobster pines before casting its shell1 so as to permit of its withdrawing its members from it4 ,the female lobster does not seem to cast her shell the same year in which she deposits her ova1 or1 as the fishermen say1 is in berry4 ,when the ova first appear under the tail1 they are small and very black1 but before they are ready for deposition they are almost as large as ripe elderberries1 and of a dark-brown colour4 ,there does not seem to be any particular season for this act1 as females are found in berry at all seasons1 but more commonly in winter4 ,in this state they are found to be much exhausted1 and by no means fit for the table4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cch4 ,nephrops ,norvegicus4 ,the generic name1 ,astacus of ,fabricius1 is now confined to the crawfishes1 which have a depressed rostrum1 one tooth on each side1 and the last ring of the thorax movable4 ,the lobsters 7,homarus7 have the eyes spherical1 two rings of the thorax being soldered together4 ,the ,norway ,lobsters 7,nephrops ,norvegicus1 ,fig4 #cch7 have the eyes uniform1 and the two last rings of the thorax movable4 ,the last is one of the most beautiful of the larger ,macrourans4 ,its general tint is pale flesh colour1 with darker shades in parts1 its pubescence light brown4 ,this is generally considered a northern species1 but ,mr4 ,bell states that he has received specimens from the ,mediterranean4 ,it is found plentifully on the coast of ,norway1 on the ,scottish coast1 and in the ,bay of ,dublin4 ,it is considered the most delicate of all the ,crustaceans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cci4 ,crangon vulgaris1 a1 ,anterior foot or claw4 ,before concluding this chapter1 we perhaps should not omit brief notices of the common prawn 7,palmon serratus7 and the shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris71 as types of an extensive variety of form of crustacea1 which inhabit all seas1 and which perform important functions as regards the sanitary state and economic condition of the waters of the ocean4 ,these small animals are the scavengers of the sea--they pick up and devour all dead matter1 leaving 7it may be7 a clean skeleton1 without a shred of fibre behind4 ,in this respect they resemble the ants on land1 doing their work always thoroughly and effectively4 ,we need hardly mention1 what is so well known to every reader1 that prawns and shrimps are amongst the most esteemed delicacies at our table1 and as articles of food occupy no mean place on the fish-stall4 ,at ,billingsgate alone1 it is hardly credible the immense quantities which arrive and are daily consumed in the ,metropolis by all classes of the community4 ,the shrimp1 which although the smaller crustacean1 is perhaps the finest flavoured of the two1 is sold in much larger quantities than its more aristocratic congener1 the prawn4 ,the fishery of these savoury comestibles gives occupation not only to regular able-bodied fishermen1 who devote themselves to this branch1 but also to large numbers of women and children1 who--with their baskets and small nets--may be seen plying their vocation in a multitude of well-known localities on our coasts1 especially on the southern and south-eastern shores4 ,to the habitus of ,hastings1 ,southampton1 ,bognor1 c41 there is not a more picturesque or familiar marine picture than to behold a troop of little shrimpers1 in their grotesque and somewhat outr equipments1 wading patiently knee deep all in a row1 as they push before them their pole nets4 ,without giving a detailed technical and anatomical description1 which our space will not permit of1 we may observe that the common prawn 7,palmon serratus7 is about four or five inches long1 with a rounded carapace1 which is jointed and furnished at the head with numerous long antenn1 the eyes being large and round4 ,the tail is broad and flat1 the caudal lamin of which are furnished with long hairs on the terminal margins4 ,the animal is also furnished with several pairs of feet1 very slender1 and ordinarily bent within themselves4 ,the colour is light grey1 spotted and lined with purplish shades4 ,in the water1 however1 prawns are almost transparent1 from the nearly entire absence of carbonate of lime in the carapace2 they are thus very beautiful objects in the marine aquarium1 moving as they do like shadows in the water4 ,when prawns are boiled1 they become of a delicate pink colour1 thus adding beauty to the dainty morceaux4 ,like most other kinds of crustacea1 the prawn is much larger in tropical climates4 ,on the coast of ,south ,america1 for instance1 they attain a size of nine or ten inches in length1 three of them being considered quite sufficient for a meal4 ,the ,london market is chiefly supplied with prawns from the ,isle of ,wight and ,hampshire coast4 ,like the prawn1 the shrimp has many varieties4 ,the common shrimp 7,crangon vulgaris7 is about two and a half inches long1 from the eye to the extremity of the tail4 ,it is also furnished with a rounded articulated carapace1 with two antenn4 ,the eyes are prominent1 marked1 and near each other2 the tail flat1 laminated1 and hirsute4 ,the shrimp is not very unlike the prawn in general appearance1 but is of a much less complex and finished structure4 ,in colour it is greyish brown1 clotted all over with dark brown4 ,in this species heat does not improve the colour4 ,this variety is one of the most abundant of all coast crustacea1 swimming about and laying on the sands 7which they closely resemble in colour7 in immense shoals4 ,sometimes they are also found in deep water1 but the margin of the sea is their favourite habitat4 ,it may be added1 that large quantities of the smaller palmonid are caught with and sold as shrimps4 ,shrimps are in spawn all the year through1 and cast their shells during the three months of spring4 ,the ,entomostraca of ,milne ,edwards1 or the ,lophyropoda of ,latreille1 have no suctorial mouth or mandibles capable of mastication2 their maxill are lamellose1 and they have never more than ten swimming feet1 and have from one to two eyes on stalks1 and live in fresh water4 ,there are two principal genera2 the ,copepoda of ,edwards1 and the ,ostracoda4 ,as a type of the first1 we may mention ,cyclops vulgaris 7,leach71 which1 true to its name1 has but one eye4 ,but the genus ,pontia of the same family has two4 ,as a type of the second order1 ,ostracoda1 we will specify the numerous family of the ,cyprides1 whose animals are enclosed in a bivalve shell1 which causes their remains in ,secondary strata to be classed with bivalve molluscs4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,fishes4 ,before speaking of the habits of the principal kinds of fishes1 it is desirable to glance at their organization1 and upon the manner in which they execute their physiological functions4 ,fishes are intended to live always#ad in water1 and this circumstance has impressed its seal upon their organization4 ,nevertheless1 their forms are very varied2 they are generally oblong1 compressed laterally4 ,they have no neck1 the head being merely a prolongation of the trunk4 ,in the majority of instances1 the body is covered with scales1 generally a thin bony substance developed out of the skin and overlapping each other1 like the tiles of a roof4 ,nothing is more remarkable than the variety and brilliancy of colour in fishes2 they present almost every gradation1 from golden or silver1 and other dazzling colours1 mingling with shades of blue1 green1 red1 and black4 ,fishes are essentially formed for swimming 7,fig4 #cdj71 and all their members are adapted for this purpose4 ,the anterior members1 which correspond with the arms in man and the wings in birds1 are attached to each side of the trunk1 immediately behind the head1 and form the pectoral fins4 ,the posterior members occupy the lower surface of the body1 and form the ventral fins4 ,the latter1 which are always over the ventral line1 may be before1 beneath1 or behind the former4 ,fishes possess1 besides1 fins in odd numbers4 ,the fins which erect themselves on the back are called the back or dorsal fins1 those at the end of the tail are the caudal fins2 finally1 there is frequently another attached to the lower extremity of the body1 which is called the anal fin4 ,these fins are always nearly of the same structure1 consisting generally of a fold of the skin1 supported by slender1 flexible1 cartilaginous or osseous rays1 connected by a thin membrane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdj4 ,skeleton of the ,common ,perch4 a1 the inter-maxillary bone2 b1 the maxillary bone2 d1 the gills2 c1 the under jaw2 f1 the inter-operculum2 g g1 the vertebral column2 h1 the pectoral fin2 i1 the ventral fin2 k and l1 the dorsal fins2 m1 the anal fin2 n1 the caudal fin4 ,the muscles which bind together the vertebral column are so much developed in fishes as well as others of the superior animals1 that they constitute in them alone the principal part of the body4 ,the caudal1 dorsal1 and anal fins act as outlying oars2 the pectoral and ventral fins assist in progression1 at the same time that they help to maintain the equilibrium of the animal and guide and direct its movements1 which are generally astonishing from their rapidity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cda4 ,swimming bladder of the ,carp4 ,an organ1 which belongs properly to fishes#ae 7,fig4 #cda71 and which is usually considered as their chief aid in swimming1 is a large bladder situated within the body1 between the dorsal spine and the abdomen4 ,this is usually called the swimming bladder4 ,according to the volume this bladder assumes1 the animal can increase or diminish the specific gravity of its body2 that is1 it can remain in equilibrium or ascend or descend in the bosom of the waters2 it is1 moreover1 remarked that it is very small in those species which swim at the bottom of the water1 and ,mr4 ,gosse says there is some reason for considering it to be the first rudimentary form of the air-breathing lung4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdb4 ,anatomy of the ,carp4 br1 the branchi1 or gill openings2 c1 the heart2 f1 the liver2 vn1 swimming bladders2 ci1 intestinal canal2 o1 the ovarium2 u1 urethra2 a1 anus2 o'1 oviduct4 ,immediately behind the head1 two large openings are observed in most fishes2 these are the gill-openings4 ,their anterior edge is mobile1 and they are raised or lowered to serve the purposes of respiration2 under this species of covercle are the gills1 or branchi4 ,these usually consist of many rows of thin membranous plates1 hung on slender arches of bone1 placed on each side of the head1 usually protected by a bony plate made up of several pieces1 called the gill-covers4 ,the breathing is produced by water taken in at the mouth1 which passes over the gill-membranes1 and is ejected through an orifice at the hind margin of the gill-covers4 ,during the contact of the water with the gills1 the blood which circulates in these organs1 and which communicates to them the red colour by which we recognize them1 combines chemically with the oxygen of the air which the water holds in solution when it flows freely at the ordinary temperature in presence of the air4 ,the blood is thus oxygenized1 or made fit for respiration4 ,the heart in fishes is placed between the inferior parts of the branchial arch1 and consists of a ventricle and an auricle 7,fig4 #cdb74 ,it corresponds with the right half of the heart in the ,mammifera and birds1 for it receives the venous blood from all parts of the body and sends it to the gills4 ,from this organ the blood is delivered into one great artery1 which creeps along the vertebral column4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,a ,fish's ,eye4 i1 crystallized pupil2 ee'1 cornea2 mm'1 choroid2 h1 posterior chambers2 c1 optic nerve4 ,the eye in fishes is generally very large--we may even say enormous relative to the size of the head--and without true eyelids2 the skin usually passes over the ocular globe1 and becomes from this point so transparent that the luminary rays traverse it4 ,this light covering is all the eyelid belonging to fishes4 ,the interior of the eye is covered by the membrane called choroid1 the thin external leaf of which1 in consequence of the presence of innumerable microscopic crystals1 presents the appearance of a gold or silver-coloured coating1 which gives to the iris that extraordinary brilliancy which belongs to the fish's eye4 ,the crystalline lens is voluminous1 spherical1 and diaphanous4 ,when the fish is cooked1 the crystalline lens constitutes that opaque and hard white substance which often comes under the teeth in eating fish of a certain size4 ,cuvier suspected1 what anglers now know to be true1 that those active chasseurs of the deep saw far and very clearly4#af ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdd4 ,teeth of the ,bream4 ,if fishes have great eyes1 they have1 on the other hand1 very small ears4 ,this organ1 it is found1 has no exterior opening4 ,it forms a cavity in the interior of the cranium1 which is far from presenting the complicated structure of the ear in mammifers and birds4 ,in spite1 however1 of the imperfect structure1 fishes are sensible to the least noise4 ,in consequence1 silence is a rigorous law with the fisherman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cde4 ,teeth of the ,carp4 ,the dimensions of the mouth and teeth are very variable in fishes2 these organs are in proportion to their voracity1 which in many of these beings is very great4 ,the form and development of the buccal pieces are also very various4 ,some species are toothless1 but in most fishes the teeth are very numerous4 ,they are sometimes attached1 not alone to the two jaws1 but also to the palate1 to the tongue1 and upon the interior of the branchial arch1 and even in the back mouth1 that is to say1 upon the ospharyngeal1 which surrounds the mouth of the oesophagus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,teeth of the ,trout4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdg4 ,teeth of the ,gold-fish ,dorada4 ,the form of their teeth is very variable both in arrangement and position3 some are in the form of an elongated cone1 either straight or curved4 ,when small and numerous1 they are comparable to the points of the cards used in carding wool or cotton4 ,sometimes they are so slender and dense as to resemble the piles of velvet1 and often1 from their very minute size1 their presence is more easily ascertained by the finger than the eye4 ,in some members of the ,salmonid1 for instance1 we find a row of teeth on the bone that forms the middle ridge of the palate1 which is called the vornex4 ,on each side of this is another row on the palatine bones1 and outside these is a third pair of rows on the upper jaw-bones4 ,some fishes have flat teeth1 with a cutting edge in front of the jaws1 like a true incisor2 others have them rounded or oval1 adapted to bruise or crush the various substances on which they feed4 ,the oesophagus connected with the mouth is short in fishes2 the stomach and intestines vary in form and dimensions4 ,digestion is very rapid with these beings4 ,most of them feed on flesh1 but there are a few where the mouth is without teeth1 which feed on vegetables4 ,the growth of fishes is slow or very rapid1 according to the abundance of food2 they can suffer a very long fast1 but in that state they become diminutive in size1 and finally perish of exhaustion4 ,at certain seasons an irresistible impulse brings the two sexes together4 ,many species whose ordinary appearance is dull and unsightly now shine in the most brilliant colours4 ,the female soon after lays her eggs1 the number of which passes all imagination4 ,nature seems to have accumulated in the body of each female myriads of eggs--a wise provision1 which is rendered necessary by the numerous causes of destruction which threaten them in their native element4 ,the eggs1 abandoned by the females to the mercy of the waves1 are fecundated after being deposited by the milt of the males4 ,such is a very brief summary of the organization of fishes1 which have been briefly described as vertebrate1 cold-blooded animals1 breathing by means of gills2 living in water1 moving through the water by means of their fins1 and reproducing their kind by means of eggs1 or spawn4 ,and now a few words on their classification4 ,fishes naturally divide themselves into two series1 according to the composition of their internal skeleton4 ,this is usually osseous2 nevertheless1 a whole group of them constantly retain the cartilaginous or fibro-cartilaginous state4 ,with some this frame presents even less power of resistance1 and remains membranous4 ,it is precisely upon this peculiarity of structure that we found the great division of the class of fishes into two great groups of ,,cartilaginous and ,,osseous fishes1 the first being again subdivided into three orders3 namely1 ,i4 ,cyclostomata1 ,,ii4 ,selachia1 ,,iii4 ,sturiona4 ,the second into four orders3 ,i4 ,plectognathii1 ,,ii4 ,lophobranchii1 ,,iii4 ,malacopterygii1 ,,iv4 ,acanthopterygii4 ,agassiz's system of classification of fish1 founded on the form of the scales1 is perhaps better suited than this to the palontologist1 but the one given above1 founded as it is principally on the internal parts of the animal1 is better suited to the zoologist4 ,agassiz's orders are the ,ctenoid1 type1 ,chromis1 ,placoid1 ,ganoid1 and ,cycloid4 ,,cartilaginous ,,fishes4 ,cartilaginous fishes are generally animals of considerable size1 their structure ranging from ordinary fishes to eels4 ,they are chiefly sea-fishes1 only a few species being river-fishes4 ,naturalists divide them into two orders2 namely1 those having the gills free on the outer edge 7the gilled ,chondropterygeans71 and those having these organs fixed on both edges4 ,the first order comprehend three families3 ,i4 ,cyclostomata1 or ,eels1 ,lampreys1 c41 in which the mouth forms a sucker2 ,,ii4 ,selachians1 including ,raias and ,sharks1 in which the mouth is furnished with jaws2 ,,iii4 ,sturiona1 or ,sturgeons1 which have the gills free4 ,i4 ,,cyclostomata4 ,the first are characterised by the singular conformation of the mouth1 which is formed for suction4 ,the body is elongated1 naked1 and viscous1 reminding us of serpents in their external form2 they have neither pectoral nor ventral fins2 their vertebr are reduced to simple cartilaginous rings1 scarcely perceptible one from the other1 traversed by tendons1 and covered by a second and more solid series of rings1 which surround the soft cartilaginous spine4 ,their gills1 in place of presenting the comb-like appearance of other fishes1 have something of the form of a purse4 ,the lampreys may be considered as the type of this family4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdh4 ,the ,lamprey 7,petromyzon marinus74 ,the ,lampreys 7,petromyzon7 are cylindrical1 with seven gill-openings on each side of the neck1 forming two longitudinal lines2 mouth round1 armed with many teeth4 ,the ,sea ,lamprey1 ,p4 marinus 7,fig4 #cdh71 belongs to the ,mediterranean2 it is also found in the ,german ,ocean1 and the friend who supplies this note has caught it with cockle bait in the ,south ,esk1 ,forfarshire4 ,in the spring it ascends the rivers1 where it is sometimes caught in abundance4 ,full-grown it is about three feet long1 marbled brown upon yellow2 the dorsal fins are separated by long intervals2 its mouth is circular and surrounded by a fleshy lip1 furnished with cirri1 having a cartilaginous plate for support2 it is provided on its internal surface with many circular rows of strong teeth1 some single1 the others double4 ,the ,lamprey feeds on worms1 molluscs1 and small fishes2 its mouth is a powerful sucker1 by the aid of which it attaches itself to fishes often of great size1 and sucks them like a leech4 ,it is taken by hook and line1 and speared by a sort of barbed harpoon1 like the trident of the mythological ,neptune1 which is thrown1 javelin fashion1 at the animal when seen at the bottom of the water2 the flesh is fat and delicate4 ,in the twelfth century one of our kings1 ,henry ,i41 surfeited himself at ,elbeuf by partaking too largely of the ,lamprey4 ,the river-lamprey resembles the above in its general conformation1 but is much smaller1 and differs in the armature of the mouth1 having only a single circular row of teeth4 ,it is blackish above1 silvery beneath1 and is common in the markets of ,london and ,paris1 being frequently taken in the ,seine4 ,a smaller species1 about ten inches in length1 never leaves the fresh waters4 ,it resembles the last species in colour1 but its two dorsal fins are continuous2 it is found in most ,european rivers and brooks4 ,in some of the ,english rivers they are frequently taken in the eel-pots1 weighing two and three pounds4 ,they frequent stony bottoms1 where they find small animals on which they feed4 ,in its larva state it was long considered to be a distinct species of ,ammoctes2 it is now1 however1 ascertained that it only acquires its perfect form at the end of its second or third year4 ,,ii4 ,,selachia4 ,the ,selachians include a great number of cartilaginous fishes1 varying much in form1 including the rays1 dog-fish1 skate1 torpedo1 hammer-fish1 sharks1 and saw-fish2 they have pectoral and ventral fins4 ,on each side of the neck1 on the lower surface1 are five gill-openings1 in form of a slit to each gill4 ,many of the species have two blow-holes in the upper part of the head4 ,the order is divided into ,raiad and ,squalid4 ,,raiad4 ,of the ,,raiad there are several genera1 and many species4 ,in ,cephaloptera the head is truncated1 with large1 lateral eyes4 ,in ,myliobates it is projecting1 the pectoral fins extending like wings4 ,in ,trygon it is enclosed by the pectorals4 ,in the ,skate 7,raia7 the body is rhomboidal1 tail without spine1 but two small dorsals near the top4 ,in the ,torpedo the body is nearly round1 the tail short and fleshy1 with two dorsals and a caudal fin4 ,the ,white ,ray1 ,raia batis 7,fig4 #cdi71 reminds us of the lozenge shape1 the point of the muzzle forming the lower angle1 the longest ray of each pectoral forming the lateral angles1 while the summit of the tail forms the last angle2 the whole surface seems flat1 but a swelling is distinguishable towards the head1 on the upper surface1 which bears1 as it were1 the contour of the body1 properly so called1 namely1 the three cavities of the head1 the throat1 and the belly1 which occupy the centre of the lozenge1 beyond which the pectoral fins extend4 ,these fins1 though covered with a thick skin1 permit the cartilaginous rays1 with their articulations1 to be very distinctly seen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdi4 ,the ,white ,ray 7,raia batis74 ,the head of the white ray1 which terminates in a muzzle slightly pointed1 is attached behind to the cavity of the breast4 ,the mouth1 placed in the lower part of the head and far from the extremity of the muzzle1 is elongated2 its edges are cartilaginous1 and furnished with many rows of hooked and pointed teeth2 the nostrils are placed in front of the mouth4 ,the eyes1 which open in the upper part of the head1 are half projecting1 and protected in part by a continuation of the soft1 elastic1 and retractile skin which covers the head4 ,immediately behind the eyes are two blow-holes1 which communicate with the interior of the mouth4 ,the animal is able to open and close these holes at pleasure1 by means of an extensible membrane1 which acts as a sort of valve4 ,through these holes it ejects the superabundant water beyond what is necessary for respiration4 ,in its general colour the animal is ashy grey on its upper surface2 white1 with rows of black spots1 below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cej4 ,the ,lump-fish 7,raia clavata74 ,its tail is long1 flexible1 and slender1 acting at once as a rudder and a weapon of offence or defence4 ,when lying in ambush1 nearly buried in mud at the bottom of the sea1 and it has no desire to change its position1 a rapid and sudden stroke of this formidable weapon1 armed with hooked bones on its upper surface1 arrests its victim by wounding or killing it1 without disturbing the mud or seaweed by which it is covered4 ,this species sometimes attains a very considerable size1 and their flesh is firm and nourishing2 but the larger specimens rarely approach inhabited shores1 even when the female desires to lay her eggs4 ,these eggs have a very singular shape1 differing from almost every other fish1 and particularly from those of all other osseous fishes4 ,they are quadrangular1 a little flat1 each of the four corners terminating in a small cylindrical beak--a kind of pocket formed of a strong and transparent membrane4 ,the ,lump-fish1 ,r4 clavata 7,fig4 #cej71 so called in consequence of its armature1 inhabits every ,european sea2 sometimes it attains the length of twelve feet1 and1 being excellent eating1 is much sought after by fishermen4 ,it is frequently seen with the skate in ,european markets4 ,a ray of great curving spines occupies the back and extends to the end of the tail2 two similar spines are above1 and two below the point of the muzzle4 ,two others are placed before1 and three behind the eyes4 ,each side of the tail is furnished with a row of shorter spines2 the whole surface1 in short1 bristles with larger or smaller spines1 justifying the name of buckler-fish2 for these are not given by way of ornament1 but defence4 ,the colour of the upper surface is generally brown1 with whitish spots4 ,the tail1 which exceeds the body in length1 presents towards the end two small dorsals1 terminating in a caudal fin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cea4 ,the ,cramp-fish 7,torpedo marmorata74 ,ray-fish of all kinds are inhabitants of the deep sea1 but they change according to the seasons4 ,while stormy weather prevails1 they hide themselves in the depth of the ocean1 where they lie in ambush1 creeping along the bottom4 ,but they do not always live at the bottom4 ,they rise occasionally to the surface far from the shore1 eagerly chasing other inhabitants of the deep1 lashing the water with their formidable tails and fins1 springing out of the water1 and making it foam again under their gambols4 ,when pursuing their prey the rays employ their great pectoral fins1 which resemble wings1 and are aided by a very delicate and mobile tail2 they beat the waters in order to fall unexpectedly upon their prey1 as the eagle swoops down upon its victim4 ,it may thus be called the king of fishes1 as the eagle is the king of birds4 ,the ,cramp-fish1 ,torpedo marmorata 7,fig4 #cea71 has considerable analogy with the ,raia4 ,its flattened body forms a roundish disk1 beyond which its rays form large pectoral fins2 but the humeral girdle which carries them1 carries also1 in a great hollow1 a most singular organic apparatus1 which possesses the property of producing violent electrical commotions4 ,this apparatus is placed in the interval between the end of the muzzle and the extremity of the fin1 and completes the rounded disk of the body4 ,the mouth is small1 the slit crosswise2 the jaws bare2 the teeth in squares of five4 ,the eyes are small2 behind them are two star-like spout-holes4 ,on the lower surface of the breast are two rows of small transverse slits1 openings of the gill pouches1 like those of the rays4 ,the tail is thick1 short1 and conical1 carrying part of the ventral1 and terminating in a sort of caudal fin4 ,on the back are two small1 soft1 and adipose fins4 ,the skin is smooth2 its colour varies with the species2 generally it is reddish-brown1 with eye-like spots of a deep blue in the centre2 sometimes azure1 and surrounded by a great brownish circle2 the spots being five or six4 ,these curious fishes are found in the ,channel and on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the electrical effects produced on the fisherman who seizes them were noted from early times2 but ,redi1 the ,italian naturalist of the seventeenth century1 was the first who studied them scientifically4 ,having caught and landed one of them with every precaution1 ,i had scarcely touched and pressed it with my hand1 says the ,italian naturalist1 than ,i experienced a tingling sensation1 which extended to my arms and shoulders1 which was followed by a disagreeable trembling1 with a painful and acute sensation in the elbow joint1 which made me withdraw my arm immediately4 ,raumur also made some observations upon the ,torpedo4 ,the benumbing influence1 he says1 is very different from any similar sensation4 ,all over the arm there is a commotion which it is impossible to describe1 but which1 so far as comparison can be made1 resembles the sensation produced by striking the tender part of the elbow against a hard substance4 ,redi remarks1 besides1 that the pain and trembling sensation resulting from the touch diminishes as the death of the ,torpedo approaches1 and that it ceases altogether when the animal dies4 ,in the seventeenth century1 the fishermen affirmed that the sensation was even communicated through the line by which it was caught1 and even by the water4 ,redi does not deny this phenomenon1 neither does he confirm it4 ,he states that the action of the animal is never more energetic than when it is strongly pressed by the hand1 and makes violent efforts to escape4 ,neither ,redi nor ,raumur1 however1 could explain the cause of the strange phenomenon4 ,it was reserved for ,dr4 ,walsh1 a fellow of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 to demonstrate the fact that the power was electrical in its nature4 ,this he did by numerous experiments1 which he made in the ,isle of ,r4 ,the following are some of his experiments4 ,he placed a living torpedo upon a clean wet towel2 from a plate he suspended two pieces of brass wire by means of silken cord1 which served to isolate them4 ,round the torpedo were eight persons1 standing on isolating substances4 ,one end of the brass wire was supported by the wet towel1 the other end being placed in a basin full of water4 ,the first person had a finger of one hand in this basin1 and a finger of the other in a second basin1 also full of water4 ,the second person placed a finger of one hand in this second basin1 and a finger of the other hand in a third basin4 ,the third person did the same1 and so on1 until a complete chain was established between the eight persons and nine basins4 ,into the ninth basin the end of the second brass wire was plunged1 while ,dr4 ,walsh applied the other end to the back of the torpedo1 thus establishing a complete conducting circle4 ,at the moment when the experimenter touched the torpedo1 the eight actors in the experiment felt a sudden shock1 similar in all respects to that communicated by the shock of a ,leyden jar1 only less intense4 ,when the torpedo was placed on an isolated supporter1 it communicated to many persons similarly placed from forty to fifty shocks in a minute and a half4 ,each effort made by the animal1 in order to give them1 was accompanied by the depression of its eyes1 which were slightly projecting in their natural state1 and seemed to be drawn within their orbits1 while the other parts of the body remained immovable4 ,if only one of the two organs of the torpedo is touched it happens that1 in place of a strong and sudden shock1 only a slight sensation is experienced--a numbness1 or start1 rather than a shock4 ,the same result followed with every experiment tried4 ,the animal was tried with a non-conducting rod1 and no shock followed2 glass1 or a rod covered with wax1 produced no effect2 touched with a metallic wire1 a violent shock followed4 ,melloni1 ,matteucci1 ,becquerel1 and ,breschet have all made the same experiments with the same results--,matteucci having ascertained that the shock produced by the torpedo is comparable to that given by a voltaic pile of a hundred to a hundred and fifty pairs of plates4 ,the organ which produces this curious result is formed like a half-moon2 it is double1 and placed on each side of the mouth of the respiratory organs4 ,it consists of a multitude of small prisms arranged parallel the one to the other and perpendicularly to the surface2 twelve hundred and sixty-two of these prisms have been counted in one of the two organs of a torpedo1 three feet in length4 ,without entering into the anatomical descriptions which have been given by ,stannius1 ,max ,schultze1 ,breschet1 and others1 we may mention here that all the small parallelopipedes1 which enter into their structure1 are separated one from the other by walls of cellular tissue1 in which are distributed the vessels and nerves4 ,the nervous threads which each apparatus receives are divided into four principal trunks4 ,according to modern authors1 the electricity is elaborated in the brain under the influence of the will4 ,it is afterwards transferred by means of the nervous threads into the principal organ1 where it serves the purpose of charging the numerous little voltaic piles which constitute the organ of commotion4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 necessary to receive our comparisons of the apparatus of the torpedo with the voltaic pile of our laboratories with caution4 ,the apparatus resembles a good conducting body1 which is capable of being strongly electrified2 it is sufficient to touch one of the surfaces in order to receive the shock4 ,but if the little prisms composing it were charged like our voltaic piles1 it would be necessary to touch both their surfaces in order to receive the shock4 ,no perfect analogy can therefore exist between this natural apparatus and the scientific instrument named after ,volta4 ,it is possible by the aid of heat to restore the extinct or suspended electrical functions of the torpedo4 ,retained in a tank of sea-water a yard in height by a third of that in diameter1 and at #bb ,centigrade in temperature1 a torpedo preserved its faculties during five or six hours2 another1 which remained during ten hours in a very small quantity of sea-water at a temperature of #aj to #aa ,cent41 and which seemed dead1 revived a little when placed in water at #bj ,cent41 and gave shocks during an hour4 ,if held firmly by the tail1 and pressed both above and below by a platinum rod to gather the true electricity1 the animal contracts itself violently2 but its movements are not always accompanied by electrical discharges1 which demonstrate that the jets of electrical matter are not the result simply of the muscular contractions1 but that they are subject to the will of the animal1 and evidently given for resisting its enemies1 and benumbing its prey4 ,how wonderful and varied are the resources which ,nature grants to her creatures in order to secure their existence6 ,,squalid4 ,this family approaches more to the ,raias than any other fish2 but all the species have a lengthened body1 merging into a thick tail1 pectorals moderate in size1 gill-openings on the sides of the neck1 and not beneath the body1 as in the ,raia2 eyes lateral2 and the roughness of their skin is a protection from their enemies4 ,the family comprehends the ,sharks1 ,dog fishes1 ,hammerheads1 and ,saw fish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceb4 ,the ,shark 7,carcharius vulgaris74 ,the sharks are said to attain the length of twenty and even thirty feet2 but its size is not its worst attribute4 ,it has received1 besides1 strength and terrible arms4 ,ferocious1 voracious1 impetuous1 and insatiable1 spread over almost every climate1 an inhabitant of every sea1 and recently not seldom seen on our own shores1 the shark rapidly pursues every fish1 which fly at its approach2 and threatens with its wide gullet the unfortunate victims of shipwreck1 shutting them out from all hope of safety4 ,the body of the shark is long1 and its skin is studded with small tubercles3 this skin becomes so hard1 and takes so high a polish1 that it is employed for various ornamental purposes4 ,this resisting power protects the shark from the bites of every inhabitant of the sea1 if there be any daring enough to approach it with that view4 ,the back and sides of the ,shark1 ,carcharius vulgaris 7,fig4 #ceb71 are of an ashy brown2 beneath it is faded white4 ,the head is flat1 and terminates in a muzzle slightly rounded4 ,its terrible mouth is in the form of a semicircle1 and of enormous size2 the contour of the upper jaw of a shark of ten yards length being about two yards wide1 and its throat being of a proportionate diameter to this monstrous opening4 ,when the throat of the animal is open we see beyond the lips1 which are straight and of the consistence of leather1 certain plates of teeth1 which are triangular1 dentate1 and white as ivory4 ,if the shark is an adult it has in the upper as in the lower jaw six rows of these murderous arms1 an arsenal ready to tear and rend its victim4 ,these teeth take different motions according to the will of the animal1 and obedient to the muscles round their base1 by means of which it can erect or retract its various rows of teeth2 it can even erect a portion of any row1 while the others remain at rest in their bed4 ,thus this far-seeing tyrant of the ocean knows how to measure the number and power of the arms necessary to destroy its prey3 for the destruction of the weak and defenceless one row of teeth suffices2 for the more formidable adversary it has a whole arsenal at command4 ,the eyes of the shark are small1 and nearly round2 the iris of a deep green1 the eyeball1 shaped in a transversal slit1 is bluish2 its scent is very subtle2 its fins are strong and rough4 ,the pectoral fins are triangular1 and much larger than the others1 extending on each side1 and giving powerful aid in swimming4 ,the caudal fin is divided into two very unequal lobes1 the upper extending in a sloping direction to twice the length of the other4 ,this tail is possessed of immense power1 and is capable of breaking the limb of a robust man by a single stroke4 ,during the hot season the male and female seek each other2 they approach the coast roving in company1 forgetting their ferocity for the time4 ,the eggs are hatched at several periods in the ovary1 from which the little ones issue two or three at a time4 ,the shark1 as soon as born1 becomes the scourge of the sea4 ,he seizes all that come near him4 ,he eats the cuttle-fish1 molluscs1 and fishes2 among others1 flounders and cod-fish4 ,but the prey which has the greatest charm for him is man2 the shark loves him dearly1 but it is with the affection of the gourmand4 ,it even manifests1 according to some authors1 a preference for certain races4 ,if we may believe some travellers1 when several varieties of human food comes in its way1 the shark prefers the ,european to the ,asiatic1 and both to the negro4 ,still1 whatever may be the colour1 he seeks eagerly for human flesh1 and haunts the neighbourhood where it hopes to find the precious morsel4 ,he follows the ship in which his instinct tells him it is to be found1 and makes extraordinary efforts to reach it4 ,he has been known to leap into a boat in order to seize the frightened fishermen2 he throws himself upon the ship1 cleaving the waves at full speed1 to snap up some unhappy sailor who has shown himself beyond the bulwarks4 ,he follows the course of the slaver1 watching for the horrors of the middle passage1 ready to engulf the negroes' corpses as they are thrown into the sea4 ,commerson relates a significant fact bearing on the subject4 ,the corpse of a negro had been suspended from a yard-arm twenty feet above the level of the sea4 ,a shark was seen to make many efforts to reach the body1 and it finally succeeded in seizing it1 member by member1 undisturbed by the cries of the horror-stricken crew assembled on deck to witness the strange spectacle4 ,in order that an animal so large and heavy should be able to throw itself to this height1 the muscles of the tail and posterior parts of the body must have an astonishing power4 ,the mouth of the shark being placed in the lower part of the head1 it becomes necessary to turn itself round in the water before it can seize the object which is placed above him4 ,he meets with men bold enough to profit by this conformation1 and chase this formidable and ferocious creature4 ,on the ,african coast the negroes attack the shark in his own element1 swimming towards him1 and seizing the moment when he turns himself to rip up his belly with a sharp knife4 ,this act of courage and audacity cannot1 however1 be said to be shark-fishing4 ,the fishing operation is conducted as follows3--,choosing a dark night1 a hook is prepared by burying it in a piece of lard1 and attaching it to a long and solid wire chain2 the shark looks askance at this prey1 feels it1 then leaves it2 he is tempted by withdrawing the bait1 when he follows1 and swallows it gluttonously4 ,he now tries to sink into the water1 but1 checked by the chain1 he struggles and fights4 ,by-and-by he gets exhausted1 and the chain is drawn up in such a manner as to raise the head out of the water4 ,another cord is now thrown out with a running knot or loop1 in which the body of the shark is caught about the origin of the tail4 ,thus bound1 the captured shark is soon hoisted on deck1 as represented in ,,pl4 ,,xxv4 ,on the quarter-deck of the ship he is put to death1 not without great precaution1 however1 for he is still a formidable foe1 from his terrible bites and from the still dangerous blows of his tail4 ,moreover1 he dies hard1 and long resists the most formidable wounds4 ,captain ,basil ,hall gives a spirited sketch of the appearance and capture of one of those dreaded fishes2 a capture in which the whole ship's company1 captain1 officers1 young gentlemen inclusive1 shout in triumphant exultation as the body of the shark flounders in impotent rage on poop or forecastle4 ,the sharp-curved dorsal fin of a huge shark was seen rising about six inches above the water1 and cutting the glazed surface of the sea by as fine a line as if a sickle had been drawn along it3 ',messenger1 run to the cook for a piece of pork1' cried the captain1 taking the command with as much glee as if an enemy's cruiser had been in sight4 ',where's your hook1 quartermaster8' ',here1 sir1 here1' cried the fellow1 feeling the point1 and declaring it was as sharp as any lady's needle1 and in the next instant piercing with it a huge junk of pork weighing four or five pounds4 ,the hook1 which is as large as one's little finger1 has a curvature about as large as a man's hand when half closed1 and is six or eight inches in length1 while a formidable line1 furnished with three or four feet of chain attached to the end of the mizen topsail halyard1 is now cast into the ship's wake4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv4--,shark ,fishing4 ,sometimes the very instant the bait is cast over the stern the shark flies at it with such eagerness that he actually springs partially out of the water4 ,this1 however1 is rare4 ,on these occasions he gorges the bait1 the hook1 and a foot or two of the chain1 without any mastication1 and darts off with the treacherous prize with such prodigious velocity that it makes the rope crack again as soon as the coil is drawn out4 ,much dexterity is required in the hand which holds the line at this moment4 ,a bungler is apt to be too precipitate1 and jerk away the hook before it has got far enough into the shark's maw4 ,the secret of the sport is to let the monster gulp down the whole bait1 and then to give the line a violent pull1 by which the barbed point buries itself in the coat of the stomach4 ,when the hook is first fixed1 it spins out like the log line of a ship going twelve knots4 ,the suddenness of the jerk with which the poor devil is brought up often turns him quite over4 ,no sailor1 however1 thinks of hauling a shark on board merely by the rope fastened to the hook4 ,to prevent the line breaking1 the hook snapping1 or the jaw being torn away1 a running bowline is adopted4 ,this noose is slipped down the rope and passed over the monster's head1 and is made to join at the point of junction of the tail with the body2 and now the first part of the fun is held to be completed4 ,the vanquished enemy is easily drawn up over the taffrail1 and flung on deck1 to the delight of the crew4 ,the flesh of the shark is leathery1 of bad taste1 and difficult to digest4 ,nevertheless1 the negroes of ,guinea feed upon it1 but not until it has been made tender and eatable by long preservation4 ,in many parts of the ,mediterranean coast small sharks are taken from their mother's belly and eaten4 ,the under part of adult sharks is also eaten by the fishermen after the bad parts have been removed4 ,in ,norway and ,iceland this part of the animal is dried in the air during the most part of the twelve months4 ,the ,icelanders also use the fat of the animal2 the liver of one of them1 according to ,pontoppidan1 will furnish a great quantity of oil4 ,we have thus1 with the care it deserves1 painted the portrait of the shark4 ,the original is by no means beautiful2 but1 frightful as it may be1 our description would be incomplete if we did not add that divine honours have been granted to this monster of the waters4 ,man worships force2 he knows the hand which crushes1 the teeth which rend4 ,he respects the master or the king who strikes1 and he venerates the shark4 ,the inhabitants of several parts of the ,african coast worship the shark2 they call it their joujou1 and consider its stomach the road to heaven4 ,three or four times in the year they celebrate the festival of the shark1 which is done in this wise4 ,they all move in their boats to the middle of the river1 where they invoke1 with the strangest ceremonies1 the protection of the great shark4 ,they offer to him poultry and goats1 in order to satisfy his sacred appetite4 ,but this is nothing2 an infant is every year sacrificed to the monster1 which has been reared for the purpose from its birth2 it is fted and nourished for the sacrifice from its birth to the age of ten4 ,on the day of the fte it is bound to a post on a sandy point at low water2 as the tide rises1 the child may utter cries of horror1 but it is abandoned to the waves1 and the sharks arrive4 ,the mother is not far off2 perhaps she weeps1 but she dries her tears and thinks that her child has entered heaven through this horrible gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cec4 ,the ,pickled ,dog-fish 7,acanthias vulgaris74 ,the ,dog-fish1 ,acanthias vulgaris 7,fig4 #cec71 which sometimes attains the length of between three and four feet1 is exceedingly voracious4 ,it feeds upon other fish1 of which it destroys great quantities2 it does not hesitate to attack the fishermen1 and especially bathers in the sea4 ,it places itself in ambush1 like the ,raias1 in order to attack its prey4 ,the flesh of the dog-fish is hard1 smells of musk1 and is rarely eaten2 but the skin becomes an article of commerce1 and is known as shagrin1 being1 like the skin of the shark1 used for making spectacle-cases and for other ornamental purposes1 for which its green colour and high polish recommend it4 ,there is a smaller species than the preceding1 which haunts rocky shores1 where it lies in wait for its prey4 ,its spots are larger and more scattered1 and its ventral fins are nearly square4 ,it feeds on molluscs1 crustaceans1 and small fishes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ced4 ,the ,hammerhead 7,zygna malleus74 ,the ,hammerhead1 ,zygna malleus 7,fig4 #ced71 is chiefly distinguished by the singular conformation of its head1 which is flattened horizontally1 truncate in front1 and the sides prolonged transversely1 giving it the appearance of the head of a hammer4 ,the eyes of this fish are placed at the extremity of the lateral prolongations of the head2 they are grey1 projecting1 and the iris is gold-coloured4 ,when the animal is irritated1 the colours of the iris become like flame1 to the horror of the fishermen who behold them4 ,beneath the head and near to the junction of the trunk is the mouth1 which is semicircular1 and furnished on each jaw with three or four rows of large teeth1 pointed and barbed on two sides4 ,the most common species in our seas is long and slender in the body1 which is grey1 the head blackish4 ,it usually attains the length of eleven or twelve feet1 weighing occasionally nearly five hundred pounds4 ,its boldness and voracity1 and craving for blood1 are more remarkable than its size4 ,if the hammerhead has not the strength of the shark1 it surpasses it in fury2 few fishes are better known to sailors in consequence of its striking conformation4 ,its voracity often brings it round ships even in roadsteads1 and near the coast4 ,its visits impress themselves on the memory of the sailor1 and he loves to relate his hairbreadth escape from the meeting4 ,the saw-fish is distinguished from all other known fishes by the formidable arm which it carries in its head4 ,this weapon is a prolongation of the muzzle1 which1 in place of being rounded off or reduced to a point1 forms a long1 strong1 straight1 sword-like termination1 flat on both sides1 but on the two edges it is furnished with numerous strong teeth of considerable length1 which are prolongations of the hard1 bony substance which forms the muzzle--forming1 in short1 a sword-blade deeply toothed on each edge4 ,thus armed1 the saw1 or sword-fish1 as it is sometimes called1 the length of which is from twelve to fifteen feet1 fearlessly attacks the most formidable inhabitants of the sea4 ,with its threatening weapon1 sometimes two yards in length1 it dares to measure its strength with the whale4 ,all fishermen who visit the northern seas assert that the meeting of these ocean potentates is always followed by a combat of the most singular kind1 in which the activity of the sword-fish is a match for the formidable strength of the whale4 ,occasionally it dashes itself with such force against the sides of a ship1 that its sword is broken in the timber4 ,in the ,british ,museum the blade of a sword-fish may be seen which was thus implanted in the timber of a ship4 ,,iii4 ,,sturiona4 ,in the second division of cartilaginous fishes1 or sturgeons1 the gills are free1 as in the ordinary fishes4 ,in the sturgeon the gill-openings are a single1 very wide orifice1 with an operculum1 but without radiating membrane4 ,they are fishes of great size1 living in the sea1 but ascending the larger rivers in the spawning season4 ,our space only permits us to notice the ,chimra and ,sturgeon4 ,the naturalists ,clusius and ,aldrovandus compared the fish1 to which they gave the name of ,chimra arctica1 to the chimra1 a monster of mythological antiquity1 which is represented with the body of a goat1 the head of a lion1 the tail of a dragon1 and a gaping throat which vomited flames4 ,the strange form of this fish1 the manner in which it moves1 the different parts of its muzzle1 its mode of showing its teeth1 its ape-like contortions and grimaces1 its long tail1 which acts with such rapidity1--reminding one not a little of a reptile1--are well calculated to strike the imagination4 ,at a later period medival naturalists were contented to see in it a fish with a lion's head1 and as the lion was then regarded as the king of animals1 so the chimra became the ,herring king4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cee4 ,the ,arctic chimra4 ,the king of the herrings 7,fig4 #cee7 is from five to six feet in length1 of a general silvery colour1 spotted with brown4 ,it inhabits the ,north ,sea1 living on molluscs and crustaceans2 occasionally1 as if to justify the title which has been given it1 levying heavy contributions upon the herrings4 ,another species1 ,c4 antarctica1 is found in the southern hemisphere1 which greatly resembles1 in its conformation and habits1 the northern species4 ,in both the end of the muzzle terminates in a cartilaginous appendage1 which projects forward1 curving afterwards over the mouth4 ,this extension assimilates to a crest4 ,the sturgeons 7,acipenser7 are among the largest fishes known4 ,on this account1 as well as from their exterior conformation1 they approach the ,squalid4 ,their muscles1 however1 are less firmly knit1 their flesh more delicate1 and their muscular strength consequently infinitely smaller4 ,neither is their mouth armed with so many rows of teeth4 ,moreover1 they are less voracious1 and their habits are not at all ferocious4 ,the sturgeons are sea-fishes which periodically ascend the larger rivers4 ,several species are known in ,europe4 ,they abound in the ,black ,sea and ,sea of ,azof1 but they are chiefly known as frequenting the ,volga and the ,danube4 ,the enormous consumption of caviare in ,russia leads to a deadly pursuit of the common sturgeon in all the great ,european rivers1 and this species is in a fair way of disappearing altogether4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cef4 ,the ,common ,sturgeon 7,acipenser sturio74 ,the ,common ,sturgeon1 ,acipenser sturio 7,fig4 #cef71 abounds in the ,north ,sea and the ,mediterranean1 and occasionally it appears in the ,thames1 the ,rhine1 the ,seine1 the ,loire1 and the ,gironde4 ,it is usually about two yards to seven feet long1 but has been known to attain the length of ten or twelve feet4 ,its general colour is yellow1 with a white belly4 ,it is rendered remarkable by the number and form of the osseous plates or scales1 which cover the body like so many bucklers4 ,upon the back and belly are no less than twelve to fifteen of these rough bony plates1 relieved by projections1 which are pointed in the young1 and soften down with age4 ,on each side is a row of thirty to thirty-five of these triangular plates1 separated from each other by considerable intervals4 ,the head is broad at the base1 gradually contracting towards the point1 and terminating in a conical muzzle4 ,the mouth is large and considerably behind the extremity of the muzzle1 and its jaws1 in place of teeth1 are furnished with cartilages4 ,between the mouth and the muzzle are four slender and very elastic barbs1 or wattles1 like so many little worms4 ,it is pretended that these wattles attract small fishes to the jaws of the animal1 while it conceals itself among the roots of aquatic plants4 ,in the sea the sturgeon feeds on herrings1 mackerel1 cod-fish1 and other fishes of moderate size4 ,in the rivers it attacks the salmon which ascend them about the same time4 ,mingling with them1 however1 it seems a giant4 ,it deposits its eggs in great quantity1 which are gathered and made into caviare4 ,its flesh is delicate1 and in countries where they are caught in quantities it is dried and preserved4 ,the rivers which enter the ,black and ,caspian seas contain1 besides the common sturgeon1 many other species of the same genus1 the flesh of which is even more delicate and recherch than the common sturgeon4 ,among the ancients this fish was held in unusual esteem4 ,in ,rome1 in the time of the emperors1 we read of sturgeons borne in triumph to the sound of instruments1 and laid upon tables fastidiously covered and decorated with flowers4 ,the ,great ,sturgeon1 which sometimes exceeds a thousand pounds1 is only found in the rivers which flow into the ,caspian and ,black seas4 ,the ,volga1 the ,don1 and the ,danube produce the largest species4 ,we are indebted to the ,russian naturalist ,pallas for the information we possess respecting the mode of taking the sturgeon in the ,volga and other ,asiatic rivers4 ,stakes are placed across the river1 leaving just sufficient space between each pile to permit the animal to pass4 ,towards the centre this dike forms an angle opposed to the current1 and1 consequently1 opposed to the fish which ascend the river towards the summit of this angle4 ,at this point there is an opening which leads into a kind of enclosure1 consisting of fillets towards the end of winter1 and of osier-hurdles during summer4 ,the fishermen establish themselves upon a sort of scaffold placed over the opening4 ,when the fish is engaged in the reservoir1 the men upon the scaffold drop a gate1 which prevents his return to the sea4 ,the movable bottom of the chamber is now raised1 and the fishes easily taken1 as represented in ,,pl4 ,,xxvi4 ,the fishermen are informed during the day of the approach of the sturgeons to the great enclosure by the movement they communicate to cords suspended to small floating substances in the water4 ,during the night the sturgeons enter the enclosure1 agitating by their movements other cords arranged round the hurdles4 ,the agitation communicated to the cord is sufficient to shut the gates behind2 they are thus imprisoned by the dropping of the gate1 which in falling sounds a bell to wake the watching fisherman on the scaffold1 should he be asleep4 ,the sturgeon-fisheries of the ,volga are thus admirably organized4 ,gmelin describes with some minuteness the sturgeon-fishing1 during the winter1 in the caverns and hollows of the river-banks near ,astrakhan1 in the estuary of the ,volga4 ,a great number of fishermen are assembled there with their boats4 ,the flotilla approaches the retreats to which the fishes have betaken themselves1 the nets are skilfully arranged all round them1 and all at once the whole mass of fishermen join in a great cry1 at which the frightened fishes rush from their concealment and throw themselves into the nets spread for them4 ,the size of the fish1 the nourishing properties of its flesh1 its healthy and agreeable taste1 and the immense quantity of eggs produced1 have a wonderful power in exciting the commerce and industry of the inhabitants of these countries4 ,in order to give some idea of the abundance of the eggs of the sturgeon1 it is stated that the weight of two ovaries equalled nearly a third of the weight of the whole animal2 in other words1 these ovaries weighed nearly eight hundred pounds in a female whose weight was two thousand eight hundred pounds4 ,it is with these eggs chiefly1 but not altogether1 that caviare is prepared2 and the article is more or less relished according to the state of the eggs4 ,the display of caviare1 as exhibited at the ,universal ,exposition of ,paris during the year #ahfg1 will remain to those who have visited it one of the most lasting recollections4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ad3 ,the exceptions to these are the ,doras1 or flat-headed ,hassar of ,india1 which marches overland in large droves2 the ,swampines of ,carolina 7,hydrargyra72 and the ,perca ,scandens1 which in ,tranquebar not merely walks over level ground1 but climbs trees4 ,footnote #ae3 ,some fish1 as the ,chondropterygii1 have no swimming bladder4--,,ed4 ,footnote #af3 ,dr4 ,fripp's theory of the properties of the fish's eye is very plausible4 #ast4 ,that the fish's eye in its normal state is arranged for the vision of near objects1 and that the great refractive power of a prolate spheroid lens1 such as exists in the fish1 is adequate to the production of a picture at short focal distances1 even with rays of light passing through so dense a medium as water4 #bnd4 ,that there is no accommodation of the fish's eye for extended limits of vision4 #crd4 ,that the passive state of the fish's eye1 being that in which it is enabled to see objects near and at moderate distance1 no active or physiological change for accommodation of sight for distant objects takes place or seems necessary4 ,the dioptric arrangement1 being the reverse of that which obtains in animals where accommodation is observed1 and in whom the passive state is that of vision1 arranged for distant objects1 while the active state is that of vision accommodated at will for near objects4 #dth4 ,that the vascular distribution of the choroid vessels has no relation to any movement of the lens or change of its shape1 but is arranged to meet the changes of static condition of the circulating fluid1 and of dynamic force exerted by the heart under varying pressure from without2 and that by such an arrangement1 protection to the delicate tissues of the eye is afforded by a compensating balance between the tension of the blood within the vessels and the external pressure exerted upon them4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi4--,sturgeon ,fishing on the ,volga4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,ossei1 ,,or ,,bony ,,fishes4 ,under this denomination is comprehended many of the fishes which are most familiar to us4 ,they are characterized1 as we have said elsewhere1 as a group of animals having a solid skeleton4 ,they are divided into six orders2 founded1 however1 it is necessary to add1 on characteristics of little organic importance1 and the names bestowed upon them are of a most barbarous description4 ,these names are1 ,i4 ,plectognathi1 namely1 fishes in which the upper jaw is attached to the cranium1 from 1 interlaced1 and 1 jaw4 ,afterwards those in which the upper jaw is movable1 and the gills arranged in circles1 like rounded hoops4 ,these are1 ,,ii4 the ,lophobranchii1 from 1 crested1 or aigrette1 and 1 gill4 ,in the other orders the gills are arranged in a comb-like form4 ,these are divided into two great groups4 ,in the first1 the rays of the fins are soft1 except occasionally the first of dorsal or pectoral fins4 ,these are1 ,,iii4 the ,malacopterygians1 from 1 soft1 and 1 finned--the third group of osseous fishes4 ,in a later group the fish have bony rays to the anterior dorsal fins1 some osseous rays1 and the anal fin and generally one of the ventral fins4 ,these are1 ,,iv4 the ,acanthopterygians1 from 1 spiny1 and 1 finned1 which form the last group of bony fishes4 ,i4 ,,plectognathi4 ,from their organization the fishes of this order establish the passage from cartilaginous to the osseous fishes4 ,their skeleton1 which remains for some time more or less soft1 becomes finally hard4 ,the chief characteristic of the order is that the maxillary is firmly attached to the side of the inter-maxillary bone which forms the jaw1 and the arch of the palate is united to the skull in such a manner as to be motionless4 ,the operculum and rays of the gills are hidden under a thick skin1 which leaves externally only a small branchial slit4 ,these fishes have no true ventral fin1 and have only vestiges of side fins4 ,this order comprehends two natural families characterized by the armature of their jaws4 ,they are the ,gymnodonta and the ,sclerodermata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceg4 ,the ,globe-fish 7,orthagoriscus71 and ,sun-fish 7,tetrodon74 ,in the family of ,gymnodonta the jaws have no apparent teeth1 but they are furnished with a species of beak in ivory1 which represents them4 ,the ,sun-fish1 ,tetrodon 7,fig4 #ceg71 belong to the family4 ,the ,globe-fish are so named from their large head and bony salient jaws1 which are each divided in front by a sort of vertical slit in two portions1 which simulate two teeth4 ,these four portions of bony jaw1 which project beyond the lips1 somewhat resemble the hard and dentate jaws of the turtle4 ,their anterior part is sometimes prolonged1 like the mandibles of the beak of the parrot4 ,they are perfectly arranged to crush the shells of the molluscs1 as well as the resisting envelope of the crustaceans on which they feed4 ,the skin of these fishes bristles with small slightly-projecting spines1 the number of which compensate for their brevity1 which repel their enemies1 and even wound the hand that would grasp them4 ,they enjoy1 besides1 a singular faculty2 they can inflate the lower part of their body1 and give it an extension so considerable that it becomes like an inflated ball1 in which the real shape of the animal is lost4 ,this result is obtained by the introduction of an immense quantity of air into the stomach when it wishes to ascend to the surface4 ,the species of globe-fish are numerous4 ,some of them are common in the ,nile1 where they are frequently left ashore during the annual inundations4 ,the ,globe-fish 7,orthagoriscus mola71 in the upper part of the engraving1 is easily distinguished from the ,tetrodons by its compressed spineless body2 being very round in its vertical contour1 it has been compared to a disk1 and more poetically to the moon--whence its popular names--to the great circular surface of which the dazzling silvery white disk bears some resemblance4 ,but it is especially during the night that it justifies the name given to it4 ,then it shines brightly1 from its own phosphorescent light1 at a little distance beneath the surface4 ,on very dark nights the globe-fish is sometimes seen swimming in the soft light which emanates from its body1 the rays rendered undulating by the rippling of the water which it traverses1 so as to resemble the trembling light of the moon half-veiled in misty vapours4 ,when many of these fishes rove about together1 mingling their silvery trains1 the scene suggests the idea of dancing stars4 ,the moon-fish is common in the ,mediterranean1 and sometimes reaches the markets of ,paris4 ,it is about thirty inches in length1 and its weight is considerable4 ,its flesh is fat and viscous1 and by no means pleasant to eat4 ,the ,diodons 7,fig4 #ceh7 only differ from the globe-fish in the form of their bony jaws1 each forming only one piece4 ,they seem to have two teeth1 whence their name1 from 1 two1 1 teeth4 ,they differ also in their spines1 which are much larger than those of the globe-fish4 ,these fishes may be said to be the hedgehogs and porcupines of the sea4 ,like the globe-fish1 they can erect their spines and inflate their bodies4 ,they are numerous in species--,diodon pilosus1 represented in ,fig4 #ceh1 being typical of the others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,diodon pilosus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cei4 ,the ,file-fish 7,balistes74 ,the ,sclerodermes are distinguished by their conical or pyramidal muzzle1 terminating in a little mouth armed with true teeth2 their skin is generally stiff and covered with hard scales4 ,the ,file-fish1 ,balistes and ,coffers1 are selected for notice4 ,the ,file or ,rudder-fish 7,fig4 #cei7 have the body compressed2 the jaws are furnished with eight teeth1 arranged in a single row on each jaw1 and covered with true lips2 the eyes are nearly level with the skin2 the mouth is small1 and the body enveloped in very hard scales1 which are connected in groups and distributed into compartments more or less regular1 and strongly connected by means of a thick skin4 ,the animal is thus protected by a sort of cuirass and casque very difficult to penetrate4 ,with the exception of one species1 the ,balistes are inhabitants of ,tropical seas4 ,they are generally brilliantly coloured2 they herd together in great numbers1 and in their gambols produce curious combinations of brilliant colouring in the ,equatorial seas4 ,their flesh is held in slight estimation1 and at certain periods of the year is even said to be dangerous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfj4 ,the ,coffer1 or ,ostracion4 ,the ,coffers1 or ,ostracions 7,fig4 #cfj71 are without scales1 but covered with regular osseous compartments1 which are so jointed the one to the other that the body is1 as it were1 enclosed in a kind of box or long coffer1 which only reveals the external organs of locomotion--namely1 the fins and a portion of tail4 ,in some the body is triangular1 in others quadrangular1 with or without spines4 ,these singular fishes are found in the ,indian ,ocean and in the ,american seas4 ,they are of moderate size1 and are much prized in the ,united ,states as food4 ,,ii4 ,,lophobranchii4 ,the ,lophobranchii comprehend a few types1 but are numerous in species4 ,here the gills are divided into small round tufts1 and arranged in pairs along the branchial arches2 a structure quite peculiar1 of which we have no examples in any other fishes4 ,these gills are enclosed under a large cover1 or operculum1 attached on all sides by a membrane1 which leaves only a small hole for the escape of water which has served the purposes of respiration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 ,the ,trumpet ,pipe-fish 7,syngnathus74 ,these little cuirassed fishes consist of two genera1 ,syngnathus and ,hippocampus4 ,the ,syngnathes1 or pipe-fishes1 possess a very curious organic peculiarity4 ,their bodies are long1 slender1 and slightly tapering1 covered with plates set lengthwise1 without ventrals2 the skin1 in swelling1 forms under the belly or under the tail1 according to the species1 a pouch into which the eggs glide to be hatched1 and which is afterwards a shelter for the young4 ,most of the species are strangers to ,european seas1 but some few are found in the ,channel4 ,the ,trumpet ,pipe-fish 7,fig4 #cfa7 has the head small1 the muzzle long1 nearly cylindrical1 slightly raised at the end1 and terminating in a very small mouth without teeth4 ,the animal is about twenty inches long2 its skin is of a yellowish colour varied with brown4 ,it lives in the ,atlantic and ,mediterranean1 where it is largely used by the fishermen in baiting their hooks4 ,it is found in great abundance in the ,atlantic between the ,equator and the ,western ,isles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfb4 ,the ,sea-horse 7,hippocampus74 ,the ,sea ,horse 7,hippocampus7 is a small creature about the size of the engraving 7,fig4 #cfb72 its head has a singular resemblance to that of the horse4 ,the rings which constitute the integument of the body and tail have a close resemblance to the rings of some caterpillars4 ,this curious combination of forms originated the name1 ,hippocampus1 from 1 horse1 1 fish1 adopted in very ancient times to designate this creature4 ,it is found in the ,atlantic1 round the coast of ,spain1 the south of ,france1 in the ,mediterranean1 and in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,mr4 ,lukis1 who raised two females in captivity1 describes their habits as follows3--,when they swim1 he says1 they preserve a vertical position1 but their tail seems on the alert to seize whatever it meets with in the water1 clasping the stem of the rushes4 ,once fixed1 the animal seems to watch attentively all the surrounding objects1 and darts on any prey presenting itself with great dexterity4 ,when one of them approaches the other1 they interlace their two tails1 and it is only after a struggle that they can separate again1 attaching themselves by the lower part of the chin to some rush in order to release themselves4 ,they have recourse to the same manuvre when they wish to raise the body1 or when they wish to wind their tail to some new object4 ,their two eyes seem to move independently of each other1 like those of the chameleon4 ,the iris is bright and edged with blue4 ,the sea-horses have the pectoral fins so formed as easily to sustain the body1 not only in the water1 but even in the air2 they are1 in fact1 winged fishes1 and probably originated the famous winged courser of mythology1 after which they are sometimes named4 ,they rarely exceed four inches in length2 the body is covered with triangular scales1 commonly of a bluish colour4 ,they live on worms1 fishes' eggs1 and fragments of organic substances which they find in the far land at the bottom of the sea4 ,,iii4 ,,malacopterygii4 ,the principal character of the fishes of this order is that the rays of the fins are soft1 except sometimes the first ray of the dorsal or pectorals4 ,they inhabit either sea or fresh water1 and include fishes of the utmost importance as human food1 such as the herring1 the cod1 the salmon1 carp1 pike1 and many others4 ,modern naturalists1 following ,cuvier1 subdivide them into three orders3--#a4 ,apoda1 without ventrals2 #b4 ,sub-branchiati1 ventrals under the pectorals2 #c4 ,abdominales1 having ventrals behind the pectorals4 #a4 ,,apoda4 ,a single family composes this order1 which comprehends great numbers both in genera and species2 they are anguilliform or snake-like1 elongated in form1 the skin thick and soft1 and have no ventral fins4 ,in this order are included the ,ammodytes1 ,gymnotes1 ,murnas1 and ,anguilla1 or eels4 ,the ,ammodytes have the body elongated and serpent-like1 having a continuous fin extending along the greater part of the back1 with another at the opposite side1 and a third or forked fin at the end of the tail4 ,the muzzle is also long2 the lower jaw longer than the upper4 ,a4 lancea 7,fig4 #cfc7 buries itself in the sand2 hence it is called the sand-eel2 it hollows out a burrow for itself in the sand with its muzzle to the depth of fifteen or twenty inches1 where it hunts out worms1 on which it feeds1 while it shelters itself from the jaws of many voracious fishes1 which eagerly pursue it for its delicate flesh4 ,in appearance the ,ammodytes lancea is silvery blue1 brighter on the lower parts than on the upper1 the radiating fins on the abdomen being alternately white and bluish in colour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 ,the ,lance 7,a4 lancea74 ,the gymnotes are long1 nearly cylindrical1 and also serpent-like1 the tail being long in comparison to the other parts of the body4 ,beneath the tail is a long swimming fin1 the only locomotive organ1 and it is this nakedness of the back which confers its designation of 1 naked1 1 back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfd4 ,the ,gymnotus ,electricus1 or ,electrical ,eel4 ,the ,gymnotes are fresh-water fishes of ,south ,america1 where they attain a great size4 ,there are several species1 but the most remarkable1 from its singular physical properties1 is the ,electrical ,eel1 ,gymnotus electricus 7,fig4 #cfd74 ,these properties enable the gymnotus to arrest suddenly the pursuit of an enemy1 or the flight of its prey1 to suspend on the instant every movement of its victim1 and subdue it by an invisible power4 ,even the fishermen themselves are suddenly struck and rendered torpid at the moment of seizing it1 while nothing external betrays the mysterious power possessed by the animal4 ,the electrical properties of the gymnotus were reported for the first time by ,van ,berkal4 ,the astronomer ,richer1 who had been sent to ,cayenne in #afga by the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris1 on the ,geodesic ,survey1 first made known the singular properties of the ,american fish4 ,i was much astonished1 says this author1 to see a fish some three or four feet in length1 and resembling an eel1 deprive of all sensation for a quarter of an hour the arm and neighbouring parts which touched it4 ,i was not only an ocular witness of the effect produced by its touch2 but ,i have myself felt it1 on touching one of these fishes still living1 though wounded by a hook1 by means of which some ,indians had drawn it from the water4 ,they could not tell what it was called2 but they assured me that it struck other fishes with its tail in order to stupefy them and devour them afterwards1 which is very probable when we consider the effect of its touch upon a man4 ,the observations of ,richer made little impression at the time on the savants of ,paris1 and matters remained in this state for seventy years1 when the traveller ,condamine spoke in his ,voyage en ,amrique of a fish which produced the effects described by ,richer4 ,in #agej a physician named ,ingram furnished some new views respecting this fish1 which he thought was surrounded by an electric atmosphere4 ,in #agee another physician1 the ,dutch ,dr4 ,gramund1 writes3 ,the effect produced by this fish corresponds exactly with that produced by the ,leyden jar1 with this difference1 that we see no tinsel on its body1 however strong the blow it gives2 for if the fish is large1 those who touch it are struck down1 and feel the blow on their whole body4 ,many experiments followed these2 but we are indebted to ,alexander von ,humboldt for the first precise account of this very curious fish4 ,the celebrated naturalist read to the ,institute of ,france an important memoir upon the electrical eel from ,bonpland's observations1 the substance of which we shall give here4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvii4--,fishing for ,eel 7,gymnotus7 on the ,orinoco4 ,in traversing the ,llanas of the province of ,caracas1 in order to embark at ,san ,fernando de ,apure on his voyage up the ,orinoco1 ,m4 ,bonpland stopped at ,calabozo4 ,the object of this sojourn was to investigate the history of the gymnotus1 great numbers of which are found in the neighbourhood4 ,after three days' residence in ,calabozo some ,indians conducted them to the ,cano de ,bera1 a muddy and stagnant basin1 but surrounded by rich vegetation1 in which ,clusia rosea1 ,hymenoea courbaril1 some grand ,indian figs1 and some magnificent flowering odoriferous mimosas1 were pre-eminent4 ,they were much surprised when informed that it would be necessary to take thirty half-wild horses from the neighbouring savannahs in order to fish for the gymnotus4 ,the idea of this fishing1 called in the language of the country embarbascar con caballos 7intoxicating by means of horses71 is very odd4 ,the word barbasco indicates the roots of the ,lacquinia1 or any other poisonous plant1 by contact of which a body of water acquires the property of killing1 or1 at least1 of intoxicating or stupefying the fishes4 ,these come to the surface when they have been poisoned in this manner4 ,the horses chasing them here and there in a marsh has1 it seems1 the same effect upon the alarmed fishes4 ,while our hosts were explaining to us this strange mode of fishing1 the troop of horses and mules had arrived1 and the ,indians had made a sort of battue1 pressing the horses on all sides1 and forcing them into the marsh4 ,the ,indians1 armed with long canes and harpoons1 placed themselves round the basin1 some of them mounting the trees1 whose branches hung over the water1 and by their cries1 and still more by their canes1 preventing the horses from landing again4 ,the eels1 stunned by the noise1 defended themselves by repeated discharges of their batteries4 ,for a long time it seemed as if they would be victorious over the horses4 ,some of the mules especially1 being almost stifled by the frequency and force of the shock1 disappeared under the water1 and some of the horses1 in spite of the watchfulness of the ,indians1 regained the bank1 where1 overcome by the shocks they had undergone1 they stretched themselves at their whole length4 ,the picture presented was now indescribable4 ,groups of ,indians surrounded the basin2 the horses with bristling mane1 terror and grief in their eyes1 trying to escape from the storm which had surprised them2 the eels1 yellow and livid1 looking like great aquatic serpents swimming on the surface of the water1 and chasing their enemies1 were objects at once appalling and picturesque4 ,in less than five minutes two horses were drowned4 ,an eel1 more than five feet long1 glided under one horse1 discharged its apparatus through its whole extent1 attacking at once the heart1 the viscera1 and the plexus of the nerves of the animal1 probably benumbing and finally drowning it4 ,when the struggle had endured a quarter of an hour1 the mules and horses appeared less frightened1 the manes became more erect1 the eyes expressed less terror1 the eels shunned in place of attacking them1 at the same time approaching the bank1 when they were easily taken by throwing little harpoons at them attached to long cords1 the harpoon1 sometimes hooking two at a time1 being landed by means of the long cord4 ,they were drawn ashore without being able to communicate any shock4 ,having landed the eels1 they were transported to little pools dug in the soil1 and filled with fresh water2 but such is the terror they inspire1 that none of the people of the country would release them from the harpoon--a task which the travellers had to perform themselves1 and receive the first shock1 which was not slight--the most energetic surpassing in force that communicated by a ,leyden jar completely charged4 ,the gymnotus surpasses in size and strength all the other electric fishes4 ,humboldt saw them five feet three inches long4 ,they vary in colour according to age1 and the nature of the muddy water in which they live4 ,beneath1 the head is of a fine yellow colour mixed with red2 the mouth is large1 and furnished with small teeth arranged in many rows4 ,the gymnotus makes its shock felt in any part of its body which is touched1 but the excitement is greater when touched under the belly1 and in the pectoral fin4 ,the gymnotus gives the most frightful shocks without the least muscular movement in the fins1 in the head1 or any other part of the body4 ,the shock1 indeed1 depends upon the will of the animal1 and in this respect differs from a ,leyden jar1 which is discharged by communicating with two opposite poles4 ,it happens sometimes that a gymnotus1 seriously wounded1 only gives a very weak shock1 but if1 thinking it exhausted1 it is touched fearlessly and at once1 its discharge is terrible4 ,indeed1 the phenomena depend so much upon the will of the animal1 that1 according to ,von ,humboldt1 if it is touched by two metallic rods1 the shock is communicated sometimes by one1 sometimes by the other wand1 though their extremities are close together4 ,the experiments already related in connection with the torpedo were repeated here4 ,if we place ourselves upon an isolated support1 and take hold of a metallic rod1 a shock is received2 but no shock is received1 on the other hand1 if the fish is touched with a glass rod1 or one covered with wax4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland repeated this experiment many times1 with decisive results4 ,the electric organ has been carefully described by these observers4 ,the organs extend from under the tail1 occupying nearly one-half of the thickness4 ,it is divided into four longitudinal bundles of muscles1 the upper ones large1 the two smaller below1 and against the base of the anal fin4 ,each bundle consists of many parallel membranous plates1 placed closely together and very nearly horizontal4 ,these plates abut in one part on the skin1 in another1 on the mean vertical plane of the fish4 ,they are united to each other by an infinity of smaller plates1 placed either vertically or transversely4 ,the smaller prismatic and transversal canal1 intercepted by these two orders of plates1 are filled with gelatinous matter4 ,all this organic apparatus receives many nerves1 and presents1 in many respects1 an arrangement nearly analogous to that of the torpedoes4 ,the ,sea-,eels 7,murna ,helena7 are serpent-like fishes1 of cylindrical form and delicate proportions1 but strong1 flexible1 and active1 swimming in waving1 undulating movements in the water1 just as a serpent creeps on dry land4 ,the murnas have no pectoral fin2 the dorsal and anal fin are reunited in the tail fin4 ,a branchial opening is observable on each side of the body4 ,the sea-eels are numerous in species4 ,murna ,helena 7,fig4 #cfe71 which is an inhabitant of the ,mediterranean1 has only a single row of teeth upon each jaw4 ,it attains the length of forty to fifty inches4 ,it loves to bask in the hollows of rocks1 approaching the coast in spring-time4 ,it feeds on crabs and small fishes1 seeking eagerly for polyps4 ,the voracity of these fishes is such that when other food fails they begin to nibble at each other's tails4 ,the sea-eels are caught with rod and line1 or by lines and ground-bait1 but their instinct is such that they often escape4 ,when they have swallowed a hook they often cut the line with their teeth1 or they turn upon it and try1 by winding it round some object1 to strain or break it4 ,when caught in a net1 they quickly choose some mesh through which their body can glide4 ,those who have studied the classics will remember the passionate love with which the ,roman gourmet regarded these fishes4 ,in the days of the ,empire enormous sums were expended in keeping up the ponds which enclosed them1 and the fish themselves were multiplied to such an extent that ,csar1 on the occasion of one of his triumphs1 distributed six thousand among his friends4 ,licinius ,crassus was celebrated among wealthy ,romans for the splendour of his eel-ponds4 ,they obeyed his voice1 he said1 and when he called them they darted towards him in order to be fed by his hands4 ,the same ,licinius ,crassus1 and ,quintus ,hortensius1 another wealthy ,roman patrician1 wept the loss of their murnas on one occasion1 when they all died in their ponds from some disease4 ,this1 however1 was only a matter of taste1 passion1 or fashion2 sometimes1 however1 accompanied by cruelty and gross corruption4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfe4 ,the ,sea-,eel 7,murna ,helena74 ,it was thought among the ,romans that murnas fed with human flesh were the most delicately flavoured4 ,a rich freedman1 named ,pollion1 who must not1 however1 be confounded with the orator of the name1 had the cruelty to order such of his slaves as he thought deserving of death1 and sometimes even those who had done nothing to excite his anger1 to be thrown to them4 ,on one occasion1 when he entertained the ,emperor ,augustus1 a poor slave who attended had the misfortune to break a precious vase2 ,pollion immediately ordered him to be thrown to the eels4 ,but the indignant emperor gave the slave his freedom1 and1 in order to manifest his indignation with ,pollion1 he ordered his attendants to break every vase of value which the freedman had collected in his mansion4 ,in the present day sea-eels are little esteemed in a gastronomic point of view4 ,nevertheless they are still sought for on the coast of ,italy1 and the fishermen avoid with great care the bites of their sharp teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cff4 ,the ,common ,conger 7,conger vulgaris74 ,the ,eels 7,anguilla7 have pectoral fins1 under which are the gill-openings on each side2 the dorsal and anal fins extending up to the tail1 mingling with this last1 which terminates in a point at the extremity4 ,the eels are divided into two groups3 #a4 ,the ,eels 7,anguilla71 properly so called2 and1 #b4 ,the ,congers4 ,the first inhabit most ,european rivers1 except in the spawning season1 when1 according to some naturalists1 they betake themselves to the sea4 ,during the greater part of their existence1 therefore1 they have no connection with the ocean4 ,the ,congers1 on the other hand1 are fishes of great size1 which inhabit the seas of warm countries1 as well as those of ,northern ,europe4 ,the type of this family is the ,common ,conger1 ,conger vulgaris 7,fig4 #cff71 which differs from the true eels chiefly in the dorsal fins1 which commence very near to the pectorals2 and also in their upper jaw being longer than their under one4 ,they attain the thickness of a man's leg1 and are sometimes two yards in length4 ,the conger-eel is frequently found in salt marshes1 but its flesh is held in little esteem4 #b4 ,,sub-,,branchiati4 ,the fishes of this order are characterised by vertical fins being attached under the pectorals1 and immediately suspended to the shoulder bone4 ,exclusively marine fishes1 they inhabit every region of the globe4 ,the order comprehends three families3--,i4 ,discobolid2 ,,ii4 ,pleuronectid1 or flat fishes2 ,,iii4 the ,gadid4 ,i4 ,,discobolid4 ,the family of ,discobolid consists of a small number of species characterised by their ventral fins being discoform1 as in the sea-snails 7,liparis71 in which the lengthened mucous body is without scales1 but with one long dorsal fin2 the pectoral and ventrals forming one disk1 as in ,fig4 #cfg1 or the ,suckers 7,lepidogaster71 where the pectorals and ventrals form two disks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfg4 ,the ,sea-,snail 7,liparis74 ,in the ,lump-fish1 ,cyclopteris 7,fig4 #cfh71 the disk formed by the ventrals forms a sort of sucker1 by which the fish attaches itself to the rocks2 while the ,echineis is remarkable for the disk-like sucker with which it is provided4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,the ,lump-fish 7,cyclopteus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfi4 ,echineis remora4 ,the ,echineis remora is an inhabitant of the ,mediterranean1 and abounds in the ,indian and ,atlantic ,oceans4 ,it is furnished with a flat disk1 which covers its head1 as represented in ,fig4 #cfi1 which is formed of a number of transverse and movable cartilaginous plates4 ,aided by this organ1 it attaches itself firmly to rocks1 and even to ships and larger fishes1 such as the ,dog-fish 7,acanthius71 which it meets with in its wanderings4 ,its adhesion to those objects is so strong that the strength of a man fails to separate them4 ,it invariably attaches itself to the dorsum and flank of the shark1 and sometimes weighs a pound and a quarter4 ,i have found1 writes a friend1 as many as seven on one shark4 ,it is never solitary1 and makes long voyages on this monstrous animal locomotive1 and that without fatigue or danger1 for its enemies are kept at a distance by the formidable monster which carries it4 ,,ii4 ,,pleuronectid4 ,the ,flat-fishes 7,pleuronectid7 have the body flat and greatly compressed1 but in a direction different from that of the ,raias and other analogous beings4 ,in the case of the ,raia the body is flattened horizontally1 while in the ,pleuronectid they are compressed laterally4 ,the head of fishes of this order is not symmetrical2 the two eyes are placed on the same side2 the two sides of the mouth are unequal4 ,to these peculiarities of structure we shall return when we come to observe the several types more clearly4 ,in inaction1 as in motion1 the flat-fishes are always turned upon their side1 and the side turned towards the bottom of the sea is that which has no eye4 ,this habit of swimming on their side is that to which they owe their name of 1 side1 and 1 swimmers4 ,their chief organ of natation is the caudal fin1 but they are distinguished from all other fishes by the manner in which they use this oar4 ,when turned upon their side this organ is not horizontal1 but vertical1 and strikes the water vertically up and down4 ,they advance through the water but very slowly1 compared to the motion of other fishes4 ,they ascend or descend in the water with greater promptitude1 but they cannot turn to the right or left with the same facility as other fishes4 ,this property of rising or sinking in the water with facility is the more useful to them1 inasmuch as the greater part of their existence is passed at the greatest depths1 where they draw themselves along the sands at the bottom of the sea1 and often hide themselves from their enemies4 ,among the ,pleuronectid1 soles1 turbot1 flounders1 and plaice may be noted4 ,soles 7,solea7 have the body oblong1 the side opposite to the edges generally furnished with shaggy1 soft hairs2 the muzzles round1 nearly always in advance of the mouth1 which is twisted to the left side1 and furnished with teeth on one side only1 while the eyes are on the right side4 ,the dorsal fin commences about the mouth1 and extends up to the caudal or terminal fin4 ,the ,common ,sole1 ,solea vulgaris 7,fig4 #cgj71 is plentiful in the ,channel1 along the ,atlantic coasts1 and especially in the ,mediterranean4 ,it is brown on the right1 and whitish on the opposite side4 ,its pectoral fins are spotted black2 the scales rugged and denticulate2 its size seems to vary according to the coast it frequents4 ,off the mouth of the ,seine soles are sometimes taken eighteen and twenty inches in length4 ,there are several modes of taking them1 but for commercial purposes it is taken by the trawl-net4 ,when the ground-hook is employed it is baited with fragments of small fish4 ,every one knows the delicate flavour of the flesh of the sole1 which1 however1 varies greatly in different localities1 those of the ,channel ,islands being particularly choice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgj4 ,the ,common ,sole 7,solea vulgaris74 ,the ,turbot1 ,rhombus maximus 7,fig4 #cga71 resembles in its general form a lozenge1 whence its name of rhombus4 ,its under jaw is more advanced than the upper jaw1 and is furnished with many rows of small teeth4 ,its fins are yellow1 with brownish spots4 ,the left side is marbled brown and yellow2 the right side1 which is the inferior1 white with brownish spots and points4 ,the true turbot is the special delight of the epicure1 and fabulous sums are said to have been given at different times by rich persons in order to secure a fine turbot4 ,the fish used to be taken largely on our own coasts1 but now we have to rely upon more distant fishing-grounds for a large portion of our supply--large quantities coming from ,holland4 ,the turbot spawns during the autumn1 and is in fine condition during spring and early summer4 ,mr4 ,yarrell says that it spawns in spring4 ,dr4 ,bertram doubts this1 although he is not quite sure of it1 inasmuch as there will1 no doubt1 be individuals of the turbot kind1 as there are of all other kinds of fish1 that will spawn all the year round4 ,the turbot abounds on our west coast1 round ,torbay1 and off the mouth of the ,seine and the ,somme1 from whence comes most of the fish consumed in ,london and ,paris4 ,the flounders1 plaice1 and halibut form an important section of the ,pleuronectid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cga4 ,the ,turbot 7,rhombus maximus74 ,the ,flounders and ,plaice 7,platessa7 inhabit the northern seas of ,europe4 ,they have their eyes placed on the right side2 the dorsal as well as the anal fin extending from over the eyes to the caudal1 both stretching out to a point towards the centre1 giving a rhombic form to the fish4 ,in ,platessa the jaws are furnished with a single row of obtuse teeth4 ,the ,common ,plaice1 ,p4 vulgaris 7,fig4 #cgb71 attains the length of ten or twelve inches2 it is brown above1 spotted with red or orange4 ,on the eye-side of the head are some osseous tubercles4 ,the body1 which is somewhat lozenge-shaped1 is smooth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgb4 ,the ,common ,plaice 7,platessa vulgaris74 ,the ,flounders 7,p4 flesus7 are fresh-water fishes of small size1 abundant in the ,thames and many other rivers2 they are only second in importance to the soles and turbot among the ,pleuronectid2 the numbers of brill1 flounders1 dab1 and plaice required being close upon a hundred million for the supply of ,london alone4 ,the usual mode of capturing flat-fish is by means of a trawl-net1 but many varieties of these may be caught with a hand-line4 ,a day's sea-fishing1 says ,dr4 ,bertram1 in his ,harvest of the ,sea1 will be chequered by many little adventures4 ,there are various minor monsters of the deep that will vary the monotony of the day by occasionally devouring the bait4 ,a tadpole fish1 better known as the sea-devil1 or angler1 may be hooked2 or a visit from a hammer-headed shark1 or a pile-fish1 will add greatly to the excitement2 and if the 'dogs' should be at all plentiful1 it is a chance if a single fish be got out of the sea in its integrity4 ,so voracious are these ,squalid1 that ,i have often enough pulled a mere skeleton into the boat1 instead of a plump cod of ten or twelve pounds weight4 ,the ,dab1 ,p4 limanda 7,fig4 #cgc71 is very common in the markets of ,paris1 where it is held in great esteem4 ,it takes its name ,limanda from the hard and dentate scales on its body4 ,the ,platessa have the jaws furnished with a single row of obtuse teeth2 the dorsal fin only extends in front to a line with the eye1 leaving an interval between it and the caudal4 ,the form of the body is rhomboidal1 as in the turbot1 and the eyes are usually on the right side4 ,the flounder1 the plaice1 and the dab1 are all examples of this group of fishes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgc4 ,the ,dab 7,platessa limanda74 ,the ,halibut1 ,hippoglossus vulgaris 7,fig4 #cgd71 is a large fish1 inhabiting the seas of ,northern ,europe and ,greenland1 where it is occasionally caught measuring seven feet1 and weighing from three to four hundred pounds4 ,a fish of this species was brought to ,edinburgh market in ,april1 #ahbh1 measuring seven feet and a half in length and three feet broad1 weighing three hundred and twenty pounds4 ,the body of the halibut is more elongated than that of the plaice or flounder1 the jaws and pharyngeans being armed with strong and pointed teeth4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvviii4--,natives fishing for ,halibut on the ,greenland ,coast4 ,great quantities of this fish are caught on the ,greenland and ,norway coasts1 and other northern regions4 ,according to ,lacepede1 the natives fish for this with an implement which they call gangnaed4 ,it is composed of a hempen cord five or six hundred yards in length1 to which are attached some thirty smaller cords1 each furnished with a barbed hook at its extremity4 ,the larger cord is attached to floating planks1 which act as trimmers1 indicating the place of this formidable engine of destruction4 ,the ,greenlanders usually replace the hempen cords by thongs of whalebone or narrow bands of shark's skin4 ,at the end of twenty hours these lines are drawn home1 and it is not at all unusual to find five or six large halibut caught on the hooks4 ,,pl4 ,,xxviii4 represents the native mode of fishing for halibut in the ,greenland ,seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 ,the ,halibut 7,hippoglossus vulgaris74 ,another mode of capturing this and other flat-fish is to spear them on their sandy beds4 ,no rule can be laid down1 says ,dr4 ,bertram1 for this method of fishing4 ,it is carried on successfully by means of a common pitchfork1 but some gentlemen go the length of fine spears made for the purpose1 very long1 and with very sharp prongs4 ,others1 again1 use a three-pronged farmyard graip1 which has been known to do as much real work as more elaborate single points contrived for the purpose4 ,the simplest directions ,i can give is just to spear every fish they see4 ,m4 ,figuier adds1 as a caution1 that before attacking these fishes1 body to body1 it is necessary to wait till they are somewhat exhausted1 otherwise they might overturn both bark and fisherman4 ,the ,greenlanders cut the animal up1 and salt the pieces2 then expose them to the air1 in order to dry them preparatory to a long voyage4 ,in its fresh state the halibut is not very delicate1 and is hard and difficult of digestion2 however1 its great size renders it a valuable prize4 ,we may add that1 notwithstanding its great size1 the halibut has deadly enemies in the dolphins1 as well as in the birds which prey upon fishes on the shore4 ,it is itself a voracious fish1 devouring crabs1 cod-fish1 and even the ,raiad1 not even sparing its own species2 they attack each other1 nibbling at the tail or fins4 ,,iii4 ,,gadid4 ,the ,gadid embrace the whole of the ,linnan genus ,gadus4 ,they are found mostly in the seas of cold or temperate regions in both hemispheres1 and are the objects of pursuit for which the great fisheries of ,europe and ,america are established4 ,they are known by the position of the ventral fin under the throat1 and by the pointed character of those fins4 ,the body is long and slightly compressed2 the head well proportioned4 ,their fins are soft1 and their scales are small and soft4 ,the jaws and front of the os vomer have unequal-pointed teeth of moderate size1 and disposed in several rows4 ,the gill-covers are large1 and consist of seven rays4 ,most of the species have the dorsal fin1 and contain two others besides--a fin behind the vent1 and a distant caudal fin4 ,the stomach is large1 and the intestine long4 ,the air-bladder large and strong1 and in some cases notched on the margin4 ,the flesh of most of the species yields white1 healthy1 and agreeable food1 easily separable into flakes when cooked1 and easy of digestion4 ,the family includes the several genera3--,,morrhua1 to which belongs the ,common ,cod-fish1 ,m4 callarias2 the ,haddock1 ,m4 glefinus4--,the ,,merlangus1 or ,whiting1 ,m4 vulgaris1 and ,m4 albus2 the ,coal-fish1 ,m4 carbonarus2 and the ,pollack1 ,m4 pollachius4--,the ,,merlucius1 or ,hakes4--,the ,,lota1 or ,ling1 ,l4 molva4--,,motella1 or ,rock ,ling1 and ,silver ,gade1 ,m4 argenteola2 and other genera of less importance4 ,the head of the ,cod 7,morrhua callarias7 is compressed2 the eyes placed on the side1 close to each other1 and veiled by a transparent membrane1 a conformation which1 according to ,lacepede1 enables the animal to swim on the surface of the water in northern regions in the midst of mountains of ice and under banks covered with snow1 without being dazzled by the brilliant light2 but this opinion is unsupported by any other naturalist of note4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cge4 ,the ,cod-fish 7,morrhua callarias74 ,the jaws of the cod-fish are unequal1 and among the rows of teeth with which it is armed many are mobile1 and can be hidden in their cavities1 or raised1 according to the will of the animal4 ,the dorsal fins1 three in number1 are in clusters1 as in ,fig4 #cge2 anal fins are two2 pectoral fins narrow1 and terminating in a point2 caudal fin slightly forked4 ,its colour is of an ashy grey1 spotted with yellow on the back2 white and sometimes reddish beneath4 ,the cod-fish is provided with a vast stomach1 and is very voracious1 feeding on fishes1 crabs1 and molluscs4 ,it is so gluttonous and indiscriminating1 that it will even swallow pieces of wood and other similar objects4 ,this is essentially a sea-fish3 it is never seen in fresh-water streams or rivers1 remaining during the greater part of the year in the depths of the sea4 ,its habitual sojourn is in the portion of the ,northern ,ocean lying between the fortieth and sixty-sixth degrees of latitude4 ,in the vast range thus frequented by the cod1 two large spaces are pointed out which it seems to prefer4 ,the first extends to the coast of ,greenland1 and the other is limited by ,iceland1 ,norway1 the ,danish coast1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and the east and north coast of ,great ,britain and the ,orkney ,isles1 comprehending the ,doggerbank1 ,vellbank1 and ,cromer coast1 together with salt-water lakes and arms of the sea1 such as the ,gairloch1 ,portsoy1 and the ,moray ,firth1 which indent the west coast of ,scotland1 and attract considerable shoals of cod-fish4 ,the second range1 less generally known1 but more celebrated among sailors1 includes the coast of ,new ,england1 ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia1 and1 above all1 the island of ,newfoundland1 on the south coast of which is the famous sand-bank called the ,great ,bank1 having a length of nearly two hundred leagues1 with a breadth of sixty-two1 over which flows from ten to fifty fathoms of water4 ,here the cod-fish swarm1 for here they meet shoals of herrings and other animals1 on which they feed4 ,such is1 according to ,lacepede1 the geographical distribution of the cod-fish4 ,the ,english1 ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,americans give themselves up to the cod-fishery on the bank of ,newfoundland with inconceivable ardour4 ,this island was discovered and visited by the ,norwegians in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 long before the discovery of ,america2 but it was only in #adig1 after the discoveries of ,columbus1 that the navigator1 ,john ,cabot1 having visited these regions1 gave it the name by which it has since been known1 and called attention to the swarms of cod-fish which inhabited the surrounding sea4 ,immediately after1 the ,english and some other nations hastened to reap these fruitful fields of living matter4 ,in #aegh1 ,france sent a hundred and fifty ships to the great bank1 ,spain a hundred and twenty-five1 ,portugal fifty1 and ,england forty4 ,during the first half of the eighteenth century1 ,england and her colonies1 with the ,french1 cultivated the cod-fishery4 ,from #ahbc to #ahca ,france sent three hundred and forty-one ships1 with seven thousand six hundred and eighty-five men1 which carried into port over fifty million pounds of fish1 an average of about six millions annually4 ,two thousand ,english ships of various sizes1 manned by thirty thousand seamen1 are now employed in this important branch of industry4 ,on the coast of ,norway1 from the frontiers of ,russia to ,cape ,lindesns1 the cod-fishery is an important branch of trade1 in which a maritime population of twenty thousand fishermen are employed1 with five thousand boats4 ,the cod is taken either by net or line4 ,the net is chiefly employed at ,newfoundland4 ,the net used is rectangular1 and furnished with lead at the lower edge1 and cork buoys on the upper edge4 ,one of the extremities is fixed on the coast2 the other is carried seaward1 following a curve taken by the boats1 and the fish are attracted by drawing upon both extremities of the net2 and by one stroke many boat-loads are sometimes taken4 ,the modern cod-smack is clipper-built1 with large wells for carrying the fish alive1 its cost being about #aejj4 ,the crew usually consists of ten to twelve men and boys1 including the captain4 ,the line is also used for taking cod and haddocks4 ,each man1 says ,bertram1 has a line of fifty fathoms in length1 and attached to each of these lines are a hundred 'snoods1' with hooks already baited with mussels1 pieces of herring1 or whiting4 ,each line is laid 'clear1' in a shallow basket1 and so arranged as to run freely as the boat shoots ahead4 ,the fifty-fathom line with a hundred hooks is in ,scotland called a 'taes4' ,if there are eight men in a boat1 the length of the line will be four hundred fathoms1 with eight hundred hooks1 the lines being tied to each other before setting4 ,on arriving at the fishing-ground1 the fishermen heave overboard a cork buoy1 with a flagstaff about six feet in height attached to it4 ,this buoy is kept stationary by a line1 called the 'pow end1' reaching to the bottom of the water1 where it is held by a stone or a grapnel fastened to the lower end4 ,to the 'pow end' is also fastened the fishing line1 which is then paid out as fast as the boat sails1 which may be from four to five knots an hour4 ,should the wind be unfavourable for the direction in which the crew wish to set the line1 they use the oars4 ,when the line or 'taes' is all out1 the end is dropped and the boat returns to the buoy4 ,the 'pow' line is hauled up with the anchor and fishing line attached to it4 ,the fishermen then haul in the line1 with the fish attached to it4 ,eight hundred fish might be taken1 and often have been1 by eight men in a few hours by this operation2 but many fishermen say now1 that they consider themselves fortunate when they get a fish on every fifth hook on an eight-lined 'taes'-line4 ,hungry cod-fish will seize almost any kind of bait1 and this is used either fresh or salted4 ,the fresh bait is furnished by the herring1 whiting1 and capelan1 a little fish which in the spring descends from the ,north ,sea in shoals1 pursued by the cod-fish4 ,in the terror caused by the innumerable bands of their enemies1 the capelans spread themselves in all the seas round ,newfoundland in masses so thick that the waves throw them ashore1 and they accumulate occasionally in heaps upon the sandy beach4 ,the principal fishery for capelan intended for bait takes place on the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,the inhabitants of these regions carry their booty to the fishermen1 who make ,saint-,pierre their rendezvous1 with whom they find ready purchasers4 ,the schooners1 with a fair provision of bait1 leaving ,saint-,pierre and other ports1 take a north-easterly direction towards the great bank1 and1 having chosen their fishing-ground1 cast anchor in fifty or sixty fathoms1 and forthwith the crews give their sole attention to the lines2 some of them watch the lines1 which are raised every instant1 the captured fish removed1 and the hooks re-baited2 others subject the captured fishes to a first preparation for preserving them2 they are opened1 the entrails removed1 and the fish split in two1 and piled one on the other1 and covered with salt4 ,this labour goes on as long as the fishing lasts4 ,the sailor is on deck night and day1 covered with oil and blood1 and surrounded with all sorts of offal and fish-like smells4 ,but this alone is insufficient4 ,boats1 manned by crews of two or three sailors1 are continually moving about1 attending to the more distant lines1 or taes1 which radiate round the ship in all directions4 ,one portion of the cod caught is despatched to ,europe in a fresh state1 without other preparation than the salting which they receive on the deck of the schooner4 ,but much the greater portion are carried on shore and subjected to further preparation4 ,saint-,pierre and ,miquelon ,islands1 which are granted to the ,french fishermen on condition that no fortifications are erected on them1 is resorted to for the purpose by the ,french fleet2 ,st4 ,john's1 the capital1 by the ,english4 ,the ,comte de ,gobineau gives an animated picture of the whole process of curing the cod-fish in the ,tour du ,monde for #ahfc4 ,the ,french houses which pursue this branch of trade1 he says1 belong principally to the ,ports of ,granville and ,st4 ,breuc2 and the crews of their ships consist of two very distinct elements2 the smaller portion1 being specially raised among the fishermen properly so called1 they form the aristocracy on board2 to these are added a larger number of mere labourers1 who are landed on the arrival of the vessel at her port4 ,their functions are limited to receiving the fish from the boats1 opening it1 washing off the glutinous matter in the chauffant1 putting the liver apart1 and laying out the split fish between the layers of salt2 finally1 subjecting it to the different phases of the drying process on the strand4 ,the chauffant is a shed raised upon piles1 standing one half in the water and one half on shore2 it is constructed of planks and posts1 through which the air is suffered to circulate freely1 but covered in with some of the ship's sails4 ,here the process of separating the intestines from the body of the fish1 and the salting process are carried on1 in the midst of an atmosphere charged with all manner of disgusting smells1 for the labourer is by no means delicate1 and never thinks of removing the disgusting impurities which he is creating4 ,there he stands1 knife in hand1 tearing and cutting out intestines and separating vertebr1 his only care being to avoid cutting himself1 which is the chief danger he runs1 in the midst of odours sufficient to produce suffocation4 ,connected with the platform1 on which this rough operation is performed is a cauldron1 sunk in the earth1 to receive the oil pressed out of the liver4 ,this cauldron is surmounted by a roof some nine feet in height1 in the form of an inverted cone4 ,here the oil which flows from the open way above is suffered to remain1 after which it is drawn off into casks4 ,the drying sheds1 formerly of wood1 are now constructed of stone1 and in places well exposed to the sun1 and especially to the wind1 artificial or otherwise4 ,the sun1 it is said1 does not dry1 but scorches2 the wind1 on the other hand1 marvellously fulfils the purpose1 and in order to avoid the one and court the other1 an apparatus has been invented1 consisting of long movable branches1 which can be inclined so as to bring the wind directly upon the row of cod1 in connection with the sun's rays1 which are1 indeed1 not very formidable in this foggy region4 ,the cod-fish thus dried at ,newfoundland are forwarded for consumption to all parts of the world2 but only a small part of the products of the fishery are thus prepared4 ,more than half the produce of the ,french fleet are sent to ,france merely salted1 by ships which carry salt1 bringing back fish in return to ,rochelle1 ,bordeaux1 and ,cette1 where the process of curing is completed4 ,in our home fisheries1 to abbreviate slightly ,dr4 ,bertram's account1 the greater part of the cod taken are eaten fresh1 but considerable quantities of the cod and ling taken on the coast are sent to market cured4 ,the process pursued is very simple3 they are brought on shore quite fresh1 and are at once split from head to tail1 and by copious washings thoroughly cleansed from all particles of blood2 a piece of the backbone is cut away2 they are drained1 and afterwards laid down in long vats1 where they are covered with salt1 and kept under heavy weights4 ,by-and-by the fish are taken out of the vats2 they are once more drained1 and carefully brushed1 to remove any impurity1 and bleached by being spread out singly on the sandy beach1 or on the rocks2 when thoroughly bleached1 they are collected into heaps technically called steeples1 and when the bloom1 or whitish appearance1 comes out on the fish1 they are ready for the market4 ,the cod is one of our best-known fishes1 and was at one time much more plentiful and cheap4 ,it is a deep-water fish1 found in all northern seas1 and in the ,atlantic1 but never in the ,mediterranean4 ,it is extremely voracious1 greedily eating up the smaller denizens of the ocean4 ,it grows to a large size1 and is very prolific1 as most fishes are4 ,a cod-roe has been found more than once to be half the gross weight of the fish1 and specimens of the female cod have been caught with upwards of eight millions of eggs4 ,the fish spawn in mid-winter3 but here our information ceases2 when it becomes reproductive is unknown4 ,dr4 ,bertram thinks that it is at least three years old before it is endowed with breeding power4 ,the growth of the cod is supposed to be very slow4 ,dr4 ,bertram quotes the authority of a rather learned fisherman of ,buckie1 who had seen a cod which had got enclosed in a large rock pool1 and he found that it did not grow at a greater rate than eight to twelve ounces per annum1 though it had abundance of food4 ,on our own coast two modes of fishing are in common use3 one by deep-sea lines1 on each of which hooks are fastened at distances twelve feet apart by means of short lines six feet long1 called on the ,cornish coast snoods4 ,buoys1 ropes1 or grapnels1 are fixed to each end of the long line1 to keep them from entanglement with each other4 ,the hooks are baited with capelan1 lance1 or whelks1 and the lines are shot across the tide about the time of slack water1 in from forty to fifty fathoms1 and are hauled in for examination after six hours4 ,an improvement has been introduced upon this mode of fishing by ,mr4 ,cobb4 ,he fixes a small piece of cork about twelve inches above the hook1 which suspends the bait1 and exhibits it more clearly to the fish by the motion of the wave4 ,the fishermen1 when not engaged in hauling1 shooting1 or baiting the long lines1 fish with hand-lines1 holding one in each hand1 each armed with two hooks1 kept apart by a strong piece of wire4 ,a heavy weight attached to the lower end of each line keeps it steady near the ground1 where the fish principally feed4 ,enormous quantities of cod1 haddock1 whiting1 and coal-fish1 with pollack1 hake1 ling1 and torsk1 are taken in this way all round our coast4 ,of cod-fish alone four hundred to five hundred and fifty have been taken in ten hours by one man1 and eight men have taken eighty score of cod in one day1 fishing off the ,doggerbank in five and twenty fathoms water4 ,latterly the ,norfolk and ,lincoln1 and even the ,essex1 coasts1 have yielded a large supply of fish1 which are caught as described1 and are stowed in well-boats1 in which they are carried to ,gravesend1 whence they are transhipped into market-boats1 and sent up to ,billingsgate by each evening tide2 the store-boats not being allowed to come up higher1 as the fresh water would kill the fish4 ,the ,haddock 7,morrhua glefinus7 is common in our markets2 it is much smaller than the cod1 but in other respects not unlike it4 ,it frequents the same localities1 and is caught with long lines baited usually with mussels2 the old fish keep close in shore1 and are only got with herring bait4 ,in the village of ,findhorn1 ,morayshire1 large numbers of haddocks are dried and smoked with the fumes of hard wood and sawdust4 ,hence the term ,finnan haddies1 an article in such request at a ,scottish breakfast4 ,the village of ,findhorn affords a very small portion of the haddocks sold as such1 but the true ,finnans are supposed to have the finest flavour4 ,the ,whiting1 ,merlangus vulgaris 7,fig4 #cgf71 by some amateurs considered the most delicate of all the ,gadid1 is plentiful all round our coast4 ,it spawns in ,march1 and the eggs are quickly hatched4 ,it prefers a sandy shore1 and is usually found some miles from the coast4 ,it is a small fish1 rarely exceeding twelve inches long1 and seldom reaching two pounds in weight4 ,the whiting is long in the body1 clothed with very small1 thin1 and round scales2 its dorsal fins are1 like the cod1 three in number2 it is without barbellary appendage2 its upper jaw projects over the lower2 it is of a silvery white1 sometimes relieved by an olive tint1 which is contrasted upon the back by the blackish tint which distinguishes the pectoral and caudal fins1 and by a black spot which some individuals have at the junction of the pectorals with the body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,the ,whiting 7,merlangus vulgaris74 ,the whiting inhabits the seas which wash the whole ,european coast1 often approaching the shore in shoals1 and are taken annually in great numbers4 #c4 ,,abdominales4 ,the fishes belonging to this order have the ventral fins under the abdomen placed behind1 and not attached to the bones of the shoulder4 ,it is much the most numerous and important of the great division of the ,malacopterygeans4 ,it includes most of our fresh-water fishes1 a great number of marine species1 and many like the salmon1 which betake themselves to the rivers in the spawning season to deposit their ova4 ,we shall limit our remarks to the species which are essentially marine1 such as the ,salmonid1 the ,clupead1 and a few others4 ,,salmonid4 ,the fishes of this family are graceful in shape1 and have the body clothed in scales2 they have two dorsals1 the first with soft rays1 followed by a second1 which is smaller1 formed without rays1 and adipose--that is1 formed simply of a skin filled with fatty matter1 unsupported by osseous rays4 ,they inhabit the seas of temperate and northern regions2 ascending the rivers at certain seasons1 and1 in some instances1 living exclusively in the great rivers and watercourses4 ,they are found even in the most elevated mountain brooks4 ,the grayling or shad1 guiniad1 sprat1 trout1 and the salmon1 the type of the family1 belong to the group4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgg4 ,adult ,salmon4 ,the genus ,salmo includes three species1 namely1 ,salmo salar1 ,s4 croix1 and ,s4 trutta1 the trout4 ,of these1 ,s4 salar 7,fig4 #cgg7 has the body long1 the muzzle roundish1 but more so in the male than in the female1 the upper jaw provided with a fossette1 into which the point of the lower jaw penetrates2 the back is a slaty blue1 the sides and lower part of the body of a silvery diaphanous white1 with great black spots scattered round the upper part of the head1 round the upper edge of the eye1 and over the operculum or covering4 ,some brownish irregular spots1 variable both in form and size1 are sprinkled over the sides4 ,in other respects their colours are subject to variations according to circumstances4 ,before assuming the characters here indicated1 however1 the salmon has passed through three stages1 each of which is marked by peculiarities worthy of being noted4 ,the young salmon 7,fig4 #cgh7 is greyish and striped with black4 ,at the end of a year it has acquired a fine metallic hue4 ,the other parts1 according to ,mr4 ,blanchard1 are of a dazzling steel-blue2 eight or ten large spots of the same brilliant blue cover it as with a silvery mantle on the sides2 between these spots a reddish1 or1 rather1 brightish-rusty iron colour prevails2 a black spot is usually observable in the middle of the operculum4 ,the belly is of a fine diaphanous blue in the parr 7,fig4 #cgi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgh4 ,the ,young ,salmon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgi4 ,salmon1 or ,parr1 a year old4 ,dr4 ,bertram gives a very clear and intelligible account of the early days of the salmon1 which was at one time veiled in mystery4 ,the spawn1 deposited by the parent fish in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december1 lies in the river till about ,april or ,may1 when it quickens into life4 ,i have already described the changes apparent in the salmon's egg1 from the time of its fructification till the birth of the fish4 ,the infant fry are of course very helpless1 and are seldom seen during the first week or two of their existence1 when they carry about with them1 as a provision for food1 a portion of the egg from whence they emanated4 ,at that time the fish is about half an inch in size1 and presents such a singular appearance that no person seeing it would ever believe that it would grow into a fine grilse or salmon4 ,about fifty days is required for the animal to assume the shape of a perfect fish2 before that time it might be taken for anything else than a young salmon4 ,at the end of two years it has changed into a smolt4 ,after absorbing its umbilical bag1 which it takes a period of twenty to forty days to accomplish1 the young salmon may be seen about its birthplace1 timid and weak1 hiding about the stones1 and always apparently of the same colour as the surroundings of its sheltering place4 ,the transverse bars of the parr1 however1 speedily become apparent1 and the fish begins to grow with considerable rapidity1 especially if it is to be a twelvemonth smolt1 and this is very speedily seen at such a place as the ,stormontfield ponds4 ,the young fish continue to grow for a little more than two years before the whole number make the change from parr to smolt1 and seek the salt water4 ,half the number of any one hatching begin to change at a little over twelve months from the date of their coming to life4 ,and thus there is the extraordinary anomaly of fish of the same hatching being at one and the same time parr of half an ounce in weight1 and grilse weighing four pounds4 ,the smolts of the first year return from the sea1 while their brothers and sisters are timidly disporting in the breeding shallows of the upper streams4 ,a late sea-going smolt explains the anomaly of a spring salmon4 ,it thus appears that1 in its first stage1 the ,young ,salmon 7,fig4 #cgh7 is called a parr3 during the second it is a smolt1 namely1 a parr plus a jacket of silvery scales4 ,while they continue in the state of parr they lead a secluded life1 totally unable to endure salt water1 which would kill them4 ,when they have become smolts the fish betake themselves in bands to the sea4 ,the sea-feeding being favourable1 and the fish strong enough for the salt water1 a rapid growth is the consequence4 ,after that they disappear1 spreading themselves over the wide world of the ocean4 ,at the end of two months of a life mysterious and so far unknown1 these fishes reappear in the rivers1 returning to their native pools2 but how changed6 ,quantum mutati6 ,the smolt1 which has lived in the river two or three years1 and only attained the length of six or eight inches1 returns at the end of two months' sojourn in the sea1 weighing three to four1 and after six months1 ten or twelve pounds4 ,it is now a grilse4 ,after depositing their eggs the grilse remain some time in the fresh water1 when they again go to the sea4 ,this second sojourn1 of about two months1 is sufficient to send it back weighing from six to twelve pounds4 ,it is now an adult salmon4 ,each new visit to the sea brings the salmon back increased in size in proportion to the duration of the voyage4 ,in the month of ,march1 #ahde1 the ,duke of ,athole took a salmon in the ,tay after it had deposited its eggs2 he marked it by attaching a metal label to it4 ,it weighed ten pounds4 ,the same individual with its metal label was again fished up after five weeks and three days' absence4 ,it now weighed twenty-one pounds1 having in the meantime travelled forty miles down the river to the sea4 ,this fish must1 however1 have made a long sea run during these thirty-eight days and its seeking up the river again4 ,in most circumstances1 according to ,mr4 ,blanchard1 to whom we are indebted for much information relative to the development and migration of these fishes1 salmon of various ages1 which have nevertheless sojourned in the sea as grilse1 adult salmon1 and others intermediate between them1 whose first sojourn at sea has extended to eight or ten months1 ascend the rivers together in an order no less varied1 the older individuals heading the column1 the youngest bringing up the rear4 ,when the period for depositing their eggs approaches1 a male and female pair off1 as it were2 seeming to choose1 by a common accord1 a retired place in which to spawn4 ,here both male and female employ themselves in hollowing out a nest in the strand1 some eight or nine inches deep1 wherein the female deposits her eggs1 which the male fertilizes by shedding a milky fluid over them1 sheltering the eggs afterwards by a covering of sand4 ,the salmon only ascends the rivers to spawn4 ,they eagerly return afterwards to salt water4 ,when enjoying themselves in the water they swim slowly1 floating near the surface2 but in pursuit of any object1 or if threatened with danger1 they dart out of the water with extraordinary promptitude4 ,the tail is1 in fact1 a true oar moved by powerful muscles2 a low waterfall is to the salmon no serious obstacle when it is impelled to ascend to its breeding-place4 ,curving its vertebral column1 it forms itself into a sort of elastic spring2 the arc of which being suddenly unbent1 strikes the water with great force with the tail1 and in the rebound it leaps to the height of several yards1 clearing waterfalls of considerable height4 ,if it falls without accomplishing its object1 it repeats the manuvre until it is at last successful4 ,it is especially when the leader of the band makes a successful leap that the others1 acquiring new spirit from its example1 throw themselves upwards until their emulation is rewarded by success4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chj4 ,salmon ,leap at ,kilmorack4 ,some of the ,british waterfalls are celebrated for their salmon leaps4 ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland have each their celebrated leaps2 in ,pembrokeshire1 ,argyleshire1 and at ,ballyshannon1 in county ,donegal1 and at ,leixlip4 ,the cataract of ,leixlip is upwards of twenty feet high1 and the country people make a holiday in order to see the salmon clear its height4 ,these acrobat fishes frequently fall before they finally succeed1 and it is not unusual for the people to place osier baskets to trap them in their fall4 ,at the cataract of ,kilmorack1 in ,inverness-shire 7,fig4 #chj71 the inhabitants living near the river have a practice of fixing branches of trees on the edge of the rocks4 ,by means of these branches they contrive to catch the fishes which have failed in their leap2 it is even asserted that sportsmen have been known to kill them on the wing1 as it were1 in their leap4 ,but the exploit1 attributed to ,lord ,lovat by ,dr4 ,franklin1 is perhaps the nearest approach to the fabulous which we have met with4 ,having remarked that great numbers of salmon failed in their efforts to surmount the ,falls of ,kilmorack1 and that they generally fell on the bank at the foot of the fall1 ,lord ,lovat conceived the idea of placing a furnace and a frying-pan on a point of rock overhanging the river4 ,after their unsuccessful effort some of the unhappy salmon would fall accidentally into the frying-pan4 ,the noble lord could thus boast that the resources of his country were so abundant1 that on placing a furnace and frying-pan on the banks of their rivers1 the salmon would leap into it of their own accord1 without troubling the sportsman to catch them4 ,it is more probable1 however1 that ,lord ,lovat knew that the way to enjoy salmon in perfection is to cook it when fresh from the water1 and before the richer parts of the fish have ceased to curd4 ,the principal salmon found in the market are ,tweed1 ,tay1 ,north ,esk1 ,spey1 ,skye1 ,norwegian1 and above all ,severn1 said to be the best which comes to market1 neither of which must be confounded with the imported ,american variety--the origin of the prevalent cheap ,london kipper--and the ,cape1 or red-mouthed variety4 ,cape and ,americans are at once distinguished by their flesh boiling a blanched white4 ,tweed salmon are more varied2 and this river1 famous in song1 is also noted for its production of the greatest proportion of bull-trout4 ,the ,tay yields the largest grilse and salmon1 but the ,spey follows fast in her wake2 ,tay fish sometimes weigh sixty pounds4 ,the minor ,scotch rivers produce smaller but superior fish4 ,skye and ,west-coast grilse are short1 thick1 and small-headed1 and proportionally more abundant4 ,trout are numerous2 sea-bull1 burn1 or loch1 and the so-called herring-trout1 are the varieties usually met with4 ,the whitling of the ,tweed1 grayling of ,tay1 and tinnock of ,north and ,south ,esk1 are young sea and bull-trout1 abounding in ,march and ,april1 when a sportsman will land fifty or sixty daily1 weighing from one quarter to a pound4 ,trout flesh varies in colour from a clear white to a dark red2 the ,north ,esk red trout is most esteemed4 ,the best run from a pound and a half to three pounds4 ,the burn-trout is always red1 and has been killed as heavy as thirty pounds4 ,the herring-trout1 never found in ,english rivers1 and only caught on our coast by herring-trawlers1 is a special favourite3 may it not be the whitling of the ,french rivers8 ,in all other species colour varies with locality1 and cannot be accounted for4 ,we have seen how rapidly the young salmon increase in size in the sea4 ,during this stage of existence the salmon1 being a carnivorous fish1 rapidly develops itself from the grilse to the adult state4 ,from a careful analysis made by ,dr4 ,wilson ,johnston of the ,bengal army1 it appears that there is no recorded instance of healthy salmon partaking of herring or sand-lances2 the tape-worm and other conditions of perverted appetite persisting in all4 ,tape-worm is most common in the hybrid ,norwegian1 and explains the reason why ,clupead are sometimes found in their stomachs4 ,should the fish not be charged with spawn1 it will shortly return to sport among the dancing waves2 but if matured for breeding1 at which period the female shows a dirty brown hue1 and the male a black1 they mate1 choose a spot for the salmon nest1 and there deposit myriads of ova4 ,the longer a salmon continues in the river the duller their colour becomes2 the flavour is greatly depreciated2 so that ,izaac ,walton's statement1 that the further they get from the sea they be both fatter and better1 is dead against our daily experience4 ,during the period of river residence salmon never feed4 ,it avails not to argue that fear acts as an emetic and empties the stomach2 the incontestable fact remains that the entire gastro-intestinal tract ab ore ad ano is in ninety-nine per cent4 devoid of any trace of food4 ,juvenile experience on the part of the fish1 recurring as a phantasm1 causes them to snap at a shining artificial minnow or a gaudy fly1 but they never rise out of the water2 the bait must dip to them1 and when hooked they shake the intruder as a terrier does a rat4 ,if salmon never feed in fresh water1 what is the rationale of their existing there8 ,well1 the superabundant store of fat deposited in the areolar tissue appears to furnish a material which is functionally homologous to the fatty supply stored by the ,asiatic and ,african doomba sheep1 which is drawn upon to sustain life-action1 when nvs1 avalanches1 or a heavy snow-fall imprisons the herbage outcrop4 ,that continued muscular exertion can be sustained without special fatigue on non-nitrogenous diet1 ,fick and ,wislicensus have proved by the recent ascent of the ,faulhorn3 it is moreover notorious that the chamois hunter and the ,hindoo runner prefer fats and saccharoids4 ,is there any show of reason1 then1 why the salmon should not maintain its fresh-water muscular tear and wear by a stock of non-nitrogenous fatty material8 ,that such is the true philosophy of salmon river life is borne out by the following facts3 #ast4 ,so soon as the exhausting secretions of the milt and roe take place the spent fish turn seaward to recruit4 #bnd4 ,the digestive secretions are not eliminated in the absence of food2 the most recent experience of physiology finds its echo here4 ,your boxer trains on meat or nitrogenous aliment1 but enters the list on hydro-carbons 7fats1 saccharines1 and amylaceous substances74 ,the salmon get into condition by immediately appropriating the albumen of the echinodermal ova1 enter their life-struggle of wintry months in river water with an incorporated stock of potential calorific aliment1 convertible1 as occasion demands1 into organic muscular mechanical effort4 ,the ,british rivers in which the salmon abound are the ,severn1 the ,wye1 the ,tweed1 the ,tay1 the ,don1 and the ,dee1 with many of their tributaries1 and in ,ireland1 the ,shannon4 ,besides these1 many of the watercourses of lesser note adjoining the coast have been renowned for their salmon fisheries4 ,some of the ,scottish rivers1 especially1 are famous for the size and quality as well as numbers of salmon4 ,in days not very distant from ours1 farm servants made it a condition of their hiring that salmon should not be served to them more than three days in the week4 ,these times are changed4 ,in the districts in which this condition was the most stringently insisted on1 the proprietors derive a princely revenue from this source alone4 ,the ,tay fisheries yield a revenue of seventeen thousand pounds per annum4 ,the ,spey1 for its length the richest in ,scotland1 produces twelve thousand pounds per annum4 ,the river is only a hundred and twenty miles from its source to the sea1 and its picturesque banks are celebrated in a local ballad1 which says1 not very harmoniously1 that ,dipple1 ,dundurcus1 ,dandaleith1 and ,dulocq1 ,are the bonniest haughs of the run of the ,spey2 but there's no standing water in the ,spey6 ,the river drains thirteen hundred miles of mountains1 many of whose bases are more than a thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,the ,tweed1 which has been poached and plundered1 by its proprietors using unfair implements1 until there was scarcely a fish in its upper waters1 is slowly recovering under legislative enactments1 and its rental is now seven thousand five hundred pounds4 ,salmon abounds in the ,loire and its affluents1 but is much more rare in the ,seine and ,marne4 ,they enter the ,rhine and the ,elbe1 and most of the great rivers of the north of ,europe4 ,in ,france they were formerly found in the rivers of ,brittany1 and in the ,gironde4 ,they are now very rare in these rivers4 ,the coast of ,picardy is well furnished1 but they are rare in ,upper and ,lower ,normandy4 ,in ,norway1 especially in the district of ,drontheim1 the salmon fishery is conducted on a large scale on the sea-shore as well as in the interior waters4 ,the ,baltic is rich in salmon4 ,considerable fisheries are carried on in the waters of the ,gulfs of ,finland and ,bothnia1 as well as in the waters of ,swedish ,laponia4 ,the takes vary every year2 in #ahfj being much above the average throughout ,great ,britain1 or as in #aggb1 when the fish were so scarce in the ,tweed1 that it was believed they had gone off the coast4 ,they invariably go to leeward with the wind1 and have been caught a hundred miles off land4 ,salmon are in condition at various periods of the year1 apparently not depending on the latitude of the rivers4 ,thus the ,tay is one of the earliest rivers1 while the ,north and ,south ,esk are the latest1 yet they debouch within a few miles of each other4 ,it is the opinion of ,mr4 ,joseph ,johnston of ,montrose 7whose acknowledged fifty years' practical experience carries weight with it in all fishery parliamentary committees7 that the ,stormontfield ponds1 by artificially rearing the parr1 render them more helpless when they commence river life on their own account4 ,as a natural result1 the death-ratio is enormously increased--cui bono8 especially when the parr have only the option of leaving1 and are not compelled to go out4 ,we must1 therefore1 receive ,dr4 ,bertram's narrative1 much as we respect his authority1 with some reserve4 ,a seed will not grow1 nor will a parr ever become a grilse1 unless under given conditions3 it is therefore an easy matter to explain the anomaly of a parr passing seaward becoming a four-pound grilse1 while its twin-brother remaining in the breeding-pond is conditionally developed as only a half-ounce samlet1 yet none the less a dwarfed grilse--the possibility of growth existing all the while1 although it was not actively evoked by physical surroundings4 ,the modes of procedure in salmon fishery are very various4 ,spearing with tridents1 and liestering with a weighted hook by torch-light1 burning the water1 as the ,scotch have it1 as well as trammel1 wear1 and cruive-wear fishing1 are now prohibited4 ,legal fishing in rivers is confined to row nets1 and fly and bait rod fishing1 fixtures being illegal since #ahaj4 ,wear shot2 a larger and heavier row-net placed at the meeting of the waters2 stake1 fly1 and bag-nets are used in the open sea4 ,the latter is most in vogue1 the former being almost superseded by the fly4 ,fixtures on the sea coast were held to be legal in ,lord ,kintore's case by ,house of ,lords in #ahbh1 and continued so till the passing of the recent ,act4 ,by this act all legal modes of fishing are in action from the first of ,february to the fourteenth of ,september1 a period1 however1 now curtailed by twenty-eight days1--netting being illegal from ,saturday to ,monday in each week4 ,it remains to be seen whether the gourmet will enjoy his salmon better after its ,sabbath rest2 perhaps its ragout will then haunt him as it did ,talleyrand's abb1 who1 instead of the mea culpa of the ,confiteor1 iterated1 ,ah6 le bon saumon6 ah6 le bon saumon6 ,a bag-net is composed of three chambers2 the first1 which is the widest1 is at the entrance4 ,the next is the doubling1 and is one inch to the mesh narrower than the outer4 ,the last is the fish court1 where the fish by a simple and ingenious contrivance are prevented from finding the door by which they entered4 ,it is partly floated by corks and partly by an empty cask on the head or principal riding rope4 ,it is set in the sea by ropes attached to anchors1 one anchor rope to the head of the net and one on each wing at the entrance of the bag4 ,the bag-leader is a separate net held by a rope and anchor on the land side1 and is fastened to the bag net4 ,the principle of fishing is this3 the tide makes a curve on the leader of the bag1 in this curve the fish swim into the net4 ,bags are adapted for any kind of coast1 and six or seven are run out to sea end on4 ,fly nets are the same as bags in principle1 but slightly altered so as to adapt them for being fixed to stakes driven into the sand instead of being moored by rope and anchor2 they are always used where the tide ebbs4 ,stake nets are expensive1 and seldom used now-a-days4 ,when in fishing trim they are1 however1 more deadly than fly nets3 their chambers are three times as large1 but the principle of fishing in bag and stake nets is identical1 leaders being used in all4 ,it is noteworthy that trout are never caught in these leaders4 ,,esocid4 ,this family includes the ,pike1 which1 being a fresh-water fish1 need not now occupy our attention2 it includes also the singular genus ,stomias1 and the ,flying-fish1 ,exocoetus4 ,the ,stomias have a body much elongated1 the muzzle being very short1 the mouth very deeply cleft1 the opercula reduced to small membranous lamin2 the maxillarius fixed to the cheek2 the inter-maxillary palatine and maxillary bones are rather sparingly furnished with teeth1 and those are long and hooked4 ,similar teeth are observable on the tongue4 ,the ventral fins are placed far back1 and the dorsal fin is placed opposite the anal fin1 on the hinder extremity of the body4 ,only two species of this genus are known3 the one of the ,mediterranean1 ,stomia boa 7,fig4 #cha71 the other of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 ,s4 barbatus1 so called from the long barbula on the chin4 ,both species are black in colour1 with numerous small silvery spots on the abdomen4 ,the body of ,s4 boa is thin1 compressed1 covered with little thin scales of blackish blue1 much spotted on the back and abdomen1 a little brighter on the sides--the head1 in some respects1 recalling that of a serpent4 ,flying is so much associated in our minds with the usual denizens of the air1 that the idea of flying-fishes seems to be a contradiction4 ,nevertheless1 some fishes possess that power1 the fins being transformed into wings1 which they are enabled to raise for a few seconds4 ,these wings1 however1 are neither long nor powerful1 for they rather act the part of a parachute than wings4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the ,exocoetus1 or flying-fish1 is the pectoral fins1 nearly the length of the body1 the head flattened above and on the sides1 the lower part of the body furnished with a longitudinal series of carinated scales on each side1 the dorsal fin placed above the anal1 the eyes large1 and the jaws furnished with small pointed teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cha4 ,stomia boa4 ,the ,flying-fishes 7,fig4 #chb7 in their own element are harassed by attacks of other inhabitants of the ocean1 and when under the excitement of fear they take to the air1 they are equally exposed to the attacks of aquatic birds1 especially the various species of gulls4 ,we have said that1 in their leap from the water1 their fins sustain them rather as parachutes than wings1 with which they beat the air4 ,mr4 ,bennett's description is pretty clear on this point4 ,i have never1 he says1 been able to see any percussion of the pectoral fins during flight2 and the greatest length of time ,i have seen this volatile fish on the fly has been thirty seconds by the watch1 and the longest flight1 mentioned by ,captain ,basil ,hall1 has been two hundred yards1 but he thinks that subsequent observation has extended the space4 ,the usual height of their flight1 as seen above the surface of the water1 is from two to three feet1 but ,i have known them come on board at the height of fourteen feet and upwards4 ,and they have been well ascertained to come into the chains of a line of battle ship1 which is considered to be upwards of twenty feet4 ,but it must not be supposed that they have the power of raising themselves into the air after having left their native element2 for on watching them ,i have often seen them fall much below the elevation at which they first rose from the water2 nor have ,i ever in any instance seen them rise from the height to which they first sprang1 for ,i conceive the elevation they take depends on the power of the first spring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chb4 ,the ,flying-fish 7,e4 exiliens74 ,the most common species is ,e4 volitans4 ,its brilliant colouring would seem designed to point it out to its enemies1 against whom it is totally defenceless4 ,a dazzling silvery splendour pervades its surface4 ,the summit of its head1 its back1 and its sides1 are of azure blue2 this blue becomes spotted upon the dorsal fin1 the pectoral fin1 and the tail4 ,this fish is the common prey of the more voracious fishes1 such as the shark1 and the sea-birds2 its enemies abound in the air and water4 ,if it succeeds in escaping the ,charybdis of the water1 the chances are in favour of its coming to grief in the ,scylla of the atmosphere--if it escapes the jaws of the shark1 it will probably fall to the share of the sea-gull4 ,the dolphin is also a formidable enemy to the much-persecuted flying-fish4 ,captain ,basil ,hall gives a very animated description of their mode of attack4#ag ,he was in a prize1 a low ,spanish schooner1 rising not above two feet and a half out of the water4 ,two or three dolphins had ranged past the ship in all their beauty4 ,the ship in her progress through the water had put up a shoal of these little things 7flying-fish71 which took their flight to windward4 ,a large dolphin which had been keeping company with us abreast of the weather gangway at the depth of two or three fathoms1 and as usual glistening most beautifully in the sun1 no sooner detected our poor dear friends take wing than he turned his head towards them1 darted to the surface1 and leaped from the water with a velocity little short1 as it seemed to us1 of a cannon-ball4 ,but though the impetus with which he shot himself into the air gave him an initial velocity greatly exceeding that of the flying-fish1 the start which his fated prey had got enabled them to keep ahead of him for a considerable time4 ,the length of the dolphin's first spring could not be less than ten yards1 and after he fell we could see him gliding like lightning through the water for a moment1 when he again rose1 and shot upwards with considerably greater velocity than at first1 and of course to a still greater distance4 ,in this manner the merciless pursuer seemed to stride along the sea with fearful rapidity1 while his brilliant coat sparkled and flashed in the sun quite splendidly4 ,as he fell headlong in the water at the end of each leap1 a series of circles were sent far over the surface1 for the breeze1 just enough to keep the royals and topgallant studding-sails extended1 was hardly felt as yet below4 ,the group of wretched flying-fishes1 thus hotly pursued1 at length dropped into the sea2 but we were rejoiced to observe that they merely touched the top of the swell1 and instantly set off again in a fresh and even more vigorous flight4 ,it was particularly interesting to observe that the direction they took now was quite different from the one in which they had set out1 implying but too obviously that they had detected their fierce enemy1 who was following them with giant steps along the waves1 and was gaining rapidly upon them4 ,his pace1 indeed1 was two or three times as swift as theirs1 poor little things6 and the greedy dolphin was fully as quick-sighted2 for whenever they varied their flight in the smallest degree1 he lost not the tenth part of a second in shaping his course so as to cut off the chase2 while they1 in a manner really not unlike that of the hare1 doubled more than once upon the pursuer4 ,but it was soon plainly to be seen that the strength and confidence of the flying-fish were fast ebbing2 their flights became shorter and shorter1 and their course more fluttering and uncertain1 while the leaps of the dolphin seemed to grow more vigorous at each bound4 ,eventually this skilful sea-sportsman seemed to arrange his springs so as to fall just under the very spot on which the exhausted flying-fish were about to drop4 ,this catastrophe took place at too great a distance for us to see from the deck what happened2 but on our mounting high on the rigging1 we may be said to have been in at the death2 for then we could discover that the unfortunate little creatures1 one after another1 either popped right into the dolphin's jaws as they lighted on the water1 or were snapped up instantly after4 ,,the ,,clupead4 ,of this family the herring is the graceful1 useful1 and well-known type1 to which also the pilchard1 the shad1 and the anchovy belong4 ,the ,clupea have the body longish and compressed1 especially at the belly1 where it comes to an edge2 it is clothed with large scales1 forming towards the belly a saw-like edge1 which is very thin and easily removed4 ,one dorsal fin without spinous rays1 and one ventral1 both placed near the middle of the body1 are its locomotive characteristics4 ,the ,herring1 ,clupea harengus 7,fig4 #chc71 is too well known to require description2 its appearance is beautiful2 but we shall only remark here that its back1 which in the fish after death is of an indigo bluish colour1 is green during life2 the other parts vary considerably in their colours and markings1 sometimes representing written characters1 which ignorant fishermen have considered to be words of mystery4 ,in ,november1 #aehg1 two herrings were taken on the coast of ,norway1 on the bodies of which were markings resembling ,gothic printed characters4 ,these herrings had the signal honour of being presented to the ,king of ,norway1 ,frederick ,,ii4 ,this superstitious prince turned pale at sight of this supposed prodigy4 ,on the back of these innocent inhabitants of the deep he saw certain cabalistic characters1 which he thought announced his death and that of his queen4 ,learned men were consulted4 ,their science1 as reported1 enabled them to read distinctly words expressing the sentiment1 ,very soon you will cease to fish herrings1 as well as other people4 ,other savants were assembled1 who gave another explanation2 but in #aehh the king died1 and the people were firmly convinced that the two herrings were celestial messengers charged to announce to the ,norwegian people the approaching end of the monarch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chc4 ,the ,herring 7,clupea harengus74 ,this fish abounds throughout the entire ,northern ,ocean in immense shoals1 which are found in the bays of ,greenland1 ,lapland1 and round the whole coast of the ,british ,islands4 ,great shoals of them occupy the gulfs of ,sweden1 of ,norway1 and of ,denmark1 the ,baltic and the ,zuyder ,zee1 the ,channel1 and the coast of ,france up to the ,loire1 beyond which they never appear to be found4 ,but the finest herrings are caught on ,loch ,fyne1 on the west coast of ,scotland4 ,the herrings are gregarious fishes1 and live in great shoals closely packed together2 shoals to be counted not by hundreds1 but by thousands and tens of thousands1 in many a shore and bay4 ,it was the favourite theory1 not very long ago1 that herrings emigrated to and from the arctic regions4 ,it was asserted1 by the supporters of this theory1 that in the inaccessible seas of high northern latitudes herrings existed in overwhelming numbers1 an open sea within the arctic circle affording a safe and bounteous feeding-ground4 ,at the proper season vast bodies gathered themselves together into one great army1 which1 in numbers exceeding the powers of imagination1 departed for more southern regions4 ,this great ,heer1 or army1 was subdivided1 by some instinct1 as they reached the different shores1 led1 according to the ideas of fishermen1 by herrings of more than ordinary size and sagacity1 one division taking the west side of ,britain1 while another took the east side1 the result being an adequate and well-divided supply of herrings1 which penetrated every bay and arm of the sea round our coast1 from ,wick to ,yarmouth4 ,closer observation1 however1 shows that this theory has no existence in fact4 ,lacepede denies that those periodical journeyings take place4 ,valenciennes also rejects them4 ,it is true that the herrings have disappeared in certain neighbourhoods in which they were formerly very plentiful2 but it is also certain that1 in many of the fishing stations1 fish are taken all the year round4 ,moreover1 the discovery that the herring of ,america is probably a distinct species from that of ,europe 7which1 smoked1 is known as the ,digby ,chick7 is against the theory4 ,in short1 there is a total absence of proof of their pretended migrations to high northern latitudes2 and recent discoveries all tend to show that the herring is native to the shores on which it is taken4 ,it has been demonstrated1 says ,dr4 ,bertram1 that the herring is really a native of our immediate seas1 and can be caught all the year round on the coast of the three kingdoms4 ,the fishing begins at the island of ,lewis1 in the ,hebrides1 in the month of ,may1 and goes on as the year advances1 till in ,july it is being prosecuted off the coast of ,caithness2 while in autumn and winter we find large supplies of herrings at ,yarmouth2 there is a winter fishery in the ,firth of ,forth4 ,moreover1 this fish is found in the south long before it ought to be there1 according to the emigration theory4 ,it has been deduced1 from a consideration of the annual takes of many years1 that the herring exists in distinct races1 which arrive at maturity month after month4 ,it is well known that the herrings taken at ,wick in ,july are quite different from those caught at ,dunbar in ,august and ,september2 indeed ,i would go further1 and say that even at ,wick each month has its changing shoal1 and that as one race appears for capture another disappears1 having fulfilled its mission4 ,it is certain that the herrings of these different seasons vary considerably in size and appearance2 localities are marked by distinctive features4 ,thus the well-known ,loch ,fyne herring is essentially different from that of the ,firth of ,forth2 and those differ again1 in many particulars1 from those caught off ,yarmouth4 ,in fact1 the herring never ventures far from the shore where it is taken2 and its condition1 when it is caught1 is just an index of the feeding it has enjoyed in its particular locality4 ,the superiority of flavour of the herring taken in our great land-locked salt-water lochs is undoubted4 ,whether or not resulting from the depth and body of water1 from more plentiful marine vegetation1 or from the greater variety of land food likely to be washed into these inland seas1 has not yet been determined1 but it is certain that the herrings of our western sea-lochs are infinitely superior to those captured in the more open sea4 ,moreover1 he adds1 it is now known1 from the inquiries of the late ,mr4 ,mitchell and other authorities on the geographical distribution of the herring1 that the fish has never been noticed as being at all abundant in the arctic regions4 ,the herring feeds on small crustaceans1 fishes just hatched1 and even on the fry of its own species4 ,on the other hand1 its enemies are the most formidable inhabitants of the ocean2 the whales destroy them by thousands1 but man1 above all1 carries on a war which threatens to be one of extermination4 ,in fact1 the herring-fishery has been to certain nations the great cause of their prosperity4 ,it was the foundation of ,dutch independence4 ,silk manufacture1 coffee1 tea1 spices1 which are productive of great commercial movements1 address themselves only to the wants of luxury or fashion4 ,the produce of the herring fishery1 on the contrary1 is one of necessity to the people2 and ,holland would have languished and quickly disappeared1 with its fictitious territory1 if the sea had not added to its commercial industry this inexhaustible mine of wealth4 ,that vast field it has worked with persevering ardour4 ,struggling for an existence1 it has conquered4 ,every year numerous vessels leave the coast of ,holland for this precious marine harvest4 ,the herring fishery is1 for the ,dutch people1 the most important of maritime expeditions4 ,it is with them known as the great fishery4 ,whaling is known as the small fishery4 ,the great fishery is a golden mine to ,holland2 it is1 besides1 a very ancient occupation with ourselves4 ,we find it flourishing in the twelfth century2 for1 in #aaie1 according to the historians1 the city of ,dunwich1 in the county of ,suffolk1 was obliged to furnish the king with twenty-four thousand herrings4 ,we also find mention made of the herring fishery in a chronicle of the ,monastery of ,evesham in the year #gji4 ,towards the year #ajcj the ,french sent vessels into the ,north ,sea from ,dieppe for this fishing1 nearly a century before the ,dutch made the attempt2 but as early as the thirteenth century that enterprising people employed two thousand boats in this industry4 ,the ,danes1 ,swedes1 and ,norwegians also threw themselves into this trade at an early period4 ,the ,french1 ,danes1 and ,swedes furnish at the present time only sufficient for home consumption4 ,the monopoly of foreign trade belongs to the ,english1 ,dutch1 and ,norwegians4 ,the quantity of herrings gathered every year by our neighbours beyond the ,channel1 says ,moquin-,tandon1 is truly enormous4 ,in ,yarmouth alone four hundred ships1 of from forty to sixty tons1 are equipped1 the largest being manned by twelve men4 ,the revenue derived from this fleet is about seven hundred thousand pounds4 ,in #aheg three of these fishing-boats1 belonging to the same proprietors1 carried home three millions seven hundred and sixty-two thousand fishes4 ,since the beginning of this century the ,scottish fishermen have emulated the zeal of the ,english4 ,in a paper communicated to the ,british ,association in #ahed1 ,mr4 ,cleghorn1 who has paid great attention to the subject1 states that there are nine hundred and twenty ,wick boats engaged in the fishing1 and that the produce was ninety-five thousand six hundred and eighty barrels in one week alone1 this being1 however1 a falling off of sixty-one thousand barrels from the previous year4 ,the cause of this immense falling off was ascribed to a storm which had swept along the coast at the height of the season2 but ,mr4 ,cleghorn was inclined to ascribe it mainly to over-fishing1 which had gradually diminished the number of herrings captured4 ,the boats employed by the ,french and ,dutch in the herring fishery are about sixty tons burden4 ,they generally depart for the ,orkney and ,shetland isles4 ,they afterwards betake themselves to the ,german ,ocean1 and fish the ,channel in ,november and ,december4 ,these boats carry up to sixteen hands1 according to their size4 ,arrived at their fishing ground1 they cast their nets1 as seen in ,,pl4 ,,xxix4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxix4--,the ,herring ,fishery4 ,the lines of the ,dutch fishermen are five hundred feet in length1 composed of fifty or sixty different nets4 ,the upper parts of these nets are supported by empty barrels or cork-buoys1 the lower edge being weighted with lead or stones1 which are kept at a convenient depth by shortening or lengthening the cords by which the buoys are attached4 ,the size of the mesh of the nets is such that the herrings of a certain size are caught in it by the gills and pectoral fins4 ,if the first mesh is too large to hold them they pass through1 and get caught by the next or succeeding mesh1 which is smaller4 ,the herring-fishery is regulated by ,act of ,parliament1 and the legal mode of capture is by means of what is called a drift-net4 ,the drift-net is made of fine twine1 marked with squares of an inch each to allow for the escape of the young fish4 ,the nets are measured by the barrel bulk1 a net measuring fifty feet long by thirty-two deep1 and each holding half a barrel4 ,the drift is composed of many separate nets fastened together by means of a back rope1 and each separate net of the series is marked off by a bladder or empty cask4 ,the process is that described by ,dr4 ,bertram in an article published in the ,cornhill ,magazine4 ,the writer had made his arrangement for a night at the herring fishery under the auspices of ,francis ,sinclair1 a very gallant-looking fellow1 who sails his own boat from ,wick1 and takes his own venture4 ,bounding over the waves with a good capful of wind1 they had left the shore and beetling cliffs far behind them2 they reached their fishing ground1 where they tacked up and down1 eagerly watching for the oily phosphorescent gleam which is indicative of herrings4 ,at last1 after a lengthened cruise1 he says1 our commander1 who had been silent for half an hour1 jumped up and called to action4 ',up1 men1 and at them6' was the order of the night4 ,the preparations for shooting the nets at once began by lowering sail4 ,surrounding us on all sides was to be seen a moving world of boats2 many with sails down1 their nets floating in the water1 and their crews at rest4 ,others were still flitting uneasily about1 their skippers1 like our own1 anxious to shoot in the right place4 ,by-and-by we were ready2 the sucker goes splash into the water2 the 'dog1' a large inflated bladder to mark the far end of the train1 is heaved overboard1 and the nets1 breadth after breadth1 follow as fast as the men can pay them out1 till the immense train is all in the water1 forming a perforated wall a mile long and many feet in depth2 the 'dog' and the marking bladder floating and dipping in long zigzag lines1 reminding one of the imaginary coils of the great sea-serpent4 ,after three hours of quietude beneath a beautiful sky1 the stars-- ',the eternal orbs that beautify the night'-- began to pale their fires1 and1 the gray dawn appearing1 indicated that it was time to take stock4 ,we found that the boat had floated quietly with the tide till we were a long distance from the harbour4 ,the skipper had a presentiment that there were fish in his net2 and the bobbing down of a few of the bladders made it almost a certainty1 and he resolved to examine the drifts4 ,by means of the swing rope the boat was hauled up to the nets4 ',hurrah6' exclaimed ,murdoch of ,skye2 'there's a lot of fish1 skipper1 and no mistake4' ,murdoch's news was true2 our nets were silvery with herrings--so laden1 in fact1 that it took a long time to haul them in4 ,it was a beautiful sight to see the shimmering fish as they came up like a sheet of silver from the water1 each uttering a weak death-chirp as it was flung into the bottom of the boat4 ,formerly the fish were left in the meshes of the net till the boat arrived in the harbour2 but now1 as the net is hauled on board1 they are at once shaken out4 ,as our silvery treasure showers into the boat we roughly guess our capture at fifty crans--a capital night's work4 ,but there is a reverse to this medal4 ,wick ,bay is not always rippled by the land-breeze as on this occasion4 ,the herring fleet has been more than once overtaken by a fierce storm1 where valuable lives have been lost1 and thousands of pounds worth of netting and boats destroyed1 and the gladdening sights of the herring fishery have been changed to wailing and sorrow4 ,the ,yarmouth boats are decked vessels of from fifty to eighty tons1 with attendant boats1 costing about one thousand pounds1 and having stowage for about fifty lasts2 nominally1 ten thousand1 but1 counted fisherwise1 thirteen thousand1 herrings1 besides provision for a five or six days' voyage4 ,leaving a hand or two in charge of the vessel1 the majority of the crew are out in the smaller boats1 fishing4 ,the ,dutch herring fishery is usually pursued during the night4 ,when the nets are in the water the boat is left1 as we have seen in ,dr4 ,bertram's excursion1 to drift in the meantime4 ,each boat is furnished with a lantern1 which serves the double purpose of attracting the shoals of fish1 and preventing collisions with other boats4 ,the herring fishery is extremely capricious in its results2 one or two boats have been known to carry into port the whole takings of a night4 ,valenciennes witnessed the capture of a hundred and ten thousand herrings in less than two hours4 ,the nets are hauled in when moderately charged with fish by the crew2 but it is often necessary to have recourse to the capstan in the process4 ,some of the hands are stationed to detach the fish from the nets2 others detach the nets from the buoys2 while others again fold up and stow away the nets for future use4 ,on the coast of ,norway the electric telegraph is applied to the herring fishery1 being employed to announce to the inhabitants of the fishing towns the approach of the shoals of fish4 ,in the fiords of ,norway1 where the produce of the herring fishery is the principal means of existence to nearly the entire population1 it often happened that the fish made its appearance at the most unexpected times1 and on some parts of the coast the shoals could only be met by one or two boats4 ,before the boats from the bays and fiords could take part in the fishery1 the herrings had deposited their spawn and returned to the open sea4 ,to prevent these disappointments1 often repeated with great loss to the fishermen1 the ,norwegian government established1 in #aheg1 a submarine electric cable1 along the coast frequented by the herrings1 of a hundred miles1 with stations on shore at intervals conveniently placed for communicating with the villages inhabited by the fishermen4 ,as soon as a shoal of herrings is known to be in the offing--and they can always be perceived at a considerable distance by the wave they raise--a telegram is despatched along the coast1 which makes known in each village the approach to the bay in which the herrings have established themselves4 ,this important branch of industry has only assumed its real character since the fourteenth century1 and its sudden and prodigious extension is due to the discovery of a simple ,dutch fisherman1 ,george ,benkel1 who died in #acig4 ,to this man ,holland owes much of its wealth4 ,he discovered1 in short1 the art of curing the herring so as to preserve it for an indefinite time4 ,from that moment the herring fishery assumed an unexpected importance1 and became the source of much wealth to ,holland and its industrious and enterprising people4 ,two hundred years after his death the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 solemnly ate a herring on ,benkel's tomb2 it was a small homage paid to the memory of the creator of a new industry which had enriched his native land4 ,the ,shad 7,alosa71 which have the body round and more plump than the herring1 are still more distinguishable by the arrangement of their teeth4 ,more than twenty species of this genus are known1 varying considerably in size4 ,they inhabit the seas which wash the coasts of ,europe1 ,africa1 ,india1 and ,america4 ,one species is the ,common ,shad1 ,alosa communis 7,fig4 #chd71 which is found in the ,channel1 the ,north ,sea1 and all round our coast4 ,it is of a silvery tint generally1 greenish on the back1 with one or two black spots behind the gills4 ,the shad approaches the mouths of rivers and great estuaries1 and habitually ascends them in the spring for the purpose of depositing its ova1 and is found at this season in the ,rhine1 the ,seine1 the ,garonne1 the ,volga1 the ,elbe1 and many of our own rivers4 ,in some of the ,irish rivers the masses of shad taken in the seine-net have been so great that no amount of exertion has been sufficient to land them4 ,it sometimes attains a very considerable size1 weighing as much as from four to six pounds4 ,the shad taken at sea are less delicate in their flesh than those caught in fresh water4 ,the habits of the shad are very imperfectly known4 ,two species are found on the ,british coast1 namely1 the ,twaite ,shad of ,yarrell 7,alosa finta71 which is about fourteen inches in length1 brownish-green on the back1 inclining to blue in certain lights1 the rest of the body silvery white1 with five or six dusky spots on each side arranged longitudinally4 ,the jaws are furnished with distinct teeth2 the tail deeply forked4 ,the second species1 the ,common or ,allice ,shad 7,a4 ,communis71 is considerably larger1 sometimes attaining twelve and even fifteen inches in length1 having only one spot on each side of the body near the head2 the jaws without teeth1 the scales small in proportion4 ,this species is plentiful in the ,severn1 but rare in the ,thames4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chd4 ,the ,allice ,shad 7,alosa communis74 ,the shad is found in the ,severn and ,thames in considerable quantities about the second week in ,july4 ,they reach the fresh water about ,may1 deposit their spawn1 and return to salt water in ,july4 ,their scales are large4 ,the ,sprat 7,c4 ,sprattus7 has been the subject of a great controversy1 like the parr--one party contending that it is the young of the herring2 another1 that it is a distinct species4 ,pennant1 ,yarrell1 and many eminent naturalists adopt the first view3 yet its specific characters1 according to ,pennant1 are greater depth of body than the young herring1 gill-covers not veined2 teeth of the lower jaw so small as to be scarcely sensible to the touch2 the dorsal fin placed far back1 and the sharp edge of the abdomen more acutely serrated than in the herring4 ,like the herring1 they inhabit the deep water during the summer1 following the shoal to the sea-shore in autumn4 ,the sprat fishing commences in ,november and continues during the winter months1 when they are caught in such numbers that in some localities they have been used as manure4 ,in support of the individuality of the sprat1 the serrated belly and relative position of the fins are dwelt upon1 together with the instance detailed by ,mr4 ,mitchell1 the ,belgian consul at ,leith1 who exhibited a pair of sprats1 having the roe and milt fully developed4 ,on the other hand1 the abundance of the sprat has been adduced as a reason for its being the young herring4 ,in addition to this1 anatomists declare their anatomy shows no difference but size4 ,as to the serrated belly1 says ,bertram1 we may look on that as we do on the back of a child's frock1 namely1 as a provision for growth4 ,if this is so1 ,dr4 ,bertram supplies material at once for thought and legislation4 ,the slaughter of sprats1 he says1 is as decided a case of killing the goose with the golden eggs as the grilse slaughter carried on in our salmon rivers4 ,but ,mr4 ,bertram here overlooks a fact of which any one may convince himself1 namely1 that young herrings are caught without the serrated belly2 nay1 the curer's purchase is regulated by the sprat's rough1 and the herring's smooth belly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #che4 ,the ,pilchard 7,clupea pilchardus74 ,the ,pilchard1 ,clupea pilchardus 7,fig4 #che71 sometimes called the gipsy herring1 visits our coasts all the year round4 ,it was at one time thought1 as the herring was1 to be migratory1 but1 like that fish1 it is now found to be a native of our own seas1 and a constant inhabitant of our shores4 ,it has been known to spawn in ,may1 but the usual time is ,october1 and authorities like ,mr4 ,couch think it breeds only once a year4 ,its visit to shallow water causes immense excitement2 persons watch night and day from the lofty cliffs along the ,cornwall coast1 and the watchers 7locally called huers7 signal the boats at sea beneath them the moment they see indications of the approach of a shoal4 ,mr4 ,wilkie ,collins gives an animated picture of the huer3 ,a stranger in ,cornwall1 taking his first walk along the cliffs in ,august1 could not advance far without witnessing what would strike him as a very singular and even alarming phenomenon4 ,he would see a man standing on the extreme edge of a precipice just over the sea1 gesticulating in a very remarkable manner1 with a bush in his hand1 waving it to the right and to the left1 brandishing it over his head1 sweeping it past his feet2 in short1 acting the part apparently of a maniac of the most dangerous description4 ,it would add considerably to the stranger's surprise if he were told that the insane individual before him was paid for flourishing the bush at the rate of a guinea a week4 ,and if he advanced a little1 so as to obtain a nearer view of the madman1 and observed a well-manned boat below turning carefully to the right and left1 as the bush turned1 his mystification would probably be complete1 and his ideas as to the sanity of the inhabitants would be expressed with grievous doubt4 ,but a few words of explanation would make him alter his opinion4 ,he would learn that the man was an important agent in the pilchard fishery of ,cornwall1 that he had just discovered a shoal swimming towards the land1 and that the men in the boats were guided by his gesticulations alone in their arrangements for securing the fish on which so many depend for a livelihood4 ,the pilchard1 the young of which is believed to be the sardine of commerce1 where its place is not usurped by the sprat1 is sometimes taken in the ,channel1 on the coasts of ,brittany and ,cornwall1 and in the ,mediterranean1 and on the coast of ,sardinia1 whence its commercial name4 ,in ,brittany floating-nets are employed4 ,the fishing is conducted in boats1 each carrying five men2 hundreds of these boats may sometimes be seen engaged at the same time three or four leagues from the coast1 the nets being only drawn when they are fully charged1 when the fish are arranged bed upon bed in osier baskets1 each boat returning habitually to port when it has secured twenty-five thousand fishes4 ,the fishery extends over five or six months1 the produce being about six hundred millions of sardines4 ,the ,basque fishermen employ a net in the form of a sack1 with rings at each corner4 ,on the coast of ,cornwall1 as we have hinted1 it is one of the staple industries1 and pursued systematically4 ,where they come from1 and whither they go1 seems alike unknown4 ,all that is certain is1 that they are met with in shoals swimming past the ,scilly ,islands as early as ,july4 ,in ,august the inshore fishing begins1 and they appear on various parts of the coast as far north as ,devonshire and the south coast of ,ireland up to ,october and ,november2 no doubt those which have escaped the innumerable nets spread for them4 ,the first sight from the cliffs of a shoal of pilchards1 says ,mr4 ,collins1 in the work already quoted1 is not a little interesting4 ,they produce on the sea the appearance of the shadow of a dark cloud1 which approaches until you can see the fish leaping and playing on the surface by hundreds at a time1 all huddled close together1 and so near the shore that they can be caught in fifty or sixty feet of water4 ,indeed1 when the shoals are of considerable magnitude1 the fish behind have been known literally to force the fish in front up to the beach1 so that they could be taken in baskets1 or even with the hand4 ,with the discovery of the first shoal1 the active duties of the lookout1 or huer1 on the cliffs begin4 ,each fishing village places one or more of these men on the watch all round the coast4 ,he is1 therefore1 not only paid his guinea a week while he is on the watch1 but a percentage on the produce of all the fish taken under his auspices4 ,he is placed at his post1 where he can command an uninterrupted view of the sea1 some days before the pilchards are expected4 ,the principal boat used is1 at least1 of fifteen tons burden1 and carries a large net called the 'seine1' which measures a hundred and ninety fathoms in length1 and costs a hundred and twenty pounds--sometimes more4 ,it is simply one long strip from eleven to thirteen fathoms in breadth1 composed of very small meshes1 and furnished all along its length with cork at one edge and lead at the other4 ,the men who cast this net are called 'shooters1' and receive eleven shillings and sixpence a week1 and one basket of fish out of every haul4 ,as soon as the 'huer' discerns a shoal he waves his bush4 ,the signal is conveyed to the beach by men and boys watching near him4 ,the 'seine'-boat1 accompanied by another1 to assist in casting the net1 is rowed out to where he can see it2 then there is a pause and hush of expectation4 ,meanwhile the devoted pilchards press on--a compact mass of thousands on thousands of fish--swimming to meet their doom4 ,all eyes are fixed on the 'huer2' he stands watchful and still1 until the shoal is thoroughly embayed in water which he knows to be within the depth of the 'seine4' ,then1 as the fish begin to pause in their progress1 and gradually crowd closer and closer together1 he gives the signal1 and the 'seine' is cast or 'shot' overboard4 ,the grand object is now to enclose the entire shoal4 ,the leads sink one side of the net perpendicularly to the bottom1 the corks buoy the other to the surface of the water4 ,when it has been taken all round the shoal1 the two extremities are made fast1 and the fishes are imprisoned within an oblong barrier of netting4 ,the art is how to let as few of the pilchards escape as possible while the process is being completed4 ,whenever the 'huer' observes that they are startled1 and separating at any particular point1 he waves his bush1 and thither the boat is steered1 and there the net is shot at once2 the fish are thus headed and thwarted in every direction with extraordinary address and skill4 ,this labour completed1 the silence of intense expectation that has hitherto prevailed is broken--there is a shout of joy on all sides--the shoal is secured4 ,the 'seine' is now regarded as a great reservoir of fish4 ,it may remain in the water a week or more2 to secure it against being moved from its position1 in case a gale should come on1 it is warped by two or three ropes to points of land in the cliff1 and is at the same time contracted in circuit by its opposite ends being brought together and passed lightly over its breadth for several feet4 ,while these operations are being performed1 another boat1 another set of men1 and another net1 are approaching the scene of action4 ,the new net is called the 'tuck2' it is smaller than the 'seine2' inside which it is to be let down1 for the purpose of bringing the fish close to the surface4 ,the men who manage this net are called 'regular sewers4' ,the boat is first of all rowed inside the seine-net1 and laid close to the seine-boat1 which remains stationary outside4 ,to its bows one rope at the end of the tuck-net is fastened4 ,the tuck-boat now slowly makes the inner circle of the seine1 the smaller net being dropped overboard1 and attached to the seine at intervals as she goes4 ,to prevent the fish from getting between the two nets during the operation1 they are frightened into the middle of the enclosure by beating the water with oars1 and stones fastened to ropes4 ,when the 'tuck' has at length travelled round the whole circle of the 'seine1' and is securely fastened to the seine-boat at the end as it was at the beginning1 everything is prepared for the great event of the day--hauling the fish to the surface4 ,now all is excitement on sea and shore2 every little boat in the place puts off1 crammed with idle spectators2 boys shout1 dogs bark1 and the shrill voices of the former are joined by the deep voices of the 'seiners4' ,there they stand1 six or eight stalwart1 sun-burnt fellows1 ranged in a row in the seine-boat1 hauling with all their might at the 'tuck'-net1 and roaring out the nautical ',yo1 heave ho6' in chorus4 ,higher and higher rises the net2 louder and louder shout the boys and the idlers2 the 'huer1' so calm and collected hitherto1 loses his self-possession1 and waves his cap triumphantly4 ',hooray6 hooray6 ,yoy--hoy1 hoy6 ,pull away1 boys6 ,up she comes6 ,here they are6' ,the water boils and eddies2 the 'tuck'-net rises to the surface2 one teeming1 convulsed mass of shining1 glancing1 silvery scales2 one compact mass of thousands of fish1 each one of which is madly striving to escape1 appears in an instant4 ,boats as large as barges now pull up1 in hot haste1 all round the nets1 baskets are produced by dozens1 the fish are dipped up in them1 and shot out1 like coals out of a sack1 into the boats4 ,presently the men are ankle-deep in pilchards2 they jump upon the benches1 and work on till the boats can hold no more4 ,they are almost gunwale under before they leave for the shore4 ,in the process of curing1 the scene becomes doubly picturesque1 but this is shore-work1 with which our space forbids us to deal4 ,some idea of the almost incalculable multitude of pilchards caught on the ,cornwall shores1 says ,mr4 ,collins1 may be gathered from the following data3 ,at the small fishing cove of ,trereen six hundred hogsheads were taken in little more than a week1 during ,august1 #ahej4 ,allowing two thousand four hundred fish only to each hogshead 7three thousand would be the highest calculation71 we have a result of one million four hundred and forty pilchards caught by the inhabitants of one little village alone1 on the ,cornish coast1 at the commencement of the season's fishing4 ,the ,anchovy 7,engraulis7 is chiefly taken in the ,mediterranean1 and is much sought after for its delicate flavour when salted and cured4 ,it is a small1 slender fish1 about four to four and a half inches in length2 head pointed1 mouth very wide1 gill-openings large1 abdomen smooth2 when living it is greenish on the back1 silvery beneath2 after death it changes to a bluish black4 ,the fishery which gives the most abundant results takes place on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 principally on the coast of ,sicily1 the isles of ,elba1 ,corsica1 ,antibes1 ,frejus1 ,saint-,tropez1 and ,cannes4 ,they are also taken on the ,dalmatian coast1 and in the neighbourhood of ,ragusa4 ,the anchovy is only fit for food after being preserved and salted4 ,the process of curing commences by throwing it into a strong brine2 then1 the head and entrails being removed1 they are arranged in rows in barrels or boxes of tin1 in alternate layers of salt and fish2 finally1 after some days of exposure1 they are hermetically closed and despatched to market4 ,those prepared on the ,provenal coast were formerly carried to the fair of ,beaucaire1 whence they found their way all over ,france1 and to many parts of ,europe4 ,now1 the anchovies cured at ,marseilles1 and other ,provenal ports1 are sent direct to the various markets of ,europe4 ,,the ,,acanthopterygeans include the ,perch family1 which is altogether a fresh-water fish1 and1 however interesting in itself1 foreign to our present purpose4 ,it includes also the cat-fish1 which is also known as the bar1 and more commonly the wolf-fish1 in ,bas-,languedoc and ,provence4 ,it is common in the ,mediterranean1 and in many of the great rivers which empty themselves into it4 ,the ,cat-fish 7,fig4 #chf7 has the appearance of an elongated perch2 its colour1 in the adult state1 is of a uniform silvery hue1 marked with brown and yellow spots in the young4 ,the ,weevers 7,trachinus71 forming another division of this family1 are characterised by their very compressed head and the strong spines of the operculum4 ,they are elongated in shape1 with short muzzles2 they have a habit of burying themselves in the sand1 and are formidable to fishermen1 from the dangerous wounds they inflict with their spines4 ,trachinus communis 7,fig4 #chg7 is widely diffused in the ,atlantic and ,mediterranean4 ,the genus ,uranoscopus are so named from the position of their eyes1 which are directed towards the sky1 from 1 the heavens1 and 1 ,i regard4 ,from this peculiar arrangement1 they can only see above them4 ,they are closely connected with the cat-fish4 ,uranoscopus vulgaris 7,fig4 #chh7 belongs to the ,mediterranean1 and is remarkable for its thick cubical head and erect spiny dorsal fins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chf4 ,the ,cat-fish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chg4 ,the ,weever-fish 7,trachinus communis74 ,the ,mullets 7,mullus7 have the body thick and oblong1 the profile of the head approaching the vertical line2 scales large1 two dorsal fins1 widely separated--the rays of the first spinous1 of the second1 flexible2 two cirri at the lower jaw4 ,two species are known1 both inhabitants of our west and south-west coasts3 the ,striped or ,red ,mullet 7,mullus surmuletus71 rare as ,british1 and the ,red ,mullet 7,m4 barbatus74 ,the first is a fine bright vermilion red1 with three dominating yellow lines2 the throat1 breast1 ventral1 and lower surface of the tail are white1 slightly tinged with rose2 the fins have their rays more or less red1 the iris of the eyes a pale gold colour1 just touched with red2 the head bears two barbels4 ,this beautiful fish is plentiful in the ,mediterranean and sometimes in the ,channel1 common in the gulfs of ,gascony1 and is frequently served on the table at ,bordeaux and ,bayonne1 where it is known as the barbel2 its flesh is a little flaky1 of an agreeable flavour1 but less esteemed than the red mullet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chh4 ,uranoscopus vulgaris4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxx4--,agony of a ,red ,mullet at the ,feast of ,hortensius4 ,the ,red ,mullet 7,mullus barbatus7 is clothed in brilliant colours of bright red1 mingling with silvery tints upon the side and belly2 it presents fine indistinct reflections1 but none of the yellow lines which occur in the preceding species4 ,it is to its brilliant colouring that the red mullet owes much of its celebrity4 ,when we add that its flesh is white1 firm1 and agreeable to the taste1 the estimation in which it was held by the ancients is sufficiently explained4 ,with the ,romans the mullet was an object of luxury on which they expended fabulous sums2 they cultivated the fish in their fish-ponds not only as a delicacy of the table1 but for the beauty of form and colour4 ,this fierce love of beauty1 however1 too often approached to cruelty4 ,seneca and ,pliny both give us to understand that the rich patricians of ,rome gave themselves the barbarous pleasure of seeing the mullet expire under their eyes1 in order to witness the various shades of purple1 violet1 and blue which succeed each other--from cinnabar red to the palest white1 as the animal gradually loses its strength1 and expires by a slow and cruel death4 ,the great rival of ,cicero1 the advocate ,hortensius1 who attracted crowds of people to the ,forum by his eloquent and elegant discourses1 had an inordinate passion for this kind of enjoyment4 ,these little inhabitants of the waters were led by a small canal which was carried under the festive table1 and his great enjoyment was to witness the agonies of the unhappy fish just taken from its native element and carried to the table1 palpitating with its dying convulsions1 as it perished beneath his eyes1 he in the meanwhile enjoying a sumptuous banquet4 ,the possession of these poor creatures had1 in short1 become the rage1 a furious passion1 and their price soon became excessive4 ,a fish of three pounds produced a considerable sum to the fortunate fisherman1 while one of four and a half pounds was simply ruinous1 says ,martial4 ,asinius ,gelius purchased one for eight thousand sesterces 7upwards of sixty pounds74 ,under ,caligula1 according to ,suetonius1 three mullets cost thirty thousand sesterces 7about two hundred and forty pounds74 ,although it is no longer the object of ferocious enjoyment on the one hand1 or prodigal expenditure on the other1 it is still much sought after1 both for its beauty of colour and excellent table qualities4 ,it is found in many seas1 but particularly in the ,mediterranean1 where it is taken all round the coast1 usually in muddy bottoms2 it is fished for both by line and net4 ,the ,gurnards 7,trigla7 are remarkable for the singular manner in which the head is mailed and cuirassed2 the operculum and shoulder-bones are armed with spines1 having trenchant blades1 which give them a disagreeable1 even a hideous1 physiognomy1 and has procured them various names1 such as sea-frog1 sea-scorpion1 sea-devil1 and sundry other equally significant names4 ,with this forbidding appearance1 however1 the gurnards are among the most resplendent inhabitants of the sea4 ,nothing can exceed the beauty of their markings2 but the brilliancy with which ,nature has gifted them is their misfortune2 it betrays them to their enemies1 which are found in the air as well as in the water1 and without their prodigious fecundity this species would long since have disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chi4 ,the ,red ,gurnard 7,trigla pini74 ,twelve species of ,trigla are known4 ,in the ,british seas the commonest species is the ,grey ,gurnard 7,trigla gurnardus71 a silvery-grey fish1 more or less clouded with brown and speckled with black4 ,a rare species with us1 but very common in the ,mediterranean1 is the ,red ,gurnard1 ,trigla pini 7,fig4 #chi74 ,it is of a fine bright rose-red colour1 paler beneath and more vivid about the fins1 of which there are two distinct dorsal and one ventral4 ,beneath the pectorals are three detached rays2 both jaws and front of the lower palate are armed with fine velvety teeth4 ,the ,perlon1 or ,sapharine ,gurnard 7,t4 hirundo71 is a large and handsome fish1 remarkable for the lively green and blue hues of the inner surface of its large pectoral fins4 ,the ,flying ,gurnard 7,dactylopterus volitans7 somewhat resembles the ,triglas1 but differs in having the fin-rays of the pectorals connected by membranes1 by which it is enabled to support itself some time in the air1 like the flying-fish2 the pectorals1 when extended1 forming a sort of parachute 7,fig4 #cij71 which sustains it when it leaps out of the water4 ,several species are known4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cij4 ,the ,flying ,gurnard 7,dactylopterus volitans74 ,all nature seems to conspire against these singular creatures1 while they have been gifted with the double power of swimming and flying4 ,the flying-fish only escapes from the ,bonitas1 and other voracious fishes which pursue it on the bosom of the sea1 to expose itself to the attacks of the inhabitants of the air4 ,a crowd of sea-fowl1 such as frigate-birds1 the albatross1 and the gulls1 carry on a bloody war with them when they venture on flight4 ,enemies thus pursue the unhappy fish whatever element it betakes itself to4 ,nevertheless it passes from one element to the other with an energy which frequently defeats the attacks of its enemies4 ,when it leaps from the sea to the height of five or six feet1 it sustains itself for several hundred feet1 changing its direction4 ,in its flight it may be compared to that of the flying dragon2 the popular name given to it is said to be derived from the grunting noise they make on being taken out of the water4 ,,labyrinthiform ,,pharyngeans4 ,in the fishes of this order the superior pharyngeal bones are divided into numerous and irregular little leaflets1 which intersect the cellules situated under the operculum1 which again serve to retain a certain quantity of water4 ,this water preserves the gills1 however1 when the animal is dry1 which permits them to live on shore1 where they frequently contrive to creep over great distances in search of water4 ,the genus ,anabas1 from 1 to ascend1 possess this peculiarity of organization in a remarkable degree2 it enables them to leave the rivers and marshes and little watercourses of ,borneo and ,java1 and other islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and creep through the herbage or along the ground by means of the inflexions of their bodies1 the dentation of their opercules1 of their spines and fins4 ,this fact1 although only recently known to modern naturalists1 was well known to the ancients1 and has been recorded by ,theophrastus4 ,the family of the ,scomberoides is the most important group in the order1 comprehending some of the fishes most useful to man1 from their size1 the excellence of their flesh1 and their abundance4 ,the ,tunny 7,thynnus1 ,cuv471 the ,mackerel 7,scomber scombrus71 and the ,bonita 7,thynnus pelamys71 have yielded1 from the remotest antiquity1 immense resources as human food1 both in the fresh and preserved state4 ,the tunny1 while resembling the mackerel in many respects in its general form1 is rounder1 and attains a much larger size1 being sometimes found eight and nine feet in length1 and weighing three to four hundred pounds4 ,the upper part of the body is a bluish-black2 the belly is grey1 with silvery spots4 ,these fishes sometimes present themselves in the ,atlantic1 but in the ,mediterranean they are very abundant4 ,at some periods of the year they approach the coast in innumerable shoals1 and in numerous serried ranks1 forming a vast battalion1 which conceals itself under the waves1 and only betrays itself on the exterior by the motion of the sea1 caused by such vast numbers travelling rapidly through the water4 ,in many localities the shoals of tunnies show themselves in the spring1 pursuing their way towards the east1 and in the autumn we find them pursuing an opposite direction4 ,we see the same thing on the coast of ,provence4 ,upon the coast of ,la ,ciotat a first fishing takes place from the months of ,march to ,july1 and a second again from ,july to ,october4 ,but at other points of the coast they arrive at the same time from very different directions2 nevertheless1 in some places they are only winter visitors4 ,the tunny-fishing goes back to the remotest antiquity4 ,the ,phoenicians1 the first navigators known1 carried it on on the coast of ,spain4 ,in our days the fishing is carried on with great activity on the coasts of ,provence1 of ,sardinia1 and ,sicily4 ,the fishing is generally carried on by the tunny-net1 but in ,provence it is fished with an enclosed net called the madrague4 ,the tunny-net consists of a combination of nets1 which is quickly cast into the sea in order to head the tunnies at the moment of their passage4 ,when the sentinels1 posted for the purpose1 as in the pilchard fishery1 have signalled the approach of a shoal of tunnies and its direction1 by the indications of a flag which points to the spot occupied by the finny tribe1 the fishing-boats are immediately directed to the designated spot1 and ranged in curved lines1 forming with the light floating net a half circular enclosure1 turned towards the shore1 the interior of which is called the garden4 ,the tunnies thus enclosed in this garden1 between the coast and the net1 become agitated with terror4 ,as they advance towards the shore they press upon the enclosure1 or rather a new interior enclosure is formed with other nets held in reserve4 ,in this second enclosure an opening is left1 through which the tunnies have to pass4 ,in continuing thus to diminish the space by successive enclosures1 each occupies a smaller diameter1 in which the fish are enclosed in about a fathom and a half of water4 ,at this moment a species of seine-net is thrown into the garden4 ,this net is hauled into shallow water by force of arms1 and the small tunnies are taken by the hand1 the larger by hooks4 ,the boats are charged with them1 and they are carried ashore4 ,a single day's fishing will sometimes produce as many as sixteen thousand tunnies1 each from twenty to five and twenty pounds weight4 ,when the park1 in place of being established for a single fishery1 is a permanent construction in the sea1 it is called1 in ,provence1 a madrague4 ,the madrague is a vast enclosure4 ,the netting which forms the partitions of its chambers are sustained by buoys of cork on the surface1 and kept down by heavy stones and other weights on the lower edge1 and maintained in this position by cords1 one extremity of which is attached to the net1 and the other is moored to an anchor4 ,the madrague is intended to arrest the shoals of tunnies at the moment when they abandon the shore in order to return to the open sea4 ,for this purpose a long alley or run is established between the sea-shore and the park or madrague4 ,the tunnies follow this alley1 and1 after passing from chamber to chamber1 betake themselves at last to the body of the park4 ,in order to force them into the madrague they are pressed towards the shore by means of a long net1 which is extended in their rear attached to two boats1 each of which sustains one of the upper angles of the net4 ,when the fishes come to the last compartment1 the fishermen raise a horizontal net1 which makes a sort of plate of this compartment1 in which the fishes are gradually raised to the surface of the water4 ,this operation occupies the whole night4 ,in the morning the tunnies are collected in a very narrow space1 and at varying distances from the shore2 and now the carnage commences4 ,the unhappy creatures are struck with long poles1 boat-hooks1 and other weapons4 ,the tunny-fishing presents a very sad spectacle at this its last stage2 fine large fish perish under the blows of a multitude of fishermen1 who pursue their bloody task with most dramatic effect4 ,the sight of the poor creatures1 some of them wounded and half dead1 trying in vain to struggle with their ferocious assailants1 is very painful to endure4 ,the sea1 red with blood1 long preserves traces of this frightful carnage1 of which an illustration is attempted in ,,pl4 ,,xxxi4 ,the flesh of the tunny is much esteemed1 being firm and wholesome4 ,it is called the salmon of ,provence4 ,for our part1 says ,m4 ,figuier1 we put it far above the salmon4 ,nothing is comparable to the fresh tunny thrown into a hot frying-pan1 and sprinkled with vinegar and salt4 ,when properly cooked1 nothing can be more firm or savoury4 ,in short1 nothing of the kind can rival1 or even be compared1 with the tunny1 as we find it at ,marseilles and ,cette4 ,the tunny is greatly celebrated among the ,greeks and other inhabitants on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 of the ,propontus1 and the ,black ,sea4 ,the ,romans attached great value to certain parts of this fish1 as the head and the lower part of the belly4 ,the neighbouring parts were in little esteem with them4 ,they cut them into pieces and preserved them in vases filled with salt4 ,they are now preserved with oil and salt after being cooked2 this preparation is in great request at ,cette1 ,montpellier1 and ,marseilles4 ,with a pot of marine tunny1 preserved in the vinegar of ,lunel1 a household is pretty well prepared for any event4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxi4--,fishing for ,tunny at ,madrigue1 on the ,coast of ,provence4 ,the ,mackerel 7,scomber scombrus7 is too well known to require minute description4 ,who has not admired these fishes1 with their steel-blue back1 and changing iridescent sides of gold and purple and green1 relieved by fine waving lines of deeper black1 as they appear on the market-stalls1 or as they are emptied in the early morning from the fishing-boat8 ,the head is blue above1 with black markings1 the rest of the body being heightened with iridescent shades of gold and purple4 ,there are two species of mackerel--that of the ,atlantic and of the ,channel1 which has no swimming-bladder1 ,scomber scombrus 7,fig4 #cia71 and the mackerel of the ,mediterranean1 ,scomber colias1 which has the swimming-bladder1 and which is a very rare fish in our seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cia4 ,the ,mackerel 7,scomber scombrus74 ,the mackerel is common to all ,european seas3 being the ,veirat of the ,bay of ,languedoc2 the ,aurion of ,provence2 the ,bretal in some parts of ,brittany2 the ,macarello of the modern ,romans2 the ,scombro of the ,venetians2 the ,lacesto of the ,neapolitans2 the ,cavallo of the ,spaniards2 the well-known ,mackerel of our own shores1 and the ,makril of the ,swedes2 it is found on the coast of ,north ,america1 and as far south as the ,canary ,islands4 ,it is a wandering1 unsettled fish1 supposed to be migratory1 but individuals are always found on our coast4 ,they are supposed to remain during the winter in the ,north ,sea1 and afterwards on the coast of ,scotland and ,ireland in ,january and ,february1 on their way to the ,atlantic4 ,here their great army is divided into two3 one branch passes along the ,spanish and ,portuguese coasts1 while the other enters the ,channel4 ,in ,may they appear on the coasts of ,england and ,france4 ,in ,june they reach ,holland4 ,in ,july one portion of them returns to the ,baltic1 while another skirts the coast of ,norway on its way to winter quarters4 ,lacepede estimated that this migration1 which is so regular1 and its stages so rigorously indicated1 was irreconcilable with a great number of very precise observations2 and he arrived at the conclusion that the mackerel passes the winter at the bottom of the sea1 more or less remote from the coast1 which they again approach in the spring4 ,at the commencement of the fine season they advance towards the shore which best agreed with them1 showing themselves often on the surface1 like the tunny1 traversing the sea in courses more or less direct or sinuous1 but never following the periodical circle which has been so ingeniously traced out for them4 ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards also remarks that1 if these legions of fishes ascended from the ,polar seas1 they ought to visit the ,orkneys before they appeared in the ,channel1 and enter the ,mediterranean later in the season2 but he is assured that they appear at the ,orkneys late in the season4 ,it appears1 in short1 that there are different varieties which haunt the several neighbourhoods in which they abound4 ,the largest mackerel are taken at the entrance of the ,channel1 but they are considered less delicate than the smaller fishes4 ,the shoals of mackerel1 it appears1 never enter the ,gulf of ,gascony1 but they abound along the shores of ,brittany up to the ,north ,sea4 ,it is about the month of ,april that they begin to be met with1 but they are still small and without milt or roe4 ,in the months of ,june and ,july the fish is in its most perfect state4 ,towards the end of ,september and ,october mackerel of the same year's birth are taken2 finally1 in ,november and ,december1 the fishermen still fish them1 and send them to market1 but this is an irregularity1 and the fishermen of ,lowestoft and ,yarmouth take their great harvest in ,may and ,june2 in the ,firth of ,forth1 and on the north coast of ,scotland1 at a few weeks later4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxii4--,fishing for ,mackerel off the ,cornwall ,coast4 ,as mackerel are very voracious1 they greedily devour all sorts of bait1 but they are chiefly taken by the drift-net4 ,the drift-net is twenty feet deep and a hundred and twenty feet long1 well buoyed at the upper edge1 but without weights at the bottom4 ,the meshes1 made of fine twine tarred to a reddish colour for preservation1 are calculated to admit the head of the fish and catch it by the gills1 so as to prevent its withdrawal4 ,a fleet of mackerel-boats dragging these large nets1 which are extended vertically in the sea1 or float between the two tides1 is well represented in ,,pl4 ,,xxxii4 ,the flesh of the mackerel is fat and high flavoured4 ,among the ancients a liquid was extracted from this fat called garum1 which was considered a very nourishing preparation4 ,the price of this liquid was very high2 in modern measures it was valued at about sixteen shillings the pint4 ,it was acrid1 half putrefied1 and very nauseous1 but it had the property of rousing the appetite and stimulating the digestive organs4 ,garum played the part of a condiment at a period when the exciting array of ,indian spices was unknown4 ,seneca charges it1 as we do pepper and other hot spices taken in excess1 with destroying the stomach and health of gourmands4 ,this garum is spoken of by the traveller ,pierre ,belon1 writing in the sixteenth century1 as being held in great estimation at ,constantinople in his time4 ,rondelet1 the author of a very remarkable book published in #aeed1 who ate garum at the table of ,william ,pellicier1 ,bishop of ,maguelonne1 thought he could trace the liquid not to the mackerel1 but to one of the ,sparodes 7,sparus smaris74 ,the mackerel possesses phosphorescent properties which cause it to shine in the dark1 especially after death1 when decomposition has commenced4 ,the mackerel is not only voracious1 but1 in spite of its small size1 it has the hardihood to attack fishes much larger and much stronger than itself4 ,it is even said that they love human flesh4 ,according to the naturalist bishop1 ,pontoppidan1 who lived in the sixteenth century1 a sailor belonging to a vessel which had cast anchor in one of the ,norwegian ports1 when bathing one day in the sea1 was assailed by a shoal of mackerel4 ,his companions came to his relief2 the eager band were repulsed with great difficulty1 but not till it was too late3 the unfortunate sailor was so exhausted that he died a few hours after4 ,by a natural law of compensation the ubiquitous mackerel is surrounded by numerous enemies2 the larger inhabitants of the ocean eagerly devour them4 ,certain fishes1 in appearance very weak1 such as the murna1 fight them with great advantage4 ,closely connected with the mackerel and other ,scombrid1 we have the ,bonita of the ,tropics4 ,this is a fish of considerable size1 celebrated by its pursuit in great shoals of the flying-fish1 of which we have already spoken4 ,the ,bonita 7,thynnus pelamys7 is not unlike the mackerel in shape1 but less compressed1 and upwards of twenty-five to thirty inches long4 ,it is occasionally found on our coast1 but only as an accidental visitor1 for its true home is the ,tropics4 ,it is a beautiful fish of a fine blue colour1 with short pectoral fins and four longitudinal bands on each side of the belly4 ,it is easily harpooned from the dolphin-striker1 and appears to have the power of generating electricity4 ,any one grasping the living fish is violently shaken as in palsy1 agitans1 so much so that the most resolute son of ,neptune cannot control his speech2 every attempt culminates in an unintelligible spasmodic sputter4 ,the instant the bonita is dropped1 the muscles resume their routine action4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cib4 ,the ,sword-fish 7,xiphias gladius74 ,the ,sword-fish1 ,xiphias gladius 7,fig4 #cib71 so called from the upper jaw being elongated into a formidable spear or sword1 was known to the ancients1 and has borne the name which recalls its salient characteristic from very early times4 ,in short1 it is recognized at a glance from its organic structure1 and from the resemblance of its prolonged horizontal and trenchant muzzle to the blade of a sword4 ,with the ancients it was 1 and ,gladius2 with the moderns it is the ,sword-fish1 the ,dart1 the ,spece spada1 and l',espadon pe4 ,this fish attains a great size1 being found in the ,mediterranean and ,atlantic1 in company with the tunny1 from five to six feet in length4 ,its body is lengthy1 and covered with minute scales1 the sword forming three-tenths of its length4 ,on the back it bears a single long dorsal fin2 the tail is keeled1 the lower jaw is sharp1 the mouth toothless1 the upper part of the fish bluish-black1 merging into silver beneath4 ,it seems to have a natural desire to exercise towards and against all the arm with which ,nature has furnished it2 it darts with the utmost fury upon the most formidable moving bodies2 it attacks the whale2 and there are numerous and well-authenticated instances of ships being perforated by the weapon of this powerful creature4 ,in #agbe1 some carpenters having occasion to examine the bottom of a ship which had just returned from the tropical seas1 found the lance of a sword-fish buried deep in the timbers of the ship4 ,they declared that1 to drive a pointed bolt of iron of the same size and form to the same depth1 would require eight or nine blows of a hammer weighing thirty pounds4 ,from the position of the weapon it was evident that the fish had followed the ship while under full sail2 it had penetrated through the metal sheathing1 and three inches and a half beyond1 into the solid frame4 ,the sword-fish has obstinate combats with the saw-fish1 and even the shark1 and it is supposed that when he attacks the bottom of a vessel he takes that sombre mass for the body of an enemy4 ,but this terrible jouster1 this ,paladin of the abyss1 often becomes himself the prey of a most contemptible enemy4 ,a miserable little parasite1 the ,pennatula filesa1 penetrates its flesh1 and almost drives it mad with pain4 ,the flesh of the young sword-fish is white1 compact1 and of excellent taste2 that of adults resembles the tunny4 ,it is the object of a fishery of some importance in the ,straits of ,messina4 ,the fishermen of ,messina and ,reggio join in this fishery with a great number of boats1 carrying brilliant flambeaux1 while one of the crew is stationed at the mast-head to announce the approach of the sword-fish4 ,at a given signal the boats rush on to attack them with the harpoons 7,fig4 #cic74 ,during this fishery the sailors sing a peculiar melody1 but without words4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cic4 ,fishing for ,sword-fish in the ,straits of ,messina4 ,the family of ,pediculate ,pectorals is so named from the fishes of which it is composed bearing their pectoral fins on a species of arm which forms a prolongation of the carp bone2 it includes the ,frog-fish1 remarkable for the excessive circumference of the head and shoulders as compared with the rest of the body1 the immense opening of a jaw1 armed with pointed teeth1 and the cutaneous jagged stripes of various lengths with which it bristles at many points4 ,its skin is soft1 smooth1 and without scales or other asperities2 the members which support the pectorals1 and other peculiarities1 combine to render it a hideous and forbidding object1 well calculated in ignorant and superstitious times to frighten the multitude4 ,the remains of this fish1 prepared in such a manner as to be transparent1 and rendered luminous by a lamp enclosed in its interior1 has often helped to deceive and frighten the timid by its fantastic appearance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cid4 ,the ,frog-fish 7,lophius piscatorius74 ,the ,frog-fish1 ,lophius piscatorius--,linn4 7,fig4 #cid71 which attains the length of five or six feet1 lives in the sand1 or sunk in the mud1 leaving the long and movable filaments with which the head is furnished to float in the water2 the shreds which terminate them act as natural bait when they float about in different directions1 from their resemblance to worms and other living creatures4 ,the fishes which swim above them1 and which they see very well by the assistance of their two eyes placed on the summit of the head1 are attracted by these deceitful decoys4 ,when the prey arrives near to the enormous jaws1 which are almost always wide open1 it is engulfed and torn to pieces by its strongly-hooked teeth4 ,this manner of lying in ambush1 and fishing1 as it were1 with a hook and line for fishes which its conformation does not permit it to pursue1 has acquired for it the name of the frog-fish1 which is sometimes given to it4 ,it is found more or less in all parts of the ,mediterranean and in many parts of the ,atlantic1 being frequently taken both in the ,gulf of ,gascony and in the ,channel4 ,the family of ,labrid comprehends3 ,i4 ,the ,wrasse 7,labrus71 a genus of fishes decked in the most lively colours2 for the yellow1 green1 blue1 and red1 forming bands of spots1 give the body the appearance of being enriched with brilliant metallic reflections4 ,,ii4 ,the ,julis1 of ,risso1 the ,mediterranean species of which is remarkable for its fine violet colour1 relieved on each side by an orange band4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cie4 ,adult ,green and ,red varieties of ,labrus communis4 ,of the ,labrid we represent here1 as a type of the family1 the adult ,green and ,red ,labrus 7,fig4 #cie71 varieties of the commonest species1 called the sea-parrot1 the body of each being oblong1 clothed with large scales3 a dorsal fin1 frequently with membranous appendages1 thick fleshy lips1 and large conical teeth2 cheeks and gill-covers clothed with scales2 gill-covers smooth at the edges2 three spines in the anal fin4 ,in ,julis the cheeks and gill-covers are without scales2 in other respects they resemble ,labrus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cif4 ,the ,pipe-fish 7,fistularia tabacaria74 ,among the acanthopterygeous fishes we shall only notice the singular family of ,fistulariad1 or ,pipe-fishes1 so called from the extreme elongation of the fore part of the head1 forming a tube1 at the extremity of which is the mouth4 ,of this family1 ,fistularia tabacaria 7,fig4 #cif7 may be considered the type4 ,the tube of the muzzle is long and flat1 and from the caudal fin springs a terminal filament nearly as long as the body4 ,this species of pipe-fish is common at the ,antilles2 it attains the length of about three feet1 but its flesh is leathery and insipid4 ,it feeds upon crustaceans and small fishes1 which it drags from the interstices of the rocks and stones by means of its long and taper pipe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we close our abbreviated history of the ,ocean and such of the inhabitants with which it swarms as seems most likely1 from their habits and other peculiarities1 to interest the readers1 conscious of its many imperfections4 ,where every creature which moves and breathes in the watery world is so full of interest1 it will not surprise the reader to learn that one of the editor's chief difficulties has been that of selection1 his most painful task that of rejecting the vast mass of interesting matter he had necessarily to pass in review4 ,we have shown in the first chapter of this work that nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth is bathed by the sea4 ,struck with this vast extent of ocean1 a witty ,french writer says1 ,one is almost tempted to believe that our planet was specially created for fishes4 ,they are1 indeed1 a very important part of creation2 they form1 as it were1 a bond uniting the vertebrate to invertebrate animals4 ,they have a more complicated organization than any of the other oceanic inhabitants 7except the ,cetace71 as they are also the most numerous1 the most varied in form1 and by far the most brilliant in colour1 and the most active in their movements4 ,pliny1 the naturalist1 describes ninety-four species of fishes4 ,linnus has characterised four hundred and seventy-eight4 ,the naturalists of the present day know upwards of thirteen thousand1 a tenth of which are fresh-water fishes4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ag3 ,lieutenant and ,commander1 by ,captain ,basil ,hall4 ,bell ,daldy1 ,london4 ,,index4 ,abdominales1 #efj4 ,acaleph1 or ,sea ,nettles1 #aie4 ,acanthopterygians1 #eij4 ,acclimatizing sponges1 #hj4 ,acephalous ,mollusca1 #caf4 ,acetabuliferous ,cephalopods1 #ddh4 ,achatina zebra1 #dji4 ,actiniaria1 #aha4 ---- dianthus1 #ahi4 querea violacea1 #aih4 ,agalma rubra1 #bci4 ,its graceful appearance1 ib4 ,its interior1 #bdj4 ,alcyonaria1 #aai4 ---- proper1 #add4 ,alcyonium digitatum1 #add1 #aea4 ,allice ,shad1 #ehd4 ,alternate generation in the ,biphora1 #cae4 ,alveolina oblonga1 #ie4 ,ambulacral appendages1 #bfc4 ,amoeb diffluens1 #hf4 ---- princeps1 #hf4 ,ammodytes lancea1 #ecg4 ,anabas1 #eif4 ,analysis of sea water1 #ae1 #ah4 ,anatomy of the ,carp1 #ejd4 ,anchovy 7,engraulis71 #ehi4 ,ancient trilobite1 #ddh4 ,animalcules1 their action1 #aj4 ,antarctic ,ocean1 #c4 ,discoveries1 #dd1 #ej4 ,antipathid1 #adh1 #adi4 ,apiocrinus pentacrinus1 #bga4 ,aplysia depilans1 shell and animal1 #cic4 ,apoda1 #ecf4 ,apolemia contorta1 #bda4 ,parts magnified1 #bdb4 ,aporous ,madrepores1 #aej4 ,appearance of the sea1 #fj4 ,aquarium1 the1 #ff4 ,arctic ,ocean1 #i4 ,argonauta1 fables concerning it1 #dfg4 ,aristotle's description1 ib4 ,oppian's description1 #dfh4 ,his mistakes1 ib4 ,rumphius1 #dfi4 ,real history1 #dgj4 ,madame ,power's experiments1 ib4 ,locomotive organs1 #dga4 ,argonauta argo1 shell and animal1 #dfi4 ---- papyracea1 animal and shell1 #dga4 ,aristotle's ,lantern1 #bhg1 #bhi4 ,ascidia microcosmus1 #caj4 ---- pedunculata1 #caa4 ,ascidians1 simple1 social1 and composite1 #caj4 ,aspergillum vaginiferum1 #cca4 ,asteracanthion glacialis1 #bfd4 ,asterias1 #bfj4 ---- aurantiaca1 #bfc4 ---- rubens1 #bfa4 ,asterophyton verrucosum1 #bgi4 ,astrea punctifera1 #aee4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 #b4 ,atmospheric currents1 #bi4 ,atolls and ,atollons1 #aff4 ,aurelia aurita1 #aii4 ,azoic rocks1 #fa4 ,bacterium termo1 #ajh4 ,baffin's ,bay discovered1 #dd4 ,baltic ,sea1 #f4 ,barentz's discoveries1 #dd4 ,barren reefs1 #agc4 ,beale's adventure with a ,cuttle-fish1 #deb4 ,bed of coral1 #abh4 ,behring's ,straits1 #dd4 ,bere ,forskahli1 #bee4 ,berthelot's representation of the capture of a ,cephalopod1 #dfb4 ,biphora1 #cac4 ,birth of coralline larv1 #acc4 ,bivalves1 how united1 #cah4 ,blue minyade1 #aic4 ,bonitas1 #eie1 #fjb4 ,bonpland's account of the ,electrical ,eel1 #eci4 ,boring ,pholades1 #cbf4 ,botrillus1 #caa4 ,branch of ,virgularia magnified1 #adc4 ,branchial infusoria1 #ajg4 ,breathing in ,molluscs1 #cje4 ,brooke's sounding apparatus1 #e4 ,bryozoare ,polyps1 #acd4 ,their organization1 #cje4 ,buccinum senticosum1 and ,b4 undatum1 #dcc4 ,bulimus sultanus1 #djh4 ,bulla ampulla1 ,b4 oblonga1 and ,b4 nebulosa1 #cid4 ,cabot's discoveries1 #dc1 #eed4 ,calmar1 the1 #deh4 ,callianira1 #beg4 ,campanulari1 #bbh4 ,cancale ,oysters1 #cfh4 ,cape ,horn1 #b4 ---- ,race1 #h4 ,carcharius vulgaris 7the ,shark71 #eag4 ,its description1 ib4 ,destructive habits1 #eah4 ,immense power1 #eai4 ,its flesh coarse1 #eba4 ,superstitious devotions to1 #eba1 #ebb4 ,cardium hians1 and ,c4 ,greenlandicum1 #ccg4 ---- aculeatum and ,c4 edulis1 #ccg4 ---- costatum1 #cch4 ,carnivorous ,cephalopods1 #ded4 ,cartilaginous fishes1 #ejh4 ,caryophillia cyathus1 #aea4 ,cassidulina1 #ib4 ,cassiopea ,andromeda1 #bbb4 ,cassis glauca1 ,c4 rufa1 ,c4 canaliculata1 and ,c4 ,madagascariensis1 #dbi4 ---- undata1 #dcj4 ,cat-fish1 #eia4 ,celebrated ,oyster eaters1 #cgj4 ,cephalopodous ,mollusca1 #dde4 ,cephalous ,mollusca1 #cia4 ,cerithium fasciatum1 ,c4 aluco1 and ,c4 giganteum1 #dai4 ,cestid1 #beh4 ,chancellor's discoveries1 #dc4 ,chart of the ,atlantic1 #g4 ,charybdis1 whirlpool of1 #db4 ,chimra arctica1 #ebd4 ,chiton magnificus1 #daj4 ,chrysaora ,gaudichaudi1 #bah4 ,ciliate ,infusoria1 #aaa4 ,circulating tubes in the ,coral1 #aca4 ,circulation of the ocean1 #bc4 ,cirrotheutis ,mlleri1 #dff4 ,classic feast on the ,corniche du ,prado1 at ,marseilles1 #bia4 ,cleodara cuspidata1 #ddd4 ---- lanceolata and ,c4 compressa1 #ddd4 ,clupead1 #ege4 ,clypeaster rosaceus1 #bhg4 ,cocos ,island1 #agj1 #agb4 ,cod curing1 #eef4 ---- fish 7,morrhua callarias71 #eec4 ---- fisheries1 #eed4 ,coffres 7,ostracion71 #ecc4 ,colour of the sea1 #aa4 ,local causes of1 #ac4 ,effects of animalcules1 ib4 ,alg of rivers1 #ad4 ,comatul1 #bge4 ,comatula ,mediterranea1 #bge4 ,complicated organization of a polyp1 #acg4 ,condylostoma patens1 #aac4 ,conger ,eels 7,anguilla conger71 #edc4 ,contents of a drop of water1 #ig4 ,conus1 principal forms of1 #dbf4 ,cook's discoveries1 #dd1 #ej4 ,coral and living polyps1 #abi4 ---- fisheries1 #acg4 ---- islands1 #ba4 ,coralline spicula1 #acj4 ,corallines1 #aai4 ,cornularia cornucopia1 #add4 ,corpuscles from which young polyps emanate1 #acf4 ,corystes ,cassivelaunus1 male1 #dhi4 ,female1 #dij4 ,cothurnia pyxidiformis1 #aab4 ,crabs1 their habits1 mode of attacking cocoa-nuts1 #dhd4 ,travelling ,crabs1 #dhe4 ,propagation1 #dhf4 ,cramp-fish 7,torpedo marmorata71 #ead4 ,crinodea1 #bgj4 ,cruelty to ,oysters1 #cgb4 ,crustaceans1 #dgg4 ,their organization1 #dgh4 ,breathing apparatus1 #dha4 ,destructive habits1 #dhb4 ,crystatella mucedo1 #cjg4 ,ctenophora1 #aih1 #bed4 ,cultivation of ,oysters1 #cge4 ,currents of the ocean1 their causes1 #bc1 #bg1 #bh4 ,bifurcation of currents1 #cc4 ,cuttle-fish1 #ddi4 ,described1 #dee4 ,its pigments1 #def4 ,habits1 #deg4 ,cyclones1 #cb4 ,cyclopteris1 #edd4 ,cyclostoma1 #ejh4 ,cydippa pilens1 #beg4 ,cypra1 principal forms of1 #dbj4 ---- capensis1 ,c4 testudinaria1 ,c4 nucleus1 and ,c4 pantherina1 #dbc4 ---- coccinella1 #dba4 ---- tigris and animal1 ib4 ---- undata1 ,c4 zigzag1 ,c4 moneta1 and ,c4 ,madagascariensis1 #dbb4 ,cytherea1 principal forms of1 #cce4 ---- geographica1 ib4 ,dab 7,platessa limanda71 #eej4 ,dactylopora cylindracea1 #ie4 ,darwin's observations at ,terra del ,fuego1 #afg4 ---- theory of coral islands1 #ba4 ---- theory of subsidence1 #agj4 ,daughter of the sea1 #acg4 ,davis's discoveries1 #dc4 ,dead men's fingers1 #add4 ,death in the ocean1 #fb4 ,decapoda1 their organization1 #dfd4 ,decomposition of ,infusoria1 #ig4 ,de ,haven's search for ,franklin1 #eh4 ,delphinula sphrula1 #dag4 ,dendrophylla ramea1 #afj4 ,magnified1 #afa4 ,density of salt water1 #af4 ,dentalina communis1 #ib4 ,depth of the sea1 #a4 ,depths of oceanic storms1 #fc4 ,diodon pilosus1 #ecb4 ,diphyd1 #bdb4 ,disaster of the ,san ,francisco1 #cb4 ,discobolid1 #edd4 ,discophora1 #aih4 ,distribution of land and water1 #a4 ,dog-fish 7,acanthias vulgaris71 #ebb4 ,donax trunculus1 #cbj4 ---- rugosus and ,d4 denticulatus1 #ccc4 ,dredge employed in ,oyster fishing1 #cge4 ,dujardin's discoveries1 #he4 ,d',urville's voyages1 #dd1 #ea4 ,adelia's ,land1 #ec4 ,dykes of ,holland undermined1 #cbb4 ,early animal life1 #fa4 ,echineis remora1 #edd1 #ede4 ,echinodermata1 #bei4 ,echinoid1 #bhj4 ,armament1 ib4 ,skeleton and masticating apparatus1 #bhh4 ,echinus esculentus1 #bhd4 ---- mamillatus1 without spines1 #bhb4 ---- ---- with spines1 #bha4 ,edible ,snails1 #dje4 ,edwardsia calimorpha1 #aia4 ,effects of hurricanes1 #dj4 ,eggs of ,sepia officinalis1 #deg4 ,electrical ,eel1 #ecg4 ,electrical properties of the ,cramp-fish1 #ead4 ,organs described1 #eah4 ,eledone moschatus1 its habits1 #dfe4 ,encrinites1 or ,stone-lilies1 #bgj4 ,encrinus liliformis1 #bga4 ,enderby's ,land1 #dd4 ,equinoctial currents1 #cj4 ,eschara1 #cjg4 ,esocid1 #ega4 ,euglenia viridis1 #aaa4 ,european pentacrinus1 #bgc4 ,euryalina1 #bgi4 ,evaporation1 #ag4 ,its effects on the sea1 #ah4 ,exocoetus exiliens1 #egc4 ,expanding ,coral1 #ace4 ,experiments on the ,physalia1 #bdi4 ,exuberance of life in the ocean1 #fb4 ,fabularia discolithes1 #ie4 ,falkland ,islands1 #afe4 ,fan ,gorgon1 magnified1 #abb4 ,faujasina1 #ia4 ,file-fish 7,balistes71 #ecb4 ,first ,oyster-eater1 #cfi4 ,fishes1 their organization1 #ejb4 ,locomotive apparatus1 ib4 ,swimming bladder1 #ejc4 ,breathing apparatus1 #eje4 ,sight1 ib4 ,propagation1 #ejg4 ,classification1 #ejh4 ,fish's eye1 #eje4 ---- teeth1 #ejf4 ,fishing for ,coral1 #acg4 ---- -- ,electrical ,eels with horses1 #eci4 ---- -- ,halibut1 #eea4 ---- -- ,sponges1 #gh4 ,flabellum pavoninum1 #aec4 ,flat fishes1 their organization1 #edf4 ,special properties1 ib4 ,flight of the ,flying-fish1 #egc4 ,flounders 7,platessa flessus71 #edi4 ,flustra foliacea1 #cjh4 ,flux of the waves1 #cg4 ,flying-fish1 #ega1 #egc4 ---- ,gurnard1 #eie4 ,fog-banks1 #bf4 ,foraminifera1 #hg4 ,franklin's discoveries1 #dg4 ,fringing reefs1 #agd1 #age4 ,frog-fish 7,lophius71 #fje4 ,fungia agariciformis1 #aei4 ---- echinata1 #aeh4 ,fusus proboscidiferus1 ,f4 pagodus1 and ,f4 colus1 #dcf4 ,gadid1 #eeb4 ,galeolaria aurantiaca1 #bdd4 ,gathering of the waters1 #aa4 ,generation of ,star-fishes1 #bfg4 ,geographical distribution of ,oysters1 #cfh4 ,gigantic ,cephalopod stranded on the coast of ,jutland1 #dfa4 ,globe-fish1 #ecj4 ,gorgonia flabellum1 #aba4 ---- verticellata1 #abc4 ,gorgonid1 #aba4 ,gosse's description of the ,sea-urchin1 #bhb4 ,gulf of ,mexico1 #i4 ---- ,stream1 #cb4 ,gurnards 7,trigla71 #eid4 ,gymnotus1 its electrical properties1 #ech4 ,effect of its shock1 #edj4 ,haddock 7,morrhua glefinus71 #eei4 ,halibut1 #eea4 ,hammerhead 7,zygna malleus71 #ebc4 ---- mollusc1 #ceb4 ,harpa imperialis1 and ,h4 articularis1 #dcd4 ---- ventricosa1 #dcc4 ,harpooning ,holothuria1 #bie4 ,helix citrina1 and ,h4 ,stuartia1 #djh4 ,hermit ,crab1 #dib4 ,herring1 the1 #ege4 ,fisheries1 #egf4 ,habits1 #egg4 ,scotch fisheries1 ib4 ,dutch fisheries1 #egh4 ,a night at the herring fishery1 #ehj4 ,norwegian fisheries1 #ehb4 ,holothuria lutea1 #bic4 ---- fishery1 #bie4 ,humboldt's researches1 #ech4 ,hyalea gibbosa1 and ,h4 longirostris1 #ddc4 ,indian ,ocean1 #b4 ,industrial occupation on the sea-shore1 #fe4 ,inequalities of the sea-basin1 #i4 ,infusoria1 #ig4 ,their numbers1 ib4 ,in the ,ganges1 ib4 ,species1 ib4 ,in blocks of ice1 #ih4 ,reproduction1 #ajc4 ,infusorial parasites1 #aje4 ,isis corollodis1 #abd4 ---- hippuris1 #abe4 ,jan ,mayen's ,island1 #dd4 ,kane's1 ,dr41 discoveries1 #be1 #di4 ,kerguelen ,island1 #dd4 ,kraken1 marvellous stories concerning1 #dfj4 ,labrid1 #fjf4 ,labrus communis1 ib4 ,labyrinthiform ,pharyngeans1 #eif4 ,land and water1 #a4 ,legend of the first mussel-fisher1 #cdg4 ---- ---- ,sea-urchin1 #bhb4 ,life in the ocean1 #fj4 ,limax rufus1 #djj4 ,limpets1 #daj4 ,lobsters1 #dif4 ,loligo vulgaris1 and ,l4 ,gahi1 #dei4 ,lophius piscatorius1 #fje4 ,lophobranchii1 #ecd4 ,luidia fragillissima1 #bfi4 ,lumbricus terrestris1 #aad4 ,lump-fish 7,cyclopteris71 #ecg4 ---- ---- 7,raia clavata71 #ejc4 ,lunar tides1 #ce4 ,lymnea stagnalis1 #cig4 ,lymneans1 #cig4 ,their habits1 ib4 ,organization1 #cih4 ,mackerel1 #eii4 ,do they migrate8 #fjj4 ,m',clintock's discoveries1 #dh4 ,m',clure's discoveries1 ib4 ,madreporid1 #aei4 ,madrepora plantaginea1 #afb4 ,madrague1 a combination of nets1 #eig4 ,maelstrm whirlpool1 #db4 ,malacopterygii1 #ecf4 ,malleus alba1 #ceb4 ---- vulgaris1 ib4 ,mantle in ,molluscs1 its uses1 #cai4 ,marenna ,oysters1 #cfh4 ,masticating apparatus1 #bhh4 ,mean depth of the sea1 #a-c4 ,meandrina cerebriformis1 #aef4 ,mediterranean ,sea1 #f4 ,medusad1 #aie1 #bac4 ,medway ,oyster-beds1 #cfh4 ,meleagrina margaritifera1 #cec4 ,metamorphoses in ,infusoria1 #ajf4 ,microscopic forms of life1 #fb4 ,millepora alcicornis1 #afd4 ,milne ,edwards's study1 #fe4 ,minyadinians1 #aic4 ,mitra episcopalis and ,m4 papalis1 #dbe4 ,molluscoda1 #cjc4 ,organization1 #cjd4 ,generation1 #cje4 ,mollusca1 #cja4 ,their characteristics1 #cae4 ,monade ,lentille1 #aji4 ,monodonta ,australis1 and ,m4 labia1 #daf4 ,monsoons1 #cc4 ,montfort1 ,denis de1 on the ,kraken1 #dfj4 ,moon-fish 7,orthogoriscus mola71 #ecj4 ,mounts ,erebus and ,terror1 #ee4 ,mullet 7,mullus71 #eia4 ,a ,roman luxury1 #eib4 ,murna1 #eda4 ---- ponds1 a passion with ,roman patricians1 #edb4 ,murex scorpio1 and ,m4 erinaceus1 #dce4 ---- tenuispina1 and ,m4 haustellum1 #dcd4 ,muschelkalk rocks1 #bgb4 ,mussels1 #cdd4 ,organization of1 #cde4 ,habits1 ib4 ,localities1 #cdf4 ,mussels of ,aiguillon ,bay1 #cdg4 ,mussel-piles in ,aiguillon ,bay1 #cdi4 ---- ---- with basket-work1 ib4 ---- punt of ,aiguillon1 #cdh4 ,mutilation of ,infusoria1 #ajg4 ,mytylus edulus1 #cdd4 ,nacre1 its composition1 #cec4 ,nadir points1 #cf4 ,nautilus pompilius1 section with animal and without1 #ddf4 ,nephtys1 #ade4 ,new ,caledonia1 #agd4 ,noctiluca miliaris1 #if4 ,nummulites1 #ic4 ,nummulitis lenticularis1 #ib4 ---- ,rouaulti1 #id4 ,occulina flabelliformis1 #aec4 ,octopus brevisses1 and ,o4 horridus1 #dfd4 ---- macropus1 ib4 ---- vulgaris1 #dfc4 ,olas ,magnus on the ,kraken1 #dfj4 ,oldhamia1 #fa4 ,oliva erythrostoma1 ,o4 porphyria1 ,o4 irisans1 and ,o4 ,peruviana1 #dbh4 ,operculina1 #ib4 ,ophiocoma ,russei1 #bgh4 ,ophiurad1 #bgg4 ,organization of ,foraminifer1 #if4 ---- -- ,infusoria1 #ajj4 ---- -- ,sponges1 #ha4 ---- -- ,star-fishes1 #bfj4 ,ossei1 or ,bony fishes1 #ebi4 ,ostend ,oysters1 #cfh4 ,ostread 7the ,oyster71 #cfb4 ,oyster 7,ostrea71 #cfb4 ,its organization1 ib4 ,reproduction1 #cfe4 ,incubation1 ib4 ,oyster beds of ,france1 #cgh4 ---- beds on ,lake ,fusaro1 #cgf1 #cgh4 ---- claires of ,marennes1 #chj4 ---- cultivation1 #cge4 ---- eaters1 #cgj4 ---- farms at ,whitstable1 #chc4 ---- fishing1 #cgd4 ---- of different ages1 #cff4 ---- packing system1 #cgh4 ,ovulum oviformis1 and ,o4 cornea1 #dbd4 ---- volva1 #dbe4 ,pacific ,ocean1 #c4 ,pagurus ,bernhardus1 #dib4 ,palinurus vulgaris1 #dhg4 ,pallas on ,alcyonia1 #ade4 ,pandore ,oyster beds1 #chd4 ,paramecium aurelia and its parasites1 #aje4 ---- ,bursaria1 #aab4 ,parr1 or young ,salmon1 #efc4 ,parry's discoveries1 #df4 ,patella crulea1 ,p4 umbella1 #daa4 ,p4 granatina1 and ,p4 barbata1 #dab4 ---- longicosta1 ib4 ,paulin's submarine apparatus1 #fe4 ,pearl fisheries1 #bee4 ,value of1 #beg4 ---- ,oyster1 #bec4 ,pearly ,nautilus1 #ddg4 ,pecten glaber1 #chf4 ---- ,japonica1 #chg4 ---- opercularis1 ib4 ---- plica1 ib4 ---- pseudamussium1 #chf4 ,pectenid1 #che4 ,pelagia noctiluca1 #bjj4 ,pelagic plants and animals1 #fa4 ---- rivers1 #cj4 ,pennatula spinosa1 #ada4 ,pennatulid1 #aci4 ,pentacrinus1 #bga4 ---- caput ,medus1 #bgb4 ---- ,europus1 #bgc4 ---- fasciculosus1 #bga4 ,pectunculatis aureflua1 #cdb4 ---- delessertii1 ib4 ---- pectiniformis1 #cdc4 ---- scriptus1 ib4 ,perforated madrepores1 #aej4 ,peyssonnel's discoveries1 #abf4 ,phallusia grossularia1 #caj4 ,pholades1 or borers1 #cbh4 ,pholas crispata1 #cbi4 ---- papyracea1 and ,p4 melanoura1 ib4 ,phosphorescence of the sea1 #ab4 ,causes of1 #ac4 ,phosphorescent chain of ,salp1 #cae4 ,phyllactis prtexta1 #aib4 ,physa castanea1 #cii4 ,physalia1 #bdd4 ,its poisonous properties1 #bdh4 ,physical properties of water1 #bd4 ,physophora hydrostatica1 #bcd4 ,pilchards1 #ehe4 ,cornwall huers1 the pilchard fishery1 #ehf4 ,pinna bullata and ,p4 nobilis1 #cfb4 ---- rudis and ,p4 nigrina1 #cfa4 ,pinnoctopus corolliformis1 #dff4 ,pintadine pearls1 #cec4 ,pipe-fish 7,syngnathus71 #ecd4 ,pipe-fishes 7,fistularia71 #fjg4 ,plaice 7,platessa vulgaris71 #edi4 ,planorbis corneus1 #cih4 ,pleuronectid1 #edf4 ,plumatella cristallina1 #cjf4 ,polar seas1 #dc4 ,expeditions to1 ib4 ,polyp and branch1 #aca4 ,polypidom1 #add4 ---- and ,polypi defined1 #aaf4 ,polypifera1 #aaf4 ,polypiferous crust in ,gorgons1 #adi4 ,pomotouan ,archipelago1 #afi4 ,porites1 #afb4 ---- astrodes1 #adg4 ---- furcata1 #afc4 ,porpita pacifica1 #bcc4 ,porpit1 #bcb4 ,portion of the disk of ,physophora hydrostatica1 #bcf4 ,portunus variegatus1 #dhh4 ,poulpe3 ,marvellous stories of the ancients concerning1 #dfj4 ,mandibles preserved in the ,college of ,surgeons1 #dfa4 ,praya diphys1 #bdc4 ,primitive generation1 #ajf4 ,principal forms of ,anodon1 #cdj4 ---- species of ,sea-anemones1 #ahg4 ,propagation of ,infusoria1 #ajd4 ---- of ,sea-urchins1 #bij4 ,protozoa1 #ga4 ,leuwenhoek's discoveries1 ib4 ,pteroceras1 their origin1 #dci4 ---- chiragra1 and ,p4 lambis1 #ddj4 ---- scorpio1 and ,p4 millepeda1 #dci4 ,pteropoda1 #dda4 ,the organization1 wings1 or flappers1 ib4 ,pulmonary ,gasteropods1 #cif1 #dji4 ,pupa uva1 #dji4 ,pure water1 #ae4 ,purpura1 its reputation with the ancients1 #dca4 ---- consul1 #dcb4 ---- lapillus and patula1 #dcb4 ,pyrosoma1 #cab4 ,raiad1 #eaj4 ,rarefaction in ,polar seas1 #ei4 ,rataria1 #bcb4 ,ravages of the ,teredo1 #cba4 ,ray-fish1 #eac4 ,recuperative powers of ,holothuria1 #bic4 ,red ,sea ,corals1 #age4 ,reflux of tides1 #ce4 ,reign of law1 #fa4 ,rhizopods1 #hc4 ,rhizostoma ,aldrovandi1 #bba4 ---- ,cuvieri1 #bbj4 ,rock covered with young ,coral ,polyps1 #ace4 ,roman indifference to life1 #edb4 ,rose aurelia1 #bbe4 ,ross's 7,sir ,james7 discoveries1 #dd1 #de1 #ea4 ,rotation of the earth1 #cf4 ,rotella ,zealandica1 #daf4 ,rudimentary forms of life1 #fa4 ,rugous madrepores1 #adh4 ,sagartia viduata1 #ahi4 ,salmonid1 #efa4 ,salmon leaps1 #efe4 ,falls of ,kilmorack1 ib4 ,anecdote of ,lord ,lovat1 #eff4 ,salpa maxima1 #cad4 ,saltness of the sea1 #af4 ,its source1 #ba4 ,salt water at the ,poles1 #ai4 ,at the ,equator1 ib4 ,salt-water lakes1 #af4 ,sarcoda1 #ajj4 ,sargasso ,sea1 #ca4 ,saw-fish1 #ebd4 ,scallop-shell1 #che4 ,scomberodes1 #eif4 ,scoresby's account of the ,polar seas1 #ef4 ,scottish pearls1 #cda4 ,scylla and ,charybdis1 #db4 ,sea ,anemone1 #ahb4 ,organization1 #ahc4 ,toxicological properties1 #ahf4 ---- ,cucumber1 #bia4 ---- ,eel 7,murna ,helena71 #edb4 ---- ,eggs1 #bia4 ---- ,horse 7,hippocampus71 #ece4 ---- ,lampreys1 #eji4 ---- ,level1 #aj4 ---- ,mussels1 #cdd4 ---- ,nettles1 #aie4 ---- ,palm1 #bgb4 ---- ,pen1 #aci-add4 ---- ,slug1 #djg4 ---- ,snail 7,liparis71 #edd4 ---- ,urchins1 #bha4 ---- water1 its components1 #ae4 ,section of a ,coral branch1 #acb4 ---- of ,atlantic ,telegraph1 #h4 ,seine ,net1 #ehh4 ,selachians1 #eaj4 ,sepia 7,cuttle-fish71 #ddi4 ,its suckers1 ib4 ---- officinalis1 #dee4 ---- tuberculosa1 and bone of ,s4 officinalis1 #def4 ,sertulariad1 #baa4 ,shad1 the 7,alosa71 #ehd4 ,shallow water1 its temperature1 #be4 ,shark 7,carcharius vulgaris71 #eag4 ,shark-fishing1 #ebj4 ,shell of the ,mollusca1 #caf4 ,is it a skeleton8 #cag4 ,how built up1 #cah4 ,shell of the ,strombus1 #dch4 ,ship-worm and its ravages1 #cba4 ,its organization1 #cbb4 ,reproduction1 #cbd4 ,its boring hood1 #cbf4 ,siderolites calcitrapoides1 #id4 ,silver in the sea1 #ba4 ,siphonophora1 #bbh4 ,skeleton ,echinus1 #bhh4 ,skeleton of the ,perch1 #ejc4 ,smolt1 #efd4 ,snails3 form and characteristics1 #dja4 ,their organization1 #djb4 ,breathing1 ib4 ,circulation1 ib4 ,sight1 #djc4 ,reproduction1 ib4 ,shell1 ib4 ,their reputation with the ,classics1 #djd4 ,solarium perspecticum1 and ,s4 variegatum1 #dah4 ,solar-lunar tides1 #cg4 ,soles 7,solea vulgaris71 #edg4 ,sophonophora1 #aih4 ,spearing ,halibut1 #eea4 ,spey ,salmon1 #efh4 ,spherical form of the earth1 #aj4 ,spiroloculina1 #ib4 ,spondylus1 various1 #chg4 ,spongia1 half natural size1 #ge4 ,spongia1 #hb4 ,their generation1 ib4 ,organization1 #gd4 ,localities1 ib4 ,varieties of1 #hj4 ,spontaneous division of ,infusoria1 #ajd4 ---- generation1 #aje4 ,squalid1 #eag4 ,star-corals 7,astrea71 #aee4 ,star-fishes1 #bfj4 ,their metamorphoses1 #bfg4 ,dismemberment1 #bfh4 ,suicidal propensities1 ib4 ---- and ,oysters1 #bff4 ,stentor ,mlleri1 #aad4 ,stinging apparatus of ,physophora hydrostatica1 #bch4 ---- tentacles of ,physalia1 #bdg4 ,stomach of ,infusoria1 #ajb4 ,stomia boa1 #ega4 ,strombus gigas1 shell and animal1 #dcg4 ,stone lilies1 #bgf4 ,stormontfield fish-ponds1 #efc4 ,straits of ,gibraltar1 #cd4 ,sturgeon 7,acipenser sturio71 #ebf4 ---- fishing in the ,volga1 #ebg4 ,sturiona1 #ebd4 ,stylaster flabelliformis1 #aed4 ,sub-branchiata1 #edd4 ,submarine currents1 #cc4 ,subsidence1 theory of coral islands1 #agh4 ,suckers1 or ,star-fishes1 #bfd4 ,suicidal tendency of ,star-fishes1 #bfi4 ,surbinolia1 #adh4 ,swimming bladder1 #ejc4 ,sword-fish 7,xiphias71 #fjb4 ,warlike habits1 #fjc4 ,fishing1 ib4 ,symphynota1 #cee4 ,synapta duvernea1 #bii4 ,succinea putris1 #dji4 ,tabulate madrepores1 #afc4 ,teeth of the ,bream1 #ejf4 ----- ---- ,carp1 ib4 ----- ---- ,gold-fish1 #ejg4 ----- ---- ,trout1 ib4 ,tellina radiata1 #ccd4 ------ sulphurea1 and ,t4 donacina1 ib4 ------ virgata1 ib4 ,temperature of the sea1 #bd4 ,tentacles of ,molluscs1 #cjb4 ,tentaculiferous ,cephalopods1 #dde4 ,their suckers 7,acetabula71 ib4 ,teredo navalis1 its ravages1 #cbb1 #cbe4 ,testacella haliotidea1 #dja4 ,textilaria1 #ib4 ,thalassianthid1 #aia4 ,thames ,oyster beds1 #cfh4 ,thermal lines of sea temperature1 #bc4 ,thynnus pelamys 7the ,bonita71 #eif1 #fjb4 ,tidal wave1 #ci4 ,its height in different seas1 #dj4 ,of the ,atlantic1 #be4 ,tides1 #ce4 ,torpedo marmorata1 #ead4 ,trachinus communis1 #eij4 ,trade-winds1 their origin1 #cj4 ,trembley's discoveries1 #gb4 ,tridacna gigas1 #cch4 ---- squamosa1 #cci4 ,triton variegatum1 ,t4 lotorium1 and ,t4 anus1 #dce4 ,trochus inermis1 ,t4 ,cookii1 and ,t4 imbricatus1 #dad4 ---- niloticus1 and4 ,t4 virgatus1 #dad4 ---- stellaris1 #dag4 ,tubelarid1 #bbf4 ,tubiporin1 #abj4 ,tubipora musica1 ib4 ,tubulous madrepores1 #aej4 ,tunicata1 #cji4 ,tunny fish 7,thynnus71 #eif4 ----- fishing1 #eig4 ----- net1 ib4 ,turbo imperialis1 #daf4 ----- margaritaceus and ,t4 argyrostomus1 #dae4 ----- undulatus1 #dae4 ,turbot 7,rhombus71 #edh4 ,ultima ,thule1 #dc4 ,umbellularia ,greenlandica1 #adc4 ,unio littoralis1 #cdj2 and ,u4 pictorum1 #cda4 ,uranoscopus vulgaris1 #eib4 ,urbulina universa1 #ib4 ,uses of salt in the sea1 #bc4 ,vastness of the oceanic fields of observation1 #fd4 ,vegetable life1 ib4 ,venus verrucosa1 #cce4 ,veretillum cynomorium1 #add4 ,vetrina fasciata1 #dji4 ,vibracule in molluscs1 #cja4 ,vibrioni baguetta1 #ajh4 ,vilellad1 #bbi4 ---- limbosa1 ib4 ,virgularia1 #adb4 ---- mirabilis1 ib4 ,volvox globator1 #aja4 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,,galpin',s ,illustrated1 ,fine ,art1 and ,educational ,,publications4 sop's ,fables4 ,a ,new and carefully revised ,version of these ,fables4 ,profusely ,illustrated with ,original ,drawings by ,,ernest ,,griset4 ,cloth gilt1 gilt edges1 #bas4 ,after ,ophir4 ,adventures in ,eastern ,africa4 ,by ,captain ,a4 ,,lindley4 ,fcap4 #dto1 ,illustrated with about ,sixty ,engravings1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,appropriation of the ,railways by the ,state4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,,williams1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,people's ,edition1 price #as4 ,arithmetic for the ,young1 with numerous ,illustrations and ,examples4 #ahd pages4 ,cloth limp1 #as4 ,arms and ,armour1 in ,antiquity and the ,middle ,ages2 also a ,descriptive ,notice of ,modern ,weapons4 ,translated from the ,french of ,m4 ,p4 ,,lacombe by ,,charles ,,boutell1 ,m4,a4 ,cloth1 gilt top1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,atlases3-- ,cassell's ,sixpenny ,preparatory ,atlas1 with ,sixteen ,coloured ,maps4 ,cassell's ,sixpenny ,elementary ,atlas1 with ,sixteen ,coloured ,maps4 ,cassell's 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,book-,keeping for ,schools4 ,the ,english ,system4 ,by ,,theodore ,,jones4 #bs42 cloth1 #cs4 ,,key #bs42 cloth1 #cs4 ,books for ,jones's ,systems1 ,ruled ,sets of4 #bs4 ,book ,of ,birds1 ,the4 ,translated from the text of ,dr4 ,,brehm1 by ,professor ,,rymer ,,jones1 ,f4,r4,s41 with upwards of ,four ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood1 and numerous ,full-page ,plates1 printed in ,colours1 from designs by ,f4 ,w4 ,,keyl4 ,vol4 ,i4 complete in itself1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d42 full gilt1 gilt edges1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,book of ,martyrs4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,bramley-,,moore1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated with full-page ,designs by the best ,artists4 ,imperial #hvo1 cloth1 #abs42 bound in full gilt cloth1 gilt edges1 #aes4 ,brewer's ,series of ,first ,books4 ,price #f;d4 each4 ,reading and ,spelling4 ,bible ,history4 ,history of ,england ,geography4 ,science4 ,common ,things4 ,french ,history4 ,astronomy4 ,chemistry4 ,facts and ,discoveries4 ,grecian ,history4 ,the ,history of ,rome4 ,brewer's ,guide to ,every-,day ,knowledge4 #bs4 #f;d4 ------ ,the ,young ,tutor4 ,first ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 ------ ,ditto4 ,second ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,british ,army1 ,the ,history of the3 its ,origin1 ,equipment1 and ,progress4 ,by ,sir ,,sibbald ,,david ,,scott1 ,bart4 ,dedicated1 by special permission1 to the ,queen4 ,one ,hundred ,illustrations4 ,two ,volumes1 bound in cloth1 #b #bs4 ,british ,museum1 a ,handy-book of the1 with upwards of #aej ,illustrations of the most interesting ,subjects1 and full ,historical and ,descriptive ,letterpress by ,t4 ,,nichols1 a ,senior ,assistant in the ,principal ,librarian's ,office1 ,british ,museum4 ,demy #hvo1 #djj pages1 cloth1 lettered1 #bas4 ,cassell's ,magazine4 ,vol4 ,i41 ,new ,series1 containing ,man and ,wife1 by ,,wilkie ,,collins1 complete4 #fjj pages4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,chefs-d'oeuvre of the ,industrial ,arts4 ,by ,philippe ,burty4 ,edited by ,w4 ,chaffers1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,demy #hvo1 #bjj ,plates1 cloth1 lettered1 #afs42 extra cloth gilt1 #a #as4 ,chemistry1 ,elementary4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,m4 ,,hart1 ,m4,a4 ,a ,manual containing every information for ,competitive ,examinations1 and giving details of all experiments1 in the most intelligible form4 ,with numerous ,diagrams4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,children',s ,,library4 ,new and ,original ,works1 bound in cloth gilt1 with numerous ,illustrations1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,the ,children's ,sunday ,album4 ,by the ,author of ,a ,trap to ,catch a ,sunbeam4 ,with upwards of ,one ,hundred ,engravings4 ,the ,story ,of ,robin ,hood4 ,illustrated with ,eight ,plates printed in ,colours4 ,the ,merrie ,heart4 ,a ,collection of ,nursery ,rhymes and ,short ,tales4 ,illustrated with ,eight ,coloured ,plates1 from ,designs by ,,walter ,,crane2 and numerous smaller ,engravings by ,j4 ,,swain1 from ,drawings by ,,ernest ,,griset1 ,f4 ,,barnard1 and others4 ,the ,true ,robinson ,crusoes4 ,a ,series of ,stirring ,adventures4 ,edited by ,,charles ,,russell4 ,with ,twenty full-page ,illustrations4 ,off to ,sea4 ,a ,story for ,boys4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,kingston4 ,with ,illustrations printed in ,colours4 ,the ,children's ,album4 ,containing nearly ,two ,hundred beautiful ,engravings1 with ,short ,stories by ,,uncle ,,john4 ,fourth ,edition1 #bast ,thousand4 ,square crown #hvo1 #cfh pages4 ,peggy1 and ,other ,tales4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations4 ,old ,burchell's ,pocket4 ,by ,,elihu ,,burritt4 ,illustrated with ,eight ,engravings4 ,mince-,pie ,island3 ,a ,christmas ,story for ,young ,readers4 ,by ,r4 ,,st4 ,,john ,,corbett4 ,handsomely ,illustrated4 ,cloudland and ,shadowland2 or1 ,rambles into ,fairy ,land with ,uncle ,white ,cloud4 ,beautifully ,illustrated4 ,the ,queen of the ,tournament4 ,by the ,author of ,mince-,pie ,island4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations by ,f4 ,,lawson4 ,lily and ,nannie at ,school4 ,by the ,author of ,the ,little ,warringtons4 ,illustrated by ,,dalziel ,,brothers4 ,the ,magic of ,kindness4 ,by the ,,brothers ,,mayhew4 ,with ,illustrations by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,on a ,coral ,reef3 ,a ,sea ,story for ,boys4 ,by ,,arthur ,,locker4 ,handsomely ,illustrated4 ,crocker the ,clown3 ,a ,tale for ,boys4 ,by ,b4 ,,clarke1 ,editor of ,kind ,words4 ,handsomely ,illustrated4 ,king ,gab's ,story ,bag4 ,by ,,heraclitus ,,grey4 ,with ,illustrations by ,,walter ,,crane4 ,hours of ,sunshine3 ,a ,series of ,poems for ,children4 ,by ,,matthias ,,barr1 ,author of ,little ,willie1 c4 ,with ,sixteen ,coloured ,plates1 from ,designs by ,,oscar ,,pletsch4 ,playing ,trades4 ,by ,,heraclitus ,,grey1 ,author of ,king ,gab1 c4 ,with ,sixteen ,coloured ,plates1 from ,designs by ,j4 ,,barfoot4 ,,one ,,syllable ,,series4 sop's ,fables2 in ,words of ,one ,syllable4 ,with ,illustrations printed in ,colours by ,,kronheim4 ,sandford and ,merton1 in ,words of ,one ,syllable4 ,with ,illustrations printed in ,colours by ,,kronheim4 ,reynard the ,fox2 the ,rare ,romance of4 ,in ,words of ,one ,syllable4 ,by ,,samuel ,,phillips ,,day4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations by ,,kronheim1 from ,designs by ,,ernest ,,griset4 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,written in ,words of ,one ,syllable by ,s4 ,,phillips ,,day4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations by ,,kronheim4 ,the ,swiss ,family ,robinson4 ,in ,words of ,one ,syllable4 ,coloured ,illustrations1 from ,designs by ,,griset1 ,,crane1 c4 ,evenings at ,home4 ,in ,words of ,one ,syllable4 ,by the ,author of ,the ,children's ,album4 ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,commentary1 ,matthew ,henry's4 ,complete in ,three ,volumes1 demy #dto1 cloth1 lettered1 #b #abs4 #f;d4 ,copy-,books for ,schools1 ,cassell's ,new1 in ,fourteen ,books1 price #b;d4 each4 ,containing set copies on every page1 leading the learner by graduated steps from the simplest forms of letters to a fluent and graceful style of penmanship4 ,daybreak in ,spain4 ,by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,,wylie4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,twelve ,illustrations1 #fs4 ,dictionary of ,phrase and ,fable4 ,giving the ,derivation1 ,source1 or ,origin of ,common ,phrases1 ,allusions1 and ,words that have a ,tale to ,tell4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,brewer1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,dor ,,series1 ,,the4 ---- ,gallery1 ,the4 ,containing #bej of the finest ,drawings by ,,gustave ,,dor1 selected from the ,dor ,bible1 ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,dante's ,inferno and ,purgatorio and ,paradisio1 ,atala1 ,la ,fontaine's ,fables1 ,don ,quixote1 ,fairy ,realm1 ,baron ,munchausen1 c4 ,with ,descriptive ,letterpress and ,memoir by ,,edmund ,,ollier4 ,small folio1 cloth gilt1 #e4 ---- ,the ,holy ,bible4 ,english ,edition4 ,illustrated by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,complete in ,two very handsome ,volumes4 ,small folio1 bound in cloth1 gilt1 #h2 morocco1 gilt edges1 #ab2 best polished morocco antique extra1 #ae4 ,in ,eight ,divisional ,volumes1 each #bas4 ---- ,milton's ,paradise ,lost4 ,illustrated with full-page ,drawings1 by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,with ,notes1 and a ,life of ,milton1 by the ,rev4 ,,robert ,,vaughan1 ,d4,d4 ,in ,one large folio ,volume1 bound in cloth1 #e2 best polished morocco1 gilt extra1 #aj4 ---- ,dante's ,inferno4 ,english ,edition4 ,illustrated by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,translation by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,cary1 ,m4,a4 ,crown folio1 bound in cloth1 #b #ajs42 bound in morocco antique1 with gilt edges1 #d #ds42 elegantly bound in full morocco1 #f #fs4 ---- ,dante's ,purgatory and ,paradise4 ,english ,edition4 ,uniform with the ,,inferno1 and same price4 ---- ,don ,quixote4 ,english ,edition4 ,with about #djj ,illustrations by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,in ,one handsome quarto ,volume1 cloth1 #a #ajs42 ditto1 bound in half morocco1 #b #es42 ditto1 bound in full morocco antique1 #c #ajs4 ---- ,atala4 ,by ,,chateaubriand4 ,english ,edition4 ,illustrated by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,folio1 cloth1 #b #bs42 bound in morocco gilt1 #d #ds4 ---- ,la ,fontaine's ,fables4 ,illustrated with full-page ,drawings by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,in ,one handsome quarto ,volume1 cloth1 #a #ajs42 ditto1 bound in half-morocco1 #b #es42 ditto1 bound in full morocco antique1 #c #ajs4 ---- ,the ,history of ,croquemitaine1 and the ,times of ,charlemagne4 ,illustrated throughout by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,the ,text freely rendered from the ,french by ,tom ,hood4 ,imperial #dto1 #a #as4 ---- ,fairy ,realm4 ,a ,collection of the ,favourite ,old ,tales4 ,illustrated by ,gustave ,dor1 and told in ,verse by ,,tom ,,hood4 ,imperial #dto1 #a #as4 ---- ,the ,adventures of ,munchausen4 ,illustrated by ,,gustave ,,dor4 #dto1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ---- ,the ,legend of the ,wandering ,jew4 ,twelve large ,designs by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,folio1 #aes4 ,drawing ,copies1 ,cassell's ,popular4 ,series ,a4 ,floral and ,vegetable ,forms4 ,b4 ,model ,drawing4 ,c4 ,landscape ,drawing4 ,d4 ,figure ,drawing4 ,e4 ,animal ,drawing4 ,each of the above ,series is now ready1 in ,twelve ,parts1 price #f;d4 each2 ,twelve ,packets mounted on ,cardboard1 price #as4 each2 or bound in ,cloth1 ,india ,rubber back1 price #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,eighteenpenny ,series of ,new and ,original ,works by the best ,authors4 ,bound in best cloth1 gilt edges1 with ,four ,coloured ,plates by ,,kronheim in each ,book4 ,little ,black ,cap1 and other ,stories4 ,tommy and his ,broom1 and other ,stories4 ,the ,broken ,promise1 and other ,stories4 ,by the ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,,greene4 ,little ,red ,shoes1 and other ,stories4 ,charlie's ,lessons about ,animals4 ,with upwards of ,twenty ,engravings1 uncoloured4 ,the ,holidays at ,llandudno4 ,the ,hop ,garden3 ,a ,story of ,town and ,country ,life4 ,algy's ,lesson4 ,by ,s4 ,e4 ,,de ,,morgan4 ,ashfield ,farm2 or1 ,ellen and ,robert's ,first ,journey from ,home4 ,grandmamma's ,spectacles4 ,by the ,author of ,a ,trap to ,catch a ,sunbeam4 ,hid in a ,cave2 or1 ,the ,lost ,child4 ,little ,fables for ,little ,folks4 ,flora ,selwyn3 ,a ,story for ,girls4 ,other ,volumes in active preparation4 ,england1 ,illustrated ,history of1 from the ,earliest ,period4 ,complete in ,eight ,volumes1 cloth1 #fs4 and #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,ditto1 ,four ,volumes1 half-calf1 with full gilt backs and cloth sides1 #d4 ,the cloth volumes can be had separate4 ---- ,the ,toned ,paper ,edition1 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv41 and ,v41 bound in cloth1 each #is4 ,english and ,french ,correspondence for ,boys4 #ahmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,english and ,french ,correspondence for ,young ,ladies4 #ahmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,english and ,french ,commercial ,correspondence4 ,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,english ,heraldry4 ,by ,,charles ,,boutell1 ,m4,a4 ,with #dfj finely engraved ,illustrations4 ,in ,one ,volume1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,english ,spelling and ,reading ,book4 ,with upwards of #ej ,engravings on ,wood4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 ,euclid1 ,cassell's3 being the ,first ,six ,books with the ,eleventh and ,twelfth of ,euclid4 ,edited by ,professor ,,wallace1 ,a4,m4 of the ,glasgow ,university1 and ,collegiate ,tutor of the ,university of ,london4 ,crown #hvo1 stiff covers1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,euclid1 ,cassell's1 ,key to2 containing the ,enunciations of all the ,propositions and ,corollaries4 #cbmo1 paper covers1 #d;d4 ,family ,prayer ,book4 ,bound in plain cloth1 #gs4 #f;d42 handsome cloth1 with gilt edges1 #is42 morocco antique1 #bas4 ,five ,shilling ,series4 ,the ,story of ,don ,quixote4 ,by ,miss ,,mat,,aux4 ,re-narrated in a familiar manner1 especially adapted for ,younger ,readers1 and ,illustrated with numerous ,engravings4 ,crown #hvo4 ,a ,voyage to the ,south ,pole4 ,a ,new ,story4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,kingston4 ,with upwards of ,fifty ,engravings4 ,crown #hvo4 ,children's ,carols4 ,the ,music by ,,henry ,,leslie1 the ,illustrations by ,j4 ,e4 ,,millais4 #dto4 ,home ,chat with ,our ,young ,folks4 ,by ,,clara ,,mat,,aux1 ,author of ,the ,story of ,don ,quixote1 c4 c4 ,with about #abj ,engravings4 ,fcap4 #dto4 ,scraps of ,knowledge for the ,little ,ones4 ,by ,miss ,,besemere1 ,author of ,picture ,teaching4 ,with #ajj ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 #dto4 ,the ,happy ,nursery4 ,by ,,ellis ,a4 ,,davidson1 ,author of ,our ,first ,grammar1 ,our ,bodies1 ,our ,food1 c4 c4 ,fcap4 #dto1 with numerous ,illustrations and ,designs for ,toys4 ,french1 ,cassell's ,lessons in3 containing a ,complete ,view of the ,idioms of the ,french ,language1 in a ,series of ,easy and ,progressive ,lessons4 ,by ,professor ,,fasquelle4 ,new ,edition1 revised and improved4 ,by ,professor ,,de ,,lolme4 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii41 in paper1 #bs42 cloth1 each1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,complete in ,one ,volume1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ---- ,key to the ,exercises in ,cassell's ,lessons in4 #abmo1 paper1 #as42 cloth #as4 #f;d4 ,french ,manual4 ,forming a ,complete1 ,simple1 and ,practical ,guide to a thorough knowledge of ,speaking the ,french ,language4 ,by ,professor ,,de ,,lolme4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 ,french ,reader1 ,the4 ,containing ,extracts from the ,best ,authors4 ,designed for the ,improvement of ,students in reading the ,french ,language4 ,new ,edition4 ,by ,professor ,,de ,,lolme4 #abmo1 paper1 #bs42 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,french-,english and ,english-,french ,dictionary4 ,composed from the ,french ,dictionaries of the ,french ,academy1 ,bescherelle1 ,landais1 c42 from the ,english ,dictionaries of ,ogilvie1 ,johnson1 ,webster1 c1 c42 and from the ,technological and ,scientific ,dictionaries of both ,languages4 ,by ,professors ,,de ,,lolme and ,,wallace4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 lettered1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,cheap ,edition for ,schools4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,french1 ,shilling ,lessons in4 ,by ,professor ,,de ,,lolme4 #ahmo1 sewed1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,french1 ,sixpenny ,lessons in1 with ,rules for ,pronunciation1 on an entirely ,novel and ,simple ,plan4 ,reprinted in a revised form4 ,crown #hvo1 paper covers1 #f;d4 ,galbraith and ,haughton's ,scientific ,manuals4 ,the high character of this ,series is well known1 as furnishing ,text-books for the ,dublin ,university and numerous first-class ,schools4 ,arithmetic4 ,containing nearly #b1jjj ,examples4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,plane ,trigonometry4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,euclid4 ,elements ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,books ,,iv41 ,v41 ,,vi4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,mathematical ,tables4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,galbraith and ,haughton's ,manuals--continued4 ,mechanics4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,optics4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,hydrostatics4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,astronomy4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #es4 ,steam ,engine4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,algebra4 ,third ,edition4 ,part ,i41 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 complete1 cloth1 lettered1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,tides and ,tidal ,currents4 ,new ,edition1 with ,tidal ,cards4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 ,natural ,philosophy4 ,with #afj ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,three ,kingdoms of ,nature4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,new and cheaper ,edition4 #es4 ,german ,reader1 ,the ,international1 for the use of ,colleges and ,schools4 ,containing ,aids to ,students1 ,selections from the best ,prose ,writers1 and an ,anthology of ,german ,poetry4 ,by ,,edward ,a4 ,,oppen1 of ,haileybury ,college4 #abmo1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,german1 ,lessons in2 in a ,series of ,easy and ,progressive ,lessons4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,woodbury4 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii41 #abmo1 paper1 #bs42 cloth1 each1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,complete in ,one ,volume1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ---- ,key to4 ,revised ,edition4 #abmo1 paper1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,german1 ,sixpenny ,lessons in4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,oppen1 ,esq41 of ,haileybury ,college4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 paper covers1 #f;d4 ,german-,english and ,english-,german ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 ,the4 #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,german ,dictionary4 ,cheap ,edition for ,schools1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,gift ,books for ,young ,people4 ,beauties of ,poetry and ,gems of ,art4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,favourite ,poems by ,gifted ,bards4 ,with ,magnificent ,engravings4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,jewels ,gathered from ,painter and ,poet4 ,cloth gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,poems and ,pictures4 ,being the ,three above ,books bound in ,one ,volume ,cloth gilt4 #bas4 ,bright ,thoughts for the ,little ,ones4 ,twenty-seven exquisite ,engravings4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,goethe ,gallery4 ,a ,series of beautiful ,photographs from ,,kaulbach',s ,drawings of the ,heroines of ,goethe4 ,handsomely bound in morocco1 #dbs4 ,goethe's ,heroines4 ,a ,series of exquisite ,engravings on ,steel1 from ,designs by the great ,german ,artist1 ,w4 ,,kaulbach4 ,with ,descriptive ,letterpress by ,,george ,,henry ,,lewes4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #g #gs4 ,greece1 ,the ,scenery of4 ,by ,w4 ,,linton4 ,fifty exquisitely beautiful full-page ,steel ,engravings1 with descriptive ,letterpress4 ,handsome quarto ,volume1 cloth1 lettered1 gilt edges1 #dbs4 ,greece1 ,the ,poets ,of4 ,by ,,edwin ,,arnold1 ,m4,a41 ,oxon2 ,author of ,griselda1 and other ,poems1 c4 ,demy #hvo1 #bef pages1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,greek1 ,lessons in4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,beard1 ,d4,d4 #abmo1 paper1 #cs4 #f;d42 cloth1 #ds4 ,guide to the ,indian ,civil ,service3 containing ,directions for ,candidates1 ,standards of ,qualification1 ,salaries1 and ,specimens of ,examination ,papers4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,ewald1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,half-,crown ,library of ,new and ,original ,works by ,authors of ,high ,standing4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo1 handsomely bound in cloth gilt1 with ,illustrations and ,ornamental ,chapter ,heads4 ,labour ,stands on ,golden ,feet4 ,a ,holiday ,story for ,sensible ,apprentices1 ,journeymen1 and ,masters4 ,translated from the ,german of ,,heinrich ,,zschokke by ,dr4 ,,john ,,yeats4 ,the ,microscope1 and ,some of the ,wonders it ,reveals4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,houghton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,author of ,country ,walks of a ,naturalist with his ,children1 c4 ,stories of the ,olden ,time4 ,selected and ,arranged by ,m4 ,,jones1 ,author of ,the ,story of ,captain ,cook1 c4 ,truly ,noble4 ,a ,story1 by ,madame ,de ,,chatelain4 ,autobiography of a ,lump of ,coal1 a ,grain of ,salt1 c4 c4 ,by ,,annie ,,carey4 ,love and ,life in ,norway4 ,by ,,bjornstjern ,,bjornson4 ,translated from the ,norwegian by the ,hon4 ,,augusta ,,bethell4 ,the ,fishing ,girl4 ,by ,,bjornstjern ,,bjornson4 ,translated from the ,norwegian by ,,augusta ,,plesner4 ,one ,trip ,more1 and other ,stories4 ,by the ,author of ,mary ,powell4 ,historical ,costumes1 ,book ,of4 ,drawn from the ,best ,specimens of each ,period2 with #if full-page ,coloured ,engravings4 ,cloth1 gilt edges1 #ejs4 ,history ,of ,england1 from the ,first ,invasion by the ,romans to the ,accession of ,william and ,mary in #afhc4 ,by ,,john ,,lingard1 ,d4,d4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,revised and considerably ,enlarged4 ,in ,ten ,volumes1 cloth1 lettered4 ,household ,guide1 ,cassell's4 ,containing every information relating to the ,house1 ,furniture1 ,cookery1 ,garden1 c4 c1 and being a ,complete ,guide to every ,department of ,practical ,life4 ,vol4 ,i41 complete in itself1 #fs4 ,hudson's ,arithmetic for ,school and ,college ,use1 with a ,copious ,collection of ,exercises1 and ,key4 ,cloth1 limp1 #as4 #f;d4 ,illustrated ,library1 ,the4 ,plain cloth1 #gs4 #f;d42 full gilt cloth1 gilt edges1 #ajs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #bas4 ,cassell's ,book of ,sacred ,poems4 ,illustrated4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,baynes1 ,m4,a41 ,editor of ,lyra ,anglicana4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,bunyan4 ,the ,,pilgrim',s ,,progress4 ,illustrated throughout4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,bunyan4 ,the ,,holy ,,war4 ,illustrated throughout4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,gulliver4 ,,gulliver',s ,,travels4 ,by ,,dean ,,swift4 ,profusely ,illustrated throughout by ,,morten4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,beautifully ,illustrated throughout4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,readings4 ,conducted by ,,tom ,,hood4 ,in ,two ,vols41 each complete in itself4 ,goldsmith's ,works4 ,the ,,vicar ,,of ,,wakefield and ,,poems4 ,illustrated throughout4 ,illustrated ,travels3 a ,record of ,discovery1 ,geography1 and ,adventure4 ,edited by ,h4 ,w4 ,,bates1 ,assistant-,secretary of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 and profusely illustrated by the best ,artists of the day1 from ,drawings made on the spot4 ,royal #dto1 cloth1 #aes42 extra cloth1 extra gilt1 gilt edges1 #ahs4 ,in ,memoriam the late ,george ,housman ,thomas4 ,being a series of carefully printed ,wood ,engravings1 from ,designs by ,mr4 ,,thomas1 with ,descriptive ,letterpress4 ,handsome quarto ,volume4 ,cloth1 gilt1 #bas4 ,insect ,world1 ,the4 ,a ,popular ,account of the ,orders of ,insects4 ,from the ,french of ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,edited by ,e4 ,w4 ,,jansen1 ,lib4 ,e4,s4 ,demy #hvo1 #egf ,plates1 cloth1 lettered1 #afs42 extra cloth gilt1 #a #as4 ,italian ,finances4 ,by ,g4 ,,semenza1 ,member for ,como in the ,italian ,parliament4 ,cloth1 #fs4 ,jingles and ,jokes for ,little ,folks4 ,by ,,tom ,,hood4 ,illustrated4 ,boards1 #as4 ,latin ,grammar1 ,the4 ,by ,professors ,,andrews and ,,stoddard4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,latin ,exercises4 ,adapted to ,andrews and ,stoddard's ,latin ,grammar4 #abmo1 paper1 #as4 #f;d42 cloth1 #bs4 ,latin ,reader1 ,the4 ,adapted to ,cassell's ,latin ,grammar2 to which is appended an appropriate ,dictionary4 #abmo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,latin1 ,lessons in4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,beard1 ,d4,d4 #abmo1 paper1 #bs4 #f;d42 cloth1 #cs4 ,key to ditto1 #abmo1 paper1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,latin1 ,first ,lessons in4 ,by ,professors ,,andrews and ,,stoddard4 #abmo1 paper1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,latin-,english and ,english-,latin ,dictionary1 ,cassell's4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,beard1 ,d4,d41 and ,c4 ,,beard1 ,b4,a4 ,cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,latin ,dictionary4 ,cheap ,edition for ,schools4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,little ,songs for ,me to ,sing4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,e4 ,,millais1 ,r4,a42 with ,music composed expressly for the ,work by ,,henry ,,leslie4 ,square crown 7,dedicated1 by express permission1 to ,her ,royal ,highness the ,,princess ,,of ,,wales71 #fs4 ,log of the ,fortuna1 ,the4 ,a ,cruise in ,chinese ,waters4 ,by ,captain ,a4 ,f4 ,,lindley4 ,illustrated with about ,fifty ,engravings4 ,fcap4 #dto1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,mission ,life4 ,containing an ,account of the various ,mission ,works now proceeding in all parts of the globe4 ,vols1 for #ahfi and #ahgj1 price #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,natural ,history of ,commerce4 ,by ,j4 ,,yeats1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece4 ,cloth1 lettered1 price #es4 ,natural ,history1 ,cassell's ,popular4 ,profusely ,illustrated with splendid ,engravings and ,tinted ,plates4 ,complete in ,two ,volumes1 bound in cloth1 #cjs4 ,do41 ,two ,volumes1 half-calf1 full gilt back1 #des4 ,do41 ,two ,volumes1 half-morocco1 full gilt1 #ejs4 ,do41 with ,coloured ,illustrations1 ,four ,volumes1 bound in cloth1 #dbs4 ,natural ,history of the ,three ,kingdoms1 ,the4 ,with ,coloured ,plates1 and ,text in ,english1 ,french1 and ,german4 ,oblong #dto1 coloured boards1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,natural ,philosophy1 in ,easy ,lessons4 ,by ,professor ,,tyndall4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,new ,popular ,educator4 ,revised to the ,present ,date1 with numerous ,additions4 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi4 now ready1 best cloth gilt1 #fs4 each4 ,north-,west ,passage by ,land1 ,the4 ,by ,viscount ,,milton1 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 c41 and ,w4 ,b4 ,,cheadle1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,d4 ,cantab41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 #hvo1 cloth1 with ,twenty-two full-page ,illustrations and ,two ,maps4 ,sixth ,edition1 #bas4 ,do41 ,smaller ,edition1 complete1 with ,eight ,illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,ocean ,world1 ,the4 ,a ,descriptive ,history of the ,sea and its ,inhabitants4 ,from the ,french of ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,edited by ,c4 ,o4 ,g4 ,,napier1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,demy #hvo1 #dbg ,plates1 cloth1 lettered1 #afs42 extra cloth gilt1 #a #as4 ,old ,friends and ,new ,faces4 ,demy #dto1 cloth1 elegantly gilt1 with ,twenty-four full-page ,illustrations1 beautifully printed by ,,kronheim1 #es4 ,penny ,library of ,popular ,authors4 #a4 ,the ,book of ,martyrs4 ,by ,,john ,,foxe4 ,with ,engraved ,frontispiece1 complete1 #beb pages1 price ,one ,penny4 ,also1 ,special ,editions of the same1 in cloth limp1 #d;d41 or cloth1 gilt edges1 #f;d4 #b4 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,by ,,john ,,bunyan4 ,with ,engraved ,title and ,frontispiece1 complete1 #chd pages1 price ,one ,penny4 ,also1 ,special ,editions of the same1 in cloth limp1 #d;d41 or cloth1 gilt edges1 #f;d4 ,pianoforte1 ,the ,history of the4 ,by ,e4 ,,brinsmead4 ,cloth1 lettered1 gilt1 price #cs4 ,pictures from ,english ,literature4 ,the ,text by ,dr4 ,,waller4 ,full-page ,illustrations by ,e4 ,m4 ,,ward1 ,r4,a41 ,j4 ,c4 ,,horsley1 ,r4,a41 ,w4 ,f4 ,,yeames1 ,a4,r4,a41 ,j4 ,,gilbert1 ,g4 ,,du ,,maurier1 ,s4 ,l4 ,,fildes1 ,w4 ,,small1 ,h4 ,k4 ,,browne1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,ward1 ,j4 ,d4 ,,watson1 ,,marcus ,,stone1 ,w4 ,,cave ,,thomas1 ,f4 ,w4 ,,lawson1 ,e4 ,,wegner1 ,r4 ,,macbeth1 ,e4 ,,hughes1 ,f4 ,,barnard1 c4 c4 ,handsome #dto1 cloth gilt1 #bas4 ,picture ,natural ,history4 ,a ,series of ,plates1 numbering upwards of #gjj1 in which the ,animal1 ,vegetable1 and ,mineral ,kingdoms are classified in ,families4 ,with ,descriptive ,letterpress4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,,boutell1 ,m4,a4 #dto1 cloth1 lettered1 #es4 ,picture ,teaching for ,young and ,old3 ,a ,series of ,object ,lessons ,progressively ,arranged1 so as to teach the meaning of every term employed4 ,with more than #bjj ,illustrations4 #dto1 cloth1 lettered1 #es4 ,poet ,hero1 ,a4 ,by ,countess ,,von ,,bothmer1 ,author of ,strong ,hands and ,steadfast ,hearts1 c4 c4 #djh pp4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,poets1 ,cassell's #cs4 #f;d4 ,edition of the1 in ,fcap4 #hvo1 printed on ,toned ,paper1 elegantly bound in cloth1 extra gold and colours4 ,best morocco1 inlaid with enamel letter piece1 #fs4 #f;d4 each4 ,each ,volume contains a ,memoir1 and is ,illustrated with a ,portrait of the ,author1 engraved on ,steel1 and numerous full-page ,illustrations on ,wood1 from ,designs by ,eminent ,artists3-- ,longfellow's ,poetical ,works4 ,scott's ,poetical ,works4 ,byron's ,poetical ,works4 ,moore's ,poetical ,works4 ,wordsworth's ,poetical ,works4 ,cowper's ,poetical ,works4 ,milton's ,poetical ,works4 ,pope's ,poetical ,works4 ,burns' ,poetical ,works4 ,the ,casket of ,gems4 ,the ,book of ,humorous ,poetry4 ,ballads1 ,scottish and ,english4 ,lives of the ,british ,poets4 ,practical ,poultry ,keeper1 ,the4 ,a ,complete and ,standard ,guide to the ,management of ,poultry1 whether for ,domestic ,use1 the ,market1 or ,exhibition4 ,by ,l4 ,,wright4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,with plain ,illustrations1 bound in cloth1 #es42 with coloured ditto1 ditto1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,primary ,school ,books4 ,an ,entirely ,new and ,original ,series1 specially prepared with a view to meeting the want indicated by ,her ,majesty's ,commissioners of ,education in ,national and other ,schools4 ,elementary ,arithmetic3 supplying more than #a1ajj ,examples4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #d;d4 ,key to ditto1 cloth1 #c;d4 ,elementary ,british ,history3 a condensed recital of the ,principal ,events of ,british ,history4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #f;d4 ,elementary ,geography1 written in a simple1 terse style1 and ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #d;d4 ,england at ,home3 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book of ,geography1 ,manufacture1 ,trade1 and ,commerce4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 ,our ,bodies3 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book of ,human ,physiology4 ,with numerous ,illustrations on ,wood4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 ,our ,houses1 and what they are ,made of3 giving full ,account of the ,nature and ,origin of ,wood1 ,iron1 ,stone1 c41 with ,illustrative ,designs and ,descriptions4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 ,our ,first ,grammar3 an ,elementary ,text-,book for ,beginners4 ,cloth1 #as4 ,our ,food4 ,intended to supply ,elementary ,lessons in the ,processes involved in the ,production of the various ,articles of ,food1 and also their proper ,uses and ,combinations4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 ,the ,uses of ,plants in ,food1 ,arts1 and ,commerce4 ,with ,illustrations1 #as4 ,right ,lines in their ,right ,places3 explaining to the youngest pupil the ,first ,principles of ,geometry4 ,with ,drawings on ,wood by the ,author4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 ,the ,boy's ,first ,reader4 ,standard ,i4 ,cloth limp1 #d;d4 ,the ,boy's ,second ,reader4 ,standard ,,ii4 ,cloth limp1 #d;d4 ,the ,girl's ,first ,reader4 ,standard ,i4 ,cloth limp1 #d;d4 ,the ,girl's ,second ,reader4 ,standard ,,ii4 ,cloth limp1 #d;d4 ,the ,boy's and ,girl's ,reader4 ,standard ,,iii4 ,cloth limp1 #g;d4 ,the ,boy's and ,girl's ,reader4 ,standard ,,iv4 ,cloth limp1 #i;d4 ,the ,poetical ,reader4 ,standard ,v4 ,cloth limp1 #as4 ,the ,explanatory ,reader4 ,standard ,,vi4 ,cloth limp1 #as4 ,vegetable ,physiology1 in a series1 of easy ,lessons1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,animal ,kingdom1 explained in a familiar but strictly scientific manner4 ,with abundant ,illustrations4 ,double ,vol41 cloth1 lettered1 #bs4 ,quiver1 ,the3 containing ,interesting ,articles for ,sunday ,reading4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,vol4 for #ahgj now ready1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth plain3 or gilt1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,quiz1 ,sketches by4 ,consisting of ,young ,ladies1 ,young ,gentlemen1 and ,young ,couples4 ,illustrated by ,,phiz4 ,cloth extra1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,representative ,biographies4 ,life and ,career of ,lord ,brougham4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,life of ,benjamin ,disraeli1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,life of ,john ,bright1 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,life of ,w4 ,b4 ,gladstone4 #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,public ,life of ,queen ,victoria4 #bs42 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,robinson ,crusoe1 ,adventures of4 ,new ,edition1 ,royal #hvo41 profusely ,illustrated1 and containing ,coloured ,frontispiece4 ,cloth plain1 #es42 cloth gilt1 gilt edges1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,romance of ,commerce1 ,the4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,fox-,,bourne1 ,author of ,the ,life of ,sir ,philip ,sydney4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,san ,juan ,water ,boundary ,question4 ,by ,viscount ,,milton1 ,m4,p4 ,cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,schiller ,gallery1 ,the4 ,a ,series of exquisite ,photographs from ,,kaulbach',s ,paintings of ,scenery from ,schiller4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #e #es4 ,shakespeare1 ,cassell's ,illustrated4 ,edited by ,,charles and ,,mary ,,cowden ,,clarke4 ,vol4 ,i4 7,,comedies71 in cloth1 #abs42 ,vol4 ,,ii4 7,,historical ,,plays71 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d42 ,vol4 ,,iii4 7,,tragedies71 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,complete ,work1 in three volumes1 cloth1 lettered1 uniform1 #a #aes4 ,half morocco1 #b #ajs4 ,the ,separate ,plays may be had1 price #as4 each4 ,shilling ,story ,books4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth gilt1 with ,two ,illustrations in each ,volume4 ,lottie's ,white ,frock1 and other ,stories4 ,helpful ,nellie1 and other ,stories4 ,only ,just ,once1 and other ,stories4 ,the ,boot on the ,wrong ,foot1 and other ,stories4 ,little ,content1 and other ,stories4 ,by ,,edith ,,walford4 ,little ,lizzie4 ,by ,,mary ,,gillies4 ,and other ,tales4 ,luke ,barnicott4 ,by ,,william ,,howitt4 ,and other ,tales4 ,my ,first ,cruise4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,kingston4 ,and other ,tales4 ,the ,boat ,club4 ,by ,,oliver ,,optic4 ,and other ,tales4 ,the ,delft ,jug4 ,by ,,silverpen4 ,and other ,tales4 ,the ,elchester ,college ,boys4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,henry ,,wood4 ,and other ,tales4 ,the ,little ,peacemaker4 ,by ,,mary ,,howitt4 ,and other ,tales4 ,jonas's ,farm4 ,and other ,tales4 ,shilling ,toy-,books4 ,in ,demy #dto1 stiff covers4 ,with full-page ,illustrations printed in ,colours by ,,kronheim4 #a4 ,how ,cock ,sparrow ,spent his ,christmas4 #b4 ,the ,adventures of ,robinson ,crusoe4 #c4 ,queer ,creatures1 ,drawn by ,one of ,themselves4 #d4 sop's ,fables4 7#ba ,plates47 ,shilling ,packets of ,coloured ,cards1 each containing ,twelve ,designs beautifully printed in ,colours from ,nature4 ,floral ,beauties of the ,world4 ,the ,animals of all ,climes4 ,the ,feathered ,creation4 ,standard ,series of ,popular ,works4 ,esther ,west4 ,by ,,isa ,,craig-,,knox4 ,imperial #afmo4 ,illustrated with ,twenty-four ,engravings4 ,cloth gilt1 #fs4 ,peoples of the ,world4 ,by ,,bessie ,,parkes-,,belloc4 ,imperial #afmo4 ,illustrated with about ,fifty ,engravings4 #fs4 ,the ,story of ,captain ,cook4 ,by ,m4 ,,jones1 ,author of ,stories of the ,olden ,time4 ,imperial #afmo4 ,illustrated with about ,fifty ,engravings4 #fs4 ,stock-,feeder's ,manual1 ,the4 ,the ,chemistry of ,food in relation to the ,breeding and ,feeding of ,live ,stock4 ,by ,dr4 ,,cameron4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #es4 ,swiss ,family ,robinson4 ,new ,edition1 profusely ,illustrated4 ,bound in cloth1 gilt1 #es42 extra gilt1 gilt edges1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,technical ,manuals1 consisting of a ,series of ,two ,shilling ,volumes1 which contain all the essentials of a ,technical ,education4 ,linear ,drawing4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,davidson1 ,lecturer on ,engineering and ,architectural ,drawing in the ,city of ,london ,middle ,class ,schools4 ,containing the principles of ,linear ,drawing as adapted to ,trade1 ,manufactures1 ,engineering1 ,architecture1 and ,design1 with about #aej ,illustrations1 and ,six whole-page ,diagrams of working drawings4 ,cloth limp1 #bs4 ,orthographic and ,isometrical ,projection4 ,by the same ,author1 ,treating of the ,projection of ,plans1 ,elevations and ,sections of ,solids1 and the ,development of ,surfaces for ,masons1 ,carpenters1 ,builders1 ,architects1 ,plumbers1 and ,artisans generally4 ,illustrated with about ,forty whole-page ,diagrams1 drawn on ,wood by the ,author4 ,cloth limp1 #bs4 ,linear ,drawing and ,projection4 ,the ,two ,volumes in ,one4 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,building ,construction1 the ,elements of1 and ,architectural ,drawing1 with #acj ,illustrations1 drawn on ,wood by the ,author4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,davidson1 ,author of ,linear ,drawing1 c4 ,cloth limp1 #bs4 ,drawing for ,carpenters and ,joiners4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,davidson4 ,containing a ,description of the ,construction of the ,subject of each ,study1 and the ,method of ,drawing it4 ,with ,elementary ,lessons in ,free-hand and ,object ,drawing4 ,with #bej ,illustrations and ,drawing ,copies4 ,double ,vol1 cloth limp1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,elements of ,practical ,perspective4 ,by the same ,author4 ,containing ,perspective1 ,projection of ,simple ,points1 ,lines1 ,planes1 and ,rectangular ,solids1 ,polygons1 and ,prisms1 ,pyramids1 ,circles1 ,cylinders1 ,arches1 c4 c4 ,with ,thirty-six full-page ,illustrations4 ,drawn on ,wood by the ,author4 ,cloth limp1 #bs4 ,drawing for ,machinists4 ,by the same ,author4 ,with abundant ,illustrations and ,working ,diagrams4 ,double ,volume1 ,cloth1 lettered1 #cs4 #e;d4 7,nearly ready47 ,thames and ,tweed4 ,by ,g4 ,,rooper4 ,containing every information necessary for fishing in these rivers at all times of the year4 ,with ,directions as to ,rods1 ,lines1 ,tackle1 c4 c4 ,cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,thorwaldsen's ,triumphal ,entry of ,alexander the ,great into ,babylon4 ,twenty-two ,plates1 ,folio4 ,with ,descriptive ,letterpress1 and ,essay on ,the ,personal and ,art ,character of ,thorwaldsen1 by ,,hermann ,,lucke4 #dbs4 ,transformations of ,insects4 ,by ,,emile ,,blanchard4 ,translated by ,dr4 ,,duncan1 ,secretary of the ,geological ,society1 and ,professor of ,geology1 ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth gilt1 #aes4 ,two ,shilling ,series of ,new and ,original ,works4 ,bound in best cloth1 gilt edges1 with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,dr4 ,savory's ,tongs4 ,by ,,two ,,sisters4 ,the ,golden ,gate4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,hunt4 ,love and ,duty4 ,by ,,anna ,j4 ,,buckland4 ,brave ,lisette4 ,and other ,stories4 ,by ,,miss ,,carless4 ,beatrice ,langton2 or1 ,the ,spirit of ,obedience4 #bs4 ,new ,stories and ,old ,legends4 ,by ,mrs4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,hervey4 ,owen ,carstone3 a ,story of ,school ,life4 ,the ,boy who ,wondered4 ,the ,little ,orphan4 ,the ,story of ,arthur ,hunter and his ,first ,shilling4 ,the ,story of the ,hamiltons4 ,the ,hillside ,farm4 ,vegetable ,world1 ,the1 ,from the ,french of ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,edited by ,c4 ,o4 ,g4 ,,napier1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,demy #hvo1 with #dga ,plates1 cloth1 lettered1 #afs42 extra cloth gilt1 #a #as4 ,webster's ,etymological ,dictionary4 ,the ,etymology of every ,word given1 and a ,vocabulary of the ,roots of ,words4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,woman3 ,her ,position and ,power4 ,containing ,essays on the ,social1 ,moral1 and ,religious ,position of ,woman2 her ,duties1 ,privileges1 and ,influence1 c4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,,landels1 ,d4,d4 #es4 ,world before the ,deluge1 ,the4 ,from the ,french of ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,carefully edited by ,h4 ,w4 ,,bristow1 ,f4,r4,s41 of the ,geological ,survey4 ,demy #hvo1 #bcc ,plates1 cloth1 lettered1 #afs42 extra cloth gilt1 #a #as4 ,world of the ,sea1 ,the4 ,translated from the ,french of ,,alfred ,,fredol1 by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,m4 ,,hart4 ,demy #hvo1 with ,coloured and ,tinted ,plates1 and numerous ,wood ,engravings4 ,best cloth1 lettered1 #bas4 ,world ,of ,wonders1 ,the4 ,a ,record of ,things ,wonderful in ,nature1 ,science1 and ,art4 ,cloth1 #gs4 #f;d42 full gilt1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,wonders1 ,library ,of4 ,a ,series of ,gift ,books4 ,with numerous ,illustrations1 and handsomely bound in a cover specially designed for this series of ,gift ,books4 ,cloth extra1 #es4 each4 ,wonders in ,acoustics4 ,wonderful ,escapes4 ,wonders of ,animal ,instinct4 ,certainly one of the best books upon the instincts of insects and animals which we have seen4--,standard4 ,wonders of ,architecture4 ,the little work before us is a great help to the formation of our tastes and the study of a great science4--,naval and ,military ,gazette4 ,wonders of ,bodily ,strength and ,skill4 ,a pleasant volume1 full of interesting facts4--,daily ,telegraph4 ,wonderful ,balloon ,ascents4 ,containing a ,popular ,account of ,ballooning from the ,earliest ,period to the ,present ,time1 the ,ascents made1 and ,improvements effected4 ,with ,sixteen full-page and numerous other ,engravings4 ,the following ,,catalogues of ,messrs4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 and ,,galpin',s ,,publications1 c41 are now ready1 and may be had from any ,bookseller3-- #a4 ,catalogue ,of ,educational ,works1 of ,students' and ,scholars' ,materials4 #b4 ,catalogue of ,technical ,manuals and ,primary ,school-,books4 #c4 ,the ,children's ,books ,catalogue1 ,illustrated4 ,rewards and ,prizes4 #d4 ,classified ,catalogue of #fj1jjj ,electrotypes of ,valuable ,engravings for ,sale4 #e4 ,the ,complete ,descriptive ,catalogue4 #f4 ,the ,classified ,catalogue1 containing a ,complete ,list of ,publications1 from ,one ,penny upwards1 arranged according to price4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,and ,,galpin1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london2 ,,and #eif1 ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber notes3 ,tags that surround words #c4 ,the ,children's ,books ,catalogue indicate bold4 ,tags that surround the word ,naval and ,military ,gazette4 indicate italics4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,p4#bd4 'he ,equator4' changed to 'the ,equator4'4 ,p4#ha4 ',marseileise' changed to ',marseillaise'4 ,p4#afa4 ,fig4 #ge4 ',dendrophylia' changed to ',dendrophyllia'4 ,p4#ahf4 'd',acclimitation' changed to 'd',acclimatation'4 ,p4#bjc4 ,fig4 #hg4 ',hydra viridris' changed to ',hydra viridis'4 ,p4#bbd4 'vetebrated' changed to 'vertebrated'4 ,p4#bii4 'duvernea' changed to 'duverna'1 also in the list of illustrations4 ,p4#cah4 'coattings' changed to 'coatings'4 ,p4#cce4 'themeslves' changed to 'themselves'4 ,p4#ceb4 ',malgrina' changed to ',maleagrina'4 ,p4#djc4 'insensi le' changed to 'insensible'4 ,p4#djh4 'connnection' changed to 'connection'4 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,fig4 ,,iii4 ',vlouta' changed to ',voluta'4 ,p4#ebc4 'other other' changed to 'other'4 ,p4#eca4 'it own' changed to 'its own4 ,p4#ehj4 ,added ',plate' to illustration ,,xxix1 ',plate ,,xxix4' ,p4#eha4 'cranes' changed to 'crans'4 ,fixed various punctuation4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------