,,everyday ,,objects ,,murray ,,and ,,gibb1 ,,edinburgh1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty',s ,,stationery ,,office4 ,illustration3 ,,everyday ,,objects4 7,frontispiece47 ,,everyday ,,objects ,,or ,picturesque ,aspects of ,natural ,history4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations4 ,,edited ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams1 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,year1 ,,sword ,,and ,,pen1 ,,before ,,the ,,conquest1 ,,etc4 ,to know ,that which about us lies in daily life1 ,is the prime wisdom4 ,,milton4 ,,william ,p4 ,,nimmo3 ,,london3 #ad ,,king ,,william ,,street1 ,,strand2 ,,and ,,edinburgh4 #ahgf4 ,illustration ,,preface4 ,illustration ,the very favourable reception accorded both by ,press and ,public to the ,circle of the ,year1 has induced me to prepare a second volume1 similar in design1 but dealing with different branches of the same subject4 ,as the former was founded on the first series of a popular ,french work1 ,les ,saisons1 by ,m4 ,hoefer1 so the present has been suggested by the second series2 but in availing myself of it1 ,i have omitted much1 ,i have revised more1 and at various parts my additions have been considerable4 ,and here1 as in my former effort1 ,i have written from a popular rather than a scientific point of view4 ,it has not been my object to sketch the outlines or lay down the foundations of any science2 but to show1 as best ,i could1 how much of wonder and beauty enters into our daily life1 and what inexhaustible sources of study lie at our very feet4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a misfortune of our common systems of education that they too much neglect the tuition of the eye2 that the young are not taught to mark the curious and interesting objects which are comprehended within their daily vision2 that they know so much about ancient mythology and so little about modern science1--so much about gods and heroes1 so little about stars and flowers4 ,i have called this volume ,everyday ,objects1 not because those which it describes may be seen every day1 but because they mostly belong to the region of the commonplace and familiar2 and ,i have called it ,picturesque ,aspects of ,natural ,history1 because ,i have endeavoured1 in companionship with my ,french collaborateur1 to indicate the poetical side of the various sciences into which ,i have presumed to penetrate4 ,if it should awaken a love of nature in any breast1 or develop a spirit of inquiry1 which may lead the student further and further on the path of knowledge1 the labour bestowed upon these pages will not have been in vain4 ,the instinct of curiosity1--says ,m4 ,hoefer1 in his preface to the first series of ,les ,saisons1--is the awakening of the intellectual life3 it commences with the lisping of the child1 accompanies the adult in every phase of his existence1 and1 far from becoming extinct with the last throb of the heart1 revives before the unknown shadows of the grave4 ,what1 then1 is there in the whole world of greater importance to follow and direct than the movements and impulses of this curiosity1 of these uncertain pulsations of the soul8 ,in this lies the secret of all education2 and upon education depends the future of humanity4 ,unfortunately1 he continues1 the methods hitherto employed have been absolutely insufficient4 ,and the insufficiency is most notable as regards the imperfect and defective training given to the instinct of curiosity4 ,observe the child4 ,of everything which excites his attention1 he never fails to ask you the reason why4 ,it is thus that he enters into the connexion of cause and effect4 ,it is a sign4 ,but instead of following up this natural indication1 and developing the thought by the exercise of the reason1 we proceed as if the being under our charge were incapable of reason2 we overload the memory of the child with a multitude of words1 whose value he cannot understand until later in life1 and perhaps never4 ,the true direction of the mind is to proceed from the thought to the word1 and not from the word to the thought4 ,it is for want of having recognised and applied this principle that our educational systems have failed so utterly4 ,let us take1 for example1 the study of nature4 ,no science1 assuredly1 ought to prove more attractive to the mind than natural history4 ,yet mark how repulsive zoology1 botany1 and mineralogy are made at the very outset1 by the dryness of their nomenclatures and the dreariness of their classifications4 ,undoubtedly1 it is necessary to lay down a course of study in the midst of the marvels which everywhere surround us2 undoubtedly names are required for the objects which attract our notice4 ,but are not the methods we employ directly opposed to the end we set before ourselves8 ,i address myself to parents and teachers2 and ,i say to them1 ,do you wish to inculcate a love of science1 and yet put into the hands of your children or pupils books which differ as widely from the book of nature as human brotherhood--7a fiction67--differs from universal gravitation8 ,instead of familiarising us at first with the animals and plants within our everyday reach1 you collect1 under the same irrevocable iron form1 genera and species never intended to meet in any one particular zone1 and many of which are so rare that few persons will ever be fortunate enough to see them except in collections and engravings4 ,and1 curious to state1 the rarest species nearly always obtain your preferences2 judging1 at least1 from the minute descriptions which you consecrate to them4 ,monstrous absurdity6 ,you seek at a distance that which lies close to your hands1 as if the ,everyday ,objects above1 beneath1 and around1 were unworthy of the science you profess4 ,but here we must pause4 ,upon the principles thus laid down by ,m4 ,hoefer1 have been founded the two unpretending companion volumes1 of which the second is now submitted to the lenient judgment of the public4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,book ,i4--,,winter4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens3-- ,the ,number of the ,stars1 #d ,the ,great ,bear and the ,little ,bear1 #h ,orion1 #ac ,diurnal ,movement1 #ae ,determination of the ,cardinal ,points1 #ag ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,upon ,,the ,,earth3-- ,the ,snow1 #cb ,red ,snow1 #ci ,the ,eternal ,snow1 #dd ,the ,inhabitants of the ,eternal ,snows1 #dh ,the ,arvicola ,leucurus1 #di ,the ,marmot1 #ec ,the ,chamois1 #ef ,the ,eagle and the ,wren1 #eg ,the ,snow ,bunting1 #ff ,the ,red-billed ,crow1 #fh ,reptiles1 #gj ,inferior ,animals1 #ga ,herbaceous ,plants which best endure the ,cold of ,winter1 #ge ,the ,dog ,mercury1 #gg ,the ,garden ,nightshade1 #hb ,the ,dog's-tooth ,grass1 #hh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,book ,,ii4--,,spring4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens3-- ,the ,earth's ,figure is seen in the ,sky as in a ,mirror1 #ajb ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,on ,,the ,,earth3-- ,causes of the ,circulation of the ,sap1 #acb ,the ,daisy1 #ach ,the ,tulip1 #aeb ,the ,heliotrope1 #aef ,the ,anemones1 #aeg ,the ,arum1 #afa ,the ,ranunculace1 #afe ,the ,wood-louse1 #afi ,the ,dragon-flies1 #agd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,book ,,iii4--,,summer4 ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens3-- ,the ,adumbrated ,sphere1 #aia ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,on ,,the ,,earth3-- ,the ,perianth1 #bjh ,the ,calyx1 #bjh ,the ,corolla1 #bbc ,the ,prunella1 #bcj ,the ,scutellaria1 #bce ,the ,lilies1 #bda ,the ,gentians1 #bej ,an ,alpine ,excursion1 #bef ,the ,pimpernel1 #bfj ,the ,mole--,the ,staphylinus--,the ,mole ,cricket1 #bfe ,the ,earwig1 #bgh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,book ,,iv4--,,autumn4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens3-- ,the ,circle1 and the uniform ,movement of the ,stars 7according to the ,theory of the ,ancients destroyed by ,kepler71 #bhi ,the ,solar ,constitution1 #bib ,result of recent ,astronomical ,researches1 #bif ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,on ,,the ,,earth3-- ,chemical action of ,light1 #cab ,action of ,heat1 #cac ,arable ,land1 #cah ,mushrooms or ,agarics1 #cbe ,the ,number of ,vegetable ,species distributed over the whole ,surface of the ,globe1 #ccg ,the ,harvest ,bug1 #cdi ,the ,cheese ,mite1 #ced ,the ,number of ,animal ,species distributed over the whole ,surface of the ,globe1 #cef ,what is ,chlorophyll8 #cff ,carnations and ,pinks1 #cga ,the ,eglantine and the ,convolvulus1 #cgi ,metamorphosis3 a ,physico-philosophical ,meditation1 #chd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,appendix1 #dje ,,book ,i4 ,,winter4 ,lastly1 came ,winter clothd all in frieze1 ,chattering his teeth for cold that did him chill2 ,whilst on his hoary beard his breath did freeze1 ,and the dull drops1 that from his purpled bill ,as from a limbeck did adown distil3 ,in his right hand a tippd staff he held1 ,with which his feeble steps he stayd still2 ,for he was faint with cold1 and weak with eld2 ,that scarce his loosd limbs he able was to wield4 --,,spenser1 ,the ,faerie ,queene1 ,canto vi4 7,of ,mutability74 99 99 99 99 99 ,you naked trees1 whose shady leaves are lost1 ,wherein the birds were wont to build their bower1 ,and now are clothed with moss and hoary frost1 ,instead of blossoms1 wherewith your buds did flower2 ,i see your tears that from your boughs do rain1 ,whose drops in dreary icicles remain4 --,,spenser1 ,the ,shepherd's ,calendar1 ,eclogue ,i4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens4 ,skies flower'd with stars1 ,violet1 rose1 or pearl-hued1 or soft blue1 ,golden1 or green1 the light now blended1 now ,alternate4 --,p4 ,j4 ,,bailey1 ,festus4 ,illustration ,our observation of the celestial phenomena may most easily be made in the winter-time4 ,then the nights are long1 and the vault of heaven is crowded with stars1 and1 unilluminated by the moon1 exhibits all its splendours4 ,in the other seasons of the year1 and particularly in summer1 the twilight gleam encroaches1 so to speak1 upon a portion of the nights1 which are otherwise so brief1 and precludes our vision from any exact estimate of the stars4 ,those demitints1 those soft subdued reflections of light1 scarcely permit the eye to distinguish even stars of the first and second magnitude1 which shine like spots of dull gold on a background of pale silver4 ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,stars4 ,how many are the stars8 ,to such a question comes the immediate answer1 ,they are infinite in number4 ,but1 after a little meditation1 we begin to perceive that the question1 apparently so simple1 is1 in reality1 one of very great complexity4 ,let us endeavour to disentangle its various threads4 ,we must not forget that1 in every scientific analysis1 it is important we should1 in the first place1 separate two intimately united elements1--the individual who observes1 and the product of the observation4 ,the former1 the sensorial factor1 is subject to every condition of space and time2 the second1 the intellectual factor1 tends1 by its generalisations1 to free itself from those very conditions which are the inseparable co-efficients of matter and movement4 ,the individual passes2 save from an outer standpoint1 we know not whence he comes1 nor whither he goes4 ,the product of the observation remains2 transmissible from generation to generation1 it will gradually expand and increase1 if it be founded upon truth2 but1 on the contrary1 its splendour will wane1 and will eventually disappear1 if it be founded upon error4 ,eternal is this spectacle of actors and puppets succeeding one another uninterruptedly upon the same stage6 ,as one falls1 another steps forward into his place1 and so the great army marches forward with unbroken ranks4 ,he who1 in cities pent1 sees the sky only through a garret window1 or in the narrow intervals between house and house1 can form no accurate idea of the magnificence of the firmament4 ,the peasant1 the shepherd1 or the labourer1 spent with his daily work1 prefers sleep to astronomical vigils2 and even amongst those more favoured sons of fortune1 who enjoy sufficient leisure1 but few are found who feel a genuine pleasure in the study of the stars4 ,though they are the poetry of heaven1 their music is inaudible to the majority of souls4 ,we content ourselves with an occasional careless glance at their serene loveliness1 and then turn again to the pleasures or avocations of commonplace life4 ,but1 come2 let us arouse ourselves6 ,let us quit the city for awhile2 let us throw off all thought of its too-engrossing pursuits2 let us find time to count the stars4 ,gentle readers1 ,i ask you to follow me4 ,ah1 me6 how small is the train of followers6 ,how great my delusion in supposing that a complete phalanx of students of the celestial wonders would reply to my invitation6 ,we have now arrived in the open country2 and here1 on the summit of this gentle ascent1 crowned with a clump of leafless trees1 we pause4 ,the sky glitters with a cold1 keen light1 which is reflected back by the snowy plains4 ,while the eye ranges delightedly over the starry vault1 the ear is struck by the distant sound of bells1 which1 at the midnight hour1 ring in the infant year--ring in so many hopes and expected joys1 and unexpected sorrows--ring out so many passing pleasures and rudely dissipated visions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,as the chime glides softly over the meadows1 and along the resounding vales1 and through the leafless woods1 repeated by echo after echo1 until its music dies away in the distance1 like our recollections of the dreams of youth1 we murmur to ourselves that solemn song of the poet1 which so aptly blends the regrets of the past with the anticipations of the future2 we exclaim-- ,ring out1 wild bells1 to the wild sky1 ,the flying cloud1 the frosty light3 ,the year is dying in the night2 ,ring out1 wild bells1 and let him die4 ,ring out false pride in place and blood1 ,the civic slander and the spite2 ,ring in the love of truth and right1 ,ring in the common love of good4 ,ring out old shapes of foul disease2 ,ring out the harrowing lust of gold2 ,ring out the thousand wars of old1 ,ring in the thousand years of peace4 ,ring in the valiant man and free1 ,the larger heart1 the kindlier hand2 ,ring out the darkness of the land1 ,ring in the ,christ that is to be4#a ,the spectacle is majestic and impressive4 ,let us seek1 in the first place1 to ascertain our position in reference to the four points of the compass--the four cardinal points4 ,but how is this to be done8 ,by day it is easy enough4 ,i have only to turn myself towards the sun when it has reached the highest point of its diurnal course1 and there1 in front of me1 lies the south1 in my rear the north1 the east on my left1 and on my right the west4 ,but is it possible to ascertain one's position during the absence of the orb of day8 ,both possible and easy1 provided the sky be clear and cloudless4 ,but this condition is as necessary by day as by night4 ,how can we determine in which direction lies the south1 if the sun be hidden from our gaze by an uniformly opaque atmosphere1 and if objects1 lit up by a diffuse light1 project no shadow at any time of the day8 ,endeavour to group together the stars which more particularly strike your gaze2 and be careful1 in these groupings1 to define every fantastic figure which is suggested by your vivid imagination4 ,undoubtedly1 our earliest ancestors1 the world's gray forefathers1 proceeded in this manner1 in their anxiety to lay hold of some definite guiding-marks in yonder ocean of sparkling atoms4 ,and to study a science by its history is to follow up its successive development4 ,,the ,,great ,,and ,,the ,,little ,,bear4 ,observe yonder very remarkable group of seven stars2 nearly all are of the same splendour1 and they are so arranged as to figure an antique chariot1 provided with a somewhat curved axle pole4 ,observe it carefully4 ,and not far from this group you will detect another1 by no means so conspicuous1 but exactly resembling it in form4 ,this second chariot is turned in an inverse direction1 and the stars composing it1 with three exceptions1 are much less brilliant4 ,here1 then1 are two groups of stars1 clearly distinguished by their configuration--two constellations1 for such is the scientific name given to all the stellar groups4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,great ,bear and ,little ,bear4 ,it has been the fortune of the first of these two groups to strike the eye of the most indifferent observer from the remotest antiquity2 and its likeness to a quadriga early procured it the name of a car or chariot4 ,for those ,christians who pleased themselves in studding the sky with ,biblical personages1 it is ,david's ,chariot4 ,this species of apotheosis was borrowed from the ,pagans4 ,they placed in the skies their divinities1 their demigods1 their heroes1 and the principal facts and stories of their mythology4 ,for the ,greeks and ,romans the ,chariot of ,david was the female of the ,bear1 an ursa1 or 4 ,whence came this transfiguration8 ,listen to the fanciful old myth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,callisto was the most beautiful of the daughters of the ,king ,lycaon4 ,jupiter1 who may appropriately be styled the ,don ,juan or ,lovelace of the heathen ,olympus1 fell in love with her2 and she bore him a son1 named ,arcas1 who gave his name to ,arcadia1 that land of song and fable1 groves and streams1 where ,lycaon exercised his sovereign sway4 ,juno1 the queen of heaven1 and wife of the so-called king of gods and men1 transported by her jealous rage1 changed ,callisto into a she-bear2 who1 one day1 would have been unwittingly slain by ,arcas1 if ,jupiter1 opportunely appearing on the scene1 had not metamorphosed the hunter into another animal1 ,ursa ,minor1 or the ,little ,bear4 ,according to this myth1 the ,little ,bear will be but a transformation of the former1 who was the ,great ,bear1 or1 before all and above all1 the ,bear4 ,it is somewhat surprising1 according to certain writers1 that ,homer should refer to only one of these constellations3-- 4#b 7,the ,bear1 which men the ,chariot also name74 ,but the learned commentators who have censured the poet for making no distinction between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor1 probably never looked at the starry vault with an attentive eye2 otherwise1 like all the world1 they might have convinced themselves that the seven stars1 septem triones 7whence the word septentrion71 forming the beautiful constellation1 which1 undoubtedly1 long before ,homer's time1 was known as ,the ,bear or ,the ,celestial ,chariot1 were all that could be seen4 ,with a single exception1 these stars are of the second magnitude--that is to say1 they1 so far as regards their brilliancy1 rank next to the most brilliant stars of the firmament4 ,the least conspicuous star in the group--one of the third magnitude--occupies the base of the pole of the ,celestial ,chariot1 or of the ,bear's tail2 it is the fourth star counting from the extremity of the tail4 ,on celestial charts1 it is particularised by the fourth letter of the ,greek alphabet1 7delta74 ,observe1 in passing1 that the first of these charts1 wherein the stars of a constellation were indicated by ,greek characters1 appeared in #afjc1 at ,augsburg1 under the title of ,uranometria4 ,its author1 ,jean ,bayer1 an amateur astronomer1 who died in #affj1 conceived the idea of designating by the first letters of the ,greek alphabet--1 1 1 1 and so on--the most noticeable stars4 ,the animals bearing the names of the constellations are drawn in this map with very considerable care2 but it requires1 let us hasten to add1 much imagination and good-will to recognise1 in the form of a stellar group1 the animal shown in the drawing4 ,thus far ,ursa ,major4 ,the four stars of the quadriga1 or chariot1 have been employed to form the dorso-lumbar region of the animal2 the three others define its tail2 and1 finally1 twenty-four little stars1 some of which are hardly visible to the naked eye1 compose the head and paws of the celestial plantigrade4 ,as for ,ursa ,minor1 it is impossible to distinguish it immediately when you are unaccustomed to surveying or examining the celestial vault4 ,to detect its position1 you require to be forewarned of it2 to know1 in the first place1 that there exists in the vicinity of the ,bear an exactly similar stellar group4 ,the point of the tail-- in ,ursa ,minor--alone possesses a splendour comparable to that of the principal stars in ,ursa ,major4 ,but how construct a figure with one star8 ,the four other stars1 two of which mark the anterior part of the animal's body1 and two others the tail1 properly so called1 are only of the third magnitude3 they are marked 1 1 1 4 ,finally1 the stars which define the posterior portion1 marked and on ,bayer's chart1 are only of the fourth magnitude--in other words1 are scarcely visible4 ,the eye1 to detect them1 must be wholly free from any gleam of light4 ,many generations passed before they succeeded in discovering what a single individual solved during his brief career4 ,all ,homer's contemporaries1 and1 prior to these1 tens of millions of mortals1 had contemplated the sky1 and yet none of them had detected the difference between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor4 ,the distinction1 therefore1 is of a comparatively recent date2 probably does not date back earlier than the sixth century before the ,christian era4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us recall ourselves1 now1 to the question propounded4 ,the first impression produced by the aspect of the sky during a beautiful winter night is1 we repeat1 that the number of the stars is infinite4 ,this wholly spontaneous thought1 which1 to some extent1 imposes itself on the mind long before the reason attempts any calculation1 is1 strange to say1 both false and true4 ,but how can a thought be both false and true8 ,nothing is easier than to explain the seeming contradiction4 ,we shall return to it hereafter1 after we have indulged in some indispensable digressions4 ,,orion4 ,one of the finest and loftiest flights of ,longfellow's imagination is to be found in his poem on the occultation of ,orion4 ,he has seldom1 if ever1 sounded a more vigorous strain4 ,after alluding to that music of the spheres which ,pythagoras dreamed of1 and which ,shakespeare has described in a passage of great beauty1 he continues3-- ,beneath the sky's triumphal arch ,this music sounded like a march1 ,and with its chorus seemed to be ,preluding some great tragedy4 ,sirius was rising in the east2 ,and1 slow ascending one by one1 ,the kindling constellations shone4 ,begirt with many a blazing star1 ,stood the great giant ,algebar1 ,orion1 hunter of the beast6 ,his sword hung gleaming by his side2 ,and1 on his arm1 the lion's hide ,scattered across the midnight air ,the golden radiance of its hair4 ,the most ancient observer who wished1 with his own eyes1 to assure himself whether the number of the stars was infinite1 must have quickly perceived that1 in spite of an apparent impossibility1 it is no difficult task to complete their enumeration4 ,to execute this operation conveniently1 however1 we must invent a process2 and of all processes1 the simplest1 and that which first occurs to the mind1 is to group the stars by configurations which1 to a certain degree1 are mnemo-technical4 ,such1 in our belief1 is the true origin--a point so often and laboriously discussed--of the asterisms or constellations4 ,their fanciful1 mythological1 or poetical embellishments1 are of later date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the census or enumeration of the stars1 which we suppose to have commenced during our winter nights1 must at first have been limited to the most characteristic groups1 composed of the most brilliant points4 ,in this scientific labour the first rank would necessarily be occupied by ,arctos 7or ,ursa ,major7 and ,orion4 ,why8 ,because these two constellations attract and rivet everybody's gaze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,orion4 ,orion is situated on the side opposite to the ,great ,bear4 ,it is the most beautiful constellation in our western sky4 ,you may easily recognise it by three stars1 very close together1 which are inscribed1 as it were1 in the centre of a great trapezium of four stars1 two of which are of the first magnitude4 ,beneath the three first stars1 called the ,three ,kings1 or ,orion's ,belt1 is visible a small stellar group of the fourth and fifth magnitude1 near which1 with a good average glass1 may be distinguished the largest and most remarkable of the nebul4 ,here we find the mythologists--those theologians of the ,greco-,roman polytheism--at disagreement4 ,according to an ancient legend1 immortalised by ,homer-- ,aurora sought ,orion's love1444 ,till1 in ,ortygia1 ,dian's wingd dart ,had pierced the hapless hunter to the heart4#c ,the giant1 in the lower world1 is still animated by a burning passion for the chase-- ,there huge ,orion1 of portentous size1 ,swift through the gloom a giant-hunter flies2 ,a ponderous mace of brass1 with direful sway1 ,aloft he whirls1 to crush the savage prey2 ,stern beasts in trains that by his truncheon fell1 ,now1 grisly forms1 shoot o'er the lawns of hell4#d ,according to later traditions1 the giant ,orion1 son of ,tura and ,neptune1 was endowed by his father with the faculty of walking upon the sea as well as upon earth4 ,he abandoned himself to the fierce joys of the chase in the wooded isle of ,crete1 to whose shades he had accompanied ,diana and ,latona4 ,swollen with pride1 he defied to combat all the monsters of the universe1 and was slain by a scorpion which the earth had engendered under his feet4 ,but1 through the intercession of ,diana1 a place was given to him in the firmament opposite ,scorpio4 ,,diurnal ,,movement4 ,let us put aside these dreams of the world's youth1 and return to the reality4 ,nature1 transformed by the ancients into a multiple divinity1 never fails to overwhelm with surprise the observer who interrogates her with simplicity and without any preconcerted system4 ,and it was thus that he who first undertook to enumerate the stars1 by the help of the constellations1 made at once the greatest and most unexpected discovery4 ,what1 in fact1 was not his astonishment on seeing the gradual displacement of objects which1 at the first glance1 appeared immovable6 ,to this very natural astonishment soon succeeded1 we doubt not1 a desire to analyse the phenomenon4 ,the most beautiful constellations of the firmament1 ,ursa and ,orion1 will have their points of repery on the star-gemmed sphere4 ,an attentive study1 eagerly pursued through a certain lapse of time1 would teach him that ,orion rises and sets like the sun and the moon1 while the ,bear1 remaining perpetually above the horizon1 neither rises nor sets4 ,stimulated by curiosity1 the observer would afterwards assure himself that the whole of the celestial vault revolved upon an axis1 while the stars divided into groups2 remain fixed1 fixed in this sense1 that they constantly maintain among themselves the same relations of distance4 ,the idea of a solid sphere1 to which the stars were attached like golden nails1 then came quite naturally to the human mind4 ,such1 undoubtedly1 was the origin of the discovery of diurnal movement2 of that general movement which carries all the stars from west to east1 to bring them back to the same points in the course of one complete day4 ,to hear our professors of astronomy invariably repeating1 that the spectator of the starry vault may see1 every moment1 new stars rising above the horizon1--may see them mount the sky1--halt in their upward march when they have attained a certain elevation1--afterwards re-descend1 and pass below the horizon2--to hear1 we say1 these words incessantly reproduced1 one would think that a cursory glance at the sky would suffice to reveal the general movement1 and that what is within the ken of the first comer1 should not be called a discovery4 ,but we see in this another of those illusions which blind contemporaries as to the time-long efforts of their predecessors to discover the very results which long ago became our common patrimony4 ,unquestionably1 if you have eyes1 you cannot fail to see the apparent movement of the earth and moon2 but from thence to the relation of the whole celestial sphere is a wide interval4 ,how many men are there who possess1 on the one hand1 sufficient patience to fix their gaze only for a couple of hours on the same point of the starry firmament2 and1 on the other1 sufficient intelligence to estimate the relation of this point to a fixed point of the horizon1 and to measure1 by the thought1 the interval separating these two points8 ,let each one ask himself4 ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,cardinal ,,points4 ,however it may be1 the discovery of the rotation of the celestial system must have been rapidly brought to perfection as it was transmitted from one generation to another4 ,it must soon have been recognised that this sphere is inclined in such a manner that one of its poles--the poles of the world1 which1 in reality1 are simply the prolonged extremities of the axis of terrestrial rotation--is always above the horizon1 while the other remains below4 ,and this phenomenon would lead to the geometrical conception of an axis of rotation of the celestial sphere4 ,thus we may explain1 with perfect ease1 why the ,bear and the neighbouring constellations should describe perfect circles1 and the other and more distant constellations only arcs of circles1 of a greater or lesser diameter2 finally1 without even looking at the sky1 we can understand that some stars there are which show themselves on the horizon1 only to disappear immediately1 and others which remain completely invisible to the inhabitants of our climates4 ,by a singularly fortunate coincidence1 the pole1 that geometrical point around which revolve those circumpolar constellations that are continually above our horizon1 is occupied by a star well known to fame1 and hence1 on the faith of its renown1 supposed by many people to be a star of peculiar brilliancy4#e ,it is named the ,polar ,star 7 in ,ursa ,minor71 and is between the second and third magnitude4 ,now if1 with arms extended1 we so place ourselves that our back shall be turned to ,polaris1 we shall have opposite to us the point of the arc occupied by the sun at noon2 on our left the east1 and on our right the west4 ,it is thus we may easily learn our position in the absence of the orb of day4 ,the discovery of this simple mode of guidance was1 nevertheless1 an epoch in history4 ,from thence the mariner grew bold enough to quit the coast1 which he had hitherto hugged with timorous prudence1 and venture out into the open sea4 ,thenceforth1 the darkness disappeared2 new countries were revealed to one another1 and nations1 which from time immemorial had remained apart1 were brought into frequent communication4 ,it was with eyes fixed upon the ,bear1 which alone does not bathe itself in the waters of ,ocean1 that ,ulysses set out from ,calypso's enchanted island4 ,according to ,homer1 who reflects in his immortal work the condition of scientific knowledge among his contemporaries1 the ocean was a great broad river1 surrounding the earth with circumfluent volume1 and in its waves the stars were bathed or extinguished in the evening1 to be rekindled in the morning on the opposite side4 ,by saying that the ,bear alone does not bathe in the waters of ,ocean#f-- -- the poet plainly shows that ,ursa ,minor1 and the other circumpolar constellations1 were unknown in his time4 ,if the knowledge of these constellations was from the beginning so useful and so necessary to navigation1 the constellation nearest to the pole could not1 at first1 have served as a guide to any but a people essentially maritime4 ,and here we find the ,phnicians1 or ,tyrians1 in the foremost rank4 ,after reminding us that ,ursa ,major was also called ,helice1 or the spiral1 as in the famous passage in the ,argonauta of ,apollonius ,rhodius1-- ,night in the east poured darkness2 on the sea ,the wakeful sailor to ,orion's star ,and ,helic turned heedful1-- and ,ursa ,minor1 ,cynosura1--that is1 the dog's tail1--,manilius1#g a ,latin poet1 who wrote at the beginning of the ,christian era1 goes on to say3-- ,at one of the extremities of the world's axis are two constellations1 well known to the hapless mariner3 they are his guides when the bait of gain impels him across the ocean4 ,helice is the larger1 and describes the larger circle3 it is recognised by its seven stars1 which rival one another in splendour2 and by this it is that the ,greeks steer their barks4 ,the smaller1 ,cynosura1 describes a lesser circle3 it is inferior both in size and lustre2 but1 according to the witness of the ,tyrians1 is of greater importance4 ,for the ,phnicians no safer guide exists when they seek to approach a coast invisible from the high seas4 ,the testimony of ,manilius is confirmed by that of ,aratus and ,strabo4 ,the pseudo-,eratosthenes1 in his book on the constellations1 refers to ,ursa ,minor under the name of 1 the ,phnician4 ,it appears1 then1 to be established that the ,phnicians were the first to group a constellation of the same general outline as ,helice1 the ,little ,bear1 or ,ursa ,minor4 ,but that1 as we have already explained1 the two constellations do not lie in the same direction1 every one may see3 ,nec paribus posit sunt frontibus2 utraque caudam ,vergit in alterius rostrum1 sequiturque sequentem4#h ,not in the same direction do they face3 ,the one its tail towards the other's snout ,turns1 and they thus1 pursuing1 each pursue4 ,certain it is that the ,phnicians1 as experienced seamen1 would guide their course by the constellation lying nearest to the pole4 ,but was this constellation the same which we now-a-days call ,ursa ,minor8 ,it is quite allowable for us to put such a question1 because everybody knows that1 owing to the movement of the terrestrial axis around the poles of the ecliptic1 the axis of the world 7the terrestrial axis prolonged7 is displaced to an extent which becomes perfectly appreciable at the end of a certain time4#i ,we may calculate1 therefore1 that the pole1 now situated1 as we have already said1 near the star ,polaris 7 in ,ursa ,minor71 was formerly at some distance from it4 ,so1 at the epoch of the greatest prosperity of the ,phnician people1 or about three thousand years ago1 the north pole would nearly correspond with a star in ,draco1 now #bd #eb' distant4 ,this constellation is shown in fig4 #b1 between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor2 the in ,draco is a star surrounded by a circle1 like the ,polar ,star1 in ,ursa ,minor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the constellation of ,draco was well known to the ancients1 we may gather from a passage in the ,phenomena of ,aratus1 a work partly translated by ,cicero3-- ,the ,dragon1 like the sinuous course of a river1 uncoils his long scaly body1 and surrounds with undulating folds the two constellations of ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor4 ,bringing together these different facts for the sake of comparison1 we arrive at the conclusion that the ,polar ,star1 by whose scintillating light the early mariners steered their tiny keels1 was not the ,polaris of to-day-- in ,ursa ,minor--but in the constellation of the ,dragon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,arabs1 those navigators of the ,waterless ,sea 7as they poetically designate the desert of ,sahara71 have bestowed particular appellations on several stars2 but they guide themselves rather by their radiance than by their position4 ,thus1 such stars as ,draco1 ,cepheus1 ,cygnus1 which have occupied1 and1 in the course of centuries1 will again occupy the place of ,polaris1 have received no special denomination2 while the stars of ,ursa ,major1 and 7occupying the posterior angles of the chariot71 are called ,dubke and ,merak2#aj 1 1 1 1 1 which follow in due succession--,phega1 or ,phad1 ,megrez1 ,alioth1 ,mizar1 and ,ackar1 or ,benetnasch4 ,certain stars in the same constellation1 which are barely visible1 have also received distinctive names3 such is ,alcor1 a star between the fifth and sixth magnitude1 in the tail of ,ursa ,major1 between ,mizar and ,benetnasch4 ,this star1 it is true1 had a special use3 it served the ,arabs as the test of a good eyesight4 ,a further proof that the ,arabs founded their stellar nomenclature almost exclusively upon the lustre and colour of the stars1 is obvious in the names which they gave to the stars forming the constellation of ,orion4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,thus1 and 1 two stars of the first magnitude1 occupying the right or eastern shoulder1 and the left or western foot of the giant-hunter1 are called respectively1 ,betelguese and ,rigel2 the star 1 named ,bellatrix1 in the left shoulder1 is of the second magnitude1 like the stars 1 1 1 which represent ,orion's ,belt1 and bear the names of the ,three ,kings and ,st ,james's ,staff4 ,now the star marking the right knee or inferior eastern angle of the brilliant trapezium1 is only of the third magnitude2 therefore1 it has received no special designation4 ,the colour by which some stars are distinguished could not have failed to be remarked by those observers who first began to enumerate1 or take census of1 the celestial bodies4 ,thus ,sirius1 the most refulgent of the stars of heaven1 situated in ,canis ,major1 is of a bluish-white1 like ,rigel2 and ,arcturus1 situated on the prolongation of the tail of ,ursa ,major1 is reddish-yellow1 like ,betelguese4 ,sirius1 or the ,dog-star1 rose heliacally at the hottest time of the year1 and hence the ,greeks were accustomed to ascribe all the diseases of the season to its influence4 ,it was-- ,the star ,autumnal2 of all stars1 in dead of night1 ,conspicuous most1 and named ,orion's dog3 ,brightest it shines1 but ominous1 and dire ,disease portends to miserable man4 ,to sum up3 the figurative grouping of the stars1 the variety of their luminous magnificence1 their position towards ,polaris1 the determination of that position by the longitudinal circles passing through the axis of the world1 and twisted perpendicularly to this axis by the circles parallel to the ,equator1--such is the aggregate of the elements which must1 at a very early period1 have presided over the enumeration of those sparkling points1 each of which is the centre of a system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,finally1 are there any stars which the eye cannot perceive8 ,such a question would never have been propounded to the ancients4 ,and why8 ,because no reasoning would have drawn from them an admission that it was possible by artificial means to enlarge the range of our eyesight4 ,they would have deemed it madness to pretend to improve and develope what is not of human creation2 the visual apparatus1 as it is bestowed on us by nature1 they supposed to be the most perfect instrument which man could imagine4 ,and1 in truth1 nothing could fairly be objected to this way of looking at things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the #dh constellations 7#ba northern1 #ab zodiacal1 and #ae austral7 indicated by ,ptolemus1 contain a total of #ajbf stars1 whose relative positions had been determined by ,hipparchus4 ,to undertake an enumeration of the stars1 and to transmit the result to posterity1 appeared to ,pliny an audacity before which even a god would have recoiled 7,hipparchus--ausus1 rem etiam ,deo improbam1 annumerare posteris stellas74#aa ,yet numerous doubts had already risen in the mind of ,hipparchus as to the accuracy of the number recognised4 ,in the first place1 the ancients undoubtedly knew1 as we do1 that the visual faculty is not the same in all individuals2 that there are some who1 in the same celestial space1 see more stars than others4 ,many persons can discern up to stars of the seventh magnitude1 while with others the sight fails far within that limit4 ,the ancients must also have known1 as we do1 that1 for the enumeration to be complete1 the sky must be observed from all the points of the terrestrial surface on which man is planted4 ,even in our own days the catalogues of the southern heavens are far from being perfect4 ,finally1 more than two thousand years before the time of ,galileo1 ,democritus had already enunciated the opinion that the ,milky ,way was a mass of innumerable stars4 ,all these signs should have been accepted as warnings against premature affirmations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the invention of telescopes suddenly enlarged the question1 and it became necessary to establish a line of demarcation between the number of stars visible to the naked eye and the number visible through the agency of the telescope4 ,argelander1 the author of the ,uranometria1 has found that the stars visible to the naked eye1 over the entire surface of the heavens1 range from #ejjj to #ehjj4 ,otto ,struve1 employing ,herschel's method of computation1 has estimated at upwards of twenty millions 7#bj1cgd1jcd7 the number of stars visible with the ,herschel #bj-;feet telescope4 ,but1 in presence of all the nebul resolvable into stellar masses1 and before the development of the artificial range of our sight1--in presence1 finally1 of that hopeless perspective which the more we discover the more we perceive how much there remains to discover1--are we not forcibly carried back to our point of departure8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,ought not the imagination which1 at the first glance1 led us to believe the number of stars to be infinite1--ought it not to draw us nearer to the truth8 ,how should the imagination reveal to us1 without difficulty1 what the intellect1 assisted by the senses1 can only discover after ages of assiduous exertion8 ,these questions1 it seems to us1 are worthy of our studious consideration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we subjoin a table of the constellations in both hemispheres1 with the number of stars in each1 for the convenience of our younger readers4 ,,northern ,,constellations4 ,ursa ,minor1 the ,lesser ,bear1 #bd ,ursa ,major1 the ,great ,bear1 #hg ,perseus1 and ,head of ,medusa1 #ei ,auriga1 the ,charioteer1 #ff ,botes1 the ,herdsman1 #ed ,draco1 the ,dragon1 #hj ,cepheus1 #ce ,canes ,venatici1 the ,greyhounds ,asteria and ,chara1 #bh ,cor ,caroli 7,heart of ,charles ,,ii471 #c ,triangulum1 the ,triangle1 #af ,triangulum ,minus1 the ,lesser ,triangle1 #aj ,musca1 the ,fly1 #f ,lynx1 #dd ,leo ,minor1 the ,lesser ,lion1 #ec ,coma ,berenicis1 ,hair of ,queen ,berenice1 #dc ,cameleopardalis1 the ,giraffe1 #eh ,mons ,menelaus1 ,mt4 ,menelaus1 #d ,corona ,borealis1 the ,northern ,crown1 #ba ,serpens1 the ,serpent1 #fd ,scutum ,sobieski1 ,sobieski's ,shield1 #h ,hercules1 with the ,dog ,cerberus1 #aac ,serpentarius1 or ,ophiuchus1 the ,serpent-,bearer1 #gd ,taurus ,poniatowski1 ,poniatowski's ,bull1 #g ,lyra1 the ,harp1 #bb ,vulpeculus et ,anser1 the ,fox and ,goose1 #cg ,sagitta1 the ,arrow1 #ah ,aquila1 the ,eagle1 with ,antinous1 #ga ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin1 #ah ,cygnus1 the ,swan1 #ha ,cassiopeia1 the ,lady in her ,chair1 #ee ,equulus1 the ,horse's ,head1 #aj ,lacerta1 the ,lizard1 #af ,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse1 #hi ,andromeda1 #aa ,tarandus1 the ,rein-deer1 #ab ,,southern ,,constellations4 ,phnix1 #ac ,apparatus ,sculptoris1 the ,sculptor's ,tools1 #ab ,eridanus ,fluvius1 the ,river ,po1 #hd ,hydrus1 the ,water-,snake1 #aj ,cetus1 the ,whale1 #ig ,fornax ,chemica1 the ,chemical ,furnace1 #ai ,horologium1 the ,clock1 #ab ,rheticulus ,rhomboidialus1 #aj ,xiphias ,dorado1 the ,sword-,fish1 #g ,celapraxitellis1 the ,engraver's ,tools1 #af ,lepus1 the ,hare1 #ai ,columba ,noachi1 ,noah's ,dove1 #aj ,orion1 #gh ,argo ,navis1 the ,ship ,argo1 #fd ,canis ,major1 the ,great ,dog1 #ca ,equulus ,pictoris1 #h ,monoceros1 the ,unicorn1 #ca ,canis ,minor1 the ,lesser ,dog1 #ad ,chameleon1 #aj ,pyxis ,nautica1 the ,mariner's ,compass1 #d ,piscis ,volans1 the ,flying-,fish1 #h ,hydra1 the ,serpent1 #fj ,sextans1 the ,sextant1 #da ,robur ,carolinum 7,charles ,,ii4's ,oak71 #ab ,antlia ,pneumatica1 the ,air-,pump1 #c ,crater1 the ,cup1 #ca ,corvus1 the ,crow1 #i ,crux1 the ,cross1 #f ,apis ,musca1 the ,bee or ,fly1 #d ,avis ,indica1 the ,bird of ,paradise1 #aa ,circinus1 the ,mariner's ,compass1 #d ,centaurus1 the ,centaur1 #ce ,lupus1 the ,wolf1 #bd ,norma1 or ,euclid's ,square1 #ab ,triangulum ,australe1 the ,southern ,triangle1 #e ,ara1 the ,altar1 #i ,telescopium1 the ,telescope1 #i ,corona ,australis1 the ,southern ,crown1 #ab ,pavo1 the ,peacock1 #ad ,indus1 the ,indian1 #ab ,microscopium1 the ,microscope1 #aj ,octans ,hadliensis1 ,hadley's ,octant1 #dc ,grus1 the ,crane1 #ad ,toucan1 the ,american ,goose1 #i ,piscis ,australis1 the ,southern ,fish1 #bd ,mons ,mensa1 the ,table ,mountain1 #cj ,,zodiacal ,,constellations4 ,aries1 the ,ram1 #ff ,taurus1 the ,bull1 #ada ,gemini1 the ,twins1 #he ,cancer1 the ,crab1 #hc ,leo1 the ,lion1 #ie ,virgo1 the ,virgin1 #aaj ,libra1 the ,balance1 #ea ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion1 #dd ,sagittarius1 the ,archer1 #fi ,capricornus1 the ,goat1 #ea ,aquarius1 the ,water-,bearer1 #ajh ,pisces1 the ,fishes1 #aac ,,footnotes ,footnote #a3 ,tennyson1 ,in ,memoriam1 cvi4 ,footnote #b3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 v4 #bgc4 ,footnote #c3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 ,book v41 #aba-abd4 ,footnote #d3 ,ibid41 ,book xi41 #ega-egd4 ,footnote #e3 ,the pole-star1 however1 is not the true polar point1 but distant from it about #a #cb'1 which1 in ,a4,d4 #bajj1 will be decreased to #bf' #cj4 ,footnote #f3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 ,book v41 #bge4 ,footnote #g3 ,manilius1 ,astronomicon1 ,book i41 #bia-cjj4 ,footnote #h3 ,manilius1 ,astronomicon1 i41 #cjh1 #cji4 ,footnote #i3 ,this displacement amounts to about fifty seconds annually1 or1 more accurately1 to #ej4c4 ,it is easy1 therefore1 to calculate that the complete rotation of the terrestrial axis around the poles of the ecliptic will occupy #be1gfe years4 ,footnote #aj3 ,these are also called the ,pointers1 because an imaginary line from the lower to the upper1 prolonged in the same direction1 passes nearly over the ,polar ,star4 ,footnote #aa3 ,pliny1 ,historia ,naturalis1 ,book ii41 #bd4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,upon ,,the ,,earth4 ,ah1 bitter chill it was6 ,the owl1 for all his feathers1 was a-cold2 ,the hare limped trembling through the frozen grass1 ,and silent was the flock in woolly fold4 --,,keats4 ,illustration ,the winter of #ahfg-fh will count among the severest recorded in meteorological annals4 ,as early as the winter solstice the cold began to make itself felt4 ,in a few days the centigrade thermometer sank to #ab below zero1 through the influence of a very keen north-east wind4 ,at ,paris1 where1 on an average1 the winter temperature is two degrees higher than in the surrounding country1 the ,seine was completely frozen for upwards of a fortnight4 ,to meet with a similar phenomenon we must go back as far as #aghh4 ,in ,january #ahcj1 when1 on the #agth1 the temperature sank down to #ag4c1 the ,seine was also frozen1 but the ice speedily melted4 ,the extreme cold of #aghh coincides1 like that of #ahcj1 with the appearance of two comets4 ,in bringing together these and other similar facts1 some writers are induced to believe themselves authorised in establishing theories which attribute a certain frigorific influence to the comets4 ,but no such coincidence existed in the winter of #ahfg-fh1 nor in any other years signalised by the occurrence of excessive frost4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what are we to think of the supposed influence of the moon upon the weather8 ,this question1 so constantly revived1 is here not out of place4 ,the exceptionally prolonged cold1 during which the thermometer remained for three weeks below zero1 the barometer oscillating between #gf and #gfe1 commenced on the #bb;d of ,december1 three days before the new moon2 now1 it is on ,christmas-day1 at #dh min4 past #aa p4m41 that the moon is found in conjunction1--that is to say1 has become completely invisible to us by passing between the earth and the sun4 ,and the thaw1 which terminated this period of frost1 commenced on the #abth of the following ,january1 just three days after the full moon2 the exact moment of its opposition1 when the moon reflected upon us the whole hemisphere of its borrowed lustre1 took place on the #ith1 at #b min4 past #aa in the evening4 ,it is then in the neighbourhood of the syzygies 7conjunction and opposition7 of the moon that we must place the commencement and termination of the cold period to which we have been alluding4 ,we should not have thought of recalling these coincidences1 if it had not occurred to us that some meteorologists1 in accordance with the popular belief1 have attributed to the syzygies a marked influence on the changes of the weather4 ,toaldo has deduced from half-a-century's observations1 taken at ,padua1 this general fact1 that the maximum of influence manifests itself at the syzygies1 and somewhat more at the new than at the full moon2 that the minimum coincides with the first and second quarter2 that the action of the perigee 7minima distance of the moon from the earth7 is equal to that of the full moon2 and that the action of the apogee 7maxima distance of the moon from the earth7 is double that of the quarters4 ,observe that the ,italian meteorologist extended this influence to three days before and three days after a phase1 for the moon's passage through the syzygies2 while he restricted it to a day before and a day after1 for the quadratures4 ,the work which ,toaldo did for the climate of ,padua1 ,pilgram had already executed for that of ,vienna4 ,but the result at which he arrived1 after five-and-twenty years of observation 7from #agfc to #aghh71 was the contrary to that of ,toaldo3 namely1 that the new moon is the least active of all the phases in reference to changes of weather4 ,what1 then1 are we to conclude8 ,that the problem is one of extreme difficulty1 and that there are probably several elements necessary to its solution1 which at present escape us4 ,then1 too1 we ought to have a clear understanding of what is meant by changes of weather2 we must eliminate all vagueness from the word1 and not allow it to be governed by any preconceived theory4 ,,the ,,snow4 ,thick clouds ascend1 in whose capacious womb ,a vapoury deluge lies1 to snow congealed4 ,heavy they roll their fleecy world along1 ,and the sky saddens with the gathered storm4 ,through the hushed air the whitening shower descends2 ,at first thin wavering2 till at last the flakes ,fall broad1 and wide1 and fast1 dimming the day ,with a continual flow4 --,,thomson1 ,the ,seasons4 ,the earth is covered with snow2 it is enveloped1 as the poets say1 in a shroud of white4 ,but this phrase1 poetical as it may appear1 is1 in reality1 inadmissible4 ,a shroud is used to wrap round a dead body1 a corpse1 whose elements1 since they are no longer maintained united by the undefinable principle of life1 go to form other compounds1--more permanent and lasting1--which will mingle with the earth1 the water1 and the air4 ,but the earth which the snow covers preserves1 on the contrary1 the germ of life in the seeds and roots of plants2 it rests itself1 only for the purpose of communicating1 at the return of spring1 a new impulse to the sap1 whose circulation sleeps during winter4 ,the moment is propitious for studying the snow3 come1 then1 let us examine it4 ,and1 first1 what is snow8 ,put a little into the hollow of your hand1 and see what transpires4 ,it melts1 and leaves nothing but water as a residuum4 ,snow1 then1 is frozen water1--water which existed in the atmosphere in the state of vapour1 and which1 to speak the language of physicists1 has passed from the gaseous state into the liquid1 and thence into the solid4 ,if you doubt its identity with water1 let a chemist analyse a portion of it for you3 he will tell you that it is composed1 like distilled water1 of hydrogen and oxygen1 in the proportion of two parts of the former to one part of the latter4 ,the reader will1 of course1 understand that we abstract all foreign substances which may accidentally have got mixed up with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,snowy ,landscape4 ,it was once a wide-spread opinion that snow is favourable to vegetation1 on account of the salts which it contains4 ,analysis1 however1 gave a negative result2 it demonstrated the absence of these salts4 ,recourse was then had to another hypothesis3 it was supposed that the air contained in snow is richer in oxygen than the free air1 and that to the action of this gas must be attributed its fertilising property4 ,another error6 ,the truth really is1 that snow maintains the soil which it covers at a perceptibly constant temperature1 and that1 when thawing1 it mellows it by its aqueous infiltrations2 so that if1 before a fall of snow1 the earth has experienced the action of a strong frost capable of killing injurious insects1 all the chances will be in favour of a fertile year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,snow forms crystals4 ,to observe them clearly1 you must examine the snow which falls in very cold and dry weather4 ,it then appears to be a dust composed of little thin plates4 ,look at the small flake which has fallen on your coat-sleeve2 it is isolated2 hasten to examine it before it melts1 or before other flakes become amalgamated with it4 ,what a graceful star6 7,fig4 #f1 a74 ,it is formed of six regular rays4 ,there are others which have only three1 four1 or five rays4 ,but on inspecting these more closely1 you see that many of these rays are broken or abortive1 and that1 when finally analysed1 each star possesses the same number of rays4 ,why are there continually six rays8 ,why are there never more nor fewer than this number8 ,one might suspect in nature a peculiar affection for the number six2 as1 for example1 in the cells of the bees and the wasps1 which form a regular hexagon 7,fig4 #f1 b74 ,why1 in the infinity of polygons1 has the instinct of these insects only chosen one hexagon8 ,what is the reason for this preference8 ,illustration3 a b c ,,fig4 #f4 ,if you interrogate geometry1 it will reply to you that1 of all the polygons inscribed in a circle 7,fig4 #f1 c71 there is but one whose sides are equal to the radius of that circle2 and this polygon is exactly that of the bee and wasp's cell4 ,here1 then1 is a very singular coincidence4 ,if you afterwards examine very minutely the work of the bee1 you will find in each cell of the honeycomb a pyramidal base1 composed of three equal rhombs1 whose angles solve a grand geometrical problem1 that of giving the maximum of space with the minimum of matter4 ,the papier-mach combs of the wasp are formed of a single row of cells1 each of which has a nearly level bottom4 ,this is all that is required2 for these cells are destined1 not for the reception of honey1 but only of the larv1 the offspring of their architects4 ,do not think that you have but to pick up a thumbful of snow to procure your crystals6 ,these change their form very quickly1 and it is almost impossible to detect it in snow which has remained for any length of time upon the ground4 ,the great flakes which fall in relatively mild weather1 when the temperature borders upon freezing-point1 are often nothing better than masses of small amorphous atoms of ice2 to get at the crystals1 you must remove the kind of icy varnish which encases them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the accurate observation of the crystallisation of water which precipitates itself in the air1 we have at our disposal a means as simple as convenient--a pane of glass4 ,all we have to do is to arrange everything in such a manner that the congelation shall be both slow and certain2 on this condition alone can we obtain well-defined crystals4 ,a cold room is best adapted for this kind of experimentation2 and thus you will frequently see deposited upon the window-glass1 in an uninhabited chamber1 some exceedingly graceful designs1 as follow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,these are asteri1--arborescent1 and leaf-like crystals1--imitating the beautiful foliage of ferns and mosses4 ,the severer the cold1 the more regular1 be it understood1 is the formation of these crystals4 ,owing to its dazzling whiteness1 snow is a great reflector of light1 and singularly illuminates the darkness of the winter nights4 ,the long dreary nights of the polar world are lit up by the glories of the magnetic auroras1 joined to the radiancy of the snow4 ,this induces us to repeat a question which we have often addressed to ourselves1 namely1--under what aspect must the very varied changes which the solar light experiences on the surface of our planet be presented to the inhabitants of ,mars and ,venus8 ,a more attentive observation of the ashen-gray light of the moon1 which appears to be principally produced by the reflection of the more or less luminous face of the earth1 may perhaps one day provide us with an answer to our question4 ,before quitting this subject1 let us remember that both snow and frost are of great utility to the husbandman4 ,the latter1 by expanding the humidity with which the hard clods are penetrated1 crumbles them into powder1 and renders stiff land porous1 friable1 and mellow4 ,it also clears the soil from the plague of insect life1 which1 if it increased without so powerful a check1 would probably prove a terrible injury to the crops4 ,moreover1 it so hardens in winter the moist soft ground as to permit of the necessary field operations being carried on4 ,snow1 as ,dr ,child remarks1#ab is even more useful4 ,it covers up the tender plants with a thick mantle1 which defends them against the attacks of excessive cold4 ,god giveth snow like wool1 and for somewhat the same purposes as wool4 ,the mantle which so closely wraps about the gaunt limbs of the winter-stricken earth neither allows the internal heat to escape nor the external cold to enter in4 ,it has been found that the inner surface of the snow seldom falls much below #cb ,f41 although the temperature of the external air may be many degrees under the freezing-point2 and it is known that this amount of cold can be endured by the crops without injury1 so long as their covering protects them from the raking influence of the wind4 ,in climates where the winter's cold is longer and more intense than in ,england1 the protective influence of snow is much more plainly shown4 ,where it lies long and deep1 it opens out routes that were impracticable in summer on account of their ruggedness1 and prepares a smooth path for the sledge1 or for the lumberer1 over which the largest trunks of the forest may be carried with ease to the river or canal4 ,in the polar regions 7we quote from ,dr ,child7 snow supplies the ever-ready material out of which the ,esquimaux construct their houses1 and hardy explorers extemporise the huts in which they find shelter when absent from their ships on distant expeditions4 ,nor are the ships themselves considered snug winter quarters until their sides have been banked up in walls of snow1 and the roof raised over the deck has been thickly covered with it4 ,snow huts are warmer than might have been expected4 ,if built upon ice over the sea1 their temperature is sensibly influenced by the heat of the unfrozen water below1 which is said seldom to fall much under #dj ,f4 in any part of the ocean4 ,even where the external temperature has sunk to #bj or #cj below zero1 sufficient warmth is produced in a snow hut by the huddling together of three or four persons within it4 ,when ,dr ,elisha ,kane1 the ,american explorer1 passed a cold arctic winter's night in a hut beyond ,smith's ,sound1 the temperature produced by its complement of lodgers1 and two or three oil lamps1 reached #ij ,f42 so that he was compelled by the heat to follow the example of the rest of the party1 and partially to divest himself of his clothing4 ,yet in lat4 #gi ,n41 ,dr ,kane marked a temperature of #ge below zero in the month of ,february4 ,no fluid could resist it4 ,even chloric ether became solid1 and the air was pungent and acrid in respiration4 ,,red ,,snow4 ,as if it had been ordained that there should be nothing absolute in nature1 snow itself1 the very type of whiteness1 sometimes exhibits the most curious colouring4 ,who1 for instance1 has not heard tell of red snow8 ,its existence was even known to ,pliny1 the great ,roman naturalist1 and he attributed it to a dust with which the snow became covered after it had lain several days on the ground4 ,snow itself1 he says#ac reddens with old age 7,ipsa nix vetustate rubescit74 ,benedict de ,saussure was the first who described red snow like a naturalist4#ad ,he observed it on the occasion of his ascent of ,mont ,breven1 near ,chamounix1 in #agfj2 and was greatly astonished at seeing the snow tinted in various places of an extremely vivid red4 ,in the middle of each patch1 he says1 was the greatest intensity of colour1 and the middle1 moreover1 was of a lower level than the edges4 ,on examining this red snow closely1 ,i saw that its colour depended upon a fine powder which mingled with it1 and which penetrated to a depth of two or three inches4 ,this powder could not have descended from the summit of the mountain1 since it was found in localities isolated and even remote from the rocks2 nor did it seem to have been deposited by the winds1 since it did not lie in drifts4 ,one would have said that it was a production of the snow itself1 a residuum of its thaw4444 ,what at first suggested this opinion was the fact that the colour1 extremely weak on the edges of each concave patch1 gradually grew deeper as it approached the bottom1 where the trickling water had carried down a greater quantity of residuum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the learned ,swiss naturalist found this red snow on many other mountains1 and during a certain period of thaw1 subjected it to various experiments1 which led him to the conclusion that it was a vegetable matter1 a dust1 or pollen1 of the stamens of plants4 ,slightly odorous1 it exhaled1 during combustion1 a scent not unlike that of sealing-wax4 ,ramond met with red snow in the ,pyrenees1 at an elevation of #ghjj feet4 ,he discovered in it1 when burnt on incandescent coals1 the odour of opium or of chicory4 ,he supposed that the little deep red lamell which coloured the snow were mica1 and looked upon the mica as a product of the decomposition of the rocks by the action of the sun and breezes of spring4 ,but this opinion was overthrown by ,captain ,ross1 who1 in #ahai1 found red snow in ,baffin's ,bay 7lat4 #he #ed' ,n471 to a depth of thirteen feet1 over a soil perfectly free from mica4 ,other explorers affirm that in those regions they have never met with the red snow more than three to four inches deep4 ,captain ,parry1 in his ,polar voyage1 found this coloured snow principally in the track of his sledges2 and1 agreeing with ,sir ,john ,ross1 he supposed it to derive its redness from the presence of a kind of mushroom1 of the genus ,uredo1 to which ,bauer has given the name of ,uredo nivalis4#ae ,according to experiments made by ,bauer on specimens brought from the ,polar regions1 these tiny mushrooms are1 on the average1 a fiftieth of a millimtre in diameter2 they develop themselves like vegetables2 the youngest are sometimes colourless2 when entirely freed from snow1 they grow black under the influence of an intense cold1 without losing their germinative faculty1 and give birth1 under the influence of a higher temperature1 to a green matter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us continue to examine the difference of opinion between naturalists4 ,de ,candolle declared the red snow of the polar regions to be identical with that of the ,alps1 after having carefully compared the two4 ,but he saw in it a genus of cryptogams1 differing from the genus ,uredo4#af ,robert ,brown asserted that it was a kind of alga1 allied to the ,tremella cruenta4 ,azara was of this same opinion1 except that1 instead of a tremella1 he recognised in it an alga of the genus ,protococcus1 which he called ,protococcus kermesinus1 because its colour resembled that of the kermes1 or cochineal4 ,in the opinion of the observers whom we have cited1 the colouring corpuscles of the snow belong to the vegetable kingdom4 ,this opinion was supported by numerous adherents1 and soon acquired so great an authority1 that1 in an assembly of naturalists at ,lausanne1 ,de ,candolle overwhelmed with sarcasm a communication from ,lamont1 ,prior of the ,hospice of ,st ,bernard1 on the animality of red snow4 ,and yet this last hypothesis was not so rash as might have been supposed2 for ,dr ,scoresby1 to whom we owe a profound study on the crystalline forms of snow1 had already attributed to an animal matter the colouring of the snow and polar ice4 ,now-a-days1 however1 it may be regarded as finally settled that this phenomenon is due to the immense aggregation of minute plants belonging to the species called ,protococcus nivalis2#ag so called in allusion to the extreme simplicity of its organisation1 and the peculiar nature of its habitat4 ,if we place a portion of the snow coloured with this plant upon a piece of white paper1 says ,mr ,macmillan1#ah and allow it to melt and evaporate1 we find a residuum of granules just sufficient to give a faint crimson tinge to the paper4 ,placed under the microscope1 these granules resolve themselves into spherical purple cells1 from the #a_/ajjjth to the #a_/cjjjth part of an inch in diameter4 ,each of these cells has an opening1 surrounded by serrated or indented lines1 whose smallest diameter does not exceed the #a_/ejjjth part of an inch6 ,when perfect1 the plant is not unlike a red-currant berry2 as it decays1 the red colouring matter fades into a deep orange1 and the deep orange changes into a dull brown4 ,the thickness of the wall of the cell does not exceed the #a_/bjjjjth part of an inch6 ,each cell may be considered a distinct individual plant1 since it is perfectly independent of others with which it may be aggregated1 and performs for and by itself all the functions of growth and reproduction1 having a containing membrane which absorbs liquids and gases from the surrounding matrix or elements1 a contained fluid of peculiar character1 formed out of these materials1 and a number of excessively minute granules1 equivalent to spores1 or1 as some would say1 to cellular buds1 which are to become the genus of new plants4 ,there is something1 adds ,mr ,macmillan1 extremely mysterious in the performance of these widely different functions1 by an organism which appears so excessively simple4 ,that one and the same primitive cell should thus minister equally to absorption1 nutrition1 and reproduction1 is an extraordinary illustration of the fact1 that the smallest and simplest organised object is1 in itself1 and for the part it was created to perform in the operations of nature1 as admirably adapted as the largest and most complicated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,protococcus nivalis4 ,,the ,,eternal ,,snows4 ,the epithet eternal or perpetual1 applied to snow1 would appear to savour of the ambitious1 if not of the profane4 ,can we say of anything which belongs to earth that it is eternal8 ,assuredly not4 ,the earth has not always worn the aspect which it now wears1 and1 at a period not far distant from its origin1 could not in any region have been covered with snow4 ,now1 whatever has had a beginning cannot be eternal4 ,many authors have1 for this reason1 substituted for the word eternal the word perpetual4 ,but the latter is equally inapplicable4 ,who will venture to affirm that our globe or its system will endure perpetually8 ,this difficulty1 however1 is one which need not particularly embarrass us4 ,we have been long accustomed to look upon language as a simple mask1 or1 at least1 as a very dubious interpreter of thought4 ,and we shall1 therefore1 continue to use indifferently the words eternal and perpetual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us suppose that two travellers set out from the equator1 that plane of separation between the northern and the southern hemispheres4 ,let us also suppose that each proceeds in a diametrically opposite direction to the other1 pursuing his route along one of those meridian lines which divide the earth into longitudinal portions1 like the slices of a melon 7to compare great things with small74 ,the following will be their climatic stages3-- ,at first the two travellers will each traverse a moiety of the torrid zone1 limited below and above the ,equator by two parallel circles1--in the northern hemisphere by the ,tropic of ,cancer1 and in the southern by the ,tropic of ,capricorn4 ,do not let these appellations alarm you3 they show1 once more1 the narrow connexity of the heaven with the earth2 tropic1 coming from the ,greek signifies a return--the sun returns from his apparent excursions1 after having passed from the tropics to the zenith4 ,for these circles form the extreme limits of the sun's march towards the north and towards the south3 they are the two solstices--the summer solstice1 when the sun enters the zodiacal sign of ,cancer1 and the winter solstice1 when it enters the sign of ,capricorn4 ,the torrid zone is the only one which is thus divided into two portions by the ,equinoctial1 and which the sun passes twice a year to the zenith1 that is1 to the point directly above the heads of the inhabitants4 ,after having crossed the tropics1 one of our two travellers will enter the ,north ,temperate ,zone1 bounded by the ,arctic ,polar ,circle--the other1 the ,south ,temperate ,zone1 bounded by the ,antarctic ,polar ,circle4 ,having passed the polar circles1 they will find themselves speedily arrested by ice and snow which never melt--by eternal ice and snow4 ,these inhospitable regions compose the two frigid zones1 which cover1 like two immense hoods 7forming the #jhb parts of the terrestrial surface71 the one1 the northern hemisphere1 the other1 the southern4#ai ,in their progress through these various climates1 our two travellers will arrive at a very curious comparative result1--that the southern hemisphere is colder than the northern4 ,this difference becomes especially recognisable below the #ejth degree of south latitude2 so that1 after passing the ,antarctic ,circle1 the ice opposes the voyager's course with nearly insurmountable obstacles2 while1 in the northern hemisphere1 the whaler frequently penetrates to ,spitzbergen1 situated much nearer to the ,pole than to the ,polar ,circle4 ,this is a general fact2 we confine ourselves to putting it forward4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now suppose that our two travellers1 always ready to compare the results of their inquiries1 accomplish the ascent of a very lofty mountain situated under the ,equator1 such as ,chimborazo4 ,in the course of their ascent1 they will traverse the same climates and the same zones which had marked the stages of their journey from the ,equator to the ,poles3 at their starting-point they will find themselves in the ,torrid zone1 then will come the ,temperate and the ,frigid zones1 the latter rendered inaccessible by glaciers and eternal snows4 ,these vertical zones of the mountain are characterised by vegetables and animals whose types are found in the corresponding horizontal zones of the terrestrial surface4 ,but what is most remarkable is1 that there exists between the northern and the southern slopes of the mountain the same difference as between the southern and northern hemispheres3 the line of the eternal snows descends much lower on the northern than on the southern slope1 in the same manner as1 in the southern hemisphere1 the polar ice advances much nearer the ,equator than in the northern4 ,such is the general view-point which we must adopt for the clearer comprehension of the details of observation4 ,of course1 when speaking of the limit of the eternal snows1 we refer only to the lower limit1 that is to say1 to the greatest elevation attained by the snow-line in the course of a single year4 ,as for the upper limit1 it entirely escapes us2 for the summits of the loftiest mountains do not reach the atmospheric strata which1 by virtue of their refraction1 cannot contain any vesicular1 aqueous1 or condensable vapour4 ,the line of eternal snow which1 at the poles1 is found on the level of the ground1 gradually rises as we approach the torrid zone1 where it attains its maximum of elevation1 from #ac1jjj to #ag1jjj feet4 ,this phenomenon does not exclusively depend upon the geographical latitude1 nor on the mean annual temperature of the locality3 it is the result of an aggregate of diverse circumstances which we have not the space here to enumerate and discuss4 ,we shall content ourselves with placing before the reader a table which will show the remarkable differences existing in the height of the perpetual snow-line in various places4 ,,the ,,line ,,of ,,perpetual ,,snow4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,latitude4 ,place4 ,height of 7,degs47 ,snow-,line4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #gi ,n4 ,spitzbergen #j #ga ,mageroe 7,norway7 #b1cej #gj to #fj ,norway 7,interior of7 #c1ejj to #e1ajj #fe ,iceland #c1jej #ed ,oonalashka 7,w4 ,america7 #c1eaj #ej ,altai ,mountains #g1jcd #de ,alps1 ,the1 ,n4 declivity #h1hhe #de ,do41 ,s4 declivity #i1aej #dc ,the ,caucasus #aa1hfc #dc ,the ,pyrenees #i1jjj #dj ,mount ,ararat #ad1aej #cf ,karakorum1 ,n4 side #ag1ejj #cf ,do41 ,s4 side #ai1cjj #cf ,kuen-luen1 ,n4 side #ae1jjj #ce ,do41 ,s4 side #ae1fhj #bi ,himalaya1 ,n4 side #ai1efj #bh ,do41 ,n4 side #ae1ejj #ag ,cordilleras of ,mexico #ad1fej #ac ,ethiopian ,mountains #ad1jge #a ,s4 ,andes1 in ,quito #ae1fhj #af ,do41 in ,bolivia1 ,e4 #ae1hjj #ah ,do41 in ,bolivia1 ,w4 #ah1djj #cc ,do41 in ,chili #ad1fjj #dc ,do41 in ,patagonia #f1cjj #ed ,strait of ,magelhaens #c1gjj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,eternal ,,snows4 ,if men have the faculty of living under all climates1 they make use of that faculty1 as we know1 with extreme reserve4 ,they have never permanently inhabited the polar regions and the perpetually snowy summits of the mountains3 it is only at intervals that a few pioneers have temporarily ventured thither4 ,starting from this fact1 it was long believed that the zone of eternal snows was not inhabited by any living being4 ,even men of science admitted1 as an article of faith1 that where man could not fix his residence no animal could live4 ,they made1 however1 a concession with respect to vegetables1 and particularly as regarded the lichens and the mosses4 ,well1 observation and research conjointly1 have erased this article of faith from the scientific code4 ,it has been demonstrated that the icy regions1 which man visits only at rare intervals1 and where he sojourns but for a time1 are the home of a certain number of animal species1 more or less allied to the human species4 ,the scientific exploration of these regions dates only from our own time4 ,spitzbergen1 and the summit of the ,alps1--such are our points of comparison4 ,it is difficult to conceive of anything more interesting than the historical exposition of the limited ,fauna glacialis4 ,first1 let us take the discovery1 comparatively recent1 of a small rodent of the mouse order4 ,,the ,,arvicola ,,leucurus1 ,,or ,,arctic ,,vole4 ,on the #hth of ,january #ahcb1 a ,swiss naturalist1 ,m4 ,hugi1 started from ,soleure to study the winter condition of the classic glacier of ,grindelwald4 ,the undertaking was in many respects a difficult one2 the sides of the ,mettenberg1 bordering on this glacier1 were covered with an uniform stratum of hardened snow2 a pathway had to be cut out with the pickaxe4 ,m4 ,hugi and his companions did not arrive at the ,stierreg until towards evening4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,among the ,alps4 ,a goatherd lives there during the summer4 ,they sought around and about for his little cabin1 but1 on the uniform white carpet of snow which covered everything1 no sign of it could be detected4 ,at length they came upon a little mound1 which they immediately proceeded to excavate2 and late in the night they discovered the roof of the hut4 ,they then redoubled their efforts to sweep away the snow obstructing the door4 ,on opening it a score of mice emerged from the cabin1 some of which they killed4 ,for a picture of the poor victims we are indebted to ,m4 ,hugi4 ,these little rodents are of a yellowish gray1 and very slender2 from the head to the tip of the tail they measure about nine inches4 ,the hind paws are of a length wholly disproportionate to the fore paws4 ,the tail and ears are naked2 their transparency is remarkable4444 ,this animal1 adds ,m4 ,hugi1 appeared to me completely unknown1 and ,i do not remember to have seen it in any zoological collection4 ,after determining its genus and species1 the intrepid explorer of the ,alps was entitled to have given it a name2 but this honour escaped him4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,the ,arctic ,vole4 ,the same little rodent has since been found in many other parts of the ,alps2 notably among the rocks of the ,grands-,mulets1 some #ab1ejj feet above the sea-level4 ,desirous of comparing the climate of ,spitzbergen with that of the summit of the ,alps1 ,m4 ,martins established himself1 in #ahda1 with his friend1 ,a4 ,bravais1 on the ,faulhorn4 ,while1 he says1 we were engaged in our experiments1 we often perceived a little animal passing swiftly by us1 and stealthily gliding into its burrow4 ,we remarked that it was also found in the auberge1 or inn1 and that it fed upon ,alpine plants4 ,at the first glance1 its resemblance to the common mouse led us to think that this inconvenient guest had followed man into his abode on the ,faulhorn1 as it had formerly crossed the seas on board ship4 ,but a more attentive examination showed me that1 far from being a mouse1 it was a species of vole1 which had hitherto escaped the researches of naturalists4 ,i designated it by the name of the snow-vole1 ,arvicola nivalis4 ,it was the same animal which ,m4 ,hugi had discovered nine years before4 ,the ice was broken1 and names1 both generic and specific1 afterwards fell like hail on the body of our poor little rodent4 ,some would have had it called-- ,hypudus alpinus4 ,hypudus petrophilus4 ,hypudus nivicola4 ,hypudus ,hugei4 ,others1 and fewer in number1 preferred the designation of ,white-tailed ,vole1-- ,arvicola leucurus4 ,others again1 the ,lebrun vole1-- ,arvicola ,lebrunii4 ,which of all these names shall prevail8 ,we cannot say1 and it matters very little to us4 ,perhaps the nomenclators may in time agree among themselves upon the appellation of the genus4 ,however this may be1 we know--and it is an important fact--that a mammal exists at altitudes where men could not live1 and that he is found in the ,alps1 above even the lower limit of the perpetual snows4 ,is it the only mammal which can live at such a height8 ,,the ,,marmot4 ,who1 in the wide world of ,london1 where so many waifs and strays are drifting with the great current of human life1 has not observed the ,savoyard wanderer with his dancing marmot8 ,if the man did not attract our notice1 his curious companion would4 ,in form he belongs partly to the bear1 and partly to the rat4 ,naturalists have1 therefore1 expressly created for him the genus ,arctomys1--a ,latinised ,greek name1 signifying ,the ,bear-,rat4 ,in fact1 the marmot resembles ,harlequin's cloak1 or rather1 if it be permissible to compare little things with great1 the ,austrian ,empire1--a composite of territories and races2 and ,buffon has described him very aptly4 ,he has1 he says1 the nose1 the lips1 and the shape of the head of the hare2 the hair and nails of the badger2 the teeth of the beaver2 the cat's whiskers2 the eyes of the dormouse2 the feet of the bear1 with a short tail and truncated ears4 ,add to this that the marmot--he is a little larger than a rabbit--is omnivorous like man and the bear1 with whom he shares his aptitude for dance and sport4 ,while he eats any and everything1 he nevertheless prefers vegetable food to all other kinds2 and with his orange-coloured incisors gnaws the bark of shrubs4 ,he rarely drinks1 but when he does drink takes a hearty draught2 is particularly fond of milk2 drinks it by raising his head at each mouthful1 like a hen1 and giving utterance to an audible murmur of contentment1 just as if he were reciting his ,benedicite4 ,will it be in allusion to this characteristic that the common ,french phrase has originated1 ,marmotter des prires8#bj ,during the summer the marmots inhabit the snowy summits of the ,alps4 ,at the beginning of autumn they descend to a lower level1 for the purpose of excavating the burrows in which they pass the winter1 completely benumbed by the frost4 ,this is the time when the hunters easily capture them2 they have nothing to do but to dig 7creuser is the technical word72 and frequently they are found as many as ten or twelve in the same burrow1 rolled up like balls1 and buried in a litter of hay4 ,their sleep1 says ,de ,saussure1 is so profound1 that the hunter deposits them in his sack and carries them away without awakening them4 ,the ,chamounix hunters1 he adds1 have already entirely expelled or destroyed the goats formerly so abundant on their mountains2 and it is probable that1 in less than a century1 we shall see neither chamois nor marmots4 ,this prophecy of ,de ,saussure's is on the point of being realised4 ,still1 even at the present day1 marmots are not very rare in the ,valais and the canton of ,ticino 7du ,tissin71 where they are called ,mure montane 7mountain rats72 a phrase from which is derived1 without doubt1 the appellation marmot4 ,they prefer as their abode the stony islets which rise here and there in the midst of the rocks4 ,the ears of travellers who venture into the barrenest recesses of the ,alps of the ,bernese ,oberland are sometimes struck by a very sharp whistling1 for which1 at first1 they find it difficult to account4 ,it is the young marmot's cry of alarm2 for the old appear to be deprived of this strident faculty4 ,for a considerable period only a single species was known--the marmot properly so called 7,arctomys marmotta1 ,gmelin72 but four others must now be added3--#ast1 ,the marmot of the ,caucasus 7,arctomys musicus71 still imperfectly known2 #b;d1 ,the marmot of ,canada 7,arctomys empetra71 who clambers up the trees like a cat1 and is distributed throughout all ,north ,america1 particularly in ,hudson's ,bay1 and ,alaska1 on the north-west coast2 #c;d1 ,the ,arctomys monax1 who appears to be peculiar to ,maryland2 #dth1 ,the ,russian marmot 7,arctomys citillus71 of the size of a field-mouse1 and of a brown colour1 spotted with white2 #eth1 ,the marmot of ,siberia 7,arctomys bobac71 smaller than the common species1 of a yellow gray1 and building vast burrows shaped like a funnel4 ,will the reader permit us an allusion1 in passing1 to a question which we do not see discussed in books of natural history8 ,formerly among the treasures of ancient druggists figured a kind of panacea1 called ,graetz's balls4 ,what were these ,graetz's balls1 at one time esteemed as a universal medicine1 but no longer included in our pharmacopeia8 ,this was their origin3--,the subterranean dwellings which certain species of marmots construct with so much skill1 are each composed of two galleries1 which unite together like the arms of a ,y1 and terminate in a cul-de-sac4 ,there are found the globules of clay known as ,graetz's balls4 ,they are an industrial product of our rodents1 as ,m4 ,oscar ,schmidt established in #ahff1 by close observation of the ,arctomys bobac of the ,zoological ,garden of ,vienna4 ,the marmot creates these balls by scratching up the earth1 and appears to amuse himself--a child's amusement6--by rolling them to and fro in his galleries4 ,,the ,,chamois4 ,even so ,this way the chamois leapt4#ba ,must we omit this graceful ruminant from the number of mammals inhabiting the eternal snows8 ,no2 for it is not of his own will that the chamois has taken refuge upon the snowy peaks of the ,alps4 ,if we meet with him there1 it is because he seeks to shelter himself from the destructive instincts of man4 ,the chamois is one of those animal species which1 before a century1 perhaps1 will have disappeared2 his bones will then figure in the palontological museums by the side of the skeletons of extinct species4 ,there1 too1 will be displayed the famous chamois balls1 each of the size of a nut1 covered with a shining substance resembling leather1 of an agreeable odour1 and seeming to be a morbid dejection1 composed of roots and other undigested matter4 ,these balls1 the bezoars of the old physicians1 were regarded as a remedy against every ill the human flesh is heir to2 it was even professed that they rendered soldiers invulnerable1 and were a better defence against bullets than the finest armour ever wrought by the smiths of ,milan4 ,how precious a remedy for this epoch of civilisation1 when man--is he much wiser than his supposed progenitor1 the ape8--seeks to replace the cholera and the pestilence by the most terrific engines of destruction6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the birds inhabiting the inhospitable region of the snows are more numerous than the mammals4 ,let us briefly refer to a few of the more important4 ,,the ,,eagle ,,and ,,the ,,wren4 ,in speaking of the eagle1 ,tennyson's noble lines to that imperial bird will occur to every reader1 from the force and clearness of the picture which they present3-- ,he clasps the crag with hookd hands2 ,close to the sun in lonely lands1 ,ringed with the azure world1 he stands4 ,the wrinkled sea beneath him crawls2 ,he watches from his mountain walls1 ,and like a thunderbolt he falls4 ,the affection of the eagle for his mountain walls may be easily understood4 ,this giant bird1 with his carnivorous instincts1 is endowed with a remarkable tenacity of life1 and can exist in habitats wholly inaccessible to man4 ,but it is strange that a bird1 which is as common a type of humility as the eagle is of ambition1 and which we almost always cite as a contrast to the eagle--we mean1 the delicate little wren--should also be found among the snow and ice1 the silence and solitude1 of the loftiest mountain regions4 ,to study the flight of the eagle1 we should repair to ,alpine highlands4 ,when he has reached a certain altitude of the atmosphere1 the royal bird descends obliquely1 as upon an inclined plane1 with a rush and a din of wings1 and at a speed of upwards of thirty-six yards per second4 ,we assured ourselves of the accuracy of this fact during an ascent of ,mount ,hochkrpf1 in the canton of ,glaris4 ,the bird traversed in six minutes a space of #dj1jjj ,swiss feet1 which is equal to about forty yards per second4 ,this result agrees1 on the whole1 with the observations of a traveller1 who wrote in the ,nouvelle ,gazette de ,zurich1 on the #bfth of ,august #ahfc3-- ,a society of tourists set out from ,corri to climb the ,sttzerhorn1 which is #hdjj feet in height4 ,from the summit they perceived an enormous eagle1 which1 having taken his flight from ,calanda1 beyond the ,rhine1 directed his course towards the ,sttzerhorn1 for the purpose of halting1 after a certain inflection1 on the side of the ,rothhorn4 ,the duration of the flight was five minutes2 the interval between the starting-point and the point of arrival1 two ,french leagues and a half4 ,in three hundred seconds1 therefore1 the eagle must have traversed a space of #cjjj ,swiss feet1 which is equal to a speed of forty-five yards per second4 ,hence1 the swiftness of the eagle's flight is nearly equal to the velocity of sound4 ,one of the most admirable descriptions of the habits of this bird with which we are acquainted1 is furnished by the well-known naturalist ,macgillivray3-- ,there he stands--on his lonely crag--nearly erect1 with his tail depressed1 his large wings half raised by his side1 his neck stretched out1 and his eye glistening as he glances around4 ,like other robbers of the desert1 he has a noble aspect1 an imperative mien1 a look of proud defiance2 but his nobility has a cast of clownishness1 and his falconship a vulturine tinge4 ,still he is a noble bird1 powerful1 independent1 proud1 and ferocious1 regardless of the weal or woe of others1 and intent only on the gratification of his own appetite2 without generosity1 without honour2 bold against the defenceless1 but ever ready to sneak from danger4 ,such is his nobility1 about which men have so raved4 ,suddenly he raises his wings1 for he has heard the whistle of the shepherd on the crag1 and bounding forward1 he springs into the air4 ,hardly do those vigorous flaps serve at first to prevent his descent1 but now curving upwards1 he glides majestically along4 ,as he passes the corner of that buttressed and battlemented crag1 forth rush two ravens from their nest1 croaking fiercely4 ,while one flies above him1 the other steals beneath1 and they essay to strike him1 but dare not1 for they have an instinctive knowledge of the power of his grasp2 and1 after following him a little way1 they return to their home1 vainly exulting in the thought of having driven him from their neighbourhood4 ,but on a far journey1 he advances in a direct line1 flapping his great wings at regular intervals1 then shooting along without seeming to move them4 ,in ten minutes he has progressed three miles1 although he is in no haste1 and now disappears behind the shoulder of the hill4 ,but we may follow him in imagination1 for his habits being well known to us1 we may be allowed the ornithological license of tracing them in continuance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,eagle's ,habitat4 ,homeward bound1--,mr ,macgillivray continues1--after having supplied his own wants1 he knows that his young must be provided with food4 ,therefore he sweeps across the moor1 at a height of two or three hundred feet1 bending his course to either side1 his wings wide-spread1 his neck and feet retracted1 now beating the air1 and again sailing smoothly along4 ,suddenly he halts1 poises himself for a moment1 stoops1 but recovers himself without touching the ground4 ,the object of his regards1 a golden plover1 which he spied on her nest1 has contrived to elude him1 and he does not care to pursue her4 ,now1 then1 he ascends a little1 wheels in short abrupt curves1 presently rushes down headlong1 assumes the horizontal position when close to the ground1 prevents himself from being dashed against it by expanding his wings and tail1 thrusts forth his talons1 and grasping a poor1 terrified ptarmigan that sat cowering among the gray lichens1 squeezes it to death1 raises his head exultingly1 utters a clear1 shrill cry1 and1 rising from the ground1 pursues his journey4 ,as he passes a tall cliff overhanging a silent lake1 he is attacked by a fierce peregrine falcon1 which darts and plunges at him1 as if resolved to deprive him of his booty1 or drive him headlong to the ground4 ,a more formidable foe is this than the raven2 and the eagle1 with a scream and a yelp1 throws himself into postures of defence1 until1 at length1 the hawk1 perceiving that the tyrant has no intention of plundering his nest1 leaves him to pursue his course without further molestation4 ,over dense woods1 and green fields1 and scattered hamlets1 the eagle speeds2 and now he enters the long river-valley1 near whose upper end1 cradled in mist1 rises the rock of his eyrie4 ,about a mile from it he meets his mate1 who has been abroad on a similar design1 and is returning with a white hare as her spoil4 ,with loud strident cries they congratulate each other1 cries that alarm the drowsy shepherd on the green strath below1 who1 remembering the lambs carried off in spring-time1 discharges at them a volley of maledictions4 ,their nest is of considerable size1 but rudely constructed2 a pile of twigs and heather and dead sticks1 somewhat hollow in the middle1 where lies a thin deposit of wool and feathers4 ,here repose the eaglets1 two in number1 and clothed in soft white down4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,the ,lammergeier4 ,independently of the species which1 like the ,pandion halitus1 and the ,aquila nvia1 inhabit the lower regions1 the eagles which visit the ,alps are very remarkable4 ,thus1 the species of ,gypatos1 which the inhabitants designate under the name of the ,lammergeier1 or ,lamb-slayer1 is the ,european condor4 ,the spread of his wings is about ten feet2 he weighs from eighteen to twenty-four pounds1 and can easily carry off in his talons kids1 lambs1 and even children4 ,the ,steinadler1 which1 like the preceding1 belongs to the inaccessible mountains of the cantons of ,glaris1 ,schwyz1 the ,grisons1 ,appenzell1 and ,berne1 would seem to be a variety or sub-species of the ,aquila imperialis4 ,the inhabitants of ,eblingen1 a village on the borders of the ,lake of ,brienz1 hunt him vigorously4 ,finally1 some eagles there are which only sojourn in the ,alps temporarily2 they appear to be astray2 such are-- ,the ,circetus leucopsis1 which has a particular affection for serpent-haunted districts2 ,the ,halitus leucocephala1 with head and tail of a milky white1 belonging to the north of ,europe and ,america2 and ,the ,neophron percnopterus1 or ,egyptian eagle1 of carrion-like odour1 which is sometimes met with in the neighbourhood of ,geneva4 ,the tawny-headed vulture 7,vultur fulvus71 and the ashy vulture 7,vultur cinereus71 with gray-brown mouth1 and a brownish collar round his bare neck1 are extremely rare in ,switzerland4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but we now take leave of the eagle1 and turn our attention to the lowly wren1 whose charming but simple music has been described in charming but simple verse by ,bishop ,mant3-- ,the quick note of the russet wren1 ,familiar to the haunts of men2 ,he quits in hollowed wall his bower1 ,and through the winter's gloomy hour ,sings cheerily2 nor yet hath lost ,his blitheness1 chilled by pinching frost1 ,nor yet is forced for warmth to cleave ,to caverned nook or straw-built cave1-- ,sing1 gentle bird6 sing on1 designed ,a lesson for our anxious kind1 ,that we1 like thee1 with hearts content---- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,the ,wren4 ,the wren here referred to is a ,british species1 the common wren1 or ,troglodytes vulgaris1 one of the smallest of our ,british songsters2 a restless1 lively bird1 which twitters about the hedgerows in summer1 and about the garden and shrubbery in winter1 and chanting his mellow song even under the gloomy sky of ,december4 ,allied to this familiar bird is the ,gold-crowned ,knight1#bb or ,sylvia regulus1 which is found in the ,alpine deserts at an elevation of #ijjj to #aj1jjj feet4 ,like our own ,jenny ,wren1 he has a very fine1 slender bill1 which denotes his insectivorous propensities4 ,he is easily known by the little crest of silky feathers which he wears on his head1 like a diadem1 and also by his peculiar cry of souci---4 ,our crowned knight is very partial to the society of the tits1 and1 like them1 he is easily caught with birdlime4 ,he is so fond of the company of other birds1 that1 when he finds himself alone1 he becomes disquieted2 his prolonged tiny chirp grows plaintive2 and he flies to and fro in quest of comrades4 ,he may be regarded as a trustworthy barometer1 for1 prior to rainy weather1 his song is very loud and incessant4 ,devoted to the pursuit of insects or their larv1 he seems to pay no attention to the passer-by2 he flutters vivaciously from branch to branch1 and puts himself in all imaginable positions1 sometimes with his head upwards1 sometimes with his head downwards4 ,we have often watched1 with extreme gratification1 the acrobatic tricks of our ,lilliputian gymnast4 ,occasionally1 before he perches1 you will see him1 in a frenzy of indecision1 rapidly agitating his wings1 and revolving them like a wheel4 ,if you look at him1 while thus engaged1 against the light1 you will think you see a tiny1 ethereal1 diaphanous spinning-top4 ,after assisting at such a spectacle1 which the first wood will furnish1 you will not be indisposed to admit with us1 that the bird designated by the ,greeks 1 or little wheel1 and whose identity has so often been discussed1 was1 in reality1 our golden-crested knight4 ,moreover1 he is a true cosmopolite1 in every acceptation of the word4 ,not only does he never quit us1 not only does he remain faithful to us throughout the year1 but we meet with him over all ,europe4 ,he is also found in ,asia1 and even1 it is said1 in ,america1 from the ,west ,indies to ,canada4 ,his flight being very short1 it is supposed that he passed from one hemisphere to another by way of ,behring's ,strait4 ,it is certain1 at all events1 that he discovered the ,new ,world before ,christopher ,columbus4 ,during the severe cold of the winter of #ahfg-h1 we saw our knight--a very rare circumstance--haunt the vicinity of our houses1 though he prefers the green shade of the forests1 and especially of the forests of pine and fir4 ,he who has seen him pecking at the bark and leaves of these trees1 while the ground was covered with snow1 and during a frost of #aj below zero 7,c471 will feel no astonishment at meeting him upon the snowy summits of the ,alps4 ,yet this pet bird of ours1 this ,lilliputian warbler1 does not weigh more1 with all his feathers1 than a quarter of an ounce1 or the two thousandth part of an eagle4 ,away with the hunter who would attempt such tiny game6 ,a bird so small that he glides through the meshes of a net1--so delicate1 that if you would not irreparably injure your specimen1 you must shoot him with a few grains of finest shot1--a bird of such frail appearance1 withstanding all climates1 and distributed over the entire surface of the globe1--here is a subject worthy the meditation of man1 who pretends to be the lord of creation6 ,,the ,,snow-,,bunting--7,emberiza plectrophanes nivalis74 ,this is the snow-lark-bunting of ,macgillivray1 and a species of the genus ,plectrophanes4 ,in ,scotland1 he is frequently called the ,snow-flake1 and1 in other parts of ,great ,britain1 the ,snow or ,oat-fowl4 ,his weight does not exceed an ounce and a half4 ,his bill and legs are black2 his forehead and crown white1 with an admixture of black on the hind part of the head2 black are the back and sides1 but each wing is marked by a broad belt of white2 the quill feathers are black1 with white bases2 the secondaries are white1 with black spots on the interior webs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,the ,crests of ,inaccessible ,rocks4 ,the snow-bunting's favourite localities1 where he loves to build his nest1 are the crests of inaccessible rocks1 surrounded by vast fields of snow1 in whose midst the sun and tempest have created a few oases4 ,the most he does is to approach the hospices of ,monts ,st ,bernard and ,st ,gothard1 and construct his nest under the eaves of their roofs4 ,this nest1 made of long blades of grass1 is lined internally with hair and the feathers of poultry4 ,at the beginning of ,may1 the female lays six eggs of a snowy whiteness1 and the male assists in hatching them1 and bringing up the young4 ,the bill of the latter is1 at first1 of a bright yellow1 which turns black1 like that of the parents1 as they grow older4 ,the snow-bunting rarely descends into the wooded region4 ,of a very sprightly disposition1 he spends nearly all his life in the midst of the snows and the ice4 ,his song somewhat resembles that of the finch1 which he also resembles in size and social instincts2 for he may frequently be seen in numerous bands hovering above the highest mountains4 ,the snow-bunting is also met with in the northern districts of ,asia and ,america4 ,,the ,,red-,,billed ,,crow--7,corvus pyrrhocorax74 ,the familiar cry of this bird1 who resembles the thrush1--the krapp-krapp of the red-billed crow 7la corneille des nieges71--agreeably falls on the ear of the traveller1 when wandering through solitudes devoid of any other living being4 ,by their cries and their presence these birds animate the denuded rocks which rise like promontories in seas of ice4 ,they are easily distinguished from other species by their coral-red bills2 whence their name of ,pyrrhocorax4 ,they nest in troops in the crevices of the most inaccessible rocks1 and propagate there from generation to generation4 ,their presence is indicated by enormous heaps of ordure1 veritable guano1 which might well be used for manure4 ,their abrupt ascents and strident cries are signs of bad weather1 which the mountaineer knows how to profit by4 ,if caught when young1 these birds are easily domesticated4 ,m4 ,tschudi1 in his ,life among the ,alps1 relates the history of one who had been tamed4 ,he would himself go in quest of the bread1 cheese1 and fruits which composed his repast2 then1 holding in his claws the prize he had coveted1 devour it with avidity4 ,what remained of his meal he carefully concealed in paper1 and would gallantly defend the hidden treasure against whomsoever dared to approach it1 against dogs as well as man4 ,fire had a singular attraction for him2 he would extract from a lamp the burning wick1 and swallow it without sustaining any injury2 he would swallow even the dbris of the charcoal as he fluttered about the chimney4 ,he showed an excessive joy at the sight of smoke1 and loudly clapped his wings4 ,whenever he caught sight of any burning coal1 he did not fail to pick up immediately all the paper1 rags1 or twigs he could lay his claws on2 these he would place in the stove1 and amuse himself by watching the smoke they gave forth4 ,if a stranger entered the room1 he gave vent to the most deafening cries1 though he was exceedingly gentle and familiar towards persons with whom he was acquainted4 ,his friends and favourites he distinguished in a peculiar manner2 he ran in front of them1 displayed his joy by expanding his wings1 and alternately perched himself on their hands1 their head1 their shoulders1 eyeing them all over1 and bending his head as if to kiss them4 ,every morning he entered his master's bedroom1 called him by his name1 posted himself on his pillow1 and waited tranquilly until he awoke2 then he expressed his satisfaction by all kinds of gestures and noises4 ,,reptiles4 ,close to the line of perpetual snow a black variety of vipers has been met with2 but none of the serpent race ever cross that line4 ,the only reptile found within the boundaries of the snowy region is a kind of lizard 7,zootoca pyrrhogastra71 the only one1 perhaps1 of all the vertebrata which could live at an elevation above the sea-level of more than #iejj feet1 buried in the snow for upwards of ten months4 ,during the few bright summer weeks1 he feeds upon some rare insects and spiders4 ,the frigid zone is so far the natural habitat of these lizards1 that they would rather die of hunger than live in the more genial regions to which men have wished to transplant them4 ,in length they nearly equal our common lizards1 but they are not quite so big2 their back is of a chesnut brown1 marked with black streaks and dots2 the throat is bluish2 the belly of the male is of a greenish blue1 spotted with black1 while that of the female is of so lively a red as to have suggested the name of the species1 ,pyrrhogastra2 just as the name of the genus is derived from the circumstance that the young are hatched in the mother's belly1 and are born alive like the young of a mammal4 ,this statement1 too1 holds good with respect to the viper1 which also endures the cold of elevated regions4 ,,inferior ,,animals4 ,our information is still very incomplete so far as relates to the molluscs1 the arachnida1 and the insects which inhabit the frigid zone4 ,the ,alpine snail 7,helix ,alpicola71 so remarkable for its transparency1 appears to be the sole mollusc which1 in certain localities1 attains to an elevation of #gjjj feet4 ,it is1 however1 surpassed by the earthworm1 which is not only distributed over the surface of every country1 but ascends to the snowy summits of the loftiest mountains4 ,few animals have their geographical distribution so extended both horizontally and vertically2 and only some species of spiders and millepeds keep company with the earthworm4 ,among the other inhabitants of the snows have also been observed a dozen species of butterflies1--nearly all diurnal1--for the phaln 7871 or nocturnal ,lepidoptera1 appear to be much more sensible to the cold4 ,m4 ,agassiz saw the ,little ,vulcan 7,vanessa urtic7 fluttering in the snowy desert which borders on the glacier of ,aar1 as if it were completely in its element4 ,the wings of the majority of these butterflies are sombre-coloured2 their caterpillars live upon the auriculas1 and seem to accomplish their metamorphoses in regions uninhabitable to us4 ,the leaf-wasp 7,tenthredo spinacula7 appears to deposit its larv1 at a height of nearly #aj1jjj feet1 in the galls of the ,alpine rose 7rhododendron ferrugineum and rhododendron hirsutum47 99 99 99 99 99 ,the coleoptera have also numerous representatives in the region of perpetual snows1 with this difference--equally characteristic of other animals--that1 upon the southern declivity1 they ascend #ajjj to #aejj feet higher than on the northern4 ,we may mention1 as specially distributed in the topmost zone of the ,alpine world3-- ,the ,chrysomela salicina1 a pretty little beetle1 sometimes blue1 sometimes deep green1 and finely punctuated1 which lives almost exclusively upon a species of dwarf willow 7,salix retusa74 ,the ,nebria ,escheri1 a black beetle1 about two thirds of an inch long1 with feet and antenn of a brownish red2 and ,the ,nebria ,chevrierii1 with rust-coloured feet and antenn1 common in the sources of the ,rhine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,special mention must be made of the ,snow-,flea4 ,do not think we are referring to an insect of the same species as our common fleas3 the snow-flea approximates much more closely to the lice family than to the fleas1 though it hops like the latter4 ,the history of its discovery dates back as far as #ahci4 ,at this epoch1 ,m4 ,desor1 a learned ,swiss naturalist1 had undertaken some researches upon the glaciers4 ,accompanied by some friends1 he set out from the hospice of the ,grimsel1 and arrived in the vicinity of the glacier of the ,lower ,aar4 ,he had commenced his observations1 when suddenly he heard ,agassiz calling him1 and shouting1 ,come1 come1 make haste2 here are your ,mont ,rosa fleas4 ,desor ran to the spot1 and saw under a stone the little creatures whom ,agassiz persisted in taking to be veritable lice1 pretending they had been accidentally brought to these heights4 ,i recognised with extreme joy1 says ,m4 ,desor1 the little creatures whose loss ,i had regretted a year before4 ,they are not pretty1 but1 on the contrary1 very ugly4 ,however1 they showed1 in opposition to the opinion of ,agassiz1 that they really inhabited the glacier1 and were not merely chance visitors4 ,we found them by thousands under other stones4 444 ,our guide1 with whom the glaciers were old acquaintances1 had never seen them before1 and the tiny creatures excited his astonishment4 ,what surprised us most was the rapidity with which they penetrated into even the most compact ice1 till they resembled blood-corpuscles circulating in their vessels4 ,this fact shows that there exist1 in the hardest and most transparent ice1 certain capillary fissures which escape an unskilled eye3 it also proves that the glaciers1 on their surface1 and down to a certain depth1 are by no means incompatible with the development of organised beings4#bc ,the tiny insect in question was at first baptized by the name of ,desoria saltans 7order of the ,thysanour of ,latreille71 but has since received definitively the name of ,desoria glacialis4 ,it belongs to the family of the ,podur1 singular creatures which1 by virtue of their form1 are a link between the earwigs and the spiders4 ,these are its generic characters3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,desoria glacialis2 a1 natural size2 b1 enlarged4 ,the body elongated1 cylindrical1 garnished with long setiform hairs1 and composed of eight segments1 six of which are perfectly distinct1 and two 7the two latter7 very short1 and scarcely perceptible2 four-jointed antenn1 longer than the head2 long1 slender1 cylindrical feet2 forked tail1 silky1 and transversely wrinkled2 seven eyes1 laterally grouped at the base of each antenna2 body without scales4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,podura plumbea2 a1 natural size2 b1 enlarged4 ,the ,desoria glacialis1 a species at present unique1 is of a velvety black1 and about one-sixth of an inch in length4 ,the ,podura plumbea 7or ,spring ,tail71 common enough in ,england1 and found under all kinds of stones1 will give the reader an idea of the flea of the glaciers4 ,on comparing these two species1 we remark1 first1 that the ,podura plumbea is somewhat longer and thicker in body than the flea of the glaciers 7see ,fig4 #af2 a1 natural size2 b1 enlarged72 but it is more particularly by the length of its antenn that we distinguish it4 ,it owes its specific name of ,plumbea to the livid blue or leaden colour of the scales which cover its body4 ,these scales resemble those of butterflies2 only they are much smaller1 more finely situated1 and very variable in form and size 7,fig4 #ag74 ,in catching it great care is required1 for it is so easily crushed2 it is1 besides1 very soft to the touch1 though1 when examined with a microscope1 it is seen to bristle all over with hairs1 apparently very hard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,our podur have also the faculty of leaping1 and cling by thousands to humid places1 especially to mosses and the under-surface of stones4 ,the mechanism of their leap is explained by the presence of a forked1 flexible1 and elastic appendage1 lodged in a kind of ventral groove beneath the last segments2 by projecting this rapidly behind1 the whole body of the animal is thrown forward4 ,at the slightest contact the insect folds up its caudal appendage under its belly1 and you would then suppose it did not possess one4 ,this circumstance explains why1 in many books of natural history of good repute1 the podur1 and especially so common a species as the ,podura plumbea1 are represented without this characteristic instrument4 ,,herbaceous ,,plants ,,which ,,best ,,endure ,,the ,,cold ,,of ,,winter4 ,the way to look at things1 which is the true foundation of science1 varies1 not only according to a man's degree of intellectual cultivation1 but according to his social condition or profession4 ,the herborist has eyes only for the plants in which he deals1--the simples which1 as we read in old ,gerarde1 wrought such wonderful cures in the days of our forefathers1--and from the most exquisite flowers he turns with indifference4 ,the gardener1 on the other hand1 is wholly absorbed by his love and his hate1--his charming exotics1 and his troublesome weeds4 ,the latter he regards with much the same feelings as a society wholly composed of honest men would regard an infusion of the dangerous elements2 for weeds1 like rogues1 take what is not their own1 and deprive others of their means of sustenance4 ,but to classify plants according to their virtues or vices is not worthy of science1 exclaims the rigid botanist4 ,would you mingle vile self-interest with the pure study of the vegetable kingdom8 ,remember that all selfish feelings ought to be banished from the sublime sanctuary of analysis and synthesis4 ,this sounds exceedingly well4 ,disinterested words1 from whatever quarter they come1 always produce--perhaps1 on account of their comparative rarity--an admirable effect4 ,but what is their real value8 ,to ascertain it1 the listener must be able to seize1 like so many luminous threads1 all the emotions which are acting upon the heart and tongue of the speaker4 ,but we are very far from having arrived at this degree of perfection4 ,shall we ever attain to it8 ,yes1 because we can conceive its possibility4 ,but1 until that golden epoch1 the pure love of science will always remain a myth1 and we shall not have universally understood the necessity of seeking in the profound study of nature the grand destiny of man4 ,it is among the weeds and noxious plants that we shall find the species capable of enduring longest the cold of winter4 ,what part1 then1 do they fulfil in the economy of creation8 ,an ambitious1 but not a novel question1 which has often been propounded in reference to our parasitical insects4 ,the best answer which we can make to it is this3 ,everything invites us to work4 ,labour is imposed even upon him who least desires it4 ,earth will yield a return only in proportion to the care we bestow upon her4 ,if1 after having toiled and sown1 we had nothing to do but to gather in the harvest1 every person would become an agriculturist4 ,but a soil which is not manured will soon grow exhausted2 and if it be neither ploughed nor harrowed1 instead of barley or vegetables1 it will soon be covered with tares2 rank weeds will flourish in every field4 ,such is the chastisement reserved for sloth1--the true original sin of the human race4 ,well1 then1 it is among the weeds1 everywhere so common1 that we meet with the plants best able to brave the rigours of frost4 ,,the ,,dog ,,mercury4 ,the annual ,dog ,mercury 7,mercurialis annua7 is one of the most tenacious4 ,it attracts the passer-by1 if he condescend to bestow a glance upon it1 only by its extreme abundance2 it propagates very largely1 though it is by no means partial to all localities4 ,for instance1 it avoids the woods as persistently as its congener1 the common ,dog ,mercury 7,mercurialis perennis7 seeks them4 ,it prefers the vicinity of human habitations and uncultivated fields4 ,if let alone1 it spreads with a dangerous rapidity1 and invades every garden which is not kept in the most exquisite order4 ,still1 we must not deal too harshly with it4 ,it is not altogether unfriendly to man4 ,in truth1 owing to its laxative properties1 it renders him invaluable services4 ,the country people have great faith in fomentations of ,dog ,mercury and honey4 ,understand1 we pray you1 that not an atom of mercury enters into it1 despite its significant name2 but a decoction of the annual ,dog ,mercury1 mixed with a little thick honey1 answers all the purposes of those lenitive clysters which are so beneficial to excitable temperaments4 ,the leaves of the plant are eaten in ,germany like spinach4 ,of the ,mercurialis perennis ,mr ,sowerby writes3--,this plant was formerly used in medicine1 but has long been abandoned as a remedy4 ,it is extremely acrid1 and even poisonous1 though recommended in some old books as a good pot-herb1 probably from being confounded with the annual species4 ,when steeped in water1 the leaves give out a fine blue colour resembling indigo4 ,this colouring matter is turned red by acids1 and destroyed by alkalis1 but is otherwise permanent2 it might possibly prove valuable as a dye1 if any means could be discovered of fixing it1 and the herb has been introduced into this work with the view of drawing the attention of chemists to the subject2 no experiments seem to have been lately made upon it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,let us now advise you how to distinguish our medicinal plant from the ill weeds with which it loves to associate4 ,its ovate1 rough1 irregularly-dentated1 and petiolated leaves would not give it a sufficiently marked character1 had it no other features peculiar to itself4 ,but observe the yellowish-green glomerules1 arranged1 like millet1 on a long frail spike4 7,fig4 #ah1 a47 ,they exhale1 as your nose will inform you1 a peculiar aroma1 like that of spiced bread3 no other plant but our ,dog ,mercury is gifted with this odour4 ,now1 bring your magnifying-glass to bear upon it2 with the point of a knife or a feather open one of the grains which form the glomerules of the spike2 out of it will leap1 as if impelled by an invisible spring1 a large number of stamens1 easily distinguished by their elastic thread-like anthers1 covered with tiny yellow beads4 ,each greenish grain is a flower2 the calyx1 which also serves as the corolla1 is represented by three little petals1 forming the external envelope of the little flower4 7,fig4 #ah1 b47 ,but something essential is still wanting2 in the centre of the stamens you do not find any pistil4 ,why is so important an organ wanting8 ,because our little rounded flowers1 with their spice-bread odour1 have but one sex1 are unisexual2 they are male flowers1 since they are furnished only with stamens4 ,in vain do you hunt on the same stem for their companions1 the female flowers4 ,you will find them only upon other stems1 distinct from those which bear the male flowers4 ,the ,dog ,mercury1 then1 is a plant whose two sexes are lodged in two different houses1 --is1 in fact1 a dioecious species4 ,but you are sure to find the female flowers in the immediate neighbourhood of the stems with the male flowers4 ,they are easily recognised by their larger and darker leaves 7,fig4 #ah1 c72 and especially by their little twin pods1 green1 wrinkled1 and pedicellate1#bd which garnish the axil of the leaves4 7,fig4 #ah1 d47 ,from this characteristic the female mercury was formerly mistaken for the male2 and many centuries elapsed before naturalists recognised1 what now-a-days seems so simple1 that the little pods1 joined in couples1 and containing each a grain1 composed the fruit of a single plant2 that every fruit proceeds from an ovary2 and that every ovary is a sign of the feminine sex4 ,in the ,historia ,naturalis of ,pliny1 who was at once so acute and so credulous an observer1 we first meet with the name of ,mercurialis4 ,the plant is so denominated1 he says1#be because it was discovered by ,mercury4 ,its juice1 mingled with that of the hibiscus 7a species of the ,malvace7 and the purslain1 forms a kind of unguent1 with which1 if you thoroughly rub the hands1 they can touch molten lead without being injured4 ,the description which ,dioscorides#bf gives of the ,linozosis1 which he also calls ,parthenion1 or ,mercury's ,plant 7 71 applies1 in the main1 to our ,dog ,mercury4 ,it is true that its leaves are not like those of the basilic 7 72 but they resemble in all respects those of the smooth variety of cultivated mint2 and1 apparently1 the basilic of ,dioscorides was one of our mints4 ,the fruit of the female1 he adds1--evidently meaning the male flowers1--are disposed in clusters4 ,both species of the ,herb or ,dog ,mercury belong to the family ,euphorbiace4 ,our attention must now be directed to another point4 ,it is a fact1 that in winters of moderate severity the ,mercury continues to infest our gardens and cultivated fields4 ,it only succumbs to a frost equal to six to ten degrees below freezing-point2 then its congealed stem totters1 and grows black1 and its leaves mingle so completely with the soil that it is difficult to discover any vestiges4 ,how singular a contrast6 ,the plants most destructive in our kitchen gardens are frequently the most useful in medicine4 ,there are no drugs more popular than the weeds which we call ,herb ,mercury1 ,garden ,nightshade1 and ,dog's-tooth grass4 ,all belong to families whose properties are strongly marked4 ,as already stated1 the ,mercury ranks among the ,euphorbiace1 remarkable for their acrid and more or less purgative juice4 ,in this family occur the most violent drastics1 such as the ,croton tiglium1 whose oil 7expressed from the seeds7 has long been considered an efficacious medicine4 ,the ,garden ,nightshade is one of the ,solanace1 and cousin-german of the useful potato2 and the ,dog's-tooth grass1 whose roots compose three-fourths of our possets1 is of the same family as our cereals4 ,,the ,,garden ,,nightshade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,if you have seen--and who has not8--the flowers of the potato-plant1 you will immediately recognise the flowers of the ,garden or ,black ,nightshade4 7,fig4 #ai47 ,this noxious herb--noxious in some1 but useful in other respects1 and1 therefore1 not to be visited with too hasty a condemnation--flowers and fructifies throughout the year4 ,its fertility is extreme2 only the severest winter-frosts can crush out its prolific life4 ,the fruits which succeed to the flowers are smaller berries or apples than those of the potato4 7,see ,fig4 #bj47 ,in the history of botany1 and even in that of philosophy1 the ,black ,nightshade 7,solanum nigrum7 has a certain interest4 ,thus1 says ,m4 ,hoefer1 both ,cordus and ,jean ,bauhin1 botanists of the sixteenth century1 have described the flower of this plant as if its corolla were composed of five distinct petals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,where were the eyes of those great botanists8 ,the corolla of the nightshade1 like that of all the ,solanace1 is plainly and obviously monopetalous1--that is1 composed of a single piece2 to assure yourself of this1 you have but to open it out4 7,see ,fig4 #ba1 b47 ,it was the sharp-pointed1 ovate divisions of the limb which imposed on the old observers2 a fresh proof that seeing and observing are two very distinct things4 ,our vision enters into full exercise from earliest infancy2 observation is not acquired until after much labour and many years4 ,do not forget to add1 that the five stamens are brought very closely together by their elongated anthers1 as is also seen in the flower of the potato-plant4 7,fig4 #ba1 a47 ,the same botanists who took our solanum for a plant with a polypetalous corolla1 considered the ,bitter-sweet 7,solanum dulcamara7 to be a metamorphosis of the ,garden ,nightshade6 ,the former they christened the red-berried solanum 7,solanum baccis rubris71 and the latter1 the black-berried solanum 7,solanum baccis nigris74 99 99 99 99 99 ,but if we once launch into the hypothetical1 we shall be unable to stop half-way4 ,if the species of one and the same genus are the result of a transformation1 why may we not assert as much of the genera of a family1 or the families of an order8 ,thus we should arrive1 step by step1 at an unique type1 not only for the vegetable kingdom1 but for vegetables and animals1 including man himself1 and realise1 to some extent1 the ideal of the ,greeks1--unity in variety4 ,be it acknowledged1 however1 that we have no desire to rise to so lofty an elevation4 ,the potato-plant--unknown to the ancients1 inasmuch as it is a native of the ,new ,world--has not been found to lose its character since its introduction into the ancient continent2 its congener1 the nightshade--an old native1 like every bad herb--accompanies it everywhere2 but its fibrous roots are absolutely virgin of every farinaceous tubercule4 ,though the nightshade is common everywhere1 ,tournefort was the first to describe it with complete accuracy4 ,that great observer even specifies various peculiarities which most of our botanists omit from their descriptions4 ,thus1 he rightly remarks1 that the peduncles branch out so as to form a kind of umbel1 and do not emerge1 as is usually the case1 from the axils of the leaves1 but a little below1 from the very branches of the stem4 ,he was also the first to note--and it was a veritable discovery--that the white flowers of the nightshade1 grouped in threes to eights1 are each formed of a single cup-shaped leaf1--in other words1 that the corolla is monophyllous1 and slightly bell-like or campanulated4 ,nor does he forget to describe the disposition of the five stamens1 set close around the pistil1 which1 as it develops1 forms a globular bacciform fruit1 embraced by a five-lobed calyx4 ,this fruit1 which changes in colour from green to black1 is filled with a great number of grains in a thick liquid1 exhaling a nauseous odour4 ,as for the leaves1 they resemble those of spinach1 for which1 in some countries1 they serve as a substitute4 ,like all plants found by the wayside1 and among heaps of refuse1 the nightshade loves to vary its form1 and of its various forms some nomenclators have made as many different species4 ,the typical variety1 the ,solanum nigrum1 has glabrous stems and leaves1 that is1 they are covered with short1 but hardly visible hairs2 its berries are black4 ,the smooth variety1 or ,solanum villosum1 is rather rare1 and has swollen or bulging leaves and stems2 its berries are red or of a reddish yellow4 ,the two varieties seem able1 by sowing1 to be transformed into one another4 ,a sub-variety of the ,solanum villosum has been described as a peculiar species1 under the name of ,solanum miniatum1 so named on account of its vermilion-coloured berries4 ,the ,solanum ochroleucum and ,solanum luteovirens1 the first with yellowish1 and the second with greenish berries1 are simply varieties1 and the same may be said of the dwarf form1 known by the name of ,solanum humile4 ,but the physician is more interested in the solanum than either the gardener or botanist4 ,for him it is no useless or noxious weed1 but1 on the contrary1 is an eminently precious herb4 ,and1 in fact1 if it possessed only one-half the virtues formerly attributed to it1 we ought to bow to the ground every time we encounter it4 ,listen to our authorities even if you do not respect them4 ,csalpin asserts that the decoction or juice of the nightshade is a sovereign remedy for complaints of the stomach and the bladder1 and regards nightshade-water1 mixed with an equal quantity of absinthe-water1 as one of the best sudorifics4 ,tragus1 a physician and botanist like ,csalpin1 recommends the juice of the nightshade as anti-choleraic1 as well as efficacious in inflammation of the liver and stomach4 ,and yet1 at the same time1 he grows emphatic in reference to its poisonous properties4 ,do not1 he says1 employ this herb immoderately1 lest it should happen to you as1 in #aeda1 ,i saw it happen to an inhabitant of ,erbach1 near ,hohenburg4 ,after having eaten a few nightshade-berries1 he was seized1 on the following day1 by a furious monomania1 which led his neighbours to believe him possessed of a devil4 ,after having uselessly employed every kind of exorcism1 they sent for me4 ,i made my patient swallow some very strong wine2 he fell into a profound slumber2 and1 when he awoke1 was cured4#bg ,withering affirms that a couple of grains of the dried leaves will act as a powerful sudorific1 and that they have also been found useful in some cutaneous disorders4 ,here is another authority1 before whom naturalists are accustomed to give way4 ,we make use of the ,solanum nigrum1 says ,tournefort1#bh when it is necessary to subdue inflammation1 or soften and relax the fibres4 ,the pounded herb is applied to hmorrhoids4 ,the juice1 with a sixth-part of rectified spirit-of-wine1 is advantageous in cases of erysipelas1 ringworm1 wildfire1 and all diseases of the skin4 ,nightshade is also employed in anodyne cataplasms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,tournefort did not confine himself to simple botanical descriptions2 he did1 what our modern botanists neglect doing1--he made experiments1 both physiological and chemical1 on the plants employed in medicine4 ,thus1 he began by tasting the different parts of the plant4 ,the root1 he says1 is almost insipid2 the leaves taste like a saltish herb2 there is something sharp and vinegary in the fruit2 the whole plant has a narcotic odour4 ,the leaves do not redden turnsole1#bi but the ripe fruit reddens it greatly2 whence we may conjecture that the sal-ammoniac contained in this plant is moderated in the leaves by a very considerable portion of ftid oil and earth1 but that the acid portion of the salt is strongly developed in the ripe fruit2 so that we must choose our part of the plant according to the purposes we wish to employ it for4 ,the fruits1 for instance1 are more refreshing1 but more repellant1 than the leaves1 which soften while resolving1 cleansing1 and absorbing4 ,we admit that these data leave much to be desired from a chemical point of view4 ,we may well ask1 for example1 how the illustrious philosopher ascertained the presence of sal-ammoniac in nightshade8 ,but it is not fair to criticise the science of the past1 by judging it through the deceitful prism of the science of to-day4 ,we must adopt the methods of our predecessors1 when discussing natural productions from all the view-points of their applications4 ,,dog',s-,,tooth ,,grass4 ,in clearing an uncultivated field we uproot a great number of herbaceous plants of different families2 but those of the ,gramine1 or ,grasses1 invariably predominate4 ,they are the trailing roots1 or rhizomes1 of certain species which have been included under the general denomination of ,dog's-tooth4 ,these tenacious and vigorous roots1--so wholesome in various maladies1 so injurious to cultivation1--are1 whatever certain botanists may say1 far from tracing their origin in all cases to the ,triticum repens 7couch-grass7 and ,panicum dactylon--those terrible enemies of the corn-field1 which1 once established in the soil1 are with difficulty extirpated1 and prove very injurious to the golden crops4 ,nearly every grass which puts forth rhizomes will furnish the ,dogs-tooth4 ,we may cite1 for instance1 several species of ,festuca 7as ,festuca rubra and ,festuca pinnata71 or fescue grass2 at least two kinds of meadow grass 7,poa compressa and ,poa pratensis71 a species of wild-oats 7,avena elatior71 to say nothing of the weeds ,arundo phragmites and ,arundo epigeios4 ,the long rhizomes of these vivacious plants possess nearly the same properties1 due to their saccharine principles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,a ,corn-field4 ,how shall we distinguish these plants from one another8 ,their leaves have almost exactly the same configuration2 they are linear2#cj and their flowers are not apparent1--they do not attract the gaze of the passer-by4 ,yet they possess all the organs necessary for the reproduction of their species3--three stamens1 each composed of an anther and a characteristic filament2 on this anther1 whose two lobes are arranged like the branches of an ,x1 the pistil softly and tenderly balances itself on the summit of a frail thread1 to which it is attached by the back4 ,remark1 too1 the two styles with feathery stigmata1#ca like the barbs of feathers4 ,nothing is wanting to constitute a complete flower4 ,there is even a perianth1 or calyx1 represented by a couple of tiny membraneous scales1 scientifically known as glumellul2 then at the base of each spikelet1 composed of one or two of these bright green lilliputian flowers1 are two other and larger scales1 called glumell3 they represent an involucre4#cb ,it is almost unnecessary to add1 that the free1 unilocular ovary1 or seed vessel1 forms1 as a result of its development1 the seed1 whose embryo adheres laterally to a farinaceous kernel1 or perisperm4 ,the union of one or more of these flowers composes a spikelet1 and the union of the spikelets constitutes the spike1 which may be disposed on a simple or ramified axis4 ,such are1 in general1 the characters we must keep before us in the difficult study of the ,gramine4 ,let us now see1 more closely1 the two plants which1 according to the botanists1 furnish the root of the ,dog's-tooth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,a ,river's ,sandy ,bank4 ,when walking along the sandy bank of a river1 you must frequently have trodden under foot a low1 almost crawling herb1 remarkable for its violet-red spikes1 which1 three to five in number1 are arranged like the fingers of a hand1 on the summit of a short curving stem4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--7,p4 #ic47 ,this glaucous-leaved herb is the ,panicum dactylon 7i4e41 fingered-millet7 of ,linnus4 ,the long trailing rhizomes1 joined to some less prominent characters1 have been sufficient for some botanists to create a special genus1 ,cynodon1 or ,kynodon 7a ,greek word1 signifying literally ,dog's-tooth71 and to change the ,linnean denomination of our grass into ,cynodon dactylon4 ,it is seldom met with in cultivated land2 but in such a locality as we have already described1 and sometimes on open sandy shores1 where the summer sea comes with a gentle ripple and a subdued music1 it may frequently be found4 ,its long1 tough runners creep through and over the loose soil for many yards1 rooting at every joint1 and furnished with flat1 rather short leaves1 of a glaucous hue4 ,the flowers grow in narrow1 linear spikes1 arranged at the top of a short leafy stem in the form of an umbel1 and give the grass1 when in bloom1 a very peculiar and characteristic aspect4 ,but if the ,cynodon dactylon is rare in cultivated fields1 the ,triticum repens--commonly called couch-grass1 but1 in our opinion1 the true and genuine dog's-tooth--is particularly abundant4 7,see ,fig4 #bc47 ,its long subterranean stems increase with astonishing rapidity1 and if the smallest fragment be left in the soil1 it will vegetate1 and speedily extend itself1 until it becomes almost impossible to extirpate it4 ,it is a kind of wild barley1 with stiff leaves of a moderate length1 and of a bluish tint1 and a double spike1 composed of clusters of four to six flowers1 each crowned by a narrow ridge4 ,we must not confound the ,triticum repens with the ,elymus caninus of ,linnus1 which has no trailing underground roots like the former4 ,it differs also from the latter in the roughness of each side of its leaves1--only one side of the leaf of the ,triticum repens being rough1--and in the crests which rise above the flowers4 ,was the dog's-tooth known to the ancients8 ,undoubtedly1 for the dog's-tooth flourishes in all climates1--is truly cosmopolitan4 ,but it is difficult to decide whether their ,agrostis and their ,gramen apply to the above-mentioned species4 99 99 99 99 99 ,according to ,diodorus1 the primitive ,egyptians lived upon herbs4 ,they also eat1 he says1#cc the stems and roots which grow in the marshes4 ,especially did they hunt after the ,agrostis1 a plant remarkable for its sweet savour and the sufficient nourishment which it offers to the wants of man4 ,it is likewise considered an excellent provision for cattle1 from its fattening properties4 ,it is in remembrance of these benefits that the inhabitants of ,egypt1 when worshipping their gods1 carry this plant in their hand4 ,the ,agrostis of ,diodorus would apply to all the ,graminace whose stems and roots contain nutritive and saccharine principles4 ,let us here remind the reader that the sugar-cane belongs to the same family as barley and the dog's-tooth4 ,pliny is much more explicit4 ,what he says of the ,gramen 7or grass71 the commonest of herbs--inter herbas vulgatissimum--and of the geniculated spaces between its knots 7geniculatis serpit internodiis71 applies with tolerable accuracy to our ,triticum repens4 ,he also speaks of the diuretic properties of a decoction from its trailing roots4#cd ,as for his ,gramen aculeatum 7or needle-like grass71 it is positively our ,cynodon dactylon4 ,the five spurs or needles which shoot out1 he says1 from the top of the stem1 have procured it the name of ,dactylon4 ,to these digitiform spikes he attributes the property of checking the bleeding of the nose1 when they are introduced into the nostrils4 ,but a thorn is much better fitted to produce this effect2 the spikes of the digitated panicle of the ,cynodon dactylon are much too soft to determine epistaxis by a mechanical action4 ,so it is not improbable that they owe their putative virtue to their colouring1 which is not unlike that of blood1 and which has even procured for the species the name of ,digitaria sanguinalis4 ,in the same manner the capricious medival imagination pronounced liverwort1 with its marbled leaves1 a sovereign remedy for diseases of the lungs1--organs remarkable for their marbled appearance4 ,dioscorides is quite as explicit as ,pliny4 ,what the latter names ,gramen1 he1 however1 calls ,agrostis4 ,after having particularised the nodosities of the stem--a feature common to nearly all the ,graminace--he describes very clearly the long creeping roots put forth by the said stem2 and he does not forget to mention the sugary savour1 so characteristic of the rhizomes 7 7 of the ,triticum repens4#ce ,theophrastus confines himself to indicating the ,agrostis as a herb which infests the fields4#cf 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,cynodon dactylon is1 at the present day1 very common in ,greece1 where it is specially partial to low grounds1 which are somewhat damp and sandy4 ,the inhabitants call it ,agriada1 a name derived from 1 wild4 ,but if we may believe ,fraas1 the author of a ,flora ,classica1 the genuine dog's-tooth1 ,triticum repens1 is1 on the contrary1 very rare in the land of ,socrates4 ,this is a curious fact1 if a fact1 for geographical botany4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 and down to the eighteenth century1 were confounded1 under the generic name of ,gramina1 or grasses1 the most diversely-featured herbs1 including the dog's-tooth4 ,tabernmontanus1 ,dodonn1 ,mathiole1 ,jean and ,gaspard ,bauhin1 were the first to attempt the clearing of a path through this intricate wilderness4 ,they eulogised1 at the same time1 the emollient properties of the dog's-tooth4 ,tournefort#cg and ,bernard de ,jussieu1 who appear to have made a chemical analysis of it1 pretend that the roots of the dog's-tooth contain a large quantity of oil1 earth1 and several acid liquids1 as well as a little fixed salt4 ,according to all appearance1 they add1 the roots act by means of a salt analogous to salt of coral1 enveloped in a great deal of sulphur4 ,instead of mocking us with such fantastic analyses1 which can only excite the laughter of our modern chemists1 ,tournefort and ,bernard de ,jussieu would have deserved better of science if they had applied themselves to the task of introducing light and order into the cloudy chaos of the ,graminace of the botanists of their age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but winter is passing away1 and the time for the singing of birds is at hand4 ,already the earth is awakening from her prolonged lethargy2 the hedgerows are green with budding leaves2 the purple crocuses shine in many a sheltered field2 on bank and brae1 in glen and vale1 the glory of the primrose makes glad the heart of man2 the wood anemone hangs its delicate head in the woodlands2 and it seems as if a gladder feeling animated the universal nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,on bank and brae1 in glen and vale4 ,and the heart and the brain and the soul sympathise in this apparent delight of material things2 the heart beating more freely1 the brain feeling a stronger working power1 and the soul rising to purer views of life and its duties3-- ,oh1 who can speak the joys of spring's young morn1 ,when wood and pasture open on his view1 ,when tender green buds blush upon the thorn1 ,and the first primrose dips its leaves in dew6 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ab3 ,chaplin ,child1 ,beredici1 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #ac3 ,pliny1 ,historia ,naturalis1 ,book xi4 ,footnote #ad3 ,de ,saussure1 ,voyage dans les ,alpes1 ,book iii41 p4 #de 7ed4 #ahjc1 ,neufchtel74 ,footnote #ae3 ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #af3 ,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahbj1 vol4 ii41 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #ag3 ,it is but fair to add1 however1 that ,vogt and others contend for the animal origin of this substance1 and regard the ,protococcus nivalis as simply a development of the infusoria1 ,discera nivalis4 ,footnote #ah3 ,macmillan1 ,footnotes from the ,page of ,nature1 pp4 #ada-adc4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the two temperate zones together represent perceptibly the half1 or #j4ebj1 and the torrid zone1 two-fifths1 or1 more exactly1 #j4cih1 of the terrestrial surface4 ,footnote #bj3 ,that is1 muttering1 marmot-wise1 one's prayers4 ,footnote #ba3 ,byron4 ,footnote #bb3 ,also called the ,golden-crested ,wren4 ,footnote #bc3 ,c4 ,vogt1 ,agassiz1 und seiner ,freunde geologische ,alpenreisen1 p4 #aha4 ,frankfort1 #ahdg4 ,footnote #bd3 ,a flower with a stalk is called pedunculate or pedicellate2 without a stalk1 it is sessile4 ,footnote #be3 ,pliny1 ,historia ,naturalis1 xxv4 #ah4 ,footnote #bf3 ,dioscorides1 ,materia ,medica1 iv4 #aia4 ,footnote #bg3 ,tragus1 ,historia ,stirpium 7ed4 #aeeb74 ,footnote #bh3 ,tournefort1 ,histoire des ,plantes 7ed4 #agbg71 i4 #gd1 #ge4 ,footnote #bi3 ,turnsole1 a colouring substance made of coarse linen rags1 which1 after being cleaned and bleached1 are dipped into a mixture of ammoniacal matter1 and the juice of the ,crozophora tinctoria4 ,footnote #cj3 ,leaves are said to be linear1 when the veins do not spread out1 but run from the base to the extreme point4 ,footnote #ca3 ,a stigma is the continuation of the cellular tissue of the style1 and has sometimes projecting cellules of hairs4 ,footnote #cb3 ,a whorl1 or ring1 of bracts 7floral leaves7 is so called4 ,footnote #cc3 ,diodorus1 i4 #dc4 ,footnote #cd3 ,pliny1 ,historia ,naturalis1 xxiv4 #ahh4 ,footnote #ce3 ,dioscorides1 iv4 #cj4 ,footnote #cf3 ,theophrastus1 ,historia ,plantarum1 i4 #aj2 xi4 #b1 #d4 ,footnote #cg3 ,tournefort1 ,histoire des ,plantes1 ii4 #ed4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,spring-,,time4 ,now that the ,winter's gone1 the earth hath lost ,her snow-white robes1 and now no more the frost ,candies the grass1 or calls an icy cream ,upon the silver lake or crystal stream2 ,but the warm sun thaws the benumbd earth1 ,and makes it tender2 gives a sacred birth ,to the glad swallow2 wakes in hollow tree ,the drowsy cuckoo1 and the humble bee2 ,now do a choir of chirping minstrels bring ,in triumph to the world the youthful ,spring2 ,and valleys1 hills1 and woods1 in rich array1 ,welcome the coming of the longed-for ,may4 --,,thomas ,,carew4 ',tis silence all1 ,and pleasing expectation4 ,even mountains1 vales1 ,and forests1 seem impatient to demand ,the promised sweetness4 ,man superior walks ,amid the glad creation1 musing praise1 ,and looking lively gratitude4 --,,thomson4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens4 ,blue the sky1 ,spreads like an ocean hung on high4 --,,byron4 ,illustration ,it may be doubted whether many of the patrons of ,mudie's are acquainted with the works of a philosopher1 who1 in his day1 enjoyed no little fame--,i mean1 ,robert ,boyle 7#afbg-afia71--;and yet there are passages in them well worth attentive perusal1 from the lucidity of their style and the soundness of their reflections4 ,he has1 for instance1 some observations in his ,considerations on the ,usefulness of ,experimental ,philosophy1 which are germane to the general purport and tone of our little book4 ,he remarks1 that the contemplation of the vastness1 beauty1 and regular motions of the heavenly bodies1 the excellent structure of animals and plants1 besides a multitude of other phenomena of nature1 and the subserviency of most of these to man1 ought1 certainly1 to induce him1 as a rational creature1 to conclude that this vast1 beautiful1 orderly1 and1 in a word1 many ways admirable1 system of things1 that we call the world1 was framed by an ,author supremely powerful1 wise1 and good4 ,the works of ,god1 he adds1 are so worthy of their ,author1 that1 besides the impresses of ,his wisdom and goodness that are left1 as it were1 upon their surfaces1 there are a great many more curious and excellent tokens and effects of ,divine artifice in the hidden and innermost recesses of them2 and these are not to be discovered by the perfunctory looks of oscitant and unskilful beholders2 but require1 as well as deserve1 the most attentive and prying inspection of inquisitive and well-instructed considerers4 ,it is not by a slight survey1 but by a diligent and skilful scrutiny of the works of ,god1 that a man must be1 by a rational and affective conviction1 engaged to acknowledge1 with the prophet1 that the ,author of nature is wonderful in counsel1 and excellent in working4 ,that ,he is wonderful in counsel and excellent in working must be the conclusion of every devout student of the celestial phenomena2 and to those we shall1 therefore1 devote the first portion of our ,spring meditations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what reception would formerly have been given to any poet who had dared to exclaim-- ,the bright face of the heavens contemplate1 ,and then1 as in a mirror1 you shall see1 ,outlined1 the figure of the rounded earth8 ,would he not have been met with the reproach which ,horace1 in his ,ars ,poetica1 so epigrammatically formulates8-- ,pictoribus atque poetis ,quidlibet audendi semper fuit qua potestas4 ,an equal licence ever was accorded ,to poet as to painter1 that he might ,the boldest sweeps of fancy still essay6 ,as for men of science1 they would not have condescended to honour even with a smile such strange and fantastic words4 ,let us suppose1 now1 that our poetical astronomer1 thus contemned1 had addressed his scientific censors in some such language as the following3-- ,do not think1 illustrious sirs1 that it is by a purely poetical licence ,i call the firmament a mirror in which the earth may be seen reflected4 ,only1 to prevent all equivoque1 we must understand one another4 ,the mirror to which ,i am alluding does not reflect light1 but movement4 ,it is in a particular movement of the stars that the true figure of our planet is reflected1 is revealed to us4 ,but before the human mind can appreciate this movement1--especially before it can discover the cause1--we must be prepared to devote ourselves to centuries of assiduous effort4 ,in this long interval1 philosophers of every class will allow unrestricted scope to their imagination4 ,shall we1 then1 recall some of these opinions1--some of these truly poetical licences8 ,homer and ,hesiod represented the earth as a disc1 or as a flat rondel1 surrounded on all sides by a winding river which they called the ,ocean1 and which1 in the extreme ,east1 communicated with the ,phasis1 in ,colchis4 ,above this terrestrial disc the outspread sky was arched like a vast dome2 a dome supported by two massive pillars1 resting on the shoulders of the god ,atlas4 ,surely the ancient poets must have evolved the earth-disc from their own prolific imagination4 ,can they never have seen a far-off vessel1 showing1 as it approached them1 at first the tops of its masts1 then its swelling sails1 and finally its hull8 ,they might have made so simple an observation in any seaport2 if they did1 why did it not suggest to them the idea that the earth1 instead of being level1 must be round8 ,because it is easier to let the imagination speak than the reason4 ,the fiction of the earth-disc remained long unshaken1 with the exception of a few modifications4 ,thales figured to himself the earth as floating on a humid element4 ,and1 six centuries later1 we find ,seneca still adopting the opinion of the ,greek philosopher4 ,this humid element 7humor71 he says1 which sustains the disc of the earth like a ship1 may be1 perhaps1 the ocean1 or a liquid of simpler nature than water4#ch ,but how1 then1 was the rising or setting of the stars explained8 ,the ancients supposed that they were extinguished at sunset1 and rekindled at sunrise4 ,thus1 an unfounded hypothesis has for its consequence a still more baseless hypothesis2 and in this manner we glide down the slope of fiction to fall eventually into an abyss of contradictions4 ,such is the true punishment of error4 ,let us continue4--,according to the ,chaldeans1 who were thought to be profoundly versed in astronomy1 the earth was hollow1 and shaped like an egg-shell4 ,and1--adds ,diodorus1 from whom we have this detail1--they adduce numerous and plausible proofs of this assertion4 ,yet was this idea in direct opposition to the evidence of our senses when we travel over a wide plain1 or navigate the great deep2 at least1 unless we admit that the earth has the form of a reversed egg-shell1 with its convex face uppermost1 and its concave one beneath4 ,heraclitus of ,ephesus introduced the ,chaldean doctrine into ,greece4 ,anaximander represents the earth as a cylinder1 whose upper face alone is inhabited4 ,this cylinder1 adds the philosopher1 is a third of its diameter in height1 and floats freely in the midst of the celestial vault1 because there is no reason why it should move more to one side than the other4 ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 ,heraclitus1 and ,anaxagoras1--names of high repute in the history of philosophy1--adopted ,anaximander's system1 though it was neither more nor less than a wild phantasy4 ,anaximenes and ,zenophanes1 without pronouncing dogmatically on the form of the earth1 represented it as resting1--the one upon compressed air1 the other upon roots which were prolonged ad infinitum4 ,but upon what was the compressed air supported8 ,and of what nature were these mysterious roots8 ,plato1 with a nearer approximation to the probable1 gave to the earth the form of a cube4 ,the cube1 bounded by six square equal surfaces1 appeared to him the most perfect geometrical solid1 and consequently the most suitable for the earth1 supposed to be the centre of the universe4 ,eudoxes1 who1 in his long travels in ,greece and ,egypt1 must have seen new constellations rising in the south1 while others disappeared in the north1 never ventured to adduce from his astronomical observations the sphericity of the earth4 ,aristotle1 bolder than ,eudoxes1 was led to the conception of this sphericity by simple consideration of mechanics4 ,the earth1 he said1 must be a sphere1 because each particle of matter is carried1 by gravity1 towards the centre2 and as this fact is general1 the superficial particles must be at an equal distance from the centre4 ,this theoretical view was adopted by ,archimedes1 who applied it to the waters covering the terrestrial surface4 ,aristotle went further2 he saw the rotundity of the earth in the shadow thrown by the latter on the bright face of the moon during its eclipses4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that the arguments of ,aristotle1 founded on a method to which all the progress of science is due1 remained unaccepted for two thousand years4 ,and why8 ,we shall attempt to explain4 ,among those subjects whose comprehension seems to have been specially difficult to the mind of man1 we must include the fact that the earth floats without any solid support in the infinity of space1 and carries its denizens on its surface1 both above and below4 ,our creeds1 which have ever pretended to explain everything in the physical as well as in the moral order1 have here endeavoured to come to the assistance of the weakness of the human mind4 ,and as each creed asserts itself to be the best1 to the exclusion of every other1 men began to imagine for the earth a navel1 and placed it where it was supposed pleasing to the divinity4 ,the ,greek priests dismissed a couple of eagles1 one towards the west1 the other towards the east2 the place where these favourite birds of ,jove1 of the ,father of gods and men1 encountered each other1 was to be considered the navel of the earth4 ,it chanced to be ,delphos1 whose oracle was the most esteemed in the ancient world2 the sacerdotal caste accumulated there immense wealth4 ,the ,greek priests prudently refrained from dealing with the difficult problem of the earth's solid support4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,hebrew pontiffs1 however1 were not so reserved4 ,after having made ,jerusalem the navel of the world1 they allowed for the earth itself seven solid columns as a foundation4 ,the question of the ,antipodes1 in which the greatest intellects of antiquity believed1--,pythagoras1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1--was thus pontifically judged and condemned4 ,and ,christians who preferred to follow the ,judaical observance of external ceremonies to a true comprehension of the spirit of the ,gospels1 exaggerated the application of this sentence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the dogmatic condemnation of the existence of the ,antipodes long arrested man in his search for that fourth quarter of the world whose inhabitants should have their feet directed towards ours4 ,it was one of the principal obstacles which ,columbus was called upon to surmount in the realisation of his sublime idea4 ,when cited before the ,council of ,salamanca1--composed of prelates and men of science1--he had to meet the revived objection of ,lactantius1 a ,christian apologist of the third century3#ci--;,can there be anything more absurd than a belief in the existence of ,antipodes1 of inhabitants with their feet opposite to our feet1 of people who walk with their feet in the air1 and their heads on the ground8--that there is a part of the world where everything is inverted1 where trees throw out their branches from top to bottom1 while it rains1 and hails1 and snows1 from bottom to top8 ,columbus admirably demonstrated1 from an artificial globe1 that flies walked as easily on the lower as on the upper surface1 and hence pointed out that men1 compared with the size of the earth1 are much smaller still than flies4 ,but his judges persisted in their conviction1 and did not fail to cast in his face the jesting words of ,plutarch3 ,philosophers1 rather than renounce a favourite hypothesis1 would make human beings crawl on the lower face of the earth like worms or lizards4 ,but it was principally the authority of ,st ,augustine which they invoked to condemn a belief in the ,antipodes4 ,st ,augustine had declared such a belief incompatible with the dogmas of the faith2 for to admit the existence of inhabitable lands1 in the opposite hemisphere1 would be to admit the existence of peoples not descended from ,adam1 since it would have been impossible for him to traverse the ocean lying between ,asia and the ,antipodes6 99 99 99 99 99 ,some authorities denied the ,antipodes on the ground taken by certain classic writers1 that the regions of the opposite hemisphere were uninhabitable under the tropics1 on account of the extreme heat1 and near the ,poles1 on account of the extreme cold4 ,others cited ,epicurus1 affirming that the earth was inhabitable and roofed with a celestial vault only in our western hemisphere1 the other half being an inaccessible chaos4 ,others pretended that no traveller could reach the east by way of the west1 because the earth1 being pear-shaped1 he would encounter on his road an insurmountable tuberosity1--undoubtedly the tail or stalk of the pear6 ,finally1 there were some who dwelt upon the magnitude of the earth1 whose circuit would occupy a voyage of upwards of three years4 ,it was to this objection1 as the most serious1 that ,columbus principally addressed his reply4 ,and he replied by discovering the ,new ,world4 ,but had not this daring genius been supported in his projects by the ,spanish sovereigns1 ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 he would have been handed over to the ,inquisition1 and condemned as a heretic4 ,it was then so dangerous to believe in the ,antipodes1 that a ,bishop of ,salzburg was deposed from his episcopal throne1 and deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity1 by the ,pope ,zacharias1 for having countenanced the heresy4 ,we now know why1 for a whole series of centuries1 men would not follow in the footsteps of ,aristotle1 who was the first to establish theoretically the sphericity of the earth4 ,the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and the voyages of circumnavigation which rapidly succeeded one another1 demonstrated1 not only that inhabitants there are whose feet are opposite to ours1 but that the earth does not rest upon any species of support2 that it floats1 like a star1 freely in space4 ,the ice was broken4 ,the question of the earth's figure was revived1 and1 this time1 discussed in a new light4 ,is the earth perfectly round8 ,copernicus never doubted it2 he who was the first1 after ,pythagoras1 to represent our planet as revolving round the sun4 ,the geometrical sphericity of the earth wonderfully harmonised with the perfect circles in which he supposed the planets to move4 ,kepler1 who had first laid a sacrilegious hand on the holy figure of the circle1 and on the circular orbits of the stars1 never ventured1 however1 to dispute the perfect rotundity of the earth2 it appeared to him a matter beyond all controversy4 ,galileo was the first to hazard a doubt4 ,but this doubt became a certainty only through the labours of ,huygens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,galileo1 who died in the very year that ,newton was born 7#afdb71 had discovered1 as we know1 that all bodies1 in falling1 obey an uniformly accelerative force1 called gravitation1 and that the space traversed increases as the square of the time occupied in their descent4 ,huygens perceived that gravity varies according to the parallels of latitude1 and it was not long before he demonstrated1 by the number of oscillations which a pendulum of a certain length performs in a certain time1 that it diminishes in a regular ratio as we approach the ,equator1 where it reaches its minimum1 and that it augments1 on the contrary1 in due proportion as we approach the ,poles1 where it must attain its maximum4 ,strong in this knowledge1 and knowing1 moreover1 that the material molecules1 uniformly distributed in the volume of a sphere1 act upon a point of its surface as if they were all reunited in the centre of that sphere1 ,huygens deduced from it the inequality of the equatorial and the polar radius2 he attempted even to determine how much the former exceeded the latter4 ,we know1 now-a-days1 that this difference is #aci1fgj feet 7#da1hdh1chj-da1gjh1gaj feet74 ,newton admits1 with ,huygens1 that the earth bulges out at the ,equator and is flattened at the ,poles2 that1 in a word1 it is a spheroid of revolution4 ,he went much farther3 he made the precession of the ,equinoxes depend upon this flattening2 but he did not furnish its mathematical demonstration4 ,what has been the result8 ,a free skirmishing ground for all opinions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,while ,newton maintained that the form of the earth was that of a spheroid flattened at the poles1 as a necessary sequence of the great natural law which bears his name1 ,jacques ,cassini declared himself in favour of an elongated spheroid4 ,the difference between these two illustrious teachers originated a controversy which lasted for upwards of fifty years4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris pronounced1 not unnaturally1 in favour of the opinion of their colleague1 though it was far from having the authority of ,dominique ,cassini1 father of ,jacques1 and1 still less1 that of the illustrious ,president of the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,but patriotic ardour supplemented the weakness of their arguments4 ,the flattened spheroid and ,newton's law were rejected by ,france1 because they were an ,english invention4 ,undoubtedly1 no one openly acknowledged so paltry a reason1 but it was certainly true as a sentiment4 ,as everybody knows1 it was ,voltaire who first removed the prohibition1 and popularised the ,newtonian philosophy in ,france4 ,how did our astronomers finally succeed in demonstrating mathematically the veritable form of our planet8 ,to obtain a clear and accurate conception1 we are obliged to transport ourselves back two thousand years4 ,let us recall1 in the first place1 that1 owing to the diurnal movement1 all the stars progress from east to west2 that they rise and set1 to recommence the same rotation4 ,this is a general and conspicuous fact1 which everybody can confirm for himself4 ,but now for another1 whose observation requires a little more time and patience4 ,during the diurnal movement1 which carries on all the stars and the sun himself1 the latter progresses independently1 in the inverse direction of the celestial vault1 as a fly might do upon a revolving globe4 ,but this second fact is complicated with a third3 ,while advancing on his own account1 from west to east1 the circle which the sun traverses is not parallel to the ,equator2 the radiant luminary transports himself alternatively into the northern and southern hemispheres1 accomplishing this rotation in #cfe days and a fraction of a day1 in an oblique plane1 which cuts that of the ,equator under an angle of about #bc-a_/b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us here take advantage of a parenthesis to explain a few astronomical technicalities1 necessary for the due comprehension of our subject4 ,it is in the plane1 or oblique circle1-- 1 as ,ptolemus called it1--that eclipses occur1 owing to the relative positions of the sun1 earth1 and moon2 and it is for this reason modern astronomers have denominated it the ,ecliptic4 ,the ,ecliptic is the ,equator of the oblique sphere 7 71 properly so called1 as the ,equator is that of the sphere of the world1 or the right sphere 7 74 ,the circles parallel to the ,ecliptic1 which continue to diminish in diameter up to the poles of the oblique sphere1 bear the name of parallels of latitude2 and we give that of meridians of longitude or oblique ascensions 7 7 to the great circles which cut the first rectangularly as they all pass through the axis and the poles of the ,ecliptic4 ,the same division by circles cutting each other rectangularly has been made on the right sphere1 or sphere of the world4 ,only1 there the latitudes are named declinations1 and the longitudes right ascensions4 ,the general diurnal movement is a movement in right ascension2 it is measured upon the ,equator4 ,the individual annual movement of the sun is a movement in longitude2 it is measured upon the ,ecliptic4 ,the zone1 or belt1 which the sun seems to trace in its annual march1 from the limit of its southern excursion 7the winter solstice7 to the limit of its boreal excursion 7the summer solstice71 and in returning from that limit to the other1 after having twice passed through the equinoctial line 7or ,equator71--this zone is marked on the firmament by a belt of constellations known as the ,zodiac4 ,these constellations are named1 according to the figurative grouping of the stars 7on which we have commented in ,book ,i471--the ,ram1 the ,bull1 the ,twins1 the ,crab1 the ,lion1 the ,virgin1 the ,balance1 the ,scorpion1 the ,archer1 the ,cow1 the ,water-bearer1 the ,fishes4 ,there are twelve1 three for each season4 ,the constellations represented by these figures1 so singularly chosen1 spread over the whole celestial vault1--that is1 over an extent of #cfj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to resume4 ,the heavens1 like earth1 have their annals3 everything changes there as in the human world4 ,in the age of ,hipparchus1--or some two thousand years ago1--the sun entered1 at the spring equinox1 into the zodiacal sign of ,aries2 in the summer solstice1 it entered into that of ,cancer2 at the autumnal equinox1 into ,libra2 and at the winter solstice1 into ,capricorn4 ,these signs then corresponded exactly to the constellations which they represent4 ,now1 whatever ,aristotle and his disciples may say1 the firmament is not incorruptible 77 and immovable2 even the fixed stars1 as we call them1 change their place in time4 ,we have seen that the whole celestial vault or right sphere runs1 from east to west1 around the poles of the world2 we have seen also that the sun moves1 on his own account1 from west to east1 around the poles of the oblique sphere1 or the ,ecliptic4 ,well1 this does not suffice2 there is a third movement to be observed1--that of the right sphere itself round the poles of the ,ecliptic2 and this1 not like that of the sun1 from west to east1 but inversely1 from east to west4 ,only1 this movement of the starry sphere in longitude1 or parallel to the plane of the ,ecliptic1 is extremely slow1 compared with the movement of the same sphere in right ascension1 or parallel to the ,equator of the world4 ,while the former traverses in twenty-four hours the #cfj of the circle1 the latter occupies 7in round numbers7 #be1jjj years4 ,who was the first discoverer of the slow movement of the heavens8 ,hipparchus4 ,this great astronomer1 on comparing his own observations with the more ancient ones of ,aristillus and ,timocharis1 succeeded in ascertaining that the constellation which1 #aej years before him1 corresponded to the spring equinox1 did not1 in his time1 any longer coincide exactly with the same equinoctial point1 but had outstripped or preceded it about #b4 ,this is what we mean by the precession of the equinoxes4 ,hipparchus was at first of opinion that this movement affected only the constellations of the ,zodiac2 but he soon became assured of its universality4 ,he perceived that if it does not alter the parallels of latitude2 because it has occurred parallel with the ,ecliptic1 it makes the position of the equinox retrograde from east to west1 and the sun pass slowly through the same constellations in the reverse of the order in which he annually traverses them4 ,we know this movement now to nearly the fraction of a second4 ,by an inappreciable daily quantity1 it rises1 at the end of the year1 to #ej4c1--;in a century1 to about #a-a_/b1--;in twenty centuries1 to #cj1 or the twelfth part of the ,zodiac4 ,it is for this reason the ,ram1 which1 in the days of ,hipparchus1 was occupied by the sun in spring1 has no longer any value as a commemorative sign2 it gives place now-a-days to the constellation of the ,fishes1 and corresponds to the constellation of ,taurus1 or the ,bull2 the constellation of ,taurus to ,gemini1 or the ,twins2 the constellation of the ,twins to ,cancer1 and so on4 ,but little more than a month1 then 7a month of #bjjj years671 of the great year 7a year of #be1jjj years67 has elapsed since the epoch of ,hipparchus4 ,it is to astronomy especially that1 with a slight variation1 we may apply the aphorism of ,hippocrates--,brevis vita1 ars longa 7,life is short1 and art long74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the precession of the equinoxes explains why the pole of our starry vault does not occupy invariably the same point of the firmament1 and why the constellations which we now see shining during the nights of a given season change their places as time glides by4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but what is the cause of this movement8 ,before this question1 as before a sovereign tribunal1 appear the two opposite doctrines which have been enunciated on the value of the earth and the sun in the world's system4 ,according to the doctrine at once the oldest and most intolerant1 the earth occupies immovably the centre of the world2 the sun and the planets are only its satellites2 they1 like the moon1 revolve around the earth2 finally1 all the starry sphere1 the whole celestial vault1 rotates upon its own axis in four-and-twenty hours4 ,we have been speaking as if this were really and truly the condition of things4 ,if we admit this doctrine1 which bears the name of the ,ptolemean system1--though1 in truth1 it is probably as old as humanity itself1--how shall we explain the precession of the equinoxes8 ,we cannot do otherwise than suppose1 that while the celestial sphere executes its diurnal movement round the poles of the world1 it executes another and much slower movement round the poles of the ,ecliptic4 ,but this assuredly is a most singular supposition4 ,what6 the same starry sphere revolves at one and the same time parallel to the plane of the ,equator1 and parallel to another plane 7the ,ecliptic7 inclined upon the first8 ,after having imagined eight spheres of crystal to explain the movements of the moon1 the sun1 the planets 7,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn71 and the stars1 do we require a ninth8 ,where will you stop1 if you begin to discover additional movements8 ,you are condemned to wander from hypothesis to hypothesis1 until you fall into an abyss of contradictions6 99 99 99 99 99 ,such is the language employed by the tribunal of posterity1 in addressing itself to the error which would substitute appearance for reality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,according to the other theory1 it is the sun which occupies the centre of the system1 and it is the earth which1 accompanied by the remainder of the planets1 revolves around it4 ,this theory is likewise of considerable antiquity1 though generally known as the ,copernican system4 ,but four-and-twenty centuries prior to the epoch of ,nicholas ,copernicus1 it was taught by the ,samian sage1 ,pythagoras1 and his disciples4 ,the system then in acceptance1 however1 imposed upon them the necessity of silence4 ,ptolemus was acquainted with it1 but endeavoured to turn it into ridicule4 ,there are people1 he says1 who pretend that heaven is immovable1 and that it is earth which revolves on its own axis2 evidently these individuals are unaware how supremely absurd is their opinion 7 74 ,and it was in the name of logic and mathematics that ,ptolemus thus treated the ,pythagoreans6 ,in the system of ,copernicus1--the diurnal movement of the right sphere1--it is the earth's rotation upon its own axis which1 being prolonged into the heavens1 marks there1 by its extremities1 what are called the ,poles of the world1 just as the ,equator of the world is simply the prolongation of the terrestrial ,equator4 ,as for the ,equator of the oblique sphere 7the ,ecliptic71 in which the sun apparently moves1 it is1 in reality1 the identical plane in which the earth moves during its annual revolution round the sun4 ,now1 in this movement of translation1 the axis of the earth does not remain constantly parallel to itself2 it deviates1--very slightly1 it is true1--and so as to be scarcely perceptible to several generations of men4 ,it is then quite natural that our successors should see1 for a long time to come1 the northern pole of the starry sphere near the extremity of the tail of ,ursa ,minor4 ,but1 two thousand years hence1 this slow deviation will have become very perceptible2 astronomers will then see the pole of the world in another constellation1 and1 as this displacement is continuous1 the prolonged axis of the earth will have traced on the firmament1 in #be1jjj to #bf1jjj years1 a circle parallel to the plane of the ,ecliptic1 and having for its centre the pole of that plane4 ,this circle is the base of a cone whose summit rests upon the earth4 7,fig4 #bg1 a47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,but this imaginary defined circle 7which appears elliptic on account of the perspective7 is but the mean of a series of oscillations around the pole of the world1 which changes its position1 as we have just shown4 7,fig4 #bg1 b47 ,these oscillations originate in the circumstance that the axis of the earth inclines alternately forward and backward1 in such wise1 that a star1 after having approached the ,pole1 immediately afterwards recedes from it2 they cause the terrestrial globe to resemble the head of a man who1 by an alternation of gesture1 says alternately yes and no4 ,only1 while man 7the puppet67 occupies but a second or two in affirming and denying the same thing1 the earth employs about eighteen years and a half in inclining once forward to say yes 7in ,latin1 adnuere71 and once backward to say no 7in ,latin1 abnuere74 ,this is scientifically denominated the nutation of the earth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,who was the fortunate mortal to discover a phenomenon so singular8 ,bradley1 the ,english astronomer2 the same who discovered the aberration of light4 ,it was in the course of his researches to determine the annual parallax or distance of the stars that1 at an interval of nineteen years1 he made1 in #agbh1 the discovery of the aberration of light1 and1 in #agdg1 that of nutation4 ,the reader may not be displeased to know under what circumstances he accomplished the latter discovery4 ,while observing1 for several successive years1 the circumpolar stars1 and notably the star in ,draco1--a constellation situated between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor 7see ,fig4 #b1 p4 #i71--;,bradley noticed that this star changed its position by a movement constantly directed towards the north1 from #agbg to #agcf1 or for a period of nine years4 ,when it had reached the latter limit1 the star appeared stationary for a moment1 and then retraced its course in a southerly direction4 ,would it also occupy a period of nine years to arrive at the limit of this contrary excursion8 ,bradley affirmed that it would1 and communicated his prediction to a ,french astronomer1 ,le ,monnier4 ,how was ,bradley led to appear in the new character of a seer8 ,by two special circumstances--the universality1 and the duration of the phenomenon4 ,if the star in ,draco had been the only one to direct its course towards the north1 ,bradley would probably have been led to believe that the ,pole exercised upon it a peculiar attraction2 but he perceived that many other stars rose in like manner towards the ,pole with an uniform and constant march2 it was1 therefore1 more natural to suppose that the ,pole advanced towards them4 ,and what strengthened the probability of this hypothesis was1 that the stars situated in the neighbourhood of the course of the solstices exhibited a corresponding displacement4 ,but there was already recognised as in existence a peculiar movement which explained the precession of the equinoxes4 ,was it necessary1 therefore1 to suppose a second1 a kind of rotatory movement8 ,newton had already thought of it1 by imagining a nutation1 through which the ,pole might alternately rise and sink on the plane of the ,ecliptic in the space of a year4 ,but the displacement which occurs in that interval is too slight to be perceptible to observation4 ,there might1 therefore1 be a reasonable doubt of the accuracy of ,newton's idea4 ,bradley resumed the idea of his illustrious compatriot4 ,he recognised in the northward movement of the stars the effect of a similar rotation1 but one which took much longer in its accomplishment4 ,by doubling the interval of nine years1 to the term of which he had seen the movement become stationary1 he obtained a period nearly approaching that which the moon employs in returning to the same nodes4 ,this coincidence flashed upon him like a ray of light4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must here remind the reader1--who1 we hope1 is not weary of our scientific or semi-scientific disquisition1--that the lunar nodes1--i4e41 the points of the ,ecliptic through which the moon passes when it proceeds from south to north 7the ascending node71 and from north to south 7the descending node71--are the analogues of the solar equinoxes2 the equatorial points through which the sun passes on its course from south to north 7the spring equinox71 and in returning from north to south 7the autumn equinox71--points of intersection whose retrogradation constitutes1 as we have seen1 the precession of the equinoxes4 ,well1 the moon's nodes retrograde in a similar manner by a movement directed from east to west2 only it is a much slower movement4 ,while the equinoxes are displaced but fifty seconds 7#ej7 in a year1 the lunar nodes1 during the same period1 and in the same direction1 move over a space of #ai #bj' #bi2 so that1 in less than nineteen years1 they have made the complete circuit of the heavens1 to return to exactly the same point1 after traversing #cfj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus1 then1 we have explained the data on which ,bradley rested his prediction4 ,it was confirmed by ,le ,monnier1 who observed1 in fact1 that the star in ,draco1 and the neighbouring stars1 observed by ,bradley from #agbg to #agcf1 moving from south to north1 occupied the same period of time1 from #agcf to #agde1 in accomplishing an equal excursion in a contrary direction1 from north to south4 ,these observations enabled him to fix approximatively the quantity of the nutation4 ,to sum up2 it was recognised that the angle made by the axis of the terrestrial poles with the axis of the poles of the ,ecliptic1 far from remaining constantly equal to itself 7the amount was #bc #bg' #cj in the middle of the present century71 varies by #j4dh yearly1 and that this angle itself experiences a variation whose mean value is #dh in a century4 ,it sometimes exceeds this mean value1 and sometimes falls below it1 by an amount which rises to nearly #i4fe4 ,thus1 while describing1 in an interval of #be1jjj to #bf1jjj years1 its curve around the poles of the ,ecliptic1 the earth's axis describes1 from east to west1 a small ellipsis in the space of about eighteen and two-third years1 and imperceptibly changes1 moreover1 its angle of inclination4 ,but1 in fine1 what is the true cause of all these movements8 ,were the earth a perfect sphere1 were all its radii of equal length1 the effect of the universal ponderation would make itself felt as if all the material molecules were concentrated at a single point--the centre2 and1 apart from this ponderation1 which exercises itself in the direct ratio of the masses1 and in the inverse ratio of the square of the distances1 nothing exists which would sway our globe in one direction rather than in another1--no precession of the equinoxes would take place1 the plane of the ,ecliptic would invariably coincide with the plane of the ,equator1 and an eternal spring would smile on the fortunate earth4 ,the dream of the poet would be realised1 and light would spread ,through all the seasons of the golden year4 ,but1 as observation shows1 the contrary has taken place1 since1 besides its movements of diurnal rotation and annual revolution1 the earth has its mobile axis1 which is independently inclined and displaced4 ,thus1 the material molecules of the planetary surface are not all at an equal distance from the centre2 and1 consequently1 the earth is not a perfect sphere4 ,it is1 as ,d',alembert has demonstrated1 the bulging1 equatorial portion which experiences1 owing to the solar attraction1 a retrograde movement1 carrying onward the rest of the globe in a general march1 called the precession of the equinoxes4 ,but this general movement1 as we have seen1 is1 in itself1 simply the mean of a series of oscillations1 which ,d',alembert has also connected with gravitation4 ,he has shown that the nutation of the earth's axis results from the moon's attraction on the bulging portion of our globe4 ,finally1 it has been mathematically demonstrated that the said bulging portion of the earth produces1 under the continuous action of the sun1 the precession of the equinoxes2 just as this portion determines1 by its continuous action1 the nutation of the lunar axis4 ,as in this universal ponderation all the wheelwork of the world catches 7tous les rouages du monde s'engrnent71 and the planets1 such as ,mars and ,venus1 must also have their share in the action1 however weak it may be1 we have contrived to render an exact account of the slow changes of the obliquity of the ,ecliptic4 ,let us resume4 ,movement and matter1 all is ponderated4 ,inasmuch as matter is unequally distributed around the earth's centre1 being flattened at the ,poles and bulging at the ,equator1 it follows that the sun's enormous weight makes it vacillate1 so that it describes at its axis a cone around the poles of the plane of its orbit4 ,its movement we see in the heavens in the precession of the equinoxes4 ,but the terrestrial axis traces it tremblingly1 because the moon1 owing to its vicinity1 exercises a perturbing action on our planet1 which1 in its turn1 exercises on the moon a still more energetic influence4 ,illustration ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ch3 ,seneca1 ,qustiones ,naturales1 vi4 #f4 ,footnote #ci3 ,lactantius1 ,de ,falsa ,sapientia1 iii4 #bd4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,upon ,,the ,,earth4 ,there lives and works ,a soul in all things1 and that soul is ,god4 --,,cowper4 ,illustration ,we have returned1 at least in an astronomical sense1 to the budding1 happy1 radiant spring2 the sun1 in its apparent course1 crosses the equinoctial line2 the duration of the day1 transiently equal to that of the night1 will augment in proportion as the great luminary describes above our horizon greater and yet greater arcs of a circle4 ,yet this is not the budding1 happy1 radiant spring of the poets4 ,no1 if it be spring according to the law of universal gravitation1 it is winter still by the law of life4 ,the forest trees1 such as the oak1 the ash1 the fir1 and the beech1 continue to present the image of death2 and the sap which should reanimate them has not awakened from its winter sleep4 ,a solemn moment is it when the sap--that life-blood of the plant--arrested by the icy grasp of winter in its circulatory movement--receives a new impulse through the vivifying action of the central luminary of our system4 ,what a subject for study and reflection6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,landscape in ,winter4 ,it has been very finely dealt with by ,longfellow4 ,how wonderful6 he exclaims1--and we only regard the wonder with indifference1 because it is repeated annually1--how wonderful is the advent of spring6--the great annual miracle1 as he calls it1 of the blossoming of ,aaron's rod1 repeated on myriads and myriads of branches6--the gentle progression and growth of herbs1 flowers1 trees1--gentle1 and yet irrepressible1--which no force can stay1 no violence restrain1--like the influence of love1 which wins its way1 and cannot be withstood by any human power1 because itself is divine power4 ,true enough it is1 that if spring came but once in a century1 or burst forth with the terror of an earthquake1 and not in silence1 what wonder and expectation there would be in all hearts to behold the miraculous change6 ,but now the silent succession suggests nothing but necessity4 ,to most men1 only the cessation of the miracle would be miraculous1 and the perpetual exercise of ,god's power seems less wonderful than its withdrawal would be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,may we venture on another quotation8 ,we take it1 gentle reader1 from a living poet1 whose works are not so widely read as their genuine poetical feeling and wealth of language deserve--,i mean ,sydney ,dobell4 ,after describing the return of ,spring1 and her grief and astonishment at the spectacle of earth1 pale1 frozen1 seemingly dead1 he continues1-- ,she fell upon ,the corse1 and warmed it4 ,the natural earth1 ,which was not dead but slept1 unclosed her eyes2 ,then ,spring1 o'erawed at her own miracle1 ,fell on her knees4 ,meanwhile the attendant birds1--her haste outstript1-- ,chasing her voice1 crowd round1 and fill the air ,with jocund loyalty4 ,with flowers ,spring dressed the ,earth2 ,then did her mother1 ,earth1 rejoice in her2 ,and she1 with filial love and joy1 admired1 ,weeping and trembling1 in the wont of maids4 ,meantime her pious fame had filled the skies4 ,he that begat her1 the almighty ,sun1 ,passing in regal state1 did call her 'child1' ,and blessed her and her mother where they sat-- ,her by the imposition of bright hands1 ,the ,earth with kisses4 ,then the ,spring would go1 ,abashed with bliss1--decorous in the face ,of love parental4 ,but the ,earth stood up1 ,and held her there2 and1 these encircling1 came ,all kind of happy shapes that wander space1 ,brightening the air4 ,and they two sang like gods ,under the answering heavens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,the attendant birds crowd round1 and fill the air4 ,we think that the ancients1 if they had seriously reflected upon the important part played by the sun in the economy of nature2 how it is the heart1 and spring1 and inner power of every movement and manifestation of life2 how it is1 as ,sir ,david ,brewster says1 the centre and soul of our world1 the lamp that lights it1 the fire that heats it1 the magnet that guides and controls it1 the fountain of colour1 which gives its azure to the sky1 its verdure to the fields1 its rainbow-hues to the gay world of flowers1 and the purple light of love to the marble cheek of youth and beauty2--we think that the ancients1 if they had thought upon1 or had known1 all this1 would not have given the earth a chief place in our system4 ,and that they did so is all the more strange when we remember that they attributed to the world a soul 7the soul of the world is a favourite idea with the great philosophers of antiquity71 and looked upon the planets as living creatures4 ,but they were swayed by that egotistical instinct which leads man to refer everything to himself1 even the very gods which he has created after his own image4 ,the ,bible teaches us that there is but one ,god4 ,alas6 are there not as many gods as there are men8 ,does not each of us create a deity in accordance with his own inclinations1 his mode of thought1 his degree of mental culture1 the sphere of his ideas8 ,is the ,god of a tolerant philosopher identical with that of a bigoted fanatic8 ,it is not so much due to a deceitful appearance1 an optical illusion1 as to a kind of innate infatuation1 that the human race have come to consider the planet they inhabit as the centre of the universe4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,sap4 ,let us return to the sap1 the life-blood of vegetation4 ,how is it that its movement does not recommence at the same time in all plants8 ,why are some clothed with leaves when the others are scarcely budding8 ,wherefore1 in certain genera1 do the flowers appear before the leaves8 ,some authorities assert1--but facts show it to be a purely gratuitous supposition1--that the flower1 which1 with the fruit1 seems to be the goal or object of vegetation1 demands a greater activity on the part of the sap4 ,but1 in truth1 many trees and shrubs1 such as the poplar1 the willow1 and the hazel1 flourish at an epoch when the sap is barely aroused from its protracted lethargy4 ,these are questions which have still to be answered4 ,but upon yet another question we may dwell at some detail4 ,what is the cause of the circulation of the sap8 ,to the best of our knowledge1 this important problem has never been propounded as it should have been4 ,and for this reason3 all observers who have taken up its consideration have had in view only the rising sap1 and the cause of its rising4 ,evidently this is but a part of the problem4 ,the ascending sap1 after undergoing an important modification in the leaves1 becomes the descending sap2 just as the venous blood is transformed1 on coming into contact with the air in the lungs1 into arterial blood4 ,it is this alternative movement of going and coming which constitutes the circulation both of the sap and the blood1 and which ceases completely only with the life of the plant or the animal4 ,we must1 therefore1 bear in mind1--which has not been hitherto done1--these two opposite1 yet indissolubly connected1 movements1 before we can approach with advantage the solution of the proposed question4#dj ,science consists in discovering1 among the different ways of looking at things which present themselves to the mind1 the one which appears to explain most clearly the phenomena submitted to observation4 ,he who doubts the accuracy of our remark need only join us in reviewing the different opinions enunciated up to the present time on the cause of the rise of the sap4 ,grew1 an ,english botanist1 a contemporary of ,newton1 and his fellow-member in the ,royal ,society of ,london1 attributed the rise of the sap to the play of the utricles of which the plant is composed4 ,these utricles1 he said1 maintain a close intercommunication2 through their contraction1 the sap passes from the lower to the upper1 and thus arrives almost at the top of the plant4 ,grew's authority carried conviction to the minds of many botanists1 particularly to those of his compatriots4 ,yet was his opinion altogether imaginary2 the supposed contraction of the utricles does not exist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,la ,hire1 a ,french botanist1 who flourished at the beginning of the eighteenth century1--son of the geometrician of the same name1--pretended that he could account for the rise of the sap by the play of the little valves with which the interior of the sap-vessels was furnished2 at the same time he assigned a very active rle to the fibres of the roots4 ,the fibres elevate1 he said1 the whole column of superimposed liquid1 incessantly introducing1 by a kind of suction1 new fluids into the organs4 ,unfortunately1 the play of the little valves1 with which the interior of the sap-vessels is furnished1 is a pure invention of ,la ,hire's4 ,instead of growing wise by experiment1 he suffered himself to be led astray by a false analogy4 ,valves are found in the veins of man and the mammals2 but no one has ever seen the sides of the vessels of a plant garnished with valves to induce a circulation of the sap4 ,mariotte1 so well known by his researches into the compressibility of air1 represented the rise of the sap as dependent upon what he called the attraction taking place in the narrow tubes--upon what1 in fact1 we now term capillarity4 ,this first entrance of water into the roots is in obedience1 he said1 to a law of nature2 for wherever very narrow tubes exist which touch the water1 it enters into them1 and even rises1 contrary to its natural inclination4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many botanists adopted the opinion of ,mariotte4 ,but if it were well founded1 all capillary bodies1 even inorganic ones1 ought to present a circulatory movement analogous to that of the sap4 ,now1 this is not the case4 ,a body must be animated1 must be living1 for attraction to take place in the narrow tubes1 and to produce a movement comparable to that of the nutritive liquid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,malpighi attributed the rise of the sap to the alternating rarefaction and condensation of this liquid by heat2 ,perrault1 to a kind of fermentation2 ,de ,saussure1 to a peculiar irritability of the vessels4 ,of these three hypotheses1 the first is purely physical2 the second1 chemical2 the third1 vital4 ,so1 as we see1 there is something for everybody--chacun son gout6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the same question has1 in our own day1 been taken up from a new point of view1 on the occasion of ,dutrochet's discovery of the endosmose4 ,this philosopher was one of the first to perceive that two liquids1 separated from one another by a membrane1 quickly effect or induce a current which always carries the thinner liquid towards the denser1 and ends by mingling the two completely4 ,it is endosmose1 he said1 which produces at one and the same time the progression of the sap by impulsion1 and its progression by affluxion4 ,the sap would receive its impulse in the spongioles of the roots2 thence would be carried towards the upper parts by the turgescence of the organs--by the affluxion1 which would thus act as a forcible mode of suction4 ,the basis of this theory is1 that the sap contained in the upper parts will be more concentrated or denser than that in the lower portions of the same plant4 ,but this is a mere supposition4 ,and even this supposition has been swept away by the recent experiments of ,hartig and others1 which show that the difference in density between the two saps is not only almost null1 but in many ligneous plants the lower sap is1 on the contrary1 denser than the upper4#da 99 99 99 99 99 ,finally1 and more recently1 ,m4 ,joseph ,boehm has put forth a theory which offers some points of analogy with that of ,grew4 ,according to ,boehm1 the rise of the sap is the effect of a suction1 the cause of which must be sought both in the atmospheric pressure and in the transpiration which takes place through the organs1 and notably through the leaves of the plant4 ,the part which he attributes to the cellules1 of which the organs are composed1 he thus describes3--,when the superficial cellules of the plant lose water by transpiration1 he says1 of two things1 one will happen3 either these cellules will contract and shrivel1 or they carry up1 by a kind of aspiration1 to the neighbouring cellules1 situated in deeper layers1 a quantity of water equivalent to what they had lost4 ,in the normal condition1 the latter is always the result2 each cellule takes from its neighbour what itself has lost1 and this action1 becoming more and more general1 is continued from the leaves to the extremities of the roots4 ,the cellules of the spongioles replace the water which they have yielded1 from the humid medium surrounding them4 ,in support of this theory1#db ,m4 ,boehm has made several experiments1 which1 we fear1 will not carry conviction to every mind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the different theories which we have been attempting to explain1 their authors1 as it seems to us1 have neglected an essential element--the life of the plant4 ,then1 the experiments undertaken by way of proof1 have been made upon cut stems or branches1 which1 consequently1 did not enjoy their integral vitality4 ,in fact1 the results indicated could just as well have been obtained with inert as with living matter4 ,taking into account all these considerations1 we are doubtful whether any value can be placed on the theories just enunciated4 ,undoubtedly1 physical causes1 such as capillarity1 heat1 evaporation1 atmospheric pressure1 electricity1 have a certain marked and constant action4 ,but this action is here complex2 it is found combined with a new force1 whose effects constitute precisely the profound difference which exists between the massive mineral framework of the globe and the transitory beings peopling its surface4 ,it matters little whether we call it vital force1 or otherwise2 sufficient that it exists4 ,we must1 therefore1 allow for its influence when endeavouring to explain the varied movements of which plants1 as well as animals1 may be the seat4 ,a4--,,plants4 ,the ,daisy 7,bellis perennis74 ,wel by reason men it call maie ,the daisie1 or els the eye of the daie4#dc ,among all the treasures of the floral world1 that which should excite in each of us the tenderest emotion1 and most readily stir up in our minds thoughts too deep for tears1 is the ,daisy1--that favourite of our innocent and happy childhood4 ,ah6 would we were now as content with simple joys as in the days when that wee1 modest1 crimson-tipped flower was to us a beauty1 a prize1 and a charm6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,the ,daisie scattered in each mead and down4 ,we wonder how many of our poets have done homage to the sweet and simple nursling1 or rather1 whether by any true poet it has been neglected4 ,cowper reminds us that in ,the spring and play-time of the year the village-wife and her little ones go forth to ,prank their hair with daisies4 ,james ,montgomery1 whose admiration of nature is somewhat frigid1 can yet remind us that-- ,the rose has but a summer reign1 ,the daisy never dies4 ,chaucer warms into enthusiasm when he thinks of its pastoral1 innocent gracefulness 7simplex munditiis73-- ,so glad am ,i when in the ,daisy's presence1 ,that ,i am fain to do her reverence2 ,for she of all sweet flowers is the flower ,with virtue filled1 and honourable power2 ,for ever fair alike1 and fresh of hue1 ,as well in winter as in summer new4 ,let us not omit a reference to quaint but genial ,william ,browne3-- ,the ,daisie1 scattered on each meade and down1 ,a golden tuft within a silver crowne3 ,fair fall that dainty flower6 and may there be ,no shepherd graced that does not honour thee6 ,yes6 let no poet be taken to your heart of hearts who has no love for the flower white and rede1--in ,french1 called ,la ,belle ,marguerite1-- ,the op'ning gowan1 wet wi' dew1 --,burns's bonnie gem1--the flower of the meadow and the lea1 of the woodland and the vale4 ,a modest1 unassuming flower1 destined to be trodden under the feet of the thoughtless1 it withstands the rigorous breath of winter1 is beautiful throughout the circle of the year--,bellis perennis1 as the ,swedish botanist not infelicitously called it4 ,its vegetation is arrested only during the harshest frosts2 but it resumes its living growth as soon as it becomes sensible of the first rays of the spring-time sun4 ,it is at the moment of nature's awakening1 about the solemn ,easter-tide1 that this sweet nursling of the vernal year displays all the simple coquettishness of its chaplet of flowers1--that chaplet which has also procured for it the name of the tiny ,marguerite1--that is1 little pearl1--a name which the ,french have adopted from the ,latin--,margarita4 ,here let us pause1 and propound a question4 ,how would you propose to test the real character1 the genuine nature1 of friend or acquaintance8 ,your answers1 dear readers 7believe me1 ,i hear them clearly671 are very various4 ,some of you say1 that the best means of sounding the depths of the human heart is by bringing before it a misery which needs to be relieved4 ,others recommend the bestowal of a benefit4 ,but such processes of analysis appear to me far from being infallible2 too wide a margin is left for the operation of sentiments of pride or vanity4 ,why not conduct the man whose real character you wish to discover into a meadow enamelled with sparkling daisies8 ,thus you would impose upon nature the task of interrogating him4 ,if he manifest feelings of indifference1 you will do well to regard him with suspicion3 take care how you admit him into your intimacy2 for his heart must be cold1 and his mind troubled-- ,the man that takes not daisies to his soul ,is fit for treasons1 stratagems1 and spoils4 ,but to return to our daisy4 ,observe how1 by its organs1 it yields itself--in anticipation1 as it were--to its fate4 ,and1 first1 its long and fibrous roots anchor it so solidly in the soil that the cattle which browse it cannot tear it up4 ,next1 its stem is so short that it seems to be blended with the roots2 one might almost doubt whether any existed4 ,but1 if you look at it more closely1 you may readily assure yourself that the stem is the point whence issue the recumbent branches which bear the leaves4 ,why does not the daisy boast of stems erect and free8 ,would they not be incessantly bent or broken by the merry troops of children who love to play and dance upon ,nature's carpet1 the soft green sward8 99 99 99 99 99 ,the leaves of our daisy1 then1 seem to issue directly from the roots1 without the intermediary of an apparent stem1 which must not be confounded--recollect this1 dear reader6--with the stalk or peduncle that bears the crown of petals4 ,these leaves in form resemble tiny crenelated spatules1 with the handles flattened1 and the edges trimmed with little hairs or fibres4 ,the peduncle1 too1 seems to start immediately from the roots4 ,the principal part of the peduncle is surmounted1 as already hinted1 by the flower1 to which we next direct our inquisitive and searching gaze4 ,what shall we call it8 ,to what shall we liken it8 ,to a gilded button framed in a pearl4 ,this button1 this yellow eye1 as ,tabernmontanus1 a botanist of the sixteenth century1 named it1--the eye of day of our old poets1--a drop of gold in a rim of silver1--is not like any other flower2 is quite a world or system of ,lilliputian blossoms1 each of which is represented by a miniature tube1 yellow at the summit1 and of a greenish white at the base1--the said tube being the union1 or combination1 of the tops or summits forming the central gem1 the gilded button1 the drop of gold4 ,you may readily note this arrangement in the larger variety of daisy1 the ,chrysanthemum leucanthum of ,linnus1--two ,latinised ,greek words which signify1 literally1 golden-blossomed white flower4 ,if you doubt whether each of these tiny tubes be a flower1 you have only to analyse them with the assistance of your ever-useful lens4 ,the analysis of one will suffice2 for all the others resemble it4 ,now1 with your penknife1 split the tube throughout its entire length3 you will thus lay bare all the parts which enter into the composition of a veritable flower1 commencing with the most conspicuous4 ,through the magnifying glass you can see five stamens1--free as regards their short filaments1 but united by their elongated anthers2 a characteristic which gives name to the great family of the ,synantherace1 of which family our daisy is an honoured member2--a bifid 7i4e41 cloven in two7 style traversing the middle of the anthers1 which form for it a kind of sheath 7see ,fig4 #ca1 a72--a monopetalous1 tubular1 and obscurely bilabiated 7two-lipped7 corolla1 inserted at the summit of an unilocular 7one-lobed7 ovary1 which is attached to the calyx 7see ,fig4 #ca1 b74 ,in these tiny flowers1 then1 which we call in ,latin flosculi1 in ,french fleurons1 in ,english florets1 nothing is deficient4 ,as they are shaped like tubes1 we call them1 by way of distinction1 tubulifloral4 ,but what are these white rays1 lightly shaded with pink1 which enclose or encircle the florets8 7,see ,fig4 #cb1 a47 ,examine them at their points of insertion4 ,you will perceive there some traces of reproductive organs1 among which the style is most prominent4 ,as for the corolla1 it is represented only by its brown lip1 which is immeasurably developed4 ,it is this exaggerated development which constitutes the white rays1 or petals1 that prove so attractive to the eye4 7,see ,fig4 #cb1 b47 ,do not forget to observe1 by the way1 that they are rose-tinted only on the side which directly undergoes the action of the light4 ,to distinguish them from the tubular florets1--the tubuliflor1--these white rays have been called ligulate florets1 or liguliflor4 ,the complete flowers 7or the florets7 and the rays 7or partially abortive flowers7 form1 in their aggregate1 what our botanists have agreed to call an inflorescence of the capitula4 ,disposed quincuncially on an ovoid receptacle1 or phoranth1 both are grouped 7,fig4 #cb1 c7 in alternating rows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,to explain thoroughly this species of inflorescence1 we will venture upon an hypothesis4 ,let us suppose that we could elongate the said ovoid receptacle as if it were a ball of wax1--it would be changed into a sheath-like inflorescence2 all our smaller florets1 whose union composes what is improperly called the flower of the daisy1 would be ranged around an elongated1 instead of being placed upon a flattened axis4 ,this axis characterises all the ,synantherace of the family of the ,composit 7a sub-order72 sometimes naked1 sometimes garnished with varied hairs1 either shrunken or persistent1 it has furnished several characters useful in the classification of genera and species4 ,but possessed with a mania for complicating everything1 botanists designate it indifferently receptacle1 phoranthe1 clinanthe1 etc4 ,why not employ one and the same word to distinguish one and the same thing8 ,why not have preserved the name axis1 and have attached to it such qualifying terms as might be necessary to indicate simple differences of forms8 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ancients looked upon nature1--,i cannot sufficiently insist upon this theme1--with quite other eyes than we do4 ,the study and description of characters1 so indispensable to our classifications and nomenclatures1 appeared to them a useless labour2 they had not even an idea of its value4 ,but it was of signal importance to them to investigate the virtues and properties of plants1 so far as they might be rendered available for the preservation of health and the cure of disease4 ,our daisy is common in ,greece4 ,theophrastus1 therefore1 ought to have known it1 though he does not refer to it4 ,it is common also in the plains of ,italy4 ,pliny was the first to describe it1 under the name of bellis2 he attributes to it the properties of the ,st ,john's wort4#dd ,and it is noteworthy that the daisy belongs to the same family as the latter2 a circumstance certainly not known in the days of ,pliny4 ,the botanists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are by no means niggards in the eulogiums which they lavish on the medicinal properties of our graceful ,synantheracea4 ,bock 7better known1 perhaps1 under the name of ,tragus1 a ,goat71 who mistook the yellow anthers for the seeds1 recommended the leaves of the ,gnzeblume 7goose-flower1 as he called it7 as a laxative4 ,tabernmontanus prescribed them as a remedy for cramps in the stomach and the spitting of blood4 ,ray1 who expresses his astonishment that the ,greeks had not spoken of it1 looked upon the daisy as an excellent vulnerary4 ,externally1 says he1 we employ it with success in the form either of a poultice or a fomentation2 for internal treatment1 we mix its juice with vulnerary potions4--,these properties procured it the name of ,consolida minor1 which would make it the pendant of the larger ,consolida1 ,symphytum officinale1 a species of the ,boraginace1 very common in damp and shady localities4 ,ruel recommended cataplasms of daisies and cowslips for gout and scrofulous tumours4 ,chomel affirmed that he knew by experience that the flowers of the daisy and the herb robert#de 7,geranium ,robertianum71 if dried in a hot dish1 and applied to the head1 considerably relieved headache4#df ,wepfer set great value on a mixture of daisy1 cress1 and rummularia in the treatment of pneumonia2 and ,michaelis assures us that he had cured dropsies by the use of the flowers of the daisy cooked as a broth4 ,tournefort1 who was very partial to this kind of observation1--now repudiated by our botanists1--says1 that the daisy1 taken as a warm drink or a decoction1 quickens the blood when congealed by a very severe attack of cold1 as happens in pneumonia2 it removes obstructions1 facilitates the circulation1 and gives the fibres an opportunity of recovering their elasticity4#dg ,garidel sums up in the following words the result of his personal observations3--,i have frequently remarked that the juice of the daisy acts as a laxative1 and even as a purgative2 the decoction does not have that effect so often as ,schroeder observes1 who says that mothers frequently give the leaves as a gentle aperient to their children4444 ,care should be taken not to administer this remedy indifferently to all pleuretics1 nor at any season2 for if we give it when the expectoration is easy1 we run the risk1 by the employment of a laxative at a wrong time1 of spoiling everything1 and checking the expectoration4 ,this ,i have seen occur in several cases1 where the remedy had been administered by a hermit4#dh ,can it be true that the commonest plants are the most useful8 ,nature is quite capable of affording us these surprises2 nature1 who1 by her shifting and proteiform movements1 never ceases to laugh at human theories4 ,but men1 as was said long ago1 have eyes1 though not to see2 and everybody also knows1 from his own experience1 that he has ears1 not to understand6 ,however this may be1 the daisy1 which1 as we have seen1 was formerly so extolled for its officinal properties1 is now-a-days completely ignored by physicians4 ,what1 then1 are we to conclude8 ,that all the remedies in vogue--melancholy to confess6--are an affair of fashion4 ,when men shall have resumed perukes1 and women abandoned chignons for furbelows1 we shall remember1 perhaps1 the virtues of the lowly1 tender daisy4 ,we cannot take leave of our favourite wild-flower without repeating ,wordsworth's beautiful stanzas4 ,he takes as his motto a fine passage from ,wither1 quaint old ,george ,wither3-- ,her the ,muse's divine skill taught me this1 ,that from everything ,i saw ,i could some instruction draw1 ,and raise pleasure to the height ,through the meanest object's sight4 ,by the murmur of a spring ,or the least bough's rustelling2 ,by a daisy whose leaves spread ,shut when ,titan goes to bed2444 ,she could more infuse in me ,than all ,nature's beauties can ,in some other wiser man4 ,on this hint our great meditative poet speaks1 and speaks most tenderly and truly3-- ,in youth from rock to rock ,i went1 ,from hill to hill1 in discontent ,of pleasure high and turbulent1 ,most pleased when most uneasy2 ,but now my own delights ,i make1-- ,my thirst at every rill can slake1 ,and gladly ,nature's love partake ,of thee1 sweet daisy6444 ,by violets in their secret mews ,the flowers the wanton zephyrs choose2 ,proud be the rose1 with rains and dews ,her head impearling2 ,thou liv'st with less ambitious aim1 ,yet hast not gone without thy fame2 ,thou art1 indeed1 by many a claim1 ,the poet's darling4 ,if to a rock from rains he fly1 ,or1 some bright day of ,april sky1 ,imprison'd by hot sunshine lie1 ,near the green holly1 ,and wearily at length should fare2 ,he need but look about1 and there ,thou art6 a friend at hand1 to scare ,his melancholy4 ,a hundred times1 by rock or bower1 ,ere thus ,i have lain couch'd an hour1 ,have ,i derived from thy sweet power ,some apprehension2 ,some steady love2 some brief delight2 ,some memory that had taken flight2 ,some chime of fancy1 wrong or right1 ,or stray invention4444 ,oft do ,i sit by thee at ease1 ,and weave a web of similes1 ,loose types of things through all degrees4 ,thoughts of thy raising2 ,and many a fond and idle name ,i give to thee1 for praise or blame1 ,as is the humour of the game1 ,while ,i am gazing4 ,a nun demure1 of lowly port1 ,or sprightly maiden of ,love's court1 ,in thy simplicity the sport ,of all temptations2 ,a queen in crown of rubies dress'd2 ,a starveling in a scanty vest2 ,are all1 as seem to suit thee best1 ,thy appellations4 ,a little cyclops1 with one eye ,staring to threaten and defy1-- ,that thought comes next2 and instantly ,the freak is over2 ,the shape will vanish1 and1 behold6 ,a silver shield with boss of gold1 ,that spreads itself1 some fairy bold ,in fight to cover4 ,i see thee glittering from afar1 ,and there thou art a pretty star2 ,not quite so fair as many are ,in heaven above thee6 ,yet like a star1 with glittering crest1 ,self-pois'd in air1 thou seem'st to rest3 ,may peace come never to his breast ,who shall reprove thee6 ,we may add that we know but of four references to the daisy in ,shakspeare4 ,in ,cymbeline1 act iv41 scene #b3-- ,let us ,find out the prettiest daisied plot we can4 ,in ,love's ,labour's ,lost1 act v41 scene #b3-- ,where daisies pied#di and violets blue ,do paint the meadows with delight4 ,again1 in ,hamlet1 act iv41 scene #g3-- ,there with fantastic garlands did she come ,of crow-flowers1 nettles1 daisies1 and long purples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,and1 lastly1 in ,hamlet1 act iv41 scene #e3-- ,there's a daisy2 ,i would give you some violets1 but they withered all when my father died4 ,in ,milton there are but two allusions4 ,in the ,masque of ,comus3-- ,by dimpled brook and fountain-brim1 ,the wood-nymphs1 deck'd with daisies trim1 ,their merry wakes and pastimes keep4 ,and in ,l',allegro3#ej-- ,meadows trim with daisies pied4 ,,the ,,tulip4 ,the pied windflowers and the tulip tall4 --,,shelley4 ,it is probable that1 for the majority of floral amateurs1 the name of the tulip is inseparable from a plant which1 with the hyacinth and the lily1 becomes1 in the merry spring-time1 the ornament of our gardens4 ,yet1 towards the end of ,march1 the observer will occasionally discover1 in the woods and groves1 the wild tulip1#ea the ,tulipa sylvestris of ,linnus1 which may1 perhaps1 be very properly taken for the type of a small tribe of the ,liliace4 ,it is easily recognised by its flower1 which resembles a large yellow campanula1 slightly green on the exterior4 ,like all plants of the same family1 it has but a single floral envelope or perianth1 which may be either a corolla or a calyx as you will4 ,the initiated protest and asseverate that it is a calyx2 but the profanum vulgus1 who compose the majority1 will have it to be a corolla1 on account of its colouring4 ,to cut the knot1 and please all parties1 our beautiful floral envelope has been denominated a petaloid perianth4 ,the divisions of this perianth1 six in number1 may1 in truth1 be considered as petals2 they are detached down to the base1 and full in proportion as the pistil is developed4 ,the latter is composed of three stigmata1 attached1 without the intermediary of a stylus 7sessile stigmata71 to a free ovary 7that is1 an ovary not joined to the perianth71 which1 as it develops1 forms a capsule with three angular projections marking so many lobes2 each of these lobes includes a great number of compressed seeds4 ,as in all the ,liliace1 and in many other vegetable families1 the stamens1 six in number1 are hypogynous1--that is to say1 inserted at the base of the division of the perianth4 ,the stem1 nearly two feet in height1 bears a single flower only3 the leaves are lanceolate1 like all of the family1 and the root is formed of a bulb1 with thin and brownish-coloured external tunic4 ,is the wild tulip an original species1 or only a degenerate variety of the cultivated tulip 7,tulipa ,gesneriana78 ,the question is one not very easily solved4 ,it is generally admitted that the cultivated tulip1--which everybody knows1--was introduced into ,europe from the ,east1 towards the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,it is1 at all events1 certain that none of our older botanists speak of our wild tulip4 ,dodonne himself refers to the ,eastern tulip only1 of which he was the first to give1 in his ,historia ,stirpium1 a tolerable delineation4 ,a circumstance which would favour the belief that the tulip was imported from the ,east is the ,oriental derivation of its name3 tulipa1 in ,italian tulipano1 comes to us1 it is said1 from the ,turkish tuliband1 or the ,persian dulbend1 whence is obtained1 by corruption1 turban1 the characteristic head-gear of the ,orientals4 ,thus1 at bottom1 tulip and turban are the same word1 only altered in form4 99 99 99 99 99 ,who does not know with what a glory of colours the skill of our horticulturists has succeeded in clothing the tulip8 ,inasmuch as the cultivated species bears the distinctive addition of ,gesneriana1--and of this species all existing tulips are but varieties1--we might reasonably suppose that ,gesner1 the celebrated ,swiss naturalist 7who died at ,zurich1 aged sixty-nine1 in #aefe71 was the first to speak of it4 ,but he makes no allusion to it in his ,historia ,plantarum 7printed at ,ble in #aeda72 he only refers to it in his ,additions to the works of ,valerius ,cordus1 published in #aefa4 ,we subjoin a literal translation of the words of ,conrad ,gesner3-- ,in the year #aeei1 at the beginning of ,april1 ,i saw at ,augsburg1 in the garden of ,f4 ,h4 ,herwart1 magistrate of that town1 a plant whose seed had been brought from ,constantinople1 or1 according to some1 from ,cappadocia4 ,it was called tulip4 ,about the same epoch1 this plant was cultivated at ,vienna1 in the gardens of some wealthy amateurs2 whence several tulip-bulbs were afterwards sent into ,england4 ,this ornamental plant1 whose splendour is of such brief duration1 became1 towards the middle of the sixteenth century1 the object of a commercial speculation1 which marks an epoch in horticultural annals4 ,the towns of ,amsterdam1 ,haarlem1 ,utrecht1 ,alkmar1 ,leyden1 and ,rotterdam1 were the head-quarters of the new trade4 ,the years #afcd to #afcg marked its apogee1 its culmination2 it was the reign of the tulipomania1--a malady which1 notwithstanding its severity1 does not figure among our pathological nomenclatures4 ,bulbs of the variety called ,viceroy were sold for #cjjj florins 7#bce7 each2 and amateurs paid even as high as #ejjj florins 7#dcj7 for the ,semper ,augustus variety6 ,those who had not the needful amount of ready money disposed of their goods1 their cattle1 and their furniture4 ,and not only the horticulturists1 but the seamen1 and artisans1 and servants1 plunged headlong1 into this frantic gambling4 ,tulip bulbs were then as eagerly sought after as shares in the company of the ,mississippi in the days of ,law1--or in the ,south ,sea ,stocks1 also set afloat by that ingenious financier4 ,but it was not so much a love of flowers as a lust of speculation which lay at the bottom of this famous mania4 ,for example1 a gentleman engaged a merchant to deliver1 at the end of six months1 a bulb worth #ajjj florins4 ,when the time came1 the price of the bulb had either gone up or down1 and the contractor paid only the difference2 as for delivering the wares1 neither party cared about it4 ,it was1 therefore1 the exact equivalent of a speculation in the funds or in railway shares4 ,the transactions took place on the public exchanges1 as well as in coffee-houses1 inns1 and on the promenades4 ,they originated a fertile crop of abuses1 and to put an end to them the intervention of the ,government was required4 ,however1 we may cite several examples of distinguished men who have cherished a partiality for the tulip1 in the better sense of the word4 ,among these was ,justus ,lipsius1 the great philologist4 ,in his garden he cultivated with his own hands1 it is said1 the rarest varieties1 and his floricultural tastes were shared by two of his intimate friends1 ,dodone 7,diodati7 and ,l'cluse1 the two most illustrious botanists of their time4 ,but all these details1 however curious and interesting1 do not teach us whether our wild tulip has sprung from the cultivated germs4 ,as it is impossible to solve this problem experimentally1 we are forced to be satisfied with a simple conjecture4 ,and1 for our own part1 we are strongly of opinion that the wild and cultivated tulips may1 from their very origin1 have co-existed independently of one another4 ,and now to put forward a fact in support of this statement4 ,,the ,,heliotrope4 ,with the ,heliotrope every lover of flowers is familiar2 it is not less prized for its delicate fragrance than the tulip for its glowing colours4 ,no doubt exists as to the country from which we have imported the cultivated heliotrope1 nor as to the epoch when it was introduced3 it came from ,peru1 whence the name given to it by ,linnus1 ,heliotropium ,peruvianium2 and was brought into ,europe1 in #agdj1 by ,joseph de ,jussieu4 ,although not known in ,europe above a hundred and thirty years1 it is now an old1 familiar face in every garden4 ,now1 by the side of the cultivated species1 a native of the ,new ,world1 we can place a wild variety1 indigenous to the ,old ,world1 common in our own country1 and1 indeed1 in all the countries of temperate ,europe2 whence it has received the appellation of ,heliotropium ,europum4 ,the ,european species1 let me state1 is in every respect similar to the ,peruvian species1 except that its flowers are inodorous and of a paler blue4 ,yet it was known before the discovery of ,america1--before the discovery of those regions from which we have obtained the cultivated heliotrope4 ,thus1 the two varieties have existed contemporaneously1 and have flourished independently of each other1 from their very origin4 ,why should not such be the case with the wild and cultivated tulip8 ,,the ,,anemones4 ,from our ,spring posy the delicate ,anemones must not be omitted4 ,more than twenty species are cultivated in ,great ,britain1 and ,i hardly know to which ,i would give the preference4 ,they are called by that most unmeaning term1 florist's flowers1 and from the attention bestowed upon them1 the cultivated varieties have been greatly improved4 ,but you and ,i1 dear reader1 will go forth into the wild woods1 and enjoy the rich gifts of nature untampered by horticultural science4 ,it is towards the end of ,march that the wood anemone 7,anemone nemorosa7 begins to expand its graceful leaves and snow-white buds to the stray sunbeams that force their way through the embowering branches of stately elms and spreading beeches1 and in ,april it has attained its full glory1 contributing largely to the beauty and the show which then embellish the forest glade4 ,snow-white1 and faint rose-red1 and soft delicate lilac1--these are the prevailing hues of its tender petals4 ,it is said that the wood anemone never blossoms earlier than ,march #af1 and never later than ,april #b4 ,it opens out its loveliness to the sun about the same time as the swallow returns from the genial ,south to our land of pleasant verdure4 ,country children associate it with the appearance of the cuckoo1 and call it the cuckoo flower1 but the wandering voice is later than the woodland blossom in its welcome to the spring4 ,why is it called ,anemone8 ,of course1 the ,english name is derived from the ,greek 1 wind2 but what connexion is there between the wind and the flower8 ,credulous old ,pliny asserted that it never bloomed except when the wind blew4 ,some of our botanical writers explain that it shivers and bends before the winds of ,march and the breezes of ,april4 ,others remind us that though generally found in the shelter of the groves1 it will thrive lustily in windy and exposed localities4 ,but ,i suspect the true reason of the name is its peculiar sensitiveness to atmospheric changes4 ,as a foreteller of the storm it is not less trustworthy than a barometer1 never failing to fold up its exquisite petals when the winds are gathering over the distant hills4 ,our plant is considered injurious food for cattle2 and it was on account of its unwholesome properties1 perhaps1 that the ,egyptians regarded it as an emblem of sickness2 or the idea may have been suggested by its frail and feeble appearance4 ,the yellow wood anemone is a rare and beautiful variety1 which ,i have sometimes met with among the chalky downs of ,kent4 ,its botanical designation is ,anemone ranunculoides4 ,a still richer species is the ,anemone pulsatilla1 or ,pasque ,flower ,anemone2 a silky downy plant1 easily recognised by its blossom of glowing purple4 ,the blue mountain anemone 7,anemone ,apennina7 is only to be found1 as its name indicates1 on the bold rugged sides of lofty mountain-heights4 ,the ,anemones belong to a very important order1--the ,ranunculace1 or ,crowfoot family1--which is divided into five sub-orders3 #a4 ,clematid2 #b4 ,anemone2 #c4 ,ranunculace2 #d4 ,hellibore2 and #e4 ,act1 or ,pni4 ,linnus distinguishes forty-one known genera1 comprising a thousand species4 ,there are nine ,british genera of ,anemone4 ,in ,drayton's ,poly-,olbion occurs a rich descriptive passage1--an exquisite flower-piece1--which1 on account of its beauty1 deserves to be better known1 and more frequently quoted4 ,the poet is enlarging upon the floral rites which were celebrated at the espousals of the rivers ,thame and ,isis1 and sets before us a bright bevy of ,nymphs and ,naiads2 engaged in twining dainty chaplets to deck the persons of the bride and bridegroom4 ,the stalwart ,thame1--so it seems to them1--should not be dressed with flowers to gardens that belong1 but with blossoms plucked from his own meads and pastures4 ,as most of those selected are fit for a spring-time nosegay1 we may well enrich our pages with quaint old ,drayton's enumeration of them3-- ,the ,primrose placing first1 because that in the ,spring ,it is the first appears2 then only flourishing2 ,the azured ,harebell next with them they neatly mixt1 ,t' allay whose luscious smell they ,woodbine placed betwixt4 ,among those things of scent there prick they in the ,lily1 ,and near to that again her sister ,daffodilly4 ,to sort these flowers of show with others that were sweet1 ,the ,cowslip there they couch1 and the ,oxlip for her meet2 ,the ,columbine amongst them they sparingly do set1 ,the yellow ,king-cup1 wrought in many a curious fret2#eb ,and now and then among1 of ,eglantine a spray1 ,by which again a course of ,lady-mocks they lay2 ,the ,crow-flower1 and thereby the ,clorra-flower they stick1 ,the ,daisy over all those sundry sweets so thick1 ,as ,nature doth herself to imitate her right2 ,who seems in that her 'pearl' so greatly to delight1 ,that every plain therewith she powdereth to behold4 ,the crimson ,darnel-flower1 the ,blue-bottle and gold1 ,which1 though esteemed but weeds1 yet1 for their dainty hues1 ,and for their scent1 not ill1 they for their purpose choose4 ,thus1 having told you how the ,bridegroom ,thames was drest1 ,i'll show you how the ,bride1 fair ,isis1 they invest4 ,here the poet resorts to the garden for his decorative wreath1 but is careful1 as we shall see1 to eschew florist's flowers1 and to select only our dear old favourites3-- ,the red1 the dainty white1 the gaudy ,damask ,rose1 ,the brave ,carnation1 then1 of sweet and sovereign power 7,so of his colour called1 although a ,july flower71 ,with the other of his kind1 the speckled and the pale2 ,then the odoriferous ,pink that sends forth such a gale ,of sweetness1 yet in scents as various as in sorts2 ,the purple ,violet then the ,pansy there supports2 ,the ,marigold above t' adorn the arched bar2 ,the double ,daisy1 ,thrift1 the ,button-,bachelor2 ,sweet ,william1 ,sops in ,wine1 the ,campion1 and to these ,some ,lavender they put1 and ,rosemary1 and ,bays2 ,sweet ,marjoram with her like1 sweet ,basil rare for smell1 ,with many a flower whose name were now too long to tell4 ,if our space permitted1 we should like to gossip awhile about each of the flowers commemorated by our old poet1 for to each attaches some legend1 or romantic tradition1 some rural observance1 or sweet poetical association4 ,but we must continue our researches1 and they bring us now to the ,arum4 ,,the ,,arum4 ,to the ,french the ,arum is commonly known as the ,calf's foot 7,pied de veau74 ,it is a common enough plant1 growing on the borders of the wood1 and delighting especially in the shade of the hazel trees1 but it bears not the slightest resemblance to the hoof of any quadruped whatsoever1 unless1 indeed1 to a very fervid imagination there should be visible a shadowy similitude in its leaf4 ,and it is1 in truth1 asserted--but1 not having the eye of faith1 the editor cannot see any ground for the assertion--that its sagillate or arrow-headed leaves1 marked by a strongly-defined midrib1 bear a certain likeness to the under bi-ungulated face of the foot of a young ruminant4 ,appearing in the early days of spring1 they contrast agreeably1 by their shining verdure1 with the colour of the dead leaves heaped up at the base of the hedgerows4 ,simultaneously with its leaves comes forth a curious organ1--rare in vegetables of temperate regions1 common in the tropical palms1 and characteristic of the family of the ,aroidace1 to which our ,arum belongs4 ,this organ1 rolled up in a coil or spiral1 is named the spathe4 ,it protects the flowers in their young state1 and1 as they are developed1 gradually falls off4 ,its colour is a greenish yellow2 at the summit it is sometimes streaked with purplish veins1 and at the base it swells out in a globose fashion4 ,a small thermometer1 introduced into the interior of the rolled-up spathe1 indicates a rise of temperature equal to one or two degrees above that of the external atmosphere4 ,whence comes this difference8 ,because in the spathe is frequently found imprisoned another organ1 the seat of the mystery of reproduction4 ,this organ is a fleshy axis1 on which are arranged the flowers in two distinct rings2 the upper is occupied by the stamens1 reduced to simple anthers 7sessile stamens72 observe the filamentous appendages--they are abortive ovaries4 ,these same appendages also surmount the lower ring1 where several rows are set of sessile ovaries2 each ovary composed of a single lobe1 containing a very small number of ovules1 the majority of which miscarry as the ovaries become metamorphosed into bright red berries3 these are the fruits which appear in autumn2 they form a spike or ear of coral1 each containing1 ordinarily1 a single seed4 ,the flowers1 as a consequence of this separation of the two sexes1 are moncious2 the succulent axis which bears them is called a spadix4#ec ,on tearing open the spathe1 our glance first rests upon the apex of the spadix1 which has a club-like form1 and is of a beautiful violet-red colour4 ,the two rings of sexual organs have much less attraction for the profane2 the lower ring1 loaded with female flowers1 is more prominent than the upper ring1 which bears the male flowers4 ,the root of our ,arum also deserves a particular examination4 ,it is a white tubercular stock or stem1 containing a quantity of fecula1 mixed1 as in the ,west ,indian manioc1 with an acrid poisonous principle which produces a burning painful heat in the throat4 ,this injurious principle is destroyed by exposure to the fire1 and by repeatedly boiling the plant in water4 ,after being thus heated1 there remains only the fecula1 in the form of a white powder1 which1 in times of scarcity1 supplies a very nutritious food4 ,i made use of it1 says ,bosc1 during the storms of the ,revolution1 when ,i had taken refuge in the solitudes of the forest of ,montmorency4 ,this plant is so abundant in this forest1 and in many other localities1 that1 at the epoch ,i speak of1 it would have ensured the subsistence of several thousands of men1 if they had known its alimentary properties4 ,i was seriously counting on the resources which it would place at my disposal1 when the death of ,robespierre relieved me from my difficulties4#ed ,our arum1 which we have taken as a type of the family of the ,aroidace1 is called maculatum1 or spotted1 in allusion to the white and violet spots with which its leaves are besprinkled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,the ,arum arisarum4 ,another1 and not less interesting species1 is the ,arum arisarum4 7,see ,fig4 #cd1 a47 ,it loves to display its exquisite leafage on the rocks bordering the sea-marge1 and is found in profusion along almost the entire littoral of the ,mediterranean4 ,it is a precocious flower--making its appearance about the end of ,december1 and flourishing until the beginning of ,spring4 ,the spathe1 which in the ,arum maculatum has all the aspect of an etiolated leaf1 assumes1 in the ,arum arisarum1 the tints of a corolla1--is of a beautiful warm red violet1 streaked with white4 ,the fleshy axis1 which ought rather to be called gynandrous 7both male and female7 than a spadix1 is of a red colour2 naked in its upper portion1 which terminates with a kind of apple4 ,it would remind a drummer-boy of the formidable staff carried by his drum-major 7see ,fig4 #cd1 b472 the stamens1 reduced to the condition of bilobed anthers1 are mounted around the central part2 and the ovaries1 less numerous than the stamens1 occupy the base of the axis4 ,each monocular ovary is crowned by a sessile stigma1 and each lobe contains a great number of erect ovules4 ,in the ,arum maculatum1 the number of ovules does not exceed six4 ,some botanists have laid hold of this characteristic as an excuse for withdrawing the ,mediterranean species from the arums1 and creating a new genus1 arisarum4 ,the variety we have just described is1 in that case1 denominated the ,arisarum vulgare4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ancients have mentioned numerous species of the arum4 ,but it is a very difficult task to bring their nomenclature into any kind of agreement with the species described by modern botanists4 ,however1 we may1 ,i think1 regard the arisarum of ,pliny and ,dioscorides as positively identical with our ,arum arisarum4 ,but we are unable to admit that the aron1 the hepha1 the dracunculus1 the dracontium1 can be1 as commentators represent1 one and the same plant2 still less can we admit that this plant is our ,arum maculatum1 which is very much rarer in the south than in the north and centre of ,europe4 ,in the solution of such problems as these1 geographical botany is an element which must not be neglected4 ,unfortunately it has never been taken into account by the commentators on the great classical authorities4 ,let me advance a simple proposition4 ,since the potatoe has become diseased1 and the species tends to degenerate1 may we not find a substitute for it1--at least1 a partial one1--among our ,aroids1 and1 notably1 in the ,arum maculatum8 ,,the ,,ranunculace4 ,let us return for a while to the order of ,ranunculace1 of which the ,anemones have already furnished us with a specimen4 ,several very poisonous plants are members of this order2 and1 in truth1 very few can be pronounced wholly innocent4 ,i do not think there is much harm in the ,lesser ,celandine1 however--the glossy1 starry flower1 yellow as a buttercup1 with heart-shaped leaves1 which ,wordsworth has celebrated3-- ,ere a leaf is on the bush1 ,in the time before the thrush ,has a thought about its nest1 ,thou wilt come with half a call1 ,spreading out thy glossy breast1 ,like a careless prodigal2 ,telling tales about the sun1 ,when we've little warmth or none4 ,there cannot be much harm in it1 for in the north of ,europe the peasantry boil its leaves1 and eat them as greens4 ,it thrives in all parts of ,england1 in green woods and meadows1 and on wild furzy wastes and open commons2 under leafy hedges1 and even in the gay pastures1 among the primroses and hepaticas4 ,a number of small1 grain-like tubers lie around it1 close to the surface of the earth2 whence it was a common saying in the days of old that this plant showered down wheat in its vicinity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same order belongs the ,buttercup 7,ranunculus bulbosus71 whose bulbous root procured for it from our forefathers the name of ,st ,anthony's turnip4 ,if the good saint ever partook of buttercup-corms1 we do not envy him his sensations2 when boiled1 they disorder the stomach1 and if eaten raw1 act as an emetic4 ,it was formerly thought1 says a pleasing writer1 that crowfoot 7the buttercup is a species of crowfoot71 mingled with the pasture1 improved its nature1 and that the butter yielded by cows which fed upon this mixture was of a superior quality4 ,nous avons chang tout cela2 we are wiser now2 and have discovered that cows carefully avoid eating buttercups1 and that several kinds of crowfoot are even poisonous to cattle4 ,on some pasture-lands1 in those countries where the produce of the dairy receives particular attention1 women and children are employed to destroy the crowfoot1 which they do either by pulling up the root1 or by plucking off the flower1 and preventing it from dispersing its seed4 ,the root of the buttercup is of a highly stimulating property if taken in an uncooked state1 and its juice will occasion sneezing2 but boiling deprives this1 as well as many other vegetable productions1 of its injurious properties4 ,a similar effect is produced by drying it in the sun2 wherefore the hay crop is not at all deteriorated by its acrid nature4 ,a very beautiful ornament of still pools and gently-flowing streams is the ,water-ranunculus 7,ranunculus aqua atilis71 whose leaves vary according to the depth1 or calmness1 or swiftness of their watery habitat1 and are thus adapted to permit the passage of water without suffering any injury from its force4 ,the leaves on the surface have a round lobed shape2 those immersed hang down in thin small fibres1 which offer but little resistance to the current4 ,the ,,ranunculace also include the ,black ,hellebore1 or ,christmas rose 7,helleborus niger71 one of our most splendid winter-garden decorations1 whose juice the ancients considered a wonderful remedy for mental disorders4 ,in whiteness it rivals the snow1 which often accumulates around it1 and the snow-drop1 which is frequently bound up in the same wreath4 ,it is called the ,black ,hellebore1 to distinguish it from the two wild species which grow in our woods1 its root being covered with a thick black skin4 ,the fragrant white ,clematis must not be omitted2 its starry drops are things of beauty1 which every true poetic eye will know how to appreciate4 ,it is sometimes called ,traveller's ,joy1 and sometimes ,virgin's ,bower2 either name is richly suggestive of pleasant fancies4 ,do you remember the beautiful picture in ,keats's ,endymion1 of the shady sacred retreat where ,adonis lay and slumbered8 ,the clematis was one of the precious flowers that adorned it3-- ,above his head ,four lily stalks did their white honours wed1 ,to make a coronal1 and round him grew ,all tendrils green1 of every bloom and hue1 ,together intertwined and trammelled fresh2 ,the vine of glossy sprout1--the ivy mesh1 ,shading its ,ethiop berries1--and woodbine1 ,of velvet leaves and bugle blooms divine2-- ,convolvulus in streakd vases blush1 ,the creeper mellowing for an autumn flush1-- ,and ,virgin's ,bower trailing airily1 ,with others of the sisterhood4 ,finally1 our order comprises the ,hepatica1 with its blue or pink blossoms and three-lobed leaves1 which1 from their fancied resemblance to the form of the liver1 procured the plant its ,english name of liverwort2 the ,flos ,adonis1 or pheasant's eye1--the goutte-de-sang of the ,french1--so called because the ancients fabled that it sprang from the blood of ,adonis1 when wounded by the bear2 the marsh marigold2 the gay and vivacious larkspur2 the deadly wolfsbane1 or aconite1 which secretes so potent a poison2 and the aromatic love-in-a-mist1 or ,french flower4#ee ,b4--,,animals4 ,under the soft moss1 under the stones1 in all localities where mouldiness is easily developed1 under the closed doors of cellars1 you must certainly have more than once observed a tiny creature of the form of a horse-bean1 of a gray leaden colour1 and supplied with a considerable number of feet4 ,this last characteristic will induce you immediately to abandon the idea that you have before you an insect4 ,catch hold of it1 and count its feet4 ,well said2 but it runs much more quickly than ,i would have suspected from its previously dilatory movements4 ,because it knows that danger threatens it1 instinct impels it to escape at its utmost speed4 ,do not be afraid to handle it2 the poor creature can do you no harm4 ,unable to escape1 it counterfeits death1 and remains perfectly immovable4 ,now examine it4 ,it has fourteen feet1 symmetrically arranged in couples2 their size perceptibly increases from the first to the last4 ,when the animal is at rest1 they are coiled inside1 so as to form an angle whose opening faces the medial line4 ,but here is something much more curious2 its body1 which does not possess the vestige of a wing1 is also without those segments which would divide it visibly1 as in the case of insects1 into head1 thorax1 and abdomen2 but is composed of rings1 hard and scaly1 like those of a shrimp4 ,can it be a crustacean8 ,yes2 the animal you hold in your hand1 and which everybody knew by the name of wood-louse long before our naturalists knew how to classify it1 belongs to the great animal division of the ,articulata1 which1 instead of having their skeleton inside the body1 like the ,vertebrates1 have it externally4 ,the ,crustacea form a class of this division1 to which also belong the ,insects1 the ,arachnida1 and the ,myriapoda4 ,let us continue to anatomise our crustacean4 ,in front of its first ring 7a transversal segment7 you see a little black head1 with two lateral bead-like eyes1 and a couple of antenn4 ,the latter are each composed of three joints1 which are extremely mobile2 their base is covered by the edges of the sloping head4 ,the most conspicuous rings of the body are seven in number2 their lateral borders are pointed in front1 and rounded behind4 ,but1 if you look closely1 you will see some other rings1 a little less projecting than the former2 they circumscribe the abdominal region1 the belly1 properly so called1 in which the intestines are lodged4 ,these rings1 or abdominal segments1 are six in number2 but they have not all the same form4 ,the one which occupies the tail is triangular1 pointed1 and surrounded by four 7caudal7 appendages4 ,the three next segments1 counting from the front to the rear1 are prolonged laterally in a very marked manner2 the two anterior1 on the contrary1 have no such distinction4 ,as for the caudal appendages1 the two outer ones are very strong1 conical1 and composed of two articulations1 while the inner1 situated above the former1 are frail1 cylindrical1 and terminated by a tuft of hairs1 whence issues a viscous liquid4 7,see ,fig4 #ce1 a47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,the ,wood-,louse4 ,an enumeration of these characteristics is tedious1 but necessary for the determination of the genus and the species4 ,they belong to the ,oniscus asellus1 or common wood-louse4 ,but why1 you ask1 why such a strange conjunction of names1--one ,greek1 1 the other ,latin1 asellus8 ,both carry the same meaning3 why not1 then1 have called our tiny crustacean an ass-ass 7if such a compound be possible78 ,why1 neither close at hand nor at a distance1 has it the slightest resemblance to an ass2 and to say that we have only borrowed these names from the ancients1 is neither an explanation nor a justification4 ,but we have not yet done with the wood-lice4 ,are these interesting little creatures 7they are interesting1 are they not87 oviparous or viviparous8 ,i defy you to show me anywhere a single wood-louse's egg4 ,have the patience to observe our crustaceans more nearly4 ,among the crowd1 you will remark some--they are the females--with a kind of membraneous pouch underneath the body1 stretching from the head to the fifth pair of legs4 ,the pellicle which forms this pouch is so thin1 and so transparent1 that you can distinguish the eggs within it4 ,these eggs1 instead of being expelled for incubation1 remain in the mother's pouch until they are hatched4 ,at that felicitous moment1 the membranous bag splits cross-wise1 longitudinally and transversally1 to permit the emergence of the young wood-lice4 ,the latter are extremely small1 and in form resemble nothing in the world so much as a little white line 7,fig4 #ce1 b74 ,they differ from their parents only in having one pair of feet1 and one ring less than they have4 ,they undergo no metamorphoses4 ,after their birth1 the little ones1 which have proportionally very large antenn1 do not immediately separate from their mother4 ,by a wonderful act of forethought on the part of ,nature1#ef they keep themselves concealed in the middle of the respiratory lamin1 which garnish the under part of the tail4 ,the specific characters of the ,oniscus asellus are tolerably well defined4 ,by its rings of dark gray1 a little lighter at the edges1 which form for it an articulated1 glossy carapace1 marked with white spots1 longitudinally arranged2 by the uniform pale gray colour of its belly and its legs1 covered with scattered hairs2 and1 particularly1 by its habits1 our wood-louse1 which the ,germans call cellar-louse 7,kellerlaus71 is distinguished from its kindred species1 of which naturalists have made distinct genera4 ,thus1 the asellus found generally under stones1 which counterfeits death by rolling itself up in a ball like a hedgehog1 and will rather suffer itself to be crushed than unfold1 is the ,oniscus armadillo1 which some naturalists transform into the ,armadillo vulgaris4 7,see ,fig4 #cf47 ,this species prefers the solitude of the field to inhabited places4 ,its body is considerably expanded1 and its rings do not terminate in a point on their lateral and posterior edges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,oniscus armadillo4 ,another species1 equally common underneath stones1 has its head and tail covered over with granulations2 its antenn are composed of seven joints1 of which the fourth and fifth are perceptibly situated lengthwise4 ,this is the ,oniscus granulatus of some entomologists2 others have designated it the ,porcellio scaber4 ,why not simplify the study of species8 ,the wood-lice seem to live upon decomposed vegetable matter4 ,but in default of other food1 they devour their own kind2 in this respect resembling beings who are supposed to rank much higher in the animal hierarchy4 ,in the pharmacopia of the ancients our wood-lice found a place4 ,reduced into powder1 and mixed with various substances1 they were prescribed as diuretic and aperient2 but they were long ago abandoned in medicine4 ,,the ,,dragon-,,flies 7,libellul74 ,in walking along the banks of a river1 you must frequently have seen hovering around you a cloud of insects1 whom you would readily take to be butterflies1 were not you arrested in your conjecture by the largeness of their head1 the length of their body1 the form of their vivid1 diaphanous1 gauze-like wings1 and1 generally1--which will most astonish you1--by their carnivorous instincts4 ,you have about you and before1 then1 not butterflies1 but ,dragon-flies--the ,libellul of naturalists4 ,they are the demoiselles1 or ladies1 of the ,french2 so called1 perhaps1 in allusion to their airy and graceful flight4 ,among these ,libellul1 one is called ,eleanora4 ,if she does not shine so brightly as the others--if her colours are less brilliant--she has1 at least1 the advantage of being so common that you can easily obtain a specimen4 ,but1 first1 let us pause to think of the strange dissimilarity in the names bestowed on the ,libellul by the ,english and ,french respectively4 ,they are the ,dragon-flies of the former1--fierce1 rapacious1 formidable2 the ,ladies of the latter1--elegant1 light1 and radiant4 ,here we have a glimpse of national character4 ,with the ,frenchman1 appearance counts for so much2 with the ,englishman1 everything depends upon the reality4 ,yet our ,english poets can appreciate their gay exterior4 ,moore speaks of them as-- ,those bright things which have their dwelling ,where the little streams are welling6 ,poor ,clare1 the ,northamptonshire poet1 correctly studied-- ,the great dragon-fly with gauzy wings1 ,in gilded coat of purple1 green1 and brown1 ,that on broad leaves of hazel basking clings4 ,and ,mary ,howitt has seen them-- ,here and there they dart1 ,and flush like gleams of green and azure light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,the ,common ,dragon-fly4 ,beautiful as they are1 they must be ranked among ,nature's fiercest and most insatiable destroyers4 ,they are the terror of the insect world4 ,on this point we shall hereafter enlarge1 but before ,i forget it1 ,i would fain relate an anecdote1 in illustration of their voracity1 which ,i have read somewhere or other4 ,a naturalist recounts with what interest he has often watched the proceedings of the dragon-fly4 ,he has seen it1 in a locality where white butterflies were numerous1 dart down as a hawk upon a quarry1 seize with its legs a firm hold of a butterfly1 and carry it to a branch of an adjoining tree4 ,in a moment one of the white wings would drop from the boughs1 and then another would come wavering downwards1 and so on1 until all four had fallen2 and the dragon-fly1 after a short pause1 would again dart forth in pursuit of a fresh victim4 ,he never launched himself on his prey when on a perfect horizontal line with it2 but took care to be either somewhat higher1 or somewhat lower1 so that he could seize it with his feet4 ,but now let us consider by what characteristics the reader is to recognise his ,libellul4 ,the eyes are very large1 the size of the insect considered2 of a brown colour1 and nearly joined together at the top of the head2 in front of this point of junction a tiny vesicle is visible1 carrying three ocelli 7i4e41 little1 simple1 glossy eyes71 two on each side1 and the third on the anterior margin3 the thorax is large1 hairy1 and composed of two yellow plates2 the abdomen laterally depressed1 in such a manner as to give great prominence to the medial line4 ,this last and well-marked feature it is which has procured for the ,eleanora the scientific name of ,libellula depressa1--a name proposed by ,linnus1 and unanimously adopted2 such unanimity being a rare occurrence among naturalists1 though1 to parody a phrase of ,sheridan's1 when naturalists do agree1 it is something wonderful6 ,in the male ,libellul1 the upper surface of the abdomen is bluish in hue1 and covered as it were with an ashy dust1 while in the female it is olive2 in both sexes the first and last abdominal segment are of a deeper shade than the other segments4 ,the feet are black1 and bristle all over with stiff hairs2 the thighs are of a brownish red4 ,the two pairs of wings1 each strongly reticulated1 present1 towards the extremity of the upper border1 a black rectangular spot2 their base1 moreover1 is edged with brown spots2 the spots of the lower pair are triangular and larger than those of the upper pair1 which are nearly linear4 ,they form1 to a certain extent1 the reservoir of the liquid which nourishes and maintains the circulation of the network of the wings4 ,the ,libellula1 which ,geoffroy calls 7in his ,histoire des ,insectes7 the ,philinta1 is simply the male of the species we have just been describing4 ,you may see them ,where water-lilies mount their snowy buds1 pursuing one another with an abrupt1 jerking--,i had almost said staccato--flight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a species less common than the preceding1 but closely resembling it1 is the ,franoise of ,geoffroy1 the ,libellula quadrimaculata of ,linnus4 ,it owes its descriptive or specific designation to the colours which diversify its wings4 ,on the outer edge of each1 two brown marginal spots are conspicuous3 the first at the place where in the ,eleanora 7and other species7 the black spot is found1 and the second nearly in the centre of the external border1 which1 at this point1 is considerably compressed2 moreover1 the lower wings are marked1 beneath their yellow base1 with a kind of triangular spot of blackish brown1 finely reticulated with yellow4 ,externally1 there is no difference of appearance between male and female1 except that the abdomen of the latter is somewhat the larger4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now we come to the ,sylvia1 the ,libellula cancellata of ,linnus4 ,its eyes and thorax wear a greenish hue2 the diaphanous wings are spotted with brown near the outer margin2 the abdomen is of a bluish-gray2 the extremity of the sixth segment1 and the following segments1 are wholly black4 ,the ,julia1 or ,libellula grandis 7,linn471 has been separated from the ,libellul by the great entomologists1 such as ,fabricius and ,latreille1 and included in the genus ,aeshna 7,phbus1 what a name671 preserving the descriptive adjective grandis4 ,what are the reasons put forward to justify this separation8 ,principally1 the form of the abdomen1 and the position of those little smooth and simple eyes1 like tiny pearls or pearlets1 which we call ocelli4 ,in the ,libellul1 properly so called1 the ocelli1 three in number1 are situated on either side and on the exterior margin of a kind of semi-triangular vesicle1 and the abdomen is slightly depressed1 and not unlike a club2 while in the ,aeshn the ocelli are placed on a simple keel-shaped transversal embossment1 and the abdomen is narrow1 elongated1 and almost cylindrical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,aeshna grandis 7or the ,julia7 is one of the largest of the ,british species4 ,its head is large1 and its eyes are of a brown colour shading into blue2 the yellow thorax has two bright yellow bands or stripes obliquely painted on each side4 ,the abdomen is of a reddish or even rusty brown2 generally spotted with white and yellow at the top and bottom of each wing4 ,this species haunts the vicinity of streams and silent pools4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come1 in due order1 to the ,aeshna forcipata1 or ,carolina1 with its dirty yellow head1 and its greenish-yellow thorax1 the latter marked on each side with three oblique lines of black3 the abdomen is black1 and composed of segments laterally spotted with yellow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,libellula1 which the illustrious ,geoffroy designates ,louisa1 is1 according to modern entomologists1 neither a ,libellula nor a ,aeshna1 but a species of ,agarion1--the ,agarion virgo 7,libellula virgo1 ,linn47 ,the ,agarions are distinguishable from the ,libellula and the ,aeshna by their remarkably thin1 filiform1 and exceedingly elongated abdomen1 and by the three ocelli arranged triangle-wise on the top of the head4 ,the ,louisa 7,agarion virgo7 is by no means uncommon in ,england1 and may be found along the upper course of the ,thames1 the ,avon1 and other rivers4 ,it is easily recognised by its frail slender body1 shining with metallic blue reflexes4 ,there are numerous varieties1 distinguished by their varieties of light and shade4 ,the spotless green-winged species is the ,ulrica of ,geoffroy4 ,the two sexes are not alike4 ,in the centre of their delicately-reticulated wings the males have a large bluish-brown spot1 which is wanting in the females4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,male and ,female of the ,agarion virgo4 ,the genera ,libellula1 ,aeshna1 and ,agarion compose the small family of the ,libellulites--a family plainly and conspicuously characterised by the size of their head1 and by the two pairs of diaphanous wings of almost equal dimensions 7the posterior pair is a little shorter than the anterior71 which1 while the animal is at rest1 are kept horizontally extended4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a sunny pool1 half-fringed with trees4 ,these are the characteristics which present themselves to the observant eye at the first glance4 ,do you doubt me8 ,betake yourself1 when ,the bird is building in the tree1 ,and the flower has opened to the bee1-- betake yourself1 ,i say1 to any sunny pool1 half-fringed with trees1 or pleasant river-margin2 go1 armed with net and microscope1 and1 having secured a specimen of these terrors of the insect world1 where ,the strong on weak1 cunning on simple1 prey1 devote yourself to its patient examination4 ,it is only such an examination that can reveal to us some equally important1 but less obvious features of the insect4 ,but to catch a ,dragon-fly is not always an easy task2 the ,libellul are very timorous1 or else they are suspicious of the prowling naturalist who seeks what he can entrap4 ,their flight is livelier and swifter than even that of the butterfly3 when disturbed in their repose1 they fly away abruptly1 their wings rustling or crackling like a sheet of parchment2 if obstinately pursued1 they grow irritated1 and in their quick jerking movements exhibit all the rage of the ,carnivora4 ,but can our ,libellul be carnivorous8 ,most undoubtedly4 ,to convince yourself of it1 you have but to glance at their mouth1 which is wholly unlike a butterfly's4 ,what an arsenal of weapons adapted for seizing and crushing a victim6 ,how strong are those saw-toothed scaly mandibles6 ,how strong their auxiliaries1 the jaws1 which terminate in that dentated spring projection1 furnished internally with cili6 ,surely1 such instruments testify to their ferocious instincts1 and should induce our ,french neighbours to deny them the graceful name of les demoiselles4 ,what a libel on tender woman1--on man's ministering angel6 ,do but observe them4 ,they do not rest upon the blossom to extract its nectared sweets2 in truth1 they could not do so1 for they are not furnished with a proboscis4 ,warlike as the ,amazons1--the only portion of the female sex they can justly be said to resemble1--they hover in the air to pounce1 like vultures1 upon whatever insects may come within their reach2 they quickly transfix1 and as quickly devour them4 ,if they love to fly about the pools1 the marshes1 and the streams1 it is because they are sure of prey in these localities4 ,and1 in fact1 they there encounter and devour an innumerable quantity of flies1 moths1 gnats1 and the like4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but there is another reason why the ,dragon-flies1 obeying the secret impulse of nature1 resort to the haunts we have been describing4 ,they were their cradles or nurseries1 and they become1 in due time1 the scenes of their espousals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before speaking of the singular metamorphosis they afterwards accomplish1 we must touch lightly on the subject of the mode of reproduction of our brilliant demoiselles4 ,it is laid down as a law that1 in the insect world1 the males are invariably smaller or weaker than the females4 ,yet this law does not hold good with reference to the ,libellul1 whose males are1 on the contrary1 larger and stronger than their females4 ,man may lay down laws1 and extort obedience to them1 within his own domain2 but nature laughs at human rules1 and gives up her secrets only to the free thought1 unshackled by the fetters of authority4 ,but why is the male ,dragon-fly stronger than the female8 ,because the former must make the first advances1 and carry off his arial companion to celebrate their bridal4 ,for this purpose1 he holds her tightly by the neck1 and continues to fly in this way for some few minutes4 ,at length1 he perches himself on the branch of a willow1 or the leaf of an aquatic plant1 along with his companion4 ,the eggs laid by the female are oblong in shape1 and sometimes united together in clusters3 the female deposits them in the water1 or on some water-floated leaf plant1 shortly after their fecundation4 ,,metamorphosis ,,of ,,the ,,dragon-,,fly4 ,to-day ,i saw the ,dragon-fly ,come from the wells where he did lie2 ,an inner impulse rent the veil ,by his old husk3 from head to tail ,came out clear plates of sapphire mail4 ,he dried his wings3 like gauze they grew1 ,through croft and pasture wet with dew1 ,a living flash of light he flew4 --,,tennyson4 ,if in your walks abroad you should meet with a pool of turbid water1 do not object to linger for a moment on its brink4 ,nature1 as a reward for your trouble1 will gratify you with an extraordinary surprise4 ,stir up the mud with a stick1 or1 better still1 with your hand2 and then1 as the children say1 you shall see--what you shall see6 ,oh1 what an ugly creature is struggling in this handful of slime6 ,it looks like a large spider6 ,nay1 examine it more attentively2 it can do you no harm4 ,well1 it is a singular animal2 greenish in colour1 bristling with hairs1 and covered with mud4 ,it is not a spider1 for it has only six legs and these are exactly like the legs of insects4 ,i can distinctly make out three joints 7articulations7 to each tarsus1 which terminates in a simple hook4 ,the belly is formed of regular segments2 is rounded above1 and flat underneath4 ,what do ,i see8 ,on the top1 and nearly in the middle1 each ring is armed with a spine1 so that the row of spiny projections remind one of the back of a crocodile4 ,pray tell me1 what is this curious creature8 ,before ,i tell you1 ,i would have you more thoroughly acquainted with it4 ,continue your examination4 ,the face has a strange expression2 it looks--the insect1 ,i mean--like a masked knight4 ,its mask1 formed of a scaly substance and thoroughly compact1 is composed of two pieces1 which are separated from one another by a transversal suture3 the upper1 which is broader than it is high1 we may call the vizor2 it consists of two lobes1 soldered together longitudinally2 the lower1 which is higher than it is broad1 will be the chin-piece2 it is triangular in shape1 and its base rests against the vizor1 while the summit is jointed or articulated with a support1 which acts as a hinge when the mask is raised or lowered4 ,these movements1 let me tell you1 are voluntary2 the animal raises its mask to arrest on their way the ,infusoria and other animalcules on which it feeds4 ,for crushing them1 it is provided with strong mandibles1 which you can detect by lowering the mask with a pin1 or the point of a penknife4 ,the eyes1 which resemble little mammillary protuberances1 are situated above and outside of the vizor4 ,on the animal's back1 where the belly joins the thorax1 do you observe those four little sheath-like or scabbard-like tongues8 ,the extremity of the body1 the tail1 is marked by three conspicuous triangular points1 lying close to the opening1 through which the water enters and issues1 as if it were alternately sucked in and poured out by a piston4 ,this1 you must understand1 is the respiratory apparatus4 7,see ,fig4 #dj47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,larva of the ,libellula depressa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,larva of the ,agarion virgo4 ,well1 then1 what is the name of this most singular creature1 this masked knight8 ,it is the larva of the ,libellula depressa2 the dismal envelope whence will issue the gaudy ,dragon-fly4 ,listen to a graphic description of the mask you are looking at3-- ,conceive your under-lip to be horny instead of fleshy1 and to be elongated perpendicularly downwards1 so as to wrap over your chin and extend to its bottom2 that this elongation is there expanded into a triangular convex plate attached to it by a joint1 so as to bend upwards again and fold over the face as high as the nose1 concealing not only the chin and the first-mentioned elongation1 but the mouth and part of the cheeks2 conceive1 moreover1 that to the end of this last-mentioned plate are fixed two other convex ones1 so broad as to cover the nose and temples2 that these can open at pleasure transversely1 like a pair of jaws1 so as to expose the nose and mouth1 and that their inner edges1 where they meet1 are cut into numerous short teeth1 or spines1 or armed with one or more sharp claws2--you will then have as accurate an idea as any powers of description can give you of the strange conformation of the under-lip of the larva of those insects1 which conceals the mouth and face precisely as ,i have supposed a similar construction of your lip would do yours4 ,when at rest1 this mask applies closely to and covers the face2 when they would make use of it1 they unfold it like an arm1 catch the prey at which they aim by means of the mandibuliform plates1 and then partly refold it1 so as to hold the prey to the mouth in the most convenient position for the operation of the two pairs of jaws with which they are provided4 ,and so the creature ,i have been examining is only a larva6 ,how strange to compare it1--thick1 ugly1 unwieldy1--with the insect that issues from it1 so arial1 so graceful1 so light1 so beautiful6 ,the more ,i think of the contrast1 the more it interests me4 ,this larva1 however1 has all the characteristics of a perfect insect1 and ,i will wager that more than one observer has described it as such1 and classified it among aquatic insects4 ,yet it is but a larva6 ,and each species has its own special larva 7see ,figs4 #dj and #da74 ,this seems to me as difficult to believe as if you told me that ,john1 ,james1 ,peter1--in fact1 all men1--were only temporary bodies from which more perfect beings would one day emerge4 ,for the medium in which these masked creatures live1--the troubled and muddy medium for which they are adapted by their organisation1 and in which they seem destined to live out their life1--differs wholly and absolutely from the arial medium wherein1 you tell me1 they will one day rejoice4 ,do you see1 on the brink of the pond1 those dried-up bodies8 ,they are those of your aquatic insects1 the mortal remains of ,libellulites2 they have rent open their vest1 as you would do a garment which had become too narrow2 the rent is very conspicuous along the back2 and through the fissure issue the winged and arial resuscitated ,dragon-flies1 summoned to live in a world differing so widely from their former one6 ,under the tongues were folded up the wings1 and the mask that puzzled you so greatly is split open on the level of the sutures1 so as to represent a 1 wanting only a handle to reproduce one of those hieroglyphics 77 which are found so frequently on the ,egyptian monuments1 and which1 according to some ,egyptologists1 signify eternal life4 ,and here1 my friend and companion1 we may take leave of ,the great ,dragon-fly with gauzy wings4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #dj3 ,the best means of ascertaining the coexistence of an ascending and descending sap have been indicated in ,the ,circle of the ,year1 pp4 #afc-h4 ,footnote #da3 ,see the ,botanische ,zeitung 7,botanical ,gazette7 for the years #ahec1 #ahef1 #ahei1 and #ahfa4 ,footnote #db3 ,boehm1 ,sur la ,cause de l',ascension de la ,sve1 ,mmoire communiqu l',acadmie des ,sciences de ,vienne1 juillet #ahfc4 ,footnote #dc3 ,chaucer4 ,footnote #dd3 ,pliny1 ,historia ,naturalis1 xxvi4 #e4 ,footnote #de3 ,see ,the ,circle of the ,year4 ,footnote #df3 ,chomel1 ,histoire des ,plantes ,usuelles1 ii4 #bhb4 ,footnote #dg3 ,tournefort1 ,histoire des ,plantes1 i4 #ajc4 ,footnote #dh3 ,garidel1 ,histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs d',aix1 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #di3 ,pied1 that is1 vari-coloured1 motley-coated4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see also ,shelley's ,sensitive ,plant1 c4 ,footnote #ea3 ,this is common enough in ,germany and ,france1 especially in the vineyards1 but very rare in ,england4 ,footnote #eb3 ,so we say1 fretted roof4 ,footnote #ec3 ,when the spike bears numerous flowers1 surrounded by a spathe1 or sheathing bract1 it is called a spadix4 ,footnote #ed3 ,bosc1 a distinguished naturalist1 died in #ahbh1 aged #fi4 ,in the ministry of ,roland1 he accepted the delicate post of administrator of prisons2 was proscribed after the terrible events of ,may #ca1 #agic2 and lay concealed1 along with ,larveillire-,lpaux1 for several weeks in the forest of ,montmorency4 ,footnote #ee3 ,the seeds of the latter are used in the ,east1 where they are more pungent than in our cold climates1 instead of pepper4 ,they are thought to be the cummin alluded to in ,scripture1 where our ,saviour reproved the ,pharisees for their singularity in minor things1 and their neglect of important duties4 ,footnote #ef3 ,that is1 the ,creative ,power which1 in common parlance1 we choose to call ,nature4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,summer4 ,blessed1 thrice blessed is the man with whom ,the generous prodigality of nature1 ,the balm1 the bliss1 the beauty1 and the bloom1 ,the bounteous providence in every feature1 ,recall the good ,creator to ,his creature1 ,making all earth a fane1 all heaven its dome6444 ,the sod's a cushion for his pious want1 ,and consecrated by the heaven within it1 ,the sky-blue pool1 a font2 ,each cloud-capped mountain is a holy altar2 ,an organ breathes in every grove1 ,and the full heart's a psalter1 ,rich in deep hymns of gratitude and love4 --,,thomas ,,hood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the poetry of ,earth is never dead4444 ,a thing of beauty is a joy for ever4 --,,keats4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be light2 and there was light4 --,,genesis4 ,a sound of song ,beneath the vault of ,heaven is blown4 --,,goethe4 ,illustration ,the unequal duration of ,day and ,night1 the succession and regular return of the seasons1 all the phenomena observable upon the earth1 are but the effects of a cause which we must seek in the heavens4 ,it is impossible to explain them unless we contemplate it on high1 relegating our planet into the great chorus of the worlds1 where it holds but a modest rank4 ,only1 to perform this miracle1 we must for a moment repress in ourselves the senses which deceive us by their exaggeration or appearances1 and give free course to enlightened thought4 ,it is by this means alone that we can succeed in fully demonstrating the close and perpetual relationship which exists between our planet and the other spheres composing what we call the ,solar ,system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,permit us here a parenthesis1 or1 shall we say1 a digression8 ,the whole secret of science1 the whole secret of human knowledge--in truth1 the whole future of humanity--lies in these two words--,enlightened ,thought4 ,and here1 gentle reader1 ,i solicit your assistance in endeavouring to elucidate a question which has a for a long time puzzled me4 ,why do we apply the word light to that which sets in motion the eye of the body1 and to that which induces the operation of the eye of the mind1--to the singularly mysterious physical agent without whose intervention all the external world would be to man a dream or a void1 as well as to the still more mysterious moral agent which illuminates the world within8 ,i anticipate your answer4 ,the light1 you say1 which opens up to me the material world is a reality2 the other is only an image4 ,and it is true that this is the solution which first presents itself to the mind4 ,but the longer you reflect upon it1 the more you will be inclined to agree with me that it is unsatisfactory4 ,what1 then1 means this agreement among all peoples1 past and present1 to designate by the same words--as ,light ,to illuminate ,obscurity ,to obscure ,shadow ,to overshadow ,morning ,to darken ,day ,to clear away ,twilight ,to blind ,gloom ,to cloud --those actions1 processes1 or operations which take place or are produced in the outer world1 physical or material1 and in the inner world1 intellectual or moral4 ,were your pretended image the result of purely personal impressions1--all persons are not equally apt in apprehending those fictitious relations which are the food of poetry1--were it1 in a word1 no more than an individual conception1 and1 therefore1 eminently variable1 ,i should not hesitate to accept your opinion3 we should simply be discussing what are called1 in scholastic language1 the individual sense 7sens propre7 and the imaginative sense 7sens figur74 ,but there exists upon this point an unanimous and universal agreement3 all languages1 living or dead1 attest it2 it embraces the aggregate of the members of the human family4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is the first point which induces me to doubt the legitimacy of the proposed explanation4 ,but ,i am confirmed in my hesitation by numerous other facts4 ,let us emerge from the domain of rhetoric to enter that of experimental physiology and psychology4 ,too powerful a light blinds the organs of seeing4 ,no mortal eye1 unless with the aid of artificial appliances1 can gaze upon the sun1 the great source of light4 ,if the vision is to act clearly1 we must proceed step by step4 ,if from a very light apartment we pass rapidly1 and without transition1 into a darkened room1 or vice vers1 we feel temporarily blinded3 the eye demands a short time to recover1 as it were1 from its astonishment4 ,if we fix our gaze for one or two minutes on a star of the first magnitude1 as1 for example1 ,sirius1 and afterwards turn away abruptly1 the eye will for a while remain insensible to stars of a less intense splendour4 ,these are incontestable physiological facts1 which anybody may easily verify for himself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,well1 in the psychological order facts exist which are in all respects analogous4 ,take one of those truths which the human thought1 labouring generation after generation1 has taken centuries to discover or elucidate2 place it suddenly before an unprepared mind2 however luminous may be this truth1 it will be simply shadow and darkness to the mind we speak of2 it will not comprehend an iota of it4 ,why8 ,for the very obvious reason that it lies outside its sphere of ideas1 in every respect comparable to the sphere of vision1 beyond which and within which there is no more room for the sensorial impressions4 ,there1 as here1 we must proceed gradually1 and arrange the transitions so as to produce the desired results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it would be easy for me to develop this parallel by other and still more remarkable facts2 but what ,i have just said will suffice to show that the line of demarcation which philosophers have1 upon principle1 desired to trace between the physical and moral order1 has turned the mind aside from many fertile fields of research and speculation4 ,let us cite an example4 ,the sun is the visible centre of light1 heat1 organic life2 in fine1 of all the movements of our material world4 ,yet it is but a relative focus1 since the sun1 with its planetary train1 revolves1 probably1 in company with other suns or systems1 around a centre as yet unknown2 and as there is no reason why we should pause in this cycloidal progression1 this second centre or focus of systems may revolve around a third1 the third around a fourth1 and so on4 ,thus we shall have an indeterminate series of relative centres2 for the term does not exist of which we can say1--there is the beginning1 or here is the end of the series4 ,we do not meet with the absolute in the material1 any more than in the intellectual world4 ,truth1 by its power of attraction1 sets in motion all the wheels of our understanding2 we seek after it eagerly1 in the doubt which torments us1 in the obscurity which surrounds us2 we all feel the need of being enlightened by it1 and warmed1 and revivified2 we all are in need of belief1 and1 at the same time1 of possessing--let there be no illusion in this respect--a certainty or demonstration of what we believe4 ,but the truth which we think our own does not leave the mind at rest2 a slight effort suffices1 in fact1 to teach us that the truth we accept depends upon another and remoter truth1 and that the world of thought is thus carried onward in an interminable series of relative truths2 unless we find it more convenient to pause here at a primary cause1 as elsewhere at a primordial centre1 which we may ever identify with the primary cause4 ,but is this truth1 supposed to be final1 capable of satisfying equally every mind8 ,with this question1 dear reader1 ,i close my parenthesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to understand clearly the variable duration of the day at all points of the terrestrial surface1 let us so place ourselves as to see our planet distinctly in front4 ,i need hardly say that this invitation is not addressed to the visual organs of the body1 but to the mind's eye1 ,horatio4 ,with the former1 fixed as we are on the surface of the globe1 we can only see the shadows of objects standing out in relief upon it1 and still1 with the sun at our back1 can perceive but a comparatively insignificant portion4 ,with the second1 on the contrary1 we may detach ourselves from the earth1 may mount afar into space1 may plant ourselves on some arial height1 whence we may embrace1 at a single glance1 all the illuminated hemisphere of our globe3 we shall have but a single shadow on the prospect1--that which our brightened planet casts behind it1 and which1 in four-and-twenty hours1 traverses the entire surface of the globe1 producing light wherever it passes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having completed our preparations1 let us note what we perceive with our eye thus disjoined from our body1--an eye equally well adapted to fix every moving object1 and to see at any distance bodies extremely small1 or bodies extremely large4 ,what a marvellous eye6 ,and it is for us to develop its power1 and freely to increase its range4 ,what an arduous task6 ,the luminous envelope1 the photosphere of the sun1 simultaneously darts its rays in all directions1 with an intensity which diminishes with the square of the distance4 ,let us follow those which direct their course towards our planet4 ,so long as the rays do not come into collision1 or strike against resistant matter1 they neither warm nor enlighten4 ,confirming the ,newtonian hypothesis of emission1 they travel straight as arrows through the icy space1 the shadowy ocean in which the waves of the terrestrial atmosphere are lost4 ,but the moment they encounter a material obstacle1 the rays partly penetrate it1 and are partly thrown back1 in such a manner as to form a series of undulations like those which the falling of a stone into a pond produces4 ,as they recede from these repeated shocks1 the rays come under that theory of undulation which ,huygens promoted4#eg ,let us trace the rays of light back to their origin4 ,these encounter first the globes nearest to the sun3 the almost imperceptible asteroids1 which1 on account of the solar splendour1 can scarcely be detected1 and which1 as yet1 have received no baptismal names4 ,yonder beams illuminate other revolving globes1--,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth4 ,if we here arrest our gaze1 we are influenced by a vague and mournful recollection2 the ,earth was our place of sojourn at an epoch when thought1 formerly shackled1 had become free4 ,it is thus that a seed1 removed from the stem which nourished it1 wanders afar to diffuse and perfect its species4 ,our planet1 of an ochreous yellow1 relieved with green and white1 possesses no special privileges2 it shares in the ponderated movements of the spheres2 it is neither the largest1 nor the smallest1 nor the heaviest1 nor the lightest1 nor the nearest to1 nor the farthest from1 the sun4 ,and shall ,earth alone1 of all the planets1 nourish that kind of thinking seed which we name the human race8 ,it seems improbable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but let us return to the great orb of light4 ,it illuminates exactly one half of our earth2 the other half lies in shade4 ,and as the earth rotates upon its own axis1 every point of its surface is necessarily exposed to the action of the solar rays4 ,this action varies in duration and intensity4 ,all this ,i was taught1 when ,i was still at school on our revolving planet4 ,i remember1 too1 as a lesson learned by heart1 that1 under the ,equator1 or1 more exactly1 in #j #j latitude1 as well as at the ,poles1 or under #ij latitude2 the duration of the day is equal to that of the night1 with this difference1 that1 while under the ,equator1 a day of twelve hours alternates invariably with a night of the same duration1 at the ,poles a day of six months succeeds continually to a night of six months4 ,i also recollect that1 at a given moment1 namely1 at the spring and autumn equinoxes1 the duration of the day1 over all the terrestrial surface1 is equal to that of the night1 just as under the ,equator2 and that1 after these two epochs1 under the intermediary latitudes1 between the ,equator and the ,poles1 the length of the days and their corresponding nights varies according to the seasons2 that1 in our northern hemisphere1 after the spring equinox1 the days increase while the nights diminish1 to such an extent that1 at the summer solstice1--#ba-bb ,june1--they attain their maximum of length 7and the nights their minimum71 the reverse taking place during the period that elapses between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice4 ,i remember that ,i learned these data when ,i was living rooted to or anchored upon the earth2 but the explanation which my masters gave me was not so clear as ,i could have wished4 ,their considerations on the declensions of the sun1 on the obliquity of the ecliptic1 on the necessity of exactly reducing the earth to a simple point in relation to the distance of the stars1 to the end that the phenomena occurring 7rapports7 on parallel planes would be nearly identical with those observed from the centre of the globe1 or from a point situated on its surface2 all these fine things1 which demanded a certain faculty of geometrical intuition1 left a curious vagueness of idea upon my mind4 ,i accepted them1 under the influence of authority1 as beyond discussion1 but ,i was by no means satisfied whenever ,i wished to ascertain their foundation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but now--in the regions of space--everything grows simple before the mind1 in which1 apparently1 all my power of thought is concentrated4 ,behold the illuminated atmosphere2 it reminds me vividly of the disc of the full moon4 ,ah1 what exquisite iris colours6 ,they mark the meeting-points of the bright with the obscured hemisphere3 a circular line carried through all these points would exactly separate day and night4 ,on the one side1 motion and life and glow2 on the other1 silence and shade and calm4 ,this line moves1 carrying with it in its movement day and night1 the illuminated and the darkened hemisphere2 it moves from east to west1 so that the bright hemisphere and the shadowy one1 whose union forms what may be called the photo-adumbrated sphere1 revolves1 in four-and-twenty hours1 round an axis which coincides at this moment--the #bast day of ,march1 according to the terrestrial worms1--with the axis of the earth rotating on itself in an inverse direction1 that is to say1 from west to east4 ,let us note this coincidence3 it is remarkable2 inasmuch as1 at the equinoxes1 the terrestrial equator divides exactly the illuminated and the obscured hemisphere into two equal parts1 one of which is situated to the north1 the other to the south1 and their line of separation coincides with a meridian circle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but ,i see another1 and much slower movement1 very clearly defined4 ,the axis of rotation of the photo-adumbrated sphere does not remain parallel with the terrestrial axis of rotation2 it retires from it little by little1 so as to form with it an angle which attains its maximum at the summer solstice 7#ba-bb ,june72 afterwards1 returning upon itself1 it coincides anew with the terrestrial axis of rotation 7the autumn equinox71 to make an angle in the contrary direction1 whose maximum1 of the same value as the former1 corresponds to the winter solstice 7#ba-bb ,december74 ,this movement1 which is annual1 complicates itself with the diurnal4 ,it is rendered visible by the displacement of the polar shroud of snow3 the portion which1 at the moment of the spring equinox1 belonged1 in the northern hemisphere1 to the obscured hemisphere1 moves onward1 as a result of the inclination of its axis1 to become an integral part of the illuminated hemisphere2 while1 at the same time1 the portion which1 in the southern hemisphere1 belonged to the illuminated hemisphere1 moves onward to become an integral part of the darkened hemisphere4 ,owing to this displacement1 the sun shows itself for six consecutive months above the horizon1 for the ,north ,pole2 at the spring equinox it begins to rise1 at the summer solstice it attains its maximum elevation1 and from the summer solstice it begins to decline4 ,thus1 then1 we have in reality a day six months long1 of which the morning and the evening are the two equinoxes1 its noon the summer solstice4 ,in the same periods an exactly opposite order of things prevails in the southern hemisphere4 ,everything1 even to the minutest detail1 is in this way very clearly explained4 ,two facts--like the touches of a painter's brush--suffice to impress the whole upon the mind1 namely3-- ,that1 first1 one half of the terrestrial surface is constantly illuminated by the sun1 while the other half remains in darkness2 ,that1 secondly1 the rotation of the earth upon its axis produces day and night1 by carrying from east to west the illuminated hemisphere1 always diametrically opposite to the darkened hemisphere4 ,this being thoroughly understood1 let us place ourselves in the equatorial plane1 so as to embrace at a single glance a quarter of the illuminated and a quarter of the darkened hemisphere4 ,if the equator of the photo-adumbrated sphere perpetually coincided with the terrestrial equator1--if1 in other words1 the earth1 in revolving round the sun1 invariably occupied the plane of the ,equator1 which1 when prolonged1 would pass through the centre of the illuminating orb1--the diurnal rotation would not cease to divide equally the light and the darkness over the earth's surface1 as is shown in ,fig4 #db a1 where ,s indicates the sun1 ,,ee the terrestrial equator1 and ,n ,s the extremities 7or ,north and ,south ,poles7 of the axis which divides the globe into an illuminated and a darkened half4 ,this phenomenon of coincidence exists2 but only for a very brief period1 and is only repeated twice a year1--that is1 at the equinoxes4 ,at all other times1 the equator of the photo-adumbrated sphere1 in whose plane the orb of light is situated1 passes sometimes above and sometimes below the terrestrial equator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,s1 the ,sun2 ,,ee1 the ,equator2 ,n1 ,north ,pole2 ,s1 ,south ,pole4 ,but this alternate movement of northern and southern declination has its limits2 it stops at #bc #bg' #cj on either side of the ,equator2 this1 too1 is the maximum of the distance which the imaginary axis of the photo-adumbrated sphere retires from the axis of terrestrial rotation2 it is at the same time the value of the obliquity of the ecliptic1 or of the inclined plane which the earth traverses in its annual movement of revolution4 ,fig4 #db b1 which represents the photo-adumbrated sphere at the summer solstice1 will enable the reader to comprehend with the utmost facility the six months' day of the ,north ,pole1 coinciding with the six months' night of the ,south ,pole2 for the triangle ,n ,c ,d indicates the amount by which the illuminated moiety increases in the northern hemisphere between the spring equinox and the summer solstice1 the amount being equal to that by which the adumbrated moiety overspreads in a contrary direction the ,south ,pole in the southern hemisphere4 ,the superfluous quantity of the photo-adumbrated sphere is nil at the apex of the two opposite triangles1 or in the equinoctial region4 ,and then1 in effect1 both day and night are always twelve hours long4 ,starting from the equinoctial line1 we see how easy it is to calculate for each locality the variable dimensions of the arc which the sun1 in its apparent course1 traces above the horizon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to see very distinctly the portion of the illuminated hemisphere1 which1 passing beyond the ,north ,pole1 forms a luminous course on the darkened moiety of our globe1 ,i have but to place myself at midnight1 on the #bast of ,june1 in the prolongation of the terrestrial equator2 in the same way1 to see the corresponding portion of the darkened hemisphere1 which advances beyond the ,south ,pole to invade the illuminated1 ,i have but to occupy at noon1 on the #bast of ,june1 a point of the same equatorial prolongation4 ,six months later1 the same spectacle will be presented1 inversely1 on the #bast of ,december1 in the southern hemisphere4 ,see ,fig4 #dc a1 where the pole ,n indicates the six months' day of the northern hemisphere 7from the spring to the autumn equinox72 while in ,fig4 #dc b1 the pole ,s indicates the six months' night of the northern hemisphere 7during the same period74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,the ,six ,months' ,day and ,night4 ,now1 no effort of the imagination is required to understand why the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere enjoy summer while those of the southern are enduring winter2 why it is blossoming spring to the former when it is purple autumn to the latter1 and vice vers4 ,equally easy is it to comprehend why1 after the equinox1 day1 or the duration of the sun above the horizon1 gradually diminishes in one hemisphere and increases in the other2 why1 in summer1 and in both hemispheres1 the longest days alternate with the shortest nights1 and in winter1 the longest nights with the shortest days4 ,it will not be more difficult to explain the cause of the prevailing cold in the polar zones1 despite the prolonged sojourn of the sun above the horizon for a great part of the year4 ,observe how obliquely the solar rays are directed towards yonder shrouds of ice and snow3 how can they warm them8 ,they nearly all vanish into space4 7,see ,fig4 #db47 99 99 99 99 99 ,finally1 there is not a phenomenon1 even to that of dawn and twilight1 which cannot1 on these principles1 be very fully and clearly explained4 ,i have indicated1 in a preceding paragraph1 the rainbow-glories of colour noticeable on the line of demarcation between the illuminated and the darkened hemispheres4 ,they are wanting where the rays of light strike vertically or nearly vertically4 ,it is this circumstance which explains why1 in the intertropical regions1 the crepuscular phenomena are nearly null2 why the sun1 so to speak1 sets and rises abruptly1 like a taper which we extinguish or rekindle4 ,these iris-gleams increase1 on the other hand1 in intensity1 in proportion as we recede from tropical regions3 the red touches the horizon1 while the violet blends with the azure of the sky2 between these two extremes1 which are always very clearly marked1 are arranged in less perceptible fashion1 and in the order of refraction1 the other colours of the rainbow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what time and labour does it not require for the mind to disengage1 to free itself from the fetters and incumbrances of sensorial appearances1 the illusions of the senses1 and to rise sufficiently high to seize at a glance all the dynamics of the world6 ,it is this faculty1 however1 which distinguishes the intellect from the imagination4 ,that he may abandon himself to the enjoyment of those pleasures which1 like ,dead ,sea apples1 crumble to ashes on his lips1 the fool puts aside all mental toil1 and disregards the shortness of his time1--ignores the brief period allowed for the development of the understanding4 ,but1 at least1 let ,imagination abstain from substituting its idle dreams for the assured results which can be only the reward of reason1 conscientiousness1 and labour6 ,unfortunately1 here as elsewhere1 it is vox clamantis1 and we preach in the desert6 ,,footnote3 ,footnote #eg3 ,no one1 ,i think1 has ever before attempted to reconcile1 in this way1 the two principal theories which have been put forth on the propagation of light4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,on ,,the ,,earth4 ,now the shining meads ,do boast the pansy1 lily1 and the rose1 ,and every flower doth laugh as zephyr blows4 --,,ben ,,jonson4 ,illustration ,the ,flower seems to have been created expressly to say to men3--,listen6 ,those things which most attract your glance are but subordinate1 and the principal escape you4 ,that the warning is true1 all history attests4 ,it is only1 so to speak1 from yesterday that the discovery of the sex of plants is to be dated2 the tiny organs occupying the centre of the flower having always appeared so insignificant that they had passed1 for some thousands of years1 completely unnoticed4 ,the eye of the spectator was caught by the calyx and the corolla2 these envelopes1 though of secondary importance so far as the reproduction of the vegetable is concerned1 seemed to eyes dazzled by their glowing colours the true flower1--in fact1 the entire flower4 ,science1 which is the slow elaboration of thought matured by the study of objects of no human origin1 has completely swept aside this premature judgment4 ,,the ,,perianth4 ,we have already1 and more than once1 employed the word perianth#eh to designate the calyx or corolla1 whether taken separately or together4 ,in the former case1 the perianth is simple2 in the latter1 it is double4 ,a more appropriate word could not be made use of4 ,it is derived from the ,greek 1 around1 and 1 flower2 and literally signifies1 floral envelope4 ,simple or double1 this envelope is the metamorphosis of several leaves1 never of a solitary one1 inserted upon planes so closely brought together that they seem confounded4 ,observe1 in fact1 how the leaves tend to efface their intervals on the blossom-bearing spray2 they draw towards each other1 they are apparently in eager haste to accomplish their destined transformation4 ,what eloquence there is in this simple language of nature6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,calyx4--,the outermost whorl1 or verticle1 of the flower is called the calyx4 ,and why8 ,out of a notion altogether incorrect4 ,it is true that this foliaceous envelope may often assume the shape of a cup 7in ,latin1 calix71 and hence that the name has about it a semi-poetical air4 ,but this only occurs when the calyx is composed of a single leaf1 which has procured for it the special designations of monosepalous1 gamopetalous1 and monophyllous1--three different words expressing one and the same thing6 ,the violet and the primrose are examples of a monophyllous1 monosepalous1 or gamopetalous calyx4 ,i see1 dear reader1 that you are puzzled by the word sepal4 ,certainly you would look for it in vain in any classical dictionary2 it is neither ,greek nor ,latin4 ,it was only invented1 scarce a century ago1 by a ,swiss botanist1 whose works have chiefly remained in manuscript1--by ,necker1 brother of the celebrated minister of ,louis ,,xvi41 and uncle of the illustrious ,madame de ,stal4 ,let me explain the circumstance which determined1 ,i suspect1 the choice of this fanciful word1--a word belonging to no language but that of modern botanists4 ,the botanists of antiquity called the coloured leaflets of the corolla1 petals4 ,in this they were doubly right2 for1 first1 they are1 in reality1 nothing but metamorphosed leaves2 second1 the word petal 7in ,greek1 7 signified a leaf as early as the days of ,homer1 who1 when speaking of the nightingale1 says1 like a keen observer of nature1 that this bird1 on the return of spring1 sings-- ,couched among the thick leaves of the grove4 7 47#ei ,the word petal was preserved by ,tournefort1 handed down by ,linnus and the two ,de ,jussieus1 and afterwards adopted by all botanists with the signification given to it by the ancients4 ,now1 as the calyx may also consist of leaflets1 which are generally green1 ,necker conceived the idea of applying to them the same term1 after substituting an s for the initial letter p4 ,thus was created the word sepal4 ,the innovation1 ,i must point out1 was not unanimously adopted4 ,many botanists continued to use the words calicinal leaflets1 introduced by ,linnus2 others1 though they adopted the innovation1 protested against it4 ,but leaving the word1 let us return to the thing4 ,the calyx consists originally of several leaflets4 ,is the monophyllous or monosepalous calyx a transformation due to the junction of the primitive leaflets8 ,observation replies in the affirmative4 ,in the formation of junctures or adhesions nature proceeds from beneath to above4 ,our language proceeds inversely to nature3 we speak of a lobed1 dentated1 or partite calyx1 as if it were primarily monophyllous1 and its more or less profound divisions 7indicated by the words lobed1 dentated1 partite7 were but consecutive results1 produced from above to below4 ,the truth is1 that the calicinal divisions1 which we call lobes1 lacinias1 and the like1 are but the tops of leaflets united at their base4 ,the monophyllous calyx 7formed of one piece7 is1 therefore1 simply the result of a more or less complete union of the leaflets composing1 properly speaking1 the calicinal whorl4 ,this whorl is originally polyphyllous2 that is to say1 formed of several distinct parts4 ,if it were1 in the first place1 monophyllous1 it would be impossible to understand how its divisions are made from top to bottom1 since nature1 in its developments1 proceeds from bottom to top4 ,in the final analysis1 then1 it is an error to consider the calyx as a cup1 primarily formed of a single piece4 99 99 99 99 99 ,grew1 an ,english botanist of the eighteenth century1 seems to have been the first who made use of the word calyx4 ,i call a calyx1 he says1#fj the external portion of the flower1 which enfolds the others1 whether it be all in one piece1 as in the violets1 or divided1 as in the roses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we wish to conform to the truth1 as brought before us by nature1 we must revolutionize our terminology4 ,instead of speaking of bipartite1 tripartite1 quadripartite1 or of bilobed and trilobed calices1--terms all signifying that the monophyllous calyx is cloven more or less deeply from top to bottom1 we must say that the calyx in such and such a species has its leaflets united at the base1 or one third1 fourth1 or half of its height2 the polyphyllous or polysepalous calyx will be that whose leaflets remain detached1 as was the case in the monophyllous or monosepalous calyx4 ,this language1 recommended by the authority of ,auguste ,saint-,hilaire1 would be more precise and exact3 therefore1 it will not be very quickly adopted4 ,one would say that the human mind condemns itself to pass through the purgatory of what is false and complex1 before resolving to adopt the simple and the true4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we admit the theory according to which all the organs of the vegetable are the result of a metamorphosis of the leaf1 we shall ask what place is to be given to the calyx in the series of these transformations8--,answer3 ,the calyx is a foliaceous transformation1 intermediary between the bracts and the corolla4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is particularly in the study of the calyx that the attentive eye is struck by those proteiform movements in which nature makes sport of our absolute rules4 ,for example3 in the ,berberis vulgaris1 the young calicinal leaflets have less resemblance to the bracts than to the petals of the corolla1 and hence they have received the name of petaloid sepals4 ,in other flowers this morphogenic wavering inclines towards the bracts rather than towards the corolla4 ,we hesitate1 therefore1 whether we must give the name of calyx or bracts to the three under leaflets which are visible beneath the petaloid envelope of the ,anemone nemorosa1 or wood anemone4 ,the calyx of the ,celandine 7,ranunculus ficaria71 which also flowers in spring1 is exactly like a whorl or involucre formed by the union of the bracts4 ,a similar embarrassment takes place when the calyx1 in its metamorphosis1 inclines too visibly in the direction of the corolla4 ,thus1 in the ,polygala vulgaris1--a little1 vivacious1 and very abundant plant1--the two inner leaflets of the calyx are not only larger than the three other outer leaves1 but they are coloured like the petals1 and become1 towards the close of their flowering time1 membranous1 herbaceous1 and marked with three strong veins3 they resemble the wings of a butterfly1 and have been called wings4 ,these peculiarities are useful in the distinction of certain species1 which1 at bottom1 are simply varieties4 ,thus1 in the ,polygala ,austriaca 7,polygala amara of ,keoch1 ,polygala uliginosa of ,reichenbach71--a plant with small white or bluish leaves1 which is sometimes met with on the borders of peaty swamps1--the central vein or ridge of the wings is simple1 and never anastomoses with the lateral veins2 while1 in the ,polygala vulgaris1 as well as in the ,polygala depressa and ,polygala amarella1 the vein is ramified1 and anastomoses more or less widely with the laterals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but since we are upon this subject1 why should we not seize the opportunity of familiarising ourselves1 under the form of a digression1 with the little family of the ,polygalace8 ,but no2 we will adjourn the episode1 since it would cut the thread of our discourse upon the calyx1 our calicology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some calices there are1 which1 by their colouring1 approximate so closely to the second floral envelope1 that one is always tempted to call them corollas4 ,such are3--,the red calyx of the fuchsia2 ,the yellow calyx of the furze 7,ulex ,europus71 and of a kind of hellebore 7,helleborus hyemalis72 ,the rosy calyx of the ,christmas rose 7,helleborus niger72 ,the blue calyx of the larkspur 7,delphinium ,ajacis72 and the ,napel aconite 7,aconitum ,napellus74 ,in the ,aquilegia vulgaris1 and in the ,trollius ,europus1 the calyx1 by the form and colouring of its leaflets1 is confounded with the second whorl so completely1 that ,linnus gave it the name of corolla4 ,nevertheless1 in the midst of these waverings1 which lead us to mistake the calicinal leaflets sometimes for bracts1 sometimes for petals1 we recognise perfectly the foliaceous type4 ,independently of its colour1 which is generally green1 the calyx has the same organisation as the leaf2 we find in it the same trache and the same stomata1 the same glands and the same hairs2 the veins and ramifications are also the same2 and1 in more than one instance1 the calicinal leaflet resumes the character of a veritable leaf4 ,look1 for example1 at the five leaflets1 united so strongly at the base but so free at the top1 arranged in the form of a quincunx1 of the hundred-leaved rose4 ,the two external1 enlarged1 and lanceolate pieces are garnished on the right and left1 and often at the point1 with tiny foliaceous appendages1 which1 in every respect1 imitate the composite leaf that carries the slender stem4 ,and if we move aside the external or bearded parts of the calyx1 we see that the internal bear less and less resemblance to a leaf4 ,thus1 the part which comes next is semi-bearded2 that is to say1 it is furnished with foliaceous appendages only on one side2 and the two upper pieces are beardless1 that is1 reduced to the dilated central vein4 ,it was these metamorphic forms of the free portion of the calicinal foliola 7united below7 of the rose1 which originated a well-known enigma1 conveyed in the following ,latin distich3-- ,quique sumus fratres1 unus barbatus et alter1 ,imberbes duo1 sum semi-berbes duo1 sum semi-berbes ego4 7,we are brothers1 both bearded1 two beardless2 ,i am two half-bearded1 and ,i myself am half-bearded47 ,they are specially noticeable in a variety of the ,rose of ,bengal1 in which all the petals seem to be transformed into calicinal leaves4 7,fig4 #dd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,the part of the calyx formed by the union of the sepals is called the tube3 it is invariably the lower part4 ,the upper portion1 where the sepals are free1 is the limb4 ,throughout the vegetable kingdom you will not find a calyx in which the union of the sepals takes place at the top4 ,this time1 at all events1 we have found--what is exclusively rare in nature--a rule without an exception4 ,generally1 it is almost impossible to disunite1 without rending1 the foliola composing the tube of the calyx1 their union is so complete4 ,this circumstance prevented the first observers from accurately apprehending the composition and true development of the calyx4 ,there are cases1 nevertheless1 in which ,nature--the coquette6--suffers herself to be surprised1 if her lover have patience4 ,as an example we shall cite the monophyllous calyx of the nother4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,rose of ,bengal4 ,let us take the species known as nothera biennis4 ,it belongs1 with the fuchsia1 circa1 trapa1 and others1 to the ,evening ,primrose family1 or ,onograce4 ,its pale yellow blossoms are unfolded during the hush of evening-time in almost every garden1 shedding abroad on the breeze its delicate but delicious odour4 ,its petals open in a remarkable manner4 ,the calyx1 as we shall see1 has small hooks attached to its upper extremity1 by which it holds the flower together before expansion4 ,the calicinal divisions gradually unfold at the lower part1 and reveal the yellow flower1 which remains awhile closed at the upper parts of the hooks4 ,the flower then suddenly opens half-way1 when it stops2 afterwards completing its expansion gradually1 and finally opening with a loud noise4 ,this curious plant is of ,american origin1 and was unknown in our country until #afgd1 when it was introduced by some ,french floriculturists4 ,it opens generally at about six or seven o'clock in the evening4 ,and this statement induces me to digress4 ,where can ,i better introduce to the reader's notice a ,floral ,dial8 ,it is not so complete as it might be made if ,i had space to enlarge upon the subject4 ,my object1 however1 is simply to suggest2 and this brief allusion to the hours at which flowers fold and unfold may induce the reader to study in more detail a very pleasant branch of botanical science4 ,he will find full particulars in ,mr ,loudon's excellent ,encyclopdia of ,gardening4 ,it is generally stated that the first ,floral ,dial1 or clock1 which showed the time by the opening or shutting up of blossoms throughout the day1 was a fancy or invention of the great ,swedish naturalist1 ,linnus4 ,but there is a distinct allusion to this poetical measurement of the fleeting hours in ,marvell's poem on ,the ,garden3-- ,how well the skilful gardener drew ,by flowers and herbs this dial new6 ,where1 from above1 the milder sun ,does through a fragrant zodiac run2 ,and1 as it works1 the industrious bee ,computes its time as well as we4 ,how could such sweet and wholesome hours ,be reckoned but with herbs and flowers8 ,whether the idea first occurred to ,englishman or ,swede1 poet or botanist1 matters but little2 it is a graceful1 a suggestive1 a beautiful idea1 and might well be reproduced in some of our large public gardens4 ',twas a lovely thought to mark the hours1 ,as they floated in light away1 ,by the opening and the folding flowers1 ,as they laugh to the summer's day4 ,thus had each moment its own rich hue1 ,and its graceful cup and bell1 ,in whose coloured vase might sleep the dew1 ,like a pearl in an ocean shell4 ,,floral ,,dial4 ,,time ,,at ,,which ,,the ,,following ,,flowers ,,fold ,,and ,,unfold4 ,open4 ,close4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,p4,m4 ,a4,m4 ,goat's ,beard 7,lat4 syn4 ,tragopogon luteum71 #i4aj #c4e ,late-flowering ,dandelion 7,leontodon serotinum71 #ab4a #d4j ,hawkweed 7,picris echioides71 #ab4j #d4e ,alpine ,hawk's-beard 7,crepis ,alpina71 #ab4j #d4e ,wild ,succory 7,cichorium intybus71 #g4j #e4j ,naked-stalked ,poppy 7,papaver nudicaule71 #g4h #e4j ,copper-coloured ,day-lily 7,hemerocallis fulva71 #aa4ab #e4j ,smooth ,sow-thistle 7,sonchus lvis71 #ab4j #e4j ,blue-flowered ,sow-thistle 7,sonchus ,alpinus71 #d4e #e4f ,field ,bindweed 7,convolvulus arvensis71 #aj4j #e4f ,common ,nipplewort 7,lapsana communis71 #d4e #f4g ,spotted ,cat's-ear 7,hypochris maculata71 #e4j #g4j ,white ,water-lily 7,nympha alba71 #aj4j #g4j ,garden ,lettuce 7,lactuca sativa71 #c4d #g4j ,african ,marigold 7,tagetes erecta71 #b4j #h4j ,mouse-ear ,hawkweed 7,hieracium piloscella71 #b4j #h4j ,proliferous ,pink 7,dianthus proliferus71 #a4j #h4j ,field ,marigold 7,calendula arvensis71 #c4j #i4j ,purple ,sandwort 7,arenaria purpurea71 #b4c #i4aj ,creeping ,mallow 7,malva ,caroliniana71 #ab4a #i4aj ,chickweed 7,stellaria media71 #i4aj #i4aj ,after this long digression1 we return to our ,evening ,primrose4 ,its large yellow flowers are disposed in clusters at the top of a stem often twenty inches long4 ,the ,pythagorean tetrad 7i4e41 the number #d and its double7 predominates in all its organs3 #d stigmata crowning a filiform stylus2 quadrangular capsule with #d polyspermous lobes2 opening at top by the separation of #d valves2 twice #d stamens2 #d petals on a large1 emarginated limb2 #d sepals4 ,these are united at the base1 but not so as to prevent the observer from distinguishing their number4 ,the general terms regular and irregular1 applied to the calyx1 as to every other organ1 require to be employed with considerable reserve4 ,the delicate shades1 which ought to separate regularity from irregularity1 are often so inappreciable that it is almost impossible to say where one begins and the other ends4 ,see1 for example1 the ,labiat4 ,in most genera and species of this family1 the two lips1 one of which consists of two and the other of three foliola1 bring out very completely the inequality of the calyx4 ,but there are also ,labiat1 the inequality of whose sepals completely effaces the character of the irregular bilabiated calyx4 ,in certain inflorescences1 where the flowers comprising them are very close together1 as1 for example1 in the capitules of the ,synantherace1 the free upper portions of the calyx may take the most irregular forms2 as1 sometimes1 a tuft1 simple or feathery2 sometimes1 membranous or scarious spangles2 and1 sometimes1 bristles of greater or less stiffness4 ,what elements of the calyx do these transformations represent8 ,the veins1 and notably the midrib of the limb of the sepals1 united underneath4 ,the free foliola of the polyphyllous calyx may vary in form1 like the caulinary leaves whence they issue by way of metamorphosis2 they may be oval1 elliptical1 linear1 c4 ,yet none have ever been observed of a heart-shape 7cordiform74 ,certain foliola of the polyphyllous calyx affect fantastic outlines4 ,in the ,delphinium1 the upper sepal is prolonged into a spur4 ,in the aconites it is hollow like a helmet4 ,the spur of the calyx of the monk's-hood 7,capucine7 is the result of the united prolongation of these foliola4 ,the buckler 7,scutellum71 from which is named the ,scutellaria1 a genus of ,labiat1 is a demi-orbicular boss formed below the inferior lip of the calyx4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the union of the calicinal foliola sometimes forms a conical calyx1 as in the ,silena conica1 and sometimes a cup-shaped calyx1 as in the orange2 sometimes1 moreover1 an urceolate calyx1 as in the henbane 7,hyosciamus niger74 ,these forms may vary singularly4 ,the calyx of the black alder 7,rhamnus frangula7 is shaped like a top2 that of the haricot 7,phaseolus vulgaris71 like a bell2 that of the tobacco-plant1 or the ,mollucella spinosa1 is infundibuliform 7or funnel-shaped74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,the ,henbane4 ,the observer is sometimes embarrassed in deciding to which whorl he should refer the foliola he is examining4 ,thus1 the tiny foliola which1 in the strawberry and the potentilla1 alternate with others and larger ones1 are stipules rather than sepals4 ,ought the sepals of the calyx in the ,malvace to be assimilated in like manner to the stipules8 ,it is difficult to reply to this question satisfactorily4 ,take1 for example1 the ,hibiscus ,syriacus1 an ornamental shrub1 better known by the name of the garden-hemp4 ,the inner calyx1 or calyx properly so called1 of this ,malvacea has five sepals1 while the outer calyx1 or calicule1 has twelve4 ,now1 a leaf cannot have more than two stipules1 one on each side4 ,for an outer calyx1 then1 the proper number of foliola is ten1 not twelve4 ,to look upon the second calyx as a supernumerary development1 would be to hazard a supposition contrary to the unity of plan of the floral organs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the calyx1 like the corolla1 is not an absolutely indispensable organ4 ,sometimes1 therefore1 it is caducous--that is1 falls off before the flower expands1--as in poppies2 sometimes1 persistent1 or remains after flowering1--as in roses and the majority of plants4 ,in some cases it is persistent only until after the act of fecundation1 but this act accomplished1 it falls with the corolla in most of the ,crucifer and ,ranunculace4 ,this is a deciduous calyx4 ,the caducity and persistency of floral envelopes furnish some valuable characteristics for the distinction of species4 ,thus1 two closely-allied ,crucifer1 the ,alyssum calicinum1 so common in spring upon stony soils1 and the ,alyssum montanum1 can only be distinguished from one another by the fact that the calyx of the former is persistent1 of the latter caducous4 ,it is true that the flowers of the ,alyssum calicinum are of a yellow which easily passes into white1 while those of the ,alyssum montanum are of a beautiful permanent yellow4 ,but this latter distinction is not so good as the former4 ,the persistent calyx sometimes assumes a considerable increase of very common appearance4 ,for example1 take the ,physalis alkekengi1 a member of the ,nightshade family or ,solanace4 ,the red bladder-like accrescence surrounding the scarlet fruit is the calyx1 which1 after flowering1 has grown much larger than it was before4 ,and these bright flowers which resemble large strawberries1 and abound on the borders of meadow-paths1 if you look at them closely1 you find to be the accrescent calices of the ,trifolium fragiferum4 ,the very word fragiferum reminds us of the strawberry4 ,the calyx may change in consistency and texture in proportion as the ovary1 to which it adheres1 changes into fruit4 ,the fleshy pulpy substance of the apple1 and1 in general1 of the fruits of the ,pomace1 is simply an excessive development of the calicinal tube united all around the ovary1 and recognisable in the pips1 imprisoned1 towards the centre1 in horny lobes4 ,in other plants1 as the flower develops into fruit1 the calyx becomes woody3 such is the case with the ,water ,chestnut 7,trappa natans74 ,finally1 the calyx may even contribute to the dissemination of the seed4 ,we may cite1 as an example1 a ,brazilian species of ,urticace1 which ,saint-,hilaire named the ,elasticaria4 ,the fleshy and cylindrical parts of the calyx are curved inwards1 and thus defend1 as one might do with one's bended fingers1 the young fruit until it is completely developed2 as soon as the fruit is ripe1 they spring up erect1 and launch it to a distance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,corolla4--,if from the circumference we proceed to the centre of the flower1 the calyx being the first1 the corolla will be its second envelope4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we proceed from the centre to the circumference1 the corolla will form the fourth whorl2 the pistil 7consisting of stigmata1 stylus1 and ovary7 being the first2 the nectariferous disc 7often wanting7 the second2 and the stamens the third whorl4 ,remarkable for its varied tints1 the corolla1 to indifferent or ignorant eyes1 seems the entire flower4 ,a black or blackish colour is exceedingly rare4 ,out of #cjj vegetable species which compose the flora of ,central ,europe1 there are not six with blackish or even grayish flowers4 ,no hypothesis has yet been put forward to explain this mark-worthy rarity4 ,species with a yellow corolla are the most numerous1 forming more than a sixth of the ,european flora3 then come1 in their order of frequency1 species with green1 white1 red1 and blue flowers2 the white increasing in number as we approach the ,pole4 ,dividing the flora into twenty parts1 we may ascribe to each colour1 and its various tints1 the following proportion3-- ,yellow1 #f4j ,green1 #d4ej ,white1 #d4j ,red1 #c4ej ,blue1 #a4ej ,black1 #j4ej ,the analogy between the parts or petals of the corolla and the leaf1 is perhaps not quite so striking as between the leaf and the sepals of the calyx4 ,the phrase rose-leaves is an expression consecrated by immemorial usage4 ,why not prefer the term corollary leaves or leaflets 7foliola7 to that of petals8 ,the corollary leaves1 or petals1 are organised like true leaves4 ,they have the same system of venation2 their lamina correspond to the limb1 or blade2 and their unguis1 or claw1 to the petiole1 or stalk4 7,see ,fig4 #df1 a47 ,the upper margin of petals is frequently more obtuse than the overspreading margin of the blade of a leaf1 which1 in most cases1 is pointed4 ,non-unguiculate petals represent the sessile leaves4 7,fig4 #df1 b47 ,their form is much more varied than that of the calicinal foliola1 which are never unguiculate or petiolated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df1 a4--,unguis of the ,corolla4 ,,fig4 #df1 b4--,a ,sessile ,petal4 ,the petal is defined as regular when its two halves1 folded one upon another at the midrib1 exactly cover each other2 in the opposite case it is called irregular4 ,in certain species1 the petals are furnished with characteristic appendages4 ,but observe1 these appendages1 which generally affect the form of a spur1 have no character of generality4 ,thus1 for example1 in the violet1 a single petal is prolonged into a spur below its point of attachment2 in larkspur1 and the other ,delphiniums1 there are two which terminate in the same manner2 in the ,aquilegia vulgaris1 all the petals are calcarate 7calcar1 a spur74 ,according as the veins of the petal proceed in a straight or curved direction1 its limb may be flat1 or concave1 or hollowed like a boat--i4e41 cymbiform 7cymba1 a boat71 or naviculate 7navis1 a ship71 or like a spoon1 cochleariform 7cochleare1 a spoon74 ,when the spur is very short1 as in ,antirrhinum and ,valerian1 the corolla or petal is termed gibbous 7gibbus1 a swelling71 or saccate at the base4 ,if a petal continue narrow1 so as to seem formed by the prolongation of the claw1 it is called linear2 if the limb be prolonged below1 so as to form two lobes1 it is cordate1 as in ,genista caudicans2 or if the lobes be acute1 it may be sagittate or hastate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the number of petals varies from two to twelve1 and more4 ,a corolla with a single petal1 unipetalous1 which we must not confound with the monopetalous corolla1 is a monstrosity1 created by defective development2 the other petals or foliola are abortive4 ,a corolla with two petals1 or dipetalous1 as in ,circa ,lutetiana1 is rare4 ,a tripetalous corolla occurs only when the calyx has likewise three foliola4 ,but in this instance opinions are divided3 the majority will not admit more than a single floral envelope1--a perianth of six foliola1 of which three1 herbaceous and internal1 alternate with three petaloid and external4 ,many of our aquatic plants may be quoted as examples3 such as the ,butomus umbellatus1 or flowering rush2 the little frog-bit1 or ,hydrocharis morsus ran2 and the water plantain1 ,alisma plantago4 ,the tetrapetalous 7or four-petalled7 corolla is usually arranged like a cross1 and is much more frequent than the dipetalous or tripetalous2 for examples1 we need only refer to the large and important family of the ,crucifer4 ,the number five 7pentapetalous7 is still more common2 but we meet with it in other organs besides petals1 and it seems particularly characteristic of the vegetable kingdom4 ,thus1 all the ,umbellifer have five sepals1 five petals1 and five stamens2 in all the ,crassulace1 the number five applies1 not only to the sepals and the petals1 as well as to the stamens1 but also to the carpels which compose the ovary4 ,corollas with six1 eight1 nine1 ten1 or twelve petals are relatively rarer2 and when the petals become so numerous that we cannot count them1 we have to deal with transformations of stamens into petals1 with those monstrosities of cultivation which we call double flowers1 flores pleni1 where all the male organs have disappeared1--flowers wholly unfit for fructification4 ,the petals of the corolla are not always free4 ,like those of the calyx1 they may be attached to one another by their edges1 but this union invariably takes place1 as in the former1 from bottom to top4 ,therefore1 we never see any petals united at the top1 and disengaged at the bottom 7see ,fig4 #dg1 a47 ,but the reader must take careful note that this invariable characteristic is not peculiar only to the floral envelopes2 it is not met with in the stamens1 for these may be united1 either by their anthers1 as in the whole family of the ,synanther1 or by their filaments1 as in the ,leguminos4 ,and what we have said of the stamens applies also to the parts constituting the pistil4 ,this radical difference between the perianth and the true reproductive organs ought1 from the beginning1 to have fixed the attention of botanists on the centripetal and centrifugal metamorphosis of the leaf1 which we have spoken of in ,the ,circle of the ,year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg1 a4--,natural junction of ,petal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg1 b4--,unnatural 7and impossible7 junction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in many plants we are permitted to follow step by step1 as it were1 the union of the petals1 and their definitive transformation into what is called the monopetalous corolla4 ,the term monopetaloid ought then to be rejected1 if we are to believe that the monopetalous corolla is the result of the metamorphosis of a single leaf4 ,the word gamopetalous1 or1 rather1 gamophyllous1 is preferable4 ,as we have remarked in reference to the calyx1 we shall here repeat that the expressions bilobed1 trilobed1 quadrilobed1 or bipartite1 tripartite1 quadripartite corollas1 are radically vicious1 because they are the consequence of a false point of view1 according to which the monopetalous corolla will be simply a single metamorphosed leaf1 susceptible of being more or less deeply divided from top to bottom4 ,the polypetalous corolla1 as well as the gamophyllous corolla1 may be regular or irregular1 according as the foliola are equally or unequally united4 ,but here again we must be careful not to lay down too absolute rules4 ,examine1 for instance1 the gamophyllous corolla of the gentians2 their two lobes are very unequal1 and yet the corolla is regular3 five very large lobes alternate with five very small1 in such wise that each of the latter is situated between two larger lobes4 ,each division of the corolla of the periwinkle is irregular1 and yet the aggregate of their divisions is regular3 these are all of the same form and the same size4 ,in the gamophyllous corolla we are able to discern1 through the different forms it assumes1 the form of the parts which compose the union4 ,thus1 for example1 the tubulate corolla supposes the pre-existence of unguiculate petals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,inequality of union produces the bilabiate corolla1 which is invariably tubular4 ,this is the case in the natural family of the ,labiat4 ,the upper lip is composed of two petals1 and the lower of three4 ,the parts of the upper are sometimes so closely joined that they appear to be but one1 as in the ,lamium2 and the lower often becomes quadrilobed by the division of the middle petal1 as in the ,stcha4 ,in the labiated corolla1 the mouth of the tube is open1 while in the personate or masked 7persona1 a mask7 it is closed by the pressure of the lower lip against the upper2 as in ,snapdragon and ,frogsmouth1 the projection of the lower lip being called the palate4 ,by this feature the family of the ,scrophulariace is easily distinguished from that of the ,labiat4 ,in some corollas1 the two lips are hollowed out in a very singular fashion1 as in the ,calceolaria2 assuming a slipper-like appearance1 similar to what takes place in the labellum of certain orchids1--to wit1 the ,cypripedium4 ,these calceolate 7calceolus1 a slipper7 corollas may be looked upon as consisting of two slipper-like lips4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the forms of the bilabiate1 tubular1 and ligulose florets1 of the capitula of the ,synanther1 are likewise due to simple differences of union4 ,the floscular capitulum comprises the tubular florets1 and the semi-floscular capitulum1 the ligulate florets2 the radiate capitulum consists of florets ligulate or bilabiate at the circumference1 and of tubular florets over the rest of the receptacle4 ,by considering the capitula1 as the vulgar do1 to be flowers1 ,tournefort introduced considerable confusion into the nomenclature of the ,synanther4 ,,summer ,,flowers4 ,dawn1 gentle flower1 ,from the morning earth6 ,we will gaze and wonder ,at thy wondrous birth6 ,bloom1 gentle flower1 ,lover of the light1 ,sought by wind and shower1 ,fondled by the night6#fa ,,the ,,prunella1 ,,or ,,self-,,heal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,rejoicing in the shade of over-arching elms4 ,in your summer-walks1 dear reader1--summer-walks through green lanes rejoicing in the shade of over-arching elms1 or along woodland glades1 carpeted with odorous turf1--you must frequently have met with an herbaceous plant1 whose purple-blue flowers1 arranged in regular succession1 form the prettiest coloured cones imaginable at the extremity of the stem and branches4 ,to this plant1 the self-heal1 we shall return immediately4 ,perhaps you have passed it by somewhat indifferently1 for we pay little heed to common things1 and on the threshold of woods1 and in their winding avenues1 the self-heal is very common4 ,the celebrated ,german botanist1 ,bock 7or ,tragus7 bestowed upon it1 two centuries before the epoch of ,linnus1 the name of ,prunella vulgaris4 ,the specific appellation1 vulgaris1 is here employed very appropriately1 but we should commit a grave error if we supposed every species qualified as vulgaris to be common4 ,for example1 the ,lysimachia vulgaris1 a species of ,primulace1 is far from being found everywhere4 ,pray1 take the trouble to pick one lowly specimen2 being specially careful to take up the whole plant1 stem1 root1 and branch4 ,lying along the ground1 it seems larger than it really is4 ,its root is a creeper2 at the level of the insection of the leaves some small shoots project1 the fibrous radicles which compel the lower part of the stem to crawl like the bugle1 ,ajuga reptans4 ,does the prunella belong to the family of ,labiat1 like the bugle8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,the ,prunella4 ,see for yourself4 ,the stem is quadrangular2 the branches and leaves composed of two lips4 ,the stamens are four in number1 two of which are longer than the others2 finally1 by means of a lens1 you can easily distinguish1 at the very bottom of the calyx1 four tiny seeds 7a tetrachnium7 grouped around the style4 ,these features indicate that our plant belongs1 in effect1 like the bugle1 to the ,labiat family4 ,but mark the difference4 ,in the bugle1 as in all the species of the same genus 7,ajuga71 as well as in all the ,teucriums--of which wild sage 7,teucrium scorodonia7 is the most widely-diffused type--in all the ,labiat1 the corolla is apparently unilabiate1--that is to say1 the upper lip is so shortened that only the lower is prominently visible4 ,this is not the case with our self-heal3 it is distinctly bilabiate4 ,the upper lip of the corolla here forms a positive hood1 sufficiently ample to protect the didynamous stamens 7two long and two short71 as in ,fig4 #ej1 a2 the lower lip is three-lobed1 and the central lobe is largest of the three4 ,by separating the two lips1 you can see the two short stamens fixed to the base of the lower one1 and the two long attached to the central part of the upper4 7,see ,fig4 #ej1 b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,the ,lips of the ,prunella vulgaris4 ,let us pursue the analysis of the flowery cone you hold in your hand4 ,the least practical eye is immediately struck by the arrangement of the parts and the variety of the colours4 ,to recognise these things more thoroughly1 please to cast your glances alternately from the top to the base1 and from the base to the apex of its terminal flower4 ,a little below the base you will see a pair of opposite1 entire1 and sinuous leaves1 with shorter stalks than any of the others4 ,the base is defined by two opposite1 whitish1 and nearly triangular leaves1 with green points4 ,the top of the floral spike is likewise marked by a couple of bracts2 but these are much smaller1 and red-coloured1 like the two leaves of the calyx4 ,the interval is occupied by bracts1 which diminish in size from the base to the top of the spike2 on a level with each pair six flowers are inserted1 three for each bract4 ,the flowers1 thus arranged by whorls1 present some interesting peculiarities4 ,the lower and upper show only their reddish calices2 the middle1 for the most part1 display both a calyx and a corolla1 varying from blue to pale-rose1 which gives the plant a very peculiar appearance4 ,in the under flowers1 the corolla has already fallen2 by separating the lips of the calyx1 you may catch sight of the tetrachnium1 that is1 the four-seeded fruit1 which is developed at the bottom of the tube4 ,in the upper flowers1 the corolla is not yet expanded4 ,it resembles a small deep-coloured globe2 you may say an eye1 a bull's-eye1 which1 from the depths of the calyx1 regards you with a piercing glance4 ,hence1 perhaps1 the ,french name for this plant1 prunelle1 an eye4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we often meet with a variety of self-heal with a white corolla1 green calyx1 and pinnatifid leaves1 a variety of which some botanists have erroneously made a separate species1 under the name of ,prunella alba4 ,it is equally wrong1 in our opinion1 to convert the large-flowered variety into a distinct species1 by taking as its specific character the lateral cleft of the upper lip of the calyx overlapping the middle cleft2 for this same characteristic is found in many individuals of the common species4 ,the dentiform appendage which the two longest stamens exhibit at the top of their filaments is also an uncertain feature2 you must have recourse to your magnifying-glass to see if this appendage is obtuse and very short1 as in the large-flowered prunella1 or sharp1 as in the common species4 ,as for the size of the corolla1 it is1 in fact1 very marked2 but1 as a characteristic1 is wholly insufficient4 ,the creation of the varieties ,pinnatifida1 ,laciniifolia1 and ,integrifolia is no better justified4 ,for it is no rare thing to see on the same stalk1 at different heights1 pinnatifid1 whole1 and laciniate leaves4 ,the prunella is remarkable for the long hairs which garnish the calyx1 and1 principally1 the edges of the bracts4 ,examined in the microscope1 they assume the form of tiny1 pointed bamboos2 the knots bulge out a little1 and the intervals are punctuated4 ,the botanists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are by no means sparing in their eulogiums on the marvellous virtues of our flower1 which1 by the way1 ,bock 7,tragus7 was the first to figure with tolerable accuracy4#fb ,tournefort thus dwells upon its medicinal properties3-- ,it forms an ingredient in arquebusade water and vulnerary potions4 ,it is ordered in possets and broths1 in apozmes for the spitting of blood1 dysentery1 hmorrhages1 and the like4 ,it has also been used for ulcers in the mouth1 and a remedy against headaches2 after being mixed with rose-oil and vinegar1 the temples were bathed with it4 ,in the ,pharmacopia of to-day1 however1 it finds no place4 ,,the ,,scutellaria4 ,at the first glance1 the ,scutellaria has no resemblance to the prunella4 ,yet the classificators have united these plants in one small tribe1 under the name of ,scutellarinace4 ,these are the characters which they give to them3 ,lower or anterior stamens longer than the superior or posterior2 calyx closed at maturity by the approximation of the two lips4 ,the latter character is not nearly so marked in the prunella as in the scutellaria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,scutellaria galericulata4 ,the two commonest species of scutellaria in ,england are the ,scutellaria galericulata and ,scutellaria minor4 ,they do not inhabit the same localities4 ,the former1 which is at the same time the commonest1 grows on the river-banks1 and especially delights in the mould accumulated in the hollow trunks of old willows4 ,it is easily known by its tender blue corolla1 but especially by its calyx1 which1 after the fall of the corolla1 develops itself in a singular manner4 ,if you compress its sides1 it will open so as to disclose1 at the bottom of its throat1 its seeds1 which are white1 red1 or brown1 according to their degrees of maturity4 7,fig4 #eb1 a47 ,now look at these two jaws3 the upper resembles a small helmet 7,lat4 galericula71 or1 if you prefer it1 a judge's cap4 ,as for the lower1 it has exactly the shape of a shield 7,lat4 scutum71--whence its name1 scutellaria4 7,fig4 #eb1 b47 ,thus1 the emblems of military and judicial rank are found united in the calyx of our pretty labiate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,calyx of the ,scutellaria4 ,the second species 7,scutellaria minor71 rarer than the former1 is met with on the banks of ponds and in damp woodland paths4 ,it attracts your gaze by its tiny caps or helmets3 the moment you see it1 you exclaim1 ,that's a scutellaria6 ,more diminutive in all its parts than its congener1 it is also distinguished by its whole leaves 7they are crenelated or dentate in the ,scutellaria galericulata71 by its soft1 rose-hued corolla1 with brown lips coquettishly pointed with red1 and by its hairy calyx4 ,the ,scutellaria ,column#fc is very rare4 ,it may be recognised by its erect stems and flowers of a bright violet hue1 arranged in terminal spikes and garnished with bracts2 while the flowers are axillary1 and form no spike1 in the two species above described4 ,the ,scutellari were first described with accuracy and classified by ,linnus1 who included them among his ,didynamia1 a class of vegetables distinguished by the unequal length of the stamens4 ,,the ,,forget-,,me-,,not4 ,ye field flowers6 the gardens eclipse you1 'tis true2 ,yet1 wildlings of nature1 ,i dote upon you1 ,for ye waft me to summers of old1 ,when the earth beamed around me with fairy delight1 ,and daisies and buttercups gladdened my sight1 ,like treasures of silver and gold4 ,even now1 what affections the violet awakes6 ,what loved little islands1 far seen in the lakes1 ,can the wild water-lily restore6 ,what landscapes ,i read in the primrose's looks6 ,what pictures of pebbles and minnowy brooks ,in the vetches that tangle the shore6#fd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,a loved little island1 far seen in the lake4 ,how beautiful1 says ,miss ,pratt1 in one of her agreeable little books1#fe--;how beautiful are the little islands of the stream1 edged with the tall white meadow sweet1 which sends its perfume far up over the green lands that lie around1 and contrasts with the deep blue colour of the purple loose-strife6 ,the willow herb1 or codlins-and-cream1 as the children call it1 grows in perfection there2 and there1 too1 bloom the little yellow water-flag1 and the vetches1 and the rich water-lily1 which1 seated on its round leaf1 seems to swim over the crystal stream4 ,the water-plantain1 with its numerous small pink blossoms1 grows in thick clusters quite down in the water1 mingling with the white flowers and large spear-shaped leaves of the arrow-head1 or half shading the large cup of the yellow water-lily4 ,then1 too1 the blue-eyed forget-me-not covers the little isles in such abundance that many of them well deserve the name of azure islands4 ,the water-rat hides among the flowers1 nibbling with much glee at the arrow-head1 or rushing out from under its broad green leaves2 and the water-fowl1 followed by her young1 sails across the stream in all the stateliness of matron dignity2 and the little meek-eyed daisy grows beside the yellow velvet flower of the silver-weed1 or the blue blossoms and succulent leaves of the brook-lime4 ,the true ,forget-me-not1 ,myosotis palustris1 is invariably found in marshy localities or on the banks of streams2 but the ,meadow ,scorpion-grass1 ,myosotis arvensis1 is frequently mistaken for it4 ,the genuine article has a bright blue blossom1 much smaller than1 but in shape something resembling1 the primrose2 in its bract it has a drop of gold1 and on each segment of the coloured portion of the flower is a small streak or fleck of white4 ,both the true forget-me-not and the false belong to the ,borage family1 or ,boraginace1 which includes sixty-seven known genera1 and nearly nine hundred species4 ,it is said that after the battle of ,waterloo1 a remarkable number of forget-me-nots sprung up all over the fatal field4 ,the circumstance might well be made the theme of a poet's lay1 were it not for a suspicion that the little blue flowers belonged to the ,myosotis arvensis species1 and not to the ,myosotis palustris4 ,but why ,myosotis8 ,this ,greek compound surely means mouse-ear1 and what have these plants to do with the auricular organs of mice8 ,why1 their leaves were supposed to resemble in form the ear of ,mus domesticus4 ,the name of scorpion-grass originated in the fact that the top of the stem coils round while the buds are unblown1 like a scorpion's tail4 ,it is strange how quick the common people have been to detect these analogies1 and to perpetuate them in the appellations they have bestowed on the flowers of the meadow1 the wood1 and the green lane4 ,the singularly beautiful name of the ,myosotis palustris--we mean its common and non-scientific name1--is ascribed1 in a well-known ,german legend1 to the dying knight who1 having ventured at a dangerous spot to pluck a handful of the bright blue blossoms for his lady-love1 fell into the stream1 and as he sank1 flung the dear-bought spoil towards her1 exclaiming1 ,forget me not6 ,a more probable origin is suggested by ,miss ,strickland4 ,henry of ,lancaster 7,henry ,,iv471 she says1 appears to have been the person who gave it its emblematical and poetical meaning1 by uniting it1 at the period of his exile1 with the initial letters of his watchword1 ,souveigne vous de moi2 thus rendering it the symbol of remembrance1 and1 like the subsequent fatal roses of ,york and ,lancaster and ,stuart1 the lily of ,bourbon1 and the violet of ,napoleon1 an historical flower4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have said that the scorpion-grass belongs to the natural family ,boraginace1 which receives its name from the common borage1 a bright blue flower with very rough leaves4 ,all its members are rough or hairy1 except those which1 like the forget-me-not1 become smooth from living partly under water4 ,the black stalks of the borage burn1 it is said1 like match-paper1 and its root enters largely into the composition of rouge4 ,its flowers were at one time held in great respect as a wholesome bitter ingredient for a tankard of ale4 ,according to ,pliny1 if the leaves and flowers of the borage be immersed in wine1 and that wine drunken1 the potion will make men blithe and merry1 and drive away all heavy sadness and dull melancholy4 ,burton1 in his ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 also says of it-- ,borage and hellebore fill two scenes1 ,sovereign plants to purge the veins ,of melancholy1 and cheer the heart ,of those black fumes which make it smart4 ,most of the ,boraginace are weeds1 but they include a few ornamental garden-flowers2 as1 for example1 the ,peruvian heliotrope--the cherry-pie of the children--which is well known for the fragrance of its blue blossoms4 ,its ,greek name refers to an ancient belief that it always turned to meet the sun2 but neither heliotrope nor sunflower exhibits any such devotedness towards the great orb of day4 ,the poet's comparison-- ,as the sunflower turns to his ,god1 when he sets1 ,the same look that he turned when he rose-- is very pretty and suggestive1 but unfortunately it is not true4 ,,the ,,lilies4 ,are we justified in classing these among our summer flowers8 ,well1 the lily of the valley may1 perhaps1 be more justly claimed by ,spring1 as it generally unveils its beauty in the month of ,may2 but the water-lily belongs to ,summer2 and1 at all events1 it will be most convenient to speak of them in this category4 ,the lily of the valley 7,convallaria majalis71--the ,may-lily of old writers1--has long been a favourite type of retiring modesty and tender loveliness4 ,it affects the silence and solitude of the woodlands1 where1 in the shadow of broad leaves and sweeping branches1 the inquiring botanist discovers-- ,like detected light1 ,its little green-tipt lamps of white4 ,shakspeare1 who neglected nothing1 refers to its gentle humility of attitude3-- ,shipwrecked upon a kingdom where no pity1 ,no friends1 no hope1 no kindred weep for me2 ,almost no grave allowed me6 like the lily ,that once was mistress of the field1 and flourished1 ,i'll hang my head and perish4 ,our lily is a native of cold and temperate countries1 and never shakes its pendant bells at the bidding of a hot ,eastern breeze4 ,it is very abundant in ,norway4 ,that agreeable writer and observant traveller1 ,henry ,inglis1 says3--,it stood everywhere around1 scenting the air1 and in such profusion1 that it was scarcely possible to step without bruising its tender stalks and blossoms4 ,i have not seen this flower mentioned in any enumeration of ,norwegian plants1 but it grows in all the western parts of ,norway in latitude #ei and #fj1 wherever the ground is free from forest1 in greater abundance than any other wild-flower4 ,as it will not live in hot countries1 it cannot be the lily of the field which furnished our ,saviour with so fruitful a text for warning and instruction4 ,this1 in all probability1 was the yellow amaryllis1 or ,amaryllis lutea1 a flower bearing some resemblance to our yellow crocus1 but much larger1 and with broader leaves4 ,its delicate blossoms escape from an undivided spathe1 or sheath1 and are bell-shaped1 with six clefts and six stamens1 which are alternately short and long4 ,the flower seldom rises more than three or four inches above the soil1 accompanied by green leaves1 which1 after the flowering has passed1 continue to preserve their freshness throughout the winter4 ,but some authorities are not content with the yellow amaryllis1 and put forth as the true lily of the field1 either the narcissus1 or the golden lily1 or the stately crinum1 according to their several tastes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,not connected with these flowers by any botanical relationship1 and surpassing them all in beauty1 is the ,water-lily 7,nympha alba71 whose large round leaves and full white blossoms are the glory of so many of our secluded lakes and quiet streams4 ,everybody knows old ,izaak ,walton's quaint eulogium on the strawberry3 ,doubtless ,god could have made a better fruit1 but doubtless ,he never hath4 ,in like manner ,i am inclined to say3 ,doubtless ,god might have created a fairer flower1 but doubtless ,he never hath4 ,alas6 like most things rare and beautiful1 its existence is very brief6 pluck it1 and straightway it vanishes1--like a poet's dream1 the moment he attempts to realise it4 ,it is sometimes asserted of our wild water-lily that it retires below the surface of the stream shortly after noon1 remaining in the liquid depths during night1 and rising again into the light of day at early dawn4 ,those who are acquainted with the haunts and habits of these beautiful flowers know that this is not strictly correct1 as they may often be seen1 by the pale moonlight1 lying folded above the water4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that some may sink2 and certain it is1 that as the sun sets they close their silver vases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,brightened by the uplifted cups of our delicate naiads4 ,broad-leaved are they1 and their white canopies ,are upward turned to catch the heaven's dew4 ,so says ,keats2 but this is true only while the sun is asserting his supremacy in the azure sky4 ,and then1 the spectacle of a calm1 rush-fringed pool1 nestling in the shadow of some ancient elms or drooping willows1 and brightened by the uplifted cups of our delicate naiads1 is a scene of surpassing beauty4 ,we turn from this favourite flower regretfully1 murmuring1 as novelists say1 ,mrs ,hemans's graceful apostrophe3-- ,oh6 beautiful thou art1 ,thou sculpture-like and stately river queen1 ,crowning the depths as with the light serene ,of a pure heart6 ,bright lily of the wave6 ,rising in fearless grace with every swell1 ,thou seem'st as if a spirit meekly brave ,dwelt in thy cell6 ,permit me1 reader1 another quotation4 ,i take it from your and my favourite1 ,wordsworth3-- ,rapturously we gather flowery spoils ,from land and water2 lilies of each hue1 ,golden and white1 that float upon the waves1 ,and court the wind4 ,the lily of golden hue1 the yellow water-lily1 is the ,nuphar lutea of botanists4 ,the country people1 on account of its peculiar scent1 most unpoetically call it brandy-bottle4 ,it is far more plentiful than the regal nympha2 its flower is not so full of petals2 and it is by no means so handsome4 ,yet1 with its smooth1 glossy leaves1 and golden cups1 and long floating stems1 it favourably attracts the eye4 ,we are told that its roots are nutritious1 and are frequently powdered and eaten for bread in ,sweden2 that1 mixed with the bark of the ,scotch fir1 they form a cake much relished by the ,swedes2 in which case the ,swedish palate certainly cannot be censured as fastidious4 ,these roots are also burnt on the hearths of farmhouses1 because their smoke is reputed to drive away the crickets1 whose chirping is sometimes too loud and shrill to be deemed musical4 ,assuredly this is untrue of many parts of ,england1 as the cricket is popularly supposed to be lucky1 and no old country-wife would allow it to be driven away from her sanctum4 ,the water-lily of the ,east1 the beautiful ,lotus1--the ,nelumbium speciosum1 which is figured on so many ,egyptian and ,indian monuments1--is rich in blue and red1 as well as in white blossoms4 ,these are said to sink quite below the surface in the evening and during the night shadows2 whence ,moore says of them1 with his artificial prettiness-- ,those virgin lilies1 all the night ,bathing their beauties in the lake1 ,that they may rise more fresh and bright ,when their beloved sun's awake4 ,it was formerly abundant on the ,nile1 and the ,egyptians consecrated it to their supreme god1 ,osiris2 but1 with the splendour and mysticism of ancient ,egypt1 it has completely passed away4 ,but it is scarcely less prized by the ,hindus1 who have also consecrated it to one of their deities4 ,a traveller thus speaks of the sacred ,ganges in connexion with it3--,the rich and luxuriant clusters of the lotus float in quick succession upon the silvery current4 ,nor is it the sacred lotus alone which embellishes the wavelets of the ,ganges2 large white1 yellow1 and scarlet flowers pay an equal tribute2 and the prows of the numerous native vessels navigating the stream are garlanded by long wreaths of the most brilliant daughters of the parterre4 ,india may be called a paradise of flowers3 the most beautiful lilies grow spontaneously upon the sandy shores of the rivers1 and from every projecting cliff some shrub dips its flowers in the waters below4 ,no reader of ,english poetry but is familiar with ,tennyson's ,lotus-,eaters--a poem founded on the old myth of a people who lived upon the insane root that takes the reason prisoner1 and1 beguiled by its sweet intoxication1 abandoned themselves to a state of dreamy repose4 ,and round about the keel with faces pale1 ,dark faces1 pale against that rosy flame1 ,the mild-eyed1 melancholy ,lotus-eaters came4 ,branches they bore of that enchanted stem1 ,laden with flower and fruit1 whereof they gave ,to each1 but whoso did receive of them1 ,and taste1 to him the gushing of the wave ,far1 far away did seem to mourn and rave ,on alien shores2 and if his fellow spake1 ,his voice was thin1 as voices from the grave2 ,and deep asleep he seemed1 yet all awake1 ,and music in his ears his beating heart did make4 ,they sat them down upon the yellow sand1 ,between the sun and moon upon the shore2 ,and sweet it was to dream of ,fatherland1 ,of wife1 and child1 and slave2 but evermore ,most weary seemed the sea1 weary the oar1 ,weary the wandering fields of barren foam4 ,then some one said1 ',we will return no more2' ,and all at once they sang1 ',our island home ,is far beyond the wave2 we will no longer roam4' ,but the lotus of poetry is not the ,nelumbium speciosum4 ,there is some difficulty in identifying it with any modern plant2 but the general opinion seems to be1 that it was the ,zizyphus lotus1 a species allied to the ,zizyphus jujuba1 and included in the ,buckthorn family 7,rhamnace74 ,the reader will be by this time aware that of the plants called by the general ,english name of lily1 some have very little kinship to each other1 and others none at all4 ,the little garden flowers named ,lilium 7from the ,celtic word lis1 whiteness7 are mostly very handsome4 ,ben ,jonson1 speaking of the ordinary lily1 says1 very finely-- ,it is not growing like a tree ,in bulk1 doth make man better be1 ,or standing long1 an oak1 three hundred year1 ,to fall a log at last1 dry1 bald1 and sear3 ,a lily of a day ,is fairer far in ,may1 ,although it fall and die that night1-- ,it was the plant and flower of light4 ,the white garden-lily is a native of the ,levant1 but has become thoroughly naturalised in ,england1 and is one of the commonest but most admired ornaments of our cottage-gardens4 ,the old herbalists thought highly of its medicinal properties1 and pronounced it a certain remedy for the bite of a serpent4 ,it is true1 at all events1 that its bruised petals are an excellent cure for any ordinary wound or bruise4 ,our ancestors1 among their other superstitious fancies1 entertained the extraordinary belief that the price of a bushel of wheat in the ensuing season was foretold by the number of white cups which crowned the white lily's stem1 each cup being estimated at one shilling4 ,i opine that our modern farmers would feel dissatisfied if the ,mark ,lane averages were regulated by this simple standard4 ,the common ,turk's-cap lily 7,lilium martagon7 is identified with the ancient hyacinth1 the sanguine flower inscribed with woe4 ,the orange lily 7,lilium bulbiferum7 is a native of ,southern ,europe4 ,when the ,dutch were at feud with the ,house of ,orange1 they were accustomed to root up this flower from their gardens1 as some solace to their indignant feelings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,lily of the ,valley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the garden lilies belong to the natural family of the ,liliace1 which includes the following sub-orders3-- #a4 ,tulipe1 tulip tribe2 bulbous plants1 with the segments of the perianth scarcely adherent in a tube4 #b4 ,hemerocallide1 day-lily tribe2 bulbous plants1 with a tubular perianth4 #c4 ,scille1 or ,alli1 squill or onion tribe2 bulbous1 with black and brittle testa4 #d4 ,antherice or ,asphodele1 asphodel tribe2 roots fascicled or fibrous1 leaves neither coriaceous nor permanent4 #e4 ,convollarie1 lily of the valley tribe2 stem developed as a rhizome or tuber4 #f4 ,asparage1 asparagus tribe2 stem usually fully developed1 arborescent1 branched in some cases1 and leaves frequently permanent and coriaceous4 #g4 ,alonie1 aloes tribe2 stem usually developed1 arborescent1 with succulent leaves4 #h4 ,aphyllanthe1 grass-tree tribe2 characterised by a rush-like habit and membranous imbricated bracts4 ,,the ,,gentians4 ,let me now direct your attention1 reader1 to a pretty plant1 of very elegant appearance3 crowned1 as it is1 by a cluster of rosy flowers1 it would not disgrace our well-kept parterres4 ,it is called the common ,centaury 7,erythra centaurium74 ,you will never see it in the fields side by side with the ,delphinium2 but in ,july and ,august will meet with it frequently on the borders of woodland paths and open glades4 ,would you create for yourself by the study of nature a source of enjoyment equally pure and inexhaustible1 adopt a method of classification for your own use1 and1 to facilitate you in the task1 take for your types those plants which are at once the commonest and most characteristic of each season4 ,quite at your ease1 you may begin your analysis by examining the parts which1 like the calyx and the corolla1 most attract your attention4 ,the most rational plan1 however1 would be1 to commence with the seed1 and to follow it through all the wonderful phases of its life1 from the development of the embryo to the maturity of the fruit4 ,unfortunately1 we are all compelled to take time into account2 time is so much more precious than money1--it is the measurement of our existence4 ,undoubtedly1 the mind1 with its gigantic strides1 like those of an ,homeric god1 tends to overleap the confines both of time and space4 ,but the senses1 without whose co-operation the intellect could not create science1 never fail to remind us that we are1 alas6 but mortals4 ,by this incessant appeal to order1 we are under the necessity of doing1 not what we would1 but what we can4 ,and the part we really play is1 consequently1 much more modest than that which we love to imagine ourselves as playing4 ,but to return to our flowers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what see you in the little centaury which you hold in your hand8 7,fig4 #ef47 ,in the first place1 a corolla with five petals of a delicate rose-hue1 very pleasant to the sight4 ,take care6 those foliola are not petals1 if you give that name to the free parts of the corolla4 ,look at them thoroughly4 ,your foliola are prolonged at their base in a narrow tube1 which is easily removed4 ,if you had begun here1--if1 instead of proceeding from the top to the bottom1 you had1 in your analysis1 proceeded from the bottom to the top1 you would have acquired a wholly different view of things4 ,you would have said that the corolla is tubular1 greenish1 with a rosy limb1 deeply divided into five lobes4 ,and in so doing1 you would have run no risk of deceiving yourself4 ,the indications given by ,nature herself are the most precious2 they are the lessons of a teacher who cannot err3 never pass them by with indifference or neglect4 ,in your study of the different parts of a vegetable1 follow1 as far as possible1 the actual movement of the sap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,the ,common ,centaury4 ,the calyx of our gentian has1 like its corolla1 the form of a five-divided tube2 which1 indeed1 is one of the usual characters of the ,gentian family4 ,but it is important here to take notice of this fact1 because it is not1 as at first sight you would suppose1 the corolla1 but the calyx1 which encircles the base of the ovary4 ,the tube of the corolla stops towards the middle of the latter organ1 and nearly on a level with the linear divisions of the calyx4 ,you must be careful not to confound with these calycine divisions the green foliola which lie around the base of the flower1 and which are neither more nor less than abortive leaves4 ,now call to mind that the flower is an union of concentric whorls1 or of rings set one within another4 ,the staminal whorl and the carpellary whorl1 surrounded by a double perianth 7corolla and calyx71 are here composed--the first1 of five stamens1 and the second of a bilobed ovary1 surmounted by a twisted style4 ,we may now examine more closely the reproductive organs4 ,the stamens are inserted upon the top of the tube of the corolla1 and if you look at the base of their filaments you would be inclined to pronounce it a foliaceous expansion1 or1 rather1 a metamorphic doubling of the corolla4 ,suppose the stamens to be the result of the transformation of the petals1 the filament would be the claw1 and the anther the limb of a foliole4 ,at least1 theory would tell you so4 ,but observation will show that these are not petals changing into stamens1 but1 on the contrary1 stamens changing into petals2 as is seen in the sterile 7or double7 flowers of many of our ornamental plants1 and even of some of our fruit trees4 ,how1 then1 shall we conciliate theory with observation8 ,look1 and you shall find4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observe the anthers which surmount the filaments4 ,there is something peculiarly characteristic in them4 ,as they open and spread abroad the pollen1 they visibly coil themselves up in the form of a spiral4 7,fig4 #eh47 ,owing to this twisting1 they are found more or less inclined upon their filaments1 and are gifted with a considerable mobility4 ,thoroughly to understand the relation between the continuous anther and the filament1 we must examine the stamens before their expansion1 while they are still folded up within the floral bud1 their matrix4 ,the anthers are then quite straight1 and1 with a magnifying-glass1 you can easily see how they are inserted1 by the lower part of their back1 upon the top of the filament1 whose 7so-called7 connective prolongation separates the two lobes of the pollen receptacle4 ,the anthers are then introrse 7introrsum1 inwardly7--that is to say1 their face being inclined inwards1 they look towards the centre of the flower1 occupied by the style1 a filiform prolongation of the ovary2 the apex of the style 7stigma7 is thick1 globulose1 and of a glandular structure4 ,the fruit1 resulting from the metamorphosis of the ovary1 is an elongated fusiform capsule1 composed of two lobes1 each containing a very large number of extremely small seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,anthers of the ,centaury4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the characters we have just enumerated apply1 or the majority of them1 to the interesting family of the ,gentianace--a natural group of plants1 nearly all remarkable for their bitter1 febrifugal1 and anti-scrofulous properties4 ,the flowering cymes of the common centaury are very frequently employed as a substitute for the medicinal gentian1 so well known as a valuable tonic4 ,the medicinal gentian is the ,gentiana lutea1--a plant growing about three feet high1--which thrives abundantly on the ,pyrenees1 and the ,alps of ,switzerland and ,austria1 at an elevation of #cjjj to #ejjj feet4 ,it is not1 however1 so common now as formerly on the ,alpine heights1 owing probably to its great consumption1 but it is spreading into many districts of ,central ,europe4 ,frequent enough in the vicinity of ,paris is the ,chlora perforata1 a gentian remarkable for its glaucous leaves and yellow terminal flowers4 ,the ,gentiana kurroo of the ,himalayas1 and the ,british species1 ,gentiana campestris and ,gentiana amarella1 possess the tonic properties of the family4 ,the ,cheritta of the pharmacopia is the herb and root of ,agathotes chirayta 7,ophelia chirata71 a herbaceous plant which flourishes in the ,himalayas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must not omit a reference to a ,lilliputian gentian1 the filiform gentian of ,linnus1 and the ,exacum filiforme or ,cicendia filiformis of other botanical authorities4 ,its stem1 from two and a half to four inches in length1 is embellished with radical oblong leaves1 disposed in fours1 and short caulinary leaves1 opposite and linear2 the corolla is yellow1 the calyx has four triangular lobes2 the stamens also are four4 ,it is this predominant number which has induced some botanists to elevate our little gentian into a species of ,exacum or ,cicendia1--two genera1 of which the first was named by ,adamson1 the second by ,de ,candolle4 ,as for the tiny ,gentiana pusilla1 or ,exacum pusillum1 we may look upon it as a simple variety of the ,exacum filiforme1 differing from the latter only in its shorter and feebler stem1 in the somewhat narrower divisions of its calyx1 and the tint of its corolla1 which is of a paler yellow1 sometimes inclining to rose4 ,botanists1 or lovers of flowers1 may grow as passionately fond of gentians as some persons do of tulips or hyacinths4 ,but it is not in ,england or ,scotland1 it is in the ,alpine pastures of ,switzerland only1 that you can hope to satisfy your ,gentianomania4 ,,an ,,alpine ,,excursion4 ,permit me1 dear reader1 to set down a few hints1 in case you should at any time be disposed to make a pilgrimage into the ,golden ,land1 or ,el ,dorado1 of botanists and geologists4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,an ,alpine ,landscape4 ,before you plunge into the ,alps1 you will meet1 in the sub-alpine regions1 among the valleys which intersect and the meadows which clothe the lower spurs of the ,jura1 the ,gentiana campestris4 ,it is a plant of from five to six inches in height1 whose blue1 five-lobed corolla1 with its velvety gorge1 changes into yellow when dried2 the two outer teeth of the calyx are elliptical1 and much larger than the others4 ,your attention will hardly be drawn to this tiny gentian among the crowd of more beautiful and attractive plants blooming around it4 ,one excursion which you should not fail to make is the ascent of the ,dent de ,jaman1--the hieroglyphic summit of one of those charming mountains which mirror themselves in the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,this classical1 and1 moreover1 very easy ascent1 has the advantage of carrying you up a series of terraces1 so that the character of the vegetation changes rapidly4 ,the acclivity begins at the little town of ,montreux1 situated near the point where the blue arrowy ,rhone pours its waters into the enchanted lake4 ,from ,montreux to the village of ,glion1 you will be delighted to greet your old acquaintances3 the familiar faces of your native fields1 meadows1 and woodlands4 ,but soon a difference in the character of the flora forces itself upon you4 ,species which are rarer at home become tolerably common1 as1 for instance1 the yellow digitalis 7,digitalis lutea71 so easily recognised by its cymes of tiny flowers4 ,the vulneraria 7,anthyllis vulneraria7 is as widely diffused as the trefoil in our ,english pastures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a little above ,glion1--a picturesque village apparently hung over the lake--the sub-alpine region commences4 ,around villas and mansions1 nearly all inhabited by ,english families1 you will find in abundance the ,english mercury 7,chenopodium ,bonus ,henricus71 and in the shady hedges the narcotic ,herb-,paris 7,paris quadrifolia74 ,the apparition of the ,astrantia major1 which resembles an artificial or fancy-created flower1 warns us that we are passing beyond the limits of the ordinary flora4 ,i believe that we have no representative in ,england of that singular umbellifer4 ,the ,alpine pastures of the narrow-ridged ,mount ,ca1 which resembles the back of a dromedary1 exhale a fragrance like that of the famous ,swiss tea1 so much extolled as a remedy against cholera4 ,the odour of the hay-lofts attached to the chlets--true shepherd's huts--which rise at intervals along the back of ,mont ,dromedary1 is so penetrating as to produce headache4 ,the hay owes its aromatic fragrance to the musk-chervil 7,myrrhis odorata71 whose strong stems form such thick luxuriant pasturages2 to various orchide1 particularly to the ,nigritella suaveolens1 remarkable for the intense colour--nearly black--of its flowers2 and finally1 to the gentians1 whose scent is strongly brought out by drying4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rich close sward which borders on the ,dent de ,jaman provides the herboriser with more than one agreeable surprise4 ,you will be struck by the beauty of the flowery tufts of the ,linaria ,alpina1 rejoicing in a deep sapphire blue4 ,you will also have an opportunity of making acquaintance with a campanula which is abundant on ,mont ,cenis 7,campanula ,cnisia72 its beautiful terminal flower1 of a pale blue1 is characterised by the long hairs which line the opening of the corolla4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the gentians1 those great ornaments of the ,alpine pasturages1 we shall direct the attention of our readers to-- ,the purple gentian 7,gentiana purpurea71 and the spotted gentian 7,gentiana punctata74 ,these are distinguished by their plentiful appearance3 their large oval leaves1 and the height of their vigorous stems1 recall those of the yellow gentian4 ,the features which separate these two species are not very distinct3 the corolla of the former is purple without and yellow within2 that of the latter is of a bright yellow1 marked by spots of deep purple1 which1 however1 are not permanent2 the calyx is campanulated1 with upright and lanceolate foliola4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,gentiana acaulis contrasts singularly with the preceding species1 its stem being so short that one is almost tempted to deny the existence of any2 its large corollas1 of a bright celestial blue1 lie on the ground as if they had fallen fresh from a bouquet4 ,we must not confound this species with the ,gentiana pumila1 a much smaller plant1 with a very elongated calyx1 which grows abundantly on the turf of ,mont ,st ,bernard4 ,the ,gentiana verna and the ,gentiana nivalis1 with a corolla of the finest azure1 inhabit the loftiest points of the ,alps1 where all vegetation begins to disappear4 ,the former1 or the gentian of spring1 flowers1 in these frozen regions1 in ,june and ,july2 it is one of twenty-four phanerogamous plants of the last vegetable station of ,mont ,blanc4 ,this station is formed by a series of vertical layers of protogene1 which separates the upper part of the ,glacier des ,bossons from that of ,taconay4 ,the dbris of the rock1 decomposed under the influence of atmospheric agencies1 form1 in the midst of the nev1 tiny flowering parterres--oases in the desert1 islands in the vast ocean of ice and snow4 ,there1 sheltered by the rocks1 and warmed by the sun1 and refreshed by the snow1 which rapidly melts in summer1 these pretty plants thrive and grow beautiful1 though their brief existence is summed up in a few short weeks4 ,according to ,charles ,martins1 the phanerogamous plants which flourish at an elevation of #aj1jjj feet are the following3-- ,mean temperature1 #dg to #cf4 #a4 ,gentiana verna4 #b4 ,silena acaulis4 #c4 ,draba frigida4#ff #d4 ,draba fladnizensis4 #e4 ,cardamine bellidifolia4 #f4 ,cardamine resedifolia4 #g4 ,potentilla frigida4 #h4 ,phyteuma hemisphericum4 #i4 ,pyrethrum ,alpinum4 #aj4 ,erigeron uniflorum4 #aa4 ,saxifraga bryoides4 #ab4 ,saxifraga ,groenlandica4 #ac4 ,saxifraga muscoides4 #ad4 ,saxifraga oppositifolia4 #ae4 ,androsace ,helvetica4 #af4 ,androsace pubescens4 #ag4 ,lazula spicata4 #ah4 ,festuca ,halleri4 #ai4 ,poa laxa4#fg #bj4 ,poa csia4 #ba4 ,poa ,alpina4 #bb4 ,trisetum subspicatum4 #bc4 ,agrostis rupestris4 #bd4 ,carex nigra 7,carice74 ,,the ,,pimpernel4 ,accompany me to the corn-field2 not for any discourse upon the state and prospect of the crops1 or on the comparative value to man of wheat or barley1 but for the sake of the little red flower which shines like a star among the growing harvest4 ,you cannot mistake it1 for1 with the exception of the tiny chaff-weed1 the smallest wild plant which bears a distinct flower1 it is the only scarlet blossom in the wheat-field1 except1 indeed1 the red poppy1 which every good farmer seeks to banish from his land4 ,mark me1--,i say the only scarlet flower2 for there are several--as1 for instance1 the pheasant's eye1 or ,adonis--of a deep crimson4 ,the pimpernel belongs to the ,primrose family1 or ,primulace4 ,it has a five-cleft calyx1 and a monopetalous corolla4 ,its stamens1 of an equal number1 are inserted on the corolla1 opposite its segments4 ,it is a meteoric flower2 so-called1 because it keeps itself shut during wet or cloudy weather4 ,hence1 it is known among country people as the shepherd's warning or poor man's weather-glass4 ,and ,darwin1 enumerating the various signs of rain1 says of it-- ,closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel2 ,in fiery red the sun doth rise1 ,then wades through clouds to mount the skies3 ',twill surely rain1 we see 't with sorrow2 ,no working in the fields to-morrow4 ,it should be added1 however1 that if the rain continue for several days1 the pimpernel will lose its sensibility1 and cease to act as a natural weather-glass4 ,and here we may observe1 that singular as is the habit of the flowers anticipating rain by folding their petals within their calices1 the way which the ,siberian sow-thistle has with it is still more curious4 ,this plant1 during that clear weather which most flowers affect1 keeps entirely shut2 but as soon as a thick mist overspreads the earth1 or a cloud obscures the bright face of heaven1 it begins to open its light blue corolla4 ,everybody knows1 or should know1 that when the robin looks sad and drooping1 and ceases to greet you with his wonted blithesome strain1 foul weather is at hand4 ,many animals1 by their peculiar habits1 afford equally certain indications of approaching atmospheric changes4 ,this does not seem strange to us2 we account for it by the instinct which every animal possesses1 in a larger or smaller degree4 ,but the same anticipatory faculty is possessed by several plants2 they feel the increasing moisture of the air long before it can be detected by ourselves4 ,thus1 when a storm is at hand1 some species of anemones fold up their blossoms2 the fragrant flowers of the wild pink convolvulus wind themselves together2 the awns of the wild oat1 and the sweet-scented meadow-grass1 stand in an erect position1 and the clover leaves are drawn closely up4 ,naturalists1 says ,pratt1 are unable to discover why some plants should be affected by moisture and others not2 but the regular changes of these natural barometers seem a providential arrangement to supply certain wants of the flowers in which they occur4 ,we may draw this inference from the different positions of several flowers according to their circumstances4 ,thus the poppy1 when in bud1 hangs down on its stem1 and preserves its petals from rain and wind2 but as soon as it is fully developed1 and has acquired strength1 and the sun's rays are necessary to perfect its colours1 it expands to the full light of day4 ,the violet1 again1 while its seed is forming1 shades the capsule by its purple corolla2 but as soon as the seeds are ripe1 and they are required to spring to some distance from their capsules1 the flower immediately rises up with the cup for its support1 and flings abroad its offering on the earth's maternal bosom4 ,adaptations of this kind are frequent and striking in the vegetable kingdom1 and surely one is justified in regarding them as the work of an all-powerful and all-wise ,creative ,mind4 ,look1 for instance1 at the orchis3 it grows on the ground in ,europe1 and is consequently provided with roots formed of large lobes2 but when it festoons the pillar of the virgin forests of the ,new ,world1 its roots are formed of a number of fibres1 so that they may penetrate the bark of the tree4 ,but to return to our pimpernel4 ,it was at one time called ,centunculus1 from cento1 a covering1 because it spread in such abundance over the cultivated fields4 ,its botanical name was afterwards changed to ,anagallis arvensis4 ,anagallis signifies to laugh1 and there existed an old belief that a decoction of the pimpernel acted as a remedy against melancholy1 and a provocative of mirth4 ,the seeds of this plant are very numerous4 ,they are enclosed in small capsules1 and eaten by the birds4 ,there is only one other ,british species of pimpernel1 the ,anagallis linetta1 or bog pimpernel1 which it would be unpardonable if the botanist omitted to notice1 so delicately beautiful are its pale-rose blossoms and tiny clusters of leaves4 ,as its name indicates1 it is found only in marshy localities4 ,the blue pimpernel 7,anagallis cerulea71 though not a native of ,england1 is found occasionally4 ,it is described as growing in beautiful little tufts about the hills of ,madeira1 and enlivening them by its cheerful colour1 which may bear comparison with the azure of the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,the ,wheat-field1 with its mass of emerald waves4 ,and here we will take leave of the wheat-field1 with its mass of emerald waves1 now beginning to wear a golden glory on their crests1 as they ripple in the genial sunshine4 ,,animals4 ,the ,mole1 the ,staphylinus1 and the ,mole-,cricket4 ,do you hear that noise8 ,it seems to issue from beneath yonder heap of pebbles at the foot of the garden-wall4 ,surely the stones are moving2 they seem to be walking alone1 and of their own impulse1 for ,i cannot see anything to set them in motion4 ,let us draw near and examine the mystery4 ,ah1 what a hideous black creature6 ,it is retreating in a terrible state of alarm1 as if it felt itself pursued by some formidable enemy4 ,this hideous creature is known to ,french gardeners by the name of courtilire2 to naturalists1 as a species of ,staphylinus4 7,fig4 #fa47 ,its great and persistent adversary is the mole3 a mammal at war with an insect6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,the ,staphylinus olens4 ,watch well1 ,i pray you1 the mole's movements1 which you can do the more easily that here1 contrary to his ordinary custom1 he is wandering in the open day2 the light blinds him1--accustomed as he is to pass his life in the subterranean galleries which he excavates by his own labour4 ,but if he does not see us1 he hears us2 the sound of our footsteps was sufficient to make him prick up his ears 7if we may so speak of a mole71 and he remains motionless4 ,do not stir1 or he will betake himself to flight1 and we shall lose an excellent opportunity of being present at a very curious spectacle4 ,he is now reassured4 ,he recommences his manuvres1 pushing before him every little pebble which he meets with4 ,for this purpose he employs his elongated snout1 exactly as a pig grubs among the uncleanness of his sty4 ,but his next movements are not of a porcine character4 ,with feet broad as battledores1 the mole1 while manuvring with his nose1 quietly pushes aside every clod which threatens to obstruct his progress4 ,these sidelong1 abrupt1 and jerking movements remind you of those of a dog1 seeking with his paws to enlarge the opening of the burrow wherein a rabbit has taken refuge4 ,the mole has thus the habit of a hunting-dog2 and1 to complete the resemblance1 he stops at intervals in his scratching1 and shakes the dust off his head4 ,one is quite surprised to see a little mammal executing the movements we are wont to regard as peculiar to an animal much larger than he is4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the beetle quits in affright the heap of stones where it had hoped to find an asylum2 it now crosses our path1 holding itself erect1 with a menacing air1 and its tail armed with a forked barb4 ,the mole follows in close pursuit3 who would have believed he could run so quickly8 ,let us bar his passage1 and study him at our leisure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first thing we remark is his glossy hair1 which is softer to the touch than the finest velvet4 ,where are his eyes8 ,blow aside the hair which covers his face4 ,there they are1 and they resemble miniature pearls of a shining black4 ,how could ,aristotle say that the mole had no eyes8 ,to believe it you must read the assertion for yourself4 ,and here are the very words of the authority who1 for so many centuries1 was accepted as infallible3-- ,all viviparous animals have eyes1 except the mole 7 74 ,then1 as if a sudden doubt had seized him1 and he were frightened at his own statement1 the illustrious ,stagyrite hastens to add3 ,we might1 perhaps1 strictly admit that he has4 ,but another change comes over the spirit of the philosopher's dream2 his hesitation vanishes1 and he immediately repeats and justifies his former assertion in these terms3-- ,but1 carefully considered1 the mole does not see1 because he has no apparent eyes externally 7 ' 1 ' 74#fh ,these last words denote--,i beg pardon of the manes of a great philosopher--an absolute want of observation4 ,evidently1 ,aristotle had not taken the trouble to look before he made his statement4 ,and do not think that this curious indifference was peculiar to the great master of the ,peripatetic ,school2 it characterises more or less all the philosophers of antiquity1 as well as too many who have followed in their footsteps4 ,pliny has simply translated ,aristotle when he says3--,among quadrupeds the moles are wanting in the sense of sight 7quadrupedum talpis visus non est74#fi ,but it is a curious thing that both ,aristotle and ,pliny maintain1 that if you lift up the skin where the eyes ought to be1 you will perceive the organs of vision4 ,how could they remove the skin without distinguishing in it the eyes1 like black and brilliant beads8 ,did they practise anatomy1 like their own imaginary mole1 without eyes8 ,the whole matter would be inexplicable if we did not take into account that force of inertia which binds man in chains of iron1 in the moral world as well as in the physical4 ,to see1 to observe2 to retrace one's steps1 that one may see and observe more distinctly2 is a labour repugnant to the human mind4 ,to create systems1 in order that he may proclaim himself a great doctrinal teacher1 is the work which flatters man1 or the creative power of his imagination4 ,centuries of effort are needed before he can disentangle himself from his self-woven thrall in presence of the phenomena of nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a striking peculiarity in the mole's structure is his hands1 or feet1 with their five fingers1 or toes1 turned outward1 and their curious resemblance to the human hand4 ,few animals exhibit a similar conformation4 ,everything in the structure of the fore-limbs indicates the animal's burrowing instinct1--the length of the bone1 which corresponds to the human radius1 or fore-arm1--the breadth of the hands1--and the bend of the arms1 which are so fashioned that the elbows project outwardly4 ,does the mole's burrowing instinct lead it in quest of insects or of vegetable roots8 ,according to the old traditional belief1 the mole feeds upon roots4 ,from time immemorial1 it has been looked upon as an animal so destructive1 that1 in every country1 its destruction has been encouraged by large rewards4 ,well1 this belief1 transmitted from generation to generation1 owes1 like so many other traditions1 its authority to its antiquity1 and is devoid of foundation4 ,the mole is an essentially carnivorous animal1 and no more lives upon roots than the dog or the cat4 ,he is pre-eminently the hunter of the white-worm and beetle2 and therefore1 instead of vowing its extermination1 we ought to take every possible means to preserve and multiply his race4 ,these absurd traditions and credulous notions1 wholly without any experimental confirmation1 frequently lead us to take steps in diametrical opposition to our own interests4 ,moles are particularly partial to meadows which are somewhat damp1 as1 for instance1 those where the leafless colchicum displays1 in autumn1 its pale-rose flowers4 ,in summer1 the fields are covered with mole-hills4 ,it will be said1 perhaps1 that these conical heaps of earth are injurious to vegetation4 ,but that will be an error1 contradicted by observation4 ,meadows besprinkled with mole-hills grow excellent hay1 if care be taken to level them2 for the earth thus distributed serves as manure4 ,if they are visited by the moles1 it is because these animals find there a plentiful supply of the rhizophagous 7root-eating7 insects1 on which they feed4 ,the forest is also a favourite haunt of the moles4 ,apparently they find1 under the layers of leaves and roots1 so rich in larv of every kind1 the wherewithal to satisfy amply their insectivorous tastes4 ,it is the mole which generally produces that rustling of the dry leaves the wanderer is so apt to attribute to a snake or an adder4 ,stand still for a moment1 and patiently watch4 ,do you see that undulatory movement8 ,thrust your stick rapidly into the uplifted heap4 ,there is our persevering hunter2 he struggles hard to escape from his terrible enemy1 but1 with a little alacrity1 you will not find it difficult to capture him4 ,moles are among the most prolific of mammals2 and1 in fact1 were it not so1 their race would have been long ago exterminated4 ,we may1 perhaps1 venture to say1 that by multiplying so prodigiously1 they wish to do us a service in spite of ourselves4 ,how tender is the solicitude of nature for the ungrateful human species6 ,to see the marvellous qualities ascribed to the mole by the ancients1 one would suppose that they had made him the object of their special study4 ,yet1 as we have shown1 they could never have watched his habits with any degree of patience4 ,they saw everything through the delusive prism of their imagination4 ,as a proof1 we will tell you what they said of the mole4 ,since this animal has been doomed to a perpetual blindness1 and lives interred beneath the surface of the earth1 like the dead1 he possesses1 by way of compensation1 some extraordinary qualities4 ,his subterranean existence renders him1 of all animals1 the most capable of religion 7nullum religionis capacius animal74 ,to acquire the gift of second-sight1 you must eat the heart of a mole1 while still beating1 and freshly plucked from the animal's body4 ,to cure toothache1 suspend to your neck the tooth of a live mole4 ,lymphatic people will gain in strength if sprinkled with a mole's blood4 ,the ashes of a mole are a sovereign remedy for scrofula2 some recommend for this disease the animal's liver1 others the right foot1 and others the head4 ,the earth of mole-hills1 fashioned into pastilles1 and preserved in a tin box1 is an excellent cure for all kinds of tumours1 and especially for abscesses on the neck4#gj ,such1 according to ,pliny's report1 are the virtues of the mole1 as taught by the ,magi4 ,the ,middle ,ages adopted this teaching1 and even to-day1 in obscure rural districts1 you will meet with superstitious notions which remind you of the ideas of the ancient wise men and necromancers of antiquity4 ,we have thus summarised the natural history of our hunter1 let us now say a few words respecting the game he pursues4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the insect before us is the ,staphylinus olens4 ,its study has been much neglected1 probably on account of its repulsive appearance4 ,but1 conquering our repugnance1 let us take the creature between our forefinger and thumb4 ,see how vigorously it defends itself6 ,its forked appendage is not formidable1 it is too soft2 but take care of its mandibles6 ,with these hard1 horny1 pointed pincers1 it pricks the skin and draws blood4 ,now1 bring your nose close to the frightful black insect at the very moment when it appears the most irritated4 ,come6 ,a little courage will conquer your new feeling of disgust4 ,what do you smell8 ,a pleasant odour of rennet apples6 ,it reminds me of that diffused by another insect1 much less ugly than your ,staphylinus1 the ,cicondela campestris4 ,it is this peculiarity which explains the specific name of odorous 7olens7 given to your captive4 ,as for its generic name1 ,staphylinus1 ,i have no means of interpreting its etymology2 for the insect's shape has no resemblance to that of a bunch or cluster1--in ,greek1 4 ,but this last word also signifies the uvula1 and1 perhaps1 by the effort of a little imagination1 the naturalist may trace a similitude between that organ of the throat and the body of the ,staphylinus4 ,the ,staphylini are characterised by a very narrow neck1 which separates1 as by a kind of web1 the head from the thorax4 ,in diffusing the peculiar odour of which we have just spoken1 they simultaneously eject a musky volatile liquid contained in two retractile whitish bladders1 situated near the anus4 ,they run quickly1 elevating their abdomen like the earwig4 ,the antenn1 inserted in the rear of the strong mandibles1 are each composed of eleven articulations1 of which the first is the longest2 these joints1 rounded in form1 are arranged like the beads of a necklace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,staphylini belong to that numerous section of insects whose tarsi are composed of five articulations1 and which have thence received the name of ,pentaceii4 ,in this section they form1 with some other genera1 the family of ,brachelytr1 so called because their elytra1 or wing-sheaths1 are much shorter than the abdomen4 ,our ,staphylinus olens is finely punctuated1 somewhat hairy1 and of a dull black colour4 ,though very common in our gardens1 and wherever any putrefying substances are to be found1 its habits are not very well known4 ,for if it were generally understood that it is an essentially carnivorous animal1 that it carries on a determined warfare against the caterpillar1 larv1 and especially the white-worm1 far from seeking to destroy it1 men would surely attempt to increase its numbers4 ,it is a proof that the ,staphylini are useful insects1 that they are rare in seasons when the white-worms abound1 as was the case1 for example1 in the years #ahfg and #ahfh4 ,the larva of the ,staphylinus is as carnivorous as the perfect insect1 which it likewise resembles in form4 ,to sum up3 in every phase of their existence1 the ,staphylini render immense services to the agriculturist4 ,it is very desirable that this fact should be generally recognised1 and their rehabilitation generally proclaimed4 ,,the ,,mole-,,cricket4 ,the habits of the mole-cricket are nearly the same as those of the mole4 ,when winter approaches1 it takes refuge underneath the surface of the earth1 and remains benumbed and lethargic in its nest so long as the cold lasts4 ,on the welcome return of spring1 it makes its way back to the light by a vertical gallery1 on which a great number of lateral galleries abut1 the said lateral galleries being the roads it travels in pursuit of its prey4 ,this subterranean work it executes with its strong fore-feet1 which are broad1 and unguiculated1 or indented1 much like those of a mole4 ,hence its popular name of the mole-cricket 7,fig4 #fb1 a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,these insects 7of the ,orthoptera order7 belong to the small family of the crickets--a family closely akin to that of the grasshoppers4 ,this close kinship has been recognised by the poets1 and we find them brought together in a very charming sonnet1 which cannot be too frequently perused by any reader1 and which may therefore be introduced as a relief to our duller prose3-- ,green little vaulter in the sunny grass1 ,catching your heart up at the feel of ,june1 ,sole voice that's heard amidst the lazy noon1 ,when even the bees lag at the summoning brass2 ,and you1 warm little housekeeper1 who class ,with those who think the candles come too soon1 ,loving the fire1 and with your tricksome tune ,nick the glad silent moments as they pass2 ,oh1 sweet and tiny cousins1 that belong1 ,one to the fields1 the other to the hearth1 ,both have your sunshine2 both1 though small1 are strong ,at your clear hearts2 and both were sent on earth ,to sing in thoughtful ears this natural song-- ,indoors and out1 summer and winter1 mirth4 ,so sings ,leigh ,hunt--a poet1 by the way1 whose heart was ever open at the feel of ,june1 and whose genial writings1 whether prose or verse1 whether delightful essays or melodious songs1 should be read in the happy summer-time1 when the idler1 reclining on the sunny grass1 with the beauty of an ,english landscape around him1 wants the companionship of a gentle spirit and a refined and healthy intellect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,the idler1 reclining on the sunny grass4 ,the mole-cricket is1 like the grasshopper1 a child of summer4 ,it differs1 moreover1 from the cricket on the hearth in lacking those organs of stridulation 7excuse the word1 kind reader67 which mark the glad silent moments with their tricksome 7and sometimes inconvenient7 tune4 ,their posterior thighs have an apparent bulging about them1 but the legs are very short2 so short1 that our little friend could not compete with its cousin1 the grasshopper1 in vaulting exercises1 even were it not otherwise prevented by its large abdomen4 ,nor is it much assisted by its wings1 for though they are broad1 they are not organised for rapid flight1 and the mole-cricket makes but little use of them4 ,nature1 however1 has compensated it for all these disadvantages by the gift of those strong1 powerful1 flexible fore-feet of which ,i have already spoken4 ,the species generally met with in gardens1 corn-fields1 and orchards is the ,gryllotalpa vulgaris of ,latreille1 identical with the ,gryllus gryllotalpa of ,linnus4 ,it has a brown head1 garnished with rusty-coloured mandibles2 the thorax is of a brownish-gray1 velvety1 tinged with red in the fore parts2 the elytra1 or wing-sheaths1 which are much shorter than the abdomen1 are gray1 and marked by black and conspicuously prominent nerves2 the wings1 folded back like a fan1 are about one-fourth longer than the abdomen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the mole-cricket1--mark me6--is no more of a root-eater than the mole2 it is carnivorous1 like the ,staphylinus4 ,as an experiment in confirmation of this statement1 we shut up one of these curious ,orthopteras in a large chest filled with mould4 ,concealed in the galleries which it speedily constructed for its use1 it fed upon larv1 and never touched the cereals which we had sown in the earth4 ,here was a proof that we had to plead the cause of another of man's victims4 ,the mole-cricket ejects1 when pursued or tormented1 a blackish liquid1 whose etherealised odour reminds one of the peculiar smell of certain rotten apples4 ,the female1 larger than the male1 lays her eggs1 which are1 comparatively speaking1 of a tolerable size 7,fig4 #fb1 b71 at some depth underground4 ,the young1 when hatched1 resemble their parents1 except that they are white1 and possess merely the rudiments of wings4 ,if the mole-cricket1 in its subterranean progress1 encounters any roots1 it cuts them with its mandibles1 not to feed upon them1 but to get rid of an obstacle2 hence the mischief of which the farmer accuses it1 though this slight amount of injury is altogether outweighed by its services in destroying a swarm of insects4 ,perhaps1 therefore1 we must not blame the farmer for the hostility with which he pursues it1 especially if we are to accept as a true picture of its doings the sketch recently drawn by a popular writer3-- ,it is easy to understand that an insect which undermines land in this way must cause great damage to cultivation 7674 ,whether the crops serve it for food or not1 they are not the less destroyed by its underground burrowings4 ,lands infested by the mole-cricket are recognisable by the colour of the vegetation1 which is yellow and withered2 and the rubbish which these miners heap up at the side of the openings leading to their galleries1 resembling mole-hills in miniature1 betrays their presence to the farmer4 ,if1 ,i say1 this be a true picture1 we cannot wonder at the means employed by the farmer to clear his fields of such dangerous tenants4 ,the plan generally adopted is to dig1 at intervals1 a number of little trenches1 which are filled up with cow-dung1 well trodden down4 ,the supposed root-eaters assemble in these warm nests2 and every fourth or fifth day1 a labourer1 armed with a pitchfork1 scoops up the manure at a single stroke1 and scatters it over the ground1 while another crushes the unfortunate ,gryllotalp as fast as they make their appearance4 ,,the ,,earwig4 ,next to the domestic fly1 the earwig is1 perhaps1 one of our commonest1 and1 let us add1 one of our most troublesome1 insects4 ,whence comes its popular appellation8 ,from a mere fable4 ,to amuse the silly--alas6 how great their number6--marvelling1 without doubt1 at the spectacle of an insect's tail armed with strong pincers1 some jester wished to transform it into a terrible animal2 and therefore he pretended that it introduced itself into the human ear1 and from thence penetrated to the brain1 with the view of driving out its proprietor1--i4e41 the mind or spirit which animates it4 ,only1 the originator of this absurd bugbear forgot one little fact3 there is no opening by which the ear can communicate with the brain6 ,as for the pincers1 they are not so formidable as they appear4 ,this character1 however1 has been considered a sufficient foundation by the naturalists1 even by ,linnus himself1 for the insect's scientific name1 ,forficula auricularia1 which is almost literally translated by the ,french oreille-pince1--our ,english earwig or ear-piercer4 7,fig4 #fd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,the ,earwig 7,forficula auricularia74 ,what dress is to man1 their wings are to insects2 by these we distinguish them1 at the first glance1 from one another4 ,the elytra1--those horny sheaths which protect the membranous wings1--embrace1 in the ,coleoptera1 the entire upper surface of the long annulated abdomen1 and resemble vari-coloured chlamydes4 ,but now1 look for the elytra of our ,forficula4 ,you will hardly believe that they are represented by this kind of abbreviated light-brown jacket1 which does not extend below the middle of the back4 ,do you observe yonder whitish spots8 ,they indicate the tips of the wings1 which are longer than their covers4 ,lift up one of the elytra with your penknife1 and you will find that the wing which it partly screens is worth your attention4 ,the fore part 7we should call it the upper1 if the animal walked erect like a man7 is straight1 and without a fold4 ,raise it with a pin to see the posterior or lower part4 ,observe1 it curves underneath so as to bind the intermediate portion like a fan4 ,but this flabelliform wing1--of tolerable dimensions when unfolded1--seems intended by the ,creative ,thought only to mark its unity of plan3 the earwig does not fly1--it secures its food by crawling4 ,the elytra and the wings1 inconspicuous as they are1 produced so great an impression on the early naturalists1 that they made them the principal characteristics of an entire order of insects4 ,de ,geer1 a celebrated ,swedish naturalist1 named them the ,dermaptera 7from 1 skin1 and 1 wing71 in allusion to the transparent skin-like appearance of the elytra4 ,this name1 though adopted by ,kirby1 has not been preserved4 ,a ,french entomologist suggested the designation which is now in use1--,orthoptera 7from 1 straight1 and 71--referring to the manner in which the wings are folded underneath the elytra4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here we must pause to recapitulate for the benefit of our younger readers1 and to avoid confusion1 the various orders into which the insect world is divided4 #a4 ,aptera 7from 1 without1 and 1 a wing71--wingless4 ,examples--,flea1 louse1 chigo4 #b4 ,diptera 71 two1 and 71--two-winged4 ,sub-divided into ,nemocera1 having six-jointed antenn2 ,brachycera1 having three-jointed antenn4 ,examples--,gnat1 tipula2 ,may-fly1 gad-fly4 #c4 ,hemiptera 71 half1 and 71--half-winged4 ,sub-divided into ,heteroptera1 with wings of different textures2 ,homoptera1 with wings of one substance4 ,examples--,land-bug1 water-bug2 cicada1 lantern-fly4 #d4 ,lepidoptera 71 a scale1 and 71--scaly-winged4 ,examples--,tiger-moth1 butterfly1 silkworm4 #e4 ,orthoptera 71 straight1 and 71--straight-winged4 ,examples--,earwig1 cockroach1 locust4 #f4 ,stymenoptera 71 a membrane1 and 71--membranous-winged4 ,examples--,bee1 wasp1 ant4 #g4 ,neuroptera 71 nerve1 and 71--nerve-marked wings4 ,examples--,dragon-fly1 caddis-fly1 ant-lin4 #h4 ,strepsiptera 71 a twisting1 and 71--curled or twisted wings4 ,examples--,xenos1 elenchus4 #i4 ,coleoptera 71 a sheath1 and 71--sheathed wings4 ,examples--,beetle1 cockchafer4 ,the order of ,orthoptera1 with which we are now concerned1 is not very well known4 ,the reason is1 perhaps1 that the insects belonging to it--earwigs1 cockroaches1 grasshoppers1 crickets--are not less disagreeable than useless1 so far as man is concerned4 ,being nearly all of them omnivorous1 like man himself1 they frequently aid him1 very much against his inclination1 in the consumption of natural products of every kind4 ,it has been remarked that the species of great animals are far fewer in number than those of the little4 ,this remark applies with peculiar force to the ,orthoptera1 which do not include nearly so many small species as the ,coleoptera4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the earwig is the type of the tiny group of the ,forficulid1 of which two species only are known to the common world--the ,forficula auricularia and the ,forficula minor4 ,the first species everybody is acquainted with4 ,we have already spoken of its elytra and its wings2 but we now say a word upon the two extremities of its body4 ,the two antenn1 which crown the head1 are extremely mobile1 owing1 of course1 to the numerous articulations of which they are made up4 ,these are fourteen in number 7if we include the base1 which is itself composed of two movable parts74 ,in reality1 however1 there are but twelve2 for we ought to eliminate the base1--because1 in form and size1 it differs greatly from articulations properly so called1--and1 at the same time1 to regard as one the articulation or joint inserted in it4 ,in fine1 ,i am of opinion1 contrary to the general conclusion1 that the antenn of the earwig consist but of twelve articulations1 bristling with hairs1 and easily counted almost by the unassisted eye4 ,with the help of a microscope1 the observer can easily distinguish the large nervure traversing them from top to bottom1 and communicating to the antenn their characteristic sensibility and mobility4 ,the brownish-coloured abdomen1 composed of imbricated rings1 forms1 in itself alone1 upwards of half the body4 ,the animal can move itself in every direction2 can bend and twist like a young eel4 ,to the last of its rings1 which is larger than the others1 are attached the two curved branches of the forceps 7forficula74 ,these are weapons of defence rather than of attack4 ,at the same time1 they are useful as a sexual distinction4 ,the forceps of the male are strongly arched1 and furnished with indentations perfectly visible to the naked eye 7see ,fig4 #fd1 a72 those of the female are scarcely bent at all1 and their indentations can only be seen with the microscope4 ,in numerous individuals1 the last ring of the abdomen is provided with four tubercles1 one in each side and two in the middle2 but this is not a uniform characteristic4 ,the earwig is a trimeral insect2 that is1 its tarsi are each composed of three joints4 ,its mandibles are comparatively weak4 ,the moment you touch it1 the insect raises1 with great quickness1 the extremity of its supple body1 and endeavours to defend itself with its pincers4 ,the female lays her eggs chiefly in the chinks and crannies of time-worn timber1 and the larv issuing from them do not differ1 in any material respect1 from the perfect insect4 7,see ,fig4 #fd1 b47 ,the small species1 known as ,forficula minor1 is not very common4 ,it is about half the size of its better-known congener1 and is also distinguished from it by its joints1 ten in number1--by its legs1 of a very pale yellow1--and by its pincers1 which are not only very short1 but almost straight1 and scarcely marked1 even in the male1 with any indentations4 ,more1 the wings are of the colour of the elytra1 and without any white spots4 ,this species is chiefly met with in the spring-time1 and then in damp sandy localities1 near ponds and rivers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another1 and still rarer species1 to which we may permit ourselves an allusion1 has yellow pincers1 rather black at the extremity1 and garnished inside1 towards the middle1 with a horny tubercular projection4 ,in the ,pyrenees a species has been found which has no wings at all1 and has therefore been named ,forficula aptera4 ,our readers will now inquire1 ,what is the use of this curiously constructed animal8 ,is it not an abomination to the gardener8 ,well1 we admit that it eats up the leaves of his plants1 and the petals of his flowers1 especially of the dahlia2 but1 on the other hand1 it destroys those far more injurious insects1 thrips1 aphis1 and the like4 ,but it has a peculiar interest for the scientific student from the point of view of what we may call its muscular dynamometry1--its power of traction1 which is far superior to that of our strongest quadrupeds4 ,do you doubt the truth of this assertion8 ,try1 then1 the following experiment4 ,fasten to the insect's pincer1 or forceps1 with a thread1 a halfpenny1 which will weigh about two grains1 while the weight of its body1 on an average1 will not exceed five centigrammes4 ,give the insect free course over a sheet of paper1 and you will see it drag along the coin like a light chariot4 ,our animal is1 therefore1 capable of drawing a burden fifty times heavier than its own body4 ,a man of eleven stone would1 in the same ratio1 be able to drag #ggjj lbs4 ,neither man nor horse can enter1 in this respect1 into competition with the earwig4 ,if all the members of the animal kingdom were classified according to their power of traction1 it is probable that the post of honour at the top of the list would be occupied by our despised ,forficula auricularia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the idea of a muscular dynamometry of insects is not so new as one might be tempted to think it4 ,from time immemorial men have been struck1 without being able to account for it1 by the enormous disproportion existing between the weight of a flea and the force or energy displayed by its extraordinary bounds4 ,hence the popularity of a recent exhibition in ,london of ,performing ,fleas4 ,pliny1 eighteen centuries ago1 asserted that the muscular strength of the ants exceeded that of all other animals1 if we compared the burden they were able to carry with the diminutiveness of their bodies4 ,si quis comparet onera corporibus earum1 fateatur nullis portione vires esse majores4#ga ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 this interesting question was taken up by ,borelli1 ,lahire1 ,buffon1 and ,gueneau de ,montbeliard4 ,recently it has been revived1 with much ability1 by ,felix ,plateau1 whose experiments have proved that the insects1 in comparison with their weight1 possess an uncommon muscular force1 far beyond that of vertebrate animals2 that in the same group of insects this force varies in different species2 and that in the small species it is often of astounding energy4 ,the muscles are enclosed in solid sheaths 7so to speak71 which constitute the jointed limbs of insects1 and the thickness of the sides of these sheaths seems to decrease in ratio with the size4 ,no relation1 therefore1 exists between the stature of individuals and the volume and strength of their muscles4 ,a giant may be weaker than a dwarf4 ,here is another mystery for science to reveal6 99 99 99 99 99 ,but we must take leave of our earwig4 ,its ,english name is derived by some authorities from ear1 and the old ,english wiega1 a worm or grub1--identical with the ,german oberwurm1 and based1 of course1 on the fiction which we have already exploded4 ,newman1 however1 suggests a somewhat different name1 and1 consequently1 a different etymology3#gb--,the shape of the hind wings1 he says1 when fully opened1 is nearly that of the human ear2 and from this circumstance it seems highly probable that the original name of this insect was earwing4 ,but we cannot agree with ,mr ,newman4 ,it remains to be added1 that the female earwig sits upon her eggs1 and hatches them like a hen2 and like a hen1 too1 she gathers her young around her with evident affection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,landscape4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #eh3 ,the term perianth is usually confined to the flowers of ,endogens1 whatever colours they present1 whether green1 as in asparagus1 or coloured1 as in tulip4 ,some use the term as a general one1 and restrict the use of perigone to cases where a pistil is present1 not applying it to unisexual flowers1 in which stamens only are produced4--,professor ,balfour1 ,manual of ,botany1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #ei3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 ,book xix41 line #ebj4 ,footnote #fj3 ,grew1 ,anatomy of ,plants1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #fa3 ,barry ,cornwall4 ,footnote #fb3 ,tragus1 ,historia ,stirpium1 p4 #caj 7ed4 #aeeb74 ,footnote #fc3 ,fabius ,columna 7,fabio ,colonna71 an ,italian man of science1 who died in #afej1 at the age of eighty-three4 ,footnote #fd3 ,thomas ,campbell4 ,footnote #fe3 ,anne ,pratt1 ,flowers and their ,associations 7ed4 #ahdf74 ,footnote #ff3 ,draba aretoides has been found on ,chimborazo at #af1jjj feet4 ,footnote #fg3 ,poa annua grows at an elevation of #gdjj feet4 ,footnote #fh3 ,aristotle1 ,hist4 ,animal41 i4 #i4 ,footnote #fi3 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 xi4 #eb4 ,footnote #gj3 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 xxx4 #g1 #ab1 #bd4 ,footnote #ga3 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 xi4 #cf4 ,footnote #gb3 ,newman1 ,introduction to the ,history of ,british ,insects4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,,autumn4 ,where are the songs of spring8 ,ay1 where are they8 ,think not of them2 thou hast thy music too1 ,while barred clouds bloom the softly dying day1 ,and touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue2 ,then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn ,among the river shallows1 borne aloft ,or sinking as the light wind lives or dies2 ,and full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn2 ,hedge crickets sing2 and now with treble soft ,the redbreast whistles from a garden croft1 ,and gathering swallows twitter from the skies4 --,,keats4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was a fair and mild autumnal sky1 ,and earth's ripe pleasures met the admiring eye1 ,as a rich beauty1 when her bloom is lost1 ,appears with more magnificence and cost4 --,,crabbe4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,in ,,the ,,heavens4 ,the contemplation of the works of creation elevates the mind to the admiration of whatever is great and noble1 accomplishing the object of all study1 which is to inspire the love of truth1 of wisdom1 of beauty1 especially of goodness1 the highest beauty1 and of that supreme and eternal ,mind which contains all truth and wisdom1 all beauty and goodness4--,,mary ,,somerville4 ,illustration ,to discern the luminous point which should guide us in the shadows of the infinite1 is the gift of genius4 ,the first to discern this point in astronomy1 the illustrious ,kepler thereby succeeded in formulating those laws1 or rather rules1 by which the movements of the stars are regulated4 ,how did he succeed8 ,how did he arrive at a goal so much to be desired8 ,by intelligence in full possession of itself4 ,it was by abstracting his thoughts from all systematic conceptions1--the shackles of science2 it was by defying the traditional authority which had so long enslaved men's minds2 it was by interrogating nature1 which leaves all liberty to her interrogator1 that ,kepler was able to deserve and win the glorious title of legislator of the heavens1--a title which we must not1 however1 understand too literally2 it bears witness only to the power of intellect4 ,let us attempt1 at a modest distance1 to proceed like ,kepler2 let us make astronomy without troubling ourselves concerning astronomers4 ,this is the sole means of seizing the luminous point which should guide our steps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the movement1 in virtue of which every star performs the circuit of heaven in four-and-twenty hours1 is incessantly reproduced in a uniform and a constant manner4 ,the acquisition of this first fact1 simple as it seems1 was a somewhat laborious task1 and undoubtedly dates back to a distant antiquity4 ,but now comes another fact1 where observation demands the closest mental attention1 and which is of a more recent discovery4 ,to comprehend it clearly1 let us first call to mind that the moment when the sun crosses the ,equator1--whether to return into the northern hemisphere 7at the spring equinox71 or into the southern 7at the autumn equinox71--is instantaneous4 ,more than one way exists of determining this moment exactly2 but here we need not enter upon the subject4 ,is the interval of time occupied by the sun in travelling from the spring to the autumn equinox equal to the interval which our luminary requires to pass from the autumn equinox to the vernal8 ,a singular question1 you reply4 ,who1 indeed1 would venture to maintain that the number of days1 hours1 minutes1 seconds1 was not exactly the same in the one case as in the other8 ,well1 the period is not the same2 and1 therefore1 merely to propound this question was a masterpiece of genius4 ,for no ordinary intellectual audacity was needed to doubt the reality of the supposed perfect circle which the sun apparently describes--according to the recognised authorities--in its uniform progress around the globe2 that globe believed by all the early astronomers to be imperturbably and everlastingly situated in the centre of their thrice-sacred geometrical figure4 ,this dogma being accepted as infallible1 there was every evidence that the two intervals of time1 which divided the astronomical year into two moieties1 would be of equal duration4 ,it did not occur to the mind of any one of the faithful that the sojourn of the sun1 in his circular and uniform movement1 might be longer or shorter in the northern than in the southern hemisphere4 ,what1 then1 was the name of the audacious innovator who ventured upon putting forth so revolutionary a suggestion8 ,it was ,hipparchus4 ,at least it was he who1 confidently relying upon his observations1 was the first to affirm that the sun remains longer in the northern than in the southern hemispheres2 or1 more accurately speaking1 that its passage from the spring to the autumn equinox occupies #ahg days1 while from the autumn to the spring equinox the duration of its course is only #agh days #f hours 7nearly74 ,the year of #cfe-a_/d days--that is1 the ,egyptian year1 which was universally adopted by the ancient astronomers--was thus discovered to be really divided into two unequal portions1 although1 theoretically1 the sun ought to occupy exactly the same space of time in passing from the spring to the autumn1 as from the autumn to the spring equinox4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fact pointed out and attested by ,hipparchus had an influence which he never anticipated on the progress of science4 ,in opposition to all the systems previously designed by man1 it followed1 in the first place1 that the movement of the sun1 in relation to a mean movement1 must sometimes be accelerated1 sometimes be retarded2 that the solar arc described in a given time would be greater in winter than in summer4 ,astronomers who1 trammelled by particular theories1 were unable and unwilling to accept of any new light1 immediately hastened to raise1 as is invariably the case with those who defend a bad cause1 a subsidiary and damaging question4 ,they asked whether those inequalities of the sun's movement were real1 or only apparent2 whether they were more than a mere optical phenomenon1 arising from the sun's position vis--vis to an observer placed on the earth's surface4 ,and they unhesitatingly pronounced in favour of the appearance1 and against the reality4 ,but man1 says an old adage1 is always punished after the manner of his sin4 ,dogmatic and obstinate authority involved our anti-revolutionary astronomers in fresh complications4 ,such is the case1 too1 very frequently1 in the domain of theology6 ,does the sun--the sun as each of us beholds him--ever change his size8 ,does he ever shrink in his majestic proportions8 ,is the magnitude of his broad golden disc ever lessened8 99 99 99 99 99 ,assuredly this new question1 which was not less audacious than its predecessor1 did not come--there is sacrilege in the thought--from the conservative areopagus of all ancient doctrines2 the learned areopagus1 or supreme tribunal1 which had erected into a dogma the circular orbit and uniform movement of the sun around the earth1 the centre of the universe6 ,it could only have been suggested by some unworthy heterodoxical disturber of men's minds1--his name1 alas6 has not been handed down to us1--who had dared to look upon the heavens1 and learn from their bright and beautiful face1 without a master1 the ,a ,b ,c of science4 ,this pestilent heretic had1 probably1 remarked one of the commonest phenomena connected with the celestial bodies1 which astronomers hitherto had not deigned to notice4 ,undoubtedly1 dear reader1 you will have been more than once impressed by the appearance of the solar orb1 when obscured in one of those mists so frequent towards the end of autumn3-- ,cold grew the foggy morn1 the day was brief2 ,loose on the cherry hung the crimson leaf2 ,the dew dwelt ever on the herb2 the woods ,roared with strong blasts1 with mighty showers the floods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,when the glory of the woods is rapidly departing4 ,such a day1 in this sad season of the year1 when the glory of the woods is rapidly departing1 and from the swollen streams and dewy pastures the vapours ascend in a dense whirl of clouds1 is of frequent occurrence2 and on such a day1 the solar sphere1 as it struggles through the screening mists1 seems like the face of the moon at its full1 when slightly veiled4 ,your eye rests upon it without pain4 ,and as observation sharpens your mind1 you put to yourself the natural question1 ,is not the sun farther from the earth at this epoch when it affords us the least heat1 than at that period of the year when its vivifying power is greatest8 ,i think it is obvious that1 to the unexperienced1 such a method of explaining the cold of winter and the heat of summer by the variation in the distance of our great solar luminary would naturally occur4 ,but the demon of certainty--an excellent demon1 whatever the orthodox may say--is present1 to stimulate us all4 ,you may have just formed your theories1 you may cite your traditional authorities1 but these will not satisfy our awakened curiosity4 ,we ask for demonstrations1 for irrefragable proofs drawn from the ,bible of ,nature4 ,we will listen to no oracles but those which are confirmed by the voices of ,god's second revelation4 ,therefore1 men required to be assured that the sun was really nearer to us in summer than in winter4 ,for this purpose1 it was requisite to make1 at the beginning of summer1 an observation analogous to that which had been made at the beginning of winter1 and afterwards to compare the apparent magnitudes of the solar disc at these two opposite periods of the year4 ,behold us1 then1 at work4 ,you are perfectly tranquil as to the result2 for you are persuaded beforehand that the sun must be farther from us in the cold season than in the hot4 ,you regard this as a self-evident truth1 like an axiom of ,euclid's4 ,but ,nature is a great magician2 she contrives the most dramatic surprises for the mind which takes the trouble to interrogate her in all simplicity and without dogmatic pretensions4 ,what a coup-de-thtre it was for the observer who first established experimentally that the apparent diameter of the sun is greater in winter than in summer--that we are nearer the sun in the cold season1 than in the hot6 99 99 99 99 99 ,on more closely examining a result apparently so paradoxical1 man discovered that the angle which subtracts the sun1 as seen from the earth1--the visual angle which gives the sun's apparent diameter1--varies necessarily throughout the year4 ,thus1 the semi-diameter1 or radius1 which on the #bdth of ,june equals #ae' #de1 will1 a month later1 have increased one second 7#ae' #df72 on the #b;d of ,august will equal #ae' #dg2 on the #b;d ,september1 #ae' #ec1 and so on4 ,we put the exact measurements before the reader in a tabulated form3-- ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,radius4 ,on ,january #ba1 #af' #af ,february #be1 #af' #aj ,march #ca1 #af' #a ,april #cj1 #ae' #ec ,may #cj1 #ae' #dg ,june #bd1 minimum1 #ae' #de ,july #bd1 #ae' #df ,august #c1 #ae' #dg ,september #b1 #ae' #ec ,october #b1 #af' #a ,november #f1 #af' #aj ,december #ba1 maximum1 #af' #ag ,we do not trouble the reader with the fractions of a second1 which indicate the quantity of the apparent increase of the radius from the end of ,june to the end of ,december1 and its apparent decrease from the beginning of ,january to the end of ,june4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a glance at the above figures shows that the mean of the apparent diameters1 all measured at the moment of the sun's passing the meridian1 is about half a degree1 or #cj'2 and that--which is sufficiently curious--#gbj of these mean suns1 set one against another1 would be required to fill up the contour of a great circle of the celestial sphere4 ,is it this fact which suggested the idea of dividing the circle into #gbj_/b #cfj8 99 99 99 99 99 ,simultaneously with the discovery of the variations of the solar charioteer1 it was ascertained that the moments of the sun's passage of the meridian--moments which measure the #cfe different positions occupied by the sun in the #cfe days of the year--are not separated by equal intervals1 or that equal intervals of time do not correspond to the equal angular displacements1--in fine1 that the maximum and minimum of the sun's angular velocity coincide with the maximum and minimum of its apparent diameter4 ,now1 remember that the extreme points where the sun experiences its maximum and minimum angular displacement are named1 according to ,ptolemus1 the former the perigee1 the latter the apogee2 or1 if we follow ,copernicus1 the former the perihelion1 and the latter the aphelion4 ,the aggregate of these facts was known to the ancients2 but the manner in which it was sought to explain them merits notice as a specimen of blind attachment to a preconceived system4 ,ptolemus1 the organ of the dictatorial astronomy of antiquity1 declares1 ex cathedr1 that the inequalities of the sun's movements are only apparent2 that they are simply the effects of the position and of the arrangements of the circles in which these movements are accomplished2 and that1 in this apparent disorder of the phenomena 7 71 nothing really occurs contrary to their actual immobility 7 74 ,now1 according to this dogmatic immutability1 the straight lines1 or radii1 which proceed from the revolving star to the centre of the circle1 would describe equal angles in equal times4 ,this is exactly the contrary of the result obtained1 as we have seen1 by careful observation4 ,but this difficulty no more embarrassed the great pontiff of astronomy than a conscientious scruple would perplex the author of a theological dogma4 ,listen to him3-- ,the true cause of these apparent irregularities is explained by two very simple hypotheses4 ,either the one or the other would account for the phenomena4 ,in fact1 if we suppose the movement to occur in a circle described around the centre of the world1 and in the plane of the ecliptic1 so that the point whence we are looking corresponds with this centre1 we must admit either that the planets make their movements equal in non-concentric circles1 or that1 if these circles are concentric1 it is not simply in these circles that they move1 but in others1 called epicycles1 carried through the concentric4#gc ,examine ,fig4 #fg4 ,here ,a ,b ,g ,d represent the ecliptic1 ,e its centre1 and ,a ,e ,g its diameter2 ,z ,h ,t ,k is the epicycle1 in which the planet moves uniformly around the centre ,a1 while the epicycle uniformly traverses the circle ,a ,b ,g ,d4 ,now1 suppose that the star has arrived at ,h2 it would appear to an observer at ,e to be more advanced by the uniform movement of all the arc ,a ,h2 if it be at ,k1 it would appear1 on the contrary1 to be less advanced by all the arc ,a ,k4 ,at ,z the star would appear more distant1 and at ,t1 nearer than if it were at ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,the ,circle and the ,epicycle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to explain the other phenomena1 such as the stations and retrocessions of the planets1 recourse was again had to the epicycles or deferred eccentric circles4 ,by multiplying these it was possible to account for all the angular inequalities in the movements of a planet4 ,it is of importance to note this point1 in order to show how very dangerous it is to trust absolutely to mathematics in our search after the truth2 that science which1 by the certainty of its demonstrations1 nourishes our intellectual pride1 and may1 therefore1 occasionally lull the mind into a false security4 ,the theory of epicycles1 from a mathematical point of view1 was irreproachable1 and it sufficiently accounted for the facts which threatened to overthrow the dogma of circular orbits and uniform planetary movement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but by degrees1 as observations grew more accurate and comprehensive1 these and other theories1 however fine in appearance1--teres atque rotundus1--gradually disappeared1 if fundamentally erroneous4 ,by the invention of micrometers1 we were enabled to measure more exactly than had formerly been possible the variations of diameter or the modifications of distance1 and afterwards to compare them with the changes of velocity4 ,from this comparison it results that the latter are not greater than is compatible with the alterations of distance indicated by the variations of diameter2 in a word1 that the hypothesis of epicycles is decidedly insufficient to account for all the inequalities detected by careful investigation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kepler was the first to break the charm which had held captive the mind of astronomers1 including even ,copernicus and ,tycho ,brah4 ,ptolemus had considered the mean positions of the stars to be real4 ,kepler1 strong in his researches1 declared that they were but a factitious mode of calculation by which the true positions might be ascertained2 that the mean movement is simply an artifice representing the star's place1 if no inequality existed2 in fine1 that we must take the movements as they are in nature1--the true movements1 given by observation1--and not the mean movements1 deduced from an erroneous hypothesis4 ,this declaration of principles met1 at the time1 with the hostility of all astronomers of any reputation1 but it has become the starting-point of the discovery of the laws on which the whole edifice of astronomy reposes4 ,had ,kepler1 however1 been left to depend entirely on his own resources1 he might1 perhaps1 have never completed his task4 ,a fortunate circumstance brought him an unexpected ally4 ,tycho1 having taken refuge in ,bohemia1 sent for the young astronomer 7,kepler then was but twenty-nine years old71 to assist him in the composition of the ,rudolphine ,tables4#gd ,this1 says ,kepler1 was a providential interposition4 ,i repaired to ,bohemia early in the year #afjj1 in the hope of learning the correction of the eccentricities of the planets4 ,perceiving that ,tycho made use of a mixed system 7which made ,mercury and ,venus revolve around the sun1 and all these planets1 with their companions1 around the earth71 ,i asked his permission to follow out my own ideas4 ,it was the will of ,providence again1 that we should occupy ourselves with ,mars4 ,my whole attention1 therefore1 was directed to this planet3 and it is through the movements of ,mars we must obtain our insight into the secrets of astronomy1 or remain ignorant of them for ever 7ex ,martis motibus omnino necesse est nos in cognitionem astronomi arcanorum venire aut ea perpetuo nescire74#ge ,why this preference given to ,mars8 ,in the first place1 because1 among all the planets then known1 it was ,mars which1 in its movement round the sun1 departed most from the circle2 next1 its orbit approaches nearest to the earth's2 the earth is very near to ,mars when she passes between that planet and the sun1--that is to say1 when she is in opposition1 while she retires from it triple the distance when in conjunction1--that is1 when the sun is between her and ,mars4 ,hence arise certain variations of aspect1 particularly adapted to make manifest the form of the orbit1 and the law of the real movement of the red planet1 ,mars4 ,as for the other planets1 as far as they were then known1 their orbits differ so little from the circle1 that the nature of the curve which they describe in reality would never have been exactly recognised by any inexperienced star-gazer4 ,for these reasons ,kepler regarded as providential the choice he had been led to make of ,mars at the outset of his astronomical career4 ,before the close of #afja1 ,tycho died1 bequeathing to his young fellow-worker a treasury of observation4 ,thenceforth ,kepler undertook to finish without assistance the famous ,rudolphine ,tables4 ,they cost him five-and-twenty years of assiduous labour4 ,looking upon ,tycho's observations1 because of their exactness1 as a gift from the ,divine ,goodness1 he employed them1 in the first place1 as a test of the old hypotheses of planetary orbits and movements4 ,let us do our best to grasp the range and bearing of this part of his work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the system of ,copernicus1 which ,kepler ardently adopted1 the earth revolves around the sun4 ,now1 observation having shown that the sun remains seven or eight days longer in the northern than in the southern signs of the ,zodiac1 we must of necessity admit that the sun1 instead of being situated in the centre of the terrestrial orbit1 occupies a point outside that centre1 in such a manner that the earth must sometimes be nearer to1 and sometimes farther from1 the sun4 ,the distance by which it departs from the centre of its orbit1 which ,copernicus1 like the ancients1 supposed to be circular1 is called its eccentricity4 ,astronomers were long preoccupied with the idea of seeking in this eccentricity a point where the movements should appear equal4 ,this point was the centre of the equant1--a name given to the eccentric circle described from the point of equality or from the centre of the mean movements4 ,now1 let us recall the principal condition of the problem which ,kepler had undertaken to solve4 ,this condition required that the straight line drawn from the centre of our globe to the centre of the sun1--in a word1 that the vector radius1 as it is called1 should describe around the sun certain angles1 whose variability should agree with the results of observation4 ,starting from this point1 ,kepler found that1 for certain positions of ,mars 7in the aphelion and perihelion1 corresponding to the minimum and maximum of velocity71 the centre of the orbit1 always supposing it to be circular1 divided into two equal parts 7or bisected7 the total eccentricity3 in other words1 that it exactly occupied the middle between the centre of the eccentric and the equant of ,ptolemus2 but it did not appear to him necessary to bisect it in other positions1 intermediate between those of the aphelion and the perihelion4 ,he established that the differences in longitude amounted to eight or nine minutes4 ,now1 observations so exact as those of ,tycho were altogether incompatible with such great error4#gf ,therefore1 the geometrical hypothesis which gave these errors was false2 the orbit of ,mars could not be a circle1 and to save these eight or nine minutes1 furnished by observation but in disaccord with theory1 it would be needful to recommence all the calculations of astronomy4 ,this conclusion1 not less legitimate than daring1 supplied ,kepler with the first decisive step in the task he had undertaken4 ,this is not the place to relate all the essays and miscarriages through which this man of genius passed before finally completing his discovery of the rules that bear his name4 ,but we may put before the reader the construction which led to them4 ,on a sheet of paper let us mark down by a point 7,fig4 #fh7 the place occupied by the earth in relation to the sun4#gg ,from this point o1 we draw a right line terminating at a1 the sun's noon-day position 7for example1 on the #ast of ,january72 the succeeding lines shall touch upon a a1 which the sun occupies successively after the same interval of time 7twenty-four hours1 or the exact duration of the earth's rotation on its axis72--and let us continue after this mode until the sun has accomplished1 by its own proper movement from west to east1 the whole circuit of the heavens1 traversing #cfj degrees in the space of a year4 ,if we ascribe to the radius o a a certain length1 corresponding to a definite solar diameter1 the lengths of all the others1 corresponding to the variations of the same diameter1 will depend upon that of the first1 which1 for facility of calculation1 we suppose to be divided into one thousand parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,diagram for ,kepler's ,laws4 ,after having thus allotted to each straight line its approximate length1 let us join their extremities by a curve4 ,what do we see before us8 ,a geometrical figure widely different from a circle1 for the diameters 7i4e41 the straight lines passing through the centre7 are far from being equal4 ,the figure is an ellipse4 ,if now we pass from the appearance to the reality1 o will be the sun1 and a a a1 m m will indicate the terrestrial orbit1 or the points of the curve successively occupied by the earth in movement4 ,the moveable straight lines1 free at one extremity1 and at the other attached to the centre of the sun1 are called the ,vector heliocentric radii4 ,by the help of this construction1 you see that the point occupied by the sun is beyond or without the centre2 this eccentric point is the focus of the ellipse1 and the distance from this focus to the centre1 its eccentricity4 ,the extremity of the major axis1 the nearest to the focus1 is the perihelion1 and its farthest extremity the aphelion4 ,the difference of the angles formed by the vector radii indicate the inequality of the movements3 to the greatest angle1 the perihelion1 corresponds the maximum of velocity 7a a a71 just as to the smallest1 or aphelion1 corresponds the minimum 7m m72 the other angles mark the velocities intermediary between these two extremes4 ,we have thus before us a series of triangles with their apices at the focus of the ellipse1 and their bases on the contour of the curve4 ,but these latter are not sufficient for the mind1 whose principal function lies in seeking unity among the variety of phenomena4 ,in what way are the variations of distance connected with the variations of velocity8 ,what is the simplest expression of their relationship8 ,these are questions which naturally presented themselves to ,kepler's inquiring intellect4 ,by dint of immeasurable patience1 and recommencing more than once the same toil1 this great astronomer discovered that the variable arc traversed by the earth 7or1 in appearance1 the sun71 in four-and-twenty hours1 multiplied by one half the corresponding vector radius1 is a constant quantity3 is the product which1 as elementary geometry teaches1 gives the surface of a triangle4 ,and1 in fact1 look at the matter carefully3 the vector radii form triangles whose base is the arc traversed in the same interval of time1 and whose apices rest upon the centre of the sun 7or1 in appearance1 the observer1 or the centre of the earth74 ,to fix these ideas thoroughly in our minds1--and a superficial knowledge is worse than useless1--let us imagine to ourselves a man holding horizontally extended a tube of a certain length1 capable1 like a telescope1 of being lengthened or shortened at pleasure2 and let us fancy him pivoting upon himself1 in such a manner that he sweeps1 every minute1 exactly the same area or same quantity of surface1 while varying perpetually the swiftness of movement and the length of the tube2 this ideal man will have solved the problem whose solution is inscribed1 in ineffaceable letters1 on the machinery of our globe2 he will describe around him an ellipse1 of which he himself occupies one of the foci4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by this method of investigation and deduction1 ,kepler succeeded in breaking up the traditionary authority of the circle and of uniform movement4 ,he broke it up for ever by two of his celebrated laws1 which may be rendered in the following terms3-- #ast1 ,the orbit of the earth1 as well as the curves described by the other planets1 are ellipses1 one of whose foci is represented by the sun2 #b;d1 ,the heliocentric vector radius of a planet describes around the sun areas equal with the times2 or1 in other words1 the surfaces described by the vector radii1 in equal times1 are also equal4 ,the ancients had looked for equality in the movements of planets traversing the circumferences of circles3 they were mistaken4 ,it is true this equality exists2 only1 not where they supposed4 ,if they had sought it in the surfaces described by the vector radii1 they would have anticipated ,kepler's discovery of the laws which govern our world4 ,but their astronomical dogmas prevented them from seeing the path which led to this great discovery4 ,hence we may conclude that ,dogma is an evil thing4 ,illustration ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gc3 ,ptolemus1 ,syntaxis ,mathematicalis1 iii4 #c4 ,footnote #gd3 ,certain astronomical calculations1 so called because begun under the patronage of ,rudolf ,,ii41 ,emperor of ,germany 7#aegf-afab74 ,footnote #ge3 ,kepler1 ,astronomia ,nova1 seu de ,motibus ,stell ,martis1 p4 #ec 7ed4 #afji74 ,footnote #gf3 ,the reader should turn to ,kepler's immortal work1 ,de ,motibus ,stell ,martis1 for the manifold attempts of the astronomer to bring calculation into agreement with observation4 ,in every page is revealed what has been finely called the passionate patience of genius4 ,footnote #gg3 ,there is certainly no exaggeration in comparing the earth to a point1 since the diameter of the sun is #aab times that of the earth1 and its mean distance a little more than #ab1jjj terrestrial diameters3 the earth is but a microscopical point in space1 if we compare it to the place occupied by the central luminary4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,seen ,,upon ,,the ,,earth4 ,i care not1 ,fortune1 what you me deny2 ,you cannot rob me of free ,nature's grace2 ,you cannot shut the windows of the sky ,through which ,aurora shows her bright'ning face2 ,you cannot bar my constant feet to trace ,the woods and lawns by living streams at eve4 ,illustration ,of all the strata composing our planetary mass1 the most important1 so far as man is concerned1 is1 at the same time1 the most superficial2 for it is here that all the phenomena of life transpire4 ,our vegetable earth is the great laboratory in which are prepared all the solid1 liquid1 and gaseous aliments necessary for the nourishment of animal life4 ,it is on the surface of the globe that men play their various parts4 ,and why8 ,can it be for no other purpose than to modify1 in some degree1 its aspect1 that they occupy the terrestrial surface8 ,one would be tempted to think so on consulting what these majestic bimanes pompously designate their ,universal ,history4 ,regions formerly blooming with fertility1--gay with gardens1 and orchards1 and meadows1--musical with brooks1 and glorious with harvest1--are now uncultivated and barren4 ,monuments which seemed adapted to defy the winds and the rains1 and the corroding touch of the years1 lie shattered in ruins2 and with them the once populous cities and the once mighty empires of which they were the pride4 ,the jackal howls among the broken columns of ,tadmor2 the sand-drifts have accumulated above the splendour of ,memphis and ,thebes4 ,with their stones other monuments are raised1 other cities are embellished1 and other empires1 which1 in their turn1 undergo the same unalterable fate3 a perpetual relation of human forms1 in every respect comparable with that which transpires in the bosom of the prolific earth1 our common mother and nurse4 ,but why do men wander so far from the straight way8 ,why do they their best to ensure each other's unhappiness8 ,they seem1 alas6 ignorant of the tendency of their actions1 while attaching themselves to things transitory1 and despising things imperishable4 ,these1 indeed1 they would utterly ignore2 they would live1 like the brutes1 unconscious of their destiny1 if1 at the bottom of their indestructible conscience1 there did not prevail a glimmer of light1 though more or less eclipsed1 if they did not all feel themselves attracted1 if they did not all irresistibly gravitate1 some more quickly1 others more slowly1 towards the sun of eternal truth and justice4 ,instead of moving with sidelong sinuous pace1 instead of taking ninety-nine steps backward for every one hundred taken in advance1 they would all march onward in the way of progress2 were it not that they pass their time in clipping their own wings2 were it not that1 to bend their heads the better--,veluti pecora ventri obedientia--they check the aspiring flight of that thought which would soar beyond the present2 in a word1 were it not that they lay a sacrilegious hand--unfortunate wretches6--on that which ,god ,himself has respected in ,his creature--,liberty6 ,the doubt which perplexes us as to the great problem of our destiny1--the doubt which allows so much latitude to the workings of our conscience1--does it not indicate the path we ought to follow8 ,should not men regard their freedom with peculiar reverence1 when the ,divinity they invoke has mercifully refrained from fettering it8 ,creatures of a day1 who live as if you would never die6 the contradictions and the miseries of which you so incessantly complain1 are your own work4 ,help1 help yourselves1 by the development of your faculties1 by the cultivation of your heart and mind1 for herein you shall see the law and the prophets4 ,barren lip-service is nothing better than blasphemy6 99 99 99 99 99 ,but let us return to the ground which we tread1 and where our life-companions are the animals and the plants4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the uppermost stratum of our globe undergoes the direct action of the light and heat of the all-vivifying orb of day4 ,this action1 very unequal in its effects1 and most important to understand1 has scarcely been touched as yet by scientific research4 ,our geologists1 having been more busily engaged with the inside than the outside of the earth1 have broached certain plausible theories--for the most part of a very dubious character--respecting the central fire1 ,plutonism and ,neptunism1 the stratification of the planets1 the formation of mountains1 valleys1 and basins4 ,our mineralogists1 thinking far less of the chemical molecular constitution of the different formations than of their crystalline constitution1 have minutely studied the physical qualities and geometrical forms of the integral parts of the rocks2 but neither have condescended to direct their inquiries to the layer of soil trodden underneath their feet4 ,yet this very layer of arable earth1 to which all bodies must return after death what they have taken from it during life1--this much despised humus1 furnishes all our agricultural products1 the very foundation and support of our material existence4 ,to touch industrial occupations--to meddle with trade1 commerce1 or agriculture--is unworthy of ,science6 ,such is the silly cry of the many distinguished savants who pride themselves on what they call their freedom from selfish considerations4 ,be it so2 but then you ought surely to be consistent1 and never regard science as a profession or a bread-winner4 ,,on ,,the ,,chemical ,,action ,,of ,,light4 ,it is no easy study to investigate the modifications and chemical effects which the terrestrial surface is capable of receiving or undergoing1 either from the direct rays of the sun1 or from diffused light4 ,it requires new methods of inquiry1--methods frequently of extreme delicacy1 as the labours of ,bunsen and ,roscoe1 of ,kirchhofer and ,tyndall1 have abundantly demonstrated4 ,let us here confine ourselves to establishing the fact that the chemical action of light varies according to the geological constitution of the soil1--according to the diurnal and annual obliquity of the solar rays1--according to the hours of the day1--according to the latitudes and seasons4 ,the maximum of effects is manifested about the times of the solstices4 ,for the better co-ordination of these phenomena1 might we not1 as has been done in regard to the distribution of heat over the terrestrial surface1#gh link together by lines the points of equality8 ,we should thus create an aggregate of iso-photo-chemical lines1--diurnal1 mensual1 and annual1--of incontestible utility for the progress of general physics and meteorology1 which are still in their infancy4 ,but to realise this magnificent programme1 the union and agreement is necessary of scientific men in every region of the globe2 an ideal1 therefore1 as yet1 is very far from being attained4 ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,heat4 ,the earth is subject to the influence of two different sources of heat4 ,one1 like the arterial blood1 strikes from the centre to the circumference3 this internal heat it is which has been stored up since the unknown epoch when our globe was nothing more than an incandescent nucleus1 surrounded by condensable vapours4 ,the other1 like the venous blood1 flows from the circumference towards the centre3 this is the solar heat which the earth continues to receive through its crust4 ,the first of these sources lies beyond the domain of experiment4 ,it has been the object of numerous hypotheses and diverse speculations1 with which we shall not here concern ourselves4 ,the second source is alone accessible to our investigations1 and yet the network of isothermal lines is scarcely defined4 ,since the year #ahag1 when ,alexander von ,humboldt conceived the felicitous idea of representing by lines the same mean temperatures enjoyed1 in a given space of time1 by the different regions of the globe1 researches of this nature have very considerably multiplied4 ,but these researches--do not forget--refer rather to the temperature of the atmosphere than to the heating of the inferior stratum of that gaseous ocean whose bed or foundation is the terrestrial crust4 ,and it is the penetration of the latter by the sun's calorific rays which we would especially desire to understand4 ,here1 then1 a sufficient margin is left for our curiosity4 ,if the king1 my father1 does not rest from his conquests1 cried ,alexander of ,macedon1 while still a child1 he will leave me nothing to do when ,i shall have reached manhood4 ,to such a complaint1 be you sure1 dear reader1 that the conquests made by science will never give rise4 ,every step in advance is but a step into the infinite3 what we have done only shows us the boundless extent of what we have to do4 ,it is this reflection which must always teach humility to the scientific student1 even while he rejoices in the achievements of human patience and genius4 ,he will not despair for he knows that great victories have been won3 he will not grow arrogant1 for he knows that he is still on the threshold of eternal truth4 ,as ,sir ,j4 ,herschel has justly said3--,he who has seen obscurities1 which appeared impenetrable1 in physical and mathematical science1 suddenly dispelled1 and the most barren and unpromising fields of inquiry converted1 as if by inspiration1 into rich and inexhaustible springs of knowledge and power1 on a simple change of our point of view1 or by merely bringing them to bear on some principle which it never occurred before to try1 will surely be the very last to acquiesce in any dispiriting prospects of either the present or the future destinies of mankind2 while1 on the other hand1 the boundless views of intellectual and moral1 as well as material relations1 which open to him on all hands in the course of these pursuits1--the knowledge of the trivial place he occupies in the scale of creation1 and the sense continually pressed upon him of his own weakness and incapacity to suspend or modify the slightest movement of the vast machinery he sees in action around him1 must effectually convince him that humility of pretension1 no less than confidence of hope1 is what best becomes his character4#gi ,the temperature of the terrestrial surface perpetually varies under the influence of local as well as general causes4 ,had this fact been known to the philosophers of antiquity1 they would have taken advantage of it to liken the earth to an animal whose skin is more or less sensible of heat1 not only according to the difference of the seasons1 but according to the different hours of the day4 ,the diurnal thermometrical variations are those which penetrate the least profoundly into the interior of the soil4 ,at a depth of about five feet they cease to be perceptible4 ,the maxima and minima of the year1 however1 can be detected at a sufficiently considerable depth4 ,the limit descends as low as #hj to #ajj feet4 ,below #ajj feet1 the terrestrial stratum is found invariable1--that is1 inaccessible to the thermometrical changes of the atmosphere4 ,it is remarkable that the temperature of this stratum differs but little from the mean annual temperature of the air1 which1 in the latitude of ,london1 is #di4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the maxima and minima of the yearly heat are propagated very slowly in the earth1 and their difference gradually becomes less and less4 ,thermometers buried #bf feet deep in the ground1 mark1 in our latitudes1 the maximum of temperature only on the #ajth of ,december1 and the minimum on the #aeth of ,june4 ,but there are certain elements which we must take into account4 ,thus1 the depth of the invariable thermometrical curve depends both on the latitude of the place1 on the conductibility of the strata1 and the difference between the highest and lowest temperature of the year4 ,the less this difference1 the more nearly does the invariable stratum approach the surface4 ,here we have the reason why1 in the intertropical torrid zone1 where the temperature scarcely varies above two or three degrees in the whole year1 the invariable curve is not found more than forty centimetres beneath the surface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the temperate zone1 lying between the torrid and the frigid zones1 the same phenomena assume1 apparently1 a more complex character2 the isogeothermal lines inflect as diversely as the isothermal1 and the former are far from running parallel with the latter4 ,and this is easily understood1 even without any experiment1 for there is no relation between the ever-varied composition of the terrestrial strata1 and the much more uniform composition of the atmosphere4 ,in the frigid zone1 the soil remains constantly frozen for an insignificant depth1 whatever may be the temperature of the encircling atmosphere4 ,in some regions a stratum of ice and snow eternally reposes on the surface of the soil4 ,unfortunately the observations1 which require to be undertaken on an uniform plan and under well-weighed conditions1 at various points over the whole globe1 are as yet far too few to assist us in defining any general currents of heat or cold1 whether variable or constant1 as prevailing in the lower strata of the gaseous ocean of our planet4 ,,arable ,,land4 ,a more useful picture than that of the isogeothermal lines would be one of all the arable land covering the continents of the ,old ,world and the ,new1--indicating the composition of this nutritive earth1 the nature of the soil on which it reposes1 as well as the various kinds of cultivation appropriate in different climates4 ,here is a work to be achieved1--a work which would benefit the whole human race1--a work differing vastly from the conquests and achievements of too many of those heroes the world delights to honour4 ,peace hath her victories ,more renowned than war4 ,in this immense task1 of which1 as yet1 not even the outlines have been sketched1 particular attention would require to be paid to the subsoil2 for upon this the success of all cultivation literally depends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;a1 ,humus1 or stratum of arable earth1--the horizontal line shows the depth reached by the labourer2 b1 subsoil2 c1 subsoil2 d1 arable earth2 e1 humus in an inclined stratum2 f1 humus mixed with subsoil4 ,arable land is the most superficial stratum of the cultivable terrestrial crust2 it is this which the plough turns up and subdues2 it is this which1 properly manured1 and enriched by the decomposition of organic matter1 furnishes to vegetables their principal nourishment4 ,as it varies in thickness1 it necessarily presents one or other of the following circumstances3--#ast1 ,the labourer1 penetrating the entire stratum of arable earth 7,fig4 #fi1 a71 will strike down to the subsoil 7,fig4 #fi1 b72 or1 #b;d1 he will not traverse the entire stratum 7,fig4 #fi1 c72 or1 #c;d1 after having traversed the entire depth of the humus1 he will reach a portion of the subsoil 7,fig4 #fi1 d72 or1 #dth1 after having gone through both humus and subsoil1 he will discover another layer of arable earth1 which may be either pure humus1 in a thick inclined stratum 7,fig4 #fi1 e71 or humus mixed with the dbris of the subsoil4 ,as for the subsoil1 it may1 by its composition1 completely modify1 stimulate1 or delay the action of the vegetable mould1 however rich this may be in assimilating principles4 ,thus1 where the subsoil is argillaceous1 the pluvial waters are arrested by it as by a bed of impervious cement1 and render the ground too damp and cold to yield abundant harvests4 ,in such a case subsoil-drainage is the best remedy4 ,but if the earth be porous1 the moisture gradually percolates through its various layers1 fertilising and warming1 communicating to the plants the needful humidity1 and assisting in the production of that most glorious of all the scenes of cultivated nature--a corn-field thickly ripe with golden grain4 ,in the poet's ,palace of ,art no finer picture can be seen than this3 ,the reapers at their sultry toil4 ,in front they bind the sheaves4 ,behind ,are realms of upland1 prodigal in oil1 ,and hoary to the wind4 ,oh6 a sight to thank ,god for1 and rejoice in1 is the field all aglow with the splendour of the harvest6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,behind are realms of upland4 ,without having recourse to chemical analysis1 which is within the reach of a very limited number of persons1 clayey soils may be distinguished by the vegetable species that most commonly flourish in them3 as-- ,i4 ,plants belonging to clayey soils4--,the ,queen of the ,meadows1 ,spira ulmaria 7order ,rosace74 ,wild ,angelica1 ,angelica sylvestris4 ,common ,sorrel1 ,rumex acetosa 7order ,polygonace71 and various kinds of ,ranunculace1 as ,ranunculus lingua1 ,ranunculus flamma1 and ,ranunculus sceleratus4 ,,ii4 ,plants belonging to sandy soils4--,horny ,lotus1 ,lotus corniculatus 7order ,rhamnace74 ,little ,harebell1 ,campanula rotundifolia 7order ,campanulace74 ,eyebright1 ,euphrasia officinalis 7order ,scrophulariace74 ,anthoxanthum odoratum4 ,,iii4 ,plants belonging to argilo-calcareous soils4--,coltsfoot1 ,tussilago farfara 7order ,composit74 ,wild ,mustard1 ,sinapis arvensis 7order ,crucifer74 ,buckwheat1 ,polygonum aviculare 7order ,polygonace74 ,,iv4 ,plants belonging to a sandy and calcareous soil4--,broom1 ,genista scoparia 7order ,leguminos74 ,centaury1 ,centaurea nigra 7order ,gentianace74 ,galium verum 7order ,rubiace74 ,the ,jacobea1 ,seneecio ,jacoba4 ,v4 ,plants belonging to alluvial and marshy soils4--,reed1 ,arundo phragmites1 ,poa aquatica1 ,poa fluitans4 ,rush1 ,juncus conglomeratus 7order ,juncace74 ,after these different soils have been brought under cultivation1 the characteristic species1 which we have just enumerated1 disappear1 and are replaced by other plants1 which grow1 to all appearance1 spontaneously1 under the name of weeds2 but1 in reality1 spring from germs or seeds too frequently mixed up with the different manures1 or spread abroad by the agency of birds or the wind4 ,in reference to this latter consideration1 the diffusion of plants1 we shall transcribe an interesting passage from ,balfour's excellent ,manual of ,botany4 ,some plants1 he remarks1 are disseminated generally over the globe1 while others are confined within narrow limits4 ,some of the common weeds in ,britain1 such as chickweed1 shepherd's purse1 and groundsel1 are found at the southern extremity of ,south ,america4 ,laura minor and trisulca1 ,convolvulus sepium1 ,phragmites communis1 ,cedium ,mariscus1 ,scirpus lacustris1 ,juncus effusus1 and ,solanum nigrum1 are said to be common to ,great ,britain and ,new ,holland4 ,nasturtium officinale1 and ,samolus ,valerandi are very extensively diffused1 and they may be reckoned true cosmopolites4 ,they are both natives of ,europe1 and they occur1 the former near ,rio ,janeiro1 the latter at ,st ,vincent4 ,the lower the degree of development1 the greater seems to be the range4 ,some cryptogamic plants1 as ,lecanora subfusca1 are found all over the globe4 ,man has been instrumental in widely distributing culinary vegetables1 such as the potato1 and the cereal grains1 as well as many other plants useful for food and manufacture4 ,corn plants1 such as barley1 oats1 rye1 wheat1 spelt1 rice1 maize1 and millet1 are so generally cultivated over the globe1 that almost all trace is lost of their native country4 ,they can arrive at perfection in a great variety of circumstances1 and they have thus probably a wider geographical range than any other kind of plants4 ,as regards these plants1 the globe may be divided into five grand regions--the region of rice1 which may be said to support the greatest number of the human race2 the region of maize2 of wheat2 of rye2 and lastly1 of barley and oats4 ,the first three are the most extensive1 and maize has the greatest range of temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,the ,rye ,district4 ,the grains extending farthest north in ,europe are barley and oats4 ,rye is the next1 and is the prevailing grain in ,sweden and ,norway1 and all the lands bordering on the ,baltic1 the ,north of ,germany1 and part of ,siberia4 ,wheat follows rye2 it is cultivated in the middle and ,south of ,france1 ,england1 part of ,scotland1 part of ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,crimea1 and the ,caucasus4 ,we next come to a district where wheat still abounds1 but no longer exclusively furnishes bread1--rice and maize becoming frequent4 ,to this zone belong ,portugal1 ,spain1 part of ,france1 ,italy1 and ,greece1 ,persia1 ,northern ,india1 ,arabia1 ,egypt1 the ,canary ,islands1 c4 ,wheat can be reared wherever the mean temperature of the whole year is not under #cg or #ci ,f41 and the mean summer heat1 for a period of at least three or four months1 is above #ee4 ,it succeeds best on the limits of the sub-tropical region4 ,in the ,scandinavian peninsula1 the cultivation of barley extends to #gj ,n4 latitude1 rye to #fg1 and oats to #fe4 ,the cultivation of rice prevails in ,eastern and ,southern ,asia1 and it is a common article of subsistence in various countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,maize succeeds best in the hottest and dampest parts of tropical climates4 ,it may be reared as far as #dj ,n4 and ,s4 latitude on the ,american continent1 on the western side2 while in ,europe it can grow even to #ej or #eb of latitude4 ,it is now cultivated in all regions in the tropical and temperate zones which are colonised by ,europeans4 ,millet of different kinds is met with in the hottest parts of ,africa1 in the ,south of ,europe1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in the ,east ,indies4#hj ,professor ,houston furnishes the following table in illustration of the distribution of wheat and barley4 ,it also shows the mean temperature which they require3-- ,,barley4 ,winter ,summer ,annual ,mean4 ,mean4 ,mean4 ,n4 ,lat4 #fb-a_/b ,faroe1 #ci #ea #de #gj ,lapland1 #bb #df #cc #fgcj' ,russia1 #i #df #cb #egcj' ,siberia1 #j #fj #cb ,,wheat4 ,winter ,summer ,annual ,mean4 ,mean4 ,mean4 ,lat4 #eh ,scotland1 #cf #eg #fd ,norway1 #bc #ei #ci ,sweden1 #bc #ei #ci ,russia1 #ae #fj #cg #cj ,cairo1 #eg #hh #gb ,macao1 #fd #hb #gc ,rio ,janeiro1 #fh #gh #gd ,havannah1 #ga #hb #gg ,bourbon1 #ga #hj #gg ,winds1 water1 and animals1 are also instrumental in disseminating plants4 ,many seeds1 with winged and feathery appendages1 are easily wafted about2 others are carried by rivers and streams1 and some can be transported by the ocean currents to a great distance1 with their generating powers unimpaired4 ,,mushrooms ,,or ,,agarics 7,order ,,fungi74 ,every year--principally in autumn--we are startled by hearing or reading of cases of poisoning by mushrooms4 ,erudite connoisseurs1 however1 who have profited by ,dr ,badham's book on ,esculent ,fungi1 do not suffer themselves to be intimidated by these sad narratives1 though1 unfortunately1 they are frequently too well founded2 because they know how to distinguish the good from the ill1 the true from the false1 the edible from the poisonous mushroom4 ,but this security ought not to embolden the inexperienced amateur in risking his life for the sake of a delicacy4 ,it is true1 nevertheless1 that we frequently see men's lives exposed for something less4 ,look1 what a splendid mushroom ,i have discovered6 a lady said to me1 the other day2 a lady who knew something of flowers1 but nothing of cryptogams4 ,take care6 ,i replied1 taking from her hand the supposed prize2 this is the false mushroom2 and would suffice1 if served up at your table1 to poison yourself and all your guests4 ,i ought here to observe that my friend had narrowly escaped death two years before1 through regaling herself with a dish of mushrooms of very dubious character4 ,among the symptoms which she experienced1 and which she described with medical exactness1 she particularly dwelt upon the cold sweats1 accompanied by a sentiment of undefinable terror1 which is nothing else than the dread of death3 it was the special symptom of poisoning with an unwholesome fungus4 ,let us endeavour to make ourselves better acquainted with this formidable enemy of epicures4 ,you will have no difficulty in finding it in any warm1 close season1 but especially in spring and autumn4 ,the toadstool thrives indifferently in the shade of all the forest trees1 but seems to prefer the oak and birch to the pine and fir4 ,a patch of soft greensward1 at the foot of an old oak1 and in the neighbourhood of a brawling stream or tranquil pool1 will generally be covered with fungi of this description4 ,the numerous synonyms attaching to it show how greatly it has exercised the classifying spirit of our naturalists4 ,some call it ,agaricus muscarius1 as if we should say kill-fly mushroom2 others1 changing only the specific designation1 designate it ,agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus1--which signifies1 literally1 false orange1 in allusion to the beautiful yellow colour of the true aurantiacus4 ,what is certain is1 that our mushroom1 which can kill men as well as flies1 belongs to the genus ,agaric1 so numerous in species that it can be formed into a family1 that of the ,agarice4 ,the ,agarics1 of which the esculent mushroom 7,agaricus edulis7 represents the type1 are easily recognised by their more or less fleshy pileus1 or cap1 garnished underneath with lamell1 or gills1 which radiate from the centre to the circumference1 when the pedicel is in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,at the foot of an old oak4 ,but some cryptogamists are unwilling to recognise the orange mushrooms 7les oronges71 whether true or false1 as ,agarics4 ,they place them in a separate genus1 the genus ,amanita1 though without informing us where they found the name4 ,meanwhile1 they justify the formation of the new genus by the presence of the white swelling1 the volva1 or wrapper1 of the mycelium1 or spawn1 which entirely covers both the true and the false mushroom on its emergence from the earth4 ,each1 then1 is an ,amanita4 ,but now remark their specific difference4 ,the true mushroom1 as it develops1 ruptures its ovoid wrapper1 or volva1 leaving the remains entirely at the base of the pedicel2 while1 in the false mushroom1 the dbris of the volva are formed1 not only at the base of the pedicel1 as in the real ,agaric1 but even upon the red surface of the pileus itself3 these are the white irregular warts characteristic of the ,amanita1 but wholly wanting in the ,agaricus4 ,thus1 there are two ,amanitas3 the ,amanita muscaria1 or fly agaric1 and the ,amanita aurantiaca1 or1 as the ,english botanists call it1 ,agaricus ,csareus1 the imperial mushroom4 ,this fanciful study in nomenclature has the advantage of initiating us into the most essential distinctive characters of the two species in question4 ,however1 a few additional details are necessary to complete our history4 ,,the ,,fly ,,agaric1 ,,or ,,amanita ,,muscaria4 ,the species seems to have been expressly created to teach our gourmands the necessity of vigilance2 that before enjoying a dainty they must first learn to distinguish1 under penalty of death1 the poisonous fungus from that which safely and pleasantly tickles the palate4 ,the warning is useful1 moreover1 as showing that even sensualists are not wholly exempt from the law of work4 ,the ,amanita1 like most falsehoods1 is pleasant to the sight4 ,its round pileus1 of a beautiful orange-red colour1 spotted with white warts1 and lined with white gills1 seems to invite your attention4 7,fig4 #gc47 ,strike it down with your stick2 the lamell or gills underneath resemble the white leaves of a book4 ,its graceful stalk1 ornamented on the upper part by a well-designed necklet1 is bulbous in its lower portion2 its flesh is dazzlingly white2 in short1 its entire appearance is attractive4 ,yet it is a traitor6 ,you little know the depth of its wickedness4 ,mix a few shreds of its white flesh with a little milk2 every fly which drinks of the mixture will1 in a few seconds1 fall dead1 their swollen abdomen bearing testimony to the effect of the poison4 ,and in many districts of ,germany1 particularly in ,thuringia1 the peasants make use of it to rid themselves of the swarms of flies which1 towards the close of summer1 infest their habitations4 ,it is thus that man may frequently turn to his advantage those objects of nature which1 at the first glance1 appear injurious rather than useful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,the ,amanita ,muscaria4 ,various experiments have been essayed to test the intoxicating influence of our ,amanita4 ,bulliard1 author of the ,histoire des ,champignons de ,france1 made two cats partake of it4 ,six hours afterwards1 these animals1 who are so tenacious of life1 were dead4 ,haller1 in his ,histoire des ,plantes ,vnneuses de la ,suisse1 says that the ,agaricus muscarius 7,amanita muscaria7 cannot be eaten with impunity1 six ,lithuanians having died of it2 and in ,kamtschatka it has been known to excite deadly attacks of delirium1 accompanied by so deep a despondency1 that those who have eaten of it would fain fling themselves into the fire1 or fall upon their knives or daggers4 ,this1 however1 we take to be an exaggeration4 ,the truth is1 that in ,kamtschatka it is used to produce intoxication2 and such is its strength1 it imparts an intoxicating property to the urine of those who swallow it4 ,when the fungus itself is not at hand1 the would-be drunkard frequently resorts to this nauseous potion4 ,the flesh of the ,amanita is not yellow4 ,yet ,vicat speaks of poisonings produced by the ,yellow ,amanita4 ,i had much difficulty1 says this physician1 in saving two families of ,lausanne1 poisoned through eating a very small quantity of mushrooms1 which the father in the one case1 and the mother in the other1 had mistaken for ,agarici ,csarei1 though they were both esteemed great connoisseurs1 and especially in this species2 nor had they been once deceived for upwards of thirty years1 until they indulged themselves in this delicious but deceitful dish4 ,these poisonings could have been occasioned only by the ,amanita4 ,some varieties exist1 in which the under surface of the pileus is yellow1 but the flesh is white4 ,to one of these varieties ,vicat's anecdote probably refers4 ,thus1 the ,amanita formosa of ,persoon has pedicel1 pileus1 and warts of the pileus1 of a citron yellow4 ,it is but a variety of the ,amanita muscaria4 ,the ,amanita umbrina of the same botanist 7the ,agaricus pantherinus of ,de ,candolle7 has an olive-coloured pileus2 its surface1 like that of ,amanita muscaria1 is covered with white scales4 ,the ,amanita solitarius is distinguished by the size of its umbilical cap1--sometimes depressed in the centre1--which is furnished with a great number of white or pale brown scales2 when fully developed1 it measures from thirty to forty centimetres in diameter4 ,the pedicel is bulbous1 with a membranous ring1 white as snow1 clasped around it2 at the base it is clothed in pellicles1 the remains of its scaly volva4 ,the flesh is firm1 thick1 and white4 ,you rarely meet with more than two or three individuals in the same locality2 hence its name of solitarius4 ,bulliard speaks of the flesh as good to eat1 when cooked on a gridiron1 and seasoned with fresh butter1 salt1 and pepper4 ,it is possible4 ,but as it is so easily confused with the poisonous species1 the author of the ,histoire des ,champignons would have done better to prohibit its consumption1 whether eatable or not4 ,we may now turn to the method adopted by ,dr ,vicat to save the lives of the two families at ,lausanne1 who1 as we have seen1 were poisoned by partaking of the ,amanita3-- 99 99 99 99 99 ,i dissolved1 he says1 six grains of tartar emetic in a litre of water1 and from time to time administered a spoonful to my patients2 moreover1 ,i made them swallow floods of warm water1 sweetened with a little honey1--that is1 a large tea-spoonful of honey to a cupful of water4 ,i had much difficulty to get one of the sufferers1 who was sixty years old1 to swallow the first few spoonfuls4 ,he was plunged into a lethargic insensibility differing in no respect from complete apoplexy2 his teeth were closely set4 ,those whom ,i had ordered to administer the mixture had given it up1 after several useless attempts2 and in all probability the old man would have sunk1 had ,i not had the patience to hold1 for some hours1 against his teeth the back of the blade of a small silver knife1 so as to profit by the few moments when the teeth were a little less firmly clenched4 ,i used some force to make the blade act as a wedge1 and after a while opened up a passage to the handle1 which1 serving as a lever1 forced the jaws sufficiently apart to admit the introduction of a spoonful of the emetic4 ,it was not1 however1 until fully two hours had passed that the patient1 having undoubtedly swallowed the necessary dose1 began to vomit1 with strenuous efforts and frightful cries4 ,this was at midnight4 ,four in the morning arrived before1 after numerous alternations of vomiting and profound lethargy1 he began to speak1 and then like a man in delirium4 ,after the first vomit1 which was inconsiderable1 the convulsions of his whole body were so very violent as to require four men to hold him1 while ,i continued to make use of my knife as at first4 ,nor did ,i desist until ,i was satisfied that his stomach had been sufficiently cleansed4 ,after this1 ,i applied two strong blisters to the back of his legs4 ,as these acted1 the purging subsided1 and at the end of twenty-four hours it had passed away entirely1 the invalid finding himself as well as could be expected after sustaining so severe a shock4 ,the other patients1 who were not in so much danger1 experienced twitchings and tremblings in the face1 which quite disfigured them2 the brain seemed a blank2 though awake1 they felt as in a dream1 and their visions were most frightful4 ,it is evident1 from these particulars1 that mushroom-poisoning specially affects the encephalic nervous system1 and that the best remedies are emetics and antispasmodics4 ,in our present ignorance of what are the poisonous principles in the ,amanita1 we can adopt no other method than a chemical neutralisation4 ,,agaricus ,c,,sareus1 ,,or ,,imperial ,,mushroom4 ,in this mushroom1 for which1 as we have seen1 the ,amanita is too frequently mistaken1 the inside as well as the outside is yellow2 the upper surface of the pileus1 which is equally free from scales and warts1 is1 however1 of a reddish yellow1 like that of an orange 7whence the popular ,french name1 la vrai oronge72 all the other parts are of a beautiful citron hue4 ,this agaric exhales an agreeable odour1 combined apparently of the scent of the vanilla and the truffle4 ,it decomposes rapidly1 and when in a state of advanced putridity1 the fragrance ,i speak of is succeeded by--well1 by a fearful stench6 ,when young1 and still completely covered with its wrapper or volva 7this1 in the ,amanita1 is imperfect71 it is very like a hen's egg which has been partly buried in the ground so as to expose only the larger end4 ,it seems partial to solitude2 more than four or five are seldom found in the same locality4 ,moreover1 in autumn it affects the same habitats as the ,amanita1--which is unfortunate4 ,it would seem that our imperial mushroom was specially appreciated by the ancients1 and it is said that ,nero pronounced it a dish fit for the gods4 ,in this circumstance originated the scientific name which has now become popular1 and which was first applied to it by the cryptogamist ,fries1 ,agaricus ,csareus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,the ,imperial ,mushroom4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,boletus of ,pliny appears to have been our ,agaricus1 and not one of our ,boleti1 which are easily recognised by the numerous tubercular projections covering the under part of the pileus4 ,in proof of this ,i would point out that the ,roman naturalist1 after speaking of the ,boleti as genuine delicacies1 immediately inveighs against them as dangerously poisonous4 ,he relates that it was with one of these1 or rather with one of the false mushrooms so easily mistaken for the true1 that ,agrippina poisoned the ,emperor ,claudius1 to secure the imperial crown for her son ,nero4#ha ,the virtues of the mushrooms have been sung by ,juvenal and ,martial4 ,the latter accurately distinguishes the true from the false1 when reproaching ,ccilianus with his gluttony4 ,ah1 you are used to devour your ,boleti alone1 in the face of your invited guests2 eat then1 the ,boletus which ,claudius ate6 ,dic mihi1 quis furor est8 ,turba spectante vocata1 ,solus boletos1 ,cciliane1 voras4 ,quid dignum tanto tibi ventri1 gulaque precabor8 ,boletum1 qualem ,claudius edit1 edas4#hb ,the best known and most valuable species of ,agarici may be briefly enumerated3-- ,agaricus campestris1 or ,common ,mushroom1 found in nearly all temperate regions3 pileus convex1 and white1 with a tinge of brown2 thick set on the under side with dark brown gills2 stem firm and fleshy1 and surrounded by a white membranous ring4 ,agaricus ,csareus1 or ,imperial ,mushroom1 the ,kaiserling of the ,germans1 already described4 ,agaricus deliciosus1 or ,orange-milked ,agaric1 found in coverts of fir and juniper2 pileus viscid1 orange1 and upwards of four inches broad2 gills and juice of a fine orange colour4 ,agaricus procerus1 or ,parasol ,mushroom1 found in the shade of trees1 on meadows with a sandy soil2 stem from eight to twelve inches high1 with a thick spongy ring2 pileus bell-shaped1 and covered with brown scales4 ,agaricus ,virgineus1 or ,white ,field ,agaric1 found in rich moist pastures2 pileus whitish1 and convex2 gills of a light chocolate shade2 stem nearly two inches broad4 ,agaricus eburneus1 or ,ivory ,mushroom1 found in beech woods2 grayish-yellow pileus2 broad gills2 stem long and scaly4 ,agaricus ,georgii1 ,st ,george's ,agaric1 or ,whitecaps1 found in moist pastures1 and in the shelter of old barns1 farmhouses1 and churches2 flesh yellow2 gills yellowish-white2 pileus twelve to eighteen inches broad2 the least valuable of ,british species of agaric1 but useful in ketchup-making4 ,agaricus oreades1 ,fairy-ring ,mushroom1 or ,scotch bonnets1 found in meadows1 where it grows in circles known as fairy rings2 pileus seldom exceeds an inch in diameter2 stem solid1 tough1 and fibrous1 with a boss or umbo in the centre1 of a light brown colour2 the flesh white1 and of a pleasant odour4 ,agaricus odorus1 ,anise ,mushroom1 or ,sweet-scented ,agaric2 pileus slightly convex1 about three inches broad1 and with pale gills2 the scent like that of anise2 stem strong1 fleshy1 but not very tall4 ,agaricus formosus1 or ,smoky ,mushroom2 so called from the colour of the upper surface of the pileus2 the stalk and gills of a pale yellow2 grows in fir woods4 ,agaricus primulus1 or ,mousseron1 grows in woods and pastures1 where the soil is sandy2 pileus convex1 yellow1 about three or four inches in diameter2 gills change from white to flesh colour4 ,how many ,vegetable ,species exist over the whole surface of the ,globe8 ,i will not do my readers the injustice to suppose that they are unacquainted with the writings of our greatest ,english poetess1 ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning4 ,they will not fail to have been attracted by the prodigal genius1 the superabundant power1 the exquisite imagery1 the profound spirit of tenderness1 the high1 pure thoughts1 which render almost every page such delightful reading4 ,successful as she was1 however1 in giving expression to the most subtle emotions and the intensest feeling1 ,i think she was even happier in her descriptions of scenery4 ,these are invariably aglow with life and colour1 and have all the fidelity of ,creswick with the imaginative insight of ,turner4 ,turning over her ,aurora ,leigh1 the other day1 ,i lighted on the following beautiful picture3-- ,i flattered all the beauteous country round1 ,as poets use--the skies1 the clouds1 the fields1 ,the happy violets1 hiding from the roads ,the primroses run down to1 carrying gold-- ,the tangled hedgerows1 where the rows push out ,their tolerant horns and patient churning mouths ',twixt dripping ash-boughs--hedgerows all alive ,with birds1 and gnats1 and large white butterflies1 ,which look as if the ,may-flower had caught life ,and palpitated forth upon the wind3 ,hills1 vales1 woods1 netted in a silver mist2 ,farms1 granges1 doubled up among the hills1 ,and cattle grazing in the watered vales1 ,and cottage chimneys smoking from the woods1 ,and cottage gardens smelling everywhere1 ,confused with smell of orchards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,and cattle grazing in the watered vales4 ,as ,i read this fine passage1 the thought occurred to me1 how many thousands there are who1 in such a scene as it so vividly depicts1 would see no beauty whatever1 whose heart would not respond to it1 whose sympathies would not be aroused by all its variety of outline and all its rich magnificence of colour6 ,yet not in so wide a landscape alone1 but in the smallest nook1--in the little clump of elms by the side of the stream1 in yonder grassy knoll rising straight up from the old churchyard1 in the quiet angle of the green pasture-meadows1--there is a whole world of wonder and beauty for him who has eyes to see and a heart to feel6 ,look at the flowery bank which runs along the side of an ,english lane4 ,is it not crowded with objects of the rarest and purest interest8 ,count the many varieties of grasses which clothe it so abundantly1 count the many species of flowers and herbs which adorn it with a grace beyond all human skill1 and acknowledge that in itself it might supply the inquirer with matter for years of study and meditation4 ,pursuing this train of thought1 ,i was led to think of the number of genera and species into which the plant world is divided1--a remarkable proof1 not only of the power and wisdom1 but of the goodness of the ,creator1 of ,his desire to furnish man with inexhaustible sources of pleasure and entertainment2 and finally1 to put to myself the question1 ,how many vegetable species exist over the whole surface of the globe8 ,if this corner of a leafy ,english lane is so rich in variety1 what must be the case with the wide1 wide world8 ,i was now brought to see that a question so difficult could1 like so many others1 be usefully approached only by its inferior limit2 in other words1 that in the actual condition of botanical science1 we can but affirm the number which certainly exceeds the sum of the vegetable species scattered over the surface of our earth4 ,to determine this total with mathematical accuracy1 we should need to have explored the terrestrial crust1 liquid and solid1 land and water1 from the bed of ocean to the line of perpetual snow1 and from the equator to the poles4 ,and as yet we are very far from having obtained so complete a possession of the planet which has been assigned as a dwelling-place to our poor humanity1--alas1 more presumptuous than powerful6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the number of plants mentioned by ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny1 whom we take to be the representatives of ancient botany1 does not exceed five hundred species4 ,how very few1 compared with the presumable total6 ,the ,middle ,ages added scarcely anything to the botanical researches of antiquity4 ,it is only since the discovery of ,america that we have seen the domain of ,flora extending itself in unexpected proportions4 ,but we must come down to the epoch of ,linnus 7the middle of the eighteenth century7 before we can obtain an accurate list of species1 scientifically classified4 ,murray's edition of the ,specilegium of ,linnus contains two thousand and forty-two species1 including the ,cryptogams4 ,wildmore1 in another edition of the same great work1 raised the total to twenty thousand4 ,and this was the point at which our botanists had arrived when the nineteenth century opened4 ,but it was not long before they perceived that all these estimates1 large as they seemed1 fell immeasurably short of the reality4 ,in attempting to distribute the different species among the then known regions of the globe1 ,alexander von ,humboldt arrived at a total of forty-four thousand species1 ,phanerogams and ,cryptogams included4 ,de ,candolle extended the estimate to upwards of fifty-six thousand4 ,let us divide1 in fancy1 the earth into two parts1--one which has been visited by travellers1 and one which still remains to be explored4 ,can you determine which would present the larger area8 ,the latter4 ,thus we possess but a very imperfect knowledge of the luxuriant1 the glowing vegetation of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the ,new ,world1 in spite of the labours of ,bates1 ,agassiz1 ,wallace1 and others4 ,to the north of the equator1 we know very little of the flora of ,yucatan1 ,guatemala1 ,nicaragua1 the isthmus of ,panama1 the ,chaco of ,antioquius1 the province of ,los ,pastos4 ,we are not much better acquainted with the vegetation of the countries south of the equator4 ,what do we know of the manifold species flourishing in ,paraguay1 in the province of the ,missions1 in the immense wooded region between the ,ucayali1 the ,rio de la ,madeira1 and the ,tocantin1 three affluents of the mighty river ,amazon8 ,we know scarcely anything4 ,our ignorance increases if from ,america we pass to ,africa4 ,nearly the whole interior of this continent1 from #ae ,n4 latitude to #bj ,s4 latitude1 is1 botanically speaking1 a blank to us4 ,the same is the case with the greater portion of ,central ,asia4 ,the floras of the south and south-east of ,arabia are still sealed letters1--treasuries to which we have not found the key4 ,as much may be said of the floras of the countries situated between the ,thian-,schan1 the ,kuenlung1 and the ,himalaya1 as well as of the floras of western ,china1 and most of the trans-,gangetic countries4 ,we know still less of the vegetation of the interior of ,madagascar1 ,borneo1 ,new ,guinea1 and the greater part of ,australia4 ,to conclude3 we are probably not acquainted with more than one-fifth of the vegetable species which cover the surface of our globe4 ,there are regions1 moreover1 which we imagine will always lie outside of our sphere of investigation2 such1 for instance1 are the ,polar regions1 properly so called4 ,undoubtedly1 it is open to us to conjecture that the ,poles--those two extremities of our axis of planetary rotation--are not the home of any form of life4 ,but this is only a conjecture2 we are even without an analogy for it2 since we have found1 as shown in an earlier chapter of the present volume1 living beings1 plants1 and animals1 among the snows of our loftiest mountains4 ,moreover1 might not the auroras1 whose maximum of intensity occurs exactly at the poles1 render life possible in regions where we at present suppose it to be impossible8 ,conjecture for conjecture1--acknowledge that we here touch in both cases upon an element completely beyond our human power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these1 then1 are the reasons why1 at present1 we can only venture upon defining the lower limit1 the restricted number1 above which we are unable to fix the total of vegetable species living on the surface of our planet4 ,the method to be adopted has been indicated by ,alexander von ,humboldt in his ,ansichten der ,natur 7,pictures of ,nature74 ,his method consists in the comparison of the vegetable families whose numerical relations are known1 with the number of species contained in our herbariums1 or cultivated in our botanical gardens4 ,but here1 at the outset1 a difficulty confronts us4 ,does any relation exist between the classification of plants by natural families and by their geographical distribution8 ,to group plants according to their analogies of structure1 we study them from an abstract point of view1 and without any regard to the medium in which they flourish4 ,the question grows complicated if we also take into consideration their characteristic conditions and their distribution over the terrestrial surface4 ,families are then split asunder1 and the importance of our scientific classifications disappears4 ,the gathering together of a small number of species1 represented by innumerable individuals1 confined within the same area1 may suffice to communicate to a landscape its characteristic physiognomy3 as1 for example1 is the case with the ,asiatic steppes1 the landes of ,brittany1 the moors of ,scotland1 the palm-groves and the clumps of ,cactace of tropical ,america4 ,by the side of species which impress us by their mass--that is1 by the frequent reproduction of the same individuals at an infinitesimal distance from one another--are placed those much more numerous species which are everywhere very thinly sown4 ,but do the plants themselves follow1 from the equator to the poles1 the same law of decrease as obtains from the base to the summit of the loftiest equatorial mountains8 ,under identical isothermal lines1 is the ratio of families known and identified to the probable aggregate of ,phanerogams the same1 in the temperate zone1 on either side of the equator8 ,what are the vegetable families which preponderate at the two extremes1 represented by the torrid and the frigid zones8 ,under the same geographical latitude1 or between the same isothermal lines1 are the ,synanther1 the ,gramine1 the ,leguminos1 the ,labiat1 the ,crucifer1 the ,umbellifer1 more numerous in the ,old than in the ,new ,world8 ,what families1 either through their mass of individuals or their number of species1 take precedence of the other ,phanerogams8 ,how many species of one and the same family belong to any particular country8 ,what groups or families are characteristic of each zone8 ,is the present classification of genera and species in all respects what could be desired8 99 99 99 99 99 ,these are questions that require to be considered1 and to some of them we shall presently attempt replies4 ,herbariums1 though their classification is too frequently imperfect1 may furnish us with data of great utility4 ,the great herbarium of ,benjamin ,delessert was estimated1 after his death1 to contain #hf1jjj species1--a total not widely differing from that which ,lindley1 in #ahce1 estimated as the probable aggregate of the vegetable species of the world4 ,great in importance are botanic gardens4 ,loudon1 in his ,hortus ,britannicus 7ed4 #ahcb71 places at #bb1ffj the number of ,phanerogams cultivated in the gardens of the ,bristol amateur botanists4 ,with this number we must not confound the living species exhibited1 in other counties1 in gardens designed for the instruction of students1 nor the grand total reared for a similar purpose at ,kew4 ,kunth's enumeration1 in #ahfa1 of the plants at the ,botanic ,gardens at ,berlin1 one of the richest in ,europe1 amounted to upwards of #ad1jjj species1 including #cge heaths4 ,among the ,phanerogams were #afjj ,synanther1 #aaej ,leguminos1 #dbh ,labiat1 #cgj ,umbellifer1 #dfj ,orchidace1 #fj ,palmace1 #fjj ,gramine and ,cyperace1 c4 ,by comparing these data with the number of species described in the works of ,de ,candolle1 ,walpers1 ,bentham1 ,lindley1 ,kunth1 and others1 we find that in the ,berlin gardens are cultivated only one-seventh of the known species of the ,synanther1 one-eighth of the ,leguminos1 one-ninth of the ,gramine1 and about one-fiftieth of the smaller families1 such as the ,labiat and ,umbellifer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 if we admit that1 on the one hand1 the number of phanerogamous species cultivated in all the great gardens of ,europe is about #cj1jjj1 and1 on the other1 that the cultivated ,phanerogams form about one-eighth part of the species described in books and preserved in herbariums1 we obtain a total of #bd1jjj species4 ,but the ,cryptogams1 or ,agams1 such as heaths1 mosses1 lichens1 mushrooms1 fungi1 mould1 and the like1 of which our knowledge1 as yet1 is very imperfect1 are probably much more numerous in species than the ,phanerogams2 for these vegetables1 mostly microscopical1 develop themselves wherever life can manifest itself--on the barren and denuded rocks1 as well as in the air and in the depths of the ocean4 ,if we suppose that they exceed only by #bjjj the estimated number of ,phanerogams1 we shall obtain a total of just half-a-million6 ,such1 in our opinion1 is the number which approximatively represents the lower limit of the aggregate of vegetable species 7phanerogamous and cryptogamous7 inhabiting our planet4 ,the innumerable individuals of this half-million of species are born1 and live1 and reproduce their kind1 and die1 like the twelve hundred millions of individuals of our solitary human species4 ,the former1 it is true1 remain fixed to the soil which has witnessed their birth1 while the latter wander1 more or less freely over the terrestrial surface4 ,do not animals enjoy the same privilege of locomotion8 ,undoubtedly4 ,but men boast of the reason and the conscience with which they are endowed4 ,agreed4 ,but with the exception of a small number--the infinite minority of progress--to what advantage have men employed the reason and the conscience of which they boast8 99 99 99 99 99 ,but this is a digression4 ,we proceed to place before the reader a few final data in illustration of the subject we have been considering--the number of existing vegetable species4 ,the following is an estimate of the known species of plants on the globe at different dates3-- ,phanerogams4 ,cryptogams4 ,total4 ,according to ,linnus1 #agec1 #e1cbc #fae #e1ich ,pusoon1 #ahjg1 #ai1idi #f1jjj #be1idi ,stendel1 #ahbd1 #ci1fhd #aj1gfe #ej1fdi ,stendel1 #ahda1 #gh1jjj #ac1jjj #ia1jjj ,stendel1 #ahdd1 #hj1jjj #ae1jjj #ie1jjj ,the advance made of late years in the knowledge of existing species will be apparent from a consideration of ,lindley's estimate in #ahdf3-- ,genera4 ,species4 ,thallogens1 #ici #h1cid ,acrogens1 #caj #d1jhf ,rhizogens1 #ba #ec ,endogens1 #a1dbj #ac1fhd ,dictyogens1 #ag #bfh ,gymnogens1 #cg #baj ,exogens1 #f1aia #af1bbe ------ ------- ,total1 #h1ice #ib1ibj ,according to ,hinds1 the following families are almost entirely restricted to particular divisions of the globe3-- ,to ,europe--,globulariace1 ,ceratophyllace4 ,to ,asia--,dipterocarpace1 ,aquilariace1 ,camelliace1 ,moringace1 ,stilaginace4 ,to ,africa--,bruniace1 ,brexiace1 ,belvisiace1 ,penace4 ,to ,north ,america--,sarraceniace4 ,to ,south ,america--,rhizobolace1 ,gillesiace1 ,calycerace1 ,vochysiace1 ,simarubace1 ,monimiace1 ,humiriace1 ,papayace1 ,gesnerace1 ,lacistemace4 ,to ,australasia--,goodeniace1 ,epacridace1 ,stackhousiace1 ,brunoniace1 ,tremandrace4 ,a group of plants occurring only in one of the six great divisions of the world is called monomic1 7from one1 and 1 a region74 ,a group common to two divisions is dinomic2 to three1 trinomic2 to four1 quatrinomic2 to all the divisions1 polynomic4 ,,natural ,,families ,,predominant ,,in ,,the ,,northern ,,hemisphere4 ,acerace1 ,alismace1 ,amentace1 ,artocarpe 7fam4 ,articace71 ,aurantiace1 ,berberace1 ,boraginace1 ,campanulace1 ,caprifoliace1 ,caryophyllace1 ,cistace1 ,conifer1 ,crucifer1 ,dipsacace1 ,elagnace1 ,fumariace1 ,grossulariace1 ,hamamelidace1 ,hippocastane 7fam4 ,sapindace71 ,hypericace1 ,magnoliace1 ,onagrace1 ,orobanchace1 ,papaverace1 ,ranunculace1 ,residace1 ,rosace1 ,rutace1 ,saxifragace1 ,umbellifer1 ,vacciniace4 ,,natural ,,families ,,predominant ,,in ,,the ,,southern ,,hemisphere4 ,amaryllidace1 ,atherospermace1 ,cactace1 ,capparidace1 ,crassulace1 ,dilleniace1 ,diosme 7fam4 ,rutace71 ,geraniace1 ,hmodorace1 ,heliotrope 7fam4 ,ehretiace71 ,iridace1 ,malpighiace1 ,melastomace1 ,mesembryace1 ,myoporine 7fam4 ,verbenace71 ,myrtace1 ,oxalidace1 ,pittosporace1 ,polygalace1 ,proteace1 ,restiace1 ,scvole 7fam4 ,goodeniace71 ,spigele 7fam4 ,loganiace71 ,stylidiace4 ,,the ,,harvest ,,bug4 ,i very much wish1 said my friend ,t4 to me one day1 to buy a small estate in the vicinity of ---- ,forest4 ,if there should be one to sell1 pray let me know of it4 ,it was not long before an opportunity arose for my friend to satisfy his desire4 ,but after ,i had made him acquainted with it1 he declared himself no longer willing to purchase a property in a district where1 as he had learned1 one was devoured by red beasts all through the finest months of the year4 ,what a frightful neighbourhood to live in1 where you were forbidden to walk in your garden under pain of catching an itch in your legs6 ,unquestionably1 it is only too true that the cultivated ground1 whether on the northern or the southern slope of the forest1 is infested1 from the beginning of summer to the beginning of winter1 by ,lilliputian horrors1 like so many tiny red points1 which cling obstinately to the skin1 and there deposit1 under the epidermis1 their microscopic brood4 ,once planted there1 the rougets1 as the ,french call them1 or harvest bugs1 as we ,english call them1 effect considerable mischief2 and if1 to relieve one's self1 one indulges in a scratch1 the cutaneous surface is quickly covered by small blisters1 which on a cursory examination might be taken for a skin affection not generally named in polite hearing4 ,but one does not perceive the galleries excavated by these annoying insects1 positive tunnels or covered ways1 through which they proceed to pour forth elsewhere the superfluity of their numerous progeny4 ,less prolific than the ,acari1 which create upon the skin immense patches of irritation1 the harvest bugs confine themselves to a few circumscribed localities3 their favourite choice being the legs1 the arms1 and the corners of the eyes1 especially among young children4 ,they are not above domestic animals2 cats and dogs frequently suffer from them1--not1 indeed1 over the whole surface of the body1 for they are not so wandering as the ,acari1--but particularly inside the shell of the ear4 ,at the first glance you would scarcely believe that those red points1 apparently immovable1 could be living beings1--could be animals belonging to an order of some importance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us attempt to isolate one of the animalcules with the point of a pin3 it is not an easy thing to do1 because they usually adhere to the epidermis in clusters of three or four individuals4 ,there1 now we have succeeded1 and here is one before us3 it is only the fifth of a millimtre in diameter1 which is1 for most people1 the very last limit of the visual function 7see the small white line in ,fig4 #gf1 a74 ,and1 in truth1 it would be imperceptible to the eye but for its bright red colour4 ,to study it carefully1 of course1 you must make use of a very strong lens1 or1 rather1 of a microscope4 7,see ,fig4 #gf1 b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;a ,leptus ,autumnalis 7nat4 size74 b ,ditto 7mag474 ,to this tiny animal has been given the name of ,leptus autumnalis2 the first1 on account of its extreme delicacy2 the second1 because it is visible up to the end of autumn4 ,when examined through a microscope1 it produces on the spectator the impression of a spider2 but1 like all other insects1 it has only six legs4 ,our naturalists1 however1 have found some difficulty in classifying it2 and by way of cutting the ,gordian knot of their embarrassments1 some have placed it in a separate family of ,microphthir 7literally little lice71 which is made to include all ,arachnid with six legs4 ,others1 who regard the wheat worm as an insect1 rank it among the parasitical ,apter4 ,in effect1 it has all the characters of the parasitical insect--its protracted head1 distinct from the rest of its body1 is sometimes thrust forward in quest of its food1 sometimes drawn back or concealed1 to protect it from danger4 ,intended to suck rather than to knead or bruise1 it has a sucker1 but no mandibles4 ,the head is without antenn1 and its palpi are very short1 barely visible1 and of a conical form4 ,the body is ovular and very soft 7whence the ,grecian name leptus1 1 signifying soft74 ,the anterior part1 corresponding to the thorax1 is broader than it is long1 and is marked underneath1 on each side of the central line1 by a black point3 these two points1 symmetrically placed1 appear to represent the eyes4 ,the posterior portion1 corresponding to the abdomen1 is longer than it is broad1 and covered with hairs4 ,each leg consists of six joints1 easily distinguished by the hairs inserted at each articulation2 and each terminates in a couple of strong crooked claws1 which enable the animal to obtain a firm hold on the skin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus1 then1 to judge from the aggregate of its characters1 the harvest bug1 ,leptus autumnalis1 belongs to the class ,arachnid1 while the number of its feet places it in the class ,insects4 ,but this is a detail which causes little annoyance to a person being devoured by the red beasts1 and only anxious to rid himself of them4 ,but if such be his desire1 let me tell him that the best remedies are bathing the afflicted part with lotions of vinegar1 or rubbing it with sulphur ointment4 ,i have been asked whether certain tiny parasites1 such as the ,ocypete rubra1--which is also red1 and has six feet like the ,leptus autumnalis1 but which1 instead of attacking man and his domestic companions1 attaches itself to flies1--,i have been asked whether these insectiform ,arachnid may not be species of larva not yet arrived at their matured condition4 ,for my part1 ,i must acknowledge that1 whether the ,ocypete rubra is or is not the transitory state of a more perfect animal1 ,i do not know4 ,but ,i am sure that the ,leptus autumnalis lives and dies on the skin where it has selected its dwelling-place1--a living dwelling-place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is impossible to be too circumspect in the determination of certain genera and species1 whose different phases of existence are little known1 and which seem1 so far as their characteristics are concerned1 to participate of several orders or classes of articulated animals4 ,the errors which have been committed in this respect ought at least to teach us caution4 ,thus1 the red1 oval1 six-legged animalcules1 whose mobile heads are furnished with a proboscis shaped like an angular beak1 and whose two palpi are large and semi-transparent1--the singular animalcules which1 in ,june or ,july1 are hatched in the spongy stems of certain aquatic vegetables1--notably the ,potamogeton natans1--have been described#hc as forming a peculiar genus of ,arachnid1 the genus ,achlysia2 and this genus1 created by ,audouin1 was ranked along with the ,leptus and ,ocypete in the family of ,microphthir4 ,yet nothing is less exact4 ,these ,achlysia are simply the larv of a kind of ,hydrachna or water-acarus4 ,to be convinced of this1 you have but to watch their development4 ,at first very small and pear-shaped1 these larv1 deprived1 like all larv1 of the reproductive organs1 rapidly increase in size4 ,at the end of a few weeks you will see them adhering to a leaf of potamogeton2 they thrust their proboscis into the stem1 and cling to it with their palpi4 ,little by little1 the legs1 the proboscis1 and the palpi1 are drawn back towards the body1 abandoning the skin which has hitherto formed for each of these organs a kind of horny sheath4 ,from the larva state1 the animal passes into that of the nymph4 ,but this nymph continues to feed and enlarge2 proboscis1 legs1 and palpi grow thinner and harder2 claws1 cili1 and hairs are developed2 and1 finally1 through a fissure in the skin emerges the perfect animal1 red as wine1 with eight feet1 and about two millimetres in length4 ,this animal1 placed in the family of the ,hydrachnell1 has been described by ,de ,geer under the name of ,acarus aquaticus globosus1 and by ,dugs under that of ,hydrachna globosa1 on account of its globular form4 ,,the ,,cheese ,,mite4 ,from the crust of a dry old cheese1--such a kind of cheese as a bon-vivant likes with a glass of good old ale1--a very fine powder often crumbles off1 like the dust made by wood-eating worms4 ,examine this powder with your lens1 or if you have good eyes1 you may make use of them4 ,you will quickly detect something moving in it1 and by degrees you will see that this movement pervades the whole mass2 that there is a general stir and commotion in all directions4 ,but you find it impossible to distinguish clearly the form of the animals which are thus agitated4 ,you are certain1 however1 that they are not maggots1 for they affect moist cheeses2 besides1 they are visible enough to everybody1 and at need can make themselves felt upon your hands1 and even upon your face1 for they have a faculty of launching themselves to a distance by a little manuvre familiar enough to serpents3 bringing the head round towards the tail1 they curve themselves like the spring of a watch1 then abruptly uncoiling themselves with the help of some solid appui1 they fling forth into the air1 and are thus launched to very considerable distances4 ,it is a curious species of locomotion1 not unworthy the attention of the mechanician4 ,to clear up the mystery of a movement whose cause is not apparent at the first glance1 let us sprinkle with this impalpable dbris1--with this kind of sawdust1 or cheese-dust1--a little strip of glass1 and place it beneath the focus of a microscope4 ,ah6 you exclaim1 what a frightful creature6 ,these long sharp cili seem to be so many lancets covering the whole body1 and especially the legs2 its head1 like that of the harvest-bug1 protrudes and recedes under a transparent carapace2 thus communicating to the animal something of the aspect of a turtle4 ,in all other respects its form exactly resembles the harvest-bug2 only its body is more elongated towards the anterior extremity than that of the latter4 ,while the harvest-bug makes us think of a spider1 the body of the ,acarus has a greater likeness to an insect's4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,yet the ,acarus has eight legs1 like a spider1 and the harvest-bug six1 like an insect4 ,attempt1 then1 to establish your absolute rules6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,the ,acarus domesticus4 ,let us continue our observation of this cheese-worm4 ,the well-defined thorax forms nearly one-third of the fore-part of the body1 which is of a shining whitish-red or reddish-white4 ,the proboscis1 shaped like a conical tube1 is armed with two projecting mandibles1 which1 like true pincers1 can be brought close together1 or moved wide apart1 thrust forward singly or simultaneously4 ,our animal1 which a small lens makes very distinct1 has been more than once confounded with the ,sarcoptes scabiei4 ,let us resume4 ,our cheese-dust1 which to all appearance walks alone1 encloses legions of mites2 the old you may detect by their eight feet1 the young by having six4 ,the germs1 or eggs1 whence they spring1 are found mixed among the excrements of the living1 and the dbris of the dead4 ,it is in this way that a crust of cheese offers us a true1 a vivid image of the terrestrial crust4 ,so may we learn to compare small things with great4 ,,how ,,many ,,animal ,,species ,,are ,,there ,,distributed ,,over ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,globe8 ,in the present condition of scientific knowledge1 no satisfactory answer can be given to this important and most interesting question4 ,the truth is1 that what we may call ,geographical ,zoology is as yet in its very infancy4 ,the few works which have been published on the subject have been published within the last eighty or ninety years2 and they embrace only the vertebrate animals1 notably the mammals1 birds1 and reptiles1 or amphibia4 ,we shall attempt to place before the reader an outline of the results that have so far been obtained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all the ,vertebrata1 we are best acquainted with the mammals4 ,and yet our zoologists differ very widely in respect to the number of their species1 though the calculations have been made at very short intervals4 ,for instance1 in #ahbi1 ,minding computed that the globe contained #abcj species of mammals4 ,in #ahcb1 ,charles ,bonaparte reduced the total to #aadi4 ,oken estimates it at #aejj2 and this last figure would seem to be the most probable4 ,nothing is more curious than the distribution of these #aejj species of mammals1 according to the different regions and climates of the globe4 ,man1 according to the best-considered data of science1 forms a single family1 a single genus1 a single species4 ,he alone possesses the power of adapting himself to every climate1 and of taking possession of countries the most widely opposite in character4 ,we find him among the snows of the ,north ,pole2 we find him under the blazing sun of the ,tropics4 ,we find him in the palm-fringed islands of ,southern ,seas1 and in the barren burning waste of the inhospitable ,sahara4 ,considered as an animal who feeds and reproduces himself1 he forms alone the order of ,bimana2 so named in opposition to the ,quadrumana1 or apes1 who make use of their fore-feet as we do of our two hands4 ,deprive man of his progressive and transmissible intellect--of those mysterious powers which we call the mind and the soul--and he would become at once the most useless and the most wretched member of the animal world4 ,the warm regions of the old and new continents are the true home and haunt of the apes4 ,they are not sufficiently developed to be able to frequent the temperate or frigid zone4 ,in our ,european menageries the specimens nearly all die of consumption4 ,the ,quadrumana form about one-fourteenth of the whole number of species of ,mammalia4 ,the ,carnivora1 characterised by the development of their canine teeth1 are spread over the whole globe4 ,they are found in greater numbers in the torrid1 however1 than in the frigid zone4 ,their species compose at least one-third of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,rodentia1 characterised by the development of the incisors1 are wanting in ,polynesia1 and are rare in ,australia4 ,they are found in their maximum number in the torrid zone4 ,like the ,carnivora1 they form about one-third of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,ruminantia1 remarkable for the development of their digestive apparatus1 are distributed into #afe species1 representing something less than one-ninth of the ,mammalia4 ,africa1 of all the continents1 is richest in the ,ruminants4 ,the ,marsupialia1 so strangely distinguished by the membranous pouch in which they enclose their young1 belong to ,america1 and especially ,australia4 ,at present about #abc species are known1 or a little more than one-thirteenth of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,edentata1 so named on account of their incomplete dentition1 inhabit the tropical regions of the ,old and ,new ,world4 ,they are distributed into #cb species1 #ai of which belong to ,america4 ,the ,edentata1 therefore1 do not form more than one-fiftieth of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,pachydermata1 which owe their name to the thickness of their skin or hide1 almost exclusively belong to the ,old ,world4 ,none are found in ,australia4 ,the number of their species is #ch1 of which #e only belong to ,southern and ,central ,america4 ,the ,pachyderms form1 therefore1 nearly one-thirty-seventh of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,cetace1--which the naturalists of antiquity ranked among the fishes1 though the females bear their young alive1 and are furnished with a mammary apparatus1--chiefly frequent the ,northern waters1 but some of their species are found in the ,south ,pacific4 ,they represent1 it may be assumed1 about a one-hundredth part of the ,mammalia4 ,the ,birds1 by their feather-clad bodies1 and by the transformation of their two fore-limbs into wings1 form the best-characterised class in the whole animal kingdom4 ,but naturalists can no more agree as to the number of their species than as to the number of species composing the ,mammalia4 ,some1 taking as a foundation the rich ornithological collection in the ,berlin ,museum1 allow for #fjjj species being distributed over the surface of the globe2 others1 like ,lessen1 increase the total to #fbff2 while ,dr ,gray1 no mean authority1 raises it to at least #hjjj4 ,the majority of the ,raptores1 or birds of prey 7vulture1 falcon1 eagle71 as well as nearly all the ,waders 7stork1 crane1 heron71 and ,palmipedes 7duck1 goose1 water-hen71 are cosmopolitan birds4 ,the other orders1 such as the ,scansores 7parrot1 parroquet1 magpie71 the ,passeres 7comprising nearly all the singing birds71 and the ,gallinace 7pheasant1 pintado71 prefer1 as a general rule1 the warm temperate regions4 ,they are not found in the extreme north1 nor in the equatorial climes1 except in limited numbers4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,mammalia4 ,assumed total1 #afjj species4 ,bimana form #a species4 ,quadrumana #aje 787 ,carnivora #eaj 787 ,rodentia #ejh 787 ,ruminantia #afe ,marsupialia #abc ,edentata #aeb ,pachydermata #ch ,cetace #ah 787 ---- #afjj ,of course1 the foregoing is but an approximative estimate1 but it will provide the reader with a tolerably accurate notion of the proportion borne by the different classes of ,mammalia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about #ejjj species of birds have been classified4 ,by ,cuvier's system they are divided into six orders3-- #a4 ,raptores1 or birds of prey4 #b4 ,passerine birds1 now generally called ,insessores1 or ,perching-birds4 #c4 ,scansores1 or ,climbing1 frequently called ,zygodactyli or ,zygodactylous birds4 #d4 ,gallinace1 now more frequently known as ,rasores4 #e4 ,grallatores1 ,waders1 or ,stilt birds4 #f4 ,palmipedes1 or ,web-footed birds1 now more generally recognised as ,natatores1 or ,swimmers4 ,it has been proposed to separate the ,brevipennes1 or short-winged birds1 from the ,grallatores1 and erect them into a separate order4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,reptiles1 of which the majority possess the faculty of living upon land and in water1--whence their name of ,amphibia1--never pass beyond the limits of warm and temperate climates3 their blood1 which has the same temperature as the medium wherein they live--whence their name of cold-blooded animals--does not circulate where the mean annual temperature descends below freezing-point4 ,yet frogs and salamanders have been met with in ,greenland1 and on the banks of the ,mackenzie ,river1 in ,north ,america1 under #fg latitude4 99 99 99 99 99 ,linnus was not acquainted with more than #bae species of ,amphibia1 divided into four orders3--the ,chelonians1 or tortoises2 the ,saurians 7as the lizard and crocodile72 the ,ophidians 7serpents72 and the ,batrachians 7frogs74 ,in #aghi1 ,lacpde raised the total to #cjc2 in #ahbj1 ,merrem estimated it at #fgg4 ,at present1 the number of species of ,reptilia classified and described amounts to #bjjj1 and the four orders into which they are distributed are-- #a4 ,ophidia1 or ,serpents4 #b4 ,sauria1 or ,lizards4 #c4 ,loricata1 or ,crocodiles4 #d4 ,chelonia1 or ,tortoises4 ,according to ,sching1 there are #g tortoises1 #cc serpents1 and #ce lizards4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fishes are the least known of those superior animals whose skeleton and vertebral column are situated in the interior of the body1 and which are thence named ,vertebrata4 ,the richest collections1 such as those of the ,british ,museum1 and those of the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris1 which contain about #cjjj species1 do not represent probably more than a fourth of the existing total1 including fresh-water and salt-water fish4 ,how many rivers and streams in both hemispheres still remain to be explored6 ,how far we are from a knowledge of the fishes which people the different strata of the great ocean4 ,agassiz divides this great class of vertebrated animals into the four orders of ,cycloid1 ,ctenoid1 ,placoid1 and ,ganoid1 according to the character of their scales4 ,cuvier1 into ,osseous fishes 7with true bones71 and ,cartilaginous2 subdividing the former into ,acanthopterygii and ,malacopterygii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the difficulty of the problem we are here considering increases when we come to the inferior animals4 ,who would pretend to determine the number of species of ,mollusca which inhabit the earth1 the fresh waters and the salt8 ,this much is certain1 that it cannot be less than that of the ,vertebrates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the vast aggregate of the ,articulata1 the inquirer finds himself utterly astray and bewildered4 ,this great division is not divided into those which have1 and those which have not1 articulated members4 ,the first subdivision includes ,insects1 ,arachnida1 ,crustacea1 and ,myriapoda2 the second1 ,annelida and ,entozoa4 ,some naturalists1 be it said1 rank the ,cirrhopoda as intermediate between the two2 others place them among the ,mollusca4 ,others1 again1 include the ,rotifera in the second subdivision4 ,we shall in this place confine our remarks to the ,insects4 ,according to the most distinguished entomologists1 the average number of species at present1 described or not described1 and preserved in entomological collections1 is between #aej1jjj and #agj1jjj4 ,this estimate is obviously below the truth4 ,take only the ,coleoptera1 which forms but one1 though1 it is true1 the most numerous order of insects4 ,thirty years ago the most complete collections contained about #gjjj species4 ,in #ahej1 the museum at ,berlin1 according to ,alexander von ,humboldt1 contained nearly #cb1jjj4 ,we would here call the reader's attention to the just remarks of the author of the ,natural ,history of the ,coleoptera1 an entomologist of great authority1 whom a long residence in ,america had peculiarly qualified to pronounce an opinion on the subject before us3-- ,if we remember1 says the ,count de ,castelnau1 that there are immense regions in ,asia and the two ,americas of which we do not possess a single coleoptera2 if we reflect that the interior of the vast continent of ,new ,holland is1 from this standpoint1 entirely unknown1 and that most of the archipelagoes of the great ocean have never been entomologically explored1 we may conclude1 without any fear of mistake1 that the number of existing coleopteras exceeds one hundred thousand4 ,however frightful this number may appear1 it will seem less so if we examine only the species discovered in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 within a radius of twelve to fifteen leagues2 and we do not hesitate to say1 that in a few years the ,parisian fauna alone will present material for a considerable work1 which shall not treat of less than #cjjj to #djjj species of ,coleoptera4#hd 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we admit that the other orders of insects1 the ,lepidoptera1 the ,hemiptera1 the ,hymenoptera1 the ,neuroptera1 the ,orthoptera1 the ,diptera1 the ,strepsiptera1 comprise1 taken altogether1 at least the same number of species as the ,coleoptera alone1 we shall gain1 for the class of insects1 a total of #bjj1jjj4 ,and we shall certainly keep within the truth if we assign the same number of species to the ,annelida1 the ,crustacea1 the ,arachnida1 the ,myriapoda1 and the ,monomorpha1 to which1 with some modification1 we may apply the remarks already called forth by the ,coleoptera4 ,let us recapitulate4 ,the four classes of ,vertebrate ,animals include approximatively3-- #a1fjj species ,mammals4 #e1jjj ,birds4 #b1jjj ,reptiles4 #ab1jjj ,fishes4 ------ #bj1fjj ,if we add to these #bj1fjj species of ,vertebrate ,animals1 #bjj1jjj species of ,articulata1 and #bb1jjj ,mollusca 7a minimum71 we shall have a total of #bdb1fjj4 ,but to complete the grand whole of beings who grow1 and live1 and feel 7the definition of animals laid down by ,linnus71 we must add the ,intestinal ,worms1 the ,echinodermata1 the ,acaleph 7or ,sea-nettles71 and the ,polypes4 ,the history of these singular creatures1 which apparently form the transition between the animal and vegetable kingdom1 and have thence been designated ,zoophytes1 leaves much1 very much1 to be desired before it will be possible to indicate1 even approximatively1 the number of their species4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and1 finally1 what shall we say of the ,infusoria8 ,these microscopic forms of life seem1 by their extreme multiplicity1 to animate all nature4 ,it is in studying these that the inquirer needs to be constantly on his guard1 that he may not mistake transitory conditions--or larv--for actual species1 and it behoves him to understand thoroughly the difficult delimitation of specific characters4 ,it would be far easier to ascertain the exact number of human beings who at present people the terrestrial surface1 than to fix the total of the species of ,infusoria now in existence2 assuredly it exceeds #bej1jjj4 ,what an infinite variety of design is here6 ,what a picture it presents of the inexhaustibility of the ,creative ,mind6 99 99 99 99 99 ,add1 then1--let us say1 in conclusion1--to this last great total the aggregate of the ,vertebrates1 the ,articulates1 and the ,molluscs1 and for our grand whole we have a minimum of half a million of ,,animal ,,species6 ,this is the very figure1 observe1 at which we arrived as representing the lowest limit of the totality of ,,vegetable ,,species1 living and moving1 flourishing1 and dying1 and reproducing1 on the surface of the globe4 ,we leave the reader to meditate--as meditate he surely must--on the sublime thoughts1 the overpowering ideas of ,power and ,wisdom which these considerations suggest4 ,,what ,,is ,,chlorophyll8 ,we are drawing towards the close of autumn2 we shall soon be in sight of the melancholy days of the year2 when1 for a while1 the voice of the turtle will cease in the leafless groves1 and the banks and braes will be sadly bare of their floral garniture4 ,as yet1 however1 the trees retain their glorious vesture1 though streaked and varied with the gorgeous colours of decay2 and in the sheltered corners of the woods1 on the sunny southern slope of the grassy hill1 and beneath the covert of the still fragrant hedgerow1 many a blossom appeals to our souls with its promptings of sweet images and tender fancies4 ,the arum still raises its clusters of deep-scarlet berries1 and spreads its spotted leaf-- ,armed with keen tortures for the unwary tongue2 the blue-bells hang their delicate cups among the thick herbage2 and the wild marigold contrasts its yellow splendour with all this crimson and azure magnificence4 ,the daisy1 too1 has not forsaken us--sweet shield of silver1 embossed with gold6--but brightens still the pleasant meadow and the sloping bank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,as yet1 the trees retain their glorious vesture4 ,the rose has but a summer reign1 ,the daisy never dies2 and though it first makes its appearance in the merry spring-time1 and is truly a child of the early year1 it lingers on to become a precious ornament of our scanty autumn wreaths4 ,sweet flower of song6--dearer to the poet than even lily or violet6--who does not remember1 and remembering feel1 all the pathos of the dying exclamation of poor ,keats1--,i feel the daisies already growing over me6 ,they heighten the commonest and cheer the saddest corners of the earth1 and are ever ready1 in their simple loveliness1 to awaken thoughts of grateful tenderness and love-- ,so glad am ,i when in the daisy's presence1 ,that ,i am fain to do it reverence4 ,to what do the leaves1 now changing their hues so rapidly1 and varying through all the tints of purple1 brown1 and yellow1--to what do they owe their normal colour1 the fresh1 vivid1 beautiful green8 ,to a substance called chlorophyll--71 green1 and 1 a leaf74 ,well1 what is chlorophyll8 ,the colouring matter of plants1 which1 accompanied by grains of starch1 floats like very minute seeds in the fluid of their cells4 ,in some respects it is analogous to wax2 it will not dissolve in water1 but is easily affected by ether or alcohol4 ,chlorophyll is dependent upon the action of light1 if not for its formation1 at all events for its development4 ,keep a plant in a dark room or cellar1 and it will become blanched and sickly2 the colouring matter dries up1 and the white1 wan tissue of the leaf is all that survives4 ,the more a plant is exposed to the light1 the deeper will be its green4 ,in a shrubbery you may notice that the brown leaves of any particular ever-green or bush1 if so situated as to lose the direct action of the sun's rays1 will soon change colour4 ,instead of their natural brightness of tint1 they assume a sickly greenish-yellow hue1 and are said to be suffering from chlorosis4 ,the formation of the chlorophyll is obstructed1 or takes place too slowly4 ,of course1 this peculiar condition will frequently arise from bad soil1 or a long continuance of damp weather2 but it is also the result of a want of light4 ,it should be observed that young leaves are always of a lighter green than old2 simply because the latter have been exposed for a longer time to the light4 ,and so the leaf goes on deepening and deepening in colour1 until the sad days of autumn come1 and the green gives way to yellow and brown and red1 owing to the influence of the changing season on the chlorophyll of the plant4 ,in reference to this interesting subject1--which deserves to be more closely investigated1--we may place before the reader the results of certain recent experiments4#he ,,mm4 ,prillieux1 ,brongniart1 and ,roze 7,comptes ,rendus1 ,jan4 #c and #ag7 have made some important observations on the apparently spontaneous movements of the grains of chlorophyll within the leaves of plants4 ,these had been observed by ,bhm to congregate under the direct action of the sun2 ,famitzin1 confirmed by ,borodine1 had also recorded very marked movements in the leaves of a moss under the influence of light4 ,this class of plants offer great facilities for these observations1 inasmuch as the movements can be observed in them under the microscope without dissection4 ,m4 ,prillieux kept a moss in the dark for several days1 when the cells presented the appearance of a green network1 between the meshes of which was a clear transparent ground4 ,all the grains of chlorophyll were applied to the walls which separate the cells from one another2 there were none on the upper or under walls which form the surfaces of the leaf4 ,under the influence of light the grains change their position from the lateral to the superficial walls2 under favourable circumstances this change takes place in about a quarter of an hour4 ,on attaining their new position1 the grains do not remain absolutely immovable1 but continually approach and separate from one another4 ,if again darkened1 they leave their new position and return to the lateral walls4 ,artificial light produces the same effect as daylight4 ,m4 ,brongniart further observed that this movement of the chlorophyll1 under the influence of light1 does not consist in the change of position of isolated grains1 but of masses of network1 each containing a certain number of grains4 ,in addition1 ,m4 ,e4 ,roze states that1 besides the grains of chlorophyll which coat the walls of the cell1 each cell is lined with a transparent mucous plasma formed of very fine threads1 the extremities of which unite together the grains of chlorophyll4 ,this protoplasm exhibits1 under a high magnifying power1 a very slow motion1 and carries the grains of chlorophyll along with it4 ,m4 ,roze believes1 therefore1 that the motion is a plasmic one1 the protoplasm being the vital and animating part of the cell4 ,,carnations ,,and ,,pinks4 ,among the latest flowers of the autumnal garden are those old favourites1 the ,july-flowers1 or ,carnations1 which1 because they were fair and sweet and medicinal1 ,jeremy ,taylor preferred to the prettiest tulips1 that are good for nothing4 ,i remember a time when they were among the best-prized ornaments of our parterres1 and very delicious it was to inhale the balmy breath that rose into the warm air of an autumn evening from rich masses of carnations and pinks4 ,the carnations were also called--sub consule ,planco--in the merry days when ,i haunted the green lanes of a pretty ,devonshire village1 carnations1 and clove ,july-flowers or gilliflowers2 and an ancient name for the pink was that of sops-in-wine1 because they were infused in the wine-cups of our much-drinking ancestors4 ,so ,drayton says3-- ,bring hither the pink and purple columbine1 ,with gilliflowers2 ,bring coronations1 and sops-in-wine1 ,worn of paramours4 ,the same poet alludes to them under their more modern appellations3-- ,the brave carnation1 then1 of sweet and sovereign power 7,so of his colour called1 although a ,july flower71 ,with the other of his kind1 the speckled and the pale2-- ,then the odoriferous pink1 that sends forth such a gale ,of sweetness1 yet in scents as various as in sorts4 ,the scientific name of this beautiful family of plants1 whose rich dyes are not less conspicuous than their ,saban odours1 is ,dianthus1 or ,flower of ,god4 ,they form a genus of the natural order ,carophyllace2 the calyx is tubular1 and five-toothed2 there are five petals1 which at the throat of the corolla are lightened 7as it were7 into a linear claw4 ,the stamens are double the number of the petals2 the capsule is of a cylindrical outline1 and one-celled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,when ,i haunted the green lanes of a ,devonshire village4 ,i am quite prepared to agree with a sympathetic writer on flowers that1 during summer1 and far into the autumn months1 the greatest beauty of our gardens is the varied tribe of ,carnations1 while their exquisite1 subtle1 yet potent aroma is not to be excelled1 ,i think1 or1 at all events1 is not far surpassed1 in strength and sweetness1 by the much-lauded rose4 ,a carnation seems1 to my humble taste1 the very embodiment1 as it were1 of the favourite qualities so insisted upon by ,mr ,matthew ,arnold1 sweetness and light4 ,and even in winter1 when its radiant petals have disappeared1 there is something graceful to the eye in the long slender leaves of the pink1 covered with their sea-green powdery bloom4 ,the two species commonly grown in gardens are1 the garden pink 7,dianthus hortensis7 and the carnation proper 7,dianthus caryophyllus72 both of which are generally referred to one original1 the castle-pink1 ,july-flower1 or clove-gilliflower4 ,the carnation1 as a garden flower1 was originally brought into ,england from ,germany1 where it has always been a favourite object of cultivation4 ,there are several hundred varieties of it1 which are arranged into three principal divisions3 flakes1 which are diversified by broad stripes of two colours only2 bizarres1 which are of several colours1 and very irregularly streaked2 and picotees 7from piquett1 spotted71 whose flowers are besprinkled with different colours1 and their petals fringed or serrated4 ,in ,england1 the native species of pink are five in number1 but they are mostly rare1 or1 when abundant1 are found in very limited habitats4 ,the commonest kind is the little ,deptford ,pink 7,dianthus ,armeria71 which sometimes grows in thick clusters among the meadow grass4 ,in shape1 its blossom resembles that of the garden pink2 in size1 it is about equal to that of the sweet william2 and its flowers grow in a very similar manner4 ,it is a scentless pink1 however1 with serrated or notched petals1 and its rose-coloured petals curiously besprinkled with tiny spots of white4 ,a very pretty species is the ,maiden ,pink 7,dianthus deltoides71 which some botanists think to have been the original of our garden favourite2 and a kind deserving notice for its large and fragrant flowers is the ,dianthus superbus4 ,the maiden pink1 ,i should add1 has delicate rose-coloured blossoms1 daintily touched with silver1 and a white eye encircled by a deep purple ring4 ,it is not unworthy of its fanciful and highly suggestive name4 ,a rare ,british variety is the ,clustered ,pink1 or ,childing ,pink 7,dianthus prolifer71 which produces its flowers in plentiful clusters1 but is only allowed a season's sunshine4 ,the ,india or ,china ,pink 7,dianthus chinensis7 is a native of ,eastern ,asia1 but has now become a frequent denizen in our ,english gardens4 ,one wild species1 the ,mountain ,pink 7,dianthus csius71 it has never been my fortune to gather in its native home4 ,it is described as a large handsome flower1 and it loves to breathe the difficult air of the lofty mountain-top4 ,never1 we are told1 is it found in plain or valley2 but it is one of those blossoms whose beauty gladdens the mountaineer1 or bids the traveller wonder that so lovely a flower should be blushing on the lone summit1 scarcely accessible to his footstep2 or cheering a rock1 where only the yellow lichen1 or the verdant or gray moss1 reminds him of vegetation4 ,such a sight might bid one think of the old motto1 which accompanied a wild flower1 ',i trust only in ,heaven4' ,how beautiful is it in its loneliness6 ,scarce an eye meets it but that of the towering bird1 as he dashes through the air above it1 yet is it as full of lustre as the flowers we daily see and admire4 ,surely it should arrest the eye and the thoughts of the traveller as certainly as would a monument of human skill on such a spot4 ,like a lone ruin1 it is a page of story1 telling not only of the past1 but the present1 and reminding us of a ,being who has reared it there1 where it stands a memento of power and goodness4 ,thanks to the human heart by which we live1 ,thanks to its tenderness1 its joys and fears1 ,to me the meanest flower that blows can give ,thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears4 --,,wordsworth4 ,of greater interest1 however1 because a native species1 and more easily attained1 is the ,castle ,pink1 to which brief reference has already been made4 ,its perfume is like that of precious spices1 and after a shower of rain1 the air1 for some distance1 is actually interpenetrated with it4 ,as its name indicates1 it loves to grow upon the shattered walls of ,chiefless castles breathing stern farewells2 and it may be found1 unless swept away by barbarous improvements1 adorning the gray old masonry of ,sandown ,castle1 and on ruins in the neighbourhood of ,norwich4 ,on the walls of ,rochester's stately keep it grows at a height which defies the spoiler's hand2 and on the time-worn ruins of an ancient minster1 it shines1 in the summer-noon1 with a flush of flowers4 ,it blossoms in ,july1 and there are not1 it is said1 more than half-a-dozen spots in ,england where it may be found wild4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,on the time-worn ruins of an ancient minster4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to this dainty and beautiful tribe belongs that common but handsome and most fragrant flower1 the ,bearded ,pink or ,sweet ,william 7,dianthus barbatus71--a native of central ,europe and southern ,france1 with long lanceolate leaves1 bearded petals1 ornamental bracts1 and dense clusters or tufts of crimson or rose-coloured blossoms4 ,it has long been a favourite with the cottager1 for it is so hardy that it will grow in any soil1 and will flourish even in the odd corner known as the children's garden4 ,its popular name1 long1 long ago1 was ,london tuftes2 and it owes its specific appellation of barbatus1 or bearded1 to the nature of its calyx4 ,that quaintest of quaint old botanists1 delightful ,gerarde1 lavishes encomiums upon its beauty1 and pronounces it meet to deck up the bosoms of the beautiful1 and garlands and crowns for pleasure4 ,i suspect that now-a-days it seldom figures in a posy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same order as the ,dianthi--that is1 to the ,caryophyllace--belong many wild flowers of lowly growth but abounding interest2 as1 for example1 the corn-cockle1 whose lilac-coloured petals1 soaring conspicuously among the tall waving corn1 have procured for it the right royal appellation of ,agrostemma1 or the crown of the field4 ,so1 too1 the numerous species of campion and catchfly 7,silene71 with their singular expanded calices2 and those handsome flowers1 the white and rosy lychnises1 which love to air their charms by the side of running waters4 ,the cottony down upon these plants was wont to be much used for the wicks of lamps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,then1 too1 the whole tribe of chickweeds are included in the ,caryophyllace4 ,they are spring flowers1 with pearly white blossoms1 five-petalled1 like a five-rayed star1 and long slender drooping leaves4 ,their resemblance to a star has suggested their scientific name1 ,stellaria2 and they are truly the stars of the earth1 glistering among the thick herbage with a modest beauty4 ,the ,stellaria media supplies our song-birds with an abundant and a wholesome provision4 ,a handsome wild plant of this order is the ,soapwort 7,saponaria officinalis74 ,it is common in ,kent1 and some of the neighbouring shires1 but in many parts of ,england is never seen4 ,its full cluster of rose-hued blossoms is rather larger1 and more loosely set together1 than those of the sweet william2 which1 however1 it much resembles in its leaves1 these being opposite to each other1 and nearly sheathing or surrounding the stalk at their bases4 ,the juice of the soapwort1 says ,miss ,pratt1 is one of those vegetable substances which1 by making a lather with water1 will cleanse linen1 and remove grease as effectually as soap4 ,it grows more generally in the neighbourhood of villages than in any other situation1 as if providence had placed it there especially for the service of the cottager2 yet it is very little used1 either from ignorance of its properties1 or because it would require some cultivation to render it sufficiently plentiful for household purposes4 ,it needs the addition of ashes to make it a good soap for washing linen2 but it is of much service to the shepherds on the ,alps1 who wash their flocks1 previously to shearing them1 with soapsuds made by boiling this plant in water4 ,the large fruit of the horse-chestnut has similar cleansing properties1 and may be used by cutting it into small pieces1 or scraping it into water4 ,it has even been suggested that if the nuts were reduced to powder1 and made into balls1 with some unctuous substance1 they would answer all the purposes of our manufactured soap2 and yet numbers of poor people see these nuts lying decaying in their neighbourhood1 and have no idea of making them of any service4 ,on the ,continent1 however1 the peasantry are wiser1 and not only provide themselves with chestnuts for soap1 but gather the beech-leaves to stuff their mattresses4 ,returning to the ,caryophyllace1 we may add that some of the plants of this order have poisonous qualities1 which are due to the principle called saponine existing in many of the species of ,saponaria1 ,silene1 ,lychnis1 and ,dianthus4 ,according to ,lindley1 the order includes no less than #ec genera1 and #ajee species4 ,they inhabit chiefly temperate and cold regions1 and are ranked in three sub-orders1--,alsine1 ,silene1 and ,mollugine4 ,,the ,,eglantine ,,and ,,the ,,convolvulus4 ,what plant do our poets mean by the eglantine8 ,what by the woodbine8 ,are they one and the same1 or are they different8 ,we cannot answer those questions until we have referred to three or four passages in which they are introduced4 ,and1 first1 let us take an example from ,spenser3-- ,and over him1 art striving to compare ,with nature1 did an arbour green dispread1 ,framd of wanton ivy1 flowering fair1 ,through which the fragrant eglantine did spread ,his pricking arms1 entrailed with roses red1 ,which dainty odours round about them threw1 ,and all within with flowers was garnishd1 ,that when wild ,zephyrus amongst them blew1 ,did breathe out bounteous smells1 and painted colours shew4 ,and now from ,milton3-- ,through the sweetbriar1 or the vine1 ,or the twisted eglantine4 ,the following is from ,sir ,walter ,scott3-- ,on the hill ,let the white heath-bell flourish still1 ,cherish the tulip1 prune the vine1 ,but freely let the woodbine twine1 ,and leave untrimmed the eglantine4 ,from ,burns3-- ,the woodbine ,i will pu' when the evening star is near1 ,and the diamond draps of dew shall be her een sae clear4 ,from ,michael ,drayton3-- ,the azured harebell next with them they neatly mixt3 ,t' allay whose luscious smell they woodbine placed betwixt 444 ,the columbine amongst they sparingly do set1 ,and now and then among1 of eglantine a spray4 ,and lastly1 from ,shakespeare3-- ,and leaf of eglantine1 whom not to slander1 ,out-sweetened not thy breath4 ,there is evidently some confusion here1 and the eglantine of one poet is not the eglantine of another4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 we take it1 is thinking of the wild clematis or virgin's bower1 when he wishes the eglantine to remain untrimmed4 ,and ,milton undoubtedly refers to the honeysuckle1 which1 twisting round the framework of a cottage-porch1 tempts the neighbouring bees to rifle its calyxes of their honeyed sweets4 ,but the true eglantine of our earlier poets seems to have been the prickly sweetbriar1 formerly called ,rosa eglantina2 now known as ,rosa rubiginosa4 ,no plant is of greater value for a garden hedge1 owing to the delicious fragrance exhaled not only by its flowers but by its leaves4 ,on the other hand1 the lush woodbine1 which so often finds honourable mention in our poets1 is none other than the honeysuckle1 the twisted eglantine of ,milton4 ,its botanical name is ,caprifolium4 ,the eglantine and the woodbine1 therefore1 though occasionally confounded by careless writers1 are two entirely distinct plants2 the former being the sweetbriar of modern gardens1 and the latter the honeysuckle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,our leafy hedgerows4 ,it has been justly said by a writer 7whom we have already quoted71 that of all the flowers which1 towards the end of summer and the beginning of autumn1 adorn our pastoral scenery1 filling the air with fragrance1 and the earth with beauty1 none are more generally attractive than the wild climbing plants of our leafy hedgerows4 ,by interlacing their delicate boughs1 covered with foliage and flowers1--or with berries bright and sparkling1--or1 as in the wild clematis1 crowned with the lightest1 feathery seeds1--they wind about the trees and bushes in festoons and wreaths of the utmost elegance1--and contribute in no slight degree to the aspect of richness and beauty which the landscape exhibits at this time of the year4 ,as their stems are so slender and delicate that they would be crushed by the burthen of their flowery clusters and numerous leaves1 or rent and uprooted by the wind1 unless they found support from other plants1 we see them hanging by their tendrils1 or by their pliant arms1 about the trunks of aged trees1--the ancestral elms1 or those green-robed senators of mighty woods1 tall oaks1--like a frail maiden to the sturdy arm of some strong-shouldered brother1 or1 it may be1 of some one nearer and dearer still4 ,in reference to those climbing plants1 one curious circumstance deserves to be noted4 ,some of them follow the sun's apparent course1 that is1 from east to west1--and always twine around the stem which supports them in the direction of left to right4 ,such is the case with the common black briony1 so common in our woods and groves4 ,others invariably twine contrary to the sun1 or from right to left2 as is the case with the convolvulus1 or large white bindweed4 ,this singular tendency1 be it observed1 is always constant in each individual of the species1 and if you endeavour to train one of these plants in a different direction1 you will infallibly kill it4 ,the convolvulus will not grow from left to right1 and the black briony will not grow from right to left4 ,crede experto4 ,the convolvulus1 or white bindweed 7,convolvulus sepium1 or ,calystegia sepium71 is one of the most elegant1 though one of the commonest climbing plants which festoon our willows1 or creep over our grassy banks1 or wind in and about our hedges4 ,its large white bells1 which the country people unpoetically call old men's nightcaps1 are remarkable for their purity of hue and exquisite beauty of outline2 and the leaves1 which are heart-shaped1 equally claim our admiration4 ,like the pink field-convolvulus 7,convolvulus arvensis71 or the rosy-hued seaside bindweed 7,calystegia soldanella71 it is very tenacious of life1 and if it once secures a footing1 is eradicated with difficulty4 ,hence it is dearer to the poet and artist than to the farmer and gardener1 each of whom pursues it with a determined hostility4 ,the ,convolvulace form a distinct family or order1 containing forty-five genera1 and upwards of seven hundred species4 ,they are found in temperate and tropical countries2 and include the dodder1 sweet potato1 scammony1 spoma1 and the jalap plant4 ,,metamorphosis4--,a ,,physico-,,philosophical ,,meditation4#hf ,if we are to understand by the term metamorphosis simply a change1 it is evident that everybody undergoes metamorphosis1 is changed or transformed2 nothing is1 all becomes4 ,the water which flows on for ever1 but never twice washes the same pebbly bed1 will afford us an apt image of this perpetual to become4 ,but even the said pebbly bed1 like the hardest rock1 like the seemingly everlasting granite1 must and does change4 ,the compact1 chrystalline1 azoic rock1 without a trace of life in its dense mass1 would eventually decompose if constantly assailed and affected by the moving waves of that gaseous ocean whose bed is formed by the terrestrial crust4 ,if the rock is found covered by more or less stratified layers1 its presence in the bosom of the earth will attest to passing generations the primordial incandescence of our planet at some epoch when life as yet was not1--when the liquid element1 hurled far away into space under the form of vapour1 exhibited the aspect of a bearded meteor1 or a comet1 with blazing nucleus and incandescent tail4 ,many the changes which since that distant epoch have taken place upon the earth1 and many more must occur before our planet ceases to contribute its strain to the grand harmony of the spheres4 ,our world will end as surely as it once had a beginning3 its duration1 though it be computed by hundreds of thousands of years1 is nothing1 will be nothing1 compared with that of the revolution of yonder sun1 circling1 with its wondrous train of planets1 around some mysterious centre as yet unknown4 ,and in this period1 hitherto incalculable1 what chances of perturbation will necessarily arise8 ,let us suppose that the centre around which oscillates1 on the one part1 the moon while drawing near and receding from the earth2 on the other1 the earth while drawing near and receding from the sun3 let us suppose that these centres oscillate in the same manner around other centres as yet undetermined1--and this hypothesis is very rational1 since it is based on the principle that everything moves or changes1--it may happen that in these periodical oscillations1 one or more of the circulating masses will eventually fall into their focus of attraction1 or will start so widely astray that the wheelwork of our world1 the various parts of our planetary system1 will separate1--not to be annihilated1 for nothing in the universe can be annihilated1--but to be metamorphosed1 and group themselves elsewhere in a different order4#hg ,it is thus that in chemistry1 which ,i would call the astronomy of atoms1 it is shown that bodies are only so far decomposed as to admit of their recombination in new forms2 the end of one is the beginning of another4 ,now1 that which is true of the systems of the elementary bodies composing terrestrial matter1 is1 in all probability1 true also--why should it not be8--of the systems of the celestial bodies4 ,differences of magnitude1 of space1 and of time1 which overwhelm our feeble imaginations1 vanish before the unity of plan of the ,creator's thought4 ,a crystalline molecule1 which will not affect the finest balance1 is a world1 with an equator and poles of its own1 and its central atom round which atomic satellites gravitate4 ,whether these atoms are infinitely small or infinitely great1 whether the time of their revolutions is measured by thousandths of a second or by myriads of years1 is of little importance so far as their gravitation 7ponderation1 or poising7 is concerned4 ,for this ponderation is absolutely identical1 whether we call it affinity1--when speaking of the atomic movements of chemically decomposable matter2 or gravitation or attraction1 when referring to those atoms of the great whole which we call stars1 and whose metamorphic scale is far beyond the range of beings planted on the surface of one of the stellar atoms4 ,however profound may be the researches of our astronomers1 they will never attain to a knowledge of the metamorphoses of worlds4 ,the spectacle of celestial spheres rising anew from their ashes1 like the ,arabian bird of fable1 will be as impossible for them as the knowledge of the decompositions and recompositions of our material bodies would be for chemists1 planted on the surface of an atom of carbon4 ,how1 from such a standpoint1 could they contemplate the manifold forms of matter1 and embrace at a glance all its changes8444 ,well1 we are relatively as powerless as these imaginary denizens of an atom of matter1 rooted as we are to the crust of a planet1--a molecule suspended in the eternal ocean4 ,what shall we now say of the forms and movements of living matter8 ,in the first place1 that they are infinitely more varied and more changeful than those of inanimate nature4 ,next1 that the difference between their metamorphoses is very wide4 ,the eye can follow the transformations of a rock exposed to the decomposing action of the agents which surround us on every side4 ,this action is calculable1 and the elements which it has dissociated may be determined and weighed4 ,the effects of the force1 called either affinity or attraction1 which maintains these elements united1 are not beyond the range of our observation2 tables of affinity1 and of atomic weights1 have been constructed1 which enable the chemist to dominate over matter1 just as the astronomer embraces the stars1 the atoms of the world1 by the law of universal gravitation4 ,but no sooner is matter interpenetrated by that mysterious force which we call life1 than our most potent means of investigation suddenly cease to be efficient4 ,undoubtedly1 you may analyse the seed before you sow it1 and thus may ascertain that it consists of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and azote4 ,but with the same elements attempt to recompose your seed1 using exactly the same proportions as those you discovered in it2 and if you think that your synthesis has been successful1 ensure that your grain1 once confided to the earth1 shall become a focus of divers movements1 giving birth below to the ramifications of the root1 terminated by the spongioles1--above1 to the ramifications of the stem1 garnished with leaves1 flowers1 and fruits2 finally1 ensure that this aggregate of organs1 multiplying millions of times the weight and volume of the seed1 shall always and exactly reproduce the same type or the same species4 ,if1 with your apparatus1--if1 with the means at the disposal of humanity1--you should succeed in achieving all these marvels of nature2 then perhaps you might settle the great problem of what life is1--whether an independent force1 or a simple modification of an universal force1 of which heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 will be but different modes of manifestation4 ,and yet1 even in such a case1 you must not boast too loudly of your power2 for you will find it necessary to turn and return the term you have arrived at1 in every direction2 nor will it furnish you with the relation or the cause of the formidable progression whose alpha and omega1 whose beginning and end1 escape us so absolutely4 ,whence1 in all its interminable metamorphoses1 whence comes life8 ,whither goes it8 ,were our world to perish1 its ruins would not cease1 in their apparently disordered movements1 to obey the law of universal gravitation3 they would so group themselves as to form other worlds1 resembling the system of which they were anteriorly the framework4 ,but this force in no wise tells you why1 when1 and how life will make its appearance on these spheroids of revolution1 which1 in their state of ponderation1 are attracted in the direct ratio of their masses and in the inverse ratio of the square of their distances4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is not all4 ,man justly plumes himself on having arrived1 by a process of experiment1 at the following irrefragable axiom3 that the matter which serves for the movements of life renews itself1 while the mould or form remains4 ,you may even affirm1 without appearing too adventurous1 that the innumerable whirling globules which enter into the composition of the human blood are so many microscopical individuals1 each with its own proper life1--infinitesimal forms which are born1 and move to and fro1 and disappear1 and are renewed1 without the individual--whose aggregate they perform--having any consciousness of all this activity4 ,thus it is that the collective integral being which we call humanity1 lives and is developed through the removal of the individuals composing it1--ephemeral creatures1 each of whom thinks himself a god6 ,must we stop there8 ,that would be to declare humanity the last term of a progression whose commencement and end1 according to our own acknowledgment1 completely escape us3 it would be at once a contradiction and a flagrant violation of the great law of infinite continuity which reigns everywhere4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to suppose that beyond humanity there is only nothingness1 would be to enunciate an hypothesis as puerile as that which pretended the earth was not only the centre of our system1 but the sole inhabited or inhabitable point in the immensity of space1 and that the stars of the firmament were created for the service and pleasure of mortals4 ,suppose that this absurd belief were true2 of what use1 ,i ask you1 would be all our agitations1 all our flutterings1 all our conceptions1 all our conquests1 all our glories1 all our memories1 when the end of the world would sweep away and annihilate our race8 ,it was well worth the trouble1 truly1 of being born1 of living1 and of suffering1 to terminate1 after all1 in so inglorious a fashion6444 ,adhere to your hypothesis1 materialist1 if you have the courage2 surely1 no man of sense can accept it6 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now resume the thread of our meditations4 ,the end of our system has come at last3 the sun1 the planets1 and their satellites form but one chaotic igneous mass1--a brilliant fugitive luminary1 new-born to the inhabitants of worlds which have escaped intact4 ,the dust of our extinguished world will not be scattered hap-hazard2 the molecules of matter1 indissolubly linked together by universal gravitation1 will so arrange themselves as to constitute a new1 and perhaps a more perfect world4 ,but in the constitution of this new world1 balanced like the old1 our human bones1 our ashes united with those of our ancestors1 may have1 as far as they are matter1 their due share4 ,as for the ,thought which makes the true power of humanity1 which gives to man all his value1--,thought1 perfectible and transmissible1--it will contribute nothing1 because it is absolutely imponderable and impassible4 ,will it then be lost for ever8 ,if the world is to last for ever1 you may justly regard as immortal the indefinite transmission of ,thought1 and the perpetuity of the memory of certain great men4 ,but will all this avail1 if the world must perish8 ,the world will never end1 you say2 it is eternal4 ,but how do you know this8 ,if it has had a beginning1 as geology and astronomy prove1#ij it will also have an end4 ,this end1 however1 will not be an annihilation2 it will simply be1 as we have already pointed out1 a transformation of matter4 ,as for the problems1 whether nature itself was created1 and whether it is eternal1 let us leave them to the discussion of heated theoricians1 who are too blind to perceive that some questions it is wisest neither to affirm nor deny1 but to know how to ignore4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the error1 then1 which we have been considering1 destroys itself through its consequences4 ,let us admit1 in effect1 that our world--such as it is1 just as it is--will last for ever4 ,in that case what becomes of the power and travail of humanity8 ,all they have accomplished are some slight changes of the terrestrial crust1 barely sufficient1 here and there1 to modify the influences of climate4 ,a limited number of men labour1 it is true1 for the progress and full development of transmissible thought4 ,but even supposing that1 in the course of centuries1 humanity succeeds in comprehending1 it can only grow through the development of the faculties of all its members1 and the due balance of all the social forces by means of liberty4 ,supposing that reason1 united to science and conscience1 should finally combine in one family the various tribes and peoples scattered over the earth's broad surface2 do you indulge yourself in the hope of crossing the limits of the human organization1 and establishing the royalty of man through the interpretation and imitation of ,nature8 ,do you cherish the idea of penetrating1 through the perfect union of all your intellectual forces1 the mysteries of creation8 ,no2 you would never dare to form such a hope1 to nourish such an idea1 at least unless you felt that the earth 7which you must first demonstrate7 comprehends in itself the whole universe1 that the humanity swarming on its surface is eternal1 that every other creature is absolutely subordinate to it3 in a word1 that ,man is all6 ,but we know how limited is human power4 ,we are not masters even of the mechanism of the body2 the movements of organic life are independent of our will2 we can neither command the stomach1 the lungs1 nor the heart3 that marvellous process of absorption and elimination1 that perpetual movement hither or thither which constitutes the essence of the assimilative function1 goes on in us--as in all living beings1 animal or vegetable--completely outside our sphere of activity4 ,then1 without quitting our planet1 how numerous are the movements which still escape the human will6 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is quite different when we lift up our eyes to examine the face of heaven4 ,we have no grasp whatever of the incommensurable spiraloids of innumerable worlds to which our own belongs2 we have no means of communicating with the inhabitants of other planets2 we cannot establish any interchange of thought with the men 7if there be any7 of ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1--who form1 perhaps1 like the men of the earth1 the most elevated circle of material life1 varying under an infinity of forms upon each of their floating domiciles4444 ,i see you smiling1 reader1 because you do not believe that these other earths--satellites of the sun1 like our own--are inhabited by beings analagous to our human race4 ,you are at liberty not to believe it4 ,but then1 to be in agreement with yourselves1 you ought to declare in favour of the ,science of the ,past1 though demonstrated to be false1 against the ,science of the ,present4 ,will you do so8 ,certainly not4 ,but then1 of two things1 one3 either you will be obliged to make the earth an unique exception1 a kind of monstrosity in the midst of the other mechanism of the universe1 which will be to throw yourself back upon the erroneous science of the ancients2 or you must perforce admit that the earth is not specially privileged1 and that the other planets1 its companions1 have also their human inhabitants4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is this all8 ,alas1 all this is nothing6 ,the other worlds whose suns appear to us under the form of scintillating points or stars1 will1 undoubtedly1 in like manner1 possess their systems of planets and satellites4 ,why should they divaricate from the general plan of the universe8 ,now1 multiply the number of the stars--who has counted them8--with the probable number of their planets1 and you will gain1 if this be permitted you1 the number of humanities who people yonder star-sown space4 ,and it is not only with these we must be able to correspond1 but with the humanities of all the nebul of all the firmaments--for remember our starry heaven itself is but a nebula--that we must establish an interchange of ideas1 if you would have your power1 and civilisation1 and intellectual royalty1 something more than a mere optical illusion of your pride4 99 99 99 99 99 ,you do not cease to proclaim as an axiom that there are no abrupt intervals in ,nature2 that ,nature never ventures upon sudden leaps or bounds 7in natura non datur saltus71 and yet you would make an exception for the world of thought--a world which no more lies outside the laws of nature than does the physical world4 ,the former ought even to secure our preference2 it is there only that we are free1 that we can become true creators1 by creating for ourselves our own happiness2 that we can grow great before our own eyes1 by following1 not the tyrannous will of the brute1 but the tender voice of the angel2 by listening to conscience--that pure and infallible counsellor--conscience1 the foundation of all justice1 the latent force of generations passing away and coming1 the universal gravitation of our species as of all the ultra-terrestrial humanities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but how can the humanities1 with which we suppose the universe to be peopled1--how can they communicate with one another8 ,the law of attraction comprehends not only the celestial bodies1 but also their intervals1 the intersidereal spaces4 ,do these spaces present a void to the thinking beings who probably people the stars8 ,everything1 force and matter1 testifies to an entire unity of plan or thought1 and the mind which is powerful enough to rise above all the attractions and influences of the body1 the mind which1 by its continuous labour1 alone renders life and man of any importance1 the mind once detached from the animal nature which it drags behind it like a prisoner to the chariot of his conqueror1 shall it be inferior to inert matter8 shall it be less than a ship without its compass8 ,continuous here1 shall that continuity be elsewhere broken up8 ,surely this is impossible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but how are we to recognise this continuity of essence in a spirit which1 like man's1 appears unavoidably fixed1 like a parasite1 to the surface of a planet8 ,here lies the whole difficulty of the question2 a question all the more perplexing because1 in the search after scientific truth1 the mind walks surely and steadily1 except when resting upon the senses1--which are the backbone1 so to speak1 of the experimental method4 ,answers1 indeed1 are not wanting1 for each religion has its own4 ,every creed attempts to solve the problem4 ,but then1 faith is required to accept the answer or solution1 and alas6 faith is not implanted in every soul4 ,it is useless1 therefore1 to wish that it might be the gift of those who1 to the authority of tradition and long-established dogmas1 prefer the liberty of discussion and the axioms of science4 ,are our bigots actually aware of what they do when they seek to compel into their circle of belief those minds which tend to escape from it at a tangent8 ,we assert that in so doing they are guilty of an act of iniquity1 of a veritable blasphemy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some explanation is necessary here4 ,you believe1 we hope1 in the majesty1 power1 wisdom1 and mercy of ,god1 in the revelations ,he has vouchsafed to man1 in the immortality of the soul4 ,these are great problems1 however2 the greatest problems a mortal can venture to discuss4 ,already ,i see the bigot frowning2 he professes to be shocked by the word problem1 he would fain substitute for it that of certainty or truth4 ,well1 through faith we accept them as truths2 but1 metaphysically speaking1 they may be regarded as problems which the ,all-wise has submitted to man's earnest consideration4 ,in fact1 the ,god in whom you and we believe1 in whom you and we put all our trust1 has surrounded them with something of uncertainty1 has invested them with so much of doubtfulness as may test our faith4 ,yes1 in doing so1 ,he has had a purpose to fulfil4 ,let us think of a geometrician--and an ancient writer said that ,god1 by creating the world1 created geometry--for the sake of exercising the minds of his pupils1 his children1 giving them a problem to be solved4 ,if at the same time1 he placed before them the solution1 he would assuredly fail in his object4 ,no means would remain of distinguishing the capable from the incapable1 the studious from the indifferent1 the idler from the worker1 if they all found the question answered beforehand6 ,true1 if the problem is too difficult1 if the solution lies beyond the faculties of those whom he wishes to test and put to the proof1 the master will not fail to furnish them with all the elements necessary for their guidance1 whether they consider it from without1 or whether they consider it with the help of their own inner consciousness4 ,but science and conscience stand in need of an equally difficult task2 the first1 that it may learn to observe clearly1 the latter that it may learn to act purely4 ,and it is here1 above all1 that the two-fold nature of man becomes a perplexity and a stumbling-block4 ,on the one hand1 man creates theories1 in order to disembarrass himself of the science which calls for the exercise of powerful and laborious observation2 on the other1 he creates dogmas1 which he hopes may lull to sleep that ever active1 ever restless conscience1 which demands fertile and beneficial actions1 and rejects barren or deceitful phrases4 ,it is true that to many minds the discussion of the questions at which we have hinted seems a sorry work1 because the time given for their discussion is necessarily so limited4 ,what is life8 they say4 ,what can be effected in so short an interval8 ,what can man hope to accomplish in the few short years that intervene between manhood1 when the mind is mature1 and old age1 when the intellect grows enfeebled8 ,these are the men who echo the old poet's mournful cry3--#ia ,a good that never satisfies the mind1 ,a beauty fading like the ,april flowers1 ,a sweet with floods of gall that runs combined1 ,a pleasure passing ere in thought made ours1 ,an honour that more fickle is than wind1 ,a glory at opinion's frown that lowers1 ,a treasury which bankrupt ,time devours1 ,a knowledge than grave ignorance more blind1 ,a vain delight our equals to command1 ,a style of greatness in effect a dream1 ,a swelling thought of holding sea and land1 ,a servile lot1 decked with a pompous name2 ,are the strange ends we toil for here below1 ,till wisest death make us our urns know4 ,but the poet1 while taking this despondent view of life1 forgets--not only that it is an opportunity1 but--that it is the first stage of an eternal existence1 and that the progress begun now shall be continued hereafter1 when the mind1 freed from its material clogs1 shall enter upon the full fruition of its wondrous powers4 ,and however brief it may be1 is it not better it should be devoted to noble work than to ignoble idleness8 ,is it not better to use it as a time of preparation than to waste it in empty pleasures8 ,to the despairing wail of the poet just quoted we would oppose1 as far worthier of a gallant spirit1 ,ben ,jonson's admirable conclusions3-- ,it is not growing like a tree ,in bulk1 doth make men better be2 ,or standing long an oak1 three hundred year1 ,to fall a log at last1 dry1 bald1 and sere4 ,a lily of a day ,is fairer far in ,may1 ,although it fall and die that night2 ,it was the plant and flower of light4 ,in small proportions we just beauties see1 ,and in short measure life may perfect be4 ,this is the true philosophy2 to make our life as perfect as our faculties will permit1 and to look upon it as the introduction to a grander life1 where the problems here discussed shall find a satisfactory solution4 ,oh for the time when in our seraph wings ,we veil our brows before the ,eternal ,throne-- ,the day when1 drinking knowledge at its springs1 ,we know as we are known4 ,let us beware1 however1 when we devote our life to the pursuit of wisdom1 that we do not make a false start4 ,do not let us diverge into the narrow way of bigotry and dogma4 ,it is the property of exclusive and intolerant error to dominate and to reign alone4 ,for this reason we systematically refuse and reject all control2 and it is thus men have been fatally led to lay a rash hand upon intellectual liberty1--liberty1 which the ,all-wise ,himself has refrained from touching6 ,such is the early taint of our race1 the moral situation of humanity4 ,but retribution has followed close upon this violation of all that is most sacred in our human world4 ,the schools of philosophy1 and the infallible creeds1 founded upon authority to the exclusion of all mental and spiritual freedom1 have never ceased to be at war with one another1 and instead of labouring for that union which is strength1--that union so necessary to the happiness and advancement of humanity1--they have everywhere sown irreconcilable antipathies and bloody discords4 ,such is the religion of those who1 under a pretence of worshipping ,god1 worship only themselves6 ,history affords us abundant illustrations of this melancholy truth4 ,finally1 let us return to our metamorphosis4 ,the butterfly1 which the ,greeks designated by the same word as the soul1 1 springs1 like every living creature1 from an egg4 ,but see what a transformation this egg undergoes6 ,it becomes a caterpillar--a transitory form of animal life1 remarkable for its voracity2 this caterpillar is in its turn transformed2 it grows into a chrysalis1--a temporary tomb1 and whence issues the winged insect1 alone adapted to the discharge of all the functions of a perfect animal4 ,gluttonous and greedy of enjoyment1 the caterpillar lived for itself4 ,so the caterpillar has no sex2 while the butterfly hovers from flower to flower1 has to seek therein its own nourishment1 there to find the companion with whom its being is to be united4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this metamorphosis impresses the observer2 principally because its periods are so distinct1 and are so plainly marked by stages1 which have all the appearance of veritable species4 ,but he would greatly err if he thought it confined to a certain class of insects4 ,all insects1--nay1 more1 all animals1 including man himself1--undergo certain transformations in the course of their lives4 ,metamorphosis plays an important part in the unity of the general scheme of ,creative ,thought4 ,if it is not always recognised1 the reason is1 that its phases are not boldly marked1 that the periods blend into one another1 that the various stages are effaced in the continuousness of the transformation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but let not this continuity prevent the observer from detecting or discerning in that which is1 that which is to come4 ,in the caterpillar he must learn to see the chrysalis2 in the chrysalis he must be ready to recognise the future butterfly4 ,and in all these changes the thoughtful mind may acknowledge a significant emblem of that immortality of the soul1 that final transformation of humanity1 which the ,word of ,god has promised to us3-- ,child of the sun6 pursue thy rapturous flight1 ,mingling with her thou lov'st in fields of light2 ,and1 where the fields of ,paradise unfold1 ,quaff fragrant nectars from their cups of gold4 ,there shall thy wings1 rich as an evening sky1 ,expand and shut with silent ecstasy6 ,yet wert thou once a worm1 a thing that crept ,on the bare earth1 then wrought a tomb and slept4 ,and such is man2 soon from his cell of clay ,to burst a seraph in the blaze of day4#ib ,to assure ourselves by observation that1 in living matter1 there are organs irrevocably destined to decay or disappear1 while others incline and grow towards perfection1 is certainly one of the noblest studies imaginable4 ,if philosophers1 instead of employing their time in profitless speculations1 devoted themselves to the examination of the great ,book of ,nature1 ,god's second revelation1 they would long ago have discovered what they are still seeking4 ,and we should now know how to distinguish1 in man as in the insect1 the rudimentary condition of his future life2 and the belief in the immortality of the soul would not only be the creed of the ,christian1 but a scientific truth4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gh3 ,reference is here invited to ,humboldt's thermal and isothermal lines4 ,see ,dr ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas1 and ,humboldt's ,kosmos4 ,footnote #gi3 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 ,preliminary ,discourse on the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,footnote #hj3 ,professor ,balfour's ,manual of ,botany1 pp4 #eff-efh4 ,footnote #ha3 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 xxii4 #df4 ,footnote #hb3 ,martial1 ,epigram41 i4 #ba4 ,footnote #hc3 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 i4 #ah4 ,footnote #hd3 ,count de ,castelnau1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,coloptres1 i4 #g4 ,footnote #he3 ,as recorded1 in a condensed form1 in ,the ,academy 7,feb4 #ab1 #ahgj71 pp4 #aca1 #acb4 ,footnote #hf3 ,this section is translated from ,m4 ,hoefer1 without addition or alteration4 ,footnote #hg3 ,from these slow movements1 which have been designated the secular inequalities1 we might with some probability infer the end of the world1 which even ,newton regarded as certain1--at least1 unless the ,great ,architect at times retouched ,his work4 ,the inequalities or secular variations affect the elements of the orbits1 such as the inclination of the plane of the orbit1--the semi-major axis of the ellipse1 or the mean distance of the planet from the sun1--the eccentricity of the ellipse1 or the relation between the distance which separates the forces from the centre and the semi-major axis assumed to be unity1--and the movements of the perihelions and the nodes4 ,these elements change with extreme slowness4 ,thus1 the inclination of ,jupiter diminishes by #h in a century2 and that of ,saturn increases by #i2 but the very ecliptic varies1--it diminishes #cc in a century4 ,the variations of the eccentricities are scarcely computable by centuries2 their effect is1 that the ellipses insensibly approach or recede from a circular form4 ,it is demonstrated by mathematical analysis that these variations are periodical1 and confined within narrow limits1 in such wise that the planetary system can oscillate only round a certain mean1 from which it never departs except by a very small quantity4 ,but may not this very mean1 which we have taken to be constant1 oscillate round a more distant and still more constant mean8 ,observation had long ago detected a continual acceleration in the movement of ,jupiter1 and a not less certain diminution in the movement of ,saturn4 ,now1 to say of a star that its velocity augments1 is to declare that it draws nearer its centre of movement4 ,to say that its velocity decreases1 is to affirm that it is retiring from that centre4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that ,jupiter1#hh the greatest of our planets1 is destined to be swallowed up1 or absorbed1 in the incandescent mass of the ,sun1 while ,saturn1#hi with its belt and eight satellites1 will gradually wander further and further into the mysterious infinity of space4 ,it is true enough that these catastrophes are very distant1--distant to a period of time which the human imagination cannot even grasp1--and the common herd will certainly feel no anxious apprehension about an event which will not take place until myriads of years have elapsed4 ,yet1 in the last century1 the question excited the curiosity of certain scientific societies1 and they directed the attention of the geometers to these formidable perturbations4 ,euler and ,lagrange spent their keen intellects upon them to no profit4 ,laplace discovered that between the mean velocities of ,jupiter and ,saturn the ratios are simple1 and capable of calculation2 five times the velocity of ,saturn perceptibly equals ten times the velocity of ,jupiter4 ,these terms1 which1 in the regularly-decreasing and indefinite series1 might have been neglected1 have acquired a value which was worthy of being taken into consideration4 ,from thence result1 in the movements of the two planets1 those perturbations whose complete development necessitates a period of upwards of nine hundred years4444 ,this will be1 then1 another periodic inequality4 ,but1 independently of the centres1 which we suppose to be in themselves variable1 may there not exist1 in the space traversed by our planet1 some cause of perturbation8 ,is our system so isolated in the universe that it neither receives nor loses aught of that which constitutes its force and matter8 ,is there no solidarity between its different worlds8 ,and if this solidarity exists1 is not their transformation a necessity8 ,footnote #hh3 ,the equatorial diameter of ,jupiter in ,english miles is #ef1jfe2 its density is #bd of the ,earth's2 its distance from the sun1 #did1bgj1jjj miles2 inclination of its orbit to the ecliptic1 #a #ah' #ea4 ,footnote #hi3 ,the equatorial diameter of ,saturn in ,english miles is #gi1adg2 its density1 #ab1 the ,earth #a2 its distance from the sun1 #ijf1bjj1jjj miles2 and the inclination of its orbit to the ecliptic1 #b #bi' #cf4 ,footnote #ij3 ,our author1 it must be understood1 is considering these questions apart from the ,scriptural standpoint4 ,footnote #ia3 ,william ,drummond4 ,footnote #ib3 ,samuel ,rogers4 ,,appendix4 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,solar ,,eclipse ,,of #ahgj4 ,the total ,solar ,eclipse1 which is to render famous the month of ,december in the present year--famous1 that is1 in astronomical annals--deserves1 we think1 some special notice in our pages4 ,in #ahfj1 the ,himalaya was fitted out by ,government for the use of the savants desirous of observing the ,solar ,eclipse visible that year in ,spain1 and the results of the expedition were so important as fully to warrant the liberality of the ,government4 ,the eclipse of the present year will also be visible in ,spain1 but the path of the sun's shadow will pass as far north as ,cape ,spartel1 and1 crossing ,algeria1 will go northwards1 via ,sicily1 and in the direction of ,constantinople4 ,the totality of the eclipse will not last so long as that of the ,indian eclipse in #ahfh4 ,the sun will be hidden from sight for no longer period than about two minutes twelve seconds1 and whatever observations our astronomers are anxious to make must be made in that brief interval4 ,it may not unreasonably be suggested that1 in so short a time1 no data can be ascertained worth the cost and trouble the proposed expedition will necessitate2 but the reader requires to be informed that the most valuable acquisitions lately won in the region of solar physics have been the result of observations which may almost be described as momentary4 ,what1 then1 is the important point on which our astronomers hope to gain information from a close examination of the approaching eclipse8 ,this question has been ably answered by a well-informed writer in the ,daily ,news4 ,the great problem to be solved is that of the strange appearance of the solar corona2 of that glory of light which rings round the great luminary when totally eclipsed1 to it1 as some astronomers assert1 a purely optical phenomenon1 or1 as others more reasonably declare1 one of the most imposing of all the features of the solar system4 ,it is true that the former opinion is held by such men as ,faye1 ,lockyer1 and ,professor ,airy2 but if it be founded on fact1 the phenomenon loses all its importance1 and nearly all its interest4 ,if the other opinion prove correct1 and the corona is discovered to be in reality an appendage of the orb of day1 then the mind must at once acknowledge its unsurpassed splendour1 its magnificent proportions4 ,as its glow and ethereal radiancy often extends several degrees from the eclipsed sun1 its diameter cannot be less than #b1hjj1jjj miles4 ,assume1 then1 that it is shaped like a globe1 that it is the globular envelope 7so to speak7 of the sun1 and we may conclude that its outer boundary would at most enclose a volume twenty-seven times as large as the sun's1 or1 in other words1 twenty-seven million times larger than our terrestrial world4 ,it is in reference to this magnificent phenomenon that we hope to obtain some satisfactory information in ,december #ahgj4 ,the results ascertained from the eclipse of #ahfh proved to be almost directly contradictory to those obtained last year in the ,united ,states1 and the problem now is1 to discover why these results were contradictory4 ,in the meantime1--observes the writer already quoted1--some astronomers say that the observations already made suffice to show the real nature of the solar corona4 ,it has frequently happened that1 with the means of solving a problem ready at their hands1 astronomers have been content rather to wait till new observations removed their doubts1 than to undertake the work of carefully analysing the facts already discovered4 ,it is urged that the atmospheric explanation 7,faye's and ,lockyer's7 is opposed by simple optical considerations2 that the blackness of the moon's disc1 in the very heart of the corona1 affords the most unmistakable evidence that the moon lies nearer to us than the corona4 ,the solar glare which1 according to ,faye's theory1 illuminates our atmosphere1 ought1 according to this view--and ordinary reasoners will think this argument irrefragable--to cover the lunar disc as well as the surrounding heavens4 ,it is also argued1 very forcibly1 that the active atmosphere above the horizon of the observer is partially obscured during total eclipse1 while all that part lying in the direction in which the corona is seen is wholly shielded from the direct rays of the sun1 and cannot1 therefore1 furnish the atmospheric glare on which ,m4 ,faye relies4 ,m4 ,faye's theory is powerfully combated in a paper read by ,mr ,proctor before the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 and a summary of which appeared in ,nature4#ic ,he remarked that if we in reality possess sufficient evidence to determine whether the corona is or is not a solar appendage1 it would be unfortunate for1 and in some sense a discredit to science1 if the precious seconds available for observers in ,december next were wasted upon observations directed to such a point determinable beforehand4 ,he proceeded to express his belief that the corona was no terrestrial phenomenon1 arguing that the very blackness of the moon as compared with the corona 7to which we have already referred71 shows that the coronal splendour is behind the moon4 ,in fact1 the moon is projected on the corona as on a background2 whereas1 if the light be due to atmospheric glare1 the corona ought to be a foreground4 ,this argument1 however1 may fail on the ground of its very simplicity4 ,mr ,proctor1 therefore1 proceeded to inquire whether air which lies between the observer and the corona is really illuminated4 ,he pointed out that all round the sun1 for many degrees1 perfect darkness should prevail if the illumination of the atmosphere by direct solar light were in question4 ,as to the atmospheric glare caused by the coloured flames and prominences of the sun's disc1 it must be comparatively small1 bearing no higher proportion to the actual light of the atmosphere than ordinary atmospheric glare bears to actual sunlight1--a very small proportion indeed4 ,but a fatal objection to the theory that the corona is due either to the glare from the prominences or to light reflected from the surrounding air1 consisted in the fact that the so-called glare ought to cover the moon's disc4 ,mr ,proctor next referred to a number of observations in support of the view that the coronal light is not terrestrial2 such as the appearance of glare during partial eclipses1 the glare always trenching on the lunar disc2 the relatively greater darkness of the central part of the lunar disc in annular eclipses2 the visibility of that part of the lunar disc which lies beyond the sun in partial eclipses1 the limb being seen dark on the background of the sky2 and the visibility of the corona in partial eclipses2--were its most distinctive peculiarities1 having been recognised when the sun's face is not wholly covered4 ,what1 then1 is the actual nature of the corona8 ,may it not consist of the denser parts of meteoric systems travelling round the sun8 ,leverrier has shown1 and ,mr ,buxendell has helped to show1 that the motion of ,mercury's perihelion indicates the presence of a ring of bodies in the vicinity of the sun2 but we have good reason for believing that for each meteor system our earth encounters1 there must be millions on millions whose perihelia lie within the earth's orbit4 ,since the earth meets with fifty-six such systems1 it will be seen how enormous probably is the total number4 ,is1 then1 the corona simply the projection of these systems1 illuminated as they must be by an intensity of solar light exceeding many hundred-fold that which illumines our summer days1 nay1 in certain places1 were raised by his heat to a state of incandescence8 99 99 99 99 99 ,such are some of the questions which1 it is hoped1 the eclipse of ,december #ahgj will help to solve2 and we think our readers will admit that their importance justifies us in looking forward to the approaching phenomenon with anxious curiosity4 ,the bounds of human knowledge are gradually enlarging2 and as they enlarge1 they do but more vividly illustrate the infinite wisdom and perfectness of the scheme of creation4 ,,coloured ,,stars4 ,before bringing these pages to a close1 and appending to our description of ,everyday ,objects 7everyday1 but not commonplace7 the word ,finis1 we wish to direct the reader's attention to the subject of coloured stars2 not because these beautiful spheres can be fairly classed under our general title1 but because they serve to show the peculiar attractiveness and novelty of scientific inquiry1 and the wonderful results that spring from the persevering study of ,god's universe4 ,to the eye of the ordinary observer1 one star seems much like another2 these lamps of night differ1 indeed1 in brilliancy1 in their distance from the earth1 in their relative magnitudes2 but to all appearance they exhibit a complete identity in physical constitution1 and their white light has furnished poetry with one of its commonest images4 ,but the astronomer1 armed with his wonder-revealing glass1 has discovered that innumerable stars are exquisitely coloured2 that some are blue1 and others green1 and others red4 ,if on a clear night you examine ,perseus with your telescope1 you will find that the star ,eta is of a glowing red4 ,in the system of ,ophiuchus you will encounter a blue star2 in that of ,draco1 a deep red star2 ,taurus has a large red and a small bluish star2 and in ,argo1 a blue sun is attended by a dark-red satellite4 ,the stars occur in double1 triple1 or multiple groups or clusters2 and the systems so constituted differ from what we presumptuously call the ,solar ,system in their colouring2 and in this variety or diversity1 yet another variety is visible4 ,the binary coloured systems are not all composed of blue and red suns4 ,in that of ,gamma ,andromed the great central orb is of an orange hue1 the moon revolving round it green as emerald4 ,what results from the marriage of these two colours--from this union of orange and emerald8 ,do we not see in it1 says a ,french astronomer1#id a combination1 if the phrase is allowable1 full of youth 7assortiment plein de jeunesse7--a grand1 a magnificent orange-coloured sun in the midst of the firmament--next to it1 a resplendent emerald1 which interweaves with the gold its greenish gleams8 ,the following lively picture is borrowed from the graphic pages of ,m4 ,flammarion4 ,there is more variety1 he says1 in the innumerable star-systems which crowd the fields of space1 than in all the changes which the most skilful opticians can project on the screen of a magic lantern4 ,some of the planetary universes lighted up by two suns display the entire gamut of colours above blue1 but are without the sparkling tints of gold and purple which contribute so greatly to the luminosity of our world4 ,in this category may be placed certain systems situated in the constellations of ,andromed1 the ,serpent1 ,ophiuchus1 and ,coma ,berenices4 ,others are illuminated by red suns1 as1 for example1 a double star in ,leo4 ,others1 again1 are wholly dominated by blue and yellow1 or1 at least1 are kindled by a blue sun and a yellow sun1 which afford but a limited series of the tints or shades comprised in the combinations of these primitive colours2 such are the systems of ,ceta1 ,eridanus 7where one is straw-coloured1 the other blue71 ,cameleopardalis1 ,orion1 ,rhinoceros1 ,gemini1 ,botes 7where the greater one is yellow1 and the lesser a greenish blue71 and ,cygnus 7where the smaller is blue as a sapphire74 ,on the other hand1 combinations of red and green may be found in ,cassiopeia1 ,coma ,berenices1 and ,hercules4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are other stellar systems which1 according to ,flammarion1 more nearly approximate to our own1 in the sense that one of the suns illuminating them has1 like ours1 a white light1--the source of all colours1--while its neighbouring luminary casts a permanent reflection upon everything4 ,such1 for instance1 are the worlds revolving round the great sun of ,alpha1 in ,aries2 this great sun is white1 but a smaller sun is constantly visible in the sky1 whose azure reflections cover as with a diaphanous veil the various objects exposed to its rays4 ,number #bf in ,ceta presents the same conditions1 which are those1 too1 of a great number of the most brilliant stars4 ,in the case of the worlds gravitating round the principal world of these binary systems1 the originative white lustre would appear to create the infinite varieties noticeable upon the earth1 with the distinction1 of course1 that an azure gleam constantly issues from the other sun2 but for the planets gravitating round the latter1 the predominant colouring will be blue1 tempered by the action of the remoter white sun4 ,and just as white suns have blue suns for their companions1 so have red suns yellow1 or vice vers4 ,what a strange and curious radiance--like that of a dome of many-coloured glass--must be shed upon a planet by its red and green or yellow and blue suns6 ,what striking contrasts1 what fairylike changes1 must be produced by a red day and a green day succeeding alternately to a white day1 or a day of darkness6 ,why do not our poets take up such a theme as this8 ,can they find aught more remarkable or more ery in the dreams of their imagination8 ,supposing that these wonderful spheres are surrounded1 like ,jupiter or ,saturn1 by a ring of satellites1 what can be their aspect when lit up by several suns1 each sun a source of different-coloured light8 ,this one1 we may imagine1 will be divided into hemispheres1 red and blue1 that will suspend in the firmament a crescent of gold2 another will seem to drop from the azure circle like a gorgeous cluster of emerald fruit4 ,ruby moons1 opaline moons1 moons of jasper and amethyst1--all shining with a mystic and indescribable radiance1--surely the heavens are decked with jewels like an ,eastern queen6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,bright with the beauty of the silver moon4 ,our poets may chant the praises of our modest1 simple nights1 of our calm1 hushed heavens1 bright only with the beauty of the silver moon1 which pours its pale lustre with a winning charm on town and tree1 on wood and lake4 ,they may sing1 as ,barry ,cornwall sings-- ,now to thy silent presence1 night6 ,is this my first song offer'd3 oh6 to thee ,that lookest with thy thousand eyes of light-- ,to thee and thy starry nobility ,that float with a delicious murmuring-- ,though unheard here--about thy forehead blue2 ,and as they ride along in order due1 ,circling the round globe in their wandering4 ,to thee their ancient queen and mother sing4444 ,not dull and cold and dark art thou3 ,who that beholds thy clearer brow1 ,endiademed with gentlest streaks ,of fleecy-silver'd cloud1 adorning ,thee1 fair as when the young sun wakes4444 ,but must feel thy powers4 ,in some such ecstatic strains as this we may laud our moonlit nights1 acknowledging in our heart of hearts the power of their silent1 subtle loveliness2 but how shall we compare them with nights made wonderful by a blending of golden and emerald fires8 by the shifting coruscations of stars of many colours8 ,but here we must conclude a dissertation which threatens to become a rhapsody4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to treat of such a theme1 and to follow up all its strange and startling suggestions1 in sober prose4 ,,the ,,alpine ,,flora4 ,the ,alpine ,flora1 of which in a preceding section we have given a very imperfect sketch1 has been examined with loving minuteness by ,messrs ,elijah ,walton and ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney2 and other united results of pen and pencil have been placed before the public in a handsome volume entitled ,flowers from the ,upper ,alps1 with ,glimpses of their ,homes4 ,a somewhat similar subject has been treated with much delicacy of feeling and fervour of description by the ,rev4 ,hugh ,macmillan1 in his ,holidays in ,high ,lands4 ,among the ,alpine plants sketched and described by ,messrs ,walton and ,bonney are the beautiful ,lychnis1 a close relative of our corn-cockle and garden pink1 and so called1 says ,gerard1 the quaint old botanist1 because it is a light-giving flower4 ,he also met with immense breadths of violet pansies1--that's for thoughts1 says ,ophelia1--covering the sloping pasture-grounds of the ,col d',autune1 and blending with rose and star gentians1 soldanellas1 primulas1 and anemones4 ,the pink blossoms and bare stem of the house leek is found among the blocks tumbled down from the ice-streams1 and its sparkling clusters seem to glow with a richer hue on the stony ruin which has shattered the pine1 and crushed the life even out of the rhododendron4 ,in the ,glarus ,alps the odorous crimson tufts of the ,kammblume are discovered in a profusion which rejoices and astonishes the traveller4 ,the yellow-blossomed ragwort spreads its stem over the rugged mountain-sides in every ,alpine district4 ,but next in fame and beauty to the gentians1--which is1 par excellence1 the mountain-flower1--must be placed the edelwein1 celebrated by ,kobele and other famous poets1 and growing in almost every part of the ,alps from ,dauphin to the ,dolomites4 ,for further details respecting a most interesting branch of botany1 we refer the reader to the two works already named1 and he will find that the barrenest1 stoniest slope of the ,alpine rocks1 the bleak recesses where the ice river has its origin1 and the rugged ledge where the pitiless winds seem to expend their wildest fury1 have their objects of grace and beauty1--their gentle and ever-welcome evidence of the ,divine love1 the ,divine wisdom1 and the ,divine power1 as exercised for the delight of man in the remotest wildernesses of the earth4 ,the love of ,god is everywhere4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ic3 ,nature1 vol4 i4 p4 #edc4 ,footnote #id3 ,flammarion1 ,les ,merveilles ,celestes1 pp4 #afj1 #afa4 ,,index4 ,academy1 the1 quoted1 #cfi-cga4 ,achtysia1 the genus1 characteristics of1 #cec4 ,aeshna grandis1 described1 #agh2 forcipata1 #agh1 #agi4 ,agaricus ,csareus1 the1 description of1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,agarics1 varieties of1 characterised1 #cce1 #ccf4 ,agarions1 the1 general characteristics of their form1 #gi4 ,agarion virgo1 the1 described1 #agi4 ,alps1 the1 an excursion among1 #bef-bfj4 ,alpine snail1 the1 remarkable transparency of1 #ga4 ,amanita muscaria1 the1 described1 #cbh-ccj2 its poisonous properties1 #cca-ccc4 ,amanita solitarius1 the1 description of1 #cca4 ,amphibia1 the1 number of species of1 #cfa1 #cfb4 ,anaximander1 the author of the ,uranometria1 his enumeration of the stars1 #be4 ,ancients1 the1 their notion of the earth's shape1 #ajd-ajg4 ,anemones1 the1 blossoming time of1 #aeg1 #aeh2 their sensitiveness to atmospheric changes1 #aeh2 varieties of1 #aei2 references to1 by ,drayton1 #aei-afa4 ,animal life1 distribution of1 #ceg1 #cff4 ,antipodes1 the1 existence of1 believed in by the ancients1 #ajg2 proved by ,columbus1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,arabs of the desert1 the1 their nomenclature for the stars1 #bb1 #bc4 ,aratus1 the author of ,phenomena1 quoted1 #bb4 ,arctic vole1 the1 discovery of1 by ,m4 ,hugi1 #ej1 #ea2 described by its discoverer1 #ea2 examined and named by ,m4 ,martins1 #ea1 #eb4 ,arcturus1 the star1 its colour1 #bc4 ,argesilaus1 the author of the ,uranometria1 his enumeration of the stars1 #be4 ,aristotle1 the ,greek philosopher1 his theory of the globe's sphericity1 #ajf2 on the mole's want of sight1 #bfg4 ,articulata1 the1 number of the species of1 #cfb1 #cfc4 ,arum1 the1 described1 #afa1 #afb2 its root1 #afc2 its alimentary properties1 #afc2 its various species1 #afd1 #afe4 ,asterisms1 origin of1 #ad4 ,atmosphere1 the1 illumination of1 #cac4 ,autumn1 aspect of nature in1 #cff1 #cfg4 ,bailey1 ,p4 ,j41 the poet1 quoted1 #c4 ,balfour1 ,professor ,j4 ,h41 quoted1 #bjh2 on the diffusion of plants1 #cba-cbd4 ,bearded pink4 ,see ,,sweet ,,william4 ,birds1 number of the species of1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,black ,hellebore1 the1 described1 #afh4 ,boehm1 ,m4 ,joseph1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #acf1 #acg4 ,boletus1 the1 of the ,romans1 #ccd4 ,boraginace1 the1 characteristics of1 #bci-bda4 ,bosc1 the ,french naturalist1 his reference to the alimentary properties of the ,arum1 #afc2 his career sketched1 #afc4 ,boyle1 ,robert1 on the contemplation of the universe1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,bradley1 the astronomer1 his discovery of the nutation of the earth1 #ab4 ,browning1 ,mrs ,e4 ,b41 her poetry characterised1 #ccg2 her ,aurora ,leigh quoted1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,bug1 the harvest1 description of1 #cdi-ceb4 ,burton1 of the ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 quoted1 #bdj4 ,buttercup1 the1 its bulbous roots1 #aff2 its stimulating properties1 #afg4 ,byron1 ,lord1 the poet1 quoted1 #aja4 ,csalpin1 the botanist1 on the ,solanum nigrum1 #hf4 ,callisto1 the legend of1 #i4 ,calypso1 the island of1 referred to1 #ai4 ,calyx1 the1 of flowers1 parts of1 #baa4 ,campbell1 ,thomas1 the poet1 quoted1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,candolle1 ,de1 his opinions on the nature of red snow1 #da1 #db4 ,cardinal points of the compass1 how to ascertain our position in reference to the1 #g1 #h2 process of determination of the1 #ag-ai4 ,carew1 ,thomas1 the poet1 quoted1 #ajj4 ,carnations1 characterised by ,jeremy ,taylor and ,drayton1 #cga2 described1 #cgb2 varieties of1 #cgc4 ,carnivora1 the1 distribution of1 #ceh4 ,cassini1 ,jacques1 his theory of the earth's form1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,castle pink1 the1 described1 #cge1 #cgf4 ,castelnau1 the ,count of1 quoted1 #cfc1 #cfd4 ,cereals1 the1 range of1 #cbc1 #cbd4 ,cetacea1 the1 distribution of1 #ceh2 described1 #bjh-bae2 curious forms of1 #bbj-bbc4 ,chaldeans1 the1 their conception of the earth's shape1 #aje4 ,chamois1 the1 described1 #ef1 #eg4 ,chaucer1 the poet1 his description of the daisy quoted1 #ach1 #adj4 ,cheese mite1 the1 where found1 #ced2 its ugly form1 #cee1 #cef4 ,chomel1 the botanist1 on the medical properties of the daisy1 #adf1 #adg4 ,chlorophyll1 experiments in1 #cfh1 #cfi4 ,chrysomela salicinia1 the1 described1 #gb4 ,clare1 ,john1 the ,northamptonshire poet1 on the dragon-fly1 #age4 ,clematis1 the1 described1 #afh2 celebrated by ,keats1 #afh4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 his demonstration of the existence of the ,antipodes1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,compass1 the1 points of1 #g4 ,constellations1 table of the number of stars in the northern1 southern1 and zodiacal1 #bg1 #bh4 ,convallaria majalis4 ,see ,,lily ,,of ,,the ,,valley4 ,convolvulus1 the1 described1 #chc1 #chd4 ,copernicus1 the astronomer1 his theory of the earth's rotundity1 #aaj2 antiquity of his so-called theory1 #aah1 #aai4 ,cornwall1 ,barry1 the poet1 quoted1 #bbi4 ,corolla1 the1 of flowers1 #bad1 #bae1 #bbc2 varieties of1 #bbe-bbi4 ,crabbe1 ,george1 the poet1 quotation from1 #bhh4 ,cynodon dactylon1 the1 described1 #ia-ic4 ,daisy1 the1 described by ,chaucer1 #ach1 #adj2 by ,cowper1 #aci2 by ,james ,montgomery and ,william ,browne1 #adj2 its vegetation1 #adj1 #ada2 described1 #adb-ade2 referred to by the ancients1 #ade2 and by the botanists of the ,middle ,ages1 #adf2 characterised by ,wepfer1 ,tournefort1 and ,garidel1 #adg2 its medical properties1 #adf1 #adg2 ,george ,withers' tribute to1 #adh2 celebrated by ,wordsworth1 #adi1 #aej2 by ,shakespeare and ,milton1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,darwin1 ,erasmus1 the poet1 on the pimpernel1 #bfa4 ,david's ,chariot1 position of1 #h1 #i4 ,day and night1 varying length of1 #aih1 #aii4 ,delphos1 the navel of the world1 #ajg4 ,democritus1 the philosopher1 on the ,milky ,way1 #be4 ,dent de ,jaman1 the1 described1 #beg4 ,desor1 ,m41 the ,swiss naturalist1 his discovery of the snow-flea1 #gb1 #gc4 ,desoria saltans1 the1 described1 #gc2 glacialis1 description of1 #gd4 ,dial1 floral1 referred to and exemplified1 #bag1 #bah4 ,diodorus1 the historian1 quoted1 #ic1 #id4 ,dioscorides1 the author of ,materia ,medica1 his reference to ,mercury's plant1 #ha2 on the ,agrostis1 #ie4 ,diurnal movement of the stars1 origin of its discovery1 #af4 ,dobell1 ,sydney1 the poet1 quoted1 #abi1 #aca4 ,dogma1 folly of1 #bib4 ,dog ,mercury1 the1 its power of propagation1 #gg1 #gh2 described by ,mr ,sowerby1 #gh2 how distinguished from weeds1 #gi2 its dicious character1 #hj2 mentioned by ,pliny the naturalist1 #hj1 #ha2 and by ,dioscorides1 #ha2 its disappearance before the power of snow1 #ha4 ,dog-star1 the4 ,see ,,sirius4 ,dog's-tooth grass1 the1 characteristics of1 features of1 described1 #ia-ic2 its emollient properties1 #if4 ,draco1 the constellation of1 known to the ancients1 #bb4 ,dragon-fly1 the1 described by the poets1 #agd1 #age2 its destructive properties1 #age2 the female1 #ahb1 #ahc2 its metamorphosis1 #ahc-ahg4 ,drayton1 ,michael1 the poet1 his description of a spring-time posy1 #aei-afa2 on carnations1 #cga4 ,drummond1 ,william1 the poet1 quoted1 #cii1 #djj4 ,dutrochet1 the philosopher1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #acf4 ,eagle1 the1 its affection for the mountains1 #eg2 its flight described1 #eh-fb2 its nest1 #fb2 the various species of1 #fb1 #fc4 ,earth1 the1 shape of1 as conceived by ,homer and ,hesiod1 #ajc1 #ajd2 by ,seneca1 #ajd2 by the ,chaldeans1 ,anaximander1 ,anaximenes1 and ,zenophanes1 #aje2 by ,plato1 #aje1 #ajf2 by ,eudoxes and ,aristotle1 #ajf2 by the ,greeks and ,hebrews1 #ajg2 a problem1 #cih1 #cii4 ,earwig1 the1 form of1 described1 #bgh-bhj4 ,edelwein1 the1 in the ,alps1 description of1 #dah4 ,flammarion1 ,m41 on coloured stars1 #dad1 #dae4 ,flos ,adonis1 the1 legend connected with1 #afi4 ,forficul1 the1 group of1 characteristics of1 #bhf4 ,forget-me-not1 the1 celebrated by ,campbell the poet1 #bcf1 #bcg2 described by ,miss ,pratt1 #bch2 analysis of its form1 #bch1 #bci2 legends connected with1 #bci1 #bdj4 ,friendship1 the test of1 #ada4 ,frigid zones1 the1 position of1 #de1 #df2 the lizards of1 described1 #gj1 #ga4 ,galileo1 his discoveries in gravitation1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,ganges1 the banks of1 described1 #bdh4 ,garidel1 the botanist1 on the medical properties of the daisy1 #adg4 ,garden-lily1 the1 described1 #bdh4 ,garden-nightshade1 the1 its extreme fertility1 #hb2 description of1 #hc2 by ,tournefort1 #hd1 #he1 #hi2 its various forms1 #he2 its medical properties1 #he-hg4 ,genesis1 the book of1 quoted1 #aia4 ,gentiana lutea1 the1 its medical properties1 #bed4 ,gentiana campestris1 described1 #bef1 #beg4 ,gentianace1 the family of1 its characteristics described1 #beb-bee2 a ,lilliputian specimen of1 #bee4 ,gentians1 the1 of the ,alps1 description of1 #aj4 ,gerard1 the botanist1 quoted1 #dah4 ,gesner1 ,conrad1 the botanist1 on the tulip1 #aed4 ,goethe1 ,j4 ,wolfgang1 the poet1 quoted1 #aia4 ,gold-crowned wren1 the1 description of1 #fd2 its partiality to the society of other birds1 #fd1 #fe2 its gymnastic accomplishments1 #fe2 its cosmopolitan character1 #fe1 #ff2 its smallness of size1 #ff4 ,graetz's balls1 origin of1 stated1 #ee1 #ef4 ,gramine1 the1 general characteristics of1 #hh-ij2 how described by the naturalists of the ,middle ,ages1 #ie1 #if4 ,gramen1 the1 ,pliny the historian on1 #id1 #ie4 ,grasshopper1 the1 described by ,leigh ,hunt1 #bgd4 ,great ,bear1 the1 origin of the story of1 #i1 #aj2 ,homer's reference to1 #aj4 ,grew1 the botanist1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #abd2 on the calyx of flowers1 #baa4 ,hay1 aromatic1 an instance of1 #beh4 ,heat1 the action of1 described1 #cac-cag4 ,heavens1 the1 movement in1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,hebrews1 the1 their conception of the earth's supports in space1 #ajg4 ,hedgerows1 the1 wild climbing plants of1 #chb1 #chc4 ,hepatica1 the1 described1 #afh1 #afi4 ,herbs1 the food of the primitive ,egyptians1 #ic1 #id4 ,hipparchus1 the astronomer1 his discovery of the precession of the equinoxes1 #aaf2 his astronomical researches1 #bia1 #bib4 ,homer1 the poet1 his reference to the ,great ,bear1 #aj1 #ai2 and to ,orion1 #ae2 his scientific knowledge1 #ai2 his conception of the earth's shape1 #ajc1 #ajd2 quoted1 #baj4 ,honeycomb1 the1 of the bee1 described1 #he4 ,honeysuckle1 the1 celebrated by ,scott1 ,burns1 and ,drayton1 #chj4 ,hood1 ,thomas1 the poet1 quoted1 #aij4 ,horace1 the poet1 quoted1 #ajc4 ,house leek1 the1 in the ,alps1 described1 #dah4 ,houston1 ,professor1 his table of the distribution of wheat and barley1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,howitt1 ,mary1 the poetess1 on the dragon-fly1 #age4 ,hugi1 ,m41 the ,swiss naturalist1 his discovery of the ,arctic vole1 #di-ea4 ,humanity1 the future of1 #cic4 ,human power1 limitation of1 #cid4 ,hunt1 ,leigh1 his poem on the grasshopper1 quoted1 #bgd4 ,huygens1 the savant1 his researches into the laws of gravitation1 #aaa4 ,immortality1 an emblem of1 in the metamorphosis of the caterpillar1 #djb1 #djc4 ,infusoria1 the1 number of1 #cfe4 ,inglis1 ,henry1 the traveller1 quoted1 #adb4 ,insects1 the various orders of1 enumerated1 #bhj2 the number of species of1 #cfc1 #cfd4 ,jonson1 ,ben1 the dramatist1 quoted1 #bjg1 #bdh1 #djj4 ,kane1 ,dr ,elisha1 the ,american explorer1 his ,arctic experiences1 #ci4 ,keats1 the poet1 quoted1 #bi1 #afh1 #aij1 #bdd1 #bih4 ,kepler1 the astronomer1 his adoption of the theory of the earth's rotundity1 #aaj4 ,lactantius1 on the non-existence of the ,antipodes1 #ajh4 ,la ,hire1 the ,french botanist1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #acd4 ,landscape1 a wintry1 described1 #e4 ,leaf-wasp1 the1 its mode of depositing its larv1 #ga1 #gb4 ,le ,monnier1 the ,french astronomer1 on the theory of the nutation of the earth1 #abc4 ,lesser celandine1 the1 celebrated by ,wordsworth1 #aff2 described1 #aff4 ,libellula cancellata1 described1 #agg4 ,libellula grandis1 described1 #agh4 ,libellul1 the family of1 its characteristics1 #agd-ahc4 ,see ,,dragon-,,fly4 ,libellulites1 the family of1 its general characteristics1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,liberty1 a plea for intellectual1 #djg4 ,life1 origin of1 speculated upon1 #cij1 #cia4 ,light1 the nature of1 #aib1 #aic2 physiological facts concerning1 #aid-aif2 the theory of1 #aig1 #aih2 chemical action of1 #cab1 #cac4 ,liliace1 the family of1 its characteristics1 #bdi1 #bej4 ,lily of the field1 the1 of the ,gospels1 described1 #bdb1 #bdc4 ,lily of the valley1 the1 described by ,shakespeare1 #bdb2 its native countries1 #bdb4 ,little ,bear1 the1 position of1 #aa1 #ab2 distinct from the ,great ,bear1 #ab2 first recognised by the ,phnicians1 #bj4 ,little ,vulcan1 the1 butterfly1 described by ,agassiz1 #ga4 ,longfellow1 the poet1 his description of ,orion1 #ac2 quoted1 #abh1 #abi4 ,lychnis1 the1 described1 #dah4 ,macgillivray1 the naturalist1 quoted1 #ei1 #fj4 ,macmillan1 ,rev4 ,hugh1 quoted1 #db-dd4 ,malpighi1 the botanist1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #ace4 ,mammalia1 the1 summarised1 #cfj4 ,manilius1 the poet1 his references to the ,great ,bear1 quoted1 #bj1 #ba4 ,mant1 ,bishop1 quoted1 #fc1 #fd4 ,mariotte1 the botanist1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #ace4 ,marmot1 the1 described1 #ec2 its habits1 #ec1 #ed2 the various species of1 #ee4 ,mars1 the planet1 referred to1 #cja1 #cjb4 ,marsupialia1 the1 distribution of1 #ceh4 ,martins1 ,m41 the naturalist1 his examination and description of the ,arctic vole1 #ea1 #eb4 ,marvell1 ,andrew1 the poet1 quoted1 #bag4 ,matter1 forms of living1 #chh1 #chi4 ,mercurialis annua4 ,see ,,dog ,,mercury4 ,metamorphosis1 the function of1 in nature1 #dja1 #djb4 ,milton1 his allusion to the daisy1 quoted1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,mole1 the1 peculiar movements of1 #bfe1 #bff2 described1 #bfg2 ,aristotle and ,pliny on its want of sight1 #bfg2 its hands and fingers1 #bfh2 its favourite haunts1 #bfi2 marvellous properties ascribed to1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,mole-cricket1 the1 its form and habits described1 #bgc-bgh4 ,mollusca1 the1 number of species of1 #cfb4 ,moon1 influence of1 on the weather1 #cj1 #ca4 ,moore1 ,thomas1 the poet1 his characterisation of the dragon-fly1 #agd2 his allusion to the water-lily of the ,east1 #bdf4 ,mountain pink1 the1 described1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,mushroom1 the1 how to be distinguished1 #cbg1 #cbh2 some varieties of1 described1 #cbi-ccg4 ,mutability1 the lesson of1 #caf4 ,myosotis palustris4 ,see ,,forget-,,me-,,not4 ,nature1 beauty and suggestiveness of1 #cci2 our imperfect knowledge of1 #cda1 #cdb2 the infinite diversity of1 #cfe4 ,nebria escheri described1 #gb2 chevrierii1 #gb4 ,newman1 ,mr1 author of ,history of ,british ,insects1 quoted1 #bhe4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 his theories as to the form of the earth1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,nuphar lutea1 the1 described1 #bde4 ,nutation of the earth1 the1 explained1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc2 its discovery1 #aba1 #abb4 ,observer1 the1 of nature1 #d1 #e4 nothera biennis1 described1 #baf1 #bah1 #bai4 ,orion1 the occultation of1 its position in the heavens1 #ad2 its place in the old mythology1 #ae4 ,pachydermata1 the1 distribution of1 #cei4 ,parry1 ,captain1 on the nature of red snow1 #da4 ,perianth1 the1 of flowers1 #bjh4 ,perrault1 the botanist1 his theory of the rise of sap1 #ace4 ,petals1 the1 of flowers1 described1 #aji1 #bbd-bbg4 ,phnicians1 the1 their knowledge of the ,great and ,little ,bears1 #bj1 #ba4 ,physalis alkekengi1 described1 #bbb4 ,pilgran1 the meteorologist1 his researches into the nature of climate1 #ca4 ,pimpernel1 the1 all about1 #bfj-bfd4 ,pinks1 the various kinds of1 described1 #cgd4 ,planets1 the1 whether inhabited1 #cie4 ,plants1 discovery of the sex of1 #bjg2 appropriate to certain soils1 #cbj1 #cba2 diffusion of1 #cba-cbe2 classification of1 #cdc-cde4 ,plato1 the philosopher1 his notion of the form of the globe1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,pliny1 the naturalist1 on numbering the stars1 #be2 his reference to red snow1 #ci2 and to the mercurialis1 #hj1 #ha2 on the gramen1 #id1 #ie2 his reference to the daisy1 #adf2 on the mole1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,plutarch1 the historian1 on the probability of the existence of the antipodes1 #ajh4 ,podura plumbea1 the1 described1 #gd1 #ge4 ,polar ,star1 the1 its position in the heavens1 #ah4 ,poles1 day at the1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,polygala vulgaris1 the1 described1 #bac4 ,pointers1 constellation of the1 referred to1 #bb4 ,pratt1 ,miss1 on the forget-me-not1 #bch4 ,proctor1 ,r4 ,a41 on solar phenomena1 #daj1 #daa4 ,protococcus nivalis1 the plant described1 #db-dd4 ,prunella1 the1 or self-heal1 described1 #bcj-bcc4 ,ptolemus1 his enumeration of the constellations1 #bd2 his acquaintance with the so-called ,copernican theory1 #aai2 astronomical theories of1 #big1 #bih4 ,pythagoras1 the philosopher1 his familiarity with the so-called ,copernican theory1 #aai4 ,quadrumana1 the1 distribution of1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,ramond1 the naturalist1 his researches in the natural history of red snow1 #dj1 #da4 ,ranunculace1 the1 general characteristics of1 #aff-afi4 ,ray1 the botanist1 on the daisy1 #adf4 ,red-billed crow1 the1 its appearance described1 #fh1 #fi2 its habits1 #fi2 the history of one which had been tamed1 #fi1 #gj4 ,red snow1 known to ,pliny1 the naturalist1 #ci2 first described scientifically by ,de ,saussure1 #ci1 #dj2 discovered by ,ramond in the ,pyrenees1 #dj2 by ,captain ,ross in ,baffin's ,bay1 #da2 described by ,sir ,john ,ross1 #da2 a fungus 787 #da4 ,reptiles1 the1 distribution of1 #cfa4 ,rhizomes1 or trailing roots1 referred to1 #hh1 #hi4 ,rhodius1 ,apollonius1 the poet1 quoted1 #bj4 ,rodentia1 the1 distribution of1 #ceh4 ,rogers1 the poet1 quoted1 #djc4 ,ruminantia1 the1 how distributed1 #ceh4 ,salamanca1 the council of1 referred to1 #ajh4 ,sap1 the circulation of1 #acb2 its ascent and descent1 #acc2 theories concerning the rise of1 #acd-acg4 ,saussure1 ,benedict de1 the naturalist1 his observations on red snow1 #ci1 #dj4 ,science1 unselfishness of1 #gf2 the peculiar characteristics of1 #acc4 ,scutellari1 the1 characteristics of1 indicated1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,seasons1 the1 changes of1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,seneca1 the philosopher1 his conception of the earth's support in space1 #ajd4 ,shakespeare1 his allusions to the daisy1 quoted1 #aej1 #aea2 the lily described by1 #bdb4 ,shelley1 the poet1 quoted1 #aeb4 ,sirius1 the star1 its colour1 #bf2 deleterious influence ascribed to1 by the ,greeks1 #bc1 #bd4 ,snow1 the1 preservation of the germ of life in seeds and roots1 #cb2 its composition1 #cb1 #cc2 the reason of its preservative qualities1 #cd2 in the form of crystals1 #cd2 a reflector of light1 #cg2 its utility to the agriculturist1 #cg2 in the polar regions1 #ch1 #ci2 red snow1 which see4 ,snow-bunting1 the1 description of1 #ff1 #fg2 its favourite localities1 #fg1 #fh4 ,snow1 perpetual1 the line of1 where situated1 #dg2 its variations1 #dh4 ,snow-flea1 the1 its discovery narrated1 #gb1 #gc2 its generic characters1 #gd4 ,soapwort1 the1 described1 #cgh2 its juice1 #cgh1 #cgi4 ,soil1 effect of temperature upon1 #cag2 cultivation of1 #cah-cbj2 plants appropriate to different kinds of1 #cbj1 #cba4 ,solanum nigrum1 the1 described1 #hb-he4 ,solar corona1 the1 nature of1 #dji-dab4 ,solar eclipse of #ahgj1 the1 considered1 #djg-dab4 ,solstices1 the summer and winter1 #de4 ,somerville1 ,mrs1 quoted1 #bhi4 ,sowerby1 ,mr1 on the ,mercurialis annua1 #gh4 ,species1 number of vegetable1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cdg1 #cdh2 number of animal1 #cef4 ,spencer1 ,edmund1 the poet1 quoted1 #b4 ,spring1 the awakening of1 described1 #abg-aca4 ,staphylium olens1 described1 #bga-bgc4 ,stars1 the1 their infinite number1 #d2 their diurnal movement1 #ae-ag2 coloured1 #dab-dag4 ,stellaria1 the1 characteristics of1 enumerated1 #cgh4 ,strickland1 ,miss1 on the legend of the forget-me-not1 #bdj4 ,struve1 ,otto1 his computation of the number of the stars1 #be1 #bf4 ,sun1 the1 movements of1 in the heavens1 #bib-bif2 length of its radius1 #bif1 #big4 ,sweetbriar1 the1 celebrated by ,spenser1 ,milton1 ,scott1 and ,drayton1 #chj2 by ,shakespeare1 #cha4 ,taylor1 ,jeremy1 on carnations1 #cga4 ,telescopes1 importance of their invention to science1 #bf4 ,temperate zones1 the1 reference to1 #de4 ,temperature1 effect of1 on soil1 #cag4 ,tennyson1 ,alfred1 the poet1 quoted1 #f1 #g1 #eg1 #ahc1 #bdg1 #cai4 ,theophrastus1 an ancient writer1 on the ,agrostis1 #ie4 ,thomson1 ,james1 the poet1 quoted1 #cb1 #ajj4 ,thought1 freedom of1 asserted1 #caa2 indestructibility of1 #cib4 ,toaldo1 the ,italian meteorologist1 his researches into the phenomena of climate1 #ca4 ,tournefort1 the naturalist1 his description of the ,solanum nigrum1 #hd1 #he1 #hg2 quoted1 #if1 #bcd2 on the medical properties of the daisy1 #adg4 ,tragus1 the botanist1 his account of the ,solanum nigrum1 #hf4 ,triticum repens1 the1 described1 #ic4 ,tschudi1 ,m41 the naturalist1 his description of a red-billed crow1 quoted1 #fi1 #gj4 ,tulip1 the1 described1 #aeb1 #aec2 its introduction into ,europe1 #aec2 its cultivation1 #aed1 #aee4 ,twilight1 phenomena of1 #bje4 ,vertebrata1 the1 orders of1 #cfb4 ,vole1 the ,arctic4 ,see ,,arctic ,,vole4 ,voltaire1 ,franois ,arouet1 his popularisation of the ,newtonian philosophy1 #aac4 ,walton1 ,isaak1 his eulogium on the strawberry1 #bdd4 ,water1 the crystallisation of1 instanced and described1 #cf1 #cg4 ,water-lily1 the1 described by ,keats and ,mrs ,hemans1 #bdd2 by ,wordsworth1 #bde2 analysis of its form1 #bde2 of the ,east1 described1 #bdf4 ,water-ranunculus1 the1 description of1 #afg4 ,winters1 instances of some severe1 #bi1 #cj4 ,winter-time1 appropriate for the observation of celestial phenomena1 #c2 the passing away of1 and merging into spring1 #if1 #ig4 ,withering1 the botanist1 on the ,solanum nigrum1 #hf4 ,wither1 ,george1 the poet1 his tribute to the daisy1 quoted1 #adh4 ,wood-louse1 the1 its characteristics enumerated1 #afi-agb2 another species of1 #agc4 ,wordsworth1 ,william1 the poet1 his celebration of the daisy1 quoted1 #adi1 #aej2 his poem on the lesser celandine1 #aff2 his reference to the lily of the valley1 #bde2 quoted1 #cge4 ,wren1 the1 described by ,bishop ,mant1 #fc1 #fd2 its habits stated1 #fd4 ,yellow water-lily1 the1 description of1 #bde4 ,zodiac1 the1 constellations of1 #aad1 #aae4 ,zootoca pyrrhogastra1 the1 described1 #gj4 ,,the ,,end4 ,crown #hvo1 ,elegantly ,bound in ,cloth and ,gold1 ,price #es41 ,,the ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,year2 ,,or1 ,studies of ,nature and ,pictures of the ,seasons4 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,,edited ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams1 ,,author ,,of ,,sword ,,and ,,pen1 ,,before ,,the ,,conquest1 ,,etc4 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,bell's ,weekly ,messenger4 ,its purpose is to tell both young and old1 but especially the former1 how much of interest there is in everything connected with nature1 its resources and productions during the progress of the year1 and how1 month after month1 animals1 insects1 trees1 shrubs1 flowers1 and even weeds have their several functions to fill1 and the manner of their doing so4444 ,the illustrations1 which are numerous1 greatly increase the value of the volume4 ,the ,observer4 ,the ,circle of the ,year is essentially a book for the country4 ,the townsman may indeed read it to profit1 but it will assuredly raise within him a hankering to be out in the fields1 wandering along the green lanes among the trailing hedge-flowers1 or attempting to realize the curious fact that a lily of the valley is first cousin to an asparagus4 ,the ,berwick ,warder4 ,it is a healthy and vigorous work1 which none can fail to profit from4 ,the ,border ,advertiser4 ,the book is therefore really what it professes to be1 a picture of the seasons1 and very beautiful and engaging1 many of the pictures being drawn in fine sympathy with the outward beauty1 and in harmony with the inward spirit lying not deeply under all ,god's beautiful works4 ,the book is laden with fine thoughts and pleasing observation1 and is a handsome and valuable volume for the young4 ,the ,perth ,advertiser4 ,mr ,adams has done his work well4444 ,we might liken him to the master of a panorama1 only his figures are of the sublimest order--such as1 the procession of the seasons on the earth1 and the corresponding procession of the constellations in the heavens4 ,public ,opinion4 ,the ,circle of the ,year should be placed in the hands of all those who are curious to know what beautiful secrets the silent operations of nature disclose4 ,the ,news of the ,world4 ,a book which leads to a contemplation of nature in its varying aspects1 is of unfailing interest and attraction2 and just such a book is the one before us4444 ,the book is a companion for all seasons of the year4 ,the ,aberdeen ,free ,press4 ,the book will be found indeed a very pleasant and instructive one4 ,the ,edinburgh ,courant4 ,its aim is to teach the unscientific observer how to make use of his eye1--'how to look1 and what to look at2' and to show him how much of wonder and beauty lies everywhere around him1 if he could only recognise it4 ,the ,scotsman4 ,the ,circle of the ,year is a superior class of gift-book4444 ,it is a loving and laborious exposition of a great variety of natural phenomena1 as they may be observed in the course of the year by the student of natural history1 written in such a pleasing style1 and adorned with so many illustrations1 literary and familiar1 that the thoughtful youth who once commences its perusal1 is certain to be carried by it through the whole cycle of the seasons4 ,the ,queen4 ,the work is replete with interesting observation2 legends connected with the subjects treated upon are introduced1 and the pages are interspersed with many excellent illustrations4 ,the ,sunday ,times4 ,the book is charmingly got up in all respects1 with good letterpress and abundance of illustrations4 ,the ,kelso ,mail4 ,in a number of daily walks1 a vast amount of curious and instructive information is imparted to the reader1 who cannot leave these studies of nature without being wiser1 and perhaps better than he was before4 ,the illustrations are numerous and excellent1 the typography beautiful1 and the binding elegant4 ,the ,aberdeen ,journal4 ,the book is founded on a ,french work1 ,les ,saisons1 and the object of author and editor is to teach the unscientific observer how to make use of his eyes--how to look1 and what to look at4 ,the book is written in a popular style1 befitting its pretensions1 and numerous woodcuts illustrate the text1 while poetry is freely used with effect4 ,crown #hvo1 ,elegantly ,bound in ,cloth and ,gold1 ,price #es41 ,,sword ,,and ,,pen2 ,,or1 ,english ,worthies in the ,reign of ,elizabeth4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams1 ,,author ,,of ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,year1 ,,before ,,the ,,conquest1 ,,etc4 ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press4 ,the ,morning ,advertiser4 ,the handsome and studious volume before us contains memorials of the men who fought and wrote and meditated under ,elizabeth1 that we owe the brightest glories of our literature1 the rise and permanence of our power1 the world-wide expansion of our commerce1 and1 as a consequence1 our national wealth1 which is 'power4' ,the ,dumfries ,herald4 ,the biographies of these men1 compiled from the best sources1 are given in a lively and interesting style1 and nothing1 we fancy1 could be more welcome to the youthful readers1 for whom the volume is principally designed1 than the gift of such a book4 ,the ,athenum4 ,in the lives of ,raleigh and ,hawkins1 ,gilbert1 ,cavendish1 ,drake1 ,philip ,sydney1 and ,shakespeare1 a portion of the heroism and intellect of the ,elizabethan period is here illustrated4444 ,the purpose is so good1 and the work so honestly done1 that we cannot but warmly commend both4 ,a more wholesome book for young readers we have seldom seen4 ,it is one1 moreover1 in which faded memories may dip and be refreshed4 ,the ,court ,journal4 ,the author has bestowed much care in the compilation of the volume1 the best sources of information only having been chosen4 ,the ,inverness ,courier4 ,the whole breathes a healthy1 manly1 patriotic spirit1 which every one must wish to see fostered among the youth of this utilitarian age4 ,the volume is beautifully printed and illustrated4 ,the ,london ,scotsman4 ,in the plain but comparatively accurate record of the deeds of these 'brave men of old' which ,mr ,adams has furnished1 there can be no doubt that he has done much to add to the information of his older and to stimulate the patriotism of his younger readers4 ,post #hvo1 ,elegantly ,bound1 ,price #fs41 ,,before ,,the ,,conquest2 ,,or1 ,english ,worthies in the ,old ,english ,period4 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams1 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,year1 ,,sword ,,and ,,pen1 ,,everyday ,,objects1 ,,etc4 ,with ,illustrations by ,f4 ,barnard4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,william ,p4 ,,nimmo4 ,a ,,selection ,,from ,,catalogue ,,of ,popular and ,standard ,books ,,published ,,by ,,william ,p4 ,,nimmo1 ,,edinburgh4 999999 ,complete ,catalogue of ,mr4 ,,nimmo',s ,publications1 choicely printed and elegantly bound1 suitable for the ,library1 ,presentation1 and ,school ,prizes1 etc4 etc41 will be forwarded gratis1 post free1 on application4 ',mr4 ,nimmo's books are well known as marvels of cheapness1 elegance1 and sterling worth4'--,,observer4 ,,nimmo',s ,,popular ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,poets4 ,in fcap4 #hvo1 printed on toned paper1 elegantly bound in cloth extra1 with beautifully illuminated imitation ivory tablet on side1 price #cs4 #f;d42 also kept in cloth extra1 gilt edges1 without tablet2 also in full calf1 gilt edges1 full gilt back2 in fine morocco1 plain1 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,each ,volume contains a ,memoir1 and is illustrated with a ,portrait of the ,author engraved on ,steel1 and numerous full-page ,illustrations on ,wood1 from designs by eminent ,artists2 also beautiful ,illuminated ,title-page4 #a4 ,,longfellow',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #b4 ,,scott',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #c4 ,,byron',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #d4 ,,moore',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #e4 ,,wordsworth',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #f4 ,,cowper',s ,,poetical ,,works4 ,,nimmo',s ,,popular ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,poets1 ,,continued4 #g4 ,,milton',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #h4 ,,thomson',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #i4 ,,goldsmith',s ,,choice ,,works4 #aj4 ,,pope',s ,,poetical ,,works4 #aa4 ,,burns' ,,poetical ,,works4 #ab4 ,,the ,,casquet ,,of ,,gems4 ,choice ,selections from the ,poets4 #ac4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,humorous ,,poetry4 #ad4 ,,ballads3 ,scottish and ,english4 #ae4 ,,bunyan',s ,,pilgrim',s ,,progress ,,and ,,holy ,,war4 #af4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,poets4 #ag4 ,,the ,,prose ,,works ,,of ,,robert ,,burns4 #ah4 ,,poems1 ,,songs1 ,,and ,,ballads ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 99 99 99 99 99 999999 ,this ,series of ,books1 from the very superior manner in which it is produced1 is at once the cheapest and handsomest edition of the ,poets in the market4 ,the volumes form elegant and appropriate ,presents as ,school ,prizes and ,gift-,books1 either in cloth or morocco4 ',they are a marvel of cheapness1 some of the volumes extending to as many as #gjj1 and even #ijj1 pages1 printed on toned paper in a beautifully clear type4 ,add to this1 that they are profusely illustrated with wood engravings1 are elegantly and tastefully bound1 and that they are published at #cs4 #f;d4 each1 and our recommendation of them is complete4'--,scotsman4 ,,nimmo',s ,,select ,,library4 ,new ,series of ,choice ,books1 beautifully printed on superfine paper1 profusely ,illustrated with original ,engravings by the first ,artists1 and elegantly bound in cloth extra1 plain edges1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each1 or richly bound in cloth and gold1 and gilt edges1 price #es4 each4 ,,third ,,edition4 #a4 ,almost ,faultless3 ,a ,story of the ,present ,day4 ,by the ,author of ',a ,book for ,governesses4' ',the author has written a capital story in a high moral tone4'--,the ,court ,journal4 ,,second ,,edition4 #b4 ,lives of ,old ,english ,worthies before the ,conquest4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 ',the author's aim is to illuminate1 what may be regarded as obscure1 certain periods of historic ,england1 accompanied with biographical sketches4'--,courant4 ,,second ,,edition4 #c4 ,every-,day ,objects2 or1 ,picturesque ,aspects of ,natural ,history4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 ,,fifth ,,edition4 #d4 ,my ,schoolboy ,friends3 ,a ,story of ,whitminster ,grammar ,school4 ,by ,,ascott ,r4 ,,hope1 ,author of ',a ,book about ,dominies1' ',stories of ,school ,life1' etc4 ',this is a most interesting book4 ,boys1 for whom it is especially written1 will thoroughly enjoy it4'--,westminster ,review4 ,,second ,,edition4 #e4 ,drifted and ,sifted3 ,a ,domestic ,chronicle of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ',the author of this interesting1 and we may add pathetic1 story appears to possess the art of reproducing bygone times with much ability4'--,the ,record4 #f4 ,warrior1 ,priest1 and ,statesman2 or1 ,english ,heroes in the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 #g4 ,totty ,testudo4 ,the ,life and ,wonderful ,adventures of ,totty ,testudo4 ,an ,autobiography by ,,flora ,f4 ,,wylde4 ',the book is of engrossing interest1 and the reader will be astonished1 as he lays it down1 to find that he has been able to get so much entertainment and instruction from the personal adventures of a tortoise4'--,inverness ,courier4 #h4 ,on ,holy ,ground2 or1 ,scenes and ,incidents in the ,land of ,promise4 ,by ,,edwin ,,hodder1 ,author of ',memories of ,new ,zealand ,life1' ',the ,junior ,clerk1' etc4 ,,nimmo',s ,,crown ,,gift ,,books4 ,crown #hvo1 beautifully printed on superfine paper1 profusely ,illustrated by eminent ,artists1 in cloth extra1 plain edges1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each1 or richly bound in cloth and gold1 and gilt edges1 price #es4 each4 ,,third ,,edition4 #a4 ,sword and ,pen2 or1 ,english ,worthies in the ,reign of ,elizabeth4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 ',a more wholesome book for young readers we have seldom seen4'--,the ,athenum4 ,,second ,,edition4 #b4 ,norrie ,seton2 or1 ,driven to ,sea4 ,by ,mrs4 ,george ,cupples1 ,author of ',unexpected ,pleasures1' etc4 ',mrs4 ,cupples has given to the boys in this volume just the sort of sea-story with which they will be delighted4'--,the ,scotsman4 ,,second ,,edition4 #c4 ,the ,circle of the ,year2 or1 ,studies of ,nature and ,pictures of the ,seasons4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,davenport ,,adams4 ',its purpose is to tell both young and old1 but especially the former1 how much of interest there is in everything connected with ,nature4'--,bell's ,messenger4 ,,second ,,edition4 #d4 ,the ,wealth of ,nature3 ,our ,food ,supplies from the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,montgomery1 ,a4,m4 ',it would be difficult to put into the hands of any boy or girl a volume which more equally combines the instructive and interesting in literature4'--,n4 ,b4 ,mail4 ,,fifth ,,edition4 #e4 ,stories of ,school ,life4 ,by ,ascott ,r4 ,hope4 #f4 ,stories of ,french ,school ,life4 ,by ,ascott ,r4 ,hope4 ',we were among the many who greatly admired ,mr ,hope's ,stories of ,school ,life and ,stories about ,boys1 and when we found that he had undertaken to illustrate ,french school life1 we gladly opened the volume4 ,the stories are interesting in the highest degree2 they appeal to the best sympathies of the lads for whom they are written4 ,they set forth the right and the true against the false1 and they are full of good1 hearty humour4'--,public ,opinion4 ,,nimmo',s ,,universal ,,gift ,,books4 ,a ,series of excellent ,works1 profusely ,illustrated with original ,engravings by the first ,artists1 choicely printed on superfine paper1 and elegantly bound in cloth and gold1 and gilt edges1 crown #hvo1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,tales of ,old ,english ,life2 or1 ,pictures of the ,periods4 ,by ,,william ,,francis ,,collier1 ,,ll4,d41 ,author of ',history of ,english ,literature1' etc4 #b4 ,mungo ,park's ,life and ,travels4 ,with a ,supplementary ,chapter1 detailing the results of recent ,discovery in ,africa4 #c4 ,benjamin ,franklin3 ,a ,biography4 ,from the celebrated ',life' by ,,jared ,,sparks1 and the more recent and extensive ',life and ,times' by ,,james ,,parton4 #d4 ,wallace1 the ,hero of ,scotland3 ,a ,biography4 ,by ,,james ,,paterson4 #e4 ,men of ,history4 ,by ,eminent ,writers4 #f4 ,women of ,history4 ,by ,eminent ,writers4 #g4 ,old-,world ,worthies2 or1 ,classical ,biography4 ,selected from ,,plutarch',s ,,lives4 #h4 ,epoch ,men1 and the ,results of their ,lives4 ,by ,samuel ,,neil4 #i4 ,the ,mirror of ,character4 ,selected from the ,writings of ,,overbury1 ,,earle1 and ,,butler4 #aj4 ,wisdom1 ,wit1 and ,allegory4 ,selected from ',the ,spectator4' #aa4 ,the ,spanish ,inquisition3 ,its ,heroes and ,martyrs4 ,by ,,janet ,,gordon1 ,author of ',champions of the ,reformation1' etc4 #ab4 ,the ,improvement of the ,mind4 ,by ,isaac ,watts1 ,d4,d4 #ac4 ,the ,man of ,business considered in ,six ,aspects4 ,a ,book for ,young ,men4 999999 ,this elegant and useful ,series of ,books has been specially prepared for ,school and ,college ,prizes3 they are1 however1 equally suitable for ,general ,presentation4 ,in selecting the works for this ,series1 the aim of the ,publisher has been to produce books of a permanent value1 interesting in manner and instructive in matter--books that youth will read eagerly and with profit1 and which will be found equally attractive in after-life4 ,,nimmo',s ,,all ,,the ,,year ,,round ,,gift ,,books4 ,a series of entertaining and instructive volumes1 profusely ,illustrated with original ,engravings by the first ,artists1 choicely printed on superfine paper1 and elegantly bound in cloth and gold1 and gilt edges1 crown #hvo1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,christian ,osborne's ,friends4 ,by ,mrs4 ,harriet ,miller ,,davidson1 ,author of ',isobel ,jardine's ,history1' and ,daughter of the late ,hugh ,miller4 #b4 ,round the ,grange ,farm2 or1 ,good ,old ,times4 ,by ,,jean ,l4 ,,watson1 ,author of ',bygone ,days in our ,village1' etc4 #c4 ,stories about ,boys4 ,by ,ascott ,r4 ,hope1 ,author of ',stories of ,school ,life1' ',my ,schoolboy ,friends1' etc4 etc4 #d4 ,george's ,enemies3 ,a ,sequel to ',my ,schoolboy ,friends4' ,by ,,ascott ,r4 ,,hope1 ,author of ',stories about ,boys1' etc4 etc4 #e4 ,violet ,rivers2 or1 ,loyal to ,duty4 ,a ,tale for ,girls4 ,by ,,winifred ,,taylor1 ,author of ',story of ,two ,lives1' etc4 #f4 ,wild ,animals and ,birds3 ,curious and ,instructive ,stories about their ,habits and ,sagacity4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #g4 ,the ,twins of ,saint-,marcel3 ,a ,tale of ,paris ,incendie4 ,by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,orr1 ,author of ',the ,roseville ,family1' etc4 etc4 #h4 ,rupert ,rochester1 the ,banker's ,son4 ,a ,tale4 ,by ,,winifred ,,taylor1 ,author of ',story of ,two ,lives1' etc4 #i4 ,the ,story of ,two ,lives2 or1 ,the ,trials of ,wealth and ,poverty4 ,by ,,winifred ,,taylor1 ,author of ',rupert ,rochester1' etc4 #aj4 ,the ,lost ,father2 or1 ,cecilia's ,triumph4 ,a ,story of our own ,day4 ,by ,,daryl ,,holme4 #aa4 ,friendly ,fairies2 or1 ,once upon a ,time4 #ab4 ,the ,young ,mountaineer2 or1 ,frank ,miller's ,lot in ,life4 ,the ,story of a ,swiss ,boy4 ,by ,,daryl ,,holme4 #ac4 ,stories from over the ,sea4 ,with ,illustrations4 #ad4 ,the ,story of a ,noble ,life2 or1 ,zurich and its ,reformer ,ulric ,zwingle4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,hardy 7,,janet ,,gordon71 ,author of ',the ,spanish ,inquisition1' ',champions of the ,reformation1' etc4 etc4 #ae4 ,stories of ,whitminster4 ,by ,ascott ,r4 ,hope1 ,author of ',my ,schoolboy ,friends1' ',stories about ,boys1' etc4 etc4 999999 ,the object steadily kept in view in preparing the above series has been to give a collection of works of a thoroughly healthy moral tone1 agreeably blending entertainment and instruction4 ,it is believed this end has been attained1 and that the several volumes will be found eminently suitable as ,gift ,books and ,school ,prizes1 besides proving of permanent value in the ,home ,library4 ,,nimmo',s ,,half-,,crown ,,reward ,,books4 ,extra foolscap #hvo1 cloth elegant1 gilt edges1 ,illustrated1 price #bs4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,memorable ,wars of ,scotland4 ,by ,patrick ,fraser ,tytler1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,author of ',the ,history of ,scotland1' etc4 #b4 ,seeing the ,world3 ,a ,young ,sailor's own ,story1 ,by ,,charles ,,nordhoff1 ,author of ',the ,young ,man-of-,war's-,man4' #c4 ,the ,martyr ,missionary3 ,five ,years in ,china4 ,by ,rev4 ,,charles ,p4 ,,bush1 ,m4,a4 #d4 ,my ,new ,home3 ,a ,woman's ,diary4 #e4 ,home ,heroines3 ,tales for ,girls4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,arthur1 ,author of ',life's ,crosses1' etc4 #f4 ,lessons from ,women's ,lives4 ,by ,sarah ,j4 ,hale4 #g4 ,the ,roseville ,family4 ,a ,historical ,tale of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,orr1 ,author of ',mountain ,patriots1' etc4 #h4 ,leah4 ,a ,tale of ,ancient ,palestine4 ,illustrative of the ,story of ,naaman the ,syrian4 ,by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,orr4 #i4 ,champions of the ,reformation3 ,the ,stories of their ,lives4 ,by ,,janet ,,gordon4 #aj4 ,the ,history of ,two ,wanderers2 or1 ,cast ,adrift4 #aa4 ,beattie's ,poetical ,works4 #ab4 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,by ,oliver ,goldsmith4 #ac4 ,edgar ,allan ,poe's ,poetical ,works4 #ad4 ,the ,miner's ,son1 and ,margaret ,vernon4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pollard1 ,author of ',the ,minister's ,daughter1' etc4 etc4 #ae4 ,how ,frank began to ,climb the ,ladder1 and the ,friends who lent him a hand4 ,by ,,charles ,,bruce1 ,author of ',lame ,felix1' etc4 #af4 ,conrad and ,columbine4 ,a ,fairy ,tale4 ,by ,james ,,mason4 #ag4 ,aunt ,ann's ,stories4 ,edited by ,louisa ,loughborough4 #ah4 ,the ,snow-,sweepers' ,party1 and the ,tale of ,old ,tubbins4 ,by ,r4 ,,st4 ,,john ,,corbet1 ,author of ',mince ,pie ,island1' etc4 etc4 #ai4 ,the ,story of ,elise ,marcel4 ,a ,tale for ,girls4 ,,nimmo',s ,two ,shilling ,reward ,books4 ,foolscap #hvo1 ,illustrated1 elegantly bound in cloth extra1 bevelled boards1 gilt back and side1 gilt edges1 price #bs4 each4 #a4 ,the ,far ,north3 ,explorations ,in the ,arctic ,regions4 ,by ,,elisha ,,kent ,,kane1 ,m4,d4 #b4 ,great ,men of ,european ,history4 ,from the ,beginning of the ,christian ,era till the ,present ,time4 ,by ,,david ,,pryde1 ,m4,a4 #c4 ,the ,young ,men of the ,bible4 ,a ,series of ,papers1 ,biographical and ,suggestive4 ,by ,rev4 ,,joseph ,a4 ,,collier4 #d4 ,the ,blade and the ,ear3 ,a ,book for ,young ,men4 #e4 ,monarchs of ,ocean3 ,columbus and ,cook4 #f4 ,life's ,crosses1 and ,how to ,meet them4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,arthur4 #g4 ,a ,father's ,legacy to his ,daughters1 etc4 ,a ,book for ,young ,women4 ,by ,dr4 ,,gregory4 #h4 ,mountain ,patriots4 ,a ,tale of the ,reformation in ,savoy4 ,by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,orr4 #i4 ,labours of ,love3 ,a ,tale for the ,young4 ,by ,winifred ,taylor4 #aj4 ,mossdale3 ,a ,tale for the ,young4 ,by ,anna ,m4 ,de ,iongh4 #aa4 ,the ,standard-,bearer4 ,a ,tale of the ,times of ,constantine the ,great4 ,by ,,ellen ,,palmer4 #ab4 ,jacqueline4 ,a ,story of the ,reformation in ,holland4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,hardy 7,,janet ,,gordon74 ,,nimmo',s ,home and ,school ,reward ,books4 ,foolscap #hvo1 ,illustrated1 elegantly bound in cloth extra1 bevelled boards1 gilt back and side1 gilt edges1 price #bs4 each4 #a4 ,lame ,felix4 ,a ,book for ,boys4 ,by ,charles ,bruce4 #b4 ,picture ,lessons by the ,divine ,teacher2 or1 ,illustrations of the ,parables of our ,lord4 ,by ,,peter ,,grant1 ,d4,d4 #c4 ,nonna3 ,a ,story of the ,days of ,julian the ,apostate4 ,by ,ellen ,,palmer4 #d4 ,philip ,walton2 or1 ,light at ,last4 ,by the ,author of ',meta ,frantz1' etc4 #e4 ,the ,minister's ,daughter1 and ,old ,anthony's ,will4 ,tales for the ,young4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pollard1 ,author of ',the ,miner's ,son1' etc4 etc4 #f4 ,the ,two ,sisters4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,pollard4 #g4 ,a ,needle and ,thread3 ,a ,tale for ,girls4 ,by ,emma ,j4 ,barnes1 ,author of ',faithful and ,true1 or the ,mother's ,legacy4' #h4 ,taken ,up3 ,a ,tale for ,boys and ,girls4 ,by ,a4 ,whymper4 #i4 ,an ,earl's ,daughter4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,pollard4 #aj4 ,life at ,hartwell2 or1 ,frank and his ,friends4 ,by ,katharine ,e4 ,,may1 ,author of ',alfred and his ,mother1' etc4 etc4 #aa4 ,stories ,told in a ,fisherman's ,cottage4 ,by ,ellen ,palmer1 ,author of ',nonna1' ',the ,standard-,bearer1' etc4 etc4 #ab4 ,max ,wild1 the ,merchant's ,son2 and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,,nimmo',s ,sunday-,school ,reward ,books4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt edges1 ,illustrated1 price #as4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,bible ,blessings4 ,by ,rev4 ,richard ,newton4 #b4 ,one ,hour a ,week3 ,fifty-two ,bible ,lessons for the ,young4 #c4 ,the ,best ,things4 ,by ,rev4 ,richard ,newton4 #d4 ,the ,story of ,john ,heywood3 ,a ,tale of the ,time of ,harry ,,viii4 ,by ,,charles ,,bruce-1 ,author of ',how ,frank began to ,climb1' etc4 #e4 ,lessons from ,rose ,hill2 and ,little ,nannette4 #f4 ,great and ,good ,women3 ,biographies for ,girls4 ,by ,,lydia ,h4 ,,sigourney4 #g4 ,at ,home and ,abroad2 or1 ,uncle ,william's ,adventures4 #h4 ,alfred and his ,mother2 or1 ,seeking the ,kingdom4 ,by ,,katharine ,e4 ,,may4 #i4 ,asriel2 or1 ,the ,crystal ,cup4 ,by ,mrs4 ,henderson4 #aj4 ,the ,kind ,governess2 or1 ,how to make ,home ,happy4 #aa4 ,percy and ,ida4 ,by ,katharine ,e4 ,may4 #ab4 ,three ,wet ,sundays with the ,book of ,joshua4 ,by ,ellen ,,palmer1 ,author of ',christmas at the ,beacon1' etc4 etc4 #ac4 ,the ,fishermen of ,galilee2 or1 ,sunday ,talks with ,papa4 ,by ,,ellen ,,palmer4 ,,nimmo',s ,sunday and ,week-,day ,reward ,books4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt edges1 ,illustrated1 price #as4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,the ,sculptor of ,bruges4 ,by ,mrs4 ,w4 ,g4 ,hall4 #b4 ,from ,cottage to ,castle2 or1 ,faithful in ,little4 ,a ,tale founded on ,fact4 ,by ,m4 ,h41 ,author of ',the ,red ,velvet ,bible1' etc4 #c4 ,christmas at the ,beacon4 ,by ,ellen ,palmer4 #d4 ,the ,sea and the ,savages3 ,a ,story of ,adventure4 ,by ,,harold ,,lincoln4 #e4 ,the ,swedish ,singer2 or1 ,the ,story of ,vanda ,rosendahl4 ,by ,mrs4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,hall4 #f4 ,my ,beautiful ,home2 or1 ,lily's ,search4 ,by ,chas4 ,bruce4 #g4 ,the ,story of a ,moss ,rose2 or1 ,ruth and the ,orphan ,family4 ,by ,,charles ,,bruce4 #h4 ,summer ,holidays at ,silversea4 ,by ,e4 ,rosalie ,salmon4 #i4 ,fred ,graham's ,resolve4 ,by the ,author of ',mat and ,sofie4' #aj4 ,wilton ,school2 or1 ,harry ,campbell's ,revenge4 ,a ,tale4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,,weatherly4 #aa4 ,grace ,harvey and her ,cousins4 #ab4 ,blind ,mercy2 and other ,tales4 ,by ,gertrude ,crockford4 #ac4 ,evan ,lindsay4 ,by ,margaret ,fraser ,tytler1 ,author of ',tales of ,good and ,great ,kings1' ',tales of the ,great and ,brave1' etc4 ,nimmo's ,one ,shilling ,favourite ,reward ,books4 ,demy #ahmo1 ,illustrated1 cloth extra1 price #as4 each2 also in gilt side and edges1 price #as4 #f;d4 each4 #a4 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,poems and ,essays4 ,by ,,oliver ,,goldsmith4 #b4 sop's ,fables1 ,with ,instructive ,applications4 ,by ,dr4 ,,croxall4 #c4 ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress4 #d4 ,the ,young ,man-of-,war's-,man3 ,a ,boy's ,voyage round the ,world4 ,by ,,charles ,,nordhoff4 #e4 ,the ,treasury of ,anecdote3 ,moral and ,religious4 #f4 ,the ,boy's ,own ,workshop2 or1 ,the ,young ,carpenters4 ,by ,,jacob ,,abbott4 #g4 ,the ,life and ,adventures of ,robinson ,crusoe4 #h4 ,the ,history of ,sandford and ,merton4 ,a ,moral and ,instructive ,lesson for ,young ,persons4 #i4 ,evenings at ,home2 or1 ,the ,juvenile ,budget ,opened4 ,consisting of a variety of ,miscellaneous ,pieces for the ,instruction and ,amusement of ,young ,persons4 ,by ,dr4 ,,aikin and ,mrs4 ,,barbauld4 #aj4 ,unexpected ,pleasures2 or1 ,left alone in the ,holidays4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,george ,,cupples1 ,author of ',norrie ,seton1' etc4 #aa4 ,the ,beauties of ,shakespeare4 ,with a ,general ,index by the ,rev4 ,,william ,,dodd1 ,,ll4,d4 #ab4 ,gems from ',the ,spectator4' ,a ,selection from the most admired ,writings of ,addison and ,steele4 #ac4 ,burns' ,poetical ,works4 ,with a ,complete ,glossary4 #ad4 ,the ,sketch ,book4 ,by ,washington ,,irving4 999999 ,the above ,series of elegant and useful books is specially prepared for the entertainment and instruction of young persons4 ,nimmo's ,popular ,religious ,gift ,books4 #ahmo1 finely printed on toned paper1 handsomely bound in cloth extra1 price #as4 each4 #a4 ,across the ,river3 ,twelve ,views of ,heaven4 ,by ,norman ,,macleod1 ,d4,d42 ,r4 ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,d4,d42 ,,robert ,s4 ,,candlish1 ,d4,d42 ,,james ,,hamilton1 ,d4,d42 etc4 etc4 #b4 ,emblems of ,jesus2 or1 ,illustrations of ,emmanuel's ,character and ,work4 #c4 ,life ,thoughts of ,eminent ,christians4 #d4 ,comfort for the ,desponding2 or1 ,words to ,soothe and ,cheer ,troubled ,hearts4 #e4 ,the ,chastening of ,love3 ,words of ,consolation for the ,christian ,mourner4 ,by ,,joseph ,,parker1 ,d4,d41 ,manchester4 #f4 ,the ,cedar ,christian1 and other ,practical ,papers4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,theodore ,l4 ,,cuyler4 #g4 ,consolation for ,christian ,mothers ,bereaved of ,little ,children4 ,by ,a ,,friend ,,of ,,mourners4 #h4 ,the ,orphan2 or1 ,words of ,comfort for the ,fatherless and ,motherless4 #i4 ,gladdening ,streams2 or1 ,the ,waters of the ,sanctuary4 ,a ,book for ,fragments of ,time on each ,lord's ,day of the ,year4 #aj4 ,spirit of the ,old ,divines4 #aa4 ,choice ,gleanings from ,sacred ,writers4 #ab4 ,direction in ,prayer2 or1 ,the ,lord's ,prayer ,illustrated in a ,series of ,expositions4 ,by ,,peter ,,grant1 ,d4,d4 #ac4 ,scripture ,imagery4 ,by ,peter ,grant1 ,d4,d41 ,author of ',emblems of ,jesus1' etc14 ,,nimmo',s ,,one ,,shilling ,,illustrated ,,juvenile ,,books4 ,foolscap #hvo1 ,coloured ,frontispieces1 handsomely bound in cloth1 ,illuminated1 price #as4 each4 #a4 ,four ,little ,people and their ,friends4 #b4 ,elizabeth2 or1 ,the ,exiles of ,siberia4 ,a ,tale from the ,french of ,madame ,,cottin4 #c4 ,paul and ,virginia4 ,from the ,french of ,,bernardin ,,saint-,,pierre4 #d4 ,little ,threads3 ,tangle ,thread1 ,golden ,thread1 and ,silver ,thread4 #e4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 the ,printer ,boy4 #f4 ,barton ,todd1 and ,the ,young ,lawyer4 #g4 ,the ,perils of ,greatness3 ,the ,story of ,alexander ,menzikoff4 #h4 ,little ,crowns1 and ,how to ,win them4 ,by ,rev4 ,,joseph ,a4 ,,collier4 #i4 ,great ,riches3 ,nelly ,rivers' ,story4 ,by ,aunt ,,fanny4 #aj4 ,the ,right ,way1 and ,the ,contrast4 #aa4 ,the ,daisy's ,first ,winter4 ,and other ,stories4 ,by ,,harriet ,,beecher ,,stowe4 #ab4 ,the ,man of the ,mountain4 ,and other ,stories4 #ac4 ,better than ,rubies4 ,stories for the ,young1 ,illustrative of ,familiar ,proverbs4 ,with #fb ,illustrations4 #ad4 ,experience ,teaches4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young1 ,illustrative of ,familiar ,proverbs4 ,with #ci ,illustrations4 #ae4 ,the ,happy ,recovery4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with #bf ,illustrations4 #af4 ,gratitude and ,probity4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with #ba ,illustrations4 #ag4 ,the ,two ,brothers4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with #ac ,illustrations4 #ah4 ,the ,young ,orator4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with #i ,illustrations4 #ai4 ,simple ,stories to ,amuse and ,instruct ,young ,readers4 ,with ,illustrations4 #bj4 ,the ,three ,friends4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with ,illustrations4 #ba4 ,sybil's ,sacrifice4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with #ab ,illustrations4 #bb4 ,the ,old ,shepherd4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with ,illustrations4 #bc4 ,the ,young ,officer4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with ,illustrations4 #bd4 ,the ,false ,heir4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,with ,illustrations4 #be4 ,the ,old ,farmhouse2 or1 ,alice ,morton's ,home4 ,and other ,stories4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pollard4 #bf4 ,twyford ,hall2 or1 ,rosa's ,christmas ,dinner1 and what she did with it4 ,by ,,charles ,,bruce4 #bg4 ,the ,discontented ,weathercock4 ,and other ,stories for ,children4 ,by ,m4 ,,jones4 #bh4 ,out at ,sea1 and other ,stories4 ,by ,two ,authors4 #bi4 ,the ,story of ,waterloo2 or1 ,the ,fall of ,,napoleon4 #cj4 ,sister ,jane's ,little ,stories4 ,edited by ,louisa ,,loughborough4 ,,nimmo',s ,,ninepenny ,,series ,,for ,,boys ,,and ,,girls4 ,in demy #ahmo1 with ,illustrations1 elegantly bound in cloth4 ,this ,series of ,books will be found unequalled for genuine interest and value1 and it is believed they will be eagerly welcomed by thoughtful children of both sexes4 ,parents may rest assured that each ,volume teaches some noble lesson1 or enforces some valuable truth4 #a4 ,in the ,brave ,days of ,old2 or1 ,the ,story of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,for ,boys and ,girls4 #b4 ,the ,lost ,ruby4 ,by the ,author of ',the ,basket of ,flowers1' etc4 #c4 ,leslie ,ross2 or1 ,fond of a ,lark4 ,by ,charles ,bruce4 #d4 ,my ,first and ,last ,voyage4 ,by ,benjamin ,clarke4 #e4 ,little ,katie3 ,a ,fairy ,story4 ,by ,charles ,bruce4 #f4 ,being ,afraid4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,by ,,charles ,,stuart4 #g4 ,the ,toll-,keepers4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,by ,,benjamin ,,clarke4 #h4 ,dick ,barford3 ,a ,boy who would go down ,hill4 ,by ,,charles ,,bruce4 #i4 ,joan of ,arc2 or1 ,the ,story of a ,noble ,life4 ,written for ,girls4 #aj4 ,helen ,siddal3 ,a ,story for ,children4 ,by ,ellen ,palmer4 #aa4 ,mat and ,sofie3 ,a ,story for ,boys and ,girls4 #ab4 ,peace and ,war4 ,by the ,author of ',the ,basket of ,flowers1' etc4 #ac4 ,perilous ,adventures of a ,french ,soldier in ,algeria4 #ad4 ,the ,magic ,glass2 or1 ,the ,secret of ,happiness4 #ae4 ,hawks' ,dene3 ,a ,tale for ,children4 ,by ,katharine ,e4 ,,may4 #af4 ,little ,maggie4 ,and other ,stories4 ,by the ,author of ',the ,joy of ,well-,doing1' etc4 etc4 #ag4 ,the ,brother's ,legacy2 or1 ,better than ,gold4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pollard4 #ah4 ,the ,little ,sisters2 or1 ,jealousy4 ,and other ,stories for the ,young4 ,by the ,author of ',little ,tales for ,tiny ,tots1' etc4 #ai4 ,kate's ,new ,home4 ,by ,cecil ,scott1 ,author of ',chryssie ,lyle1' etc4 ,,new ,,works4 ,,new ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,edina ,,burns4 ,in crown #dto1 price #abs4 #f;d41 elegantly bound in cloth1 extra gilt and gilt edges1 also in ,turkey morocco antique1 very handsome1 #dbs41 the popular ,drawing-room ,edition of the ,poems and ,songs by ,robert ,burns4 ,with ,illustrations by ,r4 ,,herdman1 ,,waller ,h4 ,,paton1 ,,sam4 ,,bough1 ,,gourlay ,,steell1 ,d4 ,o4 ,,hill1 ,j4 ,m',,whirter1 and other eminent ,scottish ,artists4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,eleventh ,thousand4 ,in demy #hvo1 cloth elegant1 richly gilt1 price #gs4 #f;d41 or in ,turkey morocco antique1 #bas41 ,things a ,lady would ,like to ,know1 concerning ,domestic ,management and ,expenditure1 arranged for ,daily ,reference4 ,by ,,henry ,,southgate1 ,author of ',many ,thoughts of ,many ,minds1' ',noble ,thoughts in ,noble ,language1' ',gone ,before1' ',the ,bridal ,bouquet1' etc4 etc4 ,tenth ,thousand4 ,in crown #hvo1 beautifully bound in cloth extra1 full of ,engravings and ,coloured ,pictures1 price #cs4 #f;d41 or gilt edges price #ds41 ,three ,hundred ,bible ,stories and ,three ,hundred ,bible ,pictures4 ,a ,pictorial ,sunday ,book for the ,young4 ,the ,excelsior ,edition of ,shakespeare's ,complete ,works4 ,in large demy #hvo1 with ,steel ,portrait and ,vignette1 handsomely bound1 price #es41 ,shakespeare's ,complete ,works4 ,with a ,biographical ,sketch by ,,mary ,,cowden ,,clarke1 a ,copious ,glossary1 and numerous ,illustrations4 ,the ,excelsior ,edition of ,whiston's ,josephus4 ,in large demy #hvo1 with ,steel ,portrait and ,vignette1 handsomely bound1 price #es41 ,the ,whole ,works of ,flavius ,josephus1 the ,jewish ,historian4 ,with ,life1 ,portrait1 ,notes1 ,index1 etc4 ,,the ,,waverley ,,novels4 ,,entirely ,,new ,,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,frontispiece and ,vignette1 in elegant wrapper printed in colours1 price #as4 each4 ,also1 in ,twenty-six volumes1 cloth extra1 full gilt back1 price #bs4 per volume2 and in ,thirteen double volumes1 roxburgh style1 gilt top1 price #cs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,,hately ,,waddell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,notes1 ,biographical and ,critical1 and a ,glossary of ,scotch ,words and ,foreign ,phrases for each ,novel4 #a4 ,waverley2 or1 '',tis ,sixty ,years ,since4' #b4 ,guy ,mannering2 or1 ,the ,astrologer4 #c4 ,the ,antiquary4 #d4 ,rob ,roy4 #e4 ,old ,mortality4 #f4 ,the ,black ,dwarf1 and ,a ,legend of ,montrose4 #g4 ,the ,bride of ,lammermoor4 #h4 ,the ,heart of ,mid-,lothian4 #i4 ,ivanhoe3 ,a ,romance4 #aj4 ,the ,monastery4 #aa4 ,the ,abbot3 ,a ,sequel4 #ab4 ,kenilworth4 #ac4 ,the ,pirate4 #ad4 ,the ,fortunes of ,nigel4 #ae4 ,peveril of the ,peak4 #af4 ,quentin ,durward4 #ag4 ,st4 ,ronan's ,well4 #ah4 ,redgauntlet4 #ai4 ,the ,betrothed4 #bj4 ,the ,talisman3 ,a ,tale of the ,crusaders4 #ba4 ,woodstock2 or1 ,the ,cavalier4 #bb4 ,the ,fair ,maid of ,perth2 or1 ,st4 ,valentine's ,day4 #bc4 ,anne of ,geierstein2 or1 ,the ,maiden of the ,mist4 #bd4 ,count ,robert of ,paris4 #be4 ,the ,surgeon's ,daughter1 and ,castle ,dangerous4 #bf4 ,the ,highland ,widow1 and my ,aunt ,margaret's ,mirror4 ,with an interesting summarised account of the ,scott ,centenary4 ,the above may also be had in substantial half-calf bindings4 ,,nimmo',s ,,national ,,library4 ,just ready1 in crown #hvo1 with ,steel ,frontispiece and ,vignette1 handsomely bound1 cloth extra1 price #es4 each2 also in full gilt side1 back1 and edges1 price #fs4 each4 ,seventh ,thousand4 ,the ,english ,circumnavigators3 ,the most remarkable ,voyages round the ,world by ,english ,sailors4 7,drake1 ,dampier1 ,anson1 and ,cook's ,voyages47 ,with a ,preliminary ,sketch of their ,lives and ,discoveries4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 ,maps1 etc41 by ,,david ,,laing ,,purves and ,r4 ,,cochrane4 ,the ,book of ,adventure and ,peril4 ,a ,record of ,heroism and ,endurance on ,sea and ,land4 ,compiled and ,edited by ,,charles ,,bruce1 ,editor of ',sea ,songs and ,ballads1' ',the ,birthday ,book of ,proverbs1' etc4 ,the ,great ,triumphs of ,great ,men4 ,edited by ,,james ,,mason4 ,illustrated4 ,great ,historical ,mutinies1 comprising the ,story of the ,mutiny of the ',bounty1' the ,mutiny at ,spithead and the ,nore1 the ,mutinies of the ,highland ,regiments1 and the ,indian ,mutiny1 etc4 ,edited by ,,david ,,herbert1 ,m4,a4 ,famous ,historical ,scenes from ,three ,centuries4 ,pictures of celebrated events from the ,reformation to the end of the ,french ,revolution4 ,selected from the works of ,standard ,authors by ,a4 ,r4 ,,hope ,,moncrieff4 ,the ,english ,explorers2 comprising details of the more famous ,travels by ,mandeville1 ,bruce1 ,park1 and ,livingstone4 ,with ,map of ,africa and ,chapter on ,arctic ,exploration4 ,the ,book for ,every ,day2 containing an ,inexhaustible ,store of ,amusing and ,instructive ,articles4 ,edited by ,,james ,,mason4 ,the ,book of ,noble ,englishwomen3 ,lives made ,illustrious by ,heroism1 ,goodness1 and ,great ,attainments4 ,edited by ,,charles ,,bruce4 ,a ,hundred ,wonders of the ,world in ,nature and ,art1 described according to the latest ,authorities1 and profusely ,illustrated4 ,edited by ,,john ,,small1 ,m4,a4 ,other ,popular and ,standard ,volumes in preparation4 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,transcriber notes3 ,the equals sign is used to surround bold text2 underscores to surround italic text4 ,corrected various punctuation4 ,p4#bd4 ',ptolemoeus' changed to ',ptolemus'4 ,p4#ahg4 ,t 7large down tack7 mathematical symbol4 ,p4#ahg4 ,heiroglyphics ,the ,ankh symbol4 ,p4#beb4 ',fig4 #eg4' changed to 'fig4 #ef4'4 ,p4#bed4 ',fig4 #ce4' changed to 'fig4 #eh4'4 ,p4#chi4 'ramificacations' changed to 'ramifications'4 ,p4#cij4 'disorderd' changed to 'disordered'4 ,p4#dbg4 ',withers' changed to ',wither'4 ,index3 ,voltaire1 '#gac' is p4#aac1 changed4 ,there are difference customs between titles ,mr 7,british7 and ,mr4 7,american7 and the corresponding ,mrs 7,british7 and ,mrs4 7,american7 found in this books1 so the only title with a period is found in the adds for consistency1 as in the book4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------